History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

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History of Russian Undewva t e r Acoustics

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History of

i N E W JERSEY

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rn ter Acoustics Oleg A Godin University of Colorado. USA

David R Palmer National Oceanic &Atmospheric Administration, USA

LONDON

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r pWorld Scientific SINGAPORE

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BElJlNG

SHANGHAI

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HONG KONG

TAIPEI

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CHENNAI

Published by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. 5 Toh Tuck Link, Singapore 596224 USA office: 27 Warren Street, Suite 401-402, Hackensack, NJ 07601 UK office: 57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

HISTORY OF RUSSIAN UNDERWATER ACOUSTICS Copyright © 2008 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval system now known or to be invented, without written permission from the Publisher.

For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. In this case permission to photocopy is not required from the publisher.

ISBN-13 978-981-256-825-0 ISBN-10 981-256-825-5

Typeset by Stallion Press Email: [email protected]

Printed in Singapore.

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Preface to the English Edition Knowing the history of a scientific or engineering discipline is instrumental to understand the state of the art, for putting current controversies, difficulties, and achievements into perspective, for avoiding repetition of past mistakes, and for chartering the course for future innovation. Because of the confrontation of and the fierce competition between the superpowers, development of underwater acoustics, and especially its applications, in Russia and the Soviet Union took place largely isolated from similar work in the West. Many similar capabilities were achieved by the use of different technical means. Description of some of the major Russian and Soviet programs in underwater acoustics were classified or otherwise unavailable until recently. It is likely that making a detailed historical review of Russian and Soviet efforts accessible to the underwater acoustics community at large will unearth promising ideas and approaches, which are not well known in the West and are worth pursuing using modern technologies. With the goals of providing a scholarly documentation of Soviet and Russian contributions to underwater acoustics and stimulating technical innovation as well as international cooperation in this field, we offer the reader History of Russian Underwater Acoustics. This book describes, using first-person accounts, the history of the development in the Soviet Union and, before and after its existence, in Russia of an extremely important technical field and how that history was influenced by the First and Second World Wars and the Cold War, by government bureaucracy, in both positive and negative ways, by the economic collapse of the Soviet Union, and most importantly, by the dedicated efforts of vast numbers of individuals including some of the greatest scientific minds of the twentieth century. We feel it will make fascinating reading to engineers and scientists who were or are engaged in similar work in the West, to historians of the Cold War and of the Soviet Union, to acting and retired officers and enlisted men in the world’s navies, and to present day researchers who might benefit from learning about Russian scientific contributions. v

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Preface to the English Edition

This book is an English version of A History of Russian Hydroacoustics. Articles, Essays, and Reminiscences published in St. Petersburg, Russia, in 1999. Consisting of a collection of more than 90 articles written by more than 100 authors, the book was published in Russian to commemorate the 300th anniversary in 1998 of the Russian Navy. Preparation and production of the book was overseen by the Public Editorial Board, chaired by Dr. Yury A. Koryakin and composed of representatives of leading Russian research and development establishments involved in underwater acoustics. Publication was sponsored by acoustic hardware manufactures and a number of research institutions. The main driving force behind the book was its compiler, distinguished veteran designer of stationary acoustic systems, Dr. Yakov S. Karlik. The book provides a monographic overview, unparalleled in its coverage of the Russian and Soviet research and development in underwater acoustics, including programs that apparently have not been previously discussed in the open literature. The authors were strategically chosen to represent various research groups, design bureaus, manufactures, naval procurement units, civilian and naval institutions of high learning, and other organizations that contributed over the years to shaping Russian underwater acoustics. As a result, the book provides a rather complete and fair, albeit a somewhat mosaic, picture of development of hydroacoustics in the Soviet Union and in Russia. With numerous short, self-contained articles the authors and the book compiler have managed to convey a wealth of historic and technical material with a tremendous amount of detail in a form easily accessible to the lay reader while being captivating and educating for the experts. The Russian book emphasized hardware development and their naval applications (see Preface to the Russian edition). This emphasis is reflected in the book’s title. The Russian counterpart of the term hydroacoustics designates an engineering discipline, whereas underwater acoustics usually designates a physical science. To broaden the coverage, to provide scientific foundation for the engineering work, and to make the translated book of interest to a wider audience, a new chapter, The Physics of Underwater Sound, which comprises three extensive review articles on the science of underwater acoustics, is included

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Preface to the English Edition

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in the English edition. Review articles on the Soviet and Russian contributions to the theory and physical understanding of acoustic wave propagation, underwater sound scattering and acoustic signal fluctuations, and ambient noise in the ocean were written specifically for this book by leading Russian experts in the respective fields, Drs. Valery V. Goncharov, Eduard P. Gulin, Boris F. Kuryanov, and Yury P. Lysanov. Another addition to the English edition is an article by Dr. Nikolay A. Dubrovsky on dolphin acoustics; an important subject not covered in the Russian edition. Dr. Dubrovsky’s article was translated from a manuscript originally written for a compilation dedicated to the 50th anniversary of the N. N. Andreyev Acoustical Institute in Moscow. On the other hand, about 10% of the material in A History of Russian Hydroacoustics. Articles, Essays, and Reminiscences, of mostly a personal and biographical nature, was deemed of lesser general interest and is not included in the English edition. The idea for publication in English of a historical overview of Russian and Soviet research and development in underwater acoustics originated with a conversation one of us (OAG) had with Dr. Jeffrey Simmen, then of the US Office of Naval Research (ONR), on the sidelines of the Ninth L. M. Brekhovskikh Conference on Ocean Acoustics in Moscow, Russia, in May 2002. Dr. Simmen expressed a desire to complement an ONR-sponsored series of monographs summarizing US research in underwater acoustics with an authoritative account of the work done on the other side of the great Cold War divide. Since the end of the Cold War also marked the end of an era in underwater acoustics, it seemed desirable to produce a timely historical summary of the travails and accomplishments of the era while those who made the history were still available to give first-hand accounts. Preparation of this book would not have been possible without the encouragement and support of Drs. Simmen and Ellen Livingston, who succeeded him as the manager of ONR’s Ocean Acoustics Program. We are indebted to Drs. Igor N. Didenkulov and Yakov S. Karlik for their advice and help in preparation of the Russian text for translation. Josephine C. Novosel, Rita Lombardi, and Igor N. Didenkulov were instrumental in administering the translation project. We are grateful to Vladimir N. Mironov, Vasily V. Shushunov, Anna Khachatryan, and

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Preface to the English Edition

especially Elizaveta V. Bugrova and Natalia K. Akopian for translational and editorial support. Oleg A. Godin Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, University of Colorado and NOAA/Earth System Research Laboratory, Boulder, Colorado, USA

David R. Palmer National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Miami, Florida, USA

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Preface to the Russian Version: A Word to the Reader The beginnings of hydroacoustics in our country date to the 19th century. Its development was stimulated by the need for new methods and systems for underwater observations and for means to ensure the safe navigation of combat and transport ships, especially under adverse weather conditions. Also, reliable communication needed to be established between underwater platforms and surface vessels for implementing the idea of “secret ships.” The first practical steps toward employing hydroacoustic equipment for safe navigation at night and in dense fog were made by Russian hydrographers. Submarine bells and hooters were installed in lighthouses on the Baltic and the White Sea and methods for their use were developed. The coming of radio to the Russian fleet brought about radio-acoustic methods of position finding. The creation of a means for underwater audio communication began simultaneously with the construction of the first submarines and a new generation of Russian cruisers. In less than a century the fleet went from the use of single hydroacoustic instruments to the large-scale application of quantity-produced sonars and sonar systems. These systems helped maintain the strategic parity between the nuclear superpowers in the world’s oceans as well as solve complex economy and ecology problems relating to the marine environment. A huge number of this country’s specialists in different professions were involved in this dramatic effort. It is impossible to count all those who contributed to the development of hydroacoustics. Many people dedicated all or the greater part of their lives to hydroacoustics and their work resulted in publications, state awards, and general recognition. However, a considerable fraction of an army of scientists, designers, engineers, technicians, specialists in information science and information support, and administrators remain unknown to the public. Their efforts resulted in the present-day equipment that daily contributes to our country’s defense capability. They developed and expanded the ix

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Preface to the Russian Version: A Word to the Reader

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various aspects of theoretical and applied hydroacoustics, trained personnel, investigated the seas and oceans on research vessels and warships, drifting ice-floes, and deep-sea research vehicles. They tested various types of systems, carried out the repairs and modernization of equipment, compiled sets of standards and glossaries on all aspects of hydroacoustics, including those relating to the development and use of methods of sonar and sonar system operation. Therefore, we dedicate this collection, in fairness, to this huge army of workers whose names are missing from the publications on hydroacoustics. At the same time, the names of many eminent people appear in this book in connection with their specific contributions to the development of hydroacoustics in this country. Public Editorial Board R. Kh. Balyan A. A. Baranenko V. A. Bersenov V. V. Demyanovich (Secretary) N. A. Dubrovsky B. Ya. Golubchik Ya. S. Karlik (Vice-Chairman)

Yu. A. Koryakin (Chairman) V. B. Mitko S. A. Smirnov (Vice-Chairman) Yu. F. Tarasyuk G. V. Yakovlev M. V. Zhurkovich

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Contents

Preface to the English Edition

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Preface to the Russian Version: A Word to the Reader

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I. Introduction: Underwater Acoustics and the Ocean

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Hydroacoustics: What is it? M. V. Zhurkovich

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Listening to the Great Unknown: The Ocean L. M. Brekhovskikh

7

II. Hydroacoustics in Russia from the 19th Century to the Present Time A Brief History of Russian Hydroacoustics Ya. S. Karlik, V. A. Semendyaev and Yu. F. Tarasyuk

III. The Physics of Underwater Sound

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The Development of Sound Propagation Theory in the USSR and in Russia V. V. Goncharov

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Soviet and Russian Studies of Underwater Sound Scattering and Acoustic Signal Fluctuations E. P. Gulin and Yu. P. Lysanov

121

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Russian Investigations of Ocean Noise B. F. Kuryanov

197

IV. Laying the Scientific and Practical Foundation for Home Hydroacoustics 235 Vodtranspribor — The Alma Mater of Engineering of Home Hydroacoustic Instrument V. A. Bersenev and B. Ya. Golubchik

237

The Morfizpribor Central Research Institute (CRI) and Its Role in the Development of Home Hydroacoustics Yu. A. Koryakin, A. I. Shamparov and G. V. Yakovlev

287

Development of Investigations in Hydroacoustics at the Acad. N. N. Andreyev Institute of Acoustics N. A. Dubrovsky and V. I. Mazepov

303

The History of Creation and the Work of the Sukhumi Marine Research Station of ACIN RAS Yu. M. Sukharevsky

354

Development of Some Topics in Hydroacoustics at the Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI 373 B. P. Grigoryev, V. S. Ivanov, V. A. Kolyshnitsyn, V. M. Platonov, V. N. Romanov, A. V. Smolyakov and V. Ye. Yakovlev SRI Atoll and its Role in the Creation of Stationary Hydroacoustic Facilities for Submarine Surveillance L. Sh. Gumerov

400

The P. P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology: Its Place and Role in Home Hydroacoustics I. I. Tynyankin

411

The Laboratory of Acoustic Wave Propagation of the P. P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology V. M. Kurtepov

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Hydroacoustics Development at the Institutes of Nizhny Novgorod V. A. Zverev

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A Brief Overview of Hydroacoustic Investigations at Research Institutions of the Sakhalin Yu. S. Shumilov

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Overview of Hydroacoustic Investigations Conducted by Research Organizations of the Kamchatka A. D. Konson, G. Ye. Smirnov and Yu. S. Shumilov

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V. Submarine Hydroacoustic Equipment Hydroacoustic Systems for Submarines of the Pre-World War II and First Post-War Generations V. E. Zelyakh

453 455

The Sonar System Kerch: The History of its Creation B. Ya. Golubchik

471

The Birth of Rubin Yu. A. Mikhailov

484

Remembering Yenisei V. B. Idin

494

About the Sonar Rubikon Yu. A. Mikhailov

502

Third Generation of Acoustic Systems for Submarines: The Sonar System Skat M. V. Zhurkovich, V. E. Zelyakh, V. B. Idin and I. N. Dynin Creation of the Sonar System Skat-3 V. A. Kakalov Creation of First Domestic Classification Systems for Submarine Sonar Systems Yu. S. Perelmuter

508 536

545

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Equipment for Sound Signal Detection (SSD) I. M. Strelkov

VI. Sonar Systems for Surface Ships Development of Surface Ship Sonar Systems for Submarine Detection Z. A. Yeremina, V. G. Solovyev, I. S. Shkolnikov and A. D. Yakovlev History of Development of Sonar Systems Production at the Taganrog Priboy Plant N. N. Borisenko

VII. Stationary Sonar Systems

557

567 569

590

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Stationary and Self-contained Sonars for Submarine Detection L. B. Karlov and Ya. S. Karlik

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The History of the Development of the Volkhov Land-Based Sonar V. N. Kanareykin and E. V. Yakovlev

609

The History of the Development of the Liman Land-Based Sonar System G. I. Afrutkin and V. S. Kasatkin

614

The Liman M Infrasonic Stationary Sonar G. I. Afrutkin

623

The Amur Land-Based Passive Sonar E. V. Batanogov and L. B. Karlov

628

The Birth of the Agam Sonar V. V. Demyanovich

637

The Beginning of the Development of the Dnestr Sonar System B. I. Lashkov

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The Dnestr — A Breakthrough in Early Sonar Detection R. Kh. Balyan The Story of the Participation of the Lazurit CDB in the Development of Array Systems for Stationary Sonars G. V. Vityugov, Yu. K. Druzhinin and N. I. Kvasha

VIII. Specialized Hydroacoustic Systems

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677

683

691

Sonars for Anchored Mines V. E. Zelyakh

693

Krab: A Fuse for Acoustic Mines Z. N. Umikov

713

Hydroacoustic Navigation and Positioning Aids with Transponder Beacons and Emergency Signal Sources Yu. A. Nikolayenko From the History of the Engineering of Domestic Echo Sounding Equipment I. M. Korotkin, P. M. Nefedov, Yu. M. Tarasyuk and L. S. Filimonov

722

729

From the History of the Creation of Domestic Echo Sounders Yu. F. Tarasyuk and L. S. Filimonov

737

On the History of the Creation of Domestic Hydroacoustic Communication Systems (Designer’s Notes) V. Z. Krants

742

On Search and Survey Sonars A. V. Bogorodsky

773

Domestic Hydroacoustic Sound Speed Meters V. A. Komlyakov

784

Hydroacoustic Doppler Logs A. G. Zatsepin

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Sonar Countermeasures and Deception Aids A. O. Markovsky Aspects of the History of Passive Hydroacoustic Systems with Emphasis on Adaptive Processing V. I. Klyachkin and Yu. P. Podgaisky

IX. Sonar Arrays The Types of Sonar Arrays and the Stages of Their Development A. A. Shabrov Results are Born in Research V. I. Klyachkin On the Basic Themes in Submarine Bow Sonar Array Development M. D. Smaryshev

807

813

831 833 842

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A History of Creation of Towed, Flexible, Extended Arrays V. I. Pozern

867

The History of the Stepped Array G. Kh. Golubeva

880

About Parametric Arrays D. B. Ostrovsky

886

A Nostalgia for Domes V. T. Malyarova and Ye. L. Shenderov

924

Sonar Array Screens V. Ye. Glazanov

931

Piezoactive Materials in Hydroacoustics I. A. Serova

941

Notes on the Development Over the Last 35 Years of Methods for the Manufacture of Piezoelectric Transducers M. K. Busher

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Some Thoughts on the Strength of Sonar Equipment V. I. Kirillov and Yu. P. Mezhevitinov

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About the Acoustics Department of the Vodtranspribor Plant D. I. Kalyaeva and L. D. Stepanov

982

The History of Development of Hydroacoustic Measurements at the CRI Morfizpribor N. N. Fedorov and R. I. Eikhfeld

987

X. The Role of the Radio Engineering Department and the Naval RI in the Creation of Hydroacoustic Equipment 1009 The Naval Radio Engineering Department and Development of Hydroacoustics 1011 A. I. Barantsev and G. N. Korolkov The Naval Research Institute of Radio Electronics and its Role in Home Hydroacoustics Development A. A. Baranenko

1020

The Contribution of Researchers and Specialists of the Naval Institutes to the Creation of Submarine Hydroacoustic Systems 1024 K. P. Luginets The Contribution of Researchers and Specialists of the Naval RIE to Solving Problems of Target Classification 1033 A. I. Mashoshin Contribution of Hydroacoustics Researchers of Naval RIE to Experimental Investigation of the World’s Oceans V. N. Matvienko Hydroacoustic Investigations Carried out by the State Research Institute of Navigation and Hydrography of the RF Defense Ministry P. S. Volosov and A. V. Fedotov

1037

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The Work of the Military Agency at CRI Morfizpribor L. B. Karlov and I. A. Yakovlev

XI. Organization of Hydroacoustic Equipment Development

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The 10th Main Department of the Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry of the USSR: Its Role and Place in the Development of Home Hydroacoustics 1065 N. N. Sviridov and B. I. Trushchelev

XII. Training of Hydroacoustics Engineering and Research Personnel The Department of Electroacoustics and Ultrasonic Engineering at SPb SEU (LETI) and its Role in the Development of the Acoustic Instrument Industry S. K. Pavros and Ye. D. Pigulevsky The Branch Department of LETI at CRI Morfizpribor and its Role in Training Hydroacoustics Specialists M. D. Smaryshev

1071

1073

1078

The Training of Engineers and Researchers in Applied Hydroacoustics at the N. G. Kuznetsov Naval Academy 1083 V. B. Mit’ko The Chair of Acoustics at Moscow State University and Its Role in Training Hydroacoustics Specialists and the Development of the Vector-Phase Method for Acoustic Field Research V. A. Gordienko

1096

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Training of Engineering and Research Personnel in Applied Hydroacoustics at the Marine Technical University 1118 K. I. Rogozhnikov and G. M. Sverdlin The History of Development of the Chair of Hydroacoustic Equipment at the A. S. Popov Naval School of Electronic Engineering 1129 V. A. Bledny, I. S. Zakharov and N. A. Ivanov The Training of Specialists and Hydroacoustic Research at the Naval School of Underwater Navigation (NSUN) V. V. Rotin The History of Teaching the Fundamentals of Hydroacoustics and Hydroacoustic Equipment at the M. V. Frunze Naval School A. V. Lavrentyev, A. S. Pravodelov and V. V. Samsonov

XIII. Veterans Remember

1137

1141

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Russia’s First Hydroacoustic Laboratory: The Forging of Specialists for the Industry M. V. Zhurkovich and Z. N. Umikov

1147

Project SIGAK : The First Use of the Underwater Sound Channel in Support of Navy Needs V. B. Idin

1160

Our Help to the People’s Republic of China with Developing Hydroacoustic Equipment 1166 V. N. Kanareykin and A. N. Maksimov Neptune’s Underwater World through the Eyes of a Chief Designer Ya. S. Karlik

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Northern Fleet Training with the Participation of the Naval Institute of Electronics and CRI Morfizpribor L. B. Karlov

1179

Military Application of Hydroacoustics: The First Non-Periscope Attacks by Soviet Submariners V. F. Martynyuk, Yu. F. Tarasyuk and L. S. Filimonov

1187

Dolphins and Humans N. A. Dubrovsky

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I. Introduction: Underwater Acoustics and the Ocean

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Hydroacoustics: What is it? M. V. ZHURKOVICH

Sound vibrations in air have always accompanied man in his interaction with the surrounding world and helped reveal to him its full diversity and beauty. The situation is similar for man on the solid ground or on the water’s surface. But what happens under the water? Legends say that in the olden days fishermen listened to the sounds produced by fish and sea animals using the fact that water is a good conductor of sound. How did they do that? Leonardo da Vinci (15th century) gave an answer: “If you stop your ship and dip one end of a long pipe in water, you will hear the noise of ships at a large distance.” Before the modern era, ideas were proposed, among others, to use sound echoes in water to measure sea depths and to ensure the safe navigation in regions of drifting icebergs. While some work was done on underwater communication, in the majority of cases these ideas remained unclaimed and awaited the future for their practical implementation. The need to create a means to “hear” and “see” underwater became quite pressing during World War I. The Allies suffered heavy losses at sea from attacks by German submarines and this stimulated the search for technical means of detecting submerged vessels and stopping their activity. The best minds worked on this problem and a solution was finally found! The French scientist P. Langevin designed a powerful (for that time) electroacoustic projector and the Russian engineer K. V. Shilovsky designed a sonar. The further development of hydroacoustic science and technology was driven by the need to solve tasks and to meet requirements set by the Navy. The “marriage” of a sonar transducer and a vacuum tube gave 3

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birth to a range of instruments very much needed at sea: passive sonars (detectors of objects based on the noise they emit), echo-ranging sonars (detectors of the signals reflected from objects), underwater communication devices, and depth measuring instruments (echo sounders). Underwater sound beacons and a host of other instruments to study the ocean may also be included in this list. World War II, particularly the Great Patriotic War, once more confirmed the vital necessity of using hydroacoustics to successfully fight submarines and brought about significant expansion in the scope of problems solved by institutions devoted to hydroacoustics. Hydroacoustic equipment was involved in mine control, in operating torpedo automatic guidance systems, and in a wide range of other tasks. The application of hydroacoustic systems would have been much easier if the sea and ocean media were homogeneous. In reality this is far from the case. The characteristics of sound propagation in aqueous medium, in whose structure are found boundaries and varyingtemperature layers and where variations in internal structure result in multipath propagation effects, refraction, scattering, attenuation, and interference, have been and continue to be a subject of investigation by numerous researchers. The achievements in this field have ensured further progress in the creation, application, and proper operation of hydroacoustic systems. Sonar systems of the last few decades are capable of detecting and identifying targets and determining bearings and ranges at distances up to several hundred kilometers. Truly, they have become our ears, eyes, and brains in estimating the surface and interior condition of the ocean and have given answers to the questions of what, where, when, and how. This progress has become possible through the efforts and talents of designers of such sonar equipment as transducers, receiving and radiating antennas, multichannel (up to 3000–5000 channels) equipment to receive primary and secondary (logical) information and for processing and displaying this information, and, without question, computers. Also the progress was to a great extent due to the achievements in investigating the hydroacoustic characteristics of the oceanic medium and

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Hydroacoustics: What is it?

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a revolution in the area of suppression of the interference of a vessel’s own acoustic and electronic noise with performance of the hydroacoustic equipment it carries. As a result, today hydroacoustic systems solve the same set of problems in the ocean as those solved by radar, radio communication, and radio navigation systems in the atmosphere and determine to a great extent the combat effectiveness of the Navy. But that is not all! In the late 1940s and early 1950s, there rose a pressing need for improving the effectiveness of the fishing fleet. Again, a solution to the problem was found based on hydroacoustics. In the early 1950s, an independent branch of hydroacoustic engineering called fish echolocation developed. We cannot but note here that the earlier attempts at fish echolocation with the use of ship-borne echo sounders had been made in the late 1920s to early 1930s. Today, it is difficult to find a fishing boat that does not have hydroacoustic fish-finding equipment. The variety of this equipment allows one to not only search and locate fish but also to identify species, determine the size of a school, automatically search for fish and track them, maintain control over trawl filling and, most important, guide the ship during the process of searching and fishing. Specialists from different countries have concluded that the size of the catch of fish and other marine life is in direct proportion to the number and quality of the ship-borne hydroacoustic equipment in the fishing fleet. In the 1970s, world economics called for shifting the areas of exploration for oil and ore deposits toward the deep-water shelf of coastal seas thereby requiring better knowledge of seas, oceans, and continental shelves. As a result, new systems of underwater positionfinding based on hydroacoustic techniques were added to the traditional suite of hydrographic equipment. This new class of systems provided opportunities for detailed surveying of the seabed prior to the erection of oil drilling platforms, the laying of pipelines and their inspection and repair, collection of data for deep-sea mineral resources production, examination of underwater structures, and erection of oil platforms in the open sea. Further opportunities are the guarding of ocean constructions from the unauthorized approach by underwater

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vehicles, swimmers, and divers, automatic repairing of drilling ships and keeping semi-submerged platforms at a preset point in deep water without anchors and in any weather, locating a deep-water borehole and inserting a drilling tool into it, providing wireless communication with self-contained autonomous underwater vehicles, and many other activities. From the 1960s to the 1980s, the ideas and principles of hydroacoustic engineering were directed toward the needs of the health service. New methods of gathering objective information about the state of internal human organs were needed; methods that did not injure the patient or inconvenience either the patient or the doctor. Considering the fact that the human body is 80% water, the achievements in the design of high-frequency hydrophone transducers, antennas, and other instruments provided opportunities to solve many problems by means of hydroacoustics. Today, ultrasonic instruments are used in obstetrics, ophthalmology, the examination of internal and external organs, cardiology, neurology, and many other branches of medicine. It should also be noted that the appearance in recent years of pleasure submarines would have been impossible if it were not for hydroacoustic observational equipment that ensures safe navigation. Though hydroacoustics was born because of military requirements, today it contributes to the prosperity of human society and the interaction between man and nature. This book deals mainly with the development of military hydroacoustics in this country. It includes reminiscences by people who dedicated their lives to this area of science and technology. However, the history of Russian underwater acoustics, as an important component of the natural sciences and engineering and with its close connections to a number of other branches of science and technology, will continue to be the subject of further investigations and publications.

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Listening to the Great Unknown: The Ocean L. M. BREKHOVSKIKH

Mankind pins many of its hopes on the ocean. Perhaps only those who have had the luck to see the Earth from outer space truly realize that it is a tiny globe covered with water. A typical inhabitant of our planet, unless he lives near the seashore, gives little thought to the existence of such a thing as the great unknown — the ocean. It is great because it is truly vast. It holds about 300 million m3 of water for each inhabitant on the planet. If this amount of water were desalinated, it would provide the needs of a city of one million people for a year. To fill the ocean, all the rivers on Earth would have to flow continuously for about 50 000 years. Imagine for a moment that the ocean came to rest. It would take about 200 years for the atmospheric winds and solar energy to set in motion the currents we observe today. The ocean remains underexplored, and it is for this reason that I call it the great unknown. At present, international data centers receive almost 1000 times more information about the atmosphere than about the ocean. New discoveries are continuously being made, changing our understanding of the motion of the ocean’s water, its seabed structure, and the nature of marine biological systems. The ocean is rich in biological resources that only need to be correctly developed and used. The relative amount of such critical resources as oil and gas that are being extracted from the seabed is growing continuously. The seabed is also rich in many other valuable minerals. Almost all elements of the periodic system are found in seawater. The probability is high that in the future the ocean will become the habitat for the major part of our planet’s population. Life on our planet was born in the ocean. 7

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Scientists working in many fields study the ocean. Mathematicians and specialists in mechanics are solving the problem of mesoscale eddies (eddies hundreds of kilometers in size) discovered by the Soviet scientists in 1970. This problem is of great importance because these eddies possess more than 90% of the ocean’s kinetic energy. Generally speaking, ocean dynamics is a many-faceted and fascinating science. It addresses phenomena on a planetary scale. For example, every year the Gulf Stream, with its underlying countercurrent at a depth of 2000–3000 m, casts off a series of circular structures, or rings, hundreds of kilometers wide, which move toward the Southwest while continuing to rotate, later to be “swallowed” again by the Gulf Stream. The countercurrents existing at depths of 200–600 m along the equator are also very impressive. Incidentally, Soviet scientists on the research ship Lomonosov discovered one such countercurrent in the Atlantic. In addition, at depths of 200–1000 m in the Atlantic, our scientists discovered and thoroughly investigated a kind of deep-water lens hundreds of kilometers in size formed by the outflow of Mediterranean waters through the Straits of Gibraltar. Water in such a lens noticeably differs from the surrounding water in temperature and salinity. Only recently, in 1994, during an expedition on board the research vessel Academician Sergey Vavilov, researchers from the Institute of Oceanology of the Russian Academy of Sciences discovered a similar lens in the Mediterranean Sea itself. What a surprise! Nobody has yet managed to explain how such a lens could have appeared there. Scientists also explore internal waves. Even though the ocean may be calm on the surface that does not mean that its interior is calm. Waves with vertical amplitudes as large as 100 m propagate there. Even though these waves are comparatively slow, with periods from tens of minutes to several hours, they are of great importance for the operation of submarines, for the use of different equipment at the seabed, and for underwater acoustics and optics. The task is to find out the primary sources of these waves, to understand their interaction with one another and with surface waves, and the mechanisms of their destruction and attenuation.

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It often happens in science that the introduction of fundamentally new instruments for measuring quite ordinary quantities results in the discovery of qualitatively new phenomena. So it is in oceanology. Some time ago technical progress led to the creation of sensitive probes for measuring water temperature and salinity continuously as a function of depth. Earlier, it was assumed that the dependence on depth was smooth and departures from smoothness were the result of instrumentation error. However, measurements made with the use of the new probes indicated that this thinking was absolutely wrong. Moreover, such measurements revealed a very unusual ocean structure. It was found that basic water characteristics are constant only within relatively thin layers extending from tens of centimeters to tens of meters. However water temperature, salinity, and hence, density differ strongly, almost discontinuously, from layer to layer. And there may be a great number of such layers. Thus the ocean may be regarded as a kind of a big puff pastry featuring small-scale details, or fine structure. But this is not all. Scientists have discovered that currents have a similar structure. The current velocity remains approximately the same within thin layers, but may change abruptly at the transition from layer to layer. 1. Life is Everywhere There exist two widespread misconceptions about the ocean. The first concerns the quietness of the ocean. The second concerns the absence of life in the deep ocean. The origin of these misconceptions is clear. It is well known how great the pressure is within the ocean (remember that every 10 m of depth increases the pressure by about 1 atm, or approximately 1 kg/cm2 of body surface). Also, the ocean is the realm of darkness since even rays of light from the tropical sun cannot penetrate to a depth of more than 100 m. It was previously believed that the border separating the living and the lifeless lies at a depth of 2 km. The Soviet research vessel Vityaz explored the deep-water trenches of the ocean and found that such boundaries do exist, but they define the ocean habitat of different

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species. It seems that fish inhabit waters no deeper than 7 km. Mollusks, crustaceans and echinodermata, however, live without damage at a depth of 10 km where the pressure reaches 1000 atm! Soviet scientists have also discovered examples of a new phylum of the animal kingdom, the Pogonophora phylum, living on the ocean bed at different depths. In all, the ocean accounts for 160 000 living species and each water layer, at every depth, has its own inhabitants. On land, the food chain begins with plants, which are able to directly assimilate the life-giving bounty of the universe, solar energy. In the ocean, similar energy functions take place in the layer where the sun’s ray can penetrate, which is home to the smallest unicellular algae, the phytoplankton. The total area of the world’s oceans bears a phytoplankton crop of 500 billion tons annually — a generous gift from our sun. Phytoplankton play a dual role in the life of the ocean. They supply life-giving oxygen to its inhabitants and also serve as food for them. The next link in the ocean’s food chain is zooplankton. They take many forms, from the minutest crustaceans, otherwise known as krill, to medusas, mollusks, sea butterflies, etc. Zooplankton feed on phytoplankton, who in turn serve as food for fish, some of which are predators who would not hesitate to eat their own kind. The main task of biologists is to increase fish stocks and the other biological riches of the ocean. On land man long ago switched from hunting animals to animal breeding. Regrettably, with regard to fish, we are still at the stage of hunting, which is often ruthless and unwise, leading to almost complete disappearance of some species. We must abandon this practice and concern ourselves with multiplying the biological wealth of the ocean through establishing aquafarms and other types of marine husbandry. Biologists are still engaged in solving the riddle of dolphin movement (Fig. 1). How can a dolphin move so easily and quickly while expending so little energy? If we could manage to create an undersea vehicle that moves in the same way, it would lead to a revolution in the development of ocean exploration. Fish migration is still a mystery. It is unclear how river eels, having spent 10–25 years in the rivers of Europe, including the rivers of our

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Fig. 1.

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In a dolphinarium.

country, find their way to the Sargasso Sea (4000–7000 km away) to spawn at depths up to 400 m. The young eels, when strong enough, make the same trip in the opposite direction.

2. Space and the Ocean: The Riches of the Ocean It is important to develop the means and techniques to determine the state of the ocean’s surface and depths using space-based devices. This is not a simple task. The state of the ocean’s surface, its upper strata, as well as the atmosphere over the ocean, may be determined with the help of electromagnetic waves (radio waves, visible light). But these waves penetrate only several hundreds of meters into the water. At greater depths, hopes are placed on acoustic waves that can propagate thousands of kilometers in seawater. The results of acoustic monitoring of the ocean may be transmitted to satellites and then to ground stations. Chemists are keenly interested in the prospects of the extraction of useful substances from the seawater, which is extremely rich in them. Every cubic kilometer of seawater contains 36 million tons of dissolved

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substances. Only salt, magnesium, and bromine are extracted in commercial quantities. There exist realizable techniques of the commercial extraction of uranium, gold and deuterium. Every 5000 atoms of hydrogen in seawater contain one atom of deuterium. Extraction of deuterium could become a reliable source of raw materials for power engineering based on nuclear fusion. Marine geology, the investigation of seabed structure, has proved to be a fascinating science. It was marine geology and deep-seabed drilling that resulted in the development of a new concept of the earth’s crustal structure based on the idea of lithospheric plates. Now, no one questions the idea of continental movement. Europe is moving away from North America at a rate of approximately 3 cm per year. Nevertheless, there is still much to be clarified about this concept. Further development of our knowledge will help us to better locate and to forecast the oil and gas resources and metallic ores at the seabed and even on land. Another important mineral resource is the well-known ferromanganese nodules, a kind of cocktail of metals, which cover huge abyssal plains. In the Pacific Ocean alone, their store is estimated at one billion tons. Many scientists, however, believe even this almost fantastic figure to be an underestimation. In addition to iron and manganese, the nodules contain different proportions of copper, cobalt, nickel, magnesium, titanium, and vanadium, depending on their area of formation. No one can explain how these nodules were formed, but a number of ingenious hypotheses have been proposed. There is no doubt, however, that they are being formed continuously up to the present day. The ferro-manganese crusts found in many areas of the ocean floor are even richer in valuable metals. One more still untouched ocean store lies in the deep-water crevices, where new ocean-bed formation takes place. For example, the hot (over 60◦ C), concentrated brines of the Red Sea trench carry huge amounts of silver, tin, copper, iron, and other metals. Their value is estimated in the billions of dollars. On the other hand, exploration and production of oceanic oil and gas from the coastal shelves are in full swing. Deep-water drilling dates back to 1933. It was then that the first oil derricks appeared; today

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they have become an almost unavoidable element of the landscape in the Gulf of Persia, the Gulf of Mexico, and our own Caspian Sea. The North Sea is one big oil field and oil is being pumped from the Norwegian Sea all the way to Scotland. Oil platforms stretch along the coasts of California and Indonesia and have appeared in the Mediterranean Sea. The ocean is full of different sounds that are rich in information about what is happening there. Only acoustic waves can propagate in water to appreciable distances (hence underwater communication and information transmission). Moreover, water is even a better medium for acoustic waves than air. Acoustical waves are the most reliable tool for underwater exploration. They may well be compared with X-rays making opaque bodies transparent. Similarly, acoustics permits us to see through the ocean, from its surface to bottom and many thousands of kilometers horizontally. As we know, light fades in deep water at a distance of only tens of meters. In comparison, in ocean experiments the sound of a comparatively small exploratory explosion was been detected at a distance of 22 000 km. It should be noted that even though scientists have been investigating acoustic waves for a long time, ocean acoustics is a very young science. The fact is that water is a unique medium with its own acoustical laws and phenomena, a sort of a kingdom of distorting mirrors. To give you an example, we know that, as a rule, a beam of light propagates along the shortest path between two points, but acoustic beams behave differently in the ocean. Their trajectories may sometimes be intricate curved lines. Moreover, due to the specific structure of the seawater, there are distinctive underwater acoustic channels (waveguides) along which sound propagates to many thousands of kilometers. We have tried to give a brief overview of the inexhaustible diversity of the ocean, its vast resources, and the complexity of its state that have to be taken into account by man in his complex relations with the ocean. The problems discussed in this book address one of the most sophisticated, interesting, and, at times, dramatic components of the all-embracing theme of the ocean and man: hydroacoustics.

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Being born as a result of peaceful attempts of man to ensure safe navigation, hydroacoustics has become one of the tools in the attempts of mankind to resolve its long-standing conflicts, often on a global scale. My first work as a physicist–oceanologist was also connected with quite dramatic circumstances. In the years of the Great Patriotic War, I belonged to a group led by the well-known Soviet scientist, Academician N. N. Andreyev that was engaged in the task of eliminating the enemy’s acoustic mines. These mines exploded under ships triggered by the noise generated by the vessels’ movement. The task was not an easy one. The then available mine-clearing methods were rather primitive. They consisted in the following. During fighting in the Black Sea, the fastest moving vessels we had crossed many times at full speed the navigational channels where mines were likely to have been placed. The mines detonated from their noise — however not always at a safe distance. Our task was to develop powerful underwater acoustic sources capable of detonating the mines at a safe distance. Certainly, we solved the problem, and this helped prevent further loss of human lives and vessels. During the years of its formation and development as an applied science, the range of the problems addressed by hydroacoustics has expanded greatly. Safe and secure navigation, detection of potential enemy ships, creation of databases for weapons development, support of coastal shelf exploration, and the protection of underwater structures from “uninvited guests,” these and a lot more have become the subject of interest and investigation in modern hydroacoustics. Acoustic waves are of interest to an oceanologist from many points of view. The recently developed new branch of acoustics, acoustical tomography of the ocean, uses the properties of acoustic beams to simultaneously monitor the structure of water masses across large areas, consisting of millions of square kilometers, with the help of a limited number of acoustic arrays. Evidently, this is going to become the principal instrument of the so-called global monitoring of the ocean, an emerging program that is currently being developed by the world’s scientific community.

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At the end of our discussion of ocean acoustics, I must mention that Russian scientists made significant contributions toward ensuring the efficiency of underwater weapons and submarines. But I would like to invite the reader to learn more about these contributions in the sections of the book dedicated to naval hydroacoustics.

3. What is Next? The Russian Academy of Sciences, the Russian hydrography and hydrometeorological service, as well as the fish industry, have a large exploratory fleet at their disposal (Figs. 2 and 3). Links with scientists from other countries continue to expand. This increases the prospects of interesting future discoveries. Nobody can predict today what such discoveries are going to be. It can only be said for sure that they will broaden the scope of the use of the ocean in terms of both defense and economic development.

Fig. 2.

Research vessel Dmitry Mendeleev off Antarctica (1972).

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Fig. 3.

Research vessel Academician Ioffe.

Engineers will probably find a fundamental solution to the transportation problem in the Arctic Ocean by building transport submarines. Really, why should ice-breakers fight ice dozens of meters thick, when submarines can pass under the ice all year round while consuming tens of times less energy? Underwater dwellings and installations at depths of several kilometers will be engineered for the production of oil and gas from the ocean bed. Physiologists will find ways for freer vertical movement of a man in the ocean. Why should a diver raising from the depth of 100 m spend hours in decompression, while sea-lions and whales, mammals like us, dive easily to a kilometer and even deeper, without doing the least harm to their bodies? The ocean is a store of enormous energy resources from currents, waves, tides, and vertical temperature gradients. These resources are almost unused at present. However, impressive projects for harnessing this energy are begining to appear.

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II. Hydroacoustics in Russia from the 19th Century to the Present Time

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A Brief History of Russian Hydroacoustics YA. S. KARLIK, V. A. SEMENDYAEV, and YU. F. TARASYUK

1. The Beginnings of Hydroacoustics in Russia After the establishment of a regular navy in Russia, Czar Peter I spared no effort in organizing a signal service and providing the necessary technical aids to support it. This effort was motivated by the vital need to provide operational information to the naval command authorities in charge of naval operations and exercises at sea and to organize the everyday activities of ships and naval forces. In 1720, the duties of the on-board and shore signal services of the fleets were officially defined in a seminal document entitled The Book of Marine Regulations on Everything Concerning Good Control of the Navy at Sea. During this period surface observations were carried out visually and with the use of simple optical instruments such as spyglasses and binoculars. In daytime and in good weather the range was limited to the visible horizon. Underwater observations were also visual. In daytime, in calm, clear weather, underwater objects such as rocks, stones and piles could be observed at depths up to 10 m. With a ripple on the water surface, underwater observations became practically impossible. Therefore, the problems of ensuring safe navigation and avoiding banks and collisions with stones and underwater obstacles at all times of the day were of particular importance. With a growing fleet of combat and merchant ships, the number of shipwrecks, mainly at night due to the poor visibility, was continually growing. Consequently, many prominent Russian scientists devoted themselves to study navigational conditions and to solve the problems 19

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of navigational safety. Among these were J. Bernoulli, L. Ayler, M. V. Lomonosov, and B. S. Jacobi. In 1749, Empress Elizabeth (Yelizaveta Petrovna) commissioned Mikhail V. Lomonosov to evaluate the state of the Russian Navy. He had been actively involved in the investigation of the problems of seamanship such as navigation in the north, meteorology, etc. For example, in the summer of 1749 he watched a staged battle of model sailing vessels in Tsarskoye Selo. He busily prepared in the same year a report on the fleet, “A Word of Praise… to Autocratess of All Russia…” on the occasion of Her Imperial Majesty’s birthday and accession to the throne. In the document “Word of Praise…” Lomonosov wrote, “… A clever seafarer, not only in rough weather and storm but also at calm should keep awake, make fast the guns, prepare the sails, observe the stars, note changes in the air, see the gathering clouds, estimate the distance to shore, measure the sea depth and steer clear of rocks hiding under the water…” The clear distinction drawn by him between “measuring the sea depth” and “steering clear of rocks hiding under the water” points to the fact that he had pondered over a means of observing objects under water that differed from the commonly used hand-sounding leads for measuring depths. Such means might have been a system based on the use of acoustical waves. No doubt Lomonosov knew about the work of Leonardo da Vinci on underwater acoustics, the theoretical research by J. Bernoulli, the work by L. Ayler and his contemporaries, who laid the theoretical foundations for describing the underwater environment and the propagation of acoustical waves in the oceanic media. This work continued into the next century. For example, the submarine Morskoi Chort (Sea Devil), built in 1855 in St. Petersburg, carried out investigations of sound propagation in the ocean. In the middle of the 19th century, the Chair of Physics of the St. Petersburg University in Russia, Senior Lecturer A. S. Popov, began active theoretical and applied investigations on the propagation of acoustic and electromagnetic waves in different media. Many researchers and teachers under the Chair’s authority were simultaneously in the service of the Naval Ministry. They gave lectures and held

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practical classes on the subject of naval weapons in the Mine Officers’ Class and Mine School of the Baltic fleet in Kronstadt. Evidently, their work was known to the fleet’s leading officers, M. N. Beklemishev, S. O. Makarov, and A. A. Remmert, who, themselves, became known for their activities in the construction of modern submarines, the creation of fast mine sweepers, and the development of new methods for communicating underwater. Professor F. F. Petrushevsky of St. Petersburg University, known in Russia and abroad as an assistant to E. Lentz (the physicist who in 1823–1826 circumnavigated the Earth on board the sloop Enterprise) and as a teacher under Popov’s authority, began the investigation of sound propagation in the atmosphere over the sea surface and in marine media. He suggested, for the first time, that because water temperature decreases with depth, acoustic waves must be refracted downwards as they propagate from a source, while in air they would be refracted upwards because air temperature decreases with altitude. However, since the temperature gradient in water is very small, the refraction of acoustic waves in water is less significant than the refraction of the same waves in air at the same distance from the source of sound. Generally, refraction of acoustic waves in water occurs due to different sound speeds in water at different temperatures. Petrushevsky proposed a formula for calculating the lag in sound that propagates in the lower layers of water relative to the upper layers. Petrushevsky in his article, published in 1882 in the journal Marine Collection, discusses the fundamentals of the theory of sound propagation in seawater and gives practical estimates of the conditions for the transmission of hydroacoustic signals in the Gulf of Finland and the White Sea. It is shown in the article that distortion of acoustic waves takes place at the transition from one layer to the other (due to variations in temperature and salinity), and that the direction of propagation of the wavefront also changes. Later he formulated the law of total internal reflection of sound at an air–water interface. During this period and in support of research in hydroacoustics, the first measurements of the vertical distribution of water temperature in the subsurface layer of the ocean were carried out. In particular, the hydrographer M. Grigoryev took multiple measurements of water

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Admiral S. O. Makarov

S. O. Makarov’s sketch of an underwater arrangement of remote current velocity meters.

S. O. Makarov’s fluctometer for remote measurement of underwater current velocity.

Diagram of a hydrophone system built by the Baltic Shipyand (1907–1909).

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temperature at different depths in the White Sea. His data published in the Marine Collection pointed to a great variability of temperature gradients, even within a limited region, and consequently to the different behavior of geometrical ray paths at different points in the ocean. The Marine Collection published other articles dealing with the measurement of oceanographic parameters. On analyzing the available data, F. F. Petrushevsky noted that sound waves formed in water may transfer oscillatory motion to the air a small distance from the sound source even at angles of incidence larger than the critical angle of 13◦ 50 where the sound waves experience total internal reflection from the surface of the water. He proposed that sound may be reflected from the seabed as well and came to a conclusion that sound in shallow water is bound by the water surface at the top and the seabed at the bottom and, reflecting from these boundaries, propagates to considerable distances. At the time he wrote, “except for a narrow channel, our Gulf of Finland, including the section between St. Petersburg and Kronstadt, is also a generally shallow sea. These and similar ocean regions must be a convenient medium for transmitting sound signals.” Thus as early as the 19th century the existence of such hydroacoustic phenomena as a “shallow sea,” and a “subsurface sound channel” had been predicted. From the point of view of naval specialists, Petrushevsky’s studies were mainly of value in that they provided methods to evaluate the probable ranges of propagation of underwater acoustical signals and to determine the factors that govern these ranges. This independent subject, which exists within the framework of hydroacoustics and at the junction of ocean acoustics, measurement technique, and the operation and use of sonars, has continued to be developed to the present time. The main propositions in Petrushevsky’s paper were supplemented and expanded in 1914–1916 by V. Ya. Altberg and in 1917–1918 by S. A. Sovetov, both officers of the Department of Hydrography in the Russian Navy. Analysis of the publications in the journal Marine Collection as well as in the collection Hydrographic Transactions indicates that the Russian hydrographers and oceanographers, I. Belavenets, E. Schneider, F. Wrangel, S. Makarov, M. Zh. Danko, and others, did not limit

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themselves to studies of the ocean environment. They also participated in the building of Russia’s first prototype underwater acoustical devices. In 1871, The Commission for Measures in Support of the Development of Trade, Navigation, and Fishery in the Russian North, organized under the Ministry of Finance, requested from the Naval Ministry funds to procure a Holmes device with two “horns.” The request was made in view of the fact that navigation in the northern seas is in almost permanent fog and with due regard to the proposal of the former governor of Arkhangelsk Province, Kachalov, “On the benefits of establishing steam whistles on northern coasts.” An instrument based on the Erickson machine was ordered in 1872 and installed on Cape Svyatoi Nos (Holy Nose) to ensure safe passage of ships from the Barents Sea to the White Sea. In the same year, a similar device was installed at the southern end of the Isle of Gogland and a third one on board the frigate Petropavlovsk. Later, large acoustical devices were installed on several ships of the volunteer fleet. Russia’s first steam-operated siren was installed in 1884 on the Baltic beacon Kolka. Gradually and with many difficulties underwater bells and sirens also found their way into the Baltic and the White Seas. Simultaneously, efforts were undertaken to perfect procedures for their efficient use. In 1910, the Nekmangrund and Luserort beacons received heavy, bulky, and expensive underwater pneumatic bells of foreign manufacture. In 1911, the steamship Russia ran aground at the entrance to the Libava Port. As a result, its owner, the Russian East-Asia Steamship Line, submitted a request to the Chief Hydrographic Department (CHD) to install an underwater bell on the Libava lightship. In 1911, the CHD technician, Yorsh, proposed a bell that could be operated both manually and with an electric drive. The bell was meant to send continuous signals and also to serve communication purposes. Its cost was 2500 roubles. In the summer of 1912, the bell was ready for tests but CHD did not find time to carry out the tests during the 1912 season. Yorsh, who had spent his own money on the construction of the bell, wrote to the Chief of CHD, “In view of the fact that I have invested my own money in the construction,

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and am now in a difficult situation, I humbly address Your Excellency with a request to find an opportunity to reimburse at least part of my expenses on the bell manufacture in the amount of one thousand roubles.” By order of Chief of CHD the technician did receive the 1000 roubles. It was decided to install the bell in the summer of 1913 on the beacon Sarychev. But the bell mechanisms were so heavily damaged in transport that installation was impossible. The sum paid to Yorsh was eventually deducted from his salary. Using the discovery of radio and the capabilities of underwater beacons, in 1907–1912 CHD employees and naval officers, D. P. Belobrov, S. A. Sovetov, E. E. Shvede, and A. A. Shensnovich, designed an original radioacoustic method for remotely determining a ship’s location in night and in fog. The method was based on the difference in the velocities of propagation of electromagnetic and acoustic signals. Because the propagation speed of radio waves is so great, 3×108 m/s, radio waves can be considered to travel the distance between the station and the ship instantaneously. The speed of sound waves in water is about 1500 m/s. A sound created in the water and a radio signal sent simultaneously will arrive at the ship at different times. The time difference permits one to estimate the distance between the ship and the transmitting station. To realize the method, two schemes were proposed. In the first, a leading role was assigned to the coastal equipment, which synchronously emitted hydroacoustic and radio signals. In the second scheme, the ship’s navigational officer sent radio commands and remotely controlled the emission of the sound wave. The Russian fleet started using this method immediately after the filing of a patent application. By order of the Naval Ministry, the first experiments on the use of the method were carried out in the Baltic Sea in the summers of 1912 and 1913. In 1913, the method was demonstrated to the Baltic Navy Commander who evaluated it highly. Very soon an order for the manufacture of the first three transmitting stations was placed with an electromechanical construction plant in St. Petersburg. The instruments were manufactured in 1914 and acceptance tests were carried out in 1915. The navigational officer of the battleship

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Sevastopol, Rear Admiral E. E. Shvede, and the navigational officer of the cruiser Oleg, Lieutenant D. P. Belobrov, took part in the tests. Both of them, incidentally, went on to have distinguished careers. Rear Admiral Shvede later became Rear-Admiral of the Soviet Fleet, Professor of the Naval Academy, Full Member of the Geographical Society, and one of the authors of the Naval Atlas. Lieutenant Belobrov later became Captain First Rank of the Soviet Navy and a prominent lecturer in navigational sciences as well as the author of several manuals. For the practical application of the new method, the underwater projectors and the radio stations of the underwater beacons Sarychev, Uette, Dagerrot, and Libava were used. Thorough measurements of the bathymetry were made in the vicinity of the beacons for the purpose of analyzing acoustical propagation conditions. From May until December 1915, the Joint-Stock Company of Electromechanical Constructions manufactured and installed radiohydrophone devices on seven ships of the Russian Navy. These devices were for determining ship location in poor visibility off the shore and when there was a loss of bearing. Later, similar devices were installed on all battleships, including the Aurora cruiser. The sonar transducers for this device were found in the hull of the Aurora during its last major overhaul. We are reminded of the events that took place during those years in connection with the creation of this new method of navigation at sea. In 1916, the British physicist, Prof. J. Joly, whose suggestion was published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of London, claimed priority of invention of the hydroacoustic method. In the same year, the French journal Nature reported on Joly’s method. Most surprising is that the primary publication of the CHD, the journal Zapiski po gidrografii (Hydrography Transactions), also tried to establish priority for the Englishman. The author of an article published in this journal wrote: … The problem stayed unresolved for a long time, and only recently the young English physicist Joly published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of London a report where he suggests the following solution to

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the above extremely important problem of navigation; namely, determining by sound the distance and direction to the location of the source of this sound. Such a statement was made despite the facts that S. A. Sovetov was one of the editors of the Hydrography Transactions, E. E. Shvede, A. A. Shensnovich, and D. P. Belobrov, were quite well-known leaders of CHD, several employees of CHD had participated in the project, and a report containing an introduction to the radio-hydroacoustic method of determining ship location and describing the successful results of tests had been presented in a timely fashion to the Head of the CHD. The history of hydroacoustics in this country contains other examples of the actual loss for contemporaries of priorities by virtue of the remoteness of events as well as for other reasons. Two of them are associated with Admiral S. O. Makarov. In 1968, workers of the Central State Archives of the Navy working with the collection of S. O. Makarov’s documents showed one of the authors of this paper, file that contained a sketch having no caption or explanation. The device sketched resembles an assembly for transmitting signals underwater. Some time later, in another archive, a letter was found from S. O. Makarov to A. A. Peshchurov concerning an investigation in the Bosporus. Here is an excerpt from this letter: 1 December, 1881, Constantinople. … Current. For measuring current speed at depth an instrument was invented and made and it quite successfully stood the tests the day before yesterday. Improvements are currently being made to this instrument. There is a popular belief that the Strait of Constantinople has two currents, the upper one flowing from the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmora, and the bottom one, from the Sea of Marmora to the Black Sea. Sailing directions contain no instructions on this matter. From my own observations I am almost convinced that the bottom reverse current really does exist, but the

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thickness of its layer and velocity will be determined only after we have developed better methods, for which I hope… The publication Kronstadtskii Vestnik (Kronstadt Bulletin) of February 28, 1886, carries a more detailed description of the instrument: … The lecturer presented to the public a simple instrument. A common rudder is mounted in a small iron frame, a common Archimedean screw with a bell is attached to the frame bottom part. The whole instrument is dipped to some depth with the help of a weight reaching 8 poods. The direction of flow is indicated by the rudder, and the velocity, by the screw revolutions, each revolution being marked by two sounds of the bell. The instrument is called a fluctometer… (A pood is a Russian unit of weight equal to about 36.11 pounds.) A drawing showing an external view of the instrument is found in the book by S. O. Makarov, who preferred to call the source of sound a handbell, rather than a bell: … Then I decided to use sound conduction of water. For this purpose, a handbell was attached to the screw, and its clapper could oscillate in one plane only… The drawing shows the world’s first hydroacoustic telemetry system, where the ship’s hull played the role of a low-frequency signal receiver. We continue quoting from the article in Kronstadtskii Vestnik: … At the beginning, due to waves, the bell could not be heard, and it would have been easy to lose all hope if it were not for S. O. Makarov’s orderly, who said that he had heard the bell very well through the hull from where he slept. This small discovery became a starting point for a series of observations. First, the fluctometer was studied theoretically: the screw pitch (52 inches),

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the slip (26%), and a correction for the instrument deviation of 2–3% were found… The lecturer considered it his duty to mention that he owed the success of his work to the close cooperation of his officers, Barkarev, Evnitsky, Vsevolodov, and Volkov, on board the ship Taman riding at anchor in the Strait of Bosporus. These officers were always ready to give up their rest and pastime for observations. In all, a thousand measurements were made, and four thousand samples of water were taken. The most productive day was July 19, when water sampling and current estimates were carried out simultaneously. The ship stood still in the channel, and observations were made every 2 h. As a result of all this work, it was found that the Bosporus really has a bottom current from the Sea of Marmora to the Black Sea flowing in the direction opposite to the upper one; the volume and velocity of the bottom current are not the same everywhere and depend on differing conditions. In 1887, for his public lectures and the work “On exchange of waters between the Black and the Mediterranean Seas” the Academy of Sciences awarded Makarov with the Metropolitan Makarius prize of 1000 roubles. Thus, in 1881, Makarov invented, constructed, and used in oceanographic investigations a hydroacoustic telemetry system. However, for oceanography the discovery of a countercurrent in the Bosporus cast the new measuring technology in a shadow. Among the possible reasons for this could be the absence in Russia, and in the rest of the world, of hydroacoustic engineers capable of appreciating the true value of Makarov’s achievement. This was also due to lack of a recognized societal need for equipment of this kind. The invention by Admiral S. O. Makarov was slow in being accepted during his time but it was not forgotten. In 1969, for example, during the first Soviet–French expedition on board the RS Lomonosov

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of the Marine Hydrophysical Institute in Sevastopol, one of the authors of this article did work on the French laboratory buoy that was riding at anchor off Marseilles. There he saw French current meters employing, as it turned out, Makarov’s principle. A chain of 6 m with velocity and flow direction pickups and a sonar projector was dipped in water from the buoy supersructure parallel to its cylindrical body. Since so much time had elapsed, the invention had not been patented by Makarov, and there was a lack of specific publications on the invention, the true name of the pioneering inventor was not associated with the current meters because the French designers simply did not know it. S. O. Makarov’s idea of employing underwater sound transmission in oceanographic instruments was been quite fruitful. In the decades since the appearance of the idea hundreds of different articles and books on the subject have appeared both in this country and abroad. Hydroacoustic telemetry today occupies a well-deserved place as one of a number of independent branches of science. Another original invention by Makarov in hydroacoustics has also been forgotten by his contemporaries. Here we refer to the Russian Admiral’s suggestion to use passive listening to monitor surface and underwater targets. The fleet specialists only learned about his suggestion 60 years after his death. Much has been done in this respect by the Senior Lecturer of the Chair of Hydroacoustics of the Naval Academy, Captain First Rank L. A. Prostakov. He spent several decades studying material in the foreign publications on naval subjects and authored several significant works published by the Voyenizdat and Sudostroyeniye Publishers in which he analyzed the current state and evaluated the course of development of hydroacoustic systems in foreign navies. In the mid-1960s, Prostakov came across some interesting information. It was written in the British press in 1908, after Makarov’s death, that he had invented a submersible hydrophone capable of locating the position of torpedo boats on the surface, or submarines underwater. Evidently, Makarov was worried by the growing danger from secret operational use of torpedo speedboats and cutters at night and under conditions of poor visibility to attack large ships and bases. The then

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existing optical instruments were unable to detect small, high-speed weapon carriers. The investigations in hydroacoustics in this country indicated above were, in fact, a prelude to the scientific justification and experimental checks of the requirements of hydroacoustic equipment for underwater observation and communication. It was this equipment that by the 1970s to 1980s became an important element in the balance of naval forces in the world’s oceans and actually helped to maintain the strategic parity of the nuclear powers up to 1992. At the beginning of the 20th century, active development of equipment for hydroacoustical observation and communication started in Russia at the Baltic Shipyard in St. Petersburg. It was based on the theoretical and experimental data obtained by Russian physicists. The initiator of this development effort was M. N. Beklemishev, future head of the Department of Submarine Navigation of Soviet Russia. Activities at the hydrophonic shop of the Shipyard were supervised by the engineer R. G. Nirenberg, graduate of the St. Petersburg Electrotechnical Institute. Early in 1905, R. G. Nirenberg proposed a device “for acoustic telegraphy through water.” In one of the articles describing Nirenberg’s work it is said that the inventor “… after a series of experiments chose a method consisting of passing outside water at some pressure, using pumps, through a specially designed siren, which generated a sound of a definite pitch that depended on the speed of rotation of a movable disk, which was actuated by a separate small motor.” In 1906, Nirenberg’s device was manufactured at the Baltic Shipyard and tested in the basin of the Naval Ministry. Later, experiments with the hydrophone device were carried out in the Black Sea. In 1907, in the course of experiments with underwater communication devices, an exchange of messages took place between the submarine Sudak and the steamboat Vodolei over a distance of 2.5 miles. In the spring of 1906, messages were communicated between a marker patrol boat and the Vodolei to a distance of over 6 miles. All these experiments were carried out without a special receiving device; listening was done through the ship’s hull, by ear only.

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The successful tests of underwater audio communication devices in 1905–1907 were described by the world-renowned Academician– shipbuilder A. N. Krylov then director of the Test basin. He wrote At that time, investigations of Nirenberg’s hydrophone were carried out; the hydrophone wail in the Galernaya Harbor was so deafening that it could be heard 7 versts away at the Neva lightship, where the sound was not heard in the air. This hydrophone was put to preliminary tests in the basin… (A verst is a Russian unit of distance equal to 0.6629 miles.) The first research on transmitting information by ultrasound was done in 1910. It is mentioned in the letter from the Head of the Baltic Shipyard to the Chief of the Naval Headquarters, “… I would like to make notice here that in the future experiments special attention will be paid to the development of the principle of silent telegraphy using high-pitched tones imperceptible to the human ear but which can be made audible with the help of special, quite simple instruments.” Considering the earlier design and principal drawbacks of the above siren, the Baltic Shipyard engineered a new type of vibrator. This new sonar projector had a membrane that vibrated under the pressure of a jet of water, and a special system of pipelines. The first receiver that was designed was tested in April 1908 and showed good results. Thus in 1907–1909, a sonar system whose principal components are shown in the drawing was built at the Baltic Shipyard. After tests of the hydrophone devices in the basin of the Naval Ministry, the Baltic Shipyard received an order for the manufacture of two such systems for the Black Sea Fleet. The devices were built and successfully passed shop tests. Marine tests took place in March 1908 in the Black Sea. The received signal was consistently stable at a distance of over 10 km. In June 1908 and July 1909, the Armaments Department of the Naval Ministry ordered eight more systems to be installed on the submarines of the Baltic and Black Sea Fleets. The first quantity-produced underwater acoustic communication systems designed at the Baltic Shipyard in 1909–1910 were installed

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on the submarine (SM) Karp and the battleship (BS) Tri Svyatitelya, and later on the SM’s Peskar, Sterlyad, Makrel, and Okun. Simultaneously, similar systems were installed on the SM Losos and the BS Rostislav. The intallation on the Rostislav were soon halted and then were transferred to the BS Panteleimon. On SM’s, to reduce noise, the systems’ transducers were placed in a special dome towed with a cable. The British, incidentally, arrived at a similar solution later during World War I. Then the idea was abandoned, and only in the 1950s was it again put to use in various countries to create noise-immune ship-mounted sonar systems. Many facts testify to the significant achievements in this country’s military hydroacoustics during the period 1905–1910; the country definitely had technical superiority. In 1952, a student of the Naval Academy Lieutenant Captain M. Ya. Chemeris (later Vice-Admiral, Chief of Radio Engineering Department (RED) of the Navy) published a very interesting paper on the pre-revolutionary history of Russian hydroacoustics. In his paper he noted one fact in connection with Nirenberg’s sonar projector, discussed above. In 1911, a representative of the Bremen Acoustic Company in St. Petersburg, in a letter to the Chief of CHD, noted the good performance of Nirenberg’s projector and recommended that it be installed on the Libava lightship instead of a foreign device, which the hydrographers were trying to order. The membrane-type projectors invented by Nirenberg found application in Germany much later. However, the proprietary right to the invention of these vibrators had been assumed by the German specialists Eigner and Klinger, as indicated in the book by Eigner Unterwassershalltechnik published in 1922. In his book, Radio Electronics in the Fleet Yesterday and Today, G. P. Popov, the former Chief of RED of the Navy, and Captain First Rank G. V. Startsev noted that “… development of this kind (the creation of membrane-type projectors — Ed.) began abroad only three years later.” In June 1911, a special commission ran tests of Baltic Shipyard hydrophone devices. Transmitting equipment was located in the area of the Shipyard’s covered slipways and the receiving equipment was put on board the steamer Chaika moored off the 10th Line of Vasilievsky

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Island, 10 cables away from the transmitter. Signals were clearly heard despite many ships crossing the line between the transmitting and the receiving stations. The commission concluded that the station served its purpose and in the open sea would be able to ensure a communication range of over 2 miles. In the same year, the commander of a submarine brigade of the Baltic Navy informed the Baltic Shipyard that “the hydrophone stations … operate faultlessly and definitely satisfy the needs of signaling and have already passed the primary experimental stage …” The work by M. Ya. Chemeris A Historical Overview of the Development of Hydroacoustics in Russia, gives a detailed analysis of the fate of original Russian inventions in hydroacoustics from the period 1911–1925. Multiple appeals by the Head of the Baltic Shipyard Shop, R. G. Nirenberg, to officials and leaders of the Marine Department, the difficulties of outfitting ships with hydrophone systems, and the positive results of many tests are all discussed in this book. On November 9, 1913, the Baltic Shipyard tested a new hydrophone system having blade-shaped receivers designed to ensure underwater communication during brigade artillery attacks on large submarines. On November 13, Vice-Admiral M. V. Bubnov, Chairman of the Commission, signed a certificate, which stated that the new system was of such high quality that it could be accepted for it met the needs of underwater signaling in combat conditions. In the presence of the Commission members, a telegram was transmitted and received that read, “Armour is required, and not just any, but the best.” According to M. Ya. Chemeris, from a practical point of view, since 1913, hydroacoustics was included in the list of the Navy’s combat armaments. He bitterly notes, however, “The Germans contrived to become the “first inventors” of blade-type receivers, though not before World War I, like Russians, but shortly before World War II. At the same time, some specialists here, knowing nothing about the blade-type receiver engineered and tested at the Baltic Shipyard back in 1913, also believed it to be a German invention.”

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Despite all the efforts by M. N. Beklemishev, R. G. Nirenberg, and their colleagues, production of Russian-made sonar systems gradually declined. M. Ya. Chemeris notes … after closing the production of hydrophone devices at the Baltic Shipyard on May 2, 1915, the Naval Ministry placed an order through its naval agent in England with the American Submarine Signal Company for ten 220-volt subaqueous signaling devices. On December 16, more sets were ordered. In April 1916, another order was made for 30 110-volt sets. Installation of these units was assigned to American engineers who charged large fees and deliberately dragged out the completion of the task. As a result, the Russian Navy was unable to practically employ hydrophonic systems in combat during the whole of World War I. By the beginning of World War I the officers and employees of the Russian Navy already had several decades of experience in the design and practical application of hydrophone systems for underwater communication, underwater beacons, models for underwater navigation (radiohydroacoustic), and telemetry systems. It was proposed to use hydrophones to listen to noises from speedboats (torpedo boats) and submarines. By that time, Russia had almost a 10-year experience in, as we would call it today, mass production of the main components of sonar systems. In addition, specialists in this country had adequately studied the specific operational features of both the transmitting and the receiving modes of operation of different types of sonar devices. This allowed them to design active and passive systems for underwater target detection. We should be aware of the deep roots of the various technical ideas. Acknowledging that even the Ancient Greeks and Romans knew that the noises of rowing vessels in water could be heard at large distances with the help of the most primitive of devices, we then must also acknowledge that the principle of operation of a passive sonar was never a big secret.

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The same could also be said about the principle of operation of an echo-ranging sonar. To meet a desperate need, the Russian Academician Ya. D. Zakharov in 1804 used this principle to measure the distance from an air balloon basket to the ground’s surface with sufficient accuracy knowing the speed of sound propagation in the atmosphere. By 1820, it was known that the propagation speed of sound in water is approximately 1500 m/s, so the task of realizing the principle of echolocation in water for detecting submarines in the early 20th century rested solely on the problem of engineering the respective transmitting and receiving arrays. As a result of the search for methods and means for detecting submarines required by the unlimited submarine warfare waged by the German Navy, tangible work to create passive and echo-ranging sonar systems took place. As M. Ya. Chemeris notes in his study, various kinds of research and development were being carried out on tasks endorsed by the specialists of the Marine Department. The Baltic Shipyard designed a special hydrophone for listening to submarines. The new instrument differed little in principle from signaling-station hydrophones. There were some minor design changes and the size of the membrane was increased. On February 23, 1915, in the course of tests on the Bug River, the instrument produced the following results, “The screw noise from a small port boat moving away was heard at a distance of 0.5 mile so clearly that one could even count the screw revolutions. At a greater distance only a vague noise could be heard.” On May 19, 1915, a joint-stock electromechanical construction company offered an instrument “designed by the company for detecting screw noises.” The instrument consisted of a hydrophone placed in a shell that played the role of a dome. The shell was screwed to the external surface of a ship’s hull. The microphone received noise from ships through the water that filled the shell. In 1916, a meeting of the Commission for Antisubmarine Warfare under the Naval General Staff took place. The Commission acknowledged that “hydrophone devices are very important to the Navy.” and that “it is desirable to organize a testing station for these devices on the Black Sea with a view to not just conducting tests of passive sonar

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devices but also to training officers and seamen in listening to underwater sounds and to acquiring skills in the operation of these devices.” On November 14, 1917, during consultations in Sevastopol on organizing the effort to deploy and to use sonar systems, the following resolutions were adopted: (1) equip the beacons near Chersonese and Cape Feolent with radiochrono-hydrophone systems; (2) place the mine-layer Georgii under the command of the chief of the system; (3) equip with radio-hydrophone systems the battleships Volya, Svobodnaya Rossiya, Yevstafii, the cruisers Pamyat Merkuriya, Admiral Nakhimov, Ochakov, the mine-layer Georgii and four torpedo boats by the order of the Black Sea Fleet Headquarters. Clearly only a part of the effort to establish ship-borne and coastal passive sonar systems in Russia is indicated by this list. But what is important is that the list illustrated the fact that the activities in the area of hydroacoustics were directed toward establishing such a network. It is internationally accepted that credit for the invention and the use of sonars designed to detect submarines belongs to a Russian emigrant living in France, K. V. Shilovsky, and a French physicist, P. Langevin. Russia could have found a degree of pride in engineer Shilovsky’s participation in the invention of sonar if it were not for the fact that the actual use of the invention in this country left much to be desired. Under Shilovsky’s patents and licenses, shipmounted antisubmarine sonars were built in Germany, Italy, France, and the United States but not in Russia! It might well be that during World War II Fascist German ships armed with sonars employing Shilovsky’s ideas detected and sank British, French, American, and Soviet submarines. The hydroacoustic technologies developed in Britain, Germany, the USA, and France on the base of Shilovsky–Langevin’s invention gave these countries of the West a great advantage over Russia. The consequences of the revolution in Russia and the civil war increased the disparity even more. By the beginning of 1917, both the team of Shilovsky and Langevin and Russian engineers had at their disposal

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the data needed for constructing an active sonar. As early as 1923, K. V. Shilovsky and P. Langevin demonstated a prototype and were ready for mass production while the Soviet engineers V. N. Tyulin, B. A. Grigoryev, K. K. Karpov, N. I. Sigachev, and others were only able to do this during the period 1933–1936. It cannot be said unambiguously that K. V. Shilovsky should receive total credit for inventing the sonar. It so happened that circumstances were more favorable for him than for others. The idea of using ultrasonic vibrations to obtain better sonar performance was proposed in Russia back in 1910. At the time, however, an ultrasonic converter, that is, device capable of converting electrical oscillations into high-frequency acoustic oscillations and vice versa, was not known. In 1912, after the wreck of the Titanic, the British inventor M. Richardson applied for a patent for the design of a sonar for detecting icebergs and other underwater objects. Richardson’s invention was unrealized, however, and remained only on paper also because of the absence of an ultrasonic converter. K. Shilovsky’s acquaintance in February 1915, with P. Langevin became a decisive factor. Langevin was then member of the French Committee for the Application of Science to National Defense and had an opportunity to work at the naval research laboratory in Toulon. It was in Toulon that tests of an ultrasonic converter were completed and methods refined of the active detection of targets in deep water or on the ground. It should be noted that the principal contribution to the design of a metal-quartz projector and a quartz receiver of ultrasonic oscillations was made by P. Langevin. It is also worth noting that the Shilovsky–Langevin sonar found no real application in World War I. The invention of a sonar in France was unknown in Russia. However, Russian Navy personnel were quite aware of the danger to surface ships from submarines and made attempts to improve the organizational structure of the effort to develop and to apply hydroacoustic equipment. In March 1916, a radiohydrophonic group was established under the CHD, which in February 1917, was re-subordinated to the Mines Department. But then events took place in Russia that for many years pushed aside large-scale hydroacoustic investigations.

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Summarizing the process of laying the foundation for hydroacoustics as a branch of science and technology in this country, the following should be noted: (1) In the initial stages of its development, the most vivid display of hydroacoutics was purely practical and consisted in the transfer information underwater. In the terminology used at the beginning of the 20th century, this phenomenon was called “underwater signaling.” (2) Important practical investigations were carried out that determined the nature of further work in several directions including ocean acoustics, instruments for oceanographic research, underwater acoustic projectors and receivers, equipment for hydroacoustic observation, and safe navigation control and communication. Attempts were also made to organize naval hydroacoustic service units. 2. The Development of Hydroacoustics in Russia from 1917 to the Beginning of the Great Patriotic War The revolution and the civil war that followed significantly hindered development of hydroacoustics in Russia. As a result, the developed countries of the west left Russia far behind in armament of ships with hydroacoustic equipment. The efforts in the field of radio engineering and acoustics in the Soviet period began with a decree of the Council of the People’s Commissars signed by V. I. Lenin on July 19, 1918, centralizing radio engineering activities in the country. The decree mentioned investigations in the field of room acoustics and the creation of sound sources for audio broadcast systems and radio receivers but no mention was made of the direction work should take in the area of hydroacoustics. In the 1920s, individual enthusiasts were engaged in studies using what home-produced and imported equipment was available. They tried to get naval command personnel and naval educational institutions interested in their efforts. This task was particularly difficult due to the incompetence of the leadership and the absence of a hydroacoustic

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development program within the Navy. The hydroacoustic equipment then installed on ships dated from before the revolution and completely failed to meet the requirements of the Navy. The country’s Navy had neither active nor passive sonars. At the same time in Germany and the USA, and later in Britain and France, not only did naval ships have hydroacoustic equipment but similar equipment had been designed for civilian use as underwater sound beacons, echo-sounders, and sound signaling devices. In 1920, an officer of the Hydrographic Service of the Navy, B. I. Kudrevich, on his own initiative, started giving lectures on hydroacoustics and the design of foreign echo sounders. The lectures were given at the Naval Academy and at the Naval School. The results of his study of home and foreign work on hydroacoustics are contained in articles published in the journals Morskoi zbornik (Marine collection) and Zapiski po gidrografii (Hydrography Transactions). A year later and essentially on their own initiative, the naval communication officers, A. A. Petrovsky and I. G. Freiman, began experiments on underwater audio communication using old equipment taken from submarines. In 1921, an acoustic laboratory was organized at the State Experimental Electrotechnical Institute (SEEI). A year later a similar laboratory appeared at the State Physical and Technical Institute (SPTI). However, there was no organizational structure to determine the direction of the investigations done by these laboratories nor to oversee their activities. Later, the Special Technical Bureau instituted by Lenin’s decree under the Supreme Council of National Economy (SCNE) in August 1921, provided the needed structure. In 1922, for the first time in Russia, some direction for work in hydroacoustics was provided. The practical tasks of military hydroacoustics, the main functions of a hydroacoustics laboratory, and the Navy’s need for the work were formulated and justified [G. G. Galashevsky, Morskoi zbornik, 1923, pp. 3–4]. In 1923, in Sevastopol, Dean of the Faculty of Electrophysics of Leningrad Electrotechnical Institute (LETI) and Lecturer in Radio Engineering at the Military-Engineering Academy, I. G. Freiman, together with Academy students A. I. Berg, A. N. Grinenko-Ivanov,

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and N. P. Suvorov, conducted experiments on underwater audio communication from submarines. The next year, a worker at the Acoustics Laboratory of SEEI, N. N. Andreyev, by order of the Navy, carried out investigations of underwater sounds in Sevastopol’s bays. He also continued experiments on the creation of piezocrystal projectors, with little success. On October 30, 1923, the Revolutionary War Council of the Republic approved “Regulations for a United Scientific Research Center,” which was called the Research-Technical Committee of the Chief Administration of the Navy for the Workers’ and Peasants’ Red Army (RTC CAN WPRA). Ex-Rear-Admiral P. N. Leskov was appointed the RTC Chairman. Among the Committee members were A. N. Krylov, Yu. A. Shimansky, P. G. Goinkis, and A. P. Sheritov. Until the mid-1930s, radio engineering in the country was understood to consist in the development and operation of radio communication systems. Since most attention in the Russian Navy since the World War I had been given to systems and methods of audio-underwater (hydroacoustic) communication, the official effort on hydroacoustics during the Soviet period was carried out at the institutions and organizations engaged in radio communication. For this reason in 1923, the field of hydroacoustics was assigned to the RTC section working on the problems of electrical engineering and communication. After a short period of time an organizationally complex section for observation, communication, and navigation branched from it. This new section devoted itself to the problems of hydroacoustics. In April 1924, I. G. Freiman was appointed head of the Section for Observation, Communication, and Navigation of RTC CAN WPRA. Freiman (1890–1929) was a naval officer and former member of the military acceptance commission under the leadership of G. A. Polozhentsev. From February 1925, to April 1927, he was the salaried chairman of the Section. The Section undertook a study of the status of hydroacoustics in the country and initiated new research and development efforts in hydroacoustics at the Special Technical Bureau, educational institutions, in the Navy, and in industry. In 1924, the former Radiotelegraphy Plant of the Marine Department was included in the system of plants of the State Electrotechnical

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Trust for Low-Current Devices. It was there that construction began of working models of hydroacoustic equipment for the Navy. Early in 1925, the Section for Observation, Communication and Navigation of RTC, jointly with the Special Technical Bureau, and Professor V. M. Mitkevich from the Polytechnical Institute, adopted a plan of research and development of hydroacoustics for the period 1925– 1926, with a list of tasks, which included the creation of submarine sound signals detection (listening) systems, passive sonar systems, and hydrophones. Under the leadership of L. I. Mandelshtam, the development of models of sonars began at the Central Radio Laboratory (CRL) of the Low-Current Plants Trust. A. Shaposhnikov and B. Kozyrev built a model of a piezocrystal hydrophone at the Leningrad Electrotechnical Institute. S. Ya. Sokolov began the development of an instrument for producing an “underwater high-frequency wave.” Professor V. M. Mitkevich at the Special Technical Bureau was responsible for the development of stations for listening to underwater noises (hydroacoustic reconnaissance). In 1926, the Physico-Technical Laboratory, with A. I. Ioffe as head, joined the research and development effort on hydroacoustics. At the end of 1925, the Labor and Defense Council approved the first 6-year program of naval construction envisaging the construction of 12 submarines, 18 escort ships, 36 motor torpedo boats, and the repairs of major sea-going forces. Changes also took place within the RTC CAN sections. The number of personnel was increased in the Section for Observation, Communication and Navigation, and on March 15, 1927, A. I. Berg was appointed its new leader. With this appointment, the pace of hydroacoustic investigations and the design of sonars increased noticeably. In 1927, in Leningrad, a Communications Research Range (SRR) was organized under CAN WPRA with G. A. Polozhentsev as its head. Within its organizational structure a hydroacoustic laboratory lead by A. I. Pustovalov began functioning in 1928. It was the second official state unit established since 1916 to carry out hydroacoustic investigations and design respective systems.

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The leadership of CAN WPRA and the Chief of Administration of the Electrotechnical Industry, jointly with the PCCI, approved and put into place a plan for the production of hydroacoustic systems at the country’s factories. They also adopted and enforced the “Regulations for the Observation and Communication Service of the WPRA Navy.” At the Comintern Plant a hydroacoustic laboratory was organized for the design of sonic communication and listening systems. V. N. Tyulin played an active role in its activities. Simultaneously he was invited to give lectures at Special Extension Classes for Command Personnel (SECCP). In 1927, S. Ya. Sokolov demonstrated at the LETI Radiotechnical Laboratory a prototype of a hydroacoustic array emitting powerful ultrasonic pulses. Its transducers consisted of quartz slabs attached to steel plates 10 cm2 in area and 10 mm thick. These slabs were excited by a vacuum-tube oscillator. In 1928, the LETI Laboratory expanded its experimental activity to include the creation of powerful piezocrystal vibrators and oscillators for hydroacoustic arrays and published the results of its investigations abroad. Upon analyzing the experimental results on hydroacoustics, the naval administration issued a directive for the WPRA naval forces to take preparatory measures to adopt hydroacoustic observation and communication systems and to organize special cruises for this purpose. Simultaneously CAN petitioned SCNE of the USSR to centralize the country’s research and development effort in hydroacoustics. Amoung the actions envisioned by the directive were the following: (1) send an official commission abroad to select hydroacoustic instruments for subsequent purchase; (2) fill vacancies at the communications research range with young electric engineers with the intent that they would specialize in hydroacoustics; (3) purchase laboratory equipment abroad for the communications research range; (4) include courses in hydroacoustics in the curricula of naval schools; (5) publish the necessary manuals to train specialists in hydroacoustics;

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(6) take measures to centralize and unite all research work on hydroacoustics in the USSR. The plan to outfit the Navy with hydroacoustic systems, the initiation of investigations, and the personnel training proposed in the directive reflected the complexity of the tasks and the need for comprehensive solutions. Courses to train specialists in hydroacoustic observations and communications were officially introduced in SECCP, the Electric Mine School, and two naval schools. A brochure by B. I. Kudrevich and K. Ukhov “Echo sounder for small depths” was distributed. In 1928, S. Ya. Sokolov completed experiments on the design of 600-W piezocrystal vibrators, and in the following year a group of specialists under his leadership carried out tests of the new arrays on the eastern waterways off Kronstadt. The large vibrators achieved a communication range of 19 km, while the cylindrical and small vibrators transmitted signals to 10 and 5 km, respectively. In summer of the same year, in the Black Sea, a model of a bottom-mounted listening system was tested, with its hydrophone array installed a distance of 400 m from the shore on a line parallel to the Inkerman shore range. The objective of the experiment was to test an idea by M. M. Bogoslovsky, who was head of the Department of Hydroacoustics of the Special Technical Bureau from 1927 to 1937, concerning identification of multiple targets. Experiments confirmed the feasibility of the proposed system. According to M. M. Bogoslovsky’s idea, the system, which he called a “multiphone long-range audio-scout,” was intended to safeguard the Sevastopol bay from covert penetration by submarines and surface ships at night and under adverse weather conditions. In the middle of October 1928, A. I. Berg and the CAN WPRA representative G. G. Midin signed a certificate of completion of tests of two Special Technical Bureau stationary sonars. For the designers the certificate was signed by V. V. Goon and V. G. Tsvetov. In accordance with the Directive of June 28, 1928, late in 1928, the chairman of the Section of Communication of the Research and Technical Committee of the Naval Department (RTCND), A. I. Berg,

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was sent to Germany where he selected and placed orders with the companies Elektroakustik and Atlas-Werke for representative samples of hydroacoustic equipment thought to be most suitable for meeting the requirements of our Navy. The first group of 20 instruments arrived in the USSR in 1929. Among them were sonar communication (SC) devices with telescopic blade-type antennas for surface ships and submarines capable of ensuring two-way communication over distances of 50–60 cables; passive sonar systems for submarines with elliptical hydrophone arrays with ranges of 20–60 cables; on-shore passive sonar systems having circular hydrophone arrays in the form of arrays to be installed at distances of 10–12 km from the shore line and allowing submarine detection at distances of 50–60 cables. The equipment purchased in 1929 was used for outfitting submarines then under construction. The passive sonar systems for small submarines acquired the name Mercury and those for medium and large submarines were called Mars. These systems could be equipped with 8, 12, or 16 electrodynamic hydrophone receiver units. The first three passive sonar systems were installed on the submarines Dekabrist and Krasnogvardeyets and on the battleship Marat. Some of the systems were transferred to the RTCND communications research range and later to the Central Radio Laboratory (CRL). Early in 1939, the staff of the RTC Section for Observation and Communication was expanded by seven positions. One of these was that of First Senior Engineer to be in charge of ordering communication sonars and for their allocation on submarines. In 1930, the country’s first equipment for receiving navigational signals under water and for obtaining positional fixes of submarine was designed at the Comintern Plant under the supervision of V. N. Tyulin. In the same year, work on designing the Soviet passive sonar systems (PS) Mercury, Mars, and Saturn and on the SC devices Arctur, Vega, and Sirius began at the CRL. In 1930, A. Pustovalov, G. Midin, M. Krupsky, and P. Smirnov were sent as representatives of CAN WPRA to Germany and A. I. Berg to Italy to acquaint themselves with the characteristics of the PS and USSC available in those countries and to explore the possibility of purchase.

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The bottom-mounted, 5-hydrophone array of the stationary passive sonar installed near Kronstadt was designed at the CRL by the group in charge of designing hydroacoustic equipment. At the same time, on the Black Sea, tests were going on of models of sonar communication devices, the arrays for which were constructed under the supervision of S. Yu. Sokolov and tested in the Baltic in 1929. The results of these tests, which continued into 1931, resulted in the recommendation that these devices be used in industrial prototypes. In 1930, work began at the Comintern Plant of a large-scale program developed by A. I. Berg for the creation of the hydroacoustic communication systems Blokada-1 for surface ships and submarines. CRL specialists received an assignment to work on the design of systems for communicating with submerged submarines. The design of PS and SC and their production were later reassigned from the Comintern Plant to the Special Technical Bureau. The Navy accepted the results of the effort to develop piezocrystal transducers from the Special Technical Bureau. In addition to military systems, the design of systems for navigation and obstacle avoidance and for carrying out hydrographic surveys had been ongoing since 1930. Tests of the prototype of the first Soviet echo sounders designed and constructed under the supervision of V. N. Tyulin took place in the White and Kara Seas in 1932 on board the ice-breaker steamer Malygin. In response to the beginning of the construction of submarines in Russia, a training unit for underwater navigation was established in Leningrad in 1931. It included schools in armaments, communication (with the curriculum including a short course in hydroacoustics), electromechanical engineering, and joints engineering. On June 14, 1931, CRR specialists, on behalf of CAN, signed a certificate of completion of tests of a barrier-type sonar for surface ship detection. In 1932, a decision was made by the Chief Administration of Navy of WPRA to establish a Naval Research Institute for Communications (NRIC), which consisted of an institution quite large for the time (33 servicemen and 248 civilian workers and employees). A. I. Berg was appointed director of the Institute on 4 October 1932, and

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A. I. Pustovalov took the position as head of the large Hydroacoustics Department No. 2. In 1932, CAN WPRA organized an acoustical laboratory at the S. M. Budyonny Military-Electrotechnical Academy of Communication with N. N. Andreyev as its head. The laboratory’s work mainly concerned with problems of acoustic range finding in the atmosphere. In 1931, specialists of the CRR Hydroacoustic Laboratory, taking part in the CRL effort in hydroacoustics, justified the need for factory production of Navy hydroacoustic systems and for creating a specialized industrial base for this purpose. That is why Chairman A. I. Berg of the Section for Observation and Communication supported a proposal submitted to the CAN administration by a small company on the outskirts of Leningrad, which produced equipment for beacons, to assume factory production of hydroacoustic systems. Organizational support was also provided to the company by CRR and NRIC. The reminiscences of V. N. Tyulin contain a description of the factory, “It was a low structure in the middle of a potato field. The factory produced beacon flash lights and other minor equipment.” The hydroacoustic laboratory moved from its earlier base at the Comintern Plant to the location of this factory. On May 2, 1933, at an official function held at the Vodtranspribor Plant (later, Plant No. 206 and Vodtranspribor) systems for the production of hydroacoustic equipment opened. Thus began the history of the design, the preparation for factory production, and the actual production of hydroacoustic equipment for submarines and surface ships, systems for underwater sonic and ultrasonic communication, the first home-produced sonar, the simulator Zemlya (Earth), etc. The story of this plant is given in more detail in several of the articles in this collection. (See, e.g., the article by B. Ya. Golubchik “Vodtranspribor — Alma Mater of Home Hydroacoustic Systems Engineering” — Ed.) V. N. Tyulin was engaged in the activities of the plant’s laboratory as a senior engineer. Beginning in October 1933, he gave lectures on hydroacoustics at the, then established, Naval School of Communication. The following year, at the P. N. Lebedev Physical Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR in Moscow, an acoustical laboratory

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was established. It was headed by S. N. Rzhevkin and was directed to carry out fundamental research on the propagation of acoustic waves in various media. On December 26, 1935, the Department of Technical Sciences of the Academy of Sciences established an Acoustics Commission (Commission for Acoustics) of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR with N. N. Andreyev as its head. The Department coordinated all work on acoustics in the country. The purpose of the Commission was to unite the efforts of specialists in atmospheric acoustics, room acoustics, and broadcasting with a view to ensuring the proper design and construction of the Palace of Soviets in Moscow. In 1936, the position Chair of Acoustics was established at the Naval Academy and V. N. Tyulin was appointed to fill it. Also in 1936, the Institute of Radio Reception and Acoustics (IRRA) was organized within the CRR with an acoustics department headed by V. K. Ioffe. In the same year an acoustics laboratory appeared at the Research Cinema and Photo Institute headed by V. V. Furduyev. Yu. M. Sukharevsky began experiments at the first USSR open-air acoustics test range. During the Great Patriotic War specialists from these institutions made valuable contributions to the development of hydroacoustics, the creation of new hydroacoustic technology, and to ensuring its efficient application. The researchers from NRIC, P. P. Kuzmin, A. S. Chernov, and others, began studies to develop acoustical warheads for torpedoes. These torpedoes would home in on the loud noises made by the ships’ propellers. The year 1936 marked the publication in the journal Marine Collection of a series of articles by P. P. Kuzmin from NRIC and N. I. Sigachev from the CA of the Navy on ultrasonic hydroacoustic equipment. In the same year, production of the echo sounder EL began in Leningrad at the Navigation Instruments Plant. Soon after N. Sigachev and A. Ikonnikov published the book The Magnetostriction Echo Sounder and B. I. Kudrevich published a series of lectures at the Naval Academy entitled “Echo Sounders.” During 1937, a 10-year plan for naval shipbuilding was developed. It included the design of technical aids for underwater observation and

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navigation for surface ships and submarines and personnel training at research institutions, in industry, and in the Navy. In 1937, by government ordinance, a research and development laboratory for electroacoustics was created and equipped at LETI under the supervision of S. Ya. Sokolov. The approach to hydroacoustic arrays also changed. Magnetostriction acoustic transducers replaced crystal transducers. Later in 1937, the People’s Commissariat of the Navy of the USSR was organized and the Navy became a large independent organization. N. G. Kuznetsov was appointed the first People’s Commissar. A. I. Berg, Director of NRIC, was dismissed and A. V. Dunaev was temporarily appointed to his post. In 1938, NRIC acquired a new name, the Naval Research Institute for Communications and Telemetry (NRICT). The functions of the Hydroacoustics Department in the new institute were expanded. From this period onwards, investigations, experiments on models, and tests of hydroacoustic antennas and system prototypes were classified into the following three main divisions: (1) listening and communication in the audio-frequency range; (2) echo sounding and communication in the ultrasonic frequency range; (3) investigation of acoustical noise and the suppression of vibration. Work was carried out in close collaboration with the chair of the K. E. Voroshilov Naval Academy and the Vodtranspribor Plant. Simultaneously, theoretical and experimental investigations of the characteristics of sound propagation in the sea took place. The following quote by Soviet specialists illustrates the development of the knowledge of acoustic phenomena in the marine environment during the pre-revolutionary period, “… the abrupt decrease in the range of hydroacoustic systems in summer months presents a natural physical phenomenon and does not depend on the system. This statement is completely corroborated by data obtained through the operation of hydroacoustic systems…” On March 10, 1939, by the order of the People’s Commissar of the Navy, the Research Institute of Hydrography and Navigation (RIHN)

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was organized, and N. I. Sigachev was appointed as its head. The new institute provided research and technical support in the field of hydroacoustics for the factory production of the echo sounders EMS and EL, the design of the new equipment for depth measurements, NEL and ShEL, the light-radio-hydroacoustic device Triton, and for acoustical releases for buoys. The year 1939 also brought the first successful results of equipping the Navy with home-produced hydroacoustic systems. The Vodtranspribor Plant produced the SC sonars Sirius, Vega, Perseus, the PS Mars-8, 12, 16, Echolot-1, and Echolot-2, the navigation device TritonP, as well as other systems. In 1940, the first home-produced sonar Tamir-1, whose prototype was installed on board a MO-4 type marine hunter of Kronstadt NB, successfully passed tests and was put into factory production. Factory production began of the PS Mars-16, Cepheus, a portable system for submarine chasers, and other systems. Later in the year the Black Sea (Sevastopol), the Pacific (Vladivostok) and the Caspian (Baku) NS, where courses in hydroacoustics were given, were included in the structure of the Navy. On February 17, 1940, a decision was made to split the Naval Academy into Command Personnel and Engineering Academies. It was planned to transfer the training of observation and communication specialists to the Engineering Academy. In the autumn of 1940, tests of prototypes of active acoustic torpedoes (AAT) were carried out in the Ladoga Lake and the Black Sea. The AAT designers were I. B. Rosin from CRI-10 and A. G. Belyakov from SDB of Plant No. 231. Tests confirmed the feasibility of torpedoes of this new type. On March 14, 1941, for their work of designing the first Soviet sonar Tamir-1, Vodtranspribor Plant engineers L. F. Sychev, V. O. Kudryavtsev, I. V. Trofimov, M. I. Markus, Ye. I. Aladyshkin (chief designer), Z. N. Umikov, A. S. Vasilevsky, and the NRIC worker P. P. Kuzmin were awarded the State Prize of the USSR. The award represented an evaluation and summarizing of achievements in the field of hydroacoustics in this country on the eve of the Great Patriotic War. The first fundamental publication, which brought together the main branches of a new field of science and technology in Soviet Russia and actually confirmed its birth was the book Hydroacoustics

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by V. N. Tyulin published in 1941. Its author was the first in this country to receive the Degree of Candidate of Technical Science in Hydroacoustics. Thus in the period 1917–1941, the country established a system of organizational units destined to support research in the field of hydroacoustics and the testing of hydroacoustic systems. Training was provided to naval and industrial personnel; factory production of hydroacoustic systems began, and submarines, surface ships, and maritime aircraft received different types of observational and communications sonars. In the pre-war years 1930–1941 only, with the active participation of NRICT specialists, the Navy was armed with 19 types of hydroacoustic systems. Pre-war sonars usually employed electrodynamic receivers and magnetistriction vibrator-transmitters. The use of piezoceramic receivers in hydroacoustic arrays for ship-mounted systems became possible in the years of wars only. In 1939–1941, the Navy began acquiring sophisticated hydroacoustic equipment. It required extensive knowledge, sufficient experience in operation, permanent training and an understanding of the tactical combat methods. However, compared with the rate of development of hydroacoustics in Germany, Britain, the USA, and France during the same period, our country’s lag in this field had increased by 1941. A convincing proof of this are the results of the first combat operations of USSR Navy ships in the Great Patriotic War. Analysis of the reasons of this lag is a subject of further, thorough, historical study.

3. Hydroacoustics during the Great Patriotic War The development of hydroacoustics in USSR in the period 1941–1945 was extremely intensive and dynamic. Probably for the first time the naval leadership — submarine and surface ship commanders — realized the huge potential of this means of observation in a successful war. At the same time, it was realized that there existed technical drawbacks and tactical imperfection in some types of sonars used on surface ships, submarines, and aircraft and at coastal stations.

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Researchers from the Academy of Sciences and naval research institutions, lecturers and professors from the Naval Academy and higher naval educational establishments, industrial engineers and technical specialists, command personnel, petty officers, and seamen all took an active role in resolving the conflicts that arose, solved troubles, expanded sonar capabilities, maintain factory production of systems under the possibility of factory evacuation, and arranged for the purchase, installation, and mastering of the operation of equipment of foreign manufacture. These people gained invaluable experience, which they later successfully applied. This paper only lists characteristic facts from the history of hydroacoustics during this period. Additional facts are described in other papers in this book. It is nevertheless absolutely necessary for these and other facts to become the subject of more thorough and detailed study to appear in subsequent publications. For convenience in the analysis of the listed facts, they are arranged in chronological order.

4. 1941 With the beginning of the war, the scale and objectives of the 10-year plan for naval shipbuilding had to be curtailed. The staff and actual number of personnel of SRI, educational establishments, and industrial enterprises was reduced, and preparations for their evacuation were made. Simultaneously the problem of attracting the assistance of the allies was considered. With a view toward better outfitting the Soviet surface fleet with hydroacoustic armaments, the naval authorities sent P. P. Kuzmin from NRICT and L. M. Aronov from the Naval Academy to Britain to determine the possibilities of being supplied with British sonars. All work on organizing underwater observations in the northern theater and training of personnel capable of operating the new equipment were put under the supervision of the Head of the Communications Department of the Northern Fleet, Captain First Rank S. N. Arkhipov. He was subordinated to Chief of the Northern Fleet Staff and Fleet Commander, Admiral A. G. Golovko.

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By resolution of the PC of the Navy, a branch of NRICT was organized in Ulyanovsk, which in January 1942 was moved to v. Yustaza in the Tatar Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. Most personnel and equipment stayed in Leningrad. In August, RIHN was attached as a department to a plant for the production of navigational equipment (echo sounders) in the city of Katav-Ivanovsk, Chelyabinsk oblast. The former director of RIHN, N. I. Sigachev, was appointed director of the plant. With the beginning of the war, the Acoustics Laboratory of the Physical Institute was evacuated to Kazan and placed at the local university. From the first day of the evacuation, scientists from the Laboratory sat down to work on the problems of acoustics that were dictated by conditions on the front. Scientists from the Nuclear Laboratory and the Theoretical Department of PI RAS also showed interest in these problems. In autumn, 1941, a group of workers from the Acoustics Laboratory, led by the head of the Laboratory, N. N. Andreyev, started preparations to work in hydroacoustics jointly with representatives of the Navy who had come to Kazan for this purpose. The task was to design a hydroacoustic device for clearing the enemy’s acoustic mines from waterways. These mines were hindering naval operations. V. I. Veksler organized a group, which included P. A. Cherenkov, who later won the Nobel Prize, and L. V. Groshev from the Nuclear Laboratory, Ye. P. Feinberg from the Theoretical Department, and Yu. M. Sukharevsky from the Acoustics Laboratory. The group proposed the idea of creating a passive sonar on the basis of the Geiger–Müller coincidence counter known in particle physics. The initial variant the sonar, which consisted of two microphones and an electronic device built on the principle of a coincidence circuit, was laboratory tested. In the process of improvement Feinberg, for the first time, proposed a correlation principle for data processing and developed a noise immunity theory of a correlation detector-finder for both two-channel and multi-channel versions. In the industrial sector, work was carried out on the design of the KB type buoyant mine having a two-channel hydroacoustic detonator

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called Krab. (The history of the creation of this detonator is described in the “Krab for the acoustic mine” by Z. N. Umikov — Ed.) A battering ram-type mechanical-impact hydroacoustic sweep called KB-22 and with an air-operated hammer was constructed. It was based on a proposal by M. G. Grigoryev. The Torpedo department of the Black Sea Fleet (BSF) designed a hydroacoustic sweep Grib (MPF-2) with an electric hammer, which was later modified to be towed and designated as MTP-5. In October for the first time a German mine with an acoustic detonator was disarmed in Sevastopol. (The dramatic events connected with disarming mines of this type are described in the paper by Z. N. Umikov — Ed.) The first home-produced sonar Tamir-1 for use on surface ships began arriving. It was capable of detecting submarines at ship speeds not over 4 knots. At the same time, the minimum speed of the MO-4 launch for which it was designed was 8 knots. The Navy engaged in warfare with a single prototype of the Tamir-1 system. Despite the mass production of these sonars during the war, their efficiency was low. For example, Soviet ships equipped with Tamir-1 sonars failed to sink a single enemy submarine in the Northern theater of operations. Submariners of the Northern Fleet made the most intensive use of hydroacoustic systems. To illustrate, during 1941, there were 14 cases of detection of enemy ships with the help of sonars. The principal observation devices were the passive sonars Mars, the systems for underwater acoustic communication were the SC’s Sirius and Arctur. Passive sonars were used mainly by our submarines to break off and escape the enemy’s anti-submarine ships and for listening to the horizon before surfacing. Attacking by using only hydroacoustic systems and without a periscope was considered an almost hopeless affair in 1941. But even this limited use of PS brought some initial victories. For example, as early as August 1941, the submarine M -172 of the Northern Fleet, under the command of Captain-Lieutenant I. Fisanovich, successfully attacked a transport ship in Port Linahamari and slipped out of the fjord thus escaping the enemy’s submarine chasers. In October 1941, the Northern Fleet received the first ASDIC sonar systems of British manufacture. They were installed on submarine

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hunting ships of types 134A and 134C, spyboats of type 123C, destroyers, submarines of type 129, and on shore systems of type 131. Simulators for training hydroacoustic officers and attack tables for training ship commanders arrived with the systems. NRICT specialists actively participated in issues of supply and use of this training equipment. In our fleet the ASDIC sonars were given the name Dragon. The transducers for all the systems of this family were enclosed in domes. They had crystal oscillators that operated at frequencies of from 10 to 20 kHz. 5. 1942 The Northern Fleet increased the efficiency of its fighting with the enemy submarines, which were hindering the passage of marine convoys from the USA and Britain to Murmansk, Arkhangelsk, and other ports in the North. In connection with this subject, in the summer of 1942, N. N. Andreyev and L. D. Rozenberg organized and led an expedition to the vicinity of Poti on the Black Sea. The team included L. M. Brekhovskikh, B. D. Tartakovsky, and other workers of the Acoustics Laboratory of PI RAS. In October, NRICT was moved to Moscow, and in December, the branch that had been located in v. Yustaza merged with it. The work connected with sonar operation was supervised by N. I. Rusakov. In 1941–1942, over 30 sonars of the Baltic Navy were repaired. Based on the results of the investigations by N. N. Andreyev’s group, CDB-4 of the shipbuilding industry began development of a bottom-mounted hydroacoustic detection system. For use within the fleets, an instruction manual was written and distributed on fighting submarines using surface ships equipped with either the Dragon or Tamir sonars and with recorders. 6. 1943 On a navy-wide scale, the effort to organize underwater, surface, and air observations and to master new equipment in the various theaters became so complicated that it required organizing a special radiotechnical service whose functions before the war had been partially fulfilled

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by the Section for Observation, Navigation, and Communication of MSTC. On July 16, 1943, the People’s Commissar of the Navy, N. G. Kuznetsov, established a Department of Special Naval Instruments, which began functioning in the General Staff of the Navy on August 15, 1943. Engineer-Captain First Rank S. N. Arkhipov, Candidate of Science, Assistant Professor and later Engineer-Vice Admiral, was appointed Head of the Department. The position of Chair of Acoustics was created at the Moscow State University. The Chair Head was Professor S. N. Rrzhevkin (see the article by V. A. Gordienko “The Chair of Acoustics at MSU and Its Role…” – Ed.). In October, a new Department of Hydroacoustics was organized at NRICT with branches for PS, sonars (USSS), audio and ultrasonic communication devices, simulators and trainers, and sound and ultrasound propagation in water. Using the results of experimental investigations and theoretical analyses, L. M. Brekhovskikh’s group built a model for a towed, highpowered sonar projector that used an air-operated hammer exciting a steel plate. It successfully passed full-scale sea trials. It was noted in the annual report by NRIC for 1943 that the PS allowed, in addition to enemy ship detection, the following: (1) determining approximate distance to the target from the shore based on the magnitude of the intensity of the noise; (2) detecting the launch of a torpedo salvo from a submarine or a torpedo launched from a surface ship as it enters the water; (3) determining the relative direction to a moving torpedo; (4) detecting the explosion of a Russian torpedo and the noise generated by a ship struck by the torpedo; (5) determining the bearings to depth-charge explosions; (6) identifying noise-emitting objects in the water; (7) assisting in escaping from enemy ships, etc. B. D. Tartakovsky from the Acoustics Laboratory of PI RAS did the work of installing factory-produced hydroacoustic sweeps on the ships of the Caspian and Volga flotillas and the Baltic Fleet. These systems were highly rated by the commands.

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Three destroyers of the Northern Fleet received the sonars Dragon and Tamir. Mine-sweepers of class AM received the US-manufactured sonar Scorpio. Tests of the sonar Tamir-M, -5, -9, and -10 were carried out on ships of the Pacific Fleet, the new versions of the sonar included antenna domes, automatic transmission devices, and recorders. The hydroacoustic officers of submarines maneuvering near the Rybachy Peninsula and Kildin Island often listened to remote explosions of depth bombs dropped, as was found later, from surface ships located at distances of 100–200 km from the submarines. This effect was investigated by A. P. Stashkevich, P. P. Kuzmin, V. S. Anastasevich, M. G. Grigoryev and others. Later these facts were the basis for the development of a method of calling submarines to radio contact, for the design of the type Venta hydroacoustic underwater navigation system, and for planning scientific studies of an underwater acoustic channel in the Sea of Japan. 7. 1944 Work was resumed on the development of an active acoustic torpedo. Captured German torpedoes of type T-Y provided information useful in this effort. By the end of the year NRICT was completely relocated from Moscow to Leningrad. A ship detachment of eight pendants was established for testing purposes. Research and technical investigation of hydroacoustics was progressing on a broad front. Throughout the war Rear-Admiral Ya. G. Varaksin remained as the head of the Institute. Despite the difficult war times, a book by V. S. Anastasevich, The Naval Hydroacoustics Manual. For Naval School was published (M.-L., Voyenmorizdat Publishers, 1944). It was the first publication that reflected the experiences of combat operations involving shipmounted sonars. In autumn, a group, including Yu. M. Sukharevsky, V. S. Grigoryev, P. P. Kuzmin, and I. P. Zhukov, conducted an investigation of sonar performance and made improvements during an expedition to the Pacific Fleet. They studied the characteristics of homeproduced and foreign sonar systems installed on surface ships and

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submarine. Simultaneously they investigated sound propagation in the ocean medium, determined absolute levels and the spectra of the acoustic waves reflected from underwater and surface targets, as well as the interference on signal reception due to ship motion. The group investigated the difficulty in signal detection that results from reverberation due to scattering from the ocean medium and from its boundaries. Following this, Yu. M. Sukharevsky published his theory of underwater reverberation. Based on Sukharevsky’s expedition report, PI RAS Director S. I. Vavilov decided to continue study in the direction taken by Sukharevsky’s group and to create an acoustical laboratory on the Black Sea to provide the experimental data for the effort. In fulfillment of Vavilov’s decision, a suitable location for the base was found and the engineering of underwater structures and metrological equipment started (see the paper by Yu. M. Sukharevsky “A History of the Creation and Work of the Sukhumi Naval Research Station…” in this collection — Ed.). The Department of Hydroacoustics of NRICT designed and introduced into practice a method of notifying submarines to come to periscope depth for radio communication. The explosions of four bombs (each weighing under 3 kg) dropped from a plane at a considerable distance from the submarine’s location served this purpose. After successful sea trials, mass production of the NEL echo sounders began. Before the end of the war and for the decade following the war they appeared in the armament of hundreds of combat ships and many other kinds of vessels. The Navy also received a hydroacoustic sweeper called BAT-2 for magneto-acoustic mine sweeping. In 1944, active and passive sonars were used for surface and underwater observation almost continuously from the moment a ship left its base until it took up berth again. Especially strict requirements were specified for such observations at night, in fog, during snowstorms, and particularly when submerged submarines were known to be in the area. Observation was carried out by a permanent staff of hydroacoustic operators. Target detection and identification was done by ear. Identification of detected targets was based on experience gathered by the

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operator in the course of training at the training unit (communication school) or at a coastal base during special training. Further improvement in the skills of hydroacoustic operators in target detection and identification was achieved through personal experience obtained during combat cruises. In fact, much depended on the precise coordination of the activities of the sonar operator, the watch officer, the executive officer, and the commanding officer, as well as the personal abilities of the operator. The detection range was in direct relation to such factors as state of sea, ship motion, length of watch, circumstances of the combat operations the operator had experienced, composition of the air in the compartment, duties performed while on board, the operator’s internal psychological state, and a lot more up to the everyday relations between the hydroacoustic operator and the commanding, executive, and watch officers. Upon the detection of a target, attempts were made to determine its location and motion (direction, distance, depth, and speed). The detected object was identified and a decision was taken to either attack or to escape to avoid destruction by the enemy. Using sonar data, surface ships of the Black Sea Fleet launched 31 attacks on enemy submarines and presumably two of them were destroyed. 8. 1945 For the services performed for their homeland in outfitting ships and coastal detachments with sonars, for investigations in the field of hydroacoustics, the servicemen and civilian employees of NRICT M. G. Grigoryev, P. P. Kuzmin, F. M. Kartashev, I. N. Meltreger, N. I. Rusanov, and many others; scientists of the Academy of Sciences N. N. Andreyev, L. M. Brekhovskikh, Yu. M. Sukharevsky, B. D. Tartakovsky, V. I. Veksler, V. S. Anastasevich, and many others were decorated with orders and medals. On V. I. Veksler’s proposal the Acoustics Laboratory commenced design of a correlation attachment to standard shipborne passive sonars. The work was carried out by S. G. Gershman, a worker of the Laboratory, under the supervision of her scientific adviser, Ye. L. Feinberg.

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B. M. Vul and M. N. Goltzman synthesized a new ferroelectric ceramic made from barium titanate, which proved to be a very efficient piezoelectric material and found wide application in the manufacture of hydroacoustic projectors and receivers. By 1945, the Navy had 785 operating echo finders. It was almost impossible to find a moderate to large vessel that did not carry this hydroacoustic system. It provided obstacle avoidance at night, in the fog, in narrow straits and in approaching a coastline not equipped with devices for safe navigation. During the war years the active sonars Tamir-5L, the passive sonars Mars-16k and Mars-24 with crystal receivers for submarines, the sonars Tamir-5N and Tamir-10 for surface ships were designed and used as ship armaments. Surface ships equipped with the sonars WEA-1, WEA-2, QCU, and other hydroacoustic systems were received on lend-lease from the USA. Among the equipment received were ASMO simulators, “Attack tables,” and measuring equipment for the control of a ship’s own acoustic field. All equipment was successfully adopted and operated. For example, antisubmarine coastal lookout ships, using sonar data, attacked and sank the enemy’s submarine U -679. In all, in the period from 1941– 1945, antisubmarine forces detected 3848 enemy submarines with the help of sonars, of which 1566 cases occurred in the single year 1944. In 1945, in all theaters, attacks on enemy ships by our submarines while submerged, and during snowstorms or in fog, as well as target identification for fire control were undertaken by ship commanders based on hydroacoustic system data. In the 4 years of the war, submarines outfitted with hydroacoustic systems sank over 300 enemy transport ships of total displacement of about one million tons. A quarter of the enemy’s submarines that were sunk by Soviet surface ships had been detected using sonars. As a rule, submarines escaped enemy attack by using data from hydroacoustic systems. Thanks to the use of passive sonars, the lives of hundreds of submariners were saved. It is worth noting that in such conditions, a hydroacoustics operator worked under great emotional strain since the lives of his comrades as well as his own depended on

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his efforts. He also worked under great physical strain since the sounds from the explosions of depth charges and oxygen deficiency severely impacted the operator’s hearing. The operator worked under these conditions for extended periods of time, sometimes for several days running. Many hydroacoustic operators displayed outstanding skill and courage. With great concentration, many hydroacoustic operators were able to hear sounds that preceded the dropping of depth bombs. They detected their splash in the water and the process of their sinking. Submarine commanders skillfully using hydroacoustic data to manage successful escapes from enemy attacks. In those years hydroacoustics specialists had to perform huge amounts of work. They received from manufacturers and mastered operation of finished systems, developed new and more efficient sonars, received and mastered the operation of foreign equipment, studied the experience of combat application of sonars in the British and American Navy. They analyzed records of combat use of sonars in our fleets, particularly under conditions of the Baltic and northern seas, teached and trained operators with limited time, and trained watch officers and commanding officers in techniques of combat use of sonars… Concluding this stage in the history of development of hydroacoustics in this country, we would like to emphasis the following. Analysis of the methods and results of the combat use of sonars and the specific conditions of their operation on surface ships, submarines, aircraft, and on coastal posts started literally from the very first days of the war and continues to the present day. An indication of this is the book by Admiral A. G. Golovko, The Use of Radiolocation and Hydroacoustics in the Northern Navy Fleet (VMF Publishers, 1951) and the manuscript published by retired Sub-Colonel V. V. Shchedrolosev, Protecting Polar Convoys (St. Petersburg, 1997). In these books very thorough, stepby-step analyses are made of each operation when search and detection of enemy submarines was carried out using sonars. These analyses are based on archived material, books, articles, and interviews with participants. Many details may be found in the published material submitted by submariners and war veterans and in the paper included in this book.

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What principally new information can be picked from the material describing the experiences and results of hydroacoustics development in the war years? Here are some conclusions: (1) Leaders and specialists from industry, the naval scientific research institutions, and educational establishments managed to considerably reduce the gap in the tactical and technical characteristics of home-produced and foreign sonars. This gap by 1941 constituted at least a 25-year lag. By the end of the war, the parameters of home-produced passive sonars were catching up with those of foreign manufacture. In addition, surface ships and submarines were outfitted with factory-produced communication systems operating in audio and ultrasonic ranges. (2) The results of the combat use of sonars were indicated in multiple documents of different kinds, which have not lost their meaning even today. (3) A small group of acoustics physicists from the institutions of the Academy of Sciences recognized hydroacoustics as an object of study and in collaboration with the Navy and industrial enterprises commenced applied research in the area of underwater acoustics along several lines. These included reverberation, signal propagation in marine media, the action of broad-band signals on the acoustic detonators of mines, and others. (4) The country’s hydroacoustic industry was poorly developed. The only major factories producing hydroacoustic equipment were Vodtranspribor, Gidropribor, and the Navigation Instruments Plant. The industry not only survived, despite the immense difficulties of the war years, but prospered. The proof of this is the series production of sonars and the introduction of new prototypes into series production. Engineers and designers of the new and modernized ship sonars arranged for the correct alignment of the arrays on the ship thus reducing interference due to own-ship noise. (5) The Navy and naval forces command, commanding officers of ships and combat detachments, petty officers, and seamen not only faced the problems of training, operation, and combat use of sonars but

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made these activities their primary task. Manuals, textbooks, and instructions were compiled and published. Attack tables were in use round-the-clock in Polyarny, Leningrad (in the Northern and Baltic Fleets) and in other theaters. An outstanding contribution of the flagship specialist I. P. Bolonkin to the training of hydroacoustics specialists in the Northern Fleet was particularly noted. Everyone involved in hydroacoustics understood that their own lives, and to a great extent the country’s victory in the Great Patriotic War, depended on their knowledge and skills.

9. The Development of the Country’s Hydroacoustics in the Post-war Period The intensive development of hydroacoustics from the early 1950s to late 1980s was a result of the general upsurge in the Soviet economy, the rapid increase in the scale of fundamental and applied research, the need to introduce the results of scientific and technical progress into the country’s defense potential, and interest in the industrial development of ocean resources. Coverage of this multi-faceted, highly dynamical and amazingly large-scale process and the generalization and analysis of the results achieved has been and will remain an extremely difficult task. This is testified to by the following facts. The index of books in the Russian language (1918–1987, Gigroakustika Publishers) compiled and published in Leningrad by the Library of the Academy of Sciences and the Central Naval Library with the participation of Morfizpribor CRI, indicates that, beside the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the USSR, the State Committee for Science and Technology, the Presidium of the Academy of Sciences, and the Naval authorities, 134 organizations and institutions of the country are mentioned as among those who ensured the development of the country’s hydroacoustics. Approximately the same number of enterprises remains anonymous for well-understood reasons. In the period considered over 800 books and scientific–technical collections were published, about 4000 authors took part in their preparation.

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Almost 100 research ships of the Academy of Sciences, Hydrometeorology service, Ministry of Fisheries, Ministry of Geology, Ministry of Higher and Secondary Education, Chief Administration of Navigation and Oceanography of the Defense Ministry and other ministries, as well as surface ships and submarines of the Navy routinely participated in hydroacoustic investigations of the world’s oceans from the North Pole ice fields to the shores of the Antarctic and from the zeroth to the 180th meridian. A massive amount of information has been gathered by historians of science and technology. It is concentrated in the 50 books of the series Hydroacoustic Engineer’s Library published by Sudostroyeniye Publishers, the articles of the Acoustical Journal of the Nauka Publishers, the publications of the scientific–technical collection Sudostroitelnaya promyshlennost (Shipbuilding Industry), in the journal Fishery of Agropromizdat Publishers, in the Transactions of the Leningrad and Moscow Universities, in the collections of published works of the institutes of the Ministry of Higher Education, and in the publications of other ministries and institutions. This material reflects the specific features and results of the home hydroacoustics development and may be listed according to the following eight catagories: (1) general scientific–technical problems, technical requirements of sonars and problems of informational support; (2) ocean acoustics, acoustical characteristics of water and other fluid media; (3) emission, propagation, interaction, reflection and reception of acoustic waves; (4) hydroacoustic arrays and hydroacoustic transducers; (5) hydroacoustic information conversion and signal processing; (6) design and specifications of sonars and sonar systems; (7) sonars and sonar systems operation and maintenance and features of their use; (8) specialists’ training manuals and textbooks, methodological instructions.

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The programs for naval shipbuilding, ship construction, and the plans of the Ministry of Defense for Armaments and the Development of Military Equipment defined the direction for many large-scale projects. These projects included those for development of fundamental, exploratory, and applied research, the organizing of specialized institutions, test ranges, and basins, the performing of work on drifting ice-flows and deep-sea vehicles, and the creation and operation of the world’s first “paired” research ships the P. Lebed and S. Vavilov, the Baikal and Balkhash, and the Academician Andreyev and Academician Krylov. The Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union also passed supplemental-plan decisions and ordinances concerning investigations of the world’s oceans, design of large hydroacoustic systems for strategic undersea guided-missile cruisers, and coastal systems for large-area underwater surveillance. As a result of resolutions by the USSR Government, hydroacoustic institutes were organized within the Defense Ministry, the Ministry of Industrial Shipbuilding, and the Academy of Sciences. Chairs, departments, and laboratories appeared in dozens of universities and institutes of the Ministry of Education and the Defense Ministry. In the four decades following the war, the geography of the enterprises and institutions working on the problems of hydroacoustic science, engineering, education, and information support for this field of science and technology expanded to practically the whole of the country’s territory. We have Murmansk and Sverdlovsk, Leningrad and Moscow, Minsk and Kiev, Beltsy and Sevastopol, Feodosia and Sukhumi, Frunze, Tashkent, as well as many other large and small cities. To this list we should add Kaliningrad and Vilnius, Riga and Tallinn, Kirov in the Leningrad region and Dubna in the Moscow region, Novosibirsk and Omsk, Vladivostok and Petropavlovsk-Kamchatski, and dozens of other cities. The scale of work done may be judged from the examples listed below relating to various aspects of the development of hydroacoustics. The first state program of special oceanographic studies aimed at obtaining high-quality tactical and technical information about hydroacoustic naval systems and increasing the efficiency of their combat

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use appeared five years after the end of the Great Patriotic War. It was a full-fledged program during the period from 1956 to 1965. In 1960, the Commander-in-Chief of the Navy presented a special report to the Government in which he justified recently-initiated projects in hydroacoustics. One should make particular note of the State Committee for Science and Technology (SCST) among the many governmental institutions and organizations under the Academy of Sciences that addressed the problems of the marine environment. In charge of the Board for Investigation of the World’s Oceans, instituted under SCST, was the Naval Commander-in-Chief, Admiral of the Navy S. G. Gorshkov and First Deputy Naval Commander-in-Chief Admiral of the Navy N. I. Smirnov. A Section for Applied Problems was organized under the Presidium of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR for coordinating fundamental and applied research in the interests of national defense and security. The leader and coordinator for investigations of the world’s oceans in the Section in those years was Captain First Rank, Candidate of Technical Science V. N. Vinogradov, and the representative to the Section from the Naval Institute of Electronics was Captain First Rank and Candidate of Technical Science V. N. Matvienko. The Board for Hydrophysics under the Presidium of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, chaired by Academician A. V. GaponovGrekhov, had several sections, which studied problems relating to the world’s oceans and made recommendations that state programs be initiated to address them. The leader of one of these sections that dealt with topics of EA for the Navy was Rear-Admiral Candidate of Technical Science I. I. Tynyankin, and the section secretary was Captain First Rank Candidate of Technical Science Yu. F. Tarasyuk. Academician L. M. Brekhovskikh was head of the Oceanographic Commission of the Academy of Sciences, Rear-Admiral Dr. of Geography I. D. Papanin was head of the Department for Expedition Investigations. Programs were put together at the Defense Ministry and at the Navy for ocean investigations, and proposals were coordinated for complex ocean research in the interests of optimizing the composition and creating new naval EA at a high-quality level. The ideas were considered

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in the subdivisions of the Naval Institute of Electronics at meetings of the Special Board for World Ocean Investigations organized at the Institute. The Board was organized by decree of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Council of Ministers of the USSR and was meant to ensure quality fulfillment of a specialized program for ultra-long-range target detection. When positive results were obtained, a series of presentations of the programs using theme cards were made at the Naval Research Committee and the system of HNEE, at research institutions of the Ministry of Higher Education, the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, and other ministries and departments. These organizations provided detailed expert evaluations and possible recommendations. In most cases they also were responsible for providing approvals of the programs. The results of full-scale investigations during the years 1956–1965, particularly in connection with the discovery of convergence zones (remote zones of acoustic illumination), became the stepping-stone for posing new problems and justifying new portions of the Program for Fundamental and Applied Research in the Ocean for the period 1976–1983, including solving the problem of ultra-long-range target detection. Upon analysis of the information gathered during the expeditions of 1956–1985 and the fundamental and exploratory research in hydroacoustics, it became apparent there was a pressing need for a more detailed investigation of the ocean. Detailed investigations were needed not only to determine the space-time variability of the background ocean medium and the physical characteristics of acoustic fields of the detected targets, but also for determining the interrelations of the ocean–atmosphere system, and the interfaces within the ocean medium that separate water masses with different characteristics, and the interfaces between the ocean medium the sediment bottom layer, and the bedrock. The activities of this country’s hydroacoustic specialists produced results on a significant scale. Naval historians note the following. In the 1950s, hydroacoustic specialists provided support to naval operations for guarding coastal regions. In the 1960s, the Soviet Navy became a global navy and operated in the world’s oceans. It

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performed systematic surveillance in operationally important regions. In the 1970s, large naval forces undertook effective action during international conflicts in the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean. In the 1980s, maintaining a strategic parity of the nuclear powers in the world’s oceans was ensured. As the newspaper Krasnaya Zvezda (Red Star) and the journals Morskoi Zbornik (Marine Collection) and More (Sea) have recently commented, the hydroacoustic specialists of the 1990s ensured for the country and the Navy a strategic parity of the nuclear defense forces under the ice sheet in the Central Arctic. In the mid-1980s, an attempt was made to present the existing situation and the history of hydroacoustics in this country in a publication to be called Hydroacoustic Encyclopedia. Preparations for its publication were completed in 1991. Unfortunately, it was never published. There is hope, however, the material in the present collection and the book dedicated to the 50th anniversary of Morfizpribor CRI will be some compensation for this loss.

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The Development of Sound Propagation Theory in the USSR and in Russia V. V. GONCHAROV

The 1940–1950 Years: The Discovery of the Underwater Sound Channel; The Theory of Waves in Stratified Media Interest in acoustic waves in the ocean, to begin, is related to the possibility for long-distance propagation. Broadly used in the atmosphere and in space, electromagnetic waves (radio waves, visible light, and ultraviolet radiation) propagate in the ocean only tens or, at best, hundreds of meters. In the beginning of the 20th century, in connection with the use of sound waves for determining water depth, for communication between surface ships and submarines, for detecting objects by the noise they generate, and so on, there was a need to know the laws of acoustic propagation in the ocean’s interior. The rapid development of the modern theory of sound propagation in the ocean began in the later part of the 1940s with the independent discovery by scientists in the USSR and in the USA of the phenomenon of long-distance sound propagation in the deep ocean, related to the existence of the so-called underwater sound channel (USC). In the USSR this discovery took place in 1946 during a Pacific Ocean expedition by two research ships. The chief scientist for the expedition was Professor, Doctor of Technology, L. D. Rozenberg. In the Sea of Japan, a simple experiment was conducted. The receiving ship was drifting around a position where the water depth was about 2 km. Another ship moved away from the first up to a distance of 550 km, periodically radiating sound by explosive sources detonated at a depth of 100 m. The sound from the explosions was recorded on a hydrophone 71

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deployed from the first ship, located also at a depth of 100 m. From analyzing the sound intensity records, L. D. Rozenberg noticed that at short distances (under 50 km) the attenuation of the sound with distance agreed with the accepted conceptions. But at larger distances the attenuation was weaker. The characteristics of the received signal also changed. For an explanation of this phenomenon, L. D. Rozenberg turned to a young candidate of physics and mathematics from the Acoustic Laboratory of the Physical Institute of the Academy of Sciences (also known as FIAN from the first letters of its Russian name), L. M. Brekhovskikh, whose scientific interests were in theoretic physics. In 1939, he entered the post-graduate program at FIAN and in 1941, he defended his candidate (PhD) thesis having the title “The propagation of X-rays in crystals.” During the years of war, 1941–1945, L. M. Brekhovskikh was recruited in the struggle against German acoustic mines. As a result of that effort, he started work on the theory of propagation of radio and sound waves in stratified media. The young scientist became interested in the theoretic aspects of the problem and published a series of papers in the leading Soviet scientific journals.1,2 In 1947, he defended his Doctor of Sciences thesis on the topic “The propagation of sound and radio waves in layers.” So it was natural that L. D. Rozenberg would request L. M. Brekhovskikh to provide an explanation for the unexpected results of the experiment. From an analysis of the experimental data and his deep understanding of wave propagation, L. M. Brekhovskikh was able to conclude that the unexpectedly weak attenuation at long distances is due to the concentration of the acoustic energy in the water layers close to the depth of the minimum in the sound speed. Sound rays, leaving the source at depths close to the depth of the minimum in sound speed at a nearhorizontal direction, are refracted towards the sound speed minimum (total reflection from the layers having a higher sound speed). Thus their energy remains confined at near the depth of the minimum in the sound speed. This characteristic, first, hinders the spreading of the sound energy with depth so that instead of the spherical law for the decrease in sound intensity, that is, an inverse-square law, one has a

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cylindrical law for which the decrease is inversely proportional to the distance. Second, it prevents those rays from periodically interacting with the seafloor where significant energy is lost with each reflection. In the summer, when the experiment took place, the temperature of the upper ocean is rather high and is practically constant because of heating and mixing. The temperature then decreases sharply with depth in a layer several tens of meters in width called the thermocline. The temperature then decreases much more slowly with depth to about 2◦ C where, in the deepest portions of the ocean, it is practically constant. At the time it was believed the water temperature was the main parameter determining the sound speed. Hence, the change in sound speed with deep had the same character as the change of temperature with depth. As a result, the sound would necessarily reflect from the ocean bottom and suffer losses leading to a rapid decrease in intensity with distance. But what L. M. Brekhovskikh noticed is that the sound speed also depends on pressure, increasing as the pressure increases. At shallow depths this increase is rather insignificant and undistinguished against the background of temperature changes. But at deeper depths, where the temperature changes little, it becomes the determining parameter. As a result there is a minimum in the sound speed at a certain depth. Further, using his knowledge of the theory of sound propagation, he managed to calculate, for a simple model of the USC for the experimental situation, both the decrease in the sound intensity with the distance and the form of the signal and its duration at various distances. The results of his calculations agreed well with the experimental data. This is the history of the discovery of underwater sound channel in the USSR. The first publication by L. M. Brekhovskikh on the subject was presented in 1948 by the President of the Academy of Sciences (AS) of the USSR, Academician S. I. Vavilov in Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR.3 At the time foreign journals were available in the USSR only after a significant time delay, so the analogous independent discovery by scientists from the USA, published in the open press,4 became known in the USSR much later. The discovery of the underwater sound channel became the foundation for a new scientific discipline, the acoustics of the ocean or underwater acoustics. The theory of underwater sound propagation occupies an important place in this discipline. During the formation

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of acoustics of the ocean, a large number of scientific papers appeared devoted to the propagation of acoustic waves that used and further developed well-known results from the theory of electromagnetic wave propagation. In particular, in the work by B. D. Tartakovsky (1950–1951), studies were made of reflection and transmission of plane waves through a system of horizontal, homogeneous layers, including elastic layers.5 It was noticed that shear waves decrease the impedance of the elastic medium in comparison with a fluid having the same density and speed of longitudinal waves. Detailed research was done on the reflection of plane and spherical waves from stratified, inhomogeneous media having an index of refraction continuously dependent on the depth coordinate. In the 1948 papers by L. M. Brekhovskikh, a Riccati equation is derived for the reflection coefficient and a method of solution that uses successive approximations was developed for application to arbitrary stratified medium.6,7 The universal characteristics of the coefficients of reflection and transmission were also determined. For spherical waves, a unified, universal approach was used based on the decomposition of a spherical wave into plane waves and analyses of the resulting integral expressions for the reflected and refracted fields.8,9 A detailed analysis was done of the so-called lateral wave, connected with the phenomenon of total internal reflection when, along the interface of two medium layers, an inhomogeneous wave is propagating, which is attenuated away from the interface. The case where the saddle point and branch point of the integrand are close was also investigated. It should be mentioned that in the work on the ray description of the lateral wave, the concept of diffracted rays was apparently used for the first time.8,9 These rays became the basis of a whole new field — the geometric theory of diffraction. An exact integral representation was also obtained for a particular case of three-dimensionally inhomogeneous medium where the index of refraction squared is the sum of three terms, each one of which depends on a single spatial coordinate, and therefore the variables in the wave equation are separable.10 There were detailed investigations of the reflection of bounded wave beams by decomposition into a continuum of plane, monochromatic waves since the laws of reflection for these waves are known. Work was done on the general theory of the lateral wave and,

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connected to this, the displacement of a reflected wave beam along the interface relative to the incident beam.11 The law of conservation of the integrated pulse (the time integral of the sound pressure) was formulated and proved. This law states the constancy of the integrated pulse at any point on both sides of an interface. Special attention is paid to the theory of beam displacement in the case of angles, corresponding to the critical angle of total reflection, and also at reflection from the boundary of an elastic medium.12 It was demonstrated that a wave beam with a finite angular width not only shifts along the reflecting surface as a whole but also changes the form of its envelope at reflection. The problems of sound propagation from a point source (spherical waves) in inhomogeneous media are solved using both the ray approach and by decomposition into plane waves using the saddle-point method for obtaining asymptotic estimates of the integral expression of the sound field. The attraction of the widely used ray method (geometric acoustics) is connected to its visuality and the larger experience of its application in optics (geometric optics). Unlike in optics, where the rays, as a rule, are straight lines, in ocean acoustics, because of the dependence of the sound speed on location, the curvilinear ray trajectories are described with analytical functions only for special dependences of the sound speed on the spatial variables. But in the general case it is also possible to qualitatively construct a picture of the rays, radiating from the source, and the structure of the sound field even beyond the limits of application of the ray theory. In the work of that period there are investigations of ray focusing, including the so-called caustics defined as special lines of sound convergence corresponding to the envelope of a family of rays13 and of the general regularities of the ray structure in case of sound propagation in the ocean.14,15 A series of studies were concerned with the exact (wave) theory of sound propagation. The characteristics were studied of the sound field as a sum of normal waves (the modes of the discrete spectrum) plus an integral along the branch cut (the continuous spectrum). These two contributions are obtained by transforming the integration contour in the integral decomposition of a point source field into plane waves.16 The dispersion equations were analyzed for normal waves in a stratified fluid and in elastic media.17 Efforts were made to investigate the

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cases where the solution could be expressed in terms of known special functions.18,19 The applicability of the use of the WKB approximation for the calculation of normal modes was studied. In particular, it was shown that the approximation is not good for low-order modes but is valid for high-order ones.20 For an arbitrary dependence of sound speed on depth in a layer overlying a homogenous half-space, characteristics were investigated of the arrangement of the pole structure, corresponding to the discrete spectrum, on the two-sheeted Riemann surface. The character of their transition (at cut-off frequencies), with increasing frequency, to the sheet where they contribute to the total sound field was studied.21 In the same work, there is a study of the peculiarities of the formation of the lateral wave when its determining branch point lies near a pole, corresponding to a normal wave. Questions of the influence of medium motion on wave propagation were studied. The reflection and refraction of spherical sound waves were studied in the case of the transition from a nonmoving medium to a moving one22 and the reflection of sound from a moving thin plate.23 The methods of ray acoustics were extended to moving media.24,25 In Ref. 24, the flow reversal theorem, the moving-media counterpart of the reciprocity principle valid in nonmoving media, was formulated. This theorem was apparently first proved by L. M. Lyamshev.26 The systematic description of most results from the theory of the propagation of sound, elastic, and electromagnetic waves, obtained by that time by foreign as well as Russian researchers, is contained in the monograph by L. M. Brekhovskikh.27 The parallel description of the propagation of different types of waves proved to be very fruitful due to the similarity of the mathematical methods used and the commonality of physical phenomena and, as a consequence, resulted in a mutual enrichment. The book (and its later edition) is a true encyclopedia of the theory of wave propagation and up to the present time remains the handbook of choice for specialists in underwater acoustics, geophysics, and related fields of science. It is well-known and recognized throughout the world. In 1960, the monograph was published in the USA in English and in Peking in Chinese. Up to the present time almost every volume of the Journal of the Acoustical Society of America (JASA) contains a reference to this book.

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The monograph by L. M. Brekhovskikh was also received with interest by specialists traditionally working in the theory of wave propagation; in particular, in the propagation of electromagnetic waves. The complicated ocean conditions in which sound propagation takes place (the dependence of sound propagation on space coordinates and so on) stimulated the scientists into extension and generalization of previously developed theoretical techniques. It is possible to say that an informal integration of all specialists in the theory of propagation of waves of different types into a single community took place. The work of scientist–acousticians were frequently published in such journals as Izvestiya VUZov. Radiofizika (Transactions of the Higher School — Radiophysics), Radiotekhnika i elektronika (Radio Engineering and Electronics Journal), and in the general scientific journals Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR (Proceedings of the USSR Academy of Sciences), Uspekhi Fizicheskikh Nauk (Progress in Physical Sciences), Zhurnal Tekhnicheskoy Fiziki (Journal of Technical Physics), Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR (Transactions of the USSR Academy of Sciences), and others. The problems of underwater acoustics occupied a significant place in the topics of regular All-Union Symposia on Diffraction and Wave Propagation, and leading specialists in acoustics were always invited to serve on their organizing committees. The government of the USSR acknowledged the need for fundamental research in acoustics, including the theory of sound propagation in the ocean. In 1954, at the location of the Acoustic Laboratory of the FIAN, the Acoustics Institute was established. L. M. Brekhovskikh was its first director. The range of tasks given to the new institute covered practically all areas of acoustics. One of the most important was sound propagation in the ocean. Almost simultaneously with the establishment of the Acoustics Institute, the scientific periodical of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Akusticheskii Zhurnal (Acoustic Journal) was established in 1955. It was rather quickly recognized by the world scientific community. In particular, it was translated into English in the USA under the title Soviet Physics: Acoustics (Acoustical Physics since 1993). In addition, since 1958, the regular Acoustic Conferences have been held.

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Young, highly qualified specialists were needed to work on hydroacoustic problems. Their education took place at the Chair of Acoustics of the Moscow State University, where L. M. Brekhovskikh taught wave propagation. At the same time, acousticians were taught at the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (MIPT), which was established after the Second World War. The Chair of Acoustics at MIPT was the famous scientist, Professor L. A. Chernov. At MIPT, as a result of efforts by the leading Soviet physicists, an educational system was introduced that was new in the USSR. Students received in their first years a deep knowledge in general physics and higher mathematics. Then, in their later years, simultaneously with the continuation of attending the lectures on general matters of theoretical physics and mathematics in MIPT, they conducted research in an elected specialty at one of the institutes of the AS under the guidance of leading scientists. These scientists also delivered lectures to the students and held seminars on special topics. In the Acoustics Institute, at different periods, the lectures on general physical acoustics were delivered by Professor M. A. Isakovich and M. A. Mironov. Lectures on the theory of sound propagation were delivered by Yu. L. Gazaryan, N. E. Maltsev, and O. A. Godin. Defending his graduation thesis, a student essentially reported on the results of his scientific work and by then typically had one or more publications in scientific journals and had given reports at scientific conferences and symposia. Every year this system of education turned out new, young, highly qualified scientists, many of whom soon received world-wide fame. In particular, in the field of sound propagation, one can name S. D. Chuprov, V. Yu. Zavadsky, V. D. Krupin, N. E. Maltsev, V. M. Kurtepov, A. G. Voronovich, O. A. Godin, and others. The 1960–1970 Years: The Theoretical Interpretation of Experimental Data; The Development for Theoretical and Numerical Methods for Calculation of the Sound Field in Horizontally Inhomogeneous Media In the beginning of the 1960s, the Acoustics Institute received two specially equipped acoustic research ships, the transmitting Petr Lebedev

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and the receiving Sergey Vavilov. With their experimental capacities, technical and electronic equipment, and computers, these ships were unsurpassed for the time. The ships usually operated as a pair. Unique equipment, installed on them, allowed experiments on long-range sound propagation, accompanied by hydrological and meteorological measurements (that is, under controlled conditions), in almost all regions of the world’s oceans. The experiments showed that for comparison of the experimental results with the theory of sound propagation it was necessary to take into consideration many different factors. These included sound attenuation in seawater and in the seafloor, the scattering of waves by rough boundaries of the fluid layer (the ocean surface and bottom) and in the water column, the horizontal inhomogeneities in the medium, and so on. As has been mentioned, the task of calculating sound propagation in the ocean is rather difficult and it can be done analytically for only a few simple cases. Therefore, calculations for a real ocean medium require numerical methods and the use of computers. The development of such methods has been one of the main tasks in the theory of sound propagation from the 1960s to the present time and the efforts of many scientists in both the USSR and the USA have been devoted to this task. Initially, the computational power of computers was not high so approximations and asymptotic methods developed rapidly. These techniques, though approximate, allowed study of complicated propagation processes using existing computers. With the development of faster computers the number of computational methods expanded and computer models became more involved. The theory of average acoustic fields in the ocean, equivalent to an incoherent (energy) summation of rays or modes, developed by L. M. Brekhovskikh, played an important role in the interpretation of the first sound propagation experiments. Important general regularities of the average structure of the sound field were discovered.28,29 They reflected the effects on the sound field of the vertical distribution of the sound speed and its possible gradual variation along the propagation path. Such an approach gave comparatively simple expressions for the average field at the cost of neglecting the interference

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of signals arriving at the observation point by traveling along different ray paths or representing different modes. Those results were very convenient for the interpretation of data in long-range sound propagation and until the present have been broadly used in practice. The possibility was also considered of refining the theory by successively accounting for the interference between signals by calculation of the interference between the signals with more and more distinguishing travel times (or phases) and, correspondingly, decreasing scales of the structure of the interference field.30 For the simple case of a homogeneous waveguide with fixed plane wave reflection coefficients from its boundaries, numerical calculations were performed illustrating both the interference of sound waves and asymptotic decrease of the field with range.31 Later, the search for average laws describing the decrease in the intensity of the sound field was frequently revisited, with progressively more complicated cases being considered. For example, N. N. Komissarova considered a coastal wedge.32 Special attention was paid to eigenfunctions (shapefunctions of normal modes) and eigenvalues (modal wave numbers) of an underwater waveguide, as well as location of corresponding poles in the integrand of the integral representation of the sound field in terms of plane waves. The analysis was done over a wide range in frequencies and assuming various boundary conditions at the waveguide’s boundaries, for example, with a thin elastic layer (plate) at one of the boundaries, with the other surface of the plate being either free33 or loaded with a more compliant medium.34,35 The so-called “leaking” waves in the field of a point source were analyzed. The amplitude of these waves grows exponentially with distance from the boundary to a certain distance and then decreases. An important role in the physical understanding of the process of sound propagation was played (and is being played) by asymptotic methods, allowing a description of high frequency sound fields using the visual language of geometric acoustics, with considering the peculiarities of the field at caustics. The series of papers36–38 by Yu. A. Kravtsov and Yu. I. Orlov were directly related to the problems of sound propagation in the ocean. In these, apparently for the first time, investigations were described of the wave field near caustics using uniform asymptotics

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constructed by the method of reference functions, a direct extension of geometric acoustics,36 including transient wave propagation.37 In addition, the generalization of the WKB method to problems with two turning points was presented.38 This method allows the description of wave penetration through a potential barrier. A systematic description of the foundations of the ray method, the conditions of its use, and applications to diverse physical problems, as well as an extensive bibliography are given in the monograph Geometric Optics of Inhomogeneous Media39 The book contains, in particular, many examples of caustics and a discussion of the anomalous (different from π/2) shift in ray phase when a ray passes through a caustic. At the same time in Leningrad (now St. Petersburg) at the Leningrad State University (LSU) and Leningrad Branch of Steklov’s Mathematical Institute, an informal scientific group was organized to deal with similar topics on a rigorous mathematical level. The main results on the mathematical justification of the geometric acoustics and the WKB method, the investigation of simple caustics, detailed analysis of the method of reference functions, and other topics are described in the monographs by V. M. Babich et al.40,41 Of particular significance for theoretical and computational underwater acoustics was the proposed representation40,42 of wave fields in the form of so-called Gaussian beams — high-frequency asymptotic solutions of the wave equation, which are concentrated near the ray but do not have singularities at caustics. In other words, the wave field of a Gaussian beam is written in terms of the usual rays of the geometric acoustics rays but still preserves its meaning at points where the classical ray solution diverges. Let us now address the development of numerical methods for the calculation of sound propagation in the ocean. The first programs by V. A. Polynskaya, Yu. L. Gazarayan, and others used a graphical and rather simple ray approach.15 It was comparatively simple to solve the equations of geometric acoustics for a horizontally inhomogeneous medium43 to obtain a picture of the ray trajectories that could be used to estimate the sound intensity by their concentration and to calculate signal travel times along them. A method was developed for analyzing complicated signals in the underwater sound channel based on the so-called τ − r diagrams. These diagrams show the dependence of the

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time of arrival of sound pulses on horizontal distance.44 The analogous calculation of the focusing factor (i.e., of the field amplitudes) along the rays led to additional difficulties connected with the infinities associated with caustics. The form of caustic lines was investigated and their classification was determined. In addition, a detailed analysis of the wave field in the vicinity of caustics led to models that were convenient for computer implementation. To exclude the influence of so-called “false” caustics, connected with unphysical discontinuities in the gradient of the sound speed, algorithms were developed that represented the sound speed field in terms of higher-order polynomials. V. A. Polyanskaya applied such an approach in the three-dimensional case to an investigation of the influence of internal waves on the sound field.45 The detailed description of the algorithm and the results received can be found in the work by V. A. Polyanskaya, published in the special issue of the Works of the Acoustics Institute, dedicated to numerical methods in ocean acoustics (see Ref. 46, pp. 15–24). These ray algorithms were created, as a rule, to solve specific problems and were used mostly by their authors. The algorithms did not possess a sufficient degree of universality for general use. Apparently, the first general use USSR ray program for two-dimensionally inhomogeneous media was the program by A. V. Vagin. Various modified versions of this program have been used for the calculation of sound fields up to the present time. The main idea of the algorithm is to search for the ray trajectory in the form of a high-order Taylor series in terms of the arc length. The program had the option of using either a linear approximation for the square of the index of refraction within triangles, into which the medium was divided (a faster algorithm), or a fractional rational approximation having continuous higher derivatives. As a result, the algorithm was highly efficient and allowed for the calculation of the sound field at large distances in reasonable time even with the low-power computers common in the USSR during this period. Examples of the use of the algorithm can be found in the article by A. V. Vagin and N. E. Maltsev (Ref. 46, pp. 61–81). These authors also developed a similar ray algorithm for a three-dimensionally inhomogeneous ocean. The medium was divided into three-faceted prisms, inside of the prisms the sound speed field was approximated by a linear function of

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the coordinates. A smooth approximation for the ocean bottom consisted of a system of triangles that served as the bases of the triangular prisms adjacent to the bottom. A more detailed description of this algorithm can be found in the article by N. E. Maltsev.47 Because of the lack of three-dimensional hydrological measurements the program did not have as wide a following as the two-dimensional one. The program was also difficult to use because the premature death of A. V. Vagin resulted in an unfinished product. We also note, in this connection, the wellknown lag in the development of computers in the USSR in comparison with that in the USA, both in speed and memory size. It was this situation that resulted in a more thorough study of algorithms that created schemes for rapid computation and for limited use of memory. Such an approach was also characteristic of the computer programs created in the USSR in later years. The ray program by Vagin was a good illustration of this, as were the studies by him and others (see below) that followed. The shortcomings of his approach are difficulties associated with program modification, taking into account additional factors that influence sound propagation, or the calculation of additional parameters of the sound field. It was difficult for other researchers to understand the structure of the program, though it was written in a universal algorithmic language. These difficulties forced the researchers to create new algorithms that were similar to one another. For range-independent media, numerical algorithms were also developed for the calculation of the sound field based on the exact (wave) theory. G. G. Alekseyev created an algorithm for direct numerical evaluation of the integral representation of the sound field.48 This algorithm was a counterpart of the Fast Field Program (FFP) widely used in the USA. More wide-spread in the USSR (as well as in the USA) were algorithms based on the transformation of the integral representation for the sound field into a sum of normal waves (modes) and a contour integral along a branch cut in the complex plane (continuous spectrum). General issues concerning the calculation of the sound field were studied in a series of works by V. Yu. Zavadsky (1968– 1972) that culminated in a monograph,49 where the original work of the author and contributions by other researchers are presented. In particular, a discussion of the different numerical algorithms for the

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calculation of eigenfunctions (phase method, etc.) is given. A scheme was developed for an approximate transformation of the continuous spectrum (the branch cut integral) into a sum of “generalized” normal modes with complex eigenvalues. The transformation is effected when a homogeneous half-space is replaced with a homogeneous layer with its lower boundary shifted into a complex domain. The practical numerical implementation of those algorithms was done by V. D. Krupin who developed an effective numerical algorithm for searching for the complex eigenvalues of the modes. Modeling of different physical problems of sound propagation in the ocean with account for absorption, which also leads to complex eigenvalues, is considered in Refs. 50; and 46, pp. 3–15. The programs by V. D. Krupin were repeatedly used by N. S. Ageeva for the interpretation of the results of acoustic experiments in shallow water. These results include the influence of transverse waves in the bottom on the decrease in the sound field intensity with distance and the influence of the sound speed profile on the mode shape functions and coefficients of modal attenuation.51 In the joint work by these authors that followed, the opportunity for creating a model of the bottom according to the measured vertical structure of the sound field was investigated, as well as other, similar problems. Algorithms were also created for the calculation of the sound field taking into consideration only the contribution of the propagating acoustic modes and giving satisfactory estimation of the field at rather large distances from the sound source, where the contribution of the continuous spectrum can be neglected. A universal algorithm, used in the USSR for a long time, was developed by A. V. Vagin and N. E. Maltsev. In it, in analogy with the ray algorithm by Vagin, the solution of the equation for the modes is found by decomposition to a high degree in the vertical coordinates (see Refs. 46, pp. 61–81; and 47). For the calculation of waves in irregular waveguides, that is, having variability along the path of propagation, B. Z. Katsenelenbaum developed a method that he called the method of cross-sections.52 (In the Western literature, it is known as the mode-coupling theory.) The main point of this method is that the wave field is represented as a sum of local modes. Local modes are normal modes of the reference waveguide, that is, a regular (range-independent) waveguide the properties of which

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(position of boundaries, sound speed profile, etc.) coincide with those of the irregular waveguide at a given range. Mirroring changes in the irregular waveguide, the local modes change with range both in their vertical structure and in their eigenvalues, which are responsible for the modal phase. The amplitudes of the local modes satisfy a coupled system of differential equations. The coupling coefficients, called the coefficients of modal interaction, become zero for the case of a horizontally homogeneous medium. If the horizontal changes in the medium characteristics are gradual so that mode interaction, that is, coupling, can be neglected, the so-called adiabatic approximation results. In this approximation, every mode propagates independently of the others and adjusts itself according to changing medium parameters. Though the idea behind this approach is simple, its practical realization (even in the adiabatic approximation) for a long time was limited by the extensive numerical calculations needed. In the first stage, the equations of the cross-sections method for different problems were obtained and the analytic and numerical investigation of their solutions was carried out.53 More complicated variants of the method were suggested. For example, in 1970, a graduate of MIPT and post-graduate student of L. M. Brekhovskikh, N. E. Maltsev defended his thesis, where a more complicated initial structure for the modes was used.54 In particular, the modal structure was chosen to better correspond to the geometry of the irregular waveguide to be investigated. For example, for wedge-shaped areas (such as the continental slope), the eigenfunctions of a simple wedge were applied as local modes. This essentially broadened the area of applicability of the approximation although it complicated the calculation of the modes. For practical tasks, efforts were also made to account approximately for the interaction between modes (see Refs. 55; and 46, pp. 25–39). V. M. Kudryashov also developed a combined approach to the calculation of acoustic wave propagation, where the sound field is represented as a sum of modes and rays without peculiarities, that is, without caustics.56 In the 1960s to 1970s, the method of the parabolic equation (PE) came into use for modeling sound propagation in two-dimensional, inhomogeneous media. The original idea was due to M. A. Leontovich and V. A. Fok who were interested in electromagnetic waves.57

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The detailed description of the history of PE method development is contained in the book,58 where a complete list of relevant publications is provided. In particular, the essential contribution by G. D. Malyuzhinets to the development of the method is mentioned. G. D. Malyuzhinets suggested using the PE for calculation of the field in the waveguide and developed for that purpose a procedure of obtaining a set of parabolic approximations, analogous to those that were later obtained in the USA by F. D. Tappert (1977). An important role in the development of the PE method belonged to the work by Ye. A. Polyanskiy, where the exact solution of the Helmholtz equation is expressed as an integral transformation of the solution to the PE.59,60 This last paper has become rather well known and is often quoted in the USA. From this result there is the opportunity to obtain the solution to the wave equation to any degree of accuracy, using a PE algorithm that is simpler than an algorithm for solving the Helmholtz equation. Ye. A. Polyanskiy derived and implemented on a computer a series of numerical schemes of solving the PE. Their description, examples of calculations, and references to corresponding work can be found in Ref. 58. So, by the end of 1970s, there was a rather large number of computer codes in the USSR for calculating wave propagation in a wave-guide that used various methods and approximations. The desire naturally existed to compare the capabilities of these programs, their efficiency, accuracy, speed, and so on. With this purpose in mind, the Acoustic Institute, at the initiative of N. E. Maltsev, held several special seminars on numerical methods for the calculation of sound propagation in the ocean. Participants in the seminars were required to present the calculation for a point source for a set of test cases in which hydrological conditions were specified. The working group for the seminar presented the calculations by all authors on one poster that was displayed during the seminars. The speakers, who presented their own methods for the calculation of the sound field, were to discuss the advantages and accuracy of their results and to explain possible differences of their results from others. Such a “competitive” element in the seminar proved to be very productive and allowed not only an exchange of experience in working out the test cases, but also clarified in detail

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each individual code’s shortcomings and provided ways of correcting them. The rapid development of the theory of sound propagation and the growing number of publications on those problems in the USSR and USA demanded an essential remake of the monograph by L. M. Brekhovskikh, Waves in Layered Media. In 1973 a second edition of the book appeared.61 In 1980, it was published in the USA. In that monograph, with the broadened modern exposition of the content of the first edition, new problems were highlighted that were primarily related to wave propagation in a range-dependent medium. Also in 1973, the monograph by M. A. Isakovich was published based on the lecture course General Acoustics, delivered by him at the Moscow Physical-Technical Institute for many years.62 The main feature of the book is the thorough explanation of the nature of physical phenomena without the use of complicated mathematics. Many generations of Soviet acousticians, including specialists in sound propagation, were educated with this book. It greatly promoted a deeper physical understanding of acoustic phenomena and the formation of “acoustic intuition.” The collective monograph Acoustics of the Ocean by N. S. Ageeva, I. B. Andreyeva, L. M. Brekhovskikh, V. I. Volovov, Yu. Yu. Zhitkovsky, Yu. P. Lysanov, S. D. Chuprov, A. V. Furduyev, and R. F. Shvachko, published in 1974 under the editorship of L. M. Brekhovskikh was dedicated to the state of the rapidly developing science of underwater acoustics at the time.63 Both theoretical and experimental research on acoustic fields in the ocean (including noise fields) are highlighted. The influence of various factors, always existing in the ocean, such as roughness of the ocean bottom, inhomogeneities in the water column, internal gravity waves, and others are considered. Two chapters of the monograph are devoted to the problems of sound propagation. In the chapter “Elements of the theory of the sound field in the ocean” (pp. 77–162), written by L. M. Brekhovskikh, the main achievements and problems of the theory of wave propagation are described. The chapter “Sound field of a concentrated source in the ocean” (pp. 163– 229) written by N. S. Ageeva, is devoted mostly to the analysis and interpretation of acoustic experiments on sound propagation under

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different hydrological conditions by using ray theory and numerical computations. The achievements in underwater acoustics showed that this field of science could offer a powerful means of investigating the ocean. As a result, oceanographers, who had been using traditional methods of ocean exploration, began displaying a growing interest in the application of acoustical methods to their work. It is for this reason that an extensive chapter devoted to ocean acoustics,64 was included in the 10-volume encyclopedia Oceanology, where the knowledge of oceanology, accumulated by 1977, is summarized. By that time young Soviet specialists, specially trained in ocean acoustics, entered the most productive stage of their research careers. Many of them, even as students, were involved in significant scientific work and actively participated in the activities of the scientific seminars at the Acoustic Institute and the Physical Institute (the seminar of V. L. Ginzburg), the Institute of Atmosphere Physics (the seminar of S. M. Rytov), and others. A fundamental training in mathematics and general physics, as well as participation in ocean expeditions, with the first-hand experience at solving practical tasks, helped to determine the direction of fruitful work both in the field of the theory of wave propagation and in developing new computational approaches. Several of these young specialists (V. D. Krupin, V. M. Kudryashov, Ye. A. Polyanskiy, V. M. Kurtepov, N. E. Maltsev, G. G. Alekseyev, A. V. Vagin, and others) had already made contributions to the development of ocean acoustics (see above and the bibliography). They, in turn, participated in the preparation of a new generation of students and post-graduate students (A. G. Avilov, A. G. Voronovich, O. A. Godin, A. N. Gavrilov, Yu. A. Chepurin, and V. G. Petnikov), who contributed to the next stage of development of Soviet underwater acoustics. New scientific centers were established throughout the country and, with the participation of young scientists, ocean acoustics became one of the main fields of scientific activity. The Acoustic Department, under the leadership of L. M. Brekhovskikh, was established in Moscow at the Institute of Oceanology of the Academy of Sciences in 1977. In 1978, L. M. Brekhovskikh became the Head of the Acoustic Wave Propagation Laboratory (AWPL). The backbone of the laboratory

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consisted of disciples of L. M. Brekhovskikh (V. M. Kurtepov, V. V. Goncharov, A. G. Voronovich, and V. V. Krasnoborodko) and also the post-graduate students and students of the Chair of Hydrocosmos of the Moscow Physical-Technical Institute (A. A. Moiseyev, O. A. Godin, V. K. Kiriakov, Yu. A. Chepurin, D. Yu. Mikhin, A. A. Mokhov, S. V. Khar’kin, A. Yu. Nikoltsev, S. Ya. Molchanov, and others). By the end of the 1970s, experimental and theoretical research on sound propagation in the ocean started at the Department of Wave Phenomena of the Institute of General Physics of the Academy of Sciences (F. V. Bunkin, V. G. Petnikov, V. M. Kuzkin, A. Yu. Shmevev, and others) in close cooperation with the scientists from Voronezh State University (B. G. Katsnelson, L. G. Kulapin, and S. A. Pereselkov). In 1977, the Institute of Applied Physics of the Academy of Sciences (IAP) was established in Gorky (Nizhny Novgorod) under the leadership of A. V. Gaponov-Grekhov. V. A. Zverev, Ye. F. Orlov, Yu. M. Zaslavsky, A. L. Virovlyanskiy, A. I. Khil’ko, V. N. Fokin, M. S. Fokina, and others worked there on underwater acoustic problems. The Pacific Oceanology Institute (POI) was established in 1973 in Vladivostok under the leadership of V. I. Il’ichev, an acoustician by training. Preparation of specialists for experimental and theoretical research in ocean acoustics started at POI in cooperation with the Far-East State University and with the participation of the specialists–acousticians from the European part of the USSR, such as V. A. Akulichev (the director of POI since 1994), V. I. Klyatskin, and others. The 1980s: The Development of New Directions and Methods for Underwater Acoustics; Acoustic Tomography of the Ocean An important condition for fruitful scientific work is communication between scientists. During the first stage of the development of ocean acoustics in the USSR, when the main specialists were concentrated in Moscow, there were no problems with having discussions of scientific work. With the appearance of the scientific centers in various Soviet cities, often rather remote from Moscow, the ability to communicate

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fell sharply. It was important for the young employees of the new scientific centers to hear the opinions of the leading scientists–acousticians so as to obtain a deeper understanding of developing problems. To address this problem, L. M. Brekhovskikh suggested arranging a regular school-seminar “Acoustics of the Ocean.” Its first session was held in 1980 on the comfortable premises of the vacation house of the USSR Academy of Sciences in Zvenigorod (about 60 km from Moscow). During the sessions of the school, leading scientists delivered 20–30 survey lectures (over 5 days of work) where the status of different problems of ocean acoustics and possible ways for further development were described. Analogous school-seminars were held every 2 years up to 1990. They were then temporarily suspended due to the problems of financing Soviet science. Because of their location, they are often called the Zvenigorod Schools of Academician L. M. Brekhovskikh. The lectures, delivered in school sessions, were published as collections by the Nauka (Science) publishing house. Every published collection had its own name (see, e.g., Refs. 65–70). Those collections proved very useful and popular. Up to the present time references to these collections can be seen in the scientific publications of Russian authors. At the end of the 1970s, L. M. Brekhovskikh also arranged the joint scientific seminar of the Department of Ocean Acoustics of P. P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology of the Academy of Sciences, the Academician N. N. Andreyev Acoustic Institute, the Department of Wave Phenomena of the Institute of General Physics of the Academy of Sciences, and the Institute of Applied Physics (Nizhny Novgorod). Scientists not only from the sponsoring institutes, but also from Leningrad (St. Petersburg), Voronezh, Vladivostok, and other cities participated in the seminar. Presentations by foreign scientists were also given. An important event in the beginning of the 1980s was the simultaneous publication in Russian and in English of the monograph Fundamentals of Ocean Acoustics by L. M. Brekhovskikh and Yu. P. Lysanov.71–74 In the book the most fundamental features of sound propagation in the ocean were described in a rather simple way with explanations of the physics of the phenomena. The hydrostatic characteristics and dynamic processes in the ocean that influence acoustic wave propagation were also discussed. The monograph was in

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high demand by students, post-graduate students, and scientific workers both in the USSR and abroad. Recently (in 2003), the third edition of the monograph, significantly extended, was published in English.74 Beside books by domestic authors, translations of foreign editions were also published in the USSR and edited by leading researchers in the respective fields. Among the translation books on sound propagation two well-known collections should be mentioned: Wave Propagation and Underwater Acoustics (eds.) J. B. Keller and J. S. Papadakis; translated by A. G. Voronovich, under the editorship of L. M. Brekhovskikh (1980) and Ocean Acoustics (ed.) J. A. DeSanto; translated by V. U. Zavorotny, N. E. Maltsev, V. G. Petnikov, under the editorship of Yu. A. Kravtsov (1982). Those books introduced Soviet scientists to the achievements of foreign specialists in the theory and in the methods of the calculation of the sound field and to the problems viewed as topical. The direct communication with foreign scientists was rather restricted at that time, when access even to the main USA journal for acousticians, Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, was difficult, especially in the scientific centers remote from Moscow. The translated books stimulated new scientific ideas and decreased the duplication of scientific work. The 1980s were characterized by rapid development of different algorithms for the calculation of sound field by using asymptotic and other methods that had been developed in theory. In particular, the method of summation of the above-mentioned Gaussian beams was used for the calculation of wave fields.75,76 The practical realization of the method, which demonstrated its efficiency, was implemented by Grikurov.77 Analogous programs were also developed by V. K. Kiriakov and N. E. Maltsev, Yu. N. Cherkashin, and others. The detailed description of the foundation of the method, examples of numerical calculations, and the solution to several problems can be found in Ref. 68, pp. 46–55. A program using the parabolic equation method was developed by Avilov and Maltsev.78 It was the first experience by K. V. Avilov in developing a parabolic algorithm. Later that work became one of the most important of his scientific interests. The application of higherorder Pade approximations in calculations of functions of the operators,

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and other approaches allowing an increase in accuracy of wide-angle approximations, led to more and more improvements in the computational programs. The main achievements of the theory in that field are described in the lecture by K. V. Avilov at the fourth school-seminar of academician L. M. Brekhovskikh Ocean Acoustics (see Ref. 68, pp. 10–19). The method of finite differences, developed by V. Yu. Zavadsky for application to acoustic wave problems is similar to the parabolic equation method. The detailed exposition of the method and its different modifications and also examples of calculations are contained in multiple scientific articles and monographs by the author, which are summarized to a degree in a monograph.79 This method of solving the marching problems appeared to be suitable both for parabolic equations and the so-called transformed Helmholtz equations. The comparative simplicity of the method (demanding, however, more powerful computer resources) allowed broadening the tasks considered, building a whole family of conditionally stable finite-differential schemes. (Conditionally stable means, in this context, that the errors due to backscattered waves do not increase with range.) The work by D. I. Darovskikh (a post-graduate student of N. E. Maltsev) from the Far-East Institute of Automatics and Management Processes of the Academy of Sciences (Vladivostok) made a definite contribution to the development and practical use of finite-difference models. He performed detailed analysis of the accuracy and effectiveness of different models and offered a simple practical criterion for estimating the error and optimal size for the computational grid.80 The established team of researchers in Leningrad (St. Petersburg) continued active and fruitful work on asymptotic methods in the theory of wave propagation. In addition, an effort was made, primarily through contributions of post-graduate students, to use these methods for the computer simulations of sound fields. The effort was rather fruitful. The detailed survey of the analytical and numerical methods was presented in a lecture by V. S. Buldyrev and V. S. Buslaev during the third school-seminar Ocean Acoustics (Ref. 67, pp. 24–34). In particular, one should note the fast computational programs by Ye. M. Milrud and M. I. Yavor for a stratified ocean, including a double-ducted ocean, which were developed using an efficient method

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of summation of normal modes and the asymptotic approximations for their calculation (1980–1984). The use of a two-scale decomposition of pseudo-normal waves in irregular, refractive waveguides with the estimation of the approach applicability is contained in the programs by N. S. Grigorieva (1981). Numerical estimation of the approximate formulas for an acoustic field near the surface in the deep sea, which were obtained by V. S. Buldyrev and V. S. Buslaev, was performed by M. V. Perel (1984). Scientific workers from the new scientific centers, dealing with the problems of ocean acoustics, started participating actively in the experimental work on the Academy of Sciences’ research vessels Academician M. Keldysh, Academician S. Kurchatov, Academician D. Mendeleev, Academician Vinogradov, and others. For determining the most effective arrangement of experiments and for real-time interpretation of results, rapid computational programs for the calculation of the sound field and adapted for the computers available on the research vessels were needed. Preference was given to in-house new developments for each individual vessel. This was dictated, on the one hand, by the fact that different research ships were equipped with different computers having essentially different, often incompatible, mathematical software. In addition, a computer was for use by all on the ship because there were no sufficiently powerful personal computers in the USSR at that time and foreign ones were unavailable. This is why it was much easier to adapt one’s own computer programs to another operating system. On the other hand, own computer programs were easier to adapt to solving new problems which arose due to the increasingly involved nature of field experiments that demanded calculation of additional acoustical quantities, modeling the process of sound propagation under the influence of many different factors, consideration of inverse problems, and so on. As a result, in the 1980s, in all the above-mentioned scientific hydroacoustic centers computer programs appeared for modeling the process of sound propagation in the ocean and for meeting the needs of the main directions of their scientific work. Thus, in the Institute of Oceanology of the Academy of Sciences a ray algorithm for twoand three-dimensional inhomogeneous media (A. G. Voronovich and

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V. V. Goncharov), a method of summation of propagating modes in the adiabatic approximation in a range-dependent ocean (V. V. Goncharov) as well as a parabolic approximation (S. V. Khar’kin) were developed. In ray and mode algorithms the approximation of the sound speed was chosen so that that field could be calculated in terms of elementary functions that could quickly be calculated on a computer (circles for ray trajectories and trigonometric functions for modes). Such an approach allowed also quick and accurate calculation (for the model environment) of different integral characteristics of the sound field (ray arrival times, phase and group mode velocities, and coefficients of linear corrections to them in case of variations of the field of sound speed, and others). These programs in the Department of Acoustics of the Institute of Oceanology of the Academy of Sciences were later used to solve many tomography problems as well as other types of problems. At the Institute of Applied Physics, A. L. Piskarev developed a program based on the so-called method of incoherent ray acoustics, that is, the incoherent summation of the contributions of rays passing through a given element of space.81 Such an approach allowed efficient calculation of the spatial distribution of the sound field that revealed frequency-independent anomalies (zone of convergence and shadows, caustics, and others). The main direction of acoustic research in the Institute of General Physics was connected with shallow water acoustics and was done in close cooperation with Voronezh State University (VSU). A VSU postgraduate student L. G. Kulapin (scientific advisor B. G. Katsnelson) using the method of summation of adiabatic normal modes developed a program (Ref. 67, pp. 76–84), adapted to the calculation of sound propagation in a shallow sea with account for variation of the sea depth, the stratified structure of bottom sediments, and so on. Calculations of sound propagation in the ocean made with these programs were compared to multiple experimental data sets obtained at different regions of the world’s oceans during the expeditions by research vessels. Different ways of displaying the computed acoustic fields were analyzed to find a visual method for interpretation of experimental data. The differences in numerical calculations from

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measurement data, their reasons and possible ways of removal of the discrepancy as well as sensitivity of the sound propagation to different hydrological factor’s were studied in detail. Surveys of the main results of this research were broadly presented in lectures at the school-seminar Ocean Acoustics, in application both to the deep ocean (Refs. 65, pp. 92–106; and 66, pp. 118–133) and to shallow water (Refs. 65, pp. 107–117; 68, pp. 19–27; and 67, pp. 76–84). In 1987, in a joint expedition by research vessels of the P. P. Shirshov Oceanology Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IORAS) (Academician Kurchatov, Vityaz) and POI FED AS (Academician Vinogradov) acoustic measurements were made of low-frequency sound along a 1100 km path in the Indian Ocean under conditions of strong spatial variability of the sound speed (powerful frontal zones and eddies). The comparison of the experimental data with calculations of the sound field for simultaneously measured hydrological conditions showed satisfactory agreement. Since 1988, the employees of the acoustic departments of the Institutes of Oceanology, General Physics and Applied Physics began regular expeditions using the quiet ships Academician S. Vavilov (1988) and Academician Ioffe (1989). These ships were specially built in Finland for acoustic research in the ocean and had modern computing and research equipment. They played an important role in the subsequent experimental research. Sound propagation experiments using these ships in the Mediterranean Sea, the Barents Sea, the Sea of Norway, and in the central Atlantic (with propagation paths up to 3500 km) confirmed the utility of the calculating algorithms. In particular, in the 3500-km experiment, at various receiver depths, zones of relatively high sound intensity were observed. The numerical modeling allowed relating them to the phenomenon of the formation of weakly divergent beams of sound rays. In a 1989 Atlantic expedition, an experiment was carried out on sound transmission through a strong thermocline lens, discovered by the new ships of the Acoustic Institute Academician N. Andreyev and Academician B. Konstantinov. The measurements, the processing of the data, and the numerical modeling were done independently of one another by the IORAS and ACIN researchers. The results of the comparison of theory with experiment demonstrated

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the feasibility of acoustic detection of these localized inhomogeneities. Let us also point out that results of the independent numerical modeling done with different programs proved to be in good agreement with each other. The above-described research and references to the relevant publications can be found in lectures by L. M. Brekhovskikh and others (IORAS), Yu. P. Lysanov and others (ACIN) at the 6th school-seminar Ocean Acoustics (Ref. 70, pp. 21–48). The development of analytical methods was also stimulated by a need for a deeper understanding of the processes of sound propagation in the ocean in order to solve practical problems, the search for new regularities, the creation of more effective calculation methods, taking into consideration the influence of such factors as changes in the water density and currents. One direction was more detailed studies of the validity conditions for the use of the ray approximation, combined with deriving simple estimates of the field when the approximation is not applicable. In the work by Yu. A. Kravtsov and Yu. I. Orlov the use of so-called Fresnel ray tubes (Ref. 65, pp. 25–36) was suggested. Qualitative estimates of distances over which the ray approximation is suitable for calculation of different characteristics of the sound field were also developed by A. L. Virovlyanskiy.82 V. I. Klyatskin developed the so-called method of invariant imbedding (Refs. 65, pp. 52–71 and 83), that is, in essence, a far-reaching extension of the Riccati equation technique employed in the case of layered media. As a result, the solution of boundary-value problems for the wave equation is reduced to the integration of first-order non-linear differential equations. The method was developed mostly for statistical tasks but can also be useful for numerical solution of a deterministic problem. The laboratory and at-sea studies done in the 1970s and 1980s at the Acoustic Institute (S. D. Chuprov and others) and at the Institute of Applied Physics (Ye. F. Orlov and others) of acoustic fields originating from broad-band sources uncovered the phenomenon of stability of space-frequency distribution of the sound field energy caused by interference. In the experimental records of the spatial distribution of intensity of broad-band sound, presented in a lecture by Ye. F. Orlov at the second school-seminar Ocean Acoustics (Ref. 66, pp. 85–93),

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a regular structure of sloping interference lines, slowly changing with the distance, is clearly traced. Even earlier, in the early 1970s, S. D. Chuprov (Ref. 63, pp. 599–600) in fact estimated the slope of the lines by analyzing signal correlation maximums in space and frequency. Further analytical investigations of the interference aided by numerical calculations led S. D. Chuprov to introduce the so-called space-frequency invariant84 that characterizes the slope of level lines of sound intensity and is determined by the characteristics of the medium. Values for the invariant were calculated for a large number of different cases and compared to experimental data (Ref. 65, pp. 71–91). Investigations in this field were continued by V. N. Kulakov (a post-graduate student of S. D. Chuprov), who, together with V. Kh. Kiriakov (1982–1983), found the analogous invariant in the coordinates “frequency — depth of reception” and defined its connection to the invariant of S. D. Chuprov. It should be mentioned that the characteristics of the interference structure of the sound field are more sensitive (in comparison to average energetic ones) to changes in the ocean medium. This is the reason they found a growing number of applications in acoustic tomography of the ocean and its bottom. So the parameters of the stratified bottom in the deep ocean were reconstructed on the basis of the interference pattern of the sound field, formed by broad-band signals transmitted from a research ship and recorded by a bottom-mounted receiver and measured in at-sea conditions (Refs. 85 and 67, pp. 162–173). The results on the whole were in agreement with existing data from seismic sounding and deep-water drilling collected in the same region. The development of the theory of wave propagation at this stage was connected to both application of modern analytic methods and the necessity (for the solution of practical problems) of taking into consideration new factors that influence the sound field in the ocean. A number of classical problems of reflection of spherical waves (the excitation of a lateral wave, the shift of an acoustic beam during reflection, and others) were investigated in a series of works by O. A. Godin, who defended his candidate thesis “On wave reflection from stratified medium” in 1984 (scientific advisor — L. M. Brekhovskikh). Being a student of MIPT, he published an interesting article, devoted to the general method of construction of the profiles of the refraction index,

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allowing exact solutions for the coefficient of sound reflection from continuously-stratified inhomogeneous medium.86 At that time, extensive investigations were devoted to questions of the acoustics of a moving medium. In a monograph, D. I. Blokhintsev considered the general regularities of propagation and reflection of sound, usually for homogeneous media.87 For example, the proof of energy propagation at the group velocity, the calculation of the field of a point sound source, and others were considered. In the work by L. M. Lyamshev, the notion of acoustic impedance in moving media was introduced and its significance for the extension to moving media of the results, known for motionless media was emphasized.88 Several works were devoted to the investigation of the sound field in moving inhomogeneous media using the methods of ray acoustics for application to practical problems of wave propagation in the ocean and the atmosphere (O. S. Golod and N. S. Grigorieva 1982; V. A. Polyanskaya 1985, detailed references to these and other below-mentioned publications can be found in the extensive bibliography in Refs. 93– 95). The state-of-the-art of the problem in that period was analyzed in detail in a review article by V. Ye. Ostashev.89 Extension of the multitude of analytical methods, developed for nonmoving, inhomogeneous media of constant density, to moving media with a density stratification, would be simplified greatly if the equations governing sound fields in moving media were reduced to a conventional wave equation with some effective wave number (coefficient). It is desirable for that coefficient not to contain derivatives with respect to spatial coordinates because the derivatives would lead to difficulties in the case of sharp gradients in the medium. The problem of the wave equation reduction was successfully solved with the introduction of a new independent variable, suggested by O. A. Godin. Application of the wave equation written in terms of this independent variable allowed one to establish a connection between the coefficients of transmission for waves propagating in opposite directions in an arbitrarily stratified medium and to generalize the Riccati equation and its solutions with the method of successive approximations to moving media with density stratification.90–92 In the work by O. A. Godin of that period the areas of applicability of the wave equation were expanded, including nonstationary media (Ref. 68, pp. 217–220)

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acoustic reciprocity and nonreciprocity in moving media were investigated, simultaneous validity of the reciprocity principle and the flow reversal theorem for specially chosen physical values was demonstrated, and many other questions were studied. As a result, the necessity of a new, generalizing monograph became apparent, supplementing the book Waves in Layered Media27,61 (well-known internationally) and describing the material originally treated in that book from a modern point of view. Such a monograph was published in the USSR in 1989.93 In it the results of other authors were also described in a style characteristic to the book as a whole, with extensive bibliography for all the subjects including those mentioned. The monograph was also published in English by the Springer-Verlag publishing house in two volumes (the first one in 1990 and the second in 1992, Refs. 94–95). We should mention that the achievements of Soviet scientists in the development of the theory of wave propagation, and in particular, of asymptotic methods keep attracting keen interest of and have gained recognition by foreign researchers. It is witnessed, in particular, by the publication of above-mentioned monographs39,40 in English by Springer-Verlag. Oceanographic research done in the 1970s by Soviet scientists (Polygon-70), by American scientists (MODE-1) and jointly by Soviet and America scientists (POLYMODE) showed that inhomogeneities of a synoptic scale are often observed in the ocean and play an important role in ocean dynamics. This new knowledge created interest by scientist–acousticians from different countries in the influence of the synoptic (or mesoscale) variability of the medium on long-range sound propagation in the ocean. In the survey work by V. M. Kurtepov (Ref. 65, pp. 36–52), the experimental and theoretical information accumulated from 1966 to 1980 on the influence of water-column variability on underwater sound propagation was systematized. The work by V. M. Kurtepov that followed, including a paper co-authored with A. G. Voronovich and others, was devoted to the investigation of the possibility of using ocean acoustic tomography to study the inhomogeneities. Ocean acoustic tomography (OAT) is a technique first proposed by the American scientists W. H. Munk and C. Wunsch in 1979 to use long-range acoustics to study ocean structure. The main acoustical effects, connected to mesoscale variability in the ocean, were

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investigated (Ref. 66, pp. 3–16) and the achievements and problems of OAT were analyzed (Ref. 67, pp. 15–24). Special attention was paid to such questions as the conditions under which the travel time can be linearized with respect to the ocean fluctuations, the identification of experimentally observed sound signals with those calculated using propagation models, and the optimal arrangement of sources and receivers for the most robust and accurate solution to the inverse problem. Several optimization principles were developed in simple models in the work of V. M. Bukhshtaber et al.96 By using existing computer programs and the main features of linear ray tomography, numerical modeling of the reconstruction of the sound speed field for a real ocean eddy and the estimates of the accuracy and stability of the reconstruction were obtained by V. V. Goncharov and V. M. Kurtepov (Refs. 97 and 68, pp. 107–115). For the purpose of reducing the number of unknowns in the process, a step-by-step approach to obtain the reconstruction of three-dimensional inhomogeneities in the environment was proposed. First, the distribution of the inhomogeneity in the depth-averaged horizontal plane was obtained. Then, using that distribution as a priori information about the location of the inhomogeneity, its vertical structure is obtained. Later this idea was used at the reconstruction of the structure of a three-dimensional interthermocline lens in the Mediterranean Sea by using acoustic data collected at sea (see below). Linear ray tomography supposes that experimental signals recorded by a receiver consist of arrivals that propagate along individual rays and can be resolved, that is, separated from each other. But there are situations, such as in shallow water or at very long ranges, where the number of rays is very large. In such cases it is easier to resolve modal arrivals than ray arrivals. Many works by a number of authors were devoted to the question of separation of ray and modal components in an acoustic field in a waveguide. In this regard we point out a series of papers by A. L. Virovlyanskiy and co-authors98 and the lecture by S. D. Chuprov at the fourth school-seminar Ocean Acoustics (Ref. 68, pp. 56–64). At the Institute of General Physics in Moscow and Applied Physics in Nizhny Novgorod investigations were done of possible modal algorithms for acoustic tomography, including the three-dimensional case

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(Refs. 99–100 and 68, pp. 98–107). The so-called interference method of tomography was also investigated. It is similar to modal tomography and based on the measurement of the spatial distribution, that is, the interference structure of the sound field. In this approach, differences of phases of separate normal modes, rather than phases themselves, are used in reconstructing ocean inhomogeneities from acoustic measurements.101 The main achievements of Soviet scientists in the field of acoustical tomography in the 1980s are described in a book102 written by the employees of the IORAS and the Institute of Applied Physics. It not only describes the methods of reconstruction of large-scale inhomogeneities such as eddies and frontal zones but also small-scale inhomogeneities such as internal waves, surface waves, turbulent fluctuations. Unfortunately, because of the sharp restriction in traditional state financing of science in the USSR with advent of the Perestroika period, publication of the book was greatly delayed. A large number of experiments on sound propagation through different inhomogeneities of the water column in the Pacific Ocean were conducted by the employees of the Pacific Oceanological Institute (POI) of FED of the Academy of Sciences. The detailed analysis of those experiments from the prospective of their use for acoustic remote sensing of the oceanic environment is contained in survey lectures by V. A. Akulichev at school-seminars Ocean Acoustics (Refs. 68, pp. 116– 121; and 70, pp. 142–153). 1990–2000 Ocean Acoustics in Russia The beginning of the 1990s was marked by a drastic change in government policy regarding budget allocations to all the branches of economy, including scientific activity. A transition was implemented from a centralized, guaranteed, and complete budget support of research establishments and large-scale research projects to financial support being granted from various funds for specific projects on a competitive basis. This new system is the one prevalent throughout the world. For this purpose, the Russian Fund for Fundamental Research (RFFR) was established in Russia. In addition, for the support of scientists from the

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former USSR foreign funding programs were also established. These include the International Science Foundation (ISF) and the Civilian Research and Development Foundation for the Independent States of the Former Soviet Union (CRDF) in the USA, the International Association for the Promotion of Cooperation with Scientist from the Independent States of the Former Soviet Union (INTAS) in Europe, and others. These funds allowed Russian scientists to continue research in different branches of science, including underwater acoustics. However, the combined amount of research funding available was much lower than budget funding in the USSR. In particular, the funding provided was clearly insufficient for organizing sea expeditions using ocean-going research vessels, which require several thousand dollars per day in operational costs. So, since 1991, research cruises using these vessels have been practically stopped. For the same economic reasons the school-seminar Ocean Acoustics was not held for a number of years. However, in 1991, the Russian Acoustical Society (RAS) was established and has held annual scientific meetings with the publication of their proceedings. So the availability of information about new work in the field of ocean acoustics has not been interrupted. Regular (every 2 years) sessions of the schoolseminar were resumed in 1998 and combined with RAS sessions. The programs of the schools covered all the main fields of modern ocean acoustics. All the reports accepted by the organizing committee were published by the time of the school opening (see Refs. 103–106). The number of reports is growing every year and points to the growth of activity by Russian scientists. The increased role of Far-Eastern research and academic organizations in ocean acoustics studies should be mentioned, particularly in investigations of the coastal regions of the Pacific Ocean and adjacent seas. About half of the 150 abstracts sent to the 10th school-seminar in 2004 came from Far-Eastern scientific establishments. Because of the insufficient funding, not all the speakers would have been able to personally participate in the school, which was held in Moscow. So a decision was made to establish a Far-Eastern section of the school-seminar at the V. I. Il’ichev Pacific Oceanology Institute. In Moscow, a summary report of the results of the work of the Far-Eastern section as well as the most interesting technical reports

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were presented. This arrangement of the school-seminar allowed the maximal number of speakers to personally participate in the discussion of the reports that were presented and to establish scientific contacts with fellow specialists. The main directions of research in this period were the further development of theoretical and numerical methods, and a more thorough analysis of accumulated experimental data. Scientists of the Acoustic Institute, who conducted 45 cruises to different regions of the world’s oceans beginning in 1961, possessed extensive experimental data for analysis. Improved mathematical models of sound propagation allowed analysis of fine structure in the experimentally measured sound field including the angular structure, the correlation characteristics, and the form of the wave front. A series of papers by O. P. Galkin, N. N. Komissarova, and L. V. Shvachko was devoted to these analyses (see, e.g., Refs. 69, pp. 114–117; 70, pp. 77–85; and 106, pp. 74–77). It was noted that qualitative and, in several cases quantitative, agreement was obtained between experiment and theory. However, for some details of the fine structure of the sound field there were significant differences between theory and experiment. In the authors’ opinion these differences point to the need to further improve the mathematical models of underwater sound propagation. The papers by V. S. Gostev and R. F. Shvachko used experimental data to investigate the insonification of a geometric shadow region due to the reflection of acoustic waves from fine-structure inhomogeneities in the sound speed (see, e.g., Refs. 103, pp. 62–66; 104, pp. 62–65; and 105, pp. 120–123). It was shown that the reflection from the fine structure is characteristic of many regions of the world’s oceans. Finestructure reflections not only insonify the shadow zone but also change the spatial structure of the sound field in convergence zones, that is, in classically illuminated zones. The papers by R. A. Vadov analyzed the acoustical characteristics of explosion signals — how the signals changed with distance, their differences in different geographical regions, and the possibility of the separation of signals that have similar propagation times but differ by the number of caustics encountered (see, e.g., Refs. 107, 103, pp. 156–160; and 104, pp. 59–62). In cooperation with other researchers at the

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Acoustic Institute he was involved in the systematization of experimental data obtained in experiments on long-range propagation of explosive signals. A methodology was developed to organize the experimental data of this kind as a database by digitizing the analog signal records obtained at different distances from various explosive sources (Ref. 105, pp. 72–75). For every experiment, the database contains also explosive source characteristics and environmental conditions, including the sound speed field and the bottom relief along the propagation path. These metadata are necessary to be able to use the acoustical data for further investigations. To learn more about the databank, visit the Acoustic Institute’s website (www.akin.ru) and look for “Information consultative system on acoustics. Sound propagation in the ocean.” A qualitative shift in the interpretation of experimental data on sound propagation was made possible by sound propagation models developed by K. V. Avilov. These models implement the parabolic approximation algorithms. As mentioned above, K. V. Avilov, since the beginning of 1980s, has been continuously perfecting his algorithm by increasing its wide-angle capability and by taking into consideration a growing number of factors that influence sound propagation in the ocean. In the latest implementation of the algorithm, he uses the so-called method of pseudo-differential parabolic equations (PDPE), known in the USA as the split-step Pade approximation. This method can be considered as a special numerical realization of the method of cross-sections which sidesteps the need to calculate the basis of the local normal waves. The method was implemented as a computer code for a range-dependent environment, that is, a medium that is inhomogeneous in two spatial coordinates.108 Numerical implementation was also extended to account for the ocean bottom modeled as an isotropic solid (Ref. 104, pp. 74–78) and a number of other factors (ocean currents etc.) were taken into account. Application of this propagation model allowed researchers at the Acoustic Institute to complement materially the above-mentioned studies of the fine structure of the acoustic fields observed at-sea (see, e.g., Refs. 105, pp. 37–45; and 106, pp. 47–50; 233–236, and 247–250). In the beginning of the 2000s, K. V. Avilov, N. A. Dobryakov, and O. Ye. Popov developed a software package for the calculation of the sound field in a range-dependent

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ocean medium (Ref. 106, pp. 17–22; 27–30). For low frequencies the package uses the PDPE method and for high frequencies it uses various versions of ray theory. The package also contains the means for the preparation of environmental data (including information from a database on climatic averages, which is part of the package) and a means for the calculation of broad-band sound fields. Researchers at IORAS also undertook a re-processing and a more detailed analysis of the results from experiments on long-range sound propagation carried out in 1989 and 1990. An analysis was done of the environmental conditions that result in the formation of weakly divergent ray beams (WDRB) observed in the experiments. The analysis connected them to the minimum in the ray cycle length as a function of launch angle or, equivalently, the minimum in the dependence of the difference of neighboring normal mode eigenvalues on their mode number.109 The method predicted similar effects for other regions of the ocean such as the Arctic.110 A large number of papers by Yu. V. Petukhov and co-workers from the Institute of Applied Physics of RAS in Nizhny Novgorod, written in 1991–2004, were devoted to similar issues. First, different effects influencing the formation of convergence zones were investigated.111 The existence of a sound beam, dominating in intensity and formed by rays, leaving the source at angles close to horizontal was determined.112 In the papers that followed the modal representation of the field was used in conjunction with well-known asymptotic expressions for normal modes. The so-called diffractive focusing of acoustic field and its influence on the space-frequency structure of sound signals under different hydrological conditions were investigated.113 The necessary and sufficient conditions for the formation of the WDRB were derived in terms of the cycle length (and its derivatives) of the Brillouin ray that corresponds to a given normal mode. The calculation of diffractive focusing allowed the authors to investigate the internal structure of the sound field in the WDRB, to reveal the areas of elevated sound intensity along the beam, its spatial period, and so on. In an experiment in the Norwegian Sea conducted by employees of the IORAS (1990) a CW (tonal) 105 Hz signal was recorded

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on a vertical 29-element array having hydrophones positioned with a relative accuracy of about 1 m. In the processing of the data, the complex amplitudes were determined for the normal modes at distances of 27, 55, and 105 km from the source.114 In addition, these data were used to demonstrate the feasibility and efficiency of retrieval from the acoustic measurements of the sound speed along the propagation path by the matched-field processing method.115 Other issues considered in this work include causes of the nonuniqueness of the reconstruction of the sound speed and ways to suppress it and feasibility of linearizing the inverse problem when experimentally measured modal phases serve as input data. The main direction of the at-sea work done by the Institute of General Physics of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IGPRAS) was related to investigation of sound propagation in shallow water, mostly along fixed paths. The processing and interpretation of the measurements were done by the employees of the IGPRAS, V. G. Petnikov, V. M. Kuzkin, A. Yu. Shmelev, and others, in close cooperation with the employees of Voronezh State University, B. G. Katsnelson and L. G. Kulapin. The results revealed the influence of different dynamic processes in the water-column and the stratification and internal structure of the seafloor on the amplitude, phase and the interference structure of the sound field. The phenomenon of a regular frequency shift in interference maxima caused by diurnal and seasonal ocean variability was studied. The possibility of using acoustic soundings to infer the characteristics of the shallow ocean and the seafloor was investigated. The results of the research are presented in the monograph by B. G. Katsnelson and V. G. Petnikov Shallow Water Acoustics, published in 1997.116 This book has an extensive bibliography. The monograph has also been published in English.116 The references to later papers can be found in Refs. 103, pp. 15–19; and 104, pp. 30–33. At the Institute of Applied Physics in Nizhny Novgorod extensive experimental data were accumulated on the spatial-frequency interference structure of the acoustic field. The experiments showed that the interference structure is a sensitive indicator of both the sound source parameters and the characteristics of the propagation medium. A series of papers by Ye. F. Orlov, G. A. Sharonov, and others, was devoted

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to studying the feasibility of precise measurements of the frequency dependence of the modal time of arrivals (Ref. 70, pp. 97–108) and of acoustic monitoring of current velocity variability in the shallow water (Ref. 103, pp. 301–304). The general ideas underlying the methods of measurement of the interference structure of acoustic field in the ocean and its use for ocean remote sensing are presented in Ref. 117 and also in Ref. 104, pp. 13–17. The hardship suffered by Russian science in the 1990s was partly compensated for by the opportunity for closer and informal cooperation with foreign scientists. Russian scientists (including young people) were given the opportunity to participate in international scientific conferences abroad and to work at foreign scientific institutions. It gave them first-hand knowledge of the main problems of current interest to the international scientific community and allowed participation in various projects. Thus, back in 1991, the new research ship of the Acoustic Institute, Academician N. Andreyev, participated in the international project Heard Island Feasibility Test by recording near the Canary Basin in the Atlantic Ocean low-frequency signals from a source deployed near Heard Island in the Indian Ocean.118 While in Germany as a visiting scientist, O. A. Godin negotiated participation of an acoustic research vessel of IORAS, Academician S. Vavilov, in the international (Germany, France, Greece, USA) project THETIS-2. The THETIS-2 sea trial was a traditional acoustic tomography experiment with six transceivers moored in the Algeria-Provence region of the Mediterranean Sea. With the addition of specially designed Russian receiving systems deployed from a moving ship, it was proposed to supplement the traditional tomography with experiments on dynamic acoustic tomography by recording probing signals emitted by the THETIS-2 transceivers at numerous additional points separated by 50–60 km. This program was successfully carried out in the summer of 1994 through the efforts of employees of the IORAS (O. A. Godin, Yu. A. Chepurin, D. Yu. Mikhin, V. G. Selivanov, D. L. Aleynik, and others) and the ACIN (S. V. Burenkov) with the use of a rapidly deployable, three-channel probe “Triad” (Refs. 119 and 103, pp. 24–30). The processing and interpretation of the recorded data was done with partial support from Project INTAS-93-0557. For better reconstruction

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of the two-dimensional field of sound speed under conditions when late arrivals were not resolved in time, an innovative method of matched field processing in the time domain was used (Ref. 103, pp. 30–37). The results of the inversion carried out for selected sections showed good agreement between the retrieved sound-speed field and in situ CTD measurements. Multi-faceted studies at IAPRAS (Nizhny Novgorod) on developing acoustic techniques for ocean remote sensing are described in detail in the book Ocean Acoustic Tomography, 120 which was published in English. The book also contains some information about the above-mentioned work at other Russian research centers as well as an extensive bibliography. Overall, the book can serve as a good survey of the achievements and challenges of the Russian research on ocean acoustic tomography up until 1998. Work by Russian scientists on acoustical tomography was continued in subsequent years. Thus, for example, the employees of the IORAS investigated the possibility of reconstructing localized threedimensional inhomogeneities. The object of the investigation was the interthermocline eddy structure (interthermocline lens) containing waters of lower salinity and temperature. This lens was discovered during the experiment on dynamic tomography in the Western Mediterranean in 1994. Detailed hydrological surveys were made within and around the lens and acoustic signals from transceivers were recorded in a number of points. The reconstruction of the sound speed field in the lens was made according to the W. H. Munk scheme of linear ray tomography. Following the theoretical approach mentioned above (see Ref. 68, pp. 107–115), the three-dimensional inverse problem was reduced to a set of two-dimensional ones and solved in two steps. First the depthaveraged sound speed field was obtained by inversion in the horizontal plane. In the second step, the sound speed field was restored in vertical planes along each acoustic path with the use of its average value as a priori information about the lens localization. A rather good reconstruction of the three-dimensional structure of that local inhomogeneity was obtained.121 In the mid-1990s, the employees of the IORAS proposed a method for acoustic monitoring of ocean currents by using a generalization for

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moving media of the method of matched field processing.122 The new method has become known as the matched nonreciprocity tomography (MNT). Extensive numerical experiments, performed using realistic ocean models for environmental conditions corresponding to the Gulf Stream (deep ocean) and in the Straits of Florida (shallow water) demonstrated the feasibility and advantages of the method, particularly in shallow regions where traditional ray tomography is not practical because individual ray arrivals cannot be resolved and/or identified. Analysis was also done of the MNT inversions accuracy and their stability with respect to measurement errors, noise, and uncertainties in the experiment geometry and in knowledge of environmental conditions (sound speed, bathymetry, seafloor properties, etc.). For studies of matched nonreciprocity tomography, D. Yu. Mikhin developed an efficient and accurate sound propagation model using the parabolic approximation for moving media.123 His work was based on theoretical papers by O. A. Godin (see, e.g., Refs. 103, pp. 45–48; and 124). The distinguishing feature of the algorithm is the preservation of energy conservation and reciprocity properties of the actual acoustic field. A linear scheme for implementing matched nonreciprocity tomography was also investigated.125 It proves rather effective because the Mach number is small in the ocean and the nonlinear terms in the Mach number are further suppressed when nonreciprocity of acoustic quantities is calculated. Work on this topic was supported in part with the international grants INTAS-RFBR 95-1002 and CRDF RG1-190. The cooperation of Russian and American scientists in the program “Arctic Acoustic Thermometry of Ocean Climate” (AATOC) turned out to be especially effective and long-term. On the Russian side, the employees of ACIN (A. N. Gavrilov, since 1996 working at IORAS, K. D. Sabinin, V. M. Kudryashov, V. D. Krupin, and others), the IAP RAS (B. N. Bogoltubov, M. M. Slavinskiy, and others), and the IORAS (A. N. Gavrilov, Yu. A. Chepurin, S. V. Pisarev, and others) and other institutes participated. The work of Russian scientists was done within the framework of the projects CRDF RG1-2070 and RG2-2407-MO-02. The relatively weak medium variability in the Arctic Ocean provides long-term stability of sound signals and allows accurate measurement

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of propagation times. The results of the Russian–American experiment on trans-Arctic sound propagation in 1994 confirmed that changes in the average temperature and in the heat content of the intermediate layer of Atlantic water in the Arctic Ocean could be monitored by using the propagation times of the second and third normal modes.126,127 The results of numerical modeling led to the implementation of a joint Russian–American program called Arctic Climate Observation using Underwater Sound (ACOUS). The program included a field experiment in 1998–1999 on continuous acoustic thermometry in the Artic on the first stationary acoustic track. The geometry and setting for the experiment, the methods of data processing, the numerical modeling of the sound propagation, and the oceanographic interpretation of the results are described in detail in the paper by L. M. Brekhovskikh, A. N. Gavrilov, and others,128 and also in the reports presented at the 10th school-seminar Ocean Acoustics (Ref. 106, pp. 197–200, 222–225). An important result of the analysis was the demonstration that warming regions can be found and their position in space estimated from analysis of acoustic data. The warming is accompanied by warm Atlantic water penetration to those depths where it causes strong coupling of acoustic normal modes. The coupling manifests itself both in the temporal shape of the received signal and in relative arrival times of its components, which indicates a rather specific, localized region where the coupling occurred. An important component of the project CRDF RG2 2407-MO-02 (K. D. Sabinin, V. D. Krupin, G. I. Kozubskaya, and others) was the investigation of so-called acoustic halinometry, that is, an acoustical measurement of the average salinity of the upper water layer in the Artic. The investigations were based on numerical modeling done using actual sound speed data for the Artic Ocean. For several regions of the Artic a linear relation was found between the time of arrival of the first mode of an 80 Hz transmission and the average salinity of the upper layer for paths having lengths of several hundred kilometers (see Ref. 106, pp. 201–205). The connection between changes in climatic regimes in the Artic and changes in the salinity of the upper layers was also determined. Thus there is hope that acoustic halinometry can materially supplement acoustic thermometry, and a simultaneous

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use (Ref. 105, pp. 164–167) of the two methods can become a reliable means to detect climate change in the Arctic. A new and original method for monitoring ocean variability on the continental shelf was proposed by A. V. Furduyev (Ref. 104, pp. 25–29). The idea of the method is founded on re-radiation of the signal received on a stationary acoustic track (feedback mechanism). The spectrum of the resulting signal contains periodically repeated maxima. Their frequency of repetition corresponds to ray travel times from source to receiver. Consequently, two successive Fourier transformations of the received signal give the times of arrival and the amplitudes of the separate rays. The method was successfully demonstrated in experiments in the Black Sea (see Ref. 106, pp. 374–377). At the IAPRAS in Nizhny Novgorod, a new acoustic approach is being developed to monitor ocean conditions in shallow regions. The method is based on the use of pulsed signals and a small number of normal modes (see, e.g., Ref. 106, pp. 206–221). The idea of the method is to transmit pulsed signals using a vertical source array phased in such a way as to excite, ideally, only a single normal mode. This greatly simplifies solving of the inverse problem for inhomogeneity reconstruction. It also increases the stability and coherence of the excited low-mode signals and decreases the energy requirements since useless rapidly attenuated modes are not excited. In a 2003 research cruise, the method was tested in shallow water (with depth about 100 m) with a transmitting array of 16 elements and a receiving array of 32 elements. The series of papers by A. L. Virovlyanskiy should be mentioned, where the so-called ray chaos is investigated. Ray chaos occurs at large propagation ranges and is caused by weak and comparatively small-scale inhomogeneities in the sound speed. Virovlyanskiy studied accumulation of chaotic rays into compact groups (clusters), uniting eigenrays with close arrival times (see, e.g., Refs. 105, pp. 80–83, and 106, pp. 51–56). In a joint work with his co-authors the relationship between the ray and modal representations of the field in a range-dependent waveguide is analyzed (see Ref. 105, pp. 84–87) and new criteria for the applicability of the adiabatic approximation are found (see Ref. 106, pp. 57–60).

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In recent years the interest of Russian scientists has strengthened in the studies of trains of soliton-like internal gravity waves and their impact on sound propagation by using both experimental data (see Ref. 103, pp. 19–23) and numerical simulations (see Ref. 105, pp. 64–67). In (Ref. 104, pp. 92–95), B. G. Katsnelson and S. A. Pereselkov pointed out, apparently for the first time, that internal solitons can bring about acoustic waveguides in the horizontal plane, leading to focusing and defocusing of sound rays. This effect was investigated in numerical experiments both in the subsequent work of these authors (see, e.g., Ref. 105, pp. 148–151), and by other researchers (see Ref. 106, pp. 152–156). The phenomenon of horizontal refraction of sound rays, caused by trains of internal waves, created interest of foreign scientists who kindly shared with the Russian researchers oceanographic and acoustic data from the SWARM95 experiment. The analysis of those data (see Ref. 106, pp. 11–16), in the authors’ opinion, comfirmed the effect of horizontal refraction caused by internal waves. We have already mentioned the great amount of research on sound propagation in the ocean and on the development of methods for acoustic monitoring of the ocean done within the Far-Eastern Division (FED) of RAS. It should be also mentioned that experimental research in the shallow waters of the Pacific Ocean and its seas has continued essentially uninterrupted from the early 1990s to the present. The research included long-term observations of sound propagation along fixed acoustic tracks in the ocean (see Refs. 129 and 103, pp. 160– 163). A summary of the general methodology followed and the results obtained are given in the lectures by V. A. Akulichev and co-authors at the school-seminars Ocean Acoustics in 1998 (see Ref. 103, pp. 171– 174) and in 2004 (see Ref. 106, pp. 35–38 and pp. 187–192). A number of investigations had ecological implications and were motivated by the beginning of active oil- and gas-field development on the shelf of Sakhalin Island and the possible negative impact of the resulting noise on a population of gray whales which appeared in the Russian listing of endangered species popularly known as the “Red Book” (see Refs. 105, pp. 459–463; and 106, pp. 331–334). Estimates of the level of acoustic noise were obtained by numerical modeling (see Ref. 105,

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pp. 421–427), and by direct measurement using autonomous bottommounted systems (see Ref. 106, pp. 339–444). In conclusion, interest in the theory of sound propagation in the ocean and the closely related problem of inferring ocean characteristics by acoustical means, like other branches of science, is gradually being revived in Russia. The interest of foreign scientists in the results obtained by Russian researchers and in implementation of joint projects in underwater acoustics is also increasing. One indication of such interest is the international popularity of the monographs by Russian authors, in particular, the revised and extended English editions of the monographs by L. M. Brekhovskikh in co-authorship with O. A. Godin94,95 and with Yu. P. Lysanov74 published, respectively, in 1998–1999 and 2003 at the request of the publishing house.

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68. Acoustics of Oceanic Medium, Proceedings of the School-Seminar “Ocean Acoustics” (Nauka, Moscow, 1989), 222 pp. 69. Acoustics in the Ocean, Proceedings of the School-Seminar “Ocean Acoustics” (Nauka, Moscow, 1992), 229 pp. 70. Oceanic Acoustics, Proceedings of the School-Seminar “Ocean Acoustics” (Nauka, Moscow, 1993), 264 pp. 71. L. M. Brekhovskikh and Yu. P. Lysanov, Theoretical Foundations of Ocean Acoustics (Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat, 1982), 264 pp. 72. L. M. Brekhovskikh and Yu. P. Lysanov, Fundamentals of Ocean Acoustics, ser. Electrophysics, Vol. 8 (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1982). 73. L. M. Brekhovskikh and Yu. P. Lysanov, Fundamentals of Ocean Acoustics: 2nd ed., ser. Wave Phenomena, Vol. 8 (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1991). 74. L. M. Brekhovskikh and Yu. P. Lysanov, Fundamentals of Ocean Acoustics. 3rd ed., ser. Modern Acoustics and Signal Processing (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 2003). 75. A. P. Kachalov and M. M. Popov, Application of the method of summation of Gaussian beams for computation of high-frequency wave fields. Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci. 258(5), 1097–1100 (1981). 76. M. M. Popov, A new method of computation of wave fields using Gaussian beams. Wave Motion 4(1), 85–98 (1982). 77. V. E. Grikurov, and M. M. Popov, Summation of Gaussian beams in a surface waveguide. Wave Motion 5(3), 225–233 (1983). 78. K. V. Avilov and N. E. Maltsev, On computation of the sound fields in the ocean using the parabolic equation method. Acoustic J. 27(3), 335–340 (1981). 79. V. Yu. Zavadsky, The Grid Method for Waveguides (Nauka, Moscow, 1986), 368 pp. 80. D. I. Darovskikh, Computation of stationary sound fields in unidirectional approximation by the method of finite differences using optimal step sizes. Shipbuilding Issues, ser. Acoustics (Moscow, ACIN) 4, 48–59 (1989). 81. A. L. Piskarev, On computation of averaged intensity distribution of the sound fields in the ocean. Acoustic J. 35(4), 724–731 (1989). 82. A. L. Virovlyanskiy, To the matter of limits of applicability of geometric optics in plane-layered waveguides. Izv. VUZov, Radiophys. 27(12) 1592–1594 (1984). 83. V. I. Klyatskin, Invariant Imbedding Method in the Wave Propagation Theory (Nauka, Moscow, 1986), 256 pp. 84. S. D. Chuprov and N. E. Maltsev, An invariant of the space-frequency interference structure of the sound field in layered ocean. Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci. 257(2), 477–479 (1981). 85. A. I. Vedenev, V. V. Goncharov and B. F. Kuryanov, Determination of acoustic characteristics of bottom sedimentary layers in deep ocean regions. Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci. 279(2), 328–331 (1984).

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86. O. A. Godin, On reflection of plane waves from a layered half-space. Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci. 255(5), 1069–1072 (1980). 87. D. I. Blokhintsev, Acoustics of Inhomogeneous Moving Medium (Nauka, Moscow, 1981), 206 pp. 88. L. M. Lyamshev, On the definition of impedance in acoustics of moving medium. Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci. 261(1), 74–78 (1981). 89. V. Ye. Ostashev, Theory of sound propagation in inhomogeneous moving medium. (A review). Trans. USSR Acad. Sci. Atmos. Ocean Phys. 21(4), 358–373 (1985). 90. O. A. Godin, On wave equation for sound field in fluid with stratified density, Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci. 276(3), 579–582 (1984). 91. O. A. Godin, On a modification of the wave equation for a layered medium, Wave Motion 6(2), 515–528 (1984). 92. O. A. Godin, A new form of the wave equation for sound in a general layered fluid, in Progress in Underwater Acoustics, ed. H. M. Merklinger (Plenum Press, New York, London, 1987), pp. 337–349. 93. L. M. Brekhovskikh and O. A. Godin, Acoustics of Layered Media (Nauka, Moscow, 1989), 414 pp. 94. L. M. Brekhovskikh and O. A. Godin, Acoustics of Layered Media I: Plane and Quasi-Plane Waves, Springer Series on Wave Phenomena, Vol. 5 (Springer, Berlin, 1990 and 1998). 95. L. M. Brekhovskikh and O. A. Godin, Accoustics of Layered Media II: Point Sources and Bounded Beams, Springer Series on Wave Phenomena, Vol. 10 (Springer, Berlin, 1992 and 1999). 96. V. M. Bukhshtaber, V. I. Maslov and A. M. Trokhan, On the method of acoustic tomography of the ocean. Trans. USSR Acad. Sci. Atmos. Ocean Phys. 20(7), 630–639 (1984). 97. V. V. Goncharov and V. M. Kurtepov, Numerical experiments in ocean tomography. Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci. 297(6), 1461–1465 (1987). 98. A. L. Virovlyanskiy, A. I. Saichev and M. M. Slavinskiy, Manifestation of mode and ray structures in the spectrum of a signal registered by a moving receiver. Trans. USSR Acad. Sci. Atmos. Ocean Phys. 21(8), 888–890 (1985). 99. Yu. A. Kravtsov and V. G. Petnikov, On feasibility of a phase tomography of the ocean with use of normal modes. Trans. USSR Acad. Sci. Atmos. Ocean Phys. 22(9), 992–994 (1986). 100. V. Yu. Zaitsev, A. G. Nechayev and L. A. Ostrovskiy, On the algorithm of threedimensional mode tomography of the ocean. Acoustic J. 33(6), 1124–1125 (1987). 101. L. Ya. Lyubavin and A. G. Nechayev, Acoustic interference tomography of the ocean. Acoustic J. 35(4), 703–709 (1989). 102. V. V. Goncharov, V. Yu. Zaitsev, V. M. Kurtepov, A. G. Nechayev and A. I. Khil’ko, Acoustic Tomography of the Ocean (IAP RAS, Nizhny Novgorod, 1997), 255 pp.

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103. Ocean Acoustics, Proceedings of the VII L. M. Brekhovskikh’s Conference (GEOS, Moscow, 1998), 360 pp. 104. Ocean Acoustics, Proceedings of the VIII L. M. Brekhovskikh’s Conference (GEOS, Moscow, 2000), 211 pp. 105. Ocean Acoustics, Proceedings of the IX L. M. Brekhovskikh’s Conference (GEOS, Moscow, 2002), 578 pp. 106. Ocean Acoustics, Proceedings of the X L. M. Brekhovskikh’s Conference (Moscow, GEOS, 2004), 675 pp. 107. R. A. Vadov, On several hydroacoustic characteristics of the explosive signal. Acoustic J. 40(4), 677–679 (1994). 108. K. V. Avilov, Pseudo-differential parabolic equations of sound propagation in the ocean, which is smoothly inhomogeneous in the horizontal plane, and their numerical solution. Acoustic J. 41(1), 5–12 (1995). 109. V. V. Goncharov and V. M. Kurtepov, On forming and propagation of weakly divergent ray beams in horizontally inhomogeneous ocean. Acoustic J. 40(5), 773–781 (1994). 110. L. M. Brekhovskikh, V. V. Goncharov and V. M. Kurtepov, Weakly divergent ray beams in the Arctic. Trans. USSR Acad. Sci. Atmos. Ocean Phys. 31(3), 460–464 (1995). 111. Yu. V. Petukhov, Influence of diffractive and interference effects on forming of far zones of acoustic illumination in the underwater sound channel. Acoustic J. 37(3), 585–588 (1991). 112. Yu. V. Petukhov, Sound beam with minimal geometric divergence of wave front along the propagation track in a stratified oceanic waveguide. Acoustic J. 40(1) 111–120 (1994). 113. Yu. V. Petukhov, Periodic spatial re-forming of the interference structure and the diffractive focusing of acoustic fields in oceanic waveguides. Acoustic J. 46(3), 384–391 (2000). 114. A. G. Voronovich, V. V. Goncharov, A. Yu. Nikoltsev and Yu. A. Chepurin, Comparative analysis of five methods of decomposition of acoustic field into the set of modes. Numerical modeling and a field experiment. Acoustic J. 38(4), 661–670 (1992). 115. V. V. Goncharov and A. G. Voronovich, An experiment on matched-field acoustic tomography with continuous wave signal in the Norway Sea. J. Acoust. Soc. Amer. 93(4), 1873–1881 (1993). 116. B. G. Katsnelson and V. G. Petnikov, Shallow Water Acoustics. (Moscow, Nauka, 1997), 192 pp. (in English: Springer-Praxis, Chichester, 2002), 267 pp. 117. Ye. F. Orlov and G. A. Sharonov, Interference of Sound Waves in the Ocean (Vladivostok, Dalnauka, 1998), 196 pp. 118. S. V. Burenkov, A. N. Gavrilov, A. Y. Uporin and A. V. Furduyev, Heard Island feasibility test: Long-range sound transmission from Heard Island to the Krylov underwater mountain. J. Acoust. Soc. Amer. 96(4), 2458–2463 (1994).

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119. O. A. Godin, S. V. Burenkov, D. Yu. Mikhin, S. Ya. Molchanov, V. G. Selivanov, Yu. A. Chepurin and D. L. Aleynik, An experiment on dynamic acoustic tomography in the Western part of the Mediterranean Sea. Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci. 349(3), 398–403 (1996). 120. A. I. Khil’ko, J. W. Caruthers and N. A. Sidorovskaia, Ocean Acoustic Tomography. A Review with Emphasis on the Russian Approach. (Nizhny Novgorod, IAP RAS, 1998), 196 pp. 121. V. V. Goncharov, Yu. A. Chepurin and D. L. Aleynik, An experimental investigation of an interthermocline lens in the Mediterranean Sea and feasibility of its remote detection. Trans. Russian Acad. Sci. Ser. Atmos. Ocean Phys. 39(5), 680–690 (2003). 122. O. A. Godin, D. Yu. Mikhin and A. V. Mokhov, Acoustic tomography of ocean currents by the method of matched nonreciprocity. Acoustic J. 42(4) 501–509 (1996). 123. D. Yu. Mikhin, Modeling acoustic tomography of ocean currents in coastal regions via wide-angle parabolic approximation, in Proc. 4th Eur. Conf. Underwater Acoustics, ed. by A. Alippi and G. B. Canelli, CNR-IDAC, Rome (1998), pp. 581–586. 124. O. A. Godin, Reciprocity and energy conservation within the parabolic approximation, Wave Motion 29(2), 175–194 (1999). 125. V. V. Goncharov, Tomography of ocean currents using the method of matched nonreciprocity. Acoustic J. 47(1), 766–772 (2001). 126. A. N. Gavrilov, M. M. Slavinskiy and A. Yu. Shmelev, Theoretical and experimental investigations of the feasibility of acoustic thermometry of climate variability of the Arctic Ocean. Prog. (Uspekhi) Phys. Sci. 165(7), 836–840 (1995). 127. P. N. Mikhalevsky, A. B. Baggeroer, A. N. Gavrilov and M. M. Slavinskiy, Experiment tests use of acoustics to monitor temperature and ice in Arctic Ocean. EOS, Trans, AGU, 76(27), 265–269 (1995). 128. L. M. Brekhovskikh, A. N. Gavrilov, V. V. Goncharov, S. V. Pisarev, Yu. A. Chepurin and P. N. Mikhalevsky, Results of ACOUS experiment. Trans. Russian Acad. Sci. Ser. Atmos. Ocean Phy. 38(6), 726–737 (2002). 129. L. F. Bondar, S. V. Borisov, A. V. Gritsenko et al., Results of the investigation of intensity and phase fluctuations of acoustic signals on stationary tracks on the Sea of Japan shelf. Acoustic J. 40(4), 561–570 (1994).

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Soviet and Russian Studies of Underwater Sound Scattering and Acoustic Signal Fluctuations E. P. GULIN and YU. P. LYSANOV

Studies of underwater sound scattering in the USSR started simultaneously with work on hydroacoustics (1940–1941) and has developed into one of the main branches of ocean acoustics. Sound scattering and acoustic signal fluctuations in the ocean due to scattering have specific characteristics. The ocean presents a rather inhomogeneous acoustic medium. Beside deterministic inhomogeneous features, random inhomogeneities are also present. Random inhomogeneities in the ocean medium and the boundary roughness cause the scattering of acoustic waves. As a result of this scattering, fluctuations in the amplitude and the phase of the propagating signal occur in space and time, their coherence decreases or is lost altogether, and ocean reverberation, the main factor limiting the operation of various hydroacoustic devices, appears. At long ranges in an underwater sound channel, part of the acoustic wave is scattered from the channel thus causing a decrease in the level of the acoustic field within the channel. The main scatterers of sound in the ocean are surface waves, air bubbles in a moving ship’s wake and in subsurface layers formed by the breaking of wind waves, random volumetric inhomogeneities (indexof-refractive fluctuations), deep-sea sound-scattering layers, internal waves, as well as the rough surface of the seafloor and inhomogeneities below the seafloor. On the other hand, scattered fields carry useful information about the inhomogeneities and irregularities themselves, which may be obtained from measurements of the scattered fields by using inverse scattering techniques.

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Solving the direct scattering problem is a complex task due to the varying nature and origin of the ocean medium inhomogeneities and the boundary variability of the medium. Waves on the surface of the ocean are characterized by a continuous spectrum, with wavelengths from several millimeters to hundreds of meters and amplitudes from millimeters to meters. As a rule, small waves (ripple) are superimposed on larger wind waves. Very often swell, which represents waves with very large wavelengths, is observed. Surface waves vary in both space and time. However, under stationary meteorological conditions, surface wave characteristics may be considered stationary in time and statistically homogeneous in space over quite large areas and for periods of several hours. During the greater part of the year in Arctic regions, the ocean surface is covered with ice. The lower surface of this ice is, at places, strongly indented, which causes significant sound scattering. Random inhomogeneities in the ocean volume (index-ofrefraction fluctuations), internal waves of different scales, deep-sea sound-scattering layers, and air bubbles also contribute significantly to sound-scattering. The seafloor topography is very diverse having abyssal plains, hilly regions, and underwater ridges with strongly dissected seafloors. According to the latest geological and geophysical data, the seafloor in abyssal plains consists of a great number of relatively thin heterogeneous layers with rough boundaries. Evidently, the scattered field in such cases is determined not only by seafloor topography but also by the acoustical properties of the seafloor. The principal difficulty in solving the scattering problem is that there is no separation of variables either in the wave equation or in the boundary conditions. Hence, no way has been found to obtain an exact solution in the general case. But, due to the existence of series expansions in parameters defining the problem, quite useful approximate methods of calculation have been developed. Approximate methods for solving problems of sound scattering from irregular surfaces and from inhomogeneous media have been used in a great number (hundreds, perhaps thousands) of articles and in many books and monographs. A complete overview or even a simple enumeration is not possible. Therefore, the present review will concentrate on the principal approximate methods of solving problems of sound scattering by the rough

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sea surface, random volumetric inhomogeneities, and an uneven or heterogeneous seafloor. Work performed applying these approximate methods will be noted. In addition, a brief description of the main achievements in the area of experimental research into acoustic signal scattering and fluctuations will be given. Studies of scattering from foreign bodies of various shapes and different acoustic characteristics have been left out of this review. Studies on the effect of random volumetric inhomogeneities, and water surface and seafloor roughness on ocean noise have not been included either. At the end of the review, a list of books and monographs dedicated to acoustic signal scattering and fluctuations is given. 1. Methods of Calculation of the Acoustic Field Scattered from a Rough Surface In case of a rough surface slightly deviating from some mean surface (normally a plane) and quite gently sloping, the scattered field may be calculated using the method of small perturbations (MSP). The idea behind this method is that the boundary conditions are specified for a rough surface by way of a series expansion in the surface-irregularity height-to-wavelength ratios relative to a mean surface. Considering the effect of irregularities as a small perturbation, the total field at an arbitrary point of a half-space is also expanded in a series in terms of the same small parameter ratios. By substituting this last series into the boundary conditions referenced to the mean surface, the boundary conditions satisfied by the scattered field in the first, second, etc. approximation are found. Thus the initial problem of waves scattering from a rough surface is reduced to the problem of field radiation from “virtual” sources given at the mean surface. If the mean surface is a coordinate one, that is, if its variables can be separated, then the rigorous solution to such a problem can be obtained by known methods. The first to consider the problem of a wave scattering from a rough surface was Rayleigh who gave an approximate solution for a small-amplitude sinusoidal surface. Normally, the first approximation in the MSP approach is sufficient. Using this first-order approximation, L. I. Mandelshtam (Ann. d. Phys., 1913) and A. A. Andronov

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and M. A. Leontovich (Z. Phys., 1926) considered light at an arbitrary angle of incidence scattered by a random fluid surface differing from a plane surface by irregularities due to thermal motion. A considerable contribution to the development of the MSP method was made by Ye. L. Feinberg in the book Radio Wave Propagation along the Earth’s Surface (Rasprostraneniye radiovoln vdol zemnoi poverkhnosti) in 1961 and by F. G. Bass in Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1960 and 1961. Ye. L. Feinberg found averaged boundary conditions on a rough surface for a source and a receiver located near the surface and derived a formula for the attenuation of radio waves propagating along the Earth’s surface. F. G. Bass obtained nonlocal boundary conditions on a statistically rough surface for the mean field and an expression for the mean (coherent) reflection coefficient to second-order accuracy. Using the MSP, calculations were carried out to determine the characteristics of a wave field scattered by a portion of a rough surface located in the Fraunhofer zone relative to the source and the observation point, and later, by a rough area with dimensions exceeding those of the Fresnel zone. A systematized exposition of the results obtained with the MSP method is found in the monograph by F. G. Bass and I. M. Fuks Wave Scattering from Statistically Rough Surface (Rasseianiye voln na statisticheski nerovnoi poverkhnosti) published in 1972 (see below). The MSP was used by Yu. P. Lysanov (Acoust. J., 1961) in calculations of the field due to a point source in a stratified, inhomogeneous medium bounded by a rough surface, and by A. D. Lapin (Acoust. J., 1964, 1966) in the study of problems involving sound scattering from the rough surface of a solid body and from a solid layer having rough boundaries. I. A. Urusovsky (Acoust. J., 1991, 1992) reduced the problem of plane harmonic wave scattering from a pressure-release rough surface to an integral equation for a function equal to the ratio of field on the surface to its Kirchhoff value in the absence of shadowing. The MSP was used to obtain a solution. It was shown that the spectral amplitude remains finite, even in the case of grazing propagation. The method of small perturbations is applicable for small values of the Rayleigh parameter. However, for the reflection and scattering of acoustic waves from rough ocean surfaces, values of the Rayleigh

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parameter greater than unity are often encountered. M. L. Antokolsky (Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci., 1948), using the delayed-phase method, obtained an expression for the mean coefficient of reflection from a random surface with larger-than-wavelength irregularities. L. M. Brekhovskikh (Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci., 1951; JETP, 1952) developed a new method to solve the problem of acoustic wave scattering from a rough surface with larger-than-wavelength irregularities called the Kirchhoff method or the tangent plane method. The idea behind the method is simple but has proved to be extremely productive. If the irregularities are quite smooth, though large, it may be assumed that scattering at each point takes place according to the laws of geometrical acoustics, that is, in a manner similar to the reflection from a plane tangent to the rough surface at the point being considered. In such a case, the acoustic pressure and its normal derivative in the incident and scattered waves are connected by a simple relation. Then the scattered field at an arbitrary point in the half-space bounded by a rough surface is determined using the Green’s function method without any further approximation. M. A. Isakovich (JETP, 1952) extended this method to random rough surfaces, thus significantly expanding the application of the approach to solving scattering problems. The condition for the applicability of the tangential plane method is that a dimensionless parameter — the product of the wave number, the radius of curvature of the surface, and the sine of the grazing angle — be much greater than one. At small grazing angles (less than the r.m.s. angle of the slope of the irregularities), some areas of the surface may be in the shadow of the incident wave. For such cases, a “shadowing” function related to the probability density of the angles of surface inclination is introduced for the incident field (A. G. Pavelyev, Radio Engineering and Electronics J. (Radiotekhnika i elektronika), 1968; F. G. Bass, I. M. Fuks, Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1964; I. M. Fuks, Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1969). For approximate estimates, it may be assumed to be equal to one in the illuminated areas, and zero in the shadow. A similar shadowing function may be introduced for the scattered wave when separate areas of a rough surface get shadowed relative to the scattered wave. Another very significant constraint of the method relates to scattering directions

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that should not differ much from the possible directions of specular reflection from different areas of the rough surface. If this condition is not met, the error in the specification of the surface field will be significant. Neglect of secondary scattering in calculating the amplitudes of waves propagating at small angles to a rough surface affects the results so much that the method is inapplicable. It was shown by Ye. V. Chayevsky (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1965) that for arbitrary statistics of the random surface and deviations large compared with the incident plane wave wavelength, the energy characteristics of the scattered field in the Fraunhofer zone may be represented as an asymptotic series. The ray approximation corresponds to the first term in this series. In the paper by Yu. A. Kravtsov, I. M. Fuks, A. B. Shmelev (Trans. High School — Radiophys., 1971) expressions were obtained for the statistical characteristics of a scattered field valid for more general conditions than found earlier by other authors, particularly, for arbitrary directions of observation for which shadowing and multiple re-scattering are not insignificant. A. V. Belobrov and I. M. Fuks (Acoust. J., 1985) obtained short-wave asymptotics of the problem of plane wave diffraction by pressure-release and rigid surfaces with large irregularities, and gave a strict formulation of the applicability conditions of the tangential plane method. A number of papers treated scattering by rough, finite-size bodies of different shape (I. M. Fuks, Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1965; Ye. V. Chayevsky, Problems in Diffraction and Waves Propagation (Probl. difr. i rasprostr. voln), 1966; V. V. Tamoikin, Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1966; F. G. Bass, I. M. Fuks, Wave Scattering from Statistically Rough Surface (Rasseyanie voln na statisticheski nerovnoi poverkhnosti), 1972; Yu. Yu. Popov, Acoust. J., 1985). Irregularities were regarded as sufficiently gentle and calculations were carried out for both small and large irregularities relative to the mean curvilinear surfaces. Use was made of the MSP, nonlocal boundary conditions, and the tangential plane method in the calculation of mean values of the scattering cross-section from rough bodies, scattering cross-section fluctuations, and amplitude and phase fluctuations of the reflected wave. As a rule, the rough sea surface and irregular seafloor possess a broad spatial spectrum of irregularities. To describe wave scattering

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from a surface having a complex spectral composition, B. F. Kuryanov (Acoust. J., 1962) developed a combined method employing the MSP and the tangential plane approximation. The method is based on the separation of the surface irregularities into small- and large-scale components (a two-scale rough surface model). Such separation is obtained by replacing the real rough surface with a superposition of a smoothed mean surface and small normal deviations from this surface. Scattering by small irregularities may be calculated by the MSP, where the zero approximation is assumed to be the field scattered by the large irregularities. The latter field is calculated using the tangential plane approximation. Thus the tangential plane method and the MSP describe wave scattering by large and small surface irregularities separately. A twoscale model generalization for the case of a surface with a continuous spatial spectrum of irregularities was made by I. M. Fuks (Acoust. J., 1974). For the first time, an exact formulation of the problem of acoustic waves scattering from a two-dimensional rough surface of arbitrary shape was given in the work by Yu. P. Lysanov (Acoust. J., 1956) and, independently, W. C. Meecham (J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 1956). Using the Green’s function method, an integral equation was obtained for the normal component of the particle velocity of the field on a rough surface. The equation obtained is exact; in its derivation no restrictions are made on the size of the rough surface parameters, nor on the wavelength or grazing angle of the incident wave. After obtaining from this equation the normal component of the velocity on the rough surface, the Green’s function method may then be used to calculate the scattered field at an arbitrary point in the half-space bounded by the rough surface. The integral equation method allows one to take into account multiple scattering of waves. However, the kernel of the integral equation is rather complex, making it difficult to arrive at an explicit solution. An explicit solution is attainable for a rather gently sloping surface, although irregularities may be large. In this case the kernel of the integral equation simplifies and the solution may be found by the Fourier transform method. At incidence angles ranging up to 60◦ and close to the direction of specular scattering, the tangential plane approximation and the integral equation method lead to only slightly different results.

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At larger incidence angles the difference between the two theories is significant. It is especially large for waves propagating close to a rough surface. As distinct from the tangential plane method, in the integral equation approximation, the spectrum for grazing scattering from a periodically irregular surface remains finite. Further development and application of the integral method has followed two main lines. First, the method was generalized to three-dimensional random rough surfaces (E. P. Gulin, Trans. All-Union Conf. Acoust., 1968; F. G. Bass et al., ibid.), and second, it was generalized to the case of impedance boundary conditions or a rough interface separating two media (I. A. Urusovsky, Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci., 1960; Acoust. J., 1964, 1965; I. A. Urusovsky and Ye. S. Mashashvili, Acoust. J., 1969). For the case of a periodic surface, the unknown function is expanded in a Fourier series. An infinite system of algebraic equations is obtained for the coefficients in this series. Normally a reduction method is used to obtain an approximate solution. Another method of reducing the problem of scattering from a doubly periodic surface of arbitrary shape to an infinite system of equations for scattered wave amplitudes was proposed by R. G. Barantsev (Acoust. J., 1961; Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci., 1962). This method was applied also to the problem of diffraction of a plane wave after having passed through an inhomogeneous subsurface layer with a periodically rough surface of arbitrary shape (Yu. P. Lysanov, Acoust. J., 1966; V Int. Congr. Acoust., 1965). Using the method of joining fields, A. D. Lapin (Acoust. J., 1963) reduced the problem of plane wave diffraction on a saw-tooth-shaped rough surface to an infinite system of algebraic equations that can be solved by the method of reduction. In the papers by A. G. Voronovich (Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci., 1983; JETP, 1983; Acoustic Waves in the Ocean (Akusticheskiye volny v okeane), 1987; Wave Scattering from Rough Surfaces, 1993), the method of small slopes (MSS) was developed. The method is based on Rayleigh’s hypothesis about the structure of the scattered field close to a rough surface and an expansion of the scattering amplitude in a series in a small parameter — the rough surface slope. This parameter does not depend on the wavelength of the incident radiation, which accounts for its principal difference from other parameters used in the

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classical methods. This circumstance is very important since in many cases rough surface slopes turn out to be very small. For example, the slopes of a rough sea surface do not exceed 0.1. It should be noted that earlier the Rayleigh hypothesis was often severely criticized. The criticism was based on the fact that the scattered wave propagating from a rough surface does not represent a complete solution in the region between maximum and minimum deviations of the surface from its mean level. A total field in these regions must include scattered waves propagating both from and toward the surface. This condition was first discussed by L. N. Deryugin (Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci., 1952). However, further studies showed that the Rayleigh hypothesis was applicable for sufficiently gently sloping surfaces. So, the Rayleigh hypothesis applies to the particular case of a sinusoidal surface with the slope not over 0.448. According to an estimate by A. G. Voronovich (1983), the Rayleigh hypothesis is true for a surface with a slope less than one at each point. The solution based on the MSS accounts for multiple scattering, and in the limiting cases of small and large irregularities, coincides with the solutions found by the MSP and the tangential plane method, respectively. The main advantage of the MSS is that it provides a solution in the intermediate region of variation of parameters, where both the MSP and the tangential plane method are invalid. A generalization of the method to the case of a rigid rough surface was given in the paper by Ye. P. Kuznetsova (Acoust. J., 1986). A. B. Isers, A. A. Puzenko, and I. M. Fuks (Acoust. J., 1990) considered small parameters in the problem of waves scattering from a gently sloping surface having smooth irregularities of arbitrary heights. The solution takes the form of an expansion in terms of the small slope and the dimensionless curvature of the irregularities. The proposed method of calculation was called the method of local perturbations. N. P. Zhuk, O. A. Tretyakov, and A. G. Yarovoi (Acoust. J ., 1990) solved the problem of wave scattering from a rough surface with smooth irregularities bounding a plane-layered medium as a series expansion in a small parameter in terms of admittance and the slope of the irregularities. An expression for the spectral amplitude of the scattered field was obtained in the first approximation. In the papers by S. Z. Dunin, G. A. Maksimov (JETP, 1990; Acoust. J., 1990) and in the paper by A. L. Gavrilov,

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S. Z. Dunin, and G. A. Maksimov (Acoust. J., 1992), an approach was proposed to solve the problem of scattering from pressure-release and rigid rough surfaces based on representing the scattered field from a statistically rough surface in the form of a series in multiplicity of wave scattering from a surface. The angular distribution of the intensity of the scattered field (scattering coefficient) was calculated. The applicability of the results obtained is determined by the surface slope being small and the possibility of ignoring surface shadowing for multiple scattering. Study of an acoustic field in an ocean waveguide with a rough upper boundary entails solving the problem of multiple scattering. In the case of low frequencies and small values for the Rayleigh parameter, a modal approach is widely used. For sufficiently small distances between the source and the observation point and for small irregularities (small deviations from the mean plane compared with the acoustic wavelength), calculations may be carried out using the MSP. Applying this method, M. A. Isakovich (Acoust. J., 1957) considered the problem of normal mode propagation in a uniform waveguide having a rough upper boundary in the single scattering approximation. Later, in the same approximation, V. G. Bezrodny and I. M. Fuks (Acoust. J., 1971) calculated the intensity and cross-correlation of amplitude and phase for a point source in an isospeed waveguide with perfectly reflecting (pressure-release and rigid) boundaries, one of which was statistically rough. The MSP with the use of an expression describing the energy conservation law was applied by A. D. Lapin (6th All-Union Conf. Acoust., 1968) to calculate the mean field (coherent component) in rough-boundary waveguides. The expression obtained for the effective attenuation coefficient differs from that calculated by the ray method. However, for a sufficiently large number of propagating modes in a subsurface wave-guide permitting a transition from modal to a ray description, both approaches must, apparently, lead to the same result. A similar approach was later used by D. I. Abrosimov et al. (Acoust. J., 1985) to calculate the attenuation of the mean field at guided sound propagation in an ocean with a rough surface. In the papers by F. G. Bass et al. (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1969; Ukr. Phys. J., 1969), V. D. Freilikher and I. M. Fuks (Trans. High.

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School — Radiophys., 1970) and in the book by F. G. Bass and I. M. Fuks (1972), the Green’s function method developed in quantum electrodynamics and applied in the theory of multiple scattering in randomly inhomogeneous media was generalized to the case where a small perturbation is present in the boundary condition. Using the procedure of summation of Feynman diagrams to obtain an approximate solution of Dyson’s integral equation, equations were obtained for the attenuation of the mean-field’s normal modes due to mode-coupling. For the statistical moment of the wave field, after averaging over some spatial interval with the purpose of smoothing the fine interference structure of a smooth waveguide, an equation was obtained similar to the radiation transfer equation in the theory of multiple scattering in randomly inhomogeneous media. This equation includes probabilities of intermode energy transition for single scattering. As examples, the problems of wave transformation in single- and multi-mode waveguides were considered. For the case of large-scale irregularities and a great number of modes, the radiation transfer equation was transformed into a diffusion equation for the field intensity in mode number space, where time is substituted for distance along the waveguide axis. In a series of works by V. M. Kudryashov (Methods of Representation and Instrumentation Analysis of Random Processes and Fields (Metody predstavleniya i apparaturnyi analiz sluchainykh protsessov i polei), 1969, 1970; Trans. 2nd All-Union School Sem. Statist. Hydroacoust., 1970; Acoust. J., 1971) and in his joint work with F. P. Kryazhev (Problems of Ocean Acoustics (Problemy akustiki okeana), 1984), a similar problem was considered in relation to multiple reflections in refractive (particularly subsurface) waveguides with small, gentle surface roughness. Expressions were obtained for the first two statistical moments with multiple scattering taken into account. Close attention was given to numerical computer-aided solution of the derived integrodifferential equations. In the paper by F. I. Kryazhev et al. (Acoust. J., 1976), a method of acoustic field calculation in an Arctic waveguide with account for multiple scattering from small, gentle irregularities of the ice cover was considered. In these calculations, use was made of the results obtained by A. D. Lapin (Trans. Inst. Acoust., 1969) in solving the problem of acoustic wave

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scattering by a rough fluid–solid interface. In a series of works published later, V. M. Kudryashov (Acoust. J., 1996, 1999) carried out calculations of the coherent field and the average intensity of the total field in an Arctic waveguide with account for the multicomponent structure of the ice cover and shear waves in the ice layer. The significant role of scattering into surface waves in the ice cover was revealed, which may explain the anomalously strong sound attenuation in the low-frequency range. Calculation of the coherent plane wave reflection coefficient was carried out for a two-component model of an ice cover with gentle boundary irregularities, as more adequate to real conditions. For a similar problem, F. I. Kryazhev and V. M. Kudryashov (Acoust. J., 1984) carried out calculations of an acoustic field in a waveguide with a statistically rough admittance boundary having small, gentle irregularities. They obtained an effective boundary condition for a regular acoustic field that takes into account the effects of multiple scattering and wave transformation in the process of sound propagation. Simultaneously and independently, a modal approach to wave propagation in waveguides with statistically rough boundaries was developed for ocean acoustics by L. S. Dolin and A. G. Nechayev (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1981), A. G. Nechayev (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1982, 1983) V. Yu. Zaitsev and M. A. Rayevsky (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1985), and N. S. Gorskaya and M. A. Rayevsky (Acoust. J., 1985, 1986). These papers, along with the equations for the first two statistical random field moments in a waveguide fully describing sound propagation in an ocean with Gaussian surface irregularities, and the general integral expressions corresponding to approximate solutions of these equations, give the equations and their approximate solutions within the scope of isotropic and anisotropic models of wind waves for the angular and frequency power spectra of normal modes. The equations for statistical moments account for the interaction of the modes of the discrete and continuous spectra, which is responsible for leakage of part of the acoustic energy from the subsurface waveguide. Calculations were given for sufficiently small, gentle irregularities.

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In a continuation of the work by F. G. Bass, V. D. Freilikher, and I. M. Fuks on scattering in rough-boundary waveguides, N. P. Zhuk and O. A. Tretyakov (Acoust. J., 1982) used the equivalent boundary conditions that they had obtained with account for multiple scattering from a statistically rough interface between two media with gentle irregularities, in their calculations of the attenuation coefficients of the coherent component of a discrete-spectrum normal modes and the radiation modes for an open waveguide in a layered medium bounded with a rough surface. Later, the same method (i.e., the method of small perturbations with account for multiple scattering) was used by N. P. Zhuk, O. A. Tretyakov, and A. G. Yarovoi (Acoust. J., 1987) to derive generalized expressions for the scattering matrix and the wave field amplitude and phase fluctuations intensity, and N. P. Zhuk (Acoust. J., 1990), on the basis of the proposed strict procedure for deriving equivalent boundary conditions, derived improved expressions for a mean field and an equivalent admittance of a pressure-release, uneven surface, with small irregularities, which is a boundary of a plane-layered medium. Further boundary condition generalization, as applied to calculations of the second mixed statistical moments in the theory of multiple scattering from an impenetrable, fluctuating boundary of a plane-layered medium, was carried out by F. G. Bass, N. P. Zhuk, and O. A. Tretyakov (Acoust. J., 1991). For describing multiple reflections and sound scattering from a rough ocean surface at sufficiently high frequency, a ray approach was developed. Yu. P. Lysanov (Acoust. J., 1966) carried out approximate calculations relating to a law describing the average decrease in the coherent field intensity with distance for multipath sound propagation in a subsurface channel with small gentle irregularities. Attenuation of the coherent component along single paths was calculated in the MSP approximation with account of terms of the second-order in the small parameter. To a certain degree, the semi-phenomenological approach consisting in reducing multiple reflections from a statistically rough surface to single, multiply repeated ones, may be related to a ray approach. By avoiding the need to solve a complex problem in sound propagation in waveguides with rough boundaries, this procedure provided an opportunity to obtain results for the spatial, time, and

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frequency intervals of scattered field correlation for multiple reflections from a rough surface. This was done in a single scattering approximation (MSP) for the case of small irregularities, and in a tangential plane approximation for the case of large gently sloping irregularities and was sufficient for explaining the experimental data (E. P. Gulin, Trans. Inst. Acoust., 1970; Acoust. J., 1976). The constraint imposed on the results is the condition of a sufficiently small spread of scattering angles at multiple reflections, as compared with the angle of specular reflection from the mean plane. This approach was further developed by G. A. Postnov (Acoust. J., 1985) who carried out calculations of the intensity of the incoherent component of the field in a subsurface channel with a rough boundary under less constraining conditions. V. M. Frolov (Acoust. J., 1985) used the ray approach to investigate the twodimensional problem of determining fluctuations in the arrival angle, travel time, and intensity of sound for multiple ray reflections from a plane-layered ocean rough surface with gently sloping irregularities. On the assumption of incoherent summation of the acoustic energy propagating along different paths, the theory of radiation transfer may be applied to describe an incoherent field multiply scattered from a rough surface. On the basis of the radiation transfer equation many interesting results were obtained for the scattered fields in the ocean. For example, in the paper by B. I. Klyachin (Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci., 1984), calculation was carried out of the angular distribution of the sound intensity for multiple plane wave scattering from rough ocean surface in a subsurface layer. A. G. Voronovich (Acoust. J., 1987) showed, assuming uncorrelated reflections, for sound propagation in a waveguide with a statistically rough boundary, that the acoustic field correlation function is described by an integral equation which, with certain additional assumptions relating to the transfer to a path representation, reduces to a radiation transfer equation. Calculations were carried out for a point source and for noise sources distributed over the surface. A. V. Belousov and Yu. P. Lysanov (Shipbuilding Issues, ser. Acoustics, 1986, 1987; Trans. Third Congr. Soviet Oceanolog., 1987; Acoust. J., 1987, 1988; in Acoustics in Ocean (Akustika v okeane), 1992), using the theory of radiation transfer, considered the problem of an incoherent component of a point-source acoustic field in a

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subsurface channel with a rough upper boundary. The input parameters are scattering and mean reflection coefficients, which may be determined in some approximation from solving the problem of single scattering from a rough surface, or measured experimentally. In the absence of absorption in the medium, solving the problem is significantly simplified, because in such a case the product of the speed of sound squared multiplied by the ray intensity is invariant along the path. A general integral equation solution for the incoherent ray intensity was found, the law of decrease with distance for multiple scattering determined, and the intensity of scattering from real wind waves was calculated. The same authors analyzed the angular structure of the scattered acoustic field at guided sound propagation in smooth-surface ocean (Acoust. J., 1988), evaluated the effect of wind waves on sound propagation in the oceanic waveguide (Acoust. J., 1990), and established the law of decrease of the incoherent field intensity in the coastal zone (Acoust. J., 1992). In the paper by A. V. Belousov (Acoust. J., 1991), an equation was obtained for the incoherent ray intensity in a horizontally stratified waveguide with account for multiple wave scattering from a rough boundary. A general solution of this equation for arbitrary roughness was proposed. In the paper by V. V. Borodin (Acoust. J., 1987) integral equations were derived for the coherent component of the acoustic field and the correlation function for multiple scattering from a statistically rough boundary in a horizontally stratified waveguide with an arbitrary height of gentle irregularities. An equation was obtained generalizing the known radiation transfer equations used in calculations of the second-order statistical moment of the wave field in a modal representation and within the scope of the ray approach. An integral equation was also obtained for the complex amplitude of the wave field scattered from a rough boundary in a homogeneous medium, from which the known expressions in the tangential plane and MSP approximations are derived as particular cases. In the work by G. A. Maksimov and D. N. Lesonen (Ocean Acoustics (Akustika okeana), GEOS, 2002), a method of regularization of the exact integral Fredholm equation was proposed for the values of the field or its derivative over a scattering surface. The

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method is based on exact integral equations being substituted with their truncated analogues, from which the contributions from shadowed sections of the surface are excluded. 2. Methods of Calculation of the Acoustic Field Scattered from Volume Inhomogeneities The present section is dedicated to development of theoretical research into sound scattering in random, inhomogeneous media. With reference to sound scattering in the ocean, scattered field calculations were carried out for two models of the random media: continuous media with the index of refraction varying continuously in time and space, and media carrying random discrete scatterers (air bubbles, fishes, microorganisms, etc.). For calculating the scattered field in randomly inhomogeneous media with weak index of refraction fluctuations, the MSP and the method of smooth disturbances (MSD) are used. In the first theoretical studies, which were carried out by V. A. Krasilnikov (Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci., 1945, 1947; Trans. USSR Acad. Sci., Ser. Geog. Geophys., 1949), the MSP was applied to the eikonal equation describing ray propagation in randomly inhomogeneous medium using the equation determining energy conservation in a ray tube. Expressions were obtained for the field intensity level and for phase fluctuations at small angles of ray deflection. Later, a generalization of the geometrical approximation using the Einstein–Fokker– Kolmogorov equation for the angular distribution of the ray function was carried out by V. Ya. Kharanen (Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci., 1953) and by L. A. Chernov (Wave Propagation in Randomly Inhomogeneous Medium (Rasprostraneniye voln v srede so sluchainymi neodnorodnostyami), 1958). Ray propagation in a randomly inhomogeneous medium was considered as a continuous Markovian chain (a stochastic process without a memory). Further development of the theory of ray propagation based on this equation was undertaken by N. G. Denisov (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1958) and V. M. Komissarov (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1966) where the effect of regular refraction on the ray angular and linear displacement in a randomly inhomogeneous layer were taken into account. Later, the

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method was given mathematical substantiation in a small-angle approximation in the paper by V. I. Klyatskin and V. I. Tatarsky (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1971). The geometrical acoustics approximation combined with the MSP permits one to solve the problem of propagation of waves with very short wavelength, compared to the dimensions of the random inhomogeneities, to rather short distances (V. I. Tatarsky, JETP, 1953). More general results were obtained by applying the MSP directly to a wave equation with weak index of refraction inhomogeneities. A solution to the wave equation with a small source term on the right-hand-side was found in the form of an expansion in powers of a small parameter — the r.m.s. deviation in the index of refraction (S. M. Rytov, Introduction to Statistical Radiophysics (Vvedenie v statisticheskuyu radiofiziku), 1966). As a rule, authors confine themselves to the first MSP approximation, accounting for the scattering of a single primary wave (the socalled Born approximation) only. In the monograph by L. A. Chernov (1958), this method was used to obtain the expressions for the characteristics of the scattered field along directions different from those of the propagation of the primary wave for a source and a receiver located in the far field, as viewed relative to the scattering volume. The requirement of smallness of the scattered energy compared with the incident wave energy imposes an upper limit on the acoustic frequency and the size of the scattering region (V. I. Tatarsky, Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1962). The MSD proposed by S. M. Rytov (Trans. USSR Acad. Sci., Ser. Phys., 1937) to solve the problem of light diffraction by ultrasonic waves was successfully used to calculate the amplitude and phase fluctuations of the wave field when the scattered waves interfere with the primary wave as it propagates in a medium with large-scale, random index of refraction irregularities (irregularities with spatial scales large compared to wavelength). The essence of the MSD consists in deriving an equation for the complex phase of the sound pressure and applying the MSP to this complex phase equation. Using this method and limiting himself to the first approximation, A. M. Obukhov (Trans. USSR Acad. Sci., Ser. Phys., 1953) obtained expressions for the pressure level and the phase fluctuations for propagation in a medium with

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large-scale, smooth irregularities. Detailed studies were carried out by L. A. Chernov who developed a correlation theory of the pressure level and the phase fluctuations in randomly inhomogeneous media (Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci., 1954; Acoust J., 1955–1957). Simultaneously with the one-parametric statistical model of a randomly inhomogeneous medium characterized by a spatial scale of the correlation of the index of refraction fluctuations, use was made in a series of studies on sound scattering from random inhomogeneities of a two-parameter model of a medium having locally homogeneous isotropic turbulence that is characterized by outer and inner scales. The results of the MSD application within the scope of such a model are presented in the monograph by V. I. Tatarsky (The Theory of Fluctuation Phenomena at Wave Propagation in Turbulent Medium (Teoriya fluktuatsionnykh yavlenii pri rasprostranenii voln v turbulentnoi srede), 1959). Also, a generalization was carried out for the case of a turbulent medium with smoothly varying characteristics (V. I. Tatarsky, Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci., 1958). For quite a long period of time a discussion continued in the literature on the range of validity of the first MSD approximation. The condition of smoothness means smallness in the intensity level and phase changes over a distance comparable to a wavelength. This condition is practically always met in weakly inhomogeneous medium, and thus initially it was believed that the smooth disturbances method is applicable for describing both weak and strong fluctuations. But comparison of quadratic and linear terms of the MSD series for a complex phase of a wave showed that at large wave parameter values, that is, in the Fraunhofer zone relative to inhomogeneities scale, fluctuations of both the field level and the phase must be small. At small values of the wave parameter, that is, in the near-field zone, the method imposes no limitations on the strength of phase fluctuations, though it does require the smallness of fluctuations in the level of the field. This aspect, in the context of two- and one-parameter models of the randomly inhomogeneous medium, is discussed in detail in the monographs by V. I. Tatarsky (Wave Propagation in a Turbulent Atmosphere (Rasprostraneniye voln v turbulentnoi atmosfere), 1967) and L. A. Chernov (Waves in Randomly Inhomogeneous Media (Volny v sluchaino-neodnorodnykh sredakh), 1975).

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These books also discuss the methods of calculation of strong wave field fluctuations when multiple scattering becomes important. A general multiple scattering theory was developed on the basis of applying the Green’s function method developed earlier in quantum mechanics. Application of the Feynman diagram technique in calculating multiple scattering in fluctuating continuous media started from the well-known work by R. C. Bourret published in 1962. The papers by V. I. Tatarsky and M. Ye. Gertsenshtein (JETP, 1963) and V. I. Tatarsky (JETP, 1964) give a more generalized derivation of the Dyson equation for the mean field and the Bethe–Salpeter equation for the correlation function in a medium with parameters having Gaussian fluctuations. In solving integral equations derived with the use of a method similar to field theory renormalization techniques, that is, with the application of diagram techniques, some infinite series in the perturbation theory were summed up, thus accounting for multiple scattering to some degree. Mean-field (mean Green’s function) calculations are given for both small- and large-scale inhomogeneities. The correlation moment calculations are given for small-scale inhomogeneities. For the case of nonGaussian medium fluctuations, V. M. Finkelberg, using the method of expansion in correlation groups, introduced the so-called one-group approximation and considered different approximations in mean-field calculations (JETP, 1969). V. N. Alekseyev and V. M. Komissarov obtained a modified form of the initial equation which helped to overcome the difficulties connected with the fact that each term in the perturbation series was found to be divergent at propagation in an infinitely extended scattering media (6th All-Union Conf. Acoust., 1968; Trans. Inst. Acoust., 1968). A series of studies appeared dedicated to deriving a transfer equation within the scope of multiple scattering theory and determining the conditions of applicability of different approximations (Yu. N. Barabanenkov and V. M. Finkelberg, JETP, 1967; Yu. N. Barabanenkov, Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci., 1967; JETP, 1969; Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1970). Yu. N. Barabanenkov considered a generalized transfer equation — the Bethe–Salpeter equation for the spatial spectral density of the wave field. The generalized transfer equation describes a broader range of phenomena than the common transfer equation for which spectral density appears to be connected

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with ray intensity, the former, however, being valid for arbitrary-scale inhomogeneities. In the case of large-scale inhomogeneities, a simplified transfer equation is obtained in a small-angle approximation. Since the Green’s function method, which allows one to account for multiple scattering in a randomly inhomogeneous medium, still provides only approximate solutions valid under certain simplifying assumptions, other approximate methods have also found application in the theory of strong field fluctuations. For media with large-scale inhomogeneities, use of a parabolic equation proved to be fruitful. The first studies using a parabolic equation were carried out by L. A. Chernov (3rd All-Union Symp. Waves Diffract., 1964; All-Union Conf. Acoust., 1968) and L. S. Dolin (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1964). L. A. Chernov proposed a local calculation method consisting in medium discretization in sufficiently thin layers that, however, exceed in thickness the dimensions of the random inhomogeneities. It was assumed that it is possible, within each layer, to restrict calculations to the first MSP approximation, with no condition of smallness of the complete field variation along the propagation path being imposed. Because of this, the method proved to be valid for calculating strong field fluctuations. Approximate closed equations for the mean field and the field correlation moments were derived. Similar results, but with use of a different method based on summation of series of the perturbations theory, were obtained by L. S. Dolin (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1968). Later, higher-order equations for statistical moments of wave field were obtained using the local method (L. A. Chernov, Acoust. J., 1969). A fourth-order mixed statistical moment equation was also derived in the papers by V. I. Shishov (Trans. High. School – Radiophys., 1968) by the Green’s function method with the use of the diagram technique, and by applying the phase screen method to a randomly inhomogeneous thin layer. On the basis of this equation, numerical and approximate analytical computations of wave field intensity fluctuations at different distances in a randomly inhomogeneous medium were carried out by I. M. Dagkesamanskaya and V. I. Shishov (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1970) and V. I. Shishov (JETP, 1971). N. G. Kuznetsova and L. A. Chernov (Acoust. J., 1977, 1978) applied

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a local method in accounting for the Doppler effect and temporal variability of medium inhomogeneities in the multiple scattering theory. On the basis of a generalized parabolic equation, arbitrary-order equations for wave field statistical moments were derived. Conditions of applicability of the generalized parabolic equation related to inhomogeneity variability were set. It should be noted that the local method can also be applied to the wave equation proper (V. N. Alekseyev and V. M. Frolov, Acoust. J., 1972). The result is integrodifferential equations for the statistical moments valid for inhomogeneities of arbitrary wave dimensions. At the same time, transfer to a parabolic equation is possible for large-scale inhomogeneities only on the assumption of smallness of scattering on a wavelength scale and the neglect of backscattering. Another approach to the calculation of the statistical moments of the field uses a parabolic approximation and was developed by V. I. Tatarsky (JETP; 1969). Proceeding from the fact that the longitudinal correlation scale of field fluctuations in a medium with large-scale inhomogeneities by far exceeds the dimensions of the inhomogeneities, an assumption was made that in the longitudinal direction fluctuations in the medium’s index of refraction are delta-function correlated. With this assumption, wave propagation in a parabolic approximation may be regarded as a random Markovian process. This allows closed-form equations for the statistical moments of the wave field to be obtained. The equation for the spatial coherence function (the second moment) is equivalent to the transfer equation in a small-angle approximation, coinciding with the one derived earlier by L. S. Dolin and L. A. Chernov. The equation for the fourth-moment of the field was obtained in the same fashion (V. I. Klyatskin and V. I. Tatarsky, Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1970). In the papers by V. I. Klyatskin (JETP, 1969; Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1970), and by V. I. Klyatskin and V. I. Tatarsky (JETP, 1970), corrections were considered to the Markovian-type solutions by relaxing the condition that the index of refraction fluctuations be delta-function correlated in the longitudinal direction. The conditions of the applicability of the parabolic approximation were also studied. A detailed review of the theoretical research into wave propagation in randomly inhomogeneous media was made by Yu. N. Barabanenkov, Yu. A. Kravtsov, S. M. Rytov, V. I. Tatarsky (Uspekhi Fizich. Nauk (Progr.

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Phys. Sci.), 1970). This article also contains an extensive bibliography of work published up to 1970. A series of studies was dedicated to the theory of scattering for a two-dimensional model of a randomly inhomogeneous medium. Yu. L. Gazaryan (JETP, 1969) and V. I. Gelfgat (Acoust. J., 1972) obtained an exact solution to the problem of multiple scattering of a point monochromatic-source wave field by a nonabsorbing medium with random, discrete scatterers. The scatterers were assumed to be stationary and invariable over the time of the scattering process. The results obtained may also be applied to the case of extended scatterers (medium inhomogeneities) if scattering from regions with spatial scales of the order of acoustic wavelength and the spatial correlation length of the inhomogeneities (refractive-index fluctuations) are small. Expressions were obtained for the mean field and the mean energy density for source locations both inside and outside the region occupied by the inhomogeneities. It was shown that, at least within the framework of a one-dimensional model of a scattering medium, the exact solution significantly diverges from the approximate one obtained with the use of the transfer equation corresponding to an energy summation of multiple-scattered waves. The issue of the applicability of the transfer equation to the one-dimensional problem was discussed in a paper by V. D. Belov and S. A. Rybak (Acoust. J., 1975). It was shown that, in the presence of absorption in the medium and when a number of additional constraints are met, the transfer equation gives a result close to the exact solution. Later, the one-dimensional model of a scattering medium was studied by many authors due to its importance in understanding the process of wave propagation in randomly inhomogeneous media, and because the exact solution may be compared with approximate solutions for different medium models. The papers by V. I. Gelfgat (Acoust. J., 1975) and B. S. Abramovich and A. I. Dyatlov (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1975) consider a diffusion approximation to multiple scattering in a one-dimensional randomly inhomogeneous medium. The problem is reduced to solving the Kolmogorov–Fokker– Planck equation, which allows the calculation of the characteristics of the scattered field. In later papers by V. I. Gelfgat (Acoust. J., 1979, 1981), calculations were carried out for a plane wave mean field, mean

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energy density, and mean field level for an inhomogeneous layer with an obstacle within the scope of a one-dimensional scattering model. In addition, an investigation was performed into the possibility of complete compensation of the phase distortions in the wave reflected from an inhomogeneous section of a waveguide at the end of which an obstacle reversing the wave front is located. Statistical moments of the wave intensity in a one-dimensional randomly inhomogeneous medium were also considered in a number of works published by V. I. Klyatskin in the monographs Statistical Description of Dynamic Systems with Fluctuating Parameters (Statisticheskoye opisaniye dinamicheskikh sistem s fluktuiruyushchimi parametrami), 1975; and Stochastic Equations and Waves in Randomly Inhomogeneous Media (Stokhasticheskiye uravneniya i volny v sluchainoneodnorodnykh sredakh), 1980; in the articles (Trans. High. Schools — Radiophys., 1977, 1979), and papers written jointly with G. I. Babkin (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1980; in Ocean Acoustics. State of the Art (Akustika okeana. Sovremennoye sostoyanie), 1982), and by V. Ye. Ostashev (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1978). It was shown that in the absence of absorption there exists an effect called the stochastic wave parametric resonance. It consists in exponential growth of the statistical moments of intensity while the mean wave intensity remains constant. The developed theory was based mainly on a model of deltafunction correlated Gaussian fluctuations of the index of refraction. An exact solution was also obtained for the telegraph and generalized telegraph process models. Along with an analytical study, the results of numerical integration of radiation transfer equations were presented by G. I. Babkin et al. (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1981). Some general problems of multiple wave scattering connected with determining the scope of applicability of the radiation transfer equation and the interrelation of the transfer and coherence theories, as well as for comparing the diagram technique and analytical methods (including the operator form) for obtaining approximate solutions to the stochastic equations are considered in the review by Yu. N. Barabanenkov (Progr. Phys. Sci., 1975), the book by S. N. Rytov, Yu. A. Kravtsov, V. I. Tatarsky (Introduction to Statistical Radiophysics. Vol. II. Random Fields (Vvedeniye v statisticheskuyu radiofiziku. Vol. II.

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Sluchainye polya), 1978) and in a series of works published by Yu. N. Barabanenkov et al. (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1972), V. I. Klyatskin and V. I. Tatarsky (Progr. Phys. Sci., 1973; Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1977), G. I. Ovchinnikov and V. I. Tatarsky (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1972), L. A. Apresyan (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1974), I. G. Yakushkin (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1975), O. G. Nalbandyan and V. I. Tatarsky (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1977). Yu. N. Barabanenkov (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1973) proposed full-wave corrections to the transfer equation since in its normal form it is unsuitable for describing backscattering. Concerning sound propagation in the ocean, the methods of calculation of scattered fields in waveguides with a randomly inhomogeneous index of refraction are of special interest, since for sufficiently large distances, the properties of the hydroacoustic waveguide (multimode and multi-path propagation) are displayed most significantly. The low-frequency range is essential for long-range propagation of acoustic signals in the ocean. In describing wave fields in this frequency range, particularly in shallow-water conditions, ray methods are inapplicable and a modal representation is used. From the point of view of sound propagation and scattering in the ocean, the Garrett–Munk model of internal gravity waves adequately describes actual environmental conditions. It may be regarded as consisting of anisotropic volumetric inhomogeneities having a specific spectral form. For this reason, development of the theory of acoustic wave propagation and scattering in randomly inhomogeneous waveguides with regular refraction took place simultaneously for inhomogeneities of different types of origin. M. A. Isakovich (Acoust. J., 1957) applied the small perturbations method to calculate a single-scattered wave field in a planar waveguide with small index of refraction fluctuations. One of the normal modes of a homogeneous waveguide changing jumpwise to an inhomogeneous waveguide of the same thickness was selected as an incident wave. The scattered field was represented as a sum of normal modes of a waveguide free from inhomogeneities. The character of the angular distribution of the scattered field energy was considered for the cases of forward and backward scattering. A. D. Lapin

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(Acoust. J., 1958) proposed a modification of the method developed by S. M. Rytov (MSD) to solve the same problem, which consisted in applying the MSD approximation separately to every plane (Brillouin) wave incident from a homogeneous semi-waveguide on an inhomogeneous semi-waveguide with smooth, rigid walls. The results obtained in these studies are limited to a sufficiently low level of the scattered field that grows with distance compared with the level of the incident wave. A generalization for the case of strong scattering was carried out by A. D. Lapin (Acoust. J., 1977) in calculating the attenuation of the mean field (coherent field component) with distance for a weakly inhomogeneous medium. The waveguide was broken up into sufficiently thin layers, and coherent field attenuation was calculated for each one separately using the small perturbations method. For each subsequent layer, attenuation of the coherent component of the incident wave was accounted for. The calculation of the attenuation of the coherent field taking into account refraction in the waveguide, the statistical anisotropy of the inhomogeneities, and the unevenness of the distribution of fluctuations in the index of refraction across the wave-guide, was carried out by A. G. Sazontov and V. A. Farfel (Acoust. J., 1986) in solving the problem of single scattering of an acoustic signal from internal waves in an underwater sound channel. The appearance of methods for the calculation of multiple scattering of a wave field in a randomly inhomogeneous media stimulated development of a theory of wave propagation in irregular waveguides that included multiple scattering from volumetric inhomogeneities. V. M. Kurtepov (Acoust. J., 1976) considered the effect of a random field of internal gravity waves on sound propagation in a stratified deepsea waveguide. The internal wave field was assumed to be Gaussian, statistically homogeneous, and isotropic in the horizontal plane. The solution to the scattering problem was represented as an expansion into eigenfunctions of the unperturbed waveguide with random amplitudes. Disregarding mode coupling for a slowly varying internal wave field, integral equations were obtained corresponding to the Dyson equation in the Bourret approximation for the mean field and the Bethe– Salpeter equation in the ladder approximation for the mean energy density. In deriving the integral equations use was made of the methods

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described in the monograph by V. I. Tatarsky (1967). On the basis of the results of the calculation, an estimate of the degree of acoustic field distortion under the action of internal waves was given. In solving the same problem, N. S. Gorskaya and M. A. Rayevsky (Acoust. J., 1984) obtained closed integrodifferential equations for mean values and mean squares of moduli of functions described as slowly varying complex amplitudes. This was done in a forward scattering approximation with account being made for waveguide losses caused by energy transfer from modes localized in the waveguide to modes attenuated in the bottom. It was also assumed that the characteristic scale of scattering (the scale of variation of the statistical moments considered) exceeded the scale of inhomogeneities and the scale of interference of the normal modes. By way of simplification of the equation for the second statistical moment, based on an assumption of smallness of the intensity of the attenuated modes for a sufficiently large number of localized modes, and with account for interaction of only comparatively close modes in each instance of scattering, reduction was made to a diffusion-type equation describing energy transfer between modes due to random inhomogeneities. General integral expressions were obtained for the attenuation decrement of the coherent component of the modes and for the diffusion coefficient determining attenuation of the energy of the normal modes. Specific calculations of the attenuation decrement of the coherent field and of the diffusion coefficients were carried out for both a realistic model of the internal waves (Garrett–Munk model) in a deep-sea waveguide with a parabolic profile for the sound speed and a shallow-water sound channel with an abrupt change in sound speed with depth where the Garrett–Munk model is inapplicable. More precise results of the calculation of low-frequency sound attenuation due to scattering from internal waves with account for their real characteristics in ocean were given later in the paper by A. G. Sazontov and V. A. Farfel (Acoust. J., 1986). This method of approximate description of multiple scattering was applied by V. V. Artelny and M. A. Rayevsky (Acoust. J., 1984) to solve the problem of acoustic wave propagation in an oceanic waveguide with fine thermohaline structure. Calculations were made of the coherent field and the energy losses of modes localized in a waveguide, and changes in the mode and angular wave spectra.

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In view of the complexity of the equations obtained for the statistical moments of normal modes, a combined mode–ray method of describing acoustic field in irregular waveguides, which allowed simplification of analysis of wave field statistical characteristics, was developed in the papers by V. V. Artelny and M. A. Rayevsky (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1984, 1987), and V. V. Artelny et al. (Acoust. J., 1986). Using this approximate method, simplified equations were derived for the correlation function of the modes and the spectral intensity in randomly inhomogeneous waveguides with an arbitrary sound-speed profile. The calculations accounted for the modes of both the discrete and the continuous spectra. This approach was used by V. V. Artelny and M. A. Rayevsky (Acoust. J., 1987, 1989) in calculating the coherent components and the energy attenuation, in characterizing modal and angular spectra transformation of an acoustic wave scattered from ocean turbulence, as well as in analysis of intermode correlations of the acoustic field in a refractive waveguide with anisotropic random inhomogeneities. Similar theoretical methods accounting for multiple scattering in waveguides with random volumetric inhomogeneities were simultaneously and independently developed in the works of other authors as well. In particular, A. A. Moiseyev (Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci., 1984) carried out calculations of the coherence function of the field in an inhomogeneous waveguide by using the matrix analog of the MSD proposed by him. In a series of articles, A. L. Virovlyanskiy and A. G. Kosterin proposed an alternative approach to the ray description of modal fluctuations in a randomly inhomogeneous underwater sound channel (Acoust. J., 1987; Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1989; in Acoustics in the Ocean (Akustika v okeane), 1992). The method is similar to the geometrical acoustics and smooth perturbation methods, however it applies not only at regular points in a waveguide but also at caustics. A physical interpretation of the method’s principal results is given, specific examples are considered, and possible generalizations are discussed. In the paper by A. L. Virovlyanskiy, A. G. Kosterin, and A. N. Malakhov (Acoust. J., 1989), mode fluctuations in a canonical randomly inhomogeneous underwater sound channel are discussed. To describe field interference structure and correlation characteristics,

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A. G. Nechayev (Acoust. J., 1985, 1987) proposed an approach based on the representation of an acoustic field in a waveguide with large-scale inhomogeneities as a narrow wave beam in the horizontal plane and on use of the Markov approximation. A set of simultaneous parabolic equations for propagating modes was solved within the diffusion approximation. It was shown that, for a large number of modes meeting the condition of synchronism, the interference structure is determined not only by the mean field, but also by the partially coherent random component of the normal modes as well, which are attenuated less than the coherent field. The Markov approximation was also used by A. M. Stadnik (Acoust. J., 1987) in mean field and coherence function calculations in a randomly inhomogeneous, anisotropic parabolic waveguide. In the papers by S. S. Abdullayev and B. A. Niyazov (Acoust. J., 1985), S. S. Abdullayev (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1986), S. S. Abdullayev, B. A. Niyazov, and P. K. Khabibulayev (Acoust. J., 1988), an asymptotic method of calculation of the correlation characteristics of the acoustic field in an irregular ocean with large-scale inhomogeneities is considered. A. G. Sazontov (Acoust. J., 1996) proposed a technique of approximate integration of the radiation transfer equation based on the application of a quasi-classical approximation and a generating function method. The analytical solutions obtained in integral form were used for numerical modeling of the mean intensity and spatialfrequency coherence of a sound field at different distances and depths for scattering from internal waves in an underwater acoustic channel with a shallow axis (N. K. Vdovicheva and A. G. Sazontov, Acoust. J., 1999). V. I. Goland and V. I. Klyatskin studied statistical characteristics of eigenvalues and eigenfunctions for one-dimensional boundaryvalue problems (in Acoustics in the Ocean (Akustika v okeane), 1992). The paper by D. Ye. Leikin (in Ocean Acoustics (Akustika okeana), 1998) introduces a non-perturbative theory of coherent sound scattering in multi-mode waveguides. Coherent sound scattering is an unusual phenomenon connected with the disappearance of wave diffraction due to index of refraction inhomogeneities. Possible approaches to the problems of ocean acoustic sounding and monitoring are also discussed.

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The developed methods for the calculation of scattered fields in the ocean were employed in solving inverse scattering problems. The review paper by V. A. Burov et al. (Acoust. J., 1986) gives an analysis of the opportunities to apply iterative algorithms to solving inverse problems for the reconstruction of weak scatterers within the scope of the MSP and MSD approximations, as well as for medium and strong scatterers, by using approximate methods that account for multiple scattering. In a later work, improved algorithms are considered (V. A. Burov and A. V. Saskovets, Acoust. J., 1988) for an iteration algorithm requiring no multiple inversions of matrices (V. A. Burov et al., Acoust. J., 1991), and an algorithm of solving a two-dimensional inverse problem of scattering on the basis of functional–analytical methods (V. A. Burov and O. D. Rumyantseva, Acoust. J., 1992). The papers by A. G. Nechayev and A. I. Khil’ko (Acoust. J., 1988) give a theoretical substantiation of the method of acoustic differential diagnostics of ocean medium random inhomogeneities and the possibilities of identifying various types of volumetric inhomogeneities such as turbulence, internal waves, and fine thermohaline structure. Use is made of pulse sampling within a scheme of forward scattering diagnostics of the ocean with extraction of narrow mode groups. Analysis was carried out using a first approximation of the small perturbations method. In their papers, V. A. Burov and M. N. Rychagov (Acoust. J., 1992) consider different aspects of diffraction tomography as an inverse problem of scattering with employment of an interpolation approach and accounting for multiple scattering. Different methods of acoustic tomography of ocean inhomogeneities (ray, location, and differential diffraction methods) are described in detail in the monograph by V. V. Goncharov et al., Acoustic Tomography of the Ocean (Akusticheskaya tomografiya okeana), 1997). The review papers by V. V. Zosimov and L. M. Lyamshev (Acoust. J., 1994; Progr. Phys. Sci., 1995) in which the authors considered the use of fractals in wave processes, including acoustics, stimulated studies of sound scattering from random volumetric inhomogeneities featuring a fractal spectrum. A large section in the first paper (Acoust. J., 1994) was devoted to waves radiated and scattered from fractal objects. Both single and multiple scattering from fractals were

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considered. After publication of these papers, a series of original articles appeared. Specifically, within the scope of the method of small perturbations (Born approximation), Yu. P. Lysanov, L. M. Lyamshev (Acoust. J., 1998), Ye. A. Kopyl, Yu. P. Lysanov, and L. M. Lyamshev (Acoust. J., 2002) studied sound scattering from an ocean medium having random highly anisotropic volumetric inhomogeneities (indexof-refraction fluctuations). Over a certain interval of wave numbers, inhomogeneities were characterized by energy spectra that follow a power law having a fractional exponent, that is, they are fractal. An expression was obtained and analyzed for the scattering coefficient whose frequency dependence also takes the form of a fractional power. It was established that the exponent in the frequency dependence of the scattering coefficient and the inhomogeneities fractal dimension coincide for a particular selection of model parameters. Partial leakage of scattered waves from an underwater sound channel leads to additional acoustic field attenuation in the channel. As it was shown in the papers by Yu. P. Lysanov, L. M. Lyamshev (Trans. 4th Conf. Underwater Acoust., 1998; Proc. (Doklady) RAS, 1999), the frequency dependence of the attenuation coefficient follows the “3/2 law,” which is in agreement with experimental data. A discrete model for the scattering medium in the form of independent random scatterers was used by V. S. Anastasevich (JEP, 1943) and Yu. M. Sukharevsky (Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci., 1947) in developing a phenomenological theory of sea reverberation. V. S. Anastasevich studied plane wave scattering, but the results obtained found no experimental corroboration. Yu. M. Sukharevsky performed calculations for the spherical wave case which was closer to realistic conditions, and in a series of articles examined all three reverberation types: volume (in an infinite scattering medium), sea surface, and seafloor. A model for the subsurface scattering layer was adopted for surface reverberation (layer reverberation), while for seafloor reverberation a boundary scattering model was adopted. The laws of decrease in the intensity of the scattered field as a function of time (relative to the moment of transmission of the signal pulse) were established for all three types of reverberation. A theoretical analysis of statistical characteristics of sea reverberation (V. V. Olshevsky, Statistical Properties

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of Marine Reverberation (Statisticheskiye svoistva morskoi reverberatsii), 1966) was also carried out for a discrete model where the scattered field is represented by a sum of elementary scattered signals with random amplitudes and propagation times. Methods from the statistical theory of communication, particularly the superposition theorems of random perturbations, were employed in these studies. The problems of scattering by discrete inhomogeneities or inclusions, including those accounting for correlation of velocities of scatterers’ motion (wander) were discussed in the work by G. S. Gorelik (Radio Eng. Electron. J., 1956, 1957). It was assumed in this work that discrete inhomogeneities in the medium are sufficiently widely spaced that only incoherent scattering occurs. With an increase in their concentration, that is, when a rather large number of scatterers measured on the scale of a wavelength occur, a coherent scattering component is possible. The relative degree of coherent and incoherent sound scattering by a collection of discrete inhomogeneities was studied in the papers by V. P. Glotov (Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci., 1961; Acoust. J., 1962), V. P. Glotov, Yu. P. Lysanov (Acoust. J., 1964) and B. F. Kuryanov (Acoust. J., 1964). It was established that a layer of discrete inhomogeneities with sharp boundaries may significantly contribute to coherent scattering, while in volume reverberation calculations coherent scattering may be neglected in the majority of cases. It was shown in the papers by V. P. Glotov, Yu. P. Lysanov (Trans. Inst. Acoust., 1967) that an increase in the concentration of resonant air bubbles may significantly affect the laws describing the decrease of surface reverberation with distance. So, because of surface screening due to absorption in the subsurface bubble layer, or due to strong reflection from its lower boundary at small grazing angles, reverberation intensity decreases with distance faster than in the absence of screening. Its frequency dependence also changes. The theory of multiple scattering was also developed with reference to scattering from discrete inhomogeneities. So, a special version of the MSD was developed in the work by N. P. Kalashnikov and M. I. Ryazanov (JETP, 1966). Different aspects of solving the problem of multiple wave scattering from discrete inclusions in natural media were examined in the review papers by Yu. A. Kravtsov, S. M. Rytov, and V. I. Tatarsky (Progr. Phys. Sci., 1975) and Yu. N.

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Barabanenkov (Progr. Phys. Sci., 1975), and the book by S. M. Rytov, Yu. A. Kravtsov, and V. I. Tatarsky (1978). 3. Acoustic Signal Fluctuations Caused by Scattering from a Rough Ocean Surface (Calculations and Experiment); Surface Reverberation (Backscattering) This section briefly describes the theoretical work carried out using the methods described in the first section, and the main results of experimental studies of sound scattering from a rough sea surface and fluctuations of signals reflected from it. First, acoustic field fluctuations due to forward scattering at reflection from a rough surface are discussed, followed by consideration of the backscattering problem, that is, surface reverberation created by scattering from rough sea surface without accounting for air bubbles. The first studies of scattering of sound and radio waves by a rough surface were concerned with the MSP and tangential plane approximations, plane waves scattering from an infinite rough surface, or a rough finite-size patch located in the Fraunhofer zone relative to source and receiver. The tangential plane method was used in the studies by L. M. Brekhovskikh (1951, 1952) and M. A. Isakovich (1952) to calculate the angular distributions of scattered field intensities at different angles of incidence. Experimental investigations by A. N. Leporsky (Acoust. J., 1955, 1956) on sound scattering from models of periodic surfaces in water displayed good agreement with the theory (i.e., good agreement with the tangential plane approximation) in its predicted domain of validity. Using the MSP, such effects as resonance scattering and combination scattering of waves from a surface varying with time were investigated (F. G. Bass, Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1961). However, comparison of theory and full-scale experiments showed that direct application of the results of calculations obtained for patches in the far-field (Fraunhofer zone) failed to explain the observed behavior of amplitude and phase fluctuations of acoustic signals reflected from a rough ocean surface. In this connection calculations were carried out of the variation coefficients (VC) of amplitude and the r.m.s.

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phase deviation of an acoustic field reflected from a random surface with small, gentle roughness. This was done for a scattering area with dimensions significantly exceeding the Fresnel zone dimensions (E. P. Gulin, Acoust. J., 1962). It was shown that, in the case of small scattering angles compared with specular reflection angle, fluctuations intensity significantly depends on wave parameter value: at values larger than one (i.e., in the far-field zone), the VC of amplitude and r.m.s. phase deviation are equal to the Rayleigh parameter up to a constant factor of 0.7, while at small values for the wave parameter (i.e., in the near-field zone), the VC of amplitude is significantly smaller than the r.m.s. phase deviation, which is equal to the Rayleigh parameter. The expressions obtained remain valid when the scattering areas move into the Fraunhofer zone. Calculations were carried out within the scope of a model of two-dimensional quasi-harmonic surface waves. The book by F. G. Bass and I. M. Fuks (1972) gives expressions for the intensity of amplitude and phase fluctuations for an arbitrary correlation function of the surface roughness. Comparison with the results of at-sea experiments carried out by E. P. Gulin and K. I. Malyshev (Acoust. J., 1962) and laboratory experiments (a plastic foam structure with rough surface moving over water surface in a tank) carried out by V. P. Akulicheva and E. P. Gulin (Trans. Inst. Acoust., 1967; Trans. 6th All-Union Conf. Acoust., 1968) showed good agreement for the dependences of the VC of amplitude on the Rayleigh parameter up to values of 0.4–0.5. According to the experimental data, at values of the Rayleigh parameter greater than about 0.7, saturation of the fluctuations takes place. In this region, the spread in VC of amplitude values is within 0.3–0.55; and in a series of experiments, periodic variations of VC with the increase in the Rayleigh parameter were observed. Such behavior of the VC of amplitude occurs for wave reflection from a sinusoidal surface (E. P. Gulin, Acoust. J., 1962). Calculations were carried out in the Eckart approximation (by the tangential plane method for gentle roughness), which gave an opportunity, by way of numerical calculations for a sinusoidal surface, to study the case of large roughness as well. Thus, the observed non-monotone variations of the VC of amplitude in the saturation region were apparently connected with the quasiharmonic nature of wind waves. Later, investigations of an acoustic field

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reflected from a sinusoidal-shaped surface with large roughness were performed by L. V. Sedov and M. I. Shamayev (Shipbuilding Issues, ser. Acoustics, 1974). According to at-sea and laboratory experiments, the probability distribution function for the amplitude is described by the generalized Rayleigh law, and the normalized time correlation functions and frequency spectra of amplitude and phase fluctuations at small values of the Rayleigh parameter are close to surface wave correlation functions and power spectra. For larger values of the parameter, the time scales of correlation of the fluctuations decrease, and the width of the fluctuation spectra increases with increase in the Rayleigh parameter. Experimental investigations of fluctuations of the amplitude and phase of continuous and pulsed acoustic signals were also carried out in a shallow fresh-water reservoir and in an hydroacoustic tank with a rough water surface (L. N. Zakharov, Acoust. J., 1960; G. Ye. Smirnov and O. S. Tonakanov, Acoust. J., 1960; O. S. Tonakanov, Acoust. J., 1961). A relation between the observed acoustic fluctuations and the surface waves was established. For sufficiently weak surface waves, fluctuations grew in proportion to surface wave height and the period of the fluctuations coincided with wave periods. Overlapping of the travel time of arrivals along different paths at the point of reception resulted in interference effects and impeded deriving empirical rules for the fluctuations connected with surface waves. The effects of multi-path propagation and a rough ocean surface on the space and frequency correlation of the amplitude fluctuations for multiple reflections from surface and bottom in a coastal wedge was investigated in the experiments of E. P. Gulin and K. I. Malyshev (Acoust. J., 1965, 1966). The results of the experimental investigations of the frequency spectra of amplitude fluctuations of signals reflected from a rough ocean surface are given in the work by I. B. Andreyeva and S. D. Chuprov (in Ocean Acoustics (Akustika okeana), edited by L. M. Brekhovskikh, 1974) and in the work by I. M. Fuks (Acoust. J., 1974). Spatial correlations of amplitude and phase fluctuations of an acoustic field for the problem under consideration were investigated theoretically in the MSP approximation by E. P. Gulin (Acoust. J., 1962; Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1963), I. M. Fuks (Trans. High.

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School — Radiophys., 1965), F. G. Bass and I. M. Fuks (in the 1972 book) and experimentally by E. P. Gulin and K. I. Malyshev (Acoust. J., 1964). Calculations for a narrow-band noise signal were carried out with the use of the same method by S. D. Chuprov (Acoust. J., 1967). Transverse (horizontal and vertical) intervals and longitudinal intervals of spatial correlation of amplitude and phase fluctuations were estimated. The experimental results are in qualitative agreement with theoretical estimates. At greater values of the Rayleigh parameter, the experiments showed a decrease in the spatial scale of correlation of the fluctuations of the reflected signal amplitude with increase in the Rayleigh parameter. In addition to the case of small scattering angles, scattering to larger angles, which is realized at small grazing angles and quasi-harmonic irregularities, was considered. It was shown that at the transition from small to large scattering angles, the VC of amplitude and r.m.s. phase deviations decrease, while partial correlation of fluctuations for separations significantly exceeding the scale of roughness correlation is preserved. The theoretically predicted behavior of the fluctuations at large scattering angles was corroborated experimentally by investigations using rough surface models (V. P. Akulicheva and E. P. Gulin, 1967, 1968). Later calculations of the time cross-correlation of amplitude and phase fluctuations of acoustic signals reflected from a rough surface (E. P. Gulin, Trans. 10th All-Union Conf. Acoust., 1983) showed that the correlation carries useful information relevant to solving the inverse problem of determining the characteristics of ocean surface waves using underwater acoustics. It should be noted that estimates of the space and frequency correlation scales of amplitude and phase fluctuations for a wave normally incident on a random phase screen are given in the work by N. G. Denisov (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1961). The papers by E. P. Gulin (Trans. Inst. Acoust., 1967; Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1970, 1971) give the results of calculations of space-time and frequency correlation and the frequency spectra of a scattered field (incoherent component of a complete reflected field) for both small and large gently sloping irregularities. They account for dispersion of surface gravity waves. Calculations were carried out for different widths of the angular spectrum of wind wave. It was shown

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that spatial decorrelation of the scattered field is determined by the displacement of the region responsible for the scattering due to the shift of the reception point, and by the region’s deformation in the vertical and horizontal directions. The second factor is the main one in calculation of the longitudinal and frequency correlations of a scattered field (in the latter case the deformation of the scattering region is due to change in frequency). In the paper by G. A. Alekseyev (Trans. High. School — Radio Eng., 1966), the space and frequency correlation of the scattered field was studied with account for vertical deformation only in the scattering region. In the paper by B. F. Kuryanov (Trans. Inst. Acoust., 1967), the correlation of the scattered field was calculated by the tangential plane method for co-located nondirectional source and receiver. Calculations of space correlation and frequency spectra of an acoustic field for the case of large irregularities were also carried out by V. V. Tamoikin and A. A. Fraiman (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1968), F. G. Bass and I. M. Fuks (Wave Scattering from Statistically Rough Surface (Rasseyanie voln na Statisticheski nerovnoi poverkhnosti), 1972), and A. B. Shmelev (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1973). Calculated estimates of the scales of spatial and frequency correlations of the scattered field at large values for the Rayleigh parameter and comparison with the results of experimental investigations for a single reflection from the ocean surface are given in the work by V. I. Neklyudov, S. D. Chuprov (Acoust. J., 1973) and the review article by I. B. Andreyeva and S. D. Chuprov (in Ocean Acoustics., 1974). The results of theoretical research by Yu. P. Lysanov into sound scattering from rough surfaces, both in the Fraunhofer and Fresnel zones, are also presented in the book Ocean Acoustics (1974), including the results of calculations of the spatial correlation of the scattered field and the temporal fluctuation characteristics of the reflected acoustic field for transceiver array movement. Calculations of the space-time correlation of the scattered field when the source and receiver are in motion were carried out by E. P. Gulin (Trans. 6th All-Union Conf. Acoust., 1968). Investigations of the effective reflection coefficient of an acoustic signal scattered from a rough ocean surface were carried out by

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I. B. Andreyeva and Yu. Yu. Zhitkovsky (Trans. Inst. Acoust., 1969), Yu. Yu. Zhitkovsky (Proc (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci., 1969) and I. B. Andreyeva et al. (Mar. Instrum. Eng. Acoust., 1972). The attenuation of the coherent field was calculated along different paths for multiple reflections in a subsurface channel for different models of the surface wave angular spectrum by Yu. P. Lysanov (Acoust. J., 1966, 1969). He also analyzed the structure of the scattered field in an inhomogeneous medium bounded by a rough surface as did E. P. Gulin (Trans. Inst. Acoust., 1967) in the second-order MSP approximation. The problem of attenuation of the coherent field due to reflections from a rough ocean surface with small irregularities was also studied by A. B. Kozin and S. D. Chuprov (Acoust. J., 1981). In conducting full-scale experiments connected with the study of the statistical characteristics of hydroacoustic signals, investigators usually confine themselves to studies of the amplitude or intensity fluctuations of the received signal and, rarely, to phase-difference fluctuations at separated reception points. However, theoretical research focuses mainly on calculations of statistical moments of the wave field, that is, the sound pressure (complex demodulated sound pressure including both the amplitude and the phase multiplier). This difference impedes comparing theoretical and experimental results. In the paper by E. P. Gulin (Acoust. J., 1975), a technique for experimental investigation of the quadratic components of the acoustic field was proposed, thus enabling direct comparison of theoretical and experimental data for fluctuation characteristics and coherence. Using this technique, time coherence of the acoustic field reflected from a rough ocean surface was investigated for different values of the Rayleigh parameter (E. P. Gulin, Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci., 1973). Another method for determining the intensity of the coherent component, based on analysis of the interference structure of the reflected and direct signals, was proposed in the paper by Yu. Yu. Zhitkovsky and Ye. A. Kopyl (Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci., 1975). In a series of studies the fluctuations of nonmonochromatic signals reflected from rough ocean surfaces were discussed. The papers by G. A. Alekseyev (Radio Eng. Electron. J., 1968) and E. P. Gulin (Acoust. J., 1972) presented results of calculations of the correlation

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characteristics of noise and noise-like signals scattered from a statistically rough surface. In particular, the space-time correlation was calculated for a reflected noise-like signal in the tangential plane approximation for gentle irregularities for different values of the Rayleigh parameter and the source bandwidth. On the basis of the theory of linear stochastic filters and approximate correlation theory of a wave field scattered from a statistically rough surface, the mean intensity of the coherent and incoherent components of pulsed signals reflected from a surface with small and large gentle irregularities was calculated for the cases of small and, at grazing propagation, large scattering angles (E. P. Gulin, Acoust. J., 1974). Correlation characteristics of signals reflected from rough ocean surface were also studied in the work by Yu. Yu. Zhitkovsky, A. V. Nosov, and B. V. Savelyev (Acoust. J., 1984). A. V. Nosov (Oceanology, 1989), using a different method based on a set of facets for the model surface, calculated the cross-correlation of pulsed noise signals and a signal re-radiated by an ocean’s rough surface. The issue of connection between the surface wave spectrum and the spectrum of an acoustic signal reflected from a rough surface with small irregularities was analyzed by S. D. Chuprov (Acoust. J., 1978). Yu. K. Alekhin and I. A. Urusovsky (Trans. Inst. Acoust., 1969) studied the problem of sound passage through a rough air–water boundary in the MSP approximation. In the article by O. A. Godin (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1989), the effect of plane and spherical wave scattering from a media interface with small gentle irregularities on the excitation of a lateral (head) wave was considered. Values for the mean field and intensity of lateral wave fluctuations were found. Approximate calculations of the fluctuations intensity, as well as the spatial, temporal, and frequency correlation of fluctuations resulting from multiple reflection from a statistically rough surface were carried out by E. P. Gulin (1970, 1976). A semi-phenomenological approach based on the reduction of multiple reflections to a single, multiply repeated one was used (for more on this subject, see Section 1). Dependences of the coefficient of variation of the amplitude

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of the scattered field, the coherence parameter and correlation scale on the number of ray contacts with the surface (and, hence, on the distance between source and receiver for a specified grazing angle), and the depths of radiation and reception for the cases of weak and strong fluctuations were found. This approach was also extended to the case of an inhomogeneous medium. Models for the approximate description of wave field fluctuations and coherence in shadow zones for multiple reflections from rough sea surface and a smooth seafloor (E. P. Gulin, Shipbuilding Issues, ser. Acoustics, 1977), in convergence zones where deep penetrating rays approach the surface and in a subsurface waveguide (E. P. Gulin, 9th All-Union Conf. Acoust., 1977) were developed. Using these mathematical models, with employment of statistical data on height and length of surface gravity waves (wind waves and swell) in the ocean, probability estimates (at provision factors of 20%, 50%, and 80%) of the coherence parameter, amplitude variation coefficient, correlation time and spatial (horizontal) scale, as well as residual level of correlation for seafloor-surface reflections at frequencies of 1–3 kHz and distances up to 100 km were obtained. It was shown that, for conditions of sound propagation in a subsurface waveguide, the nature of the dependence of intensity fluctuations on distance is determined by the relative contribution of rays with small and sufficiently large grazing angles to the scattered field. In the case of omnidirectional radiation and reception in a subsurface waveguide in the deep ocean, a considerable part of the energy is carried by rays with sufficiently large grazing angles, and the fluctuations grow with distance. At the same time, for directional radiation and reception, or sound propagation in a subsurface layer with a positive sound-speed gradient lying above a temperature jump layer, the greater part of the energy is carried by grazing rays, and the scattered field retained in the subsurface channel and reaching the point of reception is formed in the vicinities of the source and the receiver at the first and last contact with the surface. In this case fluctuation intensities are practically independent of distance. Such dependence was many times observed in experimental investigations of fluctuations in a subsurface channel (E. P. Gulin and K. I. Malyshev, Acoust. J., 1997).

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In the majority of cases, for a more rigorous solution of the problem (the methods of solution are discussed in Section 1 above) of multiple reflection from a rough surface for sound wave propagation in the ocean taking into account multiple scattering, complicated numerical calculations are needed to obtain the incoherent energy and correlation characteristics of the field. Deriving simple analytical expressions connecting acoustic signal parameters with those of the rough surface is possible in very rare cases, which impedes application of the theory of multiple scattering from rough surfaces in interpreting experimental results. Using the methods accounting for multiple sound scattering, the characteristics of the spatial and temporal correlations of a sound field in a waveguide with rough boundaries were studied (F. I. Kryazhev and V. M. Kudryashov, Shipbuilding Issues, ser. Acoustics, 1978; Acoust. J., 1978), and the spatial response of a linear horizontal receiving array in the case of small gentle irregularities was calculated (F. I. Kryazhev and V. M. Kudryashov, Acoust. J., 1984). A hybrid ray–wave technique for the calculation of the coherent sound field in a single-axis underwater sound channel with an ice cover was studied (V. M. Kudryashov, Acoust. J., 1976). A. G. Nechayev (Acoust. J., 1982) made calculations of the phase fluctuations of normal modes in a waveguide with a slightly rough boundary. D. V. Kandelaki (Acoust. J., 1985) made calculations of the correlation characteristics of the fluctuations of noise intensity in an acoustic waveguide for scattering from small irregularities in its upper boundary. On the basis of the theory of radiation transfer, N. N. Galybin and V. A. Samokhin (Acoust. J., 1994) developed an algorithm and a computer code for calculations of the incoherent component of a low-frequency sound field propagating in a subsurface ocean channel with a rough upper boundary. Estimates of the coherence parameter along a 1000-km path were compared with the experimental data. As applied to the conditions of an Arctic waveguide with rough ice cover, V. M. Kudryashov carried out calculations of the spatial response of a vertical receiving array (Acoust. J., 1997) and numerical experiments in acoustic halinometry (monitoring of the upper ocean salinity using acoustics) along an Arctic basin path (Acoust. J., 2000). The paper by F. I. Kryazhev, V. M. Kudryashov (Acoust. J., 2001) presents the results of numerical modeling of the total and coherent sound fields in an

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irregular Arctic waveguide. Calculations are based on the method of coupled normal modes. Features of the spatial structure of the coherence parameter were calculated. The results of experimental investigations of fluctuations in angle and time of arrival, as well as of correlation characteristics of acoustic noise signals reflected from a rough ocean surface in a convergence zone, and comparison of the experimental data with calculations done within the scope of a ray model (V. M. Frolov, Acoust. J., 1985) are presented in the work by O. P. Galkin and V. M. Frolov (Acoust. J., 1986; Shipbuilding Issues, ser. Acoustics, 1988). The space-time structure of an acoustic field of a subsurface source in a near-surface channel was experimentally investigated by D. A. Piskunov (Acoust. J., 1992) and V. V. Artelny et al. (Shipbuilding Issues, Acoustics, 1988). The scope of acoustic tomography of a rough ocean surface was discussed in the paper by I. B. Burlakova et al. (Acoust. J., 1988). In view of the very complicated calculations of acoustic field characteristics for multiple scattering from boundary irregularities in an acoustic waveguide, a technique for calculation of an acoustic field near a rough surface based on a simplified phenomenological approach was proposed in the paper by V. A. Zverev and M. M. Slavinskiy (Acoust. J., 1997). In terms of theory, the problems connected with sound backscattering from a rough ocean surface in the range of angles significantly differing from the direction of specular reflection, in a full-wave formulation, were apparently first posed in the work by F. G. Bass, who obtained, in a MSP approximation, an expression for the scattered field intensity describing the effect of resonance scattering from a statistically rough surface. It is convenient to use the scattering coefficient for describing the scattering strength from rough boundaries (Yu. P. Lysanov, I. B. Andreyeva and S. D. Chuprov, in Ocean Acoustics (Akustika okeana), 1974). Yu. P. Lysanov studied the features of the scattering coefficient in the Fraunhofer zone (Acoust. J., 1972), and proposed a method for determining indicatrices of scattering from statistically rough surfaces using experimental data on the angular dependence of the backscattering coefficient (Acoust. J., 1973). Yu. P. Lysanov (Acoust. J., 1973) also carried out calculations of the angular and the frequency characteristics of the low-frequency sound backscattering coefficient using models of

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the two-dimensional spatial spectrum of surface waves. The results of experimental investigation of sound backscattering from regular sinusoidal and irregular roughness in a laboratory tank were presented in the papers by V. I. Zeldis, A. I. Kalmykov, and A. D. Rozenberg (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1967). Investigations confirmed the presence of selective scattering (the spatial resonance effect). The influence of large waves on the tank surface caused amplitude and phase modulation of the scattered signal, additional frequency shift and widening of the frequency spectrum. In a series of studies, on the basis of theoretical (V. P. Glotov and Yu. P. Lysanov, Acoust. J., 1968) and experimental (I. B. Andreyeva, Oceanology, 1966, 1967; Trans. USSR Acad. Sci., ser. Atm. Ocean. Phys., 1969; I. B. Andreyeva and Ye. G. Kharatyan, Acoust. J., 1966) investigations of sound backscattering, the input from different types of scatterers (surface roughness, air bubbles appearing in the subsurface layer in the presence of wind waves, sound-scattering layers) was estimated at different frequencies, depths, distances and for different wind velocities. An important role in the studies of sound backscattering from an ocean surface was played by a two-scale surface scattering model proposed by B. F. Kuryanov. According to this model, scattering takes place from small irregularities, such as ripples, present on a surface with large irregularities. However, difficulties arise in the application of this model in explaining the results of experimental investigations of backscattering, due to ambiguity of separating a real, continuous spatial spectrum into two parts corresponding to large irregularities and ripples. In their calculations of backscattering energy characteristics within the scope of this two-scale model, N. N. Galybin (Acoust. J., 1976; Shipbuilding Issues, ser. Acoustics, 1977), I. B. Andreyeva, N. N. Galybin, and L. I. Shatova (Acoust. J., 1978), used the Rozenberg– Leikin spectrum for short gravity waves (ripples). This spectrum was obtained in the work by V. I. Zeldis, I. A. Leikin, A. D. Rozenberg, and V. G. Ruskevich (Acoust. J., 1973, 1974) in investigations of amplitude and phase characteristics of acoustic signals scattered from a rough water surface. The calculated results agreed with the experimental angular dependences of backscattering coefficients for not too small grazing angles, obtained with the use of explosive sound sources.

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Investigations of backscattering at small grazing angles were carried out by Yu. M. Zhidko (Acoust. J., 1979) and by I. B. Andreyeva, A. V. Volkova, and N. N. Galybin (Acoust. J., 1980). In the work by Ye. A. Kopyl (Trans. USSR Acad. Sci. ser. Atm. Ocean Phys., 1975; Shipbuilding Issues, ser. Acoustics, 1977), the effect of the deviation of the maximum of the scattering indicatrix from the direction of specular reflection in the case of small grazing angles in the presence of shadowing was studied theoretically and experimentally. Displacement of the maximum of the indicatrix of sound scattering from a rough ocean surface was estimated in the paper by Yu. P. Lysanov (Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci., 1978). The shape of the indicatrix of sound scattering from large surface irregularities under shadowing conditions was studied in the paper by Ye. A. Kopyl and S. D. Chuprov (Trans. USSR Acad. Sci. ser. Atm. Ocean Phys., 1980). Analysis of the results of investigations of sound backscattering from rough ocean surface was made by I. B. Andreyeva in the review papers (Shipbuilding Issues, ser. Acoustics, 1977; Ocean Acoustics, State of the Art, 1982). The paper by Ye. A. Kopyl (Problems of Ocean Acoustics, 1984) treats an algorithm for the scattering indicatrix calculation which is based on a two-scale model of the scattering surface and describes the scattering intensity both for the specular reflection region and for directions differing significantly from the specular direction. The calculated angular dependences of the backscattering coefficient agree with the experimental data obtained by I. B. Andreyeva, N. N. Galybin, and Ye. A. Kopyl (Mar. Instrum. Eng. Acoust., 1972), N. N. Galybin (1976) and Ye. A. Kopyl (Shipbuilding Issues, ser. Acoustics, 1980). V. V. Goncharov and V. V. Krasnoborodko (Trans. USSR Acad. Sci. ser. Atm. Ocean Phys., 1984) obtained data on the presence of horizontal anisotropy of sound scattering from an ocean surface. L. S. Dolin et al. (Acoust. J., 1985) studied the characteristics of amplitude-modulated acoustic signals backscattering from the sea surface. The results of experimental investigations of the spectral characteristics of sound backscattering from the ocean surface, particularly for azimuthal dependence of frequency spectra, are given in the papers by I. M. Fuks (Acoust. J., 1974), I. B. Andreyeva, A. V. Volkova, and Ye. A. Kopyl (Acoust. J., 1983; Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci., 1986) and A. V. Volkova and Ye. A. Kopyl (Acoust. J.,

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1992). The results of investigations of frequency spectra of acoustic signals scattered from wind waves and swell on the ocean surface and the feasibility of acoustic remote sensing of the frequency-angular spectra of surface waves with transmission and reception by a vertical linear array are discussed in the papers by N. S. Gorskaya and M. A. Rayevsky (Acoust. J., 1987, 1989, 1990). N. N. Galybin (Acoust. J., 1986) developed a mathematical model of sound backscattering from ocean surface roughness for the characteristics of real wind waves within the scope of a two-scale model for the spatial spectrum of the surface elevation. The calculated angular dependences of the scattering coefficient at different wind velocities are quite close to the experimental dependences obtained by other researchers in the frequency range from hundreds of Hz to 10 kHz. The frequency-angular spectrum of the reradiated and scattered field, within the scope of a two-scale model of surface roughness due to developed wind waves, was calculated and compared with the experimental results in the work by Ye. A. Kopyl (Ocean Medium Acoustics, 1989). Analysis of the shape of the scattering indicatrix for small values of the Rayleigh parameter and approximate analytical estimates of angular width and angular position of indicatrix maximums are given in the paper by A. V. Belousov, Ye. A. Kopyl, and Yu. P. Lysanov (Acoust. J., 1989). Numerical simulations of the indicatrix of sound scattering from developed isotropic wind waves described by the Pearson–Neumann spectrum were carried out using the small slope method by M. Yu. Galaktionov (Acoust. J., 1991). A. V. Volkova, M. Yu. Galaktionov, and Ye. A. Kopyl (Acoust. J., 1994) compared the small slope method and the two-scale model as applied to the calculation of the indicatrix of sound scattering from ocean surface. It was shown that sections of the indicatrices for the whole range of angles in the horizontal and vertical planes calculated by the two methods are quite close. L. M. Lyamshev (Acoust. J., 2001; Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci., 2001) established that high-frequency ocean surface reverberation over a broad range of ocean waves variability displays fractal properties. The frequency dependence of reverberation is governed by a fractional-exponent power law. In investigating far-field surface reverberation, multi-path (multimode) signal propagation with multiple reflections and scattering

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along the paths from the source to a scattering area of a rough surface, and from this area on to the receiver, must be taken into account. Use may be made of the ray approximation for acoustic waves of a sufficiently high-frequency. In the paper by I. B. Andreyeva and V. N. Goncharov (Problems of Ocean Acoustics, 1984), methods of calculation of multi-path reverberation, with account for refraction, are discussed, and an algorithm is developed for numerical simulation of monostatic and bistatic reverberation. The reverberation is taken to be due to backscattering from the ocean surface and seafloor and from volume inhomogeneities. Each ray contact with a surface is described by a scattering coefficient calculated for the case of single-path acoustic signal propagation. The scattered fields arriving along different paths add incoherently. Comparisons of the results of numerical reverberation level calculations and the experimental data were carried out. Calculations of surface reverberation for waveguide propagation in a single scattering approximation, in the mode representation, are given in the paper by D. I. Abrosimov and L. S. Dolin (Acoust. J., 1981). The papers by D. I. Abrosimov et al. (Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci., 1988) present experimental data on far-field reverberation under conditions of a deep-sea ocean waveguide. The results of experimental investigations of low-frequency far-field surface reverberation in the northwestern part of the Pacific Ocean under conditions of a subsurface waveguide are presented in the papers by I. B. Burlakova et al. (Ocean Medium Acoustics, 1989), V. S. Averbakh et al. (Acoust. J., 1990) and D. I. Abrosimov et al. (Acoust. J., 1995). Investigations have also been done on ocean pre-reverberation of sound. In experiments with explosive sources in the subsurface sound channel, before the arrival of pulses corresponding to the measured sound velocity profile, a continuous signal, which was named “sound pre-reverberation,” was observed. This phenomenon was discovered by N. V. Studenichnik (9th All-Union Conf. Acoust., 1977). The theory of pre-reverberation was developed in the works by L. M. Brekhovskikh, Yu. P. Lysanov, and N. V. Studenichnik (Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci., 1978) and L. M. Brekhovskikh and Yu. P. Lysanov (Fundamentals of Ocean Acoustics, 1991, 2003). Pre-reverberation occurs as a result of the propagation of sound pulses along nonspecular paths that exist

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due to scattering from a rough sea surface. The time dependence of the intensity of high-frequency sound pre-reverberation in the ocean was investigated in the paper by Yu. P. Lysanov and V. M. Frolov (Acoust. J., 2000). Estimates of time and angle of arrival of low-frequency surface pre-reverberation in the ocean are given in the paper by Ye. A. Kopyl and Yu. P. Lysanov (Ocean Acoustics, 2000). 4. Fluctuations due to Scattering from Ocean Volume Inhomogeneities (Calculations and Experiments); Volume Reverberation Theoretical research into acoustic signal fluctuations in randomly inhomogeneous media started from the well-known works by V. A. Krasilnikov, A. M. Obukhov, L. A. Chernov, and V. I. Tatarsky published between 1945 and 1959. With the use of the MSD (Rytov’s method) discussed previously, these researchers calculated the dependences of magnitudes of amplitude and phase fluctuations on distance, frequency, the dimensions of the inhomogeneities, and the magnitude of the refractive-index inhomogeneities. Results were generalized in the monographs by L. A. Chernov (1958) and V. I. Tatarsky (1959). These books initiated the appearance of a great number of publications related to acoustic and electromagnetic wave propagation in different natural, randomly inhomogeneous, media. With reference to ocean acoustics, the works by V. N. Karavainikov (Acoust. J., 1957) on studies of spherical wave amplitude and phase fluctuations, V. M. Komissarov (Acoust. J., 1964; Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1968) who carried out calculations of amplitude and phase fluctuations and their correlation in an homogeneous medium with random anisotropic inhomogeneities and in a layered randomly inhomogeneous medium, V. A. Zverev who estimated the effect of directivity of a receiving array on mean intensity of the received scattering field (Acoust. J., 1957) and proposed, jointly with L. A. Zhestyannikov, a modulation method for measuring the spatial spectrum of random medium inhomogeneities (Trans. Inst. Acoust., 1967) are worth notice. F. G. Bass and A. V. Men (Acoust. J., 1963) carried out calculations of the spatial correlation of wave fluctuations in the case of a point source and infinite turbulent

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medium in the MSD approximation. Different problems related to the calculation of fluctuations in random media were discussed in the papers by N. G. Denisov, V. A. Zverev and N. G. Denisov, and L. N. Polyanin (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1959), Yu. A. Ryzhov and E. P. Lapteva (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1960), Yu. A. Ryzhov (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1962), and V. I. Tatarsky (monograph, 1967). The first complex ocean experimental studies of the relation between observed signal fluctuations and random sound velocity inhomogeneities were carried out in the Black Sea by a group lead by G. I. Priimak in 1954–1957. Investigations of random fine structure of the ocean medium (G. I. Priimak, Trans. USSR Acad. Sci. Ser. Geophys., 1961) showed that in approximately 30% of the cases the observed inhomogeneities resemble locally isotropic turbulence. In one of the papers by G. I. Priimak (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1961), for the first time the issue was raised of the possible role of sound scattering from layered inhomogeneities in the sea as it relates to penetration of the sound field into a geometrical shadow zone. In 1958–1960, experimental investigation of acoustic signal fluctuations was carried out in the Black Sea by E. P. Gulin and K. I. Malyshev in the frequency range of 4–36 kHz. According to the results of this research, which was published much later (Acoust. J., 1997), direct signal amplitude fluctuations for emission of short-tone pulses increased with distance, in accordance with L. A. Chernov’s theory and the observed depth-averaged values of the intensity of the sound-speed fluctuations. Experiments were carried out in winter under conditions of a weakly pronounced layering. Investigation of temperature inhomogeneities carried out in that period revealed a cloudy structure of inhomogeneities with a big variation in the intensity of temperature fluctuations with depth. In the course of transmission and reception below the thermocline, under conditions of an underwater sound channel (summer period of observations), amplitude fluctuations at the low acoustic frequencies were practically absent at distances up to 40 km, and increased with distance for higher frequencies, though still small. Temperature fluctuations under these conditions remained near the limit of detectability.

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The results of ocean investigations of fluctuations of the acoustic field and random inhomogeneities in the sound speed are presented in the papers by R. F. Shvachko (Acoust. J., 1963, 1967; Ocean Acoustics. State of the Art, 1982), V. S. Gostev and R. F. Shvachko (Trans. USSR Acad. Sci. ser. Atm. Ocean Phys., 1969), B. P. Tarakanov and R. F. Shvachko (Trans. Inst. Acoust., 1970), V. S. Gostev, B. P. Tarakanov, and R. F. Shvachko (8th Conf. Acoust., 1973), S. D. Chuprov and R. F. Shvachko (in Ocean Acoustics, 1974). Based on the results of their investigations, the authors concluded that isotropic inhomogeneities due to turbulence and having sizes up to several meters prevail in the upper, mixed layer of the ocean while at greater depths larger anisotropic inhomogeneities and quasi-homogeneous layers appear that determine the stochastic fine structure in the index of refraction. The results of experiments carried out in convergence and near-field illuminated zones in different regions of the world ocean are satisfactorily described by this model. In later investigations, along with turbulence, internal gravity waves and fine structure of the water column were regarded as contributing to the random medium inhomogeneities. In a series of studies of turbulent media by F. M. Bakhareva (Radio Eng. Electron., 1959, 1961), V. A. Yeliseyevnin (MSU Bull. Phys. Astron., 1969, 1970), and I. M. Fuks (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1974; Radio Eng. Electron., 1975), calculations were carried out using MSD of the frequency correlation of amplitude and phase fluctuations of plane and spherical waves at a single reception point and at separated reception points lying across, and along the propagation path. Using the same method, I. P. Lukin (Acoust. J., 1978) studied space-time correlations and frequency spectra of phase fluctuations and log-amplitude fluctuations of frequency-separated waves reflected from a plane mirror in a randomly inhomogeneous medium as well as the mutual correlation of wave field fluctuations along direct and reflected paths. A 4-point coherence function of frequency-separated waves for weak and strong fluctuations of field intensity in a turbulent medium was studied in the papers by V. U. Zavorotny; V. Kan; A. S. Gurvich and V. Kan (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1979). Calculations of longitudinal and transverse spatial and temporal spectra of fluctuations of the plane wave amplitude

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and phase in a randomly inhomogeneous medium with large-scale turbulent pulsations of velocity were carried out by A. G. Shustikov (Acoust. J., 1991) in a MSD approximation. N. G. Kuznetsova and S. A. Rybak (Acoust. J., 1994) carried out calculations of the energy flux distribution between modes of a waveguide with random microinhomogeneities. A great number of theoretical and experimental investigations are dedicated to the study of the effect of internal gravity waves on acoustic signals. The first theoretical estimates of the effect of internal waves on sound scattering at sea were made by G. D. Malyuzhinets (Acoust. J., 1959) who, applying the MSP in a single scattering approximation, obtained an expression for the mean intensity of a field backscattering from a rough interface of two media differing in their index of refraction. Calculation was carried out of the coefficient of scattering from a rough boundary that modeled a thermocline perturbed by an internal wave. The same model was used by E. P. Gulin (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1962) in calculations of the intensity of the fluctuations in amplitude and phase of a reflected sound wave. The results obtained also apply to a thin transition layer. Estimates of fluctuations are given for the case of scattering from a two-dimensional quasi-harmonic internal wave moving along and across the sound propagation path. Laboratory studies of the passage of an acoustic signal across a liquid–liquid interface along which an internal gravity wave propagated, and backscattering from the internal wave were carried out by A. N. Barkhatov and Yu. N. Cherkashin (Acoust. J., 1962, 1963). Acoustic signal amplitude variations caused by short-period internal waves were observed under natural conditions in the Norwegian Sea by S. D. Chuprov (Trans. USSR Acad. Sci. ser. Atm. Ocean Phys., 1966). Ray calculations connected with the evaluation of the effect of highfrequency internal waves on a sound field in the ocean were carried out by O. P. Galkin and L. V. Tregubova (Trans. Inst. Acoust., 1970), V. A. Polyanskaya (Acoust. J., 1974), V. A. Polyanskaya and Ye. G. Kharatyan (Acoust. J., 1975), and O. P. Galkin (Shipbuilding Issues, ser. Acoustics, 1978). Calculations were carried out for a three-dimensional case and a sinusoidal internal wave having a depth-dependent amplitude within

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the thermocline. Scattering from separate internal wave trains was also studied. The results of numerical simulations showed that additional caustics and secondary irradiated zones may appear when an internal wave is present. Analysis of applicability of the Garrett–Munk model of internal waves under various conditions, and systematization of the results of studies of fluctuations caused by internal waves were carried out in review papers by K. D. Sabinin and V. M. Kurtepov (Ocean Acoustics, State of the Art, 1982). As far as theory of sound scattering by internal waves is concerned, in addition to the articles discussed in the second section on the development of the fundamentals of the theory of multiple scattering in randomly inhomogeneous media, it is worth noting the works by A. A. Moiseyev (Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci., 1982; Acoust. J., 1984, 1987), V. V. Borodin (Acoustic Waves in the Ocean, 1978), A. G. Sazontov and V. A. Farfel (Acoust. J., 1988), in which, on the basis of a ray approach that accounts for multiple scattering, calculations were carried out of the fluctuations in phase, travel time, and angle of arrival of rays in the vertical and horizontal planes in a three-dimensional randomly inhomogeneous medium with internal waves described by the Garrett–Munk spectrum. The calculational procedure is based on the perturbation theory for ray equations in a curvilinear coordinate system (V. A. Baranov, Yu. A. Kravtsov, Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1975; G. V. Permitin and A. A. Fraiman, Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1980). In the paper by A. N. Nekrasov (Acoust. J., 1988), a simplified three-dimensional ray algorithm was proposed for calculating the effect of a train of high-frequency internal waves on the sound field of a point source in the ocean. The paper by A. L. Virovlyanskiy, A. G. Kosterin, and A. N. Malakhov (Acoust. J., 1989) gives the results of numerical calculations of the dependences of the mean level of the field, the dispersion of phase fluctuations, and the cross-correlation of high-order modes undergoing constructive interference on the path length for realistic conditions of a deepocean waveguide perturbed by internal waves. N. G. Kuznetsova and S. A. Rybak (Acoust. J., 1990) made calculations of the mean sound field scattered from randomly moving inhomogeneities and internal waves in a waveguide. V. M. Kuzkin (Acoust. J., 1996) and B. G. Katsnelson and S. A. Pereselkov (Acoust. J., 1997, 1998, 2000) performed

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calculations of horizontal refraction of acoustic rays by internal waves and of the intensity of the sound field and resonance effects for a field scattering from internal wave packets in a shallow sea. In a series of works, calculations were made with allowance for directional characteristics of the source and receiver. V. A. Eliseyevnin (Acoust. J., 1979) calculated fluctuations in the plane wave arrival angle in a turbulent medium taking into account the aperture dimensions of the receiving device (i.e., a linear array). In the paper by V. V. Artelny and M. A. Rayevsky (Acoust. J., 1989), amplitude-phase fluctuations of modes excited by a distributed source (a linear array) in a stochastic waveguide with large-scale inhomogeneities are discussed. The papers by A. N. Malakhov, A. G. Kosterin, D. V. Sholin (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1991) and A. G. Kosterin and D. V. Sholin (Acoust. J., 1991) give mean values, a correlation matrix and energy spectra of the field in a multimode waveguide with large-scale inhomogeneities and internal waves for a distributed sound source, particularly for a source with a field distribution described by the shape function of a normal mode of the regular waveguide. In the papers by A. G. Sazontov and V. A. Farfel (Acoust. J., 1990, 1991) mean values and fluctuation characteristics of the spatial response of a horizontal array in an ocean multimode waveguide with internal waves were calculated. In the papers by Ye. Yu. Gorodetskaya et al. (Acoust. J., 1996), and N. K. Vdovicheva et al. (Acoust. J., 1997), with the use of a transport equation for different spectral models of random inhomogeneities, including the Garrett–Munk model, calculations were carried out of the coherence function of signals received by an array with finite aperture, and of horizontal and vertical array gain against a background of anisotropic noise. This was done for the partially coherent signals observed in the north-eastern part of the Pacific Ocean and for different methods of spatial processing. A. G. Sazontov (Acoust. J., 1989) analyzed an equation for a two-frequency mutual coherence function of the sound field and studied the problem of narrow-band pulsed signal propagation in chaotically inhomogeneous ocean in the extreme cases of weak and strong fluctuations. The results of experimental investigations of signal fluctuations along stationary paths in the presence of internal waves are given in

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the papers by F. V. Bunkin et al. (Acoust. J., 1984), Yu. A. Kravtsov, V. G. Petnikov, and A. Yu. Shmelev (Acoust. J., 1986), V. I. Babii et al. (Ocean Medium Acoustics (Akustika okeanskoi sredy), 1989), L. F. Bondar et al. (Acoust. J., 1994, 1996), N. G. Borisov et al. (Acoust. J., 1994). S. V. Borisov N. F. Kabanov, and A. N. Rutenko (Acoust. J., 1996), A. N. Rutenko (Acoust. J., 1997, 1999, 2003), K. F. Konyaev et al. (Acoust. J., 1998), A. M. Derzhavin and A. G. Semyonov (Acoust. J., 2001). Paths selected for experiments differed in length (from a few kilometers up to 600 kilometers) and were located in the Black Sea (the Crimea–Caucasus path off Sukhumi), the Barents Sea, and the shelf zone of the Sea of Japan. Experiments were carried out with monochromatic and pseudo-random signals, with carrier frequencies varying from tens to hundreds of Hertz. Experiments on sound backscattering from internal waves in the ocean are discussed in the paper by A. A. Aredov, N. N. Galybin, and A. V. Furduyev (Acoust. J., 1993). In the paper by B. F. Kuryanov et al. (Acoust. J., 1995), prospects for acoustic tomography of internal waves in the ocean are discussed. S. I. Muyakshin, D. A. Selivanovsky, and A. Yu. Sokolov (Problems of Ocean Acoustics, 1984) put forward new acoustic diagnostic methods of internal waves and air bubles in the sea (Acoust. J., 1986). N. N. Galybin and A. N. Serebryaniy (Acoust. J., 1997) proposed the use of sound backscattering from the water surface as a tool for investigating internal waves in the ocean. Analysis of experimental data on the acoustical characteristics of fine-structure inhomogeneities in the ocean was carried out in the work by V. S. Gostev and R. F. Shvachko (Problems of Ocean Acoustics, 1984). Results of statistical processing of random perturbations of vertical profiles of the sound speed in tropical regions of the Atlantic Ocean enabled evaluation of the degree of sound scattering for a model of layered, horizontally oriented inhomogeneities (S. N. Gurbatov and B. G. Shchemelev, Acoust. J., 1982). Calculations of the scattered field for propagation in an inhomogeneous ocean with horizontally stretched random inhomogeneities were also carried out by A. L. Virovlyanskiy, A. I. Saichev, and M. M. Slavinskiy (Trans. High. School — Radiophys., 1985) and Ye. Z. Gribova, A. I. Saichev (Acoust. J., 1993). The acoustical effects of fine structure in the sound speed, in particular

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the expansion of convergence zones, were discussed in the papers by I. G. Malkina (Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci., 1977), Yu. P. Lysanov and A. M. Plotkin (Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci., 1987; Acoust. J., 1987), A. N. Zhukov et al. (Acoust. J., 1989). Fine-structure leads to the penetration of sound from a caustic zone to the geometrical shadow zone. The papers by V. S. Gostev and R. F. Shvachko (Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci., 1985; Acoust. J., 1985), V. S. Gostev et al. (Ocean Medium Acoustics, 1989), V. S. Gostev, L. N. Nosova, and R. F. Shvachko (Acoust. J., 1994) give experimental data on the structure of acoustic signals observed in the shadow zone, and offer analysis of diffraction effects which could lead to the illumination of geometrical shadow zones. In investigating the space-time structure of the field in shadow zones, use was made of the time delay spectrometry method and directional reception in the vertical plane (S. V. Burenkov et al., 1995), and explosive sources (V. S. Gostev, L. N. Nosova, and R. F. Shvachko, Acoust. J., 1998). This gave the opportunity to separate subsurface and microchannel leakages caused by medium inhomogeneities (E. V. Zhitkovskaya, Trans. USSR Acad. Sci. ser. Atm. Ocean Phys., 1969; L. M. Brekhovskikh in Ocean Acoustics, 1974), ocean bottomsurface reflections, and re-radiation of the signal into the shadow zone by highly anisotropic, layered fine-structure inhomogeneities at the angle of specular reflection in caustic zones. In the papers by V. S. Gostev and R. F. Shvachko (Acoust. J., 1998, 2001), the methods of calculation of characteristics of a field scattered from fine structure into the geometrical shadow zone were discussed, and comparison was made of the effect under consideration in the tropical and subtropical regions of the ocean. For acoustic diagnostics of fine-structure inhomogeneities, particularly for determining their horizontal scale, use may be made of vertical and horizontal portions of the angular spectra of the field in the geometrical shadow zones (V. S. Gostev, L. N. Nosova, and R. F. Shvachko, Acoust. J., 1998) as well as of the results of experimental evaluation of additional attenuation in the underwater sound channel caused by transmission of the scattered field beyond the channel boundaries (Yu. P. Lysanov and I. A. Sazonov, Acoust. J., 1993, 1994).

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Investigations in recent years have shown that pre-reverberation, discussed previously, takes place also in the deep-water acoustic channel (V. S. Gostev, R. F. Shvachko, Ocean Acoustics, GEOS, 1998, 2000; Acoust. J., 1999; N. V. Studenichnik, Acoust. J., 2002). The effects of illumination of geometrical shadow zones and pre-reverberation have identitcal characteristics, being caused by scattering from finestructure. A relationship has been established between scattering in caustic zones in a subsurface acoustic waveguide and the observed volume pre-reverberation (V. S. Gostev and R. F. Shvachko, Acoust. J., 2000). A series of works carried out by O. P. Galkin, Ye. A. Kharchenko, and L. V. Shvachko (Trans. 9th All-Union Conf. Acoust., 1977; Shipbuilding Issues, ser. Acoustics, 1978), O. P. Galkin, S. D. Pankova; O. P. Galkin, and Ye. A. Kharchenko (Shipbuilding Issues, ser. Acoustics, 1982), O. P. Galkin (Ocean Acoustics, State of the Art, 1982), O. P. Galkin et al. (Problems of Ocean Acoustics, 1984) is dedicated to experimental investigations of the variability of sound field fine-structure (angular and time spectra of received signals). Results were presented of studies of horizontal and vertical cross-sections of the angular spectrum of the field, as well as the cross-correlation of transmitted pseudo-noise signals with those received along different rays. To ensure better agreement between the calculated and the experimental data, it was proposed to attribute some “thickness” (or Fresnel volume) to rays with big focusing factors. In the later works by O. P. Galkin and S. D. Pankova (Acoust. J., 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999), experimental data on spatial coherence, time and angular structure of the field in deep-sea regions of the Atlantic Ocean (the tropical and the Gulf Stream regions), the Indian and the Pacific Oceans at ranges from 50 to 700 km, are given. Measurements were carried out in convergence zones in the frequency band from several hundred to 4 kHz with the use of pseudo-random signals, at transmitted bandwidths of about 500 Hz in the majority of the experiments. It was shown that use of pencil-ray receiving arrays with high angular resolution in the vertical plane (2–2.5◦ ) allows significant reduction of the effect of scattering from random ocean medium inhomogeneities. At the same time, in the range of arrival angles of the refracted rays (as opposed to surface

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and/or bottom reflected rays) sufficiently high coherence is preserved between signals received in different convergence zones and in different oceans (in the same convergence zones), particularly in the case of completely resolved rays. As in the geometrical shadow zones, arrival of signals not allowed within the framework of the plane-layered ocean model was observed in convergence zones. The first comprehensive investigations of acoustic reverberation at sea were carried out by Yu. M. Sukharevsky (Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci., 1947, 1948). For calculating the reverberation energy characteristics, a model of random discrete scatterers was chosen as the most suitable for describing volume reverberation from soundscattering layers and surface reverberation from air bubbles in a subsurface layer. Calculations of reverberation intensity were carried out with account for attenuation caused by medium absorption, scattering and absorption by discrete inhomogeneities (air bubbles). An expression for the total intensity of volume and surface reverberation for weakly scattering deep-sea layers and a strongly scattering surface layer was obtained. Deep-sea experiments showed a decrease in reverberation level with increase in submersion depth of the source and the receiver, particularly when the main lobe of the receiver directivity pattern is directed downward at a large angle to the horizontal plane. This observation confirms the prevailing role of scattering in the subsurface sea layer. In one of the works by Yu. M. Sukharevsky, some features of a random process of fluctuations in the reverberation envelope were studied. The approach used was further developed by V. V. Olshevsky (Acoust. J., 1963; 1964; monograph, 1966), who theoretically and experimentally investigated the probability distribution function of the reverberation envelope for different concentrations of scatterers, reverberation time correlation, and frequency spectra within the scope of a random, discrete scatterer model. With the use of this model, calculations were carried out of the space-time correlation of the reverberation (V. P. Antonov and V. V. Olshevsky, Acoust. J., 1965; V. V. Olshevsky, 6th All-Union Conf. Acoust., 1968), the effect of scatterers motion on statistical characteristics of reverberation and the solution of the inverse problem, as well as the effect of scatterer density on the probability

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distribution for the reverberation, were studied (V. V. Olshevsky, Trans. Inst. Acoust., 1967). Current frequency–time correlation of irradiated signal and reverberation was studied (V. V. Olshevsky, Acoust. J., 1969). Autocorrelation function and frequency spectrum of reverberation for frequency-modulated transmitted signals were calculated (B. I. Shotsky, Trans. First All-Union Workhop Stat. Hydroacoust., 1970; Acoust. J., 1971). Sea reverberation intensity (N. G. Gatkin et al., Acoust. J., 1969) and its correlation characteristics for single frequency (B. M. Beskorovainyi and G. B. Galanenko, Acoust. J., 1972) and broadband (A. A. Belousov et al., Trans. 7th All-Union Symp. “Methods of Representation and Instrumental Analysis of Random Processes and Oscillations,” 1974) transmitted signals in case of spatially separated source and receiver were studied. Calculations of autocorrelation function of reverberation for nonmonochromatic signals (K. I. Malyshev, Trans. Inst. Acoust., 1967), time and space correlation function for narrow-band radiation and for explosive sound sources (G. I. Ovchinnikov, Trans. Inst. Acoust., 1968), space-time correlation function of reverberation from sound-scattering layers for narrow-band signals (T. A. Moroz, 8th All-Union Conf. Acoust., 1973; Trans. 4th All-Union Workhop Stat. Hydroacoust., 1973) were carried out within the scope of the distributed scatterers (i.e., index of refraction variations) model on the basis of L. A. Chernov’s theory (1958) in a single scattering approximation. Here, along with the case of weak index of refraction fluctuations, the case of strong fluctuations was considered (T. A. Moroz, Trans. 7th All-Union Symp. “Methods of Representation and Instrumental Analysis of Random Processes and Oscillations,” 1974). Energy characteristics of sea reverberation were discussed in the works by O. P. Kudryavtseva and V. V. Olshevsky; A. A. Belousov, and V. V. Belous (Trans.7th All-Union Workhop Stat. Hydroacoust., 1975) with account for the influence of reflecting boundaries. The methods of calculation of far-field, multi-path reverberation taking into account volume reverberation caused by sound-scattering layers, surface and seafloor reverberation, as well as comparison of calculational results with experimental data on far-field volume reverberation, were discussed in the papers by I. B. Andreyeva and V. N. Goncharov (Problems of Ocean Acoustics, 1984), V. N. Goncharov, and L. A. Ivanitskaya (Acoust. J.,

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1988), M. Yu. Andreyev and I. B. Andreyeva (Ocean Medium Acoustics, 1989). Calculations of backscattering from sound-scattering layers in the presence of an underwater acoustic channel were carried out by B. I. Klyachin (Acoust. J., 1987). The issue of the contribution of sound scattering from air bubbles in a subsurface layer to the observed surface reverberation at different frequencies, different grazing angles and wind velocities was discussed in the papers by I. B. Andreyeva and Ye. G. Kharatyan (Acoust. J., 1966), I. B. Andreyeva (Oceanology, 1967; Shipbuilding Issues, ser. Acoustics, 1977; Ocean Acoustics, State of the Art, 1982), V. P. Glotov and Yu. P. Lysanov (Acoust. J., 1968), I. B. Andreyeva, N. N. Galybin, and Ye. A. Kopyl (Mar. Instrum. Eng., Acous., 1972), and P. A. Kolobayev (Shipbuilding Issues, ser. Acoustics, 1977), N. N. Galybin (ibid.). These papers give both the theoretical estimates of the scattering coefficient, and the measurement results. The features of behavior of surface reverberation from air bubbles at high-ultrasonic frequencies (500 kHz) were studied by A. P. Aleksandrov and E. S. Vaindruk (Trans. 4th All-Union Workhop Stat. Hydroacoust., 1973). The results of echo sounding observation of air bubbles near sea surface at high-ultrasonic frequencies were presented in the papers by S. I. Muyakshin, D. A. Selivanovsky, and A. Yu. Sokolov (Problems of Ocean Acoustics, 1984) and A. B. Yezerskiy, B. M. Sandler, and D. A. Selivanovsky (Acoust. J., 1989). The papers by V. A. Akulichev, V. A. Bulanov, and S. A. Klenin (Acoust. J., 1986) and V. A. Bulanov (Ocean Acoustics, GEOS, 1998) present the results of theoretical and experimental investigations of pulsed acoustic signals backscattering from ocean volume micro-inhomogeneities, including air bubbles, and the results of measurements of the concentration of air bubbles and their distribution by size obtained by the method of nonstationary sound-scattering. In the experiments, narrow-beam parametric acoustic sources were used. The average size distribution of bubbles at different depths measured in the subtropical waters of the northern part of the Pacific Ocean was obtained. The Q factor of gas bubbles in ocean water was determined. A. D. Lapin (Acoust. J., 1998) calculated scattering and absorption cross-sections of a gas bubble in a homogeneous liquid layer.

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On the basis of studies of nonlinear effects in water with gas (air) bubbles (Ye. A. Zabolotskaya and S. I. Soluyan, Acoust. J., 1972), new acoustical methods to determine gas bubble concentrations were proposed (V. A. Zverev et al., J. Techn. Phys., 1980; B. M. Sandler, D. A. Selivanovsky, and A. Yu. Sokolov, Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci., 1981), which are based on measuring the combination frequencies and harmonics at exposure of the bubble layer to sufficiently intensive ultrasound wave beam. It should be noted that an equation was derived in the paper by V. N. Alekseyev and S. A. Rybak (Acoust. J., 1995) describing intensive sound propagation in bubble media, and a general solution to this equation in the absence of dissipation was studied. A difference frequency method was used by I. D. Didenkulov, S. I. Muyakshin, and D. A. Selivanovsky (Ocean Acoustics, GEOS, 2002) to measure bubble concentration at sea in a subsurface layer. Data on the spatial distribution of bubbles forming horizontally quasi-periodical bubble plumes were given. Evolution of backscattering from a sheet of rising gas bubbles was analyzed by G. A. Maksimov and Ye. V. Sosedko (Ocean Acoustics, GEOS, 2002). The problems of nonlinear acoustic tomography of bubble clouds were discussed by I. A. Soustova, A. M. Sutin and S. V. Yuyun (Acoust. J., 1996). As numerous studies have shown, the principal contribution to volume reverberation is due to sound-scattering layers resulting from the accumulation of live organisms. Systematic investigations of soundscattering layers began in the USSR back in the 1950s by marine biologists. The papers by K. V. Beklemishev (Progress of Modern Biology, 1956), N. M. Voronina (Oceanology, 1962, 1964), and E. I. Musayeva (Oceanology, 1965) present experimental data on vertical distribution of sound-scattering fish and microplankton accumulations observed in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Investigation of deepwater sound-scattering properties of the layers based on the use of small, subsurface explosive charges provided an opportunity to gather information about the frequency dependences of characteristics of the sound-scattering layers (such as volume backscattering coefficient and layer strenghs) in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans at different depths and different times of the day (I. B. Andreyeva, Acoust. J., 1964; Oceanology, 1966, 1967, 1972, 1973; I. B. Andreyeva and Ye. G.

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Kharatyan, Acoust. J., 1966; I. B. Andreyeva and Yu. Yu. Zhitkovsky, Oceanology, 1968; N. I. Kashkina and Yu. T. Chindonova, Oceanology, 1971; V. G. Samovolkin, Oceanology, 1974, 1980; Shipbuilding Issues, ser. Acoustics, 1976). Along with remote sensing methods, a local method was used for measuring scattering cross-sections of the marine organisms in the sound-scattering layers (N. P. Prozorova, Trans. Inst. Acoust., 1967; Oceanology, 1972). The papers by Yu. T. Chindonova and V. A. Shulepov (Oceanology, 1965) and Ya. P. Makshtas and K. D. Sabinin (Oceanology, 1972) discuss a connection between depths of the sound-scattering layers and internal gravity waves in the ocean. Generalized data on the characteristics of ocean sound-scattering layers are presented in the monograph by I. B. Andreyeva, Physical Fundamentals of Sound Propagation in the Ocean (Fizicheskiye osnovy rasprostraneniya zvuka v okeane, 1975) and in the review papers by I. B. Andreyeva (in Ocean Acoustics, 1974; Ocean Acoustics The State of the Art, 1982), Yu. Yu. Zhitkovsky and V. A. Mozgovoi (Oceanology, 1980), I. B. Andreyeva and V. G. Samovolkin (Problems of Ocean Acoustics, 1984). The results of studies of sound scattering from accumulations of medusas and crustaceans are found in the papers by I. B. Andreyeva and L. L. Tarasov (Oceanology, 1984, 1985) and I. B. Andreyeva and D. P. Lysak (Oceanology, 1985). Generalized data of multiple laboratory measurements and model calculations of the scattering characteristics of small marine and fresh-water organisms are presented in the monograph by I. B. Andreyeva, V. G. Samovolkin (Acoustic Wave Scattering from Marine Organisms (Rasseyanie akusticheskikh voln na morshikh organizmakh), 1986). A series of experiments investigating the variability of the characteristics of the ocean sound-scattering layer, the effect of sound-scattering layers on volume scattering correlations and spectral characteristics, and the feasibility of retrieving migrating fish parameters in sound-scattering layers from scattered field spectra was carried out with the help of a deep-water acoustic system (V. A. Mozgovoi, Oceanology, 1985, 1986; Acoust. J., 1987). The results of investigations of fine structure of ocean soundscattering layers using a multi-beam echo sounder are given in the paper by A. S. Borisov et al. (Acoust. J., 1988); the results of a study

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of sound-scattering layers with the help of an underwater vehicle are found in the paper by A. F. Anoshkin, and V. K. Goncharov (Acoust. J., 1993). The acoustical properties of dense biological accumulations are studied in the papers by E. P. Babailov and A. A. Dubov (Acoust. J., 1989), I. B. Andreyeva et al. (Acoust. J., 1994), while the problem of the acceptability of the use of the single scattering approximation for scattering from accumulations of biota is discussed in the paper by I. B. Andreyeva and A. V. Belousov (Acoust. J., 1996). The problem of the effect of phytoplankton groupings on the formation of sound-scattering layers that strongly contribute to echo sounder volume reverberation at frequencies above 75 kHz was also discussed in the literature (B. M. Sandler, D. A. Selivanovsky, and P. A. Stunzhas, Acoust. J., 1993). Generalized data on the characteristics of scattering cross-sections of inhabitants of the ocean’s sound-scattering layers (i.e., fish with and without a swimming-bladder, crustaceans, and medusiform organisms) in the 2–20 kHz frequency range are given in the work by I. B. Andreyeva (Acoust. J., 1999) and I. B. Andreyeva, L. L. Tarasov (Ocean Acoustics, GEOS, 2002). Upper and lower bounds of the backscattering coefficient, layer strength, depth of layers and dependence of these parameters on acoustic frequency, time of the day, and geographical features are estimated. A computer database of acoustic intensity of soundscattering layers was formed on the basis of the results of experiments in the Central Atlantic (I. B. Andreyeva et al., Acoust. J., 2000). In the work by N. N. Galybin, L. L. Tarasov, and V. Ya. Tolkachev (Ocean Acoustics, GEOS, 2000) and I. B. Andreyeva et al. (Acoust. J., 2000) for the first time a map was constructed summarizing the spatial distribution of the strength of the sound-scattering layer in the day-time at 3–20 kHz for almost the whole of the deep-water part of the Atlantic Ocean. The most intensive scattering takes place in equatorial regions and in the littoral upwelling zone. On the basis of an extensive set of experimental data, a simplified model of the vertical characteristics of the sound-scattering layer consisting of several depth-separated tiers of scatterers was proposed. Model parameters depend both on the ocean conditions and the acoustic frequency. Rearrangement of this structure

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in the regions of ocean currents was noted (I. B. Andreyeva, N. N. Galybin, and L. L. Tarasov, Ocean Acoustics, GEOS, 2000). A physical model of sound reflection from a school of fish with account for its dynamic characteristics was constructed by A. A. Kleshchev (Ocean Acoustics, GEOS, 2000). According to the data obtained in the course of an experimental study by V. A. Akulichev, V. A. Bulanov, and P. N. Popov (Ocean Acoustics, GEOS, 2000) in the subtropical part of the Pacific Ocean, the spectrum of the low-frequency sound scattering coefficient takes a power-law form with a noninteger exponent, which testifies to a fractal nature of the random volumetric inhomogeneities. The paper by I. B. Andreyeva and L. L. Tarasov (Acoust. J., 2003) provides additional data from laboratory investigations of scattering from small crustaceans in the frequency range 20–200 kHz. The depth-frequency dependences of the coefficients of volume scattering from scattering layers and layer strength in different regions of the north-western part of the Pacific Ocean are presented in the paper by L. L. Tarasov (Acoust. J., 2002). Based on the results of studies of the characteristics of scattering layers, mathematical models for acoustically distinct groups of marine organisms forming sound-scattering layers in ocean were constructed and analyzed (I. B. Andreyeva and L. L. Tarasov, Acoust. J., 2003). A number of papers address scattering from vortex, accompanying current, and inhomogeneities in the wake of bodies moving in water. In the work by V. I. Il’ichev (Trans. Inst. Acoust., 1967), experimental data on frequency spectra of high-frequency sound scattering from a turbulent wake with entrained gas bubbles are presented. In the work by A. B. Yezerskiy and D. A. Selivanovsky (Acoust. J., 1987), an experimental study of scattering of ultrasonic waves from a hydrodynamic wake of fast-swimming marine animals — dolphins and squids — was carried out with the help of a fish-finding sonar. Observations showed that the target strength of a wake may be greater than that of the animal itself. A hypothesis was proposed that the observed scattering from vortex structures within wake is caused by gas bubbles. V. V. Klimov (Acoust. J., 1987, 1988) conducted a theoretical study of sound scattering from three-dimensional vortex

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structures (Hill vortices). In the papers by L. M. Lyamshev and A. T. Skvortsov (Acoust. J., 1989) and A. Ye. Golovchanskaya, L. M. Lyamshev, and A. T. Skvortsov (Acoust. J., 1989, 1990), the problems of sound scattering from a system of three-dimensional vortices and a potential flow are solved. In the papers by V. N. Alekseyev, A. V. Rimsky-Korsakov, A. G. Semyonov (Acoust. J., 1992), V. N. Alekseyev and A. G. Semyonov (ibid.), an analysis of the physical phenomena accompanying sound propagation and scattering in the vicinity of a moving body is given, a theoretical study of a plane wave acoustic field in the vicinity of a sphere having a small-radius and moving in an ideal fluid at a low speed was carried out, and scattering from an accompanying fluid flow calculated. A. G. Rudnitsky (Acoust. J., 1995) calculated statistical characteristics of a plane wave after passage through a vortex wake behind a cylinder in the geometrical acoustics approximation. In a series of theoretical and laboratory experimental studies by V. Ye. Prokhorov and Yu. D. Chashechkin (Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci., 1994; Trans. RAS ser. Atm. Ocean Phys., 1994; Acoust. J., 1995), V. V. Mitkin, V. Ye. Prokhorov, and Yu. D. Chashechkin (Acoust. J., 1999) and V. Ye. Prokhorov (Acoust. J., 2000, 2001) backscattering from inhomogeneities in a stratified wake, in which thin layers with big density gradients are formed, was studied. 5. Sound Scattering from the Seafloor (Calculations and Experiments) The first theoretical and experimental studies of seafloor reverberation caused by backscattering from the seafloor at angles noticeably differing from the specular reflection angle were carried out by Yu. M. Sukharevsky (Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci., 1947, 1948). Within the scope of a model of discrete scatterers, he obtained expressions for the reverberation intensity in a half-space having either a plane boundary or a rough boundary, where diffuse scattering takes place according to Lambert’s law. It was also shown that, in a shallow sea, the laws describing the decrease in reverberation with range are governed by the seafloor relief and type of seafloor material. At a rugged seafloor

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(mountains, hills, rocks, etc.), the reverberation drop with range tends to be slower, and the reverberation intensity may significantly exceed that from a smooth seafloor. In 1960–1962, Yu. Yu. Zhitkovsky developed a technique for measuring the angular and frequency characteristics of the seafloor backscattering coefficient with the use of explosive signals (Acoust. J., 1966). With this technique, he conducted experimental studies of seafloor reverberation in the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean (Trans. Inst. Acoust., 1967), where regions with rather different degrees of seafloor smoothness, abyssal plains and underwater ridges, are met, and obtained the frequency and angular dependences of the scattered field. A detailed review of the frequency-angular characteristics of sound reflected and scattered from the seafloor was made by Yu. Yu. Zhitkovsky and Yu. P. Lysanov (Acoust. J., 1967). The papers by Yu. Yu. Zhitkovsky and L. A. Volovova (Proc. Fifth International Congress on Acoustics, 1965; Oceanology, 1966), I. B. Andreyeva et al. (Trans. Inst. Acoust., 1967), Yu. P. Lysanov and L. A. Volovova (Trans. USSR Acad. Sci. ser. Atm. Ocean Phys., 1970), along with the results of investigations of sound scattering from the seafloor, discuss the acoustic methods of determining some parameters of seafloor roughness. I. I. Sizov (Trans. Inst. Acoust., 1967) addressed the issue of the physical nature of sound scattering from the seafloor and carried out calculations of scattering from volumetric fluctuations in sound velocity and seafloor density. Experimental data were presented, opening an opportunity to estimate fluctuations of physical parameters of marine sediments in shallow water in some coastal regions. It was shown in the paper by Yu. Yu. Zhitkovsky (Trans. USSR Acad. Sci. ser. Atm. Ocean Phys., 1968) that ocean bottom inhomogeneities and large-scale roughness of interfaces within the bottom significantly contribute to scattering of lowfrequency sound. Yu. Yu. Zhitkovsky and Yu. P. Lysanov discussed the features of Fresnel diffraction of sound by uneven seafloor and sea surface (Trans. USSR Acad. Sci. ser. Atm. Ocean Phys., 1969) and proposed a method for prospecting for mineral resources in the seafloor by using the characteristics of the scattered field (Papers of Conference on Rock Physics and Processes, 1967). I. B. Andreyeva and Yu. Yu. Zhitkovsky (Trans. Inst. Acoust., 1969) studied the mean scattered field intensity

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when scattering indicatrix is narrow, and Yu. Yu. Zhitkovsky (Acoust. J., 1972) found a relation between sound reflection and scattering from the seafloor. When an acoustic transceiver is in motion or when frequencymodulated (FM) signals are used, strong amplitude fluctuations occur in the acoustic signal scattered from the seafloor. At sea, a transceiving system is never at rest due to a ship’s motion or drift. Fluctuations are at a high level and have a relatively broad spectrum. The physical origin of these fluctuations is simple. When a transceiving system is in motion or when FM signals are used, a redistribution of the phase differences between individual scattered waves takes place at the receiver thus causing fluctuations in the received signal. Fluctuations are particularly strong in the case of multiple sound reflections from the seafloor or from a rough sea surface. In 1961–1984, systematic experimental investigations of time fluctuations of acoustic signals reflected from seafloor and received with a moving transceiving system were carried out at the Institute of Acoustics. Simultaneously with these experimental investigations, a theory of time fluctuations of acoustic signals scattered from a surface with sinusoidal and random roughness was developed. The results of theoretical and experimental investigations are presented in the papers by Yu. P. Lysanov (Acoust. J., 1967; Trans. Inst. Acoust., 1967), Yu. P. Lysanov, V. I. Volovov (Acoust. J., 1969; Mar. Instrum. Eng. Acoust., 1972), V. I. Volovov, Yu. Yu. Zhitkovsky (in Ocean Acoustics., 1974), V. I. Volovov, V. V. Krasnoborodko, Yu. P. Lysanov (Acoust. J., 1973, 1978), V. I. Volovov, Yu. P. Lysanov, V. A. Sechkin (Acoust. J., 1973, 1974), V. I. Volovov (Acoust. J., 1988). The statistical nature of the process of sound reflection (scattering) for a moving transceiving system was established, manifesting itself in spatial variability of the scattered field. The vertical and horizontal correlations of continuous wave, FM and noise signals, the frequency spectrum, and the effect of seafloor structure on the spectral characteristics of scattered FM signals were studied. A relation was established between the transceiver speed and the frequency characteristics of fluctuations. Studies of microrelief and internal structure of ocean bottom by acoustic methods (Proc. First Congress of Soviet Oceanologists, 1977),

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correlation of noise signals at their reflection from seafloor (Proc. 9th All-Union Congr. Acoust., 1977; Proc. 9th Int. Congr. Acoust., 1977), the effect of a layered structure of the ocean bottom on correlation and spectral characteristics of reflected (scattered) FM signals (Acoust. J., 1977), and some features of cross-correlation of waves reflected from the seafloor with radiated pseudo-noise signals (Acoust. J., 1979) were carried out by V. I. Volovov, V. V. Krasnoborodko, and Yu. P. Lysanov. The same authors, with the participation of V. A. Sechkin, studied the problem of isotropy of correlation characteristics of signals reflected from seafloor (Acoust. J., 1978) and proposed a method for determining a ship’s cruising speed and side drift from correlation characteristics of scattered signals (Oceanology, 1977; Acoust. J., 1979). Later, L. M. Brekhovskikh et al. (Acoust. J., 1989) studied the use of spatial fluctuations of signals reflected from the seafloor and recorded on spatially extended hydrophone arrays for determining a ship’s displacement relative to the seafloor. Spatial variability of acoustic field reflected from seafloor was considered in the paper by L. M. Brekhovskikh, V. I. Volovov, and Yu. P. Lysanov (Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci., 1981). L. M. Brekhovskikh et al. (Proc. All-Union Congress of Oceanologists, 1982) established three scales of spatial variability of an acoustic field scattered from the seafloor, and gave a physical interpretation of their nature. On the basis of data on fluctuations of scattered signals, remote sensing methods of the seafloor micro- and macro-relief and internal structure of the bottom were developed (V. I. Volovov and Yu. P. Lysanov, Problems of Ocean Acoustics, 1984). The results of a long-term study of fluctuations of acoustic signals reflected from seafloor and received at a moving transceiving system were generalized in the monograph by V. I. Volovov Sound Reflection from the Seafloor (Otrazheniye zvuka ot dna okeana, 1993). A geoacoustic model of the upper layer of sediments in a shallow sea was proposed by Yu. P. Lysanov (Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci., 1980). The model is based on the assumption that random inhomogeneities are highly anisotropic, being small-scale depthwise and largescale in the horizontal plane. Calculations carried out using this model are in good agreement with the experimental data gathered in several

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shallow seas. A geoacoustic model of sound scattering from seafloor based on deep-sea drilling data was constructed by A. V. Yefimov, A. N. Ivakin, and Yu. P. Lysanov (Acoust. J., 1988). A. V. Yefimov (Acoust. J., 1991) evaluated the effect of volumetric inhomogeneities of marine sediments in shallow water on the rate of decrease of the mean acoustic field intensity with range. The results obtained were generalized to the case of volumetric inhomogeneities in ocean bottom with a rough surface (A. N. Ivakin and Yu. P. Lysanov, Acoust. J., 1981; A. N. Ivakin, Shipbuilding Issues, ser. Acoustics, 1983). I. V. Sheinfeld (Acoust. J., 1984) studied seafloor roughness using amplitude-modulated probing signals. In the papers by A. N. Ivakin (Oceanology, 1981) and A. N. Ivakin and Yu. P. Lysanov (Acoust. J., 1985), sound backscattering from the ocean bottom was investigated for the case of anisotropic volumetric inhomogeneities within a model of the marine sediments as an absorbing fluid layer containing multi-scale random inhomogeneities of sound speed and density; and feasibility was demonstrated of retrieving the coefficients of absorption and volume scattering in the sediment from measurements of spatial correlation of the scattered sound. A. I. Vedenev, V. V. Goncharov, and B. F. Kuryanov proposed a procedure for estimating ocean bottom parameters using broad-band sound interference (Acoustic Waves in Ocean (Akusticheskiye volny v okeane), 1987). A. N. Ivakin performed a series of studies on sound scattering from inhomogeneities of stratified marine sediments (Acoust. J., 1986, 1990), developed a unified theory of volume and surface scattering (JASA, 1998), reviewed the status of models of sound scattering from the seafloor (Ocean Acoustics, GEOS, 1998), and analyzed the results of theoretical and experimental investigations of sound backscattering (Ocean Medium Acoustics, 1989). The features of sound backscattering from the bottom of a bank in the open ocean were discussed in the paper by A. V. Bunchuk, Yu. Yu. Zhitkovsky, and Yu. P. Lysanov (Acoust. J., 1984). A. N. Ivakin and Yu. P. Lysanov studied sound backscattering from an inhomogeneous ocean bottom at small grazing angles (Acoust. J., 1985). The results of theoretical and experimental investigations of sound scattering from iron–manganese concretions (IMC) on the seafloor were discussed in the papers by L. M. Brekhovskikh et al. (Acoust. J.,

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1985), Yu. Yu. Zhitkovsky et al. (Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci., 1986), Yu. Yu. Zhitkovsky et al. (Acoust. J., 1987), Yu. Yu. Zhitkovsky, A. Yu. Zakhlestin (Acoustic Waves in the Ocean, 1987), A. V. Bunchuk and M. S. Klyuev (Shipbuilding Issues, ser. Acoustics, 1988; Oceanology, 1989), L. M. Antokolsky et al. (Oceanology, 1989). A. V. Bunchuk and A. N. Ivakin (Acoust. J., 1989) examined sound reflection and scattering from a set of concretion-type discrete inhomogeneities lying on a statistically rough sound-transparent bottom surface in the singlescattering approximation, and compared the experimental and calculated values of the backscattering coefficient. Later, A. V. Bunchuk (Acoust. J., 1991) took into account corrections to the IMC backscattering coefficients and intensities of the IMC-scattered signals caused by collective sound-scattering associated with short-range order in the IMC’s locations. A review of papers on sound scattering from bottom in shallow regions of oceans was made by A. V. Bunchuk and Yu. Yu. Zhitkovsky (Acoust. J., 1980). Later, A. N. Ivakin (Shipbuilding Issues, Acoustics, 1986) proposed statistical acoustical models for shallow regions of the ocean. Backscattering from a randomly inhomogeneous ocean floor in shallow regions of the ocean was analyzed by A. V. Bunchuk and Yu. P. Lysanov (Acoustic Waves in the Ocean, 1987). The spectral characteristics of ocean sediments obtained from deep-sea drilling data were examined in the papers by A. V. Yefimov, A. N. Ivakin, and Yu. P. Lysanov (Proc. (Doklady) USSR Acad. Sci., 1988), and a geoacoustic model of sound scattering was constructed as a result (Oceanology, 1988). A method for synchronous evaluation of bottom relief and sound-scattering characteristics with the help of multi-element hydrophone arrays was proposed in the paper by A. N. Bogdanov, V. V. Krasnoborodko, and Yu. P. Lysanov (Acoust. J., 1991). The results of investigations of sound backscattering from the ocean bottom with the help of multiple-beam systems are presented in the paper by S. A. Dremuchev, V. N. Kuznetsov, and A. V. Nosov (Ocean Acoustics, GEOS, 1998). V. A. Grigoryev, B. G. Katsnelson, and V. G. Petnikov undertook an evaluation of the characteristics of the shallow-sea bottom using the broadband signal spectrum (Ocean Acoustics, GEOS, 2000). M. D. Ageyev, V. V. Zolotaryov, and B. A. Kasatkin (Ocean Acoustics, GEOS, 2002) analyzed anomalous

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characteristics of backscattered sound from the ocean bottom at small grazing angles. The paper by Yu. Yu. Zhitkovsky (Acoust. J., 1995) presents the generalized results of author’s long-term study of frequency and angular dependences of the sound field backscattered from the ocean bottom in deep and shallow water. I. B. Andreyeva (Acoust. J., 1995) carried out an analysis of the experimental results and calculations of the energy characteristics of sound scattering form the seafloor and the ocean volume at grazing angles from several degrees to 25◦ . The results of distortion of acoustic signals reflected from the seafloor at normal incidence because of medium inhomogeneities (V. I. Volovov and A. I. Govorov, Acoust. J. 2000) were studied as applied to new approaches to acoustic mapping of the seafloor (V. I. Volovov and A. I. Govorov, Acoust. J., 1997). Based on the results of large-scale, long-term observations in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, analysis of stable features of continuous wave and FM signals reflected and scattered from the seafloor was carried out with a view toward revealing indirect indications of the presence of IMC accumulations (A. V. Bunchuk, Acoust. J., 1995). The results of the application of the method of Doppler tomography, which combines synthesizing of an aperture by a moving monochromatic source with Doppler effects, in determining the spatial and angular dependence of the scattering strength in an oceanic waveguide in the deep water and on the near-shore slope were presented in the papers by I. B. Burlakova, Yu. V. Petukhov, and M. M. Slavinskiy (Acoust. J., 1991) and A. G. Zeigman, Yu. V. Petukhov, and M. M. Slavinskiy (Acoust. J., 1993). In the paper by N. S. Gorskaya and M. A. Rayevsky (Acoust. J., 1990), equations for the correlation function of normal modes and an expression for the attenuation of the coherent component of the field were derived taking into account multiple scattering in an oceanic waveguide having small, gentle seafloor roughness. The effect of largescale seafloor roughness on the evolution of the spectral density of lowfrequency normal modes in waveguides open towards ocean bottom was studied in a diffuse approximation with account for absorption in bottom sediments (N. S. Gorskaya, M. A. Rayevsky, and I. M. Starobinets, Acoust. J., 1992). Ye. A. Zagayetskaya, Yu. A Kravtsov, and G. I. Kudin

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(Acoust. J., 1994) developed the perturbation method for rays in an ocean waveguide with a rough bottom. An energy model of longrange, low-frequency reverberation for shallow Arctic seas with a statistically rough bottom and an ice-water interface was developed by V. M. Kudryashov (Acoust. J., 1999) on the basis of a radiation transfer equation (in a multiple forward scattering and single backscattering approximation). Spatial correlation of the seafloor reverberation was studied in the paper by N. S. Vinogradov, F. V. Rozhin, and O. S. Tonakanov (MSU Bull. Phys. Astron., 1978). Experimental data on the characteristics of ocean reverberation in shelf zones, where seafloor scattering makes a significant contribution to the reverberation, are presented in the papers by R. Yu. Popov and Ye. V. Simakina (Acoust. J., 1994) and Ye. V. Simakina (Acoust. J., 1995). Experimental data on horizontal anisotropy of reverberation in a shallow sea and the effectiveness of the algorithm for suppression of seafloor reverberation contribution to the total scattered field are presented in the paper by R. A. Vadov, D. V. Guzhavina, and S. I. Dvornikov (Acoust. J., 1997). The features of low-frequency seafloorsurface reverberation near the continental slope in the north-western part of the Pacific Ocean for a bistatic scattering geometry (source and receiving array separated in space) were discussed in the papers by I. B. Andreyeva and V. N. Lupovskoi (Acoust. J., 1993), M. Yu. Andreyev (Acoust. J., 1993), D. V. Guzhavina and E. P. Gulin (Acoust. J., 2001). D. V. Guzhavina and E. P. Gulin (Acoust. J., 2000) also studied lowfrequency reverberation in the central part of the Barents Sea with the help of pulsed tone and explosive signals with significant spatial separation of source and receiver. 6. Summary Let us provide a brief overview of the main scientific achievements in the study of sound scattering in the ocean, the scientific schools, and the practical application of the results obtained. The foundations of the theory of wave scattering from rough surfaces were established by the works by L. M. Brekhovskikh who proposed a method based on the Kirchhoff approximation (the tangential plane method) for periodic surfaces (1951–1952), by M. A. Isakovich who extended this method

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to the case of statistically rough surfaces (1952; similar results were obtained by C. Eckart in 1953), and by Yu. P. Lysanov who developed an integral equation method (1956; a similar method was proposed by W. C. Meecham, 1956). The foundations of the theory of wave propagation in media with random volumetric inhomogeneities were developed by L. A. Chernov (1953–1958) and V. I. Tatarsky (1953– 1959) who applied in their calculations both the classical perturbation method and the method of smooth disturbances proposed by S. M. Rytov (1937). Similar theoretical investigations by the method of small perturbations were carried out by D. Mintzer (1953). In the late 1940s, Yu. M. Sukharevsky performed theoretical and experimental investigations of sea reverberation. Systematic studies of underwater sound scattering and fluctuations began in the Black Sea in the second half of the 1950s under the guidance of Yu. M. Sukharevsky (the founder of the Sukhumi Marine Research Station of the Institute of Acoustics) and G. D. Malyuzhinets. In this period investigation of the statistical properties of marine reverberation (V. V. Olshevsky), theoretical and experimental investigation of the strength and correlation of amplitude and phase fluctuations of acoustic signals reflected from a rough sea surface, and experimental investigations of signal fluctuations in an underwater waveguide under various conditions of refraction (E. P. Gulin and K. I. Malyshev) were carried out. Theoretical and experimental studies of sound scattering in the ocean were one of the principal areas of activity of the scientific school of Academician L. M. Brekhovskikh (Acad. N. N. Andreyev Institute of Acoustics, P. P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology of RAS) which took shape in the early 1960s. Its emergence is connected with the beginning of large-scale studies of ocean acoustics using the specialized research vessels Sergei Vavilov, Petr Lebedev, Academician Nikolai Andreyev and Academician Boris Konstantinov carrying unique equipment for conducting acoustic–oceanological research in the world’s oceans. Over the period of service of these ships, from 1961 to 1991, 45 cruises to different regions of the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans and their seas were made. A laboratory of acoustic methods

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for ocean study was organized at the Institute of Acoustics. Development of methods for the calculation of scattered fields in waveguides with rough boundaries and from periodically rough surfaces (M. A. Isakovich, A. D. Lapin, V. M. Kudryashov, F. I. Kryazhev, Yu. P. Lysanov, A. V. Belousov, and I. A. Urusovsky), of a twoscale model of sound scattering from a rough surface with a complex spectral composition (B. F. Kuryanov, Ye. A. Kopyl), a small slope method (A. G. Voronovich, Ye. P. Kuznetsova), the results of investigation of energy, correlation, frequency-angular characteristics of surface, volumetric and seafloor sound scattering (I. B. Andreyeva, Yu. Yu. Zhitkovsky, V. I. Volovov, Yu. P. Lysanov, E. P. Gulin, S. D. Chuprov, R. F. Shvachko, V. V. Krasnoborodko, Ye. A. Kopyl, and others), establishing the three-scale variability of an acoustic field scattered by rough and inhomogeneous seafloor, and development of remote acoustical methods of determining the parameters of seafloor microrelief irregularities and correlation methods for measurement of ship’s speed and side drift (L. M. Brekhovskikh, V. I. Volovov, Yu. P. Lysanov, and Yu. Yu. Zhitkovsky) are among the main achievements of the school participants. The results of studies of sound scattering and fluctuations in the ocean are presented in the collective monograph, Ocean Acoustics, edited by Academician L. M. Brekhovskikh (1974), the authors of which were awarded the State Prize of the USSR. In the late 1970s, within the framework of the program “The World Ocean,” a joint scientific seminar of departments of ocean acoustics of the P. P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology of RAS and the Acad. N. N. Andreyev Institute of Acoustics was organized under the supervision of L. M. Brekhovskikh. From that time, over 200 sessions of this seminar have taken place. The L. M. Brekhovskikh’s Conference (also known as School-Seminars) on Ocean Acoustics, in which scientists from Moscow, St. Petersburg, Nizhny Novgorod, Vladivostok, and other cities of Russia take part, deserves special notice. The collected papers of the Conferences were published by the Nauka and GEOS Publishing Houses. The seminar on Statistical Hydroacoustics which regularly took place between 1969 and 1989 under

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the supervision of V. V. Olshevsky has played a significant role in the study of statistical characteristics of reverberation and acoustic noise, of acoustic signals in active and passive submarine sound ranging, and in the development of methods of hydroacoustic information processing. A great contribution to the development of the theory of scattering from rough surfaces was made by a body of researchers from the Kharkov Institute of Radiophysics and Electronics of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences (S. Ya. Braude, F. G. Bass, I. M. Fuks, V. D. Freilikher, Ye. V. Chayevsky, and others). Among their main scientific achievements is deriving nonlocal boundary conditions, generalization of theoretical investigations of correlation and spectral characteristics of reflected and scattered signals, application of Green’s function techniques and the Feynman diagram method for calculating multiple scattering in waveguides with statistically rough-boundaries (1958– 1972). The problems of multiple scattering in infinite media and in waveguides with random volumetric inhomogeneities of the index of refraction were addressed in the later work by L. A. Chernov (1964– 1975), V. I. Tatarsky, S. M. Rytov, Yu. A. Kravtsov (1963–1978), as well as by a group of researchers of the Institute of Applied Physics of RAS, the Nizhny Novgorod State University, and other institutes of the city (L. S. Dolin, V. V. Artelny, M. A. Rayevsky, N. S. Gorskaya, V. Yu. Zaitsev, A. G. Nechayev, A. L. Virovlyanskiy, A. G. Kosterin, A. G. Sazontov, V. A. Farfel, and others), who in the 1980s–1990s published a series of works on sound scattering from ocean turbulence, internal gravity waves and fine-structure formations, as well as in refractive waveguides with uneven boundaries. Groups of researchers from the Institute of General Physics of RAS (V. G. Petnikov, V. M. Kuzkin, and others), jointly with Yu. A. Kravtsov and B. G. Katsnelson, carried out theoretical and full-scale experimental studies of scattering at acoustic signals propagation in a shallow sea with account for space-time variability of hydrophysical characteristics, seafloor roughness and inhomogeneities of surficial sediments (1983–1997). Studies on acoustic sounding of ocean medium inhomogeneities and at-sea measurements of characteristics of acoustic signal fluctuations along stationary paths were carried out at the Pacific Oceanological Institute of the Far-East Division of RAS (V. A. Akulichev, V. A. Bulanov, L. F.

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Bondar, N. R. Borisov, V. A. Zakharov, A. N. Rutenko, and others). Thus before the beginning of the 1990s, there existed several scientific schools and research groups in different research organizations of the USSR successfully studying acoustic field scattering and fluctuations in ocean. The results obtained have found wide application both in meeting the needs of the Navy and in the development of hydroacoustic monitoring equipment for civilian application. The study of the statistical characteristics of low-frequency hydroacoustic signals at long range propagation and reverberation was to a great extent determined by the need for creating prospective long-range hydroacoustic equipment for the Navy. On the basis of the results of underwater reverberation investigations, statistical methods of active acoustic detection and ranging were developed (V. V. Olshevsky, 1973, 1983). The results of investigation of the spatial attenuation of coherent and total fields at multiple reflections from the ocean surface permitted accurate determination of an optimal frequency range and, with account for increased level of reverberation noise, evaluation of the decrease in the detection range of a submerged object in the active sound ranging mode in a subsurface channel (Yu. M. Sukharevsky, Acoust. J., 1995), as well as to determine more accurately optimal frequencies and range of acoustic communication under these conditions. Based on the results of studies of intensity of the coherent component of the acoustic field, spatial, temporal, and frequency correlation of the incoherent component for different ranges, depths, refraction conditions and for selected dimensions and configurations of acoustic arrays, the energy characteristics were calculated of shipborne and stationary sonar systems for detection, identification, and tracking submerged objects as well as for underwater acoustic communication. As applied to the latter mode, substantiation of the parameters of diversity reception of transmitted information was made. With account for the distortive action of the acoustic signal propagation channel, caused by scattering and fluctuation effects, on the classification parameters of objects detected by underwater observation, more precise estimates of identification efficiency under different acoustical–oceanological conditions were obtained. Detailed information on application of the results of

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research in the field of hydroacoustics obtained in the N. N. Andreyev Acoustics Institute, including the effects of sound scattering and fluctuations in the ocean, in the development and improvement of modern shipborne and stationary sonars in service by the Navy may be found in the article by N. A. Dubrovsky and V. I. Mazepov in this volume.

7. Bibliography of Books Dedicated to Wave Scattering and Fluctuations 7.1. Monographs References 1. L. A. Chernov, Waves Propagation in Randomly Inhomogeneous Medium (Rasprostraneniye voln v srede so sluchainymi neodnorodnostyami) (USSR Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 1958); Waves in Randomly Inhomogeneous Media (Volny v sluchaino-neodnorodnykh sredakh) (Nauka, Moscow, 1975). 2. V. I. Tatarsky, Theory of Fluctuation Phenomenn at Waves Propagation in Turbulent Atmosphere (Teoriya fluktuatsionnykh yavlenii pri rasprostranenii voln v turbulentnoi atmosfere) (USSR Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 1959); Waves Propagation in Turbulent Atmosphere (Rasprostraneniye voln v turbulentnoi atmosfere) (USSR Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 1967). 3. Ye. L. Feinberg, Radio Wave Propagation along the Earth’s Surface (Rasprostraneniye radiovoln vdol zemnoi poverkhnosti) (USSR Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 1961). 4. V. V. Olshevsky, Statistical Properties of Marine Reverberation (Statisticheskiye svoistva morskoi reverberatsii) (Nauka, Moscow, 1966). 5. F. G. Bass and I. M. Fuks, Wave Scattering from Statistically Rough Surfaces (Rasseianiye voln na statisticheski nerovnoi poverkhnosti) (Moscow, 1972). 6. Ocean Acoustics (Akustika okeana), edited by Acad. L. M. Brekhovskikh (Nauka, Moscow, 1974). 7. I. B. Andreyeva, Physical Fundamentals of Sound Propagation in Ocean (Fizicheskiye osnovy rasprostraneniya zvuka v okeane) (Gidrometeoizdat, Leningrad, 1975). 8. L. M. Brekhovskikh, Yu. P. Lysanov, Ocean Acoustics (Akustika okeana); in Physics of the Ocean (Fizika okeana), Vol 2, Ocean Hydrodynamics (Gidrodinamika okeana) (Nauka, Moscow, 1978). 9. S. M. Rytov, Yu. A. Kravtsov, and V. I. Tatarsky, Introduction to Statistical Radiophysics (Vvedeniye v statisticheskuyu radiofiziku) Part 2. Random Fields (Sluchainye polya) (Nauka, Moscow, 1978).

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10. L. M. Brekhovskikh and Yu. P. Lysanov, Theoretical Fundamentals of Ocean Acoustics (Teoreticheskiye osnovy akustiki okeana) (Gidrometeoizdat, Leningrad, 1982). 11. L. M. Brekhovskikh and Yu. P. Lysanov, Fundamentals of Ocean Acoustics (Springer, Berlin, 1982, 1991, 2003). 12. I. B. Andreyeva and V. G. Samovolkin, Acoustic Waves Scattering by Marine Organisms (Rassyaniye akusticheskikh voln na morskikh organizmakh), (Agropromizdat, Moscow, 1986). 13. V. I. Volovov, Sound Reflection from Seafloor (Otrazheniye zvuka ot dna okeana) (Nauka, Moscow, 1993). 14. V. V. Goncharov, V. Yu. Zaitsev, V. M. Kurtepov, A. G. Nechayev, and A. I. Khil’ko, Acoustic Tomography of the Ocean (Akusticheskaya tomografiya okeana), (Institute of Applied Physics RAS, Nizhny Novgarod 1997). 15. B. G. Katsnelson and V. G. Petnikov, Shallow Water Acoustics (Akustika melkogo moya) (Nauka, Moscow, 1997). 16. L. M. Brekhovskikh and O. A. Godin, Acoustics of Layered Media II. Point Sources and Bounded Beams (Springer, Berlin, 1992 and 1999).

7.2. Collected Papers of L. M. Brekhovskikh’s Conferences on Ocean Acoustics The first six books were published by the Nauka Publishing House, and edited by L. M. Brekhkovskikh and I. B. Andreeva (books 1 to 5) and by L. M. Brekhovskikh and Yu. P. Lysanov (book 6); the rest were published by the GEOS Publishing House. (1) Ocean Acoustics, State of the Art (Akustika Okeana, Sovremennoye sostoyaniye) (1982). (2) Problems of Ocean Acoustics (Problemy akustiki okeana) (1984). (3) Acoustic Waves in the Ocean (Akusticheskiye volny v okeane) (1987). (4) Oceanic Medium Acoustics (Akustika okeanskoi sredy) (1989). (5) Acoustics in the Ocean (Akustika v okeane) (1992). (6) Oceanic Acoustics (Okeanicheskaya akustika) (1993). (7) Ocean Acoustics (Akustika okeana). Proceedings of the VII L. M. Brekhkovskikh’s Conference (1998). (8) Ocean Acoustics (Akustika okeana). Proceedings of the VIII L. M. Brekhkovskikh’s Conference (2000).

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(9) Ocean Acoustics (Akustika okeana) Proceedings of the IX L. M. Brekhkovskikh’s Conference (2002). (10) Ocean Acoustics (Akustika okeana) Proceedings of the X L. M. Brekhovlaikh’s Conference (2004). (11) Ocean Acoustics (Akustika okeana) Proceedings of the XI L. M. Brekhovlaikh’s Conference (2006).

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This article gives a short overview of experimental and theoretical studies of acoustic noise in the ocean, starting with the pre-war years and continuing to the present. This overview covers practically all publications in several journals and in collected volumes. The research into ocean noise was primarily dictated by the requirements of underwater acoustics in the post-war years and was also aimed at applying hydroacoustic techniques in oceanography. For the most part, these studies were conducted at academic centers such as the Acoustics Institute (ACIN) of Moscow, the Institute of Applied Physics (IAP) in Nizhny Novgorod, the Institute of Oceanology in Moscow, the Institute of General Physics (IGP) in Moscow, and the Pacific Oceanological Institute (POI) in Vladivostok. This article provides an overview and indicates the distinctive features of the major part of these studies, grouped according to different research areas. Akusticheskiy Zhurnal (Acoustics Journal ), which has been published since 1955 — for nearly half a century! — is the main source of information on ocean noise investigations in Russia. In addition, reports were also printed in other publications, e.g., Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR (Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR), Izvestiya AN SSSR. Fizika Atmosfery i Okeana (Transactions of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, ser. Atmospheric and Oceanic Physics), Proceedings of Academician L. M. Brekhovskikh’s Conferences on Ocean Acoustics, etc. This overview encompasses a variety of subjects, including technical methods, experimental data, and theoretical models of noise generation and propagation for different oceanological conditions and different frequency bands. Since most of these research projects were closely related to applied problems, the majority of the studies pertained to sonic or subsonic frequencies within the operating frequency ranges 197

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of sonar systems. The infrasonic frequency band is usually not associated with acoustic noise in the ocean; hence, studies in this band are discussed in the seismological literature and are not included in this overview. 1. The Beginnings The first Russian paper on ocean noise was published long before the Second World War, when, in 1935, the Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR featured a paper by V. V. Shuleikin with the intriguing title, The Voice of the Sea.1 The researcher had discovered infrasonic oscillations of sounding balloons near the sea surface with a frequency f of about 10 Hz, which he believed were due to resonant excitation of the balloon by infrasound arising from airflow with a velocity u past sea surface irregularities with a period L, f = u/L (see also Ref. 131). Shuleikin named this phenomenon “the voice of the sea” and supposed that it was responsible for the generation of infrasonic oscillations in the water and in the air that could propagate to long distances and serve as a basis for the creation of a storm warning system. A theoretical analysis of the same issue was given in a paper by N. N. Andreyev published in 1939,2 where he criticized the reasoning in Ref. 1 and stated that the oscillations at such a frequency could be caused by a vortex formation mechanism characteristic of wind flow past the waves. He also argued that surface waves themselves could indeed bring about pressure fluctuations at still lower frequencies, which were supposed to decrease exponentially as depth increases, i.e., such waves could not be detected in the atmosphere or in the sea at a distance from the area of a storm. Theoretical substantiation of sound wave generation by sea waves, which can be caused by nonlinear interaction of surface waves, was furnished much later (M. S. Longuet-Higgins (1950), and L. M. Brekhovskikh19 ). Although the papers by Shuleikin and Andreyev appeared well ahead of the subsequent studies of ocean noise, they stood apart from the wide range of questions that had arisen from the requirements of military applications of underwater acoustics and began to be addressed by foreign researchers at the end of the Second World War. Russian scientists began to come up with similar publications much later than their

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foreign counterparts. The first paper, which was entirely dedicated to an overview of foreign studies, was published by A. V. Furduyev as late as 1963.17 By that time, a considerable number of papers had been published abroad focusing on experimental studies of noise and various theoretical models, namely those of underwater noise levels and spectra (V. Knudsen (1948) and G. Wenz (1962)), physical models of noise generation at high frequencies (M. Strasberg (1955), G. Franz (1959)), models of the spatial correlation of noise (C. Eckart (1953), B. Cron and C. Sherman (1962)), etc. But in spite of the fact that American researchers held the lead in ocean noise explorations, the USSR launched a broad range of research projects in this area — both experimental and, particularly, theoretical. 2. Ocean Noise Measurement Instrumentation and Experiments The famous acoustician, R. J. Urick asserts in his monograph Ambient Noise in the Sea (1984) that “… ambient noise is relatively easy to measure and study… All that is needed … is a calibrated hydrophone suspended from a rowboat.” However, in most cases, and especially in the case of low-frequency measurements, this is far from being the case because there is a need for complex and very costly custom-made equipment and an adequate measurement technique. Nowadays, the following methods and technical facilities are used in sea noise experiments both in Russia and abroad: (a) cabled systems of hydrophones for measurements from drifting ships; (b) radio buoys for transmitting the received sound signals by radio; (c) seabed stations transmitting data to a shore terminal over a cable; (d) manned deep-diving vehicles; (e) autonomous seabed buoys and deep-sea buoys with neutral and controlled buoyancy; (f) autonomous floating platforms such as the FLIP research laboratory in the US. Each of these facilities has its advantages and its shortcomings. The use of drifting vessels does not allow measurements to be carried out in

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stormy weather when ocean noise reaches its maximum levels; besides, a research vessel itself is a source of low-frequency noise. Prolonged measurements are impossible in this case because of the high cost of a ship’s operating time. For the same reasons, radio buoys have not become widespread and are restricted only to military applications. Seabed stations with signal transmission over a cable allow sustained measurements to be conducted in any weather, but they are restricted to deployment areas close to shore and cable-laying operations are extremely expensive. Autonomous bottom buoys and controlled-buoyancy buoys are apparently most convenient for the measurement of low-frequency noise; however, their development requires considerable investment. Measurements with the use of manned underwater vehicles are not common either because of the complexity of the experiments, risk for the crew, and the need for a mother ship. Lastly, the facilities of the FLIP type were available, but not for routine use, because of their high cost and experimental complexity. They too were very rarely employed. Russian researchers made use of all these types of facilities in their explorations. Further, we will give brief descriptions of the major experimental and theoretical studies of ocean noise carried out with the help of the above facilities. 2.1. Ocean noise experiments with the use of cabled seabed systems In the 1970s, V. I. Bardyshev and V. I. Kryshny, assisted by their colleagues,21–23,105,106,110,115,134 conducted a series of experiments off the Island of Shikotan in the Northwest Pacific using seabed stations cabled to shore. The stations were placed at different distances from the coast (up to 20 km) and at different depths (up to 500 m). The data were transmitted over a cable to a laboratory terminal for recording and analysis. Data logging was done over a long period of time during different seasons of the year and a number of noise characteristics were subject to analysis, e.g., spectral densities, distribution functions, and wind velocity dependences. Contrary to the data obtained by G. Wenz (1962), the measurements showed that at frequencies lower than about 40 Hz, noise increases with descending frequency at a rate of about

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2.5–5 dB/octave, and not 8–12 dB/octave. The reason for this is that low-frequency noise measured by the ship’s instruments is attributable to pseudosonic turbulent pressure pulsations caused by current flow, and not to noise propagating at these frequencies. Therefore, various hydrophone dome designs were proposed, specifically — a dome with the inside filled with entangled kapron threads, which impede emergence of flows inside the dome and are at the same time transparent to sound.110 Noise measurements at low frequencies (∼ 6 Hz) demonstrated that noise levels appear to be 10–25 dB lower with the use of near-bottom hydrophones fitted with domes when compared with those in hydrophones without domes. Studies were undertaken into the laws of noise distribution in the range of 5–10 000 Hz. The distribution law is practically normal at long distances from the coast, while at a distance of less than 600 m, there is a considerable deviation. In this case, the noise originates from impact noise generated by coastal pebbles. The closer they are to the shore, the greater is the asymmetry and the pressure distribution excess. In far-off regions, the noise is generated by a multitude of sources created by dynamic processes in the upper layer of the ocean and therefore obeys the normal distribution law. To determine wind dependence, the researchers averaged the data grouped by different wind velocities. Measurement of the so-called correlation ratio reveals if there is any correlation with the wind velocity. Although, generally, this relationship is nonlinear, it can be treated as linear over a rather broad range of frequencies (100–1000 Hz). In Refs. 22 and 105, wind velocity dependence is taken as P (U , f ) = U · k(f ) + P0 (f ) , where P is the pressure spectral density, U is the wind velocity, and P0 is a function independent of wind velocity (note that for statistically independent noise components, additive summation should be done using not pressure itself, but values of pressure squared — see later). It was found that wind velocity dependence declines at low frequencies. In addition, there is a broad peak in the region of 60 Hz, which can be accounted for by the fact that the measurements were conducted in an area of intensive fishing. Noise in near-shore areas is not only dependent on wind velocity, but also on flow velocity determined by

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a time derivative of the tidal phase. It was shown that at frequencies below 5 Hz, there is a robust correlation of noise p with tidal phase derivative ϕ , p lagging behind ϕ by about 3 h.115 Sea noise measurements with the use of cabled seabed stations were also carried out in the Black Sea by Ye. P. Masterov and S. P. Shorokhova, over a broad range of frequencies (2–2000 Hz), at a depth of 200 m.24 Hydrophone domes were also employed in this research to reduce pseudosonic noise. Since the site was not far from the port of Sukhumi, in an area of rather active shipping, spectral levels of noise were somewhat higher than those obtained by V. I. Bardyshev, even though the noise from closely passing ships was excluded. The noise level decreased with increasing frequency at a rate of 3–6 dB/octave at high frequencies and 6–8 dB/octave at frequencies below 40 Hz. The peak was also observed at intermediate frequencies of 40–80 Hz, which was due to noise from distant shipping (marine traffic). Measurements were conducted at winds varying from 1 to 4 Beaufort wind force units. At higher wind velocities, the frequency dependence curve was noticed to be a little more flattened, but in general it had equal steepness at both low and high frequencies. Wind dependence of sea noise was also studied using experimental data obtained by V. I. Kryshny and B. F. Kuryanov with cabled seabed stations off the Island of Shikotan.85,135 Since wind dependence is rather hard to reveal because it is masked by other sources of noise, especially at low frequencies, measurements were taken over a long period of time and all data were processed by least-squares method without prior grouping by wind velocity. The mean noise power at various frequencies p 2 (f ) was assumed to be represented by a sum of two-components: a component p02 (f ) independent of wind velocity U and another component depending on wind velocity U according to the following power-law, p 2 (f ) = p02 (f ) + α(f ) · U n(f ) .

(*)

Processing by least-squares method showed that in spite of a high level of “zero” noise, there is a well-defined relationship to wind velocity at frequencies lower than 50 Hz, the exponent n being almost independent of frequency and equalling ∼ 3.5–4. The frequency

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dependence of α was also found to be small with deviations of ± 5 dB. For frequencies higher than 500 Hz, n ∼ 1, and p02 (f ) ∼ 1/f 2 . All this is indicative of a difference in the mechanisms of noise generation in the low-frequency and high-frequency bands. V. A. Apanasenko and V. I. Kryshny,93 when studying noise in the Sea of Okhotsk in the range 0.6–4000 Hz, employed cabled seabed stations placed on the shelf off the southern shore of the Island of Sakhalin, at depths of 120 and 250 m and at distances of 10 and 15 km from the coast. Experiments were conducted all year around and in all weather and, in addition to measuring local wind velocity near the shore, allowance was made for the data and maps provided by weather stations for all sea areas that could contribute to the noise detected by the shore stations. Wind dependence of noise was of primary interest. Graphical charts of spectral density of noise were made for different frequencies, with a local wind velocity of 1 to 15 m/s; fluctuations around the mean values appeared to be very noticeable amounting to ± 10 dB. The researchers adopted an empirical model described by the formula (*). Model parameters were calculated by the least-squares method for noise from predominant sources created by localized cyclones within a restricted area. This yielded the following results: the noise level depends on propagation conditions, being notably lower in summer than in winter; the frequency band can be divided into three sub-bands with different frequency dependences — 0.6–5 Hz, 5–100 Hz, and 100–4000 Hz — characterized by differing model parameters; and the values of the exponent n varying from 0.4 to 4. On the basis of the data obtained, an original technique was proposed for the summation of wind noise contributions from all sources with different wind velocities, which were derived from the data from all weather stations and all weather maps. Taken as a basis were the empirical data on noise contributions from predominant sources created by localized cyclones within a restricted area, which were then summed up with the assumption of cylindrical spreading at sound propagation. This semi-empiric technique permitted a significant reduction in the spread of levels as calculated by the model with respect to those observed (from ± 10 to 1–3 dB). In calm weather, surf is the main source of noise near the shore. In the research conducted by M. Yu. Gureyev et al.83 on the shelf of

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the Black Sea, two peaks were observed in the noise spectrum: one in the region of 200–500 Hz (due to the movement of gravel and rocks) and the other in the region of 2000–3000 Hz (due to radiation from bubbles created by collapsing waves). 2.2. Open-ocean noise; measurements by ship-borne and other systems Most of the experimental studies of dynamic noise of the open ocean were performed with the use of specialized ships owned by the Institute of Acoustics — the ship Sergei Vavilov in particular — equipped with an additional noise-insulated electric generator (enabling the so-called “silence mode”). From the 1960s to the 1990s, this vessel made regular expeditions to various parts of the ocean. A. V. Furduyev107,132,137 integrated experimental data of several expeditions according to frequency spectra of deep-ocean noise in the range from 3 to 10 kHz and their dependences on wind velocity U within the range ∼ 3–15 m/s. The spectrum curves thus obtained are similar to those given by V. Knudsen at frequencies higher than ∼ 100 kHz, but absolute levels are somewhat lower; apart from that, at frequencies lower than 20 Hz, the level versus frequency curve is much steeper — up to 10–12 dB/octave. Empirical formulae were obtained for frequency dependence of noise, which, with increasing wind velocity, give similar curves for all frequencies, increasing in proportion to U 3 . An improved technique was implemented later, which offered significant advantages for low frequencies. In addition to the “silence mode,” a zero-buoyancy system of hydrophones with domes was used along with a manual technique for playing out the connecting cable having the purpose of suppressing flow noise around the hydrophones as the ship drifted. The use of this setup ensured elimination of disturbances and estimation of noise at frequencies as low as 5 Hz.111,119,137 2.3. Vertical directivity of noise A series of experiments on the measurement of vertical directivity (anisotropy) of noise were carried out by N. N. Okhrimenko, A. V. Furduyev et al. with the use of a 32-element vertical array lowered

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from a ship.46,48,54,60,64,73,80,111,117,133,138 The measurements were conducted at relatively high frequencies (above 1 kHz), in different parts of the ocean, at different depths and under various hydrometeorological conditions. In all cases, the experimental data were found to be in rather good conformity with a ray-theoretical description of sound propagation from near-surface noise sources with account being made for refraction, ambient attenuation, and multiple reflections from the surface and the bottom of the ocean. It was particularly interesting to measure directivity at small angles to the horizon with the array positioned at the depth of the underwater channel, where a deep minimum in the noise angular density is observed since the relevant rays do not pass through the near-surface region. Noise directivity measurements can be utilized in passive methods of ocean remote sensing. Noise propagating in the near-surface region and interacting with the surface contains information on the wind force in remote areas;46,80 internal waves can modulate noise near the directions of boundary rays;48,54,60,73 and knowing the ratio of intensities in the specular directions with respect to the horizon, it is possible to estimate passively angular reflection coefficients from the bottom and their angular dependence.64,133,138 B. F. Kuryanov69 published a concise paper where he came up with another suggestion concerning the possibility of bottom sediment diagnostics in shallow water, at low frequencies, by measuring phase relationships of noise received by narrow-beam arrays in specular directions, but no attempt was made to verify his suggestion experimentally. In the Sea of Okhotsk and in the North Pacific, noise directivity was measured by A. Yu. Volkov et al. by correlation methods with the use of the manned deep-sea vehicle, PICES, which hovered in a neutral buoyancy mode at depths up to 1700 m.5 The measurements were done by means of a vertical, 85-m long, 12-element array, which could be placed on the bottom for measurement of horizontal correlation. The correlation functions for frequencies of 6–60 Hz obtained in the experiments are in good agreement with the theory presupposing amplification of low-frequency noise traveling at angles smaller than the angle of total internal reflection from the seafloor. Noise intensity in the range of 0.5–10 Hz was practically the same in the Sea of Okhotsk

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and in the North Pacific under the same weather conditions. The noise level decreased with increasing frequency at a rate of about 9 dB/octave. In the range of 10–100 Hz, there is a plateau with level found to be 10–12 dB higher in the North Pacific, which may be attributable to distant shipping. No depth dependence was observed. Up to this point, we have been discussing the measurement of noise anisotropy. Another question of interest is the directivity of acoustic power emitted by the surface sources proper, which is given in many papers as sin2m(f ) α, where α is the angle with the horizontal plane. With this assumption, the ambient noise in the medium has directivity sin2m(f )−1 α. In the paper by A. A. Aredov and A. V. Furduyev,77 the question of directivity of noise sources is tackled by a calculational method based on a ray model through estimating several parameters: noise anisotropy in specular directions, coefficients of volumetric attenuation in the water, angular dependence of bottom reflection coefficient, lengths of refracted rays in these directions from the observation point to the points of intersection with the surface. The main results of these calculations for frequencies of 0.6–4 kHz can be summarized as follows: (a) the directivity pattern of noise sources does not depend on wind velocity for wind velocities up to 15 m/s; (b) with frequency varying from 0.6 to 4 kHz, the exponent m increases from 0.75 to 1.5. It is assumed that such an expansion of the directivity pattern is due to greater scattering by an uneven surface having greater wave heights. Estimations of the directivity of noise sources for near-horizontal angles are given in the paper by V. I. Mendus and G. A. Postnov.63 The measurements were carried out with the use of an autonomous seabed station fitted with a vertical array, at frequencies of 0.5–2 kHz, in the deep ocean, at a depth close to the conjugate depth. Data analysis enabled the authors to assert that noise directivity at grazing angles is higher, which can be attributed to the effect of multiple scattering in the near-surface layer by air bubbles.62 The same conclusion about directivity increase at small angles to the horizon is drawn in the paper by G. A. Postnov,79 based on the data recorded by an autonomous station with a 28-m array suspended from a buoy floating on the surface. In that experiment, two pairs of array hydrophones were employed to ensure location of sound sources created by collapsing waves.

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To conduct acoustic-noise measurements simultaneously with hydro-meteorological measurements in immediate proximity to the sources in the ocean, the Institute of Acoustics developed an analogue of the autonomous marine laboratory — a FLIP-type buoy, which was used in experiments in the Black Sea and in the Pacific.141 Unfortunately, the buoy sank in the Pacific Ocean and no results were published. 2.4. Fluctuations in noise level Variations in ocean noise level due to the temporally nonstationary behavior of the sources and the nonuniformity of their spatial distribution are discussed in the papers by A. A. Aredov et al.67,80,81,96,99 In their noise stability analysis, they used a probability q that the noise power distribution, averaged over a time period τ, is different from Gaussian. Stability time is taken as the value of τ, during which the probability of deviations from the normal law (as per the Pearson criterion) is as small as, say, 0.05. The shape of function q(τ) is what defines the nonstationary nature of the process. The stability time τ is always less for filtered white noise than for real noise in the ocean. To analyze the effects of spatial unevenness of noise sources at high frequencies, simultaneous recording was done of the angular directivity of noise and the location of storm areas; calculation by ray theory offers good conformity with the anisotropy and noise level variations observed. These experiments formed the basis for singling out several bands in the noise level spectrum according to different causes, namely synoptic band (maximum of the spectrum with a period of ∼ 100 h), semi-diurnal band (with a period of ∼ 10 h), and two high-frequency bands connected with wind gusts and squalls (∼ 80 s) and scattering by surface waves (∼ 10 s). 2.5. Depth dependence of noise Numerous measurements of the depth dependence of noise were carried out in the deep sea by N. N. Okhrimenko over a broad range of frequencies — from 30 to 10 000 Hz. The measurements were conducted from a ship drifting in “silence mode,” by submerging an omni-directional receiver at different depths.121 At frequencies from

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30 to 3000 Hz, no clear dependence on depth was detected. Only at frequencies of ∼ 10 000 Hz, noise intensity gradually decreases as depth increases due to water absorption. Experiments on the depth dependence and its relation to the sound-speed profile were carried out by A. Yu. Lyubchenko and V. G. Petnikov56 in the Barents Sea from the Akademik Vavilov. Sea depth at the site was 120 m with the sound channel axis at a 40-m depth. A vertical 12-element drifting array with a length of about 40 m was positioned on the channel axis; within the boundaries of the array depth dependence of noise intensity was measured over a frequency range of 100–600 Hz. Data were transmitted over a cable to the research vessel, which was operating in a “silence mode.” The experiments demonstrated that there is a clear noise intensity minimum near the channel axis. Theoretical calculation for this channel based on mode theory, in view of a minimum of sound speed and a liquid absorbing bottom, showed that depth dependence of the mean intensity of noise mostly retraces the sound-speed profile.68 B. F. Kuryanov and A. A. Moiseyev65 gave experimental results obtained with the use of a floatable autonomous buoy with controlled buoyancy, which made stops on predetermined depths in deep-sea areas of the Atlantic to perform measurements according to a predetermined schedule. The buoy was equipped with a vertical 12-element, 85-m long array and a multi-channel magnetic recorder for sustained recording of noise at low frequencies. An analysis conducted at frequencies from 20 to 300 Hz indicated that the noncoherent ray theory of ocean noise, which predicts a noise intensity minimum at the depth of the channel axis, is not valid for the real open ocean, which agrees with experimental data obtained earlier by G. B. Morris (1978) with the use of FLIP. At frequencies of 20–90 Hz, with the buoy moving from the bottom to 1500 m, there is instead an increase of noise level, but this effect is not observed at higher frequencies where depth dependence is practically uniform. Array measurements at frequencies lower than 100 Hz near the axis of deep-water channel showed an intensity maximum at that depth. The same researchers129 used a manned vehicle, PICES, and a vertical array to study alteration of maximums

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and minimums of the depth dependence pattern for ocean noise near the surface, at frequencies below 100 Hz. Wave theory and modified ray theory88,139 attributed this alteration to the interference of distant noise coming to the surface from below and its specular reflection from the surface. Experiments on the depth dependence of noise are also discussed in the papers by A. A. Aredov125 and G. M. Dronov.78 Measurements conducted at frequencies of 100 Hz and higher on the axis of the underwater sound channel demonstrated that low-frequency noise amplification in the channel can be accounted for by sources over the coastal continental slope whose rays, once reflected by the bottom, change their direction and travel along the channel axis.

3. Theoretical Studies 3.1. Physical mechanisms of noise generation by sources near the surface of the sea In the very first studies of ocean noise, it was discovered that noise sources bear a relationship to wind speed and sea state. However, theoretical models of these phenomena were developed much later. Russian scientific literature dealt with various mechanisms of sound generation by surface waves and turbulence near the ocean-atmosphere interface. As is well known, pressure from surface waves decreases exponentially with increasing depth, but consideration of the interaction of nonlinear monochromatic surface waves traveling in opposite propagation directions predicts that they should create second-order continuous sound waves (M. Miche (1944), M. S. Longuet-Higgins (1950)). This theory of sound wave generation by standing waves on the surface due to nonlinear interaction of monochromatic surface waves traveling in the opposite directions was generalized by L. M. Brekhovskikh10,19 for the case of an arbitrary space and time spectrum of surface waves. Nonlinear boundary conditions for surface gravity and capillary waves in quadratic approximation cause induced secondary sources of pressure waves to appear on the surface, whose speed of travel is — under certain conditions — greater than the speed of sound in the water, which should

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result in generation of sound waves propagating in respective directions. Such supersonic sources emerge due to nonlinear interaction of two surface waves under limited conditions, namely those of sufficiently close frequencies and almost opposite propagation directions. Integration over the admissible domain of frequencies and directions allows the root-mean-square value of the emitted noise to be found, provided that the spatial and temporal spectrum of the surface waves is known. Here, it turns out that the emergent acoustic noise has dipole directivity. Although the calculations given in Refs. 10 and 19 yield level values that are lower than noise levels observed at the frequencies of capillary and gravity waves (less than 20 Hz), consideration of noise amplification effects due to propagation in the waveguide can furnish an explanation for the noise level observed at low frequencies. This question is tackled by L. M. Brekhovskikh and V. V. Goncharov12 who among other things state in their paper that multiple reflections from the bottom or refraction on a near-surface channel can result in a significant resonant amplification of noise. V. V. Goncharov13 examined another nonlinear mechanism of low-frequency noise generation, namely the noise emission due to interaction of a turbulent component of rough seas and a surface wave subject to a dispersion relation. The magnitude of turbulence pulsations is small, but, in contrast to surface waves, the conditions for the development of supersonic velocities by induced sources are much wider, since for turbulence there is no limiting dispersion relation between frequency and wave number. However, in this case there are no direct measurements of combined space-time spectrum of nearsurface turbulence, which imposes the need for a number of assumptions, such as assuming near-surface turbulence to be two-dimensional and isotropic, and for considerations such as similarity. In this case, estimations of the law of spectrum level decrease with increasing frequency, f , lead to a dependence of ∼ f −4 , and the order of magnitude of estimated absolute values of noise levels for the low-frequency domain (∼ 100 Hz) is close to the values obtained experimentally. M. A. Isakovich and B. F. Kuryanov20 in their research work discussed the linear mechanism of noise generation by fluctuations of atmospheric pressure over the surface. Here, the fluctuations of the

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atmospheric pressure over the sea surface are also developed into a spacetime spectrum with consequent selection of supersonic-velocity components responsible for sound emission. Since there are no measurements of the spectrum of pressure over the surface, indirect data are used in the calculations, namely analogies with experiments on the measurement of mutual spectrum of airflow past solid and uneven surfaces, and the assumption that surface waves and sound waves are generated by the same mechanism. Assuming that excitation of waves on the surface may be described by a linear mechanism with allowance for their considerable attenuation at relatively high frequencies (10–100 Hz), the spectrum of wind pressure fluctuations over the surface is obtained from the measured spectrum of wave heights. Hence, it is possible to find acoustic radiation sources, which prove to have dipole directivity, wind velocity dependence proportional to the fourth power, as well as a spectral density of noise independent of frequency within a given range (see corrections to the theory given in Ref. 140). The theory was criticized for a number of ungrounded assumptions, specifically the use of the linear mechanism of surface waves excitation in this frequency domain. L. M. Brekhovskikh and V. V. Goncharov109 in their paper offered an overview and an evaluation of the contributions of different mechanisms of sound radiation by the ocean-atmosphere boundary layer, both linear and nonlinear. The study is based on the well-known Lighthill equation for sound waves in an unperturbed medium, arising from arbitrary motion in the boundary layer, and examines various noise generation mechanisms within a single framework. The use of a number of assumptions concerning the space and time spectra of turbulence similar to those given in Ref. 13 as well as experimental data on surface waves furnishes equations for the turbulent component of rough seas and makes it possible to theoretically estimate the characteristics of sound created by this component as well as due to nonlinear effects of wave–wave and wave-turbulence interaction. According to the estimates obtained, these mechanisms can make a considerable contribution to low-frequency noise in the ocean and lead to differing dependences on frequency f and wind velocity U . The linear turbulence mechanism gives a spectrum density of noise power proportional to U 10/3 · f −4 , while nonlinear interaction of free

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waves with the turbulent component gives U −13/3 ·f −4 , and nonlinear interaction of waves between themselves at fully developed rough seas is independent of wind velocity and proportional to f −7 at frequencies below ∼ 30 Hz and ∼ f at frequencies above ∼ 30 Hz. In all the cases considered, near-surface sources have dipole directivity, which is related to the proximity of the free surface of the ocean. Most of the existing theories of sound generation in the sea by different mechanisms are based on certain assumptions about turbulence characteristics, which cannot be regarded as substantiated by experiment. Apparently, the only generation mechanism not containing arbitrary assumptions and based purely on experimental data is the mechanism of nonlinear interaction of surface waves. Today, the majority of researchers believe that infrasonic noise in the ocean observed at frequencies lower than 5–10 Hz is attributable to no other mechanism than the one just mentioned. Various generation mechanisms were proposed to explain the noise spectra observed in the ocean. One of those is air bubble cavitation in the water. Maximums observed in ocean noise spectrum in the region of ∼ 1 kHz in the presence of wind waves suggested that the cavitation mechanism of noise generation should indeed be taken into consideration.11 According to this study by A. V. Furduyev, gas-vapor bubbles created under the surface of the ocean by collapsing waves begin to grow in size due to evaporation and rectified diffusion of air from the water, and then collapse due to pressure fluctuations. The collapse of a bubble produces a cavitational pulse of pressure that excites resonance oscillations of the surrounding bubbles. Examination of the conditions under which such phenomena occur in the ocean and estimation of the spectra of emerging pressure pulses demonstrates that the overall noise has a maximum in the region of about 1 kHz, which can account for the character of noise observed under certain conditions. Since the late 1980s, foreign researchers have frequently returned to the assumption proposed in the 1950s that both high-frequency and low-frequency noise of the ocean has its main source in air bubble pulsations caused by breaking surface waves (see multiple issues of the Proceedings of the International Conference on Underwater Noise), it being noted that in the case of low-frequency noise, the

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so-called “collective” pulsations of a multitude of bubbles come into play. Another hypothesis is discussed by G. A. Postnov and V. I. Mendus9 who believe that noise in the range of 100–1000 Hz can be generated by the mechanism of “detection” originating from the oscillations of active nonlinear bubbles. A calculation of emission for different bubble layer widths and different wind velocities based on this hypothesis shows qualitative agreement with experimental data. 3.2. Ray models of noise propagation in the ocean As noise propagates from sources on the surface, properties of the noise field can vary significantly subject to the properties of the background ocean medium. To explain the experimental data, A. V. Furduyev108,133 turned to a ray model that was put forward earlier in 1964 by R. Talham. Angular density of noise propagating in a given direction is calculated through summation of contributions from different regions of the noisy surface when it is crossed by a given ray undergoing multiple bottom-surface reflections. Here, account is also taken of refraction, absorption, and surface and bottom reflection coefficients. For a layered inhomogeneous medium, B. F. Kuryanov and B. I. Klyachin simplified the analysis significantly by adopting the concept of ray intensity of a noncoherent field and the assumption of horizontal spatial homogeneity of the field.3,4,26,86,136 This approach allows a solution for the ray intensity to be obtained at once, and, in the case of scattering in the medium or by an uneven surface, offers an integral-differential transfer equation. In deep-ocean areas where the sound speed near the bottom is greater than that near the surface and low-frequency noise absorption is small, a considerable noise amplification occurs, which is due to the contributions of remote sources; in this case, the distribution of mean intensity over depth should have a minimum on the axis of the underwater sound channel, and when observed near the bottom — should have a maximum in its directivity pattern near the horizontal direction. The presence of a thin scattering layer also eliminates the need for solving a general transfer equation and leads to noise gain degradation due to energy outflow to the bottom caused by scattering as well as to a certain smoothing of the minimum

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on the channel axis. Another case that was examined was scattering by an uneven surface with such conditions in the waveguide that the rays striking the bottom with angles greater than the critical angle are absorbed completely, while the rest of the rays, inclusive of refracted rays, are completely reflected. If there is no absorption in the medium, the angular distribution becomes uniform. Ye. P. Kuznetsova49,53 studied the effect of various inhomogeneities in the waveguide on the directivity of noise originating from surface sources. In Ref. 53, she discussed the effects of volumetric inhomogeneities, ambient absorption, and surface reflections on noise directivity in the deep-sea. The general integral equation of radiation transfer for large, compared with the wavelength, inhomogeneities (the “forwardscattering” approximation) is reduced to a diffusion equation, which is solved for an ocean medium with a constant sound speed and for a bilinear profile with account for multiple bottom and surface reflections and scattering by volumetric inhomogeneities. Results of calculations demonstrated that noise field directivity differs notably from the directivity of dipole sources on the surface and that its peak is directed not vertically down, but at an angle close to that of total internal reflection from the bottom. In Ref. 40, a shallow-water waveguide with a large-scale uneven surface, a depth-independent sound speed, and a fluid reflective bottom is discussed. Ambient absorption is also taken into account. The resultant diffusion equation for ray intensity is solved numerically with the parameters for the calculations taken from the experiments by M. Buckingham (1987) carried out in shallow-water. Results of the simulations agree with the experimental data. V. M. Serbin47 offered a solution for the radiation transfer equation for a deep stratified ocean by the numeric Monte Carlo method with account of scattering by the sea surface, sound-scattering layers, and internal waves. A multitude of rays were emitted in various directions from the surface, and then trajectories were calculated for those rays with account of refraction, absorption, and scattering in the medium as well as reflections from the surface and from the bottom. Tracing of a particular ray stopped as soon as its intensity fell below a preset value. In calculating mean-field intensity at a given depth, intensities of all rays reaching the observation point were summed up. To make allowance

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for scattering, the probability of ray angle variation was determined through directivity of sound scattering by volumetric inhomogeneities or a rough surface. Calculation results are consistent with well-known experimental data obtained by G. B. Morris (1978) only for relatively high frequencies (∼ 500 Hz and higher). Account of a layer of scatterers at a depth of ∼ 1 km results in a certain flattening of depth dependence, but its character remains unchanged. To explain the experimental data obtained in the deep ocean at low frequencies, it is necessary to take into consideration the range dependence of the medium. If medium characteristics (depth of underwater sound channel axis and bottom topography) are changing slowly, use can be made of adiabatic invariant conservation along the ray trajectory, which makes it possible to estimate the effect of an isolated eddy or transition from a polar near-surface channel to a deep-water channel.70,94 In the latter case, there is a significant change in the depth dependence of the mean-intensity of the noise on the deep-water channel axis. The minimum is replaced by a maximum. N. N. Komissarova38,76,84 in several of her research works discussed ray models of noise propagation in the ocean having properties varying in space. Noise sources are assumed to be δ-function correlated, to be located on the surface of the ocean, and to have a directivity of cos2m θ, where θ is the angle with the vertical; attenuation in the medium and multiple bottom-surface reflections are also taken into account. In Refs. 38 and 76, noise anisotropy is calculated as a function of vertical and horizontal angles in a wedge region using a pattern of virtual sources in the wedge. A more general method is used in Ref. 84, which is valid for any three-dimensional waveguides with arbitrary bottom topography and sound-speed variation. To find the angular density of energy in a given direction, an inhomogeneous-medium ray pattern is formed with account of all reflections, and for each encounter of a ray with the sea surface, the ray intensity of the source in this direction is calculated with account for ambient attenuation on this interval of the ray path. The resultant ray intensities that provide the contributions of the sources of each region on the surface are then summed up. The paper contains a great number of examples for different areas of the ocean, which illustrate changes in anisotropy that occur in the

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horizontal and in the vertical planes. Particularly, it is shown that the energy of noise emitted vertically within the confines of a shallow-water channel can change its direction to propagate horizontally in a deepwater channel.

3.3. Wave models of noise in a horizontally homogeneous (layered) medium The majority of theoretical studies of ocean noise in the Russian scientific literature employ various kinds of theoretical models for propagation in media stratified in depth and homogeneous in the horizontal plane. In above-mentioned Ref. 12 dedicated to estimation of noise generated by the mechanism of nonlinear interaction of surface waves, general solutions were written in integral form containing both “induced” surface sources and eigenfunctions for the stratified medium, including those that account for the ocean bottom. It is shown that, allowing for a bottom with a reflection coefficient close to unity, a “resonance” noise amplification may occur, which is considerable in comparison with the case of a semi-infinite medium, and a numerical estimation of such an amplification is given. In addition, the paper offers a qualitative discussion of noise when there is a near-surface channel, which is also characterized by noise amplification limited by attenuation due to scattering by the uneven surface of the sea. Yu. L. Gazaryan25 addressed the question of propagation of sound from surface pressure sources in horizontally layered waveguides in view of a small attenuation of normal modes. Two calculation methods are implemented. According to the first, a spectral method, stationary and homogeneous pressure sources on the surface are developed into independent frequency and space harmonics, and only those harmonics that coincide on the surface with the projections of discrete eigenfunctions will be subject to resonant amplification, which is only limited by ambient attenuation. The energy factor of these resonances is calculated on the assumption of small attenuation, and the results are summed up for different normal modes. The second method is more complicated in terms of computation as it implies noncoherent summation

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of the effects of normal modes from random point sources acting for a finite time, but it provides the advantage of estimating noise from nonstationary sources, which are inhomogeneous in space. The paper gives a gain estimation for noise due to surface sources in a waveguide with a perfectly reflecting bottom when compared with the noise of the same sources in a semi-infinite medium and shows that, at low frequencies (10 Hz), the gain amounts to 25 dB, which is accounted for by noise accumulation within a region of about 1500 km. In Ref. 112, the same theory is implemented to estimate seismic noise in a frequency range below 3 × 10−2 Hz with account for Rayleigh wave attenuation, and it is shown that these values are close to the values of microseisms obtained experimentally. A. M. Karnovsky et al.27 calculated spectrum-correlation characteristics of noise in a homogeneous water layer over a fluid bottom generated by δ-function correlated sources distributed within the layer. The solution is given in the form of a set of normal modes. An exponentially diminishing multiplier, equivalent to mode attenuation, is introduced formally to eliminate the divergence. It is shown that the noise field in such a waveguide is not homogeneous and that noise intensity oscillates as the depth of the water layer changes; such oscillations become smoother as the frequency increases. Reference 28 by I. L. Oboznenko is dedicated to the calculation of spatial correlation functions of noise in waveguides, created by a set of nondirectional point sources under sea surface, with account for mode attenuation and the finite dimensions of the noise-emitting area. The author provides results of specific numerical simulations of correlation functions for different orientations of receiver pairs, for a waveguide with a pressure-release surface and a rigid bottom. I. M. Yermakov34,123,124 took up the problem of propagation of ocean noise generated by random dipole sources uniformly distributed on the ocean surface. Following Yu. L. Gazaryan,25 the problem is solved by the method of normal modes on the assumption of their statistical independence, with account of refraction in the oceanic waveguide and the attenuation of normal modes due to absorption in the water and bottom. Numerical computations based on the summation of normal modes and conducted for low frequencies allow estimation of depth

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dependences of the mean noise intensity. Just as in depth dependences obtained by the noncoherent ray method, a minimum of mean intensity should be observed on the axis of the underwater channel, and a maximum — below the conjugate depth, but, contrarily to those, an alternation of maximums and minimums should be observed near the free surface for fixed-frequency noise. Depth dependence thus obtained presupposes a statistical independence of normal modes, which can be violated, for instance, by scattering in the water-column. The author also touches upon the finiteness of a source correlation radius, which practically has no effect on the depth dependence, but only defines the proportion of inhomogeneous and propagating waves. The papers by B. F. Kuryanov88,139 are dedicated to a discussion and comparison of wave and ray models of noise propagation in certain layered media. Noise sources are defined as a homogeneous random field of pressures on the surface, which are represented by a superposition of noncoherent spatial harmonics. In low-absorption waveguides, these harmonics are subject to resonant amplification at eigenfrequencies, which is only limited by absorption. Gain calculations for mean intensity of noise at different depths are accomplished for waveguides with a rigid bottom and with a fluid bottom, for a near-surface waveguide with a positive sound-speed gradient, and for a deep-water bilinear channel with the use of the WKB approximation. At the same time, these results are compared with gain estimates based on a ray model. It is shown that depth dependence of noise, as calculated by mode theory, is subject to oscillations around the ray limit, and the more the modes are excited in the waveguide, the smaller are the oscillations. The oscillations remain only near the boundaries of the waveguide. For such areas, a ray-theory modification is proposed, which makes allowance for coherence of waves reflected from the boundary. An example of a waveguide with perfectly reflecting boundaries is given to show that with the number of normal modes being more than four, the modified ray-theory yields results which are very close to those obtained by the wave theory. Similar results were obtained by N. G. Patylitsin,43 with the use of the same method, for depth dependences of noise in shallow water with an absorbing solid bottom. S. S. Abdullayev and B. A. Niyazov6,33,37,40 discussed the problem of calculating depth dependence and space correlation functions

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of a noise field created by near-surface sources in an ocean with a rigid or reflecting bottom. Solutions in the form of normal modes are also used in this work with account of refraction and low absorption in the medium and the bottom. Unlike the other studies, the authors of this paper offer asymptotic solutions with respect to a small parameter ξ ∼ 1/N , where N is the number of normal modes in the problem, and utilize the WKB approximation method on the assumption of a smooth dependence of refractive index on depth. The results are important because the solution obtained for the intensity and correlation functions is explicitly expressed in an analytic form through elementary functions, which simplifies computation and permits a qualitative analysis to be made. Specifically, for a deep-water sound channel, the depth dependence of mean noise intensity takes the form of a sum of a regular part, which coincides with the result obtained by the noncoherent ray theory, and an oscillating part, which is given in terms of simple analytic functions. In the bulk of the waveguide, far from the boundaries, the oscillating part of the intensity is small and has the order of the value ξ, and only near the boundaries it has the same order as the noncoherent component. O. E. Gulin and V. I. Klyatskin7,15,32,39,42,89 adopted a different approach to theoretical study of noise in a stratified inhomogeneous ocean by using an invariant imbedding method. In their papers, a second-order linear equation for spatial spectral components of noise with boundary conditions on the surface and at the bottom is reduced by invariant imbedding method to an equivalent nonlinear, first-order, Riccati-type equation for a transition function with initial conditions, which is convenient to solve by numerical methods. After solving this equation, determination of random characteristics of the noise field comes to the integration of the obtained solution for transition function over depth of inhomogeneous ocean with account of the dependence of medium parameters on depth and, finally, noncoherent summation of different spectral components. This leads to the appearance of poles, which, just as in the case of solutions through decomposition into normal modes, bring about resonant amplification of the noise field, and to eliminate divergence, allowance is made for finite attenuation in the water and at the bottom. The method described is applicable to any density and sound-speed profiles, both continuous and discontinuous,

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but it is shown that the profile of density in the ocean has little effect on the results. In Refs. 15 and 39, depth dependences of noise power spectra are examined in the presence of an absolutely reflecting bottom and for different sound-speed profiles, namely for a depth-independent profile, for a layer with constant positive gradient, and for a typical underwater sound channel with a minimum sound speed at a depth of about 1 km. In all cases, we observe substantial field amplification at low frequencies, when compared with the field due to surface sources in a homogeneous half-space, and interferential alternation of depth dependence minimums and maximums. The depth dependence of the mean intensity of noise also has a minimum on the axis of the underwater sound channel and a rise at the conjugate depth. Lastly, Refs. 42 and 89 give calculations for an impedance bottom. The invariant imbedding method implemented in these studies allows numerical estimations to be easily made in a standard manner, with an arbitrary accuracy. This method, as well as the noncoherent ray method and the method of normal modes, has the disadvantage of assuming spatial homogeneity with respect to the horizontal coordinates.

3.4. Noise in randomly inhomogeneous media Since the results of theoretical studies of depth dependence of lowfrequency noise and its directivity on the axis of the sound channel in layered media are contrary to actual measurements, it was expected that these contradictions could be explained through consideration of random inhomogeneities and re-scattering of sound in the waveguide. Therefore, a number of papers appeared delving into these questions. I. N. Yermakov41 examined the effects of internal waves on the propagation of noise generated by surface sources in a layered inhomogeneous ocean. The influence of internal waves was expressed as a small, statistically homogeneous random addition to the sound-speed field. Scattering by these inhomogeneities brings about inter-modal interaction, which is described by a system of differential, first-order equations for the amplitudes of different modes according to L. B. Dozier and F. D. Tappert (1978). The field of dipole surface sources is decomposed

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into normal modes, which are then summed up with account of their interaction and ambient attenuation is introduced phenomenologically. The fluid bottom is assumed to be absorptive; therefore, only those modes are summed up whose phase velocity is less than the sound speed at the bottom. Numerical calculations conducted for a typical deep-water channel show that scattering causes a certain spreading of the spatial spectrum of the noise field, when compared with a medium free from fluctuations, and affects depth dependence too, but these changes are modest. A. A. Moiseyev44 examined, in the wave approximation, the effect of scattering on the large-scale (in the horizontal direction) random inhomogeneities of the medium such as internal waves. This scattering, which is calculated in the Markov approximation, brings about redistribution of energy of different excited modes, for whose amplitudes a system of numerically solvable parabolic equations was obtained. For the deep ocean, wave amplification in the absence of scattering proceeds in a narrow angular spectrum, which determines the depth dependence of noise. Now, subject to scattering, the angular spectrum spreads, part of the energy goes into the bottom, the vertical correlation radius decreases, and the general level of noise is reduced. In addition, the depth dependence of the mean intensity of noise flattens and interference maximums smooth out. However, for sufficiently low frequencies, consideration of scattering did not yield an explanation for experimental data showing a maximum on the channel axis. V. V. Artelny et al.45,91 in a series of studies, dealt with the same problem of scattering from statistically homogeneous and isotropic, horizontally large-scale, volumetric inhomogeneities of sound-speed fluctuations, for the noise originating from distributed dipole surface sources. The authors use a difference equation for the intensities of normal modes of the waveguide in the forward-scattering approximation, which is determined by the probabilities of inter-modal transfer, decrements of mode attenuation due to bottom absorption, and the two-dimensional spectrum of sources on the surface. For low frequencies (10–100 Hz), this equation can be reduced to diffusion equations for different modes, for which the diffusion coefficient is determined by the characteristics of the Garrett–Munk spectrum of internal waves. Numerical calculations conducted for low frequencies and a canonical

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profile of sound speed showed that on the axis of the channel, for frequencies lower than 80 Hz, the mode intensity distribution is practically uniform and the noise gain coefficient (when compared with a medium free from random fluctuations) is as high as 10–15 dB. Accordingly, this results in a change in the character of the depth dependence. Whereas in the absence of medium fluctuations, both the ray theory and the mode theory predict a minimum of mean intensity of noise on the channel axis, allowance for scattering as in Ref. 45 for frequencies below 25 Hz gives a maximum of intensity, which is in accordance with experimental data (G. B. Morris (1978)). A similar approach is implemented for the solution of another problem — that of estimating noise characteristics in a near-surface waveguide with account of scattering by an uneven surface.50,91 Wind waves play a dual role here — as both a noise source and a cause of multiple scattering. Another input equation is the equation of transfer for the intensities of normal modes of a waveguide with a soft boundary in forward-scattering approximation, excited by localized dipole sources on the surface; normal modes are calculated here in the WKB approximation. The calculations are done for low frequencies where the Rayleigh parameter can be assumed to be small. Specific calculations were accomplished for a linear sound-speed profile throughout the water column and an absorbing, 6-km deep bottom. The depth dependence of intensity is calculated with account for averaging of oscillations and the distribution of energy over modes of the waveguide. Although, generally, the character of depth dependence remains the same (maximum around the axis of the channel near the surface), a redistribution of mode energy occurs. Gain calculation (when compared with a channel free from scattering) shows that at comparatively high frequencies (200 Hz), the noise gain drops down sharply as the wind velocity rises, which can account for a lesser dependence of the resultant noise on wind velocity at high frequencies, which is observed in experiments. V. V. Artelny et al.75 discussed multiple scattering of noise by an uneven surface, for a near-surface waveguide, with account for mode attenuation in the water and at the bottom. Pearson–Moscovitz spectrum is used for the calculation of mode coupling at low frequencies where the Rayleigh parameter can be assumed to be small. In this case,

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the main contribution is made by low-order modes. With increasing wind velocity, noise gain declines and the intensity distribution over depth becomes more uniform. The same paper deals with noise in a horizontally inhomogeneous waveguide, which is formed at the transition from high latitudes with a positive sound-speed gradient to a tropical wave-guide with the channel axis at a great depth. A nonstationary transfer equation is obtained for a smoothly varying waveguide. Numerical calculations show that when propagating in a waveguide with a variable channel axis, lower-order modes become predominant due to surface scattering, which leads to a maximum in the angular spectrum in the region of small grazing angles. Ye. I. Derevyagina and B. G. Katsnelson72 discussed a model of noise in shallow water with constant parameters for the water and the bottom and with random inhomogeneities in the water. Being based on a modal representation of the field in the WKB approximation, after averaging a system of equations for mode intensities, and with a great number of modes, a transfer equation for ray intensity (noise directivity) is obtained. It is of particular interest that for a Pekeris waveguide the result is obtained in a closed form in terms of Bessel functions of imaginary argument and is determined by a single parameter, which depends on the waveguide geometry as well as on scattering and absorption in the medium. For small and large values of this parameter, ray intensity is expressed by trigonometric functions. The intensity distribution is practically even for the major part of incidence angles, a deviation arising only at angles close to the angle of total reflection from the bottom. 3.5. A range-dependent channel A wave theory for a range-dependent channel is given by A. A. Moiseyev.52,58,94 On the assumption that the scale in the variation of medium properties along the path is much greater than the ray cycle length, the field is developed into a set of “local” eigenfunctions. In a “vertical modes–horizontal rays” approximation, general equations are obtained for the correlation function of the noise field. Specific calculations conducted for the conditions of an ocean front in the

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region of transition from a polar area with a near-surface channel to a tropical area with a deep-water channel, show that the character of depth-dependence changes even at a considerable distance from the front — the minimum on the channel axis is replaced by a maximum. The wave nature of noise becomes apparent in the alternation of maximums and minimums in the depth dependence of intensity. Apart from that, an interaction of modes may take place in the front area, resulting in a horizontal interference structure with a scale coinciding with ray cycle length. 3.6. “Vectorial” description of ocean noise A large number of publications have appeared in the Russian scientific literature of late, connected with the names of B. I. Goncharenko, L. N. Zakharov, V. I. Il’ichev et al.55,59,87,90,92,100–104 related to the so-called “vector-phase” or “four-dimensional” acoustics — a trend that is somewhat out of the mainstream of ocean noise research. To substantiate this approach, these researchers assert that scalar acoustics is allegedly incomplete in principle, and a complete description of acoustic phenomena requires the knowledge and estimation of four values, namely pressure and the three components of velocity. Therefore, most of these studies describe models containing calculation of many statistical characteristics of these four values and their correlations. Emphasis is placed on the division of the noise field into isotropic and anisotropic components, which are determined by the complete power flow through an elemental area under different orientations. This value can be measured by means of a nonlinear combined receiver whose output is the multiplication product of the pressure and the velocity vector. In contrast to the conventional definition, it is this value that is called anisotropy in these papers. It is necessary to make a note here. As opposed to the statements of the authors quoted above, it is well-known that in underwater acoustics the scalar potential provides a full description of all field characteristics, including vector characteristics, and for a full description of a noise field and all its statistical characteristics, both scalar and vectorial, it is sufficient to know just one value — the scalar function of power flow angular density as a function of two angles (which is conventionally called anisotropy, or directivity).

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Contrarily, the power flow vector (which is also called “anisotropy” in the papers referred to) does not allow most of the key statistical characteristics of noise to be determined at all. 4. What is Next? We have provided a brief overview of experimental and theoretical studies of ambient noise in the ocean based on papers published in Russia during the period from 1963 to the present. It is interesting to track the distribution of these publications over this period. Figure 1 shows a bar chart of the number of papers published during this time in fiveyear intervals. Before 1960, there were no publications at all, and in the five-year period from 1985 to 1989, their number reached its apex, which was then followed by a regular decline. If this decline continues at the current rate, then it should be expected that in the next 10 years all work on acoustic noise of the ocean in Russia will have come to a standstill. There are several reasons for this decline. First, it is connected with the shrinking of expenditures for scientific research after 1990 due to a general economic decline and a reduction in defence spending with the end of the Cold War, including allocations for costly oceanic

Fig. 1.

Bar chart of the number of publications in five-year periods.

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expeditions. The second possible reason may be related to a reduction of the inflow of young specialists to science, which is quite apparent in recent years. Finally, the third possible reason may be the loss of scientific interest in this field, as the major questions that researchers used to face have essentially been resolved. In many papers referred to above, it was repeatedly noted that the results of ocean noise studies could have peaceful applications, such as passive remote monitoring of medium characteristics. However, in fact, none of the proposals made has found any practical application thus far, except for the estimation of bottom reflection coefficient at low frequencies by the noise directivity in the specular directions. References Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR) 1. V. V. Shuleikin, About the voice of the sea, 3(6), 259–262 (1935). 2. N. N. Andreyev, About the voice of the sea, 23(7), 625–628 (1939). 3. B. F. Kuryanov and B. I. Klyachin, On the theory of depth dependence of lowfrequency noise of the ocean, 259(6), 1483–1487 (1981). 4. B. I. Klyachin and B. F. Kuryanov, The effect of sound scattering on depth dependence of low-frequency noise of the ocean, 260(4), 1009–1012 (1981). 5. A. Yu. Volkov, B. F. Kuryanov and A. M. Sagalevich, The measurement of lowfrequency ocean noise characteristics with the help of the PICES manned vehicle, 276(4), 950–953 (1984). 6. S. S. Abdullayev, B. A. Niyazov and P. K. Khabibulayev, Spatial correlation of surface noise in an acoustic waveguide, 288(1), 223–226 (1986). 7. O. E. Gulin and V. I. Klyatskin, On the theory of acoustic noise in randomly inhomogeneous ocean, 288(1), 226–229 (1986). 8. A. M. Mitnik, V. P. Dzyuba and V. I. Il’ichev, Spatially coherent microstructures in a field of acoustic noise of the ocean, 305(2), 449–452 (1989). 9. G. A. Postnov and V. I. Mendus, On a possible mechanism of generation of low-frequency dynamic noise of the ocean, 342(6) 815–818 (1995).

Transactions of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, ser. Atmospheric and Oceanic Physics (Izvestiya AN SSSR, ser. Fizika Atmosfery i Okeana) 10. L. M. Brekhovskikh, Underwater sound waves caused by surface waves in the ocean, 2(9), 970–980 (1966).

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11. A. V. Furduyev, Underwater cavitation as a source of noise in the ocean, 2, 523–532 (1966). 12. L. M. Brekhovskikh and V. V. Goncharov, Sound generation by surface waves with account of bottom reflections and dependence of sound speed on depth, 5(6), 608–615 (1969). 13. V. V. Goncharov, Sound generation in the ocean due to interaction of surface waves and turbulence, 6(11), 1189–1196 (1970). 14. A. A. Aredov and A. V. Furduyev, On the relation of underwater noise level to wind velocity and water area dimensions, 15(1), 92–98 (1979). 15. O. E. Gulin and V. I. Klyatskin, On resonance structure of the spectral components of an acoustic field in the ocean under the effect of atmospheric pressure, 22(3), 282–291 (1986). 16. S. S. Abdullayev and P. K. Khabibulayev, Asymptotic theory of low-frequency noise in the ocean with account for impedance, 24(10), 1066–1076 (1988).

Akusticheskiy Zhurnal (Acoustics Journal) 17. A. V. Furduyev, Underwater noise of dynamic origin (review), 9(3), 265–274 (1963). 18. B. F. Kuryanov, Spatial correlation of fields emitted by random sources on a plane, 9(4), 441–448 (1963). 19. L. M. Brekhovskikh, On generation of sound waves in a fluid by surface waves, 12(3), 376–379 (1966). 20. M. A. Isakovich and B. F. Kuryanov, On the theory of low-frequency noise in the ocean, 16(1), 62–74 (1970). 21. V. I. Bardyshev, A. M. Velikanov and S. G. Gershman, Selected experimental studies of underwater noise in the ocean, 16(4), 602–603 (1970). 22. V. I. Bardyshev, A. M. Velikanov, S. G. Gershman and V. I. Kryshny, On the dependence of underwater noise level in the ocean on wind velocity, 17(2), 302–303 (1971). 23. V. I. Bardyshev, N. G. Kozhelupova and V. I. Kryshny, A study into the distribution laws of underwater noise in the littoral zone of the sea and in the ocean, 19(2), 129–132 (1973). 24. Ye. P. Masterov and S. P. Shorokhova, Selected results of experimental studies into spectrum and energy characteristics of sea noise, 19(2), 207–211 (1973). 25. Yu. L. Gazaryan, On energy spectrum of noise in plane-layered waveguides, 23(3), 382–390 (1975). 26. B. I. Klyachin, The effect of scattering on the anisotropy of a field of ocean noise, 27(4), 526–532 (1981). 27. A. M. Karnovsky, K. A. Loginov, Ye. A. Rivelis and M. Ye. Freiman, About one model of noise field in a waveguide, 27(5), 752–758 (1981). 28. I. L. Oboznenko, Spatial correlation of surface noise in a depth-inhomogeneous waveguide with losses, 28(2), 258–263 (1982).

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29. A. M. Karnovsky, On the structure of the noise field in a wedge, 29(4), 567–569 (1983). 30. A. M. Karnovsky, Space correlation function of the noise field of vibrational speed of signal and disturbance in a wedge, 29(5), 619–624 (1983). 31. I. P. Tonoyan, On the spatial correlation of the radiation field of random surface sources in an absorbing medium, 31(3), 401–404 (1985). 32. O. E. Gulin, On the theory of acoustic noise in deep, layered ocean, 31(4), 524–527 (1985). 33. S. S. Abdullayev and B. A. Niyazov, Spatial coherence and intensity distribution of a field in an underwater sound channel, 31(4), 417–422 (1985). 34. I. P. Yermakov, Frequency spectra of a wave field in a flat-layered waveguide, 32(2), 264–267 (1986). 35. I. P. Tonoyan, On the structure of fields emitted by random sources on a plane, 32(3), 424–427 (1986). 36. Ye. A. Rivelis and I. P. Tonoyan, Spatial correlation of surface noise in shallow water, 32(6), 526–630 (1986). 37. S. S. Abdullayev, B. A. Niyazov and P. K. Khabibulayev, On the modelling of spatial correlation and intensity of low-frequency surface noise in shallow water, 33(1), 1–5 (1987). 38. N. N. Komissarova, Noise field created by surface sources in a coastal wedge, 33(1), 43–48 (1987). 39. O. E. Gulin, Numerical modelling of low-frequency acoustic noise in layered ocean, 33(1), 113–116 (1987). 40. B. A. Niyazov, On the modelling of spatial correlation and intensity of lowfrequency surface noise in deep ocean, 33(2), 307–311 (1987). 41. I. N. Yermakov, On the effect of scattering by internal waves on characteristics of a low-frequency noise field, 33(3), 484–487 (1987). 42. O. E. Gulin, Spectra of low-frequency noise in flat-layered ocean with impedance properties of the bottom, 33(4), 618–623 (1987). 43. N. G. Patylitsin, A model of low-frequency surface noise in shallow water with an absorbing elastic bottom, 33(5), 933–937 (1987). 44. A. A. Moiseyev, The field of ambient noise in randomly inhomogeneous ocean, 33(6), 1105–1111 (1987). 45. V. V. Artelny, I. N. Didenkulov and M. A. Rayevsky, Low-frequency dynamic noise in randomly inhomogeneous ocean, 34(1), 12–19 (1988). 46. A. A. Aredov, N. N. Okhrimenko and A. V. Furduyev, Anisotropy of a noise field in the ocean (experiment and calculations), 34(2), 215–222 (1988). 47. V. M. Serbin, Theoretical study of depth dependence of ocean noise, 34(4), 711–717 (1988). 48. A. V. Belousov and A. V. Furduyev, On the estimation of ocean noise level in the range of refraction minimum angles, 34(4), 732–733 (1988). 49. Ye. P. Kuznetsova, Sound field of surface sources of sound in a randomly inhomogeneous waveguide, 34(5), 891–892 (1988).

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50. V. V. Artelny, I. N. Didenkulov and M. A. Rayevsky, Low-frequency noise field in ocean with perturbed surface, 34(6), 972–978 (1988). 51. N. N. Zelensky, Certain properties of a field of acoustic noise in a waveguide with planar-parallel boundaries, 35(1), 55–62 (1989). 52. A. A. Moiseyev, The field of low-frequency acoustic noise of the ocean in the vicinity of a front zone, 35(2), 320–327 (1989). 53. Ye. P. Kuznetsova, Calculation of noise directivity in shallow water, 35(6), 1079– 1083 (1989). 54. A. A. Aredov, G. M. Dronov and A. V. Furduyev, The effect of wind and internal waves on ocean noise parameters, 36(4), 581–586 (1990). 55. V. I. Il’ichev, V. P. Kuleshov, M. V. Kuyanova and V. A. Shchurov, Interaction of power flows of ambient noise and a local source, 37(1), 99–103 (1991). 56. A. Yu. Lyubchenko and V. G. Petnikov, Experimental studies of vertical distribution of low-frequency noise intensity in shallow water, 37(3), 582–585 (1991). 57. P. N. Kravchun, K. A. Pestov and O. S. Tonakanov, On an empirical model of ocean noise, 38(5), 886–892 (1992). 58. A. A. Moiseyev, Interference phenomena in a field of low-frequency ocean noise in the neighbourhood of a strong ocean front, 39(2), 307–316 (1993). 59. V. A. Gordienko, B. I. Goncharenko and Ya. A. Ilyushin, Peculiarities of the formation of a vector-phase structure of noise fields in the ocean, 39(3), 455– 466 (1993). 60. A. A. Aredov, N. N. Galybin and A. V. Furduyev, An acoustic and oceanographic experiment on recording of internal waves, 39(4), 584–591 (1993). 61. I. P. Tonoyan, On the theory of infrasonic acoustic noise of the ocean due to turbulent wind, 39(5), 911–920 (1993). 62. V. I. Mendus and G. A. Postnov, On angular distribution of intensity of highfrequency dynamic noise of the ocean, 39(6), 1107–1116 (1993). 63. V. I. Mendus and G. A. Postnov, Experimental estimations of angular distribution of ocean noise in kilohertz range at small grazing angles, 40(1), 96–99 (1994). 64. A. A. Aredov and A. V. Furduyev, Retrieving angle and frequency dependences of sound reflection coefficient from the bottom of the ocean from characteristics of ocean noise anisotropy, 40(2), 200–204 (1994). 65. B. F. Kuryanov and A. A. Moiseyev, Experimental study of depth dependence of deep-ocean low-frequency noise with the help of a controlled-buoyancy buoy, 40(2), 275–278 (1994). 66. V. I. Mendus and G. A. Postnov, On the effect of a layer of air bubbles on discrete components of angular spectrum of ocean noise, 40(2), 316–318 (1994). 67. A. A. Aredov, G. M. Dronov, N. N. Okhrimenko and A. V. Furduyev, Experimental estimations of stationarity of underwater noise in the ocean, 40(3), 357–361 (1994). 68. Ye. I. Derevyagina, B. G. Katsnelson and A. Yu. Lyubchenko, The vertical structure of intensity of a low-frequency sound field in shallow water, 40(3), 380–384 (1994).

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69. B. F. Kuryanov, Passive acoustic tomography of sediments on sea shelf, 40(5), 868–870 (1994). 70. B. I. Klyachin and Ye. D. Shevlyakova, Noise field inside vortices in the ocean, 40(6), 957–962 (1994). 71. B. I. Klyachin, On multiple scattering of ocean noise, 41(1), 163 (1995). 72. Ye. I. Derevyagina and B. G. Katsnelson, The effect of random inhomogeneities on the vertical directivity of surface noise in shallow water, 41(2), 240–245 (1995). 73. A. A. Aredov, G. M. Dronov, N. N. Okhrimenko and A. V. Furduyev, The effect of inhomogeneities in the ocean on variability of anisotropy characteristic of a noise field, 42(1), 5–10 (1996). 74. A. A. Aredov, G. M. Dronov, N. N. Okhrimenko and A. V. Furduyev, A study of space-time and frequency homogeneity of ocean noise fluctuations, 42(2), 155–165 (1996). 75. V. V. Artelny, V. V. Kuznetsov and M. A. Rayevsky, On the formation of noise fields in randomly inhomogeneous waveguides, 42(2), 165–171 (1996). 76. N. N. Komissarova, Transformation of angular spectrum of ocean noise under the conditions of a coastal slope, 42(2), 241–246 (1996). 77. A. A. Aredov and A. V. Furduyev, Directivity of surface sources of sea noise, 43(5), 696–699 (1997). 78. G. M. Dronov, Measurement of ocean noise level versus depth, 43(5), 709–710 (1997). 79. G. A. Postnov, Experimental estimation of angular distribution of noise generated by the breaking of a single wave, 44(4), 527–531 (1998). 80. A. V. Furduyev, A. A. Aredov and N. N. Okhrimenko, The effect of squalls and wind gusts on the fluctuations of underwater noise level, 44(3), 412–418 (1998). 81. A. A. Aredov and A. V. Furduyev, A model of wind noise level fluctuations in the ocean (calculation and experiment), 45(6), 930–934 (1999). 82. G. A. Postnov, Spectra of ocean noise generated by breaking of wind waves, 46(3), 238–244 (2000). 83. M. Yu. Gureyev, N. G. Kanev and Ye. Yu. Kraynov, The noise of the surf in calm sea, 48(6), 836–838 (2002). 84. N. N. Komissarova, Anisotropy of a field of surface noise sources in a littoral region with arbitrary bottom topography and sound speed profile, 40(4), 519– 528 (2003).

Proceedings of the L. M. Brekhovskikh’s Conferences on Ocean Acoustics 85. B. F. Kuryanov, Underwater noise in the ocean, Acoustics of the Ocean. State of the Art, eds. L. M. Brekhovskikh and I. B. Andreyeva (Nauka, Moscow, 1982), pp. 164–174.

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86. B. F. Kuryanov and B. I. Klyachin, Application of radiation transfer theory to problems of noise propagation in the ocean, Problems of Ocean Acoustics, eds. L. M. Brekhovskikh and I. B. Andreyeva (Nauka, Moscow, 1984), pp. 16–30. 87. L. N. Zakharov, S. A. Il’in, V. I. Il’ichev and V. A. Shchurov, Vector-phase methods in ocean acoustics, Problems of Ocean Acoustics, eds. L. M. Brekhovskikh and I. B. Andreyeva (Nauka, Moscow, 1984), pp. 192–204. 88. B. F. Kuryanov, Low-frequency noise in waveguides with attenuation, Acoustic Waves in the Ocean, eds. L. M. Brekhovskikh and I. B. Andreyeva (Nauka, Moscow, 1987), pp. 184–198. 89. O. E. Gulin and V. I. Klyatskin, Atmospheric excitation of low-frequency acoustic noise in layered ocean for different models of its stratification, Acoustics of the Oceanic Medium, eds. L. M. Brekhovskikh and I. B. Andreyeva (Nauka, Moscow, 1989), pp. 133–140. 90. V. I. Il’ichev, V. A. Shchurov, V. P. Dzyuba and V. P. Kuleshov, Examination of a field of acoustic noise in the ocean by vector-phase methods, Acoustics of the Oceanic Medium, eds. L. M. Brekhovskikh and I. B. Andreyeva (Nauka, Moscow, 1989), pp. 140–152. 91. V. V. Artelny, I. N. Didenkulov and M. A. Rayevsky, Low-frequency dynamic noise in randomly inhomogeneous ocean, Acoustics in the Ocean, eds. L. M. Brekhovskikh and I. B. Andreyeva (Nauka, Moscow, 1992), pp. 164–175. 92. V. I. Il’ichev, V. A. Shchurov, V. P. Dzyuba and Yu. A. Khvorostov, Anisotropic properties of underwater dynamic noise, Oceanic Acoustics, eds. L. M. Brekhovskikh and Yu. P. Lysanov (Nauka, Moscow, 1993), pp. 182–189. 93. V. A. Apanasenko and V. N. Kryshny, Underwater noise in the shelf zone of the sea, Oceanic Acoustics, eds. L. M. Brekhovskikh and Yu. P. Lysanov (Nauka, Moscow, 1993), pp. 190–199. 94. B. I. Klyachin, B. F. Kuryanov and A. A. Moiseyev, On the effect of ocean medium inhomogeneities on underwater acoustic noise, Oceanic Acoustics, eds. L. M. Brekhovskikh and Yu. P. Lysanov (Nauka, Moscow, 1993), pp. 200–210. 95. B. F. Kuryanov, The evolution of conceptions of low-frequency noise of the ocean over 50 years, Acoustics of the Ocean. Proceedings of L. M. Brekhovskikh’s Conference, eds. L. M. Brekhovskikh and I. B. Andreyeva (GEOS, Moscow, 1998), pp. 116–124. 96. A. V. Furduyev, Underwater noise of spatially inhomogeneous wind over the sea, Acoustics of the Ocean. Proceedings of L. M. Brekhovskikh’s Conference, eds. L. M. Brekhovskikh and I. B. Andreyeva (GEOS, Moscow, 1998), pp. 124–131. 97. G. A. Postnov, A model of dynamic noise of the ocean, Acoustics of the Ocean. Proceedings of L. M. Brekhovskikh’s Conference, eds. L. M. Brekhovskikh and I. B. Andreyeva (GEOS, Moscow, 1998), pp. 138–143. 98. A. V. Furduyev, On new techniques of underwater acoustic monitoring, Acoustics of the Ocean. Proceedings of the 8th L. M. Brekhovskikh’s Conference (GEOS, Moscow, 2000), pp. 25–29.

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99. A. V. Furduyev, Frequency bands in the spectrum of underwater noise fluctuations, Acoustics of the Ocean. Proceedings of the 8th L. M. Brekhovskikh’s Conference (GEOS, Moscow, 2000), pp. 45–48. 100. M. V. Kuyanova, A. S. Lyashkov and I. O. Yaroshchuk, On statistical models of surface dynamic noise of the ocean, Acoustics of the Ocean. Proceedings of the 9th L. M. Brekhovskikh’s Conference (GEOS, Moscow, 2002), pp. 233–236. 101. A. N. Shvyrev and I. O. Yaroshchuk, Statistical characteristics of surface dynamic noise in layered ocean, Acoustics of the Ocean. Proceedings of the 9th L. M. Brekhovskikh’s Conference (GEOS, Moscow, 2002), pp. 262–265. 102. V. A. Shchurov, Statistical properties of the difference in phases of acoustic pressure and oscillatory velocity, Acoustics of the Ocean. Proceedings of the 9th L. M. Brekhovskikh’s Conference (GEOS, Moscow, 2002), pp. 266–269. 103. V. A. Shchurov, V. P. Kuleshov and M. V. Kuyanova, The effect of surface waves on the transfer of dynamic noise energy, Acoustics of the Ocean. Proceedings of the 9th L. M. Brekhovskikh’s Conference (GEOS, Moscow, 2002), pp. 270–273. 104. I. O. Yaroshchuk, D. Yang and O. E. Gulin, Modelling of random scalar-vector acoustic fields in shallow water, Acoustics of the Ocean. Proceedings of the 9th L. M. Brekhovskikh’s Conference (GEOS, Moscow, 2002), pp. 278–281.

Transactions of the Institute of Acoustics (Trudy Akusticheskogo Instituta) 105. V. I. Bardyshev and S. I. Voronina, On the dependence of ocean noise levels on wind velocity, 4, 143–150 (1968). 106. V. I. Bardyshev, On the origin of low-frequency noise in the ocean, 11, 156–160 (1970). 107. A. V. Furduyev, Spectrum-energy characteristics of dynamic noise in open, deep ocean, 11, 161–165 (1970). 108. A. V. Furduyev and N. N. Okhrimenko, On certain peculiarities of anisotropy of ocean noise, 13, 125–132 (1970).

Marine Instrument-Making Journal (Morskoye Priborostroyenie), ser. Acoustics 109. L. M. Brekhovskikh and V. V. Goncharov, Sound emission by the oceanatmosphere boundary layer, (13), 47–61 (1972). 110. V. I. Bardyshev and Ye. M. Greshilov, On disturbance-protective properties of some domes, (3), 100–107 (1973). 111. A. V. Furduyev and N. N. Okhrimenko, On the effect of ocean turbulence on the results of underwater noise measurement experiment, (3), 108–112 (1973).

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Shipbuilding Issues (Voprosy Sudostroyeniya), ser. Acoustics 112. Yu. L. Gazaryan, Estimation of seismic and hydroacoustic noise created by atmospheric pressure fluctuations, (5), 3–6 (1975). 113. A. M. Derzhavin, Ye. G. Vorobyov and L. A. Bespalov, Experimental estimation of anisotropy of an ocean noise field with the help of a near-omnidirectional array, (5), 19–24 (1975). 114. A. G. Rakin and A. V. Furduyev, Computer-aided calculation of anisotropy characteristics of a noise field in open ocean, (5), 24–32 (1975). 115. V. I. Bardyshev, The use of multiple correlation in studies of low-frequency underwater noise in the littoral zone of the ocean, (5), 33–38 (1975). 116. Yu. P. Kott, The spectra of sea noise during rain and hail, (5), 59–61 (1975). 117. N. N. Okhrimenko and A. V. Furduyev, Spectra and levels of dynamic noise in open ocean, (5), 65–70 (1975). 118. Yu. K. Gulua, Ye. P. Masterov, G. A. Safyanov and S. P. Shorokhova, Selected results of measurements of low-frequency sea noise levels, (2), 52–55 (1978). 119. A. V. Furduyev, Spectra of ocean noise and pseudosonic disturbances of sound reception, (10), 45–51 (1978). 120. N. N. Komissarova, Variation of the spectrum of surf noise when propagating in a littoral wedge, (15), 23–33 (1982). 121. N. N. Okhrimenko, On depth dependence of ocean noise, (15), 34–41 (1982). 122. N. N. Komissarova, Anisotropy of a noise field in the littoral wedge, (15), 131–133 (1982). 123. I. N. Yermakov, Certain peculiarities of a low-frequency noise field in planelayered waveguides, (18), 3–6 (1984). 124. I. N. Yermakov, The effect of finiteness of the value of noise source correlation radius on the characteristics of a low-frequency noise field, (2), 20–23 (1987). 125. A. A. Aredov, The effect of the continental slope on vertical anisotropy of a noise field in the ocean, (3), 41–47 (1988). 126. Ye. I. Derevyagina and B. G. Katsnelson, The effect of noise sources distribution pattern on the spectrum of a noise field in shallow water, (3), 50–53 (1988). 127. V. G. Ivanov, Experimental study of anisotropy of an ocean noise field using adaptive spatial filtering techniques, (3), 54–58 (1988). 128. A. V. Glushko and B. F. Kuryanov, Measuring the directivity of low-frequency noise with the help of a multi-element array, (3), 58–63 (1988). 129. B. F. Kuryanov and A. A. Moiseyev, Observation of interference phenomena in ocean noise, (3), 63–66 (1988). 130. B. I. Klyachin and A. M. Podrazhansky, Spectral distribution and depth dependence of ocean noise, (3), 67 (1988).

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Other sources 131. V. V. Shuleikin, Physics of the Sea, Sec. 18: The Voice of the Sea (Acad. Sci. USSR, Moscow, 1953), pp. 710–715. 132. A. V. Furduyev and V. Chulkov, Spectrum-energy characteristics of ocean noise, Morskoy Sbornik (Marine Digest) (2), 73–77 (1967). 133. A. V. Furduyev, Ambient noise in the ocean, Ocean Acoustics, ed. L. M. Brekhovskikh (Nauka, Moscow, 1974), pp. 615–691. 134. V. I. Bardyshev, A. M. Velikanov and N. G. Kozhelupova, On the laws of spectrum-energy levels distribution of underwater noise of the ocean, Proc. VIII All-Union Acoustics Conference, Section N, Moscow (1973), pp. 108–110 . 135. V. I. Kryshny and B. F. Kuryanov, A study into the relationship between ocean noise intensity and wind velocity, Proc. VIII All-Union Acoustics Conference, Section N, Moscow (1973), pp. 104–107. 136. B. F. Kuryanov, Low-frequency noise in the ocean, Proc. X All-Union Acoustics Conference, Plenary Reports, Moscow (1983), pp. 42–57 . 137. A. V. Furduyev, Noise fields in the ocean, Proc. X All-Union Acoustics Conference, Plenary Reports, Moscow (1983), pp. 241–258. 138. A. A. Aredov, N. N. Okhrimenko and A. V. Furduyev, A study into vertical directivity of a dynamic noise field in the ocean, Proc. X All-Union Acoustics Conference, Secton D, Moscow (1983), pp. 40–43. 139. B. F. Kuryanov, The theory of low-frequency noise of the ocean: ray- and modebased approaches, Filed in VINITI (All-Union Institute for Scientific and Technical Information, Moscow), 3569–84 (1984), pp. 1–60. 140. B. F. Kuryanov, The theory of low frequency noise generated by turbulence near the atmosphere-ocean interface, Natural Physical Sources of Underwater Sound, ed. B. R. Kerman (Kluwer Academic, Dodrecht, 1993), pp. 255–262. 141. A. V. Furduyev, Stable floating platform for acoustic oceanographic measurements and monitoring of sea environment, Proc. MTS/IEEE International Conference OCEAN CITIES-95 (B&C Impression, Monaco, 1995), p. 375.

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Vodtranspribor — The Alma Mater of Engineering of Home Hydroacoustic Instrument V. A. BERSENEV and B. YA. GOLUBCHIK

Hydroacoustics as an independent branch of science and technology, initially as a military technology, took shape at the end of World War I. It was during World War I that the undersea fleet essentially came into being. German submarines inflicted heavy losses on the Allies’ surface fleet. This necessitated creating the capability to detect submarines. Detection systems were then called “listening devices” or “passive sonars.” Research programs in this area were initiated by Germany, Britain, France, and the USA. In 1917, the Special Antisubmarine Instruments Council was organized in the USA to work jointly with the Naval Consultative Board and the National Research Board. It coordinated work in the area of hydroacoustics for participating countries. As early as 1917, the British Fleet installed listening devices on minor vessels. In Russia, the first experiments in hydroacoustics after the revolution began at the Naval Department of the Comintern Plant in Leningrad, which later, in 1930, were reassigned to the Central Radio Laboratory (CRL). (The CRL was later reorganized as the Institute of Radio Reception and Acoustics, IRRA.) There, in 1931, for the first time in the Soviet Union, a hydroacoustics group consisting of six people was organized for the purpose of studying and assimilating foreign hydroacoustic devices. In that year, four sonar communication systems and three passive sonars with elliptical arrays were purchased in Germany and sent to the Baltic. The passive sonars were mounted on the submarines Dekabrist and Krasnogvardeyets and on the destroyer Stalin. They served as prototypes and formed the foundation for the development of the first home hydroacoustic systems. There was an 237

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acute need to organize a research and production base for creating hydroacoustic systems. With the assistance of Director of the Institute of Marine Communications of the Navy, A. I. Berg, all equipment and the engineering and technical staff of the CRL hydroacoustics group were transferred in 1932 to the Vodtranspribor workshop. (See also the paper by M. V. Zhurkovich and Z. N. Umikov “The First Hydroacoustics Laboratory…” —Ed.) The former house of Count Paskevich at 7 Krasnaya St. had been a museum devoted to commercial navigation and to ports. To support the museum display, a shop for building scale models of ships and ship mechanisms had been established. Its organization was entrusted to Ya. L. Plam, a worker of the museum and student of the Shipbuilding Faculty of the Leningrad Industrial Institute. In 1929, the shop supplemented its equipment at the expense of the liquidated mechanical shop of the Leningrad Weather Service and continued the work of the liquidated facility, producing Ekman–Vetz hydrometric current meters and coring winches. In 1930, in the workhop of Vodtranspribor, by order of the Research Institute of Water Transport (Giprorechtrans), a “Maigak” indicator (for measuring and recording pressure in cylinders of steam and internal combustion engines) of foreign manufacture was repaired. Later, several indicators were manufactured thus permitting an abrupt reduction in their purchase abroad with foreign currency. As an incentive, the Narkomvneshtorg (the People’s Commissariat for Foreign Trade) authorized ordering from abroad several precision machine tools for the shop. By order of the Hydrographic Department of the Navy, the shop began to organize the production of flashing beacon equipment. Its manufacture required organizing the processes of casting of nonferrous metals, thermal treatment, electroplating, as well as improving and replacing the burner material, etc. In 1931, based on a report by Ya. L. Plam, the Board of Narkomvod (People’s Commissariat of Water Transport) decided to expand (reconstruct) the shop, and allocated one million roubles for this purpose. The shop was renamed the Vodtranspribor Workhop of Precise Instruments and Models. It was decided to spend the allocated money to build a Plant. The architectural and city-planning Department of the Lensovet (Leningrad City Soviet of People’s Deputies) allotted

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a vacant plot of land on the corner of the Serdobolskaya St. and Yazykova Alley (now Belootrovskaya St.), and in May 1931, construction of the Plant began. By that time, the workshop already employed several young engineers from the CRL, including V. N. Tyulin, V. V. Dmitriyev, Z. N. Umikov, B. A. Ozerov, B. P. Grigoryev, and N. B. Kustov. On June 1, 1933, the Vodtranspribor Plant was commissioned and Ya. L. Plam was appointed its first director. In less than a year, it was decided to expand and remodel the Plant. The reconstruction plan envisaged increasing its capacity 2.5 times. The Plant’s large-scale reconstruction lasted 6 years and was completed in 1939. In 1937, the Plant received the number 206 from the Fifth Chief Department of the People’s Commissariat of Defense Industry. The Plant’s first series products were “Maigak” power indicators and equipment for beacons. This latter equipment was last imported in 1934. The beacon equipment manufactured at the Vodtranspribor Plant was installed in the Northeast Passage in the Arctic, the Belomoro–Baltiiskii Canal, the Astrakhan Roads, and the locks section of the Dnieper Basin. In 1935, the Plant began production of the new Semenov FS-206 signal lanterns for Morse-code communication by light. These lanterns ensured normal operation in precipitous seas (up to a sea state of 8) and during gunfire (Fig. 1). In January, 1934, during the XVII CPSU Congress, one of the booths illustrating the achievements of Soviet industry represented the Vodtranspribor Plant (Fig. 2). The pride of the booth was the first Soviet echo-sounders designed at the Plant under the guidance of the engineer V. N. Tyulin (1892–1969). Its specifications exceeded those of the echo sounders of the British Admiralty. These specifications had been confirmed during trials on the ice-breaker Yermak. The instrument registered depths employing the principle of measuring the time difference between the times of transmission and receiving an acoustic signal reflected from the bottom. The echo-sounders projector consisted of a membrane and a striker. A carbon microphone served as the receiver of the reflected signal. In 1937, the Plant manufactured the boat echo-sounder EMS4 for measuring depths in rivers up to 120 m in depth. For the first

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Fig. 1. Navigation buoy with flash lantern produced at the Vodtranspribor plant in the early 1930s.

time in a home hydroacoustic system, magnetostriction in the oscillatory receiving and projecting systems was used. The EMS-4 had two magnetostrictive chambers for emitting and receiving. The chambers consisted of stacks of nickel plates with an external wire winding. Pulses were emitted by applying a discharge to the emitting stack winding. In 1939, the Plant began work on the production of the EMS-2 echo sounder for measuring depths from 2 to 1000 m. The echo sounders had two depth scales: 0–100 m and 0–1000 m. In the same period another instrument, the echo-sounder EMS-1 for depths up to 7500 m was manufactured. No such instrument was available abroad. In our country it was used to support expeditions to the Arctic.

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Fig. 2. The Vodtranspribor plant stand at the exhibition dedicated to the XVII CPSU (Bolsheviks) Congress.

Fig. 3.

Acoustic transducer of the Merkurii-1 passive sonar.

In 1935–1939, the first listening devices, Poseidon and Merkurii-1 (Fig. 3), were manufactured at the Plant. Poseidon had a very simple mechanical system. Its receiving array consisted of two acoustic receivers in the form of hollow rubber bulbs located 120 m one from the other. Metal tubes stretched from the receivers to the operator’s

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ears (ranging was based on the binaural effect). The listening device was simple; it could be mounted on a small motor boat but could be operated only when the boat was at a standstill. Merkurii-1 was designed for use on submarines and represented Russia’s first passive sonar where, beside the binaural effect, it used a directional array consisting of four sonar transducers. The directional pattern was formed using electronic delay lines. In 1936–1939, the Mars-8, Mars-12, and Mars-16 type passive sonars were designed and brought into production. These sonars had arrays configured on an elliptical framework mounted in the ship’s forward end. In 1936–1937, the first home sonar communication (SC) devices Sirius, Vega and Perceus were designed and brought into production. These devices ensured Morse-code telegraph communication. An electromagnetic vibrator in these devices served as a projector, and a carbon microphone served as a receiver. A dynamotor (“Umformer” in German) played the role of an audio-frequency oscillator. Sirius was mounted on submarines, Vega on surface ships and submarines. For the first time, an electrically driven dip-type array was used on surface ships. In 1937, the first prototype of the combined sound beacon Triton was created. The device consisted of land and underwater parts. Audio signals were emitted simultaneously in the air at a frequency of 500 Hz and in the water at 1050 Hz. The time difference between the time of arrival of these two signals was used to estimate the distance to the shore. However, the rate of the Plant’s technical progress failed to meet the requirements for the only plant in the Soviet Union designing hydroacoustic systems. In 1938, the People’s Commissariat for Defense Industry (PCDI) issued an order that envisaged large-scale reorganization of the Plant, its design bureau (DB), and its laboratories. The task of the new Chief Designer’s Office (CDO), which appeared as a result of the reorganization, was designing prototypes of new hydroacoustic systems. The supervision of series production of the equipment was entrusted to the existing production design bureau. In that period, work on standardization and unification began. About 3000 standardized drawings were issued. The Plant’s first

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standards and the first complete drawings of a classifier were developed. Later they served as the basis for more profound unification at the level of units and instruments for sonar hardware. This was clearly observed in the development of the Tamir sonar series (Tamir-5N, Tamir-5L, and Tamir-10) for mounting on ships of various class. The hydroacoustic systems mounted on different ships varied mainly in the design of the turning-and-dipping gear. In 1939, the Plant’s primary production and specialization could be judged by its share of defense products: 90% of total output. In the period between 1935 and 1939, the Plant’s overall production increased by a factor of 9, the output of marketable products grew by 16 times and defense products by 150 times. The production and operational experience gathered by 1940 allowed the Plant to start building equipment for the Soviet Navy. By that time, sea trials of the passive sonars Kometa, Kentavr, and Tsefei were well under way. The Kometa was meant for installation on shallow-draft antisubmarine ships. The system’s linear acoustic array consisted of four electrodynamic-type receivers. The array mounted on the dipping gear column was lowered 1.5 m below the ship’s hull and could be rotated in the horizontal plane through ±90◦ . Ranging was carried out with the use of the amplitude-difference and binaural listening methods. The array could be operated either at standstill or at a very low ship’s speed. The Kentavr was designed for antisubmarine hunter vessels. The system’s acoustic array consisted of a shield with five electrodynamic receivers mounted on it. The shield was towed at a distance of 50–70 m behind the ship. The Tsefei was mounted on minor submarines. Later this passive sonar underwent modernization. In particular, its resonance-type magnetostrictive receiver was replaced by a broad-band crystal receiver. Ranging was carried out in the frequency interval from 500 to 1000 Hz and from 25 to 30 kHz. Still, the filter switch built into the amplifier served to reduce the filter passband. As early as the Great Patriotic War, passive sonar systems with crystal receivers were in use on ships under the name Tsefei-2.

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Ultrasonic communication sonars produced in 1940 can be classified as follows: (1) combined ultrasonic surveillance and communication devices for submarines (Orion, Antares-1, and Antares-3); (2) ultrasonic communications sonar systems for submarines (Albion); (3) ultrasonic communications sonar systems for surface ships (Polaris); (4) ultrasonic surveillance and communication devices for surface ships (Tamir). The Orion system fulfilled the following functions: (1) nondirectional and beamed telegraph communication; (2) nondirectional and beamed telephone communication (speech transmission and reception); (3) echo sounding (ship detection), direction and range finding. A specific feature of this system was the use of natural quartz for the piezoelectric elements in the sonar arrays. Quartz crystals cemented together in a specific arrangement formed a “quartz mosaic.” In the manufacture of this mosaic a complex technology was used, which was very expensive because of the high cost of the quartz. The system comprised 25 subunits and eight piezoelectric transducers. Two transducers formed the upper blade-type array, which represented a rotary-slanting device located at the top deck; it ensured operation of the system in the beamed telegraph and telephone communication modes, as well as in the echo sounding (sound ranging) mode. Six transducers arranged in the lower blade-type array ensured nondirectional projection and reception in the nondirectional telegraph and telephone communication modes. In 1938, the Orion prototypes passed trials on submarines of the Black Sea Fleet and were then handed over to the same fleet for trial operations. The Antares-1 system was designed for the largest submarines. It repeated the principal design of the Orion and had the same functions, with a few differences. For example, for the first time in the country’s practice it employed magnetostrictive transducers made from

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sheet nickel. They were simpler, more economic in manufacture, and more reliable in operation than quartz transducers. For the first time the process of rotating and slanting the transmitting and receiving system was completely automated in the Antares-1 system. The Antares also featured automation of the process of underwater telegraph communication through the use of the so-called “ringing device,” which was quite complicated. The piling up of functions and uncalled-for automation of the system necessitated serious modification of the system. The weight of the sonar system Antares-3 was considerably reduced, and instead of 50 (Antares-1), there were left only 20 subunits. It differed from the previous version in the absence of the telegraph mode and automatic communication with the correspondent. Early in 1940, the Plant manufactured two Antares-3 prototypes, which were handed over to the Leningrad Sudomekh Workshop for mounting on the newly constructed submarines of the M class. The Antares-3 trials at sea took place immediately in 1942, first in the Caspian, and later, in one of the northern seas. Albion was a specialized ultrasonic two-way communication sonar for large submarines with the two functions of non-directional and beamed communication using telegraph and telephone. Since it had no echo sounding mode, the directional array was a square electroacoustic transducer ensuring telegraph and telephone communication. It was located on the upper deck and was actuated from the sonar operator’s room with the help of a remote-controlled power drive. Lifting and lowering of the lower electrically driven cylindrical array was also controlled from the sonar operator’s room. Similar to Antares-1, the Albion system included a ringing device ensuring automatic notification of the correspondent and automatic reception of the response. After sea trials on submarines in 1940, the prototype sonars of the Albion systems were handed over to the Northern Fleet for operational trials. Polaris, a specialized sonar for two-way ultrasonic telegraph communication for large surface ships, featured the following functions: (1) nondirectional two-way telegraph communication; (2) directional two-way telegraph communication;

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(3) one-way telephone communication (receiving messages from submarines carrying the Orion and Albion systems). The receiving–emitting device of the Polaris sonar system (the so-called “blade-type array”) consisted of two magnetostrictive transducers, of which one was cylindrical and served for nondirectional projection and reception, while the second was square and served for directional communication. The array was moved from under the ship’s hull with the help of a special electrically driven hoist controlled from the sonar operator’s room. When operated in the non-directional communication mode, the blade-type array was rotated with the help of a rotary mechanism. A special unit comprising a d.c. motor and a high-frequency machine oscillator served as an ultrasonic signal source. Similar to the previous systems, the Polaris employed a ringing device for automatic switching to the two-way communication mode. In 1939, two prototype Polaris sonars were mounted on the destroyers Artyom and Karl Marx. Jointly with the Antares-1 system mounted on the class K submarine, they passed sea trials in the Gulf of Finland and were handed over for operational trials. The experience gained in the design and operation of the Orion, Antares, Albion, and Polaris sonars allowed the Plant to design and prepare for series production in 1940 of a combined system for ultrasonic underwater surveillance and communication called Tamir. It was designed for small antisubmarine hunter vessels. Its main tactical task was ensuring search and detection of enemy submarines. The small dimensions of the vessel (motorboat MO-4) required creating a compact system comprising a minimum number of instruments, with minimum maintenance requirements. In the shortest possible time, by the middle of 1940, the Plant designed and manufactured a trial lot (4 sets) of Tamir-1 sonars. One of the sets was at once mounted on a combat craft of the Navy (motorboat MO-4), passed State trials and was put into service. The Navy received a new, efficient antisubmarine defense system. The creators of the design were awarded the State Prize. The Tamir-2 unit, designed for minor surface craft, antisubmarine hunters, detected enemy ships either by sending acoustic sounding

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pulses in the ocean medium and receiving echo signals reflected from the detected object (range-finder mode), or by detecting the ship’s noise. The Tamir-1 was designed mainly for use in the range-finder mode. The passive sonar function was an auxiliary mode. Adoption of the Tamir-1 terminated the first stage of development of home hydroacoustic engineering for the Navy. With the beginning of the war, the country’s only hydroacoustic engineering plant concentrated all its efforts on outfitting the Navy with hydroacoustic equipment for fighting submarines and detecting enemy ships. In addition, the plant produced ammunition: shells for armor-piercing and incendiary projectiles for aircraft guns; 50-mm fragmentation mines for company howitzers of 1941 model. Between August and October, 1942, the Plant was relocated to Omsk. On the Plant’s former site in Leningrad, a Plant branch was established. In the most difficult moments of the war, the People’s Commissar of Shipbuilding Industry, I. I. Nosenko, describing the activities of shipbuilding plants in evacuation, gave the following account of the work of Plant 206: The production of the Plant, where comrade S. Ya. Postnov is Director, is well-known to Soviet seamen, and the enemy had already felt the results of its application on its back. Despite the difficult times, the Plant continued working according to schedule. The best people spared no time and effort to ensure fulfillment of the government’s military orders. (Krasny Flot Newspaper No. 11 of January 14, 1943). The Plant’s branch was assigned the tasks of: (1) repairing hydroacoustic equipment mounted on the ships of the Baltic Fleet, Bearer of the Order of the Red Banner (BFBORB); (2) rendering technical and production assistance in operation and maintenance of hydroacoustic systems on BFBORB ships; (3) manufacture of spares and units for hydroacoustic systems. The Plant branch worked in close cooperation with the customer’s representatives. In all urgent cases, the Plant’s military representative Military Technician 1st rank Balushkin, military representative of

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fighter unit Military Engineer 3rd rank Pavlov, military representative of SD of the Navy Military Engineer 2nd rank Rassadin, head of 1st group of Marine Research Institute of Communications (NRIC) of the Navy, and Military Engineer 2nd rank Belopolsky rendered invaluable assistance to the work of the Plant branch, thus ensuring successful fulfillment of all work required for BFBORB in the field of hydroacoustic engineering. In 1942, the Plant 206 branch performed the following work on equipment: (1) overhaul of the sonar systems of types Mars, Sirius, and Vega on BFBORB submarines (18 sets); (2) repair of the echo-sounders EMS-2 on BFBORB submarines and surface ships (17 sets); (3) overhaul and mount of new active sonars of types Tamir, Tsefei-1, and Tsefei-2 on MO motorboats of the HD fighter craft detachment and the Ladoga flotilla (87 sets); (4) current repairs, testing, and tuning of type Tamir sonar equipment on MO motorboats of the HD fighter craft detachment and the Ladoga flotilla (18 sets); (5) current repairs, testing, and tuning of type Mars, Sirius, and Vega sonar equipment on BFBORB submarines (53 sets); (6) overhaul and current repairs of types Arktur and Mars sonars on surface ships (cruisers Kirov and Maxim Gorky, destroyers Grozyashchii, Svirepyi, Strogii, and Strashnyi, and ice breakers Molotov and Yermak). The Plant 206’s work in the war period is characterized by variety in the list of manufactured items, though preserving the principal specialization to the manufacture of sonar equipment for the Navy. At that time the Plant completely discontinued production of all types of indicators and mass consumption goods (radio-gramophones, electric gramophones, etc.) and a whole group of SC and USSC instruments (Arktur, Sirius, Persei, Antares, Polaris, etc.), removed from production the Triton fog-signaling devices, and reduced production of beacon equipment.

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In 1942, the Plant’s main task was continuing production of surveillance instruments and passive sonars (Tamir and Tsefei), and organizing the development of the new prototype items of types Krab and Skat. The war demanded from the Plant boosted production of the most efficient, simple to manufacture, and cheapest hydroacoustic surveillance systems that were able to fulfill the following main tasks: (1) listening to noises generated in the water by moving enemy ships and determining the class of ship by the nature of noise; (2) by way of underwater audio ranging, detecting the direction to the source of noise and location of enemy ships. In 1942, in Omsk, the Plant resumed production of the passive sonars Mars-8, Mars-12, and Mars-16 ensuring detection of noisegenerating ships and their location. During 1942, several trial lots of modified Tamir-1 sonars were designed and brought into production. The new sonars differed mainly in the design of the rotary devices, which in every particular case were made to suit the specific features of location and the operating conditions on board the ship of the class for which they were designed. All principal units and components of these sonar systems were unified. Tamir-2 was designed for escort ships, mine sweepers and torpedo boats; Tamir-3 was meant for outfitting auxiliary motorboats redesigned for naval service; Tamir-4 for submarines; Tamir-6 for mounting on submarines of the smallest displacement and minimum number of personnel. For outfitting the maximum number of military craft with hydroacoustic surveillance systems, a portable and quite efficient ultrasonic passive sonar, Tsefei-2, was created. Its specific feature was operation in the audio and ultrasonic frequencies, which allowed detecting noisegenerating objects at considerable distances, classifying moving ships by the nature of noise, and at approach, taking an accurate bearing to the ship. At the end of 1942, the Plant successfully fulfilled the plan of supply of military-application instruments approved by the People’s

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Commissar of Shipbuilding Industry (PCSI). The average monthly output of Tamir and Tsefei sonars was 20 and 30 units, respectively. Beside detection instruments, the Plant continued producing navigational service instruments, that is, echo-sounders. In 1942, Plant 206 designed a new type of hydroacoustic system, the acoustic detonator Krab for type KB-3 submarine buoyant mines (see article by Z. N. Umikov, “Krab for Acoustic Mine” — Ed.). An acoustic mine explodes from the noise of a ship coming within its detection range. The acoustic mines of the time had a number of advantages over other types of mines, in particular, the impossibility of being deactivated by sweeping by the enemy and independence of operation from the ship’s draught and class. The Krab detonator had two channels and a primer circuit. The low-frequency channel received low-frequency signals with the help of a resonance carbon hydrophone (receiver resonance frequency 800 Hz). The high-frequency channel received signals with the use of a directional ferroelectric converter and operated at a frequency of 25 kHz. When a ship came within the mine’s range of operation (500–1000 m), the low-frequency circuit was activated in a mine outfitted with a Krab detonator. This circuit set the high-frequency circuit amplifier into operation. If the moving ship came within the zone of action of the directional receiver, the high-frequency circuit actuated the primer, and the mine exploded. The mine went off when the signal in the highfrequency circuit continued for no less than 5 s. If the ship’s noise represented a combination of single pulses, or the duration of the highfrequency noise component was less than 5 s, the primer did not operate, the circuit returned to its initial state and was prepared for the next cycle. The Krab system ignored random noises (mine explosion, rumble of waves, splashing of water, etc.). For designing the contactless hydroacoustic detonator its creators (Z. N. Umikov, V. I. Vlasov, T. G. Smolin, S. P. Vainer, and A. M. Borushko) were awarded the State Prize. In the same period the Plant designed and manufactured a trial lot of receiving–amplifying Skat devices for homing acoustic torpedoes.

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The resolution of the 4th Chief Department of PCSI on the 1942 annual report reads: In the reported year, according to the subject plan, Plant 206 designed and manufactured trial series of Tamir-2 (USSS for ES, MH and trawlers); Tamir-4 (USSS for submarines), Krab (electric detonators for KB-3 mines); Skat (receivingamplifying device for self-homing torpedoes). Modernization of Tamir-1 was carried out. A detail design of electricallydriven system Tamir-5 was developed. The Antares-4 for class 15 submarines was mounted and commissioned on a facility. It is said in the conclusions of the report by military engineer 2nd rank Belopolsky concerning warfare experience of BFBORB, approved by head of NRIC engineer-captain 1st rank Ya. G. Varaksin, of 11 July, 1942: … Hydroacoustic systems (type Tamir) have won exceedingly good account among personnel due to the fact that in almost all cases they were able to ensure fulfillment of operational and tactical tasks. The hardware operation was reliable and faultless, despite intensive shaking and jolts caused by depth-charging, bombardment from air, and gun fire. The PS systems were used in all cases whenever it was necessary, In particular, the results in the range and accuracy of taking bearings were always satisfactory. Head of the Communications Department of BFBORB, Colonel M. A. Zernov, wrote in his letter of 01.01.42: … information on the operation of hydroacoustic systems on MO motorboats gathered in the process of warfare shows that: (1) type Tamir systems show good performance in taking bearings of enemy ships and meet in principle all up-todate requirements;

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(2) instruments Tsefei-crystal (Tsefei-2), simple in design and allowing their use on any kind of boats, showed positive results. Chief of Staff of the Northern Fleet, Rear-Admiral M. I. Fedorov, in the letter to the Plant of 20 August, 1943, wrote: Submarine commanders highly appreciate your Mars devices for submarines, which in the Patriotic War against German fascists have proved to be an indispensable means for detecting Fascist ships. Here is one more account. A letter from sonar navigation and communications officer, Lieutenant Captain Bolonkin: Efficient use of Mars has shown that these systems are the only means for detection of modem enemy ships. The command personnel of all ships using them properly in combat operations admires their functioning, survivability, and long detection range. The Mars systems are the only facility ensuring a detection range many times larger than that of Dragons (ASDIC) (from a letter to the Plant of 12 May, 1943). In this period of specifically intensive work under the conditions of the Omsk evacuation, the Plant began series production of several new types of instruments: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

EL echo-sounders; NEL-3 echo-sounders; Zemlya simulator passive sonars; Saturn land-based passive sonars; circuit boards for aircraft-launched indicator-type mines (article 502); (6) Tamir-3, -7 and -8 USSS; (7) FS-35 range beacon lanterns. In 1944, the Plant had a large group of workers, engineering, technical personnel, and employees who were bearers of orders and medals of the Soviet Union and State Prize winners, among them:

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S. Ya. Postnov, Director, Order “Sign of Honor”; F. V. Sergeyev, Chief Industrial Engineer, Order “Sign of Honor”; V. S. Kudryavtsev, Shop No. 2 Superintendent, State Prize winner; L. F. Sychev, Chief Designer, State Prize winner; M. I. Markus, Head of Design Bureau, State Prize winner; Ye. I. Aladyshkin, Senior Engineer, State Prize winner; Z. N. Umikov, Senior Engineer, State Prize winner; A. S. Vasilevsky, Senior Engineer, State Prize winner; I. V. Trofimov, Senior Engineer, State Prize winner. In the second half of 1944, the Plant returned from evacuation and was reunited with its branch. In fulfillment of the Ordinance of the State Defence Committee of 24 June, 1944, “On expansion of the base for the creation of active and passive sonar systems and communications sonar systems,” the Plant turned its efforts to strengthening its production and research-and-technical base, modernization, and improvement of its products. The hydroacoustic systems produced by the Plant in that period could be divided in the following main groups, by application: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

underwater acoustic surveillance systems; acoustic communications sonar systems; ultrasonic surveillance and communications sonar systems; navigation instruments; special-application hydroacoustic instruments.

Let us consider all these groups in detail. 1. Underwater Acoustic Surveillance Systems The systems in this group, the so-called passive sonars, allow listening to noises generated in water by enemy ships, ship classification by the nature of such noises and determining the bearing of the source of noise, that is, ships’ direction finding. Among the passive sonars produced by the Plant were: (1) Poseidon, the simplest portable unit designed for outfitting minor surface craft. Its range was 1.5–2 km, bearing-finding accuracy was 3–4◦ .

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(2) Tsefei-P, an instrument designed to replace Poseidon and meant for outfitting the same class of craft; the Tsefei-P range did not exceed 5 km; bearing-finding accuracy was 1–2◦ . (3) Mars system used to outfit all types of submarines; these passive sonars were the main surveillance instrument on submarines in submerged position; the system range was 18 km, bearing-finding accuracy was 1.5–3◦ ; the Plant produced three types of Mars passive sonars for mounting on submarines of different displacement. (4) Spika system, a modernized version of Mars; the Plant produced prototypes, which showed excellent tactical characteristics at trials; in 1945, these systems were put into series production. (5) Saturn system presenting a coastal passive sonar, it was included in the complex of systems for harbor defense and used for detecting and taking bearings of enemy submarine and surface ships at approaches to naval bases; its range was up to 20 km; bearingfinding accuracy was 2–3◦ . 2. Acoustic Communications Sonar Systems The principal application of these systems was ensuring two-way communication between submerged submarines, and between a submerged submarine and a surface ship. The Plant mainly produced two types of such systems: the Arktur for surface ships and the Sirius for submarines. 3. Ultrasonic Surveillance and Communication Systems The ultrasonic surveillance and communication systems became one of the most important systems in fighting submerged enemy submarines. They allowed detecting and bearing determination of submarines and also range finding. The systems operated mainly in the echo sounding mode. In addition, the systems ensured two-way underwater ultrasonic communication, which provided an advantage of secrecy over audio communication. When mounted on submarines, the ultrasonic surveillance systems provided an opportunity to detect mines and cross mine fields, and also, when operated jointly with Mars passive sonars, to undertake the task of launching periscope-free attacks on enemy ships.

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Before the war the Plant produced a series of system prototypes of this type, and beginning in 1941, it began series production of the Tamir sonars. Operation of Tamir during the Patriotic War revealed significant drawbacks in its design. Therefore in the subsequent years it underwent several modernizations. In the mid-1940s, the Plant began production of the active sonar, Tamir-10. Trials showed that it was not inferior in its tactical characteristics to analogous foreign. 4. Navigation Instruments These instruments were designed to ensure continuous and reliable depth measurements while the ship was under way, finding a channel, and marking out regions dangerous for navigation. Among the instruments produced by the Plant were: (1) echo sounders: The Plant produced the first echo sounder in 1934; since then the instrument underwent a series of modifications and found complete acknowledgement on ships of the Navy. Later appeared the NEL-4 echo sounders, which featured continuous depth recording from a steaming ship. (2) fog-signaling equipment: Designed for marking out shoals, reefs, and banks under conditions of poor visibility, the system Triton, produced by the Plant since 1937, belongs in this category. (3) beacon equipment: The Plant produced a series of acetylene lanterns designed for marking out channels and outfitting beacons.

5. Special-Application Hydroacoustic Instruments Beginning from 1939, the Plant completed a large body of work on the creation of special-application instruments, mainly in the field of torpedo and mine armaments. Among them were: (1) Neptun, an instrument designed for determining torpedo average speed by a hydroacoustic method during firings at test ranges. (2) Gak, an acoustic sweep for blasting acoustic mines; the Plant developed a preliminary design of this instrument.

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(3) Krab, an acoustic detonator for moored mines designed to detonate in response to ship noise. At the time of the Great Patriotic War, the Navy had in service the following well-tested and series-produced hydroacoustic systems: (1) (2) (3) (4)

Mars passive sonars on submarines. Tamir-1 sonars on surface ships. Saturn coastal passive sonars. Tsefei portable (minor) passive sonars for auxiliary craft.

Quite a few passive sonars where also in service; Poseidon, Kometa, Orfei, SC instruments Vega, Merkurii, Persei, and Albion. Plant 206 hydroacoustic systems played a major role in the antisubmarine defense network and among systems on submarines supporting naval combat activities. During the war years, sonars produced by the Plant ensured successful combat operations by Soviet submarines against the ships of fascist Germany. From the end of 1944 to early 1945, work commenced at the Plant with the view of the expected transfer to peace-time production conditions. Preparations began with technical modernization. The plan for design and development work was based on the principles of meeting the most urgent needs of the fleet in hydroacoustic systems. In this regard, work at the Plant was initiated along the following main directions: (1) bringing prototypes, after their acceptance at State trials, into series production; (2) further improving hydroacoustic systems based on the experience gained from their operation on ships of the home and foreign navies and the study of the latest designs in hydroacoustic engineering; (3) designing new hydroacoustic equipment; (4) creating special measuring instruments for laboratory work; (5) guaranteeing the servicing and repair of systems mounted on ships. The subject plan of research work for 1945 concentrated on the creation of special instruments for measuring the characteristics of hydroacoustic arrays and receivers. This was necessitated by the fact

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that before and during the war only imported measuring equipment was in use in home hydroacoustics, which retarded development in the field. The development of Soviet hydroacoustic measurement instruments came to the forefront. The first development work in this field was project Bar. As a result of this work, the Plant produced five measurement instruments: (1) A powerful broad-band oscillator for use with hydroacoustic equipment during acoustical measurements in the frequency range of 5–100 kHz. The oscillator had a special operating mode with frequency modulation (howling tone) for facilitating acoustic measurements in nonanechoic basins. (2) A high-frequency wattmeter for measuring the parameters of hydroacoustic transducers in the projection mode at 5–100 kHz. (3) A set of cylindrical measuring transducers designed for generating an acoustic field in water in the range of 5–100 kHz. (4) A device to ensure polarization of magnetostrictive transducers in the course of their testing. (5) A type IZD-2 acoustic pressure meter designed for measuring the acoustic fields of ships and other sources, for measuring transducer response and for making other hydroacoustic measurements in the frequency range of 0.2–500 kHz. The development of these instruments required solving design and test problems at a higher technical level. In 1945–1946, three new types of hydroacoustic equipment were put into series production: 1. Mars 16k passive sonar for type M -class submarines. 2. Mars 24k passive sonar for all other types of submarines. 3. Tamir-10 sonar for types BO and MO hunter motorboats. The main drawback of early passive sonars was that they could only be used while motionless or operating at low speeds. For Mars 16k and Mars 24k sonars this drawback was overcome by the development of new broad-band crystal acoustic receivers and an electric compensation circuit. In addition, the performance characteristics of passive sonars had been considerably improved. New passive sonars were put in service in 1945–1946 on most home submarines.

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The Tamir-10 active surveillance sonar was designed for outfitting type MO, BO and other similar minor antisubmarine craft. The active sonar allowed search and location of submerged submarines and the generation of data for weapons control system. It could also serve as an echo-sounder. Production of Tamir-10, took place, replacing Tamir9, and continued until Tamir-11 was brought into series production in 1950. The leading designers of the Tamir systems were Ye. I. Aladyshkin, P. P. Kuzmin, and L. F. Sychev. The Tamir-5 active system existed in two versions: Tamir-5L was meant for submarines and Tamir-5N for large surface ships. A number of characteristic aspects of this type of active sonar deserves attention: (a) For the first time, use was made of a specially designed acoustic transducer dome. It allowed the sonar to be operated at comparatively high-speed ships, since it significantly reduced the noise from water friction against the transducer working surface while the ship was in motion. This allowed for a reduction in the level of the desired echo signal. In addition, the dome attached to the ship’s hull was filled with seawater eliminating the mechanical effect of water on the receiving-and-projecting system when the ship was in motion. This, in turn, allowed significant reduction in the weight of the rotary device and ensured control with much lower energy losses. (b) Because the transducer operated in a water-filled dome, only a 50-W electrically-driven servo system was needed for rotation. This simplified the circuitry and resulted in highly reliable operation. It also enabled coupling with the ship’s gyrocompass so that the position of the array could be automatically maintained irrespective of the ship’s course. That is, it provided stabilization in the horizontal plane. (c) A special mode of ultrasonic listening was developed using a single non-directional piezoelectric receiver made from Seignette salt crystals. This compound, as distinct from expensive quartz, belongs to a group of synthetic piezoelectrics. It has good electroacoustic parameters and is inexpensive. A piezoelectric receiver was mounted on the back side of the principal magnetostrictive

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transducer that was fixed on the rotary device shaft. It ensured quite efficient listening for enemy surface ships and submarines, thus carrying out the functions of the sonar and adding to its tactical characteristics. The Tamir-5L and Tamir-5N prototypes differed in the shape of their domes. In addition, Tamir-5N had a lifting-and-dipping device, which allowed pulling the dome with the receiving and projecting system inside the ship’s hull. The dome for the Tamir-5L was stationary and continued the outline of the front section of the submarine keel. Later versions of the Tamir-5L and Tamir-5N were modernized, in part, by being powered from the ship’s a.c. power supply. They were manufactured under the designations Tamir-5LS and Tamir5NS. Their series production continued from 1945 to 1957 when they were replaced by new sonars (Pegas, Plutonii, etc.). The leading engineer for the sonar was A. S. Vasilevsky, the Leading Engineer for laboratory design was N. D. Kupriyanov. Among the design authors were also Senior Engineer S. M. Shelekhov and NRIC Senior Engineer F. M. Kartashev. The increased amount of work on the creation of new types of hydroacoustic equipment could not be fulfilled with the then available personnel in the Chief Designer’s Office of the Plant (60 people). In addition, the development of hydroacoustic systems necessitated the use of instruments associated with different branches of engineering (radio engineering, electronics, pulse engineering, etc.). This called for a reorganization of the Chief Designer’s Office. On August 1, 1946 (according to the Ordinance of the Council of Ministers of 10.07.46), the Special Design Bureau (SDB) was organized. The SDB for sonar systems at the Plant 206 initially represented a multi-mission structure, which included research-technical, design-technological, trial-and-testing, scientific-information and a number of other auxiliary subdivisions. By the end of 1946, the number of SDB personnel reached 271 people. Work at SDB-206 on further improvement of hydroacoustic systems during that period was aimed at fulfillment of the following three main orders: Tamir-11, a sonar for types MO and BO hunter

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motorboats; Mars-60KN, an echo sounders with 60 crystal receivers for surface ships; NEL-4, a recording echo-sounders powered from an a.c. supply line. In addition, in response to large-scale development of automatic sonar equipment in the USA, work began in 1945 on the development of an advanced model of an automatic sonar called Gerkules. As a result of a decision by the Fourth Chief Department of PCSI, an additional item was included in the Plant’s subject plan, the fog audio warning station Shtorm. A number of activities at the Plant went beyond what was specified in the plan work. The following deserve notice: the design and manufacture of five sets of receiving heads for acoustic torpedoes similar to the German AU-2 and SAET; the design and manufacture of three sets of type IA induction-acoustic mines; the design and manufacture of two versions of the Neptune-2 ultrasonic devices for mine detection while sweeping. In 1947, the Plant was ordered to intensify work on new system design. The principal effort was directed at creating new hydroacoustic systems to match the tactical characteristics of new ships and submarines. Design of new equipment was oriented to the following tactical and technical requirements for surface ships: (1) sonar operation at ship’s speeds up to 20–25 knots; (2) determination of the submersion depth of enemy submarines; (3) ensuring sonar operation while the ship was pitching and rolling. The technical requirements for submarines were: (1) active sonar operation at underwater speeds up to 24 knots; (2) ensuring operation of devices outside the pressure hull under elevated hydrostatic pressures corresponding to the maximum submersion depths of new submarines of 200–250 m; (3) passive sonar operation at underwater speeds up to 20 knots; (4) ensuring passive sonar operation under deep-water submersion (up to 250 m); (5) ensuring noise receiver stability under high impulse pressures developing due to the explosion of depth charges;

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(6) increased ranging accuracy; (7) application of an objective method of estimating range. Increasing the sonars’ range while simultaneously increasing speeds of the platforms on which the sonars operate was achieved mainly at the expense of increasing the source level and reducing the noise level. Solving these problems was facilitated by the development work and laboratory investigation on powerful pulsed oscillators, on determining the boundary conditions for development of cavitation, on designing receiving and transmitting systems with new directivity characteristics, and on the use of circuitry to narrow the frequency bandwidth. In 1947, the design and engineering efforts were aimed at creating new improved types of passive and active sonars, such as Feniks, Tamir11, Gerkules, Pegas, and Plutonii, which, in the years to follow, were brought into series production at the Plant. Research work was also aimed at meeting the tactical and technical requirements of the newly developed types of hydroacoustic systems. Along with the design and production of new sonars and instruments, the Plant continued design work and continued running original technological production processes. In 1946–1947, an accelerated process of electroplating was designed as well as a process for photographic printing of instrument scales (Product Engineer Glagovsky, Shop Superintendent Starobina). For the first time, new machine tools were brought to the Plant: a grinding machine (Production Engineer Il’in, Shop Foreman Muravyov), a Mariny Baussin broaching machine, and a Ferum boring machine (Deputy Shop Superintendent Shebshaevich, Production Engineers Yeremeyev and Makeyev). Workers in the chemical laboratory developed and introduced a process for microsection electroplating and a rapid method for qualitative analysis of nonferrous metals. Production Engineer Korsunsky, Shop No. 6 Superintendent Zeidelson, and Shop No. 6 Deputy Superintendent Binevich developed and organized a straight-line flow method for manufacture of Vlagomer hygrometers. Chief Mechanic Fedorov and Shop No. 14 Superintendent Etingof manufactured and put in service a sandblast machine and an emulsion preparation unit.

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In 1948, the Minister of the Shipbuilding Industry of the USSR, A. A. Goreglyad, issued an instruction to the Plant to comply with the Ordinance of the Council of Ministers of the USSR of August 10, 1948, namely: (1) To regard the following work in the field of hydroacoustics and hydrolocation of primary importance: (a) outfitting all classes of surface and submarine ships of the Navy with sonars ensuring observation and tracking of targets at high speeds and with communications sonar systems; (b) outfitting submarines and coastal posts with passive sonars; (c) developing methods for underwater ultrasonic vision; (d) creating a hydroacoustic laboratory and service measuring instruments. (2) To adopt as a specialization of the Plant and the Plant’s Special Design Bureau (SDB-206) the work on design and manufacture of active and passive sonars, communications sonar systems, and the servicing hydroacoustic systems for the Navy and the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. (3) To entrust to the Plant the investigative work aimed at ensuring further improvement in the tactical characteristics of sonars and other hydroacoustic devices. (4) In compliance with the Ordinance of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, to appoint the following Chief Designers to projects: (a) (b) (c) (d)

Gerkules-2, Chief Designer Z. N. Umikov Tamir-11, Chief Designer B. N. Vovnoboy Pegas, Chief Designer N. D. Kupriyanov Feniks, Chief Designer M. Sh. Shtremt

The growing amount of research work on the improvement and increasing efficiency of sonar equipment of the Navy required involvement of different specialists from other organizations, research institutes, and central design bureaus of the Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry and other ministries. So, the Leningrad Branch of MRI-1 commenced the development of a preliminary and a detailed design for a stabilizing device for the emitting-and-projecting systems of sonars Gerkules and Pegas; SDB-II of Plant 194 of the Ministry

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of Shipbuilding Industry (MSI) fulfilled work on detail design for lifting-and-dipping devices for the Tamir-5NS, Gerkules, and Pegas; SDB of Plant 211 designed for SDB-206 new types of 3 and 15 kW pulse generator pentodes and special thyratrons for a ship’s main invertor; CRI-5 carried out research to develop methods of suppressing propeller noise on antisubmarine hunter ships. The task of reaching the required technical level of research and development work on design and improvement of hydroacoustic systems necessitated organizing an institute which could take up the whole complex of R&D work, manufacture of prototypes and their testing, both in laboratory conditions and at sea trials. In fulfillment of the Ordinance of the Council of Ministers of the USSR of May 18, 1949, and the order of the Minister of Shipbuilding Industry of June 11 , 1949, SDB-206 was reorganized as an independent institution with the name Research Institute of Hydrolocation and Hydroacoustics (RI-3), under the Fourth Chief Department of MSI of the USSR. Creation of an institute at the location of the Vodtranspribor SDB played an important role in the development of a specialized branch of the home instrument engineering industry. The experience of earlier development work and the bringing into production of important hydroacoustic devices at the Plant was exploited and found further application and development at the Institute. The Institute acquired the most skilled and qualified group of engineering and technical personnel from the Plant’s SDB; the Department of current production within the SDB structure was, with all its personnel, resubordinated to a Department within the structure of the newly organized Chief Designer’s Office (CDO) of the Plant. The main products of the Plant in that period were: (1) Sonars: Tamir-10, Tamir-5N, Tamir-5L, Tamir-5LS, Tamir-6NS, and various versions of Tamir-11, the prototype sonars Pegas and Gerkules. (2) Passive sonars: Mars-16KI, Mars-24KI, and various versions of Zemlya, prototype sonar Feniks (for outfitting class-611

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submarines). The sonars Mars-KM and Mars-KI differed in that the latter was powered from the ship’s d.c. main power cable through an invertor. As a result, almost noiseless operation of the sonar Mars-KI was achieved. (3) Navigation systems: The NEL-4 echo sounders possessed an automatic depth recording instrument for navigation powered from the 127 or 220 volt ship a.c. main power cables or from the 110 V main d.c. power cable. Depth measurements ranged from 1 to 500 m. (4) Radiolocation systems: (a) Rym-K, a navigation system designed for ship navigation along a preset curve (working jointly with the instrument Rym-B, which was included in the Rym system). (b) Som, an instrument for measuring low-power signals having nondampening and pulse-modulated oscillations. (c) Yorsh, also an instrument for measuring low-power signals with nondampening and pulse-modulated oscillations. (d) Delfin, an instrument for measuring medium-power pulses in the UHF band. (5) Thermal control equipment : (a) A DEK-47 smoke indicator, an instrument for measuring the density of smoke in boiler flue gases. (b) A GEK-47 gas analyzer, an instrument for measuring the percentage content of carbon dioxide in the boiler furnaces of surface ships. The last two groups of instruments (radiolocation and thermal control) appeared in 1949 and represented new, complex types of series production, different from the principal Plant’s specialization. Among the technical achievements for 1949, we should note beginning production of the basic electrical components of the Rym-K instrument by using the process of extrusion of carbonyl iron. In solving this problem, the CTO chemical laboratory carried out a great deal of work under the guidance of Engineer I. N. Eisenberg. Successfully solving the problem of the manufacture of the rubber component Tubus for the Rym-K deserves special notice. Until 1949, the Plant had no experience in moulding large rubber components

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of complex geometry. The task was successfully fulfilled by the CTO Design Engineer A. M. Chernogorov and Tooling Production Engineer A. P. Maiorov. In 1949–1950, the Plant manufactured the prototype sonars Pegas and Gerkules. The Pegas was the first home-manufactured sonar that performed ranging in both the horizontal and vertical planes. Use of a computing device made possible echo ranging in the vertical plane by determining the submersion depth using the array slant angle and the distance to the target. Submarine detection and relative directional determination were carried out by Pegas in the echo ranging and listening modes. The Pegas employed a stabilizing system called the “Stabilizator System.” The system, designed at RI-303, ensured remote orientation of the receiving-and-projecting system relative to the target and maintained this orientation during the ship’s oscillations and maneuvering. In addition, the Stabilizator System ensured the generation and transmission to the Pegas’ repeaters of the ship’s heading, the relative direction and bearing to the target, and generation and transmission to the attack plotter of the target’s relative direction. The sonar acoustic system used a magnetostrictive transducer consisting of six stacks of nickel plates. Like Pegas (Fig. 4), the Gerkules sonar was designed for outfitting surface ships of medium and large displacement. It was meant to ensure simultaneous detection of all targets coming within its zone of action (submarines, mine fields, and single mines), and fixing their location relative to the ship performing the ranging. The sonar featured two modes of operation working independently: one for automatic circular scanning, and the other, for a stepping search for targets. The former served for automatic surveillance and target detection; the latter, for accurate determination of the target coordinates and their transfer to the attack plotter system PUS-B-24. In principle, the design and tactical characteristics of the target stepped search mode matched those of the Pegas sonar. The mode’s acoustic system, similar to the Pegas acoustic system, ensured ranging in the vertical and horizontal planes.

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Fig. 4.

Acoustical system for the sonar Pegas.

For the first time in home hydroacoustic equipment, an automatic circular scanning mode was employed in the Gerkules sonar. It permitted underwater horizon scanning in 5–15 s (instead of the former 3–4 min). It was this channel that provided an opportunity to simultaneously observe several objects located at different points of the underwater horizon, with practically simultaneous determination of their bearings and ranges. An acoustic array represented a cylindrical electroacoustic transducer comprising 36 magnetostrictive units. The emission power of this transducer exceeded that of the Tamir-11 transmitter by 15–20 times. The transmitter was equipped with a spatial stabilization device. The practice of manufacturing the new, modernized hydroacoustic systems Tamir, Pegas, and Gerkules necessitated a technical expansion

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of CDO. To create new prototypes and modernize the systems under series production, SDB-206 was organized in November 1951 at the location of CDO (in accordance with the Ordinance of CM of the USSR of November 3, 1951). Within the scope of the total development effort on home sonar systems, SDB-206 was entrusted with the mission of bringing into production special equipment designed at RI-3 and at the other institutions. In fact, SDB-206 began a new life in August 1952, when it received a new organizational chart that included 175 people. The work tasks assigned to the bureau for that period included 19 items of specialized equipment. In addition to the traditional products, that is, hydroacoustic equipment, the Plant continued production of radar equipment, radar measuring instruments, and thermal control equipment. However, the main effort was concentrated on series production of the systems Tamir-11 and Pegas, and bringing into production the new passive sonar Feniks. The Feniks system was the first home-manufactured passive sonar in which, along with the amplitude-difference method of ranging with the help of audio equipment (telephones and loudspeakers) use was made of a phase-difference method (in the frequency range from 5 to 20 kHz). Also, due to the fact that its array featured a high directional gain, the task of listening from submarine traveling at high speeds was solved for the first time. (The system Chief Designer was M. Sh. Shtremt, a talented engineer and winner of the Lenin prize for its design.) In the same period, modernization of the Tsefei-2 system (Leading Engineer V. A. Kositsky), echo-sounders NEL-4 (Leading Engineer N. V. Tarasov), smoke indicators DEK-47 and DEK-50 (Chief Designer G. N. Smirnov) continued at the SDB-206. In 1952, for a whole year, the Plant carried out intensive trials of its products under conditions in the northern seas and the Rybinskoye Water Reservoir on ships of different design. To cope with the extremely intensive program of 1952, the Plant continued reorganizing its production shops. An important contribution to this expansion of production capability of the Plant and the SDB was made by the pilot shop, which was organized in accordance with a Government

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ordinance. In the four months of its existence it received the necessary equipment and qualified personnel. While continuing the basic bulk of work on the Som, Yorsh, Gerkules, and Feniks-M systems, the shop began production of other very important measuring devices including noise generators, standard-signal generators, voltage dividers, and master compensators. The year 1953 brought successes and losses. The sea trials of the modernized, portable passive sonar Tsefei-2M produced poor results, and further work in this direction were found inexpedient. The system had low efficiency and insignificant range for submarine detection. At the same time, successful trials of another passive sonar, Feniks-M, on submarines resulted in an order for 42 systems by the Fifth Department of the Navy. With a view toward improving the design and service reliability of the Pegas, SDB-206 worked on developing a new system for array gyroscopic stabilization. Based on the results of the sea trials of the Pegas-2 system installed on the class-50 lead ship Gornostai (February 1953, the Black Sea Fleet), the SDB engineers brought into production the stabilization system S-2 designed at RI-303, and, using the Plant’s resources, began manufacture of a similar stabilizing device, along with all other devices for the new system designated Pegas-2M. As a result of improvements made in the design of the lifting-andlowering device, the Pegas-2M system took a leading position in the Plant’s production plans. By a resolution of the Ministries of Defense and Heavy and Transport Engineering, its series production continued. According to the production program for 1954, the Plant was required to manufacture and ship to the Navy the following equipment: 25 sets of the sonar Tamir-5NS, 13 sets of the sonar Tamir-10, 4 sets of the sonar Tamir-5L, 6 sets of the sonar Tamir-5LS, 4 sets of the sonar Pegas-2M, 8 sets of the passive sonar Feniks, 2 sets of the passive sonar Mars-16KI, 6 sets of the passive sonar Mars-24LI.

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As before, the main customers were enterprises of the Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry, Ministry of Defense, Ministry of Foreign Trade, and Ministry of Internal Affairs of the USSR. The Plant’s commissioning teams worked successfully at permanent bases in Vladivostok, Sevastopol, Baltiisk, Kronstadt, Tallinn, Lyubava, and others. During this period, Plant 206’s major customers included Plant 199 (Komsomolsk), Plant 445 (Nikolaev), Plant 820 (Kaliningrad), Zhdanov Plant 190 (Leningrad), Plant Krasnoye Sormovo 112 (Gorky), Ordzhonikidze Plant Baltiisky 189 (Leningrad), Plant Sudomekh 196 (Leningrad), and Plant 402 (Molotovsk). Beginning in 1954, SDB-206 worked on the design of equipment for measuring sound speed in seawater. The need for such equipment was necessitated by the ever-growing requirements for accuracy of sonars operation and the importance of information about the hydrological characteristics of the sea environment (for more detailed work description, see the paper by V. A. Komlyakov “Home Hydroacoustic Sound-Speed Meters” — Ed.). From January 1954, based on research work carried out at SPTM, SDB began work on the design of the Zvuk-1 meter for measuring sound speed from surface ships to depths up to 100 m (Chief Designer A. G. Yevtyukhov). The instrument was capable of measuring soundspeed in the range of 1420–1560 m/s with an accuracy of ±4 m/s. In June 1955, two prototype Zvuk-1 instruments were tested on type BO ships under sea conditions. The test results confirmed the need for creating more accurate and serviceable equipment for soundspeed measurements with automatic recording of results on chart paper. To this aim, in 1955, SDB launched the Gradient Research Project (Chief Scientist A. G. Yevtyukhov). Working models of the instruments designed at SDB and tested under sea conditions pointed to an opportunity to create instruments for measuring sound speed with an accuracy of ±0.5 m/s at depths up to 300 m, and with plots of sound speed versus depth. By order of the Salvage and Rescue Service of the Navy, SDB-206, in continuation of the Gradient Research Project, began designing a device for hydroacoustic communication between a rescue ship and a

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damaged submarine (code name Kama, Chief Designer B. Stepanov). The Kama system was designed for service on type M-35, M-40, AM and class 527, 532, 733 ships of the Salvage and Rescue Service of the Navy. The Kama array included four ferroelectric receivers that had been used earlier in the Mars passive sonar systems. A cathode-ray tube served to display the direction to the submarine. Audio communication with the submarine was carried out with the help of a broadband, low-frequency, nondirectional transducer made from Seignette salt. Acoustic energy reached the hull of the correspondent submarine, where it was perceived directly through the hull. The projector was connected to the communication amplifier with a 120-m long cable and was lowered into the water. For signal reception from the submarine it served as a receiver as well. Listening to signals arriving from the submarine was performed with the help of loudspeakers and telephones. The maximum operating radius of the system was 900 m. Simultaneously, SDB analyzed the performance of active and passive sonars on ships and made recommendations on system improvement (Project Fiord, Head B. D. Kudryavtsev); designed and manufactured a noise-suppression device (Project Ufa, Head D. A. Grachev) and instrumentation test and control systems (Project KIP, Heads A. B. Svecharnik and Yu. I. Popov). During this period, Plant 206, jointly with RI-3 and with the participation of MU 62669 and CAS of the Fifth Department of the Navy, carried out a large project to modernize the receiving components of Feniks sonars. The subject of the new project, code named Priyomnik (Head M. M. Magid) was the investigation and design of an improved production process, improvement of the receiver design to ensure stability of its electroacoustical parameters. Later, considerable changes in the Feniks system resulted from a complete modernization effort (Project Kola). Improvement and modernization of active and passive sonars gave a strong impetus to development in the 1950s of new instruments, such as the correlation circular-scanning attachment Aldan to passive sonars (Design Chief Scientists workers of ACIN S. G. Gershman and Yu. I. Tuzhilkin), the measuring-calibration unit Don for ultrasonic

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hydrophones, the radio-buoy receiver Chinara, and the transducers Invertor-110 and Invertor-220. The 1950s were a time when the theory of sound propagation in the deep sea was taking shape. The sound speed in water varies noticeably with temperature, salinity, and hydrostatic pressure. The mass of seawater was now regarded as a layered structure, each layer providing different sound propagation speeds. As a result of such structure the sound (similar to light on the boundary of two media) refracts and changes its direction of propagation. These phenomena were discussed and investigated by Acad. L. M. Brekhovskikh and Prof. Yu. M. Sukharevsky. A theory of a deep-sea zonal structure was proposed, which theoretically indicated the possibility of creating extra-long-range hydroacoustic systems. There was a practical need for developing sound-speed meters able to plot speeds over the whole water-column. The SDB-206 created a whole family of meters working on phasedifference and pulse operating principles. For a long time, this work was supervised by A. G. Yevtyukhov, who later passed the baton to V. A. Komlyakov. A valuable contribution to developments in this area was made B. M. Alyoshin, L. P. Talanov, A. L. Vakhter, N. V. Racheyev, and Yu. A. Vikharev. A new type of a receiver with higher reliability because of watertight units was designed. Several sound-speed meters were designed including Zvuk, Zvuk-1, Beresta, Navaga, Gradient, Zhgut, and later, the sound propagation pattern plotters Luchegraf and Avtograf. The search for ways to increase the level of noise suppression and the probability of detection resulted in the development of a theory of optimal frequencies for different target detection ranges: the “3/2” law of sound attenuation (formulated by Yu. M. Sukharevsky, P. P. Kuzmin, B. V. Gusev, and I. N. Meltreger). In 1954–1955, based on new theoretical investigations, SDB-206 designed attachment instruments to detection sonars incorporating 1/3-octave filters (component Ufa, Chief Designer D. A. Grachev). In the same period, the Feniks (Fig. 5) underwent modernization: it acquired a mode of automatic target tracking with transmission of data to TD Leningrad. The result was initiation of series production of

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Fig. 5.

Control console of passive sonar Feniks.

the passive sonar MG-10 at the Vodtranspribor Plant (Chief Designers M. M. Magid and L. Ya. Kruze). The years 1955–1958 saw the introduction of new hydroacoustic systems designed both at SDB-206 and RI-3. It was in this period that the Plant began production of the Plutonii, Arktika and MG-200 sonars. Together with the MG-10 and SC sonars and the hydrolocation signal detection systems Svet and Sviyaga, they signified the first postwar stage in hydroacoustic re-equipment of diesel-electric as well as the first generation of nuclear-powered submarines. The Plutonii (Fig. 6) sonar was put into service early in 1956 and was meant for medium and large-displacement submarines. It was used for ranging to surface and underwater ships and to support two-way beam telegraphic communication. The sonar was also designed for detecting mines. Its principal application was echo ranging, however direct listening was also carried out in the same narrow

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Fig. 6.

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Control console of sonar Plutonii.

frequency band. Both operations were carried out with the employment of phase-difference and amplitude-difference ranging methods. Cathode-ray tube displays and telephones and loudspeakers served as indicators. The system array located in the submarine forebody consisted of a magnetostrictive transducer comprising eight stacks of nickel plates. The submarine outer hull plating served as an array dome. All system controls were arranged on a single control console. The MG-10 was a circular-scanning passive sonar performing simultaneous automatic target tracking and target indication with data transmission to torpedo directors. It was designed for outfitting large and medium submarines, and, together with Arktika (MG-200), remained the main item of hydroacoustic equipment on submarines for quite a long time. The system operated in two modes; a circular-scanning mode and a automatic target tracking mode. In the circular-scanning mode, a spatial-correlation method of ranging and signal processing was employed which allowed detection of searched signals with intensities much lower than the noise intensity. Later MG-10 was modernized to improve its reliability and performance.

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To be able to properly perform instrument-aided adjustment and tuning, control and commissioning of all types of sonars on ships, the Plant was compelled to pay special attention to measuring equipment. It was in the period between 1955 and 1957 that the SDB designed and brought into production a suite of measuring instruments (Project KIP, work supervisor Yu. I. Popov). The complex included seven devices operating in the frequency range of 0.5–100 kHz: (1) a sound pressure meter with a hydrophone of barium titanate and a set of removable filters; (2) a noise generator with a projector and a set of filters, designed for generating a tonal or noise field in the water; (3) an oscillator-wave meter designed for sonar projection frequency measuring, generating a sine-wave voltage with microvolt output, and generating short pulses; (4) an oscillograph-meter designed for observing the shape and measuring the duration of pulses emitted by sonars; (5) a level meter designed for measuring noise voltage in the course of sonar testing; (6) a polarity meter designed for determining biasing polarity and polarization of magnetostrictive and piezoelectric receivers of passive sonars; (7) a pulse voltmeter designed for measuring d.c. and a.c. pulse voltages in sonar projectors. Putting in series production instrumentation for sonar adjustment and commissioning brought significant material economy to the Plant and allowed it to reduce the time required for ship commissioning, since instrumentation commissioning could now be done directly at the base, without the need for a cruise. This also excluded the influence of weather on the results of sonar tests. The Plant also introduced into production a series of specialized measuring instruments designed by other organizations, particularly by IRRA: (1) tester PK-1 for sonars testing and tuning; (2) the measuring rack, Izmeritel for passive sonars testing and tuning;

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(3) the rack Vodopad with calibrator ID for ship noise investigation in the infrasonic frequency range; (4) the rack Volna with calibrator ZD for ship noise investigation in the audio frequency range; (5) the rack Vulkan for ship noise investigation in the ultrasonic frequency range; (6) the IVPSh Meter (vibrations and underwater noise meter) for investigating ship and ship mechanisms vibrations and noise; (7) the MIU Meter (multi-channel measuring unit) for investigating ship’s internal noise generated by bulkheads and mechanisms vibrations; (8) the PF-1 unit of semi-octave filters for operation with meters IVPSh and MIU in performing frequency noise analysis. The most significant work of the Plant in the field of hydroacoustic instrument engineering was design of an ultrasonic frequency range calibrator (project code name Don, Head Yu. I. Popov). The instrument was designed for mounting in the Vulkan rack and was operated together with the rack on board class 518 ships. In the same period, the Plant began work on the design and manufacture of hydroacoustic systems for the research ships of the Institute of Acoustics of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR S. Vavilov and P. Lebedev (passive sonars Krab-A and Krab-B for taking relative bearing and elevation of objects, Chief Designer B. I. Yekimov). Also in this period, for the first time at the Plant, a pilot specimen of a compensator unit with a static induction switch for passive sonars was designed (project code name Krug, Chief Designer B. A. Kuznetsov), jointly with the Chair of Hydroacoustics of the Kuznetsov Naval Academy (Chief Scientist V. E. Taranov). The pilot compensator successfully passed tests in the Baltic Sea as part of the Feniks sonar on class 613 submarines. All later passive sonar projects used the results of this work, up to the time when digital systems appeared. From the end of the 1940s to the beginning of the 1950s, the Plant provided development support to other organizations and Plants

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engaged in the design and manufacture of hydroacoustic and other systems, including: (1) Research Institute RI-3 (CRI Morfizpribor) organized at SDB-206. (2) A plant in Kazan to bring into production of beacon and flasher equipment and also echo-sounders. (3) Priboy Plant in Taganrog, in the process of bringing into production the Tamir sonar. (4) Ravenstvo Plant in Leningrad, in bringing into production the radars Rym, Koordinator, etc. (5) Lenin Plant in Beltsy, in bringing into production of the Titan sonars and specialized measuring equipment. The years 1959–1965 represented a new stage in the development of hydroacoustic engineering. The country began building nuclear submarine missile carriers, which required better hydroacoustic equipment, with much higher tactical characteristics, primarily in terms of range and accuracy of target position monitoring. By Ordinance of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR of July 11, 1959, the task of solving this critical problem was assigned to Vodtranspribor Plant and RI-3. The Plant began D&D work on Kerch, and RI-3 began work on Rubin. Both represented hydroacoustic systems capable for increasing the performance for hydroacoustic equipment for submarines by a factor of 5–10. The Kerch sonar was designed for submarines of classes 675, 554, 670, and 667A. The Deputy Head of SDB-206, M. M. Magid, was appointed Chief Designer of the system, L. Ya. Kruze, Yu. I. Popov, and G. N. Smirnov became Deputy Chief Designers. As a result of the design work on Kerch, two prototypes were manufactured in the period 1964–1965. The first one was mounted on class 675 submarines, passed the State trials with the Pacific Fleet successfully in February–April 1966, and in September the same year was put into service by the Navy under the code name MGK-100. The second prototype was mounted on the lead submarine of class 670, passed trials in the Northern Fleet (White, Barents, and Norway Seas), having successfully performed target acquisition for the first

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seaborne cruise missiles Ametist. In its tactical characteristics the sonar system exceeded other sonars, employed before 1966, by several times. It was comparable in performance to the sonar system AN/BQQ-2 carried by nuclear submarines of the US Navy. Already by 1964–1965, the Plant started production of eight Kerch sonars using the design documentation with corrections introduced by the results of trials on two prototypes. In all, the Plant produced over 110 Kerch sonars. A great contribution to the reconstruction and the organizing of production in that period was made by Plant Director L. I. Voronichev. Because of his efforts, the Plant erected new production buildings and created a unique shop for assembly and testing of transducers and large-size arrays and other production systems. In 1967, for design and organization of series production of Kerch, L. I. Voronichev, B. Ya. Golubchik, V. A. Karpov, M. M. Magid, V. M. Mazepov, Yu. I. Popov, Yu. M. Sukharevsky, I. V. Trofimov, I. I. Tynyankin, and M. S. Usvyatsov were awarded the State Prize of the USSR. In the course of preparation for series production of Kerch, 250 original technologies had been developed, based on the achievements that had been made in modern chemistry, metallurgy, and other areas of science and technology. The Plant engineers designed and ran the processes of manufacture of sectional piezoceramic transducers, largesize multi-element arrays, static compensators, high-voltage components, semiconductor circuits, hydraulic devices, precision kinematics, etc. They engineered and manufactured 3500 complex machine tools and 360 unique stands. A new acoustic transducers shop was organized for section assembly and testing of large-size arrays, vulcanization of external device units, sonar equipment adjustment and testing, manufacture of powerful high-voltage transformers, etc. The ever-growing requirements for reliability and quality of the manufactured equipment called forth the value of a quality control service. A series of measures taken by the Plant’s quality control service allowed the Plant to increase by 1965 the reliability of its products 1.5– 2 times and to ensure the necessary technical level at the design and manufacture stages of prototype equipment.

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In a very short time the Plant received a test station outfitted with unique equipment to ensure long-term comprehensive testing of equipment; test basins; large-size test chambers for high hydrostatic pressures (up to 70 atmospheres) and exposure to different climatic factors; shock and vibration test stands for a broad range of frequencies, as well as other equipment. For testing of arrays under open water conditions, a test range was organized on Lake Ladoga, with specially equipped ships to support and control array operation at depths up to 20 m. For performing the work on the manufactured equipment commissioning for submarines, also for the purposes of carrying out tests, maintenance and repairs, as well as personnel training, a special adjustment and commissioning team was organized, which had equipped bases in all the fleets and at all the ship-building plants in the country. Along with the Kerch sonar, D&D and research work on other projects was carried out at the Plant that was aimed at the creation of hydroacoustic systems for submarines, surface ships, and coastal units, for deep-sea vehicles, and for countermeasure systems. Between 1959 and 1965, the Plant brought into production and manufactured over 20 new sonars. Forty-three sets of sonars, with spares and accessories, were exported to Bulgaria, Egypt, the German Democratic Republic, Yugoslavia, and Indonesia. By 1964, the design and research work on the creation of new hydroacoustic systems was centered on the following six research and production activities at the Vodtranspribor Plant SDB: (1) Design and manufacture of prototype sonar systems and sonars for detecting enemy vessels with the use of active and passive systems, and sonar communication between submarines and underwater and surface ships. (2) Design and manufacture of prototype, specialized hydroacoustic systems for range correction, gathering hydrological and navigational data, and for measuring own submarine noise, with automatic data transmission to digital computing devices and equipment for determining the submarine own location while submerged.

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(3) Design and manufacture of prototype rescue equipment for finding submarines in emergency situations and providing communication between the rescue ship and divers with the submarine, as well as between divers. (4) Design of acoustic underwater surveillance systems for surface ships and special multipurpose hydroacoustic countermeasure systems to suppress enemy detection equipment. (5) Special research and development work aimed at searching for ways to improve the tactical characteristics of prospective sonars, increasing equipment reliability, and introducing new materials for creating efficient acoustic transducers. (6) Modernization of series sonars and instruments, design of special training aids for sonars, technical support to main production, and bringing new devices into production. In 1959–1960, the Plant designed and manufactured prototype vibration and underwater noise meters (Project Lilia, Chief Designer Ye. G. Dorfman), a set of sonar control instruments (D&D Sheksna, Head L. Ya. Kruze). The instruments were designed for routine testing of the operation of Arktika-M, Svet-M, MG-15, Radius, and Tuloma sonars mounted on submarines of classes 633 and 641. By the end of 1962, the Arktika-2M sonar working in active and passive modes with automatic tracking of sound targets was brought into production. For outfitting submarines of all classes, the hydroacoustic receiver MG-17 was developed and brought into production at the Plant in 1962. The receiver was designed for underwater location of submarines with the help of a navigational sonar and worked in the frequency range of 25–1500 Hz and to depths up to 400 m. Shipments of military equipment of that period included shipmounted sonar MG-311 (Vychegda) for plotting coordinates and shipmounted circular-scanning sonars MG-312E and MG-312I (Titan) designed at CRI Morfizpribor. During 1962–1963, the Plant, jointly with RI-555, RI-3, RI-49, and RI-380, carried out a series of research projects: (1) Biryuza — research and development of lead zirconate–titanate piezoelements production technology.

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(2) Almaz — research and optimization of piezoceramics using a hot die casting process. (3) Prognoz-5 — automation of control of parameters and troubleshooting of electronic equipment on submarines with small crews. (4) Poisk — search for ways to create submarine-borne sonars to support firing of medium-range missiles at surface ships and the firing of missile-torpedo at low-noise submarines. Beginning in 1963, the following submarine-borne sonars were designed at the Plant, adopted by the Navy, and put into series production: MG-10M (chief designer V. P. Gulidov), a passive sonar designed for service on diesel-electric and nuclear submarines. In the process of modernization of MG-10, concepts were realized which permitted, along with reducing sonar dimensions, application of the latest achievements in home hydroacoustics that went beyond the assignment requirements and the MG-10 tactical characteristics: circular-scanning range was increased by 30%, the accuracy of data generation for torpedo firing was increased, power consumption was decreased more than two times, and combat application of sonar was improved (at the expense of combining the modes of circular scanning and automatic target tracking within one display on control console, etc.). MG-20 (Kit) (Chief Designer B. Ya. Golubchik), a passive sonar with ship-mounted arrays for diesel-electric and nuclear submarines, designed for detecting sound targets, target direction finding and current data transmission to TD. Sonar range 80–100 km in detecting a destroyer moving at a speed of 26–28 knots. The first prototype was mounted in February 1966 on a class 633 submarine, the second one on a class 627A submarine. Beginning in 1967, Kit was put into series production. Project Diesel (Chief Designer A. V. Bocharov), development of equipment for conducting research on infrasonic and low audiofrequency ranges, meant for investigating opportunities for detecting and ranging submarines and surface ships by discrete components in the infrasonic and low audio-frequency ranges, as well as for investigating the spectral and statistical properties of a ship’s own acoustic noise,

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submarine noise, surface ship and ambient sea noise in the frequency range from 2 Hz to 20 kHz. The principal difference between the Diesel equipment and existing devices was in signal translation with subsequent narrow-band analysis (frequency discrimination 0.1–0.25 Hz) to reveal discrete components in the noise signal from targets and subsequent ranging using the detected discrete components. The Kedr, an underwater sound ranging navigation system designed for checking the efficiency of sonar equipment on a special test range under realistic conditions. It evaluated the accuracy of target ranging by the sonar systems Rubin, Kerch, and other hydroacoustic surveillance and communication systems; measuring, jointly with the Olkha system, primary and secondary fields created by underwater and surface ships at different speeds. The Kedr was capable of discrete, very accurate plotting of coordinates of submarines in submerged position using information from the sonars MG-25, MG-26, Rubin or Kerch; supporting telephone and telegraph communication to distances up to 40 km; measuring distances up to 40 km to submarines and surface ships. The D&D Rosa (Chief Designer A. G. Yevtyukhov), a sound ranging sonar for plotting the location of submarines from data generated by a navigation sonar while working jointly with the system Akkord. The system received pulse-audio and detonating signals from a navigational sonar and transmitted the received signals, either automatically or manually, to Akkord for determining the co-ordinates of the submerged submarines from simultaneously measured bearings from three sources. The sonar was designed for receiving signals at distances up to 1000 km. The R&D Zhgut (Chief Designer A. G. Yevtyukhov), a system for measuring the sound speed in the water as a function of submergence depth. The system automatically transferred the sound-speed data to the Akkord system. The D&D also included design and manufacture of the prototype instruments Gorizont and Luchegraf. The system Gorizont (code named MG-43, Chief Designer N. V. Racheyev) was designed for calculating optimal depths for submarine operation taking into account hydrological conditions in the region. The system Luchegraf (code named

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MG-33, Chief Designer V. A. Komlyakov) represented an automatic plotter of ray diagrams for sound propagation in the ocean at distances out to 200 km and depths up to 6000 m. The D&D coastal systems included the coastal communication sonar Omega (BGAS-415, Chief Designer V. I. Vasilyev). The Omega ensured two-way telephone and telegraph communication with submarines and surface ships outfitted with the sonars MG-25, MG-26, Kerch, Rubin, and Yenisei, listening to telephone signals from sonars MG-15 and MG-16 and distance measuring. The system had either one or three arrays that extended off shore up to 25 km. In the early 1960s, the Plant continued work on developing and manufacturing rescue equipment and systems. The hydroacoustic equipment for two-way underwater communication between divers and rescue ships (code name Ekho, Chief Designer A. N. Petrov) was adopted in service by the Navy. The equipment included the communications sonar MGV-1 for the rescue support ship and rescue submarines and the divers’ communications sonar MGV-2 for divers in wet suits and dive masks with scubas operating on oxygen and air-and-oxygen mixtures. The systems Oredezh (MGA-1) and Skafandr (MGA-2) were specifically designed for use on rescue ships. The Chief Designer for both was A. I. Bystrov. In 1967, modernization of the Kerch sonar system started (D&D code named Balaklava). The Balaklava (Chief Designer M. M. Magid, deputy Chief Designer B. Ya. Golubchik) was a sonar for submarines designed to display the underwater and surface situation, ensure sonar communication with support ships, identify targets and generate target acquisition data for missiles, missile-torpedoes, and torpedoes. As distinct from the sonar MGK-100, the Balaklava had significantly better tactical characteristics for low-noise target ranging, determining distances, hydroacoustic signal detection, etc. In the design stage (1967), the Balaklava sonar was designed to operate in two modes: an active mode, with its ship-mounted active array ensured target acquisition for medium-range missile weapons at distances up to 120 km, and an passive mode, with target ranging ensured at distances upto 200 km by using the triangulation method with the help of two submarines.

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The Balaklava D&D work was carried out jointly with the Institute of Acoustics for scientific guidance, CRI-45 for development of methods to bring the noise level in submarines down to 0.06 Pa/Hz at array mounting sites on ships, and the CDB-submarine designer for sonar system location. In 1970, a decision was made by MSI and the Navy to close the project in view of the work being carried out at CRI Morfizpribor on the design of the Rubikon sonar (see the paper by Yu. A. Mikhailov “About the Rubikon sonar” — Ed.). Within the framework of D&D Pamyat (Chief Designer Ye. G. Dorfman), work continued on the design of an acoustic underwater surveillance system for special-purpose surface ships. The system ensured measuring the levels of noise from surface and underwater ships, as well as parameters characterizing the signals received by the sonars. The set of equipment Seriya (Chief Designer V. A. Komlyakov) was designed for antisubmarine surface ships and provided for measuring the sound speed as a function of depth along the ship’s track and data transmission to a computer for determining optimal sonars use. The set included radio telemetry buoys dropped from the moving ship. The ship-to-buoy communication range was 10 km. When measurements were made at standstill, the submerged portion of the buoy was lowered with a winch. In 1965, the Plant started development work on electronicacoustic equipment for the hydroacoustic countermeasure systems Korund-2 and Korund-705 (Chief Designer N. I. Detkov). Work on the design of such hydroacoustic countermeasure systems, effective over a broad frequency band and ensuring reliable suppression of normal operation of sonar receiving channels, were undertaken for the first time in this country (see also the paper by A. O. Markovsky “Hydroacoustic countermeasure systems” — Ed.). At all stages in the creation of prototype hydroacoustic systems, the Vodtranspribor Plant and the SDB-206 designers worked in close cooperation with the researchers and engineers of the Research Institute of Electronics (RIE) of the Navy. For lack of the opportunity to describe individual contributions of every worker, we would like to name those whose contribution

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to the development of hydroacoustics cannot be overestimated: P. S. Chernakov, F. F. Kryachok, I. I. Tynyankin, P. P. Kuzmin, V. V. Lavrichenko, I. N. Meltreger, E. I. Tsvetkov, K. P. Luginets, M. V. Zhurkovich, Yu. A. Sorokin, I. M. Il’in, M. S. Usvyatsov, N. V. Gusev, A. I. Simonov, N. N. Stupichenko, V. P. Shashurin, V. I. Zhivayev, and E. Kh. Matevosyan. A great contribution to the creation of hydroacoustic systems at the Plant was made by researchers of NSEE and the Naval Academy L. M. Aronov, A. M. Tyurin, E. S. Taranov, and V. N. Tyulin. Prototype hydroacoustic equipment was created with direct participation of the following scientists of the Institute of Acoustics of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR: Yu. M. Sukharevsky, V. I. Mazepov, S. G. Gershman, Yu. I. Tuzhilkin, A. M. Zufrin, G. I. Priimak, V. V. Olshevsky, V. V. Tyutekin, V. I. Il’ichev, V. M. Matangin, L. F. Bondar, E. P. Gulin, V. P. Akulicheva, V. A. Akulichev, Ye. P. Masterov, and K. B. Vakar. Military representatives worked shoulder to shoulder with the Plant’s engineers in the creation of hydroacoustic equipment for the Navy. It was due to their efforts that only high-quality and reliable equipment found its way onto ships. We will always remember the names of military acceptance representatives such as: V. S. Mamashin, A. N. Osipov, V. K. Zhurkovich, A. I. Gusev, B. P. Kantorovich, I. G. Klyuk, E. K. Muratov, V. F. Katalimov, V. I. Barkovsky, I. A. Yakovlev, V. V. Molofeev, A. V. Tumanov, and N. F. Kovyryalov. In the late 1960s, integration of production capacities started within the Leningrad industry. In 1969, Plant Vodtranspribor, SDB-206 and Plant Ladoga (Kirovsk) were merged to form the Production Association Vodtranspribor. The Association’s principal goal was to increase the production of sonars, sonar systems, sound ranging and diving equipment and hydroacoustic countermeasure systems on the basis of division by function and specialization. In this period, the Production Association increased output of Kerch and Yenisei, MG10M, and MG-200. In 1971, the process of organizing series production of the new sonar Rubikon, designed at CRI Morfizpribor and meant to replace the sonars Kerch and Rubin, started at the Plant. In 1973, as a result of an initiative by the Leningrad Oblast Committee of the CPSU, the Research-and-Production Association

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Okeanpribor was organized with the view of further concentration of scientific-technical and production capabilities. The new association included CRI Morfizpribor, Plants Vodtranspribor, Ladoga, and Polyarnaya Zvezda (a new Plant built in Severodvinsk). SDB-206 was closed, the greater part of its engineering-and-technical personnel was transferred to Morfizpribor. The Association’s organizing and establishing in the late 1970s a developed system of cooperation with other enterprises (plants Priboy, Sokol, Krasny Luch, Akhtuba, Lenin PA, and others) facilitated the creation in a very short time of the principally new sonars Skat and Skat-BDRM for the third-generation submarines. The Vodtranspribor Plant maintained its leading position in putting into production and manufacture hydroacoustic systems, the above sonars in particular. During that period, the Plant underwent one more reorganization, which enabled it, in the shortest time, to bring into production the first digital sonar Skat-3 (MPK-540) and which prepared it for the manufacture of hydroacoustic systems for the fourth-generation submarines. In the late 1980s came a thaw in the world’s political climate and the military confrontation of the world powers. Treaties 1 and 2 on prevention of armed confrontation and armaments reduction had already been worked out and signed. The cold war was coming to an end, the time came for a reduction in the armed forces, armaments and military budgets. A period of reform in the economy and a transfer to market relations, including industry, began in the USSR. The Plant staff found it economically inexpedient to stay within the Association and made a decision to withdraw and to become privatized. In 1992, the Plant was privatized and renamed the Open Joint-Stock Company Vodtranspribor. It succeeded in the best traditions of the Plant and remains today the pride of the national hydroacoustic instrument engineering effort for the Russian Navy. Vodtranspribor Plant and SDB-206 top-level officials: Plant Directors : Ya. L. Plam (1933–1934), L. A. Tsikanovsky (1935– 1936), S. T. Barkuntsev (1936–1937), F. A. Motienko (1938–1940), S. Ya. Postnov (1940–1946), G. V. Pylkov (Director of Plant’s branch

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in the siege of Leningrad, 1941–1943), F. A. Motienko (1946–1949), N. A. Yefimov (1950–1952), I. V. Myasnikov (1952–1961), L. I. Voronichev (1962–1976), V. V. Mikheev (1976–1983), O. K. Belyavsky (1983–1987), V. A. Bersenev (1987–1997), and S. V. Rozhnovsky (1997–). Plant Chief Engineers : S. V. Knyazev (1933–1934), F. F. Tomashevich (1934–1937), S. S. Tets (1937–1938), G. V. Petrov (1939– 1945), N. N. Myachin (1945–1949), N. D. Kupriyanov (1949–1969), V. A. Bersenev (1969–1977), S. S. Korotetsky (1977–1979), V. M. Borovikov (1980–1994), S. V. Rozhnovsky (1994–1997), and Ye. G. Rukavishnikov (1997–). Heads of SDB: Ye. I. Aladyshkin (1947–1949), S. P. Serov (1952–1953), N. D. Nagavkin (1953–1969), and N. D. Kupriyanov (1969–1973). Chief Engineers of SDB: M. I. Markus (1946–1949), and M. M. Magid (1955–1973).

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The Morfizpribor Central Research Institute (CRI) and Its Role in the Development of Home Hydroacoustics YU. A. KORYAKIN, A. I. SHAMPAROV AND G. V. YAKOVLEV

The country’s first Research Institute of Hydrolocation and Hydroacoustics, RI-3, of the Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry of the USSR (later, Morfizpribor Central Research Institute (CRI)) was founded in 1949 in Leningrad in compliance with the Ordinance of the Council of Ministers of the USSR of May 18, 1949. The Institute was organized around the Special Design Bureau (SDB) of Plant 206 (Vodtranspribor). By Russian standards, the initial number of personnel and production capacities of the Institute were quite modest: only 250 engineers and technicians, 164 workers and employees, and 1500 m2 of laboratory and production areas at the Plant location. However, despite the small number of personnel and a shortage of laboratory and production space, the staff had by that time acquired a valuable store of knowledge and experience. Here, we would like to note the following important moments. (1) The Leningrad Vodtranspribor Plant, the first production facility of the country’s hydroacoustic engineering industry was commissioned in 1933, and the Special Design Bureau formed at the Plant in 1946 (SDB-206) had by then brought up within its ranks a group of young and energetic chief designers of sonars and equipment developers. The years of studies (often in nonworking hours), the hardships of the war years, the Leningrad siege and blockade, evacuation, the operation of sonar equipment mounted on combat ships, the reconstruction of the Plant’s hydroacoustic production in the post-war years gave those people a rich life experience. As a rule, these were workers of high production discipline, the “fanatics” of their profession. 287

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Back in 1941, before the war, some of them, namely, Ye. I. Aladyshkin, A. S. Vasilevsky, V. S. Kudryavtsev, M. I. Markus, L. F. Sychev, I. V. Trofimov, and Z. N. Umikov, as well as representative of the Navy for supervision over research-technical work, P. P. Kuzmin, were awarded the Stalin Prize, 3rd Degree, for creation of the sonar Tamir. That generation of hydroacoustic engineers was marked by versatility, a creative approach to solving new problems, and the ability to overcome difficulties. So, in the most difficult conditions of the Plant evacuation in 1943, the acoustic detonator Krab for large ship mines was created. For its design, Engineers Z. N. Umikov and A. I. Vlasov were awarded the Stalin Prize in 1949 (see paper by Z. N. Umikov “Krab for Acoustic Mine” — Ed.). The body of people transferred from SDB-206 to the Institute displayed its best qualities in design and manufacture of the passive sonars Merkurii and Mars, the sonars of type Tamir, sonar communications systems of type Sirius, echo sounders of type EMS and other hydroacoustic equipment for surface and underwater ships. (2) The SDB already had within its organizational structure the subdivisions that the newly created Institute critically needed, such as: (a) a design department with chief designer’s groups; (b) specialized laboratories (electroacoustic, radio engineering, electromechanical, pulse engineering); (c) a design and development department; (d) a process engineering department; (e) a standardization and normalization department; (f) a drawing department; (g) a foreign equipment laboratory; (h) a technical information department; (i) an experimental shop with a mock-up workshop; (j) a hydroacoustic test basin, etc. (3) Intensive work was initiated and continued on the improvement of hydroacoustic transducers and arrays, representing the most important components of any sonar. (4) The body of people who transferred from SDB to the Institute had already been involved in the implementation of a 10-year program

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of hydroacoustics development announced by the Ordinance of the Council of Ministers of the USSR of June 10, 1946. It is interesting to list the main points of this Ordinance concerning improving the tactical characteristics of sonars: (a) For surface ship sonars: Ensuring operation at ship speeds up to 20–25 knots, determining depth of submergence of detected submarines, ensuring sonar operation during maneuvers of the platform. (b) For submarine sonars: Ensuring operation at submarine speeds up to 24 knots and submersion depth up to 250 m. (c) For submarine passive sonars: Operation at speeds up to 24 knots, ensuring operation of the external devices at depths up to 250 m, ensuring passive sonar array stability under high impulse pressures caused by depth-charge explosions; increasing the accuracy of range determinations; development of objective ranging methods. (5) The smooth transfer from the SDB to an “applied-research institute” was definitely facilitated by the fact that a line of D&D projects started at SDB were continued and completed at the Institute. Among them were surface-ship sonars Gerkules (Chief Designer Z. N. Umikov), Pegas (Chief Designer N. D. Kupriyanov), and Tamir11 (Chief Designer B. N. Vovnoboy); passive submarine sonars Feniks (Chief Designer M. Sh. Shtremt), submarine sonars Plutonii (Chief Designer A. S. Vasilevsky), Anadyr (Chief Designer S. M. Shelekhov), and Arktika (Chief Designer Ye. I. Aladyshkin). We think it appropriate to remember with gratefulness the names of the Institute’s leaders and the heads of its main departments, who shared and who overcame most of the hardships of the organizational period: Acting Director F. A. Motienko (simultaneously, Director of the Plant); Director of the Institute during the period 1950–1953, N. D. Nagavkin; Chief Engineer, Deputy Director for Research Ye. I. Aladyshkin; Head of the System Department L. F. Sychev;

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Head of the Radio Engineering Department S. M. Shelekhov; Head of the Automation Department L. L. Vyshkind; Head of the Generators Department I. V. Trofimov; Head of the Acoustics Department R. F. Dragun; Head of the Measurement Instruments Department M. M. Dikovsky; Head of the Active Sonars Department A. I. Vlasov; Head of the Passive Sonars Department M. Sh. Shtremt; Head of the Echo Sounders Department B. N. Tikhonravov; Head of the Development Department V. T. Zhegachev; Head of the Design Department P. V. Ogromnov; Head of Labor and Wages Department A. A. Khokhryakov; Head of the Assembly and Installation Department P. S. Russov; Head of the Machine-assembly Shop A. M. Zaidelson. The majority of these people were living examples of the creative life, having worked at the Institute for many years — sometimes until their death. Many had been awarded the titles of Heroes of Socialist Labor (Ye. I. Aladyshkin, S. M. Shelekhov), Lenin (M. Sh. Shtremt, S. M. Shelekhov) and State (I. V. Trofimov, L. L. Vyshkind, A. I. Vlasov) Prize winners, and won respect as top-level leaders of the Institute (L. F. Sychev, B. N. Tikhonravov and others). The almost half-century history of the Institute may be conventionally divided in the following periods: The Period 1950–1955: Institute establishment, the beginning of accumulation of scientific-technical, design, and production capabilities. By 1955, the Institute’s basic research-and-production parameters grew 1.7 times when compared with 1950. So, the total number of employees grew from 688 to 1149. The number of engineering and technical personnel (ETP) increased from 388 to 665 people, and the number of workers, from 239 to 435. As a result, in 1955, the Institute carried out work worth 2.5 million rb. (compared with 1.5 million rb. in 1950). The Institute actively invited and employed graduates of technical schools and higher educational establishments. Mass inflow of graduates of the Chair of Electroacoustics and Ultrasonic Engineering of LETI to the Institute was a decisive factor in the development of critical technologies of acoustic transducers, arrays and domes. The

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intensive process of reinforcing the Institute’s complex and specialized departments at the expense of specialists in radio engineering, electronics and instrument engineering — graduates of LETI, LECI, LIAIE, other institutes and universities — was not limited to Leningrad, but expanded to other cities as well. Simultaneously, a program for professional development of the Institute’s workers was created, since over half of them had acquired consummate practical skills, but lacked a specialized professional education. As early as 1950, the Scientific-Technical Board of RI was established. Among its members, beside the Institute’s leading specialists, were prominent acoustics scientists L. Ya. Gutin and S. Ya. Sokolov. In the same year the Institute’s leadership issued an order encouraging its specialists to work on dissertations for Candidate’s Degree. The Period 1956–1965: Fulfillment of the first 10-year plan of RI3 intensive development, and respectively, the development of the country’s hydroacoustic engineering industry in general, continued based on the following external factors: (1) creation of the country’s first nuclear submarine, the beginning of transformation of the country’s submarine fleet to an ocean-going fleet; (2) building of new surface ships; (3) stable order inflow from the Navy and their regular financing; (4) clearly defined state support to scientific-and-technical progress at research institutes. In 1960, the total number of the Institute staff reached 2944, including 1400 ETP. As compared with 1955, the volume of work increased 2.8 times. Nevertheless, further accumulation of the Institute’s scientifictechnical and production capability continued. By the end of 1965, the Institute employed 5058 persons, including 2729 ETP and 2038 workers; the volume of work grew to a worth of 13.97 million rb. The Institute had 26 candidates and one doctor of science (R. Kh. Balyan). In this period, the Navy adopted 15 sonars designed at the Institute. Among them were the above-mentioned Plutonii, Pegas-2M, Gerkules, Anadyr, Tamir-11, Arktika, and the multi-mode communications sonar systems Sviyaga (Chief Designer N. B. Kuskov), Yakhta (Chief

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Designer L. M. Mirimov) and Khosta (Chief Designer N. B. Kuskov); the working sonar signal detection system Svet-M (Chief Designer V. S. Trukhin); the circular-scanning sonar for the antisubmarine hunter Titan (Chief Designer A. I. Vlasov); the sonar Vychegda (Chief Designer L. L. Vyshkind) for plotting the location of submarines pinpoint bombing; mine-locator sonars Olen (Chief Designer M. Sh. Shtremt); and Radian-1 (Chief Designer V. E. Zelyakh). However, the above were sonars based mainly on the old scientifictechnical foundation and were no longer able to meet the ever-growing requirements of the Navy. In this connection, the Institute significantly increased the volume of investigative work aimed at searching for ways to improve the tactical characteristics of ship-mounted and stationary active and passive sonars. In the early 1960s, the Institute was running simultaneously 12–15 system programs and 10–15 specialized research programs. Among them were such system research projects as Ukhta (started in 1957, Chief Scientist B. N. Tikhonravov), Dvina (started in 1959, Chief Scientist D. I. Ibraimov, and later Ya. S. Karlik), Mamakan (started in 1962, Chief Scientist A. M. Dymshyts), Tishina (started in 1962, Chief Scientist I. G. Astrov), Los (started in 1960, Chief Scientist A. A. Ignatyev), Zemlya (started in 1958, Chief Scientist V. I. Borodin), Chogor (started in 1964, Chief Scientist V. I. Borodin), Bureya (started in 1965, Chief Scientist G. Ye. Smirnov), Aleksandrit (started in 1961, Chief Scientist I. M. Strelkov), Panorama (started in 1961, Chief Scientist S. A. Smirnov), and others. As a result of this research, on the one hand, scientific-technical prerequisites were created for significant improvement of the tactical characteristics of sonars for different applications, and on the other hand, principally new lines of activity in the development of home hydroacoustics appeared, namely; hydroacoustic Doppler logs, sonars for locating leads in ice from a submerged submarine, and navigation systems with hydroacoustic transponder beacons. In the forefront of these new activities, which received further intensive development, stood the young (under 30), energetic research-minded engineers V. I. Borodin, S. A. Smirnov, and G. Ye. Smirnov. For example, S. A. Smirnov was appointed Chief Scientist of the research project Panorama while occupying the position of an “ordinary” engineer, only three years after graduating from the Institute.

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The Period 1965–1975: In this second 10-year period of intensive development at the Institute, the Navy adopted 22 new sonars, among them the first sonar systems with the energy capability and scope of functions that were significantly broader than in the earlier sonars. The sonar systems Rubin and Okean for submarines, sonars Orion for surface ships, the stationary sonars Liman and Amur belong in this group. The first prototypes of sonar navigation systems, which in a number of their characteristics remain unsurpassed abroad even today, also deserve notice (Zemlya-2, Mechta, Mechta-2, Krug, Toros, and Shelf ). In 1966, the Institute was granted the status of the Central Institute, and in 1973, became lead institution of the newly created Research-and-Production Association Okeanpribor, which also included the plants Vodtranspribor, Ladoga, and the Polyarnaya Zvezda under construction in Severodvinsk. As of 1975, the Institute capacities could be judged by the following figures: Total employees ETP Workers Value of the work carried out

6841 4408 2236 23.6 million rb.

The period 1976–1985. The third 10-year period of efficient development of the Institute. In these years the Navy adopted 25 systems designed at CRI Morfizpribor, among them the small-size sonars 3403 and 5803 for underwater vehicles; the mine-locator sonar Arfa-M; the classification sonar system Ayaks, the navigational sonar systems Ekvator and Sunzha; the search and inspection sonars Krilyon and Lotos, and other systems. Investigation and development work was carried out on more than 20 topics. All series-production plants (Vodtranspribor, Ladoga, Priboy, Akhtuba, Dalpribor, Krasnyi Luch, Sokol) primarily worked on orders for products designed at the Institute. The period 1986 – present. This period was filled with several different events. In the first years of this period, which in general were successful for the Institute (Fig. 1), intensive investigations on the problems of applied hydroacoustics were carried out, and many D&D

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Fig. 1. At a meeting in CRI Morfizpribor. In the forefront, Head of 10 CA MSI N. N. Sviridov, left of him, Commander-in-Chief of the Navy S. G. Gorshkov, illustrating the success of the institute and its importance to the Navy.

projects that commenced in the previous years, including modernization of D&D, were successfully completed (Fig. 2). In 1986–1987, the Navy adopted a series of sonars for submarines and surface ships, among them the sonar Polinom, the most powerful of SS home sonars; the sonar Skat-BDRM whose creation was an example of efficient modernization of an earlier designed sonar, which permitted significant reduction in the equipment size and power consumption; the sonar Skat-Plavnik noted for a high degree of inter-project unification with the sonar Skat-BDRM; the land sonar Agam with a unique array; modernized classification sonar system Ayaks-M of significantly smaller size in comparison with the previous similar system Ayaks; the sonar Pelamida; the sonar Otrazhatel representing a new generation of sound-speed meters with expanded functional capabilities. In 1987, it was noted at the government level that in their principal tactical characteristics, including dimensions and power consumption, home hydroacoustic systems for submarines were comparable to their foreign analogues. In a situation of confrontation, they ensured, as a minimum, equality of forces between our submarines and the best

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Fig. 2.

At test stand rooms of CRI Morfizpribor.

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submarines of foreign fleets. This fact was regarded as a long-awaited success of the Institute, attained, in the first place, as a result of an intensive many-years’ collaboration with the Acad. N. N. Andreyev Institute of Acoustics, CDB — involved in submarine design, the Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI, organizations of the Navy, institutes of other branches of industry and the Academy of Sciences. In 1989, the Navy adopted the modern sonar Skat-3 designed at the Institute for service on submarines. This design became an important landmark of transition to the creation of sonars and sonar systems with complete digital information processing. We note the fact that the majority of ship-mounted and stationary sonar systems in service by the Navy today were designed at RI3 — CRI Morfizpribor. The significance of the contribution of the Institute, compared with the roles of other hydroacoustic RIs, may be illustrated with the following figures. Of the 44 items of hydroacoustic equipment in service by the Navy in 1976–1995, 41 were designed at CRI Morfizpribor. Along with military projects, the Institute designed a great number of sonar systems of importance to the national economy and for use in ocean investigations. Among these are systems ensuring precise positioning (position keeping) of naval platforms and systems in marine drilling; oil, gas and iron–manganese concretions production from the ocean bed; safe mooring of superships; geological marine prospecting for oil and gas; investigation of hydrophysical fields in the world’s oceans, sound-speed fields in particular. By of the end of the 1980s, CRI Morfizpribor was recognized as the country’s most developed and efficiently operating research and development organization in the field of applied hydroacoustics. The total number of personnel reached 7200 people, including 15 doctors and 150 candidates of science. The country’s only institute ran and currently runs a whole complex of basic hydroacoustic technologies, including development of piezoceramic compositions and manufacture of piezoelements for sonar projectors and receivers; design and manufacture of deep-sea sonars and receivers (Fig. 3); methods for the design of multi-element phased arrays of complex configuration; creation of deep-sea acoustic screens for projecting and

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Fig. 3.

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Specimens of sonar arrays and transducers designed at CRI Morfizpribor.

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receiving arrays; creation of strong, sound-transparent domes for sonar arrays; design and manufacture of extended linear flexible towed arrays with environmentally-safe fillers; creation of standard sonic measuring instruments and gauges; development of methods of acoustic field simulation and visualization; design and manufacture of multi-channel highly sensitive noise-immune analog and analog-to-digital systems for preliminary processing of acoustic signals; design and manufacture of highly efficient magnetic-semiconductor components and systems (transformers, magnetic amplifiers, generator devices); design and manufacture of multi-processor computer systems operating in real time, with developed algorithmic and program software; creation of fiber-optic multi-channel data transmission systems; creation of systems for data transmission over hydroacoustic channels (sonar communication); design of methods of audio signature imitation as a means of sonic countermeasure; creation of highly automated Doppler meters of ship’s absolute speed determination with self-adaptation to operating conditions (absolute logs); creation of sonar navigation systems with transponder beacons; creation of search and inspection side- and circular-scanning sonars; creation of multi-functional passive and active ship-mounted systems for display of the ocean situation, and others. All the above technologies bear on a strong know-how and respective theoretical foundation laid at the Institute within half a century. In this connection, we could name the specialists who had made contributions to the theory and practical implementation of these technologies. It is clear that within the scope of this article we can only name a few of the most prominent, meaning no offense to the rest. A valuable contribution to the theory and practical implementation of active and passive systems for display of the ocean situation belongs to the chief designers of sonars and sonar systems: Hero of Socialist Labor and USSR State Prize winner Ye. I. Aladyshkin (1912–1982), Lenin Prize winner N. N. Sviridov (1913–1997), Hero of Socialist Labor and Lenin and USSR State Prizes winner S. M. Shelekhov (1913–1986), twice USSR State Prize winner Cand. Tech. Sc. V. V. Gromkovsky, Honored Worker of Science and Technology of the Russian Federation and RF Government Science and Technology Prize winner, Dr. Tech. Sc. Prof. R. Kh. Balyan, Drs. Tech. Sc. V. A. Kakalov, Ya. S. Karlik and Yu. S. Perelmuter; Cand. Phys-Math. Sc.

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D. D. Mironov; Cands. Tech. Sc. M. N. Zaboev (1921–1958), V. V. Klyushin, L. M. Mirimov; Engineers — USSR State Prize winners V. S. Kudryavtsev (1909–1983), A. N. Vlasov (1913–1981), L. L. Vyshkind (1915–1972); engineers I. M. Serebryakov (1927–1986), Ye. Ye. Valfish (1913–1977), B. I. Lashkov (1931–1997), Ye. P. Novozhilov; Leading Specialists: Dr. Tech. Sc. A. M. Dymshyts, Cands. Tech. Sc. I. G. Astrov, G. I. Afrutkin (USSR State Prize winner), B. M. Golubev (1930–1981), I. N. Dymsky (1914–1963), M. V. Zhurkovich, A. S. Yermolenko, V. B. Idin (USSR State Prize winner); RF Government Prize winners V. V. Semenov, I. M. Strelkov and I. S. Shkolnikov; N. P. Sergeyeva, A. I. Paperno (1922–1988), B. N. Tikhonravov (1914– 1991); Engineers M. Ya. Andreyev, E. E. Berkul, S. M. Velichkin, V. E. Zelyakh, G. Ya. II’in, Yu. M. Kozlov, Yu. A. Mikhailov and many other specialists. An indisputable contribution to the theory and practical implementation of sonar navigational and search-and-inspection systems was made by the chief designers: USSR State Prize winner, Dr. Tech. Sc. G. Ye. Smirnov, USSR State Prize winner, Cand. Phys-Math. Sc. S. A. Smirnov, Cands. Tech. Sc. A. V. Bogorodsky, V. I. Borodin (1928–1983), S. S. Karatetsky, Yu. A. Nikolaenko and F. N. Shifman, Cand. Phys-Math. Sc. D. D. Mironov, Engineers N. M. Kuzin, A. A. Ostroukhov and A. A. Platonov, Leading Specialists: Cand. Tech. Sc. G. V. Yakovlev, Engineers A. G. Zatsepin, B. I. Trushchelev, Yu. P. Fomin, Ye. A. Chichurin (1926–1996), S. K. Shipin (1934–1972) and many others. The theoretical aspects of the above systems designs were elucidated in the books by the following authors: A. V. Bogorodsky, V. I. Borodin, G. Ye. Smirnov, N. A. Tolstyakova, and G. V. Yakovlev. The credit for development of a specific array technology — the “trade mark” of CRI Morfizpribor — belongs to such prominent scientists as Drs. Tech. Sc. Profs. R. Ye. Pasynkov (1924–1992), Ye. A. Korepin, V. B. Zhukov, M. D. Smaryshev, Honored Worker of Science and Technology of the Russian Federation, Dr. Tech. Sc. Prof. Ye. L. Shenderov, Dr. Phys-Math. Sc. Prof. V. I. Klyachkin, RF Government Prize winner, Dr. Tech. Sc. V. Ye. Glazanov, Drs. Tech. Sc. B. S. Aronov, L. N. Syrkin (1923–1997) and A. A. Shabrov; Cands. Tech. Sc. I. I. Belyakov, B. M. Brodsky, M. K. Busher, N. M. Gribakina, Yu. Yu. Dobrovolsky,

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V. I. Zarkhin, L. A. Zubarev, V. I. Kirillov, O. A. Kudasheva, E. V. Labetsky, B. I. Leonenok, V. T. Malyarova, A. V. Mikhailov, L. B. Nikitin, D. B. Ostrovsky, V. I. Pozern, V. V. Popov, A. G. Porfirova, I. A. Serova, G. K. Skrebnev, P. I. Strelets, L. Ye. Sheinman, V. V. Yakovlev, A. A. Yampolsky (1918–1988); Engineers V. V. Baskin, G. Kh. Golubeva, G. D. Grishman, B. M. Yefimov, K. V. Zaitsev, A. I. Zinovyev, G. A. Mikhailov, R. P. Pavlov, N. A. Tsyganov, E. G. Shmidt, R. I. Eikhfeld, and many others. The theory of array technology was acknowledged to be quite advanced as well. It found reflection in the popular monographs by V. Ye. Glazanov, V. B. Zhukov, Ye. I. Korepin, M. D. Smaryshev, A. A. Shabrov, Ye. L. Shenderov, Yu. Yu. Dobrovolsky, and D. B. Ostrovsky. Irrefutable merit for development of sonar computer systems, their algorithmic and program software, belongs to Drs. Tech. Sc. Profs. A. R. Liss, V. G. Gusev, Drs. Tech. Sc. A. S. Venkstern, A. M. Dymshyts and V. A. Kakalov, Cands. Sc. V. I. Laletin (1929–1997), L. Ye. Fyodorov, A. V. Ryzhikov, Yu. A. Koryakin, G. Ts. Seledzhy, B. I. Yanover, A. M. Yakubovsky; Engineers V. I. Anisimov, B. S. Arshansky, V. A. Gonikberg (1943–1985), RF Government Prize winners A. L. Ioffe, V. A. Kokurin and G. A. Krasilnikov, V. N. Kovalev, M. T. Kozhayev, L. I. Molchadsky, A. V. Chelpanov, and many others. Many years of successful work were dedicated to the creation of analog and analog-to-digital systems of sonar signals processing by Dr. Tech. Sc. I. K. Lobanova, Cands. Tech. Sc. Yu. V. Barsukov and A. V. Ryzhikov, Engineers Z. S. Volovich, A. N. Levinsky (1922–1972), K. V. Mussulevsky (1926–1985), and many other specialists. A significant contribution to the creation of systems for the generation of powerful sonar signals was made by Dr. Tech. Sc. R. Kh. Balyan, Cands. Sc. V. A. Maiorov, M. Z. Gelman, Engineers R. A. Brodsky (1918–1977), N. N. Shut, V. V. Tkalich, N. M. Ivanov and many others. In describing the contribution of scientists and engineers to the formation and development of the Institute, we recognize the immense role played by the Institute leaders — in the first place, its directors and chief engineers.

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A strong impetus to development of the Institute and its evolving into a truly scientific-research organization is credited to N. N. Sviridov (1913–1997), Director of the Institute during the period between 1953 and 1960. For many years, from 1960 to 1987, V. V. Gromkovsky was the Institute Director, his name is closely connected with the successes of the Institute during that period. In the period from 1987 to 1995, a time of extreme strain caused by the economic reforms instituted in the country, D. D. Mironov was head of the Institute. From 1995 to the present, the head has been Yu. A. Koryakin. Traditionally, an important role in running such a large and multiactivity institute as CRI Morfizpribor belong to chief engineers of the Institute who, in addition to being organizers of the scientific research processes at the Institute, were prominent engineers and researchers. In the period between 1949 and 1973, the position of chief engineer was occupied by Ye. I. Aladyshkin; in 1973–1979 by R. Kh. Balyan; in 1979–1987 by G. Ye. Smirnov; in 1987–1991 by A. V. Ryzhikov; in 1991–1994 by Yu. A. Koryakin; and from 1995 to the present, by K. I. Polkanov. This period in the development of the Institute, filled with regular hard work, difficult but challenging and offering good prospects, lasted 40 years. However, beginning in 1989, the country’s hydroacoustic industry, including CRI Morfizpribor, met with the first symptoms of crisis brought about by the general unfavorable economic and social situation in the country. The crisis manifested itself first in abrupt cutbacks in the defense R&D budgets. The cutbacks resulted in irregularity in paying wages, a problem which soon became chronic. The significantly lower level of wages at the Institute, compared with commercial organizations, caused a mass drain of the Institute’s highly qualified specialists, including heads of departments and sections, leading engineers — designers of some of the most complex instruments, as well as researchers (doctors and candidates of science). Admission to the Institute of university and technical school graduates ended almost completely. In a few years, the number of personnel at the Institute shrank by more than a factor of one third. The Institute lost 65 candidates of science.

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Nevertheless, until today, Morfizpribor has preserved a sufficient body of specialists capable of concentrating maximum effort on fulfillment of new design tasks, provided there is respective financing. So, in 1993, state trials of a unique hardware-and-software system, the sonar Dnestr, showed “magnificent results” (quote from the acceptance commission report) in submarine long-range detection. Such success, attained under conditions of considerable distance between the Institute and the site of trials, was primarily predetermined by such factors as good organization, which was much to the credit of the sonar Chief Designer R. Kh. Balyan, his deputies and assistants, clever borrowing of system features from earlier designs, search for appropriate methods and provision of efficient economic incentives for workers; creative enthusiasm of designers, the Institute’s veterans, in particular efficient support rendered to the Institute by the customer and the top administration of the Navy. For successful completion of the Dnestr the Institute was awarded a RF Government Prize in 1995. This definitely testifies to the fact that the Institute still had a sufficient margin of research-technical capability and stability. However, it is obvious that even this margin could be reduced in the future. In the current program of new underwater and surface shipbuilding the Institute has been assigned an exclusive role. The Institute’s staff, despite all economic and social problems, is determined to comply with this role. At present, work goes on at the Institute on a new sonar for the newest class of submarines. The search for more efficient algorithms of sonar information processing continues. There is an intensive process of introducing a new unified DCF component base. The Institute is ready for D&D work as the modernization of naval equipment similar to what it had done in the first half of the 1980’s. Only the notorious absence of financing hampers the process.

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Development of Investigations in Hydroacoustics at the Acad. N. N. Andreyev Institute of Acoustics N. A. DUBROVSKY AND V. I. MAZEPOV

1. Introduction Before the start of the Great Patriotic War, investigations in hydroacoustics in the USSR were carried out at a limited number of research and industrial institutions, unsystematically and without a unified theme. For example, theoretical and experimental research on electroacoustic transducers was done at the A. S. Popov Institute of Radio Reception and Acoustics (IRRA) in Leningrad. Workers at that Institute, L. Ya. Gutin, A. A. Peshlat, and V. N. Lepeshinsky, developed an applied theory of magnetostrictive and piezoelectric sonar transducers and designed a process for commercially growing Seignette salt piezocrystals. It was at that time that L. Ya. Gutin began his fundamental research into the theory of acoustic emissions by propellers. It should be noted that the first investigations of the piezoelectric properties of Seignette salt started as early as 1930 at the Acoustic Laboratory of the Leningrad Technical Physics Institute by N. N. Andreyev, the future founder of the Institute of Acoustics. Technical research and practical development work in hydroacoustics were concentrated at Institute No. 10 of the People’s Commissariat for Shipbuilding, RI-3 and the Vodtranspribor SDB. The professional careers of many prominent Russian specialists in hydroacoustics, such as Ye. I. Aladyshkin, V. S. Kudryavtsev, M. M. Magid, and others began in those organizations. The country’s first directlistening sonar systems, underwater audio communication systems and 303

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echo sounders, including horizontal echo sounders that, in fact, were the first prototype ultrasonic hydroacoustic rangers, were designed there. Also, development work began on implementing the concept of remote control of underwater objects by acoustical means. During the war, hydroacoustic research was also carried out at Institute No. 11 of the Navy. This research strongly influenced the development of hydroacoustic engineering. The leading specialists in hydroacoustics, P. P. Kuzmin, I. I. Meltreger, and others worked at the Institute. In the period immediately before the Great Patriotic War, the ranks of hydroacoustic specialists were considerably reinforced because scientists who earlier worked on problems of acoustics in physics and in architecture turned their attention to problems in hydroacoustics. In those years, among the main, significant research organizations dealing with acoustics were the Acoustic Laboratory of the Construction Management of the Palace of Soviets, with the Leading Specialists V. S. Grigoryev and L. D. Rozenberg, and the Laboratory of Acoustics of the P. N. Lebedev Physical Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (PI RAS), with N. N. Andreyev as its head. In 1940, the Laboratory of Acoustics of PI RAS established a close relationship with the Research-and-Technical Committee of the Navy with a proposal to jointly begin work on the problems of military hydroacoustics. At that time, acoustics, from the point of view of military applications, attracted both physics researchers and the naval specialists. From the beginning of the Great Patriotic War in 1941, the Laboratory of Acoustics of PI RAS was assigned the important task of creating acoustic sweeps to fight against acoustic mines that were widely used by the enemy. The work carried out by L. M. Brekhovskikh, L. D. Rozenberg, B. D. Tartakovsky, and other scientists under the supervision of N. N. Andreyev was successfully completed with the creation of impact acoustic sweeps which soon went into service for the Navy and significantly improved the safety of combat and transport ships. This work laid the foundation for investigation of ship structures, vibrations of metal shells, and sound propagation in the sea. In 1942, a group of specialists from the Laboratory of Acoustics PI RAS, with V. S. Grigoryev at the head, began investigating noises from surface ships and submarines. As a result of the project that was

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L. M. Brekhovskikh N. N. Andreyev

L. D. Rozenberg

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developed and scientifically substantiated by this group, the first hydroacoustic research ship (sonar test facility), Krasny Vympel, of the Navy was equipped and joined the Pacific Fleet. This work was carried out in close collaboration with Institute No. 1 of the Navy and marked the

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beginning of a long collaboration on the creation of a network of naval hydroacoustic test facilities (later, test ranges) and the development of specialized equipment for recording and measuring noises from marine objects. It should be noted that investigations of sound propagation, including investigations using explosive sources, were also carried out on board the Krasny Vympel, which resulted in the discovery of an underwater acoustic channel (see detailed description below). Investigations of the acoustical characteristics of devices for ultrasonic underwater surveillance and their efficiency under real ocean conditions began in that period. This work was carried out by a group of specialists including Yu. M. Sukharevsky, V. S. Grigoryev, P. P. Kuzmin, and Ye. I. Aladyshkin. A series of hydroacoustic investigations was carried out in 1944 by a group of specialists from the Laboratory of Acoustics of PI RAS under the leadership of Yu. M. Sukharevsky using ships of the Pacific Fleet. The parameters characterizing the sonar equipment of home and foreign manufacture were investigated in full-scale trials. For the first time, marine reverberation was studied revealing its role as a barely surmountable noise disturbance in sonar target detection. Also for the first time, experiments were carried out on sonar detection of acoustic sources in the air (noise from aircraft). The results of work in hydroacoustics by the Pacific Fleet was used to reach practical conclusions and proposals on the improvement of ship-mounted hydroacoustic equipment and recommendations for its use under various acoustical conditions and tactical situations. These recommendations were provided to the Navy and found practical application. For their contribution to improving the defense capability of the country during the Great Patriotic War, a group of hydroacoustic scientists were awarded Orders of the Red Banner of Labor. With investigations for the Pacific Fleet, a fruitful collaboration of physicists, industrial designers, and naval specialists in the area of hydroacoustics started. It was during those years that the Laboratory of Acoustics of PI RAS gathered the leading acoustic scientists who dedicated their further life to development of the scientific fundamentals of hydroacoustics and their practical implementation in the development of new generations of hydroacoustic equipment for the Navy.

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The results of broad-scale scientific research became the source of a deeper understanding of the problems of hydroacoustics and the prospects for its development as a branch of science and engineering. Realization of such prospects and the limited possibilities for hydroacoustic investigations under conditions of full-scale trials on ships of the Navy gave birth to the idea of creating a permanent experimental hydroacoustic facility on the Black Sea. Due to the energy and determination of V. S. Grigoryev and Yu. M. Sukharevsky, and with the support of the Director of the Physical Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, S. I. Vavilov, the implementation of this idea began in 1945. A convenient site for the marine facility was found near Sukhumi having a steep coast stretching at an angle of about 35◦ to depths of 400–500 m, provided good conditions for installation and use of bottom receiving-and-transmitting arrays. In 1946–1947, experimental hydroacoustic research on ships of the Black Sea Fleet was carried out in this region, and beginning in 1948, under the guidance of Yu. M. Sukharevsky, the Sukhumi Naval Expedition of the Laboratory of Acoustics of PI RAS began functioning. The first bottom-mounted receiving-and-transmitting devices were installed and measuring equipment was placed in the rooms of the Sukhumi beacon. In 1951, construction of the buildings for the central and three coastal laboratories began. In one of the laboratories a hydroacoustic basin was installed for calibrating and testing experimental hardware components. Design of stationary bottom structures and a marine pavilion-laboratory on piles communicating with the shore with an overpass began. All these constructions were commissioned in 1954–1955. After establishment of the Institute of Acoustics RAS, the Sukhumi Expedition was reorganized and renamed the Sukhumi Marine Research Station, and later the Sukhumi Branch of the Institute of Acoustics (see the paper by Yu. M. Sukharevsky “A history of the creation and work of the Sukhumi Marine Research Station of ACIN RAS”). During this period the Sukhumi Station received two ships, Zeya and Signal, and later, the sonar test ship (STS) Ingur, which were reequipped and then used for hydroacoustic research and full-scale trials.

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Yu. M. Sukharevsky

N. A. Grubnik

N. A. Dubrovsky

M. A. Isakovisch

G. D. Malyuzhinets

F. I. Kryazhev

L. A. Chernov

A. V. Rimsky-Korsakov

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In a short time, Yu. M. Sukharevsky managed to bring together many talented young people. Initially, work at the Sukhumi Naval Station was carried out jointly with Moscow researchers, but quite soon the Sukhumi group became an independent body, which later produced a constellation of highly qualified acoustic scientists whose names will be mentioned many times in this book. Leaders of the Sukhumi Naval Station, and later, the Sukhumi Branch of the Institute, were Yu. M. Sukharevsky, Yu. B. Upadyshev, V. I. Il’ichev and V. M. Matangin. In 1950–1953, the Volzhskaya (Ozernaya) Research Station under the leadership of V. S. Grigoryev was organized at the Ivankovskoye Water Reservoir (the Moscow Sea) for conducting hydroacoustic investigations and trials. One of the first efforts carried out at the Station was measuring the hydroacoustic characteristics of wind-generated waves. Pile-supported “isles” were erected at the Station, which allowed conducting hydroacoustic measurements using land-based measuring systems. For the needs of the Volzhskaya Research Station, a floating laboratory and special towers with acoustic sources and receivers mounted on them were built and equipped, which allowed simulating in air of some hydroacoustic phenomena. Investigations on signal processing and sound scattering using models of submarines were also carried out. Later, the Volzhskaya Research Station, which became one of the largest departments of the Institute of Acoustics, acquired multiple experimental stands for carrying out research in air acoustics, acoustics-and-hydrodynamics, reducing ventilation system noise levels, and development of ultrasonic technologies. D. M. Smirnov was the first head of this station, and in later years, V. I. Kondratyev was head of the Volzhskaya Research Station, until it became a branch of the Institute of Applied Acoustics. Let us remember, going back to the early days of the formation of scientific themes at the Institute of Acoustics, that the Laboratory of Acoustics of PI RAS also carried out theoretical investigations in the areas of acoustics and hydroacoustics. One of the main theoretical problems was investigation of sound propagation in layered media as applied to the ocean. By the end of the 1940s, L. M. Brekhovskikh completed development of the theory of sound propagation in an ocean

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waveguide, which opened up new opportunities in hydroacoustics. In the same years, a group of scientists of the Laboratory under the guidance of L. D. Rozenberg carried out experimental research in the Pacific Ocean that resulted in the discovery of sound propagation by undersea sound channels. They used explosive signals having a low-frequency component that is weakly attenuating in the ocean medium. Tremendous, for the time, reception ranges of several thousand kilometers of acoustic signals were observed. In 1950–1953, L. M. Brekhovskikh and L. D. Rozenberg, and later Yu. M. Sukharevsky and A. L. Sosedova, carried out a series of experimental investigations in the area of the Sukhumi Naval Station, which resulted in the discovery of zones of acoustic illumination (convergence zones) and the confirmation of sound focusing predicted earlier by L. M. Brekhovskikh and I. D. Ivanov based on theoretical considerations. These discoveries laid a new foundation for long-distance sound ranging. Thus by the beginning of the 1950s, the Laboratory of Acoustics of PI RAS, with its experimental branches, the body of scientists and engineers, with scientific discoveries and fundamental results of theoretical and experimental research in the field of acoustics and hydroacoustics on the credit side, actually became an independent research organization. In 1953, the Laboratory was reorganized into the Institute of Acoustics RAS. It is extremely important to mention the personnel and organizational structure of the new Institute. Of 285 workers of the Institute, 88 worked in four research laboratories with N. N. Andreyev, Yu. M. Sukharevsky, V. S. Grigoryev, L. D. Rozenberg as heads, and in the theoretical Department, with L. M. Brekhovskikh as head. The Sukhumi Station had 40 workers and the Ozernaya Station had 15 workers. In addition, 90 people worked in the specialized technical Department of the Institute and the D&D Department of acoustic measuring equipment. The support services employed 46 people. Analysis of the Institute’s personnel shows that it had four to five highly qualified designers and developers of unique electronic and hydroacoustic experimental equipment for each researcher. The efficiency of such a ratio of scientists and engineering and technical personnel

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was clearly reflected in the effectiveness of the complex experimental research work done. Later, the Institute of Acoustics underwent multiple restructuring. In 1961, the Institute of Acoustics was transferred from the Academy of Sciences of the USSR to the system of the State Committee of the Council of Ministers of the USSR for Electronics, which was then reorganized into the Ministry of Radio Industry of the USSR. From 1965, the Institute was subordinated to the Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry of the USSR; from 1991, to the Department of Shipbuilding Industry of the State Committee for the Defense Industry of the Russian Federation, reorganized in 1996 to the Ministry of Defense Industry of the Russian Federation, and since 1997, to the Department of Shipbuilding Industry of the Ministry of Economy of the Russian Federation. In 1978, the Institute of Acoustics was named after Academician N. N. Andreyev, founder of the Institute, a prominent acoustic scientist, organizer of a series of acoustic laboratories in the country, and bearer of the title of Hero of Socialist Labor. In 1994, the Acad. N. N. Andreyev Institute of Acoustics received the status of the State Research Center of the Russian Federation. The first director of the Institute was L. M. Brekhovskikh. From 1962, its Director was N. A. Grubnik, from 1980 — F. I. Kryazhev, and from 1990 till the present time, N. A. Dubrovsky has been the Director. The above re-subordinations of the Institute of Acoustics did not ensue cardinal revision of its principal activities. In all the directives regularly issued by different ministries the Institute of Acoustics maintained its position of a leading research organization in the area of hydroacoustics and acoustics aimed at development of fundamental problems, increasing the defense capability of our country, and designing sophisticated equipment for civil applications. By the mid-1960s, the principal directions of the Institute’s research had been formed: (1) investigation of long-range sound propagation in the ocean, acoustic-oceanological investigations, development of acoustical methods of investigation of the world’s oceans;

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(2) research and development of efficient hydroacoustic methods of underwater surveillance; (3) investigation of the methods of detection and classification for prospective sonar systems; (4) investigation of mechanisms of conversion of different types of energy into acoustical energy; (5) investigation and development of the methods and systems of hydroacoustic protection of submarines and surface ships; (6) investigation of acoustic and hydrodynamic phenomena and development of the methods of countermeasures of hydroacoustic systems (sonars) and secrecy of acoustic system platforms at high speeds of movement; (7) investigations in the field of physics and development of the methods of industrial application of ultrasound, investigations in quantum acoustics and investigations in the area of aerothermoacoustics. Returning to the history of the initial stage of activity by the Institute of Acoustics, it should be noted that from the very beginning the Institute had been assigned the task of undertaking complex hydroacoustic investigations, the results of which might serve as a basis for the development of promising ship-mounted hydroacoustic systems for the Navy and to search for ways to significantly increase underwater surveillance ranges. It was also the task of the Institute to perform scientific supervision over the most important D&D work. The special importance attributed to this direction of work in hydroacoustics in the early 1950s was explained by the transition to a principally new generation of Naval combat equipment. The process of creation and improvement of hydroacoustic equipment for the Navy can be divided in several stages. The initial stage, which lasted during the 1930s, 1940s and into the 1950s, was characterize by comparatively low (3–5 km) ranges of submarine and surface ship sonar operation. Ranges varied little at this stage. Technical improvements yielded insignificant range increase since in developing and selecting the main sonar parameters designers proceeded from the assumption of physical limitations on range due to sound refraction

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in the ocean medium. Refractive phenomena resulted in considerable weakening of the acoustic field at distances of several kilometers (the effect of the acoustic shadow). In more favorable hydroacoustic conditions (in the northern seas, or in middle latitudes in winter), relatively greater ranges could be attained even using the hydroacoustic systems of the time. However, this was prevented by strong attenuation in the marine medium in the ultrasonic frequency range in which sonar systems operated at that time. It was then assumed that, under the most probable conditions of refractive limitations, reducing the frequency does not contribute to an increase in range, but tends to increase the weight of hydroacoustic apparatus. These detection distances were nevertheless considered acceptable, since the combat radius for the torpedo armaments on diesel-electric submarines of that time was also counted in kilometers. In addition, the displacement and power of those submarines gave little hope for any significant change in the weight, size, and power requirements of the available hydroacoustic systems needed to increase the hydroacoustic surveillance range. At this stage, use was made also of the simplest analog equipment for hydroacoustic data processing. An important role in signal processing belonged to the sonarman, who was compelled to carry out detection, ranging, and classification of marine targets by ear. The second stage, lasting from the late 1950s to the late 1960s, may with good reason be called the stage of scientific and technological revolution in creation and improvement of ship-mounted sonar equipment for the Navy. During this period, a qualitative leap took place in the development of a scientific basis and the principles for designing long-range hydroacoustic systems. This was also the stage of establishing and development of the Institute of Acoustics, creation of its research branches and research ships, which made possible an abrupt increase in the efficiency of investigations and expanding the knowledge of the acoustical-oceanological characteristics of oceans and seas. At the same time, re-orientation and re-equipment of other research enterprises took place. A number of design bureaus at plants of the shipbuilding industry were converted to new specialized design bureaus and institutes.

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The period of the 1970–1980s may be called the third evolutionary stage of hydroacoustic system improvement. It was based on more profound physical research and technical innovations in the area of hydroacoustics. The development of the Institute of Acoustics during this stage will be discussed later. The creation of a principally new generation of hydroacoustic equipment for the Navy was in principle predetermined by three major factors. First, as was mentioned above, by that time the researchers of the Institute of Acoustics had made extremely important discoveries in the area of hydroacoustics. The undersea sound channel had been discovered with remote zones of acoustical illumination and sound focusing, which enabled a reduction in the refraction limitations on the detection range. Second, nuclear submarines of considerably larger displacement and power were being built, removing limitations on the weight and size characteristics of sonar systems and providing opportunities for increasing their power capability. Finally, long-range missile armaments were installed on submarines and surface ships calling for an abrupt increase in target detection ranges and an increase in the efficiency of solving the tasks of target classification and detection by the use of ship-mounted hydroacoustic systems. The transition to practical implementation of a new generation of hydroacoustic systems with larger operating range, and the need for their further improvement at subsequent stages necessitated new physical and engineering research. An acute need was felt to create an experimental capability with the engineering and technical staff corresponding to the level of the tasks being posed. A fundamental re-equipment of the Sukhumi Marine Research Station, a branch of the Institute of Acoustics, was undertaken. The Northern Branch of the Institute in Severomorsk was created and equipped for conducting hydroacoustic research in the North-Atlantic region and for providing scientific and technical interaction with the Northern Fleet. Bearing upon the scientific-and-engineering capability accumulated at the Institute, a new efficient body of young workers was quickly gaining influence. In the years that followed, with the active assistance of the Northern Fleet, the experimental and production base of the branch expanded considerably, much to the credit of Ye. G. Peshkov, who for many years was head of the Northern Branch.

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Another branch of the Institute was organized in Petropavlovsk– Kamchatski to provide for work of the Institute in the region of the Pacific coast of Kamchatka and for close interaction with the Pacific Fleet in carrying out experimental research and trials of hydroacoustic systems. The Institute of Acoustics acquired and outfitted with all necessary equipment the research ships (RS) Petr Lebedev and Sergei Vavilov. The main ideologists and scientific advisers for the creation and outfitting of these RS were L. M. Brekhovskikh, V. S. Grigoryev, I. Ye. Mikhaltsev, and V. M. Golubkov. In the mid-1980s, new research ships of the Institute of Acoustics, Academician Nikolai Andreyev and Academician Boris Konstantinov, were built and equipped with modern systems and equipment. The Pacific branch of the Institute acquired the RS Impuls-1. The Institute’s research ships allowed sophisticated hydroacoustic research to be carried out in all operational regions of the world’s oceans with hydroacoustic paths ranging to 10 000 km and more. Many cooperating research and industrial organizations, special design bureaus, and specialists and systems of the Navy were involved in providing the engineering and technical equipment for the above marine and ocean experimental facilities of the Institute of Acoustics. The creation of the world’s first acoustic research ships Sergei Vavilov (receiving) and Petr Lebedev (radiating) was a significant contribution to the concept of home shipbuilding of research vessels. One of the distinguishing features of these ships was the so-called “bathyposts” presenting special shafts equipped with lifting and lowering mechanisms, cables, easily replaceable, deep-sea receiving and radiating arrays with control systems for stabilization, guidance, sound speed, current, and other parameters. The silence mode (required for acoustic measurements) necessitated creating noiseless energy sources and introducing modifications in practically all the ship’s systems and structures, positioning and anti-drifting systems, powerful generators and transmitters (up to 1 megawatt in pulse mode), extended and space-separated receiving arrays on a neutral-buoyancy suspension, etc. The new principles and methods of acoustic-oceanographic measurements utilized in these project ships’ in 1957–1958 and the unique research equipment and special ship’s systems are used today in building acoustic-oceanographic ships. These concepts were taken

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into account in building the acoustic-oceanographic ships Baikal and Balkhash, Academician Sergei Vavilov and Academician Ioffe. The requests for technical support and scientific supervision over construction of these ships were compiled with the participation of workers of the Institute of Acoustics. Creation of low-noise research ships outfitted with measuring, recording, and analyzing systems allowed investigation of acoustic signals and noises synchronously with the oceanological and meteorological parameters affecting the acoustic fields, a significant expansion of the scope of marine and ocean research, and creation of a unique data and model bank indispensable both for the progress of applied hydroacoustics and for solving the problems of environment control by acoustic methods. Specialists of the Institute of Acoustics, the LRPA Okeanpribor, the Kiev RI of Hydrological Instruments, the Research Institute of Electronics (RIE) of the Navy and other organizations carried out a broad range of research, full-scale tests of new engineering approaches, methods and algorithms for underwater surveillance and information processing required for development of prospective hydroacoustic systems. Besides, research ships and specialists of the Institute of Acoustics ensured preliminary sea and chief designer’s technical trials, as well as state trials at transfer to service of the major ship-mounted sonar systems. In all, 45 expeditions (including 35 expeditions on board the RS Sergei Vavilov and Petr Lebedev and 10 expeditions on board the RS Academician Nikolai Andreyev and Academician Boris Konstantinov) were carried out on the research ships of the Institute of Acoustics during the period from 1961 to 1989. In addition, 12 research expeditions on research ships were conducted with the participation of submarines and surface ships of the Navy, which served as real marine targets in the full-scale experiments and trials. Expedition research on RS’s was carried out in different regions of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans, including the Barents, Norwegian, Baltic, Okhotsk Seas, the Sea of Japan, and the Mediterranean and the Black Seas. Simultaneously with the creation of a marine and ocean experimental base under the newly organized Institute of Acoustics, construction

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of laboratory and of production systems was carried out. A metrological complex was created that included anechoic tanks, high pressure tanks, a coastal acoustical chamber, a reverberation chamber, and chambers for vibroacoustic measurements. A computer center was equipped, and experimental production and specialized departments for design and development of unique research equipment were organized. A body was formed of qualified researchers and engineering and technical personnel. The Institute was quickly filling with young specialists — graduates of higher educational establishments in Moscow, Leningrad, Gorky and other cities. In a short time it became a scientificresearch organization with a great research capability. The Institute of Acoustics, as a leading organization, was also assigned the mission of development and scientific substantiation of the principal trends and long-term programs of fundamental and applied-research work in the area of hydroacoustics and acoustics, the coordination of research work and the execution of a unified scientific research policy in the country. The Coordination Board, with quite wide powers, was organized at the Institute to undertake this activity. The Director of the Institute of Acoustics was simultaneously Chairman of the Board. The Presidium of the Board included leaders and chief engineers of LRPA Okeanpribor, Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI, CRI Kurs, Kiev RI of Hydrological Instruments, CDB Rubin, RI Atoll, RPA Uran, RPA Agat, and Northern DB. The Coordination Board promptly solved the emerging problems and discussed the most important prospective tasks of hydroacoustics, mostly related to defense problems. Thus it made a valuable contribution to the development of applied hydroacoustics and the creation and improvement of hydroacoustic systems for the Navy. Let us now consider in more detail the principal trends in fundamental and applied research carried out by the Institute in the area of hydroacoustics. 2. Theoretical Research Theoretical research in different fields of hydroacoustics was carried out on a broad scale during all periods of both the Laboratory of Acoustics of PI RAS, and the Institute of Acoustics.

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One of the main problems posed to the Institute’s theoreticians was sound propagation in the layered-inhomogeneous ocean medium. A fundamental contribution in this area was the monograph by L. M. Brekhovskikh Waves in Layered Media (first edition 1957, second edition 1973, the monograph was translated into English and reprinted abroad many times). Another monograph by L. M. Brekhovskikh and Yu. P. Lysanov, Fundamentals of Ocean Acoustics (1982), also found wide acknowledgement among the scientific community, and was later published in English by a German publishing house in three editions (1982, 1991, and 2003). A whole class of programs for computing acoustic fields in aqueous medium with account for ray reflection from the bottom and the surface was developed and improved (Yu. L. Gazaryan, V. A. Polyanskaya, V. Yu. Zavadsky, A. V. Vagin, N. Ye. Maltsev, V. V. Borodin, and V. P. Tebyakin et al.). V. Yu. Zavadsky carried out a fundamental research program on the design and development of the method of finite differences as applied to hydroacoustic problems. The work of many years by V. Yu. Zavadsky was generalized in his monographs Computing Wave Fields in Open Regions and Waveguides (1972) and The Finite Difference Method in Wave Problems of Acoustics (1982). Investigations were carried out of the theoretical problems connected with sound scattering by rough surfaces and acoustic propagation in waveguides of different types with a view toward developing methods for computing the field scattered due to a disturbed sea surface. New methods in the theory of scattering from uneven and inhomogeneous surfaces were developed: the tangent plane method (the Brekhovskikh method), which became widely used throughout the world, the integral equation method, and a two-scale scattering model. A theory of strong temporary fluctuations of acoustic signals reflected from the ocean bottom because of movement of the receiving-andradiating system was proposed. These scientific achievements formed the basis for solving a series of oceanological, hydroacoustic, and navigational problems. Theories were developed for wave propagation in aqueous medium containing discrete scatterers, scattering from periodically uneven

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surfaces and from solid uneven boundaries such as ice. A theory was developed for the case of a statistically uneven surface taking into account the scattering of successive waves along the propagation path, with its subsequent generalization to the case of a nonplanar air-sea boundary. Investigations were carried out of the field created in water by acoustic sources located in the air as applied to the noise of a helicopter or a plane (L. M. Brekhovskikh, M. A. Isakovich, Yu. P. Lysanov, A. D. Lapin, I. A. Urusovsky, B. F. Kuryanov, and Yu. L. Gazaryan). The theory was developed of ocean reverberation resulting from sound scattering from a disturbed ocean surface or bottom and from inhomogeneities in the ocean medium (Yu. M. Sukharevsky, V. V. Olshevsky). The monograph by V. V. Olshevsky Statistical Properties of Marine Reverberation was welcomed by specialists in hydroacoustics. Theories were proposed of wave scattering and the fluctuations of different wave parameters (amplitude, phase, angle of incidence, etc.) under the influence of random inhomogeneities in the medium, and the influence of fluctuations in the incident wave on the diffraction image of a focusing directional array was discussed. The results of these theoretical investigations were represented in the monograph by L. A. Chernov Wave Propagation in a Medium with Random Inhomogeneities, which was published abroad as well. This theory was generalized by V. M. Komissarov for statistically anisotropic media with account for simultaneous influence of regular and random inhomogeneities on propagation of a directional source field. Later, L. A. Chernov developed a new “local” method for computing strong field fluctuations. With the help of this method, an equation for the statistical moment of a field of any order was derived. It opened vast opportunities both in the field of general physical research and in solving specific hydroacoustic problems. One of the important directions of theoretical research was attacking the problem of sound scattering in an unbounded medium, on an elastic plate, and on a wedge. Theories were developed of wave potentials, of the transverse-diffusion method and of field diffraction for different classes of problems, including wave propagation in a layered medium (G. D. Malyuzhinets, V. V. Tyutekin). A theory of the oscillations of air cavities in rubber-like materials was developed (M. A.

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Isakovich, I. A. Chaban). All these theoretical studies served as a basis for the creation of sound-absorbing and antisonar coatings and other methods of acoustic protection of ships. A large number of theoretical investigations were carried out to address the problems of structural acoustics, that is, vibrations propagation, transmission, and dampening. Propagation of vibrations along rods with randomly located homogeneities and across complex structures, the transition of vibrations via local obstacles, and the interaction of bending and longitudinal vibrations of a ship’s hull were all investigated. The problem of oscillations of metal shells with account for losses in the critical frequency region, as well as the problem of sound transmission through a cylindrical shell and its sound-proofing were studied. The effect of medium and internal losses on propagation of vibration and the acoustic field in a cylindrical rod, a homogeneous plate, a plate with stiffeners and a three-ply plate was studied; a problem of plane wave transmission via a three- and multi-layered periodic construction with randomly undulating thicknesses was also solved. A theory of bending and longitudinal wave propagation in rods and shells and their transmission in the surrounding medium was developed. The above series of theoretical investigations on the problem of propagation of vibrations, transmission, and damping laid the foundation for practical designs and measures for acoustic protection of ships and noise-proofing of arrays of ship-mounted sonar systems. A number of fundamental theoretical developments also found direct application in shipbuilding. Theoretical research at the Institute of Acoustics along the indicated directions was carried out by groups of specialists under the scientific guidance of B. D. Tartakovsky, Yu. M. Sukharevsky, L. M. Brekhovskikh, M. A. Isakovich, G. D. Malyuzhinets, A. V. RimskyKorsakov, and L. M. Lyamshev. 3. Research in Ocean Acoustics Fundamental theoretical and experimental research in ocean medium acoustics constituted the majority of the Institute’s themes. Earlier we

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described the results of the extremely important stage of theoretical and experimental research that brought about the discovery of super longrange sound propagation over an undersea sound channel and later, the discovery of remote zones of acoustic illumination and sound focusing. In 1950, for the first time in the history of hydroacoustics, for the discovery of the effect of super long-range sound propagation in the ocean L. M. Brekhovskikh, L. D. Rozenberg and a few more workers of other institutions were awarded the State Prize of the First Degree. In those years, scientists kept to the good tradition of systematically “filling in the gaps” in studying physical phenomena. Therefore, immediately after the discovery of the undersea sound channel, theoretical and experimental research began into the problem of acoustic energy penetration into the undersea sound channel and such energy losses at arbitrary positions of acoustic receiver and source relative to the channel axis. A respective theory based on wave assumptions described above was developed by L. M. Brekhovskikh. For the first time, experiments revealed the effect of multi-path propagation of acoustic fields in the ocean. The fine angular and time structure of acoustic beams and the factors of sound focusing was investigated. The laws governing variations in propagation anomalies in the zones of acoustic illumination and in shadow zones were studied. For the first time it was established experimentally that, due to acoustical reflection from the bottom, the value of negative anomaly in the ocean shadow zones does not exceed 10–15 dB, contrary to the earlier supposed presence of a “deeper” shadow. In the same period, experimental research on the structure of acoustic fields in subsurface and bottom acoustic channels was conducted. The effect of refraction in the vertical plane on the acoustic field structure with account for sound reflection from the bottom and the sea surface under different hydrological conditions was studied. Investigations of horizontal refraction showed that it is weakly expressed and becomes noticeable in the zones of strong horizontal currents gradient only. The dependence of the level of reverberation on the depth of submersion of acoustic sources and receivers, as well as on the horizontal and vertical ranging angles under different conditions of sound refraction, was studied.

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A complex theoretical and experimental study of sound propagation in shallow water was undertaken. The laws governing the acoustic pressure drop and the phase changes of CW (harmonic) signals over distance in a broad range of frequencies and with account for the influence of the layered nature of the ocean floor were investigated. A phenomenon of a muddy bottom “softening” caused by the presence of gas bubbles due to biological processes was discovered. Hence methods were developed for evaluating sea bottom parameters both by way of direct measurements at different angles of wave incidence, and by observing the regularities in the variation of parameters of sound propagation in an ocean medium. For this purpose, a remote-controlled underwater robot was designed and built to measure the input acoustical impedance of the bottom as a function of the angle of incidence of the sound. Since sound propagation in the ocean is strongly influenced by the disturbance of the sea surface due to winds, a detailed investigation of the statistical properties of such disturbances was undertaken. Using a device for directional reception of gravity and capillary waves and a lowfrequency correlation analyzer, time-spatial, spectral, and correlation characteristics of sea surface wind disturbance were investigated. As a result of this investigation, the parameters required to account for an uneven sea surface when computing the characteristics of underwater sound propagation were determined. Experimental research was carried out on sound scattering by a disturbed sea surface, and the dependences of the scattered field on the angle of incidence of the acoustic wave, the frequency, and the scale of surface unevenness. A program of theoretical and experimental research on ocean noise caused by a disturbed sea surface was carried out. The energy and spectral characteristics of ocean noise were studied over a broad range of frequencies and a wide range of sea states. A theory of relaxational absorption of sound in seawater considered as a strong electrolyte was developed, and respective full-scale measurements were performed. It was found that there is a strong dependence of absorption on concentration of salt and the presence of plankton and other inclusions.

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The laws of variation of energy and statistical parameters of volume, surface, and seafloor reverberation versus hydrological conditions, acoustic frequency, transmission duration and directional patterns of the transmitting and receiving arrays were studied. Angular reverberation spectra were investigated. For the first time, in developing the algorithms and engineering solutions of a new shipmounted active sonar designed jointly with the Kiev RI of Hydrological Instruments, reverberation from the third remote ocean zone of acoustic illumination (third convergence zone) was measured and investigated. The characteristics of sound-scattering layers in the mass of water and their seasonal and diurnal variation in different regions of the world’s oceans were investigated. Full-scale investigation of sound scattering in limited volumes of seawater at different depths was carried out using original techniques. The energy and time characteristics of sound fluctuations over a wide range of frequencies with account for the influence of inhomogeneities in the water column, ocean bottom and surface, as well as frequency and spatial correlation of sound fluctuations were investigated. The influence of micro-inhomogeneities in seawater on sound propagation was studied. All experiments carried out in the course of sound propagation investigations were combined with hydrological, geological, and biological investigations, which themselves were of scientific and practical interest. Hydroacoustic zoning of the greater part of the world’s oceans was carried out, with account for spatial and time variability of hydrological characteristics, statistical characteristics of wind disturbance, characteristics of bottom and sound scattering by marine organisms. For the first time, bottom sediments of the Atlantic Ocean were mapped, and later, zoning was carried out over the whole of the world’s oceans. Investigations were performed of the changes in the intensity and shape of a pulsed signal after long-range propagation and also of the influence of the surface layers and underlayer bed of the ocean bottom on low-frequency sound propagation. Data on the sound reflection coefficient of the ocean bottom as a function of the angle of incidence, as well as on sound backscattering strength were obtained.

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Complex hydroacoustic investigations in the Arctic took place in 1956 in the course of high-latitude expeditions to the Arctic using driftice research stations, helicopters, and airplanes. Investigations were carried out by workers of the Institute of Acoustics in close cooperation with the Institute of the Arctic and Antarctic, CRI Morfizpribor, Kiev RI of Hydrological Instruments and RIE of the Navy. The characteristics of under-ice sound propagation were studied for paths from 500 to 2500 km in length both in the central, deep regions of the Arctic basin and in shallow water, including the Kara Sea. In the course of experimental research on under-ice sound propagation, the significant influence of sound scattering by the lower surface of the ice covering was established for the first time. The laws of signal reduction and the values for under-ice sound propagation anomalies were discovered; the vertical structure of the acoustic field; sound attenuation anisotropy connected with the peculiarities of ice hummocking; signal statistical characteristics as a function of distance from source, source submersion depth and acoustic receiver location depth were defined. Data on fluctuations and spatial correlations of these signals were gathered. With the use of an under-ice measuring system, investigations were carried out of the input acoustic impedance of the lower surface of ice covering as a function of acoustic frequency and angle of incidence, as well as the influence of the covering of snow on this impedance. As a result, frequency characteristics of components of the complex coefficient of sound reflection by an ice covering were determined. Experimental data on sound propagation in the ice mass itself were gathered. In the regions of the Kara Sea, acoustic characteristics of the Arctic bottom were investigated with the help of an acoustic robot lowered from a hole in the ice to the ocean bottom. Investigation was carried out of under-ice reverberation and under-ice noise. In recent years, within the scope of the international project ATOC, the Institute of Acoustics participated in an international experiment on super long-range, low-frequency (57 Hz) sound propagation. With the use of the receiving systems of RS Academician Nikolai Andreyev located in the region of the Canary basin of the Atlantic Ocean, signals were received from an American ship off Heard Island in the Indian

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Ocean at a distance of about 10 000 km. In general, this large-scale hydroacoustic experiment demonstrated to the world community the opportunity for establishing a global acoustic system for monitoring climatic and the ecological equilibrium of the planet. The Institute, jointly with American and Canadian scientists, participates in the development of the methods of hydroacoustic monitoring of the Arctic for predicting climatic change on the Earth. With this purpose, the change of the structure of hydroacoustic signals that have propagated under-ice along extended (up to 2500 km) trans-Arctic paths is being investigated, and characteristics of the sound are being revealed, which may prove to be sensitive to minor changes in water temperature or a thinning of the coat of ice. In conclusion, we would like to note that underwater sound propagation was studied mainly at long distances in the low-audio frequency range, and this was determined by the needs for the development of prospective sonar equipment. Based on the results of sophisticated research on sound propagation done at the Institute of Acoustics in collaboration with RIE of the Navy, recommendations were worked out on rational use of hydroacoustic systems for submarines and surface ships and the secret maneuvering of submarines. These recommendations were further used by the naval specialists to prepare manuals on combat operation of hydroacoustic systems and tactics of ships in important operational regions of the world’s oceans. The results of this research by the Institute of Acoustics formed the basis for the transition to a new generation of hydroacoustic systems having longer operating ranges. The great amount of experimental material accumulated by the Institute of Acoustics in researching sound propagation in the seas and oceans was generalized in the fundamental publication Ocean Acoustics edited by L. M. Brekhovskikh. One of the most important results of the complex investigation of underwater sound propagation was the creation of scientifically justified physical models of acoustic fields and the principal laws of their formation in deep and shallow regions of the world’s oceans. Recent research carried out at the Institute of Acoustics was aimed at clarifying the physical models of the acoustics of seas and oceans

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and development of methods for predicting the energy and statistical characteristics of acoustic fields as applied to concrete standard conditions. In the period of military conversion, along with continuation and development of complex research on underwater sound propagation for the needs of the Navy, the Institute of Acoustics began targeted research and development work in the area of undersea sounds for civil applications. The Institute of Acoustics develops the methods and systems for acoustical monitoring of oceans, seas, and internal bodies of water of Russia for ecology diagnostics and environment monitoring, the prediction of anomalous natural phenomena, and the prevention of catastrophic consequences of the influence of anthropogenic factors on the planet. Research is being done and methods proposed of detection and location of epicenters of earthquakes and the prediction of a tsunami based on analysis of the characteristics of acoustic fields in the ocean. Hydroacoustic methods are being investigated and developed for application in the exploration and utilization of mineral and biological resources of the world’s oceans. Research and development work on ocean acoustics was carried out by a large group of workers of the Institute of Acoustics. Concrete research work was done under the scientific guidance of L. M. Brekhovskikh, Yu. M. Sukharevsky, V. S. Grigoryev, L. D. Rozenberg, M. A. Isakovich, F. I. Kryazhev, N. A. Petrov, O. P. Galkin, A. V. Furduyev, Yu. P. Lysanov, L. M. Lyamshev, O. P. Glotov, V. I. Mazepov, Ye. P. Masterov, N. S. Ageyeva, A. L. Sosedova, G. I. Priimak, E. P. Guslin, Yu. Yu. Zhitkovsky, S. D. Chuprov, I. B. Andreyeva, R. F. Shvachko, K. D. Sabinin, A. V. Il’in, V. I. Volovov, R. A. Vadov, and V. A. Zhuravlyov. 4. Work in the Area of Sound Reception and Transmission, Acoustic Transducer Research The first fundamental and exploratory research into the problems of sound reception and transmission in hydroacoustics began at the Laboratory of Acoustics of PI RAS after discovery of the piezoelectric properties of polarized barium titanate. This research work received further

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development and direction toward practical application at the Institute. The spherical and cylindrical acoustic receivers designed and built at the Institute later found wide application in hydroacoustic devices. In recent years, the first powerful circular sectoral low-frequency piezoceramic source having 30-kW peak power was designed, manufactured, and tested. These piezoceramic acoustic receiver and source designs marked the beginning of intensive work at other research and industrial institutions on the creation of measuring piezoceramic acoustic receivers and powerful transducers for sonar arrays thus ensuring longrange operation. The CRI Morfizpribor became the leading organization for work in this area. The Institute of Acoustics started investigating the prospects of using magnetostrictive ferrites as a material for sonar transducers. The Institute began investigation of lead niobate, sodium niobate, and leadtitanate based piezoelectric materials. Later, investigations were carried out of lead circonate-titanate (LCT) based piezomaterials. Work on the technology of LCT ceramics production was done, which led to recommendations on the use of such improved-efficiency piezomaterials as the starting point for engineering new piezoelectric sonar transducers. Deep-sea piezoceramic higher-response acoustic receivers with hydrostatic pressure compensators were designed. Receivers of sturdy multilayer structure requiring no compensation were designed. Methods were developed for the design of low-frequency sources using a two-circuit linked system. A sound source was created that included plate vibrators with water-filled narrow slits. By varying the width of the slit the principle of volume velocity conversion was realized, as well as smooth tuning of the operating frequency within a broad range. Theoretical and experimental research was carried out on gradient and supergradient sonar transducers over a wide range of audio frequencies, and on transducers operating by using the traveling-wave principle. The problem of the limitation of the power density of electroacoustic sources because of cavitation, important for sonar transducers of surface ships, required a new approach to transducer design. A series

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of investigations was carried out into the principles of electroacoustical transformation with the help of electric-spark discharge in water and the blasting of explosive charges, as well as pulsed electrodynamic transmitters. Grouped cavitation-free transmitters with different spatial and time distributions of explosion-type sources were investigated. A mock-up sonar was designed and built with an electric discharge transmitter and trials were carried out at sea. Experiments confirmed the theoretical estimates. However, the limitations on service life of electric dischargers in water prevented their being put into service at that time. The results of research and design work on electrochemical explosive acoustic sources for the needs of sound ranging found practical application. In the course of investigation of magnetostrictive transducers from permendur, nickel, and ferrites, a technology was developed for ensuring sufficiently high efficiency of transmitters. As investigations have shown, ultrasonic technology presents an optimal area of application of ferrite transducers, where they provide an increase in efficiency by several times, reduced weight and dimensions. Their use led to a number of new technologies. Jointly with the Priboy Plant, sonar arrays with ferrite transducers were designed for fishing equipment. The array trials showed their advantage over arrays employing nickel-based transducers. The Institute of Acoustics also carried out research and development of broad-band rotor-type transmitters with electrodynamic drives. The rotor-type transmitters operate over a wide range of acoustic and ultrasonic frequencies and with emission power varying from several watts to 70 kW. They found wide application in investigations of sound propagation in the ocean. Rotor-type transmitters were also used in the design of a high-frequency hydroacoustic sweep. Based on analysis of ship noise data, several variants of high-frequency sweeps using rotor-type transmitters were proposed. These transmitters were used also as imitators of submarine noise. Development of a pneumatic-type infrasonic transmitter was also carried out. Later, parametric transmitters and receivers employing nonlinear acoustic phenomena appeared. Experimental research conducted in the Pacific Ocean with the use of these transmitters at ranges up to

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several hundred kilometers showed good prospects for their practical application. A principally new direction in the area of acoustic transducers is the recent research and development work carried out at the Institute on low-frequency transmitters consisting of an exciter and a section of a water-filled metal tube with thin flexible walls. Tests of prototype low-frequency transmitters of this design have shown their applicability and point to the need for continuing work in this direction. In the 1970s, large-scale research into the application of lasers and the achievements of fiber optics in creating principally new “virtual” acoustic sources and fiber optic hydrophones and arrays was started under the supervision of the Institute. Theoretical and experimental investigations of sound excitation by lasers in water were performed, and different mechanisms for such excitation considered. In the course of full-scale trials it was established that a laser mounted on a helicopter may, under conditions of real water disturbance, generate acoustic signals of large amplitude in the water. These “virtual” acoustic sources have controllable characteristics. For the first time in home engineering, fiber optic hydrophones and distributed fiber optic arrays were designed. This work was carried out with the active participation by the staff of the Institute of General Physics of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and the Faculty of Physics of the Moscow State University. Recently, Institute specialists carried out investigation and research into new electromechanically active materials (composite materials, elastomers, liquid crystals, etc.) presenting a basis for future development of methods of electroacoustic power conversion. The results of such investigations will lead to a new generation of efficient acoustic transmitters and sound receivers with preset parameters to be applied in hydroacoustics, and for the purposes of intensifying different production processes, in geological prospecting, medicine, environmental control, and diagnostics. Research and development work on the problem of sound reception and transmission at the Institute of Acoustics were carried out under the supervision of N. N. Andreyev, V. S. Grigoryev, A. A. Ananyeva, N. A. Roy, I. P. Polyanina, L. M. Lyamshev, V. A. Pirogov, O. A. Kapustina, V. A. Zakharov.

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5. Investigation of Primary Acoustic Fields and Acoustic Protection of Surface Ships and Submarines Knowledge of noise transmission by surface ships and submarines is necessary for developing methods of passive hydroacoustic detection and ranging (direct-listening), and for the acoustic protection of ships. The spectral and angular characteristics of the noise transmission by many classes of surface ships and submarines were investigated under real ocean conditions. The directional characteristics of the vessels’ noise transmissions were found to consist of a multi-lobe structure in the horizontal and vertical planes over a wide range of frequencies, including the infrasonic and low frequencies ranges. Simultaneously, ship hull vibrations and the mutual correlation of the ship’s noise due to its own movement with these vibrations were studied. Measurements of both the acoustic pressure and the three spatial components of the oscillation rate were made in the ship’s near-field. The use of mutual correlation methods helped to reveal the sources of low-frequency noises and vibrations. For the first time the presence in the ship’s noise spectrum of low-frequency discrete components forming harmonic scales caused by the operation of engines and machinery and the ship’s hull vibrations was discovered. This discovery greatly influenced further development of methods for hydroacoustic object detection and classification and acoustic protection. Simultaneously with experimental research, noises and vibrations were investigated on large-scale ship models. In 1958, rigorous mathematical substantiation of the principle of reciprocity in acoustics was made, and a theorem of reciprocity, establishing the relation between primary and secondary acoustic fields, was formulated. This served as a basis for development of new methods of investigation of the primary fields (self-noise fields) of planned lownoise submarines. Full-scale and test-range investigation of primary fields with the application of the reciprocity method were carried out. Investigations were undertaken aimed at solving the problems of the response of passive mine-torpedo weapons to a ship’s acoustic field. For the first time the possibilities of reducing a ship’s hull vibrations, and therefore, underwater noise were studied through the use of special vibration-damping coatings applied on a ship’s hull plating.

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A theory of multi-layer plates and metal structure damping, with account for framing influence, was developed. The first vibrationabsorbing structures were created, tested experimentally, and applied. This work was carried out jointly with the Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI and CRI of Plastics. Comprehensive full-scale trials of the efficiency of the newly-designed vibration-absorbing plating on a surface ship showed that, on average, use of coatings reduced vibrations and noise by a factor of one hundred. The value of using coatings on submarine hulls and machine elements of ships was thus proved. Multi-layer vibration-damping coatings and structures were also investigated and developed. Later, the Institute of Acoustics and the Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI carried out broad-scale research and development in the area of creating combined noise-suppressing and vibration-damping coatings and structures, which were then adopted in shipbuilding practice. Investigations began on mechanisms for vibration-proofing and the reduction of vibrations of hull elements by the use of active methods. A principle of a combined passive system by cushioning foundation structures and design of an active shock-absorber with electromechanical coupling was proposed. The methods of active vibration damping received further development. In the same period theoretical and experimental development of water–air or special liquid–air resonator meant for reducing transmission from a ship’s propeller or hull of the discrete components of infrasonic and low-frequency ranges was carried out. Research and development work in this direction were performed by a large body of specialists of the Institute of Acoustics under the supervision of V. S. Grigoryev, Yu. M. Sukharevsky, A. V. RimskyKorsakov, B. D. Tartakovsky, L. M. Lyamshev, V. P. Lesunovsky, Ye. P. Masterov, and V. V. Tyutekin. 6. Investigation of Secondary Acoustic Fields and Work to Reduce the Level of Echo Signals from Surface Ships and Submarines As discussed above, the first research into active hydroacoustic ranging began in the 1940s in the Pacific Ocean and the Black Sea. Creation of the Sukhumi Experimental Base and the presence of research ships

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allowed the Institute of Acoustics to initiate extended full-scale investigations of sound reflection from submarines and surface ships. As a result, the characteristics of the signals reflected from a ship’s hull and wake with respect to sounding signal parameters and the transmission angle were determined. The effect of screening the ship’s hull by a sheet of bubbles, especially at trans-critical speeds, where cavitation develops, was established. A fluctuation model of the formation of hydrodynamic cavitation was developed and tested physically. Investigations of sound reflection by flexible plates and shells were carried out. As a result of such investigations, along with the effect of nonspecular sound reflection by a plate due to the presence of refracting waves, a new type of nonspecular reflection caused by excitation of longitudinal waves in the plate was discovered. Experimental research on nonspecular sound reflection at sea was carried out on large-scale mock-ups of cylindrical and spherical shells, and its role in the formation of far fields of submarines was disclosed. It was found that in many realistic situations, the far fields of submarines and surface ships have their origins in nonspecular reflection, particularly at low frequencies. This leads to an abrupt increase in target power and cannot be removed by the traditional methods of vibration damping and absorbing. Together with studies of the effects of sound reflection from marine objects, research and development of antisonar coatings for submarines began. Theoretical investigation of the acoustic properties of spherical cavities in rubber-like medium was carried out. Initially, four types of resonance coatings for submarines were proposed: (i) absorbing for strong hulls; (ii) transmitting and (iii) semi-transmitting for light hulls; (iv) double transmitting for double light hulls, where the semi-transmitting coating included use of a sound-screening coating on the light hull back side which served as a prototype for future sound-proofing and sound-screening coatings, which later found broad application. Work was carried out jointly with the A. N. Krylov CRI. The next stage was investigation and creation of nonresonance antisonar coatings efficiently reducing both sound reflections from the ship’s hull and noise transmission by the ship. In this work, the theory of coatings with flare channels and their computation by the admittancehodograph method received further development. A theory of sound

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diffraction by channels in rubber-type medium was proposed, and angular dependence of sound absorption by flare channels was studied. An experimental lot of coating material was manufactured and applied to a submarine that participated in full-scale trials in the area of the Sukhumi Station. Experiments showed that, beside good antisonar properties, nonresonance flare coating possesses sound-proofing and vibration-damping properties. Thus a single coating was designed that combined the properties of protecting against active and passive ranging. Further investigations and development of combined coatings were aimed at their improvement by reducing dependence on static pressure and temperature and by expanding the working frequency range. Coatings of a principally new type, cavity-free with rigid inclusions, were investigated and developed. The theoretical basis and methods of computation of the protective effect of the coating, that is, the effect of reducing the ranges of active and passive sonar systems were developed, depending on conditions of sound propagation in the ocean medium, the laws of expansion of the wavefront in the presence of refraction, the law of sound attenuation and origin of the prevailing interferences (noise or reverberation). Estimates made with the use of these methods showed good agreement with the results of full-scale trials on submarines. Research and development work in this direction were carried out at the Institute of Acoustics under the supervision of Yu. M. Sukharevsky, V. S. Grigoryev, V. I. Il’ichev, M. A. Isakovich, G. D. Malyuzhinets, V. V. Tyutekin, L. M. Lyamshev, Yu. B. Upadyshev, and N. S. Ageyeva. 7. Work on Hydroacoustic Classification of Marine Objects In the course of full-scale investigation of the noise radiated from surface ships and submarines, characteristic features of their noise spectra were revealed including discrete components in the low frequency range, which potentially could be used as an identifying feature in detection and classification. This gave rise to a special research program into the problem of classification at the Institute of Acoustics. In the process of further experiments, screw shaft and blade harmonic

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scales (the so-called “rpm sound”), as well as spectra relating to the function of the other ship’s equipment were revealed. The possibility of defining such parameters of the observed object as the number of screw shafts and blades, propeller rpm, nature of maneuvering, etc., using the low-frequency spectrum was established. A method of visual representation of the low-frequency spectrum was developed and the first vizualizer designed (similar to a visible speech analyzer). Autocorrelation and mutual correlation characteristics of noise signals and their relation to a ship’s propeller operation and its hull vibrations were investigated. An interrelation between infrasonic spectral envelopes was established, as well as the dependence of these spectral correlations on submarine depth. For the first time high-resolution methods of spectral analysis of a ship’s noise were developed based on time compression, a technique which later became common. A method based on a system of signs for comparing discrete spectra of noises and vibrations with the use of a scalar product of multi-dimensional vectors as a criterion of spectra similarity was developed. For the first time, modulation phenomena in a ship’s radiated noise in the acoustic frequency range were investigated. Features of noise spectrum at acoustic frequencies and their relation to the effect of cavitation were studied. “Cavitation peaks” in the noise spectrum were found that depended on the critical speeds and submarine dive depth. The statistical dependence of the above characteristics on screw rpm was determined. The spectral and correlation characteristics of noise signals of submarines and surface ships were studied at long distances with a view toward revealing distortions in the signal time and spectral structure after propagation and the effect of such distortions on the stability of classification characteristics. Based on joint analysis of the continuous spectrum and the discrete components forming harmonics of the noise transmission, classification methods were formulated for differentiating between vessels. For a number of differentiation criteria, stability in relation to changes in speeds and angular aspect was determined. It was shown, based on the results of investigations of amplitude modulation of acoustic noises, that modulation phenomena are observed for all objects not only at speeds of cavitation and in the

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frequency range close to the frequency of the cavitation peak, but also at subcavitation speeds and practically in the whole range of acoustic frequencies. A new earlier unknown effect of “frequency tone” of the modulation field of the noise radiated by submarines and surface ships was discovered. As a result of this research, a set of characteristic features for identification of surface ships and submarines was established. The Institute of Acoustics participated in the work of research organizations of the Navy aimed at revealing spectral features of identification, present in the low-frequency noise transmissions and the low-frequency modulation of noise in the acoustic range of foreign submarines. As a result of these investigations, certain differences were found in noise transmission, particularly between American and Russian submarines having similar missions. These differences were taken into account in further selection of the most useful classification features and in developing target classification algorithms. The results of investigation and analysis of frequency composition of discrete spectra and its linking with the functioning of the ship’s main and auxiliary machines and engines revealed certain classification features characteristic of submarines with diesel-electric and nuclear power plants, as well as the classification features of acoustic transmission of ships equipped with adjustable propellers. Thus the initial task of identification of only two classes of craft, submarines and surface ships evolved into a problem of multi-class classification of marine objects within the two main classes. Classification features based on spectral characteristics of noise transmission by objects were later supplemented by a number of the so-called “indirect” and integral features connected with the peculiarities of noise propagation. Complex algorithms of identification were developed, optimized, and computer-simulated with the use of real records of noises carrying complete sets of features obtained in complex physical investigations. Development of automatic methods of object identification ensuring high probability of multi-class classification was initiated. Algorithms for object identification based on application of linear and brokenline solution rules by stochastic parameter search, as well as the iteration algorithm for defining parameters for separating hyperplanes were studied.

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A classification algorithm was developed based on the use of differences in the distribution function of the spectral density of infrasonic noise of different objects as a realization of a random process, as well as on discrimination in the basic cycle of changes in instantaneous values of low-frequency noise. Algorithms for minimization of informative description of hydroacoustic signals were developed with the purpose of formulating identification rules. The method of multi-parametric classification was applied in different modifications of the algorithm of multi-class identification; the algorithm based on the method of standard fragmentation and the algorithm of taxonomy. Special computer software was designed for preliminary statistical processing of initial signals. Algorithm developments were translated to working software and used in designing classifiers. Investigations on classification by echo signals from submarines and surface ships were initiated. Acoustic characteristics of targets and their wakes as sound reflectors were investigated. Simultaneously spectral and correlation characteristics of marine reverberation were studied. Doppler spectra of echo signals were investigated, and the possibility was established of object classification by spectral characteristics of echo signals. The spectral-time properties of echo signals from submarines and surface ships were investigated, and generalized signs of classification by echo signals revealed. Computer imitation modeling of surface ships and submarines with the use of the standard fragmentation algorithm and the parametric identification algorithm was carried out. Modeling results were found satisfactory. However, classification was performed mainly by the presence or absence of cavitation due to the movement of the vessel. The methods of statistical object identification were investigated. As a result of analysis of this method, a phenomenological approach to the construction of classification procedures was selected based on the use of mathematical models and methods of multidimensional statistical analysis. Initial sonar signal parameterization was performed within the framework of spectral-time representations. For the construction of a technique for solution, use was made of the linear discriminant analysis and nonparametric nearest-neighbor methods.

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In experimental testing of the methods, attention was paid to the case of tone-pulse signals. Automatic detecting devices were simulated using computers, and tests carried out on real signals recorded in conditions of the Black Sea (Sukhumi Station) and the Atlantic Ocean (during expeditions by research ships of the Institute of Acoustics). Further work was aimed at solving the problem of multi-class identification of marine objects by echo signals and “indirect” sign discrimination based on features of echo signal propagation from a marine object to the sonar’s receiving array. A special place in the work of the Acoustic Institute was assigned to bionic investigations and investigations of subjective classification of marine objects by the sound they emit and by signals reflected from them. The methods of information processing by human and animal hearing analyzers both at the level of the entire hearing system and by single hearing receptor neurons were investigated. The characteristics of human perception of amplitude and frequency modulation of tone and noise signals were investigated, and methods developed for infrasonic signal presentation to sonar operators to perform their subjective classification. The results of these investigations were used to find rational ways for information presentation for a sonar operator’s subjective classification of noises and signals reflected from marine objects. Signs of noises from marine objects and echo signals from them used by operators in their subjective classification were determined, and the physical structure of these signs were revealed in the interests of creating a system for automatic classification. In the course of investigations of Black Sea dolphin sonars, the characteristics of its radiating and receiving systems were determined. The ability of a dolphin’s echo locator to detect and identify different smallsize objects and the mechanisms of adaptation to the changing signal and noise situation were studied. Physical and mathematical models of dolphin echo locators were developed. An experimental hypothesis was developed and confirmed the existence of two subsystems of sound perception in dolphins. These two subsystems are a traditional one for outside sound perception and a second specifically for analysis

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of high-frequency signals. The monograph by N. A. Dubrovsky and V. M. Belkovich The Sensory Basis of Orientation in Cetaceans (1976) summarized research in this direction. This research was completed in the mid-1970s. Development of practical classification algorithms and their incorporation in the respective modes of operation of sonar systems was carried out by the Institute, jointly with CRI Morfizpribor, the Kiev RI of Hydrological Instruments, and RIE of the Navy. The research and development work on marine object classification by their radiated sound and echo signals was carried out at the Institute, its Sukhumi and Northern branches by a large body of workers under the scientific guidance of V. S. Grigoryev, Yu. M. Sukharevsky, N. A. Dubrovsky, A. N. Chernov, V. I. Il’ichev, V. P. Lesunovsky, L. F. Bondar, G. N. Kuznetsov, V. V. Olshevsky, E. P. Gulin, V. A. Baranov, Ye. P. Masterov, and N. N. Omelchenko. 8. Work on Sonar Communication Efficient interaction between submerged submarines and between a submerged submarine and a surface ship depends to a great extent on the reliability and operation range of sonar communication systems. In the last few decades, the Institute of Acoustics has played a leading role in investigations of hydroacoustic modes of communication and the development of the basic scientific principles of sonar communication systems. In the post-war years, underwater telephone and telegraph communication was subjected to refinement with the purpose of increasing the communication range. Selecting an optimal frequency range and then increasing the power capability of the earlier communication lines solved this task. Later, based on studies of the properties of the hydroacoustic channel, operating frequency ranges and types of acoustic signal modulation were reasonably selected to create identification (“friend-or-foe”) systems and systems for discrete information transfer. In particular, transition took place from tone telegraph signals to multi-frequency combinations, and then, to special signals with a complex structure. Such signals with high spreading ratio — the product of signal frequency band and duration — were introduced into

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the sonar communication systems practically simultaneously with their introduction into radio-location and radio communication systems. Later, the Institute of Acoustics conducted special research on the sonar communication channel as a channel with randomly time-varying parameters. Multiple measurements of statistical characteristics of channel parameter fluctuations and distortions of complex acoustic signals for multi-path propagation over large distances were carried out in different areas of the world’s oceans. For information transmission in shallow seas, the effect of rough sea surface and bottom unevenness on characteristics of the communication signal was studied. Based on these investigations, methods of transmission of complex acoustic communication signals, adaptable to propagation conditions, were developed. The adaptation algorithms for signal processing recommended by the Institute made possible the creation of a modern digital, adaptable hydroacoustic system for information transmission. In the 1970s, investigations were initiated aimed at creating an unconventional laser-sonar communication channel between aircraft (or spacecraft) and a deep-submergence submarine. Successful fullscale trials of prototype equipment for this communication channel were carried out on the White Sea. In recent years, research and development work in the area of sonar communication was carried out by the Institute in conformity with the national economy tasks. One such extremely important task carried out under the subprogram “Acoustics” within the scope of the special Federal program “Russian Shipyards” is the development of the principles of construction of competitive high-rate systems of digital sonar communication systems for manned underwater vehicles. Investigations into the methods of sonar communication were carried out at the Institute of Acoustics by bodies of specialists under the scientific guidance of E. P. Gulin, V. P. Kodanev, and L. M. Lyamshev. 9. Reducing Sonar Noise Theoretical and experimental research into the influence of hydroacoustic noise on the operation of moving sonar systems and into

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methods for its reduction was carried out at the Institute of Acoustics jointly with the A. N. Krylov CRI. The processes of origination and distribution of the noise field in moving sonar array domes generated by engines and other ship’s mechanisms, as well as noises from turbulence, cavitation and vibration, were studied. The action of pressure pulses on the dome in various frequency ranges was studied. Also the influence of pulses emerging at vortice separation in the boundary layer was studied. With the appearance of nuclear-powered submarines, the speed of movement increased considerably. It was established that at speeds exceeding the so-called critical value, sonar noise has a hydrodynamic origin being mainly caused by the dome’s hydrodynamic noises. In the late 1950–1960s, a low-noise hydrodynamic channel (at the Volzhskaya Research Station) and a surfacing device (at the Sukhumi Research Station) were built. The latter was used for studying hydroacoustic noise on sonar dome mock-ups at sea. Multiple full-scale investigations were carried out relevant to the sonars installed on submarines. A theory of hydrodynamic flow noise was developed, the character of noise sources was determined and an acoustic hydrodynamic resonance of a dome shell was detected. A method for eliminating this resonance by way of application of a vibration-damping coating on the dome was developed and proposed. Coatings for sonar array shells and array chambers were designed. Investigations were carried out and a structure was proposed for laminar vibration-damping coatings with high sound-transmitting capacity for sonar dome shells reducing vibration interference and hydrodynamic noise. Wedge-type flared coatings were designed. They featured a low boundary frequency and comparatively small weight and were meant for acoustic protection of a ship’s sonar array enclosures and for use in hydroacoustic measuring tanks. Basically new data were obtained on the influence of roughness of the dome’s surface on hydrodynamic noise intensity. Criteria were formulated establishing the relationships between an admissible degree of roughness of the dome, the ship’s motion parameters, and the frequency of oscillations. It was determined that to reduce array noise, it is advisable to consider the array elements and the sonar carrier surface as a single

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entity. For the first time, systematic study of flow noise was undertaken under conditions of a controlled boundary layer by way of boundary layer suction or by introducing polymer additives. The latter was found most efficient, because, along with hydrodynamic noise, it reduced hydrodynamic resistance as well. The effect of the submarine sonar array dome design on the level of hydroacoustic noise was determined. Theoretical and experimental investigations of hydrodynamic noise emerging from the domes of towed sonar arrays were carried out. This permitted an improved design for these domes. First mock-up, and then full-scale research into propeller noise transmission of low-frequency discrete components in pre-cavitation and cavitation modes was carried out. The effect on noise reduction by air or other gas inflowing in the propeller zone was studied. The influence of cutouts, flood ports, gratings and other submarine hull structural elements on the acoustic noise levels was studied. As a result of many-years’ research carried out at the Institute of Acoustics, A. N. Krylov CRI, CRI Morfizpribor and other organizations, the most efficient designs of sonar array domes were developed and brought into operation on ships. Research into hydroacoustic noise and the methods of its reduction was carried out at the Institute of Acoustics by groups of workers under the scientific guidance of V. S. Grigoryev, Yu. M. Sukharevsky, A. V. Rimsky-Korsakov, L. M. Lyamshev, and V. V. Tyutekin.

10. Investigations in the Field of Passive and Active Submarine Sound Ranging Sophisticated research into the methods of passive and active submarine sound ranging were initially conducted at the Laboratory of Acoustics of PI RAS and later refined at the Institute of Acoustics. Outfitting of the Sukhumi Research Station and the specialized research ships of the Institute with unique experimental equipment became a turning-point in the development of advanced hydroacoustic investigations; particularly, investigations and development of methods for active and passive sound ranging. The task was to work out the

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scientific principles of the prospective ship-mounted sonar systems and to ensure scientific support for their engineering. One of the important directions was the investigation into the correlation methods for direct-listening based on the work by V. I. Veksler and Ye. L. Feinberg, which was further developed by S. G. Gershman. The result was the creation of the first home-designed submarine sonar display. The work was carried out jointly with the CRI Morfizpribor. Research into the principles of design and development of a correlation, direct-listening system mock-up was carried out at the Institute. After successful sea trials, the Institute, jointly with the Vodtranspribor Plant, designed the first prototype correlation direct-listening system. It was put into service. Further investigations in this area were aimed at detailed study of the correlation properties of acoustic signals under ocean conditions with a view toward optimizing direct-listening methods. To provide for experimental marine research, the methods of temporal compression of hydroacoustic signals and construction of correlation analyzers operating on a real-time basis were developed. Correlators with a ferrite-based two-channel signal compressor, and a hydroacoustic signal compressor utilizing an ultrasonic delay line were investigated and developed. Results of experimental research in the Pacific, in the region of Kamchatka, established, for the first time, a strong correlation of signal wavefronts at propagation distances up to 1000 km. This served as a precondition for further design of large-size sonar arrays to be incorporated into long-range passive sonar systems. In addition, analysis of the correlation structure of signals propagating under conditions of an underwater sound path and a shore wedge helped to disclose the influence of multi-path sound propagation. This influence is noticeable in the design and optimization of the parameters describing a passive sonar system. The CRI Morfizpribor, with scientific guidance provided by the Institute, used the results of this research in the development of the long-range, stationary, passive sonar Agam. A program of theoretical and experimental research into methods of noise reception and processing with account for multi-path

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sound propagation was carried out at the Institute. Algorithms were developed maximizing the accuracy of passive sonar operation and determining the target movement parameters at various signal-to-noise ratios for a multi-path signal. The possibilities of determining the distance to noise-generating targets and the depth of their submersion with the application of the ray method were investigated. The triangulation technique for determining co-ordinates of a noise-generating target was studied. Special attention was focused on automation of the processes by computer-aided ranging. Investigations continued and developed in the infrasonic and lowaudio frequencies range, including discrete components in the noise spectrum of vessels for passive ranging over large distances in the ocean. Proof was given of the noticeable advantage of the infrasonic frequency range in detecting the submarines of the time by their movement at subcritical speeds over the opportunities for their detection by the noise they made in the audio-frequency range. Experimental research on noise and other factors affecting the detection range and the accuracy of target location determination was carried out. The influence of anisotropy in the noise field in the vertical plane and of the random nature of spectral parameters on the range of detection was studied. The results of these investigations served as a basis for the design of a stationary passive submarine detection system with a range exceeding the capabilities of the then available direct-listening equipment by an order of magnitude. Beside target detection, the new system provided for plotting the target location in real-time. The first experimental research into active methods of sound ranging was carried out with the use of the standard sonars for surface ships and submarines then available. The need to initiate new research into active sound ranging was connected with the creation of hydroacoustic equipment for the detection of high-speed submarines with antisonar coating that protected them from antisubmarine surface ships. This research was carried out by the Institute of Acoustics in co-operation with the CRI Morfizpribor, the A. N. Krylov CRI and CRI Gidropribor. To this aim an experimental sonar with a variabledepth towed array was designed. This sonar operated in a frequency

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range lower than the one commonly used at that time, and employed a composite sounding signal. For the first time a towing device with a tow cable and means for reducing its vibration while moving was developed. The experimental sonar was installed on a destroyer, and its full-scale trials took place on the Black Sea where use was made of the new equipment at the Sukhumi Station. Marine trials demonstrated the sonar’s high efficiency in detecting submarines at ship speeds of up to 22 knots. The need for employing lower working frequencies in active ranging was proved experimentally and it was shown also that the reverberation power decreases with decreasing frequency. In the process of full-scale trials, sources of noise on the towing device were revealed, and, particularly, for the first time in hydroacoustical practice, vibration-damping coating was applied in such experiments. The investigations that were carried out served as a scientific basis for D&D work done at the Kiev RI of Hydrological Instruments on creating a sonar with a towed array for series-produced antisubmarine surface ships. This sonar successfully passed state trials and was put in service by the Navy. Towed arrays found practical application in all subsequent sonar systems for surface ships. With the use of the new equipment of the Sukhumi Station and specialized research ships, full-scale research into direct submarine ranging under ocean conditions was carried out, with simultaneous study of sound propagation. The first experiments on ranging of operational submarines in remote ocean regions were carried out jointly with the Kiev RI of Hydrological Instruments that provided mock-up equipment and arrays of the ship-mounted sonar systems then under development. New methods of submarine sound ranging were investigated. The possibility of ranging with the use of explosive acoustic sources was confirmed experimentally. Investigations were carried out of sonars with continuous quasi-noise transmission and cyclic modulation frequency. A mutual-correlation method was developed for reflected signal discrimination by comparison with the transmission replica.

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Jointly with the CRI Morfizpribor, full-scale experiments on echo ranging with the help of a mock-up mutual-correlation range finder were carried out. This work involved application of quasi-noise transmission and the then-developed method of direct signal suppression. As a result, the practical efficiency of the mutual-correlation method in ranging to reflecting objects was demonstrated. In co-operation with the CRI Morfizpribor, the efficiency of submarine echo ranging with the help of a mock-up ranging sonar using a frequency-modulated signal, as compared with a common pulse sonar, was investigated experimentally. It was found that the frequencymodulation method is essentially equivalent to the pulse method in terms of reverberation noise, both ensuring the same distance resolution, but under conditions of prevailing noise, it has considerable advantages over the pulse method. For the first time, the human operator as a signal-detecting system was studied. The operator’s capability to meet different statistical criteria in making decisions, such as Neumann–Pierson, the ideal observer, and other criteria, was evaluated. By introducing a matrix of losses due to faulty decisions, the minimum false alarm probability supported by the operator in signal detection was determined. Experimental investigation of human operator characteristics in a sonar signal detection system in the presence of noise of different origin was carried out, and problems with the use of an operator in multi-channel and multialternative systems were studied. The principles of Doppler filtration were investigated in detail, particularly, the efficiency of circuits for long-pulse active ranging with Doppler frequency separation. The problem of echo ranging in circular-scanning systems with long-pulse, electric-discharge, continuous frequency-modulated and noise transmission was investigated. The principle of sounding signal type optimization was developed. The opportunities provided by the use of explosive acoustic sources in submarine ranging were studied. Experiments were carried out on estimating the acoustic characteristics of small charges (several grams) and single linear (chain) charges. A method of sound ranging with the use of explosive charges exploded at a considerable distance was proposed. Jointly with the Kiev RI of Hydrological Instruments, ways of

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creating airborne hydroacoustic systems for detecting low-noise submarines with the use of explosive acoustic sources were thoroughly studied. Feasibility was proven of using sound energy reflected from the seafloor in submarine sound ranging. A method for sound ranging to bottom-mounted mines with the use of broad-band transmissions with noise, multi-frequency and frequency-modulated transmissions, and a method for sound ranging to moving torpedoes with the use of multi-frequency transmissions and bell-shaped pulses with Doppler filtration were proposed and investigated. The search for hydroacoustic transmitters for sound transmission of high power density was an important aspect of investigations into long-range submarine ranging. The problems of restriction of the acoustic sources due to cavitation necessitated investigating into the effect of the cavitation strength of seawater under natural conditions at different depths. Experimental data were gathered from different locations of the world’s oceans on the influence of gas content, viscosity, hydrostatic pressure, ionizing cosmic radiation as well as the carrier frequency of the acoustic signal, and the duty cycle on seawater cavitation strength. The characteristics of cavitation strength as a function of latitude in different regions of the world’s oceans were established. One of the important directions of investigation of active and passive submarine sound ranging was the development of the principles of optimizing the parameters of hydroacoustic systems for a probable set of operating conditions. A principle was proposed of probability estimate of the ultimate range of target detection in relation to probable target security with account for a set of hydrological conditions for important operating regions of the world’s oceans. This estimate takes into account the most probable maneuvering tactics of the target. The above research work in the field of active submarine sound ranging served as a basis for designing prospective long-range hydroacoustic systems. Research and development work in this direction was carried out by a large body of scientists of the Institute of Acoustics under the scientific guidance of L. M. Brekhovskikh, Yu.

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M. Sukharevsky, V. S. Grigoryev, S. G. Gershman, V. I. Mazepov, V. I. Il’ichev, Yu. I. Tuzhilkin, V. A. Akulichev, N. A. Dubrovsky, A. V. Rimsky-Korsakov, V. V. Borodin, R. Yu. Popov, V. V. Olshevsky, G. I. Priimak, O. P. Galkin, Ye. P. Masterov, V. P. Lesunovsky, L. F. Bondar, and I. Ye. Mikhaltsev. 11. Creation and Refinement of Navy Hydroacoustic Equipment As one can judge from the above, by the end of the 1950s, a great deal of fundamental and applied research into sound propagation in the ocean had been carried out, particularly in the low-audio frequency range, which was very important for the creation of long-range hydroacoustic equipment. The methods of sound reception and transmission at low frequencies, the methods of submarine surveillance at large distances, including multi-channel hydroacoustic information processing, the characteristics of the near- and far-field of the noise field radiated by ships and the characteristics of the sound associated with the operation of hydroacoustic systems were all investigated. All this work formed the scientific basis that enabled the transition to the practical construction of ship-mounted, long-range hydroacoustic equipment. During this period, industrial specialists worked on the practical implementation of new techniques and engineering features, such as correlation and Doppler methods of hydroacoustic signal processing, the methods of electrical formation and control of the directivity patterns of arrays. New piezoceramic materials and transducers for use as elements in large arrays were created. This work laid the required engineering-and-technical foundation for practical transition to operation at long ranges. In 1959, based upon the results of scientific and applied research and upon engineering developments, L. M. Brekhovskikh and Yu. M. Sukharevsky proposed a revolutionary change in the submarine hydroacoustic equipment to operational ranges exceeding those available at that time by an order of magnitude or greater. They calculated the principal parameters of sonar systems that would realize inceased range and provided scientific guidance in the design of the first home prototype sonar systems.

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The Academy of Sciences, industrial organizations, and the Navy were assigned the task of designing and developing in the shortest possible time principally new sonar systems for nuclear submarines ensuring operation in both active and passive modes at ranges exceeding those then available by 5–10 times. The task of the practical implementation of the new design was assigned to the CRI Morfizpribor, the design bureau of Vodtranspribor Plant and special design bureaus under the scientific guidance of the Institute of Acoustics. The parameters, principles of design, and the information processing methods employed in the modes of target detection, classification and real-time position determination in the new sonar systems differed basically from all earlier designs. For this reason, the earlier accumulated experience on sonar design and operation could be applied to the new development effort but only in a limited fashion. It was necessary to supplement the design features and technical developments of the 1950s with a series of engineering innovations. A need existed to carry out additional applied research to verify the initial scientific data used in the design of the new modes of sonar operation. A decision was made to carry out target-oriented research in accompaniment of all stages of design and construction of the new prototype sonar systems. This way of organizing work for attacking a problem through the creation of immediate and permanent interaction between researchers and equipment designers proved to be extremely fruitful. In a very short time, the home, long-range sonar systems Rubin and Kerch were built, tested, adopted by the Navy and put into series production. Later it was learned that similar American sonar systems of type BQQ-2 were put in service by the US Navy but somewhat later. Creation of the first long-range sonar systems brought the home nuclear submarine fleet to a higher level of operating efficiency. The period of the 1970–1980s may be considered the third evolutionary stage of hydroacoustic system development on the basis of fundamental physical investigations and engineering research in hydroacoustics. As has been mentioned, it was during this period that the experimental capability of the Institute of Acoustics expanded

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significantly and advanced ocean and sea investigations were carried out with account for the experience gathered in the creation and fullscale trials of the first long-range sonar systems and the extensive use of computer equipment. Research into the detailed characteristics of the ocean acoustic field provided the scientific basis for a further increase in the range of hydroacoustic systems, raising the probability of classification and accuracy of estimating target position and improving the efficiency of submarine audio communication by using the temporal and angular structure of the acoustic field in the vertical plane. Very important in this period was the development of algorithms for primary and secondary processing of hydroacoustic signals that used ocean media information as well as the accompanying software for simulation modeling of a set of hydrologic and acoustic ocean conditions which, in the long run, formed the basis for the design of a new generation of adaptive digital hydroacoustic systems. Further improvement in the scientific basis and further engineering developments allowed transition to designing and building the analog-to-digital hydroacoustic systems Skat, Skat-KS and, further, to the completely digital system Skat-3 for the new generation of submarines. On the part of the Institute of Acoustics, the design and development work on the above sonar systems during all stages was carried out under the scientific guidance of Yu. M. Sukharevsky and V. I. Mazepov. Achievements in the area of submarine hydroacoustic rearmament called forth a qualitatively new level of design of sonar systems for surface ships and a new level of development of stationary and autonomous hydroacoustic systems for different tactical applications. The Kiev RI of Hydrological Instruments, under the scientific guidance of the Institute of Acoustics, designed and built a completely digital sonar system Zvezda for surface ships. With the participation of the researchers of the Institute of Acoustics, the improved stationary, wide-aperture sonar systems Agam, Sever, and Dnestr were also developed. The Institute of Acoustics continues its activity on the development of the scientific basis for designing new hydroacoustic systems and modernization of the available hydroacoustic equipment of the Navy.

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It continues to provide scientific guidance on the extremely important design and development work leading to the manufacture of such systems. In recent years, however, the entire hydroacoustics engineering sector has experienced serious difficulties. Prospective sonar design work has suffered from insufficient financing. The situation is particularly difficult in the fundamental and applied branches of military hydroacoustics. The State Research Center of the Russian Federation — the N. N. Andreyev Institute of Acoustics, as the leading organization in the area of hydroacoustics, actively calls to the attention of the Security Council, the Ministry of Defense, and the Navy leadership the vital importance of developing the scientific database and experience that represents the basis for refinement of naval hydroacoustic equipment and for maintaining the earlier parity with other nations. The activities of the Institute aimed at maintaining and developing hydroacoustic science brought definite positive results.

12. The Modern Stage of Activities of the Institute of Acoustics In recent years, like many other leading scientific-research institutes and organizations in this area, the Institute of Acoustics has been carrying out a great deal of work in the interest of the national economy. While undergoing a conversion, the Institute has preserved the hydroacoustic orientation of its activities, which allows it to fully use the accumulated scientific and technical capability and to develop it in the new direction. This is confirmed by the great amount of conversion work carried out by the Institute of Acoustics under the subprogram “Acoustics” of the special Federal program “Russian Shipyards” having the status of a Presidential Program. As a State Research Center, the N. N. Andreyev Institute of Acoustics carries out work in the field of hydroacoustics by assignment of the Ministry of Science of Russia as well. According to these plans and programs, in the last three years, the Institute has been carrying out fundamental and exploratory research, as well as applied scientific-research and design-and-development work.

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Much work in the field of acoustics for civil applications is being done by the Institute under contracts with foreign companies and on orders of home enterprises. Researchers of the Institute work on grants from the Russian Foundation for Fundamental Research and the International Science Foundation. A great amount of work is being carried out by the Russian Acoustical Society (RAS), chaired by Director of the Institute of Acoustics, N. A. Dubrovsky. Today, RAS unites about 400 hydroacoustic scientists from Russia and the former Soviet republics, including 45 workers from the Institute. The Society members meet at annual sessions to discuss the vital problems of modern acoustics and publish proceedings in Russian and English. The RAS actively maintains and develops links with the acoustic societies of foreign countries, and has joined the Association of Acoustical Societies of Europe. Workers of the Institute make presentations at multiple international congresses, conferences and symposia, meet with their foreign partners, promote our achievements and discuss the problems of mutual collaboration. Many foreign scientists and representatives of foreign companies, institutes, and universities have visited the Institute in recent years for detailed acquaintance with its achievements in development and application of acoustic technologies in national economy, and for establishing closer scientific and technical cooperation. The Institute of Acoustics participates in the international project “Acoustic Monitoring of Climatic Changeability of the Arctic Ocean,” the international programs “Acoustic Thermometry of Oceanic Climate” (ATOC) and “Acoustic Monitoring of the Fram Strait,” the international oceanographic programs of UNESCO, and the program “Geological and Geographical Atlases of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.” The Editorial Board of the world-known Acoustic Journal has offices at the Institute of Acoustics. N. N. Andreyev was the first editorin-chief of the Journal. After him, V. S. Grigoryev was editor-in-chief for many years. He was succeeded by L. M. Lyamshev. The Scientific Board for “Acoustics” of the Russian Academy of Sciences was created at the Institute of Acoustics. Workers of the Institute

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have always played a leading and organizational role in its work. The Board was organized on the initiative of N. N. Andreyev back in 1936. He was its sole chairman until 1967 when A. V. Rimsky-Korsakov was elected chairman. Since 1973 the Board chairman has been L. M. Lyamshev. The Scientific Board co-ordinated fundamental research work at the Institutes of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and the Union Republics, and at industrial enterprises. The Board regularly organizes scientific sessions, symposia and conferences on different aspects in acoustics and hydroacoustics. In an era of strict limitations on financing of defense and civilian orders from the state budget, the Institute of Acoustics has nevertheless maintained a significant scientific-technical capability. Today, its staff includes over 350 researchers, engineers and technicians, among them 35 doctors and 117 candidates of science. The Institute uses to the fullest its unique measuring and metrological complex (hydroacoustic basins, acoustic chambers and experimental test stands) and its own pilot-scale production facility. The Institute of Acoustics continues implementing one of its most important lines of activity; training highly qualified scientific and engineering personnel in the area of acoustics and hydroacoustics, applied physics, and mathematics. This work is being carried out within the framework of post-graduate and doctoral courses at the Institute, the specialized Higher Certifying Commissions for conferring Doctorate and Candidate’s Degrees, and departments of the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology and the Moscow State University of Radio Engineering, Electronics and Automation. Many leading acoustics scientists grew in the creative atmosphere of the Institute of Acoustics, among them the winner of the Lenin and two State Prizes L. M. Brekhovskikh, twice winner of the State Prize Honored Worker of science and technology V. I. Mazepov, State Prize winners N. S. Ageyeva, I. B. Andreyeva, I. A. Viktorov, A. Ye. Vovk, V. S. Grigoryev, N. A. Grubnik, N. A. Dubrovsky, Yu. Yu. Zhitkovsky, F. I. Kryazhev, Yu. P. Lysanov, L. M. Lyamshev, K. A. Naugolnykh, N. A. Petrov, A. V. Rimsky-Korsakov, L. D. Rozenberg, Yu. M. Sukharevsky, A. V. Furduyev, L. A. Chernov, S. D. Chuprov, R. F. Shvachko, and winner of the Russian Government’s Prize, S. I. Dvornikov.

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The N. N. Andreyev Institute of Acoustics continues working efficiently in the field of military and civilian hydroacoustics and takes as its duty assisting in improving the operational capability of the Navy, guarding of national security of Russia, and developing the technological capability of the shipbuilding industry.

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The History of Creation and the Work of the Sukhumi Marine Research Station of ACIN RAS YU. M. SUKHAREVSKY

The experience of World War II revealed the great role hydroacoustic equipment installed on submarines and surface ships can play in the outcome of naval operations. The primitiveness of pre-war hydroacoustic systems made the warring nations concentrate their efforts on the development of this equipment. As a result, significant progress was achieved in the area of submarine sound ranging. In the period 1942–1943, the USSR Navy acquired new, advanced sonars of both home and foreign manufacture. However, by the end of the war their operational use was no longer regarded as satisfactory due to their restricted operating range, particularly due to the strong dependence of the detection range on the state of the sea and, also, their low reliability. Inadequate scientific knowledge of hydroacoustics often gave no opportunity for physical interpretation of the peculiarities of sonar operation in real ocean conditions. This prevented objective estimation of the quality of sonar operation, and, most important, thwarted search for efficient ways to further refine the equipment. The first priority in improving this situation was to develop the physical basis for hydroacoustics. This stimulated the naval authorities to encourage acoustic physicists of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR to investigate and solve the problems of hydroacoustics that arose during the war. In my article, published in the first issue of the Acoustic Journal in 1996, in the section “From the History of Acoustics,” I describe the 354

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work carried out in the years of the Great Patriotic War by researchers from the Laboratory of Acoustics and the Nuclear Laboratory of the Physical Institute RAS (PI RAS) on military application of acoustics. In particular, mention is made of the experimental work in the area of submarine sound ranging carried out in 1944 on ships of the Pacific Fleet by a group of workers from the Laboratory of Acoustics including Yu. M. Sukharevsky, V. S. Grigoryev, and I. P. Zhukov. In the course of this work, using the physical equipment fabricated by the group, objective evaluation of the acoustical parameters of home and foreign sonar equipment for surface ships and submarines was made under actual ocean conditions. For the first time, data were obtained on their capability for echo reflection as a function of various acoustic parameters, the effect on sonar operation of noise and the hydrodynamic interference generated by vessels, and the acoustic characteristics of the ocean medium. As a result of these investigations, an important conclusion was reached about the extreme variability of ocean medium parameters and its influence on the efficiency of submarine sound ranging, and, consequently, on the need for a systematic investigation under stationary conditions — in different seasons of the year and under different weather conditions. This led to the idea of organizing the group’s own academic stationary hydroacoustic experimental facility — a marine research station with a coastal laboratory connected by cables to hydroacoustic arrays installed at sea. The station also needed research ships equipped with hydroacoustic measurement equipment. This idea was supported by the Director of PI RAS, S. I. Vavilov, and in 1945–1946, the survey work started to search for a convenient location for a marine station in the region of the Crimean Coast of the Black Sea. But in 1946, the realization of the idea of a marine station met with difficulties, and work was suspended. Meanwhile, in the period 1945–1947, experimental work continued on submarine sound ranging techniques using ships of the Black Sea Fleet. At the time, the research group included Yu. M. Sukharevsky, G. D. Malyuzhinets, N. S. Ageyeva, I. P. Zhukov, and N. S. Antonov. The objectives of the experimental work, beside further study of the acoustic parameters of sonar equipment, included continuing earlier

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investigations performed in the Pacific Ocean on marine reverberation connected with sound scattering. Reverberation was studied both as a physical phenomenon and as a source of interference. Investigations were also carried out on sound reflection from the seafloor in shallow and deep-water regions. In the latter case unexpectedly high values of the reflection coefficient were measured. Even though the results of the Black Sea and Pacific expeditions were of significant scientific value and practical importance for the Navy, they only confirmed the conclusion that serious difficulties existed for researchers and the sailors when experiments were performed on naval ships and also the work was of low productivity. This made the author, without waiting for resumption of the suspended construction of a capital marine base, to begin organizing a prototype station within the framework of the next Black Sea expedition, to which, like before, he was appointed its leader. The program for the next expedition encompassed continuing research into sound reflection from surface ships and submarines. Within the framework of this program, in view of the limited technical capabilities for the manufacture and installation of underwater equipment, an additional search for an optimal location for a station was made by examining charts of the Black Sea coast. The suitability criteria were nearby ocean regions with significant depths and a steep slope to the coastline. It was found that the Caucasus shore stands second to none in this respect, not only in the Black Sea but in other marine regions of the country as well. In addition, the Black Sea allows for round-the-year investigations under the hydrological conditions and at depths similar to the conditions of the North-West Pacific on a scale of 1:2–1:3. The choice of the Sukhumi Point with a 35◦ -bottom slope was further favored by the closeness of a port for ship’s berthing, availability of transportation, and ship repair and construction facilities. From the beginning of 1948, within the context of a program of preparation for the expedition “The East Black Sea Expedition of the Laboratory of Acoustics of PI RAS” to the Sukhumi Point, I. P. Zhukov worked on the engineering drawings for bottom-mounted hydroacoustic tripod platforms with receiving-and-radiating transducers on a gimbal suspension, and anchored reflector buoys of different shapes.

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The latter were meant to imitate elements of a ship’s hull presenting a thin-walled complex-shaped shell. Some reflector buoys had a soundabsorbing coating of a rubber-like material. According to the plan, the first phase of investigations was dedicated to refinement of measuring techniques and experiments with reflector buoys. I. P. Zhukov also designed mock-ups of electronic and photo-recording equipment. In the summer of 1948, the main group of the expedition including Yu. M. Sukharevsky, N. S. Ageyeva and I. P. Zhukov arrived in Sevastopol. The report presented to the Commander of the Black Sea, Admiral of the Fleet F. S. Oktyabrsky, on the expedition mission and plans for the creation of a marine research station for conducting hydroacoustic investigations in the Black Sea received his approval. On the Admiral’s order, invaluable support was provided. Bottom tripod platforms and anchored reflector buoys were manufactured at a ship-repair plant in Sevastopol. In October, the expedition, with a 6oared boat, a 3-kW electric power station, cables, marine stores, supplies, tents, a means of transport and rigging outfit, accompanied by a Black Sea sailor guard team led by hydroacoustics petty officer I. I. Andreyev, went on board the unit of ships assigned by the Navy. The unit included an aircraft wreck crane, a mine-sweeper, a diving ship and a motor boat. The expedition arrived at the Sukhumi Point at the location of the Sukhumi beacon. There, in a small service room, the electronic and recording equipment was assembled. Thus the history of creation of a marine research facility began. Its fate, however, was still far from clear. We lived through a 2-month period of exhausting work by the sailors digging trenches and laying unarmored cables. Work was done on a 50-m pebble coastal strip, across which the heavy objects of the marine installations were moved. Very often rush jobs were announced with the participation of all members of the expeditions and use of the truck provided by the Navy with petty officer V. S. Ivanchenko at the wheel. We used the truck for pulling objects. In the absence of experience on installing submarine equipment on a steep slope, the erection of bottom-mounted equipment represented great difficulty. Underwater installation work was performed from the inclined deck

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of a semi-submerged ship, Elba, in the region of the Sukhumi fishing port. But major inconveniences arose in splicing the shore and sea cable ends. Military specialists from Moscow joined the expedition for this work, bringing splice boxes having components of foreign manufacture. Two attempts to install the bottom-mounted equipment took considerable time and ended in failure because of leaky boxes. Finally, the expedition members improvised a method with materials at hand: each cable in the coastal line section was placed in an individual 40-m piece of water-supply pipe; a bunch of such pipes was welded to 2-m pieces of rail which were then driven deep in the sand bed of the pebble shore. Cable ends were spliced using raw rubber and rubber adhesive. By the way, this primitive solution withstood harsh testing from tides on an open shore for more than 5 years, even in stormy weather, when the pebble layer was washed down to the sand bed. Almost everything was ready for installation of the third bottom platform, when, the author, as head of the expedition, and the senior officer of the ship’s unit received telegrams ordering the release of the support group so it could go to Sevastopol for repairs. The situation was critical for the expedition and the author, since the expedition work was behind schedule, and even the opportunity for conducting experiments remained undecided. In addition, telegrams arrived from the leadership of the Laboratory of Acoustics and the Naval authorities who had approved the expedition with a request to come to Moscow to provide an explanation for the work stoppage. The situation was saved by the ship unit’s senior officer. Since the ships needed minor repairs before going to Sevastopol, he proposed to use the time for one more attempt at installation of the bottom-mounted equipment on the way to Sevastopol. On the gloomy day of December 6, 1948, which the author will remember all his life, an absolutely calm weather at sea, without equipment failures or leaks, the bottom platforms were installed. I flew to Moscow to report to Director of PI RAS S. I. Vavilov and Deputy Naval Commander-in-Chief, Admiral F. S. Oktyabrsky, who, shortly

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before had been called from Sevastopol and promoted. F. S. Oktyabrsky already knew about my exchange of telegrams with the new Black Sea Naval Command. My story about the situation of the expedition was met with understanding in Moscow. The proposed date of completion of the investigations — the spring of 1949 — was approved, and the required funding and ships were allotted for further expedition work. When I returned to the expedition on the eve of the New Year of 1949, I saw that signals from the reflector buoys were being received and recorded and only needed interpreting. This news really took a load off my mind, despite the fact that the expedition was left for the winter with only three people: Yu. M. Sukharevsky, N. S. Ageyeva, and I. P. Zhukov. The first winter spent on the Sukhumi Point was severe. In the absence of a moorage, every day, and often several times a day, we had to push the boat into water and check the positions of the anchored reflector buoys installed by the mine-sweeper. Their position was determined by an azimuth measurement on the beam with the shore landmarks indicating the direction of the acoustic axes of the bottom-mounted equipment. Depth was determined by marks on the signal buoy cables. The buoy cable had to be pulled into the boat until it assumed a vertical position. Because of the slipping of the anchors on the steep slope and sea disturbance, the reflector buoys often changed position, and our boat control sortie became a permanent problem. The unsettled state also made itself felt. But despite all that, people were set to do their job without concern for time. This set the style of work at the expedition for years after. The expedition worked with two bottom-mounted equipment platforms installed at depths of 20 and 40 m. Soon, based on the technical drawings by I. P. Zhukov, a movable platform was constructed and installed on a tractor carriage. Like the stationary bases, it also had transducers suspended on gimbals, and was equipped with a 20-m tow bar serving to drive it into the sea to a depth of several meters. Each of the three bases had four transducers for each working frequency. This allowed direction finding both by azimuth and by elevation; the transducer wavelengths were identical, which preserved their directivity in

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transmission and reception over the entire frequency range occupying a band from 10 to 50 kHz. The work opened up unheard-of opportunities for experimental marine research under stationary conditions into the phenomena of sound reflection from ships and submarines which passed in the immediate vicinity of the acoustic receivers and sources, as well as into broader problems of hydroacoustics — which we later actually pursued. For general hydrological monitoring in the region of experiments, a remote-controlled, multi-depth electrical thermometer designed by I. P. Zhukov was utilized. Later, for the first time, this instrument helped us in observing short-cycle internal waves (with cycles lasting from tens of seconds to several minutes). The first measurements made with the use of reflector buoys showed that the echo-signal level fluctuations caused by inhomogeneities and other dynamics of the medium necessitated application of statistical methods. Thus, time series of signals obtained with the help of a photorecorder were processed statistically. As a result, the integral probability of signal amplitude was determined with the required accuracy of measurement. A greater statistical confidence, even though it required a greater recording time, reduced the level of error caused by noise from weak and remote reflectors. This laid the foundation for application of statistical methods in hydroacoustics. To increase reliability for the evaluation of the capacity of soundabsorbing coatings, a chain of reflector buoys with and without coating was anchored in an alternating order. This allowed us, using buoys with a big wave height, and respectively, with a narrow scattering indicatrix, to eliminate distortions caused by surface and bottom reflections under winter isothermal conditions. For the first time, these experiments provided an opportunity to obtain reliable values of sound absorption in seawater by using the attenuation of the echo signal with distance. In 1949, a group of specialists in acoustics from the industrial institutes of the Navy came to the Sukhumi expedition to become acquainted with the equipment and the measurement methods. Quality check measurements convinced the group of the reliability of our results. The positive account given by the group resulted in an instruction to the Black Sea Naval Command to provide surface ships and

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submarines for further experiments and a decision to reorganize the East Black Sea expedition into the permanent Sukhumi Marine Expedition of the Laboratory of Acoustics of PI RAS. With the arrival of the workers from the Laboratory of Acoustics, A. L. Sosedova and B. I. Vasilyeva, the research staff grew to five people. The decision to make the station permanent and the unexpected allotment of 40,000 roubles (in terms of rouble value of the time) from the Laboratory of Acoustics for construction of a laboratory building allowed us, with the permission of the Poti Naval Base, to build the expedition’s first laboratory on a vacant plot of land near the Sukhumi beacon. A bit later several more outbuildings designed for technical purposes were constructed. The expedition moved to the new premises, thus marking a new, important phase in its history. In 1950, the Sukhumi expedition carried out research into the reflective capacity of surface ships and their wakes, and in 1951, similar research for submarines started, including submarines with acoustic coatings. In that year, young specialists L. M. Lyamshev and V. P. Glotov joined the Sukhumi expedition; one took an interest in the problem of sound scattering from elastic shells, the other, in sound absorption by seawater. In the same year, an experiment was staged at the Sukhumi expedition to investigate, under Black Sea conditions, the effect of the undersea sound channel discovered in 1946 by L. D. Rozenberg and I. P. Zhukov in the Sea of Japan and theoretically substantiated by L. M. Brekhovskikh. As distinct from experiments in the Sea of Japan, where explosive acoustic sources were used, in the experiment in Sukhumi, conducted by L. D. Rozenberg and L. M. Brekhovskikh, use was made of continuous transmission of an acoustic sweep, the signals from which were continuously registered by hydrophones located at Sukhumi, while the ship towing the sweep moved toward the Bulgarian coast. For the investigative work performed on the undersea sound channel, the State Prize was awarded. L. D. Rozenberg’s group later used the laboratory building constructed for conducting this experiment for sonar imaging investigations. In 1952–1954, the time came for the Sukhumi expedition to do more detailed research into the problem of sound propagation.

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A. L. Sosedova joined in this work together with G. I. Priimak, who in 1954 was transferred to the Moscow group by then reorganized into Sector No. 1 of the Laboratory of Acoustics of PI RAS. A. L. Sosedova began systematic experimental research of the acoustic field at sea, and Priimak investigated sound fluctuations. The instrumentation for fluctuation research work included electrical thermometers, electrical depth indicators and a photorecorder designed by I. P. Zhukov; later the electrohydrological complexes were refined by G. I. Priimak, V. I. Kiselev, S. N. Dolgov, and Yu. I. Naumenko. V. P. Glotov investigated sound absorption using a deep-water caisson unit designed by him, after an idea suggested by I. P. Zhukov, in which a thin-walled hydroacoustic reverberation chamber was filled with water by dipping it into the sea. As the bell tipped over and air was blown in it, the chamber became isolated from the bell walls, and sound absorption in water was determined by the time of reverberation in the chamber. At the end of 1956, the first two physicists, graduates of the Gorky University, V. I. Il’ichev and Ye. P. Masterov, came to work at the Sukhumi expedition. The first one joined in the research into sound reflection from surface ships and submarines started by L. M. Lyamshev, the second one took to investigation of acoustic fields at sea. Two more undergraduates from the same university who later worked at the Moscow Sector No. 1, V. V. Tyutekin and Yu. B. Upadyshev, had their practical examinations at the Sukhumi expedition. Both joined in investigations into the effect of acoustic coatings. G. I. Tolstobrov came to work permanently at the expedition. He was assigned the work of investigating marine reverberation. By then, the staff of the Sukhumi expedition counted 150 people. Investigations initiated at the Sukhumi expedition with involvement of a large number of young specialists required organizing appropriate research and management staffs. Initially, worker of Sector No. 1, L. M. Lyamshev, was in charge of work on sound reflection by ships; N. S. Ageyeva was in charge of investigation of acoustic coatings; A. L. Sosedova was in charge of investigation of acoustic fields and fluctuations; A. I. Glotov worked on the problems of sound absorption

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and scattering; and I. P. Zhukov was in charge of experimental equipment engineering. General scientific guidance was entrusted to the author who then was Director of the Sukhumi expedition, and G. D. Malyuzhinets, then Head of the Moscow Sector No. 1, who was in charge of the theoretical aspects of the investigations. In 1952, the Sukhumi expedition acquired its first ship, the 200-ton Zeya, and in 1953 a second, the 70-ton Signal, was acquired. Until then and during periods of absence of naval ships supporting the expedition work, fishing craft were hired for undersea installation work. In 1953, with the help of construction organizations from Sochi, a railway slip was built on the property of the Sukhumi expedition, with a telpher for launching boats and setting equipment for undersea installation. Thus the period of on-shore rigging work came to an end. By the Government Decree of January 1, 1954, the Laboratory of Acoustics of PI RAS was reorganized into the Institute of Acoustics RAS. The Moscow Sector No. 1 became Laboratory No. 1, and the Sukhumi expedition became the Sukhumi Marine Research Station of the Institute of Acoustics (SMRS). The station at last received the status of a hydroacoustic research base on the Black Sea — the idea had became a reality. The Decree envisaged construction of a permanent laboratory and production buildings and living quarters for SMRS. This task was entrusted to building organizations of Abkhazia, work also included erection of special off-shore constructions; a pavilion on piles with a trestle to hold a submersible shallow-water hydroacoustic base for 4 m submersion depth and two deep-water hydroacoustic bases for 25 and 80 m depths, with a frequency range expanded to 4 kHz. Design of on-shore structures according to the specifications prepared by the author was carried out by personnel of the Chief Architect’s office of the Abkhazian SSR. Design of marine structures was carried out by the Leningrad design organization of shipbuilding industry SCDI-2. Researcher of Laboratory No. 3 of the Institute of Acoustics, I. Ye. Mikhaltsev, took part in preparing the design specifications and supervising the design work. The year 1954 was the start for the research group at SMRS to take shape. It was also the year when new workers joined the staff of the

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Moscow Laboratory No. 1 who participated in the work carried out at the station. In 1954–1956, the young specialists Yu. B. Upadyshev, E. P. Gulin, V. P. Lesunovsky, V. M. Matangin, M. A. Gulina, I. V. Yurkin, D. V. Guzhavina, K. I. Malyshev, I. I. Sizov, and others came to work permanently at SMRS. The young specialists V. V. Olshevsky, N. V. Studenichnik, and D. V. Stepenov joined the staff of the Moscow Laboratory. V. I. Il’ichev was charged with statistical investigation of the reverberation process (continuing the above-mentioned work on marine reverberation started back in 1947); two more people joined in the investigations of acoustic coatings, which were performed mainly at SMRS together with Yu. B. Upadyshev. E. P. Gulin and K. I. Malyshev took up investigation of signal fluctuations. I. I. Sizov participated in the research on sound scattering from the seafloor. V. P. Lesunovsky began investigating the noise fields of ships. The opportunity presented itself to form research groups around Yu. B. Upadyshev, V. I. Il’ichev, E. P. Gulin, and V. M. Matangin respectively under the supervision of N. S. Ageyeva, L. M. Lyamshev, A. L. Sosedova, G. I. Priimak, and V. V. Olshevsky. Work began on professionally advancing the group of young SMRS researchers. It took place in an atmosphere of competition between the authorities of G. D. Malyuzhinets and the author of this paper. One was trying to stimulate interest in theoretical problems, the other in experimental investigations of hydroacoustic phenomena and the application of the scientific results to the development of the basics of the new field of hydroacoustic engineering. The combination of the two interests resulted in the majority of work by the Sukhumi researchers, both the theoretical and experimental, often being undertaken together and supplementing one another. In 1954, marine research into the acoustic field in the zones of geometrical shadows carried out by A. L. Sosedova at SMRS led to the discovery of the effect of remote zones of acoustic illumination due to an undersea sound channel. (In the English literature, remote zones of acoustic illumination are called “convergence zones,” or “zones of acoustic ray convergence.”) This had very important consequences for the development of submarine sound ranging. While earlier realization of long-range sound propagation with the use of an undersea sound

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channel was associated with the need to submerge the corresponding points to the axis of the sound channel, that is at great depths in the ocean, it now became evident that long-range sound propagation may be realized at depths accessible to submarines, and in many cases, even subsurface depths. It was also learned that in remote zones of acoustic illumination, strong sound focusing takes place thus increasing the signal level. Theoretical interpretation of the experimental data was done with the participation of I. D. Ivanov and V. A. Polyanskaya from the Theoretical Department of the Institute. In 1955–1956, in reports about these investigations (A. L. Sosedova and Yu. M. Sukharevsky), it was stated for the first time that use of the remote zones of acoustic illumination provides good prospects for developing long-range submarine sound ranging in the audio-frequency range. In 1954–1956, investigations continued with the use of anchored reflector buoys of different shapes, including buoys with an acoustic coating designed by V. V. Tyutekin and G. D. Malyuzhinets, which combined the effect of sound absorption and the effect of sound insulation. Significant results were obtained by V. I. Il’ichev from investigations into sound reflection from surface ships. At important aspect of the work was an effect connected with hydrodynamic cavitation on the ship’s hull reducing the hull’s reflective capacity. Along with the physical interpretation of this effect, V. I. Il’ichev proposed a statistical theory of emergence of hydrodynamic cavitation and made a series of important theoretical conclusions. For the first time experimental data on sound reflection from the wake of surface ships and submarines were obtained. In the same period, interesting experimental data on sound absorption and scattering at sea were gathered at SMRS by V. P. Glotov, V. I. Mazepov, V. M. Matangin, I. I. Sizov and P. A. Kolobayev from the Moscow Sector No. 1. In particular, based on a set of data on sound attenuation at sea, the known empirical “3/2” power law establishing the dependence of attenuation on frequency was formulated for the first time. On the basis of this law a conclusion was reached on the advantages of changing to audio frequencies in using remote zones of

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acoustic illumination. For the first time a physical interpretation of the “3/2” law was reached as the envelope of several relaxation processes. In the course of investigation into the masking effect of high-frequency reverberation caused by sound scattering from near-surface air bubble layer, the first estimates were made of the value of scattering by the marine subsurface layer. The estimated values for scattering were compared with the calculated values based on the data from direct optical measurements of bubble concentration and size distribution. Measurements carried out using G. G. Neuimin’s technique (Institute of Hydrophysics RAS) confirmed these estimates. Investigations into scattering and absorption were performed with the participation of G. I. Tolstobrov. In the period 1954–1956, work on the first phase of SMRS site development was commissioned. This included building the main laboratory and two on-shore laboratories, workshop buildings, a garage, an office building, and two dwelling houses. An organization specializing on coastal construction and shipbuilding, a plant at Poti, with the participation of the Black Sea Fleet, built a marine pavilion on piles with a trestle and installed new stationary bottom hydroacoustic platforms. The station’s fleet was supplemented with the 600-ton flagship Ingur. The electronic equipment for the on-shore instrument room of the laboratory’s main building, including the original system for automatic statistical measurements of signal amplitude, and the ship-mounted electronic equipment designed by G. M. Dorsky was manufactured at Sector No. 8 of the Institute of Acoustics. Installation of electrical equipment at the station was carried out under the supervision of Chief Electrical Engineer of the Institute, P. M. Nemirovsky. General supervision over construction was carried out by its Chief Engineer, B. A. Varosyan. The station and ship-mounted equipment, as well as marine facility construction were the responsibility of V. I. Mazepov. The number of personnel at the station reached 250 people. During all these years, multiple expeditions and research groups, both from the Institute of Acoustics and from the industrial institutes and from the Navy, visited SMRS to conduct experimental work. The work carried out by the SMRS personnel in the area of acoustic coatings gradually embraced all aspects of investigation of

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sound-absorbing coatings. Yu. B. Upadyshev performed this work. V. V. Tyutekin took up work on acoustic coatings combining the properties of sound absorption and sound insulation. Marine trials of these coatings were carried out at SMRS. N. S. Ageyeva lead investigations at SMRS of acoustic fields, in particular, investigations of the remote zones of acoustic illumination. In 1956, the first experiments were organized at the SMRS on long-range submarine sound ranging at audio frequencies with the use of bottom-mounted hydroacoustic systems. In the central part of the Black Sea, experiments with the participation of V. I. Mazepov and Yu. B. Upadyshev were carried out on board the Ingur on submarines sound ranging by use of reflection from the seafloor. This work consitituted the beginning of new investigations in the area of submarine sound ranging, which were later continued and developed at SMRS and at the Institute. The years 1957–1959 marked the enhancement of the independence of SMRS research groups and their specialization along the general directions selected earlier jointly with the staff of Sector No. 1 of the Institute. It was at this time that research groups were reorganized into laboratories. The Sukhumi laboratory of V. I. Il’ichev was engaged in studying sound reflection by ships and investigation of acoustic phenomena connected with cavitation processes. The Moscow laboratory of L. M. Lyamshev investigated sound diffraction by elastic shells. The laboratory of Ye. P. Masterov was charged with investigation of infrasonic fields and sound propagation in shallow water. The Moscow laboratory of N. S. Ageyeva concentrated on investigation of audio-frequency propagation in the deep ocean. The laboratory of E. P. Gulin began studies of sound fluctuations at sea as applied to underwater communication. The Moscow laboratory of G. I. Priimak specialized on investigation of fluctuations as applied to the problem of accurate target location determination (target acquisition). The laboratory of V. P. Lesunovsky was responsible for a new direction for SMRS; the investigation of transmission of ship noise. Investigation into the methods of hydrolocation signal processing and investigation of statistical properties of reverberation were carried out jointly and for a longer period of time than at other laboratories, by the Moscow laboratory

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of V. V. Olshevsky and the Sukhumi laboratory of V. M. Matangin. However, these investigations later became more specific to “explosive” submarine sound ranging. By then, the scope of investigations carried out at SMRS and Sector No. 1 of the Institute covered a considerable scope of hydroacoustic problems. It should be noted that investigations performed at SMRS in that period brought about new, important results. In his work on ship noise, V. P. Lesunovsky studied infrasonic discrete components of ship noise. In particular the modulation spectra with frequencies being a multiple of the propeller rpm — an effect connected with modulation of the cavitation process. L. I. Kazakov proposed a new principle of design of rubber-liquid resonators that served as a basis for designing low-frequency coatings and efficient antivibration mountings. Ye. P. Masterov developed a theory of sound propagation at sea on the basis of approximation of the sound-speed profile over depth by an analytical function. E. P. Gulin made a valuable contribution to investigation of sound scattering by rough surfaces, investigation into the observed sound fluctuations, and proposed a theory of sound reflection and scattering by a surface that was adequate to real conditions at low frequencies. V. I. Il’ichev obtained new results in the area of acoustical effects of hydrodynamic cavitation and in the area of investigation of the cavitation strength of seawater. V. M. Matangin, V. A. Zakharov, and L. F. Bondar developed new methods of data processing in an active mode for tones and explosive signals. Investigations performed by I. I. Sizov disclosed an anomalous nature of angular and frequency dependences of scattering from seafloor irregularities in shallow-sea regions. This led to the conclusion that the main source of scattering in such regions must be seafloor irregularities. In 1957 and 1959, the SMRS held scientific conferences on hydroacoustics. The majority of reports at the conference were represented by workers from the Station. The conference of 1959 was attended by Academician N. N. Andreyev who spoke positively about the work done at the Station. In that period work on the first phase of SMRS construction was coming to an end. In particular, a hotel built for accommodating expeditions from the Institute was completed. Very soon, however, the hotel

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became completely occupied by the young specialists working at the station. Simultaneously structures of the second phase of construction, the big laboratory building No. 2, the conference-room building No. 5, and the library, were designed. In 1959–1965, upon a proposal of the Institute of Acoustics, under its guidance and with its participation, work was in progress on the creation of new long-range hydroacoustic equipment — submarineborne sonar systems. Their operating principle was based on taking advantage of the remote zones of acoustic illumination and the audiofrequency range. The proposal was supplemented with recommendations to designers, research institutes and industrial design bureaus concerning selection of the main acoustic parameters of systems. It was envisaged that the systems should include active, passive, and other modes of operation. In the process of sonar system design, sea trials of mock-ups of individual modes were carried out at SMRS and on the Institute’s oceangoing research ships. In the course of production and state tests of sonar systems, workers of SMRS, Section No. 1 and other sections of the Institute ensured acoustic control over the tests area, and participated in the tests themselves. The work performed on the creation of sonar systems lead to Lenin and State Prizes. In 1960–1966, SMRS continued investigations of sound reflection from submarines, including those with different types of acoustic coatings. In 1965, several researchers of SMRS (V. I. Il’ichev, Ye. P. Masterov, and E. P. Gulin) defended their dissertations for Candidate’s Degree. In view of the high scientific qualifications of the SMRS scientists, the leadership of the Institute of Acoustics decided to increase its independence. As a result, in 1968, SMRS was reorganized to the Sukhumi Branch of the Institute of Acoustics. This opened new prospects for its staff. The leadership of the Sukhumi Branch was entrusted to V. I. Il’ichev, who since 1960 had been acting Deputy Head of SMRS for scientific work. The following decade of work of the Sukhumi Branch was noted for considerable expansion of the areas of investigation. New directions were developed, most significant of which were investigations into the

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area of hydroacoustic classification of marine targets. This work was carried out by V. I. Il’ichev, V. P. Lesunovsky, L. F. Bondar, G. Ya. Voloshin, and G. A. Rivelis. Research into fish hydrolocation was performed by I. I. Sizov. Research into infrasonic fields of ships and passive hydrolocation with the use of infrasonic discrete components of the target’s noise spectrum was performed under the guidance of Ye. P. Masterov and Yu. V. Khokha. Intensive research was initiated into the following fields: sonar communication (E. P. Gulin and K. I. Malyshev); acoustic effects of cavitation and their use in determining the cavitation strength of liquids and seawater, in particular (V. I. Il’ichev, G. N. Kuznetsov and V. P. Akulichev); explosive hydrolocation (V. A. Zakharov and V. M. Matangin); resonance sound and vibration absorbers (L. I. Kazakov); and the statistical properties of scattered signals (V. A. Khromov). This work yielded a series of important results, which made a significant contribution to home hydroacoustics and were of great practical value. Some of these results were obtained in ocean expeditions on ships of the Institute of Acoustics Sergei Vavilov, Petr Lebedev, and other expedition vessels. Workers of the Sukhumi Branch regularly took part in the expeditions. At the location of the Sukhumi Branch, scientific conferences were held on problems of cavitation (1970) and sound propagation (1969 and 1972). Workhops on statistical hydroacoustics (1959 and 1973), and a symposium on methods of representation and instrumentation analysis of processes and fields (1972) were also held. Reports and presentations were made by workers of the Branch. The Sukhumi Branch established strong ties with co-operating research institutes. In that period the Sukhumi Branch staff grew to 500 people, including 200 research personnel. The scientific qualifications of the researchers grew, a considerable part of them had Doctor’s and Candidate’s Degrees. The future of the Sukhumi Branch, at that time, was not so favorable. With the purpose of enhancing work on the development of stationary sonars, it became affiliated with another research organization. After the transfer of V. I. Il’ichev to the Far-East Research Center of

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RAS in 1974, former SMRS alumni, first V. M. Matangin, and later, G. N. Kuznetsov, served as head of the Sukhumi Branch. The Georgian–Abkhazian war inflicted considerable losses on the unique equipment of the branch and its ships, and caused the departure of the majority of its research personnel. At present, the Sukhumi Branch has been reorganized into the Institute of Hydrophysics of the Abkhazian Academy of Sciences, its director is A. M. Markolia — also an alumnus of SMRS. However, the subject of research work has significantly changed. Today it is research into the bioresources of the Black Sea offshore aquatorium, even though its leadership is looking into the opportunities to recover former research directions.

V. I. Il’ichev In conclusion, I would like to underscore (as, to my mind, it follows from the above) that creation of the Sukhumi Marine Research Station of the Institute of Acoustics and the work carried out there have played a significant role in the development of home hydroacoustics, serving

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as a source for its today’s trends. The role of SMRS in the development of new advanced hydroacoustic equipment cannot be overestimated. Probably an even more important achievement of SMRS is the role it has played in bringing up a cohort of young specialists in hydroacoustics. Many grew to become prominent scientists. Here are some names (irrespective of their formal affiliation to SMRS or Sector No. 1 of the Institute of Acoustics, which was closely linked with it): V. I. Il’ichev, member of RAS, Director of the Oceanologic Institute of FED RAS, unfortunately, untimely passed away. V. I. Mazepov, Dr. Tech. Sc. Prof., twice State Prize winner, Honored Worker of Science and Technology, Deputy Director of the Institute of Acoustics. L. M. Lyamshev, Dr. Phys-Math. Sc., Prof., Chairman of Scientific Board of RAS on the problem of “Acoustics,” Editor-in-Chief of the Acoustic Journal, Head of Department at the Institute of Acoustics. V. V. Tyutekin, Dr. Phys-Math. Sc.

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Development of Some Topics in Hydroacoustics at the Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI B. P. GRIGORYEV, V. S. IVANOV, V. A. KOLYSHNITSYN, V. M. PLATONOV, V. N. ROMANOV, A. V. SMOLYAKOV, and V. YE. YAKOVLEV

Imagine a schoolboy sitting in the back-row in class, surrounded by his classmates and having fun playing anagrams or scrabble, discussing the adventures in the latest thriller, and what, where, and at how much one can buy… Does anyone hear the teacher standing in front of the class? A sonarman finds himself in a similar situation trying in vain to hear, against the background of a ship’s own noise and ambient sea noise, the hardly discriminable “voice” of a target ship. In the early 1940s, the principal surveillance methods were radio location and visual observation. Submarines, too, were engaged in “dunking” more than “submersing,” spending more time on the surface. Even the illustrious “attack of the age” by “submariner No. 1” A. I. Marinesco who sank the German liner Wilhelm Gustlow was made with his submarine in main ballast trim (with the midship main ballast tank unfilled). In the course of World War II, hydroacoustic enemy detection systems were finding a wider level of application. The first Soviet submariner to use hydroacoustics for underwater navigation was the commanding officer of submarine M-172, Lieutenant Captain I. I. Fisanovich. As early as 1943 he launched over 60% of his successful attacks with the help of hydroacoustics, using it for both target detection and directing torpedoes.1 It was then that the first measures to improve the operation of hydroacoustic systems were attempted. A surface submarine hunter 373

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would be brought to a full stop; a submarine, in its turn, would settle on the bottom, all mechanisms would be turned off, and every activity of the crew would come to a halt. The first shock-absorbing mounts and acoustic coatings (wedge absorber Fafnir and resonance absorber Alberic) were introduced by the German acoustics specialist Prof. E. Meyer.2 During World War II, the Navy consisted of gun-firing surface ships and diesel torpedo submarines, but today it includes multi-mission nuclear ships with practically unlimited cruising capacity and missile power. Electric power of modern ships has grown more than a hundred times, the speed and submergence depth of submarines have increased significantly, and hydroacoustic systems have become the principal means of target detection in the submerged state. Therefore the task of improving their operating capability has moved to the forefront. The level of noise in their operation has been put on the list of a ship’s main acceptance specifications. The noise level requirements are set by government ordinances and the problem of noise reduction has given rise to an independent, complex research-technical field in the shipbuilding area. The problem of reducing the level of interference of a ship’s acoustic noise with the operation of submarine and surface ship hydroacoustic systems has always been a focus of attention by the leaders of Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI A. I. Voznesensky, G. A. Matveyev, V. V. Dmitriyeva, and the present director of the Institute, Academician of RAS, V. M. Pashin. 1. Organization of the Research into the Problem of Reducing Noise In the 1950s, the country’s first nuclear-powered submarines appeared. With their high underwater speed and practically unlimited cruising capacity they were destined to fulfill operational tasks at a qualitatively new level. Their sonars became the principal means of underwater navigation. For higher secrecy, active submarine sound ranging was strongly limited and passive sonars became the main underwater surveillance facility. In those years most effort was concentrated on the

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problem of noise reduction; the lower the noise, the longer the sonar operating range and the more reliable the detection of low-noise targets. The difficulties the designers of hydroacoustic systems, as well as shipbuilders, faced in the 1950s were related to the lack of understanding of the physical nature of acoustic noise generation in the sonar array dome chamber caused by the carrier ship’s own noise. The inability to overcome this trouble had significant consequences. Noise levels of ships were so high that they prevented the sonars from realizing their design capabilities. The first attempts to evaluate the effect of design factors and dome materials on noise level were made in 1955 in one of the hydrodynamic laboratories of the Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI headed by Dr. Tech. Sc. Prof. A. D. Pernik. Later, at the end of 1959, the director of the Institute, A. I. Voznesensky, organized a new specialized laboratory on its site and included it in the structure of the new Acoustics Department. At that time, such founders of home marine acoustics as L. Ya. Gutin, I. I. Klyukin, and N. G. Belyakovsky worked in the Department. Dr. Tech. Sc. Prof. V. S. Petrovsky, a talented researcher and organizer, was placed in charge of the laboratory and, with time, managed to turn it into a strong creative body of devoted enthusiasts. The scientific school he created resulted in 10 doctors of science and over 30 candidates of science. This laboratory grew to become a research department led by V. S. Petrovsky, with such bright representatives of shipbuilding science as Dr. Tech. Sc. Prof. A. D. Pernik, Dr. Tech. Sc. Prof. V. S. Ivanov, and Cand. Tech. Sc. Yu. A. Nikolsky as head of its laboratories. Later, after one more reorganization of the acoustic section of the Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI, the problems of reducing ship’s acoustic noise remained the subject of investigations. This large specialized laboratory, which continues working today, was headed in different years by Dr. Tech. Sc. Prof. V. S. Ivanov, Dr. Tech. Sc. Prof. A. D. Pernik, Dr. Tech. Sc. A. V. Ponomaryov, Dr. Tech. Sc. D. D. Plakhov, Cand. Tech. Sc. B. P. Grigoryev, and Cand. Tech. Sc. V. A. Kolyshnitsyn. The laboratory of ship’s acoustic noise was conceived and is functioning at present as a complex research division. Specialists studying the peculiarities of the formation of ship’s noise and developing

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methods for its reduction, as well as those designing sonar array dome constructions, combining compliance with the acoustic and strength requirements, were brought to work together in this laboratory. The versatility of the problems they address, which stood at the crossroads of three classical disciplines in science; hydrodynamics, construction mechanics, and acoustics, attracted talented specialists to this organization, among them graduates of many of Leningrad’s higher educational establishments. Such celebrated Russian scientists as Dr. Tech. Sc. Prof. V. T. Lyapunov, Dr. Tech. Sc. Prof. V. S. Ivanov, Dr. Tech. Sc. A. K. Novikov, Dr. Tech. Sc. Prof. A. V. Smolyakov, Dr. Tech. Sc. Yu. P. Levkovsky, Dr. Tech. Sc. Prof. V. N. Romanov, Dr. Tech. Sc. D. D. Plakhov, Dr. Tech. Sc. V. I. Yevseyev, Dr. Tech. Sc. V. Yu. Kirpichnikov, and others grew professionally in this laboratory. Many of them, leaving the laboratory for one or another reason, later became heads of large research organizations; the majority of them continue efficiently working today. 2. Some Characteristics of the Work on the Problem of Reducing a Submarine’s Self-Noise One of the principal tasks set to the laboratory created at the Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI in 1960 was to develop techniques and methods to reduce a submarine’s own acoustic noise from interfering with the operation of its sonars. The main line of activities of the laboratory was gathering information on the physical nature of the processes of noise formation. Proceeding from this information, work was carried out on developing and studying the design of sonar array domes as the main structural element responsible for the noise. Beginning in 1961, the level of a ship’s own noise became one of the characteristics by which the acoustic properties of a submarine were evaluated. This resulted in the development of several generations of techniques for the theoretical estimation of noise levels. These techniques were then refined as hydroacoustic systems developed and a deeper understanding of the processes of noise generation resulted. The acoustic portion of such techniques was developed by groups of

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researchers under the guidance of Dr. Tech. Sc. Prof. V. S. Ivanov and Dr. Tech. Sc. Prof. V. N. Romanov. The first technique was implemented in 1966; it embraced acquiring knowledge of the processes of noise formation and the methods for its reduction that had been developed. For the first time this technique gave the designers an opportunity to predict the values of the noise field in the forward array dome chamber, which at submarine commissioning was measured by non-directional hydrophones. When ship-mounted extended arrays were included in sonar systems, research began in 1971 aimed at reducing the noise of these arrays. Work conducted in the 1960s to the early 1970s resulted in developing noise prevention measures concerning both the design of sonar array domes and the architecture and construction of submarines in general. Underwater noise and submarine hull vibrations were reduced and the arrangement of submarine compartments was changed. Simultaneously with the development of techniques for design estimation of noise field levels, the acoustic characteristics of domes of different construction and from different materials were investigated; this work served as the basis for many further design developments of sonar array domes. Submarine designers put the results of such work in practice long before the above research was completed. As a result, beginning in 1967, noise levels in the commissioned nuclear submarines were reduced several times. For the first time, sonar array domes of new design, with a smaller number of stiffening ribs, were used in submarines. The need for reducing their number from the point of view of increasing acoustic transparency was justified by specialists of CRI Morfizpribor, and from the point of view of reducing a ship’s own acoustic noise of hydrodynamic origin, by specialists of Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI. Introduction of such structures in submarines was carried out following research into ways to ensure their strength. The effectiveness of reducing the number of stiffening ribs was successfully confirmed over the entire period of refining the structure of domes in submarines of several generations. However, in the course of developing this recommendation, the opinions of many

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researchers working on the problems of dome design development were confrontational. One group believed that the presence of stiffening ribs in the dome shell equally influences both the ambient noise and the acoustic transparency, therefore the signal-to-noise ratio remains unchanged. Others assumed that decreasing the number of ribs and dome structure damping gives an advantage in terms of this ratio. In the long run, the latter point of view found confirmation in the process of development of the theory of sound emission by complex structures. In the course of development of the techniques for design evaluation of noise and recommendations for its reduction, along with broad-scale theoretical investigations, complex laboratory research was performed at the systems in the Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI (on model and mock-up dome structures in the hydroacoustic test basin; in the “underwater jet” installation in which the conditions of dome excitation on a submarine by a water jet were simulated). Investigations were also carried out in semi-full-scale conditions on large mock-ups and models (in the Black Sea branch of the Institute on a large-scale mock-up of a submarine compartment, on the surfacing vehicle Delfin, in the Ladoga test range of CRI Morfizpribor). The first achievements in reducing noise pointed to the need for a comprehensive investigation of its characteristics and identification of the main sources of noise in full-scale trials. In 1968–1970, advanced full-scale trials of the leading and the first seriesproduced submarines of the new generation took place in the Barents Sea. Trials were carried out under the supervision of Chief Engineer of the Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI, Dr. Tech. Sc. Prof. G. A. Matveyev (later, Director of the Institute). The trials not only helped to identify the characteristics and the sources of noise in different operating modes of the submarines of the time, but also provided an opportunity to evaluate the efficiency of noise-reducing measures and structures including sonar domes. The trials were preceded by thorough preparatory work. Programs and methodology for the work were developed, distributed systems of non-directional hydrophones were installed on submarines in sonar dome chambers and in the between-hull space — a rather laborconsuming job, by the way.

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Job Supervisor G. A. Matveyev held regular meetings where specialists in different fields discussed their ideas. It was a mutually beneficial process. The trial program that was envisaged consisted of testing the usefulness of new ideas. It was this process that lead to the formation of a scientific school of comprehensive submarine trials. In the course of conducting trials on this scale, when the latestdesign nuclear submarines meant for front-line duty had to be retracted from service, the trial leadership faced a problem with the commands of naval bases who did not understand the importance of their work. Using various pretexts, the commanders refused to provide submarines for trials from their “golden store.” The Institute’s specialists had met before with this attitude about conducting trials using naval craft in active service. The solution to the problem in this particular case was resolved with surprising speed. Directly from the Northern Fleet headquarters, G. A. Matveyev called Minister of Shipbuilding Industry, B. Ye. Butoma. The Minister, in his turn, called the Commander-inChief, and in a short time the required submarines were provided. We note that B. Ye. Butoma paid serious attention to the results of the trials. With a pencil in his hand, he studied very carefully the bulky report on the subject and took all necessary steps to introduce the proposed recommendations into submarine projects. In the period that followed it was not necessary for the Minister to intervene again. The naval services came to understand the importance of the work done by the Institute; even more so when they saw the practical utility of the work. Situations similar to this became more and more rare in the course of trials of the new generation of diesel-electric submarines. In one case, during a cruise, the trial group leader asked the captain to remove the second crew, which was sitting comfortably on the roomy torpedo deck and making unnecessary noise, from the forward compartment. The captain asked for an explanation, reluctant to take the trouble of satisfying the request. Then the representative of the Institute simply drew a wrench along the side of the torpedo tube, thus not only illustrating the validity of his request, but also causing an angry protest from the central control compartment. The wild reaction to the noise of a working electric razor pressed to the same tube was so prompt that from

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that time on the captain complied implicitly with all the requirements of the test team. The story of development of the techniques for evaluating the design of the level of a ship’s noise is closely linked to the concept of measurement of the level of this noise. Up to the mid-1970s, it was an accepted rule that, for objective control of noise in dome chambers of sonar main arrays, non-directional hydrophones should be installed with the idea that noise levels would be determined during the course of the submarine’s service. For this purpose, a noise control device, GIA-109, was designed under the guidance of Dr. Tech. Sc. A. K. Novikov and brought to series production. But development of hydroacoustics necessitated predicting the level of noise “perceived” by the sonar itself. In addition to the noise, the values of noise correlations are important. This concept was reflected in the respective regulations distributed in 1989 and made compulsory for all shipbuilding enterprises and the Navy. Until the mid-1970s, prediction was made of the expected levels of noise field (for the forward and side arrays) according to the techniques developed and introduced by the Institute. Since the late 1970s, techniques were proposed for the theoretical estimation of a ship’s noise at the sonar output. At the same time, for sonar designers, this called forth the need for the creation and application of a special control-and-measuring device for direct measurement of array sensitivity in the course of trials and the development and incorporation of special interference control and measuring devices in sonar systems. Thus the need for measuring the noise level in the sonar main array dome chambers was eliminated. Recently, however, for objective control of the ambient noise field, a noise control unit comprising nondirectional hydrophones has been incorporated in the new-generation of sonar designs. Further refinement of submarine hydroacoustic equipment resulted in more profound and comprehensive investigation of the characteristics and laws of generation of the noise that interfers with sonar operations. Better physical and mathematical models of a ship’s acoustic noise generation were developed, and more effective measures to suppress this noise in submarines were proposed and taken. The

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ultimate goal of these efforts was to ensure that the ship’s acoustic noise levels are commensurate with, or considerably lower, than the ambient sea noise levels. This work began under the guidance of Dr. Tech. Sc. V. N. Romanov and Dr. Tech. Sc. V. S. Ivanov in the early 1970s and continued successfully into the mid-1980s and later. A considerable contribution to the problem of reducing acoustic noise in submarines was made by specialists of the Institute (not named earlier), in alphabetical order: A. S. Vasilyev, M. N. Kuzmichev, A. V. Marushkin, I. A. Oberten, Yu. I. Petrov, V. M. Platonov, A. V. Prokofyeva, G. B. Sukharev, and many others, who in different years actively and creatively participated in this work with the support of specialists from the Naval RI, Acad. N. N. Andreyev ACIN, design bureaus and shipbuilding plants. The road to success was not a path strewn with roses. It may sound strange, but the problem of noise reduction became more acute every time a new, improved sonar system was introduced on submarines of a new design. Each time the new equipment revealed sources of noise that had not been found earlier. After successes in developing the technique for evaluation of a ship’s noise levels and introducing recommendations for noise reduction on ships, the Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI specialists, at one of the meetings at CRI Morfizpribor, asserted that the major part of noise interfering with sonar system operation on submarines of the next generation, at sea disturbance of 3–4 points (average probability over the world’s oceans, of about 40%), will be due to ambient sea noise rather than the ship’s own noise. The immediate response of CRI Morfizpribor specialists was “No! Impossible! Are you leaving us alone to fight with the noise?” But the most far-sighted of them, including chief designer of a new sonar system, V. A. Kakalov, took this into account and did everything possible for maximum improvement of sea noise “filtration” by their sonar. In this respect, this sonar system presents today a very efficient development of CRI Morfizpribor (here, the author refers to the sonar system Skat-3 — Ed.). Before this discussion occurred, in the course of trials, when a previous-generation sonar was being introduced on submarines,

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CRI Morfizpribor specialists revealed considerable noise field levels and inhomogeneities in the submarine forward dome chamber. The Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry (MSI) called a representatives meeting at the submarine deployment site. Specialists of the Institute were also invited. It was proposed that in the shortest possible time they should find the source of the detected noise and develop recommendations for its suppression. The team organized for this purpose included specialists from the main designer’s bureau. It turned out that, due to an increase in sonar system sensitivity and reduction in the level of the ship’s own noise from traditional sources in the forward compartment (fans), there became perceivable the contribution to noise made by such low-power sources as the gas analyzer whose air intake system was located in the storage battery recess pit, and several more systems in the pit. All these devices were installed on the fore bulwark of the forward compartment’s strong hull. Prompt measures were taken to introduce efficient means of noise suppression, and the problem was solved. A considerable amount of work was carried out on the type Bars submarine (Chief Designer G. N. Chernyshev) in the course of commissioning of the Skat-3 sonar system. Work began in autumn 1984 and lasted, with interruptions, almost 4 years — and during all that time, with the orders arriving from the authorities, the intensity of work and the deadlines set for their fulfillment in the initial period, the effort resembled fighting a fire by a fire team rather than just routine technical work. Work began by analyzing a quite unpleasant circumstance; when the acceptance procedure of a submarine was coming to an end, the first subsystem of a sonar system put to trials started showing faulty operation when the speed exceeded 10 knots. Deputy Institute Director Dr. Tech. Sc. Prof. G. A. Khoroshev, B. P. Grigoryev and A. S. Vasilyev were immediately sent to eliminate the problem. Very quickly, the commission led by B. P. Grigoryev found that the physical mechanism causing the trouble was primarily the unique capabilities of the sonar system. They were given full freedom in setting the program of trials, restricted by the requirements of safety only, and ample support to conducting the trials from the shipbuilding plant.

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The ultimate success that was achieved was quite significant in that it was achieved with the predicted — and therefore more spectacular — recovery of operation of the subsystem at high submarine speeds by opening the torpedo tube door (an operation that seemed, to nonspecialists, totally unrelated to the problem). The chairman of the commission and some specialists could not enjoy this success to the full because they saw that the equipment for preliminary sonar system signal processing needed modification. This circumstance resulted in the commission’s work on analyzing the results lasting till the end of 1984 in a rather nervous atmosphere. Another situation, full of emotional and sometimes funny interaction occurred in connection with a sonar system commissioning in the autumn of 1985. After all modifications made to the equipment, it was found in the course of submarine control cruise that the levels of sonar system noise had increased by more than an order of magnitude, and the audio-frequency control channel was classifying the signal as cracking due to dome destruction. The commission, which was led by V. S. Ivanov, in which B. P. Grigoryev, V. N. Romanov and A. S. Vasilyev were additionally included was charged with analyzing the situation. Specialists first agreed with the proposed hypothesis of “dome cracking”, but B. P. Grigoryev, who had joined the commission later, convinced V. S. Ivanov that the commission should act otherwise; it was necessary to request the plant to look into and test another possible reason; the cracking might have been caused by dome bombardment by vortices formed by fouling of its surface. Even though the majority of specialists and the Plant leadership considered this suggestion unfeasible, it was finally accepted. As a result, after a diver cleaned the surface and a control cruise was made, the issue was brought to a close. The combination of high acoustic performance characteristics of the submarine and the new sonar system led to a situation where even a minor submarine service defect resulted in an abrupt change in the noise situation. For this reason, work by the Institute’s specialists on revealing the sources and normalizing the noise situation lasted until the moment of sonar system acceptance by the customer.

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Due to the abrupt decrease in the levels of ship’s own noise in submarines in recent years, more attention became drawn to other “nontraditional” noise sources, which sonar system operators often mistook for false targets. One such source turned out to be acoustic waves on the dome chamber coming from stern viewing angles and caused by diffraction of sea noise acting on the submarine hull at the border of the dome-to-outer hull joint. Another source of false targets was found to be reflections inside the dome chamber by the dome’s inner surface of sound coming from nearby strong noise-generating sources. The sonar system recorders showed false tracks and indicators displayed false marks. It was established that the intensity of tracks and marks depended primarily on the dome shape; for a dome shape close to a body of revolution, false tracks and marks were less visible than for domes with areas of increased radius of curvature. The latter were characteristic of submarines that were comparatively small in hull diameter, where in the forward part the main sonar system array of large diameter and height was installed. Domes from glass-reinforced plastic as well as from two-layer titanium of the shape of a body of revolution resulted in hardly visible false tracks and marks. Another case occurred during trials of a low-noise, diesel-electric submarine. Due to the low level of the vessel’s own noise, the sonar system installed on it responded to nontraditional noise. The main source of this was located overboard in the region of the bow rudders. When these rudders were turned in the position for surfacing, the socalled Karman vortex sheet ran off the rudder’s lower edges and hit the flood port with lateral shutters. Naturally, it excited the shutters, and the forward end vibrated and, consequently, the sonar system noise grew to considerable levels. Such a mechanism of noise generation in the course of commissioning of this type of craft seemed evident to the Institute’s specialists from the very beginning, but representatives of the Navy held the opinion that it had been due to insufficient strengthening of the outer hull and therefore insisted that additional spacers should be installed between the submarine outer and pressure hulls. Despite violent objections by the Institute’s representatives, the MSI first Department decided to

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install spacers and close the flood port. After the respective measures were taken, extended submarine trials were conducted. Trials were supervised by specialists from the Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI. The commission on the side of the Institute was headed by V. S. Ivanov, and V. N. Romanov was head of the trial party. Hydrophones were installed in the submarine forward end to measure the noise levels. Simultaneously noise was measured at the sonar system output. The trials were successful, and in the serially produced submarines of this design no spacers between the outer and pressure hulls appeared. An interesting situation occurred during commissioning of the first towed array on one of the submarines, when specialists saw high noise levels in the form of a “palisade” of discrete components with the pulserepetition intervals corresponding to the number of drum revolutions of the array extension system winch. The commissioning party immediately suggested that the cause might be in the winch vibration, and this implied the necessity to identify and suppress this new source of noise. A commission from MSI was appointed, with the Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI specialist V. N. Romanov at the head, which conducted a series of experiments on a submarine moored at the pier. Experiments showed that the noise was coming from inside the sonar system with the towed array. At last, it was found that the trouble was in “beats” of the current collector, through which the signal from the array was transmitted to inside the submarine. Measurements showed that, as a result of noise level reduction in the sonar systems frequency range, the low-frequency noise spectrum considerably exceeded the preliminary estimate of CRI Morfizpribor. Sonar system developers were compelled to carry out a great amount of labor-intensive work on matching the sonar system frequency response with the actual noise parameters. As is can be seen from the above examples, as the levels of ship’s own noise were being reduced with the efforts of specialists from the Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI and other organizations, it became necessary to cope with a great number of “nontraditional” sources, which were not taken into account during the submarine design phase. Really, in fighting noise, the path to success was a thorny one.

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3. The Principal Characteristics of the Work on Reducing Acoustic Noise on Surface Ships Systematic research into the noise of surface ships began in the mid1960s. To a considerable extent it is due to the design work, and in some cases, construction of a series of new antisubmarine ships and their new sonars. Despite the fact that submarines and surface ships have much in common as far as the laws of noise formation are concerned, the correlation and value of single noise components and the noise sources vary significantly. This is explained by both the design features of surface ships and submarines, and by the differences in the operating frequencies of their sonars. As a result of the research performed under the supervision of Dr. Tech. Sc. D. D. Plakhov, who has suffered an untimely death, for the first time a simplified (by today’s standards) technique of noise calculation of bulbous domes for surface ships was developed. This technique was based on both theoretical research into sound diffraction by screens of the dome’s stern part, and on the empirical dependences obtained in the course of full-scale trials of the first home bulbous dome for a prototype sonar equipped with a large-size cylindrical array. Trials were performed on a destroyer adapted for the purpose. For the first time bulbous-shaped forward ends were used on civilian craft, on tankers in particular, for reducing resistance, that is, increasing speed, with the same power on the propulsion shaft. In the bulbous dome design, a number of complex scientific-technical problems on ensuring acoustic transparency of the dome with preserving its strength was solved, particularly for the case of slamming, that is, when the dome hits the water in rough seas. The results of trials showed high noise resistance of such domes ensuring not less than 3 times reduction in noise compared with old keel domes. The trial participants remember the 32-h continuous work in winter, inside an unheated, damp dome. The situation was desperate. They had to promptly eliminate troubles in the equipment they used caused by a pressure seal failure. They even ate inside the dome, to save time. After such work, the participants later abstained from taking this set of equipment for trials.

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At the same time, our Institute, jointly with CRI Morfizpribor, was engaged in research into the opportunities for using a sonar having side arrays. For this purpose, on one of the destroyers in the Far East, a special extended dome (approximately 2/3 of the hull length) was installed on one side of the vessel. Several dozen hydrophones and vibration pick-ups were arranged inside the dome. The spectral and correlation characteristics of the acoustic field inside the dome, of the dome envelope and hull shell vibrations under different conditions of ship movement and ship’s systems and mechanisms operation were thoroughly studied. It was a unique experiment that helped to gather much information on the peculiarities of formation of an acoustic field near the ship’s hull. Work was supervised by Dr. Phys-Math. Sc. V. I. Klyachkin. Among other participants in the experiment were G. I. Usoskin, V. V. Yakovlev, P. A. Sokolova, V. Ye. Yakovlev, V. M. Bolgov, and many other workers from CRI Morfizpribor and Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI. With interruptions, the trials lasted 2 years. It should be noted here that the body of researchers involved in the problem of noise from Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI consisted of very young people (the majority of them under 30, including heads of sections). The problem was new, underinvestigated, and offered vast opportunities for creative effort. It was the attitude of the young researchers that allowed the Institute’s leadership to successfully cope with the problem in a relatively short time. From the 1960s to the early 1970s, a problem rose concerning the certification of a unified technique (for surface ships and submarines) for noise level measurement and control. For a long time there had existed no single point of view on the methods of noise level measurement. Hydroacoustic engineers engaged in sonar design believed that noise level at the output of the sonar reception and amplification channel must be measured, while ship’s soundmen preferred to measure noise with the use of a non-directional hydrophone. The fact is that measurements at the sonar channel output converted to directional array output using the electroacoustic response and array directional gain, and non-directional hydrophone measurements yielded different results, which in some cases diverged by up to 10 dB. In these cases

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the hydrophones provided lower values. The divergence was caused by differences in the spatial structure of the dome and diffuse fields due to the presence of intensive “running” components. Besides, the techniques of experimental determination of receiving channel electroacoustic response were not aimed at reliable response measurement exactly by the directivity pattern maximum. Reception channel response (of the array, in particular) was regarded as a nonnormalized quantity, since it did not influence the signal-to-noise ratio at array output. The requirement as to a minimum value concerned excess of electrical signal at array output, equivalent to sea noise at 2-point disturbance, over electrical noise by a value not less than 10 dB, which was easily attainable. In the process of investigation into the subject, with the direct participation of RI of the Navy — P. I. Pavlenko, Yu. I. Volchkov and others, mutually co-ordinated techniques for noise measurement and the determination of the response to the sonar receiving channel were developed under full-scale trials conditions. These made possible significant improvement in measurement reliability and reliability of noise level control at the output of the sonar receiving channels. Later, measurements with non-directional hydrophones were resorted to for research purposes only. The most valuable contribution to this work was made by workers of Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI Dr. Tech. Sc. A. K. Novikov, I. M. Kuznetsova, and V. M. Strelkova. Simultaneously work was carried out on the further refinement of techniques for noise calculation and on the development of recommendations for noise reduction. For this purpose, a large-scale (1:5) mock-up of the new antisubmarine ship Salgir was made in Kerch at the Zaliv Shipbuilding Plant. The model was used to investigate screening of the propeller noise by the ship’s hull and a screen (cofferdam) in the dome stern part, the spatial structure of field in the dome under the action of propeller noise, the laws of vibration propagation over the hull, and noise from the equipment located close to it. A full-scale mock-up of the forward part of a large-size dome with a cofferdam for sound insulation from propeller noise was also manufactured. This mock-up, together with the mock-up of an array, was investigated at the Ladoga Test Range of CRI Morfizpribor with the

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use of the test ship Neman. Propeller noise was simulated with the help of an electroacoustic transmitter. The information obtained during experimental work, together with the results of respective theoretical investigations and full-scale trials of several ships with new sonars, provided an opportunity to propose a new technique for noise calculation. This technique, based mainly on the experimentally confirmed theoretical research, allowed ship designers to evaluate the efficiency of vibroacoustic protection for different ship layouts and arrangement of sonar arrays. The greatest creative contribution to this work was made by D. D. Plakhov, V. Ye. Yakovlev, V. M. Bolgov, V. Z. Goldovsky, O. V. Yarygin, A. N. Korovkin, T. D. Rozhinova, and others. For ship commissioning, beside noise measurement and control techniques, the shipbuilding Plants needed a procedure for revealing noise sources in case the measured values exceeded specifications. Such a technique, based on the dependence of noise levels on ship speed (propeller rpm) while stationary and underway, on angular dependences of noise levels for different array orientations in the horizontal plane, and on analysis of modulation components (the noise envelope spectrum), was compiled under the guidance of Dr. Tech. Sc. A. K. Novikov with the participation of G. A. Chunovkin, I. M. Kuznetsova, V. M. Strelkova, and others. It should be noted that often the process of noise source identification presents a complicated and time-consuming procedure due to the diversity of noise sources and the causes of excessive noise. It often happened in practice that an unfastened or bent log tube passing inside the dome, or bolts and nuts left inside after array installation, various dents and swellings in the dome shell and the adjoining sections of hull became sources of noise. In the second half of the 1970s, detailed research into the following subjects was carried out: propeller noise diffraction by hull structures (D. D. Plakhov), transmission directivity of surface ship equipment noise (V. M. Bolgov); sonar directional array sensitivity to propellers and mechanisms for noise diffraction by the cofferdam (V. Ye. Yakovlev); the laws of noise formation by arrays in a towed body (A. N. Korovkin). Together with investigation into the laws of formation of noise caused by flow carried out by respective specialists

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for submarines, work was completed on developing techniques for calculation of noise at the directional array output. The calculation technique developed in the late 1970s remains applicable today. Due to the application of sound-insulating, sound-absorbing, and vibrationdampening coatings designed for submarines and, in some cases, for surface ships, as well as vibration-insulating units for the dome-to-hull joints (a great contribution to creation and theoretical evaluation of these measures was made by Dr. Tech. Sc. V. T. Lyapunov, who died in the prime of a creative life), and reducing a ship’s overall noisiness, noise levels were reduced by 30 dB, and for bulbous domes, came to be determined by the hydrodynamic flow noise only. From the late 1970s, the efforts of specialists were mainly concentrated on creating noise-proof dome structures and systems for active suppression of noise from propellers and equipment (for keel arrays). Cand. Tech. Sc. B. P. Grigoryev carried out this work. Equipment and single units and structures were designed, varying in thickness, composition, and methods and materials used for reinforcement. Tests were carried out on specially designed impact and three-dimensional test stands. Dr. Tech. Sc. V. N. Romanov and Cand. Tech. Sc. A. V. Vasilyev investigated the problems of noise emission under the action of turbulent pressure fluctuations. Regretfully, even though a full-scale mockup had been manufactured, work was never completed due to the complicated technology required for the manufacture of large-size structures of double curvature. V. Z. Goldovsky carried out a program of theoretical justification and practical implementation of a system of active noise suppression for keel arrays. Mock-up tests displayed the efficiency of this system. The manufactured prototype, however, remained unique. Political changes that took place in the early 1990s in the former USSR and the economic crisis in Russia put an end to this and all other work of this nature. Work on noise reduction on fishing ships deserves special comment. The shrinking fish reserves in the seas adjacent to the USSR required that the fishing fleet explore new regions of the world’s oceans. Efficient catching operation is possible only when there is information about the location of fish schools. The available echo sounders were capable of detecting a school under the ship bottom only, that is, when the ship

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was passing over it. Naturally, in the high seas of the world’s oceans, such instruments were inefficient. A series of fishery sonars with horizontal scanning, for use on different-displacement ships, was designed. In those years no measures were taken to reduce noise and vibration on fishing ships and the equipment installed on them, and the expected noise levels specified in the design documentation were found to be underestimated. The first acoustic trials of a fishing ship, a freezer trawler (design 394 DSFT), took place in summer 1968 in Sevastopol. For the first time, V. Ye. Yakovlev and T. D. Rozhinova obtained experimental data on underwater noise characteristics and ship vibrations. Flow noise was not detected due to the low speeds and high sonar working frequencies. Concrete recommendations for improving the operating conditions of fish sonars that required no large financial expeditures were developed. The young specialists V. Z. Goldovsky and O. V. Yarygin continued work in this area into the early 1970s. After a series of investigations on different ships (design 503 MWFT, type Gorizont DSFT, design 393 whaler), they considerably facilitated the commissioning of both the ships and the fishery sonars. The design of a stationary dome with a spherical cofferdam-screen for the sonar Finval proposed by them provided an opportunity to reduce noise by 30 dB at the ship’s maximum speed. For this work they were awarded the Lenin Komsomol Prize in the field of science and technology for 1978. 4. On the History of Research on Hydrodynamic Noise Recorded by Ship-Mounted Sonars In the mid-1950s, a group from Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI conducted full-scale experiments on a diesel-electric submarine in the Black Sea. The purpose of the experiments was to determine the level of cavitation noise caused by propeller operation. One of the measurement methods used was the so-called “run-down” mode. The ship’s main power plant was shut down; the ship continued moving for some time by inertia, gradually losing speed. At the moment of power plant disengagement, the propeller cavitation noise disappeared completely, but the ship-mounted sonar continued registering some relatively weak

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noise at low speed in the run-down mode; the noise gradually faded as the ship’s speed dropped. It took time to understand the physical nature of this noise, but from the very beginning it was known that its level is proportional to approximately the second or third power of the ship’s speed, and that such noise is of much lower frequency than the cavitation noise. In the process of discussing this new, strange phenomenon, A. D. Pernik suggested (and his suggestion was later confirmed) that the noise in question was caused by acoustic transmission from the sonar array dome shell excited by turbulent pressure fluctuations in the boundary layer, and the higher the velocity of the incident flow, the more intensive the noise. This noise component was later called hydrodynamic noise (HN). The name points to the hydrodynamic or turbulent origin of the noise. In 1956–1957, different tendencies in fleet development were analyzed with a view toward determining the practical value of the recently discovered HN. In estimating the contribution of cavitation noise to the total noise level, improvements in propeller design and the increase in diving depth of submarines were taken into account. Expected dramatic increases in speed of prospective vessels were taken into consideration as well since this also led to an increased contribution of HN to the total noise field. Several other factors were accounted for as well (electric noise, noise and vibrations of main and auxiliary mechanisms, stricter requirements on detection range, etc.). Based on the results of analyses, it was concluded that HN might be expected to become one of the significant obstacles in efficient operation of hydroacoustic systems on ships already being designed or expected to be designed in the near future. Thus an urgent need arose to begin, without delay, a comprehensive investigation into the physical aspects of HN with a view toward developing efficient methods of level reduction, and ensuring these methods are taken into account in the new designs of naval ships. In 1959, a special research department was organized at Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI for addressing this problem. Cand. Tech. Sc. (later, Dr. Tech. Sc. Prof.) V. S. Petrovsky, A. D. Pernik’s disciple, has chosen to be the department’s head. The nucleus of the new department

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initially included a small group of specialists from different fields including Yu. G. Blyudze, A. V. Smolyakov, N. K. Andreyev, and A. A. Punin. Another department, in some respects similar to the above, but charged with somewhat narrower goals, was created in Moscow at the Acad. N. N. Andreyev Institute of Acoustics under the guidance of Prof. L. M. Lyamshev. Theoretical work by him in the area of flow noise contributed much to the development of the topic. Later, in connection with the vital importance of the new investigations, V. S. Petrovsky’s department was turned into a large research center, well equipped and having a staff of several dozen highly qualified specialists. In the importance of the results achieved, the new research center very quickly stood up to, and, in some respects, exceeded similar centers abroad, such as the Southampton Center (England) and the David Taylor Basi Laboratory (USA). However, the initial stages of work on HN faced difficulties, as often happens with new undertakings. In this connection, V. S. Petrovsky, paraphrasing Kozma Prutkov, made a pithy remark, “A good affair would never be called noise.” The major difficulties in the initial stage were connected with a practically complete absence of facilities suitable for investigating turbulent flow noise. Due to the high levels of laboratory noise, multiple hydro- and aerodynamic installations at the Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI (test basins, open-top circulating water channels, cavitation and aerodynamic tubes) constructed for solving traditional problems on resistance to ship movement proved to be inapplicable for solving new problems at the junction of acoustics and hydrodynamics. The way these difficulties were overcome will be discussed a bit later. It is only necessary to note here that, in the initial stages, one more principal circumstance had to be dealt with as well. It was connected with the need for correctly defining the scope of the problems to be solved, and particularly, a need to find rational interrelations between the problems. The scientific-technical profile of specialists needed for solving these problems was determined with regard for the problems posed. The same scope of problems also set the internal structure of the new research center. By the end of the 1950s, a concept was worked out, according to which investigations into HN influence on sonar operation had, like

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on three whales, to rest on three principal areas of scientific-research closely linked with one another in practical application: statistical turbulence, the acoustics of shells, and the strength of shells. The first of these areas ensured development of a means for reducing the levels of turbulent pressure fluctuations in the sonar boundary layer. The second one ensured investigation of the processes of dome excitation by turbulent fluctuations and subsequent transmission by the dome of an HN acoustic field, as well as developing recommendations for improvement of sonar dome design. Inclusion of the third area was determined by strength requirements for sonar domes as a strongly loaded ship’s structure, combined with the requirement for acoustic transparency — which meant that they had to be sufficiently thin. The search for ways to comply with these two contradicting requirements made strength specialists come to a delicate compromise with the acoustics specialists. As a result, the new subdivision attracted specialists in the three main areas of hydromechanics, acoustics, and strength of materials. The internal structure of the subdivision naturally reflected this “trinity”, that is, its research sections were respectively engaged in investigating flow turbulence near a dome, dome acoustics, and dome strength. All three sections cooperated closely. As the experience of the years that followed shows, this structural organization was justified and has been preserved in its major form until today. As noted, the high noise levels of experimental systems of the early 1960s made them inapplicable for investigation of turbulent flow noise. In 1962, a large-scale marine mock-up, similar to the Skuchik and Hadle mock-ups, but with considerably more efficient characteristics was built. Its movement was accompanied by no other noise except the flow noise being investigated. It represented an elongated body of revolution having positive buoyancy in the submerged state, and, hence, the capability of independent surfacing from deep depths where it was placed with the help of a system of submerged ropes. After being submerged to a depth of 200–250 m, the mock-up automatically disengaged from the rope system and started surfacing vertically under the action of the buoyancy force. This force was sufficient to ensure a rise speed at the surface of 20–25 m/s. Turbulent pressure fluctuations

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on the mock-up surface were picked up by piezoceramic transducers installed flush with the mock-up’s hull lining, and recorded on magnetic tape in an instrumentation unit placed inside the mock-up and operating in an autonomous mode. Turbulent noise inside the mock-up and hull vibrations registered by hydrophones and vibration pick-ups were also recorded by this unit. External acoustic control was carried out by a system of hydrophones located at sea in the area where the mock-up surfaced and the recorded signals were transmitted for processing to the coastal laboratory over an underwater cable. Cand. Tech. Sc. V. M. Tkachenko played a leading role in designing, manufacturing, operating, and undertaking multiple modernizations of the sea mock-up. Since it was named Delfin, Tkachenko’s colleagues often jestingly referred to him as “the father of Russian dolphin building.” Truly, the mock-up, as it emerged from depth, breaking up the surface, resembled a dolphin gamboling in water, with one difference: dolphins jump out from water to a maximum height of 5–8 m, while the Delfin mock-up, coming up at a speed of 25 m/s, made it to a height of over 30 m, which corresponds to an 8–10 story house. An impressive sight! A funny incident occurred in this connection. From a beach 1 km away from the test area, people could see the mock-up jump and were lost in conjecture over what it might be. Since in those years no information about experiments was published, fantastic rumors were circulated. A popular opinion among vacationers was that those might be faulty underwater launches of space rockets. Faulty because every time the rocket falls back into the water. “I counted eight faulty starts,” a young guy said with aplomb to a girl on the beach. “I bet, newspapers, radio and TV will keep mum about that. Who likes to acknowledge setbacks. Not like in America… When a thing like that occurs on Cape Canaveral, everybody learns about it at once.” On that vacation, they were in for many more such “lost space launches.” In 1968, one more unique experimental facility was built; a low-noise aerodynamic tube with variable (including very low) initial turbulence. Due to a unique and quite efficient silencer, the level of ambient laboratory noise in it was lower than in common aerodynamic

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tubes by approximately 40 dB, and the degree of turbulence was less by a factor of 20–25. Cand. Tech. Sc. V. A. Kolyshnitsyn played the principal role in engineering and construction of the low-noise aerodynamic tube, in developing the technique of performing measurements in it, and obtaining primary experimental results. The marine mock-up Delfin and the low-noise aerodynamic tube supplemented each other in investigations of turbulent sources of hydrodynamic noise. Under the guidance of V. N. Romanov, later conferred a Dr. Tech. Sc. degree, acoustic researchers successfully adapted the Institute’s small test basin for their experiments. Significant amounts of information were also obtained during full-scale ship trials in the course of their commissioning. (In those years shipbuilding plants commissioned many ships — unlike today. It even seemed at times that they were commissioning too many!) Hydromechanics also took advantage of full-scale trials — not so often as acoustics specialists, because for them the trials were an opportunity to verify the results of laboratory work under sea conditions. Earlier we mentioned the organization, development, and work of a research center engaged in study of flow noise at the Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI. This is the leading scientific school in Russia and abroad addressing the flow noise of bodies moving in water. The school’s area of interest includes investigation of pressure fluctuations on fluid boundaries, acoustic emission by fluid flow, vibration and acoustic fields generated by turbulence on a deployed body. Investigations in these fields have continued for more than 35 years. During this period fundamental results have been obtained on the structure of turbulent wall pressures, acoustic radiation generated by turbulent fields having large Reynolds and small Mach numbers, the acoustic fields of different structures excited by pressure fluctuations in the boundary layer with account for specific features of such structures. The results were presented in multiple publications in this country and abroad, in reports at scientific seminars, and at conferences and congresses of different levels. Research carried out at the center today is aimed at investigating the physical nature, description in terms of physical and mathematical models, and determining quantitative characteristics of the noise emitted by marine structures. The actual inhomogeneity of the acting turbulent pressures

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is taken into account in the minimization of noise emissions. Research work carried out by the body of scientists finds practical application in ensuring efficient functioning of hydroacoustic systems installed on marine surface and underwater craft of various types. The research work of the scientific school of Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI is specifically oriented toward attaining minimum levels of noise of turbulent origin, simultaneously ensuring compliance with the strict requirements for acoustic transparency of the structures in the flow field. This definitely makes the task more difficult. It should be added that successful work and achievements by this scientific school would have been impossible without the high intellectual level of specialists as well as the really unique experimental systems that allow obtaining experimental data in the laboratory and close to natural conditions that are free from ambient noise. The laws revealed are then verified, and designed structures put to evaluation tests in the course of full-scale trials on marine objects. Unfortunately, for reasons of the limited size of this paper, we have no opportunity to tell about all the specialists working in this center who comprised a rather large scientific school. 5. Development and Refinement of Dome Structures for Sonar Main Arrays A group of specialists to work on the problem of dome strength was formed simultaneously with the organization of a noise laboratory within a section headed by a strength specialist. He was a disciple of Acad. V. V. Novozhilov, Cand. Tech. Sc. V. S. Ivanov. With time, this group turned into an independent dome strength section, at the head of which in different years was Cand. Tech. Sc. G. A. Salomatin, B. P. Grigoryev, Cand. Tech. Sc. M. Yu. Semenov, M. K. Lerri, and Cand. Tech. Sc. A. G. Taubin. Very soon the sonars’ traditional structure (when they were not so big), having a thin-sheet shell reinforced by closely arranged ribs, became unacceptable because of acoustical requirements and the increase in size of the arrays. Improvement of domes design took two directions; changes in the type of ribbed structures and changes in the type of shell.

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Ribs in the form of square-section strips were in most cases replaced by the so-called “open-work,” or trussed ribs. The specific requirement on the trussed ribs in domes is that the cross section of the ribbed structure elements must be minimum. In connection with these ribs, there is a problem of ensuring resistance to deformation of the planar shape. Cand. Tech. Sc. L. Ya. Yukhimuk investigated theoretically and tested experimentally these problems and developed a design scheme. In estimating strength characteristics of dome structures, it was important to take into account their shell properties. M. K. Lerri carried out extensive work in this area. With account for these properties, a trussless construction of a two-layer metal dome was proposed in 1988. The main ideologist of perforated constructions was Cand. Tech. Sc. G. A. Salomatin. He performed extensive experimental and theoretical research that resulted in the development of a design scheme. Cand. Tech. Sc. I. A. Piskovitina investigated the strength and stability of multi-layer structures. She performed extensive theoretical and experimental investigations, which resulted in developing a design diagram for these specific structures. Investigations permitted in 1977 the design of a multi-layer structure from composite materials with a minimum number of ribs. Further refinement of shell design and the methods of the calculation of their strength and stability made possible the design of rib-free dome structures. Since in naval surface ships the domes of sonar main arrays are located generally in the lower part of the ship’s forward end, the designers had to deal with the problem of ensuring their strength when the forward end hits the water in rough sea. Cands. Tech. Sc. B. P. Grigoryev and A. G. Taubin dedicated their theoretical and experimental work to investigation of the behavior of domes hitting water and worked out the respective methods for their design. Experimental research was performed both under conditions of full-scale trials and in laboratory conditions on a specially designed “shock stand” located on the property of the Institute. The main achievement of strength specialists in creating their own specialized experimental base was the commissioning in 1986 of the so-called “3D-stand” facility. The stand allowed the use of largescale models (e.g. dome caps up to 3 m in height and diameter) for

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investigating the strength and stability of dome shells made from different materials, undergoing loading all over their surface applied by different methods and simulating operation under various hydrodynamic and ice conditions. The principal initiators and “brain center” for creation of the “3D-stand” were Cand. Tech. Sc. B. P. Grigoryev, head of the strength section M. K. Lerri and director of the facility V. G. Romanov. Every study carried out by the section terminated in publication of techniques for designing sonar domes for surface ships and submarines. These techniques served as the principal instructions for the design bureaus. It should be noted that the work on new dome construction took place as a result of close co-operation between specialists of Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI, CRI Morfizpribor, and CRI KM Prometei. The result of this cooperation was dozens of inventions, many of which were introduced on surface ships and submarines. So, the process of solving the problem of reducing the level of acoustic noise on submarines and surface ships had its peaks and valleys and was full of struggles over scientific concepts and efforts to overcome difficulties in their technical implementation. But the scientific capability of specialists of Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI and the productive interaction with other enterprises and organizations working in this area (design bureaus, shipbuilding plants, CRI Morfizpribor, Acad. N. N. Andreyev ACIN, Shipbuilding RI and RI of Electronics of the Navy) led to a successful accomplishment of the tasks that were presented. The accumulated research-and-technical knowledge provides prospects for solving problems of own-ship noise and ensuring the required strength of future, nontraditional types of arrays and domes. References 1. V. I. Dmitriyev, Submariners Attack (Podvodniki atakuyut), Military Publishing House, Moscow (1973). 2. I. I. Klyukin, Neptune Deafened (Neptun oglushen), Sudostroyeniye Publishing House (1967).

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SRI Atoll and its Role in the Creation of Stationary Hydroacoustic Facilities for Submarine Surveillance L. SH. GUMEROV

1. The Rise and the Development of the Institute By the 1950s, the Acad. N. N. Andreyev Institute of Acoustics (ACIN) had completed the first phase of research into fundamental and applied hydroacoustics. The time was appropriate to begin development of the second generation of stationary and vessel-mounted hydroacoustic systems for the Navy. If the land passive sonar (LPS) Volkhov designed in the mid-1950s, can be called the stationary sonars (STS) of the first generation, then the stationary sonars Liman and Amur, the design work on which began in the late 1950s, belonged to the LPS of the second generation. Practical implementation of the government order for the creation of these systems was entrusted to CRI Morfizpribor. By the end of the 1960s, the systems Liman (Chief Designer V. S. Kasatkin) and Amur (Chief Designer Ye. Ye. Valfish) were adopted by the Navy under the code designations MGK-607 and MG-517, respectively. In the same period work on the creation of self-contained radiosonic systems (SRS) began at the Kiev RI of Hydrological Instruments (KRI). Simultaneously with stationary submarine surveillance systems, KRI and CRI Morfizpribor worked on the design of shipborne sonars. In connection with fulfillment in the 1960–1970s of a considerable amount of work assigned to them under the program of military shipbuilding, the Leningrad and Kiev Research Institutes were found to

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be overloaded with orders. In addition, they were charged with the creation of STS of the third generation; Liman-M, Liman-K (Chief Designer V. V. Gromkovsky), Agam (Chief Designer Ya. S. Karlik) and Dnestr (Chief Designer R. Kh. Balyan). By the mid-1970s, sufficient research and technical data in the area of applied hydroacoustics were available to ensure the creation of the fourth generation of STS’s. The new equipment featured digital systems for information transfer over extended communication cable lines, computers, digital signal processing, and modern electronic components. By order of the Minister of Shipbuilding Industry of April 14, 1976, the Research Institute Atoll was formed to work on new problems. In a month’s time, the design bureau Akustika in Dubna and the Sukhumi Branch of ACIN were subordinated to the newly organized RI. The objective of the Institute was described in its Charter as follows: creation of software–hardware systems for hydrophysical data acquisition, transfer and processing. Such information was necessary to ensure surveillance and control within the zones of economic interests of the country. Initially, the acting director of RI Atoll was head of the Design Bureau Akustika, V. I. Kostrov. The RI Atoll’s first Director, Dr. Tech. Sc. V. S. Petrovsky, was appointed to this position on July 2, 1976. As of that date, the total number of people employed at the Institute (without the Sukhumi Branch of RI Atoll) was 276. In 1976, the Institute had design, production-dispatching and process-engineering departments and PC-board, electroplating-andpainting, mechanical and assembly shops. Starting with the database from the design bureau Akustika and the Sukhumi Branch, RI Atoll carried out an impressive eight D&D and 10 research projects in its first year. 2. Personnel In the second half of 1976 and continuing into 1977, intensive expansion and development of the Institute continued. During 1977, the

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number of the Institute’s personnel almost doubled. It was in this period that qualified researchers, engineers, and skilled production and personnel managers came to work at the Institute, many of whom later became heads of research and production departments and the Institute’s leading specialists. In the years that followed, the work attracting new, qualified specialists to the Institute continued. Specialists from Kiev, Beltsy, Leningrad, Baku, Yaroslavl, Novosibirsk, Rostov-on-theDon, Taganrog, Odessa, and Zelenodolsk came to work at the Institute. In 1978–1979, graduates of the Kiev and Odessa Polytechnic Institutes and the Moscow State University were also invited to work at the Institute. The personnel policy of the new RI management was that of raising the level of qualification of researchers and managing personnel. The staff attended skills-improvement and training courses and specialists were offered full-time and extra-mural post-graduate courses. The Institute’s Board of young scientists and specialists worked successfully. Apartment houses were built to accommodate new personnel. All these measures allowed the Institute’s management to attract highly qualified specialists and maintain a program of skills improvement. By the beginning of the 1990s, the number of personnel employed at the Institute reached a maximum of 1935 people. In the perestroika period, gradually, first hardly noticeable, a slowdown in the Institute’s activities began. Living accommodation and material difficulties arose. In 1993, the number of specialists decreased by 30% compared with 1990 and qualified managerial staff was decreased by one-half. The Institute no longer invited young specialists, training for research personnel and skills improvement courses for workers were no longer offered. Moral and material work incentives vanished. Nevertheless, despite the present difficult economic situation, State Research Institute (SRI) Atoll is still functioning and is capable of solving problems in its area of interest. It still employs qualified research personnel. In addition, the Institute still has the power to rise again.

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In conclusion, here are the names of leaders who were heads of SRI Atoll in different years: • Directors: July 1976–March 1982, V. S. Petrovsky; March 1982–May 1992, V. I. Turubarov; May 1992–June 1993, V. I. Bukach; Since June 1993, V. S. Kalyashin. • First Deputy Directors and Chief Engineers: July 1977–August 1980, V. Yu. Lapii; August 1980–March 1982, V. I. Turubarov; April 1982–July 1984, V. M. Dudchenko-Dudko; August 1984–April 1988, V. N. Fomin; April 1988–Match 1991, V. Ye. Yemelyanov; March 1991–May 1992, V. I. Bukach; May 1992–June 1993, V. S. Kalyashin; Since April 1993, I. M. Prikhodko. The greatest contribution to the rise and development of SRI Atoll was made by its first Director, Dr. Tech. Sc. Prof. V. S. Petrovsky. For more than 10 years, the director of the Institute was V. I. Turubarov. 3. Scientific and Technological Development of the Institute As a legacy left from the Design Bureau Akustika, SRI Atoll succeeded with two projects for the design and supply of the systems Krevetka and Post-M to the customer. To continue work on the designs of these systems, O. G. Uspensky, A. N. Khmara, Ye. P. Belskov, S. P. Smirnov, V. Przhegorlinsky and others came from Akustika to the Institute. Further scientific-technical activities of the Institute included work on the following projects: (a) Principal design: Sever, Tropa, Sangar, Andromeda, Sever-Aktinia, Poseidon. (b) Auxiliary design: Gyuis, Kompas.

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(c) Principal D&D ensuring construction of items for principal design projects: Alfard, Oven, Aldebaran, Mayak, Krossvord, Antei, Orbita. (d) Auxiliary D&D: Metodika, Altsiona, Aleut, Algeiba, Mars, DuelPotentsial, Integratsia. Work on the principal design projects required complex hydrophysical research to be performed in the anticipated operational regions. For this purpose, the Institute organized independent research expeditions on RS’s Vektor and Modul (registered at the Sukhumi Branch of RI Atoll) and participated in expeditions on RS’s of the Institute of Acoustics. For example, workers of RI Atoll, V. Przhegorlinsky, A. V. Borisov, V. N. Bas, and others, took part in the eighth expedition voyage of RS’s Akademik Andreyev and Akademik Konstantinov to the Seas of Japan and Okhotsk. As has been mentioned, beginning in 1976, the Institute grew not just in terms of the number of personnel, but also in terms of quality. The backbone of the Institute’s staff that had been formed back in 1977 carried out work on five design and three D&D projects. Work went on in the 30 newly organized research sectors. In 1977, work on the design project Sever began, which later became the priority project of the Institute. Also, beginning in the spring, 1977, work was conducted on the design project Tropa (Chief Designer Ye. F. Maiorov), design project Sangar (Chief Designer V. I. Bukach) and the foundation was laid for conducting or continuing work on projects started at other RIs. Among them design projects Andromeda, Nord, Atlantida, Aktinia, Dnepr, Neptune-1 and Narva-1 can be named. The year 1977 was the first year of the Institute’s work on the basis of a production-theme plan, with significant funds assigned to independent R&D work. The following table illustrates the dynamics of the R&D work (part of the work was done jointly with the Sukhumi Branch of RI Atoll). Indeed, not all design and D&D projects were big and they were not always related to the principal themes. But without minor design and D&D work, no major and important projects would have ever been completed.

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Year

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

Design projects D&D projects Total projects

8 10 18

Year

1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

Design projects D&D projects Total projects

13 37 50

5 3 8

10 32 42

10 9 19

8 32 40

9 13 22

10 24 34

6 17 23

5 6 11

10 18 28

2 4 6

11 25 36

6 6 12

11 33 44

5 6 11

11 31 42

5 6 11

11 27 38

12 32 44

4 4 8

As has been mentioned, work started in 1977 on project Sever and after 10 years it terminated in an event important to the Institute: the design became implemented in a system that was installed and commissioned. The first results showed that in reality the operating conditions turned out to be much more complex than the model situations used for the design work. Expectations for quick success were replaced with an understanding of the need for fundamental research. Attempts to interpret the observed physical effects failed and this necessitated revision of certain assumptions. It was necessary to decide whether the results were due to errors in either the hardware or the software. As was finally determined, many of the “new” physical effects revealed were due to errors in design. Errors were found to have different origins but most of them were found at the junction of the digital and analog hardware. Detecting and eliminating failures of this kind resulted in a significant improvement in the capabilities of the specialists and it was from this work that universal specialists grew, able to evaluate the effects of a single engineering feature on the efficiency of a system in general. One more problem that arose at the stage of work on the facility was evaluation of the technical and tactical characteristics (TC) of the system by the results of tests on a facility. At first sight, the task seemed to present no problem. But on closer examination more and more questions arose. It was found that working out a TC evaluation

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Fig. 1.

One of the instruments of system Sever on a test stand.

methodology required mathematical statistics, experimental and theoretical acoustics, and several other related areas of science. In addition, solving the problem required use of auxiliary equipment and development of additional software. Thus working out a TC evaluation methodology called for independent research work. Finally, the problem was solved and in October 1991, state trials of Sever were successfully completed (Fig. 1). After a series of refinements done in response to remarks made by the state commission, inter-departmental trials took place in the fourth quarter of 1993. In the second quarter of 1996, the system was put in service at the Navy. Chief Designers of the system in different years were: V. Yu. Lapii, V. M. Dudchenko-Dudko and from January 1988, V. S. Kalyashin. Design of Sever required the efforts of the whole Institute, everyone contributed to the general result according to his or her functions. Beside the above-named chief designers, a significant contribution to creation of Sever was made by V. S. Petrovsky, I. M. Prikhodko, Yu. M.

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Filimonenko, S. N. Levushkin, V. S. Zatirakha, O. A. Koligaev, A. A. Zuev, V. L. Saikin, K. K. Bagrov, N. F. Golovchenko, V. I. Fisunov, A. B. Krainov, V. A. Vorobyov, V. M. Dobryansky, S. Yu. Saltykov, V. V. Kochkin, A. A. Shikalov, V. F. Shevtsov, and V. D. Shakhmatov. The design of Sever would have been impossible without partner institutions organizations and enterprises, among which the following should be named; RPA Dalnaya Svyaz, RI JSC Sevkabel, the Institute of Management Problems, MU 10729, 30809, 87415 and the Department of Shipbuilding Industry of the Ministry of Defense Industry (former name: 10th CA of the Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry (MSI)). The hard and devoted work by a large body of workers of the Institute deserves special notice. It was with the efforts of these people that a great preparatory work over several years was carried out to bring the system Sever to the stage of sea trials, to have it installed in the required area of the sea, and to do repairs whenever necessary. For a long time this body of people was headed by V. N. Kukhno, with whom worked V. P. Goncharenko, V. S. Aksenov, V. F. Goncharov, A. N. Bulantsov, A. Pulyaev, V. L. Saikin, V. Ya. Prokhorov, I. P. Marchenko, V. Sotnikov, N. Z. Bokov, V. Varlamov, V. V. Dmitriyev, and S. Sokolova. Earlier we noted the principal design work carried out in the 1970s until the mid-1980s. For a number of objective reasons related to the respective ordinances of the Russian Government this work ended. Nevertheless, without the research-technical experience accumulated in the course of this work, the Institute would not have risen and developed as a research institution. As it were, many specialists of the Institute put their hearts in the work and their professional growth was immense as a result. Here we name the people who contributed so much to this work. (1) design project Tropa: Ye. F. Maiorov (Chief Designer), O. A. Koligaev, V. F. Goncharov, V. D. Shakhmatov, V. G. Belkin, and A. A. Ostrovsky; (2) design project Sangar: V. I. Bukach (Chief Designer), Yu. G. Pavlov, V. N. Bykov, V. N. Rakhmanov, V. M. Dudchenko-Dudko, V. G. Belkin, Ye. K. Fedoseev, and V. A. Saleyev;

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(3) design project Andromeda: O. G. Uspensky (Chief Designer), V. N. Kravchenko, S. P. Smirnov, Yu. G. Larionov, A. V. Tikhanin, I. V. Kuzmenkov, and Ye. A. Kolonuto; (4) design project Poseidon-1: V. I. Turubarov (Chief Designer), V. I. Bukach, V. G. Belkin, A. G. Polevik, V. F. Maiorov, V. Aedonitsky, V. N. Kravchenko, V. N. Kukhno, V. M. Ivanov, and V. F. Goncharov; (5) design project Sever-Aktinia: V. M. Dudchenko-Dudko (Chief Designer), A. A. Shikalov, V. N. Kukhno, N. F. Golovchenko, A. I. Vlasov, V. G. Belkin, V. D. Shakhmatov, A. M. Churaev, and V. F. Goncharov.

After disintegration of the Soviet Union, the Kiev Research Institute of Hydrological Instruments, one of the design institutes of airborne hydroacoustic systems (AHAS), was left outside the borders of Russia in Ukraine. For this reason, AHAS design responsibilities were transferred to RI Atoll. Within the scope of these responsibilities, work on the design project Amga-M was carried out successfully by a body of designers with V. G. Belkin as head. The group included Ye. F. Maiorov, N. F. Golovchenko, A. V. Borisov, V. A. Alekseyev, M. M. Rusakov, N. B. Ruzavina, and V. Yu. Shmelev. This short essay gives no opportunity to name all the creative workers who worked and have continued working on R&D projects at the Institute. It is nevertheless necessary to name at least a few of them: I. G. Andreasyan, V. P. Demkin, V. V. Tikhonov, V. I. Gorbatov, L. A. Gorbunova, Yu. A. Zyryanova, A. P. Zimin, S. V. Grigoryev, A. M. Diveyev, Ye. N. Yemelyanova, L. V. Panina, S. V. Shabanov, A. V. Seleznev, S. A. Karnaukh, V. A. Preizendorf, A. N. Kokorev, A. N. Grigoryev, Ye. A. Golovchenko, R. V. Lobov, A. G. Baikov, K. K. Bagrov, A. V. Grinyuk, V. P. Liguta, L. S. Kalina, V. N. Pridachin, and V. S. Zatirakha. By the beginning of the 1990s, the Institute personnel included highly experienced specialists; physicists, hydroacoustics specialists, instrument engineering specialists, programmers. The Institute’s

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research, design, production, and auxiliary departments efficiently used well-managed groups of specialists. In the late 1970s, a board was established at MSI to coordinate applied work in the area of hydroacoustics and to orient it to the needs of defense and the national economy of the country. Being involved in the work of the board, RI Atoll had an opportunity to solve the current problems of paramount importance that fell within the scope of its mission as well as the problem of planning for the future. In March 1979, by the order of the Minister, RI Atoll was named the leading organization among other enterprises of MSI to coordinate and pursue a single policy in the area of design of stationary hydroacoustic systems. The difficulties of economic and social development of the Russian Federation in the post-Soviet period told on RI Atoll as well. It so happened that, before the early 1990s, work for the Ministry of Defense amounted to 90% of the total amount of work carried out by the Institute. With curtailment of the budget for the needs of the Navy, the Institute found itself in an extremely difficult situation. This made the Institute leadership look for ways to preserve RI Atoll, its capabilities, and also to think of its future. Decisive measures were taken in this respect. In March 1995, the State Committee of the Defense Industry of Russia approved the Concept of Development of RI Atoll. The purpose of the Concept was to develop an optimal structure for the Institute and to establish the principles for its economic activities. The ultimate goal was to preserve the unique scientific-and-technical capability of the Institute and improve its financial and economic situation. Naturally, the Concept addressed the problems of salaries, as well as the moral and psychological atmosphere at the Institute. The following concrete steps were envisaged: (1) preserving RI Atoll as the leading organization working on the priority themes of the general customer — the Ministry of Defense (specifically, the Navy) of Russia; (2) creating a management structure capable of functioning and meeting the requirements of a market economy;

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(3) creating new jobs; (4) establishing external contacts and ensuring the competitiveness of the Institute. No doubt, SRI Atoll will overcome the difficulties of the transition period and reach new heights.

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The P. P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology: Its Place and Role in Home Hydroacoustics I. I. TYNYANKIN

Hydroacoustic systems can only be efficient when created and used in accordance with the properties of the ocean medium and the distribution in space and time of those properties. Modern oceanology as a science deals with the investigation of the properties of the ocean medium, their dynamics and the physical, chemical, geological, and biological processes that take place in the ocean. Understanding the structure of the acoustic field in the ocean requires, in the first place, knowledge of the laws of sound propagation in the ocean, the degree of influence of its natural inhomogeneities, absorption, reflection, and scattering along the propagation paths, the influences of the ocean bottom and surface, and accounting for the noise characteristics in different geographic areas. The quantitative value of the sound speed as a function of depth (sound-speed profile) is determined by a rather complex dependence on temperature, salinity, and hydrostatic pressure, which themselves strongly depend on seasonal climatic variations, particularly, in the subsurface water layer. The sound speed depends also on the presence of natural small- and large-scale phenomena and the geographical features of a given region. As is known, sound propagates in the ocean at a speed close to 1500 m/s. With a temperature change by 1◦ C, the sound speed changes by 2–4 m/s depending on the initial water temperature. A change in salinity by one part per thousand (‰) causes a change in the sound speed by 1.14 m/s, while a pressure change of 1 atm (corresponding to a change in depth of 10 m) causes a change in the sound speed by 0.175 m/s. 411

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The dynamics of the ocean medium varies so broadly that it is practically impossible to have two similar acoustic field characteristics except at the same time and place. Depending on the distribution of sound speeds with depth and in the horizontal, the acoustic field structure in the ocean breaks up into zones. There appear the so-called illumination and shadow zones. In coastal areas, such a field may present an illuminated zone if the sound speed increases with depth, or a practically nonilluminated zone if the sound speed decreases with depth. These field characteristics are mainly defined by their boundaries. Under real conditions, the sound speed may first decrease and then increase with depth and this is a favorable condition for the appearance of the so-called acoustic channel. In such a situation, acoustic waves may propagate to great distances. Thus the ocean medium in which hydroacoustic systems operate presents a very complex and varied environment. It was this circumstance that necessitated the development of the fundamental ocean sciences of hydrophysics, hydrochemistry, hydrobiology, and hydrogeology, united under one notion and term: oceanology. Many research organizations functioning under different ministries and government agencies in the country have a mission of investigating the properties of the ocean, each one with regard to a set of definite applied problems. The Ministry for Science and Technology of the Russian Federation is responsible for coordinated investigations within the state research-technical program “Complex Investigation of the Oceans and Seas, the Arctic and the Antarctic” and other special programs of ministries and agencies. Fundamental research in oceanology is carried out by the P. P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology. The Institute was established on January 31, 1946, by the Decree of the Presidium of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. The Institute’s goals were formulated as follows: “Investigation of theoretical problems of oceanology, complex research into physical, chemical, biological, and geological processes in the seas and oceans in terms of their interrelation and interaction.” The new research center rose and developed with the participation of such celebrated scientists as P. P. Shirshov, L. A. Zenkevich,

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V. G. Bogorov, C. V. Bruevich, A. D. Dobrovolsky, P. L. Bezrukov, I. D. Papanin, V. B. Shtokman, and others. The Institute incorporates two Departments, Atlantic (Kaliningrad) and Southern (Gelendzhik) and has a branch in St. Petersburg. The Institute’s research fleet consists of 6 large-displacement (over 4000 tons) and 2 medium-displacement (over 1000 tons) ships, 4 minor ships, and 5 manned underwater vehicles, including the Mir deep-ocean vehicle with submersion depths up to 6 km (Fig 1). The ships are equipped with unique technical systems for measuring physical oceanographic characteristics (Fig. 2). In the period 1957–1989, the Institute’s research ships made 236 research cruises, in the course of which 23,000 ocean survey stations were operated. The ships made 866 calls to 288 foreign ports and 84 landings on 61 islands in the world’s oceans. Fundamental research was carried out primarily in the interests of applied science and technology. In the first years of the Institute,

Fig. 1.

Deep-ocean survey vehicle Mir (submersion depth up to 6000 m).

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Fig. 2.

Sulfide deposits on ocean bed. Photograph made from Mir.

attention was focused on ocean current structures and the processes of mixing of water masses. Along with traditional physical oceanography, which studies temperature, salinity, density fields, currents, and other physical characteristics of an ocean medium, the Institute developed research trends in acoustics and optics, turbulence, large-scale circulation, fine-scale water structures, ocean-atmosphere interaction, sea waves, geophysical hydrodynamics, and satellite oceanology. The Institute participated in compiling and producing a series of bathymetric, geomorphologic, physiographic, tectonic, and geodynamic maps of the world’s oceans. These maps and the multiple monographs of the Institute (more than 500 books) are dedicated to a detailed description of the processes and phenomena taking place in the world’s oceans. Over 50 monographs were recognized by the world scientific community and translated into English, German, Japanese, Chinese, and other languages. Over 100 major geographical discoveries have been made.

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Among the major results achieved by researchers of the Institute of Oceanology, which have major implications for hydroacoustics, we have the following: 1. Systematic processing of home and foreign data sets on the physical parameters of the ocean medium (the distribution of temperatures, salinity, densities, sound velocities, currents, and all types of inhomogeneities in water masses as a function of time and space) with account for the results of a series of test range observations in different regions of the world’s oceans. Expeditions under the names Polygon-67, Polygon-70, Polymode, Mesopolygon, and others were organized. 2. Discovery and investigation of a new class of synoptic variability in the ocean featuring maximum kinetic energy in horizontal movement. The main principles of energy supply and energy transformation in the ocean water masses were formulated. The structures of hydrophysical fields, ocean turbulence, and the processes of diffusion in the ocean were investigated. 3. The following publications were prepared and published: – a 12-volume series of monographs — atlases of temperature, salinity, density, electrical conductivity, and sound speed in the northern parts of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, 1980; – an atlas of intermediate and surface waters of the world’s oceans, 1981; – a 9-volume climatic atlas of seas bordering the Soviet Union, 1983; – an atlas of oceanographic parameters of the Mediterranean Sea, 1979; – a catalog of tsunamis in the Pacific Ocean, 1975; – an atlas of earthquakes in the USSR, 1962; – State Standards Hydro-optical Characteristics and Light Field at Sea, 1975; – an atlas from Polymode, 1984; – a 14-volume monograph The Pacific Ocean, 1975; – a 10-volume monograph Oceanology, 1978; and many other publications.

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4. Research and development of methods and systems using algorithms of automated hydrometeorological data processing and the forecast models of acoustic fields in real oceanological conditions. 5. Systematic detailed research into fundamental acoustics of the ocean and development of the methods and systems for investigation of: – spectral and energy characteristics of natural noise fields in the ocean; – the laws governing the influence of ocean inhomogeneities (currents, fronts, lenses, upwellings, thermoclines, etc.) and the state of water–air and water-bottom interfaces on the acoustic field. 6. Development, on the basis of work and investigations carried out, of ocean medium three-dimensional dynamic models for a broad range of frequencies. Important results were obtained on interthermocline vortices and their strong influence on sound beam trajectories. Considerable success was achieved in the study of the fine structure of hydrophysical fields. The main parameters of this structure were defined, the mechanisms of its generation and transformation and the role of heat and salt transfer in the ocean were investigated. An important contribution was made to the understanding of wave processes. The behavior of waves and the mechanisms of formation of the spatial spectrum of surface waves were studied, including internal waves and waves in variable and inhomogeneous currents. The relationship between the processes of sound propagation, scattering and attenuation, and the hydrophysical characteristics of the water and bottom relief were established. Ocean investigation by remote sensing began, including use of satellites. For example, a relationship was established between data obtained from satellites in the visible and infrared frequency ranges and biological productivity, which will find application in estimating sound-scattering layers in the ocean. One of the important directions of fundamental research is monitoring of the characteristics of water areas as they relate to hydroacoustics. The basics were developed and experimental full-scale measurements in the field of wide area acoustic tomography were carried out

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from a moving research ship, which confirmed the broad applicability of this method in investigating acoustic–oceanological characteristics of the ocean medium. Investigations were carried out in the area of seismo-acoustics, opening new prospects for solving a series of applied problems. The names of such scientists as L. M. Brekhovskikh, V. G. Kort, A. S. Monin, A. S. Sarkisyan, R. V. Ozmidov, Yu. Yu. Zhitkovsky, Yu. A. Ivanov, B. F. Kuryanov, V. M. Kurtepov, V. N. Stepanov, K. N. Fyodorov, M. Ye. Vinogradov, A. P. Lisitsyn, V. M. Kamenkovich, M. N. Koshlyakov, N. A. Aibulatov, I. I. Volkov, and many others are associated with this Institute. Their work is widely known to professional researchers and contributes to the glory of Russian oceanology. This brief review only touches upon the main themes of fundamental research into acoustics of the ocean. We hope this review will provide a general understanding of the role of oceanological sciences in creating hydroacoustic systems that are able to take account of all possible ocean medium characteristics and well adapted to operation in such environment. The Federal Target-Oriented Program “World’s Oceans” approved by the Ordinance of the Russian Federation Government No. 919 of August 10, 1998, envisages further fundamental and applied investigations of the ocean. The Institute of Oceanology RAS was one of the main developers of this Program, which includes 10 target-oriented subprograms compiled with regard to the areas of software application and directions of activities in the world’s oceans. The subprogram “Investigation of the Nature of the World’s Oceans,” in particular, is oriented toward conducting fundamental investigations of the natural environment in territorial seas and shelf zones, investigation of the dynamics of ecosystems, organizing the monitoring of the state of the world’s oceans and the hydrometeorological situation in the bordering seas. As a result of this research, there will be new databases on the dynamics of physical parameters of the ocean and their influence on the three-dimensional structure of acoustic field in specific areas of the world’s oceans.

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The Laboratory of Acoustic Wave Propagation of the P. P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology V. M. KURTEPOV

The Laboratory of Acoustic Wave Propagation (AWP) was organized in 1978 as part of the Acoustics Department headed by L. M. Brekhovskikh. For more than 10 years, he was the head of the Laboratory as well. Later A. G. Voronovich was assigned to this position. Today, the activities of the Laboratory are in the following principal areas: 1. development of the theory of sound propagation in ocean with account for volume inhomogeneities in the ocean medium (mesoscale vortices, fronts, lenses, internal waves, fine structure, rough water surface, currents) as well as for sea floor geometry and sub-bottom irregularities; 2. development of algorithms and numerical simulation of sound propagation in the ocean; 3. development of the theory of sound scattering from rough surfaces. 4. development and refinement of methods for solving inverse problems in ocean acoustics thus enabling remote sensing of water mass inhomogeneities and the ocean surface and bottom (ocean acoustic tomography); 5. design, test, and operation of new acoustical equipment; 6. conducting experiments on sound propagation under different hydrological conditions. 1. Experimental Research With the appearance of fast computers, numerical simulation became an important tool permitting ocean acoustic field prediction when initial 418

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data such as ocean medium hydrological characteristics and bottom relief and structure are known. Since these characteristics are not known precisely, the question of the accuracy of the prediction of the acoustic field prediction arises. The answer may be found through experiment only, by comparing the actual and the theoretical data. In view of this, serious steps were taken by the leadership to provide proper equipment to the Acoustics Department and to the AWP Laboratory in particular. In 1985, the engineering group of the Laboratory under the guidance of V. G. Selivanov designed and manufactured a three-functional the probe Triada which performed direct and highly accurate measurements and transmitted to the ship the data on the probe submersion depth, sound speed at this depth and intensity of signal received from a sound source. The instrument proved to be so useful that later expeditions found it indispensable. 1.1. Experiments in the Indian Ocean Of all the regions of the world’s oceans, the Crozet Depression located SE of the southern tip of Africa attracts the special interest of acoustics specialists and oceanologists due to the presence in it of a circumpolar current. It is known that the current encircling the Antarctic Continent is the largest on Earth and the most changeable: at a great speed, it moves water masses abounding in fronts and vortices. This changeability served as a basis for conducting an experiment on sound propagation in a circumpolar current, which provided an opportunity to test the algorithms of acoustic fields calculation under severe hydrological conditions. It is worth notice that hydrologists participating in the expedition welcomed with enthusiasm the rare opportunity to conduct investigations in this hardly accessible and rarely visited region of the Indian Ocean. The experiment was organized with the participation of four ships: the source RS Akademik Alexander Vinogradov, the receivers, RS Akademik Kurchatov and the Professor Bogorov, and the hydrological support ship Vityaz.

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According to plan, the RS Akademik Vinogradov, with a submerged acoustic source, moved NW in the direction of the receiving ships, along a 1100 km path. The frequencies of the transmitted signals were 146 and 392 Hz. The results of comparing the experimental and theoretical data were encouraging. They testified to the high quality of the computing algorithms developed by V. V. Goncharov. The methods of experimental data processing were also found to be correctly selected.

1.2. Study of internal wave influence on sound propagation In the same year, 1987, the Laboratory conducted an experiment in the region of the Mascarene Ridge off the eastern slope of the Saya de Malla Bank. This region is known for anomalously high internal waves with amplitudes reaching several dozen meters. The subsurface currents connected with these waves are so strong that they are manifested in alternating strips of rough and smooth sea surfaces. The purpose of the experiment was to quantitatively estimate the effect of the power and character of large-amplitude internal waves on acoustic signal propagation from a subsurface acoustic source located on a drifting vessel to an autonomous bottom station. It was found that internal waves affected noticeably the acoustic field received by a bottom-mounted hydroacoustic array. The internal wave simply modulates the spatial distribution of the sound-speed field. Similar effects may be expected in other regions of the world’s oceans where the hydrological conditions and the bottom profile are favorable for generating large-amplitude internal waves.

1.3. Peculiarities of sound propagation in a depression east of Saya de Malla Bank During the same expedition an experiment was conducted on sound propagation in the region north of the Macarene Islands with depths over 4 km (source RS Vityaz, receiver RS Akademik Kurchatov, signal

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frequency 304 Hz). It was noted in this experiment, which took place in calm weather conditions, with practically layered structure in the ocean medium, that the depth-dependence of sound intensity, as measured by the Triada probe, was similar to the theoretically predicted profile. But how to measure the degree of similarity? It was decided that signals should be compared not visually, but by their correlation coefficient, which might take the values from 1 (complete similarity) to 0 (absolute lack of similarity). Later this method of comparing theory and experiment became the rule. Note that such a procedure of comparing two vertical distributions of intensity allows the solution of certain inverse problems of ocean acoustics. It is possible, for example, to verify the distance to an acoustic source or to determine seafloor parameters by varying the parameter values in the vicinity of some probable value, searching for the maximum value of the correlation coefficient.

1.4. Experiments in the Mediterranean Sea (1988) The key role in further experimental research definitely belonged to low-noise RS Akademik Sergei Vavilov and Akademik Ioffe of unrestricted range, equipped to perform acoustic work. It was these ships that provided an opportunity to conduct acoustic research in some of the most interesting regions of the world’s oceans. The Akademik Sergei Vavilov research ship made its first voyage in the Mediterranean Sea. This sea is distinguished by the shallow location of its acoustic channel, which creates specific conditions for sound propagation. The specifics are characterized by comparatively short acoustic beam cycles and, as a result, by a great number of reflections from the sea surface along comparatively short paths; this is convenient for testing different theories of multiple sound-scattering from the sea surface. The Mediterranean Sea is also noted for strongly defined time-space variability in the sound-speed field and a variable bottom topography. Therefore another task for the experiments was to investigate the structure of continuous wave (CW) or pure tone and pulsed acoustic signals

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at different depths and distances from the radiating ship and comparing the experimental results with theoretical predictions. In the experiment, RS Rift, with a sound source operating at a frequency of 304 Hz and submerged to 50 m, drifted while RS Akademik S. Vavilov moved away from it, stopping periodically for vertical sounding of the acoustic field intensity at depths up to 1 km. Deep-sea (the Sea of Levant) and shallow-sea (the Eratosphenes Elevation) experiments carried out in the Mediterranean Sea showed that the acoustic field parameters on a deep-sea path 288 km long, under conditions of controlled hydrology and moderate sea state, may be satisfactorily predicted by calculations according to ray or wave theory. With regard to the shallow sea, theoretical predictions were justified at distances of 5–10 km only from the radiating ship. This was due to poor knowledge of the bottom relief and subbottom structure and difficulties in controlling the positions of both drifting ships relative to the uneven bottom. Experiments at the Eratosphenes Elevation revealed gaps in our knowledge of the complex structure of the acoustic field in a shallow sea and stimulated further investigation. On the same expedition, a six-element acoustic array mock-up with a system of spatial positioning of all its elements was tested. It served as the prototype for a new, 29-element, array. 1.5. Discovery of weakly diverging beams An important observation was made in the course of an experiment in the eastern Atlantic (RS Akademik S. Vavilov, 3rd voyage, 1989). According to plan, vertical acoustic sounding was carried out along two paths, 1125 and 3496 km long, along the Canary and the Iberian depressions. It was planned to see at which distances between the ships (RS Akademik S. Vavilov and Akademik Ioffe) stable acoustic communication would be supported and at which distances the signal would be lost in the noise. The experiment was the most interesting when the acoustic path crossed regions traditionally “haunted” by an interthermocline lenses. It also passed through a tongue of salty Mediterranean water flowing

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into the Atlantic through the Strait of Gibraltar. Quite unexpectedly, measurements showed that, despite sound intensity decay (at signal frequency of 137 Hz) with increased distance between the ships and loss of acoustic energy due to destructive refraction by large-scale inhomogeneities and scattering by the small-scale inhomogeneities of ocean medium, the signal could be heard at all listening distances — but at different depths. Further analysis revealed the existence of beam structures (weakly diverging acoustic beams) whose intensity decays anomalously slowly with distance. Such beams could serve as the principal acoustic energy carriers along extended paths. The probe Triada hit exactly one of these beams passing at different depths at large distances from the source, where good audibility was noted. Evidently such a phenomenon was discovered and understood for the first time. In the future, weakly diverging beams may be used for long-range acoustic communication, as well as for thermometry of seas and oceans, when, with the results of long-term observations of changes in the time of signal propagation along a stationary path, judgments will be made on variations in medium temperature and heat content of the ocean medium. In the same experiment, the mean value of sound attenuation coefficient at a frequency of 137 Hz on a path 1120 km long was measured. It was found to be equal to 0.0018 dB/km. Knowledge of the attenuation coefficient is very important in practical acoustics.

1.6. An experiment on an inter-thermocline lens Another experiment carried out during the same expedition was dedicated to an investigation of the vertical structure of the acoustic field along a path crossing the Mediterranean inter-thermocline lens. The lens was found in March 1989 by the RS Akademik Nikolai Andreyev south of the Great Meteor seamount. The lens parameters are horizontal size 60 km (at 900 m depth), lens warm nucleus location at 1000 m depth, sound-speed anomaly in the lens center of +19 m/s.

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The experimental procedure was as follows. The source ship (RS Akademik Ioffe) was at a standstill on the NE periphery of the lens. The receiver ship (RS Akademik S. Vavilov) moved SW across the lens center, periodically, in steps of about 9 km, heaving-to for measuring the acoustic field’s vertical profile to a depth of 1500 m with the Triada probe (at frequencies of 325 and 385 Hz). It was found that the presence of a warm nucleus in the lens led to the appearance of an additional acoustic channel at a depth of 600 m. Comparison of the experimental data and the theoretical estimate resulted in the conclusion that even under conditions of extreme horizontal changes in the sound-speed field, acoustic field calculations based on ray programs are trustworthy. A characteristic acoustic attribute of a deep-water lens is illumination of the zones of acoustic shadow due to the presence of a lens. This feature may be used in locating such lenses. 1.7. Ocean acoustic tomography In recent years, a tendency has developed in ocean acoustics toward solving the so-called “inverse problem” (ocean acoustic tomography). In solving such problems, through insonifying the ocean medium or seafloor, inhomogeneities in their internal structures may be revealed. Such problems are very complicated and, generally speaking, they have non-unique solutions. Great experience and, at times, a priori information, are required to obtain a solution. Several different methods of ocean tomography are known. One of them is the so-called “matched-field” method. The concept is simple. Suppose there is an acoustic source radiating a signal that is received by a remote vertical acoustic array having a number of acoustic hydrophone receivers. While propagating, the sound crosses different inhomogeneities in the ocean medium, unknown to us, and arrives at the array distorted, as compared with what it might be without the inhomogeneities. It is these “distortions” that contain information about the medium inhomogeneities. To extract this information, one has to exhaust the values for different states of the medium (each time followed with an acoustic field numerical prediction), seeking the

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best possible match between the calculated acoustic field on the array hydrophones and the actually measured value. This match serves as a criterion of correctness of the reconstruction of the ocean medium’s true structure.

1.8. A tomographic experiment in the Norwegian Sea In the summer 1990, an experiment was successfully carried out in the Norwegian Sea southwest of Spitsbergen on acoustic tomography with the use of an extended vertical array permitting the separation of the modal components of the acoustic field and the measurement of their amplitudes and phases. The complex array was a cable with 27 hydrophones connected to it having a total length of 560 m and a high-frequency system of acoustic positioning for determining spatial coordinates of all array hydrophones. Sound-speed profiles at the beginning and end of the acoustic path were simulated with the use of empirical orthogonal functions. The unknown coefficients applied in empirical functions were chosen such that maximum match was achieved between the calculated and the measured phases of separate modes on the array elements. The specific feature of the experiment, as distinct from classical schemes with fixed transceivers, was that it was performed with moving ships (Akademik S. Vavilov and Akademik Ioffe) first at a separation of 55 km and then 105.5 km. In fact, this was the first attempt to realize the method of “dynamic tomography of ocean” (moving ship tomography), which is considered an opportunity for routine hydrological examination of large ocean areas. 1.9. A tomographic experiment in the Mediterranean Sea In spring 1994, two experiments on ocean acoustic tomography were carried out simultaneously in the Algiers-Provence basin of the Mediterranean within the scope of the international program THETIS2. The purpose of one of the experiments (started a year earlier and performed by oceanologists from Germany, France, Greece and the USA)

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was to observe large-scale variability of Mediterranean water along several fixed acoustic paths, with a view toward exploring the prospects for permanent monitoring of this region. The second, a Russian experiment, was aimed at demonstrating the realizability of a new approach to tomography called dynamic tomography or moving ship tomography. It envisaged, together with fixed transceivers, making use of a ship for receiving acoustic signals (RS Akademik S. Vavilov). With a ship on the move, the number of acoustic paths may be increased several times, their selection optimized and the pattern of the estimated medium characteristics made more detailed and accurate. It is supposed, on completion of the experiment and acoustic and hydrological data processing, to compare the results of the two methods of ocean tomography: the traditional (with strictly controlled positions of transceivers) and the “dynamic” one. 2. Theoretical Research Great importance in the work of the Laboratory is attached to theoretical research. The main achievements in this direction are as the following: 1. development of a set of computer programs permitting calculation of acoustic fields in three-dimensional, inhomogeneous, moving media on the basis of ray and wave algorithms; 2. development of new efficient approaches to solving the problems of sound scattering from rough surfaces (methods of small slopes, phase operator, etc.); 3. development of a theory of sound propagation in moving media. The new effects caused by medium movement were investigated and opportunities considered for their application in solving tomographic problems (the method of matched nonreciprocity tomogaphy); 4. theoretical investigation into the opportunities for realizing a linear scheme of ray tomography of the ocean, including tomography from a moving ship; 5. theoretical (and experimental) investigation into acoustic tomography of bottom sediments on the basis of a broad-band

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interference pattern received by a bottom station and with the use of vertical profiles of acoustic field intensity; development and experimental verification of a technique for recovery of the modal composition of the sound field on the basis of measurement using an extended vertical array; feasibility studies of the matched-field method for solving problems of sound source positioning and tomography of ocean media inhomogeneities; development of a new technique for acoustic tomography of currents using the method of matched nonreciprocity, distinguished for low sensitivity to possible inhomogeneities of the sound-speed field and inaccuracies in receivers and sources positioning; feasibility studies of “differential” ocean tomography, in which the differences in the times of acoustic ray arrival are treated as input data; it was shown that differential tomography is stable to positioning errors of receivers and sources and may be recommended for use in work with moving transceivers; development of a ray algorithm of acoustic field calculation for the case of two-dimensionally inhomogeneous media containing currents. The algorithm was used to investigate the differences in the acoustic fields propagating between given points in opposite directions and the opportunities for taking advantage of this effect in tomography of inhomogenous moving media; a physical quantity (acoustic field phase) was identified, the nonreciprocity of which needs to be matched for successful inversion; development of a method for determining the coefficient of reflection of a plane harmonic wave from a layered bottom in a shallow sea by using the vertical profile of the acoustic intensity; development of a theoretical model to explain (in compliance with the available experimental data) anomalous backscattering results in the ocean in the range of 0.2–2 kHz by volume inhomogeneities of density of air bubbles formed by breaking of surface waves; justification of the applicability of the effect of weakly diverging acoustic beams in acoustic thermometry of the ocean and longrange acoustic communication; investigation of the mechanism of internal wave influence on sound propagation.

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3. Equipment Design and Manufacture In the described period, the following equipment was designed and manufactured in the Laboratory: 1. A deep-sea (submersion depth up to 2000 m) three-functional probe Triada (for hydrostatic pressure, sound speed, and acoustic pressure measurements in the course of continuous vertical sounding) designed for investigating the vertical and temporal structure of acoustic fields generated by harmonic and noise sources. The special software developed for the probe enables real-time reception and received information processing. 2. A 64-element planar array for investigating the spatial structure of acoustic signals reflected from the ocean bottom. Later, this array served as a prototype for creating a correlation log for the ships RS Akademik S. Vavilov and RS Akademik Ioffe. 3. An extended (560 m) vertical acoustic array for measuring the spatial characteristics of the acoustic field of a harmonic source, with software designed for real-time operation. 4. A system for array module positioning comprising three transceivers installed on board the vessel, a communication system and software common with the array. 5. A design and a mock-up of 10 self-contained modules of a multipurpose broad-band extended hydroacoustic array. 6. A deep-sea autonomous bottom research station with a vertical line array (for noise and internal waves diagnostics, etc.).

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Almost all scientific achievements have found successfull application in shipbuilding. One can judge how much “science” is needed to build a modern ship by the amount of research work carried out by the research center organized by A. N. Krylov in St. Petersburg (today, the Central Research Institute named after him). The center resembles a city and, as a city, has a regular bus route. This huge institute is engaged in developing the science needed for shipbuilding, although a ship incorporates the creative work of many more research centers. A ship “absorbs” physics, mathematics, chemistry, and a host of other technical sciences, but acoustics stands first. A ship, particularly a submarine, cannot exist without acoustics. It must KNOW what is ahead, behind, to the sides and above. It must KNOW about the location of other surface and underwater ships, it must KNOW how much acoustic energy it emits, since other ships determine its position by its acoustic field. It is well known that acoustic waves propagate very well in water. Naval acoustics requires the efforts of researchers in different fields. For example, the problem of excitation of strong acoustic waves in water is closely linked with the generation of powerful electric oscillations and their efficient transformation into a wave field, which relates to electrodynamics and the science of arrays. The received acoustic signal needs to be efficiently discriminated from noise and background, which is a science in itself. Thus scientists have an immense field of activity not only in terms of naval science in general, but in naval acoustics as well.

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Among the researchers who gave birth and developed the school of naval acoustics in Nizhny Novgorod, M. T. Grekhova should be remembered first. Let me relate how I learned that Maria’s interests in the field of naval science took shape in her early years in St. Petersburg, the center of naval science. I was an examiner at a dissertation defense in Leningrad. After the defense the board members learned where I had come from and asked me to give their regards to M. T. Grekhova whom they remembered well from the time they worked together. M. T. Grekhova realized the importance of science in shipbuilding very early and dedicated all the force of her mind and talent to naval science. The development of naval acoustics in Nizhny Novgorod received a strong impetus in 1956, when M. T. Grekhova, with the active participation of A. I. Berg, organized the Research Institute of Radiophysics (RIRP) to carry out fundamental research into radioastronomy in the interests of the Navy. These interests were so varied, that they embraced all areas of electronics and radio in which RIRP was able to perform investigations. Seamen showed special interest in the development of acoustics and this was reflected in the subject-themes of the Institute’s work. In the initial period of its creation, RIRP provided acoustic investigations in terms of general physics only, with no direct relation to ships. The Navy was so interested in acoustics that it was willing to support even this type of general work. Experimental research in the field of acoustics proposed in 1956 was supported by the Navy, since it was the only proposal that the Navy received for acoustic research work to be done by RIRP. First the proposal was denied since it required use of special measuring instruments, correlometers, which naval specialists believed RIRP could not have. The Institute of Acoustics RAS was engaged in designing such devices specifically for acoustical research and the measurements were known to be extremely labor consuming. But when it was found that RIRP had its own original optical correlometers, the Navy gave its approval to the proposed acoustic research and provided the opportunity to conduct experiments on its ships and naval bases.

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The work resulted in a series of published scientific papers. In doing this work, RIRP established ties with Navy researchers and the Institute of Acoustics RAS and gathered valuable experience in conducting experiments in the area of naval hydroacoustics. This useful knowledge found application in the subsequent work.

M. T. Grekhova 1. The Development of Naval Acoustics in Nizhny Novgorod The work directly related to naval acoustics started in RIRP after a visit to the Institute in 1959 by Academician A. P. Aleksandrov. During that period, the creator of the home nuclear fleet was working on building a submarine of enhanced efficiency. Special importance in its design was given to acoustics. On that visit to RIRP, A. P. Aleksandrov learned about the idea of using a different principle to detect ship noise, one not previously used in naval acoustics. The idea was very simple. For detecting a ship’s acoustic field, it was supposed to use the discrete components of a ship’s spectrum whose frequencies are found in the range of the propeller

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rotational speed. Such frequencies are much below the range normally used in the accoustic systems for ship noise detection available or being designed at the time. The idea was born at RIRP not as a result of attempts to improve naval acoustics, of which no one at RIRP had any expertise, but rather as a result of a search for practical application of some unexpected experimental results. These were the spectra of signals obtained from electromagnetic detectors by the passage of close by submarines. V. A. Krotov, a very energetic worker of RIRP, brought records of ships’ electromagnetic fields from an expedition. While studying the spectra of these signals, we found that they had very narrow (practically discrete) frequency components being a multiple of propeller rotational speed. It was established by theoretical investigations carried out by V. P. Dokuchaev that the observed electromagnetic fields could well be the result of transformation of strong acoustic signals into an electric field. Such a signal causing movement of current-conducting marine water in the magnetic field of the Earth could act on a sensor installed on the sea bottom. This hypothesis was corroborated by a laboratory experiment performed by S. M. Gorsky. After that we agreed that the observed discrete spectral lines belong to a ship’s low-frequency acoustic transmission and the idea was proposed that a ship might be detected by using these lines. When A. P. Aleksandrov learned about the principle of acoustic detection of ships, of which he had never heard before, he estimated an actual ship’s transmission spectra and the opportunities for their detection in noise and became familiar with the original optical correlometers with which the investigations had been carried out. He commissioned RIRP with the task of looking into the opportunities for long-range target detection in the frequency range of propeller rotational speeds. Addressing the RIRP research staff, he noted: “This is the end of your quiet life!” And he was right, because from that moment on RIRP acquired naval acoustics, which proved to be a glutton demanding more and more new research results and for which scientific achievements were never enough. On A. P. Aleksandrov’s initiative, RIRP made a presentation at the Institute of Acoustics RAS. It was noted that acousticians engaged in the design of hydroacoustic detection systems, when they selected

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frequency ranges, were primarily concerned with efficient operation of the acoustic array. It is known that array efficiency is higher the greater the relation of its size to the acoustic wavelength. Ship size restricts the size of an array and for this reason, designers were compelled to go to a higher frequency range. Propeller rotational speeds were found to be much below the frequency range known as optimal for naval hydroacoustic systems, as determined by professional acousticians. RIRP researchers based their calculations on two factors that were absent in that part of the spectrum where arrays operated efficiently. First, propeller transmission is more intensive than the noises generated by a ship in the conventional frequency range of the arrays’ operation. Second, the propeller noise spectral line is so narrow that its discrimination from other background noise may be made very efficiently. These two factors together are capable of compensating for the array’s low efficiency in this frequency range. Acousticians knew nothing of the existence of the very important second factor, since at that time only RIRP had the equipment allowing discrimination of a spectral line width in the low-frequency range. As a result, RIRP was entrusted with considerable work on the creation of a working mock-up of a channel for target detection by the discrete frequency components it emits. Investigations into this subject were supported by the Navy and government on a comprehensive scale and developments moved faster than anyone at RIRP expected. The Institute received a complete plant for the work. To deliver the equipment required for investigations (including original, individually designed instruments) to a specially assigned ship, three flights by a cargo plane were organized. But it was easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle… No sensational results followed. The investigations carried out, having proved the initial idea, displayed its insufficiency for immediate practical implementation. Having proved the presence of discrete lines in acoustic spectra of submarines, investigations failed to terminate in a successful experiment on long-range detection of a low-noise submarine, according to the initial concept. The laboratory mock-up was capable of a certain target tracking, but was unable to detect the target in the absence of a priori information. The decisive and extremely

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convincing data, which confirmed the existence of a discrete spectrum, were, at a very opportune moment, obtained by none other than V. A. Krotov. Though not all plans had been realized, the results obtained represented a success. The original optical spectral analyzers permitted simultaneous detection of about a thousand spectral points. At that time the instruments with such high specifications, able to perform parallel spectral analysis of low frequencies, existed nowhere else in the world. The signal to noise gain achieved through use of these instruments was about 30 dB, which was comparable with the gain of a good acoustic array. A worker of the Institute, Ye. F. Orlov, joined in the work on development and construction of optical spectral analyzers and correlometers. Designers I. V. Mosalov and V. P. Khrulev designed and constructed unique optical spectral analyzers and correlometers, which had no analogues in the world and which, surprisingly, could successfully stand up to modern computers in processing signals. We cannot omit the names of researchers whose hands and ideas contributed to the creation of unique equipment and obtaining the important results: I. K. Spiridonov, I. S. Rakov, V. I. Larin, S. M. Gorsky, L. A. Zhestyannikov, G. A. Sharonov, and A. I. Kalachev. Noise in the low-frequency range were found to be much higher than in the frequency ranges traditionally used in hydroacoustics. As a result, specialists in acoustics were right to suppose that at low frequencies the array gain was not as great as expected. The idea and results obtained at RIRP were highly appreciated by V. V. Gromkovsky, who at that time was the head of RPA Okeanpribor. This organization took up further research. RPA specialists designed a highly efficient array for use in the low-frequency range and so the method proposed by RIRP proved to be applicable and was successfully adopted. On the initiative and with the support of the Krasnoye Sormovo Plant, engaged in ship design and building, research at RIRP went, so to say, in an opposite direction. A task was set to RIRP to develop the physical basis for design of a ship producing minimum noise in the now dangerous low-frequency range.

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2. Work of IAP in the Area of Hydroacoustics The development of work at RIRP resulted in the creation of the Institute of Applied Physics of the Academy of Sciences (IAP RAS) at its location in 1977. Among other problems, IAP was entrusted with the research into the physical basics of long-range hydroacoustic detection of low-noise targets and ship protection from such detection. Within the scope of RAS, the Navy and the Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry (MSI), this work were supervised by a specially instituted Scientific Board for Hydrophysics under the Presidium of RAS. At the time that IAP was assigned to do this work, the Board for Hydrophysics was chaired by A. P. Aleksandrov. Director of IAP, Academician A. V. Gaponov-Grekhov was his first deputy and was head of research in the area of long-range hydroacoustic detection and ship protection from it. The results of IAP activity were, in the first place, recognized in the area of ship protection from long-range hydroacoustic detection systems operating at low frequencies and detecting ships by discrete components of their transmission spectra. B. M. Salin, jointly with A. V. Gaponov-Grekhov, showed that there exist real ways to exclude the propeller acoustic transmission at the rotational speed frequency and at its harmonics. For that, it was sufficient to do two things; to ensure vibrational isolation of propeller from the hull and to make it neutrally buoyant.

A. V. Gaponov-Grekhov

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Another source capable of giving off acoustic transmission is noise generated by a ship’s equipment. While looking into the physical nature of acoustic wave excitation by vibrating mechanisms, IAP researchers came to a conclusion that the mechanism of exciting an acoustic field at low frequencies is not simply vibrations, but the force with which the vibrating equipment acts on the hull. This happens due to the fact that the hull of any ship (even the strong hull of a submarine) is not rigid but elastic and much easier to compress than sea water. Measuring and controlling forces is much more difficult than dealing with vibrations and promised to become a serious problem. The problem was quite efficiently and simply solved at the Institute by application of a broadly used principle of reciprocity known in electrodynamics. It was found that, by measuring vibrations (everybody knows how to do this) caused by an external acoustic source, one can determine the unknown force on the hull that resulted from these vibrations. It was also found that this method allows one to find the contribution of a mechanical vibration to a ship’s external acoustic field, which was extremely difficult to determine otherwise. For localizing the sources of mechanical origin and establishing control over mechanisms for vibration isolation, IAP workers

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B. M. Salin and S. M. Gorsky carried out measurements using the reciprocity method. An external broadband acoustic source, designed by B. M. Salin with much resourcefulness and energy, “insonified” the ship, while special vibrosensors designed by V. A. Antonets measured the level of vibration induced by the source on the equipment. From this level and the level of mechanical vibroactivity, their contribution to the external field was evaluated. In later years, with the efforts of V. I. Turchin and B. M. Salin, the Institute has been working on the scientific basis of ship noise control. The currently available methods of control failed to ensure the required accuracy in determining the multiple parameters of a ship’s acoustic field affecting its acoustic secrecy. With a view toward developing the scientific basis to improve the technique, a scheme for measuring acoustic power of a weak (compared with noise level) source in the vicinity of an array was developed and implemented. It provided an opportunity to measure intensity and determine the directivity properties of very weak sources, which otherwise, using the available methods, are unattainable using long-range detection or near-ship measurements. A special method of aperture synthesis combining the advantages of W. E. Kock’s coherent aperture synthesis and M. Ryle’s incoherent aperture synthesis formed the scientific basis of the proposed method. With the former measuring techniques, such an important parameter for acoustic secrecy as the scattering cross-section was absolutely beyond any control. Today, using the new method, the angular scattering characteristics and full integral cross-section may be obtained for a ship insonified with a stationary acoustic source. 3. Active Methods of Noise-Free Target Detection as a New Stage in Hydroacoustic Development Naturally, a question arose, is it possible, using acoustic methods, to detect a ship on which all possible measures of noise suppression have been taken? The investigations carried out showed that if a ship’s noise cannot be detected against the background noise by a single closely located hydrophone, then it cannot be detected by an extended array either. It was thus shown that there exists a quite low level of ship noise,

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when the ship becomes invisible for passive submarine sound ranging systems against the background noise. One more factor preventing efficient use of passive sonars should be mentioned. It was found that a rough sea surface is capable of generating a specific type of noise, the so-called multiplicative noise, which is multiplied by the signal, rather than added to it as is usual noise. According to calculations and experiments carried out at IAP by B. M. Salin and V. I. Turchin, such noise forms a background in the angular spectrum of each received signal. This pedestal covers up the entire acoustic horizon up to some level. In the conditions of the experiment carried out, the pedestal was lower than the signal maximum by 30 dB. The presence of such a pedestal in the angular spectrum does not affect the opportunity to detect a single source against marine background noise. But if there appear just one strong source of noise, its pedestal covers up weak sources and even the most sophisticated processing is then unable to discriminate them. Thus the presence of a rough sea surface makes impossible weak signal observation against the strong signal background. If we remember that a surface ship radiates watts of acoustic power, a submarine of World War II era emited a milliwatt and a modern low-noise submarine even less, then the pedestal formed in the angular spectrum of a surface ship will strongly mask the low-noise submarine. The physical origin of this natural phenomenon was discussed in one of the publications in the Acoustics Journal and a description of an experiment proving that no processing is able to break through the noise pedestal appeared in the prestigious journal IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing. As soon as the principal restrictions on passive hydroacoustics became evident, the IAP Director A. V. Gaponov-Grekhov suggested changing from passive to active target detection methods. Active hydroacoustic systems employing special sources have always been part of the hydroacoustic equipment of ships. The IAP proposal differed from the existing active hydroacoustic methods in two aspects. The main one consisted in the use of the low-frequency range. Modern active sound ranging equipment operates in the kilohertz or tens of kilohertz range. Selection of these ranges is based on the above-mentioned natural physical considerations concerning the size

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and efficiency of the radiating and receiving arrays. The latter parameter is determined by the number of wavelengths that will fit in the array aperture. At the same time, the frequencies ensuring efficiency of the radiating and receiving systems are inapplicable in long-range sound ranging due to their strong absorption in sea water. Low-frequency acoustic waves are the only type of transmission capable of propagation to large distances without noticeable absorption (only a few decibels over a thousand kilometers). This property provides opportunities for remote ocean sound ranging. These include long-range sound ranging of submerged objects, determining ocean bottom parameters, etc. In recent years a new opportunity developed for use of this particular kind of transmission (no other kind of transmission would be applicable here) for control of the effect of climate warming caused by human activity. The main problem with application of low-frequency sound consists in coping with new fundamental scientific problems. This frequency range, like the ocean itself, have a number of intrinsic features encountered nowhere else, which must be taken into account. Otherwise, it is impossible to make efficient use of the effects that are so well known in radio, optical, and acoustic detection and ranging. An important feature of the low-frequency range is the need to take into account diffraction phenomena, both in the vicinity of the receiver and at large distances from it. In addition to diffractive effects, the ocean as a medium refracts acoustic waves in a complicated way, establishing an acoustic waveguide. The latter facilitates wave propagation but imposes noticeable restriction on array gain in the vertical plane and the opportunity of gain at the expense of complex signal compression. A waveguide ensures multipath propagation, or a multimode property. The difficulty in solving the emerging problems consists in that they have no direct analogues in other areas of fundamental wave science. Another important feature of low-frequency acoustics is that a particular implementation is to a great extent determined by regional or local hydrological conditions, including the typical form for the index of refraction profile, water depth, and acoustic properties of bottom.

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For example, a whole theory may be developed and successful experiments carried out under conditions of the northwest part of the Pacific, but the “Pacific theory” will be totally inapplicable if we come to use the same frequency range under conditions of the Barents or Kara seas, where a totally different set of fundamental problems would need to be solved. IAP started investigations in the northwest part of the Pacific because of a stationary receiving array of Okeanpribor being in operation in this region. It was capable of working in a broad range of frequencies, including the subrange in which IAP conducts its research. Without such an array, no large-scale ocean experiments in active submarine sound ranging would be possible. For conducting experimental work, with the purpose of testing the results of calculations and creating the physical and technical basics for the proposed method of active sound ranging, IAP needed to construct powerful low-frequency sources. Such sources with efficiency close to 10% were designed by B. N. Bogolyubov on the basis of a physical principle which differed from that employed in industry in the manufacture of sonar sources. The lower the frequency the greater the amplitude of the vibrations of the active element of the source. Materials used in industry in source manufacture cannot in principle withstand the vibration amplitudes (measured in centimeters) required for generating strong low-frequency transmission. It was found that not every metal will withstand such vibrations. Investigations showed that it is possible to make a plate of special composition that would withstand large-amplitude vibrations for (practically) an unlimited time (though the first sources had a very limited service life). The initiator and organizer of all work in acoustics at IAP was A. V. Gaponov-Grekhov, whose role in this work was as significant as the role played by M. T. Grekhova in the work at RIRP. A. V. Gaponov-Grekhov “pushed-up” to naval acoustics the universal specialists in physics he himself had fostered. It was A. V. Gaponov-Grekhov who drew V. I. Talanov to naval acoustics. Without the decisive scientific contribution of the latter we would have been deprived of reliable, powerful, and efficient lowfrequency sources and hence, of a whole trend in science (Fig. 1).

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Powerful low-frequency hydroacoustic sources designed at IAP.

Working on the development of a powerful acoustic transmitter, V. I. Talanov successfully solved a series of acoustic problems similar to those he dealt with in his research in the area of electrodynamics. The problem was solved of a single-mode excitation of a plate whose dimensions are much greater that the wavelengths of transverse vibrations excited in it. It was impossible to create an efficient source without solving this problem. Creation of an array of such sources also required certain inventiveness, since efficient sources interact one with the other strongly, hampering array phasing. A. G. Luchinin actively joined in solving this problem. A. V. Gaponov-Grekhov also drew into acoustics the celebrated optical physicist, L. S. Dolin, who made a significant contribution to the investigation of acoustic reverberation presenting the main (often single) real noise interfering with long-range acoustic “vision.” Experimental research into active low-frequency submarine ranging was supported by the Navy and industrial researchers. Investigations confirmed correctness of earlier estimates and ended in a great

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success. With the help of a working mock-up, submarine monitoring in a large area covered by the receiving array was possible. Islands, shores, underwater mountains could be seen as well. A special target provided by the Navy for research purposes could be clearly observed against this background. This target was so reliably located and fixed at such big distances from the receiving array that seamen were amazed. The object could be seen in all its aspects. Signals reflected from the object could be discriminated from the reverberation background at a maximum distance in the lateral aspect only, while in the bow and stern aspects it was much below reverberation. Nevertheless, this signal was clearly visible due to the Doppler shift of the discriminated signal frequency relative to reverberation. The results obtained appeared to be so impressive and received such a profound scientific justification that industry took up their realization in “hardware” with enthusiasm — a year before the research was officially completed. The brilliant organizer of IAP expeditions bringing effective results was M. M. Slavinskiy. A. G. Luchinin also displayed his capabilities as a successful organizer. The expedition under program Vostok, some results of which have been mentioned, was led by M. M. Slavinskiy, his deputies were I. N. Didenkulov, V. I. Yelizarov, B. V. Kerzhakov, and Yu. K. Postoyenko. In all, 20 people took part in the expedition. Many more people were involved in the work. The final list of participants counted 79 people. The main distinguishing feature in all these people was that they did all they could and were able to do on one key command: “Do it!” Leaders arose enthusiasm in people as well. M. T. Grekhova did a wonderful job. One of Maria Tikhonovna’s secrets was her relation with people. She knew everything about everybody. As an example my 40th birthday “caught up” with me on board a submarine, on a voyage, where I was conducting research. As soon as the submarine surfaced, its captain represented me with flourish a telegram just received with birthday congratulations from M. T. Grekhova. In this article, I attempted to present, a general overview of the rise of hydroacoustics in the research institutions of one of the largest Russian cities. Investigations in the area of hydroacoustics undertaken

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in Nizhny Novgorod (initially due to the efforts of the enthusiastresearcher M. T. Grekhova), later received further successful development. The research efforts of Nizhny Novgorod scientists became implemented in significant scientific and practical achievements so much needed in the areas of national defense and economy.

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A Brief Overview of Hydroacoustic Investigations at Research Institutions of the Sakhalin YU. S. SHUMILOV

Hydroacoustic investigations at the Sakhalin Complex Research Institute (SakhCRI; today, the Institute of Marine Geology and Geophysics of the Academy of Sciences), located in Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk began in 1964 on the initiative of the deputy director of the Institute, S. L. Solovyov (later, Academician of RAS). Investigations were carried out by R. S. Voronin, S. I. Voronina and other graduates of MSU at the tsunami station Shikotan under the scientific and methodological guidance and with the participation of workers of the N. N. Andreyev Institute of Acoustics S. G. Gershman and V. I. Bardyshev. The main task was investigation of hydroacoustic waves excited by earthquakes as probable precursors of tsunamis. A laboratory of hydroacoustics was organized in 1967. Its heads were, in different periods, D. I. Nikolsky and Yu. S. Shumilov transferred from Morfizpribor CRI and worker of the Institute of Acoustics V. A. Apanasenko. Great assistance to the laboratory was rendered from the Institute of Acoustics by I. B. Andreyeva. In 1971, a Department of Hydroacoustics was organized (with Yu. S. Shumilov at the head). It included three laboratories and the hydrophysical observatory Shikotan. Among the most active researchers of the Department the names of former (and future) workers of the Institute of Acoustics, B. F. Kuryanov, I. F. Kadykov, Yu. S. Rozhkov, should be mentioned, along with the names of researchers who had defended their Candidate’s Degree dissertations on the base of “locally” gathered material: L. M. Nefedov, V. I. Kryshnev, and A. V. Mikryukov.

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Hydroacoustic research took several directions. Based on data from many years of oceanological observation, probability characteristics of the hydrological-acoustic conditions of the NW part of the Pacific Ocean were determined. Theoretical and experimental research into sound propagation for the typical conditions of a shore wedge was carried out. For the first time in home practice, long-term experimental investigation into ocean noise, shipping noise, and artificial signals in a wide range of frequencies was undertaken. Investigation was performed with the help of cabled bottom stations installed at depths up to 500 m near the Shikotan Island and off the SW end of the Sakhalin island (Cape Levenhorn). Spectral-energy characteristics of marine noises at different degrees of ocean surface roughness were determined. A significant contribution from remote shipping noise to the low-frequency part of the bottom noise spectrum was revealed. Noises of biological origin were investigated, including sounds of marine mammals. The Institute also incorporated a special design bureau (SDB), headed by Yu. S. Belavin, where self-contained marine seismoacoustic equipment was designed. By Ordinance of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, a special design bureau of marine research automation systems (SDB MRAS) of the Academy of Sciences was organized in 1978 on the location of the previous SDB and the Department of Hydroacoustics. Yu. S. Belavin was appointed its first director and chief designer and Yu. S. Shumilov became deputy director. SDB MRAS was accommodated in the buildings of a laboratory and an experimental plant specifically designed and built for it in Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk. It is interesting to remember a curious situation that occurred during SDB MRAS construction. When design of the laboratory building and the experimental plant and the expensive and labor-consuming foundation work were completed, the State Building Inspection Commission ruled the construction illegal, because, instead of the earlier planned single building, two building were being erected. Construction was suspended. No one from the Presidium of the RAS was willing to go to the Gosplan (State Planning Committee of the USSR). Nobody wanted the “trouble.” Then, Yu. S. Belavin, the future director of SDB MRAS,

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requested that he be authorized to conduct negotiations with Gosplan on behalf of the Presidium of the RAS. His proposal was accepted and Yu. S. Belavin spent a whole month in the Moskva Hotel and every day, like a regular worker, appeared in the Gosplan offices and convinced officials at all levels of the necessity to continue construction. As he told later, he had been to all floors and even received support of the military. As a result, the construction was finally acknowledged legal and money was assigned — 1.5 times more than had been planned before. Construction was successfully finished. SDB MRAS designed and manufactured different modifications of self-contained deep-sea bottom stations designed to record ocean noises in the range from 0.1 to 1000 Hz at depths up to 10,000 m, with independent operation up to 30 days. When required, stations were additionally outfitted with seismic equipment. Each station had a radio beacon, an acoustic release, and a time-setting instrument and an emergency leak sensor in the shell. A stationary hydroacoustic path across the Sea of Okhotsk about 340 km long was instrumented. The radiating equipment was installed on an underwater plain at a depth of about 200 m near the village of Pionery on the Iturup island, the receiving array was placed on a shelf near Cape Levenhorn of the Sakhalin Island. Installation of cabled bottom stations was carried out with the help of cable-laying ships of the Pacific Fleet. Equipment testing and experimental research were performed with the participation of the SakhCRI ship RS Pegas and Morskoi RS Geofizik, RS Baikal and RS Balkhash of the Pacific Fleet, and ships leased from the Hydrographic Service of the Ministry of Merchant Marine. Experimental research was carried out in the northwest part of the Pacific, the Seas of Okhotsk and Japan, the Philippine, Yellow, and South China Seas. In recent years, joint Russian–American experiments within the scope of the project “International research at a hydrophysical test range for acoustic monitoring of global climate changes and development of remote-controlled systems for study of ocean and its resources” are being conducted along the path with the use of modernized equipment.

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Nowadays, due to lack of orders for hydroacoustic research, SDB MRAS has undergone considerable cutback, the experimental plant building was transferred to the local administration and SDB MRAS was included in the Far-East Branch of RAS. Its present director is M. L. Krasny. The results of hydroacoustic investigations carried out by the Sakhalin researchers were published in the Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences, the Acoustic Journal, Transactions of SakhCRI, Transactions of SDB MRAS, and in monographs and other publications.

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Overview of Hydroacoustic Investigations Conducted by Research Organizations of the Kamchatka A. D. KONSON, G. YE. SMIRNOV, and YU. S. SHUMILOV

Hydroacoustic investigations in the region of the Kurile-Kamchatka Islands have been ongoing since the 1950s. Investigations were carried out by research organizations of the Navy, the N. N. Andreyev Institute of Acoustics, CRI Morfizpribor, the Institute of Applied Physics RAS and the research organizations of FED RAS. The main task of the experimental research was study of the peculiarities of acoustic signal propagation in the shelf zone and in the deep ocean. In these investigations, significant changes in the hydrological conditions along the sound propagation path and space-time variability of ocean acoustic noise in these regions were of special interest. An investigation of hydrological characteristics in this region was conducted. The first investigations into the peculiarities of sound propagation were conducted with the use of explosive acoustic sources. Investigations were systematic enough and were aimed at gathering statistically representative experimental data for solving research problems of hydroacoustics. The problems’ solutions were then the basis for recommendations for the design and operation of prototype hydroacoustic systems. In 1962, with the help of Pacific Fleet ships, large-scale experimental research was conducted in the Avachinsky Gulf. Powerful harmonic signals operating at 400 Hz frequency were used, at propagation distances up to 700 km. Work was carried out by a group of workers of CRI Morfizpribor under the guidance of Ya. S. Karlik, Yu. S. Shumilov, V. V. Demyanovich, and a group of researchers from the Acad. N. N. Andreyev Institute of Acoustics under the guidance of S. G. Gershman and Yu. I. Tuzhilkin. 448

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Beginning in 1965, regular hydroacoustic investigations were carried out in the areas of the Pacific Ocean, including the areas adjacent to the Kamchatka Peninsula. Research ships of the Pacific Fleet Baikal (the source ship) and Balkhash (the receiver ship), research ships of the Pacific Oceanological Institute RAS Akademik Vinogradov (source ship) and Akademik Nesmeyanov (receiver ship), research ships of the Institute of Acoustics Akademik F. Konstantinov (source ship) and Akademik N. Andreyev (receiver ship) all took part in the investigations. In 1982, the Pacific Department of the Institute of Acoustics was organized in Vilyuchinsk, Kamchatskaya Region and in 1984, by Ordinance of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, the Pacific Branch of ACIN (PB ACIN) was instituted on its base. The new branch of the Institute was accommodated on the site of MU 63878, in the earlier constructed small building belonging to ACIN and on the temporarily provided areas of the MU 63878 production building. S. V. Agavelov was appointed director, first of the Department and then of the Branch. Yu. S. Shumilov was appointed as Deputy Director. Hydroacoustic investigations were carried out by graduates of the Far-East Polytechnic Institute under the guidance of V. P. Starzhik and A. A. Zavorin. In 1990, the ACIN Branch moved to a specially designed and constructed research village. In 1991, the Kamchatka Institute of Hydrophysics (KIHP) of the Ministry of Defense Industry was formed on the base of PB ACIN. Since 1987, the director of the Branch and later, the Institute, was G. Ye. Smirnov (former Technical Director of RPA Okeanpribor). The Branch staff and later the Institute staff were increased considerably at the expense of inviting a large group of researchers from the leading related organizations of Moscow and Leningrad: A. D. Konson, A. G. Golubev, Ye. N. Kalenov, V. O. Gravin, D. V. Ivanov, R. A. Znamenshchikov, A. N. Nekrasov, A. V. Bulashevich, Yu. S. Rozhkov, V. A. Oleshchuk, V. Yu. Oleshchuk, Yu. A. Dyakov, P. L. Semenyaka, and others. Young specialists, graduates of higher educational establishments of Moscow, Leningrad, and Kiev came to work at the Institute. In the first years of work, the Department and then Branch of ACIN participated as collaborators in the majority of research projects carried out by the Institute in the Far-East; their number reached ten

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and over within one year. Between 1986 and 1990, the Branch, as lead organization, carried out a complex investigation of the spacetime characteristics of signals and noises for the northwest part of the Pacific. The purpose of the work was to gather data for the design of prospective hydroacoustic systems (Chief Scientist Yu. S. Shumilov). With the participation of KIHP, a great amount of engineeringtechnical work on installation of stationary sonars for underwater surveillance along the peninsula coast was carried out. Among sonar designers were CRI Morfizpribor, DB Shtorm under the Kiev Polytechnic Institute and RI Atoll. KIHP researchers also participated in the trials and experimental research on the Pacific Fleet ships and boats operating these sonars. Using the existing ocean arrays, KIHP created a coastal station for continuous acoustic observation of ocean noises and signals in the adjacent areas. In 1987, RS Impuls-1 was built for the Branch at the Khabarovsk Shipbuilding Plant. Beginning in 1989, this ship, outfitted with receiving and hydroacoustic radiating equipment, conducted investigations in the northwest part of the Pacific, in the Bering Sea, the Seas of Okhotsk and Japan; and participated in joint voyages with research ships of other organizations. In the course of the expeditions organized by KIHP, unique materials were gathered on hydroacoustic characteristics and regional features of sound propagation, ocean noise data and data on earthquake-related noises. Organization of the Kamchatka Institute of Hydrophysics was determined by the needs of the Navy in designing hydroacoustic systems with account for specific regional conditions. A considerable part of research activities of KIHP was connected with investigations aimed at creation of mock-up and prototype hydroacoustic systems for defense applications, as well as for solving the economic problems of the region: detection of earthquake precursors, working out acoustic methods of control over the 200-mile economic zone and conducting ecological monitoring. Hydroacoustic investigations were carried out within the scope of the set of applied problems. In recent years, due to the abrupt drop in the volume of state orders across the country, KIHP underwent considerable cutbacks in the number of experienced specialists and lost RS Impuls-1. Despite

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financial problems, the Institute’s leadership has managed to keep the principal research personnel and also attract qualified specialists from Moscow, St. Petersburg, and Nizhny Novgorod to the Institute’s research work. Thanks to the fulfillment of a big order for the Defense Ministry, (Chief Designer G. Ye. Smirnov) the financial situation of the Institute has improved to a degree. To maintain and develop its research capability, KIHP has broadened its focus and started work on industrial applications including the design of acoustic systems for ground probing and development of energy-saving technologies for the extreme north regions. Simultaneously KIHP carries out important work on introduction and modernization of hydroacoustic systems utilizing modern highly efficient signal processors. It should be noted that underwater noises of seismic and other origin were investigated by the Laboratory of Acoustics of the Institute of Volcanology RAS in Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky.

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Hydroacoustic Systems for Submarines of the Pre-World War II and First Post-War Generations V. E. ZELYAKH

Sonars are the only systems that provide surveillance of the space around a submarine. Attempts to use electromagnetic waves, magnetic fields, gravitational fields, and even the mythical “hydronic” waves for this purpose have all been unsuccessful. Passive hydroacoustic systems detect targets by their noise and provide target bearings. In some cases, they may also determine the distance to a target, the class of target, the direction to an operating sonar mounted on the target and its type. Active sonars, having various applications, can measure distance to a target, perform an active search for targets, detect anchored and bottom mines and navigation obstacles, and find polynyas in the ice cover thus enabling surfacing in ice lanes. Echo sounders and ice sonars provide information about under-keel clearance, the presence of ice on the ocean surface above a submarine and the thickness of the ice. Hydroacoustics ensures communication between surface ships and submarines. It is only long-range communication with a submerged submarine that requires the use of systems that use very-low-frequency (VLF) electromagnetic waves since these waves penetrate the ocean subsurface layer. Acoustic absolute logs allow highly accurate determination of a vessel’s speed relative to the ocean floor, which is necessary for the accurate determination of the location of a submarine. At the beginning of World War II, Soviet submarines were only equipped with the Mars type passive sonar. These sonars, designed in the mid-1930s under the guidance of the founder of domestic hydroacoustics, V. N. Tyulin, were available in several versions for small, medium, and large-displacement submarines. Modifications differed in 455

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the number of sonar transducers in the stationary elliptical array. The sonar employed the maximum method. For phasing the signal from the individual transducers, a delay line equalizer with a contact brush commutator was used. During the years of service in the fleets, the sonar underwent several modernizations. Sonars of this type having 8, 12, 16, 24, 48, and 60 transducers were in serial production (with the respective names Mars 8, Mars 12, etc.). The transducers underwent modernization as well, employing magnetostrictive, electrodynamic and ferroelectric elements. Transducer design also underwent changes to ensure operation under conditions of increased ambient pressure. As a result of modernization of the system components and improvement of the device in general, the signal processing and display hardware underwent considerable changes. Initially, the Mars sonar was powered by the submarine storage batteries via a rotary transformer. A serious disadvantage of rotary transformers, however, is that they generate strong electric noise. Later, thyratron-based transformers were designed. The system also included a display by which the commander could see the same shapedarray directivity pattern as seen by the soundman on his display, and a commander-to-soundman communication line, which allowed the submarine commander to personally evaluate the situation. The last version of the passive Mars sonar was installed on the first Soviet nuclear submarine of class 627 in 1958. Vodtranspribor Plant workers M. Sh. Shtremt, M. M. Dikovsky, M. M. Magid, Yu. I. Popov, Ye. I. Kuznetsova, G. A. Tankov, and I. V. Trofimov provided invaluable assistance in modernization of the Mars sonars, in providing engineering support to the serial-production plants, and in maintaining a fighting efficiency of the sonars in the fleets during the war years. Active work was carried out during the war on submarine hydroacoustic equipment addition and improvement. In 1943, installation began on submarines of the echo-sounders PEL-3 designed by B. N. Tikhonravov using V. N. Tyulin’s work. Toward the end of the war, the sonar Tamir-5L began appearing on submarines. This sonar represented a submarine-borne version of the modernized sonar Tamir, for which a group of workers of the Vodtranspribor Plant was awarded the Stalin Prize.

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Despite good service results by the Mars sonar, it could no longer satisfy the requirements of the Navy mainly because of low noise immunity. Insufficient noise immunity was primarily due to the fact that the array transducers were mounted flush with the plating, or, as it were, “exposed to the flow.” With an increase in submarine speed the subsequent noise increase resulted in a sharp decrease in target detection range. Due to its small height, the array had low directivity in the vertical plane, which also had a negative effect on its noise immunity. The accuracy of bearing estimates was unsatisfactory as well. For these reasons, soon after the war, work on development of a new passive sonar system commenced. In the beginning, the project went under the same code name, Mars. It was later replaced with the code name Spika-2. This second code name was used for only a short period, and was replaced with Feniks (Fig. 1). M. Sh. Shtremt, an outstanding engineer, was appointed chief designer of the new sonar; his deputies were Ye. I. Kuznetsova and G. A. Tankov. The designers

Fig. 1.

Feniks sonar array.

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proposed the use of a stationary cylindrical array containing 132 magnetostrictive transducers. This transducer was based on the design similar to that of a linear array transducer of an American sonar, where target search was ensured by mechanical rotation of the array. Creation of such a transducer required much effort by the chief designer and his co-workers. It was necessary to organize the production of thin-walled pipes from high-purity nickel in the country and to develop and implement the production of new special magnetic alloys for the cores to ensure uniform transducer recharging (magnetizing). The research and development of the transducer was carried out at the Vodtranspribor Plant in the laboratory of Yu. I. Popov. An active participant in the design work was a young engineer, V. B. Idin, who later became a prominent specialist in hydroacoustics and a State Prize winner. The task of ensuring that the receivers were sealed against moisture proved to be a difficult one. Together with the Chief Designer, M. M. Magid made a significant contribution to solving this problem. Later he became head of the research on the modernization of the Feniks sonar and even later was appointed chief designer of the Kerch sonar system. Low-noise preamplifiers were designed employing vacuum tubes of the so-called “pin” series, which were then only coming into use. To increase the accuracy of bearing estimates, M. Sh. Shtremt proposed a phase method, according to which the sums of the signals from the two halves of the array were fed to the vertical plates of the electron-beam tube, and the difference of the same two signals, being 90◦ out of phase, was fed to the horizontal plates. For shaping and rotating the array directivity pattern in space, a two-channel compensator of electric delay lines, with a multi-channel brush commutation switch, was proposed. The materials for the brushes, the bars, and the insulating material between bars were carefully selected to ensure reliable operation of the commutator. Capacitors with 2% tolerance in the delay lines were required to achieve the required compensator accuracy. At that time, Soviet industry did not produce capacitors of this tolerance. M. Sh. Shtremt proposed using two parallel half-capacitance capacitors with 20% tolerance each, but

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selected so as to have one capacitance below, and the other above, the rated value. The results were amazing. Using a simple classification procedure on an elementary Winston bridge for separating the components in two groups, positive and negative, engineers managed, without additional tests and measurements, to obtain the required accuracy. There were many other clever adaptations and findings, and, most importantly, at the conceptual design stage, a full-scale working mockup of the sonar was made and comprehensive trials were carried out. This allowed for the initiation of serial production of the Feniks sonar. The designers met with great difficulty in mounting the sonar on submarines. While practically no problems arose with the processing equipment, even on small-displacement submarines, shipbuilders refused to install the array since it required a special dome. They found thousands of reasons why it could not be installed — loss in submarine speed, impossibility of submarine docking, danger of dome damage by ice, difficulties with the submarine settling on the ocean floor, etc. However, all their fears were groundless. It was found in the course of the most demanding trials that the loss in maximum speed of a submarine with a Feniks sonar dome did not exceed 0.2 knots, and the dome strength was sufficient to allow a submarine to rest on the ocean floor. Other problems were resolved as well. Sonar trials under sea conditions demonstrated its excellent qualities. With its creation, Soviet hydroacoustics leaped far ahead of American hydroacoustics, the most advanced at that time. Installation of the Feniks sonars began on all submarines then under construction. Together with a group of designers of the class 611 submarine, Chief Designer of the Feniks sonar, M. Sh. Shtremt was awarded the Lenin Prize. He was the only submarine equipment designer to win this prize. The Feniks sonar played an outstanding role in the development of domestic hydroacoustics. Later, the Feniks sonar transducers found wide application in the design of arrays for the new sonar systems Svet, Tuloma, Arktika, Anadyr, and Kerch, as well as in conducting research projects such as the Shpat, Neman, Topaz and others. The sonar underwent several stages of modernization. The first, the introduction of an automatic target tracking mode, was initiated

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by M. Sh. Shtremt within the scope of a research project. Unfortunately, an accident forced the designers to discontinue this work. After trials on Lake Ladoga, when the trial participants were on their way to Leningrad, at night, in stormy weather, a worker accompanying the equipment disappeared from the barge, which had no guard railing. Most probably, he fell into the water and drowned. His absence was not discovered until 2 h later. Since his body was never found, the “competent” organs decided that he might have reached the shore, crossed the border to Finland, and disclosed the secrets of a new sonar. The absurd and tragic death of a co-worker adversely affected the fate of M. Sh. Shtremt. He was summoned to the “Big House” (i.e., headquarters of the secret police — Ed.) several times, and finally the project was terminated. Therefore the first modernization of the Feniks sonar, the introduction of the automatic target tracking mode, was completed by M. M. Magid, under a new code name, Kola. In 1957–1958, engineers of the Institute of Acoustics and RIE of the Navy proposed the design of an attachment to the Feniks sonar, which would ensure automatic circular scanning with the use of correlation signal processing (code named Aldan). The new design was implemented under the guidance of L. Ya. Kruze. After the systems Aldan and Kola were introduced into the Feniks sonar, the modernized sonar received a new code name, MG-10. Final modernization of the Feniks sonar was completed under the guidance of V. P. Gulidov, who combined the arrays of the sonars Feniks and Svet in such a way that the MG-10 sonar, now code named MG-10M, was able alone to solve problems that were solved earlier only with the use of two sonars. The MG-10 and MG-10M sonars were widely used in all diesel-electric and first-generation nuclear submarines. In 1952, a decision was made to create a set of hydroacoustic equipment for the first domestic nuclear submarine (class 627). The suite was to include: (1) the direct-listening (DL) and the echo-ranging system Arktika, (2) the sonar underwater communication system Sviyaga; (3) the working sonar signal detection system Svet, which represented a hydroacoustic version of Adcock’s radio direction finder;

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(4) the navigation obstacle and anchored mines detection system Luch; (5) the passive sonar Mars (later replaced with the sonar MG-10); (6) an ice sonar. Since information on the specialized systems Sviyaga, Luch, and Svet may be found in other articles in this collection, this article describes the stages of creation of only the Arktika system. The chief engineer of CRI Morfizpribor and State Prize winner, Ye. I. Aladyshkin, was appointed chief designer of the Arktika sonar. His deputy was V. M. Pochekaev. Later, when Pochekaev left the Institute, a talented engineer, N. A. Knyazev, assumed the tasks of organizing trials and implementing the modernization of the sonar. N. P. Ulyanov became deputy for the design work. Ye. I. Aladyshkin deserves special mention. He was a student of S. Ya. Sokolov. From the first day of his professional life, then at Vodtranspribor Plant, he proved himself to be a promising engineer with a good knowledge of physical processes and production organization. Because of this, the young engineer was appointed chief designer of the first domestic sonar Tamir-1. In 1940, Tamir-1 passed state trials, and in 1941, the group of designers, with Ye. I. Aladyshkin at the head, was awarded the State Prize. During the war, Ye. I. Aladyshkin successfully carried out a series of modernizations of the Tamir sonar (Tamir-3, Tamir-5L, and Tamir-5N), and simultaneously took an active part in the maintenance of hydroacoustic equipment in the operational fleets. In 1946, after the war, Ye. I. Aladyshkin was appointed Chief Engineer of SDB-206, and beginning in 1949, he worked as Chief Engineer at CRI Morfizpribor. His disposition towards people was always positive, and he organized the work process so that nobody was ever left without an answer to the most difficult questions. Ye. I. Aladyshkin participated in practically all the design and development work at the Institute. He was always able to propose a unorthodox solution to the most complicated problems which inevitably arose in the process of design, testing, and bringing to production of the new prototype equipment. At the same time, he was absolutely unselfish and gave away his ideas and solutions not caring a bit about taking credit, claiming authorship, etc.

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His style of work is also worth note. He appeared at the Institute at 9 am, and until 2 pm was busy with everyday problems. Since Yevgeniy Il’ich lived not far from the Institute, he went home for lunch. After the compulsory “admiral’s hour” he appeared in his office again and often stayed at work till very late, 10–11 pm. He particularly favored working on Saturdays, when no visitors would interfere, and he could fully concentrate on work. The career of N. A. Knyazev began with work on the Arktika sonar. Immediately after graduation from LETI, the young specialist became actively involved with it and made many valuable proposals concerning component improvement. He was the one who proposed a frequencyindependent, phase-shifter diagram which was widely used in the work of the Institute. He also proposed replacing the signal from the sum channel in the bearing marker to a balanced modulator signal, which, in fact, meant a switch to correlation direction finding. After V. M. Pochekaev, N. A. Knyazev lead all work on trials of the device, and later on its modernization, practically fulfilling the duties of a deputy chief designer. This experience helped him later in performing the duties of the head of the design of the submarine sonar Okean for class 705 submarines. He was awarded the State Prize for the development of this sonar system. All work done by N. A. Knyazev (he was the head of several research projects) was characterized by scrupulous attention to every detail, and every problem received a comprehensive solution. His exacting manner in relations with his subordinates, broad erudition in hydroacoustics as well as in the adjacent fields allowed him to successfully run a section, and then, later, to become the leader of a large research department. The Arktika sonar represented a new stage in the development of systems for initial data gathering for the purpose of target designation for the submarine weapons. A considerable rise in efficiency in the DL mode was achieved because of the system for automatic target tracking introduced for the first time in hydroacoustics and recreated for the first time “in metal” in 1954. The method of slanting the array directivity pattern in the vertical plane also yielded significant results. In the echoranging mode, the direction of transmission of the signal was selected based on the DL data, which permitted a reduction in the number

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of sonar transmissions. This was an important improvement since the transmissions could disclose the presence of the submarine itself. Significant improvement in sonar noise immunity in the active mode, in the presence of strong reverberatory interference, was achieved by incorporating a comb of Doppler filters in the echo processing system. This technique was proposed by an exceptionally talented person, EngineerColonel P. P. Kuzmin. The Arktika sonar employed an electrically driven conical reflector array that rotated in both the horizontal and vertical planes. Sonar trials, however, indicated the low efficiency of the electric drive. It often suffered from leaks, malfunctions, and it generated unacceptable noise. It was decided to use a hydraulic drive instead. Great progress in this direction was achieved by the talented engineers Ya. A. Shevelo, O. L. Preobrazhensky, and O. V. Soldatov. Simultaneously with the drive replacement, the array was moved from the conning tower wall, where the level of own ship noise was high, to the submarine forward end. The first three versions of the Arktika system employed a magnetostrictive cylindrical source with biasing in the echo-ranging mode. The Feniks-type transducers arranged in parallel to the reflector axis were used as receivers in the receiving array. Later, in the course of modernization, the magnetostrictive source and the Feniks-type transducers were replaced with sectional transducers of barium titanate, which helped to eliminate biasing. This type of transducer was designed by the young specialist G. K. Skrebnev. A significant amount of work on the preparation of technical documentation for the sonar in the course of its design, modernization, and series production was carried out by L. N. Astasheva, T. N. Zhustrova, and L. I. Baryshnikova. During trials of the Arktika, Z. Ya. Dizhbak worked selflessly; he took every little trouble as a personal tragedy, and did not rest until everything was normal. The Arktika sonar and its modification, Arktika-M, with the sonar MG-10 were installed on all first-generation nuclear submarines and diesel-electric submarines of classes 641, 633 and 629. Along with the consecutive circular-scanning sonar Arktika-M, the Institute staff worked on the design of a circular-scanning sonar code

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named Tuloma. The project’s chief designer was Candidate of Technical Science (a rare degree at that time) M. N. Zaboev, who came to work at CRI Morfizpribor from RI-49, together with the new director N. N. Sviridov. L. A. Vakhitova, a young specialist and graduate of LSI, was appointed deputy chief designer, and later proved herself to be an outstanding manager. Being an expert in radio circuitry engineering, M. N. Zaboev was not well versed in the physics of the propagation of acoustical vibrations in water, and this predetermined, to a certain degree, the failure of Tuloma. For instance, M. N. Zaboev proposed the sonar cylindrical array be assembled from Feniks-type transducers in the form of a squirrel-cage. Inside the squirrel-cage, a cylindrical magnetostrictive source was placed, which ensured circular radiation in the horizontal plane. Such construction, however, led to strong distortions of the directivity pattern in the reception and transmission channels. In the course of trials, the source had to be placed above the receiving array, but also with little positive result. Noise immunity of the Tuloma receiving array was found to be insufficient. In the first version of the sonar, echo signal reception was performed by a fan of independent directivity patterns formed by electronic delay lines. This progressive method of scanning in space had earlier been proposed by M. Sh. Shtremt in two versions: directivity pattern shaping by summing signals from taps of the delay lines connected immediately after the transducers, and directivity pattern shaping by summing signals from the delay line proper. But introduction of this method into practice was delayed due to absence of the necessary parts. The truly efficient application of the method of simultaneous circular scanning was made possible much later, in designing the sonars Titan and Okean. In the case of Tuloma, the idea of stationary directivity pattern “fanning-out” was found to be nonfunctional due to dynamic instability of the multi-channel receiving circuit and low-quality electronic switches of the integrating survey multiplexer. The designers were forced to go back to the method of scanning with a single rotating directivity pattern, which made one complete revolution within a cycle of a sounding pulse. Directivity pattern rotation was performed by a

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compensator with a capacitance commutator, similar to the compensator of the circular-scanning sonar Gerkules. A modernized version of the Tuloma sonar was installed on a submarine for trials. During these trials the echosignals from targets were masked by strong reverberatory noise but coastline imaging was satisfactory thus allowing the submarine to pass through narrow channels in a submerged state. Unfortunately, at the time of the trials in Liepaja, M. N. Zaboev suddenly died. The loss of interest by the naval authorities in the active circular-scanning sonar, which exposed the location of the submarine at the moment of transmission, resulted in the termination of the project. Simultaneously with the Tuloma sonar, the Institute worked on the design of a circular-scanning sonar for surface ships called Titan. Two versions of the structure of the receiving channel were envisioned: (1) with a fan of static directivity patterns and an integrating commutator; (2) with one rotating directivity pattern. Both versions entered production. Comparative trials showed both models were practically identical in performance and gave generally good results. The development of the sonars Feniks, Arktika, Svet, and Sviyaga provided an opportunity to outfit Soviet big and medium-displacement submarines with equipment in no way inferior in its tactical characteristics to sonars of western countries. These sonars, however, could not be installed on small-displacement 615 and 615A submarines then under development. Interest was high at the time in equipping them with closed-cycle diesel engines. Such engines allowed for long-term operation of submarines without surfacing. Limited internal space and the small crew of such submarines pointed toward the development of a special sonar. Design work on this special sonar was entrusted to State Prize winner S. M. Shelekhov, his deputy and one of the most active staff designers was L. M. Mirimov. Based on the research project Bliznetsy that was the result of this work, for the first time in the history of hydroacoustics Soviet engineers succeeded in creating not just a set of sonars, but a real hydroacoustic system with a single control console, which allowed a single operator to run the system at readiness

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level 2. The system was equipped with a few multifunctional arrays, the small size of which allowed their placement on small submarines. The system development under the code name Anadyr began upon the Ordinance of the Council of Ministers of July 2, 1953, and already in 1957, it was placed into service under the code name GS571. The Anadyr principal array presented a planar array assembled from receiving magnetostrictive transducers of Feniks-type and magnetostrictive rod sources. Surveillance was carried out by mechanical rotation of the array with the help of an electric drive. The Anadyr design, manufacture, and trials became a good learning experience for many employees of the Institute. L. M. Mirimov, for example, later successfully headed a group of designers of the smallsize automatic sonar Yenisei which was included in the SS Okean. Now that we have mentioned L. M. Mirimov, we note that his interests were not limited to the creation of excellent sonars. During post-graduate study he perfected his knowledge of the German language and in 1962 translated into Russian the book by F. H. Lange, “Correlation Electronics.” It became the desk book for many generations of hydroacoustic engineers. Lev Matveyevich became deeply involved in translating. He became the first person to translate several works by S. Zweig, L. Feuchtwanger, and B. Traven into Russian. Many of these translations have been published in recent years. It became clear in the course of development of the Arktika and Tuloma sonars that the detection range they provided was insufficient. It needed to be increased by 1.5–2 times. However, sufficient scientific prerequisites were lacking. It was necessary to carry out research to create the scientific basis needed for the further development of hydroacoustics. One of these research projects began in 1953 under the code name Shpat. M. Sh. Shtremt was appointed chief scientist of the project, his deputy was L. P. Ogorodnikov. M. Sh. Shtremt knew how to select young specialists and to present them with interesting problems. While still working on the design of the Feniks sonar, he brought to his team the young engineers V. B. Idin and O. A. Kudasheva. Both later became prominent specialists. He invited D. K. Solovyov, future Cand. Tech. Sc. and laboratory head

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at the N. N. Andreyev Institute of Acoustics, and V. I. Klyachkin, future prominent scientist, Doctor of Physics and Mathematics, supervisor of many research projects, to work on the research project Shpat. I also came to work with this team (V. E. Zelyakh was later chief designer of the mine detection system Radian for submarines and head of design work on the passive sonar systems Skat-KS, Skat-BDRM, and SkatPlavnik — Ed.). The research project Shpat for the first time in hydroacoustics suggested the necessity of a multilevel design of the “acoustic vessel” system and analyzed the possibility of creating and employing superdirectional arrays in order to increase noise immunity. In the process of building working mock-ups, a balanced modulator for frequency conversion was designed instead of tube-based circuits then in use at the Institute. Later, upon completion of the research project Kristall, such modulators found wide application in the Institute’s designs. Within the scope of the research project Shpat, spectral characteristics of target noises were analyzed and discrete components in the low-frequency part of the spectrum were detected. But the absence of precise measuring equipment and the parts needed for its design at that time prevented further development in this extremely promising direction. Ten years later, other specialists working on the research project Rassvet continued the development of a method of direction finding and ranging using discrete components in the low-frequency audio range. Under the project Shpat, the researchers took some interesting reflectivity measurements of models of various ships and submarines as a function of orientation. The results of these measurements were in accord with the data presented in the book “The Physical Fundamentals of Underwater Acoustics” (Fizicheskiye osnovy podvodnoi akustiki) published at the end of 1955. The Shpat research project resulted in the conclusion that a significant increase in sonar potential by way of increasing the array dimensions was needed. N.N. Sviridov, the Director of the Institute, did not support this idea. At the project defense during a meeting of the scientifictechnical board he accused the project designers of turning the hydroacoustics theory upside down. In his opinion, array volume had to be kept within 10–20 l, so that it could be placed anywhere inside a submarine.

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The required noise immunity was to be ensured electronically using signal processing. N. N. Sviridov promised that with the help of 2–3 good radio engineers he would “put hydroacoustics back on its feet.” To his credit, he soon realized his mistake and later, during work on the the research project Ametist and the hydroacoustic system Rubin, he promoted the use of arrays whose sizes even exceeded those recommended under the research project Shpat. In 1956, a large research project was launched under the code name Neman. It was aimed at the analysis of long-range submarine sonars. Its Chief Scientist B. N. Tikhonravov and his Deputy V. B. Idin gathered under their banner a group of talented researchers. It is enough to mention the names of V. I. Klyachkin, A. I. Glazkov, S. L. Vishnevetsky, N. A. Tolstyakova, E. A. Sidorova (Strelkova), G. M. Osmolovsky, and M. I. Kershner. The author was also a member of this group. All people named are now well known at the Institute due to their publications, inventions, and research work. In 1956, they were only beginning their careers. Unfeigned interest in the work to be done, and youthful ardor and enthusiasm combined with the excellent self-discipline of the chief scientist and his deputy, permitted a great deal of theoretical and laboratory research work to be carried out in a very short period of time. The group analyzed many of the currently known schemes for improving noise immunity of passive listening modes and proposed several new ones: compensator-type, compensating with synchronous and asynchronous reception, and many others. Various methods of signal accumulation were analyzed: integrators, synchronized integrators, and display accumulation. At the same time, new ways of generating powerful signals were developed. For example, the project designed, constructed, and investigated a powerful emitting channel operating in the key mode. New designs of electroacoustic transducers and arrays were developed. The equipment for conducting research in realistic conditions was being manufactured, adjusted (fine-tuned) and gradually installed on a submarine. The young engineers worked persistently and selflessly, not watching the clock and not expecting payment for the extra hours they

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worked. Despite all this, in summer and autumn they participated in work in the fields of the adjacent collective farms and at vegetable storehouses — such “potato trips” were practiced everywhere and participation was compulsory. In summer, young people often went on weekend camping trips, brilliantly organized by the young specialist M. D. Smaryshev, today a recognized scientist, doctor of technical science, and professor. The friendships that started on such trips made working together much easier. Under the guidance of the prominent designer, M. E. Vodopyanov, a huge, for the time, two-sided array with a hydraulic drive was designed, constructed, and installed on a submarine. A reflector array with an aperture diameter of 5 m was installed on one side of the array; a planar array, 4 × 3.3 m, assembled of Feniks-type magnetostrictive transducers, was accommodated on the other side. A radiating array, 4 m2 in area, assembled from barium titanate-based rod transducers, was installed in the conning tower wall. Linear arrays, 36 m long each, constructed from 60 Mars-type receivers, were located along the sides. The generator, receiving amplifying and measuring equipment, spectrum analyzers, displays, and rotary converters for equipment power supply were installed inside the pressure hull. A multi-pen recorder was designed and manufactured, which ensured recording of the results of Doppler filtering of the received echo signals. In the course of preparation for trials, two weak points were revealed; a repeated resistance drop of the array insulation due to leaks in the rotary head and dynamic instability of the multi-channel receiving circuit. The latter problem turned out to be a real headache for researchers, who walked around with screwdrivers adjusting amplifier potentiometers all the time. For this reason, first as a joke, and then seriously, they proposed a system with rigid symmetrical amplitude limitation in preamplifiers (before directivity pattern shaping). Post-graduate student A. I. Glazkov, in his dissertation, gave a theoretical justification for such a method of signal stabilizing. This provided an opportunity to realize greater accumulation times and increase the signal-to-noise ratio. Three years after this method was proposed by V. E. Zelyakh, A. I. Glazkov, V. B. Idin, and S. L. Vishnevetsky, a system of this kind

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under the name DIMUS was described in the Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. The research work carried out under the project Neman and continued under the research project Topaz, which was performed using the measuring equipment available on board a submarine, allowed the designers to solve a series of direct-listening problems. A section of the circuit for simultaneous circular scanning with symmetrical amplitude limitation adopted from the array of the MG-10 sonar was added to this equipment. The research opened the way to the creation in the following years of new sonars and sonar systems, such as Rubin, Yenisei, Skat, and Skat-3. These are described in other articles of this book.

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The Sonar System Kerch: The History of its Creation B. YA. GOLUBCHIK

The years 1959–1966 brought a significant new phase in the development of domestic hydroacoustics engineering. According to an ordinance of the CPSU Central Committee and the Council of Ministers of the USSR, the Vodtranspribor Plant and RI-3 (today CRI Morfizpribor) were entrusted with completing the design and development (D&D) work on the systems Kerch and Rubin, respectively. Sonar system design was preceded by fundamental research carried out in the 1950s on oceanic sound propagation. It is widely known that sound propagation in the water varies greatly with temperature, salinity, and hydrostatic pressure (depth). The mass of seawater presents a layered medium, in which acoustical rays (similar to light rays at the boundary of two media) are refracted and change their direction of propagation. These phenomena were described in the works by L. M. Brekhovskikh and Yu. M. Sukharevsky (ACIN RAS) where the theory of the convergence and shadow zones at sound propagation in the deep sea is developed. It provided a theoretical justification for hydroacoustic systems with long operating ranges. In addition, the search for ways to improve noise immunity and the probability of target detection resulted in the development of a theory of optimal frequencies for different target detection ranges — the “3/2 law” of sound attenuation was formulated based on the works by Yu. M. Sukharevsky, P. P. Kuzmin, I. N. Meltreger, and B. V. Gusev. The design groups of the Vodtranspribor Plant’s SDB-206 and RI-3 created the necessary technical prerequisites for filling the new orders for the D&D projects such as Feniks, Aldan, and Arktika and the research projects Shpat, Kristall, and Yashma (the last one was executed by RI-49, today CRI Granit). 471

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The tactical and technical requirements for the D&D project Kerch were completed in the fourth quarter of 1959. Leading execution of the project was entrusted to the Vodtranspribor Plant, scientific guidance to ACIN RAS, and scientific-technical guidance on the creation of extended on-board acoustic systems to RIE of the Navy. Chief Engineer of SDB-206, M. M. Magid, was appointed chief designer of the system, his deputies were L. Ya. Kruze, G. N. Smirnov (who was later replaced by A. P. Maiorov) and Yu. I. Popov. At the time of the commencement of design work on Kerch, M. M. Magid was the permanent chief engineer of SDB-206. He had held this position since 1953. He had significant experience from his previous work on design and operation of hydroacoustic systems for the fleets, and the development and introduction of new technologies at the Plant. This talented and mature engineer with production experience and organizational skills became the head of a group of young designers. Development of the main operating channels of the system was carried out under the supervision of the young specialists B. Ya. Golubchik (direct-listening channel), A. A. Gelfman (location, ranging, and distance measurement channel (DM)), Ye. G. Dorfman (detection and measurement of sonar signal parameters), V. I. Vasilyev (communication and identification channel), and D. M. Slobodsky, later replaced by E. I. Belyaev (mine detection channel). In charge of special development efforts were brilliant engineers such as L. A. Kunyavsky (automatic servo-drive systems), I. M. Goldberg (control system), and I. V. Trofimov (power generating sets). Yu. M. Sukharevsky was the design scientific adviser. The guidance and technical supervision for the Navy was provided by the EngineerCaptain 1st Rank M. S. Usvyatsov. At the initial stage of system design, the problem of defining the composition of the system arrays and their configuration arose. A single spatially-distributed array of maximum size located at the forward end of a submarine seemed very promising. But such a configuration required designing at least three versions of the system in view of the fact that it was to be installed on submarines of four classes: 657, 670, 667A and 664. So it was decided to divide one array into several functional parts. As a result, one array set for all submarines

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appeared but with increased lifespan and reliability. At the same time, the hardware part of the system became considerably simplified. Thus the following components were arranged on a submarine: a cylindrical array operating in the direct-listening (DL) channel (diameter 4 m, height 2.4 m), a plane-rotary array for distance measuring (sweep diameter of 3.5 m), a cylindrical array for sonar signal detection (diameter 2.5 m, height 1 m), an echo-ranging array, two mine detection arrays (receiving and radiating), and a transceiver array for sonar underwater communication. The functional separation of the arrays had advantages. For example, in the DM channel, the plane-rotary array provided operation at two standard frequencies, 3.5 and 7 kHz. This gave the sonar operator an opportunity to choose an optimal radiation frequency. The array was rotated in the horizontal plane with the help of a hydraulic drive through a sector of angles ±135◦ , and turned through elevation angles ranging from +15◦ to −60◦ . Taking into consideration the dimensions of the array’s active area (2.5 × 2 m2 ) and weight (16 tons), one can imagine what a unique structure it presented. A similar array, but in a simpler version (for one frequency range only) was later reproduced for the sonar system Yenisei. Accounting for the energy potential of the DM channel (400 and 100 kW electric power per pulse) and array slanting in the vertical plane, for the first time the opportunity existed for echo ranging in the first acoustic shadow zone through the ocean floor by way of echo-signal reflection from the ocean bottom. The receiving arrays for the DL and submarine sound signals detection (SSSD) channels were designed using the principle of the Feniks system array. That is, the arrays were designed using tubular magnetostrictive transducers which demonstrated good performance in the Feniks versions. But, due to the noise level in the submarine forward compartment, the need arose to increase the sensitivity of the magnetostrictive transducers. To solve this problem, the Sverdlovsk Institute of Metal Physics was contacted. Under the guidance of Professor Ya. S. Shur, tubes from a new material “NICOSI” were designed. They had higher magnetostrictive parameters which increased the receiver sensitivity two-fold. In the construction of the plane-rotary array, cylindrical piezoceramic transducers were used which were designed under the guidance

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of Yu. I. Popov. For the first time in domestic practice, metal (titanium) air-filled screens were designed for low frequencies (3.5 kHz). Significant contributions to the design of acoustic transducers and screens was made by the young, talented engineers L. D. Stepanov, L. D. Lyubavin, B. S. Aronov, D. I. Kalyaev, B. I. Stepanov, and L. G. Bolotinskaya. Several designs were granted authorship certificates for invention (patents). To increase the surface ship DL range at low frequencies, sidemounted acoustic systems of extended length and area (up to 33 × 3 m2 ) were designed for Kerch — for the first time in domestic hydroacoustic practice. The arrays were located in the double-hull space (between the pressure and outer hulls of the submarine). The DL frequency range of the side arrays was low enough (0.25–2 kHz), which, combined with the array’s large area (between 70 and 100 m2 ), created an energy potential sufficient to ensure surface ship detection in remote zones of acoustic illumination (at ranges 150–200 km and more). A great contribution to the design of low-frequency side-mounted arrays was made by an enthusiast in this field, senior researcher of RIE of the Navy Engineer-Colonel Yu. A. Sorokin. Experimental mock-ups of the direct-listening channel of the system together with the sonar arrays were installed on a class 613 submarine of the Pacific Fleet. The arrays were placed in the double-hull space, in the ballast and in the fuel tanks. The author of this essay participated in the trials, which took place in 1960–1961 first in the Sea of Japan, and later, in the region of the Kurile-Kamchatka depression, where there exist zones of remote acoustic illumination (convergence zones), and where, for the first time, surface ships were detected using direct listening at a range over 250 km. The creation of a principally new sonar system with a large energy potential, both in the receiving and radiating channels, and improved accuracy of its target designation data for torpedoes, rocket torpedoes, and the Ametist cruise missiles, required both serious multifunctional mock-ups and subsystem mock-ups together with full-scale trials in realistic settings. As noted above, a DL subsystem mock-up with sidemounted sonar arrays underwent sea trials in the Pacific. Mock-ups of a number of other subsystems were also made, and by May 1962, jointly with ACIN, a large expedition was organized to the Sukhumi

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Marine Research Station for trials. The expedition was headed by V. V. Mazurkevich for the Plant and A. V. Bocharov for ACIN. The expedition worked until the end of October 1962. A large amount of experimental data was collected, without which further design work would have been impossible. For the DL channel, a full-size mock-up (2 vertical belts) of the main cylindrical array was made and installed in front of the Sukhumi trestle at a depth of 15 m. The problem of shaping the directivity pattern was analyzed. In fact, mock-ups of the whole amplification circuit were made, including contact-free induction compensators. But most importantly, the accuracy characteristics in the automatic target tracking channel were investigated. For this, a stationary artillery sight with an inherent middle angular error of 3 min served as a reference instrument. The ACIN worker, A. M. Zufrin, dealt with the problems of bearing accuracy at that time. Besides investigating the bearing errors caused by the array and the equipment hardware, errors caused by the dome were also analyzed. Sections of two types of dome, differing in the type of assembly and in the material used (steel and titanium) were manufactured at the Severny machine-engineering plant according to the recommendations of ACIN and the drawings of CDB-18. Sections of domes were installed in front of the cylindrical array with the help of two beam cranes from the trestle. Work was supervised by the ACIN researcher G. I. Priimak. All measurements of bearing angles in the automatic tracking channel of both the tested mock-ups and the reference instrument were continuously recorded on photographic film with the help of a RFK camera. Photography of all stages of the trials was done by the head of the photographic section, I. I. Kozlyak. The skilled specialists A. A. Grabois and L. A. Kunyavsky played an important role during all stages of the design and of the trials of the servo-drive systems. Difficulties arose in processing the thousands of photographic frames in the heat of the Sukhumi summer. The work was successfully completed by the young engineers B. S. Dakhin, Yu. I. Fleyer, and G. A. Vasilyev. There was enough work everywhere: at the mock-up trials, in testing engineering solutions, and at “accessory” works as well. Often after

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a storm, one of us would slip into a diving suit and go down to check the condition of the bottom-mounted arrays and the domes. Simultaneously mock-up tests were carried out to analyze Doppler filtering of echo-signals of a moving target in the DM channel in the presence of reverberation errors, and also of various types of modulation of the transmitted signal. This work were carried out by the head of channel tests, A. A. Gelfman, and a young specialist T. M. Salina. A display system based on new electron-beam tubes, skiatrons, was tested. This task was excellently fulfilled by the young engineers and recent university graduates, A. V. Savelyev and V. P. Gorbunov. The DM channel was tested on “live” targets — the surface ships Ingur and Signal of the Sukhumi base as well as submarines of the Black Sea Fleet. A very important role in improving noise immunity of the DM mode during this period was played by the ACIN researcher V. V. Olshevsky, who also personally participated in presenting and discussing the experimental results. Mock-ups were also used to test the principal solutions for shaping directivity patterns in a broad frequency range in the SSSD channel — on condition of maintaining sufficient noise immunity for reception. To solve this problem, Ye. G. Dorfman tried to increase the number of frequency subranges. For the first time in the history of hydroacoustics, he proposed the use of a long (up to 15 m) boom floating on the surface and carrying an instrumented source to define stationary directivity patterns. In fact, it was a future prototype of the coordinate measuring devices used for measuring directivity patterns of the sonar systems Rubikon and Skat. At the same time an original method of frequency stabilization of directivity patterns in the vertical plane was tested. According to this method, the frequency-dependent sensitivity distribution was introduced over the array’s vertical aperture. This solution later received an invention certificate. L. A. Kalyaev, V. S. Sukhotin, and A. M. Babitsky contributed greatly to solving these stabilization problems. During the Sukhumi expedition technical solutions for the mine detection channel were also tested. This channel had no analogues at the time. Two “bow” arrays (receiving and transmitting), parts of receiving and transmitting equipment and an original multi-channel electronic

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display were tested. All these devices were made with the hands (and of course the heads) of the young specialists, E. I. Belyaev and V. I. Shamrei. Great assistance in refining the mine detection channel was provided by a researcher from the Sukhumi base, V. M. Matangin. In the course of the Sukhumi expedition, which lasted about 8 months, the principles of many theoretical and engineering concepts were refined and tested, but this did not mean an end to work at the laboratories and in the design sector of SDB-206. The laboratory for generator units, under the leadership of I. V. Trofimov, was engaged in designing a unique power source capable of generating 400 kW electric power pulses. The creation of such a source was preceded by development of a high-power Geliotrop type generator electro-vacuum tubes at the Svetlana Plant’s SDB. The work was carried out within the framework of the special D&D task for sonar systems Kerch and Rubin. At SDB-206 these tubes were tested under extreme conditions not covered by the project. On the basis of these tests, it was shown that a doubling of power from that envisaged under the project was possible with a modification based on the Geliotrop tube. This modification was approved by the Navy and, as a result, the volume of the generating set was reduced by one half (7 racks instead of 14). This work was carried out with the participation of V. V. Tkalina and a whole new generation of young engineers including Ye. F. Ostapenko, N. N. Shut, V. A. Maiorov, S. M. Kormilitsyn, A. A. Lysenkov, and O. N. Zubkova. The design of input amplifiers for the DL channel presented a serious engineering challenge. The 288 elementary input channels pushed the designers into using risky, for the time, engineering methods. At that time, only the first steps had been made toward the introduction of semiconductor techniques into hydroacoustic systems. The traditional design of preamplifiers based on vacuum tubes (as in the sonars Feniks and MG-10) required equipment arranged in 3–4 racks, with forced cooling because of the significant power dissipated. The gain factor realized under such conditions was definitely insufficient, to say nothing of such unpleasant things as microphone static and the noise generated from the circuits that powered the vacuum tubes. By the time the design work on Kerch began, the research project Yashma was completed at RI-49. Under this project, research was done

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on the possibility of applying domestic semiconductor devices to sonar electronic circuits (mainly germanium transistors). Based on the results of this project, a group of designers with the young engineer, V. P. Gulidov, at the head started designing preamplifiers using semiconductor devices. They used the latest low-noise germanium triodes. In terms of noise, the amplifiers assembled using them proved to be the best for sonars. All amplifiers, together with the power source, were arranged in one rack only. The young technician B. Mikhailovsky worked together with V. P. Gulidov all the way through the project, from amplifier design to production. At RI-3 research was carried out on the same topic by G. I. Afrutkin, but for some reason the preamplifiers in Rubin sonars used tubes, at least in the first prototypes (see the article by Yu. A. Mikhailov, The Birth of Rubin — Ed.). It should be noted that during the entire Kerch sonar design work, from the beginning of 1960 to the end of 1963 (in December 1963 preliminary stand tests of the first prototype were completed), both SDB-206 and Vodtranspribor Plant grew and developed. In this period, the number of SDB employees increased four times and (together with the experimental production shop) reached 1500 people. New scientific-technical departments and laboratories were organized. A department for system design (RTD-1), a department for design of signal processing devices (RTD-2), a laboratory for power generating sets, a filters laboratory, a laboratory for delay lines and compensating devices were all created. For conducting tests of completed instruments and devices, a large test laboratory for reliability testing was organized. It was equipped with the latest testing systems including shaker and impact devices, cold and hot chambers, and other devices. A significant contribution to its creation was made by the first head of this department P. G. Prokofyev. Members of his team and his assistants were N. M. Dolgov, N. Ya. Semyonov, and V. A. Bersenev. During this period the plant underwent major reconstruction, new production buildings appeared, including the unique building No. 6 for assembly of large-size arrays and their testing under hydrostatic pressure up to 75 atmospheres. Near Beryozovo on Lake Ladoga a

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test range was created for measuring characteristics of arrays and transducers in open water conditions. Early in 1963, manufacture of the first two prototypes started at the Plant. One prototype was practically completed by the third quarter of that year. Round-the-clock work began on adjusting the instruments and the entire system, and its preparation for preliminary trials. Time was short since stand tests had to be completed by the end of 1963. Old-time workers remembered that stand tests of the Feniks sonar lasted about 9 months (much time was lost on eliminating electronic noise), but then it was sufficient to conduct tuning and tests of a huge system in some 3–4 months. SDB designers and adjusters even slept in the shop. Several cars were assigned to bring the necessary specialists to the plant at any time of the day. Stand tests of the first prototype were completed on schedule, and by the middle of 1964, stand tests of the second one were also completed. It was an excellent performance of the production “chain” — Vodtranspribor Plant and SDB-206. In April 1963, while manufacture of the prototype was still in the process, the plant began fulfillment of the first serial order for five systems, which shortly thereafter, in less than half a year, was followed by another order for eight systems. These new orders already implemented modernizations aimed primarily at raising reliability and decreasing the hardware volume. Such “concentration” of orders was explained by the rapid construction of submarines at the three shipyards of the country — the Sevmashpredpriyatie Plant, the Krasnoye Sormovo Plant, and the Leninist Komsomol Plant. The first prototype system was installed on the class 675 submarine K-57 under serial construction at the Lenin Komsomol Plant in 1964. In the autumn of the same year the submarine was launched and headed for Bolshoy Kamen to the Plant’s commissioning base. Intensive work began on preparing the system for mooring trials. They were completed early in 1965. However, further work on Kerch slowed down. This occurred in connection with an earlier decision by the Navy and MSI not to tie the submarine commissioning to the inter-departmental state trials of the system. It was supposed that, in the course of submarine trials and commissioning, the latter would

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only confirm its capability to ensure safe navigation, which actually took place in the summer of 1965. The monotony of work was compensated for by fine weather in the summer and autumn of 1965. After work and during the rare holidays, people spent time at the sea shore, in close contact with sea-urchins, trepangs, scallops and other marine life. Many of us keep photographs and sea souvenirs in memory of those days. After the commissioning of submarine K-57, Pavlovsky Bay was named the place for its deployment. There, beginning in December 1965, system preparation for the last phase of trials continued. In January–March 1966, preliminary check trials of Kerch were conducted, and on the 13th of March, the system was submitted for state inter-departmental trials. The running part of the trials conducted in April 1966 confirmed the system compliance with technical and tactical requirements. In all fairness, it should be noted that the conditions were favorable for the trials. The location selected in the Sea of Japan, with depths up to 3000 m, featured a constant sound speed from the surface to a depth of 100 m. At lower depths, a positive hydrostatic gradient was observed, that is, the condition for overall acoustic illumination. The sea state was 2–4. The detection range determined by the trials was not maximal and was limited by the conditions of the test range and maneuvering. Generally, the signal-to-noise ratio on the displays and recorders was at least 6–12 dB. Today, on modern submarines and with new sonars, this performance would not be remarkable. But we conducted these trials on a class-675 submarine, which even then was nicknamed by sailors “a rattling can.” The level of inherent acoustical noise in the area of the main forward-end arrays at a submarine speed of 7–8 knots was 0.006– 0.008 Pa. Specialists can evaluate the true worth of our results. Figure 1 shows a snapshot of a display during the system trials. In preparation for the state trials and during the trials, the service and reliability characteristics of the system won high praise from the crew. The success of the state trials owes much to the well-planned procedures and the excellent work by the soundmen operating the

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system. The great personal contribution to the trials by the submarine commander Captain 1st Rank L. V. Zemulin, Commander of the 26th Submarine Division, Captain 1st Rank V. Ya. Korban, and the officers of the radioengineering service of the division deserve special thanks. An important role in the organization of the trials and discussion and interpretation of the results belongs to the head of the department of RIE of the Navy Engineer-Captain 1st Rank I. I. Tynyankin, head of the department of the same Institute, Engineer-Captain 1st Rank M. S. Usvyatsov, researcher officers B. S. Georgievsky and V. D. Pozhidaev, ACIN workers Yu. M. Sukharevsky, V. I. Mazepov, S. G. Gershman, V. I. Il’ichev, T. F. Bondar, Ye. P. Masterov, as well as the CRI Morfizpribor workers V. B. Idin and A. I. Paperno. Of course, the greater part of the brunt of conducting the trials was borne by the designers of the Kerch system with chief designer M. M. Magid as head. To a great extent, the credit for successful completion of trials belongs to them.

Fig. 1.

Circular-scanning display of the SS Kerch.

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At the end of April 1966, at the test range in Vladivostok (Patrokl Bay), the ceremony of signing of the Act of State Interdepartmental Trials of the Kerch system took place. In September 1966, by Government Ordinance, the Kerch system was adopted into service by the Navy under the code name MGK-100. In 1967, work started in Severodvinsk on installation, adjustment, and preparation for trials of the second prototype on a class 670 submarine. The work was carried out under the guidance of B. A. Kuznetsov. At the end of October, the author of this article went to Severodvinsk to replace B. A. Kuznetsov who had fallen ill. On the eve of a sortie for trials, the submarine commissioning team met for a parting meeting with Deputy Commander-in-Chief of the Navy, Admiral P. G. Kotov, Deputy Minister of the Shipbuilding Industry Yu. G. Derevyanko, and director of the Krasnoye Sormovo Plant Yuryev. Rear-Admiral A. I. Sorokin, an experienced submariner and commander of the submarine force of the Northern Feet, later commander of the world cruise of our nuclear submarines, was chairman of the state submarine acceptance commission. The leading submarine was put to trials under exceedingly severe conditions. It was the first submarine armed with submarine-launched cruise missiles. The submarine in submerged position at speeds 25–30 knots, with up to a 40◦ forward heel, was diving to depth, and then, with the same aft heel, was ascending. During these breakneck tacks, we were preparing the system for the fulfillment of tasks of the active channel. It was not all smooth sailing. In the course of the first cycle of trials in DM channel, a fire broke out in one of the hydroacoustic compartments. Of course, the fire was extinguished immediately, but the fire started again during the next cycle of trials. Admiral Sorokin decided to interrupt the trials. A ciphered radio message was sent from aboard the submarine to Leningrad requesting the chief engineer of Vodtranspribor, the system chief designer, and head of work on the generating system to come immediately. While awaiting their arrival, the submarine did not go back to the base but stayed at sea in a buoyant position.

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With the efforts of the system commissioning team the cause of the trouble was found and eliminated before anyone arrived. This was reported to the chairman of the commission. A day later L. D. Kupriyanov, M. M. Magid, and I. V. Trofimov arrived on a support tugboat. Their intervention was, however, no longer necessary. We greeted them from the submarine deck, on which they did not even step, and the submarine headed to the next test range in the White Sea. The last phase of trials took place in the northern part of the Norwegian Sea, where trial launches of the Ametist cruise missiles were conducted. During these launches, the Kerch system for the first time provided successful target designation for missiles. At the end of 1967, the leading submarine of class 670 was commissioned by the Navy. In 1967, design and organization of serial production of the system was submitted for the USSR State Prize, and in the same year a group of workers — designers and production organizers was awarded the State Prize. L. I. Voronichev, B. Ya. Golubchik, V. A. Karpov, M. M. Magid, V. I. Mazepov, Yu. I. Popov, Yu. M. Sukharevsky, I. V. Trofimov, I. I. Tynyankin, and M. S. Usvyatsov became the State Prize winners. The Kerch system was the only domestic sonar granted an invention certificate for the set of new engineering features incorporated into it.

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The Birth of Rubin YU. A. MIKHAILOV

In spring of 1959, after graduating from the Radio Engineering faculty of the Ulyanov (Lenin) Leningrad Electrotechnical Institute (LETI), I was assigned to work at RI-3 (today, CRI Morfizpribor). I found myself at the system laboratory of the Stalin Prize winner S. M. Shelekhov, and started to work in the echo ranging group led by B. M. Golubev. The laboratory was working on a new theme. It was a big R&D project to design the first national hydroacoustic system for submarines, which received the name Rubin (Ruby in English). The Institute’s Director N. N. Sviridov was appointed the system chief designer. The system included several subsystems, and correspondingly, four groups with young leaders, A. M. Dymshyts, B. M. Golubev, I. G. Astrov, and I. M. Strelkov, were organized. Despite their young age, the group leaders had had the experience of several years of work and they were good engineers and competent instructors. Almost all of the other group members were novices. Intensive work was underway. After the first development stage, leaders of CRI Morfizpribor and the Institute of Acoustics, based on the latest research data of long-range propagation of hydroacoustic waves, made an offer to the customer (the Navy) to amend the work task to significantly increase the system range. As a result, the range of the equipment in question was expected to expand almost five-fold. Naturally, this affected the selection of the working frequencies and the entire system configuration — we had to start work almost from scratch. Many of the system features were novel, the majority of the engineering concepts were tested on mock-ups, often very complicated in themselves. In the summer of 1960, we started preparations for full-scale trials at the Lake Ladoga test range. Working models of the already 484

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designed instruments, also the instruments and units from the previous systems — Feniks, Yachta, Olen, etc., were manufactured at the Institute’s pilot-scale production shop. A 200-ton displacement decommissioned gunboat built in 1944 was re-equipped for experimental purposes. We called it Don. It had three laboratory rooms and a lifting crane. There was a small crew of less than 10 people, with V. Ya. Polyakhovsky as captain. The Don was moored along the Institute’s mother ship on the river Malaya Nevka (approximately where the Youth Palace is located today). Experimental equipment, measuring instruments, radio components, and tools were loaded on the ship. It also took several “science people” (as the crew referred to us) on board, among whom was M. A. Mikhailov, captain of the Svir motor boat. Lake Ladoga met the Don with a terrible storm. Instruments were torn off their racks, despite all fastenings. Diesel engine water scoops at the ship’s bottom regularly “gulped” air, the engines overheated and had to be stopped from time to time. For almost 4 hours, the Don fought with the waves and the strong head wind abeam of the Osinovetsky Lighthouse, but it did not move forward. The trawler ship Som of the Gidropribor Research Institute working nearby saw us in distress and came near to offer a towing line. But our Captain could not take that. He turned the ship back, and with the following wind we moved toward Fortress Petrokrepost. Short of Fortress Oreshek, it seemed to the Captain that the wind started to fall. He turned the Don around, and at full speed we broke through the most difficult place. Our further movement to the north was easier — we went under the shadow of the shores, isles and skerries of the northwest shore. The commander of the Ladoga base and our entire fleet was I. I. Smetanin.1 There were few people at the base, and the base itself was very modest. The dining-room was located in a small log cabin standing on a rock at the very edge of the bay. Curious wild ducks swam 1 Early in the winter of the Leningrad blockade (1941–1942), when ice on the Lake Ladoga had not strengthened yet, the Leningrad yachtsman, I. I. Smetanin, with others on ice-yachts carried sick people from the city across to the “mainland,” and brought back bags of food. Fascist fighter planes failed to catch up with the quick ice-boats, and transportation went on successfully. I read about this in one of the newspapers, in the memoirs of Admiral Panteleyev. When I asked Smetanin, he confirmed the fact.

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right by the dining-room windows. Along the bay several laboratory barges, our Don, and its sister-ship Volga (also a gunboat) stood at anchor. Two motor boats, the Volkhov and the Svir, took us to work and back. The captain of the Svir was a great expert at his job, always good-tempered “Uncle Misha” — M. A. Mikhailov. There were two more motor boats of smaller size, the Leningrad and the Neva, and the Dolphin — a 100-ton former trawler ship. Two one-storey barracks at the base, with tiny rooms and “conveniences” outside in the street, were allocated for living. The nature of the Ladoga skerries and isles fascinated us with its severe beauty. In our free time we wandered around, sometimes took motorboat trips to remote bays and isles. The most popular pastime was picking mushrooms and berries, fishing and hunting hazel-grouses, ducks, and hares. S. M. Shelekhov was one of the best hunters. Toward the end of the summer, the main antenna mock-up arrived. It was placed on the stern of the Don, and we sailed to the center of the bay. The antenna in assembly with the cable weighed 11 tons. With of the crane on the Don we tried to lower the antenna over the stern, but the boom length was insufficient. So we started pushing the antenna over the stern with our hands, and as we tried, the boom rope broke off the winding drum. The boom fell on the stern bulwark, sparks flew around from the blow, and the boom became bent. The antenna fell overboard and started sinking. Everybody froze watching in silence as the unique instrument sunk. The captain of the Don was the first to come to his senses. He jumped on the antenna and quickly fixed the rope on it as his feet were going down under water. Luckily, everything ended well… We worked in shifts, 24 hours a day. It was autumn already when we put to the open water of the Ladoga. Our convoy presented the following sight: the Don towing the antenna on a pontoon-raft, and behind it, the Svir pulling the raft away from the Don. The results obtained were good, and everyone was satisfied. Echo signals from the isles located at large distances were received and recorded in the active mode — all that at nonoptimal frequency and low radiated power. Inspired by success, we returned to Leningrad late in the autumn.

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Soon changes were made in the project leadership. N. N. Sviridov was promoted to the ministry, and the Institute’s Chief Engineer Ye. I. Aladyshkin was appointed chief designer of the Rubin. S. M. Shelekhov remained chief designer’s first deputy. The specific role of S. M. Shelekhov in the design of the Rubin is worth special notice. With both his engineering and human qualities he proved to be a true, recognized leader. In the summer of 1960, work on Ladoga continued. Now we had a full-scale mock-up of the standard antenna. A special antenna pontoon was constructed. The size of the construction was impressive. And again, day and night, we plotted directional radiation patterns in different modes and were busy preparing the equipment for the trials in the open water of the lake. The Don moved to the deeper part of the bay, 10–15 km away from the mother ship. To supply equipment with power and to eliminate interference from the diesel-generator set of the Don, a floating power station was set up in the hull of an old tug-boat. Power was supplied to the Don over a floating cable line. Next to the tug-boat stood a two-deck barge where we lived. There was not a living soul around, only elks roaming and ducks and even swans swimming nearby. The work continued until autumn. The time came when in the mornings, to wash, we had to break the thin ice that appeared along the water’s edge during the night. Finally, preparations were over, and the cumbersome convoy started for the open water for our mock-up trials under natural conditions. The lake greeted us with rough waves and an icy wind, but there was no way back for us, because winter was near, and there was little hope for fine weather. At times the Svir and the Volkhov showed their orange bottoms. The slippery deck was covered with ice, it was dangerous to even step on it. A small self-contained electric power unit slid around on the ice at the stern, nevertheless continuing to work. On the deck, right in front of the superstructure, a wheel-mounted welding unit, our captain’s favorite machine (Vasiliy Yakovlevich liked to do welding jobs himself) was tied down with chains. And now, from the wheel house, the captain watched the unit breaking loose and hitting the handrails as the ship heeled over. Finally, it broke the rails and

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chains and disappeared in the cold abyss. In such a situation, there was no way to prevent its loss. Trials allowed us to get answers to a number of principal questions, to ascertain the correctness of the engineering decisions made, and check our equipment’s serviceability under conditions close to real. A compensator with an induction switch, an automatic tracking system, an indicator based on type skiatron CRT were put to hard tests. At the same time in Leningrad, at our pilot-scale production shop, work on building the prototype system continuted at a good pace. After manufacture, the equipment went through all the necessary stages of tuning, adjustment, and testbed trials. Construction of the submarine, for which the system was originally meant, was suspended due to some engineering problems, while completion of the other vessel, to which the Rubin had been re-oriented, was also delayed. But everything has its good side: the delay allowed us to carry out full-program testbed trials without haste and put in order the prototype documentation. In that period (1962), leaders of various ranks came to see the system installed in the testbed. We even had quite a few amusing incidents. D. F. Ustinov, a top party and government official, then supervising the Ministry of Defense, after examining the system and listening to the explanations by S. M. Shelekhov, commented that it would be good to cut down by half the number of instruments in the system. Courteously, Shelekhov asked him, which half would Dmitry Fyodorovich advise them to leave out: the right or the left one? The system was also examined by the Navy Commander-in-Chief S. G. Gorshkov with a big group of admirals. As it has been mentioned before, the delay in vessel construction gave the designers a rare opportunity to calmly continue the work on system refinement. For the needs of the system, a new 2000-ton displacement dry-cargo ship Belomorsky-8, built in Finland, was purchased. It was a sizable vessel. In the course of its re-equipment at the Zhdanov ship-building yard, it acquired hoisting-and-rotary devices for antennas, laboratory rooms, a recreation room, a photographic darkroom, and a powerful electric power plant. It also received a new name, Amur. The summer of 1963. We are at our Ladoga base again, now not with the mock-ups, but with the prototype Rubin mounted on the

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Class 611 submarine with prototype SS Rubin.

Amur. While we were busy tuning the equipment, trouble-shooting and making minor improvements, autumn set in. We made our first trip to the Ladoga open water when the first snow fell. It was getting dark early. Once we even lost our way in the skerries when, after having dinner, we were going back on the Svir to the Amur. Dense snow was falling, visibility was zero, and of all navigation equipment we had one magnetic compass with unknown deviation. We thought the only thing left for us to do was to drop anchor somewhere near the shore and wait for dawn. However, V. Ya. Polyakhovsky took the steering-wheel, and, guided by feeling only, brought the motor boat to the brightly illuminated Amur. Despite various surprises nature held in stock for us, we managed, under conditions very close to real — at times extreme — to conduct the trials, this time of the real Rubin system, not a mock-up. The equipment of the system had been put to a test in all functional modes. In the first days of November, the Amur cast off, sounded three farewell hoots and moved off the Ladoga base moorage. This meant

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that this stage of the system trials was over. Now we had to send Rubin to the Far East for its installation on a submarine. Late on the same day, the Amur moored in front of the Volodarsky Bridge in Leningrad. By that time, the drawbridges had been lowered for the winter, and our leaders had to apply to Smolny to have them raised specifically for the Amur. Moreover, it was discovered that we also needed an ice breaker to make way for the ship. In a few days the Amur moored on the Malaya Nevka. The system was dismantled and removed from the vessel, put in perfect order, packed and shipped — all on time. To tell the truth, it sat in a warehouse one year before being installed on the specially equipped class 611 diesel-electric submarine. Two of the boat’s forward torpedo tubes were dismantled, and our equipment was arranged in the spacious first compartment. The work on submarine re-equipment and system installation was carried out in Vladivostok at the Dalzavod ship-building yard. As an auxiliary facility to keep our measuring instruments, tools and other equipment, we were allotted a large saloon on a captured Japanese Emperor’s yacht, renamed Tobol, that was welded fast to the moorage. When equipment installation was completed, the submarine commanded by Captain V. G. Benbik, moved to the Ulyss Bay for some adjustments and dockside and sea trials. In 1965, the submarine at last went to Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky for the final series of trials. In Petropavlovsk, our base was on the rescue ships’ team facilities. We received a big 6000-ton displacement rescue steamboat called OS-6 as a support vessel. It was meant to accommodate the group of testers from the CRI Morfizpribor and members of the Commission. Our vessel moored along the OS-6, which in turn was moored to an old steamer’s hull lying on the ground. It was the very same steamboat Theodore Nette made famous by the Mayakovsky’s poem. In Kamchatka, the Rubin successfully passed the preliminary and then the government trials. A government trial acceptance certificate was signed by the commission on board the OS-6. In 1963–1964, even before the government trials were completed, S.M. Shelekhov initiated preparations for the serial production of the

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Rubin at a plant, which later became known as the Priboy Plant. The system designers stayed at the plant and solved all emerging problems immediately in situ, made the required corrections in the documentation, together with the plant’s specialists performed adjustment and tuning of the first serial production prototype, and simultaneously shared their experience with them. The first serial Rubin was installed on the leading nuclear-powered submarine of a new series, on which it once more successfully passed full-program government trials, this time in the North. In 1967, the system was adopted by the Navy. The big project that required a great deal of intensive work by a large united group of engineers and technicians, suppliers and machinetool operators, assemblers and installers and many other specialists in their fields had come to an end. It should be noted once more that the main leader of the project, its brain, was S. M. Shelekhov. He used expert assistance of the young talented leaders of technical groups A. M. Dymshyts, B. M. Golubev, I. G. Astrov, and I. M. Strelkov, who later became heads of independent teams. People worked with enthusiasm. Rubin always received the green light in all divisions of the Institute. Many designers from the “time of Rubin” worked without watching the clock, often staying until very late at night. The result of thorough refinement work and multiple trials was an up-to-date, highly reliable, unrivalled hydroacoustic system capable of efficiently solving the military problems of the time for which it was designed. A whole series of very complex scientific and technical problems had been solved in creating the Rubin system. It took time before we managed to persuade the experts that, in order to win a confrontation with an enemy navy, one has to solve the problems of vessel design as a whole, simultaneously reducing the ship’s noise level in the external field and maintaining the maximum potential of the hydroacoustic detection systems. Many features made Rubin different from earlier hydroacoustic systems, and it continued to be improved through refinements. For example, the system had no moving antennas, which allowed us to do away with the complicated, noisy and unreliable hydraulic and

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electromechanical drives. To this day, the Rubin outgoing pulse generating unit remains unequalled. This has become possible only due to creation by the domestic electronics industry of unprecedented powerful transmitting tubes named heliotropes. Initially, the generating unit was designed to receive power from 12 oil-filled transformers, each as tall as a man, which barely passed through the standard hatch of a submarine. They were replaced with two relatively small, dry-type transformers designed under the supervision of R. Kh. Balyan. At the beginning of the design work on Rubin, transistors began to appear. They did not meet the strict defense equipment requirements. Nevertheless, in the process of system development instead of 12instrument racks employing vacuum-tube preamplifiers, we designed semiconductor amplifiers, which together with the vertical transmission pattern shaping devices and the transmit-receive switch, occupied six racks only. The system potential noticeably increased with the introduction of a synchronized signal integrator. For the first time in domestic hydroacoustics, use was made of contactless induction switch compensators, a new type of hydroacoustic communication was employed, and a new system of Doppler effect compensation was introduced. Dozens of inventions and a great variety of new, not yet patented scientific and engineering concepts, were implemented in the system. The high quality of the Rubin system design is confirmed by the fact that in the years that followed, neither the series producers, nor the sailors operating the system, complained to its designers about any problems. The Navy even declined the services of the warranty teams that traditionally worked at marine bases. The Rubin hydroacoustic system for submarines won the highest appraisal. N. N. Sviridov and S. M. Shelekhov were awarded the Lenin Prize. With them, this honorary award was given to a member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, L. M. Brekhovskikh, from the N. N. Andreyev Institute of Acoustics, B. V. Gusev, the customer’s scientific and engineering adviser, and the director of the Priboy Plant A. A. Peredelsky. In conclusion, I would like to note one more aspect. Now and then disputes arise are stirred up about which of the systems, Rubin or

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Kerch, came earlier. As a witness and party to the events in question, I can give a clear answer. The fact is that development of Kerch lagged behind Rubin by one step, but since Kerch was meant for existing submarines, it had a chance to go through the government trials and be adopted by the Navy earlier. Rubin “lingered” pending completion of construction of the submarines for which it was intended.

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Remembering Yenisei V. B. IDIN

Soon after the work on the design of Rubin was over, work began on the creation of an antisubmarine defense (ASMD) system for guarding the coastline. Within the scope of this project, the task of constructing special attack submarines together with their sonars was defined. CRI Morfizpribor was assigned the task of designing a miniature automated hydroacoustic system under the code name Okean, with configuration and specifications optimized for this particular type of submarine. The principal component of the Okean system, in terms of the number of pieces of equipment designed and the problems solved, was the SS system Yenisei meant for detecting target submarines, determining their movement in the active and passive modes of operation, communication, identification, and classification. Beside the Yenisei system, the Okean system included navigation sonars designed to solve the problem of measuring the submarine’s absolute speed, ensuring safety of navigation and under-ice surfacing, and mine-locator sonars. The Yenisei system had the status of an independent system. Its construction had to meet individual design and operational requirements and the work was individually financed and managed. Simultaneously, but slightly ahead of the schedule for the design work on the Yenisei, supporting research was carried out according to a program approved by the government. And, of course, the existing research, design, and development studies done at CRI Morfizpribor, ACIN RAS, IAT RAS, Vodtranspribor Plant, and the Institute of Hydroacoustics of the Navy were used. Of all the work completed at CRI Morfizpribor, the scientific and engineering results from the research projects Neman and Topaz were 494

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used the most. These results were achieved under the guidance of the Chief Scientist, B. N. Tikhonravov, Deputy Chief Scientist, V. B. Idin, and by a group of leading and highly qualified CRI specialists. These specialists later became the outstanding researchers and engineers of the Institute. They included A. I. Glazkov, S. L. Vishnevetsky, V. E. Zelyakh, N. A. Tolstyakova, E. A. Strelkova, and M. I. Kershner. The existing research results obtained under the research project Izumrud were also used in designing Yenisei. The Chief Scientist for Izumrud was I. G. Astrov, the Deputy Chief Scientist was Yu. K. Kochetkov, and the engineers were V. Z. Krants, Ye. A. Repkin and A. V. Augert. V. Z. Krants later became head of design and development work for communication and identification equipment of the sonar system Yenisei. N. A. Knyazev was Chief Designer of the Okean system. He was also, by order of the Minister of the Shipbuilding Industry, appointed Deputy Chief Designer of the submarine. Among N. A. Knyazev’s deputies for the Okean project were P. N. Dynnikov and I. K. Polyakov (for the design portion of the project). The Chief Designer’s group included L. N. Astasheva, T. N. Zhustrova, and L. I. Baryshnikova, all of them were qualified specialists with great experience in the preparation of the technical documentation the entire systems. L. M. Mirimov, one of the oldest and most experienced specialists at CRI Morfizpribor, was appointed Chief Designer of Yenisei. He gained a lot of experience working as chief designer or deputy chief designer for several earlier sonars. His deputy and the Yenisei project completion manager was M. V. Petrov. The deputy for part design was A. Ya. Ginzburg, and the deputy for acoustical parts was M. D. Smaryshev. Subsystems design group leaders were: direct listening — V. B. Idin, who was replaced by V. A. Kakalov in 1968; echo ranging — A. I. Paperno, who was replaced by Ye. A. Stepanov in 1965; hydroacoustic signal detection — E. A. Strelkova, who was later replaced by V. N. Reshetnikov and then by S. I. Grinberg; and communication and identification — V. Z. Krants. Work on the Yenisei avant-project was finished in 1960. In the avant-project, the main (fore) array for receiving and transmitting signals in DL, ER, SSSD, and CM&ID (communication and identification) modes had the shape of a sphere. The spherical array fit

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wonderfully within the outline of the submarine forward end, which in cross-section presented a circle. The spherical array directivity pattern (DP) was intended to be shaped by electromechanical compensators (in those years electromechanical compensators were believed to be more compact and reliable than electronic ones). Correction for the array curvature along the DP axis was ensured by groups of delay lines with discrete branches. The DP angular displacement for azimuth and for tilt was ensured by a commutator with a set of bars in the form of spherical segment rings (on rotor) and rod-type brushes (on stator). For signal emission, a special transmission circuit was developed with a multichannel generator operating with the use of the transistor power amplifiers. According to the project design, transistor power amplifiers were installed outside the submarine strength hull, inside the sealed spherical load-carrying structure (capsule) of the array; the design envisaged fixing electroacoustic transducers on the outside surface of this structure next to one another to form horizontal circular rows, or tiers. It should be noted that, beginning in 1961 and continuing to the present, spherical arrays have been in use as the forward-end (main) arrays for the sonar systems AN/BQQ-2, AN/BQQ-5, AN/BQQ-6 and their modifications, used on all US nuclear submarines. At later stages of the system development, the designers were compelled to discard the idea of the spherical-shaped transceiving array for a number of engineering and technological reasons. Creation of a “fragmented” generator presented the main technical problem due to the fact that, despite all promises by the leadership, the electronic industry failed to meet our requirements for high-power transistors. There were other organizational and technical problems relating to the time limitations for the system development. Design changes turned out to be significant. Instead of one, there appeared two main arrays (passive and active), both were located in the nose fairing. At that time, our attempts to combine the DL and ER functions in one construction failed. The receiving array was shaped as a large-diameter cylinder of comparatively low height; the cylinder diameter-to-height ratio was over 3:1. Under the cylindrical DL array, the planar transceiving ER array (the so-called “spade”) was

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placed. The planar array was controlled mechanically, with the help of a hydraulically driven rotary-tilting device. The instrumentation part of the system was redesigned respectively. To test the new concepts and the engineering features, simplified working mock-ups were quickly built. Among them was a mock-up circuit for simultaneous DL circular scanning with additive processing and rigid symmetrical chopping; mock-up equipment for shaping of the distance measuring (DM) signals in the active mode (the mockup was capable of operating with several variants of the emitted signal frequency modulation: linear, hyperbolic and others, and several types of pulse envelopes); and a mock-up spectrum analyzer with unique characteristics employing a comb filter with high-frequency resolution and square-signal discrimination. Experimental equipment manufactured within the scope of the research project Topaz was used in the transmitting circuit. One of the important tasks in the course of mock-up trials was the experimental testing of the possibility of combining the functions of the audio-frequency range SSSD equipment with the functions of the equipment for the formation of spatial channels of simultaneous DL circular-scanning circuit with chopping. Mock-ups were installed on the submarine B-68 of the Pacific Fleet, which already had the receiving and projecting arrays, amplifying and transmitting equipment, and measuring instruments mounted on it as a result of its involvement with the Neman project. In addition the submarine had its own passive sonar Feniks. The mock-up of the simultaneous DL circular-scanning circuit of the Yenisei and the sequential circular-scanning circuit of the passive sonar MG-10 were connected in parallel to the Feniks cylindrical array. Comparison of two survey subsystems operating synchronously from one array provided an opportunity for objective evaluation of the advantages of each one of them. The group worked with enthusiasm and wholeheartedness. Mockup creation, adjustment, and installation on the submarine and fullscale trials were completed in 1.5 years, and all this work went on simultaneously with the system design. The soul of the design work and the most active participant in the trials of the experimental equipment for the simultaneous circular scanning circuit was G. M. Osmolovsky.

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Work on mock-up creation and testing in ER and SSSD modes was carried out under the supervision of A. I. Paperno, L. S. Shchedrinsky, E. A. Strelkova, L. R. Piskalenko, and others. Trials took place in the Sea of Japan. On New Year’s Eve, the trial participants received copies of the Boyevoi Listok (submarine news leaflet) in which the submarine B-68 personnel (Commanding Officer V. I. Maltsev) addressed the trial participants with the following encouraging words: To the year’s successful roll-out! We believe, when the trials are over, You’ll go back with a story Full of flourish and glory, Comrades Idin, Paperno, Strelkova! The next day we were out at sea. Three brave women, E. A. Strelkova, V. I. Paderno, and L. R. Piskalenko, joined the men of the trial group on board the B-68. They were surrounded with care and attention by all submarine personnel and their male co-workers, to say nothing of the sumptuous birthday celebrations we held for them. It so happened that all three were born in January! On this cruise we were escorted by two support ships — a destroyer and a submarine. Besides its main role as a “target,” the destroyer served as a mother ship for part of the Yenisei testers. The cruise proved to be a difficult one. We spent more than a month at sea. The return to the base in Vladivostok was a torture. For 18 hours a powerful tugboat pulled the submarine with a thin-walled bulb-shaped nose across the coat of ice covering the Zolotoi Rog Bay. Under normal conditions, the submarine would have covered this distance in 30–40 min. In a few days we were in Leningrad with the results of the trials. Trials, or rather analyses, of the mock-ups were successful. We came up with important results and recommendations. They were so fundamental that designers were compelled to thoroughly revise the structures of the DL and SSSD circuits. One of the original features which permitted Yenisei to fit in a smallsized submarine was arrangement of part of the equipment outside

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the strength hull, which was done for the first time in the history of sonar development (the multi-channel preamplifiers circuit comprising 720 channels was located inside the cylindrical array audio receivers). Preamplifiers with very low electric noise level were encapsulated in a special compound and fitted inside the cylindrical receivers. A receiver with an amplifier presented a one-piece construction, which, besides the advantage in size, permitted high sensitivity, a low level of inherent electrical noise and induced noise in the receiving channel input circuits. The DL detection channel with a stationary array ensured parallel (simultaneous) circular scanning. Each spatial channel presented a passive sonar assembled as an additive circuit. The set of DP lobes overlapping in the azimuth plane formed a fixed “daisy.” Each amplifying channel incorporated a frequency range bandpass filter, a time-delay line and a multi-stage symmetrical limiting amplifier. The signal level at the amplifying channel output, with the signal at its input varying in amplitude and spectrum in a wide range, remained constant with an error not over 5 × 10−4 %. After DP lobe shaping, changes in the spatial channel output signal level could occur only because of variation in the spatial correlation function of the acoustic field near the array (i.e., the main idea of the principle of additive reception with chopping). The narrow bandpass post-detector filters of adders (
f = 10−2 −10−5 Hz) ensured greater signal accumulation time. Because of this system arrangement, noise immunity of the DL equipment was significantly increased, and the processes of target detection, designation, and data generation for the submarine master computer system were automated. The DL subsystem detection circuit with a planar array ensured sectoral space scanning. The transmitted signal was emitted by a one-lobe DP synchronously with the array rotation to an angle of the one-time scan sector. When the array stopped and transmission was discontinued, the equipment switched to the echo wait mode. Reception was carried out by a fan of three adjacent-angle DPs covering the entire angular space of the scan sector. Spatial channels were also formed using the additive method, but without chopping. At each spatial channel (lobe)

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output a comb of narrow-band quartz filters was installed, with filters bandwidth being determined by the transmitted signal duration. The comb total band was determined by the calculated maximum Doppler shift of the echo-signal frequency. Bandpass filters featured a rather high degree of squaring. The described DL mode ensured a sufficiently high probability of target detection (noise immunity) under conditions of marine reverberation. After data processing and analyzing the results of full-scale mockup testing, it became evident that the planned earlier integration of the part of the equipment of the circuits of SSSD (detection in audio range) and DL (simultaneous scanning with chopping) was impossible due to incompatibility of the conditions for directivity pattern formation. The requirement for normal SSSD functioning is a constant DP width over the entire frequency range. This is achieved by summing up the signal from adjacent array receivers without compensation for the front curvature. In case of chopping, there appear the danger of multiple bearings to a source. This required the SSSD circuit developers (V. N. Reshetnikov, S. I. Grinberg), working under the guidance of I. M. Strelkov, to design and implement a principally new circuit for multichannel AAC (automatic amplification control) on the basis of BCN (broad band, chopping, narrow band), which also helped to solve the problem of detection automation. The CM&ID (communication and identification) equipment was designed in such a way as to ensure underwater information exchange with all types of ships then in service in the Navy, and was capable of operating in different modes: high-frequency telephone and telegraph communication, detection with measurement of the distance to responder, low-frequency telegraphy, and code communication with an opportunity for measuring the distance to the correspondent. The equipment was integrated with the submarine DCC, and this allowed information exchange between the combat information and control systems of the interacting submarines without the assistance of a sonar operator (in code communication mode). Compared with similar systems, the Yenisei CM equipment was characterized by the high communication reliability due to signal

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reception by two arrays separated in space. A multi-position telegraph (a variant of code communication) was also developed and introduced which allowed transmission of digital texts up to 60 decimal characters long to a correspondent submarine without the assistance of a sonar operator. Such a broad range of capabilities of the CM&ID equipment, high information reliability and automation were realized in the course of development of Yenisei, for the first time in the history of the domestic hydroacoustics. Two prototypes of the Yenisei (Okean) sonar were manufactured. One was meant for installation on an attack submarine, while the other, with a purpose of expediting the start of the system’s serial production, for installation on a diesel-electric submarine of the Pacific Fleet, which had undergone general reconstruction (including the forward end and forward compartments) specifically for short-term trials. The prototype Yenisei trials carried out by an inter-departmental state commission on a diesel-electric submarine showed that the technical requirements of the Navy for the system had been met and even exceeded. The system was recommended for implementation.

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About the Sonar Rubikon YU. A. MIKHAILOV

By the middle of 1965, the design work on the SS Rubin was basically over, and activities began at the CRI Morfizpribor to prepare for the designing of a new system. This system was meant to replace sonars of earlier generations on operational submarines. It was expected that creation of a new sonar would be an easy job since whole units and instrumentation were to be borrowed from the Rubin, Yenisei, and Kerch sonars. The new system was expected to be highly efficient, having an efficiency close to that of the systems then in service in the Navy (e.g., Rubin) but with equipment occupying a smaller space, to allow its arrangement in place of the earlier sonars. It should be noted that the volume of the dismantled equipment within the submarine strength hull was approximately equal to 7.5 equivalent instrumentation racks. Comparatively, the instrumentation part of Rubin, Yenisei, and Kerch occupied a volume of up to 55 equivalent racks. In additions, the power capacity of submarines under re-equipment was quite limited. The total weight of the system was also limited. Such was the Procrustean bed on which the new sonar system was being forced. S. M. Shelekhov was appointed Chief Designer of the new system. He proposed the name Rubikon. In December 1966, the author of this essay was appointed first Deputy Chief Designer. Other deputies also received their assignments: E. K. Martinovich for receiving amplification equipment, V. G. Martynov and Yu. A. Tribis for design work, and Yu. A. Gornov for technology. In addition, A. M. Dymshyts, B. V. Nikolaev, B. I. Levidov, A. G. Monastyrsky were appointed supervisors for various subsystems. The process of coordination of technical and tactical requirements (TTR) went with great difficulty. At times, the customers’ requirements 502

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tended to lead the team of engineers away from the main goal, and their feasibility and practicality were not always apparent. For example, the requirement to include mine-detecting equipment in the system could torpedo the whole effort since the problem of building reliable minedetectors had not been solved by that time. The requirement to install side receiving arrays made no sense at all because of the high-noise level in the installation area. Only the eighth version of the TTR reached the stage of final coordination and approval—when design work was already in full swing. In December 1966, the preliminary design, and in May 1968, the technical design were completed. It is worth notice that, of all the earlier systems and stations, only the sonar array transducers could be borrowed—and that mainly because of the long time required for their development. Stringent weight-and-size and power consumption limitations, along with high efficiency standards, predetermined an unorthodox approach to the engineering and circuit features, many of which had never been used before. Initially, all arrays were meant to be fixed (static, stationary). Lack of room in the strength hull of the submarines under re-equipment necessitated a search for a suitable location outside the hull. It was decided, for the first time in domestic practice, to place part of the unattended equipment in a pressurized outboard capsule which simultaneously served as a rigid framework for the main forward array. Despite its great mass, the capsule with the equipment had almost zero buoyancy and applied no additional load, which was important for submarines of early construction. In a submarine of one of the projects, passage to the capsule was allowed through a special hatchway in the foreward compartment. Other projects envisaged passage to the capsule while on the surface only, through a special hatchway and a corridor. With the capsule being permanently submerged in water, and the equipment located there generating comparatively low heat, thermal conditions were maintained in the capsule at a stable level, which was favorable for the reliability of the equipment it housed.

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Because the preamplifiers were installed in the capsule, the cable length between the acoustic transducers and preamplifiers was small, thus considerably reducing the effect of strong electromagnetic fields from the ship, which are inevitably generated inside the hull. Also, in order to minimize interference from the ship’s AC lines, it was decided to supply the instruments inside the capsule with DC power. To fit the main receiving array under the submarine forward platform, it was given the shape of a truncated cone, with the smaller diameter at its base (Fig. 1). Such a design feature, even with a small taper, proved to be the best for the arrangement of the array on some submarine models. Our specialists proposed using micromodules as a component base, which permitted minimization of the electronic equipment. But

Fig. 1.

Sonar Rubikon’s acoustic array.

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since micromodules for digital equipment only were found in serial production at that time, the task was to design and manufacture analogequipment micromodules using our own resources. The required micromodule types were designed at CRI Morfizpribor, the technology of their manufacture was developed, the required tooling engineered, and production organized. Specifically for micromodule equipment, three types of sealed units with very high filling ratio and cell-type instrument cubicles, where each thermal unit was placed in an individual cell, were designed. The thermal unit housings had different colors, depending on their functional application. Staff members of a specially organized department: E. K. Martinovich, A. S. Beilin, I. M. Gavrilov, Yu. V. Salnikov and others, displayed much initiative and enthusiasm in implementing micromodule technology, designing instruments and units, developing circuit diagrams, power supply systems, and manufacturing techniques. In a traditional version, the power supply system of the receivingand-amplification equipment would have occupied a volume of 5 equivalent racks (of an overall volume of 7.5 racks assigned for all the equipment!). E. K. Martinovich proposed a compact system comprising three small wall-mounted primary stabilized-voltage supply units and secondary sources — static voltage converters for the power supply of multi-channel receiving-and-amplification and other low-power units. To reduce the volume of the directional pattern formation system of the main receiving array, unique seven-row induction compensators were designed. This was not an easy task for the designers. Since induction compensators noticeably attenuate the signal, amplifiers were installed at their outputs. Compensator design was additionally complicated by the fact that acoustic and vibration noises had to be eliminated in their operation, since compensators were placed in a capsule, close to the very sensitive array receivers. This problem was also solved successfully. To meet the system TTR, the transmitted pulse generator of the distance-measuring subsystem had to have sufficient power. It is widely known that “classical” vacuum-tube generators have low efficiency, they require high-voltage power supply, and need intensive cooling.

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Serially produced powerful transistors did not yet exist. The decision was made to create a “broken-up” generating set employing thyristors. In such a device, each generating unit serves an individual acoustic source, with power summing in the water. The high efficiency of such a generator eliminated the need for forced cooling. The need for a high-voltage power supply, which also required significant volume, also was eliminated. Nevertheless, the question of the electric power supply for the generating set still presented a problem, since the majority of submarines lacked sufficiently powerful lines to carry large peak loads at the moment of transmission of a pulse. The solution was found by bringing a power supply to the generator directly from the submarine main storage battery. Specialists of our Institute, V. P. Aleksandrov, L. V. Radievsky and Yu. B. Kostetsky, made an all-out effort to put together the compact generating set. In preliminary estimate, the system control equipment was supposed to occupy two instrument racks. But the designers could not afford such a “luxury.” A compact integral control subsystem was then introduced. It allowed the operator to check serviceability of all circuits and pinpoint a malfunction from the system control console. Generally, designers paid special attention to the problems of equipment reliability. Its subsequent use proved the correctness of this approach. It was decided to cram the system control and information display console into two instrument racks. But in submarines of various models the arrangement of the control console in the sonar operator’s room necessitated the reduction of the control console height as well. A wooden mock-up control console was used to test its anthropometrical and ergonomic features. For recording the transmitted signal, visible-image storage tubes were used in the display equipment. In addition to an electronic directlistening indicator, an electromechanic amplitude signal recorder operating from a synchronous integrator was introduced into the system. The recorder, due to analysis of traces on paper tape, made possible earlier detection of weak targets than with a CRT or an acoustic annunciator. In addition, paper tape provided a permanent record of the situation.

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The system designers worked against time. They often had to begin a subsequent stage of work before the preceding one was completed. For instance, manufacture of the first prototype was started 17 months before the engineering design project had been defended! In 1967, the government made the decision to manufacture and conduct trials of not one but of two prototype systems. In 1970–1971, two prototypes stood on the test stand of the plant. Top leaders of the industry and naval authorities, including Commander-in-Chief of the Navy, S. G. Gorshkov, visited the plant to see the new sonar system. In July 1973, the second prototype of the Rubikon Project successfully passed state trials on a new diesel-electric submarine in the Black Sea and at the end of 1973 to early 1974, the second prototype passed the same tests on a nuclear submarine in the North, also successfully. Preparation for the serial production of the system started at the Plant in 1969 and by the end of 1973 the plant had produced two serial-produced systems. Not everything went smooth with serial production but with the joint efforts of the group of workers and a large team of designers, serial production was finally organized. Later, with the help of the designers, the plant’s adjustment-and-commissioning service organized tuneup and commissioning of the Rubikon systems on different project submarines. In 1976, the SS Rubikon was put into service. It later underwent several modernizations. Due to the low level of inherent electric noise and its high power it helped the complete realization of the advantages of modern low-noise diesel-electric submarines. At present, the SS Rubikon is installed on submarines of several classes, including those exported to other countries.

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Third Generation of Acoustic Systems for Submarines: The Sonar System Skat M. V. ZHURKOVICH, V. E. ZELYAKH, V. B. IDIN, and I. N. DYNIN

In memory of Aron Iosifovich Paperno and Veniamin Vasilyevich Lavrichenko The increased role of naval submarine forces in accomplishing strategic and routine missions, the progress in the creation of new types of armaments, the successes of shipbuilders in reducing acoustic and own-ship’s noise levels, and the experience accumulated in the design and operation of the sonar systems (Rubin, Kerch, and Okean) for submarines of the second generation led to the realization of the need to develop a new generation of hydroacoustic equipment for all classes of nuclear submarines (NS). In 1969, this task was assigned as a result of the governmental decision. The D&D project launched was called Skat. In support of the project, a program of research covering the main areas in the field of physical hydroacoustics, technology, systems engineering, computer engineering, and electronics was launched. The program was closely correlated with the stages of the system development program. Research work was aimed at solving the following principal problems: (1) detection of low-noise submarines and surface ships in remote zones of acoustic illumination on the basis of in-depth research into the laws of sound propagation in the world’s oceans; (2) target detection by the noise they make, in the low-frequency range by discrete components (segments of spectrum — SS) and 508

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(4) (5) (6) (7)

(8) (9)

(10) (11) (12)

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by continuous segment of spectrum (CSS), with the help of a towed flexible extended array (TFEA); increasing the capabilities and the efficiency of sonar systems (active search within a wide sector and distance ranging by known target bearing) in detecting targets moving at different speeds; ensuring objective classification of detected targets; automation of the procedures of secondary information processing and decision-making; optimization of the “operator–sonar system” interaction and the relieving the operator of minor duties; development of hydroacoustic methods of target designation, providing initial data to different-application armaments and equipment; expanding application range, enhancing secrecy and reliability of hydroacoustic communication and identification; expanding operating range, raising accuracy of signal source localization and class (type) identification by the first transmitted pulse from an unknown direction; creation of integrated equipment for acoustic noise-level measurement and control at the sonar array locations on NS; development of single elementary components and unification of NS hydroacoustic equipment; improving equipment reliability, ensuring automation of control of instrument condition, automation of trouble-shooting with an accuracy down to a plug-in unit.

High-level research and engineering staff members of CRI Morfizpribor, N. N. Andreyev Institute of Acoustics, Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI, Naval Research Institute of Electronics (RIE), CRI for Shipbuilding Technology (SBT), CRI Agat and a few other research organizations and institutions in Leningrad, Moscow, Novosibirsk, Gorky, Vilnius, Riga and other cities were involved in this project. By order of the Minister of the Shipbuilding Industry, the Director of CRI Morfizpribor, V. V. Gromkovsky, was appointed Chief Designer of the Skat system. But the actual leader of the design work, its brain

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and soul, was A. I. Paperno, first deputy chief designer, an outstanding organizer and engineer. V. V. Lavrichenko, head of the administration of the Naval Institute of Radioelectronics, one of the initiators and supporters of the project was the chief supervisor of design for the Skat system on behalf of the customer. His deputy was the head of the department of the same Institute, M. V. Zhurkovich. Doctors of Technical Science Yu. M. Sukharevsky and V. I. Mazepov from the Acad. N. N. Andreyev Institute were the project chief scientists. V. B. Idin was appointed deputy chief designer for system design problems. Later, he succeeded A. I. Paperno in the position of first deputy chief designer. Deputies chief designer were: I. K. Polyakov for design work; M. D. Smaryshev for arrays, R. Kh. Balyan for generating units and power sources; A. N. Levinsky for primary information processing equipment; L. Ye. Fyodorov for digital device engineering and secondary information processing; and Yu. A. Gornov for production and technology. In their complexity, amount of functions fulfilled, and specifications, the major subsystems significantly exceeded the respective subsystems of the previous generation; two units had no analogs at all. Subsystem design group leaders were: direct listening (DL), V. E. Zelyakh; echo ranging (ER), E. B. Libenson; sonar operation detection (submarine sound signals detection — SSSD), M. N. Kazakov; communication and identification, I. N. Dynin; direct listening with a towed flexible extended array (DL with TFEA), S. L. Vishnevetsky; classification (code communication — CC), Yu. S. Perelmuter. For the system Skat design work coordination and supervision, a special complex laboratory was organized. A. I. Paperno was appointed its head, his deputy was V. I. Osipov — permanent “first mate” to Aron Paperno, also in charge of the problems of equipment reliability. Project supervisor at the preliminary design stage was L. I. Litvina. At the subsequent stages, this position passed to M. V. Petrov, who proved to be a very competent organizer. The following work groups were organized at the laboratory: direct listening system designers; control and indication console designers;

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documentation; and groups of research projects Bazalt and Uragan. The design work was concentrated on research into the problems related to the Skat D&D. Work on design of interference control facilities (ICF) was entrusted to experienced workers of another department, G. I. Usoskin, P. A. Nodelman, and A. Kvetny, and supervised by the leading engineer of the laboratory B. V. Teslyarov. The core of the DL system design group consisted of V. E. Zelyakh (leader), L. A. Vakhitova, S. N. Kontsevoi, T. I. Prokofyeva, and L. D. Stepanov. All of them were experienced designers. Young specialists V. A. Rakhin, V. A. Bogdanov, and Yu. N. Smirnov were also included in the group. Main designers of the echo ranging system were: design leader E. B. Libenson, I. V. Yemelyanenko, A. F. Palii, O. V. Rumyantsev, Z. S. Skvortsova, and Yu. V. Khrapenkov. The young specialist N. V. Nikandrov joined the group closer to the end of testbed trials. The laboratory leaders attached great importance to the issuance of technical documentation, because in the final run the task of the institute in carrying out D&D work boils down to preparing documentation for the production plant to be able to produce reliable products, and for the attending personnel to skillfully and efficiently operate them. In the beginning, the documentation group worked under the leadership of the head of the research-and-technical information department, one of the designers of the first domestic sonars, Stalin Prize winner A. S. Vasilevsky. He was succeeded by L. M. Mirimov, a talented engineer with a great experience in such work. The documentation group included also: T. V. Palii, I. L. Kozlova, G. M. Baranova, A. P. Fedyushina, and V. A. Popova. In the beginning, the system control console design was entrusted to V. I. Telyatnikov, after him this position was occupied by Ye. P. Novozhilov (later chief designer of sonar systems Skat-BDRM and Skat-Plavnik). T. P. Dovzhenko, N. S. Berezovskaya, V. A. Balash, A. Yu. Pastor, and V. V. Yemshanov worked with him. Designers of the other four major systems, communication, SSSD, DL with TFEA, and classification, worked in specialized sections. Design of SSSD equipment was carried out by S. P. Aleksandrov, A. A. Vinogradova, G. I. Volkova, M. I. Kershner, M. N. Kozlyakova,

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V. T. Ludzsky, I. N. Mikhailov, O. M. Orel, and L. R. Piskalenko under the leadership of M. N. Kazakov. Almost all of the communication section people in charge of introducing the unified mass-produced equipment “Shtil” in SS Skat were involved in this work. A group of specialists under the leadership of I. N. Dynin, including L. D. Aronova, V. N. Kupriyanov, and A. L. MamutVasilyev, designed terminals and switching and integration devices. During the tuning and testing period almost all of the “Shtil” designers together with chief designer Yu. M. Kozlov, joined in the work. Earlier experience with communication systems design showed that tests should be carried out by experienced specialists at both ends of the communication channel. For this reason our communication people, in addition to work on the Skat sonar system, were compelled to put in order the respective equipment on the trial support ships as well. Besides the above-named people, a valuable contribution was made by Yu. Ya. Golubchik, K. A. Varnazov, R. S. Dragilev, V. V. Reginya, and P. A. Dylev. Generally speaking, the design, manufacture, and trials of the Skat sonar systems involved, to a certain extent, the participation of almost the entire staff of the Institute — it seems impossible to name them all. For example, the bonus lists based on the results of completion of separate stages might include up to 2000 names. However, we must mention with thanks the staff members (in addition to those named above) whose contribution to the development of systems, channels, instruments, units, of complex and often unique equipment, was of particular value. These were: K. V. Mussulevsky, E. K. Martinovich, K. V. Malyarov, Ye. N. Babiev, I. N. Vasilyeva, Ye. I. Levit, A. V. Vinogor, B. Ye. Glikman, S. L. Glazov, Yu. A. Lukashenko, V. A. Gonikberg, A. Ya. Ginzburg, L. D. Bukhanov, V. P. Semyonov, V. M. Shtremt, A. S. Fyodorov, I. P. Lebedeva, O. M. Vornachyov, V. I. Laletin, I. K. Lobanova, A. L. Iofa, A. Yu. Chernyavskaya, A. I. Demyanchik, G. V. Shalayeva, Yu. V. Petrov, N. M. Ivanov, O. A. Kosharskaya, O. V. Radionov, O. I. Yerokhin, S. V. Rezvov, Yu. V. Dolinin, L. I. Molchadsky, and many, many others. For effective target detection in remote zones of acoustic illumination it was necessary to increase the system energy potential

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significantly — first of all by increasing the main array to a maximum possible size. It was proposed at the preliminary and technical project stages to design a spherical array that would allow maximum use of space in the submarine forward end, on condition that the torpedo tubes be removed from it. The Moscow authorities insisted on a spherical array, the main argument being that such an array was employed in the American system AN/BQQ-5. However, in the process of development of array arrangement on different project submarines it was discovered that designers–shipbuilders were not prepared to give up tube placement at the forward end. But, with the array arrangement under the torpedo tube platform, the advantages of a sphere were lost, leaving the designer to face the problems of a complex structure, circuit engineering features and technology. Thus it was decided, after the technical project defense and in the process of preparation of working drawings, to go back to the traditional cylindrical shape of the array for SS Skat. As a result of the research and process design studies, a transceiving array was proposed, in which receivers and transmitting transducers were combined structurally but belonged to different circuits. This permitted complete use of the array’s active surface both in the reception and signal transmission modes. Efficient hydroacoustic transducers with very good parameters (sensitivity, efficiency, frequency response, identity, reliability) were designed, which ensured efficient use of the array size in a broad frequency range. Development, design, manufacture, and trials of arrays for the Skat sonar system were carried out with most active participation of M. D. Smaryshev, B. I. Leonenok, V. A. Shturmis, V. V. Baskin, O. A. Dulova, Yu. A. Veselkov, V. N. Moiseyev, T. L. Pronina, I. V. Shtalberg, G. F. Astashev, Z. P. Shalayeva, R. P. Pavlov, B. S. Aronov, G. A. Mikhailov, A. Rinkis, M. E. Vodopyanov, G. A. Bogdanov, N. A. Rukosuyev, and V. V. Shchegolev. A large amount of work was done by the group of engineers led by V. Ye. Glazanov on the creation of principally new acoustic screens operating under high hydrostatic pressures. Under the leadership of Dr. Tech. Sc. Ye. L. Shenderov, recommendations and technical requirements were developed for the design

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of a multilayered glass-reinforced plastic dome featuring high acoustic characteristics, sufficient strength, and adaptability to streamlined manufacture. Abiding by these specifications, the CDB-submarine designers jointly with CRI for SBT designed and developed a technology for the domes, which later were manufactured at a shipbuilding plant. Initial design work on SS Skat proceeded on the assumption that the prototype would be installed on a class 649 submarine. The first estimates of the number of equipment racks required overwhelmed the designers. As development work proceeded, the number of instruments was reduced, and after the idea of a spherical array was abandoned and primary signal processing equipment was placed in a strong sealed capsule inside the array, the question of placement was finally solved. According to the D&D TTR, the system was developed in two versions: major and minor. The minor version was also meant to replace sonar systems on second-generation NS. Design work on the major and minor modifications went simultaneously, with a high degree of unification of the instruments, units, assemblies, and modules. Design work was hindered to a great extent due to the absence of components of domestic manufacture that would allow realization of the TTR within acceptable size limits. Use of the, then available, serialproduced components inevitably brought about an increase in the size and weight of on-board equipment. For Skat, simultaneously with development of the circuit plans the development of new components was initiated at the electronic industry plants. These included integral low-power input amplifiers, active sections of RC filters “Rasma,” powerful output ICs “Ieroglif,” comb quartz filters “Rubezh,” and the new type “Mandarin” CRT’s. It must be remembered that during the first years of the design work, our domestic industry did not produce integrated circuits for small digital systems. There were several competing enterprises that broadly advertised their future plans. It was hard to guess which would prove to be most promising. Initially, our specialists recommended the ICs “Posol” for SS Skat. The range of products they offered covered a great number of different functional units, which permitted development of digital equipment. However, for successful implementation of “Posol” ICs, special-application integrated circuits needed to be

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additionally developed, which did not suit the “Posol” manufacturer due to our limited annual requirement. It was proposed to start the ICs production at our own industrial plants. We had to take a risk and start designing the equipment using wide-application “Logika” ICs, some of which had been far from reaching the stage of serial production. In the process of SS Skat design and implementation of the family of “Logika” ICs, the time lag in serial production of this family of ICs gradually reduced, and eventually the future showed that we had made the correct choice. For the first time in the industry, digital computers found wide application in SS Skat. For a long time the question of choosing a computer for the sonar system remained open. The Moscow authorities exerted strong pressure on the Chief Designer and the RIE, whose goal was to include the Ataka computer, then under development at the Moscow CRI Agat, in the sonar system. But Ataka failed to meet our requirements in many respects. The Karat computer, then also under development at the Kiev RPA Kvant, attracted the attention of our specialists. Despite the fact that the computer had not yet been built, the characteristics proposed by its designer satisfied the sonar system designers more than those of the Moscow computer, which also had yet to appear. The long struggle ended in favor of the more realistic standpoint, and the computers of the type Karat were finally included in SS Skat. The new design for SS Skat took into account almost all failures and absorbed all discoveries, inventions, and innovations of the designers of the sonar systems Rubin, Rubikon, Yenisei, and Kerch. Specialists seeing the Skat for the first time always admired its control console, to which controls of all subsystems and information displays were brought. A group of engineering psychologists and art designers was involved in developing the control console ergonomic features. In its convenience and easiness of control operation, visualization of the system condition and external condition information, the Skat control console left all earlier designs far behind. Information from the DL, ER, SSSD, classification, and DL with TFEA subsystems was visualized on TV-type displays. Unlike earlier displays, the Skat displays were free from permanent flashing and glare, the operator worked under

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normal illumination conditions. The control console also incorporated an indicator of acoustic noise level at the array locations, as well as computer-operated controls. After the technical project defense, a question arose of how and on which platform the prototype would be put to trials, whether to follow the Rubin and Okean designers and conduct trials on serial-manufactured diesel-electric submarines specially re-equipped for trials, or to install the system right away on a newly built combat submarine. It soon became clear that none of the submarines then under design, for which the Skat was intended, would be ready to accept the instruments by the time the system fabrication was completed. The naval specialists V. V. Lavrichenko and M. V. Zhurkovich and deputies chief designer A. I. Paperno and V. B. Idin, together with representatives of the Sormovo plant and CDB “Lazurit,” proposed conducting trials of the Skat minor version on a class 670 submarine then under modernization, which earlier carried the SS Kerch. Unfortunately, this suggestion was not accepted, and instead of Skat, the Rubikon was installed on the modernized submarine. In that period, the head designer of SMDEB “Malakhit” G. N. Chernyshev proposed conducting another modernization of class 671 submarine and equipping it with the latest version of Skat (including the subsystem with TFEA), a new navigation complex and a new combat Information and Control System (CICS). This was a daring idea because it offered an opportunity to conduct trials of several novel designs in a very short time. Both the MSI leadership and the customer jumped at the idea. We will not describe here the pressure that the engineering team of the SMDEB “Malakhit” was under, but in a very short time essentially a new submarine had actually been designed. Head of the section V. A. Danilov, contributed a lot of his time and energy to optimization of the SS Skat location on the submarine. By the time testbed trials of the system began, construction of the submarine, which later became known in the West by the code name Victor III, was already under way at the Admiralty Plant. It was very convenient for the system designers that the installation of the prototype on a ship took place in Leningrad. This gave

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them an opportunity to instantly solve a multitude of technical problems that always come up in the process of submarine construction and the installation of instruments arriving directly from the testbed. Here is one example. Submarine designers were planning to place the commander’s reserve high-pressure air (HPA) bottles in the gap between the sealed capsule containing preliminary signal processing equipment and the structure carrying array hydroacoustic transducers. The institute representatives, who had insufficient practical experience yielded to the designers’ assertions that HPA in these bottles was used in emergencies only and did not generate noise in routine service that would interfere with signal reception, signed the layout drawing. While on a regular visit to the submarine under construction, the head of the Morfizpribor department N. A Knyazev drew the attention of the system chief designer V. V. Gromkovsky to these bottles and noted that, under submarine service conditions, the bleeding of the air from the bottles could take place, causing increased noise. The arguments of the designers about the impossibility of air bleeding from the HPA bottles had no effect on V. V. Gromkovsky, so the designers had to agree with reduction of the HPA emergency reserve, and welded up the bottles. Project drawing development and prototype manufacture went with great difficulty. Practically all ideas of the technical project had been turned down, and design work had to be started almost anew. In addition to that, there were problems with elementary components and computer hardware. For example, missile builders took a liking to the Ieroglif ICs, developed to our specifications, so much that, so to say, taking advantage of “the right of the first night,” they changed the plans and absorbed the whole of the IC production. In this situation we were compelled, in a rush, to get back to common add-on devices. Great difficulties awaited us in securing a supply of high-accuracy capacitors, ferreted contacts, connector assemblies, etc. Only because of the brilliant work of the procurement department then led by Yu. K. Smolyanyuk, the necessary supplies for the needs of pilotscale production were provided in preset terms. A lot of effort in the organization of production was made by the deputy institute director B. L. Rumyantsev, the head of production and dispatching department

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N. A. Zhukov, and his deputy V. A. Pshenichnov, and pilot-scale production leader V. L. Pleshkov. In five short years, the institute’s pilot-scale production facilities would not have manufactured the whole range of required hardware, if it were not for broad cooperation. The capacities of the Vodtranspribor Plant, other plants of the department, such as the V. I. Lenin Production Association, the Akhtuba and Priboy Plants, and several others were employed in the prototype manufacture. Despite all hardships, in 1974 equipment started arriving at the testbeds. The Moscow-based installation and adjustment organization “Kaskad” was invited to perform cable-laying and instruments installation on the testbed. In the process of equipment tuning on the testbed, two very serious miscalculations were revealed, the elimination of which called forth strenuous work by many specialists. One miscalculation was related to preamplifier (PA) excitation. Despite objections by the DL subsystem leader, the PA designers, having convinced the customer’s leadership and the deputy chief designer of the correctness of their approach, and after conducting an experiment on a small number of amplifiers, took several liberties with the circuit design. When finally all PAs, over 1000, were switched on, self-excitation occurred. We had to dismantle all units with PAs from the testbed very quickly, break them open, rearrange the wiring, replace the electric components, reassemble, run new tests for compliance with the specifications, and only then put them back on the testbed. This enormous task was nevertheless completed in a very short time. Another trouble was related to the non-stationary nature of the background signal at the output of the induction compensator for pattern formation and rotation. Due to spread in crosspoint gain caused by technological errors, the background signal fluctuations at the compensator output significantly exceeded the threshold signal. The DL subsystem leader proposed to change the method of directivity pattern formation, which helped to exclude the above interference. Very quickly, one of the automatic tracking channel compensators was changed to serve as a circular-scanning compensator. Compensator designer B. Ye. Glikman proposed a brilliant solution requiring no

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dismantling and reinstallation of the instrument. Alterations were reduced to replacement of the drive unit and installation of specially made cable jumpers. The compensator was borrowed from the first serial-produced set. The testbed trials program which began in 1974 was scheduled so as to both carry out overall testing of the instrument serviceability and their compliance with the specifications, and to analyze the correctness of the technical features employed in the project. The testbed designers made sure that the length of cables connecting the instruments on the testbed corresponded to those on board of a real submarine. Thus all problems concerning spurious coupling, wire losses, etc. were solved on the testbed, never to arise on the submarine. At all times during the mounting of instruments on the testbed and testbed trials, the hydroacoustic engineers Nail Iskhakov and Igor Levchin from the submarine main crew, both graduates of the A. S. Popov NSEE, worked side by side with the designers. Having begun their acquaintance with SS Skat practically “from laying down a keel,” that is, from testbed trials, they came to know this complex system perfectly. This allowed them, as principal operators, not only to perform production tests and state trials magnificently (first of the submarine and then of the system), but also to skillfully transfer their knowledge to other crew members — warrant officers Gorbach and Kozlov, and later, to Lieutenant Novikov. Testbed organization, instrument installation, and wiring were carried out under the supervision of the engineer L. D. Stepanov transferred from the DL subsystem designers group. Later, after Stepanov’s appointment as an authorized representative of the Institute on the leading submarine of class 671RTM then under construction in Komsomolsk-on-Amur, his work was continued by M. S. Parmet, who completed the testbed room outfitting with the necessary equipment and organized overall support for the trials. In the course of testbed trials, the DL subsystem designers group was reinforced with LETI graduates, the young engineers V. A. Antipov and S. V. Kokoshuyev, and a young specialist Ye. A. Shchuko who had recently finished his military service. These young men, together with technicians Yu. N. Smirnov, S. V. Shnitov, S. N. Sabayev and leading engineer B. A. Sidorov transferred from another group, formed the

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backbone of a team carrying out testbed, production, and later state trials of the DL system. In 1976, even before testbed trials of the equipment were completed, delivery of the system array devices to the Admiralty Plant began. A year later, the instrumentation started to arrive. B. V. Teslyarov, who was the Institute’s authorized representative at the leading submarine construction and commissioning site, supervised all stages of installation, wiring and trials of SS Skat not only at the Admiralty Plant, but also at the construction completion plant Dubrava in Severodvinsk and at the submarine permanent base. Instrument wiring on the submarine was carried out by the Era Plant. The enormous amount of wiring (the DL subsystem alone had over 1000 cables, with the average number of conductors 37 per cable), as well as haste caused by extremely tight time limits, caused a great number of errors. For checking the wiring continuity, instrument connection, preliminary testing and tuning, a special team of the Institute’s specialists, installers and mechanics, all subordinated to a person appointed in charge of commissioning, was organized. At the Vodtranspribor Plant where the main executing team worked, simultaneously with prototype instruments installation on the submarine the testbed trials of the first Skat production model began. Only three persons in charge of completing the DL subsystem remained on the submarine. Those were V. A. Rakhin, V. A. Kisteneva working in shifts, and subsystem supervisor V. E. Zelyakh, who worked literally round-the-clock. Unfortunately, due to delays with power supply and absence of instruments cooling, there was no opportunity to have all instruments switched on at once and check operation of the subsystem as a whole. Nevertheless, a large group of specialists for the amplifiers, automation, displays, computers, analog-to-digital converters, power sources and automatic control successfully continued with instrument testing and tuning. An installer and a mechanic were permanently there to immediately eliminate minor troubles. A group of workers was busy putting arrays in order by checking the wiring, replacing damaged transducers, etc. The date set for commissioning, December 1977, imposed special requirements for conducting the prototype sonar system trials. To

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ensure safe submarine navigation, it was decided first to put into service the DL subsystem listening channel (Bolshoi Feniks), the hydroacoustic telephone communication system and the production model of the Arfa-M mine-detection station. The time of transfer of the submarine for construction completion to Severodvinsk was drawing near, but comprehensive tests were delayed through the fault of the shipbuilding plant. Already the date was fixed for the transport dock departure for bringing the submarine to the north over the White Sea — Baltic Channel, but we still lacked sufficient power and air cooling for instruments. Nevertheless, as soon as various single instruments and circuits were ready, selective firststage mooring trials were carried out. For example, the hydroacoustic communication group managed in just a few days‘ time to connect the Shtil equipment and perform almost all aspects of the trails. It was then that deputy chief engineer of LAU V. I. Vodyanov suggested that comprehensive tuning of the DL subsystem could be performed during the time of submarine transportation in the dock. For this purpose, a special cooling water tank was installed on the submarine deck. The fire-extinguishing system pumps were supposed to pump water to the tank. With the submarine placed in the dock, outside water pumping for air cooling was impossible in the regular way. Everything being done in a rush, there was no way to check the pumping system before departure. The departure could not be postponed because cold weather was advancing and the northern part of the channel was right at the point of freezing. A delay threatened cancellation of the submarine scheduled commissioning and its postponement till the next year. Quickly, a team was organized to “breath life” into the Bolshoi Feniks. V. E. Zelyakh, who was in charge of the DL subsystem, was appointed technical supervisor of the project. V. B. Teslyarov was appointed his organizational assistant. The team included V. A. Antipov, B. S. Arshansky, Yu. A. Glebov, I. N. Melnikov, Ye. P. Novozhilov, Ye. A. Shchuko, Yu. A. Veselkov, V. V. Yemshanov, A. A. Tsygankov, Yu. M. Dokuchayev, A. S. Zverev, Yu. A. Ivanov, B. I. Gurin, V. N. Chernyayev, A. G. Smola, S. V. Kokoshuyev, A. S. Fyodorov, V. A. Makarov, Ye. S. Karyev, Yu. R. Sobolev,

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L. L. Rabinovich, V. P. Shrainer, G. B. Genzler, M. Kh. Zilberg, mechanics and installers A. N. Susarin, V. M. Rogovtsev, Yu. N. Boikov, A. S. Kirillov, S. A. Katilov, and B. N. Matveyev. The transport dock was a giant rectangular box with no top. Its side walls, about one meter thick, were formed of barrels used to sink the dock when a submarine enters it. The dock back wall served as a gate for the entry of the transported ship. In the front part of the dock a superstructure with personnel rooms, a generator room and a control house were located. Placed at the forecastle was a two-seated head (WC) in front of which people lined up from morning to night. A wooden cookhouse with a gas stove was built at the dock bottom. Long tables stood nearby under an awning. The dock was covered at the top with a tarpaulin tent to prevent the submarine from being photographed from satellites. Life and work conditions were hard; not a single life-support system worked. People ate, to say it mildly, “out in the street,” at air temperatures down to minus 12◦ C. There was no water for washing. On the first day of the trip, people used snow to wash. Then V. B. Teslyarov proposed making holes in the flexible durite hose that was used to remove overboard conditioner waste water, so that water could pour out onto the floor in the dock afterbody. But soon the rubberized fabric of the hose swelled, water trickled in thin drops, which everybody called “Gromkovsky’s tears.” It dawned on the mechanics to insert liners inside the hole — and there was no end to joy among members of the commissioning team. People slept in the extremely crammed conditions, because, besides the dock crew and our team, there were teams of LAU construction specialists, Era Plant installers, rubberizing specialists, power engineers, other workers — over 300 people in all. Fortunately, the sonar cooling system was put into operation and worked more or less normally. It turned out that there were too many power consumers for one diesel-generating set — the radiometer people, the navigation people, etc. A stringent schedule had to be introduced, with strict control over commissioning work and other construction completion teams. People worked 14–16 h a day. By the time the dock reached Severomorsk and pulled up to the Dubrava Plant, not only the Bolshoi Feniks station, but also the complete set of

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the DL subsystem equipment were put into operation. All detection, automatic target following (ATF), and listening channels worked (with information being brought to displays, the recorder and telephones). And when, on the night of November 4, the dome was filled with water, everybody could see that the Skat DL subsystem was running, despite all pessimistic forecasts, which rejected the possibility of tuning and putting into operation even a limited part of the system equipment during transportation. In Severodvinsk we were met by M. S. Parmet, who organized a splendid “dressing down” for the team, after which all were taken to the hotel. Soon to Severodvinsk came I. N. Dynin to complete the communication equipment mooring trials and the team led by E. E. Berkul, which put in service the Arfa-M model sonar. The submarine hydroacoustic facilities were ready for sea trials. The first stage of sea trials was conducted in November–December. Simultaneously with submarine trials, the first stage of production tests of the DL subsystem main channels and the Shtil station telephone communication channel was carried out, and sonar system mooring trials were completed. Chairman of the commission for conducting production tests N. I. Lobanov, and the customer’s representative Ye. A. Smirnov, who by that time had completed instrument testing, stayed on board. It was discovered in the course of trials in the White Sea in November–December 1977 that at high submarine speeds the lowfrequency segment of the ship’s movement noise range caused preamplifier “jamming.” Once again we had to rearrange PAs. A proposal was made to employ transducer capacitance as a component of the HF filter section. As a result, all alterations boiled down to replacement of the amplifier input resistor, without the need for disassembling the principal circuit. This rearrangement ensured efficient operation of the DL subsystem at submarine speeds considerably exceeding the critical value. In the spring of 1978, preamplifier alteration was completed, and the capsule group equipment connectors were filled with sealing compound. We approached the most important stage of trials — measuring the electroacoustic parameters of the arrays. The greater part of these measurements was carried out with the help of a coordinate

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measuring device (CMD), which presented a removable overboard system with a swinging boom controlled remotely from the strength hull. Measuring sonar transducers and hydrophones were installed at the boom end. Measurements were carried out in submerged position, with the submarine at a standstill. The idea of the CMD had been proposed by I. M. Strelkov. He used the construction of this kind for taking measurements while working on the research project Gryada. But since it was necessary to build a CMD much bigger in size for Skat, the shipbuilders rejected the idea “point-blank.” They argued that the submarine would lose stability. Strange as it may seem, the idea of CMD found support with submarine chief designer G. N. Chernyshov, who ordered his people to start work on CMD placement. The CMD was designed under the supervision of N. N. Fyodorov and O. I. Vertman in Ye. V. Yakovlev’s section (designer V. M. Ortin). The remote drive system was designed by the experienced engineer O. A. Preobrazhensky. CMD adjustment and tuning on the vessel was carried out by I. N. Dmitriyev. Use of CMD provided an opportunity to obtain good repeatability of results and consequently increase reliability. The accuracy of measurements increased 3–4 times compared with the accuracy of the traditional measurement methods made with the use of an auxiliary ship. Measurement time and costs were also significantly reduced. It was much to the credit of the brilliant specialists of the Institute V. V. Baskin, B. Leonenok, M. D. Smaryshev, E. V. Labetsky, O. I. Vertman, S. V. Kokoshuyev and many, many others, that measurement of array parameters were completed successfully. After measuring the array parameters, the tests for compliance with the TTR began, with instrument-aided checks of the observation results. The second stage of the trials took place in July–October 1978 in the White Sea. For more accurate evaluation of the results, acoustic noise was measured at the array locations while moving. Favorable, or rather, “greenhouse” hydrological-acoustic conditions and the well adjusted and tuned equipment predetermined excellent performance results of the first four sonar subsystems. It was noted in the course of the 1977–1978 trials that the level of own ship noise while moving, on which designers based their selection

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of the preamplifier elementary components, was below the values specified in the TTR for subcritical speeds in the HF range. In other words, due to the shipbuilders’ successes in bringing down noise in the HF range, the electrical noise of the input amplifiers became a problem. In fact, such an effect could be observed in calm weather only and at low submarine speed, but in this case the noise margin of amplifiers was almost exhausted. First, it was necessary to bring down preamplifier noises and second, to increase sensitivity of the array receiving transducers. The first problem was solved by replacing the input IC with common field transistors. Also, frequency correction was introduced in the PAs. The amplifier obtained as a result later found wide application in units Skat-Plavnik, Skat-BDRM, Skat-2M and Skat-3. The second problem was not as easy to solve. Designers tried several construction designs before they arrived at transducer PR-10 which met the requirements. The author of the construction was R. P. Pavlov. This type of transducer was used in sonar systems Skat-3, Skat-BDRM, Skat-2M. The system designers were charged with one more task which required much time and effort — installation on a submarine, testing and commissioning of the first production model to the customer in Komsomolsk-on-Amur and Bolshoi Kamen. The problem was that since the prototype had not yet passed state trials, work had to be carried out using incomplete manuals. Solving the problems of trial organization of the first Skat production model was entrusted to the Institute’ chief engineer, deputy chief designer R. Kh. Balyan. He completed the task brilliantly. Together with the representatives of Vodtranspribor Plant, V. A. Nikolaev, A. N. Sobolev and others, mooring and sea trials were carried out in a very short time, and the foundation was established for conducting full-scale ocean trials of the sonar system. In the same period (1978–1979), serial-produced sonar systems were being installed on the new design submarines under construction, for which the Skat was initially created. Almost simultaneously, installation of equipment on class 941 and 949 submarines went on in Severodvinsk. In spite of the fact that equipment adjustment was carried out at the Vodtranspribor Plant, it was the designers who were responsible for conducting trials on the leading submarines.

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B. L. Naruzhny, the staff member of the system design laboratory, was authorized to represent the commissioning party for these submarines. Having become familiar with the system since the time of its testbed trials, he managed to carry out the unit’s tuning and commissioning almost without the need for the attendance of the instrument designers. Of course, some problems arising in connection with these orders were beyond Naruzhny’s authority. There was a very complicated problem with the signal double reflection by the rear wall of the dome. V. B. Idin, M. D. Smaryshev, V. E. Zelyakh, and K. V. Malyarov were sent to Severodvinsk to solve this problem. With the assistance of the submarine chief designer, the problem was solved in the shortest possible time. With the same promptness the Institute staff members helped to eliminate electric noise induced in the DL subsystem input circuits. Prototype state trials were always quite complicated. In our case, the complexity was multiplied many times over. We were to test and develop principally new techniques ensuring instrument testing of sonar system parameters under sea conditions, to estimate the system tactical characteristics and efficiency in solving new problems within a wide range of hydrological and acoustic conditions. All this required involvement of a significant number of support ships, efficient organization of ship interaction, particularly in remote regions of the ocean, over a long period of time. It was necessary to think through and put into practice the methods of monitoring the trial conditions. In a very short time, specialists of the Navy and CRI Morfizpribor (V. V. Lavrichenko, M. V. Zhurkovich, Zh. D. Petrovsky, V. Nemchinov, V. V. Gromkovsky, V. B. Idin, and V. A. Rakhin) developed all the working documents to provide the ships with very clear instructions on the order of maneuvering. The Acad. N. N. Andreyev Institute of Acoustics sent a special expedition under the leadership of V. I. Mazepov, which was in charge of surface sweep in the Norwegian Sea and routine acoustic measurements of target ships. The schedule of trial support in remote regions, which covered over three weeks, was observed with an accuracy of several minutes, much to the credit of the Northern Fleet Headquarters and its head, Admiral

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Panikorovsky. This stage of trials took place with the participation of the sonar system chief designer V. V. Gromkovsky. On the way to the Norwegian Sea, a target was detected in the aft angles sector. Upon reducing the speed and sonar signal emission to the known bearing, the submarine was identified as foreign. Having watched its maneuvers to evade, and after an exchange of glances with the “foreigner” through periscopes, we continued on our way. The desire to compete was so great… But — we had a schedule to keep to! On the same passage, using the ATF channel, another submarine was observed for several hours by signals reflected from bottom, with simultaneous distance evaluation. We could not do without “surprises” upon arrival at the trial location. First, the hydrological and acoustic situation in the region appeared to be worse than expected (judging by many-years’ observations), and second, as the results of measurements showed, the level of noise generated by the target submarine we interacted with turned out to be by far below the predicted values. On the proposal of M. V. Zhurkovich, in order to precisely determine signal propagation conditions in the trial region a method known from the time of first soundmen was applied, that is, observation of duration, intensity, and nature of reverberation. One transmission was made, and there it was — a clear picture of the illumination zones, their length, fullness of the reverberation “image” on the route. We later resorted to this method many times. Another surprise — the low level of target noise — forced members of the commission, the commissioning team and the submarine personnel to summon all their experience, skills, and use to the maximum the potential capabilities of the direct listening subsystem. We had to change promptly the schedule of mutual maneuvering, develop an additional technique, and together with the submarine commander S. A. Rusakov to organize interaction between soundmen, CICS, the navigation officer and the central control room. It was necessary to increase efficiency of detection and contact support with the target submarine in the presence of a great number of local interfering sources of

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noise. As a result of that, we gathered the necessary experience, which was reflected in the documentation. Trials of the sonar system with the use of which target search was practically carried out also required much effort, self-control and persistence from participants. For the first time, extensive experimental material was gathered on the use of the transmitted signal bank, and recommendations were worked out on a number of additional technical innovations and methodology. V. V. Lavrichenko also proposed the difficult task of gathering and analyzing materials for evaluating information capabilities of subsystems and the sonar system in general. On the basis of these data, instruction manuals on target classification were compiled for the attending personnel. Brilliant results were obtained from the tests of the signal detection systems of the working sonars and communication signals. They helped to provide independent control over the maneuvering forces, thus giving an opportunity for both preliminary assessment of the trial results immediately on board and the making of prompt decisions for the most efficient use of the working time. The results of the trials of the signal detection subsystem completely confirmed the correctness of the technical innovations employed, which for the first time ensured automation of not only the detection and direction finding procedures, but also the procedures of accurate bearing finding and signal parameters measuring. Thus, for the first time, the system allowed the realization of complete automation of the entire set of decision-making procedures. At the same time, it should be noted that in some cases the presence of a ship’s structural noises caused the increase in the number of false alarms in the aft sectors. With regard to the communication system, the design requirements were confirmed, primarily in what concerned the broadband operation mode in remote zones of acoustic illumination. Limitations in the system use relating to the temporal signal structure were revealed. At the same time, the range exceeded the results obtained earlier by two-fold. This stage of the trials was over. Support ships were heading home, leaving us alone… In the middle of the night, we are moving at a speed

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of 6 knots, at 150-m depth… And suddenly, over the hydroacoustic communication channel, a voice comes from a distance: “Good luck! See you at home! Here is a farewell concert for you…” And for a long time we listened to sailors’ songs transmitted to us from the support ship while moving away. By the time the submarine reached the base, all results were processed, analyzed, and compared with the objective information available on board. Everything was prepared for detailed data analysis on shore. Upon completion of trials of the subsystems 1–4 of the Skat system in the Norwegian Sea, work began on preparation for trials of the submarine navigation system and CICS in the Barents Sea and the Arctic Ocean. The Skat system performed perfectly under ice. Here is an illustration of this point. On his first independent watch a young officer spotted a foreign submarine moving straight ahead. Despite all attempts at tricky evasive steering, launching imitators, the “foreigner” failed to break off, and only the need to continue with our own scheduled work made us abandon this captivating “cat-and-mouse” game. After our own navigation compass had failed, use of the Skat allowed our submarine to surface from under the ice by the noise bearing to an ice-breaker mooring at the ice edge. With the goal of determining the potential capabilities of the Skat sonar system under ocean conditions, comprehensive trials were organized in 1980 in the Pacific Ocean. Great preparatory work on organizing and planning the trials was carried out by servicemen of military unit 90720, and particularly by D. N. Drobinin. Trials conducted in the Sea of Japan and in the Pacific Ocean on a class 671RTM submarine confirmed compliance with the TTR. It is interesting to note that all results were obtained in the absence of the designer’s representatives who missed the submarine departure due to a flight delay. V. I. Fomichev (Naval RIE) and D. N. Drobinin, together with radio engineering service personnel of the submarine, contributed greatly to the successful completion of the trials. The whole of 1981 was spent on preparation of the fifth and sixth sonar subsystems (DL with TFEA and classification) to the second stage of state trials. The designers anticipated the greatest difficulties here,

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because the check-up and trials of the two principally new subsystems were scheduled. The difficulties were caused by the fact that, for the first time in the cause of D&D work, the problem of formalization of physical algorithms of logical information processing and decision making with the account for their dependence on specific external conditions was solved. Besides, the task of ensuring reliable operation of complex electronic devices installed in the TFEA under great pressure, at a distance of up to 1000 m from the carrier, as well as reliable joint operation of the lifting-extending gear (LEG) and the towed flexible extended array, had to be completed. By 1980, it became clear in the course of preliminary trials that plans to completely ensure reliable, stable operation of all systems would not be realized. In view of their importance and the great promise the fifth and sixth subsystems showed, as well as their novelty and the lack of experience in their operation, and the deadlines designers had to work against, they sought some unorthodox solution that would allow them to complete subsystem operational development. An analysis was done of the criticism expressed in the course of the preliminary trials and of the technical proposals for elimination of problems. Taken into account was the feasibility of the proposed steps in view of the experience acquired in operating electronic equipment built with new components. This analysis showed the work could be broken up in two stages: (1) Stage 1: Securing the required reliability of the subsystems, obtaining reliable estimates of tactical parameters, gathering experience on subsystem operation both in the stand-alone mode and as a component of the sonar system, working out recommendations for maintenance, and making field changes in control consoles and their layout. (2) Stage 2: Making final changes in control consoles and their layout on the submarine, solving problems and completing the trials in full compliance with the program and the GOST requirements. To raise the responsibility of all interested organizations and the promptness of decision-making and implementation, and to enhance control over quality and deadlines for improvement, M. V. Zhurkovich,

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supported by D. D. Mironov and O. A. Ryzhkov, proposed carrying out this work under the auspices of the state commission, and to hold state trials in two stages. The Naval authorities and the Ministry of the Shipbuilding Industry approved the proposal, with simultaneous transfer of the DL, ER, SSSD, and communication systems of the sonar to submarine personnel for operation, without waiting for completion of the D&D work. The industry, together with several members of the commission, did a good job. All systems were brought to nominal operation according to predetermined requirements. It should be noted that were it not for the initiative, diligence, energy, sense of responsibility, and a gift for engineering displayed by D. D. Mironov, who supervised the work on refining the system, the Institute would probably not have completed the task on time. The key figure in development of the system with TFEA was S. L. Vishnevetsky. Always steady, a man of few words, wise in his decisions, and at the same time a charismatic and modest person, Vishnevetsky bore on his shoulders all the strain and hardships of the new system development from the beginning to the successful completion. Much work, talent and effort was contributed to system refinement and preparation for trials by M. Ya. Andreyev, A. M. Yevdokimov, T. B. Kudrina, and V. V. Klyushin. The TFEA was handed over to the reliable V. I. Zarkhin, A. K. Rachkov, V. P. Maksimov, and A. M. Bestuzhev. The contributing factor to the successful performance of the subsystem with the TFEA was the fact that LEG designers and representatives of the Proletarsky Zavod Plant (LEG creator) on the submarine were highly qualified specialists and honest, responsible people, namely B. A. Selivanov and V. V. Kozlov. With regard to the classification subsystem, the accepted method of organization of work provided an opportunity to work out and coordinate the first numerical values for the system’s principal tactical parameters, thus putting an end to a long and wearisome debate caused by the repeated subjective evaluation of the facts. Software development and debugging were done, with merit, by V. A. Gonikberg. He was the

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first who achieved stable joint operation of the two Karat computers that were part of the classification subsystem. During this period, work on the classification subsystem was carried out under the guidance of Ya. I. Karmanov, who did his best to provide normal working conditions for his team members while being forced to work under the annoyed and nervous shouts from the leadership. At this stage of the work, valuable personal contributions were made by the following individuals: “integrators” I. A. Kuptsov, I. G. Peskova, A. D. Konson, E. P. Ovchinnikova; “hardware” people V. A. Sivakov, L. V. Sakharov, Ye. N. Volodin, T. Kulagina, V. N. Smirnova; “mathematicians” L. V. Khomenko, M. G. Levintan, G. A. Krasilnikov, M. B. Veiko, T. F. Afinogenova, Zh. V. Borovik, G. F. Igonina, S. G. Shugayeva, and V. V. Ivanov. Timely solutions to all problems of consoles arrangement were provided by leading specialists of SMDEB “Malakhit” V. A. Danilov, Yu. P. Kolesnikov, and A. I. Yakubov. The efforts of the developers ensured the stable operation of all systems, and the work went strictly according to schedule. For the first time, under various hydrological conditions, the TFEA system completely proved its capabilities and disclosed its potential. However, the attitude of the naval specialists towards the system was — saying it mildly — chilly. This was due to the system’s uniqueness and difficulty of operation, but most of all due to the discrepancy between the actual trial results and the expectations some top leaders had for systems of this kind. Their expectations were based on foreign data from similar systems and a complete disregard of the objective laws of hydroacoustics. There were also doubts concerning the strength of the array and its towing cable. Besides, our acoustics specialists were continuously criticized for the absence of such systems in the service of our Navy. However, in the last TFEA lifting, it swept a navigation buoy, and the submarine, maneuvering at speeds up to 15 knots at different depths, with an array in extended position and with a buoy caught on it, solved a battle problem — an attack on a formation of fighting ships. When the submarine approached the base with an extended array towing a buoy, there was no end to delight and astonishment of everybody on shore. Strange as it may seem, the mechanical strength of the array made a

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much greater impression on the customer than its hydroacoustic characteristics. The system gained in prestige immensely. A few years later Americans, speaking about the drawbacks of such systems, noted with reference to this fact (which somehow had become known to them) that they were able to destroy navigation equipment of the area. In the process of trials of the classification system under a sufficiently broad range of conditions, the correctness of the scientific approach and of the physical algorithms was proved. Experience in the application and operation of the system was also acquired. The practical experience permitted simplifying many things, including controls, introducing a wait mode, and making the control console more ergonomic. Trials of the above two subsystems confirmed once more their high technical, information, and tactical capabilities, along with the capabilities of the sonar system in general. Despite all the difficulties inherent to operation of sonar systems, that is, reverberation noise and signal fluctuations, the echo-contact with a submarine located at a quite large distance was ensured from the first transmission. The direct listening subsystem also performed perfectly in identifying a low-noise submarine — this was done to gather statistics for the classification subsystem. Seeing the results of this work, when the submarine carrying the sonar system was easily performing maneuvers at speeds up to 22 knots, the Chairman of the State Commission, Rear-Admiral V. Ya. Volkov exclaimed, “Now I can report to the Commander-in-Chief — this is the system to sail with!” Such was the judgment of a sailor. We have to do justice to two chairmen of the state commission, who served at different times, for their contributions to improving the sonar system and methods of its operation. They were Rear-Admiral V. V. Lavrichenko (then Captain 1st Rank) at the stage of trials of the system comprising four subsystems, and Rear-Admiral V. Ya. Volkov at the stages of subsystems with the TFEA and classification trials, and trials of the sonar system with all subsystems as a whole. They were responsible and honorable people, with a good knowledge of the Navy, and an understanding of its needs and mission. Regretfully, they are no longer with us.

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For five consecutive years we worked with the chairman of the state commission, a fine person and good sailor, Rear-Admiral N. S. Boriseyev. With his assistance, logs and performance documentation were developed. It was due to his participation that all our work received timely support. It is also important to say a word about the staff members of the Naval RIE who took an active part in the development of SS Skat, and who have passed on so untimely: S. P. Chernakov, P. A. Sigov, E. Kh. Matevosyan, L. M. Lazuko, V. M. Pyanov, M. V. Ilinsky, and the now living: I. I. Tynyankin, K. P. Luginets, A. I. Mashoshin, V. Yevmenenko, V. N. Matvienko, A. G. Kolesnikov, A. Silayev, A. I. Krayevsky, V. I. Zhivayev, V. K. Arkhipov, I. M. Il’in, and others. Finally, the long-awaited day came, when the trails of the sonar system came to an end. Its last target was a torpedo. The commission for unit Omnibus issued a Boyevoi Listok (submarine news leaflet) with warm congratulations on our success. The sonar system was now in service supporting the mission of the Omnibus. The approval by the naval authorities of the commission report was given without a single remark. Simultaneously, rough versions of the report and a work schedule were drafted and submitted. Moscow gave approval to the report and the resolutions within just a few days. In the end, key problems had been solved, great experience acquired, the prospects for submarine hydroacoustic equipment development defined, the sonar systems Skat-Plavnik, Skat-BDRM, and Skat-2M were created on the basis of the SS Skat, and the foundation was laid for the creation of the next generation sonar system, Skat-3. First deputy chief designer, leaders of the main subsystems, chief customer’s supervisor, and the scientific adviser from ACIN received moral satisfaction from a job well done. A large group of the institute’s staff members was awarded orders and medals, and five people, as members of the group of engineers of CDBME Rubin, were given the State Prize: V. V. Gromkovsky, V. B. Idin, O. K. Belyavsky, Zh. D. Petrovsky (the Navy), and A. Ye. Vovk (ACIN).

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Telegram with expressions of gratitude from the submarine captain to the specialists of RPA Okeanpribor — participants of SS Skat trials: “Thanks to the group of specialists of Okeanpribor for excellent fulfillment of Order 01636. Special thanks to the leadership for enthusiasm and initiative in management which ensured completion of the project in the shortest time, for excellent results, faultless equipment operation, and great help in breaking in the system.”

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Creation of the Sonar System Skat-3 V. A. KAKALOV

Creation of the first domestic sonar system with complete digital signal processing was an unprecedented event in the history of CRI Morfizpribor. Such is the opinion not only of the system creators but also of all who knew the details of the huge effort. Exceptional complexity of technical, technological, tactical and organizational problems, many of which emerged in the process of the system creation, their diversity and principal novelty, as well as the unusually short period of time set by the government for their solution, made up the inimitable “bouquet” of this project. Today, after 10 years, we come to understand the indelible trace it left on the history of domestic hydroacoustics and on the lives of a large group of specialists. Like any big integrated system, Skat-3 absorbed the whole store of scientific and technical achievements accumulated at the time its development began. These achievements were the result of hard work by researchers and engineers of CRI Morfizpribor and specialists in hydroacoustics from the Acad. N. N. Andreyev ACIN, the Naval Institute, the Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI, and many other organizations. As a digital computer system, Skat-3 grew from experience acquired by a number of organizations under the Ministry of the Shipbuilding Industry in the field of digital instrument engineering. At the same time, the complexity of the task posed by the government contributed to turning the work of the Institute personnel into an all-absorbing creative process, raising a practically endless series of scheduled and unscheduled problems. In brief, the task was formulated as follows: to ensure, in the shortest possible time, construction of a leading low-noise submarine of a new series (class 971) and equip it with a digital sonar system with the tactical characteristics that should

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exceed those of all systems constructed earlier. And, as a minimum, tactical parity with the best foreign analogs had to be ensured. The element of competition gave the process of Skat-3 design a special edge. Implicitly, it was a competition with the Americans who, during the period of the sonar’s creation, were building a similar system. It was also a race against groups of designers of information computer systems working for other elements of the armed forces. According to information in the foreign press, the American sonar system AN/BQQ5 for a Los Angeles class submarine used the US biggest digital computer system in commission and was created under the supervision of the greatest authority in the design of digital computer systems for various applications — IBM. A truly objective testimony to the scale and complexity of tasks the designers of the sonar system worked on was that creation of the American analog enjoyed the participation of such world-known companies as IBM, Hughes, Raytheon, etc. The designers and specialists, who built Skat-3 by hand, were determined that it would not be inferior. Completion of the tasks undertaken was achieved because of the immense focus of efforts by leaders at all levels in marine instrument engineering, including top officials at the Ministry, the Department of Defense of the CPSU Central Committee, the commission for military industry problems, contracting enterprises, as well as the CRI Morfizpribor leadership and heads of its departments. Like many big projects, Skat-3 had its top-level manager, who inwardly was held responsible by the government for project realization. A manager of this kind would rarely be appointed officially, nobody would set the range of his duties either. At the same time, such a person’s authority, professional and personal qualities were extremely important for the success of the project. Such was manager of the Skat-3 project, Deputy Minister of the Shipbuilding Industry V. A. Bukatov, a talented administrator, formerly chief engineer for RI Altair and EE chief designer. He understood in all detail the major problems associated with the creation of big digital computer systems. And certainly, the main weight of diverse problems lay on the shoulders of the personnel of the Institute, which in the period of the creation

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of the new sonar system was the leading organization of the Researchand-Production Association Okeanpribor. It should be noted that the presence of three instrument manufacturing plants — Vodtranspribor, Ladoga and Polyarnaya Zvezda — among the members of the Association was a great advantage for the project. The specific feature of the project was that simultaneously with its execution, that is, creating a prototype system, preparation for bringing the system to serial production began. It was necessary, without waiting for completion of the full cycle of trials and prototype development, to start production and shipment of production prototypes to submarines under construction. Solving these complex problems would have been impossible without the concerted effort of the Institute and the production plants. The latter, besides the traditional work of production plants, also worked on solving a significant number of problems of sonar system component manufacture and tuning. Bearing in mind the conditional character of the division of effort, the scope of the problems solved in the process of the creation of the digital sonar system may nevertheless be divided into four groups: scientific, technical, technological, and organizational. Scientific problems were defined by the TTR. As noted above, the requirements were essentially oriented toward reaching functional parity with the latest foreign systems under the conditions of deficit of the so-called acoustic signal-to-noise ratio. This ratio is the relationship of the target acoustic source level to this acoustic noise level during fulfillment of functional tasks by the system. In fact, the history of the creation of hydroacoustic systems designed to obtain information about the underwater situation represents the history of development along two main directions: passive and active hydroacoustic systems. The task of submarine defense with opposition (counteracting) submarine forces that was put forth during the 1950–1960s predetermined, exactly in that period, the appearance of specific hydroacoustic systems — antisubmarine sonar systems for submarines. These systems were characterized by exceedingly high

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requirements on the capability of the receiving systems and on the technical capabilities of the echo ranging systems. So, according to the illustration by a prominent specialist in the field of domestic passive sonars V. B. Idin, the task of detecting a submarine using a passive sonar was like detecting a candle flame from a distance of several kilometers on a bright sunny day. In order to create efficient systems for detecting low-noise submarines, hydroacoustic instrument engineering was required to solve scientific and technical problems of surrounding acoustic field surveillance that would be simultaneous in space and multirange in frequency. As a result, the sensitivity of the equipment designed allowed recording of signals carrying information about a submarine at levels several orders of magnitude lower than the acoustic noise level in the region of the location of the receiving array. At the time the work on Skat-3 commenced, practically two generations of antisubmarine sonar systems had been created. Skat-3 was expected to make another important leap forward by raising the system sensitivity by almost an order of magnitude, with simultaneous automation of the procedures of information processing and decisionmaking. For the first time it became necessary that the sonar fulfill its functional tasks under conditions of prevailing ambient noise and ship noise. In this situation, sonar systems had only a very narrow margin for increasing efficiency through improving the receiving array capability. Improvement in system characteristics had to be ensured by way of modernization of signal processing methods. In other words, it was necessary to not just raise the capability of the equipment to detect low-noise signal sources against the background noise, but, more importantly, to give it the ability to “grade” the detected signals by relating them to sources of definite classes, that is, to perform target classification. For the first time the problem of automatic classification of a detected signal under an operator’s control was raised and solved. This also included solving a number of inverse problems of hydroacoustics as part of the process of determining the location and type of signal source. In particular, there was also raised and solved the problem

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Fig. 1.

Multibeam signal structure in the vertical plane (experiment).

of minimization of the signal-to-noise ratio at the time classification was made. Large groups of domestic scientists and specialists worked in the preceding decade on developing the scientific foundation of solutions to these problems. In connection with this we note the contributions by N. V. Studenichnik, V. A. Apanasenko, O. P. Galkin, V. P. Akulicheva, V. V. Borodin, Yu. M. Sukharevsky, I. N. Meltreger, Yu. S. Perelmuter, S. I. Neganov, A. M. Dymshyts, the author of this essay, and many others. For the first time in domestic hydroacoustic engineering, a system for direct measurement of the sound velocity profile in the area of operation of the sonar system was created for solving inverse problems. Based on solving such problems, a system for providing support to sonar operations by using hydrological-acoustic calculations was put into practice in the sonar system. The results were subsequently used in the procedures of matched signal processing.

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It is worth notice that, for developing algorithms of solving inverse problems, original theoretical investigations were carried out, and use was made of a large amount of information gathered during many-years of experimental trials, often involving development of unique research equipment and complex experimental techniques. As an example, Figure 1 shows a pattern displayed on the screen of an experimental system of multibeam signal reception. It is a visualization of one of the first domestic experiments on checking the feasibility of receiving single acoustic beams at signal propagation in a layered waveguide. The results displayed were obtained by a research group under the guidance of V. P. Akulicheva with the use of a unique system created under the guidance of A. M. Dymshyts and G. M. Dorsky. Creation of a suite of high-noise-resistant arrays was one of the important problems encountered in developing Skat-3. This problem was solved by research-and-design groups under the guidance of M. D. Smaryshev, V. B. Zhukov, V. V. Baskin, Ye. L. Shenderov, L. I. Zinovyev, R. P. Pavlov, B. S. Aronov, and V. I. Pozern. An array complex was created having no analogs in domestic and, in some cases, in foreign instrument engineering. The problem of creation of a digital computer complex (DCC) for signal processing was a no less difficult research-technical and technological problem. It turned out that, as in the case with the abovementioned American experience in creating a sonar system for a Los Angeles class submarine, the first domestic complex hydroacoustic system with digital signal processing became the largest of the Russian information processing systems on the scale and complexity of the problems solved. A conclusive proof of that was participation in information and computer equipment expositions where aerospace, land, and marine information systems were presented. It should be noted that, earlier, CRI Morfizpribor had been designing single instruments with digital information processing for sonar systems. Those were pre-display processing and classification system instruments. It was necessary, during the creation of the sonar system with fully digital information processing, to change to overall employment of software processing of the signal spatial, frequency and time

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characteristics. Here, the main problem was the creation of a DCC operating system, that is, the principles of organizing interaction of single digital information processing systems, and providing real-time hardware and software support to such interaction. Creation of a large and complex operating system of such scale and complexity seemed problematic, to say nothing of developing a technique able to accomplish this pioneering task. Evidently, it was the task for a group of mathematicians and specialists in computer systems engineering of the highest qualifications and with outstanding intellectual and creative capabilities. Such a group of specialists was gathered at the Institute by a prominent digital computing system designer L. Ye. Fyodorov. Under his guidance, these specialists, later leaders of DCC design groups, were brought together to form a tight team and to prepare to develop the needed scientific fundamentals and practical methods and techniques for accomplishing this task, and for designing necessary hardware and software. They were V. G. Gonikberg, A. L. Iofa, A. R. Liss, I. K. Lobanova, and A. V. Ryzhikov. V. G. Gonikberg, generally recognized as an outstanding figure in the history of the creation of the first domestic multi-processor and multi-machine DCCs for sonar systems, played the leading role. He was compelled to not only generate the methods for solving new technical problems, but also to apply them in an “unfriendly” environment as well. The point is that at the time of creation of the first domestic digital sonar system CRI Morfizpribor’s personnel consisted of bright and creative personalities, with clearly individual scientific and design preferences. It was a complex and contradictory (in terms of conceptual, technical and organizational preferences, and standpoints) company with a huge intellectual capability. It was not by chance that in the process of sonar development, over 100 inventions were proposed and implemented, covering the principles of logical design and the algorithms of accomplishing functional tasks by a new-generation sonar system. Besides the above-mentioned designers, the original ideas of B. S. Arshansky, L. I. Molchadsky, V. A. Shangin, Z. S. Volovich, K. V. Mussulevsky, V. S. Yankevich, B. A. Melnitsky, E. V. Yugina, B. I. Yanover, M. Ya. Andreyev, F. N. Shifman, V. I. Borodin, I. V. Yemelyanenko, A. V. Rudinsky, A. S. Venkstern, M. V. Zhurkovich,

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I. M. Ilyin, I. A. Yakovlev, B. L. Neroslavsky, N. V. Koroleva, T. I. Prakhina, G. Ts. Seledzhi, Yu. L. Pinevskaya, Zh. A. Rakhmanina, V. S. Khomko, M. T. Kozhayev, V. P. Timofeyev, and many others found their implementation in the sonar system design. Sonar system creation would have been impossible without the active support rendered by designers of more traditional systems, for example, transmitting modes, also executed at the highest up-to-date level under the guidance of R. Kh. Balyan, N. M. Radeyev, V. A. Maiorov, and A. V. Vinogor. Creation of Skat-3 actually led to a “rearmament” of domestic hydroacoustics — and not just in the technical and technological, but in the intellectual sense as well. Tasks of an intellectual nature, the realization of which seemed impossible for the near future, now shifted to the category of feasible. In the process of the sonar creation, on the basis of the acquired experience, a constellation of young specialists of a new kind, designers of specialized digital computer systems, was developing at the Institute. Researchers and designers received a new technology of intellectual and technical support for the development of the scientific potential of hydroacoustics. This promised a dramatic increase in the rate of scientific and technical progress in this sphere. Regretfully, not all that deserved realization saw life, for reasons which will probably be established in the future. The history of the creation of the first domestic digital sonar system owes a lot to the strategy that was adopted in the system design and development, which was adequate to the novelty and complexity of the task posed. We note the principal ideas contributed to the development of the sonar system design technology by leaders of the Institute, V. V. Gromkovsky and G. Ye. Smirnov; customer’s representatives V. V. Lavrichenko, M. V. Zhurkovich; chief designer’s group managers A. A. Solovyov (senior manager), V. A. Finogenov, and S. A. Korpusov. Ample use was made of the Institute’s experience in the creation of big sonar systems. The elements of such experience were: improving prototype design; optimization of new elements of the system under development and the system as a whole on a specially equipped submarine boat under sea conditions. This experience started to accumulate in the

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period of creation at the Institute of the first big sonars Rubin and Yenisei. For sonar development under sea conditions and for preliminary trials, experimental boats were re-equipped and outfitted specifically for this purpose. Among the solutions thus found, one could name the first large-size broadband receiving arrays, receiving systems with ultimate (at that time) response characteristics and accuracy of signal parameter evaluation, etc. For testing of the new ideas and the technical solutions implemented on Skat-3, one of the nuclear submarines was reconfigured into a laboratory submarine. The first prototype sonar system was assembled on this boat by the method of gradual build-up and put to chief designer’s trials. The idea of stage-by-stage DCC and software build-up, with preliminary refinement on each stage following the scheme “simulation — autonomous development — system testbed development — mooring development on laboratory submarine — development under sea conditions,” proved to be exceptionally fruitful. It provided an opportunity to secure reliable real-time DCC functioning, with summary computational capability index of 200 billion operations/s (in American terms) and software product consisting of over half-million words. This positive result was achieved in 6 years — a record time both by the domestic designers’ standards and in comparison with the foreign experience. Creation of Skat-3 was carried out by a body of scientists, engineers and designers of the Institute due to a productive combination of the high scientific-technical capability of the Institute with the unparalleled creative enthusiasm of its personnel. For the services of the sonar system designers to the country, over 300 of them received state awards. That was the highest in scale appraisal of hydroacoustics specialists’ work in the history of domestic hydroacoustics engineering.

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Creation of First Domestic Classification Systems for Submarine Sonar Systems YU. S. PERELMUTER

CRI Morfizpribor began research and design work in the field of creation of hydroacoustic systems for target classification in 1965. Activities unfolded under the research project Vilyui (Chief Scientist Yu. S. Perelmuter). At that time, the country had efficient hydroacoustic systems for target detection. They were based on the use of large arrays, optimal signals processing and long averaging times, which allowed for target detection with the signal-to-noise ratios at the array output significantly lower than unity. At the same time, the main classification method for detecting targets was auditory classification, for which the signal-to-noise ratio had to be close to unity. Classification efficiency was determined by the capabilities and skills of a sonar operator. As a result, the classification range was found to be significantly smaller than the detection range, significantly reducing the efficiency of naval hydroacoustic equipment. In light of this, the problem of classification became a central problem in hydroacoustics. It should be noted that by the mid-1960s, various institutions of the Academy of Sciences, industry, and the Navy had accumulated a certain scientific knowledge and experience on the problem of target classification. Research was carried out on the specific features of the primary and secondary hydroacoustic fields for different classes of ships, methods of target classification in passive and active modes of operation, classification attributes, and rules for making decisions regarding the target class. It is worth noting that classification attributes proposed by one of the pioneers of domestic classification, K. P. Luginets (Naval RIE), were the closest to the system of attributes worked out in the course of the project. A number of classification attributes and 545

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algorithms close to those used today were proposed by specialists of the N. N. Andreyev Institute of Acoustics. In addition to the work described above, various authors proposed many different algorithms for solving problems that were said to have a high probability for target classification. However, our analysis of these algorithms showed that, as a rule, high probabilities were obtained with the limited data sets used in training and subsequent examination. Larger data sets immediately ensued a drop in the probability of a correct classification, down to a complete randomness of results. The efficiency of dozens of proposed classification attributes was not confirmed on sufficiently large sets of statistical data. Thus, when CRI Morfizpribor designers sat down to developing classification systems, they found themselves in a difficult situation. On the one hand, there was an abundance of proposed methods for system organization, classification attributes, decision-making rules, while on the other, a complete lack of the methods of construction of classification systems verified under marine conditions, and no reliable efficiency data. There were practically no data either on the limitations in the use of the types of information under different hydrological and acoustical conditions. There was also a shortage of noise-resistant procedures for classification attribute discrimination as verified under conditions of a full-scale operation. Absence of the above data did not allow selection of an applicable system of classification attributes which could ensure high classification probabilities and acceptable time for decision making required for the Navy. For a number of objective reasons, the a priori uncertainty was aggravated by lack of the necessary statistics. These statistics would be the basis for filling existing gaps. And finally, the problematic nature of creation in that period of technical means of classification should be mentioned, keeping in mind that they were meant for operation on real shipborne systems solving a great number of problems. Introduction of digital computers (DCs) in the Institute’s projects, particularly in the classification systems, and the development of the needed software turned out to be a complex task for

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the Institute. In the late 1960s to early 1970s, the Institute had neither the necessary personnel, nor the technical facilities for fulfillment of the tasks that had been assigned. Considering the above circumstances, we searched for feasible ways of solving the problem. Getting ahead of my story, fortunately for domestic hydroacoustics, our final choice proved to be correct. The results we obtained provided verification. In this essay I will not go into the basics of classification, classification attributes, or details of technical solutions and system TTR. I will limit myself to describing the succession of events in chronological order, as related to the development of the first domestic classification systems and formation of this direction in design. Since the author had overall responsibility and directly participated in the work on classification carried out at the Institute from the very beginning, everything described here represents first-hand information. In the course of the first work by the Institute on this topic (research project Vilyui), analysis of the available information was made, and the design principles of classification systems were worked out. Classification attributes which seemed physically acceptable and promising for operation in the passive mode were selected, modelling was carried out for evaluation of efficiency of a number of attributes, and the directions for system development were defined. Regretfully, the opportunities for modeling were quite limited in the 1960s. Simultaneously, work under the research projects Borei and Azimut (Chief Scientists V. I. Paderno and V. G. Timoshenkov) laid the scientific and technical foundation for the design of classification systems operating in the active mode. Already by 1970, on the basis of the results obtained, experimental equipment for target classification had been created. It received the code name Uliss (Chief Designer Yu. S. Perelmuter, Deputy I. G. Peskova). The equipment was installed on a submarine and coupled with the SS Rubin. It processed the signals coming from the sonar system, and displayed the results to the operator for him to make a decision on the target class. Unfortunately, more politics was involved in the course of trials than was needed. The problem was that, simultaneously with

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development of the Uliss equipment, several research organizations continued work on various versions of cybernetic classification devices, the algorithms for which were based on the results of training using limited statistics, as has been mentioned. Some of these machines were demonstrated to government representatives. Spectacular presentations produced a “high-rank” effect, resulting in permanent pressure being exerted on the Institute by higher authorities, with urgent requests for us to abandon our approach. Of the number of proposed systems, only model KA-5 designed at the Institute of Acoustics and installed together with the experimental equipment Uliss reached the stage of trials on a submarine. As a result, instead of comprehensive research on the classification problem using Uliss on a submarine, only comparative trials of the Uliss and model KA-5 were carried out in 1974. The trials showed that, with its operating principle, KA-5 was unable to ensure solution to the classification problem. To our regret, the Uliss trials displayed low classification efficiency as well. Such poor results were caused by a number of factors. Some of them were hydrological and acoustic conditions unfavorable for high-efficiency performance (of which we learned post factum), lack of opportunity for the designers to predict the correct classification probabilities, absence of established methods for conducting such tests and processing the data. The absence of a DC for automatic processing of the secondary information, without which it was impossible to calculate several very important parameters, contributed to the failure. At the same time, the trials confirmed the correctness of the principal procedures of information processing and their adequacy to the physical phenomena. The fact that probability of correct classification, though low, grew with increase in the signal-to-noise ratio at the SS Rubin output testified to that. Looking back, we understand that the whole epic of the creation and testing of Uliss was more like a headlong dash for an immediate final result. Such an approach revealed both the positive and the negative aspects of the work we had done. Despite the Institute specialists’ opinion that equipment trials, debugging and checks had to be continued under different

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hydroacoustic conditions, which was reflected in the final statement of the commission, work on this theme was stopped. It was a difficult period. However, due to a joint clear-cut position adopted based on analysis of research results by the Institute, the Naval RIE, and later, the Institute of Acoustics, the correctness of the designer’s scientific concepts was proved. Further work on the problem continued. Due to the importance of the problem, back in 1971, the government adopted a program of work on the creation of target classification systems, and by the mid-1970s, that is, by the moment of completion of Uliss equipment trials, two classification devices for submarines were under development at the Institute: a classification system for the new SS Skat-KS (Design Group Leaders Yu. S. Perelmuter and Ya. I. Karmanov), and a classification system Ayaks for the earlier submarine sonar systems (Chief Designer Yu. S. Perelmuter). It was clear that, in order to come up with an efficient classification system that would meet the customer’s TTR, the classifying equipment had to include a programmable DC. Specialized computers were needed to apply the algorithms of information processing and decisionmaking with regard to class; respectively, skilled personnel was required to design such computers. It should be noted that attempts to incorporate a computer into the classifying equipment had been unsuccessfully undertaken back at the time of the Uliss: there was no opportunity then to ensure a supply of the necessary computers, and besides, the Institute had absolutely no research and engineering personnel able to provide computer system design. The need for the creation of complex computer classification systems was one of the principal motives for development at CRI Morfizpribor of a new direction in design — digital computer systems. The first step in that direction was an attempt to find a contractor, which, with CRI Morfizpribor maintaining the leading role in the classification system development, would take up design and debugging of the digital computer system included in it. It was understood that the Institute would retain control over the development of all physical algorithms.

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Such a contractor was found — it was the CDB Polyus. It soon became clear, however, that the CDB, while declaring its intent to act as a contractor, was trying to obtain for itself the development of a classifier as a whole. It was absolutely clear that creation of a highly complex hydroacoustic system could not be accomplished by an organization having neither the research base, nor the necessary experience, nor even the skilled hydroacoustics specialists. I happened to attend the meetings of leaders from both sides on matters of organization of the development work. Putting it mildly, these meetings would at times turn into a sharp exchange of words… In the end, the Institute informed the Minister that it was not in a position to have the fate of the SS Skat determined by the varying intentions of the contractor, and was taking upon itself the digital computer system (DCS) development. I wrote this “historical” letter. Groups for DCS design were quickly formed at the CRI Morfizpribor. CDB Polyus, in its turn, was soon reorganized, and a large group of specialists with L. Ye. Fyodorov at the head was transferred to the Institute. In a very short period, a specialized research department for design of hardware and software for a DCS support was organized. This reorganization allowed the Institute to create a DCS for SS Skat-KS and the classification system Ayaks, and then all digital computer systems for later projects. I remember well the first DCS debugging in the mid-1970s. I dare say, such a creative approach to work can rarely be observed nowadays. The creation of test stands for software debugging, development of system and functional software, DCS equipment — for the first time CRI Morfizpribor was solving the problems of this kind. Absence of opportunities for broad-scale physical algorithm modeling necessitated testing and correction of the algorithms on site, that is, right in the system. All that created an emotional atmosphere. However, the diplomatic capabilities of the head of the department, L. Ye. Fyodorov, who together with me, held weekly consulting or brainstorming meetings on matters of debugging, allowed him to quench conflicts. They were caused mainly by the intense desire to complete the work.

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And the work was completed successfully. The greatest contribution to its success was made by Yu. G. Naimark, V. A. Gonikberg, A. R. Liss, G. A. Krasilnikov, V. A. Sivakov, A. L. Iofa, S. A. Ilyukhin, I. G. Peskova, Ya. I. Karmanov, E. P. Ovchinnikova, and M. B. Veiko. But the physical problem of acoustic classification still had not been solved. Analysis of the results of tests of the Uliss and the general state of effort on the problem of classification showed that, under conditions of invariability of the developed physical principles of construction of classification systems, a great amount of work needed to be done to evaluate the efficiency of classification characteristics under a representative set of hydrological and acoustic conditions. It was necessary to form a set of working attributes sufficient to ensure the efficiency of classification, as defined by the customer. The problem was to develop a complex classification algorithm using diverse physical information with weighing of each attribute, and to set physical limitations for the use of each piece of classification information. Solving this problem called for large-scale research projects under realistic operating conditions using the new DCS. It was clear that it would be beyond the Institute’s powers to simultaneously conduct sea trials of two systems, very close in their characteristics. Hence, a decision, made with the customer’s support, was made to suspend temporarily work on the classification system for SS Skat-3, and continue with the commissioning of Skat-3 without the classifier. Effort would be concentrated on solving the physical problems associated with the use of the Ayaks system and after its completion, to finish state trials of both classification systems. According to a government decision, a special stage of trials was carried out using the program of the chief designer of the Ayaks system. For the purpose of the trials, along with the prototype, an experimental model of the system identical to the prototype installed on the submarine and coupled with the sonar system was created at the Institute. A special multi-channel recording device was developed and manufactured, which allowed transfer of information, which was gathered at sea in the course of target detection and tracking, to the test stand. Thus an opportunity was provided for duplicating signal reception and processing on a test stand the same way it was done at sea.

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The test stand-mounted system was used to debug the initial version of the software, which reflected the designer’s idea of the classification features for different classes of targets. Respective readonly memory (ROM) cassettes were brought to the prototype installed on the submarine, after which debugging under marine conditions began. In the process of operation at sea, efficiency of each classification attribute and of the system as a whole was checked, and respective corrections of physical algorithms worked out. On the test stand, necessary software patches were installed, after which, with the help of the recording devices, the input signals for the classification system were reproduced, and efficiency of target classification was checked using the patched system. This process was repeated from stage to stage under various hydrological and acoustic conditions. For the first time this type of procedure was applied in domestic hydroacoustics; it was resorted to many times in subsequent developments. Trials of the program of the chief designer of the Ayaks system continued during 1976–1978 under various hydrological and acoustic conditions of deep and shallow sea, which ensured the required representativeness of conditions of different types. Submarines and surface ships of all projects existing at that time, each project being represented with several ships as well as civil boats, with which the acoustic contact was established in the course of trials, served as classification objects. Thus, a large volume of statistical data was gathered, which allowed solution to the problem posed. It should be remembered that the organization of trials on such a scale itself presented a difficult problem. Headquarters officers and ship personnel of the Northern Fleet, where work was carried out deserve many words of praise. The situation was complicated by the fact that we could not demonstrate to the Fleet the immediate results of each trip to sea, since they were of interim nature and, taken alone, told nothing about the efficiency of classification attained at the time. For quite a long period of time, the necessary supplies were provided to us “as a credit,” upon a guarantee of future results. In connection with this I would like to express my profound gratitude to retired RearAdmiral L. P. Khiyainen, who, as a staff member of the Institute, being a person of great authority in the fleet, rendered invaluable assistance in

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organizing trials by establishing contacts with the Northern Fleet leadership. This provided us with the necessary ship support and supplies. I would like to say also a few words about my colleagues. Everyone who has ever been inside a submarine and participated in lengthy cruises at sea understands what it all means. Imagine work lasting several years, requiring ultimate strain, with many months away at sea with the discomforts of life on board, particularly when cruising in far seas, which multiplies the hardships. I take off my hat to my colleagues who provided support for this work. They are A. D. Konson, I. F. Komissarchuk, B. V. Korobovsky, A. Ye. Kats, A. N. Krychanov, I. A. Kuptsov, G. A. Krasilnikov, V. I. Leonov, M. M. Usov, Yu. V. Dolinin, L. V. Khomenko, S. A. Ilyukhin, S. M. Petukhov, and many others. A significant contribution was made by workers of RIE, who not only participated in the trials and represented scientific-technical supervisors, but were also authors of many technical features that contributed to the final shaping of the classification systems. We note here that, in the situation of constant doubt expressed by the Naval leadership regarding the expedience of continuation of the development which was very slow in producing practical results, the RIE specialists invariably took up a constructive attitude of support to the CRI Morfizpribor. I would like to remember here the names of K. P. Luginets, N. I. Timofeyev, A. I. Mashoshin, V. V. Lavrichenko, and M. V. Zhurkovich. Trials of the chief designer’s program successfully ended in 1978. Based on the results, the prototype Ayaks system patching was carried out, and hardware adjustments completed. In a year, full-scale working trials were conducted, and in 1980, state trials were completed. Based on the trial results, patching of the suspended classification system for SS Skat-KS was carried out. This work required a serious effort, taking into account the need for a great amount of soft- and hardware refinement. This work was completed in a very short time under the guidance of Ya. I. Karmanov. The team of sonar system designers who had accomplished the tasks of refining the hardware and software, as well as optimizing the classification and sonar system as a whole under the sea conditions, not only implemented everything achieved by the Ayaks system, but, in the

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course of sea trials, obtained important scientific and technical results which, in their turn, were incorporated into the system and helped to improve it. In 1982, development and trials of the completed SS Skat-KS were finished. Besides Ya. I. Karmanov, the contributions of I. G. Peskova, E. P. Ovchinnikova, I. A. Kuptsov, A. Ye. Kats, G. A. Krasilnikov, V. A. Gonikberg, V. A. Sivakov, K. I. Polkanov, L. V. Khomenko, A. S. Yermolenko, and A. D. Konson deserve notice. An important role in debugging and commissioning of the classification system belongs to D. D. Mironov, who was in charge of work organization and had not only solved organizational problems, but made important technical decisions as well. A great role in the successful completion of this stage belongs to the Naval representatives, the above-mentioned A. I. Mashoshin, V. V. Lavrichenko, and M. V. Zhurkovich. Completion of the work described above manifested laying of a scientific-technical foundation for development of classification systems for submarine sonar systems. As a result, the basic system of classification attributes and the library core of algorithms for information processing for classification were created; the principles of classification system design, system testing techniques were developed; the areas of efficient application of various classification attributes and methods of solving problems depending on the ratio of current distance to detection range (at ranges close to detection range, inclusive) were determined, as well as the requirements for technical systems employing the classification algorithms. Thus a scientific and technical breakthrough in solving classification problems was made. While in the mid-1970s, classification had been regarded only as a scientific-technical topic that offered no practical outcome, already by the end of the 1970s to early 1980s, the problem of creating classification systems with various applications was principally solved. This provided an opportunity to discuss probable tactical characteristics required for system development, and in the early 1980s, to start the serial production of the classification systems and proceed with new development projects. The work described above created the scientific-technical background for further development along this direction in applied hydroacoustics.

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All this did not mean the end to all possible problems. Even now there still remain rather complex unsolved problems of classification. New classification problems stimulate a permanent broadening of requirements for hydroacoustic systems, while solutions to classification problems, in their turn, determine to a considerable degree the sonar system structure. Development projects that followed the above events already had the necessary scientific-and-technical foundation, verified in practice of the principal concepts of classifier algorithms and hardware construction, testing methods and the opportunity to use an already developed system of classification attributes. In 1985, development and trials of a reduced Ayaks system modification, D&D project Ayaks-M (Chief Designer Yu. S. Perelmuter), were completed. This permitted outfitting of submarines of all available classes with classification equipment. The classification systems for sonar systems of as different application as Skat-3 and Dnestr testified to the efficiency of the developed fundamentals and marked new significant steps in the creation of hydroacoustic classification systems. Using the newly available foundation, designers of these systems solved a series of new, important problems and made significant progress in further development of the scientific-technical trend under discussion. Development of the classification system for SS Skat-3 was carried out under the guidance of A. S. Yermolenko, and for SS Dnestr, under the guidance of V. G. Timoshenkov. The author of this article, as head of development of a classification system for a prospective sonar system, has an opportunity at present to make ample use of the available scientific-technical background. In conclusion, I would like again to name the colleagues who made the greatest contribution to formation of the scientific-technical trend of target classification systems development. Among “integrators” are: A. S. Yermolenko, Ya. I. Karmanov, V. G. Timoshenkov, I. G. Peskova, A. D. Konson, E. P. Ovchinnikova, I. F. Komissarchuk, K. I. Polkanov, B. V. Korobovsky, V. I. Paderno, A. Ye. Kats, I. A. Kuptsov, T. K. Znamenskaya, I. D. Zelenkova, Ye. L. Sheinman, A. V. Rudinsky, A. A. Yanpolskaya, L. Ye. Golubovskaya. Software specialists: L. Ye. Fyodorov, Yu. G. Naimark, V. A. Gonikberg, A. R. Liss,

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G. A. Krasilnikov, M. B. Veiko, M. V. Shengelia, G. Ts. Seledzhi, V. V. Ivanov, T. F. Afinogenova, S. G. Shugayeva, V. V. Pogosyan, V. V. Kobylyansky, M. V. Kupriyanova, L. V. Khomenko, Zh. V. Borovik, Ye. A. Grigoryev. Hardware specialists: V. A. Sivakov, A. L. Iofa, Ye. N. Volodin, V. I. Lindov, Z. S. Volovich, L. V. Sakharov, Yu. V. Kurov, and S. A. Ilyukhin. A significant contribution to creation of a scientific-technical foundation for classification systems development, organization of the work on equipment trials was made by customer’s representatives for scientific-technical supervision K. P. Luginets, N. I. Timofeyev, A. I. Mashoshin, P. A. Sigov, P. M. Tarasov, Yu. I. Shavelsky, I. V. Danilchenko, K. V. Zaichenko. The great role played by the Institute of Acoustics (and of its Sukhumi branch) as an organization providing initial data on physical parameters of the environment and object characteristics should also be noted. The most significant contribution to this work was made by N. A. Dubrovsky, V. S. Grigoryev, A. N. Chernov, V. I. Il’ichev, V. A. Baranov, and V. F. Baranov.

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Equipment for Sound Signal Detection (SSD) I. M. STRELKOV

As follows from the title, the subject of this article is the equipment used to detect signals transmitted by sonars: active sonars, communication sonars, mine detectors, logs, echo sounders etc., and other kinds of artificial sound emissions, for example, the specific noise of an underwater ballistic missile launch. Historically, as in radio engineering, the appearance of this type of equipment was necessitated by the need to evade anti-submarine ships hunting for submarines using echo-ranging sonars. Since the signal coming to the evading submarine is always stronger than that returning to the sonar (the sonar receives an echo signal reflected from a submarine which additionally has to cover the return path of the direct signal), there is always an opportunity to detect an operating sonar earlier than the same sonar detects the sought-for submarine. In case of a submarine, besides the transmission detection equipment it has a means, however rough, for finding the direction to the operating sonar. Therefore, there is a way for it to evade detection. The father of this type of equipment in domestic hydroacoustics is S. M. Shelekhov, a designer with a capital D, and winner of the Stalin and Lenin Prizes, Hero of Socialist Labor. In the beginning of the 1950s, the Bliznetsy research project carried out under his guidance lay the foundation for creating equipment for detection of operating sonars (so it was called then, with an abbreviation OSD). It was said that the idea of this research project had been borrowed from the German shore listening station Nibelung. It might well be so (and there is nothing wrong in borrowing), but it should also said for sure that, if Nibelung did not exist, Shelekhov would have brilliantly invented everything 557

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himself. He has always been a generator of key ideas which would in general define the main features of a station or system. Like no one else, he had the gift of selecting people, giving them independence in work, and setting a creative environment. It was considered great luck in those years to be employed at RI-3 (today, CRI Morfizpribor), and for those already working at the Institute, to be invited to work with Shelekhov’s group. The author, who was one of his students, was later made head of a section working on the creation of the OSD equipment. I remember, when I began work with Shelekhov (in 1955), he was already working on the problems of underwater telephony and telegraphy, and by then had already created a station called Svet for detecting operating sonars. For this reason, my career began with work on communication problems (my diploma was dedicated to frequency and phase telegraphy), and I had reached some authority in calculation of error probabilities during the reception of coded signals against noise background. I had the authority to carry out independent work for a project on development of communication, identification, and an operating sonar detection station Yakhta (Chief Designer L. M. Mirimov), where I was put in charge of the OSD channel. Certainly, the problems of communication and identification were principal for this station, while mainly technological improvements were made to the OSD channel. The principle of operation of the new system was kept the same as in the predecessor system. For the first time, the station employed semiconductor amplifiers, and the level of inherent electrical noise, in terms of the input signal, was brought down practically to the level of the input circuit thermal noise. The preceding equipment was assembled using tubes, and electrical noise was mainly due to filament and other power supply circuits. The level of inherent electrical noise has always been, and still is, a very important parameter, because it is important, for full realization of the station capabilities, to ensure that the inherent instrumentation noise is below the interfering background sea noise, even at calm sea. The problem becomes especially acute in the high-frequency range where sea noise is low (the higher the frequency, the lower the sea noise).

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Work on its solution proved to be useful not for the OSD equipment only, but for other systems as well. Approximately at the same time, or a bit later, search for an efficient solution to this problem initiated work on the design of cables, including those underwater, with paired conductors, as well as rules for neutral wires, ground buses, stranded wires inter-unit communication bundles, etc. At the same time, margins of error for directional patterns (DP) of OSD equipment direction finders were determined. This made the manufacturers very happy, because, until then, they would learn of a fault in an array only after testing a completely assembled array for errors in direction finding. Error margins allowed quick search for faults in arrays during their check in a basin. But to me, personally, the greatest achievement was an understanding of the fact that, while preserving the principle of operation of the OSD channel direction finder, the increase in the number of channels while simultaneous increasing the fineness of the directional pattern brings practically no improvement in noise resistance, and thus no increase in the operating range. The next development of a OSD channel was related to the sonar system Rubin (initially, the sonar system Chief Designer was N. N. Sviridov; later, after N. N. Sviridov’s appointment as the head of the 10th Department of the Ministry of the Shipbuilding Industry, he was succeeded by Ye. I. Aladyshkin, the Chief Engineer of the Institute). Sonar system general design, as well as design of its separate channels, was entrusted to the laboratory of S. M. Shelekhov, who was appointed first Deputy Chief Designer. I was assigned head of the OSD channel development group. I had a small group consisting of two recent college graduates, engineers A. G. Monastyrsky (regretfully, now deceased, who until his last days worked very successfully in hydroacoustics), M. N. Kazakov, and a technician, Slava Puminov. Several years later, they formed the active core of a new laboratory created in the period of designing SS Rubin to ensure centralized development of OSD facilities for all other sonar systems under design at the Institute. For example, at the time the laboratory had been just created, it received the task to simultaneously design channels for SS Rubin and Yenisei, and later, for SS Skat, Polinom, and Skat-3.

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By the time design work on SS Rubin commenced, the main drawbacks of the earlier developed OSD channels were: (1) complete absence of signal detection automation; an operator had to continuously watch the screen to be able to catch a sonar pulse (in those times screen afterglow was very short); the pulse might be extremely short, and there was no way to know the moment of its appearance on the screen; (2) the ranges of the channel working frequencies did not cover the frequency ranges of sonars that were expected to appear in the near future, nor those of any other hydroacoustic systems. It was also desirable to increase the channel operating range in order to gain advantage over transmitting sonars. To this end, noise resistance had to be increased. The SS Rubin was created in the period of a technical revolution in hydroacoustics, when the effects of super long-range sound propagation in the ocean were beginning to be exploited. Realization of the opportunities that opened up as a result of that required creation and placement of a greater number of low-frequency arrays on submarines. Shelekhov’s key idea was that it was necessary to develop a single transceiving array that would be universally applicable in all sonar system operating modes, and have it located in the lowest-noise place on board a submarine. The OSD channel development had to take this solution into account as well. To tell the truth, its frequency range was so broad (the then required high-to-low frequency ratio was 20) that its realization in a single array was impossible. For this reason, the main array design covered only the most important section of the range, which was meant for detecting prospective sonars and communication facilities. The principal idea of the OSD channel design consisted in transfer to the so-called maximum direction finding method (according to this method, in finding direction to a signal source, a petal of maximum signal was selected in the received DP “daisy”). As opposed to the older method applied in sonars Svet and Yakhta, this method ensured complete employment of the spatial-selectivity properties of the receiving array, and respectively, such an increase in noise resistance,

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that automatic detection and bearing finding at a preset operating range could be attained with the use of threshold circuits in each spatial path. Realization of this method, however, required development of a new method of DP formation, which would, in a technically economical way, ensure a frequency-stabilized width of the directivity pattern over a broad frequency range. This problem was solved through use of noncompensated arcs in circular-symmetry arrays. The non-compensated arc method had been proposed and investigated earlier by D. K. Solovyov as it applies to sonar projectors — however, not for stabilizing the directivity patterns width as per frequency, but for ensuring directional radiation with maximum possible concentration coefficient while operating a single-path generator. Investigation carried out by D. K. Solovyov prompted me to apply this method for the above purpose as well. After a large number of calculations (which in those times were carried out with a slide rule), an optimal size for a DP-forming arc was selected. The calculation results were verified on a full-size mock-up main array at the Ladoga test range. Kazakov and Monastyrsky made a large number of diagrams which confirmed the correctness of the approach. The SS Rubin and OSD channel designers alike had to withstand competition. Simultaneously, the SS Kerch was being designed at SDB of Vodtranspribor Plant (with the plant’s SDB chief engineer M. M. Magid as its chief designer). The Kerch central idea presented an alternative to that of Rubin. Since it was hard to locate one big main array on a submarine, a solution was proposed for Kerch to use several smallersize arrays which could be quite easily arranged on a submarine (see article by B. Ya. Golubchik “The Sonar System Kerch” — Ed.). It should be noted that in the Soviet times, competition did not necessarily mean the need for making secret one’s technical solutions to competitors, showing off the final parameters only (production costs, accuracy, range, etc.). On the contrary, there was more of an open debate with regard to technical solutions in front of the customer and the leadership. In compliance with the accepted concept, the Kerch OSD channel had its own independent array, although smaller in size than the main one (which would not permit application of the non-compensated arcs

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method for low frequencies, even if the designer were willing to have it). Ye. G. Dorfman was the leader of the Kerch OSD channel design. We debated with him as well, but only with regard to an optimal solution: I argued that, theoretically, given equal noise resistance, in our solution a smaller number of common paths (the product of the number of frequency subranges multiplied by the number of petals in the diagrams “daisy”) was employed, while he held that the number of paths is an insufficient criterion to judge optimality. Who knows what might have come out of that, if our Institute and the plant had not been merged to become the Association Okeanpribor. All later developments an OSD channels (today they are called SSD (sound signal detection)) channels up to the present time, employed the conceptual solution of the Rubin (except for SS Rubikon, where A. G. Monastyrsky was head of the SSD channel group. In case of this sonar system, designers were guided by other considerations in choosing the principle, and again resorted to the method of the Yakhta). The Kerch SSD channel design was based on a specially developed original method of DP width stabilization in the vertical plane (it may be applied in any plane) through introducing a frequency-dependent sensitivity distribution over the array aperture. The SS Rubin and Kerch trials proved efficiency of the applied solutions. Eventually, both sonar systems were highly evaluated (even though SSD channels were not their critical components, they nevertheless contributed to their value): SS Kerch was awarded the State Prize, and SS Rubin, the Lenin Prize. After Rubin and Kerch, there followed SSD channels for SS Rubikon and Yenisei — also almost simultaneously. SSD channels for them were developed in the above-mentioned already organized by that time specialized laboratory under my leadership. My deputy was D. I. Natanzon, who worked successfully in this function for many years until his retirement. A. G. Monastyrsky was appointed leader of SSD channel development group for the Rubikon, while development of the same channel for the Yenisei went under the guidance of three leaders, who succeeded one another: first it was E. A. Strelkova, who started this development in another laboratory and was temporarily transferred to a new section (to avoid nepotism), then there came the now deceased V. N. Reshetnikov (who was promoted and worked in

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another department), who was followed by S. I. Grinberg. In the same period, several new workers were transferred to our laboratory from the systems laboratory carrying out the design of SS Yenisei: L. V. Pavlov (now deceased), N. Yu. Borovkov (today a well-known puppettheater director, but in those times a very talented engineer), and L. R. Piskalenko, who put much effort into the creation of the SSD channel for Yenisei and later, for Skat. In SS Rubikon and Yenisei, automation was the main task set to the SSD channel designers. In both cases, the automatic signal detector employed a “broad–limiter–narrow” pattern, which proved quite applicable. The direction finders were different. In Rubikon, where all equipment was minimized, a six-channel direction finder with a storage tube display controlled by an automatic detector was employed; this ensured automation of direction finding (upon a ring of the automatic detector, the operator looked at the display which stored the bearing). In case of Yenisei, an attempt was made to create an automatic direction finder with signal limitation at input, before the DP pattern formation (that was the key idea for the whole of SS Yenisei). However, this idea failed with SSD due to the use of non-compensated arcs. For this reason, a special system of miltichannel automatic gain control was developed. This task was entrusted to V. N. Reshetnikov and S. I. Grinberg, since the specialized amplification laboratory refused to do this, claiming the requirements unfeasible. Our designers met the requirements. As a result, SSD channels of both sonar systems passed trials successfully and met the requirements of the time. But, as often happens, after successfully solving one problem, other problems ensued. Regarding the SSD equipment, it became necessary, besides evading the enemy, to generate data for using weapons against it and evaluate the probability for the SSD channel carrier submarine of being detected by the enemy sonar. In other words, it was necessary to increase the accuracy of transmitted signal direction finding, while ensuring such accuracy by the first single pulse. Besides, it was desirable to evaluate the distance to the detected source also by the first pulse. These new problems were tackled within the scope of the research projects Mamakan and Aleksandrit. True, the first research project was oriented mainly at solving the problem of target designation by means

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of direct listening (DL), with the SSD facilities playing a secondary role. That is why, under Mamakan, only the principal capabilities of such facilities were considered. It should be noted that in the course of this particular research project, for the first time, the use of the Mills cross was proposed for direction finding in three-dimensional space. The research project Aleksandrit was aimed solely at improvement of the SSD mode, thus presenting an important stage in its development. It was carried out at the time (1965–1967) when research work was not completed “by the tip of a pen” only, but mock-ups were built and tested under full-scale trial conditions. The then head of our Main department at the Ministry of the Shipbuilding Industry N. N. Sviridov, a man of broad views, understood well the importance of scientific research for maintaining the Institute’s potential, and assisted in allocating sizable budgets for such purposes. By the time of the research project Aleksandrit, considerable experience in the design of detectors and direction finders operating both in DL and SSD modes had been accumulated. This provided an opportunity to summarize the existing views on solving these problems (in that period, additive and correlation detectors were believed to be principally different, and there existed multiple supposedly different direction finding methods: phase-difference, amplitude-difference, equal-signal listening, etc.). The result revealed the physical unity of the devices, and enabled description with a single formula of a whole class of detectors, which included everything then in practical use and the prospective multiplicity of the unused devices. A similar summary was done with regard to direction finders. Such an approach allowed, from a single standpoint, and hence, in a more accurate and physically legible form, to compare concrete types of devices and rank each one. It also permitted clearly proving the existence of multiple, as per the minimum r.m.s. error criterion, optimal solutions, from which designers could select the ones most convenient for technical implementation. With regard to all these aspects, the research project Aleksandrit was important both for the SSD and the receiving channels in general, that is, for direct listening and echo ranging. The project helped to solve not only theoretical problems. Research into the characteristics

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of transient noise nonstationary on real submarines and the efficiency of the BLM pattern in suppressing them was carried out. According to our assignment, a 128-path prototype memory was designed and manufactured, which ensured creation of a high-accuracy pulse direction finder taking bearing automatically by the first single pulse. Full-scale trials of mock-up equipment were carried out in the Sea of Japan. Practically all of the above-mentioned people took part in the research and in providing support for it, together with the people specially invited to participate: M. I. Kershner (a high-class, exceedingly sincere engineerresearcher and a skilled circuit engineer) and O. M. Orel (also an outstanding researcher). Individual contributions to the investigation of the noise nonstationarity were made by engineers V. T. Ludzsky, G. I. Volkova, and L. V. Titova. The results of work on the research project Aleksandrit went into the design of SSD channels for SS Skat and Skat-3 (Chief Designer M. N. Kazakov), Polinom (Chief Designer S. I. Grinberg), equipment set 5803 (Chief Designer O. M. Orel), and Pripyat-G (Chief Designer A. G. Monastyrsky). In the early 1970s, S. D. Bernshtein, V. A. Palatov, and A. A. Vinogradova were invited to work at the laboratory to provide support to the serial-produced Rubikon’s and Yenisei’s. Later (in 1974), Palatov and Bernshtein were included on the project Gryada team, and performed a great amount of work on development and preparation of an experimental equipment complex. In the course of work on this project, the physical foundation was found for solving the problem of not just determining the distance to a detected source of transmission, but also determining the characteristics of its movement by the first registered single pulse. This idea had to become a basis for a new research project. But, by the end of the 1970s, when support for the research projects was cut, the amount of this type of work at the Institute was sharply reduced. Further SSD channel development went the way of transfer to a new component base, with the employment of new computing facilities and FFT processors as their basis.

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Development of Surface Ship Sonar Systems for Submarine Detection Z. A. YEREMINA, V. G. SOLOVYEV, I. S. SHKOLNIKOV and A. D. YAKOVLEV

1. Introduction A whole range of sonars and sonar systems for surface ships was designed at the CRI Morfizpribor. These systems formed the basis of the shipborne hydroacoustic equipment for the Navy. At first, the Institute worked on the units, the design of which had begun at the Special Design Bureau (SDB) of the Vodtranspribor Plant. As the Institute became established, the development of new systems took place there from the start. The leading role in the development of shipborne systems at the Institute belonged to the former professionals of the Vodtranspribor Plant SDB, who had proved to be expert designers. They included Z. N. Umikov, a two-time winner of the State Prize, who had established himself as a talented engineer during the prewar period, M. I. Markus, who had become a leading specialist at Plant 206 (the initial name of Vodtranspribor Plant) also before the war, A. I. Vlasov, a versatile professional, who had worked at the Plant during the war, L. L. Vyshkind, a gifted engineer who was in charge of the Plant SDB laboratory, and B. N. Vovnoboy, a young bright engineer. As the Institute developed, specialists such as Z. A. Yeremina, L. D. Klimovitsky, V. G. Solovyev, I. S. Shkolnikov, and A. D. Yakovlev who entered the Institute after it had been established came to play an increasing role in the design of surface ship (SS) sonars. 569

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The effective range of the first sonars for surface ships was limited to a few kilometers. With advanced hydroacoustic technology, the accumulated data on sound propagation in the ocean, and the utilization of statistical radio engineering, as applied to hydroacoustics, the range increased many fold. In addition to an under-keel array, shipborne sonars include dipping and towed arrays. The latest developments of the Institute are complex sonar systems, which operate as traditional echo ranging sonars as well as direct listening sonars and incorporate communication and identification equipment. Automation features for target searching and tracking in the early projects developed into simultaneous automatic tracking of multiple targets. The latest shipborne sonar systems, developed at the Institute, were equal to foreign analogues in terms of performance and signal processing algorithms. The electronic components of the systems also improved. Vacuum tubes in receive circuits were replaced by semiconductors and integrated circuits. Computers were introduced. Low-energy thyristors and transistors succeeded ranging signal oscillator tubes; magnetostrictive transducers in acoustic arrays were replaced by piezoelectric ceramic elements. The developers of shipborne sonars made use of the expertise of their colleagues — the developers of the submarine-based systems. They studied the research treatises of the Academician Andreyev Acoustics Institute on propagation characteristics, the data from the Academician Krylov Central Research Institute on acoustic noise suppression and optimization of the array layout on board a ship. The Institute adopted and utilized all the best developments from the Priboy Plant and the Kiev Hydroinstrument Research Institute in its projects. It should be noted that the chief designer’s groups of almost all systems for surface ships were located in a single laboratory. L. L. Vyshkind had led the laboratory for years — up to 1972. A. D. Yakovlev headed the laboratory after L. L. Vyshkind’s untimely death and it was under his supervision that the latest shipborne systems were designed. As a rule, the chief designer’s groups were small in size and each member of a group had lots of work. Despite all difficulties, the laboratory gave birth to a large team of highly skilled specialists, who were capable of tackling complex sonar systems design problems.

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For a period, the Kiev Research Institute for Hydroinstruments was responsible for sonars projects for surface ships. However, after the disintegration of the USSR, it was the CRI Morfizpribor that resumed the work on the development of shipborne sonars and the modernization of operational systems. The characteristic features of sonars for surface ships and their development progress are summarized below. 2. Tamir-11 Sonar The development of the Tamir-11 sonar started at the Special Design Bureau (SDB) of Plant 206. B. N. Vovnoboy was appointed the Chief Designer of the system. Design Deputies were P. V. Ogromnov and then V. T. Zhegachev. The sonar was finished at RI-3, and in 1950, the Vodtranspribor Plant began serial production. The Tamir-11 sonar was an upgrade to the systems of the Tamir series, which had been designed under the code name Tamir-1 as early as 1940 at Plant 206 (Chief Designer Ye. I. Aladyshkin) and had been intended for fast-moving submarine hunters. The creation of the Tamir-11 sonar was a great advance due to the following engineering features. The acoustic array consisted of magnetostrictive transducers made of nickel alloy, which significantly increased its reliability. Apart from the aural display, the visual display of received signals by means of a CRT was introduced for target location and bearing deviation measurement. The phase method of direction finding was used for target bearing alignment. Capacitive energy storage between pulses was used to reduce the impact on the ship power circuit during transmission of a signal. An automatic stepping device was used for target searching. A highly reliable contact-less transmit– receive switch was developed and introduced into the system. The Tamir-11 sonar was adopted in 1958. It was mounted on many surface ships, including minor submarine hunters and trawlers of classes 201, 201M, 205P, 265K, 269 and larger submarine hunters of classes 122 and 122bis. The system won high appraisal and the experience of designing it and using it was employed in the development of subsequent systems.

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In 1951, the main designers of the Tamir-11 sonar were awarded the State Prize of the USSR. B. N. Vovnoboy, P. V. Ogromnov, and S. M. Shelekhov were granted the titles of the Prizewinners. A. I. Shcherbakov contributed a lot to the developing, adjusting, and testing of the system.

3. Gerkules Sonar The development of the Gerkules sonar for destroyers began at the Plant 206 SDB as early as 1947 and continued until the early 1950s. One of the most experienced specialists, Z. N. Umikov, was appointed Chief Designer of the system. His first assistant deputy was B. M. Levinzon. The prototype factory tests started at RI-3 and were completed in 1953. In 1953–1955, the Institute upgraded the system by developing a new version that was code named Gerkules-2M. In 1955, the prototype of the modernized sonar was installed on board the Yaguar patrol ship. In 1956, the system successfully passed state tests and was quickly adopted by the Navy. The following new engineering features were implemented in the Gerkules sonar. For the first time the active channel (echo ranging) used circular scanning instead of a step-by-step search, which significantly reduced the scanning time (from 3–4 min to 15 s). A method of fast directional pattern scanning (within the search area) was introduced for receiving echoes during target searching, which limited the dimensions of the receiver circuits. The sonar used a compensator of original design with a condenser commutation switch for generating and scanning a directional pattern. The amplifier capacity of the system generator was 20 times higher in comparison to the Tamir-11 sonar. The Gerkules system incorporated a circular scan mode and a coordinate position update mode. Each of the system’s channels had a separate acoustic array. The array for the circular scan mode was in the form of a cylinder, and the array for the coordinate position update mode had a planar structure with a ship roll stabilizer. The operating frequencies of the channels were different. The image stabilization on the circular scanning display

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in terms of terrestrial coordinates was also an improvement. Some engineering features were further developed in subsequent projects, particularly, the method of directional pattern circular scanning. After it was adopted by the Navy, the Gerkules sonar was installed not only on destroyers, but also on cruisers. The system won high appraisal and became a mass produced system for naval surface ships. More than 100 systems were produced. The Gerkules was also exported to Poland, Egypt, and the German Democratic Republic. The Chief Designer’s group included A. I. Vlasov, Ye. G. Obukhova, Z. A. Yeremina, L. L. Vyshkind, and N. S. Kantur. I. V. Trofimov was in charge of the development of the generator. Pirogov designed the generator and the condenser compensator. All amplifiers were developed under the supervision of A. A. Ignatyev. 4. Pegas Sonar The Pegas sonar was designed for antisubmarine warfare (ASW) ships of medium displacement. The system intended to detect and track submarines operating at great depth by direction and range. The Pegas was the first home sonar capable of locating targets in two planes. The system operated in an automated step-by-step search mode and had a roll-stabilized array with a gear system developed at RI-303. The Pegas hydroacoustic station performed the operations of target location and tracking in the intensity threshold and the phase mode, accordingly. G. V. Kaufman was the first Chief Designer of the system. V. S. Kudryavtsev and N. D. Kupriyanov were his successors. B. M. Leninzon and L. G. Goldshtein were deputies to the Chief Designer (the latter was a design deputy). The development of the system was completed at RI-3 in 1950. In 1951, the RI-3 Institute submitted the documents required for serial production of the system to Plant 206. The first Pegas prototype was installed on board the Ognevoy destroyer (class 30K). The production models were installed on ships of classes 41, 50, and 56. A member of the Chief Designer’s group, Z. A. Yeremina, made a substantial contribution to the development and implementation of the production models. The group also included D. S. Gandul, A. O. Markovsky, I. N. Dymsky, and O. A. Chueva. I. V. Trofimov

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and P. V. Marchenkov developed generators. The receive modes of the system were designed by I. M. Sivashinsky. The Pegas sonar was subsequently modernized twice and the updated versions were code named Pegas-2 and Pegas-2M. 5. Tsefey-2 Sonar The Tsefey-2 sonar was a modernized version of the Tsefey system, which had been developed at Plant 206 during the Great Patriotic War. It was a basic hydrophone system for surface ships with an array, which was lowered overboard on a boom. A distinctive feature of the Tsefey-2 sonar was a horn acoustic array with small electroacoustic transducers, which had been designed under the supervision of Doctor of Technical Science B. N. Tyulin, a well-known professional in that area. B. G. Levichev was the chief designer of the Tsefey-2 system. The system came into service in 1952 and was intended for use on minor antisubmarine warfare ships. 6. Titan and Vychegda Sonars The introduction of long-range antisubmarine warfare ships required the development of sonars with a longer detection range. This problem was solved by the Titan and Vychegda sonars, which were designed as a sonar system for submarine hunters (class 159). The ships had to search for targets at speeds up to 30 knots. The mission of the Titan sonar was to locate a target and produce data for the Vychegda sonar. The Vychegda sonar was to track a target, update its coordinate position, and produce fire control data. An additional task of the Titan sonar was the detection of minefields and individual anchor mines. The development of both systems began at the same time in 1955. A. I. Vlasov was appointed the Chief Designer of the Titan sonar. The Chief Designer of the Vychegda sonar was L. L. Vyshkind. A. O. Markovsky and O. A. Chueva were their deputies, respectively. The systems were developed with extensive use of the experience of the previous projects. Targets were searched for using the scanning mode and the echoes were received by the rotating directional pattern as in

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the Gerkules and Titan sonars. Simultaneously, another variant of the receiving mode using a static fan pattern was being developed. That variant utilized all the energy of an echo and, therefore, essentially increased the interference resistance of the receive mode, as compared to the method of scanning a single directional pattern. However, it required receiving equipment that was more extensive. In subsequent years, as the quality of electronic components improved together with signal processing technologies, especially with the introduction of the digital equipment into sonars, that method became the primary one for designing active receive modes. The Vychegda sonar used a phase method of target directional finding. CRT displays were used and electromechanic recorders displayed signals on electrochemical paper. One of the improvements of the system was the ability to estimate target depth. The Titan used a cylinder array for emission and acquisition of signals and the Vychegda used a planar array with a horizontal scan and a roll stabilizer. The required locating and tracking ranges for the high speed of the ship was due to the relatively large dimensions of arrays and a high-powered generator. The Titan sonar was the first to incorporate a fundamentally new design for the output transformers that was developed by R. Kh. Balyan — strip cores made of nickel– iron alloy with high-voltage epoxy insulation — which greatly reduced the dimensions and increased the reliability and performance of transformers. Both systems successfully passed their tests and were adopted by the Navy in 1961. In subsequent years, many antisubmarine warfare ships were equipped with them. The systems were developed by the following members of the Chief Designer’s group: E. A. Kultyapin, Yu. S. Rytov, Z. A. Yeremina, D. A. Grachev, V. N. Velukhanov, L. D. Maksimenkova, M. K. Olisova, R. I. Kutsentov, S. F. Tsirkina, M. I. Markus, D. A. Postoeva, Z. N. Umikov, D. F. Golovin, L. N. Makarenko, V. A. Rozhkova, L. N. Kashina, M. I. Parmet, and L. A. Kozlova. The generator was designed under the supervision of I. V. Trofimov. The receiver was designed under the direction of G. A. Tsveyman in cooperation with A. A. Ignatyev, I. M. Sivashinsky, T. S. Vaintsveig, G. A. Senin, and B. V. Nevelich.

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7. Shelon Sonar The Shelon sonar was designed for searching, tracking, and identifying submarines and also for sonar communication. The system was installed on antisubmarine warfare ships. The development of the Shelon sonar began in 1958. A. I. Vlasov was appointed the Chief Designer of the system. His first deputy was B. M. Levinzon and N. I. Baykov was the design deputy. A distinctive feature of the Shelon sonar was that its acoustic array could be lowered in a container on a conducting cable at the optimal depth for target detection under various hydrological conditions. The Shelon sonar could search and track targets in the active or passive channel, separately or simultaneously. A part of the Shelon, called the Hosta system, provided sonar communication and submarine identification. The Hosta acoustic array was housed in the same container as the main array. The Shelon design was in many ways similar to designs of previous systems, but it still had some original engineering features. For example, circular scanning of the echo ranging target search was done by three synchronously rotating directly patterns shifted by 120 degrees relative to each other, which considerably reduced noise in the system. For the first time in sonar design a synchronous storage unit (a delay unit) using a small-size magnetic drum was used for delaying and cophase combining of the signals received by each of the three patterns. An engineer of the Chief Designer’s group, I. S. Shkolnikov, was in charge for the development of the magnetic drum. He analyzed electric and magnetic circuits of the unit and provided the first successful design and pilot production of such sophisticated units as magnetic heads and a drum with a magnetic coating. The chief of Workshop No. 97, P. S. Rusanov, contributed much to the mastery of production of the magnetic delay unit. The successful experience of the implementation of such signal storage units made it possible to use them in subsequent systems. Compensators with induction contact-less switchboards were introduced into the active and passive receive channels of the Shelon sonar for forming and scanning of directivity patterns. Due to the

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replacement of the former capacitor switchboards by induction ones, the compensator transmission ratio and the service band substantially increased and the amplitude-frequency characteristics of the unit transfer function became much more uniform. Engineers B. Ye. Glikman and G. S. Bogdanov designed the new compensators under the supervision of V. I. Laletin. An engineer of the Chief Designer’s group V. N. Velukhanov contributed much to the mastery of the induction compensators. In the direct listening channel the target search in the circular scan mode was conducted as in the active channel by three slowly rotating directivity patterns, which are displaced relative to one another by 120◦ . To align target echoes on the recording paper in a single trace, the recorder stylus was made in the form of three spirals shifted at 120◦ and fixed on a rotating drum. A well-known inventor, A. K. Terentyev, an engineer of the Chief Designer’s group, was in charge for the development of the position updating modes, which gave birth to a whole range of interesting engineering features. Later he was appointed the head of the department of inventions and technical innovations at the Institute. The Chief Designer emphasized the development of highly reliable equipment to be installed within the dipping sealed container. An engineer of the Chief Designer’s group V. K. Lvov contributed much to refining of this equipment. Substantial contributions to the design of receive and radiating modes were made by the following engineers of the Chief Designer’s group: D. S. Gandul, G. Obukhova, L. D. Maksimenkova, and M. K. Olisova. Technicians L. N. Makarenko, L. A. Kozlova, and V. A. Rozhkova furnished the required documentation. Expert tuners N. S. Kantur and P. S. Belyakov took part in the adjustment of the sonar prototype together with the engineers. The valve generator was designed by N. S. Osipov and I. V. Trofimov; amplification modes by B. V. Nevelich, I. M. Sivashinsky, G. A. Senin, and T. S. Vaintsveig; electric-powered drives by Yu. Ya. Malkov, B. D. Bizienkiv, V. I. Mayorov, and O. Ye. Natalchenko, the acoustic array by I. V. Bobrovskaya. Later the valve generator was replaced with a high performance thyristor, developed by N. N. Shut.

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R. Kh. Balyan was the scientific advisor to the electric generator equipment modernization program, which included a whole range of units. Some parts for the Shelon sonar were developed by contractors. For example, Taskent Research Institute for the Cable Industry designed the original conducting cable and RI-303 of the MSI designed a system to determine the location of the dipping container. In 1968, the system successfully passed the tests and came into service to be installed on many ships. The serial production was at first organized at the Vodtranspribor Plant and then it was transferred to the Dalpribor. Due to its high performance capability the Shelon sonar is still operated by ASW ships of all fleets of the Russia Navy. 8. Orion Sonar The Orion system was designed to search and track high-speed submarines by using echo ranging. It was installed on board the antisubmarine cruisers–helicopter carriers and large aircraft-carrying cruisers. The development of the Orion sonar began in 1959. L. L. Vyshkind was appointed the Chief Designer of the system. His deputy was M. I. Markus and L. G. Golshtein was the design deputy. The system was designed for high operational performance. In particular, it was to outclass the sonars in service by target location range and to exploit the first remote zone of acoustic illumination (the second convergence zone). Such requirements were due to the long effective range of ASW weapons of the cruisers. The following effective engineering features were introduced to provide the specified parameters of the Orion sonar: the frequency of operation in the echo ranging channel was decreased. The acoustic array was increased in size. The active target search channel used highly directional horizontal beam pattern. The directivity pattern fan, which covered the search sector, was generated in the receive mode. The signals in each space channel of the receive mode were processed with a filter bank, which covered the Doppler frequency band of an echo. The target-tracking channel used the phase method of direction finding. The acoustic array was made in the form of a planar phased

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array, which could rotate horizontally and vertically and had a roll stabilizer. The system incorporated a plotter for acoustic ray trajectories in the underwater sound channel (ray diagram plotter), which optimized the operation of the system under various hydrological conditions. The system had a built-in control and diagnostics system, which monitored most of the equipment. The echo ranging channel used the original probing method, which permitted reducing the intervals between the pulses while retaining the maximum tracking range. Highly reliable, powerful, and small-sized dry (epoxy) high-voltage transformers were used in the anode rectifier and as the output transformers in the generator, which permitted abandoning conventional bulky and troublesome oil transformers. The system was put into service in 1969. The Chief Designer, L. L. Vyshkind, became a USSR State Prize winner for the development of the sonar. Regretfully, he unexpectedly died shortly after he was awarded the Prize in 1972. He was one of the prodigiously talented creators of the hydroacoustic equipment for our Navy and was highly esteemed among his colleagues. L. L. Vyshkind had been in charge of the system design laboratory, which had developed almost all sonars for surface ships adopted by the Navy in the 1950s–1960s. The principal designers of the Orion sonar were: Z. A. Yeremina, O. A. Chueva, L. N. Sokolov, A. F. Tishkevich, and R. I. Kutsentov — in the Chief Designer’s group; G. A. Tsveyman, T. P. Tolmacheva, T. I. Vetokhina, I. K. Lobanova, and A. L. Iontov — for the receive channel instruments; O. V. Soldatov — for the hydraulic drive instruments; R. Kh. Balyan, R. A. Brodsky, Yu. G. Pesyatsky, N. S. Osipov, N. V. Vorontsov, and B. A. Sakovsky — for the generator. Z. A. Yeremina made a substantial contribution to the design of the system by supervising the development of the main instruments, adjusting and approving the system prototype. O. A. Chueva, I. V. Delinskaya, E. A. Konstantinova provided high quality documentation. R. I. Kutsentov and A. F. Tishkevich contributed considerable energy and time to the introduction of the system on board the ships. In addition, B. P. Rumyantsev and L. E. Shienman were awarded the State Prize for the development of the Orion sonar.

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9. Platina Sonar The development of the Platina sonar system commenced in 1966. The system was intended to replace the Titan, Gerkules and other systems on certain ships. It was developed in a non-standard way. CA 10, of the Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry, announced a tender for advance contracts, in which the CRI Morfizpribor and special design bureaus of certain industrial plants took part. The tender schedule was extremely tight; work was to be completed by the spring–summer of 1966. A special group of experts from several departments of the Institute was formed for the development of the preliminary design. A leading engineer, L. D. Klimovitsky, was appointed project manager. Engineer I. S. Shkolnikov was his deputy. Recently L. D. Klimovitsky had been transferred to the systems department from the generator laboratory. Due to his engineering skills, inquisitiveness and intense vitality, L. D. Klimovitsky quickly was recognized as a leading systems engineer. I. S. Shkolnikov had already developed a system design for the Shelon sonar. He focused on interference resistance and optimization of the sonar system parameters in the active mode. The design group for the preliminary design also included E. A. Kultyapin, L. D. Maksimenkova, L. N. Sokolov, and V. A. Badenko in the systems departments; L. I. Dobkin and V. V. Morgun in the generator departments; I. V. Bobrovskaya and V. V. Vinogradov in the acoustic departments; B. V. Nevelich and I. M. Sivashinsky in the amplifier departments; A. V. Vinogor and L. F. Shteinman in the compensator departments; O. K. Kruchkov and B. A. Sidorov in the indicators departments; G. B. Moiseyev in the control system departments; K. V. Malev and L. D. Bukhanov in the design departments. The group worked intensely, almost without days off, devoting all their energies to the project. Well-known professionals of the Institute, B. M. Golubev and I. M. Strelkov, reviewed the preliminary design and assisted in choosing the best features. As the result, the committee examined a thoroughly elaborated preliminary design of the system, which contained many new engineering features.

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In the first place, features were included that used the original probing signals in the active channel. Such signals considerably increased the interference resistance of sonars with a fluctuating acoustic channel and were more advantageous in some other ways. I. S. Shkolnikov analyzed the interference resistance and other parameters of the sonar with such probing signals and later on successfully defended his candidate dissertation on that topic. B. M. Elfimov and B. S. Aronov suggested an advanced design of the receive/transmit acoustic array. It prevented the contact of the transducers with water thus providing for a high reliability of the array. A method of multiple scanning using a narrow directivity pattern in a specified search sector was also used in the transmitting mode. The implemented probing technique let the system generate a group of pulses in each direction and avoid the dead time during radiation. L. D. Klimovitsky and R. Kh. Balyan suggested using magnet amplifiers as power switching elements for scanning, which ensured high performance of the scanner. A short-range search mode was intended to cover the blind spot, which appeared during scanning of the directional pattern. The system incorporated an under-keel and a towed array for enhancement of its efficiency under various hydrological conditions. That feature and many other innovative approaches allowed the Institute to win the tender. Due to a thoroughly elaborated preliminary design the Institute skipped the draft design stage and directly began detailed engineering of the Platina sonar system. L. D. Klimovitsky was appointed the system Chief Designer. Z. A. Yeremina remained his deputy. She had gained broad experience in the development, adjustment, and commissioning of shipborne sonar systems. Her role in the system design ensured an expert approach to many technical problems, successful testing of prototypes, and the presentation to the customer. The Platina sonar system was a universal system intended to locate and track targets in the echo ranging and direct listening modes, to provide sonar communication with submarines and surface ships, and to identify submarines.

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As has been mentioned, the Platina system was developed in a non-standard way. Upon defending the engineering design, the CRI Morfizpribor passed the required documents to the Vodtranspribor Plant, which was assigned to develop the working documentation. The Kiev Research Institute for Hydroinstruments was in charge of the development of the towed system. In turn, it worked in cooperation with other Institutes. The ray diagram plotter was designed at the Vodtranspribor Plant. The system prototypes were also produced in joint cooperation by the CRI Morfizpribor, the Kiev Research Institute for Hydroinstruments, the Gidropribor Research Institute and the Vodtranspribor, and the Priboy plants. The serial production was organized at the Priboy Plant. The CRI Morfizpribor took into account different displacements of ships and developed documentation for the standard and abridged modification, that is, without the towed system (the Platina-S). The main prototype in a standard configuration was installed on the converted Ognevoy ASW ship (Fig. 1). During conversion the obsolete sonars had been removed from the Ognevoy and the Severnoye Design Bureau had developed a launching assembly for lowering, lifting and towing of the towed unit. The main prototype was adjusted and pretested at Liepaja. The state tests of the main prototype were performed at Severomorsk. Three other prototypes were simultaneously adjusted and commissioned on ships of three classes at Sevastopol. The work on the adjustment and commissioning in parallel of the three prototypes required great effort by the Chief Designer’s group

Fig. 1.

The Ognevoy ASW ship with the main prototype of the Platina sonar system.

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and the specialized departments of the Institute. In those circumstances L. D. Klimovitsky showed himself to be a skillful manager, who energized his colleagues and worked effectively regardless of time and tiredness. Z. A. Yeremina as well proved to be a selfless worker. A group of specialists from the Priboy serial production plant were of great help to the designers. Such representatives of the Plant as G. D. Gaidarenko, V. N. Ozherelyeva and V. I. Mirvoda made a significant contribution to that painstaking job. As the result, all prototypes successfully passed the state tests and proved their conformity with the design requirements and the main prototype. The system entered service in 1976. It was installed on certain aircraft-carrying and missile cruisers. A number of ships with the Platina system were exported. The main designers of the system are as follows: (1) E. A. Kultyapin (radiation channel), I. S. Shkolnikov (analysis of parameters, receive channel), I. V. Delinskaya, N. S. Lyashenko, I. P. Guster, L. N. Makarenko, G. Obukhova, V. A. Rozhkova, L. A. Kozlova (documents), N. S. Kantur, V. M. Feldgun, R. I. Kutsentov, E. V. Ivanov (adjustment and commissioning at sites), and E. R. Krangals (hydrological and acoustic analysis) — in the Chief Designer’s group; (2) R. Kh. Balyan, R. A. Brodsky, Yu. G. Pesyatsky, V. I. Kuzmin, and B. A. Sakovsky — in the generator and receive mode department; (3) V. M. Kuznetsov and E. V. Labetsky — in the acoustic instruments department; (4) B. V. Nevelich, I. M. Sivashinsky, G. A. Senin, T. S. Vaintsveig, T. P. Tolmacheva, G. A. Tsveyman, V. P. Pavlov, G. B. Moiseyev, L. F. Shteinman, and B. Ye. Glikman — in the receive modes department; (5) K. A. Varnazov, I. S. Efremov and A. A. Solovyev — in the sonar communications laboratory; (6) V. O. Znamensky and V. A. Komlyakov — at the Vodtranspribor Plant (ray diagram plotter); (7) B. A. Sidorov, D. V. Polyakov, M. I. Shvets, O. K. Kruchkov, and V. G. Mayorov — in the indicators department;

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(8) Yu. Ya. Malkov, B. D. Bizienkov, O. Ye. Natalchenko, and V. M. Karpova — in the electromechanic devices department. Such representatives of the customer as G. N. Trefilov, A. V. Kisilev, V. G. Potekhin, and V. G. Prokhorov made significant contributions to the development of the system. A group of sonarmen of the Ognevoy ASW ship, under the command of L. L. Aronov, also worked hard. Later the system was modernized under the supervision of V. K. Lvov, P. V. Pavlov, and V. M. Feldgun. The development of the Platina sonar system was in many ways a breakthrough in the area of the hydroacoustic equipment for surface ships. A range of engineering features introduced in the Platina was implemented in subsequent projects of the Institute. Chief Designer L. D. Klimovitsky was awarded the Order of the Badge of Honor for the development of the Platina sonar system, and his deputy Z. A. Yeremina was awarded the Order of Red Banner of Labour.

10. Polinom Sonar The Polinom system was designed for heavy nuclear-powered missile cruisers and large ASW ships to search, locate, and continuously track targets in the echo ranging and direct listening channels, to develop their coordinate positions and motion characteristics, to provide sonar communication and identification, and to detect hydroacoustic signals and torpedoes. System performance was to exceed that of earlier sonars and systems. Cand. Tech. Sc. V. G. Solovyev, who had designed active sonars, such as the Olyen and Lan mine detector sonars, was appointed the Chief Designer of the Polinom sonar system. V. G. Solovyev, being the head of the Los Research Project, had become a pioneer in the development of complex, probing hydroacoustic signals. He had devoted his candidate dissertation particularly to this subject. V. G. Solovyev’s significant scientific engineering capabilities in many ways determined the interesting engineering features introduced in the Polinom system and successful designs.

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At first V. G. Solovyev was in charge of the Chief Designer’ group while working in the laboratory. Later he became the head of the system department and continued to supervise the work on the Polinom. A severe illness during the state tests prevented him from the commissioning of the system as the chief designer. However, after his recovery he greatly contributed to the successful completion of the project. A. D. Yakovlev was appointed the deputy to the Chief Designer. His expertise helped him to successfully fulfill his responsibilities by suggesting and implementing advanced engineering features, which ensured the high performance of the system. V. P. Kazachinin was the design deputy to the Chief Designer and B. F. Fenster was appointed the Chief Technologist of the project. The experience in developing the Orion sonar was used in designing the Polinom system. The Polinom incorporated an under keel array and a towed array in order to increase the system performance under adverse hydrological conditions in major channels of operation. Besides a high power, long-range probing signal, the specified effective radius was ensured by large acoustic array apertures, which, however, could be installed on board the ASW ships with a relatively small displacement, and with a low echo ranging operation frequency. That provided for system operation in the remote zone of acoustic illumination (second convergence zone). A new signal processing method, suggested by V. G. Solovyev and A. D. Yakovlev was used for the circular scanning mode in the echo ranging and direct listening channels. This method provided for a more uniform scan and helped to fight interference resistance losses during the scanning of the directional pattern, while keeping the receive mode dimensions acceptable. The single pulse energy was integrated on a magnetic drum. Sustained tracking of targets was performed with the help of a special mode, coming from the main array. The mode contained a library of probing signals, which included a complex signal for an effective performance in the conditions, when reverberation prevailed. For the first time the system incorporated the original electronic roll stabilizing system of directional patterns in the circular receive/radiate modes. Such electronic regulation made it possible to eliminate a heavy

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hydraulic-mechanical system of stabilization of the main array and to reduce the size of the ship bulb pod. Due to this feature, the system could be mounted on ASW ships having relatively small displacements. A cylinder array was developed to provide a high radiated energy for the system and to reduce power consumption. It consisted of highefficiency core transformers having sufficient bandwidth. The design of the array made it possible to assemble it on a special platform directly on board the ship, which considerably facilitated assembly and repair work. The main designers of the system arrays were the deputy to the Chief Designer, Yu. Yu. Dobrovolsky, the designer of the core transformer, V. V. Vinogradov, as well as I. V. Bobrovskaya, N. V. Sevrugova, G. Velukhanova, A. D. Mironov, and others. A very complicated task was to develop an effective multi-channel thyristor generator circuit for the cylinder array in the uniform scanning mode. The array parameters drastically changed when scanning the directivity patterns due to the acoustic interaction of transducers. Despite that, a group of designers under the supervision of Dr. Tech. Sc. R. Kh. Balyan, the head of the research, finally developed the multichannel generator mode. The group included A. V. Vinogor, B. A. Sakovsky, L. Dobkin, V. I. Gritchin, B. A. Rutkovsky, V. A. Il’in, and others. The system was the first to track several targets automatically in the active mode and to produce classification criteria of the detected targets using the Karat special digital computer. The required software was developed by V. B. Molodtsov. For the first time in the history of sonar design, an original torpedo detection mode, which marked targets for anti-torpedo weapons, was developed specially for the Polinom system. By the initiative of the designers of the system, ship designers and specialists of the A. N. Krylov Central Research Institute developed a program for decreasing acoustic interference in the array dome. The Chief Designer of the ship, B. I. Kupensky, gave a high priority to this issue. In accordance with the mentioned program, the system array was installed in the bulb pod with a special acoustic dissipation screen behind it. The use of a fixed array, that is, the absence of rotating mechanisms, considerably reduced the noise level in the pod.

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Altogether the measures decreased the interference level by an order of magnitude as compared to the Orion sonar. The Hydropribor Research Institute developed an original lenticular carrier for the towed array, which for the first time made it possible to circular scan the environment including aft angles. Deputy to the Chief Designer F. F. Pavlenko, engineers V. Sliva, I. G. Lev, and others made a major contribution to the development of the towed system. Work on the serial production of the system began when the prototype had not yet been completed and tested. This made the work considerably difficult, as the serial sample was manufactured in accordance with the unfinished documentation, which had to be rapidly amended to consider the changes that arose in the course of work. Therefore, serially produced units had to sometimes be updated. The system prototype was installed on board the Amur research ship, on which it was adjusted and pre-tested at the Ladoga test site of the Institute. Later the system was reinstalled on an operational ship — a heavy cruiser, where it passed factory and state tests. The first serial sample was installed almost at the same time with the system prototype on board a large ASW ship. NATO ships were permanently monitoring the sea tests of the Polinom, which took place in international waters. It made our work very difficult. For example, while we were passing the task for directing a torpedo to a submarine, the Rommel, a FRG destroyer, was continuously prowling the sea nearby, interfering with target locating and tracking, maneuvering, and torpedo firing. We had to be crafty. The captain of the ship A. S. Kovalchuk outmaneuvered the destroyer by alluring her to the portside and fired the torpedo at the target submarine at the opposite side. The Rommel crew saw their mistake, when the torpedo recovery boat was lifting the torpedo, and the destroyer headed for the boat, crossing our ship’s course in a dangerous fashion. However, it was too late. The mission had been successfully completed, and the torpedo was on board the ship. Due to V. G. Solovyev’s illness, his deputy A. D. Yakovlev, became the Chief Designer of the system at the time of the state tests in 1981. Deputy Director D. D. Mironov was appointed to that position during the final stages of the work. He put considerable experience and energy into system adjustments and the prototype pretrial and state tests. The

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system tests were anything but simple. It was I. M. Strelkov, one of the Institute’s leading experts, who made a significant contribution to their success. The Polinom sonar system entered service in 1983. The following professionals together with other specialists at the Institute took part in the development of the system: (1) the Chief Designer’s group: E. I. Fainberg (receive modes of the echo ranging and direct listening channels), S. F. Sivatsky, I. V. Volkov (towed system, tracking modes), O. L. Sokolov, A. I. Sherbakov (adjustment and delivery of the prototype to the customer), A. A. Tertienko (receive mode), E. K. Konstantinova, V. M. Malinskaya, D. A. Postoeva, N. S. Rastorgueva, L. D. Kashina (documents), V. E. Titov, T. A. Andreyeva (simulator), A. V. Gorobtsov (main modes); (2) communications and identification channel: G. B. Razumovsky; (3) SSD channel: S. O. Grinberg; (4) transmit mode with a multi-channel thyristor: R. Kh. Balyan, L. I. Leykin, V. A. Ilin, L. V. Radievsky, B. A. Sakovsky, and L. I. Dobkin; (5) amplifiers: V. Grigoryev, L. Ivanova, A. N. Kalyaeva, and D. V. Pletnev; (6) indicators: O. I. Erokhin; (7) magnetic drum: V. S. Kuznetsov; (8) acoustic arrays: Yu. Yu. Dobrovolsky, I. V. Bobrovskaya, N. V. Sevrugova, V. V. Vinogradov, G. A. Velukhanova, and A. D. Mironov; (9) control system: B. Z. Belenky. V. M. Belozerov was in charge for the delivery of the prototype. K. A. Varnazov was his deputy. 11. Polinom TA Sonar The Polinom TA sonar was first designed as a torpedo detection component of the Polinom sonar system and was code-named Polinom-T. Subsequently, due to the demand for anti-torpedo protection of ships

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of different classes, the sonar developed into a separate torpedo detection system code named the Polinom TA. Z. A. Yeremina was appointed the Chief Designer of the system. The Polinom TA sonar detects torpedoes in the echo-ranging and direct listening channels and can operate in both channels simultaneously. The sonar incorporated advanced features, suggested by V. G. Solovyev, Z. A. Yeremina, and other specialists, which provided the necessary tactical characteristics. The Polinom TA sonar was the first torpedo detection system that operated in the active mode. It was adopted in 1986. The main designers of the system were: (1) in the Chief Designer’s group: T. Ya. Kalinkina (order supervision, control panel), T. I. Erunova (control block, block 1), K. A. Skalskaya, T. A. Andreyeva (general documentation), and S. F. Alekseyev (connection diagrams); (2) generator: V. P. Aleksandrov; (3) receive mode: G. A. Novoselov, V. B. Nevelich, and T. S. Vaintsveig, and O. P. Timonin; (4) indicators: O. I. Erokhin and Yu. V. Titov; (5) digital devices: A. Z. Bulkina and V. M. Matveeva; (6) electromechanical systems and drives: L. A. Dmitriyev, O. V. Soldatov, Yu. Ya. Malkov, and V. T. Gozumov; (7) acoustic arrays: N. V. Sevrugova and O. B. Stupak.

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History of Development of Sonar Systems Production at the Taganrog Priboy Plant N. N. BORISENKO

According to a USSR Council of Ministers decree of March 14, 1952, the Priboy Plant in Taganrog was to specialize in producing sonar equipment. The Plant was to develop design documentation, manufacture prototypes, and serially produce hydroacoustic equipment for the USSR Navy. The Plant began with the serial production of the Tamir-11 and Gerkules sonars (CRI Morfizpribor projects). Later on, in the early 1960s, when their own design bureau had been established, the Plant started developing the new generation sonars Titan-2 (Chief Designer G. M. Kharat) and Argun (Chief Designer V. P. Ivanchenko). We note A. I. Dygay, who would later become a State Prize winner and the director of the Priboy Plant, started his professional career in the design bureau. Both systems had substantial advancements. The method of generating a static fan pattern in the receive mode was introduced for the first time, which considerably increased the performance of the circular scan surveillance; high-vacuum tubes were replaced with transistors and thyristors, reducing mass, space, and power requirements; arrays with piezoelectric ceramic transducers succeeded arrays with magnetostrictive transducers, which increased sonar efficiency in the radiating mode and enhanced other acoustic parameters; roll and pitch array stabilizers were introduced; variable-frequency heterodyne methods were used to eliminate Doppler frequency shifts due to ship motion, which helped in reducing the passband in the receive mode and, accordingly, increasing acquisition range and the accuracy of target location estimates. The most advanced (for their time) engineering features increased the submarine detection range to 30 km, which was five times greater than the Gerkules’ effective range. 590

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A. I. Dygay was directly involved in all this work and at the end of the 1960s, he became the Chief Engineer of the Plant. In 1976, the Plant design bureau became a separate organization, redirected to the development of fish-finding aids and mine detector sonars. The Plant had been building the capability for serial production and for a short period they stopped development of new sonars. Meanwhile the Plant gathered experience, which revealed itself to the full extent during the Platina (in the 1970s) and Polinom (in the early 1980s) sonar system development and production. Despite a sharp increase in sonar system complexity, the Plant successfully completed the assigned tasks. A. I. Dygay, who had become the Plant director, was awarded the State Prize for the Polinom system production development. The Platina and Polinom sonar systems were manufactured using analogue electronic components, which gave rise to the following drawbacks: considerable mass and size; high power consumption; and impossibility of upgrading the system performance required for modernization without considerable changes in the circuit design, which in turn led to wasted time and loss of materials. A possible solution was to change over to digital signal processing and control systems, which could easily be reprogrammed and modernized. Therefore at the end of the 1970s, the System Research Institute for Hydroinstruments together with the Agat SRPA, the Priboy Plant, and CRI Gidropribor began developing a new generation of sonar systems of the Zvezda series (the Chief Designer of the program was O. M. Aleshenko, a future State Prize winner), making maximum use of computer-aided data processing and control systems. Those sonars implemented the following digital systems (overall performance about 100 MIPS): (1) multi-channel systems for generating directional patterns; (2) programmable multi-processor time-domain processing computing systems, designed for the Aylama special computer; (3) programmable classification computing systems; (4) programmable reprocessing and control computing systems; (5) built-in control and operator training systems.

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The application of digital systems enhanced the sonar system performance due to the introduction of optimal coherent processing (based on the fast Fourier transformation) of tonal signals and partial coherent processing of aggregate signals. This increased the submarine detection range, target classification probability, the number of active service tasks, the accuracy of detection range forecast, with allowance for the sea hydrology, and improved operational characteristics of such systems. The powerful production and technical facilities of the Plant (N. V. Momot was the Chief Engineer) made it possible to rapidly introduce the new electronic components and the technology for the serial production of the Zvezda M1 and Zvezda M1-01 sonar systems, which were installed on the ships of classes 1135.2, 11540, 1155.1, 1145.1, 1244.1 and 12416. The leading designers and specialists of the Plant were awarded the USSR State Prize for the development and serial production conversion of the Zvezda-M1 sonar system (Fig. 1). The Zvezda series sonar systems were developed on the basis of the special-purpose computers of the 1970s, which were out of date by the start of serial production. This caused certain problems for maintaining the Navy in a state of technical readiness. The situation was aggravated by the disintegration of the USSR and “disappearance” of major suppliers of electric instruments and equipment, which had been produced earlier in the Soviet Republics. As the result, in 1992, the Priboy Plant had been conducting design and development work on modernizing the Zvezda series sonar system. The purpose of such work was the introduction of standardized (in accordance with the Russian Federation Ministry of Defense requirements) modern digital computer facilities (Baget and others), which were manufactured in Russia. Toward this end, a design bureau was set up at the Plant, and the author of the present article was put in charge of it. The bureau gave birth to a number of expert engineers including Yu. K. Popov, V. I. Kaliushko, B. N. Lavrik, A. A. Kalyagin, and others. The design bureau replaced the computing equipment of the Zvezda series with modern equipment that was consistent with other ship-board systems (under the supervision of N. N. Borisenko together

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Zvezda-M1 sonar system diplay.

with P. P. Zayarny and Yu. N. Bobrov). This helped to address the following challenges: (1) the standardization of onboard sonar system equipment for all SS projects, which made it possible to process data coming from different configuration array systems and at the same time to decrease the equipment mass and dimension parameters by a factor of 2.5,

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energy consumption by two and conditioned air consumption in the cooling system by two; (2) the rapid modernization of the Zvezda sonar system series for surface ships at the lowest possible cost; (3) cooperative data processing of the sonar system and the development of the Minotavr active/passive sonar with an extended towed array for their subsequent integration into a unified system; (4) creation of a modernization backup for the computing systems in order to implement improved and new data processing algorithms in the systems and thus increase the submarine detection range by a factor of 1.2–2. Therefore, the Priboy Plant, which had been developing and producing sonar systems for 45 years, became the Russian Federation leader in the area of sonar systems for all types of naval surface ships. I would like to say a few words about the development of the mine detection sonars at the Priboy Plant. Since 1959, the Plant had been the leading designer of sonars for detecting mines and sunken objects. The Mezen sonar was the first publicly acknowledged work in this area. It was designed for detecting bottom mines, which could not be located by the well-known Lan sonar. I. I. Nizenko was appointed Chief Designer of the Mezen system, V. P. Ivanchenko and O. I. Beldin remained his assistants. A. F. Urbansky designed the control panel. The ACIN experts suggested developing a modification of the new system with multi-frequency transmissions. Based on that suggestion, a sonar prototype was tested at the Sukhumi site in 1960. The tests were successful, but due to the complexity of the equipment the suggestion of the Priboy Plant experts to use short high-frequency pulses instead of multi-frequency signaling was finally adopted. Like the Lan sonar, the Mezen utilized an array with a parabolic reflector. In 1963, the Mezen prototype was installed on an experimental ship with a fiberglass hull. The system was successfully tested by 1967 and later serial production began. The Mezen was supplied for trawlers of various classes, which had been built in Leningrad, Petrozavodsk, and Khabarovsk. When the Mezen-2 sonar appeared, it was installed on trawlers together

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with the Lan sonar. However, it was found that they could not operate simultaneously because of mutual interference. The Kashalot sonar was the next project. It was intended for locating sunken ships. The decision to develop it was made as a result of the S-80 submarine sinking. The wreck was not found using existing capabilities. The development of the Kashalot started in 1961. I. A. Timokhov was appointed the sonar chief designer; N. B. Yakubov and N. D. Shevchenko were his assistants. V. P. Barkov and N. V. Mikhailov took an active part in the development and testing of the system. In 1963–1965, the Kashalot prototype was tested in Murmansk on board the SS-57 safety boat. The sonar was tested for mine detection and passed. In 1986, serial production of the sonar began. The Kashalot sonar was the first system with the spot beam that scanned in the coverage sector and with signal reception by means of a fan pattern, for which a planar pan-and-tilt array was used (note that the Lan and the Mezen sonars had reflector arrays). That increased the coverage area twofold (up to 60◦ ). The prototype used controlled phase delay circuits with magnetic bias for scanning, while serial sonars used variable resistors. In 1967, the Plant started developing the Serna sonar series, designed for detecting anchor and bottom mines. G. G. Lyashenko was appointed the D&D Chief Designer V. M. Solodovnikov (control mode), N. V. Mikhailov (generator), Yu. N. Bobrov (built-in simulator) took part in the sonar development. The Plant experts suggested that the Serna sonar should be developed on the basis of the modernized Kashalot sonar. The Serna used a built-in monitoring system, a built-in simulator, and a semiconductor amplifying circuit. In 1969, the sonar prototype was tested in Tallin. In 1971, after some modification of the engineering documents, the Serna sonar was passed to the Dalpribor Plant, which manufactured 30 systems. The Serna showed good results while mine clearing the Suez Canal and was supplied to India, Romania, and GDR, together with ships. A modification to the Serna sonar was the Serna-2, which had enhanced detection range, positioning and target identification. The system advance project was completed at the Priboy Plant in 1971–1972. The performance analysis showed that the system required

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an array about 3 m in linear dimension and a large amount of equipment. No trawler could accommodate such equipment at the time, so the Serna-2 project was terminated. In 1979, the Briz Central Research Institute at the Priboy Plant completed a draft design of the Kabarga mine detection sonar having a towed array. But the ship, for which that sonar had been designed, did not enter production and the project was terminated. A year later the Briz Central Research Institute began working on Kabarga-A, a project for development of mine detection sonars for ships of different displacements, Kabarga-A1 for minor trawlers up to 150 tons, Kabarga-A2 for trawlers with displacement up to 500 tons, and Kabarga-A3 for trawler up to 1000 tons. G. G. Lyashenko was appointed the Chief Designer of the project, and V. M. Solodovnikov, V. P. Shulgin, V. Kalashnikov, and V. A. Vetashkov were his assistants. The Kabarga-A was the first home mine detection system with a digital data processor. The processing system was designed under the supervision of P. P. Zayarny. The Kabarga-A prototype was manufactured and tested in the Baltic Sea and in Feodosiya in 1987. In 1991, the engineering data was passed to the Dalpribor Plant, where several Kabarga-A1 sonars and one Kabarga-A3 modification were manufactured. In 1996, the engineering data was passed to the Priboy for serial production. In recent years sonar mine detection systems have been in demand. An order to the Plant and the Briz Central Research Institute to modernize the Kabarga-A within the Livadiya D&D is an indication. The project was intended to considerably increase the sonar performance and to develop a system to replace the Kashalot, Mezen, and Serna sonars. One of the missions of the new system was searching for sunken ships. The sonar was also meant for export. Finally, we list the directors of the Plant: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

F. N. Muravin (1946–1950); G. I. Chernov (1950–1961); A. A. Peredelskiy (1961–1969); I. I. Nizenko (1969–1978); A. I. Dygay (1978–present).

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The Plant’s chief engineers are: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

V. A. Krushinskiy, Ye. P. Bobyshev (1946–1950); N. A. Yefimov, V. S. Sluchevskiy (1951–1953); K. G. Rubtsov (1953–1957); V. A. Medvedev (1957–1967); I. I. Nizenko (1967–1969); A. I. Dygay (1969–1978); V. G. Maklovskiy (1978–1980); N. V. Momot (1980–present).

Winners of state prizes employed by the Plant are: (1) A. I. Dygay (director) — USSR State Prize winner in 1985. (2) N. N. Borisenko (first deputy director) — USSR State Prize winner in 1989. (3) A. A. Peredelskiy (director of the Plant) — Lenin Prize winner in 1968. (4) M. D. Podlipanov (leading engineer, chief designer of the Sargan navigational fish finding system) — USSR Council of Ministers Prize winner in 1986.

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Stationary and Self-contained Sonars for Submarine Detection L. B. KARLOV and YA. S. KARLIK

Stationary and self-contained sonars are widely used together with ship-mounted and submarine sonar systems for describing surface and underwater conditions. The development of the first stationary (landbased) sonars began in the 1920s. In 1921, at the direction of V. I. Lenin, the Special Design Bureau for Military Inventions, the so-called Ostekhburo, was established in Petrograd. This industrial organization started the development of sonar systems — prototypes of passive sonars for submarines as well as land-based stations. The first passive sonar systems were installed near the Shepelev Lighthouse and on the Osiny Cape. They were tested on October 13, 1927. Each system included four hydrophone receiving sets on a 2-m high common base. The transducers of one station were placed 9 m deep and 500 m away from the coast, and the other, 9 m and 350 m, respectively. This station included two twin bases (2 hydrophone in each base), which were separated from each other by 2.88 m. A. I. Berg and G. G. Midin were in charge of the system review committee. The committee’s report reads that the pilot installation and operation of such systems was successful and that the systems were considered very important. Systematic interception (in the committee’s report, “eavesdropping”) and location of large warships was provided at a distance of up to 100 cable lengths. The committee insisted that the noise analysis be provided because the identification and direction finding of targets was not possible when several ships were present in the system coverage area. The committee also pointed out that it was necessary to develop an electric compensator (an instrument for shaping and scanning the directional pattern). 601

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Therefore, the Ostekhburo conducted research to enhance the land-based passive sonars under the supervision of Professor M. M. Bogoslovsky. Thus, in 1928, the electric compensator was already under development, and in 1929, work on building the first sonar range perimeter line began. The Sevastopol raid tested such a line for the first time in spring 1929, when hydrophones, which were located at certain intervals and were linked with each other and with the land post via a twin-core cable, monitored the noise of passing surface ships and submarines. The sonar range perimeter line made it possible to activate any individual hydrophone with the use of a selector. In 1929–1931, the Ostekhburo was developing a portable hydrophone system, a so-called “multi-hydrophone long-range acoustic scout.” An intercepting trunk, consisting of 10 hydrophones connected with each other and with the land post via a twin-core cable, was installed in the Black Sea, parallel to the Inkermansky Entrance and 400 m away from it. Each hydrophone was housed together with a selector in a cylinder 58 cm in diameter and 20 cm in height with a positive buoyancy of about 5 kg. It was retained with a 15 kg anchor. The positive test results made it possible to produce the first system prototype, which was deployed for testing on September 17, 1930 in the vicinity of Kronshtadt. The system was 4 km long and consisted of 5 hydrophones, which were located 1 km from each other. The test results were recorded in a protocol on June 14, 1931. In accordance with the protocol the sensitivity of separate units was assumed satisfactory. The operation of the recall device (of a selector type) was failure-free. A towboat and passing ships were detected at distances of 1.5–2 km from a hydrophone, when the sea state was 3–4 points. In 1931, land-based passive sonars were obtained from Germany and deployed near the Tolbukhin Lighthouse. The mastering of new equipment inspired technological innovations. S. Ya. Sokolov offered a very interesting suggestion, I think that at present it is necessary to build a range of instruments, which make use of infrasound waves in water. Such waves are produced by a ship’s propeller. The number of the

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propeller revolutions multiplied by the number of propeller blades is evidently the basic frequency of the waves. The instruments must provide reliable and confidential communication at ranges that are ten times greater than the existing communication ranges. At the present time the Physical Acoustics Laboratory can demonstrate the principle of an infrasound wave system, which provides an opportunity to extract the waves from a very complex acoustical background produced by various artificial noise sources.

In the early 1930s, such institutions as the Communications Research Range (CRR) and the Central Radio Laboratory (CRL), which included a hydroacoustics laboratory, also conducted intense research in hydroacoustics. From June 22 till September 1, 1931, in accordance with the contract between the WPRA Research-andTechnical Committee of the Naval Department (RTCND) and the CRL, they recorded the noises of various ships and analyzed propagation of ultrasound waves in the deep sea under the supervision of S. Ya. Yakovlev. A year later the Naval Communications Research Institute (NCRI) was established on the basis of the communication and navigation section of the RTCND and the CRR with A. I. Berg in charge. The NCRI incorporated a hydroacoustics division under the supervision of A. I. Pustovalov. In 1938, the NCRI developed a project for equipping the Navy with the means for hydroacoustic communication and surveillance. The project provided a land-based passive sonar (LPS) with an operating range of 4–6 miles and with an accuracy of direction finding by the most precise method (the maximum intensity method) of 2–3◦ . The passive sonar was to be adopted in 1939. On November 3, 1939, Isakov, a deputy to the Navy People’s Commissar, approved the Statute on the Navy Research Institute of Communications and Telemetry (NRICT). The Hydroacoustic Division of the NRICT was to provide the Navy with passive sonars for land-based stations, ultrasound surveillance equipment, and data on sound propagation in the open ocean.

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In 1935–1937, the Vodtranpribor developed the Merkury and Saturn passive sonars under the supervision of V. N. Tyulin. The Merkury sonar used a linear receiving array and the Saturn sonar used a circular array. Unlike the land modification of the Merkury sonar, the Saturn LPS was serially produced during 1939–1945. Six sonar systems were produced and installed in 1939–1941. The system was adopted in 1940. The arrays were placed in the sea 12 km from the coastline and were connected via an underwater cable to the land station, which accommodated the data precessing and display equipment. Such sonars located noise-emitting targets at distances of 15–30 cable lengths. The Saturn’s circular array was 3 m in diameter and consisted of 12 electrodynamic receivers. The direction finding was performed by the maximum method. The sonar was powered by rechargable batteries. At the beginning of the Great Patriotic War, only two of the six sonars deployed by the Navy were operating satisfactory (for the BFBORB — at the Shepelevsky Lighthouse and for the PF — at the Popov Cape). The fleets required 18 more sonars (the BFBORB — 6, the BSF — 4, the PF — 6, and the NF — 2), but their installation and operation was limited due to the lack of the needed specialized underwater cable. To equip the Navy with LPS’s, 10 sonar sets with cabling had been ordered from Germany to be delivered in early 1941. Sites for the installation of those systems and eight home produced Saturn sonars had been chosen, but the land facilities had not been erected and the systems had not arrived from Germany. Thus by the beginning of the war the Navy was poorly equipped with land-based passive sonars. Ten years after the war, the RI-3 (currently, the CRI Morfizpribor) developed and adopted the Volkhov land-based echo-ranging passive sonar system. It provided detection, location, and underwater communication with submarines. (See the article by V. N. Kanareikin for the detailed description of the system’s development and its specifications — Ed.). In 1956–1958, the Kiev Technical University, under the supervision of N. F. Vollerner, conducted the Tissa Research Program and manufactured the prototypes. They tested various types of stationary

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sonar buoys for submarine detection. The buoys could transmit data to a receiving post on a surface ship either via a hydroacoustic link or a radio link. A committee under the supervision of the head of the laboratory of the Navy Electronics Research Institute, L. B. Karlov, concluded that further development required a radiohydroacoustic version of a stationary buoy. The committee included a representative of the Kiev Hydroinstrument Research Institute, Yu. V. Burau, the future chief designer of the Kura D&D, and later the director of the Kiev Hydroinstrument Research Institute. In 1957–1962, the Kiev Hydroinstrument Research Institute conducted the Kura D&D on the basis of the Tissa research in order to develop a system of self-contained sonoradiobuoys (SRB’s) for submarine detection. N. N. Shoshkov, B. N. Alyansky, B. A. Kozelov and N. N. Pisemsky performed technological monitoring on the part of the Navy Electronics Research Institute at different times. The system successfully passed tests and was adopted by the Navy under the codename MG-409. It consisted of 10 anchored sonoradiobuoys, located at depths up to 150 m, and a land-based or ship-borne receiving post. The data from each buoy were transmitted through a radio link in the FM band. The buoys operated in the sound location mode. The directional patterns were rotated mechanically with the help of an energy conserving electric motor. A positive buoyancy container with power supply units, amplifying receivers, and an acoustical system (piezoelectrical receiver, located at the focus of the circular reflector), was located at depths up to 30 m and was secured with an anchor. The container was linked to a radio buoy, floating on the surface, via a strengthened power communications cable. The radio buoy accommodated a radio transmitter and an antenna for transmitting data to the receiving post via one of the ten carrier frequencies. Each buoy could operate autonomously for 3 months. The buoys, which weighed 1.5 tons, were deployed from a trawler in a fashion similar to that used for mine laying. After the MG-409 system was adopted, it was widely used by all fleets to establish a submarine detection line. A strong demand for a submarine detection line using selfcontained hydroacoustic means had arisen prior to the adoption of

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the MG-409 system by the Navy. Therefore, the Navy Electronics Research Institute developed a system of anchored sonoradiobuoys based on the existing Baku navigation sonoradiobuoys (NSRB). Standard floating booms were used as containers for the equipment. The container accommodated a NSRB with a radio array and an omnidirectional hydroacoustic receiver on a cable and power supply units. The latter provided for self-contained operation of the buoy for up to 14 days. Each buoy weighed 300 kg. The buoy’s data were received by SPARU-55 airborne receivers adapted for installation on ships and at land stations. L. B. Karlov, the head of the division of the Navy Electronics Research Institute, was in charge of the prototype design, the development of documents, and system tests. B. N. Alyansky, O. V. Getrashevich, and G. M. Strizhkov also took part in this work. In November, 1962, the sonoradiobuoys system was adopted by the Navy under the codename RGB-102. In 1965, the Vodtranspribor Plant modified a ship-based communication sonar and developed a land-based sonar for communication with submerged submarines. The sonar’s acoustic array was bottommounted and was linked with a land station via an underwater cable. The system was adopted under the codename MG-415. Two years later a prototype of the MG-409 bottom-mounted version was developed and manufactured, which transmitted data to a land receiving station via a cable. The project was conducted by the Navy Electronics Research Institute and the Navy Experimental Sonar Base 1479 with V. A. Shkutnik as commander. The MG-409 bottom version was adopted and used by the Navy under the codename MG-507. The system of MG-507 bottom sonar buoys under the codename MG-617 was adopted by the Navy in 1971. The system consisted of five buoys linked to each other and to the land station via a cable. The Smolensky Instrument Engineering Plant developed and manufactured the system prototype, which was then deployed in the Baltic Sea. I. P. Kaplan was an observer on behalf of the Navy Electronics Research Institute. That year the Navy adopted a system of anchor sonoradiobuoys under the codename MGS-407 (Amga), replacing the MG-409 system.

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The Amga had enhanced survivability and a better performance due to the radio buoy, which surfaced after detection of a submarine. The Kiev Hydroinstrument Research Institute developed the system under the supervision of Chief Designer R. F. Palamarts. B. A. Kozelov was an observer on behalf of the Navy Electronics Research Institute. Unlike autonomous hydroacoustic systems for submarine detection, the stationary systems were, as a rule, developed taking into account geographic and hydrologic features of the installation site. Thus, in 1960–1967, the CRI Morfizpribor developed the Liman stationary sonar system (STSS) for the Northern Fleet, designed for detecting submarines. Taking into account the site characteristics, the system was deployed as a detection line, which consisted of many separate strains linked to each other and to the land post via an underwater cable. V. S. Kasatkin was the Liman D&D Chief Designer (see the article “A history of development of the Liman stationary sonar system” by G. I. Afrutkin and V. S. Kasatkin for the detailed description of the Liman system and its development and installation history — Ed.). In 1977–1995, the Liman type systems were further developed by the Atoll Research Institute under the codename Sever. At about the same time the CRI Morfizpribor developed the Pacific Fleet Amur passive sonar for submarine detection. The system was developed as a submarine early warning system taking into account the hydrologic features at the installation site (particularly, the presence of a permanent deep sound channel). In 1969, the Amur was adopted by the Navy under the codename MG-517 and was operated by the Pacific Fleet for several years (see the article “The Amur land-based passive sonar” by E. V. Batanogov and L. B. Karlov for the detailed description of the development of the Amur sonar — Ed.). In the mid-1960s an extensive effort began to develop a hydroacoustic technique operating in the infrasound frequency band. The Liman-M system was a stationary sonar developed to operate in that band. The director of the CRI Morfizpribor, V. V. Gromkovsky, was the chief designer of the system. In 1971, the system successfully passed the state tests but it was not adopted by the Navy due to repeated damage to the cable by fishing vessels. The attempts to run the cable to a moored buoy, and not ashore, did not lead to positive results

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(see G. I. Afrutkin’s article “The Liman-M infrasound stationary sonar system” for the detailed description of the Liman-M project — Ed.). The development of the Agam land-based sonar and the Dnestr STSS by the CRI Morfizpribor in 1966–1985 were very important steps in the history of early warning hydroacoustic systems (see separate articles for detailed descriptions of these projects — Ed.).

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The History of the Development of the Volkhov Land-Based Sonar V. N. KANAREYKIN and E. V. YAKOVLEV

The challenge of defending ports and harbors from intrusion by “uninvited guests” has existed as long as ships have had ports. As submarines, submersible craft, and other instruments of sea attack improved, the surveillance and location systems also grew more complicated, and hydroacoustic systems came to the fore. Among them was the Volkhov land-based sonar, which was designed at the CRI Morfizpribor in 1953. At that time Sevastopol, the main Black Sea Fleet base, was defended from unauthorized penetration by submarines with the Saturn-12 land-based passive sonar (LPS), which was designed and manufactured at the Vodtranspribor Plant. The sonar array was deployed in the sea in the vicinity of the Chersonese Cape. The sonar was technically and tactically obsolete and was frequently under repair when it was not tactically operating. The Saturn-12 was backed up by radar pickets and sonars of the ASD patrol surface ships deployed near Sevastopol, but their detectors left much to be desired. This could be illustrated by the tragedy of the Novorossiysk battleship, which was lost in October 1955, presumably, as the result of the sabotage by divers who had entered the Sevastopol northern harbor. Coincidentally, at about this time a group of experts from the CRI Morfizpribor moved to Sevastopol to organize the state tests of the first prototype of the Volkhov land-based sonar. We extremely regretted that in those days the Volkhov arrays were only being prepared for bottom deployment near the Chersonese Cape, and the land-based electronic equipment was yet to be installed. The loss of the Novorossiysk demonstrated that deployment of the Volkhov sonar needed to be accelerated. The director of the Institute, N. N. Sviridov, incessantly supervised all preparation work. 609

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The Volkhov sonar (A. I. Vlasov was the Chief Designer, Ye. Ye. Valfish was his assistant) was the first home-produced, land-based underwater surveillance sonar system designed for 24 hour control of the waters within a security area. The station could operate in a passive or active mode and was equipped with passive and active sonars, respectively. The Volkhov land-based sonar could simultaneously operate in the passive and active modes because of the separation of the frequency bands in the two modes. Sound location was the basic mode of operation of the Volkhov land-based sonar, which used two methods for target direction finding: the maximum intensity method when operating the electronic circular scanning display (CSD) or a loudspeaker for listening to the received noises and the phase method when operating the oscillographic bearing deviation indicator (BDI). A soundman saw intense sector noise paths at those horizontal sectors where the sources of the noise were located. They were displayed by the electronic CSD with a circular scan beam, rotating at 25 rpm in synchronism with the directional pattern generator with a condenser commutation switch. All noise-emitting targets were displayed simultaneously, although the bearing accuracy of such a display was low. The phase method provided a much higher accuracy in determining the target bearing, but its implementation required accurate identification of the phase and amplitude-frequency response of the channel sum and difference of a two-channel amplifier. A soundman “manually” rotated the rotor of the two-channel directional pattern generator with a brush commutation switch with the use of a reducing gear. He listened to the target noise through a loudspeaker wired to the acoustic amplifier after he had determined the target direction with the use of the BDI. The target range was measured in the echo-bearing mode at the same CSD, but with a spiral beam sweep, or with the help of a recorder. The tone bursts shaped by a pulse generator were radiated by an omnidirectional array, and the echoes were received by a circular array. The switching of the pulse generator, which provided a signal to the array, and of the ramp generator was synchronized on a CSD with

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the help of the “pulse” contacts of the mechanical recorder. The active mode was used for simultaneously displaying of all (both noise-emitting and silent) targets within the effective range of the sonar on the CSD and for range determination. A recorder was also used for recording and determining the relative speed of separate targets in the echo-bearing mode. The recorder registered on electrochemical paper two rows of dashed lines: pulses and echo signals. As was already mentioned, the receiving array was separated from the transmitting array. The receiving array had a circular base with 36 ferroelectric receivers, which were uniformly placed in a full circle. Their outputs were connected to preliminary amplifiers at a land post via a 76-core TZKG-19×4 armored cable, specially designed by order of the CRI Morfizpribor. The transmitting array was a cylinder consisting of magnetostriction (nickel) plates. The array was connected to the pulse generator and polarizer in a land post via a single-core KPK-5/18 coaxial armored cable. Special cable-laying ships of the Navy laid the 10-km cables with great difficulty. Both arrays were located one above the other in a sealed dome, which, for the prototype, was made of copper. The dome diameter was 2 m and the height of the frustum of the cone was 3 m. The dome was filled with castor oil and weighed about 6 tons. The manufacture and installation of a dome of such size involved many challenges. The dome was attached to a steel tripod with a platform set on the sea floor at a depth of not more than 200 m. The 12-m tripod was an impressive structure. It was designed at the State Joint Design Institute, SJDI-2. The tripod with the acoustic arrays was installed on the sea floor by a chain boat under the supervision of divers. It should be noted that the Volkhov was not developed from scratch. Some of the devices, for example, the two-channel compensator, the condenser commutation switch, the recorder, the interception path, and the system of command communication, had precedences in the postwar sonars already in operation (Tamir-11, Feniks, Gerkules, Plutony, and Klyazma; B. N. Vovnoboy, M. Sh. Shtremt, Z. N. Umikov, A. S. Vasilevsky, M. I. Markus were the chief designers, respectively).

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The direction finding methods used in the Volkhov sonar were also known. The station was rather simple in design. It had neither an automatic target tracking system, nor a correlation processing system for echo signals. An experienced acoustician aurally detected a target and identified it in accordance with a ship type, though threshold circuits for automatic target detection were being designed during the development of the station. The chief designer chose not to take risks and used well-tried and proven features instead, and therefore the development of the Valkhov sonar progressed successfully. The design stage encountered many theoretical and practical problems. In particular, the manufacture of Siegnette salt receivers, the transmission of signals via a cable with mimimal phase distortion, the manufacture of such a cable, etc. The chief designer even consulted such distinguished scientists as V. N. Tyulin and L. Ya. Gutin. Ye. Ye. Valfish and his assistants paid many visits to the Acoustic Institute, the Sevkabel Plant, the Dalsvyaz Research Institute, and the SJDI-2. But they obtained final answers only after the models had been tried and measurements had been taken under the actual conditions at the Institute’s Ladoga test site. The state tests of the Volkhov prototype were successfully passed in the middle of 1956 and the sonar was finally adopted by the Navy. Following a kind of patronage assistance to the Black Sea Fleet, the specialists of the CRI Morfizpribor taught the design and the principles of operation of the Volkhov sonar to the land post personnel and trained them in the operation of the sonar equipment. The field supervision of the sonar operation took place during the next 2 years. The equipment was reliable and required no serious maintenance. Shortly afterward, the Vodtranspribor Plant began serial production of the electronic equipment for the sonar, and the Priboy Plant in Taganrog mastered manufacture of the acoustic arrays. The Navy thus adopted a new, reliable sonar. One of the serial sonars was assigned to the Northern Fleet, the second was deployed near Kamchatka, the third was manufactured in 1959 for the People’s Republic of China, and the fourth serial sonar was delivered to the Republic of Egypt. The design documentation was declassified due to the export of the sonar.

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While reviewing those years, I enjoyed the thought that I, V. N. Kanareykin, also took part in the development of the Volkhov sonar within the chief designer’s group. In conclusion, I would like to mention some professionals who made the greatest contributions to the development of the sonar: E. V. Yakovlev — deputy chief designer for the design (till 1954); V. T. Zhegachev — deputy chief designer for the design (till 1954); N. D. Erikhov, G. B. Pyanin, M. K. Kuznetsova, M. M. Malysheva, P. V. Pur, G. M. Egorov, S. V. Burov, P. S. Belyakov — the chief designer’s group; B. G. Levichev, L. F. Nagel, N. L. Mayzlina, I. L. Krasilshchik, A. V. Chernyshev, B. Ya. Dizhbak — acousticians; I. V. Trofimov, N. S. Osipov — the pulse and telegraph generator developers; M. N. Gimmelshtein, G. S. Parshin — indicator specialists; A. A. Ignat’ev, E. K. Martinovich, I. M. Sivoshinsky — amplifier developers; S. D. Pirogov, N. A. Tsyganov, I. Ya. Lobach, V. L. Svirsky — designers; Ye. A. Svetoslavsky, K. T. Kuryatnikov, M. I. Garnov, G. A. Bogdanov, M. A. Zuev, S. V. Rebrov — pilot production specialists; Yu. P. Skachkov, A. M. Rybakov, F. M. Kartashev — representatives of the Navy Electronics Research Institute. While many of these individuals have passed away, we still have fond memories of them.

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The History of the Development of the Liman Land-Based Sonar System G. I. AFRUTKIN and V. S. KASATKIN

In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the problem of control of US nuclear submarines entering our Arctic Ocean territories under the ice became a sharp issue. In the opinion of scientists specializing in underwater sound propagation, the hydrological and acoustic characteristics of that area required that extended sonar range lines of defense be established. The lines of defense had to incorporate dozens or even hundreds of self-contained sonars, linked together and to a land post via a cable for information transmission and for power. The distance between the sonars was to be equal to their effective range. Such lines of defense could stretch for several hundred kilometers. In 1956, the director of the CRI Morfizpribor, N. N. Sviridov, initiated the Ukhta Research Project. Research was conducted to analyze the ways of establishing extended lines of submarine detection at distant approaches to the coastline. V. S. Kasatkin was appointed the Chief Scientist; his deputies were N. E. Vasilyeva, G. I. Afrutkin, A. M. Maltsev (for the design), and V. N. Tyufyaev (for the technology). The research manager’s group included young engineers Ya. S. Karlik, V. N. Simonov, B. I. Lashkov, N. S. Veselovskaya, B. K. Vovchenko, G. A. Goldybin, A. I. Solovyeva, and others. Candidate of Engineering Sciences D. I. Ibraimov directly participated in the research work. The work was mainly focused on research leading to the development of a means for automatic detection of noise-emitting objects, a system for data transmission via an extended cable link from distributed installations, the selection of the underwater equipment architecture and design, which would provide continuous error-free performance for several years without being maintained, and the development of the necessary technologies. 614

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Full-scale experiments were carried out together with theoretical research and laboratory-scale modeling. At first, the automatic detector models were tried on the specially assigned Keta trawler near Feodosiya. Later, they made a large-scale model (a prototype level) of a barrier line, consisting of five bottom sonars, a cable link and the land post equipment. The model was deployed near the Cape of Aytador (Yalta). The land equipment was housed in a surveillance and communication service (SCS) post compartment, which was specially built by the Navy. The research results (including research done with a support submarine) demonstrated the possibility, in principle, of establishing a line of defense extending for hundreds of kilometers and made it possible to choose optimal design and engineering specifications, which could create a basis for the D&D. The completion of the research effort was a great success for the young team, many of whom became leading specialists at the Institute in subsequent years. In 1959, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Council of Ministers of the USSR considered the results of the Ukhta research and issued an ordinance on the establishment of an extended submarine detection sonar range line of defense at the distant approaches to the northern coast (the Liman). The CRI Morfizpribor was appointed the prime designer. The research was conducted, among others, by the Kiev Hydroinstrument Research Institute (the development of the landbased, receiver-amplifier equipment), the Dalsvyaz Research Institute (the development and the supply of the underwater cable amplifiers), the Giprosvyaz Institute (the development of the installation method of the offset equipment), the SDB and the Svetlana Plant (the development and the supply of long-life transistors of an enhanced reliability). Some other institutes and plants were to develop and supply long-life crystal resonators, capacitors and resistors of an enhanced reliability. The Tashkent Cable Industry Research Institute was assigned to develop and manufacture a special array cable, and the Sevkabel Plant was to manufacture and supply the KPK 5/18 main underwater cable (1000 km). The first system prototype was to be manufactured and supplied by the Akhtuba Plant,

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which was newly built in Volgograd, with the participation of the CRI Morfizpribor. V. S. Kasatkin was appointed the Chief Designer of the Liman D&D. G. I. Afrutkin was his first deputy, A. M. Maltsev was his deputy for the design (V. D. Shakhmatov later replaced him), and V. N. Tufyaev was production manager. V. G. Tarasevich was appointed the chief designer of the system’s receiver-amplifier equipment, which was developed in Kiev, A. S. Gurin was his deputy. G. N. Stepanov and L. D. Dvortsov were in charge of the underwater amplifiers at the Dalsvyaz Institute. S. I. Levin, V. S. Vasilyev, B. I. Lashkov, A. V. Dolgov, M. S. Ardatovsky, and V. I. Bokachev were the principal specialists in the chief designer’s group at the CRI Morfizpribor. Z. S. Volovich, M. I. Roshal, V. V. Kazachinin, N. M. Zubenina, and others were among the leading designers of the equipment. P. S. Russov and V. N. Yakovlev made a significant contribution to the mastering of the procedures for the prototype manufacture at the Akhtuba Plant and to the Plant management. The Navy RIE representatives M. L. Pulenets, E. G. Gladkiy, and I. Ya. Rozenblit exercised the research and technology supervision of the project. The deployment area of the Liman system was usually covered with sheet ice from November to July, which gave a specific character to the D&D. First, all work and tests on site could be carried out only during the navigation season, that is, from July until October. Second, although some scientific data were available, the characteristics of the interfering noise from the ice ridges, especially during their buildup and erosion, as distinct from the pack-ice ridges, which had been researched by the Arctic Institute, was poorly known. The developers had to conduct a large set of studies with the help of models, which were specially designed and deployed at sea and at the polar stations in Novaya Zemlya. The research work was carried out by such “winterers” as S. I. Levin, B. I. Lashkov, V. I. Bokachev, V. I. Smirnov, and M. S. Ardatovsky. The results thereof were expeditiously taken into account in the research (see also L. B. Karlov’s “Northern Fleet Training with the Participation of the Naval Institute of Electronics and CRI Morfizpribor” — Ed.).

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At the same time the Akhtuba Plant was acquiring the capability for system production. The leading technologists and production men of the Institute, together with the Plant workers and the representatives of the MSI CA 10, contributed to the establishment of the Plant and its transformation into a modern enterprise, capable of producing highly reliable radioelectronic and acoustic equipment, high-voltage electric components, cable lead-ins and large pieces of underwater equipment. The deputy director of CA 10, V. I. Platun, the Plant director, E. G. Medvinsky, deputy to the D&D chief designer for the serial production, E. M. Paretsky, deputy chief engineer, L. D. Zingerman, production foremen, S. F. Avramenko, engineers, Yu. A. Latyshev and V. P. Kirillov, representatives of the customer at the Plant, P. I. Voynarovsky and O. D. Ageenko, and many others took an active part in the organization and the construction of new production shops and departments (including a unique assembly department with an artificial microclimate). The installation of the underwater part of the system, which included 144 self-contained sonars (SCS), 10 cable amplifiers, and about 1000 km of the main cable represented a very complex problem. The cable-laying ships of the 1960s, which were an integral part of the support vessels of the Navy, were not appropriate for the purpose. Therefore, the Navy ordered a special cable ship to be designed and built in Finland (of the Ingul type). The 48 SCS’s and 5 cable amplifiers were mounted in her hangars, which were equipped with telphers and rail tracks. She had space for up to 500 km of cable. The ship made it possible to install the SCS’s and amplifiers, and to lay a cable while under way at the speed of 2–5 knots. The wiring of the SCS’s and amplifiers via cable machines and their output to the slip was made with the help of special bypass cables in accordance with the procedures developed for the installation of the underwater part of the system (Fig. 1). The manufacture of the first prototype of the system was to be completed in four steps: first priority (prototype) included the manufacture of eight SCS’s, two amplifiers, and a complete set of land-based equipment, completion of bench tests, and acquisition of supplies. The second priority was the manufacture and supply of 40 sonars and two

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Fig. 1.

The installation of the underwater part of the Liman land sonar.

amplifiers. The third and fourth — the manufacture of 96 sonars and six amplifiers each. The first priority equipment was shipped in June 1965, the second priority equipment was shipped in the summer 1966, and the third and fourth priority equipment was shipped in the spring and summer of 1967, respectively. In April, 1965, a construction battalion disembarked from the icebreaker onto the ice in the bay adjacent to the future site of the land post. The battalion completed considerable construction and assembling operations under the severe conditions of Novaya Zemlya (Figs. 2 and 3). In July, when the land equipment arrived, they erected a technical building, two diesel power stations (one for domestic use and a second for the system’s guaranteed power supply), barracks for the personnel, and an antenna field for the radio station. The installers of the Era Plant together with a brigade of the Akhtuba Plant and specialists from the CRI Morfizpribor and the Kiev Hydroinstrument Research Institute assembled the equipment as soon as possible. Then the adjustment operation started. The commander of the Northern Fleet test site V. A. Shkutnik and Yu. Yu. Sendek, the chief of 5th Department of the Northern Fleet, contributed greatly to the organization of the land post.

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Shokalsky Glacier in Novaya Zemlya.

Fig. 3. V. S. Kasatkin and S. I. Levin communicating with the land post during the laying of the sea cable, 1961.

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Fig. 4. The cable-laying ship, equipped for the installation of the underwater part of the Liman system.

At the same time, a line section with eight SCS’s and cable amplifiers was assembled on board the Ingul cable laying ship (Fig. 4), which was stationed at Rosta Village. The installation of the underwater part of the prototype was carried out in August of the same year. During the completion stage an accident occurred. A live main cable broke on the cable ship, and the adjuster from the Akhtuba Plant, who was at the land post, electrically shorted the cable. As a result the SCS’s broke down. The chief designer made the decision to raise the sonars together with the cable and to send the cable ship to the Severomorsk test site, where the necessary facilities were maintained for repairing the SCS’s. He was supported by A. I. Petelin, First Deputy Commander in Chief for the Northern Fleet (later, the chairman of the state committee for Liman), and M. Ya. Chemeris, Director of the 5th Department of the Navy, who were then present at the land post. The cable ship lifted the SCS’s from a depth of 180–250 m and took them to Severomorsk. The CRI Morfizpribor and the Akhtuba Plant delegated the required specialists to make the necessary arrangements for the repair. An air bridge was organized to supply base members, gaskets and constituent parts from Volgograd. The examination of the SCS’s revealed breakdown of some transistors. The transistors were replaced and the SCS bodies were sealed and welded. Due to the dedicated work of the whole team the repaired underwater part was re-installed in October and the prototype successfully passed the tests. In November, prior to the

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closure of navigation for the winter, the committee and experts arrived at Severomorsk for completion of the documents. The risk the chief designer took in repairing the sonars at the test site in spite of the skeptics, who insisted that the repair should have been conducted at the Plant, paid off. The underwater part of the system was further extended to the full design length of 725 km during the navigation seasons of 1966 and 1967 according to plan. Each stage took 2–3 days. The Institute specialists A. V. Dolgov, M. S. Ardatovsky and specialists from the Kiev Hydroinstrument Research Institute, V. A. Zabotin, and B. V. Berezko wintered over these years at the land post. They provided support in maintaining the system and supervised the system operation by the post personnel. The state tests were conducted in October 1967. They confirmed that the system met the design and operational requirements and demonstrated the high reliability of the system. The prototype was tested during the navigation season because the committee and the designers could only arrive at the land post during this time. In April 1968, the members of the committee arrived for Northern Fleet submarine under-ice breakthrough maneuvers by a special polar aviation flight. The plane was the first to land on the bay ice. The committee included the experts from the CRI Morfizpribor G. I. Afrutkin, S. I. Levin, a representative from the Kiev Hydroinstrument Research Institute, A. S. Gurin, representatives of the Navy RIE, E. G. Gladkiy and Z. M. Khrapkin, a representative of the 5th Department of the Navy, R. I. Gorobets, as well as others. The maneuvers were successful and they confirmed the positive results of the state tests. The development of the Liman system required solving some new scientific, design, and engineering problems. They included: (1) the development of efficient self-contained models of automatic detection of noise-emitting targets against non-stationary noise; (2) the development of a data transmition system for a wide range of sonars using a cable several hundreds of kilometers long, and signals for remote control (including a pass-through control, a sensitivity shift, and a stand-by redundancy);

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(3) the development of the power supply system for remote operation via an extended cable link; (4) the design and engineering support for reliable operation of the radioelectronic and acoustic equipment during continuous service of 5 years with no maintenance; (5) the development of polyethylene high-voltage cable lead-ins with a two-stage sealing procedure; (6) the design and use of a new type of cable vessel for the deployment of bottom-mounted sonars. The prototype manufacture gave birth to a new hydroacoustic plant, equipped with the latest facilities and provided with trained personnel. The serial production of the sonar was mastered in the course of preproduction and the manufacturing of the prototype. The principles of arrangement of defensive stationary sonars, as well as the Liman D&D design and engineering features, which confirmed its efficiency and a high serviceability, were implemented in the subsequent Liman-M and Liman-K D&Ds (CRI Morfizpribor), the Obzor D&D (SDB Rif) and the Sever D&D (the Atoll Research Institute). In 1968, the Liman system (MGK -607) was adopted by the Navy. According to the Ordinance of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Council of Ministers of the USSR as of November 5, 1968, the Liman system D&D was awarded the USSR State Prize in the area of science and technology. V. S. Kasatkin, G. I. Afrutkin, V. D. Shakhmatov, and V. V. Gromkovsky at the CRI Morfizpribor; V. G. Tarasevich and A. S. Gurin at the Kiev Hydroinstrument Research Institute; G. N. Stepanov at the Dalnyaya Svyaz Research Institute; G. P. Korablev at the Akhtuba Plant; A. K. Borovskov in the design bureau of the Svetlana Plant; M. L. Pulenets at the Navy RIE and V. I. Platun at the MSI CA 10 became the laureates thereof.

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The Liman M Infrasonic Stationary Sonar G. I. AFRUTKIN

At the beginning of the 1970s, Navy experts and hydroacoustic scientists turned their attention to the infrasonic frequency range. They discovered discrete components in the ship noise spectrum, which resulted from the operation of the propeller and auxiliary machines. They thought that it would be possible to use this frequency range to increase the detection range and enable sonars to identify and classify targets by their spectral characteristics. The scientific basis and technology for the operation of infrasonic sonars were developed in the course of the Rassvet research project, with A. I. Glazkov as Chief Scientist. This project was conducted by the Institute (CRI Morfizpribor) in the mid-1960s. In 1967 the CRI Morfizpribor completed advance studies of two versions of a stationary barrier sonar for submarine detection and for protection of Navy bases. One was an audio frequency system (based on the Liman STSS), the other was an infrasonic system. The Institute preferred the second version and decided to start the Liman M D&D directly from the detailed designs in order to speed up mastering of the infrasonic frequency range by using the scientific and technological data from the Liman D&D and the Rassvet research effort. The director of the Institute, V. V. Gromkovsky, was appointed the Chief Designer of the D&D. The appointment of the director highly intensified the work effort. The chief designer’s group included such specialists of the Institute as G. I. Afrutkin (deputy chief designer), A. Ya. Borts, Ya. I. Karmanov, V. A. Zhuravleva, E. V. Vasilyev, V. N. Bykov, and Yu. M. Korovnikov. V. D. Shakhmatov became the deputy chief designer for the design and V. N. Tyufyaev was appointed as the production manager. The Navy RIE representatives L. B. Karlov,

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N. F. Chuev, and V. I. Belyak conducted research-and-technology supervision at different times. The Liman M system was to incorporate two parallel cable lines, each including 25 bottom sonars (BS) connected in series, the land data processing and display (DPD) equipment and a distant electric power supply unit. The detection line stretched for 100 km and was offset from the land post by up to 50 km. The two lines provided for the determination of target motion characteristics. The operation within the infrasonic frequency range was based on the selection of discrete components, which was associated with the narrow frequency band analysis (a frequency band of the order of 0.1 Hz). At that time, signals in the infrasonic range were converted into signals in the ultrasonic frequency where filtering was easier to perform. The designs of magnetic drums and heads for the converting instrumentation and the storage units were quickly developed with the participation of the magnetic recording specialists S. G. Zinovyev, N. N. Kholodnova, I. M. Menshikov, and others, who had been transferred to the CRI Morfizpribor from the Institute of Radio Reception and Acoustics (IRRA). A separate manufacturing site was established at the pilot factory for the production of this equipment. The converting instruments operated in the start-stop mode with a transposition coefficient of 3000. A. M. Iontov developed a digital program-control device with magnetically operated sealed switches to control the operation of six converting instruments, two storage units, spectrum analyzers, and data display devices. The land post equipment set consisted of 30 equipment racks. New instrument cabinets designed for land-based operation were developed. In particular, the operator’s control panel (designed by V. P. Kazachinin and I. A. Kleiman) fundamentally differed from conventional shipboard control panels (Fig. 1). The BS equipment included infrasonic transducers (designed by B. S. Aronov and R. P. Pavlov), amplifiers and signal multiplexers — frequency-division multiplexing with the transmission of the carrier frequency and two side bands (designed by A. I. Lonkevich). These devices were housed in bottom containers, which were designed on the basis of the Liman SCS (designed by V. D. Shakhmatov and

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Fig. 1.

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At the Liman-M system land post.

I. A. Ershov). Fifty containers were manufactured at the Izhorsky Plant under a cooperation agreement. The KPK-5/18 coaxial cable was used for underwater communication and power. Two hydroacousticians operated the system. The senior operator detected targets on two surveillance displays (which corresponded to the two barrier lines) by locking discrete components in the form of brightness marks on displays in the “frequency-BS number” coordinate system. The operator accurately measured the frequencies of the discrete signal components for each of the BS numbers on the “electronic lens display” in the “frequency-amplitude” coordinate system. He sorted them by scale and also conducted additional surveillance for signals in the continuous portion of the spectrum on the amplitude indicator display. The Liman M design principles were protected by a patent. Due to efficient project management the Liman M prototype was dispatched to the Northern Fleet in June, 1969, 1.5 years after the beginning of the project. The DPD equipment and power supply system were installed at the land post. It was decided to start with the testing of one line of the system. The depth at the installation site was 150–250 m. The system was quickly adjusted and prepared for testing and successfully passed the preliminary (on-site) tests on November 6, 1969.

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In June 1970, on the eve of Navy Day, the Chief Designer V. V. Gromkovsky reported from the land post to the Commander-in-Chief for the Navy, S. G. Gorshkov, in Moscow via an HF telephone that the system had successfully passed the state tests. The development of the Liman M sonar, the first infrasonic system, confirmed the effectiveness of the infrasonic frequency range for submarine detection in a heavy traffic environment, which was characteristic of the deployment area. During the tests, positive results were obtained when a submarine attempted to penetrate the system’s lineof-defense under cover of the interfering noise from a surface ship. In addition, it appeared that the data generated by the system could be used for the objective classification of targets and for the operational control of noise emissions by submarines as they leave their base. However, after a while the operation of the prototype was halted. This was due to a bad choice for the deployment site of the underwater part of the system. It was installed in an area of intensive bottomtrawl fishing. During certain periods up to 80–100 fishing vessels were present in the area. Fishing vessels repeatedly damaged the cable with their trawls. The Navy was forced to abandon the installation of the prototype’s second detection line and the operation of the prototype after numerous repairs of the cable and a failure to close the area to fishing vessels. Later, in 1974–1975, the Navy decided to modify the Liman M sonar into the Liman K sonar, which had a shorter barrier line of 50 km. The cable was fed into a specially designed buoy, to which a ship carrying the DPD equipment was to be moored. The buoy — the SDS-1000 sea docking system — was developed at the Sevastopol CDB. The barrier line included ten BS’s of the Liman-M system. The equipment was produced at the Institute and installed onboard the re-equipped Ritsa cargo carrier. During tests near the Sevastopol Naval Base, at depths of 400– 500 m, it appeared that the SDS could not provide a secure attachment of the cable because of shifting currents and winds. These twisted the vertical part of the KPK-5/18 cable and broke its central core at the SDS lead-in point. Further attempts by the CDB to improve the design were unsuccessful, so the Liman K D&D was finally abandoned.

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The Liman M system was not serially produced because of the radical change in components — from analog to digital computer hardware — and the reduction of noise emissions in the infrasonic frequency range by ships. It should be noted, though, that the negative experience with the Liman K cable was taken into account during the development of the stationary emitting array of the Dnestr sonar system. A special KPK 7.5/27 cable was developed for the vertical part, in which the armored wires were laid randomly, which prevented the cable from twisting.

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The Amur Land-Based Passive Sonar E. V. BATANOGOV and L. B. KARLOV

The late 1950s brought an acute need for the development of a longrange, land-based passive hydroacoustic system (a land-based sonar) for detection of submarines in the Pacific theater. Therefore, the Navy developed the necessary design and operational requirements for such a sonar under the Amur codename and assigned them to the CRI Morfizpribor. At that time the submerged speed of foreign nuclear submarines was up to 25 knots, so the Navy command and control insisted that this figure be included into the technical and tactical requirements (TTR) of the design. Noting the fact that the speed itself meant little to designers, the Navy specified that the TTR include a submarine noise level, which was characteristic for such speeds, as a guideline for the sonar design. Ye. Ye. Valfish was appointed the Chief Designer of the sonar. G. A. Goldybin became his deputy, and K. N. Zaytsev was appointed the deputy for the design. A. I. Sharanin, L. N. Neganovskaya, and E. V. Batanogov made the basic analysis, drew up specific technical requirements for the separate departments, and supervised the development of the sonar instrumentation in the laboratories and their production at the pilot factory of the Institute. The instrumentation having been produced, the above specialists integrated them on the bench, adjusted the sonar, participated in bench tests, factory tests, and in sea trials. The leading engineer, E. V. Batanogov, was responsible for researching the hydrological conditions at the ocean site where the underwater portion of the sonar was to be deployed and simulating of the sonar’s performance in the ocean. The simulation was conducted in the laboratories of the Mechanic and

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Mathematics Department of the Leningrad University and at one of the military units. Later he was put in charge of installation and repair operations. These were conducted at the Morzavod floating dock in PetropavlovskKamchatski, at a distant site accessible only by amphibious means and by helicopters, and in the ocean. Specialists of the Lazurit CDB, the Akhtuba Plant, the Dalzavod Plant, and the Lenin Production Association in Beltsy took part in that large-scale project together with the main scientific and production departments of the CRI Morfizpribor. All in all there were up to 300 individuals involved in the development effort. At certain project stages Yu. P. Skachkov and L. B. Karlov exercised technological supervision for the Navy RIE. The personnel of Unit No. 63878 in Kamchatka (Commanders Ye. M. Vasilyev and A. A. Kosik) made a significant contribution to the assembly and installation operations of the array and to the sea trials of the whole system. In March, 1961, the CRI Morfizpribor completed the draft design of the Amur land-based sonar. The station consisted of an underwater component and a land component linked together via two special four-wire underwater cables. The sonar was meant for maintenancefree and failure-free operation for not less than 2 years. Therefore, the designers paid special attention to the underwater part. To provide the required reliability the devices and assembly units of the underwater part had to be as simple as possible, but not to the detriment of its specifications. The most reliable elements and parts were then chosen for operation in a benign mode. The container for the underwater part provided the most favorable climatic conditions for the equipment’s operation. It was filled with nitrogen. Most of the vital elements, parts, and assemblies were duplicated. The original design of a body-mechanical part (BMP) of the underwater unit (Unit 1) was developed with the participation of the Lazurit CDB. The BMP consisted of a tank in the form of a doughnut with the diameter of 20 m. The tank accommodated a container with the equipment and five floating bags. The gross displacement of Unit 1 was 500 tons (see the article by G. V. Vityugov et al. “The Story of the Participation of the Lazurit CDB in the Development of the Array Systems for Stationary Sonars” — Ed.).

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Fig. 1.

Towing of the acoustic array for the Amur land sonar.

The unit was to be towed and installed at the installation site by flooding the tank. The immersion depth of Unit 1 could be from 100 to 300 m. Floating bags, which were designed for a specific depth, provided the positive buoyancy. A special drift-anchor with a displacement of 100 tons was towed together with Unit 1 to the installation site (Fig. 1). It had the form of a flat barge and it was designed to retain Unit 1 at the operating level at water depths up to 1500 m. The anchor barge was flooded at the Unit 1 installation site and settled down to the bottom. The unit was connected to the anchor by means of a steel mooring cable. Hydroacoustic receivers (PR units) in the form of strips were installed all over the “doughnut” generatrix. The strips were 4 m long and each of them had eight transducers (PR-1 units). The tank generatrix of Unit 1 housed 288 PR units. Therefore, the unit circular base included 2304 piezoelectrical hydroacoustic receivers. The underwater container accommodated a compensator with an induction commutation switch, which was designed for generating and

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rotating the beam pattern in the horizontal plane. It was remotely controlled from the land post via a cable by means of a servo drive. The spatial orientation of the circular base was extremely difficult. Severe requirements for the reliability of the wet-end part on the one hand, and a limited number of wires in the cable connecting Unit 1 with the land equipment on the other hand, did not make it possible to use a magnetic or gyroscopic system for orientating the unit. Therefore, an original method for finding the orientation of the array was developed. It used a secondary control transmitter (Unit 1A). This was an omnidirectional transmitter installed several dozens of kilometers away from Unit 1 and at approximately the same depth. The omnidirectional transmitter was in a buoyant container, which was moored with a cable and a concrete anchor. Unit 1A was linked to the land post via a KPK-5/18 cable. The principle of space orientation was as follows. The bearing of the control transmitter, the coordinates of which in relation to Unit 1 (therefore, the true bearing) were known, was to be periodically checked by means of one of the modes of operation (a detection or a direction-finding mode). The bearings, which were determined by the sonar, were corrected, if necessary. Further experience justified this space orientation method. The free suspension and possible rotation of Unit 1, which were due to the seasonal changes of the currents, could be easily taken into account. A crew of two men operated the sonar. One performed a circular scan of the territory using the detection mode of operation. When a target was detected, the other operator maintained contact with the target, tracked, and located it using the tracking mode. The directional characteristics from both modes of operation were generated independently. The displays were special cathode ray tubes (skiatrons) with an extended afterglow, which provided accumulation of signals and an increased resistance to noise. Besides, the sonar was equipped with mechanical recorders using electrochemical paper, loudspeakers, and telephones for each operational mode. All land-based equipment was accommodated in two buildings. One was equipped with a self-contained diesel-electric power supply units as a backup.

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The building, which accommodated the main equipment, was linked to the sonar’s underwater component via two symmetrical 4-wire SPEK-4 cables. The distance to the underwater part could be up to 90 km. The work on the sonar design was completed and presented to the Navy in March 1964. Thereafter, the production of the equipment was accelerated, and bench tests started as early as December 1964. The container for the underwater part, which had been produced in Komsomolsk-on-Amur, was delivered to the CRI Morfizpribor. All the sonar equipment, which was tested together with the land based equipment, was then assembled into the container. At the same time the Tashkent Research Institute of Cable Industry was developing a special underwater symmetrical 4-wire SPEK-4 cable and a SPESHK-4 cable (the latter had strengthened armor so it could be laid in shallow water from a 10-m isobath and further along the coastline up to the technical building). A heavy work load was placed on the Navy, which was to install the sonar’s underwater components and lay the cables. The installation site having been chosen, Navy specialists began making hydrographic measurements. This was necessary to select a site on the sea bottom that met the design requirements. They chose ways for laying cables and studied the current chart in the installation area of Unit 1. At the same time preparation for the construction of the the land post began. Later, experience showed that the site of the land post had not been selected properly. It was an uninhabited site situated on the coast and was open to predominant winds and permanent ground swell. Unloading operations were to be carried out under very adverse conditions. At the same time there were a convenient bay and a naval base several miles away from the selected site where the land post could be installed since the cables were long enough. Unfortunately, the decision to move the site was not made. In January 1965, L. B. Karlov, the customer’s representative for the Amur sonar, started finalizing the land post project, the hydrographic reconnaissance plan, and other plans for installation of the sonar with the Vladivostok naval institutions. The sonar chief designer, Ye. Ye. Valfish, also took part in the approval of the plans. The installation of

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Unit 1 in the floating dock and the delivery, storage, and laying of the SPEK-4 cable, which was new to the Navy, as well as the digging of cable ditches in the coastal area out to the 10-m isobath proved to be a very complicated tasks. In mid-1965, the metal portions of Unit 1, Unit 1A, and the drift-anchor were delivered to Petropavlovsk-Kamchatski from Vladivostok. The assembly operations for Unit 1 were conducted in Seldevaya Bay at the Morskoy Plant. They revealed ruptures in the insulation in the cable for the hydroacoustic receivers (PR’s). The assembled 4-m PR Units had to be uninstalled and the wire had to be replaced. This required additional hydraulic pressure tests in a tank. These tests took place in MU No. 63868. The Pacific Fleet sea expeditions, which were organized for the installation of the sonar’s underwater components made an important contribution to the deployment effort. Apart from the Ingul cable ship, these expeditions included a large number of auxiliary vessels. The experienced Navy men, Peretyatko and Rodionov, were in charge of the sea expeditions. Representatives of the Navy and the CRI Morfizpribor also took part in the expeditions. At the end of August 1965, the Ingul installed Unit 1A and laid the cable, which linked it to the land post. Unit 1 installation work and preparation tests were carried out throughout August and September. The personnel were trained to deploy the unit and the drift-anchor. The importance of the preparatory operations are demonstrated by the fact that the commander of MU No. 87415, A. L. Genkin, and the chief engineer of the CRI Morfizpribor, E. I. Aladyshkin, resided at the installation site in Petropavlovsk-Kamchatski and took an active part therein. The director of the CRI Morfizpribor, V. V. Gromkovsky, arrived later. By the end of September all work had been completed and Unit 1 had been handed over to the sea expedition, but the departure for the installation site was delayed by unfavorable weather. In accordance with the method of installation, which had been developed by the Navy with the participation of the designers, the operation required 2 days of smooth seas. However, cyclones and typhoons had not ceased by November of that year. Finally, at the end of October it was decided to take to sea and to wait for favorable weather at the installation site.

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The installation began on one of the last days of October, but the weather turned bad again, so the sea expedition commander decided to return to Petropavlovsk-Kamchatski. However, during the return trip the expedition received a telegram from Fleet Commander N. N. Amelko, who ordered them to install Unit 1, because good weather was forecast for the following 2 days. Unfortunately, there was an accident during installation. The cable attached to the drift anchor and the main cables all broke loose. The sea expedition returned to Petropavlovsk-Kamchatski and Unit 1 was docked. The above-listed failures made the Fleet Commander change the installation procedure. No serious and continuous operations were to be conducted at sea, which substantially complicated the installation operation, because the system was towed by auxiliary ships and several tow boats, apart from the Ingul. As the result the maneuvering of vessels, the carrying cables, a mooring cable and a drift anchor, which were all connected to each other, became even more complicated. A spare drift anchor and a new cable, which had been made by the Dalzavod Plant in Vladivostok, were delivered to PetropavlovskKamchatski. A. L. Genkin, N. N. Sviridov, the director of MSI CA 10, N. P. Chiker, deputy director of the Navy AC, and N. I. Kvasha, chief engineer of the Lazurit CDB, came in November to inspect the progress of the work. With the appearance of sheet ice in the bay at the beginning of December they decided to preserve Unit 1 in Avachinskaya Bay. Unit 1 was towed from the dock to the preservation site through the ice cover, which was cleared by the towboats, and flooded in Avachinskaya Bay at the depth of 10 m. The installation operation was delayed until the spring of 1966. Unfortunately, misfortunes continued to pursue us. A cable clamp for Unit 1 suddenly snapped off causing the unit to brake loose of the anchors. It emerged and was dragged onto the rocks. Many transducers were badly damaged and many strips were bent. Unit 1 was again docked to replace the strips and transducers. The repair and preparation for the installation operation continued until July. Finally, by the end of July, Unit 1 had been installed in accordance with the procedure recommended by Admiral Amelko. Before

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flooding, one of the cables was cut off the Ingul and attached to a buoy, and the Ingul laid one of the two remaining cables. Then the cut-off cable was spliced to the branch cable onboard the ship and laid during the second Ingul effort. Factory tests of the sonar took place in August–September, 1966. Yu. K. Kochetkov was the committee chairman and L. B. Karlov was his deputy. The detection ranges during the tests increased the TTR’s by 2.5–3 times (in the presence of the underwater sound channel). The preparation for the state tests then started. The state tests began at the end of September, 1966, after the test directives had been issued. The Chief of Staff of the Kamchatka Flotilla, Yu. S. Russin, was appointed the committee chairman; L. B. Karlov and MU commanders, Ye. M. Vasilyev and I. F. Kharlamov, were his deputies. The results of the state tests, which were completed by the end of October, were good. The state test reports recommended the effective range, which increased the TTR by 1.5 times (with a positive signal excess of 20 dB). The Fleet Commander gave his approval and recommended the sonar be adopted by the Navy. In 1968, the repair interval for Unit 1 lapsed and the Navy, together with the MSI, made a decision to raise Unit 1 (by blowing up the anchor-cable), to complete its dock repair and perform its second installation, which took place in September 1968. By that time the documents on service tests had been prepared. The Chief of Staff of the Kamchatka Flotilla, Yu. A. Ilchenko, was appointed the committee chairman and L. B. Karlov and Ye. M. Vasilyev were his deputies. The service tests confirmed the detection ranges, which had been received during the state tests. The sonar was adopted by the Navy under the codename MG-517 in 1969. The tests and experimental operation of the sonar prompted the need to catalog the detected targets. The sonar designers together with the Navy specialists carried out experiments to catalog and identify targets. Various types of equipment were used to analyze the received signals by the carrier frequency or signal envelope. Spectrum analyses were performed to extract discrete “shaft” and “blade” frequencies, which were characteristic of the noise of the submarines of that period.

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The Navy specialists carried out experiments with explosive sound sources in order to measure the distance to the noise-emitting targets. Encouraging results were obtained (the distances to detected submarines were determined at ranges up to 100 km), before the experiments were cancelled because of many difficulties. The sonar was serially produced at the Akhtuba Plant. Two production samples were manufactured and installed in the Sea of Japan. Thereafter, serial production of the Amur land sonar ended due to a considerable decrease in the noise emitted by submarines as compared to the levels that had been observed during the sonar development stage. This fact was to be considered when developing a new generation land sonar.

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The Birth of the Agam Sonar V. V. DEMYANOVICH

The CRI Morfizpribor completed the Agam long-range, land-based passive sonar for submarine detection with passage of the state tests in 1985. The chief designer and his closest associates had devoted almost 25 years of their lives to the development of the sonar. The development of the Agam was considered an important national challenge, which was necessary for improving the country’s defensive capability. This article provides an opportunity to remember the past events and the people who participated in some fashion in the development of the Agam or influenced its development. In the late 1950s, the rapid development of nuclear submarines armed with long-range nuclear missiles prompted the development of a means for long-range detection as they approached the coastline, especially near naval bases. The long-range detection of a submarine meant hundreds of kilometers from the coastline. Analyses proved that only a unique sonar with great resistance to enemy jamming would be able to detect a submarine at such ranges. At that time the Institute was developing the first long-range sonar for submarine detection codenamed Amur (see the article “The Amur Land-Based Passive Sonar” by E. V. Batanogov and L. B. Karlov for the detailed description of the development of the Amur sonar — Ed.). However, the tactical requirements for such sonars had considerably increased, so the Institute was assigned the task of developing an allseason, all-weather, land-based sonar for operation in coastal areas and having an effective range that exceeded the Amur’s effective range. The technical capability to develop such a sonar at that time was not evident. It was necessary to conduct sophisticated research. Such work under the codename Dvina started in 1959 by an ordinance of

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the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers and was completed in 1963. The Dvina Research Project was intended to analyze energy and spectral characteristics of submarine noise emissions and environment noises at the expected installation sites of the receiving arrays and to conduct theoretic and experimental research on fluctuations of a target’s low-frequency signal, after having traveled long distances through the ocean’s inhomogeneous environment, near the coastal shelf, and under ice. The long-range detection task was to be solved with the use of low acoustic frequencies. Therefore, it was necessary to analyze the effectiveness of long wavelength hydroacoustic arrays with active surfaces of hundreds of square meters and the technological issues relating to the construction and installation of such arrays at sea. This is only a short list of the research efforts and is to provide an idea of the scope of the problem. Four institutes were assigned the Dvina Research Project. The CRI Morfizpribor became the leading contractor. One of the Navy research institutes was the associate contractor for the measurement, classification, and analysis of submarine noise and for the classification of research data on open sea and under-ice noise (Chief Scientist G. D. Pervukhin). The Academician Andreyev Institute of Acoustics was the associate contractor for the validation of the main specifications of a submarine detection sonar, for the analysis of propagation of low-frequency signals in the deep to shallow water transition regions and in the ocean when covered with ice, and for the analysis of statistical characteristics of the noise signal (S. G. Gershman). The Kiev Hydroinstrument Research Institute was the associate contractor for the development of data processing and display of jam-resistant modes of operation (Chief Scientist E. N. Maykhrovsky). The Dvina Research Project was for a short time supervised by the head of the Laboratory D. I. Ibraimov. A young engineer Ya. S. Karlik (Fig. 1) was appointed Chief Scientist in 1961. The contractors had to tackle many challenges, which were difficult not only from the technological point of view but also difficult because they required solving many organizational problems associated with the development and production of mock-up models, the equipment

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Fig. 1.

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Ya. S. Karlik, the chief designer of the Agam land sonar.

of ships and submarines, and the execution of a large amount of experimental work. The theoretical calculation of the main specifications of the sonar had to be confirmed by experimental studies during the research. Two array models were designed and manufactured and two survey vessels that were assigned by the Navy were equipped to accommodate transmitting equipment. The design documentation was developed with the participation of the CDB-18. Finally, the onboard array was installed on a class 611 submarine at a shipyard. There were 200 low-frequency piezoelectric receivers placed between the nonpressure hull and the strength hull of the submarine. The experimental studies took place in the open waters in the Barents Sea and at the ice edge near Kamchatka in the Sea of Japan. The successful accomplishment of a wide range of multidisciplinary tasks, especially experiments, was due to the fact that the team supervised by Ya. S. Karlik consisted of young enthusiastic specialists who had recently graduated from universities and had received high-level academic educations. The average age of the team was 28–30 years. The enthusiasm was due to the fact that they were working at a prestigious institute and were sure they were participants in a very important

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state matter, which was necessary to improve the defensive capacity of their country. Much of the work to be done was extremely interesting to the young enthusiasts. For example, it was necessary to determine whether a low-frequency directional pattern can be created with a largeaperture planar array. This question was answered with the help of the onboard submarine array. The submarine was sitting on the bottom of Motovsky Bay in the Barents Sea, and a ship circled it with a calibrated transmitter lowered at a specified depth. To prevent miscalculations in the design of the large-size array, it was necessary to experimentally determine the spatial correlation length of signals that have travelled great distances in the inhomogeneous sea environment. In 1961 such work was performed in the Sea of Japan under the supervision of the Leading Engineer L. N. Rerikh. The signals traveled 400–500 km and were received by hydrophones separated by hundreds of meters. The correlation of signals, which were emitted by the Inza system and received by the Kerch sonar array onboard a submarine, were also analyzed under the supervision of the Chief Scientist Ya. S. Karlik and the Leading Engineer B. I. Lashkov in the Sea of Japan. In the spring of 1962, the designers studied the possibility of detecting low-frequency signals under ice using a submarine array and the re-equipped hydrographic ship (HS) Peleng, which accommodated the transmitting equipment. The research was conducted at the ice edge in the central part of the Barents Sea. A submarine submerged and moved under the ice about 20 km from the ice edge. Then the submarine surfaced against the ice sheet. All possible submarine equipment was switched off to decrease the noise level. The signals emitted by the HS were received by the submarine array against the under-ice noises at ranges up to 200 km from the transmitter. After 3 years of rushed work, results were obtained that confirmed the possibility of developing a long-range, low-frequency, stationary passive sonar for detecting submarines in the Pacific theater of operations. The chief scientist and his assistants, S. D. Smirnov and A. Korepin, the heads of the research divisions, R. P. Pavlov, N. N. Fedorov, and M. I. Roshal, the members of the chief scientist’s group,

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Yu. S. Shumilov, L. N. Rerikh, V. K. Vovchenko, M. B. Belenky, and V. V. Demyanovich, were satisfied with the results of the research as were the above-mentioned associate contractors. The D&D order was not received until three years later, despite the customer’s promise the work would be immediately continued. This delay was evidently caused by several factors. First, the Institute was overloaded with orders for the development of sonars for submarines and surface ships. Much more attention was paid to them, especially to submarine sonars, than to stationary sonars. Other factors included controversial issues concerning the effectiveness of low-frequency and infrasonic sonars. By that time the so-called discrete components in the intrinsic noise spectra of surface ships and submarines at frequencies below 100 Hz had been discovered. The noise levels were 30–40 dB higher than the continuous spectrum level of the noise emitted in that frequency range. The issue of passive sonars, which detected targets not by means of the continuous spectrum but by the discrete components in the infrasonic frequency range, was being actively developed. This in spite of the fact that the physical nature of these discrete components was known and effective measures were being taken by foreign nations to decrease their level. What little information was available on our potential adversary submarine noise emissions showed that the discrete components in the noise spectra of foreign submarines were considerably lower in comparison to our submarines, and that the potential adversary paid much more attention to relevant countermeasures at that time than our submarine designers. This information was taken into consideration and after the completion of the Dvina Research Project, the Navy selected the lowfrequency range. This selection was actively defended by the Chief Scientist, Ya. S. Karlik. It is worth mentioning that experimental studies on the detection and location of our submarines by discrete components were very promising at that time. For example, a submarine was repeatedly detected by discrete components at ranges up to 100 km during the Rassvet research project experiments in the Sea of Japan in 1964, while the target signal was received by a single receiver.

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The American designers of the Sound Surveillance System (SOSUS) system seemed to have successfully taken this technical characteristic of our submarines into account. Later, due to the sharp decrease in both the continuous and discrete-component noise levels of our submarines, SOSUS was practically abandoned. It is not used at the present time. The decision to develop the Agam land sonar prototype was not made until 1966. The beginning of the work was preceded by a long and difficult approval of the D&D tactical and technical requirements (TTR). The customer-suggested TTR were beyond our capabilities. The CRI failed to reach a compromise on the D&D requirements with the customer and started work in accordance with TTR which were not fully agreed upon — we had to carry out the ordinance of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers at a stated time. More than 15 institutions and enterprises took part in the development of the land sonar. In accordance with the ordinance they included: (1) the Lazurit CDB (Nizhny Novgorod), which developed the mechanical body of the array system; (2) the Akhtuba Plant (Volgograd), which produced piezoelectric transducers for the array system; (3) one of the MD research institutes in Leningrad, which conducted model tests of the array system for the determination of its characteristics when towing at sea and during installation; (4) the Tashkent Research Institute of the Cable Industry (TashRICI), which developed a special multi-wire sea cable for transmitting data between the array system and the land post. In the course of the work it became clear that the term “main institutions” would mean only the Lazurit CDB. The others were just participants in the project. The real “main institutions” that had not been specified by the resolution were determined later. The development of the sonar prototype began. Ya. S. Karlik was appointed the Chief Designer. I. I. Tochyony (deputy Chief Designer for the design of the array system) and the author of this article became

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his deputies. In 1966, the chief designer’ group was small and consisted of the main Dvina researchers. The principal attention of the advanced project team, responsible for developing a preliminary or draft design, was directed to the array system, to the system of data transmission via a cable, and to the basic principles of the development of the detection and location circuits. The team planned to design a discrete phased array with an active area of about 1000 m2 . Such an array could be designed only with the involvement of the ship-building experts. Therefore, the Leningrad Shipbuilding Institute was involved in the design together with the Lazurit CDB. They studied 12 versions of the array design. They searched for a design that could not only perform the main functions, but could also be delivered by sea to the installation site without special means of transportation, installed, oriented in the designed direction and connected to the land post via an underwater cable. In addition, there was one more condition of no little significance — the imagination of the inventors had to comply with the capabilities of our ship-building plants in the Far East. The TTR for the project were found feasible as the result of significant research, which exceeded the requirements of an ordinary advanced project. The Agam sonar was to detect submarines with noise levels as per the TTR and at ranges, which seemed enormous at that time. During the draft design stage, the Lazurit CDB approved two versions of the array system for further consideration. The TashRICI confirmed that a special multi-wire sea cable could be developed. The draft design work began in the beginning of 1967. The work had to be done quickly in order to develop and produce the sonar prototype by the end of 1969, as required by the ordinance. The chief designer’s group increased in size with experienced and highly skilled engineers and recent graduates. A large contribution to the determination of the specifications of the sonar was made by the research engineer, N. S. Lashkova, who was the main ideological assistant to the chief designer during the early stages of sonar development. V. K. Vovchenko, Yu. S. Shumilov, V. V. Semenov, P. V. Abankin, Zh. A.

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Kondratyev, V. G. Poleshuk, and M. V. Voyeikova took an active part in different parts of the design. Two additional deputies to the chief designer — a deputy chief designer for land equipment, P. G. Lazarev, and the chief technologist, Ye. G. Granat, who was assisted by a young gifted technologist, A. G. Bogomaz, were appointed due to a large volume of design and engineering work. About 15 departments of the Institute participated in the draft design. The decisions at the draft design stage basically defined the development of the Agam land sonar and did not change in subsequent years despite the customer’s modifications to the TTR during the development of the sonar. The sonar array system is worth special mention. It was for the first time in the history of domestic hydroacoustics that they designed and suggested for further development a discrete phased array with an active area of 750 m2 . The mechanical body of the array system, designed by the Lazurit CDB, consisted of two tanks each about 3 m in diameter with systems for flooding and purging of water. The array had 2400 receivers, designed in the form of 120 rods located between the two rigidly connected tanks. Each of the 120 rods was an open arrangement of 20 piezoelectric transducers. The chief designer provided the conceptual design for the rods, and I. I. Tochyony suggested that titanium pipes be used as a structural component. It was an innovative suggestion, which considerably increased the reliability and operational characteristics of the whole structure. The array system was 100 m by 17 m in size and weighed about 800 tons. It was to be retained near the bottom by two anchors and connected to the land post via two special multi-wire cables. The signals from the receiving array rods were to be transmitted to the land post via a cable and the electric power was to be supplied from the land post to the array and then on to the underwater electronic equipment. The basic engineering features of the draft design included the formation of a directional characteristics fan at the land post in the

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specified scan sector and the detection of targets by means of correlation methods. The tasks were difficult, but they were finally accomplished; with serious complications, however. The draft design stage was devoted not only to the development of the sonar, but to the ideological battle over a low-frequency sonar, which was described in the TTR and did not need to be defended one would think. However, a working group was established at the Institute on its own initiative, but with the support of the management, to design an infrasonic version of the sonar with the codename Agam-I. In the opinion of the group it was to have considerably better engineering and economical performance. As was previously explained, the chief designer of the Agam sonar thought that a long-range, stationary, infrasonic sonar for submarine detection was not promising. This led to a direct confrontation and an acute struggle for influence. As the result, two versions of the sonar were presented to the customer’s committee at the end of 1967. The infrasonic version appeared to have much better characteristics. In the opinion of the designers, its detection range exceeded the TTR’s and its development and production costs were considerably lower than those of the low-frequency sonar. The committee headed by F. F. Kryachok, a deputy director of the Navy RIE, faced a difficult task. L. B. Karlov, a highly skilled, wellintentioned, and wise member of the committee, played a significant role in making the optimal decision. The Institute presented the infrasonic variant of the Agam-I sonar to the committee and suggested that it finish the development of the low-frequency version. Submarines were to be detected as they approached the Pacific coast by means of two complementary stationary sonars — the Amur sonar, developed and adopted for serial production in 1965, and the Agam-I infrasonic sonar, which was still under development. The committee had to deal with problems that were beyond the scope of the draft design. It is worth mentioning that a large amount of work was completed during a short period of time despite heated disputes about design procedures, the accuracy of initial results, and

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the appropriateness of assumptions. Tempers ran high but finally conclusions were drawn and approved. The committee studied the analyses, which confirmed that the Agam acoustic sonar detected submarines at ranges 3–4.5 times greater than the Amur sonar, and that the Agam-I infrasonic sonar was effective for detecting submarines at high speeds, while the Agam range was 1.5–2 times greater at low and average speeds under the same conditions. The committee report stated that the analysis of the effective range of the Agam-I sonar was made using the levels of the discrete components in the emission spectra of our submarines. This “peculiarity” evidently influenced the committee’s conclusion. The committee report contained many comments and recommendations. Unfortunately, they sometimes included statements that were not completely technical. This led to disputable situations, which were to be settled at higher levels in Moscow. In the end they suggested that the Institute continue to develop two versions of the Agam sonar; acoustic and infrasonic versions, but the Institute refused to do this. The decision-making was transferred to Moscow. The MSI CA 10 together with the Navy Radio Engineering Department conducted several meetings with independent experts from other institutions during which the development of the Agam sonar was suspended. Two years passed, but not in vain. They provided the opportunity to amend calculations, make models, and complete the experimental analysis, which was stipulated by the earlier Dvina Research Project. The development went on, and the position of the Agam sonar chief designer, who was supporting the customer, became even more difficult. Ya. S. Karlik’s optimism, commitment, and insistence came to the rescue. Having defended his Candidate of Science dissertation, he felt that his colleagues and associates supported his belief in the feasibility of the designed engineering features. One of the tasks of the experimental analysis was to confirm the possibility of using ray theory (geometrical acoustics) of sound propagation in the ocean for the calculation of the low-frequency sonar parameters. There were no relevant test data at that time for frequencies below 500 Hz and for specific ocean conditions. Such work required

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significant material input and considerable organization effort. That was why the offer of the Institute of Acoustics to participate in the 8th Atlantic Expedition on board the Petr Lebedev and Sergey Vavilov research ships was very timely. Prototypes of a 70 m flexible vertical receiving array with 26 receivers and a device for generating and scanning its directional pattern were shortly designed and produced. The technical specifications and operational reliability of the models made it possible to use them in three sea expeditions and acquire valuable experimental information. The D&D chief designer was supposed to take part in the expeditions, but at that time he was restricted from traveling abroad. Therefore, V. V. Demyanovich and a senior engineer in the chief designer’s group, V. V. Semenov, became members of the expedition. The expedition proved to be useful and informative. The experiments, which were done for the first time, showed good agreement between the design and the empirical low-frequency hydroacoustic signals, which had traveled in the ocean for hundreds of kilometers via an underwater acoustic channel and were received by a 70-m vertical array. The results confirmed the possibility of using ray theory for calculations in the low-frequency range. It is worth mentioning, though, that the conclusions were only true for the ocean areas where the experiments were carried out. They could not be easily applied to other hydrological and acoustical conditions. Other experimental studies were organized apart from the expeditions. In the autumn of 1968, V. V. Semenov supervised research on sea noise in the range of the operating frequency with the use of an omnidirectional receiver and a receiver with a cardioid directional pattern in possible deployment areas of the Agam array. The receivers and the measuring equipment were installed onboard a class 629 submarine. The first expedition failed. Water began entering the pressure hull through a removable plate after submerging, so the submarine had to return to base. The receivers and the measuring equipment were transferred to another submarine. The second time was more successful. The submarine sat on the bottom for 48 hours in silence, while sea noises were recorded.

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At the end of 1969 the TTR for the low-frequency version of the Agam sonar was finally updated and approved. The range-of-detection requirement for the submarine had been significantly changed due to the inclusion in the TTR of the lower noise levels of detected targets. The new requirements had to be specified at the design stage. Despite the fact that the TTR’s had been approved, it was not possible to conduct the work in a normal way because the year of manufacture of the sonar experimental prototype according to the above-mentioned ordinance, 1969, was unrealistic. That was clear to all — both to the designers and their supervisors. Nevertheless, the chief designer’s multiple attempts to correct the work schedule in accordance with the production capacity of the CRI Morfizpribor were not supported by the Institute management. The result was predictable — the production of the experimental prototype fell behind schedule. The Director of the Institute, V. V. Gromkovsky, give an admonition to the chief designer and his deputy, V. V. Demyanovich, and went to Moscow, where he easily arranged the rescheduling of the Agam sonar project. In accordance with a new resolution of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, the Institute had now to develop not an experimental prototype but a preproduction model by 1972. The engineering design was to be completed by 1971. It was completed and submitted to the committee in due time after a year and a half of intensive work. There were new features to be implemented in the engineering design of the sonar as compared to the draft design. For the first time in the design of a stationary sonar a serially produced four-wire SPEC-4 cable was suggested for data transmit from the array to the land post instead of the special multi-wire sea cable designed by the TashRICI for the Agam sonar. This cable implemented the frequency multiplexing method and therefore maintained the signal phase relations in all 120 transmision channels, The Moscow All-Union Institute of Radiation Technology (RIRT) developed an isotope thermoelectric generator for the self-contained power supply for the array system equipment. It was to provide uninterrupted operation of the equipment for five years after the deployment of the array.

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The land-based equipment had new components — they were made with integrated circuits instead of the transistorized devices of the draft design. The circuit designs were updated in accordance with the results of the IC breadboarding and laboratory tests. A MD research institute performed a great deal of work to simulate the behavior of the array system during towing and installation. The results of the simulation were taken into account during the development of the mechanical body of the array by the Lazurit CDB, under the supervision of G. V. Vityugov. The work to produce the engineering design had been thorough, and the analysis done to determine acceptance was thorough also. The confrontation between the customer and the Institute predetermined a tough stance by the customer during the analysis of the engineering design. Some additional engineering was conducted at the request of the committee. In particular, for the first time in design practice, submarine detection was evaluated by the committee’s benchmark data under the conditions of the navigation interference in various hydrologic and acoustic environments. They touched upon such issues as the classification of targets, display of information on special video screens, and many others. L. B. Karlov and a representative of the Navy RIE, Yu. P. Skachkov, a skilled researcher, who had been at the Research Institute for many years, took an active part in the committee’s work. The chief designer and his ideological assistant, senior researcher N. S. Lashkova, the members of the chief designer’s group, and many other representatives of specialized departments had to pass other severe tests, but the engineering design was finally approved. As usual, there were many remarks and recommendations, but the final result was that there was no longer any doubt about the need for a stationary, low-frequency, passive sonar for detection of submarines, which was also capable of receiving echoes from targets. This made it possible to modernize the sonar for future operation in the active mode. It was now the end of the second quarter of 1971. In the third quarter of the same year detailed engineering work started. There were no more technical problems. Instead, some management challenges appeared.

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The problem was that at the time the Institute was simultaneously developing design documentation for three large orders; the Skat, the Polinom, and the Agam. Naturally, the Institute had neither engineering nor production facilities for the simultaneous completion of all three projects. The following order of work was determined: the Skat submarine system, the Polinom surface ship system and, finally, the Agam. All attempts to change the sequence according to the actual workload of departments and pilot production of the Institute were stopped by the management of the Okeanpribor RPA, which had been established in 1973 and included the CRI Morfizpribor. Sometimes they refused in a polite way, sometimes not, but the result was always negative for the Agam sonar. However, the documents were issued in parts for separate instruments and equipment and pilot production was simultaneously being prepared. The equipment for the array system was developed first. It is fair to say that the Institute made attempts to manufacture a prototype. In particular, the pilot production included a special division for manufacturing of the open lattice-like structure of titanium tubes that formed the array (Figs. 4 and 6). The production division made a set of 122 tubes for the sonar prototype. The whole set of electronic equipment for the array system was produced in 1973 but the set of documents for the prototype electronics was not issued until two years later. As the result, the terms, according to the resolution, were not maintained and were rescheduled again and again. But every cloud has a silver lining. The delay in the development and production of the equipment made it possible to conduct some additional experimental tests. The chief designer’s group managed to take part in two expeditions with the Navy onboard the Baykal and Balkhash research ships, and continued measurements, that had begun during the 8th Expedition of the Institute of Acoustics. The first expedition took place in the Indian Ocean and the second one near the Kuril-Kamchatka Trench. Another important experimental study was devoted to the sea noise and the noise immunity of the acoustic tubes. This research was conducted near Vladimir Bay in the Sea of Japan.

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As the documents were issued the pilot factory of the Institute began manufacturing the land-based equipment, though competing work on the Skat and the Polinom slowed progress. In 1976, Babkin, the director of the Dalpribor Plant in Vladivostok, happened to visit Moscow. There was a big lull in the Plant’s workload for the current year. The Director of MSI CA 10, N. N. Sviridov, decided to assign the production of some equipment for the Agam prototype to the Dalpribor Plant. The Plant approved the list of equipment and received the documentation for about 70% of the land-based equipment. It was a difficult task for the Plant. Many instruments were highly technical for which there where no precedences in the plant’s previous activities. By order of the Director of CA 10, the sonar prototype was to be bench tested at the Dalpribor Plant. The order determined the participation of the enterprises supervised by CA 10 in the production of the prototype and three production samples. In accordance with the order the “cooperative pool” included the Dalpribor Plant, the Sokol and Krasny Luch plants, and the Atoll Research Institute. The complete cooperating team also included the leading manufacturer of the array system, which was the veteran Dalzavod Ship-Building Plant in Vladivostok and the already mentioned Akhtuba Plant in Volgograd, which manufactured piezoelectric transducers. Therefore, the year 1976 was critical for the production of the sonar prototype. Management of the project was difficult due to the distance between Leningrad and Vladivostok. By order of the Director of CA 10, a group of specialists from the CRI Morfizpribor was established to assist the Plant in manufacturing the instruments. The author of the present article was in charge of this group. The group included P. G. Lazarev, the deputy chief designer for the hardware, and other leading specialists. Teams of different specialization were delegated to the Plant by the chief designer and at the Plant director’s call to make operational decisions and assist the Plant at various production stages. Daily teletype communication was organized between the Dalpribor Plant and the CRI Morfizpribor. The Plant was supplied with difficult-to-obtain components and materials. It took 3 years for the Dalpribor Plant to manufacture the sonar hardware components and to conduct bench tests. There were several

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reasons for this long production cycle. First, the Dalpribor Plant had to learn how to manufacture the new equipment. Second, the Agam devices were manufactured in only a small part of a heavy production part of the Plant as “makework.” Third, it could not master the manufacture of the Agam equipment without permanent technical assistance from the CRI Morfizpribor, but it was extremely difficult to provide the Plant with Institute specialists on an on-going basis. However, the executives in charge of the order had built good, wellintentioned, and business-like relations with the Plant management despite the organizational problems. A former specialist of the CRI Morfizpribor, B. I. Truschelev, was the chief engineer of the Dalpribor Plant during the initial project stage. Being a highly qualified, demanding, and sometimes rough person, he actively supported the manufacture of the new equipment at the Plant and made the Plant specialists learn to work with the new equipment. He also raised many claims against the designers of the devices — his former colleagues. A. V. Kulinsky, the deputy chief engineer and later the chief engineer of the Plant, L. I. Golubnichy, the deputy director of the Design Bureau, who was appointed the deputy chief designer of the Agam sonar for the manufacture of the prototype equipment at the Plant, A. S. Boltukhov, the head of the engineering sector of the Design Bureau, and other specialists devoted all their energies to the production of the sonar equipment. In 1976, simultaneously with the manufacture of the equipment, the Dalzavod Plant was prepared for the production of the array system. This complex work effort was assigned to V. V. Semenov, who was appointed the deputy chief designer. He had been in charge of development of engineering methods and testing of the the array’s acoustic and electronic equipment. The CRI Morfizpribor and the Lazurit CDB developed the design documentation for the array system. The Lazurit CDB was also responsible for the system body and mechanical components. The array boom was designed in accordance with the requirements. Since these requirements were imposed on the development of hulls of surface ships and submarines, it is more correct to speak about the construction of the array system at the Dalzavod Plant. The director of the Plant, Yu. N. Udovichenko, showed interest in the work, which

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was new for his ship repair facility, and actively supported the array construction to the great dissatisfaction of his assistants. The senior constructor was G. N. Rezanov, an energetic and highly skilled specialist, a good manager and a well-intended man. The system array prototype and then four more arrays were built under his supervision. It took great effort to prepare the Plant for the construction. They had to increase the length of the building slip for the final assembly of the array and change the length of the quay wall, to guard the building slip area and to built premises for accessories. The Primorskoye CDB and specialists from the Lazurit CDB took part in the construction of the array. In 1977, the mechanical body of the array was ready for the installation of the acoustic tubes and the electronics produced by the CRI Morfizpribor in sealed modules. The CRI Morfizpribor assembled, checked, and tested the sound receivers and electronic equipment. The array was finally assembled on the building slip and comprehensively tested in the first half of 1978. The whole system of data transmission from the sound receivers to the land-based posts, which de-filtered the transmitted signals, was thoroughly checked with the use of the SPEC-4 cable of the actual length. The chief designer gave his permission to launch the array system after he had verified that it met the test program requirements on the building slip. The array was triumphantly launched in June of 1978. The chief engineer of the CRI Morfizpribor, Ye. I. Aladyshkin, arrived in Vladivostok to participate in the launching. A bottle of champagne was smashed against the array housing just as during the launch of a ship and the array smoothly left the slip and descended into the waters of the Golden Horn. The Plant managers, Rear Admiral N. M. Larin, the deputy Director of the 5th Naval Department, P. A. Gordienko, the head of the Vladivostok Naval test site, and many Navy representatives took part in the event. It was really a triumph. The array was docked and after the attachment of two 60-ton anchors it was taken to Amur Bay for the completion of operations such as ballasting, stop trim dive, testing of equipment and preparing for the Navy expedition.

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The Navy expedition was organized to tow the array to the deployment site and to install it in accordance with the standard practice, which had been developed by a special organization of the Navy together with the Lazurit CDB. Rear Admiral A. I. Skvortsov was in charge of the expedition and Captain 2nd Rank N. I. Krepker was his executive officer. All activities concerning the towing and installation of the array had been thoroughly planned. Exercises were conducted to train the Navy service personnel. During the exercises the array was many times turned from the horizontal position, as it was to be towed in shallow waters (on the surface of the water with both tanks purged), to the vertical position. In doing so the lower tank was flooded, while the upper tank floated on the surface. The acoustics and electronics of the array were checked once more and the expedition got under way. The expedition included a powerful ocean tug, a wrecker and the Ingul cable ship. It took about two weeks to tow the array from Amur Bay to Kamchatka through the Sea of Japan and the lumpy Sea of Okhotsk, the 4th Kuril Strait and a small part of the Pacific Ocean. When the expedition was over it took some time to check the towed structure to see if it had withstood the trip. The array was checked in the shipyard dock. The array proved to have a good design and to have survived the expedition, except for some minor damage. The installation of the array was another serious challenge. Unfortunately, the details of that operation could not be included in this article for lack of space. It is worth mentioning, though, that the head of the expedition and first deputy Commander of the Kamchatka Flotilla, Rear-Admiral A. I. Skvortsov, and his team were at their best when deploying the array. It was installed without failure and with the designed orientation accuracy. The method of a subsequent flooding of ballast tanks, the engineering innovations of the Lazurit CDB and model tests of the RI of MD received high marks. The operation of the array was checked during the deployment by means of the standard land-based equipment, which was temporary installed onboard the cable ship and linked to the array via two SPEC-4 cables. The final stage of the work was completed after the deployment of the array. It included splicing, adjusting the balance, and laying of cables. It also involved transferring of the equipment for power of the

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array electronics and the de-filtering of the array signals received by the transducers from the cable ship and installing it at the land post. The performance check of the array from the land post completed the most important stage of the Agam sonar project. Ya. S. Karlik took an active part in the expedition from Vladivostok and in the installation and performance check of the array. He was in charge of all operations relating to checking the separate instrument modules and the whole array. His deputies, V. V. Semenov and I. I. Tochyony, representatives of the Lazurit CDB and the Dalzavod Plant and specialists from the TashRICI participated in the installation operation. It is worth mentioning these people, who contributed their knowledge, experience, and total dedication to a successful completion of the work: A. I. Lonkevich, M. A. Nikolaeva, and Ye. A. Volf, the designers of the electronic equipment of the array system and the system for transmitting signals via a cable; M. I. Roshal and A. Ya. Simkhovich, the designers of the array power supply equipment, and the members of the chief designer’s group V. I. Bokachev and M. S. Ardatovsky who, as a rule, participated in all operations at sea and at site. Unfortunately, some of them are not with us and the others have retired. But we keep our memory and gratitude to all the developers of the Agam sonar array. We also remember the officers of the Navy — the participants in the expedition, who had learnt the array systems and took part in the installation. They are M. P. Sokolov, V. A. Kosarev, D. M. Gomankov, and others. We should not forget N. F. Chuev, the chief representative of the customer who made a large contribution to a successful completion of the work at all stages. By the autumn of 1978, the array had been installed and linked to the land station, but there were only temporary auxiliary buildings and warehouses. The post was under construction. The land-based equipment had to be placed in one of the warehouses. At the same time the Dalpribor Plant was manufacturing the rest of the land-based equipment. The Dalpribor Plant’s plans correlated with the plans of the Kamchatka Flotilla, which was responsible for the construction of the land post. The plans called for completion after the deployment expedition.

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After the array had been deployed and linked to the land station, the chief designer, his deputies, and all the participants in the effort likely did not realize the significance of their work. They just thought that the next hard step was over. An understanding that the work was finished came later, when the Agam land station was flooded with scientists, designers, and engineers of different institutions, who hoped to get answers to a lot of questions with the help of the new array. The subject of these questions included the formation of directional patterns of large aperture arrays, the propagation of low-frequency acoustic signals, the spatial correlation of low-frequency signals, and the optimal signal detection range. V. D. Svet, a scientist from the Institute of Acoustics, was one of the first to arrive at the base. He brought a model of an optical processor, which he had made. The processor made it possible to form directional patterns in a 180◦ sector and to detect target signals and evaluate the status of the array. Unfortunately, the processor did not function at real time then but its capabilities could have been impressive with some improvements. Research cruises by the Navy, scientists from the Institute of Applied Physics of RAS in Nizhny Novgorod, specialists from the Belarus Polytechnic Institute, the Academician N. N. Andreyev Institute of Acoustics, and many others used the array system for their research. It is worth mentioning that they had to abandon the radioisotope thermoelectric generator as the self-contained power supply for the array electronics in spite of the fact that it had been developed and manufactured by the RIRT in accordance with the design requirements and that it could provide the operation of the array for 5 years (Ragozinsky and Komissarov were the co-Chief Scientists). The copper case for the generator was mechanically strong and environmentally safe and its 5-year resource of electric power was record setting. However, the generator life started from the moment of its manufacture. The generator could not be switched off after the nuclear fuel was loaded in it, and it did not correspond to our “flexible” D&D planning system with regular delays and schedule shifts. As the result, the generator, which had been made for the planned date of the Agam sonar project and had become unclaimed for the intended use, was sent to Taimyr Peninsula

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to be used in a navigation safety system. So ended an effort to introduce a self-contained power supply based on the latest (1970–1975) achievements in science and technology into the array system. When speaking about those years certain project scenes and pronouncements by managers of different rank come to mind. During one of the meetings devoted to the construction of the Agam array, where they considered, among other issues, the issue of the organizational complexity of management, the director of the Institute, V. V. Gromkovsky, said, “…Yes, this array shall be a monument to the Institute.” Twenty years have passed since then and we can say that he was right. Five such arrays were produced in the 12 years from 1978 to 1990. One of them is fully adopted, together with a system for data transmit via a cable, into a new Dnestr sonar system. Another array with slight improvements is used in a new experimental system. The prototype array helped in obtaining a huge amount of experimental data, which can now be used to develop and upgrade hydroacoustic systems. The recent Okhrana-M Research Project demonstrated the possibility of using the Agam sonar for the detection of surface targets within the 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of the Russia Pacific Coast in order to prevent unauthorized fishing, exploring, harvesting, and other such activities. “New times” have come. After having received the necessary permissions, the Institute advertised its technological achievements and concluded contracts with foreign companies interested in its products, including the Agam sonar array. A mishap occurred during one of the recent foreign exhibitions. A superb model of the Agam array at a scale of 1 in 50 was unfortunately left or lost somewhere after its demonstration in eastern countries. The Institute has not found funds for another model in these “new times.” One more point about the array. In 1995, an Acoustical Thermometry of Ocean Climate (ATOC) program was created using the Agam prototype. The array is to be used for receiving low-frequency signals, which have traveled several thousand kilometers in the ocean. Russia is a member of the ATOC Program together with other leading

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countries. The program was launched to forecast climate changes on Earth on the basis of long-term research on ocean temperature using hydroacoustic means. There is still another way of using the array for scientific purposes. The chief designer Ya. S. Karlik analyzed the data of the RAS Nuclear Research Institute and proved a hypothesis that the array could receive acoustic signals caused by the penetration of neutrinos into the ocean. The neutrino flux rate at different periods is a very important piece of information for the scientists at the Nuclear Research Institute, because it relates to fundamental laws of nature. There have been no special means to take such measurements and the Agam sonar array could be a useful instrument in this research. Now let us return to the array’s background. At the end of 1978– the beginning of 1979 the Dalpribor Plant started the final stage of manufacturing of the land-based equipment. The equipment was adjusted, checked for compliance with the specifications, and passed mechanical and climate tests. Premises for bench tests were being prepared. At that period until the bench tests up to 40 specialists of the Institute worked at the Plant. The Ministry prodded the new director of the Plant, V. T. Pallo, and he was also in a hurry. They worked in two shifts every day. Sometimes, the chief engineer and the director held operational briefings twice a day. No delays in manufacturing the land-based equipment were permitted once the array had already been installed. By the spring of 1979, all instruments had been installed in a bench test room and assembled. The integrated adjustment of the equipment began. The leading role in the adjustment belonged to the specialists from the CRI Morfizpribor — to the manufacturing support group, the equipment designers, the heads of the institute departments, which had designed that equipment. Some auxiliary but still labor-intensive adjustment work was performed by the specialists of the Plant design bureau, delivery department, and the Kaskad electrical assembly enterprise, which took part in the adjustment operations by agreement with the Plant. The May of 1979 was a memorable period — the land-based equipment successfully passed the tests. It was submitted to the committee

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and dispatched to the site. The final step included the installation and the adjustment of the equipment on site and conducting factory tests, that is, the testing of the sonar under actual operating conditions. Before we describe the sequence of events of that period (which was rather difficult), let us remember those people who contributed their efforts, knowledge, and enthusiasm to the production of the prototype equipment at the Dalpribor Plant. First of all, was P. G. Lazarev, who accepted responsibility for the defects in the equipment that were found. It was P. V. Abankin, the leading designer of the sonar heart — the control board. They are the designers of the main parts and units B. V. Nevelich, T. S. Vaintsveig, B. Z. Belenky, G. A. Senin, A. V. Karelon, A. I. Matveev, A. V. Egorov, O. Natalchenko, Yu. L. Chvertkin, T. V. Korneeva, G. K. Kapustin, V. V. Korolev, A. Z. Bulkina, V. M. Matveeva, A. V. Chekerisova, L. A. Kochneva, E. K. Martinovich, B. Ye. Glikman, G. S. Bogdanov, and many other institute specialists, who more than once flew across our country for 3 years and suffered great discomfort, to put it mildly, at residential hotels in the course of doing their duty (Figs. 2–7). The final stage of the work proved to be very complicated and long. By the summer of 1980, the land-based equipment had been installed in the technical building. Work under real conditions started after connecting separate instruments and the adjustment of the equipment. The first results were overwhelming. The display screen was actually jammed with target marks. It showed everything that was in the coverage area hundreds of kilometers away. The Agam sonar was presented to the committee and successfully passed preliminary tests after some minor improvements in data display. The test reports and protocols certified to the fact that the sonar, which had been developed by the Institute, met the design requirements to the full extent. The report was approved by the Director of CA 10 of the MSI, but then they faced a problem. The question was, how should the sonar be operated? The design requirements included target detection and data output for classification, but there were no classification objectives. The CRI Morfizpribor conducted a separate target classification D&D for the Agam sonar under the codename Odissey, which was abandoned a year or two earlier due to the Institute’s work load.

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Fig. 2. The inspection of the array system in a dock; Petropavlovsk-Kamchatski, 1978. V. V. Semenov is at the left, A. G. Bogomaz is at the right.

It was also difficult to organize the operation of the sonar. The Agam sonar had been developed for the operation together with the similar sonars and other means of detection. By the general customer’s order a research institute in Tbilisi conducted the Pulonga Research Program for displaying data for Agam-type sonars and other systems. This effort was also abandoned for unknown reasons. As a result all the equipment for data uploading from the Agam sonar into the Pulonga system remained unused. The Agam prototype was operated only in accordance with the TTR while the customer wanted more from it. Those who ordered this task were reprimanded but not severely as the task had been approved at the highest level. At the same time the chief designer suffered a severe breakdown. Then the situation developed rapidly. After a lot of discussion, minor improvements, and additional tests it was decided to develop a target classifier and integrate it into the Agam sonar. The TTR included additional objectives — to install the Ayaks classifier at the

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Fig. 3.

The installation of the acoustic line for testing near Vladimir Bay.

Fig. 4.

The array system of the Agam land sonar.

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Fig. 5. A sealed bottom tank compartment of the Agam land sonar with electronic instruments.

Agam sonar site and to design a classifier on the basis of serially produced digital computers, which could display and record information on color screens and by means of a printer. The decision to introduce a classifier into the sonar was to be made after tests had been completed. The Institute of Acoustics was assigned the development of a new classifier together with the CRI Morfizpribor under the supervision of Dr. Phys. Math. Sc. N. A. Dubrovsky, currently the director of the Institute of Acoustics. N. A. Dubrovsky, Ya. S. Karlik, and a specialist of the Institute of Acoustics, A. P. Chizhov, developed the classification algorithm. They decided to use a CM1420 computer and all the necessary serially produced input/output facilities and means of signal recording as hardware.

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Fig. 6.

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Array system of the Agam land sonar before the tow, Amur Bay, 1978.

Fig. 7.

The control panel of the Agam land sonar.

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The “acquisition” of computers and other classifier equipment proved to be very difficult. At that time all serially produced digital computers were limited and were distributed among the consumers determined in advance. They had to spend valuable time “acquiring” the necessary hardware. They simultaneously tackled other problems. They provided for manufacturing of three production samples of the sonar at the same plants where the prototype had been made, with almost the same type of cooperation and provided experimental tests to the numerous groups of scientists at the Agam prototype land station. In 1985, the Ayaks classification equipment and the newly developed classifier were installed at the land station. The sonar equipment was slightly improved and the Napev hardware was set up at the customer’s request. They had to compare their effectiveness. The sonar was tested in 1985 in three phases — in spring, summer, and autumn. The preliminary tests took place in spring and summer and the state tests were held in autumn. The three steps were necessary to check the sonar operation, with the additional equipment connected to it, in various seasons. Hydrological and acoustical conditions differed according to season. The array had been operating trouble-free for 7 years, which exceeded the designed service life by 2 years. The resources available to support the land-based equipment had, by then, been almost used up. Nobody thought much about this because there had been no significant reduction in the sonar’s performance. The test program included a full-scale check of the sonar and all newly installed equipment with no consideration given to time of manufacture and service life. The Institute specialists were again delegated to the installation site to prepare the equipment for the tests and to participate in them. The designers of the Ayaks, under the supervision of the leading engineer, I. G. Peskova, specialists of the Institute of Acoustics, A. P. Chizhov and Yu. V. Fedoruk, the designers of the classifier under the supervision of V. I. Komarov, joined those who had frequented the Dalpribor Plant and the installation site. A group of specialists, who maintained the Napev equipment, and specialists from the CRI Morfizpribor, under the supervision of Yu. P. Korovyakovsky, arrived to check whether it

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was possible to operate the sonar in the active mode with the use of explosive acoustic sources. The first two steps showed that the additional TTR’s were fulfilled. The testing never went without surprises, though. The results of the first step in winter and autumn proved to be better than the summer tests, while it should have been vice versa in accordance with all the estimations and well-founded assumptions. But hydroacoustic experiments are often unpredictable, given the fact that the average hydrological and acoustical data on sound propagation for a certain period needed to be adjusted every day or even every hour, which was not practical. In the autumn of 1985, the sonar passed the state tests, finally evaluating the results of the multiyear work. All parameters exceeded the main and additional TTR’s. It was a total success. The newly designed data classification and color display equipment greatly contributed to the success. The members of the committee spent most of their time in the room where this equipment had been installed and apparently enjoyed the operators’ work. Having received the instruction to classify a certain target, an operator entered the beginning and the end of its trace, which was displayed on the screen, into the computer. The computer “made” a decision and a minute later the trace took the color of a certain target class. All operations were understandable and clear and seemed to be very simple. N. A. Dubrovsky and A. P. Chizhov were present to give the necessary explanations. Certainly, not all went well. The committee pointed out some shortcomings. They are to be expected; you always have them. The committee thought some improvements unpractical and the efficiency of the Napev equipment proved to be low. The Ayaks classifier received a positive evaluation but it could not operate optimally within the Agam sonar because the sonar lacked important reference data. Therefore, the committee preferred the newly developed classification equipment. Despite all the evidently positive results of the tests, some members of the committee, who represented the Navy, opposed the procedure of objective estimation of basic characteristics and were plainly throwing mud at the sonar. What were they driving at? They might have wished

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better characteristics for the sonar, but they were not stipulated by the TTR’s. Nevertheless, the recollection of such pious opposition is unpleasant. Fortunately, the majority of the committee evaluated the test results without prejudice. An important contribution to the unbiased estimation of the results was made by a member of the committee and the deputy chief designer of the Agam D&D V. V. Semenov, who was in charge of the work due to the chief designer’s illness. A former chief engineer of the Institute, Dr. Tech. Sc. R. Kh. Balyan, was the deputy chairman of the committee from the side of the CRI Morfizpribor. His authority and ability to quickly straighten out a very complicated subject and to hold a discussion conclusively and correctly helped to smooth out many conflicts. The objective assessment was also due to research specialists of the Navy RIE Yu. F. Zykov and R. A. Akhmetov, who were supervising the final stage of the D&D for the Navy. The committee arrived at the conclusion that the sonar had successfully passed the state tests, that it met the main and additional TTR’s, and that it could be adopted for service after the elimination of remarks and after some improvements based on the test results. The test protocols did not omit a significant episode. A strange target was detected and classified during the control exercises. A submarine, which was taking part in the exercises, was directed to the target, and the detected submarine quickly left the sonar coverage area. The episode visually demonstrated the capabilities of the Agam sonar. The state tests put an end to the epic of the development of the Agam stationary sonar. The sonar was adopted into service in 1987, which was 20 years after the beginning of the advanced project. In conclusion, I would like to mention a substantial contribution by men of the Pacific Fleet and the Kamchatka Flotilla to the development and mastering of the sonar prototype and production models. They are the Commander of the Pacific Fleet, V. V. Sidorov; the head of the Pacific Fleet Land Surveillance Division, B. N. Marusnyak; directors of the 5th Department of the Kamchatka Flotilla, I. Ye. Sorokin and V. M. Makedonsky; N. N. Leshankin, the first commander of the land-based equipment of the first sonar prototype; S. Ya. Berger, the commander of the land-based equipment of the first sonar production

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sample; Yu. Zudinov, A. Novikov, M. Nagovitsin and G. Mironenko — offices and warrant officers of the “first draft,” who learned how to tactically use the prototype; and Ye. Ye. Skorofagov — a test site officer, who spent many years at the posts and actively helped the personnel to master the sonar. This is by no means a full list of the personnel who actively participated at different stages in the development. The chief designer’s group is very grateful to all of them.

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The Beginning of the Development of the Dnestr Sonar System B. I. LASHKOV

Twelve years (1961–1973) of research and development of stationary passive sonars preceded the Dnestr active-passive system D&D with the main goal of creation of a stationary passive means of longrange submarine detection. The research and development work on passive means of submarine surveillance, the development of highperformance sonar receiving systems and their field testing together provided the necessary pre-requisites for the creation of long-range active sonars. In principle, every part of this work represented an important step in the development of an active-passive system for long-range submarine detection. For instance, the tests of the Amur land-based sonar prototype made it possible for the first time in the history of hydroacoustics to test the possibility of locating distant submarines using transmitting and receiving systems that were separate from each other (bistatic systems), as well as to obtain data on the sound attenuation in the environment and on the spatial structure of the acoustic farfield. A support ship produced explosive transmissions by setting off depth charges containing only the detonators. The tests were conducted under the underwater sound channel conditions by tracking a submarine using its noise field; they demonstrated the feasibility of the bistatic method of target location. The tests were performed at the Kamchatka Navy test site with the participation of its commanders, A. A. Kosik and B. I. Lopatin, as well as the specialists of the CRI Morfizpribor, B. I. Lashkov and A. I. Sharanin. The target location method could not be integrated into the Amur sonar 668

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system due to the sonar’s design features (the sequential scanning of the space with a single directional pattern). The CRI Morfizpribor was assigned two complex tasks in light of a sharp decrease in the noise emitted by submarines and the need to receive target data on the submarine tracking with stationary sonars. One of the tasks (1959–1963) was to design a sector scanning LPS with a detection range that significantly exceeded the Amur sonar coverage area (the Dvina Research Project; with Ya. S. Karlik as the Chief Scientist and S. D. Smirnov as the Deputy Chief Scientist). The other task (1964–1965) was to design a land-based sonar system for submarine detection and target designation for the coastal missile weaponry (Indigirka Research Project, with B. I. Lashkov as the Chief Scientist and A. Ya. Borts as the Deputy Chief Scientist). The successful completion of these projects and the obtained results established the scientific and technical foundation for the development of the early-detection (long-range) passive sonarAgam and later, on its foundation, the receiving system of the Dnestr active-passive sonar, as well as for the creation of a bistatic sonar system. It is important to mention several unique research projects that were completed for the first time within the D&D effort described above and were aimed at finding new engineering solutions for increasing the echo ranging and target-location radii: (1) Field research on the attenuation of low-frequency signals in the coastal wedge, research on the variations along the coast of the low-frequency acoustic field intensity within the zonal structure degradation areas, monitoring of the correlation of signals along the wave front. This work was done for ranges of several hundred kilometers with the use of a low-frequency sound source on a ship located in the area of the coastal shelf. The signals were received with a 40 m long array onboard a class 613 submarine. (Project participants were the head of the Dvina Research Project Ya. S. Karlik, the head of the testing group B. I. Lashkov, and a leading engineer G. V. Parshin). (2) Theoretical research on the possibility of developing a twoposition (bistatic) sonar system (project participants: the head of

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the Indigirka Research Project B. I. Lashkov, leading engineers Z. N. Umikov and V. A. Zhuravleva). (3) Field research on the angular structure of the noise field in the coastal wedge, of the coefficients of signal correlation, and of the arrival angles of sound rays in the vertical plane (the Indigirka Research Project, senior researcher of the Institute of Acoustics K. B. Vakar as the Chief Scientist). However, the background scientific data gathered was not sufficient for the development of the Dnestr STSS. The estimates of the equivalent target radii within the bistatic system at low frequencies became necessary at an early stage for the development of the TTR’s for the Dnestr project and the determination of the required energy potential of the system. At that time, the designers relied on research data obtained using a large-scale simulation at the Academician A. N. Krylov Central Research Institute. Taking into consideration the need for the accurate assessment of target strengths in a bistatic system and of reverberation interference, the Aelita-6 Research Project was completed as early as the design stage of the Dnestr STSS project draft. This research project was conducted under the supervision of M. P. Lonkevich. The main designers of the Dnestr D&D were engaged in the Aelita Research Project. The schedule was very tight. The researchers used the broadband low-frequency transmitting array designed by B. G. Levichev and receiving and emitting equipment capable of employing a wide range of probing (exploratory) signals. The deputy chief designer of the Dnestr D&D, Yu. K. Kochetkov, together with the leading engineers, Yu. S. Kuznetsov, A. G. Reznikov, E. V. Batanogov, and others, promptly conducted field tests. These tests made it possible to obtain experimental data on the intensity of the acoustic signals reflected back from a submarine in the low-frequency range using a bistatic system. The study was conducted into the effect of the relative positions of the transmitter, the receiver, and the target on the echo-signal. In 1966, the Indigirka Research Project was taken as the basis for an advanced project of a target detection system for the Taifun coastal antisubmarine missile system. This project was justifiably abandoned the same year.

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Nevertheless, in the late 1960s passive means of detection (the Agam D&D) remained the main trend in the development of stationary sonars. By the end of the 1970s, the noise emissions of submarines were substantially decreased as a result of the improvements in submarine design, which lead to a subsequent reduction in the potential for longrange location using passive hydroacoustics. The construction of an active-passive sonar system for long-range detection of submarines with increased capabilities to classify targets correctly and to collect target detection data became imperative. Several research projects conducted at the Navy RIE analyzed and theoretically proved the feasibility of an active-passive method with a co-located transmitter and receiver (Smerch and Zarya research projects; participants Yu. F. Zykov, L. B. Karlov, V. P. Savinykh, and others). Yu. F. Zykov defended his dissertation, which was devoted to the topic. The CRI Morfizpribor also developed theoretical prerequisites for the use of spatially separated transmitter and receiver (Yu. K. Kochetkov) as part of the Zarya-MSP research effort. The stationary sonar system design was initially worked out within the Dnestr advanced project or draft design phase (G. A. Goldybin as the deputy chief designer, S. G. Gershman as the head of research from the ACIN). This work was initiated and supervised by Ye. Ye. Valfish, the head of the stationary sonar division. The Dnestr advanced project was completed in 1972–1973. Its main purpose was to develop a sound projector (transmission system). The Artemis active early detection system which had been designed in the United States at the beginning of the 1960s served as its prototype. Two versions of the Artemis transmitter had been developed: a system with a 15 m high and 9 m wide grill (grid)-shaped array lowered from the ship and a system with a stationary transmitting array. A deployable (lowered) array weighing about 400 tons was installed onboard the Mission Kapistrano military tanker. The tanker displacement was 17,000 tons and it was equipped with a lifting gear, a 10,000 hp power supply and lateral thrusting propellers. The tanker was taken out of the US Navy service after the tests of the Artemis system. Reportedly, it did not participate in further research efforts.

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The results of the advanced project demonstrated a need for developing a cylindrical transmitting array 10 m in diameter and 6 m in height with the acoustic output not less than 0.75–1.0 MW (later the requirements proved to be significantly overestimated). The consumed electrical power was estimated to be 4 MW, and the weight of the lowered device — 300–400 tons. According to the project, the transmitter was to be installed either onboard a surface ship with the displacement of 15,000–20,000 tons or at the class 1766 ocean dump-stand (overturning or capsizable), the work on which was abandoned after the draft design. A stationary variant was not recommended for development. According to the advanced project, transmission was to be performed either in a 240◦ sector with sequential scanning of a directional pattern (the transmission was to be made at four calibration frequencies with the 120 s duration for a full cycle) or without directivity in the horizontal plane by 20 sequential probing signals, each pulse lasting 6 s. It is obvious that the advanced project had at its core a “ forcible” solution of the long-range hydroacoustic detection problem with the transmitter parameters that were close to the parameters of the Artemis system. No other technical solutions that would be more efficient were proposed. The selection committee that reviewed the advance project in 1973 made some serious critical remarks , among them — the need to complement the system with a stationary transmitter. The customer (the Navy) suggested developing a prototype of the Dnestr sonar system. The head of the CRI Morfizpribor, V. V. Gromkovsky, objected to the decision to conduct the D&D at the Institute because of its excessive work load. In accordance with the government decree in 1973, the CRI Morfizpribor was nevertheless assigned, as a high-priority task, the development of a prototype of the Dnestr sonar system. The deputy head of the system department B. I. Lashkov was appointed the Chief Designer of the D&D. The TTR’s of the Dnestr active-passive system included the use of the bistatic location method with emission of the probing signals by both shipborne and stationary (coastal) transmitters. The latter was to be bottom-mounted on the coastal slope and linked to the land station by cable. The Agam sonar, which had been developed in accordance

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with independent TTR’s and included into the system, was to receive acoustic signals by means of its array system and to provide target location. The analog land-based equipment of the Agam sonar that performed preliminary processing of the received signals and forming of a static directional pattern fan was used during the draft and engineering design stages for hydrolocation modes. Additional machinery for optimal processing, detection, classification, and display of the acoustic signals was developed using digital equipment. The basic requirement of the TTR’s was to achieve ranges of submarine detection that exceeded ranges of the shipborne sonar systems in the search mode by a factor of ten. Compared to the actual ranges at which sound location was possible, the coverage area in the active mode could increase by approximately 25 times (by 100 times and more as far as the detection of modern low-noise submarines is concerned). The development of emitting and receiving array systems were the key tasks for the system designers. The receiving array, as has been already mentioned, had been developed within the Agam D&D and earned the highest rating upon its manufacture, installation in 1978, and testing. The introduction of the Agam passive sonar into the Dnestr system without adjusting its tactical data allowed the designers of the Dnestr D&D to concentrate on the hydrolocation mode at the draft and engineering design stages. A system group was established for the D&D, which was later reorganized into a laboratory. Highly qualified and experienced experts with a strong creative approach were engaged in the Dnestr D&D. They were Yu. K. Kochetkov (the deputy chief designer), Z. N. Umikov, B. I. Levichev, O. A. Kudasheva (the deputy chief designer of transmitting arrays), N. G. Bogdanov (the deputy chief designer of the information-computer system), Yu. A. Gornov (the research production manager), M. I. Roshal (the designer of the interface and the system for power transmission through cable communication lines), M. P. Lonkevich and V. A. Zhuravleva (the analysis of detection ranges and optimal arrangement of arrays within a bistatic system under various hydrological conditions), E. V. Ivanov (the development of digital filtering algorithms), and I. S. Shkolnikov (the validation and selection of the signal library and the optimal digital processing).

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The designers had to select the type of a shipborne lowered transmitting array at the beginning of the draft design. After evaluation of the weight, size, and acoustical parameters of powerful transmitting arrays of various types that had been used in earlier projects (the Orion sonar, the Polinom sonar, the US Artemis system, and the advanced project of the Dnestr sonar system), the designers rejected cylindrical and volume beam arrays due to installation problems and the need to stabilize the directional patterns in the horizontal plane. The project used a discrete array with cylindrical transducers, which provided omnidirectional (i.e., non-directional) transmission in the horizontal plane and directed transmission in the vertical plane. The designers considered two versions of the array in order to improve its installation onboard the ship and to provide for prompt deployment and recovery; a flexible discrete array with hinged transducer units and a rigid array with transmitter units fitted together flush. The first version was protected with a patent (B. I. Lashkov, Z. N. Umikov, V. P. Kazachinin, and others), but was inferior to the rigid version in the resulting pressure levels. Therefore, the development continued on only the rigid array. The development of powerful transducers and transmitter units proved to be an extremely difficult task. Several versions of circular large-sized piezoelectric ceramic transducers were considered and modeled in the course of the project. The head of the design group of the Dnestr array transducer (units 3 and 5) was L. D. Lyubavin, who unexpectedly passed away in 1990. Approximately 38 units of processing equipment were manufactured for the transducer production. The managers of this order had tried without success to obtain a suitable location that would accommodate the equipment for nearly a year. This problem was finally solved with the help of the chief engineer G. Ye. Smirnov. It is worth mentioning that the designers of the transducers prepared a backup version for the manufacture and the assembly of rings with the use of modular sections and their subsequent assembly. Naturally, the piezoelectric ceramic rings in this case would become less effective and even unreliable. The models of the transmission units were manufactured in the course of the engineering design and successfully passed acoustical tests and after minor improvements, the climatic tests,

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excluding the tests for operability and reliability at the rated acoustic power levels. Unfortunately, the replica of the transmission path module had not been ready for tests by the end of the engineering design as stipulated in the design requirements. The introduction of the deployable (lowered) vertical array allowed the reduction of its weight by 10 times (as compared to the preliminary design), the use of only one cable-hawser for lowering and lifting the array, and the decrease in the ship displacement by 5–6 times. The Baltsudproyekt CDB, the original project author of the ship for the Dnestr sonar system, considered that and recommended using the vessel for underwater condition illumination (class 10220) with the displacement of about 3.5 thousand tons, which was currently under development. The recommendation was accepted and the ship design was assigned to the Vostok CDB. The engineering design of the ship was completed in the course of the Dnestr sonar system design on the basis of the ship systems documentation for the class 10220 ship. The mechanical frame parts of the shipborne and stationary array systems were developed at the Lazurit CDB (see the article by G. V. Vityugov and others “The Story of the Participation of the Lazurit CDB in the Development of Array Systems of Stationary Sonars” — Ed.). The presidium of the MSI Scientific and Technical Committee examined the engineering design of the ship and listened to the reports of the Chief Designer of the ship A. P. Sytov and the Chief Designer of the Dnestr D&D B. I. Lashkov. The final approval of the ship’s engineering design guaranteed the start of the construction of the ship and further development of the Dnestr D&D. The last attempt to stop the work on the engineering design of the Dnestr project was made in April 1982, based on the IAP RAS suggestion to develop a new extra-long-range sonar submarine detection system with simultaneous improvement of the processing equipment.The management of the CRI Morfizpribor seconded the proposal to retarget the Dnestr D&D onto the development of such an experimental prototype. In March 1982, the joint resolution of the Navy and the MSI with the support of the RAS established an interdepartmental panel of experts for the examination of the Agam D&D and Dnestr

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D&D documentation. This panel noted the scientific validation of the basic engineering features of both systems and suggested that “the development of the Agam D&D and Dnestr D&D should be continued on the basis of the main engineering features, which were scientifically validated and adopted in the course of the draft and engineering design.” In October 1983, after a month’s work by the approval (acceptance) committee, the engineering design of the Dnestr D&D was approved by the Commander-in-Chief for the Navy and the Minister of the Shipbuilding Industry of the USSR. Because of the creation of the Bereg Research Project, the author of this article was transferred to Vladivostok by a decree of the Ministry. He was appointed the chief engineer for the Bereg SDTB and was relieved of his duties as the chief designer of the Dnestr D&D. Editorial comment: Upon the approval of the engineering design, the new chief designer initiated a significant correction in the design requirements of the Dnestr D&D. The correction included the conversion of most of the analogue data processing equipment to digital hardware with the use of a mainframe digital computer and some other modifications. The description of measures taken to improve the situation at the end of the engineering design of the Dnestr D&D, to complete the working project, and to create and test the system prototype is given in R. Kh. Balyan’s article “The Dnestr — a Breakthrough in Early Sonar Detection.”

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The Dnestr — A Breakthrough in Early Sonar Detection R. KH. BALYAN

The development of the Dnestr system began in the first half of the 1970s. See B. I. Lashkov’s “The Beginning of the Development of the Dnestr Sonar System” for the scope and organization of work during the initial stages of the Dnestr effort. At the end of 1983, by the order of the Minister of the Shipbuilding Industry, I was promoted from the deputy chief designer for transmission circuits to the position of the chief designer for the system. The engineering design had been approved by that time. Even the Military-Industrial Commission (MIC) approved the detailed schedule of further work, as the Dnestr project attracted great attention. It was one of the few projects that were given a high priority by the Government due to the great importance of the project objectives. The Commander-in-Chief for the Navy and the Minister of the Shipbuilding Industry signed the Commission’s report. The work team for the Dnestr project and the outside specialists had to be strengthened. Therefore, the team was expanded to include the Dnestr Chief Scientist in the Institute I. M. Strelkov, deputies chief designer V. E. Glazanov, V. A. Kokurin, G. A. Krasilnikov, V. V. Semenov, V. G. Timoshenkov, I. S. Shkolnikov, deputy chief designer of the DCC A. L. Iofa, and deputies chief designer G. I. Afrutkin (first deputy), B. Z. Belenky, N. G. Bogdanov, Yu. Ya. Gornov, B. I. Danilov, I. A. Yershov, V. B. Zhukov, E. A. Kultyapin, L. D. Lyubavin, V. N. Prygunov, B. V. Pukin (the purchases manager), B. A. Sakovsky, B. S. Smirnov and N. N. Shut, who later became the Russian Federation Government Prize Laureats in the field of science and technology. V. D. Svet (ACIN) was in charge of the D&D research. He was succeeded by G. E. Smirnov, who was appointed the director of 677

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the Eastern ACIN Branch. When the Branch became an independent institute, the responsibilities of the chief scientist in the ACIN were assigned to S. I. Dvornikov. The mobile, persistent team could provide an extensive body of work under difficult conditions. No team could have coped with the large number of assignments without the self-sacrificing, creative effort of a large group of specialists and workers from all departments of the Institute, the friendly assistance of the chief designer’s group for the Skat-3, the attention to the project by the Institute director, the MSI management, the Central Administration of the Shipbuilding Industry and the MIC staff. A. P. Polyakov, A. A. Sazonov, and B. I. Trushchelev deserve particular mention. It is also worth mentioning the fruitful cooperation at all levels with the specialists, units, and command structure of the Navy. The work went forward! Along with the unique receiving array, designed under the supervision of Ya. S. Karlik, the system for data transfer from the array to the land station (A. I. Lonkevich, Chief Scientist) and certain preliminary results on sound sources (AEU units, the experimental prototypes of emitters, had been prepared and the transmitting path had been proved), which had been tested by the beginning of the working project. It was also necessary to resolve a set of serious conceptual issues, including those that determined the nature of the project. The system had been previously designed as a conglomerate of smaller systems: a number of independent stations and a newly designed active system. It was requested that the data processing in the data acquisition, processing and display (DAPD) system be done by optical means. This was impossible because optical means had not been considered for the active mode of operation of the Dnestr, even conceptually, and the installation site had not been selected properly. Specifications had to be changed in the course of work no matter how hard it was. The system was transformed into an integrated unit. The DAPD was a digital system, which processed data with the same equipment. The Commander-in-Chief for the Navy issued an order that specified a new installation site of the system in accordance with our suggestion.

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Therefore, we had to start from scratch designing a sophisticated, high-efficiency, multiple-computer, digital data-processing system with the necessary data interchange rates and quality control by solving a number of research-and-technology problems, including the development of display facilities, a multi-channel digital filter, a new generation reference compensator, etc. The TTR’s of the D&D were completely revised, especially the methods for defining and testing basic requirements. For example, for the first time the instrument check of critical parameters became a separate test step. The supervision of the painfully difficult construction of the land station, which had a whole town full of engineering and special technical buildings and services, required great effort. The projectors also were a challenge. The leading designer for the transmitting array had not been selected. The production of steel construction of the AEU units and arrays and a unique covering for the strength-power communications cable for the prototype had not been worked out. The acoustic transducers shop lacked special processing equipment. It was the builder of the carrier ship, the Chernomorsky Plant in Nikolaev, that pushed the work forward. Extensive cooperation was organized to eliminate blind spots in project planning. The Sevmashpredpriyatiye, the Zvezdochka and the Polyarnaya Zvezda enterprises, the Dalzavod Plant, the Lenin Komsomol Plant, the Hydropribor Research Institute, the Khabarovsk Cable Plant, and the RI of Cable Industry took part in the project. The component base for the DAPD was designed on the basis of the best units obtainable by the Navy. This included programmable preprocessing modules designed by the CRI Morfizpribor, and all-purpose secondary processing Karat-KM computers. Today they look like real anachronisms compared to foreign PC’s manufactured, for example, by TMC Computer Ltd. and Motorolla Inc., but let us remember that this was 1984 and there was nothing better available then. Of course, nobody could even think about the use of foreign equipment. An approved decision made it possible to use data processing units that had been previously designed for the Skat-3 in the Dnestr system. Production of these units had been mastered by the serial-production plants of the Okeanpribor LRPA (Vodtranspribor, Ladoga and Polyarnaya

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Zvezda). This subsequently facilitated the integration of the DAPDs prototype, although the pilot production still had the complicated task of mastering many original and sophisticated instruments. It is worth mentioning that the serially produced instruments had certain drawbacks. It happened more than once when the instruments, which had been made for the Dnestr, were taken for the Skat-3 or the Pelamid, to be installed on another serially produced submarine, by decree of the LRPA director, the manufacturing Plants or even the Ministry. Many swords were crossed during fights for those instruments. We even fought two duels with the Minister himself. The development of the software, which exceeded one million commands, was slow and difficult because of the use of low-level languages. In addition, specialists were still working on the Skat-3 project. In 1986, the Dnestr saw the light of day for the first time. A ship was equipped with a ship-borne sonar projector (SSP), which successfully passed tests in the Black Sea in autumn (although the supervisors of the general customer doubted whether the emission level was sufficient, which objections we properly met). It was a great day, but our sense of accomplishment did not last long. In February 1987, the state tests of the SSP began and we faced a shattering blow. The AEU units suddenly began to break down one by one during the full capacity live tests in the standard mode despite the TTR-required acoustic parameters and the fail-safe operation of the powerful thyristor transmission circuit. The tests were cancelled with our consent and participation. When we inspected the arrays, we saw cracks in the metallic shield and other parts of the AEU units and bulges in the polyurethane sealing compound for the transducer. All the AEU units were taken to the CRI Morfizpribor and thoroughly analyzed. The causes were clear. We had not considered all aspects and stumbled on many unknown factors during the development of the first modification of those unique units. Our acousticians, technologists, and production men completed a surgical treatment of the AEU’s and revived them for derated operations. At the same time, new AEU units were under development. Therefore, the working design included a new design for the Dnestr system that concerned the DAPD and projectors. They created a large

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library of test signals and the required algorithmic base, fought for computer facilities and displays for debugging software and adjusting the DAPD. A bench for testing projector modules was made at the time at our Ladoga test site onboard the Amur experimental ship. The list of cities that participated in the development of the Dnestr includes, but is not limited to, St. Petersburg, Moscow, Severodvinsk, Kirovsk, Nizhny Novgorod, Nikolaev, Tashkent, Khabarovsk, Zelenograd, Vinnitsa, Vladivostok, Komsomolsk-on-Amur, and Volgograd. In 1989, the DAPD equipment was assembled on a bench at the Institute. The bench tests took place in 1990. The equipment was then dispatched to the site. In 1991, the DAPD equipment was installed at the site and in 1991–1992, it was adjusted (the transmission circuit and stationary arrays had been installed earlier). By that time new AEU units had been developed and manufactured, which could be used in standard modes without power limitations. Those units were integrated into the projector. In early 1993, the system passed preliminary site tests in winter conditions. Despite the existing limitations, the results were promising. These results were confirmed during the state tests in October and November of 1993. The state tests exceeded all expectations and not only confirmed but also significantly exceeded the TTR requirements for the critical parameters and successfully met the other requirements. It was impressive that no target was missed and no false alarm was raised during the state tests, including a separate multi-day control exercise in accordance with a skillfully-designed tactical plan. The chairman of the state committee, Rear Admiral V. F. Doronin, signed the committee’s report on December 2, 1993. Finally, the Dnestr saw the light of day. I apologize to the hundreds of researchers, engineers, workers, and other active creators of the Dnestr system for not being able to list all of them in this book. They were all included in the Institute order, which was issued after the completion of the state tests. Many of them spent weeks and months 17 hours by plane away from home and away from their rushed work at the Institute. They lacked money and even experienced a couple of earthquakes.

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As always, the development of advanced systems, such as the Dnestr, requires further refinement. Recent years have seen another breakthrough in computer technology. Moreover, foreign equipment may now be used in accordance with established procedures. This enabled the Hydrophysical Institute to start a complete modernization of the Dnestr DAPD on the basis of the use of foreign computer equipment during the state tests. The modernization sharply reduces the dimensions and energy consumption and facilitates the maintenance of the system. This work has now entered its final stage. The CRI Morfizpribor is simultaneously working on the integration of the new DAPD into the system. It is also preparing the necessary documents and is getting ready for the required operations on site. Unfortunately, the desperate situation with financing for defense programs in recent years does not allow us to follow the scheduled programs in an expeditious manner, as was done in the past. This concerns both the modernization and the possibility to have a permanent designer’s support group, which is always necessary, especially for sophisticated radioelectronic systems. However, the Dnestr has been made and it is operating. The task was finally accomplished, which was aimed at increasing the combat robustness of the Russian submarine force and the effectiveness of underwater area surveillance in large regions of the ocean. In this context the Dnestr system alone is able to perform tasks that cannot be accomplished by simultaneously operating hypothetically large naval and naval aviation units. The development of the Dnestr sonar system was a glorious achievement for the Institute team. The team was awarded the Prize of the Government of the Russian Federation in the sphere of science and technology in 1995. The national mission was fulfilled.

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The Story of the Participation of the Lazurit CDB in the Development of Array Systems for Stationary Sonars G. V. VITYUGOV, YU. K. DRUZHININ and N. I. KVASHA

In the late 1950s, the RI-3 (now the CRI Morfizpribor) was assigned the task of developing land-based passive sonars for long-range detection of submarines. The Lazurit CDB was appointed the associate contractor for the development of the arrays, which were designed to accommodate the acoustic and electronic instruments, by order of the Central Committee of the Communist Party and the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union. The decision was based on the CRI Morfizpribor estimates that long detection ranges could be achieved with the help of large-size hydroacoustic arrays with active areas of dozens or even hundreds of square meters. Only a specialized design organization, such as the Lazurit CDB, could be assigned the task of developing special sea structures, the sizes and the shapes of which were determined by hydroacoustic requirements, while the means for their delivery and installation at the site and the operational conditions at sea were determined by ship design requirements. The new task differed from past tasks of the Lazurit CDB in spite of the fact that it had had sufficient experience in the development of surface ships and submarines. It was necessary to establish a new technical department under the supervision of the chief designer for the project. The department was to determine the design ideology, to prepare a whole working set of design documentation, and to distribute the work among other departments of the Design Bureau.

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V. Ya. Zemskov was the first head of the new department. It was rather small. G. V. Vityugov and A. A. Uspensky did most of the department work. At the initial stages of array design, there were many disputes about the name of the structures under development. It was unusual to call a heavy tonnage marine installation, which was virtually a watercraft, developed on the basis of the theory of naval architecture, an “array.” Besides, it was necessary to install the structure in the operation position at the designed depth. The acoustic requirements were key factors, which determined the design, but the hydroacoustic and electronic instruments amounted for only 20% of the overall weight of the structure. The structure was called “the underwater base for the sonar,” “the ocean part,” “the support frame,” etc. Later they concluded that a hydroacoustic array should be called an array, and the structure designed by the CDB was called the mechanical body part (MBP) of the hydroacoustic array. The Lazurit CDB designed the MBP’s for the Amur and the Agam land sonars and the MBP’s for the stationary array and the ship-borne deployable transmitting array of the Dnestr sonar system. As was already mentioned, the MBP was a part of a stationary hydroacoustic array, which was designed to accommodate hydroacoustic receivers or transmitter units, the signal augmentation, conversion and conditioning equipment and underwater cable connectors. The MBP was designed for the delivery of the array to the installation site, the deployment of the array and the installation of the array in its operating position, to keep the array in such position while in service and to make it possible to raise the array to the surface at the end of its service life or in case of repair or some emergency. The mechanical body part of the Amur sonar array was the first, designed by the Lazurit CDB. It was developed in 1963–1969. V. Ya. Zemskov supervised the development of the MBP prototype and was in charge of modernization. The MBP was based on a ballast cylinder, which was 21 m in diameter and 8.5 m in height (Fig. 1). The hydroacoustic receivers were located on the generatrix of the body. A hermetically sealed container held the electronic equipment. Five vertically mounted pressure hull

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tanks were installed in the central part of the MBP. They provided the positive buoyancy of the array in the operating position. The design weight of the MBP was 400 tons. The array was held at depths up to 600 m with anchor gear. The latter consisted of a drift-anchor, which was flooded on installation, and an anchor tow with a system of damping of dynamic loads. The array was installed in the operating position by flooding the drift-anchor and the ballast tank. The MBP design included standard flooding, ventilation and drainage systems, which were also used by submarines. They could be remotely controlled via a cable from a service ship or by the crew from the base deck, who then could be immediately evacuated, while the array submerged. The array could be lifted to the surface by exploding the anchor tow. A built-in explosion device was activated via a special cable. The research and the experimental testing had been conducted before the creation of the MBP. This made it possible to know the hydrodynamic characteristics of the structure, which were necessary for the calculations. The array operation in the currents was simulated in a water tunnel. The array was finally constructed and assembled at the Dalzavod Plant (Fig. 1). The design experience of the MBP for the Amur land-based sonar array was successful. The MBP was unique and was classified as an invention. Its operation proved the accuracy of the engineering calculations, although there was a weak point. The anchor tow broke down repeatedly. A unique nonspinning steel cable was designed as the result of additional research and modernization of the MBP and with the participation of the Odessa Polytechnic Institute and the Volgograd Steel Cable Plant. The use of the cable made it possible to avoid all troubles associated with the anchor tow. A large CDB team, under the technical supervision of V. Ya. Zemskov and later G. V. Vityugov, took part in the development of the MBP for the Amur. The project managers and leading specialists were A. I. Amenitsky, A. I. Tumakov, A. B. Bulgakov, I. I. Sokolov, A. S. Znamensky, B. M. Smirnov, A. A. Uspensky, and Yu. A. Malyshev. V. P. Vorobyev was the director of the CDB during the development of the Amur MBP and N. I. Kvasha was the chief engineer.

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Fig. 1.

The array system body of the Amur land sonar at the Dalzavod Plant.

The CDB was assigned the development of the MBP of the Agam sonar shortly after the creation of the Amur array. The head of the development effort was G. V. Vityugov, who had been supervising the MBP design from the preliminary project stage in 1966 until the completion of the working drawings in 1974. The Agam array substantially differed from its predecessor. The task of the CRI Morfizpribor was to design an array, which could accommodate several thousand hydroacoustic receivers, which were arranged in two vertical planes on an area of 1000–1500 m2 . The structure was a planar hydroacoustic array, which was installed on the sea bottom or near the bottom. It was a difficult task. Several versions were suggested and analyzed at the preliminary design stage in 1966. The main version was a structure on a rigid platform, which was installed on the sea bottom using a three-point support arrangement. Another structure rested upon two flooded water tanks on the sea bottom. Still another version was an array, which was installed on two supports near the sea bottom. Each

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Fig. 2. The array system of the Agam land sonar in the horizontal position before installation.

support consisted of two rigidly connected tanks of the same type as the pressure hull of a submarine. Hydroacoustic receivers were located between them and formed the array plane. The third variant was approved. The working area of the array was reduced to 750 m2 with consent of the CRI Morfizpribor, which eventually made it possible to accomplish the main construction stage on the building slip of the Dalzavod Plant and to complete the production cycle in one of the floating docks in the Far East. This was one of the conditions of the construction of such arrays because they were intended for use on the Pacific Coast. Array models and prototypes were manufactured and many model tests was conducted during the development of the array. The tests were also aimed at measuring the forces on different parts of the structure while it was being towed in a heaving sea. The designers simulated the behavior of the array during the installation in the operating position by successively flooding the ballast tanks and the behavior of the array in the operating position, when exposed

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to currents. They also conducted other types of research to specify and substantiate hydroacoustic characteristics. The Agam MBP had a diving system, a hydraulic power system that controlled air vent valves and flood valve, an anchor gear of two 65-ton anchors, which were connected with the lower tank via an articulated rod. The array could be towed in two positions: the horizontal position (Fig. 2), when the array plane was above the water surface and the tanks were partly submerged (it was used to tow the array in shallow waters and to dock the array), and the vertical position, when only a part of the upper tank was above the water surface. The array system could be towed under conditions of sea state 5. The array was installed in the operating position by flooding the ballast tanks. It was raised to the surface by purging the tanks with a pluggable vent hose. The overall MBP (the array, if equipped with hydroacoustic equipment) was an impressive structure, 16.8 m high, 4.1 m wide, and 102.5 m long and had the displacement of 1480 m3 when in operating position. The project schedule of the CDB was prolonged due to the delays by the lead design organization, the CRI Morfizpribor. The working drawings of the MBP were issued in 1974, while the preproduction activities and the construction of the MBP at the Dalzavod Plant were accomplished in 1976–1978. New engineering features required careful execution and control. For example, despite the good operation of the manual anchor release, the test installation did not withstand the heavy weight and high amplitude of oscillation of the anchor. Thus, the release of the anchor resulted in a near accident. The accuracy of calculations and modeling allowed the designers of the CRI Morfizpribor and the Lazurit CDB to develop a MBP and an array, which fully met their design concepts. In 1978, the array was installed in the operating position. The installation and lift system were more than once checked on production models of the MBP. The authors of the unique construction include A. I. Amenitsky, A. B. Bulgakov, A. E. Kiselev, A. A. Uspensky, T. I. Tsareva, G. V. Bolonin, N. E. Tsybin and many other specialists of the CDB. V. P. Vorobyev was the director of the CDB and N. I. Kvasha was the

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chief engineer during the development of the prototype. Some engineering innovations of the MBP were designated inventions. These included the body design and the overall MBP design. Further work of the CDB on the MBP for the array systems were connected with the development of the Dnestr sonar system. The CDB developed the MBPs of the stationary radiating array and the shipborne dipping array of the Dnestr sonar system. The MBP of a stationary radiating array of the Dnestr system was principally identical to the Amur array MBP. It was a base with positive buoyancy in the underwater operating condition, which was retained with anchor gear (an anchor and cable gear). New engineering features, which were approved at the development stage, simplified the design and the installation of the MBP. For example, the MBP pressure hull was made in the form of a torus and the MBP had no ballast tanks together with their attendant service systems. This made it possible to install the array without disembarking the crew to the array. A multiple use feature was designed to deliver the anchor and the anchor tow to the installation site. This made it possible to abandon more expensive disposable drift-anchors and, accordingly, not disembark the crew to the drift-anchor, before it was flooded (the anchor was dropped into the water along the leaning slipway of the transportation platform by releasing a holding device). The array was raised with the help of a special device that disconnected the anchor tow from the base by launching a conductor tow to the surface with an underwater projectile. The array was designed after model tests in an aerodynamic tunnel in order to determine its hydrodynamic characteristics. Towing tests were held to find the optimal tow speed. The MBP of the Dnestr was somewhat smaller than the Amur MBP: 13.7 m in diameter and 11.7 m in height. The overall array weight was 200 tons. A. D. Barashkov, A. I. Amenitsky, A. B. Bulgakov, S. A. Nikolichev, N. E. Tsybin, V. D. Usov, V. I. Gribanov, I. I. Anokhin, G. V. Bolonin, and others took part in the development and creation of the Dnestr MBP under the supervision of Yu. K. Druzhinin.

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A steel structure for the radiating array, which was lowered on a cable through a well in the ship’s hull, was developed simultaneously with the design of the Dnestr stationary radiating array. A main design challenge was the need to meet contradictory requirements: a minimum weight on one hand and a high strength and minimum vertical deviation of the array during towing on the other hand. The weight was limited by the allowable cable load. The high strength was required to withstand the bending moment. It occured, when the ship tilted in sea state 5 while the array was being recovered and was entering the well. The lattice structure met all the requirements. It was made after model tests in an aerodynamic tunnel and numerous engineering studies of steel construction versions. In conclusion, it is worth mentioning that, unfortunately, the special department of the Lazurit CDB, which was developed three decades ago, has stopped work on hydroacoustic stationary arrays due to the absence of new orders. The only thing that remains as a consolation is that the contribution of this large group of experts, their high level of unique knowledge and experience left a noticeable mark on the history of the CDB and on hydroacoustics.

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Sonars for Anchored Mines V. E. ZELYAKH

Before World War II, the problem of mine detection with the use of hydroacoustic systems did not receive much attention. Only Germany developed a hydroacoustic device, the Nah-Suchanlage, designed specifically for detecting mines. The existence and specifications of this device became known only after the war. It was believed in other countries that ordinary sonars operating in the ultrasonic waveband at frequencies close to those optimal for mine detection were suitable for addressing the problem. Indeed, individual cases of mine detection with the help of shipborne active sonars had been recorded. Such occurrences were accidental, but they had, to a certain degree, made the problem of reducing the danger from mines seem less urgent. The war demonstrated that a mine is a formidable and efficient weapon. In the first two weeks of the war, in the Baltic Sea only, the Soviet Navy suffered great losses in the mine fields laid by the Germans. A destroyer, a submarine, four mine sweepers, a submarine chaser and four transports were lost. In addition, many ships were sent to the bottom due to a limited capability for maneuvering in a minefield. The Commander-in-Chief of the Baltic Fleet, Admiral V. F. Tributs, wrote: “… upon passing the mine obstacles, the fleet essentially ceased to exist.” In 1942, in the Gulf of Finland only, the Germans laid 12,873 ordinary and anti-sweep mines (177 mines per mile!). Of the 12 Soviet submarines destroyed in the Baltic Sea, seven were blown up by mines. With account for the sad aftermath of World War II and the growing efficiency of mine armaments, a decision was made in 1948 to develop a sonar for surface ships and submarines meant specifically for detecting anchored mines.

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The main difficulty in this task was the considerable low echo intensity from a mine due to its small size. The intensity is two orders of magnitude lower than that from a submarine. This definitely hampers the task of mine detection against background noise and reverberation. An increase in the transmission power only leads to a corresponding increase in the level of reverberation with the problem of mine detection remaining unchanged. In the first post-war years practically no theoretical expertise in hydroacoustics existed in the country. Scientific interpretation of the data gathered in the course of operations of shipborne hydroacoustic systems had just begun. Work along the main directions of sonar development began with the building of a full-scale working model of a prototype device. Based on the results of trials carried out under near-realistic conditions, the preliminary and engineering designs of the device were completed. In compliance with such practice, the design requirements for the first anchored-mine sonar detector, which received the code name Deneb-2, envisaged construction of a full-scale model. The prototype detector design had then to be finalized in model trials. I. L. Krasilshchik, future leading expert in the area of hydroacoustic measurements, was appointed the project chief designer. M. I. Markus, who later became the chief designer of the first helicopter-borne sonars, also took an active part in the development. The design requirements rigidly specified two working frequencies, the simultaneous-scan sector, the detection range, the methods of information display, and the necessity of verification of specific design features aimed at increasing the mine detection efficiency. Among such design features were a reverberation noise compensator, transmitted signal frequency modulation, pulse duration variation, etc. In less than 2 years (September 1949–August 1951), a working model was designed and manufactured. It included two arrays (corresponding to the two carrier frequencies) and equipment weighing about 2 tons. After test-bed trials, the model was installed on the medium-displacement submarine of class S-310, its arrays were arranged in the submarine forward end at the upper deck level. With this arrangement, trials could be performed only while in a submerged

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state. The model allowed simultaneous scanning in a sector of 14◦ ± 7◦ relative to the submarine central vertical plane, lying within the scope of the range of the directivity pattern as measured at half-power level. It was capable of performing step-searches in steps of 2◦ , and scanning of starboard and port side sectors within 7◦ to 21◦ by switching the array transmitters. Echo signals were displayed on an electronic linear range scanning marker (a type A display) and traced on a recorder electrochemical paper strip. The echo, after frequency conversion, could be also listened to on earphones. Beside operation at two carrier frequencies, It was possible to vary the duration and power of the transmitted pulses. Trials took place in September–October 1951 near Ventspils, on a 50–70 m deep test range, at the submarine speed of just 2.5 knots, since higher speed could not be attained due to a failure of the ship’s main electrical system. Surprisingly, even the low concentration provided by the Deneb-2 array allowed establishing echo contacts with a hydrographic buoy and anchored mines. The recorder proved the highest efficiency in detecting mines. Targets could not be distinguished by the electronic display or by ear at distances less than 300 m due to strong reverberation. To evaluate the efficiency of the new sonar, a comparison was made of the ranges of detection of anchored mines by the sonar Tamir-11 and the model sonar Deneb-2. Tamir-11 was installed on a submarine chaser, which could reach a speed of 9.5 knots. For this reason the results obtained could hardly have been regarded as representative. Nevertheless, a report was sent to Moscow that the Deneb-2 ensured two times longer range of detection when compared with the Tamir-11. In the course of trials it was discovered that: (1) a decrease in the pulse (transmission) duration brings no positive effect; (2) a two-times increase in the working frequency leads to loss of the detection range; (3) frequency modulation of the carrier frequency within 3–5% practically does not change the reverberation noise level; (4) the reverberation noise suppression device was ineffective.

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Since none of the proposed design innovations had brought positive results, work on the design of the Deneb-2 mine search sonar was terminated. In 1948, the SDB-206 began design of the sonar Plutonii for submarines, meant to replace the outdated Tamir-5L sonar. The tactical and operational requirements for the engineering design of Plutonii included a requirement for simultaneous detection of all types of anchored mines “falling within the working sector limited by a solid angle, ensuring crossing of a mine field at submarine speed up to 15 knots,” at ranges not less than 3 cables. In 1949, this work was transferred to the RI-3. A. S. Vasilevsky, winner of the State Prize (called Stalin’s Prize at the time), was appointed the chief designer for the Plutonii. During his temporary absence from the Institute, work was taken over by the engineers P. M. Krupsky and Z. Ya. Dizhbak. The Plutonii was designed taking into account an examination of the captured mine detector Nah-Suchanlage and the design of the Tamir-11 sonar for surface ships. Echolocation was performed by a directivity pattern formed by a planar array grid consisting of magnetostrictive transducers. The array was rotated by a synchronous-tracking system. An electronic marker, similar to that used in Tamir-11, and a recorder served as displays. Capability existed for listening to echo signals. Trials of the Plutonii took place in a shallow-sea (50–70 m deep) test range on the Black Sea, with the carrier submarine moving at a periscope depth of 9 m at a speed up to 6 knots. Trials took place during moderate seas (sea state not exceeding 2). Possibly, during the trials a subsurface sound path was present, which reduced bottom reverberation. As a result, positive results for anchored mine detection were obtained. Simultaneously with the development and trials of Plutonii, the design of a hydroacoustic system for the first class-627 Soviet nuclear submarine began. The system incorporated the ultrasonic projector from the Luch sonar for detecting navigation obstacles and anchored mines. The Luch chief designer was L. F. Sychov. Chief engineer was V. S. Kasatkin, who had recently come to work at the CRI Morfizpribor. Young specialist Ye. L. Kolpakov took an active part in this work. Later

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V. S. Kasatkin became head of design for stationary hydroacoustic systems and was awarded the State Prize for the design of the Liman sonar. Ye. L. Kolpakov was later appointed the chief designer of the Radius mine detector. The principal difference between the Luch and Plutonii sonars was the presence of a second signal-receiving circuit in the Luch, employing the “sweeping phase” method. The method was based on scanning the sector with a fast-sweeping compensated phase window, sweeping being donebyaphasechanger.Anelectronbeammovedsynchronicallywiththe compensated phase window over the course angle in the type B display. Trials of a prototype Luch, installed on a class-613 submarine, took place in the Baltic Sea off Ventspils and Liepaya. But in the course of trials neither the circuit that was an exact copy of the Plutonii and employing a standard phase method, nor the circuit using scanning with a fast-sweeping phase, detected mines due to their sensitivity to background noise. As a result, the Navy’s decision was to stop work on development of Luch, and, as a temporary measure, to make use of Plutonii as a mine detector, to be installed on class-627 submarines. None of the systems, Deneb-2, Plutonii, and Luch, was able to ensure efficient mine detection. Sensitivity to background noise and reverberation made mine detection an exception rather than a rule. In addition, the narrow simultaneous-scan sector (7–14◦ ) required a number of step-searches to ensure insonifying all the mines possibly present, which increased the scanning time. This, in turn, put a limitation on submarine speed. In the presence of strong currents, the submarine could drift into a region not yet surveyed thus endangering its safety. In December 1955, a government ordinance was issued for development of a special sonar-mine detector for submarines with the code name Radius. The technical and tactical requirements (TTR) were approved in June, 1956. The requirements for the sonar were quite rigid: anchored mine detection within a 30◦ sector in a horizontal plane at full submarine speed, using one or two transmissions only. In addition, the period of time assigned for development of the new sonar was only 1.5 years! The group of designers led by the Chief Designer Ye. L. Kolpakov and Deputy Designer L. Ye. Sheinman studied existing designs and

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completely rejected the ideas upon which they all were based. They chose a completely new direction. For the first time they employed a method of transmission with a “non-compensated arc,” which helped to avoid cavitation, while maintaining the necessary acoustic power and ensuring the required signal strength that would exceed the noise within a wide sector of scan angles. To suppress reverberation, beside reduction of the transmitted pulse duration, they proposed to sharpen the receiver directivity patterns. The angle in the horizontal and vertical planes was reduced to only 2◦ (at half-power level). To ensure the required scan sector, it was proposed to form 75 spatial modes: 5 tiers vertically, 15 modes in each tier, forming a kind of a multi-tier fan of 15 independent directivity patterns in each tier. Simultaneously with the design of the Radius, the Dvina research project was carried out at the Institute to study reflector arrays and the development of an idea proposed by a staff member of the RIE of the Navy, P. P. Kuzmin. The results of Dvina were used in the design of the Radius. For example, developers of the sonar acoustic array, staff members A. A. Shabrov and G. Kh. Golubeva, proposed using a parabolic reflector array with transducers displaced relative to the focus, a concept studied during the Dvina Project, for shaping the fan of the individual, independent directivity patterns. Instead of traditional magnetostrictive transducers, the array for the receiving mode was constructed using, for the first time in the USSR, barium titanate transducers. Their use was tested during the course of the trials. To minimize size and power requirements, frequencydivision multiplexing of five spatial modes was used. The electronic equipment employed novel components, for the time, including bantam and miniature tubes, germanium diodes, new capacitors, relays, and resistors. At each spatial channel circuit, after the detector, a pulseduration integrating filter was installed. Simultaneously with the commutator, sending queries to all 75 spatial channels within the time of the pulse duration, a sweep of electron-beam type-B displays was formed. The sonar employed two types of displays: one with a sweep in the range-course angle coordinates, the other with a sweep in the range-angular altitude coordinates. Beside the displays employing electron-beam tubes with a long afterglow, use was made of a seven-pen

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electrochemical paper recorder for viewing and shaping the echo signal path in the central, most important spatial modes. The capability existed for operation at two frequencies differing by an octave. A second version of the sonar was also developed with a linear-reflector array, but it never went further than the engineering design stage. Due to the enthusiasm of the developers and the selfless labor of the working groups of the Institute’s subdivisions involved in the sonar development, a prototype Radius was manufactured and installed on a class-611 submarine. By July–November 1958, the first stage of trials took place in the Baltic Sea off Liepaya near Moshchnyi Island. They continued until April–June 1959. The trial results were regarded as negative, even though there were single cases of mine detection at distances up to 25 cables. The mine and the submarine were located in an underwater sound channel with the axis of the channel at a depth of 30 m. Contacts with the target were unstable; at different tacks, significantly different detection distances were determined, up to multiple scans without detection of the target. The main causes of such poor performance were: (1) instability of parameters of the reception-amplification multi-mode path; mode gain varied strongly, which led to increased noise fluctuations at the display input; (2) absence of array stabilization in space; as a result, due to submarine hunting, echo signals from the target failed to get accumulated at outputs of the spatial signal drivers; (3) strong distortions of reception directivity patterns due to screening by the “mosaic” of 75 transducers of a significant part of the array span. Along with development of the Radius for submarines, the same government ordinance required the creation of a mine detector for class257 and -266 mine sweepers. The design and operational requirements for this sonar were approved in May 1956. This time, the time assigned for development of the new sonar, which received the code name Olen, was two times longer than that for the Radius. This allowed the designers to be more exacting in selecting the circuitry and in taking into account experience gained in designing the Radius. One of the most

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experienced engineers, the Lenin Prize winner, M. Sh. Shtremt (chief designer of the Feniks sonar) was appointed the chief designer of the Olen. An able young specialist, I. M. Serebryakov, was assigned to the position of his deputy. L. R. Baguza became deputy to M. Sh. Shtremt for design. M. Sh. Shtremt was known for extremely thorough work, beginning with the preliminary design of a device. Like the earlier sonar Feniks, full-scale working models of the main units of the Olen were developed and constructed, and their joint trials were carried out under marine conditions on the trestle of the Sukhumi Branch of the Institute of Acoustics. This provided an opportunity to check all new circuitry features. The main one of these was elimination of dc signal switching at the main amplifier outputs in each channel. Staff members I. K. Lobanova and V. G. Solovyev, together with M. Sh. Shtremt and I. M. Serebryakov, proposed a method of signal accumulation on the CRT screen, which consisted of the following. For each spatial mode, a non-controllable, high-stability, low-gain preamplifier and a frequency changer with an intermediate-frequency filter were installed. A synchronous commutator connected these components in turn to the main amplifier in which all the necessary adjustments, automatic temporal, and manual stepped, took place. After demodulation, the signal was applied to the type B CRT tube display; within one pulse period, the commutator sent queries to preamplifiers 4–8 times, and that meant that 4–8 samplings from each signal were obtained and accumulated at one point on the screen. Horizontal scan was proportional to range, and the vertical scan, to course angle, and both were synchronized with the commutator of mode inquiry. With this feature instability in the spatial modes was almost unnoticeable. The sonar array was stabilized in space to exclude the effect of rolling and yawing of the sonar platform. Stabilization was ensured by an electro-hydraulic drive, which additionally allowed array rotation and slanting in order to expand the viewing sector in the horizontal and vertical planes. In the simultaneous-scanning sector 45 partial spatial modes were formed, 3 tiers of 15 directivity patterns each. Fifteen spatial modes of any tier could be switched to the 15-pen recorder, and an option was provided for connecting earphones to any

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of these modes. For the first time in domestic hydroacoustic equipment, preamplifiers were assembled using transistors. However, the electronic commutator still used vacuum tubes. The Olen trials in the Baltic Sea produced amazing results. All planted mines and mine banks were detected by the sonar with significant excess over the TTR. In the course of sonar trials, an alarming message was received: in the storm, an old-laid mine broke from its anchor in a region closed to navigation, and the fleet command requested permission to try to find it and demolish it. Upon reaching the assigned area, the minesweeper, with the help of Olen, detected the mine and tried to catch it with a sweep. But the mine “vanished,” and all subsequent laps failed to show its presence. As it was discovered later after lifting the sweep, the mine had been captured on the first attempt, but got entangled in the sweep, and the minesweeper was just dragging it behind it all the time. Beside the above-mentioned engineers, other staff members of the Institute distinguished themselves in the course of development and trials of the Olen: A. I. Shcherbakov, E. V. Batanogov, G. M. Yegorov, D. M. Kartonozhkina, A. V. Ryzhikov, and customer’s representative Yu. V. Chernyshev. Great assistance in the trials was provided by the captain of the ship, O. Sitsky. In July 1961, an American reconnaissance plane was shot down over the Barents Sea by a Soviet fighter plane resulting in an international incident. Our pilots insisted that the plane was flying over Soviet territorial waters, while their foreign opponents asserted that the plane had been brought down over international waters. A decision was made to use the mine-detecting sonar to search for the plane’s wreckage, and so the minesweeper with Olen on board was quickly transferred from the Baltic Sea to the north. For many days running, it searched the Barents Sea in the region indicated by the pilots, registering up to 200 echo-contacts with the objects lying on bottom. But the deep-water diving bell for verifying the contacts could not be lowered from the rescue ship accompanying the minesweeper more than 10–15 times a day. All checked echo-contacts turned out to be false alarms; there were only heaps of stones lying on the bottom. Thus Olen’s only drawback was revealed: the inability to classify echo-contacts. It should be noted

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that many years later the plane wreckage was found much further north of the search area. The systematizing of the task of mine detection by hydroacoustic means, the successes and failures of various designs created in different sectors of the Institute, as well as the need to concentrate the efforts of designers on increasing the quality of the designed minedetection sonars led to the organization of a specialized laboratory in 1960. A highly qualified specialist, former head of a radio engineering laboratory, A. A. Ignatyev, was appointed head of the new laboratory. E. E. Berkul, later the chief designer of the AS Luch and AS Arfa-M, became his deputy. The laboratory incorporated the groups of chief designers M. Sh. Shtremt (AS Olen and Lan), Ye. L. Kolpakov (AS Radius), V. E. Zelyakh (AS Radian), and a group of specialists working in the area of signal-processing (V. G. Solovyev, V. F. Podalevich and others). In 1960–1961, trials of AS Olen came to an end. Unfortunately, the sonar was not put into serial production. The ships for which it was meant were not built because of the “new concept” of the Navy and Chairman of the Council of Ministers, N. S. Khrushchov. Olen placement on smaller mine sweeper craft was impossible because of the size of its array. In 1962, it was proposed to design an anchored-mine detection sonar for minor mine sweeper craft using the experience gained from the design of Olen. The chief designer of the new project under the code name Lan was M. Sh. Shtremt. His deputies were P. M. Krupsky and L. R. Baguza. In order to comply with the TTR, the designers proposed the following: (1) use of a higher carrier frequency, which significantly reduced the size of the array; (2) 1.5 times expansion of the directivity pattern in the horizontal plane, as compared with that in Olen, which also led to reducing the array size and the number of receiving modes required to cover the observation sector; (3) abandoning vacuum tubes and employing transistors in the reception-amplification mode, which also led to a reduction in the equipment dimensions and power consumption requirements.

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Full-scale trials of the AS Lan took a dramatic turn. The reduced receiving array directivity increased the influence of reverberation and noise, making signal detection difficult. The unfavorable hydrologicalacoustic situation in the test range and daily variations of the depth of plankton prevented stable echo-contacts with the target. At the end of the trials, the acoustic source literally broke into pieces, failing under cyclic loading. Despite the fact that the Institute’s plan had been formally fulfilled and AS Lan trials had been carried out, the whole body of laboratory workers, not just the immediate designers of the sonar, were denied their bonuses by order by the Institute’s director. This caused long proceedings in court, which ended in a loss by the laboratory workers, followed by dismissal of the laboratory’s head A. A. Ignatyev from the Institute. Without waiting for repressions, deputy head E. E. Berkul also resigned from the Institute and went to work at the Vodtranspribor Plant. Meanwhile, finalizing the Lan devices continued. A projector for a new design was manufactured. Following the example of Radian, an array with a metal reflector and a mosaic of transducers located outside the array span was used. The electronic commutator circuit was revised, which increased the stability of operation of the keys. Repeated Lan trials displayed full compliance of the obtained results with the TTR. The AS Lan was put into service under the code designation MG-69. It was produced in large numbers and sold well abroad. Minesweepers equipped with Lan sonars were sold to the GDR, Poland, Egypt, Syria, and India. Many of the engineering characteristics of Lan were used in the active sonar Mezen for bottom mine detection designed at the SDB of the Priboy Plant (Chief Designer I. I. Nizenko); and the electrichydraulic system of array stabilization was employed by the same SDB in the design of sonars Serna and Serna-2. Lan performed brilliantly in mine clearing of the Suez Canal. Nevertheless, the principal designers neither of the Olen nor of the Lan were given any awards or bonuses. With creation of Olen and Lan, the task of anchored mine detection was solved for mine sweepers but the problem remained unsolved for submarines.

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In 1958, the Institute started work on design of the sonar system Rubin for class-661 submarines, and the TTR for design and development included requirements for anchored mine detection. Preliminary design work on the mine detection mode of SS Rubin was done under the guidance of N. A. Knyazev. He proposed the use of a stationary multi-element array, which formed a broad directivity pattern in the transmission mode, capable of covering the whole of the preset sector. In the reception mode, it formed a “fan” of narrow-beam independent directivity patterns connected to a multi-mode reception-amplification circuit. The circuit characteristics of the preliminary project were quite original. Later, based on a scheme of this kind, the mine detection mode of SS Kerch and the mine detection AS Arfa for submarines were constructed with the only difference that a separate source was used. The SS Rubin advanced project for development of the preliminary design was defended in 1959. At the same time, trials of AS Radius took place, which revealed inconsistencies in many engineering characteristics, and of AS Olen, which, on the contrary, brought about positive results. In reviewing the TTR for the main operational modes of Rubin, the industry leadership decided to exclude the task of mine detection from the set of tasks to be performed by the sonar system. Because of this, the government ordinance of 1960 regarding creation of anchored mine detection sonars for submarines was issued. It envisioned mine detection sonars installation both jointly with Rubin and independently instead of having AS Radius, the work on which had been stopped. V. E. Zelyakh was appointed the designer of the new sonar which received the code name Radian, the chief designer’s deputies were A. M. Tarzalainen (after his transfer to another sector, this position was occupied by S. N. Kontsevoi) and I. A. Kleiman (deputy for design). Work went at an accelerated pace, with account for the experience of the creation of Olen and trials of AS Radius. The preliminary and engineering projects were completed in 5 months. In view of stricter requirements, as compared with earlier designs, all instruments and devices for the AS Radian were designed anew. The design had two versions: AS Radian 1 with an array stabilized by a hydraulic drive, and AS Radian 2 with a stationary array. Specialists of the Institute, A. A. Shabrov and G. Kh. Golubeva,

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proposed a principally new reflector array, which formed in the emission mode a sectored directivity pattern with low side field level, and in the reception mode, a fan of 45 partial narrow-beam patterns. For the first time in domestic hydroacoustics, a solid metal reflector, with properties not depending on hydrostatic pressure, was employed in the AS Radian design. Highly efficient reversible piezoceramic transducers were designed, in which the quarter-wave gap served as a rear screen. For the first time, to exclude distortions of the directivity patterns, placement of transducers outside the array reflector span was used; the same principle was later used in modernization of Olen and Lan. A substantial contribution to the creation of the array was made by chief engineer of the Institute, Ye. I. Aladyshkin, who had proposed a series of original design and engineering features. For the first time in domestic hydroacoustics, in the design of Radian, the method of echo-signal identification proposed by V. E. Zelyakh and I. G. Dorofeyev was employed. This provided the capability to distinguish the signals from mines against the background reverberations and from reflections from the rough bottom, based on a subjective analysis of echo-signals on the screen with the use of a special display-magnifier. For the purpose of decreasing size and increasing selectivity, electromechanical filters were employed in the multimode reception-amplification circuit. Serious efforts were made to decrease the device dimensions, the result being that the hardware part of the equipment shrank in volume two-fold, as compared with Olen. Like the design work, the process of manufacture of three prototype sonars (one Radian 2 and two Radians 1) went quickly. In 1962, test bed trials were completed. Then the question of sea trials arose. By that time, construction of the class-661 submarine was far from completion. By joint decision of the Navy and the MSI, the B-67 submarine (class 611B) was allocated for conducting trials of the AS Radian 1 in the Northern Fleet, and the K-8 submarine (class-627A) was allocated for trials of the AS Radian 2. The Radian 1 was installed in the forward end of the submarine. The array was arranged below the waterline, inside a dome of a principally new kind proposed by CRI Morfizpribor workers

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Ye. L. Shenderov and L. Ye. Sheinman. The dome presented a structure of a wide-spaced openwork reinforcing ribs and an 8-mm thick perforated envelope lined with a 1-mm thick steel sheet. The Radian 2 array was arranged in a similar dome in the forward end of the conning tower fairwater, that is, above the waterline, which prevented its use while the submarine was on the surface. After re-equipment at the SRF-35, the B-67 submarine was transferred to Polyarny, where, from May to June 1965, the Radian 1 went through the manufacturer’s and state trials. In the first dive it was found that workers of the Era Plant had failed to pressurize the array cable inputs, and water got inside the submarine. To ensure timely completion of the trials, the sonar chief designer V. E. Zelyakh and the array developer A. A. Shabrov, jointly with the technician Yu. I. Sosnin, working under extremely difficult conditions, performed the repair and restoration work independently, without dry-docking of the submarine. One of the most important system tests in the trial program was measuring array parameters such as directivity patterns, sensitivity, and transmission power level. To perform these measurements the ship had to be secured between buoys away from shore, which was a quite difficult procedure to perform. In the process of preparation for the trials, the head of the laboratory of acoustic measurements, N. N. Fyodorov, and the chief designer, V. E. Zelyakh, noticed that the floating landing stages, to which submarines moored, consisted of several pontoons, having through-shafts on the left and right sides. Thus came an idea to conduct measurements “at berth.” It was found that the pontoon draught was less than 1 m, so it could not prevent signal passage to the array at a depth of 5–6 m. The task was to persuade the sailors to change the traditional method of mooring with the forward end toward the shore, and moor with the forward end toward the sea, so that reflections from the coastal line would not distort the measurement results. The water area measurements showed that at high tide, a sufficient depth would be ensured under the submarine keel and screws. The only thing left to do was to build a rotary device for installation of measuring hydrophones and a source, which was brilliantly performed by technician Yu. I. Sosnin from “water pipe scrap” scattered on the

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pier. Submarine commander A. P. Lukyanov took up the task of remooring the submarine. Measurements were carried out for what could be practically called a very “rigid” system, as opposed to the “floating” one envisaged by the program. The results obtained were very accurate and reliable. Because of this initiative, plans could be abandoned for the use of two additional ships. The initiative also resulted in significant material economy and cut short the period of the manufacturer’s trials. In June 1965, sea trials of the Radian began in the region of Kildin Island and on the Mogilny roadstead in the Barents Sea. Under complex hydroacoustic conditions, good results were obtained, which confirmed compliance with the TTR. In the course of the manufacturer’s trials, the deputy chief designer S. N. Kontsevoi distinguished himself. Despite severe seasickness, he spent hours at the sonar control panel, teaching the submarine sonar operator, who then performed brilliantly during the state trials. Success in the trials was also much due to the assistance of the ship’s commander Captain First Rank A. P. Lukyanov who from the very beginning believed in the capabilities of Radian 1. Being guided by the data from the sonar, he brought the submarine to a distance less than one halfcable from the mine, and even passed between two mines in a bank of mines. In the course of trials of Radian 1, workers of MU 31303 researched the efficiency of antisonar coverage of anchored mines, which brought interesting results. In addition to the trials program, an opportunity arose for detecting the presence or absence of ice on the sea surface with the help of Radian 1. Despite the positive results and a great outlook for their application, the work was not continued. In December 1965, the AS Radian 1 was adopted by the Navy under the code name MG-509. The second prototype Radian 1 was installed on the leading submarine of class 671, together with the SS Rubin. Trials took place in the White Sea in 1967. The results obtained confirmed compliance with the TTR. In 1968, when the submarine cruised in the Norwegian Sea, the AS Radian 1 was used to track an American submarine, which, despite all efforts to break off the pursuit, was finally forced to surface.

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The sonar Radian 1 (MG-509) was installed on submarines of class 611B, 671, 671RT and 661. The sonar Radian 2 was installed on the submarine K-8 of class 627A at the Severodvinsk Northern Marine Enterprise. Trials began in 1964 in the Barents Sea. Improper array location caused a very high level of noise. But even that did not prevent trials. The extremely careful submarine commander strictly followed the order of the Commander-in-Chief of the Navy regarding the inadmissibility of coming closer than 10 cables to any unidentified objects. Considering the training mine an “unidentified object,” the commander began the deviation maneuvers from a distance of 20–15 cables, the result being that the target left the observation sector long before the distance of approach specified in the TTR was reached, since the Radian 2 array remained immobile. Only when the second-in-command replaced the tired commander, and took the courage to approach the training mine at a distance specified by the TTR, a record of clear echo contacts was obtained, despite the extremely unfavorable hydroacoustic conditions. But interest to the Radian 2 had been lost, and in 1967 the equipment was dismantled and handed over as a training aid to the A.S. Popov NSEE. As to K-8, its story was even sadder: it perished in 1970 as a result of an accident. The Radian 1 trials showed that the problem of mine detection from a submarine can be successfully solved. Beside the abovementioned designers, staff members of the Institute, L. A. Vakhitova, L. D. Stepanov, A. I. Smirnov, L. I. Maksimova, I. L. Mastyker, O. L. Preobrazhensky, I. M. Dmitriyev, and customer’s representative I. A. Yakovlev, took a very active part in the development and trials of Radian 1. T. I. Prokofyeva undertook a great effort to bring the sonar into serial production at the Akhtuba Plant. Simultaneously with designing at the Institute of the SS Rubin and the AS Radian, work was underway at the Vodtranspribor Plant SDB on the development of the SS Kerch for medium-displacement submarines, upon which the Rubin could not be installed because of the size of its array and hardware. The Kerch included a mode for anchored mine detection, which in its principal engineering characteristics, that

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is, signal transmission into the entire angular observation field and reception with the help of a “fan” of directivity patterns with signal accumulation over the time of pulse duration, was similar to the draft project of the same mode in the SS Rubin. The main distinction from the mine-detection circuit of the Rubin was use of broader directivity patterns, which reduced the array concentration ratio and strongly lowered the resistance to reverberation noise. The Kerch trials displayed the erroneousness of such a feature. The equipment being in good working order, signals from larger targets, such as ships or a rocky coast, were received well, but echo-signals from mines could not be detected because of the background noise. Therefore, the circuit was preserved in the sonar system as a means to ensure submarine safety while surfacing and passage through narrow channels. For mine detection, it was proposed to use an improved version of the sonar Arfa-G. To minimize the effect of reverberation, the use of a combined array and emitted pulse frequency modulation in the design of the AS Arfa-G was recommended. But the insufficiently high array gain in the reception mode and the broad transmission band, caused by signal frequency modulation, significantly lowered the signal-to-noise ratio and rendered mine detection practically impossible. The trial results were the same as those of the Kerch mine detection circuit. In 1962, development of a class-705 small-size automated nuclear submarine began. None of the then available sonar systems had been found suitable for installation on such a submarine. It was decided to develop the sonar system Okean specifically for this submarine (Chief Designer N. A. Knyazev). The SS Okean incorporated the sonar Luch (Chief Designer E. E. Berkul, and after his transfer to the SDB of Plant 206, I. M. Serebryakov). In the same period (from the first quarter of 1960 to the fourth quarter of 1964), the research project Los was initiated at the Institute, being aimed at finding the most efficient method of mine detection by means of hydrolocation. The Chief Scientist of this project was A. A. Ignatyev and his deputy was V. G. Solovyev. As a result of joint work by the two projects, new methods of operation were proposed, studied, and introduced. These new methods were shaping of the directivity pattern on transmission, and original methods

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of signal processing of the received echo. The Luch differed from the earlier designs not only in the reduced dimensions of hardware racks and supply from ship’s mains at 400 Hz frequency, but also in a principally new approach to signal transmission and reception. Insonification was performed by a beam, narrow in the horizontal plane, which over the time of pulse duration scanned the entire sector of simultaneous viewing. By way of group phasing of the planar array’s transmitting elements it was possible to turn the entire insonified sector to the starboard or port, thus increasing by three-fold the overall viewing sector. Instead of one powerful oscillator output, group oscillators were employed with supply directly from the ship’s mains, without integrators. This helped to make the oscillator dimensions smaller, but required the power margin in the mains to be increased to about 60–80 kW. With the help of electric delay lines, a fan of fine-focused patterns was formed in the receiving circuit. Expansion of the viewing angle in the vertical plane was ensured by mechanical slanting of the grid array with the help of an electric drive. The sonar was assembled completely of semiconductor devices with the use of micro-assemblies, which helped to minimize the dimensions and power requirements of the receiving circuit. Two prototypes were manufactured. One of them was installed on a re-equipped submarine of class 611 and successfully passed trials in the Sea of Japan in 1970, having demonstrated full compliance with the TTR. With its use, and with complete absence of a priori information, a bank of mines deployed several years before the beginning of the trials was found. The second prototype was installed on the leading submarine of class 705; it also passed state trials successfully. The sonar manufacture, tuning, installation on ships and the trials were carried out with the active participation of plant staff members I. M. Serebryakov, Yu. S. Marutov, and A. I. Smirnov. The Luch was brought into serial production at the V. I. Lenin Production and Technical Association in Beltsy. After the failure of the mine detection mode development for the sonar systems Kerch and Arfa-G, the Vodtranspribor Plant started work in 1970 on development of a self-contained unified mine detection sonar under the code name Arfa-M. E. E. Berkul, who recently had

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been transferred from the CRI Morfizpribor, was appointed the chief designer. His deputy was V. I. Yegorov, who later became the chief engineer, and then the director of the Ladoga Plant. The new sonar design was developed with account for the experience of the development, manufacture, and tuning of Luch and the results of the research project Los. Special attention was paid to array improvement. Thanks to specially developed superfine perforated screens, G. D. Grishman managed to isolate single transducers acoustically, which permitted scanning of the transmitting directivity pattern over the entire working sector without distortions and without grouping of transmitters. Each transmitting array transducer was excited by its own oscillator (power amplifier), which increased sonar reliability, simplified its tuning, and permitted transistors to be used in the powerful output oscillator stages. In the manufacture of array transducers, use was made of piezoceramics of a new composition, which ensured better array sensitivity in the reception mode and reduced the effect of electric noise from preamplifiers input circuits. An electronic magnifying lens was incorporated in the display, which facilitated mine identification. A version of the sonar was developed with the oscillator device incorporating a capacitance power integrator, which significantly reduced the power requirements of the ship’s main electric cables. The sonar was equipped with a built-in automatic system of equipment status control and troubleshooting. In the process of serial production at the Ladoga Plant, modernization of the AS Arfa-M was performed, aimed at increasing its reliability and efficiency. In particular, thanks to the use of stable transistors and integrated circuits, an opportunity arose to return to the mode of direct signal amplification in each of the receiving spatial channels. As a result, electric noise was reduced and the dynamic range was expanded. Creation, testing, and modernization of the AS Arfa-M were performed with the active participation of the representative of the RIE of the Navy V. I. Fomichev. The sonar Arfa-M is currently installed on submarines of many classes, including submarines sold abroad. The principles of construction of mine detection sonars examined within the scope of the research project Los, upon which the sonars Luch and Arfa-M for submarines were based, were also used in the design

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of the mine detection sonars Serna and Serna-2 for mine sweepers. The principal distinction between the latter sonars and the Luch and Arfa-M sonars was in the method of shaping of the scanning directivity pattern at signal transmission. The Luch and Arfa-M made use of a multi-mode oscillator with a phase shift between the modes, while the AS Serna employed controlled phase changers. With the creation of the Radian, Luch, Arfa-M, Lan, and Serna sonars, the problem of anchored and bottom mine detection might have been considered solved. But the tasks of improving the sonars remain. The most important task is increasing the reliability of echo contact identification. In addition, work must continue on improving the consumer specifications of these devices: decreasing their dimensions, weight, power requirements, increasing reliability, expanding their functional capabilities and the scope of the tasks undertaken, as, for example, by introduction of circular scanning of the upper hemisphere in order to ensure safe surfacing, introduction of a better visualized and adequate situation display, etc. Sonars of this type might find broad application on civilian vessels: submarine tankers, geological prospecting ships, in the fishery industry.

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Krab: A Fuse for Acoustic Mines Z. N. UMIKOV

From the first days of the Great Patriotic War, the German armed forces made efforts to blockade exits from the docking bays of the Black Sea Fleet using magnetic and acoustic bottom mines. One of these acoustic bottom mines was recovered in Sevastopol. For its study, a commission of experts — mine experts and hydroacoustics specialists from different institutes — was formed. Among its members was the former leading engineer of the Vodtranspribor Plant, M. G. Grigoryev, author of the first manual on hydroacoustics. But this first close encounter the insidious enemy weapon ended in tragedy. On their way to study the mine, members of the commission, in good spirits, did not suspect that their trip would be the last one in their lives. A team from the Vodtranspribor Plant maintaining hydroacoustic equipment on ships of the Black Sea Fleet, met the members of the commission and persuaded M. G. Grigoryev to stay for a few minutes to celebrate the occasion. Meanwhile the rest of the commission started its work. The mine was opened up, and, unexpectedly, a secret mechanism exploded the mine killing all commission members present. It was by mere chance that M. G. Grigoryev was saved. To demolish all the magnetic mines planted in the bay simultaneously, miners proposed laying a cable on the bay bottom, along its shore, and connecting it to the tramway contact system to create a strong magnetic field. Even though the planned experiment took place, not a single magnetic mine exploded. In the beginning of June, a second acoustic mine was recovered from the Baltic Sea and was disarmed. The exploding device did not function because one of the conductors had been torn from the power source. Only then did it became apparent that the mine explosion in 713

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Sevastopol occurred because of pressurized air being released from the mine. The exploding device had a pressure relay and an explosive charge. It became clear that German bottom mines could be opened only in a room where the air pressure was either equal to or greater than that inside the mine. The importance of opening up a bottom acoustic mine could be judged by the fact that Stalin informed Churchill about the incident. Churchill asked for and was granted Stalin’s permission to send his specialists to learn about the mine’s design. A group of acoustics specialists was assigned to work with the British specialists. I was a member of this group, representing the Vodtranspribor Plant. The specialists that came had a good command of the Russian language and turned out to be children of Russian emigrants. In the course of work with the British specialists, I asked them about the status of acoustic mine development in their country. The answer I received was that work on anchored acoustic mines was going on in Great Britain, the USA, Canada, and Germany, but, at the moment, none of the countries, except for Germany, had obtained any positive results. The reasons were the following: mine-sweeping is performed by acoustic sweeps; the mines explode in stormy weather because the tightened mooring cable behaves like a vibrating string creating an acoustic field; they explode at ship traverse passage, and, most importantly, have a limited lifetime (about two weeks) due to low capacity of the power source. In the opinion of the British specialists, creation of a reliably working acoustic mine would remain questionable until all these obstacles were overcome. The conversation with the British specialists became imprinted in my memory and did not give me a minute’s peace. How could it be that strong, rich, big research institutes were unable to create an anchored acoustic mine? Had not their answer been a distracting maneuver? In early August of 1941, the second section of the evacuated Vodtranspribor Plant, carrying people and equipment, was leaving the Finlyandsky railway station for Omsk. A few hours before its departure, I decided to go with that group. The trip lasted a whole week because the railways were packed with military echelons and evacuation trains from different cities of the country. During this time, in my

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imagination, I thought through many versions of possible acoustic fuses for an anchored mine. Upon arriving in Omsk, Postnov, the director of the evacuated plant, who understood the importance of solving the problem of an acoustic fuse, appealed, at my request, to the local Party committee to assist in providing me with the necessary parts and components. The secretary of the Party committee agreed to help and permitted, in case of need, to disassemble radio receivers taken for storage from the local population and one distributing frame of the city telephone station relay. He gave orders to the Relay Plant relocated from Kiev to provide 10 sets of galvanometric relays with platinum contacts, and to the Kozitsky Plant, evacuated from Leningrad, to provide a batch of radio tubes of type 1K-1, etc., for our needs. When all the necessary materials were received, a group of four people, A. I. Vlasov, P. K. Pavlov, Ye. Ya. Karpinskaya, and me sat down to hard work. Disbelievers laughed up their sleeves, reminding us that we set out to solve a problem that nobody in other countries had yet solved. We worked without regard for time, and by March, 1942, our team had prepared six sets of prototype acoustic fuses for a big anchored mine in compliance with the design requirements we had developed ourselves and without any customer’s funding. At the request of the director Postnov, the fuse was placed in a mine by the designer S. P. Vainer, a specialist from the Naval Mine-and-Torpedo Institute evacuated from Leningrad to Petropavlovsk-in-Kazakhstan. The Naval Mine-and-Torpedo Institute took upon itself the organization of full-scale sea trials of the fuse; Captain Second Rank T. G. Smolin was appointed chairman of the trials commission. The commission also included Lieutenant A. V. Rimsky-Korsakov. The fuse manufacturer’s trials were carried out in the Caspian Sea, near Baku, in Gausany, on the base of the Mine-and-Torpedo Institute. The trials lasted several months and took place under various weather conditions. The role of the target ship was played by a self-propelled barge moving over the mine armed with a fuse in different directions and at different speeds, pulling an acoustic sweep behind it.

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Fig. 1.

Acoustic fuse Krab for type KB-3 anchored mines.

The trials showed that the acoustic fuse for the big anchored mine, which received the code name Krab, met all the necessary requirements, and its service life was determined solely by the lifetime of its power source, which was about a year (Fig. 1). Based on the results of the trials, the Naval Mine-and-Torpedo Institute gave an order to the branch of the Vodtranspribor Plant for the manufacture of a trial lot of 10 fuses. The plant fulfilled the order, meeting all the customer’s specifications, particularly, the requirement of fuse resistance to explosion by a neighboring mine located a distance of 50 m away. The fuse had three modes with two acoustic units: one point low-frequency receiver using 0.005 mA at 1 V, and one horn-type high-frequency receiver with the 30◦ directivity pattern facing vertically upward. The first (alarm) mode operated when a “noisy” craft appeared within 500–1000 m of the mine and activating the second mode preparing the fuse for operation. When the craft entered the

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“acoustic spot” on the sea surface, the third explosive mode operated and the mine exploded, as a rule, under the ship’s engine room. The state trials of the Krab took place in Vladivostok in 1943, in the vicinity of Kogti Tigra (Tiger’s Claws), on the naval mine test range. For conducting the trials, the mine-layer Finval and several support ships were allocated. An operator of a film studio from Khabarovsk was invited to produce a film about the trials according to a script written by members of the commission. The head of harbor defense for Vladivostok issued an order, according to which all vessels and transports entering and leaving the harbor had to pass through the marked “gate” (a mine field with Krab fuses). Mines were connected with the support ship via cable lines for recording the operation of the fuses. Military, passenger, commercial, Liberty transport ships from the USA and Canada, with cargos of aid, passed through the “gate,” and each passing vessel conditionally “blew up” one of the mines planted at different distances one from the other, at different depths, and every time the mine went off in the region of a machine room. Each mine was equipped with a three-pen recorder, which registered operation of every fuse mode. The recorder was similar in construction to a barograph and had a seven-day winding mechanism. To check the Krab resistance to neighboring mine explosions, a live mine was blown up. During one of the tests, members of the commission were in a boat. The mine under test was connected with the boat via cable, and the boat stood at anchor. Suddenly, the screw half-showing above the water surface of a dry-cargo ship passing through the “gate” started winding up the boat’s anchor rope, pulling it to the screw. In view of the imminent danger to all sitting in the boat, a sturdily built sailor managed to tear the rope off the boat, which, like a ball, danced on the wave created by the ship’s screw. A few days later, the man was decorated for his brave deed. In 1943, the centenary of birth of the great Russian composer Rimsky-Korsakov was celebrated in the USSR. The group of the Krab testers was invited to attend the celebration, which took place in the city theater of Vladivostok. T. G. Smolin and I sent a note to the chairman of the meeting who was sitting on the stage that we had among us

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the composer’s grandson A. V. Rimsky-Korsakov, a marine officer. To the general applause of the audience, Andrey was invited to sit at the chairman’s table. To check stability of the mines equipped with the Krab fuse in stormy weather, six mines with recorders registering the behavior of the fuse modes were deployed. The mines remained 6 days in a severe storm, and at the end, the mine-layer Finval passed above them. Records showed that, during the storm, the first alarm mode had operated many times, the second mode preparing the mine to explosion had operated only a few times, and the explosion mode, not a single time. Mines “went off” only on passage of the Finval over them. Using the video footage shot during the trials, Rimsky-Korsakov and I made a film at the Khabarovsk Film Studio about the state trials of an anchored mine with the fuse Krab. The film had subtitles explaining the course of the trials and was accompanied with the music of RimskyKorsakov and Tchaikovsky. The acceptance commission for the big anchored mine with the fuse Krab included representatives of the Pacific Fleet, the customer and the industry. After a report about the work had been prepared and after a viewing of the film, the commission signed a certificate of acceptance for service by the Navy for the Krab, with a recommendation to start serial production. In April 1944 in Makhachkala, on the test range of the Naval Mineand-Torpedo Institute, marine trials of the Krab took place with a view toward investigating the possibility of using it in aircraft-deployed anchored mines to be dropped from various heights. The trials were successful. When the mines hit the water, no false operation of the fuse occurred. Production of the Krab was assigned to the Mine-and-Torpedo Plant in Kiev. In the course of manufacture of the first lot of fuses, the plant failed to assemble a single ultrasonic receiver, since every time in assembly the multi-layered Segnette’s salt cube with a 1.5 cm edge would break. All attempts to assemble at least one receiver failed. As a result, the plant did not fulfill its plan and explained the failure by claiming low quality of the receiver design and even deception of the acceptance commission at the state trials. A respective letter signed

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by the plant director, the Party, and trade union organizations was forwarded to the Ministry. I was in danger of getting into trouble, because the state security organizations got interested in the matter. I was summoned to Moscow as part of an investigation of the situation, and was then sent to the Kiev plant to look into the causes for non-fulfillment of the plan. Upon arrival, I was invited to the director’s office, where all those who had signed the letter had already been gathered. I was compelled to listen to all possible complaints and was accused of frustrating the plan. I also received threats of even more trouble. I proposed that, before threats of punishment, we should first go to see the workshop and look for the cause of any defects. In the shop I saw un-assembled receivers on the workbenches. It was enough to look inside several receivers to understand the cause of the defect. It was now my turn to threaten, criticize production together with the director, and accuse them of illiteracy and inability to read the drawings. I demanded to have several qualified toolmakers for the next day at my disposal, and walked out, for I had to get accommodations and find a place to eat. According to the drawings, the membrane’s internal side had to have a high-precision surface finish, but actually it was simply roughed. After roughing, a protrusion in the form of a sharp cone was left in the center of each membrane in the casings. In assembly, the Seignette’s salt cube was pressed to this cone, and when the whole multi-layered system got braced together, the protrusion broke the crystal. In a few days all casings were worked to the required degree of finish, the receivers were assembled and put to the necessary manufacturer’s tests. All receivers withstood the tests successfully. After reporting to the Minister on the results of the trip, I asked him to punish the plant’s administrative body for ignorance and, as culprits of the above misunderstanding, to deprive them of the quarter-year’s bonus. My request was fulfilled. The Minister also informed me that the Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry had decided to nominate Krab for the Stalin’s Prize. The Prize was awarded to Z. N. Umikov, A. I. Vlasov, T. G. Smolin, S. P. Vainer and A. M. Borushko.

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About 2 years had passed from the beginning of development of the Krab (September 1941) to the moment of signing of the certificate of its acceptance for service. This period included the Krab sea trials in the Caspian Sea and in Vladivostok. In 1946, the exercise program of the Northern Fleet in Murmansk, included planting of anchored mines with Krab fuses and a series of other operations involving mines. Unexpectedly, in the course of deployment, the mines started blowing up. This was immediately reported to the Mine-and-Torpedo Department of the Navy. Fortunately, these had been training mines only. The chairman of the commission for manufacturer’s and state trials and myself were called to Moscow, to the Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry. It was winter, and, together with the travel orders, we received warm clothes. Upon arriving at the manufacturing plant, we learned that the Krab manufacturer, in the absence of resistors of the necessary rating had installed in the fuse random resistors that were at hand at the moment. After recovery of the circuit, fuses were put in order, and the exercise was completed successfully. I returned to Moscow, to report on the results of my trip and to change into normal clothes. The Murmansk train arrived at the Yaroslavsky railway station late at night. It was very cold and windy, and I decided to wait until morning in the waiting-room of the railway station. Before entering the waiting-room I had to go past the watchman at the door, who at my approach started yelling that he was being attacked. Witnesses appeared immediately, and I was dragged to the militia station, where I was left to spend the rest of the night. In the morning I was summoned to the officer of the day. It was the major of the militia, who ordered me to sign a report on the case. I refused, and threats began. I took a red pencil, wrote across the sheet: provocation — lie and added my signature. When the officer saw my signature, he jumped from the chair to hit me, and the witnesses standing behind started kicking me. Unexpectedly, a colonel of the militia entered the room. Seeing him, witnesses ran off at once, the major stood at attention, and answered with silence to the colonel’s question of what had happened. Then I told him the whole story, showed my travel documents signed by Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR and the Minister of Shipbuilding Industry and promised

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to report about the provocation on the part of the day’s officer. The colonel tore the paper, apologized to me and promised to investigate the case. He also explained that a campaign against hooliganism had been announced in Moscow that week. After reporting to the Minister on the results of my trip to Murmansk, I told him of my encounter with the militia. In my presence he called the head of militia of Moscow and asked him to investigate the case and punish the culprits. Simultaneously with the design of the Krab, M. I. Markus and I developed a detailed project proposal for a bottom multiple-action acoustic mine that would rise to the surface on the approach of a noisy object to a distance of 200–300 m from the mine. The floating device was located at a depth of 20–30 m and the sensor unit was borrowed from the fuse Krab. In case the mine had not gone off, then, after staying afloat for some time, it again would sink to the bottom until the next time. The project, as a gift to the front, was submitted to the General Headquarters, from which a letter with acknowledgements and an authorship certificate for the mine soon followed. It was noted in the letter that it was difficult to adopt such a mine for Navy use, since our ships, on entering the mined area, were at risk of being blown up from our own mines. Several years later, I was shown a German acoustic fuse for anchored mines developed toward the end of the war. The fuse’s acoustic system receiver consisted of a transducer of magnetostrictive material and a non-directional action guard mode and an executive mode with the directivity pattern facing upwards. It could be supposed that the electric circuitry of this fuse was similar to that of the Krab. For many years Krab faultlessly stayed in service, which is testified to by an episode during the Korean War. The Commander-in-Chief of the U.S. Army, McArthur, proposed a plan for elimination of the North Korean army by landing troops in its rear to encircle it. The region of the sea selected for landing was preliminarily swept by acoustic sweeps and then by mine sweepers to demolish mechanical mines. When the troop-landing and support vessels entered the landing area, they started blowing up because of the mines equipped with the Krab fuses, and some of them sank. Thus the carefully prepared operation failed.

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Hydroacoustic Navigation and Positioning Aids with Transponder Beacons and Emergency Signal Sources YU. A. NIKOLAYENKO

In the late 1950s to early 1960s, work began on the design and construction of nuclear submarines (NS) as strategic missile carriers. Simultaneously, methods for their combat use were being developed with account for such new features as their ability to stay secretly underwater for a long time without surfacing and to perform underwater missile launchings. Efficient use of these new features necessitated improvement in navigation systems and navigator’s equipment for NS, and development of underwater navigation markers — sonar transponder beacons (STB’s) and shipborne sonars for operation with STB’s. Coordinated use of a STB and a sonar allows a NS to determine its position in the ocean without surfacing. In 1965, a laboratory of the CRI Morfizpribor, headed by V. S. Trukhin, began the Bureya research project to study the possibility of creating deep-water STB’s with a long service life. The chief scientist was G. Ye. Smirnov, his deputies were V. V. Mazurkevich, Yu. A. Nikolayenko, and R. I. Grinevich. Within the scope of the project, a wide range of problems, absolutely new for the Institute and domestic science, was researched and solved. These problems were related to the creation of: (1) deep-water acoustic arrays of minimum weight and size; (2) floats for arrays to hold them in a hovering position over the bottom, at depths up to 6000 m; (3) economical (efficient) electronic circuits for STB; (4) long-term power sources; 722

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(5) strong casings for electronic equipment able to withstand hydrostatic pressure up to 600 kg/cm2 ; (6) sealed input connectors for wires and cables. Beside other problems, the experimental research carried out in the Black Sea and the Sea of Japan studied STB structural behavior in the process of sinking to the bottom, including ways to reduce the sinking speed. A prototype STB is shown in Fig. 1. The positive results from Bureya facilitated carrying out in 1967– 1970 the D&D effort Shelf aimed at the creation of a sonar navigation system (SNS) with an STB designed for NS positioning by the range- and direction-finding method. Distance to the STB was measured by the time of signal propagation to the STB and back, and direction to the STB was determined by the NS standard sonar system (coordinates of the STB proper are to be determined at the time of deployment). The chief designer of the D&D project Shelf was G. Ye. Smirnov, his deputies were Yu. A. Nikolayenko, A. I. Shamparov, and R. I. Grinevich. In the course of the work, STB’s with service life longer than 1 year, designed for deployment both from NS and surface ships, were developed. The maximum STB working depth was 6 km. At the same time, a shipborne sonar for operation with the STB was designed. The sonar was coupled with the NS navigation system, and, jointly with the latter, ensured the submarine positioning with the accuracy sufficient for effective operation of strategic submarine-launched missiles of the first generation. In 1970–1972, the D&D project Shelf-NK was carried out to modify the sonar Shelf for service on special-purpose surface ships used in evaluating the accuracy of missile firing in various regions of the world’s oceans. Within the scope of this work, a lowered sonar array was developed, which allowed operation with STB’s under practically any hydroacoustic conditions. The STB’s and sonars developed within the scope of the provect Shelf and Shelf-NK were brought to serial production at the Akhtuba Plant. In 1973–1975, the research project Zhemchug, headed by G. Ye. Smirnov and his deputy Yu. A. Nikolayenko, was carried out to evaluate the opportunities for increasing the efficiency of SNS operating with

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STB’s. Research included the problems of direction finding to a STB with the use of a mono-pulse self-contained direction finder with short and ultra-short base length, as well as calculating the distance to a STB operating autonomously by measuring the time between the moment of registration of the signal arriving directly from the STB and the signal reflected from the sea surface. Experimental research under the Zhemchug project was performed on the drift-ice station North Pole-21 and the experimental ship Professor Zubov. In the 1970s, to facilitate search for sunken submarines, two D&D projects were carried out, Ptan, on the development of an emergency acoustic signal source for installation on submarines, and Ptan-NK, which solved the problem of modification of the sonar Shelf-NK to ensure its operation together with the Ptan source. The chief designer for the D&D projects Ptan and Ptan-NK was A. A. Ostroukhov, his deputies were O. V. Lisok, R. I. Grinevich, and V. B. Grauer. In 1977–1980, the problem of increasing the accuracy of NS positional estimates under water, as applied to the new generation of submarine-launched strategic missiles, was posed. To solve this problem, the D&D project Sunzha was carried out, with Yu. A. Nikolayenko as the chief designer. S. N. Matveyev (later, Yu. M. Gurov), R. I. Grinevich, and A. M. Tsukkerman were his deputies. In the course of this work, a great amount of experimental research in the Baltic and Black Seas and in the Sea of Japan was carried out on STB range-finding errors under various hydrological and acoustic conditions. As a result, the accuracy of measurements made with the use of the developed SNS increased 5–7 times, as compared with the SNS Shelf. Simultaneously, the service life of STB’s was increased up to 3 years. Today, the sonar Sunzha is in use on all modern strategic NS, its serial production was organized at the Akhtuba Plant. In 1980–1982, to expand the scope of the application of STB’s, two research projects were initiated. The first one, Raduga, which was carried out under the scientific guidance of Yu. A. Nikolayenko and N. M. Kuzin, was dedicated to the study of the opportunities of applying STB’s in the search for sunken ships. The second one, under the code name Perekopka with chief scientist A. B. Zabodalov and deputy A. V. Toropygin, analyzed the opportunities for creation of

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sonars and STB’s for the measurement of the trajectories of underwater objects by using pulse-Doppler methods. SNSs and STBs play an important role in the system of technical aids used in carrying out search and rescue, oceanographic and geophysical research, and other activities in the ocean. They helped to solve the following principal problems: (1) fixing the positions of ships and underwater vessels relative to an object located on the seafloor, or a certain reference point marked by an STB; (2) guiding ships to the point of location of an underwater object, for example, a sunken ship, or the mouth of an underwater borehole marked by an STB; (3) tracking of an underwater object following an arbitrary trajectory and the plotting of its path from a support vessel; (4) coordinating the operation the several underwater vessels from a support vessel; (5) initial placing of a boring tool at the mouth of a borehole on the seafloor in preparation for its reinsertion; (6) generating data on the change of the position of a ship or of a floating drilling rig platform, required for operation of dynamic positioning systems. Work on solving the above tasks, as applied to surface ships, began within the scope of the Sirius research project with Chief Scientist V. S. Trukhin and Deputy Chief Scientist V. V. Mazurkevich. In the course of this project, an opportunity for the creation of a sonar with a short baseline that allowed positioning of ships and underwater vessels by the range- and direction-finding method was investigated. Working STB models that surfaced on command from the ship were manufactured and tested. Trials took place in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans on the research vessel Academician Kurchatov. On the basis of the results obtained from Sirius, the D&D project Ekvator was carried out in 1976–1979, to develop sonars for surface ships and underwater vehicles, and STB’s with short and long service lives. At the beginning, the project chief designer was V. S. Trukhin. He was later replaced by V. V. Mazurkevich. The shipborne sonar was

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brought to serial production at the Krasny Luch Plant and STB’s were produced at the Akhtuba Plant. The facilities for which the sonars Ekvator were designed were the rescue ship Osminog, the underwater vessels Poisk-2, Poisk-6, as well as other ships. In 1980–1990, the D&D projects Sukhona and Sukhona-6 were carried out at the Institute. Their goal was the design of sonar equipment for drilling ships and platforms. Under the guidance of the chief designer, A. A. Ostroukhov, and his deputies, A. I. Monakhov and V. A. Komlyakov, the prototype sonar Sukhona, which was put to trials at one of the drilling ships, and the prototype sonar Sukhona-6 were designed. This equipment was meant to solve the following problems: (1) determining the coordinates of a borehole relative to the drilling ship, to ensure the ship’s approach to the borehole;

Fig. 1.

First prototype navigation sonar transponder beacon.

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(2) acquisition of data on the change of a ship’s coordinates relative to the borehole mouth, to fix its position over the drilling point; (3) determining the coordinates of the drilling tool’s lower end, for its insertion in the borehole. The SNS Sukhona solved the above problems at depths up to 800 m and the Sukhona-6 and depths up to 6000 m (Fig. 2). As a means of support for prospecting and exploration of iron-andmanganese concretions on the seafloor, the system Sigma was created in the 1980s for determining the position of ships, as well as self-contained and towed underwater vessels, relative to a STB (Chief Designer A. I. Monakhov, Deputy Chief Designer S. A. Popov). The operation of the system was tested under realistic marine conditions. In the 1990s, the Institute continued designing hydroacoustic aids for underwater vehicles. In 1991–1993, the D&D project PTS-OPA was carried out to create a sonar ensuring determination of an underwater vessel’s position relative to three STB’s located on the bottom, as well as relative to the support ship with the use of a sonar installed on the latter. The project chief designer was A. A. Ostroukhov, his deputies were Yu. A. Nikolayenko and A. V. Nosov. The distinguishing feature of the newly designed sonar was arrangement of all electronic equipment, except for the control instrument, in sealed overboard containers. The facilities selected for the sonar PTA-OPA installation were submarines of the type Rus. In 1995–1996, development of hydroacoustic aids for marine drilling systems and other marine systems continued. In 1995, work started within the scope of the D&D project Rapan (Chief Designer A. A. Ostroukhov) aimed at the creation of a small-sized sonar for determining the location of borehole mouths and other underwater process

Fig. 2.

Modern STB; service life up to 5 years, installation depth up to 6000 m.

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equipment marked with STB’s. The STB designed under Rapan incorporated a buoy surfacing upon command, which served for more accurate STB position fixing. It should be noted that in the process of development of SNS’s with STB’s, about 30 inventions were made, over half of them were introduced into the design of the early sonars and STB’s. The most interesting results of experimental research were published in research and D&D project reports, in the journals Sudostroyenie (Shipbuilding) and Sudostroyenie za rubezhom (Shipbuilding Abroad), the Transactions of the Arctic and Antarctic RI, conference proceedings, and other publications.

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From the History of the Engineering of Domestic Echo Sounding Equipment I. M. KOROTKIN, P. M. NEFEDOV, YU. M. TARASYUK and L. S. FILIMONOV

Work on the engineering of echo sounding equipment in the USSR began in the 1920s. In 1924, a design for an echo sounder using an explosive source developed by Kuzminykh was submitted for consideration to the Naval Research-and-Technical Committee. In the summer of 1928, echo sounders were tested on three ships of the Baltic Fleet, in 1932, sounder operation was put to a thorough examination in the course of an Arctic expedition on the ice-breaker Taimyr and the hydrographic ship Gidrograf in the Black Sea. The first Soviet industrial echo sounder, designed by V. N. Tyulin, was manufactured at the Vodtranspribor Plant in Leningrad in 1934. In summer of the same year the echo sounder successfully passed trials on the ice-breaker Yermak, and its serial production began. The echo sounder was a device with an impact-type electromagnetic source (with the working frequency of about 3 kHz), with a receiving hydrophone constructed on the basis of a carbon microphone and a visual depth counter, in which depth was read from a scale at the moment of arrival of an echo listened to by an operator with headphones. The echo sounder depth measurement range was between 9 and 150 fathoms (1 fathom = 6 feet, or ∼ 1 .83 m), the depth measurement error for smooth rocky ground was 0.5 fathom (Figs. 1 and 2). The types EL and EML-2 magnetostrictive echo sounders produced by our industry were adopted for service in the Navy in 1937 and 1939, respectively. They were installed not only on combat vessels, but on other ships as well (Fig. 3). 729

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Fig. 1.

Striker and tank with source and receiver of first Soviet echo sounder.

The operational experience gained from these devices allowed the design of new, more efficient echo sounders. As early as 1939, trials of a new prototype ultrasonic echo sounder of the series NEL, built at the Navigation Instruments Plant, took place in the Black Sea. Its development was finalized in 1943 under the guidance of B. N. Tikhonravov, and the echo sounder was brought into serial production for installation on ships and other vessels. With its good design, excellent performance, small weight and size, and low cost, the series NEL-3 echo sounder stayed in service on marine vessels for about 40 years. The Great Patriotic War changed the views of navigators toward many aspects of the operation and development of navigation technical

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Fig. 2.

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Depth recorder of first Soviet echo sounder.

aids including echo sounders. They proved to be very reliable instruments, meeting the requirements of the fleet with regard to the range and accuracy of depths measurement. The drawback of some models was the difficulty of repairing faults in the winding insulation of the vibrator. In this respect, type EMS-2 echo sounders distinguished themselves: their vibrators, as in V. N. Tyulin’s echo sounder, were placed in special “tanks.” They did not require making cutouts in the ship’s side and dry-docking in order to fix problems that might occur with them. The drawback in the design of the first Soviet echo sounders of type EL and EMS-2 were exceedingly heavy weight and large size, which made their installation difficult on smaller surface and underwater craft. This problem was solved with the echo sounder NEL-3.

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In the war years, echo sounders were successfully used for verifying a ship’s position using knowledge of the bottom relief. They turned out to be indispensable instruments on submarines. In the post-war years, construction of type NEL echo sounders continued. In 1949, the echo sounder NEL-4 (Fig. 4) was designed at the Vodtranspribor Plant; its distinctive feature was the presence in the instrument set of a recorder producing a record of measured depths by the electrochemical method. Soon work was completed on the design of the echo sounders NEL-5 and NEL-6, in which the depth-measuring range was increased to 2000 and 6000 m, respectively, and the echo sounder NEL-7 with the depth measuring range up to 5000 m, but with a higher accuracy. The significant features of the echo sounder NEL-7 were its small size and weight, low electric power consumption and serviceability at high speeds of the platform (up to 30 knots). The last echo sounder in the NEL series was the NEL-10 designed for use on large-displacement ships and vessels and for measuring depths up to 2000 m. As opposed to the other echo sounders in the series, it included digital depth indicators, which could be installed at any post, including the open bridge, and a depth-signaling unit (range from 5 to 50 m). At the same time, river navigation echo sounders were being designed. Their distinctive feature was the ability to measure small depths, beginning from 0.2 to 0.5 m, with a high accuracy (± 0.1 m). The first echo sounder for such application was the REL-6 manufactured in 1951 under the guidance of B. N. Tikhonravov; it was followed by the echo sounders Reka (1956), Kuban (1971), and others. The next step was the development of the series NEL-M navigation echo sounders noted for a high degree of equipment unification. Instruments of this series met the requirements of ships and vessels of all projectes: the NEL-M1 and NEL-M2 for measuring depths up to 6000 and 3000 m, respectively, were meant for research and largedisplacement ships; the NEL-M3A, for river and sea-going ships; the NEL-M3B, for large- and medium-displacement ships and craft; and the NEL-M4, for river-going craft.

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Fig. 3.

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Control panel of boat echo sounder EMS-4.

During the period of development of Soviet engineering of echo sounding equipment, attention concentrated mostly on the creation of navigational echo sounders and the outfitting of combat and marine ships with them. The same types of echo sounders were used in carrying out hydrographic studies even though they did not quite meet the requirements of the instructions and regulations for depth surveying. The first designs of home hydrographic (deep-sea and survey) echo sounders date back to the pre-war period. In the late 1930s, work on development of type GEL, and survey (boat) type ShEL deep-sea echo sounders were carried out by the Navigation Instruments Plant. This effort was interrupted by the war and was only completed in the postwar period (1950–1960). The deep-sea echo sounder GEL-2 ensured measurement of depths up to 10,000 m. Measurement results were recorded on electrothermal

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Fig. 4.

Wiring diagram of echo sounder NEL-4 components.

paper in three ranges (2000, 2500 and 10,000 m). The survey echo sounder PEL-1 measured depths in the range of 0.3–300 m. Recording was performed by a recorder in two ranges (40 and 200 m), and phasing (zero-depth shift) also allowed depth recording to be carried out in two additional ranges (20–60 and 100–300 m). Both directions received further development with the creation of hydrographic echo sounders; improved designs of echo sounders for similar applications, such as GEL-3, PEL-3, PEL-4, PEL-5, PEL-4G, and others, appeared. In the second half of the 1960s, hydrographic echo sweeps GET-1, and later, GET-2, found broad application in the examination of large

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water areas for navigation hazards, search for sunken objects, and for identifying characteristic bottom relief patterns. The GET-1 permitted examination of water areas with depths up to 300 m, while the GET-2 (motorboat-mounted type) was used for measuring depths up to 25 m with accuracy not lower than 0.14 m. Beginning in the 1950s, using the knowledge and experience gained by specialists of the Naval Hydrographic Service, new engineering trends in echo sounding equipment started to develop. Today, there exist fish finders, geodetic, geological, and tank echo sounders, ice-measuring sonars and water level finders (the so-called “inverted” echo sounders), seismo-profilographs and many other types of echo sounders. Without their use today, no practical work on the study, development, protection, preservation, and restoration of world ocean resources would be possible. Modern trends in engineering development of echo sounding are varied. There is design and development aimed at the creation of echo sounders with improved characteristics. Then there appeared completely new instruments for sea bottom depth measurement and profile recording. These instruments are being rapidly developed. The simplest of them are instruments fulfilling different functions such as vertical and horizontal echo sounding (fish-finder systems of type Sargan, Priboy, Peskar, and others) and instruments for depth and ship’s speed measurement (combinations of an echo sounder and an absolute hydroacoustic log). Another trend in development of technical aids for large-scale investigation of bottom relief is creation of the type GEBO-100 hydrographic side-scanning echographs, which are successfully used today in the regions with depths up to 100 m. The so-called “hybrid” (laser-acoustic) depth-measuring systems also find wide application today. Their operation is based on acoustic oscillations being excited by the interaction of a powerful infrared laser beam with the aqueous medium. The generated acoustic signal reaches the bottom, gets reflected from it and is re-irradiated back into the atmosphere where it is received by an array installed on a plane. Other approaches are being developed for solving depth measurement problems. Outfitting of hydrographic ships with modern equipment, including depth measuring instruments, strongly improves the efficiency of

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hydrographic surveys, facilitates hydrographers’ labor, adds to the great achievements in the area of hydrography, oceanography, and geodesy of our celebrated compatriots F. P. Litke, F. P. Vrangel, S. O. Makarov, Yu. M. Shokalsky, N. N. Matusevich, and their numerous companions, disciples, and followers. Among them are such names of designers, developers and creators of domestic echo sounders as: Ye. I. Aladyshkin, L. V. Asafyev, I. Ye. Vasilyev, B. A. Grigoryev, G. T. Yevseyev, V. A. Zakasovsky, G. M. Klibanov, K. K. Kaprov, I. M. Korotkin, B. I. Kudrevich, S. M. Latinsky, B. M. Manulis, P. M. Nefedov, S. V. Panov, A. V. Sazonenko, N. I. Sigachev, S. D. Smirnov, E. V. Tikhomirov, B. N. Tikhonravov, V. N. Tyulin, Z. N. Umikov, I. I. Fedorov, D. Ye. Shklovskaya, and I. A. Shteinman. These and many others have greatly contributed to the engineering development of Russian echo sounding equipment and are worthy of special notice. Their achievements promoted study and made possible safe navigation of the world’s ocean.

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From the History of the Creation of Domestic Echo Sounders YU. F. TARASYUK and L. S. FILIMONOV

1. The Echo Sounder was Born in Murmansk The Murmansk population was eagerly awaiting the arrival of the Yermak. In that summer of 1934, for the first time in history, the channel for ships along the North Marine Passage had been cleared. The ice-breaker crew was also looking forward to visiting Murmansk, a city beyond the Arctic circle. One of the members of the expedition, V. N. Tyulin, whom the magazine Osvoim tekhniku! (Let’s Master Engineering Art!) had named “the father of hydroacoustics in the Soviet Union,” felt special anxiety in anticipation of the meeting with the land of Kola. The special feelings of V. N. Tyulin and the memories that rushed into his mind on the Murmansk roads were well understood. Long ago, two decades back, as a member of the team of the first builders of the section of railroad in the region of Kola, he made his first steps on this land. By then he had graduated from a technical secondary school and had a good knowledge of photography. In that year, V. N. Tyulin had made a series of excellent photographs of Semenovskaya Bay, the terminal point of the railway from Petrograd. This was the place of construction of the first piers on the territory of the future city and the water area of the city port. The photographs of the village Kola were also very good, and today they represent very interesting historical material. The Murmansk of 1934, spread over the bare hill slopes, amazed V. N. Tyulin with the scale of its development. He felt the urge to 737

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plunge into the seething life of the city. But before he did anything, he had to send to Leningrad a telegram on the successful completion of trials of the first Soviet navigational echo sounder, which had been built according to his design at the Vodtranspribor Plant in Leningrad. It was the end of four years of work. Back in 1932, V. N. Tyulin tested the first version of his instrument on the ice-breaker Malygin in the region of Franz Joseph Island. At that time, to make the depth measurements, the ice-breaker had to be brought to a halt and the echo sounder source and receiver had to be dipped into water from a boom. On the Yermak, on the contrary, the arrays were built into the ship’s keel, and the central instrument was located in the navigation room of the ice-breaker. At the end of the expedition, before entering Kola Bay, the country’s first echo-sounding survey chart of depths made with the use of domestically manufactured instruments was already lying on the navigator’s table. The chart had been made by V. N. Tyulin during the cruise of the Yermak along the Scandinavian coast. Chief engineer of the laboratory of hydroacoustics, the future Doctor of Technical Science, Professor, recipient of an Order, V. N. Tyulin felt content with the equipment’s performance. The results of depth measurements to 150 fathoms along a route of over 500 km were close to the marks on the maps, and measurement errors, as compared with the reference measurements made with the use of a mechanical (wire) machine, were about 0.5 fathom. The original hydrographic survey sheet is now a museum piece but not many people know the history of the first Soviet echo sounder and the trials that began in 1932 in the Barents Sea and ended in 1934 in Murmansk. Soon, V. N. Tyulin brought all the report materials to Murmansk and started organizing the production of Soviet navigational hydroacoustic equipment. In a few years, the magazine Rybnoye Khozyaistvo (Fishery Industry) published a series of articles by professional fishermen of the Northern Basin on the necessity of organizing fish finding with the use of an echo sounder and the ways of solving this problem on the fishing vessels. But the war prevented implementation of these important and interesting ideas. Only 20 years later did V. N. Tyulin’s disciples and followers in Murmansk implemented them.

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In 1951, the first domestic, self-recording, echo sounder NEL-4 was created. But it was designed for navigation purposes only, and made a record not of the reflected signal but of a capacitor discharge caused by it, which did not ensure the possibility of identification of the object from which the ultrasonic reflection arrived. Staff members of the N. M. Knipovich Polar Institute for Fishery and Hunting, under the guidance of A. A. Gankov, introduced the necessary changes into the circuit of the NEL-4 and in 1954, the first fish finding echo sounder NEL-5R appeared in this country. It found broad application on fishing ships. The device ensured detection of single fish specimens at depths up to 200 m, and dense accumulations of fish were detected at up to 350–400 m. In the navigation mode, it ensured depth measurements up to 1500–1700 m. Beginning in the mid-1950s, the fishing fleet was supplemented with newly designed big freezer trawlers. They were equipped with fish finding echo sounders and other sonar equipment. The need for a further increase in the catch efficiency necessitated a thorough study of the life and behavior of marketable fish. Such studies were conducted mainly with the use of fish finding sonars installed on surface ships and also by the specialized research submarine Severyanka. Beside the navigation echo sounder, the submarine was equipped with two NEL-5R sonars. One ensured the illumination of the surroundings under the keel and the other the “inverted” one, was directed upward. This significantly increased the amount of information gathered and increased the quality of the research. Using this new equipment, practical recommendations were developed with regard to both the fishing methods and fishing regions and improvement in the sweep design. Today the fishing fleet is outfitted with up-to-date hydroacoustic equipment. This equipment was built with the application of the latest achievements of science and technology in hydroacoustics and the related areas of science. The Murmansk researchers have rendered great services to the creation and development of this equipment, and their ideas and experience have spread to other fishing basins. Murmansk has become an important landmark in the life and activities of V. N. Tyulin, the creator of the first Soviet echo sounder and founder of applied hydroacoustics in this country.

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2. The Echo Sounder at the North Pole Today, the method of research of the Arctic from the drift ice, initiated in the USSR, has been adopted in practice and finds broad application with Russian and foreign researchers. It has also become common practice to use an echo sounder for measuring ocean depths. This seemingly simple device is found today on every ship. Beginning with the drift-ice station SP-5, echo sounders have been systematically used for ocean depth measurements from ice. To create and successfully apply an echo sounder, a certain scientific-and-technical background, an industrial base, and work experience with equipment employing similar principles of operation were needed. In addition, practical, justifiable technical requirements had to be formulated. As early as the beginning of the 1930s, by order and with the immediate participation of specialists from the Hydrographic Department of the WRPA’s navy, development of the first domestic echo sounders and the organization of various experiments with versions of these devices began, including experiments on the ice of the Neva River in Leningrad. In 1934, trials of V. N. Tyulin’s first prototype echo sounder, manufactured at the Vodtranspribor Plant, were completed in the Norwegian Sea on board the Yermak ice-breaker. During the XVIIth Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, this echo sounder was displayed at an industrial exhibition under the caption “For complete liberation of water transport from foreign dependence.” The first Soviet navigation echo sounder was put into service in 1937. During this period work began at the Vodtranspribor plant and the Navigation Instruments Plant on the study of the construction of deep-sea echo sounders. However, no specific technical requirements for deep-sea echo sounders working in the Arctic existed at that time. In the pre-war period, work on the creation of deep-sea echo sounders had not been completed. In 1954 work was resumed by specialists of the Glavsevmorput Department under the guidance of V. Sukhotsky and Yu. Grobovikov. First, the deep-sea echo sounder Polyus, designed for measurements from the ice surface, was built. It was designed for employment under conditions of mobile teams of air

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expeditions of the SP type. Then a similar echo sounder, type GEL-2 (shipborne version), was developed. The echo sounder Polyus was designed as a small-size unit having a 24V battery supply. In November 1955, the instrument was installed in the hydrographer’s room at the drift-ice station SP-5 for trial service. The mass of the echo sounder did not exceed 195 kg. It ensured a depth measuring range up to 6000 m, with automatic recording of the measurement results on a special electro-thermal paper. The echo sounder vibrators (source and receiver) of the magnetostrictive type with focusing reflectors generated a sufficiently narrow directivity pattern and ensured suppression of the noise that interfered with the device’s operation due to the ice hummocking and movements, and the necessary energy concentration. After modernization, Polyus was put into use at the drift-ice station SP-7. Later, the echo sounder design was revised again, the result being a more compact and lightweight device (80 kg) with lower power requirements. The time for the depth measuring process was made shorter, from 5 to 1 min. In the automatic depth measuring mode (every hour), one recorder chart paper roll lasted for 250 days of continuous recording. The chart displayed the bottom profile along the route of the station’s drift. The use of deep-sea echo sounders for measurements from the ice surface proved to be very efficient. As a result of their use, relief maps of the Central Polar Basin’s ocean bottom and a unique map of the Arctic Ocean were compiled, and an underwater ridge was discovered which was named the M. V. Lomonosov Ridge. It was M. V. Lomonosov’s dream to create instruments ensuring safe navigation, including ocean depth measuring devices.

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On the History of the Creation of Domestic Hydroacoustic Communication Systems (Designer’s Notes) V. Z. KRANTS

To an immaculate connection! (from the Boyevoi Listok news sheet)

1. Instead of a Preface Having some practical knowledge of the analysis and generalization required of every design engineer, and having read the multiple GOSTs (All-Union State Standards), the Author of this article is apt to believe that any more or less serious paper, be it a work of art or, all the more, a technical report, must, beside the subject-matter, have a preface and a conclusion. The preface must explain the matter the presented paper is going to discuss, what kind of a person the Author is, and what has made him sit down and undertake such a difficult task. The conclusion, as a rule, is meant for those who are unable to read the whole of the work. Regarding this work to be quite serious, and defining its genre as a Historically-Imaginative-prose-and-Technical Report, or a HITReport, the Author has decided to include all of the above components into its structure. In what concerns the conclusion, see Section 3. With regard to the Foreword, the Author, failing to clearly formulate the required ideas, has decided, by way of a Foreword, to limit himself to postulation of a number of ideas on the subject-matter. First, the Author, who is being mentioned on almost every page, represents some collective image, a kind of an averaged portrait of an ensemble. For this reason, he takes the liberty, in referring to himself in the narration, to use the capital letter. Moreover, the Author even went 742

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further. Carefully avoiding the thought that everything he is writing about could have taken place only due to the efforts of the whole ensemble, the Author has tried to ascribe all the merits to himself, and only in single cases reluctantly mentions other specific performers. In the Author’s opinion, the recently published book Inzhenery Sankt-Peterburga (Engineers of St. Petersburg) has one significant omission; it makes no reference to a “whole constellation” of engineers of the CRI Morfizpribor who participated in the development of the facilities and systems of domestic hydroacoustics in general, and of hydroacoustic communication systems in particular. To partially compensate for this omission, the Author deems it necessary to give the names of all the soloists from the above ensemble. They are: I. G. Astrov, A. V. Augert, V. A. Badenko, Yu. Ya. Golubchik, R. S. Dragilev, I. N. Dynin, I. S. Yefremov, Yu. M. Kozlov, V. Z. Krants, V. N. Kupriyanov, N. B. Kuskov, G. V. Lebedev, B. I. Levidov, L. I. Litvina, A. L. MamutVasilyev, L. M. Mirimov, G. B. Razumovsky, L. D. Rachiner, Ye. A. Repkin, and A. A. Solovyev. Regretfully, not all of them are with us to read these lines. Second, it may be considered that hydroacoustics as a science was born at the end of the 14th century. Those who some time ago studied in school and probably demonstrated elements of diligence, must remember the drawing of the great engineer Leonardo da Vinci depicting a bell and a gramophone tube turned with its broad mouth towards the bell, both being submerged in water. Evidently, with this drawing the genius wanted to illustrate operation of the system of communicating information over a hydroacoustic link. Since the Author has not encountered any other drawings from that or earlier periods demonstrating the principle of operation of an active or passive sonar system, he has come to the conclusion that it is hydroacoustic communication that shall be regarded as the cradle of the hydroacoustic science. The process of creation of every new hydroacoustic (and not only hydroacoustic) device may be divided in three stages: (1) conception and birth of an idea, (2) performing research to prove feasibility of the idea, (3) carrying out design-and-development (D&D) work on the creation and the introduction of a prototype device. Usually research and always D&D are connected with performing work under realistic

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conditions. While, with regard to the means of communication, the first stage has its specificity, as compared with other types of technology, determined by the need to ensure interaction of the new design with earlier designs, the work under realistic conditions “at both ends” of the communication line imparts an exotic character to such specificity. These works and everything that goes with them have become imprinted in the Author’s memory most clearly and, in his opinion, have become an inalienable part of the history, or at least, part of the life of those who have made this history. So, by way of exposition of the subject matter, instead of a dull enumeration of dates and names, the Author has decided to tell in his notes about all he had encountered in different situations and circumstances. All the more so since the heading beginning with “On the …” allows one to talk about anything that has even the remotest relation to the subject-matter. The Author has no doubt that many of these episodes, should they happen to fall into the hands of, say, V. V. Konetsky, might have been turned into independent amusing short stories. The Author hopes that, despite the hindrances created by the abundance of such episodes, the former diligent pupils will manage to find the main idea in the text, aimed at solving the problem formulated in the title. In what concerns normal pupils, they will probably just find the episodes themselves interesting. Third, the Author in his working career has had experience writing many kinds of papers including engineer’s notes, comments, reports, and official memoranda. The work of this kind is the first such experience of the Author, who, should need arise, with regard to all its drawbacks, will be ready to present an explanatory note. Finally, the Author, well in advance, without waiting for the decision of the court on compensation for any incurred moral damage, publicly brings his apologies to all participants, experts and just specialists, should they find any inaccuracies in the presented HIT-Report. 2. Instead of the Main Contents As has been noted before (a phrase indispensable in the reports of the scientific-technical kind), the beginning of the history of creation

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of hydroacoustic communication systems may be dated back to the turn of the 14th–15th centuries. After a certain break — by the 20th century — the need for hydroacoustic communication became felt by the seamen, who acted as customers and users of such systems. In the 1980s, the Author was lucky to see one of the first lifesize communication systems installed on a domestic combat ship. The cruiser Aurora built in 1903 was moored at the quay of the Zhdanov Shipbuilding Plant (today, the Severnaya Verf Plant). After opening the underwater part of the hull plating, the workers found strange cylindrical structures almost 1 m in diameter located along the sides. They turned out to be nothing else but acoustic projectors of a telegraph communication station of British design, with an electromechanical drive. The Author has no information as to whom and about what the legendary cruiser has been sending telegrams. However, for some reason, the well-known Soviet painting comes to mind in which the leader of the world proletariat is depicted standing by a telegraph apparatus with a tape in his hand. Beginning in the 1930s, the development of hydroacoustic communication systems (HCS) became intense. For submarines, the SC units Orfeus, Vega, Sirius, and for surface ships, Arktur and Persey were developed. They were meant for signal transmission by Morse code, operated at a frequency of 2.35 kHz and ensured transmission of information to distances of 5–10 km. By the beginning of the Great Patriotic War, the Navy had almost two hundred such units. While meeting operating range requirements, these units failed to provide the necessary secrecy, which led to the need for switching to communication in the ultrasonic frequency range. The first such units were the sonars Albion and Polaris. Beside communication, they featured identification and mutual orientation modes. They had quite a sophisticated design, which affected their reliability. They were never brought into serial production because the debugging process was interrupted by the war. Communication modes were provided in the Orion and Antares. These sonars ensured non-directional and directional telegraph and

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telephone communication, as well as identification and distance finding to the correspondent. By the 1950s, it became clear that the use of ultrasonic frequencies in communication was inefficient. The task of increasing communication secrecy was solved rather conditionally, and due to the high attenuation of high-frequency signals in propagation they failed to ensure the required communication range. In 1956, the sonars MG-15 and MG-16, respectively, for submarines and surface ships were designed. They ensured telephone communication using the principle of amplitude modulation of the 15 kHz carrier frequency. Operation of these sonars was demonstrated to N. S. Khrushchev during a visit to the Black Sea Fleet. While staying on a surface ship, the First Secretary had a chance to communicate with a submerged submarine. “Well, really, damn it…,” the dignitary looked delighted. “From underwater — and heard so well! Who is the chief designer?” And, without waiting for the answer, “Give him my gratitude.” The need for increasing the communication range led at the end of the 1950s to the design of the sonars MG-25 and MG-26. Their creation was preceded by research that confirmed the expediency and feasibility of using methods of single-band modulation with suppressed carrier, widely used in radio communication, for telephone signal transmission over the hydroacoustic communication channel. It is interesting to note that the application for an invention certificate for the method of single-band modulation for sonar communication system had been declined by the respective committee. In a few years one of the journals reporting on research abroad discussed a similar patent being issued to a Japanese researcher. For the sonars MG-25 and MG-26, the value adopted for the carrier frequency was 8.2 kHz. The Author has no explanation why the designers liked this particular frequency, although a similar foreign sonar used 8.0675 kHz as a carrier. We could discuss the disadvantages and advantages of using our lower side band and their upper side band frequencies. It may be supposed why divers use the carrier at 32.768 kHz for telephone communication, which will be discussed later. The reason is that the same frequency is used in the wrist watch quartz oscillator

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having small size and fitting conveniently in the diver’s telephone set. But why exactly 8.2 kHz? Maybe, physicists are right when they explain inject that the phrase “the alloy of bismuth and lead is the best for making this device” simply means that no other alloy was at hand at the moment. By the way, the situation of “no other alloy being at hand” occurred in the Author’s life, also. The thing is that the voice bandwidth used in the MG-25 and MG26 is somewhat narrower than one would prefer from the point of view of speech comprehensibility. To a considerable degree it had been determined by the radiating array’s effective passband. Later, in the 1960s, when arrays with wider passbands appeared, they provided an opportunity to expand the signal transmission band as well. For band shaping, instead of the bulky LC filters, use was made of small-size, for that time, electromechanical bandpass filters. Unfortunately, the required ready-made filters could not be found. Only wide-band filters were available. It was this circumstance that determined the working band in the domestic hydroacoustic telephone communication systems up to the present time, despite the fact that the necessary filtering today is based on totally different principles. The telephone communication mode with the 8.2 kHz carrier is used today in all facilities of the Navy and is known as HF TP. After creation of the sonars MG-25 and MG-26, the navy received two telephone systems operating in different frequency bands, with different kinds of modulation. To ensure these systems’ compatibility, respective circuits were provided in MG-25 and MG-26 to allow signal reception from MG-15 and MG-16. The latter, in their turn, were outfitted with special attachments for processing signals from MG-25 and MG-26. In the 1960s, active investigation of different methods of information transmission over a hydroacoustic mode began, in large part because many continuously insisted on extending the communication range. Several research projects, with studies in realistic submarine operating conditions, were carried out. Thanks to this research, designers, so to say, touched their hands and understood with their souls the essence of the illumination and shadow zones, signal multiple

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path transmission, selective and overall fading, and other tricks of the hydroacoustic communication trade. One of the research directions was connected with increasing the range of telephone communication, which predetermined a switch to lower frequencies. With a view toward reducing the working band in the new frequency range, among others, there had been tests of the methods of signal transmission using a voice-coder. However, in those years, due to a common notion among the designers who believed that equipment for a military customer could not be more complicated than a mooring bollard, such methods found no further application. In the long run, a telephone communication mode, similar to the known HF TP, but with two times lower carrier frequency, was accepted for use. Later on, this mode came to be known as LF TP. The positive aspect of the telephone communication mode was that the only requirement of the operator is the ability to talk. This was important because one of the commanding officers might at times take upon himself this role. Regretfully, due to propagation conditions, neither the HF TP nor the LF TP performed efficiently; not only at large distances when audibility is almost zero, you might even call it the appearance of audibility, but at closer ranges as well, when, due to multi-path transmission, several signals overlap, and despite normal volume the comprehensibility is negligible. The most common situation for testing the telephone communication mode at large distances appears in large part as follows. The Author, in the voice of Yu. B. Levitan, pronounces into the microphone: “Number two, number two, I am number one. Take the tuning: one, two, three… Do you hear me well? Over!” A long period of waiting followed. The signal will reach the “number two” only after a couple of minutes. Two minutes will be necessary for the “number two” to think out what to answer. In another 2 min the signal will cover the distance back. It requires a strong will not to switch over to transmission before that time and miss an answer. Communication in telephony is simplex and there is no reception during transmission. Finally, the noise in the loudspeaker changes its color, there is a characteristic click of the press-to-talk button, and the noise

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of the working correspondent’s microphone is heard. The loudspeaker brings to me: “Nu-u-u-umber o-o-o-one, I am nu-u-u-mber two-o-o-o! Do-o-o not he-e-e-ar you-u-u we-e-ell! Plea-ea- ease repea-ea-eat! O-o-o-ver!” The Author, being used to the situation, calmly repeats: “Number two, number two, I am number one!…” etc. After a lapse of time the loudspeaker comes to life: “Nu-u-u-umber o-o-o-one, I am nu-u-u-mber two-o-o-o! Do-o-o not he-e-ar you-u-u we-e-ell! Plea-ea-ease re-pea-ea-eat!” And so on, for quite a long time. It starts getting on the nerves of the cruise commander — as a rule someone from the division headquarters: “Who ever talks so over the telephone! Give me the mike!” Pushing the Author aside, he yells into the microphone: “Number two, I am number one! Execute point one, Baker-UncleCharlie!” And, turning to the Author: “This is how orders should be given!” The transmitted order meant that the “number two” had to go to the agreed “point one” by an underwater mode. In the allotted time, the loudspeaker utters: “Nu-u-u-umber o-o-o-one, I am nu-u-u-mber two-o-o-o! Do-o-o not he-e-ar you-u-u we-e-ell! Plea-ea-ease re-pea-ea-eat!” Thank goodness there is a spare microphone in the Spare Parts and Accessing kit! Actually, for checking the quality of the telephone communication system, articulation measurements are used. This is quite a laborconsuming procedure, requiring the participation of specially trained operators. At the same time, as a means of expressly checking the functioning of equipment, the Author has always resorted to two sacramental phrases. One of them, “You’ve never viewed no new net!,” was good for signal level measuring with a voltmeter. The other, of the type: “What’s awake on a dark night …?” followed by a vulgar four-letter word in Russian), was used for signal transmission into the water. The clear response, produced as a result of reverberation, though indecent, came as a confirmation of equipment serviceability and its readiness for use in compliance with its purpose.

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According to the customer’s specifications, the telephone system development normally envisages an opportunity for signal transmission by Morse code with the use of a telegraph key and reception by ear. Even though this mode practically requires no additional hardware and has lived up to the present time, the Author cannot remember a single case of its use except for tests in the course of equipment acceptance. It is not because too few sonar operators know the Morse code today. The point is that, in conditions of a hydroacoustic mode, the duration of dots and dashes may be such that transmission of a single letter may take several seconds. During tests of one of the systems it came out that signalmen performed most successfully in receiving such texts. In connection with the strongly pronounced dependence of telephone communication systems on hydrological-acoustic conditions, the question arose of developing other methods of information transmission ensuring more stable communication in conditions of the distorting effects of the channel. One of the proposed methods, developed and tested within the scope of a number of research projects, was the CC mode, or the mode of command communication (or, more commonly used in hydroacoustics, code communication). In the CC mode, relatively short code combinations of FM signals are used. With the use of a table of coded messages they allow up to 200 commands to be transmitted. It should be noted that code communication elements had been known in earlier sonars: such were the correspondent distance finding mode executed by the “inquiryresponse” method, and particularly, the identification mode. In the CC mode, signal parameters and coding methods were improved. In addition, to overcome selective fading, a possibility of reception was provided through parallel channels, or the so-called diversity reception, widely used in radio communication. Very quickly the CC mode acquired the right to existence and, together with the HF TP, was introduced in the communication channels of the first sonar systems, Rubin and Kerch. To tell the truth, there was a small problem with band selection. The point is that different code communication ranges had been specified for the submarines for which the sonar systems were designed. It is known that each range has its optimal frequency. For this reason,

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the initial recommendations of the academic institute providing the scientific support to the above sonar system design were different with regard to CC mode bands for each sonar. It soon became clear that, if these recommendations were fulfilled, the Kerch and the Rubin would not be able to communicate between themselves, so a single band was selected. On the CC basis the identification mode was realized, which replaced another similar mode developed during creation of the sonars MG-25 and MG-26. Code communication signal reception is carried out automatically, without the operator, and the requirements are set by statistical characteristics. For evaluation of the quality of communication in the CC mode, Wald’s method was used for the first time in domestic hydroacoustics. This method was adapted for solving problems of hydroacoustics by L. M. Mirimov, an amazing person, the chief designer of the MG25 and Yenisei sonars, the translator of the 13th volume of the 12volume edition of Feichtwanger, who, before retirement, had defended his Ph.D. degree. To all evidence, communication systems had been a soft spot in his heart. Once, seeing an interesting book in the Author’s library, he took it away announcing that it was just the right present for his birthday. Seeing that resistance was futile, the Author was compelled to make a respective inscription. This happened in the period when the sonar system Yenisei had been put to trials, and the Author cannot deny himself the pleasure of giving it here in full: O Leo Mirimov, son of Mathew! For trials to go off OK, Let not your sonar navigate you To the Siberian Yenisei. To hear the customer in raptures Exclaim aloud, “Very well!” Spare no time, and grudge no efforts To squeeze an extra decibel!

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Let shit emerge that very moment, Let ballast sink to bottom soon, For things to go as they should go And Yenisei be ‘sein gesund”! The Author remembers the 1960s, with multiple research projects and trials of the first sonar systems, with quiet tenderness. That was an amazing period, when the walls of snow-white barracks were graced with the slogans: “Communism is our goal!” and “Make each missile hit its mark!” Or another wonderful slogan, ‘strengthen your muscle, breath, and body!” which in style matched a civilian announcement of the type “Fashion house needs a woman’s re-tailor.” It was the time when ship’s commanders welcomed “people of science” on board their ships, letting them stay on the bridge, and at times even ordering coffee to be brought. Later, when the number of participants in the trials approached many dozens of people, one of the commanders, who preferred to handle the ship when it was moored at the quay, once announced that “science is just a boil on a fleet’s healthy buttock!” It was rumored that commander’s career went sour at the end. He was transferred to a remote region to a position of second-in-command for logistics, and then discharged from service for an error made in solving the problem of furniture distribution. In those years neither the many-month business trips to remote places, nor the lack of hotel accommodations or conveniences in officers’ hostels, not the many-day cruises and many hours spent on watch duty, were able to reduce enthusiasm. Or was it because the Author was then 35 years younger? Of course, it was youth that helped the person traveling on business to find correct moves in many life situations, particularly in the matters of everyday life. But at times, also because of youth, funny situations occurred. Preparing to spend three or four months in a remote seaside garrison, the Author, together with a colleague, decided to get his head shaved, because someone somewhere had told him that it was good for hair growth. It was decided on arrival that the best thing to do to

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take off the fatigue of a long flight with multiple landings, delays and nerve-racking expectations was to wash it all off in the garrison Russian baths. They say, all are equal in a bath, but this does not apply to the baths on cantonment sites. When the friends picked their wash-basins and commenced the washing process, they noticed that, beside themselves another person was present, of massive build and with a waist of a significant diameter. The place on the bench where that man sat had one inconvenience: it was located near a water drain hole, which was, alas, clogged with leaves from switches of green birch twigs. For this reason, this man’s feet stood in an ankle-deep puddle of water. It is hard to say what that man had thought seeing two baldheaded guys, but he pronounced clearly: “It’s clogged up! Must be cleaned!” The friends exchanged puzzled glances and continued basking in the heat. This must have unpleasantly surprised the sufferer, and he repeated his phrase, this time with a metallic ringing in a commander’s voice: “I say, it’s clogged up! Must be cleaned!” It was impolite to keep silence any longer: “What’s the problem? Come on, do it!” Washing continued in grim silence. Having finished the procedure, the friends went for their clothes. After them, the owner of the commander’s voice came out and quickly arrayed himself in a naval jacket with multi-star epaulets. The friends, getting into their civilian jackets and caps, wished him well and walked out with dignity. Could it be that the Author’s feeling of nostalgia for those remote times has been caused by the fact that, unwillingly, he compares them with today’s reality? The analogue equipment of those times induced gentleness into the relations between people, whereas the digital methods of information processing today are based on rigid protocols of exchange in both machine-to-machine and man-to-man relations. Nevertheless, all these changes in relations probably obey the laws of dialectic materialism and have to be perceived as a cognized necessity. Already in the early 1960s, in conducting research and tests under realistic conditions, the Author made ample use of tape recorders as

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a working tool. Among them were both the single-mode German Smaragd, the Soviet MAG-8, and the multi-mode recorders, in which the Author, to all evidence, had left behind other hydroacoustic equipment designers. In the humorous classification of physicists, the Smaragd having one handle was projectified as portable, and the MAG-8 with two handles, as a semi-portable device. God, both were so heavy!! But when in a room of a remote hotel a tape recorder, a novelty for those times, started playing, and the Author felt himself in the center of attention of all hotel inhabitants…, then, as one installer mechanic with a great life experience used to say, it was something beyond words, a fairytale! Especially, when a bottle of pure ethyl alcohol (procured at public expense) mixed fifty–fifty with magnolia-vine juice and crab legs that had been boiled, frozen for shipping and storage and then reheated in salty water adorned the table. Apropos, talking about alcohol. If it were not for alcohol, science in those years would have developed at a much slower pace. Same with the everyday problems; solving them would have been much more difficult. Once in the North, the Author called to see his friend, the commander of a patrol ship, and climbing the ladder noted the chain guard railing. Half a meter of a chain like this might serve well for securing a spare five in the trunk of a car. The Author shared this idea with his host, who immediately called the man on duty and explained the errand, having, naturally, pointed to a drinking glass. In 20 mins the man was back carrying a 2-m piece of chain that was sufficient to hold at anchor a medium-displacement ship. Surprised that the magnificent chain he had brought was not quite what I wanted, and grasping that I needed the one like that on the railing, he disappeared and in a few minutes brought back exactly what I wanted. When later that night the Author was leaving the ship, he nearly fell off the ladder because part of its railing was missing. And what do you think one should do when for the needs of experiment it is necessary to install an array on the deck of a boat? There are two ways to solve the problem. The first one is to enter a contract with the boat designer’s organization CDB, issue design requirements to the CDB, the CDB will prepare the necessary drawings, send a

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specialist who will make corrections in the drawings on site and will make an agreement with the shipbuilding plant, where the workers will perform the necessary works, most likely not quite in compliance with the drawings — for lack of the required components. Another way is to drop a meaningful hint to workers and then to explain what you want to be done. The next day everything is ready to sortie. Question: which way is more correct? Or, for example, when it is necessary to load a 400-kg rack through the hatch of a boat moored at the Dalzavod Plant quay. The truck crane boom was too short for the purpose. And every minute of work of the 100-ton pontoon crane, according to the plant administration, has been scheduled 3 months ahead. Feeling depressed with such downright absence in the administration of any scientific interests, the Author was compelled to begin the following dialog directly with the crane operator: “Want to wet a whistle?” “Well!” This grand “Well!” in the gamut of meanings it conveys, competes with the famous “Yo-ho!” from deep disappointment and point-blank denial to absolute understanding and total consent. The crane operator’s “Well!” oozed consent, and naturally, in 2 h the threatening scientific problem was happily resolved. It is worth notice that the workers’ self-consciousness never allowed them to have alcohol replaced with vodka. It naturally followed from the principal standpoint: why spend money on vodka, if alcohol can be procured from the state for free? In the late 1960s to early 1970s, intensive investigations began into methods of information transfer with the help of broad-band signals, which, upon their transmission, disclose the submarine to a lesser degree as compared with other signals. The method was based on use of matched filters assembled in a so-called “delta-correlator” circuit. This was done for the first time in domestic hydroacoustics. The difficulty of signal processing was that the work of the correspondents equipment had to be synchronized, and the synchronization system needed to be started at one and the same time. With standard equipment installation and its connection to the ship’s common

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timing system no synchronization problems arise. But in the course of research, equipment was started manually by the navigator’s watch. Since in the experiment the distance between several correspondents reached several hundred kilometers, and there was no other way to get in touch, and it was understood that in a many-day’ cruise equipment failures were possible, the moments of synchronization system restart were agreed on beforehand. At the usual time, 2 mins before the required moment, the Author started the stop-watch in the navigator’s room and rushed to his instruments to press the start button in time. Crossing the central compartment, the Author did not see the periscope tube and hit it with his forehead. The periscope turned out to be much harder, and the blow was quite strong. After that, the Author worked like Commander N. A. Shchors from the well-known song, “head in bandage, blood on sleeve.” Seeing such difficulties, the captain provided help in the person of the navigator. The man understood the task well and, holding the stopwatch in hand, 5 s before the time was about to start the back count: five, four,…, zero. At zero count the button had to be pressed. Exactly 5 s before, the navigator started the count: “One, two, three, …” The Author still feels ashamed of the strong language that he had used at that moment. Along with use of system signals for solving the problem of decreasing submarine disclosure by the communication signals, a radiating array was developed, which enabled shaping a narrow directivity pattern with low side-lobe level. The result turned out to be quite good indeed. Quite often, at operation on minimum required power of the transmitted signal, the signal did not show on the passive sonar screen, despite the fact that the communication devices received the information. Of course, submarines were quite noisy in those years. In addition, even when a tiny bulge appeared on the indicator sweep, the sonar operator reported all the same, “Horizon clear!” Because should he have reported a target at such-and-such bearing, the order would have followed immediately, “Identify target!” It is easy to order but not easy to do and means extra trouble. It should better be like this, “Horizon clear!”

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When communication is established at a long range, and transmission with a narrow directivity pattern is performed, it is easy to “lose” the correspondent. Contact recovery is quite problematic, especially if no opportunity for scanning of the transmitting array directivity pattern has been provided. Exactly such kind of an array, for the sake of bringing down costs and simplifying the equipment, was made use of at trials in the Norwegian Sea in the 1970s. For statistical data gathering, two boats were supposed to follow parallel courses keeping abreast of one another. It was agreed to follow the 0◦ course, that is, move northward. The distance between the two boats was large enough, they moved a long time, and, moving in high latitudes, they naturally “lost” one another after some time. So the Author satisfied himself that meridians really converge, and if one continues moving northwards all the time, it is possible to finally bump into one another. Today, many years after, having covered many-many miles, an episode of the kind sounds nonsense. But 30 years ago, moving for the first time in the high latitudes… As it were, I wish I had been as clever then as my wife was later! Loss of synchronization results in the impossibility of information transmission, even if the signal is strong and the passive sonar receiving circuits detect it easily. So it happened in the course of the fleet communications exercise in the Pacific Ocean in the region of Kamchatka, in which the Author participated. For some reason or other, there occurred a fault in synchronization. Even though the signal was heard well with the use of a passive sonar, it was impossible to transmit information in the standard mode. The distance between the correspondents was so great that even code communication failed. There was too much time left to the agreed moment of the synchronization system restart, and that meant that the two nuclear-powered vessels would continue uselessly working out their service hours, wasting (or drowning) the taxpayers’ money. Which hydroacoustic laws had simultaneously made the idea dawn on the exercise participants in different vessels to use broad-band signals for transmitting commands with the use of designation tables compiled specifically for code communication, the Author could not tell. The tables presented a “chessboard,” in which each cell contained a message or

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a command, and it was only necessary to convey the number of the column and the line. This is what both crews started doing by emitting respective sequences of pulses. At that, if the message was long and included contents of several cells, the transmission might take a long time. The Author ensured reception with his own ears, since signals could be heard well, and by bending his own fingers counting the pulses, since the recorder which might have helped in the count had not been turned on in time. At that critical moment, when the Author was diligently bending fingers, someone of the sailors addressed him with a request to borrow a pencil. With the kindness that was inherent in him, the Author searched in the drawer of his desk and produced a pencil, after which for a long time he sat looking at his fingers. One can easily imagine that everything the Author had pronounced to the address of that sailor might have been well heard by the correspondent, without the assistance of the hydroacoustic communication facilities. In the 1970s, research into the methods of information transmission over a hydroacoustic mode terminated in the creation of a common system of hydroacoustic communication for units of the Navy: the Unified Sonar System (USS) for which types of signals, frequency bands, encoding, and modulation methods were determined. Also unified equipment for sonar communication and identification under the code name Shtil was developed. Any respectful science, hydroacoustics including, must have two schools, so they could fight with each other, as the law of the unity and struggle of opposites prescribes. In echo ranging, for example, there was a struggle between successive and parallel scanning, linear processing and clipping, and additive and multiplicative shaping. Also in design of one of the latest sonar systems there was a long dispute whether it was best to process data in the time or frequency domain. Since its outcome was important for the final circuitry of the communication mode, the Author finally lost his temper. “It takes you so long to decide in which domain to process, you may end up in the Magadan domain before having decided,” he said.

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In sonar communication, which is a respectful science as well, dispute occurred between unification supporters and opponents. Unificationists won in the long run, the result of which was that the SS Shtil had become a constituent part of all sonar systems and facilities in service in the Navy, which ensured communication for both submarines and surface ships. To a certain extent, the SS Rubikon is an exception to the rule, but, in the physicists’ humorous terminology, it is rather “an experimental error” and not included in the general scheme. If the assertion that the number of years by which the scientist has retarded the development of his science is the measure of his significance, then the importance of the Shtil equipment, which has already existed for more than twenty years without serious alterations, is beyond doubt. While in the course of development of other systems, many aspects, such as changes in technology, material components, requirements to instrument design and reliability characteristics, and difficulties in producing outdated components lead to alterations, not a single one of these aspects apply to the Shtil equipment. In the 1970s, with the Shtil equipment as a foundation, a selfcontained communication and identification sonar Shtil-3 was developed. After being put in service it received the code name MG-35. This sonar was meant for installation on submarines and surface ships that had no sonar systems with communication modes. This sonar development proved to be quite an easy job, but the trials…in fact, full-scale trials and testing of the designed equipment for compliance with the TTR at their presentation to customer, cost the designer much health. When some device is subject to trials under realistic conditions that have nothing to do with the TTR specifications and for this reason fails to ensure the required operation range, the task of persuading the customer through complicated recalculations that he has no grounds to lay any claims borders on shamanism. In discussing one of such statements in the trials protocol with the commission including four designers, two customer’s representatives and one scientist in charge of scientific guidance, the designer and the customer got in a very tight clinch because of their opinions being in direct opposition. In the end, the chairman proposed a vote. The

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statement proposed by the designers was supported by four votes; the opposite one received two votes, and with some delay, the third hand, the scientist’s, rose to join the two. “Well,” says the chairman, “it means the statement that has the majority will go into the protocol.” “Then we will write a note,” the customer’s representatives jumped up. “And the scientist will write a note too!” “I will not write a note,” says the scientist looking at the floor. “But why? Haven’t you voted for our statement!” “Yes, I have voted for your statement. But the vote results have convinced me that I was wrong.” Generally speaking, no certificate of prototype acceptance signed by a commission can be imagined without comments and respective recommendations on the resolution of the comments. These comments may take different forms, from “TTR requirements to operational range met 10% below specification” to “Kupriyanov effect found in trials of communication system” with a respective recommendation for its elimination. Such an effect was discovered during trials of the SS Skat-3, which included the Shtil equipment, and consisted in that at depression of the “transmission” button for signal transmission, the submarine depth rudder turned to surfacing. The effect owes its name to the designer who pressed the button. The effect was not discovered at once, and for that reason everybody rejoiced quietly that the rudder was turning to surfacing and not to diving. It took the effort of several organizations to find and remove the cause of the effect, which was the incorrect placement of electrical cables. For a very long time, the Author has been trying to convince the customer that the designed systems, generally speaking, presented measuring devices, and their trials had to be carried out not in poorly controlled conditions, but rather by instrumental methods. For example, the measure of a SW radio transmitter performance is power, not kilometers. The communication range in a SW radio mode, in many respects similar to a hydroacoustic mode, is determined by specific external conditions.

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Regretfully, the Author had not achieved much success in such matters. “You are absolutely right,” one admiral used to say to the Author back in the times of the Yenisei. “But the desire to see it work in natural conditions is so great!” Nevertheless the Author has been awarded two certificates for practical implementation of his technical innovation proposals for application of an instrumental testing method of sonars MG-35 in the East and the North. After calculating the savings the state would have from his proposal, the Author, feeling pleasantly surprised by the sum of the renumeration due to him, even made a long list of immediate expenses. However, the final outcome was “as always.” After forwarding to the Author the respective certificates, the shipbuilding plants where these efficiency proposals had been introduced informed him that the savings, generally speaking, had been to the economy of the Navy, and that they, the plants, have honestly transferred to the Author all they had owed him. So, putting together both “royalties” and adding a bit of his own money, the Author afforded himself a bottle of good cognac. Generally speaking, the Author has three efficiency proposals to make. One of them has nothing to do with the trials proper. It concerns rejecting as superfluous in the CC mode of a device the use of a certain method of signal processing. Earlier the Author had received an invention certificate for an invention enabling him to introduce this method. The results of trials of sonar communication are to a great extent determined by the performance of the correspondent’s equipment. For this reason, if the commandment selects for the role of a correspondent not a submarine returning to the base after a two-months autonomous cruise, which needs all these trials and resulting delays, as in Vysotsky’s song, no more than “the skis in a Finnish sauna,” but a more civilized submarine, the Author’s first steps are naturally a compulsory revision and repair of the communication systems “shattered” by long service. Clever naval commanders immediately made use of this habit and often, after taking the Author’s report about readiness of their equipment to operation, informed that another submarine was assigned for participation in the trials. The procedure of checking repeated,

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but still another, third submarine would at the end appear at the test range… Trials of one of the prototype sonars Shtil-3 installed on a minesweeper took place in Kamchatka in winter. Support was provided by one of the submarines of the Kamchatka flotilla. A group of designers was sent to this submarine for equipment checking and recovery and for further participation in the trials while on board. But when the minesweeper met with the submarine at the agreed point, it was learned that the submarine had been replaced at the last moment, and that there was no designer’s representatives on board. The program of work and joint maneuvering which lasted several days, with the account for possible “loss” of the correspondent, was scheduled by the minute; the submarine submergence at the initial point and correspondents movement had to begin on command from the minesweeper strictly at one and the same moment. This system schedule could be accurately fulfilled by someone familiar with it. Therefore, out of five members of the test group, two were sent on a boat to the submarine, to a quiet bay where the submarine was performing its ballast trim. It was a 2-h trip between the bay and the test range, the boat moved in the sea in a 6-point storm. What a 6-point storm on a small flat-bottomed minesweeper means can only be understood by one who was been in such a situation. The Author immediately lay in a hammock and asked to wake him up 20 min before the initial point. The Author was woken 5 min before entering the test range. “Where’s the submarine?” the Author was asking worriedly trying to see it unsuccessfully among the waves. “We don’t know. It went down immediately and is moving under water. Must be somewhere near, don’t worry….” Two hours were spent on establishing communication over the telephone with the submerged submarine and bringing it to the assigned point. Two hours more were spent on a trial run. Of the three testers staying on the mine sweeper one worked at the control console, the other one sat bending over the bucket, and the third one recovered the moral and physical strength in the hammock. On command

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of the one at the control console, all three exchanged places, in succession: control console — bucket, bucket — hammock, hammock — control console. So it lasted for four hours. At last, everything was ready for normal work. But at that very moment the commander of the minesweeper told the Author that an order to go back to the base had been received. As a rule, in cases when, for one or the other naval personnel reason, trials have to terminate, the Author would start objecting, waving directives of the General Headquarters and promise every penalty on the commander, because organizing trails is such a difficult job, and time is pressing, etc. But there was no more strength left for objections in that situation. The culprit in trial termination, as it happens in situations like that, was the radio operator, who, reportedly, sending a coded message to the base, instead of “Can work according to plan,” signaled, “Cannot work according to plan.” At the base, an angry high-ranking naval officer was walking to and fro along the pier, waiting for the minesweeper to moor. The Author did not give himself the trouble to listen to the specific language the officer was using to explain to the minesweeper captain that the latter had no right to leave the submarine alone, that in the surface position it is so unprotected that any half-drunk net fisherman would pose a risk to it, and that in war time such a situation would bring him under tribunal… Toward the end of that speech the Author was already standing at the bus stop, waiting for the bus to take him to the hotel, to his room, called because of the ratio of its length and width “a tram,” which seemed to him a cozy home. But, instead of the bus, a sailor ran up to the bus stop: “There’s an order to go meet the submarine,” he informed with joy. “You are invited to come.” The Author was lucky this time; the submarine had found its way by itself, loudly expressing its opinion about the surface fleet in general and the small minesweeper in particular. Fortunately, beside trouble, sea can bring joy as well. Just imagine: the Sea of Japan at the latitude of Sochi on the Black Sea, bright sun, a hot summer, no shore in view, the sea is absolutely calm. A fairy-tale!

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And like music, the command over the loudspeaker: “All line up on upper deck! Form of clothes — trunks, shoes!” Taking off the shoes, everybody in turn dived from the forward end into water, swam along the side to the rope ladder hanging from the stern, get back on the deck and put on the shoes. Shoes are an element of an automatic monitoring system: an extra pair of shoes shows that its owner has not reached the ladder. A sailor who could not swim was pulled along the side on a rope, and two persons, including the submarine mechanic, had the right to dive from the deckhouse, which was not less than 10 m above the water surface. Beside the diving skills, the mechanic was also known for his habit never to refuse a glass, even when nobody was inviting him to have one. Once the submarine was lying off Vladivostok. Watch was kept in the anchored variant, bulkheads were bolted, and ventilation was carried out through the central room. In the first compartment, where hammocks were arranged in three tiers, people slept. The Author found his place at the very bottom, close to the compressor pumping air to the high-pressure cylinders. On the order of the mechanic, who this time again “did not refuse,” the young sailor on watch in the second compartment closed the air pipes leading to the first compartment. The compressor did not know that and continued pumping air — now from inside the compartment itself. Feeling some discomfort, people woke up and tried to open the bulkhead hatch, which, due to pressure drop, had become impossible. The knocking on the bulkhead was heard in the second compartment, the pipe was quickly opened, the pressure equalized in one instant. Frankly speaking, it was painful and resulted for the Author in a two-weeks’ loss of hearing. But its just an episode. The bathing in the sea mentioned above was performed on request of the doctor, for considerations of hygiene, for during the cruise, the bodies of the diesel submarine inhabitants became dirty. Generally speaking, the doctor was a master of all trades. The Author had approached him many times for help, and only once was his request denied. This happened when, before going out to sea, it was already time to go inside the submarine, and the Author felt poorly.

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“Listen, doc,” the Author addressed the doctor standing on the pier. “Could you make a man of me!” “This is not my job, ask the commissar,” was the doctor’s calm response. Nevertheless, two days after, already at sea, when the Author was running a high fever, the doctor, in response to his request to help, took out his pen and in silence wrote out a prescription. Then, looking at the prescription, he took out of the closet a couple of handfuls of tablets. “Take this,” pointing to one heap, “now. The rest — later, and the more the better.” It is hard to say now what helped, but after taking the medicine the Author sat at the control console for two days running, interrupting work only for breakfast, lunch and dinner. Beside being a good therapist, the doctor also proved to be a brilliant surgeon, and the Author had a couple of chances to realize that. The first time, when an evil sea urchin pierced his heel, like that of Achilles, with his poisonous needle, in revenge for the Author’s stepping on it. Very soon the heel became of the size of a knee and ached terribly. The doctor, whom the Author approached for help, took his lance, and, denying all calls for pity or for at least a couple of anesthetic injections, with a cannibal’s smile opened up the abscess. The next day, the Author was fit enough to go dancing. On another occasion the Author, in the course of scheduled trials, climbing from one compartment to the other, scratched the knee on some protruding part, without paying any attention to what had happened. The result was that an abscess appeared on the knee of the size of a heel. This time the doc chose another tactic for the treatment. Using tweezers, he removed all hairs around the sore spot, and then, with the same tweezers, squeezed the boil with all his force. It was very thoughtful to make submarines with two hulls, one of them being the strong hull. In the process of research and trials, the Author had been trying repeatedly to get outside the scope of problems limited by functional application of the means of communication, particularly to venture into the sound ranging area.

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One of the first attempts of this kind was measuring distance to a sound-reflecting object, the rocks or the shore, by yelling some word into a microphone and measuring with a stop-watch the time of the echo arrival. The device received the name cry-locator, and the most effective word bringing a clear echo turned out to be “cognac”. More serious attempts of ranging were made when broad-band signals, by which distance to the correspondent could be found, started being used in the communication systems. In the White Sea, when the submarine was moving on the surface in the direction of the base, all the commanding officers were standing on the bridge, and the Author was sitting below, near the control console, transmitting the signal in the direction of the shore and receiving the echo with the direct-listening sonar system automatic target tracking (AT) mode. The distance finding results were immediately reported to the bridge. Suddenly the distance abruptly reduced. “Bridge! Range reduced to 50 m in one jump,” the Author was getting worried. “All OK, it’s the pier,” was the calming answer from top. The Author decided to use the experience of this method of distance finding in the Norwegian Sea at trials of the Shtil equipment on a submarine carrying the SS Kerch. In the course of trials there arose the need to turn the sonar system planar array, the “spade,” which had a mechanical drive, in the direction to which the passive sonar (PS) AT mode used for communication signal reception had been oriented. Respective commands were given to the Kerch operators. Suddenly at the moment when the sonar system operator started the procedure of the “spade” rotation, the noise level at the PS output rose abruptly, and the spectrum analyzer connected to the AT mode output showed that noise was covering the whole of the mode working band. Noise detection was immediately reported to the central post. “Identify target,” came the command from the central post. The sonar operator looked unhappy. “Comrade commander,” stepped in the Author, displaying his erudition. “I think it is another working sonar with continuous broadband signal transmission. Judging by the level, it must be somewhere near.”

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“Prepare sonar mode for operation,” followed a command from the central post. “Yes prepare sonar mode for operation,” was the orderly response from the sonar operator’s room. Some time passed. The noise at PS output stayed without change. “Hello, sonar operator, where’s the sonar?” inquires the central post. “In preparation,” answers the sonar operator’s room. The Author realizes that the last time the sonar had been turned on at the submarine acceptance, and to have it prepared to work, serious revision and repairs were needed. To save the situation and remembering the experience of use of the communication mode in the function of a distance finder, he addresses the central post: “Allow distance finding with the Shtil!” “Well,” agrees the central post. To the Author’s great regret, the Shtil detected no target. Suddenly the noise level came to normal, and the sonar operator reported: “Orientation of planar rotary array completed!” It was a false alarm, the noise signal that had caused so much trouble turned out to be coming from the drive mechanism. The Author also undertook attempts to go outside the area of hydroacoustics. Acceptance of the second prototype sonar MG-35 installed on a submarine took place within the framework of acceptance of the submarine in general. After a week-and-a-half of jolting at sea, the Author was happy to get on a big marine tugboat, on which he hoped to reach the base. The way to the shore was supposed to take 3 h, the tugboat, as they informed the Author, was supposed to carry out one more tugging errand. Therefore, the best thing the Author could do was to go and sleep in the bunk room. Awaking in a couple of hours, the Author saw with surprise that the tugboat was still hanging around at the test range. It turned out that the tugboat had to go around the heaving submarine sending sonar signals to it. The task of the submarine was to measure those signals and in this way to determine the shape of the directivity pattern of its array. But all this time the shape was coming out wrong. Such a delay did not suit the Author at all.

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“Listen, Il’ich,” the Author addressed over the SW radio to Vladimir Il’ich — such was the name of the submarine acceptance officer. “Why dance around all the time? Let the tugboat be at standstill and send its signals, you perform the turning motion, and in 15 min all will be over!” “Accepted,” says Il’ich. The Author, quite satisfied, returned to the bunk room to continue sleeping. Two hours more passed. The Author climbed on the deck in the hope to see the familiar shore. To his great surprise, he saw that the tugboat was adrift, with the submarine circling around it. The directivity pattern came out with the ideal shape. In the period when investigations into the creation of the unified communication equipment Shtil were underway, a research institute under the same name was organized in Volgograd, the hero city on the Volga. The RI Shtil was entrusted with developing unified modems and self-contained communication sonars and the CRI Morfizpribor was left to work on the communication modes for sonar systems of submarines and surface ships. The reasons why the principal area of research had been reassigned to another institute could probably be explained by the specific mentality of the Soviet economy. Salaries depended not on the amount of work done but on a cleverly compiled plan. It was not for nothing that the following anecdote about a Soviet manager, who while on a practical study abroad managed to turn down all orders, was so popular. One met with the elements of that economy everywhere. For example, in order to get more money, the Author, while being a chief designer and a chief scientist for a research project, had to put his name on a payroll list of the Plant’s completion workshop as an adjuster. Or another anecdotal case. The subcontractor enterprise participating in a research project for which the CRI Morfizpribor was the leading enterprise, needed a recorder. The Institute had a recorder that had been manufactured back in the era of prehistoric materialism but the subcontractor was quite satisfied to get it. Point is that it was impossible to just give the device away and if to be sold, then at what price? Specialists of the measuring instruments bureau considered that the

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recorder should be written off but the accounting department insisted on indicating its price as if it were a totally new device. “It’s sheer robbery,” the Author boiled with indignation at the financial-sales department, drawing up the necessary papers. “Don’t take it too close to heart,” the financiers calmed the Author. “They aren’t going to pay us anyway.” “Why not going to pay? Why all these bills then?” the Author was asking in amazement. “So what? We’ve always done it this way.” But the fun was not there. The funniest thing was that the subcontractor, working for the Institute’s money, presented a report of expenses, which included the cost of all purchased equipment. After completion of the research project, all manufactured and purchased equipment was handed over to the Institute. Thus the Institute had purchased an outdated recorder at an excessive price — from itself. By the way, there was another theory explaining the causes of a research theme reassignment. The customer needed to transfer highly confidential messages to deeply submerged submarines over very long ranges. “We have no way of solving this problem,” the Author was told by an official from the Institute’s leadership. “But the RI Shtil will not solve it either,” objected the Author. “Yes, but it’ll be them who don’t do it.” To tell the truth, the RI Shtil, in the process of the creation of the communication equipment, realized many interesting engineering characteristics, both those proposed by the CRI Morfizpribor, and those of its own. Simultaneously with development of unified equipment, research into other methods of information transmission over a hydroacoustic channel was carried out including explosive acoustic sources and small-frame television, sonar and radio-sonar buoys and lines of communication with deep-water divers. But these facilities did not find wide application. In the late 1970s to early 1980s, research into the ways of increasing the efficiency of broad-band signal communication systems began. Fresh ideas were brought to hydroacoustics by a representative of the Minsk Institute of Electronics with his colleagues, who later became staff members of the RI of Automation.

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In realizing these ideas, for the first time in domestic hydroacoustics (and probably not only in domestic hydroacoustics), the Walsh fast transformation procedure was used in signal processing, and for the first time in the communication systems, computers were introduced. A research project carried out at the CRI Morfizpribor with the participation of the Minsk researchers and the RI Shtil showed the feasibility of creation of new efficient communication systems. The ideologist for such systems was given the name “the Creator.” In the beginning, the Author met those ideas critically, but then resigned himself to them. To tell the truth, Author’s attempt to printout, without the Creator’s permit, the presented program ended in a failure. The printer produced some abracadabra and wrote at the end “Let’s have a drink!” The Creator was a young, energetic scientist, sociable, modern, with a badge of a master of sports in radio reception. He spoke about his method with everyone and everywhere, and charmed all. The fathers of the city of Leningrad were looking for an apartment for him, so that he could create nearby. The Creator attempted to talk about a specific configuration of a computing system that offered a solution to a problem to the Leader of the leading enterprise. The Leader, despite being in a good mood after a lunch in the company of the representative of the Chief Directorate of the Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry, clearly felt offended with the “Let’s have a drink!” “This is the only configuration I know,” he said to the Creator cocking an ugly snook of unruly fingers at him. The peak of popularity of the Creator was the talk he gave at a scientific council meeting that took place in the capital, behind the walls of the Kremlin. He spoke in front of the high assembly about factorization of matrices, fast correlation analysis, and signal representation on the Walsh function basis by the Hadamard ordering. One of the radio electronic science pillars felt touched, like the old man Derzhavin: “Here is our future,” he said passionately shaking the Creator’s hand. It should be noted that the patriarch was mistaken. The Creator abandoned science, and it was rumored that all cosmetics in Minsk today is “from the Creator.” Maybe he was right!

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In the final analysis, the Creator left such a deep mark in work on the creation of means of communication that the Author dedicated a whole ballad to him. The results obtained as a result of research enabled in the late 1980s to early 1990s launching of the project on the creation of the sonar equipment Struktura, the second generation of unified sonar communication equipment, and its various modifications. This work was carried out at the RI Shtil. In the 1990s, clear signs were already noticeable of the coming situation when the state enterprises could not expect the required amount of state financing for execution of state orders. For the Institute, one of the possible ways of overcoming the crisis could be completing works for conversion orders of the industry. The Author also tried to have his say in this direction. The result was creation of several prototype telephone sets for scuba and deep-water divers. The greatest incentive to raising money for development and manufacture of these sets were contacts with one of the American companies, which agreed to display them on favorable terms at an international fair. These sets worked on the 32.768 kHz carrier, insured interaction with many other scuba sets of foreign manufacturers, stood second to none in their principal characteristics, and even exceeded them in price. The distinguishing feature of our sets was an extremely beautiful titanium housing. In order to bring down the price, the Author proposed to use plastic casings in serial production, but the company representative insisted that there was no demand for plastic, titanium was the set’s main “go,” and the Americans would like it. For example, they buy Russian underwater hunting guns, which are more expensive than their own, just because there is an abbreviation AK on them, associated with the “Automatic gun Kalashnikov.” But, quietly one day, the Americans vanished. The Author had neither the marketing and promotion experience, nor the starting capital to put at least some small lot of such sets on the market. Meanwhile the train had left… Another one of the Author’s attempts to create something in the way of conversion was also connected with establishing contacts with a foreign company, which felt the need for a system of telemetry

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information transmission over a hydroacoustic mode at a rate of 2000 bits per second. A computer model of such a system was created, with the parameters not yielding to foreign analogues, at least to those known to the Author. Alas, the foreign company vanished in the thin air, and the model remained just a model. *** In these notes the Author has attempted to tell how it all was. And what is left? There is, let us say, the Author, who abruptly and noticeably matured under the pressure of the post-perestroika reality. There is a serious backlog of promising designs. There are fresh ideas, which, like a baby in the mother’s womb, fidget and push with legs in the Author’s mind. Only a trifle is missing — the financing. And what will be? The Author considers himself an outright optimist and believes in the coming of a rich and interested “doctor” who will help these ideas to see light, and that young and able “tutors” will help these ideas to their feet and give them the final shape. “One thing is sad: not to us will be given…” What was it N. A. Nekrasov said further about our future? 3. Instead of a Conclusion The Author will accept any conclusion: from a strict penance, in case he had omitted something in his story, or, on the contrary, God forbid, he had told something in excess to a humble epithalamium if all had been okey-dokey.

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On Search and Survey Sonars A. V. BOGORODSKY

In Russia, and probably also in other countries, when describing something that has suddenly disappeared, people say “like sank into water,” which is synonymous to “vanishing into thin air.” Many people know from their own experience that water, be it a small stream or a village pond, keeps everything under its surface a secret. It is a very difficult task to locate objects underwater, especially when those objects are lying on the bottom. When the need arises to conduct search and examination operations at locations in the world’s oceans, the task becomes a scientific-technical problem. In the second half of the 20th century, the world’s leading countries began showing great interest in the ocean bottom with a view toward its use for economic, political, and military purposes. The ocean bottom was being looked upon as a potential source of mineral resources and energy carriers, as well as a place for deployment of underwater weapons. In addition, the ocean bottom was quickly turning in to a burial place for radioactive waste from shipwrecks of surface ships and submarines carrying nuclear power plants and weapons. The search for these objects, monitoring of their condition and developing measures for preventing radioactive pollution of the environment have become a pressing global problem. By the end of the 1960s, with the efforts of such developed countries as Great Britain, France, and the USA, a system of underwater technical facilities was completed in general. It enabled conducting investigation of sea bottom relief at great depths (up to 6000 m) in the interests of marine geology, hydrography, and naturally, national defense. From a purely practical aspect, the facilities of this system allowed support to be provided to oil field exploration and 773

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oil production on the marine shelf, laying underwater pipelines and cables, rescue operations, search and detection of bottom mines, etc. Beginning in the mid-1960s, the Soviet Union was also taking active measures to create systems and equipment facilitating the solution of all of the above problems. It should be remembered that these technical facilities can hardly be imagined without the hydroacoustic systems of underwater surveillance, which are part of almost all manned and remote-controlled underwater vehicles (UV). In the UV electronic system an important role belongs to the so-called search and survey sonars (S&SS), which give an operator the opportunity, through analysis of a sonar image appearing on a display, to detect and identify all types of objects on the ground, to observe morphological features and to analyze the navigation situation around the vehicle. These systems are represented mainly by side-scanning sonars (SSS) and circular-scanning sonars (CSS). Work on the creation of S&SS began at the CRI Morfizpribor in 1967, in the research laboratory headed by S. A. Smirnov. At about the same time, the research project Korall aimed at exploring the feasibility of developing SSS and CSS for finding large sunken objects at depths up to 6000 m began and in 1969 was successfully completed under his guidance. In the course of this fundamental research, the young body of engineers managed to create an inventory of scientific-technical ideas and designs, which laid the foundation for designs of a whole family of deep-sea S&SS for different applications. The physical basics of S&SS operation, the methods of creation of two-dimensional sonar images of the bottom and the specifics of their perception by an operator were investigated. A methodology for estimating power requirements was developed on the basis of correct models of signal and noise developed in the course of system operation. A model structure of S&SS was proposed and requirements for the parameters of all functional circuits of the system were defined. The principal characteristics were proposed of a number of problems of design and technology connected with the need for ensuring reliable operation of acoustic arrays, rotary units and drives, sealed cables and cable inputs under hydrostatic pressures of 600 kg/cm2 and higher. The research project was completed with the manufacture of a prototype SSS and CSS able of ensuring search for

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and detection of large sunken objects like a ship or plane at ranges up to 1000 m. The results of the Korall research project were convincing enough that in 1971, the D&D project Krilyon was launched. The project chief designer was V. L. Sinitsyn, his deputies were V. S. Molchanov and Ye. M. Petrov. It should be noted that the Navy wanted a sonar of this type very much, because it was meant for installation on the first domestic deep-sea vehicles Poisk-2 and Poisk-6, whose launching meant a new phase in the development of the Navy rescue service. In 1976, the prototype sonar Krilyon passed state trials as part of the UV Poisk-2 and was put into service. It should be noted that field trials of the Krilyon, and later of other systems, took place in a region of the Black Sea, that, because of a tragedy that occurred in the mid-1970s, was an almost ideal test range for S&SS trials. The tragedy was the perishing of the big submarine chaser Otvazhny (Fig. 1). For several years, before being destroyed, the huge ship lay on smooth silt-covered sandy ground at a depth of about 50 m, presenting an ideal large target for system testing. During one of the trails on this test range, with the help of a side-scanning circuit of the system Krilyon, an image of almost ideal quality was obtained of the BSC Otvazhny, which with time, came to illustrate the capabilities of S&SS. Later, AS Krilyon was put into serial production and was installed not only on the UV’s of the type Poisk, but also on rescue and survival facilities and on class-940 rescue submarines. A self-contained manned underwater vehicle has a number of serious drawbacks limiting its capabilities as a search facility. In the first place there is the vehicle’s low endurance with regard to power and life support resources, low cruising speed, and high degree of risk for the crew on deep-water dives. Unmanned, towed UV’s combine high endurance and the high energy potential of a surface ship, with the opportunity to move the search-and-survey equipment placed on the towed platform small distances from the ground. The mechanical, power, and information links between the towed and shipborne parts of the equipment was ensured through a cable having a coaxial electric power line. The cable length at a towing depth of 6000 m and speeds of 5–6 knots can reach 12–15 km.

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Fig. 1.

Sonar image of BSC Otvazhny lying on the sea floor.

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In 1974, in the same laboratory of the CRI Morfizpribor where the Krilyon system was designed, work began on the creation of the first domestic towed SSS Lotos. The author of this article was appointed project chief designer. The chief designer deputies were V. A. Yershov and K. V. Malev. The operating conditions of a sonar incorporated in the towed system significantly differ from those in manned UVs. Unstable movement of the towed platform (list, trim, yawing), operation of a multiplexing system in the information modes, and rigid requirements as to the system’s mass and weight characteristics had to be taken into account in the SSS Lotos design. For detecting large objects in the socalled SSS “dead zone,” an acoustic array was developed shaping the directivity pattern in the 70–90◦ grazing angles sector. The Lotos was meant for installation on the first domestic towed remote-controlled sonar systems Delfin-TM and Trepang-2, which beside hydroacoustic, incorporated magnetometric, radiometric, and photographic equipment. The SSS Lotos trials took place in 1978 also in the region of shipwreck of the BSC Otvazhny, which by that time had been destroyed by a series of blasts and no longer existed in whole. The change in the situation since 1975 can be well understood from a comparison of sonar images in the two photographs shown below, made by the SSS Krilyon and the SSS Lotos (Figs. 1 and 2). In 1981, the SSS Lotos was put into service by the Navy of the USSR, together with the towed system Delfin-TM. Thus the creation of the first generation of home S&SS designed for search and detection of large sunken objects at depths up to 6000 m was completed. As part of the equipment on the type Poisk manned UV, the towed remote-controlled type Delfin-TM andTrepang-2 sonar systems, in service to all four fleets of the former USSR, have proven their efficiency many times. For example, in 1983, the SSS Lotos, which operated as part of the Delfin-TM system, ensured support for bottom examination in the region of the wreck of the South-Korean Boeing-747 plane shot down under unexplained circumstances near the island Sakhalin. An area of about 25 miles2 was examined, and in the daytime the area was closely searched by the tow ship. The sonar images of the bottom

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Fig. 2.

Sonar image of BSC Otvazhny fragments after its destruction.

(tens of meters of paper strip 200 mm wide) obtained were delivered to the search headquarters, analyzed and the “suspicious” spots were swept by contact sweeps. Thus several tons of wreckage fragments and everything inside them were raised to the surface and examined. What exactly the experts had been looking for, and what were the results of the search remain unknown, but in the course of these operations specialists of the search-and-rescue service of the Navy mastered the methodology of working with a new type of search system. In spring, 1989, this experience found application, and again, on a tragic occasion. The marine rescue ship Georgy Titov was one of the first ships to start search in the region of wreck of the submarine Komsomolets. The search facilities on board the Georgy Titov included the towed deepsea sonar system Trepang-2, the principal search system of which was the SSS Lotos. This time the searched area was not big, and already in the third lap the sonar recorder tape clearly showed the outline of

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Sonar image of a torpedo stuck in the sea floor.

the sunken submarine. Its coordinates were verified, and that gave an opportunity for operation of the manned UV Poisk-2, and later the UV Mir brought by the research ship Academician Mstislav Keldysh. It would be wrong to assert that people look only for large objects like submarines, ships, boats, and planes on the sea bottom. There may also be other objects that are smaller, but no less interesting and dangerous. Among those that are dangerous, calling for the quickest possible search and demolition, are such objects as bottom mines and bottom-hovering mines, containers with toxic agents and radioactive materials, lost ammunition such as aircraft bombs, torpedoes (Fig. 3), warheads, etc. Specialists label all these products of human activity as small-size objects. The so-called “black boxes” of plane wrecks also belong to this category. Fighting the mine danger by creation of efficient anti-mine defense systems had always had a top priority with the Navy. This task has

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become even more pressing in connection with development of bottom mines featuring high anti-sweep stability and secrecy. In the mid-1970s, our country started developing new anti-mine defense systems, based on finder-destroyer systems for bottom and bottomhovering mines. To ensure search and detection of bottom and bottom-hovering small-sized objects, which includes mines among others objects, it was necessary to develop a S&SS with higher (by an order of magnitude) spatial resolution, in comparison with the systems meant for detecting large objects. Work on the creation of such systems began at the CRI Morfizpribor in the late 1970s under the guidance of the author of these lines, who by that time was head of a laboratory, replacing S. A. Smirnov. In 1979, the staff of the laboratory began work on the Paltus project (Chief Designer R. D. Sultanov, Deputy Chief Designer Yu. A. Tribis). Its purpose was the creation of the first domestic SSS meant specifically for search and detection of small-sized objects on the seafloor. The tactical characteristics specified by the TTR were rather challenging, and the scientific-technical data needed for the creation of high-resolution sonar systems was definitely insufficient. In all fairness, such a D&D project should have been preceded by an applied research project, but time was pressing and designers were compelled to start work directly from a technical design. To realize the needed high spatial resolution, it was decided to make use of a high carrier frequency (several hundred kHz), and have sonar acoustic arrays operation in the Fresnel zone. The characteristics were quite bold and risky, since neither the Institute, nor the country as a whole, had any experience creating arrays for the Navy operating at such high frequencies. Operation in the Fresnel zone had not been sufficiently investigated and had never been used in an SSS. But, despite all difficulties, the design was a success. Trials took place as part of the ground mine sweeper-eliminator system (GMSES) Paltus in the Ladoga Lake, the Baltic and Black Seas. The acoustic system, at a speed of 10 knots, ensured stable detection of bottom and bottom-hovering objects of sizes not larger than a soccer ball at ranges of several tens of meters. The trials gave an experimental verification to the assumption that by the nature of an object’s sonar image, and by the zone of

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acoustic shadow behind it, objects may be identified as “bottom” or “bottom-hovering.” Unfortunately, trials of the GMSES Paltus were delayed. The system was very complicated in operation, and some naval specialists doubted the expediency of its adoption for service. In the end, acceptance never took place of both the GMSES in general and its components in particular. It is a great pity, because we believed that the anti-mine defense forces did not get a very efficient and promising system for bottom mine search and detection. The course of development of similar hydroacoustic equipment in the West by NATO naval forces soon confirmed this conclusion. However, the scientific-technical data accumulated in the course of execution of the Paltus project was not lost. In the early 1980s, work on the design of one more type of unmanned anti-mine UV, namely, the self-propelled, remote-controlled vehicles began. These vehicles were not tugged by a minesweeper but could freely move in any direction around it, as far as the communication and control cable allowed. The main facility for search and detection incorporated in the remote-controlled anti-mine systems is the small-size sector-scanning sonar. Creation of a sonar of this type started at the CRI Morfizpribor in 1984 within the scope of the D&D Ketmen-SO project. A. A. Platonov, one of the Institute’s leading specialists, was appointed chief designer and his deputy was A. P. Kokoenko. The time scheduled for the development was short, but thanks to the engineering talents of the chief designer, who had made clever use of the data from earlier design efforts, and the devoted work of the laboratory staff, the prototype sonar was submitted for manufacturer’s trials by the end of 1985. After successful completion of the cycle of trials as part of the remotecontrolled anti-mine system of the same name, a decision was made in 1988 regarding the manufacture and release of several units of the sonar system according to the documentation of the chief designer. It is worth noting that the successful completion of the most critical type of trials — interdepartmental — was to a high degree facilitated by the following very instructive episode. The head of the test range, in whose area the field trials were taking place, hearing that the mine sweeper was carrying some new search system, asked the chairman of

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the commission and the ship’s commander to examine the ocean bottom along which torpedoes moved in the course of experimental firing. The consent was readily given. After only an hour of searching, the people crowded around the sonar Ketmen-SO rack, with its designer himself at the control console, saw a bright mark on the sonar screen from an oblong object sticking out of the bottom (Fig. 3). Using the sonar data for homing to the object, system operator brought the vessel within operating range of the television camera, and with its help saw that the object was a torpedo stuck in the ground. Later the head of the test range told us of the strong and mixed feelings that overwhelmed him when he understood that the sonar Ketmen-SO had helped to quickly find a new torpedo lost during trials several years earlier. It had been very carefully searched for by sweeping the bottom with contact sweeps, all in vain. It was then conjectured that, through a fault of the control system, the torpedo had deviated from the preset trajectory, escaped to the deep-sea region of the test range and sunk there. The commission for torpedo trials made a mistake, and the commission for trials of the sonar Ketmen-SO satisfied itself that the device deserved the highest rating. So in 1988, the period of creation of the first generation, domestic S&SS meant for search and detection of small-size bottom and bottomhovering objects, lasting for almost a decade, came to an end. The development of sonar systems operating as part of submarine technical facilities for navigation and investigation of the ocean continues. The successes of microelectronics, computer science and technology has made both the underwater vehicles of the first generation, and their search systems obsolete. In the late 1980s to early 1990s, work started in Russia on the second generation S&SS’s for prospective manned and unmanned vehicles. To replace the Krilyon type systems, the Institute carries out development of the multifunctional sonar Latimeria-01. For the first time in domestic practice the system of information management and sonar display was designed on the basis of a marine IBM-compatible PC. The sonar Ketmen-CO will be succeeded by its modernized version Marshrut-CO, with significantly improved mass and size characteristics and functional capabilities. Work on these

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two systems is well underway, and has already reached the stage of prototype manufacture. However, the ongoing economic crisis and lack of financing present a noticeable obstacle to completion. Nevertheless, the team of designers who created and brought to production the second generation S&SS will also make their contribution to the difficult tasks of exploration of the depths of the world’s oceans and of strengthening the defense of our Motherland.

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The vertical sound speed distribution (VSSD) in the ocean is the principal feature determining acoustic wave propagation. Sound speed measurements are made with special equipment called hydroacoustic sound speed meters. Combined with plotters of ray patterns of acoustic energy propagation in the sea, hydroacoustic sound speed meters are the primary equipment, by use of which the hydrological and acoustic characteristics of an ocean region are quickly determined. Information about the sound speed and its distribution with depth serves as one of the important factors in solving the following problems of hydroacoustics and oceanology: (1) determining the optimal depths for submarine operations to ensure maximum efficiency; (2) determining the optimal depths of operation of dipped and towed arrays of hydroacoustic systems operating from surface ships; (3) predicting the expected operating range of hydroacoustic systems; (4) taking into account range and bearing errors caused by vertical refraction of acoustic ray, and determining the depth of submerged objects; (5) increasing the accuracy of positional information obtained from submarine navigation systems; (6) determining the distance to underwater objects by active and passive methods; (7) determining the position of underwater equipment and deepsea facilities for the purpose of mineral resource exploration and extraction;

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(8) investigating the space-time variability of marine medium parameters; (9) gathering statistical data about the sound speed field in different regions of the world’s oceans. This article is a historical sketch based on archive material, design reports, technical descriptions of industrial prototype devices, invention certificates, and other scientific and technical data. The sketch traces the development of domestic equipment for sound speed measurement at sea, from the first prototypes to modern versions employing the latest advances in electronics. The history of development in our country of shipborne equipment for measuring sound speed at sea covers a period of 40 years. In the present article, along with the widely used serial systems, some more interesting single prototype devices designed by organizations in this country for their own needs are mentioned. The article also describes meters for measuring sound speed in fluids used in industry for rapidanalyses of physical and chemical properties of fluids. However, this article does not discuss the history of development of these devices. The initial period of development of domestic systems for sound speed measurement in fluids is associated with S. Ya. Sokolov from the V. I. Ulyanov (Lenin) Leningrad Electrotechnical Institute. His work in the area of ultrasonic testing of solids for defects, as well as work in the area of ultrasonic rapid-analysis of the physical and chemical composition of liquids and gases, began in 1928. It gave impetus to the development in this country of instrument engineering in this area. In 1935, S. Ya. Sokolov was the first to propose the use of ultrasonic pulses for the investigation of sound propagation in metals. In 1946, he developed a new method of sound speed measurement in fluids based on frequency modulation of the transmitted signal. Instruments employing this method could measure the rapid sound speed variations taking place during the course of chemical reactions in fluids. In 1949, the problems of sound speed measurement were discussed by I. G. Mikhailov in the book Acoustic Wave Propagation in Fluids (Rasprostranenie ultrazvukovykh voln v zhidkostyakh). This book discusses the most interesting experimental data obtained by researchers in

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many countries, describes laboratory setups used for sound speed measurements, and provides theoretical substantiation of research results. One of the designs of an acoustic interferometer described in the book was developed by the book’s author and was used by him in a series of studies of the temperature dependences of the sound speed in fluids. For the first time, a separately excited generator ensuring high frequency stability in the measurement process was employed in the interferometer, which helped in obtaining more accurate results. The work by S. Ya. Sokolov and I. G. Mikhailov laid the foundation for further creation of industrial prototype meters for measuring sound speed in fluids. Development of shipborne hydroacoustic sound speed meters in this country began in 1949–1950. In 1952, at the Gorky Research Institute of Radiophysics (RIRP), the research project Zvuk, under the guidance of M. T. Grekhova, studied ways of creating a hydroacoustic sound speed meter employing a phase method. Based on the results obtained at the RIRP, the SDB of the Vodtranspribor Plant carried out in 1953–1955 the D&D projects Zvuk-1 and Zvuk-2 under the guidance of A. G. Yevtyukhov, and in 1956, the research project Gradient, within the scope of which the first domestic prototype shipborne hydroacoustic sound speed meters were constructed and tested at sea. The first stage of sea trials of the devices Zvuk-1 and Zvuk-2 took place in the Black Sea. The devices were installed on a hydrographic ship. The devices were mounted on a movable platform that could be placed at various distances from the ship’s hull and be rotated around the vertical axis. The program of marine trials included evaluation of the error of sound speed measurements under realistic conditions, evaluation of the effect of the velocity and direction of water flow around the measuring instrument, and evaluation of the optimal clearance between the latter and the ship’s hull. In the course of the second stage of trials carried out in the Baltic Sea, the devices were used for VSSD measurements. Measurements were performed during the lowering of the measuring device from the ship’s side to a depth of 100 m. Readings of sound speed were taken at fixed depths by using special markers on the cable. Simultaneously

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measurements were made of the vertical distribution of temperature and salinity for indirect determination of sound speed and comparison of results. The prototype device Gradient was placed on a submarine for sea trials. In the course of the trials the optimal location for installation of the system was selected based on minimizing the effect of flow on the measurements. Two locations were considered; on the deck and in the space between the structural and pressure hulls. Based on the results of the trials, the second option was discarded because upper ocean water would get inside the space between the hulls during diving operations thus distorting the VSSD. Records of VSSD from Gradient were, for the first time, made by an automatic two-coordinate recorder in the form of a diagram on chart paper. Specialists from the SDB of the Vodtranspribor Plant, V. I. Vasilyev and L. P. Talanov, customer’s representatives, M. D. Yudin and Yu. V. Chernyshov, and the representative of RIRP, I. M. Puzryov took an active role in these studies. The results of the work done under the projects Zvuk and Gradient served as a basis for the D&D project Beresta (Chief Designer A. G. Yevtyukhov), which was completed in 1958. The prototype Beresta device was installed on a submarine and successfully passed trials in the Black Sea. Based on the results of the trials, design alterations were made to a number of instruments, and in 1959, the Beresta device was brought to serial production at the Vodtranspribor Plant. Measurements with the Beresta were carried out at a high frequency of 500 kHz, with the purpose of improving accuracy. With a acoustic sensors’ separation of 300 mm, ambiguity in the readings appeared, which were eliminated by transmission of an amplitude-modulated signal, for which a coarse range determination was performed at the modulation frequency of 50 kHz, and accurate sound speed measurements were performed at the carrier frequency of 500 kHz. This was the first use of such a method for sound speed measurement. The Beresta device had the following specifications: (1) a sound speed measurement in the range of 1400–1550 m/s; (2) a working depth range of 0–300 m; (3) a maximum sound speed measurement error of ±0.7 m/s;

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(4) a maximum depth measurement error of ±7.5 m; (5) VSSD recording on chart paper in the form of a diagram with frame size of 150 × 200 mm2 (150 × 300 mm2 in the prototype device); (6) an acoustic sensors’ separation of 300 mm. Error evaluation of shipborne instruments and their calibration were initially performed by comparing the measured values with the results of sound speed determination by indirect methods. Use was made of nomograms for the sound speed calculation compiled in 1950 by V. I. Chernysh, and the Oceanological Tables of 1940 by N. N. Zubov and N. I. Chigirin and Oceanological Tables of 1957 by N. N. Zubov, which under Nos. 55 and 33, respectively, included the sound speed tables of the British Admiralty. Work on the creation of standard calibration equipment based on direct methods of measurement began simultaneously with the development of shipborne hydroacoustic sound speed meters. In 1958, within the scope of the D&D project Beresta, development of a calibration device presenting an acoustic phase interferometer with variable base distance was completed. The calibration device ensured calibration of acoustic sound speed meters under conditions of a laboratory and of a ship. It allowed sound speed measurements to be made in the range of 1400–1600 m/s with a maximum error of ±0.3 m/s. In 1959, simultaneously with the Beresta, this calibration device entered serial production at the Vodtranspribor Plant. A significant contribution to the creation of Beresta and the calibration device was made by staff members of the SDB: B. M. Aleshin, L. D. Lyubavin, N. A. Mudryakov, L. P. Talanov, A. L. Vakhter, A. A. Grabois, L. D. Kunyavsky, and the author of this article. For the customer, equipment test bed and marine trials were carried out with the participation of Yu. V. Chernyshov and V. N. Matvienko. Later, A. G. Yevtyukhov’s laboratory specialized in development of shipborne sound speed meters. A. G. Yevtyukhov is, by right, considered the founder of this trend in domestic hydroacoustics. He was the project leader and chief designer of practically all meters employing the phase method. From A. G. Yevtyukhov’s laboratory came many

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notable specialists in the area of sound speed measurement. Some of them went on to become chief designers. It should be noted that all subsequent work in this country connected with the creation of prototype shipborne hydroacoustic sound speed meters was and is conducted today by enterprises formerly incorporated into the Okeanpribor Association. Beresta modernization was carried out in 1962 under the guidance of L. P. Talanov within the scope of the D&D project BerestaM. As a result of this modernization, the working depth range was increased to 400 m and reliability characteristics of the device improved due to modifications in electric circuits and in design. The prototype device Beresta-M successfully passed trials in the Barents Sea. It entered serial production in 1963 under the code name MG-23 and replaced Beresta. In 1964, overall trials of the MG-23 took place in the Pacific, off the eastern coast of the Kamchatka Peninsula. Trials were aimed at selecting an optimal location of the measuring instrument on a submarine by the noise resistance criteria, and in terms of the elevation of the measuring instrument above the deck. In the course of the same trials equipment sensitivity to small variations in the sound speed and its ability to respond to these variations in artificially created inhomogeneities of aqueous medium were evaluated. The dependence of the sound speed measurement error on the vessel speed was also determined. Shipborne equipment ensured alternating operation with four measuring instruments installed at different locations on the submarine. On the basis of these trials, recommendations and requirements for measuring instrument location on a submarine, with account for maximum noise resistance during operation in the moving flow of water, were worked out. The errors occurring at different speeds were determined, and speeds ensuring preset measurement accuracies were marked. Trials were carried out by the staff members of the SDB, L. P. Talanov and V. A. Komlyakov and the customer’s representative N. G. Gorobets. Recommendations worked out on the basis of later study were reflected in the service documentation for hydroacoustic sound speed meters, as well as in the requirements for their location on vessels and other platforms.

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Simultaneously with the development of sound speed meters for submarines, development of equipment for research ships was conducted at A. G. Yevtyukhov’s laboratory. The first domestic hydroacoustic sound speed meter for research ships of the Institute of Acoustics Sergei Vavilov and Petr Lebedev was designed on the basis of Beresta in 1960 under the guidance of A. L. Vakhter and under the project Navaga. The overboard part of the Navaga meter carrying the acoustic sensors, matching amplifiers and a depth sensor, was lowered into water with the help of a winch on a multi-core cable to a depth upto 300 m, with the ship adrift. The Navaga trials took place in the Baltic Sea. Staff members of the SDB, A. L. Vakhter and V. A. Komlyakov, provided support for the trials. A. L. Vakhter also participated in the first expedition cruise of the Sergei Vavilov and Petr Lebedev in the Atlantic Ocean. Extensive data on equipment reliability and peculiarities of its operation under realistic ocean conditions were gathered and drawbacks and advantages were revealed. In 1962, based on the results of the cruise, the Navaga was modernized using components and design features of the Beresta-M device. The Navaga was manufactured for use on the ships Sergei Vavilov and Petr Lebedev only, and was not mass produced. In the 1960s, the first modernization of the calibration device was carried out with the result that the measuring instrument design underwent significant changes and became more convenient in operation. Small alterations were also made in the instrument’s electric circuit. The electric circuits of first generation, domestic sound speed meters used vacuum tubes. In the 1960s, development of the second-generation equipment began. It employed semiconductor devices. The equipment characteristics were improved, its accuracy increased, the working depth range was expanded, reliability improved, coupling of the equipment with the ship’s computer was achieved, and performance was improved. In 1967, the hydroacoustic sound speed meter Gorizont (Chief Designer N. V. Racheyev) for submarines was designed. This equipment was completely assembled using semiconductor components and was coupled with the ship’s computer. The Gorizont underwent trials

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in the Barents Sea, and in 1968, the meter entered serial production at the Vodtranspribor Plant under the code name MG-43. Trials of the Gorizont were carried out with the participation of the customer’s representatives N. G. Gorobets and G. N. Seravin. In 1961, under the guidance of A. G. Yevtyukhov, the device Zhgut was designed, and in 1965, its modification, the Zhgut-RT, appeared. The two versions differed in the installation components and external communications. This equipment was produced industrially in small quantities under the code name MG-1006. The second modernization of the calibration device was performed within the scope of the D&D project Zhgut in 1964. As a result of this modernization its electric circuits were completely switched to the use of semiconductor devices, and the design of its measuring instrument was again altered. This version of the device is still in serial production. Development of the principal electronic units of the Zhgut and Zhgut-RT, work on modernization of the calibration device, as well as equipment testing, were carried out by the group of specialists of the SDB of the Vodtranspribor Plant under the guidance of Yu. A. Vikharev. The design of electromechanical units and the dualcoordinate recorder was carried out by a group under the guidance of M. D. Slavin. In 1966, on the basis of several units of the device Zhgut, the device Beresta-N was designed under the guidance of Yu. A. Vikharev for installation on research and hydrographic ships. It successfully passed trials in the Black Sea with the participation of the customer’s representative Yu. F. Vasilyev. In the following years, several of these systems were manufactured for the research ships Baikal and Balkhash, and for hydrographic ships. In the 1960s, development and construction of deep-sea vehicles began in the USSR. The vehicles’ hydroacoustic systems included sound speed meters. The first prototype hydroacoustic sound speed meter meant for installation on the deep-sea vehicles Sever-2 of the Fishery Ministry of the USSR was designed in 1969 under the guidance of A. G. Yevtyukhov within the scope of the D&D project Razrez. It ensured sound speed measurement with a maximum error ±0.9 m/s in the range of sound speed values 1400–1560 m/s, to depths up to

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2000 m. The Razrez devices were manufactured for the two Sever-2 vehicles only. All the above domestic hydroacoustic sound speed meters employed the phase method of measurement. They had a number of essential drawbacks, including the following: (1) the need for supply of two HF signals to the shipborne equipment; (2) nonlinear dependence of phase difference on the velocity of sound propagation in water; (3) low noise resistance during operation in water flow; (4) large size of the measuring instrument; (5) large size and mass of overboard devices for surface ships. The above drawbacks are missing in the hydroacoustic sound speed meters employing the principle of the pulsed-cycle method of measurements. The first domestic pulsed-cycle sound speed sensors were designed in 1962–1963 at the CRI Morfizpribor under the guidance of V. I. Borodin for hydroacoustic Doppler logs. One of the variants of such sensors was introduced in the serially produced log LA-1 in 1965. In 1969, at the SDB of the Vodtranspribor Plant, the D&D Seria on development of the first domestic hydroacoustic sound speed meter for surface ships employing the pulsed-cycle method was carried out under the guidance of the Chief Designer V. A. Komlyakov. This equipment ensured vertical sound speed distribution measurements to a depth up to 200 m, with the ship both adrift and underway. Measurements in the adrift position were performed by lifting and lowering on a cable the measuring unit with the sound speed and depth sensors, and while in motion, measurements were made with the use of a radio buoy which was cast from the ship with a pneumatic catapult. After plunging into the water, a measuring unit broken off from the buoy and sank, transmitted sound speed data over a one-core screened cable to the radio buoy afloat of the sea surface. Then this data in the form of an FM signal was transmitted to the ship over a radio channel in the meter wave band. The data transmission range was 10 km. After completion of measurements, the radio buoy sank with the help of a self-destruct mechanism. The shipborne equipment processed the sound speed and

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depth data, displayed them on digital indicators and recorded them in the form of a diagram on chart paper, with frame size 150 × 150 mm. The prototype device Seria successfully passed trials in the Black Sea in 1971. The task of VSSD measurement on board a moving surface ship was for the first time posed to designers. In this connection, for the purpose of defining an optimal method of data transmission to the shipborne equipment, disposable sound speed meters were tested, along with the prototype device Seria. Information from the meters was transmitted via a thin one-core wire fed from two coils; one located on board, and the other on the sensor, to a full length as the ship continued moving and the sensor was going down, until it broke after completely uncoiling. The role of the second wire was played by the ocean water. The sensor depth was determined by the rate and time of sinking. An experimental sensor with a hydroacoustic transmission channel also underwent trials. Based on the results of trials, a decision was made to introduce a disposable sound speed sensor with a wire communication line and a device for its deployment as part of the equipment Seria. A decision was also taken to discard the radio buoy and the radio receiving device from the Seria set. In the course of development of the design documentation for the modernized Seria equipment, the working range of depths was also extended to 400 m. The modernized equipment was brought into serial production at the Dalpribor Plant, where it was manufactured under the name Altyn. One of the modifications of this equipment replaced the hydroacoustic sound speed meter Beresta-N. The work on development, testing, and modernization of the Seria and the experimental sensors was carried out by a group of specialists of the SDB of the Vodtranspribor Plant, including V. O. Znamensky, A. I. Gorskaya, A. I. Litvinov, Ye. I. Sherenov, and M. D. Slavin. The customer’s representatives Yu. F. Tarasyuk, G.N. Seravin, M. S. Usvyatsov, and D. D. Kashuba also took part in the trials. In the course of trials of the Seria, an experimental multiple-use recoverable sound speed sensor for VSSD measurements was also tested with the ship on the move, using a wire data transmission line designed upon proposal of the customer’s representative M. S. Usvyatsov.

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However, due to operation and engineering difficulties relating to deployment and recovery, this version did not find practical application. The theoretical and experimental work on creation of disposable sound speed sensors having a wire data transmission line for surface ships were continued under the guidance of V. O. Znamensky in 1972–1974 in the course of development of the Avtograf. At the initial stages of the latter equipment development, it had a sound speed meter in its structure. In the same period, a series of prototype sensors with different hydrodynamic characteristics and different types of data transmission wire coiling on a spool (wire coming off the spool from outside and from inside) was designed and tested. During the trials, which took place in the Black Sea, their most important technical characteristics were determined, such as: (1) the speed of sensor sinking and its dependence on depth; (2) sound speed measurement error; (3) output signal level and its dependence on sensor sinking depth, for different grades of wire used in the communication line. In addition, in the course of the trials the problems of variation in the speed of the sensor sinking due to conditions on board were investigated. The optimal positions for dropping from the point of view of a faultless uncoiling of the wire were determined. Different methods of deployment were examined and startup devices were tested. Different methods of supplying power to the sensor from self-contained chemical sources as well as from the ship’s power, over the single-core wire were studied. Again the ocean water played the role of the second wire for completing the circuit. The possibility of using one and the same wire for data transmission and power supply to the sensor circuit were researched, various brands of wire for use as a data transmission line were checked, and circuit noise resistance was studied. The trials were conducted for two types of sensors ensuring measurements at depths up to 500 m and up to 2000 m. Work on determining the speed of free sinking of disposable sensors as a function of their specific gravity and hydrodynamic characteristics

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were performed in 1973 by M. S. Usvyatsov and A. I. Litvinov on Lake Ladoga. In 1970, under the guidance of A. G. Yevtyukhov, the prototype pulsed-cycle sound speed meter Gradient-6 was designed for installation on the deep-sea vehicles Poisk-2 and Poisk-6. This equipment ensured sound speed measurements at depths up to 6000 m, sound speed display on a digital indicator and data transmission to external devices for documenting. The first prototype meter Gradient-6 was installed in the deep-sea vehicle Poisk-2. In 1975, the meter successfully passed trials in the Black Sea, after which it was put into serial production. Work to bring the meter Gradient-6 into serial production was completed by V. A. Shumeiko and Ye. A. Savateyeva. The second prototype was tested on the deep-sea vehicle Poisk-6. In 1975, to study the space-time variation of the sound speed field in the under-ice layer of the ocean water, an experimental hydroacoustic sound speed meter with a higher sensitivity was designed under the guidance of V. A. Komlyakov. The measurement resolution was 0.01 m/s. The meter’s successful operation from January to May 1977 under the severe conditions of the drift-ice station NP-23 was reported by staff member of the CRI Morfizpribor, I. M. Karpov. Lowering of the measuring module into the water was performed through a hole in the ice with the use of a hand winch mounted on props buried and frozen into the ice. Measurements were carried out to the maximum depth in the region of the station NP-23 drift, which at that time was 100–300 m. In a period of 5 months, measurements of the VSSD vertical distribution were carried out at 184 stations on the route of the NP-23 drift, with simultaneous measurements of vertical distribution of water temperatures. In addition, long-term measurements were conducted of the sound speed field variation at fixed depths. The results of the work were used to study sound propagation in the under-ice layer of the seawater. In the 1970s, hydroacoustic sound speed meters of the third generation utilizing IC components were developed. In this period, the pulsed-cycle method was finding increasingly wider application in design of sound speed measuring equipment; the electric circuits incorporated digital integrated microcircuits more and more often. The

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hydroacoustic sound speed meter Zhgut-M designed in 1979 presents an exception. It was the last sound speed meter designed under the guidance of A. G. Yevtyukhov. Like its predecessors, it was based on the phase method. The electric circuits incorporated semiconductor devices and analog integrated microcircuits. With a view toward developing recommendations for improving the reliability of Zhgut-M, it underwent long-term trials under marine conditions. The results of these trials were the basis for the modernization. The trials were conducted under the guidance of V. A. Shumeiko. In 1982, the hydroacoustic sound speed meter Zhgut-M was put into serial production under the name MG-553 at the Ladoga Plant. Support for its serial production was provided by V. A. Shumeiko, V. A. Komlyakov, and V. P. Urvanov. In 1974, for calibration of the Zhgut-M device, Ye. N. Kalenov developed a prototype calibration device based on the pulsed-cycle method of measurement under the name Kalibrator SKZ. However, because of the absence at that time in our country of metrological support for its certification, this device underwent no further development. Broad incorporation of digital technologies into the sound speed measuring equipment began after completion in 1974 of the research project Bystraya (Chief Scientist V. A. Komlyakov), which outlined the principles of construction of a deep-sea hydroacoustic sound speed meter for research and hydrographic ships. In the course of the project Bystraya, various versions of deep-sea VSSD meters were considered. These included those utilizing a cable data transmission line, a hydroacoustic channel, as well as a variant having a self-contained unit with data recording onto a magnetic medium with subsequent reproduction on board the ship after the unit was recovered. The results of the project Bystraya served as a foundation for the D&D project Bystraya-2, which was completed in 1979. In the course of completion of the research project Bystraya and the D&D project Bystraya-2, experimental research into the methods of data transmission to the shipborne equipment was conducted. Within the scope of the program of joint system study of the Black Sea (SKOICh-76), comparative trials of prototype sound speed measurement equipment with data transmission over a cable and a

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hydroacoustic channel were carried out in the Black Sea in 1975 on board the hydrographic ship GS-212 and in 1976 on board the research ship Admiral Vladimirsky. As a result, the version with a cable data transmission channel was preferred for considerations of a significantly simpler sensor and shipborne equipment design, high noise resistance of the communication line, and convenience of operation. The prototype equipment Bystraya-2 passed trials on the research ship Ivan Kruzenshtern in the Norwegian Sea in May–June 1979. Over the period of trials, VSSD measurements were made up to a depth of 2000 m at 50 stations, which permitted ultimate checks of the characteristics of the equipment. Later the Bystraya-2 was installed on the research ships Vektor, Modul, Academician Aleksey Krylov, Baikal, Balkhash, Academician Nikolai Andreyev, Academician Konstantinov, the rescue ship Georgy Titov, and a number of others. In 1980, the equipment was put to serial production and is manufactured at the Ladoga Plant under the code name IZM-2000. The hydroacoustic sound speed meter IZM-2000 is the most advanced device of all those currently produced by the domestic industry. It was created with the participation of staff members of the CRI Morfizpribor: A. I. Gorskaya, Ye. I. Sherenov, A. I. Litvinov, A. N. Leshchev, N. N. Yepishin, Yu. A. Tribis, G. N. Borovikov, and B. F. Bogdanov. Trials were conducted with the participation of the customer’s representatives V. A. Tsvetkov and N. A. Zhilina. For the deep-sea vehicles of the new generation, the sound speed sensor Lan ensuring depth measurement up to 6000 m and a set of control and measurement equipment for it, which, after respective metrological certification, could serve as reference measuring equipment, was designed in 1983 under the guidance of V. A. Shumeiko. The equipment provided an opportunity for data transfer to the system of oceanographic data acquisition and processing Rodos MV01. The equipment Lan had no self recorder. The design was performed with the participation of G. N. Borovikov, L. N. Palnikov, and Ye. A. Savateyeva. The sensor did not enter serial production. In 1987, work was completed on design and trials of the prototype hydroacoustic sound speed meter Otrazhatel for submarines of

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the third generation under the guidance of L. N. Radchenko. The participants in the design work were M. Yu. Voronov, I. Yu. Kazanov, N. N. Klyushev, V. Yu. Romanov, N. N. Yepishin, G. N. Borovikov, A. S. Mudretsov, and V. A. Nikandrov. Test bed and realistic marine trials were carried out with the participation of the customer’s representatives V. A. Antonov, V. I. Vanin, and G. N. Seravin. Serial production began in 1989 at the Ladoga Plant, the equipment was manufactured under the code name MG-543. In the design of hydroacoustic sound speed meters special attention was given to the problems of development of the precision frame supporting acoustic transducers and the acoustic transducers themselves. In the earlier sets quartz disks played the role of piezoelements of acoustic transducers; later piezoceramic components of barium titanate of different composition found wide application. The first designs of acoustic transducers and measuring instruments for the devices Zvuk-1, Zvuk-2, Gradient, Beresta, and the calibration device were made under the guidance of L. D. Lyubavin. Later designs for sound speed meters based on the phase method were developed by N. A. Lebedev. Acoustic transducers for pulsed-cycle sound speed meters were developed by Ye. I. Sherenov, G. N. Borovikov, and B. F. Bogdanov. In the process of this work new variants of piezoelements were proposed, which were later introduced into the Gradient-6, Altyn, ISM-2000, Lan, and Otrazhatel equipment. Development of the electromechanical devices for sound speed meters, including dual-coordinate recorders and depth sensors was carried out by A. A. Grabois, L. D. Kunyavsky, M. D. Slavin, and Yu. A. Yeremeyev. Work on design of prototype equipment for sound speed measurements under ocean conditions were carried out in a number of research and educational institutions. However, this work mainly pursued the goals of creating equipment to support their own programs of ocean study, and the prototypes were never brought into industrial production. Several studies of this nature were carried out at the Marine Hydrophysical Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukraine under the guidance of V. I. Babii, at the CRI of Geodesy, Aerophotography and Mapping, the Sakhalin RI of FED RAS and other institutes of

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the country. Prototype sound speed sensors designed by Ye. D. Popov at the Southern Branch of the P. P. Shirshov IO RAS are of the greatest interest. In 1970, the research project Kalibr was carried out at the D. I. Mendeleyev All-Union Research Institute of Metrology on creation of a reference sound speed meter. Regretfully, this very important work was not been continued. As a result, for quite a long time, the country did not have a system of calibration to standards for performing state metrological certification of hydroacoustic sound speed meters. Only in 1995, a metrological chain of respective instruments and standards was created at CRI for Physical-Technical and Radio Technical Measurements of the Committee for State Standards of the Russian Federation. Development of industrial sound speed meters was carried out at the Central Design Bureau for Ultrasonic and High-Frequency Equipment. Instruments UZAS-7, UZA-3S, UFI-1M, UZK-11-SB, and others were built there for determining the physical and chemical parameters of fluid media from their speed of sound propagation. Theoretical research in the area of ultrasonic methods of control of physical and chemical properties of fluid media by the velocity of sound propagation in them were carried out by N. I. Brazhnikov. The problems of measuring the velocity of sound propagation in the sea were reflected in multiple articles published in domestic and foreign journals. Most fully they were summarized in the book by G. N. Seravin, Sound Velocity Measurement in the Ocean (Izmerenie skorosti zvuka v okeane. Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat Publishers, 1979), and discussed in a series of books by Yu. F. Tarasyuk dedicated to hydroacoustics. The engineering characteristics of a number of domestic hydroacoustic sound speed meters and their components were executed at the inventions level and were covered with authorship certificates for invention. In the process of development of technical aids for direct sound speed measurement, work was carried out on improvement of table methods of calculation used in making indirect measurements. The first domestic tables of sound speed in water were published in 1931 by N. N. Zubov. In addition to the above-mentioned tables and

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nomograms, in 1956, V. I. Chernysh developed a special plotting sheet for determining sound speed from the temperature and salinity of seawater. In 1961, the Computer Center of RAS published Tables of Sound Velocity in Sea Water. These tables used the V. A. Del Grosso formula proposed in 1952. In 1965, the Hydrographic department of the Navy published the Tables for Calculation of Sound Speed in Seawater calculated by W. Wilson’s formula proposed in 1962. And in 1975, the P. P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology published the Oceanographic Tables that included sound speed tables also calculated using the Wilson formula. These tables found wide application in this country due to their high accuracy and convenience in use. In 1985, M. A. Bramson and Yu. F. Tarasyuk proposed a formula for determining the state parameters of seawater, which also had applications to calculations of sound speed dependence on temperature, salinity or electric conductivity, and hydrostatic pressure. The developed domestic instruments found wide application in ensuring efficient operation of shipborne hydroacoustic systems, conducting hydrographic studies, providing support to exploration, assessment, and extraction of mineral resources at ocean bottom, conducting search and rescue of sunken marine equipment, and the study of different processes in the world ocean.

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Hydroacoustic Doppler Logs A. G. ZATSEPIN

The change in frequency due to relative motion of a source and a receiver was discovered by the Austrian physicist Christian Doppler in 1842 and later received his name. The Doppler effect found practical application only in the 20th century. The invention by marine specialists P. P. Kuzmin and V. A. Shereshevsky (1949) may be regarded as the first effort in our country to apply the Doppler effect to the measurement of a ship’s speed. The invention of B. N. Tikhonravov (1952) was an important landmark. His invention represented the beginning of implementation of the most cherished dream of all mariners; namely, accounting for sea currents in estimating a ship’s own speed. This was long before the appearance of the first satellite navigation systems. But even with their presence, accounting for current velocities while underwater can be done only with the use of hydroacoustic logs. It should be noted that in the years when B. N. Tikhonravov was still laying the foundations of hydroacoustic logs, there already existed theoretical and practical developments on the application of the Doppler effect to aviation. However, due to the specific nature of hydroacoustics, application of the effect in this area was not an easy task. In 1958, the CRI Morfizpribor began the research project Zemlya (Chief Scientist V. I. Borodin, his deputy B. I. Trushchelev) aimed at forming the theoretical and practical basis for design of Doppler hydroacoustic logs meant for measuring a ship’s absolute speed relative to the ocean bottom. In 1959, the research project Polyus (Chief Scientist D. I. Napolsky, Deputy Chief Scientist F. N. Shifman) was initiated. It was aimed at developing a method for measurement of a submarine’s speed relative to the ice cover. 801

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Within the scope of experimental research carried out under the project Zemlya in the Baltic, Barents, and Black Seas, the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of signals of the future logs were determined, including the spectral composition of both the useful signal and the volume reverberation presenting an interference in the log operation. In the process of this research the effect of reduction of acoustic signal absorption in sea water for propagation in the vertical (and close to vertical) directions, as compared with horizontal propagation, was recorded and quantitatively evaluated. One of the main tasks performed in the course of the Zemlya research at the theoretical and practical levels was selection of the method of highly accurate measurement of the frequency of signals received by the log in the presence of noise, flow noise in particular. The method chosen consisted of selection of a narrow band tracking filter on the basis of a system of phase adjustment by automatic frequency tuning. This method, undergoing a continuous process of improvement in subsequent device developments, meets the ever-growing requirements for accuracy of speed measurement. Successful completion of the above research allowed it to be continued in the D&D projects Zemlya-2 (Chief Designer V. I. Borodin, deputies G. V. Yakovlev, A. M. Novikov and Mechta (Chief Designer B. I. Trushchelev, since 1968, F. N. Shifman, deputies N. I. Izmailov, A. M. Novikov). As early as 1968 and 1969, the first serial units were manufactured and were put in to service by the Navy under the code names LA-1 (i.e., “absolute log number one”) and MG 1003 (also log Mechta-2, a modification of log Mechta). However, the process of design of the first logs (particularly Zemlya2) was not as smooth as one might have hoped. For example, the abovementioned narrow-band tracking filter designed for discrimination of the Doppler shift of the received signal frequency and presenting the “heart” of the log underwent several radical adjustments. But all efforts were repaid a hundredfold. It was the LA-1 installed on the first domestic high-speed class 661 nuclear submarine with a titanium hull that had registered a record speed of underwater movement of 40.3 knots.

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The logs LA-1 and Mechta-2 (the latter was made in a greater quantity than the MG-1003) may be considered the logs of the first generation. They were designed using vacuum tubes and transistors (in LA-1 the receiving mode was assembled of vacuum tubes only). Nevertheless even they successfully coped with the task of adaptation of log operation to outside conditions by including into their systems of the automatic duration control of the transmitted pulses depending on the water depth, and automatic gain control depending on the signal-to-noise ratio. In 1964–1966, the CRI Morfizpribor carried out the research project Chagor (Chief Scientist V. I. Borodin, Deputy Chief Scientist S. K. Shipin) aimed at looking into ways to improve the technical characteristics of hydroacoustic logs. Under this project many new characteristics were studied. In 1969, on the basis of the project Chagor, the technical D&D project Samshit was launched (Chief Designer V. I. Borodin, deputies A. G. Zatsepin, M. Ye. Goldenshtein, R. P. Volkov, and A. V. Gorelkin), which terminated successfully in 1972 in test bed trials of a new prototype. Later the same prototype successfully passed sea trials on board the research ship Adzharia. Already in 1975, the first three serially produced Samshit logs were shipped to the shipbuilding plant, and in 1976 were successfully accepted by the Navy in the course of operation under realistic marine conditions. Later, the Institute developed a modification of the log Samshit, the Samshit-M, with better technical characteristics, which was brought into serial production in 1981. The logs Samshit and Samshit-M may be considered to be the hydroacoustic logs of the second generation. They are distinguished from the logs of the first generation by the higher output characteristics, as well as by the fact that only the powerful oscillators in their structure employed vacuum tubes, while the receiving and the information processing modes are built completely using integrated microcircuits. Information about depth, generated in the log for internal use and stored in the system of the automatic duration control of the transmitted pulses, is indicated with 1 m resolution on a digital display on the

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navigator’s console, which relieves the latter of the need to use an echo sounder with the log switched on. All the abovementioned logs are distinguished by a high energy potential, which allows their use in the greater part of the world’s oceans. However, due to the high energy emission of the logs LA-1 and Mechta-2, their acoustic arrays were large and heavy structures. The use in the logs Samshit and Samshit-M of an alternating-phased array grid of hydroacoustic transducers significantly reduced their dimensions and weight and ensured automatic compensation of the influence of sound speed variation in water, which eliminated the need for including in their structure a special device for sound speed measurement which was present in the logs LA-1, Mechta-2 and MG 1003. Simultaneously with development of the high-energy logs Samshit and Samshit-M, the CRI Morfizpribor, within the scope of the D&D project Kem (Chief Designer S. S. Karatetsky, deputies V. N. Baranov, A. D. Bulat, R. P. Volkov), produced a small hydroacoustic log LA-3 designed for small-displacement crafts. However, with its low-energy potential, the LA-3 was able to measure speed relative to ground at depths up to 200 m only. Like the log Samshit, the LA-3 employed an alternating-phase array grid of hydroacoustic transducers. The manufacture of such an array, with account for the log’s high-working frequency, was performed by using a diamond disk to make longitudinal and transverse incisions on a piezoceramic plate glued over the array membrane, which by in itself was a real technological breakthrough in those years. It should also be noted that the logs Samshit and LA-3, designed at the CRI Morfizpribor, were the Institute’s first devices using integrated microcircuits. Later, on the basis of two sets of the log LA-3, a system of logs Onega designed for large-capacity tankers was developed. They ensured separate measurement of speeds of the bow and stern, required for mooring of such vessels. In 1976–1979, the research project Khingan (Chief Scientist G. V. Yakovlev, deputies Yu. P. Fomin, and O. O. Klimenko) aimed at further improvement of the accuracy and performance characteristics of absolute hydroacoustic logs was performed. The results of this research

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were supposed to be transitioned into the D&D project Bokal started in 1978 (Chief Designer Yu. P. Fomin). Creation of hydroacoustic logs of the third generation was under way. Over the years of work on creation of Doppler hydroacoustic logs, a body of qualified designers, brimming with initiative, was formed at the Institute. Under the guidance of B. N. Tikhonravov and V. I. Borodin, a whole constellation of specialists was brought up, able to solve scientific and engineering problems at the global level. This is confirmed by 50 authorship certificates granted to members of this group, and several defended dissertations for the degree of Candidates of Science (Ph.D.). Beside chief scientists of research projects, chief designers of D&D projects, and their deputies, words of acknowledgement should be addressed also to the veterans of the CRI Morfizpribor, who took an active part in creation of hydroacoustic logs at all stages of the work, from the very first days of work in this direction: system design specialists A. V. Sokolov, V. V. Shults; array designers D. V. Gorelkin, B. M. Yelfimov, I. I. Belyakov, G. A. Mikhailov; oscillator device designers N. M. Ivanov, A. I. Maksimova; amplification mode designers V. I. Lindov, V. G. Lebedev, and many others. It is worth special notice that such impressive results have been achieved by a body of designers of not more than 30 people in all. From the very beginning, a correctly chosen strategic direction in design of absolute Doppler logs had put the CRI Morfizpribor, for a long period of time, ahead of the rest of the world in creation of logs literally “stuffed” with all kinds of know-how. Almost all logs of foreign manufacturers feature a low-energy potential, which allows their use at under-keel clearance up to 200– 600 m only. At larger depths, they can operate by the signals of volume reverberation and respectively measure only the ship’s relative speed. As a result, the principal advantage of absolute logs is lost. On the other hand, the foreign logs, which measure speed relative to ground at depths up to several kilometers (PADS, MX-810) display low accuracy. The above is confirmed by the fact of presenting in 1972 of the first domestic absolute log LA-1 for a State Prize. It was only for bureaucratic reasons that it was denied a prize.

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The successful course of design work and trials was to a high degree promoted by close cooperation with the customer’s representatives and assistance they had been rendering. Among them were N. M. Nefedov, S. V. Panov, D. Ya. Tolmacheva, O. L. Gribanova, and S. V. Lyatskoi. In the early 1980s, the CRI Morfizpribor leadership took a shortsighted, as it turned out, decision to transfer the theme of hydroacoustic logs to the RI Rif (Beltsy, Moldavia). As a result, work under the D&D project Bokal was completely stopped at the Institute, while the RI Rif had to start from zero, at times being compelled to “reinvent the wheel.” All this resulted in slowing-down of the pace in designing new logs, and loss by the CRI Morfizpribor of high scientific and technical potential in this area. The break-up of the Soviet Union in 1991 aggravated the situation. It resulted in a situation in which the Navy has nothing to replace the logs Samshit and Samshit-M and they will be gradually becoming obsolete. On the aggregate of their power and accuracy characteristics they still stand second to none among similar devices of foreign manufacture, despite the fact that their components have been outdated after 25 years and some of these components are no longer produced.

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Sonar Countermeasures and Deception Aids A. O. MARKOVSKY

It is known that any action causes counteraction in some form. This principle also applies to hydroacoustics. In January 1964, a laboratory of sonar countermeasures and deception (SCMD) with V. N. Simonov as its head was organized at the CRI Morfizpribor. The main purpose of the laboratory was development of sonar-electronic equipment for hampering or completely preventing operation of hydroacoustic equipment of the supposed enemy, irrespectively of the kind of platform (surface ship, submarine, or torpedo). The CRI Hydropribor was designated as the leading institution, where work on the SCMD was conducted under the guidance of chief designers V. Ya. Zarubin, V. V. Il’in, and N. N. Kocherov. Hardware was the domain of I. V. Gavlyuk, Z. G. Barkova, I. N. Petrov, and Ye. I. Galkin. The ideologist and main organizer of work in this area was the section at the RIE of the Navy headed by N. N. Stupichenko, where in the laboratory, with B. D. Zaitsev at the head, such designers as N. T. Sarvilin, Yu. M. Pakhomov, G. G. Komyagin, and D. P. Butning worked. As enthusiasts of their research, which, frankly, did not cause much excitement with the RIE management, they found ardent and consistent supporters in the person of many CRI staff members. The exceedingly interesting and creative work of a small but very active group of people began. It was necessary to develop efficient small-size hydroacoustic simulators and noise generators, which could be placed on torpedo-like carriers. The laboratory was entrusted with fulfillment of three D&D projects and one research project. Yu. P. Pallei was appointed the chief designer, N. Ye. Asafova was his deputy. The D&D projects were aimed at creation of submarine simulators. Equipment was designed in two versions: one version was a self-propelled submarine simulator, and the 807

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other version a drift-type moving submarine simulator. The third D&D concentrated on creation of sonar-electronic equipment for a multifunctional target simulator (Chief Designer Yu. P. Pelevin, deputy Yu. P. Sergienko). The research project was dedicated to the development of a principally new operational mode for SCMD systems. The project’s chief scientist was A. O. Markovsky, his deputy was V. I. Tarabrin. A. B. Ganenkov, an able researcher and an indefatigable engineer– experimenter, contributed a lot to the completion of the research project. The majority of the laboratory’s leading specialists already had experience with the development of sonars for submarine and surface ship detection and for direction finding. But here, they had to face the opposite problem. Their mission was to prevent detection, fixing, and tracking of a hydroacoustic target and to prevent the guiding of a torpedo to a target by use of a sonar. Specialized subdivisions of the Institute and outside organizations were involved in this work as well. The Moscow All-Union Research Institute of Radio and Television — RIRTV (in particular the D&D project headed by Yu. P. Pallei), the Vilnius Magnetic Recording Design Bureau — VMRDB (in part of work of Yu. P. Pelevin’s group), which later actively participated in practically all projects of the Institute in this area, joined the work as contracting parties. The VMRDB chief designer of a number of magnetic recorders I. Vaichatis, engineers K. Shadzhus, I. Kazlauskas, O. Yaskevich, N. Siryk, and others contributed a lot to the development of the research. An active role in the work of the laboratory was played by the SDB of the Vodtranspribor Plant, where in the laboratory headed by Yu. I. Popov, work along this line was carried out by V. G. Solovyov’s team. An active search for non-traditional engineering characteristics and new, then unknown, technologies was undertaken. Models were built and multiple experiments organized. Naturally, it was impossible to not have failures and mistakes, but where there was no theory, the intuition of the “veterans” and the creative enthusiasm of the young — for the majority of workers were young — helped.

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However, there were obstacles of another kind, which the author of this article had to face in organizing an experiment under the research project. It was necessary to create an efficient hydroacoustic noise source with minimum energy consumption, and the idea was to run an experiment using a “live” sonar. This situation was rather delicate, since it presented a collision of two opposite tasks: detection and suppression. At last, consent was given by the chief designer of AS, A. I. Vlasov, who was then preparing his equipment for test bed trials. It may be that our earlier work together, with myself in the role of his deputy on another project, facilitated obtaining consent. The results of the experiment were mutually positive. From the point of view of SCMD, the degree of efficiency of different kinds of interferring signals was tested and from the point of view of the AS designer the degree of AS protection against malicious noise was evaluated. Realistic field trials were carried out near Feodosia. In the process of the work, all the skills of a sonar designer were summoned. According to the conditions of the trials, the equipment was located on different craft situated at sufficient distances from each other at several points in the water area. Intercommunication between points was ensured over an underwater cable, which often suffered from the anchors of fishing vessels. Much time was lost on cable raising and repairs. On one occasion, everybody’s patience run out because of problems with the exchange of commands. A group of enthusiasts led by A. B. Ganenkov and including V. I. Tarabrin, B. F. Bubelev, and others, designed and assembled from available components a simple underwater acoustic communication device to ensure exchange of commands in the course of the experiments. The device, with small field amendments, served us till the end of the whole program of trials. The research work was completed successfully, and the mode of targeted-frequency contaminating signal generation took its welldeserved place among SCMD systems, including the self-propelled multifunctional SCMD unit MG-74 described in the journal Military Parade (Voyennyi Parad) for March–April 1996. As a result of the D&D projects, two SCMD aids were created, which were later brought into serial production, and one training aid, which found application in torpedo fire adjustment.

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In 1969, SCMD equipment development was transferred to the Vodtranspribor Plant, where the design of new SCMD aids continued. For example, the device MG-74 was created, with the efforts of a group led by N. N. Detkov as the chief designer. His deputies were a talented engineer V. I. Shamrei, the future chief designer of a SCMD system of the next generation, and A. Ye. Chernyakhovsky, the deputy for acoustics. After organization of the LRPA Okeanpribor, the research theme of SCMD was transferred back to the CRI Morfizpribor. The specialized SCMD section (A. O. Markovsky as head) was assigned the task of designing the aids of the next generation. Two D&D projects were successfully completed and accepted by the customer. One of the projects was carried out under the guidance of the chief engineer V. I. Shamrei and his deputies S. N. Puzanov, A. Ye. Chernyakhovsky (for acoustics) and A. G. Vasilyev (for engineering design). The second one was carried out under the guidance of the chief designer A. O. Markovsky; his deputies were N. N. Detkov, L. D. Stepanov (for acoustics) and L. Palnikov (for engineering design). On the part of the CRI Hydropribor, the chief designer of both D&D projects was R. A. Lukin, leader of the group that included M. I. Ruvinsky, M. A. Rubinshtein, V. I. Dorokhin, B. N. Latychevsky and others. Work on hardware was carried out with the participation of A. B. Ganenkov, I. A. Krakovsky and others. I can remember one more example of a double positive result at the state trials of a SCMD device. As a chief designer of the SCMD system, I had a chance to observe the process of “target” detection on a remote AS display. A submarine chaser took such a good aim that at surfacing of the simulator (work were already over) it simply rammed it. The Navy was developing, and new ships appeared. The problem of their protection, and naturally, of the development of SCMD aids was looked upon with much more attention. A special service was organized within the structure of the Navy. Requests for proposals were formulated for a series of applied and problem research work. Research was aimed at increasing the efficiency of both the currently available and the future SCMD aids. Expansion of the frequency band of transducer arrays while keeping within the size limits of small carriers of

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torpedo type, search for more efficient contaminating signals, improving the degree of authenticity of simulated signals, search for new ways of design and engineering realization of circuitry characteristics — such was just part of the tasks the new developing trend of hydroacoustics engineering was supposed to fulfill. The main bulk of work on creation of sonar-electronic equipment was performed under the guidance of the author of this article. A serious contribution to the creation of a research inventory for this equipment and for determining ways for its technical realization was made by the workers V. N. Antonov, V. I. Shamrei, N. N. Detkov, S. N. Puzanov, and others. Specialized groups were organized in various sectors of the Institute for development of different equipment devices and units. Teams of designers worked under the guidance of L. N. Palnikov and A. G. Vasilyev, the acoustics sector was headed by D. P. Butning, groups under the guidance of L. D. Stepanov and A. Ye. Chernyakhovsky worked within the sector; hardware was developed by the groups of S. F. Rudnev, V. M. Ryabinin, V. L. Shass and others. A great assistance in realization of scientific and technical ideas was rendered by adjusters, often doing the job of qualified engineers. For example, the adjuster of the 6th category A. M. Vinogradov, beside the system equipment wiring and adjustment jobs as his direct function, also organized the field trials of that very same equipment. The senior researcher V. N. Antonov developed a digital signal synthesizer, which was realized “in the life size” by the adjuster of the 6th category O. V. Belov, who performed its wiring, adjustment, and laboratory tests. Gradually, work on SCMD acquired weight at the Institute; the Institute technical director G. Ye. Smirnov took up one of the SCMD projects as a chief scientist with myself as his deputy. With the growing need for SCMD aids, their range and areas of application expanded. New contractors joined in the work on SCMD, among them the design bureau of electrohydraulics in Nikolaev (department headed by Ye. K. Gnatenko, section headed by E. I. Taftai, and others) and the CRI Sistema in Lvov (department headed by V. T. Yefremenko, sections headed by L. I. Lipkovin, A. K. Kogut and others), which designed unique acoustic systems and system digital devices.

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The number of specialists in the area of SCMD expanded at the RIE of the Navy, among them such designers should be named as V. N. Biryukov, I. T. Korzh, V. M. Smirnov, V. G. Belov, and B. I. Gorokhov. As a result, the Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry came to regard the development of SCMD aids as a specialized area of activity. The author of this article was appointed the chief scientist for work on sonar-electronic equipment design; at the CRI Hydropribor, N. F. Yevtushenko was appointed chief designer of work in the same area. A specialized department headed by A. V. Nikitin, with N. Fedotov, the future head of the department and D&D projects chief designer, as his deputy, was organized at the CRI Morfizpribor on the base of the Institute’s Peleng Department, located in Severodvinsk. The department gathered well-qualified engineers, of whom A. A. Bazylko, A. S. Blinkov, V. A. Il’in, V. L. Yeremenko, S. A. Simagin, and A. N. Trukhin grew to become D&D projects chief designers and chief scientists of research projects. A. A. Bazylko and A. I. Vorobyov were acting heads of the department. Part of work was carried out in Leningrad. With time, the amount of work as well and the number of people working in this area grew, although lack of experience in creating hydroacoustic equipment often slowed down the pace. With the coming of perestroika, irregular financing, and general decrease in production, work on SCMD was curtailed. As a result, the majority of research and D&D projects were suspended, and the department in Severodvinsk was dissolved. The remaining two projects were transferred to the Institute and placed in the care of V. N. Antonov and N. N. Detkov. At present, only one D&D project on development of multiple-application electroacoustic equipment for SCMD aids is being executed at the CRI Morfizpribor.

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Aspects of the History of Passive Hydroacoustic Systems with Emphasis on Adaptive Processing V. I. KLYACHKIN and YU. P. PODGAISKY

1. A New Period in Hydroacoustics The development of digital computer facilities (DCF) in the late 1960s to early 1970s marked a transition to a new level of signal processing both in the development of signal processing algorithms and in determining the applicability of these algorithms through computer simulations. Signal processing algorithms determine to a significant degree the structure of a hydroacoustic system and are important in achieving maximum system efficiency. The development of optimal algorithms involves using the best algorithms for processing of both spatial and temporal data and also considering these two types of algorithms as part of a unified whole. The development of optimal algorithms requires a systematic approach such as that followed by CRI Morfizpribor department head, B. N. Tikhonravov and a CRI Morfizpribor chief designer N. A. Knyazev, who would later win the State Prize. B. N. Tikhonravov specified that adaptive processing techniques should be used in passive hydroacoustic systems. This approach was supported by the leadership of the Institute, the Chief Engineer Ye. I. Aladyshkin and the Director V. V. Gromkovsky. This view was also shared by the Chief Administrations of the Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry and the Navy (N. N. Sviridov and A. L. Genkin). The operational experience with sonar systems designed at the end of the 1960s to early 1970s (Rubin, Okean, Agam, Kerch, and Rubikon) demonstrated an abrupt loss of efficiency when operating in areas in 813

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which several ships were present. It was found that the actual operating range in the passive mode was several times worse than expected and that the angular resolution was insufficient for observation of a collection of targets, such as a fighting formation of surface ships. Good sonar performance was only attained in ocean areas far from straits and a shoreline and away from areas of coastal shipping, that is, in the absence of intense interfering spatially discrete acoustic sources. Examples of such sources are high-speed surface ships, busy shipping routes used by noisy supertankers, and noisy fishing trawlers. These noise sources, whose number is ever increasing, significantly affect the performance of surveillance systems. In particular, the detection and tracking of low-noise submarines was hampered. These circumstances lead to further investigation and a search for improved surveillance techniques. In the first half of the 1970s CRI Morfizpribor specialists, E. I. Adamskaya and A. M. Dymshyts, and the RIE of the Navy specialist, G. S. Malyshkin, undertook analysis of the interfering effect of high-noise targets like surface ships on the receiving channels of the submarine sonar system Rubikon. Later, at the turn of the 1970–1980s, study of the masking effect of shipping noise on the receiving channels of the stationary sonar Agam was undertaken by Ya. S. Karlik, N. S. Lashkova, G. S. Malyshkin, and V. V. Semyonov. Attempts by L. M. Oransky, and A. L. Tsvetkov to solve the problem by designing new methods and means of electronic processing in the context of projects Sprut and Skat were not successful and were not continued. Yu. P. Podgaisky, with help from B. N. Tikhonravov, examined these efforts and concluded the proposed innovations in electronic signal processing possessed a number of physical and technical drawbacks, which, in the aggregate, prevented their practical application. 2. A System Solution to System Problems In the same period, beginning in the mid-1970s, there was a need for the hydroacoustic systems of new classes of ships to have a significant increase in operating range (projects System MSP, Moment MSP at CRI Morfizpribor). This need resulted in a search for ways to overcome the

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masking effect of shipping noises. A new approach was initiated at the CRI Morfizpribor involving adaptive processing and automatic suppression of shipping noise in the receiving channels, with simultaneous optimization of the processing of the signals. This work was done by N. A. Knyazev, Yu. S. Marutov, Yu. P. Podgaisky, A. L Tsvetkov, and A. M. Yakubovsky. Use was made of the analysis of the detailed structure of the noise field in a way similar to the methods used in radar, seismic prospecting, and radio astronomy. Work by the domestic authors, Ya. D. Shirman, I. N. Manzhos, and others, on adaptive rejection of noise by surveillance radars using special arrays was known. Theoretical research as part of the D&D project Shtorm at the Kiev Polytechnical Institute and the Kiev Research Institute (RI) of Hydrological Instruments (N. G. Gatkin, L. G. Krasny, V. N. Peshkov, and others) took place during the same period. To solve this problem, early in 1970, a small research group (A. M. Yakubovsky, later — A. L. Tsvetkov, M. L. Sheinman, G. A. Vasilyeva. V. P. Yudina, V. I. Tyupin, G. Yu. Fasman) was formed in N. A. Knyazev’s laboratory of the CRI Morfizpribor. In 1976, to solve the same problem as it applied to the automatic target tracking mode, a second group of specialists of the former Vodtranspribor Plant staff members (E. P. Dobrovolskaya, Ye. N. Kalenov, V. I. Makhov) was formed under the guidance of B. N. Tikhonravov. It was determined that for the signal-to-noise ratio at the array input, and for the system input in general, there exist two groups of determining factors. The first group, the energy factors, included the noise level and the noise correlation at the receiving array. The second group (the destabilizing factors) included variations of the amplitudephase structure of the pressure field in the incident wave resulting from a noisy source such as a surface ship. It was the combined effects of the two groups of factors that determined the need to consider a combined observation of signal and noise rather than consider the use of signal processing techniques that apply in the absence of the interfering noise. This determination had a significant effect on the signal-to-noise ratio at the output of the processing unit. A number of other factors were also important. These included, on the one hand, the geometry and dimensions of the array, its

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arrangement, the receiving channel frequency band, dome design, the speed of carrier submarine movement, and on the other hand, the relative angular motion of high-noise sources and their number. The whole range of physical and design characteristics of the receiving system and the general sonar functioning are of importance. In the initial period of work, 1973–1974, investigations were carried out on adaptive rejection of local noise in the receiving channel, with different arrays and under different conditions. These included the laboratory basin of the CRI Morfizpribor with a small (1.5 m) plane array without a dome; the Ladoga test range with planar (2.5 m) and cylindrical (3 m) arrays without domes, and with cylindrical arrays inside the domes of the sonar systems Kerch and Yenisei. The arrays consisted of a grid of hydrophones, the output signals from which were fed to recording devices, where noise levels and spatial correlations were determined. In the course of experimentation the magnitude of the fluctuations of the wave front of a plane-wave, disturbed by noise at the receiving hydrophones of the array was determined. It was observed that wave front fluctuations had a relatively weak effect on performance of a system using optimized space-time signal processing. On the other hand, the fluctuating wave front exerted a strong influence on a traditional receiving system. It should be noted that, for the first time in domestic practice, adaptive rejection of plane-wave noise with a fluctuating wave front was carried out using an octave-band digital eight-path receiving channel. Despite the preliminary nature of the results, their publication caused great excitement within the Acad. N. N. Andreyev Institute of Acoustics (G. I. Priymak with whom the signal and local noise statistical model was discussed, V. V. Olshevsky, S. G. Gershman, V. D. Svet, and S. D. Chuprov who participated in discussing the method of evaluating the fluctuations of the signal and noise plane-wave fronts), the Kiev RI of Hydrological Instruments (N. G. Gatkin, L. G. Krasny, and V. N. Peshkov, all taking part in fruitful cooperation in organizing numerical and full-scale experiments and discussion of their results), and the RI Atoll (V. Yu. Lapii, I. G. Andreasyan, and V. F. Shevtsov). This was the beginning of the long and difficult road toward solving the problem of reducing noise levels by way of adaptive optimization of space-time

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signal processing. The whole effort was aimed at overcoming the a priori uncertainty in the signal, the ambient noise, and the local shipping noise. Of course we are talking about the data used in the algorithms for automatic noise suppression. 3. The First Experience with Adaptive System Development The first adaptive system kind was the passive sonar Lira designed at the CRI Morfizpribor in 1976. For target observation in the aft direction, adaptive rejection was performed of the non-stationary acoustic noise from propeller screws. Acoustic noise power varied with speed and number of screw revolutions while its relative-angle position as an acoustic noise source remained the same in the array sweep, which facilitated eliminating the influence of the noise. The favorable prospects of the industry development in that period, and the support of technical process provided by the state stimulated further work on the creation of sonar subsystems. Good prospects appeared for a realization of the procedure of automatic signal processing with noise rejection, and automation of all sonar elements in order to increase their efficiency. Switching to new technologies would be utilized through the experience gained in the development of the sonar Lira, and with application of new signal processing methods and computer system capabilities. These new technologies would ensure protection from shipping noise (projects Moment-MSP and Irtysh at the CRI Morfizpribor and the N. N. Andreyev Institute of Acoustics). Attempts were made to reduce the noise level of passive systems by long-time integration of discrete components of the target spectrum in the low-frequency part of the acoustic frequency band (projects Moment-MSP and Gryada at the CRI Morfizpribor, Irtysh-1 at the N. N. Andreyev Institute of Acoustics and the Kiev RI of Hydrological Instruments). Similar research was carried out at the CRI Morfizpribor with adaptive noise rejection using spatial filtering. Introduction of special filters for detection of discrete spectral components at the output of an optimized receiving channel distorted the general system spatial characteristics that were obtained using adaptive

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algorithms. Detection of discrete components required use of adaptive filtering with parameter adjustment, to avoid loss of efficiency of adaptive noise suppression. It was proposed to include multi-dimensional, recursive, digital filters with poles in the amplitude-frequency response tuned to the frequencies of the discrete signal components. As a rule, the adaptive systems with such recursive digital filters provided super-stability to noise rejection. The first attempt to develop a sonar with increased resolution by application of adaptive methods was successful. These methods involved matching the frequency characteristics in the receiving channels by using the detailed structure of the noise and the signal. This success led, beginning at the end of the 1970s, to further multi-lateral theoretical and practical research with projects Igla, Ekran, Bayan, Amfora at the CRI Morfizpribor; Mys at the N. N. Andreyev Institute of Acoustics; Sever at the RI Atoll; Tsifra at the RIE of the Navy; and Zvezda at the Kiev RI of Hydrological Instruments. The construction of a system involved both analytic and hardware aspects, that is, both signal processing and digital computer facilities. Development of adaptive signal processing techniques required solving a number of problems. These included development of techniques for evaluating the efficiency; formulation of evaluation criteria; measurement of the parameters of adaptive receiving systems having hydrophone array grids; study and simulation of the detailed structure of the signal and shipping noise fields (the accuracy of the description and simulation of these fields is the determining factor in the efficiency of adaptive systems), and adequacy of matching the adaptive system dimensions to noise field. At the CRI Morfizpribor algorithms for signal processing were developed, engineering specifications justified, and procedures developed for prediction of the degree of influence on the noise resistance of space-time fluctuations in the wave fronts of plane-wave local shipping noises, as well as for evaluation of signal-to-noise parameters at receiving system output. The procedures were based on prediction of the spectrum of fluctuations and correlation times in the adaptation systems.

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The following results were obtained: (1) algorithms were developed which ensured, without any a priori assumptions about the signal and noise fields, improved performance of sonars in the passive mode by suppression of local noise due to interfering targets; (2) the technical realization of the algorithms by the introduction of computer systems; (3) feasibility was demonstrated of the creation of an adaptive passive sonar having sector spatial observation using specialized processors of general application and improved integrated microcircuits; (4) values of the destabilizing factors connected with the ocean medium were determined experimentally (in the 20th Atlantic Expedition of ACIN on the RS P. Lebedev and S. Vavilov and on a class-675 submarine in the Barents Sea) and incorporated into adaptive algorithms; (5) requirements were formulated for DCF efficiency and speed in realizing adaptive algorithms (on the average, 2–5 MFLOPS per spatial mode); (6) a digital 48-path passive channel realizing adaptive algorithms with successive space scanning, with a planar array, was developed, manufactured, and tested with positive results under laboratory conditions and at the Ladoga test range; (7) a digital 32-path passive channel using adaptive algorithms with successive space scanning, with a cylindrical array, was developed, manufactured and tested with positive results under ocean conditions (project Akson); (8) technical proposals and recommendations were developed for application of the engineering characteristics in new designs and in modernization of submarine hydroacoustic systems. As a result of the research done, a general concept was formed in the 1970s for application of adaptive procedures for increasing resistance to shipping noise while passive listening. It should be noted that work along these directions was also underway in the USA under the Navy program SAS 56 although we know nothing about the results of this program. We note research carried

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out in the 1970–1980s at the CRI Morfizpribor on passive sonar noise stability was of a priority nature both at the conceptual level and with regard to achieving theoretical and experimental results. 4. Expanding the Scope of Tasks The success of the theoretical and experimental work on rejection of intensive noise emissions from surface ships and other objects created keen interest in adaptive methods of sea noise rejection when using vertical acoustic arrays. Beginning in the mid-1980s, attempts were made to improve adaptive systems with a view toward reducing their influence on the operating range of sonar systems in the presence of rough surface noise, which is known for its anisotropic nature and variability. The ability to suppress this influence allowed passive listening to be performed under “all-weather” conditions (projects Almaz-1, Almaz-2, Almaz-3, Almaz-4, and Skat-3 at the CRI Morfizpribor; Mys, Magnat, Maket, Malta, and Melodia at the N. N. Andreyev Institute of Acoustics with the participation of the CRI Morfizpribor). It is usually assumed in studies of optimal and adaptive signal processing that the source signal propagates in free infinite space with a known power. In a realistic ocean medium, which is stratified and bounded, the conditions of propagation are such that the received signal consists of several components (rays or normal modes), between which interactions may exist, and a partial or a total correlation may exist. The information content of such a signal is significantly higher than that of a single-component signal, since the source data are contained in each of the components, and also in the interaction coefficients (correlation between them). Maximum extraction of such information significantly improves the efficiency of the processing. It is important, with such an approach, that information be available about the signal propagation characteristics. Development of algorithms must envisage extraction and use of such information. However, the attempts to use propagation characteristics known from earlier work on noise rejection for horizontal arrays did not produce positive results. The effect of vertical refraction on signal

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propagation in an acoustic waveguide was important. It was found that the anisotropic component of the ocean noise, having a multipath angular spectrum in the array vertical span, has a significant effect on noise rejection. The strong correlation between ray arrivals was a serious obstacle to application of noise rejection using approaches developed for noncorrelated plane-wave signals. New approaches were proposed. Success in development of the methods of beam structure decorrelation was a necessary prerequisite for multi-path signal reception with coherent accumulation of the information contained in such beams (project Sirius at the CRI Morfizpribor). These physical directions brought the whole problem, in a simplistic case, to the level of creation of algorithms matching the propagation medium (V. V. Borodin, ACIN). The field of processing of complex signals is characterized by the great variety of problems to be solved. Use of computers for synthesizing algorithms of space-time signal filtering and testing the applicability of these algorithms through computer simulations or experiments proved to be a bulky and time-consuming procedure. In the early 1980s, a program having this theme was initiated (projects Almaz-1, Almaz-2, Almaz-3, Almaz-4). In addition, the institutes of the MSI, researchers and specialists from the Institute of Electronics of RAS (N. A. Armand, V. F. Krapivin, I. L. Bukatova), the Computer Center of the Siberian Branch of RAS (A. L. Bukhgeim, V. T. Konev), the universities and institutes of the Ministry of Higher Education of the Russian Federation (V. N. Fomin, B. M. Sokolov at the LSU; A. P. Lukoshkin, A. D. Dalmatov, A. A. Shatalov at the LIAIE; V. S. Gitelson, I. V. Petrova at the RSU), the Odessa State University of the Ukraine (V. V. Matushevsky, T. V. Flora), the Byelorussian State University (O. V. Korobko, B. I. Tauroginsky), the Tajik Polytechnical Institute (V. G. Chekalin, A. F. Vasilenko) also participated. During that period, in the CRI Morfizpribor department headed by Yu. A. Koryakin, further development of adaptive methods associated with array signal processing was based on a special type of spectral analysis. In this analysis use is made of an orthogonal basis whose base functions are matched with the observed signal shape.

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The signal may be presented in the form of a Fourier series in eigenfunctions matched with the correlation function. The obtained spectrum of these eigenfunctions arranged in diminishing order has the important property that the high levels of spectral components are related to the intensive signals from point targets, while the low levels are associated with distributed acoustic noises (project Sirius). The interest in this type of analysis resulted from the search for ways to increase system resolution and use of DCF in constructing superresolution systems. This was very important for observation of a large number of targets. The direction finding accuracy in such systems was required to be several tenths of the width of the directivity pattern. These systems occupy an intermediate position between a detection system (accuracy of the order of the directivity pattern width) and a system for direction finding and ranging (accuracy of hundredths of the pattern width). Other than that, systems of this kind have the same advantages (in super-resolution) and disadvantages (in multi-path signal reception) as other adaptive or traditional systems. It was found, however, that a more or less reliable separation by using a threshold dividing more intensive part of the spectrum from the less intensive one was possible only in the case of a noncorrelated noise. When noises had a noticeable correlation along the array length, no clear boundary between these portions of the spectrum could be found; they are blurred. Weak signals from point targets are located at the junction of these portions and appear masked. Selection of a threshold results in an undetermined problem. With the development of digital computer equipment it became possible to improve adaptive processing using both the parametric adaptation mentioned earlier, and structural adaptation (at each step of which, in the course of structural rearrangement with a change in receiving mode configuration, parametric adaptation is done). The majority of adaptive algorithms developed in the 1980s were designed for specific signal-noise situations where their use was stable. Any expansion of the set of conditions resulted in a loss of efficiency. This is connected with the fact that signal reception is designed so that the number of local noise sources does not exceed the number of noise

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signals rejected by the adaptive system. This fact was established by the specialists of the CRI Morfizpribor, and experimentally as well, by using a model of a passive digital channel with different receiving arrays (research project Igla). Specialists of the RI Atoll confirmed the results using another signal model (the signal was modeled by an autoregression process, the order of which determined the number of noise signals rejected). For this reason it was found more expedient to use a set of algorithms corresponding to groups of conditions, with the flexibility for on-line replacement of one algorithm with another. For this purpose multi-level plotting of signal-processing modes was used to provide an opportunity for performing digital signal processing by combining different types of phased array control. This solution was proposed by staff members of the CRI Morfizpribor and the Institute of Electronics of RAS. A digital 120-path passive mode with a planar array and sector spatial scanning, realizing adaptive algorithms with a multi-level structure that were exchangable on-line was designed, manufactured and tested under realistic conditions with positive results (projects Dnestr, Ratsionalnost at the Kamchatka Hydrophysical Institute (KHPI)). Design of sonar passive channels with the use of parametric adaptive processing and other new procedures of noise-signal data processing was based on analytical calculations assuming simplified conditions. Therefore, there was a need to study their performance in sea trials, under realistic conditions. The situation improved with the appearance of a new generation of IBM compatible personal computers and their analogs. A package of software was created simulating, with a maximum possible degree of accuracy, the incoming noise-signal data (in the time domain), and the processing algorithms, and displaying the output noise-signal data in the form of a standard display of a sonar system. At the end of the 1980s to the beginning of the 1990s, the development of adaptive processing methods was associated with accounting for the features of a multi-path signal (as distinct from an earlier idea of single-beam reception of a multi-path signal). These methods were applied to new problems including detection and estimating signal

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parameters, determining signal source coordinates, and identifying the source, etc. (projects Sirius, Perspektiva, Dnestr, Kometa-Meteor at the CRI Morfizpribor). The value of spatial smoothing and adaptive processing algorithms was studied. These algorithms were based on beam decorrelation and multi-path signal accumulation based on travel time differences. In this connection, a need arose for improved signal-noise models (projects Signal, Pomekha, Skorpena). With improvement in the resolution of sonar systems, the work took a new direction. This direction was defined by the need to account for the nature and dynamics of target signals and local noise signals on the sonar system display (D&D projects ZP-105 at the CRI Morfizpribor, Ratsionalnost at the KHPI). This review of the use of the principles of adaptive optimization for hydroacoustic information processing addresses only a small portion of the problems upon which the design of modern space-time signal processing for passive systems is based. 5. Operational Freedom; Where the Seven Winds Blow … Beginning in the second half of the 1970s, a clear conceptual framework existed for development of integrated approaches to selecting and creating optimal, adaptive methods of algorithmic (hardware) signalnoise processing. These methods applied to realistic sonar operating conditions while mounted on submarines or surface ships. The need for this transition was dictated by the improving tactical-technical characteristics of sonar systems and the considerable progress made in reducing the noise levels of sonar system platforms. A series of new problems arose that were regarded by the Navy as top priority tasks. These included target classification; target resolution in angle and range; and determination of the dynamic characteristics of target trajectories (coordinates and speed as a function of time). For their solution specific hydroacoustic conditions relating to mechanisms of generation, propagation, and space-time processing of signals received by sonar systems had to be taken into account. It was necessary to account for the temporal variability of the observed sound fields under difficult

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noise-signal conditions, i.e., a high degree of a priori uncertainty, insufficiency of knowledge, and often impossibility of direct observation of the statistical characteristics of the signal and noise fields. The effects of refraction and scattering, the effects of statistical nonstationarity and spatial inhomogeneity of the noise field characteristics, including noise of hydrodynamic origin from sonar system carriers moving at higher speeds, all suggested a new conceptual scheme involving, as an integrated whole, the acoustic field, the sonar carrier, the tactical situation, and the optimal adaptive processing scheme. It was necessary to take into account the advances made in domestic radar and automatic control (totally different from hydroacoustics noise-signal conditions) in laying the scientific foundation and creating general (digital) methods for solving the various problems of spacetime processing. Finally, it was necessary to keep informed of advances made in the area by foreign investigors. A complete realization of such a program would surely result in the creation of an automated, integrated system of space-time processing using available observational data according to quality criteria related to the functioning of the various subsystems. A question arises concerning the selection of a quality criterion common to the integrated system, and its correlation with the quality criteria of the subsystems and the tactics of sonar system use. If the ideas and principles of modeling the operation of a human brain were applied then such an information system might already be regarded as an artificial intellect system. It is exactly such a system that is implied by the term “integrated intelligence system.” At times a whole set of conditions prevented obtaining useful signal information. These conditions were associated with such phenomena as refraction, scattering, absorption, etc., and were related, in general, to the poor performance of a sonar system in a complex and difficult sound propagation medium. There must be a close link between the development and characteristics of the processing algorithms and the situation in which the sonar operates — beginning from selection of the quality criteria to the moment of getting the final result. Indeed, development of useful algorithms calls for definite, labor-consuming conceptual and engineering efforts by sonar system designers.

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In the 1970s, the work of the CRI Morfizpribor on adaptive algorithm development was in an initial stage, which to a considerable degree was a period of generalization, taking into account the specific nature of hydroacoustics and the algorithmic results available from other fields, domestic and foreign. At that time, the main attention of the CRI Morfizpribor was drawn to the problem of suppressing signals from interfering targets. This task was to ensure useful signal detection against a background of an integral noise representing signals from discrete sources. Quite soon such an approach was formally extended to the case of weakly anisotropic noise. In addition, a considerable portion of sea trials of one of the last sonar systems designed and manufactured by the Institute was devoted to the task of adaptive evaluation of the useful signal angle of arrival and of its unknown power. In terms of synthesis of algorithms used in target detection and identification, a serious contribution was made by A. M. Yakubovsky, Ye. N. Kalenov, M. V. Kholostov, V. A. Antipov, V. G. Gusev, G. V. Loskutova, G. V. Cherenkova, V. V. Yakovlev, F. G. Blank, B. N. Platunova, N. I. Seleznev and others, B. N. Tikhonravov, Yu. A. Koryakin, A. M. Dymshts and the authors of this articles (CRI Morfizpribor); V. V. Borodin, P. Ya. Krasinsky, V. Ivanov, Yu. M. Sukharevskiy and others (Acad. N. N. Andreyev ACIN); G. S. Malyshkin, I. M. Il’in and their colleagues (RIE of the Navy); L. G. Krasny, Yu. O. Bozhok, A. Ya. Kalyuzhny (Kiev RI of Hydrological Instruments); V. I. Il’ichev and his pupils (Institute of Oceanology, FED RAS); V. A. Zverev, B. F. Orlov, G. A. Sharonov and others (IAP RAS). The body of work carried out in the 1970s to the 1980s, based on synthesis of adaptive algorithmic procedures, was oriented toward suppression of interfering sound sources. Simultaneously the decisive role of the anisotropy index (the relation of the interfering target energy contributions to the isotropic noise contributions) as a factor in efficient use was confirmed. It became possible to expose more clearly the role of multi-path (multi-mode) propagation of signals, both useful and interfering. This problem has been discussed in detail above, particularly where selection of different forms of adaptive algorithms are discussed, depending on the observation data base used, the role of

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inter-path (inter-mode) correlations, anisotropy indices, application of different quality criteria, etc. The fundamental theoretical work of the 1970s on rejection of interfering fields was used in the 1980–1990s in the development of one of the CRI Morfizpribor products, as well as at the KHPI in the process of tests of a stationary system for underwater surveillance. Since, in the general form, the problem was posed as a problem of local noise rejection, then, in case of direct observation, the central moment for algorithm construction was answering the question of which of the observed targets in the spatial reception modes were useful and which were interfering. The answer to this question was determined by an exhaustive search for targets; after the operation of local noise rejection, the signal classification problem had to be solved for each spatial channel where a target presence was possible. This process set specific requirements on the structure of the processing mode for solving the problem of angular rejection of multiple interfering targets. Since the adaptive procedures were executed before solving the task of classification by the spatial channel output, it was all the more necessary to combine the modes of adaptive detection and classification. This met with certain difficulties both in the principal and in the technical aspects. However, the experience on classification at the CRI Morfizpribor in the last 25 years (Yu. S. Perelmuter, A. S. Yermolenko, A. V. Rudinsky, V. G. Timoshenkov, V. P. Miroshnikov, A. A. Yanpolskaya, M. V. Shengelia, and their colleagues), as well as in the work of the Institute of Acoustics (N.A. Dubrovsky, V. A. Baranov, and others) and work of the RIE of the Navy (K. P. Luginets, A. I. Mashoshin, N. I. Timofeyev, and others) offered good prospects for combining these modes in the interests of fulfilling the tasks of creation of integrated sonar systems. The experience of combining the tasks of interfering target suppression and the classification mode has created (during sea trails of an Institute sonar) the substantiated prerequisites for solving this problem in general and its further development. In this connection, it appears that making use of only useful signal and discrete interfering targets’ angular-position observations as a

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basis for adaptation cannot serve as an information basis for performing complete adaptive rejection. This is explained not by just purely technical difficulties of multiple interfering targets’ suppression, but also by the impossibility to select (and suppress) on a solely angular basis the source of noise, coming through a common channel with the useful signal. Angular adaptation was actually governed by an angular distance between the useful signal and the interfering source, which transferred the whole problem to the field of angular resolution, with all its difficulties and physical limitations. The interfering targets found in alignment with the useful signal could not, on a purely angular basis, be identified and suppressed. It was clear from the physical pattern that complete information about the spatial position of interfering targets must include not just angular information, but also the distance to the receiving array, which is different for all sources. In other words, adaptive identification and rejection of interfering targets must be effected not only by angle but also by distance. In this case the array must work as an adaptive spatial zoom-filter with sufficient depth of field. The problem posed in this way (naturally reducing the number of interfering targets at each fixed range, and opening, in principle, ways for overcoming the difficulties of multiple interfering targets was formulated in the second half of the 1970s by V. I. Klyachkin and his colleagues, V. V. Yakovlev and E. M. Shekhter. In our opinion, this problem has not lost its urgency today. Related investigations (in terms of the useful physical ideas) were carried out by Ye. F. Orlov and G. A. Sharonov at the Institute of Applied Physics of the USSR Academy of Sciences (Nizhny Novgorod) at the end of the 1970s. Later, early in the 1990s, V. A. Zverev (IAP RAS) applied the algorithm of angular rejection of interfering illumination sources simultaneously with the dark field method. Thus the whole spectrum of problems of adaptive detection, identification, and, finally, evaluation of target parameters studied at the CRI Morfizpribor, as well as at the Institute of Acoustics and the Institute of Applied Physics, remains topical at the present time. The present scientific–technical level of work at the CRI Morfizpribor and other related institutes of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Navy allows us to give a positive answer to the question

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of the existence of a conceptual — as well as scientific-and-technical — basis for solving the system problem, important and crucial for hydroacoustics, which is being brought to the forefront today. In this article, we have deliberately steered clear of some non-traditional algorithmic solutions worked out over the period of thirty years of research, all, however, being ultimately aimed at a systemic solution of the task. The researcher’s work is never done! The search cannot stop!

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IX. Sonar Arrays

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The Types of Sonar Arrays and the Stages of Their Development A. A. SHABROV

Work on the creation of arrays for home listening, echo ranging, and communication sonar systems began in the 1930s. The first arrays consisted of one or more electroacoustical transducers linearly grouped. Arrays were built using electromagnetic or electrodynamic transducers, as well as nickel, quartz, and Seignette’s salt transducers. In the late 1930s, the first two submarine sonars were designed; each had two arrays: one to ensure operation in the listening mode, and the other in the echo-ranging and telegraphy modes. Almost simultaneously a sonar for a submarine hunter–killer launch was developed. Later it was used as a prototype in developing the Tamir series of sonars. In the same period arrays for the first home-manufactured echo sounders were designed. The sonar arrays of that period operated in the 3–20 kHz frequency band. The operating range of sonars equipped with such arrays did not exceed 7 km. Modernization of the Navy in the first post-war decade necessitated improvement in hydroacoustic equipment. Different-application hydroacoustic systems were developed, among them a search system for surface ships that was equipped with two magnetostrictive-transducer arrays of which one was cylindrical (for all-round observation) and the other planar (for target tracking); a stationary (bottom) system incorporating two arrays: one (receiving) cylindrical-shaped, ensuring all-round observation with a rotary directivity pattern, and the other omnidirectional radiating. Magnetostrictive transducers served as radiating elements, the receiving elements were made from Seignette’s salt (for more detailed description of the stationary system, see the article by V. N. Kanareykin and E. V. Yakovlev “The History of the Development of the Volkhov Land-Based Sonar” — Ed.). 833

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Special attention was given to the development of hydroacoustic equipment for submarines, for which the hydroacoustic signal is the primary — if not the only — source of information about the surrounding underwater environment. A set of sonar systems was designed for diesel-electric submarines that incorporated a sonar with a planar magnetostrictive array; a passive sonar with a cylindrical array, also with magnetostrictive transducers (the directivity pattern of this array was shaped and rotated by a compensator); a homing and tracking sonar with a rotary conical reflective array shaping summary and differential directivity patterns; a sonic signal detection sonar with four widely directional cylindrical receivers screened with porous rubber and producing four 90◦ directivity patterns in the 360◦ section; an underwater audio communication sonar with a group of cylindrical piezoceramic widely directional transducer elements. The arrays of the first three sonar systems were placed in a forward-end, metal bulb-shaped dome; the communication system array was located inside the fairwater, and the SSSD array, on the deck inside an ensiform fairing. The size of ship-borne sonar arrays of that period did not exceed 1.5 m. Strengthening of the role of the Navy in performing geopolitical and strategic tasks in different regions of the world’s oceans and development of the sea-related branches of the economy in recent decades resulted in a significant expansion of research in the area of hydroacoustic science and a burst of activities in the development of hydroacoustic systems. The scope of problems solved with the use of sonar systems expanded noticeably. Here are only a few: low-noise submarine detection and location; underwater communication; navigation safety; underwater missile launching; torpedo homing and countermeasures; search for small-sized underwater objects; sea bottom mapping; rescue operations; mineral resources exploration and mining at sea; fish reconnaissance; study of the physical properties and the state of the ocean; technological and medical aspects of human activity connected with work in the ocean environment. The most complex and expensive part of a sonar system, involving specific technologies in its manufacture, is its array. It is exposed to extreme conditions of operation in the ocean medium with high hydrostatic pressure and under high excitation voltage. At the same

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time, the array must ensure high reliability in operation and display the stability and quality of performance of a measuring device. The designer of these system devices must be a generalist, able to solve various problems in the areas of mathematical physics, field and diffraction theory, elasticity and failure theory, crystallography, radio and electronics, circuit analysis, probability theory, chemistry and corrosion, acoustic transparency and insulation, shock, explosion, vibration and electric stability, pressurizing, design, hydrology and precision measurements. He must be able to perform design calculations with the use of a computer, know how to use electronic devices and cope with many other problems arising in the process of array design that often are new. Before going into further discussion of these matters, it is beneficial to describe, or better to classify, the great variety of existing arrays. The characteristic feature of a particular group to which an array may be related could be its application and mounting location, tasks fulfilled with its use, working frequency, features of directivity, dimensions, geometry, and the hydrostatic pressure under which it operates. Arrays may be designed for installation on the seafloor and in the middle of the water column on a floating platform, a float, or an anchor. They may be placed inside a dome mounted in the ship’s forward end or side- or hull-mounted, flush with the bottom, on the deck or the submarine conning tower fairwater. They may be lowered in water over the ship’s side or on a cable from a helicopter. They may be towed behind a surface ship, a submarine vehicle or a hydroplane. Finally, sonar arrays are part of the equipment of radiosonobuoys dropped from aircraft. Arrays have been developed for installation on ocean weapon platforms and submersible vehicles. There are arrays designed to be carried by underwater swimmers and divers, arrays installed in hydroacoustic systems used in geological survey of the sea bottom. Measuring arrays used in experimental basins and at sea test ranges comprise a separate class of arrays. According to the function performed, there are listening, echo-ranging, communication, reconnaissance, illumination, and metrological arrays.

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In terms of frequency, determining the design features of arrays proper, as well as transducers and acoustic screens installed in them, arrays are classified according to their working frequency bands: infrasonic (10–100 Hz), low audio (100–1000 Hz), medium audio (1–5 kHz), high audio (5–15 kHz), low ultrasonic (15–50 kHz), medium ultrasonic (50–150 kHz), high ultrasonic (150–500 kHz), and superhigh ultrasonic (over 500 kHz). In terms of directivity, arrays are subdivided into nondirectional; semi-directional; with a section-shaped pattern; with toroidal pattern; high-directional in two mutually perpendicular planes; highdirectionality in one plane and wide-angle in the plane perpendicular to the first one; with swinging pattern and pattern-spread shaping; sidefield suppressed and with a halo; and special-shaped directivity pattern arrays. Array sizes, in terms of wavelength, measure from fractions to hundreds of wavelengths, with linear dimensions varying from fractions of centimeter to several hundred meters. With regard to shape, geometry, and method of forming the directivity pattern, arrays may be one-, two-, and three-dimensional; linear and planar, cylindrical, spherical and other; discrete, presenting an array of transducers and continuous; reflector, horn and lens; parametric and synthetic-aperture. In terms of design, deep-sea arrays operating under hydrostatic pressure over 100 atmospheres represent a special group. The ever growing need for longer operating ranges of sonars for efficient underwater detection necessitated reducing working frequencies and increasing the radiated power, which brought about an increase in size, more methods of forming the directivity pattern and of processing the received information. For antisubmarine ships hull-mounted and towed arrays were designed with controlled submergence depth so as to be operated below the thermocline. Cylindrical multi-element arrays for surface ships ensure circular scanning with a spread of high-directional patterns in a wide frequency range, and section-shaped high-powered radiation. In the beginning such arrays employed magnetostrictive transducers with cores made of nickel alloys; later piezoceramic cylindrical transducers were designed; and then rod-shaped piezoceramic transducers appeared. Such arrays

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that could operate in reception and transmission modes received the name “reversible.” Depending on the working frequency and the ship displacement, arrays may vary from 1 to 3 m in diameter, presenting a discrete phased array by the principle of construction. Reinforced transducers may feature individual or group (module) pressurization. Arrays of this class may be designed in the form of a metal shell withstanding hydrostatic pressure with rod transducers fixed on its internal surface. The inside volume of such arrays is filled with inert gas. Low-frequency sonar transmitters designed for underwater search for low-noise submarines, vehicles, and swimmers should also be noted. With a drop in the noise levels of potentially hostile submarines, long-range sonar arrays became significantly transformed and more complicated. Initially, cylindrical and planar reversible arrays placed in the bow dome operated in the audio range. Later, linear side arrays appeared, and in terms of operating mode they were subdivided into receiving and radiating. The receiving arrays grew to maximum size admissible onboard; at the same time the task was posed of maximum possible drop in array sensitivity to side lobe noises (sea noises that interferred with target detection) and structural noises. Side arrays became gradually transformed from linear to surface at the expense of increase in size in the vertical plane. There came the idea to match array outline with the carrier submarine lines, that is, to create the so-called “conformal” arrays. (for more details about submarine arrays, see the article by M. D. Smaryshev “On the Basic Tendencies in Submarine Bow Sonar Array Development” — Ed.). Arrays operating in the infrasonic range, designed particularly for detection of discrete components of target submarine noise, appeared. Arrays of this type present flexible linear arrays towed behind a submarine or a surface ship at some distance from the platform. With a view toward obtaining the necessary directivity in this frequency range, their dimensions were increased to several hundred meters (arrays of this type are described in more detail in the article by V. I. Pozern “A History of the Creation of Towed, Flexible, Extended arrays” — Ed.). Sonar transmitters are built in the form of planar grids, of a size smaller than that of receiving arrays and are arranged inside the submarine conning tower fairwater or along its sides.

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Reversible arrays are assembled of piezoceramic cylinders, operating on resonance (in the radiated frequency band) and below resonance in the reception mode. After array separation by the operating modes, the sonar transmitters continued to use resonance transducers, while the receiving arrays were first assembled of cylindrical transducers of smaller size, and later, for more compact filling of the array surface, of flat plate-shaped transducers operating on flexural modes of vibration. For solving the problems of covert underwater communication, linear, side, high-directional scanning arrays with reduced side lobes were designed. The extension of the working frequency band in these arrays was ensured at the expense of coupled radial and volume resonances of a cylindrical transducer. The working range of the SSSD channel was expanded into the high frequency range, for which complementary (to the main array) cylindrical arrays were designed with sector directivity patterns in a broad frequency range. With a view toward decreasing electrical inductance noise, work was carried out on the arrangement of preamplifiers in the vicinity of the transducers inside the array capsule and even inside the transducers proper (see the article by Yu. A. Mikhailov “About the Sonar Rubikon” — Ed.). Such design features turned out to be necessary for extended towed arrays. An important trend in the creation of arrays, particularly the arrays for submarines, was the development of pliable acoustic screens. In addition to porous rubber screens with closed pores, laminar rubber– metal screens with cylindrical channels within rubber, and metal screens with plate elements operating on flexural vibrations were designed. The function of screens was performed by the metal capsule body carrying the array and the submarine hull’s sound-absorbing coating. (For more about screens in, see the article by V. Ye. Glazanov “Sonar Array Screens” — Ed.). For suppression of structure vibration noise and better explosion stability, shock absorbers, vibrocouplings, displacement limiters were introduced into array elements. Stationary hydroacoustic systems were becoming more and more complex, and in their development the greatest attention was given to

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receiving arrays. Stationary arrays were built as extended linear largesize cylindrical and planar arrays shaping the directivity pattern. In such arrays, piezoceramic screened cylinders and screen-free structures from plate-shaped transducers with a cardioid directivity pattern found application. In recent years, bistatic sonar systems have appeared with separated radiating and receiving arrays that are used for active echo ranging of remote underwater targets. Both arrays are designed for placement in an underwater acoustic channel. Since the sonar transmitters for such systems operate in the low-frequency audio range, powerful large-size cylindrical piezoceramic reinforced transducers were created (see the article by B. I. Lashkov “The Beginning of the Development of the Dnestr Sonar System” — Ed.). Work is being carried out on the creation of very low frequency powerful electromagnetic sources. For submarine detection from aircraft, radiosonobuoys are used. Their receivers have cardioid semidirectional patterns and flexible linear arrays that unfold underwater. With a view toward increasing the fighting efficiency of the Navy, beside echo-ranging and communication systems, research and development efforts for specific sonar systems and their arrays were initiated on a broad scale in the 1960s. In the initial period, specialized arrays for mine-detection sonars used parabolic reflector structures for shaping broad section patterns and a spread of high-directional patterns. In the next generation after these optical-type arrays, planar, phased arrays with steerable higher-directional patterns in the radiation mode were created (see the article by V. E. Zelyakh “Sonars for Anchored Mines” — Ed.). Arrays in the ultrasonic and high ultrasonic frequency ranges are being designed for absolute sonar logs having patterns with four narrow beams which are oriented toward the seafloor and rotated in the opposite direction in the ship’s longitudinal central plane and in the beam directions. Initially each beam was shaped by an individual array, later planar arrays were developed with a single common resonator plate shaping four patterns with one aperture thus compensating for errors due to sound velocity variation.

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Fig. 1. Cosec-pattern array developed under research project Delfin, a prototype of ice reconnaissance sonar Krug (inside view).

Arrays were developed for ice reconnaissance sonars, for searching for objects lying on the seafloor and for mapping of the seafloor. Patterns formed by these arrays were highly directional in the horizontal plane and have a broad cosec-type directional pattern in the vertical plane (Fig. 1). Later arrays appeared for sonars for nearby monitoring having a circular spread of high-directional patterns in the ultrasonic frequencies range. (Creation of side-scanning sonar arrays is described in the article by G. Kh. Golubeva “The History of the Stepped Array” — Ed.). For transponder beacons, pingers, systems of acoustic communication with bathyscaphes, systems of submarine and surface ship fixing relative to definite points in the ocean, a whole series of semi-directional small-size deep-sea arrays having semi-spherical patterns formed with the help of finite-sized screens commensurate with the wavelength were designed (see the article by Yu. A. Nikolayenko “Beacons and Emergency Signal Sources” — Ed.). Broad-band semi-directional arrays were designed for selfpropelled imitators of the primary and secondary fields of submarines that operated as part of countermeasures systems and were used for diverting weapons launched from a hostile vessel (such systems are discussed in detail in the article by A. O. Markovsky “Sonar Countermeasures and Deception Aids” — Ed.).

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In the 1960–1970s, successful research was carried out on the creation of deep-sea arrays operating at working depths up to 6000 m. Reliable designs were found for arrays of this type, which served as a basis for further developments. A wide range of specialized measuring arrays were developed for detection of navigation noise sources, determining sound velocity in water, measurements of submarine and surface ship’s own noises. A whole class of measuring hydrophones and arrays was created for application in the laboratory, at testing-range and during sea trials of hydroacoustic equipment. In the process of the hydroacoustic array development, design, and manufacture, a series of new scientific and technical problems was solved, among them development of the theory, methods of calculation, design, manufacture, and testing of arrays, electroacoustic transducers, acoustic screens, array fairings, piezomaterials, the theory of acoustic measurements and methods of analysis of sonar array reliability. As a result of this work, multiple techniques were developed, reference books compiled, tens of books and hundreds of articles published, unique testing and production equipment designed. A strong body of research workers, highly skilled engineers, and production workers appeared.

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Results are Born in Research V. I. KLYACHKIN

1. The First Steps In September, 1955, crossing the threshold of RI-3 (today CRI Morfizpribor), I did not have the slightest idea that I was making a decisive step in my choice of a future life and profession. Being educated as a physicist, I was “programmed” to do research and believed that in the new area of military hydroacoustics (with which I was acquainted in a general way), I would find a sufficiently broad field of research by solving general-acoustics applied problems. It became clear later these problems were definitely of an interdisciplinary nature. They combined differing methodologies and differing research trends. Examples are study of sound propagation in the inhomogeneous ocean medium and the resulting fluctuations in the signal and noise fields; sound generation by the elastic structures of submarines and surface ships as sonar equipment platforms; statistical hydrodynamics; radioelectronic systems of space-time statistical processing of information for ensuring noiseproof reception, etc. Naturally, it took time for such a broad view of the problem to take shape in my mind (and at the Institute as well). It so happened that my appearance “in the shop” coincided with the beginning of a period of Sturm und Drang (storm and stress). Scientific research trends connected with the introduction of a new low-frequency region in military hydroacoustics were initiated at the Institute. This region was looked upon as the one corresponding to the physical features of low-frequency signals and their efficient use in the design of a new generation of sonars for nuclear submarines. 842

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Such a prospective view of the problem, as applied to the concrete task of creating noise-stable receiving circuits for sonars in general and sonar arrays in particular, was primarily the approach of, the then chief engineer of the Institute, Ye. I. Aladyshkin. During his whole professional life he had preserved a permanent and object-oriented interest in the physical problem. Ye. I. Aladyshkin at once drew my attention, along with the great importance of general-physics conceptual thinking, to the basic role of ocean trials in verifying proposed engineering concepts for submarines and surface ships. The leadership of the MSI and the Navy also shared this kind of approach. The same system approach to problems was also shared by the head of the department, B. N. Tikhonravov, who gave me a clear-cut outline of my future work. I was to analyze specific features of the operation of arrays in the nearfield of hydroacoustic noise inherent to submarines and surface ships. At that time, one of the best sonars for submarines, the Feniks, had already been fabricated under the guidance of Chief Designer M. Sh. Shtremt. In the process of its development, the specificity of the low-frequency range became evident, and connection of the sonar’s acoustic efficiency was established both with a view of the general laws of sound propagation in the sea, and accounting for the layout of the receiving array on a submarine or a surface ship. The negative experience in the late 1940s with a receiving, lowfrequency array for the sonar Mars disclosed the high level of ship’s noise on board a submarine, increasing with decreasing frequency. It also prompted the conclusion that creating noise-stable arrays must be closely connected with their design parameters and operating conditions, that is, with the characteristics of noise sources on sonar system platforms. Attempts by D. K. Solovyov and L. P. Ogorodnikov to directly attack the problem by creation of new methods and means of radioelectronic processing failed. By the way, critical assessment of this work was my first task at the CRI Morfizpribor with a body of workers of the department under the guidance of B. N. Tikhonravov. It was found that the proposed approach had a number of physical and technical drawbacks, which in the aggregate, eliminated the possibility of any practical application.

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2. Into the Depth of the Problem We discussed the problem in general with my university fellow-student and close friend R. Ye. Pasynkov (he was then the head of one of the sections). We saw the problem as a topic of physical research of hydroacoustic random noise and signal fields. We came to the general conclusion that for solving the problem, beside theoretical analysis, experimental work on statistical properties of fields on submarine platforms under real conditions would be necessary. To attack the problem, a small research group of specialists (V. V. Yakovlev, B. N. Platunova, N. N. Protopopov, G. B. Genzler, and N. A. Ryzhkov) was organized under my guidance in 1956. As it was established, one of the factors determining the signal-to-noise ratio at the array input, beside the noise level on separate receivers, was the correlation coefficient of noise on receivers forming the array. It was the totality of these factors that, as might have been expected, made the difference between the law of combining observations of signal and noise from the law used in information processing in the receiving channels. This had a decisive influence on the signal-to-noise output parameter of the array. It might have been supposed that these effects would be closely connected with array geometry and dimensions, allocation conditions, operating frequency band, bow dome design, speed of carrier submarine, that is, with the whole range of physical and design conditions of array functioning within the sonar system. At the initial stage (1959–1960), work was organized in a small tear-drop shaped fairing of the sonar Tamir-5 installed on the deck of a class-613 submarine. A three-dimensional array was accommodated inside the fairing. It consisted of 8–10 omnidirectional hydrophones, the output signals from which were transmitted to the submarine pressure hull via cables. There the noise level and its spatial correlation were recorded. It should be noted that this was the first time that work of this kind on direct measurement of statistical characteristics of the noise field inside the fairing was done in the USSR. In the course of the experiment it was noted that a decrease in the level of noise correlation increased with distance between receivers; a fact that seems evident today. The nature of the decrease also depended on relative bearing, the frequency band, and other factors.

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While these were only primary results, they created great interest in the related organization, the Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI. Workers of this Institute, A. D. Pernik, V. S. Petrovsky, V. S. Ivanov, and A. K. Novikov took a very active and productive part in organizing research and in discussions of experimental results. It was the beginning of a long road, the first step on the way to acknowledgement (and later, to prediction) of the statistical properties of ship’s noise acting on the receiving array. It should be noted that even in those times departmental barriers and the range of tasks set to the Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI (noise level prediction and control for the purposes of standardization in submarines design and acceptance) were unable to limit the scientific and professional contacts of specialists in our organizations. This cooperation was particularly noted in investigations of hydrodynamic sources of noise. Work carried out by V. S. Petrovsky, Yu. G. Blyudze, and later by A. V. Smolyakov at the Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI and by L. M. Lyamshev, K. A. Naugolnykh, and S. A. Rybak at the ACIN had a definitely stimulating effect on the development of research directions at the CRI Morfizpribor. The work done by the author oriented toward the future development of optimal algorithms for the functioning of receiving arrays at high speeds (late 1960–1970s) also belongs here. We will discuss these and other related problems in more detail later. The results of investigations connected with noise stability of receiving arrays, as well as work on nearfield noise monitoring (V. I. Klyachkin and M. D. Smaryshev) pointed to the fact that an increase in the dimensions of receiving arrays definitely increases their noise stability (even in the near field at low frequencies). The task of experimental investigation of actual noise field levels and their correlation structures in the vicinity of supposed array placements was put on the agenda. In other words, there was a practical need for study of noise and noise statistics at proposed installation sites. Here, we must underscore that in its content and goals (study of statistics of noise and signal field) this stage of the development of sonars for the first home nuclear submarines was very much similar to the methodology for developing a sonar for the first nuclear submarine Nautilus of the US Navy. For example, in the report of commander of the nuclear submarine George Washington, the work on the development of hydroacoustic equipment

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for nuclear submarines was placed in the following sequence: investigation of noise and signal fields; sonar development and manufacture, and ocean trials of equipment. Thus the USSR and the USA had adopted one and the same development strategy. 3. Full-Scale Research In the early 1960s, on the initiative of B. N. Tikhonravov, V. B. Idin, A. I. Glazkov, and the author, it was proposed to use large-size (planar and reflector), low-frequency arrays in the bow. Simultaneously the study of the level of noises and their correlation in the forward end of the class 611 nuclear submarine was formulated. Array models were built, and a special positioner was designed and manufactured which was able, with the use of a controlled synchromotor, to perform the smooth travel of a movable measuring hydrophone relative to a stationary one inside the dome. The capability therefore existed for direct measurements of the noise level and field correlations at any angular orientation inside the dome of the rotary positioning bar with two measuring hydrophones (one movable and one stationary). The results of research carried out on the class-611 nuclear submarine by an expanded group of researchers allowed important conclusions to be made. First, the angular anisotropy of the noise field correlation in the bow dome chamber was noted. Second, the noise level increased the closer the hydrophone was to the shell. And finally (this became clear as a result of research carried out by V. B. Idin and V. E. Zelyakh), it was noted that the rate of increase in the signalto-noise ratio output decreased as the area of the planar array surface increased. This decrease was linear in the central and near-central parts of the dome and less noticeable on approach of the array surface to the dome surface. In later D&D work, these results allowed definite requirements to be formulated for receiving array sizes to be placed in the bow dome. Naturally, they were adopted as the necessary physical and experimental basis for further investigations — this time as applied to the situation of array installment along the sides of the submarine. The latter seemed to be extremely promising. Technically and organizationally, research presented a quite labor-consuming task, and its

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fulfillment in fact required development and manufacture of a special measuring system. Nevertheless, work began, and in the first half of the 1960s unfolded on a large scale at the CRI Morfizpribor. 4. Getting to Submarine Lines In the early 1960s, with an increase in the size of the active area of receiving arrays, it was proposed to more efficiently use the surface areas of platforms. One concept concerned the creation of receiving arrays matching the carrier hull shape. Later, in the 1970–1980s, such arrays were termed conformal, and still later, conformal-skin. One might expect that, depending on whether the arrays are arranged inside a dome, or in the inner hull space (conformal), or directly on the external surface of the submarine bow dome or the outer hull (conformal-skin), the conditions of their operation, noise stability in particular, would differ strongly. For the conformal-type arrays, the noise results from transmission of sound from different-type sources through the ship’s structures directly to the array receiving elements. On the surface of the conformal-skin arrays operating in direct contact with water flow, additional sources of noise of hydrodynamic origin occur when the carrier is moving due to the direct action of the flow field on the array elements. In the early 1960s, conformal-skin arrays, despite systematic and extensive theoretical and experimental research work that accompanied their development, still awaited full-scale trials on submarines. Direct contact of the receiver with turbulent flow was studied mainly under laboratory conditions (testing basins, water tunnels, freely surfacing underwater devices at test ranges). At the A. N. Krylov CRI, this work was carried out by V. S. Petrovsky, A. V. Smolyakov and others, and at the ACIN by Ye. M. Greshilov and L. M. Lyamshev. Similar research, both theoretical and experimental, had begun at the CRI Morfizpribor in the 1960s. It was carried out on a class-613 submarine, type EM-56 surface ship; and in the early 1970s, on a class671 submarine. The conformal layout was studied. With the organizational support of the CRI Morfizpribor leadership (V. V. Gromkovsky and Ye. I. Aladyshkin), the leadership of the 10th CA of MSI

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(N. N. Sviridov), RIE of the Navy and the 5th Administration of the Navy (I. I. Tynyankin, V. V. Lavrichenko, F. I. Kryachok, M. S. Usvyatsov, A. V. Toropatin, Ye. I. Tsvetkov, and others), this extremely important work was carried out in the early 1970s with the participation of designers from the CDB’s and the shipbuilding yards. Simultaneously, theoretical research and design and installation of measuring equipment took place. All this work, including the final stage — sea trials on submarines and surface ships of the measuring equipment created at the CRI Morfizpribor — was carried out at the installations and platforms of the Navy. The research team included a group of researchers from the Department of Acoustics of our Institute working under the supervision of the author of this article. During that period there prevailed an intuitive-pragmatic viewpoint, according to which research oriented toward disclosure of the general physical laws of noise generation in the inner skin space and noise level correlation at different reception points were received quite skeptically. The systematic and structural variety of the physical mechanisms generating noise on surface ships and submarines contributed to this skepticism. In this environment courage and belief in the rightfulness of finding some general laws for various concrete operating conditions of side (conformal) arrays were required. By the early 1960s, the problems of sound diffraction by elastic structures (mainly elastic plates and skins) had been sufficiently well investigated. In the USSR, this work was associated with the names of L. M. Brekhovskikh, M. A. Isakovich, Yu. M. Sukharevskiy, and L. M. Lyamshev. These people revealed laws linking diffraction with the effects of acoustic transparency and radiation of elastic plates and shells, including the case of hydrodynamic excitation. Later, in the late 1960s–1980s, Ye. L. Shenderov (CRI Morfizpribor), D. O. Plakhov, V. N. Romanov, and V. T. Lyapunov (A. N. Krylov CRI) and others advanced this line of research to include complex structures of elastic systems (domes); ribbed, multilayer perforated, and finally, multilayer plastic and reinforced. In the early 1960s, the available results on investigation of elastic structure excitation by external forces and bending moments of different physical origin, randomly distributed in space and time, required

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reconsideration to be applied to side arrays. It was necessary for understanding the role of elastic diffraction of signals and noise on the signalto-noise ratio at the output of side arrays (discrete and continuous). This problem was investigated in the early and mid-1960s in the work by the author, his colleagues and post-graduate students. Initially a model theoretical scheme was developed to relate the signal-to-noise ratio at array output to the statistical characteristics of external random excitations, elastic characteristics of a bending vibrating plate (a model of submarine outer hull). This scheme was then extended to the case of elastic plates (an outer and a pressure hull) coupled through an acoustic field. The task was to determine applicability of the technique to more realistic design schemes of the inner skin space. This was done with the efforts of the author’s colleagues and post-graduate students V. V. Yakovlev, F. G. Blank, R. A. Sokolova, G. I. Usoskin, B. N. Platunova, and K. V. Malyarov. The task was further extended to analysis of different physical models (two plates with a screen, ribbed planar, cylindrical, semi-cylindrical shells, sections of plates limited and fixed along contour, etc.). In all cases, boundary-contact problem was solved with random excitations for acoustically bound systems, with determining the statistics of the noise nearfield (inner skin space!) and long-range plane-wave signals. Later, in the late 1960s, in the author’s dissertation for a doctor’s degree, this scheme of analysis was extended to the general case of sonar array operation in the inner skin space and to the conditions of placement in the bow dome. As a result of theoretical analysis, unambiguous connection was established between the array output signal-to-noise ratio with both its own geometry (dimensions, transducer array period, conditions of location) and the frequency band. The design features of the inner skin space proper (thickness of submarine pressure and outer hulls, their flexural rigidity) and the roles of elastic vibrations attenuation (absorption), acoustic screens, etc., were determined. It was found that side arrays, as mentioned above, could be regarded as some spatial filters in the wave and frequency spaces subject to random external power actions (including actions of hydrodynamic origin) and actions transmitted as noise through the pressure and outer hull structures. This noise is generated by submarine machines and mechanisms and

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creates a certain field of vibrations. Solving of these problems allowed predictive estimates of noise stability (signal-to-noise ratio) to be made for arrays arranged in the inner skin space at the primary, physical level. Later (1980–1990s), by decision of the governing organizations, this unified “array-ship” problem of signal-to-noise ratio prediction was transferred to the A. N. Krylov CRI, where it was further developed in the work by V. N. Romanov, D. O. Plakhov, V. V. Lyapunov, V. Evseev, A. V. Smolyakov, and their colleagues. As a result, using prediction of space-time noise correlations, procedures for predictive estimate of a ship’s noise level and signal-to-noise ratio at output of receiving sonar arrays placed in bow domes were developed at the A. N. Krylov CRI. The side variant of layout (conformal arrays) has been preserved today practically at the level of the late 1960s–early 1970s. This circumstance, together with technical causes, today appears to be a deterrent to practical application of extended side arrays in the low-frequency range. Beginning from the second half of the 1970s, the interests of the CRI Morfizpribor, with account for the above, were re-oriented to a different area, particularly, to the creation of optimal (adaptive) algorithms of space-time signal processing under complex (and varying) noise-signal conditions. More detailed discussion of the problem is beyond the scope of the present review and required a special article (see the article by V. I. Klyachkin and Yu. P. Podgaisky “Aspects of the History of Passive Hydroacoustic Systems with Emphasis on Adaptive Processing” — Ed.). 5. Full-Scale Examination and Results Returning to the early 1960s and the effort to evaluate model theoretical results obtained in 1965–1967, it becomes clear that general theoretical predictions of the signal-to-noise parameter with regard to side (conformal) arrays also necessitated looking into the role of the inner skin space design features. This was necessary for making a sound and substantiated judgment on the point based on a comprehensive, full-scale research on submarines and surface ships. Such research was organized and performed by a group of workers of the

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CRI Morfizpribor in 1960–1975 for the following sonar platforms: Class-613 submarine (1962–1965); Class-EM56 surface ship (1966–1967); Class-671 submarine (1972–1974). A single procedure was adopted. In the work on the class-613 and -671 submarines, three-dimensional (class-613) and two-dimensional (class-671) arrays of spherical hydrophones were arranged in the inner skin space at approximate distances of 0.15–0.2 m from the submarine outer hull. The total number of hydrophones was 200–300. On the same submarines, in addition to the measuring hydrophones, about 150 accelerometers were installed on the submarine’s outer hull, and a smaller number (40–50 units) on the pressure hull. The distance between the hydrophones and accelerometers was selected to be approximately equal to half of a flexural wavelength of the structure elements of the outer and pressure hulls of these platforms. For the EM56 surface ship, it was found necessary (for study of side aspects of array layout) to design and install a special extended side metal fairing. This was done with the participation of the CDB-53 and the Dalzavod Plant of the Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry. The total controlled area of measurements was approximately 60.4 m2 for the submarines and 70.4 m2 for the surface ship. In the latter case, the distance between the side of the hull to the surface of the extended side fairing averaged 0.2–0.3 m. Cable routes running inside submarines were grouped and laid in outboard pressurized cable boxes also carrying preamplifiers and switching units — contact telephone switches. The latter were controlled according to a special program from the measuring equipment compartment. Output cables coming out of the boxes were grouped and brought inside the pressure hull to the measuring equipment compartment. Similar design features for the surface ship were adopted. The program of full-scale trials for the submarines and surface ship included measurements of the noise field and vibration levels in third octave bands, and measurement of their spatial correlations. The latter were recorded according to a special computational program that determined the correlation between signals of the reference and

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commutated hydrophones as a function of distance between them. Measurements of acceleration levels with the help of accelerometers and their correlations were carried out according to a similar commutational program that was run simultaneously. Hydrophones and accelerometers were designed, manufactured, and calibrated at the experimental plant facilities and the measurements section of the CRI Morfizpribor Acoustics Department. Thus, the results of measurements made on controlled sections along a ship’s lines enabled us to obtain a substantiated physical concept of the noise level distributions and to determine the correlation of pressures and accelerations in third octave bands. The latter provided a basis for experimental evaluation of predicted values of the signal-tonoise parameter at the location of conformal-type extended side arrays. In the 1960s and early 1970s, for recording, Bruel&Kjaer spectrum analyzers, KZT correlators (AND circuit), standard recorders, multichannel tape recorders were used for the accumulation of data and their subsequent processing to allow further research along new directions of interest to the Institute. Measurements were performed in the spring–summer period in the Sea of Japan and the Barents Sea at varying depths and speeds of the submarines and at varying speeds of the surface ship. It should be noted that even today the results obtained in the course of these experiments have preserved their methodological value and remain topical for medium-displacement diesel-electric submarines, nuclear submarines, and surface ships. They were unique in scale and technique; no research conducted afterwards matched their level and scope. Full-scale research performed on the submarines and the surface ship helped to reveal many things. First, the nature of the distribution of a ship’s noise levels along carrier lines in a sufficiently broad frequency range, low frequencies including, was established. Second, the effect of correlation areas compression for noise pressure near fields was revealed experimentally, and the determining role in this effect of the mechanism of flexural vibrations of outer and pressure hull structures was disclosed. In its turn, this reduced the whole

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problem of noise stability of side (conformal) arrays to the level of accounting for structural parameters of the submarine outer and pressure hulls. These include the distance between hulls, plates thickness, plates flexural rigidity, sound absorption in material, etc. At that, the hull design parameters needed to be tied in with the parameters of the array as a spatial filter of nonuniform surface waves propagating in the inner skin space. The structure of these waves has a marked resonance (structural-elastic) origin connected with flexural vibrations of elastic structures. Third, the theoretical prediction of an increase in correlation areas of pressure fields at movement away from elastic plates of a submarine outer hull was confirmed. In the low-frequency range, for the selected installation geometry, the correlation areas of pressures and vibrations coincided. This conclusion is particularly important for selecting the distance between adjacent receivers within the structure of a side transducer array. The noted phenomena which had turned out to be common, in the physical sense, for different platforms, were observed most clearly in the low-frequency part of the spectrum and later on were taken into account in the D&D projects on development of receiving arrays located in bow domes. The design of such arrays, beside the requirements for acoustic transparency, must also meet the conditions ensuring minimum level of a ship’s noise generation. Fourth, statistical characteristics of levels, correlations, distribution of probabilities of transient hydroacoustic noise on the class-671 submarine were established. Fifth, the opportunity existed to establish the role of the bow-wave appearing when a surface ship is under way as a complicating factor in selecting parameters of the receiving arrays located in the bow dome. Sixth, the applicability of some new algorithms of signal and noise processing was confirmed. Unfortunately, the need for a great number of current-conducting wires in transmission cables, unavoidable in transmission of signals from multi-element arrays to recording equipment, strongly restricted (with the then available analog elementary components) broad application of side arrays in D&D. However, with account for the results,

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side arrays extended within reasonable limits, with reduced distances between receivers, were customary in sonar systems of the 1970–1980s. The above effect of expansion of the noise spatial spectrum also came to be taken into account in the design of bow receiving arrays. The distance between the receiving elements of these arrays must be correlated with the flexural wave length in the bow dome structure, in particular, the transducer array period should be selected by the upper, and not the lower or geometric mean frequency of the array working frequency band, especially when working at low frequencies. So, in the 1970–1980s, extended side arrays played an auxiliary role as compared with arrays located in bow domes. However, the task of making use of a carrier’s longitudinal dimensions arose again in all acuity in the 1980s in connection with the creation of conformal and conformal-skin type arrays, which required taking into account both the physical and the design features of their operation. This is particularly important in view of the fact that today there are technical opportunities for the creation of digital computeraided processing systems for signals from such arrays. Computers find application both in forming the directivity pattern and in the realization of space-time processing algorithms. From that moment, the general hydroacoustics-ship concept was regarded as unambiguously accepted by the designing organizations of the Navy and the MSI, and of course, the CRI Morfizpribor. It should be noted that work along these lines (Program ACSAS) in the USA began only in the late 1980s. We do not know about the results of implementation of this program, but research into noise stability of sonar arrays carried out by the CRI Morfizpribor in the 1960–1980s received high priority both at the conceptual level, and with regard to the obtained theoretical and experimental results. Certainly, noise stability of arrays is important, yet it was not the only objective of the creative efforts of the CRI Morfizpribor workers. Other directions of research existed and were developed, each worthy of a separate story. The totality of joint intellectual and technical effort aimed at solving the problems of interdependency of an array and a ship’s design created a scientific basis for designing arrays for various classes and applications. Work in this direction were carried out

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in the 1960–1980s to help solve the permanently expanding scope of problems posed by the customer. Beginning in the late 1950s and continuing until the present, this important area of applied hydroacoustic science had been the area of intensive scientific search and engineering design of a large body of researchers of the department of acoustics of the CRI Morfizpribor. Very important scientific and engineering results are associated with the names of R. Ye. Pasynkov, M. D. Smaryshev, Ye. L. Shenderov, V. Ye. Glazanov, A. A. Shabrov, V. B. Zhukov, V. M. Yefimov, G. Kh. Golubeva, B. I. Leonenok, V. V. Baskin, Yu. Yu. Dobrovolsky, R. I. Eikhfeld, A. A. Yanpolsky, and others. We talk today with confidence about creation in those years at the CRI Morfizpribor of a whole school of specialists, well versed in the technology of development and design of various receiving and transmitting arrays. It is necessary to mention here the designers of acoustic receivers and sources of different types, with which the names of B. S. Aronov, V. I. Pozern, L. B. Nikitin, V. V. Vinogradov, G. K. Skrebnev, R. P. Pavlov, N. M. Gribakina, and Ye. A. Korepin are associated. During 40 years and more, they and their colleagues participated in all the design projects of the Institute. In its scientific–technical expertise this body is still regarded as unique in Russia. The accumulated experience on array design (at the stage of the mid-1970s) required further development. New problems were on the agenda. This circumstance deserves special notice in view of the fact that in the mid-1970s, the period of a priori design mainly taking into account the statistics of noise and signal fields had actually come to an end. Questions arose about transition to adaptive algorithms of space-time information processing in more complex and temporally changing noise-signal situations. An article by V. I. Klyachkin and Yu. P. Podgaisky, “Aspects of the History of Passive Hydroacoustic Systems with Emphasis on Adaptive Processing” is dedicated to this trend. 6. Results and Thoughts More than 40 years have passed from the moment of my coming to the CRI Morfizpribor. Certain personal scientific, organizational, and

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technical experience in conducting research in the area of hydroacoustic science and practical realization of the results has been accumulated. Lying ahead for me, a relic of the war generation of the 1940s, is the last lap. My friends and companions-in-arms at the CRI Morfizpribor have not gotten any younger either. The majority of them have become celebrated scientists — doctors of science, professors, and candidates of science. Regretfully, many of them are no longer with us. But the scientific–technical school of home hydroacoustic science created with their efforts is still there; the greater part of the developed extensive technologies of hydroacoustic equipment design has found practical implementation — as a final collective result of intellectual interference of scientific–technical results obtained in the process of search. The time has come to “look around the compartments” and draw up the results. The more so that the present general situation in the country has strongly disunited the efforts of traditionally related organizations, created additional difficulties in further research, and their practical application in the interests of Russian science in general and creation of defense technologies in particular. Financial and organizational uncertainty, conceptual friability, incompletion at the level of posing strategically substantiated tasks both in the interests of the Navy and conversion technologies have created additional difficulties in the transition period which may lead to, and are already leading, to the disintegration of scientific schools and the accumulated design experience. In these conditions preserving the body of workers of the CRI Morfizpribor able, in their combination and experience, to solve most primary and related system problems, acquires a decisive role. There is no one to pass these problems to, and no one is able to solve them at the serious level required to produce a definitive result. For this reason there is only one way left to us: to preserve and multiply the basis of the knowledge, the existing school, the accumulated experience, and to permanently be on the lookout for new technical solutions. Seamen are waiting! Waiting and hoping!

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On the Basic Themes in Submarine Bow Sonar Array Development M. D. SMARYSHEV

The first post-war efforts by the young home hydroacoustic science community were the development of instruments and sonars for surface ships and submarines, including listening (DL) and echo ranging (ER) sonars. A prototype of many future developments was the DL sonar Feniks (Chief Designer M. A. Shtremt). It was equipped with a circular-scanning cylindrical array consisting of tubular magnetostrictive receivers with 1-cm-thick acoustic screens made from porous rubber. In another sonar, the Arktika (also Arktika-M), which was developed at approximately the same time, an original reflector conical array with a cylindrical transducer arranged along its axis was used. Operating in the active mode it radiated a cylindrical wave, which upon reflection from the reflector walls, was deformed into a plane wave, with a noticeable amplitude variation along the array aperture. The outstanding Russian acoustics scientist, L. Ya. Gutin took part in its development. During those years L. Ya. Gutin was a scientific adviser to our Institute. He assumed a specific manner of appearing at the Institute. He came once a week, sat at some free desk at which groups of colleagues gathered with all kinds of questions about theoretical acoustics; from the areas of mechanical oscillations, acoustic field formation, propagation, and active (magnetostrictive and piezoelectric) materials. His talk was always without haste, very concrete, illustrated with calculations. Unfortunately, many of his papers from that period have not been preserved. Some of them, however, were reflected in reports on research and D&D projects that later were found and published. One such paper (1956) was dedicated to investigation of the efficiency of the Arktika 857

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array. Part of this paper, entitled “Concentration coefficient of acoustic system comprising a conical reflector and a cylindrical transmitter,” was included in the collection of selected works dedicated to L. Ya. Gutin, Izbrannye trudy, L., Sudostroyenie, 1977. In the above conical reflector array the problem of direction finding was solved in an original way. Four magnetostrictive tubular receivers of a smaller diameter were installed around the cylindrical transmitter located along the reflector axis. Out-of-phase application of voltage generated at outputs of two opposite tubular receivers ensured shaping of the “difference” directivity pattern steeply sloping along the axis, and this allowed accurate direction finding to be performed in the plane perpendicular to the reflector axis. Later, instead of tubular magnetostrictive receivers, partitioning of electrodes of the piezoelectric transducer located along the reflector axis was resorted to, which gave certain finish and elegance to this type of a reflector array. The conical array had one serious drawback; it did not ensure forming of a static spread of directivity patterns, and to view some angle in space the array had to be installed on some rotary device, which definitely imposed limitations on its use. However, the great advantage of reflector arrays over phased arrays (a typical representative of such an array was the sonar Feniks array), consisted in significantly simplified hardware. This advantage stimulated search for ways of using reflector arrays for viewing larger angular sections in the horizontal plane (100–150◦ ) depending on the arrangement of the array on a platform, on a submarine in particular. It is hard to say who exactly (probably B. M. Yelfimov or B. N. Tikhonravov) proposed studying the efficiency of a reflector array called “a parabolic cylinder.” Approximately at the same time a description of an array of this kind appeared in radio engineering under the name “sand glass.” The reflector of this array had a surface coinciding with the surface of rotation of a parabola around the axis perpendicular to the axis of parabola symmetry and located outside the parabola. A string of receivers was installed along the parabola focal line. Directivity patterns were shaped by a parabolic reflector in the vertical plane, and with the help of relay lines in the horizontal plane. The idea of such an array was that it was able to form one or several directivity pattern spreads

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(in case of several rows of feeds being arranged in the focal plane) with comparatively simple hardware. But theoretical and experimental research conducted in 1957– 1958 by a group of engineers (Ye. L. Shenderov, V. Ye. Glazanov and the author) showed that “parabolic cylinder” arrays have low directional gain, and for this reason the development was discontinued; reflector arrays no longer were considered as basic bow arrays, while discrete surface arrays known in radio engineering as phased arrays found wide application. In the 1960s, in connection with the appearance of nuclear submarines and long-range weapons, intensive development of hydroacoustic science in Russia began. The requirements on hydroacoustic systems, primarily with regard to range and number of functions performed, became much tougher. Instead of separate sonars, each with its own control console, array, power supply system etc., the idea was formulated to create a single sonar system (SS) with possibly one set of equipment for performing all functions earlier distributed among several sonars. For this reason, the Yashma research project, executed in that period, was oriented toward improvement of sonar arrays by maximum possible combining of functions and modes of operation and increasing efficiency (radiated power, sensitivity, directional gain, etc.). A large group of talented engineers and researchers was attracted to work on the project Yashma. Probably the only candidate of science degree (Ph.D.) holders among them were A. G. Porfirova, Ye. A. Korepin, R. Ye. Pasynkov, L. N. Syrkin, and V. I. Klyachkin. This work was great both in scope and variety, and was performed under the guidance of a talented scientist and a versatile person R. Ye. Pasynkov (later, Professor, Doctor of Technical Science). The area of his personal scientific interests (connected with physics of active materials) occupied a quite modest place in the entire scope of search under the project. Nevertheless he managed, with the help of a system of scientific-technical seminars, and the establishment of an interested, creative atmosphere among workers, to unite the body of researchers ensuring fulfillment of a great amount of work at a high scientific-technical level. As a result of

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Yashma, a stable scientific foundation was built on which many subsequent research and D&D projects bore. Yashma raised a whole constellation of scientists and outstanding engineers who greatly contributed to modern hydroacoustic science. Here is an incomplete list of these people: Dr. Tech. Sc., B. S. Aronov; Dr. Tech. Sc., Professor, Honored Worker of Science and Technology of Russia Ye. I. Shenderov; Dr. Tech. Sc., State Prize winner V. Ye. Glazanov; Dr. Tech. Sc., A. A. Shabrov; Doctor of Physics and Mathematics V. I. Klyachkin; Candidates of Sciences Yu. Yu. Dobrovolsky, B. I. Leonenok, R. A. Sokolova, L. Ye. Sheinman, F. G. Blank, G. K. Skrebnev, O. A. Kudasheva, L. B. Nikitin, and others. As I have already mentioned, one of the main problems solved was combining the functions of several subarrays operating in different modes into one array. In this connection, the features of operation of transducers with different oscillation modes and with different connections of electrodes were investigated. The task of increasing the efficiency was regarded as an aspect of the task of increasing directional gain, since an isotropic field was believed to be the main field of noise. In that period, engineering methods were developed for calculating the directional gain for concrete array designs (transducer type, transducers arrangement spacing in array, amplitudephase distribution) and for increasing (maximizing) gain. I remember a story about three-dimensional arrays. Specialists at the N. N. Andreyev Institute of Acoustics, having made incorrect assumptions with regard to the nature of the remote noise field correlation, came to the conclusion that three-dimensional arrays would ensure maximum directional gain and insistently recommended their introduction into the D&D project. It took some effort to show them their mistake. The practical need for increasing directional gain brought about the necessity to place arrays of maximum possible size on platforms, and this, in turn, necessitated study of the efficiency of large system configurations. Today such arrays are called conformal — in those years they were described as “arrays following platform ship’s lines.” The methods of maximization of directional gain of an array of arbitrary shape were developed. Under the guidance of the outstanding physicist and mathematician V. I. Klyachkin, work started (and then successfully

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continued) on investigation of the effect of ship’s noise on an array, with noise sources being located in the immediate proximity to the array (array noise stability in the noise nearfield) (see the article by V. I. Klyachkin “Results are Born in Research” — Ed.). Simultaneously with the Yashma research project, work on development of Rubin, the first sonar system for nuclear submarines took place. It made use of the main bow array (this term was coined within the scope of the D&D project Rubin and later stayed in use in hydroacoustic engineering) in the form of a cylinder on a vertical axis outfitted with cylindrical transducers arranged around horizontal circumferences. The array combined operation in several modes, in the first place, the ER signals radiation and DL signals reception. The task was a rather difficult one, particularly for that time, when the radiating cylindrical transducer had to have a diameter approximately equal to a wavelength. Thus it was necessary to equip the combined ER and DL array with transducers of size λ × 0.5λ. This problem was solved thanks to horizontal orientation of the transducer axes proposed by designers. Such a solution was also made possible due to the relatively small angles of directivity pattern rotation in the vertical plane. The Rubin main array was a significant step forward on the way to hydroacoustic system improvement, despite certain drawbacks. The main one being that the DL upper frequency could not be higher than the radiated signal frequency (due to large dispersion at frequencies above resonance). At the same time, a number of new, interesting engineering features were employed in the array design. It used an original screening for cylindrical transducers. I think that the Soviet Union had been in the vanguard in the area of design and study of acoustic screens for transducers and arrays, much to the credit of V. Ye. Glazanov and his colleagues. I generally believe that use of cylindrical transmitters in multiunit cylindrical or planar arrays is a purely Russian invention. Much effort was put into development of the main array for the Rubin by the leading designers O. A. Kudasheva, B. S. Aronov, I. V. Shtalberg, V. A. Shturmis, and others. Simultaneously with development of Rubin, the SS Kerch was designed at the Vodtranspribor Plant SDB for installation on serial-produced submarines for which the bow ends did not allow the

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main array of the Rubin to be installed. The Kerch chief designer was M. M. Magid, array design was performed by the department headed by Yu. I. Popov. The D&D project Kerch’s scientific adviser was Dr. Tech. Sc. Yu. M. Sukharevskiy working at the Acad. N. N. Andreyev Institute of Acoustics. Operation of the Kerch in the principal modes was ensured by two bow arrays; the receiving cylindrical array outfitted with tubular magnetostrictive transducers (in these transducers, an alloy “nicosi” — NiCoSi, developed at the laboratory of the Ural Branch of RAS headed by the Corresponding Member of RAS Ya. S. Shur, was used for the first time as an active material) and a bilateral planar radiating array installed on a rotary device. Each side of the radiating array was meant for radiating signals at one of the frequencies used in the sound fixing and ranging mode. (The development of Kerch is described in the articles by B. Ya. Golubchik “Sonar System Kerch: The History of Its Creation” and D. I. Kalyaeva and L. D. Stepanov “About the Acoustics Department of the Vodtranspribor Plant” — Ed.). In the next two projects of the CRI Morfizpribor (Yenisei and Skat), it was decided to increase the upper limit of the DL band relative to the ER frequency. This was achieved in different ways. In the design of the main array of the Yenisei, the reversible transducer was discarded, and instead of one array, two arrays were installed; one cylindrical for receiving DL signals, and the other planar radiating, arranged under the first one, in a shape close to a semicircle (Fig. 1). The latter array was rotated around the vertical axis. These arrays employed different transducers, and this contributed to a more rational design for each one. However, the areas of each separate array were smaller, which reduced the DL array efficiency. For this reason, at the initial stages of development of the array under the next project, Skat, a decision was taken to make maximum use of the space allocated for the submarine bow array, abstain from dividing it into parts and make a single array with reversible transducers. It was also decided, with a view toward ensuring excess of the DL range upper boundary over the ER frequency, to employ cylindrical transducers operating in different modes. The idea was to emit ER signals when the transducer is switched to the zero (pulse) mode, and receive DL, ER, and SSSD signals as the transducer

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Model of a submarine with main cylindrical array arrangement.

is switched to the first oscillating mode. However, an experiment on an array model showed that, at switching to the first oscillating mode, significant irregularity in the frequency response curve occurred at reception, and for this reason another engineering solution needed to be found. A solution was found. As proposed by B. S. Aronov, a grid of tubular receivers was installed in front of the radiating transducers, for which receivers served as an acoustic screen. Such arrangement of transducers combined the receiving and the radiating arrays into one volume. The experience of such array operation, and the comparative analysis of performance of submarines outfitted with different sonar systems in different situations showed that the radiating array operation turned out to be even more efficient than required for an ER array, while the receiving array might have performed better. At the same time, investigations into the opportunities for application of arrays of a complex shape (in particular conformal arrays) did not stop after completion of Yashma. Research continued under the projects Kola and Aidar. Under the supervision of V. I. Klyachkin, theoretical and experimental research was carried out which showed that,

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with the receiving array surface getting closer to the dome, the receivers needed to be installed in a diminishing step in view of the drop in the noise correlation radius. A bit later specialists of the Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI proposed a design for arrays brought out into the flow, since in such case the correlation function of ship’s noise of dynamic origin became sharper, and, as a result, a significant gain in noise stability could be expected. However, very soon it was established that correlation function sharpening is accompanied with an abrupt increase in noise power, and for this reason a loss, rather than gain, may be expected in noise stability of the arrays, whose elements are exposed to the flow. Work on elucidating the mechanism of ship’s noise generation were continuously conducted at the Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI, and certain progress was due to the research work carried out under the supervision of V. N. Romanov. At our Institute, a noticeable contribution to investigations of this problem was also made under the Korpus research project supervised by Ye. L. Shenderov. Returning to the question of array shape, despite the fact a theoretical basis for design of system-configuration arrays of a complex shape (including arrays following the carrier hull lines) had been created back at the time of Yashma, arrays of the simplest shapes, planar and cylindrical, remained the center of attention of designers. (By the way, to my knowledge, cylindrical arrays, active arrays including, had appeared in hydroacoustics much earlier than in radiolocation.) The sonar Rubikon was an exotic exception. On the initiative of the chief designer, an extremely talented engineer, S. M. Shelekhov, two decisive innovations were introduced into its design. First, all room allocated on the submarine for the bow array was given to the DL array, while the ER signals array was brought outside the object bow end. Second, the bow DL array was designed in a non-traditional shape of an upturned truncated cone. It is hard to tell for sure today what had lead to such a solution; whether it was the desire to give an advantage to the beams arriving at the array from lower horizons, or the need to make ample use of the room allocated for the array. The array was arranged below the torpedo deck, and the shape of the room allocated for it was close to a semi-sphere, in which a cone inscribed better than a cylinder. From

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the point of view of gain in array efficiency, given the limited volumes for hardware and the number of channels, such a solution does not seem indisputable. However, the Rubicon had been crossed — and there appeared an array of a shape other than planar or cylindrical. After the ER mode had been excluded from the tasks performed by the main bow array, it turned into a purely receiving one; its external view and design also changed. Receivers were now manufactured of a comparatively small size, and the screen ceased to be an element of the receiver proper; in other words, not just the transducer, but the whole of the array received a screen. Roughly speaking, the array structure now presented some base (e.g. cylindrical) lined with a screen, on which separate receivers were arranged, with gaps between them being comparable with, or even exceeding, the dimensions of the receivers proper. In creating an actual array, a number of interesting and difficult (often contradictory) engineering problems arise. Here, the considerations of convenience in manufacture, trials, transportation, and installation on a platform need to be taken into account as well. The screen is a very important element of an array; it determines its efficiency to a high degree. With the screen displaying high reflective or absorbing power, its parameters must change as little as possible under hydrostatic pressure, and this prevents, or at least restricts, its use as a structural material. Taking into consideration the requirements on array strength under working loads, one should acknowledge that designing a modern main array is an extremely difficult task which must be solved through the efforts of a wide circle of specialists in different fields. From the moment of organization of a specialized department for array design its work was supervised by a talented engineer and an outstanding organizer of research and engineering design work of a large body of researchers, the State Prize winner, Cand. Tech. Sc. L. Ye. Sheinman. He contributed greatly to formation and development of array engineering at the CRI Morfizpribor and to hydroacoustics in general (he was also the chairman of the coordinating board on overboard devices). Later, his work was continued by Dr. Tech. Sc., Professor Ye. A. Korepin and Dr. Tech. Sc., Professor V. B. Zhukov.

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Beside those named above, many other engineers and scientists of the CRI Morfizpribor made significant contributions to the development and improvement of main bow arrays of submarine sonar systems. They include V. V. Baskin, B. I. Leonenok, Yu. Yu. Dobrovolsky, D. I. Kalyaeva, G. D. Grishman, V. A. Shturmis, R. P. Pavlov, L. B. Nikitin, Z. P. Shalayeva, V. I. Pozern, N. S. Starovoitova, N. M. Gribakina, Yu. V. Gurvich, L. I. Zinovyeva, G. A. Mikhailov, A. V. Mikhailov, A. I. Starovoitov, and A. Ya. Rinkis. The ever rising requirements on SS tactical characteristics resulted in the whole space in the bow end of submarines of the third generation being made free for the DL nose array arrangement, and the torpedo tubes, located there traditionally, were repositioned. An objective opportunity was created for placement of larger-size arrays of more complex configuration in the bow end. Of the more or less simple configurations, a spherical shape was found to be the most preferable. The decision to use a spherical array was probably also made because it was known that spherical arrays had been developed and are currently in use by the US Navy. In addition, hardware was supposed to be designed using digital computers and this enabled double-curvature array phasing to be performed. At the same time, an intensive search for ways to realize arrays that used, to the maximum, the carrier bow dimensions continued in the United States and Russia (today such arrays are known as conformal, or conformal-skin). A series of research projects executed here, in Russia, showed that creation of conformal-skin bow arrays is a difficult task in the extreme. It can be solved only with a joint effort of specialists from different fields and the allocation of considerable resources.

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A History of Creation of Towed, Flexible, Extended Arrays V. I. POZERN

In the early 1960s, interest in the use of infrasonic equipment appeared at the CRI Morfizpribor. According to available data, this equipment promised an unprecedented increase in a sonar’s operating range. Work with the new frequency range began under the supervision of A. I. Glazkov, who had shortly before defended his dissertation for a candidate’s degree and was head of the body of workers of System Laboratory No. 24. A research project with an optimistic name Rassvet (“Dawn”) was launched. For solving acoustics problems in this new area, a specialized research laboratory, No. 43 (RL-43) was organized in 1963. The laboratory’s work was assigned to the best qualified and the one with the most initiative of the acoustics engineers, the young Candidate of Science (which was quite a rare degree in those times) B. S. Aronov. I accepted an offer to become his deputy. From the very beginning, an atmosphere of friendship and cooperation was established in the laboratory. The fact that it was a novel theme, as well as the regular seminars conducted, for the most part by Aronov himself, and that the majority of the people had time to work only at this laboratory, and each one had been assigned a task with account for his interests and capabilities, contributed a great deal to the atmosphere. For example, beside my main duties, I received an assignment to manufacture low-frequency transmitters for calibration of the receiving devices we made under conditions of the test basin and the Ladoga Test Range. At the time, standard equipment for operation at such low frequencies did not exist. Gradually, picking the necessary people, Aronov organized a modeling section within the laboratory with five 867

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mechanics — masters of all trades who could manufacture anything. N. V. Vitvinsky, for example, beside being a good turner and fitter, was a professional diver, an expert on high-pressure instruments, and a qualified engraver who could make both the medal and a mold for a badge. When need arose for an underwater plane, he brought a truckfull of old paravanes and kite otters to the Ladoga Test Range from his friends at RI-400. Then the laboratory acquired its own designers and industrial engineers and, as a result, a closed-cycle section was formed. It is hard to over-estimate the advantages of such an organization — and not in only making models. For example, in the course of manufacture of prototype receiving arrays, water ingress into the housings of electronic units was noted at hydraulic tests. A whole quarter of the Institute was like a bee-hive, but the design department was refusing to change the design and insisted that it was the fault of the production unit. Only after the “own” designers of electronic units, with V. G. Portnov at the head, appeared at the laboratory, did they replace rubber seals with welding ones and settled the question. 1. Finding an “Ecological Niche” for Towed, Flexible, Extended Arrays (TFEA) Already in the first year of functioning of the laboratory, its workers took an active part in an expedition to the Northern Fleet for investigation of ship’s noise in the low-frequency range with the purpose of determining a location for an array. Noise reception was carried out with the use of standard measuring hydrophones. Study results pointed to the fact that a ship’s normal receiving devices were unable to discriminate the useful signal in this range because of interference from the discrete noise of the ship’s own equipment. The results were processed by Yu. P. Aleksandrov, who later joined the group of violent opponents of the infrasonic range being used for shipborne hydroacoustic equipment. In the following year a similar expedition to the Pacific Fleet was undertaken — this time using specially manufactured vibrationstable, high-sensitivity receivers. Almost the same result was obtained,

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however. There was no place, it seemed, for infrasonic arrays on board a ship. Some hope was entertained with regard to the compensation methods developed by V. G. Lyapunov with colleagues at the Acad. N. N. Krylov CRI. They yielded good results under laboratory conditions. However, under natural conditions these methods were found inefficient. A way out was found in the use of flexible extended arrays towed at a considerable distance behind the vessel. Later they were called TFEA. The first model TFEA’s were assembled using seismic detectors used by geophysicists for oil prospecting in coastal areas. In 1964, we tested them while being towing behind a surface ship of the Sukhumi base of the ACIN on the Black Sea. Then TFEA’s were installed on a submarine and trials continued in the Pacific Ocean. The trial results were promising: discrete noises were not detected, but the level of the continuous part of the spectrum was quite high, especially when towing from a surface ship. Further work consisted in the study of sources of noise and search for the methods for their reduction, in development and improvement of new types of TFEA’s and in conducting full-scale trials of the new arrays. For many years, Vladivostok and Bolshoi Kamen became the second home for my young colleagues V. V. Adamsky, V. M. Gavrilin, A. A. Gurvich, and A. K. Rachkov and me. Our female colleagues, L. A. Vinogradova and N. A. Rachkova, also regularly visited, but only I. V. Gerasimova had the luck to be included on the sea-trials team. 2. “Science” and the Equipment “All science on deck, pull out array!” the command came immediately after surfacing and opening the top conning-tower hatch. In those times (the times of the Rassvet) the cable reel on which the array was wound was installed inside the conning tower fairwater, and the array was pulled to the stern through a tube about 15 cm in diameter that was bent to follow the submarine lines. Recovering the array was an easy enough job for four men turning the cable reel. To tell the truth, toward the end of the take-in, the reel weighed over a ton, and it took an effort to turn the reel. But deploying the array was even more difficult.

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The first models were placed inside a PVC coating that became hard at low temperatures and lost elasticity with time under the action of the diesel fuel used as a tube filler. When unreeling the array, it kinked and some sections preserved the coiling curvature radius. It was difficult to get them inside the tube. For this reason, the tube was removed at some sections, and the array then could be pulled. Naturally this was the job for the “science” to do. Beside me, the name “science” was also permanently applied to the group of shop mechanics and — at times — even to the customer’s representative, M. V. Zhurkovich. Once, after some of the array sections had been painted white for performing photography from the air, pulling it through a tube became completely impossible: paint mixed with oil caused friction so great that it seemed easier to break the array rather than pull it through. All we could do was to get to a shallow place and wash the array (600 m long) with acetone. On another occasion the array, on the contrary, partially got protruded by itself from the tube opening and a loop formed that became wound on the screw. The screw rotation was blocked, and we had to surface. Following the command “science on deck!” we rushed to look into the matter. It was a warm summer night. Waves were quite high and soaking us from head to feet. The submarine jerked now astern, then forward, and we stood on the stern pulling the array, which alternatively yielded to our efforts, and then, again, started winding up on the screw and going under water. Finally, we managed to free the screw. It is interesting that, after disconnecting the broken section and joining the two remaining parts of the array, we managed to continue trials. It is true that 20 years later the deployment of arrays while submerged was performed automatically calling for no physical strain. However, moral strain persisted, since there was no assurance whatsoever that the array would get pulled in normally. The array deployment and recovery unit, designed at the Proletarsky Plant, often failed. It would start reeling up the array “at random,” resulting in a general halt to operations. By the way, during those trials we were no longer referred to as “science” but as “workmen;” “workman Pozern, to the seventh compartment, pull in the array, go!” Getting such a command I rushed, or rather,

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pushed through, the whole of the submarine to the torpedo compartment to supervise performance of members of the crew instructed to pull in the array and to register “incidents.” By that time the array was totally different; it had a polyurethane oil-resistant coating, absolutely elastic at any temperature and with a light non-fluid “thickening” filler named silon developed specifically for us at the State Institute of Applied Chemistry. The array had a great number of other features that gave it the ability to withstand multiple layer-over-layer rewinding under tension, and maximum noise stability. This was achieved by the long-term effort of a large body of specialists. It is interesting to recall the principal milestones of the work. 3. Development of the TFEA Design The main TFEA components are a hose-like array, hydrophones, transmission lines, and connectors between sections. Later electronic preamplifiers and frequency-division multiplexing units were added. All of these components are heavier than water. The main property of a TFEA that needs to be ensured by a designer is zero buoyancy. Any deviation of the array’s specific weight from that of seawater results in the array moving at an angle to the horizontal, and the level of noise at the hydrophones increases abruptly. Zero buoyancy is ensured by a light-weight filler with specific gravity less than unity. The lighter the filler, the smaller the array diameter, the more flexible is the array and the easier is its placement on deck. The filler type determines the array type. A hose-type array has a fluid or viscous filler; a cable array has a solid filler (polyethylene), and an array with a reinforced sheath has a gaseous filler (air under pressure). All these types were developed by our designers under the guidance of K. N. Zaitsev. Different array components (sheath, cable, filler) were designed by subcontractors on the order of our industrial engineers working under the guidance of G. Ye. Mikhin, a very resolute person and former naval commander. For each array type individual receivers having vibration resistance were designed. A great contribution to the development of different structures of receivers (and transmitters) was made by the early deceased B. M. Stepanov.

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The TFEA structure needed to withstand high towing forces, and — most important — multiple layer-over-layer re-winding. The latter task was particularly difficult, since all TFEA elements needed to be made lightweight and strong at the same time. Naturally, they had to withstand exposure to high hydrostatic pressure. Each of the above types of TFEA designs had its advantages and drawbacks. The last of the array types designed with my participation (for the Skat-3 sonar) took advantage of all the positive features of previous designs. For example, remote communication between the array and the ship was ensured via a floating cable manufactured by our cable industry (earlier we dreamt of having the whole array manufactured this way, but we met with the difficulty of mounting receivers inside the cable). The thickening filler silon has the advantages of a fluid and the positive properties of a viscous filler (after thickening). The polyurethane hose sheath ensures strength and flexibility over the entire range of temperatures. The two-cable design facilitates allocation of receivers and electronic units. A set of plastic components in the form of hollow cylinders ensures intactness of wires and receivers on re-winding. 4. Manufacture of the TFEA’s The first model TFEA’s (then known under a more appealing name, BUKI) were assembled manually under field conditions; later a special bay for assembly of extra-long arrays was organized in small house attached to the test basin building and ornamented on the outside with impressive ocean mosaic designs. In this section, after cable components assembly and electric wiring, a hose was pulled over. For this purpose, original equipment was designed allowing the “stuffing” to be inserted inside the sheath inflated with compressed air. Filling with silon, which the State Institute of Applied Chemistry supplied in sealed cans, was performed with the array being wound on a slowly rotating drum; at that, the operator did not come into contact with the filler. After filling of the array its weight was determined by submerging it in a tank filled with water and estimating its buoyancy in seawater from tabular values. Buoyancy was adjusted to the necessary value

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by changing the amount of the filler. Filler thickening was performed with the extended sections. The same operation was used to check section strength at re-winding under tension. With the help of special calibration devices sensitivity of the acoustic units and the magnetic position transmitters was tested; a control signal was used to check operation of the frequency-division multiplexing system. All mechanics working at the extra-long array bays were professionals and could perform any operation. The most experienced among them was foreman B. Mikhailov. Special thanks is owed to the Institute’s technologists and, personally, to Ye. G. Granat for the equipment at the bay. 5. Conduct of the TFEA Trials TFEA’s trials were divided into mechanical and acoustical. Acoustic trials consisted in measuring the level of noise and the times of signal detection for different towing modes. The greater part of model trials took place in the waters of the Ladoga, with the array being towed behind surface ships. Some models were tested in sea conditions on submarines. Such expeditions were regularly organized to different Fleets of the country (Fig. 1). In the first experiments using surface ships, conducted on ships of the RI MorGeo in Gelendzhik, we met with an unknown cable vibration noise, the so-called triboeffect. We studied it with the help of specialists from the Bonch-Bruyevich Institute. By the end of the research project Akveduk, directed toward investigation of TFEA’s (1969–1972), we knew how to evaluate and individually predict the contribution of a great number of different noise sources. V. M. Gavrilin had the greatest success in this work. For evaluation of the vibration noise contribution, measurements of sensitivity to vibration of all the receivers, both in air and water, were made. A series of papers on this subject was published by I. V. Gerasimova. Of special interest were the original mechanical and climatic trials of TFEA’s. For model testing of multiple re-winding at zero temperatures, a special set-up on the test ship Terek was used. The ship was fixed at some point at a depth of about 40 m. The model TFEA with a load of 200 kg at its end was alternately let out to the bottom and then pulled

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Fig. 1. Model TFEA’s trials on the Ladoga base (1970). In the forefront (left to right): G. P. Pamolin and N. Stulenkov In the rear: V. I. Pozern and M. Ye. Skalsky.

in on the reel. In the course of trials the model had the temperature of water, which in winter could be close to 0◦ C. V. I. Katsman conducted these difficult and expensive tests. Later A. K. Rachkov and myself assembled a special set-up that could be placed in a thermal chamber that allowed multiple re-windings under tension to be imitated. With the help of this set-up tests could be conducted at any temperatures, at any time of the year, and at less cost. In this way we confirmed the great strength of arrays in polyurethane hoses. I think there were no analogues to our freezing-defreezing tests of TFEA wound on a reel. It took about 2 h in a basin with water temperature of 16◦ C for a reel with the device to defreeze after being cooled to –30◦ C, but in the bay of Ladoga Lake where water temperature held at 1–2◦ C, this process took almost 24 h. From the results of these tests a question arose of providing heating in the gondola where the TFEA was kept on the submarine. Shipbuilders, however, failed to solve this problem and limited themselves to a table in the array service

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manual where the time was indicated before deploying the TFEA after a submarine had been on surface in frosty weather. Much effort was spent on development of the so-called start– stop mode of towing at which, by way of fast paying-out of the tow cable, array immobility relative to the water was ensured for a short period of time. In such a situation hydrodynamic noise was reduced by 20–40 dB. In spite of the fact that the designers of the device Ruza for array deployment-recovery (its manufacturer was the Proletarsky Plant) spared no effort in its improvement, technical difficulties prevented the method from being used. The Ruza, even after the start–stop mode had been finally rejected, stayed in service for quite a long time and continued “chewing” our arrays in the normal installation mode.

6. Introduction of the TFEA’s It should be noted that for quite a long time thinking about TFEA’s among sonar chief designers at our Institute remained somewhere between indifference and repulsion. In this connection, money allocations for their development either come in a thin stream or stopped altogether. Finally, at some moment in the second half of the period of development of the SS Skat, a decision was taken by the top authorities to include a TFEA in the set of its equipment. The Skat project leaders, with the participation of D. D. Mironov, carried out considerable work improvement of the electronic and display parts of the TFEA subsystem and provided serious support to designers in conducting manufacturer’s tests and the state trials, which took place with the Northern Fleet in 1980. The workers of our laboratory, V. I. Zarkhin and R. I. Grinevich, took part in these trials and showed their worth. For example, they saved the situation when they “rejuvenated” the PVC hose by heating up the whole of the array, which helped to remove residual deformations and also reduced the flow noise. An improved design of TFEA was developed for the SS Skat-3 fifth subsystem. The length of its active part reached 350 m (instead of the former 80 m), it was more reliable and noise-proof. Trials were carried

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out in two stages; chief designer’s trials at the Production Association Akson at the Northern Fleet, and state trials at the Pacific Fleet. During the first stage, the chief designer of the frequency-division multiplexing circuit A. I. Lonkevich and myself managed to reveal and eliminate a number of serious drawbacks in the system for channel gain control. We also gathered experience (mostly negative) on the LEG (lifting-extending gear) operation. In the second stage the LEG still performed poorly. Once, because of its failure, we had to disconnect the array from a submarine on the move and lift it manually onto the auxiliary ship’s reel. On several occasions the sheath of the towing cable and the array were found damaged before installation on the LEG located in the gondola on the submarine stern control surfaces. This happened due to non-observation of the operating instructions and even inappropriate safeguarding of the array in storage, but every such occasion had a strong resonance. We had overcome all difficulties with the friendly support of our colleagues — SS designers, the ever indefatigable and omniscient F. N. Shifman, the sharp-witted and resolute M. Ya. Andreyev and other old “comrades-in-arms.” Not without adventures, but generally with success, our TFEA subsystem passed all trials and was put into service. Here is one more instructive story about development of a towed array for the sonar Pelamida in which we took part as subcontractors of the CDB Rubin. The array designed at the CDB Rubin was about 12 cm in diameter (two times the Skat-3 array diameter) and was enclosed in a strong braid sleeve similar to that of a fire hose. Its internal space was filled with a quite rigid rubber mass. The array length was 80 m. Naturally, such array could not be wound on a reel, and for this reason it was transported in short sections which were joined together. The ACIN consultants guaranteed reduction of the level of hydrodynamic noise due to increase in diameter by not less than 40 dB. In 1983, comparative trials of this array and the respective part of the Skat-3 array were carried out. Trials were supported by the submarines base in the Balaklava Bay near Sevastopol. The results were convincing. They demonstrated the advantages of “our” array both

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in operation reliability and in noise stability. The predicted vibration noise growth due to increase in diameter and loss in array streamlining found confirmation as well. So our many years’ investigation of noise was not in vain. The results allowed our leadership in the person of S. M. Velichkin to make a decision to outfit the sonar Pelamida with towed arrays based on the design used in the Skat-3. Thus, by the mid-1980s, the long epic of creation of serviceable TFEA’s for the Navy was successfully over, but exactly at that time unusual, extraordinary things started happening at our laboratory… 7. About the Working Body Back at the time when our laboratory, RL-43, was still in the process of organization, it occupied a gym-hall because of lack of space at the Institute. Our place was under the basketball backboard. It was probably because of this circumstance that we went in for sports, and kept this interest long after. Everything began when we acquired dumb-bells, and during short breaks in work our men “played” with 16 and 32 kg weights. As a result, all five representatives of our small (we were 12 strong then) laboratory became prize winners at the Institute’s championship, and three people took first prizes in their weight categories. Later we regularly held our own sports and athletic meetings in 10–20 events, of which most were invented by us. For example, a new technical kind of sport was proposed, the wind-arm, which consisted in rotation by a participant of the handle of a Feliks mechanical adding machine with maximum possible speed. The instrument counted the revolutions, and the winner was determined by the number of revolutions made in 15 s. The record of almost 120 revolutions was established by G. I. Korolev, that is, he rotated the handle at an average speed of 480 r.p.m. Almost all members of the laboratory took part in the competitions, each event had its leaders, like in big sports. At the time of such sports and athletic meetings our press-center worked actively, I. V. Gerasimova was responsible, and published the results and prepared the masses for the next competition. Another organizing and uniting moment was inventive activity. New tasks created a favorable atmosphere for that. Over several years

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the laboratory invariably won prizes at creative shows, and we used this money for collective trips to the Institute’s rest base in Ust-Narva. Beside joint work at the laboratory and multiple professional trips, holiday parties played an important role in bringing us together. I would rather call them “recitals,” since preparation for every such party required utmost intellectual and creative effort from each participant (preparation of a colorful program, reports, completing of traditional humorous questionnaires, composing ditty-songs, preparation of special issues of wall newspapers, etc.). The most grandiose party took place on the 20-year anniversary of the laboratory. The celebrations took place in Ust-Narva and lasted three days. Special tickets were issued and all main collaborators were invited. Later, all participants continued wearing, with pleasure, the badges made especially for the party; very attractive buttons with an outline of a submarine with a sea-skate in the background. In the center the symbol of RL-43 was placed, its central field was painted red for veterans of the laboratory, blue for those who had come later, green for the young, and white for the honorary guests. A great party was held in the main hall, the walls were decorated with wall newspapers of different years and all kinds of slogans and posters. There were many successful performances, the audience especially liked Adamsky’s talk over the telephone with a customer (supposedly, with mild-mannered M. V. Kuznetsov) to who Adamsky was trying to explain why acceptance of an array with a kit of installation tools left inside was absolutely necessary. On the next day there was a game of volley-ball, a sauna, and a group photograph. At that time the laboratory had already been renamed RL-130. It was part of a system department and consisted of two research sections: RS-131 and RS-132. B. S. Aronov was head of RL-130, and V. I. Zarkhin head of RS-131. It must be noted here that despite the good relations with V. I. Zarkhin, his last appointment to the position of head of RS-131 had hardly been accepted by anyone seriously, and the people still continued relating principal technical and organizational problems to Aronov. But soon after the jubilee party the director issued an order for reorganization. The RL-130 was liquidated, the two sections with their heads remained, and Aronov was left out.

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8. An Episode from the “Civil War” I would prefer to forget this time. The body of the laboratory broke up. The veterans (red badges) arose with indignation to protect the founder and ideologist of the work on the TFEA’s, B. S. Aronov. Some of the women (blue and green) and the keenly orienting working class supported Zarkhin, but the greater part (as usual!) stood by biding time. The long fight with involvement of all public organizations and the city Communist party committee brought no results. So we were compelled to migrate from the RS-131, and scattered over other subdivisions of the Institute. Further development of towed devices went on, but now without our participation. 9. Conclusion Over the entire period of its formation, the infrasonic theme had both ardent supporters and no less violent opponents. While the former were sure that development of very low-frequency techniques would allow the operating range of systems to reach across the world’s oceans, the latter predicted that the operating range of the towed “tails” would not exceed their own length. As always, the results obtained were found somewhere midway: not the whole of the world’s oceans, but the range comparable with the range of the principal arrays, plus additional information for target identification. The ardent supporters’ disappointment was, in all evidence, connected with the fact that the truly infrasonic range had not been technically realized in shipborne sonars: it was rather the low-frequency audio range. While the skeptics had missed the mark due to the efforts of all designers of these original systems being so much unlike all other arrays used on the ships of our Navy.

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The History of the Stepped Array G. KH. GOLUBEVA

This is a story with a difficult beginning and a good ending — and not just for the author. In my view, the result of this work gave a strong impulse to the development of a whole new direction in home hydroacoustics. This direction provided an opportunity to equip the fleet (mainly the submarine fleet) with series-produced circular-scanning and side-scanning sonars. It all began in the mid-1960s, when quitebusiness-minded young leaders, the fathers of modern home circularscanning and side-scanning sonars, S. A. Smirnov and D. D. Mironov, came back strongly dissatisfied after trials in the North of a working model sonar they had made with their hands having a “home-made” array. They applied to us with a request to develop a highly directional, high-frequency array with a cosecant asymmetric directivity pattern (DP) in the vertical plane for a sonar designed for observation of the body of water over the submarine while it hovered. The difficulty was that the array had to be single-channel, of small size, and its design and manufacture had to be completed in less than a year. To be truthful, the customer promised to take care of all the troubles of its manufacture, because in that period they had at their disposal a model workshop in which the outstanding mechanic V. M. Kiselev worked. We also had an opportunity to perform express modeling at our model workshop in those years working under the guidance of a master of his trade Ye. A. Svetoslavsky. We started, as it were, from a clean sheet, without either any data, or even experience in development of multi-element arrays, because at that time we had been actively working on reflector arrays for the D&D projects Radian, Lan, Olen, and the research projects Yashma, and Dvina. Among those arrays there was a version of a reflector array 880

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with a cosecant DP developed within the scope of the research projects Panorama and Yashma. The design of this array, developed under the research project Yashma by me in co-authorship with A. A. Shabrov, was covered by an invention certificate. Besides, when the designers of the hydroacoustic bottom mine detector Mezen from Taganrog met with problems during sonar trials in Tallinn, A. A. Shabrov recommended use of the reflector array of our design, and the Taganrog people successfully realized this recommendation. To our regret, there was no opportunity to install this array as part of Smirnov and Mironov’s sonar because of the mass and size limitations. We readily sat down to work since we were young and found the work interesting. We could not make mistakes because of an extremely short term assigned for the work. D. D. Mironov closely watched the work and constantly hurried us. I was appointed the array design supervisor; B. M. Yelfimov, despite his being extremely busy as the head of a big department of acoustics, provided active help. Evidently, he also took great interest in the work. Our purposefulness, active creative research, and the desire to help our colleagues advanced the work, and fortune smiled on us. A solution, as they later said, an original one, was found relatively quickly. We proposed to introduce the amplitude-phase distribution required for shaping the cosecant DP by way of a stepped arrangement of transducers in the antenna array, that is, by realizing it in a non-standard geometric way (Figs. 1 and 2). In all fairness it should be noted that a considerable amount of time in selecting the best variant of array design was spent on calculation of directivity patterns, since computing systems in those years were far from perfect. Work went on successfully, the array was made in the assigned time, and our customers again left on an expedition to the North. They came back quite content, with good results. Using their sonar they found a patch of ice-free water and surfaced to the enjoyment of the submarine crew, their own and ours — the array designers. As a result, the new navigation sonar Krug was born. The work on the detailed engineering

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Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Piezounits with electric connections.

Internal view after electric wiring.

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design began at the Institute immediately after successful completion of the trials. B. M. Yelfimov and I filed an application for an invention. We were granted an invention certificate and later a, quite handsome for the time, sum of money for its introduction: 2000 roubles each. That was the largest royalty I ever received. As we see, those were the times when introduction of an invention could be rewarded quite generously. The job that seemed so difficult at the beginning was completed successfully and gave rise to further development of single-channel linear arrays with cosecant DP, which found application in the R&D projects Delfin, Korall, Toros, NOR, Lotos, Krilyon, and 3403. Later engineering proposals were aimed at improvement of the cosecant DP: we either extended its “tail” (D&D projects Lotos, 3403) to create an equal-signal zone within the limits of 5–90◦ at minimum signal level of –30 dB; or reduced the array maximum linear dimension while preserving the cosecant DP shape in mutually perpendicular planes. This was not easy, since distribution was introduced by changing the array aperture configuration. There appeared submarines with straight sonar rooms, and the problem arose: how, without varying the streamlining, to rotate the highly directional DP of a single-channel array (D&D project NOR) adjoining the room. An array modification was designed which looked absolutely similar to the original variant. This was the cause of an annoying situation when arrays of different applications were wrongly forwarded to the East and the North, installed on submarines, and only then it became clear that they had been mixed up. As often happened, the sonar people were blamed. After the situation had been clarified, the sonar designers were no longer held responsible, but a decision was made to indicate, in the future, the device modification on its inside cover and have the same number indicated in the respective hardware documentation. It should be noted that, like today, in the “stagnation” period technological difficulties would occur. So, working under the D&D project Krilyon, the technologists, already at the stage of detail design, practically forced the sonar designers to take the only variant of array structure, since the mold for curing the mosaic structure of rubberized working straps was becoming too complex. The then chief technologist

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L. L. Rubanov announced point blank that he would agree to make such a mold only once. For one of the orders the array appeared to be too large to have it manufactured completely using the available equipment. To resolve the difficulty, a variant of the design of the “cosecant” array was proposed. In this case the array was assembled of separate pressurized interchangeable modules. Practically all new engineering solutions that improved the directivity parameters of the SSS and CSS arrays were covered by invention certificates, in which my co-authors in different combinations were A. A. Shabrov, B. M. Yelfimov, G. A. Mikhailov, E. G. Shmidt, and N. V. Pivovarova. The leading designer in all phases of development of arrays with a stepped arrangement of transducers was invariably the Honored Designer of the Russian Federation G. A. Mikhailov, who is still working with us. This is a respected and fine person, a designer, and an industrial engineer. Working together with such a person is especially easy and efficient — at the Institute and on professional trips, of which we have made plenty. It is necessary to note the invaluable professional support provided at the stage of the introduction into serial production by the V. I. Lenin Production Association (in Beltsi) of the systems Krug and NOK by the young specialist L. S. Karmanova and by E. G. Shmidt (projects Krilyon and NOR). It was the time when we developed new production processes, learned to quickly locate and eliminate faults, overcome difficulties in the process of array manufacture, and simultaneously help young workers at the manufacturer’s plants in organizing new production. Together with them, we gained experience. Here is one example. We wondered why, time after time, the parameters of an array for the system NOK failed to comply with requirements. We investigated the matter and found a simple reason. The manufacturer performed array measurements in a well filled with cold spring water. The units went from the assembly line directly into the cold water well for checking. We had to add to the technical documentation a requirement for a preliminary procedure to prepare an

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array for measurements under such conditions. Measurements had to be made at normal (about 20◦ C) water temperature. Before creation of a measurement database, since the latter requirement had not been observed, we had to introduce respective corrections accounting for temperature dependences. And then a big building appeared in Beltsi, with an excellent test basin, and … the whole production capability of the country collapsed. Nevertheless, slowly but steadily, things are moving on. New times have come and brought new stories. In conclusion, I would like to thank all who participated in the creation and introduction of stepped arrays.

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About Parametric Arrays D. B. OSTROVSKY

In 1978, the chief scientist for the research project Khingan, G. V. Yakovlev, proposed that sonar array designers look into the possibility of application of parametric arrays for Doppler logs. I presume his interest was stimulated by the information contained in one of the presentations given at the OCEANS-76 Conference. According to the Conference report, the Sperry Company (USA) designed a deepsea (up to 6000 m) Doppler log using a parametric array. From that moment, the CRI Morfizpribor began research into nonlinear acoustics as applied to hydroacoustics. Even though the investigators who were directly involved in this work, in particular, V. B. Zhukov and D. B. Ostrovsky, knew practically nothing about parametric arrays, there were people at the Institute who were familiar with this subject. As B. I. Leonenok remembered later, after reading the popular paper by P. J. Westervelt (1963) and the paper by H. O. Berktay in the book Underwater Acoustics (1970), he made calculations of directivity patterns and pressure and concentration ratios for a parametric array. E. V. Labetsky was quite familiar with the work of the Taganrog Radio Engineering Institute (TREI) on measuring parametric sources, and participated in the all-Union workshops “Nonlinear hydroacoustics-74/76.” In addition, the journal Sudostroyenie Za Rubezhom (Shipbuilding Abroad) published in 1976 a review paper on this subject by A. V. Bogorodsky. Later, when we performed a more intensive search for information, we even found an invention certificate (by the way, one of the earliest among home certificates) for an under-ice sonar with parametric radiating and receiving arrays (authors Yu. P. Pallei, Yu. P. Pelevin, and S. A. Smirnov, priority of 1975). 886

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Despite all the above, work in the area of parametrics was not conducted at the CRI Morfizpribor. At the same time, work in this area had been going on for almost 20 years, both in the Soviet Union and abroad. In their work the Soviet scientists possessed a broad theoretical basis in non-linear acoustics. In the author’s opinion, by the 1960– 1970s, two leading groups of physicists working in the area of nonlinear acoustics had been formed. The first, which conventionally could be called the Moscow State University (MSU) school, consisted of scientists from the MSU, the Institute of Acoustics (ACIN), the Institute of General Physics of RAS (IGP RAS), the Institute of Oceanology of RAS, and the Moscow Plekhanov Institute of National Economy (MINE). Formation of the second one, the Gorky group, began in the 1950s from the disciples of the celebrated radiophysicist A. G. Gorelik and graduates of the Gorky State University (GSU). The majority of these scientists worked at the Research Institute of Radiophysics (RIRP) of the Ministry of Higher Education. The greater part were transferred to the Institute of Applied Physics of RAS (IAP), the rest continued working at the RIRP or the GSU. The leaders in these groups were R. V. Khokhlov (MSU) and V. A. Zverev (IAP), working both in the areas of nonlinear physics, acoustics and nonlinear optics (as well as in other areas of physics), and so mutual enrichment with ideas was taking place. Both groups could be called schools in the full sense of the word, since in both there was continuity and joint work of four generations of scientists: “fathers,” “children,” “grandchildren,” and “grand grandchildren.” In the opinion of the author, R. V. Khokhlov, L. K. Zarembo, and V. A. Krasilnikov belonged to the elder generation; K. A. Naugolnykh, A. L. Polyakova, Ye. A. Zabolotskaya, S. I. Soluyan, and V. P. Kuznetsov represented the next generation; further there followed O. V. Rudenko, B. K. Novikov, I. B. Yesipov, and others. The elder generation of scientists of the GSU school working in the area of nonlinear acoustics application to parametric arrays consisted of V. A. Zverev and A. I. Kalachev. After them followed L. A. Ostrovsky, Ye. N. Pelinovsky, A. M. Sutin, V. Ye. Fridman, S. N. Gurbatov, Yu. M.

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Zaslavsky, Yu. A. Kobelev, and I. A. Soustova. The younger generation consisted of D. M. Donskoi, V. Ye. Nazarov, and V. Yu. Zaitsev. I will discuss the school of V. I. Timoshenko at the TREI later. So, by the end of the 1970s, when we had only started work on parametrics, the research foundation (commonly called the “research reserve”) already existed. In 1979, we issued the first bibliographical index of publications on parametric systems, which, though not being complete, still included 386 papers published in open sources. As was inherent in Soviet science during the post-war period, theoretical work was significantly ahead of applied work, and even further ahead of any practical realization of the work. In the 1960s, the modern theory of parametric radiating arrays was created. It was based on solving the nonlinear equation of acoustics proposed by Ye. A. Zabolotskaya and R. V. Khokhlov and later significantly expanded by V. P. Kuznetsov. The equation, which became known as the KZK equation, was a subject of multiple studies and modifications and is today accepted by the world’s nonlinear acoustics scientific community. The authors of the KZK equation used the ideas of nonlinear optics. Generally work on parametric radiating arrays at the MSU school was based on fundamental research by home nonlinear acoustics scientists generalized earlier in the book by L. K. Zarembo and V. A. Krasilnikov, The Foundations of Nonlinear Acoustics (Osnovy nelineinoi akustiki), in 1966. The book had no analogs abroad. Work in this area were further developed with account for the KZK equation in the book by O. V. Rudenko and S. I. Soluyan, The Theoretical Foundations of Nonlinear Acoustics (Teoreticheskiye ocnovy nelineiloi akustiki), 1975; which was later translated into English. As distinct from many devices broadly used in science and technology, but having neither concrete authors nor dates of their creation, it is possible to name both for parametric arrays. Parametric arrays are divided into radiating and receiving; both types employ the principles of nonlinear interaction of acoustic waves in space. For this reason, the parametric radiating and receiving arrays have much in common: the array aperture is formed in space, and for this reasons they are otherwise called virtual; the “physical” aperture is significantly smaller than the “acoustic” aperture; there is an

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opportunity to shape narrow directivity pattern at low frequencies by a small physical aperture; the directivity pattern does not depend on frequency (in the low frequency (LF) band). At the same time, technical realization of the receiving and radiating parametric arrays is different and is irreversible in principle, unlike the case with traditional receiving and radiating arrays. The official year of birth of radiating parametric arrays is 1960, their father is the American physicist P. J. Westervelt, who presented the main principles of the theory of parametric radiating arrays at the 59th Meeting of the Acoustical Society of America (J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 32(7), 934A, 1960); at the same meeting P. J. Westervelt, J. L. S. Bellin, and R. T. Beyer presented the results of experimental studies of parametric radiating arrays. In 1962, results of experimental work were published, and in 1963, the fundamental work by P. J. Westervelt was published (J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 35(4), 535–537, 1963), where the principle of operation of parametric radiating arrays was described, the analytical expressions for acoustic pressure and the directivity patterns were given, and their properties were analyzed. The paper was written so technically clear and so comprehensive that it was impossible for anyone to patent parametric radiating arrays. There was only room for additions and clarifications, and this was done later. The first of the known patents was granted to W. T. Clark (1967, USA). The situation with parametric receiving arrays was more complex. The Soviet scientists V. A. Zverev and A. I. Kalachev were granted authorship certificates for inventions of parametric receiving arrays with priority of March 31, 1961, and in 1965 their paper was published in the restricted, specialized journal Military Radioelectronics (Voyennaya Radioelektronika). As A. I. Kalachev told later, their open publication on the same subject had been shelved at the editorial board for 5 years and came out only in 1970 (Acoustic Journal, 1970, Vol. 16, no. 2). The paper included the theory of parametric receiving arrays and the expressions for the gain and the directivity pattern. In addition, the main properties of the arrays are described and analyzed. It should be noted that the Zverev–Kalachev theory of parametric receiving arrays, despite the fact that it was later developed for other than water propagation media, basically remains unchanged. At the

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same time, the P. J. Westervelt theory for parametric radiating arrays underwent significant changes; in the latter case only the principle remained unchanged, that is, the interaction in space of signals of two high frequencies with difference frequency discrimination. Beside the KZK equation, about 10 more parametric radiating array theories appeared by the end of the 1980s, the majority of which had been analyzed under the research project Vesy (1988), which will be described later. The applied value of the work by P. J. Westervelt was quickly recognized. After the first experiments by the author, work appeared on experimental research and the applied aspects of parametric radiating arrays by H. O. Berktay, in Great Britain at the Birmingham University; W. L. Konrad, at NUSC in the USA; T. G. Muir, at the Texas University, and others. There also appeared information about powerful parametric signal radiating sources, and test range experiments. The Soviet scientists staged experiments under laboratory conditions, and theoreticians investigated the approximate solutions of the KZK equation. In 1971, V. I. Plavko, S. I. Snesarev, and V. I. Timoshenko presented a report on experimental investigation of parametric radiating arrays at the VIIth All-Union Acoustics Conference; the work was carried out at the TREI, not so well known among nonlinear acoustics scientists. A paper on the same subject also appeared in the TREI collection Applied Acoustics in 1971. Beginning in the early 1970s, the TREI took the lead in investigation of the applied aspects of parametric radiating arrays. Work on parametric arrays gradually occupied the main place in the themes of scientific research of the Chair of Electrohydroacoustics of the TREI. Work was carried out under the supervision of the Head of the Chair, V. I. Timoshenko, who in just a few years managed to give this work top priority and gather a body of researchers, mainly young specialists and graduates of the TREI. In a few years experimental equipment was manufactured, a small acoustic basin was built, and a floating laboratory organized and equipped. In 1974 and 1976, the Chair organized all-Union workshops “Nonlinear Acoustics74/76”, and began annual publications of the collection Applied Acoustics.

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The workshop participants consisted of all researchers who had studied parametric arrays. According to V. I. Timoshenko and his colleagues, useful discussions were held between the representatives of the Moscow and Gorky schools, and interesting contacts had been established. The workshop organizers held some of the sessions outside the academic auditorium environment. Experimental demonstrations on ships were organized. The workshops participants watched multiple models in operation that had been developed by workers of the Chair. The workshop of 1974 was attended by R. V. Khokhlov (Rector of the MSU), who supported work on parametrics. In the mid-1970s Timoshenko engaged B. K. Novikov into joint work. B. K. Novikov worked during that period at the Chair of Physics of the Moscow Plekhanov Institute of National Economy and his dissertation for a candidate’s degree and his scientific interests were dedicated to parametric arrays. Novikov became the main theoretician of the Chair without formally being its worker. The majority of theoretical work and reviews on parametric radiating arrays written at the Chair before the late 1980s had B. K. Novikov as a co-author. In 1988 he defended a doctor’s dissertation on parametric arrays. The subject-themes of the Chair on parametric arrays were divided into a number of catagories. The hands-on work was done by postgraduate students, for whom the work served as a basis for dissertations. Thus, over 10–15 years, Timoshenko’s post-graduate students regularly defended their theses, and the subjects of their dissertations covered a significant scope of the problems on the development and application of parametric (mainly radiating) arrays. Here are the subjects of some defended dissertations: measuring parametric transmitters (M. S. Rybachek, 1978); receiving–radiating system (Ye. A. Voronin, 1979); account for boundaries in the interaction zone (S. P. Tarasov, 1982); phase characteristics of parametric radiating arrays (A. A. Grivtsov, 1983); broadband signal radiation (V. V. Gursky, 1984); self-demodulation mode (I. E. Grinberg, 1984); work on ice (A. M. Gavrilov, 1988); system for omnidirectional measuring transmitters (A. S. Kazakovsky, RI Shtil, 1989); parametric radiating array on summation frequency (V. Yu. Voloshchenko, 1993). The theoretical basis of all this work was the KZK equation.

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Beginning in the late 1970s, V. I. Timoshenko and his colleagues conducted experimental studies using parametric devices for different applications on research ships in seas and oceans, and actively worked under contract with industrial organizations and the Academy of Sciences. The results of the research work were published in the Applied Acoustics annual collections (there were 13 issues), where they occupied the greater part of their volumes, and in the thematic collections published by the A. N. Krylov CRI and edited by V. I. Timoshenko. Beginning in 1976, the Chair has participated in international conferences presenting its most significant research; papers regularly have appeared in the Acoustic Journal and in various collections. Workers of the Chair made presentations at all national conferences. An important landmark in research into parametric arrays was the publication of the monograph by B. K. Novikov, O. V. Rudenko, and V. I. Timoshenko, Nonlinear Acoustics (Leningrad: Sudostroyenie, 1981; translated and published in the USA in 1987). The book elucidates in detail the aspects of solution of the KZK equation as applied to parametric radiating arrays, and, based on the research carried out by the Chair, discusses the specifics of the work and gives the technical data describing the equipment employing the parametric modes of radiation and reception. A bit earlier, in 1980, the IAP RAS published a collection of papers under the title Nonlinear Acoustics. Theoretical and Experimental Research (Nelineinaya Akustika. Teoreticheskiye i eksperimenlalnye issledovaniya) edited by V. A. Zverev and L. A. Ostrovsky. Beside the review paper by the authors of the book on Nonlinear Acoustics, the collection included the papers by K. A. Naugolnykh (ACIN), L. A. Ostrovsky and A. M. Sutin (IAP). They were concerned with practical aspects and, in particular, obtained simple estimates of the parametric radiating array’s ultimate efficiency and gave recommendations on the realization of increased power capabilities. In the summer of the same year, a meeting of the Board on Physical and Technical Acoustics of RAS (with L. M. Lyamshev as Chairman) took place in Pyarnu, Estonia. The majority of the reports at the meeting were dedicated to nonlinear acoustics and its applications. Reports were presented by A. M. Sutin (on bubbles), V. I. Timoshenko (on work of the TREI), O. V. Rudenko

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and Ya. M. Zhileikin (on work concerning solving the KZK equation at the MSU) and others. The Board meeting was attended by A. I. Kalachev, K. A. Naugolnykh, A. L. Polyakova, L. K. Zarembo, and other leading scientists in nonlinear acoustics. It is clear from this brief review that by the late 1970s home science had accumulated considerable knowledge of parametric arrays — both on the theory of their design and on experimental research. All of this work was concentrated at the academic and educational institutions. Returning to the beginning of work at the CRI Morfizpribor, soon after the proposal of G. V. Yakovlev under the research project Khingan, the author of this article was sent to Gorky to the recently organized Institute of Applied Physics of the RAS. By that time there already existed long-term contacts in different areas of theoretical hydroacoustics with V. A. Zverev and the workers of the Department of Hydrophysics of the IAP working under his supervision. Representatives of the CRI Morfizpribor were hosted by the “fathers” of home parametric arrays, V. A. Zverev and A. I. Kalachev, who introduced us to the work on parametrics and the peculiarities of experiments in this area. Very quickly the question of conducting joint experimental work at the Ladoga Test Range of the CRI Morfizpribor was settled. In the beginning of 1979, the pumping signal source, a 100 kHz planar-piston transmitter was prepared. A. V. Bogatenkov, who by that time had accumulated experience in performing experiments with parametric arrays under laboratory conditions, was sent from the IAP for methodological support. Experiments at the Test Range were carried out with the participation of D. B. Ostrovsky and V. A. Novikov. Work continued as long as the ice situation permitted. The experiments resulted in a “lobe-free” directivity pattern (DP) to a level below −50 dB (no such experimental data were found in the literature), and confirmed the permanent nature of the main maximum width in the range of 2.5 octaves. In addition, they shaped a two-beam DP in difference frequencies. Later this work served as a basis for the design of a Doppler log at the RI Rif (Beltsi, Moldova). The new results and the existing data on parametric radiating array characteristics were favorably received both by the customer

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and colleagues working in the field. Several papers were published (authors V. B. Zhukov, A. I. Kalachev, D. B. Ostrovsky, and G. V. Yakovlev), and contacts were established which resulted in the then popular nonfinancial contracts on creative cooperation: with the MSU (L. K. Zarembo, and later, O. V. Rudenko), ACIN (A. L. Polyakova), IAP (A. I. Kalachev, A. M. Sutin joined later), RI Rif (A. Ye. Konoplin) and others. In the mid-1980, a small specialized research project Pamir (Chief Scientist D. B. Ostrovsky) was launched at the CRI Morfizpribor on parametric radiating arrays as applied to navigational modes of operation. Later in the process of the work, a communication channel was added. Array designers (I. I. Belyakov), oscillator designers (A. V. Maiorov), as well as a few sonar system designers, were involved in this project. In the summer of 1980, a graduate of the Chair of Radiophysics of the LSU, V. B. Zhelezny came to the Institute on an assignment, and the mini-group Ostrovsky–Zhelezny on parametric arrays was formed. Under the research project Pamir we tried to understand in a theoretical fashion the specifics of nonlinear transformation for difference frequencies of radiation: the pressure level, the DP shaping, the influence of the shaping zone, and increase in efficiency. Comparisons of the Westervelt, KZK and Moffett-Mellen models were made. In the winter of 1980–1981, a large-scale experiment was again organized at the Ladoga Test Range, this time with a 1.5-m array operating at a frequency of 11 kHz. Array transducer excitation was performed using the Doppler log Samshit oscillator. D. B. Ostrovsky, V. B. Zhelezny, and V. A. Novikov took part in the experiment. The results of the research project Khingan (narrow DP, low-side field level, constant main maximum width) were repeated qualitatively; but a narrow DP with low-side-lobes in the range of 26 Hz to 3 kHz, that is, almost 7 octaves wide, was obtained in the low-frequency range. Also the frequency response was measured in the same frequency range, and this provided an opportunity to compare the experimental data with the calculations made with the use of different methods; KZK, MoffettMellen, Westervelt, and others. It was found that the Moffett-Mellen method was preferable for determining the level of pressure developed

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at a difference frequency in the range of the difference-to-pumping ratio between 5 and 20. At larger reductions in frequency all methods yielded lower results than in the experiment, and at lower reductions the KZK and Moffett-Mellen methods converged. All methods failed to comply with the experimental data for the side field. The KZK method determined the dependence on distance, which is important for measurements being made at comparatively close range from the source, and for which the Moffett-Mellen method cannot be used. Note that calculations by the Westervelt method failed to agree with the experimental data for both the DP width and the pressure frequency response. In the course of the experiment, specific hardware requirements were developed. Signals of combination frequencies, difference frequency including, should not arrive at the signal source input from the power amplifier, since the own weakly directional radiation at these frequencies shapes a “skirt” on the DP increasing the side field level. It was found that common-type power amplifiers, tube and semiconductor amplifiers including, to say nothing of thyristor-type ones, are unable to transmit a “clear” double-frequency signal to the array (V. A. Maiorov noted this in his theoretical studies). During measurements at a comparatively small distance the strong pumping signal overloads the preamplifier, and the emerging nonlinear interferences are impossible to be separated from the difference frequency signal connected with medium nonlinearity. It was also found difficult to match the passive filter in a broad frequency range with the acoustic receiver. The measuring receiver input circuits required a dynamic range of about 100 dB in a broad frequency range. Within the scope of the research project Pamir, system requirements for the application of the parametric radiation mode for an echo sounder, Doppler log, under-ice sonar, and communication sonar were formulated proceeding from the tactical characteristics of these hydroacoustic systems. Opportunities for the realization of narrow-directional radiation were studied. V. A. Maiorov, who studied operation of the transmitting channel in the radiation mode of a two-frequency signal required for source excitation, obtained for the first time (there were no

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publications on this subject) the results on the features of an oscillating device design. The results of the research project Pamir, both theoretical and experimental, attracted the interest of both the customers (RIE of the Navy and RI of Oceanography and Hydrography) and the sonar system designers from the CRI Morfizpribor (designers of active and passive hydroacoustic systems I. V. Yemelyanenko, I. G. Astrov, and G. M. Osmolovsky). In the process of execution and after completion of Pamir, the “nonlinear” people from the CRI Morfizpribor found themselves completely adopted by the community of parametric array researchers and designers. They were invited to all events of a scientific and technical nature, contracts on creative collaboration with the MSU, ACIN, IAP, and RI Rif were renewed, new contracts with the MINE (B. K. Novikov), the Pacific Oceanology Institute (POI of FED RAS — V. A. Bulanov), and LETI (S. V. Ivliyev) were concluded. Working contacts were established on professional business trips and mutual exchange of information was carried out with Ye. A. Zabolotskaya, V. I. Timoshenko and his colleagues, V. P. Kuznetsov. We began receiving dissertations on nonlinear acoustics with requests for reviews. Beginning in the early 1980s a national effort began of applied research and development of systems employing parametric arrays. Studies of the physical and mathematical aspects of parametrics continued. In a series of test range experiments at the RI Rif (A. Ye. Konoplin), the possibility was established of scanning the parametric radiating arrays DPs at the difference frequency in an arbitrary range of angles (and not just within the DP of the high-frequency (HF) beam as it had been asserted in the well-known work by H. O. Berktay, 1970). Substantiation of this possibility had been made back in 1970 under the research project Khingan. Also, at the RI Rif, a series of model parametric radiating arrays were manufactured for profiling, for search for silt-covered objects (research project Shelf, Chief Scientist A. K. Dolzhikov), and for a Doppler log (D&D project Bokal-2, Chief Designer S. T. Baras). At the POI (V. A. Akulichev, V. A. Bulanov) parametric radiating arrays were used for evaluating the characteristics of bubbles in the subsurface layer. At the Xth All-Union Conference on

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Acoustics, V. P. Kuznetsov (Institute of Oceanology of RAS) reported on the application of parametric arrays and nonlinear effects in geophysics. L. A. Ostrovsky, with colleagues (IAP), published a series of papers on nonlinear propagation in solids, which served as a scientific basis for nonlinear diagnostics (D. M. Donskoi, A. M. Sutin, and others). V. V. Gushchin and Yu. M. Zaslavsky (RIRP) proposed a method of parametric radiating array DP scanning. On an expedition on board the RS Academician Lebedev (ACIN) study of parametric radiation with the help of ship’s standard equipment was carried out (K. A. Naugolnykh). A. L. Polyakova and I. L. Bazanov carried out a series of experiments on increasing the efficiency of parametric radiating arrays with the help of bubbles. In 1982, a monograph by N. S. Bakhvalov, Ya. M. Zhileikin, and Ye. A. Zabolotskaya with the title Nonlinear Theory of Acoustic Beams (Nelineinaya teoriya zvukovykh puchkov) was published, describing in detail the peculiarities of the KZK equation and methods of its solution. A series of papers on wavefront reversal appeared (F. V. Bunkin with colleagues, (IGP RAS), K. A. Naugolnykh with colleagues). Differentapplication model parametric sources and parametric receivers were manufactured at the TREI: for geophysical and oceanographic works, for a towed submersible (jointly with the CRI Morfizpribor), for echo sounding. A parametric measuring receiver was manufactured for fish stock monitoring, etc. Equipment was displayed at the National Exhibition of Economic Achievements in Moscow, a film on the search for Napoleon’s coach sunk in the Simlevsky Lake with the help of a parametric profilograph of the TREI was repeated several times on the TV; workers of the Chair, with the active participation of V. P. Kuznetsov, took part in the ocean expeditions on research ships of the Institute of Oceanology. The RI Briz, with the participation of the TREI, developed parametric channels for the fish-finding sonars Peskar and Sargan. A review of foreign patents for systems employing parametric methods of radiation and reception by V. I. Telyatnikov (Foreign Radioelectronics, 1980, issue 3) is also worth notice. In 1983, a large research project Orbita-PL (Chief Scientist N. A. Knyazev) was launched at the CRI Morfizpribor. Deputy chief scientist of the project G. M. Osmolovsky submitted to us a proposal

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to study the parametric mode for sonars. Earlier we began some studies in this direction together with G. M. Osmolovsky under the research project Agan. The scope of problems was related more to a system rather than to an array proper. The difference lay in the essence of the problem, since parametric arrays are not just sonar arrays: they present a combination of a sonar array, a section of the propagation medium, a radiation channel and a primary processing channel. It was necessary to solve the problems under the authority of system designers: determining the detection range; accounting for different noises, formulation of the requirements to sonar arrays, channel hardware, etc. Since parametric arrays presented a new means for active channels, the question arose of their comparison with traditional arrays. It is known that the parametric radiating efficiency is quite low, and comparison by the power (pressure) criterion common for arrays immediately made such arrays uncompetitive. At the same time, the main requirement for a system is not the power, but the range, the accuracy, secrecy of operation, and noise stability. There are also the requirements on power consumption, weight, and size, etc. It is clear that the result of the comparison is determined by the method of comparison. It was decided to take the target detection range as the main criterion; with the aperture areas, the oscillator device power consumption being similar to those of a traditional array; other detection characteristics (conditions of propagation, target parameters, receiving channel parameters, etc.) remained the same. Calculations made by the common methods of determining operating range showed that in the case of purely additive acoustic noise, the range of the channel with a parametric radiating array is equal to 30–70% of that of a channel with a common array. In case of a reverberation noise, the performance of the parametric radiating array exceeds that of a common array several times. At that, the narrow low-sidelobe DP in LF is preserved, that is, accuracy and secrecy are ensured. On the assumption of expanding the possible field of application of parametric radiating arrays and the need for verification under fullscale trials, opportunities for the operation of the radiating channels of the principal sonars of submarines and surface ships using parametric

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radiation were investigated within the scope of the research project (eight sonar types were considered in all). It was found that, from the point of view of parametrics, only one of the frequency ranges of the sonar MGK-100 is close to optimal. N. A. Knyazev and G. M. Osmolovsky proposed a program and a procedure for a full-scale experiment on the range-measuring channel of the MGK-100. Consultation was provided by an experienced system designer, the former chief designer of one of the units, I. M. Serebryakov. Preparations were carried out with the participation of a worker from the Department of Array Devices of the RIE of the Navy, O. V. Toropov. By the end of 1983, the documents were handed over to the RIE of the Navy, where they were supplemented by V. I. Fomichev and his colleagues who, as it was learned, had several years research into parametric radiating systems. They had at least two invention certificates with priority of 1978. At the time, they had already been participating in the research project Orbita and their own research project Apertura-84 (Chief Scientist A. P. Proshin). In the first quarter of 1984, information came from Moscow that experiments under the research project Orbita had been included in the plan of the first half of the year and that support ships of the Northern Fleet had been assigned for this purpose. A. P. Proshin, who for several years had been supervising work on parametric systems at the RIE of the Navy, took upon himself all further organization of work on full-scale experiments. In the middle of the summer, a group led by A. P. Proshin arrived in Ura-guba. The group included O. V. Toropov and S. A. Mikhailychev (RIE of the Navy), I. L. Bazanov (ACIN), D. B. Ostrovsky, and S. A. Borisov and V. V. Gursky from the TREI. The group members from Taganrog brought two scientific type signal generating units, and Toropov and myself brought 12 boxes of equipment and several measuring instruments which we carried by hand. A period of long waiting began, since, despite the respective instructions, the assigned ships remained unavailable. A. P. Proshin made telephone calls and sent demands, and started moving between the points of the triangle: Severomorsk–Moscow–Leningrad. At that time, the group was receiving the necessary supplies (cables, wires, connectors, alcohol, etc.), checked the equipment and, using

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the white nights (at the latitude of Severomorsk, the sun does not descend below the horizon in summer enough for darkness to be complete) and a favorable relationship with the submarine and formation commanders, selected the points for connection and installation. S. A. Mikhailychev even managed, half-legally, to go on a short cruise. Finally, a specific submarine was assigned and the date of a sortie was determined. But before the sortie the submarine had to perform another task. Naturally we met “our” submarine standing on the pier. The commander happily announced that our mission was cancelled because of trouble detected in the diesel power plant. After several days A. P. Proshin gave an order over the telephone for us to pack our things, because the experiment had been postponed for the second half of the year. The month and a half contributed to our knowledge of the organization of work in the Navy and of life in a closed settlement. We also got acquainted with the MGK-100, which the participants of the work had only known from the technical documentation. The next stage began in the middle of November, the same group with the same instruments arrived at the same place. The assumption that all documents were ready turned out to be false. All vessel tracks, all communication tables and other documents had to be redrawn. A. P. Proshin, again, spent most of the time “in offices” and at times communicated with O. V. Toropov over the telephone. But by the middle of December A. P. Proshin appeared in person, equipment for the “target submarine” needed for organizing direct radiation signal reception was loaded on a truck, and Toropov and Bazanov left for Zapadnaya Litsa. The rest of the group got on a truck and moved to Gadzhievo. As it was found, in Gadzhievo a submarine carrying the MGK-100 sonar was assigned for our needs, and our task was to install a parametric radiation channel on it. The young and very ironical commander of the submarine personally supervised the loading of our boxes. A team from the guarantee workshop of the Vodtranspribor Plant was already working on the submarine. The sortie was appointed for the next day, and it took place in the appointed hour, in the appointed place we met the “target submarine.” The submarines dived to a shallow depth and work began.

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The Taganrog people sat in the oscillator room and ensured operation of the shaper attachment, the commander observed echo contacts over the commander’s entire terminal, the rest of the experiment participants crowded in the sonar room. The first transmissions arrived. The recording oscillograph was turned on in the slow-scanning mode as an indicator of difference frequency echo signals. There was no signal processing. The sonar receiving channel operated in the standard mode. As echo signals appeared on the oscillograph, there were cries of surprise, since no member of the hydroacoustics group had seen such clear echo marks during operation in the distance measurement (DM) mode. The commander came to the room. Signals continued appearing on the oscillograph, while only reverberation was registered in the standard operation mode. The Taganrog people switched the shaper from one difference frequency to the other. We worked for 1 h when the vacuum-tube power amplifier failed. We had only 24 hours in which to work so the rest of the time, together with the crew, was spent at attempts to revive the channel. But all in vain… When back on shore, we took the tape recorder and the oscillograph to a laboratory organized at the workshop. A. P. Proshin ordered an express analysis of the tapes, since a second sortie was planned in 3 days. Primary processing showed that the number of received echo contacts was 30% to 65% of the number of transmissions. The commander of the formation announced this a record, since there had been only six echo contacts in the DM mode registered by the fleet over the whole year. A. P. Proshin reported the results to the “authorities.” Unfortunately, we had had no information from our colleagues who had to record the direct radiation signals. In the 3 days after the experiment their submarine had been performing another mission and did not return to the base. The second sortie was approved. The main problem was making the radiating channel operate, and the guarantee team got busy with this task. They reported readiness by the appointed date but A. P. Proshin feared that there might be another problem, wanted to take someone from the repair team on board. They refused: no additional remuneration for such jobs had been provided. Even the order of the

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CRI Morfizpribor chief engineer, to whom A. P. Proshin appealed over the telephone, was ignored. The shop superintendent distributed their salaries. Tuning and adjustment continued right up to the moment of the sortie. Only when the submarine had started moving away from the pier, the last one of the repair team staying on board was warned of the departure. He rushed up on deck, but the distance between the submarine side and the pier had already widened to 10 m. The worker, putting it mildly, was furious, from the shore his companions who had left in time waved their hands to him. Chief of the Radioengineering Service of the submarine stepped forward to settle the situation. He invited the angry worker to his room, from which they reappeared soon, quite content one with the other. The conflict was settled, and equipment performed without faults during the experiment. In the second sortie it was decided to repeat the program of the first one: radiation in the parametric mode first with the DM channel array, and then with the broad-directional array of the close situation channel. The submarine moved to depths deeper than on the first cruise. Soon our noisy submarine lost the “quieter” target submarine, its position could be established over the communication channel only very approximately. Therefore, we radiated signals only being guided by the matched maneuvering scheme. There were fewer echo contacts this time, but we got a chance to work in a broader difference frequency band using the high-frequency array. The TREI shaper allowed radiation to be performed not on the difference frequency only, but in the LFM mode with variable band as well, and ensured radiation of a multicomponent signal, which, in the estimate of the TREI researchers, was supposed to increase efficiency. When we returned to Gadzhievo, O. V. Toropov, and I. L. Bazanov joined us. They had successfully recorded all types of direct radiation signals, broadband signals including, as well as the pumping signals, which later helped to quantitatively evaluate the efficiency of the parametric transmitter. After preliminary processing of all data, several protocols were compiled at the base, which the submarine commander signed with pleasure. A. P. Proshin sent several coded messages to the naval “top

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authorities,” in which the most frequently used phrase was “for the first time…” Really, for the first time we realized a parametric radiation channel on standard equipment of a home submarine with the help of a simple attachment, demonstrated its excellent performance, obtained a LFM signal with a band over two octaves. Although until now we have not had direct information about similar work abroad, it is known that back in the mid-1970s, the most powerful parametric transmitter was developed and tested at the NUSC (USA). W. L. Konrad (the author of many articles and reports) was head of a department at the NUSC, and M. B. Moffett and R. H. Mellen were his civilian colleagues. At ARL of the University of Texas, a powerful parametric source had also been developed and tested under the supervision of T. G. Muir. Besides, the majority of articles on parametric systems published in the Journal of the Acoustical Society of America were written using work carried out under contracts with different organizations of the US Navy (perhaps, excluding the systems by P. J. Westervelt himself). So the first full-scale experiment was quite successful. An analysis stand was installed at the RIE of the Navy and several months of tape records were analyzed. Work was done with the participation of V. B. Zhelezny, S. A. Mikhailychev, D. B. Ostrovsky, and O. V. Toropov. Everything had to be done manually, there were no PCs then, and the main instruments were a recording oscillograph and a spectrum analyzer. Frequency translation was carried out with the help of a tape recorder, analysis was done with the use of a magnetic tape ring. A joint report (RIE of the Navy and the CRI Morfizpribor) was compiled, the materials of the experiment were included in all final reports on the research project Orbita, and were presented in defence of the theme — no other full-scale experiments had been conducted under this research project. In the second half of the 1980s, the number of studies of an applied type on parametric arrays grew and theoretical and experimental study of their properties continued. V. B. Zhelezny proposed a new method for calculation of parametric radiating array characteristics (Applied Acoustics, 1985, issue 11), which was later developed and named the wavefront method. The proposed method was based on integral characteristics of interacting waves and was developed for spherical and

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cylindrical wavefronts. Like the KZK method, it allowed the pressure dependence on range to be calculated. In the engineering sense the new method was simpler than the KZK method for powerful transmitters and, most important, and was closer to the experimental results than was the KZK or the Moffett-Mellen methods. By that time different authors had already shown the limitations of Westervelt’s calculation ratios, and the Westervelt method was not used. A. M. Sutin and V. Ye. Nazarov at the IAP investigated the characteristics of parametric radiating arrays in a bubble layer, showing the opportunities to significantly improve efficiency. Similar work was carried out by A. L. Polyakova. V. Yu. Zaitsev and A. M. Sutin started an investigation of propagation of difference-frequency signals for the case of multimode structure. It was later transformed to studies on nonlinear tomography of the ocean. V. A. Akulichev and V. A. Bulanov (POI, by then the Akulichev group was transferred to the Institute of Problems of Ocean Technologies of FED RAS) designed a digital measuring system for data processing of ocean soundings. Here, a parametric radiating array was an instrument of broadband radiation. Work on parametric arrays began at the Novosibirsk Electrotechnical Institute (A. N. Yakovlev) and work at the Far-East Polytechnical Institute continued (V. I. Korochentsev with colleagues). At the RI Rif, work began on an under-ice sonar (D&D project Nilas, Chief Designer G. N. Andrievsky), on design of equipment for divers, and on the creation of an echo sounder (D&D project Vazomotory, Chief Designer B. M. Manulis). The RI Rif and the Morfizpribor conducted a joint experiment at the Ladoga Test Range with logistical support and organization provided by V. B. Zhelezny. In this experiment, the sidelobe field of a parametric transmitter of as little as –75 dB was measured, which was very important for Doppler log development. At the LETI, S. V. Ivliyev carried out investigations of the Zverev-Kalachev receiver, and jointly with V. B. Zhelezny, performed measurements of the medium nonlinear parameter. At the Leninsky Komsomol Plant (Komsomolsk-on-the Amur), G. F. Vildyaikin carried out a series of experiments on radiation of ultra low frequency broadband signals in the parametric mode (a report was presented at the 11th International Symposium on Nonlinear Acoustics, Novosibirsk). Here,

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we should also note the work carried out at the MINE on economic substantiation of the use of parametric arrays, reviews by O. V. Rudenko on nonlinear interactions published in Priroda (Nature), and by S. V. Ivliyev on parametric receivers (Shipbuilding Abroad, 1984). Chapters on parametric arrays had been included in the textbooks (the TREI, the Leningrad Shipbuilding Institute, the MSU, the Gorky University, the Navy Academy, and other institutions of higher education). It would be fair to note that, excluding the Kiev RI Hydropribor, all hydroacoustics research institutes were involved, to one or another degree, in development work on parametric arrays, of which the greater part was dedicated to radiating arrays. By the mid-1980s, parametric arrays abroad were already available in the form of industrial prototypes. The most noticeable events were the trials in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans of the deep-sea parametric echo sounder-profilograph Atlas Parasound designed by the Krupp Atlas Elektronik Company (Germany). Based on the recommendation of V. P. Kuznetsov, two research ships under construction in Finland for the Institute of Oceanology were outfitted with the Atlas Parasound echo sounders. Despite the fact that these events had significantly increased the awareness of the potential of hydroacoustic systems with parametric arrays, neither these, nor the successful full-scale experiments under the research project Orbita, had made the Navy and the leading institute in hydroacoustics, the CRI Morfizpribor, interested in the application of the nonlinear acoustics. But a breakthrough had nevertheless occurred. In March, 1985, the CRI Morfizpribor chief engineer G. Ye. Smirnov organized a meeting that was attended by workers who knew one another, but had been working on different projects. Earlier, G. Ye. Smirnov had been ordered to go immediately to Vladivostok for participation in an interdepartmental commission for the evaluation of a parametric reception effect discovered by specialists of the Navy’s Far-East Test Range. He could say nothing of the essence of the effect, other than by using a simple attachment to the MGK-100 and MG-10 they had significantly increased their effectiveness and in the course of exercises had detected a target that could not be “heard” using standard equipment.

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A few days before the meeting, S. A. Mikhailychev told the participants of the experiment under the research project Orbita that a parametric receiver with a 1.5-m base had been realized at the FarEast Test Range. This disagreed with the Zverev–Kalachev theory. All laughed at another “idea” of the military and assumed that the matter was a channel nonlinearity, a typical beginner’s mistake well known to all experimenters. In 2 days, we were given air tickets and all necessary documents, the money was promised by telegraph transfer (and arrived!). On the plane, we met another group from Leningrad, the people from Moscow had arrived at the Artem Airport before us. All of us were put on a bus and brought to a hotel, and in the morning, again in a bus, were brought to the Test Range and gathered at the chief’s office. It was found that the chairman of the commission was A. P. Proshin (later the level of the commission was increased, the Chief of Staff of the Pacific Navy G. A. Khvatov was appointed the chairman). Among the members of the commission were Zh. D. Petrovsky (RIE of the Navy), I. B. Yesipov, and L. V. Sedov (ACIN), Yu. A. Mikhailov, D. B. Ostrovsky, B. V. Teslyarov, V. M. Khrustalev, and V. V. Yakovlev (all from the CRI Morfizpribor), representatives of the Naval Academy, the POI, the FarEast Test Range and other Navy units, 16 people in all. The effect which the researchers called parametric reception was discovered experimentally by A. S. Kravchenko and D. D. Kashuba. It manifested itself in modulation of the HF signal in case this signal got in the LF signal field, that is, actually, following the signal interaction model, it corresponded to parametric reception. A. S. Kravchenko said that he had requested from the IAP an interpretation of the “parametric reception” with a 1–2 m base, but A. I. Kalachev explained that, according to the theory, this is impossible, and advised him to look for nonlinearity in the hardware. The researchers together with colleagues conducted a series of experiments in the basin using manufactured attachments to standard hydroacoustic equipment. The attachments were capable of detecting the modulation components. Full-scale experiments and trials were conducted, including experiments during a Navy exercise. The Pacific Fleet commander, Admiral V. V. Sidorov, continuouly inquired about the research and, after a

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number of cases of successful signal detection, requested the formation of an interdepartmental commission. Among the commission members, of whom there were quite a few, only I. B. Yesipov and D. B. Ostrovsky, and probably also L. V. Sedov, were familiar with parametric arrays at the design level. To all evidence, the rest had only general ideas of the specifics of parametric arrays. Of course they had sufficient knowledge and were qualified enough to compare new and existing devices. The researchers who made a report to the commission and presented supporting materials, did not pretend to substantiate the effect and its physical mechanism with theory. They proposed to consider the great amount of experimental data, mainly on detection range and duration of contacts. In a few days the commission, including all its members, was brought to the submarine base, where D. D. Kashuba and his colleagues V. V. Kravchenko and G. I. Lyamin connected the attachment to the MGK-100. After a brief serviceability check, the submarine went to sea. Work was carried out individually with two channels: standard and with an attachment. In all cases, when a target was detected in a standard channel, it was also recorded with the attachment. In addition, the attachment could “hear” even in the cases when the standard channel lost or failed to detect the target. The submarine spent several hours on the move. D. D. Kashuba and his colleagues readily answered all questions. At the request of the commission members they changed the attachment’s mode of operation, each one could hear the signal or watch it on the spectrum analyzer display. Everybody agreed that the effect was there, but no one could explain why. On returning to Vladivostok, a discussion unfolded. D. D. Kashuba, A. S. Kravchenko, V. V. Kravchenko, and G. I. Lyamin reported on the experiments. The more informed members of the commission explained to the rest the principle of the Zverev–Kalachev parametric receiver operation and the impossibility of its realization in the equipment under test. Old American patents by W. R. Turner (application of 1969, published in 1975) and T. M. Robinson (application of 1971, published in 1975) were recalled, where parametric reception was based on the reverberation effect and interaction with noises, but these patents contained no data on quantitative ratios and the hardware

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parameters. They only presented an idea and a structural diagram of possible realization. On the second sortie, in the presence of I. B. Yesipov (ACIN), two of the three admirals who had participated in the first sortie were missing. The results were mainly repeated: the standard channel failed to “hear” the low-noise Varshavyanka, while the channel with the attachment, as it was found upon comparing the maneuvering diagrams, had “been in contact” with it for several minutes. All members of the commission confirmed the presence of the effect and put their signatures under the respective protocols. The military was determined to immediately start mass production of attachments. The designers (CRI Morfizpribor, ACIN) and the researchers themselves held to the opinion that without knowledge of the nature of the effect, design work could not be started because of a lack of equipment specifications, and that additional investigations were needed. The CRI Morfizpribor leadership took the results of work of the commission calmly. At that time acceptance of the MGK-540 in the East was in process, and for this reason any requests from the commander of the Pacific Navy to elucidate the situation with the new sonar equipment had to be met. Design was of a lower priority. However, Admiral V. V. Sidorov succeeded in launching a research project with direct financing from the Navy (a rare occasion in those years). ACIN was named the leading executing organization, the coexecutors were the CRI Morfizpribor, the IAP, the RIE of the Navy, the Far-East Test Range. Under pressure, the design requirements for the research project were formulated by D. D. Kashuba, A. P. Proshin and K. A. Naugolnykh — people with differing viewpoints and differing scientific-technical interests in the area of nonlinear hydroacoustics. For this reason, beside parametric reception, a great part in the design requirements focused on problems of a fundamental as well as an applied nature in nonlinear acoustics and parametric transmitters. This probably made possible participation by the Institute of Applied Physics in the project. In the middle of summer, the TTR for the research project Avacha was received at the CRI Morfizpribor. From the mid-1970s, the main attention of the CRI Morfizpribor designers and practically complete attention of the Institute leadership

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were concentrated on the reception channel. Active systems were pushed to the side of research and design developments. It was by mere chance that in the summer 1985 two projects were received at the CRI Morfizpribor offering the potential opportunity to significantly improve characteristics of receiving systems. One of them was the research project Avacha on parametric reception, whose launching was the result of work by the interdepartmental commission; the other research project stimulated by the ACIN was also dedicated to nontraditional reception methods. D. D. Mironov, who during the period had been deputy director for research work, decided to organize in the system department a specialized subdivision for nontraditional methods in hydroacoustics. This subdivision included the known hydroacoustics researcher V. I. Klyachkin with his long-time colleagues V. V. Yakovlev and V. V. Chernysh and experienced system designers Yu. I. Fleyer and G. N. Morozova. D. B. Ostrovsky’s group, which by that time had five members, also joined the new subdivision. V. V. Yakovlev became the group leader (later the group was reorganized into a research section), its chief scientist was V. I. Klyachkin; the group had a strong scientific orientation: a doctor of science, two candidates, and five researchers. Feeling the support of D. D. Mironov, the department head, K. I. Polkanov, increased the size of group and it soon had 14 members. So, thanks to D. D. Mironov, the applied Institute, under the MSI, acquired a specialized subdivision for nontraditional methods oriented toward promising work. The research project Avacha was regarded as priority work, which is confirmed by the level of its chief scientist: the chief scientists in the leading executing organization ACIN was deputy director, Prof. L. M. Lyamshev; the first deputy chief scientist Prof. K. A. Naugolnykh; at the RIE of the Navy the chief scientist was deputy head of the RI Ye. Ya. Buzov; his deputy was head of department A. P. Proshin; at the Far-East Test Range the chief scientist was head of the Test Range D. D. Kashuba; at the IAP the chief scientist was the deputy director, Corresponding Member of RAS V. A. Zverev. At the CRI Morfizpribor the chief scientist was senior researcher V. V. Yakovlev and his deputy, junior researcher D. B. Ostrovsky.

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For CRI Morfizpribor the principal task in the TTR was design and small-quantity manufacture of attachments to sonar systems for realizing parametric reception by the Test Range method (reverberation parametric reception; the Zverev–Kalachev receiver was called a classical receiver) and parametric radiation. The attachments were meant for full-scale trials by three fleets and on the Ladoga Test Range. Attachments had to be manufactured in a very short time. Great help was provided by D. D. Mironov who took upon himself the responsibility for execution of this task, which neither before, nor after had been done on the part of the Institute leadership with regard to parametric arrays. Experiments on the Ladoga Lake were regarded as most important for determining the physical essence and measurements under controlled conditions of the effect of reverberation parametric reception. However, without waiting for the work on the Ladoga Test Range, S. A. Mikhailychev carried out an experiment in the North on the MGK-500 using standard equipment only and recording the results on a tape recorder. Processing of the results made jointly with V. B. Zhelezny revealed a sufficient modulation level, which testified to the presence of the effect under normal conditions. Even though the research project began at the CRI Morfizpribor at the end of the year, already in the beginning of 1986 the sonar MG-10M was installed in the floating laboratory under the supervision of Yu. I. Fleyer. In March experiments with the attachment available at the Test Range began. The attachments expected to arrive from the CRI Morfizpribor had not been ready yet. Scientific supervision of the experiments was carried out by K. A. Naugolnykh and V. V. Yakovlev. Work was performed with the participation of A. I. Kalachev, V. V. Kravchenko, S. V. Ivliyev (RIE of the Navy) and others. Experimenters tried all operation variants that the equipment permitted, but there was no detection effect! The experiment was repeated in the summer by V. B. Zhelezny, S. A. Mikhailychev, and D. B. Ostrovsky in a significantly smaller volume with high-frequency pumping (100 and 200 kHz), but without the effect being detected. In the next year the experiment was repeated under ice conditions, this time using the CRI Morfizpribor attachment, which provided

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broader opportunities for parameters control and variation. No result! Simultaneously A. I. Kalachev working with an acoustic baseline of 23.5 m showed operation of the Zverev–Kalachev parametric receiver which completely confirmed the earlier experiments and theory of this type of receiver. The absence of positive results in reverberation reception and the indisputable success of the experiment by A. I. Kalachev under the same conditions gave rise to doubts about the existence of the effect in the ACIN researchers and in those of the CRI Morfizpribor in part. The IAP had already formed a negative opinion. Along with the experiments on parametric reception, measurements of parametric transmitter characteristics at distances up to 800 m were carried out on the Ladoga Test Range, that is, in an acoustical remote zone for field. In autumn 1986, attachments were prepared and sent to the fleets. Experiments with the North and the Pacific Fleets began practically at the same time in December. In spite of the fact the trials in the East and the North were supposed to follow similar programs, for reasons that did not depend on the experimenters, the experiments in the North were conducted mainly in the parametric radiation mode, and in the Pacific in the reverberation reception mode. There had been no experiments with the Black Sea Fleet. The CRI Morfizpribor was represented in the Pacific Fleet experiments by Yu. I. Fleyer, V. V. Yakovlev, and A. N. Korovin, the ACIN and the RIE of the Navy also participated; the IAP refused to attend the experiments (with this regard A. I. Kalachev said, “Let them first make sure of the presence of the effect and call us, then we will come. We have already studied everything on the Ladoga…”). The reception channel was now tried not only on a real target but also on a LF acoustic source. In the experiments with the participation of not only the authors of the effect, the latter was either absent, or its presence could be interpreted beyond the scope of physical interaction of waves in a medium. It should be noted that some of the experiments with real targets were successful. The attachment detected the target and reproduced the results that had been presented to the interdepartmental commission.

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Representatives of the CRI Morfizpribor D. B. Ostrovsky and Ye. A. Stepanov, of the IAP A. I. Kalachev, A. M. Sutin, and V. Ye. Nazarov came to the North Fleet; the ACIN group led by L. V. Sedov also came. A. P. Proshin took up organizational matters and L. V. Sedov took up scientific guidance. After the traditional period of waiting, the first experiment took place almost on the eve of the New Year. V. M. Gritsai (RIE of the Navy), S. A. Mikhailychev, and D. B. Ostrovsky worked on a submarine with an attachment to the MGK-100 sonar (it was supposed to organize parametric reception and parametric radiation); Ye. A. Stepanov and the ACIN group were on the submarine carrying the MGK-500 sonar; A. I. Kalachev with the IAP workers and their own equipment worked on the surface ship. The experiment with the MGR-100 on parametric radiation repeated in general the results of the research project Orbita. At direct radiation, there were additionally registered the second harmonic of the difference frequency and the sum frequency. The experiment with the MGK-500 proved to be more difficult: the thyristor oscillator allowed a two-channel radiation mode only, which was successfully realized by Ye. A. Stepanov. However, an attempt to make the thyristor oscillator emit a beat-type signal resulted in its failure, because that was the emergency condition for the oscillator. There was no opportunity to realize parametric reception with the North Fleet because the surface ship (“target”) commander refused to leave Kola Bay under the pretence of stormy weather. We learned about such microclimatic anomalies only after returning to the base, since at our surfacing it had been calm. We came to the base on the night of 30–31 December and met the New Year in Leningrad. In April, the full-scale experiment was repeated with the North Fleet, this time with the MGK-100 and in the parametric radiation mode. Simultaneously V. M. Gritsai and A. I. Kalachev realized parametric radiation with the MGK-335, in the latter case a broadband signal was radiated. Laboratory processing of the parametric radiation experiment results conducted mainly by V. B. Zhelezny showed good agreement with calculations by the wavefront method. As with the research project

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Orbita, reverberation modulation was absent in the difference frequency signals. The importance of solving the problem of matching the oscillating device with the sonar array circuit was demonstrated, but such “technical” developments had not been provided for under the research project Avacha. In its description the project Avacha had the phrase, “development of a scientific basis for application of the nonlinear acoustics methods in hydroacoustics.” Researchers from the ACIN, the IAP, and the CRI Morfizpribor worked on the theoretical part of this assignment. In 1985 a State prize in the area of physics had been awarded for work in nonlinear acoustics. The overwhelming majority of this group of prize winners had a relation to parametric arrays and had been already mentioned in this review: L. K. Zarembo, V. A. Krasilnikov, R. V. Khokhlov (MSU), E. A. Zabolotskaya (Institute of General Physics RAS), V. A. Zverev, A. I. Kalachev, L. A. Ostrovsky (IAP RAS), L. M. Lyamshev, K. A. Naugolnykh (ACIN), and V. I. Timoshenko (TREI). As has been mentioned, the IAP ignored the new parametric reception effect and concentrated on investigations that did not contradict the known theoretical basics of nonlinear interactions as applied to parametric transmitters. Powerful parametric radiating arrays, detection in the forward scattering regime, nonlinear interactions in waveguide were investigated. Using advanced methods, Yu. S. Stepanov and K. A. Naugolnykh at the ACIN solved the nonlinear equation of acoustics to the fourth order approximation and studied the problem of the interaction of counter-propagating waves, but the size of the physical effect in their calculations was too small to explain the results observed in the experiments in the Pacific. V. I. Klyachkin at the CRI Morfizpribor proposed a hypothesis of resonance interaction and in the general case showed its feasibility at a signal-to-noise ratio comparable with the experimental data. Admittedly, there were certain assumptions that had been made with regard to characteristics of the medium that had not been verified. In addition, V. V. Chernysh proposed one more type of a parametric receiver with pulsed pumping and phase synchronization (later he was granted an invention certificate, but there was no way to stage an experiment).

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In general, the conclusions made with regard to the new type of reception under the research project Avacha were ambiguous: the IAP held that there was no effect at all; some of the specialists from the CRI Morfizpribor tended to believe that the appearance of modulation might be due to some nonlinear distortions in the channel, others believed that the modulation effect observed in the experiments was possible in principle, but was connected with some unknown physical mechanism. Researchers from the ACIN presented careful proof of impossibility of the effect within the scope of the current knowledge, but recommended continuing experiments for data accumulation. The Navy specialists, those of the Test Range in particular, were absolutely sure of the presence of the effect and proposed to determine the conditions and characteristics of the medium under which the effect was observed. Parametric radiation, which in fact was a side-issue under this research work, was unanimously supported by all involved researchers, and in the resolution on the theme much was said about introduction of the parametric radiation mode and the concrete directions for work in this direction. In the period of project execution, an informal group of researchers and designers of co-executors was formed. A. P. Proshin and K. A. Naugolnykh took care of the organizational problems. Regular meetings and seminars were held, which V. I. Timoshenko and the workers of his Chair regularly attended. On the initiative of the RIE of the Navy and the ACIN, a comprehensive program of hydroacoustic system development with application of the methods of nonlinear acoustics was proposed for a 10-year period. The program was coordinated with all interested organizations and submitted for approval to the Navy, the MSI, and the Academy of Sciences. In the beginning of 1987, for the first time at the CRI Morfizpribor, the parametric radiation channel was represented in the D&D work within the scope of technical proposals for the D&D project Prozhektor (deputy chief designer G. M. Osmolovsky). The proposals concerned active mode integration using a single radiating channel including an oscillating device and a sonar array. With the help of an array 2.5×1 m2 in size, assumed to ensure signal radiation in respective frequency ranges of the DM, communication and close situation (CS) channels.

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It was also to use simultaneously the pumping, and the difference and sum frequency signals. The informal scientific-technical contacts which had begun under the research project Orbita and continued in the course of the research project Avacha received a non-trivial development. In 1987, back in the period of work under the research project Avacha, a group of young scientists from the CRI Morfizpribor and the RIE of the Navy (V. M. Gritsai, V. B. Zhelezny, S. V. Ivliyev, and S. A. Mikhailychev) proposed research on parametric radiating systems on a voluntary basis. The initiative was supported by the leadership of both organizations, the design requirements were worked out, and the research project (Vesy) was launched in the normal order but at no cost. The authors carried out a great amount of work, having analyzed the majority of the known physical and mathematical models of parametric transmitters (Westervelt, KZK, Fenlon, Moffett-Mellen, the wavefronts method, etc.), and generalized all known experimental data obtained in different frequency ranges, in the presence of nonlinear absorption in the shaping zone and outside this zone. The main conclusion made with regard to models was the following: in the frequency range and transmitter directivities most often used, the wavefronts method (author V. B. Zhelezny) is in the best agreement with the experimental data. Beside, within the scope of the research project Vesy, optimal frequencies for a parametric transmitter were found. In the theoretical aspect, the problems of broadband signal synthesizing in the difference frequency range were considered and a new method for sonar signal detection connected with nonlinear interaction in a medium was developed (covered with an invention certificate). Later, part of the results of the research project Vesy was used by S. A. Mikhailychev in the design of the parametric under-ice sonar Nilas (RI Rif, Chief Designer G. N. Andreyevsky). The research project Vesy was completed in 1988, the results were presented at a meeting of the Scientific-technical board and received high estimate. The work was submitted for the Leninist Komsomol Prize. It passed several stages of expert examination and, in the opinion of respective experts, deserved an award. However, at the last stage of the Komsomol Central Committee, the research project Vesy was rejected for formal reasons: insufficiently well drawn application

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documents and failure to observe the application deadline. Later on, documents on the work submitted for decoration with an Honorary Komsomol badge were lost within the Central Committee. It should be noted that a year earlier a group of young scientists received the Leninist Komsomol Prize for work on nonlinear acoustics. Even though attempts to construct a physical-mathematical model of a reverberation receiver within the scope of the research project Avacha had failed, and the opinions of the project participants diverged with regard to its scientific-technical substantiation, and its existence in general, D. D. Kashuba, who by that time had become head of the RIE of the Navy, managed to obtain a permit for continuing the investigations. So the research project Mikrometr was born. The CRI Morfizpribor was named the leading organization in its execution, the co-executors were all former participants of the research project Avacha. The CRI Morfizpribor leadership considered it reasonable to have a research project having the word “array” in its title supervised in an acoustics subdivision. I. I. Belyakov was appointed the project chief scientist and his deputy was D. B. Ostrovsky. Project supervision at the co-executors’ level was reduced except for the RIE of the Navy where D. D. Kashuba was the chief scientist, and S. V. Ivliyev was his deputy. A. M. Sutin was appointed chief scientist at the IAP, K. A. Naugolnykh at the ACIN, and V. V. Kravchenko at the Test Range. The subject-theme of the research project Mikrometr covered the same scope of problems as Avacha: parametric reception and parametric radiation. This research project no longer had top-priority status. There was no bustle connected with simultaneous trials in all fleets and the Ladoga Test Range, the need for prompt manufacture of equipment, and the desire to announce: “The effect is there!” either. The executors felt more uninhibited and could concentrate not on time-serving problems, but rather on problems of scientific and technical interest and on applications. For example, L. A. Ostrovsky with colleagues (IAP) developed a theory explaining great nonlinearity in solid media in which the nonlinearity parameter is several orders of magnitude larger than in water. Later this work was developed with applications to nonlinear diagnostics of solids, detection of cracks in a coat of ice, profiling and tomography using parametric modes of radiation and reception.

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At the CRI Morfizpribor, work on parametric radiation was of clearly an applied nature. This time the research project (after a long interval) happened to attract highly qualified and initiative transmitting channel designers, and V. A. Aleksandrov became their informal leader. He proposed a new transmitting channel structure that met quite rigid requirements with regard to nonlinear distortions. Model highpower oscillator devices were manufactured and tested in a basin (several engineering innovations were awarded with invention certificates). V. A. Aleksandrov managed to solve the problem of single-channel parametric radiation signal excitation in the key mode of element operation. Neither the Taganrog nor the Beltsi teams were able to solve this problem, which restricted construction of powerful parametric transmitters. Within the scope of the same research project, V. M. Gritsai (RIE of the Navy) presented a theory of synthesis of the pumping signals realizing the preset differential signal spectrum; the theory based on the wavefront method was confirmed experimentally at the Ladoga Test Range. We should also note the theoretical work by V. M. Podoksik on nonlinear distortions in the radiating channel over the entire channel structure, from the shaper to the sonar array. The research project Mikrometr was carried out within the scope of a program on nonlinear acoustics. For this reason, in view of probable continuation, two types of specialized sonar arrays of modular structure were developed, each one incorporating six modules (A. Ye. Chernyakhovsky). These modules allowed any configuration of apertures to be formed. The total acoustic power of the lowest-frequency array was 60 kW, which was higher than in the American TOPS. Power and aperture size ensured type DM/CS channel realization under ocean conditions, and reaching an optimal regime near the nonlinear absorption threshold. The purpose of this last characteristic was to check ultimate efficiency ratios (A. M. Sutin), which nobody had done before. A respective multichannel oscillator device was developed (in conjunction with the research project Vitim). All types of receivers known at the time were analyzed with regard to operation in the parametric reception mode. K. A. Naugolnykh and S. A. Rybak (ACIN) proposed a theory for a new parametric receiver associated with a nonlinear interaction between pulse and

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signal. V. I. Klyachkin obtained additional data on development of the resonance receiver theory and V. V. Chernysh obtained data on a pulsed receiver having special phasing. V. B. Zhelezny proposed a hypothesis of parametric anomalous signal amplification related to the processes of biological and physical-chemical nature, which offered a qualitative interpretation of conditions for the appearance of the “effect.” With regard to the Zverev–Kalachev receiver, A. I. Kalachev, I. N. Didenkulov, D. M. Donskoi, and others (IAP) considered all possible realizations of this type of a parametric receiver, analyzed noise and the specifics of the pumping signal and operations under different conditions, and demonstrated good prospects for the receiver’s application in stationary systems. Yu. S. Stepanov and K. A. Naugolnykh (ACIN) showed for the case of a mobile platform that an acceptable level of signal-to-noise ratio is achieved at the pumping signal level higher than 1 MPa. Comparing a parametric receiving and traditional-type arrays, D. B. Ostrovsky (CRI Morfizpribor) came to the conclusion that employment of a “classical” parametric receiver on a mobile platform was not promising due to the impossibility of DP control and relatively low spatial selectivity. Work on reverberation receivers was carried out by all executors. Remembering the negative result on the reverberation effect at the Ladoga Test Range (research project Avacha), researchers from the ACIN and the IAP refused to participate in the experiments. Using the small perturbation method, they showed theoretically that, even if the effect exists, the signal-to-noise ratio is several orders of magnitude lower than that for other receivers, parametric receivers including. On the contrary, specialists from the RIE of the Navy, the Test Range and the CRI Morfizpribor (V. V. Kravchenko, V. B. Zhelezny, S. A. Mikhailychev, and S. V. Ivliyev) believed that the effect was real. They concentrated on providing proof that the effect of modulation of the high-frequency pumping signal by low-frequency signal in the variant of the Kravchenko–Kashuba reception takes place in water and has no relation to nonlinearities of the channel. An original experimental research procedure was developed, in which the criteria for estimation of the presence of the effect and the methods and requirements for

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use of the equipment were formulated. A methodology for discriminating between nonlinear effects in the channel and in the medium was developed. Experiments were carried out both under full-scale conditions, and under conditions close to natural (in a bay). The task was not the detection of a real target with the help of an attachment, but interaction with a calibrated low-frequency acoustic source. A special array was manufactured at the Test Range, modifications were made in the attachments as well. Expeditions on the hydrographic ships Vostok-89 and Vostok-90 were also organized (this happened after the research project Mikrometr ended). The expedition chief scientist was S. Kolmogorov, among the group members were I. N. Seleznev (CRI Morfizpribor), S. A. Mikhailychev, V. V. Kravchenko, G. I. Lyamin, S. A. Bakharev, and others). Under the conditions of the expedition, the effect was observed in 50% of the investigated regions according to the procedure criteria. The conclusion that the effect takes place in the medium was no longer being seriously disputed but the researchers again failed to find unambiguously the conditions under which the effect exists. After the research project Mikrometr ended, several other research projects (Vychegda/Vishera, Belaya, and others) followed, within the scope of which, using existing equipment, full-scale experiments with real targets and with employment of a full-scale parametric radiation channel were proposed. These research projects were part of the larger hydroacoustics program Flagman (Chief Scientist V. A. Kakalov). Getting ahead of my story, I must say that none of the scheduled research projects began, and the Flagman Program gradually died out. By the spring of 1990, after a half-year’s delay, the arrays were manufactured. Earlier, a 32-channel oscillating device had been tuned and tested. The beginning of new work was delayed, but unexpectedly there came an invitation from the IAP to join their team on an expedition to the Atlantic Ocean on board the Shirshov Institute of Oceanology ship, Academician Ioffe. One of the low-frequency array modules was installed on the ship, the IAP made a stabilizer, and an oscillator device was mounted. The IAP representatives in the team were D. M. Donskoi (team leader) and A. I. Potapov, the CRI Morfizpribor was represented by V. A. Aleksandrov and D. B. Ostrovsky. The first calibration

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experiments were carried out in the Barents Sea. They once again confirmed the wavefronts method. But the ship had a fire in the machine room and we were compelled to return to Kaliningrad. In the next year two similar modules were prepared for installation on the bathypost of the RS Academician Konstantinov (ACIN), but exactly at that time in 1991, in connection with the GKChP attempt to seize power (the coup d’etat) and other events that followed, neither this trip, nor any other after were possible. The ACIN and IAP trips of 1989 and 1990 (I. B. Yesipov and A. I. Kalachev) were more successful. Using the ship’s standard equipment, they realized a parametric radiation signal, which was received by another ship 1000 km away, and carried out work on tomography of ocean vortices. After completion of the research project Mikrometr, it finally became clear to many hydroacoustic equipment designers at the CRI Morfizpribor and other organizations that this direction, at least in the radiation part, had grown “ripe” to be realized as a D&D project in the form of a separate channel or an individual unit. For this reason, variants of parametric radiation for different modes were considered in a number of new D&D projects. In 1991, such examination was performed at the stage of design proposals under the theme Lira-2 (theme supervisor A. M. Dymshits) and later on the D&D project Minotavr (chief designer M. Ya. Andreyev). Certain prospects opened under the research project Iskazhenie-91 (chief scientist I. N. Dynin) initiated at the Krylov CRI. The purpose of the project was to create semidirectional broadband signal radiation at low frequencies with the help of the parametric mode. In 1990–91, a preliminary engineering design project for the D&D project Lira-145 (deputy chief designer D. B. Ostrovsky) was prepared. The D&D project was scheduled for execution in compliance with the design requirements of the CRI Hydropribor; the radiating channel design which envisaged a system solution of the DM and CS tasks was developed, that is, the whole work was built on the idea proposed under the D&D project Prozhektor (1986). For various reasons none of this work was continued. By the middle of 1991 the situation was such that the nontraditional methods section created in 1985 was left without work. At the

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same time, the rest of the department to which this section belonged had been involved for several years with work on a big sonar system, in which the section did not participate. Such a situation stimulated its dissolution and its specialists were distributed among other subdivisions. In 1992, in compliance with the state program Priborostroyenie95, the CRI Morfizpribor received an order for research work on a parametric echo sounder-profilograph (Parametr). The project was to terminate with the manufacture of a prototype. The first stage of the project was launched (deputy chief scientist D. B. Ostrovsky); the designers (V. B. Zhelezny, V. A. Aleksandrov, and others) provided a substantiation of the structure of the system and its separate components. An interesting geophysical-hydroacoustical survey of the coastal shelf with the equipment was to be made by the worker of the RI of Oceanography and Hydrography, A. I. Svechnikov, who was invited to participation in the research project. Due to absence of financing of this project, like many others projects, work on Priborostroyenie-95 was halted. For 10 years, up to the end of the 1980s, the CRI Morfizpribor provided information support on parametric arrays by publishing annotated bibliographical indices. The indices were circulated to all organizations of the MSI, the Navy, the Ministry of Higher Education, and the Academy of Sciences working in the area of hydroacoustics and hydrophysics. There were four issues on open publications (1632 titles) and one issue on classified publications (150 titles). On the subject of parametric arrays 24 dissertations for a candidate’s degree and 8 for a doctor’s degree were defended. It is interesting to consider the fates of the people who had dedicated so many years to the creation of parametric arrays and introduction of the methods of nonlinear acoustics into hydroacoustic equipment. Professors V. A. Zverev, L. M. Lyamshev, and V. I. Klyachkin, extremely versatile scientists, continue working in the area of theoretical hydroacoustics (L. M. Lyamshev passed away in 2002 — Ed.). For the last several years Ye. A. Zabolotskaya has lived and worked in the United States and regularly has published papers in the Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. L. A. Ostrovsky works at a university in the United States and comes to Russia now and then.

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O. V. Rudenko is head of the Chair of Acoustics at the MSU and S. N. Gurbatov is head of the Chair of Radiophysics at the Nizhny Novgorod University. A. M. Sutin continues working at the IAP, but on a contract and grant basis, and spends much of this time abroad. The majority of nonlinear acoustics theorists continue working on this subject, which can be seem from their publications in the Acoustic Journal. Workers of the laboratory of nonlinear acoustics of the IAP are mainly engaged in the problems of nonlinear interactions in solids and of nonlinear diagnostics. Reports by Russian scientists occupy significant positions at international symposia on nonlinear acoustics, acoustic congresses, and meetings of the Acoustical Society of America. The published programs for two recent meeting of the Society indicate both co-chairmen of the section on nonlinear acoustics are Russian. V. I. Timoshenko has become an Honored Worker of Science of the Russian Federation and a Full Member of the Academy of Natural Sciences. Some of his former colleagues, no longer young, have stopped work on parametric arrays but the remaining continue making equipment, going on expeditions, and carry out work on parametric array application in areas other than hydroacoustics. Publication of the annual collection Applied Acoustics has stopped. The RI Rif, after the disintegration of the USSR, is now in the Republic of Moldova. The D&D projects on parametric arrays that were at different stages of execution have stopped. However, in 1993, the Beltsi designers provided the Russian Navy with a parametric, under-ice sonar, which at the moment is the first and the last hydroacoustic system employing a parametric operation mode that has been adopted for service. Work on parametrics has also been terminated at the RI Briz and RI Rif. After dissolution of the specialized section, V. B. Zhelezny and D. B. Ostrovsky worked for a time on a voluntary basis on the research project Parametr. Their further work in this area was more of a hobby until it stopped altogether. A. P. Proshin departed from nonlinear hydroacoustics soon after the research project Avacha ended and D. D. Kashuba retired. V. M. Gritsai, S. V. Ivliyev, and S. A. Mikhailychev have continued working at the RIE of the Navy. V. V. Kravchenko and G. I. Lyamin were

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transferred to the RIE from Vladivostok. All of them think about parametrics now and then, but this subject is no longer so important to them. Work at the Far-East Test Range on reverberation reception has continued by S. A. Bakharev; workers of the Test Range carry out much experimental work and contribute their papers to different publications and make presentations at conferences. A. L. Polyakova and V. V. Yakovlev have retired. Within a few years B. K. Novikov, A. I. Kalachev, and L. K. Zarembo passed away. Systems with parametric arrays have long ceased being exotic abroad. The Thomson Company in France, jointly with British Aerospace, have created a mine detector sonar for silted mines with a parametric mode of operation and are actively cooperating with NATO on anti-mine defense. The United States, France, Norway, Britain, and Germany offer parametric echo sounders, profilographs, logs, and sonar systems for sale. Russia has nothing yet to offer. I am thankful to V. B. Zhelezny for helpful information, remarks, and discussion.

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A Nostalgia for Domes V. T. MALYAROVA and YE. L. SHENDEROV

The study of the acoustical characteristics of sonar array domes began at the CRI Morfizpribor in 1957. A group of specialists, recent university and institute graduates, under the leadership of L. Ye. Sheinman, was organized there. The authors of this article were members of this group. Later K. V. Malyarov, O. F. Sivatskaya, O. G. Zakharov, M. P. Zverkova, G. S. Karpov, A. V. Zakharenko, K. A. Shvedova, L. V. Kolosov, and others joined the group. In 1964, Ye. L. Shenderov became the head of the group, which by then had been reorganized into a laboratory. In the early days of hydroacoustics, domes were metal shells of comparatively small size. In the majority of cases, the shells were supported by a forest of wooden stiffening ribs. The first studies carried out under the Pechora research project showed that domes of this design strongly affect the array directivity patterns (DPs); at times distorting them beyond recognition. It was necessary to understand which features of the domes are responsible for these distortions and develop methods for their suppression. Work along these lines started in the late 1950s to early 1960s under the research projects Yasen, Skorost, and Dvizhenie. This work was of a system nature. Beside the CRI Morfizpribor, studies were carried out with the participation of the N. N. Krylov CRI (investigation of domes strength and noise stability) and the CRI of Shipbuilding Technology (manufacturing process design). The CRI Morfizpribor carried out theoretical and experimental work on the study of the process of sound passage through shells made from different materials, with account for sound diffraction by stiffening ribs, and developed methods for calculation of dome influence on array characteristics. Much attention was given to experimental research. Between 1959 and 1960, studies of the influence of domes on array DPs in the sonars Titan and Vychegda were carried out. For this purpose a 924

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special pontoon more than 10 m long was manufactured and a dome with an array was suspended from it. The pontoon, together with the dome, was rotated manually relative to a floating laboratory having the measuring equipment. The role of the “drive” was entrusted to the strongest participants: V. K. Lvov and M. A. Shilkov. The initiator and inspirer of the trials was Z. A. Yeremina. Her energy and cheerful nature turned any difficult work into an enjoyable activity, one in which all the participants joined with pleasure. Many good and important results were obtained with this system. Despite this, its operation was extremely labor-intensive and complex. Later a catamaran-pontoon was designed and manufactured. In the space between the floating bodies a rotary device was installed with two vertically arranged concentric tubes that could be rotated independently. A dome was suspended from the external tube, and an array from the internal one. The device load-lifting capacity was 1.5 tons. The tubes for dome and array suspension were made rotatable around the horizontal axis, like a pendulum. The system operated successfully during the early 1960s. Later, in compliance with the design requirements of the Laboratory, the Admiralty Shipyards designed and manufactured two floating laboratories, the Neman and the Ponton-Sputnik. Both were commissioned in 1967. The Neman was a self-propelled ship 53 m long, with a 1000 ton displacement. It carried a “vertical lift” rotary device 11 m high, which allowed a dome and an array together weighing up to 9 tons and 6 × 4 × 3 m in size, to be rotated independently one from the other. The accuracy of installation and measurement of the angle of rotation of the array and dome was 6 angular minutes. However, with the application of specially developed procedures for finding errors in the measurement, an accuracy of at least 1 angular minute was ensured. With the help of this laboratory, comprehensive acoustic measurements of large domes or dome sections could be carried out. In many cases full-scale model domes were tested. Measurements of practically all domes for the sonar systems designed at the CRI Morfizpribor were performed on this floating laboratory. The floating laboratory Ponton-Sputnik was a self-propelled barge with a long narrow shaft in the body. In this shaft, five rotary positioners

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for suspension of sections of domes or plates weighing up to 1.5 tons were arranged one over the other. From this floating laboratory many experiments connected with development of new acoustically transparent structures and materials were performed. Both floating laboratories were the “home” for many workers (K. A. Shvedova, F. I. Shcherbakova, L. V. Kolosov, O. G. Zakharov, and others) over the years. Special electronic equipment was designed for conducting measurements, which allowed for shaping of the DPs of arrays of complex geometry. The leader of the group that created all the equipment was Yu. Ye. Ryzhei. For study of the physical processes taking place as sound passes through the dome, an optical device was built that allowed sound diffraction from shells and obstacles to be directly observed and recorded. Together with the device, methods for quantitative evaluation of the effects observed with its use, as well as the laser methods of short pulse recording, were developed. Among other results, a quite spectacular film was made, which visualized many acoustic processes taking place at acoustic pulses interaction with elastic bodies. This film was shown with invariable success at scientific conferences and was a “specialty” shown to all important guests visiting the Institute. Based on the results of studies of acoustic characteristics of domes, a number of dissertations for a candidate’s degree (L. Ye. Sheinman, K. V. Malyarov, E. A. Likhodaeva, V. T. Malyarova, Ye. I. Kheifets, and M. P. Lonkevich) and one for a doctor’s degree (Ye. L. Shenderov) were defended. Some of the theoretical results are presented in the books by Ye. L. Shenderov Wave Problems of Hydroacoustics (Volnovye zadachi gidroakustiki), Leningrad, Sudostroyenie, 1972, and Sound Radiation and Scattering (Izlucheniye i rasseyanie zvuka), Leningrad, Sudostroyenie, 1989, and in many articles in scientific journals. These books have been translated into English and published in the United States. Many structures are covered by authorship certificates for invention. New structures of domes proposed and studied at the Laboratory ensure the necessary characteristics of sonar system arrays. In 1959–1962, a metal–water–metal triple-layered structure was designed. It featured high, for the time, acoustic transparency

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combined with the necessary strength. For high-frequency arrays, metal domes with perforated skins were developed. Many of these domes are still in service. However, from the very beginning it was clear that plastic domes have better characteristics than metal ones. For this reason, back in 1959, within the scope of the project Yasen, investigations started on the creation of glass-reinforced plastic (Fig. 1). Of all known construction materials, glass-reinforced plastic displays the best combination of good acoustical and strength characteristics. The first dome made from glass-reinforced plastic for a surface ship was manufactured in 1964. This was followed by broad application of glass-reinforced plastic structures on surface ships and submarines. To ensure better acoustic characteristics of domes of this type, multilayered glass-reinforced plastic structures of variable thickness were developed. Work was carried out in close cooperation with other interested organizations; the Acad. N. N. Krylov CRI, CRI of shipbuilding Technology, CRI Prometei, the shipbuilding design bureaus Rubin,

Fig. 1.

Glass-reinforced plastic dome of submarine bow sonar array.

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Malakhit, Lazurit, Severnoye CDB, and others. Over many years of combined work an “informal” body of specialists was formed from different organizations that was able to catch the meaning of one another in an instant. It is hard to say today how many domes were designed. We may talk of hundreds of different structures installed on surface ships and submarines. In practically all ships the domes featured high acoustic characteristics and ensured successful transition of sonar systems to the customer. However, one very instructive example is remembered when serious difficulties arose during trials of a sonar system for a new class submarine due to unsatisfactory dome characteristics. It was clear to us that the necessary acoustic parameters of the sonar system on this submarine could only be achieved with a glass-reinforced plastic dome. Respective recommendations were given to the shipbuilding design bureau. But the bureau, which traditionally concentrated on metal domes, ignored our recommendations and in the beginning of the 1980s designed another metal dome for this submarine. The attempts to convince the bureau specialists of incorrectness of their choice brought no results, and in the end a metal dome was installed on the submarine. The first sea trials showed that, in some situations, false targets appeared on the sonar system display caused by the influence of the dome. Multiple commissions followed, additional trials were organized in an attempt to “maintain the honor” of the submarine designers. The commission worked several years, at times the meetings involved heated discussions and loud words. But the dome structure remained unchanged, and false marks stayed on this submarine display forever. In all fairness it should be noted that this is the only case when a shipbuilding design bureau ignored our recommendations. In all other situations, the changes in dome design were introduced promptly. A very characteristic example happened in the early 1980s during trials of a submarine. The Navy attached high strategic importance to the trials and, therefore, watched the process with close attention. In the course of the trials false targets were observed, but in this case their appearance on the display was explained not by drawbacks in dome design but by sound reflection from structures inside the dome. We had indicated the possible appearance of such reflections during submarine

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design and offered methods for their suppression. But specialists from the design bureau Rubin asserted that what we proposed was impossible to realize. On the day after trials, Ye. L. Shenderov approached the submarine chief designer S. N. Kovalev (this all happened in Severodvinsk) and proposed to change the design. The further dialogue goes like this: Kovalev, “What’s today’s date?” Shenderov, “The twenty-fifth…” Kovalev, “And which month? Which year? Why are you telling this to me now and not two years ago?” I explained that we had mentioned possible changes in design exactly 2 years ago but the submarine designers ignored our proposals. Kovalev stopped me calmly and said, “OK, I’ll look into the matter.” The whole dialogue lasted 3 min. On that day I left for Leningrad, but the next morning the telephone rang. I had to go immediately to the Rubin to discuss changes in design. It was found out that, really, there existed an opportunity to change the “bad” system. After minor alterations the false targets ceased to appear. In the majority of cases we were met with understanding and goodwill. At times we were the ones who had to make concessions and seeked reasonable compromises. The number of workers at the Laboratory, including the group of five people in charge of maintaining the measuring system at the Ladoga Test Range, constantly grew and in 1978 reached a maximum of 35 people. Then their number gradually shrank. First the above Ladoga group was transferred to another subdivision because our leadership decided to bring together in one section all workers in charge of maintenance of measuring equipment at the Ladoga base. We called this initiative “collectivization of horses,” by analogy with forced collectivization of peasant farms. As a result, the equipment, like anything in collective possession, practically became “the property in abeyance” and quickly started getting out of order. Then another group working with optical measurements techniques was transferred to another department. The pretext was the same; development of new methods must be concentrated in a single subdivision. As a result, the work on optical methods,

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which was so successfully performed at the Laboratory, got curtailed and the new subdivision failed to complete any serious work. The atmosphere at the Laboratory during the best period of its existence was filled with a spirit of enthusiasm and optimism. As with any well-organized and functioning body, scientific seminars at the Laboratory alternated with merry parties. A few couples even married. During the multiple trials at the Ladoga Test Range we were often compelled to work at night because of the weather. Intensive work alternated with joyful picnics on the many islands, with fishing, songs, and “libations” of ethyl alcohol, which we ordered “for wiping arrays and domes” by analogy with the well-known “wiping of optical lens.” When alcohol ran low, everybody was asked to put in 1 rouble and 10 kopecks. When a novice asked why such a strange sum, the ready answer was that 10 kopecks is “for eats.” The popular summer entertainment was water skiing. In winter it was diving into ice holes; not because we were trained winter-swimmers but because we brimmed over with energy. One of the swimmers, V. K. Lvov, once undertook a rather dangerous experiment: he swam under ice from one hole to another located at a distance of 10 m, without a safety rope. It was not even a result of a wager, he just did it for self-affirmation. The trick nearly cost him his life, for when he dived, he immediately lost his bearings, and found an escape hole only by chance. Even today, the thought of it gives us the creeps, but so it was. To our regret, things have changed a lot in recent years. Funding is chronically short. Low salaries and permanent delays have resulted in our ranks being considerably thinned out. Not only all the young colleagues have left for higher salaries, but also the veterans with their invaluable experience, “Some are far distant, some are dead.” Since there was no opportunity to perform preventive maintenance, the floating laboratories with unique (apparently the only ones in the world) special rotary devices have become practically disfunctional. If it becomes necessary in the future to initiate work on the same large scale as in the past, many things will have to be started anew — this time with a new direction for the development. One cannot enter one and the same river twice. But, as they say, this is going to be a quite different story.

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Sonar Array Screens V. YE. GLAZANOV

Development of a program under the general title “screens” was stimulated by a series of mistakes caused by insufficient understanding by designers of the physical nature of operation of these hydroacoustic materials and a lack of theoretical investigation of screening components. Also the need for hydroacoustic system improvement initiated work in this area. (Regarding the role of screens in ensuring the desired properties of hydroacoustic arrays, see the article. “The Types of the Sonar Arrays and the Stages of their Development” by A. A. Shabrov — Ed.) Execution of a project under the code name Neman (Chief Scientist B. N. Tikhonravov) gave an incentive to launching an independent research project on screens (otherwise called “reflecting materials”). Within the scope of the project Neman, a 5-m reflector array was designed and installed in the bow of a re-equipped submarine. The array reflector was covered with a 2-cm layer of cork-filled rubber. (It was found out later, the reflection coefficient of this material at the working frequencies was less than 0.2, which was insufficient for efficient array operation.) It should be noted that by that time (1957– 1958) only two types of screening materials were known in the USSR: porous rubber No. 57 (later, rubber 10087) and cork-filled rubber developed at the Chair of Rubber of the Lensoviet LIT by order of our Institute. (Note that the work by W. J. Toulis (Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 1957) dedicated to the description of pliable screening tubes of elliptical cross-section belongs to the same period.) The screening properties of these materials were sufficient to ensure efficiency of sonar array operation at shallow depths (up to 100–150 m). But the sonar system Rubin, then in the design stage, required screens operating at greater depths. For this reason, in 1959, a 1.5year research project was launched at the Institute with the title 931

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“Investigation of properties of screening materials developed and manufactured by industry for application in sonars operating under elevated pressures” (code name Bumerang). M. V. Gubachev (chemical engineer) was appointed the chief scientist, his deputy for acoustical problems was T. I. Karavaeva. Proposals, often very amateurish, started pouring in from process engineers as from a horn-of-plenty. Since it was believed that it is air that must reflect in water, it was proposed to use PVC tube filled with epoxy resin and coiled in a spiral; or small metal boxes sealed off around the contour, etc. The main advantage that was stressed was adaptability to manufacture and low cost, which, though being necessary, was definitely insufficient. In the theoretical aspect, no productive steps had been made. After a year of fruitless search, it became clear that the problem was not an easy one and it was decided to change the chief scientist. E. N. Sinitsyna (chemical engineer) became the chief scientist, the author of this article (then a senior engineer) was appointed her deputy. The appointment to this position was a surprise to me. I was invited to the office of R. Ye. Pasynkov (head of the Acoustics Laboratory) and L. Ye. Sheinman (deputy head of the Laboratory) and offered the appointment. I agreed, in spite of the fact I hardly knew what it was all about. This talk become a turning-point in my life, which I never regretted. Life brought me in touch with new, interesting people, interesting scientific and technical problems, and, to a certain degree, made a researcher of me. An acoustic-screen group of three people was organized, and work began. An incentive to understanding the physical meaning of screen operation was given by two experiments, which, as I understand today, gave rise to two directions of activity: study of screening materials proper and evaluation of their influence on the performance of sonar transducers and arrays. It should be noted that the only setup for screening material measurement at the Institute was a pulse tube 50 mm in diameter having a working pressure of 20 atm. With this setup all measurements of samples of passive materials were carried out. So, in the experiment to measure the properties of cork-filled rubber, a 2-cm thick sample was

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taken (normally 1-cm thick samples were taken). At the frequency of 15 kHz a trough in the frequency response of the reflection factor was detected, which coincided with the layer half-wave resonance. This fact made us refer to the theory of layers. It explained why the screen in the project Neman was inefficient, and became a starting-point for all subsequent investigations of screens. The second experiment was carried out in a basin. At a depth of 2 m, a set of 5 magnetostrictive transducers was suspended from a rigid bar, which formed a planar array with a 20 kHz resonance frequency. On another bar, at the same depth, sheets of steel, cork-filled rubber and steel with absorbing coating were in turn suspended parallel to the array plane. A hydrophone was used to measure sound pressure along the DP axis of the array screened by the above sheets. A dependence of pressure on the distance between the screen and the screened array surface was found. The steel sheet ensured maximum radiation at distances equal to odd multiples of one-fourth of a wavelength; the screen of pliable cork-filled rubber ensured maximum radiation when located either close to the array surface or at distances equal to a multiple of one-half of wavelength. These results served for a more deliberate selection of screens for the transducers and arrays of many sonar systems. The results of initial theoretical and experimental research were presented by the author at a laboratory seminar that took place on April 29, 1960. In fact, this seminar was a spur to further development of the screen theme. In the process of work under the project Bumerang, fruitful contacts were established with the workers of the Acad. N. N. Andreyev Institute of Acoustics (ACIN). A worker of the ACIN, V. V. Tyutekin, proposed the use of a medium with cylindrical channels as a material for screening layers. Using these layers, already within the scope of the project Bumerang, screens for cylindrical transducers of the SS Rubin array were developed. L. D. Lyubavin, who took an active part in this work, proposed to evaluate screen properties by way of measuring the parameters of a transducer with a fully screened cylindrical surface placed in a hydraulic reservoir under pressure. This gave an opportunity to obtain reliable data on screen properties under varying hydrostatic pressure.

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At the time Bumerang was completed, further directions of design and research in the area of screens were clear. So, beginning in mid1961, in compliance with the ordinance of the CPSU Central Committee and the Government, the 2-year screen research project Kobalt began. Acousticians were put in charge of the project and process engineers were sub-contracted. The group was increased to 10 people and was integrated into a newly organized laboratory (laboratory head L. Ye. Sheinman, his deputy — the author of this article). Institutions of the chemical industry, RI of Rubber Industry (Moscow, researchers V. D. Zaitseva, Z. L. Bulanyan, A. V. Solomatin), RI of Polymer Materials (Moscow, researchers L. I. Trepelkova, M. I. Pallei), RI of Synthetic Resins (Vladimir, executors A. K. Zhitinkina, B. Petrilenkova), and the Lensoviet LIT (V. M. Kharchevnikov) joined with us. Over a period of 20 years, groups of researchers at these institutes collaborated with us on the creation and production of new, improved screens and related construction materials. Later research projects Ekran (1965–1968), Ekran-200 (1973– 1975) and Ekran-76 (1976–1978) were executed at the Institute. When an acoustics research department was created in 1964, an independent laboratory of screens was organized with acoustics specialists and chemical process engineers. Specialists in rubbers, plastics, and foam plastics, T. N. Ivanova and I. N. Zavalina transferred from the technology department. A technology section was organized at the laboratory site. It was preceded by a curious story. At one of the numerous meetings of the Party and administrative leaders of the organization, I happened to criticize the newly organized technology department, whose leaders attracted specialists from other departments by increasing salaries one and a half times, on approval of the director. I said this was a fallacious practice. The next day B. P. Rumyantsev (chief engineer of experimental production) and M. M. Zatuchny (chief mechanical engineer of the Institute), who shared my criticism, went to the office of the department head, R. Ye. Pasynkov. I was also called. They said “We will provide everything this person needs.” I listed the equipment we needed (draw cabinets, a molding press for rubber components, built-in cabinets, space for offices, etc.). In a short time everything was provided.

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Work began in full swing. We were all young, full of energy, and the constellation of screen specialists included very intelligent researchers who later became known at the Institute and in the industry: M. M. Marinsky (at that time my deputy for running the laboratory and research work), A. V. Mikhailov (later my deputy), and T. B. Gromova. All of them defended their candidate of science dissertations on the subject of screens. The first scientific publications on screens appeared. In 1962, the Institute published the paper “Acoustic and elastic properties of some sound-reflecting materials used in hydroacoustics.” The Acoustics Journal published the short article “On the problem of determining the speed of elastic wave propagation in a medium with cylindrical channels” (author V. Ye. Glazanov). In 1963–1964, the articles “Elastic and acoustic properties of sound reflectors from foam plastics” (authors V. Ye. Brikker, V. Ye. Glazanov, M. M. Marinsky, and V. I. Rechnova), “Sound reflector from perforated foam plastic” (authors V. Ye. Glazanov, M. M. Marinsky, and V. I. Rechnova); “Experimental research on cylindrical transducers with sound reflectors of different types” (authors V. Ye. Glazanov, L. D. Lyubavin, and V. D. Semin); and “Study of air-filled reflectors” (authors V. Ye. Glazanov, T. N. Ivanova, and B. V. Monakhinson, 1969) were published. The titles of these articles indicate which problems were being addressed in those years. It is interesting to briefly refer to the history of the creation, development, and manufacture of some types of screens. We have already mentioned the system by W. J. Toulis (1957) where screens in the form of metal tubes of elliptical cross-section were described. The screening effect in them is achieved at the expense of pliability of the elliptical sealed tubes. Grids of such tubes may be used, in particular, in the construction of reflector array mirrors. B. M. Yelfimov investigated grid-type reflectors within the scope of the research project Dvina (1956–1958). The tubes were not elliptical but had a rectangular cross section or a round cross section (in the latter case hollow water pipes with sufficiently thick walls were used). The reflection coefficient of such reflectors was insignificant and increased when the pipes were filled with water — at the expense of an increase in the screen mass.

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Later use of a steel sheet was proposed. This proved to be an efficient screen for high-frequency reflector arrays. Thus lack of knowledge of the physics of the effect buried a good idea. Several researchers (L. D. Stepanov, V. Kh. Rozenberg) returned to technical implementation of pliable elements from metal. In the early 1980s, A. V. Mikhailov developed a theoretical and technical basis which permitted creation of screening-plate structures in the form of round pliable plates welded over the contour and forming a cavity. Such screens found application in a number of D&D efforts and displayed great efficiency at sufficient strength. However, there had been failures connected with the desire to simplify and rationalize the structure. In the Dnestr project, screening-plate structures, in compliance with the operating conditions, were placed inside powerful cylindrical transmitters. First everything went well, they withstood the long-term test under high acoustic power. But, since 300 such screens were necessary for one array, it was proposed to replace flat plates with bent round shells manufactured from flat plates by the hot pressing method, with plates welding around the contour, which was more suitable and cheaper in terms of production. This method of manufacture caused internal stresses at welding points, and during trials on the ship, the screens and bearing structures collapsed when full power was applied to the transducers. The designers were compelled to promptly replace this type of screen by reinforced layers of rubber with cylindrical channels. Further full-scale and state trials of the system confirmed their high reliability and efficiency. Foamed polyurethane is a type of screen that I would like to mention in connection with their manufacture at the plants of the chemical industry. On our order, for the research project Ekran, RI of Synthetic Resins (Vladimir) conducted joint research and developed a very strong and efficient foam plastic material for internal screens of cylindrical transducers named PPU-10. This material is 2–3 times stronger than the known foam plastics, for the same bulk density. Trials of an experimental array with such screens for the system Skat demonstrated a high efficiency. Since serial production of the sonar system was envisaged, the problem arose of mass production of screens made from PPU-10. Naturally, no plant at that time wanted to do anything on

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its own initiative — there was no incentive. We had no opportunity to organize screen production at our locations since foamed polyurethane production is harmful to the environment, and the sanitary inspection unit would not allow organizing a production section at either site No. 1, nor, more importantly, at site No. 2. (Site No. 2 was located in the vicinity of Smolny), and nobody would allow possible harm to come to the top Party leadership. A lucky event helped. A person named L. I. Milstein came to the Institute from some Moscow organization of the Defence Ministry. He asked the experimental production director to make him several “cabinets” for instrument racks. B. P. Rumyantsev agreed on condition that L. I. Milstein would help to find a plant to manufacture components from PPU-10. Some time later, I had a telephone call from Moscow, and a voice on the line said “This is Leonid Ilyich.” I froze, thinking that it was Leonid Brezhnev, but it was Milstein. He invited us to come to Safonovo (Smolenskaya Oblast) to the Plastmass Plant, with which we, in principle, could place an order for manufacture of PPU-10 components. At first the talk with the plant’s administration was difficult but then we succeeded in persuading them but, of course, not for free. The leadership of the Institute and the Vodtranspribor Plant, which was in charge of bringing the sonar system to production found a way out. A minivan RAF was leased to the plant in Safonovo (for token funds), the lease term was extended every year, and the Plastmass Plant continued manufacturing the components from foamed polyurethane that we wanted. We had to go to Safonovo, a godforsaken place, quite often because of multiple technical and organizational problems that we had to solve promptly. It should be noted that in the 1960–1970s much was being done to meet the needs of the defence industry. Much depended on the go-getting abilities and charm of our specialists and on the friendly contacts in the respective ministries and departments. I remember a situation that occurred on the introduction of a very efficient screen consisting of rubber shells with an internal sleeve made from rubber with cylindrical channels (RCC). On our recommendation, a rather complex process of manufacture was designed at the RI of Rubber Industry, and manufacture of an experimental batch of screens

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at the Technical Rubber Plant in Yaroslavl took place. Only one screen element was missing. It was a limiting casing to prevent the rubber shells from inflating under the action of excess internal air pressure. Use of a metal casing, first, completely eliminated the useful properties of the screen, and second, was dangerous. Because in this case we had a small bomb which might go off at any moment. And then an idea came to use cloth as a material for the casing. Since screens were of extremely complex shape (they were meant for screening the external surface of cylindrical transducers in the SS Shtil ), no one at the Institute was able to cut and sew such casings. So we applied to the Moscow Research Institute of Sewing Industry (RISI). We were kindly invited to visit. As we were discussing the technical matters concerning our problem, a man entered the sewing shop where we were talking with the sewing specialists. As we found out later, it was one of the Russian cosmonauts who right in our presence started trying on a space-suit sewn at the Institute. So we found ourselves participating in the “holy of holies” — space exploration. We had our casing sewn for us at the RISI. There is a photograph of a shell in this casing laced up with a trivial shoe-lace. It looks so funny and moving today. Later a better production-adapted structure of a screen without a casing was developed for the sonar Shtil. It is still in use today. Thus, as a result of many-years’ work, screens were created and found application in the arrays of practically all sonar systems designed at the Institute (Fig. 1). Here are the main types: (1) porous rubber 51-1415 designed for operation under pressures up to 25–30 kg/cm2 for a wide range of acoustic frequencies; (2) screens from reinforced layers of rubber with cylindrical channels for operation under pressures up to 40–60 kg/cm2 for use in both receiving and radiating arrays; these screens are noted for high reliability and long service life. Some of them have been in service at least 15–20 years; (3) screens from foamed polyurethane PPU-10, sealed in specially developed rubber 34-LTI with low curing temperature; these screens are reliable, efficient, adapted to industrial production, indispensable as internal screens of cylindrical transmitters of arrays

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Specimen of perforated screen.

of basic operation modes, and remain serviceable at depths up to 1000 m; (4) screening plate structures (LPS); they can be made from titanium as a material with optimal elastic and strength characteristics, or from laminated-wood plastic specially designed for us by the Institute of Plywood (which, as distinct from LPS from titanium, need to be sealed off with low-temperature rubber); may be used as side screens of cylindrical transmitters of arrays and in construction of high-frequency arrays operating in SSSD mode; LPS are serviceable at depths up to 1000 m; (5) broadband screens in the form of bent rubber shells with a rubbermetal inserts; they are used at depths up to 400 m, mainly in underwater communication sonar transducers. Screens were the subject-theme for one dissertation for a doctor’s degree (V. Ye. Glazanov, 1980) and three dissertations for a candidate’s

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degree (M. M. Marinsky, 1966; T. B. Gromova, 1973; A. V. Mikhailov, 1986) at our Institute. In 1986, the book Sonar Arrays Screening (Ekranirovaniye gidroakusticheskikh antenn) by V. Ye. Glazanov was published by the Sudostroyenie Publishers. This book is the only monograph on this subject in the world’s literature. The development of the scientific foundation of screen analysis and calculation of their effect on parameters of sonar transducer was to a high degree facilitated by the scientific climate established at the acoustic departments of the Institute, and the work of such specialists as Ye. L. Shenderov, M. D. Smaryshev, R. Ye. Pasynkov, B. S. Aronov, L. Ye. Sheinman, R. P. Pavlov, L. D. Lyubavin, L. B. Nikitin, and many others, whose scientific assistance and support were felt over a period of many years. Along with the participation of subcontractors, practical implementation and introduction of screens into the Institute’s developments would have been impossible without the participation of both the workers of the section (A. V. Mikhailov, T. B. Gromova, T. N. Ivanova, I. N. Zavalina, G. F. Karpov, and V. I. Orlova) and the specialists from the related departments (A. Ya. Rinkis, O. N. Didakov, Yu. A. Gornov, N. A. Zhukov, I. K. Prokofyev, and many others). The author could not abstain from giving the names of those people, many of whom, regretfully, have passed away. In 1983, the section was assigned the theme of powerful radiating arrays. New specialists came (A. A. Gots, I. L. Rubanov, T. P. Korolyova, and A. I. Starovoitov), and screens, which by that time had been moved to the background, were gradually replaced by new problems. But this is a subject for another discussion, having very little relationship to the subject of screens.

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Piezoactive Materials in Hydroacoustics I. A. SEROVA

Efficiency of energy conversion and operating characteristics of sonar arrays are determined by electroacoustic transducer parameters such as electroacoustic efficiency (in transmission) and sensitivity (in reception), specific radiated acoustic power, physical dimensions compared with the wavelength of sound, as well as reliability, stability under hydrostatic pressure, temperature changes, shock and vibration loading, etc. The greater part of the above characterization of transducers depends on the choice of the active material, which converts electric to acoustic power and vice versa, and to a considerable degree on the design of the transducer. Modern electroacoustic transducers are manufactured mainly from piezoelectric ceramic elements, the characteristics and parameters of which determine to a considerable degree the general output characteristics of transducers. Until the 1950s, the transducers used in hydroacoustics were mainly manufactured from nickel-based magnetostrictive materials, as well as from crystals of Seignette’s salt, ammonium phosphate, quartz, and tourmaline (sonars Mars, Feniks, and others). The physical properties and technical characteristics of these materials strongly limited their application. Sources based on nickel required additional power consumption because of magnetizing, which significantly reduced their efficiency and made the sonar hardware more complex. The high sound velocity in magnetostrictive materials limited the transducers frequency range because of wavelength to element-size ratios, etc. Seignette’s salt, potassium dihydrophosphate, ammonium phosphate and other materials with similar properties have a number of drawbacks limiting their broad application. For example, with Seignette’s salt, the ferroelectric state exists in a very narrow 941

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temperature range (from –18◦ to +22◦ C), it is easily soluble in water, has low strength, easily cracks upon heating, and at 50◦ C starts decomposing. Also, Seignette’s salt crystals display ferroelectric properties along the crystallographic axis a only, which allows their use in the form of monocrystals only and excludes the possibility of manufacturing components of complex geometry. Arrays made with the use of these materials had low efficiency (less than 20%), low stability in time and when variations existed in working temperatures and pressures. In the early 1950s, the task was set to the Navy and the industry to increase the range of submarine detection using hydroacoustic systems by more than an order of magnitude. This jump could be ensured only as a result of the solution of a number of complex problems. These included identifying new materials for transducers, development and introduction of the technologies for their manufacture, and the development of highly efficient, reliable and durable transducers using materials that meet a whole set of technical and service requirements. Stable serial production of piezoelectric elements of different shapes for use in transducers had to be ensured. For solving these problems, the CRI Morfizpribor (CRI MFP) carried out a series of studies based on the discovery in 1945 of polycrystalline ferroelectric activity from barium titanate, the development of the theory of second-order phase transitions, and development of the thermodynamic theory of ferroelectric and piezoceramic properties of materials. The stability in time of a strong piezoelectric effect in polarized samples of ferroelectric piezoelectric ceramics stimulated investigation of electromechanical properties of barium titanate and barium titanatebased solid solutions both in the Soviet Union (PhIAN, ACIN, PTI, Institute of Chemistry (IC) RAS, CRI MFP, and other organizations) and abroad. Beginning in the 1970s, the CRI Morfizpribor concentrated efforts on the study of electromechanical properties of a number of new ferroelectrics, development of piezoelectric transducers employing new materials, and design of highly efficient arrays using them. These and all later studies connected with piezoelectric ceramics were supervised by R. Ye. Pasynkov in close collaboration with the IC RAS. Under the

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supervision of G. A. Smolensky, work at IC RAS was conducted on the search for and the study of ferroelectric solids having good prospects for their application in hydroacoustics. Development of the process for manufacture of piezoelectric ceramic materials and piezoelectric elements from them was an independent and a very complex task, the solution of which was entrusted to the group working under the leadership of P. L. Strelets, which included the author of this article, the technicians N. G. Sharapova, G. S. Kulikova, and mechanic A. L. Lebedev. The methods of obtaining barium titanate described in the earliest publications on the subject were absolutely unacceptable for serial production of piezoelectric elements. Therefore, the first stage of work on ceramic manufacture was a detailed study of the known technologies for manufacture of capacitor and art ceramics at the RI Girikond, the Kozitsky Plant, the Pskov Radio Components Plant, the Proletarii Plant, the M. V. Lomonosov Plant, and other enterprises. Careful studies were done of the equipment, its features, the production capacity, and applicability to our conditions. All these specific features were taken into account later in the design and manufacture of equipment for manufacture of piezoelectric ceramics at the Institute. The scope of problems expanded quickly, and, despite the fact the process cycle was already viewed as a generally well organized, each operation had to be given a careful work-out, beginning from formulation of requirements of the raw material. In 1952, the engineers V. I. Zaitseva and A. T. Badalova joined the group working on the technology of prototype manufacture. Work was carried out with the participation of V. V. Vinogradov, with whose help the first evaluation criteria for materials selection were worked out and measuring circuits assembled. G. I. Pasynkova was in charge of evaluation and measurements; K. I. Tsypkin was engaged in creation of polarization unit. I. Ye. Mylnikova (worker of the IC RAS), mechanics Ye. G. Granat, R. R. Lepin, V. M. Lakheta and designers from the chief-technologist’s office A. I. Sapunov, I. D. Spassky, L. A. Polikarpova, A. I. Oborinskaya, A. I. Maksimenko and others also took part in the work. Using the initial positive results obtained on samples manufactured “in mortar,” the research project Keramika was launched (1953–1955)

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with the title “The technology of ferroelectric ceramic manufacture.” It was the first officially launched and financed research project with a concrete, clearly formulated technical task. The outstanding organizing talent of P. L. Strelets, who was head of this part of the work, allowed the creation of a laboratory facility for the manufacture of piezoelectric elements from barium titanate at the Institute. Development and broad use of the new piezoelectric ceramic material and its application in sonar transducers were regarded as a significant scientific-technical problem of high national importance. In the process of this research, the requirements for the initial raw material were worked out (basic substance, impurities, grain-size composition, moisture content, etc.), the problems of mixing, milling dispersion, solid–phase synthesis, final firing, compaction of components of different geometry and dimensions, casting, electrode placement, polarization, and a lot of other problems were solved, each calling for full-scale scientific development. For compiling the production process instructions, accumulation of statistical data on each operation was required. Using the obtained results, the first Tentative Technical Specifications (TTS) were worked out. They included the specifications for the ceramics parameters, measuring diagrams of these parameters, and computation formulas. Piezoelectric elements of various shapes were manufactured and their parameters measured on the non-standard equipment specially designed and made for the prototype laboratory samples. The positive results of the research work allowed consideration of the question of the creation of a production facility for bringing piezoelectric ceramic material to large-scale production. For this purpose the research project Dielektrik (1955–1957) was started with Chief Scientist P. L. Strelets. Within the scope of this project, a production process for the manufacture of piezoelectric elements from barium titanate was designed, special production equipment (12 units) was designed and manufactured. In a number of cases the equipment was of original design (magnetic separator, lowinertia tunnel kilns, devices for electrodes deposition, polarization units, etc.).

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The proposed technology was tested on the equipment installed at the Institute on a specially organized experimental production site, and over 80,000 piezoelectric ceramic elements (having a total weight of 9 tons) were manufactured of different geometrical shapes and sizes for arrays of a number of sonars, including those manufactured at the Vodtranspribor and the Priboi Plants (Neman, Venta, Rion, Sviyaga, Yakhta, Khosta, Svir, Tamir, and others). The piezoelectric elements were manufactured in compliance with the specificied requirements. It was stated in the Acceptance Protocol of the research project Dielektrik that the CRI Morfizpribor had created the country’s best production bay for the manufacture of piezoelectric elements using barium titanate, which completely satisfied the need for active elements for the home hydroacoustics. However, already in the course of execution of the project Keramika, the drawbacks of barium titanate as an active material were revealed; the relatively low Curie temperature (≈120◦ C) and a phase transition observed at +10◦ C, which testified to a drop in thermodynamic stability and the clearly pronounced properties of a soft ferroelectric material. With a view to performing a search for a material with hard ferroelectric properties through creation of solid solutions using barium titanate, the research project Samshit was launched (1950–1957). The author of this article was appointed the project’s chief scientist. As a result of investigation of a number of solid solution systems, piezoelectric materials were synthesized under the code names compound 2 (TB-2) and compound 3 (TBK-3). Since the research project Samshit was executed in parallel with the second phase of the project Dielektrik, the advantage of new compounds over the old one (TB-1) could be clearly determined. Construction of model transducers with the use of all three compounds (within the scope of the research project Klen) confirmed superiority of TBK-3. As a result of these research projects, the CRI Morfizpribor started mass production of piezoelectric ceramic elements first using compound TB-1, and then using compounds TB-2 and TBK-3.

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By way of providing technical help, the Vodtranspribor Plant received from the CRI Morfizpribor the drawings for process equipment and instructions for production flow organization; training was provided at the CRI Morfizpribor for 20 engineers, technicians, and workers of the plant. The CRI Morfizpribor was put in charge of supervising production at a section organized at the plant, which, though greatly reduced in size, is still functioning. Production technology development meeting all the requirements for production of high-quality piezoelectric elements was carried out using broad-scale investigation of the physical and chemical processes taking place in the process of manufacture, and study of the influence of technological factors on their physical properties. Also, an essential factor was that, in practically all instances and at different stages of problem solution, the designers had no available prototypes. In this connection, during the whole period of piezoelectric ceramic investigation and its introduction into hydroacoustics, the designers were required to search for new solutions to problems that often varied in nature and content, but were related. Manufacture of structures, equipment, and devices of original design often provided an opportunity to abstain from the use of imported equipment (e.g., creation of 7- and 12-m tunnel kilns). The quick transition from magnetostrictive materials to piezoelectric ceramic allowed the sonar system Rubin array to be created in a very short time. Construction of this device would have been impossible if done using nickel. Setting new requirements for piezoelectric ceramic materials, without which efficient sonar transducers would not have been created, coincided with intensive development of research both in the USSR and abroad, search for new materials and discovery of anomalously high piezoelectric properties in two-component solid solutions using lead niobate — barium niobate and lead titanate — lead zirconate (later called ZrTiPb or ZTP alloys) which feature a characteristic morphotropic phase boundary. It is in the vicinity of this boundary that maximum piezoelectric properties are observed. Investigation of new compounds was also conducted at the Institute. Of great interest was compound 5 containing 60% of lead niobate

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and 40% of barium niobate and compound 6 of lead zirconate–titanate with dopes, which were used in the manufacture of model transducers for the sonars Arktika, Yashma, Rion and others. But, since raw material for compound 5, niobium pentoxide, was not available for serial production and arrived in small batches of 0.5–1 kg, it made no sense to consider introduction of this compound into the units. Also the high sound velocity in the ceramic components made from it was another factor limiting its use. Nevertheless, detailed designs for the large production of this compound was completed and handed over to the ZOMP (Zagorsk) with over one thousand sensors for spacecraft engineering. Transducers using lead zirconate–titanate where of the greatest interest for hydroacoustics. In the same period there arose a need for conducting large-scale research into the physical and mechanical properties of piezoelectric ceramics, since it was necessary to know how their characteristics change under strong electric fields, large static and dynamic loads, over a broad range of temperatures, during long service lifes, under exposure to corrosive seawater and to radiation. It was necessary to develop the procedures for study of the dependences of piezoelectric ceramic characteristics under the above conditions and include the results in transducers computations. In 1960, the CRI Morfizpribor already had a strong laboratory which, beside the above-named workers, was supplemented with the engineers A. P. Ivanova, N. D. Yatsenko, T. S. Yesipova, E. A. Buyanova, E. P. Spitsyna, M. G. Tkachenko, N. I. Sizova, T. M. Pavlova, A. M. Elgard, and T. N. Ryzhova, the technicians E. M. Arkhipova, A. A. Loginova, and many other workers as well. In all, the Laboratory of Piezoelectric Ceramics together with the experimental section had a staff of over 150 people. The experimental section had its own PDB (later transformed to a technological bureau), auxiliary sections, a firing section, and sections for mass preparation, polishing, silver-plating, and polarization. At the end of 1961, the experimental portions of the laboratory (i.e. the experimental section for piezoelectric elements manufacture) created with the hands of workers of the laboratory for

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piezoelectric ceramics, turned into a workshop for piezoelectric element manufacture for the whole of the industry. Its production plan was over 12 tons finished products annually, and continued to grow. As a rule, reports on the work performed created great interest at different regional and all-Union conferences and seminars. Close ties with the ACIN RAS, the RI of introscopy, the Yauza Radio Engineering Institute, and many other organizations also conducting work on piezoelectric ceramic application promoted exchange of information. The amount of correspondence on the matters of technology was so large that by 1959 a need was felt to publish a special monograph Piezoelectric Ceramic Elements Production (the Basics of Technology) (Proizvodstvo piezokeramicheskikh elementov). Its authors were I. A. Serova, P. L. Strelets, and V. S. Sluchevsky. With a view toward quantitative evaluation and comparison of different piezoelectric ceramic materials, design-independent criteria were formulated for relating efficiency through simple ratios of the most important service characteristics of a sonar transducer. The project Bakaut, aimed at improving the technology of manufacture of piezoelectric elements from TBK-3, and at bringing these elements into series production, was unable to ensure fulfillment of the tasks assigned because the production shop capacities were exhausted. The need for organizing quantity production of piezoelectric ceramics for the whole industry called for building a specialized plant or a large workshop able to ensure production of over a hundred tons of finished products annually. Until 1961, active search for an appropriate manufacturing plant was conducted. The task was made more difficult because of the expected change-over from barium titanate-based compounds to lead-bearing compounds. Finally, by Ordinance of the CPSU Central Committee and the Council of Ministers of the USSR of 01.07.61, organization of piezoelectric ceramic production was envisaged on the available areas of the Vitebsk Radio Components Plant (later, the Monolit Plant) and the Komielektrosteatit Plant (later, the Progress Plant, Ukhta). By the end of 1962 the above plants had to organize manufacturing facilities of 100-ton annual capacity each. In addition, an organization of a SDTB of piezoelectric ceramics with a staff of 150 people was envisaged at the Monolit Plant.

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The official position of our Institute did not suppose participation of our workers in solving the problems of bringing piezoelectric ceramics into serial production. But, as mentioned above, there was a danger that the tasks set under the project Bakaut would not be fulfilled due to a lack of the necessary conditions in the Institute’s piezoelectric elements shop. For this reason, being given an opportunity to work on the equipment of the Monolit and Progress Plants, workers of the Laboratory of Piezoelectric Ceramics of the CRI Morfizpribor conducted all work jointly with the engineering and technical personnel assigned by the plant. The group of specialists at the Progress Plant was led by Ye. G. Granat and M. G. Tkachenko, and at the Monolit Plant, by I. A. Serova and N. D. Yatsenko. The main results of such work were: (1) finishing the production process of piezoelectric element manufacture from compounds TBK-3 and TB-1 on the plant’s equipment jointly with the plant’s engineering and technical personnel and workers; (2) production of the technical documentation as applied to the plant’s equipment operation; (3) ensuring more stable parameters of piezoelectric ceramic elements. As a result of the work done, the compound TBK-3 was introduced into the Rubin, and supplies of piezoelectric elements to all plants of the industry began. These elements were provided by the Monolit Plant beginning from the 4th quarter of 1961 and by the Progress Plant from the 1st quarter of 1962. This was achieved because of the available free areas (1000 m2 ) at each of the plants. Despite the great research work carried out at the CRI Morfizpribor Laboratory aimed at revealing different factors (strong fields, pressure, temperature, etc.) influencing the parameters of piezoelectric elements, and an active search for more efficient compounds, the staff of the Laboratory continued bearing the responsibility for manufacture of high-quality piezoelectric elements both in the experimental shop of the Institute and at the Monolit and Progress Plants. Specialists of the Laboratory were practically put in charge of fulfillment of the piezoelectric ceramics production plans for the industry.

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With an increase in piezoelectric element production at the plants, failures occurred periodically resulting in a drop of output and an increase in the amount of rejects at some flow line operations. There was also observed a difference in the values of some of the parameters of piezoelectric ceramics produced at different plants. So, 30–40% of the piezoelectric elements from the Monolit Plant displayed sound velocity values 1–1.5% above the top limit established by the TTS, while at the Progress Plant sound velocity was in compliance with the TTS requirements. There was also a difference in the values of the dielectric and the piezoelectric constants. This lead to certain difficulties in sonar transducer assembly and a reduction in their performance characteristics. To learn the causes of such differences, two teams were organized from the workers of the CRI Morfizpribor Laboratory, each including 15 people; one, for the Monolit Plant, led by P. L. Strelets, the other, for the Progress Plant, led by I. A. Serova. Under the supervision of these teams, manufacture by the plants’ ETP and workers of 2-ton control batches of piezoelectric elements was performed. Piezoelectric elements for sonars Rubin, Yenisei, and Amur were selected for control purposes. Serial-production plants were a good learning ground, since the best optimal conditions of equipment operation were carefully studied, defects were analyzed, strict control over component output at each operation was established, the problems of labor organization were solved, process routes were corrected. Comprehensive analysis of series production, development of practical recommendations on its basis, improvement of operationto-operation control, and technological service organization brought positive results and allowed the technical specifications for material and piezoelectric elements to be worked out. Further supplies of piezoelectric elements were carried by the plants in compliance with one and the same specifications, which are still in force today. Production of over 50 types and sizes of piezoelectric elements of different configurations for the sonars Rubin, Rubikon, Kerch, Yenisei, and many others was organized. The relation of the plants’ leadership to the new work (Progress Plant: I. I. Kolotii, A. S. Yudicheva, and N. N. Dakhno; Monolit

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Plant: A. P. Ovechkin, A. A. Matvievsky, E. A. Mamchin, and M. V. Sergeyeva) deserves mention. It was always underscored that a new branch of technology was emerging, and so all good as well as all bad had to be studied carefully. The attention and interest of these people had contributed to the success to a great extent. Beginning in 1964, the drop in production of elements from the TBK-3 from the Monolit Plant was connected with introduction of new compounds. By an ordinance of the Ministry of Electronic Industry production of piezoelectric components from TBK-3 was transferred to the Progress Plant, which gradually brought its production to 150 tons per year. The setting of new requirements for piezoelectric ceramic materials, without which creation of the next generation of hydroacoustic systems was impossible, and a new leap forward in hydroacoustics coincided with the beginning of introduction in the USSR and other countries of lead titanate–zirconate. In 1962–1963, a material based on lead zirconate–titanate with partial lead replacement and doping with modifying additives was synthesized at the CRI Morfizpribor. At that, the researchers were aimed at not just ensuring high piezoelectric characteristics, but took into consideration production ecological characteristics, accounting for the features of lead-bearing materials caused by lead volatility at synthesis and final firing. Of the several dozen synthesized compounds, compound ZTP8 (later renamed ZTPNV-1) in which part of the lead was replaced, and the introduced admixture allowed the firing temperature to be brought down by approximately 150◦ C, was found most promising. Experimental batches of piezoelectric elements from compound ZTPNV-1 were put to careful investigation within the scope of the research project Ustoichivost. The results of investigation showed that this compound may well compete with ferroelectric soft materials of foreign manufacture. Also a very important factor was that the lower sintering temperature (about 1120◦ C), as compared with common temperature for lead-bearing compounds (about 1260◦ C). This gave an opportunity to perform sintering without the need to use nickel piles, in common fire-clay grog pots.

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The first small batches (100–500 kg) manufactured in the Institute’s ceramic shop on orders for the projects Delfin, Rassvet, Akveduk and others demonstrated the promising properties of this compound. Beginning in 1964, manufacture of small experimental batches of elements from the new compound was started at the Monolit Plant. An opportunity was considered for placement of production of lead-bearing materials and piezoelectric elements from them at the Ust-Kamenogorsky lead–zinc integrated plant. Even though this plant had the necessary conditions for manufacture of toxic materials and qualified chemical specialists, due to the absence of direct railway communication (in that period, to get there, one had to change trains twice, plus use a small plane), this option was discarded. In 1968, the Monolit Plant in Vitebsk initiated the process of experimental manufacture of ZTPNV-1 piezoelectric ceramics. With the active technical assistance and participation of specialists from the CRI Morfizpribor I. A. Serova, L. A. Prokofyeva, N. D. Yatsenko, D&D work was carried out in 1969 on development of series production of piezoelectric ceramics from compound ZTPNV-1. In this case, the output of defect-free piezoelectric elements varied from 9% to 50% and over, depending on the components. For this reason, the procedure of manufacture of 1.5-ton control batches was repeated, and in 1970 a protocol concerning introduction at the Monolit Plant of the compound ZTPNV-1 was signed. In 1969, workers of the Monolit Plant started development of a medium-hard piezoelectric ceramic material. The D&D project Dvina terminated in production of the compound ZTP-10 (ZTBP-3). Control batches of articles from ZTPNV-1 and ZTBP-3 permitted developing specifications for piezoelectric elements, and beginning in 1970 the Vitebsk Monolit Plant started series production of components from the piezoelectric ceramic materials ZTPNV-1 and ZTBP-3. Use of these materials provided an opportunity to significantly improve the service characteristics of equipment manufactured for the needs of hydroacoustics, to increase sensitivity, increase specific acoustic power at the preset voltage, reduce the overall dimensions of the instruments, etc.

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Specimens of piezoelectric blocks and elements.

Between 1970 and 1973, the plant brought into serial production over 40 types and sizes of piezoelectric elements from ZTBP-3 and over 50 types of elements from ZTPNV-1. All these years workers of the laboratory took turns regularly appearing at the Monolit Plant, since the range of types and the need to ensure specific approaches for each type of piezoelectric element during the course of production process development called for the prompt solution of many day-to-day problems. A great organizing role in the introduction of serial production at the plants was played by L. Ye. Sheinman. Plans and solutions have always been aimed at reaching definite goals. The documents “Regulations for Supplies” were developed in which the rights and responsibilities of both the manufacturing plant and the customer were stated. The problems of piezoelectric element incoming and outgoing control, supplier’s guarantees, parameter variation tolerances over time, temperature and pressure were settled. The requirements for external appearance and design proposed by Yu. P. Mezhevitinov and V. I. Kirillov were generalized. In 1971 all these requirements were entered in the Technical Specifications. Thus, the basic results of work during the period from 1953 to 1975 boiled down to the following. The task of creation of efficient piezoelectric ceramic materials of home manufacture for

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underwater electroacoustic transducers was fulfilled and the following new scientific-technical results were obtained:

(1) A methodology and a system of criteria was developed that allowed the requirements for efficiency and stability of transducers and arrays and the requirements for the principal parameters of piezoelectric ceramics to be formulated as applied to service conditions. (2) Using the above methodology and the system of criteria, the physical properties of a whole range of ferroelectrics specially synthesized using the perovskite group of solid solutions were investigated (250 different compounds in all). (3) The ability of synthesized materials to meet the requirements set for transducers and arrays was studied on model transducers under service conditions. (4) Based on the results of investigations, piezoelectric ceramic compounds TB-1, TBK-3, ZTPNV-1, ZTBP-3 were selected for manufacture. (5) A principal technology of manufacture was developed for a line (over 240 items) of piezoelectric ceramic elements of different sizes and shapes (plates, prisms, washers, cylinders, spheres, etc.) providing an opportunity to form complex-shaped active elements of transducers of any size and shape. (6) The principal technology of piezoelectric elements was brought to serial production at the LRPA Okeanpribor, PA Monolit, RPA Fonon, Progress Plant, with an annual output of 250 tons. (7) The problem was solved of the development of physical and technical foundations of the methods of design, construction and manufacture, and creation of standardized constructions and serial technologies for manufacture of electroacoustic transducers using piezoelectric elements. (8) The problem was solved of designing arrays for sonars and sonar systems with the application of transducers from piezoelectric ceramics.

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Development and bringing to series production of piezoelectric ceramic elements (PECE) was undertaken using the compounds TB-1, TBK-2, and later ZTPNV-1 and ZTBP-3, and electroacoustic transducers from them. The universal nature of PECE was determined. The opportunity to mass produce amounts counted in the thousands opened broad opportunities and prospects for the construction of sonar arrays of high energy potential and sensitivity, in the low frequency region in particular, unattainable with the use of nickel and piezocrystals. In connection with introduction of series production of piezoelectric ceramic elements at the Monolit Plant, the piezoelectric ceramics shop at the CRI Morfizpribor was eliminated, the laboratory of piezoelectric ceramics also ceased to exist as an independent unit and was first joined to the domes section and then merged with the section engaged in fiber optic engineering. Work on piezoelectric ceramics was practically drying up. The measuring setups, kilns, and the mass preparation bay were all eliminated. In the first half of 1973, the VPTA Monolit stopped serial production of piezoelectric ceramic components from compounds ZTPNV-1 and ZTBP-3, which was transferred to the Volgograd Avrora Plant of piezoelectric ceramic components specially built for production of piezoceramic components for the enterprises putting out hydroacoustic equipment. However, during 1973–1974, the Volgograd Plant systematically failed to meet fulfillment plans for PECEs from compounds ZTPNV-1 and ZTBP-3. Also, material TBK-3 was never brought into production, and it was decided to fully transfer its production to the Progress Plant. In view of the fact that the VPTA Monolit was considered the designer of the technology of serial production of PECE from compounds ZTPNV-1 and ZTBP-3, by the resolution of the Ministry of Electronic Industry the task was set to the Monolit to conduct in 1975, jointly with the Volgograd Avrora Plant, the work on technology improvement, reducing the labor input in PECE production from these compounds to increase the output of serviceable components.

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This work was successfully performed under the supervision of chief engineer of the VPTA Monolit A. V. Matvievsky. The output of defect-free components grew 1.8–4 times as compared with 1974. Introduction of serial production of piezoelectric elements from compounds ZTPNV-1 and ZTBP-3 provided an opportunity to solve difficult technical problems of the systems Skat, Polinom, Shtil, Platina, Avrora, and others, which would not have been constructed without these elements. Despite the difficult situation during that period, we, the workers of the CRI Morfizpribor and of the Monolit Plant, managed to complete the earlier started joint work with the CRI Reaktivelektron on production of compound TBK-3 and lead-bearing materials by the chemical method. An experimental batch was produced using the Monolit Plant equipment and a control batch at the Avrora Plant, and even a note was made on the title page of the Technical Specifications that since the material was produced chemically, its designations should have the letter X. In addition, in the same year, joint work with the Riga Polytechnical Institute was completed on stabilization of PECE parameters through introduction of glass-forming additives in the composition. Measurements of parameters of the piezoelectric elements with such additives made 20 years after their manufacture confirmed their efficiency and compliance with the Technical Specifications. Cooperation with the Avrora Plant was not as smooth as with the Monolit. Equipment purchased in Japan without documentation could be used only partially. Frequent production process failures called for prompt settling of multiple problems. In the beginning workers of the plant declared that compound ZTBP-3 was not adaptable to streamline production, later the same was claimed with regard to compound ZTPNV-1. The plant’s operation was also hindered by changes in raw material suppliers. In 1975, by resolution of the Commission of the Presidium of the Council of Ministers of the USSR for Military and Defence Problems, the research project Keramika-2 was launched, with the goal to improve the characteristics of PECE from compounds ZTPNV-1 and

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ZTBP-3, and search for new, more efficient materials for sonar transducers. The resolution of 1964 on development of new piezoelectric ceramic materials for hydroacoustics at the piezoengineering RI Fonon yielded no positive results. The CRI Morfizpribor was assigned to perform supervision over this work and participate in approval of work stages completion and acceptance of prototypes. Despite some positive results of the research project Keramika-1, the materials studied failed to completely meet the design requirements. Materials proposed by the Rostov University could be produced only by the hot press method, the compounds of the CRI Reaktivelektron were not available in the required quantities. For this reason, compounds ZTPNV-1 and ZTBP-3 were still regarded as the best for the needs of hydroacoustics. Further work under the D&D projects Keramika-3 and Zov, aimed at increasing efficiency and reducing the spread in the properties of the existing compounds, synthezing of new compounds and bringing them to serial production, carried out under the supervision of the RPA Fonon, yielded no significant results either. Concerning the components in series production at the Avrora Plant, the designers succeeded in increasing their mechanical strength to a certain degree, and reducing the spread in values of the dielectric constant. At the same time the group of ceramics specialists from the CRI Morfizpribor continued studying most carefully the influence of different physical factors (pressure, temperature drops, strong fields, aging) on ceramics quality. As a result, new ferroelectric materials were synthesized (covered by invention certificates), compound ZTBP-3 was stabilized in time, and a method for removing oil from the surfaces of components polarized in oil was found. The influence of the technology of transducer manufacture on piezoelectric elements parameters was studied. All this work was described in the reports for the research projects Sprut, Sevan, Delfin, Granit, Resurs-97, and others. The tested method of deposition of electrodes from Monel metal gave an opportunity to recommend the Avrora Plant, jointly with the Moscow Institute of Vacuum Engineering, to develop an installation for Monel metal arc-plasma deposition.

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Beginning in 1985, some batches of PECE from ZTPNV-1 started showing the processes of accelerated dielectric and piezoelectric constants and sound velocity variation in time, and emergence of multiple resonances on rings of article MG-44 made from compound ZTP-19. The research project Element conducted at the CRI Morfizpribor (1988, chief scientist I. A. Serova) gave an opportunity to work out and implement in serial production the recommendations for improvement of PECE’s and piezoelectric block quality. All investigations were carried out in close contact with the Avrora and Vodtranspribor Plants. The causes of the presence of many resonances in the rings of article MG-44 were found and a 100% incoming control was introduced. Jointly with the representatives of the Vodtranspribor Plant, the piezoelectric elements arriving at the plant were subjected to overall inspection, all faulty elements were replaced, with the help of X-ray analysis the need for introducing control of the value of composition tetragonality was established. In 1989, within the scope of the research project Vismut dedicated to “study of the opportunities for improving the technical and service characteristics of piezoelectric blocks through improvement of electrophysical parameters of piezoelectric elements from compounds ZTPNV-1 and ZTBP-3” (Chief Scientist E. N. Buyanova), the principal opportunities for further improvement of the materials and piezoelectric elements made from them in serial production were assessed. But, because of discontinued financing, only the first stage of this work scheduled for three quarters of the year was carried out. Patent search and literature review helped to establish that a drop in parameter variability, improvement in the electrophysical parameters, of the time and temperature stability may be achieved through setting special requirements on the raw material, accurate control of the preset stoichiometric content, phase composition, use of different methods of obtaining of a solid solution (chemical, citrate, alcoholate, etc.), hot and isostatic pressing, firing, introduction of modifying additives, optimization of polarization conditions, etc. From the results of work conducted jointly with the LRPA Burevestnik, confirmed by similar investigations carried out at the

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SDTB of the Avrora Plant and the CRI Reaktivelektron, it became clear that the time-unstable piezoelectric elements from ZTPNV-1 could be sorted out beforehand by the value of tetragonality or by exposure to negative temperature. An opportunity developed for increasing temperature and time stability without loss of efficiency of piezoelectric ceramic material ZTPNV-1 by way of introduction of a titanium admixture and decreasing the amount of zirconium by the same value. All results obtained on small batches of piezoelectric elements at the Avrora Plant were expected to be repeated in control batches at the 2nd and 3rd stages of the research project Vismut. The last work in the area of piezoelectric ceramics carried out within the scope of D&D project Lira, research project Umenshayemoye — MSP showed an opportunity for improving serialproduced compounds and creation of new, more efficient materials. All work on piezoelectric ceramics was performed with the participation of Ye. A. Korepin. Summing up the above, I conclude that it was exactly at the CRI Morfizpribor that the tasks of synthesis of piezoelectric ceramic materials were fulfilled; jointly with the manufacturing plants, the technologies of serial production of piezoelectric elements from these materials were designed; their industrial production at experimental production bay of the CRI Morfizpribor and at plants of the industry (under the supervision of the CRI Morfizpribor) was organized. Serial production of transducers and arrays in the amounts meeting the needs of the Navy was organized. In view of the importance of the resolved problems, the body of researchers performing this work was twice nominated for a State Prize. But the first time document submission was late, and the second time it was explained to us that the Institute had not been the leading organization in this area, despite the fact that nothing had been done for the CRI Morfizpribor by others in this respect. In the course of the work, many scientific-technical articles, reports, methodological recommendations, instructions reflecting the results of investigations were published; reference-books, monographs came out; many studies were awarded the invention certificates.

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Based on the results of the work, dissertations for doctor’s and candidate’s degrees were defended, practically all inventions were brought to industrial production. With the years, experience has been gathered, the fine features of the technology of manufacture of piezoelectric elements have been disclosed; many tasks requiring serious effort in their fulfillment now look amateurish. But even today, after 48 years of work and participation in research and D&D projects related to piezoelectric ceramics, I continue to say that this is not a simple technology.

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Notes on the Development Over the Last 35 Years of Methods for the Manufacture of Piezoelectric Transducers M. K. BUSHER

In 1978, in the journal Voyenno-Morsroi Sbornik (Navy Collection), I came across an item from the American press were the economical aspects of the re-equipment of the American Navy with the new Trident-class BMS submarine was discussed in comparison with the Iowa-class submarines, then in use. As an acoustics engineer, I read with surprise that the analysis of the degree of modernization of electronic equipment to be used by the new submarines had shown that the external acoustic equipment could be used on the new submarines without serious amendment or improvement. Against the background of intensive activity in the area of new development and bringing to serial production such sonar systems as Skat, Polinom, Dnestr, and a number of smaller systems, the information caused some surprise. Indeed, for 20 years, from 1960 to 1980, home hydroacoustics made significant progress in the design and technology development of sonar transducers. Effective piezoelectric ceramic materials were developed, having characteristics close to those of American materials, which provided an opportunity to finally abandon magnetostrictive transducers. Accordingly, the measures of performance of acoustic transmitters and receivers was improved several times. The desire to use to the maximum the capabilities of piezoactive materials and achieve an optimal design for transmitters and receivers necessitated the use of knowledge and achievements made in areas of science and technology having no direct relation to acoustics. Here I mean electrical and mechanical properties of materials and structures, 961

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the chemistry and mechanics of polymers, and other areas. All this ensured rapid progress and brought home hydroacoustics to the frontline. But by the late 1970s, the pace of qualitative growth began to slow. This situation was determined, first, by the fact that the potential capabilities of piezoactive materials based on piezoelectric ceramics became exhausted and, second, by the unvarying geometry of the components (types of elements) used in making the piezoblocks for transducers. It should be noted that the structure of the principal components was determined by the specific properties of the material. Creation of new materials in the United States took place a bit earlier, and, to all evidence, a maximum rate of growth had also been achieved slightly earlier in the area of design and technology of transducer manufacture. Another leap forward in the area of hydroacoustic transducers might have been connected with the development of qualitatively new methods for energy conversion, among them development of new piezoactive materials. As far as I know, one of these methods was the development of new magnetostrictive materials using rare-earth elements. In particular, in the mid-1980s, in the United States, a material terphenol was studied which allowed deformation displacements 3–5 times greater than in the best specimens of our ceramics with a sound velocity lower than in piezoelectric ceramics. Work on the development of similar materials in Russia ended for lack of financing. These, in my opinion, are the main causes that determined the abrupt drop in the rate of development in this area of hydroacoustics. Returning to a more detailed analysis of the history of development of individual aspects of the technology of hydroacoustic transducer manufacture, by the beginning of the 1970s, the development of the structures of almost all types of hydroacoustic piezoceramic transducers in our country was either completed or was in the process of final development. (I will drop the definition “hydroacoustic” with reference to transducers, since we will be talking about the transducers for this application only.) From the point of view of strength under hydrostatic pressure, the types of structures used then and today are subdivided by their reaction to pressure (load-bearing, compensated,

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and unloaded). By the type of the oscillating system, transducers are subdivided into cylindrical, rod, plate, spherical and such specifically designed as multielement arrays in a single metal shell, and hose arrays. In recent years no principally new types have appeared. To understand this, it is enough to look at the range of piezoelectric elements produced then and now, and their technical specifications. The secondary construction materials used in transducer manufacture have undergone significant changes though not of a radical nature. The epoxy adhesive DM5-65 developed in the late 1950s for gluing together the piezoelements in an active element-piezoblock is still in use and practically holds a monopoly; the insulating varnish UR-231 has also been in use for about 30 years; the grades of steel, titanium alloys and glass fiber used as reinforcing elements are also 25–30 years old. The currently used insulating fluids are of almost the same age. Some grades of rubber and sealing compounds are slightly younger. The age of the latter (e.g. SKUPFL-74) is no more than 10 years old. Naturally, as will be discussed later, the greatest progress has been achieved in the area of sealing. The sequence of operations in transducer manufacture has remained practically unchanged, as have the methods and procedures of assembly. The process equipment has remained generally the same, except for some individual operations. The process of transducer assembly determining their final quality may be subdivided in three groups of operations: piezoblock gluing, its mechanical and electrical hardening, and sealing. The methods of operation-to-operation control of the quality of assembly should be considered separately. In the first group of operations, piezoblock gluing, application of adhesive on the glued surfaces of piezoelements and electrodes is performed manually, as was done 40 years ago. At some plants, at the Vodtranspribor and the Priboi, in particular, now and then appeared, and again disappeared, special devices in the form of rotating rolls wetted with glue. But generally this operation has always been performed manually. After adhesive application, piezoelements were placed in formshaping devices, and then by “knocking,” pressing at the specific points,

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the assembly worker achieved the dimensions indicated in the drawings. Excess mass was removed from a surface by a cotton wad wetted in acetone. This operation has not changed either. It is clear that the quality and productivity of such a method of assembly were determined by the worker’s qualifications. Why such conservatism? There were several reasons: the difficulty in mechanization of these operations, the great variety of types and sizes of piezoblocks, and the small batches of products. There is one more reason and probably the most important; the lack of influence of manual assembly, regardless of the degree of diligence, on the performance of the system. Manual assembly has a comparatively small influence on the spread of the electromechanical parameters of the glued piezoblocks since the dominating factor on spread — nonuniformity — is nonidentity of the characteristics of the supplied piezoelements. Over the entire period under consideration, attempts to limit this spread have brought insignificant results. The only achievement in the exhausting fight with piezoceramics manufacturers was the inclusion of technical specifications for the supply of piezoelements requiring a limit on the range of variability of the characteristics of sets for the most critical components. The size of the set was determined by the number of piezoelements included in a piezoblock. Even though the requirements to supply uniform sets have brought about a radical drop in variability of piezoblock characteristics, this factor still dominates the technology. Returning to analysis of the factors preventing mechanization of the assembly operations, an important technical and economic reason should be noted; the low cost of manual labor and a generally sufficient labor supply, in the southern regions of the country in particular. However, similar reasons slowing down progress were characteristic for many other industries. Besides, there were no serious economic incentives for increased mechanization. To the credit of many production designers and technologists, it should be noted that there had been many original proposals for radical solutions to this problem. One of them was an attempt to introduce piezoblock gluing by the method of impregnating the gaps between piezoelements with a cementing compound (piezoelements were assembled in a form and placed in an autoclave filled with compound). The method was not developed because it

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required creation of new adhesives of definite viscosity and the design of new equipment, that is, large, one-time expenditures. Introduction of this method might have changed in a radical and positive way the whole process of gluing. Another large group of assembly operations, characteristic for transducers operating in the acoustic transmission mode is the operations of mechanical hardening of piezoblocks. This includes operations of mechanical hardening of electric wiring, piezoblocks impregnation with compounds with the purpose of curing microdefects in ceramics and a series of smaller operations, and the principal operation of hardening: piezoblock reinforcement, that is, block static compression in the direction of cyclic mechanical stresses developing in service. The method of reinforcement is determined primarily by the type of transducer oscillatory system. Historically, cylindrical and rod-type transducers were the first to be reinforced. In view of the fact that in ceramics the tensile strength is 10 times smaller than compression strength, piezoblocks reinforcement was performed so as to prevent development of inadmissible tensile stresses in them in the course of operation. The method of reinforcement of cylindrical transducers was borrowed, with small variations, from the technology of reinforcement of gun barrels. A heated metal binding was pulled over a cylindrical block placed in a casing of electroinsulating rubber bored to the required dimension. Then the block was cooled at the maximum possible rate. As early as 1962, this method of reinforcement was used in the CRI Morfizpribor for reinforcement of piezoblocks with external diameter over 400 mm for the sonar Rubin. Then this method was introduced at the plants and other institutes of the country. In the beginning the operation was performed in the most primitive way. A worker in tarpaulin mittens threw the binding, heated to 500◦ C, over a piezoceramic ring in a rubber casing. Then with a board placed over the binding’s upper end, the binding was pushed down to the limit. At the moment the binding touched the transducer, the worker started pouring water on it from a hose. In a year, some mechanization was introduced. A method of installation was designed and put into service which combined all three

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operations; heating, installing the binding, and cooling. This method is still found in the Institute’s assembly shop, and, as they say, it is still in an almost working state. It is interesting to note that in the same year, 1962, an American acoustics journal published a description of a patent for cylindrical piezoblock reinforcement with the help of several open metal hoops put over a rubber-coated piezoceramic cylinder. Then the hoops were locked and tightened with a preset force. Clearly, the quality of reinforcement by such method must have been lower than ours. But our method had a number of drawbacks. The main one being the loss in time of the compression strength in ceramics due to the relaxation properties of the rubber casing. There were other drawbacks. Due to allowances for the binding and ring diameters, the desirable reproducibility of the compression force in separate blocks and an acceptable uniformity of stresses in the volume of the ceramic block could not be achieved. A quite progressive method was found combining the operations of gluing and reinforcement of cylindrical blocks, the so-called “centrifugal reinforcement method.” It was invented and introduced at the Vodtranspribor Plant in the mid-1960s. The method consists in the following. In a cylindrical binding lined from inside with an insulating layer, piezoelements coated with an adhesive were placed. Then the whole unit was installed on the shaft of a powerful electric motor. Adhesive polymerization took place in the process of rotation. Due to the centrifugal effect the binding expanded simultaneously with polymerization. As rotation stopped, the binding compressed the ceramic ring. Using this method piezoblocks were manufactured for the sonars Magma, Korund, Gamma and a few others. But this method of cylindrical block reinforcement did not become universal since it was efficient for large-diameter cylinders only and was able to develop reinforcing stresses not over 10 MPa. Already in the early 1970s designers developed a more progressive reinforcement method that consisted in winding on the cylindrical block (Fig. 1) a strong flexible thread with a preset strain. Initially metal wire was used for winding, and later, based on American sources of information, glass fiber and other high-strength synthetic fibers came

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Specimens of piezoblocks for cylindrical transducers.

into use. Fibers were wetted with epoxy adhesive in the process of winding. After adhesive polymerization, the block was found compressed to the required strength, and the insulating layer formed on its surface was very good for giving shape to the transducer structure. Investigations showed that relaxation of compressive forces did not exceed 15% in 10 years, and reproducibility of reinforcing stresses in relation to design values was not less than 90%. The method could be easily mechanized. In the early 1970s, the first winding machine was built at the CRI Morfizpribor. Similar machines appeared later at other industrial plants. Thousands of transmitters for the most important systems, systems such as Skat, Dnestr were reinforced through their use. The first winding machine is still in service today. Introduction of this method of reinforcement was an important achievement in the technology of transducer manufacture. The method of reinforcement of rod-type piezoblocks requires a separate description. From the 1950s to the present day these blocks are still reinforced with the help of a central tie bolt located along the block

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axis. All design improvements over 20 years boil down to selection of maximum strength materials for the bolt ensuring strength against fatigue of the piezoblock and the bolt at not less than 109 oscillation cycles. Also the reinforcement unit was supplemented with spherical centering washers placed between the bolt and the block face. With regard to development of the reinforcing equipment, an installation of a type of mechanical pliers was designed for stretching the central bolt while simultaneously compressing the block. When the desired deformation was achieved, it was fixed with the help of a nut screwed onto the bolt. A device of this kind was developed in the late 1970s and was used in reinforcement of transmitters for the system Polinom and a few others. Small blocks continue being reinforced manually with the use of a dynamometric wrench. The greatest progress was achieved in the next group of technological assembly operations — block sealing. As has been noted, it is connected with introduction of new sealing materials. In the 1960s all structures of separate piezoblocks were sealed with the help of metal casings and rubber collars sealing the joints between metal parts, or simply with the help of rubber casings. As a rule, transducers of the antenna array type were placed in a metal housing and sealed by welding. The sealed housing was filled with gas (air or SF6 ) or an electroinsulating fluid. In the case of a liquid filler, the sealing volume communicated with a pressure compensator to relieve the external hydrostatic pressure on the transducer. The progress in the area of sealing with rubber was connected exclusively with development of new grades of rubber with special properties necessary for the transducer. So rubber grades were developed which ensured device operation in the temperature range of ±50◦ C, and grades stable to ozone and mineral oil; rubber grades allowing their vulcanization on a component at a temperature below 100◦ C and featuring high electric strength. Use of the grade property is particularly convenient, since the majority of piezoelement grades do not allow heating over 150◦ C. Low-temperature rubber allowed vulcanization of sealing shells to be conducted directly onto piezoblocks and provided vast opportunities for designers.

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With time, a technology for leak-proof jointing of polyethylene parts with parts from other materials appeared. The greatest progress in sealing technology was achieved in piezoblocks sealing with compounds setting as a result of the reaction of polymerization. In the 1960s the compounds that might withstand the required temperature drops and simultaneously the exposure to an aggressive media simply did not exist. In the early 1970s, the Donetsk Research Institute of Plastics for the first time developed the epoxy compound UP592 which was found acceptable for our requirements and was used for sealing the powerful transmitters for the sonar Skat. But its vitrification temperature was close to 0◦ C, and for this reason frost resistance of components sealed with this compound did not exceed −30◦ C. An attempt to seal transmitters of larger size than those for the Skat with this compound failed. The problem of frost resistance of compoundsealed systems of any sizes and shapes was solved when polyurethane elastomers with the vitrification temperature below −50◦ C came to use. Compound PUZK was found most suitable for our applications. Later, in the 1980s, there appeared compounds specially developed or modernized for the needs of hydroacoustics, like CKUPFL-74 and others, with the speed of sound close to that in water, and with minimum internal losses. It should be specifically noted that noticeable progress was achieved in a very short time in the area of mechanization and automation of the compound potting process. While in the early 1970s the first transmitters for the Skat were sealed manually from cans in which the compound was prepared with the help of hand stirrers, 1 year after, at the Vodtranspribor Plant, the compound was prepared in special mixers, from which it was fed directly into pots; mechanization of this operation reached 90%. In the same period the CRI Morfizpribor purchased the German unit Epsilon ensuring accurate component rationing and potting under vacuum. As a result, the quality of the sealing abruptly increased. For potting with polyurethane elastomers, the home industry offered even better devices: the so-called binary-type installations, in which the processes of mixing and potting were completely automated. In the late 1980s such installations were purchased by the enterprises

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of the industry. They were used for potting transducers for the sonars Dnestr, Lira, and others. With the help of additional equipment designed by our process engineers, a very progressive process of transducer potting under pressure was developed and introduced. Later this equipment was combined with binary installations. The new technology was found very useful in potting hose-type arrays of considerable length and generally for antenna arrays with high-density packaging of electrical components. Binary installations also provided an opportunity to use short-lived compounds having important properties. It may be asserted that in the 1990s our technology of potting with compounds was, and still is, at the level of the world’s best technologies. And, finally, the technical progress in solving the problems of process operation-to-operation control. The operation-to-operation control begins with a check of the electromechanical parameters of piezoelements. Since the piezoelement manufacturers belonged to the Ministry of Electronic Industry, the relations with the consuming enterprises under the authority of the Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry were regulated with the help of technical specifications for supply of piezoelements and other documents. As it has been noted before, despite the requirement for component supply in sets introduced in single cases, variability of piezoelement characteristics was the dominating factor determining variability of transducer characteristics during final operations of the production process. For this reason, operation-tooperation control has always been aimed at ensuring system serviceability. In this respect, the problem of quality control of mechanical strength of piezoelements was extremely important. One idea of quality control is that a short-term cyclic electric voltage at one of the resonance frequencies is applied to the piezoelements, creating in them mechanical stresses of known values and imitating component operation under sealed conditions. Attempts to introduce this type of quality control at the manufacturing plants producing piezoelements for 20 years were unsuccessful. The MSI enterprises deliberately introduced strength control for piezoelements intended for the most important system, despite the additional expenses they were compelled to incur.

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In view of the critical importance of the mechanical strength of transducers, the same type of quality control was introduced during piezoblock gluing and reinforcement. Beside the principal method of quality control, which technologically was neither complex nor original, a whole series of methods, principally new in the scientific and technological sense, was developed. Some were applied to single units but did not find wide application. Among such methods, the following may be named: piezoelement internal defect quality control by ultrasonic sounding and control of piezoelement oscillatory system mechanical quality by the shape of the free oscillations set up process or by spectral characteristics. We must mention the problems of automation of control of electromechanical parameters of piezoelements and piezoblocks. It is known that transducer acoustic parameters are almost completely determined by the set of electromechanical parameters of piezoblocks that are calculated by the extreme points of piezoblock amplitudefrequency characteristic. While the set of calculated parameters is large, the formulas are simple. It should be noted that the technical specifications for supply also include a set of similar parameters. An automatic measuring device of this kind presents no difficulty in terms of scientific support. Indeed, such devices had been created and put to service in the early 1980s at the plants of the Ministry of Electronic Industry, the Avrora Plant including, for quality control of the output parameters of piezoelements where millions of elements had to undergo quality control within a year. The attempt to create similar devices for quality control of parameters of piezoblocks was not as successful. Such devices turned out to be difficult to operate, expensive, and unreliable. After a few failures, they were no longer repaired, and the old methods returned: manual measurement of amplitude-frequency characteristics of piezoblocks and calculation of the quality controlled parameters with the use of calculators. The reason for failure lay, in the first place, in the low economic efficiency of the devices of this kind due to significantly smaller amount of measurements than at plants producing piezoelements. It was easier to hire more people for measurements than to get into the trouble of developing a complex and expensive device. So, in the 30 years, the

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idea of automation of operation-to-operation quality control of electromechanical parameters of piezoblocks had not been realized. The whole progress boiled down to replacement of manual electromechanical calculators with modern electronic ones. The method of quality control of electrical strength of piezoblocks has not changed in 30 years either. The method consists in short-term application to the piezoblock of electric voltage significantly exceeding the working voltage. The test units themselves underwent very slight improvement. The problems of quality control of piezoblock sealing practically had not been developed. The operation-to-operation quality control in this case is limited to external examination and measurment of the insulation resistance and the inter-electrode resistance in piezoblock in the air and under hydrostatic pressure. In single cases helium leak detectors were used. After all, despite the low level of mechanization and automation of quite a big number of operations, transducer designers and manufacturers have nevertheless ensured successful manufacture of arrays for totally new up-to-date sonar systems. This was made possible due to the fact that the physics of the processes taking place had been grasped correctly. As a result of such understanding, constructions were corrected and new ones designed, the parameters of the process conditions of reinforcement, vulcanization, polymerization etc. were optimized. No doubt, this knowledge was acquired not as a result of a priori scientific studies only, but also as a result of analysis of the causes of different failures of transducers in service. The catastrophic rate of development of corrosion in the sonar Amur in 1968 made the designers pay serious attention to the possibilities of electrochemical corrosion of transducers, and take respective protective design-and-technological measures. Nevertheless the same mistake was partially made again in the design of transmitters for the Polinom. Transmitter destruction in several Lan systems in 1963 led to an understanding that mechanical strength of glued joints of piezoelements, despite the strength of glue proper, was still much below the strength of pure ceramics. Examples of this kind could be continued, if we remember failure of tie bolts of the transmitter in the Polinom system. This accident

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pointed to the need for a more responsible approach to the selection of materials for tie bolts and their cross-section. The destruction of the sealing elastomer PUZK in the system Dnestr under the action of powerful low-frequency radiation was quite unexpected. Earlier it was believed that, by analogy with metallic materials, the polymer strength would be guaranteed if the mechanical stresses in it were low. But the notion of stress that is true for homogeneous media was evidently not true for complex polymer chains, in which single branches may oscillate independently, particularly in the case of cavitation phenomena occurring on the transmitter surface. So, in the selection of a sealant for potting, along with frequency, the amplitude of transducer surface oscillations had to be taken into account or limitations had to be imposed on the radiation power of a transducer sealed with a certain polymer. In this review we have left out the problems of technical progress related to design of acoustic screens for arrays and individual transducers, which belong to a separate area of technology (see the article by V. Ye. Glazanov “Sonar Array Screens” — Ed.). All the accumulated experience of design and technology has been put to paper in technical instructions, standards, and thousands of pages of report materials. But, most important, they are still kept in the minds of the few still working leading researchers and production specialists. Regretfully, there is no one to whom this first-hand experience can be transferred. There is practically no inflow of young people to this area of hydroacoustics, and, it seems, an inflow cannot be expected in the near future. To compensate for the loss in one way or the other, it seems reasonable to concentrate the principal design and technological experience in some kind of a reference-book, like the Underwater Electroacoustich Transducers (Podvodnye elektoakusticheskie preobrazovateli) edited by A. V. Bogorodsky and Ye. A. Korepin, taking it as an example of compiling. This would nor require much expense and will definitely be of great use for the future rebirth of the Navy. The author is very thankful to his colleagues, workers of the acoustics department, for valuable comments and clarifications made in the course of writing these notes.

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Some Thoughts on the Strength of Sonar Equipment V. I. KIRILLOV and YU. P. MEZHEVITINOV

The shipborne external sonar equipment was initially created using the magnetostrictive effect. Strength characteristics of metallic magnetostrictive materials are comparable to common construction materials. For this reason, equipment developers could afford to forget about strength, and designers implementing their developments abided by the recommendations and norms developed in machine building. This did not lead to serious mistakes, since the cyclic varying stresses in a transducer’s active elements were small, and mistakes in their evaluation, or their neglect, did not bring about loss in the quality of the sonars produced. Piezoceramic engineering development, as applied to hydroacoustics, was brought about by the high efficiency of piezoceramics. However, in their strength characteristics, piezoceramics were found to differ strongly from construction materials. In this connection, the need was felt for special research into the methods of analysis and the design of radiating systems made from ceramics. At that time there did not exist any verified methods for evaluation and for ensuring strength of arrays under their exposure to shock vibrations and water waves. The procedures used for evaluation of the respective strength of ship’s hulls could be reasonably applied in a limited number of cases to array devices. In connection with the necessity of solving this new problem, a strength research section was organized in 1964 at the CRI Morfizpribor. It included specialists in ships, machines, and equipment dynamics and strength. Systematic research started in the direction of developing the theory of the strength of piezoceramic materials 974

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and methods of calculation of the stressed state of electroacoustic transducers. The section worked under the supervision of Ye. D. Kheifets, Yu. P. Mezhevitinov, and V. I. Kirillov, in historical order. An important step in the development of the work of the section was the conclusion concerning the need to account for the random spread of piezoceramic strength characteristics and application in this connection of the statistical theory of strength, then being intensively developed by the school of V. V. Bolotin. In was shown by M. K. Busher, within the scope of the research projects Granit and Dinamika, that the problem of evaluation of system strength in common terms of machine engineering makes no sense without indicating the probability of destruction. He developed the first methodology for calculation of cyclic strength for cylindrical transducers. From this point of view facts on the divergence of design estimates and the values obtained by equipment tests found an explanation. M. K. Busher’s methodology was based on experimental data obtained in experiments with piezoceramic section-type cylindrical transducers reinforced with metal binding by hot fitting over a layer of electroinsulating rubber. Random spread of reinforcement stresses due to geometrical irregularities of the structure components and stress relaxation in the sub-binding layer of rubber in the performed experiments caused additional variability in the strength characteristics of active elements, which had not been accounted for directly. This led to a mistake in the evaluation of long-term cyclic strength of cylindrical transducers. As inspection of transducers taken from the sonars Amur, Rubikon, and Orion after 5 years of operation showed the transducer resource to be exhausted due to loss in reinforcement stresses caused by rubber relaxation. This stimulated development and introduction of the method of reinforcement of cylindrical active elements by winding of tensioned glass thread with epoxy binder (V. Ye. Luchenkova and M. K. Busher). Based on the results of the research projects Dinamika, Sevan, and Moshchnost, the statistical theory of piezoceramic element strength under all types of stress was developed (V. I. Kirillov). The new theory for the first time accounted for loss of piezoceramics carrying capacity under a long-term static load (static fatigue), and the

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dependence of piezoelement characteristics of fatigue under long-term cyclic loads on the cycle asymmetry coefficient. Within the scope of the research projects Sevan and Moshchnost, the characteristics in the spread of piezoelement strength limits and the scale effect of piezoceramic strength were refined; piezoelement ultrasonic quality control was developed and introduced which allowed low-strength piezoelements to be discarded before their use in transducers. Introduction of ultrasonic control in piezoceramic production served as one of the important incentives for improvement of production technology and increasing the quality of piezoelements. The results of research applied in the D&D projects Skat, Dnestr, Polinom, and Skat-3 provided an opportunity to significantly increase the reliability and lifetime of piezoceramic transducers, and their resistance to mechanical and climatic influences. The Skat blocks, for example, taken off the system after 8 years of service, had preserved their serviceability. For the system Dnestr a low-frequency cylindrical piezoceramic transducer of a diameter being the largest used in the nation had been manufactured. Transducers of this type operate reliably at an amplitude of mechanical stress in piezoceramics over 100 kg/cm2 , which is more than three times larger than the loads realized in the transmitters of the Rubikon, Rubin, and Amur systems. In the course of design of powerful arrays from rod-type transducers with small wave dimensions of radiating surfaces a question arose of a stressed state of the latter within the structure of a phased array. The question arose due to the fact that in the course of trials of the prototype array for the system Polinom, in 15% of transducers the metal hoops were destroyed, the strength of which at the stage of development was in compliance with the technical requirements on the amplitude of mechanical stresses in piezoceramics. Measurements performed on the submarine showed that in a number of cases the oscillatory speeds of transducers achieved the values at which mechanical stresses exceeded the level stipulated in design by a factor of two. One of the probable causes of an increase in oscillatory speeds might be cavitation in the dome due to an insufficient water pressure. The results stimulated development of the work by Yu. Yu. Dobrovolsky on

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investigation of phased arrays employing transducers with small wave dimensions. Destruction of the prototype transducer binding in the system Polinom coincided in time with a series of accidents in the aviation industry, the Navy, and the power industry that occurred due to destruction of structures subjected to high loads with a relatively small vibration component. One of the results of work by the bodies of researchers and technicians involved in solving this interdepartmental problem was substantiation of the methodology of selection of the safety factor for mechanical stresses with regard to the materials’ viscous properties. According to the new standards, the safety factor may reach the value of 4, while earlier it had been selected in the interval from 1.5 to 2. With account for the new data on oscillatory speeds and the recommended safety factors, the design of transducer reinforcement units was changed. Reinforcement stress was increased 1.5 times, and the binding increased in diameter and manufactured from high-viscous steel with high ultimate strength. The modernized transducers operate faultlessly in the arrays of the systems Polinom and Zvezda. Significant increase in the safety factor in the design of highly loaded transducers limited, in a number of cases, the admissible radiated power. At the same time, more often than not, its increase is required in development of electroacoustical rod-type transducers both for the sonar equipment and for the technological purposes. In the 1980s, in a number of research projects, systematic study of acoustic fatigue of steels and titanium alloys using 109 –1010 cycles was started with involvement of the Research Institutes of the Academy of Sciences and institutions of higher education. Preliminary results of this work showed that there exist possibilities of increasing the load-carrying capacity of metallic components of transducers. An important direction in ensuring strength of piezoceramic transducers is accounting for the effect of shock waves from underwater explosions. The first step toward ensuring explosion strength of transducers was development of a test stand at the Ladoga Test Range of the Institute. In the beginning there were the simplest rafts on which transducers and explosive charges were suspended. Later the stand structure incorporated the disarmed gunboat Don with the recording equipment installed on it, a special pontoon for suspending the devices under

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testing, and a system of ropes for placement of explosive charges. The results of the experiments carried out on the stand pointed to the need for theoretical work and gave an opportunity to obtain experimental values of explosion strength. Using the propositions developed in the Transactions of the Navy RI by Zamyshlyaev and Yakovlev, the theoretical foundations for calculation of stressed states of planar (I. S. Shugol), rod (G. A. Yanovsky) and cylindrical (V. D. Tsipman) transducers were worked out. Estimates of transducer explosive strength using earlier methods proceeded from the experimental data of their load capacity under hydrostatic pressure with account for the dependence of piezoceramics strength on loading speeds. Such an approach, which yielded good results in calculation of plates and rods, for which the static pressure and the shock wave from an underwater explosion create the stressed states of similar kind, was absolutely inapplicable for screened cylinders; static pressure failed to model in them the stresses emerging as a result of the explosion. Therefore, creation of a method for evaluation of explosion strength of a screened cylindrical transducer using the results of study of its stressed state as a result of the explosion, and a statistical theory of piezoceramic strength became an important result of the research project Moshchnost (V. D. Tsipman and V. I. Kirillov). Explosion strength of transducers of the systems Skat, Polinom, and Skat-3 was evaluated and ensured with for the application of these results. With regard to the last order, the task of ensuring explosion strength of a cylindrical receiver within the array module deserves attention. Calculations carried out assuming the absence of screen displacements, suggested that the transducer strength was beyond doubt. At the same time, explosion strength tests within the array structure showed that its destruction occurs in 70% of the cases. It was found that screen displacements at exposure to a shock wave from an underwater explosion could not be neglected. In view of the above, a new approach was developed for the calculation and for ensuring the explosion strength of transducers, accounting for the effect of screen displacement (V. O. Gravin). The strength designers group took part in full-scale trials for explosion strength of model submarines conducted by the Navy and the Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI. While the first trials (in the late 1960s)

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in which the devices and blocks of the systems Rubin, Rubikon, and Yenisei displayed mass destruction of transducers, the trials conducted in the early 1980s, in the course of which arrays and blocks of the system Samshit, Skat, and Skat-3 were tested, showed sufficient strength of all components. Within the scope of the project Bastion, the Northern DB developed for the CRI Morfizpribor an engineering design of a test stand consisting of an experimental ship and a special pontoon to ensure tests and experimental evaluation of explosion strength of arrays and their units in the currently designed and future sonar systems. This new stand was supposed to replace the stand on the experimental ship Don then in service for over 20 years. Regretfully, due to difficulties with funding, the experimental facilities were liquidated at the CRI Morfizpribor. But the accumulated scientific and technical data did give an opportunity to work out engineering solutions aimed at ensuring the strength of transducers. So, within the scope of the D&D project Lira, a highly efficient explosionproof, rod-type transducer was designed and patented. Significant difficulties in evaluating strength of array-bearing structures are connected with evaluating their stressed state, particularly if they have a complex geometry (e.g. banks of arrays). Under a number of research projects, jointly with subcontractors, software was developed and introduced for calculating stressed states by using the finiteelement method (Yu. V. Gurvich). From the early 1980s, a software program developed by the Research Institute of Automated Systems of Planning and Control in Construction of the Ministry of Construction of the Ukraine for use on the Unified System PC computers was introduced. With it one can perform the calculation of stresses, displacements, and deformations in system spatial structures with combinations of different materials, given that the external forces and temperature fields are known. This method, combined with the statistical theory of piezoceramic strength, allowed a number of problems to be solved that ensured the strength of an array exposed to hydrostatic pressure and thermoelastic stresses. Work started on introduction of a similar software system developed at the SPb STU (the Chair of Mechanics and Control Processes) for use an PC’s, as well as work on creation, with the application of the

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method of bound hydroelasticity, of a software system for calculating the strength of complex spatial structures of arrays under exposure to shock waves from an underwater explosion (LSI, Yu. V. Gurvich). Being located in the field of the acoustic radiation of transducers, the array-bearing structures perform forced oscillations. In the low frequency range, at resonance, significant mechanical stresses may develop in the structural elements. An effect of this kind was noted in the course of design of blocks for the Dnestr radiating array, in the bearing structures of which cracks were detected after testing the first prototype version. Destruction at the attachment points of resonance metal screens was also noted. Cracks in the bearing structure due to multi-cycle fatigue caused by acoustic loading were also noted in the array of the system Poseidon (structure designer CDB Lazurit). Analysis of the causes of destruction of bearing structures under the action of low-frequency acoustic loads allowed the design of a corrected version of the array block for the system Dnestr, with exclusion from the bearing structure of the elements displaying active excitation by the acoustic field (shells and developed plates). Great attention was given to careful tensometric and vibroacoustic measurements of blocks, as well as to observance of the requirements to component treatment technology (for the metallurgical phase in particular). All this allowed an efficiently operating low-frequency radiating array to be created. However, the problem of its longevity at the current stage has not been resolved fully due to absence of sufficient data on the characteristics of cyclic strength of construction materials. Summing up the above, it should be noted that the organization of a strength subdivision within the Acoustics Department gave an opportunity to carry out a great amount of work on development of methods and norms for strength calculation and for ensuring the strength of electroacoustic transducers and sonar arrays. The results, in a number of cases having no analogs, are the following: (1) The theory of piezoceramic strength and the methods of calculating and ensuring strength of piezoceramic transducers under different types of stressed states were developed.

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(2) A stand for conducting strength tests of transducers and arrays under the action of shock waves from underwater explosion was built. (3) Methods of evaluation of the stressed state and strength of the main types of transducers under the action of shock waves from underwater explosions and shock vibrations were developed. (4) The finite-element computation software system Lira for use on the Unified System PC’s ensured evaluation of the stressed state of complex spatial structures under the action of preset external forces. Application of these D&D work results provided an opportunity to create efficient transducers and arrays meeting the design requirements for strength for the projects Skat, Skat-3, Polinom, Dnestr, Lira, and others. Today the strength group has at its disposal unique methods of calculation and for ensuring strength, which provide opportunities for determining ways to create arrays radiating specific power up to 30 W/cm2 , withstanding exposure to the working hydrostatic pressure up to 600 atm, temperature fields from −50 to +70◦ C, as well as a full range of standard mechanical influences stipulated by the customer. At the same time, development of work on strength in support of the future growth of array efficiency in the radiation mode, as well as creation and introduction of the modern methods of strength calculation is facing difficulties. Work on the study of strength characteristics, as well as work on development of calculation methods, oriented toward the involvement of specialized groups of researchers, await funding. There is a need for young researchers able to continue the use and improvement of the developed calculation and test methods.

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About the Acoustics Department of the Vodtranspribor Plant D. I. KALYAEVA and L. D. STEPANOV

In 1949, at the location and with personnel of the Design Bureau (DB) that was separated from Plant 206 (also known as the Vodtranspribor Plant), the RI-3 (CRI Morfizpribor) was organized. (For a detailed account of the Plant’s history, see the article by V. A. Bersenev and B. Ya. Golubchik “Vodtranspribor — The Alma Mater of Engineering of Home Hydroacoustic Instrument” — Ed.). With a view to ensuring engineering and technical support for production, specialized subdivisions — laboratories united in a plant design bureau were preserved and organized anew at the plant, headed by N. D. Nagavkin and the chief engineer M. M. Magid. The Acoustics Laboratory headed by the engineer V. M. Kalitina was one of the leading laboratories at the DB. In 1955, Yu. I. Popov was the head of the Acoustics Laboratory. The Laboratory had a test basin, well equipped for that time, and three big rooms adjoining it. In the 1950s, the number of orders to the shipbuilding industry, mostly of a defense nature, grew. Small orders for design of sonar equipment started arriving at the plant and naturally at the Acoustics Laboratory. Gradually the plant acquired several new technical directions and new young workers started appearing among the Acoustics Laboratory staff. The RI-3 rejected these new directions since it was oriented mainly toward research projects and design work for big orders. So, in that period, under the supervision of Yu. I. Popov, a set of measuring instruments, which production workers and designers badly needed, was designed. The GSM generator designed at the laboratory is still in service. One of the first D&D efforts successfully performed at the Acoustics Laboratory was a portable search system for damaged submarines 982

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and voice communication with the crew (code named Kama, chief designer L. D. Stepanov). The need for such equipment was obvious. Already during the design work, the team of designers with a model sonar system was rushed to Balaklava to participate in lifting a damaged submarine from a depth of about 100 m (it was necessary to establish communication with the crew). Later, based on this work, the sonar system Gamma was developed (deputy chief designer G. N. Borovikov). In the late 1950s the Navy gave a new, complex task to the Plant — create a sonar system for serially produced submarines (code name Kerch). At approximately the same time the RI-3 worked on the design of the first sonar system Rubin for a submarine then under design. In connection with the growing amount of work, the Acoustics Laboratory was re-organized into a Department, which included several laboratories specializing in design of transducers, arrays, and production processes. A design section was formed at the Department, as well as a model shop and a section for piezoceramic element manufacture. Thus, all the necessary conditions for prompt implementation and experimental testing of engineering ideas and solutions were created as with a full-scale Research Institute — “just the funnel leaner and the smoke thinner”! While the RI-3 selected a single multifunctional array as a basis for the designed sonar system Rubin, the chief scientist for the project Kerch, Dr. Tech. Sc. Yu. M. Sukharevskiy (ACIN), together with the Chief Designer M. M. Magid, chose another acoustic system structure consisting of a set of comparatively small specialized arrays. Such a structure of arrays gave an opportunity to ensure their convenient arrangement on several serial submarines (for a more detailed story of sonar system Kerch development see the article by B. Ya. Golubchik “The sonar system Kerch: The history of its creation” — Ed.). The development and design of arrays for the Kerch went successfully. The enthusiasm and energy of the young body of laboratory workers was very cleverly, in terms of technical activities and human

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relations, guided by Yu. I. Popov, who had great influence on all the workers. In development of the Kerch and in work on other projects, workers of the DB made ample use of the scientific-technical results and consultations of the CRI Morfizpribor, of the research project Yashma, in particular. To provide support to the design and manufacture of the Kerch, new production sites were organized at the plant, and a new production block was erected for array assembly and testing, equipped with a test basin and a unique, in size, reservoir for hydrostatic tests. On the Ladoga Lake, near Berezovo, a Test Range was organized. The Test Range personnel, the engineers and technicians who came to work at the Test Range were accommodated in two old wheel passenger boats, Alexander Nevsky and Anokhin, anchored forever near the bank. Old decomissioned mine sweepers were re-equipped and served as floating laboratories. Later, after the Plant merged with the Institute, the research and production work on this site was discontinued and was instead concentrated at the main test range of the Institute in the vicinity of the village Kurkiioki. The site at Berezovo was reorganized into a rest base. Work on the Kerch was a strong incentive for the development of the body of ETP of the DB Acoustics Department. In the process of system design and bringing to industrial production, young engineers worked, studied, and solved complex engineering and scientific problems. Many new and original solutions were found and covered with invention certificates. For example, in one of the low-frequency radiating arrays, a bent cylindrical transducer was used for the first time. The desire to ensure stability of array parameters under conditions of maximum working depths stimulated development of acoustic screens. As a result, a metal screen was developed, based on excitation of flexural oscillations in screen shells. The screening properties of such a screen do not depend on hydrostatic pressure, up to the screen destruction. Its application for screening the bent cylindrical transducer significantly decreased the array parameters dependence on depth and increased its efficiency.

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As a result, a body of qualified specialists was formed at the laboratory including L. G. Bolotinskaya, L. I. Borovikova, B. F. Bogdanov, G. D. Grishman, V. L. Dmitriyev, D. I. Kalyaeva, B. M. Stepanov, L. D. Stepanov, A. A. Gots, O. M. Klapneva, A. R. Maruev, and T. N. Fedorova. In the Kerch, side receiving arrays using bent piezoceramic plate receivers were used for the first time. In production, an original method of control of sensitivity of these receivers, based on measuring the charge appearing at their static “loading-unloading” was used. In the cylindrical receiving array of the DL channel, magnetostrictive tubular receivers were employed, with shunts installed in their sections. This feature allowed automatic regulation of the receiver active area and the directivity pattern in the vertical plane at high frequencies. For control of electric strength of the radiating array transducers, the method of measuring the ionization threshold was used for the first time. This resulted in abrupt improvement of the transducer reliability at the expense of their design rationalization. A great role in increasing the scientific-technical level of laboratory workers belonged to permanent working contacts with the RI-3 workers, creative application of the results of research and D&D work carried out by the Institute. The thoughtful approach to array arrangement on series submarines, good engineering of all equipment of the Kerch, which ensured fulfillment of the technical requirements, contributed to its broad use by the Navy. Over 100 sonar system sets were installed on submarines of several different classes. Along with the sonar system Kerch, the DB initiated work in the area of hydroacoustic countermeasures and deception. First the Plant manufactured the arrays designed at the CRI Morfizpribor (for the projects Magma and Korund), and then a series of the design projects with the increasing complication were executed: Ruchei, Korund 2, Korund 705 (array designers V. G. Solovyov, A. Ye. Chernyakhovsky). The last work of this type, the Berill (array designer L. D. Stepanov) continued and was successfully completed — but at the RPA Okeanpribor. The radiating array employed cylindrical transducers with open internal cavity; a valuable contribution to the development of the theory of operation of such arrays was made by A. A. Gots.

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Work was initiated at the Laboratory on acoustic systems for communication sonars ensuring communication between divers, surface ships and submarines (designer D. M. Kirillova), which successfully terminated in acceptance of the designed equipment and its placement into service under the code names MGV-5 and MGV-6. Work on design of arrays for velocity meters were also conducted (B. F. Bogdanov, Ye. N. Sherenov). In the early 1970s, by order of the Institute Giprorybflot, the designers of the Acoustics Department designed and manufactured with the facilities of the model shop a set of sonar arrays (code name Kontur). The Kontur was intended for detection and visualization of fish shoals and individual big fish. The problem was solved with the use of two high-frequency arrays; one radiating with a low-level side field and one receiving with high resolution. The Kontur working frequency was 300 kHz. This work was supervised by O. M. Klapneva. One of the most successful efforts was the development of an array for the mine detecting sonar Arfa, which is still being manufactured and used (array designer G. D. Grishman). In the 1970s the country experienced a period of enterprise merging, and the establishment of research-and-production associations. Within the scope of this activity, the Plant’s DB merged in 1973 with the Institute and the DB workers were scattered over different subdivisions of the Institute. The DB was actually liquidated. The Plant was left with just a small group in charge of servicing the production only. The Vodtranspribor and Ladoga Plants, together with the CRI Morfizpribor, were included in the structure of the RPA Okeanpribor.

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The History of Development of Hydroacoustic Measurements at the CRI Morfizpribor N. N. FEDOROV and R. I. EIKHFELD

The success in all applied areas of science and engineering is determined by the quality of the measurements. The founder of Russian metrology, D. I. Mendeleev noted: “Science begins where measurements begin. Precise science is unthinkable without measurement.” The task of ensuring the required efficiency of hydroacoustic systems is in direct relation with the task of attaining the necessary accuracy of measurements and the availability of means and methods of measurement. For this reason, the development of the Institute was closely connected with the development of hydroacoustic measurements and the creation of measurement equipment and facilities. In the course of this process the ranges of measured parameters of sonars, transducers, arrays, screens, domes, and big sonar systems were being optimized, the accuracy and reliability of measurements grew, and the methods and means of measurement developed and improved. From the very first days of formation of the Institute, the greatest attention was paid to the problems of hydroacoustic measurements and measuring capabilities. In the early years, hydroacoustic measurements were carried out in the test basin of the Vodtranspribor Plant, but simultaneously steps were made toward building an Institute test basin. For this purpose, a group organized at the Acoustics Laboratory was put in charge. The group included B. Ya. Dizhbak, N. L. Maizlina, M. G. Karpenko, A. V. Chernyshov, and others. In the early 1950s a model measuring basin was built 1.5 × 5.1 × 1.0 m3 in size with walls lined with the anti-sonar coating Meduza for reducing reflectivity. The basin was used for experimental checking of many technical problems 987

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connected with measurements performed in an enclosed space. Based on the results, the design and construction of measuring basins for the Institute began. Simultaneously a laboratory for hydroacoustic measurements was organized, with its first head A. N. Levinsky. Simultaneously with basin construction, the first research work Bassein dedicated to development of the methods of measurements and basin equipment was conducted. Construction of the basins was completed in 1953. For many years A. V. Chernyshov was head of the basins. The Institute had three basins 4.5×4.0×4.0 m3 ; 4.0×4.0×4.0 m3 and 6.0×4.0×4.0 m3 in size. All internal surfaces of the basins were lined with the sound absorbing material Meduza. Each basin was equipped with two rotary and lifting devices, arrays and measuring transducers. These transducers were selected from those produced serially for sonar arrays. Of course, at times they failed to meet the requirements of measuring devices. In view of this, in 1955 the D&D project Amur dedicated to creation of special measuring receivers and transmitters was launched. I. L. Krasilshchik, who in 1955 was head of the measuring laboratory, was appointed the project chief designer. The designers group included A. N. Maksimov, L. Ye. Sheinman, R. A. Tamm, Z. F. Zdalinskaya, M. G. Karpenko, and others. In 1957, the work was critically evaluated and accepted by the state commission. As a result, for the first time in the country, measuring transducers were created for operation in the 50 Hz to 100 kHz range, and a package of design documentation was prepared. The measuring system consisted of three hydrophones with spherical transducers 50, 20, and 10 mm in diameter and a correction amplifier of four transmitters: one electrodynamic and three piezoceramic, all of cylindrical shape. It should be noted that all these transducers (except for the electrodynamic one), with more or less insignificant alterations, have survived to the present time and are still in service. In the same period, a task was posed to the Institute to develop measuring equipment for primary and secondary acoustic fields on ships of the Navy. To address this problem, the D&D project Altair was launched at the Institute under the supervision of M. M. Dikovsky. The designers group included V. B. Idin, I. L. Krasilshchik,

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A. N. Maksimov, L. Ye. Sheinman, R. A. Tamm, and others. The work terminated in installation of three seafloor platforms consisting of five spherical hydrophones with preamplifiers, underwater cables and onshore equipment on the Test Range of the Navy in the Kharalakht Bay near Tallinn. For the first time in the USSR, in the course of acceptance by the customer and later in the course of operation, the system Altair (with auxiliary equipment) ensured measurement of the noise of surface ships and submarines and of their reflectivity. The Test Range existed and efficiently functioned until the new test ranges for the Northern and Pacific Fleets were put into service. In 1959, a group of specialists including R. I. Eikhfeld, B. Ya. Dizhbak, V. K. Kogarko, L. N. Proshin, V. S. Sverdlov, and others, for the first time, developed methods and performed calibrations using hydroacoustic measuring equipment installed on the seafloor. In 1952, an expedition including I. L. Krasilshchik, I. I. Smetanin, V. Petrakov, A. V. Chernyshov, after a long search, selected a convenient spot in the NW part of the Ladoga Lake for conducting hydroacoustic measurements in open water. It was the narrow Neismeri fjord about 14 km long and closed off from the lake by a row of islands. The maximum depth in the fjord was about 50 m. The bottom was covered with a thick layer of silt (up to 6 m), which ensured good sound absorption. Intensive search for a convenient place for conducting experiments in a lake was explained by the fact that the test basins all had small dimensions and therefore were unsuitable for measurements of the arrays designed at the Institute. Also limitations on the frequency range of measurements were imposed due to absence in those years of broadband sound-absorbing coatings for basins. While construction of the basins was in progress, specialists of the measuring laboratory and designers of hydroacoustic equipent began work at the Ladoga Lake as a full-scale test range for hydroacoustic measurements. The first measurements were conducted at Mutolakhta Bay on the territory of a military unit. The first expedition head was Ye. Ye. Valfish, the group included V. Petrakov, Zuyev, N. Ogurtsov, A. V. Chernyshov, B. Ya. Dizhbak, A. N. Maksimov, and others. The expedition had at its disposal two motorboats, Leningrad and Neva, and two dry-cargo barges. The equipment for trials in those times was

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most primitive, there were no rotary devices. The array directivity characteristics were measured with the help of a motorboat going around a barge from which the array was lowered. In order to ensure equal distance from the array, the boat was tied to the barge with a rope, and once this led to a near tragedy. In the early years, work were carried out in the summer time only, which created great difficulties and a loss of time whenever the boats had to cross the Ladoga Lake. Because of this the expedition decided to spend a winter in the bay and did so for the first time in the winter of 1955–1956. That was the beginning of the creation of the Ladoga Test Range of the Institute. Operation of the Test Range was supported at that time by I. I. Smetanin, V. Petrakov, Ya. S. Slutsky, A. V. Volokitin, A. Ya. Polyakovsky, N. Ogurtsov, Zuyev, V. F. Maskalev, D. Zolotkov, O. Ignatyuk, Yapontsev, and Yu. P. Krayukhin. Measurements were usually conducted by specialists of the acoustics and measuring laboratories and sometimes by the sonar system designers: V. I. Pozern, B. Ya. Dizhbak, G. Kh. Golubeva, B. M. Yelfimov, A. A. Shabrov, N. N. Fedorov, and many others. Everyone lived in two houses rented from a collective farm. The houses were called The Petukhi (Roosters) and The Peskari (Gudgeons). Most of the engineers lived in The Petukhi; they were paid no “accommodation money” because they were considered to live in a “hotel.” Living in The Peskari was less comfortable, the technicians who lived there were paid “billeting” compensation. Boat crews lived on the boats. A shelter was built to serve as a warehouse and a “dining-room.” T. Sergunicheva was the “chef.” Every day one person was appointed on duty and worked in the kitchen. Each one of us put in 10 roubles per day to the common fund; this was enough for three meals a day, and at the end of each month the remaining money went for a party. On Sundays we went by boat to Priozersk to the movies, at times there were excursions to the Isle Valaam. The nature around the bay offered wonderful opportunities for fishing, picking berries and mushrooms, boat races, etc. In the late 1950s to early 1960s, the requirements for hydroacoustic systems grew abruptly, measuring equipment was getting more complex, their frequency bands expanded, array weights and dimensions

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increased, and new operating modes appeared. Still, the appearance of new methods of design and computation called for further development of the methods and means of measurement. In 1958, design of a unique 50-m experimental basin began. This work was supervised by a group of specialists of the measuring laboratory including I. L. Krasilshchik, B. Ya. Dizhbak, K. I. Suponin, and R. I. Eikhfeld. In 1961, with the beginning of basin construction, an experimental basin laboratory was organized at the Institute, and its main specialists became R. I. Eikhfeld, S. M. Baron, A. V. Burakov, M. Ye. Livshits, and A. Ye. Svetoslavsky. With the beginning of the basin design and construction work, V. M. Belousov, V. A. Lerner, A. G. Dudkov, and others joined the group. Eleven organizations were involved in the basin design and construction, the project chief engineer was V. N. Demyanovich (SADI-5) and the chief engineer of project construction was N. S. Grigoryeva (SDI-1). To ensure construction of the basin, its outfitting with the necessary devices and equipment, and development of the methods of measurements in the basin, the research project Bassein was launched at the Institute. In 1961, in connection with increase in the scope of work connected with hydroacoustic measurement support, a hydroacoustic measurements department including three laboratories was organized. R. I. Eikhfeld was appointed the head of the department, A. A. Yanpolsky was the head of the laboratory for hydroacoustic measurements under laboratory conditions; N. N. Fedorov became the head of the laboratory for test range measurements; and A. N. Maksimov became the head of the laboratory for ocean measurements. In 1966, the experimental basin was commissioned (Fig. 1). It was a unique measuring system, consisting of a reservoir 50×14×10 m3 in size, with the internal surfaces lined with a broadband soundabsorbing coating, four bridge-type setup positioners, electronic measuring equipment, an equipment switching system, high-pressure tanks, a water preparation system, a powerful radio oscillator, a set of hydroacoustic transmitters and hydrophones and three “pulse tube” sets.

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Fig. 1.

The Institute’s test basin.

It should be noted that for the first time array parameters were determined from amplitude-phase measurements near the array surface, which considerably reduced the necessary distance between the tested array and the measuring transducer; “plane field” forming methods were developed. The methods main developers were A. A. Yanpolsky, N. N. Fedorov, E. V. Labetsky, A. G. Zeide, and N. P. Firsova. Within the scope of the research project Bassein, scientific evaluation of hydroacoustic measuring errors was performed, and sources of errors were investigated. For the first time automated devices employing computing equipment were applied to measuring equipment development, their authors were M. Ye. Livshits, V. A. Lerner and the body of the SDB of the Lvov Polytechnical Institute headed by B. I. Shvetsky. Measurement of the spatial characteristics of sonar arrays and domes was ensured by a bridge-type setup positioner (SP). The SP ensured suspension and movement of arrays and domes weighing up to 6 tons. All movements were recorded by a special device and registered using a coordinate counter. The SP designers belonged to the

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SADI Soyuzproyektverf Department headed by V. I. Ashanin. For the Institute these problems were supervised by V. M. Belousov and B. M. Balon. As has been noted, the internal surfaces of the basin reservoir were lined with a sound-absorbing coating. This coating was designed by CRI Morfizpribor specialists with M. M. Maryinsky at the head. Simultaneously with the design and refinement of the Institute’s laboratory facilities, work began on development and modernization of the measuring capability of the Ladoga Test Range (Figs. 2–9). The existing floating laboratories underwent modernization, new rotaryand-lifting devices were designed to equip the floating laboratories. One of the first vessels designed for trials of the big-size array for the Rubin was the special pontoon SP-3; its design in compliance with the specifications developed under the supervision of N. N. Fedorov was performed by specialists of the Institute with M. E. Vodopyanov and N. A. Tsyganov at the head. An original lifting-and-rotary device designed for installation on the SP-3 operated on the principle of sinking and draining of sections of the shaft of this device. The SP-3 construction was performed at the shipyards of the city of Petrokrepost. For carrying the hardware for the sonars and sonar systems to be tested the dry-cargo boat Amur was purchased. Its compartments were re-equipped to become test-stand rooms. In the late 1950s, design of the specialized floating laboratories Neman and Sputnik began at the DB of the Admiralty shipyards. The laboratories were to be used for conducting array dome trials. The ships were constructed in the mid-1960s at the Sredne-Nevsky shipyards. These floating laboratories had independent power supplies provided by storage batteries, which was important for ensuring operating silence, unique lifting-and-rotary devices, and unique measuring equipment. A great effort was carried out by L. Ye. Sheinman and Ye. L. Shenderov in the creation of these laboratories. Against the background of the Institute’s laboratory facilities and the Test Range, sonars and sonar systems sea trials did not look so good. The absence of special test ranges for measuring the parameters of individual channels and equipment impacted on the quality of

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measurements. To perform measurements of channel parameters, the submarines and surface ships were moored to buoys, the submarines in a partially submerged position. An auxiliary ship was used, which was also moored to the buoys or maneuvered around the sonar or sonar system carrier ship. Mutual displacements and ship’s rolling on sea waves resulted in abrupt random variations of the measured signal, and this allowed qualitative evaluation of the tested parameter only. In some cases diesel submarines, as distinct from nuclear-powered submarines, could settle on the bottom. This improved the quality of measurements to a certain degree. Unfortunately, a number of studies started at the Institute (projects Navaga, Akvarium, Parametr-1, and Parametr-2), aimed at solving the problems of ocean trials, went no further and were stopped at the stage of design proposals or during preliminary design. In the 1960–1970s, second generation equipment was designed at the Institute for measuring a ship’s own radiated field. Several D&D projects were executed: Iva — creation of measuring hydrophones for detecting and study of noise sources directly on ships and submarines; Olkha-1 — creation of a set of hydrophones and measuring equipment for stationary test ranges of the Navy; Olkha-2 — creation of a set of dipping hydrophones and shipborne equipment for ships for measuring the physical fields of ships; Olkha-etalon — creation of a set of equipment for measuring channel calibration in the system Iva, Olkha1, Olkha-2, and Olkha-analiz — creation of instruments for spectral analysis of a ship’s own noise fields. The chief designer of these systems was F. F. Aul, he was followed by N. D. Nikiforov. The development of acoustic instruments and equipment for Olkha-etalon was performed under the supervision of B. Ya. Dizhbak, the group included R. A. Tamm, V. V. Antonova, M. G. Karpenko, and A. P. Kolosova. Upon completion of construction of a test range or ship, our specialists took part in adjustment and acceptance of the sonar systems. It should be noted that groups gravitating toward development of measuring modes of sonars; namely, the mode of built-in sonar control and suppression, and measurements of interferences in sonar operation, gathered at the laboratory and the hydroacoustic measurements department. Later these specialists were separated from the department and formed a specialized subdivision. The founders of built-in control

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were K. I. Suponin, G. M. Shitov, M. M. Malysheva, L. I. Rokhina, and others. The system of interference suppression and control was created by N. N. Fedorov, G. I. Usoskin, P. A. Nodelman, and V. A. Kvetny. In the late 1970s, L. Ye. Sheinman took up the problem; later he became head of a specialized research section. Creation in 1964 of the Laboratory for Test-Range Measurements initiated a scientific approach to tests of the Institute’s hydroacoustic equipment at the Ladoga Test Range. The Laboratory was created using a group of very talented young specialists including A. S. Yermolenko, G. A. Gabrielyan, G. F. Andreyev, S. N. Okinin, G. V. Prokofyev, Yu. G. Godziashvili, and others. It should be noted that later these specialists became the Institute’s leading workers. As has been mentioned earlier, N. N. Fedorov was head of the Laboratory. The primary task of the Laboratory was study of the hydrological and acoustic characteristics of the Test Range. Respective measuring equipment was purchased for this purpose; later sound velocity meters were designed and manufactured in-house.

Fig. 2.

At the Ladoga Test Range, second half of the 1950s.

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Fig. 3.

Dry-cargo barge re-equipped as a laboratory.

Fig. 4. Ship Amur at the Test Range pier. In the background: the laboratory building (1967).

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Rotary device.

Investigations carried out in the first year showed that the Test Range had all the characteristics of both a shallow sea and a deep ocean. Vertical summer and winter sound velocity distributions were observed, characteristic of a sea, and respectively, the summer and winter acoustic channels, convergence zones, internal waves, etc. A characteristic difference between the Test Range and a sea or ocean was the value of the vertical gradient of the sound velocity, which was found to be 10–100 times larger than the sound velocity gradient observed at sea. Characteristic spring and autumn equilibrium periods of the distribution of this parameter were observed. Based on the results, a service was organized. Every week measurements of the vertical sound velocity distribution in the vicinity of the floating laboratories were made, and recommendations were given with regard to the selection of depth of the systems to be tested. As a result

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Fig. 6.

Canteen and hotel at the Ladoga Test Range (1972).

Fig. 7. Important guests watching the test basin equipment. In the center: Academician A. P. Aleksandrov.

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Fig. 9.

Special pontoon SP-2.

Floating laboratory Neman.

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of these measurements, the existing rotary devices had to be amended to ensure dipping of the tested arrays and transducers to depths greater than 6–8 m (this value corresponded to the summer acoustic channel axis depth). Neglect of these recommendations had a negative influence on the accuracy of the measurements. For the majority of arrays that had passed trials at the Test Range, methods for parameter measurement were developed. Depending on the time of the year, optimal conditions for trials were selected, main sources of measurement error were determined, and the values of such errors measured. Investigations of the hydrological and acoustic characteristics of the Test Range provided an opportunity to develop a substantiated approach to the organization of measurements at the Test Range. Investigations conducted at the first stage of the research project Baza provided an opportunity to formulate the requirements for methods of measurement at the floating laboratories; using the special stands, lifting-and-rotary devices, and measuring and support equipment. Study of the Test Range morphology allowed the recommendations to be developed with regard to floating laboratories and special stand locations with account for the Test Range’s hydrological and acoustic characteristics. These requirements formed the basis for further Test Range development. Not all proposals for Test Range development were implemented, but in the 1970–1980s the Range acquired newly designed and constructed ships outfitted with newly designed equipment. Ferroconcrete floating mooring piers were purchased; with the Institute’s own resources, an extended test stand with the measuring transducers positioned along a length of about 150 m was created for performing measurements of high-frequency, high-directional arrays. The Admiralty shipyards designed and built a new specialized pontoon, SP-3L, meant for use in conducting trials of large-size arrays such as those for the SS Skat-3. The rotary device from the pontoon SP-3 was installed on SP-3L. Some time later the CDB Monolit designed a special pontoon, SP-3M, and a rotary device of even greater load-lifting capacity. The SP-3M was built at the Baltiisky shipyards, and the Proletarskii Plant manufactured the rotary device.

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Abiding by the design requirements of the Institute, the CDB Monolit designed a specialized floating laboratory meant for measuring parameters of arrays and transducers. In the same period, work on the design of lifting-and-rotary devices for outfitting this laboratory was carried out at the Institute. The floating laboratory was a wellequipped measuring system ensuring measurements at a high technical level. The first floating laboratory appeared at the Test Range in 1979, by 1984 there were four (Fig. 10). In the 1980s, for trials of a new sonar system, the Admiralty shipyards designed and began construction of a “dock stand.” The liftingand-rotary device for it was designed at the Proletarsky Plant. Regretfully, construction of the dock stand was never completed. The leading role in the design, construction, and installation of equipment on the above boats was played by the group of specialists headed by Ye. D. Krupotkin and M. A. Bersenev. R. I. Eikhfeld, V. M. Belousov, N. N. Fedorov, B. V. Blokhin, and L. Ye. Sheinman took an active part in the creation of new experimental ships. In view of the absence of specialized equipment, a group of radio engineers including Zavorotkin, V. M. Sukharev, A. S. Boitsov, and others, headed by A. K. Ryzhov, designed a series of original measuring instruments. Among them were a sound velocity meter, selectormodulator, a 200-kVA power amplifier with a block of transformers, power amplifier matching devices, and a block of preamplifiers with delay lines. All this equipment remains in service and is used at the Institute’s Test Range, the experimental basin and during sea trials. Simultaneously with creation of the test range measuring base, development of its land infrastructure continued. The inspirer and organizer of construction was the director of the Institute, V. V. Gromkovsky, who visited the Test Range almost every weekend to organize and control the work. The site development took place with the participation of not only the builders, but also of workers of the Test Range and of the Laboratory as well. Much work was carried out by N. N. Fedorov and Ye. V. Folkert. During the 1970–1980s, a new pier, a laboratory-and-technical complex, dwelling houses, a hotel, a canteen, a boiler-house, and several other auxiliary buildings appeared.

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In the 1970s, in connection with the large amount of measurements being made both at the Institute and in the industry in general, the need arose for systematizing and standardizing the methods of hydroacoustic measurement, measuring equipment, basins equipment, and testing facilities. As a result of performed analysis and necessary adjustments in the measuring methods, a branch standard for hydroacoustic measurements in experimental basins was approved in 1975, and in 1990 a Governing Document for hydroacoustic measurements at test ranges of hydroacoustic system designers was approved. These standards were worked out with the participation of A. A. Yanpolsky, N. L. Maizlina, R. I. Eikhfeld, S. B. Baron, A. G. Zeide, N. N. Fedorov, Yu. G. Godziashvili, G. V. Prokofyev, Ye. A. Golubeva, V. M. Belousov, V. M. Khrustalev, E. V. Labetsky, and others. In 1988, a State standard (GOST) was approved jointly with the CRI for Physical-Technical and Radiotechnical Measurements, the leading organization of the State Committee of the USSR for Standards (Gosstandart) for measuring hydrophones. For the Institute, this work was carried out with the participation of R. I. Eikhfeld, V. V. Antonova, R. A. Tamm, and L. A. Isaeva. In 1971, the task of hydroacoustic measurements at sea was transferred to the Laboratory for Test Range Measurements, together with such skilled specialists as M. Ye. Petrov, O. I. Vertman, E. V. Labetsky, N. V. Ashanina, G. A. Zimarev, Z. F. Zdalinskaya, and others. The scanty technical resources and equipment existing at the Institute, at plants of the Chief Administration and Test Ranges of the Navy, the insufficient hydrographic instrumentation support to ocean measurements were unable to meet the requirements of the present and the future. In this connection, the problems of ocean trials were put on the program of the research project Baza, which was followed by the D&D projects Parametr-2 and Akvarium. Within the scope of the research project Baza first-level proposals for the creation of devices and positioners for installation of transmitters and hydrophones on submarines and surface ships, and second-level proposals for creation of bottom stations, devices for ship position fixing, coordinates measuring instrumentation were developed. The research project was under the supervision of A. A. Yanpolsky and involved the active participation

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of R. I. Eikhfeld, N. N. Fedorov, V. M. Belousov, and others. The available data on functioning of test ranges in the United States, France, Britain, and other countries, the equipment used, and the measuring systems were analyzed. In 1975, the D&D projects Parametr-2 and Akvarium began, with M. Ye. Petrov and N. N. Fedorov as chief designers, respectively. Technical proposals were developed under the D&D project Parametr-2 for the creation of a ocean measuring buoy carrying a set of transmitters and hydrophones and allowing their installation at depths up to 200 m with their position being variable along the vertical coordinate. Information from the buoy was to be sent to a shore station. Under the D&D project Akvarium technical proposals for the creation of a stationary ocean test range for conducting sonar system trials were developed. It was supposed that the test range would consist of deep and shallow regions. The shallow region would have stationary devices for fixing the position of submarines and surface ships. In the deep region, several Parametr-2 systems were to be located to measure the tactical parameters of sonar systems. Information was to be processed at a shore station. Most work on creation of the stationary devices for the shallow portion of the test range was carried out by the SADI Soyuzproyektverf. Regretfully, despite the approval of the Minister of Shipbuilding Industry and the Minister’s order to construct a test range jointly with the Navy, work did not go beyond the technical proposal stage. A serious break-through in the quality of ocean measurements occurred after introduction into the field of measurements of setup positioners (SP) and lifting gear (LG), which helped to abruptly improve the quality of measurements and measurements quantitative evaluation. At the expense of hydrophones and transmitters stabilization relative to sonar system arrays, the SP’s allowed the errors of parameter measurements to be brought to within values comparable with the errors of measurement under laboratory conditions. Under the supervision of N. N. Fedorov and O. I. Vertman, SP-1 and SP-2 with boom lengths of 35 and 50 m, respectively, were designed for installation on submarines (Fig. 11). These SP’s provided an opportunity to move transmitters and hydrophones within certain

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limits in both the horizontal and vertical planes. An LG was designed for installation on a submarine deck and ensured hydrophone and transmitter vertical displacement relative to the fairwater arrays. For testing sonar systems installed on surface ships, a floating setup positioner ensuring transmitters and hydrophones displacement in the horizontal and vertical planes was designed, manufactured, and introduced under the supervision of M. Ye. Petrov. A great amount of work on the design and introduction of the above devices was carried out by R. I. Eikhfeld, V. M. Belousov, Ye. V. Yakovlev, V. M. Ortin, I. A. Yershov, M. G. Blokhin, Ya. A. Shevello, O. A. Preobrazhensky, I. N. Dmitriyev, and others. E. V. Labetsky was one of the first who went to sea to conduct sonar system trials with the help of SP-1. Setup positioners SP-1 and SP-2, and lifting gear LG have found such wide application that practically every single sonar system installed on a submarine has gone through a period of trials with them. Later, a decision was made to design SP’s adjusted for serial production. This work was entrusted to the Proletarsky Plant, where SP’s with different boom length were designed: (1) SP-135 with boom length 35 m; (2) SP-250 with boom length 50 m; (3) SP-105 and 205 with boom lengths of 5 m (which were later increased to 15 m). Perestroika did not allow fitting-out bases of plants and test ranges of the Navy to be outfitted with the SP’s designed at the Proletarsky Plant. It became clear in the early 1980s that the network of state territorial organs of the Gosstandart did not fulfill the needs of the industry in the verification of working measuring systems. The low level of measuring systems, beginning from the state reference standards down to the working measuring sytems, had fallen behind the growing requirements of the industry and the Navy. In this connection, on the initiative of the Institute, jointly with the Gosstandart, a comprehensive program of metrological support to hydroacoustic measurements was

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Hydroacoustic Measurements at the CRI Morfizpribor

Fig. 10.

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A Ladoga test base floating laboratory.

adopted by the Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry. The program was aimed at significant improvement of measuring system accuracy and their frequency range expansion, creation of a new generation of state and working standards, reference and working measuring systems, documentation on standards of metrological support, organization under the Ministry of a service for certification and verification of hydroacoustic measuring systems and providing the necessary equipment for such service. In the course of execution of this program, a verification service was organized under the Ministry, which included a leading organization (CRI Morfizpribor) and six base regional centers, which ensured measuring system verification for all enterprises of the Ministry related to the area of hydroacoustics. A section was organized at the Institute, which fulfilled the functions of a leading organization. The section included R. I. Eikhfeld, A. A. Yanpolsky, A. Ye. Svetoslavsky, N. N. Fedorov, L. A. Isaeva, V. V. Antonova, R. A. Tamm, and others.

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Fig. 11.

Setup positioner on submarine in travel position.

In 1982, a secondary standardizing machine, and in 1985, an automatic standardizing machine for the measuring hydrophones were created and certified at the Institute. In recent years, the Gosstandart created new-generation state standards of higher accuracy and with a broader frequency range and reference hydrophones. The Institute, jointly with the Gosstandart, developed (but did not manufacture in connection with the beginning of the Perestroika) reference standards, an automated reference standardizing machine for hydrophones calibration under elevated hydrostatic pressures, a new accuracy chart, a GOST for measuring hydrophones, a procedural instruction for reference and working hydroacoustic measuring systems verification. Conclusion Over the years of work of the Institute, a large group of hydroacoustics specialists created a unique laboratory, the Test Range, measuring systems for support of ocean trials, and developed and introduced into practice modern measuring methods. A system of standards and technical documentation was developed. In addition, our specialists took part

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in the creation of measuring facilities for other organizations involved with hydroacoustics. In their work, many related organizations made use of both the metrological documentation and the measuring database of the Institute. Among them are the enterprises of the 10th Chief Administration of the Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry, the Institute of Acoustics, the Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI, the CRI Hydropribor, the RIE of the Navy, Military Unit 27177, the Institute of the Arctic and the Antarctic, the CRI for Physical-Technical and Radiotechnical Measurements, the D. I. Mendeleev CRI of Metrology, and the IAP. Unfortuneately it is not possible in these brief notes to give a complete overview of all the aspects of the formation and the development of hydroacoustic measurements at the Institute and give the names of all people who had contributed to the creation of the hydroacoustic measuring capabilities.

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X. The Role of the Radio Engineering Department and the Naval RI in the Creation of Hydroacoustic Equipment

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The Naval Radio Engineering Department and Development of Hydroacoustics A. I. BARANTSEV and G. N. KOROLKOV

As a parent organization of the Navy for hydroacoustics, the Naval Radio Engineering Department (Naval RED) accounts for a relatively short period of time in the history of development in this country of this branch of science and technology. On September 19, 1946, by circular of the Chief of General Staff of the Navy No. 0445, work on development efforts of hydroacoustic equipment was transferred from the Naval Communications Department to the Naval Radiolocation Department (today, the Naval RED). In accordance with the same circular, three hydroacoustics offices, for active sound ranging, passive sound ranging, and special hydroacoustics applications, were organized under the Naval RED. There were two reasons for this consolidation. First, the experience of antisubmarine operations and combat application of hydroacoustic systems by surface ships and submarines gathered in the war years revealed a serious lag behind the leading countries in the West (Great Britain, the United States, and others) in this area. Second, already in the first few post-war years work on the design of new surface ships and submarines was beginning in the country. The task of meeting their tactical mission requirements necessitated a systematic approach to the design of shipborne radio-electronic systems for underwater surveillance, to which hydroacoustic systems belonged. By that time, the Naval Radiolocation Department led by its organizer and first head, S. N. Arkhipov, had accumulated significant experience, including military warfare experience, for organizing the design effort, the trials, and the combat applications for radar surveillance systems. Thus, transfer of the development problems of hydroacoustic equipment to the Naval RED was natural. 1011

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Evaluation of the contribution made by the Naval RED to the development of hydroacoustic equipment is a many-sided and complex task. For a correct and objective evaluation, it is necessary to take a historical view of the Department’s activities just as an objective judgment of today’s contribution by the Naval RED to solving current problems will be possible only after a lapse of time. This makes the task easier for the authors, since in the preceding years the Department and its workers made a concrete contribution to the subject and their efforts definitely deserve appreciation. Of the everyday problems solved by a purchasing department of the Navy, most important, in certain historical periods, was thoroughly planning the approved programs of development in military engineering. As a rule, these programs were approved by decrees of the Council of Ministers of the USSR or by the top leaders of the country. Giving due to the contributions of other organizations that participate in putting together the documents describing this planning effort, a number of key ordinances on hydroacoustic development were passed on the initiative of the Naval RED. Preparation of such documents required a maximum concentration of effort on the part of the Department, close interaction with defense industry enterprises and government bodies, and a well-organized management of subordinated military institutions and customer representatives for the various enterprises. The history of hydroacoustics development in the post-war years may be reasonably divided into several stages, which are described in different articles in this book. The first post-war decade, 1946–1955, represents the first stage of the Department’s formation as the principal customer of hydroacoustic equipment. Early in this period, on the initiative of the Naval Fifth Department, the Decree of the Council of Ministers of the USSR “On development of hydroacoustics” was passed in 1948. In the course of the execution of this decree, with due account for the war experience, the first generation of home hydroacoustic systems for submarines and surface ships (Feniks and Plutonium for submarines, Gerkules-2 and Tamir-11 for surface ships) was created. In fact, in the course of development and organization of series production of these sonars, the necessary scientific-research and production capability was created. Thus, using

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the resources of the home industry, an opportunity was afforded to ensure independent design and manufacture of hydroacoustic equipment comparable with the best foreign equipment. (According to an estimate by CRI Morfizpribor specialists, the Feniks sonar exceeded similar American sonars of the time in its tactical characteristics.) In the same period, by decision of the government, the resolution of the Navy authorities was enacted on creation of the Navy Research Institute of Hydroacoustics in Leningrad (today it is known as the Naval RIE). Despite the difficult economic situation in the country after the war, modern laboratory and measuring equipment for the Institute’s laboratories were purchased in Germany, Austria, Czechoslovakia, and other countries by order of the Council of Ministers of the USSR that were drafted by the Navy Fifth Department. It became clear in the early 1950s that further development of hydroacoustic systems required broadening the scope of fundamental, exploratory, and applied research. Several tasks were coming to the forefront. These included a comprehensive investigation of the effects of long-range and super long-range sound propagation, the transition to the creation of the complex sonar systems for new nuclear submarines and antisubmarine ships then under design, and the beginning of activity on the creation of a permanent system for underwater surveillance. The latter task was looked upon as particularly acute, since the leading countries in the West were already actively working on stationary, long-range, submarine detection sonars. These sonars could represent a significant lag by us in this area. On the initiative of the Navy Commander-in-Chief, the Naval RED, jointly with the Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry and the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, and other ministries and departments, drafted several decrees for the Council of Ministers of the USSR concerning hydroacoustics, among them “On measures to develop hydroacoustics engineering,” and “On measures to create long-range detection hydroacoustic systems and develop scientific-research, experimental and production basis of hydroacoustics.” In implementation of these decrees a number of steps were taken. The renowned Acad. N. N. Andreyev Institute of Acoustics, with its northern branch, was created using the Laboratory of Acoustics of Physical Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR as a foundation. Development of the first sonar

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system Kerch for nuclear submarines then under construction began. Measures were taken to expand the production and laboratory capabilities of the Vodtranspribor Plant. CRI Morfizpribor was appointed the leading organization for the design and development of long-range hydroacoustic systems for the Navy. Finally, the scope of fundamental research at the research institutes of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR was considerably enlarged. Now let us look back at the 1960s. This period is characterized by very active construction of the nuclear submarine fleet. High-quality sonar systems were needed so that the submarines could fulfill complex tasks in the ocean and could operate new missile weapons system. Home industry had already accumulated the necessary research-andtechnical capability to design these sonars and the respective program could be carried out. Work on this program at the Naval RED and the RIE was entrusted to a group of specialists under the guidance of Captain 1st Rank M. Ya. Chemeris (deputy head of the Naval Fifth Department). The group also included Engineer-Captain 2nd Rank I. I. Tynyankin (head of department at Naval RIE), Engineer-Captain 2nd Rank K. A. Manukhin (head of office at Naval Fifth Department), Engineer-Captain 2nd Rank V. V. Lavrichenko (Naval RIE) as well as others. The program was prepared and approved by the Government Decree “On Creation of Hydroacoustic Systems for Submarines.” The decree set top priority on the development of the sonar systems Rubin and Yenisei, formulated the tasks of initiating research into the low and infrasonic frequencies range, introduced amendments to the research programs of RAS and the Institute of Acoustics, approved the creation of the Central Research Hydroacoustic Test Range of the Ministry of Defense in the Pacific, and introduced other measures to develop home hydroacoustics. An analysis of the programs of those years reveals profound work on the problems posed, the high professional skills of specialists at all levels involved in preparation of these programs, and the unsparing efforts by research institutes and defense industry design bureaus, the Academy of Sciences, and the Navy, who had carried out the greater part of work that lead to the realization of these programs.

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The 1960s were characterized by a very high level of development of scientific ideas in hydroacoustics, audacity, enthusiasm and a high sense of responsibility for the assigned mission by both the chief designers and the rank-and-file engineers of new systems. Regretfully, already by this time, the country’s general lag in the area of microelectronics and computer technology was being felt. This lag prevented full realization of the country’s potential in hydroacoustic science and its most promising technical ideas. The most characteristic example of this situation was the creation of the automated sonar system Yenisei for class 705 submarines. It presented an accumulation of the most advanced technical innovations in the area of hydroacoustics of that time. A number of the designer’s ideas and features proposed for this sonar system, which had not been realized for the above reasons, were later used in the design of the next generation of submarine sonar systems (there is a very interesting article in this book on the history of the creation of Yenisei written by V. B. Idin, one of the creators of this unique system). By the late 1960s to early 1970s, the growing lag in home military hydroacoustics in a number of different areas behind the naval forces of the United States and other countries of the West became evident to the specialists. This lag was felt primarily in the rate of introduction of digital data processing systems into sonars, in the practical application of the infrasonic and low audio frequency ranges, and in the development and outfitting of the fleet with stationary and self-contained systems for long-range submarine detection. The home instrument-engineering industry was falling into stagnation. The development of new information processing systems and prototype hydroacoustic equipment was in permanent arrears. The execution of a number of government decrees concerning commissioning of production and laboratory units for CRI Morfizpribor and other research institutions and plants failed. The situation was aggravated by the general atmosphere of complacency with the achieved results, a tendency towards reporting preferably success stories and ignoring drawbacks. It took civic courage to report to the country’s leaders a serious lag in one of the defense areas. In 1972, the head of the Naval Fifth Department, Rear-Admiral M. Ya. Chemeris, presented a report to the Naval Military Board

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containing detailed analysis of the state-of-the-art in the design of hydroacoustic systems for the home Navy and for the navies of the leading countries in the West. The report also included a description of the general situation in the development and manufacture of new hydroacoustic equipment. Following the results of the meeting of the Naval Military Board, the Naval Commander-in-Chief, Admiral of the Soviet Navy, S. G. Gorshkov gave orders to prepare reports based on the material presented at the meeting for the country’s top government organizations. These reports were prepared, and, as a result of their consideration by the CPSU Central Committee and the USSR Council of Ministers, the preparation of a special government decree on the matter began. Thus, on the initiative of the Naval Fifth Department, a far-reaching decree on hydroacoustic equipment development (“On Hydroacoustic Equipment Development and Reducing Submarines Noise”) was prepared and adopted in 1974. It contained criticism of the ministries and departments of the defense complex in charge of the development of hydroacoustic systems and pointed to the need for concrete programs to creation the new shipborne and stationary sonar systems. With the same decree, the government approved programs for the creation of new shipborne and stationary sonar systems and for conducting research, allocated significant funds to the development of research institutes, design bureaus, series-production plants, building research and special ships. It named the principal directions for work to reduce submarines noise and to reduce the levels of own-ship noise that was interfering with the operation of hydroacoustic systems. Later, the Naval Fifth Department, jointly with the defense ministries and RAS, prepared several more important government decrees on hydroacoustics, including the Decree of 1977 “On Creating Forces and Systems for a Complex Antisubmarine System”, the Decree of 1981 “On Work on Super Long-range Submarine Detection”, and several others. It should be noted that, until 1990, the problem of development of hydroacoustics was always regarded with much attention by the government organs (the Council of Ministers of the USSR and the Military-Industrial Commission under the Council of Ministers of the USSR) and the leaders of the Ministry of Defense and the Navy. Annual meetings of leaders of the military-industrial complex, of

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the Military-Technical Board under the Ministry of Defense and the Navy, where special problems of hydroacoustics were discussed, were a must. Many of those who will read this book participated in preparing these meetings and know the great responsibility this work imposed on everybody, particularly the Naval RED. By 1985, with the huge effort of the whole military-industrial complex and especially the Leningrad CRI Morfizpribor and the Kiev RI Hydropribor, parity between sonar systems for surface ships and for nuclear submarines (Zvezda, Skat-3) and similar systems in service by US naval forces was achieved with regard to the level of performance of their principal tactical functions. However, in such parameters as weight and size, power consumption, the potential for modernization, and a few others, parity was practically unattainable. The country was plunging deeper and deeper into an economic crisis, and the disparity with the leading western countries in the area of computer technology and microelectronics was becoming more and more noticeable. At the same time, it is important to underscore that during this period our fundamental and applied science in the area of hydroacoustics was at a world-class level. It was not the fault of our researchers and designers that implementation of their advanced ideas was restricted by the actual technical capability of the available data processing equipment. A confirmation to the fact that our researchers and designers stand at this high level is the acute interest showed today to our hydroacoustic institutes (CRI Morfizpribor, N. N. Andreyev Institute of Acoustics, and others) by individual specialists in the design of hydroacoustic equipment from leading western companies. It is nevertheless very difficult to give an unambiguous description of the situation with hydroacoustics in Russia. On the one hand, there are great opportunities for the realization of the country’s present scientific-and-technological potential in this field on the basis of world achievements in information processing and computer systems engineering. While on the other hand, the permanent lack of money reduces all opportunities to a minimum. Still we are sure that, with stabilization of the general economic situation in the country, Russia will establish itself as one of the leaders in the elite community of countries that

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design and manufacture hydroacoustic equipment. The Naval RED will do all within its power to contribute to the process. In the present article, which is of the form of a report — the form the authors are most accustomed to, we have deliberately avoided drawing a line between our Department and the general system of government support to the development of hydroacoustic equipment in the country. It is for this reason that the names of the majority of workers of the Naval RED have been omitted. It was those people who drafted government decrees and prepared meetings of the military-industrial complex leaders, who drafted ordinances and instructions for the Minister of Defense and the Naval Commander-in-Chief, who prepared meetings of the Military-Technical Boards and drafted joint resolutions and agreements, attended new equipment acceptance trials, and took part in many other activities, contributing their efforts to the general goal of development of hydroacoustic equipment. We give these names in a separate list. Those who worked with them will remember their faces and the work in which they participated. While those who did not happen to know these people, will be able to associate their contribution with concrete results achieved in hydroacoustics in that period. We hope that this book, presenting a collection of articles and reminiscences of prominent designers, researchers, and specialists in hydroacoustics, will serve the general cause of hydroacoustics development. We are also thankful to the editorial group who has put much work into preparing this publication. Heads of Naval RED: 1943–1958 S. N. Arkhipov, 1959–1970 A. L. Genkin, 1970–1980 M. Y. Chemeris, 1980–1990 G. P. Popov, 1990–1997 A. V. Kuzmenko, 1997–present G. N. Korolkov. Deputy heads of Naval RED for hydroacoustics: A. I. Pustovalov, V. I. Myasishchev, M. Ya. Chemeris, I. I. Tynyankin, N. M. Larin, V. V. Lavrichenko, A. P. Kryazhevskikh, V. M. Voronin, and G. N. Korolkov.

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Heads of hydroacoustic offices: V. I. Myasishchev, V. Ye. Dunayev, V. V. Fenyutin, P. A. Legkodukh, A. A. Vershinin. M. Ya. Chemeris, I. I. Tynyankin, K. P. Manukhin, A. P. Polyakov, S. N. Chetvrkin, A. P. Kryazhevskikh, V. M. Voronin, V. N. Sirotin, V. P. Ivannikov, G. N. Korolkov, B. N. Bondarenko, and A. I. Barantsev. Officers of hydroacoustic offices: Ye. M. Kukharkov, V. V. Lipallo, Ye. N. Shoshkov, M. K. Salmanin, L. I. Glushchenko, A. M. Kiryanchikov, I. A. Seleznev, Yu. M. Perekhvalsky, V. P. Fedorov, S. A. Voronin, I. A. Yakovlev, V. N. Savinykh, S. F. Todorov, O. Ya. Vlaskin, V. L. Mitelikov, N. Ya. Balmasov, A. A. Plaksin, N. N. Karmanovsky, V. I. Bulkin, V. V. Malafeyev, G. N. Kiselev, V. P. Andreyev, V. G. Sugrobov, E. A. Chernenko, V. D. Davydov, B. A. Shevchenko, Ye. P. Glebov, V. A. Dalidovich, K. I. Belousov, M. V. Sakharov, M. I. Nadelson, A. T. Nasobin, V. M. Sarafanov, O. S. Lysov, I. M. Misnik, V. P. Ivannikov, V. M. Baranov, A. B. Postnikov, M. N. Baranov, V. A. Gorlov, A. N. Sheludkov, Yu. G. Volgin, N. V. Kostenich, V. L. Kuznetsov, I. T. Shevchenko, A. A. Shakhanov, S. V. Shkutnik, G. V. Stepenov, S. A. Galchenko, S. P. Kolomiitsev, V. V. Kiselev, S. A. Yermolayev, V. P. Babunov, A. V. Prismotrov, M. N. Voronin, S. S. Borisov, O. A. Grankin, V. V. Kovalev, S. S. Zavalishin, N. I. Likhovitsky, N. M. Kurochkin, G. K. Islamgaliyev, and S. A. Galchenko. Naval RED names in different periods: August 1943–January 1946 People Commissariat’s for the Navy Special Instruments Office January 1945–March 1945 People Commissariat’s for the Navy Radiolocation Office March 1945–July 1948 Naval Radiolocation Department July 1948–April 1953 Naval 5th Department April 1953–July 1953 Naval 5th Office June 1953–June 1955 Office of Head of Naval Radio Engineering Service June 1955–December 1988 Naval 5th Department December 1988 till the Naval RED present time

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The Naval Research Institute of Radio Electronics and its Role in Home Hydroacoustics Development A. A. BARANENKO

In the history of home science and technology it is generally recognized that the beginnings of the process of creating services and institutions for carrying out research in hydroacoustics and for developing naval hydroacoustic systems dates back to the first half of the 20th century. Only twice, between 1948 and 1956, and again between 1983 and 1988, did there exist independent hydroacoustic institutes within the military ministries. During all other periods, hydroacoustics research and development was carried out within the framework of a larger institute engaged in a broad range of investigations in the development of radioelectronic equipment for the Navy. During the years of its existence, the Naval Research Institute of Radio Electronics underwent multiple structural reorganizations. Its activities date back to May, 1945, when the Naval Radar Research Institute (NRRI) was organized. In 1948–1949 hydroacoustic departments, which existed at the time at several Navy RIs, were united under one roof, and a new RI of Hydroacoustics (RIHA) was formed under the leadership of Rear-Admiral A. I. Pustovalov. The Institute functioned until 1956, having initiated large-scale projects in the area of hydroacoustics. These projects were continued within the structure of the Naval Research Institute for Hydroacoustics, Radiolocation, Optics, and Infrared Technology. When the technical requirements of hydroacoustic systems grew significantly, particularly because of the need for reliable underwater monitoring at long ranges, an independent Research Institute of Hydroacoustics was organized in 1983 under the leadership of RearAdmiral B. G. Novyi. 1020

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In 1988, another reorganization of the Naval research institutions took place. The Institute of Hydroacoustics was included in the structure of the Naval Institute of Radioelectronic Equipment. In 1995, the Naval Institute of Radioelectronic Equipment, where naval sonarmen served and carried out research efforts, marked its 50th-year anniversary. The booklet issued on that date noted that the Institute employed eight Doctors of Science and four professors specializing in hydroacoustics, about 90 Candidates of Science and over 60 senior researchers making up the core of the scientific discipline in this area. By 1995 the Institute had worked with more than 300 organizations and enterprises of the RF Ministry of Defense, the Navy, RAS, branch academies of the CIS countries, higher educational establishments of the Russian Federation, industrial RIs, and production plants. The book Russian Science — for the Navy (Rossiaskaya Nauka — Voyenno-Morskomu Flotu) prepared for publication in 1996 to mark 300 years of the Navy, as well as the present collection, list prominent researchers of the Institute, winners of the Lenin and State Prizes, and Doctors and Candidates of science including, among many, P. P. Kuzmin, I. N. Meltreger, I. I. Tynyankin, V. N. Matvienko, M. L. Pulenets, M. S. Usvyatsov, B. L. Postnikov, B. V. Gusev, A. I. Mashoshin, I. M. Il’in, Yu. F. Tarasyuk, G. N. Seravin. The main focuses of the Institute’s activities in the area of hydroacoustics are: (1) generalization, systematization, and analysis of the organization of fundamental research; (2) substantiation of the design requirements of prospective sonar systems and providing military-and-research support for equipment in the course of its creation, operation, modernization, storage, preservation, and salvage; (3) study of the practices of information support to hydroacoustic development and creation of training aids for sonar operators. The Institute provides: (1) an experimental research base, including experimental model basins, unique laboratory test beds, and simulation complexes,

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ship-borne information processing equipment, modern computer equipment and instrumentation pools that provide opportunities for experiments to investigate the physical characteristics of the world’s oceans, development of non-conventional detection systems and new applications of radioelectronic systems; (2) an experimental plant for designing and manufacturing mock-ups and other equipment for marine expeditions and laboratory tests; (3) a scientific-technical library with a collection of about 100,000 books, magazines, scientific-technical literature and publications, translations, reports on research and D&D work, and publications in foreign languages on all the subjects of principal interest to the Institute; (4) a printing-house for preparing and publishing the Institute’s transactions, article collections, guidance documents of the Radioelectronics Department of the Navy, and the results of research done within Institute’s departments. The Institute has a Coordination Scientific Board for Hydroacoustics; its scientific-technical and research councils consider and approve theses for defense and confer the highest scientific degrees. The Institute’s scientific schools in the area of hydroacoustics are recognized by the Institute of Acoustics and the Institute of Oceanology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, CRI Morfizpribor, the Electrotechnical University, the Admiral N. G. Kuznetsov Naval Academy, the A. S. Popov NSEE, and many other research and production organizations and institutions. Active cooperation provides an opportunity to outfit naval ships and coastal units with up-to-date hydroacoustic equipment. Great contributions to the development of home hydroacoustics were made by the following leaders of the Institute: B. N. Shatrov (1945–1952); A. I. Pustovalov (RIHA, 1948–1956); N. M. Gusev (1952–1957); A. L. Genkin (1057–1958); S. P. Chernakov (1958–1974);

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I. I. Tynyankin (1974–1976); V. N. Romanenko (1976–1986); B. G. Novyi (RIHA, 1983–1988); D. D. Kashuba (1986–1993); A. A. Baranenko, since 1993. Descriptions of the work of the Institute of Hydroacoustics are discussed in many articles in this collection. The ultimate result of this work is that ships of the Navy in service since the 1960s carry modern series-produced hydroacoustic systems manufactured in this country.

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The Contribution of Researchers and Specialists of the Naval Institutes to the Creation of Submarine Hydroacoustic Systems K. P. LUGINETS

It was Naval servicemen who posed problems during the creation of the hydroacoustic industry in the country and initiated their solution. With the efforts of I. G. Freiman and A. I. Berg, surveillance and communication sections under the Research and Technical Committee of WPRA Naval Forces (at the head of which they stood during different periods of time) were organized in 1924, and a Communications Research Range (CRR) was founded where work on hydroacoustics began. In 1932, these organizations were incorporated into the new Naval Research Institute of Communications (NRIC). The Institute included the No. 3 Hydroacoustics Department. A. I. Berg was appointed the head of NRIC, and A. I. Pustovalov became head of the No. 3 Department. This new organization continued the experimental and theoretical research work started at CRR. Basic requirements for the hydroacoustic systems of naval ships and land stations were formulated and justified. The sonars created in the years before and during the war were the result of a joint effort by workers of NRIC, the Laboratory of Hydroacoustics of the Central Radio Laboratory (CRL), Plant 206, and military acceptance representatives A. N. Osipov and V. K. Zhurkovich. They searched for and refined new design features and new processengineering features thus improving equipment reliability. Great personal contributions to the development of hydroacoustic systems in those years were made by P. P. Kuzmin (the first Stalin Prize winner 1024

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among military sonarmen), F. M. Kartashov, I. N. Meltreger, V. N. Budrin, I. V. Vladimirov, B. V. Gusev, A. G. Grevtsev, Ye. I. Belopolsky, A. P. Stashkevich, A. S. Chirkov, K. A. Frolov. The first specialized Research Institute of Hydroacoustics (Naval Institute No. 7) was organized at the beginning of 1949 in accordance with the Decree of the Council of Ministers of the USSR. Rear-Admiral A. I. Pustovalov was appointed head of this new institute. Very soon after its creation, a large group of young workers came to work at the Institute, whose successful training was due to a great extent to the efforts of L. M. Aronov and P. I. Matveyev (authors of the first course in hydroacoustics for officer classes and officer training schools), V. N. Tyulin, M. G. Grigoryev, A. M. Tyurin, and A. P. Stashkevich. Serious attention was paid at the Institute to justification of the selection of sonar working frequencies in direct listening and submarine sound ranging modes, and to the study of multi-element cylindrical receiving arrays. The greatest contribution to the development of passive sonars was made by B. V. Gusev, I. N. Meltreger, A. I. Tarapatin, V. N. Tyulin, M. G. Grigoryev, and A. M. Tyurin. Based on the results of research in this area, the Feniks was developed by industrial designers (Chief Designer M. Sh. Shtremt; authorized supervisor of the Navy B. V. Gusev). A matter of primary importance for the development of military hydroacoustics was ensuring reliable acoustic field calculations in an inhomogeneous, layered ocean medium. A methodology of doing such calculations was needed for the design of shipborne sonars and for range calculations in operational, tactical situations that exist during combat and in preparation for combat. The substantiated methodology later served as a basis for further (up to the present time) development of the theory of such calculations by the ray method. This methodology was developed by a group of Institute researchers including I. N. Meltreger, M. S. Usvyatsov, Yu. A. Sorokin, Ye. P. Romanova, V. D. Grigoricheva, and L. A. Prokosheva. One of the ways to improve signal reception in the presence of noise was application of correlation methods proposed by the Institute of Acoustics of the Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry. A group of researchers of the Institute including M. S. Usvyatsov, B. V. Gusev,

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K. P. Luginets

I. N. Meltreger, Yu. A. Sorokin, K. P. Luginets, M. A. Yevlanov, and Ye. P. Romanova was involved in solving applied problems by introducing these methods into submarine sonar operation and by carrying out complex experimental research on submarines. The sonar MG-10 was designed (Chief Designer M. M. Magid, supervisor M. S. Usvyatsov) on the basis of the results obtained by these efforts. Along with the development of multi-element arrays, reflector arrays were being introduced that complied with layout requirements and operation on submarines. Research was carried out by a research group including P. P. Kuzmin, V. G. Prokhorov, E. Kh. Matevosyan, G. S. Dyakonov, A. F. Zalessky, V. F. Bushtuyev, and V. N. Yevmenenko. The result of research work was the creation of the Arktika-M sonar with a combined reciprocal reflector array (Chief Designer Ye. I. Aladyshkin, supervisors P. P. Kuzmin and E. Kh. Matevosyan). Research aimed at the integration of passive and active sonar channels and the realization of continuous reception of signals emitted by active enemy sonars was carried out by a group of researchers including B. V. Gusev, M. S. Usvyatsov, K. P. Luginets, M. A. Yevlanov, and A. M. Grigoryev. The results of research found application in the Anadyr sonar (Chief Designer S. M. Shelekhov, supervisor N. V. Popov). The most successful research work was carried out in the period between 1957 and 1974, when Vice Admiral S. P. Chernakov was the head of the Institute of Radioelectronic Equipment with which the Institute of Hydroacoustics merged. With the expansion of the Navy, the appearance of nuclear submarines and missile weaponry, the significant expansion in the scope of missions carried out by the Navy, and discovery of the characteristics of long-range sound propagation, the requirements placed on submarine hydroacoustic equipment grew and underwent qualitative changes. To give a scientific-technical start to the development of a new generation of hydroacoustic systems, research along the following lines was initiated within sections of the Institute: (1) long-range target detection by direct listening, by echo ranging modes, and by detection of communications;

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(2) determination of the characteristics of submarines and the weapons they carry and the classification of surface ships; (3) target location by passive listening with sonars and sonar systems; (4) determination of the peculiarities of the detection of targets moving in formation; direction finding, ranging, and identification of detachments of fighting ships and of convoys. These investigations necessitated the creation of a series of special equipment for conducting experimental studies and for processing the collected data. The scientific basis for this work was provided by the first results from the application of the theory of random processes and mathematical statistics. Investigations were initiated with a view toward increasing the accuracy of position estimates of detected targets, especially target range, using passive listening, by using physical and geometrical methods. A valuable contribution to these investigations was made by B. V. Gusev, K. P. Luginets, V. V. Lavrichenko, L. A. Prokosheva, M. V. Zhurkovich, M. L. Pulenets, and A. A. Kudryavtsev. Later, substantiated technical recommendations were implemented in the secondgeneration sonars. The scientific-technical knowledge in the area of increasing the efficiency of underwater communication, including high-security communication, was increased by the Institute specialists V. I. Zhivayev, I. N. Meltreger, G. S. Dyakonov, V. K. Arkhipov, L. Ye. Pavlov, V. A. Lobanov, V. I. Fomichev, and G. V. Shevchenko. Research into the use of long submarine towed arrays, resulting in higher array gain (i.e., focusing strength of the array) and angular resolution of the target, was carried out by Yu. A. Sorokin, I. N. Meltreger, V. V. Lavrichenko, V. N. Yevmenenko, A. F. Pimenov, M. V. Zhurkovich, V. A. Lobanov, and S. I. Neganov. Research was performed on mine detection based of the suppression of reverberative noise, which is a general nuisance, particularly in shallow water. The greatest contribution to the development in this area was made by G. S. Dyakonov, B. A. Shishkin, F. F. Kryachok, V. I. Fomichev, P. A. Sigov, E. Kh. Matevosyan, L. F. Greshnikova, and I. G. Dorofeyev. Based on the technical recommendations worked

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out in the course of this research, a number of sonars where designed. These included the communication sonars Sviyaga, Yakhta, and Shtil-2 (supervisors G. S. Dyakonov, V. K. Arkhipov), the mine detection system Radian (Chief Designer V. E. Zelyakh, supervisor Ye. D. Kursky), and the passive sonar Kit with a shipborne array (supervisor Yu. A. Sorokin). To exploit the results of investigations of super long-range acoustic propagation that had been obtained by that time, theoretical and experimental work was initiated at the Institute to determine optimal electroacoustic design parameters, working frequencies, the best grazing angles for the directional patterns, signal accumulation time, and the efficient amplitude-frequency response for the receiving channels. The greatest contribution to this work was made by B. V. Gusev, M. S. Usvyatsov, I. N. Meltreger, L. A. Prokosheva, K. P. Luginets, Yu. A. Sorokin, V. V. Lavrichenko, I. M. Il’in, M. V. Zhurkovich, L. I. Balashova, and G. B. Chernova. The results of investigations were implemented in the following sonar systems for nuclear submarines: (1) SS Kerch, Chief Designer M. M. Magid, supervisor M. S. Usvyatsov (State Prize winners); (2) SS Rubin, Chief Designer N. N. Sviridov, who was succeeded by Ye. I. Aladyshkin (in fact, the functions of chief designer were performed by S. M. Shelekhov), supervisor B. V. Gusev (Lenin Prize winner); (3) SS Rubikon, Chief Designer S. M. Shelekhov, supervisors V. V. Lavrichenko, B. A. Shishkin, M. V. Zhurkovich; (4) SS Okean, Chief Designer N. A. Knyazev, supervisor V. V. Lavrichenko. Along with investigations into the long-range detection of targets based on the sound they radiate and detection and location of convoys (I. N. Meltreger, K. P. Luginets, A. A. Prokosheva, M. V. Zhurkovich, G. B. Chernova, A. A. Kudryavtsev, N. K. Buslenko, and I. A. Yakovleva), work began on determining features for identification of two principal classes of targets and investigation into the efficiency of this method of identification. The results of this work laid the foundation for further development into target classification. The work was carried out by a

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group of workers that included A. A. Kudryavtsev, M. V. Zhurkovich, V. P. Yagotinets, and N. A. Merkulova, under the guidance of K. P. Luginets and with his direct participation. It was vitally important to study the opportunities for detection of noisy targets by way of quasi-matched reception of harmonic components of the signal spectrum. Here, efforts were concentrated on theoretical investigation of noise-stable reception, the problems of signal structure deformation by propagation effects, and experimental investigation of frequency spectra of real marine targets. The bulk of this research was carried out by the Institute specialists V. V. Lavrichenko, I. M. Il’in, M. V. Zhurkovich, V. S. Perelygin, A. F. Pimenov, I. A. Yakovleva, L. A. Prokosheva, G. B. Chernova, V. I. Fomichev, and N. A. Dvoryantsev. In connection with the significant successes shipbuilders had in controlling the noise emitted by submarines, the opportunity for target detection by using the characteristic noise generated by the underwater launch of torpedos or missiles from vessels came to the fore. Experimental and theoretical investigations into the processes that generated this sound, and its statistical characteristics for the purposes of detection, identification, and location of the target was carried out by M. V. Zhurkovich, M. N. Stepanov, K. P. Luginets, B. S. Shchukin, A. A. Prokosheva, N. A. Dvoryantsev, V. S. Perelygin, G. B. Chernova, I. A. Yakovleva, and A. F. Pimenov. Interesting research into the opportunities for detection of underwater acoustic signals from airborne platforms (planes, helicopters) and for finding their position was performed by the Institute specialists S. I. Neganov, I. N. Meltreger, V. V. Lavrichenko, V. M. Pyanov, L. I. Balashova, E. Kh. Matevosyan, A. P. Proshin, O. I. Volodin, and Yu. L. Kaidanov. The results obtained, with technical recommendations and evaluations of sonars efficiency for this application, were implemented in systems designed for detection of these signals as part of submarine sonar systems. At the end of the 1960s to the early 1970s, intensive search was undertaken to find hydroacoustic surveillance methods for designating targets for remotely controlled weapons. Work was carried out with the participation of M. V. Zhurkovich, I. M. Il’in, L. A. Prokosheva,

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G. B. Chernova, and I. A. Yakovleva. Related investigations and further development have continued to the present. In those years, with a view toward increasing angular resolution, a structure and a theory of noisestable channels were developed for target directional finding by detecting the modulation of components in the noise emitted by the target. These investigations were carried out by M. V. Zhurkovich, I. M. Il’in, I. A. Yakovleva, N. K. Buslenko, and L. Ye. Yevstigneyeva. The results were implemented in an experimental mode of operation of the SS Skat. The great role in studying the necessity for the creation and introduction of systems with TFEA belonged to M. V Zhurkovich, V. V. Lavrichenko, and V. S. Perelygin (Rassvet, Avrora-P, Skat, and Skat-3). In the early 1970s, investigations were carried out in support of the Krylo sonar. This sonar prototype was developed and installed on a submarine. It permitted the submarine to establish a permanent position in the water under a surface ship. It was thus masked from detection by the noise field of the surface ship. Work was carried out by S. P. Chernakov, I. N. Meltreger, L. A. Prokosheva, M. V Zhurkovich, M. N. Stepanov, G. G. Golubev, V. I. Zhivayev, G. B. Chernova, G. S. Dyakonov, and M. S. Usvyatsov. Great assistance in the purchasing of parts and components was provided by M. M. Magid. In the 1970s, requirements for automation in the operation of hydroacoustic systems grew. Together with computational procedures, the need arose for development of complex logical rules for decisionmaking within a time period much shorter than the operator’s psychophysiological capabilities might allow. In this connection, the need arose for digital data processing, in the first place, for control systems and for the display, classification, and processing of secondary information. Investigations into the structure of algorithms, their content, the search for technical means of digital processing, as well as the methods for designing the 2nd and 3rd generation sonar systems were carried out by V. V. Lavrichenko, M. V. Zhurkovich, K. P. Luginets, and Zh. D. Petrovsky. The results obtained were implemented in SS Skat (Chief Designer V. V. Gromkovsky, supervisors V. V. Lavrichenko, and M. V. Zhurkovich). In the late 1970s to the early 1980s, the degree of complexity of the processing of space–time signals grew. The question of the transfer to a

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complete digital processing was ripe. This transfer latter found implementation in the SS Skat-3. The SS Skat-3’s chief designer was V. A. Kakalov; supervisors, M. V. Zhurkovich, since 1983, Zh. D. Petrovsky, and since 1987, G. G. Bozhchenko. The algorithms and signals digital processing systems were substantiated by M. V. Zhurkovich, L. M. Lazuko, P. A. Sigov, G. G. Bozhchenko, Zh. D. Petrovsky, K. P. Luginets, I. I. Il’in, L. A. Prokosheva, I. A. Yakovleva. B. I. Mikhailychev, N. V. Krylov, P. M. Tarasov, A. I. Mashoshin, and G. B. Chernova. In the same period, extensive investigations were carried out into the adaptation of information processing methods to a field where local noise (G. S. Malyshkin, I. M. Il’in, L. A. Prokosheva, and I. A. Yakovleva) and where sea noise (I. M. Il’in, I. N. Meltreger, G. B. Chernova, L. A. Prokosheva, and O. G. Obchinets) are present. The results of this investigation are currently being implemented in sonar systems now under design. In the 1980s, research was carried out to increase the efficiency and secrecy of operation of active sonars. Work was done with the participation of N. V. Romanenko, V. I. Fomichev, I. M. Il’in, I. N. Bernyakov, and S. V. Ivliyev. Investigations into the improvement in scientific-technical methods for evaluating the performance of submarine sonar systems yielded good results. This work was carried out by specialists of the Institute, in close contact with naval specialists, with a view toward developing guidance documents such as combat application rules, manuals, instructions, and recommendations for the naval specialists who operate hydroacoustic systems. A huge amount of work was carried out by specialists of the Institute V. V. Lavrichenko, G. S. Dyakonov, E. Kh. Matevosyan, V. F. Bushtuyev, K. P. Luginets, A. V. Sapega, V. M. Pyanov, Zh. D. Petrovsky, M. N. Baranov, G. G. Bozhchenko, A. M. Gritsenko, L. Ye. Yevstigneyeva. In this work, special attention was paid to the problems of evaluation of operating ranges of systems in specific navigation areas, and the prediction of the ranges. On the basis of existing information and on investigations that were conducted, design requirements for devices for measuring hydroacoustic parameters of the ocean media were worked out. Also very important from the practical point of view was preparation of manuals for the

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fleet for calculating operating ranges of sonars and sonar systems for different targets. Significant contributions were made by V. N. Matvienko, A. G. Fedoseyev, A. G. Kolesnikov, A. P. Silayev, L. Yu. Yermolinsky, V. A. Antonov, V. G. Filin, and others. Analysis of available foreign publications leads to the conclusion that the level of scientific research in the area of hydroacoustics that was carried out in this country and abroad were quite comparable. For the creation and outfitting of our country’s submarine fleet with hydroacoustic equipment, many Naval Institutes workers received high government awards.

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The Contribution of Researchers and Specialists of the Naval RIE to Solving Problems of Target Classification A. I. MASHOSHIN

Classification of detected targets is one of the principal tasks of a hydroacoustic system. The importance of efficient classification is indicated by the fact that a commander at the appropriate level makes a decision on maneuvering, calling for support, or using weapons only after the target has been classified. Target classification presents a complex scientific-technical problem for a number of objective reasons including: (1) the great number of various classes and subclasses with which the target must be identified; (2) the difficulty of obtaining reliable information about the characteristics of the near and far acoustic fields of foreign military vessels; (3) the absence of a highly informative classification criteria, and, at the same time, the dependence of the quality of all known classification criteria on hydroacoustic and noise conditions associated with a detection; (4) the small value of the signal-to-noise ratio (as low as –20 dB at the output of the linear part of the receiving circuit in passive sonar systems), from which classification is to be determined. The concept of target classification using data received from hydroacoustic systems was developed as an independent scientific theme at the Naval Research Institute of Electronics (Naval RIE) in the early 1960s and was verified in the works by K. P. Luginets. The development of this theme over a period of 30 years may be conventionally divided into 3 stages. During the first stage (early 1960s to early 1970s), the 1033

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physical basis of classification was determined. The specific features of noise emissions and the behavior of marine vessels of different classes, as well as the peculiarities of the propagation of their acoustic emissions, were determined. As a result of investigations, classification criteria for targets of different classes were formulated, and their validity for application to different receiving systems confirmed. The main contribution to these investigations was made by the work carried out by a group of researchers and specialists of the Naval RIE under the leadership of K. P. Luginets, jointly with the researchers involved in the same problem at the Acad. N. N. Andreyev Institute of Acoustics (Chief Scientist V. S. Grigoryev), the Sukhumi Branch of ACIN (Chief Scientist V. I. Il’ichev), the Institute of Problems of Control (Chief Scientist I. I. Paishev), and the CRI Morfizpribor (Chief Scientist Yu. S. Perelmuter). The research done resulted in the creation of a manual for target classification for sonars and sonar systems designed for different applications, and guided the design and operational requirements of classification equipment as applied to the existing surveillance systems and to those then under design. During the second stage (early 1970s to mid-1980s), investigations into the physical principles of classification were supplemented by the development of algorithms for enhanced classification at the output of the sonar receiving circuits and decision-making algorithms of identification of the target class. In addition, designing of classification equipment for submarine and surface-ship sonars as well as stationary sonars were started. The principal contributions during the second stage were made by groups of workers of the Naval RIE (Chief Scientists K. P. Luginets, K. V. Arsentyev, P. M. Tarasov, N. I. Timofeyev, I. Ye. Lobodin), CRI Morfizpribor (Chief Scientists Yu. S. Perelmuter, A. S. Yermolenko), ACIN (Chief Scientist N. A. Dubrovsky), the Sukhumi Branch of ACIN (Chief Scientist F. P. Lensky), and the Kiev RI of Hydrological Instruments (Chief Scientist V. P. Cherednichenko). The research carried out in the course of the first and second stages provided an opportunity for the organizations of the Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry to create and put into service the first generation

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of classification systems. These systems were the KMG-12 for surfaceship sonars (Chief Designer L. S. Kabakov, supervisor N. I. Timofeyev), the KMG-516 and KMG-526 for the MGK-400 submarine sonar systems, a classification subsystem for the submarine sonar system Skat (Chief Designer Yu. S. Perelmuter, supervisors N. I. Timofeyev, I. V. Danilchenko, A. I. Mashoshin), and classification equipment for the land-based sonar MG-521 (Chief Designers Ya. S. Karlik, N. A. Dubrovsky). Requirements for efficient classification of detected targets were later included in the TTR’s of all hydroacoustic underwater surveillance systems under design. The third stage, which began in the mid-1980s and continues to the present, includes studies of ways to improve existing classification equipment so as to meet ever growing practical requirements. The main contributions to these studies is being made by groups of researchers of the Naval RIE (Chief Scientists N. I. Timofeyev, A. I. Mashoshin, I. Ye. Lobodin, K. V. Zaichenko), as well as the groups of researchers of CRI Morfizpribor (Chief Scientists Yu. S. Perelmuter and A. S. Yermolenko), and ACIN (Chief Scientists A. N. Chernov, V. A. Baranov, E. P. Gulin). During the third stage, CRI Morfizpribor completed construction of the Skat-3 submarine sonar system and the Dnestr stationary sonar system, both incorporating second-generation classification subsystems (chief designers of classification subsystems A. S. Yermolenko and V. G. Timoshenkov). These subsystems incorporated the results of the investigations carried out during the two preceding stages. For example, the classification subsystem of the Skat-3 sonar system implemented 22 inventions made by workers of the Naval RIE. The third stage marked the beginning of the construction of various types of sonar systems that incorporated the third generation of classification subsystems utilizing the ideas of researchers of the Naval RIE. All stages of investigations included a great amount of work carried out by the Naval RIE researchers specializing in the area of target classification, both in the process of trials of new equipment for the fleets (K. P. Luginets, N. I. Timofeyev, A. A. Kudryavtsev, I. P. Khokhrekov, I. Ye. Lobodin, S. M. Gryzilov, A. I. Mashoshin, M. A. Masalykin,

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M. A. Sorokin, Yu. A. Braga, I. V. Danilchenko, A. V. Ukhalov) and during the course of the eight expeditions on research ships of the Institute of Acoustics and the Navy (I. Ye. Lobodin, B. Yu. Yemelyanov, V. G. Kazantsev). Researchers of the Naval RIE specializing in the area of hydroacoustic target classification have defended one doctor’s thesis (A. I. Mashoshin), 16 candidate’s theses (K. P. Luginets, N. V. Molokhova, K. V. Arsentyev, P. M. Tarasov, S. A. Tatarkin, I. A. Shatinin, N. I. Timofeyev, I. Ye. Lobodin, A. I. Mashoshin, Yu. A. Braga, V. G. Kazantsev, A. A. Kudryavtsev, A. A. Sedov, K. V. Zaichenko, A. V. Ukhalov, S. K. Kadashnikov), and patented over a hundred inventions. Judging by the available information, the level of home investigation on this problem significantly exceeds the level of foreign investigation. In conclusion, we note that the Naval RIE has played a significant role in the formation and development of the important scientific area of target classification using the target’s near and far acoustic fields and presently continues to play this role.

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Contribution of Hydroacoustics Researchers of Naval RIE to Experimental Investigation of the World’s Oceans V. N. MATVIENKO

In the post-war years, among the subject-themes of scientific research, hydroacoustics research at the Naval Research Institute of Electronics was development of the physical principles of underwater acoustics on the basis of experimental studies carried out primarily in the seas adjoining the coasts of the Russian Federation. The calibrated sonars for submarines and surface ships then in service by the Navy, of type Feniks and Tamir, were the main research tools. Acoustical and biochemical research at sea was carried out under conditions of temperatures (T ) and salinity (S) variability over a broad range. For the Caspian Sea, T varied up to 26◦ C and S varied up to 42‰; for the Black Sea, T varied up to 22◦ C and S varied up to 18‰; for the Barents Sea, T varied up to 14◦ C and S varied up to 33‰; and for the Baltic Sea, T varied up to 16◦ C, and S varied up to 7‰. This variability provided an opportunity to rule out suggestions that zooplankton and phytoplankton result in significant sound propagation losses and decisively demonstrated the influence of sound-speed gradients and relaxation processes, as a function of frequency, temperature, and salinity, on sound propagation. The relationship between the acoustic fields before and after a steep gradient that results in wave propagation in the forward and backward directions, and their compliance with the reciprocity theorem, were determined experimentally for the first time. Comparison of the experimental results with wave and ray solutions showed the adequacy of propagation models that accounted for multiple-path and multi-mode propagation by incoherently summing the field components. 1037

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In view of the need for passive listening systems, investigations were carried out in the deep-water regions of the Black and Caspian Seas in 1954–1956 under the scientific guidance of B. V. Gusev and with the participation of V. N. Matvienko and Yu. P. Skachkov. Investigations were also carried out in the shallow-water regions of the Barents Sea in 1953 by A. M. Grigoryev, V. N. Matvienko, and A. S. Chirkov. Investigations into the creation of echo-ranging systems were carried out with the participation of V. I. Chernysh, V. N. Matvienko, B. P. Alekseyev, and K. A. Karnaukhov in the Baltic Sea in 1957–1958. In addition to the use of the Tamir-10 and Tamir-11 sonars, use was made of the research sonar Impuls. The author of this article took part in data processing studies that compared the experimental data with calculations of the degree of focusing for sources both at the focusing ranges and between them. Under the scientific guidance of I. N. Meltreger, together with L. A. Prokosheva, I took part in the development of methods for calculating the maximum detection ranges possible using passive listening in both shallow and deep seas. For the purpose of determining the influence of the medium on the effectiveness of surface-ship sonars in combat situations, the necessary studies were undertaken and first-generation manuals were produced for conditions in the Black, Barents, and Baltic Seas. This work was done by a group of researchers that included V. F. Dmitriyev, Yu. F. Vasilyev, A. G. Fedoseyev, A. G. Kolesnikov, P. P. Ganson, V. P. Agrinsky, Yu. B. Solntsev, Z. M. Posokhina, and V. N. Fyodorova, under the guidance of V. I. Chernysh. In 1958, ocean studies were initiated in support of the creation of sound-ranging systems for navigation in the Arctic and Pacific Oceans. Work was carried out with the participation of N. N. Pisemsky, V. I. Korolyov (NP-7 drifting station), and Ye. A. Kazakevich, G. D. Pervukhin, N. N. Stupichenko, and V. P. Savinykh (in the Pacific Ocean). Investigations in the Arctic basin were continued by the NP-6 and NP-8 researchers M. G. Dmitriyev, V. P. Savinykh, S. S. Pankov, N. A. Gladenkov, V. A. Pyatakov, G. D. Pervukhin, V. I. Korolyov, and V. K. Kozlovich. As a result, a sonometric system for determining optimal frequencies was found and the frequency dependence of

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propagation losses was established that accounted for the influence of the Lomonosov Ridge. In 1961–1963, N. G. Morozov, V. N. Matvienko, V. G. Korneyev, A. D. Silayev, A. A. Soldatov, Ye. A. Konstantinov, V. P. Agrinsky, and V. A. Travkin investigated the physics of under-ice signal and noise propagation in the region of Franz Josef Island. Somewhat later, V. Ye. Yuriev and A. N. Bandurko investigated the statistical characteristics of under-ice and ice-ridge noises. During the same period, initial studies of the possible functioning of unattended ice stations were carried out by a group of researchers that included F. F. Kryachok, L. B. Karlov, F. F. Zykov, Ye. N. Shoshkov, B. A. Kozelov, G. N. Vakin, Yu. S. Shumilov, P. A. Shevchenko, and B. E. Shlyafer. For investigations carried out in the Arctic, the Institute researchers M. G. Dmitriyev and V. P. Savinykh were awarded the State Prize of the USSR in 1969. The program of scientific investigations in the Pacific Ocean was aimed at creating detection sonars that utilized the characteristics of long-range sound propagation at a qualitatively new level. In 1959–1960, as a result of this program, for the first time a group of Institute researchers experimentally established the laws of sound field formation in convergence zones (remote zones of acoustic illumination) and investigated the mechanism of acoustic shadow zone insonification due to diffraction in the low-frequency regime and bottom reflections in the higher frequency regime. In three areas with local depths of 7000, 5000, and 3000 m, two, three and four shadow zones, respectively, were observed. The values of anomalies in the convergence zones and in shadow zones were measured. Relatively satisfactory agreement was found between the calculated and the experimental data for zones’ geometrical shape and the angular spectra of the sound field formed within them. Experimental work was carried out by M. D. Yudin, V. N. Matvienko, Ye. A. Kazakevich, Ye. A. Konstantinov, Yu. B. Solntsev, and V. S. Valento. The investigated frequencies met the requirements set for the sonar systems Rubin, Kerch, Yenisei, and later, the sonar system Skat and the self-contained long-range detection systems Amur,

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Agam, and Dnestr. At this time the author developed an algorithm for calculating the optimum parameters for long-range operation applicable to all sonar modes of operation (procedure No. 8715). The first investigations in the Atlantic Ocean were carried out in 1962 (leader V. I. Chernysh, participants A. G. Kolesnikov, Yu. F. Vasilyev, Yu. A. Grigoryev, and P. I. Pavlenko) at distance corresponding to the first and second convergence zones. The first investigations in the infrasonic frequency range were carried out in the Sea of Japan and the Black Sea in 1962, 1964, and 1966. They showed the significant advantage of long-range infrasound propagation compared with propagation at higher frequencies. Investigations were carried out under the leadership of Ye. N. Shoshkov with the participation of I. I. Shner, V. D. Ostroukhov, Yu. F. Zykov, V. N. Matvienko, A. D. Silayev, O. V. Morozovetsky, L. Sh. Gumerov, and Ye. A. Konstantinov. In 1968–1969, a group of Institute specialists, Yu. F. Zykov, V. P. Savinykh, N. V. Petrov, P. A. Shevchenko, and O. P. Kalinichenko, under the leadership of S. P. Chernakov, investigated for the first time the triangulation method of source localization. This work was done in the Sea of Japan. Experimental investigations in the infrasonic frequency range included regions with a deep-sea underwater sound channel (the tropical zone of the Atlantic), a subsurface channel (the Mediterranean Sea) and a shallow sea (the Baltic Sea). From these studies L. Yu. Yermolinsky and O. V. Morozovetsky established the laws of decomposition of the sound field in the infrasonic range into modes and determined the distance where the transfer from spherical spreading to cylindrical spreading takes place. In addition, V. A. Antonov carried out detailed investigations of the “wedge problem.” Participation in 1965 by Institute specialists in expeditions on the research vessels (RVs) Baikal, Balkhash, P. Lebedev, and S. Vavilov was very helpful in investigating the Indian, Atlantic, and Pacific Oceans and their seas. The first participants of the Indian Ocean expedition were L. A. Prokosheva, A. A. Soldatov, A. P. Zhuravlev who worked on the problem of long-range reverberation in the first, second, and third convergence zones.

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Experimental investigations, at a qualitatively new level, of the vertical angular spectrum of the sound field were carried out in the Pacific by V. A. Lobanov, S. I. Neganov, A. F. Pimenov, P. M. Khlyabov. A. F. Zalessky, and A. M. Alekseyev. In 1970, in three regions of the ocean, unique measurements of the degree of horizontal refraction were carried out. An experimental technique developed by the author allowed one to obtain refraction data by using a terrestrial reference system and by using the cross correlation of signals from explosive sound sources. Work was carried out by A. D. Silayev, with subsequent analysis by V. A. Filin, on developing a calculation technique to account for horizontal refraction. This work in the Pacific Ocean was preceded by experiments at long ranges along the Kuril–Kamchatka ridge, and in the regions off Canada and Panama, performed by A. G. Kolesnikov (chief scientist), A. A. Soldatov, V. P. Travkin, Yu. F. Tarasyuk, V. K. Osipov, V. I. Yevmenenko, V. A. Lobanov, S. A. Neganov, A. F. Zalessky, and D. D. Kashuba. In support of research on passive listening in the Indian Ocean (1972–1973), V. A. Lobanov, S. I. Neganov, L. A. Prokosheva, P. V. Shevchenko, A. M. Khlyabov, A. D. Silayev, and G. N. Seravin evaluated the accuracy characteristics of the angular and time structure of the sound field in the vertical plane. A great amount of work was done in the Central Atlantic by V. G. Prokhorov in 1978 on the characteristics of signals backscattered from targets or inhomogeneities located in the first and second convergence zones. This work was done to improve the operation of active sonars and used sound signals in a wide frequency range. Institute worker Yu. F. Tarasyuk participated in the first Soviet– French expedition in the Mediterranean Sea in 1968 aboard the RV M. Lomonosov. In 1969, he participated in an expedition in the Black Sea aboard the US RV Atlantis-II. In 1972, he participated in an expedition aboard the RV Academician Vernadsky also in the Black Sea. Beginning in 1974, investigations were conducted in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans on the characteristics of ocean noise and noise from distant shipping over a wide frequency range by using the deep-sea vehicle Pisces. Ocean noise correlation in the horizontal and

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vertical planes and the characteristics of the noise spectrum were investigated as was the time variability of estimates of the correlation coefficients and the spectral density. Investigations in the Atlantic Ocean, the Norwegian, and Mediterranean Seas were carried out by L. Yu. Yermolinsky, O. V. Morozovetsky, B. G. Gubarev, and Yu. A. Mileshkin. Investigations in the Indian and Pacific Oceans and the adjoining seas were carried out by S. V. Morozovetsky, B. G. Gubarev, I. Ye. Poltavsky, V. I. Vanin, A. N. Vorobyov, A. S. Antonov, V. V. Yaremchuk, and Yu. A. Mileshkin. With a view toward improving the operation of long-range sonars, adaptation methods of data transfer were investigated along paths having differing hydrological conditions, including regions of the coastal “wedge,” summer and winter conditions in the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans; the Philippine, Mediterranean, Norwegian, Japan, Okhotsk, and South China Seas. This work was done using the RV Baikal and the RV Balkhash in 1972, 1974, 1980, and 1988; the RV P. Lebedev and RV S. Vavilov in 1981 and 1985; the RV Academician Andreyev and RV Academician Konstantinov from 1990 to 1992. Experimental investigations were carried out with the participation of V. P. Yagotinets, A. P. Zolotinkin, V. Yu. Yemelyanov, F. I. Dulatov, A. V. Meshkov, and Yu. F. Tarasyuk. Investigations with the use of the standard operational modes of the Kerch and Rubin sonars were carried out by V. N. Matvienko, A. D. Silayev in the Pacific Ocean in 1965–1967; V. K. Arkhipov, G. V. Shevchenko, L. Ye. Pavlov, V. I. Fomichev, V. I. Zhivayev, A. P. Zolotinkin, V. P. Yagotinets, S. P. Skleimov, V. I. Redyuk, V. D. Melentyev, and Yu. I. Volchkov in the Mediterranean Sea in 1969, the Norwegian Sea in 1970, 1971, 1975, and 1992, the Greenland Sea in 1976, the Sea of Japan in 1978, and the Barents Sea in 1971, 1984, 1992, and 1993. In 1991–1992, V. P. Yagotinets, O. V. Morozovetsky, and A. V. Meshkov aboard the RV Academician Andreyev and RV Academician Konstantinov investigated the variability of communication noise for broad-band signals, long-range propagation, and ambient noise levels in the infrasonic range, in the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea.

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The possibility of using the angular and temporal structure of the sound field for classification in the passive-listening mode was investigated with the help of vertically directed and omni-directional systems. Feasibility depended on the distance and the mutual arrangement in depth of the sound sources and the receiving arrays. Experiments on RV P. Lebedev and RV S. Vavilov in the Atlantic Ocean and in the Mediterranean and Norwegian Seas were carried out with the participation of I. Ye. Lobodin, V. I. Yemelyanov, and O. G. Obchinets in 1976, 1977, 1982, 1989, 1990, and 1991, and with V. G. Kazantsev in 1990 and 1991. In 1977, Yu. F. Tarasyuk took part in the investigations carried out with the RV P. Lebedev as part of the international program POLYMODE. Simultaneously with experimental investigations of the world’s oceans, studies of the hydroacoustic characteristics of the oceans were carried out using a database that represents many years of oceanological observations. This work was done with a view toward increasing the effectiveness of sonars in combat situations. The following (second-generation) manuals for computational use of hydrological data have been published: Mediterranean Sea (Sredizemnoye More), A. G. Fedoseyev, V. I. Volodina, V. P. Agrinsky (1967–1968); Northern Atlantic, Norwegian, Greenland and Barents Seas (Severnaya Atlantika, Norvezhskoye, Grenlandskoye i Barentsevo Morya), A. G. Kolesnikov, G. M. Degtyarev, V. A. Filin, V. I. Volodina, N. G. Gulyaeva (1974); Central Arctic Basin (Tsentralnyi Arkticheskyi Bassein), A. G. Kolesnikov, L. Yu. Yermolinsky, V. A. Antonov (1987). At present, similar manuals have been published for the Norwegian, Greenland, Mediterranean, Caspian Seas, the Northern Atlantic, Barents and Kara Seas (compiled by A. G. Kolesnikov, V. A. Filin, G. M. Belinsky, I. V. Poruchikov, O. V. Morozovetsky, A. V. Yeryshev, A. N. Bandurko), as well as on different regions of the World’s oceans (1994, authors A. G. Kolesnikov, I. V. Poruchikov, G. N. Seravin, and Ye. L. Gerasimenko).

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Earlier, a map of natural conditions for the northern part of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans was published (compiled by V. N. Matvienko, Z. Ye. Entin, G. M. Degtyarev, A. G. Kolesnikov, V. I. Volodina, N. G. Gulyaeva, and G. A. Galkina); plotting boards for the calculation of detection ranges under different hydroacoustic conditions were prepared by V. V. Aseyev, V. N. Matvienko, and A. G. Kolesnikov under the scientific guidance of S. P. Chernakov; procedures for calculating the operational ranges of hydroacoustic systems were worked out (A. G. Fedoseyev in 1962 and L. Yu. Yermolinsky in 1982). Until 1958, the activities of the Institute’s researchers were generally limited to investigations of seas adjoining the Soviet coasts. The second stage was distinguished by experimental investigations of the world’s oceans. Experimental work on the physical principles of very long-range sonar detection (VLRSD) made up the third stage. Work on this last stage covered 10 research-technical areas of investigation involving signal/noise studies, the laws of low-frequency sound propagation, as applied to passive listening, and sonar detection at low frequency. Major, complex expeditions were organized for conducting large-scale experiments. Simultaneously, oceanographic work was carried out over an area of about one million square kilometers. The chairmen of commissions for conducting complex expeditions (such as “Vostok” and “Sever”) represented headquarters of the respective fleets of the Navy. The chief scientists of the expeditions were A. S. Golynsky, V. Ye. Yemelyanenko, V. P. Chernov, L. Yu. Yermolinsky, A. A. Pokrovsky, V. G. Korneyev, V. Yu. Sevbo, Ye. P. Timofeyev, and A. V. Mutyev. The success of large-scale complex expeditions in the third stage under the VLRSD program was to a great degree facilitated by the coordinating role of the Council for Investigation of the World’s Oceans. It consisted of permanent staff and non-staff members and met regularly at the Institute under the organizing role of I. I. Tynyankin. All programs of investigation were subject to approval by the Commanderin-Chief of the Navy, the President of RAS, and the Minister of the Shipbuilding Industry.

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For assistance in preparing material for this article, the author thanks the Institute researchers L. Yu. Yermolinsky, A. G. Kolesnikov, I. Ye. Lobodin, O. V. Morozovetsky, L. A. Prokosheva, V. P. Savinykh, A. D. Silayev, Yu. F. Tarasyuk, and V. P. Yagotinets.

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Hydroacoustic Investigations Carried out by the State Research Institute of Navigation and Hydrography of the RF Defense Ministry P. S. VOLOSOV and A. V. FEDOTOV

This article gives a brief history of investigations of the use of the underwater sound channel for determining the position of submerged submarines. The underwater sound channel (USC) was discovered independently by Soviet and foreign scientists in the period 1945–1946. This phenomenon, because of certain combinations of hydrological factors and sea depth, allows super long-range propagation of acoustic energy. In 1951, for discovery of the USC and investigations of super longrange sound propagation, researchers from the Institute of Acoustics, L. M. Brekhovskikh, L. D. Rozenberg and representatives of the Navy Rear-Admiral B. I. Karlov and Captain 1st Rank N. I. Sigachev were awarded the State Prize. The USC offered broad opportunities for practical application in many areas. Examples include underwater surveillance, communication, and marine navigation (for determining the position of submerged submarines). At the time these applications were of vital importance (see the article by V. B. Idin “Project SIGAK: The First Use of the Underwater Sound Channel in Support of Navy Needs” — Ed.). Some general considerations on the feasibility of a navigation sonar system (NSS) utilizing the USC were given by Captain 1st Rank N. I. Sigachev in the journal Zapiski po gidrografii (Transactions on Hydrography) No. 1a, 1954. 1046

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To organize research on this topic, a Directive of Chief of the Naval Staff was issued in February 1954, ordering a number of naval institutes and the A. N. Krylov Naval Academy of Construction and Armaments (NACA) to carry out experimental investigations into the feasibility of a NSS. A prototype was to be built in 1956 for use in the Black Sea. The Black Sea was selected because it had been well studied from the point of view of sound propagation and the USC could be observed during much of the year, from April to December. During the preliminary stage, the acoustic source and receiving devices were selected, the expected accuracy of determining the line of position and the positional fix were determined, the systems for control and synchronization of explosions, and the recording equipment were designed and manufactured, and the experiment program and procedures were worked out. In the search for an acoustic source, hydroacoustic sound sources were considered but since their operating range was only several tens of miles, they were rejected. Seismic prospecting equipment that created an acoustic signal by an electrical discharge was also considered. Because of its large mass and size and its low power it was also rejected. Based on accumulated experience, explosive charges in the form of standard scuttling bombs Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4, as well as depth charges were finally chosen. The standard sonars Feniks and Mars were selected as the receiving systems. Laboratory tests were carried out of the control systems, the capability of underwater and radio systems to transmit commands, the capability of the Neiman recorders to record the transmitted signals, and the functioning of the loop oscillograph. Tests were also done to evaluate the performance of the chronometers used for placing time marks on recorder charts and to ensure the operation of the remote control equipment for detonating the explosions. These tests showed the readiness of all instruments for use on board in the course of the investigations. Work at this stage were carried out with the participation of Captains 1st Rank L. S. Vaisman, N. I. Sigachev, Ye. N. Dmitriyev, Captains 2nd Rank S. V. Ostrogradsky, A. P. Stashkevich, N. I. Veshnyakov, Captain 3rd Rank M. Ya. Shevel, Lieutenant Captain V. A. Fifaev, Engineer

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Major F. A. Kaneman, Servicemen P. S. Volosov, Yu. V. Yugatkin, and others. Sea trials took place in May–June and September of 1955. During the first stage, two surface ships were used, one as a source ship and the other as a receiving ship. Hydrological data for determining the sound speed and the depth of the USC axis was collected by both ships. In the course of these sea trials, the dependence of the signal intensity on source and receiver depth, pulse type and shape, as determined by the size of the charge and the propagation distance (the maximum distance was about 570 miles), and a number of other parameters were determined. Data required to prepare and conduct the second stage of the trials were also gathered. During the second stage, a submarine, four surface ships and the system Koordinator were employed. Koordinator was a system for accurate control of position in the open ocean where no shore features are in view. Three source ships were deployed in the regions of Novorossiisk, Adler, and Batumi. Observation posts were equipped in accordance with procedures worked out during the course of the first stage. Determination of the submarine’s movement relative to the support ships was determined by using a towed acoustic sweep. It was found during the course of the investigations that signal reception was possible directly through the hull of the submarine (by ear), with the recording of the time of pulse arrival made by using a stopwatch synchronized with a deck watch or a chronometer. Reception was carried out at submarine speeds from 0 to 8 knots and at distances of from 70 to 570 miles from the source. The accuracy of obtaining the position line was determined to be 0.3% of the distance to the source and the accuracy of coordinate plotting by using three position lines was determined to be 1.5–2 miles. These data, combined with a study of the serviceability of other systems, led to the feasibility and construction in 1959 of a navigational sonar system for determining the position of submerged submarines operating in the Black Sea USC. Essentially the same group of participants from the Naval Institute was involved in the sea trials.

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In the course of tests in the Black Sea of the newly-deployed NSS, work was carried out in the same sequence as that of the feasibility tests. In the summer of 1956 results were obtained testifying to the system serviceability and confirming the accuracies obtained during the feasibility tests. However, trials conducted in February–March 1957 showed that, when a well-formed USC was absent, the NSS’s operating range, range of stable reception, and position-finding accuracy are worse than in the summer due to noisy signals. This was a practical confirmation of the results obtained earlier during the period of problem definition. In summer, 1957, similar work was carried out in the Seas of Japan and Okhotsk and in the open part of the Pacific Ocean. The results obtained were not as demonstrative as in the Black Sea. This was because the USC in these regions was located at depths over 500 m, and because of this, signals were received at large vertical distances from the USC axis. It is interesting to note that when work was carried out in the southern part of the Sea of Japan, the screening action of the Yamato Bank was revealed. Reception was completely blocked. Nevertheless, conclusions were made on the possibility of an NSS for the central and northern parts of the Sea. Attempts were made to receive signals in the mid-ocean by way of the USC at ranges up to 2500 miles, but accurate evaluation was found to be impossible since there was no equipment with sufficient accuracy for determining position. Use of Koordinator was impeded by the fact that, at a large distance from the control points, geodetic connection could not be maintained because of the “night-time effect.” A proposed method for the transfer of navigational data by plane failed because it did not ensure sufficient accuracy for practical application. In August–September, trials of the NSS took place in the Pacific Ocean. The main task was to test the operation of the system in the northwest part of the Ocean. The source locations were located near the Capes of Shipunsky and Lopatka, and off the Isle of Shikotan. The work in the region of Cape Shipunsky consisted in testing the operation of special explosive shells designed for the Navy. At the other locations, scuttling bombs Nos. 3 and 4 were exploded in compliance with special procedures from mine-sweepers. Signals were

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received by two transiting submarines heading east or southeast. The trials were under the direction of Captain 1st Rank V. T. Mikheyenko and were carried out with the participation of A. N. Voronov, V. F. Dmitriyev, N. N. Pisemsky, V. D. Pozdynin, A. A. Sumbatov, and A. V. Fedotov. Signals were received at submarine depths of 25–30 m and at distances up to 2600 miles. After the trials, a report and an instruction manual on the operation of the NSS-2 sonar system were produced. The instruction manual was submitted to the Headquarters of the Pacific Navy and was approved. The Pacific Navy Hydrographic Service developed the necessary maps, and thus the Naval institutes received maps of the mean sound speeds in the system deployment area, that is, in the northwest part of the Pacific Ocean. By the beginning of 1960, the Naval institutes had completed theoretical and experimental investigations of the possibility for determining the position of submarines in the Barents Sea and the Arctic Ocean with the help of the NSS. Source ships and drift-ice source stations, from which charges were to be exploded in water at depths of 50–100 m, were supposed to serve as sound sources for NSS. Continuous wave (harmonic) sound sources were also to be used. Based on the investigations, it was determined that the reception range of NSS signals by submarines using the MG-17 system in the frequency range 25–1500 Hz and at depths of 100–120 m could be expected to be 300 miles for 2.5 kg explosion charges, and 1000 miles for 5 kg explosion charges. In the course of the investigations, isobath contour maps were drawn and checked. The measured RMS error in the horizontal sound velocity was found to be 2 m/s. The influence of sound velocity errors on travel time measurements, as used in the calculations, as well as errors arising due to the influence of unaccounted-for currents, on the accuracy of position determination for different methods of operation of the NSS was analyzed at the Naval Navigation and Hydrography Institute. Experimental checks of signal reception range and accuracy determination in the Barents Sea and the Arctic basin were divided into three stages. In the first stage, the reception range of NSS sound signals by a nuclear submarine in the Barents Sea was determined. In the second stage, the

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range of sound signal reception from ship borne NSS sources by nuclear submarines was determined for under-ice operation. In the third stage, the range of reception of signals from drift-ice source stations by nuclear submarines was determined for under-ice operation in the Arctic basin. First Stage of Experimental Investigation The first stage was necessitated by the fact that at the time investigations started, the MG-17 had not passed the necessary sea trials, and no data were available on the range of reception of NSS signals by nuclear submarines. In the course of the first stage, a signal source was deployed in the region of Cape Tsyp-Navolok. The submarine received signals while moving at a speed of 15 knots, at a submersion depth of 100 m. Listening was carried out as follows: (1) with the use of the MG-17, (2) with the use of the Arktika and MG-10 sonars, (3) by ear through the submarine hull. Based on the experiment results, the following conclusions were made: (1) The noisiest mechanisms on board nuclear submarines of the first generation were gas turbines and turbo-pumps while the submarine was moving and compressors, turbo-pumps and turbogenerators while the submarine was moored. (2) At a speed of 15 knots, stable signal reception through the submarine hull was recorded at distances up to 100–120 miles from the source. Second Stage of Experimental Investigation The second stage was conducted during the course of a navigation– hydrographic support cruise to the North Pole by the nuclear submarine Leninsky Komsomol. Two source ships located in the Greenland Sea were used. The ships determined their positions by radar, visually, and using astronomic methods. The mean errors in the determination

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of the positions of the source ships, as of the moment of detonation of the explosive charges, were within 5–7 miles. The chronometer correction value was determined 10–12 times a day. Signals were generated by exploding 5 kg charges at a depth of 70–100 m. NSS sound signals were received by the submarine moving at a speed of 15.5 knots and at a submersion depth of 80–100 m. Relatively stable signal reception by ear (through the hull) was ensured at distances up to 150 miles from the source.

Third Stage of Experimental Investigation Signals were emitted by drift-ice stations NP-10 and NP-12 that had been established in the Arctic basin. In the period from 25 May to 25 September, 1963, NP-10 drifted 376 miles; NP-12 drifted 634 miles in the period between 18 May and 16 September, 1963. Mean daily drift was 3.5–4.5 miles. The RMS error in the prediction of the position of the drift-ice station at the moment of signal transmission was 1.5– 2.0 km (0.8–1.1 miles). Chronometer daily variation did not exceed 3 s. The RMS error in the times of signal transmission was 0.2–0.4 s. The sound speed was 1434 to 1452 m/s. Signal reception on submarines was performed using MG-17 at speeds of 6–12 knots, and at a submersion depth of 100 m. The explosive signal reception range was 80–130 miles, the tone signal (unit PZM-400) reception range was 20–30 miles, and the broadband source signal reception range was 22.5 miles. Thus, the actual range of NSS signal reception by submarines in the Barents and Greenland Seas and the Arctic basin had been found to be much less than calculated, which might be due to the following: (1) high noise of the first-generation nuclear submarines; (2) low noise stability of the MG-17; (3) influence of submarine own-ship noise due to electrical equipment operating in the 400 Hz range. A serious drawback for the NSS in the Arctic basin was the difficulty with organizing the deployment of drift-ice source stations.

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Despite its drawbacks, the deployment of the NSS in the Arctic basin for ensuring navigational safety of the first under-ice cruises of nuclear submarines proved valuable. Investigation of the operation of NSS-4 was carried out under the guidance of Captain First Rank A. G. Svetlov. The organization of the NSS signal reception by nuclear submarines was carried out under the guidance of Captain Second Rank A. V. Fedotov and Lieutenant Captain B. M. Shishkin. The organization of NSS deployment in the North Fleet was performed by the head of the North Fleet Hydrographic Service, Rear-Admiral N. V. Skosyrev, and deputy head of the North Fleet Hydrographic Service Captain First Rank A. S. Kalinin.

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The Work of the Military Agency at CRI Morfizpribor L. B. KARLOV and I. A. YAKOVLEV

The military agency (MA) played an important role in ensuring the quality of the hydroacoustic equipment designed at Plant 206 of the MSI (today, JSC Vodtranspribor), and later, at RI-3 of the MSI (CRI Morfizpribor) after its organization in 1949. Until 1961, when its own military agency was established at RI-3, the functions of a military agency at RI-3 were performed by the Plant 206 military agency. Agencies of the Ministry of Defense that worked on military orders at industrial enterprises provided quality control over products developed and supplied to the Ministry of Defense. Beside quality control functions, they carried out acceptance of completed products in compliance with contracts with the Ministry of Defense organizations. Military agencies interacting with representatives of Naval institutes on the problems of ensuring the high quality and the reliability of the hydroacoustic equipment developed. Military agencies participated in the acceptance, the testbed, contractor’s, and state trials of prototype hydroacoustic equipment under all orders fulfilled at CRI Morfizpribor. They executed technical documentation, and took part in putting new developments in series production and evaluating the technical and economic efficiency of equipment. In 1949–1960, A. N. Osipov performed the functions of an agent of the control-and-acceptance (CAS) staff of the Naval Fifth Department in Leningrad. Beside supervising the work of military agents, he actively participated in developing and coordinating the specifications

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for manufacture and supply of PS Feniks (1950), AS Tamir-11 and Pegas-2 (1951), AS Gerkules-2 (1953), AS Plutonii (1955); and, as a member of the acceptance commission, took part in testbed trials of PS Feniks. Until its own military agency was organized at RI-3, the functions of the senior agent at the Institute were fulfilled by Plant 206 agents of CAS of the Naval Fifth Department. For example, in 1952–1955, I. G. Klyug, senior military agent at RI-3, participated as a member of the commission in testbed, special, and state trials of the sonars Tamir-11, Plutonii, Pegas-2M, and Gerkules-2M. We note the great work carried out at RI-3 by senior military agent A. V. Tumanov, who participated in testbed, contractor’s and state trials of the Pegas, Gerkules, Tamir-11, and Gerkules-2M sonars. Other agents of CAS of the Naval Fifth Department participated in prototype equipment testbed trials at Plant 206 as well. Military agent V. V. Malafeyev (AS Gerkules-2 and Tamir-11), military agent A. I. Bordyukov (AS Tamir-11), junior military agent V. I. Barkovsky (AS Pegas-2M). The military agency staff took part in technical inspections and acceptance of instruments and units of prototype sonars, in trial operation of equipment on board ships and at naval force detachments, and organized the study of new sonars at Plant 206 and RI-3. The amount of work needed to create hydroacoustic systems for the Navy had considerably grown by the end of the fifties and necessitated organizing an independent military agency at RI-3. By the Directive of the Main Naval Headquarters of December 30, 1960, such an agency was organized and, by the Directive of the Main Naval Headquarters of June 3, 1961, it was given the name of military agency 426 (MA 426) under the Ministry of Defense. A. N. Polyankin and I. A. Yakovlev were respectively appointed head and deputy head of the new military agency. In the first half of the 1960s, work on the design of the multipurpose sonar systems Rubin and Okean, the sonar Yenisei and the sonars Mechta and Luch incorporated in SS Okean, was coming to an end. Senior military agent A. N. Polyankin and his deputy I. A. Yakovlev,

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together with other workers of MA 426 took an active part in the technical inspections of instruments and units for these sonar systems, and testbed, contractor’s, in-situ, and state trials. During the same period, manufacture of the prototype minedetecting sonar Radian was completed. I. A. Yakovlev participated in its contractor’s and state trials. D&D work on creating the sonar countermeasures and deception systems Magma, Korund, and sonar target Ruchei was carried out under the supervision of deputy senior military agent I. A. Yakovlev and engineer of MA 426, A. I. Yakovlev. In the second half of the 1960s, work on the Orion sonar for largedisplacement ships and the Shelon sonar for antisubmarine ships was completed. Testbed trials of Orion were carried out with the participation of I. A. Yakovlev and engineer of MA 426 G. S. Sholtmir, contractor’s and state trials of this sonar were supervised by I. A. Yakovlev. He also took part in contractor’s and state trials of Shelon, the testbed trials of which were supervised by military agent N. F. Chuev. A. N. Polyankin and I. A. Yakovlev also participated in all kinds of trials of the Liman stationary sonar (I. A. Yakovlev) for the Northern theatre of naval operations and the Amur sonar meant for the Pacific theatre of naval operations (A. N. Polyankin). In the second half of the 1960s, work continued on the creation of more efficient hydroacoustic systems for the Navy, and investigations were carried out into projections for their development in the period of 1971–1989. The military agency took an active part in this work, particularly, in determining the optimal equipment types and characteristics, selecting the minimum necessary number of types of these systems, and evaluating their technical and economic efficiency. A large amount of work was carried out in different years on a feasibility study of the development work and economic use of state budgetary provisions by the Ministry of Defense planning engineers L. E. Dolinskaya and N. I. Zolotova. It was in this period that the Navy adopted several new sonar systems. Putting Rubikon into service on submarines and Shelon on anti-submarine ships were important events. The stationary sonar system Liman was also put into service in this period.

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During these years, trials of the sonar system Okean, with the participation of military agent G. V. Shkurin as representative of MA 426, were completed. Design and testbed trials of the prototype sonar system Rubikon were carried out with the participation of military agent Yu. A. Shilyaev. In view of the growing range and number of the hydroacoustic systems that had been designed, the military agency started paying more attention to the problems of standardization and unification. A requirement was set to ensure a level of standardization not less than 45%. This figure was even exceeded by some D&D work. Beginning in 1971, RI-3, then renamed CRI Morfizpribor, started fulfilling the functions of the leading organization in hydroacoustic systems for the Navy, and since 1972, in stationary hydroacoustic systems for underwater surveillance. The MA directly participated in coordinating the matters connected with fulfillment by the Institute of these functions. Control was exercised over fulfillment by CRI Morfizpribor of the leading functions in the work of centralized services of LRPA Okeanpribor which it joined in 1974, that is, the chief metrologist’s service, the reliability department, and the technical documentation department, in implementing a single technical policy in the area of the creation of hydroacoustic systems for the Navy. MA 426 provided methodological support to military representatives of series manufacturers. In this period, several new prototype hydroacoustic systems passed preliminary trials, among them the sonar Shtil, the sonar system Rubikon, the navigation station Ekvator, and the sonar Gamma for communication with deep-sea vehicles. Testbed trials of the unified sonar Avrora, the prototype sonars Lira and Parametr-1 were also conducted. Testbed trials of the sonar Avrora were carried out with the participation of the military agents G. V. Gorokhov, V. F. Bushtuyev and engineer N. A. Rezepov. The design of the new sonar system Skat was completed, its array systems were manufactured and supplied to submarines. This work was carried out with the participation of the military agents N. F. Chuev, G. V. Shkurin, and Yu. A. Shilyaev.

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On the part of MA, preparation of the working drawings for the Polinom sonar system equipment, meant for use on surface ships, was supervised by deputy senior military agent I. A. Yakovlev, military agent V. F. Bushtuyev, and engineers N. A. Rezepov and G. S. Sholtmir. Work on the development of stationary systems continued. The detailed design for the stationary sonar Agam was completed, and work on the design of the sonar system Dnestr began. In the same period, intensive work began on the development of equipment for classification of surface ships and submarines, for inclusion of this equipment into sonars and sonar systems of submarines and stationary sonars. On the part of MA, it was supervised by military agent I. P. Kaplan. In the mid-1970s, in connection with expansion of the program of naval construction and the functions of the military agency, the military agency was strongly reinforced: the number of officers was increased by 75%, the number of other personnel grew by 3–4 times. For better control over multiple subject–themes, research–technical groups were organized within the MA structure, which helped to secure better quality control over D&D and research work in the respective areas and promoted more thorough technical testing and acceptance of prototypes. Along with control over design, manufacture, and testing of prototypes, the military agency received an opportunity to provide assistance to the fleets on the operation of new prototype hydroacoustic equipment as far as organizing of equipment repairs and maintenance were concerned. In the early 1970s, work was initiated at the Institute on establishing a complex management system of quality control of production. MA did not stay detached from this work and multiplied its attention to securing the quality and reliability of prototypes at the stage of D&D work, to standardization and unification, and metrological support. MA took special care in establishing programs for assuring reliability in each D&D by the application of up-to-date technologies for post-operation control. The practice of regular metrological, standardization, and unification testing was introduced. In the late 1970s, the sonars Rubikon and Platina, the sonar Shtil, the active sonar Arfa-M, and the navigation sonars Kem, Samshit and

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Ekvator were all put into service. State trials of Rubikon took place with the participation of military agent Yu. A. Shilyaev, of Platina with the participation of military agent V. F. Bushtuyev, and Arfa-M, with the participation of engineer N. I. Nazarov. MA paid special attention to manufacture, technical checks, and trials of a new sonar system for submarines code named Skat. Testbed, contractor’s and, in the late 1970s to early 1980s, state trials of the first four subsystems of this new system were carried out with MA participation. The fifth and sixth subsystems were put to trials somewhat later. E. Kh. Matevosyan, G. V. Shkurin, Ye. A. Smirnov, and V. V. Yegorov took part in testbed trials. The contractor’s trials took place with the participation of Ye. A. Smirnov, and state trials, with the participation of O. A. Ryzhkov. During these years, the classification equipment Ayaks, supervised by I. P. Kaplan on the part of MA, underwent all types of trials. The service trials of the stationary sonar Liman-M took place under the supervision of L. B. Karlov. In view of the tremendous amount of work on pilot production at CRI Morfizpribor, manufacture of the greater part of equipment of stationary sonar Agam was transferred to Plant Dalpribor, where testbed trials of this system were carried out. MA 426 was represented at these trials by L. B. Karlov. After Agam installation on the site, its contractor’s and state trials took place. On the part of MA, the trials were attended by military agent V. G. Lepilin. In 1982–1983, sea trials of the sonar system Polinom were carried out under the supervision of MA 426 military agent A. V. Kiselev. During this period, great importance was attributed to the development of the infrasonic sonars Avrora-N and Avrora-P, which was closely controlled by the military agency. Contractor’s trials of these sonars were carried out with the participation of military agent V. P. Osipov and engineer Ye. S. Dzyavoruk, and state trials, with the participation of military agent V. P. Osipov. In the 1980s, MA 426 focused its attention on design, manufacture, and trials of the new sonar system for submarines with digital information processing, the Skat-3. On the part of MA, military agents V. P. Osipov and I. N. Sadovnichy took part in these works. MA

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representatives M. A. Znamensky and M. Ye. Talvik participated in the sea trials of Skat-3. For replacement of the communication subsystem in Skat-3, the sonar Struktura-1 was designed, manufactured, and put into service after trials. State trials of this sonar were carried out with the participation of MA 426 representative V. D. Sorokin. Simultaneously with Skat-3 and in the period that followed, active introduction of digital technology into practically all the Institute’s design projects began, among them sonars with flexible extended arrays Avrora-2 and Pelamida, sonars for midget submarines and underwater vehicles Pripyat-P and Pripyat-G. Testbed and sea trials of these sonars were performed with the participation of military agents A. N. Isavin, Ye. A. Smirnov and Yu. V. Rusakov, respectively. Digital technology also found application in the stationary sonar system Dnestr. Its development and sea trials were carried out with the participation of MA 426 representatives A. V. Bykov, I. N. Sadovnichy, N. I. Golubyatnikov, L. B. Karlov, and C. M. Kargin. On 9 November, 1986, MA 426 was reorganized, after which its structure included: (1) (2) (3) (4)

the military agency at CRI Morfizpribor; the military agency at Plant “Ladoga”; the military agency at Plant Vodtranspribor; the military agency at Plant “Polyarnaya Zvezda”.

The title of MA leader was renamed to “Head of MA 426”. For services in assistance to introducing new technologies several workers of MA 426 were decorated with state awards: (1) senior military agent-leader A. N. Polyankin, medal “For Labor Heroism”; (2) senior military agent-leader A. V. Kiselev, order “Badge of Honor”; (3) deputy senior military agent I. A. Yakovlev, medals “For Service in Battle” and “For Devoted Labor”; (4) head of MA 426 M. A. Znamensky, order “For Services to Motherland in Armed Forces” of Third Class;

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(5) deputy head of MA 426, head of branch at Plant “Ladoga” A. S. Svetlov, order of the Red Star; (6) group leader at MA N. I. Sizov, medal “For Merits in Military Service” of Second Class; (7) group leader at MA 426 I. N. Kostylev, medal “For Service in Battle”; (8) group leader at MA 426 L. L. Aronov, medal “For Labor Heroism”. In conclusion of this brief historical essay, let us name MA 426 leaders who organized and led the work of the staff in different years: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

senior military agent-leader A. N. Polyankin (1961–1974); senior military agent-leader I. I. Shilovich (1974–1975); senior military agent-leader E. Kh. Matevosyan (1975–1978); senior military agent-leader A. V. Kiselev (1979–1987); head of MA 426 under the Ministry of Defense M. A. Znamensky (1987 to the present time).

Deputy heads of MA 426 under the Ministry of Defense were: I. A. Yakovlev (1961–1977), G. P. Goryachkov (1977–1983), G. V. Shkurin (1976–1979), O. A. Ryzhkov (1979–1986), M. A. Znamensky (1983– 1987), M. Ye. Talvik (1987–1993, from December 1993 to the present time, first deputy head of MA 426 under MD).

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The 10th Main Department of the Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry of the USSR: Its Role and Place in the Development of Home Hydroacoustics N. N. SVIRIDOV and B. I. TRUSHCHELEV

In 1965, the country underwent changes in the organizational structure of industry management. State Committees under the Council of Ministers to which research institutes and design bureaus belonged, as well as Councils of National Economy, which controlled industrial enterprises and were organized on regional principles, were eliminated. The centralized sectional structure of management, which existed before 1955, was restored in the form of All-Union industrial ministries. The Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry of the USSR was organized, and all the research institutes, design bureaus, plants and other enterprises and organizations of the shipbuilding industry came under its authority. The enterprises specialized in hydroacoustic navigation equipment were included in the structure of the 10th Main Department of the Ministry. So it remained for 2 years. During this period, the amount of work carried out by enterprises under the 10th Main Department grew quickly, new research institutes, design bureaus and plants working in the sphere of hydroacoustics and navigation were organized and commissioned, and in 1969, all enterprises in the sphere of navigation were excluded from the structure of the 10th Main Department and resubordinated to the newly organized 14th Main Department. Thus, for the first time in the structure of the Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry, an independent Main Department for hydroacoustics appeared, which united in its structure hydroacoustics research institutes, design bureaus, and plants. 1065

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In different periods, the leadership of the 10th Main Department included the following individuals. Heads of Main Department (1) N. N. Sviridov was the head of the Main Department from 1965, when it was organized within the structure of the Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry until retirement in 1978. Before being appointed to this position, he worked as the director of CRI Morfizpribor for 6 years (from 1953 to 1959), from 1959 to 1965 he was chief engineer with a state committee. (2) V. N. Sizov was head of the Main Department from 1978 to 1990. Before this appointment, he worked as chief engineer of the Instrument-Engineering Main Department of the Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry. (3) G. P. Zimin became the head of the Main Department in 1991. Before this appointment, he worked as head of research in D&D sector in the Main Department. Chief Engineers — First Deputy Heads of Main Department (1) V. A. Medvedev stayed in this position from 1967 to 1977. Before this appointment, he worked as chief engineer of the Priboi Plant in Taganrog. (2) B. I. Trushchelev was in this position from 1977 to 1990. Before coming to the Main Department, he worked as chief engineer of the Dalpribor Plant in Vladivostok. Deputy heads of Main Department Deputy heads for general matters: G. V. Kartashov, from 1965 to 1980; V. L. Abramov, from 1980 to 1991. Heads of the research and development department: Y. S. Kotelnikov, from 1965 to 1989; V. M. Sivoyedov, from 1989 to 1991.

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Heads of the production planning department: V. I. Platun, from 1965 to 1985; A. G. Korotkov, from 1985 to 1991. Head of the special department: A. A. Sazonov, from 1977 to 1987. Before taking this appointment, he worked as the director of the V. I. Lenin Production Association. Heads of the capital construction department: N. V. Lapshov, from 1965 to 1969; I. Ye. Rekunenko, from 1969 to 1991.

In the period of activities of the 10th Main Department, several new plants were commissioned. They included Dalpribor in Vladivostok, Ladoga in Kirovsk, Sokol in Novaya Kakhovka, Krasny Luch in Krasny Luch, and the experimental plant Dnepr in Kiev. The research institute Atoll in Dubna, the special design bureau Shtil at the Akhtuba Plant, the special design bureau Bereg at the Dalpribor Plant, and the design bureau Poisk in Lvov, as a branch of the Kiev RI of Hydrological Instruments, were also organized. Construction of new plants began, and the Polyarnaya Zvezda Plant in Severodvinsk, Priliv Plant in Berdyansk, Guria Plant in Lanchkhuti, and Krasny Vympel Plant in Bolshoy Kamen were commissioned. Creation of an independent Main Department for hydroacoustic equipment was an event of principal importance for the development of hydroacoustic engineering. It provided an opportunity to consolidate all research, engineering, and technical resources of this extremely complex branch of engineering and concentrate the efforts on solving new problems. The scope of applied research and D&D work was considerably expanded in the sphere of hydroacoustic engineering along practically all directions where acoustic methods of information transmission and reception in aqueous medium with its subsequent processing are applied. One of the principal activities in this sphere was

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creation of the following equipment: (1) hydroacoustic systems for all types of submarines and surface ships giving a decisive advantage in duel situations with a potential enemy; (2) stationary systems of zonal and barrier surveillance ensuring early surveillance over vessels in waters adjacent to the country; (3) airborne hydroacoustic facilities and systems ensuring organization of active observation of objects in accessible water areas; (4) navigation sonars for taking speed, location, depth and navigational situation measurements, independently and with the required accuracy; (5) identification and underwater communication sonars; (6) mine-detection sonars; (7) hydroacoustic equipment for research ships, deep-sea vehicles, and mineral resources prospecting equipment working on the ocean bed; (8) equipment for fishing ships. To efficiently solve problems in all these areas, special measures had to be taken, among which were significant increase in the power potential of hydroacoustic arrays through maximum possible increase in their dimensions, increase in the number of arrays assembled from highresponse piezoceramic transducers; transfer to a more efficient, and, in the future, to all-digital methods of hydroacoustic information processing from signal reception to the display equipment, with ample use of optical–fiber transmission lines; creation of powerful small-size, highly efficient thyristorized and transistorized generating units. Naturally, the process of improvement of the research base and the methodology of new development work continued. Significant expansion of the range of hydroacoustic facilities and increase in the number of equipment types, along with the evergrowing design-engineering complexity, necessitated improvement of the organizational structure of enterprises under the Main Department. A series of measures were taken aimed at their specialization, which opened principally new opportunities for their further development.

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The status of several enterprises within the structure of the Main Department was changed: separate special design bureaus were reorganized in research institutes, large research-and-production associations were formed, and more accurate specialization of enterprises under the main department was undertaken by the types of equipment they produced. The necessary measures were taken for creating the conditions favorable for introduction and implementation at enterprises under the Main Department of the latest research and engineering achievements. As a support measure, development and series production of the necessary special materials, equipment and up-to-date elementary components were organized at subcontracting enterprises of other ministries, including the Ministry of Electronics Industry, Ministry of Electrical Engineering Industry, Ministry of Radio Industry, and others. As a result, a number of principally new types of naval hydroacoustic equipment for submarines, surface ships, aircraft and coastal stations were created. Many designs proved to be highly efficient, and the best of them were granted State Prizes and other state awards. The first such award, the Lenin Prize, was presented in 1970 for development of the system of hydroacoustic equipment Rubin for nuclear submarines as the highest research-and-engineering achievement. The winners of this Prize were N. N. Sviridov, S. M. Shelekhov, L. M. Brekhovskikh, A. A. Peredelsky, and B. V. Gusev. Creation of this sonar system made the US Department of the Navy admit that the Soviet 10-year lag behind the United States in the sphere of submarine sound ranging no longer existed, and that in some aspects the USSR even exceeded the USA. Over the 25-year period of existence of the 10th Main Department, from the moment of its organization in 1965 and till the liquidation of the Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry in 1991, the research institutes, design bureaus and plants working in the sphere of hydroacoustics, united within the structure of the Main Department, formed a highly organized research-technical and production complex of a great potential power which successfully solved the problems of providing all types of hydroacoustic equipment for the Navy.

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XII. Training of Hydroacoustics Engineering and Research Personnel

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The Department of Electroacoustics and Ultrasonic Engineering at SPb SEU (LETI) and its Role in the Development of the Acoustic Instrument Industry S. K. PAVROS and YE. D. PIGULEVSKY

The Leningrad Electrotechnical Institute (LETI, in 1990s renamed St. Petersburg State Electrotechnical University, or SPb SEU) was the country’s first higher education establishment to train acoustics and hydroacoustics engineers. In 1927, the young researcher S. Ya. Sokolov initiated research at LETI to create powerful sources of ultrasound. He engineered composite quartz oscillators applicable for underwater ultrasonic communication and having prospects for hydrolocation. S. Ya. Sokolov took up this new research with enthusiasm. In the next two years he developed a whole range of powerful directionalradiation sources and successfully conducted tests on the eastern Kronstadt Roads, having demonstrated the capability for underwater communication at a distance of up to 20 km. The importance and prospects for the fleet of this work made Sokolov a consultant at the Naval Communications Research Ground (CRG). The establishment of the CRG, in fact, marked the beginning of the rise in the hydroacoustics in this country. The great erudition of the young researcher did not let him limit his activities to one research area only. While researching the propagation of high-frequency ultrasonic waves in the MHz range in metals, he discovered the ability of such waves to reveal internal inhomogeneities in metals, such as voids, cracks, etc. In 1928, based on the results he obtained, he filed an application for an invention, which laid the foundation for two rapidly developing trends — ultrasonic defect detection 1073

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S. K. Pavros and Ye. D. Pigulevsky

and acoustical imaging. Both have become indispensable for the development of shipbuilding and hydroacoustic investigations. Every important part and component of modern ships, ranging from machines and steam-and-fluid pipelines to parts of the hull and engines, undergoes ultrasonic testing. In hydrographic research, different methods of acoustic imaging, such as, for example, side scanning systems, have created new opportunities. Simultaneously with his work at LETI, S. Ya. Sokolov was appointed head of the Acoustics Department of the Central Radio Laboratory (CRL), where he replaced N. N. Andreyev, who had left this position for the Institute of Physics and Technology. Soon after that, in a very short period of time, famous scientists of those days such as V. N. Tyulin, L. L. Myasnikov, L. Ya. Gutin, Ya. M. Gurevich, R. L. Volkov, M. M. Zeigerman, V. K. Ioffe, M. A. Sapozhkov, and A. A. Kharkevich, were invited to work at the Department. Since none of the higher education institutions in those years was graduating acoustics specialists, S. Ya. Sokolov, then Associate Professor at the Department of Radio Engineering of LETI, headed by A. I. Berg, organized a specialization in acoustics within the Department. The training in this field started in 1930. In 1931, the Department of Electroacoustics opened at LETI, and S. Ya. Sokolov became its professor. V. K. Ioffe, L. L. Myasnikov, and S. I. Panfilov were invited to be lecturers, V. N. Tyulin read lectures in hydroacoustics. In the early 1930s, S. Ya. Sokolov organized another Department of Acoustics at the Leningrad Institute of Cinema Engineers. The manual Electroacoustics was written by S. Ya. Sokolov as a training aid for the specialists. Thus the foundation was laid for training acoustics engineers, many of whom later became prominent organizers and leaders of research and production in shipbuilding. Among them were Corresponding Member of the RAS, V. V. Bogorodsky, Hero of Socialist Labor, Ye. I. Aladyshkin, Candidates of Technical Science, S. A. Smirnov, V. I. Turubarov, E. I. Tsvetkov, and many others. In the pre-war years, apart from the training of engineering and research personnel, research into applied problems of acoustics and

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ultrasound was initiated at the laboratories of the Department of Electroacoustics of LETI. This work revealed the unsurpassed erudition of S. Ya. Sokolov and his ability to bring scientific discoveries to practical application. As early as in the pre-war years, ultrasonic defect detection and acoustic imaging found wide application in industry. The respective methods and devices were developed for objective measurement, analysis of noises and vibrations, and metal structure investigation. Also, the effects of ultrasound on physical and chemical processes etc. were discovered. During the war, the laboratory of hydroacoustics was evacuated from the blockaded Leningrad to Gorky, then the seat of the People’s Commissariat for Shipbuilding Industry (PCSI). The LETI had been subordinated to PCSI in those years. Through PCSI, links were established with the industrial enterprises in the region. The Institute researchers introduced ultrasonic defect detection into the quality control of the products supplied to the front (the Sormovo Shipbuilding Plant, the Gorky Aircraft Works, etc.). A massive training of specialists in acoustics and research began at the Department of Acoustics after its relocation to Leningrad in 1945. Because of the leading position of Leningrad in shipbuilding and in marine research, the training of specialists in physical and technical acoustics was organized. In the post-war years, the Department of Electroacoustics became the leading center for the training of specialists in marine instrument engineering. Every year, the Department graduated over 70 highly qualified hydroacoustics engineers. In the post-war period, the Department turned out about 3,000 engineers. There are over 200 Candidates of Science and 40 Doctors of Science among the graduates, including celebrated researchers and production organizers such as Academician of RAS K. S. Aleksandrov, Corresponding Member of RAS V. V. Bogorodsky, Honored Worker of Science and Technology of RF M. A. Sapozhkov, Doctors and Candidates of Science V. K. Ioffe, I. M. Strelkov, Ye. L. Shenderov, A. Ye. Sheinman, V. I. Popkov, A. K. Novikov, A. S. Nikiforov, A. S. Khimunin, L. G. Merkulov, I. I. Klyukin, A. Ye. Kolesnikov, A. V. Kharitonov, M. D. Smaryshev, B. S. Aronov, V. N. Romanov, Yu. Yu. Dobrovolsky,

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V. Ye. Glazanov, M. B. Gitis, B. A. Kasatkin, V. Ye. Chabanov, Ye. K. Guseva, Ye. A. Vasiltsov, S. I. Pugachev, and many others. Graduates of the Department, L. G. Merkulov, Ye. A. Vasiltsov, B. A. Kasatkin, and B. N. Alekseyev, played an important role in organizing and developing training at the related departments in Taganrog and Vladivostok. The training curricula continually evolved in response to the development of marine instrument engineering and to the requirements of the industry. In the beginning the training was mainly concerned with electroacoustic transducers and audio engineering, in later years it was concerned more with physics, mathematics, and information systems. The training courses were organized into the physics of ultrasound, nonlinear acoustics, medical and biological aspects of acoustics, acoustoelectronics, data processing systems, and microprocessor technology. The training was conducted in close cooperation with the research and production enterprises, for which the Department was preparing specialists. In 1963, the Department of Design and Technology of Electronic Equipment was organized at the location of the CRI Morfizpribor for training students in design-and-technology and instrumentation engineering. In 1969, the Department organized the retraining of marine instrument engineering specialists within the framework of the skills extension faculty. From 1969 to 1980, over 200 students passed the skills extension courses. Training was closely linked with the research carried out by the Department under the contracts with industrial enterprises. Among the main research projects, which noticeably contributed to the development of marine instrument engineering, was the design of broadband electroacoustic transducers. This work was carried out by a group of researchers under the leadership of Associate Professor D. B. Dianov. In 1969, the Department undertook a large research project to develop the country’s first holographic system for underwater acoustic imaging. The contractual part of this research, conducted under the guidance of Associate Professors A. V. Kharitonov and Ye. D. Pigulevsky, was performed by the Lebedev State Institute of Optics, RPA Kvant, and

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the Institute of Applied Physics of RAS. In the 1970s, work on acoustic holography was initiated in the area of measurement and control of directional properties of hydroacoustic systems in their near field, and in the area of developing reconstruction methods of acoustic tomography for the purposes of nondestructive testing. The chief scientist was Associate Professor Ye. D. Pigulevsky. Combining the training process with large-scale research work gave an opportunity, first, to significantly improve the quality of the training of engineers by involving undergraduate students in the research conducted at the Department. Second, based on the research, it maintained a continuing training process of highest-qualification specialists, through post-graduate and doctorate courses. Thus, the Department graduated over 40 Candidates of Science and 45 Doctors of Science. At present, the Department conducts multilevel trainings of specialists, including engineers (specialties in instruments and methods of quality control and diagnostics and in acoustic instruments and systems), and Bachelors and Masters of Technical Science (specialties in instrument engineering and technical physics). The training aids and methodological materials compiled by the faculty of the Department are available to students in the majority of specialties. The Department stands at the head of the Research and Methodological Board of the Ministry of General and Professional Education of the Russian Federation and organizes methodological support to the specialists training at the related Departments in other higher educational establishments of Russia.

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The Branch Department of LETI at CRI Morfizpribor and its Role in Training Hydroacoustics Specialists M. D. SMARYSHEV

In the period from the 1960s to the 1980s, hydroacoustics underwent rapid development. New, sophisticated tasks were defined and new ways of solving problems were emerging. Large teams of specialists were involved in hydroacoustic studies and systematic research was being carried out. In such conditions, the gap was growing fast between the knowledge that the college students received from their teachers and the requirements for the young specialists in the hydroacoustic facilities. The situation became worse due to the fact that publications about the latest achievements in this area of science and technology were delayed and limited in number. It was important to expose the advanced methods of special equipment engineering to the students at the higher educational establishments, as well as involve them in the work at the leading research institutes and design bureaus. Higher educational establishments were always inviting the leading industrial specialists to give lectures to senior students and engineering students who were taking retraining courses. These measures, however, were not enough. A similar situation was common in many scientific areas, not only in hydroacoustics. Beginning in 1976, the Ministry of Higher Education and some industrial ministries organized several branch departments of the best higher educational establishments, including LETI (today, the St. Petersburg State Electrotechnical University — SPb SEU) at the country’s leading research institutes. The twelve branch departments of LETI became a significant asset for increasing the level of training of specialists. These 1078

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departments were organized during the tenth and eleventh five-year plans … at the leading enterprises and research institutes of Leningrad (an extract from the book 100 Years of LETI, Lenizdat, 1985). In 1977, a branch department of LETI was formed at the CRI Morfizpribor (then a subdivision of the LRPA Okeanpribor) on the initiative of the Dean of the Faculty of Electrophysics at LETI and head of the Department of Electroacoustics and Ultrasonic Engineering A. V. Kharitonov and Director General of LRPA Okeanpribor V. V. Gromkovsky. Both took the creation of a new department with full responsibility and seriousness. The organization of a department required much effort on behalf of V. V. Gromkovsky. Despite this, he (distinct from what many other directors in similar situations would have done) refused to head the department, evidently, for ethical reasons. He took the position of associate professor of the department and gave lectures on the introductory course in hydroacoustic systems design. He accepted a proposal to become the head of the department much later, after resigning from his position as Director General. At the request of the department organizers, I accepted the position as head of the department. By that time, I had, for several years, been giving lectures as part of the LETI retraining courses. As a result of a serious approach to the initiation of a new department by the management of LRPA Okeanpribor (V. V. Gromkovsky and his deputy, Technology Director R. Kh. Balyan), a special facility was built for the department and the role of the department in the structure of the Association was defined. Two lecture rooms, three laboratories and a teachers’ room were designed specifically for the needs of the branch department. The Department was incorporated into the Department for Personnel Training, and an additional position of an engineer of the Department was created. As a result, the organizational work at the department fell in the reliable hands of two women — first, L. M. Belyavskaya, then and till now, Z. P. Borina, working under the guidance of the head of the department for personnel training, V. D. Timofeyeva, and later, O. Y. Yemelyanova. Having its own modern

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facility, the permanent attention of the Institute administration, and the dependable organizational efforts of the engineers of the Department ensured the successful functioning of the Department. A. V. Kharitonov played a great role in opening of the new department. He transferred to the Department the following basic courses for the training of hydroacoustics specialists: (1) (2) (3) (4)

hydroacoustic equipment; hydroacoustic systems design; hydroacoustic equipment construction and technology; electronic systems of hydroacoustic equipment.

A. V. Kharitonov proposed, in compliance with the aims of these courses, that the Department should be called the Department of Equipment Design and Construction, but the management had its own ideas for a name — the Department of Electronic Equipment Construction and Technology (DEECT). In addition to the lectures on the above-mentioned courses, the Department also offered three laboratory courses, two courses of independent studies, and practical work in all the courses. The leading specialists of the CRI Morfizpribor were invited to give lectures and perform other training activities. The principal series of lectures on the course on hydroacoustic system design were read by one of the acknowledged technical leaders of the CRI Morfizpribor, I. M. Strelkov. Later, due to the heavy workload of I. M. Strelkov and the time needed for work on his dissertation, the lectures were entrusted first to Cand. Tech. Sc. N. S. Lashkova, and later, to Cand. Tech. Sc. M. P. Lonkevich. Dr. Tech. Sc. Prof. R. Kh. Balyan and Cand. Tech. Sc. Associate Professor A. V. Ryzhikov gave lectures for the course on electronic systems of hydroacoustic equipment. Cand. Tech. Sc. Associate Professor M. M. Marinsky lectured on the construction and technology of hydroacoustic equipment at LETI, before the branch was organized. He continued this work in the DEECT. The course on hydroacoustic equipment was conducted by Cand. Tech. Sc. Associate Professor G. K. Skrebnev and Dr. Tech. Sc. Prof. M. D. Smaryshev.

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Practical and laboratory work was supervised by S. I. Vlasov and T. V. Zubrilina, and later, by Cand. Tech. Sc. T. B. Gromova, A. V. Mikhailov, V. B. Astafyev, V. L. Zagryazhsky. For a period of time, V. T. Portnov also worked in the Department. The core team of professors and instructors of the Department has been preserved to the present. In recent years, the Department was headed by Cand. Phys. Math. Sc., Corresponding Member of AEES Director of the CRI Morfizpribor Yu. A. Koryakin. Since June 1997, the chief engineer of the Institute, Cand. Tech. Sc. K. I. Polkanov has been head of the Department. In a very short period of time, lecture courses, assignments, and laboratory work were developed by the professors in the Department. It is worth mentioning that some part of the laboratory work was performed at LRPA bays, which certainly gave the students more intimate knowledge of their future workplace. Last but not the least, the core of the teaching staff of the Department consists of creative, highly qualified people, who have themselves been developing the main ideas, concepts, scientific postulates and engineering solutions that are now being expounded to their future colleagues. I think that the teachers’ interest in their work fully compensates for the losses that are inevitable in branch activities, for example, when it is necessary to replace a teacher because of a business trip. Despite the difficulties (and, at times, the impossibility) of finding a replacement, no disruptions of classes, tests or examinations ever occurred during the Department’s existence. The Department is now 20 years old. In that period, 854 specialists in hydroacoustics have been trained there, and almost 200 of them went to work at the CRI Morfizpribor. In general, they proved themselves to be good workers. The joint order of the Rector of SPb SEU and the Director of the CRI Morfizpribor issued in the commemoration of the 20th anniversary of the department read: Training at the branch department has helped its graduates to immediately and very actively switch to the production

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process. Many of them soon became highly qualified specialists, such as leading engineers, deputy chief designers of large equipment, and heads of research units. The Branch Department of SPb SEU brought forward a whole new generation of specialists in hydroacoustics. The Department professors and instructors have been and still are doing their best to secure the future of the well-deserved place that the Russian hydroacoustic engineering occupies today.

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The Training of Engineers and Researchers in Applied Hydroacoustics at the N. G. Kuznetsov Naval Academy V. B. MIT’KO

1. Command and Engineering Personnel Training The Naval Academy truly deserves to be called the home of hydroacoustics. Professor of the Academy, Rear-Admiral engineer B. A. Kudrevich played a key role in the initial stage of its development. Back in 1919, he initiated the analysis and generalization of the available materials on hydroacoustic equipment in service to the Russian and foreign fleets. On his initiative, the first research laboratory for design and development of hydroacoustic communication and sound ranging devices was organized at the Comintern Plant. The scientific guidance of the laboratory was entrusted to V. N. Tyulin, one of the founders of Russian military hydroacoustics. The training of specialists in military hydroacoustics dates back to the mid-1920s when communication engineers were offered a course in hydroacoustics at the Electrotechnical Department of the Academy. A. I. Berg was invited to give lectures to this group of students. In 1930, the Department of Communications and Surveillance was organized at the Faculty of Naval Weapons, with three specializations, namely: radio engineering, acoustical (hydroacoustical) engineering, and telemechanics. On October 1, 1931, the first students were enrolled, even though the organization of the Department itself and its teaching staff had not been completed. Until 1938, the curricula for all three specializations remained the same. 1083

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The formation and development of hydroacoustic specialization at the Academy are closely connected with the name of V. N. Tyulin. In 1931, he began lecturing on general acoustics at the Academy. Since 1926, he had been teaching a course in theoretical mechanics at the Leningrad Polytechnical Institute and a course in hydroacoustics at the Leningrad Electrotechnical Institute and the G. K. Ordzhonikidze Naval School of Communications. In 1927, for the first time as part of special retraining courses for command personnel of The Workers and Peasants Red Navy (WPRN), V. N. Tyulin organized and gave lectures in acoustic surveillance equipment. Thus, by 1931 he had accumulated considerable teaching experience. In 1936, when the Department of Hydroacoustics was organized at the Academy, V. N. Tyulin was appointed its acting head. In 1938, the Department grew into the independent Faculty of Communications, with three departments — Radio Engineering, Hydroacoustics, and Telemechanics. The curricula and practical training programs for all departments of the faculty were approved on July 3, 1938, by the People’s Commissar of the Navy. The training term of 4 years and 2 months (8 semesters) was scheduled to terminate in 1942 with state exams and defence of a diploma project. Tyulin was most active in the development of the curriculum and the training program for the Hydroacoustics Department. In 1939, the board for evaluation of dissertations for doctor’s and candidate’s degrees was established at the Academy. The same year V. N. Tyulin was granted one of the country’s first degrees of a Candidate of Technical Science and the title of Associate Professor in Hydroacoustics. He was appointed head of the Department of Hydroacoustics. During that period, a number of his original papers on gyroscopy and hydroacoustics were published. Apart from organizing the basic subjects for the Department, V. N. Tyulin carried out a great amount of work on systematizing research results, which he conveyed in his monograph Hydroacoustics, published by the Academy in 1941. In this book, for the first time in national and international hydroacoustics, the notion of optimal frequency was formulated, and a well-grounded physical interpretation of conditions causing its existence was offered.

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The monograph became a manual for students of the Academy and a reference book for naval and industrial hydroacoustic specialists. In the period 1931–1940, the Academy graduated 27 hydroacoustics specialists, the majority of whom had been admitted to the Academy as part of a special enrollment of undergraduate students from civilian higher education institutions. In June 1942, V. N. Tyulin was called up to the Red Army with the rank of a First Rank Military Engineer. In November 1942, he arrived at the command of the Head of the Naval Academy and again was appointed the head of the Department of Hydroacoustics. In the years of the Great Patriotic War, the Department of Hydroacoustics, in addition to accelerated training of naval specialists, conducted, at the request of the Naval authorities, a series of studies aimed at increasing the efficiency of hydroacoustic equipment in use by the Navy. Simultaneously, a series of concrete research efforts in hydroacoustics were carried out, and their results were published in the following works (textbooks) by V. N. Tyulin: The Theory of Acoustic Direction Finding (Teoriya akusticheskogo pelengovaniya); Basic Phenomena Connected with Acoustic Waves Propagation in Marine Medium (Osnovnye yavleniya, svyazannye s pasprostraneniem akusticheskikh voln v morskoi srede); Foundations of the Theory of Hydroacoustics (Teoreticheskiye osnovy gidroakustiki) (in co-authorship with A. P. Stashkevich and A. M. Tyurin). V. N. Tyulin developed and introduced several new courses, including the Theory of Hydroacoustic Surveillance Equipment, the Design of Hydroacoustic Systems, and the Theory and Analysis of Acoustic Transducers. The research and educational activities of V. N. Tyulin were highly rated by the scientific and academic community. In 1958, he was granted the degree of doctor of technical science, and in 1959, was granted the title of professor. The post-war years were marked with the rapid development of hydroacoustics in the leading countries of the world. Our country could not stand aside and avoid attempting to solve problems touching the

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interests of all mankind. The curricula and training programs were seriously reviewed, and new subjects were introduced. Some major changes took place in the equipment for training and for the laboratory. A. P. Stashkevich, A. M. Tyurin, E. S. Taranov, and other members of the Department took an active part in these processes. A. P. Stashkevich, Adjunct Professor of the Department of Hydroacoustics during the war years, intensively devoted himself to the problem of sound propagation in layered, inhomogeneous media, which was very important for military applications. His candidate’s dissertation, the course in acoustics in marine medium, the manual under the same name, published by the Academy, and the monograph Marine Acoustics (Akustika morya) published by the Sudostroyenie Publishers, were all dedicated to this problem. In 1960, A. P. Stashkevich was appointed the head of the Department of Hydroacoustics. It was on his initiative that students showing the best results were transferred to individual training programs. It provided them with the opportunity to participate in long-term expeditions investigating the acoustics of the world’s oceans and to learn the new methods and technical techniques in the area of hydroacoustic data processing. As a rule, the expedition teams included an instructor, laboratory workers, and students specializing in the subject-themes of the Department. In 1961, the first team of the Academy (V. A. Zaraisky, P. I. Pavlenko, and A. I. Pakhomov) participated in a 4-month expedition investigation in the Equatorial and Northern Atlantic on the research vessels Kruzenshtern, Sedov, and Equator. The expedition’s code name was Granit and it was carried out by the research institutes of the Navy. Since then every year until the mid-1980s, the Department of Hydroacoustics participated in multiple interdepartmental expeditions carried out by the Navy, the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, and industry. A. M. Tyurin, graduate of the Leningrad State University, an engineer of the Vodtranspribor Plant, marked the end of the war as chief of staff of an anti-aircraft artillery regiment. In 1945, V. N. Tyulin invited him to lecture at the Naval Academy. The Honored Worker of Science and Technology of RSFSR, Doctor of Technical Science, Professor Colonel-Engineer, A. M. Tyurin, has left a long-lasting trace in the history of the Department. As the highest qualification specialist, a

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brilliant methodologist and a teacher, he was popular with his students. He introduced and developed such fundamental subjects as Theoretical Acoustics, Statistical Methods in Hydroacoustics, Hydroacoustic Measurements, etc. His textbook An Introduction to the Theory of Statistical Methods in Hydroacoustics (Vvedeniye v teoriyu statisticheskikh metodov v gidroakustike) (1963), was a pioneering work in the area of the statistical theory of submarine sound ranging. It brought him the degree of doctor of technical science. After 30 years, the principal propositions of the textbook have not lost their relevance. E. S. Taranov, the first chief of the laboratory, and later, the senior lecturer of the Department, possessed a unique intuition for solving applied problems in different areas of military hydroacoustics. Together with A. P. Stashkevich, he proposed the circuit and design of an induction compensator. This invention was implemented in the industrially produced new models of hydroacoustic equipment. He worked with enthusiasm on the problems connected with sound scattering by sound. Since the late 1950s and until early 1970s, the lectures on hydroacoustic equipment design and the theory of hydroacoustic equipment design were read by Associate Professor, Candidate of Naval Science, Captain-Engineer 1st Rank A. L. Prostakov. He was known among specialists as a popularizer of military hydroacoustics and an expert in the development trends in hydroacoustics and foreign hydroacoustic engineering. The beginning of the 1960s and the years after were a period of growing importance of military hydroacoustics in safeguarding our country against surprise nuclear missile submarine attacks. In that period, the professorship and the teaching staff of the department were changed. A new generation of teachers in hydroacoustics came to work, to take up the task of preserving the scientific authority of the Department in the country and ensuring a high level of student training (V. A. Zaraisky, G. S. Gabidulin, A. P. Yevtyutov, B. V. Shimberev, G. A. Shcheglov, and V. I. Nesterenko). Each made a valuable contribution in solving the technical problems of interest to the Department (as did the author of this article, V. B. Mit’ko, – Ed.). Candidate of Technical Science, Professor, Captain 1st Rank V. A. Zaraisky developed and introduced one of the basic subjects, the

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Theory of Submarine Sound Ranging, and developed and filled with modern content the new, but essentially fundamental theoretical subject – the Acoustics of the Ocean. His textbook The Theory of Underwater Sound Ranging (Teoriya gidrolokatsii), written jointly with A. M. Tyurin, is broadly used in training hydroacoustics specialists at the higher naval schools and higher education institutions of the country. V. A. Zaraisky intensively worked on problems connected with the frequency selectivity of the ocean subsurface layer, the frequency dependence of effects due to thermocline verifying the principles of construction of the systems of underwater surveillance, and shallow water problems. In 1969, he was appointed the head of the Department. Until 1990, the development of training schedules and curricula on the subject-themes of the department was performed under his guidance and with his personal participation. Candidate of Technical Science, Associate Professor, Captain 1st Rank G. S. Gabidulin, introduced the course Sonar Arrays and Their Components, based on a generalization and systematization of available information including original works, primarily by V. N. Tyulin. The manual on this subject published by the Academy (part II was written in co-authorship with A. M. Tyurin and V. I. Nesterenko) was welcomed at the naval research institutes and in the industry. The strong need for improving the professional training at the Department including estimating the efficiency of various sonars, investigating the functioning of sonars taking into account the acoustic fields of the platforms and the targets led to the development and introduction of a new subject and adding new subject-themes to the existing courses. This task was successfully completed by Candidate of Technical Science, Associate Professor, Captain 1st Rank A. P. Yevtyutov. His interests varied from investigating layer reverberation (theoretically and experimentally) to its influence on the efficiency of target detection in convergence zones. The Department paid special attention to the problems of physical simulation. A facility for physical simulation of acoustic phenomena in the ocean was initiated at the Academy under the guidance and with personal participation of Candidate of Technical Science, Associate Professor, Captain 1st Rank B. V. Shimberev. The basic results

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of experimental research performed in this facility formed the basis of his candidate’s dissertation. Even today the facility is one of the best in the country. It is used for laboratory work by students of the Academy and the Electrotechnical University. Around 1970, there was interest in taking into account the man/machine interaction in sonar design and operation. One of the first works in this direction was the dissertation by Candidate of Technical Science, Associate Professor, Captain 1st Rank G. A. Shcheglov. He introduced a course in the Theory of Operation and Reliability of Radio-Electronic Equipment in Service at the Navy, and wrote a textbook on the same subject, which was published by the Academy. In the 1980s, infrasonic-low-frequency acoustics and seismoacoustics became one of the promising trends in science. The Member of the Academy of Natural Sciences and St. Petersburg Engineering Academy, Doctor of Technical Science, Professor V. B. Mit’ko, dedicated some crucial points of his doctor’s dissertation to these problems. Together with V. A. Sergeyev, he introduced the Statistical Theory of Submarine Sound Ranging, which became one of the leading disciplines of the Department’s curriculum. He took an active part in the research on the verification of the principles of design of systems for underwater surveillance and the evaluation of the efficiency of specialapplication sonars. In 1990, V. B. Mit’ko was appointed the head of the Department. He participated in the development of the new curricula and training programs in view of a changeover to a new system of training in hydroacoustics of the highest qualification specialists for the research institutions and organizations of the Navy. V. B. Mit’ko was elected the Member of the Acoustic Society of America and the New York Academy of Sciences, deputy Academician-Secretary of the St. Petersburg branch of the Section of Geopolicy and Security of the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences (RANS). The Sudostroyenie Publishing Company printed his monographs, which were popular among the students of the Academy and universities: Examples of Engineering Analysis in Hydroacoustics (Primery inzhenernykh raschetov v gidroakustike; in co-authorship with A. P. Yevtyutov), Hydroacoustic Communication and Surveillance Systems (Gidroakusticheskiye sredstva

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svyazi i nablyudeniya; in co-authorship with A. P. Yevtyutov and S. Ye. Gushchin), Engineering Analysis in Hydroacoustics (Inzhenernye raschety v gidroakustike; in co-authorship with A. P. Yevtyutov), and Reference-Book in Hydroacoustics (Spravochnik po gidroakustike; a group of authors). While still Professor of the Department of Hydroacoustics of the Naval Academy, V. B. Mit’ko was also elected Professor of the Department of Marine Information Radioelectronic Systems of the St. Petersburg Electrotechnical University, where he introduced courses in the Foundations of Hydrophysics and Applied Hydrophysics, and published a manual on these subjects. Captain 1st Rank V. I. Nesterenko developed and introduced the subject of Methods and Means of Hydroacoustic Data Processing. He actively participated in research on the problems of hydroacoustic compatibility, and the evaluation of the efficiency of foreign sonars. As a good methodologist and a highly qualified military teacher, V. I. Nesterenko was highly respected among the teachers, professors, and students of the Academy. In the 1980s, the third generation of teachers came to work at the Academy (V. A. Sergeyev, A. A. Pakhomov, A. A. Rodionov, V. V. Lyutov, N. V. Sobin, and A. A. Misan). Those specialists were true professionals. Two of them were doctors and the other three were candidates of technical science. They developed and introduced special and base courses: the Methods of Scientific Research (Dr. Tech. Sci. A. A. Pakhomov), Special Equipment of the Navy (Dr. Tech. Sci. A. A. Rodionov and Cand. Tech. Sci. N. V. Sobin), and the Statistical Theory of Submarine Sound Ranging (Cand. Tech. Sci. V. A. Sergeyev). In 1995, Cand. Tech. Sci. V. A. Sergeyev was appointed the head of the Department. The scope of his interests was wide, but focused mainly on the wave method of hydroacoustic field analysis, the development of the methods of acoustic fields’ simulation in the research and training of specialists, and the development of the principles of design of the underwater situation illumination systems. His activities coincided with the period of reorganization of the armed forces and military education. These required a new approach to the training of highly qualified specialists for the Navy in the field of hydroacoustics and applied hydrophysics, drawing near the systems of the civilian and

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military education, and the development of military-conversion and double-use technologies. Over the period of the Department’s existence, the Academy published 11 textbooks and 10 manuals compiled at the Department. Nine monographs were printed in state publishing houses. In compliance with the joint resolution of the Navy and the Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry, the Academy was providing manuals and training aids for all higher education institutions of the country that were graduating specialists in hydroacoustics. Since 1931, the Department has graduated about 500 Russian and 30 foreign specialists, 14 of who were awarded honor degrees and gold medals. The department has 9 doctors and over 80 candidates of science among its graduates. Seventeen workers and adjuncts of the department submitted and defended their doctoral theses, among them five teachers of the Department (V. N. Tyulin, A. M. Tyurin, V. B. Mit’ko, A. A. Pakhomov, and A. A. Rodionov). Three Department graduates were awarded State Prizes, namely, Vice-Admirals A. A. Tynyankin (two times), M. Ya. Chemeris, and Captain 1st Rank V. P. Savinykh. Fourteen graduates were conferred the ranks of vice-admirals and rear-admirals. They headed the departments of the Navy and the fleets, research organizations, and the proving ground of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation. The Department maintains close creative ties with the fleets, the research organizations of the Navy, the Academy of Sciences, and industry. 2. Training the Research Personnel The Department provided various training within the scope of doctorate courses, full-time and extramural adjunct professorship to many hydroacoustics specialists from different organizations, educational institutions and establishments of ministries, primarily from the Ministry of Defense and the military schools. Thus, the doctoral degrees were granted to 17 people and the degrees of candidate of technical science were granted to about 100 people. A. P. Stashkevich, who during the war was the Adjunct Professor of the Department, later

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became its head. The research of hydroacoustic systems with towed arrays is related to his name. He carried out this work in the difficult years of the war, which had to be stopped due to the unfavorable hydrodynamic conditions in the region of the experiment (in the Neva River) and evacuation of the Academy to Samarkand. Practically all teachers of the Department had passed through adjunct professorship and defended their candidate’s theses. V. N. Tyulin, A. M. Tyurin, V. B. Mit’ko, A. A. Pakhomov, and A. A. Rodionov became doctors of science. The scientific advisers to adjuncts and applicants for degrees were V. N. Tyulin, A. M. Tyurin, A. P. Stashkevich, V. A. Zaraisky, V. B. Mit’ko, A. A. Pakhomov, A. A. Rodionov, A. P. Yevtyutov, G. A. Shcheglov, V. A. Sergeyev, and other scientists of the department. The dissertation research works were dedicated to the vital problems of improving the facilities and systems of underwater surveillance and increasing their efficiency. The laboratory and technical facilities of the Department include a hydroacoustic experimental basin, a hydroacoustic installation for physical simulation, sets of hydroacoustic measuring instruments, various radio and electric measuring instruments, analyzers and recording instruments, and modern computers. The hydroacoustic basin, 7.5 × 3.5 × 3.0 m3 in size, has sound-absorbing coating and special equipment allowing its use for practical training and research work. The physical simulation installation (hydroacoustic tank), 1.2×12 m2 in size, has sound-absorbing blind-type coatings and is outfitted with additional equipment — a coordinate device, generating and receiving sets, analyzers and recording equipment. The installation allows the simulation of vertical sound velocity profiles with random bottom relief distribution, and surface waves. In the course of experiments, the remote zones of acoustic illumination in the ocean, long-range reverberation, reflection from bottom and surface and other hydroacoustic phenomena are investigated. In recent years, the training and laboratory base of the Department underwent some major structural changes, becoming a research group of certificated specialists. Its members participate in experimental investigations in the fleets, on the installation for physical

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simulation of acoustic effects in the ocean, and carrying out research on the subject-themes of the Department. In different periods of time, the laboratory heads were: E. S. Taranov, V. F. Belov, R. G. Mumdzhian, V. M. Bulgakov, Ye. V. Mikheyev, V. V. Smirnov, and Yu. I. Onuchin. 3. Research Work Intensive research into the theory and application of hydroacoustics was carried out in the Department during the whole period of its existence. In 1932, in Leningrad, the first specialized plant of hydroacoustic instruments of the People’s Commissarial of Shipbuilding Industry, the Vodtranspribor, began operations. V. N. Tyulin worked there as a part-time senior engineer of the laboratory of hydroacoustics. From 1939 until 1941, he worked there as a scientific adviser. In the early 1930s, work was carried out on the reconditioning of the British submarine L-55 sunk in 1919. In the course of this work, V. N. Tyulin reconditioned its navigational equipment. In the same period, he worked on the problem of designing a Russian echo sounder. Starting with the circuit and construction design, he finished the work with full trials of the equipment on board the steamer Malygin and the icebreaker Yermak in the Arctic, during which good results were obtained. This provided an opportunity to organize series production of home echo sounders and discontinue the purchase of such equipment abroad. The echo sounders designed by V. N. Tyulin were installed on the icebreaker steamers Murman and Taimyr and the first drift-ice station SP-1. The work on design of the passive sonar Merkury and electrodynamic receivers for Mars type passive sonars for submarines were conducted under the guidance of V. N. Tyulin. V. N. Tyulin also designed a new ultrasonic direction finder, the Tsefei system. He participated in the creation of the land-based passive sonars Saturn-12, passive sonars Poseidon used on submarine chasers, ship underwater communication stations Sirius and Vega, and the sonar Tamir-1. He worked on the design and analysis of new types of hydroacoustic equipment that were created based on engineering concepts he proposed.

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Currently the Department develops trends of scientific research crystallized over many years of work. The main ones are: (1) applied hydrophysics with study of physical fields of the ocean, creation of a hydrophysical databank for solving special and economic problems (A. A. Rodionov and V. B. Mit’ko); (2) improvement of underwater surveillance systems, including the development of nontraditional trends in creation of marine information systems (V. B. Mit’ko and V. A. Zaraisky); (3) the theory of design of various-application hydroacoustic systems, including the evaluation of the level and prospects for their development, security and suppression (N. V. Sobin and A. A. Pakhomov); (4) the theory of hydroacoustic system operation, including their reliability and efficiency, hydroacoustic compatibility and ergonomics (A. A. Pakhomov and G. A. Shcheglov); (5) the theory and practice of training hydroacoustics specialists, including the development of information technologies of education, software, and information support (V. A. Sergeyev and A. A. Misan); (6) the principles of realization of conversion and dual-use technologies in hydroacoustics, including hydroacoustic systems application in solving ecological and resources problems, and the development of dual-use hydroacoustic technologies (V. B. Mit’ko). The Department’s scientific authority is determined by the fact that its representatives have been and are still working as members of the Military-Technical Board of the Navy (V. A. Zaraisky), coordinating research-technical boards of the Navy and the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation (V. A. Zaraisky, V. B. Mit’ko, A. A. Pakhomov, G. A. Shcheglov, A. P. Yevtyutov, and A. A. Misan), the Councils for Hydrophysics and Geophysics under the Presidium of the Academy of Sciences (V. A. Zaraisky, V. B. Mit’ko, and A. A. Pakhomov), the Commission for State Forecast (V. A. Zaraisky), as the chairmen and the members of intersectoral and state commissions for acceptance of new prototype acoustic equipment, industrial research and D&D works (V. A. Zaraisky, V. B. Mit’ko, G. S. Gabidulin, A. M. Tyurin, and V. I.

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Nesterenko), and participating in fast-response analyses of important problems of the Navy (V. A. Zaraisky, V. B. Mit’ko, A. A. Rodionov, A. A. Pakhomov, and A. M. Tyurin). The Department regularly conducts seminars on special problems of hydroacoustics, its representatives are members of many public and international research organizations, such as the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences, the St. Petersburg Engineering Academy, the International Informatization Academy, the Acoustical Society of America, the East-European Acoustics Association, the Russian Acoustic Society, and many others. 4. The Department Graduates, Doctors of Science V. N. Tyulin, A. M. Tyurin, V. B. Mit’ko, A. A. Pakhomov, A. A. Rodionov, V. V. Khalimonov, Yu. F. Tarasyuk, S. P. Rokotov, S. V. Kovtunenko, and V. N. Dolgikh. 5. The Department Graduates, Admirals Vice-Admiral I. I. Tynyankin, Vice-Admiral M. Y. Chemeris, RearAdmiral V. V. Lavrichenko, Rear-Admiral A. A. Baranenko, RearAdmiral V. V. Dvoryanchikov, Rear-Admiral V. P. Senin, Rear-Admiral D. D. Kashuba, Rear-Admiral F. F. Kryachok, Rear-Admiral P. N. Gordienko, Rear-Admiral V. G. Kuznetsov, Rear-Admiral A. F. Kozlov, Rear-Admiral Morev, Rear-Admiral Fedorov, Rear-Admiral A. I. Pustovalov, and Rear-Admiral Yakovlev.

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1. The Organization of the Chair of Acoustics at the Moscow State University The organization of the Chair of Acoustics in the Faculty of Physics of the M. V. Lomonosov Moscow State University (MSU) is closely connected with the name of the prominent scientist S. N. Rzhevkin. The Chair became the country’s first specialized Chair of Acoustics. The Chair has graduated about 800 specialists. Over 70 candidates of science and 9 doctors of physics and mathematics received their degrees in “acoustics” at the Chair. The graduates of the Chair have been employed in the academic and specialized research institutes, institutions of higher education, and in industry, among them many well-known scientists, the bearers of state awards and academic titles. From the very beginning S. N. Rzhevkin understood that acoustics presents an independent, very specific part of physical science of great practical value. As early as the 1920s, he was convinced that due to the great practical importance of acoustic methods, particularly in the military and marine areas, underwater acoustics had already formed an independent branch of technology. In 1925, he translated the article by K. V. Dryusdel “Marine subaqueous signaling” for the Uspekhi Fizicheskikh Nauk 1096

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(Achievements of Physical Sciences) journal. There were almost no specialists in this area at that time. (The country’s first specialized acoustics laboratory was organized in the early 1920s by N. N. Andreyev at the State Experimental Electrotechnical Institute, which was created by an order of V. I. Lenin for scientific research in support of the State Plan of Electrification of Russia, GOELRO. However it was not meant to solve underwater acoustics problems). To fill this gap, S. N. Rzhevkin proposed to train specialists in acoustics at the Physics and Mathematics Faculty of MSU, where he had been teaching since 1924. The initiative was supported and in 1928 a laboratory of electro-acoustics and weak currents of the Physics and Mathematics Faculty of MSU was organized. S. N. Rzhevkin became its head. MSU became the first and only (at that time) educational establishment in the country where the training of acoustics physicists was successfully introduced and performed. In the first 4 years of its existence, the laboratory graduated the first group of specialists, among them A. N. Bobrov, A. V. Kozhukhov, I. S. Rabinovich and V. V. Furduyev, who attended the specialization courses as an external student. However, in 1931, when the Physics and Mathematics Faculty of MSU was split in two — Physics and Mechanics-and-Mathematics, B. F. Gessen, who headed the Faculty of Physics, officially closed the laboratory of electro-acoustics. The training of specialists in this area stopped. Soviet acoustics suffered a severe loss. S. N. Rzhevkin understood the nonsense and the harm of the situation, and decided to continue training in acoustics. The research laboratories of the House of Sound Recording, Institute of Cinema and Photography, Roentgen Institute, with which S. N. Rzhevkin maintained strong ties, and the Laboratory of Acoustics of the Physical Institute (PI) of RAS (since 1935), which he organized and headed till 1940, became the experimental base for academic research. Certainly a single laboratory was unable to solve the training problem. That is why in his review talk at the All-Union Acoustics Conference in 1931, S. N. Rzhevkin noted: “We are now facing the formation of a new scientific-and-technical discipline. It is an independent science since it has its own specific features, however its further development is

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under question because it remains within the framework of other disciplines, such as radio engineering, general physics, medicine, physiology, and musical sciences. There is a need for a synthesis of the knowledge in these areas, application of diverse methods and experimental techniques to cope with complex problems. This could be accomplished by trained acoustics physicists, acoustics engineers, acoustics architects, etc. Training of such specialists is destined to ensure the development of acoustics to the benefit of the national economy of the USSR.” The question of training in acoustics was raised again in a more crucial form in 1935, at the Second All-Union Acoustics Conference. After the conference, participated by S. N. Rzhevkin, the Acoustics Commission of RAS pointed out the need for organizing training of acoustics physicists at the Moscow and Gorky Universities, and the Leningrad Polytechnical Institute. However, it was not until 1943 that the first Chair of Acoustics in the USSR was opened at the Faculty of Physics of the M. V. Lomonosov MSU. In the next year, S. N. Rzhevkin won the competition and was elected its first head. At the Chair original fundamental research was carried out in several areas. This work found general recognition in our country and abroad, putting the Chair in the ranks of the leading research institutions in the field of acoustics. S. N. Rzhevkin believed that the purpose of the Chair was to turn out widely educated acoustic physicists. This is why large-scale studies in a wide range of promising trends were initiated at the Chair. The research was carried out primarily in physiological acoustics, architectural acoustics, and the related theory of sound, waveguides and dissipative systems. The study of the theory of resonance sound absorbers and improvement of sound absorbing systems was also conducted. The latter trend was, to a certain degree, a logical continuation of the research in atmospheric acoustics carried out by S. N. Rzhevkin for many years. For the acoustic system design work for the Palace of Soviets a highly qualified team of workers was brought together, many of whom later became well-known specialists, among them graduates of the Physics Faculty, G. D. Malyuzhinets, M. S. Antsiferov, V. S. Nesterov, K. A.

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Fig. 1. In S. N. Rzhevkin’s office. Left to right: K. A. Velizhanina, L. N. Zakharov, and S. N. Rzhevkin.

Vital, Yu. I. Iorish, Yu. I. Shneider, S. I. Krechmer, K. A. Velizhanina, and others (Fig. 1). The research was initiated in the area of ultrasound, which resulted in the development of optical methods of ultrasonic field visualization. The Department launched research in atmospheric acoustics and instrument engineering (V. A. Krasilnikov and K. M. Ivanov-Shyts). Those were the first studies on the wave and turbulence problem, which later received further development. The results of this work were summarized in the doctor’s dissertation of V. A. Krasilnikov (today, Honored Professor of MSU, Honorary Academician of RANS, Laureate of the State and the MSU Lomonosov Prizes, Head of the Chair of Acoustics, 1975–1985). The research in hydroacoustics was carried out on a wide scale. It included the research on vibrations of a ship’s hull and mechanisms, and their relation to the noise generated by a ship. This study was conducted by S. N. Rzhevkin on the Volga in 1941–1943 jointly with

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other workers of the Laboratory of Acoustics of PI RAS evacuated to Kazan. 2. Development of the Vector-Phase Methods of Acoustic Fields Research During the first 10 years prior to relocating to a new building in 1953, the Chair of Acoustics occupied several small rooms in the basement of an old building on Mokhovaya Street, built with the participation of N. A. Umov. The staff included S. N. Rzhevkin, two associate professors, three assistant professors, and a laboratory technician. S. N. Rzhevkin realized that the development of hydroacoustics would depend, in the first place, on a successful theoretical research and development of instrumentation for providing a deeper insight into the physical nature of acoustic fields. The possibilities for realization of one or the other approach for solving acoustic problems are to a great extent determined by the quality and capabilities of the measuring devices used. In the majority of work, as well as in the then designed hydroacoustic instruments, a special emphasis was placed on acoustic pressure field measurements (ribbon microphones sensitive to acoustic pressure gradients were already in use in atmospheric acoustics). In aqueous medium, only acoustic waves may be considered universal, to a certain extent, due to their relatively small absorption in water. Natural waveguides caused by media inhomogeneity, particularly its layering, ensure acoustic energy channeling over large distances. At the same time, their existence significantly complicates mathematical description and physical modeling of real wave field characteristics. Another aspect of the problem is to determine, using radiation field measurements in the near zone, the acoustic characteristics of low-frequency sound sources, since, as a rule, such measurements cannot be done in the far zone, or at least in conditions close to free space. In such a situation, obtaining additional information about the field is decisive, with the given space-and-time sample volume. It follows from the general theory of sound (and, to a certain extent, from

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hydrodynamics, if we consider acoustic waves, low-frequency waves in particular, as a special case), that a complete description of an acoustic field requires simultaneous definition of the pressure field and the velocity field of the wave. As it was shown and substantiated in later work, such an approach is preferable for low-frequency signals and in complex acoustic fields, when the relation between the pressure and the vibrational speed of medium particles may a priori be unknown. As a person with a wide point-of-view and great experience accumulated in low-frequency atmospheric acoustics, where these problems arose primarily for closed spaces, as well as having an extensive experience in hydroacoustics (particularly, during work on problems of the defense application of hydroacoustics in the war years), S. N. Rzhevkin understood the necessity of decisive steps toward the development of acoustic systems, which would be able to increase the quality of acoustic measurements (of weak low-frequency signals, in particular) to a principally new level. Thus, beginning in the late 1940s, in addition to working on existing problems, the Chair of Acoustics concentrated its efforts on developing devices and methods for receiving hydroacoustic signals. S. N. Rzhevkin initiated research into the development and design of a receiver for measuring vector characteristics of an acoustic field. Rayleigh was the first person to point out and give a sufficient substantiation to an opportunity for measuring vibrational speed of particles of a medium (1882). He made the first instrument for quantitative measurement of vibrational speed in air, known as the Rayleigh disc. Certain advantages of an acoustic receiver registering the vector characteristics of the field were discussed in the above-noted article by K. V. Dryusdel, translated into Russian by S. N. Rzhevkin. The first attempts to use a sound pressure-gradient hydrophone abroad date back to the 1930s (laboratory research by K. Tamp and E. Mayer in Germany). Direct pressure-gradient measurements became possible only with the appearance of the ribbon microphone in 1931. In the same year, H. F. Olson attempted to synthesize complex directivity patterns with the use of a sound–pressure hydrophone and a pressure–gradient

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hydrophone. In 1941, an instrument for acoustic energy flux measurements on the basis of a sound pressure–gradient hydrophone was built. In the book Underwater Electroacoustic Measurements by R. J. Bobber it is noted that the first pressure-gradient hydrophone was made in 1942 in the United States for the Navy at Bell Telephone Laboratories. However, in the beginning, some difficulties arose due to an absence of transducers capable of ensuring stable operation in water. They had to be small in size, as compared to the wavelength, and should have sufficiently low threshold response levels. For this reason, such hydrophones initially found no application. At the turn of the decade (1940–1950s), a hydrophone in the form of a hollow spherical capsule with a flexible plate, pasted with the crystals of Seignette salt, was made at the Chair of Acoustics of MSU with the participation of V. A. Dobrosklonsky and post-graduate student V. V. Filipkov. Already the first results obtained by V. V. Filipkov in 1951, in the course of the sea experimental recording of infrasonic waves (of several Hertz frequency) generated by a storm hundreds of kilometers away with the help of the new type of hydrophone, showed good prospects for the application of such hydrophones in practical hydroacoustics. It was necessary to provide rigorous theoretical substantiation of hydrophone operation in different hydroacoustic fields. In the early 1950s, bearing in mind the importance of creating hydrophones of a new type, which later became known as vector hydrophones, S. N. Rzhevkin, proceeding from Rayleigh’s solution for plane wave diffraction on a sphere, considered the problem of vibration of a small, as compared with the wavelength, sphere and showed the possibility of determining the vibrational speed of the particles of a medium due to an acoustic wave using a seismometer-type device placed inside a capsule. His paper was published in 1956 in the Acoustic Journal. Later, S. N. Rzhevkin developed the theory of sphere vibrations due to an acoustic wave for the case when the size is comparable to the wavelength, taking into account the acoustic wave diffraction by the sphere. This paper was the first publication accessible to a wide circle of specialists. The possible principles of measuring field vector characteristics, and vibrational speed in particular, were substantiated in this work.

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Practically from that moment, under the guidance of S. N. Rzhevkin with the participation of V. S. Nesterov, L. N. Zakharov, F. V. Rozhin, O. S. Tonakanov, A. V. Boltnikov, F. A. Toporovsky, and others, systematic work on creation of pressure–gradient hydrophones began at the Chair. In the same year, 1956, an article by C. B. Lesley, J. M. Kendall and J. L. Jones describing possible types of velocity hydrophones based on the same principle was published in the Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. Analyzing domestic and foreign studies and publications on the matter, S. N. Rzhevkin noted several times that in the early 1950s the workers of the Chair of Acoustics understood the significance of the problem and the prospects for hydroacoustic system development, and by approximately 10 years forestalled foreign specialists. But in the second half of the 1950s, the US Department of Defense started to provide significant funding for the development of new types of hydrophones. The preparatory and research period was shortened considerably as a result. Already in the mid-1950s, the hydrophone 1A was designed in the United States for the needs of the Navy. Later, its mass production began, and its modernized version served as a basis for creation of a sonobuoy AN/SSQ-53 and its two modifications operating, respectively, in ranges 10–500 Hz and 8–2000 Hz. Nevertheless, if was only in the 1960s that American specialists managed to design a simple and sufficiently manufacturable pressure-gradient hydrophone with a stationary housing and a piezoelectric ceramicsbased transducer, comparable to the acoustic characteristics of the hydrophones designed at our Chair of Hydroacoustics in the early 1950s. In the period between 1962 and 1969, the US Congress allotted several hundred million dollars for the research on this topic alone. In 1968, series production of principally new sonobuoys, using vectorphase methods of signal processing, began for the needs of the US Navy. Further development of manufacturing methods of piezoelectric transducers enabled the design in Japan of a two-channel pressure gradient hydrophone with bimorphous transducers. In 1974, a combined hydrophone (ensuring simultaneous measurement of sound pressure and two orthogonal components of sound pressure gradient in water)

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was made using its design, which, beginning in 1977, was used by the US Navy as an acoustic system for the sonobuoys AN/SSQ-53a with the working range from 10 to 2500 Hz. In our country, series production of quality vector hydrophones has never taken place. Despite all this, as S. N. Rzhevkin noted in his report at the meeting of the MSU administration in December 1978, “… in terms of research in this new important area, in the mid-1960s we had been at a higher level compared to the foreign countries. ” The workers of the Chair of Acoustics actively employed vector hydrophones in their research. Several dozen hydrophones manufactured in the training-andproduction shops of the Faculty of Physics found their way to different groups throughout the country.

3. Creation of Its Own Experimental Facility and Further Development of Research in Hydroacoustics The first steps of the Chair, which coincided with the war and the first post-war years, entailed great difficulties. The golden age of the Chair began after it moved to a new building in the Leninskiye Gory in the fall of 1953. Moving to a new location was particularly beneficial for initiating research into hydroacoustics. S. N. Rzhevkin, who had been appointed the chairman of the commission for construction of the new building for the Faculty of Physics, tried to use to the full the unique opportunity for providing a facility for future work at the highest experimental level. For the new building of the Faculty of Physics special areas were designed and built, well adapted for all kinds of acoustic measurements. A special construction of a reverberation chamber, which absolutely lacked any parallel walls, was developed. However in the first place, we should mention, of course, a large acoustic chamber about 100 m2 . It presented a huge ferroconcrete structure mounted on special “shockabsorbers” for the purpose of sound-proofing and its isolation from external vibrations and coated with special sound absorbers. That was the country’s first sound-proof acoustic chamber, which later played an important role in development of new types of hydrophones and

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refinement of various hydroacoustic techniques in controlled model conditions, which preceded full-scale sea tests. A special basin of 40 m2 and 4 m deep was built in the basement of the Faculty building for hydroacoustic research. A hydroacoustic test range was organized at the Klyazma water storage reservoir near Moscow (later it was moved to the Pirogovskoye water storage reservoir). It permitted conducting hydroacoustic research under conditions close to full-scale sea tests, but controlled at the same time. Having their own experimental facility with sufficient material and technical support permitted involving senior-course, undergraduate, and post-graduate students in both theoretical work and direct participation in full-scale experiments. It was not by chance that the results of many students’ studies in hydroacoustics were published in several major scientific journals. As a result, beginning in 1960, a new trend, the vector-phase methods in acoustics, was formed under the guidance of S. N. Rzhevkin and L. N. Zakharov. The use of vector hydrophones added a new aspect to acoustic field investigation. It offered an opportunity to pose and solve different topical problems of acoustics and hydroacoustics using a principally new approach. The advantages of combined hydrophone systems, as compared to the traditional ones, based on pressure hydrophones, are most pronounced in situations where space limitations prevent the placement of the traditional system in the medium. With a single combined system, a qualitative leap occurs, giving the point hydrophone system a new quality — the ability to locate the position of a sound source. Another feature of the point combined hydrophone system incorporating a vector hydrophone (detector of acoustic pressure gradient or vibrational speed projections) consists in the ability to make direct measurements of acoustic energy (power) flux, that is, to discriminate the part of the flux due to field anisotropy or the presence of deterministic sources in the medium. Besides, simultaneous measurement of several field components without amplitude-phase aberrations allows analyzing the nature of medium particle movement in a wave (polarization analysis) for the

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purpose of classification. The latter is of particular importance, when vector hydrophones are located in the vicinity of oceanic fronts, in the bottom of water bodies or in the Earth’s crust (vector hydrophone application as geophones). Thus two main directions are formulated: (1) use of vector hydrophones for investigating the structure of acoustic fields; (2) use of vector hydrophones for solving the applied problems of hydroacoustics. The workers of the Chair of Acoustics initiated broad studies in both areas. Based on the results of a series of research projects conducted using vector hydrophones, the concept of vector-phase methods of acoustics was formulated (S. N. Rzhevkin and L. N. Zakharov, 1971–1974). The principal results of this work were summarized in 1980 in the dissertation by L. N. Zakharov for his doctor’s degree in physics and mathematics. But this did not mean holding up the development of other directions at the Chair. Traditionally, the Chair conducted research work searching for the methods, facilities, and algorithms for solving hydroacoustic problems based on pressure field measurements. The efforts of V. A. Burov (today, Doctor of Physics and Mathematics, State Prize winner, Professor of MSU) were concentrated on the problems of statistical hydroacoustics. At present, the general approach to the problems of acoustic location (hydroacoustics, oceanology, medical diagnostics, and nondestructive evaluation of materials) as inverse problems of radiation and scattering is being developed under his guidance. These problems are connected with rather sophisticated methods of mathematical physics, since they combine ill posedness inherent to inverse problems, and nonlinearity caused by multiple scattering. The applied part of the work carried out by V. A. Burov’s group is connected with tomography of the ocean, medical tomography, and information-intensive non-destructive evaluation of materials. This

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direction, which focuses on finding the optimal methods of statistical signal processing, is successfully developed at the Chair for solving important tasks. The applied works by V. A. Burov in the area of hydroacoustics were awarded the State Prize. The study in the physics of nonharmonic vibrations was and is being conducted at a high level at the present time. This area includes first of all nonlinear acoustics, one of the main scientific research directions of the Chair today (works by V. A. Krasilnikov, L. K. Zarembo, V. Ye. Lyamov, O. Yu. Serdobolskaya, I. Yu. Solodov, and others). The research into nonlinear acoustics, which started at the Chair back in the 1950s, was stimulated both by gaps in the fundamentals of acoustics and by the practical requirements of using intense sound sources. Later, large-amplitude waves became the subject of investigations in other areas of physics, resulting in emergence of a new area of science — the theory of nonlinear waves. In the mid-1950s to early 1960s, V. A. Krasilnikov and L. K. Zarembo for the first time discovered through experiments large nonlinearities in fluids and solids, strongly displayed even at moderate sound intensities. This research stimulated the development of nonlinear acoustics both in this country and abroad. Scientific research in nonlinear acoustics at the Chair was significantly expanded after the appointment of O. V. Rudenko (a student of R. V. Khokhlov, State and Lomonosov Prizes winner, Corresponding Member of RAS since 1997) as the head of the Chair. 4. Development of Applied Research into Vector-Phase Methods In the mid-1950s, on the initiative of several Navy and industry organizations, research in hydroacoustics in this country was significantly expanded. Pioneering investigations were carried out into signal fluctuations of sound after underwater propagation, the acoustic properties of the seafloor, and its influence on sound propagation at sea. In the same period, the Chair initiated a study on new methods of wave and vibrational process measurement. In the course of this work vector hydrophones were improved and their design received new development. As a result, an opportunity was created for more

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detailed investigation of the structure of complex acoustic fields, as well as for solving a number of inverse problems of physics with the application of acoustic methods. The use of this concept permitted development of new techniques and devices for gathering information about properties of a medium, its boundaries and bodies submerged in it. Technique refinement was carried out at the hydroacoustic test range of the Chair of Acoustics, which during the time turned into a unique metrological laboratory where acoustic processes in the ocean were modeled. During many years the test range water volume became well studied in every detail. Its hydrological characteristics in different times of the year were determined as well as the depths and acoustic parameters of the seafloor over an area stretching to several kilometers. It should be noted that the work was never limited to academic interests only. S. N. Rzhevkin tried to bring all investigations to practical application. Thus, during the whole period of its functioning the Chair maintained regular direct contact with many leading organizations working in the area of hydroacoustics, which introduced new facilities and techniques in practice. These traditions were continued at the Chair after the death of S. N. Rzhevkin. In the 1950s, Yu. M. Sukharevskiy organized the Sukhumi Marine Research Station of the Institute of Acoustics of RAS. The research of sound propagation in seawater, sound scattering and radiation by shells, etc. was carried out under his guidance and with his direct participation. Already in 1958, jointly with the colleagues from the Sukhumi Marine Research Station, the workers of the Chair of Acoustics developed and prepared for experiments a set of equipment based on vector hydrophones. In Sukhumi, S. N. Rzhevkin and L. N. Zakharov met V. I. Il’ichev, the future director of the Pacific Oceanological Institute of RAS, who later played an important role in the development of vector-phase methods. In 1959–1960, full-scale experiments were continued in the Ladoga Lake, on the research grounds of the CRI Gidropribor. This work stimulated the development of systems based on vector hydrophones at the CRI Gidropribor.

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The work conducted in 1961–1967 in the Crimea near Feodosia was an important stage of full-scale research with the use of vector hydrophones. For the first time under natural sea conditions, a vector hydrophone was used for measuring the level of hydrodynamic flow noise. As is known, in such a noise field, the information, obtained with the use of hydrophones only, fails to provide a clear view of the noise level and the mechanisms of generation of flow noises caused by movement of finite-size bodies in the water. The need for developing the methods for reducing flow noise necessitated research into the nature and the structure of such noise, as well as revealing the causes of its generation, by way of measurements in the near field. To solve this problem, in addition to a special hydrophone, a device for analog information recording was designed at the Chair. It was our country’s first tape recorder, which in its electroacoustic parameters was as good as the Bruel&Kjaer 4-channel analog tape recorder (which is still in production). Serious attention was paid to the protection of the tape recorder parts and units from external vibrations, since it was meant to be placed inside an object, the flow noises of which were to be investigated. In 1969–1970, similar work was continued at the Black Sea hydroacoustic test grounds near Gagry. In the 1970s, the CRI for Physical-Technical and Radiotechnical Measurements (CRI PTRM) actively joined the research on vector hydrophones application conducted by the Chair. The work was conducted on the Ladoga Lake near Landenpokhya Village and in the Baltic Sea. One of the tasks of the workers of the Chair was testing techniques for measuring the acoustic characteristics of the seafloor, earlier developed and tested in the course of multiple experiments at the Chair test range in the Pirogovskoye water storage reservoir. This work was done with a view to further investigate the influence of seafloor parameters on sound propagation in the relatively shallow Baltic Sea. This work was generalized in the dissertation of the present senior researcher of the Chair, B. I. Goncharenko. The study on vector-phase methods conducted by the Chair attracted the attention of a number of leading organizations. In 1972, the Chairman of the Council for Hydrophysics of the Presidium of RAS

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A. P. Aleksandrov (future President of RAS) visited the Chair. Later, he often helped to conduct work on this subject. In 1975, Rector of the University R. V. Khokhlov and Deputy Commander-in-Chief the Navy Admiral N. I. Smirnov also visited the Chair. They approved the work conducted by the Chair in the area of vector-phase methods and made a joint decision to organize a research laboratory on vector-phase methods at the Chair. It was planned to include a staff of 25 people, and expanded training of specialists on the base of the laboratory. But, once again, these plans by S. N. Rzhevkin were never implemented. In 1975, S. N. Rzhevkin was dismissed from his position as head of the Chair of Acoustics. After that, the center of gravity of research on the vector-phase theme shifted to the Chair of Sea and Ground Waters of the Geophysical Department of the MSU Faculty of Physics (the Chair head was Prof. V. M. Gusev). By order of the MSU Rector, a laboratory of acoustics and hydroacoustics was organized at this Chair, S. N. Rzhevkin was appointed its head and worked there until his death in 1981. From 1981, one of S. N. Rzhevkin’s disciples and close assistants at the MSU Faculty of Physics, Dr. Phys. Math Sc. L. N. Zakharov was the head of the laboratory. Only in 1987, after the death of L. N. Zakharov, did the workers of the laboratory of acoustics and hydroacoustics return to the Chair of Acoustics. Beginning at that time, the study on the vector-phase theme was conducted under the guidance of the author of this article. By the end of the 1970s, the main bulk of the research under realistic conditions shifted to the Far East. There, in Vladivostok, at the Pacific Oceanological Institute of the Far-East Division of RAS (POI), with the active assistance of Director of POI Corresponding Member of RAS V. I. Il’ichev (later, Academician, Chairman of the Presidium of FED RAS and Vice-President of RAS), a laboratory for vector-phase methods was organized (with Cand. Phys. Math. Sc. V. A. Shchurov as its head). With the facilities of this laboratory, the workers of the MSU had the opportunity to participate in research of the vectorphase method of acoustic field measurement under real deep-ocean conditions.

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In the mid-1980s, an important event took place. The head of the laboratory of acoustics and hydroacoustics of the MSU Faculty of Physics, L. N. Zakharov, was simultaneously appointed the head of a new department organized with his active participation at the N. N. Andreyev Institute of Acoustics. The main task of the new department was to develop vector-phase methods as applied to the topical problems of hydroacoustics. In 1986, a joint expedition of the Faculty of Physics and the Institute of Acoustics to the Black Sea was organized. Within the scope of this project, the techniques of tuning and adjustment of vector hydrophone-based arrays were perfected in real sea conditions. The study was conducted in Gelendzhik, at the researchexperimental base of RPA Kvant. With the joint efforts of workers of the MSU and the newly organized department of the Institute of Acoustics, a 6-component combined array (an improved version of drifting 3- and 5-component arrays, which the MSU workers used in the Pacific in the expedition on board the RV Academician Lavrentyev in 1995) was deployed at sea. It should be noted that by that time a vector hydrophone-based array had already been made at the RPA Kvant. The electrokinetic sound pressure–gradient hydrophones developed in the same Institute were employed. V. G. Dmitriyev supervised the work of the RPA Kvant. As a result of the joint efforts of workers of the Chair of Acoustics and the country’s leading organizations and the wide appreciation of new capabilities and techniques, supported by the results of high-quality experiments, new scientific-research and practical trends took shape in a number of research organizations. (These organizations included CRI Gidropribor, Kiev RI of Hydrological Instruments, DB Shtorm of the Kiev Polytechnical Institute, CRI PTRM, and Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI). The creation of special measuring facilities and the manufacture of new special equipment was organized. The research on sound detection and direction finding were brought to the stage of employment in industrial-produced equipment. As a result of the projects conducted at the Chair, a team of workers was created capable of solving the complex problems of modern hydroacoustics, both theoretically and experimentally.

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5. Research into Fundamental Laws of Formation of Vector-Phase Structure of Acoustic Fields The broad experience with vector hydrophone-based receiving devices obtained by the Chair’s workers, as well as the opportunities to use the experimental facilities of the country’s leading organizations in hydroacoustics, in particular the POI FED RAS, allowed a focusing on the solution to one of the most important problems; namely, research into the fundamental laws of interrelation between scalar, vector and phase (differential-phase) characteristics of fields of deterministic and noise sources in a real ocean. This research led to certain conclusions about the adequacy of joint measurements of fields with different types of hydrophones. The latter is not self-evident, since concrete relations between the scalar and vector parameters of an acoustic field significantly depend on the mechanisms and conditions of the field’s formation. The same research simultaneously helped reveal the factors determining the potential of acoustic systems based on pressure– gradient hydrophones, particularly in the area of expanding the scope of their functional applications, increasing stability against noise, and improving accuracy. An important factor is that the investigation of acoustic fields of sources from the point of view of metrological tasks is complicated by the inevitable presence of acoustic noise fields (ambient noise) and fields scattered by medium inhomogeneities. The presence of noise necessitates the enlargement of the amount of acoustic information in order to ensure the required metrological accuracy of the measurements, as well as the application of special noise-resistant methods of its acquisition for further processing. Efficiency of the latter naturally depends on noise field characteristics, the study of which also falls within the necessary scope of metrological problems. It is the knowledge of fundamental laws of the ocean influence on the generated acoustic field that gives an opportunity to expand the potential applications of the facilities and methods. Some relatively recent results have been published in papers by the Chair specialists. To understand many problems of vector hydrophones in sonar systems and to reveal the interrelation between the vector and scalar characteristics of acoustic fields, the Chair conducted a study of noise

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fields in water at the test grounds at the Pirogovskoye water storage reservoir in 1967–1971. Over a long period of time, measurement statistics was gathered in the frequency range of 2–1000 Hz in different weather conditions (rain, hail, snow, calm, calm with fog, and wind from 2 to 15 m/s.). Noise measurements were carried out under ice and at night in the winter. The researchers found a relatively simple algorithm for comparing data on dynamic noise measured by different types of hydrophones. Since the acoustic characteristics of the bottom of the test range were well known, the water body could, with significant confidence, be described within the framework of the model of a horizontally-homogeneous water layer. There was no navigation at the test range, the coastal zone was practically free from sources of additional noises, and so many most important aspects of sound propagation were simulated with a computer. These results formed the basis of a dissertation for a candidate’s degree of Ye. L. Gordienko, on the work which was carried out jointly with CRI PTRM. As far as we know, this was the first generalization of the results of measurement of the vector-phase structure of the noise field generated by dynamic processes in the water. The pioneering work by Ye. L. Gordienko permitted establishing a program of further research into the fundamental laws of formation of the vector-phase structure of fields of deterministic and noise sources in the ocean. This phase of work was carried out under the guidance and with the direct participation of L. N. Zakharov and V. A. Gordienko, and was reflected in their publications — even after the death of L. N. Zakharov. It is important to note that the statistical data was gathered in different regions of the Pacific, Indian, and Atlantic Oceans and the Black and Mediterranean Seas. To avoid the influence of own-ship noise, a sailing yacht was taken on board on one of the joint trips with POI FED RAS. The measurements of ocean noise in the Pacific and Indian Oceans were made from this yacht. The recording and processing equipment was so designed as to allow it to be powered with 12 and 24 V standard storage batteries without recharging for several days.

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6. Development and Design of Vector Hydrophones and Combined Hydrophone Systems All this time the Chair’s workers actively worked on creating different designs for vector hydrophones to address different tasks. They were granted over a dozen invention certificates and patents for the most promising variants. In summary, one of the first vector hydrophone designs (which could be called the basic design) was proposed by a group of workers including S. N. Rzhevkin, L. N. Zakharov, and O. S. Tonakanov. The design of the most widely distributed version, used by MSU, POI FED RAS, Research Center (RC) Kristall, research institutes of MD and a number of other organizations, was patented by the Chair workers in 1988. For measurements in the range of 12–15 kHz, a special high-frequency, three-component vector hydrophone was designed. Jointly with the Acad. N. N. Andreyev Institute of Acoustics, a cylindrical-type two-component hydrophone was designed. Another design was a two-component combined lamellar hydrophone made together with RI-3 of MD. Some designs of hydrophones with rather low response threshold for the low-frequency range were also developed.

7. Research into Vector-Phase Methods Application in Solving Applied Problems The practical introduction of acoustic measurements by pressure– gradient hydrophones permitted an expansion, or simplify in terms of methodology, of the scope of the problems that could be solved at the expense of the use of the results of scalar–vector parameter measurement of an acoustic field in a limited space. One of the important problems solved by the Chair of Acoustics workers jointly with the laboratory of vector-phase methods of POI FED RAS was the problem of finding the direction to a localized source by using field measurements at a point, including the case when the signal-to-noise ratio is low. In 1987–1988, in the Vityaz Bay of the Sea of Japan, at the experimental facility of POI, a complex comprising three bottomed

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stations separated in space was installed. Each station included two three-component vector hydrophones designed at MSU, with a system of data compression for transfer to shore designed at Kiev RI of Hydrological Instruments. Quite simple algorithms, realized using a PC-type computer, permitted finding the direction to the passing ships, and using the triangulation methods, to localize the position of sources in the horizontal plane. Almost immediately the existing system revealed a series of drawbacks in the use of simple direction finding algorithms, for example, the presence of a significant systematic error depending on the signal-tonoise ratio at the output of the processing system. The idea of the system served as a basis for the study that is currently underway at the RC Kristall. In addition to this, the MSU workers handed over to the RC Kristall the draft drawings of vector hydrophones designed at MSU. They were used to assemble the first batch of vector hydrophones with the direct participation of the MSU. Unfortunately, the development of direction finding algorithms of the RC Kristall still remains at the level of the mid-1980s, despite the important efforts toward the development of better noise-stable algorithms of signal processing that have been made at the Chair of Acoustics, the RPA Uran in Saint Petersburg, and the State Metrological Center for Hydroacoustic Measurements of the CRI PTRM. (The Chair has cooperated with the latter actively since 1991). It is worth listing some of the problems addressed in recent years at the Chair of Acoustics of the Faculty of Physics of MSU by using vector-phase techniques: (1) a method of sound source classification allowing acoustic field classification by at least three types of fields: diffuse field, standing waves field, anisotropic (coherent) field; and, by near-field measurements of phase difference, or of the relations WI /WR and Prχ /Vr , elementary sources classification: a monopole, a dipole, a quadrupole etc.; (2) a method that is noise-stable to external acoustic sources for determining directivity patterns in remote zones that avoids approximations connected with the need to calculate the term containing the complex component;

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(3) a method of acoustic parameters estimation of the seafloor based on the use of the results of simultaneous measurement of pressure, the vibrational speed from a monopole-type source and/or their phase-differential relations, and on the opportunity for direct evaluation of the complex impedance at the water–ground boundary; (4) a method for separating the contributions to ocean noises from different types of sources by measurements made by a single combined hydrophone system, by the relation between the vertical component of vibrational speed and sound pressure; (5) a method for estimating characteristic sizes of small-scale inhomogeneities in the ocean; (6) a method for separating the contributions of noises generated by the ocean rough surface and by discrete sources; (7) a method of ocean noise measurement from a stopped ship having no silent mode of operation; (8) a method of investigation of fluctuations of amplitude, phase, phase-differential characteristics and angles of signal arrival in a randomly inhomogeneous ocean; (9) a technique of tuning combined receiving arrays in shallow sea. 8. Work on the Vector-Phase Method Metrological Support Along with the beginning of vector hydrophone application in acoustic field measurements, there occurred a need for strict theoretical verification of the use of such hydrophones in different hydrological and acoustic conditions, and metrological support to measurements of the characteristics of the manufactured hydrophones. Already the first investigations (the results of which were partly included in the dissertation of L. N. Zakharov and O. S. Tonakanov) revealed certain difficulties in this area. However methods were finally worked out and the devices for vector hydrophone calibration were designed, both at the Chair and in other organizations. It should be noted that until now there have not been any special standards for pressure–gradient hydrophones. In this country, when using such hydrophones for measurements, the use is made of the

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standards MI 1620-87 and GOST 8.179-76. However, the technique of data reduction to true values of field acoustic characteristics in water and in air still remains unregulated. In our opinion, the work on ensuring the metrological support to measurements carried out by the Chair of Acoustics workers have solved this problem, which at the present moment only awaits the development of respective norms and standards.

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Training of Engineering and Research Personnel in Applied Hydroacoustics at the Marine Technical University K. I. ROGOZHNIKOV and G. M. SVERDLIN

1. Training of Engineering Personnel The regular training of engineering and research personnel specializing in applied hydroacoustics began in 1948 at the Faculty of Marine Instruments Engineering (then the Faculty of Design) of the St. Petersburg State Marine Technical University — SMTU (before 1990, the Leningrad Shipbuilding Institute — LSI). The specialists were trained in the design and operation of underwater weapons. Before World War II, mines and torpedoes with electromagnetic non-contact exploders (NCE) were in service by the Navy and the design of acoustic homing systems for torpedoes and acoustic NCE’s for submarine mines was well under way. The first home acoustic NCE Krab for anchored mines was designed at DB of Plant 206 (today, the Vodtranspribor Plant) and put into service during the war years. Its designers, Z. N. Umikov and A. M. Borushko, were awarded the Stalin Prize (see the article by Z. N. Umikov “Krab: A Fuse for Acoustic Mines” — Ed.). The World War II experience as well as the wide and effective use of acoustic torpedoes and mines by the German and British fleets lead to increased development of mine-and-torpedo hydroacoustics and the respective trainings of engineering and research personnel. Therefore, a new specialization in non-contact engineering, including hydroacoustic devices for defense applications, was introduced at the LSI in 1948 and a Chair of Marine Information Systems was organized. This 1118

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specialization included the theory and techniques of acquiring information from acoustic and other marine hydrophysical fields and the electronic devices for processing and using the information obtained. In addition to the general problems of hydroacoustics, array engineering, electroacoustic transducers, and acoustic measurements, the curriculum envisaged the study of the disciplines such as hydrophysics, electronics, automatics and the non-contact engineering devices in service by the domestic and foreign fleets. A graduate was listed as an “electromechanical engineer of marine instrument engineering.” That was the first electromechanical specialization introduced at the LSI with the approval of the Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry and the Ministry of Higher Education and actively supported by LSI Director, Prof. Ye. V. Tovstykh, Dean of Faculty, Prof. B. I. Shtafinsky and the heads of related Chairs V. I. Yegorov, L. L. Myasnikov, and A. I. Shevelo, who assigned lecturers from their staff to work at the newly organized Chair. V. M. Shakhnovich was the Chair’s first head, simultaneously working at the RI of Marine Technologies (RIMT). In the war years, as an officer of the Naval Engineering Service, jointly with Prof. O. B. Bron, he investigated German submarine weapons and was well versed with non-contact acoustical systems. In 1958, the first domestic acoustic antisubmarine torpedo SET-53 was designed under his guidance. In the new torpedo, the direction finding in the vertical plane was carried out by the equal-signal method with phase-amplitude directional pattern forming. In the horizontal plane, it was done by the maximummodulation method with mechanical directional pattern scanning (by rotation of the array). One of the designers of this torpedo, Colonel Engineer Dr. Tech. Sc. V. M. Shakhnovich was awarded the Lenin Prize. He headed the Chair until 1952, and continued teaching at the Chair for more than 25 years after that. The first lectures in hydroacoustics and hydrophysics were given by L. L. Myasnikov, a world famous scientist, specialist in hydroacoustics, acoustic measurements, and acoustic pattern recognition. Before the war, L. L. Myasnikov had an internship in the United States. During 1946–1972, he headed the Chair of Physics at the LSI and initiated research into hydroacoustics. I. L. Krasilshchik and A. A. Yanpolsky, research workers from CRI Morfizpribor, were invited to lecture on hydroacoustics.

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In 1950, on the recommendation of V. M. Shakhnovich, a researcher of the RIMT, G. M. Sverdlin, a graduate of the Institute of Cinema Engineers in electroacoustics, was invited to work as an instructor to the LSI. G. M. Sverdlin developed and introduced a course in hydroacoustics that included lectures, exercises, course design work, and laboratory work. He actively participated in the work of the Editorial Board of The Library of a Hydroacoustics Engineer at the Sudostroyenie Publishers, co-authored the first home edition of the Reference Book on Hydroacoustics (1982–1988) and was one of the compilers of a selection of works by L. Ya. Gutin. The major obstacle in personnel training was the lack of training literature. The first training aid, though limited in use, was A Course in General Hydroacoustics, written by M. G. Grigoryev in 1940. At the LSI, G. M. Sverdlin compiled several training and methodological aids for students in the period between 1950 and 1970. In 1976, the country’s first training manual Applied Hydroacoustics was published under the authority of the Ministry of Higher Education at the Sudostroyenie Publishers. The second edition of the same book came out in 1990. Later, training manuals on hydroacoustics and submarine transducers by Yu. P. Ogurtsov and A. I. Reznichenko (Piezoelectric and Magnetostrictive Transducers (Pyezoelektricheskiye i magnitostriktsionnye preobrazovateli)) and S. B. Yegorov (The Spectral-Correlation Theory of Hydroacoustic Fields (Spektralno-korrelyatsionnaya teoriya gidroakusticheskikh polei)) were published. The manual for technical schools Hydroacoustic Transducers and Arrays by G. M. Sverdlin had two editions and Yu. P. Ogurtsov, S. A. Odegov, and G. M. Sverdlin compiled training aids on laboratory and practical subjects. The lecture course on the theory and design of acoustic torpedo homing systems was introduced and read by V. M. Shakhnovich. N. N. Gorokhov gave lectures on theory and design of acoustic NCE for mines and torpedoes. The latter was the head of the Chair until 1962 and then continued reading lectures on this subject for another 10 years. In 1948–1950, the LSI graduates specialized in hydroacoustics for their diploma design work. Several prominent specialists in hydroacoustics were among the LSI graduates of that period, namely M. G. Neruchev, a specialist in hydroacoustic measurements, N. N. Shaposhnikov, the SMTU professor reading a course of lectures in

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torpedo hydroacoustics, A. A. Mosyagin, a chief designer of side scanning sonar for seafloor mine detection, and M. B. Shvartsman, a developer of vibrational speed infrasonic sensors for ground mine NCE’s. The routine graduation of the hydroacoustic specialists from among the LSI students and those transferred from the Moscow and Leningrad aviation institutes began in 1951. Many of the graduates having mastered this new field of technology made serious contributions to the development of torpedo hydroacoustics. Among them were D. P. Klimovets, the author of self-homing devices Sapfir, S. P. Skovoroda, the Lenin Prize winner, the coauthor of the design of equipment for the SET-53 torpedo, and N. V. Shakhov, the creator of torpedo acoustic NCEs. Generally speaking, from several thousand graduates, several hundred dedicated themselves to the creation of hydroacoustic equipment for submarine weapons. Unfortunately we cannot name them all. Here are a few who had grown to stand at the head of plants or organizations developing and manufacturing hydroacoustic equipment: V. I. Zhdanov, G. P. Korsakov, I. S. Kurbatov, G. S. Petrov, I. V. Postnikov, S. G. Proshkin, V. P. Pylev, G. N. Utkin, G. N. Khudin, A. V. Chizhikov, and L. I. Yakubenko. The main “consumer” of LSI graduates in hydroacoustics was CRI Hydropribor. Among the leaders of departments and sectors of this institution developing hydroacoustic equipment are such LSI graduates as B. P. Belov, V. P. Bolshov, N. Ye. Yevtushenko, B. A. Kaznakov, V. S. Kozhin, G. B. Konik, O. A. Kvyatkovsky, L. A. Kuturushev, V. Ya. Lazarev, M. V. Makarov, O. I. Parkhomenko, A. T. Skorobogatov, I. I. Suderevsky, and I. A. Fyodorov. Graduates Yu. M. Vorobyov, B. G. Kalminsky, M. G. Pertsovsky, M. D. Petrenko, B. P. Sukhin, R. A. Timir-Galiyev, I. L. Sherman, and Ye. A. Shestakov became prominent specialists in mine hydroacoustics. In the area of torpedo hydroacoustics, Ye. F. Azarov, O. V. Alkhov, Z. A. Barashkova, V. Ye. Boichenko, O. P. Boriskin, V. R. Gessen, Yu. G. Ivanov, Yu. P. Kabin, Yu. M. Malyshev, T. B. Ogarkovskaya, N. Ye. Fenev, Yu. I. Sharov, and A. L. Shkolnikov became known as great specialists.

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L. V. Veshchukov had great success in the area of hydroacoustic equipment for divers. V. P. Yeremeyev, A. A. Kazin, P. A. Sukhoparov, and L. S. Frolov worked successfully at CRI Hydropribor. In 1988, a branch of the Chair was opened at CRI Hydropribor. Many graduates received assignments for CRI Morfizpribor, where for many years they contributed to the creation of shipborne hydroacoustic equipment. Among them were A. M. Bruk, the head of the hydroacoustic transducers department, O. A. Dudakov, leading specialists O. M. Klapneva, N. Yu. Alekseyeva, Cand. Tech. Sc. Ye. I. Postnikov, Cand. Tech. Sc. I. L. Rubanov, V. S. Ganichev, and others. The LSI graduates specializing in applied hydroacoustics worked at many other shipbuilding and naval enterprises and organizations. A. Yu. Chizhov worked at the Acad. A. N. Krylov CRI. A. R. Isakov — at the Acad. N. N. Andreyev ACIN, S. A. Bykov — at the Admiralty Dockyard, V. M. Polyakov — at the Northern Dockyard. They also worked at numerous plants all over the country, namely E. I. Pashkovsky at Dvigatel, O. F. Rigalin at Hydropribor in the Crimea, G. G. Lyunenko and A. S. Martysyuk at Dagdizel, V. I. Vorobyov and A. Z. Galimov at Fizpribor in Kirgizia, A. P. Fedotov at Ulan in Kirgizia, A. V. Zykin and Ye. F. Turlapov at the Nizhny Novgorod Instrument Engineering Plant. A. V. Yegorov, N. A. Yegorova, G. A. Yevdonin, V. A. Kalishkin, S. D. Kolokolov, A. B. Melnichenko, S. A. Oleinik, V. V. Pylayev, M. L. Solomyak, O. K. Tazhitdinov, A. N. Fedorov, and others served and worked for the Navy. During 30 years (1962–1992), the Chair was headed by K. I. Rogozhnikov. In 1992, B. P. Belov replaced him in this position. For many years, the State Examination Commission for diploma projects had been working under the guidance of the prominent “miner” A. M. Borushko and senior specialist in torpedo hydroacoustics G. M. Soroka. 2. Training of Research Personnel Simultaneously with organizing a chair at the LSI, a respective specialization was opened for post-graduate students. Among the first

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post-graduates who had successfully defended their dissertations for candidate’s degree on hydroacoustics-related subjects were N. N. Shaposhnikov, A. A. Mosyagin, and Yu. Ya. Ryabtsev. The latter was the chief engineer of the RV Sergey Vavilov of ACIN. In the later years, B. P. Belov, G. S. Petrov, G. S. Malyshkin, Yu. S. Klapnev, Yu. P. Ogurtsov, N. N. Gorokhov, V. P. Pavlenko, S. B. Yegorov, Yu. I. Zavyalov, T. V. Zubrilina, N. A. Barkova, S. A. Rodionov, N. I. Balin, V. A. Syrkov, M. V. Bernblit, N. O. Magomayeva, D. A. Malinovsky, Yu. N. Andreyev, B. A. Naumov, F. F. Legusha, G. B. Kozlovsky, V. V. Minin, O. I. Karmadonov, V. V. Martynenko, A. Ye. Kutsko, A. M. Markov, V. I. Bychkov, A. P. Demchenko, I. K. Pimenov, M. V. Arkhipov, S. A. Rykov, A. K. Filimonov, A. I. Setin, and A. Ye. Shchukin successfully completed their post-graduate courses in specializations related to hydroacoustics. In addition, the workers of related organizations and institutes of higher education defended their dissertations for candidate’s and doctor’s degrees at the LSI Specialized (Dissertation) council. The prominent hydroacoustics scientists L. Ya. Gutin, M. D. Smaryshev, Ye. L. Shenderov, and L. Ye. Sobisevich lectured for post-graduate students and applicants. Among post-graduate scientific advisers were L. L. Myasnikov, N. N. Gorokhov, K. I. Rogozhnikov, A. V. Avrinsky, A. A. Mosyatin, V. P. Pantyushov, N. N. Shaposhnikov, and Ya. F. Sharov. Dissertation research was dedicated to the problems of the creation of hydroacoustic systems for underwater weapons. Since 1966, a hydroacoustic basin with sound-absorbing coatings and anti-vibration protection, equipped with measuring and analyzing instruments, has been in intensive use. The basin serves as a laboratory for students’ studies and for research work by post-graduates, faculty, and workers of other organizations. 3. Research Research on the theory and practice of hydroacoustics started at the LSI in 1947 in the laboratory headed by L. L. Myasnikov. This work was carried out under contracts with industrial enterprises and naval

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organizations. Active work was carried out on the design of hydroacoustic NCEs for mines and torpedoes. Theoretical and experimental research and full-scale tests were performed with the participation of faculty, post-graduate students, and the staff members of the Institute N. P. Gromov, N. I. Belikov, A. Ya. Ivanov, and V. M. Kosetsky. The development of mine hydroacoustic NCE’s was successfully completed in 1957 with the construction of a hydroacoustic non-contact exploder for the anchor mine KAM. The most difficult problem in its design was finding the method of discriminating the ship’s echo signals from those coming from the sea surface when the mine was moving due to currents or at rough sea. The exploder was brought to series production at the Kiev Automatic Equipment Plant, headed by the Lenin Prize winner I. S. Kurbatov. The developers of a hydroacoustic non-contact exploder for torpedoes encountered the same difficulties. In addition, they had to cope with the problem of discriminating the echo signal from a surface ship’s wake. Strong sound scattering from a ship’s wake was used in creating torpedo homing systems with vertical and horizontal direction finding. Such a system was realized with the active participation of LSI graduates B. N. Starovoitov, Yu. P. Kabin, Yu. M. Malyshev, D. S. Rod, and others. The problem of creating a torpedo hydroacoustic NCE for surface ships is still considered a difficult problem to solve. In the 1960s, the employees of the Chair created a mobile hydroacoustic system for external trajectory measurement, which was put to use at the test range on Lake Issyk-Kul (Kirgizia). The system originators were Yu. S. Klapnev, Yu. P. Ogurtsov, G. V. Krylov, A. Ye. Kutsko, and V. D. Fedostsev. The work was carried out under the guidance of Prof. K. I. Rogozhnikov. The system included acoustic direction finding and sonar equipment for measuring parameters of the trajectory and speed of self-propelled underwater vehicles. The same group created a portable and economic echo sounder with an original discrete indicator. The echo sounder was displayed at the Russian Technology — 94 show in Lillienhammer (Norway). The group also designed a precision deep-sea sound velocity meter (Fig. 1). In 1974, by the joint efforts of the LSI and the Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry, a sectional research laboratory of marine

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Sound velocity meter.

information systems was organized. The laboratory operated in three main areas. The first area, headed by Prof. N. N. Shaposhnikov, was aimed at finding methods and indices of classification of sound ranging targets, suppression of noise from sonar countermeasures, and increasing the rate of sonar information processing for torpedo hydroacoustic systems. The second area, headed by Associate Professor S. B. Yegorov, concentrated on the search for methods of classification of marine objects and aircraft by their primary hydroacoustic noise field. The third direction, headed by Prof. V. P. Pantyushov, worked on development of target designation and direction finding systems for mine hydroacoustics. The SMTU created the ultrasonic acoustic computer systems for control of the level and uniformity of tanker loading to ensure optimal filling and safe navigation of the tanker fleet. The devices were applied on several ships. The team of researchers, working under the guidance of Associate Professor I. V. Postnikov, developed a series of hydroacoustic navigation systems for small manned submarine vehicles. Namely, the sonar Konus (Fig. 2) for the Bentos-300 and Sever-2 vehicles, the echo sounder for the depth control system for the Mir vehicles, the navigation sonar

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Fig. 2.

Navigation sonar system Konus.

Abissal, the responder beacons for TRANSNAV system for the ships of the Association Sevmorgeologia.

4. Expanded Training of Specialists In the 1960s, the training of personnel in acoustics and hydroacoustics expanded. The Chair of the Protection Equipment was organized at the Faculty of Instrument Engineering in 1966. It was managed by V. I. Yegorov, I. B. Ikonnikov, and A. V. Avrinsky. The wellknown specialists in ship hydroacoustics Ya. F. Sharov, A. S. Nikiforov, G. A. Khoroshev, V. D. Boyarsky, and S. V. Budrin were invited from the Navy and research institutes. Training aids were written by Ya. F. Sharov Vibrations and Radiation of a Ship’s Hull and by M. V. Bernblit, L. N. Kulikov, A. P. Ushakov Noise and Vibrations of Torpedoes. The

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research activity was concentrated mainly on the problems of reducing acoustic detectability of ships and torpedoes. New non-traditional means of suppression of vibroacoustic fields of marine technical objects were developed. Recommendations were tested on large-scale models at the SMTU research-and-training range near Primorsk, equipped with the necessary craft and unique equipment. The study was carried out with the participation of Cand. Tech. Sc. A. A. Barikhin, young specialists, post-graduate students, and under the guidance of Rector of the University Prof. D. M. Rostovtsev. The Chair successfully introduced into the industry methods for noise reduction in automobile engineering, processing and machine engineering. A specialization in ship acoustics was organized at the Faculty of Shipbuilding and Ocean Equipment, and in 1974, the Chair of Ship Acoustics was established. The training of personnel in speciality “Vibration and acoustics of ship borne power plants” was initiated. Prof. I. I. Klyukin, and later, Prof. Yu. I. Petrov, was the head of the Chair. E. P. Babailov and A. A. Kleshchev taught at the Chair. The textbooks used for the trainings were written by I. I. Klyukin (Control of Noise and Vibrations on Ships), I. I. Klyukin and A. A. Kleshchev (Ship Acoustics and The Foundations of Hydroacoustics), E. L. Myshinsky (Vibroacoustic Diagnostics in Shipbuilding), G. A. Khoroshev, Yu. I. Petrov, and N. F. Yegorov (Noise of Ship Ventilation and Air Conditioning Systems). The Chair of Ship Acoustics organized training and retraining courses for specialists in acoustics and shipbuilding. As one of the forms of continuing education, an acoustics seminar initiated by Prof. L. L. Myasnikov has been held regularly at the LSI-SMTU. In different periods, researchers from many organizations, higher education institutions, research institutes, plants, design bureaus of Moscow, Leningrad, Novosibirsk and other cities lectured at those seminars. In 1971, the LSI was the organizer of the VIIth All-Union Acoustics Conference, as well as conferences on marine technologies (1978, 1985). In 1996, the University started to train the specialists with a master’s degree in “Information-measuring systems and the instruments of marine equipment,” which included applied hydroacoustics. Doctors of Science, LSI-SMTU graduates — specialists in hydroacoustics and ship acoustics — include:

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B. P. Belov — increasing noise stability of hydroacoustic arrays of self-propelled self-contained underwater vehicles; O. A. Kvyatkovsky — hydroacoustic arrays for different-application submarine vehicles; Yu. M. Krasnykh — fields and processes simulation; M. L. Krichevsky — imitation of hydroacoustic fields of ships in a wide frequency range; F. F. Legusha — physical acoustics and methods of nondestructive testing of hydroacoustic transducers; A. P. Lyalikov — one of the authors of the Reference Book on Hydroacoustics (1982); G. S. Malyshkin — hydroacoustic information processing, raising systems noise stability and noise resistance; E. L. Myshinsky — vibroacoustics and decreasing noisiness of ship’s power plants; M. G. Neruchev — hydroacoustic measurements; V. P. Pantyushov — statistical methods of mine hydroacoustics; Yu. I. Petrov — vibroacoustics and decreasing noisiness of ship’s systems; L. V. Tuzov — noise control of a ship’s internal combustion engines; A. P. Ushakov — torpedoes silencing, methods of design and construction of means of acoustic protection; G. A. Khoroshev — hydrophysical fields of ships and noise control of air blowers; N. N. Shaposhnikov — sound ranging information processing, ultra high-speed spectral analysis of complex echo signals. The Dissertation Council for Problems of Applied Hydroacoustics, with the right to conduct defense of dissertations for candidate’s degree, has been working at the SMTU since 1954, and for candidate’s and doctor’s degrees, since 1968. Currently, the SMTU is one of the leading schools of higher education in the country, training highly qualified specialists in applied hydroacoustics.

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The History of Development of the Chair of Hydroacoustic Equipment at the A. S. Popov Naval School of Electronic Engineering V. A. BLEDNY, I. S. ZAKHAROV and N. A. IVANOV

During its existence, the Chair of Hydroacoustic Equipment of the A. S. Popov Naval School of Electronic Engineering (NSEE) underwent many changes before it came to be the organization we know today. The history of its development is closely connected with the history of the School. A course in hydroacoustics, or “sound engineering,” as it was called then, was introduced at the Naval School of Communications in 1936. The lecturers were senior instructors of the Special Courses for Command Personnel of the Navy, Engineer 1st Rank G. G. Midin and the head of the Chair of Hydroacoustics of the K. Ye. Voroshilov, Naval Academy Associate Professor V. N. Tyulin. Beginning in 1937, Lieutenant Osetrov, a 1936 graduate of the School, lectured on the course. The course offered lectures on the basics of hydroacoustics, and a study of the passive sonar Mars, the underwater communications sonar systems Vega and Sirius (for submarines), and Arktur (for surface ships) that were manufactured at the Vodtranspribor Plant. In the period of the Great Patriotic War (1941–1945), the School did not function. The communications and radio-engineering specialists were trained at other naval schools. In this connection, it is worth mentioning that the Special Communications School of the Navy in Polyarny played a significant role in training hydroacoustics specialists during the war years. 1129

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The School was established on November 4, 1941, by an order of the People’s Commissar of the Navy Admiral N. G. Kuznetsov. According to the order, the School was to train officers, starshinas (petty officers) and junior specialists to operate the new hydroacoustic sets Asdic (Dragon) imported from Britain. Later, the School trained hydroacoustics specialists for operating WEA and WEA-1 (Scorpio) sonars arriving from the United States with their ships. Engineer Major L. M. Aronov, who had become acquainted with Asdic while in Great Britian, was appointed the School Head. In a short time, he managed to put together a harmonious and highly qualified team of instructors that included Engineer Captain V. S. Anastasevich, Lieutenant Captain N. N. Demyanenko (who soon became the Deputy School Head), Engineer Captain B. N. Galkin, engineer Ye. Ye. Atakova, and qualified starshinas (non-commissioned officers). The School developed the country’s first “attack table,” with which the officers from the Northern Fleet submarine chasers were trained. Fleet Commander Admiral A. G. Golovko also “launched attacks” using this table. The School enjoyed authority over all fleets. After the war, it was merged with the S. M. Kirov Underwater Navigation Training Detachment. In 1945, by a resolution of the People’s Commissar of the Navy, the Naval School of Communications was re-established in Oranienbaum (Lomonosov) on the base of the Communications Department of the Red Banner School of Coast Defense of the Navy. Major General for Coast Defense M. A. Zernov was its head. A course in special observation and communication systems, including hydroacoustic systems, was organized at the School. Captain 3rd Rank D. D. Dolgov was acting head of the course. Together with Captain F. S. Lyakhovich, he gave lectures in special communication systems and radars. Lieutenant Captain Danilenko read lectures in hydroacoustic systems. In 1947, Engineer Captain 3rd Rank G. Ye. Bykhovsky was appointed the head of the course. After graduating from the K. Ye. Voroshilov Naval Academy in 1940, G. Ye. Bykhovsky served in submarine detachments of the Pacific Fleet and proved to be an excellent specialist in radio communication and observation systems. He started

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to give lectures on the theory of hydroacoustics and hydroacoustic systems. Major I. V. Gadayev (the head of the Laboratory) and Starshina 2nd Class Yastrebov assisted him with classes devoted to the study of and practice with equipment. With the efforts of I. V. Gadayev, the Laboratory acquired the passive sonars Mars-16K and Feniks, sonars Tamir-5N, Tamir-5L, Tamir-10, and later, Tamir-11 and Pegas-2. The Laboratory received a hydroacoustic equipment study fitted with a training set for torpedo attacks launching by the hydroacoustic data. Skilled specialists Warrant Officer Kashin, Starshinas 2nd Class Sufrin and Yastrebov were in charge of equipment installation and maintenance. In the middle of January 1948, the School moved to Petrodvorets and, in compliance with the circular of Chief of General Staff, beginning in June 1, 1948, became a school of higher learning and was renamed the Naval School of Communication and Radar Engineering (NSCRE). At the NSCRE, the course in special observation and communication systems was raised to the status of the Chair of Special Communication Systems. June 1, 1948, is considered the birthday of the School’s Chair of Hydroacoustic Systems. Engineer Captain 3rd Rank G. Ye. Bykhovsky was appointed its Acting Head. The Chair had 15 permanent staff members and a wellequipped study of hydroacoustic systems. The Chair staff included an engineer captain 1st rank as the Head of the Chair, engineer captains 1st and 2nd ranks as senior instructors, engineer captains 2nd and 3rd ranks as instructors, and an engineer captain 3rd rank as the head of the laboratory. The laboratory had sections of electronics (1 laboratory assistant) and automatics (2 laboratory assistants), and, respectively, two studies — a study of electrooptical and autosignalling communication systems (headed by a lieutenant), and a study of hydroacoustics with an attack table (with an engineer lieutenant captain as head, and a staff of 6 warrant officers as senior sonarmen). There was a permanent inflow of new people to the Chair. In 1948, Lieutenant Captain R. M. Pievsky came to work at the Chair. In 1950, Warrant Officer V. M. Kulikov joined the staff of the study of hydroacoustics.

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In 1951, Engineer Captain 1st Rank V. Ye. Dunayev became the first permanent Head of the Chair. G. Ye. Bykhovsky continued at the Chair as a senior instructor. After splitting of the School in 1953, the A. S. Popov Naval School of Communication Engineering (NSCE) in Petrodvorets was separated from its structure, with the Chair of Naval Radio Equipment headed by Engineer Colonel B. G. Aleksandrov. The positions of senior instructors of the Chair were occupied by Engineer Captain 1st Rank G. Ye. Bykhovsky, Captain 3rd Rank V. G. Marysin, and Lieutenant Captain G. A. Sergeyev. G. Ye. Bykhovsky and G. A. Sergeyev read the course in hydroacoustics and hydroacoustic systems. Simultaneously, at the Naval School of Radio Engineering in Gatchina, the Chair of Hydroacoustic Systems was organized, headed by Engineer Captain 1st Rank V. Ye. Dunayev. Senior instructors at this School were Engineers Captains First Rank L. M. Aronov and P. I. Matveyev. In 1958, after Matveyev’s resignation, G. Ye. Bykhovsky was appointed to replace him. The course in hydroacoustics at the A. S. Popov NSCE was continued by G. A. Sergeyev. In 1960, the Schools in Petrodvorets and Gatchina merged into the A. S. Popov Naval School of Radioelectronic Engineering (NSEE), forming the Chair of Hydroacoustic Systems with Engineer Captain 1st Rank V. Ye. Dunayev as the head of the Chair. Senior instructors of the Chair were Engineer Captains 1st Rank L. M. Aronov and G. Ye. Bykhovsky, and Captain 3rd Rank G. A. Sergeyev. The instructors were Captain 3rd Rank B. V. Lavrov and Lieutenant Captain V. A. Pokrovsky. The position of the Head of the laboratory at the Chair was given to newly arrived Lieutenant Captain A. A. Grushin. In 1961, L. M. Aronov headed the Chair. As the number of students grew, the staff of the Chair also increased. In February 1961, Engineer Captain 1st Rank N. N. Demyanenko came to work at the Chair as senior instructor. Beginning in 1965, he occupied the position of Deputy Head of the Chair. After successful completion in 1964 of a course of studies at the Extramural Education Department, Captain 3rd Rank V. S. Solovyov came to work as instructor of the Chair, and later, in autumn of the same year, the Chair staff was supplemented with another instructor, Lieutenant Captain O. Ya. Gutner.

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The year 1964 was marked in the history of the Chair as the first graduation year of the hydroacoustic officers. Also, beginning the same year, the Chair started training specialists in submarine and surface ship acoustic noise measurements. For this purpose, a short course (12 – 16 h) in measurements was read at the diploma project stage, and students had their pre-diploma practicals on sonar test ships (STS). Captain 1st Rank N. N. Demyanenko headed this effort. In 1964, Engineer Lieutenant Captain V. V. Rotin came to work as an Adjunct Professor of the Chair, and in spring 1965, the Chair received two more Adjunct Professors — Engineer Lieutenant Captains S. V. Kovtunenko and G. V. Shpilevoi. In the same year, upon graduation from the Naval Academy, Engineer Lieutenant Captains M. A. Alyoshin and A. G. Klyuchnikov joined the Chair staff. Captain 3rd Rank A. A. Grushin was transferred to the position of a instructor, and his position at the laboratory was given to Engineer Lieutenant Captain G. G. Golubev. Beginning in 1964, the Chair received new hydroacoustic equipment. Equipment installation and tuning was carried out with the active participation of the Chair and laboratory officers — Lieutenant Captains G. G. Golubev and Yu. L. Lysenko, Warrant Officers M. P. Khomchenkov, V. M. Kulikov, V. A. Karpov, N. I. Balitsky, and A. A. Korsakov. In 1966, the laboratory acquired the sonar system Kerch and all members of the training and laboratory staff joined in the work on its installation and tuning. The senior course students rendered great assistance as well. Meanwhile, the Chair staff continued to grow. In 1965, Lieutenant Captain Yu. L. Lysenko joined the Chair. In 1966, Captain 3rd Rank V. F. Fedorov, and then in 1969, Captain 2nd Rank V. S. Krul came to work at the department. While growing in number, the Chair staff was accumulating scientific capability as well. Thus, G. A. Sergeyev, who had earlier defended a dissertation for a candidate’s degree in 1951, defended another one for a doctor’s degree in 1968. In the summer 1965, for forming the Chair and for great research and training work, the title of Associate Professor was conferred on Captains 1st Rank G. Ye. Bykhovsky and L. M. Aronov without a dissertation defense for a candidate’s degree.

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In 1966, the title of Associate Professor was conferred on Cand. Tech. Sc., N. N. Demyanenko. In 1968, S. V. Kovtunenko, V. V. Rotin, and G. V. Shpilevoi completed the adjuncts course and successfully defended their candidate’s degree dissertations. The adjunct professorship became supplemented with new officers, including Head of the laboratory G. G. Golubev. In 1968, the laboratory of the Chair was split into a laboratory of acoustic equipment for submarines and a laboratory of acoustic equipment for surface ships, headed by Engineer Lieutenant Captain V. I. Ponomarenko and Senior Lieutenant D. F. Filippov, respectively. For various reasons, some experienced instructors left the Chair after a few years. In 1967, Captain 2nd Rank B. V. Lavrov left for the S. M. Kirov Caspian Naval School. In 1968, Captain 1st Rank G. A. Sergeyev was transferred to the reserve because of health problems. In 1970, Head of the Chair Engineer Captain 1st Rank L. M. Aronov and his Deputy Engineer Captain 1st Rank N. N. Demyanenko were transferred to the reserve because of age. A year later, Captain 1st Rank G. Ye. Bykhovsky resigned. However, Demyanenko, continued as a civilian and successfully worked at the Chair until 1984. In 1970, Engineer Captain 1st Rank V. A. Pokrovsky took the position of Head of the Chair. Until 1977, Engineer Captain 1st Rank A. G. Klyuchnikov, and later, Engineer Captain 1st Rank S. V. Kovtunenko were his Deputies. Beginning in 1976, instructors with the experience of operation and combat application of hydroacoustic systems of nuclear submarines came to work at the Chair, among them Captains 3rd Rank V. I. Voronin, V. A. Bledny, A. K. Voloshin, Captain 2nd Rank Yu. P. Kushkovsky, and Lieutenant Captain N. V. Romanenko. In 1978, Captain 3rd Rank V. A. Mironenko came to work at the Chair bringing the experience of coastal sonar systems operation. An important period in the life of the A. S. Popov NSEE was formation in 1980 of a Hydroacoustic Faculty, headed by Captain 1st Rank A. N. Krus. The Faculty had two chairs — the Chair of Hydroacoustic Systems for Submarines (Head — Cand. Tech. Sc., Associate Professor, Captain 1st Rank S. V. Kovtunenko, Deputy — Cand. Tech.

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Sc., Associate Professor, A. A. Gorshkov), and the Chair of Hydroacoustic Systems for Surface Ships (Head — Dr. Tech. Sc., Professor, V. A. Saprykin, Deputy — Cand. Tech. Sc., Associate Professor, S. P. Rokotov). As the renown scientists and excellent instructors were joining the Chair, the period of establishing the authority of the Chairs over the School and the fleets began. The scientific level of lectures read on the Chair disciplines grew immensely. The structural–functional method of study of complex hydroacoustic systems was introduced into the training. Beginning in 1976, the teaching of modern digital-and-analog sonar systems, and in 1985, of new digital systems, began. During this period, the Chairs’ laboratories received modern hydroacoustic equipment, and old equipment was removed, in implementation of the principle to introduce students, not to all that the fleet had, but to all new that the fleet currently used or was expected to use in the future. In that period, with the efforts of Professors V. A. Saprykin and S. V. Kovtunenko, much work was carried out on training research personnel at the Chairs. Captains 1st Rank S. V. Kovtunenko, S. P. Rokotov became Doctors of Science. Captains 1st Rank Ye. Yu. Butyrsky, V. M. Pastukhov, A. N. Yakovlev completed their doctor’s dissertations. Dissertations for candidate’s degree were defended by Captains 1st Rank A. V. Mikhailov, A. N. Sakharov, A. K. Voloshin, Captain 2nd Rank S. P. Dolbiev, Captain 3rd Rank A. V. Smirnov, and others. For great training-pedagogical and research work, the titles of Associate Professor were conferred on part of the instructors, among them Captains 1st Rank V. I. Voronin, V. A. Bledny, and Captain 2nd Rank Yu. G. Protsenyuk. The Chairs strengthened their ties with the fleet, leading industrial enterprises, and research institutions. To give lectures at the Chairs, prominent scientists in the area of information processing were invited including A. N. Osipov, G. A. Velichko, I. M. Il’in. In the training process of 1992–1993, 65% of instructors had scientific degrees and titles. Great and fruitful work is being carried out on the creation of training and methodological literature, in which the following fundamental

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manuals should be named: (1) The Theory of Hydroacoustics and Digital Signal Processing, Parts I and II, NSEE, 1991 (authors V. A. Saprykin and S. P. Rokotov); (2) Hydroacoustic Systems, NSEE, 1993 (group of authors, under the editorship of S. V. Kovtunenko); (3) Operation of Ship’s Sonar Systems, L.: Sudostroyenie, 1980 (authors V. A. Pokrovsky and G. A. Shcheglov); (4) Hydroacoustic Measurements, NSEE, 1991 (authors V. N. Danilov and A. A. Grushin). Multiple manuals were compiled, structural and functional diagrams of sets and systems were put together and published. Several hundred rationalization proposals and dozens of inventions were introduced. The pride of the Chairs has always been their graduates. In different years, the School’s former brilliant students and graduates proved to be excellent workers in the fleets, among them V. V. Malyi, V. N. Belenkov, E. S. Kovtunenko, V. B. Mikhailov, R. V. Reznikov, A. N. Balitsky, V. V. Rotin, M. V. Alekseyev, V. A. Fadeyev, K. V. Yakunin, V. A. Zhichkin, and V. N. Kozlov. In 1995, a reorganization took place. The single Chair of Hydroacoustic Equipment was formed, with Cand. Tech. Sc., Associate Professor, Captain 2nd Rank N. A. Ivanov as its Head, and Cand. Tech. Sc., Associate Professor, Captain 1st Rank I. S. Zakharov as his Deputy. At the head of the Chair of Marine Acoustics and Hydrophysics stood the Honored Worker of Science and Technology of Russia Dr. Tech. Sc., Professor V. A. Saprykin, then resigned to the reserve. Dr. Tech. Sc., Professor S. V. Kovtunenko, in the rank of an Honored Worker of Science and Technology of Russia, became Head of the School’s Chair of Metrology and Radio Measurements. This article is the first attempt to summarize material on the history of the Chair. The authors would be thankful to all contributors that would be willing to supplement or clarify details of the history of the development of the Chair of Hydroacoustic Equipment of the A. S. Popov NSEE.

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The Training of Specialists and Hydroacoustic Research at the Naval School of Underwater Navigation (NSUN) V. V. ROTIN

The Chair of Radio Equipment of the Naval School of Underwater Navigation (NSUN), where knowledge of hydroacoustic systems (sonars) was taught and the training was conducted in the methods of their operational use in underwater navigation, appeared simultaneously with the creation of the School (initially known as the First Baltic Naval School) in 1948. All officers graduating from the School with the specialization in hydroacoustics received basic training by the Chair. Graduate officers were given theoretical and practical knowledge of acoustics of the ocean, the principles of construction and operational use by a watch officer of all sonar equipment of a base-class submarine. The main objects of theoretical study and operational use of sonar equipment varied due to changes in the armaments of the post-war, first, second, and subsequent generations of submarines. The sufficiently high theoretical level and the good practical training allowed watch officers of submarines to successfully cope with the problems they faced, with no need for additional training. Numerous submarine cruises by young officers proved this fact. These included underwater circumnavigation by a group of submarines (1966), and underwater cruises to the North Pole beginning in 1962. During these missions the sonar equipment ensured awareness of the operating environment, target tracking and control of operations, safe navigation and maneuvering, as well as underwater communication with other forces.

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As time passed, the importance of hydroacoustics for submarines grew, since, with every new generation of submarines, the diving depth increased, reaching 600 m presently. In this respect, it is worth mentioning the most recent cruise of the Typhoon type nuclear undersea cruiser to the North Pole under the command of A. S. Bogachyov in commemoration of three centuries of the Russian Navy. Navigation under ice, search for polynias (spaces of open water among ice) and leads in the ice in the vicinity of the Pole, as well as surfacing in a polynia only 900 m away from the North Pole confirmed the profound knowledge and good control of operational use of sonars and sonar systems by all members of the crew. In the study and practical mastering of any sonar equipment, the experience of the commanders of the Soviet submarines during the Great Patriotic war has always been and still remains the most valuable training resource. We can mention the experience of the combined use of a signalman’s visual observations and a sonarman’s noise ranging data for target designation in the “attack of the century” by A. I. Marinesko. I. I. Fisanovich had wide experience in navigation, successful attacks and evasions solely by the hydroacoustic data in narrow Arctic fjords. Another major experience was the many-hour underwater battle between the Soviet submarine under the command of I. L. Bondarevich and a German submarine, with efficient use of target noise and sounds of torpedo volleys. Initially, the hydroacoustic research at the School was aimed at the application of complex sonar systems to communication and observation. It was conducted within the systems of submarine radioelectronic equipment (dissertations in naval sciences of B. P. Zhevlakov, 1975; G. F. Basov, 1968). Beginning in 1984, the research work on specialized sonar equipment and methods of operational use, hydroacoustic medium, classification and approximation of the world ocean characteristics were initiated at the School under the guidance of Prof. V. V. Rotin. Within the framework of three research and two D&D works, jointly with the CRI Morfizpribor, models and methods of classification, generation and processing of special hydroacoustic signals were developed. This later found its application in submarine sonar systems (dissertations by A. G. Ottsovsky, 1987; A. B. Andreyev, 1995). The

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methods of classification and approximation of characteristics of the sound speed in the ocean were included in the combat training instruction documents and were reflected in the reports of the Naval scientific research institutions (materials of S. I. Islyaev, 1996). Serious difficulties in ensuring quality training and developing efficient training technologies for graduates and watch officers, arose with the introduction of the sonar systems MGK-100 and MGK-300. The huge mass of equipment and documentation compared with earlier sonars MG-10 and MG-200, and a limited time assigned for familiarization and practical training proved to be an obstacle. As a result of pedagogical research conducted in the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s (over 6 research projects, from Rubikon to Obuchenie-5), a structural-functional method of training was developed at the School. The Ministry of Defense issued compact sonar systems descriptions (Technical Description for MGK-100, 1971; Technical Description for MGK-300, 1975). The standard GOST 22547-81 came out, and the description of the preceding sonar system was published (NSUN, 1986). In the structural-functional method, the sonar equipment presentation is based on the transfer of user’s main information load from electric to structural and functional diagrams of a sonar. A structure is a combination of certain links. While the links without the physical description of communicating objects have algebraic meaning, the embracing term “structural-functional” implies universal description of object physical essence and links between them. The level of disclosing the essence of an object (functional transformations) is determined by the hierarchy of levels, in compliance with the terms of GOST and the hydroacoustic thesaurus. At present, this method is applied for describing and study of the latest sonar system acquired by the School (materials of M. I. Valitsky, 1995–1997). The universality of the structural-functional approach to description, study and use of sonar equipment makes it rather promising, especially in applications to programs aimed at conversion of military hydroacoustic technologies to civilian use, since it provides access by general users to complex sonar systems by use of computer technologies (E. S. Kovtunenko).

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Other chairs of the School also work on the subjects of hydroacoustics. The Chair of Marine Weapons develops sonar equipment for long- and short-range targets designation for missile–torpedo control systems. Among them is the research by A. P. Usov (1970–1980), and by State Prize winner A. B. Geiro (1960–1990) into acoustic field sensors. The developments by M. I. Stepanov, P. D. Soshenko, and V. S. Fedorov (1980–1990) are dedicated to the evaluation of the efficiency of missile–torpedo sonar homing systems. At the Chair of Navigation, in 1990–1995, N. M. Shkurin conducted a study into coastal and marine sonar navigation systems. In addition to the Chairs of submarine radio equipments, marine weapons control systems and navigation aids, the Chairs of Physics and Mathematics conducted research and developed applied techniques in hydroacoustics as well. The School’s Chair of Radio Systems is the organizer of the permanent International Seminar on Information Processing in Multichannel Acoustic Systems (Deputy Chairman of the Organizing Committee V. V. Rotin) addressing a wide range of special and applied problems of physical acoustics and hydroacoustics. These range from construction and geology/mineralogy to ecology and health care, tomography of a medium and the molecular changes in it under the action of an acoustic field.

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The History of Teaching the Fundamentals of Hydroacoustics and Hydroacoustic Equipment at the M. V. Frunze Naval School A. V. LAVRENTYEV, A. S. PRAVODELOV and V. V. SAMSONOV

The teaching of the fundamentals of hydroacoustics at the M. V. Frunze Naval School dates back to the pre-war period. In those years, the School provided knowledge of only some of the most important aspects of hydroacoustics. In connection with the development of the theoretical basis of hydroacoustics and the refinement of hydroacoustic equipment, the section of “Hydroacoustics” was added in 1955 to the discipline “Ship’s radio equipment.” Beginning in 1960, this section was turned into an independent course “The fundamentals of hydroacoustics, hydroacoustic equipment and its operation.” The course, lasting for 170 h, provided a study of the problems of hydroacoustics. In 1972, in connection with adoption of totally new electronic equipment by the fleet, the discipline “Radioelectronic equipment and its operational use” was added. Unfortunately, the hours assigned for the study of radio equipment did not significantly increase while the amount of equipment subject to study increased. This entailed reducing the time available for study of hydroacoustics proper. Once again, it became only a section in the above-mentioned discipline. In the beginning, the program provided 70 h for this section, which was later cut to 50 h. Unfortunately, this time was insufficient for study of even the basic theoretical ideas, to say nothing of simultaneous study of the theory of hydroacoustics and familiarization with modern hydroacoustic hardware. In this connection, the Chair’s attention was focused on the study of hydroacoustic navigation aids. 1141

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Hydroacoustics was taught at the School by many instructors, but the greatest contribution was made by Captains First Rank L. P. Kasyanov, V. N. Kotenev, A. N. Dukhovner, Yu. K. Basov, A. A. Krutov, V. D. Matushkin, V. I. Ignatov, and Captain Second Rank Yu. V. Nikolaev. Of these instructors, Yu. K. Basov, Yu. V. Nikolaev, A. A. Krutov, and V. D. Matushkin were the graduates of the Naval Academy (the last three, graduated with the specialization of the Chair of Acoustics). The majority of the officers were trained in different periods of time at industrial enterprises. Warrant Officers D. F. Skakun and P. A. Sinitsyn rendered great assistance in preparing the equipment for studies, its maintenance, and conducting classes. The instructors of the Chair carried out significant research and methodological work on improving the military and technical training, particularly in the part related to the problems of hydroacoustics. Over the years of the Chair functioning, the following textbooks on the problems of hydroacoustics were written: Ship’s Radio Equipment, M. : Voyenizdat, 1962 (authors V. N. Kotenev, Yu. K. Basov); Radio and Communication Equipment of the Navy, M. : Voyenizdat, 1972 (authors Yu. K. Basov, I. M. Krasnikov), The Fundamentals of Hydroacoustics and Hydroacoustic Equipment, M. : Voyenizdat, 1973 (author Yu. K. Basov), and Hydroacoustics, M. : Voyenizdat, 1979 (authors Yu. K. Basov, Yu. F. Panov, Yu. I. Kubyshkin). Among the manuals, the following should be noted: Hydroacoustic Equipment of Submarines and Surface Ships (authors Yu. K. Basov, G. F. Basov), Hydroacoustic Equipment Range under Conditions of the Arctic (authors Yu. K. Basov, S. I. Korsakov), Methodological Recommendations on Study of the Course “The Fundamentals of Hydroacoustics for Extramural Department Students” (author Yu. K. Basov). In addition to the special-application hydroacoustic equipment, the students were offered courses in hydroacoustic navigation instruments (echo sounders, under ice sonars, navigation sonar systems) at specialized chairs of navigation officers’ faculties. Associate Professors Ye. N. Ivanov, A. I. Tuzov, V. Ye. Aniskevich, and A. B. Paramonov have been and are currently actively participating in student training. The research into realization of capabilities of navigation sonars equipment on ships was carried out by workers of the School Dr. Tech.

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Sc. N. I. Sigachev, who participated in the discovery of a super longrange sound propagation in the ocean (acoustic channel) in 1946, and Prof. A. V. Lavrentyev, who investigated the potential of navigation sonars with a view to increasing the efficiency of their operation and operational use. Systematic research into the methodology of training of students in ship’s navigation aids, including navigation sonar systems, at the higher naval schools was carried out in a series of research projects (Obuchenie, Obuchenie-2, Obuchenie-3, Obuchenie-4, Obuchenie-5) with the participation of Ye. P. Glebov, A. V. Lavrentyev. A. I. Tuzov, and others. Cand. Tech. Sc. K. A. Vinogradov (Military Unit 62728), under the guidance of Prof. A. V. Lavrentyev, carried out profound research into the opportunities for secret use of navigation hydroacoustic aids. The theoretical basics of construction and use of ship’s navigation hydroacoustic aids are given in the textbooks written under the guidance of A. V. Lavrentyev: Navigation Instruments and Systems, M. V. Frunze NS, L., 1971 (author A. V. Lavrentyev); Navigation Instruments and Systems, Physical Fields of the Ship and the World Ocean, the Basics of Automatics (authors A. V. Lavrentyev, V. A. Pyshkin, A. I. Tuzov); Textbooks for naval specialists, M. : Voyenizdat, 1976–1978 (authors Ye. P. Glebov, Ye. N. Ivanov, A. V. Lavrentyev, V. Ye. Aniskevich et al.); Textbooks for naval specialists and students of the Main Department for Science and Education of the Ministry of Defense, 1982 (authors A. V. Lavrentyev, V. A. Pyshkin, V. V. Solovyov, A. I. Tuzov et al.). A part of the results of the research has been published by Associate Professor Yu. K. Basov in a series of scientific articles. Teaching of the fundamentals of hydroacoustics is accompanied by the study of hydroacoustic equipment currently in service at the fleet, although the supply of technical aids and their installation at the Chair takes place with some lag compared with their supply to the fleet. This is especially true nowadays, when there are no modern sonar systems

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MGK-355, MGK-365 at the School, which negatively reflects on the level of graduates’ knowledge of modern hydroacoustic equipment. In different periods of time, the Chair used the following types of hydroacoustic equipment for the practical training (the years of installation and dismantling in brackets): – – – – – – – –

Tamir-5H (1955–1959) Tamir-10, 11 (1959–1975) MG-23 (1969–1975) MG-10 (1970–1979) MG-329 (1974–1984) Pegas-2M (1975–1982) MI-110K (1976–1984) MG-409 (1979–1984).

At present the Chair has the following hydroacoustic equipment (the years of installation in brackets): – – – – –

MG-79 (1981) MG-332 (1982) MG-747 (1982) MG-7 (1983) MG-35 (1988).

Equipment installation was carried out by the Chair’s technical personnel under the guidance of Captains First Rank Yu. K. Basov, A. N. Komissarov, A. A. Krutov, N. D. Danchenko, and Captain Second Rank Yu. V. Nikolaev. It should be noted that navigational sonar equipment (echo sounders, under ice sonars) was being introduced into the training process without delay, practically simultaneously with its entering series production. Despite all the difficulties connected with insufficiency of the School’s material resources, the Chair’s faculty maintains a creative approach to the task of students training, always searching for new approaches to training and making use of the material resources of other schools and the ships of the Navy.

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XIII. Veterans Remember

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Russia’s First Hydroacoustic Laboratory: The Forging of Specialists for the Industry M. V. ZHURKOVICH and Z. N. UMIKOV

Commemorating the 70 th Anniversary of the first specialized hydroacoustics unit and its members The wreck of the Titanic and the sea battles during World War I demonstrated that a modern fleet cannot exist without hydroacoustic equipment. Ships become an easy catch for the enemy and fail to “see” underwater obstacles. In addition, experience showed that neither inventors alone, nor craftsmen alone, are able to solve the problem of developing hydroacoustic equipment. Only teams of specialists, who have organized production facilities and support by a country’s government, can deal with the problem. For example, as early as 1917 three companies in the United States were engaged in the development of hydroacoustic equipment. Germany, Britain, and France each had two similar companies. Gradually but steadily, hydroacoustics was becoming one of the most important scientific-technical branches of the defense industry. The appearance of the country’s first organization destined to work on outfitting the fleet with hydroacoustic armaments was predetermined by the first program for shipbuilding, adopted by the Labor and Defense Council (LDC) in 1926. It envisaged new submarine and surface ship construction, as well as repairs and modernization of the large ships then available in the fleet. Understanding the role and the importance of hydroacoustic equipment for a revived fleet, I. G. Freiman, A. I. Berg (the head of the Section of Communications of RTCND in those years), V. I. Kudrevich, and S. Ya. Sokolov made an all out effort to promote the role of hydroacoustics and to call attention to the need for respective 1147

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decisions for its development at the top levels of the government. As a result, on June 28, 1928, the acting head of the Naval Forces of the Workers’ and Peasants’ Red Army (WPRA), D. S. Duplitsky, issued a special instruction concerning hydroacoustics. The instruction determined the order of the introduction of hydroacoustic observation and communication devices into the WPRA naval forces. Alongside questions of recruiting for the newly organized units, selection and training of the personnel for hydroacoustic equipment design and operation, initiating research, purchase of examples of hydroacoustic devices and laboratory equipment abroad, installation of those devices on ships and coastal observation stations, the instruction clearly formulated the task of promptly organizing the production of underwater acoustic devices and taking steps toward concentrating the research on hydroacoustics in the USSR into a single organization. These efforts were not in vain. Finally, in 1929, a hydroacoustic laboratory was organized under the Acoustics Department of the Central Radio Laboratory (CRL) of the Comintern Plant. The “founding father” of the Laboratory was S. Ya. Sokolov, who headed the Acoustics Department of the CRL. A significant role in its organization was played by A. I. Berg. Already in 1930, the Laboratory was responsible for the development of hydroacoustic equipment in the country. It is important to note that in that period the country’s most outstanding radio physicists and radio and communication engineers, M. A. Bonch-Brouyevich, N. D. Papaleksi, L. I. Mandelshtam, V. I. Siforov, and many others, worked at the CRL, and this was a decisive factor in choosing the CRL as the home for a hydroacoustic laboratory. V. P. Vologdin, who designed high-frequency converters for radio stations, mercury-arc rectifier units and power plants for the transport, often visited the Laboratory and was one of its consultants. N. N. Andreyev (the first Soviet Academician in acoustics) and A. A. Kharkevich worked in the Acoustics Department. M. M. Zeigerman, a recent college graduate, was appointed the head of the Laboratory. G. N. Lisanevich and V. N. Tyulin became its leading engineers. In addition, the Laboratory employed several technicians, mainly radio-amateurs,

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and a small group of design engineers, draftswomen, and copyists under the leadership of G. N. Tankov, a natural designer. G. V. Pylkov was the head of the CRL Production Department, which took care of the orders of the Laboratory. G. N. Lisanevich, a former officer of the submarine Fleet in tsarist Russia, one of the organizers of the passage of ships of the Baltic Fleet from Helsingfors to Kronstadt, was one of A. I. Berg’s closest companions in matters of outfitting the fleet with radio equipment. It is a very regretful fact that this erudite and talented person, one of the initiators of the creation of an industrial base for outfitting the fleet with hydroacoustic devices, was subjected to repression in the early 1930s because of slander by someone from one of the other departments of the CRL. V. N. Tyulin was a bridge construction engineer and in the years of World War I participated in the construction of a railroad between Petrograd and Murmansk. After the war he took great interest in hydroacoustics and kept this passion throughout his life. The beginning of his “hydroacoustic career” at the Comintern Plant was the development of the first home echo sounder of a type similar to Fessenden’s impact-action echo sounder (see the article by Yu. F. Tarasyuk and L. S. Filimonov “From the History of the Creation of Domestic Echo Sounders” — Ed.). When the Laboratory was organized, V. N. Tyulin was transferred there as a leading specialist. By the time the Laboratory was organized, a new specialized faculty, “Spetsfak,” was opened at the LETI. Its task was training the personnel for the defense industry branches. Initially, Spetsfak consisted of senior students from other faculties. In May, 1930, S. Ya. Sokolov, the head of the Chair of Electroacoustics at the LETI, invited three senior-year students of the Spetsfak, S. Panfilov, I. N. Meltreger, and Z. N. Umikov, to work in the Laboratory as engineers. During the same period, the Laboratory staff was supplemented with the graduates of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of the LSU, M. G. Grigoryev, L. L. Myasnikov, and L. Ya. Gutin. Early in 1931, the first graduates of the LETI Spetsfak appeared at the Laboratory, V. I. Dmitriyev, Ye. G. Smetanina, and Ye. I. Kuznetsova. Simultaneously with them, engineer F. N. Trotsevich, was transferred from another department of the CRL. In the years

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1930–1931, the Laboratory acquired technicians and draftswomen, the graduates of technical secondary schools, Vrazheskaya, L. M. Aleksandrova, Yu. N. Smirnova, Shevchenko, Eiges, and Kril. The CRL Acoustics Department was located on Kamenny Island, in a building next to a big oak tree planted, according to a legend, by Tsar Peter I. The Laboratory occupied two rooms. In the first smaller room on the ground floor, a test basin was constructed where acoustic measurements and testing of equipment was carried out. During summers, the laboratory employees often used the pool basin to practice their swimming skills. In the second, larger room on the first floor, all engineering and technical personnel were accommodated. The room interior was extremely modest. A few desks and three laboratory tables comprised all its furniture. The pride of the Laboratory were its measuring instruments of industrial manufacture: capacitance and resistance boxes, a measuring bridge for resistors and capacitors, voltmeters, DC ammeters, an AC hot-wire ammeter, vibrating-reed frequency meters, a megohmmeter, and rheostats. The rest of the instruments were self-made: vacuumtube voltmeters, and an audio frequency generator, the output signals of which were compared with records on gramophone disks of German manufacture (the records upper frequency did not exceed 4 kHz). But the major acquisition of the Laboratory was hydroacoustic systems purchased in 1929 in Germany by A. I. Berg and provided to the Laboratory to help in designing its own equipment. Among these systems were two underwater communication sonars with swordshaped arrays for submarines and surface ships; a passive sonar with an elliptical array of 12 acoustic units (three similar sets were installed on the submarines Dekabrist, Krasnogvardeyets, and the battleship Marat); two coastal passive sonars, one of which had a circular hydrophone base and employed the maximum intensity method for detection. The other had a linear base split into two halves for direction finding by the binaural method. Two sonars of this type were deployed on the Black Sea; one near Cape Chersoneses, and the other, in the vicinity of the Aleksandrovsky Ravelin. The sonars were manufactured by the German companies Elektroakustik and Atlas-Werke.

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It should be noted that already in that period a number of instruments in those sonars were identical and interchangeable (hydrophones, amplifiers, audio-signal oscillators). In 1931–1932, the Laboratory management underwent changes. Its first head, M. M. Zeigerman, died. G. N. Lisanevich replaced him for a short period of time. He was succeeded by an old Party member. With his appointment, the situation deteriorated for the Laboratory theoreticians L. Ya. Gutin and I. N. Meltreger. The new boss believed that if a worker is not holding a soldering iron, he is not working, while Gutin’s and Meltreger’s soldering iron could only be a pen or a pencil! But, fortunately, in a short time a young engineer V. I. Dmitriyev took over the Laboratory and things returned to normal. Creativity and initiative, engineering thought, and theoretical development again became matters of paramount importance. In the initial period of the Laboratory’s formation, the main task of its personnel was the detailed analysis of the German sonars. The reason was that the country had practically no experience with the development of such instruments and, certainly, the processes connected with their production were unknown. Even simple duplication of such sets was impossible due to the lack of the necessary electrical components and equipment. The country was only beginning to recover from the devastation of the World War I and the Civil War. Thus, study of the German equipment was good training that stimulated the technical growth of the Laboratory workers. Everybody was full of enthusiasm and creative drive, sparing no time, ignoring daily difficulties, and expecting no benefits in return. All of them were young, full of enthusiasm and patriotic, proud of being pioneers in creating new equipment. Such spirit and creative initiative have always characterized the work of the Laboratory over the whole time of its existence. One of the important results of the study of the German hydroacoustic instruments was the introduction of a hydroacoustic specialization in the Laboratory. The supervision of the study of passive sonars was entrusted to M. G. Grigoryev; V. I. Dmitriyev was in charge of underwater communications sonar systems and Z. N. Umikov concentrated on ultrasonic sonars. V. N. Tyulin supervised the development of

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hydroacoustic transducers for all sonars. His assistants were F. N. Trotsevich and Ye. K. Smetanina. The design developments were made by G. A. Tankov, B. A. Ozerov, and Yu. I. Popov. P. F. Tikhomirov was busy with charging and power supply panels. All theoretical aspects of the design were addressed by L. Ya. Gutin, I. N. Meltreger, and L. L. Myasnikov. G. N. Lisanevich and V. N. Tyulin were in charge of general design supervision. Besides the development of domestic sonars, the Laboratory had another, no less important task, of ensuring the serviceability of the foreign sonars installed aboard ships and stations of the Navy. A peculiarity of the Laboratory’s tasks consisted in the fact that they had to start everything from scratch. In such a situation the workers of the Laboratory always felt the support and interest of A. I. Berg and the future worker of the Acoustic Department of the RI of Naval Communication (RINC), P. P. Kuzmin. The latter belonged to the constellation of bright, devoted, and talented naval acoustics specialists. He was the first naval acoustician awarded the Stalin Prize (March 1941). To achieve its goals, the Laboratory worked in the following areas: electroacoustic transducers, array directivity patterns, rotation devices (compensators), amplifiers, radio-frequency oscillators, indicators, array lifting gear, and charging and power supply panels. Work with electroacoustic transducers continued at the Laboratory using quartz sources. The research on their application for echo sounders started under the supervision of S. Ya. Sokolov. The study of electromagnetic and electrodynamic acoustic-to-electrical transducers was initiated under the supervision of V. N. Tyulin. The Atlas-Werke and Elektroakustik converters served as models for the development of the latter. However, the hopes for their quick introduction into the industrial production were not justified. None of the materials available to the laboratory — various bronze and steel alloys — were able to ensure reliable operation of transducer diaphragms. First a lusterless circle appeared in the center of a diaphragm, then cracks, which was followed by the recrystallization of the metal, and eventually the diaphragm fell to pieces.

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Nevertheless, valuable experience was gained, which allowed the formulation of technical requirements for the diaphragm material with regard to strength, resilience, and resistance to seawater. The question of material selection was of great importance. An important specialist in metals, chief engineer of the Krasny Vyborzhets Plant, Butakov, was invited for consultations. As a result of research carried out under his guidance, a new material was obtained (an alloy of copper, nickel, and aluminum), named “cunial.” The transducers manufactured with this alloy passed all tests without any loss in acoustic characteristics. Since then this material has been used in the manufacture of electromagnetic transducers for active and passive sonars. But the diaphragm material was not the only obstacle the designers encountered. Another problem was a wide dispersion of the sensitivity of the receivers in the working range of frequencies and their selfexcitation at a resonance frequency. The latter effect led to a significant noise increase. V. N. Tyulin proposed and implemented an oil-filled damper in the transducer for resonance suppression. Tests revealed the penetration of water into the transducers. It was found that the defect was caused by flaws in the metal housing. To remove the defect, the housing castings were replaced with hot forgings. The defects in the metal housing prompted S. Ya. Sokolov to design an instrument for quality control of metal components. Thus the idea of an ultrasonic flaw detector was born. Its realization required years of hard work and resulted in designing and organizing series production of flaw detectors, for which S. Ya. Sokolov was twice awarded the Stalin Prize. Today the method of ultrasonic quality control finds wide application in the world for controlling various metal components. The flaw detector has also been a prototype for an ultrasound remote sensing unit used in medical practice. S. Ya. Sokolov’s services were recognized by the world community, which later resulted in the establishment of an international prize in his name. Originally electromagnets were used for magnetic field generation in electromagnetic transducers. Later, with the appearance of the effective magnetic alloys, they were replaced with permanent magnets. The manufacture and the application of electromagnetic and electrodynamic transducers continued until the appearance of a new

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material, Seignette salt. V. N. Tyulin and his assistants had successfully solved the problem of the creation of domestic hydroacoustic transducers. Another complex device for the hydrophones in passive sonars was the shaper of the direction characteristic of the receiving array (compensator) with a contact (lamellar) switch. The compensators in different passive sonars varied in the number of links in electric delay lines, and the number of lamellae and brushes in the switch. The values of these parameters depended on the size of the array, the configuration, and the number of transducers making up the array. In the process of compensator development, the greatest difficulties were with the delay lines and with the switch. In the latter, the lamellae and brush material and the stability of the electrical insulation between the lamellae turned out to be a stumbling block. Designing the delay lines revealed that the cores of line inductance components manufactured from the transformer iron, available in those years, noticeably changed characteristics due to impacts and temperature changes. This led to variations in inductance and a delay line off-tuning. The way out was to sacrifice size, and to make the delay line inductance components without cores (until the Krasnaya Zarya Plant in Leningrad mastered the manufacture of alsifer rings). The Laboratory was also producing capacitors and isolating resistors for the delay lines. Capacitor plates were made from mica slabs with two-side silver-plating and were stacked in cores that were then adjusted for capacitance. Resistors were wound of Ni–Cr alloy wire about 0.1 mm in diameter. The material, initially selected for the lamellae and brushes in the compensator switch, proved to be too soft and subject to fast wear, and the formed metal dust short-circuited the lamellae. In the process of selecting a metal for the contacts and a material for the insulating gaps between lamellae, every employee at the laboratory had to rotate the handle of the drive of model switches for several hours, on which different types and combinations of materials were tested. As a result, materials were found that ensured reliable operation of the switch and the necessary manufacturing technology.

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Some problems were encountered in selecting the hookup wires. Several wire grades were tested, from one-core to stranded wire. They were developed at the Sevkabel Plant at the request of the Laboratory. The development of domestic amplifiers required much effort, initiative, and a creative approach by the Laboratory staff. By the time the Laboratory was organized, the Leve Company in Germany had discontinued production of the vacuum tubes used in the sonars installed on ships and coastal stations. Gradually a number of ships and stations using these tubes went “blind.” The Laboratory received an assignment to develop a domestic analog to the German amplifier to revive the sonars. Thus a technical task was proposed but neither the amplifiers laboratory of the CRL, nor the Leningrad Trust for Low-Current Devices undertook the task of amplifier development. The reason for this probably lies in a considerable dispersion and instability in component characteristics manufactured by the domestic industry, as well as the absence of an organized production of some of them. At the same time, passive sonars, functioning with the binaural method, required quite a high uniformity and stability of amplifier characteristics. In these circumstances, S. Ya. Sokolov, G. N. Lisanevich, V. N. Tyulin, supported by A. I. Berg, decided to develop an amplifier of their own. This work, with promises of ultimate support, was entrusted to Z. N. Umikov. Getting down to work, he learned that the Svetlana Plant had started to manufacture new vacuum tubes, the so-called barium tubes. Using his contacts he had since the time he worked there in 1929, he obtained several tubes from the first pilot batch. Gradually, the amplifier got close to meeting the requested technical requirements. A. I. Berg, who at that time was the head of the Chair of Radio Equipment at LETI, closely and with much interest watched the process of development. However, A. I. Berg was not just an outside observer — he personally participated in multiple tests and experiments with the amplifier. The problem was solved through a joint effort. The designed amplifier fully complied with all the requirements. The development supervisor Z. N. Umikov received an excellent mark in his student’s record-book for the “Special course in radio equipment,” bypassing the exam.

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Trials of the first two prototype amplifiers were carried using a passive sonar, installed at the Aleksandrovsky Ravelin near Sevastopol. The station’s operating range with the new amplifiers was found to be even greater than that with the old German amplifiers. This permitted their use in sonar communication stations (after tuning to the resonance frequency) and in the subsequent developments of the Laboratory. By contract with the Laboratory, the design and manufacture of radio-frequency oscillators similar to the German ones was carried out by the Elektrik Plant. The work was supervised by Academician V. P. Vologdin. The Laboratory took up the task of creating the working frequency stabilizer. In its development, springs of a three-contact centrifugal governor turned out to be the stumbling block. The problem was solved by using a clockwork mainspring. The problem of a range indicator was solved in a quite original way. A Moscow watch-making plant designed a special stopwatch with a scale of ranges. At stopwatch start, a sonar signal was transmitted, and at the moment of the echo signal arrival (the received signals were registered using earphones) the stopwatch was stopped, and the reading of the distance to target was taken on the scale. The lifting gear of the array and power supply and charging panels were duplicated from the German devices. In the beginning, their manufacture was organized at the Comintern Plant but was later transferred to the Vodtranspribor Plant. As a result of hard, creative work, the Laboratory managed to provide sets of working drawings for a number of instruments for sonars, including compensators, amplifiers, panels, and lifting gear. Beginning in 1931 the Laboratory began their production. This, as well as development of the first domestic electromagnetic and electrodynamic transducers, must be acknowledged as a great achievement by the Laboratory. In 1932, on order of the Hydrographic Department of the Navy, the Laboratory began to develop an ultrasonic echo sounder with a combined transceiving array made from a quartz mosaic. The array was a disc 100 mm in diameter and was manufactured by order of S. Ya. Sokolov at the Russkiye Samotsvety (“Russian Gemstones”) Factory. In the same year, jointly with the Hydroacoustics Department

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of RINC, the Laboratory launched the development of TTR for the complex, ultrasonic, passive echo ranging Orion sonar for submarines. Z. N. Umikov was appointed the sonar chief designer. Besides ER and DL modes, the sonar had to work in the underwater communication (telephone, telegraph, range finding between the correspondent submarines) and “friend-or-foe” identification modes. That was the first complex sonar, a prototype of sonar systems for submarines that appeared much later. The echo sounder and the Orion sonar design work was completed at the Vodtranspribor Plant. Tests of the echo sounder took place on board the hydrographic ship Tiflis in the Caspian Sea. Tests of the Orion sonar were conducted on the two type Shchuka submarines, and lasted several months. The Plant’s representatives during the experiments were Z. N. Umikov, P. F. Tikhomirov, N. F. Anashkin, D. S. Gandyul, Lebedev; RINC was represented by P. P. Kuzmin and F. M. Kartashev. A. G. Grevtsev was the chairman of the commission. In the course of the formation of the Laboratory and the successful solution of problems, business contacts with a wide range of organizations and specialists were strengthened. The reputation and the authority of the Laboratory’s workers were strengthened as well. The Laboratory started to receive non-hydroacoustic assignments. For example, early in 1931, a request was received to design a microphone for tankmen and to improve the construction and the parameters of a bi-directional carbon microphone for broadcast booths, of the first capacitance microphone and a dynamic loudspeaker. In 1931, two groups of military specialists visited the Laboratory. One of the groups was led by M. N. Tukhachevsky. S. Ya. Sokolov explained the essence of the work conducted at the Laboratory. The visit resulted in an increase in funding. The second group was led by a high-ranking military pilot, and naturally, he was concerned with the problems of aviation. They discussed the problem of the fast wear of the piston engines in aircraft. The castor oil purchased in India was used for the lubrication of the engines. According to the Karpov Research Institute of Chemical Industry, the oil was of high quality and suggested looking for causes of the fast wear somewhere else. The

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group leader asked the workers of the laboratory to help with this problem. S. Ya. Sokolov proposed looking for causes of the wear from the oil, despite the positive references by chemists, and made use of ultrasound for that purpose. In a few days, a big can of castor oil was brought to the Laboratory. After irradiation of a test-tube of oil with the ultrasound, its content separated in three fractions: the first was the proper oil, the second was a thin layer of water, and the third was a sediment of fine powder. The powder turned out to be emery dust. Pilots received recommendations for checking the quality of the oil and were given an acoustic transducer and instructions on its use. They recommended the purchase of a high-frequency oscillator at the Elektrik Plant, which supplied such types of oscillators for communication sonars. The oil can stayed at the Laboratory. In those hungry times, it turned to be a real godsend. It was perfectly suited for food, and only needed to be heated to suppress its specific purgative properties. At the end of 1932, the administration of the Comintern Plant received a large order for the design and manufacture of radio stations. Making use of the situation and on the pretext of unprofitability of the production of the hydroacoustic equipment, it was proposed to shut down the Laboratory, which actually was the main designer of hydroacoustic equipment at the Plant. The Laboratory was indeed closed as a result of incompetence by the decision-makers. But the Laboratory did not disappear. It was transferred to the Vodtranspribor Plant in compliance with the resolution of the Board of the People’s Commissariat of Water Transport. The Plant was then under construction. The protocol on creation of a production base at the newly erected Plant for series manufacture of hydroacoustic equipment was signed in October 1932. The documentation was developed by the Laboratory for hydroacoustic equipment manufacture. Waiting for the end of construction work, the Laboratory remained at its old location, although already being subordinated to the workshops on the basis of which the new plant was being created (for detailed history of the plant creation, see the article by V. A. Bersenev and B. Ya. Golubchik “Vodtranspribor — the Alma Mater of Engineering of Home Hydroacoustic Instrumentation” — Ed.).

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Thus the independent existence of the first specialized hydroacoustic laboratory in the Soviet Union came to an end. But former members of the Laboratory team continued working at the Plant, in other organizations for the good of the Navy, participating in the creation of domestic hydroacoustic equipment. Many of them became outstanding scientists, chief designers of projects, and received the highest awards of the Motherland.

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Project SIGAK : The First Use of the Underwater Sound Channel in Support of Navy Needs V. B. IDIN

In memory of Leonid Fyodorovich Sychov In the mid-1940s American and Soviet researchers (L. M. Brekhovskikh, L. D. Rozenberg, and others) independently discovered the characteristics of super long-range sound propagation in the deep ocean. The workers of the Laboratory of Acoustics of the Physical Institute (the Institute of Acoustics of RAS since 1954), under the guidance of L. M. Brekhovskikh, interpreted these characteristics and put forward the theory of the underwater sound channel (USC). This theory drastically changed the options for the military application of hydroacoustics. Today the results of research on sound propagation in the ocean find wide application for designing hydroacoustic equipment and systems. However, applied hydroacoustics had a long road to success, which was not always an easy one. There was a need to solve numerous and complex problems in related areas of technology (shipbuilding, electronics, digital devices, instrument engineering technology, etc.) and develop approaches for optimal practical use of underwater observations. The first attempt at direct use of the characteristics of super longrange sound propagation was the development of a sonar coordination system (SCS or SIGAK) in 1949–1950 for locating underwater explosions in the Black Sea. This system was based on the principles of sound measurement. Even though the Black Sea is much shallower than the world’s oceans (large areas of the Black Sea have depths that hardly exceed 1160

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2000 m, while the average ocean depth is over 4000 m), it can still serve as a hydrological-acoustic model of an open ocean due to its anomalous geo-hydro-physical factors (geographical latitudes and presence of a warm bottom layer). Indeed, a warm bottom layer is conductive to higher sound velocities at large depths as compared to the velocity determined by a “classical” hydrostatic gradient. Therefore, the sound velocity near the bottom always exceeds the sound velocity in the upper layers of the sea. Even in the summer–fall period, when the temperature (and hence, the sound velocity) in the upper layers of the sea reaches its maximum, the sound velocity at the bottom is still higher than that of the surface. Thus in the vast deep-sea area of the Black Sea there exists a stable underwater sound channel — practically over the whole range of depths, from the sea surface to the bottom. The SIGAK was conceived as a system of coastal sonar stations, the installation of which was envisaged at 12 geographical points of the Caucasian and Crimean coasts and two central stations. The principal one would be located near Balaclava, and the second one near Cape Tarkhankut (Crimea). It was necessary to ensure high reliability of continuously operating hardware (hydrophones, cable communication lines, amplifiers, signal recorders with automatic triggering, accurate timers, and radio relay links) for the efficient operation of the system. It was planned to install non-directional bottom mounted hydrophones at an approximate depth of 100 m. Hydrophones were rather complex broadband electrodynamic systems (the received frequency range of the SIGAK was set between 30 and 800 Hz). According to the project, cable lengths from coastal stations to the bottom hydrophones bases varied. They reached 40–50 km in regions with a gradual sloping coastal shelf. Acoustic and time marker signals from explosions, received by coastal stations, had to be fed to relay lines and then, over the radio channels, go to multi-channel recording devices of the main and additional central stations. The additional central stations were meant to support only a small part of the coastal stations for the tactically very important approaches to Sevastopol.

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According to the plan, the SIGAK system was big and very expensive (the largest component in complexity and cost was construction of a bulky extended relay line over 700 km long). The general contractor of the system and the development contractor of the radio communication line between coastal stations and the central station was one of the Chief Directorates of the Ministry of Communications. The designer and supplier of all hydroacoustic parts (including hydrophones, underwater cables, amplifying, control and recording equipment, common timing system) for all coastal and two central stations was CRI Morfizpribor (in those years known as RI-3). L. F. Sychov was appointed the chief designer of the SIGAK project at RI-3. The designers of the devices were specialists from the RI-3 System Department (L. F. Sychov was the head of the Department), the Acoustics Department (head B. G. Levichev), the Radio Engineering Department (head S. M. Shelekhov), the Automation Department (head L. L. Vyshkind), and others. The chief designer’s group was very small, consisting of the group leader V. B. Idin, Ye. G. Obukhova, who was in charge of the development of general technical documentation for the system, and D. R. Sukhomyasov, technician and adjuster, a very innovative and skillful person. G. A. Ryabinin led the group of design engineers. The great authority, organizer’s talent and experience of L. F. Sychov (the first person in those years who was both a high-level administrator and a chief designer of the project) promoted prompt, intensive (within a bit more than a year) elaboration. It included engineering design, manufacture, laboratory testing and equipment shipment to the customer, the Marine Scientific and Technical Committee of the Navy (the chief of the customer department was Rear-Admiral B. I. Karlov). The scientific adviser of the development effort was L. D. Rozenberg. Unfortunately, the SIGAK system was never completely installed due to its complexity and high cost of installation. Since it found no application in the fleet, it might as well have been forgotten. But in that period a SIGAK coastal station was installed and tested in the vicinity of the Sukhumi lighthouse. (Later the well-known branch of

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the Institute of Acoustics was established there.) The results of explosive sound (and other sea sound) observations obtained at the coastal station provided valuable scientific information for application in technical hydroacoustics. Observations, recordings and analysis of explosion sounds received from various intensity sources were made with the use of hydrophones installed at three depths; above, below, and at the depth of the axis of the USC. (The depth where the sound speed is a minimum is called the axis of the USC.) The impressions and individual encounters with the mysteries of active life of the ocean (the noises we heard in the Black Sea) are still very vivid. A contact with “science” also left strong impressions. It consisted of comparing the results of theoretical investigation of the USC and fresh experimental data, discussions, theory elucidations made by researchers like L. M. Brekhovskikh, M. A. Isakovich, and L. D. Rozenberg. For my colleagues from the Laboratory of Acoustics (I. Ye. Mikhaltsev, Yu. N. Silvestrov, A. N. Fominov) and me it was a real school for scientific thought. I would like to briefly describe the experiments. As already mentioned, hydrophones were installed at three depths at a comparatively small distance from the coast (the bottom slope in this section of coastal line was about 30◦ ). Coastal station amplifying equipment, spectrum analyzers, cinematographic equipment for signal recording in the predetector band, level recorder, and the coastal station standard recorder, which allowed recording the signal in a very narrow post-detector band (about 1 Hz), were connected to the hydrophone cable outputs. A ship loaded with ammunition (230 g explosive charges, depth bombs, and mines) moved from Sukhumi westward along approximately 43◦ to a relatively shallow region near the Bulgarian port of Varna. The route was about 800 km long. The sea depth was approximately 2000 m and the channel axis was located at the depth of 100– 200 m (measurements were made in October). Several (over 10) points, or stations, were marked along the route, where the ship would heave to and drop charges at preset times (according to a schedule) in a preset sequence (charge type, number of explosions, explosion depth, etc.). HF radio communication (VHF at short

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distances) was maintained between the ship and the coastal station according to schedule. Before every explosion, the radio operator pressed the telegraph key, sending a long dash over the radio communication channel. The dash would end when the radioman would see the emergence of a gas bubble on the sea surface near the ship. On the other end of the radio channel, the coastal station operator would start a stopwatch at that moment. No need to smile when reading these lines because those events were taking place in 1950, when there were no digital automatic stopwatches, and all the equipment, including the imported sets, was assembled on cathode-heater valves. However, the time of sound wave passage from the explosion point to the receiving hydrophone, with a maximum distance between them being about 800 km, was over 8 min. If the explosion points were far from the hydrophones, the smokers at the coastal station had time to light a cigarette after starting the stopwatch, smoke it, turn on the heating mode of the coastal station equipment, and in good time (2–3 s before the estimated time of the sound wave arrival) start the chart paper and film drive mechanisms of the recorders, analyzers and cinematographic equipment. At short ranges, the explosion signal envelope had a very steep leading edge and an “extended” exponential tail. At distances of several hundred meters (and up to several kilometers, as we remember), the explosion’s (230 g charge) signal envelope clearly displayed three sound intensity peaks with only seconds of intervals between them. The calculation of oscillation process of the gas buddle formed during the explosion corresponded to the observed effects. At larger distances, this effect was smeared by reverberation. As the explosive sources were moving further away from hydrophones, the leading edge of the pulse envelope at the receiving end of the channel gradually flattened. Thus, for example, at 300–500 km distances from the explosion source the envelope was acquiring the form of an isosceles triangle. In case of even larger distances (650–800 km) the explosion signal envelope was a pulse with smoothly growing sound intensity. The signal was cut-off abruptly at the moment when the last beam arrived, whose path from the source

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to the hydrophone coincided with the USC axis characterized by minimum sound propagation velocity. The audio signal of the explosion at the receiving end of the acoustic channel (at a telephone outlet of the coastal station equipment) was very dramatic — a slow thundering rise in signal volume and a sudden cut-off, followed by silence. But the silence did not last long. After several minutes another cycle of signals arrived (even though there were no more detonations). It was the signal reflected from the Turkish coast. Everything repeated, but this time the pattern was blurred (due to the configuration of the reflecting portion of the Turkish coast). After a while a second reflection arrived — from another portion of the Turkish coast. So it would go on for some time. It was easy to predict the next echo by having only a map of the Black Sea and simple devices, such as two pins stuck in the map corresponding to the locations of the ship with explosives and the coastal station, a thread tied to these pins, which on the map corresponded to the time of reflected signal passage, and a pencil. It stretched the thread and drew the sections of the Turkish coast on the map, which reflected the sounds. The sounds of underwater life left unforgettable impressions. The frequency range, the hydrophone location at a distance from the shore, and the great depth of the sea at the location of the hydrophone gave an opportunity to obtain a clear acoustic pattern. During daytime, loud noises were generated, concealing the sounds of biological origin, by ocean waves and the rumble of pebbles on the sea bottom. But closer to midnight, when the sea was usually calm, these noises almost disappeared, and the sounds of underwater animal life were clearly heard. Now I know that the expression “mute as a fish” is not true. It is hard to find words to describe the sounds of the underwater realm, but the reader may get some impressions, if you remember a visit to a zoo at the time of feeding. Deep roar, piercing whistle, twitter, sounds resembling human speech, rattle and other sounds from all the sides and all at once. This seems to be all that I can recollect about the SIGAK 50 years later.

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Our Help to the People’s Republic of China with Developing Hydroacoustic Equipment V. N. KANAREYKIN and A. N. MAKSIMOV

More than 35 years ago, in the late 1950s and early 1960s, the Soviet Union greatly assisted the People’s Republic of China in the creation of its navy, and particularly, in construction of modern (at that time) submarines and in equipping them with hydroacoustic devices. The assistance was essentially without cost. A symbolic payment was made that did not exceed production costs. In 1959, the submarines of the classes 611 and 613 were constructed at the Shanghai shipyards. The “eyes” and “ears” of these submarines were the Plutoniy sonar and the Feniks passive sonar, both of Soviet manufacture. Apart from the above-mentioned sonars, the USSR sent to China Tamir-11, Pegas, Sviyaga, Svet-M, Arktika, and Volkhov sonars. The manufacturers delivered them together with the service documentation (in Russian) for the equipment. Part of the equipment was installed for study purposes on stands of the Radio Engineering Plant in the town of Usi, located 200 km west of Shanghai on the bank of Lake Taikhu. The chief engineer of the Plant and a few of his assistants had been educated in the USSR. They visited research organizations in Leningrad and were familiar with the development and manufacture of hydroacoustic equipment. At the time, a course of training in hydroacoustics had started at the Xi’an North-West Institute but since it required several years for completion, it could not help in providing the needed technical expertise. In 1954, as part of the technical assistance, the director of CRI Morfizpribor, N. N. Sviridov, gave the Chinese delegation a set of certified production measuring hydrophones and Amur type measuring sources. 1166

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In 1959, the Usi Plant was tasked to develop the production capability for two hydroacoustic devices, the Tamir-11 sonar and the Feniks passive sonar. These sonars were to be installed on ships of the Chinese Navy, that were then under construction. It was a significant task for the shipbuilding industry of China, which was still in a development phase. The Vodtranspribor Plant in Leningrad received a contract to supply the Usi Plant with a complete set of blueprints and design documentation for manufacture of all instruments for both types of sonars. The majority of these documents were declassified. For technically competent translation of this large volume of documentation from Russian into Chinese, there was a need for routine explanations and hands-on assistance from the equipment designers. In November 1959, at the request of the Chief Engineering Department (CED) of the State Committee of Foreign Economic Relations (SCFER) of the Council of Ministers (CM) of the USSR, a group of Soviet hydroacoustic specialists was sent to Usi from Leningrad. The Vodtranspribor Plant sent engineers V. I. Borisov and A. A. Terentyev, and the CRI Morfizpribor sent engineers V. N. Kanareykin and A. N. Maksimov. Their mission was formulated as follows: “A group of specialists is being sent to China to render technical assistance in compliance with the assignment of CED of SCFER of CM of the USSR.” The aim of the mission was to provide technical assistance to the Radio Engineering Plant in Usi in developing the manufacture capability of Feniks passive sonars and Tamir-11 sonars and in organizing training in hydroacoustics and hydroacoustic measurements for the Plant’s personnel. It should be noted that hydroacoustic engineering was not a totally groundbreaking experience to China. According to documented sources, research in hydroacoustics had been conducted at the Nanjing University since 1955. That research was singled out as a separate discipline at the Physics Faculty. Laboratory investigations were carried out of sound-absorbing materials in reverberation chambers and in architectural acoustics. Theoretical conferences devoted to ultrasonic engineering had been held.

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In 1959, Soviet scientists (among them, Mikhailov) lectured on hydroacoustics at the Nanjing University. Further plans included training of students specializing in hydroacoustics. The Department of Acoustics at the Nanjing University was the largest in China. It had twelve instructors. Transducer models of barium titanate and other piezoelectric materials were made and investigated in the ultrasonic laboratory. The fine technical library of the Nanjing University had a large collection of books and technical magazines in English and Russian. Technical journals in acoustics were regularly received from the USA and the USSR. Soviet textbooks on the fundamentals of hydroacoustics by V. N. Tyulin and articles by L. Ya. Gutin on the theory of transducers translated into Chinese were very popular. In addition to the Nanjing University, ultrasonic engineering research was carried out at the Institute of Electronics of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the Shanghai Polytechnic Institute, and the Shanghai Institute of Material Science. At some plants, among them the Nanjing Radio Receiver Plant and the Beijing and Shanghai plants of radio devices, ultrasonic and magnetostrictive sources were developed and manufactured. These plants also used ultrasonic washing and cleaning of various components and designed ultrasonic flaw detectors. In 1957, the construction of the Radio Engineering Plant was started at Usi. In 1958, the Plant began production of the Soviet instrument PK-1, for controlling the electroacoustic characteristics of vibrators and stations under real conditions, and the NEL-5 Soviet echo sounder. The manufacturing plan for 1959 included the production of 150 echo sounders. It is worth mentioning that the Chinese documentation was used in series production of the NEL-5 echo sounders. The Plant had extensive plans, but there were many difficulties with material supplies, product tuning, and testing under realistic conditions. In 1959, the First All-China Conference on ultrasound applications was held in Uchang, attracting about 100 participants. The above information provides an overview of the general situation in ultrasonic engineering development in China before 1960.

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No wonder that already in 1959 China was addressing the problem of developing and bringing to industrial production modern hydroacoustic equipment for the surface and submarine fleet of the Chinese Navy. It was necessary to reorganize the Usi Plant and initiate a research institute, a design bureau, and a technical school of hydroacoustics at the Plant to be able to develop the manufacture of Tamir-11 and Feniks sonars. Production plans for 1960 envisaged manufacture of one or two pilot sets of each sonar type. The final commissioning of the Plant as a specialized enterprise for the manufacture of hydroacoustic equipment for the Navy was scheduled for the end of 1962. In 1959, the Usi Plant was already a big enterprise. The Plant management offices, the design bureau, and the laboratories were accommodated in a four-story building. The workshops occupied several one-story buildings. The workers and office employees lived in barracks–dormitories located on the Plant site. The Plant employed about 4000 people, which was not many by Chinese standards. At the beginning, our task was to assist a group of translators (10–12 people) in translating into Chinese the documentation for the Tamir-11 and Feniks sonars. The documents were then copied and distributed at the workshops. Simultaneously, we discussed and scheduled procedures for instrument production and adjustment with the chief engineer and other executive personnel in charge of the Tamir-11 and Feniks sonars. We also considered the problems of arrangement of the Soviet sets of these sonars on stands. We broke them down to single components and units “for familiarization and study.” A list of necessary measuring equipment was compiled. We, CRI Morfizpribor employees, answered all questions concerning performance data, specifications, and drawings, which the translators asked us in the course of work, and gave explanations on the use of our instruments. The Vodtranspribor people were busy in the shops communicating with production engineers. Because the questions of the Chinese management included a wide range of problems and often related to the prospects for development

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of hydroacoustics, it was decided to organize a program of technical seminars for Plant workers. Seminars were held on the following subjects: (1) general hydroacoustics, (2) technical documentation of Tamir-11 and Feniks sonars, (3) electroacoustic measurements. The classes on each subject lasted for 30–40 h. Several groups were organized, each including 30 people. Simultaneously, we started construction of a non-sound-proofed basin for acoustic transducer testing and refinement of the techniques for measurement of electroacoustic parameters (the basin size was 25× 10 × 10 m3 ). Special attention was paid to the stage of tuning of the instruments and units arriving from the shops, because this particular stage required thorough step-by-step testing of the instruments for compliance with the specifications. Unfortunately, these requirements were not always met, since local materials were often of a lower quality compared to the quality of materials from the Soviet Union. Another reason for poor quality was the climate. In summer, the working conditions in the shops were particularly hard. The temperature reached 36◦ C and 90% humidity. Difficulties were encountered in the manufacturing of the magnets for the hydrophone equipment for Feniks sonar, nickel pipes for it, the screening rubber, lamellae of Monel metal for compensators, etc. The production culture at the plant was low. The workshops were untidy. Instrument manufacturing requirements were often disregarded. There was no plan of organizational and technical measures to maintain the order, etc. We told the Plant’s management about this several times. Three sets of each of the sonars were put into production simultaneously. As a result, by August 1, 1960, one Feniks sonar was manufactured, tuned and put to testing on a stand. The only cause for the delay was the acoustic system. A complete set of magnetostrictive hydrophones was missing. Hydrophones had to be purchased

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additionally from the USSR. One Tamir-11 set was also manufactured and ready for tuning. We did our best to help the Plant to keep up with the schedule approved by the 10th Chief Administration (CA) of the 1st Ministry of Machine Engineering of China. These terms were often appointed to match the dates of the Chinese revolutionary holidays. The manufacture of pilot sets of Tamir-11 and Feniks was under close watch by the Soviet chief specialists — advisers at the 10th CA of the 1st Ministry of Machine Engineering of China. Unfortunately, we had no opportunity to participate in installation and trials of the manufactured equipment on ships of the Chinese Navy. In August 1960, the Soviet government recalled us back due to political complications. But the plant workers saw us off to Leningrad with the warmest wishes. All the members of our group received medals of the Chinese–Soviet Friendship from the Chinese Government. We were leaving Usi with the feeling of a fulfilled mission, because, in the long run, we had helped to organize hydroacoustic equipment production at the Plant. We still keep good memories of the trip and our joint work with our Chinese colleagues.

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Certificate to the medal awarded to V. N. Kanareykin on leaving China: “Translation from Chinese. Certificate to the medal of the Chinese–Soviet Friendship. To Comrade V. N. Kanareykin. As a token of gratitude for your unselfish and enthusiastic assistance to the socialist construction in our country, I award you the medal of the Chinese–Soviet Friendship. Prime Minister of State Council of China Zhou Eng-lai.” In conclusion, here is a letter of acknowledgement (translated from Chinese), which each of us received with the medal certificate: Dear Comrade Kanareykin! During the period of your stay in China you have rendered us unselfish assistance, thanks to which the development of new products at our Plant is going on successfully and without trouble. We will never forget your noble internationalism and great friendship. Please accept heartfelt and sincere gratitude from all the workers of our Plant. You are leaving for your Motherland soon, and we will miss you very much. We hope your assistance will continue in the future. We are sure that under the right leadership of the Communist Party of China, Chairman Mao Ze-dong, and the bright shine of the Party master plan, the team of the workers of our Plant will with confidence overcome all difficulties in the work and production activities. We wish you, your spouse and your children health, happiness, and great success in your further work. Long live the great solidarity and friendship between the peoples of China and the Soviet Union. Tan Khai-chang U Tsoi-ming

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Neptune’s Underwater World through the Eyes of a Chief Designer YA. S. KARLIK

In 1987, after 9 years of operation, one of the submarine cables that connected the receiving array of the Agam land sonar with the coastal station failed. The measurements showed that the rupture occurred at a section close to the array. Thus, it could not be repaired using standard procedures making if necessary to lift the array to the surface. Considering that by that time the array had already served almost double the time stipulated in its service documents, a decision was made to lift the array for an overall check. The array structure could be lifted to the surface without the need for special gear. Similar devices had been tested when lifting one of the series arrays after being under the water for a short time. In our case, we had to lift the array after a long stay under the water at a depth of about 200 m. It was necessary first to lift the special air hoses of the array system from the sea bottom, and then to lift the array itself. The hoses were used for blowing the ballast tanks of the system, after which the system acquired positive buoyancy and rose to the surface. The lifting of the air hoses was carried out with the help of a grappling hook, which all cable ships normally use for lifting submarine cables. However, our numerous attempts to pull up the cables failed. For such occasions there are reserve pipe connections on the upper deck of the array system. They may be used to connect the air hoses brought from the surface with the help of ARS type self-contained manned recovery vehicles. For landing the latter on the array system, there was a special platform near the blowing pipe connections. Thus, by coincidence, the old-time desire of the chief designer of LS Agam and the author of these lines came true. He wanted to go under 1173

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the water to the array system in an ARS vehicle and examine the array visually in situ. For this purpose the vehicle had special illuminators and lamps. A long correspondence with the Pacific Fleet commander began to get a permit to use the ARS for this operation. At that time, Admiral V. V. Sidorov was the Commander of the Pacific Fleet. He was a good person, an excellent specialist in his area, who had always been interested in what we did. I had contacted him on different occasions in the period of installation and trials of the prototype LS Agam, and my requests had never been denied. So it was this time. The permit was given, and preparations for a unique operation of array examination in its working position started. The task was entrusted to the crew of the underwater vehicle AS-12 (Fig. 1) based on the specialized rescue ship Georgy Kozmin (under the command of Captain Third Rank V. Aslamov) of the Kamchatka military flotilla.

Fig. 1.

Underwater vehicle.

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During discussions of the procedure for array inspection, it was decided to involve the chief designer in the operation. After careful checking of the vehicle and a long wait for favorable weather, the moment finally came. We headed out to sea to the region of the array installation. Since the vehicle had a rather limited battery resource (approximately 4 h of endurance), it was delivered to the immersion area by a carrier ship and launched with the help of special devices, which could be operated at sea in a sea state not exceeding 3. At first it was necessary to accurately determine the array location. The absence of special hydroacoustic equipment on board the G. Kozmin for detecting underwater objects made our task more difficult. A search with the use of an echo sounder was conducted. After multiple combings of the area, the array was finally found. The sea depth in the area did not allow the ship to drop anchor, so it went adrift. The last preparations were finally over. The vehicle was lowered into the water on July 21, 1987. The last instructions were given, the hatchway was dogged down, and, slowly, the vehicle descended. The hydroacoustic communication station supported communication between the vehicle and the ship. The search for the array began. A beautiful view of the underwater world opened to the eye. The water, transparent at first sight, teemed with a huge number of small organisms and phytoplankton. There were very few fish. From time to time a lonely fish would swim by. The vehicle moved almost noiselessly and did not disturb the submarine life. Gradually the depth increased, it became dark and cool. Underwater lamps were turned on, and an enchanting sight opened to the observers. It should be mentioned that, even though the array location was known with an accuracy of tens of meters, finding it from a vehicle carrying no special hydroacoustic systems turned out to be a problem. Multiple maneuvers in the area of array installation in the attempt to spot it using the hydroacoustic communication channel with the carrier ship brought no results. Another search technique was then adopted. The vehicle went down to the bottom, and, hovering 2–3 m above the bottom, started moving in the direction across the layout route of the submarine cables connecting the array with the coastal station

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equipment. This proved to be the only possible solution, and very soon one of the cables was spotted visually and finally led us to the array proper. The ocean bottom presented an interesting sight. It was covered with slightly ruffled sand, like a sandy marine beach. At times, stones of different size could be seen. As before, only rare single fish were met, either lying on the seabed (plaice, halibut) or swimming by (sea perches, gurnards, etc.). The vehicle was slowly moving above the seabed along the cable in the direction of the array. Suddenly the observers saw a wall overgrown with seaweeds and teeming with fish. Hurray! The array was found. Since its size exceeded the size of the vehicle by more than 10 times and the visibility zone hardly reached several meters, it was impossible to see the whole array at one time. Its examination was carried out consequently, as the vehicle was moving around. As too much time was lost searching for the array, the time for its examination was limited. So the first “acquaintance” had to be very short. What were the results of the first inspection? Despite many years spent in the marine medium, the air hoses lying on the bottom were found to be rather well preserved, although in some places the rubber casing of the cable was missing. The impression was that organisms had eaten it. But why at some places only? The steel rope to which the air hoses were attached was also in a good shape, but it was broken off from the array, evidently because of trawling with a grappling hook. One of the air hoses was also ruptured. There was no time for a more detailed examination, as the vehicle batteries were running low. The command “Stop work, ascend” came from the ship. Since the array inspection was not finished, it was decided to repeat the dive after a month. The second inspection took place on August 28– 30. The experience gained during the first dive allowed us to check it more thoroughly this time. As a result, it became clear that the lifting of the array system by blowing through the standard hoses was impossible because of their rupture. It was necessary to bring air hoses to the array from the rescue ship with the help of the self-contained vehicle, as had been planned when we first developed the technique for lifting the array. This kind of operation ensued great technical difficulties, in the first place, because it was necessary to strictly fix the position of the

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rescue ship from which the air hoses were run out to the array. It was not an easy task considering the great sea depth in the array installation area. Thus it was decided to try to lift the broken cable using the AS-12 vehicle. The location of the break permitted us to do that. For this purpose, a self-made grappling hook welded from three reinforcing bars, normally used in ferroconcrete slabs, was used. The idea was to bring this hook to the sea bottom with the vehicle, hook the cable using a manipulator, after which, pulling the rope attached to the hook, the cable ship would bring the cable up. The massive preparation began. In view of the unusual nature of the planned operation, the work was supervised by the recently appointed Commander of the Auxiliary Fleet of the Kamchatka flotilla, Captain First Rank N. A. Khalimon. He was a top-level professional, very courageous person and a true Russian sailor (in the subsequent years he stood at the head of all marine expeditions performing installation of array systems of series-produced Agam land sonars, prototype sonar system Dnestr, and models for D&D project Poseidon). N. A. Khalimon replaced Captain Second Rank A. S. Gofman in the crew of the AS-12. The last preparations were over, the vehicle was lowered to the surface, with the grappling hook firmly fixed in one of the manipulators. The hatchway was dogged down, and the vehicle slowly disappeared under the water. The steel rope connected to the grappling hook was run out from the winch of the G. Kozmin. After running out the necessary length of the rope, a buoy was fixed to its end supporting the rope end on the sea surface. Thus the vehicle had an opportunity to freely maneuver under the water. This was a non-standard, unprecedented operation. Repeating the procedure, which we developed earlier, the vehicle quickly located the array and the cable, which must be brought to the surface. With the help of the manipulator, the grappling hook seized the cable, and here, the most exciting part began. N. A. Khalimon gave the command to ascend, the necessary tanks were blown, but the vehicle failed to rise. Everything that needs blowing had been blown, the emergency ballast had been dropped, but the vehicle remained motionless. As it was found later, the rope passing from the grappling

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hook to the sea surface had got tightly caught by the vehicle, and the latter turned to be hanging on a dump mooring. The situation was desperate, the vehicle batteries were running low, and the second vehicle required according to the safety precautions was missing on board the G. Kozmin!!! And here we had to pay due to the self-control of N. A. Khalimon. Not a sign of panic, only brief commands, and search for extraordinary solutions… At last, everybody sighed with relief — the vehicle rushed up. The ascending speed was so great that the vehicle jumped out of the water like a dolphin. The night had already come down on the sea surface, and the hatchway was undogged. Hurray! Everybody was alive. We were saved because the grappling rods were not strong enough, and, after multiple jerks, the hook became unbent, and the vehicle was freed from the cable. This was the end of our underwater odyssey, which brought us a lot of valuable information concerning the array for the LS Agam. To end my story, I would like to recall one more instance, which tells a lot about N. A. Khalimon as a man, with a capital M. He had settled in Sevastopol after his retirement. In the summer of 1996 during my vacation there I found him. I was welcomed cordially. We remembered things we did together… Naturally, the above episode was brought up, and I found that nobody in Nikolai’s family had heard of it. In response to my question why, he briefly noted, “Why make my dear ones worry? Such was my service.”

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Northern Fleet Training with the Participation of the Naval Institute of Electronics and CRI Morfizpribor L. B. KARLOV

In the late 1950s, the problem of locating submarines in the Arctic was of special importance. To help solve this problem a trial exercise of the Northern Fleet was organized. It was a naval expedition with the participation of the Naval Institute of Electronics and the CRI Morfizpribor to the 1-year ice floes south of the Franz Josef Land on board the RS OS-30 (a Baikal type ice-breaker) (Fig. 1). The First Deputy Fleet Commander, Vice-Admiral N. I. Shibayev was appointed the head of the expedition. The expedition included a group of specialists of the Fifth Department of the Northern Fleet (officers and warrant officers, 24 in total) led by Head of the Fifth Department Captain First Rank L. V. Bondaryuk, a group of specialists from the Institute of Electronics (officers, engineers and research workers, 12 individuals) led by Head of the Department Captain Second Rank L. B. Karlov, and a group of specialists from the CRI Morfizpribor (2 engineers) led by engineer Ya. S. Karlik. The general idea of the expedition–exercise was as follows. It was planned to find an area south of the Franz Josef Land with 1-year ice floes of a size large enough for a drift-ice research station, using ice reconnaissance data and the help of qualified specialists of the Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute (AARI), by traveling on Be-6 planes. The OS-20 ship carrying Mi-4 helicopters and all expedition participants on board went to that area. Moving as far as possible into the thick ice, the ship was to get inside one of the ice floes in the area selected by the ice patrol, unload the helicopters, which would take the personnel, outfit, all necessary detection equipment several miles away from the 1179

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OS-30 to arrange a drift-ice research station. The distance of several miles from the OS-30 was necessary to eliminate ship noise interfering with the hydroacoustic detection equipment installed on the ice. The staff had to install hydroacoustic detection equipment in the camp organized after cargo and equipment unloading as well as check the equipment ability to detect a nuclear submarine navigating under ice and performing maneuvers according to a preset schedule. In those years the under-ice navigation was not sufficiently developed, so all maneuvers of a submarine were limited to a course close to 0◦ or to 180◦ . The range of the submarine from the ice edge was about 100 miles. The main submarine detection systems in those years were automatic ice signal sonars (AISS), designed and manufactured at the Naval Institute of Electronics as a modification of the drift-ice arctic weather stations (DIAWS) purchased from the Ministry of Marine Fleet. For several years, DIAWS were used by the AARI to gather meteorological information in the Arctic and were installed on pack ice in the Arctic by special groups. Those groups included workers of the Naval Institute of Electronics, for whom it was a valuable experience a year before the expedition. DIAWS were brought to the ice by polar aviation planes (LI-2 type). The information from DIAWS (in MW) was received by radio receiving centers along the Arctic coast. The earlier purchased DIAWS were modified to AISS at the Naval Institute of Electronics. They now acquired a hydroacoustic detection channel comprising a non-directional hydrophone (Mars type), a lownoise narrow-band amplifier with the operating frequency band below 100 Hz, a threshold circuit, and a power unit to support operation for several weeks. The electronic equipment together with the power source was arranged in a cylindrical container deployed under the ice. Electric ice augers powered by a portable diesel-generator drilled holes in the ice. In addition to AISS sets, other submarine hydroacoustic detection devices were used, including a low-frequency reception system with two arrays — one linear horizontal comprising Mars hydrophones connected with a cable, and another, a vertical array, formed with similar hydrophones.

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Preparation work and the loading of the necessary equipment began in March 1961. The equipment included Shaposhnikov (type SAFT) arctic tents — two for 4 and one for 8 people, sleeping bags, folding beds, gas cooking ranges and gas cylinders, sheets of plywood, boards, fire extinguishers, sledges, rubber whaleboats, petrol, motor oil, machine oil, electric augers, helicopters guidance equipment, and many other things necessary for the support and functioning of the ice camp. The OS-30 carried the MG-15 communication sonar. A special training session was conducted to establish communication with a nuclear submarine, and a radio receiving station was installed to receive the information from AISS sets. At the end of March, all members of the expedition moved to the OS-30 and changed into the arctic uniform (in fact, this was the submariners’ uniform). On March 30, the Northern Fleet Commander-inChief signed an order organizing a drift-ice research station. The order mentioned the OS-30, the ice airdrome for the MI-4 helicopters, which had to be unloaded on the ice near the ship, the No. 1 ice camp near the OS-30, and the No. 2 ice camp several miles away from the ship.

Fig. 1.

The expedition ship OS-30 among ice floes.

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The No. 2 camp personnel consisting of workers of the Naval Institute of Electronics and the CRI Morfizpribor, overall 16 people, had to be taken on helicopters to an ice floe selected beforehand and establish a camp there. The No. 2 camp personnel also included a consultant from the AARI and a radio operator from the Northern Fleet. In the first days of April, the ice was patrolled twice from the Be-6 planes. As a result, an area with large ice floes (several hundred meters in diameter) was found, and the OS-30 headed toward it. In the evening of April 10, the ship left the Severomorsk Roads, and on April 12 approached the ice edge. On the same day the ship was in 30–50 cm thick ice. During the night and the next day the OS30 was making its way through the ice, at the end shoving along in 60–100 m lurches. This way it covered about 20 miles across the ice, and at last, an ice field of sufficient size was selected for the helicopter airdrome site. After a thorough inspection of the field in all directions and measurement of the ice thickness and the level of noise from the OS-30, on the morning of April 14 the unloading of helicopters on the ice and the mounting of rotor blades began. An aerial mast for helicopters was installed, and they made test flights over the unloading site. On April 15, two helicopters started flights over the area in the radius of 5–10 miles from theOS-30, searching for an ice floe for the No. 2 camp. Together with the workers of the Naval Institute of Electronics, the head of the expedition Vice-Admiral N. I. Shibayev patrolled the area in one of the helicopters. While helicopters hovered 1–1.5 m over the “thickest” ice floe spotted from the air, the people jumped out on the ice, quickly drilled holes in the ice with hand augers to measure its thickness, and then jumped back on board to continue their search. In this way, a suitable ice floe was found by the end of the day about 7 miles away from the OS-30 (with 60–70 cm thick ice, 300 × 500 m2 in size). The equipment and cargo were immediately transferred to the new camp. During the night all equipment (about 17 tons) and personnel (16 people, among them officers Karlov, Shoshkov, Kozlov, Zykov, and Pisemsky) were carried over to the ice floe, making 18 helicopter flights.

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Fig. 2.

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Preparing to install a linear array.

The whole day of April 16 the personnel were busy organizing the camp. Three tents (SAFT) with gas ranges were set up by midday, and food was cooked. In the following three days, the equipment installation continued in the camp, five AISS sets and a linear sonar array with Mars type hydrophones were installed (Figs. 2 and 3). All AISS sets were tested for serviceability from the receiving station on board the OS-30. On April 20, AISS set interaction with the support nuclear submarine was checked (with submarine commander Captain Second Rank V. P. Rykov, the submarine also had Commander-in-Chief of the Northern Fleet Admiral A. T. Chebanenko on board). Totally, 6 lines at different speeds from 5.4 to 20 knots were made with submarine depth from 50 to 150 m. Each line was approximately 30 miles long. After checking the maneuvering blueprints of the nuclear submarine, it was established that the range of submarine detection with AISS sets reached 18 miles even at low speeds. However, it was not the limit, because distance limitations were imposed with the preset maneuvering conditions. The communication with the submarine was ensured by the submarine communication sonar MG-17 and explosive charges.

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Fig. 3.

A string of piezoceramic hydrophones.

As mentioned before, there were two representatives from the CRI Morfizpribor among the expedition personnel. The need for their participation in the ice camp was underlined by the following circumstances. At the end of the 1950s, CRI Morfizpribor initiated research on the creation of a coastal sonar system Liman, designed for operations in the Barents Sea, which was covered with ice almost half of the year. The Liman design was based on the results of the Ukhta research project, according to which it was recommended to apply the correlation method of weak signal detection against background noise in the semiautomatic sonars comprising the system Liman. (For more details about Liman, see the article “The History of the Development of the Liman Land-Based Sonar System” by G. I. Arfutkin and V. S. Kasatkin — Ed.). Since all investigations within the scope of the Ukhta research project had been carried out in conditions of an ice-free sea, it was necessary to gather experimental data on under-ice noise statistical characteristics, which were missing from the available literature.

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The experiments were organized as follows. A special positioner was made, at one end of which two hydrophones were fixed. Rotating a handwheel on the other end of the device could change the distance between the hydrophones. With the help of an auger, a hole was made in the ice, through which the positioner with the hydrophones was lowered to a depth of about 5 m. The measuring equipment with the power source was placed in a tent on the ice. The idea of the experiment was proposed by Ya. S. Karlik, and its technical implementation was performed by engineer S. I. Levin. As a result of the investigations, unique experimental data on the spatial correlation of 1-year ice noise was obtained. Later this information was used in the design of the Liman sonar system. Early on the morning of April 21, after having completed the planned series of measurements, dismantling of the detection and other equipment at the No. 2 camp began. According to schedule, this work was supposed to last for 24 h. But considering the bad weather forecast and unfavorable direction of the wind (skilled specialists on the Northern Fleet weather service worked on board the OS-30), the head of the expedition requested over the radio that dismantling of equipment be sped up. This request was repeated several times, and by 10 a.m. the helicopters were at the camp. As a result of intensive work by the team, the most valuable equipment, instruments and materials, as well as personnel, were evacuated to the OS-30. On the instruction of the head of the expedition the heaviest pieces of equipment were left on the ice (AISS sets, electric augers, the diesel-generator, gas ranges, gas cylinders, and some other items). Nevertheless, the evacuation required 12 helicopter flights. The fear of a longer stay on the ice floe was justified, as the weather was getting worse, and wind changing. Already by the end of the day, the ice hummocking and development of leads in the ice could be seen from the OS-30 bridge. By that time, the cargo and helicopters were on board, and at night, with the use of trinitrotoluene, the ship started breaking away from the ice embrace. For 2 days, moving in different courses, the OS-30 was making its way across the ice, and reached clear water at about 74◦ North.

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By the end of April 24, the OS-30 was back on the Severomorsk Roads. Thus the trial exercise lasted 14 days. In general, the results of the exercise were positive. Experimental proof was given to the theoretically predicted possibility of nuclear submarine detection under ice with the use of sonar equipment. For the first time a nuclear submarine navigated under ice at a considerable distance from its edge. The aim of this training — creation of a drift-ice research station on 1-year old ice — was realized. At the same time, serious difficulties were revealed in trying to organize a system for submarine detection in the Arctic. First, they involved huge material expenses on installation of positioning hydroacoustic equipment, even if using comparatively cheap AISS sets. Another important factor was that the Navy had no icebreakers able to pass into pack ice areas for AISS set installation. For this reason, the idea of submarine detection in the Arctic with the help of a system of AISS sets and other self-contained hydroacoustic equipment installed on drift ice, never came to life.

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Military Application of Hydroacoustics: The First Non-Periscope Attacks by Soviet Submariners V. F. MARTYNYUK, YU. F. TARASYUK and L. S. FILIMONOV

The victory in the Great Patriotic War demonstrated the high professional skills of the Soviet military. Having mastered the combat technique, our submariners attacked German ships without using periscopes. This new operating tactic ensured the greatest secrecy. It also increased the efficiency of the submarines at night and under extreme weather and tactical conditions when the use of periscopes was ineffective and even dangerous. The non-periscope attacks were launched with the help of hydroacoustic systems, which are called passive sonars (PS). The attacks began by searching and detecting the targets with a subsequent determination of their movements. The requirements on the detection range for the submarines and their sonar systems were rather high. They depended on the passive sonar characteristics and also on the level of the ship’s own noise which interfered with a target signal. Similar high requirements were placed on the accuracy of target localization. Under the conditions of secrecy only a passive sonar could be used since its operation would not disclose the submarine. But its use did require a quick and accurate maneuver to determine the target distance and to calculate the best position for the attack. During the prewar years, the Soviet shipbuilders achieved a significant success. In 1938, one of the leading scientists in the field of hydroacoustics, P. P. Kuzmin, came up with an idea that “…the level obtained … has approached the possibility of launching the submarine torpedo attack without exposure of a periscope.” Despite the fact 1187

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that our submarines and their sonar systems had rather high technical characteristics, the above-mentioned effective attack method was not mastered immediately. The situation was complicated by many factors including the insufficient bearing accuracy obtained by using the first versions of domestic Mars type passive sonars. However, all these difficulties were overcome. The first acoustic attack without using the periscope was launched by submariners of the Northern Fleet. From the very first days of the war, the tactical situation rapidly changed, demanding that crews make creative decisions for the tasks set and develop new, more effective, methods of battle. On August 21, 1941, the submarine M-172 (its commander was Lieutenant-Captain I. I. Fisanovich) entered the PetsamoVyono Bay, and having passed unnoticed near the enemy escort ships two times, passed the coastal observation station. Maintaining hydroacoustical observation, the M-172 submarine rose to periscope depth. It detected a large transport near the dock, and the captain torpedoed it, after which, orienting only by the passive sonar data, he led the submarine out of the bay. On September 26, 1941, the M-174 submarine (its commander was Lieutenant-Captain N. E. Yegorov) entered the same area. Being oriented by sonar data, it successfully penetrated the antisubmarine protection and, exposing a periscope, detected three loading transports. After a successful torpedo attack, the submarine was pursued by the enemy but managed to escape and enter the open sea. The use of sonar systems by the submarines operating on the enemy’s sea-lanes was increasing. In 1941, the Northern Fleet submariners used passive sonars in four attacks. In the next year, 16 attacks took place. The new method greatly increased the effectiveness of submarine battles. Here are some examples. With bad visibility, on November 2, 1941 the Shch-421 submarine with the help of sonar systems detected an enemy transport ship and then, using periscope data, attacked and sank it. In nine days, the same submarine, using the sonar systems, approached an enemy transport ship under escort and sank it again. At the beginning of the Great Patriotic War, 176 submarines (almost 80%) had been equipped with the Mars type passive sonars. These sonars with different sets of hydrophones in the elliptical array

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had rather high tactical characteristics. They were installed on small submarines (Mars-8), medium-size submarines (Mars-12) and large displacement submarines (Mars-16). They were able to detect naval and merchant ships at a range of 25 to 100 nautical miles depending on the intensity and spectrum of the noise, the characteristics of the passive sonar itself, the level of the own ship noise, and the sea state. The important capabilities of these sonar systems were: determination of the type of the targets detected by character of their noise emission, direction finding with relatively small errors (2–3◦ ), monitoring in 360◦ every 40–50 s, checking torpedo firing by listening to the noise of the traveling torpedo and its explosion, detection of the enemy’s sonar systems and underwater communication stations, and other tasks. The first experience with sonar systems in battle showed some disadvantages of the Mars type passive sonars. They had low noise immunity. With increasing submarine speed, the level of noise relative to the passive sonar operation greatly increased. As a result, the employment of the sonar systems required a decrease in the submarine speed thus limiting its maneuvering qualities. There were major errors in direction estimates of the targets resulting in a decrease in accuracy of calculation when gaining a firing position. There was no direct communication with the sonar room, which hampered operational analysis of the situation, combat maneuvering, and conducting the torpedo attacks under bad weather conditions. Moreover, the interaction during the combined employment of the sonar systems and torpedo directors Sprut was insufficient. Knowing the particular disadvantages, the specialists tried to develop new methods of submarine battle application, update the first versions of domestic sonar systems, and introduce the latest achievements of science and technology. On January 10, 1942, the S-102 submarine of the Northern Fleet, using passive sonar data, attacked and sank the Walter Olderogge. Six days later, the K-22 submarine was attacked by an enemy submarine but, using sonar data, successfully avoided its torpedoes. This case became the prelude to an underwater duel on May 28, 1942 with victory for the M-176 submarine (its commander was Captain 3rd Rank I. L. Bondarevich). He destroyed an enemy submarine during a battle

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that lasted for several hours. By using passive sonar data, the M-176 avoided the enemy torpedoes four times. But when the soundman reported that he heard the sound of blowing the enemy submarine tanks, the captain ordered the submarine to rise to periscope depth and sank the enemy with an accurate torpedo hit. On May 11, 1942, the crew of the M-172 (Captain 3rd Rank I. I. Fisanovich) was distinguished by the successful attack of the enemy ship according to the periscope-and-sonar data. (It is necessary to note that one of the authors of this article, published in the newspaper Na Strazhe Zapolyarya on May 11, 1967, an article that stated the attack of the M-172 was the first non-periscope attack. Further analysis of the published work has shown that it was a periscope-and-sonar attack.) The submarine, under the command of I. I. Fisanovich, began an attack near Varangerfjord. The torpedo firing calculations were based on the passive sonar data. Having ordered preparation for the battle, the captain exposed the periscope right before the salvo. There was no need to correct the sonar system. The enemy was torpedoed immediately. Conducting the sonar search underwater, the M-172 detected and sank one more large transport in four days. During evasive maneuvering and escape from the pursuing anti-submarine forces of the enemy, the continuous watch was kept by one of the best sonarmen of the Fleet A. V. Shumikhin, who died in battle on October 24, 1944. On July 5, 1942, the crew of the K-21 submarine accomplished an unprecedented heroic feat. Near the Inge Island the watch soundman A. A. Smetanin, using a Mars-16 passive sonar, detected ship noises. Making a submerged approach based on the passive sonar data, the submarine captain, N. A. Lunin, being already at periscope depth, detected the escort ship and behind it the masts of the Admiral Sheer cruiser and the Tirpits battleship. The attack of the K-21 was successful. The Mars passive sonars were improved in the following areas. The range was increased by increasing its sensitivity and noise immunity. The frequency range was increased, at both the low and high ends. The accuracy of direction finding was increased by increasing the number of hydrophones and using the new construction for the compensator (array directional characteristic former — Ed.). By incorporating a duplex intercom system and a gyrocompass repeater into the

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passive sonar system it was possible for the captain to independently listen to the noise of the targets and monitor them in accordance with the repeater data. These and other improvements played an important part in the fact that the year of 1943 was marked by the new victories for the Soviet submariners. On March 28, the S-55 submarine, using sonar system data, successfully avoided German submarine attacks and sank two enemy transports. On April 19, the Shch-422 submarine detected an enemy convoy under low-visibility conditions, launched a pericope/hydroacoustic attack and sank a large ship. Similar successful attacks were launched by the Shch-404, S-56 and S-101 submarines, which sank two transports, a minesweeper, and a submarine. The Fleet orders indicate the increase in combat skill and the effective and skillful employment of sonar systems, which resulted in repeated success. In 1943, the Soviet submariners successfully made torpedo attacks without exposing the periscope, using only the sonar system data. The first non-periscope torpedo attack was launched on April 5, 1943, by the M-171 guards submarine (submarine chief designer — P. I. Serdyuk, one of designers of passive sonar Mars, V. N. Tyulin, submarine commander G. B. Kovalenko, and sonarman A. M. Lebedev). An enemy ship of 2500 tons was sunk by a two-torpedo salvo. This success was based on good battle practice. The four first guards submarines (including M-171) alone sunk 24 various enemy vessels and a ship transporting military personnel and cargo. The crew of the M171 was awarded the Red banner of the Central Committee of the All Union Leninist Young Communist League for sinking the largest number of German ships. In 1943 non-periscope torpedo attacks were launched by the S-51 and M-201 of the Northern Fleet, the S-13, K-52 of other fleets and so on. The S-54 and L-15 submarines, arriving to the Northern Fleet from the Pacific Ocean in 1943, were equipped with the new sonar and radar systems. Another four sets of these systems were installed on some other submarines at the naval base Polyarniy. A great many ships were equipped with domestic sonar systems Tamir, which greatly increased their tactical capabilities. The passive sonar systems were also improved.

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The majority of torpedo attacks were launched using the passive sonar systems. The solution of many tasks on detecting and destroying the transport vessels and naval ships of Germany greatly depended on the skillful actions of the navy sonarmen. The Motherland highly valued their feats — F. N. Bykov, A. M. Lebedev, A. V. Shumikhin, V. S. Lyashenko, N. Svinyin, V. I. Shumkin, P. M. Borovik, A. A. Veselov, and others were awarded orders and medals. The first non-periscope attacks of the Soviet submariners, successfully conducted by means of the domestic passive sonars Mars, have obviously and cogently demonstrated the high-technical possibilities of the new systems. The designing, mass production, mastering, and battle employment of these systems were achieved in just a few years.

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Dolphins and Humans N. A. DUBROVSKY

1. Introduction These notes are devoted to the description of events in the initial stage of dolphin acoustics research (1968–1978), conducted at the Acoustics Institute. They describe the difficulties of working with these unique animals, the achievements, and the failures. The main characters in these notes are the employees of the bioacoustics laboratory and the dolphins. The contributions to science were due to both. It was not always possible to define whose contribution was larger. 2. Fish “Hydronic” Signals At the beginning of 1968, on the advice of A. L. Genkin, the head of the Radio Engineering Department of the Navy, A. A. Titov, from the Karadag Department of the Institute of Biology of Southern Seas of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, came to the Acoustics Institute. His Department was established at what was the Karadag Biological Station of Moscow State University (thereafter referred to as the Biostation) after the transfer of the Crimea to the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. A. A. Titov showed multiple oscillograms of signals emitted by an Azov Sea dolphin, called azovkas, that were recorded by him in a small swimming tank, which was to become the aquarium of the Biostation. These middle-sized dolphins, living in the Azov Sea, appeared to be the first dolphins studied at the Biostation. The diversity and complexity of the signals stroked our imagination. At that time we did not know that in reality the signals are simple and their seeming complexity was a result of the fact that they were recorded under free 1193

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swimming conditions without the necessary control over the relative orientation of the dolphin and the hydrophone. We wanted to become better acquainted with dolphins, about whom newspapers wrote much in those years. Echolocation in dolphins was discovered only at the end of the 1950s. The well-known American dolphinologist, J. C. Lilly, promised he would teach dolphins to speak English. My suggestion to conduct bionic research into the dolphin sonar (for the purpose of perfecting technical systems for imitating that sonar) was supported by Director of the Institute, N. A. Grubnik, and the Deputy Director responsible for scientific work, F. I. Kryazhev. Two years later F. I. Kryazhev suggested establishing a bionic department at the Institute. By 1968 the Institute was already involved in hydrobionic investigations. The peculiarities of dolphin swimming were studied by a talented scientist and experimenter, E. V. Romanenko, one of the disciples of Academician N. N. Andreyev, the founder of the Acoustics Institute. By the end of 1960s he had already published several interesting works on the hydrodynamics of dolphin swimming. The chance to become better acquainted with dolphins came in the summer of 1968. According to a request by N. A. Grubnik, a group of my colleagues, L. M. Krylov, L. A. Soroka, and A. Mamiy, invited from another department, and I went to the Crimea, to Karadag to search for “hydronic” signals. “Hydronic” was the name of a hypothetical longitudinally polarized electromagnetic wave that could propagate in water as freely as ordinary electromagnetic waves propagate in the air. Their discovery could have great impact on underwater observations. So it was not surprising that the Institute could not avoid discussions of the problem of hydronic waves. The most active supporter of hydronic waves in the Institute was V. V. Olshevsky. Hydronic waves did not leave theoreticians indifferent either. G. D. Malyuzhinets stated rather seriously that, theoretically, the existence was possible of longitudinally polarized electromagnetic waves that could propagate to long distances in water. Only one fact was confusing. The American scientist, W. Minto, the discoverer of “hydronic” waves, shared his discovery with everybody too willingly. The Institute received his report that allegedly had been presented at a meeting of the Florida State

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Academy of Sciences (USA). In that report W. Minto stated that fish use “hydronic” signals for echolocation and communication. In strict accordance with his description, we made an array for detecting the “hydronic” signals. We went to Karadag and submersed our array in the sea near the spot where fishermen every morning pulled from their nets hundreds of horse mackerels and red mullets. We thought this would be an ideal place to discover fish talk using “hydronic” signals. But the fish disappointed us severely; they transmitted no “hydronic” signals. Then we started searching for these signals from dolphins in the swimming pool. But the dolphins disappointed us, too. Finally, we measured signals of the so-called “sea astrologer,” a bottom fish that uses a weak electrical field for locating a victim before seizing it with a long sticky tongue. By the way, one of the, then famous, Soviet bioacousticians claimed to have observed multiple “hydronic” waves from the “astrologer” as he mentioned later in his book. From the “astrologer” we finally discovered signals, not “hydronic”, but electric ones. They were rather diverse and interesting but attenuated at distance as required by the laws of electrostatics. The results of that work were published in the journal Biofizika. The main object of our interest was a lonely dolphin, swimming in the turbid water of the swimming pool. The old system of water circulation could not provide the dolphin with a flow of fresh seawater. Attempts by A. A. Titov to attract us to conducting an experiment were fruitless. The reason was the controversial feelings that arose in us from observation of the poor animal. Obtaining any scientific data while studying the dolphin in those conditions seemed absolutely impossible. But it turned out not to be so. In the fall of the same year a young employee of the Biostation, G. L. Zaslavsky, made the first measurements of a dolphin sonar locating various cylindrical targets as a function of distance. He used a separating net that was installed perpendicular to the edge of the bridge from which the targets were lowered into water. The dolphin was taught to locate the target and approach it. For correctly locating a target the dolphin was rewarded with a fish. G. L. Zaslavsky managed to determine the dependence on distance and type of target of the dolphin’s ability to locate the target. Those

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were rather reliable quantitative data, suitable for scientific analysis. Our skepticism disappeared, and we seriously prepared for the summer season of 1969. Ball targets were made of different materials and we selected sound transmitters and hydrophones. 3. Eva Victorovna Nikratidu In the spring of 1969 fishermen from Yalta caught a dolphin (Tursiops truncates) — our first experimental animal. Veterans of the bioacoustics laboratory such as V. P. Babkin participated in the first experiment. Among the young people, P. S. Krasnov was distinguished; a young talented graduate of Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology. These graduates are called physicist-technologists or “phystechs.” By the beginning of our experiments a group of young researchers had been formed at the Biostation including A. A. Titov (the leader of the Karadag group of hydroacousticians), V. M. Lekomtsev, G. V. Nikolenko, and L. I. Yurkevich. Our team worked together with A. A. Titov’s group. Later a young, energetic employee, A. V. Zanin, joined the group. The mission of formulating scientific goals and of working out the methods of behavioral research was entrusted to me. However, first of all it was necessary to solve the task of year-round housing for the dolphin in the swimming pool. The pool’s depth needed to be increased, a pavilion around the pool needed to be built, and a system for heating the water in winter needed to be installed. So in addition to scientific matters I had to deal with many economic issues. Our first dolphin was an adult female named Eva. As her name emphasized, everything started with her. It soon became clear to us she was very smart. First, Eva was taught to locate targets, using the separating net. We determined the maximum distance for location, depending on the size and material of the target. We also determined the dependence of the detection range of a dead fish on its orientation relative to the dolphin. The important element at this stage of research was using the balls as targets. Because of spherical symmetry, the echo from a ball does not depend on its angular position relative to the dolphin, unlike other targets — plates, rods, cylinders, etc. Thanks to the theoretical work

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by R. Hickling, we could calculate with sufficient precision how the echo from the ball looked for the case of a dolphin probing it with a sound pulse. Such echoes consisted primarily of two components, a primary echo, appearing because of reflection of the pulse from the ball’s external surface, and a secondary echo, appearing because of penetration inside the ball of the sound and its re-transmission into water. Knowledge of the structure of echo from the ball turned out to be very important in the subsequent analysis of the experimental data. The next stage of the work, performed by P. S. Krasnov and A. A. Titov, was determining the capability of the dolphin to discriminate balls having differing diameter. For that it was necessary to teach the dolphin to approach a target of larger size. The work was started with an obvious supra-threshold difference in size. The difference was gradually decreased until the animal started making mistakes. The ability of the dolphin to distinguish the size of the ball targets was rather impressive. For example, the dolphin distinguished brass balls with diameters of 52 and 54 mm, differing by less than 4%. It is practically impossible for a human to notice that difference visually. Eva was also provided with the opportunity to distinguish balls of the same size but made of different materials. She distinguished without special effort almost all the pairs of balls that we offered her. But, to our surprise, she could not distinguish between steel and duralumin balls. It was amazing that she did not distinguish them at even a close distance, when she could distinguish visually a shining duralumin ball from a dark steel one. In that case the phenomenon of domination of the acoustic (sonar) sensor over the visual one was revealed. The dolphin trusted its sonar more than its vision. Eva’s inability to distinguish between the steel and duralumin balls was an interesting finding for us. It showed that the echo characteristics that the dolphin considered in distinguishing those balls were similar. The analysis of the frequency spectrum of the echo reflected from balls, calculated by R. Hickling, showed that spectral densities of the echo had oscillations; the period of these oscillations happened to be very close for steel and duralumin targets. This result allowed us later to propose a model of sonar differentiation of targets based on the comparison of oscillation periods of the targets’ spectral densities,

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or, equivalently, the comparison of the time intervals between primary and secondary echoes. V. P. Babkin also conducted experiments to determine the adaptive capabilities of the dolphin’s sonar. Near the end of the separating net that was closest to the dolphin, the noise transmitter was set up and the change of intensity of dolphin’s probing signals with the increase in noise intensity was measured. The dolphin appeared to react to the increase in noise with a sharp increase in intensity of her own signals. Eva behaved exactly like a human would when he has to talk in noisy conditions, he increases the loudness of his voice; shouting down the noise. Simultaneously the change in the spectral structure of the dolphin’s probing signals was observed. These observations were published in 1971 in the Transactions of the Acoustics Institute. There were many reasons to be satisfied with the results of our first season of work in Karadag. We gained useful experience, obtained new experimental data, and had a better understanding of the problems we had to solve. It became clear that it was possible to obtain reliable experimental data as a result of observation of a dolphin’s behavioral reactions. It was also necessary to significantly improve the quality of the equipment that was used in the investigations. We needed also to solve the most important and difficult task of how to take care of Eva during winter. The idea appeared to transfer her for the winter to the swimming pool of the Sukhumi subsidiary of the Institute. That idea was supported by V. I. Il’ichev, who was Director of the subsidiary at that time. Eva was placed in a steel bath, filled with seawater, and transported to Yalta. There the bath with the dolphin was loaded on board a ship for transport to Sukhumi. Eva lived in the swimming pool of the subsidiary for a month and then died, notwithstanding all the care provided by our colleagues in Sukhumi. All the participants of the experiment took her death like the death of a loved one. When the first article, based on results obtained in the summer of 1969, was being prepared for publication, we had the idea of commemorating her by including her in the group of the authors of the article with the name of Eva Victorovna Nikratidu (“ni” was supposed to be borrowed from Nikolenko, “kra” — from Krasnov, “ti” — from Titov and “du” — from Dubrovsky). Victor Lekomtsev

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was ready to consider Eva his own daughter (hence the patronymic Victorovna). Our first article on the analysis of dolphin sonar was published in 1970 in the Transactions of the Acoustics Institute. 4. Azov Sea Porpoise Transmits High-Frequency Signals In winter of 1969–1970, A. A. Titov came to the Institute and again directed our attention to the probing signals of the Azov Sea dolphin. At that time there was an opinion among scientists that the Azov Sea dolphin (this type of dolphin is sometimes referred to as a porpoise or a sea pig) transmits sequences of pulses with a frequency of about 2 kHz. That opinion was based on the work of a group of French bioacoustics researchers, headed by the reputable scientist R. Busnel. A significant portion of the group’s papers was devoted to a discussion of the unusual abilities of sea pigs. The animals avoided collision with a wire having a diameter of less then 1 mm, using, in the opinion of our French colleagues, echolocating waves with a wavelength of about 0.7 m (and frequency of 2 kHz). Obviously, an acoustic miracle! Our analysis, done with the participation of P. S. Krasnov and A. A. Titov, confirmed that sea pigs transmit low-frequency signals. However, besides these, the oscillograms showed high-frequency constituents having a frequency up to 100 kHz. That was the upper frequency limit of the equipment used for signal recording. Moreover, the spikes of high-frequency signals were phase-locked to the low-frequency signal. Naturally, we assumed that the low-frequency signal was the manifestation of the generation of the high-frequency signal. Peculiarities of the lifestyle of sea pigs also led to the thought that their signals should have higher frequency than the Tursiops signals. The results of our analysis were published in the Soviet Physics — Acoustics in 1970. That publication terminated scientific speculations about the sea pig being an acoustic miracle. Later in the 1970s B. Møhl from Denmark, using more sophisticated equipment, recorded nondistorted probing signals of sea pigs. Those signals appeared to have tonal segments with a frequency of about 120 kHz.

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5. Marianna and Continuation of the Research In spring of 1970 we started everything from the very beginning; to make an arrangement with fishermen regarding the catching of dolphins, to bring them to Karadag, and to teach them to solve acoustic problems. Among the animals in the swimming pool of the Biostation, one female displayed an outstanding acoustical talent. We gave her a nice name — Marianna. In a short period we managed to teach her everything that Eva had been taught. We continued the experiments on distinguishing balls of different size and made of different materials. By that time we planned our experiments using a differentiation model that had been proposed by us. According to this model, sonar differentiation of balls was based on differences of the oscillation period of the backscattered signal’s spectral density. Formally the condition of differentiation could be written down in the following way: if (
1 /a1 −
2 /a2 ) > k, the balls are distinguishable and if the difference (
1 /a1 −
2 /a2 ) < k, the balls are not distinguishable. In these expressions a1 and a2 are the radii of the balls,
1 and
2 are certain parameters characterizing the target material and k is a constant threshold value. As R. Hickling showed, the parameter
was monotonically related to the velocity of the shear elastic waves in the target material; the higher this velocity, the greater the value of
. The ratio
/a determines the time from the moment of the probing signal’s arrival at the ball until the moment of re-transmission of the secondary echo. That model had an important consequence: if targets had different sizes and were made of different materials, but
1 /a1 =
2 /a2 , the targets should be indistinguishable. In other words, for the time interval between the primary and secondary echoes to be equal, it was necessary for the ball of smaller size to have a smaller propagation velocity of the wave that formed the secondary echo. This prediction could be tested experimentally. First of all, we paid attention to the fact that the values of the parameter
for steel and duralumin practically coincide, so the fact that Eva could not distinguish between steel and duralumin balls of the same size was consistent with the model. The results of the experiments conducted by P. S. Krasnov and A. A. Titov with Marianna allowed us to relate the frequency of the animal’s correct choice to the ratio
/a. Really that frequency was close to

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50%, so non-distinguishing took place, in cases where the ratio
/a in balls of different size and made of different materials was similar in numerical value. The constant k was also determined. The correlation of predictions following from our model with experimental data was high, which inspired us to continue our research. The results of those investigations were published in Transactions of the Acoustics Institute in 1971. In the same year our results were reported in Budapest at the International Congress on Acoustics. The year 1970 was memorable for all of us as “choleric.” There were rumors that in different regions in the South (Astrakhan and Kerch) the cholera bacterium was found. The Crimea was very deserted and quiet. It was a wonderful time for experiments because numerous onlookers did not hinder the work. V. E. Sokolov, Director of Severtsov Institute of Evolutional Morphology and Ecology of Animals (IEMEA) visited our research facility. He and his family were not allowed to go to the Novy Svet because of cholera, and they “got stuck” in Karadag for a whole month. He often came to see the experiments and got very interested in the problems of dolphin acoustics. He had a rather positive impression of our work. That memorable summer, our fruitful cooperation with V. E. Sokolov started and continued till his death at the end of the 1990s. In 1982–1983, Vladimir invited me to work with his creative group. That group received in 1984 the State Prize of the USSR for applied work in the field of biology. Cooperation with V. E. Sokolov was quite fruitful also in writing the collective monograph Black Sea Tursiops under his editorship. It was published in 1997. At the end of 1970, V. E. Sokolov suggested that I head a laboratory in the IEMEA. While grateful, I graciously refused his suggestion and simultaneously recommended E. V. Romanenko for the position. He accepted my recommendation. E. V. Romanenko, who is now the Deputy Director of the Institute of the Problems of Ecology and Morphology of RAS (the current name for IEMEA), made a significant contribution to solving problems of the hydrodynamics of dolphin swimming and of dolphin acoustics. However, let us return to the principal events of 1970. Our group was gradually becoming larger. In 1970, L. M. Fadeeva, a gifted graduate of the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, joined our

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work. She and I. K. Rudchenko, a qualified and hard-working programmer, were given the task of creating a computer program for the calculation of the characteristics of the echo from balls that were being probed with arbitrary acoustic pulses. It should be mentioned that with the computer equipment we had in 1970 this was a rather difficult task. Nevertheless, the women dealt with it successfully. The results of their work were presented at the Fourth All-Union Conference on Bionics and at the Sixth All-Union Symposium on Diffraction in Yerevan in 1973. The leadership of the Institute paid close attention to our work with dolphins. We received invariable support from the Director of the Institute, N. A. Grubnik. Sent by him, the Deputy Director, G. N. Minaev, came several times to Karadag; he did much for the development of the material base of the expedition. His role was the most significant in the building of the living quarters for the members of the research team. The chief power engineer and mechanic of the Institute, P. M. Nemirovsky, also did much useful work. Workers and building materials were sent from the Institute for building a house and a pavilion over the swimming-pool. We have to honor the leaders of the Karadag Biostation. The contribution of the Director of the Biostation, A. L. Morozova, was especially great. She understood the stimulating role of the scientists of the Acoustics Institute for the work of bioacoustics group of the Biostation and gave invariable support and attention to our work. A. L. Morozova advertised our joint achievements among the leaders of the Academy of Sciences of Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. I remember profound discussions about dolphins with B. E. Paton, President of the Academy of Sciences of Ukrainian SSR (now President of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine). V. A. Velmin’s coming to our group gave great momentum to our work. His path to science was not easy. He graduated first from a technical college, then from Moscow Aviation Institute. For some time he worked as a radio technician, then as an engineer-investigator at the Research Institute of Optical and Physical Measurements. He was the only member of the group who knew how to mix concrete, make a frame and pour the concrete into it. His knowledge found ready

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application. With the efforts of Velmin and a group hired by him of construction workers the walls of the swimming-pool were soon raised. The depth of the swimming-pool became quite suitable. The problem of a seawater supply was also solved. Later a group of welders from P. M. Nemirovsky built the pavilion over the deepened swimming-pool. The most important characteristic of V. A. Velmin was his incredible self-discipline. Experimental data obtained by him could be completely trusted. He was given the task of measuring the dolphin’s hearing sensitivity. One of serious problems for such investigation was the need to have a low level of background noise; otherwise it was possible to measure not the hearing sensitivity but the masking threshold. V. A. Velmin built a special compartment in the swimming-pool that was covered inside with a noise-absorbing coating. Unfortunately it could not be used for measurements because the dolphins refused to enter this compartment. In 1971, L. R. Giro, a gifted and energetic student from the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology joined our “dolphin” group. Her thesis was devoted to the dependence of the repetition rate of sonar clicks on the difficulty of the echolocation task that was being solved by a dolphin. Having held a detailed statistical analysis of a large number of records, L. R. Giro came to the conclusion that the more complicated the task, the more often a dolphin transmitted his clicks and the longer were the trains of clicks. The results of that analysis were published in the collection Marine Shipbuilding in 1972. Thus the results of work of L. R. Giro provided us with the new data testifying to the adaptive capacities of the dolphin sonar. Later, when L. R. Giro graduated from the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology and entered post-graduate school, she was given the task of investigating how a dolphin generates its clicks. By that time many speculations on that subject had appeared but a reliable physical model that would explain the existing experimental data in a consistent way did not exist. At first L. R. Giro scrutinized the question whether dolphin’s air bags located above its scull could be sources of short high-frequency pulses. The answer to that question appeared to be negative. However, those bags could be responsible for the appearance of the low-frequency component of the echolocating signal that

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was observed in sea pigs and was later discovered by G. Zaslavsky in Tursiops. The low-frequency component could appear as a consequence of the bags’ resonance, which occurred as a result of shear wave oscillations of their added mass. That resonance in elastic medium was first discovered by M. A. Isakovich and described in his doctoral thesis. The condition for that resonance is that kt a = 2, where kt = ωres /ct , with ωres the angular frequency of the resonance, ct the shear wave velocity in the tissues surrounding the bag, and a the radius of the bag. Estimates of the resonance frequency, obtained with the formula kt a = 2, corresponded rather satisfactorily with the frequencies of the low-frequency components, observed in the experiment. The results of that work were later reported in 1973 at the Eighth All-Union Acoustical Conference and then in 1974 were published in the Soviet Physics — Acoustics Journal. As early as the 1980s L. R. Giro offered a rather realistic model for the dolphin radiator (see the section below “How a dolphin emits his clicks?”). Unfortunately, severe disease and early death did not allow her to realize her investigative talent completely. A. A. Titov in addition to the work that he did with our group accumulated interesting material on audio-communication of sea pigs and Tursiops in different situations. That material was summarized by Anatoly in his PhD thesis, defended at the Leningrad University in 1972. That thesis was the first of a number of theses, prepared and defended later by G. L. Zaslavsky, V. A. Velmin, L. R. Giro, and T. V. Zorikov. 6. How Many Hearing Systems do Dolphins Have? The Discovery of the “Critical Interval” By 1972 we had accumulated a large volume of experimental data. We had already some information regarding the dolphins’ echolocation capabilities, characteristics of the echolocating pulses, characteristics of the echoes from ball targets, and had started a study of dolphin hearing. By that time the data on the anatomy of dolphin hearing centers had been published. The peculiarities of those centers consisted of an unusually large number of neurons, participating in the analysis of

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acoustic signals. It became evident that dolphin echolocation can be understood only after penetrating the mysteries of its hearing analysis. The question arose of how to investigate the mechanisms of that analysis. Two ways existed. One was to repeat the experiments that had been performed previously on humans and terrestrial animals. The second way was to concentrate on the differences between dolphin hearing and the hearing of terrestrial animals. The bibliography of work on hearing in terrestrial animals at the beginning of the 1970s included more than one hundred thousand publications, so the first way was not practical. Only the second way remained. The acknowledgement of this fact was extremely important for our work. What is the difference between dolphin hearing and hearing in terrestrial mammals? There could be only one answer to this critical question: dolphin hearing developed in the process of a secondary adaptation by dolphins to a marine lifestyle (the ancestors of dolphins lived on the land) in a tight interconnection with the transmitting apparatus, as an indivisible echolocation system. From that statement it is possible to reach the conclusion that dolphin hearing should have two functions; first, to analyze ambient sounds (similar to a passive sonar) and, second, to analyze the echo from different underwater objects caused by the dolphin’s own probing pulses (clicks) (similar to an active sonar). It became clear that the peculiarities of dolphin hearing could be revealed by studying the perception of short pulse signals that would imitate the probing pulses and the echo signals. The echo from different objects could be presented as a sequence of two or more clicks, separated with short time intervals. We conducted all of the following experiments with short pulses only. The first investigations, done by V. A. Velmin, showed that dolphin hearing is adapted exceptionally well to perception of short pulses that imitate the probing dolphin pulses. Perception thresholds for such pulses turned out to be very low. The capacity of dolphins to distinguish short pulses by amplitude did not differ from the capacities of terrestrial mammals to distinguish prolonged stimuli. Dolphin capacity to distinguish pulse intervals between pairs of pulses appeared to be especially interesting. When the duration of intervals was less then 250–300 µs, pulses could be distinguished rather successfully. But when the interval

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was over 300 µs (that interval was later called “critical”), dolphins could not distinguish intervals at all. At first we were a little bit confused by this. Our first thought was that during the experiments some mistakes were made. But additional tests confirmed that there had been no mistakes, and the critical interval is real. During those experiments the high standards held by V. A. Velmin for his own measurements were revealed again. It was clear that we found an important peculiarity in dolphin active hearing. The hypothesis was proposed that pulse components of the echo form a merged auditory image, if those components fall within the critical interval. The answer to the question, why that interval equals approximately 300 µs should be found in the gastronomic tastes of dolphins — the components of the echo from a fish with the length of 20–25 cm (the maximum size of a fish that can be swallowed by the dolphin) in case of dolphin probing it with a short acoustic pulse, fall exactly within the critical interval. That interval appeared to be, strictly speaking, an acoustic window, through which the dolphin “examines” the echo. If the echo components are inside of the critical interval, they are processed together. In the result of such processing the auditory image of the echo is formed, and, consequently, the auditory image of the object of echolocation, allowing the dolphin to classify and recognize objects. The discovery of the critical interval was an important step in the course of the investigation of the dolphin echolocation system. The results of this work were published in Doklady of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR in 1975. 7. Composition of Dolphin’s Probing Signal G. L. Zaslavsky did his experimental investigations with our support separately from the main Karadag bioacoustics group. He concentrated his efforts in the initial stage of the work on the temporal and spatial characteristics of a dolphin’s transmitting apparatus. For successful development in this direction, sensitive and wide-frequency band hydrophones, amplifiers, and recording devices were necessary. First, signal reception was done with the use of 5–10 mm piezoceramic spherical hydrophones made in the Institute. Later we managed to

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purchase several wide frequency band measuring hydrophones of American and Danish manufacture. However, for the measurement of the directional characteristics of the dolphin’s transmitter at least 10 such hydrophones were necessary. V. K. Bezrukov and R. E. Gassko joined the work. B. K. Bezrukov made small piezoceramic cylindrical hydrophones and R. E. Gassko made high-quality pre-amplifiers. The signals were recorded onto a videotape from the screen of the oscilloscope. Unfortunately, we did not have at our disposal high-frequency digital equipment for data recording and processing of the type that was used in that period by our colleagues abroad. Using analog equipment, made in the Institute, G. L. Zaslavsky could perform the measurements on the time structure and the directivity of the signals transmitted by dolphins. The shape of the signal was similar to the three half-waves of a sinusoid. The duration of a single click was 15–60 µs. The frequency range reached 150 kHz. Directivity in both planes was 8–12◦ . The composition of the probing signal was also revealed. The main click was preceded by 2–3 clicks having a lower amplitude. Those signals were called “precursors.” The main clicks were followed in several cases by a low-frequency component, whose possible origin has been discussed above.

8. The Book Sensory Basis of Cetacean Orientation Experimental material, accumulated by 1974, needed systemization and additional interpretation. In addition, there was a need to present our results to a wide group of specialists-dolphinologists both in our country and abroad. By that time certain steps in popularization of the results of our group work had been made. The survey Dolphins Echolocation was prepared and published by the Institute, a chapter was published in the book by E. Sh. Airapetiants and A. I. Konstantinov, Echolocation in Nature. A decision was also made to write a book on echolocation and active hearing in dolphins. By 1974, I became quite close with V. M. Belkovich, a famous dolphinologists and the author of a number of scientific and popular books about dolphins. In 1974, V. M. Belkovich himself had the idea of writing a new book

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about the role of the dolphin sensory systems in his spatial orientation. We decided to write a joint book with the title “Sensory Basis of Cetacean Orientation.” Work on the book was finished in approximately a year. In 1976, it was published by the Leningrad Department of the “Nauka” Publishing House. The book obtained wide fame. In 1977 it was translated into English and published in the United States. One of the problems we had to overcome while preparing the book for publication was getting permission to publish it. The review made in one of the leading Navy Institutes promised us nothing good. The typescript was painted by reviewers with all colors of rainbow — so many comments they had. However, almost all the remarks were based on the fact that our terminology coincided with the one used in hydroacoustic observations. The words “detection,” “classification,” “sonar,” and others were “bad” from the reviewers’ viewpoint. The authors understood that it was necessary to find a wise person of high rank who would take the responsibility for the permission. I. I. Tynyankin, who occupied in those years a high position in the Navy, became that person. 9. How a Dolphin Emits his Clicks The mechanism of generation of echolocating pulses (clicks) by dolphins remained unknown for a long time. Multiple hypotheses, presented both in our country and abroad did not explain how a dolphin emits a short (15–60 µs), intensive (up to 244 dB relative to 1 µPa at the distance of 1 m), and wide frequency band pulses. In the middle of the 1970s, L. R. Giro started working on this problem. Her work was mentioned above. She scrutinized the hypotheses on the mechanism of click generation offered earlier and came to a conclusion that they could not explain its origin. She solved three important tasks. First, she performed acoustic experiments with a dolphin and made calculations to define the location of the source of the clicks. Second, she created a simple physical model of the source and, third, she offered a simplified mathematical modeling of the functioning of the source. To define the position of the source of the clicks, she prepared and performed a complicated experiment with the support of the Karadag group. The dolphin was taught to put his head on a special stand,

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installed at the depth of 1 m, and to locate the target. Around the dolphin’s head four hydrophones were installed that registered the dolphin’s signals. With two underwater movie-cameras the position of the dolphin’s head during target echolocation was recorded. Knowing the location of hydrophones and the exact moments of signal arrival to each of the hydrophones, it was possible to calculate the location of the source of a click. That source appeared to be situated near the right nasal plug. That conclusion agreed well with the results by G. L. Zaslavsky, who investigated the ability of the skull surface to focus light. Gennady discovered that the surface, situated near the right nasal plug, focused light well, which indirectly testified to the location of the source of clicks as near the right nasal plug. The comparison of the characteristics of the model to characteristics of a dolphin’s transmitter showed their close similarity. The main principle of the functioning of the transmitter was discovered. It appeared to be close to the principle of that of human voice cords. The work of L. R. Giro was summarized in her PhD thesis, defended in 1987. 10. Feature-Based Description of the Signal It is well known that both in humans and dolphins complete signal description takes place in the periphery of the auditory system only. In higher nervous centers signal coding according to features takes place. As a result of the electrophysiological experiments neurons-detectors of features were discovered. In 1975, we started the study of the featuresbased description of synthesized acoustic signals which consisted of pairs and threes of short pulses, imitating echoes caused by dolphins’ probing signals. It was important to find out, what informative and independent features dolphin used during recognition of a certain type of signals and what was the strategy for using those features. A. A. Titov participated in the initial stage of this research project. The number of simplest independent features and also the limits of their invariance were uncovered. More detailed research of characteristic-based space for pairs of pulses, differing in their peak-values, the waveform of every pulse, and time intervals between pulses was performed together with a talented

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researcher from Tbilisi, T. V. Zorikov. He completed the experimental part of the work in the Sevastopol oceanarium in Kazach’ya bay. Three main features were discovered, which are associated with spectrum macrostructure (the envelope of signal spectral density), spectrum microstructure (the period of spectral density oscillations), and the peak value of the pulse. Mutual independence of the enumerated features was demonstrated. The hierarchy of features according to the level of their dominance is the following: spectrum macrostructure, spectrum microstructure, and peak value. This means that a dolphin first bases his decision on differences in values of the dominant feature in compared signals. If there is no difference or they are expressed insufficiently clear, it analyzes the second feature in the hierarchy — spectrum microstructure, and makes a decision based on the difference of signals according to that feature. If values of the second feature also are equal, a dolphin moves on to the analysis of the third feature — the peak value. So, unlike technical systems of recognition, where the simultaneous feature analysis (in multi-dimensional feature space) is implemented, a dolphin distinguishes signals, making the comparison of only one feature, moving from the dominant feature to the minor one. 11. Conclusion The first 10 years of investigations of the Tursiops echolocator (1969– 1978) were unusually fruitful. Each experiment with dolphins discovered something new and amazing. We ploughed scientific “virgin land.” The group of young people worked enthusiastically, not paying attention to the time. Fundamental results were obtained that were repeated many times and recognized later by specialists throughout the world. The first 10 years of our work coincided with the golden age of native dolphinology. M. N. Sukhoruchenko, a research scientist in our laboratory, performed research independently from our group. Under the leadership of a famous specialist in sensory systems, A. Ya. Supin, she measured the dolphins’ sensitivity thresholds, using stimulated hearing potentials. Further, M. N. Sukhoruchenko completed a number of wonderful

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research works on dolphin acoustics. Many kind words can be said about R. P. Troshenkova (Grishkina), who made much effort to make the work of our group successful. She performed a number of interesting investigations in adaptive abilities of the dolphin’s echolocator. At the end of the described period L. K. Rimskaya-Korsakova joined the work of our group. Together with M. N. Sukhoruchenko, she performed a number of interesting experimental investigations on the critical interval of active hearing. Later the main direction of her research became the computer modeling of a dolphin’s echolocation system. N. G. Bibikov performed, together with colleagues from Karadag, a wide-ranging investigation of the dolphin’s hearing characteristics using evoked potential registration. M. N. Sukhoruchenko and L. K. Rimskaya-Korsakova have continued working in the field of dolphinology.

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Index

Abankin, P. V., 643, 659 Abdullayev, S. S., 148, 218 Abramov, V. L., 1066 Abramovich, B. S., 142 Abrosimov, D. I., 130, 165 Adamskaya, E. I., 834 Adamsky, V. V., 869 Admiral Amelko, 634 Admiral Tributs, 693 Aedonitsky, V., 408 Afinogenova, T. F., 532, 556 Afrutkin, G. I., 299, 478, 607, 608, 614, 616, 621–623, 677 Agavelov, S. V., 449 Ageenko, O. D., 617 Ageeva, N. S., 84, 87 Ageyev, M. D., 187 Ageyeva, N. A., 326 Ageyeva, N. S., 333, 352, 355, 357, 359, 362, 364, 367 Agrinsky, V. P., 1038, 1039, 1043 Aibulatov, N. A., 417 Airapetiants, E. Sh., 1207 Akhmetov, R. A., 666 Aksenov, V. S., 407 Akulichev, V. A., 89, 101, 112, 177, 181, 192, 284, 347, 896, 904 Akulichev, V. P., 370 Akulicheva, V. P., 153, 284, 155, 540, 541 Aladyshkin, 705 Aladyshkin, E. I., 633, 653 Aladyshkin, Ye. I., 50, 253, 258, 286, 288–290, 298, 301, 303, 306, 461, 487, 559, 571, 736, 833, 843, 847, 1026, 1028, 1074 Alekhin, Yu. K., 158

Aleksandrov, A. P., 177, 431, 432, 435, 998, 1110 Aleksandrov, B. G., 1132 Aleksandrov, K. S., 1075 Aleksandrov, S. P., 511 Aleksandrov, V. A., 917 Aleksandrov, V. P., 506, 589 Aleksandrov, Yu. P., 868 Aleksandrova, L. M., 1150 Alekseyev, A. M., 1041 Alekseyev, B. N., 1076 Alekseyev, B. P., 1038 Alekseyev, G. A., 156, 157 Alekseyev, G. G., 83, 88 Alekseyev, M. V., 1136 Alekseyev, S. F., 589 Alekseyev, V. A., 408 Alekseyev, V. N., 139, 141, 178, 182 Alekseyeva, N. Yu., 1122 Aleshenko, O. M., 591 Aleshin, B. M., 788 Aleynik, D. L., 107, 120 Alkhov, O. V., 1121 Altberg, V. Ya., 23 Alyansky, B. N., 605, 606 Alyoshin, B. M., 271 Alyoshin, M. A., 1133 Amelko, N. N., 634 Amenitsky, A. I., 685, 688, 689 Ananyeva, A. A., 329 Anapasenko, V. A., 115 Anashkin, N. F., 1157 Anastasevich, V. S., 57, 59, 150, 1130 Andreasyan, I. G., 408, 837 Andreyev, A. B., 1138 Andreyev, G. F., 995 Andreyev, M. Ya., 299, 542, 876, 920 1213

FA2 January 5, 2008

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1214

SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

index

Index

Andreyev, M. Yu., 177, 189 Andreyev, N. K., 393 Andreyev, N. N., 14, 41, 47, 48, 53, 55, 59, 90, 190, 191, 194, 198, 296, 303, 305, 310, 311, 329, 350, 351, 353, 381, 393, 399, 400, 444, 448, 467, 492, 510, 526, 546, 933, 1013, 1034, 1074, 1097, 1111, 1122, 1148 Andreyev, V. P., 1019 Andreyev, Yu. N., 1123 Andreyeva, I. B., 87, 154, 156, 157, 161–163, 165, 176–181, 183, 188, 189, 326, 444 Andreyeva, T. A., 588, 589 Andreyevsky, G. N., 915 Andronov, A. A., 123 Anisimov, V. I., 300 Aniskevich, V. Ye., 1142, 1143 Anokhin, I. I., 689 Anoshkin, A. F., 180 Antipov, V. A., 519, 521, 848 Antokolsky, L. M., 187 Antokolsky, M. L., 125 Antonets, V. A., 437 Antonov, A. S., 1042 Antonov, N. S., 355 Antonov, V. A., 798, 1032, 1040, 1043 Antonov, V. N., 811, 812 Antonov, V. P., 175 Antonova, V. V., 994, 1002, 1005 Antsiferov, M. S., 1098 Apanasenko, V. A., 203, 444, 540 Apresyan, L. A., 144 Ardatovsky, M. S., 616, 621, 655 Aredov, A. A., 172, 206, 207 Aredov, P. A., 209 Arkhipov, M. V., 1123 Arkhipov, S. N., 52, 56, 1011, 1018 Arkhipov, V. K., 534, 1027, 1028, 1042 Arkhipova, E. M., 947 Armand, N. A., 842 Aronov, B. S., 299, 474, 513, 541, 581, 624, 855, 860, 861, 863, 867, 878, 879, 940, 1075 Aronov, L. L., 584, 1061

Aronov, L. M., 52, 284, 1025, 1130, 1132–1134 Aronova, L. D., 512 Arshansky, B. S., 300, 521, 542 Artelny, V. V., 146, 147, 161, 171, 192, 221, 222 Asafova, N. Ye., 807 Asafyev, L. V., 736 Aseyev, V. V., 1044 Ashanin, V. I., 993 Ashanina, N. V., 1002 Aslamov, V., 1174 Astafyev, V. B., 1081 Astashev, G. F., 513 Astasheva, L. N., 463, 495 Astrov, I. G., 292, 299, 484, 491, 495, 743, 896 Atakova, Ye. Ye., 1130 Augert, A. V., 495, 743 Aul, F. F., 994 Averbakh, V. S., 165 Avilov, A. G., 88 Avilov, K. V., 91, 92, 104 Avramenko, S. F., 617 Avrinsky, A. V., 1123, 1126 Ayler, L., 20 Azarov, Ye. F., 1121 Babailov, E. P., 180, 1127 Babich, V. M., 81 Babiev, Ye. N., 512 Babii, V. I., 172, 798 Babitsky, A. M., 476 Babkin, G. I., 143 Babkin, V. P., 1196, 1198 Babunov, V. P., 1019 Badalova, A. T., 943 Badenko, V. A., 580, 743 Bagrov, K. K., 407, 408 Baguza, L. R., 700, 702 Baikov, A. G., 408 Bakharev, S. A., 923 Bakhareva, F. M., 168 Bakhvalov, N. S., 897 Balash, V. A., 511 Balashova, L. I., 1028, 1029

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Index Balin, N. I., 1123 Balitsky, A. N., 1136 Balitsky, N. I., 1133 Balmasov, N. Ya., 1019 Balon, B. M., 993 Balyan, R. Kh., 291, 298, 300–302, 401, 492, 510, 525, 543, 575, 578, 579, 581, 583, 586, 588, 666, 676, 1079, 1080 Bandurko, A. N., 1039, 1043 Barabanenkov, Yu. N., 139, 141, 143, 144, 152 Baranenko, A. A., 1095 Baranov, M. N., 1019, 1031 Baranov, V. A., 170, 338, 556, 849, 1035 Baranov, V. F., 556 Baranov, V. M., 1019 Baranov, V. N., 804 Baranova, G. M., 511 Barantsev, A. I., 1019 Barantsev, R. G., 128 Baras, S. T., 896 Barashkov, A. D., 689 Barashkova, Z. A., 1121 Bardyshev, V. I., 200, 202, 444 Barikhin, A. A., 1127 Barkhatov, A. N., 169 Barkov, N. A., 1123 Barkova, Z. G., 807 Barkovsky, V. I., 284, 1055 Barkuntsev, S. T., 285 Baron, S. B., 1002 Baron, S. M., 991 Barsukov, Yu. V., 300 Baryshnikova, L. I., 463, 495 Bas, V. N., 404 Baskin, V. V., 300, 513, 524, 541, 855, 866 Basov, G. F., 1138, 1142 Basov, Yu. K., 1142–1144 Bass, F. G., 124–126, 128, 130, 131, 133, 152, 153, 155, 156, 161, 166, 192

1215

Batanogov, E. V., 607, 628, 637, 670, 701 Baykov, N. I., 576 Bazanov, I. L., 897, 899 Bazylko, A. A., 812 Beilin, A. S., 505 Beklemishev, K. V., 178 Beklemishev, M. N., 21, 31, 35 Belavenets, I., 23 Belavin, Yt. S., 445 Belavin, Yu. S., 445 Belenkov, V. N., 1136 Belenky, B. Z., 588, 659, 677 Belenky, M. B., 641 Belikov, N. I., 1124 Belinsky, G. M., 1043 Belkin, V. G., 407, 408 Belkovich, V. M., 338, 1207 Bellin, J. L. S., 889 Belobrov, A. V., 126 Belobrov, D. P., 25–27 Belopolsky, Ye. I., 1025 Belous, V. V., 176 Belousov, A. A., 176 Belousov, A. V., 134, 135, 164, 180, 191 Belousov, K. I., 1019 Belousov, V. M., 991, 993, 1001–1004 Belov, B. P., 1121–1123, 1128 Belov, O. V., 811 Belov, V. D., 142 Belov, V. F., 1093 Belov, V. G., 812 Belozerov, V. M., 588 Belskov, Ye. P., 403 Belyaev, E. I., 472, 477 Belyak, V. I., 624 Belyakov, A. G., 50 Belyakov, I. I., 299, 805, 894, 916 Belyakov, P. S., 577, 613 Belyakovsky, N. G., 375 Belyavskaya, L. M., 1079 Belyavsky, O. K., 286, 534 Benbik, V. G., 490 Berezko, B. V., 621 Berezovskaya, N. S., 511

FA2 January 5, 2008

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1216

SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

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Index

Berg, A. I., 40, 42, 44–47, 49, 238, 601, 603, 1024, 1074, 1083, 1147–1150, 1152, 1155 Berger, S. Ya., 666 Berktay, H. O., 890, 896 Berktay, H., 886 Berkul, E. E., 299, 523, 702, 703, 709, 710 Bernblit, N. V., 1123, 1126 Bernoulli, J., 20 Bernshtein, S. D., 565 Bernyakov, I. N., 1031 Bersenev, M. A., 1001 Bersenev, V. A., 237, 286, 478, 1158 Beskorovainyi, B. M., 176 Bestuzhev, A. M., 531 Beyer, R. T., 889 Bezrodny, V. G., 130 Bezrukov, B. K., 1207 Bezrukov, P. L., 413 Bezrukov, V. K., 1207 Bibikov, N. G., 1211 Binevich, 261 Biryukov, V. N., 812 Bizienkiv, B. D., 577 Blank, F. G., 848, 849, 860 Bledny, V. A., 1134 Bledny, V. A., 1135 Blinkov, A. S., 812 Blokhin, B. V., 1001 Blokhin, M. G., 1004 Blokhintsev, D. I., 98 Blyudze, Yu. G., 393, 845 Bobber, R. J., 1102 Bobrov, A. N., 1097 Bobrovskaya, I. V., 577, 580, 586, 588 Bocharov, A. V., 280, 475 Bogachyov, A. S., 1138 Bogatenkov, A. V., 893 Bogdanov, A. N., 187 Bogdanov, B. F., 797, 798, 985, 986 Bogdanov, G. A., 513, 613 Bogdanov, G. S., 577, 659 Bogdanov, N. G., 673, 677 Bogdanov, V. A., 511 Bogoltubov, B. N., 109

Bogomaz, A. G., 644, 660 Bogorodsky, A. V., 299, 886, 973 Bogorodsky, V. V., 1074, 1075 Bogorov, V. G., 413 Bogoslovsky, M. M., 44, 602 Boichenko, V. Ye, 1121 Boikov, Yu. N., 522 Boitsov, A. S., 1001 Bokachev, V. I., 616, 655 Bokov, 251, 407 Bolgov, V. M., 387, 389 Bolonin, G. V., 688, 689 Bolonkin, 252 Bolonkin, I. P., 63 Bolotin, V. V., 975 Bolotinskaya, L. G., 474, 985 Bolshov, V. P., 1121 Boltnikov, A. V., 1103 Boltukhov, A. S., 652 Bonch-Brouyevich, M. A., 1148 Bondar, L. F., 120, 172, 193, 284, 338, 347, 368, 370 Bondar, T. F., 481 Bondarenko, B. N., 1019 Bondarevich, I. L., 1138, 1189 Bordyukov, A. I., 1055 Borina, Z. P., 1079 Boriseyev, N. S., 534 Boriskin, O. P., 1121 Borisov, A. S., 179 Borisov, A. V., 404, 408 Borisov, N. G., 172 Borisov, N. R., 193 Borisov, S. A., 899 Borisov, S. S., 1019 Borisov, S. V., 120, 172 Borisov, V. I., 1167 Borodin, V. I., 292, 299, 542, 792, 801–803, 805 Borodin, V. V., 135, 170, 299, 318, 347, 540, 842, 848 Borovik, P. M., 1192 Borovik, Zh. V., 532, 556 Borovikov, G. N., 797, 798, 983 Borovikov, V. M., 286 Borovikova, L. I., 985

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SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

index

Index Borovkov, N. Yu., 563 Borovskov, A. K., 622 Borts, A. Ya., 623, 669 Borushko, 250 Borushko, A. M., 719, 1118, 1122 Bourret, 139, 145 Boyarsky, V. D., 1126 Bozhchenko, G. G., 1031 Bozhok, Yu. O., 848 Braga, Yu. A., 1036 Bramson, M. A., 800 Braude, S. Ya., 192 Brazhnikov, N. I., 799 Brekhovskikh, L. M., 7, 55, 56, 59, 66, 72, 73, 76–79, 85, 87–92, 96, 97, 110, 113, 125, 152, 154, 165, 173, 185, 186, 189–191, 195, 197, 209–211, 271, 304, 305, 309–311, 315, 318–321, 325, 326, 346, 347, 352, 361, 417, 418, 471, 492, 848, 1046, 1069, 1160, 1163 Brezhnev, Leonid, 937 Brikker, V. Ye., 935 Brin, O. B., 1119 Brodsky, B. M., 299 Brodsky, R. A., 300, 579, 583 Bruevich, C. V., 413 Bruk, A. M., 1122 Bubelev, B. F., 809 Bubnov, M. V., 34 Buckingham, M., 214 Budrin, S. V., 1126 Budrin, V. N., 1025 Budyonny, S. M., 47 Bukach, B. I., 403 Bukach, V. I., 403, 404, 407, 408 Bukatov, V. A., 537 Bukatova, I. L., 842 Bukhanov, L. D., 512, 580 Bukhgeim, A. L., 842 Bukhshtaber, V. M., 100 Bulanov, V. A., 177, 181, 192, 896, 904 Bulantsov, A. N., 407 Bulanyan, Z. L., 934 Bulashevich, A. V., 449 Bulat, A. D., 804

1217

Buldyrev, V. S., 92, 93 Bulgakov, A. B., 685, 688, 689 Bulgakov, V. M., 1093 Bulkin, V. I., 1019 Bulkina, A. Z., 589, 659 Bunchuk, A. V., 186–188 Bunkin, F. V., 89, 172, 897 Burakov, A. V., 991 Burau, Yu. V., 605 Burenkov, S. V., 107, 173 Burlakova, I. B., 161, 165, 188 Burov, S. V., 613 Burov, V. A., 149, 1106, 1107 Busher, M. K., 299, 975 Bushtuyev, V. F., 1026, 1031, 1057–1059 Buslaev, V. S., 92, 93 Buslenko, N. K., 1028, 1030 Busnel, Rene, 1199 Butakov, 1153 Butning, D. P., 807, 811 Butoma, B. Ye., 379 Butyrsky, Ye. Yu., 1135 Buyanova, E. A., 947 Buyanova, E. N., 958 Buzov, Ye. Ya., 909 Bychkov, V. I., 1123 Bykhovsky, G. Ye., 1130–1134 Bykov, A. V., 1060 Bykov, F. N., 1192 Bykov, S. A., 1122 Bykov, V. N., 407, 623 Bystrov, A. I., 282 Captain, Danilenko, 1130 Chaban, I. A., 320 Chabanov, V. Ye., 1076 Chairman, Mao Ze-dong, 1172 Chashechkin, Yu. D., 182 Chayevsky, Ye. V., 126, 192 Chekalin, V. G., 842 Chekerisova, A. V., 659 Chelpanov, A. V., 300 Chemeris, M. Ya., 33–36, 620, 1014, 1015, 1018, 1019, 1091 Chepurin, Yu. A., 88, 89, 107, 109

FA2 January 5, 2008

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1218

SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

index

Index

Cherednichenko, V. P., 1034 Cherenkov, P. A., 53 Cherenkova, G. V., 848 Cherkashin, Yu. N., 91, 169 Chernakov, P. S., 284 Chernakov, S. P., 534, 1022, 1026, 1030, 1040, 1044 Chernenko, E. A., 1019 Chernogorov, A. M., 265 Chernov, A. N., 338, 556, 1035 Chernov, A. S., 48 Chernov, L. A., 78, 136–138, 140, 141, 166, 167, 176, 190, 192, 308, 319, 352 Chernov, V. P., 1044 Chernova, G. B., 1028–1031 Chernyakhovsky, A. Ye., 810, 811, 917, 985 Chernyavskaya, A. Yu., 512 Chernyayev, V. N., 521 Chernysh, V. I., 788, 800, 1038, 1040 Chernysh, V. V., 909, 913, 918 Chernyshev, A. V., 613 Chernyshev, G. N., 382, 516 Chernyshev, Yu. V., 701 Chernyshov, 989 Chernyshov, A. V., 987–989 Chernyshov, Yu. V., 787, 788 Chetvrkin, S. N., 1019 Chichurin, Ye. A., 299 Chigirin, N. I., 788 Chiker, N. P., 634 Chindonova, Yu. T., 179 Chirkov, A. S., 1025, 1038 Chizhikov, A. V., 1121 Chizhov, A. P., 662, 664, 665 Chizhov, A. Yu., 1122 Chuev, N. F., 624, 655, 1056, 1057 Chueva, O. A., 573, 574, 579 Chunovkin, G. A., 389 Chuprov, S. D., 78, 87, 96, 97, 100, 154–158, 161, 163, 168, 169, 191, 326, 352 Chuprov, S. M., 837 Churaev, A. M., 408 Churchill, 714

Chvertkin, Yu. L., 659 Clark, W. T., 889 Commander, Shchors, 756 composer, 717, 718 Comrade, Kanareykin, 1172 Cron, B., 199 Dagkesamanskaya, I. M., 140 Dakhin, B. S., 475 Dakhno, N. N., 950 Dalidovich, V. A., 1019 Dalmatov, A. D., 842 Danchenko, N. D., 1144 Danilchenko, I. V., 556, 1035, 1036 Danilov, B. I., 677 Danilov, V. A., 516, 532 Danilov, V. N., 1136 Danko, M. Zh., 23 Darovskikh, D. I., 92 Davydov, V. D., 1019 Degtyarev, G. M., 1043, 1044 Delinskaya, I. V., 579, 583 Demchenko, A. P., 1123 Demkin, V. P., 408 Demyanchik, A. I., 512 Demyanenko, N. N., 1130, 1132–1134 Demyanovich, V. N., 991 Demyanovich, V. V., 448, 641, 647, 648 Denisov, N. G., 136, 155, 167 Derevyagina, Ye. I., 223 Derevyanko, Yu. G., 482 Deryugin, L. N., 129 Derzhavin, A. M., 172 DeSanto, J. A., 91 Detkov, N. I., 283 Detkov, N. N., 810–812 Dianov, D. B., 1076 Didakov, O. N., 940 Didenkulov, I. D., 178 Didenkulov, I. N., 442, 918 Dikovsky, M. M., 290, 456, 988 Diveyev, A. M., 408 Dizhbak, B. Ya, 613, 987–991, 994 Dizhbak, Z. Ya., 463, 696 Dmitriyev, I. M., 708

FA2 January 5, 2008

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SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

index

Index Dmitriyev, I. N., 524, 1004 Dmitriyev, L. A., 589 Dmitriyev, M. G., 1038, 1039 Dmitriyev, V. F., 1038, 1050 Dmitriyev, V. G., 1111 Dmitriyev, V. I., 1149, 1151 Dmitriyev, V. L., 985 Dmitriyev, V. V., 374, 407 Dmitriyev, Ye. N., 1047 Dobkin, L. I., 580, 588 Dobrosklonsky, V. A., 1102 Dobrovolskaya, E. P., 835 Dobrovolsky, A. D., 413 Dobrovolsky, Yu. Yu., 299, 300, 586, 588, 855, 860, 866, 976, 1075 Dobryakov, V. N., 104 Dobryansky, V. M., 407 Dokuchayev, Yu. M., 521 Dolbiev, S. P., 1135 Dolgikh, V. N., 1095 Dolgov, A. V., 616, 621 Dolgov, D. D., 1130 Dolgov, N. M., 478 Dolgov, S. N., 362 Dolin, L. S., 132, 140, 141, 163, 165, 192, 441 Dolinin, Yu. V., 512, 553 Dolinskaya, L. E., 1056 Dolzhikov, A. K., 896 Donskoi, D. M., 888, 897, 918, 919 Dorfman, Ye. G., 279, 283, 472, 476, 562 Dorofeyev, I. G., 705, 1027 Dorokhin, V. I., 810 Doronin, V. F., 681 Dorsky, G. M., 366, 541 Dovzhenko, T. P., 511 Dozier, L. B., 220 Dragilev, R. S., 512, 743 Dragun, R. F., 290 Dremuchev, S. A., 187 Drobinin, D. N., 529 Dronov, G. M., 209 Druzhinin, Yu. K., 689 Dryusdel, K. V., 1096, 1101 Dubov, A. A., 180

1219

Dubrovsky, N. A., 194, 303, 308, 311, 338, 347, 351, 352, 556, 662, 665, 849, 1034, 1035 Dudakov, O. A., 1122 Dudchenko-Dudko, V. M., 403, 406–408 Dudkov, A. G., 991 Dukhovner, A. N., 1142 Dulatov, F. I., 1042 Dulova, O. A., 513 Dunaev, A. V., 49 Dunayev, V. Ye., 1019, 1132 Dunin, S. Z., 129, 130 Duplitsky, D. S., 1148 Dvornikov, S. I., 189, 352, 678 Dvortsov, L. D., 616 Dvoryanchikov, V. V., 1095 Dvoryantsev, N. A., 1029 Dyakonov, G. S., 1026–1028, 1030, 1031 Dyakov, Yu. A., 449 Dyatlov, A. I., 142 Dygay, A. I., 591 Dylev, P. A., 512 Dymshits, A. M., 920 Dymshts, A. M., 848 Dymshyts, A. M., 292, 299, 300, 484, 491, 502, 540, 541, 834 Dymsky, I. N., 299, 573 Dynin, I. N., 510, 512, 523, 743, 920 Dynnikov, P. N., 495 Dzyavoruk, Ye. S., 1059 Eckart, C., 190, 199 Efremov, I. S., 583 Egorov, A. V., 659 Egorov, G. M., 613 Eiges, 1150 Eigner, 33 Eikhfeld, R. I., 300, 855, 989, 991, 1001–1005 Eisenberg, I. N., 264 Elfimov, B. M., 581 Elgard, A. M., 947 Eliseyevnin, V. A., 171 Entin, Z. Ye., 1044

FA2 January 5, 2008

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1220

SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

index

Index

Erikhov, N. D., 613 Erokhin, O. I., 588, 589 Ershov, I. A., 625 Erunova, T. I., 589 Etingof, 261 Evseev, V., 850 Fadeeva, L. M., 1201 Fadeyev, V. A., 1136 Fainberg, E. I., 588 Farfel, V. A., 145, 146, 170, 171, 192 Fasman, G. Yu., 835 Fedorov, 261, 1095 Fedorov, I. I., 736 Fedorov, N. N., 640, 990–993, 995, 1001–1003, 1005 Fedorov, V. P., 1019 Fedorov, V. S., 1140 Fedorova, T. N., 985 Fedoruk, Yu. V., 664 Fedoseyev, A. G., 1032, 1038, 1043, 1044 Fedostsev, V. D., 1124 Fedotov, A. P., 1122 Fedotov, A. V., 1050, 1053 Fedotov, N., 812 Fedyushina, A. P., 511 Feinberg, Ye. L., 59, 124 Feinberg, Ye. P., 53 Feldgun, V. M., 583, 584 Fenev, N. Ye., 1121 Fenster, B. F., 585 Fenyutin, V. V., 1019 Fessenden, 1149 Feuchtwanger, Lion, 466 Fifaev, V. A., 1047 Filimonenko, Yu. M., 407 Filimonov, A. K., 1123 Filimonov, L. S., 1149 Filin, V. A., 1041, 1043 Filin, V. G., 1032 Filipkov, V. V., 1102 Finkelberg, V. M., 139 Finogenov, V. A., 543 Firsova, N. P., 992

Fisanovich, I. I., 373, 1138, 1188, 1190 Fisanovich, I., 54 Fisunov, V. I., 407 Fleyer, Yu. I., 475, 909–911 Flora, T. V., 842 Fok, V. A., 85 Fokin, N. S., 89 Fokin, V. M., 89 Folkert, Ye. V., 1001 Fomichev, V. I., 529, 711, 899, 1027, 1029, 1031, 1042 Fomin, V. N., 403, 842 Fomin, Yu. P., 299, 804, 805 Fominov, A. N., 1163 Fraiman, A. A., 156, 170 Franz, G., 199 Freilikher, V. D., 130, 133, 192 Freiman, I. G., 40, 41, 1024, 1147 Fridman, V. Ye., 887 Frolov, K. A., 1025 Frolov, L. S., 1122 Frolov, V. M., 134, 141, 161, 166 Fuks, I. M., 124–127, 129–131, 133, 153–156, 163, 168, 192 Furduyev, A. V., 87, 111, 172, 204, 206, 213, 326, 352 Furduyev, V. V., 48, 1097 Fyodorov, A. N., 1122 Fyodorov, A. S., 512, 521 Fyodorov, I. A., 1121 Fyodorov, K. N., 417 Fyodorov, L. Ye., 300, 510, 542, 550, 555 Fyodorov, N. N., 524, 706, 1038 Fyodorov, V. F., 1133 Gabidulin, G. S., 1087, 1088, 1094 Gabrielyan, G. A., 995 Gadayev, I. V., 1131 Gadzhievo, 900, 902 Gaidarenko, G. D., 583 Galaktionov, M. Yu., 164 Galanenko, G. B., 176 Galashevsky, G. G., 40 Galchenko, S. A., 1019

FA2 January 5, 2008

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SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

index

Index Galimov, A. Z., 1122 Galkin, B. N., 1130 Galkin, O. P., 103, 161, 169, 174, 326, 347, 540 Galkin, Ye. I., 807 Galkina, G. A., 1044 Galybin, N. N., 160, 162–164, 172, 177, 180, 181 Gandul, D. S., 573, 577 Gandyul, D. S., 1157 Ganenkov, A. B., 808–810 Ganichev, V. S., 1122 Gankov, A. A., 739 Ganson, P. P., 1038 Gaponov, A. V., 435 Gaponov-Grekhov, A. V. 66, A. V., 89, 435, 438, 440, 441 Garnov, M. I., 613 Gassko, R. E., 1207 Gatkin, N. G., 176, 835, 837 Gavlyuk, I. V., 807 Gavrilin, V. M., 869, 873 Gavrilov, A. L., 129 Gavrilov, A. M., 891 Gavrilov, A. N., 88, 109 Gavrilov, I. M., 505 Gavrilov, L. M., 110 Gazaryan, Yu. L., 78, 142, 216, 217, 318, 319 Geiro, A. B., 1140 Gelfgat, V. I., 142 Gelfman, A. A., 472, 476 Gelman, M. Z., 300 Genkin, A. L., 633, 634, 834, 1018, 1193 Genzler, G. B., 522, 844 Georgievsky, B. S., 481 Gerasimenko, Ye. L., 1043 Gerasimova, I. V., 869, 873, 877 Gershman, S. G., 59, 270, 284, 342, 347, 444, 448, 481, 638, 671, 837 Gertsenshtein, M. Ye., 139 Gessen, B. F., 1097 Gessen, V. R., 1121 Getrashevich, O. V., 606 Gimmelshtein, M. N., 613

1221

Ginzburg, A. Ya., 495, 512 Ginzburg, V. L., 88 Giro, L. R., 1203, 1204, 1208, 1209 Gitelson, V. S., 842 Gitis, M. B., 1076 Gladenkov, N. A., 1038 Gladkiy, E. G., 616, 621 Glazanov, V. E., 677 Glazanov, V. Ye., 299, 300, 838, 855, 859–861, 935, 939, 940, 1076 Glazkov, A. I., 468, 469, 495, 623, 846, 867 Glazov, S. L., 512 Glebov, Ye. P., 1019, 1143 Glebov, Yu. A., 521 Glikman, B. E., 577, 583 Glikman, B. Ye., 512, 518, 659 Glotov, A. I., 362 Glotov, O. P., 326 Glotov, V. P., 151, 162, 177, 361, 362, 365 Glushchenko, L. I., 1019 Glushchenko, Ye. K., 811 Godin, O. A., 78, 88, 89, 97, 98, 107, 109, 113, 158 Godziashvili, Yu. G., 995 Godziashvilim, Yu. G., 1002 Gofman, A. S., 1177 Goinkis, P. G., 41 Goland, V. I., 148 Goldberg, I. M., 472 Goldenshtein, M. Ye, 803 Goldovsky, V. Z., 389–391 Goldshtein, L. G., 573 Goldybin, G. A., 614, 628, 671 Golod, O. S., 98 Golovchanskaya, A. Ye., 182 Golovchenko, N. F., 407, 408 Golovchenko, Ye. A., 408 Golovin, D. F., 575 Golovko, A. G., 52, 61, 1130 Golshtein, L. G., 578 Goltzman, M. N., 60 Golubchik, B. Ya., 47, 237, 277, 280, 282, 471, 472, 483, 561, 862, 983, 1158

FA2 January 5, 2008

14:19

1222

SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

index

Index

Golubchik, Yu. Ya., 512, 743 Golubev, A. G., 449 Golubev, B. M., 299, 484, 491, 580 Golubev, G. G., 1030, 1133, 1134 Golubeva, G. Kh., 300, 698, 704, 840, 855, 990 Golubeva, Ye. A., 1002 Golubkov, V. M., 315 Golubovskaya, L. Ye., 555 Golubyatnikov, N. I., 1060 Golynsky, A. S., 1044 Gomankov, D. M., 655 Goncharenko, B. I., 1109 Goncharenko, V. P., 407 Goncharov, V. F., 407, 408 Goncharov, V. K., 180 Goncharov, V. N., 165, 176 Goncharov, V. V., 71, 89, 94, 149, 163, 186, 210, 211, 420 Gonikberg, V. A., 300, 512, 531, 551, 554, 555 Gonikberg, V. G., 542 Goon, V. V., 44 Gorbatov, V. I., 408 Gorbunov, V. P., 476 Gorbunova, L. A., 408 Gordienko, P. A., 653 Gordienko, P. N., 1095 Gordienko, V. A., 56 Gordienko, Ye. L., 1113 Goreglyad, A. A., 262 Gorelik, A. G., 887 Gorelik, G. S., 151 Gorelkin, A. V., 803 Gorelkin, D. V., 805 Gorlov, V. A., 1019 Gornov, Yu. A., 502, 510, 673, 677, 940 Gorobets, N. G., 789, 791 Gorobets, R. I., 621 Gorobtsov, A. V., 588 Gorodetskaya, Ye. Yu., 171 Gorokhov, B. I., 812 Gorokhov, G. V., 1057 Gorokhov, N. N., 1120, 1123 Gorshkov, A. A., 1135

Gorshkov, S. G., 66, 294, 488, 507, 626, 1016 Gorskaya, A. I., 793, 797 Gorskaya, N. S., 132, 146, 164, 188, 192 Gorsky, S. M., 432, 434, 437 Goryachkov, G. P., 1061 Gostev, V. S., 103, 168, 172–174 Gots, A. A., 940, 985 Govorov, A. I., 188 Gozumov, V. T., 589 Grabois, A. A., 475, 788, 798 Grachev, D. A., 270, 271, 575 Granat, Ye. G., 873, 943, 949 Grankin, O. A., 1019 Grauer, V. B., 724 Gravin, V. O., 449, 978 Grekhova, M. T., 430, 431, 440, 442, 443, 786 Greshilov, Ye. M., 847 Greshnikova, L. F., 1027 Grevtsev, A. G., 1025, 1157 Gribakina, N. M., 299, 855, 866 Gribanova, O. L., 806 Gribanove, V. I., 689 Gribova, Ye. Z., 172 Grigoricheva, V. D., 1025 Grigorieva, N. S., 93, 98 Grigoryev, A. M., 1026, 1038 Grigoryev, A. N., 408 Grigoryev, B. A., 38, 736 Grigoryev, B. P., 239 Grigoryev, B. P., 373, 375, 382, 383, 390, 397–399 Grigoryev, M. G., 54, 57, 59, 713, 1025, 1120, 1149, 1151 Grigoryev, M., 21 Grigoryev, S. V., 408 Grigoryev, V. A., 187 Grigoryev, V. S., 57, 304–307, 309, 310, 315, 326, 329, 331, 333, 338, 341, 347, 351, 352, 355, 556, 1034 Grigoryev, V., 588 Grigoryev, Ye. A., 556 Grigoryev, Yu. A., 1040 Grigoryeva, N. S., 991

FA2 January 5, 2008

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SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

index

Index Grikurov, 91 Grinberg, I. E., 891 Grinberg, S. I., 495, 500, 563, 565 Grinberg, S. O., 588 Grinenko-Ivanov, A. N., 40 Grinevich, R. I., 722–724, 875 Grinyuk, A. V., 408 Grishman, G. D., 300, 711, 866, 985, 986 Gritchin, V. I., 586 Gritsai, V. M., 912, 915, 917, 922 Gritsenko, A. M., 1031 Grivtsov, A. A., 891 Grobovikov, Yu., 740 Gromkovsky, V. V., 298, 301, 401, 434, 509, 517, 526, 527, 534, 543, 607, 622, 623, 626, 633, 648, 657, 672, 834, 847, 1001, 1030, 1079 Gromov, N. P., 1124 Gromova, T. B., 935, 940, 1081 Groshev, L. V., 53 Grubnik, N. A., 308, 311, 352, 1194, 1202 Grushin, A. A., 1132, 1133, 1136 Gryzilov, S. M., 1035 Gubachev, M. V., 932 Gubarev, B. G., 1042 Gulidov, V. P., 280, 460, 478 Gulin, E. P., 121, 128, 134, 153–159, 167, 169, 189–191, 284, 338, 339, 364, 367, 369, 370, 1035 Gulin, O. E., 219 Gulina, M. A., 364 Gulyaeva, N. G., 1043, 1044 Gumerov, L. Sh., 400, 1040 Gurbatov, 922 Gurbatov, S. N., 172, 887 Gurevich, Ya. M., 1074 Gureyev, M. Yu., 203 Gurin, A. S., 616, 621, 622 Gurin, B. I., 521 Gurov, Yu. M., 724 Gursky, V. V., 891, 899 Gurvich, A. A., 869 Gurvich, A. S., 168 Gurvich, Yu. V., 866, 979, 980

1223

Gusev, A. I., 284 Gusev, B. V., 271, 471, 492, 1021, 1025–1028, 1038, 1069 Gusev, N. V., 284 Gusev, V. G., 300, 848 Gusev, V. M., 1110 Guseva, Ye. K., 1076 Gushchin, S. Ye., 1090 Gushchin, V. V., 897 Guslin, E. P., 326 Guster, I. P., 583 Gutin, L. Ya., 291, 303, 375, 612, 857, 858, 1074, 1120, 1123, 1149, 1151, 1152, 1168 Gutner, O. Ya., 1132 Guzhavina, D. V., 189, 364 Ibraimov, D. I., 292, 614, 638 Idin, V. B., 299, 458, 466, 468, 469, 481, 495, 498, 510, 516, 526, 534, 539, 846, 988, 1015, 1046, 1162 Ignat’ev, A. A., 613 Ignatov, V. I., 1142 Ignatyev, A. A., 292, 573, 575, 702, 703, 709 Ignatyuk, O., 990 Igonina, G. F., 532 II’ichev, V. I., 89 Ikonnikov, A., 48 Ikonnikov, I. B., 1126 Ilˆichev, V. I., 224, 347 Il’ichev, V. I., 284, 309, 333, 338, 364, 365, 367–372, 481, 1034, 1108, 1110, 1198 Il’in, 261 Il’in, I. I., 1031 Il’in, I. M., 284, 534, 1029–1031, 1135 Il’in, V. A., 812 Il’in, V. V., 807 Ilchenko, Yu. A., 635 Ilin, A. V., 326 Ilin, V. A., 588 Ilinsky, M. V., 534 Ilyichev, V. I., 181, 556 Ilyin, G. Ya., 299

FA2 January 5, 2008

14:19

1224

SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

index

Index

Ilyin, I. M., 543 Ilyukhin, S. A., 551, 553, 556 Ilín, I. M., 1021, 1028 IlEE chev, V. I., 362, 370, 848 IlEE in, I. M., 848 Iofa, A. L., 512, 542, 551, 556, 677 Ioffe, A. I., 42 Ioffe, A. L., 300 Ioffe, V. K., 48, 1074, 1075 Iontov, A. L., 579 Iontov, A. M., 624 Iorish, Yu. I., 1099 Isaeva, L. A., 1002, 1005 Isakov, 603 Isakov, A. R., 1122 Isakovich, M. A., 210 Isakovich, M. A., 78, 87, 125, 130, 144, 152, 189, 191, 319, 320, 326, 333, 848, 1163, 1204 Isavin, A. N., 1060 Isers, A. B., 129 Iskhakov, Nail, 519 Islamgaliyev, G. K., 1019 Islyaev, S. I., 1139 Ivakin, A. N., 186, 187 Ivanchenko, V. P., 590 Ivanchenko, V. S., 357 Ivanitskaya, L. A., 176 Ivannikov, V. P., 1019 Ivanov, A. Ya., 1124 Ivanov, D. V., 449 Ivanov, E. V., 583, 673 Ivanov, I. D., 310, 365 Ivanov, N. A., 1136 Ivanov, N. M., 300, 512, 805 Ivanov, V. M., 408 Ivanov, V. S., 373, 375–377, 381, 383, 385, 397, 845 Ivanov, V. V., 532, 556 Ivanov, V., 848 Ivanov, Ye. N., 1142, 1143 Ivanov, Yu. A., 417, 521 Ivanov, Yu. G., 1121 Ivanov-Shits, K. M., 1099 Ivanova, A. P., 947 Ivanova, L., 588

Ivanova, T. N., 934, 935, 940 Ivliyev, S. V., 896, 904, 905, 910, 915, 916, 1031 Izmailov, N. I., 802 Jacobi, B. S., 20 Joly, J., 26 Kabakov, L. S., 1035 Kabanov, N. F., 172 Kabin, Yu. P., 1121, 1124 Kadashnikov, S. K., 1036 Kadykov, I. F., 444 Kaidanov, Yu. L., 1029 Kakalov, V. A., 298, 300, 381, 495, 919, 1031 Kalachev, A. I., 434, 887, 889, 893, 894, 906, 910, 912, 913, 918, 920, 923 Kalashnikov, N. P., 151 Kalenov, Ye. N., 449, 796, 835, 848 Kalina, L. S., 408 Kalinichenko, O. P., 1040 Kalinin, A. S., 1053 Kalinkina, T. Ya., 589 Kalishkin, V. A., 1122 Kalitina, V. M., 982 Kalminsky, B. G., 1121 Kalmykov, A. I., 162 Kalyaev, D. I., 474 Kalyaev, L. A., 476 Kalyaeva, A. N., 588 Kalyaeva, D. I., 862, 866, 985 Kalyashin, V. S., 403, 406 Kalyuzhny, A. Ya., 848 Kamenkovich, V. M., 417 Kan, V., 168 Kanareikin, V. N., 604, 833, 1167 Kanareykin, V. N., 613, 1172 Kandelaki, D. V., 160 Kaneman, F. A., 1048 Kantorovich, B. P., 284 Kantur, N. S., 573, 577, 583 Kaplan, I. P., 606, 1058, 1059 Kaprov, K. K., 736 Kapustin, G. K., 659

FA2 January 5, 2008

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SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

index

Index Kapustina, O. A., 329 Karatetsky, S. S., 299, 804 Karavaeva, T. I., 932 Karavainikov, V. N., 166 Karelon, A. V., 659 Kargin, C. M., 1060 Karlik, Ya. S., 19, 292, 298, 401, 448, 614, 639–642, 646, 655, 658, 662, 669, 678, 834, 1035 Karlov, B. I., 1046, 1162 Karlov, L. B., 605–607, 616, 623, 629, 632, 635, 637, 645, 649, 671, 1039, 1059, 1060 Karmadonov, O. I., 1123 Karmanov, Ya. I., 532, 549, 551, 553–555, 623 Karmanova, L. S., 884 Karmanovsky, N. N., 1019 Karnaukh, S. A., 408 Karnaukhov, K. A., 1038 Karnovsky, A. M., 217 Karpenko, M. G., 987, 988, 994 Karpinskaya, Ye. Ya., 715 Karpov, G. F., 940 Karpov, G. S., 924 Karpov, I. M., 795 Karpov, K. K., 38 Karpov, V. A., 277, 483, 1133 Karpov, V. S., 179 Karpova, V. M., 584 Kartashev, F. M., 59, 259, 1157 Kartashov, F. M., 1025 Kartashov, G. V., 1066 Kartonozhkina, D. M., 701 Karyev, Ye. S., 521 Kasatkin, B. A., 187, 1076 Kasatkin, V. S., 400, 607, 614, 616, 619, 622, 696, 697 Kashin, 1131 Kashina, L. D., 588 Kashina, L. N., 575 Kashkina, N. I., 179 Kashuba, D. D., 793, 906, 907, 909, 916, 1041, 1095 Kasyanov, L. P., 1142 Katalimov, V. F., 284

1225

Katilov, S. A., 522 Kats, A. Ye., 553–555 Katsenelenbaum, B. Z., 84 Katsman, V. I., 874 Katsnelson, B. E., 223 Katsnelson, B. G., 89, 94, 106, 112, 170, 187, 192 Kazachinin, V. P., 585, 624, 674 Kazachinin, V. V., 616 Kazakevich, Ye. A., 1038, 1039 Kazakov, L. I., 368, 370 Kazakov, M. N., 510, 512, 559, 565 Kazakovsky, A. S., 891 Kazanov, I. Yu., 798 Kazantsev, V. G., 1036, 1043 Kazin, A. A., 1122 Kazlauskas, I., 808 Kaznakov, B. A., 1121 Keller, J. B., 91 Kendall, J., 1103 Kershner, M. I., 468, 565 Kerzhakov, B. V., 442 Khabibulayev, P. K., 148 Khalimon, N. A., 1177, 1178 Khalimonov, V. V., 1095 Khar’kin, S. V., 89 Kharanen, V. Ya., 136 Kharat, G. M., 590 Kharatyan, Ye. G., 162, 169, 177, 179 Kharchenko, Ye. A., 174 Kharchevnikov, V. M., 934 Kharitonov, A. V., 1075, 1076, 1079, 1080 Kharkevich, A. A., 1074, 1148 Kharlamov, I. F., 635 Kheifets, Ye. D., 975 Kheifets, Ye. I., 926 Khilko, A. I., 89 ´ A. I., 149 Khilko, Khimunin, A. S., 1075 Khlyabov, A. M., 1041 Khlyabov, P. M., 1041 Khmara, A. N., 403 Khokha, Yu. V., 370 Khokhlov, R. V., 887, 888, 891, 913, 1107, 1110

FA2 January 5, 2008

14:19

1226

SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

index

Index

Khokhrekov, I. P., 1035 Khokhryakov, A. A., 290 Kholodnova, N. N., 624 Kholostov, M. V., 848 Khomchenkov, M. P., 1133 Khomenko, L. V., 532, 553, 554, 556 Khomko, V. S., 543 Khoroshev, G. A., 382, 1126–1128 Khrapenkov, Yu. V., 511 Khrapkin, Z. M., 621 Khromov, V. A., 370 Khrulev, V. P., 434 Khrushchev, N. S., 746 Khrushchov, N. S., 702 Khrustalev, V. M., 906, 1002 Khudin, G. N., 1121 Kiriakov, V. K., 89, 91, 97 Kirillov, A. S., 522 Kirillov, V. I., 300, 953, 975, 978 Kirillov, V. P., 617 Kirillova, D. M., 986 Kirov, S. M., 1130, 1134 Kirpichnikov, V. Yu., 376 Kiryanchikov, A. M., 1019 Kiselev, A. E., 688 Kiselev, A. V., 1059–1061 Kiselev, G. N., 1019 Kiselev, V. I., 362 Kiselev, V. M., 880 Kiselev, V. V., 1019 Kisilev, A. V., 584 Kisteneva, V. A., 520 Klapnev, Yu. S., 1123, 1124 Klapneva, O. M., 985, 986, 1122 Kleiman, I. A., 624, 704 Klenin, S. A., 177 Kleshchev, A. A., 181, 1127 Klibanov, G. M., 736 Klimenko, O. O., 804 Klimov, V. V., 181 Klimovets, D. P., 1121 Klimovitsky, L. D., 569, 580, 581, 583, 584 Klinger, 33 Klyachin, B. I., 134, 177

Klyachkin, V. I., 299, 387, 467, 468, 845, 850, 859–861, 863, 909, 913, 918 Klyatskin, V. I., 89, 96, 137, 141, 143, 144, 148, 219 Klyuchnikov, A. G., 1133, 1134 Klyuev, M. S., 187 Klyug, I. G., 1055 Klyuk, I. G., 284 Klyukin, I. I., 375, 1075, 1127 Klyushev, N. N., 798 Klyushin, V. V., 299, 531 Knipovich, N. M., 739 Knudsen, V., 199, 204 Knyazev, N. A., 461, 462, 495, 517, 704, 709, 833, 835, 897, 1028 Knyazev, S. V., 286 Kobelev, Yu. A., 888 Kobylyansky, V. V., 556 Kocherov, N. N., 807 Kochetkov, Yu. K., 495, 635, 670, 671, 673 Kochkin, V. V., 407 Kochneva, L. A., 659 Kodanev, V. P., 339 Kogarko, V. K., 989 Kogut, A. K., 811 Kokoenko, A. P., 781 Kokorev, A. N., 408 Kokoshuyev, S. V., 519, 521, 524 Kokurin, V. A., 300, 677 Kolesnikov, A. G., 534, 1032, 1038, 1040, 1041, 1043–1045 Kolesnikov, A. Ye., 1075 Kolesnikov, Yu. P., 532 Koligaev, O. A., 407 Kolmogorov, S., 919 Kolobayev, P. A., 177, 365 Kolokolov, S. D., 1122 Kolomiitsev, S. P., 1019 Kolonuto, Ye. A., 408 Kolosov, L. V., 924, 926 Kolosova, A. P., 994 Kolotii, I. I., 950 Kolpakov, Ye. L., 696, 697, 702 Kolyshnitsyn, V. A., 373, 375, 396

FA2 January 5, 2008

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SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

index

Index Komarov, V. I., 664 Komissarchuk, I. F., 553, 555 Komissarov, 656 Komissarov, A. N., 1144 Komissarov, V. M., 136, 139, 166, 319 Komissarova, N. M., 215 Komissarova, N. N., 80, 103 Komlyakov, V. A., 269, 271, 282, 283, 583, 726, 789, 790, 792, 795, 796 Komyagin, G. G., 807 Kondratyev, V. I., 309 Kondratyev, Zh. A., 644 Konetsky, V. V., 744 Konev, V. T., 842 Konik, G. B., 1121 Konoplin, A. Ye., 894, 896 Konrad, W. L., 890 Konson, A. D., 448, 449, 532, 553–555 Konstantinov, A. I., 1207 Konstantinov, T. A., 577 Konstantinov, Ye. A., 1039, 1040 Konstantinova, E. A., 579 Konstantinova, E. K., 588 Kontsevoi, S. N., 511, 704, 707 Konyaev, K. F., 172 Kopyl, Ye. A., 150, 157, 163, 164, 166, 177, 191 Korablev, G. P., 622 Korban, V. Ya., 481 Korepin, A., 640 Korepin, Ye. A., 299, 855, 859, 865, 959, 973 Korepin, Ye. I., 300 Kormilitsyn, S. M., 477 Korneeva, T. V., 659 Korneyev, V. G., 1039, 1044 Korobko, O. V., 842 Korobovsky, B. V., 553, 555 Korochentsev, V. I., 904 Korolev, G. I., 877 Korolev, V. V., 659 Koroleva, N. V., 543 Korolkov, G. N., 1018, 1019 Korolyov, V. I., 1038 Korolyova, T. P., 940

1227

Korotetsky, S. S., 286 Korotkin, I. M., 736 Korotkov, A. G., 1067 Korovin, A. N., 911 Korovkin, A. N., 389 Korovyakovsky, Yu. P., 664 Korpusov, S. A., 543 Korsakov, A. A., 1133 Korsakov, G. P., 1121 Korsakov, S. I., 1142 Korsunsky, 261 Kort, V. G., 417 Koryakin, Yu. A., 287, 300, 301, 842, 848, 1081 Korzh, I. T., 812 Kosarev, V. A., 655 Kosetsky, V. M., 1124 Kosharskaya, O. A., 512 Koshlyakov, M. N., 417 Kosik, A. A., 629, 668 Kositsky, V. A., 267 Kostenich, N. V., 1019 Kosterin, A. G., 147, 170, 171, 192 Kostetsky, Yu. B., 506 Kostylev, I. N., 1061 Kotenev, V. N., 1142 Kotov, P. G., 482 Kovalenko, G. B., 1191 Kovalev, 929 Kovalev, S. N., 929 Kovalev, V. N., 300 Kovalev, V. V., 1019 Kovtunenko, E. S., 1136, 1139 Kovtunenko, S. V., 1133–1136 Kovtunenkom, S. V., 1095 Kozelov, B. A., 605, 607, 1039 Kozhayev, M. T., 300, 543 Kozhin, V. S., 1121 Kozhukhov, A. V., 1097 Kozin, A. B., 157 Kozlov, 519 Kozlov, A. F., 1095 Kozlov, L. A., 583 Kozlov, V. N., 1136 Kozlov, V. V., 531 Kozlov, Yu. M., 299, 512, 743

FA2 January 5, 2008

14:19

1228

SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

index

Index

Kozlova, I. L., 511 Kozlova, L. A., 575, 577 Kozlovich, V. K., 1038 Kozlovsky, G. B., 1123 Kozlyak, I. I., 475 Kozlyakova, M. N., 511 Kozubskaya, G. I., 110 Kozyrev, B., 42 Krainov, A. B., 407 Krakovsky, I. A., 810 Krangals, E. R., 583 Krants, V. Z., 495, 743 Krapivin, V. F., 842 Krasilnikov, G. A., 300 Krasilnikov, V. A., 136, 166, 532, 551, 553, 554, 556, 677, 887, 888, 913, 1099, 1107 Krasilshchik, I. L., 613, 988, 989, 991, 1119 Krasinsky, P. Ya., 848 Krasnikov, I. M., 1142 Krasnoborodko, V. V., 89, 163, 184, 185, 187, 191 Krasnov, P. S., 1196, 1197, 1200 Krasny, L. G., 835, 837, 848 Krasny, M. L., 447 Krasnykh, Yu. M., 1128 Kravchenko, A. S., 906, 907 Kravchenko, V. N., 408 Kravchenko, V. V., 907, 910, 916, 918, 919, 922 Kravtsov, Yu. A., 80, 91, 96, 126, 141, 143, 151, 152, 170, 172, 188, 192 Krayevsky, A. I., 534 Krayukhin, Yu. P., 990 Krechmer, S. I., 1099 Krepker, N. I., 654 Krichevsky, M. L., 1128 Kril, 1150 Krotov, V. A., 432, 434 Kruchkov, O. K., 580, 583 Krul, V. S., 1133 Krupin, V. D., 78, 84, 88, 109, 110 Krupotkin, Ye. D., 1001 Krupsky, M., 45 Krupsky, P. M., 696, 702

Krus, A. N., 1134 Krutov, A. A., 1142, 1144 Kruze, L. Ya., 272, 276, 279, 460, 472 Kryachok, F. F., 284, 645, 1027, 1039, 1095 Kryachok, F. I., 848 Kryazhev, F. I., 131, 132, 160, 191, 308, 311, 326, 352, 1194 Kryazhev, F. P., 131 Kryazhevskikh, A. P., 1018, 1019 Krychanov, A. N., 553, 586 Krylov, A. N., 296, 317, 331, 332, 340, 341, 343, 373–378, 381, 385, 387, 388, 391–393, 396, 397, 399, 429, 509, 536, 670, 892, 920, 924, 927, 978, 1007, 1047, 1111, 1122 Krylov, A. N., 32, 41 Krylov, G. V., 1124 Krylov, L. M., 1194 Krylov, N. V., 1031 Kryshnev, V. I., 444 Kryshny, V. I., 200, 203 Kubyshkin, Yu. I., 1142 Kudasheva, O. A., 300, 466, 673, 860, 861 Kudin, G. I., 188 Kudrevich, B. A., 1083 Kudrevich, B. I., 40, 44, 736 Kudrevich, V. I., 1147 Kudrina, T. B., 531 Kudryashov, V. M., 85, 88, 109, 131, 132, 160, 189, 191 Kudryavtsev, A. A., 1027–1029, 1035, 1036 Kudryavtsev, B. D., 270 Kudryavtsev, V. O., 50 Kudryavtsev, V. S., 253, 288, 299, 303, 573 Kudryavtseva, O. P., 176 Kukharkov, Ye. M., 1019 Kukhno, V. N., 407, 408 Kulagina, T., 532 Kulakov, V. N., 97 Kulapin, L. G., 89, 94, 106 Kulikov, L. N., 1126 Kulikov, V. M., 1131, 1133

FA2 January 5, 2008

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SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

index

Index Kulikova, G. S., 943 Kulinsky, A. V., 652 Kultyapin, E. A., 575, 580, 583, 677 Kunyavsky, L. A., 472, 475 Kunyavsky, L. D., 788, 798 Kupensky, B. I., 586 Kupriyanov, L. D., 483 Kupriyanov, N. D., 259, 262, 286, 289, 573 Kupriyanov, V. N., 512, 743 Kupriyanova, M. V., 556 Kuptsov, I. A., 532, 553–555 Kurbatov, I. S., 1121, 1124 Kurochkin, N. M., 1019 Kurov, Yu. V., 556 Kursky, Ye. D., 1028 Kurtepov, V. M., 78, 88, 89, 99, 145, 170, 417, 418 Kuryanov, B. F., 127, 151, 156, 162, 172, 186, 191, 197, 205, 208, 210, 218, 319, 417, 444 Kuryatnikov, K. T., 613 Kushkovsky, Yu. P., 1134 Kuskov, N. B., 239, 291, 292, 743 Kutsentov, R. I., 575, 579, 583 Kutsko, A. Ye., 1123, 1124 Kuturushev, L. A., 1121 Kuzin, N. M., 299, 724 Kuzkin, V. M., 89, 106, 170, 192 Kuzmenko, A. V., 1018 Kuzmenkov, I. V., 408 Kuzmichev, M. N., 381 Kuzmin, P. I., 304 Kuzmin, P. P., 48, 50, 52, 57, 59, 258, 284, 288, 306, 463, 471, 698, 1021, 1024, 1026, 1152, 1157, 1187 Kuzmin, P., 271 Kuzmin, V. I., 583 Kuznetsov, B. A., 275, 482 Kuznetsov, G. N., 338, 370, 371 Kuznetsov, M. V., 878 Kuznetsov, N. G., 49, 56, 140, 1022, 1083, 1130 Kuznetsov, V. G., 1095 Kuznetsov, V. L., 1019 Kuznetsov, V. M., 583

1229

Kuznetsov, V. N., 187 Kuznetsov, V. P., 887, 888, 896, 897, 905 Kuznetsov, V. S., 588 Kuznetsov, Yu. S., 670 Kuznetsova, I. M., 388, 389 Kuznetsova, M. K., 613 Kuznetsova, N. G., 169, 170 Kuznetsova, Ye. I., 456, 457, 1149 Kuznetsova, Ye. P., 129, 191, 214 Kvasha, N. I., 634, 685, 688 Kvetny, A., 511 Kvetny, V. A., 995 Kvyatkovsky, O. A., 1121, 1128 Labetsky, E. V., 300, 524, 583, 886, 992, 1002, 1004 Lakheta, V. M., 943 Laletin, V. I., 300, 512, 577 Langevin, P., 3, 37, 38 Lapii, V. Yu., 403, 406, 837 Lapin, A. D., 124, 128, 130, 131, 144, 145, 177, 191, 319 Lapshov, N. V., 1067 Lapteva, E. P., 167 Larin, N. M., 653, 1018 Larin, V. I., 434 Larionov, Yu. G., 408 Lashkov, B. I., 299, 614, 616, 640, 668–670, 672, 674, 675, 677, 839 Lashkova, B. I., 1080 Lashkova, N. S., 643, 649, 834 Latinsky, S. M., 736 Latychevsky, B. N., 810 Latyshev, Yu. A., 617 Lavrentyev, A. V., 1143 Lavrichenko, V. V., 284, 510, 516, 526, 528, 533, 543, 553, 554, 848, 1014, 1018, 1027–1031, 1095 Lavrov, B. V., 1132, 1134 Lazarev, P. G., 644, 651, 659 Lazarev, V. Ya., 1121 Lazuko, L. M., 534, 1031 Lebedev, A. L., 943 Lebedev, A. M., 1191, 1192 Lebedev, G. V., 743

FA2 January 5, 2008

14:19

1230

SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

index

Index

Lebedev, N. A., 798 Lebedev, V. G., 805 Lebedeva, I. P., 512 Legkodukh, P. A., 1019 Legusha, F. F., 1123, 1128 Leikin, D. Ye., 148 Leikin, I. A., 162 Lekomtsev, V. M., 1196, 1198 Lenin, V. I., 884, 1067, 1097 Leninzon, B. M., 573 Lensky, F. P., 1034 Lentz, E., 21 Leonardo da Vinci, 743 Leonenok, B. I., 300, 513, 855, 860, 866, 886 Leonenok, B., 524 Leonov, V. I., 553 Leontovich, M. A., 85, 124 Lepeshinsky, V. N., 303 Lepilin, V. G., 1059 Lepin, R. R., 943 Leporsky, A. N., 152 Lerner, V. A., 991, 992 Lerri, M. K., 397–399 Leshankin, N. N., 666 Leshchev, A. N., 797 Lesley, C., 1103 Lesonen, D. N., 135 Lesunovsky, V. P., 331, 338, 347, 364, 367, 368, 370 Lev, L. G., 587 Levchin, Igor, 519 Levichev, B. G., 574, 613, 670, 1162 Levichev, B. I., 673 Levidov, B. I., 502, 743 Levin, S. I., 616, 619, 621 Levinsky, A. N., 300, 510, 988 Levintan, M. G., 532 Levinzon, B. M., 572, 576 Levit, Ye. I., 512 Levitan, Yury, 748 Levkovsky, Yu. P., 376 Levushkin, S. N., 407 Leykin, L. I., 588 Libenson, E. B., 510, 511 Liguta, V. P., 408

Likhodaeva, E. A., 926 Likhovitsky, N. I., 1019 Lilly, J. C., 1194 Lindov, V. I., 556, 805 Lipallo, V. V., 1019 Lipkovin, L. I., 811 Lisanevich, G. N., 1148, 1149, 1151, 1152, 1155 Lisitsyn, A. P., 417 Lisok, O. V., 724 Liss, A. R., 300, 542, 551, 555 Litke, F. P., 736 Litvina, L. I., 510, 743 Litvinov, A. I., 793, 795, 797 Livshits, I. Ye., 992 Livshits, M. Ye., 991 Lobach, I. Ya., 613 Lobanov, N. I., 523 Lobanov, V. A., 1027, 1041 Lobanova, I. K., 300, 512, 542, 579 Lobanova, N. I., 700 Lobodin, I. Ye., 1034–1036, 1043, 1045 Lobov, R. V., 408 Loginova, A. A., 947 Lomonosov, M. V., 20, 741, 943, 1096, 1098 Longuet-Higgins M. S., 198, 209 Lonkevich, A. I., 624, 655, 678, 876 Lonkevich, M. P., 670, 673, 926, 1080 Lopatin, B. I., 668 Loskutova, G. V., 848 Lubavin, L. D., 674, 677 Luchenkova, V. Ye., 975 Luchinin, A. G., 441, 442 Ludzsky, V. T., 512, 565 Luginets, K. P., 284, 534, 545, 553, 556, 849, 1026–1031, 1033–1036 Lukashenko, Yu. A., 512 Lukin, I. P., 168 Lukin, R. A., 810 Lukoshkin, A. P., 842 Lukyanov, A. P., 707 Lunin, N. A., 1190 Lupovskoi, V. N., 189 Lvov, V. K., 577, 584, 925, 930

FA2 January 5, 2008

14:19

SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

index

Index Lyalikov, A. P., 1128 Lyamin, G. I., 907 Lyamov, V. Ye., 1107 Lyamshev, L. M., 76, 98, 149, 150, 164, 182, 320, 326, 329, 331, 333, 339, 341, 351, 352, 361, 362, 364, 367, 372, 393, 845, 847, 848, 892, 909, 913 Lyapunov, V. G., 869 Lyapunov, V. T., 376, 390, 848 Lyapunov, V. V., 850 Lyashenko, N. S., 583 Lyashenko, V. S., 1192 Lyatskoi, S. V., 806 Lysak, D. P., 179 Lysanov, Yu. P., 87, 90, 96, 121, 124, 127, 128, 133, 134, 150, 151, 156, 157, 161–166, 173, 177, 183–187, 190, 191, 318, 319, 326, 352 Lysenko, A. A., 477 Lysenko, Yu. L., 1133 Lysov, O. S., 1019 Lyubavin, L. D., 474, 788, 798, 933, 935, 940 Lyubchenko, A. Yu., 208 Lyunenko, G. G., 1122 Lyutov, V. V., 1090 Magid, M. M., 270, 272, 276, 277, 282, 286, 303, 456, 458, 460, 472, 481, 483, 561, 862, 982, 983, 1026, 1028, 1030 Magomayeva, N. O., 1123 Maiorov, A. P., 265, 472 Maiorov, V. A., 300, 477, 543, 895 Maiorov, V. F., 408 Maiorov, Ye. F., 404, 407, 408 Maizlina, N. L., 987, 1002 Makarenko, L. N., 575, 577, 583 Makarov, M. V., 1121 Makarov, S. O., 21, 27–30, 736 Makarov, S., 23 Makarov, V. A., 521 Makedonsky, V. M., 666 Makeyev, 261 Makhov, V. I., 835

1231

Makshtas, Ya. P., 179 Maksimenko, A. I., 943 Maksimenkova, L. D., 575, 577, 580 Maksimov, A. N., 988, 989, 991, 1167 Maksimov, G. A., 129, 130, 135, 178 Maksimov, V. P., 531 Maksimova, A. I., 805 Maksimova, L. I., 708 Malafeyev, V. V., 1019, 1055 Malakhov, A. N., 147, 170, 171 Malev, K. V., 580, 777 Malinovsky, D. A., 1123 Malinskaya, V. M., 588 Malkina, I. G., 173 Malkov, Yu. Ya., 577, 584, 589 Maltsev, A. M., 614, 616 Maltsev, N. E., 78, 82–86, 88, 91, 92 Maltsev, N. Ye., 318 Maltsev, V. I., 498 Malyarov, K. V., 512, 526, 849, 924, 926 Malyarov, V. T., 926 Malyarova, V. T., 300 Malyi, V. V., 1136 Malyshev, K. I., 153–155, 159, 167, 176, 190, 364, 370 Malyshev, Yu. A., 685 Malyshev, Yu. M., 1121, 1124 Malysheva, M. M., 613, 995 Malyshkin, G. S., 834, 848, 1031, 1123, 1128 Malyuzhinets, G. D., 86, 169, 190, 308, 319, 320, 333, 355, 363–365, 1098, 1194 Mamashin, V. S., 284 Mamchin, E. A., 951 Mamiy, A., 1194 Mamut-Vasilyev, A. L., 512, 743 Mandelshtam, L. I., 42, 123, 1148 Manukhin, K. A., 1014 Manukhin, K. P., 1019 Manulis, B. M., 736, 904 Manzhos, I. N., 835 Marchenko, I. P., 407 Marchenko, P. V., 574 Marinesco, A. I., 373

FA2 January 5, 2008

14:19

1232

SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

index

Index

Marinesko, A. I., 1138 Marinsky, M. M., 935, 940 Markolia, A. M., 371 Markov, A. M., 1123 Markovsky, A. O., 573, 574, 808, 810, 840 Markus, M. I., 50, 253, 286, 288, 569, 575, 578, 611, 694, 721 Martinovich, E. K., 502, 505, 512, 613, 659 Martynenko, V. G., 502 Martynenko, V. V., 1123 Martysyuk, A. S., 1122 Maruev, A. R., 985 Marushkin, A. V., 381 Marusnyak, B. N., 666 Marutov, Yu. S., 710, 835 Maryinsky, M. M., 993 Marysin, V. G., 1132 Masalykin, M. A., 1035 Mashashvili, Ye. S., 128 Mashoshin, A. I., 534, 553, 554, 556, 849, 1021, 1031, 1035, 1036 Maskalev, V. F., 990 Masterov, Ye. P., 284, 331, 338, 347, 362, 367–370, 481 Masterovoi, Ye. P., 326 Mastyker, I. L., 708 Matangin, V. M., 284, 309, 364, 365, 368, 370, 371, 477 Matevosyan, E. Kh., 284, 534, 1026, 1027, 1029, 1031, 1059, 1061 Matusevich, N. N., 736 Matushevsky, V. V., 842 Matushkin, V. D., 1142 Matveev, A. I., 659 Matveeva, V. M., 589, 659 Matveyev, B. N., 522 Matveyev, G. A., 374, 378, 379 Matveyev, P. I., 1025, 1132 Matveyev, S. N., 724 Matvienko, V. N., 66, 534, 788, 1021, 1032, 1038–1040, 1042, 1044 Matvievsky, A. A., 951 Matvievsky, A. V., 956 Maykhrovsky, E. N., 638

Mayorov, V. G., 583 Mayorov, V. I., 577 Mayzlina, N. L., 613 Mazepov, V. I., 194, 284, 303, 326, 347, 349, 352, 365–367, 372, 481, 483, 510, 526 Mazepov, V. M., 277 Mazurkevich, V. V., 475, 725 McArthur, 721 Medvedev, V. A., 1066 Medvinsky, E. G., 617 Meecham, W. C., 190 Meecham, W., 127 Melentyev, V. D., 1042 Mellen, 894, 895, 904, 915 Mellen, R. H., 903 Melnichenko, A. B., 1122 Melnikov, I. N., 521 Melnitsky, B. A., 542 Meltreger, I. I., 304 Meltreger, I. N., 59, 271, 284, 471, 540, 1021, 1025–1031, 1038, 1149, 1151, 1152 Men, A. V., 166 Mendeleev, D. I., 987 Mendeleyev, D. I., 799 Mendus, V. I., 206, 213 Menshikov, I. M., 624 Merkulov, L. G., 1075, 1076 Merkulova, N. A., 1029 Meshkov, A. V., 1042 Meyer, E., 374 Mezhevitinov, Yu. P., 953, 974, 975 Miche, M., 209 Midin, G. G., 44, 601, 1129 Midin, G., 45 Mikhailov, 1168 Mikhailov, A. V., 300, 866, 935, 936, 940, 1081, 1135 Mikhailov, G. A., 300, 513, 805, 866, 884 Mikhailov, I. G., 785, 786 Mikhailov, I. N., 512 Mikhailov, M. A., 485, 486 Mikhailov, V. B., 1136

FA2 January 5, 2008

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SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

index

Index Mikhailov, Yu. A., 283, 299, 478, 838, 906 Mikhailychev, B. I., 1031 Mikhailychev, S. A., 899, 906, 910, 912, 915 Mikhaltsev, I. Ye., 315, 347, 363, 1163 Mikheyenko, V. T., 1050 Mikheyev, Ye. V., 1093 Mikhin, D. Yu., 89, 107, 109 Mikhin, G. Ye., 871 Mikryukov, A. V., 444 Mileshkin, Yu. A., 1042 Milrud, Ye. M., 92 Milstein, L. I., 937 Minaev, G. N., 1202 Minin, V. V., 1123 Minto, W., 1194, 1195 Mintzer, D., 190 Mirimov, L. M., 292, 299, 465, 466, 495, 511, 558, 743, 751 Mirimov, Leo, 751 Mironenko, G., 667 Mironenko, V. A., 1134 Mironov, A. D., 588 Mironov, D. D., 299, 301, 531, 554, 586, 587, 875, 880, 881, 909 Mironov, M. A., 78 Miroshnikov, V. P., 849 Mirvoda, V. I., 583 Misan, A. A., 1090, 1094 Misnik, I. M., 1019 Mit’ko, V. B., 1087, 1089–1092, 1094, 1095 Mitelikov, V. L., 1019 Mitkevich, V. M., 42 Mitkin, V. V., 182 Mitko, V. B., 1089 Moiseyev, A. A., 147, 170, 208, 221, 223 Moiseyev, A. V., 89 Moiseyev, G. B., 580, 583 Moiseyev, V. N., 513 Mokhov, A. V., 89 Molchadsky, L. I., 300, 512, 542 Molchanov, S. Ya., 89, 120 Molchanov, V. S., 775

1233

Molodtsov, V. B., 586 Molofeev, V. V., 284 Molokhova, N. V., 1036 Monakhinson, B. V., 935 Monakhov, A. I., 726, 727 Monastyrsky, A. G., 502, 559, 562, 565 Monin, A. S., 417 Morev, 1095 Morgun, V. V., 580 Moroz, T. A., 176 Morozov, N. G., 1039 Morozova, A. L., 1202 Morozova, G. N., 909 Morozovetsky, O. V., 1040, 1042, 1043, 1045 Morozovetsky, S. V., 1042 Morozva, A. L., 1202 Morris, G. B., 208, 215, 222 Mosalov, I. V., 434 Mosyagin, A. A., 1121, 1123 Mosyatin, A. A., 1123 Motienko, F. A., 285 Mozgovoi, V. A., 179 Mudretsov, A. S., 798 Mudryakov, N. A., 788 Muiakshin, S. I., 172 Muir, T. G., 890 Mumdzhian, R. G., 1093 Munk, W. H., 108 Munk, W., 99 Muratov, E. K., 284 Muravyov, 261 Musayeva, E. I., 178 Mussulevsky, K. V., 300, 512, 542 Mutyev, A. V., 1044 Muyakshin, S. I., 177, 178 Myachin, N. N., 286 Myasishchev, V. I., 1018, 1019 Myasnikov, I. V., 286 Myasnikov, L. L., 1074, 1119, 1123, 1127, 1149, 1152 Mylnikova, I. Ye., 943 Myshinsky, E. L., 1127, 1128 Nadelson, M. I., 1019 Nagavkin, N. D., 286, 289, 982

FA2 January 5, 2008

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1234

SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

index

Index

Nagel, L. F., 613 Nagovitsin, M., 667 Naimark, Yu. G., 551, 555 Nalbandyan, O. G., 144 Napoleon, 897 Napolsky, D. I., 801 Naruzhny, B. L., 526 Nasobin, A. T., 1019 Natalchenko, O. N., 584 Natalchenko, O. Ye., 577 Natalchenko, O., 659 Natanzon, D. I., 562 Naugolnykh, A. A., 352, 909, 910, 913, 914, 916–918 Naugolnykh, K. A., 845, 887, 892, 893, 897 Naumenko, Yu. I., 362 Naumov, B. A., 1123 Nazarov, N. I., 1059 Nazarov, V. Ye., 888, 904, 912 Nechayev, A. G., 132, 148, 149, 160, 192 Nefedov, L. M., 444 Nefedov, N. M., 806 Nefedov, P. M., 736 Neganov, S. A., 1041 Neganov, S. I., 540, 1027, 1029, 1041 Neganovskaya, L. N., 628 Neklyudov, V. I., 156 Nekrasov, 772 Nekrasov, A. N., 170, 449 Nemchinov, V., 526 Nemirovsky, B. L., 543 Nemirovsky, P. M., 366, 1202, 1203 Neruchev, M. G., 1120, 1128 Nesterenko, V. I., 1087, 1088, 1090, 1095 Nesterov, V. S., 1098, 1103 Neuimin, G. G., 366 Nevelich, B. V., 575, 577, 580, 583, 659 Nevelich, V. B., 589 Nikandrov, N. V., 511 Nikandrov, V. A., 798 Nikiforov, A. S., 1075, 1126 Nikiforov, N. D., 994

Nikitin, A. V., 812 Nikitin, L. B., 300, 855, 860, 866, 940 Nikolaenko, Yu. A., 299 Nikolaev, B. V., 502 Nikolaev, V. A., 525 Nikolaeva, M. A., 655 Nikolayenko, Yu. A., 722–724, 727, 840 Nikolenko, G. V., 1196 Nikolichev, S. A., 689 Nikolsky, D. I., 444 Nikolsky, Yu. A., 375 Nikoltsev, A. Yu., 89 Nirenberg, 32, 33 Nirenberg, R. G., 31, 34, 35 Niyazov, B. A., 148, 218 Nizenko, I. I., 703 Nodelman, P. A., 511, 995 Nosenko, I. I., 247 Nosov, A. V., 158, 187, 727 Nosova, L. N., 173 Novikov, 519, 891 Novikov, A. K., 376, 380, 388, 389, 845, 1075 Novikov, A. M., 802 Novikov, A., 667 Novikov, B. K., 887, 891, 892, 896, 923 Novikov, V. A., 893, 894 Novoselov, G. A., 589 Novozhilov, V. V., 397 Novozhilov, Ye. P., 299, 511, 521 Novyi, B. G., 1020, 1023 Obchinets, O. G., 1031, 1043 Oberten, I. A., 381 Oborinskaya, A. I., 943 Obukhov, A. M., 137, 166 Obukhova, E. G., 573, 577, 583 Obukhova, Ye. G., 1162 Odegov, S. A., 1120 Ogarkovskaya, T. B., 1121 Ogorodnikov, L. P., 466, 843 Ogromnov, P. V., 290, 571, 572 Ogurtsov, 989 Ogurtsov, N., 990

FA2 January 5, 2008

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SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

index

Index Ogurtsov, Yu. P., 1120, 1123, 1124 Okinin, S. N., 995 Oktyabrsky, F. S., 357–359 Oleinik, S. A., 1122 Oleshchuk, V. A., 449 Oleshchuk, V. Yu., 449 Olisova, M. K., 575, 577 Olshevsky, V. V., 150, 175, 176, 190, 192, 193, 284, 319, 338, 347, 364, 368, 476, 837, 1194 Olson, H. F., 1101 Omelchenko, N. N., 338 Onuchin, Yu. I., 1093 Oransky, L. M., 834 Orel, O. M., 512, 565 Orlov, V. I., 940 Orlov, B. F., 848 Orlov, E. F., 89, 96 Orlov, Ye. F., 106, 850 Orlov, Yu. I., 80, 96 Orlov, Ye. F., 434 Ortin, V. M., 524, 1004 Osipov, A. N., 284, 1024, 1054, 1135 Osipov, N. S., 577, 579, 613 Osipov, V. I., 510 Osipov, V. K., 1041 Osipov, V. P., 1059 Osmolovsky, G. M., 468, 497, 896–898, 914 Ostapenko, Ye. F., 477 Ostashev, V. Ye., 98, 143 Ostrogradsky, S. V., 1047 Ostroukhov, A. A., 299, 724, 726, 727 Ostroukhov, V. D., 1040 Ostrovsky, A. A., 407 Ostrovsky, D. B., 300, 886, 893, 894, 899, 903, 906, 907, 909, 910, 912, 916, 918–922 Ostrovsky, L. A., 887, 892, 897, 913, 916, 921 Otsovsky, A. G., 1138 Ovchinnikov, G. I., 144, 176 Ovchinnikova, E. P., 532, 551, 554, 555 Ovechkin, A. P., 951 Ozerov, B. A., 239, 1152

1235

Ozherelyeva, E. P., 583 Ozmidov, R. V., 417 Paderno, V. I., 498, 547, 555 Paishev, I. I., 1034 Pakhomov, A. A., 1090–1092, 1094, 1095 Pakhomov, A. I., 1086 Pakhomov, Yu. M., 807 Palamarts, R. F., 607 Palatov, V. A., 565 Palii, A. F., 511 Palii, T. V., 511 Pallei, M. I., 934 Pallei, Yu. P., 807, 808, 886 Pallo, V. T., 658 Palnikov, L. N., 797, 811 Palnikov, L., 810 Panfilov, S. I., 1074 Panfilov, S., 1149 Panikorovsky, 527 Panina, L. V., 408 Pankov, S. S., 1038 Pankova, S. D., 174 Panov, S. V., 736, 806 Panov, Yu. F., 1142 Pantyushov, V. P., 1123, 1125, 1128 Papadakis, J. S., 91 Papaleksi, N. D., 1148 Papanin, I. D., 66, 413 Paperno, A. I., 299, 481, 495, 498, 510, 516 Paramonov, A. B., 1142 Paretsky, E. M., 617 Parkhomenko, O. I., 1121 Parmet, M. I., 575 Parmet, M. S., 519, 523 Parshin, G. S., 613 Parshin, G. V., 669 Pashin, V. M., 374 Pashkovsky, E. I., 1122 Pastor, A. Yu., 511 Pastukhov, V. M., 1135 Pasynkov, R. Ye., 299, 844, 855, 859, 932, 934, 940, 942 Pasynkova, G. I., 943

FA2 January 5, 2008

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1236

SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

index

Index

Paton, B. E., 1202 Patylitsin, N. G., 218 Pavelyev, A. G., 125 Pavlenko, F. F., 587 Pavlenko, P. I., 388, 1040, 1086 Pavlenko, V. P., 1123 Pavlov, L. V., 563 Pavlov, L. Ye., 1027, 1042 Pavlov, P. K., 715 Pavlov, P. V., 584 Pavlov, R. P., 300, 513, 525, 541, 624, 640, 855, 866, 940 Pavlov, V. P., 583 Pavlov, Yu. G., 407 Pavlova, T. M., 947 Pearson, 207 Pelevin, Yu. P., 808, 886 Pelinovsky, Ye. N., 887 Peredelsky, A. A., 492, 1069 Perekhvalsky, Yu. M., 1019 Perel, M. V., 93 Perelmuter, Yu. S., 298, 510, 540, 545, 547, 549, 555, 849, 1034, 1035 Perelygin, V. S., 1029, 1030 Pereselkov, S. A., 89, 112, 170 Peretyatko, 633 Permitin, G. V., 170 Pernik, A. D., 375, 392, 845 Pertsovsky, M. G., 1121 Pervukhin, G. D., 638, 1038 Peshchurov, A. A., 27 Peshkov, V. N., 835, 837 Peshkov, Ye. G., 314 Peshlat, A. A., 303 Peskova, I. G., 532, 547, 551, 554, 555, 664 Pesyatsky, Yu. G., 579, 583 Petelin, A. I., 620 Petnikov, V. G., 88, 89, 91, 106, 172, 187, 192, 208 Petrakov, V., 989, 990 Petrenko, M. D., 1121 Petrilenkova, B., 934 Petrov, A. N., 282 Petrov, G. S., 1121, 1123 Petrov, G. V., 286

Petrov, I. N., 807 Petrov, M. V., 495, 510 Petrov, M. Ye., 1002–1004 Petrov, N. A., 326, 352 Petrov, N. V., 1040 Petrov, Ye. M., 775 Petrov, Yu. I., 381, 1127, 1128 Petrov, Yu. V., 512 Petrova, I. V., 842 Petrovsky, A. A., 40 Petrovsky, V. S., 375, 392, 393, 401, 403, 406, 845, 847 Petrovsky, Zh. D., 526, 534, 1030, 1031 Petrovsky, Zh. P., 906 Petrushevsky, F. F., 21, 23 Petukhov, S. M., 553 Petukhov, Yu. V., 105, 188 Pievsky, R. M., 1131 Pigulevsky, Ye. D., 1076, 1077 Pimenov, A. F., 1027, 1029, 1041 Pimenov, I. K., 1123 Pinevskaya, Yu. L., 543 Pirogov, S. D., 613 Pirogov, V. A., 329 Pisarev, S. V., 109 Pisemsky, N. N., 605, 1038, 1050 Piskalenko, L. R., 498, 512, 563 Piskarev, A. L., 94 Piskovitina, I. A., 398 Piskunov, D. A., 161 Pivovarova, N. V., 884 Plakhov, D. D., 375, 376, 386, 389 Plakhov, D. O., 848, 850 Plaksin, A. A., 1019 Plam, Ya. L., 238, 239, 285 Platonov, A. A., 299, 781 Platonov, V. M., 373, 381 Platun, V. I., 617, 622, 1067 Platunova, B. N., 844, 848, 849 Plavko, V. I., 890 Pleshkov, V. L., 518 Pletnev, D. V., 588 Plotkin, A. M., 173 Pochekaev, V. M., 461, 462 Podalevich, V. F., 702

FA2 January 5, 2008

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SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

index

Index Podgaisky, Yu. P., 835, 850 Podoksik, V. M., 917 Pogosyan, V. V., 556 Pokrovaky, A. A., 1044 Pokrovaky, V. A., 1132, 1134, 1136 Poleshuk, V. G., 644 Polevik, A. G., 408 Polikarpova, L. A., 943 Polkanov, K. I., 301, 554, 555, 909, 1081 Polozhentsev, G. A., 41, 42 Poltavsky, I. Ye., 1042 Polyakhovsky, V. Ya., 485, 489 Polyakov, A. P., 678, 1019 Polyakov, D. V., 583 Polyakov, I. K., 495, 510 Polyakov, V. M., 1122 Polyakova, A. L., 887, 893, 897, 904 Polyakovsky, A. Ya., 990 Polyanin, L. N., 167 Polyanina, I. P., 329 Polyankin, A. N., 1055, 1056, 1060, 1061 Polyanskaya, V. A., 82, 98, 169, 318, 365 Polyanskiy, Ye. A., 86, 88 Ponomarenko, V. I., 1134 Ponomaryov, A. V., 375 Popkov, V. I., 1075 Popov, 604 Popov, A. S., 20, 303, 519, 708, 1022, 1129, 1132, 1134, 1136 Popov, G. P., 33, 1018 Popov, N. V., 1026 Popov, O. Ye., 104 Popov, P. N., 181 Popov, R. Yu., 189, 347 Popov, S. A., 727 Popov, V. V., 300 Popov, Yu. I., 270, 274–277, 456, 458, 472, 474, 483, 808, 862, 982, 984, 1152 Popov, Yu. Yu., 126 Popova, V. A., 511 Porfirova, A. G., 300, 859 Portnov, V. G., 868

1237

Portnov, V. T., 1081 Poruchikov, I. V., 1043 Posokhina, Z. M., 1038 Postnikov, A. B., 1019 Postnikov, B. L., 1021 Postnikov, I. V., 1121, 1125 Postnikov, Ye. I., 1122 Postnov, 715 Postnov, G. A., 134, 206, 213 Postnov, S. Ya., 247, 253, 285 Postoeva, D. A., 575, 588 Postoyenko, Yu. K., 442 Potapov, A. I., 919 Potekhin, V. G., 584 Pozdynin, V. D., 1050 Pozern, V. I., 300, 541, 837, 855, 866, 874, 990 Pozhidaev, V. D., 481 Prakhina, T. I., 543 Preizendorf, V. A., 408 Preobrazhensky, O. A., 524, 1004 Preobrazhensky, O. L., 463, 708 Pridachin, V. N., 408 Priimak, G. I., 167, 284, 326, 347, 362, 364, 367, 475 Prikhodko, I. M., 403, 406 Prismotrov, A. V., 1019 Prokhorov, V. G., 584, 1026, 1041 Prokhorov, V. Ya., 407 Prokhorov, V. Ye., 182 Prokofyev, G. V., 995, 1002 Prokofyev, I. K., 940 Prokofyev, P. G., 478 Prokofyeva, A. V., 381 Prokofyeva, L. A., 952 Prokofyeva, T. I., 511, 708 Prokosheva, A. A., 1028, 1029 Prokosheva, L. A., 1025, 1027–1031, 1038, 1040, 1041, 1045 Pronina, T. L., 513 Proshin, 908 Proshin, A. F., 900 Proshin, A. P., 899–902, 906, 909, 912, 914, 922, 1029 Proshin, L. N., 989 Proshkin, S. G., 1121

FA2 January 5, 2008

14:19

1238

SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

index

Index

Prostakov, A. L., 1087 Prostakov, L. A., 30 Protopopov, N. N., 844 Protsenyuk, Yu. G., 1135 Prozorova, N. P., 179 Prutkov, Kozma, 393 Prygunov, V. N., 677 Przhegorlinsky, V., 403, 404 Pshenichnov, V. A., 518 Pugachev, S. I., 1076 Pukin, B. V., 677 Pulenets, M. L., 616, 622, 1021, 1027 Pulyaev, A., 407 Puminov, Slava, 559 Punin, A. A., 393 Pur, P. V., 613 Pustovalov, 1022, 1095 Pustovalov, A. I., 47, 603, 1018, 1020, 1024, 1025 Pustovalov, A., 45 Puzanov, S. N., 810, 811 Puzenko, A. A., 129 Puzryov, I. M., 787 Pyanin, G. B., 613 Pyanov, V. M., 534, 1029, 1031 Pyatakov, V. A., 1038 Pylayev, V. V., 1122 Pylev, V. P., 1121 Pylkov, G. V., 285, 1149 Pyshkin, V. A., 1143 Rabinovich, I. S., 1097 Rabinovich, L. L., 522 Racheyev, N. V., 271, 281, 790 Rachiner, L. D., 743 Rachkov, A. K., 531, 869, 874 Rachkova, N. A., 869 Radchenko, L. N., 798 Radeyev, N. M., 543 Radievsky, L. V., 506, 588 Radionov, O. V., 512 Ragozinsky, 656 Rakhin, V. A., 511, 520, 526 Rakhmanina, Zh. A., 543 Rakhmanov, V. N., 407 Rakov, I. S., 434

Rassadin, 248 Rastorgueva, N. S., 588 Rayevsky, M. A., 132, 146, 147, 164, 171, 188, 192 Razumovsky, G. B., 588, 743 Rebrov, S. V., 613 Rechnova, V. I., 935 Redyuk, V. I., 1042 Reginya, V. V., 512 Rekunenko, I. Y., 1067 Remmert, A. A., 21 Repkin, Ye. A., 495, 743 Rerikh, L. N., 640, 641 Reshetnikov, V. N., 495, 500, 562, 563 Rezanov, G. N., 653 Rezepov, N. A., 1057, 1058 Reznichenko, A. I., 1120 Reznikov, A. G., 670 Reznikov, R. v., 1136 Rezvov, S. V., 512 Richardson, M., 38 Rigalin, O. F., 1122 Rimskaya-Korsakova, L. K., 1211 Rimsky-Korsakov, A. V., 182, 308, 320, 331, 341, 347, 352, 715 Rinkis, A. Ya., 866, 940 Rinkis, A., 513 Rivelis, G. A., 370 Robinson, Th. M., 907 Rod, D. S., 1124 Rodionov, 633 Rodionov, A. A., 1090–1092, 1094, 1095 Rodionov, A. V., 1090 Rodionov, S. A., 1123 Rogovtsev, V. M., 522 Rogozhnikov, K. I., 1122–1124 Rokhina, L. I., 995 Rokotov, S. P., 1095, 1135, 1136 Romanenko, E. V., 1194, 1201 Romanenko, N. V., 1031, 1134 Romanov, V. N., 373, 376, 377, 381, 383, 385, 390, 396, 848, 850, 864, 1075 Romanov, V. Yu., 798 Romanova, Ye. P., 1025, 1026

FA2 January 5, 2008

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SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

index

Index Rosezberg, L. D., 1046 Roshal, M. I., 616, 640, 655, 673 Rosin, I. B., 50 Rostovtsev, D. M., 1127 Rotin, V. V., 1133, 1134, 1136, 1138, 1140 Rozenberg, A. D., 162 Rozenberg, L. D., 55, 71, 72, 304, 305, 310, 321, 326, 352, 361, 1160, 1162, 1163 Rozenberg, V. Kh., 936 Rozenblit, I. Ya., 616 Rozhin, F. V., 189, 1103 Rozhinova, T. D., 389, 391 Rozhkov, Yu. S., 444, 449 Rozhkova, V. A., 575, 577, 583 Rozhnovsky, S. V., 286 Rrzhevkin, S. N., 56 Rubanov, I. L., 940, 1122 Rubinshtein, M. A., 810 Rudchenko, I. K., 1202 Rudenko, O. V., 887, 888, 892, 894, 905, 1107 Rudinsky, A. V., 542, 555, 849 Rudnev, S. F., 811 Rudnitsky, A. G., 182 Rukavishnikov, Ye. G., 286 Rukosuyev, N. A., 513 Rumyantsev, B. L., 517 Rumyantsev, B. P., 579, 934, 937 Rumyantsev, O. V., 511 Rumyantseva, O. D., 149 Rusakov, M. M., 408 Rusakov, N. I., 55 Rusakov, S. A., 527 Rusakov, Yu. V., 1060 Rusanov, N. I., 59 Rusanov, P. S., 576 Ruskevich, V. G., 162 Russin, Yu. S., 635 Russov, P. S., 290, 616 Rutenko, A. N., 172, 193 Rutkovsky, B. A., 586 Ruvinsky, M. I., 810 Ruzavina, N. B., 408 Ryabinin, G. A., 1162

1239

Ryabinin, V. M., 811 Ryabtsev, Yu. Ya., 1123 Ryazanov, M. I., 151 Rybachek, M. S., 891 Rybak, S. A., 142, 169, 170, 178, 845, 917 Rybakov, A. M., 613 Rychagov, M. N., 149 Rykov, S. A., 1123 Rytov, S. M., 88, 137, 141, 145, 151, 152, 190, 192 Rytov, S. N., 143 Rytov, Yu. S., 575 Ryzhei, Yu. Ye., 926 Ryzhikov, A. V., 300, 301, 542, 701, 1080 Ryzhkov, N. A., 844 Ryzhkov, O. A., 531, 1059, 1061 Ryzhov, A. K., 1001 Ryzhov, Yu. A., 167 Ryzhova, T. N., 947 Rzhevkin, S. N., 48, 1096–1106, 1108, 1110, 1114 Sabayev, S. N., 519 Sabinin, K. D., 109, 110, 170, 179, 326 Sadovnichy, I. N., 1059, 1060 Saichev, A. I., 172 Saikin, V. L., 407 Sakharov, A. N., 1135 Sakharov, L. V., 532, 556 Sakharov, M. V., 1019 Sakovsky, B. A., 579, 583, 586, 588, 677 Saleyev, V. A., 407 Salin, B. M., 435, 437, 438 Salina, T. M., 476 Salmanin, M. K., 1019 Salnikov, Yu. V., 505 Salomatin, G. A., 397, 398 Saltykov, S. Yu., 407 Samovolkin, V. G., 179 Sandler, B. M., 177, 178, 180 Sapega, A. V., 1031 Sapozhkov, M. A., 1074, 1075 Saprykin, V. A., 1135, 1136

FA2 January 5, 2008

14:19

1240

SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

index

Index

Sapunov, A. I., 943 Sarafanov, V. M., 1019 Sarkisyan, A. S., 417 Sarvilin, N. T., 807 Saskovets, A. V., 149 Savateyeva, Ye. A., 795, 797 Savelyev, A. V., 476 Savelyev, B. V., 158 Savinykh, V. N., 1019 Savinykh, V. P., 671, 1038–1040, 1045, 1091 Sazonenko, A. V., 736 Sazonov, A. A., 678, 1067 Sazonov, I. A., 173 Sazontov, A. G., 145, 146, 148, 170, 171, 192 Schneider, E., 23 Sechkin, V. A., 184, 185 Sedov, A. A., 1036 Sedov, L. V., 154, 906, 912 Seledzhi, G. Ts., 543, 556 Seledzhy, G. Ts., 300 Seleznev, A. V., 408 Seleznev, I. A., 1019 Seleznev, I. N., 919 Seleznev, N. I., 848 Selivanov, B. A., 531 Selivanov, V. G., 107, 419 Selivanovsky, D. A., 172, 177, 178, 180, 181 Semendyaev, V. A., 19 Semenov, M. Yu., 397 Semenov, V. V., 299, 643, 647, 652, 655, 660, 666, 677 Semenyaka, P. L., 449 Semin, V. D., 935 Semyonov, A. G., 172, 182 Semyonov, N. Ya., 478 Semyonov, V. P., 512 Semyonov, V. V., 834 Sendek, Yu. Yu., 618 Senin, G. A., 575, 577, 583, 659 Senin, V. P., 1095 Seravin, G. N., 791, 793, 798, 799, 1021, 1041, 1043 Serbin, V. M., 214

Serdobolskaya, O. Yu., 1107 Serdyuk, P. I., 1191 Serebryakov, I. M., 299 Serebryaniy, A. N., 172 Sergeyev, F. V., 253 Sergeyev, G. A., 1132–1134 Sergeyev, V. A., 1089, 1090, 1092, 1094 Sergeyeva, M. V., 951 Sergeyeva, N. P., 299 Sergienko, Yu. P., 808 Serov, S. P., 286 Serova, I. A., 300, 941, 948–950, 952, 958 Setin, A. I., 1123 Sevbo, V. Yu., 1044 Sevrugova, N. V., 586, 589 Shabanov, S. V., 408 Shabrov, A. A., 299, 300, 698, 704, 706, 855, 860, 881, 884, 990 Shadzhus, K., 808 Shakhanov, A. A., 1019 Shakhmatov, V. D., 407, 408, 616, 622–624 Shakhnovich, V. M., 1119, 1120 Shakhov, N. V., 1121 Shalayeva, G. V., 512 Shalayeva, Z. P., 513, 866 Shamayev, M. I., 154 Shamparov, A. I., 723 Shamrei, V. I., 477, 810, 811 Shangin, V. A., 542 Shaposhnikov, A., 42 Shaposhnikov, N. N., 1123, 1125, 1128 Shaposhnikov, N. V., 1120 Sharanin, A. I., 628, 668 Sharapova, N. G., 943 Sharonov, G. A., 106, 434, 848, 850 Sharov, Ya. F., 1123, 1126 Sharov, Yu. I., 1121 Shashurin, V. P., 284 Shass, V. L., 811 Shatalov, A. A., 842 Shatinin, I. A., 1036 Shatova, L. I., 162 Shatrov, B. N., 1022

FA2 January 5, 2008

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SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

index

Index Shavelsky, Yu. I., 556 Shchedrinsky, L. S., 498 Shchedrolosev, V. V., 61 Shcheglov, G. A., 1087, 1089, 1092, 1094, 1136 Shchegolev, V. V., 513 Shchemelev, B. G., 172 Shcherbakov, A. I., 572, 701 Shcherbakova, F. I., 926 Shchukin, A. Ye., 1123 Shchukin, B. S., 1029 Shchuko, Ye. A., 519, 521 Shchurov, V. A., 1110 Shebshaevich, 261 Sheinfeld, I. V., 186 Sheinman, A. Ye., 1075 Sheinman, L. Ye., 300, 697, 706, 860, 865, 924, 926, 932, 934, 940, 953, 988, 989, 993, 995, 1001 Sheinman, M. L., 835 Sheinman, Ye. L., 555 Shekhter, E. M., 850 Shelekhov, S. M., 259, 289, 290, 298, 465, 484, 487, 488, 490–492, 502, 557, 559, 572, 864, 1026, 1028, 1069, 1162 Sheludkov, A. N., 1019 Shenderov, Ye. L., 299, 300, 513, 541, 706, 848, 855, 859, 860, 864, 924, 926, 929, 940, 993, 1075, 1123 Shengelia, M. V., 556, 849 Shensnovich, A. A., 25, 27 Sherbakov, A. I., 588 Sherenov, Ye. I., 793, 797, 798 Sherenov, Ye. N., 986 Shereshevsky, V. A., 801 Sheritov, A. P., 41 Sherman, C., 199 Sherman, I. L., 1121 Shestakov, Ye. A., 1121 Shevchenko, B. A., 1019 Shevchenko, G. V., 1027, 1042 Shevchenko, I. T., 1019 Shevchenko, P. A., 1039, 1040 Shevchenko, P. V., 1041 Shevel, M. Ya., 1047

1241

Shevello, Ya. A., 1004 Shevelo, A. I., 1119 Shevelo, Ya. A., 463 Shevtsov, V. F., 407, 837 Shienman, L. E., 579 Shifman, F. N., 299, 542, 801, 802, 876 Shikalov, A. A., 407, 408 Shilkov, M. A., 925 Shilovich, I. I., 1061 Shilovsky, K. V., 3, 37, 38 Shilyaev, Yu. A., 1057, 1059 Shimansky, Yu. A., 41 Shimberev, B. V., 1087, 1088 Shipin, S. K., 299, 803 Shirman, Ya. D., 835 Shirshov, 418 Shirshov, P. P., 90, 95, 190, 191, 411, 412, 799, 800 Shishkin, B. A., 1027 Shishkin, B. M., 1028, 1053 Shishov, V. I., 140 Shitov, G. M., 995 Shklovskaya, D. Ye., 736 Shkolnikov, A. L., 1121 Shkolnikov, I. S., 299, 576, 580, 581, 583, 673, 677 Shkurin, G. V., 1057, 1059, 1061 Shkurin, N. M., 1140 Shkutnik, S. V., 1019 Shkutnik, V. A., 606, 618 Shlyafer, B. E., 1039 Shmelev, A. B., 126, 156 Shmelev, A. Yu., 106, 172 Shmelev, V. Yu., 408 Shmevev, A. Y., 89 Shmidt, E. G., 300, 884 Shneider, Yu. I., 1099 Shner, I. I., 1040 Shnitov, S. V., 519 Shokalsky, Yu. M., 736 Sholin, D. V., 171 Sholtmir, G. S., 1056, 1058 Shoshkov, Ye. N., 1019, 1039, 1040 Shotsky, B. I., 176 Shpilevoi, G. V., 1133, 1134

FA2 January 5, 2008

14:19

1242

SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

index

Index

Shrainer, V. P., 522 Shtafinsky, B. I., 1119 Shtalberg, I. V., 513, 861 Shteinman, L. F., 580, 583, 736 Shtokman, V. B., 413 Shtremt, M. A., 857 Shtremt, V. M., 512 Shtremt, M. Sh., 262, 267, 289, 290, 292, 456–460, 464, 466, 611, 700, 702, 843, 1025 Shturmis, V. A., 513, 861, 866 Shugayeva, S. G., 532, 556 Shugol, I. S., 978 Shulepov, V. A., 179 Shults, V. V., 805 Shumeiko, V. A., 795–797 Shumikhin, A. V., 1190, 1192 Shumilov, Yu. S., 444, 445, 448–450, 641, 643, 1039 Shumkin, V. I., 1192 Shur, Ya. S., 473, 862 Shustikov, A. G., 169 Shut, N. N., 300, 477, 577, 677 Shvachko, L. V., 103, 174 Shvachko, R. F., 87, 103, 168, 172–174, 191, 326, 352 Shvartsman, M. B., 1121 Shvede, E. E., 25, 26 Shvedova, K. A., 924, 926 Shvets, M. I., 583 Shvetsky, B. I., 992 Sidorov, B. A., 519, 580, 583 Sidorov, V. V., 666, 908 Sidorova (Strelkova), E. A., 468 Siforov, V. I., 1148 Sigachev, N. I., 38, 48, 50, 53, 736, 1046, 1047, 1143 Sigov, P. A., 534, 556, 1027, 1031 Silayev, A. D., 1039–1042, 1045 Silayev, A. P., 1032 Silayev, A., 534 Silvestrov, Yu. A., 1163 Simagin, S. A., 812 Simakina, Ye. V., 189 Simkhovich, A. Ya., 655 Simonov, A. I., 284

Simonov, V. N., 614, 807 Sinitsyn, E. N., 932 Sinitsyn, P. A., 1142 Sinitsyn, V. L., 775 Sirotin, V. N., 1019 Siryk, N., 808 Sitsky, O., 701 Sivakov, V. A., 532, 551, 554, 556 Sivashinsky, I. M., 575, 577, 583 Sivashinskym, I. M., 580 Sivatskaya, O. F., 924 Sivatsky, S. F., 588 Sivoshinsky, I. K., 613 Sivoshinsky, I. M., 574 Sivoyedov, V. M., 1066 Sizov, I. I., 183, 364, 365, 368, 370 Sizov, N. I., 1061 Sizov, V. N., 1066 Sizova, N. I., 947 Skachkov, Yu. P., 613, 629, 649, 1038 Skakun, D. F., 1142 Skalskaya, K. A., 589 Skleimov, S. P., 1042 Skorobogatov, A. T., 1121 Skorofagov, E. E., 667 Skosyrev, N. V., 1053 Skovoroda, S. P., 1121 Skrebnev, G. K., 300, 463, 855, 860, 1080 Skvortsov, A. I., 654 Skvortsov, A. T., 182 Skvortsova, Z. S., 511 Slavin, M. D., 791, 793, 798 Slavinskiy, M. M., 109, 161, 172, 188, 442 Sliva, V., 587 Slobodsky, D. M., 472 Sluchevsky, V. S., 948 Slutsky, Ya. S., 990 Smaryshev, M. D., 299, 300, 469, 495, 510, 513, 524, 526, 541, 837, 845, 855, 940, 1075, 1080, 1123 Smetanin, A. A., 1190 Smetanin, I. I., 485, 989, 990 Smetanina, Ye. G., 1149 Smetanina, Ye. K., 1152

FA2 January 5, 2008

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SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

index

Index Smirnov, 881 Smirnov, A. I., 708, 710 Smirnov, A. V., 1135 Smirnov, B. M., 685 Smirnov, B. S., 677 Smirnov, D. M., 309 Smirnov, G. E., 677 Smirnov, G. N., 267, 276, 472 Smirnov, G. Ye., 154, 292, 299, 301, 448, 449, 451, 543, 674, 722, 723, 811, 905 Smirnov, N. I., 66, 1110 Smirnov, P., 45 Smirnov, S. A., 292, 299, 774, 780, 880, 886, 1074 Smirnov, S. D., 640, 669, 736 Smirnov, S. P., 403, 408 Smirnov, V. I., 616 Smirnov, V. M., 812 Smirnov, V. V., 1093 Smirnov, Ye. A., 523, 1059, 1060 Smirnov, Yu. N., 511, 519 Smirnova, V. N., 532 Smirnova, Yu. N., 1150 Smola, A. G., 521 Smolensky, G. A., 943 Smolin, T. G., 250, 715, 717, 719 Smolyakov, A. V., 373, 376, 393, 845, 847, 850 Smolyanyuk, S. I., 890 Smolyanyuk, Yu. K., 517 Sobin, N. V., 1090, 1094 Sobisevich, L. Ye., 1123 Sobolev, A. N., 525 Sobolev, Yu. R., 521 Sokolov, A. A., 1039–1041 Sokolov, A. V., 805 Sokolov, A. Yu., 172, 177, 178 Sokolov, B. M., 842 Sokolov, I. I., 685 Sokolov, L. N., 579, 580 Sokolov, M. P., 655 Sokolov, O. L., 588 Sokolov, S. Ya., 42–44, 49, 291, 461, 602, 785, 786, 1073–1075, 1147–1149, 1152, 1153, 1155–1158

1243

Sokolov, S. Yu., 46 Sokolov, V. E., 1201 Sokolova, P. A., 387 Sokolova, R. A., 849, 860 Sokolovs, S., 407 Soldatov, O. V., 463, 579, 589 Solntsev, Yu. B., 1038, 1039 Solodov, I. Yu., 1107 Solomatin, A. V., 934 solomyak, M. L., 1122 Solovyev, A. A., 583, 743 Solovyev, V. G., 569, 584, 585, 587, 589, 700, 702, 709 Solovyeva, A. I., 614 Solovyov, A. A., 543 Solovyov, D. K., 466, 561, 843 Solovyov, V. G., 808, 985 Solovyov, V. S., 1132 Solovyov, V. V., 1143 Soluyan, S. I., 178, 887, 888 Soroka, G. M., 1122 Soroka, L. A., 1194 Sorokin, A. I., 482 Sorokin, I. E., 666 Sorokin, M. A., 1036 Sorokin, V. D., 1060 Sorokin, Yu. A., 284, 474, 1026–1028 Sosedko, Ye. V., 178 Sosedova, A. L., 310, 326, 361, 362, 364, 365 Soshenko, P. D., 1140 Sosnin, Yu. I., 706 Sotnikov, V., 407 Soustova, I. A., 178, 888 Sovetov, S. A., 25, 27 Spassky, I. D., 943 Spiridonov, I. K., 434 Spitsyna, E. P., 947 Stadnik, A. M., 148 Stalin, 237, 288, 456, 484, 511, 557, 696, 714, 719, 1024, 1118, 1152, 1153 Starobina, 261 Starobinets, I. M., 188 Starovoitov, A. I., 866, 940 Starovoitov, B. N., 1124

FA2 January 5, 2008

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1244

SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

index

Index

Starovoitova, N. S., 866 Startsev, G. V., 33 Starzhik, V. P., 449 Stashkevich, A. P., 57, 1025, 1047, 1085–1087, 1091, 1092 Stepanov, 985 Stepanov, B. I., 474 Stepanov, B. M., 871, 985 Stepanov, B., 270 Stepanov, G. N., 616, 622 Stepanov, L. D., 474, 511, 519, 708, 810, 811, 862, 936, 983, 985 Stepanov, M. I., 1140 Stepanov, M. N., 1029, 1030 Stepanov, V. N., 417 Stepanov, Ye. A., 495, 912 Stepanov, Yu. S., 913, 918 Stepenov, D. V., 364 Stepenov, G. V., 1019 Strasberg, M., 199 Strelets, P. I., 300 Strelets, P. L., 943, 944, 948, 950 Strelkov, I. M., 292, 299, 484, 491, 500, 524, 580, 588, 677, 1075, 1080 Strelkova, E. A., 389, 495, 498, 562 Strelkova, V. M., 388 Strizhkov, G. M., 606 Studenichnik, N. V., 165, 174, 364, 540 Stunzhas, P. A., 180 Stupak, O. B., 589 Stupichenko, N. N., 284, 807, 1038 Suderevsky, I. I., 1121 Sufrin, 1131 Sugrobov, V. G., 1019 Sukharev, G. B., 381 Sukharev, V. M., 1001 Sukharevskiy, Yu. M., 848, 862, 983, 1108 Sukharevsky, Yu. M., 48, 53, 57–59, 150, 175, 182, 190, 193, 271, 277, 284, 306–310, 319, 320, 326, 331, 333, 338, 341, 347, 349, 352, 354, 355, 357, 359, 365, 471, 472, 481, 483, 510, 540 Sukhin, B. P., 1121

Sukhomyasov, D. R., 1162 Sukhoparov, P. A., 1122 Sukhoruchenko, M. N., 1210, 1211 Sukhotin, V. S., 476 Sukhotsky, V., 740 Sultanov, R. D., 780 Sumbatov, A. A., 1050 Supin, A. Ya., 1210 Suponin, K. I., 991, 995 Susarin, A. N., 522 Sutin, A. M., 178, 887, 892, 894, 897, 904, 912, 916, 917 Suvorov, N. P., 41 Svecharnik, A. B., 270 Svechnikov, A. I., 921 Sverdlin, G. M., 1120 Sverdlov, V. S., 989 Svet, V. D., 656, 677, 837 Svetlov, A. G., 1053 Svetlov, A. S., 1061 Svetoslavsky, A. Ye., 991, 1005 Svetoslavsky, Ye. A., 613, 880 Svinyin, N., 1192 Sviridov, N. N., 294, 298, 301, 464, 467, 468, 484, 487, 492, 559, 564, 609, 614, 634, 651, 834, 848, 1028, 1066, 1069, 1166 Svirsky, V. L., 613 Sychev, L. F., 50, 253, 258, 288–290 Sychov, L. F., 696, 1162 Syrkin, L. N., 299, 859 Syrkov, V. A., 1123 Talanov, L. P., 271, 787–789 Talanov, V. I., 436, 440, 441 Talham, R., 213 Talvik, M. Ye., 1060, 1061 Tamm, R. A., 988, 989, 994, 1002, 1005 Tamoikin, V. V., 126, 156 Tan Khai-chang, 1172 Tankov, G. A., 456, 457, 1152 Tankov, G. N., 1149 Tappert, F. D., 86, 220 Tarabrin, V. I., 808, 809 Tarakanov, B. P., 168

FA2 January 5, 2008

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SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

index

Index Taranov, E. S., 284, 1086, 1087, 1093 Taranov, V. E., 275 Tarapatin, A. I., 1025 Tarasevich, V. G., 616, 622 Tarasov, L. L., 179–181 Tarasov, N. V., 267 Tarasov, P. M., 556, 1031, 1034, 1036 Tarasov, S. P., 891 Tarasyuk, Yu. F., 19, 66, 793, 799, 800, 1021, 1041–1043, 1045, 1095, 1149 Tartakovsky, B. D., 55, 56, 59, 74, 304, 305, 320, 331 Tarzalainen, A. M., 704 Tatarkin, S. A., 1036 Tatarsky, V. I., 137–139, 141, 143, 144, 146, 151, 152, 166, 167, 190, 192 Taubin, A. G., 397, 398 Tauroginsky, B. I., 842 Tazhitdinov, O. K., 1122 Tebyakin, V. P., 318 Telyatnikov, V. I., 511, 897 Terentyev, A. A., 1167 Tertienko, A. A., 588 Teslyarov, B. V., 511, 520, 906 Teslyarov, V. B., 521, 522 Tets, S. S., 286 Tikhanin, A. V., 408 Tikhomirov, E. V., 736 Tikhomirov, P. F., 1152, 1157 Tikhonov, V. V., 408 Tikhonravov, B. N., 290, 292, 299, 456, 468, 495, 730, 732, 736, 801, 805, 833, 835, 843, 846, 848, 858, 931 Timir-Galiyev, R. A., 1121 Timofeyev, N. I., 553, 556, 849, 1034–1036 Timofeyev, V. P., 543 Timofeyev, Ye. P., 1044 Timofeyeva, V. D., 1079 Timonin, O. P., 589 Timoshenko, V. I., 888, 890–892, 896, 913, 914 Timoshenkov, V. G., 547, 555, 677, 849, 1035 Tishkevich, A. F., 579

1245

Titov, A. A., 1193, 1195–1197, 1199, 1200, 1204, 1209 Titov, V. E., 588 Titov, Yu. V., 589 Titova, L. V., 565 Tkachenko, M. G., 947, 949 Tkachenko, V. M., 395 Tkalich, V. V., 300 Tkalina, V. V., 477 Tochyony, I. I., 642, 644, 655 Todorov, S. F., 1019 Tolkachev, V. Ya., 180 Tolmacheva, D. Ya., 806 Tolmacheva, T. P., 579, 583 Tolstobrov, G. I., 362, 366 Tolstyakova, N. A., 299, 468, 495 Tomashevich, F. F., 286 Tonakanov, O. S., 154, 189, 1103, 1114, 1116 Toporovsky, F. A., 1103 Toropatin, A. V., 848 Toropov, O. V., 899 Toropygin, A. V., 724 Toulis, W. J., 931, 935 Tovstykh, Ye. V., 1119 Travkin, V. A., 1039 Travkin, V. P., 1041 Trefilov, G. N., 584 Tregubova, L. V., 169 Trepelkova, L. I., 934 Tretyakov, O. A., 133 Tretyakov, S. A., 129 Tretyakov, V. A., 133 Tribis, Yu. A., 502, 780, 797 Trofimov, I. V., 50, 253, 277, 288, 290, 456, 472, 477, 483, 573, 575, 577, 613 Trophimov, I. V., 573 Troshenkova, R. P., 1211 Trotsevich, F. N., 1149, 1152 Trukhin, A. N., 812 Trukhin, V. S., 292, 722, 725 Trushchelev, B. I., 299, 652, 678, 801, 802, 1066 Tsar Peter, I., 1150 Tsareva, T. I., 688

FA2 January 5, 2008

14:19

1246

SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

index

Index

Tsikanovsky, L. A., 285 Tsipman, V. D., 978 Tsirkina, S. F., 575 Tsoi-ming, U., 1172 Tsukkerman, A. M., 724 Tsvetkov, A. L., 834, 835 Tsvetkov, E. I., 284, 1074 Tsvetkov, V. A., 797 Tsvetkov, Ye. I., 848 Tsvetov, G. A., 579, 583 Tsvetov, V. G., 44 Tsveyman, G. A., 575 Tsybin, N. E., 688 Tsygankov, A. A., 521 Tsyganov, N. A., 300, 613, 993 Tsypkin, K. I., 943 Tufyaev, V. N., 616 Tukhachevsky, M. M., 1157 Tumakov, A. I., 685 Tumanov, A. V., 284, 1055 Turchin, V. I., 437, 438 Turlapov, Ye. F., 1122 Turner, W. R., 907 Turubarov, V. I., 403, 408, 1074 Tuzhilkin, Yu. I., 270, 284, 347, 448 Tuzov, A. I., 1142, 1143 Tuzov, L. V., 1128 Tynyankin, A. A., 1091 Tynyankin, I. I., 66, 277, 284, 411, 481, 483, 534, 848, 1014, 1018, 1019, 1021, 1044, 1095, 1208 Tyufyaev, V. N., 614, 623 Tyulin, B. N., 574 Tyulin, V. N., 38, 45–48, 51, 239, 284, 455, 456, 612, 729, 731, 736–740, 1025, 1074, 1083–1086, 1088, 1091–1093, 1095, 1129, 1148, 1149, 1168, 1191 Tyupin, V. I., 835 Tyurin, A. M., 284, 1025, 1085, 1086, 1088, 1091, 1092, 1094, 1095 Tyutekin, V. V., 284, 319, 331, 333, 341, 362, 365, 367, 372, 933 Udovichenko, Yu. N., 652 Ukhalov, A. V., 1036

Ukhov, K., 44 Ulyanov, N. P., 461 Ulyanov, V. I., 785 Umikov, Z. N., 50, 54, 238, 239, 250, 253, 262, 288, 289, 569, 575, 611, 670, 673, 674, 719, 736, 1118, 1149, 1155, 1157 Umnikov, Z. N., 572 Umov, N. A., 1100 Upadyshev, Yu. B., 309, 333, 362, 364, 367 Urick, R. J., 199 Urusovsky, I. A., 124, 128, 158, 191, 319 Urvanov, V. P., 796 UShakov, A. P., 1126, 1128 Usoskin, G. I., 387, 511, 849, 995 Usov, M. M., 553 Usov, V. D., 689 Uspensky, A. A., 684, 685, 688 Uspensky, O. G., 403, 408 Ustinov, D. F., 488 Usvyatsov, M. S., 277, 284, 472, 481, 483, 793, 795, 848, 1021, 1025, 1026, 1028, 1030 Utkin, G. N., 1121 Vadov, R. A., 103, 189, 326 Vagin, A. V., 82–84, 88, 318 Vaichatis, I., 808 Vaindruk, E. S., 177 Vainer, S. P., 250, 715, 719 Vaintsveig, T. S., 575, 577, 583, 589, 659 Vaisman, L. S., 1047 Vakar, K. B., 284, 670 Vakhitova, L. A., 464, 511, 708 Vakhter, A. L., 271, 788, 790 Vakin, G. N., 1039 Valento, V. S., 1039 Valfish, Ye. Ye., 299, 400, 612, 632, 671, 989 Valitsky, M. I., 1139 Vanin, V. I., 798, 1042 Varaksin, 251 Varaksin, Ya. G., 57

FA2 January 5, 2008

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SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

index

Index Varlamov, V., 407 Varnazov, K. A., 512, 583, 588 Varosyan, B. A., 366 Vasilenko, A. F., 842 Vasilevsky, A. S., 50, 253, 259, 288, 289, 511, 696 Vasiltsov, Ye. A., 1076 Vasilyev, A. G., 810, 811 Vasilyev, A. S., 381–383 Vasilyev, A. V., 390 Vasilyev, E. V., 623 Vasilyev, G. A., 475 Vasilyev, I. Ye., 736 Vasilyev, V. I., 282, 472, 787 Vasilyev, V. S., 616 Vasilyev, Ye. M., 629, 635 Vasilyev, Yu. F., 791, 1038, 1040 Vasilyeva, B. I., 361 Vasilyeva, G. A., 835 Vasilyeva, I. N., 512 Vasilyeva, N. E., 614 Vavilov, S. I., 58, 73, 355, 358 Vdovicheva, N. K., 148, 171 Vedenev, A. I., 186 Veiko, M. B., 532, 551, 556 Veksler, V. I., 53, 59, 342 Velichkin, S. M., 299, 877 Velichko, G. A., 1135 Velizhanina, K. A., 1099 Velmin, 1203 Velmin, V. A., 1202–1206 Velukhanov, V. N., 575, 577 Velukhanova, G. A., 588 Velukhanova, G., 586 Vemshanov, V. V., 511 Venkstern, A. S., 300, 542 Vershinin, A. A., 1019 Vertman, O. I., 524, 1002, 1003 Veselkov, A., 521 Veselkov, Yu. A., 513 Veselov, A. A., 1192 Veselovskaya, N. S., 614 Veshchukov, L. V., 1122 Veshnyakov, N. I., 1047 Vetokhina, T. I., 579 Vikharev, Yu. A., 271, 791

1247

Viktorov, I. A., 352 Vildyaikin, G. F., 904 Vinogor, A. V., 512, 543, 580, 586 Vinogradov, A. M., 811 Vinogradov, K. A., 1143 Vinogradov, M. Ye., 417 Vinogradov, N. S., 189 Vinogradov, V. N., 66 Vinogradov, V. V., 580, 586, 588, 855, 943 Vinogradova, A. A., 95, 511, 565 Vinogradova, L. A., 869 Virovlyanskiy, A. L., 89, 96, 100, 111, 147, 170, 172, 192 Vishnevetsky, S. L., 468, 469, 495, 531 Vishnevetsky, S., 510 Vital, K. A., 1099 Vitvinsky, N. V., 868 Vityugov, G. V., 629, 649, 675, 684–686 Vladimirov, I. V., 1025 Vlaskin, O. Ya., 1019 Vlasov, A. I., 288, 290, 292, 408, 569, 573, 574, 576, 715, 719, 809 Vlasov, A. N., 299 Vlasov, S. I., 1081 Vlasov, V. I., 250 Vodopyanov, M. E., 469, 513, 993 Vodyanov, V. I., 521 Volchkov, Yu. I., 388, 1042 Volf, Ye. A., 655 Volgin, Yu. G., 1019 Volkov, G. I., 565 Volkov, I. I., 417 Volkov, I. V., 588 Volkov, R. L., 1074 Volkov, R. P., 803, 804 Volkov, V. Ya., 533 Volkova, A. V., 163, 164 Volkova, G. I., 511 Vollerner, N. F., 604 Volodin, O. I., 1029 Volodin, Ye. N., 532, 556 Volodina, V. I., 1043, 1044 Vologdin, V. P., 1148 Volokitin, A. V., 990

FA2 January 5, 2008

14:19

1248

SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

index

Index

Voloshchenko, V. Yu., 891 Voloshin, A. K., 1134, 1135 Voloshin, G. Ya., 370 Volosov, P. S., 1048 Volovich, Z. S., 300, 542, 556, 616 Volovov, V. I., 87, 184, 185, 188, 191, 326 Volovova, L. A., 183 Vornachyov, O. M., 512 Vorobyev, V. P., 685, 688 Vorobyov, A. I., 812 Vorobyov, A. N., 1042 Vorobyov, V. A., 407 Vorobyov, V. I., 1122 Vorobyov, Yu. M., 1121 Voronichev, L. I., 277, 286, 483 Voronin, M. N., 1019 Voronin, R. S., 444 Voronin, S. A., 1019 Voronin, V. I., 1134, 1135 Voronin, V. M., 1018, 1019 Voronin, Ye. A., 891 Voronina, N. M., 178 Voronina, S. I., 444 Voronov, A. N., 1050 Voronov, M. Yu., 798 Voronovich, A. G., 78, 88, 89, 91, 93, 99, 128, 129, 134, 191, 418 Vorontsov, N. V., 579 Voroshilov, K. Ye., 1129, 1130 Vovchenko, V. K., 641, 643 Vovk, A. Ye., 352, 534 Vovnoboy, B. N., 262, 569, 571, 572, 611 Vovnoboyl, B. N., 289 Voyeikova, M. V., 644 Voynarovsky, P. I., 617 Voznesensky, A. I., 374, 375 Vrangel, F. P., 736 vrazheskaya, 1150 Vul, B. M., 60 Vyshkind, L. L., 290, 292, 299, 569, 570, 573, 574, 578, 579, 1162 Wenz, G., 199, 200 Westervelt, P. J., 889, 890, 903

Wrangel, F., 23 Wunsch, C., 99 Yagotinets, V. P., 1029, 1042, 1045 Yakovlev, A. D., 570, 585, 587 Yakovlev, A. N., 904, 1135 Yakovlev, E. V., 613 Yakovlev, G. V., 287, 299, 802, 804, 886, 893, 894 Yakovlev, I. A., 284, 543, 708, 1019, 1055, 1056, 1058, 1060, 1061 Yakovlev, S. Ya., 603 Yakovlev, V. N., 616 Yakovlev, V. V., 300, 387, 844, 848–850, 906, 909–911 Yakovlev, V. Ye., 373, 387, 389, 391 Yakovlev, Ye. V., 524, 1004 Yakovleva, I. A., 1028–1031 Yakubenko, L. I., 1121 Yakubov, A. I., 532 Yakubovsky, A. M., 300, 835, 848 Yakunin, K. V., 1136 Yakushkin, I. G., 144 Yampolsky, A. A., 300 Yankevich, V. S., 542 Yanover, B. I., 300, 542 Yanovsky, G. A., 978 Yanpolskaya, A. A., 555, 849 Yanpolsky, A. A., 855, 991, 992, 1002, 1005, 1119 Yapontsev, 990 Yaremchuk, V. V., 1042 Yarovoi, A. G., 129, 133 Yarygin, O. V., 389, 391 Yaskevich, O., 808 Yastrebov, 1131 Yatsenko, N. D., 947, 949, 952 Yavor, M. I., 92 Yefimov, A. V., 186, 187 Yefimov, B. M., 300 Yefimov, N. A., 286 Yefimov, V. M., 855 Yefremenko, V. T., 811 Yefremov, I. S., 743 Yegorov, A. V., 1122 Yegorov, G. M., 701

FA2 January 5, 2008

14:19

SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

index

Index Yegorov, N. E., 1188 Yegorov, N. F., 1127 Yegorov, S. B., 1120, 1123, 1125 Yegorov, V. I., 711, 1119, 1126 Yegorov, V. V., 1059 Yegorova, N. A., 1122 Yekimov, B. I., 275 Yekimov, Z. A., 925 Yelfimov, B. M., 805, 858, 881, 883, 884, 935, 990 Yeliseyevnin, V. A., 168 Yelizarov, V. I., 442 Yemelyanenko, I. V., 511, 542, 896 Yemelyanenko, V. Ye., 1044 Yemelyanov, B. Yu., 1036 Yemelyanov, V. I., 1043 Yemelyanov, V. Ye., 403 Yemelyanov, V. Yu., 1042 Yemelyanov, Ye. N., 408 Yemshanov, V. V., 521 Yepishin, N. N., 797, 798 Yeremenko, V. L., 812 Yeremeyev, 261 Yeremeyev, V. P., 1122 Yeremeyev, Yu. A., 798 Yeremina, Z. A., 569, 573, 575, 579, 581, 583, 584, 589 Yermakov, I. M., 217 Yermakov, I. N., 220 Yermolayev, S. A., 1019 Yermolenko, A. S., 299, 554, 555, 849, 995, 1034, 1035 Yermolinsky, L. Yu., 1032, 1040, 1042–1045 Yerokhin, O. I., 512 Yershov, I. A., 677, 1004 Yershov, V. A., 777 Yeryshev, A. V., 1043 Yesipov, I. B., 887, 906, 920 Yesipova, T. S., 947 Yevdokimov, A. M., 531 Yevdonin, G. A., 1122 Yevlanov, M. A., 1026 Yevmenenko, V. I., 1041 Yevmenenko, V. N., 1026, 1027 Yevmenenko, V., 534

1249

Yevseyev, G. T., 736 Yevseyev, V. I., 376 Yevstigneyeva, L. Ye., 1030, 1031 Yevtushenko, N. F., 812 Yevtushenko, N. Ye., 1121 Yevtyukhov, A. G., 269, 271, 281, 786–788, 790, 791, 795, 796 Yevtyutov, A. P., 1087–1090, 1092, 1094 Yezerskiy, A. B., 177, 181 Yorsh, 264, 268 Yudicheva, A. S., 950 Yudin, M. D., 787, 1039 Yudina, V. P., 835 Yugatkin, Yu. V., 1048 Yugina, E. G., 542 Yukhimuk, L. Ya., 398 Yuriev, V. Ye., 1039 Yurkevich, L. I., 1196 Yurkin, I. V., 364 Yuyun, S. V., 178 Zabodalov, A. B., 724 Zaboev, M. N., 299, 464, 465 Zabolotskaya, E. A., 913 Zabolotskaya, Ye. A., 178, 887, 888, 896, 897 Zabotin, V. A., 621 Zagayetskaya, Ye. A., 188 Zagryazhsky, V. L., 1081 Zaichenko, K. V., 556, 1035, 1036 Zaidelson, A. M., 290 Zaitsev, B. D., 807 Zaitsev, K. N., 871 Zaitsev, K. V., 300 Zaitsev, V. Yu., 132, 192, 888, 904 Zaitseva, V. D., 934 Zaitseva, V. I., 943 Zakasovsky, V. A., 736 Zakharenko, A. V., 924 Zakharov, I. S., 1136 Zakharov, L. N., 154, 224, 1099, 1103, 1105, 1106, 1108, 1110, 1111, 1113, 1114, 1116 Zakharov, O. G., 924, 926

FA2 January 5, 2008

14:19

1250

SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

index

Index

Zakharov, V. A., 193, 329, 368, 370 Zakharov, Ya. D., 36 Zakhlestin, A. Yu., 187 Zalessky, A. F., 1026, 1041 Zanin, A. V., 1196 Zaraisky, V. A., 1086–1088, 1092, 1094, 1095 Zarembo, L. K., 887, 888, 893, 894, 913, 923, 1107 Zarkhin, V. I., 300, 531, 875, 878 Zarubin, V. Ya., 807 Zaslavsky, G. L., 1195, 1204, 1206, 1207, 1209 Zaslavsky, Yu. M., 89, 888, 897 Zatirakha, V. S., 407, 408 Zatsepin, A. G., 299, 803 Zatuchny, M. M., 934 Zavadsky, V. Yu., 78, 83, 92, 318 Zavalina, I. N., 934, 940 Zavalishin, S. S., 1019 Zavorin, A. A., 449 Zavorotkin, 1001 Zavorotny, V. U., 91, 168 Zavyalov, Yu. I., 1123 Zaytsev, K. N., 628 Zdalinskaya, Z. F., 988, 1002 Zeide, A. G., 992, 1002 Zeidelson, 261 Zeigerman, M. M., 1074, 1148, 1151 Zeigman, A. G., 188 Zeldis, V. I., 162 Zelenkova, I. D., 555 Zelyakh, V. E., 292, 299, 455, 467, 469, 495, 510, 521, 526, 702, 704–706, 839, 846, 1028 Zemskov, V. Ya., 684, 685 Zemulin, L. V., 481 Zenkevich, L. A., 412 Zernov, M. A., 251, 1130 Zev, 989, 990 Zhdanov, V. I., 1121 Zhegachev, V. T., 290, 571, 613 Zhelezny, V. B., 894, 903, 910, 912, 915, 918, 922, 923 Zhestyannikov, L. A., 166, 434 Zhevlakov, B. P., 1138

Zhichkin, V. A., 1136 Zhidko, Yu. M., 163 Zhileikin, Ya. M., 893, 897 Zhilina, N. A., 797 Zhitinkina, A. K., 934 Zhitkovskaya, E. V., 173 Zhitkovsky, Y. Y., 87 Zhitkovsky, Yu. Yu., 157, 158, 179, 183, 184, 186–188, 191, 326, 352, 417 Zhivayev, V. I., 284, 534, 1027, 1030, 1042 Zhuk, N. P., 129, 133 Zhukov, A. N., 173 Zhukov, I. P., 57, 355–357, 359–363 Zhukov, N. A., 518, 940 Zhukov, V. B., 299, 300, 541, 677, 855, 865, 886, 894 Zhuravlev, A. P., 1040 Zhuravleva, V. A., 623, 670, 673 Zhuravlyov, V. A., 326 Zhurkovich, M. V., 3, 238, 284, 299, 510, 516, 526, 527, 530, 542, 543, 553, 554, 870, 1027–1031 Zhurkovich, V. K., 284, 1024 Zhustrova, T. N., 463, 495 Zilberg, M. Kh., 522 Zimarev, G. A., 1002 Zimin, A. P., 408 Zimin, G. P., 1066 Zingerman, L. D., 617 Zinovyev, A. I., 300 Zinovyev, L. I., 541 Zinovyev, S. G., 624 Zinovyeva, L. I., 866 Znamenshchikov, R. A., 449 Znamenskaya, T. K., 555 Znamensky, A. S., 685 Znamensky, M. A., 1060, 1061 Znamensky, V. O., 583, 793, 794 Zolotaryov, V. V., 187 Zolotinkin, A. P., 1042 Zolotova, N. I., 1056 Zorikov, T. V., 1204, 1210 Zosimov, V. V., 149

FA2 January 5, 2008

14:19

SPI-B440 History of Russian Underwater Acoustics

index

Index Zubarev, L. A., 300 Zubenina, N. M., 616 Zubkova, O. N., 477 Zubov, N. N., 788, 799 Zubrilina, T. V., 1081, 1123 Zudinov, Yu., 667 Zuev, A. A., 407 Zuev, M. A., 613 Zufrin, A. M., 284, 475

1251

Zverev, A. S., 521 Zverev, V. A., 89, 161, 166, 167, 178, 429, 436, 848, 850, 887, 889, 892, 893, 909, 913 Zverkova, M. P., 924 Zykin, A. V., 1122 Zykov, F. F., 1039 Zykov, Yu. F., 666, 671, 1040 Zyryanova, Yu. A., 408