Holistic Management: A New Framework for Decision Making

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Author: Allan Savory | Jody Butterfield

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About Island Press Island Press is t h e o n l y n o n p r o f i t o r g a n i z a t i o n in t h e U n i t e d States w h o s e p r i n c i pal p u r p o s e is t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f b o o k s o n e n v i r o n m e n t a l

issues a n d

natural

r e s o u r c e m a n a g e m e n t . W e p r o v i d e s o l u t i o n s - o r i e n t e d i n f o r m a t i o n to p r o f e s s i o n als, public officials, business a n d c o m m u n i t y leaders, a n d c o n c e r n e d citizens w h o are s h a p i n g responses to e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o b l e m s . In 1999, Island Press celebrates its fifteenth anniversary as t h e l e a d i n g p r o v i d e r o f timely a n d practical b o o k s that take a m u l t i d i s c i p l i n a r y a p p r o a c h to critical e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n c e r n s . O u r g r o w i n g list of titles reflects o u r c o m m i t m e n t to b r i n g i n g t h e best o f an e x p a n d i n g b o d y of literature to t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o m m u n i t y t h r o u g h o u t N o r t h America and the world. S u p p o r t for Island Press is p r o v i d e d by T h e J e n i f e r A l t m a n F o u n d a t i o n , T h e Bullitt F o u n d a t i o n , T h e M a r y Flagler G a r y C h a r i t a b l e Trust, T h e N a t h a n

Cum-

m i n gs F o u n d a t i o n , T h e G e r a l d m e R . D o d g e F o u n d a t i o n , T h e C h a r l e s E n g e l h a r d F o u n d a t i o n , T h e F o r d F o u n d a t i o n , T h e Vira I. H e i n z E n d o w m e n t , T h e W. A l t o n J o n e s F o u n d a t i o n , T h e J o h n D. and C a t h e r i n e T. M a c A r t h u r F o u n d a t i o n , T h e A n d r e w W. M e l l o n F o u n d a t i o n , T h e C h a r l e s S t e w a r t M o t t F o u n d a t i o n , T h e C u r t i s a n d E d i t h M u n s o n F o u n d a t i o n , T h e N a t i o n a l Fish a n d W i l d l i f e F o u n d a t i o n , T h e N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e F o u n d a t i o n , T h e N e w - L a n d F o u n d a t i o n , T h e D a v i d a n d Lucile Packard F o u n d a t i o n , T h e P e w C h a r i t a b l e Trusts, T h e S u r d n a F o u n d a t i o n , T h e W i n s l o w F o u n d a t i o n , a n d individual d o n o r s .

About the Center for Holistic Management T h e C e n t e r for Holistic M a n a g e m e n t was established in 1 9 8 4 as an i n t e r n a t i o n a l n o n p r o f i t c o r p o r a t i o n to a d v a n c e t h e practice o f Holistic M a n a g e m e n t a n d to c o o r d i n a t e its c o n t i n u e d d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e C e n t e r serves as t h e h u b of an i n f o r m a t i o n e x c h a n g e n e t w o r k that i n c l u d e s an association o f e d u c a t o r s c e r t i f i e d to p r o v i d e t r a i n i n g in Holistic M a n a g e m e n t , p r a c t i t i o n e r s w h o associate as l e a r n i n g s u p p o r t g r o u p s o r m o r e f o r m a l l y as state, r e g i o n a l , o r n a t i o n a l affiliates, a n d a sister o r g a n i z a t i o n , f o u n d e d in 1992, t h e Africa C e n t r e for H o l i s t i c M a n a g e m e n t , in V i c t o r i a Falls, Z i m b a b w e . To facilitate t h e f l o w o f i n f o r m a t i o n , t h e C e n t e r p u b lishes a b i m o n t h l y n e w s l e t t e r , Holistic Management

IN PRACTICE,

which regular-

ly u p d a t e s t h e ideas p r e s e n t e d in this b o o k . T h e C e n t e r also hosts several c o n f e r ences o n t h e I n t e r n e t . As this b o o k was g o i n g to press, t h e C e n t e r ' s b o a r d a n d staff w e r e in t h e process of c h a n g i n g t h e C e n t e r ' s n a m e to T h e Allan Savory C e n t e r for Holistic M a n a g e m e n t in h o n o r o f its f o u n d e r . F o r m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n , c o n t a c t t h e C e n t e r for Holistic M a n a g e m e n t , Tijeras, N W , A l b u q u e r q u e , N M

1010

8 7 1 0 2 ; tel: 5 0 5 - 8 4 2 - 5 2 5 2 ; fax: 5 0 5 - 8 4 3 - 7 9 0 0 ;

e - m a i l : c e n t e r @ h o l i s t i c m a n a g e m e n t . o r g ; website: w w w . h o l i s t i c m a n a g e m e n t . o r g .

Holistic Management

Holistic Management A New Framework for Decision Making

Allan Savory with Jody Butterfield

ISLAND PRESS W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . | Covelo, California

C o p y r i g h t © 1 9 9 9 Allan Savory

All rights reserved u n d e r I n t e r n a t i o n a l a n d P a n - A m e r i c a n C o p y r i g h t

Conven-

tions. N o part o f this b o o k m a y b e r e p r o d u c e d in any f o r m o r by any m e a n s w i t h o u t p e r m i s s i o n in w r i t i n g f r o m t h e p u b l i s h e r : Island Press, 1 7 1 8

Connecticut

A v e n u e , N . W . , Suite 3 0 0 , W a s h i n g t o n , D C 2 0 0 0 9 . Island Press is a t r a d e m a r k of T h e C e n t e r for R e s o u r c e E c o n o m i c s .

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Savory, Allan,

1935-

Holistic m a n a g e m e n t

: a n e w f r a m e w o r k for decision m a k i n g /

Allan

Savory a n d J o d y B u t t e r f i e l d . — 2 n d ed. p.

cm.

R e v . ed. of: H o l i s t i c m a n a g e m e n t , 1988. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN

1 - 5 5 9 6 3 - 4 8 7 - 1 (cloth). —

1. E n v i r o n m e n t a l e c o n o m i c s . ecology.

ISBN

1 - 5 5 9 6 3 - 4 8 8 - X (paper)

2. Sustainable d e v e l o p m e n t .

4. N a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s — M a n a g e m e n t .

II. Savory, Allan, 1 9 3 5 -

3.

Holistic resource m a n a g e m e n t .

III. T i t l e . HC79.E5S2823

1999

98-42237

333.7—dc21 P r i n t e d o n recycled, a c i d - f r e e p a p e r

CIP (J)

M a n u f a c t u r e d in t h e U n i t e d States o f A m e r i c a 10 9 8 7 6 5

Human

I. B u t t e r f i e l d , Jody.

In memory

of my father, J. H. R. Savory,

hue of nature and respect for wildness

O.B.E., influenced

a gentle soul me

whose

profoundly

Contents

Preface

xiii

Acknowledgments

Part I 1

xvii

Introduction

C h a n g i n g the Way W e Make Decisions

Part II

3

Four Key Insights

2

T h e Power of Paradigms

3

T h e W h o l e Is G r e a t e r T h a n t h e S u m o f Its P a r t s

4

Viewing Environments a W h o l e N e w Way

5

The Predator-Prey Connection

6

T i m i n g Is E v e r y t h i n g

7

Part III 9

28

37

41

50

The Power Lies in the Holistic Goal

D e f i n i n g the W h o l e : W h a t Are You Managing?

59

F o r m i n g a H o l i s t i c G o a l : W h a t Is It Y o u Really Want?

10

17

A N e w F r a m e w o r k for M a n a g e m e n t and Decision Making

8

13

67

D e v e l o p i n g a Sense of O w n e r s h i p : Are You Sure That's W h a t You Really Want?

86

ix

x

CONTENTS

Part IV 11

The Ecosystem That Sustains Us A l l

T h e F o u r F u n d a m e n t a l Processes T h a t D r i v e O u r Ecosystem

12

W a t e r C y c l e : T h e C i r c u l a t i o n o f Civilization's Life Blood

13

101

104

C o m m u n i t y D y n a m i c s : T h e E v e r - C h a n g i n g P a t t e r n s in the D e v e l o p m e n t of Living C o m m u n i t i e s

14

Mineral Cycle: T h e Circulation of Life-Sustaining Nutrients

15

120

141

Energy Flow: T h e Flow of Fuel T h a t Animates All L i f e

Part V

149

The Tools We Use to Manage Our Ecosystem

16

F r o m S t o n e A g e Spears to G e n e t i c E n g i n e e r i n g

17

M o n e y and Labor: O n e or B o t h of T h e s e Tools Is A l w a y s R e q u i r e d

18

171

H u m a n C r e a t i v i t y : K e y t o U s i n g All T o o l s Effectively

178

19

Fire: T h e M o s t A n c i e n t T o o l

20

Rest: T h e Most Misunderstood Tool

21

Grazing: T h e Most Abused Tool

22

A n i m a l I m p a c t : T h e Least U s e d Tool

23

Living Organisms: T h e M o s t C o m p l e x Tool

24

Technology: T h e Most Used Tool

Part VI 25

182 195 216 236 250

258

Testing Your Decisions

M a k i n g E c o n o m i c a l l y E n v i r o n m e n t a l l y a n d Socially S o u n d Decisions

26

167

267

Cause and Effect: Stop the Blows to Your H e a d B e f o r e You Take the Aspirin

273

CONTENTS

27

W e a k L i n k : T h e S t r e n g t h o f a C h a i n Is T h a t o f Its W e a k e s t Link

28

xi

284

Marginal R e a c t i o n : Getting the Biggest B a n g for Your Buck

29

294

G r o s s P r o f i t A n a l y s i s : B r i n g i n g in t h e M o s t M o n e y f o r t h e Least A d d i t i o n a l C o s t

30

302

E n e r g y a n d M o n e y : U s i n g t h e M o s t A p p r o p r i a t e F o r m s in the M o s t Constructive Way

310

31

Sustainability: G e n e r a t i n g Lasting W e a l t h

32

S o c i e t y a n d C u l t u r e : P e r s o n a l Values a n d Social Responsibility

Part VII 33

316

326

Completing the Feedback Loop

M o n i t o r i n g Your Plans and K e e p i n g o n Track

Part VIII

Some Practical Guidelines for Management

34

L e s s o n s L e a r n e d in P r a c t i c e

35

Learning and Practice: Shifting Your Paradigms

36

T i m e : W h e n to E x p o s e and R e e x p o s e Plants and

396

C r o p p i n g : Practices T h a t M o r e Closely M i m i c Nature

41

378

S t o c k D e n s i t y a n d H e r d Effect: U s i n g A n i m a l s to S h a p e the Landscape

40

359

368

Soils t o A n i m a l s 39

348

Marketing: D e v e l o p i n g a Strategy in Line w i t h Your Holistic Goal

38

345

O r g a n i z a t i o n and Leadership: Creating an E n v i r o n m e n t T h a t Nurtures Creativity

37

335

413

B u r n i n g : W h e n and H o w to B u r n , and W h a t to D o Before and After 430

xii

CONTENTS

42

P o p u l a t i o n M a n a g e m e n t : L o o k to A g e Structure R a t h e r T h a n N u m b e r s , Diversity R a t h e r T h a n Single Species

Part IX

439

Planning Procedures Unique to Holistic Management

43

Departing f r o m the Conventional

44

Holistic Financial Planning: Creating the Financial R o a d m a p to Your Holistic Goal

45

463

Holistic Land Planning: Developing Infrastructure o n Large Tracts of Land

46

459

486

Holistic Grazing Planning: Getting Animals to the R i g h t P l a c e , at t h e R i g h t T i m e , a n d f o r t h e R i g h t Reasons

Part X 47

501

New Perspectives

Expanding the Uses of the Holistic M a n a g e m e n t Model

527

48

Diagnosing the Cause of Problems

49

Making Research Relevant

50

C r e a t i n g S o u n d Policies

Part XI 51

529

538 545

Conclusion

Changing Course: Creating the Future W e Want

Glossary

569

References

573

Notes

597

Index

603

About the Center for Holistic Management

617

559

Preface

s a y o u n g s t e r m y only aim in life was to live in t h e wildest A f r i c a n bush forever. A l t h o u g h I eventually did have that o p p o r t u n i t y , I e n d e d u p forsaking it to w o r k toward saving t h e wildlife that was m y reason for b e i n g in t h e bush. E v e n in t h e wildest areas t h e land was d e t e r i o rating, in fact t u r n i n g to desert, r e n d e r i n g it ever less able to s u p p o r t life of any k i n d . I was d e t e r m i n e d to f i n d a way to reverse this process. T h a t quest t o o k m e in a d i r e c t i o n I w o u l d never have anticipated, c o m pelling m e to w o r k first w i t h p e o p l e w h o for generations had b e e n caretakers of the land a n d w h o s e m a n a g e m e n t I believed was responsible for initiating t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n , t h e n w i t h those w h o w e r e advising t h e m , a n d eventually w i t h m a n y o t h e r s as a m e m b e r o f p a r l i a m e n t a t t e m p t i n g to deal w i t h land m a n a g e m e n t at t h e policy level. W h a t I l e a r n e d f r o m these e x p e r i e n c e s was that t h e remorseless spread of deserts a n d t h e h u m a n i m p o v e r i s h m e n t that always resulted were related to m a n a g e m e n t , but m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l l y to t h e w a y p e o p l e w e r e m a k i n g m a n a g e m e n t decisions, w h e t h e r or n o t those p e o p l e lived or w o r k e d o n t h e land. T h i s b o o k a t t e m p t s to describe t h e way f o r w a r d that e m e r g e d . It involves a n e w f r a m e w o r k f o r d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g that enables p e o p l e to m a k e decisions that satisfy i m m e d i a t e needs w i t h o u t j e o p a r d i z i n g their f u t u r e w e l l - b e i n g or t h e w e l l - b e i n g of f u t u r e generations. T h a t , o f course, requires that t h e actions e n s u i n g f r o m any decision also e n h a n c e t h e w e l l b e i n g of t h e e n v i r o n m e n t that sustains us n o w a n d will have to sustain f u t u r e generations. T h e greatest strength of the n e w d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g f r a m e w o r k is that it leads us to see that w e serve o u r o w n interests best w h e n w e a c c o u n t for t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l , as well as t h e social a n d e c o n o m i c , c o n s e q u e n c e s of o u r decisions. Holistic Management is t h e revised and u p d a t e d version of Holistic Resource Management (1988), w h i c h was a first a t t e m p t to explain t h e develo p m e n t of the n e w d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g f r a m e w o r k and h o w it c o u l d be used. T h e c h a n g e of title is only t h e m o s t o b v i o u s difference. T h e book's XLLL

XIV

PREFACE

ideas have b e e n clarified and s t r e n g t h e n e d by those w h o have p u t t h e ideas into practice, most of w h o m care m o r e for results in real life than wells o u n d i n g theories that are m o r e interesting than useful. T h e s e p e o p l e i n c l u d e m a n y t h o u s a n d s w h o m a k e their living f r o m t h e land a n d are l e a r n i n g to restore it profitably t h r o u g h practices that m i m i c n a t u r e a n d m a n y o t h e r s w h o have m e r e l y s o u g h t a m o r e r e w a r d i n g personal o r f a m ily life. T h e y also i n c l u d e w h o l e c o m m u n i t i e s of p e o p l e w h o have f o u n d the ideas useful in b r i n g i n g their m e m b e r s t o g e t h e r — e v e n w h e r e conflicts divide t h e m — t o establish a c o m m o n vision that reflects w h a t they g e n uinely value and h o p e to accomplish. R e a d e r s of this e d i t i o n will b e n e f i t f r o m w h a t w e have l e a r n e d f r o m all these p e o p l e as they have struggled to i n c o r p o r a t e t h e i d e a s — t h e p r o b l e m s they had, t h e mistakes they m a d e , w h a t w o r k e d , and w h a t didn't and why. It also reflects t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s m a d e by m y wife, J o d y Butterfield, w h o r e w r o t e h u n d r e d s of pages m a n y times to simplify, clarify, a n d r e m o v e unnecessary j a r g o n and w h o forced m e to t h i n k m o r e deeply than ever b e f o r e o n nearly every p o i n t . Because n o a m o u n t of a c k n o w l e d g m e n t w o u l d have d o n e j u s t i c e to h e r effort, h e r n a m e appears w i t h m i n e o n the title page. T h e key differences b e t w e e n t h e first edition and this o n e are w o v e n t h r o u g h o u t the b o o k as critical t h e m e s and will b e c o m e apparent to a n y o n e w h o reads b o t h v o l u m e s . B u t p e r h a p s t h e m o s t significant is that w e have w o r k e d to enlarge t h e readership to include those n o t directly involved in land m a n a g e m e n t . A l t h o u g h o u r fate as a civilization is tied to t h e land a n d its health, a n d a l t h o u g h millions of o r d i n a r y p e o p l e in m a k ing their living f r o m the land c o n t r o l that fate to a large degree, unless these p e o p l e have t h e s u p p o r t of t h e h u n d r e d s of millions of o t h e r s w h o d e p e n d o n their efforts, they c a n n o t succeed. Equally i m p o r t a n t is a p o i n t m a d e repeatedly in t h e f o l l o w i n g pages, that each of us, n o m a t t e r w h a t path w e have c h o s e n to follow in life, makes decisions that in o n e way o r a n o t h e r i m p a c t t h e health of o u r e n v i r o n m e n t a n d t h e quality of o t h e r people's lives. T h e simple t e c h n i q u e described in these pages for d e t e r m i n i n g w h a t that i m p a c t m i g h t b e goes a l o n g way to e n s u r i n g that t h e o u t c o m e is life e n h a n c i n g . W e have d o n e o u r best to eliminate details that w o u l d c o n f u s e t h e g e n eral reader, but to eliminate t h e m all w o u l d have m a d e t h e b o o k m e a n ingless to t h e core a u d i e n c e it m u s t reach. S o m e of t h e i n f o r m a t i o n that appeared in the first edition has b e e n m o v e d to a series of h a n d b o o k s , c u r rently u n d e r p r e p a r a t i o n a n d referred to specifically in later chapters. T h r o u g h o u t t h e b o o k w e have also n o t e d chapters t h e m o r e general reader m i g h t w a n t to skim. In t h e future, as w e gain m o r e e x p e r i e n c e in different realms of e n d e a v or, n e w b o o k s will surely be w r i t t e n that address t h e specific c o n c e r n s of

these various d o m a i n s . In t h e m e a n t i m e , the issues raised in this o n e t o u c h the lives of e v e r y o n e and will d o so increasingly in c o m i n g years. S o m e m o n t h s ago, after I gave a brief talk o n Holistic M a n a g e m e n t to m e m b e r s of the Explorer's C l u b in N e w York, a m a n n a m e d R o n Brandes a p p r o a c h e d me. H e suggested that w i t h o u t m y h a v i n g realized it, w h a t I had d o n e in m y talk was to focus a t t e n t i o n o n w h a t w o u l d surely b e c o m e t h e o u t g r o w t h of the c u r r e n t I n f o r m a t i o n A g e — t h e D e c i s i o n - M a k i n g Age. In the e n d , he said, all the i n f o r m a t i o n w e have amassed in the past decades will serve little p u r p o s e unless w e m a k e intelligent decisions a b o u t h o w it is to b e used. It is m y h o p e that the f r a m e w o r k w e have d e v e l o p e d helps to serve that e n d . Allan Savory Albuquerque, N e w Mexico

Acknowledgments

n y t h i n g w e d o in science is built o n the w o r k of t h o u s a n d s w h o have g o n e b e f o r e us. B o t h f r o m their successes a n d f r o m their failures w e learn a n d thus advance. I a m deeply i n d e b t e d to the m a n y w h o have struggled to find better ways f o r us to live in h a r m o n y w i t h each o t h e r and o u r e n v i r o n m e n t and o n w h o s e w o r k I have built. F r o m the t i m e I d e p a r t e d f r o m t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l t h i n k i n g o f m y training, I have b e e n s u p p o r t e d and h e l p e d by m a n y p e o p l e , a n d I w e l c o m e this o p p o r t u n i t y to t h a n k t h e m . I am particularly i n d e b t e d to the m a n y f a r m ers and ranchers in s o u t h e r n Africa, a n d later in N o r t h A m e r i c a , w h o loved their land a n d w e r e prepared to w o r k w i t h m e in those early years in t h e search for answers. I a m n o less i n d e b t e d to those w o r k i n g in g o v e r n m e n t agencies at t h e t i m e w h o s u p p o r t e d o u r efforts, despite considerable criticism f r o m their peers. W i t h o u t the c o u r a g e and e n t h u s i a s m of all these p e o p l e w e w o u l d never have s u c c e e d e d in finding a b e t t e r way. Since f o r m i n g the C e n t e r for Holistic M a n a g e m e n t in 1984, m y wife, J o d y Butterfield, a n d I have b e e n j o i n e d by m a n y o t h e r s equally c o m m i t ted to d e v e l o p i n g t h e ideas f u r t h e r , m o s t notably o u r g r o w i n g n e t w o r k of Holistic M a n a g e m e n t C e r t i f i e d E d u c a t o r s . M a n y of t h e changes reflected in this edition of Holistic Management are a direct result of the c o n t r i b u t i o n s they have m a d e , based o n w h a t they have l e a r n e d t h r o u g h their o w n p r a c tice a n d in assisting others. W e are all i n d e b t e d to t h e village-based facilitators w h o have w o r k e d so h a r d to b r i n g Holistic M a n a g e m e n t to the H w a n g e C o m m u n a l Lands of Z i m b a b w e . T h e y have s h o w n the rest of us h o w w e could simplify a n d clarify c o n c e p t s that p e o p l e e v e r y w h e r e have struggled to learn. A n u m b e r o f friends and colleagues read p o r t i o n s o f the m a n u s c r i p t , p r o v i d i n g invaluable criticism a n d c o r r e c t i n g embarrassing e r r o r s . T h e y are Dr. Paul M a r t i n , D e p a r t m e n t of Geosciences, University of A r i z o n a ; Dr. Cliff M o n t a g n e , D e p a r t m e n t of Plant, Soil, and E n v i r o n m e n t a l Science, M o n t a n a State University; Dr. R . H . (Dick) R i c h a r d s o n , D e p a r t m e n t of Z o o l o g y , University o f Texas at Austin; D r . Brian Sindelar, a range m a n xvii

xvni

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

a g e m e n t c o n s u l t a n t in B o z e m a n , M o n t a n a ; D r . D e b o r a h S t i n n e r , D e p a r t m e n t of E n t o m o l o g y , O h i o State University; and D r . R a y T r a v e r s , a registered professional forester in private practice in British C o l u m b i a . In addition, the f o l l o w i n g persons read the entire m a n u s c r i p t h e l p i n g to improve t h e overall structure, challenging points that w e r e w e a k o r vague, and greatly r e d u c i n g the n u m b e r of i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e passages: Alan C a r p e n t e r ; Bill Casey; J o h n Cleveland; Frank D a w l e y ; Ghislaine Keyzer; H u n t e r Lovins; Walt R u z z o ; A r n e Vanderburg; a n d T o m Walther. M a r c e R a c k s t r a w m a d e a valiant a t t e m p t to liven u p the illustrations, and S t e p h e n Verzi lent timely assistance in t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l design. To all these p e o ple I give m y most sincere thanks. Finally, J o d y and I are grateful m o s t of all to the staff o f the C e n t e r for Holistic M a n a g e m e n t , w h o for close to three years w e r e forced to m a k e d o w i t h t w o less p e o p l e to share an e n o r m o u s w o r k l o a d . T h a t they did so w i t h o u t c o m p l a i n t only adds to the a d m i r a t i o n w e feel f o r t h e m all. A grant f r o m the 7 7 7 F u n d of T h e T i d e s F o u n d a t i o n h e l p e d to m a k e this b o o k possible. M a n y thanks.

Part I Introduction

1 Changing the Way We Make Decisions

n 1948 I e n t e r e d P l u m t r e e School, a b o a r d i n g school in t h e British tradition set in t h e A f r i c a n bushveld o n the b o r d e r of w h a t was t h e n S o u t h e r n R h o d e s i a a n d B o t s w a n a . W h e n n o t o n the r u g b y or cricket fields w e w e r e e n c o u r a g e d to get o u t into t h e bush, a gesture of liberality that offset all m y adolescent frustration w i t h f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n . I b e c a m e fanatic a b o u t t h e bush and its big game, and a passion to r e t u r n to it drove m e t h r o u g h a university e d u c a t i o n that qualified m e f o r a N o r t h e r n R h o d e s i a n G a m e D e p a r t m e n t post at t h e age of twenty. O n c e in t h e G a m e D e p a r t m e n t I b e g a n to realize that all I loved was d o o m e d . N o t for t h e c o m m o n l y talked of r e a s o n s — p o a c h i n g and o v e r e x p l o i t a t i o n — b u t rather because of o u r o w n i g n o r a n c e as professional bureaucrats. B u t professional p e o p l e d o n o t like to a d m i t to i g n o r a n c e o r to raise t h e questions I did. It is m o r e c u s t o m a r y to b l a m e o t h e r s w h i l e calling for m o r e m o n e y , research, and staff. So began a l o n g struggle, o f t e n very lonely, to find solutions to t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n I saw e v e r y w h e r e . A l o n g the way I l e a r n e d that w h a t I saw in t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of wildlife reflects the c o n d i t i o n of h u m a n i t y and all o t h e r life o n this planet. T h e wildlife p r o b lems that I first grappled w i t h were little m o r e t h a n advance gusts of t h e violent s t o r m s that ultimately threaten t h e w h o l e w o r l d . N o w several decades later, m u c h w a t e r has flowed u n d e r the bridge, and I can w r i t e a b o u t t h e way f o r w a r d that I f o u n d and s u b s e q u e n t l y develo p e d w i t h the help o f m a n y others. It involves n o elaborate or costly t e c h n o l o g y o r specialized k n o w l e d g e , but rather s o m e n e w insights and a n e w d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g process that gives us t h e ability to design and to plan t h e f u t u r e w e w a n t w h i l e e n s u r i n g that t h e e n v i r o n m e n t can sustain it. T h e

I

3

4

PART I

I INTRODUCTION

d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g process can serve to m a n a g e a f a r m , a national park, or a city's w a t e r supply, or one's personal life, a h o u s e h o l d , a c o r p o r a t i o n , or organization of any kind. It also can be used to diagnose the u n d e r l y i n g cause of m a n y problems, to assess a variety of policies, and to m a k e research m o r e relevant to m a n a g e m e n t needs. I w o u l d n o t have guessed in those early years that d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g had m u c h to d o w i t h the challenge of saving wildlife in an e v e r - d e t e r i o r a t i n g e n v i r o n m e n t . B u t in the e n d I f o u n d that c h a n g i n g t h e way w e m a k e d e c i sions was key to m e e t i n g that m a n a g e m e n t c h a l l e n g e — a n d m a n y others. O n e e x p e r i e n c e proved pivotal to my u n d e r s t a n d i n g . I was p r e p a r i n g a t e a c h i n g exercise to s h o w that t h e causes scientists, politicians, and o t h e r s most o f t e n b l a m e d for the e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e t e r i o r a tion in Africa w e r e suspect. T h e s e causes i n c l u d e d o v e r p o p u l a t i o n ; p o v e r ty; lack of e d u c a t i o n , capital, and t e c h n o l o g y ; collective o w n e r s h i p of t h e land (by the state, rather than t h e individuals w h o use it); g o v e r n m e n t c o r r u p t i o n ; p o o r f a r m i n g m e t h o d s , such as slash and b u r n c r o p p i n g in t h e forests or the cultivation of steep slopes and unsuitable soils elsewhere; lack of agricultural e x t e n s i o n services; and overstocking o n the rangelands. T h e r e appeared to b e total certainty in t h e m a t t e r . T h e only aspect really d e b a t e d in the scientific literature and in t h e v o l u m i n o u s g o v e r n m e n t and d e v e l o p m e n t agency reports was the hierarchy of the causes. If o n e or all of these things were i n d e e d t h e causes of t h e d e g r a d a t i o n , t h e n t h e envir o n m e n t should b e i m p r o v i n g in places w h e r e the opposite c o n d i t i o n s a n d practices prevailed. B u t was it? In the w e s t e r n part o f T e x a s , w h e r e I was w o r k i n g at the time, and w h e r e the climate was similar to m u c h of Africa's, the rural p o p u l a t i o n was low and declining. T h e land was o w n e d p r i v a t e ly and the o w n e r s had access to g o o d e d u c a t i o n , to p l e n t y of capital, and to t h e latest technology. T h e g o v e r n m e n t , a l t h o u g h n o t perfect, basically served t h e interests of the p e o p l e and had p r o v i d e d t h e m w i t h millions of dollars in financial aid and sophisticated agricultural e x t e n s i o n services. N o n e of t h e p o o r f a r m i n g m e t h o d s listed w e r e practiced. T h e rangelands could hardly be called overstocked w h e n animals were so f e w c o m p a r e d to w h a t they had b e e n only a c e n t u r y earlier. Nevertheless, t h e soil and t h e agricultural e c o n o m y of West Texas had d e g r a d e d badly.Texas f a r m e r s were able to k e e p p r o d u c t i o n levels high by using ever m o r e fertilizer, pesticide, irrigation, and o t h e r technologies. H o w e v e r , vast areas of rangeland that had o n c e sustained i m m e n s e herds of bison a n d later cattle were hardly distinguishable f r o m t h e m o s t d e g r a d e d rangelands o n the fringes of the Sahara. Sand dunes were b e g i n n i n g to f o r m in West Texas. T h e water table was falling, too, and rivers o n c e filled w i t h fish had b e e n dry for decades e x c e p t for the occasional flash flood. T h e Texas g o v e r n m e n t had spent h u n d r e d s of millions of dollars to fight i n sects, weeds, and brush that w e r e blamed for r u i n i n g the land, but they c o n -

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C H A N G I N G T H E W A Y W E M A K E D E C I S I O N S 23

t i n u e d to thrive. All t h e while, t h e p e o p l e , as in Africa, were leaving the land f o r the big cities, w h e r e c r i m e and poverty c o n t i n u e d to grow. L o g i c told m e there had to be a c o m m o n d e n o m i n a t o r w h e n t h e same results w e r e p r o d u c e d u n d e r such different c o n d i t i o n s a n d practices. C o m m u n i t i e s I had visited elsewhere in N o r t h A m e r i c a , in E u r o p e , and in Asia were e x p e r i e n c i n g m a n y of the same problems. A n d n o m a t t e r h o w wealthy and d e v e l o p e d or p o o r and u n d e r d e v e l o p e d t h e c o m m u n i t y , p e o ple said these p r o b l e m s w e r e g e t t i n g worse, despite all t h e m o n e y and effort they h a d p o u r e d into tackling t h e m . Was there a c o m m o n d e n o m i n a t o r in these situations? Was it t h e same? P r o b a b l y so, and probably also in the m a n y past civilizations that h a d b l o o m e d and died w h e n their e n v i r o n m e n t could no longer support them. T h i s c o m m o n d e n o m i n a t o r was unlikely to be related to systems of g o v e r n m e n t or any particular t e c h n o l o g y because w e had had all m a n n e r of these t h r o u g h the ages. G r e e d and ignorance, a l t h o u g h certainly a f a c tor, had n o t b e e n c o m m o n to every situation, n o r had p o p u l a t i o n pressure. Areas w h e r e h u m a n p o p u l a t i o n s w e r e l o w o r almost n o n e x i s t e n t , such as national parks and wilderness areas, w e r e also d e t e r i o r a t i n g . T h e only c o m m o n d e n o m i n a t o r , in past and present civilizations, and in Africa, West Texas, and c o m m u n i t i e s e v e r y w h e r e , was that h u m a n m a n a g e m e n t was involved, and that it had resulted in decisions that had led to the d e t e r i o r a t i o n . T h e f o r m s of m a n a g e m e n t had c h a n g e d , and o f t e n , but I began to suspect that decision m a k i n g had n o t . S o m e t h i n g was faulty a b o u t t h e way w e w e r e m a k i n g decisions, and it had b e e n faulty for a very l o n g time. B u t w h e r e was it at fault, and h o w w e r e w e to find out? Decisions are m a d e in millions of ways. T h e answer does n o t b e c o m e apparent until you first e x a m i n e how w e m a k e decisions a n d identify w h a t is f u n d a m e n t a l to t h e process. In any situ a t i o n w e manage, w h e t h e r that be a specific entity, such as a business, o r s o m e t h i n g m o r e general, such as o u r personal lives, o u r decisions usually e m a n a t e f r o m t h e desire or t h e n e e d to m e e t a variety of goals o r o b j e c t i v e s — r a n g i n g f r o m those aligned w i t h s o m e sort of mission, to those that satisfy basic needs. To m a k e sure o u r decisions are in line w i t h t h e e x p e c t ed o u t c o m e of those goals or objectives, w e — e i t h e r individually, o r c o l laboratively—will consider various criteria. D e p e n d i n g o n the c o n t e x t and t h e actions c o n t e m p l a t e d , w e m i g h t ask o n e or m o r e of t h e f o l l o w i n g questions: W h o has e x p e r t k n o w l e d g e and w h a t d o they advise? W h a t does the research s h o w ? W h a t does o u r i n t u i t i o n tell us a b o u t it? W h a t past e x p e r i e n c e d o w e have to go on? Will it d o t h e j o b ? H o w quickly? Is it allowable u n d e r prevailing laws and regulations? Is it cost-effective 7 Is it ethical? Will it p r o d u c e a positive cash flow? Is it profitable? W h a t will o u r peers say? W h a t will t h e n e i g h b o r s say? Is it politically e x p e d i e n t ?

24 PART I

I INTRODUCTION

W i l l it h a r m the e n v i r o n m e n t ? Will it have adverse social c o n s e q u e n c e s ? and so o n . If w e are c o n v i n c e d the action w e are c o n t e m p l a t i n g will achieve t h e e x p e c t e d o u t c o m e , we'll go ahead w i t h it. Generally, w e assume w e have m a d e the right decision, a l t h o u g h w e can't be sure until w e see w h a t a c t u ally happens. T h e m a j o r fault in this p r o c e s s — a n d thus, in the way w e were m a k i n g decisions—is that it lacks an o r g a n i z i n g f r a m e w o r k . In p u r s u i n g a variety of goals a n d objectives, in w h a t e v e r situation w e manage, w e o f t e n fail t o see that s o m e ot t h e m are in conflict and that the a c h i e v e m e n t of o n e m i g h t c o m e at t h e expense of achieving another. In w e i g h i n g up t h e actions w e m i g h t take to reach o u r goals and objectives, w e have n o way to a c c o u n t for nature's c o m p l e x i t y and only rarely factor it in. Actions that are j u d g e d to b e financially s o u n d m i g h t prove to b e socially o r e n v i r o n mentally u n s o u n d , but h o w d o w e really k n o w ? T h e need for such a f r a m e w o r k has l o n g b e e n obscured because of the success w e have m a n a g e d to achieve w i t h o u t it. W e have b e e n able to develop ever m o r e sophisticated f o r m s of t e c h n o l o g y w i t h w h i c h to exploit Earth's resources and to m a k e life g e n u i n e l y m o r e c o m f o r t a b l e , b u t w e have n o t b e e n able to d o so w i t h o u t d a m a g i n g o u r e n v i r o n m e n t at the same time. T h e earliest h u m a n p o p u l a t i o n s w o u l d have had n o cause to reflect on such matters as l o n g as their t e c h n o l o g y did n o t surpass that of o t h e r animals that used stones to break eggs and shellfish. At that early level p e o p l e c o u l d n o t distort their e n v i r o n m e n t e n o u g h to upset ecological h a r m o n y m u c h at all. B u t that s o o n c h a n g e d . B y t h e time h u m a n s had acquired t h e use of fire, and o u r t e c h n o l o g y had g r o w n sophisticated e n o u g h to enable us to reach and settle n e w c o n tinents or isolated islands, w e w e r e capable of inflicting e n o r m o u s damage. W i t h i n 4 0 0 years o f their arrival in N e w Z e a l a n d , t h e M a o r i had e x t e r m i n a t e d nearly all t h e flightless birds, i n c l u d i n g 12 different species of the giant ( 5 5 0 - p o u n d ) m o a , and d e c i m a t e d m u c h of t h e seashore life. F o l l o w i n g the arrival of the A b o r i g i n e s in Australia 4 0 , 0 0 0 to 6 0 , 0 0 0 or m o r e years ago, over 80 p e r c e n t of t h e large m a m m a l i a n genera b e c a m e extinct. T h e fires deliberately set by t h e A b o r i g i n e s w h e n h u n t i n g , or to limit t h e e x t e n t of u m n h a b i t a b l e rainforest, led to a dramatic increase in soil erosion, the a b r u p t disappearance of fire-sensitive plant species, and a dramatic increase in fire-dependent species, such as eucalypts. 1 In N o r t h A m e r i c a , over 70 p e r c e n t of t h e large m a m m a l i a n genera b e c a m e extinct f o l l o w i n g t h e arrival of N a t i v e A m e r i c a n s a r o u n d 12,000 years ago. M a m m o t h s , s a b e r - t o o t h lions, horses, camels, piglike animals, and * G e n e r a is plural for genus. A genus consists of o n e to many closely related species.

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C H A N G I N G THE W A Y W E M A K E DECISIONS

7

m e m b e r s o f the family that i n c l u d e d goats, sheep, a n d cattle w e r e a m o n g the species lost. N a t i v e A m e r i c a n fires were also likely to have b e e n r e s p o n sible f o r the fire-dependent vegetation that d o m i n a t e s m a n y A m e r i c a n landscapes today. W h e n horses w e r e r e i n t r o d u c e d to N o r t h A m e r i c a by E u r o p e a n s in t h e s e v e n t e e n t h century, t h e Plains Indians quickly a d o p t e d t h e m as a m e a n s of transport. T h a t , c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e readiness w i t h w h i c h they also a d o p t e d the rifle, m a d e t h e m highly successful bison h u n t e r s . Given time, they m i g h t have killed o u t t h e r e m a i n i n g bison had E u r o p e a n i m m i g r a n t s n o t i n t e r v e n e d a n d c o n d u c t e d a wholesale slaughter of t h e animals t h e m s e l v e s . 2 , 3 Scientists still d e b a t e w h e t h e r these mass extinctions w e r e t h e result of h u n t i n g alone. T h e p r o f o u n d changes created by h u m a n - m a d e fires radically altered t h e e n v i r o n m e n t s that had sustained these animals for tens of millions of years a n d m u s t also have played a role in t h e extinctions. B o t h h u n t i n g a n d fire w e r e probably responsible for the m o r e gradual e x t i n c tions that o c c u r r e d in w h a t is n o w the i n t e r i o r of t h e Sahara desert, w h e r e as recently as 10,000 to 5 0 , 0 0 0 years ago elephant, giraffe, buffalo, a n d h i p p o r o a m e d savannas and marshlands. T h e t e c h n o l o g y w e w i e l d today has greatly e x p a n d e d t h e ways in w h i c h w e can alter o u r e n v i r o n m e n t a n d that, c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e e x p o nential increase in o u r n u m b e r s , has m a g n i f i e d o u r potential for causing damage. N o w , m o r e than ever, w e require t h e ability to m a k e decisions that simultaneously consider e c o n o m i c , social, a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l realities, b o t h short and l o n g t e r m . Given an a p p r o p r i a t e f r a m e w o r k for o r g a n i z i n g m a n a g e m e n t a n d decision m a k i n g , w e should be able to d o this. C r e a t i n g such a f r a m e w o r k has b e e n the d r i v i n g force in the d e v e l o p m e n t of Holistic M a n a g e m e n t , b u t as t h e n e x t five chapters will show, w e had m u c h to learn b e f o r e it t o o k shape. F o u r key insights discovered over the last seventy years, w h e n taken together, p r o v e d c r i t i c a l . T h e first insight m a d e t h e a r g u m e n t for w h y such a f r a m e w o r k was n e e d e d and t h e f o r m it should t a k e . T h e n e x t three insights enabled us to u n d e r s t a n d w h y s o m e e n v i r o n m e n t s rapidly d e t e r i o r a t e u n d e r practices that b e n e f i t o t h e r s a n d a d d e d pieces to the n e w f r a m e w o r k that proved vital for c o m p l e t i n g it. T h i s n e w m a n a g e m e n t a n d d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g f r a m e w o r k is s u m m a r i z e d in C h a p t e r 7 a n d described at l e n g t h in t h e r e m a i n i n g chapters of this b o o k . In brief, h o w e v e r , o n e b e g i n s by d e f i n i n g the entity b e i n g m a n a g e d in t e r m s of the p e o p l e responsible for its m a n a g e m e n t a n d t h e resources available to t h e m . T h e s e p e o p l e t h e n f o r m w h a t w e refer to as a holistic goal that describes t h e quality of life they collectively seek, w h a t they have to p r o d u c e to create that quality o f life, and a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e resource base they d e p e n d o n as it will have to be, far into the future, to sustain w h a t they must p r o d u c e to create the quality of life they envision. All t h e decisions they m a k e in p l a n n i n g h o w to reach t h e holistic goal,

8

PART I

I INTRODUCTION

or in addressing p r o b l e m s o r o p p o r t u n i t i e s that arise a l o n g the way, will b e evaluated a c c o r d i n g to the same criteria they have always used. In addition, however, they finally ask seven simple questions to ensure their decisions are socially, environmentally, and e c o n o m i c a l l y s o u n d and will lead them toward the holistic goal. In o t h e r words, any action taken to deal w i t h a p r o b lem, to reach an objective, o r to m e e t a basic n e e d s h o u l d n o t only a c c o m plish w h a t is r e q u i r e d , but also e n h a n c e progress toward the holistic goal. To ensure that this happens, a f e e d b a c k l o o p is established so that if m o n i t o r i n g shows the decision is n o t taking you w h e r e you w a n t t o go, you can act i m m e d i a t e l y to c o r r e c t it. T h i s m i g h t s e e m a lot w i t h w h i c h to c o n c e r n yourself j u s t to m a k e a decision, and it is. H o w e v e r , o n c e the idea is grasped, and as p e o p l e b e c o m e increasingly c o m m i t t e d to a c h i e v i n g their holistic goal, m a k i n g decisions this way is n o m o r e t i m e - c o n s u m i n g than before. In fact, the process o f t e n enables you to reach a decision m o r e quickly, particularly w h e n the d e c i sion is a difficult one. T h o s e w o r k i n g in l e a d i n g - e d g e c o r p o r a t i o n s today will find m u c h in this process that is familiar to t h e m . T h e quality of life p o r t i o n of the holistic goal is similar to c o r p o r a t e mission statements w h e n those statements g e n u i n e l y reflect shared values. T h e n e x t t w o parts of the holistic goal are j u s t as critical and are a n e w d e v e l o p m e n t . F e e d b a c k loops are also used routinely in m a n y quality-conscious c o r p o r a t i o n s and have b e e n w r i t t e n a b o u t extensively. O n e o r t w o of the seven questions m i g h t also be f a m i l iar and, in s o m e cases, routinely used in c o r p o r a t e decision m a k i n g . M u c h is g e n u i n e l y new, however, largely because these ideas o r i g i n a t ed f r o m a drive to restore d e t e r i o r a t i n g e n v i r o n m e n t s rather than to e n h a n c e the c o r p o r a t e b o t t o m line. W e s o o n f o u n d , of course, that it was impossible to m a k e any real progress o n the land unless w e consistently e x a m i n e d the financial and social c o n s e q u e n c e s of any decision, just as c o r porations increasingly find that black ink t u r n s red w h e n they d o n ' t c o n sider t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l and social c o n s e q u e n c e s of their decisions. T h i s b o o k does n o t address the c o r p o r a t e d o m a i n specifically, b u t it should prove e n l i g h t e n i n g to those w o r k i n g w i t h i n it or t o a n y o n e else n o t specifically c o n c e r n e d w i t h land m a n a g e m e n t . If you are o n e o f m a n y w h o feel d i s c o n n e c t e d f r o m the land, my h o p e is that this b o o k will help to reestablish that c o n n e c t i o n . I can g u a r a n t e e that after reading it you will never v i e w the land the same way again. M o s t of w h a t is reflected in this b o o k , however, is based o n e x p e r i e n c e gained in w o r k i n g w i t h p e o p l e living o n the land and a t t e m p t i n g to m a k e their living f r o m it. M u c h of w h a t they struggle w i t h in a t t e m p t i n g to d o that, is w h a t p e o p l e e v e r y w h e r e struggle with in m a k i n g a living o r a life together. In that sense, this b o o k speaks to everyone. T h o s e w h o are l o o k i n g for the way t o solve the ever-escalating p r o b -

1

C H A N G I N G THE W A Y W E M A K E DECISIONS

9

lems w e face will n o t find it in Holistic M a n a g e m e n t . T h e r e is n o o n e way and n o o n e answer to any p r o b l e m , and never can b e . T h e r e are millions of answers and p o t e n t i a l solutions, a n d these have to be w o r k e d o u t case by case, situation by situation, by p e o p l e w h o are driven by a desire for s o m e t h i n g better. Holistic M a n a g e m e n t merely e m p o w e r s p e o p l e to identify and to achieve w h a t is best for them.

Part II Four Key Insights

The Power of Paradigms

ad w e c o n c l u d e d a h u n d r e d years ago that w e n e e d e d to c h a n g e the way w e make decisions, w e could n o t have d o n e so successfully. O u r k n o w l e d g e still lacked s o m e vital pieces. F o u r n e w insights, taken together, proved key to r e m o v i n g the obstacles in o u r path. T h e y have all b e e n discovered separately over the last seventy years, b u t w e r e either i g n o r e d , f o r g o t t e n , o r bitterly o p p o s e d because they represented n e w k n o w l e d g e that w e n t c o n t r a r y to t h e beliefs held by m o s t p e o p l e — b y n o means a new problem. W e c o u l d draw parallels t o innovators such as C o p e r n i c u s or Galileo and have faith that o n e day the w o r l d will accept n e w k n o w l e d g e readily. T h e fact is that, a l t h o u g h w e w o u l d like to believe otherwise, even as trained scientists p e o p l e still a p p r o a c h n e w k n o w l e d g e in m u c h the same way they did in Galileo's t i m e . T h e y will always j u d g e n e w ideas in t h e light of prevailing beliefs, o r paradigms, a c c o r d i n g to T h o m a s K u h n , in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. T h e y can never b e objective a b o u t n e w information. If a n e w idea is in line w i t h w h a t w e believe, said K u h n , we accept it readily. B u t w h e n a n e w idea goes against o u r e x p e r i e n c e , k n o w l e d g e , and p r e j u d i c e s — w h a t w e know rather than w h a t w e think—our m i n d s either block it o u t , distort it, or rebel against it. N o n e of us can escape this paradigm effect. If you d o n ' t agree, t h e n take a f e w seconds to read the f o l l o w i n g sentence, and as you d o c o u n t the n u m b e r of times the letter F appears:

H

Finished files are the result of years of scientific study c o m b i n e d w i t h the e x p e r i e n c e of m a n y years of experts. 13

'VI PART I I I F O U R K E Y I N S I G H T S

C h a n c e s are, you probably c o u n t e d two, three, or four. F e w p e o p l e c o u n t m o r e . N o w , take a few seconds to read the f o l l o w i n g sentence, and again c o u n t the n u m b e r of F's: Strepxe fo sraey y n a m fo ecneirepxe e h t h t i w d e n i b m o c yduts cifitneics fo sraey fo tluser eht era selif dehsinif.

C h a n c e s are you c o u n t e d six o r seven. T h e r e w e r e seven in b o t h cases.You probably realize that the s e c o n d sentence was the same as the f i r s t — o n l y typed b a c k w a r d to prevent y o u r m i n d f r o m seeing t h e w o r d s . T h e way you w e r e taught to read m a d e you see words m o r e easily than letters in the first sentence. W h e n there were n o words to see in the s e c o n d s e n t e n c e you could easily see the F's. I d o u b t y o u hold any d e e p beliefs a b o u t t h e existence of F's, o r that you have a P h . D . in that field, o r that y o u r self-esteem is tied to F's in any way. H a d you b e e n s o m e w h a t e m o t i o n a l , even s u b consciously, a b o u t F's, there w o u l d have b e e n an even greater disparity in the results. W h e n it c a m e to u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e causes of e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e t e r i o r a tion, scientists already knew t h e a n s w e r . T h e i r assurance that e n o u g h m o n e y and t e c h n o l o g y w o u l d p u t things right differed n o t at all f r o m the c o n v i c tion of renaissance theologians that G o d caused t h e sun to circle t h e earth and n o t vice versa, as C o p e r n i c u s had suggested. A p h o t o g r a p h I t o o k s o m e years ago illustrates the p o i n t . O n t h e left side of t h e fence in p h o t o 2 - 1 h u n d r e d s of thousands of dollars had b e e n spent o n erosion c o n t r o l measures and o t h e r t e c h n i q u e s to reverse the d e t e r i o r a t i o n o c c u r r i n g o n this land, a national park. O n the right, n o t h ing had b e e n d o n e . For several centuries Navajos had grazed their flocks of sheep a n d goats there, w h i c h scientists had b l a m e d for causing t h e d e t e r i oration. In the national park livestock had b e e n b a n n e d for over forty years, b u t even so t h e land was n o better off. In fact, t h e land o n b o t h sides of t h e fence looks remarkably similar now. Clearly, n o o n e really k n e w w h a t was causing t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n in this case, and n o a m o u n t of m o n e y or t e c h n o l o g y could c h a n g e that lack of u n d e r s t a n d i n g o r reverse t h e d e t e rioration. W i t h the b e n e f i t of hindsight w e can easily see w h a t smaller revelations had to o c c u r b e f o r e p e o p l e accepted C o p e r n i c u s ' s theory. A f t e r p e o p l e b e c a m e truly c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h the n o t i o n of a r o u n d E a r t h , t h e t h e o r y of gravity, certain advances in m a t h e m a t i c s , and the m o o n s of Jupiter, the m o v e m e n t of t h e planets b e c a m e a simple m a t t e r too. In the m e a n t i m e a n u m b e r of p e o p l e w e n t to t h e stake. F o u r such b o t t l e n e c k s of u n d e r s t a n d i n g i m p e d e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of Holistic M a n a g e m e n t . T h e insights that enabled us to m o v e f o r w a r d c a m e late and painfully, however, because, a l t h o u g h they w e r e each rather simple

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P h o t o 2-1

15

Despite different management, the results, on both sides of the fence, are the

same. Chaco Canyon National Park, New

Mexico.

to grasp, they only b e c o m e o b v i o u s w h e n taken t o g e t h e r . T h u s , it h a d b e e n difficult to discover o r prove any o n e of these c o n c e p t s in isolation. Earlier peoples had expressed occasional flashes of insight into the p r i n ciples involved, b u t as " p r i m i t i v e " or peasant p e o p l e their o p i n i o n s were d i s c o u n t e d by t h e scientific c o m m u n i t y . It t o o k close to t w e n t y - f i v e years to discover their actual significance and to p u t t h e m t o g e t h e r successfully. As y o u will see, w e had to u n d e r s t a n d their c o n n e c t i o n to the p r o b l e m of e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e t e r i o r a t i o n and to each o t h e r first in o r d e r to m o v e f o r ward. T h e first insight o v e r t u r n e d t h e n o t i o n that the w o r l d could b e v i e w e d as a m a c h i n e m a d e up of parts that could b e isolated for study o r m a n a g e m e n t . In reality the world is c o m p o s e d of p a t t e r n s — o f matter, energy, a n d l i f e — t h a t f u n c t i o n as wholes w h o s e qualities c a n n o t b e predicted by s t u d y ing any aspect in isolation. W e w o u l d k n o w very little a b o u t water, for instance, by m a k i n g an exhaustive study of h y d r o g e n or o x y g e n , even t h o u g h every m o l e c u l e of water is c o m p o s e d of b o t h . Likewise, w e c o u l d never m a n a g e a piece o f land in isolation f r o m the p e o p l e w h o w o r k it or the e c o n o m y in w h i c h b o t h t h e land and t h e p e o p l e are e n m e s h e d . As C h a p t e r 3 explains, this insight led to the d e v e l o p m e n t of a f r a m e w o r k for m a n a g e m e n t and decision m a k i n g . D e f i n i n g t h e w h o l e w e were dealing w i t h b e c a m e t h e first step in Holistic M a n a g e m e n t . T h e n e x t three insights c o n t r a d i c t e d l o n g - h e l d beliefs a b o u t t h e causes

'VI PART II I F O U R KEY I N S I G H T S

of t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e t e r i o r a t i o n I had first witnessed in Africa and later f o u n d in A m e r i c a . As C h a p t e r 4 explains, there w e r e t w o broad categories of e n v i r o n m e n t w e had n o t recognized b e f o r e that had evolved in different ways and r e s p o n d e d differently w h e n t h e same actions w e r e applied to t h e m . T h e types of animals associated w i t h the t w o categories o f e n v i r o n m e n t also differed. As C h a p t e r s 5 and 6 show, m u c h of t h e land d e t e r i o r a tion that has o c c u r r e d in the w o r l d was initiated by t h e severing of a vital relationship b e t w e e n h e r d i n g animals and their p a c k - h u n t i n g predators. A r m e d w i t h this n e w k n o w l e d g e w e c o u l d m o r e accurately predict h o w any p i e c e of land m i g h t r e s p o n d to o u r m a n a g e m e n t . A n d this in t u r n w o u l d i n f l u e n c e t h e decisions w e m a d e in d e t e r m i n i n g w h i c h actions to take. T h e f o u r key insights are: 1. A holistic perspective is essential in management. If we base m a n agement decisions on any other perspective, we are likely to experience results different f r o m those intended because only the w h o l e is reality. 2. Environments may be classified on a c o n t i n u u m f r o m nonbrittle to very brittle according to h o w well humidity is distributed t h r o u g h out the year and h o w quickly dead vegetation breaks d o w n . At either end of the scale, environments respond differently to the same influences. R e s t i n g land restores it in nonbrittle environments, for instance, but damages it in very brittle environments. 3. In brittle environments, relatively high numbers of large, herding animals, concentrated and moving as they naturally do in the presence of pack-hunting predators, are vital to maintaining the health of the lands we thought they destroyed. 4. In any environment, overgrazing and damage from trampling bear little relationship to the n u m b e r of animals, but rather to the a m o u n t of time plants and soils are exposed to the animals. T h e n e x t f o u r chapters will i n t r o d u c e these f o u r key insights o n e at a time, b u t an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of all f o u r is essential to see why, despite all o u r efforts, t h e e n v i r o n m e n t s that sustain us c o n t i n u e to deteriorate. N o d o u b t m a n y o t h e r insights await discovery, b u t at this stage w e k n o w that these f o u r represent a m a j o r advance.

The Whole Is Greater Than the Sum of Its Parts

f the f o u r n e w insights, t h e discovery that a holistic perspective is essential in m a n a g e m e n t , is t h e m o s t vital. U n f o r t u n a t e l y it is also t h e m o s t difficult to u n d e r s t a n d and m o r e difficult still to b r i n g to bear in actual practice. Nevertheless, w e n o w realize that n o w h o l e , b e it a family, a business, a c o m m u n i t y , or a nation, can be m a n a g e d w i t h o u t l o o k i n g i n w a r d to the lesser w h o l e s that c o m b i n e to f o r m it, and outward, to the greater wholes of which it is a member. Each day w e p u t t h e u t m o s t c o n c e n tration and e n e r g y i n t o o u r c h o s e n tasks, s e l d o m reflecting that w e w o r k w i t h i n a greater w h o l e that o u r actions will affect, slowly, cumulatively, and o f t e n dramatically. In o u r culture it is m a i n l y p h i l o s o p h e r s w h o c o n c e r n themselves w i t h this larger issue because it is hard to see h o w individuals c a u g h t u p in daily life can take responsibility for t h e l o n g - t e r m c o n s e q u e n c e s of their actions, b u t they can. W e can. T h e n e e d f o r a n e w a p p r o a c h to t h e challenge of m a k i n g a living w i t h o u t destroying o u r e n v i r o n m e n t goes back to prehistoric times, to the m o m e n t h u m a n s acquired fire, spear, and axe, and thus t h e ability to alter o u r e n v i r o n m e n t in ways o t h e r animals c o u l d n o t . T h e sheer b o u n t y of Earth's resources, however, has enabled us to keep t h e old caveman attitude to any challenge: If y o u have a p r o b l e m , get a rock a n d smash it. In t h e last 400 years o u r k n o w l e d g e a n d t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l p o w e r to respond to any challenge have increased m o r e rapidly t h a n in all of the o n e million o r so years of h u m a n existence. O v e r the same f e w c e n t u r i e s the health of o u r natural resources has e n t e r e d a b r e a t h t a k i n g decline. T h e p a r allel is n o c o i n c i d e n c e , as figure 3 - 1 helps to illustrate. T h e first c o l u m n shows areas of technological success, w h i l e t h e s e c o n d shows areas of fail-

O

17

'VI PART I I

Mechanical

I

FOUR K E Y INSIGHTS

Nonrnechanical

Development of Management of Transport: air, land, water Agriculture Communication: radio, Rangelands television, telephone, Forests satellite Air quality Weapons: conventional, Fisheries nuclear, laser Water supplies and quality Space exploration Erosion C o m p u t e r technology: Economies artificial intelligence, Wildlife (including insects) robotics H u m a n relationships H o m e building and h o m e H u m a n health appliance technology (Ever-increasingproblems testifying Energy plants: nuclear, to our lack of understanding) hydroelectric, etc. Medical technology: brain scanners, eyeglasses/contact lenses, medicines, etc. Genetic engineering Chemical technology: synthetic fertilizers (Ever-increasing success story testifying to the marvels of science)

F i g u r e 3-1

Areas of human endeavor at which we have excelled are limited to those

of a mechanical nature, and are listed in the left column. We continue to face

innumerable

challenges in nonrnechanical areas of endeavor (right column), where our successes have been fleeting.

ure, although a few m i g h t contain apparent s h o r t - t e r m successes. It takes n o special insight to generalize a b o u t these two realms of endeavor. Every item on the left is of a mechanical nature and involves some f o r m of t e c h nology. Each o n e o n the right involves the nonrnechanical world of c o m plex relationships and wholes w i t h diffuse boundaries. A deeper analysis of this difference sheds some light on o u r failures. T h e m o d e r n scientific approach to the areas in b o t h c o l u m n s goes back to the t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y w o r k of R o g e r B a c o n , w h o first distinguished experimental science f r o m the unqualified belief in scripture and tradition. This idea developed into the formal scientific m e t h o d w h e r e i n o n e seeks to test a hypothesis by controlling all variables of a p h e n o m e n o n and manipulating t h e m o n e at a time. By the seventeenth century, scientists began to v i e w the w h o l e world as a m a c h i n e m a d e up of parts that could be isolated and studied by the scientific m e t h o d , and their success in areas that are in fact mechanical seemed to c o n f i r m this as f u n d a m e n t a l truth. H o w e v e r , in studying o u r ecosystem and the m a n y creatures inhabiting it we c a n n o t meaningfully isolate anything, let alone control the variables.

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T H E W H O L E IS GREATER T H A N T H E S U M OP ITS PARTS

19

T h e earth's a t m o s p h e r e , its plant, animal, a n d h u m a n inhabitants, its oceans, plains, a n d forests, its ecological stability, a n d its promise for h u m a n k i n d can only be grasped w h e n they are viewed in their entirety. Isolate any part, and n e i t h e r w h a t you have taken n o r w h a t you have left b e h i n d remains w h a t it was w h e n all was o n e . In the 1920s this n e w w o r l d v i e w was given a n a m e , holism (from t h e G r e e k holos), a n d a theoretical base by t h e l e g e n d a r y S o u t h A f r i c a n statesm a n - s c h o l a r Jan C h r i s t i a n Smuts (1870—1950); ( p h o t o 3 - 1 ) . In t h e years since, others have f u r t h e r elaborated o n Smuts's original theory. H o w e v e r , it is Smuts w h o m o s t i n f l u e n c e d my o w n t h i n k i n g . In Holism and Evolution (1926), Smuts challenged t h e old m e c h a n i c a l v i e w p o i n t of science. Like m o d e r n - d a y physicists, Smuts c a m e to see that t h e w o r l d is n o t m a d e up of substance, b u t of flexible, c h a n g i n g patterns. "If y o u take patterns as t h e ultimate structure of t h e w o r l d , if it is a r r a n g e m e n t s a n d n o t stuff that m a k e up t h e world," said Smuts, " t h e n e w c o n c e p t leads you to t h e c o n c e p t of w h o l e s . W h o l e s have n o stuff, they are a r r a n g e m e n t s . Science has c o m e r o u n d to the v i e w that t h e w o r l d consists of p a t terns, a n d I c o n s t r u e that to b e that t h e w o r l d consists of wholes." 1 Individual parts d o n o t exist in nature, only w h o l e s , a n d these f o r m a n d shape each other. T h e n e w science of Smuts's day, ecology, was simply a

P h o t o 3-1

Jan Chri stian Smuts (courtesy The Star, Johannesburg)

'VI PART I I

I

FOUR KEY INSIGHTS

r e c o g n i t i o n o f the fact that all organisms feel t h e force a n d m o l d i n g effect of t h e e n v i r o n m e n t as a w h o l e . " W e are i n d e e d o n e w i t h N a t u r e , " h e w r o t e . " H e r genetic fibers r u n t h r o u g h all o u r being; o u r physical organs c o n n e c t us w i t h millions of years of her history; o u r m i n d s are full of i m m e m o r i a l paths of p r e - h u m a n e x p e r i e n c e . " 2 W i t h o u t realizing it, A m e r i c a n biologist R o b e r t Paine provided d r a matic e v i d e n c e of t h e holistic n a t u r e of c o m m u n i t i e s in a study he did in a seashore e n v i r o n m e n t . W h e n h e r e m o v e d t h e m a i n predator, a certain species of starfish, f r o m a p o p u l a t i o n of fifteen observable species, things quickly c h a n g e d . W i t h i n a year, t h e area was o c c u p i e d by only eight of the original fifteen species. N u m b e r s w i t h i n t h e prey species b o o m e d a n d in the resulting c o m p e t i t i o n for space, reasoned Paine, those species that c o u l d m o v e left the area; those that c o u l d n o t simply died o u t . Paine speculated that in t i m e even m o r e species w o u l d b e lost. H i s c o n t r o l area, w h i c h still c o n t a i n e d the p r e d a t o r y starfish, over t h e same t i m e r e m a i n e d a c o m p l e x c o m m u n i t y w h e r e all species t h r i v e d . 3 V i e w e d f r o m t h e old p a r a d i g m that n a t u r e can b e v i e w e d as a m a c h i n e m a d e up of parts, the results of this study w e r e interesting, b u t n o t surprising. W h e n a critical part (the starfish) was r e m o v e d , t h e f o o d chain was d r a matically affected because all those species (or parts) w e r e i n t e r c o n n e c t e d . L o o k e d at in Smuts's terms, Paine's findings are m o r e dramatic. A l t h o u g h there w e r e fifteen observable species in t h e e n v i r o n m e n t studied, they w e r e m o r e than a collection of i n t e r c o n n e c t e d species. T h e y w e r e a w h o l e , j u s t as algae a n d f u n g i that cling so closely to o n e a n o t h e r have b e c o m e lichens, o r h y d r o g e n and o x y g e n have b e c o m e water. A n d j u s t as billions of nerve, muscle, skin, b l o o d , a n d b o n e cells have b e c o m e you.You d o n o t see y o u r self, o r y o u r parents, or y o u r children as c o m m u n i t i e s o f i n t e r c o n n e c t e d cells, you see t h e m as w h o l e persons. R e m o v i n g o n e e l e m e n t in the w h o l e , as Paine did, severely d i s r u p t e d t h e w h o l e c o m m u n i t y . Given that there can b e u p to a billion organisms in a t e a s p o o n of water, w e really have n o idea h o w m u c h m o r e d e e p l y the w h o l e in Paine's study was affected. I witnessed a similar d i s r u p t i o n in t w o m u c h larger c o m m u n i t i e s in Africa. For a p e r i o d in t h e 1950s I w o r k e d as a g a m e d e p a r t m e n t biologist in the L u a n g w a Valley in N o r t h e r n R h o d e s i a (today Z a m b i a ) and the lower Z a m b e z i Valley of S o u t h e r n R h o d e s i a (today Z i m b a b w e ) . B o t h areas c o n t a i n e d large wildlife p o p u l a t i o n s — e l e p h a n t , buffalo, zebra, m o r e than a d o z e n a n t e l o p e species, hippo, crocodiles, and n u m e r o u s o t h e r predators. O n m o r e than o n e occasion I saw m o r e than forty lions in a day's walk, w h i c h gives a g o o d indication of j u s t h o w large the p o p u l a t i o n s w e r e that they preyed u p o n . B u f f a l o herds w e r e so thick that o n e day w h e n a f r i e n d shot o n e buffalo w i t h a light rifle, t w e n t y - s e v e n adult buffalo w e r e t r a m pled to d e a t h in the resulting stampede.Yet despite these n u m b e r s , t h e river banks w e r e stable a n d well vegetated ( p h o t o 3 - 2 ) . P e o p l e had lived in these

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| T H E W H O L E IS GREATER T H A N T H E S U M OP ITS PARTS

P h o t o 3-2

In the 1950s the banks of the Zambezi

21

River were stable and well vegetated,

despite the high numbers of game and the presence of hunting, gardening humans.

Zimbabwe.

areas since t i m e i m m e m o r i a l in clusters of huts away f r o m the m a i n rivers because of t h e m o s q u i t o s and w e t season flooding. N e a r their huts they kept gardens that they p r o t e c t e d f r o m elephants and o t h e r raiders by b e a t i n g d r u m s t h r o u g h o u t m u c h of t h e n i g h t o r firing m u z z l e - l o a d i n g g u n s to f r i g h t e n t h e m o f f . T h e p e o p l e h u n t e d and trapped animals t h r o u g h o u t the year as well. B u t the g o v e r n m e n t s of b o t h c o u n t r i e s w a n t e d to m a k e these areas national parks. It w o u l d n o t d o to have all this h u n t i n g g o i n g o n , and all t h e d r u m beating, singing, and general disturbance, so the g o v e r n m e n t r e m o v e d the p e o p l e . Like Paine, we, in effect, r e m o v e d the starfish. B u t in o u r case w e p u t a different type of starfish back in. W e replaced d r u m b e a t ing, g u n firing, gardening, and f a r m i n g p e o p l e w i t h ecologists, naturalists, and tourists, u n d e r strict c o n t r o l to ensure they did n o t disturb t h e animals o r vegetation. Just as in Paine's study, the results were q u i c k and d r a m a t i c . W i t h i n a few decades miles of riverbank in b o t h valleys w e r e devoid of reeds, fig t h i c k ets, and m o s t o t h e r vegetation ( p h o t o 3 - 3 ) . W i t h n o t h i n g but the c h a n g e in b e h a v i o r of o n e species these areas b e c a m e terribly i m p o v e r i s h e d and are still d e t e r i o r a t i n g seriously as I w r i t e . W h y this resulted will b e c o m e clearer in the f o l l o w i n g chapters. For now, let m e j u s t say that the c h a n g e in h u m a n b e h a v i o r c h a n g e d t h e b e h a v i o r of the animals that had naturally feared t h e m , w h i c h in t u r n led to the d a m a g e to soils and vegetation.

'VI PART I I

P h o t o 3-3

By the 1980s the banks of the Zambezi

I

FOUR K E Y INSIGHTS

River within the national park were

nearly devoid of vegetation, even though game populations had been culled heavily and the hunting, gardening humans removed.

Zimbabwe.

H a d I b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d w h a t Smuts was saying, I m i g h t have seen t h e danger in w h a t w e had d o n e b e f o r e it was t o o Jate. It was years, however, b e f o r e his message finally m a d e sense to m e . Like m a n y y o u n g boys g r o w i n g up in Africa d u r i n g t h e S e c o n d W o r l d War, I h a d idolized J a n Smuts for his exploits as a field marshall in t h e British C o m m o n w e a l t h forces b u t his p h i l o s o p h y had lain far b e y o n d m y grasp. E v e n t h o u g h I used t h e w o r d holistic for years, I had to go t h r o u g h a l o n g a n d intellectually unsophisticated school of hard k n o c k s b e f o r e I c o u l d even read his b o o k , let alone u n d e r s t a n d holism well e n o u g h to p u t it to practical use. T h a t e x p e r i e n c e is nevertheless probably w o r t h relating for w h a t it shows a b o u t the biases that m u s t be o v e r c o m e in o u r culture because of the paradigms w e hold. I received m y scientific training in the c o n v e n t i o n a l approach that v i e w e d events in isolation. M y professors discouraged any a t t e m p t to c o m bine w h a t w e learned in o n e discipline w i t h w h a t w e covered in a n o t h e r , and t h e sanctity of research was held inviolate, even w h e n it o f f e n d e d c o m m o n sense. O n c e a visiting lecturer f r o m C a m b r i d g e i n f o r m e d us that research had s h o w n n o use for t h e flap of flesh b e h i n d a crocodile's ear and that despite having t h e m u s c u l a t u r e to m o v e t h e flap, the croc never did so. As I had kept a t a m e croc myself I k n e w I could m a k e h i m m o v e his ear flaps any

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T H E W H O L E IS GREATER T H A N T H E S U M OP ITS PARTS

23

day j u s t by teasing h i m . W h e n I v e n t u r e d that crocs raised their flaps in response to a threat, t h e lecturer quickly p u t m e d o w n . M y observations j u s t c o u l d n o t tip t h e scales against years of e x p e r i m e n t s in a controlled environment. Small as this i n c i d e n t was, it fueled a g r o w i n g disillusionment w i t h the artificiality of any approach that isolated parts of n a t u r e for s t u d y . T h e c r o c odile isolated f r o m his e n v i r o n m e n t was n o t the same animal. Later, as a research officer in b o t h t h e G a m e a n d Tsetse Fly C o n t r o l D e p a r t m e n t s , t h e same k i n d of ambivalence led m e to greatly disappoint m y superiors. I never m a n a g e d to set b o u n d a r i e s f o r any of the research projects I was e x p e c t e d to design. C o m m o n sense told m e in each case that t h e very limitations that w o u l d m a k e a research p r o j e c t acceptable scientifically w o u l d also m a k e t h e results meaningless. T h e D e p a r t m e n t of c o u r s e n e e d e d research reports to j u s t i f y its existence, b u t even u n d e r e x t r e m e pressure to d o s o m e t h i n g , I c o u l d n o t c o m m i t myself to w o r k that in my o p i n i o n c o u l d never lead to realistic answers to o u r m a n a g e m e n t problems. Later still, as an advisor to private ranchers o n land m a n a g e m e n t , I e n c o u n t e r e d the same d i l e m m a a g a i n . T h e y listened well to m y o p i n i o n o n t e c h n i q u e s that w o u l d improve their land, b u t several, w h i l e m a k i n g great progress toward that e n d , still w e n t b a n k r u p t after c o m m i t t i n g scarce f u n d s to g o v e r n m e n t - s p o n s o r e d irrigation s c h e m e s . F r o m my o w n f a r m i n g days I k n e w t h e risk of tying up capital in g o v e r n m e n t incentive p r o g r a m s to build irrigation dams, as these ranchers had d o n e , b u t as I was an ecologist, n o t a financial advisor, they i g n o r e d m y friendly warnings. T h a t taught m e that to help any r a n c h e r to m a n a g e his o r her land, fivestock, a n d wildlife, I had to b e c o m e involved in the financial p l a n n i n g to s o m e e x t e n t . T h a t i n v o l v e m e n t helped, b u t f r e q u e n t l y o t h e r troubles c r o p p e d u p that expertise in financial p l a n n i n g did n o t address. O t h e r w i s e s o u n d operations c o u l d also flounder because of c o m m u n i c a t i o n problems a m o n g the p e o p l e involved o r because of their b l u n d e r i n g a l o n g w i t h o u t l o n g - r a n g e goals. T h i s led m e to add organizational m a n a g e m e n t to the specialties I studied. By this time I was calling my w o r k holistic ranch m a n a g e m e n t , but in reality it was a n y t h i n g b u t holistic. I still had n o t read Smuts and saw n o n e e d , assuming myself to have a d v a n c e d b e y o n d a n y t h i n g he m i g h t have w r i t t e n in 1926. I had a record o f g o o d results o n t h e land to s u p p o r t this o p i n i o n and had spent t w o five-year p e r i o d s in p a r t n e r s h i p w i t h c o n s u l tants f r o m w h o m I had learned m u c h a b o u t t h e latest e c o n o m i c t h i n k i n g . N e v e r t h e l e s s I still g o t sporadic results a n d clearly s o m e t h i n g was missing. O t h e r scientists, e n c o u n t e r i n g similar frustrations, had c o n c l u d e d that w e o f t e n aggravated m a n a g e m e n t problems by a p p r o a c h i n g t h e m f r o m t h e perspective of n a r r o w disciplines. N o animal nutritionist, soil scientist,

'VI PART I I

I FOUR KEY INSIGHTS

e c o n o m i s t , or any o t h e r specialist alone had m e a n i n g f u l answers. W h e r e I had a c c u m u l a t e d k n o w l e d g e in several fields and had even t e a m e d u p w i t h o t h e r experts, o t h e r s f o r m e d interdisciplinary teams of various kinds b u t fared n o better. W h y these teams, m y o w n i n c l u d e d , did n o t w o r k deserves a close l o o k because increasing n u m b e r s of p e o p l e are calling their w o r k holistic, as I o n c e did myself, w h e n clearly, or n o t so clearly, it is n o t . T h e i r f u n d a m e n tal weakness was described in t h e b o o k Landscape Ecology by Z e v N a v e h and A r t h u r L i e b e r m a n (1983): In a c o m p u t e r i z e d simulation g a m e , D o r n e r (a researcher) asked 12 professionals f r o m different relevant disciplines to p r o p o s e an i n t e g r a t e d d e v e l o p m e n t plan for the overall i m p r o v e m e n t of an i m a g i n a r y A f r i c a n C o u n t r y , Tana. T h e results achieved were very disappointing: if these proposals w e r e carried o u t they w o u l d w o r s e n t h e lot of t h e people, destroy the a g r i c u l t u r a l - e c o n o m i c base, and create new, even m o r e severe p r o b l e m s . 4 M y only criticism of this w o r k was the n e e d to invent an i m a g i n a r y c o u n try. " T a n a " c o u l d have b e e n any o n e of m y clients o r any state in A m e r i c a or any d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r y in the w o r l d using i n t e g r a t e d p l a n n i n g teams. W h a t D o r n e r simulated w i t h a c o m p u t e r was w h a t I had seen and e x p e r i e n c e d repeatedly in practice. First o f all, specialists o f t e n c o m m u n i c a t e poorly, n o t only because they have different perspectives b u t also because they speak different languages. O f t e n t h e same w o r d s in o n e j a r g o n m e a n s o m e t h i n g else in a n o t h e r . E v e n w h e r e t e a m m e m b e r s have training in several disciplines, as I myself did to s o m e e x t e n t , the t e n d e n c y is to simply swap hats and k e e p talking w i t h o u t ever b e i n g able to stand back and see t h e w h o l e . In such cases, o p i n i o n s acquire w e i g h t and conclusions are n e g o t i a t e d a c c o r d i n g to criteria that may have n o relationship w h a t e v e r to overall n e e d . I, however, did n o t see any of this until m a n y years later w h e n I u n d e r t o o k to explain m y approach to m a n a g e m e n t in training courses I was asked to provide f o r professionals in U.S. g o v e r n m e n t agencies. It is a great credit to the o p e n n e s s of A m e r i c a that this h a p p e n e d because m y ideas d e p a r t e d radically f r o m those given in t h e training m o s t of these p e o p l e had e m b r a c e d for years. N o n e t h e l e s s , the courses w e r e very stressful events, and in struggling to teach w h a t I k n e w of holism to an a u d i e n c e of very skeptical peers, I c a m e to realize I didn't u n d e r s t a n d it myself. Finally, I read S m u t s and realized w h e r e i n t h e holistic w o r l d v i e w d i f fered f r o m e v e r y t h i n g prior. It b e c a m e o b v i o u s to m e that n o t only are there n o parts in N a t u r e , there are n o b o u n d a r i e s e i t h e r . Y o u r skin could

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25

be v i e w e d as t h e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e c o m m u n i t y of cells that c o m p o s e you as a p e r s o n and the outside world.Yet, skin is p e r m e a b l e and the traffic passing t h r o u g h it in b o t h directions is heavy.Viewed at t h e m o l e c u l a r level, skin is m o r e space than substance. A n y time w e talk a b o u t i n t e r c o n n e c t e d n e s s w e are i m p l y i n g that b o u n d a r i e s exist b e t w e e n w h a t e v e r is b e i n g c o n n e c t e d . To m o r e a c c u r a t e ly v i e w t h e world, o n e has to accept that in reality there are n o b o u n d a r i e s , only w h o l e s w i t h i n w h o l e s in a variety of patterns. A n d to u n d e r s t a n d the w o r l d , a c c o r d i n g to Smuts, w e m u s t first seek to u n d e r s t a n d t h e greater w h o l e , w h i c h has qualities a n d characteristics n o t present in any of the lesser w h o l e s that f o r m it. T h e design in p h o t o 3 - 4 shows this well. Take a close l o o k at it and t h i n k of it as d e p i c t i n g o u r ecosystem. T h i s is t h e sort of c o n f u s i n g picture w e saw w h e n first t r y i n g to u n d e r s t a n d ourselves and o u r e n v i r o n m e n t . A c c o r d i n g to scientific c u s t o m w e isolated t h e individual squares for study, believing that if w e c o u l d learn e n o u g h a b o u t each of t h e m w e w o u l d u n d e r s t a n d the w h o l e . H o w e v e r , in t h e case of nature, as in this p a t t e r n of squares, this leads n o w h e r e . N o w stand well back f r o m t h e pattern, squint y o u r eyes so t h e squares blur into each o t h e r and t h e picture appears as a w h o l e . It is a face, and a

P h o t o 3-4

This is the sort of confusing picture we saw when first trying to understand ourselves and our environment (courtesy AT&T Bell Laboratories).

'VI PART I I

I

FOUR KEY INSIGHTS

familiar o n e to m a n y of us ( A b r a h a m Lincoln's). If you had set o u t to s o m e h o w m a n a g e this design by paying a t t e n t i o n only to the individual squares, a n y t h i n g you m i g h t have learned w o u l d have m a d e you s e e m f o o l ish, for n o square has any m e a n i n g in isolation f r o m all the rest. O f course, o n c e you see the w h o l e in the p a t t e r n , detailed k n o w l e d g e of t h e squares does b e c o m e useful. You w o u l d n e e d a great deal of such k n o w l e d g e to r e p r o d u c e , enlarge, preserve, market, o r m o d i f y the w o r k in any way, b u t only having first seen t h e w h o l e could you even ask t h e right questions a b o u t the details. I personally had t r e m e n d o u s difficulty in seeing w h y the fact that w h o l e s have qualities n o t present in their parts, causes the interdisciplinary approach to f l o u n d e r , until I actually could w o r k it o u t w i t h m y o w n hands as a y o u n g child m i g h t . I t o o k f o u r balls of k i n d e r g a r t e n - t y p e m o d e l i n g clay in red, g r e e n , yell o w and blue, a n d began k n e a d i n g t h e m t o g e t h e r until they slowly b l e n d ed into a fifth color, gray. Mentally I let gray represent t h e w o r l d w e o r i g inally set o u t to u n d e r s t a n d . Close inspection of m y gray ball revealed traces of t h e f o u r colors I had b e g u n w i t h . So to u n d e r s t a n d this w o r l d of gray I w o u l d study t h e colors I k n e w to be in s o m e way involved in it, in m u c h t h e same way o u r earliest scientists b r o k e o u r natural w o r l d into w h a t they perceived as parts for study. Today w e have thousands of disciplines, b u t for simplicity I used four, represented by the four colors, to m a k e m y p o i n t as s h o w n in plate 1 (following page 46). A l t h o u g h a few h u n d r e d years of intense effort have greatly increased o u r k n o w l e d g e of the f o u r colors, w e still had n o t studied gray. N o m a t t e r h o w great o u r k n o w l e d g e of any or all of the f o u r colors, w e could never u n d e r s t a n d , and thus m a n a g e , gray as w e had n o k n o w l e d g e of gray itself. N e x t I pulled t h e f o u r colors t o g e t h e r as s h o w n in plate 2 to represent a multidisciplinary team. I m m e d i a t e l y I c o u l d see that the p r o b l e m was a lack of k n o w l e d g e of gray, n o t a lack of c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n disciplines as was previously t h o u g h t . N e x t I mixed, or integrated, t h e f o u r colors until I had f o u r balls, each of w h i c h c o n t a i n e d equal divisions of green, red, yellow, and blue to r e p resent interdisciplinary teams w i t h k n o w l e d g e of each color, as illustrated in plate 3. Still n o k n o w l e d g e of gray! N o w I could see w h y the interdisciplinary a p p r o a c h c o u l d n o t succeed. In practice, I realized, all m a n a g e m e n t decisions had to be m a d e f r o m the perspective of t h e w h o l e u n d e r m a n a g e m e n t . If w e based o u r decisions o n any o t h e r perspective, w e c o u l d e x p e c t to e x p e r i e n c e results different f r o m those i n t e n d e d because only the w h o l e is reality. First, however, the w h o l e had to b e defined, b e a r i n g in m i n d that it always i n f l u e n c e d , and was i n f l u e n c e d by, b o t h greater and lesser w h o l e s — a n d w e had to k n o w w h a t w e w a n t e d to d o w i t h it: w e n e e d e d an all-encompassing, holistic goal. Last, w e n e e d e d a m e a n s of w e i g h i n g u p the m a n y ramifications s t e m m i n g f r o m

45 3

| T H E W H O L E IS GREATER T H A N T H E S U M OP ITS PARTS

o u r actions. T h u s , a f r a m e w o r k for m a n a g e m e n t and d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g had e m e r g e d . In u s i n g that f r a m e w o r k w e can n o w take the perspective of the w h o l e by reversing t h e arrows and w e i g h i n g up m a n a g e m e n t o r policy decisions, as d e p i c t e d in plate 4. T h e rest of this b o o k will deal w i t h w h a t this m e a n s in t e r m s of w h a t you will d o after breakfast this m o r n i n g , but b e f o r e m o v i n g o n , there is a final p o i n t . A n y n u m b e r of p e o p l e have suggested that, given t h e c o m plexity of o u r w o r l d , c o m p u t e r s are m o r e capable than m o s t of us in w e i g h i n g up t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s s t e m m i n g f r o m any particular decision w e m a k e . Yet, p o w e r f u l tools as they are f o r solving specific m e c h a n i c a l p r o b lems, c o m p u t e r s c a n n o t t h i n k holistically. In particular they c a n n o t evaluate e m o t i o n s and h u m a n values, w h i c h are vital c o m p o n e n t s of t h e w h o l e . T h e h u m a n m i n d , by contrast, can see patterns a n d m a k e decisions o u t of a deep, even u n c o n s c i o u s , sense of the w h o l e , and given an awareness of t h e necessity, and t h e m e n t a l c r u t c h o f a f r a m e w o r k for decision m a k i n g that keeps o u r focus o n t h e w h o l e , f a r - r e a c h i n g changes can be b r o u g h t a b o u t by the likes of you a n d m e . Because y o u are i n c o r p o r a t e d in t h e w h o l e s y o u manage, only you a n d o t h e r s directly involved in those w h o l e s c o m m a n d t h e o u t w a r d - l o o k i n g perspective vital to y o u r particular m a n a g e m e n t needs.

Conclusion A l t h o u g h still in t h e infancy of its d e v e l o p m e n t , this holistic d e c i s i o n - m a k ing process already enables us to look o u t w a r d and to c h o o s e f r o m all the available k n o w l e d g e that w h i c h p r o m o t e s o u r holistic goal and ensures that o u r e n v i r o n m e n t can sustain it. It also lets us predict results ahead of time. W i t h a bit of practice, almost a n y o n e can use the process to solicit advice f r o m specialists and j u d g e w h e n such advice does or does n o t serve the holistic goal. Frequently, advice that appears perfectly s o u n d f r o m an economist's, e n g i n e e r s , or any other's p o i n t of v i e w proves u n s o u n d holistically in a particular situation at a particular t i m e . T h i s has spelled disaster, as D o r n e r ' s study predicted, f o r m a n y a foreign aid p r o j e c t and national policy, but also lor families, c o m m u n i t i e s , and businesses large and small. As a culture w e have acquired such an awe of e x p e r i m e n t a l science that w e have trained ourselves simply to p h o n e any certified e x p e r t w h e n e v e r adversity arises. Great difficulties lie ahead until a n e w g e n e r a t i o n can be trained to t h i n k holistically for themselves and t h e n w e i g h a n d select expertise that really fits t h e case. T h e first key insight t h e n , is that a holistic perspective is essential in m a n a g e m e n t . If w e base m a n a g e m e n t decisions o n any o t h e r perspective, w e are likely to e x p e r i e n c e results different f r o m those i n t e n d e d because only t h e w h o l e is reality.

h e first key insight enabled us to develop a f r a m e w o r k for m a n a g e m e n t and decision m a k i n g , b u t w e still lacked certain insights that w e r e key to reversing t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e t e r i o r a t i o n that had a c c o m p a n i e d the rise of n u m e r o u s civilizations, i n c l u d i n g o u r o w n , and w i t h o u t w h i c h that f r a m e w o r k w o u l d n o t be c o m p l e t e . T h e s e c o n d insight o v e r t u r n s the belief that all e n v i r o n m e n t s r e s p o n d in t h e same m a n n e r to t h e same i n f l u e n c e s . T h e y d o n ' t . T h e standard classifications of e n v i r o n m e n t s by vegetative f e a t u r e s — d e s e r t , prairie, or rain forest—accurately describe m a j o r variations w i t h i n o u r global ecosystem, as d o such climatic categories as arid, s e m i - a r i d , t e m p e r a t e , and so o n . Nevertheless, in l o o k i n g at w h y s o m e d e t e r i o r a t e to t h e e x t e n t that deserts f o r m w h i l e others d o n ' t , leads to a n e w way of classifying t h e m . M o r e specifically t h e n , t h e second insight is the n e w p r i n c i p l e that e n v i r o n m e n t s may be classified o n a c o n t i n u u m f r o m n o n b r i t t l e to very brittle a c c o r d ing to h o w well h u m i d i t y is distributed t h r o u g h o u t t h e year and h o w quickly dead vegetation breaks d o w n . W e have l o n g recognized that s o m e e n v i r o n m e n t s readily d e t e r i o r a t e d u n d e r h u m a n m a n a g e m e n t . H e r o d o t u s , f o r example, described Libya in t h e fifth c e n t u r y B.C. as having deep, rich soils and an a b u n d a n t supply of springs that p r o v i d e d a highly p r o d u c t i v e agricultural base for a large p o p ulation.Today only desert remains. T h o s e w h o c h r o n i c l e d this sort of d e t e r i o r a t i o n , believed that such regions w e r e vulnerable to desertification because they w e r e arid or s e m i - a r i d . T h e bulk of t h e world's arid and semi-arid regions are in fact p r e d o m inantly grasslands of o n e f o r m o r a n o t h e r w h e r e livestock p r o d u c t i o n has 28

4 I V I E W I N G ENVIRONMENTS A W H O L E N E W W A Y

29

l o n g b e e n t h e chief o c c u p a t i o n . W h e n livestock m a n a g e m e n t practices p r o d u c e bare g r o u n d , a critical share of available m o i s t u r e either evaporates f r o m the e x p o s e d surface o r r u n s off it. Springs dry up, silt c h o k e s dams, rivers, and irrigation ditches, a n d less w a t e r remains for croplands, industry, and p e o p l e in nearby cities. G o i n g back even b e y o n d H e r o d o t u s , c o m m o n sense has always assumed that, o n c e the land is d a m a g e d , t h e best r e m e d y is to rest it f r o m any f o r m of h u m a n disturbance, i n c l u d i n g d o m e s t i c stock. B u t despite t h e application o f this w i s d o m , the croplands a n d rangelands of Libya and its n e i g h b o r s have desertified anyway, as m u c h of A m e r i c a is n o w d o i n g . T h e old a s s u m p t i o n that resting land will restore it to its f o r m e r productivity and stability appears logical. M o r e o v e r , it does apply to the stable e n v i r o n m e n t s of n o r t h e r n E u r o p e and the eastern U n i t e d States w h e r e m o d e r n agricultural science has its roots. I w o r k e d u n d e r t h e old belief that resting land restored it in m y early g a m e d e p a r t m e n t days, b u t a u n i q u e e x p e r i e n c e led m e to suspect a f u n d a m e n t a l flaw in this belief. For m a n y years, Z i m b a b w e had a practice of eradicating all g a m e animals over vast areas to d e n y the tsetse fly a source of b l o o d — i t s only source of n o u r i s h m e n t . O n c e t h e tsetse fly was g o n e , and t h e fatal h u m a n and livestock diseases it carried, livestock c o u l d safely be i n t r o d u c e d . As a research officer for b o t h the G a m e D e p a r t m e n t and later the D e p a r t m e n t of Tsetse C o n t r o l , I w o r k e d o f t e n in these areas. I witnessed e n v i r o n m e n t a l d a m a g e I c o u l d n o t explain and that did n o t fit t h e neat scientific t h e o r i e s I had l e a r n e d . T h e land in tsetse fly areas d e t e r i o r a t e d seriously o n c e t h e original g a m e p o p u l a t i o n s w e r e d e c i m a t e d and t h e i n c i d e n c e of fires, to m a k e t h e h u n t i n g easier, increased. At that time w e knew that fire h e l p e d m a i n t a i n grassland. T h e only o t h e r i n f l u e n c e w e kneif c o u l d cause such d a m a g e was overgrazing. H o w e v e r , n e i t h e r g a m e n o r d o m e s t i c animals w e r e present, and so there was n o overgrazing. It was very puzzling. Yet a n o t h e r e x p e r i e n c e a d d e d to m y c o n f u s i o n . W e had a massive b u i l d u p of animal n u m b e r s in a g a m e reserve o n t h e Botswana b o r d e r k n o w n as the Tuli Circle, and as a result, t h o u s a n d s of animals starved to death. I, and the wildlife biologists w o r k i n g w i t h m e , believed that w i t h dramatically fewer animals living there, the area w o u l d naturally recover, b u t it c o n t i n u e d to deteriorate. M o s t of o u r scientists b l a m e d d r o u g h t , b u t in t h e year of w o r s t so-called d r o u g h t the records s h o w e d o n e of the best rainy seasons ever, in b o t h v o l u m e and distribution. I published a p a p e r at t h e t i m e in w h i c h I c o n c l u d e d that o n c e land was so badly d a m a g e d , it had reached a p o i n t of n o r e t u r n and w o u l d never recover. I didn't realize h o w w r o n g I was until years later. A n o t h e r s h o c k to my c o n v i c t i o n that l o w rainfall and overgrazing inevitably p r o d u c e d desert c a m e o u t of m y first visit to n o r t h e r n E u r o p e .

'VI PART I I

I

FOUR K E Y INSIGHTS

T h e r e I saw areas that had as little as 15 to 20 inches ( 3 7 5 - 5 0 0 m m ) of rain per year that w e r e n o t desertifying, despite h u n d r e d s of years of overgrazing and p o o r m a n a g e m e n t . Areas in Africa and the M i d d l e East that received as m u c h as 40 to 50 inches ( 1 0 0 0 - 1 2 5 0 m m ) of rain annually, however, had desertified rapidly u n d e r the same practices. E v e n w h e n w e had greatly r e d u c e d t h e animal n u m b e r s in these areas, cleared t h e brush and planted grass, at considerable expense, they c o n t i n u e d to d e t e r i o r a t e . N o m a t t e r h o w scientifically a d v a n c e d w e were, o u r k n o w l e d g e still lacked a vital piece. Finally in the vast and relatively u n u s e d lands of N o r t h A m e r i c a I discovered w h a t had e l u d e d m e in t h e highly p o p u l a t e d a n d m u c h used lands of s o u t h e r n Africa, a n d in t h e different e n v i r o n m e n t s of E u r o p e — t h a t w e had in fact t w o broad types of e n v i r o n m e n t that had n o t b e e n recognized. At their extremes, these react differently to m a n a g e m e n t . Practices that b e n e f i t e d t h e o n e type of e n v i r o n m e n t d a m a g e d t h e o t h e r . T h e t e r m s brittle and nonbrittle c o m e f r o m that insight. N o clear break exists b e t w e e n t h e e x t r e m e s that range f r o m n o n b r i t t l e to very brittle. O n a scale that classifies true j u n g l e s as a 1 and t r u e deserts as a 10, all o t h e r e n v i r o n m e n t s range s o m e w h e r e in b e t w e e n . A single v e g etative category m a y cover a w i d e range o n the brittleness scale. Grasslands, for instance, may lie a n y w h e r e f r o m 1 to 9 or 10 o n the scale; forests f r o m 1 to 7 o r 8. Brittleness is n o t t h e same as fragility. W i t h i n m a n y e n v i r o n m e n t a l classifications are areas that are very easily upset by a variety of forces and robust c o m m u n i t i e s that w i t h s t a n d m u c h m o r e abuse. H o w e v e r , fragile c o m m u n i t i e s m a y exist in a n o n b r i t t l e e n v i r o n m e n t (e.g., a delicate f e r n d o m i n a t e d glade in a forest), and s o m e fairly brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s may be n o n f r a g i l e (e.g., the A f r i c a n savannas and t h e A m e r i c a n prairies). B e c a u s e the t w o e x t r e m e s o n o u r 1 to 10 scale s h o w such a clear c o r relation to total rainfall, it is easy to see in retrospect w h y we linked an e n v i r o n m e n t ' s vulnerability to desertification to low r a i n f a l l . T h e d e g r e e of brittleness d e t e r m i n e s this vulnerability, however, m o r e t h a n total p r e c i p i tation. T h e closer w e get to 10 o n the brittleness scale, even w i t h high ( 3 0 - 8 0 i n c h / 7 5 0 - 2 0 0 0 m m ) rainfall, the faster the land will d e t e r i o r a t e u n d e r m o d e r n agricultural practices. T h i s is n o t to say that n o n b r i t t l e m e a n s n o n v u l n e r a b l e to d e t e r i o r a t i o n , as t h e massive clearing of tropical rain forests makes clear. T h e features that distinguish any e n v i r o n m e n t ' s position on t h e brittleness scale derive n o t so m u c h f r o m total rainfall as f r o m t h e distribution of precipitation and h u m i d i t y t h r o u g h o u t the year. Toward t h e very brittle e n d of t h e scale, e n v i r o n m e n t s characteristically e x p e r i e n c e erratic distribu t i o n of b o t h precipitation and h u m i d i t y d u r i n g t h e year. T h e p a t t e r n d e t e r m i n e s the d e g r e e of brittleness. A 3 0 - to 5 0 - i n c h ( 7 5 0 - 1 2 5 0 m m )

4

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31

rainfall area that typically has very d r y p e r i o d s in t h e m i d d l e of its g r o w i n g season and a l o n g d r y season, is likely to b e very brittle. Toward the n o n b r i t t l e e n d of t h e scale e n v i r o n m e n t s characteristically e x p e r i e n c e increasingly reliable m o i s t u r e in the g r o w i n g season. E v e n t h o u g h total precipitation may s e l d o m t o p 20 inches (500 m m ) a year in s o m e of t h e m , t h e distribution is such that t h r o u g h o u t t h e year, a t m o s p h e r i c h u m i d i t y does n o t drop severely. In c o m p l e t e l y n o n b r i t t l e e n v i r o n m e n t s b o t h p r e cipitation and h u m i d i t y w o u l d b e c o n s t a n t and high. T h e distribution of t h e precipitation, as well as the elevation, t e m p e r a ture, and prevailing winds, clearly affects t h e d a y - t o - d a y d i s t r i b u t i o n of h u m i d i t y and this links very closely to the d e g r e e of b r i t t l e n e s s . T h e p o o r er t h e distribution of humidity, particularly in t h e g r o w i n g season, the m o r e brittle t h e area tends to be, even t h o u g h total rainfall may be high, as s h o w n in figure 4 - 1 . Very brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s c o m m o n l y have a l o n g p e r i o d of n o n g r o w t h that can be very arid. T h e brittleness scale can perhaps best b e u n d e r s t o o d by l o o k i n g at h o w e n v i r o n m e n t s at either e n d of t h e scale f u n c t i o n e d p r i o r to the d e v e l o p m e n t of fire-lighting and t o o l - m a k i n g h u m a n s . In t h e perennially h u m i d n o n b r i t t l e e n v i r o n m e n t s , as illustrated in figure 4 - 2 , a mass of evergreen vegetation was p r o d u c e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e year; there was n o p e r i o d of d o r mancy. Plants died t h r o u g h o u t t h e year as well, b u t d e c o m p o s e d quickly d u e to the high n u m b e r s of insects and m i c r o o r g a n i s m s w h o s e p o p u l a t i o n s r e m a i n e d high and active t h r o u g h o u t t h e year. T h i s was n o t the case, however, at t h e o t h e r e n d of the scale w h e r e h u m i d i t y was erratic and the e n v i r o n m e n t very brittle. H e r e , as figure 4 - 3 shows, vegetation and insect and m i c r o o r g a n i s m p o p u l a t i o n s w o u l d build u p d u r i n g the rainy m o n t h s of t h e year. H o w e v e r , w h e n t h e rains s t o p p e d , h u m i d i t y d r o p p e d , a n d as t h e soil dried o u t , m o s t of the a b o v e g r o u n d vegetation d i e d — o n l y trunks, branches, a n d t h e bases of p e r e n n i al grass plants r e m a i n e d alive. At the same time, insect a n d m i c r o o r g a n i s m

Proportion of the Year That Is Humid or Arid 1

2

Nonbrittle Figure 4-1 Humidity

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Very Brittle and the brittleness scale. Humidity

portion of the year the closer an environment

is high over a greater

is to the nonbrittle end of the scale.

'VI

PART I I

I FOUR K E Y INSIGHTS

Evergreen plant mass growing throughout year Some plant material dying throughout year

Insect and microorganism populations high and active throughout year

Year

•

F i g u r e 4 - 2 In the perennially humid nonbrittle environments, and plants die throughout

vegetation is evergreen

the year. Any plants that die will decay quickly due to the

presence of insects and microorganisms

that remain active throughout

Growing Season

the year.

N o n g r o w i n g , o r D o r m a n t Season

Massive death:of aboveground plant material

9

9

9

9

9

\ V M

Insects and microorganisms decrease

Year

F i g u r e 4 - 3 In the seasonally humid brittle environments,

• most

above-ground

vegetation dies at a certain point in the year. At the same time, populations

of insects

and microorganisms that would normally assist in the decay process decrease or become dormant.

activity was drastically reduced as these organisms w e n t into dormancy, died off, or survived only in the egg or pupal f o r m , t h r o u g h the dry p e r i od. P h o t o 4-1 was taken in a high-rainfall (35 i n c h e s / 8 7 5 m m ) very b r i t tle e n v i r o n m e n t m a n y m o n t h s after the last rainfall of the g r o w i n g season. T h e stems and leaves of these grass plants are n o w dead and of n o use to the plants. In fact, the mass of material remaining on the plants is a liability because it will block sunlight f r o m reaching the plants' ground-level

4 I V I E W I N G ENVIRONMENTS A W H O L E N E W

P h o t o 4-1

33

WAY

The stems and leaves produced in the last growing season by these grass plants

are now dead and will block sunlight from reaching the plants' ground-level growth points. Unless this old material is removed before the coming growing season these plants will produce very few new leaves. Very brittle 35-inch (875-inm)

rainfall environment,

Zimbabwe.

g r o w t h points. W h e n the rains c o m e again these plants will p r o d u c e very few n e w leaves. So h o w did all that dead vegetation break d o w n every year over m i l lions of years in t h e past? L i g h t n i n g , t h e n as now, w o u l d have sparked fires and c o n s u m e d s o m e of the vegetation, but relatively few areas w o u l d have b e e n affected in any o n e year. T h e r e was a m u c h m o r e p o w e r f u l and p e r vasive influence, h o w e v e r — g r a z i n g animals, and lots of t h e m . Bison, elk, p r o n g h o r n , kangaroos, saiga antelope, the m a n y species of A f r i c a n antelope, elephant, buffalo, zebra, and so o n , all evolved in these e n v i r o n m e n t s . T h e i r presence was significant because they c o n s u m e d a fair a m o u n t of plant material w h i l e it was still g r e e n a n d g r o w i n g , and they c o n t i n u e d c o n s u m ing it l o n g after all g r o w t h had s t o p p e d . In the moist digestive tracts of these animals, a mass of m i c r o o r g a n i s m s c o n t i n u e d to thrive, and m a n a g e d to r e d u c e the large v o l u m e of material c o n s u m e d to d u n g . In t h e f o l l o w ing rainy season w h e n insect and external m i c r o o r g a n i s m p o p u l a t i o n s o n c e again b e c a m e n u m e r o u s , they w o u l d c o n s u m e t h e d u n g , as well as t h e dead vegetation that had b e e n trampled o n t o t h e soil, and c o m p l e t e t h e cycle of decay. Today, of course, t h e vast herds have disappeared f r o m these e n v i r o n m e n t s (they never did o c c u r in n o n b r i t t l e e n v i r o n m e n t s ) . In their absence,

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only a small p r o p o r t i o n of the vegetation p r o d u c e d is able to decay. M o s t is left to break d o w n chemically t h r o u g h o x i d a t i o n — t h e same process at w o r k o n rusting metal, a l t h o u g h dead plant material t u r n s gray and t h e n black, rather t h a n r e d d i s h - b r o w n — o r physically t h r o u g h w e a t h e r i n g , w h e r e w i n d , rain, a n d hail v e r y gradually w e a r t h e m d o w n . H u m a n s of course also assist t h e b r e a k d o w n by b u r n i n g t h e dead vegetation, w h i c h is w h y w e n e e d e d to go back to t h e time b e f o r e h u m a n s h a d the ability to light fires to e x a m i n e t h e differences in t h e t w o broad types of e n v i r o n ment. As the ability of plants to d e c o m p o s e a n d recycle their n u t r i e n t s is c r u cial to t h e health of t h e w h o l e e n v i r o n m e n t , d e t e r m i n i n g the d e g r e e of brittleness b e c o m e s a p r i m e f a c t o r in the m a n a g e m e n t of any e n v i r o n m e n t . N o n b r i t t l e a n d very brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s react quite differently to m a n y of the m a n a g e m e n t practices w e e n g a g e in daily, yet w e have failed to m a k e this distinction. I c o u l d n o t have m a d e this discovery myself h a d I n o t simultaneously arrived at the b r i n k of articulating t h e o t h e r three insights. T h e full ramifications of t h e brittleness scale d o n o t b e c o m e clear w i t h o u t t h e m all. At this p o i n t let m e j u s t say that t h e old belief that all land should be rested or left u n d i s t u r b e d in o r d e r to reverse its d e t e r i o r a t i o n has p r o v e n w r o n g . E n v i r o n m e n t s lying close to the n o n b r i t t l e e n d of the scale d o respond in this way. W h e n ancient cities w e r e a b a n d o n e d in these e n v i r o n m e n t s , biological c o m m u n i t i e s recovered a n d b u r i e d t h e ruins in v e g etation as s h o w n in p h o t o 4 - 2 . In e n v i r o n m e n t s leaning toward t h e very brittle e n d of t h e scale, p r o l o n g e d rest will lead to f u r t h e r d e t e r i o r a t i o n and instability. A n c i e n t cities that w e r e a b a n d o n e d in these e n v i r o n m e n t s are n o w b u r i e d u n d e r desert sands, as s h o w n in p h o t o 4 - 3 . Since over half of t h e earth's land surface is m o r e , rather than less, brittle, it is n o surprise that desertification is spreading at t h e rate it is. O n c e w e u n d e r s t o o d t h e brittle and n o n b r i t t l e distinction and had identified t h e characteristics associated w i t h b o t h types of e n v i r o n m e n t , m y p u z z l i n g observations of t h e past b e c a m e clear. T h e Tuli Circle, w h e r e so m u c h of the g a m e had died off and w h e r e so m u c h soil lay exposed, c o u l d n o t recover if left u n d i s t u r b e d because it was a very brittle e n v i r o n m e n t . It required s o m e f o r m of disturbance at the soil surface, similar to w h a t t h e f o r m e r l y large herds provided, to get m o r e plants g r o w i n g , as the next c h a p t e r explains. In the tsetse fly areas, t h e increased use of fire had exposed soil, a n d t h o u g h old grass plants r e m a i n e d healthy, n o t h i n g dist u r b e d t h e soil sufficiently to allow n e w o n e s to grow. T h u s , c o m m u n i t i e s declined and soil b e c a m e unstable. All e n v i r o n m e n t s lie at s o m e p o i n t a l o n g t h e scale of 1 to 10. T h e easiest way to d e t e r m i n e w h e r e is to l o o k at various sites and to assess h o w the bulk of the vegetation is b r e a k i n g d o w n . A t the n o n b r i t t l e e x t r e m e it

P h o t o 4-2 communities

When ancient cities in nonbrittle environments

were abandoned,

recovered and buried the wins in vegetation. Palenque,

P h o t o 4-3

Ancient

cities that were abandoned

buried tinder desert sands. Marib,

Yemen.

biological

Mexico.

in very brittle environments

are now

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will be 100 p e r c e n t biological, that is, decay. T h i s decreases steadily as an e n v i r o n m e n t moves toward brittleness w h e n c h e m i c a l a n d physical b r e a k d o w n begins to appear a n d steadily increases w i t h the d e g r e e of brittleness. It is hoiv the bulk of the material has broken down by year's end that should concern you most. D u r i n g t h e g r o w i n g season in a high rainfall area o f t h e t r o p ics, f o r instance, t h e b r e a k d o w n m i g h t b e p r e d o m i n a n t l y biological. B u t in the l o n g d r y season that follows it is likely to be chemical and physical. In that case, t h e e n v i r o n m e n t w o u l d b e closer to t h e very brittle e n d of t h e scale. O u t s i d e t h e tropics, w h e r e m a n y plants lose their leaves or die off because of the cold, m i c r o o r g a n i s m p o p u l a t i o n s may still be active t h r o u g h o u t the d o r m a n t season, given t h e high and constant humidity, and material w o u l d c o n t i n u e to b e b r o k e n d o w n t h r o u g h biological decay. In this case, t h e e n v i r o n m e n t w o u l d b e closer to the n o n b r i t t l e e n d of t h e scale. T h e presence of bare g r o u n d is a n o t h e r indicator o f brittleness. A t t h e n o n b r i t t l e e n d of t h e scale, it is e x t r e m e l y difficult, if n o t impossible, to c r e ate large areas of bare g r o u n d and to k e e p t h e m bare. N e w plants will c o l o n i z e e x p o s e d surfaces fairly rapidly. As y o u m o v e across t h e scale this picture changes dramatically until at t h e very brittle e n d , bare g r o u n d is easily created. N e w plants can only establish w i t h difficulty, and algae a n d lichens c o m m o n l y d o m i n a t e .

Conclusion T h e s e c o n d insight t h e n , is that e n v i r o n m e n t s may b e classified o n a c o n t i n u u m f r o m n o n b r i t t l e to very brittle a c c o r d i n g to h o w well h u m i d i t y is distributed t h r o u g h o u t the year a n d h o w quickly dead vegetation breaks d o w n . A t either e n d of t h e scale, e n v i r o n m e n t s respond differently to the same influences. R e s t i n g land restores it in n o n b r i t t l e e n v i r o n m e n t s , b u t damages it in very brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s . Taken by itself, this s e c o n d insight raises t h e practical q u e s t i o n of h o w grazing animals m i g h t provide t h e disturbance necessary to the h e a l t h of an e n v i r o n m e n t that is brittle to any d e g r e e — w i t h o u t overgrazing. F o r t u n a t e l y the answer lies in t h e r e m a i n i n g t w o insights.

5 The Predator-Prey Connection

n m y university training I learned, like all scientists of that era, that large animals such as d o m e s t i c cattle c o u l d d a m a g e land. O n l y k e e p ing n u m b e r s low and scattering stock w i d e l y w o u l d prevent t h e d e s t r u c tive t r a m p l i n g and intense grazing o n e c o u l d expect f r o m livestock. O n c e I left university and w e n t i n t o the field as a biologist, m y o b s e r vations led m e to q u e s t i o n that d o g m a . I n o w d e f e n d the exact o p p o s i t e c o n c l u s i o n . Relatively high n u m b e r s of heavy, h e r d i n g animals, c o n c e n trated and m o v i n g as they o n c e did naturally in the presence of predators, s u p p o r t the health of the very lands w e t h o u g h t they destroyed. T h i s revelation c a m e slowly and only after e x p e r i e n c e in a large variety of situations, because h e r d i n g animals, like others, have m o r e than o n e b e h a v i o r p a t t e r n , and the effects o n land are o f t e n delayed, subtle, and cumulative.

I

In the m i d - 1 9 6 0 s Z i m b a b w e e r u p t e d in civil war and I was given the task of training and c o m m a n d i n g a tracker c o m b a t unit. O v e r the n e x t f e w years I spent t h o u s a n d s of h o u r s t r a c k i n g p e o p l e over all sorts of country, day after day. T h i s discipline greatly s h a r p e n e d m y observational skills and also t a u g h t m e m u c h a b o u t the land, as a l t h o u g h I was h u n t i n g h u m a n s , my t h o u g h t s were constantly o n the state of the lands over w h i c h w e were fighting. I d o u b t m a n y scientists ever had such an o p p o r t u n i t y for l e a r n ing. I tracked p e o p l e over g a m e areas, tribal areas, c o m m e r c i a l f a r m s and ranches, and over all different soil and vegetation types in all rainfalls. O f t e n I covered m a n y different areas in a single day as I flew by h e l i c o p t e r f r o m o n e t r o u b l e spot to the n e x t . E v e r y w h e r e I had to inspect plants and soils for t h e faintest sign of disturbance by p e o p l e trying to leave n o hint of their passage. 37

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Gradually I realized that vast differences distinguished land w h e r e wildlife h e r d e d naturally w h e r e p e o p l e h e r d e d d o m e s t i c stock, and w h e r e stock was f e n c e d in by p e o p l e and n o t h e r d e d at all. A n d c o m p a r e d to areas w i t h o u t any large animals, such as tsetse fly areas in w h i c h all large g a m e had b e e n e x t e r m i n a t e d , the differences w e r e startling i n d e e d . M o s t o b v i ous was the fact that w h e r e animals w e r e present, plants w e r e g r e e n and g r o w i n g . In areas w i t h o u t animals they w e r e o f t e n gray a n d d y i n g — e v e n in the g r o w i n g season—unless they had b e e n b u r n e d , in w h i c h case t h e soil b e t w e e n plants was bare a n d e r o d i n g and tracking was easy. W h e n I c o m p a r e d areas heavily disturbed by animals, w h e r e soil was c h u r n e d up, plants flattened, and tracking was difficult, it b e c a m e clear that the d e g r e e of disturbance h a d a p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y positive i m p a c t o n the health of plants and soils and thus t h e w h o l e c o m m u n i t y . I b e g a n to pay particular a t t e n t i o n to t h e way animals behaved in different situations, as different b e h a v i o r a n d m a n a g e m e n t patterns p r o d u c e d different effects. In tracking large buffalo herds o n my o w n g a m e reserve, for instance, I n o t e d that w h e n f e e d i n g they t e n d e d to spread o u t , a l t h o u g h n o t t o o far for fear of p r e d a t i o n , a n d to walk gently and slowly.They placed their hooves beside coarse plants and n o t o n t o p of t h e m . T h e y also placed their full w e i g h t o n their hooves, c o m p a c t i n g t h e soil b e l o w t h e surface b u t hardly disturbing the surface itself.While thus f e e d i n g they h a d remarkably little i m p a c t o n t h e plants a n d t h e soil, o t h e r than t h e o b v i o u s removal of forage a n d the soil c o m p a c t i o n . O n c e f e e d i n g was over, however, and the herd began to m o v e , o r w h e n predators were a b o u t , the animals behaved differently. T h e y b u n c h e d t o g e t h e r for safety a n d in their e x c i t e m e n t k i c k e d u p q u i t e a bit of dust. I n o t e d that w h i l e b u n c h e d as a herd animals stepped recklessly and even very coarse plants, c o n t a i n i n g m u c h old material that w o u l d n o t be grazed o r t r a m p l e d normally, were t r a m p l e d d o w n . T h a t p r o v i d e d cover for t h e soil surface. In addition, the hooves of b u n c h i n g and milling animals left the soil c h i p p e d and b r o k e n . In effect, t h e animals did w h a t any g a r d e n e r w o u l d d o to get seeds to g r o w : first loosen t h e sealed soil surface, t h e n b u r y the seed slightly, c o m p a c t the soil a r o u n d t h e seed, t h e n cover t h e surface w i t h a m u l c h . I also n o t e d that w h e r e t h e grazing herd had kept off the steep, c u t t i n g edges of gullies, the b u n c h e d herd n o w beat d o w n t h e edges, creating a m o r e gradual slope that could o n c e again s u p p o r t vegetation. I b e c a m e c o n v i n c e d that the disturbance created by the hooves of herding natural wild animal p o p u l a t i o n s was vital to t h e health of the land a n d that h u m a n k i n d had lost this b e n e f i t w h e n we d o m e s t i c a t e d cattle, horses, sheep, and goats a n d p r o t e c t e d t h e m f r o m predators. E v e n w h e r e p e o p l e h e r d e d livestock, as o p p o s e d to merely f e n c i n g t h e m in, they did n o t behave as they w o u l d d o if naturally h e r d i n g u n d e r t h e threat of p r e d a t i o n . In t h e m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , t h e large predators differed

from

5

| T H E PREDATOR-PREY C O N N E C T I O N

39

those in n o n b r i t t l e e n v i r o n m e n t s in o n e i m p o r t a n t respect: they h u n t e d in packs and they ran d o w n their prey. Wolves, lions, cheetahs, wild dogs and hyenas all fall in this group. In t h e n o n b r i t t l e e n v i r o n m e n t s the predators, such as tigers and jaguars, w e r e a different type: they h u n t e d singly and a m b u s h e d their p r e y . T h e y had their c o u n t e r p a r t s in t h e m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , such as leopards and m o u n t a i n lions, but these predators g e n e r ally did n o t associate w i t h large herds. It was t h e p a c k - h u n t i n g predators w h o were mainly responsible for p r o d u c i n g t h e c h a n g e in b e h a v i o r of their h e r d i n g prey. B u n c h i n g up tightly in large n u m b e r s b e c a m e t h e herd's chief f o r m of p r o t e c t i o n , particularly of females and y o u n g , because pack h u n t e r s are c o n f u s e d by a c r o w d a n d thus fear it. T h e y can only kill successfully w h e n the h e r d strings o u t and they can isolate an individual. T h i s relationship b e t w e e n pack h u n t e r s , their h e r d i n g prey, and t h e soils and plants they t r a m p l e d and grazed d e v e l o p e d over millions of years, l o n g b e f o r e h u m a n s themselves b e c a m e pack h u n t e r s w i t h t h e aid of fire and spear. T h e r e was n o o t h e r i n f l u e n c e that c o u l d realistically have b o t h created t h e necessary soil disturbance to provide a g o o d seed b e d for n e w plants and p r o t e c t e d bare soil by t r a m p l i n g d o w n old plant material. B o t h f u n c t i o n s appear critical to t h e health of e n v i r o n m e n t s at t h e m o r e brittle e n d of the scale. M y u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e t r e m e n d o u s significance of these relationships evolved slowly. In Africa I dealt w i t h very large g a m e herds and n u m e r o u s predators, i n c l u d i n g e n o r m o u s prides of lions. It was n o t until I c a m e to the U n i t e d States, w h e r e predators n o l o n g e r had significant i m p a c t o n the wildlife p o p u l a t i o n s that I realized h o w m u c h they c o n t r i b u t e d to creating the k i n d of soil disturbance n e e d e d in t h e m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s . In t h e U n i t e d States massive d e s t r u c t i o n of p r e d a t o r p o p u l a t i o n s and wild herds precipitated t h e decline in the e n v i r o n m e n t w e see today t h r o u g h o u t m o s t of the w e s t e r n states. W e have only exacerbated it by spreading relatively f e w d o m e s t i c animals over large areas. T h i s perhaps explains w h y land d e t e r i o r a t i o n in N o r t h A m e r i c a has o c c u r r e d m o r e rapidly than in Africa. In N o r t h A m e r i c a the p r o b l e m is c o m p o u n d e d by t h e annual freezing and t h a w i n g w h i c h creates air pockets in t h e soil. If t h e e n v i r o n m e n t is very brittle t h e n n o t only has t h e r e to b e s o m e agent o f disturbance that will r e m o v e old oxidizing material f r o m perennial grasses a n d chip soil surfaces, b u t that agent has also to provide soil c o m p a c t i o n to increase grass seedling success. I was n o t by any m e a n s t h e first to m a k e t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the hooves of animals and the health of land. M a n y c e n t u r i e s ago shepherds in the less brittle e n v i r o n m e n t o f Scotland referred to t h e " g o l d e n h o o v e s " of sheep. In t h e 1930s N a v a j o m e d i c i n e m e n in the very brittle e n v i r o n m e n t of t h e A m e r i c a n S o u t h w e s t w a r n e d g o v e r n m e n t officials w h o w e r e drasti-

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cally r e d u c i n g their livestock n u m b e r s that a link existed b e t w e e n the hooves of the sheep and t h e health of t h e soil. In s o u t h e r n Africa the o l d timers of m y c h i l d h o o d had a saying, " H a m m e r veld to s w e e t e n it." T h e y m e a n t literally h a m m e r the land w i t h herds of livestock to improve forage quality. U n f o r t u n a t e l y n o n e of these earlier observations w e r e fully u n d e r stood because t o o m a n y of us believed that plants and soils n e e d e d p r o tection f r o m the d a m a g i n g effects of animals. M y o w n early observation of the vital relationship b e t w e e n natural herds, soils, and plants m e t violent rejection and ridicule f r o m m y fellow c o u n t r y m e n and the i n t e r n a t i o n a l scientific c o m m u n i t y — a n d still does f r o m an e v e r - d w i n d l i n g few. In the 1980s thanks to s o m e careful research d o n e o n t h e h e r d i n g wildlife p o p u l a t i o n s in East Africa's fairly brittle grasslands, a relationship b e t w e e n these animals and the plants they feed o n was d o c u m e n t e d i n d e pendently. 1 Gradually scientists are b e c o m i n g m o r e c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h the idea. F u r t h e r research should s o o n c o n f i r m b e y o n d d o u b t t h e role of p a c k h u n t i n g predators in the e q u a t i o n .

Conclusion T h e third key insight t h e n , was that in brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , relatively high n u m b e r s of large, h e r d i n g animals, c o n c e n t r a t e d and m o v i n g as they n a t u rally d o in the presence of p a c k - h u n t i n g predators, are vital to m a i n t a i n i n g the health of the lands w e t h o u g h t they destroyed. A c c e p t a n c e of this insight will help to reverse t h e millennia of d a m a g e h u m a n k i n d has inflicted o n t h e land in t h e m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s by t r y i n g to p r o t e c t it f r o m the effects of t r a m p l i n g that w e r e perceived as evil. As bare g r o u n d increased and t h e e n v i r o n m e n t d e t e r i o r a t e d in response to the lack of herd effect, w e a t t r i b u t e d it to overgrazing, w h i c h w e in t u r n b l a m e d o n t o o m a n y animals. As a result, w e decreased a n i m a l n u m b e r s a n d thus increased the bare g r o u n d and the d e t e r i o r a t i o n . T h a t overgrazing is n o t in fact a f u n c t i o n of animal n u m b e r s is the f o u r t h insight.

6 Timing Is Everything

f u n d a m e n t a l belief, e m b r a c e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e world, holds that overgrazing, o v e r t r a m p l i n g , a n d the resultant d e s t r u c t i o n of land are caused by the presence of t o o m a n y animals. D e s p i t e massive and sophisticated research o n plants, soils, and animals, virtually all land i m p r o v e m e n t s c h e m e s b e f o r e n o w have rested 011 this very unsophisticated bit of apparent c o m m o n sense and have called for t h e r e d u c t i o n or removal of animals.

A

U n t i l very recently n o o n e truly e x p l o r e d the q u e s t i o n of when animals are there as o p p o s e d to h o w m a n y there are. M y o w n e x p e r i e n c e illustrates h o w elusive an o b v i o u s principle can be. As a child in Z i m b a b w e I, too, learned of t h e d e s t r u c t i o n caused by t o o m a n y animals w h e n I a c c o m p a nied m y father into t h e native reserves. H e , a civil e n g i n e e r , had t h e task of i m p r o v i n g w a t e r distribution f o r t h e p e o p l e a n d their stock. O v e r g r a z i n g and o v e r t r a m p l i n g had devastated the areas s u r r o u n d i n g the f e w existing w a t e r points, a n d t h e t h e o r y ran that creating m o r e w a t e r points w o u l d scatter t h e stock and r e d u c e t h e damage. T h e h o t a n d dusty h o u r s spent amid the rabble of cattle, goats, and d o n k e y s o n that b a r r e n land, t o g e t h e r w i t h w h a t o t h e r s told me, certainly c o n v i n c e d m e that m y father's w o r k and t h e g o v e r n m e n t policy that s u p p o r t e d it m a d e sense. I did n o t q u e s t i o n this a s s u m p t i o n f o r a decade o r so, until as a y o u n g m a n I e n c o u n t e r e d historical records that s h o w e d w h a t e n o r m o u s herds of wild animals had existed o n t h e land b e f o r e p e o p l e and their d o m e s t i c stock replaced t h e m . As p i o n e e r s m a d e their way into t h e i n t e r i o r of S o u t h Africa they apparently r e c o r d e d herds of s p r i n g b o k (a p r o n g h o r n size antelope) so vast that w h e n they m i g r a t e d t h r o u g h settlements they 41

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t r a m p l e d e v e r y t h i n g in their path, i n c l u d i n g yokes of oxen that c o u l d n ' t b e u n h i t c h e d f r o m w a g o n s fast e n o u g h . S u c h herds t o g e t h e r w i t h all the millions of o t h e r animals o n t h e s o u t h e r n A f r i c a n veld vastly o u t n u m b e r e d t h e catde and sheep herds that c a m e later and yet for millennia they had e n j o y e d an e n v i r o n m e n t m o r e a b u n dant than a n y t h i n g t h e descendants of those p i o n e e r s can imagine. O n e sign of that f o r m e r a b u n d a n c e is t h e animal n a m e s b o r n e by villages and towns of today linked to the springs they watered at: "Elands/onfe'i?," S p r i n g b o k f o n t e i n , " and "Buffels_/bttta'/i" f r o m t h e D u t c h w o r d for f o u n t a i n or spring. N o h i n t of f r e e - f l o w i n g w a t e r exists in those places today. T h e weather, a c c o r d i n g to record, did n o t change, yet t h e " f o u n t a i n s " disapp e a r e d t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e healthy grasslands and t h e vast herds. As t h e m e m o r y of the wild herds also vanished, p e o p l e b l a m e d the disappearance of t h e w a t e r a n d the grasslands on the overgrazing a n d o v e r t r a m p l i n g of their o w n livestock, a l t h o u g h f e w e r in n u m b e r . T h i s riddle c o n f u s e d me, b u t I still c o u l d only c o n c l u d e that overgrazi n g and o v e r t r a m p l i n g were related to animal n u m b e r s . T h e m o s t o b v i o u s d e t e r i o r a t i o n was o c c u r r i n g o n t h e m o s t heavily stocked tribal land, and in certain national parks and g a m e reserves w h e r e wildlife n u m b e r s w e r e also high, w h i c h t e n d e d to s u p p o r t t h e prevailing w i s d o m . As a research officer in t h e G a m e D e p a r t m e n t I f o u n d myself r e c o m m e n d i n g , despite m y questions, a drastic culling of e l e p h a n t a n d buffalo to arrest the d a m a g e d o n e by t r a m p l i n g and overgrazing. T h e decision was m a d e in anguish because by this t i m e I had already n o t e d that the e x t e r m i n a t i o n of g a m e in t h e tsetse fly areas had n o t in fact b r o u g h t i m p r o v e m e n t of t h e land. O n l y later did I b e g i n to p e n e t r a t e t h e riddle. I had observed that very large buffalo herds m o v e d constantly and seld o m o c c u p i e d any area l o n g e r than two o r three days, after w h i c h t h e land had an o p p o r t u n i t y to recover. C o u l d t h e t i m e they stayed be an i m p o r tant factor? It also began to d a w n o n m e that a lot of g a m e c o n f i n e d to a small area—as h a p p e n e d in s o m e of o u r n e w l y f o r m i n g g a m e reserves surr o u n d e d by h u m a n s e t t l e m e n t o r tsetse fly a r e a s — p r o d u c e d too many herds in t o o small an area. T h o u g h each herd m o v e d frequently, plants a n d soil had little t i m e to recover after b e i n g grazed o r trampled. I did n o t yet see time as t h e crucial e l e m e n t , b u t I was b e g i n n i n g to t h i n k that the r e d u c e d size of h o m e ranges and t e r r i t o r i e s o n w h i c h the animals could m o v e lay at the b o t t o m of the p r o b l e m . I studied e l e p h a n t herds. D i d they shift location every f e w days? D i d it matter? D i d a n o t h e r herd m o v e into areas only recently vacated? I d e c i d ed to find out, b u t i m m e d i a t e l y struck an obstacle—I c o u l d n ' t tell o n e herd f r o m a n o t h e r as I was o n f o o t and in dense brush. In those days b e f o r e m e t h o d s were refined for d r u g g i n g and tagging animals, I stalked unsusp e c t i n g elephants w i t h h o m e m a d e paint b o m b s w h i c h I t h r e w f r o m close

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range. S u c h w o r k , however, g e n e r a t e d m i n i m a l enthusiasm a m o n g p o t e n tial helpers, and I simply c o u l d n ' t paint e n o u g h elephants singlehandedly. I also lacked sufficient staff to c o n d u c t observations over e n o u g h area to s u p p o r t any conclusions. For s o m e t i m e I h a d possessed a b o o k entitled Grass Productivity by F r e n c h researcher A n d r e Voisin. I had b o u g h t it because the title interested m e , a n d I t h o u g h t it m i g h t help to clarify w h a t was taking place in o u r wildlife areas. Voisin, however, had w o r k e d mainly w i t h cattle o n pastures in E u r o p e . A f t e r b r o w s i n g his b o o k I could see n o c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n dairy cows o n lush F r e n c h pastures and e l e p h a n t and buffalo o n dry A f r i c a n ranges. T h e b o o k stayed u n r e a d o n t h e shelf. In the m e a n t i m e a l o a t h i n g for cattle, w h i c h I believed were destroying the land, p r o m p t e d me, along w i t h s o m e others, to b e g i n p r o m o t i n g a n e w c o n c e p t I called " g a m e r a n c h i n g . " If ranchers could substitute g a m e for livestock, and if w e c o u l d find ways to effectively m a r k e t t h e p r o d u c t and give wild g a m e a financial value, perhaps we c o u l d get rid of t h e cattle and save t h e g a m e and the land. R a n c h e r s w o u l d c o m e to see wildlife as an asset (by c u s t o m they considered it v e r m i n ) , and wildlife w o u l d n o t w r e a k nearly t h e d a m a g e of d o m e s t i c stock, o r so I t h o u g h t . N e i t h e r the d e v e l o p m e n t of g a m e r a n c h i n g n o r the business of culling the buffalo and e l e p h a n t p r o v e d very p o p u l a r in the early 1960s, and I was forced o u t of m y G a m e D e p a r t m e n t j o b by those n o t - s o - s u b t l e pressures bureaucracies apply to the dissenting. H o w e v e r , I t u r n e d to f a r m i n g , g a m e ranching, and c o n s u l t i n g as a livelihood and c o n t i n u e d m y w o r k w i t h p r i vate l a n d o w n e r s in Z i m b a b w e and o t h e r c o u n t r i e s in s o u t h e r n Africa. A t the time, g o v e r n m e n t s in s o u t h e r n Africa, m y o w n i n c l u d e d , a c k n o w l e d g e d that overstocking was probably causing the land to d e t e r i orate, b u t ascribed a greater share of t h e b l a m e to a series of d r o u g h t s that had o c c u r r e d . I created s o m e w h a t of a controversy w h e n I publicly challenged t h e latter v i e w by suggesting that o u r d r o u g h t s w e r e b e c o m i n g m o r e f r e q u e n t because o u r land was deteriorating. To m y surprise, several cattle ranchers a p p r o a c h e d m e — a k n o w n e n e m y of their i n d u s t r y — because they believed I was right and w a n t e d to d o s o m e t h i n g a b o u t it. I agreed to w o r k w i t h t h e m , b u t only after I was sure they u n d e r s t o o d I had n o answers myself and that it w o u l d be a case of the blind leading the blind. T h e m a n y sophisticated s c h e m e s for p r e v e n t i n g overgrazing o n r a n c h es always began by l i m i t i n g livestock n u m b e r s . O n e of t h e m o s t c o m m o n s o u g h t to regulate n u m b e r s so that animals w o u l d n o t graze off m o r e than half of certain " k e y i n d i c a t o r " plants in the c o m m u n i t y . R e s e a r c h i n d i c a t ed that m a n y perennial grasses suffered r o o t d a m a g e w i t h the removal of m o r e than 50 p e r c e n t of their g r o w i n g leaf area. T h e theory, however, had to fail, as wild o r domestic severe-grazing a n i -

'VI PART I I

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FOUR KEY INSIGHTS

mals, given t h e m o u t h and teeth structures they possess, aren't able to n i b ble individual leaves, or limit themselves to t a k i n g half t h e plant. T h e y t e n d to feed by the m o u t h f u l and will c o m m o n l y graze perennial b u n c h grasses, in particular, r i g h t d o w n . Fortunately, these grasses, having coevolved w i t h grazing animals, have their g r o w i n g points, or buds, at t h e base of t h e plant w h e r e they are o u t of harm's way. As land c o n t i n u e d to d e t e r i o r a t e u n d e r various a t t e m p t s at t a k e - h a l f - l e a v e - h a l f m a n a g e m e n t , g o v e r n m e n t researchers b e g a n to d o u b t that t h e r a n c h e r s had tried seriously. Since m y o w n clients w e r e a m o n g t h e m , I paid a visit to t h e research stations in Z i m b a b w e and S o u t h Africa w h e r e things w e r e d o n e " r i g h t " to learn w h a t I could. T h e research stations measured their success by the b u l k of forage, the presence of a f e w species considered desirable, and the general a p p e a r a n c e of t h e land as o n e glanced at it. B y these criteria their ideas h a d i n d e e d proved successful in practice. B y m y o w n criteria, however, even their research plots w e r e desertifying. T h e soil b e t w e e n t h e plants was bare and e r o d i n g s e r i o u s l y — s o m e t h i n g n o t always visible to t h e p e r s o n w h o didn't l o o k for it. Plants w e r e overgrazed severely in s o m e patches w h i l e in o t h ers they had g r o w n old and excessively fibrous a n d w e r e s m o t h e r e d w i t h g r a y - t o - b l a c k oxidizing material. T h e researchers had a t t e m p t e d to resolve the u n e v e n grazing p a t t e r n by b u r n i n g a b o u t o n c e every f o u r years; the b u r n e d areas w e r e q u i t e visibly eroding. B u t t h e m o s t s h o c k i n g c h a r a c t e r istic was t h e almost c o m p l e t e absence of n e w seedlings, despite massive seed p r o d u c t i o n o n parent plants. Desirable species w e r e i n d e e d present, b u t v e r y few o t h e r species. T h e bulk of forage p r o d u c e d by t h e " k e y i n d i c a t o r " plant species and t h e h i g h individual p r o d u c t i o n , in t e r m s of w e i g h t gain and c o n c e p t i o n rate, o n t h e f e w animals present had masked the e v i d e n c e of d e g r a d a t i o n . P r o d u c t i o n p e r animal was high and increasing, a l o n g w i t h s u p p l e m e n t a tion costs, even as p r o d u c t i o n p e r acre r e m a i n e d low a n d declining. For the first t i m e I began to realize t h e e x t r e m e d a n g e r in c o n s i d e r i n g s h o r t - t e r m high p r o d u c t i o n , or, f o r that matter, species c o m p o s i t i o n , a measure of success. For t h e ranchers and m y country, blinded by such apparent success, I c o u l d only foresee r u i n a t i o n . C o n t i n u a l l y s e e k i n g answers, I began reading t h e range m a n a g e m e n t research f r o m various c o u n t r i e s , b u t all a p p e a r e d to follow the same t h i n k ing: excessive animal n u m b e r s cause overgrazing. T h e n o n e day w h i l e assisting a r a n c h e r in starting u p a g a m e r a n c h i n g o p e r a t i o n , I glanced at a S o u t h A f r i c a n f a r m m a g a z i n e that lay o n his coffee table. In it was an article by a m a n n a m e d J o h n A c o c k s w h o described a grazing system he claimed w o u l d heal t h e land. It m a d e m o r e sense t h a n a n y t h i n g I had read before, so I w e n t to S o u t h Africa and tracked h i m d o w n . I f o u n d A c o c k s a delightful old botanist and very k n o w l e d g e a b l e i n d e e d

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a b o u t t h e e x t e n t of the land d e t e r i o r a t i o n that had taken place in S o u t h Africa. H e believed it c a m e f r o m the selective grazing of the livestock that had replaced t h e original large a n d diverse g a m e p o p u l a t i o n s . Livestock, he said, overgrazed t h e species they p r e f e r r e d until those species disappeared. T h e y t h e n overgrazed a n o t h e r until it, too, disappeared. Gradually only the least desirable species r e m a i n e d . T h u s h e explained h o w areas d o m i n a t e d t w o or three h u n d r e d years ago by perennial grasses had b e c o m e the d o m a i n of desert shrubs. H e had p l o t t e d t h e steady m o v e m e n t of these shrubs across s o u t h e r n Africa as t h e desert spread over t h e years. A c o c k s t h e o r i z e d that as overgrazing w e a k e n e d o r killed plants of a p a r ticular species, o t h e r species replaced t h e m that appealed less to livestock and thus held an u n f a i r advantage over t h e grazed plant in the c o m p e t i t i o n for light, water, a n d nutrients. H e c o n c l u d e d that t h e actual n u m b e r s of livestock m a t t e r e d less than their repeated selection of species that were thus h a n d i c a p p e d and eventually replaced in t h e c o m m u n i t y . T h e diverse g a m e species of old, reasoned Acocks, used all plants equally because each species selected a different diet. T h u s , n o plant type h a d an advantage over a n o t h e r , and m a n y thrived side by side o n an even playing field. Based on these observations and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s h e m a d e the remarkable s t a t e m e n t that S o u t h Africa was " o v e r g r a z e d and u n d e r s t o c k e d . " His r e m e d y called f o r c o n c e n t r a t i n g livestock o n to a small p o r t i o n of land and h o l d i n g t h e m there till they had grazed d o w n all the plants e v e n ly. O n c e they had d o n e this, they could be m o v e d to a n o t h e r area to d o the same thing. E a c h grazed area w o u l d t h e n be rested so all the equally grazed plants c o u l d recover w i t h o u t u n f a i r c o m p e t i t i o n a m o n g t h e m . Acocks's t h e o r y did n o t answer all m y c o n c e r n s by any m e a n s — t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n of tsetse fly areas that h a d n o grazing b e i n g o n e — b u t it h a d m e r i t and offered a n e w direction. B e f o r e leaving he i n t r o d u c e d m e to a nearby f a r m i n g c o u p l e w h o w e r e practicing his ideas. L e n and D e n i s e H o w e l l h a d a d e e p c o n c e r n for t h e land d e g r a d a t i o n o c c u r r i n g all over t h e c o u n t r y a n d w e r e excited by t h e results of a p p l y i n g Acocks's idea. So was I . T h e Howells l o o k e d o n in b e w i l d e r m e n t as I fell to m y knees and p r o b e d m y fingers into the soil, p o i n t i n g o u t excitedly w h a t h a d h a p p e n e d w h e r e their stock had accidentally t r o d d e n in very high c o n c e n t r a t i o n f o r a s h o r t t i m e in o n e c o r n e r of a p a d d o c k . T h e s u r face was b r o k e n ; litter lay e v e r y w h e r e ; w a t e r was s o a k i n g in rather than r u n n i n g off; aeration had i m p r o v e d ; and n e w seedlings g r e w in a b u n d a n c e . J o h n A c o c k s , and the accidental b u n c h i n g of the animals that had o c c u r r e d o n the Howell's f a r m , h a d given m e a vital piece of k n o w l e d g e — t h a t livestock c o u l d simulate the effects of wild herds o n the soil. H e r e in o n e area was the heavy t r a m p l i n g I had seen f o l l o w i n g g a m e b u t n o w d o n e by livestock and w i t h o u t t h e d a m a g e to t h e land w e h a d c o m e to expect. I r u s h e d back to Z i m b a b w e eager to p e r s u a d e s o m e of m y r a n c h e r

'VI 5'2 PART I I

I FOUR K E Y INSIGHTS

clients to c o n c e n t r a t e their livestock. T h e first o n e to d o it rapidly p r o d u c e d t h e desired effects. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , as fast as t h e land r e s p o n d e d , his cattle fell off in c o n d i t i o n . In fact they nearly died. O t h e r s w h o followed my advice r e p o r t e d the same results. As d i s a p p o i n t i n g as this was, I still believed w e w e r e at last a p p r o a c h i n g the answer, a n d m u c h to their credit a h a n d f u l of ranchers w h o loved their land d e c i d e d to stick w i t h m e until w e had it. W e had n o o t h e r allies in the quest. U n d e r a barrage of criticism and ridicule w e c o n f r o n t e d the n e w riddJe o f p o o r livestock p e r f o r m a n c e . T h e c a t t l e m e n and o u r g o v e r n m e n t e x t e n s i o n officers believed in scatt e r i n g cattle so they could select t h e grass species they n e e d e d to p e r f o r m well. A c o c k s believed in c o n c e n t r a t i n g the animals to k e e p those very grass species f r o m g e t t i n g selected o u t of existence. B o t h a r g u m e n t s had o b v i ous m e r i t and s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n t h e m t h e clues to g o o d livestock and land m a n a g e m e n t had to lie. N o w , i n d u l g i n g in the p e r f e c t vision of h i n d sight, I can see that time was t h e factor staring us in t h e face and always overlooked. As t h e p r o b l e m n o w involved cattle, I o n c e again dusted off A n d r e Voisin's b o o k , and there it was. H e had established that overgrazing b o r e little relationship to t h e n u m b e r of animals b u t rather to the time plants w e r e exposed to t h e animals. If animals r e m a i n e d in any o n e place for t o o l o n g o r if they r e t u r n e d to it b e f o r e plants h a d recovered, they overgrazed plants. T h e time of e x p o s u r e was d e t e r m i n e d by t h e g r o w t h rate of the plants. If plants w e r e g r o w i n g fast, the animals n e e d e d to m o v e o n m o r e quickly and c o u l d r e t u r n m o r e quickly. If plants g r e w slowly, t h e o p p o s i t e was true. S u d d e n l y I c o u l d see h o w t r a m p l i n g also c o u l d be either g o o d or b a d . T i m e b e c a m e t h e d e t e r m i n i n g factor. T h e disturbance n e e d e d f o r the health of t h e soil b e c a m e an evil if p r o l o n g e d t o o m u c h or repeated t o o soon. If this was so, t h e n h o w had t i m e figured in the grazing and t r a m p l i n g of t h e vast wild herds of t h e past? This, too, c o u l d b e reasoned o u t . Animals that b u n c h closely to ward off predators also d u n g and u r i n a t e in high c o n c e n t r a t i o n and thus foul the g r o u n d and plants on w h i c h they are feeding. N o animals n o r m a l l y like to feed on their o w n feces, as a n y o n e w h o has kept and observed horses will k n o w . T h u s , to b e able to feed o n fresh plants the herds had to k e e p m o v i n g off t h e areas they had f o u l e d . A n d they could n o t , ideally, r e t u r n to t h e f o u l e d area until t h e d u n g and u r i n e had w e a t h ered a n d w o r n off. T h i s m e a n t that plants and soils w o u l d have b e e n exposed to massive disturbance in the f o r m of grazing, trampling, d u n g i n g and u r i n a t i n g , b u t only for a day o r so, followed by a p e r i o d of t i m e that gave the soil and plants an o p p o r t u n i t y to recover.This p a t t e r n w o u l d have b e e n repeated again a n d again over millions of years. E v e n in the age of the dinosaurs, there w e r e pack h u n t e r s and thus p r e s u m a b l y h e r d i n g grazers

t

P l a t e 1.

Although

they have considerable knowledge of green, yellow, red, and blue, people

in single, isolated disciplines are unable to manage gray (the "whole") of which they have no knowledge. Management is not even focused on gray, as the arrows indicate. This single-discipline approach to management was generally recognized as a failure many years ago.

w

\ P l a t e 2.

People ill a multidisciplinary

team are focusing on gray from their perspective, as

arrows indicate, but still with no knowledge of gray. The lack of success arising from multidisciplinary management was attributed to poor communication owing to the jargon associated with the various disciplines, rather than a lack of knowledge.

•

\ P l a t e 3.

f

To overcome communication problems, people trained in several disciplines form interdisciplinary teams that then focus their attention on gray, as the arrows indicate. Knowledge of gray is still lacking, however. The lack of success arising from the interdisciplinary approach to management has only recently been acknowledged.

P l a t e 4.

We now lake the perspective of the whole (gray), first of all by defining the limits

of a "manageable" whole, then determining what that whole must become based on the needs of the people within it and the environment that must sustain their endeavors (the holistic goal). Now the people making decisions within the whole can look outwardly at all available knowledge to detemine which best serves their needs and takes them toward the holistic goal.

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and browsers. R e c o v e r y times for soils and plants w o u l d have varied because there w e r e so m a n y different species f e e d i n g in an area and each was only trying to avoid t h e f o u l i n g of their o w n , or closely related, species, n o t necessarily that of others. I n o w w e n t back to m y clients and suggested that w e c o m b i n e t h e ideas of A c o c k s and Voisin, c o n c e n t r a t i n g t h e animals, b u t n o t f o r c i n g t h e m to graze all plants evenly, and t i m i n g the e x p o s u r e and reexposure of plants to t h e animals a c c o r d i n g to the rate at w h i c h the plants grew. Again, w e were very enthusiastic and this time certain of success. We did in fact improve animal p e r f o r m a n c e s o m e w h a t , b u t in m a n y i m p o r t a n t respects w e fell flat o n o u r faces o n c e m o r e . Voisin had d o n e his w o r k in a fairly n o n b r i t t l e e n v i r o n m e n t , and w e had n o t yet discovered t h e f u n d a m e n t a l differences b e t w e e n n o n b r i t t l e and very brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s . T h u s , w e did n o t i m m e d i a t e l y see h o w to fit o u r highly erratic g r o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s into his systematic a c c o u n t i n g of t i m e and g r o w t h rates. N e i t h e r , of course, did w e k n o w t h e n that t h e solution in o u r fairly brittle r e g i o n also d e p e n d e d o n the actual behavior of the catt l e — t h e h e r d i n g behavior, n o t merely t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of animals w h i c h , unless e x t r e m e , does n o t c h a n g e behavior. W e also e n c o u n t e r e d variables that Voisin, m a n a g i n g planted, fertilized, and w e l l - w a t e r e d pastures, did n o t . O u r rangelands had a t r e m e n d o u s variety of grasses, forbs, b r u s h , and trees—all g r o w i n g at different rates. A n d they had a variety of soil types that p r o d u c e d varying results. W e also had wildlife r u n n i n g o n t h e same land as o u r stock, seriously affecting o u r time calculations. W h a t e v e r we suspected a b o u t time, w e could n o t m a n a g e it effectively. W e w o u l d n o t unravel the w h o l e mystery for a l o n g time, b u t w e k n e w at least w e had discovered the right path. Politics as m u c h as ecology forced us to keep l e a r m n g . By the early 1970s Z i m b a b w e , t h e n R h o d e s i a , had b e c o m e a pariah a m o n g nations because t h e w h i t e - l e d g o v e r n m e n t , to w h i c h I was by t h e n leading the o p p o s i t i o n in Parliament, refused to give in to t h e d e m a n d s of t h e black majority. T h e tragic civil war that had e r u p t e d in the m i d - 1 9 6 0 s had g r o w n increasingly fierce, and to force an e n d to it t h e rest of the w o r l d raised e c o n o m i c sanctions against us. To survive u n d e r the e m b a r g o , o u r ranchers and f a r m e r s had to greatly diversify their operations and m a n a g e great c o m p l e x i t y and constant c h a n g e o n a d a y - t o - d a y basis. Livestock o p e r a t i o n s a d d e d n e w crops, and f a r m e r s , w h o had p r e v i o u s ly specialized in o n e o r t w o cash crops, a d d e d m a n y others a n d b e g a n to rotate crops a n d pastures to m a i n t a i n the livestock they h a d also added. To handle t h e difficulties i n h e r e n t in such diversity, I developed a t h o r o u g h , but simple, p l a n n i n g p r o c e d u r e based o n military p l a n n i n g c o n c e p t s I already knew. It proved successful, and w i t h i n a f e w years it was b e i n g

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FOUR KEY INSIGHTS

applied o n over a h u n d r e d f a r m s and ranches t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y . T h e e x p e r i e n c e g a t h e r e d f r o m such varied situations, gave b i r t h to m a n y n e w insights. For o n e it s h o w e d us that J o h n Acocks's s t a t e m e n t that S o u t h Africa was overgrazed but u n d e r s t o c k e d was true, but not for his reasons. Selection of t h e m o s t palatable plant species by livestock a n d a c o n s e q u e n t unfair c o m p e t i t i o n against less h a n d i c a p p e d ones did n o t explain t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n in s o u t h e r n Africa. N o r was t h e r e m e d y to f o r c e livestock to eat off all plants equally, w h i c h w e f o u n d caused stock stress. W e realized that livestock d o n o t select species b u t rather select f o r a balanced diet, regardless of species. W i l d h e r d i n g animals also select f o r balanced diets; they never graze all plants equally, and never has this b e e n necessary. T h e overgrazing Acocks observed reflected t h e time plants w e r e e x p o s e d to livestock, n o t t h e l o w n u m b e r s of animals g r a z i n g selectively. T h e u n d e r s t o c k i n g h e observed did n o t d a m a g e the land by allowing less palatable plants to escape p u n i s h m e n t . In fact, lack of grazing allowed g o o d perennial grasses to die f r o m overrest in the m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , as old material a c c u m u l a t e d o n t h e m and blocked a d e q u a t e sunlight f r o m r e a c h i n g their g r o w i n g points. U n d e r s t o c k i n g also m e a n t that t o o f e w animals scattered t o o w i d e l y in an u n e x c i t e d , n o n - h e r d i n g m a n n e r failed to provide t h e soil disturbance so necessary in brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s . W e o n l y discovered all this because t h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e d u r e allowed us to c o n t r o l t h e t i m e d i m e n s i o n m o r e subtly than ever before. W e f o u n d w e could m i n i m i z e overgrazing a n d o v e r t r a m p l i n g w h i l e still allowing animals to select t h e plants and n u t r i e n t s they r e q u i r e d . W e c o u l d also i n d u c e a d e q u a t e disturbance o n t h e soil surface in small areas by briefly attracting the livestock to t h e m , w i t h a bale of hay, for instance, so that n e w plants c o u l d establish. W e were able to plan for crops a n d hay cuttings, as well a n d m a n age habitat critical to wildlife in particular seasons. All this b e c a m e possible o n c e w e u n d e r s t o o d t h e t i m e factor a n d had a p l a n n i n g p r o c e d u r e that left a g o o d record of w h a t w e had d o n e a n d w h a t result followed. T a k e n t o g e t h e r the last t h r e e insights provide an e x p l a n a t i o n for why, despite all o u r efforts, so m a n y e n v i r o n m e n t s have c o n t i n u e d to d e t e r i o rate u n d e r h u m a n m a n a g e m e n t . T h e discovery o f t h e brittleness scale a n d the vital role of h e r d i n g animals and their predators in m a i n t a i n i n g t h e health of t h e m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s s h o w e d w h y these e n v i r o n m e n t s were p r o n e to desertification. T h i s is significant because desertification has ultimately destroyed m o r e civilizations t h a n war a n d currently, a c c o r d i n g to t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s , adversely affects over 9 0 0 million p e o p l e in over a h u n d r e d c o u n t r i e s . T h e p r o b l e m is n o t limited to d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s , either, as a g r o u p of scientists p o i n t e d o u t at an i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n f e r e n c e in T u c s o n , A r i z o n a , in 1994 e n t i d e d , " D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n in the D e v e l o p e d C o u n t r i e s : W h y C a n ' t W e Stop It?"

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T h a t w e have b e e n unable to stop it a n y w h e r e is n o t surprising, since approximately t w o - t h i r d s o f the earth's land surface is brittle to s o m e d e g r e e and o u r m a n a g e m e n t has n o t catered to that fact. N o r until n o w have w e k n o w n w h a t to do. O n l y those actually m a n a g i n g land can i m p l e m e n t t h e changes necessary to reverse the desertification process, b u t they n e e d the s u p p o r t of t h e rest of us to d o this effectively. N o n e of us can afford to i g n o r e the i m p o r t a n c e of the b r i t t l e / n o n b r i t t l e distinction a n d of h o w it affects t h e m a n a g e m e n t of different e n v i r o n m e n t s , any m o r e than w e can afford to r e m a i n indifferent to the n e e d for a holistic p e r spective in all t h e w h o l e s w e m a n a g e . In years to c o m e w e will l o o k back o n t h e t i m e b e f o r e the discovery of these f o u r n e w insights as truly t h e dark ages of h u m a n k i n d ' s w h o l e attit u d e toward the greater ecosystem that sustains us. T h e time f o r c h a n g e of c o u r s e is now, lest ours go t h e way of o t h e r sophisticated civilizations that rose a n d t h e n destroyed themselves in t h e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s of the world.

1 A New Framework for Management and Decision Making

ntil we h a d arrived at t h e f o u r key insights a n d u n d e r s t o o d their significance, w e could n o t address w h a t was faulty in o u r decision m a k i n g , n o r did w e even see that it was f l a w e d . T h e first insight enabled us to develop the f r a m e w o r k that had b e e n lacking; the n e x t three only b e c a m e obvious w h e n the first was u n d e r s t o o d , and enabled us to c o m plete that f r a m e w o r k . T h e f r a m e w o r k is s u m m a r i z e d in figure 7 - 1 in w h a t w e refer to as the Holistic M a n a g e m e n t m o d e l . It falls short o f w h a t w e conventionally t h i n k of as a m o d e l in that it does n o t illustrate the flow of a process, merely the e l e m e n t s w i t h i n it.To illustrate t h e relationships shared a m o n g the various e l e m e n t s — w h i c h w o u l d vary d e p e n d i n g on t h e m a n a g e m e n t o r d e c i s i o n m a k i n g c o n t e x t — w o u l d require so m a n y loops, lines, and arrows that w e have m e r e l y stuck w i t h the skeletal structure, the f r a m e w o r k for holistic decision m a k i n g and m a n a g e m e n t . As later chapters will show, this same f r a m e w o r k can be used for diagnosing m a n a g e m e n t problems, creating s o u n d policies, and designing o r utilizing research that is relevant to m a n a g e m e n t needs. S o m e of the rows in the m o d e l will have little m e a n i n g to you at this p o i n t a n d will n o t require m u c h a t t e n t i o n later o n if you are n o t e n g a g e d in land o r resource m a n a g e m e n t . T h e tools of rest, fire, and grazing, for instance, are unlikely ever to be required in m a n a g i n g a h o u s e h o l d , a law office, a bank, o r any n u m b e r of o t h e r endeavors, a n d n e i t h e r w o u l d m a n y of the m a n a g e m e n t guidelines listed. W e c o u l d of c o u r s e have d e v e l o p e d o n e m o d e l , or f r a m e w o r k , f o r land managers and o n e or m o r e for everyo n e else, b u t I have l o n g resisted d o i n g so because t h e land m a n a g e r s 50

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Holistic Management Model WHOLE UNDER MANAGEMENT Decision-Makers — Resource Base — Money

HOLISTIC GOAL Quality of Life — Forms of Production — Future Resource Base

ECOSYSTEM PROCESSES T Community Dynamics

Water Cycle

Energy Flow

Mineral Cycle

TOOLS FOR MANAGING ECOSYSTEM PROCESSES Human Creativity

Cause & Effect

fTechnology

Organization &

Practice

Leadership

Fire

Grazing

Animal Impact

Living "1 \ 'Organisms!

Money & Labor

Sustainability

Society &

i

TESTING GUIDELINES Marginal Gross Energy/ Reaction Profit Money Analysis Source & Use

Weak Link -Social —Biological —Financial

Learning &

Rest

1 /

Culture

MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES Marketing Time Stock Cropping Density & Herd Effect

Burning

Population Management

PLANNING PROCEDURES Holistic Financial Planning

Holistic Grazing Planning

Holistic Land Planning FEEDBACK LOOP

Replan

Plan (Assume Wrong)

—fc. Monitor

• Control

F i g u r e 7-1

The Holistic Management

model.

c o n c e r n s are ultimately everyone's c o n c e r n s if w e are to sustain o u r e c o n o m i e s , o u r civilization, a n d o u r planet. B e assured that you d o n o t have to be m a n a g i n g a piece of land to p r a c tice Holistic M a n a g e m e n t or to engage in holistic decision m a k i n g , b u t you d o n e e d to have an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of s o m e basic ecological principles because m a n y of the m a n a g e m e n t decisions you m a k e will affect t h e land at s o m e p o i n t , as y o u will see. A brief r u n t h r o u g h t h e m o d e l will give you

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a fair idea of w h a t to e x p e c t in t h e u p c o m i n g chapters, w h i c h m o r e o r less f o l l o w it, so you can d e c i d e w h i c h are most relevant to y o u r situation: •

The whole under management. All m a n a g e m e n t decisions have to be m a d e from the perspective of the w h o l e under management, bearing in mind that it always influences, and is influenced by, both greater and lesser wholes. As Chapter 8 explains, the m i n i m u m a w h o l e would have to include to be manageable is the decision makers—those directly involved in its management; the resource base, w h i c h refers to the physical resources—land, buildings, equipment, and other assets— f r o m which you will generate revenue or derive support, plus the people w h o influence or are influenced by your management; and finally the money available or that can be generated f r o m the resource base.

•

The holistic goal. T h e ideas underlying Holistic M a n a g e m e n t take on meaning and p o w e r only in relationship to a goal, but in this case it is specifically a holistic goal—one that is based on the w h o l e you have defined, created by those responsible for managing it, and expressing their collective needs and aspirations, both short- and l o n g - t e r m . It is written in three parts: (1 )quality of life—an expression of the way p e o ple want their lives, in this particular whole, to be, and what they ultimately want to accomplish together, based u p o n what they value most; (2 )forms of production—what the people need to produce to create that quality of life and to r u n the business or entity; and (3) a description of the future resource base—what the resource base must be like far into the future to truly sustain the forms of production specified. It will take a couple of chapters (9 and 10) to develop the logic of defining a goal in this way. Suffice it to say here that the holistic goal drives Holistic M a n a g e m e n t and guides every significant decision.

•

The ecosystem processes. To work with the complexity inherent in the greater ecosystem that sustains us all, we focus on four fundamental processes, each representing vital functions w i t h i n it: water cycle, mineral cycle, solar energy flow, and c o m m u n i t y dynamics (the patterns of change and development within communities of living organisms). We recognize that any action taken to affect one of these processes automatically affects t h e m all, as Chapters 11 through 15 explain. W h e r e we once viewed our global ecosystem—everything on our planet and in its surrounding atmosphere—mainly as a source of raw materials, we n o w view it as the foundation on which all h u m a n endeavor, all economies, and all life are built. Even in situations w h e r e people may have little power to influence the environm e n t directly, they will, through the cumulative effect of their decisions, have an impact on it and must specify in their holistic goal what they want that impact to be, a subject w e will cover in Chapter 9.

7

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•

53

The tools for managing ecosystem processes. In conventional management, the tools available for altering any one of the ecosystem processes were limited to four broad categories: rest, fire, living organisms, and technology. ( H u m a n creativity and m o n e y and labor bracket the other six tool headings because neither of them can be used on its o w n to alter ecosystem processes, and one or both are always required in the use of the other tools.) In the m o r e brittle environments, however, these tools alone were inadequate to maintain or improve the f u n c tioning of the four ecosystem processes. We f o u n d a remedy to this shortcoming in the behaviors of the large herding and grazing animals that had helped to maintain these environments for eons. Although the value of their d u n g for increasing soil fertility had long been recognized, most people had rejected the most vital parts of the animals (their hooves and mouths) w h i c h could be harnessed as tools (animal impact and grazing) for improving water and mineral cycles, energy flow, and c o m m u n i t y dynamics. (See Chapters 16 through 24).

•

The testing guidelines. In deciding which tool to use to alter any one of the ecosystem processes, or in deciding w h e t h e r or not to take an action in any situation, we use all the information that helped people to make decisions in the conventional manner. B u t n o w we also pose a series of questions based on seven guidelines that test for e c o n o m ic, environmental, and social soundness relative to the holistic goal. Chapters 25 through 32 cover these guidelines in detail. In brief, the questions are: Does this action address the root cause of the problem? T h e weakest link in the situation? Does it provide a greater return, in terms of time and m o n e y spent, than other actions? W h i c h of t w o or more possible enterprises provides the best gross profit (if choosing a m o n g enterprises)? Is the energy or m o n e y to be used in this action derived f r o m the most appropriate source, and will it be used in the most appropriate way, in terms of your holistic goal? Will this action lead toward or away f r o m the future resource base described in your holistic goal? Finally, h o w will this action affect your quality of life and what will it do to that of others?

•

The management guidelines.The m a n a g e m e n t guidelines reflect years of experience in a variety of situations and will help shape a n u m b e r of the decisions you test. S o m e of t h e m depart considerably from guidelines used in conventional m a n a g e m e n t and therefore require some study. T h e first three guidelines, covered in Chapters 35 through 37, apply most generally. T h e remaining five, Chapters 38 through 42, apply m o r e c o m m o n l y in land m a n a g e m e n t situations.

•

The planning procedures. These procedures were developed because Holistic M a n a g e m e n t enabled us to depart substantially f r o m c o n ventional practice in three areas. Holistic Financial Planning, Chapter

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44, applies to any situation in w h i c h i n c o m e is received or spent. Unless you are actually m a n a g i n g grazing animals and large tracts of land, you are unlikely to require Holistic Land Planning, C h a p t e r 45, or Holistic Grazing Planning, C h a p t e r 46. •

The feedback loop. In Holistic M a n a g e m e n t the word plan has b e c o m e a 24-Ietter word: plan-monitor-control-re-plan. In the m o d e l these words are i n c o r p o r a t e d into a loop because this effort is a c o n t i n u o u s process. O n c e a plan is m a d e or any action taken, you need to monitor w h a t happens f r o m the outset because unforeseen circumstances always lie ahead. As C h a p t e r 33 explains, w h e n the leedback f r o m your m o n i t o r i n g indicates the plan or action is causing you to deviate from the intended path toward y o u r holistic goal, you must act quickly to control the deviation. Occasionally events go beyond your control and there is a need to rcplan. If an action, or a plan outlining several actions attempts to alter ecosystem processes in s o m e way, then, despite having tested the decisions that led to it, you assume f r o m the outset that, given nature's complexity, you could be w r o n g . T h e n you m o n i t o r , on the assumption you arc wrong, tor the earliest possible warnings so you can replan before any damage is d o n e .

Conclusion To s u m m a r i z e n o w h o w t h e Holistic M a n a g e m e n t process w o r k s , s u p p o s e I w a n t t o build a h o u s e c u s t o m - d e s i g n e d f o r m y f a m i l y a n d able to stand f o r e v e r — t h a t is m y goal. I i n t e n d to build it o n a solid f o u n d a t i o n , in this case t h e f o u r e c o s y s t e m processes. To build m y h o u s e I m a y c h o o s e any of t h e tools at m y disposal a n d will enlist all m y i n g e n u i t y and b r a i n p o w e r t o m a k e efficient use o f l a b o r a n d capital. N o t b e i n g entirely familiar w i t h all m y tools, o r of h o w best to o r g a n i z e m y labor f o r c e or m a n a g e m y capital, I t u r n to a set o f i n s t r u c t i o n b o o k s — t h e m a n a g e m e n t g u i d e l i n e s a n d p l a n n i n g p r o c e d u r e s — t o learn m o r e . A s e c o n d set of i n s t r u c t i o n b o o k s — t h e testing g u i d e l i n e s — h e l p s m e to assess w h i c h tools will b e best f o r t h e j o b . I w o r k t o a plan using t h e tools selected a n d m o n i t o r i n g m y progress to stay o n track. W h e n events d e m a n d it, I replan, c h a n g i n g t h e w a y I ' m u s i n g t h e tools or s u b s t i t u t i n g d i f f e r e n t o n e s — w h a t e v e r it takes to the

building

and

achieve

my

goal. W h i l e

learning

about

finish

Holistic

M a n a g e m e n t m a n y p e o p l e say, " T h i s is j u s t c o m m o n sense." A n d so it is. S o m e years ago 1 a t t e n d e d a c o n f e r e n c e s p o n s o r e d by t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l S o c i e t y f o r Ecological E c o n o m i c s at t h e W o r l d B a n k in W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . D u r i n g t h e p l e n a r y session o n e m a n was w i d e l y a p p l a u d e d for m a k i n g a s t a t e m e n t that reflected t h e f r u s t r a t i o n felt by m o s t o f those

present:

" D e s p i t e all o u r a t t e m p t s to m a n a g e e c o s y s t e m s and e c o n o m i e s , w e k e e p finding

that w e always e n d u p b e i n g precisely w r o n g . C a n ' t s o m e o n e find

a way t o b e at least a p p r o x i m a t e l y r i g h t ? "

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55

I believe Holistic M a n a g e m e n t enables us to answer that q u e s t i o n in the affirmative. In testing o u r decisions toward a holistic goal w e are generally assured of b e i n g approximately right, b u t w e still c o m p l e t e those essential f e e d b a c k l o o p s — p l a n n i n g , m o n i t o r i n g , controlling, and r e p l a n n i n g — t o m a k e sure. N e a r l y every c h a p t e r in this b o o k so far repeats in s o m e way the n o t i o n that Holistic M a n a g e m e n t can exist only in the c o n t e x t of a j o u r n e y toward a holistic goal. H o w w e go a b o u t f o r m i n g o n e is the subject of the n e x t three chapters.

Part III The Power Lies in the Holistic Goal

8 Defining the Whole: What Are You Managing?

he holistic goal, t h e subject of Part III, is t h e d r i v i n g force in Holistic M a n a g e m e n t and will g u i d e every significant decision you m a k e . T h a t is w h y the u t m o s t consideration should be given to f o r m ing o n e . B e f o r e you can b e g i n , however, you first have to define t h e w h o l e y o u r m a n a g e m e n t encompasses. B u t h o w does o n e d e f i n e a w h o l e , given Smuts's p o i n t that w h o l e s have n o d e f i n e d limits? All wholes, h e said, are c o m p r i s e d of wholes, and in t u r n m a k e up yet greater w h o l e s in a progression that e x t e n d s f r o m s u b a t o m i c structures to the universe itself. N o w h o l e stands o n its o w n , and, in m a n a g e m e n t especially, m a n y w h o l e s overlap. To isolate a lesser w h o l e by g i v ing it a sharp and arbitrary d e f i n i t i o n such as h o u s e h o l d , business, w a t e r shed, or national park, w o u l d appear to thereafter cripple the m a n a g e m e n t of it. Yet there is a m i n i m u m w h o l e at w h i c h p o i n t Holistic M a n a g e m e n t b e c o m e s possible. In any of the w h o l e s j u s t m e n t i o n e d , this w o u l d include the p e o p l e directly involved in m a n a g e m e n t and m a k i n g decisions, the resources available to t h e m — p h y s i c a l assets, as well as p e o p l e w h o can assist, influence, or will be i n f l u e n c e d by their m a n a g e m e n t ; and the m o n e y o n h a n d or that can be generated. At the outset you will always start w i t h an arbitrary definition of the entity you w a n t to manage. If that h a p p e n s to be a bakery, t h e n the w h o l e m i g h t include t h e o w n e r - m a n a g e r and her staff; the building itself and the e q u i p m e n t in it; t h e customers, suppliers, service providers, and advisors; plus the m o n e y t h e business has available as cash o n h a n d or a line of credit at the bank, o r that it can generate f r o m p r o d u c t sales. T h i s m i n i m u m w h o l e is t h e n viewed as o n e entity for m a n a g e m e n t . 59

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D e f i n i n g t h e b o u n d a r i e s of t h e w h o l e y o u r m a n a g e m e n t encompasses is critical because in d o i n g so y o u are i d e n t i f y i n g who will f o r m the holistic goal a n d w h a t they will b e responsible for m a n a g i n g . You can d o this and still a c k n o w l e d g e that any w h o l e you d e f i n e includes lesser w h o l e s a n d also lies w i t h i n greater w h o l e s , b o t h of w h i c h will i n f l u e n c e y o u r m a n agement.* In training sessions p e o p l e have a r g u e d that s o m e w h o l e s are u n m a n ageable. B u t I have yet to learn of a single case. T h e o r e t i c a l l y a w h o l e a t o m o r m o l e c u l e c o u l d b e an u n m a n a g e a b l e w h o l e , but that is n o t t h e sort of t h i n g o n e w o u l d a t t e m p t to m a n a g e . A n d , theoretically, t h e universe w o u l d b e an u n m a n a g e a b l e w h o l e because w e c o u l d never h o p e to learn all that w e w o u l d n e e d to k n o w to tackle such a project. If a w h o l e is said to be u n m a n a g e a b l e , generally it is either o n e that needs to be b r o k e n i n t o smaller w h o l e s , a subject covered later, o r m o r e c o m m o n l y , o n e that has n o t b e e n d e f i n e d p r o p e r l y — i t lacks the m i n i m u m criteria. S o m e p e o p l e , f o r example, only loosely define the w h o l e in t e r m s o f t h e l a n d — a national park, a f a r m , a wilderness area, and so o n — w i t h o u t m e n t i o n i n g the p e o p l e w h o m a n a g e it o r derive b e n e f i t f r o m it. T h e fate of t h e land is so tied to t h e attitudes a n d beliefs of these p e o p l e that only m a n a g i n g p e o p l e and land t o g e t h e r offers any h o p e of success. Likewise, n o family, business, o r c o m m u n i t y can be m a n a g e d in isolation f r o m the land that provides t h e raw materials f o r life and t h e repository f o r wastes. N o w y o u b e g i n to see w h e r e m o s t e c o n o m i s t s fall s h o r t w h e n they advise o n t h e m a n a g e m e n t of a w h o l e e c o n o m y , w h i c h in their eyes is divorced f r o m t h e land a n d the attitudes and beliefs of t h e p e o p l e in all b u t the m o s t superficial sense. A m o r e detailed l o o k at the three parts that m a k e u p a m i n i m u m m a n a g e a b l e w h o l e will enable y o u to appreciate their importance.

The Decision Makers D e c i s i o n makers are t h e p e o p l e w h o will f o r m t h e holistic goal. T h e y should i n c l u d e a n y o n e m a k i n g d a y - t o - d a y decisions in the family, business, c o r p o r a t e division, or w h a t e v e r entity y o u r w h o l e is based o n . T h e y s h o u l d range f r o m those w h o m a k e the m o s t p r o f o u n d , f a r - r e a c h i n g decisions, to those m a k i n g t h e m o s t m u n d a n e d e c i s i o n s — f r o m t h e o w n e r o f t h e coffee shop to t h e p e r s o n w h o serves across the c o u n t e r ; f r o m t h e o w n e r of the ranch to t h e c o w b o y s h a n d l i n g t h e cattle; f r o m t h e trustees a n d faculty of the college to t h e secretary in t h e admissions office; f r o m the senior p a r t ners in t h e legal f i r m to the p e r s o n a n s w e r i n g the p h o n e s . M a k e a list of *Some people use the t e r m holon to refer to the lesser wholes existing w i t h i n a greater whole.

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t h e m all, t r y i n g to be inclusive rather than exclusive. If there are p e o p l e w h o , w h i l e n o t m a k i n g decisions can veto t h e m or in s o m e way alter t h e m , they t o o should be i n c l u d e d in this part of the w h o l e , a p o i n t we will r e t u r n to. B e p r e p a r e d to redefine this part of the w h o l e if you later realize that p e o p l e w h o should have b e e n i n c l u d e d in f o r m i n g t h e holistic goal were left o u t . N o t d o i n g so can lead to p r o b l e m s d o w n t h e road.

The Resource Base N e x t , list t h e m a j o r physical resources f r o m w h i c h you will g e n e r a t e reve n u e or derive s u p p o r t in achieving y o u r holistic goal: t h e land, t h e factory and its machinery, the office building, y o u r h o m e , or w h a t e v e r is relevant in y o u r case. T h e s e resources n e e d n o t b e o w n e d , b u t m u s t be available to y o u . You are n o t after a detailed list of every asset you have, only a very general one. You may later d e c i d e to sell s o m e of the assets y o u o w n a n y way, particularly the liquid or movable ones. N o w m a k e a list of all t h e p e o p l e y o u can t h i n k of w h o will or can i n f l u e n c e or b e i n f l u e n c e d by the m a n a g e m e n t decisions y o u m a k e , b u t w o n ' t have the p o w e r to veto or alter t h e m — c l i e n t s and customers, s u p pliers, advisors, n e i g h b o r s , family, a n d so o n . If t h e entity you are m a n a g ing includes s o m e t h i n g as large and c o m p l e x as state lands o r a national park, the p e o p l e in y o u r resource base c o u l d n u m b e r in the millions. To o v e r c o m e the d i l e m m a of h o w to i n c l u d e t h e m all, list instead g r o u p s of p e o p l e representative of t h e larger public, for e x a m p l e , e n v i r o n m e n t a l groups, c o m m u n i t y organizations, and o t h e r s c o n c e r n e d a b o u t h o w that land or wildlife is m a n a g e d . In earlier days w e failed to include m e n t i o n of any p e o p l e in the resource base. W e were dealing mainly w i t h ranchers and f a r m e r s at the time and t h o u g h t of the resource base strictly in t e r m s of the land. In the early 1990s, however, w h e n a t t e m p t i n g to assist an agricultural research station in M e x i c o to define their w h o l e , I realized s o m e t h i n g was missing. T h e decision makers i n c l u d e d its board of directors and staff. T h e resource base i n c l u d e d the land m a n a g e d by t h e research station. T h e m o n e y i n c l u d e d f u n d s provided by t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d w h a t e v e r revenue the staff c o u l d g e n e r a t e f r o m the land. In short, w e d e f i n e d t h e w h o l e m u c h as w e w o u l d have for a family r a n c h in those days. W h e n I paid a s e c o n d visit, t h e board and staff w e r e still struggling to f o r m a holistic goal and n o t m a k i n g any progress. A f t e r considerable discussion, it d a w n e d o n m e that t h e p r o b l e m lay in h o w w e had d e f i n e d the w h o l e six m o n t h s earlier, t h e resource base in particular. T h e research station had b e e n created to d o m o r e than m a n a g e or c o n d u c t research o n its o w n l a n d — i t had to serve the public in t h e state as w e l l . T h e public i n c l u d ed u r b a n as well as rural p e o p l e because, in addition to c o n t r i b u t i n g to the

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research station's b u d g e t as taxpayers, urban businesses w e r e b e i n g adversely affected by the land d e t e r i o r a t i o n o c c u r r i n g in their state. U n t i l it was clear that t h e research station's resource base also i n c l u d e d the p e o p l e in the state it served, it was impossible to f o r m a holistic goal that m a d e sense. It did n o t take m e l o n g to realize afterward that n o m a t t e r w h a t t h e e n t i ty b e i n g m a n a g e d , i d e n t i f y i n g t h e p e o p l e in t h e resource base was critical. As you will learn in the n e x t chapter, these p e o p l e are n o less i m p o r t a n t than the decision makers i n c l u d e d in the first part of y o u r w h o l e . In fact, they are o f t e n vitally i m p o r t a n t to the w h o l e even t h o u g h they d o n o t m a k e m a n a g e m e n t decisions w i t h i n it. T h e i r views and c o n c e r n s and h o w you w a n t to relate to t h e m should b e reflected in y o u r holistic goal. M a n y of these people, a l t h o u g h n o t f o r m i n g the holistic goal w i t h you, will prove helpful in achieving it. S o m e , like c u s t o m e r s or clients, will be essential.

Money M o n e y will be involved in m o s t w h o l e s u n d e r m a n a g e m e n t ; for better or worse, today it is t h e oil that makes the cogs of life go r o u n d . T h u s , in d e f i n i n g t h e w h o l e , m a k e a n o t e of the sources of m o n e y available to y o u . This m i g h t include cash o n h a n d or m o n e y in a savings a c c o u n t or available f r o m relatives, shareholders, or a line o f credit at the bank. A n d it w o u l d almost always include m o n e y that could be g e n e r a t e d f r o m t h e physical resources listed in y o u r resource base. D o n ' t be sidetracked here by l o n g and involved discussions o n t h e m e a n i n g of m o n e y and wealth. Just t h i n k of m o n e y in t e r m s of w h a t you require to live o n , o r to r u n the business, institute, g o v e r n m e n t , o r w h a t e v e r entity you are dealing w i t h .

Keep Your Focus on the Big Picture R e m e m b e r the p i c t u r e in C h a p t e r 3 that b e c a m e visible (as Lincoln's face) only w h e n you blurred the detail of the squares? In d e f i n i n g t h e w h o l e , you are a t t e m p t i n g s o m e t h i n g similar. You d o n o t , at this stage, n e e d to reflect o n the detail of t h e squares because if you do, you may lose sight of the w h o l e you are dealing w i t h . T r y to k e e p y o u r lists and notes brief. Great detail is n o t n e e d e d now, only b i g - p i c t u r e clarity. B e l o w I give a selection of examples. In each case a p e r s o n or g r o u p of p e o p l e have i d e n tified an entity they w a n t to m a n a g e holistically—their lives, a business, an agency, and so o n . N o w they're ready to d e t e r m i n e w h a t the m i n i m u m , manageable, w h o l e w o u l d be: •

A single, employed person seeking to manage her life holistically would conclude that there is only o n e person making decisions— herself. H e r resource base includes her h o m e , her j o b and w o r k associates, her friends, neighbors, and mentors (many of these people

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would be named). Actually, any n u m b e r of people could be regarded as a resource for her. For money she would have what she earns and can save or invest profitably. •

A family seeking to manage a farm holistically might say that the decision makers include the m e m b e r s of their immediate family and their two employees.Their resource base includes the land they own, plus the 200 acres they lease, their home, their extended family in town, their customers, their suppliers, the county extension agent, their soil testing laboratory, their local study group. For m o n e y they have only what they can earn from the farm.

•

A group of accountants seeking to manage their firm holistically might say that the decision makers include the partners and staff. T h e i r resource base is their office building and equipment, their clients, the people w h o supply professional and other services to them, and their families. For money they have what they earn from their services and, if needed, a $50,000 line of credit from the bank.

•

Leaders in a large industrial corporation seeking to manage the corporation holistically might say that the decision makers include the board of directors and their staff. T h e i r resource base would include their factories and the land on which they are located, their families, their shareholders, their customers, suppliers, the university (named specifically) they collaborate with on research, various regulatory agencies (named specifically), and various environmental groups (named specifically). For m o n e y they have their earnings, interest o n those earnings, government grants for research, and share capital.

•

A town council seeking to manage the local government holistically might say that the decision makers are the council members and staff. T h e resource base includes the physical structures within the town, as well as the parks and other recreational amenities, the businesses and cultural and other public institutions, the tourists and other visitors, and the people living in town and in the surrounding rural c o m munities.They would have the m o n e y raised by taxes, which depends on the money all the people and businesses earn, interest on that money, and grants from state and federal agencies.

•

T h e people in an African village seeking to manage the village holistically might say that the decision makers are those w h o live in the village, as well as extended family members w o r k i n g on nearby farms, mines, or in faraway towns or cities (all of w h o m make decisions at various times and levels).Their resource base would include the land within the village boundaries, plus the grazing lands they share with other villages, their homes, the school, and the clinic, the people with w h o m they trade (or buy and sell) goods or services, various govern-

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m e n t agents (veterinary, agricultural extension, medical, educational), various church groups, and nongovernmental organizations. T h e y would have the m o n e y they can earn or that extended family m e m bers send. I h o p e you appreciate the level of simplicity in this cross section of e x a m ples. G o m u c h b e y o n d this level and you risk c l o u d i n g y o u r picture of the w h o l e . N o a m o u n t of detail will help you to m a k e holistically s o u n d d e c i sions if you d o n o t have a clear picture of t h e w h o l e . All t h e detail i m a g inable will c o m e into play later.

Including the Right People in the Right Place Occasionally, it m a y be difficult to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r s o m e p e o p l e fall in the first part of t h e w h o l e , as decision makers w h o will f o r m the holistic goal, o r t h e third p a r t — a s resources in a c h i e v i n g t h e holistic goal. T h i s is an easy mistake to m a k e w h e n t h e p e o p l e c o n c e r n e d are n o t involved in d a y - t o - d a y m a n a g e m e n t , yet can veto s o m e decisions. A lesson w e l e a r n e d in this respect involved t w o e i g h t - y e a r - l o n g " t r i als" of Holistic M a n a g e m e n t c o n d u c t e d by t h e U.S. Forest Service in c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h t w o r a n c h i n g families p e r m i t t e d to graze livestock on forest lands. In f o r m i n g t h e w h o l e w e i n c l u d e d only t h e families in t h e first part of the w h o l e because they w e r e t h e ones directly involved in m a n a g e m e n t a n d m a k i n g the decisions. W e p u t the Forest Service p e o p l e in the resource base, a l o n g w i t h various e n v i r o n m e n t a l g r o u p s a n d a host of others. N e i t h e r of these trials succeeded, in large part because t h e Forest Service p e o p l e w e r e n o t i n c l u d e d in the first part of the w h o l e . A l t h o u g h they w e r e n o t directly involved in m a n a g e m e n t , the Forest Service did have veto p o w e r over m a j o r decisions. T h e i r regulations in fact o v e r r o d e s o m e crucial decisions that t h e n m a d e it impossible f o r us to m a n a g e , a n d thus f o r t h e trials to succeed. In s u b s e q u e n t efforts elsewhere, w e did i n c l u d e g o v e r n m e n t agency representatives in the first part of t h e w h o l e a n d h a d t h e m f o r m the holistic goal w i t h us. W h e n w e again m a d e s o m e decisions that c o u l d have b e e n v e t o e d , they w o r k e d w i t h us to find a way a r o u n d their o w n regulations, because those regulations were s t a n d i n g in their way too. D o n ' t be p u t off d e f i n i n g t h e w h o l e f o r fear you w o n ' t get it right. You will have plenty of o p p o r t u n i t i e s to f u r t h e r refine it. Initially, those d e f i n i n g the w h o l e — i t c o u l d be y o u a l o n e — m a y have only a limited u n d e r s t a n d ing of Holistic M a n a g e m e n t and will n e e d t i m e to d e e p e n it. As o t h e r s b e c o m e involved, changes are b o u n d to be m a d e . You will m a k e mistakes, but should be able to rectify t h e m b e f o r e any serious d a m a g e is d o n e .

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In y o u r first a t t e m p t t h e n , d o y o u r best to define y o u r m i n i m u m w h o l e . T h e result, n o m a t t e r h o w r o u g h , should be a d e q u a t e to enable you to get o n w i t h f o r m i n g y o u r holistic goal, w h i c h initially will only be t e m p o r a r y anyway. As you w o r k at refining y o u r holistic goal, you will b e obliged to reconsider y o u r w h o l e .

Wholes within Wholes If the g r o u p of p e o p l e you have i n c l u d e d in t h e first part of y o u r w h o l e is very large, and if t h e enterprises engaged in are very diverse, o r if m e m b e r s are separated f r o m each o t h e r geographically, it o f t e n b e c o m e s impractical to m a n a g e the entity as a single w h o l e . O n e reason w h y is that it b e c o m e s m o r e difficult to m a k e the holistic goal specific e n o u g h , even over time, to inspire t h e d e g r e e of c o m m i t m e n t n e e d e d by e v e r y o n e to b r i n g it a b o u t . In these cases, it makes m o r e sense to create smaller, m o r e m a n a g e a b l e w h o l e s w i t h i n t h e greater w h o l e . E a c h of these smaller w h o l e s w o u l d have to m e e t t h e m i n i m u m w h o l e r e q u i r e m e n t — t h a t is, i n c l u d e p e o p l e w h o are directly responsible for m a k i n g m a n a g e m e n t decisions at that level, an identifiable resource base, and m o n e y available o r that can be g e n e r a t e d f r o m that resource base. In t h e large industrial c o r p o r a t i o n m e n t i o n e d in the list of w h o l e s earlier, t h e leaders w o u l d have r e c o g n i z e d i m m e d i a t e l y that trying to m a n a g e the c o r p o r a t i o n as o n e w h o l e w o u l d b e c o m e a n i g h t m a r e of a task. T h e p e o p l e that w o u l d n e e d to b e involved in f o r m i n g t h e holistic goal m i g h t well n u m b e r in t h e thousands. W e k n o w t h e r e was m o r e than o n e factory, and t h e r e is perhaps m o r e than o n e m a n u f a c t u r i n g division w i t h its a d m i n istrative, p e r s o n n e l , and a c c o u n t i n g d e p a r t m e n t s and p e r h a p s a research a n d d e v e l o p m e n t division. In each of these factories and divisions p e o p l e w o u l d b e directly involved in m a n a g e m e n t and m a k i n g decisions. T h e y w o u l d have a resource base that was fairly distinct and included its o w n clients and suppliers, w h i c h w o u l d likely i n c l u d e o t h e r divisions in the c o r p o r a t i o n . E a c h f a c t o r y o r division w o u l d have m o n e y available, either t h r o u g h t h e parent c o m p a n y o r greater w h o l e , o r t h r o u g h r e v e n u e the division c o u l d generate. T h u s , each factory o r division c o u l d b e seen as a smaller w h o l e w i t h i n t h e greater w h o l e and b e m a n a g e d that way. As t h e decision makers in each of these smaller w h o l e s f o r m their o w n holistic goal, t h e goal can address their needs, desires, a n d responsibilities m o r e specifically, yet still be in line w i t h the holistic goal f o r m e d by those m a n a g i n g the greater w h o l e . C h a p t e r 10 includes guidelines f o r e n s u r i n g that core values a n d c o h e s i o n are m a i n t a i n e d w i t h i n the holistic goals f o r m e d in each w h o l e . If h a v i n g these smaller w h o l e s m a n a g e d by their o w n p e o p l e eases m a n a g e m e n t of the greater w h o l e a n d leads to p e o p l e h a v i n g greater m o t i v a -

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tion and greater f r e e d o m for creativity, it w o u l d only m a k e sense to create this o p p o r t u n i t y , as m a n y quality-conscious c o r p o r a t i o n s have already f o u n d . A l t h o u g h t h e organizational structure w o u l d n o t be radically different f r o m that of m o s t w e l l - r u n c o m p a n i e s , t h e attitudes a n d c o m m i t m e n t of t h e p e o p l e w o u l d be. D o n ' t let this e x a m p l e give the impression that only large, c o m p l e x businesses n e e d to t h i n k a b o u t d e f i n i n g w h o l e s w i t h i n wholes. A fairly small business c o u l d have a b r a n c h s o m e distance away that w o u l d be m o r e effectively m a n a g e d as a w h o l e o n its o w n , a l t h o u g h still linked closely to the m a i n b r a n c h . If y o u are m a n a g i n g a business a n d a family as a single w h o l e , as m a n y f a r m e r s and ranchers do, there may be a n e e d to d e f i n e t w o wholes, particularly if s o m e family m e m b e r s have n o wish to b e involved in t h e business. If y o u have d o u b t s a b o u t w h e t h e r y o u r m a n a g e m e n t w o u l d b e n e f i t by f o r m i n g a smaller w h o l e w i t h i n t h e w h o l e you c u r r e n t l y manage, it helps to r e m i n d yourself of w h a t y o u are trying to a c c o m p l i s h . T h e p r i m a r y p u r pose in creating separate w h o l e s w i t h i n a greater w h o l e is to give t h e p e o ple w i t h i n these smaller w h o l e s t h e o p p o r t u n i t y to f o r m a holistic goal that relates to their specific m a n a g e m e n t needs a n d the resources available to t h e m . The more specific a holistic goal can be, the greater the commitment of the people will be. O n c e y o u have d e f i n e d y o u r w h o l e and identified t h e p e o ple w h o n e e d to be involved in f o r m i n g the holistic goal, those w h o s e c o n c e r n s it needs to address, a n d the resources that will enable y o u to b r i n g it a b o u t , you are ready to f o r m a holistic goal.

9 Forming a Holistic Goal: What Is It You Really Want?

r o m time i m m e m o r i a l h u m a n goals have driven h u m a n actions: to m a k e a spear, build a dwelling, b u y a car, get an e d u c a t i o n , reach the m o o n . Y e t w h e n these goals were met, it was o f t e n at t h e l o n g - t e r m expense of o t h e r factors w e failed to consider. N o n e of o u r goals s e e m e d to provide the g u i d a n c e n e e d e d w h e n it c a m e to m a n a g i n g the w h o l e of a situation. What was really needed was a goal that catered to immediate and long-term needs, human values, economies, and the environment. A n d science, or theology for that matter, provided little direction in that quest. T h u s , the c o n c e p t of a holistic goal developed slowly, w i n d i n g its way t h r o u g h m a n y w r o n g turns and dark passages. It w o u l d prove to be m o r e difficult to articulate than any o t h e r aspect of Holistic M a n a g e m e n t , and it continues to evolve to this day.

F

T h i s c h a p t e r retraces s o m e of the steps taken a l o n g that path in the h o p e that they prove i l l u m i n a t i n g . T h e n it covers each of t h e holistic goal's c o m p o n e n t s in s o m e detail. T h e n e x t c h a p t e r discusses s o m e of t h e pitfalls o n e should seek to avoid in f o r m i n g a holistic goal and guidelines for refining it until it truly expresses w h a t you w a n t . R e a d t h r o u g h b o t h chapters to gain a sense of h o w t h e process w o r k s b e f o r e you a t t e m p t to f o r m a holistic goal yourself. B u t also b e aware that a g e n u i n e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of w h a t is said here will probably c o m e only as you b e g i n to put y o u r o w n holistic goal into words.

Development of the Holistic Goal T h e earliest version of the Holistic M a n a g e m e n t m o d e l (see Figure 7-1), did n o t even i n c l u d e a goal. Originally o n e b e g a n practicing Holistic 67

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M a n a g e m e n t by first analyzing ecological processes in an a t t e m p t to improve their f u n c t i o n i n g a n d thus to restore the land to health. W i t h e x p e r i e n c e c a m e the realization of the futility of m a n i p u l a t i n g these processes w i t h o u t s o m e idea of w h a t w e w a n t e d to p r o d u c e , a n d thus a p r o d u c t i o n goal was d e f i n e d . S o o n after, w e e n c o u n t e r e d t h e p r o b l e m that afflicts so m a n y businesses, particularly agricultural ones, of p r o d u c t i o n goals achieved at t h e expense of t h e e n v i r o n m e n t that supports t h e m a n d the p e o p l e w h o s e lives w e r e s u p p o s e d to improve. I n c l u d i n g a landscape goal was a m a j o r step forward, b u t still t h e p e o ple involved o f t e n a r g u e d to a standstill over p r o d u c t i o n goals, a n d thus the desired landscape. S o m e time passed b e f o r e it appeared that such conflict c o u l d only b e resolved by f i n d i n g a c o m m o n vision, in t e r m s of quality of life, f r o m w h i c h to p r o c e e d . For a n u m b e r of years s o m e p e o p l e h a d b e e n saying that " r e l i g i o n " n e e d e d to b e in t h e goal, b u t that idea m a d e o t h e r p e o p l e u n c o m f o r t a b l e . O n e day, however, a r a n c h e r m a d e the p o i n t in a n o t h e r way. W h a t needs to b e in there, h e said, is a reflection of people's values—spiritual and o t h e r w i s e — t h e things p e o p l e live for, the things that m a k e t h e m w a n t to d o anything. H e was right, of course. I n c l u d e a quality of life s t a t e m e n t in t h e goal that reflects w h a t is m o s t i m p o r t a n t to y o u , a n d y o u w o u l d gain the personal c o m m i t m e n t n e e d e d to achieve w h a t e v e r else y o u had to achieve. O n c e such a s t a t e m e n t was f o r m e d , y o u w o u l d b e g i n to k n o w w h a t y o u had to p r o d u c e to create t h e o u t c o m e envisioned. O n c e y o u k n e w w h a t you had to p r o d u c e , y o u c o u l d b e g i n to envision the sort of landscape that w o u l d sustain w h a t y o u p r o d u c e d . T h u s , an o r d e r was given to t h e f o r m a tion of t h e holistic goal, as each aspect naturally led to t h e next. " P r o d u c t i o n " b e c a m e "forms of p r o d u c t i o n " w h e n w e saw that p e o p l e were i n c l u d i n g only p r o d u c t s that c o u l d b e sold or c o n s u m e d a n d f o r g e t ting t o include things like " m e a n i n g f u l w o r k " or " a n aesthetic e n v i r o n m e n t , " w h i c h w o u l d have to b e p r o d u c e d to create the quality of life they envisioned. Landscape b e c a m e t h e future landscape w h e n w e f o u n d that p e o p l e w e r e d e s c r i b i n g t h e land as it was, n o t as it h a d to b e if it was to sustain t h e m several generations h e n c e . In clarifying t h e d e f i n i t i o n of a m a n a g e a b l e w h o l e , w e realized that f u t u r e resource base b e t t e r described the third p a r t of the holistic goal. T h e n e w h e a d i n g still e n c o m p a s s e d t h e idea of a f u t u r e landscape, b u t t h e land m a n a g e r n o w also n e e d e d to describe his o r h e r land in t e r m s of h o w w a t e r and m i n e r a l cycles, e n e r g y flow, and c o m m u n i t y dynamics w o u l d have to f u n c t i o n . O t h e r s r e q u i r e d only a g e n eral d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e e n v i r o n m e n t s u r r o u n d i n g t h e m . T h e f u t u r e resource base in any situation w o u l d also n e e d to i n c l u d e s o m e reference to the p e o p l e w h o , w h e n t h e w h o l e was d e f i n e d , w e r e listed as resources to achieving t h e holistic goal. Finally, after considerable trial a n d error, w e

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realized that quality of life, f o r m s of p r o d u c t i o n and f u t u r e resource base goals had to be c o m b i n e d into o n e c o m p r e h e n s i v e , holistic goal. O t h e r w i s e decisions c o u l d be m a d e in s u p p o r t of o n e aspect, w h i l e d a m aging another. W e i g h i n g all decisions against this holistic goal increases t h e c h a n c e ot success in b o t h t h e short and the l o n g t e r m . M u c h of w h a t is expressed in t h e first t w o p a r t s — q u a l i t y of life and f o r m s of p r o d u c t i o n — s p e a k s to i m m e d i a t e needs: p e o p l e w a n t a better life n o w and to p r o d u c e t h e things that lead to it. B u t b o t h parts also contain idealistic elements that may n o t be achieved in a single lifetime. T h e f u t u r e resource base always speaks to the l o n g t e r m , as it must if it is to sustain t h e rest of w h a t the holistic goal encompasses. O n first e x p o s u r e to a holistic goal, w h i c h o f t e n takes u p to a page to express, m a n y p e o p l e will a r g u e that it is n o t o n e goal, but several.The very idea of a goal that embraces h u m a n values and links t h e m as o n e indivisible entity to e c o n o m i e s and the e n v i r o n m e n t is a foreign c o n c e p t , particularly to those adept in the d e v e l o p m e n t of sharply d e f i n e d o b j e c t i v e s — w h i c h d o have their place o n c e a holistic goal has b e e n f o r m e d . W h e n c o n c e i v e d w i t h o u t reference to a n y t h i n g resembling a holistic goal, o b j e c tives a l o n g the lines of " B y 2 0 0 5 w e will capture 40 p e r c e n t of m a r k e t share," have led to a host of problems. S u c h objectives are o f t e n m e t w i t h o u t o u r n o t i c i n g until m u c h later w h a t they cost in h u m a n terms, in e n v i r o n m e n t a l terms, and in d a m a g e to a c o u n t r y and the l o n g - t e r m f u t u r e of its children.

The Statement of Purpose M a n y an institution is f o r m e d for a specific p u r p o s e b u t later loses sight of it and b e c o m e s ineffective o r self-serving. If the entity you m a n a g e was f o r m e d for a specific p u r p o s e that you are legally or morally obligated to meet, you will n e e d to ensure that y o u r holistic goal addresses this p u r p o s e . T h e best way to d o this is to create a s t a t e m e n t of p u r p o s e as a preface to y o u r holistic goal. In s o m e cases, t h e p u r p o s e for w h i c h you w e r e f o r m e d will be well k n o w n a n d perhaps r e c o r d e d in w r i t i n g . B u t m o r e o f t e n , the p u r p o s e has either b e e n f o r g o t t e n or was originally expressed in such vague t e r m s that it was o p e n to i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . Occasionally, because times change, a n d with t h e m t h e c o n t e x t and situations that may have p r o m p t e d t h e f o r m a t i o n of an organization, the original p u r p o s e is n o l o n g e r vahd. If you find this to be t r u e in y o u r case, you n e e d to d o s o m e t h i n g a b o u t it. In stating y o u r basic p u r p o s e , you w a n t to get at the heart of t h e m a t ter. T h e s t a t e m e n t should reflect, in very f e w words, w h a t y o u w e r e f o r m e d

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to do. If it takes y o u m o r e than a s e n t e n c e o r two, y o u have n o t t h o u g h t carefully e n o u g h , or, m o r e c o m m o n l y , you have g o n e b e y o n d a s t a t e m e n t of p u r p o s e into how you see yourselves d o i n g w h a t e v e r it is you are s u p posed to do. T h e board, faculty, and stafF of o n e private college I was assisting w e r e guilty of t h e latter. T h e y labored for h o u r s over a w h o l e paragraph of flowery w o r d s describing t h e services they w o u l d provide and h o w they w o u l d attract s t u d e n t s — t h e sorts of things that w o u l d have to b e tested after t h e s t a t e m e n t of p u r p o s e was created and the holistic goal f o r m e d . In f r u s t r a tion, after repeated a t t e m p t s to steer t h e m away f r o m fussing over w o r d s that h a d little to d o w i t h t h e task at h a n d , I finally b l u r t e d out, " D a m n it, I feel like calling y o u a b u n c h of b l o o d y academics, but I can't because you a r e ! " T h e y got t h e message, and soon after c a m e d o w n to a simple statem e n t that expressed w h a t they had b e e n f o r m e d to do: " T o provide e x c e p tional e d u c a t i o n that is relevant to the future." It t o o k t h e s t a f f a n d board of t h e C e n t e r f o r Holistic M a n a g e m e n t s o m e t i m e to clarify o u r p u r p o s e . T h e C e n t e r had originally b e e n f o r m e d " t o p r o m o t e Holistic M a n a g e m e n t a n d c o o r d i n a t e its f u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t . " B u t this proved to b e t o o vague and the resulting lack of focus caused us to f l o u n d e r . W e got the w o r d o u t a b o u t Holistic M a n a g e m e n t , b u t it d i d n't s e e m as if w e were a c c o m p l i s h i n g m u c h . It wasn't until w e realized that w h a t w e had b e e n f o r m e d to d o was " t o advance t h e practice of Holistic M a n a g e m e n t , " as well as c o o r d i n a t e its d e v e l o p m e n t , that w e b e g a n to m a k e headway. T h e second part of o u r holistic goal, t h e f o r m s of p r o d u c tion, gained n e e d e d direction, and o u r m a n a g e m e n t and m o n i t o r i n g really b e g a n to focus. T h e statement of p u r p o s e will be reflected in y o u r holistic goal, specifically in t h e quality of life statement, w h e r e you will refer to the o u t c o m e s that c o r r e s p o n d to y o u r p u r p o s e , and in t h e f o r m s of p r o d u c t i o n , w h e r e you will specify w h a t you must p r o d u c e to ensure those o u t c o m e s . R e v i s i t y o u r statement of p u r p o s e periodically, just to m a k e sure that the p u r p o s e for w h i c h y o u w e r e f o r m e d c o n t i n u e s to b e relevant.

Quality of Life In f o r m i n g t h e first part of y o u r holistic goal, you are a t t e m p t i n g to express h o w y o u w a n t y o u r life to be, in the whole you have defined, based o n w h a t you m o s t value. If t h e w h o l e you have d e f i n e d includes only yourself, and you are merely s e e k i n g to m a n a g e y o u r personal life holistically, t h e n t h e quality of life y o u express w o u l d b e limited to y o u r o w n personal desires. B u t in most cases y o u r w h o l e will include m o r e than o n e decision maker, and y o u will b e m a n a g i n g s o m e t h i n g j o i n t l y — y o u r life as a couple, y o u r family and h o u s e h o l d , a small business, o r a large c o r p o r a t i o n . T h e n t h e

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quality of life s t a t e m e n t b e c o m e s an expression of t h e desires and aspirations of all the decision-makers—a reflection of y o u r shared values. T h e quality of life p o r t i o n of your holistic goal expresses the reasons you're d o i n g w h a t you're d o i n g , w h a t you are a b o u t , and w h a t you w a n t to b e c o m e . It is a reflection of w h a t motivates you. It should excite y o u . It speaks of needs you w a n t to satisfy now, b u t also of the mission you seek to accomplish in t h e l o n g r u n . It is y o u r collective sense of w h a t is i m p o r tant and why.

Getting Down to What You Value

Most

N o o n e can specify w h a t is o r is n o t a p p r o p r i a t e to include in y o u r quality of life statement because w h a t needs to be included is u n i q u e to each situation and the values of the p e o p l e w i t h i n it. H o w e v e r , there are f o u r areas y o u m i g h t w a n t to c o n s i d e r in t h i n k i n g a b o u t quality of life. ECONOMIC WELL-BEING

T h i s is essential for m e e t i n g basic h u m a n needs for f o o d , clothing, shelter, health, and security. T h e entity as a w h o l e must be prosperous, b u t so should the individuals w i t h i n it. H o w you define e c o n o m i c w e l l - b e i n g will always d e p e n d o n y o u r circumstances. If y o u r business is deeply in debt now, y o u r greatest desire m i g h t simply be to be d e b t - f r e e ; a villager in Africa m i g h t place highest value o n f o o d self-sufficiency. In m a n y o r g a n i zations e n s u r i n g fair a n d a d e q u a t e c o m p e n s a t i o n is a consideration, or creating o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r individual e c o n o m i c a d v a n c e m e n t . " M a k i n g a lot of m o n e y " is rarely as useful in a quality of life s t a t e m e n t as n a m i n g instead w h a t you gain f r o m h a v i n g m o n e y : security, c o m f o r t a b l e s u r r o u n d i n g s , e n o u g h to eat, and the w h e r e w i t h a l to d o w h a t you w a n t to do. T h e same can be said for any material object. Ask that p e r s o n , c o m m o n l y a teenager, w h o insists that a n e w car is essential to t h e life h e wants to lead, w h a t h e gains f r o m o w n i n g a car of his o w n . F r e e d o m to c o m e a n d go? A d v e n t u r e and travel? R e c o g n i t i o n and respect? T h e car may well b e t h e means to achieve s o m e of these ends, b u t its purchase is s o m e t h i n g that should be subjected to testing toward t h e holistic goal, as will be the case w i t h m o s t material objects. T h e practice o f expressing w h a t you h o p e to gain f r o m a thing, rather than the t h i n g itself, can lead to s o m e surprising revelations. A y o u n g c o u ple o n c e asked m e to help t h e m to locate a g a m e r a n c h in Africa. T h e y had recently c o m e into s o m e m o n e y and w a n t e d to leave their u r b a n p r o fessions to go g a m e ranching. It was especially i m p o r t a n t , they said, that they o w n t h e r a n c h . I agreed to help, b u t first sat t h e m d o w n and asked t h e m to talk a b o u t w h y they w a n t e d to o w n a g a m e ranch, w h a t their f a m ily needs were, and in general the kind of life they were seeking. W i t h o u t

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this i n f o r m a t i o n , I w o u l d n ' t k n o w w h a t sort of place to l o o k for. B u t after h e a r i n g t h e m talk a b o u t h o w they loved t h e bush, t h e h u n t i n g , c a m p i n g by a campfire, and so o n , I r e c o m m e n d e d they seek j o b s o n s o m e o n e else's g a m e ranch. N o t o n c e had they m e n t i o n e d a n y t h i n g that c a m e close to d e s c r i b i n g the life of a g a m e r a n c h o w n e r in those early days of t h e industry. T h e y had said n o t h i n g a b o u t the l o n g h o u r s they w o u l d have to spend t r y i n g to create a financial plan that w o u l d keep t h e m in the black or a b o u t battling G a m e D e p a r t m e n t bureaucrats w h o were o p p o s e d to t h e idea of private individuals m a n a g i n g g a m e and were responsible for issuing the p e r m i t s to h u n t , transport, and m a r k e t it. N o r had they m e n t i o n e d t h e days a n d nights o n the road a n d in city hotels that were required to develop markets for their products, n o r any of t h e m a n y o t h e r tasks that o c c u p i e d m o s t of a g a m e ranch owner's time. All that they h a d described as i m p o r t a n t to t h e m was all that t h e life of an e m p l o y e d h u n t e r offered. I later struck similar cases w h e r e , for instance, a y o u n g c o u p l e was c e r tain that o w n i n g their o w n f a r m was m o r e i m p o r t a n t to t h e m t h a n n e a r ly a n y t h i n g else in life. A n d they had used all their w o r k i n g capital plus a loan f r o m the b a n k to finance t h e purchase of one. N o w they struggled to m a k e ends m e e t and t h e financial stress was b e g i n n i n g to take its toll on their relationship. N o t the sort of life they h a d envisioned o w n i n g a f a r m w o u l d give t h e m . H a d they instead at the outset discussed w h a t they w a n t e d to gain in their fives by o w n i n g a f a r m , they m i g h t have realized that o w n e r s h i p was n o t w h a t was i m p o r t a n t , it was t h e way of life that was. T h e y t h e n could have leased a f a r m , leaving t h e m with e n o u g h w o r k i n g capital to m a k e a c o m f o r t a b l e living for themselves and create t h e way of life they h a d envisioned. Later, w h e n they c o u l d afford t h e l u x u r y of o w n e r s h i p , a n d didn't have to b o r r o w h i g h - i n t e r e s t m o n e y to achieve it, they c o u l d p u r c h a s e that or a n o t h e r f a r m — a decision they w o u l d test toward their holistic goal. RELATIONSHIPS

H u m a n s are social creatures. W h e n w e feel alienated o r alone, w e rarely f u n c t i o n as well as w h e n w e feel w e b e l o n g , that " w e ' r e all in this t o g e t h er." It b e c o m e s i m p o r t a n t t h e n to ask yourselves h o w y o u w a n t to behave w i t h each o t h e r a n d w i t h those listed in y o u r resource base.Your b e h a v i o r will i n f l u e n c e t h e level of trust that exists a m o n g y o u , and thus y o u r ability to c o m m u n i c a t e . D e p e n d i n g o n the circumstances, you m i g h t also c o n sider t h e qualities of t h e p e o p l e y o u w a n t to associate w i t h or enlist in s u p p o r t of y o u r e f f o r t s — f u t u r e c o - w o r k e r s , organization m e m b e r s , clients, suppliers, advisors, a n d so o n . In t h e e n d , the quality of y o u r relationships will greatly i n f l u e n c e y o u r ability to achieve all that y o u set o u t to achieve.

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You w a n t to have a collective sense of w h a t y o u e x p e c t to give and receive f r o m t h e relationships that are m o s t i m p o r t a n t to you. CHALLENGE AND GROWTH

H u m a n s have a n e e d to e x p e r i e n c e challenge; w i t h o u t it w e fail to g r o w and develop. W h e r e is the challenge in w h a t y o u do? T r y to t h i n k in terms of w h a t y o u find stimulating, w h a t requires all t h e resourcefulness a n d creativity y o u can muster. Is it i m p o r t a n t to y o u to have o p p o r t u n i t i e s to f u r ther develop y o u r skills o r to e n h a n c e t h e k n o w l e d g e and talents you already possess? If it is, t h e n is e v e r y o n e able to explain w h y ? T h i n k a b o u t w h a t k i n d of a t m o s p h e r e and e n v i r o n m e n t y o u m i g h t create to ensure that e v e r y o n e remains enthusiastic, yet n o o n e feels o v e r w h e l m e d . PURPOSE AND CONTRIBUTION

P e o p l e will give their best to an effort only w h e n it has m e a n i n g for t h e m . M e a n i n g , in any k i n d of organization, is n o t s o m e t h i n g that can b e created by a leader and h a n d e d d o w n ; it has to b e a shared discovery. Ask y o u r selves, " W h a t are w e a b o u t ? " " W h a t d o w e w a n t to b e ? " and " W h a t d o w e ultimately w a n t to a c c o m p l i s h ? " T h e answers will help y o u discover the m e a n i n g in w h a t y o u are d o i n g a n d the reason for y o u r existence as an organization, family, c o m p a n y , or whatever. If y o u are t h e type of organization that required a s t a t e m e n t of p u r p o s e , you will have d e f i n e d w h a t you w e r e specifically f o r m e d to do, b u t that m a y n o t cover all you are a b o u t , and certainly n o t all y o u w a n t to be. W h a t y o u ultimately w a n t to a c c o m p l i s h will be tied to t h e o u t c o m e s y o u envision in m e e t i n g y o u r p u r p o s e . In o u r case, as m e n t i o n e d , w e are w o r k i n g to advance the practice a n d to c o o r d i n a t e the d e v e l o p m e n t of Holistic M a n a g e m e n t , b u t w h a t really inspires a n d drives us are t h e results w e e n v i sion f r o m such an effort: a w o r l d in w h i c h p e o p l e live well and in h a r m o ny, w h e r e deserts are healing, wildlife a b u n d a n t , and t h e fishing's g o o d and g e t t i n g better. A n y g r o u p of p e o p l e w o r k i n g o r living t o g e t h e r does so f o r a reason, t h o u g h o f t e n unexpressed. W h a t is it that you are able to achieve collectively that you c o u l d n o t achieve individually? T h e answers may b e fairly obvious w h e n t h e w h o l e is limited to a family, but are o f t e n less so w h e n the w h o l e involves a business. In t h e latter case, a n o t h e r way of t h i n k i n g a b o u t w h y you exist, and for w h a t p u r p o s e , is to c o n s i d e r w h a t t h e f o u n d e r ' s aspirations m i g h t have b e e n in setting u p t h e business, or t h e reasons y o u r i n d u s t r y o r line of w o r k c a m e i n t o being. This s o m e t i m e s p r o vides a clue that eventually enables you to articulate an answer. In asking yourselves these kinds of questions, y o u should b e g i n to f o r m an idea of w h a t y o u c o n t r i b u t e to t h e w o r l d t h r o u g h y o u r efforts.

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K n o w i n g that w e are c o n t r i b u t i n g to s o m e t h i n g greater than ourselves is a strong m o t i v a t i n g force, and also, I believe, a n e e d m o s t p e o p l e share. S o m e may argue that those e n g a g e d in a struggle for survival have n o t i m e to give to such n o t i o n s . B u t even those living in the m o s t i m p o v e r i s h e d and appalling c o n d i t i o n s n o u r i s h t h e desire t o m a k e t h e w o r l d a b e t t e r place f o r their children. C r e a t i n g a quality of life s t a t e m e n t requires a g o o d deal of reflection and n u m e r o u s conversations, a n d it may b e several m o n t h s — a year or m o r e in large o r g a n i z a t i o n s — b e f o r e it begins to express w h a t you w a n t it to express. In the interest of m o v i n g o n , however, start w i t h a very r o u g h s t a t e m e n t that indicates the general d i r e c t i o n in w h i c h y o u w a n t to head. T h e n y o u can f o r m t h e r e m a i n i n g t w o parts of y o u r holistic goal and b e g i n m a k i n g decisions that lead you toward it.

Crafting

Your

Statement

In r e c o r d i n g everyone's t h o u g h t s initially, it is i m p o r t a n t that you capture t h e m in simple phrases, rather than w e l l - w o r d e d sentences. You will have plenty of time to edit the results into a unified s t a t e m e n t . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , resist the t e m p t a t i o n to break the phrases d o w n i n t o the values they represent, e n d i n g u p w i t h a l o n g list of values w i t h n o c o n t e x t . A l t h o u g h there is n o t h i n g w r o n g w i t h a list of values, they w o n ' t adequately express h o w p e o p l e w a n t their lives to be, and that makes testing f u t u r e decisions difficult. So d o n ' t just w r i t e : "prosperity, security, family values, and h e a l t h " w h e n w h a t you really want is " t o have stable and healthy families w h e r e all generations feel secure and are cared for." In general, p e o p l e will w a n t m a n y of t h e same things, regardless of their position in the business, institution, family, o r whatever. B u t t h e specifics may vary, and in s o m e cases conflict. A m a r r i e d c o u p l e m i g h t discover that o n e p a r t n e r finds a life of travel and a d v e n t u r e m o s t rewarding, w h i l e t h e o t h e r finds the greatest e n j o y m e n t in a q u i e t life at h o m e . T h e partners and staff of a law firm m i g h t discover that s o m e find t h e greatest reward in w o r k i n g w i t h the p o o r , w h i l e o t h e r s relish t h e challenge of w o r k i n g w i t h wealthy c o r p o r a t e clients. In either case, there is a g o o d c h a n c e that each can a c c o m m o d a t e t h e o t h e r as l o n g as t h e difference has n o t already caused conflict and h u r t . I deliberately use the w o r d accommodate, rather than c o m p r o m i s e . A n y o n e forced to c o m p r o m i s e o n s o m e t h i n g very i m p o r t a n t to h i m or her will n o t have m u c h c o m m i t m e n t to achieving the holistic goal. T h e same applies w h e n differences arise over h o w an idea is w o r d e d . W h e n this h a p pens, k e e p talking until you find the words that best express y o u r collective m e a n i n g . In e d i t i n g y o u r quality of life statement, take care that you d o n o t lose

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anything. In a training session a few years ago, o n e g r o u p of participants d r e w up a lengthy list of phrases and, as they had finished early, s o u g h t to s m a r t e n the English by b r i n g i n g t h e phrases d o w n to a few w e l l - w r i t t e n sentences. O n p r e s e n t i n g t h e resulting statement to the others, however, they had lost s o m e i m p o r t a n t t h o u g h t s expressed in t h e original r o u g h phrases. This holistic goal you are f o r m i n g is p r i m a r i l y f o r y o u r o w n internal use. You d o n o t have to s h o w it to a n y o n e else, so d o n ' t w o r r y a b o u t h o w well it reads. All that matters is that the words capture h o w you w a n t y o u r life to be in that particular w h o l e , and that those w o r d s m e a n the same t h i n g to each p e r s o n . O n c e you have a r o u g h draft of y o u r quality of life statement, you will be ready to describe all t h e things you have to p r o d u c e to create it.

F o r m s of P r o d u c t i o n T h e things you have to p r o d u c e will take m a n y f o r m s , and thus we refer to this s e c o n d part of the holistic goal as " f o r m s of p r o d u c t i o n . " S o m e of these " p r o d u c t s " will be derived f r o m the resource base d e f i n e d in y o u r w h o l e as well as f r o m t h e m o n e y you have or can generate. O t h e r s will be derived solely f r o m the creativity a n d skills of the decision makers. In d e s c r i b i n g w h a t you have to p r o d u c e to create t h e way of life envisioned, you will naturally c o m e to describe w h a t you have to p r o d u c e to effectively m a n a g e the w h o l e , as you will see shortly. If yours is an o r g a n i zation w i t h a specific p u r p o s e , you also n e e d to m a k e sure you include w h a t you have to p r o d u c e to accomplish t h e stated p u r p o s e .

Meeting Quality

of Life

Needs

E a c h of t h e needs o r desires expressed in y o u r quality of life s t a t e m e n t will have to be m e t by s o m e f o r m of p r o d u c t i o n . This doesn't m e a n that you merely go t h r o u g h each phrase in y o u r statement and create a " p r o d u c t " to m a t c h it. It takes a little m o r e t h o u g h t than that. It b e c o m e s helpful if you ask t h e question: " W h a t d o n ' t w e have now, o r w h a t aren't we d o i n g now, that is p r e v e n t i n g us f r o m achieving this?" R e p h r a s e t h e answer in p o s itive t e r m s and you will k n o w w h a t you have to p r o d u c e . O n e f o r m of p r o d u c t i o n m i g h t m e e t several of the needs described, a n d vice versa. If o n e of y o u r desires was " t o e n j o y w h a t w e d o everyday," that c o u l d be m e t in part by p r o d u c i n g "a balance b e t w e e n o u r w o r k a n d personal lives," "sufficient time for strategic planning," or a host of o t h e r things. If o n e of y o u r desires was for "financial s e c u r i t y " that c o u l d be m e t in part by p r o d u c i n g "a r e t i r e m e n t o r p e n s i o n p l a n " o r " a n estate plan that ensures an orderly transfer of assets to o u r children a n d a d e q u a t e i n c o m e for us." B y

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asking t h e question, y o u will discover w h a t areas are c u r r e n t l y w e a k and prevent y o u f r o m m e e t i n g those needs. S o m e have q u e s t i o n e d t h e necessity of i n c l u d i n g such things as "a balance b e t w e e n o u r w o r k and personal lives" o r "a r e t i r e m e n t plan." B u t only by i n c l u d i n g t h e m are they likely to b e p r o d u c e d . T h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e illustrates the p o i n t . N e a r a h o m e I o n c e had in Harare, Z i m b a b w e , is a large vlei, or m e a d o w . Every year d u r i n g t h e rainy season the grass grows very tall in this m e a d o w and in t h e m a n y o t h e r m e a d o w s r u n n i n g t h r o u g h t h e city's residential suburbs. Several times a year t h e city c o u n c i l sends fleets of tractors o u t to m o w t h e grass, w h i c h b e c o m e s a fire hazard in t h e d r y season and also looks untidy. T h i s is an expensive exercise since t h e c o u n t r y has to i m p o r t , at h i g h cost, all t h e tractors a n d t h e fuel to r u n t h e m . A n d , since t h e g r o u n d is u n e v e n , t h e tractors d o a rather p o o r j o b of t h e m o w i n g . T h e p e o p l e these m a c h i n e s replaced used to d o a far b e t ter j o b slashing t h e grass by h a n d . T h e y have since j o i n e d the ranks of t h e u n e m p l o y e d in a city w h e r e u n e m p l o y m e n t is a p p r o a c h i n g 50 p e r c e n t , p o v e r t y is e n d e m i c , and c r i m e and v i o l e n c e are escalating. If t h e m a y o r a n d city c o u n c i l w e r e to express w h a t they w a n t e d in t e r m s of quality of life for t h e city they m a n a g e , their list w o u l d probably i n c l u d e greater prosperity, aesthetic s u r r o u n d i n g s , and physical security. T h e latter w o u l d likely appear at t h e top of their fist, as a decrease in physical security generally parallels an increase in p o v e r t y and joblessness. U n d o u b t e d l y , o n e of t h e things t h e mayor and c o u n c i l o r s w o u l d w a n t to p r o d u c e that w o u l d lead to this quality of life w o u l d be "full e m p l o y m e n t . " W i t h only this m u c h of a holistic goal f o r m e d , y o u can already see that in testing t h e decision of h o w to cut the grass each year, p e o p l e rather than tractors w o u l d be selected. If any of t h e desires i n c l u d e d in y o u r quality of life s t a t e m e n t will require m o n e y to p r o d u c e — " t o be d e b t f r e e " for instance, o r "financially s e c u r e " — t h e n profit f r o m w h a t e v e r source(s) y o u specify will n e e d t o b e a f o r m of p r o d u c t i o n in most cases. In specifying t h e sources for that profit, it is i m p o r t a n t to d o so in very general terms. A f a r m m i g h t p r o d u c e p r o f it f r o m livestock and profit f r o m crops. S p e c i f y i n g t h e kinds of crops o r t h e breed a n d class of livestock is u n w i s e because markets and attitudes are constantly c h a n g i n g a n d because this sort of detail involves decisions that should b e tested toward the holistic goal. For t h e same reasons a toy m a n u f a c t u r e r w o u l d p r o d u c e " p r o f i t f r o m toys," rather than profit f r o m H o o l a H o o p s a n d B a r b i e d o l l s . T h e a c c o u n t i n g firm w o u l d p r o d u c e " p r o f i t f r o m t h e services w e provide," rather than profit f r o m tax returns and c o r p o r a t e audits. If t h e w h o l e b e i n g m a n a g e d was a h o u s e h o l d a n d t h e m o n e y required to r u n it was p r o d u c e d f r o m t h e salaries of o n e or t w o people, there w o u l d still be a n e e d to p r o d u c e an excess of i n c o m e over t h e costs of r u n n i n g

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the h o u s e h o l d if you w a n t e d to be financially secure o r debt free. S o m e couples have expressed this as " t o p r o d u c e a 'profit' f r o m o u r salaries" o r " t o p r o d u c e a surplus in o u r h o u s e h o l d b u d g e t . "

Meeting Your Stated

Purpose

If yours is an o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r m e d for a specific p u r p o s e , you will n e e d to ensure that w h a t you must p r o d u c e to m e e t that p u r p o s e is i n c l u d e d here. At least o n e of y o u r f o r m s o f p r o d u c t i o n will b e to p r o d u c e w h a t you w e r e specifically f o r m e d to p r o d u c e , b u t m a n y o t h e r f o r m s o f p r o d u c t i o n will b e i n f l u e n c e d , and clarified, if y o u r stated p u r p o s e is taken into a c c o u n t w h e n expressing t h e m . T h i s was certainly t r u e w h e n w e listed t h e f o r m s of p r o d u c t i o n for t h e C e n t e r f o r Holistic M a n a g e m e n t . B e f o r e clarifying o u r s t a t e m e n t of p u r pose, o n e of t h e things w e k n e w w e had to p r o d u c e was "a collaborative n e t w o r k of educators." O n c e w e realized that a d v a n c i n g t h e practice of Holistic M a n a g e m e n t was critical, w e revised o u r original phrase to "a c o l laborative n e t w o r k of educators able to produce Holistic Management practitioners. A seemingly m i n o r addition, but it m a d e a w o r l d of difference w h e n w e later c a m e to test s o m e decisions a b o u t t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p r o g r a m s w e ' offer.

Creating

Your

List

In g a t h e r i n g t o g e t h e r the notes from all of t h e above discussions, c h e c k to be sure that you have avoided s o m e fairly c o m m o n errors: •

Are all of the ideas expressed in the quality of life statement covered?

•

Have you included w h a t you must produce to achieve your stated purpose (if applicable)?

•

Are there any " h o w to's"? You only want to list what has to be produced, not how it will be produced. How something is to be produced is a decision that needs testing.

•

In d e t e r m i n i n g what you need to produce did any conflicts arise? If so, then again it is probably because you were beginning to discuss h o w to do something.

Here's h o w a r o u g h draft of these first t w o parts of the holistic goal m i g h t l o o k if f o r m e d by the staff a n d partners of a small law f i r m . Quality of life. •

We want our work to be enjoyable and meaningful; to be proud of

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what we do; to be ot service to our c o m m u n i t y and to be recognized and respected for our services by our c o m m u n i t y and families; to be prosperous and financially secure; have balance between our work and family lives; respect for each o t h e r s views and each other's private lives; to work in a place w h e r e every day is fun and free from interpersonal stress; and to create through our work a more just and h u m a n e society. •

Forms of Production. Profit from our services; pension and health plans for all o u r staff; a tradition of, and a reputation for, ethical behavior that is never violated or compromised; services that are broad, but backed up by internal expertise; an open, friendly, collaborative work environment; offices that reflect our values and are clean, spacious, and tastefully designed. Professional work that we can always feel proud of.

As m e n t i o n e d , these first t w o parts of t h e holistic goal speak largely to i m m e d i a t e needs in that you w a n t these results as quickly as you can b e g i n to achieve t h e m . T h i s is particularly t h e case it you are a business facing i m m i n e n t b a n k r u p t c y or C a r i b b e a n islanders telling y o u r last trees a n d j u s tifying the action because you have to survive. N o w w e m o v e o n to the final part of t h e holistic goal, w h i c h addresses l o n g - t e r m n e e d s — l o o k i n g to t h e f u t u r e a n d largely i g n o r i n g the present situation.

Future Resource Base In describing y o u r f u t u r e resource base you n e e d to consider h o w it must be m a n y years f r o m n o w if it is to sustain w h a t you have to p r o d u c e to create the quality of life you w a n t . W h e n you later m a k e decisions that deal w i t h s o m e of the i m m e d i a t e needs described in the first t w o parts of y o u r holistic goal, you will be w e i g h i n g t h e m also against this l o n g - t e r m vision. W h e n land is i n c l u d e d in t h e w h o l e you d e f i n e d — a f a r m , ranch, f o r est, national park, and so o n — y o u n e e d to t h i n k of y o u r f u t u r e resource base over the very l o n g t e r m , describing it as it w o u l d have to be 100, 500 o r 1,000 years f r o m now. It may take h u n d r e d s of years to p r o d u c e a f o r est in w h i c h all stages of g r o w t h o c c u r a n d only s o m e w h a t less t i m e to build a biological c o m m u n i t y that will sustain certain wildlife species. T h e r e are several different e l e m e n t s to consider in describing y o u r f u t u r e resource base.Two that always should b e addressed are the people you i n c l u d e d in the resource base w h e n d e f i n i n g y o u r w h o l e a n d the land, even if you did n o t m a k e reference to it w h e n d e f i n i n g y o u r w h o l e , and even w h e n you operate a business that has n o direct c o n n e c t i o n to the land. O t h e r elements that may n e e d to be considered are t h e community you live

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or work in and the services available in that community. T h e r e are likely to b e m o r e d e p e n d i n g o n t h e circumstances and the w h o l e d e f i n e d .

The

People

M o s t businesses a n d organizations, w i t h f e w exceptions, will have clients, c u s t o m e r s , suppliers, s u p p o r t e r s , m e m b e r s , advisors, a n d o t h e r s w h o in o n e way o r a n o t h e r are critical to t h e health and f u t u r e of that c o n c e r n . M a n y of these p e o p l e will have b e e n listed in t h e resource base d e f i n e d in y o u r w h o l e . T h o s e were the p e o p l e w h o , you'll r e m e m b e r , m a k e n o m a n a g e m e n t decisions, b u t can greatly i n f l u e n c e t h e m or b e i n f l u e n c e d by t h e m . You may n o w n e e d to add o t h e r s as well. F a r m e r s and ranchers w h o s e p r o d u c t s are sold as c o m m o d i t i e s — m i l k , beef, grain, and so o n — r a r e l y m e e t either t h e retailer o r t h e c o n s u m e r of those p r o d u c t s and thus give little t h o u g h t to t h e c o n c e r n s of either. " C u s t o m e r s and clients" rarely figure in their f u t u r e resource base. B u t o t h e r p e o p l e will: buyers, suppliers, e x t e n d e d family, extension agents a n d o t h e r advisors, n e i g h b o r s , and so o n . If, on t h e o t h e r h a n d , y o u are a f a r m e r or r a n c h e r p r o d u c i n g p r o d u c t s identified w i t h y o u a n d that you are p r o u d to be associated w i t h , t h e n you will w a n t to m e n t i o n in y o u r f u t u r e resource base t h e c u s t o m e r s w h o p u r c h a s e those p r o d u c t s a n d t h e particular suppliers w h o enable you to p r o d u c e t h e m efficiently. You want y o u r c u s t o m e r s to k n o w y o u , like y o u , respect y o u , a n d p r o m o t e y o u r p r o d u c t s . Y o u want y o u r suppliers to be trustworthy, loyal, and c o m m i t t e d to serving y o u well. H o w can y o u describe such p e o p l e far i n t o t h e f u t u r e ? Y o u c a n ' t . W o u l d it help you to m a k e b e t t e r decisions if you could? N o t really. T h e way we o v e r c o m e this d i l e m m a is t o describe h o w we must b e far into t h e future, n o t them. So, in describing t h e p e o p l e in y o u r f u t u r e resource base you describe h o w y o u and y o u r business, organization, or w h a t e v e r will have to b e seen to be, far into t h e future, for these p e o p l e to r e m a i n loyal to you, respectful, or supportive, or w h a t e v e r is required. Vary t h e attributes a c c o r d i n g to t h e p e o p l e you are c o n c e r n e d a b o u t , w h e t h e r they b e clients and suppliers, e x t e n d e d family, e n v i r o n m e n t a l groups, o r a representative from a regulatory agency. If y o u were c o n s i d e r i n g y o u r clients f o r instance, p e o p l e w h o s e loyalty and p a t r o n a g e y o u w a n t to maintain, y o u w o u l d describe yourselves as you w o u l d have to b e in the f u t u r e : h o n e s t , professional, p r o m p t , reliable, caring, p r o d u c i n g n o t h i n g b u t t h e best quality, u p - t o - d a t e , e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y a n d socially responsible, a n d so o n . T h i s is n o t difficult to d o if y o u j u s t try to t h i n k f r o m their p o i n t of view. O r better still, invite s o m e of these p e o ple in as you are discussing this part of y o u r holistic goal and get their o p i n i o n s firsthand. R e m e m b e r , t h e w o r d s y o u finally use h e r e are n o t m e a n t f o r public

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c o n s u m p t i o n , so d o n ' t w o r r y w h e t h e r outsiders m i g h t m i s i n t e r p r e t t h e m . You will be j u d g e d by y o u r b e h a v i o r and actions, n o t by y o u r words. It you test decisions g e n u i n e l y toward h o w you will have to be, this will lead to behaviors and actions that are consistent w i t h h o w y o u have said y o u will be.

The

Land

W h e n w h a t you p r o d u c e to m e e t y o u r quality of lite o r stated p u r p o s e does n o t c o m e directly f r o m t h e land, or w h e n the w h o l e d e f i n e d does n o t i n c l u d e land u n d e r y o u r m a n a g e m e n t , you may w o n d e r w h y land should figure at all in t h e d e s c r i p t i o n of y o u r f u t u r e resource base. It needs to be i n c l u d e d simply because in the l o n g t e r m , t h e w e l l - b e i n g of any family, business, or c o m m u n i t y d e p e n d s o n the stability a n d p r o d u c t i v i t y of the land s u r r o u n d i n g t h e m . W h e n I say " l a n d " I am r e f e r r i n g to it in the b r o a d est sense m e a n i n g soils, plants, forests, birds, insects, wildlife, lakes, streams, and, ultimately, t h e oceans as well. All h o u s e h o l d s a n d businesses—even those that are service o r i e n t e d — at s o m e p o i n t tie back to the land and its waterways a n d affect ecological health. For example, most businesses use p a p e r and inks as well as d e t e r gents, and these, in b o t h their p r o d u c t i o n and their final disposal, c a m e f r o m and r e t u r n to t h e land, with c o n s e q u e n c e s . Banks provide loans for m y r i ad enterprises that i m p a c t ecological health in b o t h small and large ways. A r i s i n g f r o m almost every financial transaction there is an effect on the land that is e x p e r i e n c e d m o n t h s or years later and generally far r e m o v e d f r o m t h e site of t h e original transaction. For example, the c o t t o n T-shirt you buy for y o u r child is likely to have b e e n p r o d u c e d f r o m plants g r o w n o n d e t e r i o r a t i n g soils, and dyed w i t h chemicals that adversely affect w a t e r quality and h u m a n health. T h e pesticide you spray o n y o u r l a w n can be tracked into y o u r h o m e , and can also e n d up in the w a t e r system w h e r e it accumulates in shellfish w h i c h in t u r n are eaten by a n o t h e r family m a n y miles away. T h e average citizen generally assumes that s o m e o n e s o m e w h e r e is g o i n g to d o s o m e t h i n g to ameliorate these e f f e c t s . T h a t someone, as it turns o u t , is g o i n g to have to be o r d i n a r y folks like you a n d me. By i n c l u d i n g a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e land a r o u n d us, as it will have to be far into the future, w e give t h e holistic goal a m u c h - n e e d e d d i m e n s i o n . W h e n w e later test o u r decisions toward it we will always be r e m i n d e d to consider t h e effects of those decisions o n o u r e n v i r o n m e n t . S o m e p e o p l e m i g h t hesitate to describe t h e land a r o u n d t h e m as it w o u l d have to be far into the future, feeling they d o n ' t k n o w e n o u g h a b o u t it to d o s o . T h a t is u n d e r s t a n d a b l e w h e n y o u aren't actually m a n a g i n g land. B u t y o u d o n ' t n e e d a scientific b a c k g r o u n d to be able to express a n e e d for

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s u r r o u n d i n g s that are stable, productive, and healthy, w i t h clean and c l e a r - r u n n i n g rivers, covered rather than bare soils, and prosperous rural c o m m u n i t i e s . A n d this w o u l d b e e n o u g h of a d e s c r i p t i o n to b e g i n testing decisions toward. W h e n w h a t you have to p r o d u c e to create the quality of life you e n v i sion c o m e s directly f r o m land you m a n a g e , you n e e d to provide a fairly detailed description of w h a t that land m u s t l o o k like far into the f u t u r e and h o w t h e f u n d a m e n t a l processes at w o r k in any e n v i r o n m e n t — w a t e r and mineral cycles, c o m m u n i t y dynamics, and e n e r g y f l o w — w i l l have to function. In any living c o m m u n i t y w e m a n a g e , w a t e r will cycle. Since almost all the life f o r m s w e d e p e n d o n will require water f r o m t h e soil, w e must ensure that water is in fact adequately present in usable f o r m . A w a t e r cycle characterized by f l o o d - c a u s i n g r u n o f f o r excessive soil surface evaporation, w o u l d generally u n d e r m i n e p r o d u c t i o n . Similarly, t h e c o m m u n i t y always has a mineral cycle f u n c t i o n i n g at s o m e level. Again, the life f o r m s w e d e p e n d o n will require mineral n u t r i ents f r o m the soil a n d air, a n d to m a i n t a i n t h e m w e m u s t ensure that those n u t r i e n t s cycle appropriately. If n u t r i e n t s are trapped in dead vegetation that is n o t b r e a k i n g d o w n (unless b u r n e d ) , p r o d u c t i o n will suffer. Likewise, if w e have to d e p e n d o n t h e constant r e i n t r o d u c t i o n of m a j o r nutrients, s o m e t h i n g is w r o n g . All living c o m m u n i t i e s are dynamic, u n d e r g o i n g c o n t i n u o u s change, b e c o m i n g ever simpler o r ever m o r e c o m p l e x . S o m e f o r m s o f p r o d u c t i o n will require a certain level of c o m p l e x i t y in t h e c o m m u n i t i e s b e i n g m a n aged. In the f u t u r e you will w a n t these desired levels to be self-sustaining. Last, self-sufficient life d e p e n d s o n the conversion o f solar e n e r g y t h r o u g h g r e e n plants and into the stuff of l i f e — f o o d , fiber, and so o n . M o s t of w h a t w e p r o d u c e f r o m the land will require that t h e m a x i m u m e n e r g y be c o n v e r t e d b o t h to m a x i m i z e p r o d u c t i o n and to sustain it. Y o u r task as a land m a n a g e r is to describe the land in terms of these f o u r processes, n o t as they n o w are f u n c t i o n i n g , b u t as they will have to be f u n c t i o n i n g in the f u t u r e if you are to sustain w h a t you have to p r o d u c e , and t h e quality of life you w a n t to create, over m a n y generations. In m a n y cases you will be dealing w i t h several e n v i r o n m e n t s , such as rangelands, croplands, wetlands, riparian areas, or forests. Because each will have different r e q u i r e m e n t s , you should create separate descriptions for each of t h e m . W h e n extensive land areas are involved, it is generally helpful to m a p these descriptions as well, a subject dealt w i t h in C h a p t e r 45 o n land planning. O n e of the m o s t c o m m o n mistakes is to describe a f u t u r e landscape that is n o t m u c h different f r o m w h a t you have today, w h e n it needs to be. T h e mistake is u n d e r s t a n d a b l e in m a n y cases, because p e o p l e have trouble

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visioning s o m e t h i n g they've only heard a b o u t b u t have never seen. I have struck this in b o t h d e v e l o p e d a n d d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s . A Louisiana sugarcane f a r m e r , for instance, h a d in all his life only seen e n o r m o u s fields of sugarcane and f o u n d it terribly hard to envision a n y t h i n g different. H e realized that his large fields had to b e b r o k e n up i n t o smaller ones in w h i c h several crops w e r e m i x e d , and that h e n e e d e d p l e n ty of " e d g e " to increase t h e diversity of insects, birds, bats, and o t h e r wildlife. B u t w h e n it c a m e d o w n to actually describing this o n his o w n land, h e f o u n d it impossible to do. Y o u n g p e o p l e in an A f r i c a n village s u r r o u n d e d by bare g r o u n d a n d starving goats and cattle f o u n d it hard to picture grassland w i t h their fivestock h e r d e d a m o n g s t zebra, sable, impala, and o t h e r game. H a v i n g h u n t e d big g a m e as a y o u n g m a n over the same land they n o w occupy, this s e e m e d simple e n o u g h to m e . I c o u l d n ' t u n d e r s t a n d their struggle until they p o i n t ed o u t that they c o u l d n o t p i c t u r e s o m e t h i n g that had disappeared b e f o r e they w e r e b o r n . If y o u are faced w i t h a similar situation, visit o t h e r areas to help to e x p a n d y o u r vision or talk to a few old timers w h o have a g o o d m e m o r y of w h a t y o u r area was like l o n g ago, a l t h o u g h s o m e t i m e s changes have o c c u r r e d so slowly they m a y n o t have n o t i c e d t h e m . As w i t h t h e rest of y o u r holistic goal, h o w y o u describe t h e land in y o u r f u t u r e resource base will b e refined over t i m e as you learn m o r e a b o u t that land a n d w h a t it is capable of p r o d u c i n g , and as testing decisions forces y o u to b e c o m e m o r e specific.

The Community

You Live In or Work In

S o m e t i m e s you m i g h t w a n t to describe t h e type o f c o m m u n i t y y o u w a n t to live in or in w h i c h y o u r business is located since m a n y of y o u r f u t u r e resources may b e derived f r o m that c o m m u n i t y and w h a t you p r o d u c e m a y d e p e n d o n t h e m . E v e n t h o u g h y o u r c o m m u n i t y m a y be i m p o v e r ished, racially divided, o r lacking in cultural amenities today, describe it as it will have to b e to sustain w h a t you have to p r o d u c e to create y o u r quality of life. A l t h o u g h m a n y of t h e decisions y o u m a k e will n o t have a direct b e a r i n g o n the f u t u r e of y o u r c o m m u n i t y , m a n y will indirectly, and c u m u latively t h e y will b e felt. D o n ' t u n d e r e s t i m a t e y o u r p o w e r as an individual p e r s o n or business to g e n e r a t e change. In describing a c o m m u n i t y that is prosperous, racially h a r m o n i o u s , and rich in cultural amenities, you can b e g i n m a k i n g d e c i sions that take you t o w a r d that. T h i s m i g h t m e a n finding local suppliers or local c u s t o m e r s so you can k e e p the dollars cycling l o n g e r in y o u r c o m munity, or it m i g h t m e a n e n g a g i n g in s o m e type of c o m m u n i t y service. You w o n ' t c h a n g e things o v e r n i g h t , and you d o n ' t have to. You j u s t w a n t to ensure that t h e decisions you m a k e lead y o u away f r o m w h a t is u n d e sirable a n d toward the f u t u r e c o m m u n i t y y o u envision.

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The Services

Available

in Your

Community

A related e l e m e n t w o r t h considering in some cases are the services that w o u l d need to be available in your community. A l t h o u g h you may lack the bank or other l e n d i n g institution, the library, or the medical services you need today, you k n o w that the future health and w e l l - b e i n g of your c o m munity, your business, and family d e p e n d on them. W h a t you have to p r o duce may d e p e n d o n these services as well or b e unable to be sustained w i t h o u t them. This aspect of life is generally m o r e a c o n c e r n for those in rural communities, although even some urban c o m m u n i t i e s lack essential services. T h i n k carefully about your situation, and if you can see that there are services y o u r c o m m u n i t y will have to have available to sustain w h a t you produce, list t h e m . O n c e you have t h o u g h t t h r o u g h and described all the elements that make up your future resource base, you will have a holistic goal. Case 9-1 is an example of a holistic goal that a middle-aged couple m i g h t f o r m to manage their lives. Case 9 - 2 is o n e the decision makers in a g o v e r n m e n t agency m i g h t f o r m as a t e m p o r a r y measure to get t h e m started in m a n a g ing a forest holistically. B o t h goals are hypothetical, b u t they do give an idea of the f o r m a holistic goal often takes. Be wary of the temptation to let t h e m influence y o u r o w n .

Case 9-1. Holistic Goal Formed by a Middle-Aged Couple to Manage Their Lives Quality

of Life

To be engaged in meaningful w o r k for the rest of o u r lives and to be excited and enthusiastic about w h a t w e have to d o and get to do each day. To be secure financially, physically, and emotionally i n t o old age; to be k n o w n for o u r h o n o r , integrity, chivalry, and spirit. To maintain robust health and physical stamina; to enjoy an a b u n d a n c e of mutually satisfying relationships. To explore and e x p e r i e n c e wild places and to ensure those places will still be there w h e n o u r g r a n d children's grandchildren seek to find t h e m . To live simply a n d c o n s u m e sparingly.

What We Have to Produce

(Forms of

Production)

•

Profit from meaningful work.

•

Work or leisure time in wild places.

•

T i m e for learning, meaningful discussion, companionship, and exercise. (a>nr/m<&}

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A w a r m and hospitable h o m e e n v i r o n m e n t — w h e r e v e r home h a p pens to be at any t i m e — i n w h i c h friends, family, and colleagues always feel welcome.

Future Resource

Base

•

People. "We are k n o w n to be compassionate and thoughtful, welli n f o r m e d , good listeners, fun to be with, adventurous, and supportive.

•

Land.The land surrounding and supporting our town will be stable and productive. Wildlife will be plentiful—we'll be able to see animals, or signs of them, anytime we venture out. T h e river will run clear and be full of life, and eagles will nest in the trees alongside it once again.

Case 9-2. Temporary Holistic Goal Formed by a Government Agency Managing a National Forest (Note: Like m o s t g o v e r n m e n t agencies, this o n e was f o r m e d for a s p e cific p u r p o s e that it is obligated to fulfill.)

Statement

of

Purpose

To ensure that t h e forest is m a n a g e d sustainably a n d f o r the b e n e f i t of t h e n a t i o n .

Quality

of Life

To b e p r o u d of o u r w o r k a n d respected f o r it. To b e so g o o d at w h a t w e do that o t h e r agencies w a n t to e m u l a t e us. To w o r k in a c a r i n g a n d collaborative e n v i r o n m e n t i n w h i c h w e have o p p o r t u n i t i e s to f u r t h e r o u r l e a r n i n g and in w h i c h o u r special talents and capabilities are a c k n o w l e d g e d a n d utilized. To have o p p o r t u n i t i e s to share w h a t w e d o w i t h o u r families a n d w i t h the p e o p l e in t h e s u r r o u n d i n g c o m m u n i t i e s so they can b e t t e r s u p p o r t us—especially d u r i n g fire s e a s o n — a n d so w e can b e t t e r s u p p o r t t h e m . W e w a n t to m a n a g e this forest so that it provides an excellent financial r e t u r n to t h e n a t i o n a n d an even greater r e t u r n in "biological capital."

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I F O R M I N G A H O L I S T I C G O A L : W H A T IS I T Y O U REALLY W A N T ?

What We Have to Produce

(Forms of

85

Production)

•

An environment in w h i c h all feel free to speak up and are heard w h e n they do.

•

Effective educational programs for the public and our families.

•

An effective public volunteer program.

•

R e g u l a r f o r u m s in which we have opportunities to solicit public input.

•

T i m e to engage in c o m m u n i t y activities, to attend conferences, and to visit other forests and research sites.

•

O p p o r t u n i t i e s for f u r t h e r i n g our education and skills.

•

A l o n g - t e r m forest m a n a g e m e n t plan.

•

An effective fire prevention plan.

•

A safe and effective fire m a n a g e m e n t plan.

•

An effective financial plan each year in w h i c h the public is assured of m a x i m u m return on their investment in our services.

Future Resource

Base

•

People. T h e public will see us as innovative, knowledgeable, professional, friendly, and helpful, and, above all, as serving the public's interest.

•

Land. M a n y generations hence, this forest will be healthy and rich in biological diversity, from the trees—in which all age groups are represented—-to the a b u n d a n t birds, mammals, insects, and microorganisms.The soils will b e covered t h r o u g h o u t the year and remain w h e r e they form. Streams will flow perennially and clear and be healthy e n o u g h to drink from. Water and mineral cycles will be maximized and energy flow optimized for all life forms.

Conclusion Given that the d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e holistic goal was such a lengthy and difficult process, it is n o surprise that for m a n y p e o p l e f o r m i n g o n e that truly serves their needs is the most difficult aspect of Holistic M a n a g e m e n t and generally takes a fair a m o u n t of time. T h a t is why, as the n e x t c h a p t e r explains, you s h o u l d start w i t h a t e m p o r a r y holistic goal.

10 Developing a Sense of Ownership: Are You Sure That's What You Really Want?

ecause it takes time f o r p e o p l e to feel c o m f o r t a b l e e n o u g h to express m o r e than superficially w h a t they w a n t in terms of quality of l i f e — e v e n w h e n those p e o p l e live in the same f a m i l y — t o gain clarity o n w h a t needs to b e p r o d u c e d , and to fully envision a f u t u r e resource base, f o r m i n g a holistic goal to w h i c h p e o p l e are deeply c o m m i t t e d can take several years. B u t few w a n t to, and s o m e c a n n o t afford to wait this l o n g to b e g i n p u t t i n g their situation right. W e o v e r c o m e this d i l e m m a by first f o r m i n g a t e m p o r a r y holistic goal and starting toward that, m u c h as a military pilot m i g h t head generally toward t h e action b e f o r e k n o w i n g t h e precise destination. To wait o n t h e g r o u n d f o r p e r f e c t intelligence o r to b u r n u p fuel circling r a n d o m l y w o u l d waste his chances, his resources, or b o t h . Like t h e pilot, as you obtain m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n and a clearer picture, you can refine y o u r holistic goal so that by t h e time y o u k n o w t h e target, you are well o n y o u r way w i t h o u t having wasted t i m e o r fuel.

B

F o r m the t e m p o r a r y holistic goal fairly quickly, in a m a t t e r of hours, rather than days, a n d t h e n use it to m a k e real decisions r i g h t away, p r e f e r ably o n t h e same day, so p e o p l e b e g i n to see its value. T h e use of t h e w o r d temporary indicates to e v e r y o n e that this initial a t t e m p t at f o r m i n g a holistic goal is o p e n to discussion a n d i m p r o v e m e n t . Yet, it provides the n e e d e d direction and buys t i m e to s h a r p e n y o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of Holistic M a n a g e m e n t , to m o r e fully involve t h e p e o p l e w h o n e e d to be involved, and to gain t h e level of c o m f o r t n e e d e d f o r free and u n h i n d e r e d expression. U n t i l t h e holistic goal expresses w h a t p e o p l e g e n u i n e l y desire a n d w a n t to accomplish, they will tend to go back to arguing a b o u t tools and actions 86

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because they have m o r e invested in their k n o w l e d g e and areas of expertise than in t h e holistic g o a l . T h e y are likely to find holistic decision m a k i n g , p l a n n i n g , and m a n a g e m e n t " t o o difficult" o r " t o o m u c h t r o u b l e " a n d to b e t e m p t e d to r e t u r n to t h e old, m o r e familiar, ways. D o n ' t be t o o d i s c o u r aged b y this. O v e r time, as t h e holistic goal c o m e s to reflect w h a t they truly w a n t , p e o p l e will b e g i n to d o w h a t it takes to achieve it, and the rest of Holistic M a n a g e m e n t b e c o m e s a relatively easy task. A l t h o u g h it may take several years b e f o r e you have a holistic goal in w h i c h all feel a d e e p sense of o w n e r s h i p , y o u will in t h e m e a n t i m e b e g i n to achieve s o m e of w h a t you set o u t to achieve and develop an appreciation f o r t h e p o w e r t h e holistic goal gives y o u . T h e case of C a n a d i a n ranchers D o n and R a n d e e Halladay is a typical o n e . T h e t e m p o r a r y holistic goal they initially f o r m e d w i t h their t w o children was e n o u g h to get t h e m started in 1986. B u t it t o o k six years of r e f i n i n g b e f o r e it truly reflected w h o they w e r e and w h a t they w a n t e d to achieve. As case 10-1 shows, w h a t they w r o t e d o w n in 1986 was vague and tentative and full of " h o w - t o ' s . " B u t by 1992, after n u m e r o u s decisions h a d b e e n tested and their c o m m u n i c a t i o n had i m p r o v e d as a family, w h a t they w r o t e was strikingly different.

Case 10-1. The Evolution of a Holistic Goal D o n a n d R a n d e e Halladay a n d their t w o children struggled over a six-year p e r i o d to create a holistic goal that truly reflected w h o they w e r e and w h a t they w a n t e d to accomplish o n their r a n c h . B e l o w is a s a m p l i n g of s o m e of the statements that appeared in their t e m p o r a r y holistic goal in 1986, followed by t h e revisions m a d e in t h e m o r e p e r m a n e n t goal d e v e l o p e d by 1992.

Quality

of Life

1986: W e w a n t to five well, w i t h m o n e y available for recreation; earn o u r living w i t h o u t b a c k - b r e a k i n g w o r k ; provide e d u c a t i o n , o r w h a t e v e r , f o r kids.

1992: W e w a n t to b e d e b t - f r e e ; w e w a n t to b e excited and enthusiastic a b o u t w h a t w e are d o i n g a n d have to d o o n a daily basis; w e w a n t to (continues)

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leave this w o r l d ( w h e n w e are very, very old) w i t h o u r family happy, k n o w i n g that w e led productive, happy lives, left t h e land in a b e t t e r c o n d i t i o n t h a n w e f o u n d it, a n d be r e c o g n i z e d for this a c h i e v e m e n t ; w e w a n t Laurel a n d j a y s o n [their c h i l d r e n | to be h a p p y and p r o d u c tive, and w e w a n t to be able t o help t h e m reach their full potential.

Forms of

Production

1986: U s e either c o w s o r yearlings to m a x i m i z e p r o d u c t i o n , b u t d o n ' t rule o u t things like sheep; get e n o u g h cows so R a n d e e doesn't have t o w o r k off the ranch; k e e p costs as l o w as possible.

1992: Profit f r o m livestock a n d crops and a n y t h i n g that doesn't interfere w i t h o u r values a n d that c o m p l e m e n t s w h a t w e d o a n d w h o w e are.

Future Resource

Base

1986: C o m p l e x , stable e n v i r o n m e n t w i t h p e r m a n e n t pastures, i n c l u d i n g microorganisms, birds, small animals, a n d wildlife; absolutely n o e r o sion and n o bare soil; lots of flowers, trees, shrubs, a n d tall grass.

1992: Community Dynamics:Very c o m p l e x grassland n o t allowed to advance to. forest e x c e p t in the areas m a p p e d . D i f f e r e n t species and varieties of plants in the f o r m of shelter belts that c o u l d have harvestable p r o d ucts w i t h i n ; a great variety of animal life w i t h considerable emphasis o n birds; great c o m p l e x i t y i n soil organisms; i n c l u d i n g f u n g i a n d molds. [Water cycle, mineral cycle, and energy flow also include similarly detailed descriptions].

A l t h o u g h it was very r o u g h initially, their holistic goal covered m o s t of the n e e d e d elements, and they did get it d o w n on paper. M e r e l y by m e n t i o n i n g in o n e of their early revisions the desire to b e debt free, they, like m a n y others, f o u n d they were able to r e d u c e their debts fairly drastically, even t h o u g h their testing of financial decisions was a little shaky. T h e y began to prioritize their c o m m i t m e n t s , d r o p p i n g those that were n o t i m p o r t a n t , and life i m m e d i a t e l y b e c a m e m o r e enjoyable. T h e y f o u n d that they had the f u n d s f o r the e d u c a t i o n and travel that w e r e so i m p o r t a n t to

10 | D E V E L O P I N G A SENSE OF O W N E R S H I P : A R E Y o u SURE T H A T ' S W H A T Y o u REALLY W A N T ?

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their quality of life.Today, they attribute this t u r n a r o u n d to the p o w e r their holistic goal has given t h e m : " W i t h o u t a holistic goal w e had n o way of k n o w i n g w h e t h e r o u r actions w e r e taking us in t h e direction w e w a n t e d to go, because w e didn't have a direction." 1 T h e t e m p o r a r y holistic goal and the m o r e p e r m a n e n t holistic goal that develops f r o m it will have m u c h in c o m m o n . T h e m a i n difference b e t w e e n t h e m will lie n o t in t h e w o r d i n g b u t in t h e d e g r e e of c o m m i t m e n t p e o p l e have to achieving t h e m . C o m m i t m e n t is n o t s o m e t h i n g you can force. If you try, p e o p l e will only pay "lip service" to the holistic goal and it will lose its power.

Common Mistakes M a n y years' e x p e r i e n c e in f o r m i n g holistic goals myself and in w o r k i n g w i t h others to f o r m theirs have c o n v i n c e d m e that the mistakes m a d e in f o r m i n g a holistic goal are fairly c o m m o n , if n o t universal. O n e of t h e first mistakes p e o p l e m a k e is to b e g i n f r o m the s t a n d p o i n t of today's p r o b l e m s o r issues—various conflicts, p o o r c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a loss of p r o d u c t i o n , and so o n . W h e n a goal focuses o n a p r o b l e m it provides n o incentive to go b e y o n d the p r o b l e m to w h a t p e o p l e really want. If y o u r goal b e c o m e s " t o e n d the conflict," y o u m a y be e n d i n g conflict the rest of y o u r lives. You n e e d instead to describe w h a t lies b e y o n d the conflict, that is, h o w it will be w h e n the conflict is o v e r . T h e n you k n o w w h e r e you n e e d to be h e a d ing and have an incentive to get there. S o m e groups have b e e n t e m p t e d to start by d e s c r i b i n g t h e f u t u r e resource base first, believing they were in t o o m u c h conflict to start a n y w h e r e else.This generally only exacerbates the conflict a n d results in d e a d lock.You will find that across m o s t cultures in most of t h e world, there is far greater similarity in the values u n d e r l y i n g the quality of life desired than in a n y t h i n g else. W h o does n o t w a n t stable families, prosperity, s e c u rity, health, and clean and a b u n d a n t f o o d , water, and air? T h u s , in f o r m i n g a holistic goal, y o u always b e g i n by expressing the quality of life you desire. As you b e g i n refining y o u r t e m p o r a r y holistic goal, you can avoid m a n y of the m o r e c o m m o n mistakes if you take n o t e of the f o l l o w i n g do's and don'ts. •

Do make your holistic goal 100 percent what you want and have to produce and 0 percent how it is going to be achieved.This can be surprisingly difficult, given the fact that we are so used to stating the means rather than the ends. Far too many present-day conflicts owe their origins to this shortcoming. If those involved first sat d o w n together and discussed what they genuinely wanted, rather than the tools or actions employed in what they do or don't want, they would find m u c h to agree upon.

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T h e e n o r m o u s conflict between ranchers and environmentalists in the western U n i t e d States is just such a case. R a n c h e r s are fighting for the right to graze their livestock on public lands (an e n o r m o u s area, the majority of land in many of these states), as some have done for generations, while environmentalists are fighting to deny t h e m that right. T h e land should be rested, they say, because it is deteriorating u n d e r livestock grazing. B o t h are right and both are w r o n g for reasons that will b e c o m e clear in later chapters. T h e point is that if both sides were to sit d o w n and discuss it, they would find they wanted the same things: thriving grasslands and forests, clear-running streams, abundant wildlife, thriving communities in a stable country, and so on. If they wanted those things badly enough, they would then d e t e r m i n e h o w they could achieve them, which is entirely possible with Holistic M a n a g e m e n t . Don't allow any prejudices against future tools or actions to appear in the holistic goal. You wouldn't, for example, m e n t i o n "organic f a r m ing" in your holistic goal because it is a prejudice against chemicals. T h e r e may c o m e a time w h e n the only way to save the situation is through the use of a chemical and thus the use of any chemicals should be left where it belongs—in the testing of decisions. It is perfectly all right, however, even necessary, to reflect h o w you want to live based on the values expressed in the word organic, such as clean air, water, and food, healthy bodies, or land that is rich in biological diversity. Don't attempt to prioritize the ideas expressed in the quality of life statement. Decisions will be tested toward all of them, and thus there is no need to order them. If you prioritize, you invite unnecessary conflict. Don't quantify the forms of production in any way. H o w m u c h of anything you have to produce is a decision that should be tested. N o t h i n g requiring testing should be in the holistic goal. T h e holistic goal should be formed by the people w h o will be living it, not by outsiders. As you learned in Chapter 8, those directly involved in management are the ones w h o must f o r m the holistic goal because they will be responsible for making the decisions that take you toward it. R e e x a m i n e the whole you described to be sure no one was excluded w h o should have been included. If yours is a family business, don't forget to include the children, even younger children w h o can often be involved in management to some degree. Leaving t h e m out generally has adverse effects on the business a n d / o r the children sooner or later. Facilitators engaged to assist a group in f o r m i n g its holistic goal need to be careful not to influence the holistic goal in any way. T h e y can coach you and guide you and point out where you might be infringing on any of these guidelines, but that is all.

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•

9 (

R e c o g n i z e that different levels of c o m m i t m e n t will almost always exist w h e n some of those w h o f o r m e d the holistic goal are somewhat removed from day-to-day management. This situation is rather c o m m o n in organizations or corporations that operate with a board of directors, or in any business w h e r e absentee owners are involved. You cannot expect the c o m m i t m e n t of these people to equal that of those w h o must live with and respond to m a n a g e m e n t challenges on a daily basis.

Common Challenges A p r o b l e m m a n y groups e n c o u n t e r w h e n refining their holistic goal is a t e n d e n c y to get so specific in a c c o m m o d a t i n g everyone's needs a n d desires that t h e holistic goal takes pages to e x p r e s s . T h e holistic goal t h e n b e c o m e s s o m e t h i n g you have to k e e p reading to r e m e m b e r , rather than s o m e t h i n g y o u carry inside y o u . M a n y g r o u p s have to go t h r o u g h this e x p e r i e n c e , however, in o r d e r to distil t h e essence of w h a t it is they g e n u i n e l y w a n t to create, and they may struggle to m a i n t a i n t h e m o m e n t u m they initially had. T w o of t h e greatest challenges in f o r m i n g and r e f i n i n g a holistic goal lie first of all in t h e reluctance o r inability m a n y p e o p l e have to express w h a t they value m o s t , and s e c o n d , in t r y i n g to d e v e l o p a holistic goal in a g r o u p that is n o t f u n c t i o n i n g well.

Expressing

Personal

Values

C o m m o n sense tells us that m a k i n g a decision that is n o t in line w i t h o u r values is illogical. B u t that is precisely w h a t h u m a n s have d o n e t h r o u g h o u t history. A w e l l - t o - d o family m i g h t b u y a b e a u t i f u l a d o b e h o m e u n d e r the C o t t o n w o o d trees in a rustic village a l o n g t h e R i o G r a n d e because they are captivated by t h e b e a u t y of t h e a r e a — t h e c h a r m of t h e small, c o u n t r y lanes, the g r a n d old trees in the dry, desert country. M o n t h s later w h e n it rains, their M e r c e d e s is splashed w i t h m u d o n r e t u r n i n g h o m e a l o n g o n e of those c h a r m i n g , t r e e - l i n e d lanes, and t h e n e x t w e e k t h e family petitions t h e local g o v e r n m e n t to pave the lanes. Little d o they realize that in m a k i n g t h e decision to have t h e lanes paved they are destroying m u c h of the character of t h e village, w h i c h led to their m o v i n g there in t h e first place. H a d their v a l u e s — w h y they chose that p l a c e — f e a t u r e d in a holistic goal a n d all decisions b e e n m a d e t o w a r d that, they w o u l d have t h o u g h t twice, a n d p e r h a p s taken pleasure in w a s h i n g their car three o r f o u r times a year. M o s t of us w a n t to live o u r lives in a m a n n e r that is pleasing and r e w a r d i n g to us a n d based u p o n t h e things w e value m o s t . As o n e Holistic M a n a g e m e n t educator, N o e l M c N a u g h t o n , expressed it: " S i n c e w e are all striving for quality in o u r lives, w e m i g h t as well figure o u t j u s t w h a t that

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is for us, and m a k e sure that w h a t w e d o delivers it." U n f o r t u n a t e l y , that is easier said than d o n e . M a n y people, even w i t h i n closely knit families, find it difficult i n d e e d to talk a b o u t w h a t they value most, let alone w r i t e d o w n a holistic goal that expresses h o w they w a n t their lives to be. M e n , m o r e so than w o m e n , in my e x p e r i e n c e , find it difficult to express w h a t they truly w a n t . W e have spent countless h o u r s t r y i n g to ascertain w h y this is—fear of c o m m i t m e n t , peer pressure, u p b r i n g i n g in cultures w h e r e it was n o t okay for m e n to talk of feelings. R o u n d and r o u n d t h e discussions go, never arriving at any c o n c l u s i o n o t h e r than that e x p o s i n g one's deepest desires is a little like w a l k i n g a r o u n d naked, and p e o p l e m i g h t laugh. H o w e v e r , as the first step in f o r m i n g a holistic goal is to identify w h a t is most i m p o r t a n t to you, and because t h e rest of the holistic goal builds f r o m that, ways must and can be f o u n d to m a k e this easier. T h e last c h a p t e r suggested a n u m b e r of questions o n e c o u l d ask to start t h e discussion rolling. S o m e businesses have d e v e l o p e d mission statements that their o w n e r s insist express the values of t h e c o m p a n y and its employees and can serve as t h e quality of life statement in their holistic goal. In s o m e cases this is true. H o w e v e r , all t o o o f t e n mission statements are w r i t t e n by the leader or a c o m m i t t e e and are m o r e or less i m p o s e d o n e v e r y o n e else. S u c h statements tend to express superficial, o f t e n politically c o r r e c t values for public c o n s u m p t i o n , m o r a l e boosting, o r m a r k e t i n g t h e company. Watch the p e r f o r m a n c e of t h e employees, and their lack of c o m m i t m e n t to the mission is obvious. By contrast, t h e w o r d i n g in a holistic goal will initially b e r o u g h and u n r e f i n e d , but if f o r m e d properly will have m e a n i n g for all w h o p r o d u c e it and are g o i n g to live o r w o r k by it. I w o u l d n o t b e prepared to devote m y life to a mission s t a t e m e n t created by s o m e o n e else, b u t I w o u l d to a holistic goal I was involved in f o r m i n g because it w o u l d reflect so m u c h that was dear to me. M a n y c o r p o r a t e leaders are n o w well aware that d e v e l o p i n g a c o r p o rate mission or vision s t a t e m e n t is a shared responsibility that m u s t i n c l u d e e v e r y o n e c o n c e r n e d , and there is an a b u n d a n c e of literature that addresses ways to d o this effectively. A n u m b e r of b o o k s discuss ideas and t e c h n i q u e s that w o u l d also prove helpful in f o r m i n g a quality of life s t a t e m e n t . Several are m e n t i o n e d in t h e references at t h e e n d of this b o o k .

Dealing

with

Dysfunction

T h e r e are n o easy answers for t h e p r o b l e m m a n y e x p e r i e n c e in t r y i n g to f o r m a holistic goal in groups that are n o t f u n c t i o n i n g well. I have g r a p pled w i t h it in a n u m b e r of situations and have never yet f o u n d an easy solution. R a r e i n d e e d is the g r o u p that does n o t contain o n e or m o r e i n d i viduals s u f f e r i n g to varying degrees from l o w self-esteem, a lack of trust, fear, or unexpressed anger, and m o r e . A n d in my e x p e r i e n c e it only takes

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o n e such p e r s o n in a g r o u p o f t e n or t w e n t y to m a k e the w h o l e g r o u p dysf u n c t i o n a l to a degree. It can take a l o n g time to locate the source(s) of t r o u ble, and even w h e n f o u n d , if others take the decision n o t to react, they are r e a c t i n g . T h u s , d y s f u n c t i o n in any g r o u p leads to c o n f u s i o n and frustration. T h e r e are m a i n l y t w o schools ot t h o u g h t o n h o w to p r o c e e d in f o r m ing a holistic goal in these situations. O n e v i e w is to d o a lot of w o r k b e f o r e h a n d 011 t e a m building, trust building, conflict resolution, personal g r o w t h , a n d so o n . If the dysfunctional p e o p l e can b e identified, they can be e n c o u r a g e d o r required to get c o u n s e l i n g and professional assistance. O n c e t h e t e a m is m o r e f u n c t i o n a l (less fearful, m o r e trusting) t h e n p r o c e e d w i t h f o r m i n g t h e holistic goal. T h e disadvantage of this approach is that it m a y b e years b e f o r e you have a w e l l - f u n c t i o n i n g g r o u p and you m a y never get a r o u n d to f o r m i n g a holistic goal. T h e o t h e r v i e w is to f o r m t h e holistic goal first, a c k n o w l e d g i n g u p f r o n t that t h e p e o p l e in t h e g r o u p are n o t yet c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h o n e a n o t h e r . T h e n address the p r o b l e m s that almost certainly will e m e r g e as y o u b e g i n to m a n a g e holistically. M a n y of t h e issues, problems, and pressures that have p r o m o t e d low trust, l o w self-esteem, conflict, and so o n , may in fact be s y m p t o m s p r o d u c e d by t h e way decisions w e r e m a d e in the past. If this is so, t h e n there is little p o i n t in treating t h e s y m p t o m w i t h w o r k s h o p s o n t e a m building, conflict resolution, a n d so o n w i t h o u t first e l i m i n a t i n g the u n d e r l y i n g cause. T h u s , I lean increasingly to f o r m i n g t h e t e m p o r a r y holistic goal right away and b e g i n n i n g to m a k e decisions toward it. If you are o n e of t h e leaders of such a group, you will b e o n thin ice until p e o p l e b e g i n to get b e y o n d their fears a n d to trust the process and themselves.You may in fact lose s o m e people. B u t you may likewise be surprised at h o w quickly their c o n f i d e n c e grows. In very large c o m p a n i e s o r c o m m u n i t i e s , you generally have n o o p t i o n b u t to start by f o r m i n g the holistic goal. A few years ago, I w o u l d have said this w i t h s o m e trepidation. N o w , having w o r k e d w i t h a n u m b e r of very large groups, I have f e w reservations, particularly w h e n p e o p l e are in c o n flict, as l o n g as you can get t h e m to stop f i g h t i n g l o n g e n o u g h to f o r m a t e m p o r a r y holistic goal, b e g i n n i n g w i t h h o w they w a n t their lives to be. It is essential, in such cases, that a facilitator b e present w h o is k n o w l e d g e a b l e in Holistic M a n a g e m e n t and also very helpful if that p e r s o n has skills in conflict resolution a n d consensus building. S o m e years ago I was asked by t h e U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to p r o vide a w o r k s h o p o n o n e of their refuges in S o u t h D a k o t a . R e f u g e m a n agers w e r e trying desperately to save a rapidly d w i n d l i n g d u c k p o p u l a t i o n b u t w e r e getting little c o o p e r a t i o n f r o m p e o p l e in t h e local c o m m u n i t y w h o shared use of t h e land. I asked t h e r e f u g e managers to also invite these people. O n arriving, I f o u n d a rather hostile g r o u p of m e n w h o h a d left their

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families h o m e e x p e c t i n g o u r session to b e rather unpleasant. A n d initially it was. W h e n I spoke to t h e m a b o u t the n e e d f o r a holistic goal in their c o m m u n i t y , they ridiculed t h e idea. T h e y assured m e that f o r m i n g o n e w o u l d b e an impossible task and suggested n o t t o o politely that I go back to w h e r e I had c o m e f r o m . R e a l i z i n g that trying to get this g r o u p o f m e n to talk a b o u t the things they valued w o u l d only invite m o r e ridicule, I agreed w i t h t h e m that f o r m i n g a holistic goal f o r their c o m m u n i t y w o u l d b e impossible. I suggested they go h o m e and c o n t i n u e f i g h t i n g o n e a n o t h er, wasting e n e r g y and m o n e y and g e t t i n g n o w h e r e . Alternatively, I said, they c o u l d stay and w o r k w i t h m e f o r an h o u r o r so and prove m e w r o n g , rather t h e n merely telling m e I was w r o n g . T h i s they agreed to do. To start t h e m off, 1 had t h e m c o m p l e t e an exercise. I told t h e m they were all g o i n g to die, and, by t h e l o o k of t h e m , w i t h i n a b o u t t w e n t y years. K n o w i n g that to b e the case, I asked t h e m to b e totally selfish in t h i n k i n g of w h a t they w o u l d like to see in their c o m m u n i t y if they w e r e to c o m e back a h u n d r e d years later. E a c h m a n t o o k a p i e c e of p a p e r and w e n t off o n his o w n to c o m p l e t e the exercise. W h e n they h a n d e d in their sheets of paper, we r e c o r d e d the c o n t e n t s on a blackboard for all to see. N o t t o o surprisingly, you c o u l d n ' t distinguish t h e c o m m e n t s of a rancher, f a r m e r , or local business o w n e r f r o m those of the r e f u g e staff. T h e y apparently all w a n t e d to see the same things. W i t h m i n i m a l d i s c o m f o r t , w e had b r o u g h t o u t w h a t these p e o p l e most valued and c o u l d n o w create t h e first part of t h e holistic goal, the quality of life statement. W e f o r m e d t h e rest of t h e t e m p o r a r y holistic goal w i t h o u t a m u r m u r o f d i s a g r e e m e n t over any aspect.

Wholes within Wholes In C h a p t e r 8 I m e n t i o n e d that in larger o r m o r e diverse c o m p a n i e s or organizations, d e f i n i n g the w h o l e b e c o m e s an exercise in d e f i n i n g m a n ageable w h o l e s w i t h i n w h o l e s . S u p p o s e y o u had d e f i n e d t w o smaller w h o l e s w i t h i n a greater w h o l e and that t h e decision m a k e r s in each had f o r m e d a holistic goal for their entity. H o w w o u l d y o u ensure that t h e three w h o l e s r e m a i n e d cohesive and c o m m i t t e d to t h e w e l l - b e i n g of o n e a n o t h e r ? W h a t if o n e holistic goal i n c l u d e d statements that conflicted w i t h statements in a n o t h e r ? H o w w o u l d you ensure that the channels of c o m m u n i c a t i o n r e m a i n e d o p e n ? All of these questions are addressed if, w h e n d e f i n i n g smaller w h o l e s w i t h i n a greater w h o l e , y o u follow these g u i d e lines: 1.

Make

sure that some of the decision makers

in the greater whole also

make

decisions in the smaller wholes, and thus help to f o r m the holistic goal in each entity. This crossover is essential for establishing the core val-

10

| D E V E L O P I N G A SENSE OF O W N E R S H I P : A R E Y o u S U R E T H A T ' S W H A T Y o u REALLY W A N T ?

9

(

ues that unite the various wholes. A n d w i t h o u t it communication will be compromised. 2.

Create a statement,

oj purpose Jor each smaller whole. W h e n y o u are f o r m -

ing a w h o l e within a whole, you are doing so for a specific purpose and that needs to be expressed clearly (in writing) and understood by everyone. Each smaller whole has roles to serve and tasks to p e r f o r m that support the greater whole, w h i c h the statement of purpose helps to clarify. W h e n the decision makers in the smaller w h o l e c o m e to define their holistic goal, one or m o r e of the forms of production they focus on will relate specifically to their statement of purpose. 3.

Make

sure the future

resource base described

in each entity's

holistic

goal

addresses client-supplier relationships. T h e smaller wholes figure p r o m i nently in the resource base of the greater whole, and the greater whole figures strongly in theirs. At one time or another each is a client or supplier of the other. If you want those relationships to remain smooth and productive, then in f o r m i n g their holistic goal, the decision makers in each whole will need to describe their behavior as it will have to be to maintain smooth and productive relationships. 4.

Clarify financial arrangements. T h e m o n e y on hand or that can be generated in each whole will often overlap. In defining a smaller whole, for instance, some of the m o n e y on hand might include amounts made available by the greater w h o l e . T h e smaller whole might in turn be generating cash from an enterprise made possible with expertise provided by the greater whole. If the greater w h o l e invests capital (cash or assets) in the smaller w h o l e and expects some sort of return on that capital, this needs to be clarified upfront. N u m e r o u s other financial transactions will take place within and a m o n g the various wholes, all of which will proceed m o r e smoothly if some parameters are established at the outset.

O u r o w n case helps to illustrate these points. T h e C e n t e r for Holistic M a n a g e m e n t includes three additional w h o l e s that are m a n a g e d separately w i t h i n it: Holistic M a n a g e m e n t International, o u r f o r - p r o f i t subsidiary; t h e Africa C e n t r e f o r Holistic M a n a g e m e n t , o u r sister organization based in Z i m b a b w e ; and t h e R e g i o n a l T r a i n i n g C e n t r e (for E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g Africa) w e j o i n t l y o w n w i t h t h e Africa C e n t r e . Figure 1 0 - 1 shows the relationship of these smaller w h o l e s w i t h i n the greater w h o l e . T h e R e g i o n a l T r a i n i n g C e n t r e is linked administratively to the Africa C e n t r e b u t engages in special projects a n d receives s o m e f u n d s directly f r o m us (the C e n t e r ) , thus the overlap in t h e diagram's circles. O u r p u r p o s e in f o r m i n g Holistic M a n a g e m e n t I n t e r n a t i o n a l ( H M I ) was to create an entity that w o u l d engage in activities p r o v i d i n g a financial

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Center for Holistic Management

Holistic Management International

Africa Centre for Holistic Management Regional Training Centre .

F i g u r e 10-1

The wholes mthui

the Center for Holistic

Management.

return to the C e n t e r while e x p a n d i n g the awareness and practice of Holistic M a n a g e m e n t outside o u r traditional circles of influence. S o m e of the Center's decision makers serve on the board of H M I and took part in f o r m i n g its holistic g o a l . T h e C e n t e r is currently a m a j o r supplier of e x p e r tise and contract labor to H M I . H M I ' s holistic goal differs considerably f r o m the Center's. T h e quality of life statement reflects the core values we share, but stands apart in its details because different people are involved.The forms of p r o d u c t i o n have an entirely different focus because H M I is engaged in a different type of business. T h e statement of purpose, however, ensures that w h a t H M I strives to p r o d u c e enhances the Center's o w n efforts. T h e future resource base again has similarities in general but differs in the particulars. Despite these differences, H M I ' s holistic goal is not in conflict w i t h the Center's. H M I ' s statement of p u r p o s e and the overlap of decision makers between the two entities has helped to ensure this. T h e Africa C e n t r e for Holistic M a n a g e m e n t ( A C H M ) was f o r m e d in 1992, w i t h capital provided by the Center, for the p u r p o s e of e x p a n d i n g awareness and the practice of Holistic M a n a g e m e n t in Africa. As in H M I ' s case, some of the Center's decision makers serve on A C H M ' s board and helped to f o r m its holistic goal. T h e C e n t e r again serves as a supplier of contract labor and expertise. A few years ago w e f o u n d it necessary to carve a n o t h e r w h o l e , the R e g i o n a l Training Centre, o u t of A C H M to facilitate its m a n a g e m e n t .

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A C H M ' s office and the R e g i o n a l T r a i n i n g C e n t r e are separated by 300 miles (a t w e l v e - h o u r drive) and sporadic t e l e p h o n e service. T h e A C H M office is located in t h e capital city, Harare, w h e r e facilities are available for r u n n i n g an i n t e r n a t i o n a l organization. T h e H a r a r e - b a s e d staff are chiefly involved in designing, i m p l e m e n t i n g , a n d raising f u n d s for a variety of e d u cational programs; p r o d u c i n g publications; and n e t w o r k i n g w i t h o t h e r organizations. M u c h of t h e training they do, however, takes place at t h e R e g i o n a l T r a i n i n g C e n t r e , w h i c h includes n o t only all t h e facilities n e e d ed, b u t also a 7 , 0 0 0 - a c r e " l e a r n i n g laboratory"—grasslands, w o o d l a n d s , a large wildlife p o p u l a t i o n , and a herd of cattle. T h e Training C e n t r e staff obviously required a holistic goal that was m o r e specific to t h e enterprises they w e r e m a n a g i n g — t r a i n i n g facilities, a c a t e r i n g service, livestock, a n d w i l d l i f e — a n d to their circumstances. A m o n g o t h e r things, the staff and their families w e r e living o n site. W h e n the staff of the R e g i o n a l T r a i n i n g C e n t r e f o r m e d their holistic goal, decision makers f r o m the A C H M a n d the C e n t e r participated in f o r m i n g the quality o f life s t a t e m e n t to ensure that t h e core values a m o n g us w e r e truly shared, but left the on-site staff to describe o t h e r aspects relating to the d a y - t o - d a y realities of their o w n living a n d w o r k i n g e n v i r o n m e n t . It was m u c h the same in describing their f o r m s of p r o d u c t i o n . W e n e e d e d to m a k e sure that e v e r y o n e u n d e r s t o o d the m e a n i n g of t h e phrases that resulted, particularly those that addressed t h e s t a t e m e n t of p u r p o s e . Because b o t h A C H M and t h e C e n t e r are clients and suppliers in the T r a i n i n g C e n t r e s w h o l e , w h e n it c a m e to describing t h e f u t u r e resource base, w e also m a d e a p o i n t o f describing t h e qualities in o u r relationships w i t h t h e T r a i n i n g C e n t r e staff that w e r e i m p o r t a n t t o us. T h e s e w e r e t h e n reflected in their description. Again, the R e g i o n a l T r a i n i n g Centre's holistic goal reads q u i t e differently f r o m t h e C e n t e r ' s and A C H M ' s , but it is in line w i t h b o t h . A n d n o w it has as m u c h m e a n i n g f o r t h e h e r d s m e n a n d t h e catering m a n a g e r w o r k ing at the T r a i n i n g C e n t r e as A C H M ' s holistic goal has for the secretary and the training director w o r k i n g in the H a r a r e office. If you h e e d t h e guidelines given you are unlikely to create holistic goals that conflict or lead to a lack of c o h e s i o n . As those in the smaller w h o l e s m a k e progress in achieving their holistic goals, they will m o v e those in the greater w h o l e closer to achieving theirs.

Conclusion F o r m y o u r holistic goal properly, as described in this and the previous t w o chapters, and even t h o u g h you m i g h t m u d d l e y o u r way t h r o u g h t h e rest o f Holistic M a n a g e m e n t , you will b e g i n to see a c h a n g e f o r t h e better. B u t m u d d l e t h r o u g h f o r m i n g t h e holistic g o a l — d r o p o n e or m o r e parts of it,

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d o n ' t w r i t e it d o w n , o r d o n ' t b o t h e r to c h e c k for a g r e e m e n t — a n d d o the rest to p e r f e c t i o n , and you m a y eventually give u p in despair. D o n and R a n d e e Halladay, w h o struggled, along w i t h their t w o children, to express the dreams and ideas that w e r e gradually i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o their holistic goal, o f t e n talk a b o u t h o w w o r t h w h i l e that struggle has b e e n : A f t e r o u r first course in Holistic M a n a g e m e n t , w e w e n t h o m e and set a b o u t w o r k i n g o n o u r holistic goal. W e each t o o k a blank piece of paper and w e n t to separate r o o m s to w r i t e d o w n w h a t was i m p o r t a n t to us. W h e n w e e x c h a n g e d papers w e f o u n d that each o f us had m a d e s o m e n i c e - s o u n d i n g , fairly g e n eral statements. It was a start, b u t w e realized that b e f o r e w e could f o r m a holistic goal as a team, each of us w o u l d have to have a clear idea of w h o w e w e r e and w h a t o u r dearest values were. W i t h o u t this individual clarity it was easy to accept w h a t the o t h e r family m e m b e r s p u t f o r t h as there were n o real g r o u n d s for o b j e c t i o n . T h e r e w e r e also n o g r o u n d s for o w n e r s h i p . W e f o u n d that w i t h o u t a s t r o n g feeling o f o w n e r s h i p in t h e holistic goal, the m o t i v a t i o n to carry o u t decisions dissipated and general apathy set in. T h o s e v a g u e yearnings and desires w r i t t e n d o w n in o u r first g o a l - w r i t i n g session have b e e n n u r t u r e d like a fine garden over t h e past six years until w e finally have a holistic goal that speaks to o u r very b e i n g . W h e n w e share it w i t h others, as w e s o m e times do, simply reading o u r i n t e n t i o n s u n d e r Q u a l i t y of Life evokes a d e e p e m o t i o n a l response in us. It was w h e n o u r holistic goal truly reflected w h o w e w e r e that things started to h a p p e n . It was o n l y after w e got deadly serious a b o u t w h a t w e w a n t e d and c o m m i t t e d that to paper that w e really started m o v i n g in the direction w e w a n t e d to go. 2

PartIV The Ecosystem That Sustains Us All

11 The Four Fundamental Processes That Drive Our Ecosystem

any scientists today speak of different e c o s y s t e m s — r i p a r i a n ecosystems, grassland ecosystems, wet tropical forest ecosystems, and so o n . I have personally resisted d o i n g so because in m a n a g i n g t h e m , t o o m a n y p e o p l e fail to r e m e m b e r that the b o u n d a r i e s that define an ecosystem are artificial. A riparian ecosystem, for instance, c a n n o t be m a n aged separately f r o m the grassland o r forest ecosystem s u r r o u n d i n g it, but t i m e and again I have f o u n d that in practice it is. E a c h of these ecosystems exists only in d y n a m i c relationship to t h e o t h e r and as m e m b e r s of a greater ecosystem. A l t h o u g h m o s t ecologists appreciate this fact, so m a n y managers d o n ' t that I find it m o r e helpful to refer to o n e ecosystem, w h i c h encompasses e v e r y t h i n g o n o u r planet a n d in its s u r r o u n d i n g a t m o s p h e r e , and probably m o r e than that as well. R a t h e r than distinguish lesser ecosystems w i t h i n it, I have f o u n d it m o r e practical to speak in t e r m s of different environments, each of w h i c h f u n c t i o n s t h r o u g h t h e same f u n d a m e n t a l processes: water cycle, mineral cycle, c o m m u n i t y dynamics, a n d e n e r g y flow. T h e w o r d environment does n o t , in m y e x p e r i e n c e , s e e m to p r o m o t e the idea of b o u n d a r i e s to the same e x t e n t that the w o r d ecosystem does. W h e n p e o p l e talk of m a n a g i n g a riparian environment, I mostly find that the b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e riparian area a n d its s u r r o u n d i n g c a t c h m e n t b e c o m e s seamless in their minds, a n d this is reflected in their actions. T h e idea is reinforced, of course, by their focusing o n t h e f o u r f u n d a m e n tal processes that are c o m m o n to all e n v i r o n m e n t s , and t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e greater e c o s y s t e m — o u r e c o s y s t e m — f u n c t i o n s . U l t i m a t e l y these f o u r processes are t h e f o u n d a t i o n that undergirds all h u m a n endeavor, all e c o -

M

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n o m i e s , all civilizations, and all life. T h a t is w h y they appear near the t o p of t h e Holistic M a n a g e m e n t m o d e l , serving as the f o u n d a t i o n o n w h i c h the holistic goal rests. C o n s c i o u s l y m o d i f y any o n e of these processes, and you automatically c h a n g e all o f t h e m in s o m e w a y because in reality they are only different aspects of the same thing. It helps if you t h i n k o f t h e m as f o u r different w i n d o w s t h r o u g h w h i c h you can observe the same r o o m , o u r ecosystem as it f u n c t i o n s . Y o u c a n n o t have an effective water o r m i n e r a l cycle o r a d e quate e n e r g y flow w i t h o u t c o m m u n i t i e s of living organisms, because you w o u l d t h e n have n o t h i n g to c o n v e r t sunlight to a f o r m of e n e r g y useable by life. If you w e r e m a n a g i n g a p i e c e of land and w a n t e d to c h a n g e the water cycle to b r i n g it closer to w h a t you envisaged in y o u r holistic goal, you w o u l d plan w h i c h tools to use and h o w to use t h e m . B u t b e f o r e g o i n g f u r t h e r , you w o u l d also consider h o w those tools w o u l d affect the m i n e r a l cycle, e n e r g y flow, and c o m m u n i t y dynamics. To perceive t h e unity of o u r ecosystem requires n o scientific training o r specialized e d u c a t i o n . T h e spread o f acid rain across w i d e areas, the b u i l d u p of c a r b o n dioxide and the b r e a k d o w n of o z o n e in t h e stratosphere, t h e w o r l d w i d e implications o f a nuclear p o w e r plant disaster all d e m o n s t r a t e that isolated ecosystems d o n o t exist. H o w e v e r , it is less o b v i o u s that if w e are to h e a d off t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l disasters l o o m i n g ahead, ail of us, n o t j u s t scientists, or f a r m e r s , foresters, and others m a n a g i n g land, must b e g i n to acquire a basic u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the f u n d a m e n t a l processes t h r o u g h w h i c h o u r ecosystem f u n c t i o n s . It will s o o n b e u n a c c e p t a b l e for any e c o n o m i s t , politician, or c o r p o r a t e C E O to r e m a i n e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y illiterate and thus ignorant of these processes and o u r c o n n e c t i o n to t h e m . You can read these w o r d s only because the sun s h o n e o n the leaves of a plant s o m e w h e r e a n d the leaves c o n v e r t e d that sunlight energy to f o o d and o x y g e n . You ate the f o o d and inhaled the o x y g e n , b o t h of w h i c h enabled you to read these w o r d s and u n d e r s t a n d t h e m . T h e living o r g a n isms in o u r ecosystem are responsible for k e e p i n g a t m o s p h e r i c gases in bala n c e so that the air w e b r e a t h e remains c o n d u c i v e to life as w e k n o w it. O x y g e n , for instance, makes u p 21 p e r c e n t of the atmosphere's gases. If it were to increase by 4 p e r c e n t , the w o r l d w o u l d b e e n g u l f e d in flames; w e r e it to decrease by 4 p e r c e n t , n o t h i n g w o u l d ever b u r n . A n y t i m e o x y g e n is e x p o s e d to sunlight, it reacts chemically w i t h o t h e r gases and binds to t h e m , thus free o x y g e n is constantly b e i n g depleted. To ensure that a t m o s p h e r i c o x y g e n remains at 21 percent, living o r g a n i s m s — t h e w h o l e c o m plex of plants, animals, insects, and m i c r o o r g a n i s m s — m u s t keep s u p p l y i n g it. B e a r in m i n d that there was n o free o x y g e n to s u p p o r t h u m a n s and o t h e r h i g h e r life until living organisms, of o n e f o r m o r another, created it. Tragically, w e are n o w less aware of o u r d e p e n d e n c e o n a w e l l - f u n c t i o n i n g ecosystem t h a n w e w e r e in earlier, less sophisticated eras. E c o n omists n o w have m o r e leverage in the U.S. g o v e r n m e n t t h a n the f a r m e r s

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w h o f o r m e d it ever did. A c c o u n t a n t s and lawyers serve as the chief advisors to the business w o r l d in w h i c h s o m e c o r p o r a t i o n s n o w wield larger budgets and m o r e i n f l u e n c e than m a n y national g o v e r n m e n t s . To be the specialists they are, m o s t e c o n o m i s t s , accountants, and lawyers have c o n s i d erable training in t h e n a r r o w c o n f i n e s of their professions b u t less of an e d u c a t i o n in the b r o a d e r sense, w i t h some e x c e p t i o n s , ecological e c o n o m i s t s b e i n g o n e . As a c o n s e q u e n c e , m o s t of these specialists exhibit little k n o w l e d g e of the natural wealth that ultimately sustains nations, the quantity and quality of w h i c h is d e t e r m i n e d by h o w well o u r ecosystem functions. All of us, however, have played a part in creating the e n v i r o n m e n t a l problems w e n o w face simply because all of us at o n e time or a n o t h e r have m a d e decisions that c o n t r i b u t e d to t h e m . T h e decision to b u r n a field, poison the cockroaches, o r b u y a bar of soap o f t e n appears to be c o r r e c t because the objective is a c c o m p l i s h e d . T h e field is cleared, t h e c o c k roaches are dead, and you are clean. B u t in the longer t e r m , the decision can prove w r o n g , particularly in t e r m s of h o w it affects the f o u r processes t h r o u g h w h i c h o u r ecosystem f u n c t i o n s . If the w h o l e you have d e f i n e d includes land u n d e r y o u r m a n a g e m e n t , you m u s t b e c o m e intimately a c q u a i n t e d w i t h w a t e r a n d mineral cycles, e n e r g y flow, and c o m m u n i t y dynamics; o t h e r w i s e you will n o t b e able to m o n i t o r t h e results o f decisions you m a k e that affect the land. M a n a g i n g a piece of land in t e r m s of these f o u r processes may s e e m a d a u n t i n g task, but it is simpler than first appears. An analogy provided by Sam B i n g h a m , m y c o a u t h o r o n a previous b o o k , helps to m a k e the p o i n t . It is o n e he b o r r o w e d f r o m the G e r m a n w r i t e r H e i n r i c h v o n Kleist w h o , s o m e t i m e in the early 1800s, i n t e r v i e w e d a f a m o u s p u p p e t e e r . H o w , v o n Kleist w a n t e d to k n o w , can a n o r m a l p e r s o n possibly m a n a g e the b o d y and each individual limb of a m a r i o n e t t e so it moves h a r m o niously like a real p e r s o n instead of like a robot? H o w does the p u p p e t e e r learn that w h e n h e moves t h e puppet's leg forward, h e also has to tilt its head slightly, b e n d t h e torso, and shift b o t h arms in o p p o s i t e directions? T h e p u p p e t e e r answered that v o n Kleist had n o t u n d e r s t o o d t h e actual challenge, w h i c h was b o t h simpler and m o r e elegant. O f course, n o h u m a n c o u l d p r o d u c e natural gestures by prilling any n u m b e r of individual strings. N o m a t t e r h o w skilled the p u p p e t e e r , the restilt w o u l d still l o o k m e c h a n ical. O n the o t h e r h a n d , a skillfully designed m a r i o n e t t e had a c e n t e r of gravity, and simply m o v i n g that center of gravity w o u l d b r i n g a b o u t all t h e o t h e r gestures automatically, j u s t as a h u m a n w h e n taking a step a u t o m a t ically moves all t h e o t h e r parts of his b o d y to stay in balance. In Holistic M a n a g e m e n t , t h e f o u r f u n d a m e n t a l processes are t h e c e n t e r of gravity. T h e land m a n a g e r w h o f o r m u l a t e s a hohstic goal that describes a f u t u r e landscape in t e r m s of these f o u r processes will find that in m o v ing them in the direction of that vision, the land will c o m e right.

s far as w e k n o w there is a fixed a m o u n t of w a t e r on t h e planet that constantly cycles f r o m the a t m o s p h e r e to t h e surface and back to t h e a t m o s p h e r e . M u c h of this w a t e r is seawater, t o o salty for m o s t uses until it evaporates and returns as rain or snow. S o m e of it b e c o m e s locked for vast periods u n d e r g r o u n d o r in polar icecaps b e f o r e r e j o i n i n g t h e cycle. B u t m o s t water remains constantly o n the move, b e c o m i n g n o w liquid, n o w ice, n o w vapor. Because w a t e r is fast b e c o m i n g a limiting f a c t o r to t h e g r o w t h of cities, agriculture, and industry, there is an u r g e n t n e e d to u n d e r s t a n d h o w it cycles and thus b e c o m e s available for use. I have d r a w n the basic p a t t e r n of the w a t e r cycle in figure 12-1. It shows t h e various paths taken by water falling o n the land as rain, hail, and snow. S o m e evaporates straight away off soil and plant surfaces back into the a t m o s p h e r e . S o m e runs off into streams, rivers, dams, lakes, and eventually the sea b e f o r e evaporating. S o m e penetrates t h e soil, and of that a p o r t i o n sticks to soil particles. T h e rest flows o n d o w n to u n d e r g r o u n d supplies. T h e r e it may remain for m i l l e n nia or find its way back to t h e surface in river bank seepage, springs, and bogs, or possibly t h r o u g h d e e p - r o o t e d plants that pick it u p and transpire it back into the air, or in s o m e cases leak it o u t t h r o u g h surface roots that shallow r o o t e d grasses take u p a n d transpire. O f w a t e r held by soil p a r t i cles, a small p o r t i o n remains tightly held, b u t t h e bulk is either attracted to drier particles or d r a w n away by plant roots and transpired. T h u s , o n e way or a n o t h e r all the water eventually cycles b e t w e e n earth and air. Because the time w a t e r spends in the soil is critical to the g r o w t h and r e p r o d u c t i o n of plant life, w h i c h in t u r n is essential to m o s t animal life, 104

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Evaporation from 4 4 4 water / / / surfaces Runoff to rivers, lakes, and sea

Underground flow to springs, rivers, seas

Figure 12-1

The water cycle.

i n c l u d i n g h u m a n s , it is i m p o r t a n t to u n d e r s t a n d this stage of the w a t e r cycle in m o r e detail. A n y w a t e r that penetrates t h e soil will be strongly attracted to d r i e r soil particles.This is why, after a while, n o sharp e d g e b e t w e e n w e t a n d dry soil remains, but rather a g r a d i e n t f r o m w e t t e r to drier p a r t i c l e s . T h e w a t e r will keep m o v i n g until all of it has a d h e r e d to soil particles o r passed o n to u n d e r g r o u n d reservoirs of free water. S h o r t of d r y i n g soil in the sun or in an oven, it is hard to r e m o v e the final film of water f r o m a soil particle. As w a t e r is d r a w n away f r o m a particle by any means, that particle tightens its hold o n w h a t e v e r remains. H o w e v e r , particles hold each added i n c r e m e n t of w a t e r m o r e feebly than t h e last,just as y o u , if m u g g e d on the street w i t h an a r m l o a d of parcels, will d e f e n d the last o n e you hold b e t t e r than t h e first ones taken. Plants absorb w a t e r a n d the essentia] n u t r i e n t s dissolved in it t h r o u g h r o o t hairs. T h e y can d o this as l o n g as their ability to d r a w w a t e r can o v e r c o m e the grip o n t h e w a t e r exercised by soil particles. As d r y i n g particles yield less and less water, the plant slows its g r o w t h rate. Eventually it begins to wilt in the heat of the day or curl its leaves to conserve m o i s ture as its ability to obtain w a t e r f r o m t h e soil is r e d u c e d . M u c h can be d o n e , however, to retain m o r e m o i s t u r e in the soil and thus e x t e n d t h e

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t i m e d u r i n g w h i c h plants can g r o w vigorously b e f o r e w i l t i n g p o i n t is reached. To sustain h u m a n s and t h e m a x i m u m a m o u n t of life, in all b u t wetlands and t r u e deserts, w e n e e d to maintain w h a t w e call an effective water cycle. In an effective w a t e r cycle, plants m a k e m a x i m u m use of rainfall o r m e l t ing snow. Little evaporates directly off t h e soil. Any w a t e r that r u n s off the soil tends to d o so slowly and carries little organic m a t t e r or soil w i t h it. A g o o d a i r - t o - w a t e r balance exists in t h e soil, e n a b l i n g plant roots to absorb w a t e r readily, as most plants require o x y g e n as well as w a t e r a r o u n d their roots to grow. In a noneffective water cycle, plants get m i n i m a l o p p o r t u n i t y to use the full a m o u n t of precipitation received. M u c h is lost to surface evaporation or r u n o f f , and w h a t soaks in is o f t e n n o t readily available to plants because air and w a t e r are n o t in b a l a n c e . T o o m u c h water, and the soil b e c o m e s w a t e r logged. T h i s can o c c u r o n rangelands, croplands, a n d of course in all w e t lands, w h e r e an i m p e r v i o u s layer of subsoil prevents t h e d o w n w a r d m o v e m e n t of excess water. T h e water actually displaces air in t h e soil, a n d thus only plants adapted to a lack of o x y g e n a r o u n d their roots can grow. S o m e , such as mangroves, w h i c h g r o w a r o u n d coastal wetlands, s u r r o u n d t h e m selves w i t h roots thrust u p a f o o t or m o r e above t h e water in o r d e r to breathe. As a sugar cane f a r m e r in Africa, I e x p e r i e n c e d firsthand j u s t h o w c r i t ical p r o p e r aeration can be. I had m y crops u n d e r overhead irrigation and was told by t h e local e x t e n s i o n service to plant my cane in hollows b e t w e e n high ridges m a d e w i t h a r i d g i n g i m p l e m e n t . I q u e s t i o n e d this advice a n d sowed a test plot of cabbages claimed by t h e seed c o m p a n y to p r o d u c e t w o - p o u n d heads. I got the answer I s o u g h t very quickly b u t let t h e crop m a t u r e in o r d e r to sell it. H e a d s planted in t h e f u r r o w s averaged o n e p o u n d . T h o s e o n flat g r o u n d averaged t w o p o u n d s . T h o s e planted o n ridge tops averaged eight p o u n d s . Clearly several factors o p e r a t e in such a situation, b u t m o s t o b v i o u s was t h e fact that the soil in t h e ridges was never w a t e r logged a n d always well aerated; in the ridges the w a t e r cycle was always effective. A n effect very similar to w a t e r l o g g i n g — t o o m u c h w a t e r and n o t e n o u g h a i r — c a n also o c c u r w h e n soil is exposed and has b e c o m e sealed over w i t h a crust, o r " c a p . " T h i s allows s o m e w a t e r to eventually soak in but n o t e n o u g h air. O n c e the cap is b r o k e n , the situation can be r e m e d i e d as I'll explain shortly. W h e n f o r m i n g y o u r holistic goal y o u should describe the w a t e r cycle o n t h e land y o u m a n a g e as it will have to b e f u n c t i o n i n g in t h e f u t u r e to sustain w h a t y o u w a n t to p r o d u c e o n that land. If y o u are n o t actually m a n -

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aging land, but m e r e l y describing t h e land s u r r o u n d i n g t h e c o m m u n i t y in w h i c h you live, this is n o t imperative, b u t it is desirable. In most cases you will w a n t to have an effective w a t e r cycle, b u t perhaps n o t everywhere.You may be dealing w i t h a wetland, o r perhaps rice paddies, o r w i t h a s e m i desert plant, or animal species that m i g h t require a landscape p r o d u c e d by a less effective w a t e r cycle. If you are m a n a g i n g such a piece of land, the careful application of available tools (see C h a p t e r s 16—23) a n d constant m o n i t o r i n g should p r o d u c e this. W h e t h e r or n o t you are actually m a n a g i n g land, it is i m p o r t a n t that you have a d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of effective a n d n o n e f f e c t i v e water cycles a n d w h a t p r o d u c e s t h e m in different e n v i r o n m e n t s .

Effective Water Cycles M o s t land managers k n o w the average rainfall their land receives a n d m a n age accordingly. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , averages o f t e n m e a n little, particularly in the m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s . In areas of erratic precipitation, as these e n v i r o n m e n t s are, the average s e l d o m occurs. N e a r l y every year the rain will be h i g h e r o r l o w e r than average. E v e n w h e n it is average the distribution can be v e r y different f r o m t h e last year of average rainfall. Fortunately, an effective w a t e r cycle tends to even o u t the erratic n a t u r e of the rainfall in any e n v i r o n m e n t by m a k i n g rain that does fall m o r e effective. Effective rainfall is that w h i c h soaks in and b e c o m e s available to plant roots, insects, a n d m i c r o o r g a n i s m s o r that replenishes u n d e r g r o u n d supplies w i t h very little s u b s e q u e n t l y evaporating f r o m the soil surface. To m a k e precipitation as effective as possible m e a n s p r o d u c i n g a cycle that directs m o s t w a t e r either o u t to t h e a t m o s p h e r e through plants o r d o w n to u n d e r g r o u n d supplies. In all the m o r e brittle areas of the w o r l d w h e r e I have w o r k e d , rarely have I seen an effective w a t e r cycle. Typically of, say, 14 inches (350 m m ) of rain received, only 5 o r 6 inches (125 o r 150 m m ) is actually effective. In very r o u g h figures it takes a p p r o x i m a t e l y 6 0 0 tons of w a t e r to p r o d u c e o n e t o n of vegetation, so o n e c a n n o t afford to waste any of t h e rain that falls. In less brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , effective w a t e r cycles t e n d to be m o r e c o m m o n simply because it is so m u c h m o r e difficult to create a n d to m a i n tain vast areas of bare soil. H o w e v e r , w h e r e soils have lost a large p r o p o r tion of their organic matter, they are unable to absorb m u c h water, w h i c h runs off, a n d a less effective w a t e r cycle results. T h i s p r o b l e m is c o m p o u n d e d o n croplands, w h e r e m u c h of t h e soil surface is deliberately exposed, and kept exposed, leading to even m o r e r u n o f f , and, d e p e n d i n g o n the humidity, h i g h e r surface evaporation rates.

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Capping F r o m these remarks you can see that the n a t u r e of t h e soil surface is vital to t h e w a t e r cycle. O n bare a n d e x p o s e d g r o u n d , t h e direct i m p a c t of raindrops tends to destroy soil c r u m b structure.* T h e a m o u n t of d a m a g e is actually g o v e r n e d by t h e size and velocity of the drop. E v i d e n c e of this shows u p o n bare g r o u n d u n d e r tall trees as large drops tend to c o m e off the leaves a n d to reach t e r m i n a l velocity in a b o u t 2 2 . 5 feet (6.75 meters) of fall. W h e n r a i n d r o p i m p a c t breaks d o w n t h e surface c r u m b structure, it frees the organic a n d l i g h t w e i g h t material to wash away w h i l e heavier fine p a r ticles settle and seal, or cap, t h e soil. T h e i m p o r t a n c e of surface c r u m b structure to w a t e r p e n e t r a t i o n is easily d e m o n s t r a t e d by c o m p a r i n g a b o w l of w h e a t grains and o n e of flour. N e i t h e r has a hard cap at the outset, but o n e has large particles, and t h e o t h e r has lost that structure. P o u r a j u g of w a t e r on each b o w l a n d watch. M o s t of t h e w a t e r soaks i n t o the grains, but it seals t h e surface of t h e flour i m m e d i a t e l y a n d r u n s off. A c a p p e d surface n o t only reduces w a t e r p e n e t r a t i o n b u t also prevents o x y g e n f r o m g e t t i n g into t h e soil and c a r b o n dioxide f r o m g e t t i n g o u t . T h i s in t u r n leads to a n u m b e r of problems, o n e of w h i c h is n u t r i e n t deficiencies that s h o w u p in plants and the animals that feed o n t h e m , even t h o u g h t h e n u t r i e n t s may b e a b u n d a n t in the soil. T h e air i m b a l a n c e appears to affect t h e activity of the millions of soil organisms responsible for releasing n u t r i e n t s in a f o r m plants can use. T h e initial c a p p i n g is subsequently e n h a n c e d by a vast array of m i c r o organisms and f u n g i that develop in it, p r o v i d i n g m o r e strength. You can see this if you lift a bit of t h e c a p p e d layer and inspect it closely. E v e n very sandy soils will d e v e l o p a cap w i t h this f o r m , a l t h o u g h to a lesser degree. S o m e soils, particularly in t h e tropics w h e r e there is n o f r e e z i n g a n d t h a w ing action to loosen t h e soil, develop a cap so hard it is difficult to break w i t h o u t a knife o r s o m e o t h e r hard object. If you tap such a severely capped soil w i t h y o u r fingers y o u will h e a r a hollow, d r u m - l i k e s o u n d created by the air space b e n e a t h it. It is well k n o w n that soil cover protects t h e soil surface f r o m t h e impact of raindrops a n d thus preserves the c r u m b structure a n d prevents capping. Soil cover generally c o m e s in t w o forms: l o w - g r o w i n g plants that intercept rainfall so that drops hit the g r o u n d w i t h less energy; a n d dead, p r o n e plant material, or litter, that n o t only stops rain f r o m hitting t h e surface, b u t also effectively slows t h e flow of w a t e r across t h e land. (Water can flow quite

* C r u m b structure refers to presence of aggregated soil particles held together w i t h " g l u e " provided by d e c o m p o s i n g organic matter. T h e space a r o u n d each c r u m b p r o vides r o o m for water and air, and this in turn p r o m o t e s plant g r o w t h .

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fast b e t w e e n plants w h e r e n o litter i m p e d e s it.) S n o w also provides soil cover and can help to lay dead standing plant material o n the g r o u n d for faster decay. In less brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , m a i n t a i n i n g soil cover is seldom a p r o b l e m as plant spacings are naturally close and tend to hold litter in place and also because plant life establishes quickly on exposed surfaces. It is almost impossible to create thousands of acres of g r o u n d w i t h a high percentage of bare soil b e t w e e n plants unless you use m a c h i n e r y and herbicides c o n stantly, as m a n y crop f a r m e r s do. T h e m o r e brittle t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , the m o r e the opposite is true. Bare soil develops easily b e t w e e n plants and over millions of acres. Plant spacings tend to be w i d e r apart, allowing w i n d and water to carry litter away.

Creating an Effective Water Cycle To e n t e r the soil, water must first p e n e t r a t e the soil surface, and this d e p e n d s on the rate at w h i c h it is applied and the porosity of the surface in particular. M a n a g e m e n t tools that break up a capped surface o r increase the soil's organic c o n t e n t and c r u m b structure speed u p p e n e t r a t i o n . Tools that create a surface that slows the flow of water slow the rate of application a n d allow m o r e water to soak in b e f o r e r u n n i n g off. A loosened, r o u g h surface o r o n e covered by old, p r o n e plant material achieves this. M o r e than any o t h e r single factor an effective water cycle requires m a n a g e m e n t that maintains soil cover, followed by organic matter, aeration, and drainage, the last o f t e n m o r e a challenge in less brittle croplands and pastures than in forests or o n the m o r e brittle rangelands. As soil cover is the key to an effective w a t e r cycle, let's first l o o k at the m a n a g e m e n t tools available to us that can either destroy or p r o m o t e it. In the less brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s there is almost n o tool w h o s e application causes soil e x p o s u r e over large areas o t h e r than t e c h n o l o g y — t h e repeated use of m a c h i n e r y or herbicides o n croplands, as m e n t i o n e d . In the m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , however, w h i c h cover m o s t of the earth's land surface, a o n e - t i m e use of m a c h i n e r y or a dose of h e r b i c i d e can cause the m a j o r i t y of the surface to remain exposed for years. O n rangelands, forests, and in national parks that lie closer to the very brittle e n d of the scale, m i l lions of acres of soil have b e e n exposed b e t w e e n the plants t h r o u g h the application of three tools: rest (partial o r total), fire (periodically), and to a lesser d e g r e e overgrazing (the tool of grazing misapplied). N o o t h e r tools available can expose soil o n such an extensive scale. Because these three tools are applied nearly universally in the m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , the staggering a m o u n t of bare g r o u n d c o m e s as n o surprise. Even n o m a d i c herders used the same tools b e f o r e b e i n g forcibly settled in various develo p m e n t projects. T h e y t e n d e d to overgraze fewer plants because of c o n -

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stant m o v e m e n t b u t still partially rested t h e soil and used fire m u c h t o o frequently. In e n v i r o n m e n t s leaning toward the n o n b r i t t l e e n d of t h e scale, rest (partial or total) is t h e m a i n tool available that can produce soil cover. O n croplands, f a r m e r s use rest to increase soil cover by leaving crop residues on t h e soil surface and using m i n i m u m tillage. O n land p u t to o t h e r uses, o t h e r managers d o m u c h the same. To increase soil cover, they disturb the soil as little as possible, if at all. In m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , the only tool that can provide a d e q u a t e soil cover over large areas is animal impact. O n b o t h rangelands a n d c r o p lands animals can b e used to trample d o w n old standing vegetation o r crop residues to provide litter.Their hooves can be used to break up bare, c a p p e d soil surfaces, p r e p a r i n g a seedbed in w h i c h n e w plants can g e r m i n a t e . O n t h e v e r y h a r d - c a p p e d soils in the tropics, m e n t i o n e d earlier, large h o o f e d animals are only able to break up soil surface c a p p i n g progressively or w h e n c o n c e n t r a t e d in large n u m b e r s at very high densities. A e r a t i o n , organic matter, a n d drainage all s o m e w h a t d e p e n d on soil cover. If the soil surface remains bare, n o m a t t e r w h a t type o f e n v i r o n m e n t , aeration, organic matter, and drainage will be adversely affected. All three are also affected by t h e root s t r u c t u r e of t h e plants i n h a b i t i n g an area. If roots are healthy, t h e y will help to aerate t h e soil, to add to t h e organic m a t t e r present in it, and to p u m p a greater a m o u n t of w a t e r u p w a r d . R o o t h e a l t h is d a m a g e d w h e n plants are o v e r g r a z e d (in any e n v i r o n m e n t ) , but it is e n h a n c e d w h e n plants are properly grazed (in any e n v i r o n m e n t ) . M o s t of t h e d a m a g e occurs, however, in t h e m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s d u e either to overgrazing o r to overresting of perennial grass plants w h o s e n e t w o r k of shallow roots are t h e m a i n soil-stabilizing force in m o d e r a t e to low-rainfall areas. A e r a t i o n , organic matter, and drainage also d e p e n d o n the activity of small animal life f o r m s in t h e soil. W h i l e there are billions of organisms living in t h e soil that w e have yet to identify, let alone u n d e r s t a n d t h e roles they play, w e d o k n o w quite a lot a b o u t s o m e of t h e m . E a r t h w o r m s , for instance, play a vital role in d e v e l o p i n g g o o d soil s t r u c t u r e and aeration. A n u m b e r of studies in several c o u n t r i e s have c o m p a r e d similar soils o n adjacent sites w i t h and w i t h o u t various species of e a r t h w o r m s and t h e results in every case suggest that w h e n e a r t h w o r m s are present there is greater w a t e r p e n e t r a t i o n and r e t e n t i o n . T o e n c o u r a g e e a r t h w o r m p o p u l a t i o n s you should avoid p l o w i n g o r t h e use of pesticides and ensure that litter covers the soil surface. When fewer a n d d o occur, melt, t e n d

you have an effective w a t e r cycle, floods and d r o u g h t s b e c o m e less severe, even w h e r e rainfall is very erratic. T h o s e floods that as they will in very high-rainfall years or years of rapid s n o w to rise m o r e gradually and to subside m o r e slowly. T h e flood-

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waters t e n d to b e clear, as they carry far less soil and debris. In o n e such flood in Africa I was w o r k i n g f r o m a c a n o e and d r o p p e d m y p e n i n t o the water. A l t h o u g h t h e river was flooding far over its banks I was able to dive and retrieve m y p e n w h i c h was still visible u n d e r several feet of water. T h e effects of droughts that d o occur, as they will in a year w h e n there is little or n o rainfall in the g r o w i n g season, are far less severe because m o i s ture received in the previous year has likely b e e n stored in t h e soil, a n d any received d u r i n g t h e d r o u g h t penetrates t h e soil surface m o r e readily. In general, an effective water cycle will ensure that far m o r e water is available over a longer t i m e for plant g r o w t h . Plants will start to g r o w earlier in the g r o w i n g season a n d m o r e profusely, a n d will c o n t i n u e g r o w i n g longer, even i n t o the fairly l o n g dry periods that can be present in t h e g r o w i n g m o n t h s . A n d there is of c o u r s e far m o r e w a t e r available to be released g r a d ually to stream flow, bogs, springs, and u n d e r g r o u n d aquifers. W h a t w o u l d it b e w o r t h to y o u as a rancher, f a r m e r , or even a city p l a n n e r c o n c e r n e d a b o u t u r b a n w a t e r supplies, to be able to d o u b l e y o u r rainfall? N o d o u b t q u i t e a lot. Fortunately, w i t h a little u n d e r s t a n d i n g , y o u can d o u b l e the effectiveness of y o u r rainfall. A n d this, as I illustrated w i t h t h e cabbage plants I grew, has an even greater effect than d o u b l i n g t h e rainfall.

Noneffective Water Cycles W h e n y o u have a n o n e f f e c t i v e w a t e r cycle, d r o u g h t s o c c u r m o r e freq u e n t l y a n d are m u c h m o r e severe because so m u c h w a t e r is lost to evapo r a t i o n o r r u n o f f . G o o d plant g r o w t h only takes place in s h o r t bursts, o f t e n a f e w days after rain. S o o n thereafter the plants b e g i n to wilt a n d g r o w t h c o m e s to a standstill until it rains again. Plants start g r o w i n g later in a n e w season since m o i s t u r e f r o m the previous season has n o t b e e n stored in the soil. At t h e e n d of t h e g r o w i n g season plants stop g r o w t h earlier, o f t e n b e f o r e t e m p e r a t u r e w o u l d slow or stop g r o w t h , simply because n o m o i s t u r e remains in the s o i l . T h u s , o n rangelands o r pastures far less forage is p r o d u c e d in t h e year, and o n croplands crop yields are less than they could be. W h e n rainfall is high or s n o w melts rapidly, floods o f t e n occur, but w h e n you have a n o n e f f e c t i v e w a t e r cycle, they are m o r e severe than they w o u l d b e otherwise. T h i s is certainly t h e case w h e n you have large areas over w h i c h a high p r o p o r t i o n of the g r o u n d is bare, as you d o o n m a n y croplands and rangelands. T h e greater t h e a m o u n t of bare g r o u n d , t h e higher t h e rate of w a t e r r u n o f f — b a r e soil can shed m o r e than half the water falling o n it. If 30 inches (750 m m ) of rain w e r e to fall o n an acre (0.405 hectares) of land, that w o u l d total 8 1 4 , 6 2 5 gallons (3,038 cubic meters) of water. O v e r a million acres (405,000 hectares), w h i c h is a m o r e representative scale in t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e m o r e brittle rangelands, that fig-

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ure wotild be over 8 1 4 billion gallons (over 3 billion cubic meters) of water. If half of that were to r u n off, it w o u l d constitute an a m a z i n g flood. E v e n in t h e less brittle M i d w e s t of t h e U n i t e d States there are millions of acres of cropland that c o n t a i n a h i g h p r o p o r t i o n of bare g r o u n d . You w o n ' t see it, t h o u g h , unless you get o u t of y o u r car, walk into t h e fields, and look straight d o w n at the soil. E v e n t h o u g h a forest of c o r n plants m a y tower above y o u , over 80 p e r c e n t of t h e soil is o f t e n bare. If the a m o u n t of water lost t h r o u g h r u n o f f is alarming, t h e a m o u n t lost t h r o u g h evaporation in the m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s is equally or m o r e so. S o m e t i m e ago I visited a research station in Pakistan that had received heavy rains that w e t t h e bare sandy soil m o r e than a m e t e r (three feet) deep. W h e n t h e researchers meastired again a few days later, they w e r e amazed to find n o trace of m o i s t u r e left. Far t o o little a t t e n t i o n is paid to the a m o u n t of w a t e r lost to t h e cycle t h r o u g h soil surface evaporation. I was o n c e asked to participate in a lengthy s y m p o s i u m in N e v a d a to w h i c h experts o n various aspects of water c o n s e r v a t i o n and m a n a g e m e n t had b e e n invited. E a c h e x p e r t was to provide suggestions o n h o w to deal w i t h the serious water shortages develo p i n g in the state's f a s t - g r o w i n g c i t i e s . T h r o u g h o u t the day n o t o n e e x p e r t m e n t i o n e d the greatest source of water loss in N e v a d a , or w h a t to d o a b o u t it. T h a t of c o u r s e was the high rate of evaporation o c c u r r i n g f r o m the exposed soil that is visible over nearly all of t h e state. If that water w e r e to remain in t h e soil, m o r e plants w o u l d grow, c o v e r i n g m o r e soil, and m o r e water w o u l d seep into springs, rivers, and eventually d o w n to aquifers, thus a d d i n g to the supply available to t h e state's cities. A lot of the i g n o r a n c e abotit water cycles in the m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s is u n d e r s t a n d a b l e because few p e o p l e pay a t t e n t i o n to the t r e m e n d o u s a m o u n t of soil that is e x p o s e d b e t w e e n plants. E v e n scientists assume that rangelands in such a state are "natural." B u t h u m a n s , rather than nature, created these landscapes w h e n h u m a n s learned to use fire and spear, eliminated m o s t of t h e wild grazers, and d o m e s t i c a t e d a few. Because so little a t t e n t i o n is paid to the a m o u n t of bare g r o u n d b e t w e e n plants, w h i c h adds u p to billions of acres in the world's m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , and because the a m o u n t ol evaporation this leads to is o f t e n i g n o r e d , I like to use a simple e x a m p l e to illustrate t h e i m p a c t this has o n t h e water cycle. I m a g i n e an area of rangeland in a m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t that receives a rainfall of o n e inch (25 m m ) per m o n t h over the n e x t three m o n t h s . T h e land is level and light regular showers p r o d u c e n o r u n o f f . In figure 1 2 - 2 we have an effective w a t e r cycle o n the l e f t . T h e soil is covered and plants have healthy roots and are plentiful. O n t h e right w e have a n o n e f f e c t i v e water cycle w h e r e there are fewer, less healthy plants and a great deal of bare soil b e t w e e n t h e m . Assume that the first i n c h (25 m m ) of rain has fallen and all t h e water in b o t h cases has soaked into the soil d o w n to level A. W e have an inch

Noneffective Water Cycle Soil surface runoff Soil surface evaporation Drought incidence Flood incidence Transpiration by plants Seepage to underground reservoirs Effectiveness of precipitation Figure 12-2

Effective and noneffective water cycles. Over three months, three rainfalls

of one inch (25 mm) each will wet soil layers all the way down to level C on the left where the water cycle is effective. The excess will trickle through decomposing rock fragments

to join underground supplies. In the noneffective water cycle on the right, most,

of the moisture will evaporate after each rainfall and will never wet soil layers deeper than level A. Ground

water will receive no recharge at all this season.

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(25 m m ) of w a t e r retained in t h e soil. O v e r t h e n e x t m o n t h w e receive n o f u r t h e r rain and t h e sun shines, t e m p e r a t u r e s are g o o d , a n d plants grow. O n the left they g r o w well, d r a w i n g o u t half an inch (12.5 m m ) of w a t e r in the process. N o f u r t h e r w a t e r losses take place, and by the e n d of the m o n t h half an i n c h (12.5 m m ) of w a t e r still remains in t h e soil. T h e plants o n t h e r i g h t have their roots in p o o r l y aerated soil because of the hard cap o n t h e soil surface and have n o t b e e n as productive. T h e y have g r o w n as well as they c o u l d , using a q u a r t e r inch (6.25 m m ) of water. Theoretically t h e n , t h r e e - q u a r t e r s of an inch (18.75 m m ) should r e m a i n at m o n t h ' s e n d . H o w e v e r , m o s t of t h e soil surface b e t w e e n t h e plants is exposed, and t h e sun shines and t h e w i n d blows directly o n it, t h o r o u g h l y d r y i n g t h e surface soil particles. T h e surface particles, directly in contact w i t h particles below, can take w a t e r f r o m t h e m , and they do. As sun and w i n d c o n t i n u e to dry t h e m , they draw yet m o r e w a t e r f r o m t h e particles below, w h i c h in t u r n draw m o i s t u r e f r o m t h e n e x t layer d o w n . A t m o n t h ' s end, m o s t of t h e w a t e r that t h e plants o n t h e right did n o t use has e v a p o rated t h r o u g h the soil surface. N o w c o m e s t h e s e c o n d inch (25 m m ) of soaking rain. O n t h e left it flows t h r o u g h particles already h o l d i n g w a t e r and penetrates to level B, so w e n o w have an inch and a half (37.5 m m ) in t h e soil. D u r i n g t h e n e x t m o n t h t h e plants g r o w well, again taking o u t half an i n c h (12.5 m m ) , but by m o n t h ' s e n d an inch (25 m m ) still remains. T h e w a t e r o n t h e r i g h t has soaked in, b u t t h e dry particles n e a r t h e surface retained m o s t of it, so it again only reaches level A. In t h e f o l l o w i n g m o n t h t h e plants again use a q u a r t e r inch (6.5 m m ) , a n d sun and w i n d d r y u p t h e rest as before. W h e n t h e same processes repeat after t h e third rain, the inch (25 m m ) of precipitation will p e n e t r a t e all the way to level C in t h e l e f t - h a n d p i c ture, and there the excess trickles t h r o u g h larger d e c o m p o s i n g rock f r a g m e n t s to j o i n u n d e r g r o u n d supplies a n d / o r eventually stream flow. T h e w a t e r o n t h e right has still n o t p u s h e d b e y o n d level A. G r o u n d w a t e r will receive n o recharge at all this season. T h e soil has only an i n c h (25 m m ) of w a t e r to carry plants t h r o u g h t h e l o n g dry season to follow a n d all of that will be lost s o o n t h r o u g h plant use and surface evaporation. G r o w t h could well e n d b e f o r e r e d u c e d t e m p e r a t u r e s limit it. In t h e foll o w i n g season, w h e n t e m p e r a t u r e s rise again, g r o w t h will have to await rainfall. P e o p l e a t t e m p t i n g to m a n a g e land such as this will say that " t h e rains aren't w h a t they used to be." T h e soil o n t h e left has almost t w o inches (50 m m ) of water in it at the start of t h e n o n g r o w i n g season. Plants will c o n t i n u e to g r o w until t e m p e r atures f a l l . T h e f o l l o w i n g year they will still have m o i s t u r e e n o u g h f o r an early start w h e n t h e w e a t h e r w a r m s , even t h o u g h rain may n o t fall for another month.

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I have deliberately d e v o t e d considerable space in this c h a p t e r to w a t e r cycles in the m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s simply because these e n v i r o n m e n t s cover t h e m a j o r i t y of the earth's land surface and they are characterized by n o n e f f e c t i v e w a t e r cycles. S o m e of the world's largest cities also lie in these e n v i r o n m e n t s and are rapidly r u n n i n g o u t of w a t e r because of n o n e f f e c t i v e w a t e r cycles o n t h e land s u r r o u n d i n g t h e m . T h e planners of o n e such city a t t e m p t e d to m a x i m i z e the a m o u n t of w a t e r that flowed into t h e dams supplying their city by e n c o u r a g i n g a high level of overgrazing in the dams' c a t c h m e n t area. T h e y rightly observed that by k e e p i n g vegetation off the hills m o r e water w o u l d r u n off into the dams. A n d so it did, c a r r y ing a large a m o u n t of silt w i t h it. B e f o r e t o o l o n g that silt is g o i n g to fill those dams and t h e city will lose its w a t e r supply altogether, as well as its d a m sites. T h i s p r o b l e m is an a n c i e n t one. T h e first large d a m ever built (by h u m a n s ) was located o n t h e Arabian peninsula n e a r t h e city of M a r i b , r e p u t e d l y m e n t i o n e d in the K o r a n as t h e original G a r d e n of E d e n . Built in 400 B.C., t h e d a m filled w i t h silt and burst. It was rebuilt in 2 0 0 B.C., but burst again s o o n after as t h e d a m bed was still full of silt. T h e remains of the d a m wall are still visible today and the silt b e h i n d it remains, t h e river that fed t h e d a m h a v i n g carved a d e e p c h a n n e l t h r o u g h it. D a m sites can really be used only once. So, b e f o r e w e m a k e use of t h e m w e s h o u l d first ensure that t h e w a t e r cycle in their c a t c h m e n t area is effective. Ironically, in t h e m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s n o n e f f e c t i v e w a t e r cycles so r e d u c e t h e a m o u n t of w a t e r available to cities that citizens d e m a n d dams b e built. A n d w e build t h e m , r e n d e r i n g t h e f e w available sites useless for f u t u r e generations w h o m i g h t in fact get b e y o n d o u r i g n o r a n c e and begin to p r o d u c e m o r e effective w a t e r cycles. T h e r e is m u c h that cities in these e n v i r o n m e n t s can and n e e d to d o to i m p r o v e t h e w a t e r cycle w i t h i n their city limits, as I'll cover later, b u t unless s o m e t h i n g is d o n e to put t h e w a t e r cycle right o n t h e land s u r r o u n d i n g t h e m , they are d o o m e d .

Consequences of a Noneffective Water Cycle To s u m m a r i z e , a n o n e f f e c t i v e w a t e r cycle results in t h e f o l l o w i n g to varyi n g degrees: •

Increased r u n o f f wherever the land slopes. M o r e water runs faster and carries m o r e silt.Trickles j o i n to f o r m rivulets, and these f o r m streams that lift rivers into full and damaging floods. Noneffective water cycles lead to increasingly frequent and severe floods.

•

Decreased water penetration and increased losses through evaporation that increase the frequency and severity of droughts, particu-

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larly in m o r e brittle environments. C o m m o n l y both scientists and lay people conclude that "the rains aren't what they used to be." •

Less forage or crop production on the land in all years, together with greater instability and fluctuation in forage/crop volume.

•

Slower plant growth rates in all conditions, which leads to reduced production.

•

Falling groundwater supplies; drying up of springs, bogs, and wells. P u m p i n g of groundwater that is not being replenished, of course adds to this problem.

•

Unstable rivers, prone to flash flooding and intermittent flow. Pools silt up.

•

Silted dams and eroding catchments.

•

Detrimental effects on the other ecosystem processes.

M a n y c o u n t r i e s have u n d e r t a k e n extensive e n g i n e e r i n g feats to overc o m e p r o b l e m s caused by n o n e f f e c t i v e w a t e r cycles. B u t n o extravagant t e c h n o l o g y will ever achieve w h a t simply p u t t i n g t h e w a t e r cycle right does at a traction of the cost. W h e n w e i n t e r v e n e w i t h o u r earth m o v i n g , w e are dealing w i t h w a t e r that has already started to flow. D a m s hold only a fraction of it. Likewise c o n t o u r ridges serve only to spill the w a t e r o n a m o r e gradual g r a d i e n t i n t o t h e drainage p a t t e r n . T h e " k e y l i n e " c o n t o u r i n g system d e v e l o p e d in Australia by Keith Y e o m a n s at least spills that w a t e r back toward the ridges to allow m o r e t i m e for it to soak in instead of leading it into the drainage and thus off the land. 1 Far b e t t e r than any of these i n t e r v e n t i o n s is to prevent t h e loss of w a t e r f r o m t h e land at the outset.

How Do You Recognize a Noneffective Water Cycle? T h e signs of a n o n e f f e c t i v e w a t e r cycle are basically identical across the brittleness scale, but most easily seen toward the very brittle e n d w h e r e n o n e f f e c t i v e w a t e r cycles are m o r e c o m m o n . O n conventionally m a n a g e d croplands, even in less brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , excessive soil exposure, b r e a k d o w n of organic m a t t e r and c r u m b structure, and a lack of diversity in r o o t structure and d e p t h c o m b i n e to p r o d u c e w a t e r cycles that are less effective than they should be. First and f o r e m o s t , get o u t and walk o n the land. T h e earliest possible warnings of a noneffective w a t e r cycle are evident o n the surface o n w h i c h the rain is g o i n g to fall.There is n o need for expensive g i m m i c k s or satellite p h o t o s to tell you w h e n things have g o n e w r o n g . Y o u w a n t the i n f o r m a t i o n early o n w h e n it is easier to correct the situation.

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W h e n you l o o k at t h e soil surface, get d o w n and l o o k b e t w e e n the plants at their bases. Is the soil bare or covered w i t h fallen plant material? Bare soil m e a n s that any rainfall received is g o i n g to be less effective than if the soil were covered. This will give you the first w a r n i n g . O t h e r signs include: •

Litter banks where litter has been washed and caught against vegetation.

•

Signs of water flow, such as rills, exposed grass roots sticking up into the air in the spaces b e t w e e n plants, silt deposits, coarse pebble layers left on the bare surface.

•

Rivers that once flowed all year n o w only flowing in periodic floods and not at all through the n o n g r o w i n g or dry seasons.

•

Water levels lowering in wells or springs drying up.

T h e e v i d e n c e of p o o r w a t e r cycles is so obvious in the m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s that m a n y people, perhaps m o s t people, assume that a p o o r w a t e r cycle is natural. In t h e m i d - 1 9 8 0 s scientists in Z i m b a b w e were puzzled w h e n their m e a s u r e m e n t s s h o w e d a 40 p e r c e n t increase in water flow over the Victoria Falls since 1948, w i t h n o c h a n g e in rainfall. H a v i n g d o n e s o m e of my early w o r k in t h e c a t c h m e n t areas of t h e Z a m b e z i River, w h i c h feeds t h e Falls, I have n o d o u b t that this was d u e to t h e d a m a g e d w a t e r cycle existing in those c a t c h m e n t s . S o m e years ago in Z i m b a b w e a r a n c h e r w h o had just received an award for " T h e Best M a n a g e d R a n c h of t h e Year" by the N a t u r a l R e sources Board asked m e for a second o p i n i o n as he wasn't sure that his ranch was really as g o o d as t h e officials said. T h e ranch was stocked at a very l o w level to avoid overgrazing and was b e i n g " m a i n t a i n e d as a grassl a n d " by the use of fire. I ran a n u m b e r of transects in the best grassland on the ranch. T h e s e s h o w e d that 97 p e r c e n t of the soil was bare a n d eroding. Because the bare g r o u n d lay b e t w e e n tall grass plants, w h i c h at a glance appeared to be a sea of healthy vegetation, it wasn't visible unless you l o o k e d d o w n and e x a m i n e d the soil surface itself. In a n o t h e r instance I was asked to assist a r a n c h e r in N a m i b i a w h o s e land was b e i n g e x p r o p r i a t e d by the g o v e r n m e n t of the day at w h a t he t h o u g h t was an unfair price. His land was b e i n g c o m p a r e d to a ranch that authorities claimed in c o u r t had n o trace of erosion a n d in fact was m a n aged to p e r f e c t i o n . C o u r t was a d j o u r n e d f o r m e to spend a day o n the p e r fectly m a n a g e d r a n c h taking r a n d o m m e a s u r e m e n t s and p h o t o g r a p h s . Bare and e r o d i n g soil d o m i n a t e d t h e g r o u n d b e t w e e n grass plants; 95 p e r c e n t of the perfectly m a n a g e d ranch was in fact bare g r o u n d . T h e s e cases are n o t unusual. I believe w e w o u l d find serious erosion

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a n y w h e r e in a m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t w h e r e land is either rested or m a n a g e d u n d e r p r o l o n g e d grazing w i t h animals at low n u m b e r s and w i d e l y scattered. W h a t o f t e n appears as a sea of grass has f o o l e d m a n y an observer i n t o t h i n k i n g all was well. Typically, rangelands in t h e w e s t e r n U n i t e d States are classified as b e i n g in " g o o d c o n d i t i o n , " even t h o u g h m o r e than 50 p e r c e n t o f the soil is bare.

Water Cycles in Cities T h e i m p o r t a n c e of w a t e r cycles does n o t apply o n l y to rangelands, c r o p lands, pastures, forests, and fisheries, b u t also to cities, industry, a n d all of h u m a n k i n d ' s activities that d e p e n d o n g o o d healthy water supplies f r o m healthy c a t c h m e n t s . U r b a n dwellers are generally u n a w a r e of the i m p o r tance o f an effective w a t e r cycle even w h e n forced to evacuate their h o m e s , schools, factories, a n d businesses as f l o o d w a t e r s swirl over valiant efforts to shore u p t h e banks of the local river. O r w h e n they face w a t e r r a t i o n i n g or ever-rising w a t e r bills. A p a r t f r o m the n e e d to b e c o n c e r n e d a b o u t the w a t e r cycle o n t h e land s u r r o u n d i n g their cities, u r b a n residents also must c o n c e r n themselves w i t h the w a t e r cycle w i t h i n their cities. Simply by increasing t h e effectiveness of t h e water cycle in u r b a n areas, w e can decrease t h e a m o u n t of w a t e r that has to b e t r a n s p o r t e d to t h e m , at great cost, a n d decrease the vast a m o u n t s of w a t e r that go to waste. L o o k d o w n o n m o s t cities as t h o u g h y o u w e r e a falling r a i n d r o p and you will find that a b o u t all y o u can land o n are i m p e r v i o u s roofs, pavements, and roads. E v e n t h e lawns w o u l d likely be chemically m a n i c u r e d biological deserts w i t h roots amassed in a f e w inches of topsoil and sterile subsoil below. Because there are so f e w places rain can soak into, t h e r u n o f f from cities is e x t r e m e l y high. A m i d - s i z e city spread over 50 square miles (130 square k m ) — a b o u t 7 miles (11 km) l o n g by 7 miles w i d e — w i l l have to deal w i t h 26 billion gallons (98 billion liters) of w a t e r if it receives 30 inches (762 m m ) of rain. Very little of this w a t e r is utilized w h e r e it falls, b u t rather is c h a n n e l e d into s t o r m sewers a n d e m p t i e d into lakes, streams, or wetlands. M u c h of this r u n o f f includes excessive a m o u n t s of toxic s u b stances—pesticides a n d o t h e r chemicals used in h o u s e h o l d s and gardens and stored o n vacant lots, in garbage d u m p s , or industrial yards.These c o n taminants are r e t u r n e d to us in t h e f o o d w e eat and s o m e t i m e s in t h e water w e d r i n k . R u n o f f f r o m u r b a n areas can also destabilize river banks, a d d i n g silt to the flow that damages towns, croplands, bridges, and o t h e r structures downstream. R a t h e r than take advantage of the precipitation that falls o n t h e city itself, city planners instead tap u n d e r g r o u n d sources or transport water f r o m dams, lakes, and rivers, w i t h little consideration of t h e l o n g - t e r m c o n -

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sequences or costs. I m a g i n e w h a t w o u l d h a p p e n if a city were to m a k e all building, road, and p a v e m e n t codes m e e t standards that m o r e closely i m i tated nature's w a t e r cycle. R o o f s , f o r example, could be c a t c h i n g w a t e r and r u n n i n g it i n t o cisterns for use in h o m e s and offices, thus saving billions of gallons f r o m b e i n g p u m p e d into the city at great cost. I o n c e had a h o m e on a small island in t h e West Indies w h e r e o u r only w a t e r supply was w h a t w e c o u l d catch off o u r r o o f and store in a cistern. T h e w a t e r k e p t beautifully year r o u n d , aided by frogs that helped to k e e p it clean. T h e w a t e r tasted b e t t e r than any I've ever had in a city. T h e air p o l l u t i o n in s o m e u r b a n areas m i g h t m a k e r o o f w a t e r u n d r i n k a b l e , b u t still useable as "gray water." Paving and road materials that allow t h e i m m e d i a t e p e n e t r a t i o n and a b s o r p t i o n of t h e w a t e r falling o n t h e m could be utilized. Porous c o n c r e t e blocks h o n e y c o m b e d w i t h gravel provide a highly p e r m e a b l e , nonslip s u r face that's b e i n g used o n s o m e city streets and w a l k w a y s . T h e r e are n u m e r ous alternatives. R o a d s and p a r k i n g lots c o u l d be periodically treated w i t h oil-eating bacteria so that less r u b b e r and oil are carried i n t o u n d e r g r o u n d aquifers and rivers. M a n y o t h e r strategies a n d t e c h n o l o g i e s exist o r are u n d e r d e v e l o p m e n t that w o u l d enable rain to soak in o r be utilized w h e r e it falls. In t h e e n d w e will be f o r c e d to m a k e use of t h e m to m i m i c n a t u r e in o u r cities. T h e s o o n e r w e learn to d o so, the better.

Conclusion In t e r m s of y o u r holistic goal, y o u can see w h y it is i m p o r t a n t to c o n s i d e r h o w the w a t e r cycle f u n c t i o n s o n the land s u r r o u n d i n g y o u r c o m m u nity, even w h e n you d o n o t m a n a g e that land yourself. If y o u r c o m m u n i t y , t o w n , or city is p r o n e to f l o o d i n g or w a t e r shortages, t h e w a t e r cycle is probably n o t f u n c t i o n i n g well o n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g land. H a v i n g read this chapter, y o u n o w k n o w w h a t land generally looks like w h e n t h e w a t e r cycle is f u n c t i o n i n g well. Bare g r o u n d is covered in vegetation, f o r instance, and rivers and streams r u n c l e a r — e v e n w h e n in f l o o d — b e c a u s e soil, rather than b e i n g carried into t h e m , stays w h e r e it f o r m s . If you are m a n a g i n g land, you will n e e d to describe h o w the w a t e r cycle m u s t f u n c t i o n o n it if you are to sustain t h e f o r m s of p r o d u c t i o n specified in y o u r holistic goal. In most cases, you will w a n t to describe w h a t t h e land looks like w h e n t h e w a t e r cycle is effective, and if you are m a n a g i n g larger tracts of land, will n e e d to i n c l u d e separate descriptions for the d i f ferent land types—croplands, rangelands, riparian areas, w o o d l a n d s , a n d so on. If you w a n t to m a i n t a i n a w e t l a n d e n v i r o n m e n t , you will in effect be describing a n o n e f f e c t i v e w a t e r cycle w h e r e soils r e m a i n waterlogged.

13 Community Dynamics: The Ever-Changing Patterns in the Development of Living Communities r o m the m o m e n t living organisms establish residence o n bare or recently disturbed soil, a rock, o r in a n e w l y f o r m e d p o o l of water, things are never the same again. C h a n g e begets c h a n g e as the organisms interact w i t h o n e a n o t h e r and w i t h their m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t (the e n v i r o n m e n t i m m e d i a t e l y s u r r o u n d i n g t h e m ) . Eventually a c o m p l e x c o m m u n i t y * m a d e u p of a great m a n y life f o r m s develops and f u n c t i o n s as a w h o l e in an apparently stable m a n n e r . O n c e any c o m m u n i t y has reached t h e highest level of d e v e l o p m e n t achievable in any e n v i r o n m e n t , be that e n v i r o n m e n t grassland, river, lake, coral reef, or forest, it can appear to r e m a i n in that stable state f o r m a n y years. H o w e v e r , closer inspection reveals a kaleidoscope of c h a n g i n g p a t terns even w i t h i n t h e m a t u r e c o m m u n i t y . Species c o m p o s i t i o n , n u m b e r s and age structure, as well as n u m e r o u s o t h e r factors are in a c o n s t a n t state of flux. Individual plants a n d animals are continually d y i n g and b e i n g replaced, and varying w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s p r o m o t e the w e l l - b e i n g of s o m e species and diminish that o f others. Because c o m m u n i t i e s r e m a i n d y n a m ic at every stage, w e refer to t h e process of their n e v e r - e n d i n g d e v e l o p m e n t as community dynamics. Precisely w h a t is taking place in any c o m m u n i t y at any o n e time is c u r rently b e y o n d h u m a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g and may always remain so. It is only relatively recently w i t h the i n v e n t i o n of h i g h - p o w e r electron microscopes, that u p to a billion o r m o r e organisms w e r e f o u n d to be present in a cubic inch o f soil o r a s p o o n f u l o f water. M o s t o f these organisms have n o t even

F

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b e e n n a m e d , and their relationships to o n e a n o t h e r and h o w they f u n c t i o n w i t h i n a c o m m u n i t y of organisms, w h i c h is far m o r e i m p o r t a n t , is barely u n d e r s t o o d and difficult to i m a g i n e . 1 In The Redesigned Forest, ecologist C h r i s M a s e r offers a glimpse of the c o m p l e x i t y i n h e r e n t in a n o r t h e r n t e m p e r a t e forest w h e n he describes a relationship that exists a m o n g squirrels, f u n g i , and trees. T h e squirrels feed o n t h e f u n g i , t h e n assist in their r e p r o d u c t i o n by d r o p p i n g fecal pellets c o n t a i n i n g viable fungal spores o n t o t h e forest floor. T h e r e n e w fungal colonies establish. Tree feeder roots search o u t the f u n g i and f o r m an association w i t h t h e m that enables t h e tree roots to increase their n u t r i e n t uptake. T h e f u n g i in t u r n derive sustenance f r o m t h e roots. 2 O f t h e f o u r ecosystem processes, c o m m u n i t y dynamics is t h e m o s t vital. W a t e r a n d minerals c a n n o t cycle effectively a n d solar energy c a n n o t flow t h r o u g h life unless plants of s o m e f o r m — a l g a e to trees—first convert s u n light to useable e n e r g y for life and cover t h e soil. For this reason it is imperative that w e learn to maintain healthy biological c o m m u n i t i e s w h e t h e r they be associated w i t h grasslands, forests, rivers, lakes, coral reefs, or oceans. A l t h o u g h w e still have m u c h to learn a b o u t t h e dynamics of living c o m m u n i t i e s , a f e w general principles have e m e r g e d based o n the w o r k of a great m a n y ecologists and o n the f o u r key insights. T h o s e m e n t i o n e d b e l o w d o n o t m a k e up a c o m p r e h e n s i v e list, b u t they are t h e ones that bear m o s t directly o n d a y - t o - d a y m a n a g e m e n t decisions. (My apologies to any ecologists o f f e n d e d by m y simplification of s o m e very c o m p l e x concepts.)

There Are No Hardy Species If w e take hardy to m e a n that an organism is able to w i t h s t a n d very adverse conditions, t h e n there are f e w hardy species. All living things are adapted to specific e n v i r o n m e n t s in w h i c h they can establish a n d thrive. E v e n t h o u g h w e may label a certain plant or animal " h a r d y " there is n o e v i d e n c e that it is. You m i g h t t h i n k that a teenager f r o m o n e of t h e t o u g h e s t n e i g h b o r h o o d s in C h i c a g o is hardy because h e thrives in an e n v i r o n m e n t of c r i m e , gangs, guns, and violence. B u t place h i m w i t h a h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r b u s h m a n family in t h e Kalahari desert and h e probably w o u l d n o t survive a season. Take a teenage b u s h m a n o u t of t h e Kalahari and place h i m in a four-star hotel w i t h h o t showers, television, a i r - c o n d i t i o n i n g , a n d three meals a day, and h e w o u l d fail to t h r i v e . T h e same applies to those so-called hardy plants that invade bare, baked, and cracked g r o u n d . T h a t is t h e envir o n m e n t that suits t h e m . If it was covered, d a m p , and cool, instead of b e i n g bare, baked and cracked, they w o u l d have difficulty establishing themselves. W h e n an organism establishes in a c o m m u n i t y , it will inevitably alter the m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t s u r r o u n d i n g it. E v e n t h o u g h t h e e n v i r o n m e n t may

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b e h o t a n d dry, for instance, an i n c o m i n g plant will create a little m o r e shade and h o l d a little m o r e d e w and that m i g h t m a k e t h e m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t hospitable f o r a n e w insect o r m i c r o o r g a n i s m , b o t h of w h i c h in t u r n subtly alter t h e m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t as well. T h e g e r m i n a t i n g and establishm e n t c o n d i t i o n s may eventually b e c o m e less favorable f o r that original plant a n d m o r e so f o r o t h e r plant species, w h i c h b e g i n to establish t h e m selves. As these n e w species c h a n g e t h e m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t , this c h a n g e influences t h e types of animals, birds, insects, and so o n that find this h a b i tat ideal, and their p o p u l a t i o n s c h a n g e t o o . T h u s , s o m e species increase and others decrease as t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e c o m m u n i t y and of t h e m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t m a k e it m o r e o r less suitable for t h e m over time.

Nonnative Species Have Their Place Biological c o m m u n i t i e s develop as w h o l e s over t i m e as n u m e r o u s species j o i n t h e m , interact w i t h and c h a n g e t h e m , a n d depart t h e m . B u t s o m e t i m e s c o m m u n i t i e s can b e altered catastrophically w i t h i n a short t i m e by t h e accidental o r deliberate i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a n e w species. W e see this m o s t noticeably o n islands, particularly w h e n t h e i n t r o d u c e d species are p r e d a tors or grazers. Cats, rats, goats, rabbits, m o n g o o s e s , snakes, a n d h u m a n s have all w r e a k e d havoc o n islands w h e r e they were let loose, a n d o n a n u m b e r of c o n t i n e n t s as well. M a n y species in the c o m m u n i t y , having n o defenses to ward off t h e i n t r o d u c e d p r e d a t o r or grazer are quickly killed o u t , and m a n y species that d e p e n d o n those species die o u t w i t h t h e m , leaving an i m p o v e r i s h e d c o m m u n i t y for years to c o m e . East Africa's Lake Victoria was w o n d e r f u l l y p r o d u c t i v e and stable until British colonists, h o p i n g to attract tourists t h r o u g h sport fishing, i n t r o d u c e d t h e N i l e p e r c h . T h i s h u g e , voracious p r e d a t o r spread to every c o r ner of t h e lake w i t h i n 20 years, s e n d i n g s o m e 3 5 0 species of native fish into a tailspin. Algae b e g a n to flourish in t h e s u n n y u p p e r waters as t h e fish that o n c e grazed it were c o n s u m e d by t h e p e r c h . As t h e algae died, it sank to the b o t t o m and rotted. T h e bacteria that decayed t h e algae used so m u c h o x y g e n in t h e process that b o t t o m waters b e c a m e u n i n h a b i t a b l e by fish a t t e m p t i n g to evade t h e p e r c h . E v e n m o r e fish species b e c a m e e x t i n c t . T h e p e o p l e w h o had fished the lake f r o m t i m e i m m e m o r i a l shifted their h a r vest f r o m native species to N i l e perch. B u t because t h e p e r c h w e r e t o o big and t o o oily to d r y in the sun, unlike t h e smaller native species, the p e o ple were f o r c e d to s m o k e the p e r c h over charcoal fires. To feed t h e fires, they cut d o w n m u c h of the s u r r o u n d i n g forest, e x t e n d i n g the ecological tragedy o u t of t h e water and u p t h e slopes a r o u n d t h e lake. 3 W i t h i n a m a t t e r of a f e w decades a o n c e - t h r i v i n g c o m m u n i t y was d e c imated, largely because of t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of a single species. G i v e n g e o -

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logical time, c o m m u n i t i e s such as this o n e w o u l d in all likelihood recover m u c h of t h e diversity and stability that o n c e characterized t h e m , a l t h o u g h t h e species c o m p o s i t i o n w o u l d u n d o u b t e d l y change. W e c a n n o t , however, afford to rely o n geological t i m e frames to heal o u r errors. F r o m such e x p e r i e n c e s w e k n o w today w h a t w e tragically did n o t k n o w w h e n w e first i n t r o d u c e d n e w species, i n c l u d i n g ourselves, to l o n g established c o m m u n i t i e s . T h a t is n o t to say that all i n t r o d u c t i o n s have b e e n catastrophic. O n t h e contrary, species appear to have b e e n i n t r o d u c e d successfully o n m a n y continents. O n e of the b e t t e r k n o w n was the h o n e y b e e i n t r o d u c e d f r o m E u r o p e to N o r t h A m e r i c a nearly 4 0 0 years ago. T h a t w e regard this bee as a b e n i g n i n t r o d u c t i o n m i g h t of c o u r s e be a reflection of our ignorance. A l t h o u g h I have f o c u s e d o n animal species, i n t r o d u c e d plant species have followed a similar course, t h o u g h those that have created havoc in the c o m m u n i t i e s to w h i c h they w e r e i n t r o d u c e d d o n ' t s e e m to be of a certain type (like predators). H u m a n s t e n d to refer to t h e m , however, as weeds. Successful plant i n t r o d u c t i o n s have in m a n y cases b e e n so successful that w e n o l o n g e r t h i n k of t h e m as n o n n a t i v e : c o r n f r o m S o u t h A m e r i c a has b e c o m e the staple of Africa and p o t a t o e s t h e staple of n o r t h e r n E u r o p e , and coffee f r o m E t h i o p i a and tea f r o m C h i n a have spread to every c o n t i n e n t o n w h i c h they can b e g r o w n . T h e n u m b e r of n e w species i n t r o d u c e d to long-established c o m m u n i ties by h u m a n s pales in c o m p a r i s o n to t h e species dispersed by nature. Plants, birds, and insects in particular have b e e n spreading a r o u n d the w o r l d u n a i d e d by h u m a n s f o r millions of years. O n c e any species establishes in a c o m m u n i t y t h e species b e c o m e s a part of it, a l t h o u g h the c o m m u n i t y always changes and over time t h e species itself can c h a n g e . If a n e w species causes m a j o r d i s r u p t i o n , t h e n it may take a very l o n g t i m e for t h e c o m m u n i t y to rebuild its f o r m e r c o m p l e x i t y a n d to stabilize. Fortunately, most i n t r o d u c e d species are either absorbed i n t o t h e c o m m u n i t y w i t h o u t m a j o r catastrophe o r die o u t altogether. I m e n t i o n these examples because there is today an u n h e a l t h y fixation o n n o n - n a t i v e species in t h e U n i t e d States that is rapidly spreading to o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . I believe t h e t e r m nonnative in m o s t instances is purely b u r e a u cratic, because those w h o use it assume that species that arrived after a specified date, o f t e n in the last century, d o n o t f u n c t i o n naturally in their n e w c o m m u n i t i e s a n d s h o u l d thus be destroyed at any cost. If a species arrived even shortly b e f o r e t h e specified date, it is o f t e n considered legitimate; after that date it is n o t h i n g less than an illegal i m m i g r a n t . S o m e animals, such as t h e elk of N o r t h A m e r i c a , pose p r o b l e m s for t h e classifiers. B e c a u s e t h e elk arrived o n this c o n t i n e n t at roughly the same time as t h e first h u m a n s , they are a c c o r d e d legal status, as are " N a t i v e " A m e r i c a n s . Yet

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horses, w h o s e ancestors w e r e present in N o r t h A m e r i c a p r i o r to t h e c o m ing of h u m a n s and w e r e probably killed o u t by t h e m , are n o w considered nonnative, or illegal, i m m i g r a n t s . O n c e an illegal i m m i g r a n t arrives it will, like t h e legal i m m i g r a n t , fill any v a c u u m nature or m o r e c o m m o n l y , m i s m a n a g e m e n t provides. In the U n i t e d States snakeweed, mesquite, sagebrush, cedar, a n u m b e r of rodents o r grasshoppers (all legal immigrants) may fill the v a c u u m just as successfully as k n a p w e e d , leafy spurge, a n d fire ants (all illegal i m m i g r a n t s ) . N o o n e has m a n a g e d to annihilate either the legal or illegal i m m i g r a n t s , despite the e x p e n d i t u r e of billions of dollars, n o r has this b e e n necessary. Laws have b e e n passed in various U.S. states that r e q u i r e l a n d o w n e r s to poison or o t h e r w i s e " c o n t r o l " s o m e of the n o n n a t i v e plant i m m i g r a n t s . If the l a n d o w n e r s refuse, t h e state will d o it for t h e m and send t h e m t h e bill, even w h e n t h e l a n d o w n e r s can p o i n t o u t that the species in q u e s t i o n is n o t causing any h a r m , is useful as forage for wildlife and livestock, provides g r o u n d cover, cycles nutrients, and generally plays n o t h i n g but a beneficial role. W i t h greater e n l i g h t e n m e n t those m a n a g i n g holistically are f i n d i n g a way to live productively w i t h b o t h legal and illegal i m m i g r a n t plant and animal species, all of w h i c h at o n e time or a n o t h e r w e r e " n o n n a t i v e . " T h e landscape y o u describe in y o u r f u t u r e resource base, w h e n you reach it, may still i n c l u d e i m m i g r a n t species y o u o n c e considered pests, b u t in r e d u c e d n u m b e r s , and likely as n o t in a beneficial role as they c o n t r i b u t e to the complexity, health, and diversity of t h e c o m m u n i t i e s they inhabit. N o n e o f w h a t I have said here is m e a n t to e n c o u r a g e the i n t r o d u c t i o n of n e w species, i n c l u d i n g genetically e n g i n e e r e d ones. W e are right, I believe, to d o o u r best to prevent t h e accidental i n t r o d u c t i o n of species to n e w areas. H o w e v e r , o n c e a species has established itself in a c o m m u n i t y , w e are better off m a n a g i n g for t h e health of the w h o l e c o m m u n i t y . I believe it is futile to spend the vast sums w e generally d o to try to eradicate it, particularly w h e n an i n t r o d u c e d species invades a m o n o c u l t u r e c o m m u n i t y , w h e r e it tends to b e c o m e v i r u l e n t . O u r m a i n o p t i o n t h e n is to d r e n c h the invader w i t h poisons that d a m a g e o t h e r soil life and f u r t h e r simplify the c o m m u n i t y , m a k i n g repeated treatments inevitable, as will b e c o m e clear shortly w h e n w e l o o k at t h e link b e t w e e n simplicity a n d instability in c o m m u n i t i e s .

Collaboration Is More Apparent Than Competition T h e r e is far m o r e collaboration than c o m p e t i t i o n in nature. W h a t I a m r e f e r r i n g to as collaboration m o s t scientists call symbiosis, t h e mutually b e n e ficial relationships that o c c u r a m o n g species in a c o m m u n i t y . T h e relation-

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ship a m o n g t h e squirrels, f u n g i , and trees m e n t i o n e d earlier is a g o o d e x a m p l e . T h e r e are m a n y others. For instance, there are apparently s o m e n i n e h u n d r e d species of figs in t h e world, and each is d e p e n d e n t o n a d i f ferent species of wasp for r e p r o d u c t i o n . Lichens, a m a r r i a g e of algae and f u n g i , are so b o u n d t o g e t h e r that for all practical p u r p o s e s we t h i n k of t h e m as o n e plant. O v e r t h e millennia in Africa a p a r t n e r s h i p has develo p e d b e t w e e n t w o h o n e y - e a t i n g species, h o n e y g u i d e birds and h u m a n s . O n e has t h e ability to locate beehives and t h e o t h e r to break t h e m o p e n . T h e bird signals the h u m a n , w h o has l e a r n e d to r e c o g n i z e its call and f o l lows it to the beehive. M a n y educators, based o n an oversimplification of D a r w i n ' s ideas, c o n tinue to p u s h c o m p e t i t i o n as t h e d r i v i n g force in nature, despite increasing e v i d e n c e to the contrary. Studies of island c o m m u n i t i e s , dating f r o m the earliest observations of D a r w i n a n d his c o n t e m p o r a r y , Alfred Wallace, have revealed that over t i m e the n e w species will develop f r o m existing species in an a t t e m p t to avoid c o m p e t i n g for the same ecological niche. Personally, after years of w o r k i n g on several c o n t i n e n t s , I have been unable to find any clear e v i d e n c e of c o m p e t i t i o n in nature. W h e r e p r o b l e m plants are said to be o u t c o m p e t i n g o t h e r plants and taking over, closer observation usually t u r n s u p e v i d e n c e that shows that m i s m a n a g e m e n t has created ideal c o n ditions for the establishment of t h e o f f e n d i n g plants, and less than ideal c o n d i t i o n s for m o r e favored plants. In m a n y cases m a n a g e m e n t had resulted in bare g r o u n d and t h e p r o b l e m plants w e r e merely establishing o n g r o u n d u n o c c u p i e d by any plants. B e i n g t h e only plants g r o w i n g o n the bare g r o u n d , however, they are automatically assumed to have caused the g r o u n d to b e c o m e bare. M a n y animals appear to c o m p e t e for f o o d , but that relationship is p r o b ably m o r e c o m p l e x than it seems. Wildlife are said to c o m p e t e w i t h livestock for forage, yet w h e n t h e same land is properly m a n a g e d w e find t h e r e is a b u n d a n t f o o d for all. Hyenas may take prey f r o m a lion w h e n u n d e r stress because of h u m a n i n t e r v e n t i o n (fences, fires, roads, and so on) and vice versa, b u t I have n o t seen that o c c u r w h e n the c o m m u n i t y was healthy and n e i t h e r species was stressed. S o m e birds do take over t h e nests of others or lay their eggs for u n w i t t i n g foster parents to h a t c h a n d raise, but b o t h t h e parent and foster parent species have c o n t i n u e d to thrive in m a n y places so s o m e t h i n g m o r e than c o m p e t i t i o n is at w o r k here. W h e n you v i e w c o m p e t i t i o n as t h e d r i v i n g force in nature y o u are c o m p e l l e d to take actions that may have ramifications y o u do n o t expect. T h e r a n c h e r w h o views the coyote, dingo, or jackal as a c o m p e t i t o r (for calves and lambs) and shoots t h e m o u t , may later find that t h e p r e d a t o r h e l p e d to keep small animal p o p u l a t i o n s in c h e c k . W i t h the p r e d a t o r gone, their n u m b e r s explode. In s o m e parts of Africa w h e r e w e believed c r o c o diles were c o m p e t i n g w i t h p e o p l e for fish, w e killed o u t the crocodiles b u t

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f o u n d t o o u r surprise that fish p o p u l a t i o n s t h e n p l u m m e t e d . W e n o w suspect that w h i l e y o u n g crocodiles fed o n insects, a m p h i b i a n s , and t h e n fish, crocodiles of older ages had all a l o n g b e e n limiting t h e n u m b e r s of fish predators. If y o u r paradigm is c o m p e t i t i o n , t h e n you t e n d to see c o m p e t i tion e v e r y w h e r e . B u t if you b e g i n to t h i n k in t e r m s of f u n c t i o n i n g w h o l e s , collaboration, and synergy, you i n t e r p r e t events differently.

Stability Tends to Increase with Increasing Complexity W h e n biological c o m m u n i t i e s are in t h e early stages of d e v e l o p m e n t or w h e n they have lost biodiversity* because o f natural catastrophe o r h u m a n actions, they are p r o n e to m a j o r fluctuations b o t h in the c o m p o s i t i o n of species a n d in their n u m b e r s . Disease outbreaks in plants, animals, and h u m a n s o c c u r m o r e frequently, as d o outbreaks of weeds, insects, birds, or rodents. T h i s instability o f t e n correlates w i t h w e a t h e r patterns. In a high-rainfall year a mass of annual plants may g e r m i n a t e ; in a low-rainfall year f e w plants may g e r m i n a t e at all. If t h e rains c o m e early in t h e g r o w i n g season o n e year, a particular w e e d may d o m i n a t e ; if they arrive later in t h e season the n e x t year, a n o t h e r w e e d may d o m i n a t e . Several seasons may go by w h e n rodents o r grasshoppers are not a p r o b l e m and t h e n in t h e next b e c o m e a terrible plague. A b o v e - a v e r a g e rainfall years tend to b e c o m e serious flood years; b e l o w - a v e r a g e rainfall years tend to b e c o m e serious d r o u g h t years. Inevitably w e b l a m e these c o n d i t i o n s o n t h e w e a t h e r , rather than a loss of biodiversity that has probably o c c u r r e d as t h e result of o u r management. T h e m o r e c o m p l e x and diverse c o m m u n i t i e s b e c o m e , the fewer t h e fluctuations in n u m b e r s w i t h i n p o p u l a t i o n s o f species, a n d the m o r e stable c o m m u n i t i e s t e n d to be. As t h e n u m b e r of species increases, so does the w e b of i n t e r d e p e n d e n c i e s a m o n g t h e m , as illustrated in figure 13-1. In b o t h h i g h e r and lower rainfall years, there are fewer outbreaks of any o n e species a n d lesser fluctuations in t h e mass of life, or biomass, present. A n e x c e p t i o n occurs in t h e t r u e deserts, w h e r e c o m m u n i t i e s may be simple, but because the w e a t h e r is consistently dry they appear remarkably stable. E v e n so, w h e n t h e desert does get rain, a mass of f l o w e r i n g annuals may suddenly appear or swarms of locusts may develop and take flight. W h e n grasslands in the m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s b e g i n to die o u t — usually t h r o u g h o v e r r e s t — s o m e argue that this is a case w h e r e increasing c o m p l e x i t y does not lead to stability. T h e y are i g n o r i n g of course a m a j o r

*Biodiversity is the diversity of plant and animal species—and of their genetic m a t e rial and the age structure of their p o p u l a t i o n s — w i t h i n a given c o m m u n i t y .

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F i g u r e 13-1 populations

DYNAMICSD

The more complex and diverse communities

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become, the more stable

within them tend to be.

c o m p o n e n t of that c o m p l e x i t y — t h e grazing animal species and their predators that have either b e c o m e extinct or r e m a i n in far fewer n u m b e r s . Scientists have l o n g believed that c o m p l e x i t y in a biological c o m m u nity leads to greater stability, a l t h o u g h they have had difficulty p r o v i n g it. In 1996, however, a g r o u p of researchers m a n a g e d to provide c o n v i n c i n g e v i d e n c e . T h e i r well-replicated field e x p e r i m e n t in the A m e r i c a n M i d w e s t , involving 147 grassland plots, established a significant c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n diversity of species, productivity, and stability. 4

Most of Nature's Wholes Function at the Community Level If w e consider t h e w o r l d to consist of, and f u n c t i o n as, w h o l e s w i t h i n w h o l e s , it helps us to u n d e r s t a n d certain i m p o r t a n t relationships. E a c h individual plant or animal is a w h o l e c o m p o s e d of billions of cells, each of w h i c h is itself a w h o l e . Individual plants or animals, in t u r n , b e l o n g n o t to a w h o l e p o p u l a t i o n , but to a w h o l e c o m m u n i t y c o m p o s e d of m a n y species. I m a k e this distinction because a population of any o n e species w o u l d n o t constitute an ecologically f u n c t i o n i n g w h o l e , a l t h o u g h w e o f t e n a t t e m p t to m a n a g e s o m e p o p u l a t i o n s as if they were. T h e m e m b e r s of any o n e species c a n n o t exist outside their relationship w i t h millions of o t h e r organisms of different species. T h e f u n d a m e n t a l i m p o r t a n c e of the w h o l e c o m m u n i t y , i n c l u d i n g the f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e f o u r ecosystem processes w i t h i n a n d s u r r o u n d i n g it, can t o o easily be o v e r l o o k e d w h e n w e focus o n rare, e n d a n g e r e d , or p r e f e r r e d species. S o m e rangelands are still classified as b e i n g in g o o d c o n d i t i o n if t h e " r i g h t " (useful to h u m a n s ) species are present. M a n y of those areas, h o w -

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ever, b e l o n g at t h e o t h e r e n d of t h e scale because so m a n y o t h e r species and so m u c h biomass have b e e n lost. In m a n y cases, t h e m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t at t h e soil surface has d e t e r i o r a t e d to such an e x t e n t that perennial grass species, a l t h o u g h still present, can r e p r o d u c e only asexually t h r o u g h surface r u n n e r stems or stolons ( u n d e r g r o u n d r u n n i n g stems). Plants establishing t h r o u g h r u n n e r s or stolons, rather than seeds, lack genetic diversity as they are m e r e l y clones of t h e m o t h e r plant. O u r inability to t h i n k in t e r m s of w h o l e c o m m u n i t i e s is reflected in o u r efforts to save rare and e n d a n g e r e d species t h r o u g h increasingly d r a c o n i a n laws that pay little h e e d to t h e biological (and h u m a n ) c o m m u n i ties that s u p p o r t these species. In a few cases w h e r e s l o w - b r e e d i n g , easily h u n t e d species, such as rhinos, are involved, these laws can serve as t e m p o rary B a n d - A i d s , b u t n o m o r e . O u r i g n o r a n c e is understandable, however, because it is based o n s o m e l o n g - s t a n d i n g beliefs and widespread m i s u n derstandings. W h e n I a t t e n d e d university in the m i d - 1 9 5 0 s , w e studied ecology strictly in terms of animal c o m m u n i t i e s o r plant c o m m u n i t i e s , but n o t as biological c o m m u n i t i e s . T h e separate disciplines of z o o l o g y and b o t a n y established to increase o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of n a t u r e had successfully divorced t w o o b v i o u s partners. Soils w e r e barely considered in t h e s c h e m e of things o t h e r than as a physical base to h o l d plants u p r i g h t . We n o w k n o w that biological c o m m u n i t i e s i n c l u d e all living o r g a n i s m s — f r o m the m o s t simple virus o r unicellular organisms to elephants, h u m a n s , trees, whales, and corals. This of c o u r s e includes t h e m i c r o s c o p i c w o r l d in o u r soils, w h e r e a c o m p l e x w e b of life dwells a m o n g d e c o m posing particles of rock, sand, clay, and " d e a d " organic material. A n d they include t h e near-invisible w o r l d of o u r a t m o s p h e r e as well. M a n y c o m p l e x and m u t u a l l y d e p e n d e n t relationships exist a m o n g all levels—below g r o u n d , above g r o u n d , and into t h e a t m o s p h e r e . S o m e scientists suggest w i t h g o o d e v i d e n c e that o u r w h o l e planet is a living organism that modifies t h e a t m o s p h e r e s u r r o u n d i n g it t h r o u g h t h e activity of biological c o m m u n i t i e s o n land and sea. T h e c o m p o s i t i o n of Earth's a t m o s p h e r e , o n w h i c h all life d e p e n d s , can c h a n g e gradually in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h Earth's life f o r m s as the two, life and e n v i r o n m e n t , i n f l u e n c e each other, but it c a n n o t c h a n g e rapidly w i t h o u t catastrophic c o n s e quences. Billions of years ago the very earliest c o m m u n i t i e s w o u l d have b e e n suited to a totally different e n v i r o n m e n t f r o m that of today, as there was little free o x y g e n until it was f o r m e d by living organisms. W e have r e m n a n t s of these earliest c o m m u n i t i e s in t h e anaerobic life f o r m s (those that d o n o t use oxygen), such as s o m e species of bacteria, w h i c h still exist in a variety of e n v i r o n m e n t s , i n c l u d i n g t h e stomachs of m a n y animals. In i g n o r a n c e over the last f e w t h o u s a n d years w e have overloaded o u r planet's respiratory system by greatly increasing o u r use of fire over w h a t

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o c c u r r e d naturally (before h u m a n s c o u l d light fires), and by c o n s u m i n g fossil fuels in massive a m o u n t s o n c e w e discovered h o w to exploit t h e m . In addition, over the last 5 0 , 0 0 0 o r so years w e have, t h r o u g h t h e d e c i m a tion of n u m e r o u s h e r d i n g species and their predators, greatly r e d u c e d the ability of the rangelands and savannas that cover so m u c h of the w o r l d to trap c a r b o n in plants and soils. O u r attempts to replace t h e role of the a n i mals w i t h fire, w h i c h started m a n y t h o u s a n d s of years ago and c o n t i n u e s today is, I believe, t h e m o s t p r o f o u n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l error w e have ever m a d e . O u r planet's ability to balance the gases in t h e air p o c k e t s u r r o u n d ing it t o o k billions of years to develop, and w e c a n n o t e x p e c t it to adapt to this relatively s u d d e n c h a n g e of circumstances w i t h o u t fairly dramatic w e a t h e r and climate changes. E v e n t h o u g h t h e emphasis here is o n w h o l e c o m m u n i t i e s (the collect i o n of organisms that exist in any locality), to be practical y o u can see that I o f t e n describe t h e e n v i r o n m e n t s they o c c u p y in t e r m s of t h e m o s t obvious plants, such as grassland or forest, f o r t h e obvious reason that vegetation is m o s t visible. This u n f o r t u n a t e l y fosters t h e m i s c o n c e p t i o n that plants, and s o m e t i m e s only certain plants at that, are m o r e i m p o r t a n t than t h e w h o l e . In reality the insects that pollinate the plants are j u s t as crucial to the survival of a c o m m u n i t y . So are m a n y u n s e e n species, as well as species that may visit only o n c e every f e w years.

Most Biological Activity Occurs Underground A n y changes b r o u g h t a b o u t above g r o u n d are likely to cause even greater c h a n g e s u n d e r g r o u n d , simply because there is generally m o r e life u n d e r g r o u n d than above g r o u n d . Figures vary w i d e l y w i t h different soils, b u t o n average, u p p e r soil layers contain 7.75 tons of microorganisms, such as b a c teria, f u n g i , e a r t h w o r m s , mites, n e m a t o d e s , or p r o t o z o a , per acre (17.5 m e t ric tons per hectare). T h e richest soils can contain u p to fifteen tons of m i c r o o r g a n i s m s p e r acre (33 m e t r i c tons p e r hectare). 5 H e a l t h y E u r o p e a n pastures c a r r y i n g large n u m b e r s of cattle have b e e n calculated to contain e a r t h w o r m p o p u l a t i o n s alone that are d o u b l e the w e i g h t of t h e cattle. 6 Plant roots also c o n t r i b u t e to the biomass u n d e r g r o u n d . T h e roots f r o m a single tallgrass plant in the A m e r i c a n prairie c o n t i n u e d o w n w a r d for a n y w h e r e f r o m 12 to 20 feet (4 to 6 meters), spreading t h r o u g h an area the size and shape of a tepee. If placed e n d to e n d , they w o u l d r u n for miles, w i t h t h e roots of o n e tallgrass plant d e v e l o p i n g as m a n y as 14 billion fine r o o t hairs. Scientists estimate that a full 7 5 t o 85 p e r c e n t of t h e prairie's biomass is u n d e r g r o u n d . 7 E v e n w h e n as m a n y as 60 million bison may have r o a m e d the prairies, and millions m o r e elk, deer, and p r o n g h o r n , the u n d e r g r o u n d organisms w o u l d likely have o u t w e i g h e d t h e m by a c o n s i d erable a m o u n t .

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K n o w i n g that so m u c h life exists b e l o w t h e soil surface, y o u b e g i n to u n d e r s t a n d that if by excess c o m p a c t i o n of t h e soil, e x p o s u r e and c a p p i n g of t h e soil, i n a d e q u a t e drainage, fertilization, pesticide p o i s o n i n g , o r any o t h e r action, y o u alter t h e u n d e r g r o u n d c o m m u n i t y , c h a n g e will inevitably follow above g r o u n d . M y e x p e r i m e n t w i t h t h e cabbages m e n t i o n e d in C h a p t e r 12 is a g o o d e x a m p l e . T h e cabbages planted o n t h e ridges w h e r e t h e soil was well aerated g r e w to an e n o r m o u s size, w h i l e those planted in t h e f u r r o w s , w h e r e the soil r e m a i n e d w a t e r l o g g e d for several days f o l l o w i n g each irrigation, w e r e small a n d stunted.

Change Generally Occurs in Successional Stages T h e process of c h a n g e in biological c o m m u n i t i e s f r o m bare rock o r n e w p o o l to m a t u r e grassland, forest, o r lake is a gradual, o f t e n staggered, b u i l d u p of species diversity and biomass a l o n g w i t h changes in the m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t . I like to c o m p a r e this m o v e m e n t f r o m simplicity to ever increasing c o m p l e x i t y to a coiled spring, w h i c h , w h e n e v e r pressed d o w n by h u m a n i n t e r v e n t i o n o r natural catastrophe, will, by its nature, r e b o u n d as s o o n as t h e pressure is taken away. T h u s grass reclaims old b a t tlefields. J u n g l e climbs the slopes of d o r m a n t volcanoes. A n d weeds invade fallow g r o u n d . T h i s relatively orderly process of c h a n g e has b e e n given the n a m e o f succession. T h e w o r d e n t e r e d the vocabulary of science t h r o u g h the w o r k of botanists w h o observed that disturbed areas revegetated in successional s t a g e s — f r o m bare g r o u n d to simple a l g a e / l i c h e n / m o s s , to grasslands, brushlands, and forest. Later insight t o o k a c c o u n t o f t h e fact that plants c a n n o t exist in isolation, and thus w e n o w t h i n k of succession in t e r m s of entire c o m m u n i t i e s . A simple u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the basic idea of succession is easy to grasp if y o u visualize it in process o n a tropical island lava flow. A f t e r t h e lava has c o o l e d a n d h a r d e n e d , its surface remains a very harsh m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t . In rain it is v e r y wet, m i n u t e s later it is e x t r e m e l y dry. A t d a w n it m a y be quite cold, b u t by m i d d a y t o o h o t to t o u c h . O n l y a f e w species find an e n v i r o n m e n t of such e x t r e m e s ideal, and thus initially establish. O t h e r species will try a n d fail. T h e m o b i l e ones will m e r e l y pass by. W i t h o u t soil, only algae, lichens, and m i n u t e organisms d e p e n d e n t o n t h e m , will establish. T h e m o m e n t they do, however, the m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t b e c o m e s different. T h e m e a g e r collection of life will h o l d m o i s t u r e a bit l o n g e r and r e d u c e the daily t e m p e r a t u r e range ever so slightly, a n d m o i s ture retained at t h e surface will n o w have time to b e g i n dissolving the rock. W h e n a f e w fine particles of dust catch o n the algae a n d lichens, moss and o t h e r organisms are able to establish a n d t h e creation of simple soil has begun. Gradually o t h e r organisms j o i n the c o m m u n i t y as the m i c r o e n v i r o n -

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m e n t begins to favor t h e m and their offspring. T h e y f u r t h e r c h a n g e t h e m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t . Succession accelerates. M o i s t u r e is retained longer. T h a t breaks d o w n t h e parent rock faster to j o i n w i t h living organisms in f o r m i n g yet m o r e soil. A n y w h e r e physical w e a t h e r i n g cracks t h e surface, t h e process speeds up in t h e m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t of t h e crack, w h i c h in t u r n affects t h e i m m e d i a t e n e i g h b o r h o o d . C o m p l e x i t y , productivity, and stability increase, and t h e m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t changes until s o m e t h i n g limits the successional process, typically clim a t e or s o m e o b s t r u c t i o n to f u r t h e r soil f o r m a t i o n . A subsurface rock layer, for e x a m p l e , m i g h t cause a patch of g r o u n d to r e m a i n at t h e grassland level. O t h e r w i s e , the lava of t h e tropical volcano will eventually advance to a rain forest c o m m u n i t y c o m p l e t e w i t h its soil and the millions of organisms f o r m i n g the w h o l e forest c o m p l e x . E l s e w h e r e d r y seasons, hard w i n t e r s , limited sunlight, and t h e p a t t e r n a n d v o l u m e of precipitation will d e f i n e t h e k i n d of landscape u n f e t t e r e d succession can p r o d u c e . B u t w h e t h e r the o u t c o m e be j u n g l e , desert, savanna, healthy p r o d u c t i v e lake, o r coral reef, t h e c o m m u n i t y is always d y n a m i c as deaths, decay, a n d rebirth foster o n g o i n g c h a n g e w i t h i n it. T h e full implications of succession b e c o m e clearer t h r o u g h an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of p o p u l a t i o n dynamics at various successional l e v e l s — w h e n d o certain species thrive, in w h a t n u m b e r s , and w h y ? Typically a particular species will b e g i n to appear and its p o p u l a t i o n to build u p as its r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r establishment w i t h i n the c o m m u n i t y are m e t . T h e c o m m u n i t y will be m a d e of p o p u l a t i o n s of m a n y o t h e r species, each w i t h specific r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r their survival and each w i t h specific c o n t r i b u t i o n s to t h e e v e r - e v o l v i n g c o m m u n i t y . T h e s e p o p u l a t i o n s will t e n d to build in n u m b e r s as their r e q u i r e m e n t s b e c o m e o p t i m i z e d t h r o u g h t h e changes in the m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t b r o u g h t o n by t h e g r o w t h of t h e w h o l e c o m m u n i t y . B u t as t h e c o m m u n i t y advances, a p o p u l a t i o n m a y find its r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r successful r e p r o d u c t i o n are n o l o n g e r ideal. It will decline in n u m b e r s a n d may even disappear as t h e successional process advances b e y o n d it. T h e range of c o n d i t i o n s that are favorable to any o n e species varies greatly. T h e eland a n t e l o p e of Africa, f o r instance, can thrive f r o m the s n o w l i n e to t h e deserts, w h i l e m a n y o t h e r A f r i c a n a n t e l o p e species are restricted to areas w i t h specific vegetation patterns. E l e p h a n t s o r cattle can feed across a very w i d e range of plants, b u t koalas apparently derive n o u r i s h m e n t only f r o m t h e leaves of a f e w species of eucalyptus tree.

Defying

Succession

Succession is never a s m o o t h o r straightforward progression f r o m s i m plicity to complexity. S o m e species appear to actively try to m a i n t a i n their o w n ideal e n v i r o n m e n t against t h e t e n d e n c y of succession to advance t h e

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c o m n u m i t y b e y o n d it. O t h e r s have d e v e l o p e d adaptations that limit t h e success of species that graze, browse, o r prey o n t h e m . Prairie dogs create o p e n c o u n t r y a r o u n d their t o w n s to m a k e their predators m o r e visible. C e r t a i n harvester termites maintain o p e n g r o u n d , and thus a r e d u c e d w a t e r cycle and l o w successional c o m m u n i t y , a r o u n d their m o u n d s . M a n y creatures have d e v e l o p e d skin, coats, o r feathers that c a m o u f l a g e t h e m , m i m i c o t h e r m o r e d a n g e r o u s o r p o i s o n o u s species, o r e x u d e chemicals that p r o d u c e a foul smell o r bitter taste. S o m e grasses are said to e x u d e chemicals f r o m their roots to prevent w o o d y plants f r o m establishing nearby, and s o m e w o o d y plants allegedly d o t h e same. S o m e w o o d y plants, w h e n b r o w s e d , send chemical messages to their n e i g h b o r s w h o release repellents to ward off the b r o w s i n g animal. O t h e r w o o d y plants have spines o r t h o r n s to r e d u c e browsing. A n d b o t h grasses and w o o d y species can develop a h e d g e d f o r m to p r o t e c t themselves f r o m grazing o r b r o w s i n g animals. O f c o u r s e w e h u m a n s , w h o have l e a r n e d to m o d i f y o u r e n v i r o n m e n t and behaviors to m a i n t a i n h i g h e r n u m b e r s of o u r o w n species, provide o n e of the best, b u t least successful, examples of selfp r e s e r v a t i o n because in d o i n g so, unlike o t h e r animals, w e destroy o u r environment. O t h e r cases are m o r e subtle. For example, algae, lichen, and moss in m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s are o f t e n t h e last plant life left in a d e t e r i o r a t i n g biological c o m m u n i t y , even t h o u g h thousands of years ago they w e r e p r o b ably t h e first life to establish in that c o m m u n i t y . O n c e they encrust soil s u r faces in t h e m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , succession stagnates unless the crust is b r o k e n o n a large e n o u g h scale. O n c e it is, o t h e r species will b e g i n to establish and succession advances o n c e m o r e . In less brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s b r e a k i n g t h e crust is generally n o t necessary, o t h e r than o n croplands. Succession will advance of its o w n accord in reasonable time. In several national parks and m o n u m e n t s in the w e s t e r n U n i t e d States signs have b e e n posted i n f o r m i n g the public of the value of these "early successional" algal c r u s t s . T h e y explain that t h e crust protects t h e soil, p r o vides n i t r o g e n , a n d creates r o u g h surfaces o n w h i c h grasses a n d o t h e r plants can establish, as long as the crust remains undisturbed. T h i s is t r u e in less b r i t tle e n v i r o n m e n t s , as m e n t i o n e d , b u t n o t in very brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , as these are. N o t surprisingly, because of t h e p r o t e c t i o n these areas have received (large animals have n o t disturbed the crust for close to a c e n t u r y in s o m e parks), it is t h e lack of grass plants and m o r e c o m p l e x c o m m u n i ties that is m o s t obvious. (See p h o t o 13-1.) T h a t t h e park officials subconsciously question their o w n w i s d o m is illustrated by their attempts to assist grasses to establish by placing a wood—wool m u l c h encased in n y l o n n e t t i n g over certain areas, as s h o w n in p h o t o 13-2. Surely, if these crusts w e r e early successional, by their reas o n i n g plants should b e able to g r o w o n t h e m u n a i d e d by h u m a n s .

P h o t o 13-1

Typical rested soil surface dominated

by freezing and thawing. Natural

P h o t o 13-2

Bridges National

by algae and lichens and Park,

Unsuccessful attempt to get grass established with nylon netting and

woodwool as litter. Dead sticks are holding down netting (not visible). National

Park,

roughened

Utah.

Utah.

Canyoiilands

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H o w e v e r , a year later all you can see are t h e oxidizing remains of t h e m u l c h . T h e h o p e d - f o r grass c o m m u n i t i e s have n o t even b e g u n to develop, n o r will they until t h e artificial h u m a n - m a d e c o n c e p t of rest in such envir o n m e n t s is r e m o v e d a n d t h e soil surfaces periodically disturbed and sufficiently c o m p a c t e d to provide seed-to-soil c o n t a c t .

Succession

and the Brittleness

Scale

In very brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s t h e m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t o n exposed soil s u r faces is subject to such daily a n d seasonal e x t r e m e s that t h e successional process starts w i t h the greatest difficulty. O n s m o o t h surfaces that are steeply sloped or vertical, the process m i g h t never get b e y o n d frail algal c o m m u n i t i e s that are easily lost as a result of t h e physical action of rain, hail, w i n d , a n d animal life, o r t h e m o v e m e n t of e r o d i n g soil. T h i s is w h y t h e walls of t h e G r a n d C a n y o n c a n n o t really stabilize w i t h h i g h e r c o m munities, a l t h o u g h s o m e plants a n d animals establish in o d d niches. In t h e m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , the process starts m o r e easily o n soil covered by old m a t e r i a l and o n g r o u n d cracked by w e a t h e r i n g o r b r o k e n by t h e physical i m p a c t of animals, o r m a c h i n e r y that " c h i p s " t h e surface. In b o t h cases a b e t t e r m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t results, w i t h t w o notable exceptions. If fallen material all lies in o n e direction, as in the case of l o d g e d w h e a t , grass, o r p i n e needles, it suppresses plant g r o w t h . T h e reason is n o t yet well u n d e r s t o o d , a l t h o u g h f a r m e r s have l o n g k n o w n that a straw m u l c h has to be scattered to be effective. O n rangelands s n o w a n d w i n d will lay old, m o r i b u n d b u n c h grass in o n e direction, suppressing g r o w t h . Hail a n d a n i mal i m p a c t tend to scatter it, e n c o u r a g i n g g r o w t h . In forests a c a r p e t of u n d i s t u r b e d p i n e needles m a y suppress plant g r o w t h . B u t n e w plants establish w h e n animal i m p a c t (or s o m e o t h e r action) disturbs t h e p i n e needles. E a r t h w o r m s and a variety of insects help disturb d e e p litter surfaces. Turkeys, g u i n e a f o w l , o r b a b o o n s o f t e n d o so extensively. T h e o t h e r e x c e p t i o n c o n c e r n s areas outside t h e tropics w h e r e certain soils b e c o m e p u f f y and soft f r o m alternate f r e e z i n g and t h a w i n g . As p h o t o 13-1 shows, they m a y have very b r o k e n and r o u g h surfaces, and yet s u c cession does n o t progress easily d u e to lack of soil c o m p a c t i o n . P h o t o 1 3 - 3 shows b r o k e n , cracked, b u t very puffy, soil that has b e e n heaved and b r o ken by freezing and t h a w i n g b u t has n o t b e e n c o m p a c t e d by any physical disturbance. T h e plants t r y i n g to establish are t a p - r o o t e d forbs, considered weeds, and strongly associated w i t h cracks as establishment sites. N o t a single grass seedling can b e f o u n d , a l t h o u g h millions of seeds w e r e p r o d u c e d locally. P h o t o 1 3 - 4 is t h e same soil o n t h e same day five paces away, b u t across a f e n c e w h e r e cattle milling a r o u n d have b r o k e n t h e surface and firmed up, or c o m p a c t e d , t h e g r o u n d s o m e w h a t . T h o u s a n d s of n e w plants have s p r o u t e d , all of t h e m perennial grasses. T h i s is a low-rainfall (9

P h o t o 13-3

Broken, cracked, but very puffy soil (due to freezing

and thawing)

that

has not been compacted by any physical disturbance. The plants trying to establish are taprooted forbs, considered weeds, strongly associated with cracks as establishment grass seedlings have been able to establish. New

P h o t o 13-4

sites. No

Mexico.

The same soil on the same day fwe paces away, but across a fence where milling cattle have broken the surface and firmed up, or compacted, the ground somewhat. Thousands of new plants have sprouted, almost all of them perennial grasses. New Mexico.

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ALL

i n c h / 2 2 5 m m ) area w h e r e n o t h i n g but grass c o u l d g r o w densely e n o u g h to stabilize the soil. Such examples highlight o n c e m o r e the n e e d for v i e w i n g the c o m m u nity as a w h o l e . M a n a g i n g plants or animals in isolation is meaningless and, as in this case, likely to be d a m a g i n g . A n y brittle e n v i r o n m e n t c o m m u n i t y that lacks large g r a z i n g animals is unlikely to be able to develop to its o p t i m u m level of c o m p l e x i t y and stability. T h e presence of g r a z i n g animals will be necessary if w e are to facilitate t h e healing of the world's h u m a n - m a d e deserts. By contrast, in n o n b r i t t l e e n v i r o n m e n t s succession starts w i t h ease f r o m any bare surface and plants will establish even o n vertical s l o p e s . T h e n a t u r e and distribution of t e m p e r a t u r e and h u m i d i t y allow t h e rapid advance of succession nearly a n y w h e r e w i t h o u t the aid of s o m e physical disturbance. It will start on the back of a s h o w e r curtain, the a b a n d o n e d bicycle seat in the garage, o r t h e clapboards of t h e house. P h o t o 13-5 shows a o n c e - s m o o t h c o n c r e t e m a n t l e p i e c e w h e r e a c o m m u n i t y rapidly d e v e l o p e d to t h e p o i n t of s u p p o r t i n g perennial grass, o b v i ously w i t h o u t b e n e f i t of disturbance f r o m fire, machinery, or h e r d i n g animals. I have even seen succession start w i t h i n a few w e e k s f r o m algae on the sloping glass of a g r e e n h o u s e w i n d o w in the English c o u n t r y s i d e . In a m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t t h e glass w o u l d remain bare for years, perhaps forever.

P h o t o 13-5 environment.

Community

Oregon.

establishing on a concrete mantlepiece in a less brittle

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In e n v i r o n m e n t s leaning toward the n o n b r i t t l e e n d of t h e scale it is hard to stop t h e rise of succession. T h e coiled spring is p o w e r f u l and hard to h o l d d o w n . C l e a r a j u n g l e or rest a pasture and w a t c h h o w fast t h e c o m m u n i t y regains complexity. If a j u n g l e has b e e n cleared for f a r m i n g a n d the soil s t r u c t u r e and fertility destroyed o r badly d a m a g e d , as past civilizations did in such areas, t h e r e t u r n to full c o m p l e x i t y as j u n g l e may take decades, b u t t h e successional advance f r o m bare to covered soil will p r o c e e d very fast i n d e e d . T h e successional process in n o n b r i t t l e e n v i r o n m e n t s is highly resilient to p e r i o d i c drastic disturbances, be they w e a t h e r or h u m a n i n d u c e d . T h e coiled spring e x p a n d s w i t h such force. W i t h o u t m a j o r disturbance, the c o m m u n i t y retains great stability w h i l e m i n o r fluctuations in p o p u l a t i o n s w i t h i n it c o n t i n u e to occur.

Community Dynamics and Management O b v i o u s l y an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of c o m m u n i t y dynamics o p e n s all kinds of possibilities f o r b e t t e r m a n a g e m e n t of land, water, a n d all life. In the Holistic M a n a g e m e n t m o d e l (figure 7 - 1 o n p. 51) a d o t t e d line s u r r o u n d s b o t h the ecosystem process C o m m u n i t y D y n a m i c s a n d the tool Living O r g a n i s m s to indicate that they are in fact the same thing. All life is s u c cessional and d y n a m i c , and t h e r e f o r e the f u t u r e resource base described in a holistic goal revolves a r o u n d c o m m u n i t y dynamics. O u r f o o d c o m e s f r o m living organisms a n d so d o m o s t of o u r diseases. O u r landscapes include living organisms. B u t to date w e have t o o o f t e n m a n a g e d living organisms in i g n o r a n c e of t h e c o m m u n i t y as a w h o l e . If w e c o n t i n u e to i g n o r e it, w e will e n d a n g e r all higher life forms. If you seek profit f r o m livestock or g a m e , you may w a n t a landscape that includes p r o d u c t i v e grassland. In o n e case that may m e a n advancing succession f r o m desert scrub. In a n o t h e r it may m e a n p r e v e n t i n g your pastures f r o m r e t u r n i n g to forest. E i t h e r way, certain plants, insects, predators, and o t h e r f o r m s of life may b e c o m e either allies or foes, d e p e n d i n g o n h o w you u n d e r s t a n d their place in succession. If y o u wish to favor a s p e c i e s — g a m e animal, plant, reptile, insect, or b i r d — t h e n y o u must direct t h e successional m o v e m e n t of the c o m m u n i t y toward the o p t i m u m e n v i r o n m e n t for that species, n o t by automatically i n t e r v e n i n g w i t h s o m e t e c h n o l o g i c a l tool, b u t by a p p l y i n g w h a t e v e r tools p r o d u c e an e n v i r o n m e n t in w h i c h that species thrives. Simply p r o t e c t i n g the species, desirable as that m i g h t be, will n o t save it, a l t h o u g h p r o t e c t i o n may be a necessary i n t e r i m step. If you start w i t h a landscape that contains p r o b l e m n u m b e r s of an u n d e sirable species, t h e f u t u r e landscape in y o u r holistic goal will specify a c o m m u n i t y that is less than ideal for that species and m o r e suited to w h a t you w a n t to p r o d u c e . T o achieve this in practical t e r m s you will need to k n o w

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ALL

s o m e t h i n g of t h e basic biology of t h e species. W h a t stage in t h e life cycle of t h e o r g a n i s m is its weakest point? W h a t precise c o n d i t i o n s does it require to survive at that weakest p o i n t ? A little effort toward p r o v i d i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c o n d i t i o n s at that p o i n t will greatly i n f l u e n c e w h e t h e r t h e p o p u l a t i o n of that species increases or decreases. As m e n t i o n e d in C h a p t e r 4, in Z i m b a b w e w e eradicated big g a m e f r o m tsetse fly areas to d e n y t h e fly its source of b l o o d f o o d . To aid t h e h u n t e r s , w e b u r n e d t h e b r u s h . T h a t , however, e x p o s e d soil, d a m a g e d t h e w a t e r cycle, and greatly increased t h e fly's egg laying sites. W i t h decreased b l o o d supplies, b u t increased egg laying sites and r e d u c e d e n e m i e s (by spraying D D T ) , t h e tsetse flies advanced r i g h t t h r o u g h t h e h u n t i n g areas designed to stop t h e m . T h e y c o n t i n u e to advance to this day as t h e c o n d i t i o n s for the fly's survival at t h e weakest p o i n t in its life cycle have c o n t i n u e d to be m e t . Similarly, for t h e grasshopper that lays its eggs in bare g r o u n d and requires a dry, w a r m , soil for their survival, d a m a g e d w a t e r cycles ensure h i g h e r b r e e d i n g success than p o o r w e a t h e r alone c o u l d . H o w m a n y e n t o mologists, however, consider t h e effectiveness of t h e w a t e r cycle in their predictions? It is partly because this principle is n o t u n d e r s t o o d that insect d a m a g e to A m e r i c a n crops has d o u b l e d since t h e massive use of pesticides b e g a n in t h e late 1940s. 8 T h e m o r e chemicals are used, t h e simpler t h e c o m m u n i t y b e c o m e s a n d t h e greater t h e t e n d e n c y f o r outbreaks of p r o b l e m species. W h e n a f e w f a s t - b r e e d i n g organisms develop an i m m u n i t y to pesticides, t h e p r o b l e m is m a d e m u c h worse. It is c o m p o u n d e d w h e n t h e f r e q u e n c y of g o o d b r e e d i n g seasons is increased by t h e creation of a less effective water cycle. In s e e k i n g to increase or to decrease certain species, you must n o t fall into t h e trap of s e e k i n g a m o n o c u l t u r e of w h a t e v e r plant appears m o s t beneficial. E v e n if y o u w a n t a less than m a x i m u m advance in succession, as in t h e case of a pasture in a less brittle e n v i r o n m e n t that c o u l d advance to forest, you will probably n e e d complexity. To achieve a m o n o c u l t u r e of y o u r favorite perennial grass w o u l d p r o b a b l y require large-scale t e c h nological i n t e r v e n t i o n . This in t u r n w o u l d r e d u c e soil c o m m u n i t i e s to a level that w o u l d n o t allow y o u r grass to r e p r o d u c e w i t h o u t constant t e c h nological s u p p o r t . M o d e r n range science has given us m a n y examples of this. A successful a p p r o a c h to m a n a g e m e n t s h o u l d rest o n t h e c o n c e p t of t h e coiled spring. B y nature succession moves u p w a r d , as does t h e coiled spring, toward greater stability and complexity. All p r o l o n g e d d o w n w a r d shifts, o r compressions in the spring, that I have e x p e r i e n c e d — a n d they are m a n y o n five c o n t i n e n t s — c o u l d b e traced to h u m a n i n t e r v e n t i o n in t h e process by t h e p u r p o s e f u l or accidental application of o n e or o t h e r of t h e tools listed in t h e tools r o w of t h e Holistic M a n a g e m e n t m o d e l . T h e m o m e n t

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w e r e d u c e o r cease that pressure o n the spring, it r e b o u n d s , and t h e c o m m u n i t y gradually regains its c o m p l e x i t y and stability. T h i s is a very i m p o r t a n t p r i n c i p l e as w e c u r r e n t l y spend billions of d o l lars annually w o r l d w i d e o n actions that compress t h e s p r i n g w h i l e chasing objectives that small advances in succession c o u l d p r o d u c e . A t t e m p t s to eradicate a so-called pest plant o r animal species w i t h traps, guns, o r p o i s o n generally symbolize o u r t e n d e n c y to ignore the force of succession and deal only w i t h its effects. T h e o r e t i c a l l y these direct measures c o u l d occasionally w o r k if o u r i n t e r v e n t i o n did n o t h i n g to o t h e r species, b u t that rarely happens. M o s t i n t e r v e n t i o n compresses the w h o l e s p r i n g by d a m a g i n g m a n y species, w h e n a real solution d e p e n d s o n letting the s p r i n g expand. S o m e f l u c t u a t i o n of species is natural w i t h i n a c o m m u n i t y , especially a m o n g short-lived organisms w i t h high r e p r o d u c t i v e rates, w h i c h o f t e n characterize l o w e r successional c o m m u n i t i e s . P r o l o n g e d d o w n w a r d m o v e m e n t to l o w e r successional levels of a w h o l e c o m m u n i t y is u n n a t u r a l , however, and e x c e p t i n g t h e occasional natural catastrophe virtually always betrays h u m a n i n t e r v e n t i o n . T h e cultivation of large areas of u n i f o r m crops is believed by m o d e r n a g r o e c o n o m i s t s to be the m o s t efficient and m o s t e c o n o m i c a l m e t h o d of f a r m i n g . This is a m y t h . M a n a g e m e n t is eased to the e x t e n t that larger m a c h i n e s save labor, b u t t h e a m o u n t of chemicals necessary to k e e p these m o n o c u l t u r e s p r o d u c t i v e leads to a d e p e n d e n c y and financial c o m m i t m e n t that b e c o m e s ever greater. E c o n o m i s t s , w h o d o n o t u n d e r s t a n d this, have p r o m o t e d measures to r e d u c e a f a r m e r s h o u r s of l a b o r but caused h i m to lose t h e f a r m . It is m y belief that if h u m a n s are to survive, o u r c r o p p i n g practices will n e e d to m i m i c nature. T h a t m e a n s increasing the use of perennial and d e e p - r o o t e d crops, and creating ever m o r e c o m p l e x c o m munities. A n d it m e a n s using grazing animals w h e n the e n v i r o n m e n t leans toward t h e very brittle e n d of t h e scale.

Leaving It to Nature T h e r e are those w h o w o u l d p r e f e r to leave the m a n a g e m e n t of biological c o m m u n i t i e s to nature, based o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n that n a t u r e k n o w s b e t t e r h o w to m a n a g e t h e m than w e do. Left to nature, I believe all c o m m u n i t i e s w o u l d eventually regenerate. In less brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s that c o u l d o c c u r fairly quickly, because rest is such a p o w e r f u l tool for r e s t o r i n g biodiversity. In t h e m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , w h i c h cover m o s t of t h e earth's land surface, t h e t i m e scale for r e g e n e r a t i o n w o u l d n o t be a h u m a n o n e b u t a g e o logical one. Lands s u r r o u n d i n g cities that w e r e a b a n d o n e d and left to n a t u r e c e n t u r i e s ago in these e n v i r o n m e n t s are still d e t e r i o r a t i n g . T h e y w o n ' t recover, at least o n a h u m a n time scale, unless w e use the animals still

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available to us that can simulate t h e effects p r o d u c e d by t h e herds and predators that o n c e m a d e these e n v i r o n m e n t s f u n c t i o n i n g w h o l e s . T h e alternative is to wait several million years f o r n e w species to develop, w h i c h is of c o u r s e impractical. W e have n o o p t i o n b u t to take responsibility.

Conclusion If, in f o r m i n g y o u r holistic goal, you are a t t e m p t i n g to describe t h e land s u r r o u n d i n g y o u r c o m m u n i t y , y o u n o w have a b e t t e r idea o f h o w b i o l o g ical c o m m u n i t i e s f u n c t i o n , and y o u can b e g i n to describe w h a t is n e e d e d : mainly, c o m m u n i t i e s that are rich in plant and animal species, or biodiversity. If y o u are a b i r d w a t c h e r o r like to fish, it may b e i m p o r t a n t to you to describe, in general, the habitats that s u p p o r t a variety of birds and fish. If you are a t t e m p t i n g to describe a f u t u r e landscape for land y o u m a n age, t h e n , again, you will n e e d to b e m o r e specific, b u t w o u l d likely describe all the e n v i r o n m e n t s y o u m a n a g e as c o m p l e x biological c o m m u nities in w h i c h m a n y species thrive, b o t h above and b e l o w g r o u n d . Occasionally, y o u will n e e d to describe c o m m u n i t i e s that are less diverse to m a i n t a i n a particular s p e c i e s — o n e that thrives o n bare soil, f o r instance, such as prairie dogs. W h e n m a n a g i n g diverse wildlife p o p u l a t i o n s , quite o f t e n y o u n e e d to describe a p a t c h w o r k o f different e n v i r o n m e n t s , w h i c h m i g h t again i n c l u d e bare soil areas w h e r e g a m e birds can take dust baths, or that larger m a m m a l s have kept bare because they are highly mineralized and serve as salt licks.

14 Mineral Cycle: The Circulation of LifeSustaining Nutrients

ike water, minerals and o t h e r n u t r i e n t s follow a cyclical p a t t e r n as they are used and reused by living organisms. Nevertheless, because w e d o n ' t see these n u t r i e n t s so c o n s p i c u o u s l y in m o t i o n , w e tend to ignore the e x t e n t to w h i c h o u r m a n a g e m e n t can drastically alter the speed, efficiency, and c o m p l e x i t y of their circular j o u r n e y w i t h i n o u r ecosystem.

L

A g o o d mineral cycle implies a biologically active living soil w i t h a d e quate aeration and e n e r g y u n d e r g r o u n d to sustain an a b u n d a n c e of o r g a n isms that are in c o n t i n u o u s c o n t a c t w i t h nitrogen, o x y g e n , and carbon f r o m the a t m o s p h e r e . Because soil organisms require e n e r g y derived f r o m s u n light, b u t m a n y d o n o t c o m e to t h e surface to obtain it firsthand, they rely on a c o n t i n u o u s supply of d e c o m p o s i n g plant and animal residues to p r o vide their energy needs. A g o o d mineral c y c l e — o n e that provides a w i d e range of n u t r i e n t s constantly c y c l i n g — c a n n o t f u n c t i o n in a dead soil, a fact o f t e n f o r g o t t e n in o u r m o d e r n obsession w i t h c h e m i c a l fertilizers and o t h e r technology. O n farms, agricultural chemicals may t e m p o r a r i l y help to p r o d u c e higher crop yields, but destroy m a n y soil organisms a n d inhibit others, such as those that fix nitrogen f r o m the a t m o s p h e r e . T h e net result is the d e s t r u c t i o n of soil, s o m e t h i n g h u m a n s c a n n o t afford to do. T u r n i n g over d e e p e r soil layers, as w e d o w h e n p l o w i n g , leads to the b r e a k d o w n of organic material and destroys millions of soil organisms. T h e p l a n t i n g of crops as m o n o c u l t u r e s results in a less diverse root system and an e n v i r o n m e n t that discourages diversity in m i c r o o r g a n i s m species. All the same p r o b l e m s and possibilities for d a m a g i n g soils a n d mineral cycles also exist o n rangelands and in forests. 141

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To p r o d u c e a n y t h i n g f r o m t h e land at l o w cost o n a sustainable basis, soil and air should provide almost all t h e n u t r i e n t s required by plants and animals, i n c l u d i n g h u m a n s . S o m e n u t r i e n t s c o m e in the f o r m of minerals f r o m n e w l y d e c o m p o s i n g rocks. S o m e n u t r i e n t s c o m e f r o m t h e a t m o s p h e r e via falling raindrops or organisms that c o n v e r t gaseous substances such as nitrogen and c a r b o n to usable f o r m . For most holistic goals involvi n g c r o p s , w i l d l i f e , l i v e s t o c k , a n d t i m b e r w e strive to keep nutrients ing the cycle a n d t o s t e a d i l y increase the volume that sustain

of those cycling

from

in the soil

escaplayers

plants.

T h i s c o n c e p t of h i g h a n d increasing v o l u m e of n u t r i e n t s cycling and available for use near t h e soil surface is easy to visualize (figure 1 4 - 1 ) . T o achieve it, however, requires a grasp of the natural processes that p r o d u c e d healthy g r o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s for eons b e f o r e a n y o n e t h o u g h t of plows, chemical fertilizers, or pesticides. T h e s e processes are incredibly c o m p l e x , but here w e will l o o k at the basic principles w e n e e d to k n o w a b o u t to m a n a g e any m i n e r a l cycle well. R e m e m b e r as w e d o that t h e mineral cycle does n o t f u n c t i o n i n d e p e n d e n t l y of the o t h e r three ecosystem processes. It is totally d e p e n d e n t o n living organisms and t h e dynamics of t h e c o m m u nities they inhabit and inextricably linked to t h e w a t e r cycle and energy flow. To b e n e f i t h u m a n s , wildlife, and livestock, mineral n u t r i e n t s have to be b r o u g h t above g r o u n d in living plants. To o b t a i n m a x i m u m n u t r i e n t s u p plies in t h e active soil layers, minerals m u s t continually be p u m p e d u p to t h e surface firom d e e p e r soil layers. T h e n , after use above g r o u n d by plants and animals, they m u s t b e r e t u r n e d u n d e r g r o u n d . T h e r e they will be held in t h e active r o o t zones until used again or lost d o w n to greater depths.

Minerals to the Surface Plant roots are the m a i n agents f o r lifting mineral n u t r i e n t s to surface soil layers a n d e n a b l i n g plants to take a p r o p o r t i o n of t h e m above g r o u n d . For a g o o d mineral cycle t h e n , w e n e e d healthy r o o t systems w i t h m a n y of those roots p r o b i n g as far as possible i n t o the lower layers of soil and d e c o m p o s i n g rock. In addition, w e n e e d a w i d e r a n g e of plant species to have m a n y root structures. Just as you recognize plants above g r o u n d by their appearance, so u n d e r g r o u n d y o u c o u l d k n o w t h e m by their w i d e variety of r o o t i n g patterns. S o m e have a b u n d a n t surface roots w h i l e others p r o b e deep, s o m e t i m e s r e a c h i n g b e l o w t h e soil itself i n t o r o c k crevices and cracks, to seek w a t e r and n u t r i e n t s , w h i c h t h e n m o v e u p w a r d t h r o u g h the plant. W h e r e s h a l l o w - r o o t e d plants such as grass, c o r n , o r w h e a t are t h e m a i n line of p r o d u c t i o n , s o m e d e e p - r o o t e d plants m a y be essential to t h e health

Good Mineral Cycle

Poor Mineral Cycle

} |

High

Percent surface litter cover

Low

Mature, decaying

Nature of litter

Immature or oxidizing

Many

Surface insects/ microorganisms

Few

Close

Plant spacing

Wide

Porous

Soil surface

Capped and sealed

Abundant

Plant roots

Reduced

Many levels

Root penetration

Mainly shallow

Porous with good crumb structure

Soil underground

Poor or no crumb structure, compacted

Abundant

Underground life

Reduced High

Low

Surface mineral loss

Low

Mineral loss to leaching

High

High

Mineral turnover rate

Low

Figure

1 4 - 1 Good and poor mineral cycles.

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of t h e w h o l e c o m m u n i t y . Incredibly small a m o u n t s of m a n y als are critical to plants and animals, i n c l u d i n g h u m a n s , a n d b e y o n d reach of shallow roots. If you have ever n o t i c e d t h e and textures in soil layers revealed by a h i g h w a y o r railway have an idea of t h e variety of essential n u t r i e n t s that m i g h t w i d e l y varying depths.

trace m i n e r they m a y lie m a n y colors cutting, y o u be f o u n d at

A l t h o u g h plant roots are the m a i n agents in mineral uplift, m a n y small animals play an i m p o r t a n t role too. E a r t h w o r m s are t h e o b v i o u s example, b u t in drier areas termites and o t h e r insects o f t e n help to p e r f o r m this function.

Above Ground to Surface Plant material, h a v i n g o b t a i n e d n u t r i e n t s f r o m t h e soil and in certain cases air, finally returns to t h e soil surface in t h e f o r m of dead leaves, stems, bark, branches, seeds, flowers, and crop residues. T h i s m a y h a p p e n quickly or over a p e r i o d of m a n y years in t h e case of s o m e plant parts, a l t h o u g h the f e e d i n g and o t h e r activity o f animals, birds, a n d small organisms generally speeds u p the process. R e t u r n i n g plant material to t h e surface, however, does n o t yet m a k e it available f o r reuse.To be reused, n u t r i e n t s have to m o v e u n d e r g r o u n d , and this does n o t h a p p e n until t h e dead material is b r o k e n d o w n into fine p a r ticles, preferably by m e c h a n i c a l forces, such as rain, w i n d , hail, or trampling, o r t h r o u g h c o n s u m p t i o n or decay by s u r f a c e - f e e d i n g insects and o t h e r soil organisms. W h e n plant material is b r o k e n d o w n by fire or oxidation, m a n y of the n u t r i e n t s are r e n d e r e d i n t o gaseous f o r m , and their residue or ash is b l o w n or w a s h e d away. At t h e same time, soil is also e x p o s e d , w h i c h in t u r n reduces biological activity b o t h at the surface and u n d e r g r o u n d . Biological, rather than c h e m i c a l or physical, activity ideally should play the lead role in the b r e a k d o w n of old plant material in all e n v i r o n m e n t s right across the brittleness scale, w i t h o n e m a j o r difference. In t h e less b r i t tle e n v i r o n m e n t s , the generally m o i s t m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t at the soil surface typically supports e x t r e m e l y active c o m m u n i t i e s of small organisms t h r o u g h o u t m o s t of t h e year that can break d o w n old plant material w i t h o u t any c o n t r i b u t i o n f r o m larger animals. In t h e m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s large animals b e c o m e critical because over the short p e r i o d of the year w h e n 50 to 95 p e r c e n t of the a b o v e - g r o u n d plant material dies, t h e m i c r o o r g a n i s m and insect p o p u l a t i o n s also die d o w n . In such e n v i r o n m e n t s , large animals are n e e d e d either to t r a m p l e the material d o w n to the soil surface w h e r e it will break d o w n m o r e quickly or to r e d u c e its bulk by g r a z i n g and digesting it. T h e gut of t h e grazing animal is o n e place m i c r o o r g a n i s m s d o remain active year r o u n d . As y o u will see in later chapters, w i t h o u t a d e q u a t e large animal i m p a c t ,

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t h e spacing b e t w e e n plants in the m o r e brittle grassland e n v i r o n m e n t s enlarges and soil b e c o m e s exposed. T h i s decreases biological activity even in the h u m i d m o n t h s . S o m e m o b i l e organisms, such as termites, will build their earth structures o u t over t h e bare soil to reach animal d r o p p i n g s or leaf fall, but this activity alone c a n n o t sustain a g o o d mineral cycle. In an e n v i r o n m e n t w h e r e plant spacings are w i d e a n d soil easily exposed, it b e c o m e s difficult to hold plant litter in place against t h e forces of w i n d and water. Fire drastically alters plant material, of course, a n d this may n o t always b e bad, a l t h o u g h w e need to b e aware of the p o l l u t i o n it creates a n d its t e n d e n c y to ruthlessly expose soil. As C h a p t e r 19 explains, fire converts m a n y n u t r i e n t s that are vital assets w h e n c o n t a i n e d in t h e soil, to gases that b e c o m e h a r m f u l w h e n released into the a t m o s p h e r e — h e n c e its p o l l u t i n g effect. Soil e x p o s u r e b e c o m e s increasingly i m p o r t a n t in very brittle and low-rainfall e n v i r o n m e n t s w h e r e soil cover is so fragile at the best of times and takes so l o n g to rebuild. For years I have f l o w n in a light plane over m u c h of the western U n i t e d States a n d s o u t h e r n Africa w h e r e large expanses of very brittle grasslands are t u r n i n g to desert. F r o m t h e air it is possible to see t h e scars of fires that swept t h r o u g h t h e m m a n y years before. T h e s e scars are only visible because s o i l - c o v e r i n g litter takes so m a n y years to rebuild. Physical w e a t h e r i n g also f u n c t i o n s differently across t h e brittleness scale. In t h e less brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , w h e r e h u m i d i t y tends to be h i g h e r and m o r e consistent, w e a t h e r i n g may play little part as biological decay p r o c e e d s so rapidly. M o s t plants, even the largest of trees, t e n d to rot at their bases first, fall over, and t h e n c o n t i n u e to decay o n t h e g r o u n d . B y contrast, in m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , even those w i t h h i g h rainfall, m o s t dead plant material breaks d o w n slowly t h r o u g h oxidization a n d w e a t h e r i n g in t h e absence of large animal p o p u l a t i o n s . Because w e a t h e r i n g occurs f r o m t h e t o p d o w n , dead grass, b r u s h , and trees d o n o t readily fall to t h e soil s u r face w h e r e m i c r o o r g a n i s m s c o u l d help speed their b r e a k d o w n . D e a d trees in such e n v i r o n m e n t s can stand for a c e n t u r y or m o r e . T h e dead leaves and stems o n perennial grass plants can stand for m a n y d e c a d e s . T h i s can create a b o t t l e n e c k in the cycle as n u t r i e n t s r e m a i n tied u p in dead plant m a t e r ial above g r o u n d . Large a c c u m u l a t i o n s of u n r e c y c l e d plant parts also suppress plant g r o w t h , especially in those perennial grasses that d e p e n d o n severe grazing o r fire for their existence, a n d renders these plants less able to absorb those n u t r i e n t s that d o eventually get b e l o w the soil surface. W h e n t h e plants have g r o w t h points, o r buds, elevated above the u n d e c a y e d material, as m o s t trees and shrubs, a n d s o m e p e r e n n i a l grasses do, g r o w t h is generally u n i m p e d e d . S u c h plants are n o t as d e p e n d e n t o n fire o r severe grazing or b r o w s i n g for their existence

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In m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , t h e slow w e a t h e r i n g that occurs in the absence of large animals can lead to the p r e m a t u r e d e a t h of m o s t p e r e n n i al grass plants as sunlight is u n a b l e to p e n e t r a t e t h e a c c u m u l a t e d old g r o w t h to reach t h e p l a n t s ' g r o w i n g p o i n t s . T h i s is seen mostly in b u n c h e d grass species w i t h g r o w t h points at g r o u n d level, o u t of the way of t h e grazing animals w i t h w h i c h they coevolved. In e n v i r o n m e n t s that are brittle to any degree, therefore, animal activity in various f o r m s speeds t h e b r e a k d o w n and cycling o f t h e plant m a t e r ial essential to b u i l d i n g mineral supplies in t h e top layers o f soil. Also, in contrast to fire, animal activity achieves this effect w i t h o u t e x p o s i n g soil or p o l l u t i n g the a t m o s p h e r e . I a m fully aware that in t h e U n i t e d States and E u r o p e in particular, animals are also creating a m a j o r p o l l u t i o n hazard. Livestock c o n f i n e d to feedlots w h e r e they stand s h o u l d e r to s h o u l d e r in their o w n feces w h i l e b e i n g f o r c e - f e d h i g h - e n e r g y grain, are t h e p r i m a r y example. T h e s e animals will eventually have to be r e t u r n e d to t h e land, w h e r e they are desperately n e e d e d and w h e r e their excretions are a valuable asset, rather than a costly liability.

Surface to Underground O n c e biological action, fire, oxidation, o r w e a t h e r has b r o k e n d o w n plant material, h o w d o t h e critical n u t r i e n t s m o v e u n d e r g r o u n d ? T w o agents, water and animal life, b r i n g this a b o u t naturally. T h a t explains w h y w h e n m a n a g i n g to e n h a n c e the m i n e r a l cycle y o u will tend most o f t e n to apply tools that e n c o u r a g e w a t e r p e n e t r a t i o n and animal activity. O n e f u r t h e r d a n g e r remains, however. T h e same w a t e r that carries n u t r i e n t s u n d e r g r o u n d can carry t h e m o n d o w n b e l o w t h e root z o n e of plant types you h o p e to e n c o u r a g e . This is called leaching, and it is w h a t , I believe, m o r e than any o t h e r factor, caused t h e demise of m a n y civilizations in n o n b r i t t l e e n v i r o n m e n t s . T h e m a i n factor that i m p e d e s l e a c h i n g is organic m a t t e r in the soil. ( M a n y tropical forests actually g r o w o n p o o r u n d e r l y i n g soils and are only lush and p r o d u c t i v e because a mass of o r g a n ic material is held in u p p e r soil layers.) T h e c h e m i s t r y by w h i c h organic m o l e c u l e s bind mineral elements is e x t r e m e l y c o m p l e x b u t derives f r o m the same principles that allow organic m a t t e r to create the beneficial c r u m b structure referred to in C h a p t e r 1 2 . T h e less organic material p r o vided by dead plants and animals, and t h e less biological activity, t h e greater the t e n d e n c y for leaching to occur. T h e r e i n lies o n e of the great dangers of synthetic herbicides, pesticides, and fertilizers to o u r soils. T h e m o r e we apply, t h e m o r e w e destroy o r g a n ic material and living organisms in the soil, and the m o r e w e decrease t h e soil's w a t e r - r e t a i n i n g capabilities, the m o r e w e increase the loss o f n u t r i e n t s to b o t h leaching and surface r u n o f f . T h i s is w h y f a r m e r s w h o a d d soluble

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nitrogen in various f o r m s to their land have to keep applying it in everincreasing a m o u n t s . By d a m a g i n g the natural mineral cycle, n u t r i e n t balance, and in t u r n soil life, they must spend increasing a m o u n t s to replace t h e n u t r i e n t s that leach o u t of it. T h e leached minerals n o t only b e c o m e unusable o n that particular piece of g r o u n d , they may b e c o m e highly d a n gerous pollutants as g r o u n d w a t e r flow carries t h e m to places they were never i n t e n d e d to be.

The Importance of the Soil Surface T h e key to t h e health of the m i n e r a l cycle, like b o t h the w a t e r cycle and c o m m u n i t y dynamics, ultimately lies in t h e c o n d i t i o n of the soil surface. A n exposed surface, c a p p e d by t h e effects of rainfall, is a harsh m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t in w h i c h biological b r e a k d o w n occurs slowly at best. S u c h a c a p p e d surface also limits air e x c h a n g e b e t w e e n t h e soil and the a t m o s p h e r e leading to r e d u c e d o x y g e n and excessive c a r b o n dioxide, w h i c h g e n erally inhibits r o o t g r o w t h . As aeration decreases, so does life. As life decreases, so does organic material. As organic material decreases, so does soil structure. As soil structure decreases, so does aeration. As this chain reaction ripples t h r o u g h the ecosystem, fewer plants p r o d u c e less soil cover and m o r e bare, c a p p e d soil results. A l t h o u g h this s y n d r o m e occurs s e l d o m in t h e less brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , w h e r e n e w c o m m u n i t i e s readily reestablish o n bare soil surfaces, it is ever present in the desertification of m o r e brittle ones. In t h e m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , too, the i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n s a m o n g the f o u r ecosystem processes, a l t h o u g h present e v e r y w h e r e , s h o w m o s t clearly. So m u c h so that, w h e n ever possible, I try to i n t r o d u c e students to these f u n d a m e n t a l processes by c o n d u c t i n g t h e initial sessions in a m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t .

Conclusion In t e r m s of y o u r holistic goal, t h e n , if you are a t t e m p t i n g to describe the land s u r r o u n d i n g y o u r c o m m u n i t y as it m u s t be in the future, you w o u l d describe it m u c h as you did to indicate an effective w a t e r cycle. B u t if that land is n o w characterized by miles and miles of m o n o c u l t u r e cropland, o r grassland, you m i g h t w a n t to describe it as also i n c l u d i n g trees, brush, and torbs—all of w h i c h tend to have d e e p e r roots than annual crops or grasses and thus e n h a n c e mineral cycling. T h e same applies if you are m a n a g i n g land, a l t h o u g h y o u r d e s c r i p t i o n w o u l d be m o r e detailed and c o u l d vary a c c o r d i n g to land type. If cropland, rangeland, or forest soils are sterile now, you will w a n t to describe t h e m as biologically active. If you are in a brittle e n v i r o n m e n t , you will w a n t to be sure that minerals d o n o t r e m a i n trapped in dead, oxidizing m a t e r i a l and

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may w a n t to describe w h a t t h e land looks like w h e n minerals are cycling rapidly (very little gray is visible by the e n d o f the n o n g r o w i n g season). W e have explored the relationships b e t w e e n water, soil structure, m i n eral availability, and c o m m u n i t i e s of living o r g a n i s m s . T h e n e x t c h a p t e r discusses the flow of e n e r g y that animates all these relationships.

15 Energy Flow: The Flow of Fuel That Animates A l l Life

11 organisms require e n e r g y to live. A n d all of t h e m , apart f r o m a f e w organisms d w e l l i n g near t h e r m a l springs d e e p in t h e ocean, d e p e n d o n t h e ability of g r e e n plants to capture that e n e r g y f r o m the sun and c o n v e r t it to a f o r m they can use.This c h a p t e r addresses b o t h h o w that e n e r g y is e m p l o y e d as it moves t h r o u g h o u r ecosystem a n d w h a t can b e d o n e to increase its availability. T h e e n e r g y flow in o u r ecosystem is considered by s o m e as syno n y m o u s w i t h the c a r b o n cycle, because t h e storage of e n e r g y in m o s t living organisms involves c a r b o n . B u t w h e r e c a r b o n is constantly m o v i n g b e t w e e n E a r t h and t h e a t m o s p h e r e , e n e r g y f r o m t h e sun is a o n e - w a y flow. T h o s e w h o focus o n t h e energy—carbon relationship miss t h e p o i n t m o s t relevant to m a n a g i n g t h e f o u r ecosystem processes: that the natural living w o r l d r u n s o n solar p o w e r and o u r m a n a g e m e n t decisions drastically affect h o w m u c h is c a p t u r e d a n d p u t to use. Because all life d e p e n d s o n t h e plant's ability, t h r o u g h photosynthesis, to c o n v e r t sunlight energy into edible f o r m , so does every e c o n o m y , every n a t i o n , and every civilization. T h e i m p o r t a n c e of this s t a t e m e n t warrants a little reflection in today's w o r l d of electronic marvels, c o r p o r a t e takeovers, and d r i v e - u p b a n k i n g . M o s t e c o n o m i s t s , n o t to m e n t i o n the rest of us, have all b u t lost sight of o u r d e p e n d e n c e o n t h e plant's ability to harness s u n light. Photovoltaic, hydroelectric, w i n d , a n d tidal p o w e r sources also c o n v e r t e n e r g y for practical use, b u t n o t directly i n t o f o r m s usable as f o o d for life. N o r d o g e o t h e r m a l a n d nuclear p o w e r plants p r o d u c e f o o d for living organisms. Fossil fuels, w h i c h represent solar energy c o n v e r t e d by g r e e n 149

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plants l o n g ago, can b e used to p r o d u c e a variety of products, b u t t h e fuels themselves are n o n r e n e w a b l e and inedible to all but t h e simplest bacterial life f o r m s .

The Energy Pyramid Traditionally, the flow of sunlight to f o o d for life is represented c o n c e p t u ally as an energy pyramid, as s h o w n in figure 15-1. O f t h e sunlight s t r i k ing land and water, s o m e is reflected back immediately, s o m e is absorbed as heat to be radiated back later. A very small p o r t i o n is c o n v e r t e d by g r e e n plant life i n t o f o o d f o r their o w n g r o w t h a n d that of o t h e r organisms in the f o o d chain. T h u s green plants f o r m the base, or Level 1, of t h e e n e r g y pyramid a n d s u p p o r t almost all o t h e r f o r m s of life, including, of course, humans. O n land all o f Level 1 e n e r g y conversion is at o r above t h e soil surface w h e r e algae and t h e g r e e n parts of plants c o n v e r t the energy. In aquatic e n v i r o n m e n t s it is slightly different. A r o u n d t h e shallow edges w h e r e plants can g r o w and p r o t r u d e above t h e water's surface, e n e r g y conversion still takes place as it does o n land. B u t over the rest of the area covered by a b o d y of water, e n e r g y is also c o n v e r t e d by plant life b e l o w the surface at depths sunlight can reach. O t h e r than this difference, t h e c o n c e p t of t h e energy p y r a m i d is similar in all e n v i r o n m e n t s .

F i g u r e 15-1

Basic energy pyramid.

plants at the base of the pyramid

Sunlight

energy mint first be converted by the

(Level 1) before it can be utilized

by other life forms.

Therefore, to increase energy flow through the ecosystem you first need to expand of the

pyramid.

the base

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Level 2 represents t h e e n e r g y stored by animals that eat the plants of Level 1—fish, m a m m a l s , insects, birds, reptiles, and h u m a n s . It is smaller by t h e a m o u n t of e n e r g y e x p e n d e d as heat in t h e living processes of the f e e d ers. T h i s is n o small a m o u n t . R o u g h l y 90 p e r c e n t o f t h e e n e r g y is lost as heat as you m o v e f r o m o n e level to t h e next. Level 3, t h e realm of predators, again i n c l u d i n g h u m a n s , w h i c h eat t h e eaters o f Level 1, is smaller still for t h e same reason. At Level 4 w e again find h u m a n s a n d s o m e o t h e r predators d i n i n g o n fish and the o t h e r predators that fed o n Level 2. O n c e m o r e t h e living processes of t h e feeders has d i m i n i s h e d t h e bulk of e n e r g y r e m a i n i n g in usable f o r m by a f u r t h e r 9 0 p e r c e n t . B y Level 5 h u m a n s d r o p o u t of t h e p y r a m i d . Scavengers a n d organisms of decay r e d u c e the bulk o f stored energy yet f u r t h e r , a n d b e y o n d that p e r haps a n o t h e r level or t w o of decay organisms will use a n d c o n v e r t to heat t h e last r e m a i n i n g useful energy. T h e last of the c o m p l i c a t e d organic m o l ecules assembled by t h e original g r e e n plants will finally have b e e n b r o k e n d o w n , having m a d e e n e r g y f r o m sunlight available to m a n y organisms. A t all levels, of course, a p o r t i o n of t h e energy passes straight o n to decay levels t h r o u g h feces or u r i n e in t h e animals a n d t h r o u g h m i c r o o r ganisms that feed o n t h e p l a n t s . T h u s in real life t h e e n e r g y p y r a m i d is n o t exact o r tidy. A n d its f o r m , because of t h e high loss of e n e r g y b e t w e e n each level, is m u c h flatter than s h o w n in figure 15-1, w h i c h is vertically e x a g gerated to get it o n o n e page. H o w e v e r , t h e c o n c e p t of ever-decreasing v o l u m e in usable e n e r g y holds t h r o u g h o u t . N o n e o f this e n e r g y is actually destroyed or used u p ; its f o r m merely changes to heat that is n o n u s a b l e as f o o d f o r life. H u m a n i t y ' s p o s i t i o n in t h e pyramid covers three possible levels. O n e p e r s o n can actually d i n e o n all three in a g o o d fish c h o w d e r , in w h i c h the potatoes represent Level 1, the piece of g r a i n - f e d salt p o r k Level 2, and t h e boiled c o d Level 3. W h e r e high h u m a n p o p u l a t i o n s exist o n restricted land, p e o p l e t e n d to feed directly off Level 1 rather than sacrifice t h e e n e r gy lost by first passing the f o o d t h r o u g h the animals in Level 2 . T h e animal p r o t e i n they d o c o n s u m e probably c o m e s f r o m animals that d o n o t c o m pete w i t h t h e m . Fish o r o t h e r animals may feed at t h e same level b u t off plants that h u m a n s c a n n o t eat or at h i g h e r levels f r o m animal (including h u m a n ) wastes. In s o m e of t h e so-called d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r i e s the p y r a m i d b e c o m e s messy w h e n animals that w o u l d n o r m a l l y only feed at Level 1, the herbivores, are fed offal (waste m e a t and blood) to s u p p l e m e n t t h e p r o tein in their rations a n d are thus f o r c e d to d i n e o n animals at their o w n level o r higher. T h e energy p y r a m i d also e x t e n d s b e l o w g r o u n d w h e r e t h e e n e r g y f l o w greatly affects t h e health of the o t h e r three ecosystem processes—water cycle, m i n e r a l cycle, and c o m m u n i t y dynamics. All three require a biol-

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Below-Ground

0

Energy from Plants

0 0

4

\

o„

0 0

Figure 15-2

Q

Energy flow above and below

ground.

ogically active soil c o m m u n i t y that in t u r n requires solar e n e r g y to be c o n veyed u n d e r g r o u n d mainly by plant roots o r s u r f a c e - f e e d i n g w o r m s , t e r mites, d u n g beetles, and o t h e r s (figure 15-2).

The Energy Tetrahedron T h e f o u r key insights have enabled us to see that t h e old t w o - d i m e n s i o n al p y r a m i d d i a g r a m does n o t reveal t h e possibility of m u c h sophistication in t h e m a n a g e m e n t of e n e r g y flow. Clearly t h e b r o a d e r t h e base of t h e triangle, w h i c h t h e face of t h e energy p y r a m i d represents, t h e larger the w h o l e structure, a n d t h e m o r e e n e r g y available for use at every level. T h i s

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t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l view, however, suggests very f e w ways o f b r o a d e n i n g the base. O n cropland, w e have d o n e it by increasing acreage, p r o d u c i n g b e t ter yielding crop strains, irrigating, p l a n t i n g t w o or m o r e crops o n the same land, a n d so o n . O n rangeland, w e have a t t e m p t e d to d o it t h r o u g h such t e c h n o l o g i e s as b r u s h clearing, range reseeding, a n d so o n . In forests, w e have a t t e m p t e d to d o it w i t h fire a n d m a c h i n e r y to regulate t i m b e r stands. In aquatic e n v i r o n m e n t s , w e have all b u t i g n o r e d t h e e n e r g y base by c r e ating an artificial o n e in fish hatcheries a n d s h r i m p farms. In each case, especially in industrialized c o u n t r i e s , w e have a c c o m p l i s h e d this t h r o u g h heavy use of resources in a n o n r e n e w a b l e m a n n e r to fuel m a c h i n e r y a n d m a n u f a c t u r e fertilizers a n d chemicals t o kill u n w a n t e d life. E v e n d i s c o u n t i n g t h e fact that m a n y of these m e t h o d s t e n d to d a m a g e natural w a t e r cycles, mineral cycles, a n d biological c o m m u n i t i e s to t h e e x t e n t that only increasing outside e n e r g y i n p u t can c o m p e n s a t e , m o s t p r e sent t e c h n o l o g y quickly reaches the p o i n t o f e n e r g y d e b t : b r o a d e n i n g t h e base requires m o r e energy t h a n it returns in c a p t u r e d sunlight. As l o n g as fossil fuel remains a b u n d a n t and c h e a p a n d w e i g n o r e the l o n g - t e r m effects of o u r heavy c o n s u m p t i o n , this fact m a y appear academic. H o w e v e r , in c o u n t r i e s w h e r e inputs are costly it is already a q u e s t i o n of life a n d death. It underlies m u c h of the c o n t i n u i n g A m e r i c a n f a r m crisis manifested in ever fewer family farms a n d an increasing reliance o n heavily subsidized c o r p o r a t e agriculture. In the case of the vast, b u t m i n i m a l l y productive, rangelands, it already prices technical solutions far o u t of r e a c h . T h e p r o b lems can only get w o r s e until h u m a n i t y understands a n d starts to m a n a g e e n e r g y f l o w as an integral part of c o m m u n i t y dynamics, water, a n d m i n e r al cycles. Based on w h a t w e n o w k n o w t h r o u g h t h e f o u r key insights, w e have c o m e to v i e w t h e e n e r g y p y r a m i d as m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l , above a n d b e l o w t h e surface, that is, as t w o t e t r a h e d r o n s (figure 15-3) j o i n e d at their bases. In a p p l y i n g this c o n c e p t w e n o w have o p p o r t u n i t i e s for increasing e n e r g y flow at t h e vital first l e v e l — t h e soil surface—greatly. Level 1, in this t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l d i a g r a m , n o w has three sides, w h i c h I call time, density, and area as indicated o n t h e cross section of t h e d o u b l e t e t r a h e d r o n s h o w n in figure 15-3. O n land, t h e right m a n a g e m e n t can increase the v o l u m e of e n e r g y stored at Level 1 by increasing n o t only t h e density of standing vegetation o n a unit of g r o u n d , b u t also the time d u r i n g w h i c h that vegetation can g r o w a n d increasing t h e rate at w h i c h it can g r o w a n d t h e leaf area of i n d i vidual plants to capture m o r e energy. In aquatic e n v i r o n m e n t s w e have still to learn h o w w e m i g h t use s o m e of this n e w t h i n k i n g . Clearly the m o r e w e can e x t e n d any of t h e three sides of the base, the greater t h e v o l u m e o f e n e r g y h u m a n s can harvest at levels 2, 3, a n d 4.

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Soil Surface at Plane A, B, C

Figure 15-3 C).

Energy flow seen as two tetrahedrons joined at their bases (labeled A,

We can increase the amount of energy stored in the above- and below-ground

B,

bases

(shown in the cross section) in three ways: by increasing the t i m e during which that vegetation can grow and the rate at which it grows; the density of plants on a unit of ground; and the leaf arm of individual

plants.

O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , s h o r t e n i n g any single side decreases t h e v o l u m e of e n e r g y w e can harvest all t h e way up, a n d t h e same effect ripples u n d e r ground. B e f o r e g o i n g i n t o detail a b o u t h o w this w o r k s in practice o n e e x a m p l e should illustrate w h a t a t t e n t i o n to energy f l o w can m e a n in land m a n a g e m e n t . O n c e w h i l e c o n s u l t i n g o n a ranch struck by a serious d r o u g h t , I f o u n d that my explaining the i m p o r t a n c e of increasing e n e r g y f l o w appeared to b o r e t h e r a n c h e r to distraction. H e w a n t e d to discuss less theoretical questions, such as t h e hay he w o u l d have to b u y and the a n i mals he w o u l d have to sell. B u t in fact his p r o b l e m really was a m a t t e r of energy flow, a n d his exasperation forced m e to state it in less theoretical terms.

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W e w e n t o u t o n t o his land w h e r e I b r o k e t h e capped soil w i t h my fingers, and p u s h e d d o w n s o m e of the dead and oxidizing grass to cover t h e surface, m u c h as any g a r d e n e r w o u l d d o to prepare a seedbed. I asked h i m if h e t h o u g h t an extra o u n c e (28 grams) of grass could g r o w o n this small bit of " p r e p a r e d " g r o u n d if it received only o n e inch (25 m m ) of rain. H e said h e did. T h e n I asked h i m to calculate t h e a m o u n t of hay he w o u l d have to b u y to replace t h e o n e extra o u n c e (28 grams) of grass p e r square yard (or m e t e r ) that h e could g r o w if h e had his a n i mals prepare t h e g r o u n d for h i m . Multiplied by t h e area of his land, that o u n c e (28 grams) represented 15 million p o u n d s (6.7 million kg) of grass. W e g r e w that and m o r e at n o extra cost simply by g r o u p i n g all herds into o n e m u c h larger herd that in c o n c e n t r a t i o n could m o r e effectively break the c a p p i n g and trample the old grass d o w n . T h i s also enabled us, as C h a p t e r 38 explains, to r e d u c e the t i m e t h e animals r e m a i n ed in any o n e area so that all plants had m o r e g r o w i n g time. T h e increase in e n e r g y flow that resulted saved h i m thousands o f dollars in hay purchases and herd r e d u c t i o n . Perceiving the full ramifications of e n e r g y flow requires a t h o r o u g h u n d e r s t a n d i n g by t h e land manager, so let's l o o k at t h e three sides.

Time (Duration

and Rate of

Growth)

T h e e n e r g y c o n v e r t e d by plants w h i l e they are g r e e n and g r o w i n g must s u p p o r t all life b o t h above and b e l o w t h e surface t h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r . T h e l o n g e r plants are g r o w i n g , the m o r e p r o d u c t i v e the c o m m u n i t y as a w h o l e . W e can increase the g r o w i n g t i m e — t h e time side of t h e b a s e — b y l e n g t h e n i n g t h e g r o w i n g season or by increasing t h e g r o w t h rate w i t h i n a given time. In practice, p r o d u c i n g a better mineral cycle a n d w a t e r cycle a n d greater c o m p l e x i t y in t h e biological c o m m u n i t y will e x t e n d g r o w i n g time in b o t h ways. In the m a n a g e m e n t of grasses, the g r o w i n g t i m e can also be used m o r e efficiently if t h e bulk of the grazed or cut plants is n o t taken d o w n t o o f a r . T h e less taken f r o m a plant d u r i n g its active g r o w t h , t h e faster it regrows, as it has m o r e leaf area w i t h w h i c h to c o n v e r t sunlight i m m e diately. In C h a p t e r 6, I described m y frustrations in l e a r n i n g a b o u t t i m e as a d i m e n s i o n in grazing o n brittle rangelands a n d h o w w e had to plan its m a n i p u l a t i o n to n e i t h e r overgraze plants n o r depress t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of t h e animals. Later, u n d e r t h e m a n a g e m e n t guideline of t i m e ( C h a p t e r 38) w e will see h o w to actually prevent severe grazers f r o m r e d u c i n g t h e e n e r g y flow o n pastures and rangelands, a l t h o u g h they graze s o m e plants severely w i t h i n t h e first h o u r or so o n the land as they select their diet.

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T a k i n g rangeland as an example, naturally a n y t h i n g that creates better g r o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s t h r o u g h i m p r o v e m e n t s in w a t e r and mineral cycles will allow plants to g r o w m o r e rapidly. T h e role of t h e water cycle, h o w ever, deserves special a t t e n t i o n . U n d e r g o o d m a n a g e m e n t of t h e f o u r ecosystem processes, m o i s t u r e will r e m a i n available in t h e soil after falling t e m p e r a t u r e and d i m i n i s h i n g daylight h o u r s end the g r o w i n g season. As explained in C h a p t e r 12, this enables plants to start g r o w i n g the instant t h e n e w year restores those conditions. Given a n o n e f f e c t i v e w a t e r cycle, g r o w t h w o n ' t start until the first rain. Given a m o r e effective w a t e r cycle, plants can also c o n t i n u e to g r o w for m u c h l o n g e r d u r i n g d r y spells in the g r o w i n g season because less m o i s t u r e is lost t h r o u g h soil surface evaporation. T h e o p p o s i t e p r o b l e m — t o o m u c h w a t e r d u e to o v e r i r r i g a t i o n o r p o o r drainage and aeration—also occurs, c u t t i n g t i m e o u t of t h e g r o w i n g season. E v e r y h o u r w i t h a d e q u a t e t e m p e r a t u r e s in w h i c h plants c a n n o t g r o w at their best p o t e n t i a l rate because o f p o o r aeration means lost e n e r g y c o n version o n croplands or pastures u n d e r rainfall o r irrigation, as I illustrated w i t h t h e e x a m p l e of the cabbages in C h a p t e r 12. T h e d e g r e e of species c o m p l e x i t y in a c o m m u n i t y also has a f u n d a m e n t a l relationship to g r o w i n g time. T h e m o s t obvious examples are rangelands that s u p p o r t b o t h cool-season and w a r m - s e a s o n grasses. A c o m plex healthy rangeland will i n c l u d e e n o u g h of b o t h to ensure that s o m e part of t h e plant c o m m u n i t y will be g r o w i n g as l o n g as any g r o w t h is p o s sible. T h e annual grasslands p r o d u c e d by p o o r m a n a g e m e n t such as w e find over m o s t of California and in m a n y parts of A f r i c a a n d in s o u t h e r n Australia illustrate this clearly. O n these r a n g e l a n d s w h e r e the d o m i n a n t grasses are n o w annuals, there are p r o l o n g e d g o o d g r o w t h p e r i o d s in every year in w h i c h n o g r o w t h at all is taking place as t h e p e r e n n i a l grasses that c o u l d and should be c o n v e r t i n g e n e r g y have for the m o s t part disappeared as a result of the m a n a g e m e n t practices used. P h o t o 1 5 - 1 shows s o m e of t h e f e w r e m n a n t patches of perennial grassland that still survive o n o n e C a l i f o r n i a ranch. E v e n as they c o n t i n u e to g r o w actively and c o n v e r t e n e r g y to fuel t h e rest of t h e life in t h e c o m munity, t h e a n n u a l grasses that have c o m e to d o m i n a t e t h e s u r r o u n d i n g land have l o n g since finished their cycle, d r i e d off, and died. A c h a n g e in m a n a g e m e n t , using t h e k n o w l e d g e n o w available, c o u l d b r i n g back t h e perennials that o n c e covered the land and restore m o n t h s of p r o d u c t i v i t y to t h e area. T h e same principles f o r e x t e n d i n g time apply equally well o n croplands and offer even m o r e m a n a g e m e n t o p p o r t u n i t i e s . P h o t o 1 5 - 2 shows t h e p o o r g r o w t h of plants in an o v e n r r i g a t e d field in N e w M e x i c o alongside excellent g r o w t h in t h e same plants on t h e edge of the field w h e r e aera-

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P h o t o 1 5 - 1 Remnant perennial grass patch in annual California grassland (courtesy Richard King).

tion is accidentally g o o d . T h e plants o n the edge reached c u t t i n g stage a m o n t h b e f o r e t h e m a i n crop. M a n y f a r m e r s are aware of t h e difference in t i m e efficiency r e n d e r e d by applying n i t r o g e n fertilizer in p e r i o d i c light dressings as o p p o s e d to a single large dose. G o o d selection of h e a t - a n d c o l d - t o l e r a n t crops and p l a n t i n g dates can also e x t e n d effective g r o w i n g seasons and thus t h e t i m e base of t h e e n e r g y t e t r a h e d r o n . S o m e of t h e same principles c o u l d well apply in aquatic e n v i r o n m e n t s .

Density

(of

Plants)

T h e density side of t h e base refers to t h e n u m b e r of plants g r o w i n g o n each square yard (or meter) of land. Ten plants g r o w i n g o n t h e average square yard (or meter) of g r o u n d can probably c o n v e r t m o r e solar e n e r g y than three. F a r m e r s have l o n g recognized that plant spacing, o r density, can greatly affect e n e r g y flow in their fields a n d have planted a c c o r d i n g l y — striving for t h e density that p r o d u c e s t h e highest yields. In e n v i r o n m e n t s that lie closer to t h e n o n b r i t t l e e n d of the scale, the spacing b e t w e e n plants g r o w i n g in t h e wild, w h i c h is close, is a reflection of climate. M a n a g e m e n t can affect it, b u t plant density is naturally high. By

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P h o t o 15-2 Sparse growth of grass in an ovenrrigated hay field but with excellent growth in the foreground on the accidentally well-drained edge of the field. Albuquerque, New Mexico.

contrast, the m o r e brittle the e n v i r o n m e n t , t h e m o r e plant density is affected by the disturbance, o r lack of disturbance, f r o m large animals. O v e r t i m e the use of fire and animals, animals alone, or s o m e of t h e m a c h i n e s d e veloped by range scientists to imitate animal disturbance, can lead to close plant spacings. Incorrectly applied, any o n e of t h e m can e x p a n d the bare spaces b e t w e e n plants. Fire used on its o w n has a m a r k e d t e n d e n c y to d o so. P h o t o s 15-3, 15-4, and 15-5, taken o n a ranch in west Texas, s h o w the d i f f e r e n c e disturbance by animals can m a k e in a fairly brittle e n v i r o n m e n t . P h o t o 15-3, taken in 1982, shows the bare spaces o n a piece of land w i t h in t h e ranch b o u n d a r i e s that was f e n c e d off and thus u n d i s t u r b e d for s o m e years. A series of f i x e d - p o i n t p h o t o s , i n c l u d i n g p h o t o 1 5 - 4 (taken in 1985), reveal that these plant spacings have w i d e n e d continually as old plants stagnated f r o m overrest and n e w seedlings failed to establish on the bare c a p p e d soil. P h o t o 15-5, taken in 1984, shows nearby land w h e r e t h e same r a n c h e r has p l a n n e d t h e grazings and periodically subjected t h e land to disturbance in t h e f o r m of h i g h animal impact. Its p r o x i m i t y to a livestock w a t e r i n g p o i n t intensifies the animal impact. As you can see, plant densities s h o w a v e r y positive correlation to this p e r i o d i c disturbance. O u r m e a s u r e m e n t s c o n f i r m e d that w h e r e animal i m p a c t was highest, close to

P h o t o 1 5 - 3 A long-rested site fenced off from grazing animals showing sparse grass and some bare ground between plants, 1982. Texas.

P h o t o 15-4

Identical view as in photo 15-J but taken three years later in

1985.

Grass has become more sparse and bare ground increased wider continued rest. Texas.

P h o t o 15-5

View on same ranch and close to the site shown in photos

15-2

and

15-3. Here, ii'here very heavy animal impact has been applied periodically close to the waterpoint disappeared,

(on left), the grass has thickened 1984.

up considerably and the bare patches

have

Texas.

the water, plant spacing was closest and that spacing w i d e n e d t h e f u r t h e r w e w e n t f r o m the w a t e r w h e r e the same p e r i o d i c i m p a c t was lighter. Generally, m o r e e n e r g y can be c o n v e r t e d w h e r e m o r e plants grow. Traditionally p e o p l e have believed that such plant spacings were a f u n c tion of climate a n d soil, w h i c h is c o r r e c t if t h e e n v i r o n m e n t tends toward the n o n b r i t t l e e n d of t h e scale, and thus lay b e y o n d their control. H o w e v e r , in m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , m a n a g e m e n t can be crucial as these p h o t o s show. C h a p t e r 22 describes animal i m p a c t and its m a n a g e m e n t in m o r e detail. Suffice it to say here that animal i m p a c t does provide a m e a n s of increasing t h e density of plants p e r unit area of land, particularly in grassland e n v i r o n m e n t s that are brittle to s o m e degree. In aquatic e n v i r o n m e n t s o n e needs to b e w a r y of p r o m o t i n g t o o high a plant p o p u l a t i o n w h e n a d d i n g n u t r i e n t s to water, as w e d o every day w h e n w e dispose of detergents a n d o t h e r wastes. W h e n these n u t r i e n t s arrive in large quantities, plant p o p u l a t i o n s can e x p l o d e , c o n s u m i n g so m u c h oxygen in t h e process that little or n o n e is left to sustain o t h e r life forms.

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Area (of Leaf) Area of leaf matters because a very dense stand of n a r r o w - l e a f e d plants m a y trap less e n e r g y than a m o d e r a t e l y dense stand of b r o a d e r - l e a f e d plants. So to e x p a n d t h e area side of t h e base, y o u w o u l d have to increase the n u m b e r of b r o a d - l e a f e d plants. Plants adapt themselves in three m a j o r ways to suit different g r o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s . Hydrophytic, or w e t - e n v i r o n m e n t , plants thrive in soggy, p o o r l y aerated g r o u n d . Mesophytic, or m i d d l e - e n v i r o n m e n t , plants g r o w best w h e n air a n d water are balanced in the soil. Xerophytic, or d r y - e n v i r o n m e n t , plants survive w h e r e w a t e r is scarce, t h o u g h aeration may be g o o d . In s o m e ways t h e w e t - a n d d r y - t y p e plants resemble each o t h e r m o r e than they do t h e m i d d l e - t y p e plants. B o t h o f t e n have cuticles o r fairly i m p e r v i o u s skins over their leaves, a n d adaptations s u r r o u n d i n g their b r e a t h i n g pores that result in t h e m passing little w a t e r t h r o u g h their systems. B o t h m a y have n a r r o w leaves o r leaf stems (green stems that c o n v e r t energy), w h i c h r e d u c e the area e x p o s e d to sunlight a n d thus t h e area t r a n spiring water. S o m e d r y - t y p e plants m a y have b r o a d e r leaves, b u t they are o f t e n tightly rolled for the same reason. T h e w e t - t y p e plants such as water lilies, bulrushes, cattails, m a n y sedges, a n d s o m e grasses are generally f o u n d in sites that r e m a i n w e t because of high rainfall or p o o r d r a i n a g e . T h e y can also be f o u n d in sites that, in t e r m s of rainfall and soil d e p t h , should be o c c u p i e d by t h e m i d d l e - t y p e plants, b u t w h e r e severe soil c a p p i n g has caused p o o r aeration. Likewise, d r y - t y p e plants such as cacti, e u p h o r b i a s , and s o m e grasses are generally f o u n d in sites w h e r e m o i s t u r e is m i n i m a l . H o w e v e r , they can also b e f o u n d in sites w h e r e rainfall is high but quickly shed or evaporated f r o m a c a p p e d s u r face. A m o n g t h e d r y - t y p e plants, m a n y of t h e perennial grasses o f t e n stand o u t clearly in t h e d o r m a n t season w h e n they dry off to a w h i t e or very pale color. B o t h w e t - a n d d r y - t y p e plants t e n d t o g r o w slowly and thus store a limited a m o u n t of solar e n e r g y in a given time. T h e m i d d l e - t y p e plants are very different. T h e y p r o d u c e generally o p e n , flat, a n d b r o a d leaves that curl only w h e n w i l t i n g u n d e r m o i s t u r e stress. T h e y do n o t have thick protective skins or w e l l - d e v e l o p e d m e c h a nisms to shut off b r e a t h i n g pores. T h e y also t e n d to g r o w rapidly w h e n m o i s t u r e and t e m p e r a t u r e are favorable. In contrast to their cousins in the dry category, m a n y of t h e m i d d l e perennial grasses cure to red o r gold in the d o r m a n t season, w h i c h h a p p e n s also to reflect m o r e n u t r i t i o u s d r y f o r age for animals. O l d t i m e r s in S o u t h Africa m a d e the distinction b e t w e e n " w i t v e l d " and " r o o i v e l d " ( w h i t e range and red range), t h e latter b e i n g far m o r e p r o d u c tive. In A m e r i c a this difference can also be seen a l o n g m a n y w e s t e r n h i g h -

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ways. P r o t e c t e d f r o m overgrazing and k e p t alive by severe defoliation as a result of p e r i o d i c m o w i n g , these roadside grasses w h e n d o r m a n t o f t e n have a definite reddish or d e e p gold tinge.Yet, j u s t over the fence, w h e r e plants are overgrazed and soils insufficiently disturbed, the grasses s h o w pale or dead w h i t e in c o l o r . T h e sharp c h a n g e f r o m red o r gold to w h i t e along t h e fence line shows u p for miles. Obviously, to increase the area side of the energy t e t r a h e d r o n o n land in m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s you n e e d to shift the c o m m u n i t y to t h e m i d dle plant that spreads broad leaves to the sun and g r o w s fast. As in the case of plant spacings, m o s t p e o p l e have always felt that plant t y p e d e p e n d e d o n soil type a n d lay b e y o n d their control. Occasionally s o m e t h i n g like an i m p e r v i o u s layer of clay or rock b e l o w the surface can i n d e e d kill any c h a n c e for the m i d d l e plant, b u t generally p o o r w a t e r - t o - a i r balance results f r o m sealed or c a p p e d soil and p o o r water cycles, w h i c h m a n a g e m e n t can change. In less brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s w h e r e soil c a p p i n g is far less a p r o b l e m , the m a i n t e n a n c e of m o r e b r o a d - l e a f e d plants can o f t e n be i m p r o v e d by drainage. In Z i m b a b w e I have seen, in the c o u r s e of twelve years, a p a t c h of 84 p e r c e n t Loudecia grasses, k n o w n for their fibrousness, p o o r forage quality, and association w i t h badly drained g r o u n d , c h a n g e to an 80 p e r c e n t m i x of p r o d u c t i v e m i d d l e grasses associated w i t h g o o d drainage. W e had used animal i m p a c t to break u p the hard soil c a p p i n g and create closer plant spacings and p l a n n e d the grazings to prevent overgrazing. T h e c h a n g e in species was an u n e x p e c t e d b y - p r o d u c t and led to m o r e o b s e r vations of the same k i n d . In addition to causing grass plants in m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s to g r o w closer together, animal impact and severe grazing ( w i t h o u t overgrazing) cause m a n y species to p r o d u c e m o r e leaves and less fiber, w h i c h in t u r n increases the flow of available e n e r g y to animals and h u m a n s . T h e same holds t r u e for grasslands and pastures in less brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s .

Using Technology to Increase Energy Flow W e can also increase energy flow t h r o u g h direct use of t e c h n o l o g y in m a n y f o r m s — m a c h i n e r y , drainage, irrigation, chemicals, a n d genetic e n g i n e e r i n g to n a m e a few e x a m p l e s H o w e v e r , in d o i n g so w e n e e d to b e particularly alert to the fact that such direct i n t e r v e n t i o n in o n e of t h e f u n d a m e n t a l processes can be e x t r e m e l y d a n g e r o u s because w e are dealing w i t h c o m plex interrelationships of w h i c h w e u n d e r s t a n d l i t d e . W e s h o u l d i n t e r v e n e w i t h t e c h n o l o g y o n l y in ways that allow for s i m u l t a n e o u s d e v e l o p m e n t , b u t never damage, of the w a t e r cycle, mineral cycle, and biological c o m munities. N o o n e ecosystem process can safely b e bolstered at the e x p e n s e of the

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others. As m e n t i o n e d , e n h a n c i n g e n e r g y flow t h r o u g h heavy inputs of fossil fuel products, w h i c h d a m a g e biological c o m m u n i t i e s and w a t e r and mineral cycles, has b e e n the c o r n e r s t o n e of A m e r i c a n agriculture, b u t w e are paying a heavy price for o u r i g n o r a n c e : increasingly severe floods, f o o d and w a t e r riddled w i t h l i f e - t h r e a t e n i n g chemicals, rising rates of r e p r o d u c tive disorders, cancer and o t h e r diseases, accelerated erosion destroying m i l lions of years of biological capital, millions in public f u n d s spent yearly to kill insects and o t h e r increasingly resistant pests, and ultimately thousands of f a r m e r s and ranchers leaving t h e land, followed by o n c e - h e a l t h y small businesses and rural c o m m u n i t i e s .

Conclusion In t e r m s of y o u r holistic goal, if you are a t t e m p t i n g to describe t h e land s u r r o u n d i n g y o u r c o m m u n i t y as it must b e in the future, describe w h a t it w o u l d l o o k like if e n e r g y flow were high: soil w o u l d be covered in v e g e tation, plants w o u l d stay g r e e n and c o n t i n u e to g r o w m u c h l o n g e r than they d o now, a n d there w o u l d be a variety of t h e m . Wildlife w o u l d reap the b o u n t y and b e m o r e plentiful as a result. In essence, if water cycles are effective, minerals are cycling rapidly, and biodiversity is high, t h e n energy flow w o u l d tend to b e m a x i m i z e d . T h e f u t u r e landscape that land managers will describe to sustain their f o r m s of p r o d u c t i o n will generally require the highest e n e r g y flow possible, w h e t h e r rangeland, cropland, o r forest b e their c o n c e r n . In m o s t c r o p land situations, w e should strive to m a n a g e for an effective w a t e r cycle, g o o d mineral cycle, a highly c o m p l e x biological c o m m u n i t y (above and b e l o w g r o u n d ) and thus a high and sustainable e n e r g y flow. W e will seek to m a x i m i z e the t i m e side of t h e e n e r g y tetrahedron's base by e n s u r i n g g o o d daily g r o w t h rates and l e n g t h e n i n g the season t h r o u g h p o l y c u l t u r e c r o p p i n g o r at least t w o or m o r e crops p e r year w h e n e v e r possible. We will m a x i m i z e density by planting w i t h close spacings. W e will m a x i m i z e the area of leaf o p e n and exposed to sunlight by creating g o o d drainage, c r u m b structure, and a b u n d a n t organic m a t t e r in t h e soil and p r o v i d i n g a d e q u a t e soil cover. In t h e future, w e will b e better able to m a n a g e o u r cropland soils and increase the e n e r g y flow to the m i c r o o r g a n i s m s that p o p u l a t e t h e m by planting perennial grain crops, s o m e of w h i c h are c u r r e n t l y u n d e r develo p m e n t , and in the m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , by i n c o r p o r a t i n g animals into c r o p p i n g strategies. In m o s t forest situations, w e should strive to m a x i m i z e e n e r g y flow by i m p r o v i n g w a t e r and mineral cycles a n d by increasing t h e diversity of plant and animal species, particularly in forests that have b e e n simplified t h r o u g h industrial-style forestry practices. A n d in aquatic e n v i r o n m e n t s , w e will m a x i m i z e e n e r g y flow by r e d u c i n g p o l l u t i o n and sustaining highly c o m -

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plex biological c o m m u n i t i e s , and by e n s u r i n g that o n the land that surr o u n d s t h e m and that catches m u c h of t h e water that feeds t h e m , water and mineral cycles and biological c o m m u n i t i e s are healthy. In m o s t rangeland situations, w e will increase energy flow by m a n i p u lating the tools of grazing and animal i m p a c t , w i t h b o t h livestock and wildlife, to p r o d u c e and m a i n t a i n m a x i m u m g r o w i n g time, plant density, and leaf area. T h e a m o u n t of e n e r g y w e m i g h t have to b u y f r o m o t h e r p r o ducers o n o t h e r land to s u p p l e m e n t w h a t o u r o w n land does n o t provide w o u l d b e the m e a s u r e of success o r failure. T h e chapters in the n e x t section describe in detail the tools w e can use to alter any o n e of the four f u n d a m e n t a l processes. A n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of h o w each tool affects their f u n c t i o n i n g is essential to t h e land m a n a g e r a n d will i n f l u e n c e m a n y o f the decisions he o r she makes. T h e n o n l a n d m a n ager also utilizes s o m e o f these tools and, a l t h o u g h n o t d o i n g so to i n f l u e n c e the ecosystem processes directly, does so indirectly.Thus, b e f o r e m o v ing o n to the testing guidelines that will enable you to find the quickest r o u t e to y o u r holistic goal, w e first n e e d to learn m o r e a b o u t these tools so w e can plan to use t h e m wisely.

Part V The Tools We Use to Manage Our Ecosystem

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e l o w t h e r o w of Ecosystem Processes in the Holistic M a n a g e m e n t m o d e l stands t h e r o w of tools, but t h e word h e r e gets a broad d e f inition. It includes e v e r y t h i n g that gives h u m a n s the ability, w h i c h most organisms lack, to significantly alter o u r ecosystem in o r d e r to e n h a n c e or sustain o u r lives. M a n y of the decisions y o u m a k e will n o t involve t h e use of any of these tools specifically, and you may well feel you n e e d n o t c o n cern yourself w i t h t h e m . B u t m a n y o t h e r decisions will involve their use, either directly o r indirectly, even if the w h o l e you have d e f i n e d is limited to y o u r o w n personal life. For this reason, a m o n g o t h e r s , y o u n e e d to be aware of t h e effects these tools can p r o d u c e . All tools available to h u m a n s , f r o m stone age spears to c o m p u t e r s and genetic e n g i n e e r i n g , fall u n d e r o n e or a n o t h e r of t h e headings in t h e tools row. W h e t h e r you are a politician, e c o n o m i s t , engineer, h o u s e k e e p e r , gardener, w i d g e t maker, o r whatever, you will n o t find a tool c u r r e n t l y k n o w n to h u m a n i t y that is n o t i n c l u d e d w i t h i n these eight general headings. H u m a n creativity as well as m o n e y and labor bracket t h e o t h e r six tool headings in the m o d e l because b o t h c o m e i n t o play in t h e use of t h e o t h e r tools. W e list m o n e y and labor t o g e t h e r because the o n c e simple c o m b i n a tion of labor, creativity, a n d resources f r e q u e n t l y operates t h r o u g h t h e agency of money. T h e capitalist's investments, t h e labor of a c o m m u n e , or the u n p a i d children o n a family f a r m all f u n c t i o n a c c o r d i n g to similar p r i n ciples t o b e covered in later chapters. O f t h e six tools listed b e t w e e n the brackets, t e c h n o l o g y alone is t h e p r i m e tool e m p l o y e d in urban or industrial businesses a n d professions a n d by m o s t households, f e w of w h i c h a t t e m p t to m o d i f y o u r ecosystem 167

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t h r o u g h the use of technology, either directly or deliberately, b u t o f t e n do nonetheless. C h a p t e r 24 elaborates o n this t h e m e . If y o u are n o t m a n a g i n g land, t h e n d o you n e e d to c o n c e r n yourself w i t h t h e chapters on fire, rest, grazing, animal i m p a c t , a n d living organisms? N o t necessarily, b u t you w o u l d be the p o o r e r for it. I suggest y o u at least skim t h r o u g h these c h a p ters (19 t h r o u g h 23), particularly if y o u r h o m e or business lies in a m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t , because the i n f o r m a t i o n in t h e m will b e critical to sustaining y o u r business a n d y o u r c o m m u n i t y . Likewise, if you s u p p o r t n o n p r o f i t organizations and their p r o g r a m s to save t h r e a t e n e d wildlife p o p u l a t i o n s , alleviate h u n g e r , o r assist e n v i r o n m e n t a l refugees, it w o u l d be helpful to k n o w m o r e a b o u t h o w these r e m a i n i n g tools can b e used to eliminate or exacerbate such problems. In any land m a n a g e m e n t situation, fire and rest are i n c l u d e d w i t h technology as the standard tools for m o d i f y i n g o u r ecosystem. B u t n o n e of these tools can b e g i n to reverse t h e desertification o c c u r r i n g in e n v i r o n m e n t s that lean toward t h e m o r e brittle e n d of t h e s c a l e — t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e e a r t h s land surface. A typical e x a m p l e is t h e civil e n g i n e e r c o m m i s s i o n e d to stabilize an e r o d i n g c a t c h m e n t to save an i m p o r t a n t d a m or i r r i g a t i o n p r o j e c t f r o m silting up. T h e average engineer's tool kit contains only technology. T h u s , the average e n g i n e e r may c o n t o u r all t h e slopes, build silt traps in all the valleys, o r try to c h a n n e l rivers to n o avail because in t h e m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , w h e r e m o s t dams and irrigation projects are developed, that can never constitute m o r e than a B a n d - A i d o n a d y i n g p a t i e n t . T h e c a t c h m e n t in q u e s t i o n has, in all h k e l i h o o d , b e e n subjected to t h e i n f l u e n c e of three tools w h o s e d a m a g i n g influences t h e e n g i n e e r was u n a w a r e of, rest (as p a r tial rest), p e r i o d i c fire, and grazing (as overgrazing), all of w h i c h tend to expose soil and increase the a m o u n t of water that r u n s off it. Inevitably, the d a m will silt up, as I, t h e son of a civil engineer, have seen repeatedly and as past civilizations have illustrated abundantly. W e r e e n g i n e e r s to e x p a n d t h e n u m b e r of tools in their kit, they w o u l d greatly increase the possibility of success. T h e m o r e brittle t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , t h e m o r e the n e e d for s o m e f o r m of p e r i o d i c disturbance over m i l lions of acres of t h e c a t c h m e n t and for assistance in b r e a k i n g d o w n billions of tons of plant material every year w i t h o u t using fire. T h e r e is n o t e c h nology, and likely n e v e r will be, that can d o this in a m o r e e n v i r o n m e n t a l ly friendly way than t h e animal i m p a c t and grazing provided by h e r d i n g animals. A n d as they p e r f o r m these tasks they r e m o v e t h e cause of the erosion o n t h e c a t c h m e n t that leads to t h e silting of t h e d a m . Fire and rest c a n n o t d o this. In most cases they will only m a k e matters worse. Sociologists, e c o n o m i s t s , environmentalists, and politicians can similarly m o v e b e y o n d t h e tools traditionally available to t h e m w i t h i n thenprofessions. B u t this b e c o m e s possible only w h e n they b e g i n to w o r k

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t o g e t h e r w i t h o t h e r s outside their p r o f e s s i o n s — s o m e t h i n g m o r e and m o r e p e o p l e are a t t e m p t i n g to d o as they find that very f e w p r o b l e m s can be solved w i t h i n t h e confines of individual disciplines.These multidisciplinary teams can o v e r c o m e m a j o r hurdles by s h a r i n g k n o w l e d g e of the various tools available w i t h i n their professions, b u t success will still elude t h e m , as I e m p h a s i z e d in C h a p t e r 3, if they fail to see the w h o l e first. T h e tools of the f u t u r e will u n d o u b t e d l y i n c o r p o r a t e m a n y t e c h n o l o g ical w o n d e r s , including, hopefully, benign sources of energy. A n d broad t h i n k i n g m i g h t lead to tools outside t e c h n o l o g y that break n e w g r o u n d . A y o u n g cousin of m i n e , after w a t c h i n g a television p r o g r a m w h e r e Israel's U r i Geller b e n t iron w i t h his " m i n d " and a light stroke of his fingers, p i c k e d u p a steel nail file and did the same t h i n g himself. H e was of c o u r s e t o o y o u n g to know, as w e all do, that " y o u can't d o that." For m o s t of us, such m i n d - o v e r - m a t t e r p h e n o m e n a fall c o m p l e t e l y o u t side the t o o l chest, and j u s t r e a d i n g the last p a r a g r a p h may m a k e us w i n c e . Nevertheless, that is j u s t the attitude we m u s t avoid at all costs w h e n l o o k i n g at t h e tools r o w of the Holistic M a n a g e m e n t m o d e l , w h i c h may well b e e x p a n d e d in the f u t u r e . W h e n m a n a g i n g holistically, all tools are equal. N o tool is g o o d o r bad, and n o j u d g m e n t s o n any tool or action should be m a d e outside t h e c o n text of the w h o l e u n d e r m a n a g e m e n t . O n l y w h e n the holistic goal and the degree of brittleness of the e n v i r o n m e n t are k n o w n , t o g e t h e r w i t h the m a n y o t h e r factors h a v i n g a b e a r i n g o n t h e situation, is any tool finally j u d g e d suitable or unsuitable in that particular situation at that time. Fire, for instance, is g o o d w h e n it keeps m y hands w a r m o n a cold m o r n i n g , but it is bad w h e n it is b u r n i n g d o w n m y house. In C h a p t e r s 19 t h r o u g h 22 we'll e x a m i n e h o w fire, rest, grazing, and animal i m p a c t tend to affect each of the f o u r ecosystem processes relative to the brittleness scale. A n a l y z i n g the i m p a c t of a single t o o l w h e n m a n y o t h e r processes and o t h e r tools may be at w o r k at the same time w o u l d appear to be an impossible task. W h e r e a c o w places h e r h o o f today, for instance, begins a chain of reactions that ensures that spot will never be exactly the same again. A solution to this d i l e m m a rests o n the hypothesis that the t e n d e n c i e s of these f o u r tools, w h e n c h o s e n and applied in a certain way, f u n c t i o n in the ecosystem like the ripple p a t t e r n s of pebbles t h r o w n i n t o a still p o o l . It is a fact of physics that even t h o u g h multiple ripples appear to create disorganized chaos o n the pool's surface, the orderly ripples p r o d u c e d by pebbles t h r o w n individually still exist. E a c h p e b b l e does in fact i m p a r t a predictable tendency. If w e t h r o w in t w o pebbles of very different sizes, w e can, in fact, see w h a t each pebble's ripples t e n d to do. A larger p e b b l e may o v e r c o m e a smaller one's ripples but the smaller ones's ripples will still have a visible effect.

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In c o n s i d e r i n g w h i c h tools to apply, either singly o r in c o m b i n a t i o n , w e t h i n k of t h e m like those pebbles and ask ourselves, " W i l l it start a ripple that pushes the c o m m u n i t y toward m o r e c o m p l e x i t y ? H o w will its ripples tend to c h a n g e w a t e r and m i n e r a l cycles and e n e r g y f l o w ? " A l t h o u g h there may b e c o u n t e r v a i l i n g ripples that diminish and partially obscure t h e force of t h e ones we start, it is n o t likely that t h e p o w e r of t w o ripples m o v i n g in t h e same general direction will c o m b i n e into an entirely n e w a n d o p p o site force. O n c e these t e n d e n c i e s are a c k n o w l e d g e d , a careful consideration of the testing and m a n a g e m e n t guidelines covered in later chapters helps us then to j u d g e w h i c h tools are best to apply now. E v e n t h e n w e always assume w e c o u l d be w r o n g and m o n i t o r to ensure t h e tools selected achieve w h a t w e w a n t t h e m to achieve.

17 Money and Labor: One or Both of These Tbols Is Always Required

n c e u p o n a t i m e p e o p l e s u p p o r t e d themselves by applying c r e ativity and labor, o r brains a n d b r a w n , directly to t h e raw resources of o u r ecosystem. M a n y societies still d o this, as d o m a n y f a r m and r a n c h families n o t actually paying for t h e labor of family m e m b e r s . B o t h t h e n and n o w w e used o u r creativity to obtain t h e m a x i m u m effect w i t h as litde labor as possible. Because m o n e y and labor are o f t e n linked (e.g., cash can be e x c h a n g e d for labor) and because n e i t h e r can be used o t h e r than t h r o u g h a n o t h e r tool, w e g r o u p t h e m t o g e t h e r in the Holistic M a n a g e m e n t m o d e l . Ideally, o u r natural t e n d e n c y to e c o n o m i z e o n labor should apply equally to money. B u t m o n e y is a m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d m a t t e r a n d this isn't o f t e n t h e case. A f e w years ago, I spoke to a g r o u p of e c o n o m i s t s f r o m various u n i v e r sities a n d asked t h e m to define wealth. To m y surprise they grappled over that q u e s t i o n a l o n g t i m e and in t h e e n d only d e f i n e d wealth as money. Well, o n c e u p o n a t i m e m o n e y probably did perfectly represent wealth, but that was a l o n g t i m e ago, a n d the fact that m a n y experts still believe it is a d i s t u r b i n g aspect of m o d e r n times. T h e distinction b e t w e e n wealth and m o n e y has taken a few millennia to develop. H u m a n s in a primitive state organized a r o u n d small family units had n o m o n e y b u t did have wealth. If w e had b o t h e r e d to measure that w e a l t h , w e w o u l d have tallied up the natural resources available f o r use in o u r group's h o m e range or territory, o u r tools and w e a p o n s , t h e p r o tective quality of o u r cave, and perhaps t h e closeness of o u r ties to o n e another.

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T h e r e is s o m e controversy over w h e t h e r family g r o u p s evolved into u r b a n societies after discovering h o w to d o m e s t i c a t e certain plants and animals or after discovering excellent h u n t i n g g r o u n d s that i n c l u d e d sites rich in t h e resources n e e d e d for m a k i n g tools and w e a p o n s . W h i c h e v e r it was, at s o m e p o i n t very early on, h u m a n c o m m u n i t i e s d e v e l o p e d to t h e e x t e n t that individuals c o u l d share t h e tasks of survival and specialize in w h a t they did best. U n t i l this p o i n t was reached t h e r e was n o pressing n e e d for a m e d i u m of e x c h a n g e . F o l l o w i n g s e t t l e m e n t and specialization t h e need b e c a m e u r g e n t . If I had b e e n crippled in t h e h u n t b u t c o u l d m a k e excellent spear points, and you w e r e an excellent h u n t e r , n o t so g o o d at m a k i n g spear points, w e c o u l d b e g i n to trade spear p o i n t s f o r m e a t or hides. If I g r e w a g o o d crop but elephants flattened yours, w e could d o a trade this season. I w o u l d help feed y o u r family in r e t u r n for y o u d o i n g t h e same for m i n e s h o u l d a s i m ilar fate befall me. W h i l e o u r c o m m u n i t y was still very small such exchanges c o u l d be m e m o r i z e d o r r e c o r d e d as marks o n a stick or b o n e . W e w o u l d all k n o w each o t h e r well a n d thus trust that o u r simple deals w o u l d b e h o n o r e d . (As c o m m u n i t i e s b e c a m e larger, and deals m o r e c o m p l e x this m i g h t n o l o n g e r apply.) I m i g h t have b e c o m e an e x p e r t sandal m a k e r by this t i m e w h o traded pairs of sandals f o r half a sheep or a basket of grain. H o w e v e r , I didn't always w a n t t h e sheep or grain i m m e d i a t e l y and those n e e d i n g t h e sandals m i g h t n o t be ready to slaughter o r harvest. So they gave m e a t o k e n r e p resenting the trade, w h i c h I c o u l d r e d e e m later. T h i s w o r k e d well until I n e e d e d a blanket f r o m the m a n m o s t e x p e r t at m a k i n g t h e m , b u t h e n e e d ed n o sandals. W e o v e r c a m e this impasse by creating m o n e y . I got m y blanket by giving t h e blanket m a k e r a t o k e n given to m e by t h e grain f a r m e r . T h e blanket m a k e r t h e n collected the basket of grain that he did n e e d . In fact h e n e e d e d m o r e t h a n o n e basket of grain to feed his family a n d h e got t w o m o r e baskets by giving t h e grain f a r m e r t w o blanket tokens, w h i c h he p r o m i s e d to h o n o r b e f o r e w i n t e r . S u c h tokens w o u l d have b e e n e x t r e m e l y c o n v e n i e n t , as they still are, to carry and store or a c c u m u l a t e for later use, in e x c h a n g e for s o m e service (labor) or goods (grain, blanket, sandals). O n c e such t o k e n s w e r e established as a trusted m e a n s of exchange, they inevitably b e g a n to b e distributed t h r o u g h t h e p o p u l a t i o n in an u n e v e n m a n n e r . I m i g h t b e g i n to a c c u m u l a t e m o r e than m y family r e q u i r e d for services o r goods. O n e day a close f r i e n d approaches m e as he has cut his h a n d badly a n d is u n a b l e to m a k e the hoes o n w h i c h his family's livelihood d e p e n d s . H e is o u t of tokens and needs f o o d . I k n o w h i m a n d trust h i m and I realize h e will b e better soon a n d able to e a r n tokens in e x c h a n g e for t h e excellent hoes he makes, so I lend h i m s o m e tokens. H o w e v e r , for this favor w e agree that h e will r e t u r n o n e m o r e t o k e n than h e b o r r o w e d . At this p o i n t m y tokens ( m o n e y ) began e a r n i n g m e simple interest.

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As o u r c o m m u n i t y grew, w e established trade w i t h a c o m m u n i t y in t h e n e x t valley. Since w e didn't always k n o w or trust t h e individuals, w e w e r e hesitant to e x c h a n g e tokens in lieu of g o o d s or services. Early p e o p l e w o u l d inevitably have asked, was this a t o k e n that I m a d e and e x c h a n g e d for grain a year ago, or has s o m e o n e cleverly m a d e it to l o o k like m i n e ? T h u s f o r a l o n g t i m e bartered g o o d s w o u l d have b e e n t h e only acceptable c u r r e n c y b e t w e e n distant c o m m u n i t i e s . T r u s t in tokens w o u l d take t i m e to develop as we see even today w h e r e t h e tokens (currency) of only a few nations are acceptable internationally. In my G a m e D e p a r t m e n t days in Z a m b i a , I had t h e task of paying o u t a g o v e r n m e n t b o n u s o n bushpigs killed by villagers over and above those my staff killed in c o n t r o l w o r k . T h e s e bonuses were paid o u t o n my behalf by t h e District C o m m i s s i o n e r s in each district as t h e c o u n t r y was so large. O n c e a year I visited the District C o m m i s s i o n e r s , c o u n t e d t h e tails c o l lected as tokens of p a y m e n t s m a d e , and t h e n r e i m b u r s e d their d e p a r t m e n t f r o m m i n e . At o n e station I f o u n d that t h e District- C o m m i s s i o n e r had paid o u t a very large s u m to the local villagers. I n d e e d , h e had an e n o r m o u s pile of tails to prove the n u m b e r of pigs killed and paid for. M u c h to his dismay, I and my g a m e scouts, sat d o w n and inspected each tail carefully as w e c o u n t e d . Slowly w e sorted o u t a small pile of g e n u i n e tails f r o m a m o u n tain of clever counterfeits. T h e villagers had e c o n o m i z e d o n labor and f o u n d it paid b e t t e r to spend their t i m e m a k i n g tails f r o m parts of the hide w h i c h they twisted, t r i m m e d and dried, than to actually h u n t pigs. T h o s e Z a m b i a n villagers were n o t t h e first to m a k e their o w n tokens. At s o m e p o i n t in the past o n e source for m a k i n g tokens in a way that m a d e c o u n t e r f e i t difficult w o u l d have had to be agreed u p o n . O t h e r w i s e , w e w o u l d n o t have retained o u r c o n f i d e n c e in the value of tokens, or m o n e y as they had n o w officially b e c o m e , and w e w o u l d find distant trade c u m bersome. U p to this p o i n t , tokens represented actual wealth, goods, or services, but o n c e there was o n e source for the m a n u f a c t u r e of m o n e y t h e r e was also t h e possibility that m o r e c o u l d be m a d e and p u t i n t o circulation than represented actual services o r g o o d s e x c h a n g e d . T h u s was primitive inflation b o r n . F r o m here it was easy for o n e of us w h o had a c c u m u l a t e d m o n e y and was l e n d i n g it periodically, to develop a safe place to k e e p it f r o m thieves. O t h e r s m i g h t ask if they c o u l d also store their m o n e y w i t h this p e r s o n w h e n they were away. S o o n this s t o r e r - o f - m o n e y w o u l d find that he c o u l d lend y o u r m o n e y t o o and earn interest as l o n g as h e had e n o u g h m o n e y available w h e n you got back. In fact, h e w o u l d increasingly find that h e could d o this even if you did n o t go away, as l o n g as w e all had c o n f i d e n c e in h i m a n d did n o t all ask for o u r m o n e y back at t h e same t i m e . T h u s was primitive b a n k i n g b o r n . N o w , y o u as a grain p r o d u c e r find that y o u w a n t to build a larger h o u s e

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b e f o r e w i n t e r and n e e d several p e o p l e to help y o u . Y o u r grain will n o t be ready to harvest for several m o n t h s , so you b o r r o w the necessary m o n e y f r o m the b a n k e r to pay for this labor. It is g o i n g to take m o r e than he has in safekeeping and to still allow for s o m e w h o m i g h t c o m e to get their money. H e does n o t have e n o u g h to lend y o u , b u t at t h e same t i m e h e does n o t w a n t to lose this o p p o r t u n i t y to earn interest. H e is creative and agrees to let y o u have credit u p to the a m o u n t y o u require. H e will h o n o r pieces of p a r c h m e n t w i t h his mark o n t h e m , u p to a certain a m o u n t , w h e n y o u r laborers present t h e m to h i m . N o w , n o t only can the central m a n u f a c t u r e r of t h e m o n e y cause inflation, so can the l e n d e r of money. M o n e y has b e e n t h e oil that has kept the w h e e l s of society t u r n i n g and allowed t h e c o m p l e x i t y of o u r present civilization to develop, b u t credit, the centralized creation of m o n e y , interest, and particularly c o m p o u n d interest, have seriously destabilized the relationship b e t w e e n m o n e y and the g o o d s and services, or wealth, it originally represented. In m y lifetime alone, t h e distinction b e t w e e n wealth and m o n e y has probably b e c o m e m o r e b l u r r e d than at any t i m e in history. H i g h interest was u s u r i o u s w h e n I was a child; n o w that's seen as quaintly o l d - f a s h i o n e d . M a j o r banks m o v e h e a d q u a r t e r s to states w i t h m o r e l e n i e n t usury laws and still retain c u s t o m e r c o n f i d e n c e . W h e r e it was o n c e u n a c c e p t a b l e for lenders to advertise o r engage in aggressive p r o m o t i o n , it is n o w c o m m o n p l a c e . M o n e y itself has b e c o m e a c o m m o d i t y , like grain o r oil, that earns m o n e y and can b e traded internationally. T h e use of credit cards and the electronic s p e e d u p of m o n e t a r y transactions have blurred t h e distinction even f u r t h e r . Today f o r t u n e s can be m a d e o v e r n i g h t o n the i n t e r n a t i o n a l trade in m o n e y , or c u r r e n c y speculation, w h e r e real g o o d s or services play n o part at all. T h e a m o u n t s of m o n e y involved in this trade in any o n e day e x c e e d that of m o s t n a t i o n s ' a n n u a l budgets. C o m p o u n d i n g i n t e r e s t — w h e r e i n t e r est is c o m p u t e d o n principal and a c c r u e d interest—has only e n c o u r a g e d the trade in m o n e y as a c o m m o d i t y and is responsible for m u c h of the e n o r m o u s increase in the m o n e y supply, o r inflation. In fact, a c c o r d i n g to the W o r l d B a n k , t h e world's m o n e y supply is n o w fifteen to t w e n t y times greater than the value of the goods a n d services p r o d u c e d in t h e world economy.1 It b e c o m e s easy as o n e stands in a plush, a i r - c o n d i t i o n e d b a n k , h u m m i n g w i t h electronic activity, to lose sight of the u n d e r l y i n g reality of wealth in the financial resources w e m a n a g e . W h a t e v e r t h e source of the m o n e y — r e a l g o o d s and services, i n c l u d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n , or c o r p o r a t e t a k e o v e r — i t all looks the same as w e stare at the dollar bills o r t h e c o m p u t e r i z e d spreadsheet. P r i m i t i v e societies did n o t m a k e this mistake as their wealth a n d reality were o n e and t h e same thing. B u t for us t h e token that o u r ancestors created to facilitate t h e e x c h a n g e of g o o d s a n d labor has b e c o m e o u r real-

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ity. T h e urban life of most p e o p l e seldom challenges this m i s c o n c e p t i o n , as w e fill all o u r basic a n d n o t so basic needs w i t h cash or credit, and it does n o t s e e m to matter m u c h w h e r e either c o m e s f r o m . M o s t of t h e holistic goals w e f o r m , w h e t h e r they apply to us as i n d i viduals or to a n a t i o n as a w h o l e , should involve a sustainable source of wealth, as the reality (wealth) is m o r e vital than the s y m b o l (money) in the l o n g haul. H o w e v e r , to m a n a g e wealth as it has b e c o m e today, w h e r e a d o l lar ( p o u n d , franc, or r u p e e ) , regardless of source, can purchase t h e same things as any o t h e r dollar, w e m u s t first u n d e r s t a n d the three m o s t basic sources of wealth the dollar represents: mineral dollars, paper dollars, and solar dollars.

Mineral Dollars I call m o n e y derived f r o m a c o m b i n a t i o n of h u m a n creativity, labor, and raw resources (soil, timber, d u n g used as fuel, water, oil, coal, gas, gold, silver, u r a n i u m ) mineral dollars. Mineral dollar wealth has certain c h a r a c t e r istics. First, the raw resources f r o m w h i c h it is derived can b e used cyclically, over p r o l o n g e d t i m e . T h i s w o u l d include paper, plastic, o r metals that are r e c y c l e d — w i t h f u r t h e r i n p u t of energy that itself involves mineral dollar wealth. It also includes soil, timber, and d u n g that can be constantly r e g e n erated w i t h inputs of free solar energy. M o n e y so g e n e r a t e d can be used to develop infrastructure to generate f u t u r e wealth (e.g., e d u c a t i o n , buildings, factories, farms, railroads, highways). S e c o n d , the raw resources can also be used noncyclically (i.e., c o n s u m e d in a single use). Soils in mainstream A m e r i c a n agriculture are b e i n g m i n e d in a consumptive, noncyclical m a n n e r , w h e n they could be regenerated if used cyclically. O i l and gas are always used noncyclically w h e n b u r n e d as fuel, b u t cyclically . w h e n c o n v e r t e d to p r o d u c t s that are recyclable. Water can also be used either way. If, after use, w a t e r is t o o p o l l u t e d for reuse, it is b e i n g used noncyclically in t e r m s of h u m a n use. In either case, e n e r g y derived f r o m these raw resources can also p r o d u c e b y - p r o d u c t s that are potentially destructive to o u r ecosystem. W e have a b u n d a n t evidence that the present c o n s u m p t i o n of coal, oil, gas, and u r a n i u m / p l u t o n i u m may soon e n d a n g e r life as we k n o w it.

Paper Dollars M a n y of us acquire m o n e y t h r o u g h h u m a n creativity a n d labor alone. I refer to this source as p a p e r dollars. T h e beauty of such i n c o m e is that it c o n s u m e s no o t h e r resources. All w e have to d o is apply o u r creativity in thousands of different ways to t h e m a n y avenues o p e n for investment: speculation in futures markets, stocks, b o n d s , c o r p o r a t e takeovers, and so o n .

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O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , various s e r v i c e s — m a n y of t h e m essential—also fall into this category. Lawyers, consultants, educators, accountants, civil servants, armies, and so o n d o n o t actually m a k e a n y t h i n g or p r o d u c e t h e kind of e l e m e n t a l wealth that supports life. B u t they d o e n h a n c e and p r o t e c t that wealth, a n d life w i t h o u t t h e m w o u l d b e inconceivable today. Professional speakers, entertainers, athletes, and m a n y o t h e r s also reap p a p e r dollars f o r the services they provide, and a l t h o u g h they p r o d u c e n o tangible goods, they m a k e life g e n u i n e l y m o r e pleasurable. In s o m e cases t h e m o n e y g e n e r a t e d in this category has t h e fascinating characteristic of apparently instant and u n l i m i t e d accessibility. W e can m a k e f o r t u n e s in a day w i t h n o t h i n g b u t o u r creativity and m i n i m a l effort in t h e stock m a r k e t . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , this m o n e y can vanish as quickly as it appeared. Paper dollars are b a c k e d by c o n f i d e n c e in the g o v e r n m e n t and the b a n k i n g system, and w h e n that c o n f i d e n c e is lost, p a p e r dollars can lose their value o v e r n i g h t .

Solar Dollars T h i r d , w e can g e n e r a t e i n c o m e f r o m h u m a n creativity, labor, and such c o n stant sources of e n e r g y as g e o t h e r m a l heat, w i n d , tides, wave action, falling water, and m o s t of all t h e sun. I call this last class of m o n e y solar dollars. S u c h e n e r g y as a s o u r c e of wealth is noncyclical, but it is apparently i n e x haustible. A characteristic of wealth derived f r o m this c o m b i n a t i o n is that it tends n o t to d a m a g e o u r life s u p p o r t system or to e n d a n g e r h u m a n k i n d as far as w e k n o w today. N o t l o n g ago, however, w e t h o u g h t t h e same of fossil e n e r g y and firewood. A f u r t h e r characteristic is that wealth in this c a t e g o r y is the only kind that can actually feed people. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , this requires t h e conversion of solar e n e r g y t h r o u g h plants that themselves d e p e n d o n w a t e r and b i o l o g i cally active soils. B o t h plants a n d soils fall i n t o t h e first category, m i n e r a l resources that can b e m i n e d in a c o n s u m p t i v e m a n n e r or m a n a g e d o n a sustained basis, d e p e n d i n g o n t h e t r e a t m e n t . Only when soils are managed on a sustained basis would the money earned from a crop or forage qualify as solar dollars. K e e p i n g the three categories of m o n e y in m i n d enables us to see t h e e x t e n t to w h i c h failure to d o so governs o u r society now. E c o n o m i s t s daily engage in j u g g l i n g p a p e r dollars, sublimely unaware of w h a t those dollars actually represent in t e r m s of real wealth. O n the advice of these same economists, f a r m e r s diligently p u r s u e m i n e r a l dollars w h i l e c o n s u m p t i v e l y m i n i n g their soils to d o so. S o m e 24 billion tons of soil erodes f r o m t h e world's agricultural lands each year, e n o u g h soil to fill a train of freight cars stretching f r o m E a r t h to t h e m o o n and back again five times. 2

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M O N E Y A N D L A B O R : O N E OR B O T H OF T H E S E T O O L S IS ALWAYS R E Q U I R E D

Conclusion S o o n e r o r later t h e u n d e r l y i n g basis of a nation's o r an individual's quality of life asserts its nature. A c o u n t r y rolling in oil r e v e n u e today m u s t ask itself to w h a t end t h e cash flows i n . T h e nation that thrives by b u r n i n g the oil m u s t ask w h a t that does to the greater ecosystem that sustains us all. W h a t will h a p p e n to the nation's l o n g - t e r m quality of life a n d p r o d u c t i v e base? If the wealth f r o m oil goes to a c c u m u l a t i n g p a p e r dollars a n d to s u p p o r t u n p r o d u c t i v e legions of bureaucrats, accountants, soldiers, and o t h e r s w h o c o n s u m e a n d k e e p transactions going, b u t d o n o t e n h a n c e t h e nation's ability to increase or to m a i n t a i n its biological capital, is that s o u n d ? In o t h e r words, is it s o u n d if the nation's resource base deteriorates w h i l e it wallows in p a p e r dollars? S h o u l d n ' t s o m e o f the dollars f r o m n o n r e n e w able mineral wealth go to develop ways to reap solar and m i n e r a l dollars o n a sustainable basis? O n e of the seven tests i n c l u d e d in holistic decision m a k i n g asks y o u to c o n s i d e r the source and use of the m o n e y involved in i m p l e m e n t i n g a plan of action. If y o u are a land manager, this is a r e m i n d e r to consider w h e t h e r that action will lead to t h e p r o d u c t i o n of solar dollars gained by e n h a n c i n g mineral resources. All f o r m s of m o n e y will figure in y o u r plans, b u t only solar dollars c o m b i n e d w i t h r e s o u r c e - e n h a n c i n g m i n e r a l dollars will enable y o u to p r o d u c e the biological capital that sustains y o u r efforts in the s h o r t r u n , and t h e rest o f h u m a n i t y ' s in the l o n g r u n . W h a t e v e r f o r m s of wealth y o u control, success in a c h i e v i n g y o u r holistic goal d e p e n d s o n h o w creatively y o u use t h e m . T h u s w e l o o k at human creativity next.

18 Human Creativity: Key to Using A l l Tools Effectively

h e n Holistic M a n a g e m e n t was in its infancy w e n e e d e d a n a m e for the reasoning and j u d g m e n t a t t e n d a n t o n any use o f labor and resources. I first used brainpower b u t s o o n realized that w o r d didn't cover t h e g r o u n d . A m a n w h o adds u p six-digit n u m b e r s in his head m a y have great b r a i n p o w e r but n o c o m m o n sense or humanity.

W

Just as notable in Holistic M a n a g e m e n t is that an idea that enables o n e person to attain m a x i m u m effect f r o m his or her labor a n d m o n e y may n o t w o r k f o r a n o t h e r , o r even f o r that p e r s o n in the f o l l o w i n g year. A small family f a r m , for instance, is as u n i q u e as y o u r fingerprint—it c a n n o t b e duplicated a n y w h e r e in the world. H o w e v e r , w h e r e y o u r fingerprint keeps the same u n c h a n g i n g p a t t e r n every day of y o u r life, the small family f a r m changes continually: t h e p e o p l e c h a n g e as individuals a n d as a family over time, m e m b e r s are b o r n , t h e n grow, mature, marry, divorce, or die; t h e land is n e v e r t h e same t w o years in a row; a n d markets can vary f r o m day to day. T h u s , every situation requires management, that must be an original product oj human imagination, and even that must evolve as the situation changes. Creativity, n o t b r a i n p o w e r , is the crucial e l e m e n t and it is n e e d e d c o n stantly. T h i s u n i q u e character of any w h o l e w e m a n a g e is w h y I believe n o f o r mula or m a n a g e m e n t system can w o r k o t h e r than s h o r t t e r m . A n d it is w h y different persons in different situations have to learn to t h i n k creatively for themselves and their situation. In Meeting the Expectations of the Land, farmer-essayist W e n d e l l B e r r y n o t e d that a w h o l e g e n e r a t i o n of f a r m e r s has b e e n b r o u g h t u p to use their heads to advertise o t h e r s ' p r o d u c t s (on their caps) and to p h o n e the e x t e n s i o n service to b e told w h a t to do. T h e 178

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H U M A N C R E A T I V I T Y : K E Y TO U S I N G A L L T O O L S EFFECTIVELY

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e x t e n s i o n service in t u r n employs a g e n e r a t i o n of advisers w h o s e u n i v e r sity e d u c a t i o n trained t h e m in h o w to d o rather than h o w to t h i n k . T h i s p r o b l e m is n o t limited to f a r m i n g , but has b e c o m e increasingly c o m m o n in all fields, particularly in d e v e l o p e d nations. In m y early years as a consultant, I played a role m u c h like an e x t e n s i o n agent a n d merely advised m y clients w h a t to do. W h e n things w e n t w r o n g , I advised t h e m to d o s o m e t h i n g else. U s i n g m y h e a d to design their m a n a g e m e n t always p r o d u c e d i m p e r f e c t advice because I was an outsider l o o k ing in at s o m e t h i n g very c o m p l e x . A l t h o u g h superficially results were g o o d , d e p t h a n d sustainability were lacking because I, n o t m y clients, did t h e planning. H a d I first given t h e m m y k n o w l e d g e a n d t h e n let t h e m d o the t h i n k i n g for themselves, they could have d e v e l o p e d m a n a g e m e n t that was far s u p e r i o r and m o r e holistic. M y role should have b e e n to b r i n g in outside e x p e r i e n c e to stimulate their t h i n k i n g . T h e y w o u l d have k n o w n w h i c h bits of k n o w l e d g e w o u l d fit their case and w h i c h w o u l d n o t . As it was, I did n o n e of this. M a n y w h o b e c a m e heavily d e p e n d e n t o n m e w e n t seriously adrift w h e n I suddenly had to flee my c o u n t r y as a political exile. S o m e of their mistakes had serious c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r w h i c h I was really to blame. S o m e years later, I realized that any consultant c o n sistently has a m u c h h i g h e r than average c h a n c e of b e i n g w r o n g , as I was, n o m a t t e r h o w k n o w l e d g e a b l e o r dedicated, because he or she is always an outsider l o o k i n g in. To m a n a g e holistically, it has to be the o t h e r way a r o u n d . To c o r r e c t this I subsequently only agreed to w o r k w i t h p e o p l e w h o w o u l d first learn h o w to m a k e decisions holistically and h o w to plan for themselves. T h e n my counsel could b e c o m e a m a t t e r o f suggesting ideas and collaboratively t h i n k i n g t h r o u g h t h e m . W e c o u l d p r o c e e d f r o m the client's p o i n t of view, n o t m i n e , using the holistic goal and the testing guidelines to m a k e sure w e always steered in the r i g h t direction. T h e Holistic M a n a g e m e n t testing guidelines have b e e n d e v e l o p e d to help us to assess the possible c o n s e q u e n c e s , b o t h g o o d and bad, relative to o u r holistic goal, of using any available tool. As m a n y of t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s are n o t quantifiable, this is n o t a task for a c o m p u t e r . Any h u m a n r e s p o n sible for m a n a g e m e n t will have certain feelings a b o u t it a n d will e n c o u n t e r the feelings of others. Love, fear, hopes, dreams, and i n t e r p e r s o n a l conflicts very m u c h affect any m a n a g e m e n t situation in ways n o c o m p u t e r yet devised can u n d e r s t a n d . T h e Holistic M a n a g e m e n t f r a m e w o r k itself, however, is n o t h i n g m o r e than a bit of software to help organize t h i n k i n g a n d planning. Its successful application d e p e n d s entirely o n y o u r ability to t h i n k and to b e creative. Fortunately, creativity is n o t simply a g e n e t i c e n d o w m e n t . It d e p e n d s o n y o u r mental, e m o t i o n a l , and physical health, y o u r e n v i r o n m e n t , and m o s t of all o n t h e c o m m i t m e n t you have to achieving y o u r holistic goal. A l t h o u g h individuals can and should ideally m a n a g e their lives holisti-

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T H E T O O L S WF. U S E TO M A N A G E O U R ECOSYSTEM

cally, resources are rarely m a n a g e d by o n e individual. M o r e o f t e n a family, a company, a tribe, or a n a t i o n has s o m e k i n d of institutional responsibility. R e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n the p e o p l e involved can b e at all points a l o n g a c o n t i n u u m f r o m very stressful to very caring, and the state of these relationships has a b e a r i n g o n t h e creativity of e a c h individual and the g r o u p as a w h o l e . H o w e v e r , it is t h e p e r s o n at t h e t o p — t h e o w n e r , m a n a g e r , chief, e t c . — w h o sets t h e tone. H i s or her beliefs and b e h a v i o r have the greatest i m p a c t o n t h e creativity of the g r o u p . T h e m o s t vital responsibility any m a n a g e r ever has is to create an e n v i r o n m e n t that n u r t u r e s creativity. R e s e a r c h since the 1960s has s h o w n that the living and w o r k i n g environment is key to t h e release of creative p o t e n tial, w h e t h e r it be w i t h i n a small, f a m i l y - r u n o p e r a t i o n o r in o u r largest c o r p o r a t i o n s . Creativity of t h e group, n o m a t t e r its size, tends to be g r e a t est w h e n t h e leader's everyday actions display trust a n d c o n f i d e n c e in his or h e r people, w h e n t h e w o r k is m e a n i n g f u l , w h e n all feel free to express ideas and to b e creative, and w h e n all feel valued. S u c h a spirit c a n n o t be faked. T h e p e r s o n at the t o p really must value his or her c o w o r k e r s as h u m a n beings and n o t m e r e tools f o r m a k i n g p r o f it. C o r p o r a t i o n s that saw profits rise w h e n they treated employees as their p r i m e resource, saw t h e m t u m b l e w h e n employees sensed they w e r e m e r e ly b e i n g m a n i p u l a t e d . At present t h e m a j o r i t y of us take h u m a n creativity for g r a n t e d a n d d o n o t see it as s o m e t h i n g that must develop t h r o u g h the family and social and w o r k e n v i r o n m e n t . W e rarely see it as a tool that governs o u r success o r failure. T h e male h e a d of a small f a r m i n g family leaving t h e land in A m e r i c a today, as h u n d r e d s of thousands are doing, n o d o u b t blames t h e banks, t h e interest rates, the prices, the g o v e r n m e n t , the weather, a n d looks to society to help h i m and his family. It is difficult i n d e e d f o r h i m to see that w h i l e h e labored l o n g a n d hard w i t h his hands, using his head a n d the creativity of family m e m b e r s and friends m i g h t have h e l p e d h i m to survive. S u b c o n s c i o u s w o r r i e s a n d stresses all t o o o f t e n c o m p l e t e l y sap o u r creative energies. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , this is a c o m m o n a n d subtle f a c t o r that affects m a n y of us, b u t f o r t u n a t e l y it is entirely w i t h i n o u r control. M a n y of o u r stresses are allied to crisis m a n a g e m e n t — w h e r e o n e crisis after a n o t h e r hits and drives y o u r m a n a g e m e n t — w h i c h in t u r n is closely allied to t h e way p e o p l e m a k e decisions. Holistic decision m a k i n g will help to c i r c u m v e n t any t e n d e n c y toward crisis m a n a g e m e n t a n d r e d u c e t h e stress associated w i t h it. P o o r time m a n a g e m e n t also leads to crisis m a n a g e m e n t and a stifling of creativity. It has certainly proved to b e a serious obstacle in m a n y of the situations w h e r e I have consulted. Typically, a p e r s o n w o u l d call o n m e to help stave off i m p e n d i n g b a n k r u p t c y . W i t h i n a very s h o r t t i m e I

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w o u l d realize that m y talk of p l a n n i n g for the f u t u r e was meaningless, because m y client's m i n d was o n the tractor that n e e d e d a n e w clutch, t h e p i c k u p that n e e d e d n e w w h e e l bearings, the b o u n d a r y f e n c e that was d o w n , o r the d a m that had burst t h e n i g h t before. To get h i m o u t of t h e crisis h e n e e d e d all t h e creativity h e c o u l d m u s t e r to carefully plan t h e next crucial m o n t h s . B u t his w o r r i e s p r e v e n t e d h i m f r o m p l a n n i n g his t i m e o r a n y t h i n g else. O v e r m a n y years I had p e r f e c t e d a g o o d system for m a n a g i n g m y time that h a d served m e well a n d that I shared w i t h clients in these sorts of cases. I w o u l d assist t h e p e r s o n in p l o t t i n g ahead and allocating his t i m e for all the c o n c e r n s that had piled u p and w e r e believed to b e of equal i m p o r tance, so m u c h so that n o t h i n g at all was b e i n g d o n e because everything, h e t h o u g h t , h a d to be d o n e today. O n c e w e established priorities, i n c l u d i n g family t i m e a n d holidays, a n d allocated m o r e than e n o u g h t i m e over the n e x t f e w m o n t h s to c o m p l e t e t h e m , there w o u l d always b e m a n y days left w i t h n o t h i n g to do! T h e p e r s o n w o u l d be i m m e n s e l y relieved. B u t this plan inevitably was n o t followed because t h e p e r s o n lacked t h e self-discipline, o r so I t h o u g h t . O n reflection, I realized it was d e e p e r than that. "What was lacking was an established routine, o r habit, w h i c h c o u l d b e learned. W h a t e v e r t i m e m a n a g e m e n t system o n e uses, t h e keys to its success are habit a n d trust. A habitual p r o c e d u r e m u s t b e established w h e r e b y all the ideas that c o m e to m i n d and all t h e c o m m i t m e n t s m a d e are i m m e d i a t e l y r e c o r d e d in o n e place, rather than o n scattered scraps of paper, so they can later be retrieved (and u n d e r s t o o d ) a n d acted o n . O n c e this habit is f o r m e d t h e n you cease to w o r r y a b o u t c o m m i t m e n t s o r ideas you m i g h t forget and you b e g i n to trust t h e p r o c e d u r e and let go of y o u r subconscious, o r c o n scious, worries. T h i s t h e n frees u p the m i n d f o r creative t h o u g h t .

Conclusion M o s t of us c o m p l a i n that w e j u s t d o n ' t have e n o u g h time for creative t h o u g h t o r in fact to d o all that w e w a n t to do, a n d w e marvel at those w h o s e e m to find it. O f t e n w e feel others have less to d o w h i l e in fact they achieve far m o r e than w e do. In t r u t h , every p e r s o n in t h e w o r l d has exactly t h e same a m o u n t of time. H o w w e m a n a g e it makes the difference in t h e quality of o u r lives and in w h a t w e achieve t h r o u g h o u r creativity. H u m a n creativity will t u r n u p again in C h a p t e r 36 w h e n w e discuss the guidelines for creating a n u r t u r i n g w o r k e n v i r o n m e n t in o r d e r to unleash the creativity i n h e r e n t in us all. For the present, however, t h i n k of it as the key to using m o n e y , labor, a n d t h e o t h e r tools of m a n a g e m e n t successfully a n d as b e i n g t h e only tool that can p r o d u c e a holistic goal and be used to plan its a c h i e v e m e n t .

19 Fire: The Most Ancient Tool

e w a r y of the a r g u m e n t that says fire, because it occurs naturally, can be used as a m a n a g e m e n t tool w i t h o u t adverse c o n s e q u e n c e s . Its effects will vary greatly d e p e n d i n g o n h o w f r e q u e n t l y an area is b u r n e d , w h a t o t h e r tools are associated w i t h its use, and h o w brittle the e n v i r o n m e n t is.

B

A l t h o u g h fire has existed ever since green plants amassed pure o x y g e n in o u r a t m o s p h e r e millions of years ago, its use as a tool by h u m a n s f o r m o d i f y i n g o u r ecosystem is a relatively recent p h e n o m e n o n . Nevertheless, w e have used it w i t h such a b a n d o n that o n any given unit of land, t h e f r e q u e n c y of fire has almost certainly u n d e r g o n e a g e o m e t r i c increase against the b a c k g r o u n d of the millions of years it t o o k m a n y biological c o m m u nities to evolve. N a t u r a l fires started by lightning, s p o n t a n e o u s c o m b u s t i o n , o r volcanic activity o c c u r i n f r e q u e n t l y in c o m p a r i s o n to the n u m b e r of h u m a n - m a d e fires. In addition, m o s t l i g h t n i n g fires o c c u r w i t h rain and thus spread less than those lit by h u m a n s , w h o o f t e n b u r n well b e f o r e rain is e x p e c t e d . A l t h o u g h h u m a n k i n d has had t h e ability to m a k e and use fire for t h e last 8 0 , 0 0 0 to 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 years, and there is s o m e e v i d e n c e that it m i g h t be as l o n g as a million years or m o r e , b o o m i n g p o p u l a t i o n s and, m o r e recently, matches a n d g o v e r n m e n t agencies that advocate using t h e m have radically increased the use of fire in m o d e r n times. It is m y f i r m belief that this increased f r e q u e n c y of fire, c o m b i n e d w i t h a r e d u c t i o n in the disturbance to soil surfaces and vegetation caused by d w i n d l i n g animal herds a n d their predators, is o n e of the p r i m e factors leading to desertification in the world's brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s . In discussing 182

19 . F I R E : T H E M O S T A N C I E N T T O O L

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water cycles in C h a p t e r 12, I m e n t i o n e d the r e p o r t e d increased flow of w a t e r over t h e Victoria Falls in Africa since 1948. To m e the bigger mystery w o u l d be if water flow were not increasing because, in m o s t of the c a t c h m e n t areas above the Victoria Falls, the use of fire has increased, and the o n c e prolific big g a m e herds have c o n t i n u e d to decrease. T h i s has led to an increase in bare g r o u n d , and thus an increase in the a m o u n t of w a t e r r u n n i n g off it. W e k n o w that in N o r t h A m e r i c a t h e earliest p e o p l e used fire a great deal and that they significantly altered t h e landscape by d o i n g so. This, t o g e t h e r w i t h the d e c i m a t i o n of m o s t of t h e large animal p o p u l a t i o n s s o m e 1 0 , 0 0 0 years ago, w o u l d have p r o d u c e d p r o f o u n d change. W h e r e large n u m b e r s of animals did survive t h e earlier h u m a n onslaught, as in the case of t h e bison o n the prairies, their presence w o u l d have diluted t h e d a m a g ing effects of fire. In fact, it was that c o m b i n a t i o n of factors—fire, grazing, a n d p r e d a t o r - i n d u c e d animal i m p a c t — t h a t p r o d u c e d the lush grasslands f o u n d by early E u r o p e a n s o n the A m e r i c a n prairies, not fire alone, a p o i n t w e will r e t u r n to. T h e same could be said for m u c h of Australia as well. Today, e n o r m o u s areas of Australia, like Africa and N o r t h A m e r i c a , are d o m i n a t e d by vegetation that is fire d e p e n d e n t because of the f r e q u e n t b u r n i n g by h u m a n s that caused previously a b u n d a n t fire-sensitive species to disappear. For millennia fire has played a vital role in h u m a n life, t o u c h i n g n o t only o u r h u n t i n g a n d agriculture, b u t also o u r religions and rituals.This has m a d e it difficult to consider this tool objectively. In parts of Africa, for instance, p e o p l e believe that if s o m e hills are n o t b u r n e d off each year, p o o r rains will follow. Visible d a m a g e to the w a t e r cycle at t h e source of m a n y streams and lack of any e v i d e n c e that fire brings rain m a k e n o difference to t h e belief. S o m e years ago I e n c o u n t e r e d a similar absence of scientific curiosity at a U.S. Soil C o n s e r v a t i o n Service training session o n " p r e s c r i b e d b u r n i n g " for t h e p u r p o s e of eradicating w o o d y vegetation. Discussion c e n t e r e d o n such things as t i m e of day to b u r n , a p p r o p r i a t e w i n d velocities a n d t e m peratures, and safe w i d t h s f o r firebreaks. W e learned h o w m u c h w a r n i n g to give n e i g h b o r s to avoid litigation, argued w h e t h e r legally the r a n c h e r or the civil servant should hold the m a t c h , and p r o b e d t h e legal fallout of fires that get o u t of h a n d . T h r o u g h o u t the day n o t a w o r d was u t t e r e d a b o u t t h e effects of fire o n the f o u r ecosystem processes, a b o u t its c o n t r i b u t i o n to a t m o s p h e r i c p o l l u tion, or a b o u t h o w b u r n i n g w o u l d affect t h e l o n g - t e r m f u t u r e landscape a m a n a g e r m i g h t b e a t t e m p t i n g to p r o d u c e . N o o n e b r o u g h t up t h e t r o u blesome fact that fire invigorates m a n y w o o d y shrubs in t h e adult f o r m . E v e r y s u p p o r t i n g a r g u m e n t rested either o n ancient beliefs o r s h o r t - t e r m

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PART V

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research that had f o c u s e d o n plant species at t h e expense of soil and b i o logical c o m m u n i t i e s as a w h o l e . M y o w n i n t r o d u c t i o n , as a biologist in training, to t h e beliefs of g a m e m a n a g e m e n t was w h i l e b o u n c i n g a l o n g in a D o d g e P o w e r W a g o n t h r o u g h Zambia's K a f u e N a t i o n a l Park, flicking lighted m a t c h e s into t h e grass u n d e r instruction of a superior. W e w a n t e d t h e g a m e to have green flushing grass b u t gave n o t h o u g h t at all to the l o n g - t e r m c o n s e q u e n c e s for the g a m e w e i n t e n d e d to help o r t h e e n v i r o n m e n t w e m e a n t to improve. In the U n i t e d States overreaction appears to b e t h e controlling national trait in this matter. T h e m a j o r i t y of p e o p l e are pro-fire for a few years and t h e n t u r n sharply against it f o r a f e w m o r e , s w i n g i n g back and f o r t h like a p e n dulum. T h e use of fire has so m a n y ramifications, however, that the m a j o r i t y o p i n i o n , w h e t h e r for or against, can s e l d o m b e right. Fire, like any o t h e r tool, can be judged only in the context of a clearly defined holistic goal and the c u r r e n t state of the f o u r ecosystem processes relative to w h a t is desired in that holistic goal. I find any discussion a b o u t t h e use of fire w i t h o u t this basic i n f o r m a t i o n to be a c a d e m i c and as likely as n o t to e n d up in p o i n t less a r g u m e n t .

E f f e c t s of Fire on Biological Communities D e c i d i n g w h e t h e r or n o t to use fire in any year requires an objective u n d e r s t a n d i n g of w h a t it does and does n o t d o and t h e effects it tends to p r o d u c e in any biological c o m m u n i t y . T h o s e effects will always vary d e p e n d i n g o n h o w brittle the e n v i r o n m e n t is and h o w high or l o w t h e rainfall.

Soil

Surface

First and of p r i m a r y i m p o r t a n c e , fire tends to expose soil surfaces. As soil surface m a n a g e m e n t is central to t h e m a n a g e m e n t of all f o u r of the ecosyst e m processes, this t e n d e n c y m u s t b e kept in m i n d b e f o r e all others. Bare g r o u n d is c o n s p i c u o u s r i g h t after a fire and until n e w g r o w t h appears to hide it. M o r e critical, however, is t h e time it takes to build u p t h e litter b e t w e e n p l a n t s . T h a t d e p e n d s o n such things as the brittleness of the envir o n m e n t , the a m o u n t and p a t t e r n of rainfall, the a m o u n t of grazing or overgrazing by livestock o r wildlife c o n c e n t r a t i n g o n t h e b u r n e d area (as they tend to do), the a m o u n t of rest, o r t h e d e g r e e a n d t i m i n g of animal impact. Fire appears to have t h e m o s t lasting i m p a c t w h e r e soil cover takes longest to f o r m , t h e lower-rainfall, very brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s . T h e lower rainfall p r o d u c e s less vegetation that m i g h t restore cover, b u t the fact that

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bare soil makes rain less effective c o m p o u n d s that effect. T h e effects of fire o n low-rainfall grasslands can persist for years, creating scarred patches of land that are clearly visible f r o m the air. W h i l e flying across B o t s w a n a in a light plane years ago, I d r e w these scarred areas in o n m y o t h e r w i s e featureless maps and navigated by t h e m for nearly a decade. If fire is followed by total rest, as it is w i t h m o s t prescribed b u r n s , or l o w animal i m p a c t (partial rest), soil cover accumulates even m o r e slowly.The guidelines for b u r n ing detailed in C h a p t e r 41 discuss using o t h e r disturbances w i t h fire instead of t h e u n n a t u r a l t w o years' total rest so c o m m o n l y r e c o m m e n d e d .

Plants Fire affects plants in different ways. S o m e sensitive perennial grasses disappear if b u r n e d . T h e majority, at least as m a t u r e plants, thrive w h e n b u r n e d as b u r n i n g removes all of t h e old material that p r e m a t u r e l y kills grasses w h e n allowed to accumulate. S o m e plants m a y in fact d e p e n d o n p e r i o d ic fire for survival. M a n y have specially adapted for establishing after fire. A n u m b e r of grass seeds have awns, o r tails, that actually twist a n d drill the seed i n t o e x p o s e d soil w h e n they b e c o m e moist, suggesting an association w i t h fire, w h i c h exposes soil. W o o d y plants, too, may r e s p o n d in m a n y ways. S o m e are e x t r e m e l y s e n sitive, others resilient. In m a n y c o u n t r i e s I have observed that m o s t of the trees and shrubs considered p r o b l e m species are resilient w h e n b u r n e d . A l t h o u g h they may appear dead i m m e d i a t e l y afterward, they soon resprout m o r e stems than before, as p h o t o 1 9 - 1 shows. T h i s plant in t h e A r i z o n a

P h o t o 19-1

Burning killed off the main stems of this shrub, but a great many stems have sprouted. Arizona.

new

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chaparral o n c e had a b o u t six stems, b u t after b u r n i n g has t h i c k e n e d u p to a great m a n y m o r e . M a n y tree species are d a m a g e d by fire, yet s o m e can still survive in the s h r u b f o r m w h e r e b u r n i n g is prolific. M o p a n e trees, c o m m o n in t h e s o u t h e r n African tropics, o n c e c a r p e t e d land I w a n t e d to irrigate f o r sugar cane. I easily cleared t h e f o r t y - f o o t trees by b u i l d i n g a small fire at the base of each tree and leaving it u n d i s t u r b e d for several days. T h e w h o l e tree b u r n e d d o w n , and as l o n g as t h e fire was left u n d i s t u r b e d so that b l o w holes in the ash w e r e n o t closed, t h e roots b u r n e d o u t far u n d e r g r o u n d . Yet w h e r e frost and m a n y past fires had kept t h e m o p a n e s d o w n to t h r e e - f o o t shrubs, the same trick failed, as they w e r e c o m p l e t e l y fire-resistant, a n d a bulldozer had to pull o u t e n o r m o u s root systems. Fire that is n o t followed by any o t h e r soil disturbance tends to cause m a j o r changes w i t h i n a c o m m u n i t y because any i n f l u e n c e that creates essentially t h e same m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t over large areas favors t h e establ i s h m e n t o f the f e w species o f plants, insects, and o t h e r organisms adapted to it. In a c o m m u n i t y of m a t u r e organisms that survive the fire, initially t h e n e w species b r o u g h t i n t o the b u r n e d area usually add complexity. F r e q u e n t repetition o f the b u r n i n g , however, will provide a largely similar m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t over large areas for so l o n g that c o m p l e x i t y diminishes. Gradually, the original c o m m u n i t y of diverse p o p u l a t i o n s is replaced by those adapted to t h e fire-maintained u n i f o r m m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t . T h u s , w h e r e a p e r i o d i c fire can create greater diversity, f r e q u e n t fires alone t e n d to d o t h e opposite. A u n i f o r m m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t leads to fewer species generally, a n d o f t e n a n e a r - m o n o c u l t u r e of l o w stability. Test plots in b o t h Z a m b i a a n d Z i m b a b w e that were b u r n e d annually for over forty years were eventually d o m i n a t e d by o n e or t w o species of grass w i t h self-drilling seeds adapted to c h a r r e d , cracked, and bare g r o u n d . A n o t e w o r t h y corollary to this effect stems f r o m t h e t e n d e n c y of b o u n d a r y areas to s u p p o r t particularly c o m p l e x c o m m u n i t i e s . T h u s a healthy diversity may thrive o n t h e edges of b u r n e d areas, and t h e i m p a c t of fire that p r o d u c e s a mosaic of patches and t o n g u e s t h r o u g h u n b u r n e d land may differ significantly f r o m the effect of a u n i f o r m b u r n . M a n a g e r s o f t e n c h o o s e to use either a h o t o r a cool b u r n , d e p e n d i n g o n the effect they w a n t to p r o d u c e . C h a p t e r 41 gives guidelines for using b o t h . H o t fires imply a lot of dry material that b u r n s fiercely w i t h large flames. Limited dry material p r o d u c e s a slow, c r e e p i n g " c o o l " fire w i t h small flames. T h e different i m m e d i a t e effect a h o t o r a cool b u r n has o n certain plants s o m e t i m e s obscures similar l o n g - t e r m effects. C o o l fires w e r e used w i d e l y by managers in the teak forests on the Kalahari sands o f Z i m b a b w e , Botswana, and Z a m b i a to prevent h o t fires later in t h e season. T h i s policy appeared so successful in p r o t e c t i n g large, m a t u r e trees that its i m p a c t on t h e forest floor w e n t u n n o t i c e d .

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T h e greatly altered m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t at t h e soil surface was n o w i n h o s pitable to teak seedlings o r to seedlings f r o m the o t h e r h a r d w o o d species of c o m m e r c i a l value, the p r o t e c t i o n of w h i c h was t h e aim of t h e forest managers. To c o n v i n c e foresters in Z i m b a b w e that this was i n d e e d the case, I suggested they see if they could find any teak seedlings over t h e thousands of acres they m a n a g e d . W h e n they were unsuccessful, I t o o k t h e m to a small area in o n e of t h e forests alongside a railway line w h e r e f o r m a n y years large n u m b e r s of cattle h a d b e e n offloaded f r o m t h e trains for w a t e r i n g . O n t h e g r o u n d w h e r e t h e cattle had t r a m p l e d and milled a r o u n d , fire had n o t o c c u r r e d for m a n y years a n d h u n d r e d s of teak seedlings had established, as well as seedlings f r o m o t h e r species that were d y i n g o u t in the areas b u r n e d to p r o t e c t those species. Forestry provides m a n y variations of this example. E x p e r t s have argued that t h e slow b u r n i n g o f ' u s e l e s s " dead w o o d o n t h e g r o u n d cuts t h e risk of h o t fires and allows n u t r i e n t s to cycle faster as ash than they w o u l d t h r o u g h decay.

Animals Animals, like plants, also vary greatly in their response to fire. M a n y d o n o t escape easily. M a n y others do. S o m e are attracted to fires f o r the easy p i c k ings of f o o d f r o m fleeing insects. It is a m y t h to t h i n k t h e larger g a m e animals of Africa always panic and flee f r o m fire. A l t h o u g h p e o p l e m a y drive t h e m to panic w i t h flames and noise, left alone and u n d i s t u r b e d they u s u ally j u s t get o u t of t h e way calmly. O n c e d u r i n g a t h r e e - d a y battle against a grass fire in t h e R u k w a Valley o f T a n z a n i a , three c o m p a n i o n s and I barely escaped e n c i r c l e m e n t by p l u n g i n g t h r o u g h a w e a k p o i n t in t h e fine of fire. O n l y yards b e y o n d t h e fire line w e f o u n d a g r o u p of r e e d b u c k w h o had j u s t had t h e same e x p e r i e n c e and had lain d o w n calmly o n t h e w a r m g r o u n d to watch. S o m e animals will seek o u t b u r n e d areas very s o o n after t h e passage of t h e fire, especially w h e n t h e first green r e g r o w t h appears. T h r o u g h o u t history w e have m a d e the mistake of n o t i n g only the i m m e d i a t e i m p a c t of fire o n t h e adult p o p u l a t i o n s of plants and animals. T h e teak forests of the Kalahari sands w e r e a case in p o i n t , but w e tend to treat grass, trees, birds, reptiles, game, a n d o t h e r organisms in t h e same way. W e only ask, were they h u r t by fire, invigorated by it, o r attracted to the g r e e n r e g r o w t h ? D i d f o o d supplies increase? W e have n o t w a t c h e d and f o r m e d o p i n i o n s o n w h a t h a p p e n e d to the ecosystem processes in t e r m s of w h a t these things w e value n e e d in o r d e r to r e p r o d u c e over p r o l o n g e d time. A s h o r t - t e r m b e n e f i t for adult p o p u l a t i o n s can e n c o u r a g e f u r t h e r b u r n ings that m a y destroy that p o p u l a t i o n in t h e l o n g r u n . I strongly suspect

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that t h e d w i n d l i n g of roan a n t e l o p e in Africa, usually b l a m e d o n disease, represents such i g n o r a n c e . For years I have w a t c h e d totally p r o t e c t e d roan herds decrease and die o u t w h e r e v e r frequent b u r n i n g caused t h e c o m p l e x savanna c o m m u n i t i e s they favored to deteriorate. M e a n w h i l e w e c o n c e n t r a t e d o n t h e actual diseases that affected t h e i m p o v e r i s h e d animals as t h e cause. T h a t seems a bit like citing p n e u m o n i a as t h e m a j o r cause of death a m o n g Russians left homeless by W o r l d W a r II, b u t the mistake is understandable. R o a n a n t e lope will c o m e o n to b u r n e d g r o u n d w h i l e logs still s m o u l d e r . K n o w i n g they liked burns, w e did o u r best to oblige, b u t o u r fires decreased t h e c o m p l e x i t y of t h e c o m m u n i t y as a w h o l e , particularly a m o n g t h e grass species that w e r e necessary f o r t h e roan's survival. B o t h t h e animals a n d t h e plants of grasslands provide m a n y examples of d e s t r u c t i o n f o l l o w i n g t o o f r e q u e n t b u r n i n g . A great m a n y g a m e species are grassland c o m m u n i t y c o m p o n e n t s , and their fate ultimately hangs o n o u r m o r e intelligent use of

Fire Alone Does Not Maintain Grasslands AH those observations add u p to d e b u n k t h e old m y t h that fire maintains grassland. Like m a n y myths it is easy to see h o w it arose, for cursory o b s e r vation and research will find it b o r n e o u t in t h e s h o r t t e r m . H o w e v e r , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t and m a i n t e n a n c e o f t h e stable a n d highly p r o d u c t i v e grasslands o f b y g o n e days is m u c h m o r e c o m p l e x than t h e m y t h implies. In C h a p t e r 4, I m e n t i o n e d m y first q u e s t i o n i n g of the beneficial fire m y t h w h e n w e used it in a g o v e r n m e n t - s p o n s o r e d p r o g r a m to h e l p clear big g a m e f r o m tsetse fly areas in Africa so p e o p l e a n d livestock c o u l d b e settled there. W e h a d w i p e d o u t the large g a m e herds, had n o t eliminated t h e tsetse fly, and n o t i n t r o d u c e d cattle. Yet t h e grasslands, w h i c h l o o k e d lush e n o u g h from the w i n d o w of a Land R o v e r traveling 30 miles p e r h o u r , w e r e d e t e r i o r a t i n g seriously, as a close consideration of t h e f o u r ecosystem processes plainly s h o w e d . W e w e r e only using t h e tool of fire, having eliminated grazing and animal i m p a c t by s h o o t i n g o u t t h e game. T h e t e m p o r a r y grassland w e m a d e masked a serious l o n g - t e r m desertification process, as t i m e proved dramatically. By t h e t i m e t h e o n c e - c o m p l e x and healthy grasslands w e r e ready f o r o c c u p a t i o n by p e o p l e w i t h cattle, they w e r e in a bad state of d e g r a d a t i o n . Active erosion b e t w e e n plants had set in, seedlings o f m a n y perennial grasses had b e c o m e scarce, m o n o c u l t u r e s of m a t u r e plants a b o u n d e d , a n d solar energy flow had d r o p p e d severely. W h i l e p e r i o d i c fire in the past had c o n t r i b u t e d to the necessary disturbance in these fairly brittle grasslands, the animals had also played a m a j o r role in reversing fire's adverse effects a n d m a i n t a i n i n g healthy c o m m u n i t i e s . Ironically, it is n o w m y belief that the

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fires w e used in t h e tsetse fly operations w e r e probably o n e of t h e m a i n causes of the tsetse fly's spread, as the fire-induced, less effective water cycles led to a dramatic increase in t h e b r e e d i n g sites f o r this s l o w - b r e e d i n g insect. T h e e x t e n t of t h e d e s t r u c t i o n caused by fire alone is symbolized f o r m e by t h e oil s u m p o f a Land R o v e r . In 1959 w h i l e in charge of the g o v e r n m e n t b u r n i n g and s h o o t i n g o p e r a t i o n s in s o u t h e a s t e r n Z i m b a b w e , I drove o u t daily f r o m m y b u s h camp. A f t e r s o m e m o n t h s I was u n d e r t h e vehicle c h a n g i n g the oil a n d c o u l d n o t help n o t i c i n g that t h e grass h a d polished t h e u n d e r s i d e clean. In fact t h e f r o n t side o f the brass s u m p p l u g had w o r n d o w n so far a n d so s m o o t h it w o u l d scarcely hold a w r e n c h . Six years later, because o f t h e e n d u r i n g fly, the area still lay largely u n o c c u p i e d by large game, livestock, o r p e o p l e , a l t h o u g h t h e b u r n i n g had c o n t i n u e d , so I m a d e m y old c a m p a base for training a r m y trackers. A f t e r three m o n t h s of c o n t i n u a l d r i v i n g over the same g r o u n d and r e m e m b e r i n g m y past e x p e r i e n c e , I c h e c k e d u n d e r all o u r vehicles and f o u n d t h e oil sumps caked w i t h dusty grease. O n level g r o u n d t h e grasses persisted weakly, b u t o n slopes and w h e r e soil h a d b e e n shallow before, naked earth and e x p o s e d pebbles characterized t h e scene. S u c h p r o f o u n d changes, w h e n gradual, escape n o t i c e unless an observation like this forces us to t h i n k . T h e K r u g e r N a t i o n a l Park in S o u t h Africa is p e r h a p s o n e of the best conventionally m a n a g e d national parks in t h e w o r l d . Tragically, fire is n o w used every t w o to three years o n average as managers a t t e m p t to maintain grasslands that are t u r n i n g to b r u s h d u e to partial rest. Because park m a n agers believe that t h e overgrazing a n d o v e r b r o w s i n g that are also o c c u r r i n g are d u e to t o o m a n y animals, they are culling large n u m b e r s o f animals each year. T h i s o f c o u r s e o n l y increases t h e a m o u n t of vegetation that is overrested and s u b s e q u e n t l y b u r n e d . I k n o w o f n o soils a n y w h e r e that can w i t h s t a n d b u r n i n g o f this frequency. Tragically it is n o t only K r u g e r N a t i o n a l Park that is s h o o t i n g animals a n d t h e n , in effect, using fire to replace the role the o n c e - a b u n d a n t animals played. In Z i m b a b w e , w h e r e elephants are destroying m a g n i f i c e n t c e n t u r i e s - o l d b a o b a b trees ( p h o t o 19-2), park managers are s h o o t i n g t h e m by the thousands. N o o n e appears to be asking w h y even greater n u m b e r s of elephants in t h e past did n o t destroy t h e baobabs in these same areas. W h y have e l e p h a n t f e e d i n g patterns c h a n g e d ? I strongly suspect they have because of the increased use o f fire t h r o u g h o u t Z i m b a b w e and t h e surr o u n d i n g c o u n t r i e s , w h i c h has greatly increased t h e a m o u n t o f bare g r o u n d , simplified t h e c o m m u n i t i e s f r o m w h i c h elephants derived their sustenance, and gradually t r a n s f o r m e d the vegetation they o n c e favored i n t o m o r e fibrous, s h a r p - s e e d e d , less n u t r i t i o u s grass species. Elephants are by n a t u r e mainly grazing animals, w h i c h m o s t p e o p l e today find hard to believe, so c h a n g e d is their diet.

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P h o t o 19-2

For centuries undamaged by vast elephant populations, magnificent Baobab trees are now being tusked to death, most likely because frequent bunting has caused the grasses elephants once favored to be replaced by more fibrous, less nutritious varieties.

Fire and Atmospheric Pollution R e c e n t studies o n the a t m o s p h e r i c p o l l u t i o n created by forest and p a r t i c ularly r a n g e / s a v a n n a fires in Africa and N o r t h A m e r i c a add g o o d reason to seriously l o o k at alternatives to fire w h e r e v e r possible. U n t i l quite r e c e n t ly, m o s t a t m o s p h e r i c p o l l u t i o n was attributed to products o r b y - p r o d u c t s of the p e t r o c h e m i c a l industry. N o w , data gathered by researchers via satellite and f i e l d w o r k indicate that biomass b u r n i n g is a significant c o n t r i b u tor as well. Scientists have calculated that the emissions every second f r o m a vegetation fire c o v e r i n g 1.5 acres (0.5 hectares) is equivalent to the c a r b o n m o n o x i d e emissions p r o d u c e d p e r second by 3 , 6 9 4 cars and the nitrogen oxides p r o d u c e d p e r second by 1,260 cars. 1 Today, half the world's savanna land (1.85 billion a c r e s / 7 5 0 m i l h o n hectares), is deliberately set on fire each year, releasing a b o u t 3.7 million m e t r i c tons of c a r b o n i n t o the a t m o s p h e r e . This is three times m o r e carb o n than is released t h r o u g h forest b u r n i n g . 2 W h i l e the b u r n i n g of grasslands is c o m m o n w h e r e v e r vegetation is d r y e n o u g h to b u r n , m o s t inevitably occurs in Africa, o w i n g to the sheer size of the c o n t i n e n t (the w h o l e of the U n i t e d States, C h i n a , India, E u r o p e , A r g e n t i n a and N e w Zealand w o u l d fit inside the b o u n d a r i e s of Africa w i t h land to spare). In

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Africa t h r e e - q u a r t e r s of the savanna grasslands go up in s m o k e every year. P o l l u t i o n — o z o n e , carbon m o n o x i d e , a n d m e t h a n e — f r o m grass fires in s o u t h e r n Africa, drifts thousands of miles w i t h i n weeks to Australia and Antarctica w h e r e a t m o s p h e r i c pollutants have already created an o z o n e hole. 3 S o m e scientists argue that the a m o u n t of c a r b o n dioxide p r o d u c e d by these massive grassland fires is n o t an issue because o n c e plants r e g r o w they will absorb t h e same a m o u n t . B u t they fail to consider t h e adverse effects o f fire o n plant spacing, c o m p o s i t i o n , soil cover, w a t e r cycles, a n d so on, w h i c h generally lead to the p r o d u c t i o n o f less biomass, as I f o u n d w h e n t h e b u r n e d areas n o longer g r e w e n o u g h grass to w i p e o u r vehicle oil sumps clean. W h e n less biomass is p r o d u c e d , less c a r b o n dioxide is absorbed. In 1994 scientists at G e r m a n y ' s M a x Planck Institute f o u n d that disturbingly high levels of methyl b r o m i d e w e r e also b e i n g p r o d u c e d by fires in Siberian forests, C a l i f o r n i a n chaparral, and S o u t h A f r i c a n savannas. T h e b r o m i n e in m e t h y l b r o m i d e is potentially 50 times m o r e efficient than the c h l o r i n e in c h l o r o f l u r o c a r b o n s (CFCs) in destroying upper-level a t m o s pheric ozone.4 W h i l e there is still m u c h to learn, and t h e sheer scale of biomass b u r n ing makes accurate estimates impossible, w e s h o u l d not ignore t h e w a r n ings p r o v i d e d by these studies. In the U n i t e d States, w h e r e t h e p e n d u l u m has o n c e again s w u n g back in favor of fire, prescribed b u r n i n g is heavily p r o m o t e d w i t h little o r n o consideration given to its effects o n t h e a t m o s phere. F e w i n d e e d are the p e o p l e interested o r even willing to e x p l o r e alternatives to fire. O n a ranch w e m a n a g e as a l e a r n i n g site in N e w M e x i c o , w e initially struck all the p r o b l e m s o n e w o u l d e x p e c t to find o n land that for years has b e e n subjected to partial rest and overgrazing of plants. O v e r 80 p e r c e n t of t h e g r o u n d was bare, and t h e few p e r e n n i a l grasses that had survived were mainly of three varieties that could w i t h s t a n d high levels of rest. M o s t of these plants were dense, d a r k - g r a y - t o - b l a c k masses of old material s u r r o u n d e d by e r o d i n g soil. To b e g i n p u t t i n g t h e situation right w e n e e d e d to k n o c k d o w n the old dead material so t h e plants c o u l d again g r o w freely, and the soil c o u l d be covered. Naturally w e w a n t e d to use a n i mals, rather than m a c h i n e r y o r fire because their trampling w o u l d also c h u r n up the c a p p e d surface so n e w plants could establish. H o w e v e r , w e i m m e d i a t e l y ran into p r o b l e m s because the m a j o r i t y of the land was leased f r o m t h e g o v e r n m e n t and regulations p r o h i b i t e d us f r o m r u n n i n g animals at the density and w i t h the n u m b e r s required. W e could only use fire. U s i n g fire w o u l d , of course, r e m o v e almost all of the plant material, e x p o s e even m o r e soil, and d o n o t h i n g to break the capped surface. At the same time it w o u l d release c a r b o n into the air w h e n w e

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w a n t e d to keep it cycling t h r o u g h plants a n d soils. W e eventually w o r k e d w i t h the g o v e r n m e n t agency c o n c e r n e d to find a way a r o u n d the regulations, b u t it caused us several years of delay.

Conclusion W h e n c o n s i d e r i n g w h e t h e r to use the tool o f fire, k e e p y o u r holistic goal in m i n d — k n o w w h a t you are trying to achieve. If o t h e r tools c o u l d achieve w h a t you w a n t w i t h o u t e x p o s i n g soil or p o l l u t i n g t h e a t m o s p h e r e , t h e n c o n s i d e r t h e m , too. R e m e m b e r that the viability of the w h o l e p o p u lation structure, not merely adult plants a n d animals, is critical. T h e r e will be times w h e n fire is t h e best tool to use for the j o b . T h e guidelines for b u r n i n g o u t l i n e d in C h a p t e r 41 will help you create a plan. O n c e y o u r plan is m a d e , of course, y o u m u s t m o n i t o r to m a k e sure that the results y o u e x p e c t d o materialize. Fire p r o d u c e s different effects d e p e n d i n g o n w h e r e an e n v i r o n m e n t falls o n t h e brittleness scale. I have t e n d e d to use examples f r o m either e x t r e m e to illustrate those differences, b u t bear in m i n d that most e n v i r o n m e n t s will lie s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n the t w o extremes o f n o n b r i t t l e and very brittle. T h u s , if y o u are dealing w i t h land at 7 o r 8 o n a scale of 1 to 10, it w o u l d t e n d to have m o s t o f the features of the very brittle e x t r e m e . Land at 2 o r 3 w o u l d tend to have m o s t of the features of t h e n o n b r i t t l e e x t r e m e . H e r e is a s u m m a r y of t h e effects of fire o n the f o u r ecosystem processes at either extreme.

Very Brittle

Environments

COMMUNITY DYNAMICS

Fire exposes soil. In low-rainfall areas w h e r e plant spacings are w i d e , n e w cover develops very slowly. In t h e short t e r m , fire tends to increase the diversity of species in grassland a n d w o o d l a n d . R e p e a t e d fires r e d u c e diversity. Fire stimulates the g r o w t h of m o s t w o o d y plants that have g r o w n b e y o n d the seedling stage a n d kills only a few. Fire can p r o d u c e mosaic p a t terns w i t h i n a given area of vegetation, creating an edge effect, w h e r e t w o or m o r e types of habitat m e e t and create a z o n e of greater biological diversity. O v e r time, fire reduces the ability of grasslands to r e m o v e c a r b o n f r o m the a t m o s p h e r e . WATER CYCLE

Fire generally reduces the effectiveness of t h e water cycle as it exposes soil and destroys t h e litter that slows w a t e r flow and maintains soil surface c r u m b structure and a e r a t i o n . T h e lower t h e rainfall a n d t h e m o r e f r e q u e n t the fire, the greater this tendency.

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MINERAL CYCLE

Fire speeds t h e mineral cycle in the s h o r t t e r m by c o n v e r t i n g dead m a t e rial to ash. B u t it also spews c a r b o n and o t h e r pollutants into t h e air as it rapidly oxidizes vegetation. Because it exposes the soil and changes the soil surface m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t that supports the organisms of decay, fire, if used repeatedly, tends to slow the mineral cycle in t h e l o n g r u n . O n c e m o r e , t h e d r i e r the area a n d t h e m o r e f r e q u e n t the fire, t h e greater this tendency.

ENERGY FLOW

In grasslands a n d s a v a n n a - w o o d l a n d s fire may p r o d u c e an i m m e d i a t e increase in energy flow by r e m o v i n g old material that hinders t h e g r o w t h of b o t h grasses and brush. H o w e v e r , t h e c o n s e q u e n t soil e x p o s u r e leads to less effective mineral and w a t e r cycles and changes in t h e plant c o m m u n i ty that could r e d u c e energy flow in the l o n g t e r m . T h e drier the area and the m o r e f r e q u e n t t h e fire, t h e greater this tendency.

Nonbrittle

Environments

COMMUNITY DYNAMICS

Fire appears to have a s h o r t - t e r m effect w i t h little l o n g - t e r m c o n s e q u e n c e o t h e r than to t h e a t m o s p h e r e . T h e generally h i g h e r h u m i d i t y inhibits fires, and after a b u r n t h e r e t u r n to c o m p l e x i t y is typically rapid o n u n d i s t u r b e d l a n d . T h e close plant spacing in n o n b r i t t l e grasslands helps to m i n i m i z e soil exposure. WATER CYCLE

Fire tends to d a m a g e the w a t e r cycle by e x p o s i n g soil, b u t w i t h t h e better annual distribution of h u m i d i t y and the m o r e rapid advance of succession o n bare surfaces, t h e effect is temporary. MINERAL CYCLE

Fire appears to speed u p t h e cycling of nutrients, b u t this effect is o f t e n an illusion. T h e biological decay so necessary to m a i n t a i n i n g c a r b o n in soil organic matter gives way to rapid oxidation and t h e air and a t m o s p h e r i c p o l l u t i o n associated w i t h it. M i n e r a l cycles, however, appear to recover fast after a fire. For thousands of years fire was of course the m a i n tool in slash and b u r n agriculture. A l t h o u g h the fire freed m a n y n u t r i e n t s in the c o m m u n i t y for h u m a n use by g r o w i n g plants in t h e ash, t h e effect was temporary. S u c h agricultural systems, s o u n d as they appeared, b r o k e d o w n fast unless there was a rest of at least t w e n t y years b e t w e e n fire use periods.

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ENERGY FLOW

Fire disrupts e n e r g y flow in the s h o r t r u n , b u t like t h e plant c o m m u n i t y , e n e r g y flow also recovers quickly after fire. In slash and b u r n agriculture, m o r e e n e r g y is t e m p o r a r i l y directed to i m m e d i a t e h u m a n use. F r e q u e n t fires, even in a c o m p l e t e l y n o n b r i t t l e e n v i r o n m e n t , will t e n d to d a m a g e all f o u r ecosystem processes. In parts of Africa, and probably elsewhere, less brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s at a b o u t 3 to 5 o n t h e scale w i t h seasonal rainfall f r o m 30 to 80 inches (750 to 2,000 m m ) have b e e n c o n v e r t e d f r o m forest to savanna t h r o u g h the repeated use of fire and have taken o n the c h a r a c t e r istics associated w i t h m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s . T h e loss of the tree canopy, w h i c h h a d kept h u m i d i t y fairly constant at g r o u n d level even t h r o u g h l o n g d r y seasons, has led to a sharp r e d u c t i o n in m i c r o o r g a n i s m p o p u l a t i o n s over t h e d r y p e r i o d . T h u s , the perennial grasses that replaced the trees n o w lack t h e organisms that can decay the mass of material left o n t h e m at the e n d of t h e g r o w i n g season. As they lack e n o u g h animals to graze o r trample d o w n the old material, a n d thus assist in the decay process, t h e p e o p l e in these areas have b e e n c o m p e l l e d to b u r n the grass to k e e p it alive and fresh e n o u g h for animals to eat. W h e n these same areas have b e e n rested ( f r o m fire and livestock) for several years, however, they have r e t u r n e d to dense w o o d l a n d o r forest a n d o n c e again assumed t h e characteristics of a less brittle e n v i r o n m e n t . T h i s s u m m a r y of the effects of fire in very brittle and n o n b r i t t l e envir o n m e n t s generally assumes that t h e fire is followed by a p e r i o d of rest, as is c o m m o n practice. M a n y m a k e the conscious decision to apply rest f o l l o w i n g a b u r n , b u t s o m e also apply it u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y by m a k i n g n o decision at all. D e p e n d i n g o n y o u r holistic goal, fire followed by rest may n o t b e t h e best t h i n g to do. Because it is impossible to use fire as a tool w i t h o u t also using o n e of t h e o t h e r tools—rest, grazing, animal i m p a c t , or technology—read on.

20 Rest: The Most Misunderstood Tool

W

h e n s p e a k i n g of rest as a tool that can b e used to m o d i f y the f o u r ecosystem processes, I a m r e f e r r i n g to rest f r o m m a j o r physical disturbance that applies mainly to plants and soils. D i s t u r b a n c e c o m e s in m a n y f o r m s . Large animals, d o m e s t i c or wild, but particularly those that: exhibit h e r d i n g behavior, impact b o t h soils and vegetation. So can machinery. Fire disturbs vegetation, but disturbs t h e soil only slightly; o n occasion, hailstorms and natural catastrophes disturb b o t h . A policy of w i t h h o l d i n g all of these f o r m s of disturbance c o m p l e t e l y for a considerable time a m o u n t s to applying the tool of total rest. Partial rest is applied in the presence of livestock or large game, but w i t h such calm b e h a v i o r in the absence of p a c k - h u n t i n g predators that a large p r o p o r t i o n of t h e plant life and soil surface remains u n d i s t u r b e d despite their presence and grazing. Partial rest is a n e w c o n c e p t that m a n y find hard to grasp. H o w can the land b e resting w h i l e high n u m b e r s of livestock or big g a m e are grazing o n it? Its effects, however, are evident a n y w h e r e livestock o r large g a m e animals seldom b u n c h ; the m o r e scattered they are, t h e greater the d e g r e e of partial r e s t . T h a t includes m o s t rangelands and m a n y forests and n a t i o n al parks. T h a t rest in either f o r m (total or partial) m i g h t f u n c t i o n as a tool of the same o r d e r as a fire or a p l o w c o m e s as a n e w c o n c e p t . W e considered rest natural until w e registered the fact that brittle and n o n b r i t t l e e n v i r o n m e n t s react to it in very different ways and that the m a j o r grazing areas of the w o r l d , particularly b e f o r e h u m a n s developed t h e ability to use fire and spears, seldom, if ever, e x p e r i e n c e d rest o n a large scale. O n c e h u m a n s c o u l d light fires, fell trees, d o m e s t i c a t e animals, and plant 195

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crops, they h a d to bear responsibility for their i m p a c t o n n a t u r e . T h e c h o i c e to give o r w i t h h o l d rest f r o m a piece of land only a m o u n t s to a n o t h e r aspect o f t h e p o w e r s w e can exercise consciously. O u r u n c o n s c i o u s w i e l d ing of this tool, especially in t h e f o r m of partial rest, in c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h the m i s g u i d e d use of o t h e r tools, such as fire, has had the m o s t devastating effect o n the brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s of o u r p r o b a b l e o r i g i n as a species. W h e n h u m a n s first settled in p e r m a n e n t villages and thus drove wild herds f r o m the s u r r o u n d i n g area, they u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y b u t decisively s u b j e c t e d those lands to rest. W e n o w intentionally rest land in t h e h o p e that it will recover f r o m the effects of fire, overgrazing, or overtrampling. A l t h o u g h w e j u s t i f y this as "leaving things to nature," w e have c h a n g e d n a t ural relationships n o less than those first setders did.To u n d e r s t a n d why, w e m u s t l o o k at the different effects p r o d u c e d by rest at either end of t h e b r i t tleness scale.

E f f e c t s of Rest in Nonbrittle Environments In n o n b r i t t l e e n v i r o n m e n t s (1 o r 2 o n a scale of 1 to 10) old plant m a t e r ial by definition breaks d o w n quickly t h r o u g h biological decay. S u c h " r o t ting d o w n " starts close to the g r o u n d w h e r e t h e m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t s u p ports t h e highest p o p u l a t i o n s of insects a n d m i c r o o r g a n i s m s engaged in the decay process. Initial d e c o m p o s i t i o n close to t h e g r o u n d particularly suits t h e b u n c h e d - t y p e perennial grasses, because dead leaves and stems w e a k e n at the base and quickly fall aside, allowing light to reach new, g r o u n d - l e v e l g r o w i n g points. P h o t o 2 0 - 1 shows an e x a m p l e of this. Last season's leaves and stems have t o p p l e d , and n e w g r o w t h only awaits t h e r i g h t t e m p e r a t u r e and moisture. This rapid, b o t t o m - u p decay process o n dead w o o d y vegetation as well as grasses allows n o n b r i t t l e biological c o m m u n i t i e s u n d e r total o r partial rest to m a i n t a i n a h i g h d e g r e e of stability and c o m p l e x i t y of species in grassland o r forest. Water, if it r u n s off soil surfaces at all, carries little silt o r o t h e r debris. E v e n very p r o l o n g e d rest f r o m t h e rare fire o r physical i m p a c t by m a c h i n e r y o r large animals has little o r n o adverse effect o n the w a t e r cycle, m i n e r a l cycle, c o m m u n i t y dynamics, o r e n e r g y flow. N o n b r i t t l e e n v i r o n m e n t s r e d u c e d to bare g r o u n d by some natural o r h u m a n - m a d e catastrophe r e s p o n d rapidly to rest a n d r e t u r n relatively quickly to their f o r m e r c o m p l e x i t y and stability, w h e t h e r j u n g l e , forest, o r grassland. Desertification is s e l d o m a l o n g - t e r m danger, a l t h o u g h d e f o r estation can cause e n o r m o u s d a m a g e in the s h o r t t e r m . W h e t h e r or n o t you use t h e tool o f rest in such e n v i r o n m e n t s d e p e n d s entirely o n y o u r holistic goal. A l t h o u g h rest does n o t p r e m a t u r e l y kill perennial grasses in n o n b r i t t l e e n v i r o n m e n t s t h e r e is generally a t e n d e n c y for rested grass c o m m u n i t i e s to m o v e o n to shrubs a n d eventually w o o d land or forest unless s o m e soil- or w e a t h e r - r e l a t e d f a c t o r limits the succes-

20

I REST: T H E M O S T M I S U N D E R S T O O D T O O L

P h o t o 20-1

197

Less brittle grassland showing last year's old growth of leaves and stems

(pale color) already fallen and decaying and not choking new growth.

Alaska.

sional process at the grass level. T h u s if y o u r holistic goal describes a f u t u r e resource base that includes stable grassland and you suspect that natural succession will p r o c e e d toward forest, you should avoid rest in either f o r m . A n y o l d t i m e r in such a place will explain h o w t h e fallow field goes first to weeds, t h e n to briars, t h e n to scrub, and finally to w o o d s . To retard such advances, particularly in m a n a g e d pastures, it b e c o m e s necessary to graze perennial grasses severely, b u t n o t overgraze t h e m , to m a i n t a i n a vigorous root system that is difficult for i m m a t u r e t a p - r o o t e d w o o d y plants to p e n etrate.Your only o t h e r options f o r k e e p i n g grass roots vigorous and profuse are to use fire if t h e vegetation will b u r n or s o m e f o r m of technology, such as m o w i n g . You c o u l d create a mosaic of grass and w o o d l a n d by partially resting certain areas and n o t others, and if t h e e n v i r o n m e n t c o u l d s u p p o r t solid j u n g l e , y o u c o u l d get that, too, t h r o u g h rest. T h a t all this works so straightforwardly in n o n b r i t t l e e n v i r o n m e n t s has obscured the fact that it does n o t in very brittle ones. S o m e of t h e greatest e n v i r o n m e n t a l tragedies in h u m a n history have ensued from t h e false a s s u m p t i o n that all e n v i r o n m e n t s respond t h e same way to r e s t . T h e key to land m a n a g e m e n t is always t h e state of the soil surface. R e m e m b e r that in e n v i r o n m e n t s l e a n i n g toward t h e n o n b r i t t l e e n d of t h e scale, it is virtually impossible to e x p o s e vast areas of soil and k e e p t h e m bare. You can b u r n vegetation, p o i s o n it, bulldoze it, o r overgraze all of it, a n d the soil surface will still cover over again quickly if rested. In a n o n b r i t t l e e n v i r o n m e n t rest

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is, 1 believe, the m o s t p o w e r f u l tool available to us to restore and sustain biodiversity and healthy land.

E f f e c t s of Rest in Very Brittle Environments In very brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s (9 to 10 on the scale) by definition old plant material breaks d o w n slowly and the successional process advances slowly, at best, f r o m bare soil. M o s t organisms of decay, especially in c o m m u n i t i e s that have lost biodiversity, are scarce and present in high n u m b e r s only i n t e r m i t t e n t l y w h e n m o i s t u r e is adequate. In s o m e arid areas, termites help to break d o w n plant material and thus play a vital role. H o w e v e r , w h e n fire and partial rest c o m b i n e to p r o d u c e the bare soil that favors m a n y t e r m i t e species, t e r m i t e n u m b e r s can increase to such an e x t e n t that they c o n s u m e all the s o i l - c o v e r i n g litter. U n d e r c o n d i t i o n s of either partial or total rest, if animal n u m b e r s are also l o w m o s t old plant material breaks d o w n t h r o u g h o x i d a t i o n and p h y s ical w e a t h e r i n g . B e i n g m o s t e x p o s e d to t h e e l e m e n t s — w i n d , raindrops, and s u n — t h e tips of leaves and stems break d o w n first. W h i l e this t o p d o w n b r e a k d o w n has little adverse effect o n w o o d y plants, it severely h i n ders perennial grasses w i t h g r o u n d - l e v e l g r o w t h points that o f t e n r e m a i n shaded and o b s t r u c t e d for years. O l d plant material that lingers t h r o u g h the n e x t g r o w i n g season w e a k e n s m o s t perennial grass plants, and several years' a c c u m u l a t i o n can actually kill t h e m . It also adversely affects t h e f e e d i n g of grazing animals w h o are always t r y i n g to balance their diets and to avoid old oxidizing plant material. S o m e perennial grass species c a n w i t h s t a n d high levels of rest. C o m m o n l y these will have g r o w t h p o i n t s above g r o u n d , reflected in b r a n c h i n g stems, and this allows e n o u g h g r o w t h to k e e p the plant alive even w h e n a mass of u n d e c a y e d material chokes m o s t of t h e plant. Tobosa grass, c o m m o n in t h e w e s t e r n U n i t e d States, is a g o o d e x a m p l e . O t h e r resttolerant species can b e very s h o r t in stature, such as t h e grama grasses, or can have sparse thin leaves that, despite an a c c u m u l a t i o n of old g r o w t h , allow s o m e light to reach g r o u n d - l e v e l g r o w t h points. M a n y of the species f r o m the Aristida genus have this characteristic. In the sparsely p o p u l a t e d brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s of the w e s t e r n U n i t e d States, w h e r e there are so f e w animals o n t h e land, a f e w perennial grass species w i t h a h i g h tolerance for rest d o m i n a t e the scene. In contrast, in the densely p o p u l a t e d brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s of India, w h e r e there are millions of animals, particularly sacred cows, o n the land, grasses that can w i t h s t a n d high levels of overgrazing d o m i n a t e . In b o t h cases, however, on similar type land, t h e a m o u n t of bare g r o u n d b e t w e e n plants remains a b o u t t h e same, as b o t h are using partial rest to a greater e x t e n t than any o t h e r tool, and rest generally p r o m o t e s bare g r o u n d — t h e m o r e so, the m o r e brittle and the m o r e arid the e n v i r o n m e n t .

20

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199

W h e n the soil surface remains u n d i s t u r b e d , as m u c h of it is in the b r i t tle e n v i r o n m e n t s ot India and the western U n i t e d States, n e w plants d o n o t easily replace those that are dead or dying. T h e c a p p i n g that usually f o r m s on rested soil offers p o o r o p p o r t u n i t i e s to t h e g e r m i n a t i n g seed. O u t s i d e the tropics, p r o l o n g e d rest allows freezing and t h a w i n g of the u p p e r layers of exposed soil to create a puffiness that also inhibits the establishment of y o u n g , f i b r o u s - r o o t e d grasses. Very brittle, low-raintall e n v i r o n m e n t s subjected to e x t e n d e d periods of rest (partial or total) characteristically have w i d e bare spaces b e t w e e n vestigial perennial grass p l a n t s . T h e r e m a i n i n g plants survive because light can reach t h e g r o u n d - l e v e l g r o w i n g points a r o u n d the edges of each plant, but the centers may already be dead. P h o t o 2 0 - 2 illustrates these s y m p t o m s on a once-healthy, b u t n o w totally rested perennial grassland on the Sevilleta Wildlife R e f u g e , w h i c h lies in a very brittle 9 - i n c h ( 2 2 5 - m m ) rainfall envir o n m e n t of N e w M e x i c o . M o s t r e m a i n i n g grass plants are barely alive, h a v ing only a f e w green leaves r o u n d the edges of t h e dead stems. Despite m a n y years of seed p r o d u c t i o n n o seedlings at all have established on the bare, u n d i s t u r b e d soil surface. W h a t seedlings are present are all forbs. A f t e r a d e q u a t e disturbance of the soil surface, closely spaced perennial grass plants o f t e n d o establish. If such land is t h e n rested, however, the closely spaced plants kill o n e a n o t h e r off prematurely, as old g r o w t h that has a c c u m u l a t e d on t h e m shades even the edges of the n e i g h b o r i n g clump.

Phoito 2 0 - 2

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service officials inspecting rested and

grassland with large, hare ground spaces opening between plants. All seedlings view are forbs, not grasses. Sevilleta Wildlife

Refuge, New

Mexico.

dyitg within

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P h o t o 2 0 - 3 shows such a grassland in a 15-inch ( 3 7 5 - m m ) rainfall brittle e n v i r o n m e n t in n o r t h e r n M e x i c o . W h o l e handfuls of dead grass can be pulled o u t by the roots w i t h ease. P h o t o 2 0 - 4 shows the same t h i n g in a 3 0 - i n c h ( 7 5 0 - m m ) rainfall brittle area of Z i m b a b w e . If the landscape described in y o u r f u t u r e resource base requires w o o d y plant species and the animal organisms associated w i t h t h e m , t h e n you w o u l d consider c o n t i n u e d rest f o r these lands if they received e n o u g h rainfall to s u p p o r t g o o d stands of w o o d y plants. T h e dead clumps of grass p r o vide a g o o d m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t for seed g e r m i n a t i o n and the dead roots lacing t h e soil m a k e an excellent m e d i u m f o r p e n e t r a t i o n and establishm e n t of t h e w o o d y plant seedling's tap root. P h o t o 2 0 - 5 , taken o n t h e same ranch as p h o t o 2 0 - 3 in M e x i c o , c o n f i r m s that w o o d y species, in this instance, mesquite, have already f o u n d their n i c h e o n this land w i t h high levels of partial rest. N o t e the c o r r e l a t i o n of m e s q u i t e and dead grass clumps. If y o u r holistic goal does n o t involve this k i n d of change, d o n ' t apply either partial or total rest. M o s t of the brush a n d tree e n c r o a c h m e n t w e consider a p r o b l e m today owes its existence to heavy doses of the tool of rest, mainly partial. C o n t i n u e d rest in very brittle, low-rainfall e n v i r o n m e n t s can e v e n t u a l ly destroy even t h e w o o d y species, h o w e v e r . O n c e all r e m a i n i n g grass plants have oxidized and b l o w n away, the bare surface b e c o m e s capped,

P h o t o 20-3

Brittle environment

grassland, which had developed close spacing under

the influence of previous animal impact, now showing mass deaths under rest. Most are gray and oxidizing

and can be pulled up easily. Coahuila,

Mexico.

plants

P h o t o 2 0 - 4 Perennial grassland in a 30-inch (750-mm)

rainfall, very brittle environment rested one year. All plants are smothered by a mass of gray-to-black oxidizing material that is preventing light from reaching growth points. To the right, the same species are kept healthy by periodic mowing (performed by road crews). Zimbabwe.

P h o t o 20-5 Brittle environment community shifting from grassland to forbs and mesquite trees in overrested patches (background), while overgrazed patches show excessive erosion. Coahuila, Mexico.

(foreground)

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and, lacking the old grass root systems, t h e o n c e friable subsoil closes up. N e w seeds can establish only in cracks, if there are any, a n d g r o w t h proves difficult after that unless s o m e f o r m of disturbance is applied. P h o t o 2 0 - 6 shows a piece of land w i t h i n the very brittle C h a c o C a n y o n N a t i o n a l M o n u m e n t in N e w M e x i c o , w h i c h has b e e n rested for over fifty years. M o s t grasses are dead. T h e shrubs, too, are n o w d y i n g and are s u r r o u n d e d by bare, e r o d i n g soil. In a f e w places w h e r e the land is flat e n o u g h , algae and lichens persist as the last life left. T o w n s and cities in very brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s are also subject to the adverse effects of rest. W h e n the c a t c h m e n t areas s u r r o u n d i n g a t o w n are rested, as inevitably h a p p e n s w h e n larger parcels of land (5 to 20 acres; 2 to 8 hectares) are set aside f r o m intensive d e v e l o p m e n t , t h e effect is entirely g o o d as l o n g as those t o w n s are in a n o n b r i t t l e or less brittle e n v i r o n m e n t . O n t h e land s u r r o u n d i n g L o n d o n , W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . , Paris, or Sydney rest generally leads to an increase in soil cover and biodiversity. B u t t o w n s and cities in t h e m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s c a n n o t afford to rest the ir c a t c h m e n t areas, particularly w h e n rainfall is also low. Cities such as A l b u q u e r q u e , Los Angeles, and P e r t h are s u r r o u n d e d by m i n i m a l l y d e v e l o p e d parcels of land that are b e i n g rested to death, as s h o w n in p h o t o 2 0 - 7 . T h e resulting a m o u n t of bare g r o u n d p r o d u c e s an e n o r m o u s a m o u n t of r u n o f f that c o m m o n l y i n u n d a t e s these cities w i t h floods any t i m e they

P h o t o 20-6

Fifty yean of total rest in a very brittle, low-rainfall environment.

Most

grass is already dead, bare ground and soil erosion are extensive, and many shrubs are dying. The main plants left are algae and lichens. Chaco Canyon Mexico.

National

Park,

New

20

I

REST: T H E M O S T M I S U N D E R S T O O D T O O L

P h o t o 20-7

Large residential plots surrounding

lott'-rainfall environment, and gully

203

Santa Fe, New Mexico, a very brittle,

are being rested to death. As bare ground increases, so do erosion

formation.

get m o r e than a fraction of an inch of rain over a s h o r t time. T h e i r dams and rivers are dangerously full of silt as well. T h e b e d of t h e R i o G r a n d e , w h i c h flows t h r o u g h A l b u q u e r q u e , is n o w significantly higher than the original t o w n center. F e w city or c o u n t y planners in m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s consider these c o n s e q u e n c e s w h e n they allow c a t c h m e n t areas s u r r o u n d i n g t o w n s to be divided into the small ranchettes or s u m m e r h o m e s so p o p u l a r w i t h well-off retirees. E v e n if t h e o w n e r s k e e p horses a n d o t h e r animals, the tools they will b e applying daily will be partial rest a n d overgrazing. U r b a n residents will have to live w i t h t h e destructive c o n s e q u e n c e s and bear the costs f o r years to c o m e .

E f f e c t s of Rest in Less Brittle Environments T h e effects of rest are m o r e difficult to d e c i p h e r in e n v i r o n m e n t s that lie in t h e m i d d l e range of the brittleness scale (around 4 to 7 on t h e 1 to 10 scale). You c a n n o t be sure at w h i c h p o i n t the effects of rest c h a n g e over f r o m e n h a n c i n g soil cover, e n e r g y flow, a n d the health of perennial grass plants to d a m a g i n g them—-just as you c a n n o t be sure, w h e n standing atop a w a t e r s h e d , w h i c h way a d r o p of rain will flow. In these less brittle envi-

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r o n m e n t s , t h e effects also take l o n g e r to s h o w up. If rest does have adverse tendencies, it may b e c o m e apparent only after a g o o d m a n y years. T h e e v i d e n c e is easier to s h o w p h o t o g r a p h i c a l l y in grassland than f o r est. P h o t o 2 0 - 8 , f r o m the C r e s c e n t Lake Wildlife R e f u g e in N e b r a s k a , shows land that appears to h e in t h e m i d d l e range of t h e brittleness scale and has b e e n totally rested for twelve years. A l t h o u g h there appears to be n o great damage, a high p r o p o r t i o n of these grasses are n o w gray a n d dead. Closer inspection reveals w e a k e n e d grasses a n d an invasion of t a p - r o o t e d plants (herbaceous rather t h a n w o o d y ) i n t o w h a t o n c e was healthier grassland. All f o u r ecosystem processes s h o w early signs of adverse change. P h o t o 2 0 - 9 shows nearby land o n t h e same r e f u g e totally rested fifty years. B y this stage t h e w a t e r cycle, m i n e r a l cycle, c o m m u n i t y dynamics, and e n e r g y flow have all visibly declined. Grasses that earlier p r o v i d e d g r o u n d cover are clearly d y i n g a n d m a n y are dead. All n e w plants are small h e r b a c e o u s ones that m a n y w o u l d consider weeds. A large p r o p o r t i o n of the g r o u n d has b e c o m e bare, a n d o n c e the dead grass litter breaks d o w n this area will e x p a n d . T h i s e n v i r o n m e n t obviously lies to t h e r i g h t of t h e m i d p o i n t in the scale. It is t o o brittle to sustain grassland w i t h o u t repeated disturbance, and it receives t o o little rainfall for t h e successional process to m o v e it to soilc o v e r i n g w o o d l a n d . T h u s , w h e n totally rested, bare soil is t h e eventual

P h o t o 20-8

Land lying in the middle range of the brittleness scale that has been

rested for twelve years. A high proportion Crescent Lake Wildlife Refuge,

of these grasses are gray and dead or dying.

Nebraska.

20 I REST: T H E M O S T M I S U N D E R S T O O D T O O L

205

P h o i t o 2 0 - 9 Land lying in the middle range of the brittleness scale that has been rested for fifty years. By this stage a great many plants have died and bare ground has increased significantly. The few new plants are forbs, not grasses. Water and mineral cycles are seriously impaired and energy flow is greatly reduced. Crescent Lake Wildlife Refuge, Nebraska.

result. If this land had only b e e n partially rested u n d e r l o w n u m b e r s of g a m e o r livestock, that w o u l d only have slowed the rate of d e t e r i o r a t i o n . Because a b o u t t w o - t h i r d s of t h e earth's land surface is brittle to v a r y i n g degrees, a n d since t h e d a w n of agriculture it has c a r r i e d hvestock u n d e r m a n a g e m e n t that paradoxically p r o d u c e s both partial rest and overgrazing, the remorseless g r o w t h of deserts is n o mystery. As m e n t i o n e d in C h a p t e r 19 s o m e s a v a n n a - w o o d l a n d s a n d grasslands in h i g h - , b u t seasonal-, rainfall areas s h o w clear signs of brittleness in that old grass parts oxidize rather than decay, dead grass and trees break d o w n by w e a t h e r i n g from tips rather than r o t t i n g near t h e base first. Yet, if rested l o n g e n o u g h , these c o m m u n i t i e s c o m m o n l y pass o n to forest and assume t h e characteristics of a less brittle e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e tree c a n o p y keeps h u m i d i t y at g r o u n d level fairly constant, even t h r o u g h dry p e r i o d s , and thus m i c r o o r g a n i s m p o p u l a t i o n s also r e m a i n constant. T h e Brachystegia w o o d l a n d s that a b o u n d in central Africa in h i g h - , b u t very seasonal-, r a i n fall areas are a g o o d example. I have also seen places w h e r e the rainfall was m u c h lower, but t a p - r o o t ed w o o d y plants p r o v i d e d soil cover and achieved the same stability because s u b t e r r a n e a n m o i s t u r e allowed a dense e n o u g h stand of b r u s h or

>06

PART V

I T H E T O O L S WF. U S E T O M A N A G E O U R

ECOSYSTEM

P h o t o 2 0 - 1 0 Nature preserve alongside the Rio Grande. This very brittle riparian area, rested for more than thirty years, has in many places deteriorated to bare, eroding ground. Almost all plants have died. (Metal structures were built some years ago to minimize flood damage.) Albuquerque, New Mexico.

trees. T h i s situation is c o m m o n a l o n g riparian (streamside) strips. If rested for p r o l o n g e d p e r i o d s , such e n v i r o n m e n t s t e n d to pass o n to stable w o o d lands. B u t d o n o t be fooled i n t o believing all riparian areas remain healthy w h e n rested. S o m e riparian areas lack sufficient s u b t e r r a n e a n m o i s t u r e e v e r y w h e r e to m a i n t a i n dense, w o o d y cover and will d e t e r i o r a t e seriously w h e n rested, as s h o w n in p h o t o 2 0 - 1 0 . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , in the U n i t e d States m a n y g o v e r n m e n t agencies have m a d e it standard policy to f e n c e off and protect, that is, rest, riparian areas in brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s u n d e r their j u r i s diction. E v e n w h e n t h e area a d j a c e n t to the stream o r river is less brittle, it may be s u r r o u n d e d by very brittle c a t c h m e n t s . Because t h e health of the stream entirely d e p e n d s o n its c a t c h m e n t s , or watersheds, m a n a g e m e n t has to cater to this larger w h o l e .

Delayed E f f e c t of Rest in Brittle Environments M o s t g o v e r n m e n t s dealing w i t h desertification have l o n g b e e n advised that t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n was largely d u e to overgrazing, w h i c h in t u r n was caused by t h e presence of t o o m a n y animals. T h e obvious solution was to drastically r e d u c e animal n u m b e r s so t h e land c o u l d heal. H o w e v e r , m o s t politi-

2 0 I REST: T H E M O S T M I S U N D E R S T O O D

TOOL

207

cians lacked t h e w i l l p o w e r to actually force such a measure.To d e m o n s t r a t e the advantages of total d e s t o c k i n g (rest) the U.S. g o v e r n m e n t in the 1930s f e n c e d off d e m o n s t r a t i o n plots of land t h r o u g h o u t the w e s t e r n states. T h e same was also d o n e in parts of Africa and elsewhere. O n c e p r o t e c t e d f r o m overgrazing and u n i m p e d e d by old g r o w t h , the plots i n d e e d g r e w lush and b e c a m e the justification for o f t e n d r a c o n i a n campaigns to r e d u c e stock. P h o t o 2 0 - 1 1 shows an e x a m p l e in N e w M e x i c o taken f r o m the C o u n c i l o n E n v i r o n m e n t a l Quality's r e p o r t o n Desertification of the United States, published in 1981. 1 A l t h o u g h the p h o t o g r a p h lacks detail w i t h i n the plot, w e can see a g o o d stand of vigorous grass, freed f r o m the overgrazing e v i d e n t o n the o t h e r side of the fence. O u t s i d e the f e n c e w e see a tightly spaced c o m m u n i t y of overgrazed grasses typical of land u n d e r c o n t i n u o u s grazing and high levels of disturbance. T h e caption that a c c o m p a n i e d this p h o t o in the r e p o r t reads: " R a n g e i m p r o v e m e n t in the R i o P u e r c o Valley, Sandoval C o u n t y , N e w M e x i c o . Grass o n the left is p r o t e c t e d f r o m overgrazing (Soil C o n s e r v a t i o n Service)." T h i s is a typical situation w h e r e the officials were misled by t w o things, o n e b e i n g the p o w e r of paradigms, a n d the o t h e r b e i n g the t i m e delay b e f o r e the effects of rest b e c a m e apparent. A l t h o u g h the r e p o r t was w r i t ten in 1981, a 1930s p h o t o g r a p h was u s e d — o n e that illustrated the i m m e -

P h o t o 2 0 - 1 1 Government demonstration 1930s

plot established in the

to prove rested land would recover.

Grass on the left was fenced of) from grazing

animals, and within three years

was more lush than on the right where livestock were present and many plants. Note Cabezon

overgrazing Peak,

which

appears in the background. Rio Puerco Valley, New

Mexico.

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diate benefits of plant recovery f r o m overgrazing in a c o m m u n i t y still b e n efiting f r o m the residual effect of t h e animal impact. In fact, the r e m a i n i n g d e m o n s t r a t i o n plots in t h e R i o P u e r c o in 1981 all l o o k e d like w h a t you see in p h o t o 2 0 - 1 2 . T h e r e p o r t writers knew that land recovers w h e n destocked and rested a n d felt n o n e e d to c h e c k o n the c u r r e n t status of t h e plots; they m e r e l y used the 1930s p h o t o g r a p h already o n file. H a d a 1980s p h o t o g r a p h of any of the d e m o n s t r a t i o n plots b e e n used instead of a 1930s one, a very different c o n c l u s i o n m i g h t have b e e n reached. Because o f total rest these plots are desertifying as badly as any land I have seen in Africa, Australia, or the M i d d l e East. T h e a u t h o r s w e r e n o t b e i n g dishonest, just h u m a n . W h y q u e s t i o n w h a t w e already know? T h e critical distinction b e t w e e n rest as a l o n g - t e r m tool and rest as the time it takes a d a m a g e d plant to rebuild a r o o t system has t h r o w n o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f desertification off for several t h o u s a n d years. W e c o r r e c t ly observed that animals in certain circumstances overgraze and d a m a g e plants. If w e r u n high animal n u m b e r s and overgraze m o s t plants, as m a n y did in the w e s t e r n U n i t e d States at the t u r n of the century, and w e t h e n r e m o v e the animals, the land appears to recover quickly and dramatically, as those early research plots s h o w e d . In fact w e had s t o p p e d t w o a n i m a l p r o d u c e d effects, o n e negative, and o n e positive. T h e result was that the positive and i m m e d i a t e effect of allowing overgrazed plants to recover col-

Photo 20-12

View of one of the remaining demonstration

Valley. Fifty years latei (1987), deterioration.

Cabezon

plots in the Rio Puerco

the continued resting of this land has resulted in serious

Peak again appears in the background. Neu> Mexico.

20

! REST: T H E M O S T M I S U N D E R S T O O D T O O L

''09

Photo 20-13 " N o w here's a pasture that's plainly overstocked, but danged if I know what to do about it. 1 ain't had a h o o f on it iu ten years!"

Without

realizing

he had stumbled onto something

vital,

cartoonist Ace Reid noted the effect of rest in brittle environments Ace

(courtesy

Reid).

ored o u r ability to d e t e r m i n e and even see the eventual d a m a g e w e created by eliminating beneficial animal impact. W i t h fewer animals on the land, partial rest increases, but overgrazing still c o n t i n u e s . R a n g e l a n d s b e c o m e d o m i n a t e d by bare g r o u n d , resttolerant perennial grasses of t h e types m e n t i o n e d earlier, brush, and so-called weeds. Seeing this decline, we have for generations advocated c u t t i n g animal n u m b e r s even further, and in effect, resting t h e land even m o r e , while wasting millions of dollars in futile spraying of the resulting n o x i o u s plants. C a r t o o n i s t A c e R e i d s u m m e d up this paradox s o m e years ago w i t h o u t realizing he had s t u m b l e d o n t o s o m e t h i n g vital ( p h o t o 20-13).

Partial and Total Rest Have Nearly the Same E f f e c t By f e n c i n g off so m a n y plots of land in t h e 1930s, t h e U.S. g o v e r n m e n t also provided excellent e v i d e n c e for a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t p o i n t — t h a t partial rest can be nearly as destructive as total rest in t h e m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s . T h e g o v e r n m e n t research plots e x c l u d e d all livestock, but o n the land o u t side t h e m livestock n u m b e r s w e r e low a n d declining, wild grazers were

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few in n u m b e r , and p a c k - h u n t i n g wolves and Indians had l o n g since vanished. It is n o t surprising that the g o v e r n m e n t at the t i m e w a n t e d to r e d u c e livestock n u m b e r s , given that the n a t i o n s a t t e n t i o n was riveted o n the d u s t b o w l that in the 1930s covered a large p a r t of the c o u n t r y . O v e r the n e x t decades, livestock n u m b e r s w o u l d continually be r e d u c e d in an effort to restore the land to its f o r m e r productivity. T h e r e d u c t i o n s have c o n t i n u e d t h r o u g h the present b u t w i t h o u t any real recovery o f land. N o w w h e n you e x a m i n e the totally rested land inside the old exclosure plots and the land outside t h e m w h e r e partial rest and overgrazing have c o n t i n u e d , there is very little difference. P h o t o 2 0 - 1 4 shows the b o u n d a r i e s of three e x p e r i m e n t a l plots, each of w h i c h is in an e n v i r o n m e n t successively less brittle than the first. In each case, the f o u r ecosystem processes have seriously m a l f u n c t i o n e d inside the plots after f o r t y to sixty-five years of rest. O u t s i d e the plots the land is n o better. R o u g h l y the same a m o u n t of g r o u n d is b a r e . T h e fact that s o m e plants outside the plots were overgrazed has had little i m p a c t o n the total picture. T h e level of rest and position o n the brittleness scale w e r e a m u c h greater i n f l u e n c e . Inside t h e first plot, n o living perennial grasses r e m a i n ; outside it at least s o m e p e r e n n i a l grasses have b e e n kept alive by grazing, even t h o u g h they are overgrazed. In the o t h e r t w o plots, t w o o r three species of rest-tolerant p e r e n n i a l grasses have m a n a g e d to survive b o t h inside and outside t h e plots. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , researchers w h o take it for g r a n t e d that rest is natural, have c o m p a r e d the s u r r o u n d i n g land to t h e rested sites and, because there is so little difference b e t w e e n the two, have p r o n o u n c e d m a n a g e m e n t o u t side the plots successful. T h e land, t h e y say, has reached the highest level of d e v e l o p m e n t of w h i c h it is capable because it m a t c h e s t h e totally rested land inside the plots. They were unaware of or ignored the awkward fact that the plots at first got better and only subsequently declined.

Rest and Crisis Management M i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of w h a t partial rest does to brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s o f t e n leads to crisis m a n a g e m e n t o n land p e o p l e i n t e n d to preserve in pristine c o n d i t i o n . I have seen m o r e t h a n o n e e n v i r o n m e n t a l organization acquire badly d a m a g e d brittle land and slowly change their m a n a g e m e n t of it f r o m a d o g m a t i c h a n d s - o f f , l e a v e - i t - t o - N a t u r e a p p r o a c h to application of the m o s t drastic t e c h n i q u e s available. It h a p p e n s in a predictable sequence. F o l l o w i n g years of overgrazing by livestock, the plants respond v i g o r ously t o rest and all looks g o o d . T h e increase in v o l u m e a n d cover benefits

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Land at approximately 9 or 10 o n the brittleness scale. Following more than forty years of total rest inside the plot (right side of fence) and partial rest and overgrazing/overresting of plants outside it (left side offence), no perrenial grasses remain inside the plot and only a few have survived outside it. Central California.

Land at approximately 7 or 8 o n the brittleness scale. Following more than forty years of total rest inside the plot (right) and partial rest and overgrazing/overresting of plants outside it (left), only three species of rest-tolerant perennial grasses remain on both sides. Western Arizona.

Land at approximately 4 to 6 o n the brittleness scale. Following sixty-five years of total rest inside the plot (right) and partial rest and overgrazing/ overresting of plants outside it (left), plant spacing is much closer both inside and outside, but the few species of perennial grasses that remain on both sides are those that can withstand high levels of rest. Southeastern Arizona.

Photo 20-14

Research plots established

over the last fifty or so years demonstrate partial

by the U.S. government

in the western

the effects of total rest (inside the plots)

states

and

rest (outside the plots) on land ranging from very brittle to less brittle.

m a n y creatures and c o m p l e x i t y builds up. Progress u n d e r n a t u r e appears o n target and n o o n e dissents. S o m e t i m e s official transects and m e a s u r e m e n t s record the advance, as has h a p p e n e d o n the A u d u b o n Society's A p p l e t o n W h i t t e l Biological R e s e a r c h Station in s o u t h e a s t e r n A r i z o n a . Lists of small m a m m a l s , birds, and insects b e c o m e impressive as m o r e species reap the n e w bounty. Gradually, however, t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s n o t e the first signs of adverse change. M o r i b u n d grasses t u r n up in t h e log b o o k s , various w e e d y plants increase in n u m b e r , and bare spots b e g i n to o p e n up. N o n e of this is e x p e c t e d , a n d f o r a year or so it p r o c e e d s w h i l e p e o p l e h o p e t h e p r o b l e m will go away.

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Inevitably w h e n t h e p r o b l e m does n o t g o away, the m a n a g e r s c o n c l u d e that fire should be used as "fire is natural a n d it m a i n t a i n e d grassland in t h e p a s t . " T h e first u n n a t u r a l m e a n s of r e t u r n i n g t h e land to nature, rest, has led to a n o t h e r . (As m e n t i o n e d earlier, h u m a n - m a d e fires are unnatural.) In a brittle e n v i r o n m e n t , fire invigorates m a t u r e grasses, b u t threatens all f o u r ecosystem processes by e x p o s i n g soil. Given that rest also tends to e x p o s e soil and that t h e cause of t h e old vegetation a c c u m u l a t i n g has n o t b e e n r e m o v e d , the situation predictably worsens as fire use b e c o m e s t o o f r e q u e n t . T e c h n o l o g y o f t e n c o m e s n e x t in the f o r m of seedings, plowings, plantings, c h e c k dams, ditching, and the like. H o w e v e r , the p r o b l e m remains insoluble until t h e managers u n d e r s t a n d the implications of rest in brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s . W h e n c o n f r o n t e d by the a r g u m e n t for r e i n t r o d u c i n g animal i m p a c t as a natural i n f l u e n c e managers in such situations typically respond, " b u t n o bison ever r o a m e d here." O r "cattle are n o t native to this e n v i r o n m e n t . " This ignores t h e fact that m a n y animals m a i n t a i n e d grasslands, n o t just bison and that there were m a n y m o r e species of animals, i n c l u d i n g ancestors of cattle, as recently as 1 0 , 0 0 0 years ago in N o r t h A m e r i c a . E v e n in the last f e w centuries, species o t h e r than bison, such as deer, elk, p r o n g h o r n , b i g h o r n sheep, c o u l d break a p e r i o d of rest, but so little is k n o w n a b o u t t h e actual n u m b e r a n d distribution of these animals, even a c e n t u r y ago, that debates a b o u t t h e m tend to be academic. In s o m e parts o f the A m e r i c a n S o u t h w e s t w h e r e p e o p l e insist that large herds never o c c u r r e d , w e n o w have e v i d e n c e that h u n t i n g peoples thrived even relatively recently ( w i t h in t h e last t w o h u n d r e d years). In fact, aerial inspections have revealed a r e m a r k a b l e density of n o t so a n c i e n t p r o n g h o r n traps. A l t h o u g h many, i n c l u d i n g myself, far prefer wildlife to livestock, today w e have to e m p l o y the tools at h a n d or accept t h e dreadful c o n s e q u e n c e s of desertification. If a p o c k e t of brittle e n v i r o n m e n t land n o w isolated by ranches, roads, and international borders o n c e s u p p o r t e d a t e e m i n g grassland, t h e n with very f e w e x c e p t i o n s animal i m p a c t of s o m e sort by definition h e l p e d to m a i n t a i n it. E v e n if n o wild p o p u l a t i o n exists that c o u l d conceivably d o that now, to rule o u t d o m e s t i c stock as a less natural tool than h u m a n fires and bulldozers for p r o d u c i n g pristine habitat seems c o u n t e r p r o d u c t i v e . P h o t o 2 0 - 2 s h o w e d o n e m o r e case of a brittle area r e t u r n e d to n a t u r e t h r o u g h unnatural rest. Fifteen years p r i o r t h e Sevilleta R e f u g e was willed to T h e N a t u r e C o n s e r v a n c y a n d p u t u n d e r m a n a g e m e n t of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. U n f o r t u n a t e l y N e w M e x i c o n o l o n g e r has w o l f packs or sabre t o o t h lions that chase large, f r e e - r o a m i n g herds, a n d small groups of u n d i s t u r b e d d e e r and p r o n g h o r n d o n o t mitigate the r e g i m e of rest i m p o s e d o n the refuge. All the s y m p t o m s of desertification that t h e d o n o r of t h e land s o u g h t to reverse have only w o r s e n e d .

20

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TOOL

213

What Is "Natural"? Invariably s o m e p e o p l e at this p o i n t close their m i n d s because grassland does exist in parts of A m e r i c a , Australia, a n d A r g e n t i n a , for instance, w i t h o u t any e v i d e n c e of help f r o m h e r d i n g animals in t h e recent past. In my e x p e r i e n c e a grassland will always reflect the d e g r e e of its brittleness a n d the net result of the a m o u n t of rest or disturbance it has received. T h i s will s h o w in its complexity, plant spacings, and overall e n e r g y flow. If plant spacings are close and age structure g o o d in the absence of disturbance by fire or animals, t h e n that grassland lies lower on the brittleness scale. If plant spacings are w i d e , age structure p o o r , a n d r e p r o d u c t i o n p r e d o m i n a n t l y asexual, in t h e absence of disturbance, then that grassland lies h i g h e r o n the brittleness scale. If w e were in fact to discover a grassland that, based on the climate, should b e high o n the brittleness scale a n d that had d e v e l o p e d great complexity, stability, and closely spaced plants w i t h n o disturbance, w e w o u l d have discovered a distinct n e w e n v i r o n m e n t w i t h rules of its o w n and t h e c o n c e p t of brittleness w o u l d have to b e revised. Brittle grasslands that d o persist u n d e r p r o l o n g e d rest are generally u n p r o d u c t i v e in that very little sunlight is c o n v e r t e d to useful energy. Close inspection of t h e plants shows t h e m to b e highly unstable and typified by sparse f o r m , low stature, b r a n c h i n g stems, w i d e spaces b e t w e e n plants, and asexual r e p r o d u c t i o n f r o m a b o v e - a n d b e l o w - g r o u n d r u n n e r s that establish n e w plants w i t h o u t genetic diversity. Especially w h e r e freezing and t h a w ing create p u f f y soil, such grassland almost never develops on the steeper slopes of canyon a n d gully walls. S u c h cases raise again and again the philosophical q u e s t i o n , W h a t is n a t ural? E o n s ago, b e f o r e h u m a n k i n d controlled fire, livestock, and t e c h n o l o gy, there was an E d e n to w h i c h we alas can n o longer r e t u r n . Logic tells us that all plant a n d animal life d e v e l o p e d t o g e t h e r in w h o l e s i n c l u d i n g m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t , c o m m u n i t y , and c l i m a t e . T h e brittleness scale, a l t h o u g h w e did n o t recognize it, existed for millions of years. T h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y expansion of deserts in w h a t were grasslands and s a v a n n a - w o o d l a n d s a few t h o u s a n d years ago can only be t h e w o r k of h u m a n s . W e go to great lengths to avoid this conclusion. T h e archaeologists delving t h e secrets of a n c i e n t ruins in N e w M e x i c o c o n j e c t u r e that t h e clim a t e c h a n g e d , that o v e r p o p u l a t i o n led to a collapse of agriculture in fragile b o t t o m land, that war destroyed the social fabric, that their civilization g r e w t o o large to administer w i t h o u t the p o w e r of t h e w r i t t e n w o r d , that they really did n o t live in the large ruins but only c a m e to pray there, and so o n , endlessly. T h e y p o i n t to a n c i e n t tree rings that indicate p r o l o n g e d d r o u g h t . T h e y d o n o t consider that even a primitive p o p u l a t i o n , by h u n t ing, by d r i v i n g g a m e w i t h fire, by setting accidental fires, m i g h t have upset the w a t e r cycle e n o u g h to affect tree g r o w t h m o r e than any d r o u g h t could.

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To regain any part o f E d e n n o w m e a n s r e p r o d u c i n g as closely as possible the c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h various biological c o m m u n i t i e s , m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t s , and climates d e v e l o p e d . W h e r e v e r w e m a n a g e to d o that, the life that flourishes will be natural w h e t h e r or n o t it represents w h a t existed in that place at any given m o m e n t d u r i n g the history of " u n n a t u r a l " h u m a n influence. T h e high desert of O r e g o n provided a perfect b a c k g r o u n d w h e n a g r o u p o f environmentalists discussed that idea w i t h m e at a c o n f e r e n c e near t h e small t o w n of Brothers. T h e area is o f t e n cited as an e x a m p l e of stability u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s of rest, for even the earliest records n o t e t h e scarcity of large g a m e . N e a r t h e t o w n , w h e r e cattle have r u n f o r fifty years, conferees had difficulty stepping w i t h o u t t o u c h i n g s o m e living plant. A l t h o u g h m a n y plants s h o w e d signs of overgrazing, m a n y did not, and n e w seedlings had s p r o u t e d e v e r y w h e r e . N o t far away, however, w h e r e lack of w a t e r and a federal j u r i s d i c t i o n t h w a r t e d the presence of grazing animals, the p e o p l e easily f o u n d e n o u g h bare g r o u n d b e t w e e n grass plants to sit o n . T h e y f o u n d n o overgrazed plants, b u t m a n y w e a k and dead ones and very f e w n e w sprouts, w i t h erosion p r o c e e d i n g apace. T h e s e c o n d area m a y well have b e e n natural in t h e light of k n o w n history. It had definitely had time to reach its full potential u n d e r rest-isbetter m a n a g e m e n t , and i n d e e d m a n y a range scientist, citing its history of rest, w o u l d use it as a standard for j u d g i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n o f s u r r o u n d i n g land. Yet the same land, t h e same climate, and t h e same plants obviously will develop into a richer, m o r e c o m p l e x , a n d m o r e stable e n v i r o n m e n t w i t h o u t rest, and that, too, w o u l d be natural in t e r m s of natural potential, if n o t w r i t t e n history. Today h u m a n s have so c h a n g e d t h e e n v i r o n m e n t s they inhabit that w e are f o r c e d to m a k e choices in m a n a g i n g t h e m . E v e n to d o n o t h i n g in the m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s is to c h o o s e to use t h e tool of rest. T h u s , for any piece of land, even a wilderness area or national park, w e n e e d to decide w h a t it is w e really w a n t . C a n y o n l a n d s N a t i o n a l Park in U t a h contains a site called Virginia Park s u r r o u n d e d o n all sides by p e r p e n d i c u l a r cliffs that have e x c l u d e d large a n i mals for a l o n g tick of geological time. T h e grass cover is unstable and very fragile. It needs t h e tool of rest because the A m e r i c a n p e o p l e quite rightly have c h o s e n to preserve a landscape created s o m e e o n s ago. B u t Virginia Park does n o t represent w h a t m o r e accessible places o n c e were or m i g h t b e c o m e in such brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s . T h e visitor's c e n t e r at the nearby Arches N a t i o n a l M o n u m e n t passes o u t literature that describes t h e grassland that existed at the t i m e the m o n u m e n t was set aside for preservation. T h e rest that has b e e n i m p o s e d since t h e n has resulted in a d y i n g grassland w h e r e w i d e n i n g bare patches are obvious. E v e n if you are u n o b s e r v a n t , y o u r a t t e n t i o n is d r a w n to areas w h e r e n y l o n m e s h holds m u l c h to the

20

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TOOL

215

g r o u n d ( m e n t i o n e d in C h a p t e r 13) in an a t t e m p t to get grasses g r o w i n g again. Personally, a l t h o u g h I o n c e detested herds of cattle, like so m a n y environmentalists, I find t h e m a m o r e natural tool to use to restore grassland health t h a n n y l o n netting.

Conclusion In summary, t h e effects of rest at either e x t r e m e of t h e brittleness scale are as follows.

Nonbrittle

Environments

•

Community dynamics. Biological communities develop to levels of great diversity and stability.

•

Water and mineral cycles build and maintain high levels of effectiveness.

•

Energy flow reaches a high level.

Obviously, rest is t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l tool w e have to restore o r m a i n t a i n biodiversity a n d soil cover in n o n b r i t t l e e n v i r o n m e n t s .

Very Brittle

Environments

•

Community dynamics. Biological communities decline and greater simplicity and instability e n s u e . T h e lower the rainfall, the greater the adverse-effect.

•

Water and mineral cycles b e c o m e less effective.

•

Energy flow declines significantly.

In very brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , rest in either f o r m is e x t r e m e l y d a m a g i n g to biodiversity and soil cover. At t h e m i d p o i n t o n t h e l - t o - 1 0 scale partial or total rest shifts f r o m b e i n g increasingly positive to b e i n g increasingly negative in t e r m s of m a i n t a i n i n g soil cover, e n e r g y flow, a n d healthy p e r e n nial grasses. B e c a u s e rest has such clearly different t e n d e n c i e s at t h e extremes, t h e c o n d i t i o n of rested land generally indicates the u n d e r l y i n g brittleness of any area.

21 Grazing: The Most Abused Tool

n C h a p t e r 6 w e e x p l o r e d s o m e of t h e old beliefs a b o u t overgrazi n g — w h a t it is and w h a t causes i t — a n d w h y those old beliefs were c o n f o u n d i n g o u r efforts to reverse the desertification process. N o w it is time to l o o k at g r a z i n g in m o r e detail so w e can b e g i n to apply this tool to beneficial effect. G r a z i n g ranks as a tool alongside fire and rest because m a n a g e m e n t can m a n i p u l a t e the intensity and t i m i n g of it and the animal—plant relationships that g o v e r n it. B u t , like the o t h e r tools, it has natural aspects in that h u m a n s did n o t design the m o u t h s of livestock o r wild grazers and teach t h e m h o w and w h a t to eat or h o w to behave. A n d as t h e ways in w h i c h they d o these things are crucial to t h e results of m a n a g e m e n t , w e need to u n d e r s t a n d t h e m better.

I

In this c h a p t e r w e consider grazing as if animals floated over t h e g r o u n d w i t h o u t d u n g i n g , urinating, salivating, or t r a m p l i n g as they fed. A l t h o u g h grazing never occurs apart f r o m these activities, separating the act of grazing f r o m the o t h e r simultaneous influences of the animals o n the land (animal impact) helps o n e better to u n d e r s t a n d t h e i n f l u e n c e of each a n d thus the use of each as a tool. T h i s is particularly i m p o r t a n t in t h e m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s w h e r e the large h e r d i n g animals evolved and w h e r e most desertification is o c c u r r i n g . In the less brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , w h e r e plant spacing is naturally close, w i t h o r w i t h o u t large animals, and w h e r e soil cover is harder to destroy, t h e separation of the t w o tools is n o t as vital, a l t h o u g h it is still helpful. Several examples f r o m e n v i r o n m e n t s that lie closer to the very brittle e n d of the scale s h o w h o w widely the effects of either tool can vary: 216

2 1 I GRAZING: T H E M O S T ABUSED T O O L

217

•

Grazing might be maintaining the health of individual plants, while low animal impact (partial rest) is simultaneously exposing the soil between the plants as fewer new plants can establish.

•

Grazing applied as overgrazing may be weakening or killing some plants in the community, while at the same time high animal impact tends to increase the n u m b e r of plants, the a m o u n t of soil cover, and the effectiveness of the rainfall.

•

Grazing, together with adequate animal impact, can maintain soil cover, keep grass plants healthy and more productive, and in general enhance the functioning of all four ecosystem processes. But overgrazing combined with low animal impact (partial rest) produces the opposite effect. In fact this latter combination is the most c o m m o n ly applied, and it is the one with the greatest tendency, in the more brittle environments, to lead to desertification.Tragically, it is also the combination most often r e c o m m e n d e d by extension workers and supported by environmental groups w h e n they are not pushing for total rest.

T h e ability to analyze t h e i n f l u e n c e of animal i m p a c t and grazing as separate tools allows us to b e t t e r i n t e r p r e t w h a t we are seeing on t h e land. It also enables us to m o r e easily unravel such questions as h o w m o d e r n ranchers and f a r m e r s d a m a g e d parts of Africa and t h e Americas m o r e in 3 0 0 years than n o m a d s and their flocks m a n a g e d to d o in m o r e than 5,000 years in o t h e r parts of the w o r l d . A t h o r o u g h discussion of grazing requires a w o r k i n g d e f i n i t i o n of the t e r m . Strictly speaking, grazing refers only to the eating of grasses, n o t o t h e r types of vegetation, such as brush, trees, and forbs, w h i c h are t e c h n i cally browsed. T h e tool of grazing encompasses b o t h . B r o w s i n g is covered in m o r e detail later o n . B e f o r e we can m e a n i n g f u l l y d e f i n e grazing and overgrazing, however, w e n e e d to n o t e t h e differences b e t w e e n perennial a n d annual plants, b e t w e e n grass and nongrass plants, and in the types of grazing animals. A n n u a l plant p o p u l a t i o n s usually fluctuate widely in n u m b e r s f r o m season to season. In s o m e seasons they may fail to establish altogether, leaving t h e soil exposed. T h e y are difficult to overgraze as they d o n o t live l o n g e n o u g h ; they generally b e g i n to die o n c e they have p r o d u c e d seed. Perennial plant p o p u l a t i o n s , be they grasses, forbs, shrubs, o r trees, h o w e v er, fluctuate far less in n u m b e r s , h e l p i n g to h o l d soil in place year r o u n d , and k e e p i n g m o r e of it covered t h r o u g h o u t t h e year. T h e lower the rainfall a n d the m o r e brittle t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , t h e greater t h e role played by perennial grasses in k e e p i n g soil covered. T h e i r presence a n d health d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r deserts advance or retreat. T h e y are easily overgrazed, h o w ever, as y o u will see.

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Perennial grasses mainly g r o w in t w o f o r m s : u p r i g h t , or p r o n e , w i t h lateral r u n n i n g s h o o t s . T h e m o r e brittle the e n v i r o n m e n t , t h e m o r e likely the u p r i g h t p e r e n n i a l grasses will appear as distinct b u n c h e s . T h e less brittle t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , the m o r e likely they will appear as a sward o r m a t in w h i c h individual plants are hard to see. T h i s variation in t h e u p r i g h t grasses can o c c u r even w i t h i n a species. Themeda triandra, a c o m m o n grass in Africa, g r o w s in a m a t t e d f o r m in less brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , b u t in a b u n c h e d f o r m in m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s . T h e r u n n e r grasses d o n o t c h a n g e f o r m at different points o n t h e brittleness scale, a n d they may b e c o m e d o m i n a n t w h e r e m a n y plants are overgrazed and animal i m p a c t is high. T h e y are o f t e n p l a n t e d as pasture grasses, especially in t h e tropics, partly because m o s t o f t h e m are fairly resilient to overgrazing, as will b e explained. T h e b u d s f r o m w h i c h n e w g r o w t h takes place o n perennial grasses of either f o r m o c c u r either very close to t h e g r o u n d near t h e p l a n t base o r well above g r o u n d , a l o n g or at t h e ends of the plant stems. T h e position of these g r o w t h points probably indicates t h e e v o l u t i o n a r y develo p m e n t of t h e s p e c i e s . T h o s e w i t h g r o w t h points close to the g r o u n d p r o b ably evolved in close association w i t h severe grazing animals that kept t h e plant clear of old stems so that light c o u l d reach the g r o w t h points. If they r e m a i n u n g r a z e d , these plants eventually die. T h o s e plants w i t h g r o w t h p o i n t s well above g r o u n d probably evolved u n d e r little or n o pressure f r o m severe grazers because they can b e set b a c k by severe grazing, b u t thrive w h e n rested.

Overgrazing To grasp the difference b e t w e e n grazing a n d overgrazing, picture a healthy p e r e n n i a l b u n c h grass plant w i t h g r o u n d - l e v e l g r o w t h p o i n t s in a fairly brittle e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d i m a g i n e that a large animal bites all s t e m a n d leaf d o w n to an inch or t w o above t h e soil. T h a t is severe grazing, b u t n o t unusual o r bad in that most h e r d i n g animals evolved to graze in such a m a n n e r in h a r m o n y w i t h such grasses over millions of years. In the g r o w ing season, the plant receives a s h o r t - t e r m setback w h i l e it uses e n e r g y f r o m its c r o w n , s t e m bases, o r roots to reestablish g r o w i n g leaf, b u t a l o n g t e r m b o o s t because the plant tends to e n d t h e season b e t t e r off and less e n c u m b e r e d w i t h old leaf a n d s t e m than its u n g r a z e d n e i g h b o r s . T h e g r o w t h points at t h e base r e m a i n intact a n d n o old g r o w t h of t h e previous year stands in t h e way of r e g e n e r a t i o n . T h i s defoliation is i m p o r t a n t in the m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s to m a i n t a i n the h e a l t h and longevity of t h e plants, b u t even in t h e less brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , removal of old material p r o m o t e s grass health. If t h e bite c o m e s in the d o r m a n t season w h e n t h e plant has no further use for the leaves and steins of the past season, w h i c h have b e c o m e a p o t e n t i a l

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liability, it loses n o t h i n g and gains the advantage of u n i m p e d e d g r o w t h at t h e start of t h e n e w season. Severe grazing thus benefits the grazed plant. Plants s u r r o u n d i n g it that w e r e n o t grazed are h a m p e r e d by old material w h e n t h e n e x t g r o w i n g season starts. T h i s is w h y so m a n y p e o p l e use fire. It r e m o v e s all the dead m a t t e r and allows the u n g r a z e d plants to g r o w freely o n c e again. O v e r g r a z i n g occurs w h e n a plant b i t t e n severely in the growing season gets b i t t e n severely again w h i l e using e n e r g y it has taken f r o m its c r o w n , s t e m bases, or roots to reestablish l e a f — s o m e t h i n g perennial grasses r o u tinely do. T h i s can h a p p e n at three different times: 1. w h e n the plant is exposed to the animals for too many days and they are around to regraze it as it tries to regrow; 2. w h e n animals move away but return too soon and graze the plant again while it is still using stored energy to reform leaf; or 3. immediately following d o r m a n c y w h e n the plant is growing n e w leaf from stored energy. A n y time a plant is severely defoliated, root g r o w t h ceases as e n e r g y is s h u n t e d f r o m root g r o w i n g to r e g r o w i n g leaves. T h i s m o v e m e n t of energy b e t w e e n leaves and roots and vice versa is i m p o r t a n t , n o t only to m a i n t a i n t h e plant's ancient relationship w i t h severe grazing animals, but also to sustain the plant over d o r m a n t n o n g r o w i n g periods. A t t h e e n d of t h e g r o w ing season, m o s t perennial grasses transfer e n e r g y and protein f r o m leaves and stems to s t e m bases, crowns, a n d / o r r o o t s . T h i s reserve carries t h e plant t h r o u g h t h e d o r m a n t p e r i o d and supports t h e n e x t year's first g r o w t h . If b i t t e n d u r i n g the g r o w i n g season, however, w h e n such reserves have already b e e n t a p p e d to provide t h e initial g r o w t h of the season, grasses t h e n have to utilize w h a t little e n e r g y remains and will severely deplete roots to provide that energy. If s u b s e q u e n t bites are taken b e f o r e roots have reestablished, roots will die. S o m e scientists argue that e n e r g y f o r n e w g r o w t h is taken f r o m w h a t leaves and stems r e m a i n o n the grazed plant and in the process s o m e roots die to m a i n t a i n r o o t - t o - l e a f balance. W h e r e the energy for n e w g r o w t h c o m e s f r o m , however, is n o t as i m p o r t a n t as w h a t h a p p e n s to t h e roots. N o m a t t e r w h i c h t h e o r y you subscribe to, it is fairly evident that severe defoliation, repeated t o o frequently, causes r o o t mass to decrease until eventually the plant dies. T h u s , a simple d e f i n i t i o n of overgrazing is any g r a z i n g that takes place o n leaves g r o w i n g f r o m stored energy, at the expense of roots, rather than directly f r o m sunlight. In o t h e r words, overgrazing is " g r a z i n g of t h e roots." If t h e grass plant is of t h e r u n n e r type, rather than erect o r b u n c h e d , there is less d a n g e r of overgrazing, even w h e r e animals linger o r r e t u r n t o o soon. As figure 2 1 - 1 shows, w h e n individual plants are severely grazed, a

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Grazing Height

F i g u r e 2 1 - 1 Because of its horizontal

spread, less leaf is removed from an

individual

runner-grass plant when it is grazed severely, than is the case with a bunched grass plant.

lesser percentage of leaf is r e m o v e d than is t h e case w i t h an u p r i g h t plant, because of the plant's h o r i z o n t a l spread. So m u c h leaf, as well as stems w i t h g r o w i n g points, remains b e l o w t h e grazing h e i g h t of m o s t animals that fewer roots are affected. T h i s helps to explain why, as u p r i g h t grasses are killed by overgrazing, there is a t e n d e n c y for t h e space to b e filled w i t h a r u n n e r grass as l o n g as there is sufficient moisture to sustain it, h e n c e the r u n n e r grass mats so c o m m o n close to w a t e r points and areas of very high animal c o n c e n t r a t i o n . A l t h o u g h m a n y perennial grasses can w i t h s t a n d high levels of overgrazing w i t h o u t actually dying, it is still d a m a g i n g because it reduces t h e yield of the plant a n d reduces its root v o l u m e . If t h e above g r o u n d part o f the plant grows less, it provides less material to feed t h e animals a n d less leaf and s t e m subsequently to cover soil as litter and m u l c h . M o s t soil cover c o m e s f r o m litter rather than t h e bases of living plants in t h e m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s . If t h e root mass of the plant is r e d u c e d , less e n e r g y and organic material are available for soil life. As root mass decreases, soil c o m pacts a n d loses t h e air spaces a n d structure so vital to an effective water cycle a n d to the w e l l - b e i n g of m i c r o o r g a n i s m s living in the soil.

Types of Grazers G r a z i n g animals fall i n t o three very r o u g h categories d e p e n d i n g o n h o w they graze:

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1. Nibblers, endowed with narrow mouths, nip a leaf here and there off a plant, seldom overgrazing it because so little total leaf area is taken that the plants growth, and particularly its roots, are hardly affected. Most of the grazers in this category are solitary, n o n h e r d i n g small animals, such as the steenbuck, duiker, and oribi of Africa.They have what we call self-regulating populations and thus never occur in high numbers. N o n e have domestic relatives. 2. A second, b r o a d - m o u t h e d group, feeds by the mouthful. Buffalo, bison, zebra, horses, cattle, and hippo do this. Most are gregarious members of non-self-regulating populations and tend to defoliate grass plants severely. Elephants, which pull up grasses by the trunkful also belong in this group. 3. Somewhere between these two extremes c o m e animals capable of nipping an isolated leaf but habitually given to taking several at a time and concentrating on the same plant to such a degree that they have to be managed as severe grazers. A m o n g them would be sheep, goats, deer, pronghorn, impala, and other herding antelope, as well as perhaps some kangaroos. Again they are gregarious and non-self-regulating and thus capable of building up to high numbers. T h e y are also represented a m o n g domestic stock.

T h e distinction b e t w e e n self-regulating and n o n - s e l f - r e g u l a t i n g p o p u lations is an i m p o r t a n t o n e that w e will r e t u r n to in C h a p t e r 42. W e suspect that the solitary, self-regulating nibblers, w h i c h generally do not overgraze, control their p o p u l a t i o n by s o m e f o r m of b r e e d i n g i n h i b i t i o n allied to social stress above certain densities. T h e n o n - s e l f - r e g u l a t i n g severe grazers, w h i c h can and d o overgraze, are heavily d e p e n d e n t for their survival o n a high rate of annual loss to accidents, p r e d a t i o n , and eventually parasitism, disease, or starvation if p r e d a t i o n is inadequate. All of the p r e d a t o r d e p e n d e n t species appear to herd as the m a i n f o r m of p r o t e c t i o n . T h e presence of a w i d e diversity of animals o n a piece of land o f t e n means m o r e t h o r o u g h utilization of available feed, as b e c o m e s evident in studies of c o m p l e x wildlife situations in Africa or w h e r e c o m b i n a t i o n s of sheep, cattle, pigs, goats, and horses r u n together. It does n o t , however, c h a n g e the basic dynamics of overgrazing, and the grazing aspects of plann i n g for most kinds of d o m e s t i c stock are remarkably sinular. N o n e t h e l e s s m a n y range scientists persist in trying to prevent overgrazing by limiting u t i l i z a t i o n . T h e y will specify various levels of utilization for individual s p e c i e s — 3 5 p e r c e n t for b l u e - b u n c h w h e a t grass, for e x a m p l e — as t h o u g h it really w e r e possible for a m a n a g e r to regulate h o w m u c h an animal will take f r o m plants of o n e species amidst many. U t i l i z a t i o n levels are also specified f o r different types of c o m m u n i t i e s (e.g., riparian areas 25

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p e r c e n t , and uplands 55 percent). B u t overgrazing c o n t i n u e s n o m a t t e r w h a t t h e level of utilization.

Grazing and the Brittleness Scale A l o o k at t h e i m p a c t of grazing a n d overgrazing o n t h e f o u r ecosystem processes at the e x t r e m e ends of t h e brittleness scale gives a r o u g h indication of t h e implications f o r m a n a g e m e n t . NONBRITTLE

ENVIRONMENTS

Community Dynamics. In such e n v i r o n m e n t s w h e r e plant spacing is n a t u rally close and soil cover hard to damage, grazing tends to m a i n t a i n grass r o o t vigor, soil life, and structure. H o w e v e r , it is d o u b t f u l it w o u l d ever d o so to t h e same d e p t h as o c c u r r e d u n d e r forest vegetation, w h i c h pastures in such e n v i r o n m e n t s have o f t e n replaced. If grassland w o u l d n o r m a l l y progress toward w o o d l a n d in that e n v i r o n m e n t , grazing tends to i m p e d e this shift o r to halt it at a grassland level. O v e r g r a z i n g will r e d u c e root mass but still n o t e x p o s e soil d u e to t h e close plant spacing in these e n v i r o n m e n t s . T h u s overgrazing tends to lead to a solid m a t of grass even in u p r i g h t species. S o m e species sensitive to overgrazing can disappear, l e a d i n g to a potentially m o r e unstable c o m m u nity s h o u l d disease strike r e m a i n i n g plants. O v e r g r a z i n g may also p r o d u c e a shift toward w o o d y plant c o m m u n i t i e s , as t h e r e d u c t i o n in grass roots allows easy establishment of t a p - r o o t e d species. Water and mineral cycles. G r a z i n g will n o t e x p o s e soil but rather will cause even denser cover and thus probably e n h a n c e these cycles in grassland. W h e r e h u m a n i n t e r v e n t i o n has r e d u c e d a natural forest o r j u n g l e to grassland a n d m a i n t a i n e d it at that level by grazing, w a t e r and mineral cycles probably will never reach t h e level of effectiveness m a d e possible by the deeper-rooted w o o d y community. In either natural o r planted pastures, grassroot r e d u c t i o n and c o m p a c t i o n s t e m m i n g f r o m o v e r g r a z i n g adversely affect t h e cycling of b o t h w a t e r and minerals. If c o n t i n u a l overgrazing allows progression to stable w o o d y c o m m u n i t i e s , as it will given e n o u g h rainfall, w a t e r and mineral cycles b e n e f i t accordingly as pasture gives way to forest. Energy flow. G r a z i n g increases e n e r g y flow b o t h above a n d b e l o w g r o u n d in natural grassland o r pastures. W h e r e rest w o u l d p r o d u c e w o o d s or j u n g l e , grazing, w h i c h holds t h e c o m m u n i t y at t h e grassland level, keeps e n e r g y f l o w d o w n but available f o r o u r p u r p o s e s . O v e r g r a z i n g r e d u c e s e n e r g y f l o w in grassland or pasture. O n l y w h e r e it p r o d u c e s a shift to w o o d y c o m m u n i t i e s that t h e climate can sustain does it do otherwise.

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VERY BRITTLE ENVIRONMENTS

Community dynamics. G r a z i n g tends to m a i n t a i n grassland c o m m u n i t i e s , increase their diversity a n d cover soil, a n d retard shifts t o w a r d w o o d y or h e r b a c e o u s species. It tends to increase organic c o n t e n t , structure, aeration, a n d biological activity in t h e soil because m o r e leaf a n d m o r e r o o t are p r o d u c e d . In forests, grazing can b e used to prevent the b u i l d u p of massive a m o u n t s of material that b e c o m e a fire hazard, w h i l e m a i n t a i n i n g soil cover a n d p r o m o t i n g t h e b u i l d u p of organic material, thus p r e v e n t i n g t h e d e a t h of t h e forest. O v e r g r a z i n g , by r e d u c i n g litter a n d soil cover even as it damages roots, fosters shifts away f r o m grassland and w o o d y c o m m u n i t i e s toward h e r b a ceous forbs (or weeds*). It also leads to soil c o m p a c t i o n and p r o m o t e s m o n o c u l t u r e s w i t h r e d u c e d n u m b e r s of grass species. Water and mineral cycles. G r a z i n g e n h a n c e s b o t h of these t h r o u g h m a i n t a i n i n g healthier and m o r e stable r o o t mass, increasing m i c r o o r g a n i s m activity and aeration, and p r o d u c i n g plants w i t h m o r e shoots a n d leaves that later provide m o r e litter. O v e r g r a z i n g reduces w a t e r and mineral cycling by e x p o s i n g soil and l i m i t i n g the p r o d u c t i o n of potential litter. By d a m a g i n g and r e d u c i n g roots, it also decreases soil structure, w h i c h increases c o m p a c t i o n and reduces porosity, organic c o n t e n t , and soil life. Energy flow. G r a z i n g increases e n e r g y flow by p r e v e n t i n g old oxidizing blockages of material and p r o m o t i n g vigorous r o o t and leaf g r o w t h . Healthier, m o r e massive r o o t systems also s u p p o r t millions of m i c r o o r g a n isms a n d o t h e r life u n d e r g r o u n d . O v e r g r a z i n g cuts e n e r g y flow because it reduces plant roots and e x p o s es t h e soil surface. W h e n c o m b i n e d w i t h partial rest, it o f t e n leads to a c h a n g e f r o m perennial to a n n u a l grassland—as has o c c u r r e d over m u c h of California, s o u t h e r n Australia, a n d m a n y parts of A f r i c a — w h i c h reduces e n e r g y flow e n o r m o u s l y . W h e n perennial grasses d o m i n a t e d , grasslands in these areas c o n v e r t e d e n e r g y over m a n y m o n t h s of each year. N o w a n n u als c o n v e r t a fraction of that a m o u n t over very s h o r t periods. T h e s e are t h e straightforward tendencies that g u i d e us in m a n a g e m e n t . In practice they p r o c e e d in c o n c e r t w i t h so m a n y o t h e r forces that o n e c a n n o t always predict h o w significantly they will i n f l u e n c e a given case. T h e f e e d b a c k loops w e establish in Holistic M a n a g e m e n t , based o n the c o n s t a n t a s s u m p t i o n that decisions affecting t h e e n v i r o n m e n t are w r o n g , enable us to o v e r c o m e this d i l e m m a to a large e x t e n t . Nevertheless, a d e e p -

*I p r e f e r to use t h e t e r m forbs w h e n r e f e r r i n g to t h e smaller t a p - r o o t e d , or d i c o t y l e d e n o u s , plants. T h e t e r m weeds is a l m o s t always used in a negative sense and can apply to a t a p - r o o t e d o r fibrous-rooted (grass) plant.

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er u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the adaptations that allow severe grazers and grass to coexist and the situations that lead to overgrazing makes t h e j o b easier.

The Relationship between Grass and Severe Grazers M o s t p e r e n n i a l grass plants and severe grazing animals d e v e l o p e d a m u t u ally advantageous relationship over the e o n s of t h e past. T h e y never required h u m a n i n t e r v e n t i o n o r o p i n i o n as to w h e t h e r it was g o o d o r bad. P r i o r to h u m a n interference, t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n of old g r o w t h o n plants in the m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s was largely addressed by t h e grazing and social b e h a v i o r of h e r d i n g animals. B u t a p r e j u d i c e against livestock has existed ever since because only recently have w e considered regulating the t i m i n g of an animal's bite or tried to link the k n o w n b e h a v i o r of animals in the wild to the p r o b l e m o f m a i n t a i n i n g t h e vitality of grasslands. T h e severe grazer, let's assume it is a cow, takes a m o u t h f u l f r o m a p a r ticular plant, then moves o n a step or t w o leaving o t h e r plants of t h e same or different species u n t o u c h e d . T h e grazed plant should b e n e f i t f r o m the bite, b u t f r e q u e n t l y does n o t because its r e g r o w t h , o f f e r i n g m o r e p r o t e i n and e n e r g y and less fiber, is very palatable and will attract a s e c o n d bite s o m e days later if t h e c o w remains in the area. T h u s , o n e plant gets overgrazed w h i l e its n e i g h b o r s rest u n g r a z e d , and o n e c o w may actually kill a f e w plants w h i l e a great m a n y are rested far t o o l o n g for their health. Increasing t h e n u m b e r o f animals increases the p r o p o r t i o n o f plants d a m aged f r o m overgrazing and decreases the p r o p o r t i o n d a m a g e d f r o m overresting. T h i s process a c c o u n t s for the apparent paradox that animals grazing c o n t i n u o u s l y u n d e r the m a n a g e m e n t m o s t c o m m o n l y practiced in t h e U n i t e d States usually p r o d u c e b o t h overgrazed a n d overrested plants in t h e same area. S o m e t i m e s this may manifest itself as a startling mosaic of u n g r a z e d and overgrazed patches. M o r e o f t e n the overgrazed plants are dispersed a m o n g a w h o l e p o p u l a t i o n of plants and escape d e t e c t i o n until s o m e years later w h e n a particular species disappears altogether. P h o t o 2 1 - 1 gives an aerial v i e w of a " c o n v e n t i o n a l l y w e l l - r u n r a n c h " w i t h a so-called c o r r e c t (light) s t o c k i n g rate. O v e r large areas nearly all plants have b e e n overgrazed, as the g r o u n d - l e v e l closeup ( p h o t o 21-2) makes painfully clear. T h e o t h e r areas c o n t a i n a great q u a n t i t y of overrested and d y i n g grass p l a n t s . T h e massive death o f perennial grasses o c c u r r i n g o n this ranch w e r e illustrated in C h a p t e r 20 ( p h o t o 2 0 - 3 ) . C h a n g i n g t h e animal n u m b e r s will only alter t h e p r o p o r t i o n s of overrested and overgrazed plants. Very o f t e n the overrested sites will shift f r o m grassland to h e r b a c e o u s o r w o o d y plant c o m m u n i t i e s , a l o n g w i t h a considerable a m o u n t of bare

P h o t o 21-1

Aerial view of a conventionally

well-managed

ranch, stocked lightly to

avoid overgrazing. Light patches are severely overgrazed and darker patches Coalniila,

overrested.

Mexico.

P h o t o 21-2

Ground view on the same ranch as in photo 21-1, showing close-up of overrested and overgrazed patches. Coahuila, Mexico.

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g r o u n d . T h i s underlies t h e invasion of p r o b l e m w o o d y species into millions of acres of grassland. Vast sums have g o n e for research, chemicals, m a c h i n ery, a n d publicity in t h e a t t e m p t to eradicate plants that n e v e r w e r e a p r o b l e m until o u r m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of p l a n t - a n i m a l relationships allowed t h e m to b e c o m e one. In any case, as stated before, s t o c k i n g rate has little b e a r i n g o n w h a t h a p p e n s to any individual plant, a n d o n e s h o u l d discuss overgrazing only in regard to individual plants. A p p l y i n g t h e w o r d to a w h o l e area is irrelevant, as t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e illustrates: N e a r A l b u q u e r q u e , N e w M e x i c o , the Sandia Indians have r u n livestock o n a piece of land f o r over t h r e e h u n d r e d years, o n e of t h e oldest e x a m ples of c o n t i n u o u s g r a z i n g of d o m e s t i c stock in the N e w W o r l d . In recent decades they have r u n a l o w n u m b e r of cattle scattered thinly over t h e range in the c o m m o n A m e r i c a n way, and all t h e w h i l e t h e U.S. B u r e a u of Indian Affairs has c o m p l a i n e d bitterly of c a t c h m e n t d a m a g e f r o m " o v e r grazing a n d overstocking." A c u r s o r y e x a m i n a t i o n certainly b o r e o u t t h e validity of such allegations, b u t a closer inspection revealed m a n y plants m a t t e d w i t h old oxidiz- • ing leaves a n d stems and d y i n g p r e m a t u r e l y f r o m overrest. O t h e r plants, however, thrived, as cattle had r e m o v e d t h e o b s t r u c t i n g matter. O t h e r s w e r e w e a k f r o m overgrazing. S o m e n e w plants g r e w w h e r e physical t r a m pling had created t h e r i g h t c o n d i t i o n s . E l s e w h e r e rain i m p a c t had recapped old disturbance, and m a n y areas h a d seen n o disturbance for so l o n g that little g r e w there at all. Generally litter and g r o u n d cover w e r e scarce d u e to b o t h t h e overgrazing of plants and the s i m u l t a n e o u s partial rest of t h e w h o l e . A m i d such a variety of s y m p t o m s , t h e blanket label " o v e r g r a z e d r a n g e " m e a n s n o t h i n g and offers n o g u i d e to a solution. T h e presence o f so m a n y overrested plants belies t h e description " o v e r s t o c k e d " altogether. O n rangelands in Africa, t h e A m e r i c a s , Australia, a n d t h e M i d d l e East, 1 have seen and heard t h e same things. A l m o s t all sites c o m m o n l y called overstocked d o c o n t a i n a h i g h n u m b e r of overgrazed plants, b u t almost always a very significant q u a n t i t y of overrested ones a l o n g w i t h m u c h bare g r o u n d d u e to partial rest. E v e n in those e x t r e m e cases w h e r e 100 p e r c e n t of the plants are overgrazed, it still does n o t represent overstocking as by simply p l a n n i n g the g r a z i n g to p r e v e n t overgrazing, the animal n u m b e r s can, and o f t e n must, b e increased for the g o o d of the land. As the last c h a p ter explained, partial rest leads to t h e same, o r a greater increase in bare g r o u n d as can b e p r o d u c e d by overgrazing. T h e t w o influences c o m p o u n d each other, b u t t h e b l a m e always falls o n overgrazing, w h i c h is treated as s y n o n y m o u s w i t h overstocking. Because time, n o t t h e n u m b e r of animals, controls overgrazing and because p r e v e n t i n g overgrazing is so critical for m a i n t a i n i n g t h e p r o ductivity of t h e e n v i r o n m e n t s in w h i c h animals graze, this b o o k pays considerable a t t e n t i o n in C h a p t e r 38 to m a n a g i n g t h e t i m e that plants are

21 I GRAZING: T H E M O S T ABUSED T O O L

227

e x p o s e d and r e e x p o s e d to t h e animals, b u t wild animals d o n ' t w e a r w a t c h es. H o w then does n a t u r e m a i n t a i n t h e h a r m o n i o u s r h y t h m of g r o w t h and grazing? B e f o r e d o m e s t i c a t i o n n o d o u b t cattle b e h a v e d like A m e r i c a n bison o r A f r i c a n buffalo in t h e wild. E v e n w h e n feeding, those animals r e m a i n e d fairly close t o g e t h e r for fear of p r e d a t i o n , and they m o v e d f r e q u e n t l y off to n e w f e e d i n g g r o u n d s as t h e old had b e c o m e f o u l e d . As m e n t i o n e d in an earlier chapter, grazing animals d o n o t like to feed over g r o u n d they have f o u l e d . T h e y k e e p m o v i n g to fresh g r o u n d and d o n ' t n o r m a l l y r e t u r n until t h e d u n g has d e c o m p o s e d , usually l o n g e n o u g h in t h e g r o w i n g season f o r plants to regrow, thus avoiding overgrazing. H o r s e s and cattle, especially in less brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , o f t e n avoid d u n g sites l o n g after t h e d u n g has d e c o m p o s e d , b u t this probably indicates that the e x t e n d e d recovery time given the plants has caused t h e m to g r o w rank a n d fibrous. T h e f o u l i n g effect of t h e d u n g probably w o r e off m u c h earlier. W h e n bison, p r o n g h o r n , s p r i n g b o k , kangaroos, wildebeest, o r buffalo a n d o t h e r wild h e r d i n g animals sense n o d a n g e r f r o m predators, i n c l u d i n g h u m a n s , their b e h a v i o r changes and overgrazing of plants and overresting o f soil and o t h e r plants increase. T h e herd remains spread f o r l o n g e r and longer, and even females w i t h y o u n g will graze and lie well away f r o m o t h e r s . T h e n their d u n g and u r i n e are scattered so w i d e l y it n o l o n g e r inhibits f e e d i n g o r i n d u c e s m o v e m e n t a n d t h e same animals r e m a i n o n t h e same g r o u n d day after day, overgrazing a great m a n y plants.

Adaptations

to

Overgrazing

A l t h o u g h wild herds, at least u n d e r threat of p r e d a t i o n , follow rather c o n structive patterns of grazing, they o f t e n d o still overgraze plants. If they did n o t , plants w o u l d n o t have d e v e l o p e d such i n g e n i o u s defenses against it, a n d o u r i g n o r a n c e w o u l d have d o n e m o r e d a m a g e than it has. O n m y o w n g a m e reserve and research station in Z i m b a b w e it was a c o m m o n e x p e r i e n c e to see a buffalo h e r d c o n c e n t r a t e for t w o o r three days o n a site and t h e n m o v e off t h e f o u l e d g r o u n d . N o t u n c o m m o n l y a h e r d of zebra, wildebeest, eland, tsessebe, g e m s b o k , sable, roan, o r s o m e o t h e r species w o u l d follow t h e m , apparently n o t b o t h e r e d by t h e d r o p pings of a n o t h e r species. A l t h o u g h in c o m p l e x wildlife p o p u l a t i o n s , differe n t animals may favor different plants a n d feed at different levels, f r o m the r o o t i n g wart h o g to t h e t r e e - n i b b l i n g giraffe, overlap is considerable. Plants severely grazed by o n e herd o f t e n get grazed, o r rather overgrazed, by a n o t h e r f o l l o w i n g close b e h i n d . T h e overgrazing of s o m e plants appears to d o little d a m a g e as l o n g as animal i m p a c t is sufficient e n o u g h to ensure plants get replaced. S o m e grass species c a n n o t stand m u c h overgrazing, a n d after a certain level of r o o t r e d u c t i o n die o u t e x c e p t w h e r e p r o t e c t e d by t h o r n y bushes

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and cracks in rocks. O t h e r s take evasive or defensive action. S o m e sacrifice the c e n t e r of the c l u m p b u t c o n t i n u e to h a n g o n to life a r o u n d the edges. S o m e distort their leaf and stem g r o w t h flat along the g r o u n d b e l o w the grazing h e i g h t of the animals. P h o t o 2 1 - 3 provides an e x a m p l e of b o t h these adaptations. N o r m a l l y this plant w o u l d g r o w t w o to t h r e e feet high. O t h e r species develop a tight, r o u n d , spiny ball like a r o l l e d - u p h e d g e h o g . T h e prickly aspect c o m e s f r o m old stem remains, a m o n g w h i c h small leaves persist ( p h o t o 2 1 - 4 ) . W h e r e a great m a n y plants are overgrazed in a site that also receives high animal impact, w h o l e c o m m u n i t i e s m a y shift toward a solid mat of r u n n e r - t y p e grasses that m o r e easily m a i n t a i n leaf g r o w t h b e l o w the grazi n g h e i g h t of animals. O n e such c o m m u n i t y 1 k n o w of c o n t i n u e d to thrive u n d e r heavy daily cattle pressure b u t perished quickly u n d e r an o n s l a u g h t of geese that, grazing at a m u c h lower level, d e m o l i s h e d g r o w t h points. In all c o u n t r i e s I have observed, perennial grasses appear remarkably resilient to overgrazing w i t h o n e notable e x c e p t i o n . For s o m e reason n o t yet fully u n d e r s t o o d or explained by anyone, they seem particularly vulnerable in M e d i t e r r a n e a n climates, such as p r e d o m i n a t e in s o u t h e r n Australia, t h e s o u t h e r n tip of Africa, and a l o n g the California coast. T h e s e places c o n t a i n vast areas that have lost almost every perennial grass after years of overgrazing and partial rest. Fortunately, a l t h o u g h w e d o n o t yet u n d e r s t a n d their e x t r e m e sensitivity, they d o r e t u r n w h e n b o t h overgrazing and partial rest are s t o p p e d .

Photo 21-3

Dying center and severe distortion of growing steins on an overgrazed

plant. Normally

this plant would be about three feet tall and erect. The knife

how close and flat the leaves are to the ground.

Zimbabwe.

indicates

21

I G R A Z I N G : T H E M O S T A B U S E D T O O L 251

P h o t o 21-4 surviving

Overgrazed

for many years, this normally matted perennial grass plant is

by forming a hedged ball. Baluchistan

Province,

Pakistan.

Browsing So far w e have considered grazing and grazing animals, b u t w h a t of b r o w s i n g and browsers? A m o n g wild species, and a m o n g o u r d o m e s t i c animals, m a n y browse w o o d y plants and forbs m o r e than they graze grasses, s o m e purely browse, s o m e b r o w s e forbs in o p e n grasslands, and s o m e subsist entirely o n trees and shrubs. D o the same principles apply? In general, yes. A l t h o u g h n o t nearly as m u c h research has c o n c e n t r a t e d o n b r o w s i n g as o n grazing, all results seem to p o i n t in the same direction. W o o d y plants can w i t h s t a n d heavy b r o w s i n g that removes all of the g r e e n leaf as l o n g as the plants get a d e q u a t e t i m e in w h i c h to recover afterward. T h e y can also withstand c o n t i n u o u s severe b r o w s i n g as l o n g as sufficient foliage remains o u t of reach of the animals. A few very sensitive species lacking an e f f e c tive defense m e c h a n i s m b e c o m e c o n s p i c u o u s by their absence w h e n u n d e r c o n t i n u o u s b r o w s i n g pressure.

Adaptations

to

Overbrowsing

T h e m o s t c o m m o n response to o v e r b r o w s i n g by resilient plants is called hedging. Plants develop the l o o k of a clipped garden h e d g e in w h i c h short, tightly spaced stems p r o t e c t leaves c r o w d e d in a m o n g s t t h e m . P h o t o 2 1 - 5 shows a heavily h e d g e d plant g r o w i n g in the biblical lands w h e r e heavy b r o w s i n g goes back at least 2 , 0 0 0 years. T h e r e is n o k n o w i n g h o w old this plant is. Plants that d o h e d g e can w i t h s t a n d o v e r b r o w s i n g for such p r o l o n g e d p e r i o d s that they may well live a n o r m a l lifespan, a l t h o u g h I have

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PART V

P h o t o 21-5

Overbrowsed

I

T H E T O O L S WF. U S E T O M A N A G E O U R ECOSYSTEM

and hedged perennial shrub of great age. Yemen.

seen elephants reach t h r o u g h t h e defenses and browse to death trees that had successfully h e d g e d against lesser animals for years. O t h e r plants do n o t hedge, b u t larger individuals develop a browseline b e l o w w h i c h the animals take e v e r y t h i n g w h i l e the plant c o n t i n u e s to g r o w as h i g h e r leaves trap sunlight. P h o t o 2 1 - 6 shows a browseline o n t h e u n d e r s i d e of a tree, b u t you can also see n o r m a l g r o w t h resuming, o n c e t h e o v e r b r o w s i n g was eliminated t h r o u g h p l a n n i n g . In this case, animal n u m bers w e r e actually increased, but the a m o u n t of time plants were e x p o s e d to t h e animals was controlled. S o m e species, w h e n o v e r b r o w s e d , d e v e l o p very heavy r o o t systems and straggly a b o v e - g r o u n d parts. T h i s , h o w e v e r can also result f r o m f r e q u e n t fire or in t h e tropics regular frosting, b o t h of w h i c h r e m o v e leaf and d a m age stems r o u t i n e l y A few species subjected to c o n t i n u o u s b r o w s i n g g r o w small, m a t t e d leaves a l o n g t h e m a i n stems as seen in p h o t o 2 1 - 7 . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , these survival t e c h n i q u e s are of n o use to seedlings t o o small to h e d g e or to develop browselines, and o v e r b r o w s i n g will eliminate t h e m . A d u l t plants may hold o n for centuries, b u t w i t h o u t replacements, the p o p u l a t i o n gradually declines. This gradual decline is apparent a l o n g m a n y riparian areas in the w e s t e r n U n i t e d States w h e r e livestock are e n c o u r a g e d to w a n d e r in low n u m b e r s in t h e belief that t h e low n u m b e r s will p r e v e n t such damage. B r o w s i n g e n h a n c e s the p r o d u c t i v i t y of m a n y forbs and w o o d y plants, and thus, like the perennial grasses, they share an i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e w i t h the animals that feed o n t h e m that w e d o n o t u n d e r s t a n d very well at this p o i n t . S o m e w o o d y plants also have elaborate c h e m i c a l and physical defenses that provide p r o t e c t i o n against browsing. B u t even so, they still

231

2 1 I GRAZING: T H E M O S T ABUSED T O O L

Photo 21-6 has stopped,

P h o t o 21-7 from

many

Neiu

even

stems growing

though

animal

Close-cropped,

years of overbrowsing.

below numbers

tightly matted

the old browseline

once the

have

Namibia.

increased.

leaves along the trunk oj a tree

Cape Province, South

overbrowsing

suffering

Africa.

appear to share an essential relationship w i t h t h e animals that p r o m o t e s the spread and g e r m i n a t i o n of their seed. As in t h e case of grasses, o v e r b r o w s i n g bears n o relationship to the n u m b e r of animals, only to the p r o p o r t i o n of leaf r e m o v e d and t h e t i m e that a plant has to regenerate. P h o t o 2 1 - 8 shows a browseline o n trees in the N a v a j o - H o p i J o i n t U s e Area in A r i z o n a . A 90 p e r c e n t r e d u c t i o n in livestock has n o t affected the o v e r b r o w s i n g at all as the trees a n d their seedlings are continually exposed to t h e r e m a i n i n g f e w animals.

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P h o t o 21-8

Browseline persisting on all trees following a 90 percent stock reduction. The few animals remaining haoe continued to overbrou/se and no seedlings can establish. Arizona.

O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , P h o t o s 2 1 - 9 a n d 2 1 - 1 0 s h o w w h a t can h a p p e n even w h e n the animal n u m b e r s are d o u b l e d , b u t c o n c e n t r a t e d , a n d their grazing a n d b r o w s i n g times p l a n n e d . P h o t o 2 1 - 9 shows a highly nutritious, but severely overbrowsed, plant in Arizona called winterfat. Every single plant w e f o u n d o n this particular ranch had suffered to t h e e x t e n t of having n o observable seed or seedling p r o d u c t i o n . P h o t o 2 1 - 1 0 shows these same plants in t h e same area of the ranch after t w o years of p l a n n e d grazing w i t h greatly increased a n d c o n c e n t r a t e d livestock. Far m o r e leaf and m a n y m o r e stems have g r o w n o n the plants and seeds w e r e p r o d u c e d . A year after, seedlings had established as well. T h e role of t h e c o n c e n t r a t e d herd will b e c o m e clearer in the f o l l o w i n g chapter o n animal impact. Suffice it to say that g o o d m a n a g e m e n t can have the same positive i m p a c t o n b r o w s e plants as o n grasses, a n d t h e n u m b e r of animals is n o t as crucial as the time the plants are exposed and t h e n reexposed to t h e animals. W h e r e f o u l e d g r o u n d i n d u c e s m o v e m e n t in c o n c e n t r a t e d grazers it also does so w i t h those browsers that feed o n forbs at g r o u n d level. T h o s e animals that d o their b r o w s i n g at h i g h e r levels of c o u r s e are n o t to t h e same d e g r e e f e e d i n g o n f o u l e d g r o u n d as their noses and m o u t h s are well above it. W e may never know, n o w that w e have lost natural p o p u l a t i o n s to research in most parts of the w o r l d , but I strongly suspect that these species were heavily d e p e n d e n t o n certain predators to i n d u c e m o v e m e n t . T h e s e predators w o u l d typically have h u n t e d in bands or packs, such as h u m a n s o n c e did a n d wolves, wild dogs, and hyenas still d o in s o m e places.

P h o t o 21-9

Heavily

prolonged time.

Arizona.

overbrowsed stub of a winterfat bush exposed to a few cattle over

Photo 21-10

Typical

wimesfat

bush, on the same ranch as shown in Photo 21 -9, growing out. well and seeding with grazing planned

and livestock

doubled.

Arizona.

/browsing numbers

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Wildlife and Overgrazing/Overbrowsing M y personal feelings a b o u t all of these issues are h a u n t e d by t h e fate of the land m e n t i o n e d in C h a p t e r 3 that w e m a d e i n t o a national p a r k in Z i m b a b w e . H e r e I was responsible f o r c o m p o u n d i n g o n e e r r o r w i t h a n o t h e r . O n c e w e had r e m o v e d t h e p e o p l e (our first mistake), t h e game, particularly elephants w h o s e m a i n predators w e r e h u m a n , n o w r e m a i n e d in t h e Z a m b e z i Valley near t h e river f o r p r o l o n g e d periods. T h e d e s t r u c tion of vegetation a n d river banks quickly g r e w serious. I was the research officer charged w i t h m a k i n g a plan to deal w i t h it. M y research proved that there w e r e simply t o o m a n y animals, and m y r e c o m m e n d a t i o n was to drastically cull the elephants, buffalo, and s o m e o t h e r species. It was heresy to r e c o m m e n d such a t h i n g in a national park in the early 1960s, a n d so the g o v e r n m e n t had o t h e r scientists visit t h e area to c h e c k o n m y w o r k and r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s . T h e y c o n c u r r e d w i t h m e a n d the heavy culling of large g a m e eventually b e c a m e policy. W h e n I r e t u r n e d to t h e area in 1985, elephant, buffalo, a n d o t h e r species h a d b e e n heavily culled o n a regular basis for nearly t w e n t y years, but t h e d a m a g e to vegetation and river b a n k was as bad as ever. T h e large old trees w e r e still p r o d u c i n g seed each year, and m a n y seeds w e r e g e r m i nating, b u t n o n e survived past t h e seedling stage to fill t h e t h i n n i n g ranks

Photo 21-11

Heavy overbrowsing of trees persists even though elephant

numbers

have been greatly reduced because elephants remain in the same area day after day. The majority of trees have had all leaves and stems stripped off to the height an adult can reach. Mana Pools National

Park, 1985.

Zimbabwe.

elephant

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of t h e species that h a d o n c e b e e n so a b u n d a n t . T h e few elephants that r e m a i n e d c o n t i n u e d to o v e r b r o w s e the trees, n o w r i p p i n g t h e bark off t h e m as well a n d s p e e d i n g their demise. P h o t o 2 1 - 1 1 is a v i e w of t h e general area in 1985 f o l l o w i n g years of heavy culling designed to prevent such damage. I, like so m a n y others, had missed the full significance of t h e role of h u m a n s as a p r e d a t o r in k e e p i n g g a m e wild and m o v i n g . T h e r e m a i n i n g elephants in t h e park n o l o n g e r fear h u m a n s . A l t h o u g h they are b e i n g culled at a high rate, they do n o t k n o w that h u m a n s are d o i n g it, as w h o l e families are g u n n e d d o w n so that n o n e lives to tell the tale.This d e c e p t i o n is considered necessary as it is a n a t i o n al park a n d tourists require t a m e elephants. A n d they have b e c o m e r e m a r k ably tame; their response to h u m a n scent is very different f r o m w h a t it was in t h e late 1950s w h e n they were m u c h wilder. U n f o r t u n a t e l y t a m e elephants, o r any o t h e r g a m e i n t e r d e p e n d e n t w i t h predators, are n o t natural and t h e r e f o r e lose their natural relationship w i t h t h e plants in their c o m munity. Basically they linger t o o o f t e n a n d t o o l o n g in t h e m o s t favored areas a n d thus overbrowse o r overgraze.

Conclusion T h e answers to t h e questions raised in this chapter are n o t simple, c e r t a i n ly n o t as simple as j u s t d e c i d i n g to regulate o r n o t regulate the n u m b e r of a n i m a l s . T h e p r o p e r s t o c k i n g rate is i m p o r t a n t , particularly to leave e n o u g h forage to carry animals t h r o u g h t h e n o n g r o w i n g season. B u t o t h e r factors enter the equation. Wildlife m a n a g e m e n t in particular poses m a n y questions. Since w e c a n n o t stop overgrazing by c o n t r o l l i n g n u m b e r s , h o w d o w e control time? H o w d o w e d e t e r m i n e w h a t t h e land m a y carry? W e m u s t consider w h a t else t h e animals d o o n t h e l a n d — d u n g i n g trampling, p i c k i n g up litter, and so o n . W e must l o o k at t h e relationship of different animals to o n e a n o t h er. If herds are to m o v e , w h e r e will they m o v e to? W h a t territories a n d h o m e ranges a n d m i g r a t i o n routes d o they require? W h a t will i n d u c e and m a i n t a i n t h e necessary m o v e m e n t ? H o w does p o p u l a t i o n size regulate terr i t o r y a n d this in t u r n regulate the time plants are exposed to t h e m ? In national parks, w h i c h w e k n o w have limits, w e c a n n o t establish s t o c k i n g rates by simply k e e p i n g n u m b e r s l o w e n o u g h to avoid a heavy d i e - o f f in dry years. In average a n d g o o d years this p h e n o m e n o n leads to overrest and shifts in succession to w o o d y plants, w h i c h in t u r n e n c o u r ages t o o f r e q u e n t use of fire a n d t e c h n o l o g y in w h a t b e c o m e s a f o r m of crisis m a n a g e m e n t . S o m e of t h e answers lie in t h e p l a n n i n g of time, o t h e r s in the grazing planning, described in C h a p t e r 46, w h e r e livestock are used as a t o o l to assist in t h e overall m a n a g e m e n t of wildlife p o p u l a t i o n s . M u c h can also be d o n e w i t h the tool of animal impact, discussed in t h e n e x t chapter.

22 Animal Impact: The Least Used Tbol

nimal i m p a c t refers to all the things grazing animals d o besides eat. Instinctively w e have considered t h e d u n g i n g , urinating, salivating, r u b b i n g , and t r a m p l i n g of large animals as generally i n c o n v e n i e n t c o n d i tions of their presence. Especially since fertilizer has b e c o m e an i t e m sprayed f r o m tanks or p o u r e d o u t of sacks, f e w p e o p l e even t h i n k of the m o r e p u n g e n t aspects of livestock e x c e p t w h e n d o w n w i n d of t h e m . F o r t u n a t e l y n a t u r e has n o t b e e n so shortsighted, and w e have recently discovered in t h e l u m b e r i n g , smelly, but p o w e r f u l , b e h a v i o r of grazing a n i mals, a tool of e n o r m o u s significance for reversing desertification and for better m a n a g e m e n t of water c a t c h m e n t s , croplands, forests, and wildlife. T h e Holistic M a n a g e m e n t f r a m e w o r k arose f r o m t h e discovery of t h e f o u r key insights described in earlier chapters. T w o of t h e m , the f u n d a m e n t a l differences b e t w e e n brittle and n o n b r i t t l e e n v i r o n m e n t s , and the role of h e r d i n g animals and their predators in m a i n t a i n i n g biological c o m munities in the m o r e brittle ones, led to a r e c o g n i t i o n of animal i m p a c t as a tool. T h e f o l l o w i n g examples give an idea of the p o w e r and versatility of this tool. A l t h o u g h critical to t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of t h e m o r e brittle envir o n m e n t s a n d m o s t o f t e n called for in those conditions, it is useful in less brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s as well: •

In a fairly brittle, high-rainfall environment, overrest has allowed plants to accumulate several years of old material. R o o t s have suffered severe damage, and the c o m m u n i t y has started the shift to forbs, shrubs, and trees, thwarting our desire to maintain open grassland. Fire would pollute the atmosphere while exposing soil and invigorating many of the w o o d y plants. Chemicals or machinery might 236

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clear the ground but could not guarantee that grass would establish or persist if the soil was insufficiently disturbed and compacted. Periodic high animal impact, together with grazing, but not overgrazing, could remove old material, invigorate existing plants w i t h o u t exposing soil, create conditions for n e w plants to establish, and move the biological c o m m u n i t y away from noxious weeds or woody plants. Low animal impact for prolonged time, or partial rest, as m u c h observation and research data have shown, does not do so but rather causes such situations. •

In a less brittle environment a farmer is faced with trying to maintain soil structure and cover while having to dispose of crop residues in time to plant his next crop. W h e r e he once used machinery or fire, he n o w finds he can use very high animal impact by concentrating livestock on small portions of his field for a few hours or a day at a time until the whole field has been treated. Now, the crop residues are used to feed the animals, nutrients are returned to the surface in the f o r m of d u n g and urine, and the uneaten portions are t h o r o u g h ly broken up and laid d o w n . N o w h e r e have the animals been long e n o u g h o n the soil to cause excessive compaction or damage to the soil surface.

•

We need a firebreak through grassland or a strip of brush and scrub. A fine spray of very dilute molasses or saline (salt) solution will attract and b u n c h a herd of cattle e n o u g h to make a firebreak through almost any kind of country at minimal expense w i t h o u t exposing soil or creating an erosion hazard.

•

Leafy spurge, knapweed, snakeweed, or some other noxious plant has invaded a piece of ground and thousands of dollars have already been spent in futile eradication efforts. N o w we can use continual doses of very high animal impact followed by well-planned recovery periods that cause the offending plants to diminish by moving succession beyond the stage that suits them.

•

Bare eroding ground that we once might have fenced off and seeded at great expense can n o w be subjected to periodic heavy impact by giving a large herd a few bales of hay, w h i c h excites and concentrates them on the area. N e w plants then establish on the broken, litterstrewn ground at n o cost or lost production.

•

Erosion gullies whose steep banks grant no foothold to plants, spread across the land. W h y pay for a bulldozer to slope the banks and chew up more land while consuming diesel and polluting, w h e n a herd of livestock or large game animals attracted to the gully can break down the sharp, cutting edges and create the conditions for plant growth to heal them. This high animal impact, while curing the gully, if also

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used in the catchment of the gully also tends to correct the n o n e f fective water cycle that caused the damage in the first place. •

We have millions of dollars tied up in legally mandated deposits until land we have stripped for coal m i n i n g is reclaimed and returned to productive use. Millions have already been wasted on reseeding and mechanical treatments that have failed. N o w we can use hay and other supplementary feeds to attract and greatly concentrate cattle on these sites and reclaim and maintain t h e m for a fraction of the cost.

•

Impenetrable brush clogs potential grassland. Although low densities of calm cattle will not touch it, a large herd attracted by the smell of molasses blocks, thrown deep into the thickets, will penetrate and break d o w n the brush. As the thick-skinned, jostling animals o p e n the thicket, sunlight penetrates and grass can again flourish. As grass flourishes with healthy roots, n e w w o o d y plants establish with difficulty.

•

Fish m a n a g e m e n t often requires steep, vegetated banks rather than steep, eroding ones, as shown in figure 22-1. Very high animal impact for very short periods can p r o m o t e this as the well-vegetated river bank in p h o t o 22-1 shows.

•

Stock trails to water or d o w n a hillside threaten to wash Although it may seem strange that damage caused by trampling be cured by trampling, the treatment works because of the vast ference between the effect of prolonged, one-way trailing and milling of bunched animals for very short periods.

•

Coarse, fibrous grass has c o m e to dominate a bottomland where low stocking rates and partial rest have prevailed. Traditionally fire has been used to "keep the grass palatable." But this pollutes while exposing soil and, combined with low animal impact, leads to wider plant spacing and ever-more fibrous plants. A dose of high animal impact removes plant tops and covers the soil, thus favoring more lateral growth, closer plant spacing, and less fibrous plants. O n c e again this tool removes the cause while curing the problem.

•

Desert soils have remained hard capped from lack of disturbance for over 3,000 years. N o m a d s periodically shepherd their cattle and sheep over the land, overgrazing the few remaining plants while perpetuating the partial rest resulting in such capped soil. Occasionally a new grass plant establishes where a cow, donkey, sheep, or goat has broken the hard surface. However, once a herd is concentrated and bunched for a brief m o m e n t the desert starts to make its recovery at last.

out. can difthe

All these examples are c o m m o n situations w h e r e animal i m p a c t is the m o s t practical tool available. A n i m a l i m p a c t is i n d e e d such a versatile tool

F i g u r e 22-1

Most stream banks ideally should be well vegetated not only to stabilize

them, but also to provide shade and cover for fish, as shown in the upper drawing. The bare stream banks shown in the lower drawing are unstable. Their steep edges are more prone to erosion and will keep cutting back, widening the stream and making it more shallow.

P h o t o 22-1 Well-vegetated rwer bank produced by using high animal impact with planned grazing to prevent overgrazing or overbrowsing. Zimbabwe, (courtesy R. H. Vaughan-Evans).

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that w e m n the d a n g e r of prescribing it as reflexively as s o m e n o w p r e scribe k n e e - j e r k t e c h n o l o g y fixes. T h e testing guidelines covered in u p c o m i n g chapters help to prevent that. T h e discovery that brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s n e e d p e r i o d i c disturbance to m a i n t a i n stable soil cover nevertheless leads us to recognize animal i m p a c t as the only practical tool that can realistically halt the advance of deserts over billions of acres o f r o u g h country. H e r e and there o t h e r tools can help, b u t w h a t o t h e r way exists to treat millions of square miles of o f t e n r u g g e d c o u n t r y each year w i t h o u t c o n s u m i n g fossil fuel, w i t h o u t p o l l u t i o n , and by a m e a n s millions of even illiterate p e o p l e can e m p l o y even w h i l e it feeds them?

The Role of Livestock N o o t h e r aspect o f Holistic M a n a g e m e n t has caused such controversy as the suggested use of this tool h a s . T h a t t r a m p l i n g by livestock damages b o t h plants and soils is a deeply held belief t h r o u g h o u t t h e world, as m e n t i o n e d in C h a p t e r 5. By s o m e tragic irony, s o m e of o u r m o s t serious academics have for years rejected the o n e idea that has m o r e p r o m i s e o f solving the riddle of desertification than any other. M e a n w h i l e m a c h i n e s o f extrao r d i n a r y size and cost have b e e n d e v e l o p e d to break soil crusts and disturb vegetation t h r o u g h m e c h a n i c a l i m p a c t toward the same e n d . Because w e have n o w lost m o s t of the large h e r d i n g wildlife species and the p r e dators that i n d u c e d their m o v e m e n t , w e are left only w i t h livestock in most instances to simulate that role. T h e r e is n o o t h e r tool that can b o t h restore and sustain healthy grasslands and savannas in t h e m o r e brittle environments. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , livestock—cattle and goats in p a r t i c u l a r — a r e generally seen as an e n e m y of t h e land, rather than its savior. R e c e n t c o n c e r n over the m e t h a n e released by r u m i n a t i n g c o w s has reinforced this view. Yet, as far as w e know, all r u m i n a n t s — b u f f a l o , bison, antelope, sheep, goats, p r o n g h o r n , deer, giraffe, e t c . — p r o d u c e m e t h a n e as a b y p r o d u c t of r u m i n a t i o n . As there were previously a great m a n y m o r e grazing r u m i n a n t s o n Earth p r i o r to the e m e r g e n c e of m o d e r n h u m a n s , s o m e t h i n g o t h e r than the presence of cattle is responsible for the high levels of m e t h a n e in today's a t m o s phere. T h e u n n a t u r a l way m o s t cattle are n o w fattened for s l a u g h t e r — i n c r o w d e d and unhealthy feedlots, w h e r e they are fed grains and o t h e r rations they are n o t genetically adapted to eat, is a n o t h e r strike against cattle. N o w , n o t only d o cattle destroy riparian areas, damage, wildlife habitat, and c r e ate deserts, they also p r o d u c e fatty and chemically tainted m e a t and tons of m a n u r e and u r i n e that are a liability in t h e feedlot, b u t w o u l d o t h e r w i s e be an asset o u t o n the land. Is it the fault of the animal that w e have taken a grazing creature, w h i c h d e v e l o p e d a p r o d u c t i v e and mutually beneficial

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relationship w i t h plants and soils over millions of years and t u r n e d it into a m e a t factory? R a t h e r than c o n d e m n t h e animal, w e should be c o n d e m n i n g ourselves f o r w h a t we have d o n e . To date, m o s t of o u r e x p e r i e n c e w i t h animal i m p a c t as a tool has involved d o m e s t i c stock. O n t h e g a m e reserve I o n c e o w n e d , I f r e q u e n t l y n o t e d its benefits w h e n p r o d u c e d by wildlife, but had little reason to create animal i m p a c t artificially as the big g a m e enjoyed e x t r e m e l y natural circumstances that included a g o o d level of p r e d a t i o n by lions, leopards, hyena, c h e e t a h , and wild dogs. I also h u n t e d periodically myself and m a d e n o a t t e m p t to t a m e animals. T h e same species behaved quite differently o n ranches w h e r e predators, i n c l u d i n g h u m a n s , had b e e n e l i m i n a t e d . T h e a n i mals had b e c o m e m o r e localized and calm. W h e r e b a b o o n s in m y g a m e reserve thrived in t h e c o m m u n i t y b u t ran at sight of p e o p l e , in the nearby national parks they sat o n cars or got into t h e m and trashed e v e r y t h i n g and had to b e destroyed as a nuisance. W h e r e elephants d r a n k b u t never h u n g a r o u n d water o r s h o w e d alarm and b u n c h e d t o g e t h e r 011 s c e n t i n g h u m a n s in m y reserve, in nearby national parks they i g n o r e d h u m a n s and lingered for h o u r s and days o n river banks. We are in o u r infancy in u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e c o n t r o l of t i m e and the relationship of herds, h o m e ranges, territories, and p r e d a t i o n in wild p o p ulations, but w e n e e d to o p e n o u r m i n d s to such ideas if o u r national parks are n o t to d e t e r i o r a t e as they are d o i n g in so m a n y instances today.

What Animal Impact Does O b j e c t i v e l y speaking, few w o u l d q u e s t i o n t h e salient aspects of animal i m p a c t — t h e r e are only three things it does and for w h i c h w e use it as a tool. 1. H o o f e d animals tend to compact the soil, as at every step they c o n centrate a big weight on a small foot. T h e "sheep's foot rollers" of m o d e r n civil engineering memorialize the herds used to compact road beds and earthworks not even a century ago. 2. W h e n animals are excited or closely bunched, their trampling causes breaks and irregularities on the surface, as anyone w h o has tracked game, a cow, or a horse knows. 3. Such animals tend to speed the breakdown and reduce the volume of plant material returned to the soil surface through their d u n g and urine. T h e y also speed the return of uneaten old plant material to the soil surface through the litter they trample d o w n . W h e t h e r any of these tendencies w o r k s f o r g o o d o r ill o n the land d e p e n d s entirely o n m a n a g e m e n t , particularly of t h e t i m e factor, n o t o n their intrinsic nature.

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I myself did n o t o v e r c o m e m y old biases w i t h o u t considerable effort, d o u b t , and false b e g i n n i n g s . Early o n I e n t e r t a i n e d t h e hypothesis that animal i m p a c t had s o m e i m p o r t a n t f u n c t i o n , b u t I c o u l d n o t articulate it well until I saw the distinction b e t w e e n brittle a n d n o n b r i t t l e e n v i r o n m e n t s and u n d e r s t o o d t h e i m p o r t a n c e of time. T h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e illustrates o n c e again h o w t i m i n g may f u n d a mentally c h a n g e the quality of an event. S u p p o s e y o u have a small h o u s e o n a hill a n d y o u a n d y o u r d o n k e y fetch w a t e r daily f r o m the stream below. A f t e r o n e year of t r a m p l i n g t h e same path day after day a substantial gully f o r m s and t h e stream b a n k w h e r e y o u load t h e w a t e r cans b e c o m e s a t r a m p l e d - o u t bog. In this instance y o u c o u l d say that w e had had 3 6 5 d o n k e y days of trampling. For thousands of years w e observed such d a m a g e a n d in essence said that w e had t o o m a n y d o n k e y s . N o w , suppose y o u t o o k a herd of 365 d o n k e y s d o w n t h e hill a n d hauled a year's w o r t h of w a t e r in o n e m o r n i n g . In this instance y o u w o u l d again have 3 6 5 d o n k e y - d a y s of trampling. T h o u g h a passersby that a f t e r n o o n w o u l d r e m a r k o n severe trailing a n d t r a m p l i n g of t h e stream b a n k , those " w o u n d s " w o u l d have 3 6 4 days of plant g r o w t h and r o o t d e v e l o p m e n t to heal b e f o r e you had to c o m e b a c k . W h e n y o u did, y o u c o u l d e x p e c t to find b o t h t h e trail a n d t h e l o a d i n g place c o m p l e t e l y o v e r r u n by n e w g r o w t h . In fact b o t h m i g h t well be g r e e n e r and healthier than b e f o r e w i t h the old grass r e m o v e d and t h e d u n g a n d u r i n e deposited, t h o u g h they had still b o r n e 3 6 5 d o n k e y - d a y s of traffic p e r year. T h u s , time, rather than animal n u m b e r s , was the critical f a c t o r in trampling. For thousands of years w e simply o v e r l o o k e d the fact that timing, rather than animal n u m b e r s , governs w h e t h e r animal i m p a c t acts favorably or adversely o n land, a n d w e did n o t distinguish b e t w e e n t h e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s that required it and t h e n o n b r i t d e e n v i r o n m e n t s that did n o t .

Stock Density

and Herd

Effect

O n e o t h e r observation has escaped m a n y scholars of this subject and p o o r appreciation of it c o n t i n u e s to bias research at m a n y levels. T h e h e r d i n g animals that c o n t r i b u t e m o s t to t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of t h e m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s behave in a variety of ways that p r o d u c e different effects. N o r m a l l y w e use t w o m a n a g e m e n t guidelines, covered in C h a p t e r 39, in applying animal i m p a c t to land: stock density a n d h e r d effect. W h i l e s t o c k ing rate describes t h e n u m b e r of animals c o n t i n u o u s l y s u p p o r t e d by a given u n i t of land, stock density reflects t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of animals o n any s u b u m t of that land at a given m o m e n t . N e i t h e r describes w h e t h e r t h e animals are f e e d i n g placidly in a spread m a n n e r or b u n c h e d , a n d it is this b e h a v i o r that makes a critical difference to t h e land. W e apply t h e t e r m herd effect to t h e results p r o d u c e d by a h e r d that is t r a m p l i n g because they are excited o r b u n c h e d . T h i s trampling, w h i c h

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pushes d o w n dead plant material and chips a n d breaks hard soil surfaces, is a result of their behavior a n d is different f r o m the effect p r o d u c e d by a n i mals calmly walking. B u n c h i n g naturally takes place w h e n t h e animals are u n d e r threat by predators, w h e n in full m i g r a t i o n , o r w h e n b e i n g driven or j o s t l i n g each o t h e r as bison, elk, deer, or livestock d o w h e n t u r n e d o n to hay or s u p p l e m e n t s . It also occurs w h e n livestock are r u n at u l t r a - h i g h d e n s i t i e s — 1 , 0 0 0 to 2 , 0 0 0 p e r acre (2,000 to 5 , 0 0 0 per hectare) or m o r e — and moved every few hours or so (see p h o t o 2 2 - 2 ) . S u c h u l t r a - h i g h densities p r o d u c e e n o u g h of a b e h a v i o r c h a n g e to ensure high herd effect t h r o u g h o u t m o s t of the day a n d over m o s t of t h e land. E v e n w h e n animals are h e r d e d at such densities a n d b e c o m e so a c c u s t o m e d to it that they d o n o t mill a r o u n d m u c h , t h e animal i m p a c t remains high because of t h e sheer density of animals. H e r d effect is difficult to q u a n t i f y b u t easy to identify. N o r m a l l y , grazing o r w a l k i n g animals place their hooves carefully, avoiding coarse plants, barely b r e a k i n g t h e soil surface, b u t still c o m p a c t i n g t h e soil to a degree, all the m o r e so w h e n t h e soil is w e t or w h e r e for any reason u n d e r g r o u n d r o o t s t r u c t u r e a n d organic m a t t e r are d a m a g e d or r e d u c e d . W h e n herd effect occurs, t h e same animals trample coarse plants, lay d o w n litter, raise dust, chip soil surfaces, o p e n t h e m to aeration, and c o m p a c t t h e m e n o u g h to provide seed-to-soil contact. M y observations of h o w these different m o d e s of b e h a v i o r affect plants

Photo 22-2

Cattle being grazed at ultra-high stock density (3,000 per hectare/ 1,200 per acre) to produce and sustain healthy grassland. Cattle moves are planned so that plants are not overgrazed. Zimbabwe.

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and soils led eventually to the d e f i n i t i o n of partial rest, m e n t i o n e d in C h a p t e r 20. Land sustains partial rest w h e n animals, either d o m e s t i c or wild, are present, b u t never have cause to p r o d u c e herd effect. T h e y may slightly disturb a recently c a p p e d soil or a soil so l o n g capped that it has b e c o m e covered w i t h algae, lichens, or mosses, but s e l d o m can stimulate a successional shift to m o r e c o m p l e x c o m m u n i t i e s and stability.The millions of acres of America's m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s that are d e t e r i o r a t i n g u n d e r the c o m b i n a t i o n of partial rest and overgrazing in t h e presence of livestock, bison, or wildlife, s u p p o r t this c o n c l u s i o n . Traditional A m e r i c a n range m a n a g e m e n t favors p r o t e c t i n g l o n g - c a p p e d soils and their algal crust because it does inhibit erosion to a degree. Standard d o c t r i n e therefore disparages any kind of t r a m p l i n g because b r e a k i n g the crust obviously increases erosion in the short r u n . It takes a m u c h deeper, l o n g - t e r m observation to see that a really heavy t r a m p l i n g over a s h o r t p e r i o d leads to the establishment of plants and litter that p r o tect the soil m u c h b e t t e r than algae ever can. P h o t o 2 2 - 3 shows a fairly dramatic response, o n the r i g h t of the fence, to animal impact o n land that was d e t e r i o r a t i n g badly u n d e r partial rest and a little overgrazing. T h i s ranch, in a very brittle 9 - i n c h ( 2 2 5 - m m ) rainfall area of N a m i b i a , o n c e s u p p o r t e d a c o m m e r c i a l dairy o p e r a t i o n , so n u t r i tious and a b u n d a n t was the forage. It had n o w b e c o m e real desert. S o m e plants w e r e obviously overgrazed, but there was m o r e

P h o t o 22-3

Land on the right offence

bare

was treated with high animal impact from fwe

massed fiocks of sheep and is showing an immediate the left continues to desertify under partial rest.

response in plant growth. Land on

Namibia.

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g r o u n d than a n y t h i n g else. As you can see o n the left side of the fence, the low and c o n t i n u o u s level of animal t r a m p l i n g had destroyed algal c o m m u nities, b u t n o t stimulated t h e successional process e n o u g h to m a i n t a i n grassland. L o n g - r e s t e d sites in t h e area h a d an algal crust hard e n o u g h that it r a n g like a d r u m head w h e n tapped. T h e first year w e greatly c o n c e n t r a t e d the sheep, the only type of d o m e s t i c stock available in large n u m b e r s and still profitable, and p l a n n e d the grazing to m i n i m i z e overgrazing. T h e area to t h e r i g h t of the fence, w h i c h received high animal impact, shows h o w the biological c o m m u n i t y clearly started to m o v e f o r w a r d again w i t h o u t any o t h e r assistance or reseeding. Forbs d o m i n a t e d the first successional advance, b u t grasses soon t o o k over on this ranch in a p a t t e r n that has b e c o m e familiar to those using animal i m p a c t to reclaim bare g r o u n d .

Overtrampling T r a m p l i n g , carried o u t for t o o l o n g always causes d a m a g e to soil a n d p l a n t s . T r a m p l i n g carried to extremes b u t over a very short time, can cause t e m p o r a r y d a m a g e to the ecosystem processes, but m o s t e n v i r o n m e n t s have a s t o u n d i n g resilience. S o m e 2 , 0 0 0 cattle c o n c e n t r a t i n g at a f e n c e c o r n e r d u r i n g a heavy d o w n p o u r of rain created the scene in p h o t o 2 2 - 4 . T h e first time a r a n c h e r called m e o u t to inspect t h e d a m a g e my advice h a d caused

P h o t o 22-4 when 2,000

Extreme

trampling, which occurred during an overnight

thunderstorm

head of cattle crowded against a fence for foo long. Chaco, Paraguay.

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w h e n his large h e r d c o n c e n t r a t e d d u r i n g a v i o l e n t s t o r m , w e p h o t o g r a p h e d and discussed the resulting q u a g m i r e at great length. Finally, w e d e c i d e d to i g n o r e it a n d keep o n w i t h the c o n c e n t r a t i o n a n d m o v e m e n t as p l a n n e d . A b o u t e i g h t e e n m o n t h s later w e recalled t h e i n c i d e n t b u t could n o l o n g e r d e t e r m i n e exactly w h e r e it had h a p p e n e d as all p a d d o c k s l o o k e d m u c h t h e same. In m a n y cases, the t e m p o r a r i l y o v e r t r a m p l e d area looks m u c h b e t t e r after a season. T h e c o n t i n u o u s t r a m p l i n g w e see so o f t e n a r o u n d gates, water points, and feed troughs does n o t allow recovery to take place, b u t such examples o f t e n figure in a r g u m e n t s against t r a m p l i n g in general. E v e n sophisticated time m a n a g e m e n t may n o t eliminate all such cases totally, b u t usually the area involved r i g h t at the w a t e r t r o u g h is insignificant a n d can be treated as a sacrificial area.

On

Croplands

W e have m u c h to learn a b o u t h o w animal i m p a c t m i g h t serve in cropland m a n a g e m e n t . B u t it c o u l d easily be v i e w e d as a primary, o r biological, f o r m of tillage that can be used periodically. It also has additional benefits in that it saves t h e f a r m e r having to haul m a n u r e o r fertilizer. T h e c o n c e p t of brittle a n d n o n b r i t t l e e n v i r o n m e n t s has n o t yet e n t e r e d the t h i n k i n g o f m o s t farmers, a n d a l t h o u g h w e suspect that cropland in brittle areas deteriorates fastest u n d e r o u r c o n v e n t i o n a l row c r o p p i n g practices, they are d e t e r i o r a t i n g almost e v e r y w h e r e . T h e A m e r i c a n D u s t B o w l of t h e 1930s b e c a m e a l e g e n d a r y m o n u m e n t to the discovery of t h e rate of cropland d e s t r u c t i o n in t h e m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s . Perhaps the p r o b l e m s in this case were related to those arising o n brittle rangeland f r o m the difficulty of m a i n t a i n i n g organic soil c o m p o n e n t s and a d e q u a t e g r o u n d cover in t h e absence of naturally f u n c t i o n i n g animal p o p u l a t i o n s . In this c o n t e x t , w o r k u n d e r way in t h e U n i t e d States at the Land Institute in Kansas and at t h e R o d a l e Institute in Pennsylvania o n d e v e l o p i n g perennial grain crops c o u l d o p e n u p e n o r m o u s possibilities for us to get away f r o m the k n o w n destructive effects of annual s h a l l o w - r o o t e d crops. Success in these efforts w o u l d go a l o n g way to solving t w o m a j o r p r o b lems in agriculture, high p r o d u c t i o n costs and soil d e s t r u c t i o n , b r o u g h t a b o u t by o u r vast c o m m i t m e n t to annual grain m o n o c u l t u r e s . H o w e v e r , d e v e l o p i n g perennial grain crops will n o t be the simple solution m a n y believe it to be in t h e m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s of the world, i n c l u d i n g m o s t of t h e prairies. Like rangeland, perennial grain crops, if successfully developed, will require t h e removal and recycling of t h e old material that does n o t decay fast in the m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s . A n i m a l i m p a c t m a y well provide the

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answer w h e r e m a c h i n e r y and fire never have. W h e r e surface c r u m b s t r u c ture and porosity are vital o n croplands, livestock can be i n t r o d u c e d in high c o n c e n t r a t i o n s for very s h o r t p e r i o d s to speed cycling a n d decay of crop residues.

Forests T h e m a n a g e m e n t of forests that lie in t h e m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s is a m a j o r challenge in Australia, Africa, and t h e U n i t e d States in particular, w h e r e l i g h t n i n g o r h u m a n fires b u r n vegetation readily. In m a n y instances forests d e p e n d e n t o n n u m e r o u s small fires lit by h u m a n s have d e v e l o p e d b o t h in response to t h e b u r n i n g and the p r o t e c t i o n such b u r n i n g afforded f r o m m a j o r conflagrations. In Australia and t h e U n i t e d States such practices over thousands of years have favored tree species that require an o c c a s i o n al fire to r e p r o d u c e and thrive. T h i s is increasingly the case in Africa, a l t h o u g h t h e c h a n g e f r o m fire-sensitive to m o r e f i r e - d e p e n d e n t tree species appeared to b e g i n only after E u r o p e a n s e t t l e m e n t w h e n the f r e q u e n c y of b u r n i n g greatly increased. M a n a g e m e n t in either case tends to alternate b e t w e e n using controlled fires to b u r n t h e u n d e r s t o r y that, left in place, can fuel larger, m o r e d a m a g i n g fires, and d o i n g n o t h i n g at all—leaving things to N a t u r e . T h e p e n d u l u m generally swings f r o m the latter to t h e f o r m e r w h e n d o i n g n o t h i n g results in a d a n g e r o u s and costly conflagration. As p o i n t e d o u t in C h a p t e r 19, n e i t h e r a p p r o a c h will m a i n t a i n t h e f e w r e m a i n i n g forests p o p u l a t e d by fire-sensitive tree species. B u t t h e w e l l - p l a n n e d use of animal i m p a c t and grazing, w i t h n o overgrazing, can. Animals used in this m a n n e r can clear the u n d e r s t o r y as effectively as fire, a n d can d o so w i t h o u t d a m a g i n g the soil surface or decreasing soil organic matter. T h e A f r i c a n teak forests m e n t i o n e d in C h a p t e r 19 did, in all probability, develop w i t h a large animal c o m p o n e n t . It is difficult to i m a g i n e h o w else sand d u n e s eventually d e v e l o p e d into m a t u r e teak forests that are so fire-sensitive. Today cattle, goats, a n d d o n k e y s are allowed to graze in these forests b u t they are f e w in n u m b e r , rarely if ever c o n c e n t r a t e , a n d r e m a i n in t h e same areas for p r o l o n g e d time. In effect the tools b e i n g applied are overgrazing a n d partial rest, as well as fire, and this is as destructive as o n e w o u l d e x p e c t such tools to b e in a very brittle e n v i r o n m e n t . Forests that n o w c o n t a i n mostly f i r e - d e p e n d e n t species may survive several millennia u n d e r c o n v e n t i o n a l m a n a g e m e n t , b u t because of t h e a t m o s p h e r i c p o l l u t i o n s t e m m i n g f r o m t h e b u r n i n g , w e c a n n o t afford to c o n t i n u e this practice. A n i m a l i m p a c t can and probably should replace fire, b u t because the use of animal i m p a c t will eventually lead to a r e d u c t i o n of f i r e - d e p e n d e n t tree species, w e m u s t b e clear o n w h a t w e d o w a n t , and that clarity can c o m e only t h r o u g h a holistic goal.

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Conclusion O n e of t h e greatest i m m e d i a t e benefits f r o m animal i m p a c t can b e seen in t h e restoration and m a i n t e n a n c e of brittle e n v i r o n m e n t w a t e r c a t c h m e n t s . Partial o r total rest can sustain soil cover in n o n b r i t t l e e n v i r o n m e n t s , b u t n o t e c h n o l o g y c o u l d replace animal i m p a c t o n all the ranches, farms, t r i b al lands, national parks, and forests that cover t h e bulk of m o s t brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s w h e r e either f o r m of rest is so d a m a g i n g to soil c o v e r . T h e effects of animal i m p a c t at either e n d of t h e brittleness scale follow.

Very Brittle

Environments

Community dynamics. Periodic h i g h animal i m p a c t p r o m o t e s the a d v a n c e m e n t of biological c o m m u n i t i e s o n bare, gullied, and e r o d i n g g r o u n d . In dense grassland, h i g h impact tends to m a i n t a i n the biological c o m m u n i t y at t h e grassland level, p r e v e n t i n g a shift to w o o d y c o m m u n i t i e s . L o w animal impact, or partial rest, tends to p r o d u c e bare g r o u n d as it disturbs algal c o m m u n i t i e s b u t does n o t stimulate t h e establishment of m o r e c o m p l e x c o m m u n i t i e s . It allows plant spacings to increase and o n a vast scale generally has effects remarkably similar to those of total rest. U n d e r low impact, dense grassland w i t h close plant spacings may p r o c e e d toward w o o d y c o m m u n i t i e s a n d forbs, b u t these will give way to a landscape of scattered shrubs or trees and m u c h bare o r algae-covered g r o u n d unless rainfall is sufficient to sustain a full w o o d y cover. Water and mineral cycles. P e r i o d i c high animal impact generally improves w a t e r and mineral cycles. Fire a n d / o r m a c h i n e r y have b e e n used traditionally, but fail to achieve a n y t h i n g like the results that animal impact achieves. L o w animal i m p a c t reduces mineral and water cycles b e l o w t h e land's potential. W h e r e significant overgrazing of plants a c c o m p a n i e s this, the adverse effects are c o m p o u n d e d . Energy flow. P e r i o d i c high i m p a c t tends to build c o m m u n i t y c o m p l e x ity a n d to i m p r o v e water and mineral cycles, and as a direct c o n s e q u e n c e e n e r g y flow also tends to improve. A possible e x c e p t i o n w o u l d be certain tropical areas, w h i c h , a l t h o u g h q u i t e brittle, have e n o u g h rainfall to s u p p o r t a solid w o o d l a n d canopy. E v e n t h e n , p e r i o d i c high i m p a c t c o u l d k e e p the land in grass w i t h scattered trees, w h i c h m i g h t m a k e m o r e e n e r g y available for h u m a n use t h r o u g h livestock and game. L o w impact generally reduces e n e r g y flow b e l o w its potential. T h e shortfall o f t e n b e c o m e s severe if c o m p o u n d e d by t h e overgrazing of plants, and u n f o r t u n a t e l y this is the m o s t pervasive situation w o r l d w i d e . It is e n d e m i c in the m a n a g e m e n t of m a n y national parks in Africa, the U n i t e d States, and elsewhere. In the m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s t h e effects animal

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i m p a c t tends to p r o d u c e can, in m a n y respects, be viewed as t h e opposite of those p r o d u c e d by partial and total rest.

Nonbrittle

Environments

Community dynamics. P e r i o d i c high i m p a c t , by m a i n t a i n i n g grass r o o t vigor w h i l e discouraging t h e establishment of n e w w o o d y plants, slows shifts to w o o d y c o m m u n i t i e s . In cases of grassland in potential forest this alone may n o t , however, entirely halt t h e m o v e m e n t back to forest. If grassland is i n t e n d e d , o t h e r measures, such as the p e r i o d i c application of technology, have to be considered as well. N o n b r i t t l e grassland, w h i c h c a n n o t advance to forest because of shall o w soil, elevation, o r annual frosting, increases in c o m p l e x i t y u n d e r p e r i odic h i g h animal impact. A m a z i n g shifts in plant c o m p o s i t i o n , even in less brittle grasslands, can take place d e p e n d i n g o n w h e n t h e i m p a c t is applied relative to prevailing w e a t h e r conditions. T h i s makes it very i m p o r t a n t to plan w h e r e the animals will be at any given time (see C h a p t e r 46). L o w animal i m p a c t , or partial rest, has little effect o n these grasslands. W o o d l a n d will develop if t h e climate allows. W h e r e v e r the c o m m u n i t y c a n n o t develop to w o o d l a n d , l o w i m p a c t does n o t cause the d e t e r i o r a t i o n seen in brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s . E v e n c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e overgrazing of a great m a n y plants, l o w animal i m p a c t will n o t p r o d u c e bare g r o u n d in a nonbrittle environment. Water and mineral cycles. H i g h animal i m p a c t tends to improve b o t h w a t e r a n d mineral cycles. H o w e v e r it also tends to sustain grassland, and the mineral a n d w a t e r cycling in the grassland will usually n o t be as effective as they w o u l d be if t h e c o m m u n i t y advanced to forest. L o w animal i m p a c t has little effect. Energy flow. P e r i o d i c high animal i m p a c t tends to increase e n e r g y flow, a l t h o u g h again, w h e n used to maintain grassland in lieu of forest, e n e r g y flow will never reach the full potential of the land. L o w animal i m p a c t has little effect. Like rest and grazing, animal i m p a c t is a natural p h e n o m e n o n that w e c h o o s e to call a tool because w e can m a n i p u l a t e it to serve o u r ends. T h a t distinction b e c o m e s less obvious in regard to the n e x t tool, living organisms, a l t h o u g h they can be o u r m o s t vital allies in achieving a holistic goal.

23 Living Organisms: The Most Complex Tool

h e phrase living organisms may s e e m an ambitiously broad way to d e f i n e a tool, and it is. Plants and animals sounds earthier, but does n o t force us to c o n s i d e r t h e utility of bacilli and viruses in t h e same breath as c o r n a n d sheep, and w e must. All living things share t h e p o w e r to c h a n g e their m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t by their m e r e presence, and that must c o n c e r n everyone, b u t particularly those w h o s e holistic goal is directly tied to the m a n a g e m e n t of land. T h e t w o previously discussed tools, grazing a n d animal impact, of course involve t h e use of living creatures in t h e service o f m a n a g e m e n t . Technically this tool encompasses those also. B u t living organisms stands apart for t w o practical reasons. A separate h e a d i n g e n c o u r a g e s us to w e i g h possible biological solutions to a p r o b l e m against t e c h n o l o g i c a l ones: c o m m u n i t y c o m p l e x i t y against pesticide and herbicide; crop polycultures a n d i n t e r c r o p p i n g rotations against m o n o c u l tures; g a r d e n c o m p o s t i n g against c h e m i c a l fertilizers; healthy w a t e r c a t c h m e n t s against silt traps and o t h e r m e c h a n i c a l measures built to p r o t e c t dams or cities f r o m devastation. Also, it makes us treat the w h o l e c o m p l e x of life in an e n v i r o n m e n t as a w h o l e r a t h e r than a m e n u of pesky o r b e n eficial creatures that w e m a y kill or h u s b a n d at will. Failure to t h i n k along these lines a c c o u n t s for m u c h of t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l d a m a g e h u m a n s have w r o u g h t . O n l y recently has the h u m a n race even considered that t h e c u r r e n t rate of e x t i n c t i o n of o t h e r species m i g h t have highly d a n g e r o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s , aside f r o m t h e sheer h o r r o r o f o u r d e s t r u c t i o n of o t h e r life. Yet p e o p l e in less d e v e l o p e d cultures than o u r o w n , living closer to the land a n d using simpler levels o f technology, have 250

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instinctively used living organisms as tools f o r a l o n g time. T h u s , m u c h of t h e i n f o r m a t i o n in this c h a p t e r will b e m o r e easily e m b r a c e d by t h e m than by those w o r k i n g in m a i n s t r e a m agribusinesses o r even by u r b a n professionals t e n d i n g h o m e gardens.

Living Organisms and Community Dynamics T h e living organisms tool, because it involves all life, will play a role in the f o r m s of p r o d u c t i o n a n d / o r t h e f u t u r e resource base described in any holistic goal, n o m a t t e r the type of business o r o t h e r situation b e i n g m a n aged. S o m e m i g h t try to argue that m i n i n g does n o t c o n c e r n itself w i t h living organisms, b u t even there a p e r s o n c o u l d argue that biological activity a c c o u n t s for all h y d r o c a r b o n s a n d even for t h e precipitation of u r a n i u m , iron, and s o m e o t h e r minerals into ore. T h e q u e s t i o n is h o w e v e r u n a r guable because n o m a t t e r w h o y o u are or w h a t y o u r business, y o u c o u l d n o t even read o r c o m p r e h e n d these words w i t h o u t t h e plants that provide t h e e n e r g y a n d o x y g e n you require to read and t h i n k . Living organisms provide t h e bulk of t h e biological capital w i t h o u t w h i c h n o civilization can b e sustained. E c o n o m i s t s , particularly agricultural economists, h u n c h e d over their financial m o d e l s as they tally capital and o p e r a t i n g costs against c o m m o d i t y prices, characteristically i g n o r e this f o u n d a t i o n that supports all their r e c k o n i n g . In t h e Holistic M a n a g e m e n t m o d e l , a b r o k e n line s u r r o u n d s b o t h the e c o s y s t e m process of c o m m u n i t y d y n a m i c s and t h e living organisms tool because they m e r e l y represent t w o aspects of the same thing. T h e d y n a m ics of any biological c o m m u n i t y is m a n i f e s t e d in living organisms. T h e relationship of this tool to the o t h e r s in t h e tools r o w looks a bit clearer f r o m the v i e w p o i n t of t h e earliest cave dwellers. A s s u m i n g they c o u l d have analyzed their situation a n d m a d e decisions holistically, they w o u l d have seen that they r e q u i r e d a certain landscape f r o m w h i c h they c o u l d p r o d u c e the f o o d , cover, a n d w a t e r necessary to sustain t h e quality of life they desired. T h e y w o u l d have r e c o g n i z e d that all this d e p e n d e d on t h e same f o u r ecosystem processes that sustain us. B u t their tools r o w was nearly e m p t y . T h e y had n o fire, n o livestock, and n o t e c h n o l o g y . T h e y k n e w implicitly that t h e dynamics of t h e c o m m u n i t y they i n h a b i t e d controlled t h e m absolutely a n d d e f i n e d w h a t they c o u l d d o in their e n v i r o n m e n t . W h e n they harnessed fire and m a d e their first spears they m a y have t h o u g h t they had escaped that relationship, b u t the w i d e s p r e a d use of these tools initiated m a n y of today s deserts, a n d that line of reasoning revealed itself as faulty. W i t h increasingly sophisticated t e c h n o l o g y w e c o n t i n u e to think w e can escape t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e biological c o m m u n i t i e s we inhabit, b u t w e c a n n o t any m o r e than o u r earliest ancestors could.Yet, to the e x t e n t that w e u n d e r s t a n d this, w e can use living organisms to o u r

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advantage, as a tool, a n d the breadth ot o u r o p t i o n s is remarkable as t h e foll o w i n g examples illustrate.

Practical Applications In 1978 t h e C h i n e s e , n o t i n g that t h e G o b i desert a n n e x e d to itselt over 6 0 0 square miles annually, began planting green belts of trees, an overt case of enlisting living organisms as tools in their struggle against the a d v a n c i n g sand. Seven years later, they had h a n d - p l a n t e d s o m e 14.8 million acres (5.9 million h e c t a r e s ) . T h e success or failure of this s t u p e n d o u s effort to establish a m o r e c o m p l e x plant c o m m u n i t y by m a i n force d e p e n d s o n m a n y factors. Later discussion of t h e testing guidelines ( C h a p t e r s 2 3 - 3 2 ) explains in detail h o w to estimate the odds o n the trees' survival a n d success in halting t h e desert's advance. In simple terms, however, trees planted in the desert, effective as they may b e as w i n d breaks, c a n n o t g r o w and r e p r o d u c e i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e level of d e v e l o p m e n t of the biological c o m m u n i t y as a w h o l e . E v e n if trees o n c e did flourish o n t h e edge of t h e G o b i , w h a t e v e r h u m a n d i s r u p t i o n of the c o m m u n i t y killed t h e m will, if still active, prevent t h e n e w plantings f r o m establishing y o u n g , sustaining themselves, and r e c l a i m i n g t h e desert. B y contrast, t h e Japanese scientist M a s a n o b u F u k u o k a u n d e r t o o k to use the principles of biological succession a n d t h e organisms associated w i t h

P h o t o 23-1

Concrete ramp into cattle watering trough that provides access to water for

small animals and birds and prevents their drowning. Coahuila,

Mexico.

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particular successional levels to p r o d u c e high yields of small grain crops w i t h o u t synthetic fertilizers, c o m p o s t , pesticides, soil disturbance, or w e e d ing. H e s u c c e e d e d because his u n d e r s t a n d i n g of c o m m u n i t y dynamics allowed h i m to enlist a great n u m b e r of plants, insects, birds, small animals, a n d m i c r o o r g a n i s m s as tools in creating an e n v i r o n m e n t w h e r e his grain thrived in the p r o t e c t i o n of such complexity.' 1 o n c e saw a less c o m p l e x , b u t equally dramatic, e x a m p l e o n a M e x i c a n ranch w h e r e the o w n e r had built a small c o n c r e t e r a m p u p the outside and d o w n into a w a t e r tank, as s h o w n in p h o t o 2 3 - 1 . O n e night, w h i l e c a m p e d nearby a terrific noise aroused us, and w e t o o k flashlights to investigate and discovered a massive m a t i n g of toads in the tank. B y d a w n they had dispersed to r e s u m e their pursuit of bugs and flies a r o u n d t h e ranch. T h e s i m ple r a m p to w a t e r in fact enabled a great variety of insects, birds, and rodents, to survive a n d c o n t r i b u t e to t h e c o m p l e x i t y a n d stability of the w h o l e area. T h i s is w h a t the r a n c h e r n e e d e d for t h e recreational and aesthetic p o r t i o n s of his family's holistic goal, w h i c h also i n c l u d e d big game, such as black bear, deer, turkey, a n d javelina. By contrast, p h o t o 2 3 - 2 shows a p o o r l y c o n s t r u c t e d w a t e r i n g p o i n t p r o v i d e d to increase g a m e p o p u l a tions in a national forest. T h e i n t e n t i o n was g o o d , but these y o u n g w a r t h o g s were finally able to w a t e r only because a pipe nearby leaked. P h o t o 2 3 - 3 shows a leaking water p i p e o n a N a m i b i a n ranch. Water pipes r u n a l o n g t h e fences to frustrate the local p o r c u p i n e s ' appetite for

Photo 23-2

Two young warthogs trying unsuccessfully

to drink from a poorly

constructed water trough provided for wild game in a national forest.

Zimbabwe.

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P h o t o 23-3

Water pipeline strung along

a fence to avoid damage by porcupines. A leak has developed and been turned to advantage as a watering point for birds and small life. Namibia

(courtesy Argo

animal

Rust).

plastic, b u t m a n y leaks are created by b a b o o n s finding it easy to bite t h r o u g h the plastic w h e n they w a n t a d r i n k . For years the r a n c h e r s t r u g gled to c o n t r o l m i n o r leaks. T h e n , w h e n h e articulated a holistic goal involving c o m p l e x living c o m m u n i t i e s to sustain his family, h e saw o p p o r tunity in the leaks. H a l f d r u m s b e l o w t h e m created additional w a t e r i n g points f o r thousands of birds, insects, a n d small m a m m a l s . Previously this r a n c h e r had t h o u g h t such creatures h a d n o c o n n e c t i o n to his family's wealth o r to cattle r a n c h i n g . N o w h e j o k i n g l y talks a b o u t his e n o r m o u s u n p a i d force of millions of "little p e o p l e " all busily w o r k i n g for his family. W h e n w e n u r t u r e crops a n d d o m e s t i c animals, and even w h e n w e p r o d u c e wild animals o n g a m e ranches or cultivate fish, w e t e n d to p r o c e e d as if E a r t h w e r e m o r e a m a c h i n e than a living thing. W h a t e v e r w e p r o d u c e in this way does represent the use of living organisms as a tool to m a n i p u l a t e o u r e n v i r o n m e n t and sustain ourselves, b u t w e typically fail to see t h e m in the c o n t e x t of a d y n a m i c c o m m u n i t y of living organisms. R a t h e r w e assume that the c o m m u n i t i e s they inhabit will adapt a n d sustain t h e m selves, w h i c h of c o u r s e they d o n o t . T h e h o p e that t e c h n o l o g y will enable us to c o m p l e t e l y p r o t e c t o u r harvests f r o m predators, c o m p e t i t o r s , a n d diseases, a n d thus reap a b o u n t y i n d e p e n d e n t of the c o m m u n i t i e s they i n h a b it, has always p r o v e n false a n d will u n d o u b t e d l y c o n t i n u e to d o so. T h e so-called G r e e n R e v o l u t i o n of extravagantly p r o d u c t i v e h y b r i d crops has f o u n d e r e d , and will c o n t i n u e to f o u n d e r , o n this fact. T h e h i g h -

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yielding strains o w e d their p r o d u c t i v i t y to e x t r e m e u n i f o r m i t y a n d an e n g i n e e r e d ability to m a k e g o o d use of fertilizer, b u t they required lavish p r o t e c t i o n f r o m insects and disease. T h e c o m b i n a t i o n of chemicals d a m aged t h e living soil, p o l l u t e d b o t h soil and water, increased insect d a m a g e a n d g e n e r a t e d resistant pests, a n d resulted in such escalating costs that t h o u s a n d s of A m e r i c a n f a r m e r s are leaving their land and h o m e s of g e n e r ations. S o m e c o u n t r i e s are already starting to b a n chemical f a r m i n g because of p o l l u t i o n o r increased insect damage. T h e arrogant a s s u m p t i o n that t e c h n o l o g y can supplant natural laws has e m b e d d e d itself deeply e n o u g h in o u r culture to distort scientific reasoning. A b o o k l e t , New Mexico Range Plants, issued in 1980 by the C o o p e r a t i v e E x t e n s i o n Service o f N e w M e x i c o State University, a n d still in use, makes t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t a b o u t Hall's panic grass (Panicitm hallii Vasey): " G r o w i n g Hall's panic grass is highly palatable f o r all livestock. It retains this quality after c u r i n g , because s o m e leaves r e m a i n g r e e n m o s t of the year. Palatability causes t h e grass to decrease quickly u n d e r grazing, even w h e n associated grasses are properly utilized. Therefore, this species can be maintained only on areas reseeded as pure stands" (emphasis added). 2 H e r e w e have a valuable i n d i g e n o u s plant that has m a i n t a i n e d itself for perhaps millions of years as part of a c o m p l e x c o m m u n i t y , w h i l e countless billions of o n c e - p l e n t i f u l large animal species prized it as m u c h as today's f e w d o m e s t i c animals. Yet, t h e b o o k l e t tells us it needs the t e c h n o l o g y of m o d e r n w h e a t f a r m i n g to survive at all. W e have failed to sustain p u r e stands o r m o n o c u l t u r e s of any plant w i t h o u t massive i n j e c t i o n s of capital in fertilizers, herbicides, a n d pesticides. I d o u b t that it ever o c c u r r e d to t h e a u t h o r s that o n e m i g h t reap t h e benefits of Hall's panic grass by respecting its place in t h e c o m m u n i t y , s o m e t h i n g that naturally f u n c t i o n i n g grazers a c c o m p l i s h e d w i t h o u t conscious t h o u g h t . T h e use of biological controls in lieu of chemicals represents a g e n e r ally m o r e positive m a r r i a g e of m o d e r n science a n d o u r k n o w l e d g e of h o w c o m m u n i t i e s f u n c t i o n . Clear examples are the b r e e d i n g of lady bugs to prey o n aphids a n d the n u r t u r i n g of certain bugs that eat p r o b l e m plants. Parasites that attack fly larvae can d e c i m a t e the fly p o p u l a t i o n in feed yards a n d o t h e r mass b r e e d i n g sites. O f course w e can also d o this by j u s t g e t t i n g t h e animals o u t of feedyards o n to the land w h e r e they b e l o n g . Screw w o r m s have so far b e e n c o n t r o l l e d t h r o u g h the use of sterile males. W h e n they mate, the female dies w i t h o u t r e p r o d u c i n g . W h e n prickly pears w e r e i n t r o d u c e d to Australia in the early 1920s they thrived, so m u c h so that vast acres w e r e so heavily infested the land was considered useless.The cost o f r e m o v i n g the cacti mechanically o r p o i s o n i n g t h e m w i t h chemicals was m o r e than the land itself was w o r t h , so e n t o m o l o g i s t s ransacked their A m e r i c a n h o m e l a n d to find an insect that m i g h t help to c o n t r o l t h e pest. T h e y f o u n d it in the larvae of a small m o t h

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that proved to be voracious eaters of the cacti. W i t h i n five years of its b e i n g released in Australia the m o t h had d o n e a spectacular j o b of destroying t h e vast m a j o r i t y of the cacti. 3 H o w e v e r , the prickly pear w o u l d probably n o t have spread and b e c o m e a p r o b l e m had the land b e e n m a n a g e d so as n o t to p r o d u c e c o n d i t i o n s ideal for its e s t a b l i s h m e n t . T h o u g h n o t w i t h o u t risk, biological controls have usually proven less d a m a g i n g to the ecosystem processes than direct use of chemical poisons.

Genetic Engineering M o d e r n b r e a k t h r o u g h s in genetic e n g i n e e r i n g o p e n t h e d o o r to t r e m e n dous possibilities, b u t also equal t e m p t a t i o n s and dangers. Civilization m i g h t have spared itself s o m e grief if it had gained m o r e w i s d o m a b o u t the f o u r ecosystem processes b e f o r e a c q u i r i n g this n e w p o w e r to i n t e r v e n e o n an even bigger scale than previously. T h e n e w genes have escaped the test tube, however, so we m u s t d o t h e best w e can to avoid e m b a r k i n g o n a n e w G r e e n R e v o l u t i o n as faulty as the last. A f u n d a m e n t a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the reasons for o u r massive agricultural failures and the decision m a k i n g that caused the bedeviling spread of deserts should t e m p e r t h e creation of n e w f o r m s of life. T h e p r o b l e m s are n o t altogether unfamiliar. Traditional b r e e d i n g t e c h niques have p r o d u c e d species such as c o r n , or maize, that have d e p a r t e d so far f r o m their wild ancestry that w e can n o l o n g e r trace the link w i t h c e r tainty. T h e y n o w d e p e n d totally o n h u m a n cultivation. G e n e t i c e n g i n e e r ing m e r e l y shortens this process by several t h o u s a n d years, b u t t h e n e w f o r m s d o n o t escape the successional principles of c o m m u n i t y dynamics any m o r e than c o r n , sheep, o r w h i t e l e g h o r n chickens. Every organism, i n c l u d i n g h u m a n s , has its place in the c o m m u n i t y and a f u n c t i o n a l role. T h e c u r r e n t attempts to escape natural laws by creating crop plants that survive ever m o r e p o w e r f u l herbicides used to kill all o t h e r plant f o r m s represent t h e w r o n g kind o f thinking, in my o p i n i o n , and will n o t solve any of t h e world's problems. S u c h t h i n k i n g considers soil as simply a m e d i u m for h o l d i n g plants u p r i g h t , w h i l e h u m a n s feed and n u r t u r e t h e m in an artificial, h y d r o p o n i c s - t y p e situation. Geneticists w h o have lost their c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the land may d r e a m that success lies in that direction, but reality dictates that living soil must d o far m o r e than physically s u p p o r t plants if h u m a n s are to survive in intelligent f o r m . G e n e t i c e n g i n e e r i n g can b e c o m e a p o w e r f u l tool for g o o d if handled w i t h w i s d o m , and I h o p e that holistic decision m a k i n g will play a role in assisting us to that w i s d o m . U p until n o w w e have b e e n e n a m o r e d of the technology, and w e have i g n o r e d the i m p o r t a n c e of the w e b of relationships that define any biological c o m m u n i t y . T h e neglect and d e s t r u c t i o n of genetic material, even in t h e few principal plants sustaining civilization

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today is in my m i n d criminal.Yet we c o n t i n u e to spend billions to g e n e t ically e n g i n e e r ever m o r e specialized plants f o r artificial e n v i r o n m e n t s . M u c h of this ill-advised w o r k is b e i n g c o n d u c t e d o n t h e basis of legal and e c o n o m i c decisions that are seriously flawed. I do n o t believe w e are g o i n g to see any successful q u i c k - f i x solutions f r o m such genetic w o r k , m a r velous as it can be, and if the way w e m a k e decisions a b o u t its c o n t i n u e d d e v e l o p m e n t does n o t change, I foresee disaster o n an e n o r m o u s scale. L o o k i n g to the f u t u r e of science and resource m a n a g e m e n t , it is clear that w e must t u r n far m o r e to s t u d y i n g ecological processes and h o w they f u n c t i o n so w e can better u n d e r s t a n d the relationships that exist a m o n g the living organisms, i n c l u d i n g ourselves, that p o p u l a t e any b i o l o g ical c o m m u n i t y . T h i s will enable us to c o n c e n t r a t e m o r e o n p r e v e n t i n g the p r o b l e m s o u r i g n o r a n c e has led to, and less o n d e v e l o p i n g cures that, in d a m a g i n g ecosystem processes, only create m o r e problems. Isolated p e o p l e a n d organizations have t h o u g h t m o r e a b o u t o u r c o n n e c t i o n to the c o m m u n i t i e s of living organisms that sustain us, b u t for several t h o u s a n d years the m a i n s t r e a m of h u m a n interest has flowed in o t h e r channels, w i t h the result that civilizations have c o m e and g o n e and n o w all civilization is e n d a n g e r e d . A v o i d i n g the inevitable o u t c o m e of such a threat will require m o r e h u m i l i t y than past generations have s h o w n and a greater acceptance that the u n k n o w n s in nature and science still far o u t w e i g h t h e k n o w n s . In addition, it will d e m a n d clarity in h u m a n goals and t h e will to plan, assume any decisions affecting the e n v i r o n m e n t are w r o n g , m o n i t o r t h e m , and replan if necessary—all of w h i c h is m o r e likely to flow if p e o p l e are c o m m i t t e d to a holistic goal.

24 Technology: The Most Used Tool

H

o w m a n y times have w e heard it said that technology, t h e hallm a r k of m o d e r n h u m a n s , holds t h e key to t h e future? N o d o u b t this belief has b e e n reflected for t h o u s a n d s of years, first a r o u n d campfires and later in b o a r d r o o m s and cabinet m e e t i n g s . T e c h n o l o g y will feed us b e t ter. It will provide lightning-fast t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and c o m m u n i c a t i o n s . It will heal o u r w o u n d s and cure o u r diseases. As a tool for m o d i f y i n g a n d c o n t r o l l i n g an e n v i r o n m e n t , w e have n o t seen t h e b e g i n n i n g of its potential. T h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y p r o v i d e d a c o n s t a n t stream of w o n d e r s that s t r e n g t h e n e d this faith, but only recently have w e had to e n t e r t a i n the p o s sibility that t e c h n o l o g y does m o r e than simply p r o d u c e b e t t e r a n d b e t t e r appliances, artificial organs, w e a p o n s , and e n t e r t a i n m e n t . It n o w forces h u m a n i t y to m a k e choices n o t i m a g i n e d since the b e g i n n i n g of time. T w o events, t h e a t o m b o m b and the l a n d i n g of m e n o n t h e m o o n , s y m bolize o u r d i l e m m a . T h e b o m b dramatically d e m o n s t r a t e d that h u m a n i t y does have t h e p o w e r to destroy itself, w h i l e t h e m o o n landing, w h i c h far surpassed t h e l e g e n d a r y t o w e r of Babel in its vision, dares us to set n o l i m its to o u r endeavors. O v e r fifty years after H i r o s h i m a , however, w e are b e g i n n i n g to u n d e r s t a n d that a t o m i c p o w e r is n o t the only i n v e n t i o n that can destroy us. W e n o w realize that o u r p u r s u i t of t e c h n o l o g i c a l t r i u m p h can have dire c o n s e q u e n c e s , particularly for t h e ecosystem that sustains us all. O u r c u r r e n t use of t e c h n o l o g y o f t e n expresses a p r e - b o m b state of m i n d that considers o n l y t h e p r o b l e m at h a n d w i t h o u t t h o u g h t of larger implications. M a n y of the p r o d u c t s of t e c h n o l o g y that w e use d a i l y — 258

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detergents, dyes, a u t o m o b i l e s , pesticides, and so o n — c a n affect the envir o n m e n t in ways w e never a n t i c i p a t e d . T h e effects can be delayed by days, m o n t h s , o r years and may express themselves far f r o m the site of application w h e r e an i n n o c e n t public c a n n o t c o n n e c t t h e m to their source. T h e principle k n o w n as the " t r a g e d y of the c o m m o n s " c o m p o u n d s this syndrome.1 M o s t societies l o n g ago e n c o u n t e r e d t h e paradox of c o m m o n land. If p e o p l e freely graze livestock o n c o m m o n g r o u n d , t h e n individual o p e r a tors reap all the profit f r o m an extra animal, and t h e cost, divided a m o n g all t h e users, appears m i n i m a l and will n o t be noticeable for a l o n g time. T h u s , e v e r y o n e has a strong incentive to r u n m o r e stock until t h e land is so d a m a g e d it can n o l o n g e r feed a single animal. T e c h n o l o g y t e m p t s us i n t o t h e c o m m o n s tragedy o n a far g r a n d e r scale, and t h e debate of recent years over acid rain, global climate change, w a t e r and air p o l l u t i o n , and toxic waste shows that w e still haven't d e v e l o p e d a sense of collective responsibility. As you wash y o u r hair in t h e m o r n i n g w i t h the latest scientifically f o r m u l a t e d s h a m p o o , t h i n k of t h e o t h e r 100 million p e o p l e d o i n g the same, 365 days of the year. E a c h of you has placed o n e animal each day o n that c o m m o n field. C a n it carry 36.5 billion animals this year, and even m o r e t h e next? M o s t of o u r m o s t hazardous inventions have existed for less than o n e h u n d r e d years. H u m a n k i n d did remarkably well f o r m a n y t h o u s a n d s of years using simpler t e c h n o l o g y for m a n y of the same tasks, b u t such is t h e n a t u r e of h u m a n a d v a n c e m e n t that in m a n y areas there is n o g o i n g back. W e c a n n o t r e t u r n to r u d i m e n t a r y living w h e r e a smaller h u m a n p o p u l a tion exists o n subsistence agriculture, n o r can w e a b a n d o n o u r cities. Yet r e c o g n i t i o n that g o i n g f o r w a r d will d e m a n d w i s d o m and h u m i l i t y is a b r e a k t h r o u g h in t h i n k i n g m o r e significant in its way t h a n t h e n o t i o n of space travel.

Technology and the Quick Fix M u c h t e c h n o l o g y subconsciously stems f r o m o u r desire to d o m i n a t e nature, a desire that goes back a long way and that has g e n e r a t e d its o w n philosophical justifications a n d patterns of t h o u g h t . In resource m a n a g e m e n t , agriculture, health care, and m a n y o t h e r fields, all b u t a f e w professionals define their w o r k entirely in t e r m s of their technological tools. T h e i r e d u c a t i o n a n d professional traditions do n o t even consider t h e b r o a d e r principles that g o v e r n o u r ecosystem. S u c h p e o p l e naturally devote their best e n e r g y to quick, u n n a t u r a l answers and o f t e n achieve i m m e d i a t e , dramatic, popular, a n d profitable results.Yet such q u i c k fixes can prove very costly in t h e l o n g t e r m . N o w h e r e is this m o r e apparent than w h e n w e use t e c h n o l o g y to bolster p r o d u c t i o n on d e t e r i o r a t i n g land o r to

PART V

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drastically m o d i f y an e n v i r o n m e n t to b e t t e r suit o u r purposes. C o n s i d e r the f o l l o w i n g examples: •

Suppose we want to change the successional level of a community. O n unproductive rangeland machines or herbicides will clear the brush and scrub, and we can drill in seed. W h e r e a mixed forest makes logging inconvenient, we can remove the native trees and plant u n i f o r m stands of faster growing species that permit mass processing. W h e n our chosen plants falter, we can kill their enemies and fertilize their soil. S o m e even predict total control in the f o r m of plants genetically engineered to thrive in an artificially fertilized environment, chemically rendered lethal to everything else. All these actions conflict with h o w nature functions. Successful as they appear, in the end they generally fail, often generating new, more severe problems.

•

W h e n water cycles b e c o m e less effective, we can use machines to scour out c o n t o u r and drainage ditches, deep rippers to reverse the compaction caused by heavy wheels, and irrigation pumps to put water back w h e r e it came from. Again, we show little understanding of h o w water cycles function, and our immediate successes often result in l o n g - t e r m failure.

•

W h e n mineral cycling is poor, we might turn to the local a g r i c h e m ical dealer w h o can supply anything our land lacks and change the soil p H to suit any crop, and with the help of some diesel fuel, the old J o h n Deere can plow it in. In implementing these measures we so damage soils, through loss of c r u m b structure and soil organisms, that the mineral cycle only becomes poorer. T h e treatments need repeating in ever-stronger doses.

•

We want more energy flowing into cash crops, so we look to jungles, marshes, and forests, believing that we can cut, burn, drain, irrigate, spray, or bulldoze them into any f o r m we imagine suits that end. As the face of the earth changes, so, too, do its atmospheric gases.Thus in implementing these measures we ultimately risk damaging all life.

Agriculture's Addiction to Technology S u c h t h i n k i n g overlooks t w o i m p o r t a n t attributes of nature. First, o u r ecosystem is n o t a m a c h i n e b u t a living t h i n g that energetically moves and r e p r o d u c e s itself a c c o r d i n g to its o w n principles. S e c o n d , t h e life that w e artificially suppress or take to e x t i n c t i o n may have c o n t r i b u t e d to o u r o w n survival.To ignore these attributes triggers t h e same m e c h a n i s m s of d e p e n d e n c y familiar f r o m cases of d r u g and alcohol abuse. T h e parallel is striking. T h e clinical stages of alcohol o r h e r o m a d d i c -

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t i o n — b e c o m i n g h o o k e d , denial, d e g r a d a t i o n , skid row, d e a t h — o c c u r r o u tinely n o w in m a i n s t r e a m agriculture in every n a t i o n . F a r m e r s get pulled in by sales pitches o n t h e w o n d e r s of fertilizers and pesticides. T h e pushers themselves get h o o k e d o n profits o r research grants and e v e r y b o d y feels great. H o w e v e r , rapidly b r e e d i n g m i c r o o r g a n i s m s and insects adapt far faster to n e w c o n d i t i o n s than d o h u m a n s or m a n y of the predators that o n c e provided natural control. O n c e the array of chemicals w e use s h o w signs of failure, w e simply increase the strength and q u a n t i t y of o u r attack or a t t e m p t to isolate n e w c o m p o u n d s . W e n o w have s o m e w h e r e over 2 1 , 5 0 0 chemical pesticide r e m e d i e s o n the w o r l d market, m o s t of t h e m inadequately tested f o r h u m a n safety, and virtually n o n e for their i m p a c t o n o u r ecosystem as a w h o l e . 2 C r o p d a m age c o n t i n u e s to increase, even as e v i d e n c e m o u n t s that w e are n o w p o i s o n i n g ourselves and o t h e r s l o w - b r e e d i n g creatures w h i l e s t r e n g t h e n i n g t h e pests w e set o u t to kill. Statistics o n c o n d e m n e d w a t e r sources a n d sales of b o t t l e d w a t e r a l o n e are p o w e r f u l indicators of this. R i g h t n o w Z i m b a b w e justifies the use of D D T (banned in the U n i t e d States) against tsetse fly over a w i d e area w i t h the a r g u m e n t that " o n l y l o w dosages are b e i n g applied in specific sites." S u c h p r o n o u n c e m e n t s have calmed public d o u b t , yet in t h e same c o u n t r y excessive levels of D D T have already t u r n e d u p in h u m a n milk. E n t o m o l o g i s t s c o n t e n d that the slowb r e e d i n g tsetse fly will n o t likely d e v e l o p D D T tolerance. H o w e v e r , m a l a r ia m o s q u i t o e s a n d m y r i a d agricultural pests present a far greater threat to Africa t h e n t h e tsetse fly, and l o w dosage spraying is a doctor's prescription for e n h a n c i n g their resistance. W e c a n n o t apply any pesticide to just o n e target organism; thousands are affected. W e n o w have reached the denial stage. G o v e r n m e n t a n d industry p o i n t fingers every w h i c h way b u t at t h e real p r o b l e m . S y m p a t h e t i c p e o p l e and organizations offer stress c o u n s e l i n g for farmers and ease relocation f r o m c o u n t r y s i d e to city. N o o n e wants to talk a b o u t a debilitating d e p e n d e n c y because w e can n o l o n g e r conceive of life w i t h o u t it. P e r p e t u a l m o n o c u l t u r e s , i n a d e q u a t e rotations of m o n o c u l t u r e s , c h e m i c a l treatments, and heavy m a c h i n e r y have b e c o m e standard practice, b u t have so simplified soil c o m m u n i t i e s and structure that, like a j u n k y ' s w o r n - o u t body, t h e land d e m a n d s even h a r s h er stimulation to p r o d u c e t h e same high. T h e habit quickly b e c o m e s expensive: the m o n e y received f o r 5 3 . 3 k g of c o r n c o u l d b u y 100 k g of m a n u f a c t u r e d n i t r o g e n in 1973, but w i t h i n a d e c a d e it t o o k 527 k g of c o r n to b u y it, and m a n y cornfields n o w d e m a n d a bigger i n j e c t i o n than b e f o r e . 3 N o t surprisingly, m a n y c o r n growers b e c o m e desperate raising m o n e y for that fix, b u t their cash flow can't stand a cold turkey w i t h d r a w al either, because the d y i n g soil w o n ' t g r o w e n o u g h to pay last year's debt.

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Developing a Collective Conscience H a v i n g b e e n a f a r m e r and h o u s e h o l d e r myself I u n d e r s t a n d t h e f r u s t r a tions, pressures, and urge for q u i c k fixes. " T h e y are eating m y crops! W h a t else can I d o ? " "Last n i g h t I w e n t to t h e k i t c h e n , and y o u should have seen all the c o c k r o a c h e s w h e n I t u r n e d o n t h e light!" "If m y h o u s e is o n fire, you surely d o n ' t e x p e c t m e to j u s t w a t c h it b u r n ! " N o , of c o u r s e n o t , b u t m i n d y o u d o n ' t t h r o w kerosene o n it instead of water. T h e flames will g u t ter only an instant b e f o r e they explode. T h a t h a p p e n s s o m e t i m e s . A d e c a d e ago over a million E t h i o p i a n s died mainly because m i s g u i d e d t e c h n o l o g y had d a m a g e d the f o u r ecosystem processes a n d crippled t h e capacity of their c o u n t r y to s u p p o r t its p o p u l a tion t h r o u g h a dry p e r i o d . T o prevent j u s t such a tragedy f r o m o c c u r r i n g , a n u m b e r of w e l l - m e a n i n g c o u n t r i e s had h e l p e d finance m u c h of that t e c h n o l o g y : irrigation schemes; hybrid seeds, synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and o t h e r G r e e n R e v o l u t i o n t e c h n o l o g y ; dams a n d b o r e h o l e s (wells) to help to scatter stock o n t h e rangelands; and so o n . Homo sapiens, thanks to a flair f o r technology, appears to be t h e only creature that occasionally starves itself b e f o r e its p o p u l a t i o n reaches the potential c a r r y i n g capacity of its territory. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , w e can n e v e r h o p e to feed f u t u r e generations w i t h o u t sophisticated technology, and w e certainly can apply it in ways that d o n ' t b e c o m e pathological. E v e n t h e m o s t ardent campaigners against d r u g abuse s e l d o m f o r g o a bit o f N o v o c a i n w h e n their dentist u n l i m b e r s her drill. R e s e a r c h i n t o biological pest c o n t r o l and genetic e n g i n e e r i n g , m a c h i n e r y for h a n d l i n g i n t e r s o w n crops, cultivation t e c h n i q u e s that d o n o t excessively c o m p a c t soil, and even better m o u s e traps in place of stronger poisons represent a healthier d i r e c t i o n f o r d e v e l o p m e n t . A c h a n g e in attitude can lead to simple ways to supplant destructive practices. H o u s e h o l d e r s , builders, and appliance m a n u f a c t u r e r s can significantly d e n t the s t o c k i n g rate of k i t c h e n v e r m i n by sealing cracks b e h i n d refrigerators and stoves to d e n y t h e m a sanctuary. Physical traps for c o c k roaches and m i c e cut p o p u l a t i o n s w i t h o u t cumulative d a m a g e . T h e state of California alone spends millions of dollars annually p o i s o n i n g Californians u n l u c k y e n o u g h to share their e n v i r o n m e n t w i t h roaches. As the bugs have survived f r o m t h e age of t h e trilobites, smart m o n e y says this will give t h e m an even greater l o n g - t e r m edge over h u m a n s t h a n they e n j o y e d before. Given a holistic goal and a way to test decisions f o r their e c o n o m i c , social, a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l soundness, b o t h short and l o n g t e r m , w e can expose n o n s o l u t i o n s a m o n g technological remedies. S o m e t i m e s w e m i g h t c h o o s e to solve a s h o r t - t e r m p r o b l e m , o u t of u r g e n t necessity, w i t h a f o r m of t e c h n o l o g y that has adverse l o n g - t e r m effects. B u t w h e r e the w r o n g

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thing has to be d o n e today to survive until t o m o r r o w , w e n o w k n o w w e have to quickly w o r k on ways to prevent a r e c u r r e n c e of the situation. In m a n y o t h e r cases, m e r e l y having a holistic goal that p e o p l e are c o m m i t t e d to e n c o u r a g e s t h e m to forgo t e c h n o l o g i e s that provide i m m e d i a t e gratification in favor of those that provide lasting gain. At present we have n o traditional land ethic or collective sense of c o n science and responsibility, e i t h e r to o u r fellow h u m a n s or to o t h e r life, and o u r g o v e r n m e n t s reflect this only because o u r g o v e r n m e n t s reflect u s — they m a k e decisions the same way most of us do. T h e testing guidelines covered in the f o l l o w i n g chapters offer a way to assess t e c h n o l o g y and f o r e see w h e r e it is likely to lead to crisis. It is m y h o p e that they will also c o n t r i b u t e to a n e w political attitude toward t e c h n o l o g y that embraces e v e r y one, f r o m the h o u s e h o l d e r w h o s h a m p o o s his hair and poisons roaches, to multinational cartels that d a m rivers and chainsaw j u n g l e s . I w o u l d like to k n o w for certain, for example, that the pages of this b o o k d o n o t reflect p r o f i t e e r i n g o n bad forestry, destruction of land, air and w a t e r p o l l u t i o n , and exploitation of people. T h e y could as easily represent solar wealth and a stable c o m m u n i t y in an ever vital landscape w h e r e the h u n t i n g is g o o d n o w and will be b e t t e r . T e c h n o l o g y can achieve that, b u t only a public will and holistic decision m a k i n g , in s o m e f o r m o r a n o t h e r , can ensure it.

Part VI Testing Your Decisions

25 Making Economically, Environmentally, and Socially Sound Decisions

p until n o w this b o o k has c o n c e n t r a t e d o n t h e f r a m e w o r k that guides holistic decision m a k i n g : d e f i n i t i o n of t h e w h o l e to be m a n a g e d ; f o r m a t i o n of t h e holistic goal; t h e f o u r ecosystem processes that serve as t h e f o u n d a t i o n o n w h i c h t h e holistic goal rests; t h e tools for m a n a g i n g ecosystem processes, and t h e different effects s o m e of those tools p r o d u c e in brittle and n o n b r i t t l e e n v i r o n m e n t s . N o w y o u are ready to p u t holistic decision m a k i n g i n t o practice. E a c h of the n e x t seven chapters describes a simple test in t h e f o r m of o n e or t w o questions y o u ask yourself p r i o r to i m p l e m e n t i n g any decision. S o m e tests will n o t apply to certain decisions and can be skipped. S o m e tests will raise p o i n t s y o u will again consider in o t h e r tests. T h e testing should take y o u m i n u t e s , rather than h o u r s . O n c e y o u are familiar w i t h the tests and have internalized t h e questions, t h e testing will be a c c o m p l i s h e d in seconds and will b e s o m e t h i n g y o u b e g i n to do subconsciously. W h e n asked and answered in q u i c k succession, t h e testing questions enable y o u to see t h e likely effect of any decision o n t h e w h o l e y o u m a n age. You d o n o t w a n t to dwell o n any o n e test to the p o i n t that y o u lose sight of t h e picture f o r m e d by s c a n n i n g t h e m all. W i t h this picture in sight, y o u can be fairly sure that any decision tested is n o t only e c o n o m i c a l l y s o u n d b u t simultaneously e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y and socially s o u n d , b o t h s h o r t and l o n g t e r m . T h i s is the critical f a c t o r missing in c o n v e n t i o n a l decision m a k i n g , w h e r e f e w decisions prove s o u n d in all these respects. S o m e decisions may appear to b e e c o n o m i c a l l y s o u n d , but will be i m p l e m e n t e d at the expense of the e n v i r o n m e n t o r t h e w e l l - b e i n g of people, o r be e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y

U

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s o u n d , b u t hopelessly u n e c o n o m i c or d a m a g i n g to h u m a n welfare. M a n y of these decisions will have undesirable c o n s e q u e n c e s in t h e l o n g t e r m . As you will recall f r o m earlier chapters, t h e testing questions are m o r e or less a final c h e c k . Y o u have in effect already m a d e y o u r decision, in the same way you have always m a d e decisions.You will already have gathered w h a t e v e r i n f o r m a t i o n you n e e d e d to m a k e t h e d e c i s i o n — w h a t it will cost, w h a t t h e research shows, w h a t t h e experts say, w h a t y o u ' v e l e a r n e d f r o m past e x p e r i e n c e , and so o n . In addition, you may have consulted t h e m a n a g e m e n t guidelines, covered in C h a p t e r s 34 t h r o u g h 42, b e f o r e d e c i d i n g h o w best to apply a tool o r carry o u t an action. Simple decisions that require little p l a n n i n g to i m p l e m e n t will probably have b e e n based o n little m o r e than past e x p e r i e n c e , or i n t u i t i o n . Y o u r p u r p o s e in n o w testing a decision is to ensure that it is simultaneously economically, e n v i r o n m e n t a l ly, and socially s o u n d and will take you toward y o u r holistic goal. If the decision passes m o s t or all of t h e tests that apply, you should feel fairly c o n fident in i m p l e m e n t i n g it. If it fails o n e or m o r e tests, you may w a n t to m o d i f y t h e decision, a b a n d o n it altogether, or, in s o m e cases, go ahead a n y w a y — a subject w e will r e t u r n to. E a c h of the seven tests, and t h e questions asked, is s u m m a r i z e d in figure 2 5 - 1 . T h e r e are n o rules o n t h e o r d e r in w h i c h to ask these questions,

1. C a u s e a n d E f f e c t . D o e s t h i s a c t i o n a d d r e s s t h e r o o t c a u s e of t h e p r o b l e m ? 2. W e a k L i n k Social, C o u l d t h i s a c t i o n , d u e t o p r e v a i l i n g a t t i t u d e s o r b e l i e f s , c r e a t e a w e a k l i n k in t h e c h a i n of a c t i o n s l e a d i n g t o w a r d y o u r h o l i s t i c g o a l ? Biological. D o e s this a c t i o n a d d r e s s t h e w e a k e s t p o i n t in t h e life c y c l e of t h i s o r g a n i s m ? Financial, D o e s t h i s a c t i o n s t r e n g t h e n t h e w e a k e s t l i n k in t h e c h a i n of p r o d u c t i o n ? 3. M a r g i n a l R e a c t i o n . W h i c h a c t i o n p r o v i d e s t h e g r e a t e s t r e t u r n , in t e r m s of y o u r holistic goal, for t h e t i m e a n d m o n e y spent? 4. G r o s s P r o f i t A n a l y s i s . W h i c h e n t e r p r i s e s c o n t r i b u t e t h e m o s t t o c o v e r i n g t h e o v e r h e a d s of t h e b u s i n e s s ? 5. E n e r g y / M o n e y S o u r c e a n d Use. Is t h e e n e r g y o r m o n e y t o b e u s e d in t h i s a c t i o n d e r i v e d f r o m t h e m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e s o u r c e in t e r m s of y o u r holistic g o a l ? Will t h e w a y in w h i c h t h e e n e r g y o r m o n e y is t o b e u s e d l e a d t o w a r d y o u r h o l i s t i c goal? 6. S u s t a i n a b i l i t y . If y o u t a k e this a c t i o n , will it l e a d t o w a r d o r a w a y f r o m t h e f u t u r e r e s o u r c e b a s e d e s c r i b e d in y o u r h o l i s t i c g o a l ? 7. S o c i e t y a n d C u l t u r e . H o w d o y o u f e e l a b o u t t h i s a c t i o n n o w ? Will it l e a d t o t h e q u a l i t y of life y o u d e s i r e ? Will it a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t t h e lives o f others?

F i g u r e 25-1

The seven

tests.

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except o n e : the Society and C u l t u r e test should always be last.Your answers to the questions asked in this test should reflect the impression gained after passing t h r o u g h all the others. As you b e c o m e m o r e familiar w i t h t h e c o n t e n t s of each test, you will automatically t e n d to o r d e r t h e tests a c c o r d i n g to the nature of t h e d e c i sion b e i n g tested. If t h e decision addresses a p r o b l e m , for instance, y o u will tend to go to the c a u s e - a n d - e f f e c t test first. If you fail this test, it is o f t e n pointless to c o n t i n u e . If the decision involves an o r g a n i s m w h o s e n u m b e r s you w a n t to increase o r decrease, you m i g h t go to t h e weak link test first. Again, if you fail this test, it may be pointless to c o n t i n u e . B e f o r e long, you will instinctively k n o w w h i c h tests apply to any decision and w h i c h ones y o u can skip. Likewise, there will be times w h e n y o u r c o m m o n sense tells you that, in light of your holistic goal, a certain decision is g o i n g to fail m o s t of t h e tests, and you will probably m o d i f y the decision b e f o r e a c t u ally testing it. As m e n t i o n e d at the outset, speed is essential to t h e testing process. If you c a n n o t quickly answer "yes" or " n o " to a q u e s t i o n , simply bypass t h e test and m o v e o n to the next. If y o u c a n n o t reach a c o n c l u s i o n after passing t h r o u g h all the others, t h e n c o m e back to t h e o n e or t w o you bypassed so you can give t h e m m o r e consideration. In most cases, you have bypassed a test because you d o n ' t have e n o u g h i n f o r m a t i o n to k n o w w h e t h e r the decision passed o r failed the test. You may, f o r example, need to take time to diagnose the cause of a p r o b l e m b e f o r e you can answer the question asked in the c a u s e - a n d - e f f e c t test. O r you m a y n e e d to gather actual figures, rather than estimates, for a gross profit analysis b e f o r e you can pass this test w i t h c o n f i d e n c e . O n c e you have t h e n e e d e d i n f o r m a t i o n , test t h e d e c i sion o n c e again a n d m a k e a final j u d g m e n t . D o n ' t w o r r y that t h e speed o f the testing will lead to an unsatisfactory result. You will be m o n i t o r i n g y o u r decisions to ensure they in fact lead toward y o u r holistic goal, and will r e p l a n — a n d r e t e s t — a n y t i m e you veer off track. W h e n a decision you test involves an a t t e m p t to alter t h e ecosyst e m processes in any way, you will assume at the outset that because it is impossible to a c c o u n t for nature's i n h e r e n t complexity, t h e decision, even though it was tested, could be w r o n g . O n t h e a s s u m p t i o n you are w r o n g , you will d e t e r m i n e the criteria you should m o n i t o r to give you the earliest possible w a r n i n g of a n e e d to replan. O n e of the quickest ways to get familiar w i t h t h e seven tests is to practice testing s o m e of t h e decisions you r o u t i n e l y m a k e in y o u r o w n h o m e . N o t only will it build y o u r c o n f i d e n c e in t h e process, b u t also it will s h o w you h o w even small decisions can affect progress toward y o u r holistic goal. Q u e s t i o n t h e detergents you use and the paper towels and light bulbs; h o w you dispose of waste products, such as garbage, batteries, c o m p u t e r parts, oil, paint thinners; h o w you deal w i t h termites o r cockroaches; y o u r dietary habits, a n e w exercise routine, and so o n . T w o or m o r e tests will apply to

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any o n e of these sorts of decisions. If y o u r holistic goal is similar to m y family's, you m a y find that in t h e first year a lot of the things you are c u r rently d o i n g may fail a lot of t h e tests. B y t h e n e x t year n o t nearly so m a n y will fail as you b e g i n to m o d i f y y o u r actions to b r i n g t h e m in line w i t h h o w you w a n t to live and w h a t you w a n t to accomplish. It w o n ' t be l o n g b e f o r e t h e tests b e c o m e so familiar that you subconsciously test m o s t decisions. Testing decisions as a g r o u p also speeds learning, simply because s o m e p e o p l e will be m o r e familiar w i t h certain tests and can p o i n t o u t aspects others m i g h t have overlooked. You are m o r e likely to be c o n f i d e n t in y o u r j u d g m e n t o n w h e t h e r a decision passes or fails a test, w h e n others c o m e to t h e same c o n c l u s i o n . Naturally, t h e p e r s o n or g r o u p m a k i n g a decision should be responsible for testing it. H o w e v e r , there may b e times w h e n an individual or a smaller g r o u p w o r k i n g w i t h i n a larger o n e m i g h t have m a d e a n d tested a d e c i sion that others have d o u b t s a b o u t . If such a situation arises, then by all m e a n s formally retest t h e decision as a g r o u p . This situation is m o r e likely to o c c u r in the early stages w h e n the holistic goal is still very t e m p o r a r y a n d lacking in specifics. T h e r e will b e varying levels of c o m m i t m e n t to the holistic goal at this stage and h i d d e n agendas a n d u n c o n s c i o u s biases are b o u n d to i n f l u e n c e t h e testing of s o m e decisions. R e t e s t i n g the decision as a g r o u p will help to b r i n g these things to fight a n d may well lead to revisions in t h e holistic goal, a subject w e will r e t u r n to. Ideally, all decisions you m a k e should be tested, b u t in the early stages this is unlikely to h a p p e n . W h e r e the testing is likely to m a k e t h e biggest difference, especially in the b e g i n n i n g , is w i t h any decisions that involve significant e x p e n d i t u r e s of m o n e y , for r o u t i n e or e m e r g e n c y purchases, n e w business enterprises or products, and so o n . M o s t of these sorts of decisions will b e m a d e w h e n d e v e l o p i n g a financial plan for t h e year. C h a p t e r 44, Holistic Financial P l a n n i n g , shows h o w to create such a plan, using t h e testing to finalize all e x p e n d i t u r e s . A m o n g o t h e r things, you are likely to find that decisions you may never have q u e s t i o n e d in t h e past, because the e x p e n d i t u r e s involved w e r e so routine, will n o w have to be revised. T h e testing will also m a k e an e n o r m o u s difference w h e n y o u a t t e m p t to deal w i t h a crisis or u n e x p e c t e d p r o b l e m s that s u d d e n l y arise. T h e testing will help to ensure that w h a t e v e r decisions you take to resolve t h e crisis or p r o b l e m are in line w i t h y o u r holistic goal, a n d n o t merely q u i c k fixes u n d e r t a k e n in a panic. As you b e c o m e increasingly familiar w i t h t h e seven tests t h r o u g h p r a c tice and b e g i n to appreciate their value, you will automatically start to test every decision you make. In fact t h e process will b e c o m e so familiar that it will b e g i n to shape y o u r decisions b e f o r e you m a k e t h e m . In d e c i d -

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ing w h a t to d o a b o u t a p r o b l e m , f o r instance, y o u w o n ' t even c o n t e m p l a t e w h a t to d o a b o u t it until you have identified its cause. B e assured that t h e testing will n o t lead you into d o i n g things y o u do n o t w a n t to do. O f t e n , in t h e b e g i n n i n g especially, the testing will s h o w that s o m e of t h e decisions y o u have already i m p l e m e n t e d are u n s o u n d . T h i s does n o t m e a n yOLi suddenly have to stop d o i n g w h a t e v e r it is y o u are d o i n g . T h e testing merely warns you of the dangers you face over t h e l o n g haul. N o w you can plan w h a t to d o a b o u t it b e f o r e it is t o o late. For example, the decision a f a r m e r makes this year to g r o w m o n o c u l tures of c o r n and soybeans, may pass t h e gross profit analysis test because the r e v e n u e they b r i n g in is greater than t h e costs associated w i t h their p r o d u c t i o n , b u t they are likely to fail m o s t of the r e m a i n i n g six tests. R a t h e r than go o u t of business o r leave t h e land, the f a r m e r wisely decides to m a k e n o c h a n g e f o r now. B u t h e does k n o w that f i n d i n g m o r e sustainable ways to g r o w his crops—ways that cater to m a n y of t h e h i d d e n , b u t real, costs—has b e c o m e a high p r i o r i t y and that t h e testing will help h i m to d e c i d e w h e n and h o w best to i n c o r p o r a t e t h e m . Like t h e farmer, y o u may well find that you have to d o s o m e t h i n g you k n o w is d a m a g i n g because, w h e n v i e w e d holistically, it is the c o r r e c t t h i n g to d o at the time. In such situations, f e w of us, w h e t h e r w e are r u n n i n g a m i n i n g , m a n u f a c t u r i n g , o r service-related business, o r even a g o v e r n m e n t , can c h a n g e w h a t w e are d o i n g o v e r n i g h t . B u t all of us can b e g i n to plan for change. H o w to regulate the pace of that c h a n g e is itself a decision w e will n e e d to test toward t h e holistic goals w e f o r m .

The Power Lies in the Holistic Goal O n first e x p o s u r e to the testing guidelines, s o m e p e o p l e b e c o m e so paralyzed by a fear they w o n ' t " d o it right," they avoid testing any decisions at all. H o w e v e r , it is n o big deal if they d o n ' t get it right. Initially, everyone is a little fuzzy in asking the questions. S o m e p e o p l e will accidentally skip an i m p o r t a n t test. O t h e r s will a t t e m p t to r u n decisions t h r o u g h tests that d o n ' t really a p p l y In t h e e n d , however, they will still arrive at t h e right decision for them, as l o n g as they have a holistic goal and are c o m m i t t e d to a c h i e v ing it. Your holistic goal is m o r e i m p o r t a n t to decision m a k i n g than an infinite u n d e r s t a n d i n g of each of t h e tests will ever be. A n d as you increasingly gain c o m m i t m e n t to achieving y o u r holistic goal, m o s t of the decisions you m a k e , even if y o u d o n o t consciously test t h e m , will automatically t e n d to take y o u toward it. If half t h e readers of this b o o k w e r e to learn t h e testing guidelines to p e r f e c t i o n a n d c o u l d r u n t h r o u g h t h e m w i t h 100 p e r c e n t accuracy, b u t had a holistic goal to w h i c h they only paid lip service, they w o u l d fare n o b e t t e r than before. If t h e o t h e r half w e r e c o m m i t t e d to a

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holistic goal in w h i c h they had a great deal of o w n e r s h i p , but c o u l d only p e r f o r m the testing w i t h 10 p e r c e n t accuracy, I w o u l d back their decisions every time. T h i n k of the testing process as the n e e d l e o n a compass, and t h e holistic goal as the m a g n e t i c n o r t h that, n o m a t t e r h o w m u c h you twist a n d t u r n , t h e needle always points to. T h e testing will ensure that even t h o u g h the n e e d l e deviates as y o u deal w i t h changes in markets, technology, w e a t h e r , family, staff, political upheavals, or even war, it will always b e p o i n t i n g y o u in t h e general direction y o u w a n t to go. If y o u d o n o t have a holistic goal, the testing b e c o m e s pointless, f o r obvious reasons. M o r e subtle are the c o n s e q u e n c e s that s t e m f r o m h a v i n g a holistic goal to w h i c h p e o p l e only pay lip service. H u m a n s will always bias any decisions they m a k e — e v e n in rigorously controlled e x p e r i m e n t s — i n favor of w h a t they really w a n t . So what you really want must be in your holistic goal. T h a t is w h y f o r m i n g a n d d e v e l o p i n g o w n e r s h i p in y o u r holistic goal are even greater challenges than testing decisions. Unless you and all those f o r m i n g the holistic goal w i t h y o u feel free o r c o m f o r t a b l e e n o u g h to speak up, all that y o u and they w a n t to accomplish in the p a r ticular w h o l e y o u are m a n a g i n g is n o t likely to be expressed. As a result, the testing of s o m e decisions, as m e n t i o n e d , will be skewed in favor of h i d d e n agendas and unexpressed biases. I c a n n o t overstate the critical difference that o w n e r s h i p in a holistic goal makes to t h e w h o l e process. Yet, I also realize that o w n e r s h i p takes time to d e v e l o p . T h a t should n o t stop y o u f r o m b e g i n n i n g to test decisions i m m e d i a t e l y after f o r m i n g a holistic goal. T h e testing itself will start to s h o w y o u w h e r e y o u r holistic goal needs m o r e clarity of expression. As y o u w o r k to gain it, o w n e r s h i p will develop. E v e n the u n c o n s c i o u s biases and h i d d e n agendas that are b o u n d to i n f l u e n c e t h e testing in t h e early stages will eventually be sorted o u t as l o n g as you c o n t i n u e to strive for clarity in w h a t y o u really desire and w a n t to accomplish. B e f o r e l o n g the testing will increasingly b e c o m e a s u b c o n s c i o u s exercise, w h i c h is w h a t y o u should aim for. A t that p o i n t you will b e g i n to appreciate that t h e testing g u i d e lines are only a m e n t a l c r u t c h that helps y o u to see the big picture f r o m m a n y angles simultaneously. A l m o s t all t h e p r o b l e m s that beset h u m a n k i n d stem n o t f r o m acts of N a t u r e b u t f r o m t h e way w e m a k e decisions. I w o u l d stake m y life o n the premise that if millions of h u m a n s in all walks of life w o u l d m e r e l y start m a k i n g decisions holistically, toward holistic goals they are g e n u i n e l y c o m m i t t e d to achieving, m o s t of t h e p r o b l e m s w e face w o u l d evaporate.

26 Cause and Effect: Stop the Blows to Your Head Before You Take the Aspirin

h e cause a n d effect test is o n e that carries considerable w e i g h t w h e n a decision is taken to address a p r o b l e m . It enables you to w i n n o w o u t tools, actions, and policies that suppress s y m p t o m s only w h e n you n e e d to c o r r e c t t h e cause. T h e q u e s t i o n you ask is: Does this action address the root cause of the problem? T h e logic of g o i n g to t h e r o o t cause of a p r o b l e m presents n o difficulty to t h e simplest m i n d , yet political a n d e c o n o m i c e x p e d i e n c y so o f t e n subvert that c o u r s e that w e have d e v e l o p e d a culturally p r o g r a m m e d habit of d o i n g j u s t the opposite. I d o n ' t apologize t h e r e f o r e for using the m o s t s i m p l e - m i n d e d m e t a p h o r to illustrate m y p o i n t . If I followed you a r o u n d a n d periodically bashed y o u r head w i t h a h a m m e r , y o u w o u l d develop a h e a d a c h e s o o n e r o r later. You c o u l d say t h e h e a d a c h e is a p r o b l e m , but it is in fact a s y m p t o m p r o d u c e d by m y h i t t i n g you o n the head. You m i g h t take s o m e aspirin to ease t h e s y m p t o m , and t h e n even m o r e p o w e r f u l pain killers, a d d i n g yet m o r e treatments for the side effects, or n e w s y m p t o m s , p r o d u c e d by t h e m e d i c i n e . O r y o u m i g h t try to stop m y h a m m e r i n g a n d address t h e cause. C o m m o n sense dictates t h e latter, b u t in practice w e usually d o t h e f o r m e r . R e a l life presents situations of m o r e deviously related cause a n d effect. S y m p t o m s , or effects, can a p p e a r to result f r o m multiple causes. C a u s e and effect is seldom a simple chain b u t a m e s h e x t e n d i n g infinitely in all d i r e c tions (figure 2 6 - 1 ) . Nevertheless, t h e lesson of the aspirin a n d the h a m m e r still holds, and as a practical m a t t e r w e can usually see h o w cause A leads to B w i t h o u t necessarily k n o w i n g w h y A h a p p e n e d or w h a t will follow B. In o t h e r words, why I a m hitting you o n t h e head s h o u l d n o t blind you to 273

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Cause and effect is never a simple chain of events leading from A to B

to C, but a mesh extending

infinitely

in all directions.

the fact that the blows are causing y o u r headache. We can act effectively o n that i n s i g h t — t o stop the blows rather than take the a s p i r i n — w i t h o u t n e c essarily u n t a n g l i n g the infinite ramifications that stem f r o m it. T h a t we o f t e n d o n ' t act this way is probably allied to h u m a n nature. W e generally tend to favor a q u i c k fix over m o r e p e r m a n e n t solutions because by n a t u r e w e seek to avoid d i s c o m f o r t , w h i c h a q u i c k fix alleviates right away. Since m o s t of o u r quick fixes involve the use of s o m e f o r m of t e c h nology, it is t e m p t i n g to believe that t e c h n o l o g y is responsible for this q u i c k fix mentality, but it is m o r e likely the o t h e r way a r o u n d : to evade disc o m f o r t we d e v e l o p e d technology. W h i c h e v e r it is, t h e fact remains that w e are naturally inclined to resort to any o n e o f t h e quick fixes m o d e r n science so o f t e n c o n j u r e s up at the drop of a hat, rather than seek to address the u n d e r l y i n g cause of the p r o b l e m . O n c e t h e fix alleviates the s y m p t o m s , h o w e v e r , w e t e n d to forget w e even had a p r o b l e m — u n t i l it recurs, as it surely will if the u n d e r l y i n g cause is n o t rectified. T h e s e d u c t i o n of t h e q u i c k fix has w e a k e n e d h u m a n i t y ' s endeavors in all areas, from e c o n o m i c s , to h u m a n a n d veterinary m e d i c i n e , to t h e c o n d u c t o f war and diplomacy, e d u c a t i o n , g o v e r n a n c e , a n d of c o u r s e the m a n a g e m e n t o f natural resources. Instead of fixing what's really b r o k e n or finding a f u n d a m e n t a l l y different path, w e p r i n t m o r e m o n e y , invent a n e w d r u g , m a k e a bigger b o m b , suppress or b u y off dissent, or build a d a m . This test seeks to avoid n o n s o l u t i o n s by first asking you to t h i n k carefully a b o u t w h a t m i g h t be causing y o u r p r o b l e m . If the decision u n d e r consideration addresses that cause, t h e n it passes this test.

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Identifying the Cause I d e n t i f y i n g t h e cause of a p r o b l e m can b e fairly easy, b u t it can also require considerable p r o b i n g . In m o s t situations, this is a relatively u n s t r u c t u r e d exercise. You merely pose and answer t h e same questions over and over again: " W h a t is t h e cause of this?" and w h e n you have y o u r answer, "Well, w h a t is the cause of that?" You may have to ask this question three or f o u r or m o r e times, p e e l i n g away layers of s y m p t o m s , before y o u f i n d the cause y o u should address. A n i n c i d e n t f r o m m y f a r m i n g days illustrates the principle. I was d e v e l o p i n g my f a r m f r o m raw bush and t h e cost of m a i n t a i n i n g m y three tractors was very high, e n o u g h to cause m e considerable alarm. M y m e n insisted that the reason for this was the age of t h e tractors, all of w h i c h had seen use for t w e n t y years or m o r e by t h e t i m e I b o u g h t t h e m . M y a c c o u n t a n t sided w i t h m y staff and tried to c o n v i n c e m e that I w o u l d be on f i r m e r financial g r o u n d if I t o o k o u t a loan and b o u g h t n e w tractors, w h i c h had all kinds of tax advantages. B u t I wasn't so sure. Was the age of m y tractors really responsible f o r t h e high cost of m a i n t a i n i n g t h e m ? M y n e i g h b o r s had all b o u g h t n e w tractors but their m a i n t e n a n c e costs w e r e high too, even t h o u g h they only used their tractors for light w o r k . M i n e w e r e clearing virgin bush f o u r t e e n h o u r s a day. As I did all t h e repairs myself, I t h o u g h t a b o u t t h e chain of events leading to each of m y b r e a k d o w n s and ultimately traced nearly every o n e back to dry bearings, dust in t h e oil, i n f r e q u e n t oil changes, cracked hoses, o r s o m e o t h e r neglect. P o o r m a i n t e n a n c e , rather than the age of t h e m a c h i n ery, it appeared, was t h e cause of the p r o b l e m . B u t w h y was m a i n t e n a n c e so p o o r ? M y initial response was to assume that m y drivers, w h o w e r e responsible for m a i n t e n a n c e , were lazy and careless, and that I should t h i n k u p ways I c o u l d penalize t h e m for these faults. I f o u n d , however, that they o f t e n had a g o o d explanation for a b r e a k d o w n . T h e y w o r k e d i n t o t h e dark o r started so early in t h e m o r n i n g that they c o u l d n o t see t h e s t u m p that cut the tire, for instance. So I c o n t i n u e d to p r o b e until I hit o n yet a n o t h e r u n d e r lying possibility: perhaps m a i n t e n a n c e was p o o r because m y drivers had n o incentive to m a k e it otherwise. T h e r e was n o n e e d to p u s h this line of q u e s t i o n i n g f u r t h e r . If they lacked incentive, t h e n it was because I had n o t p r o v i d e d it. Accordingly, I did p r o v i d e it by c h a n g i n g the nature of their e m p l o y m e n t . E a c h driver w o u l d b e c o m e a private c o n t r a c t o r w h o agreed to provide his services for a very small daily a m o u n t a n d a large daily b o n u s if the tractor h e drove was m a i n t a i n e d a c c o r d i n g to a specific list of criteria. H o w e v e r , o n e or m o r e days of b o n u s could b e lost if the oil level in the e n g i n e or g e a r b o x

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was low, sludge appeared in the air filters, grease fittings w e r e b l o c k e d , a fanbelt was cracked, a screw or bolt was loose, and so o n . E v e r y o n e received their b o n u s e s for t h e first m o n t h w h i l e I m a d e r a n d o m inspections to ensure that each driver u n d e r s t o o d t h e criteria spelled o u t in his c o n t r a c t and w h a t w o u l d constitute an infraction. I did have to d e d u c t several days' b o n u s f o r a c o u p l e of drivers shortly afterward, b u t never again. M y drivers e a r n e d far m o r e than they had as salaried w o r k e r s and d e v e l o p e d a sense of p r i d e in b e i n g i n d e p e n d e n t c o n t r a c t drivers; it b e c a m e a g a m e to see if I could ever catch t h e m o u t . A n d m y m a i n t e n a n c e costs d r o p p e d to 50 p e r c e n t of w h a t my n e i g h b o r s ' averaged, despite m y r u n n i n g three tractors to their o n e . H a d w e b e e n m a n a g i n g holistically in those days, the diagnosis of this p r o b l e m m i g h t have led to a slightly different remedy. B u t t h e story does illustrate w h y it pays to k e e p p r o b i n g for an answer until y o u can go n o f u r t h e r . S o m e Japanese c o m p a n i e s are n o t e d for insisting their p e o p l e ask " w h y " at least five times to get to t h e r o o t cause of a p r o b l e m . A few years ago, o n e such c o m p a n y f o u n d that t h e w a t e r c o n s u m p t i o n in its office b u i l d ing was m u c h h i g h e r than it should be. T h e y w e r e advised to install l o w f l o w toilets and w a t e r - s a v i n g faucets, b u t b e f o r e s p e n d i n g any m o n e y , t h e c o m p a n y w a n t e d to d e t e r m i n e the cause of the high w a t e r c o n s u m p t i o n . By asking a series of " w h y " questions, they eventually discovered that w h e n p e o p l e used t h e toilets, they flushed twice: o n c e to cover up the s o u n d of u r i n a t i n g ; a n d again w h e n they w e r e d o n e . H a v i n g identified the cause, t h e c o m p a n y simply installed a small tape recorder inside each w a s h r o o m c u b i cle w i t h a b u t t o n the p e r s o n using the cubicle could p u s h to p r o d u c e the s o u n d o f a flush. T h e c o m p a n y ' s w a t e r bill p l u m m e t e d . T h e r e will b e s o m e instances, perhaps many, w h e n you t h i n k you've g o t to the b o t t o m of a p r o b l e m and later find you have n o t . If you have p r o b e d as deeply as you can and still n o t f o u n d t h e root cause, t h e n you may n e e d to l o o k wider, rather than deeper. S o m e t i m e s outsiders, n o t necessarily experts, can readily diagnose t h e cause of a p r o b l e m w h e n the answer has e l u d e d y o u , simply because they can v i e w t h e situation m o r e objectively. A n u m b e r of a p p a r e n t p r o b l e m s will fall i n t o o n e of t w o categories: (1) those related to resource m a n a g e m e n t ; and (2) those related to h u m a n behavior. T h e a p p r o a c h you take in d i a g n o s i n g the cause in either c a t e g o ry is slightly different.

Resource

Management

Problems

If t h e p r o b l e m c o n c e r n s land or resource m a n a g e m e n t (e.g., soil erosion, a plague of grasshoppers, a decrease in the n u m b e r of s n o w geese) l o o k first to t h e f o u r ecosystem processes for an answer, particularly c o m m u n i t y dynamics. T h e n consider t h e tools (covered in the last section) that may

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have b e e n used in t h e past. H o w they have b e e n applied will affect h o w the ecosystem processes are f u n c t i o n i n g now. For example, if you have b r u s h e n c r o a c h i n g i n t o a fairly brittle grassland, but y o u r holistic goal describes a landscape w h e r e b r u s h is limited to f r i n g e areas, y o u have a p r o b l e m . In fact, w h e n I first visited t h e U n i t e d States o n a lecture t o u r of eight w e s t e r n states in t h e late 1970s, e v e r y o n e m e n t i o n e d b r u s h e n c r o a c h m e n t as t h e big p r o b l e m of the h o u r . I saw w h e r e literally millions of dollars h a d g o n e t o w a r d b o t h eradication research and actual control to n o avail. N o b o d y , however, seriously discussed t h e cause, and w h e n I asked the question a c h o r u s answered in u n i s o n , " O v e r g r a z i n g . A n d livestock spread t h e seeds." Yet m o s t of those present should have recognized that b r u s h also invades areas that have n o livestock, and moves less rapidly into areas w h e r e nearly all plants are h e a v ily overgrazed. U n d e r pressure to do s o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e b r u s h a n d unable to really explain w h y t h e brush has c o m e , m o s t p e o p l e just stop asking t h e q u e s t i o n and l o o k a r o u n d for t h e best ways to kill t h e b r u s h . J o h n D e e r e , Caterpillar, D o w C h e m i c a l , and M o n s a n t o accept t h e challenge. A w h o l e n e w i n d u s try arises o u t of t h e e n s u i n g c o m p e t i t i o n , c o m p l e t e w i t h research grants predicated o n not asking the m a i n question, and advertising to m a k e it appear irrelevant in t h e light of apparent t e c h n o l o g i c a l success. B r u s h e n c r o a c h m e n t is in fact a s y m p t o m of an u n d e r l y i n g p r o b l e m resulting f r o m p r i o r m a n a g e m e n t decisions. As C h a p t e r 13 o n c o m m u n i t y dynamics explained, a species can only establish in a place w h e n c o n d i t i o n s are favorable to its survival. So, o n e o r m o r e decisions y o u or y o u r p r e d e cessors m a d e in the past h e l p e d to create c o n d i t i o n s that favored t h e establ i s h m e n t of b r u s h . As C h a p t e r 20 explained, partial rest applied in t h e m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s tends to p r o m o t e t h e establishment of b r u s h . All grasses have fibrous roots, b u t all b r u s h species are t a p - r o o t e d . For a shift f r o m fibrous-rooted grassland to t a p - r o o t e d brush to occur, t w o factors m u s t coincide: g o o d g e r m i n a t i n g conditions, and p o r o u s or easily p e n e trated soil, w h i c h h a p p e n s to be typical of rested areas w h e r e dead fibrous roots remain in t h e soil. T h e s e old and d y i n g root systems assist t h e t a p r o o t e d invader. Let's say y o u k n o w that for years t h e land in q u e s t i o n has b e e n partially rested. Animals have b e e n present b u t scattered a n d u n e x c i t e d and thus have hardly disturbed the soil or plants. If partial rest has b e e n t h e m a i n tool applied to the l a n d — e i t h e r deliberately or a c c i d e n t a l l y — a n d you k n o w it p r o d u c e s c o n d i t i o n s ideal for t a p - r o o t e d b r u s h plants, t h e n it is reasonable to suppose that partial rest is likely to be t h e cause of y o u r brush e n c r o a c h m e n t . That's w h a t y o u should b e g i n to rectify b e f o r e killing any plants. If instead y o u decide to attack t h e s y m p t o m (or effect) a n d p o i s o n , chain,

281) PART V I

I

TESTING YOUR DECISIONS

or r o o t o u t the b r u s h , it w o n ' t be l o n g b e f o r e you have to repeat t h e treatm e n t . T h e b r u s h will keep c o m i n g back until you have r e m e d i e d t h e cause. C l e a r i n g the b r u s h w i t h aspirin, o r m o r e p o t e n t remedies, is a costly n o n solution as l o n g as t h e h a m m e r i n g f r o m partial rest c o n t i n u e s . P a r a d o x ically, the likely solution, e n d i n g t h e partial rest, will probably m a k e m o n e y rather than cost it. P h o t o 2 6 - 1 shows f r o m the air an area that d e m o n s t r a t e s the p o i n t . O n the left of t h e f e n c e w e i g n o r e d the dense acacia e n c r o a c h m e n t a n d d o u bled t h e livestock n u m b e r s w h i l e s t o p p i n g t h e partial rest that was o c c u r ring, and the overgrazing as well. T h e b r u s h still d o t t i n g t h e landscape, w h i c h d e v e l o p e d i n t o grassland w i t h i n a f e w years, b e c a m e a definite asset because it p r o v i d e d shade and habitat diversity. O n t h e r i g h t , t h e g o v e r n m e n t c o n c e r n e d still r e c o m m e n d e d stock r e d u c t i o n , reseeding, and b r u s h c l e a r i n g — t h r e e costly f o r m s of aspirin d o o m e d to fail. G o i n g straight to the basic question of w h a t is causing the p r o b l e m d e m a n d s n o little courage, perseverance, and willingness to e n t e r t a i n n e w ideas, as e v e r y o n e rapidly discovers w h o applies this test to the host of situations that arise in everyday land m a n a g e m e n t . W h e n y o u can actually hear t h e a r m y w o r m s stripping a crop field, can y o u stop a n d say to y o u r -

P h o t o 26-1

By planning

the grazing

(and doubling livestock numbers) on the

left side of the fence we greatly reduced the bare ground that had caused the brush encroachment. ground.

Grassland improved despite the brush, which was not the cause of the bare

On the right, the government

continued to tackle symptoms

by destocking

clearing woody vegetation, but the brush continued to thrive. Leboiva, South

Africa.

and

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self, " I ' m n o t g o i n g to spray until I k n o w w h a t I can d o to cut the c h a n c e of a r m y w o r m s b e c o m i n g so thick again?" In an e m e r g e n c y such as this y o u may well g o ahead, b u t only in full k n o w l e d g e of t h e dangers a n d only to b u y t i m e to rectify the cause. To k n o w i n g l y repeat t h e application of a faulty tool is never wise. T h e repeated spraying of grasshoppers o n A m e r i c a n rangelands r e p r e sents a similar case of continually attacking t h e s y m p t o m at ever-increasing cost w i t h o u t t h o u g h t for t h e cause. T h e cost n o t only extends to the a m o u n t and p r i c e of t h e p o i s o n a n d m a n y ecological side effects, b u t also shows u p in t h e p r i c e w e pay for w a t e r to d r i n k . Pesticides, t o g e t h e r w i t h o t h e r agricultural and industrial pollutants a c c o u n t for m u c h of t h e $2.8 billion A m e r i c a n s pay for b o t t l e d d r i n k i n g water each year. 1 A gallon in m a n y places n o w costs m o r e than a gallon of gasoline. H o m e o w n e r s , too, are part of the p r o b l e m if they use pesticides routinely to rid their h o m e s , gardens, and lawns of weeds and insects. Massive m o n o c u l t u r e s in f a r m i n g have s p a w n e d a w h o l e cluster of spiraling problems characterized by public unwillingness to question t h e r o o t cause. R a t h e r than a d m i t t h e i n h e r e n t instability of m o n o c u l t u r e s , w e try to k e e p t h e m viable t h r o u g h chemistry, machinery, g e n e t i c e n g i n e e r i n g , a n d ultimately cash subsidy. M o r e o f t e n t h a n n o t , however, the side effects of these fixes exacerbate t h e problems. A l t h o u g h f e w f a r m e r s in t h e w o r l d e n j o y h i g h e r p r o d u c t prices o r c h e a p e r i n p u t costs in machinery, vehicles, fuel, and fertilizers than w e d o in the U n i t e d States; w e still have b r o k e f a r m e r s b l a m i n g o v e r p r o d u c t i o n , l o w prices, and high costs. If those really are t h e causes, o n e m i g h t w o n d e r w h y t h e A m i s h a n d m a n y o t h e r f a r m e r s w h o a p p r o a c h agriculture w i t h different assumptions r e m a i n highly p r o f itable in the same markets. Politicians, m o r e than those in any o t h e r profession, have m o s t difficulty in o v e r c o m i n g the t e m p t a t i o n to i g n o r e cause and effect. P o r k barrel legislation is only t h e m o s t m u n d a n e example. T h e w o r l d w i d e response to desertification shows h o w p e o p l e m a y fall i n t o the same trap w i t h o u t the slightest trace of cynicism. W e ' v e fed starving p e o p l e , r e d u c e d hvestock herds, settled n o m a d s , i m p o s e d grazing systems, installed m i g h t y irrigation works, a n d d o n e a host of o t h e r things t i m e and again. A n c i e n t H e b r e w texts apparently m e n t i o n m a n y of the same measures, i n c l u d i n g settling t h e n o m a d s , yet the deserts g r o w because n o n e of these actions tackles the cause. In this sad tradition, a plan presented f o r signing at the 1 9 9 2 E a r t h S u m m i t held in R i o de Janeiro called for an annual e x p e n d i t u r e of $6 billion o n q u i c k fixes for the s y m p t o m s of desertification. 2 To p o i n t o u t that n o n e of t h e proposals m a d e has ever reversed t h e decline of any land a n y w h e r e offends certain diplomatic and political sensibilities, h o w e v e r h o n est t h e intent.

281) PART V I

Problems

Related

to Human

I TESTING YOUR DECISIONS

Behavior

W h e n t h e p r o b l e m is related to h u m a n b e h a v i o r you should generally l o o k first to h o w y o u r organization is s t r u c t u r e d , h o w m a n a g e m e n t f u n c t i o n s , and h o w it is led. Very s e l d o m , perhaps 10 to 20 p e r c e n t o f t h e time, does it t u r n o u t that s o m e t h i n g is w r o n g with t h e p e o p l e involved and that they are t h e cause of t h e p r o b l e m . If y o u had a f u r n i t u r e factory, f o r instance, w h e r e p r o d u c t i v i t y had b e e n declining f o r s o m e m o n t h s a n d eating into y o u r profit, y o u m i g h t assume, based o n talks w i t h y o u r floor managers, that t h e cause of y o u r p r o b l e m is a lack o f skills a n d m o t i v a t i o n . T h e c a b i n e t m a k e r s , f o r instance, g r u m b l e a lot a b o u t m i n o r matters and c a n n o t wait to get o u t t h e d o o r o n c e they have finished their shift. N e w employees take m u c h t o o l o n g to learn t h e ropes. To rectify t h e p r o b l e m , y o u are c o n s i d e r i n g a c o u p l e of actions: a w o r k s h o p o n m o t i v a t i o n and t e a m building, a n d a training p r o g r a m f o r supervisors that teaches t h e m h o w to b e t t e r train those they supervise.You have read a b o u t h o w effective these types o f p r o g r a m s can be in s o r t i n g o u t y o u r p r o b l e m , and you k n o w a c o n s u l t i n g firm that can provide b o t h t h e w o r k s h o p and the training p r o g r a m f o r a reasonable fee. B e f o r e you go ahead and spend m o n e y o n t h e w o r k s h o p and training p r o g r a m , you w a n t to test t h e decision to d o so. Because y o u r decision a t t e m p t s to address a p r o b l e m , d e c l i n i n g p r o ductivity, you g o to cause and effect first. N o w you have to ask yourself w h e t h e r t h e apparent lack of m o t i v a t i o n a n d skills is t h e cause of y o u r p r o b l e m o r only a s y m p t o m s t e m m i n g f r o m an u n d e r l y i n g cause. In c o n sidering this question, you b e g i n to have s o m e d o u b t s . A f t e r all, y o u r diagnosis of t h e cause was based o n a fairly i n f o r m a l survey of floor m a n a g e r s , and n o t all of t h e m h a d agreed. It c o u l d b e that b u r e a u c r a c y a n d red tape has built u p to such an e x t e n t that it is stifling w o r k e r creativity and their ability to get t h e j o b d o n e . Perhaps t h e fines of c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e various d e p a r t m e n t s have b e c o m e tangled. If t h e c o m p a n y is n e w to Holistic M a n a g e m e n t , it m a y be that there are still o n e o r t w o individuals in supervisory positions w h o d o n o t b u y i n t o the idea and are h a m p e r i n g t h e efforts of others. Perhaps the t o p decision makers d o m i n a t e d t h e discussion w h e n f o r m i n g the holistic goal a n d those o n t h e s h o p f l o o r h a d had little say, and thus had n o c o m m i t m e n t to achieving it. E n o u g h d o u b t s have b e e n raised that you c a n n o t answer w i t h any c e r tainty that you are in fact addressing t h e cause of y o u r d e c l i n i n g p r o d u c tivity. T h e r e f o r e , t h e p r o p o s e d action, the w o r k s h o p and training p r o g r a m , w o u l d likely fail t h e c a u s e - a n d - e f f e c t test. W h e n this happens, you g e n e r ally n e e d go n o f u r t h e r w i t h t h e testing. O n c e y o u t h i n k you have f o u n d the cause of t h e p r o b l e m you can then

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d e t e r m i n e t h e a p p r o p r i a t e actions to take to rectify it. If they address the cause, they will pass this test.You will k n o w y o u r diagnosis was c o r r e c t if the p r o b l e m begins to resolve i t s e l f — p r o d u c t i v i t y will increase. Because you are dealing w i t h h u m a n nature, however, w h i c h is m o r e c o m p l e x than w e m a y ever u n d e r s t a n d , y o u r diagnosis may also prove faulty. If t h e p r o b l e m does n o t b e g i n to resolve itself, you will have to dig d e e p e r to find the cause. B u t find the cause y o u must.

Dealing with Short-Term and Long-Term E f f e c t s B e a r in m i n d that occasionally things may get w o r s e b e f o r e they get b e t ter, n o m a t t e r w h a t sort of p r o b l e m y o u are dealing w i t h . S o m e t i m e s this will affect y o u r decision a b o u t t h e actions you plan to take. A f a r m e r w h o s u d d e n l y stops fertilizing his crops w i t h chemicals because of t h e g r o u n d w a t e r p o l l u t i o n they create may have addressed t h e cause of the p o l l u t i o n , b u t m a y also r e d u c e his crop yields so significantly that h e does n o t survive financially It makes m o r e sense for h i m to begin to address t h e cause by w e a n i n g himself off t h e chemicals gradually. If t h e factory w e r e to r e v a m p its bureaucratic s t r u c t u r e o v e r n i g h t , t h e resulting c o n f u s i o n c o u l d cause p r o d u c t i v i t y to decrease even f u r t h e r . It makes m o r e sense to b e g i n addressing the cause by d i s m a n t l i n g t h e b u r e a u c r a c y gradually. S o m e t i m e s , decisions that pass the cause and effect test result in s h o r t t e r m " p r o b l e m s . " A r a n c h e r w h o uses animal i m p a c t to o v e r c o m e the p a r tial rest that has created a lot of bare g r o u n d a n d a m o r i b u n d stand of a f e w rest-tolerant grass species may find that all h e p r o d u c e s in the first year o r t w o is a healthy crop of weeds. T h i s was n o t w h a t h e h a d in m i n d w h e n h e described a f u t u r e resource base that i n c l u d e d dense perennial grassland. R a t h e r than c o n s i d e r the weeds as yet a n o t h e r p r o b l e m to b e tackled, h e should v i e w t h e m as an i n t e r v e n i n g stage of succession that h e is likely to m o v e b e y o n d . Any n e w plant is progress w h e n you start with bare g r o u n d a n d dead o r d y i n g plants. T h e influx of weeds is j u s t as likely to b e an i n d i cation that progress is b e i n g m a d e . D e n s e p e r e n n i a l grassland will n o t a p p e a r o v e r n i g h t , b u t given t i m e — a n d p l a n n i n g that ensures little o r n o overgrazing o c c u r s a n d that animal i m p a c t is provided w h e r e n e e d e d — p e r e n n i a l grasses will appear and flourish. To get o u t of m o n o c u l t u r e c r o p p i n g , w h i c h was responsible f o r a lot of t h e insect d a m a g e in his fields, o n e f a r m e r s w i t c h e d to planting several crops (corn, beans, a n d oats) in n a r r o w strips h e rotated each year.This s u c cessfully r e d u c e d t h e insect d a m a g e and also the n u m b e r of w e e d s and the i n c i d e n c e of disease. B u t it led to an o u t b r e a k of g r o u n d squirrels w h o f o u n d t h e c h a n g e d e n v i r o n m e n t ideal a n d quickly b e c a m e pests w h e n they d u g u p n e w l y p l a n t e d c o r n seeds. Because t h e f a r m e r was n o w a certified organic f a r m e r , c o n v e n t i o n a l o p t i o n s for dealing w i t h rodents w e r e o u t of

281) PART V I

I

TESTING YOUR DECISIONS

t h e q u e s t i o n . B u t he did gather i n f o r m a t i o n o n the squirrel's habits. For o n e thing, he learned they ate a lot of insects and wire w o r m s , w h i c h m a d e h i m t h i n k it m i g h t b e a g o o d idea to k e e p t h e m a r o u n d . O n c e t h e c o r n plants e m e r g e d , t h e squirrels w e r e n o l o n g e r a p r o b l e m anyway. H e solved his d i l e m m a creatively by spilling inexpensive waste seed into the m i d d l e of t h e rows as his planter was b u r y i n g the rest of the seed. T h e squirrels t h e n busied themselves g a t h e r i n g waste seed off the soil surface a n d left t h e planted c o r n alone. 3 In the f u r n i t u r e factory y o u m a y have f o u n d that the cause of y o u r declining p r o d u c t i v i t y was a lack of o w n e r s h i p in t h e holistic goal. T h e w o r k e r s o n the s h o p f l o o r had n o t felt free to speak u p a b o u t w h a t they really w a n t e d and w e r e only p a y i n g lip service to it. O n e of t h e actions you take to rectify t h e p r o b l e m is to o p e n u p w e e k l y d e p a r t m e n t a l p l a n n i n g meetings, w h i c h had previously i n c l u d e d only those in supervisory positions, to all d e p a r t m e n t a l employees. S h o p f l o o r w o r k e r s are e n c o u r a g e d to share their ideas and speak of their desires. A n d they do. B u t they also b e g i n to air grievances that previously they w o u l d have feared to express in t h e presence of supervisors. T h i s causes considerable d i s c o m f o r t a m o n g t h e supervisors and a m o n g s o m e of t h e s h o p f l o o r w o r k e r s and w o r r i e s u p p e r level m a n a g e m e n t staff. T h i s c o u l d be seen as yet a n o t h e r p r o b l e m that has to b e dealt w i t h , or again it c o u l d b e considered progress because s u p e r v i sors a n d m a n a g e m e n t staff are g e t t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n they n e e d to have a n d s h o p f l o o r w o r k e r s are l e a r n i n g that they have n o r e t r i b u t i o n to fear in speaking up, that their views, b o t h g o o d and bad, c o u n t . W h e n they all n e x t c o m e t o g e t h e r to refine their holistic goal, t h e results s h o u l d b e very different.

Unleashing Problems Down the Road S o m e t i m e s decisions you m a k e can unleash f u t u r e problems, even w h e n the original decision had n o t h i n g to d o w i t h solving a p r o b l e m . O n e or m o r e of t h e r e m a i n i n g six tests is likely to cover this possibility, b u t an early w a r n i n g h e r e — b y asking, C o u l d this a c t i o n unleash p r o b l e m s later?—will k e e p you o n the l o o k o u t . T h e f u r n i t u r e factory, for example, may use varnishes a n d o t h e r finishing p r o d u c t s that, a l t h o u g h they are disposed of safely w h i l e in the factory, b e c o m e a p r o b l e m w h e n t h e f u r n i t u r e is e v e n t u a l ly discarded because these p r o d u c t s will n o t break d o w n in t h e landfill.This c o n c e r n is addressed in the sustainability test ( C h a p t e r 31). S o m e t i m e s you may have to let a situation d e t e r i o r a t e because t h e action you plan to take to rectify it w o u l d b e blocked by h u m a n attitudes and beliefs. T h e weak link test ( C h a p t e r 27) a n d t h e society and culture test ( C h a p t e r 32) address these possibilities.

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Summary In general, the cause and effect test dictates that you n o t i m p l e m e n t a d e c i sion unless you feel sure that it addresses t h e cause of the p r o b l e m , rather than a s y m p t o m . In an e m e r g e n c y you m a y p r o c e e d , but only in full k n o w l e d g e of t h e dangers a n d only to b u y t i m e to rectify the cause. It can be a r g u e d that it is sensible at times to r e m o v e a cause and treat t h e s y m p t o m simultaneously. B e wary, t h o u g h , because in practice this o f t e n results in d r a i n i n g resources f r o m t h e most efficient action, a n d r e p resents n o t effective policy, but a response to advertising or to p e e r or p o l i t ical pressure. F r o m years of practice I have f o u n d it wisest to r e m o v e the cause first and see w h a t happens. M o s t o f t e n the s y m p t o m disappears at n o additional cost. W h e n p e r f o r m i n g the cause and effect test, also bear these p o i n t s in mind: •

G o to this test first, w h e n you are dealing with a problem.

•

W h e n dealing with a resource m a n a g e m e n t problem, look first to the four ecosystem processes for answers. H o w m a n a g e m e n t tools have been applied in the past will be reflected in the condition of the ecosystem processes and give clues to the cause of your current problem.

•

If a problem is related to h u m a n behavior, first search for the cause in organization, management, and leadership style.

•

If the problem persists or returns, you have not addressed the cause.

R e m e m b e r that Holistic M a n a g e m e n t takes a totally different a p p r o a c h to decision m a k i n g . In c o n v e n t i o n a l m a n a g e m e n t , " g e t t i n g rid o f t h e w e e d s " w o u l d be the goal. In Holistic M a n a g e m e n t , " p r o d u c i n g prosperous p e o ple o n healthy land that is so rich in its diversity of plant and animal life that t h e weeds cease to be a p r o b l e m " w o u l d be t h e comparable, b u t holistic, goal. O n c e you realize that t h e w e e d s are an "effect," that is, they are s y m p t o m a t i c of a d e e p e r p r o b l e m , you c h a n g e y o u r plans. R a t h e r than l o o k i n g for o t h e r ways to destroy the weeds, y o u n o w l o o k for ways to increase c o m p l e x i t y a n d diversity in t h e c o m m u n i t y so the weeds b e c o m e m i n o r players. R e m e m b e r that t h e cause and effect test is only o n e in a series of seven and that t h e testing itself is only o n e aspect of a process that e v e n t u ally gets y o u b e y o n d y o u r p r o b l e m s .

27 Weak Link: The Strength of a Chain Is That of Its Weakest Link

chain stretched to b r e a k i n g will, by d e f i n i t i o n , fail at t h e weakest link. At any m o m e n t in t i m e every chain has one, and only one, weakest link that alone a c c o u n t s f o r the strength of t h e entire chain, regardless h o w strong o t h e r links m i g h t be. To s t r e n g t h e n a chain w h e n resources are limited, o n e m u s t always a t t e n d first to t h e weakest link. O t h e r links, n o m a t t e r h o w frail they appear, are n o n p r o b l e m s until t h e weakest link is first fixed. If $ 1 0 0 w o u l d c o r r e c t t h e weakest link, and w e spent $ 2 0 0 to m a k e sure, w e w o u l d have theoretically s q u a n d e r e d $100, because after the first $ 1 0 0 repair, t h e chain had a different weakest link o n w h i c h t h e s e c o n d $ 1 0 0 should have b e e n spent. T h e u n d e t e c t e d w e a k link can cause m i g h t y u n d e r t a k i n g s to fail o u t right or to suffer c o n t i n u a l setbacks. T h u s , w e have a test that c o m p e l s us to c h e c k o u r actions to ensure they address t h e link that is weakest at any m o m e n t . T h e test applies in three different contexts: social, biological, a n d financial. T h e questions y o u ask are: •

Social: C o u l d this action, because of prevailing attitudes or beliefs, create a weak link in the chain of actions leading toward our holistic goal?

•

Biological: Does this action address the weakest link in the life-cycle of this organism?

•

Financial: Does this action strengthen the weakest link in the chain of production?

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The Social Weak Link C o n s i d e r t h e q u e s t i o n : Could create a weak

link

in the chain

this action, because of prevailing of actions

leading

toward

attitudes

our holistic

or beliefs,

goal?

You, and t h e f u t u r e y o u envision in y o u r holistic goal, are linked by a chain m a d e u p of all t h e actions y o u will take to get there. W h a t y o u are asking in this test is w h e t h e r t h e decision y o u are m a k i n g n o w is likely to o f f e n d o r c o n f u s e p e o p l e w h o s e s u p p o r t y o u will n e e d , in the near o r distant f u t u r e , to achieve y o u r holistic goal. A n y action that runs c o u n t e r to prevailing attitudes a n d beliefs is likely to m e e t w i t h resistance, creating a b l o c k a g e that, if n o t addressed, will at s o m e p o i n t b e c o m e t h e weakest link standing b e t w e e n y o u and t h e a c h i e v e m e n t of y o u r holistic goal. T h e C e n t e r for Holistic M a n a g e m e n t struck j u s t such a situation o n a piece of land w e o w n and m a n a g e as a l e a r n i n g site in Z i m b a b w e . W h e n w e t o o k it over, the land was d e t e r i o r a t i n g because for m a n y years it had b e e n overrested and f r e q u e n t l y b u r n e d . T h o r n bush had invaded o p e n grassland a n d m u c h of the g r o u n d was bare. T h e o n c e perennially f l o w i n g river that rose o n the p r o p e r t y had n o w b e c o m e an i n t e r m i t t e n t s t r e a m , a n d t h e p o p u l a t i o n s of e l e p h a n t , b u f f a l o , sable, zebra, lion, c h e e t a h , w a t e r b u c k , and so o n , h a d gradually declined. To p r o d u c e t h e f u t u r e landscape described in o u r holistic goal, w e realized w e w o u l d n e e d to use animal i m p a c t and g r a z i n g to b e g i n h e a l i n g t h e land a n d that w e w o u l d need to use cattle to provide it. T h e w i l d life p o p u l a t i o n s w e r e n o t sufficiently large to d o so, n o r f u n c t i o n i n g n a t u rally. H o w e v e r , w e also k n e w that a decision to b r i n g cattle i n t o an area recently designated for wildlife w o u l d a n g e r s o m e m e m b e r s of the public a n d likely be c o n d e m n e d by g o v e r n m e n t wildlifers because of prevailing beliefs. T h u s , in realizing that t h e only way f o r w a r d w o u l d create a w e a k link (hostile attitudes) w e t o o k t h e holistically c o r r e c t decision to let the land c o n t i n u e to d e t e r i o r a t e and t h e wildlife c o n t i n u e to decline w h i l e w e w o r k e d to o v e r c o m e i g n o r a n c e and prejudice. H a d w e d o n e o t h e r w i s e , o u r efforts w o u l d have b e e n set back m a n y years by lawsuits and bureaucratic wrangling. W h e n y o u suspect that t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of a decision is likely to result in a reaction that blocks f u r t h e r progress, y o u will fail the w e a k link test i f y o u r decision does n o t also include a plan for dealing w i t h t h e b l o c k age. A n o u n c e of p r e v e n t i o n is m o r e than w o r t h t h e p o u n d s of cure it w o u l d take to u n d o t h e p r o b l e m s associated w i t h t h e e n s u i n g conflict. If there are n o foreseeable obstacles in i m p l e m e n t i n g the action, y o u of c o u r s e pass this test.

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I TESTING YOUR DECISIONS

The Biological Weak Link C o n s i d e r t h e q u e s t i o n : Does of this

this action address

the weakest

link in the

life-cycle

organism?

In t h e biological c o n t e x t t h e w e a k link test applies w h e n you are dealing w i t h p o p u l a t i o n s of plant o r animal organisms that have b e c o m e a p r o b l e m , either because they are t o o m a n y or t o o f e w in n u m b e r : the p a r asites infesting the farmer's sheep, the loco w e e d that invades the range, the water hyacinths that c h o k e t h e hydroelectric plant, the c o c k r o a c h e s that infest t h e k i t c h e n , the rare aloe that needs p r o t e c t i o n , or t h e tortoise or owl t h r e a t e n e d by e x t i n c t i o n . W h e t h e r w e see these organisms as f r i e n d o r foe, the same q u e s t i o n is asked and t h e same logic used. B e f o r e any action is taken to increase o r decrease their n u m b e r s , w e n e e d first to ensure that it addresses the weakest h n k in the organism's life cycle. In d o i n g so, w e are likely to m a x i m i z e the effectiveness of t h e t r e a t m e n t a n d to ensure t h e results will be lasting. E v e r y organism in its life cycle has a p o i n t of greatest vulnerability, a weakest link. R e c o g n i z e this, and you have a g o o d c h a n c e of i n e x p e n s i v e ly and effectively increasing or decreasing t h e ability of that species to recruit n e w m e m b e r s to its p o p u l a t i o n . W h e n the tool o r action addresses that w e a k link, it passes this test. F i n d i n g the w e a k link in t h e life cycle of any o r g a n i s m can be a challenge. S o m e t i m e s the answer is fairly obvious, o t h e r times it will require s o m e research. N a t u r e o f t e n provides clues that can help because all plants and animals have d e v e l o p e d ways to r e d u c e their vulnerability. M o s t plants, for instance, are m o s t vulnerable d u r i n g their initial establishment w h e n the seed has g e r m i n a t e d and r o o t a n d leaf m u s t find sustaining c o n d i t i o n s in a limited time. If seeds, o n c e sprouted, d o n o t e n c o u n t e r the r i g h t soil, moisture, t e m p e r a t u r e , and sunlight for l o n g e n o u g h to establish, they will n o t survive. Plants are able to o v e r c o m e this vulnerability to s o m e e x t e n t by t h e sheer n u m b e r of seeds they p r o d u c e and the ability of those seeds to survive in t h e soil f o r m a n y years awaiting the right c o n d i t i o n s . Insects and a m p h i b i a n s that p r o d u c e a mass of eggs, w o u l d appear to be m o s t vulnerable w h i l e still in t h e egg or larval stages. M a m m a l s , such as lions or dogs, that p r o d u c e several y o u n g at o n c e w o u l d appear to b e m o s t vulnerable b e t w e e n b i r t h and y o u n g a d u l t h o o d . M a m m a l s that p r o d u c e only o n e or t w o y o u n g at a time, such as h u m a n s , b u t remain fertile and sexually active t h r o u g h o u t the year, w o u l d appear to be m o s t vulnerable f r o m c o n c e p t i o n t h r o u g h infancy. W i t h s o m e animal p o p u l a t i o n s , careful observation should tell y o u fairly quickly at w h a t stage they are m o s t vulnerable. If you have a p o p u l a t i o n o f antelope, for instance, w h o s e n u m b e r s you w a n t to increase, y o u m i g h t observe that m a n y fawns are b e i n g b o r n , b u t that very f e w are surviving to

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a d u l t h o o d . T h u s , if t h e decision you p l a n n e d to take was to purchase m o r e adults and to release t h e m o n y o u r property, it w o u l d n o t pass this test.You first n e e d to address w h y so f e w fawns are surviving, because that is t h e weakest link in their life c y c l e — f r o m f a w n i n g to y o u n g a d u l t h o o d . A n y action that e n h a n c e d f a w n survival, such as t h e provision of m o r e cover, if cover was lacking, would pass this test. Far t o o o f t e n w e m a k e the mistake of c o n c e n t r a t i n g o n t h e adult m e m bers of the species w h e n t h e adult stage of t h e life cycle is rarely the p o i n t of greatest vulnerability. T h u s , w h i l e w e bulldoze m a t u r e b r u s h or p o i s o n well-established weeds w e are creating favorable c o n d i t i o n s for millions of their seeds to g e r m i n a t e a n d establish. S o m e t i m e s w e use expensive a n d d a n g e r o u s poisons to attack m a t u r e insect pests a n d u n w i t t i n g l y select for new, unscathed, and poison-resistant replacements. It is m o r e sensible and m o r e e c o n o m i c a l to address t h e invading brush, weeds, o r insect pests by c h a n g i n g t h e e n v i r o n m e n t that has b e c o m e so favorable to their establishm e n t . H o w will the tools available—rest, fire, grazing, animal i m p a c t , living organisms, a n d t e c h n o l o g y — a f f e c t t h e f o u r ecosystem processes relative to that organism's needs at its m o s t vulnerable stage? As m e n t i o n e d in C h a p t e r 26, b r u s h establishes easily w h e r e seedling tap roots can take h o l d — o n grasslands that have b e e n overrested. M a n y forbs establish u n d e r t h e same conditions, a l t h o u g h they t e n d to o c c u r m o r e a m o n g grasses w h o s e fibrous roots have b e e n w e a k e n e d by overgrazing. A n i m a l i m p a c t and grazing, carefully p l a n n e d to avoid overgrazing, will help t o invigorate grass roots, w h i l e creating c o n d i t i o n s m o r e favorable for h i g h e r successional grass seedlings, and will gradually decrease t h e success rate f o r b o t h types of t a p - r o o t e d invaders. M a n y insects flourish in sites w h e r e eggs are g u a r a n t e e d a high rate of s u r v i v a l — o n bare g r o u n d o r o n specific plants (made all the m o r e attractive w h e n a great n u m b e r of t h e same plants are present, as in a m o n o c u l ture). A n i m a l i m p a c t can be used to help to cover bare g r o u n d t h r o u g h t r a m p l i n g d o w n o l d - s t a n d i n g plant material, b r e a k i n g t h e capping, and c o m p a c t i n g the soil to provide seed-to-soil c o n t a c t , so n e w plants can grow. Living organisms can b e enlisted—increased variety of crops, h e d g e r o w s , t r e e - b e l t s — t o increase the diversity of plants o n croplands. U n d e r s t a n d i n g this c o n c e p t enables us at m i n i m a l cost to m a n a g e and c o n t r o l undesirable species and o f t e n leads to surprisingly simple ways to supplant destructive practices. M y family o n c e had t o d r a w w a t e r f r o m an i r r i g a t i o n canal infested w i t h parasites that cause bilharzia, a m a j o r scourge of Africa that leads to paralysis a n d even d e a t h in h u m a n s . Naturally, I did n o t w a n t m y family o r m y f a r m h a n d s and their families to b e c o m e infested. T h e g o v e r n m e n t researchers r e c o m m e n d e d a d d i n g c o p p e r sulphate to t h e water, b u t I rejected that idea because I was n o t sure at w h i c h stage the parasite was m o s t vulnerable. W h i l e d o i n g s o m e research to find t h e weak

281) PART V I

I

TESTING YOUR DECISIONS

link, a solution offered itself. I f o u n d that t h e parasite h a d to find a h u m a n host w i t h i n t w e n t y - f o u r h o u r s after leaving t h e host snail that carried it. So all I had to d o was to ensure that the delay in f i n d i n g a h u m a n host was longer than the parasite could survive. By k e e p i n g o u r w a t e r in a h o l d i n g tank f o r f o r t y - e i g h t h o u r s b e f o r e letting it into o u r m a i n cistern, w e i m b i b e d only parasites that had suffered a natural death, and n o chemicals. If y o u have n o t identified t h e weak link in t h e organism's life cycle by the time you are ready to test a decision, this test will alert you to the n e e d to d o so.You will have to take the time to find o u t w h e r e that w e a k link is, either t h r o u g h y o u r o w n observations, reading u p o n the basic biology of the organism, or seeking the help of a local e x t e n s i o n agent o r o t h e r advisor. O n c e you have y o u r answer, you should k n o w w h e t h e r or n o t the p r o p o s e d action treats t h e organism at its m o s t vulnerable stage. If it does not, y o u r research may suggest an alternative action, as m y research did, that is likely to pass.

The Financial Weak Link C o n s i d e r t h e q u e s t i o n : Does this action strengthen the weakest link in the chain of production ? E a c h year in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h Holistic Financial P l a n n i n g ( C h a p t e r 44) you n e e d to identify the w e a k link in the chain of p r o d u c t i o n that stretches f r o m t h e raw resources you w o r k w i t h to t h e m o n e y y o u receive f o r t h e p r o d u c t s p r o d u c e d . T h i s chain has three links to w h i c h h u m a n creativity is applied: resource conversion; p r o d u c t conversion; and m a r k e t i n g (or m o n e y conversion), as s h o w n in figure 2 7 - 1 . T h e first link, resource conversation, involves t h e use of h u m a n creativity and m o n e y to convert resources that differ slightly d e p e n d i n g o n t h e type of business o r enterprise, of w h i c h there are t w o broad categories: 1. Sunlight harvesters. This first category includes those businesses whose primary production is based on the conversion of sunlight energy (through plants) to a salable or consumable product, such as food, fiber, lumber, or wildlife.The m o n e y their efforts reap represents solar dollars, as long as soils are not damaged in the process, and is the only f o r m of wealth that can feed people. Thus, w h a t they do is f u n d a mental to our civilization's l o n g - t e r m survival. 2. Resource enhancers. T h e second category includes businesses that are one step removed from the sunlight-conversion business, such as a shoe store, bakery, or accounting firm. (This would include, incidentally, pig and poultry producers or any others w h o buy, rather than grow, their o w n feed.) T h e i r primary production is based on the c o n version of raw materials and energy to a salable product (goods or

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Resource Conversion

Product Conversion

Sunlight a n d / o r raw resources, including money

Products and/or services

289

Marketing ( M o n e y Conversion)

Marketing

of products and/or services

F i g u r e 27-1 The chain oj production. Human creativity first needs to utilize money and raw resources (including sunlight) to create a product or service. Then the product or service needs to he perfected and finally marketed to produce money. The chain is only as strong as its weakest link.

services). T h e money their efforts reap represents mineral or paper dollars. What they produce enhances human civilization and improves the quality of life, but cannot sustain a civilization.

In the product conversion link, the sunlight harvesters t u r n the plants g r o w n in the first link into a marketable f o r m , such as crops for humans, and fodder for livestock, wildlife, or fish. T h e resource enhancers convert the resources in their first link into a plethora of goods, services, or m a r ketable skills. In the marketing (or money conversion) link the products or services of the second link are marketed and m o n e y is finally derived f r o m the sunlight captured, or the raw materials and energy utilized, in the first link. Obviously, w h e n e v e r strengthening the chain of p r o d u c t i o n requires money, and profit is included in your holistic goal, the proposed investm e n t s should pass the weak link test. N o a m o u n t of m o n e y invested in advertising (marketing link), for example, will profit a business that turns o u t a p o o r product (product conversion link). O n l y investment in the weak link will result in m o r e profit at the end. In practice, we normally d e t e r m i n e the weak link for each enterprise or line of goods or services for sale immediately p r i o r to financial planning. S o m e businesses will have only o n e enterprise, such as the rancher w h o runs a yearling operation or the professional i n c o m e tax preparer, but m a n y businesses will have several. In this case, each enterprise will have one link in its chain of p r o d u c t i o n that is weakest at any m o m e n t . And that enterprise will be only as strong as that weakest link. T h e aim of Holistic Financial Planning is to keep constantly strengthe n i n g the chain of p r o d u c t i o n . Obviously, the entire year's b u d g e t cannot be spent on the o n e link that is weakest in any given year, but until m o n e y

281)

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has b e e n allocated to actions that d o strengthen this link, o t h e r actions will fail this test. L e t s l o o k at the three links in m o r e detail, a c c o r d i n g to the type of business.

The Sunlight

Harvesters

T h e aim of these businesses should be to p r o d u c e the m a x i m u m they can in solar dollars. B e c a u s e soil and w a t e r are used to g r o w plants, s o m e of t h e m o n e y they receive in t h e e n d will represent mineral dollars. Solar e n e r g y is an u n l i m i t e d resource, but soil a n d w a t e r are f i n i t e . T h u s , to reflect a t r u e profit, o n e that is socially, environmentally, a n d e c o n o m i c a l l y s o u n d , b o t h soil and w a t e r m u s t be e n h a n c e d o r used in a n o n c o n s u m p t i v e m a n n e r to p r o d u c e solar dollars. If soil is destroyed rather than e n h a n c e d or w a t e r p o l luted or depleted in t h e process, the results w o u l d n o t b e g e n u i n e l y p r o f itable. N o r w o u l d they be if you e x p e n d e d vast a m o u n t s of p e t r o c h e m i c a l e n e r g y (solar e n e r g y stored in t h e past), tied up in fuel, fertilizers, and p e s ticides, to capture less solar e n e r g y today. T h e plants, f r o m algae to trees, that c o n v e r t solar e n e r g y in the first fink can themselves b e c o m e potentially marketable products (vegetables, c o t t o n fiber, logs) w i t h o u t u n d e r g o i n g f u r t h e r conversion. H a y sold f r o m t h e field, for e x a m p l e , will hardly u n d e r g o m u c h p r o d u c t conversion c o m p a r e d to frozen o r a n g e j u i c e . Plants can also be c o n v e r t e d to m e a t , w o o l , and hides w h e n c o n s u m e d by livestock and wildlife. A n d in s o m e cases the plants o r the animals d e p e n d e n t o n t h e plants can be m a r k e t e d in a n o n c o n s u m p tive m a n n e r (scenery for tourists, hikers, and others; h o u r s of fly fishing o r b i r d w a t c h i n g , and so on). In t h e m a r k e t i n g link, w e c o n s i d e r e v e r y t h i n g involved in selling t h e p r o d u c t and g e t t i n g it to t h e c u s t o m e r , such as p r i c ing, p r o m o t i o n , and transportation. It is generally n o t difficult to d e t e r m i n e w h i c h of t h e three links is weakest in each enterprise. If you are a f a r m e r , you w o u l d n o t p u t m o n e y into g r o w i n g a bigger crop of potatoes, either by increasing acreage o r nutrients, if y o u c o u l d n o t m a r k e t t h e potatoes y o u already p r o d u c e or if you could increase t h e price t h r o u g h b e t t e r m a r k e t i n g . You w o u l d n o t invest in a bigger and b e t t e r harvester if y o u r average yield does n o t j u s t i fy it, a n d so o n . M u c h of this is c o m m o n sense, and a cautious, sensible f a r m e r makes these j u d g m e n t s w i t h o u t even t h i n k i n g in terms o f t h e chain. In a r a n c h i n g c o n t e x t weakness in the resource conversion link shows u p as a shortage of forage f o r livestock a n d / o r wildlife. In f a r m i n g p o o r crop yields naturally indicate p o o r solar e n e r g y conversion, b u t in this era of m e c h a n i z e d , c h e m i c a l agriculture, e x o r b i t a n t i n p u t costs are a m o r e c o m m o n , b u t less obvious, s y m p t o m . O n c e the f a r m e r sees resource c o n version as t h e w e a k link, h e can b e g i n to decrease t h e a m o u n t of h a r d -

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e a r n e d solar dollars he invests in fossil e n e r g y inputs that d o w h a t a healthy soil c o m m u n i t y does for free. Weakness in the p r o d u c t conversion link b e c o m e s evident to the r a n c h er w h e n his animals are t o o f e w and unable to utilize a g o o d share of the available forage. T h e f a r m e r detects it w h e n he p r o d u c e s a solar energy crop, o n e that requires m i n i m a l fossil e n e r g y inputs, b u t c a n n o t m a r k e t his crop well because of an inability to harvest it completely.

The Resource

Enhancers

T h e a i m of r e s o u r c e - e n h a n c i n g businesses should be to p r o d u c e mineral o r p a p e r dollars as efficiently as possible.The raw materials in their resource conversion link i n c l u d e any n u m b e r of things: l u m b e r for f u r n i t u r e ; m i n erals, m i n e d o r refined; c r u d e oil, for p r o d u c t i o n of plastics and o t h e r p r o d ucts; foodstuffs, for p r o d u c t i o n of baked goods; fibers, for c o t t o n clothing; a n d so o n . In m o s t businesses t h e raw materials have t o b e c o m b i n e d w i t h h u m a n creativity, energy, and capital to develop a p r o d u c t w i t h sales p o t e n tial. In s o m e c o m p a n i e s , h u m a n skills a n d m o n e y are the only resources available, as in c o m p a n i e s that sell services, such as a c c o u n t i n g o r legal advice, ideas, e n t e r t a i n m e n t , and so o n , rather than tangible goods. In t h e p r o d u c t conversion link, businesses that p r o d u c e a tangible p r o d uct, such as m a n u f a c t u r e d goods, are c o n s i d e r i n g e v e r y t h i n g related to its p r o d u c t i o n , f r o m c h o o s i n g a p r o d u c t and its design, to the m a n u f a c t u r i n g process involved in m a k i n g t h e p r o d u c t . T h i s , of course, i m p i n g e s closely o n the resource conversion link w h e r e creativity is used to c o m e u p w i t h p r o d u c t ideas. In the m a r k e t i n g link, these businesses w o u l d m a r k e t those p r o d u c t s to finally derive m o n e y f r o m the resources utilized in the first link. Businesses that provide a service rather than a p r o d u c t w o u l d be using their h u m a n creativity to c o n v e r t the k n o w l e d g e a n d skills in their resource conversion link into t h e services they p r o v i d e — t h e i r p r o d u c t l i n k . T h e n they, too, w o u l d m a r k e t those services to derive m o n e y f r o m t h e resources utilized in the first link. H e r e again, finding the w e a k link is o f t e n fairly easy to do.You w o u l d n o t p u t m o n e y i n t o p r o d u c i n g m o r e g o o d s if you c a n n o t sell w h a t you already p r o d u c e or if you c o u l d increase t h e p r i c e of the g o o d s t h r o u g h b e t t e r m a r k e t i n g . In s o m e businesses the resource conversion link shows a weakness w h e n a n e w e n t e r p r i s e lacks sufficient capital to get u p a n d r u n n i n g , o r lacks p e o p l e w i t h the skills n e e d e d to design the p r o d u c t e n v i sioned. W h e n p r o d u c t sales d r o p off, t h e p r o d u c t conversion link w o u l d n e e d a t t e n t i o n if t h e p r o d u c t was faulty o r n e e d e d an u p g r a d e . T h e m a r k e t i n g link w o u l d n e e d a t t e n t i o n if the p r o b l e m was p o o r p r o m o t i o n or unreliable transport.

3'20 PART V I

At the Personal

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TESTING YOUR DECISIONS

Level

This t h i n k i n g w o u l d also apply o n a personal level. Individuals w o r k i n g for a salary, for example, w o u l d be using their h u m a n creativity, time, and m o n e y to gain k n o w l e d g e and skills to i m p r o v e themselves (their p r o d u c t link) and m a r k e t i n g their abilities to derive m o n e y f r o m t h e resources u t i lized in their first l i n k . T h e y m i g h t n e e d to address t h e resource conversion link if they lacked skills, or t h e p r o d u c t link if, despite h i g h skills, their attit u d e m a d e t h e m u n e m p l o y a b l e . T h e y w o u l d have to m a r k e t themselves better to get a raise or m o v e to a n e w j o b .

In All

Businesses

In virtually every k i n d o f business, t h e p r o d u c t conversion and m a r k e t i n g links are closely related. M a r k e t i n g is usually t h e weak link w h e n t h e p r o d u c e r fails to m e e t the needs of his or h e r m a r k e t , such as the m a n u f a c turer w h o c o n t i n u e s to build c h r o m e and h o r s e p o w e r into a u t o m o b i l e s w h e n c o n s u m e r s w a n t durability and fuel e c o n o m y o r t h e cattle r a n c h e r w h o raises fatty, chemically tainted b e e f w h e n buyers w a n t it lean a n d clean. M a r k e t i n g is also t h e w e a k link w h e n e v e r available markets r e m a i n u n t a p p e d because they are n o t researched, because the p r o d u c t is p o o r l y presented or badly p r o m o t e d , o r because the supply is erratic o r o u t of synch w i t h peak d e m a n d . O n e f a r m e r I k n e w did exceptionally well year after year in a m a r k e t w h e r e o t h e r o n i o n f a r m e r s continually failed. H e m e r e l y p e r f e c t e d his storage system and released his crop w h e n e v e r s u p plies ran low in t h e local m a r k e t . T h e r e will always b e gray areas w h e r e you are n o t q u i t e sure w h i c h link applies. Is t h e bruised fruit y o u are trying to m a r k e t a p r o d u c t i o n p r o b l e m (product conversion link) o r a transport p r o b l e m (marketing link)? In the e n d it really does n o t m a t t e r as l o n g as you detect it and address it. T h e p o w e r in this test is that it asks y o u to focus o n the chain of p r o d u c t i o n as a w h o l e , and only t h e n to d e t e r m i n e w h e r e y o u r m o n e y is n e e d e d m o s t in any o n e year. The products you finally sell are not responsible for your profit: how you reinvest your money in the chain of production each year is. In an earlier e x a m p l e I talked o f m i s s p e n d i n g exactly $100, but real life n e v e r allows that kind of accuracy. B e i n g consistently r i g h t w i t h the vast m a j o r i t y of y o u r dollars is w h a t matters. R e m e m b e r , however, that o n c e the w e a k link has b e e n discovered, it has to be dealt w i t h . It is n o t merely desirable or i m p o r t a n t to d o so. O n c e you have identified t h e weak link, you l o o k at all t h e possible actions y o u c o u l d take that w o u l d s t r e n g t h e n that particular w e a k link r i g h t away. W h e n allocating f u n d s f o r expenses, these actions will receive

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p r i o r i t y if they have also passed the r e m a i n i n g tests, because they will g e n erate the m o s t revenue. H o w e v e r , f u n d s are o f t e n limited, so you will n o t be able to allocate dollars to every action that addresses the w e a k link, but will have to c h o o s e a m o n g t h e m . T h e m a r g i n a l reaction test, covered in the n e x t chapter, helps you to select the action (or actions) that p r o v i d e the greatest r e t u r n in t e r m s of y o u r holistic goal for t h e m o n e y and effort spent.

28 Marginal Reaction: Getting the Biggest Bang for Your Buck

h e marginal reaction test ensures that y o u r c o m m i t m e n t of time, effort, a n d m o n e y provides the m a x i m u m possible thrust toward y o u r holistic goal at any m o m e n t . It thus parallels and w o r k s in close c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e w e a k link and cause and effect tests, b u t also differs in significant ways. T h e return,

in terms

question you

of our holistic

goal, for

a s k is: Which the time

and

action money

provides

the

greatest

spent?

M a n y p e o p l e s u m m a r i z e t h e marginal reaction test w i t h t h e phrase " g e t t i n g the biggest b a n g for y o u r buck," and t h e e x a m p l e generally used to illustrate t h e principle involves j u s t that. T h i s test, however, s h o u l d b e c o m e o n e that w e apply continually in m a n y less tangible situations, i n c l u d i n g the m u n d a n e d i l e m m a s of everyday life that c o n s u m e so m u c h of o u r time. I d o n o t k n o w o f any m a n a g e m e n t situation right d o w n to the family b u d g e t or t h e p l a n n i n g of y o u r personal time, w h e r e t h e marginal reaction test w o u l d n o t b e of great b e n e f i t . G o v e r n m e n t s are n o t o r i o u s for their lack of use of such a principle, w h i c h reflects in u n b a l a n c e d b u d g e t s a n d wasted effort. In applying t h e test you are essentially asking yourself w h i c h of t w o o r m o r e actions will result in each additional dollar or hour of labor b e i n g invested w h e r e it provides t h e highest r e t u r n in t e r m s of y o u r holistic goal. N o t w o actions can possibly give y o u t h e same r e t u r n for each unit of effort ( m o n e y or time) invested at that m o m e n t . T h u s , w h e n resources are l i m i t ed you w a n t to select t h e o n e f r o m w h i c h y o u gain t h e m o s t . In d o i n g so you will e n d u p s p e n d i n g less t i m e o r m o n e y and achieve w h a t y o u w a n t m o r e quickly. T h e f o l l o w i n g hypothetical e x a m p l e illustrates this principle in dollars a n d cents. 294

28

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295

Suppose you have $20,000 and must invest it in two banks u n d e r a peculiar set of rules. You may only o p e n o n e account in each bank, and the interest earned o n each additional deposit declines. B a n k A pays 5 percent o n the first $5,000 but on each additional $1,000 they give you 1 percent less (i.e., extra deposits up to $6,000 pay only 4 percent, the next $1,000 brings only 3 percent). Bank B pays 4.5 percent o n the first $7,000, but the rate declines 0.75 percent o n each additional $1,000. In practice such rules would discourage saving, but you can get the best possible yield f r o m your capital only by following the marginal reaction test. T h i n k a b o u t it and t h e n look at figure 2 8 - 1 to see h o w the investment w o u l d take place. As you discover, you w i n d up investing $9,000 in B a n k A and $11,000 in B a n k B. N o o t h e r c o m b i n a t i o n except o p e n i n g f o u r accounts in B a n k A — a violation of the rules—will yield m o r e interest. Figure 2 8 - 1 was w o r k e d o u t by taking each dollar and asking w h e r e it w o u l d earn the h i g h est interest.The first 5,000 dollars earned 5 percent in B a n k A, but B a n k A w o u l d pay only 4 percent o n the very next dollar instead of the 4.5 p e r cent offered by B a n k B . T h e next $7,000 w o u l d thus go to Bank B, but the $1,000 after that w o u l d go to B a n k A because its 4 percent n o w beats B a n k

Bank A

Bank B

Interest

Balance

Interest Earned

5,000

-

5.00

15,000

250.00

4.50

8,000

315.00

4.00

7,000

40.00

7,000

-

1,000

-

-

1,000 -

1,000

9,000

F i g u r e 28-1

1,000

3.75

6,000

37.50

1,000

3.00

4,000

60.00

1,000

2.25

3,000

22.50

2.00

2,000

20.00

1.25

1,000

12.50

1.00

0

10.00

-

1,000

-

1,000

%

—

1

1 11,000

The investment

1

20,000

-

of $20,000

I

542.50

in Bank A and Bank B illustrates the

principle of marginal reaction per dollar invested. If you took each dollar and asked where it would earn the highest interest, the first $5,000 dollar, in fact the next 51,000 A, and so on.

would go to Bank A, but the very next

would go to Bank B.The

next $1,000

would go to Bank

3'20 PART V I

I

TESTING Y O U R DECISIONS

B's 3 . 7 5 p e r c e n t . Similar t h i n k i n g for each of t h e r e m a i n i n g $ 1 , 0 0 0 deposits d e t e r m i n e s t h e final o u t c o m e . S u c h neat examples rarely o c c u r in m a n a g e m e n t , b u t t h e real-life situations that w e c a n n o t q u a n t i f y are n o less real.

Marginal Reaction per Dollar Invested T h i s test s h o u l d b e used any t i m e e x p e n d i t u r e s are to b e m a d e a n d there are alternatives to c h o o s e f r o m . In practice, this will m o s t o f t e n o c c u r in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h holistic financial p l a n n i n g . B u t e m e r g e n c i e s d o arise and m o n e y may have to b e allocated to address t h e m . If y o u r o n e a n d only delivery van throws a rod t h r o u g h t h e e n g i n e block, for instance, you have to take action r i g h t away. T h e r e are three alternatives you m i g h t consider: rebuild t h e e n g i n e , b u y a s e c o n d - h a n d , l o w - m i l e a g e van, o r b u y a n e w van. A s s u m i n g each of t h e alternatives passes m o s t of t h e o t h e r tests, t h e m a r ginal reaction test is likely to clinch y o u r decision. Several factors w o u l d i n f l u e n c e y o u r c o m p a r i s o n : t h e actual costs associated w i t h each alternative, t h e lifespan of t h e rebuilt engine, or t h e used o r n e w van, t h e t i m e each alternative will take to i m p l e m e n t , a n d h o w that will affect y o u r ability to get the deliveries m a d e , a n d so o n . W h i c h e v e r alternative provides the greatest r e t u r n , in terms of y o u r hohstic goal, is t h e o n e y o u should select. In Holistic Financial P l a n n i n g this test is used in t w o ways. Initially it will help y o u to prioritize t h e actions to be taken that address t h e weak link in y o u r chain of p r o d u c t i o n , as m e n t i o n e d in C h a p t e r 27. E a c h action will provide a different marginal reaction. T h o s e that provide the highest will get t h e m o s t m o n e y allocated to t h e m . S o m e may b e d r o p p e d altogether because f u n d s are limited and they c a n n o t e a r n , dollar f o r d o l lar, w h a t o t h e r actions w o u l d . O n c e you have allocated m o n e y to those actions that address y o u r weak link this year and provide t h e highest m a r g i n a l reaction, y o u allocate w h a t is left to t h e m a n y items that require m o n e y to keep t h e business g o i n g — y o u r m a i n t e n a n c e expenses. H e r e , you use t h e marginal reaction test again to see if m o n e y can be shaved f r o m each o f y o u r m a i n t e n a n c e items and a d d e d to those p r i o r i t y actions. E v e r y dollar you can pull off a m a i n t e n a n c e expense, as l o n g as y o u d o n o t get to t h e p o i n t w h e r e m a n a g e m e n t is impaired, will earn you m o r e spent o n t h e p r i o r i t y expenses because these expenses actually g e n e r a t e i n c o m e , w h i l e m a i n t e n a n c e expenses never do. Let m e use a f e w examples to illustrate these p o i n t s . B e f o r e I do, I should r e m i n d y o u that this test, in m o s t instances, never does boil d o w n to the simplicity of the B a n k A / B a n k B case. M a n y times y o u c a n n o t p r o d u c e quantifiable figures, and y o u r j u d g m e n t will be highly s u b j e c tive. T h a t b e i n g the case, y o u r answer to this test q u e s t i o n will be only as

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good as your knowledge, c o m m o n sense, and determination to achieve your hohstic goal.Yet again, another reason to have a clearly defined holistic goal.

Prioritizing

Actions

Suppose you were creating a financial plan for the bakery you manage as a family business. A m o n t h or so before, you had determined that marketing was your weak link this year. Sales had fallen off in the previous six months while, to the best of your knowledge, the quality of your products had been maintained. In discussing the various actions you could take to address the marketing link, two appear most promising, enhancing your advertising program and engaging a student from the local business college to conduct a customer survey. Redesigning and enlarging the ad you r u n in the local paper and running it more frequently will cost $3,000.The survey will cost somewhere between $500 and $1,000. Either action is likely to address the falloffin sales, but you n o w use the marginal reaction test to see w h i c h one should receive priority in the allocation of funds.You find it difficult indeed to quantify the return from each alternative but after some discussion you realize that knowing why customers have deserted you might enable you to bring t h e m back and attract new customers as well and that it could also influence the content of your advertising. This discussion and your own intuition convince you that you will gain more per dollar from the survey. Increasing your advertising b u d get does not make m u c h sense now, and for the time being you won't allocate additional dollars to it. If the survey indicates a need, you might adjust your plan later and add this expense. Let's say that the survey is done, and you learn that the falloffin sales was largely due to the temporary assistant you hired while some family members were away on vacation. At the counter, he had been rude and unhelpful to a n u m b e r of customers and he had also neglected to fill several h o m e delivery orders. Customers c o m plained among themselves, rather than to you, so you were not aware of the problem. This example illustrates the parallels between this test and the weak link and cause and effect tests. Had this family noted the drop in sales earlier on, they could have diagnosed the cause of their problem then and addressed it sooner. Even so, they would still have used the marginal reaction test to help them to choose a m o n g the alternative actions they could take to address the cause.

Shaving Maintenance

Expenses

You are part of a team managing a garden furniture store that is shortly to open for business. T h e r e are similar stores in town, but none offers the

3'20 PART V I

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range, quality, and durability of m e r c h a n d i s e y o u do. M a r k e t i n g is very d e f initely y o u r w e a k link this year and needs all t h e a t t e n t i o n y o u can give it. You have already d o n e considerable m a r k e t research and p r i o r i t i z e d all the actions y o u plan to take using the marginal reaction test. In y o u r financial plan y o u have allocated $ 5 0 , 0 0 0 to a p r o m o t i o n a l c a m p a i g n that includes television advertising (40 percent), n e w s p a p e r and garden club m a g a z i n e advertising (30 percent), press releases (5 percent), and t w o special events in t h e spring and s u m m e r w h e r e c u s t o m e r s t o u r g a r d e n f u r n i t u r e s h o w r o o m s and get free advice o n designing o u t d o o r living space (25 percent). T h e rest of the m o n e y available f r o m y o u r start-up capital, plus the e a r n ings y o u project f r o m f u r n i t u r e sales, has b e e n allocated to m a i n t e n a n c e expenses (salaries, travel, t e l e p h o n e , office and legal expenses, insurance, and so on). All of these expenses are vital, and y o u r business c o u l d n o t r u n w i t h o u t t h e m , b u t they do n o t actually g e n e r a t e i n c o m e . T h a t can b e g e n erated only t h r o u g h t h e chain of p r o d u c t i o n . So n o w y o u l o o k at each of these m a i n t e n a n c e expense categories and d e t e r m i n e h o w m a n y dollars you can shave off each o n e of t h e m w i t h o u t i m p a i r i n g y o u r ability to get the j o b d o n e and p u t toward t h e m a r k e t i n g p r o g r a m . E v e r y o n e o f those dollars will b e giving y o u a h i g h e r marginal reaction applied to t h e m a r keting p r o g r a m until you reach t h e p o i n t that the n e x t dollar taken starts to i m p a i r t h e r u n n i n g of t h e business. In d o i n g this exercise you find y o u can shave dollars off y o u r p h o n e bill by using a different t e l e p h o n e service; r e d u c e y o u r travel b u d g e t by s c h e d u l i n g f e w e r trips; save o n vehicle r u n n i n g costs by m a k i n g s o m e r e f i n e m e n t s to y o u r delivery system that ensures fewer trips; and so o n . Y o u are c h a l l e n g i n g all m a i n t e n a n c e e x p e n s es here and n o t h i n g is sacred.You d o n o t assume that because an expense is r o u t i n e and has had m o n e y allocated to it in t h e past it should a u t o m a t ically c o n t i n u e . W h e n y o u have finished this exercise, y o u find y o u have a lean and clean plan, and $ 1 5 , 0 0 0 additional dollars y o u can p u t toward your marketing program.

When Your Business

Is Sunlight

Harvesting

In s u n l i g h t - h a r v e s t i n g businesses, w h e r e m o n e y is b e i n g g e n e r a t e d directly f r o m t h e sun's energy, t h e effects of the marginal reaction test are p r o f o u n d i n d e e d . T h e test also shows in m a n y cases that, of the actions b e i n g c o m p a r e d , only o n e will survive because n o o t h e r c o m e s close to yielding the r e t u r n it does this year. T h i s can also be t h e case in o t h e r businesses, b u t is less c o m m o n . S u p p o s e you a n d y o u r family m a n a g e a cattle ranch and have d e t e r m i n e d that this year resource conversion is y o u r weak link: you n e e d m o r e grass to feed y o u r animals. T h e r e are a n u m b e r of actions you c o u l d take, b u t y o u are leaning in favor of clearing t h e b r u s h that still covers large p o r tions of the ranch. Your holistic goal describes dense grassland in w h i c h

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only a f e w patches of b r u s h are i n c l u d e d to provide cover for wildlife and livestock and diversity in t h e vegetation.You have r e m o v e d the cause of t h e b r u s h e n c r o a c h m e n t and have halted its spread, b u t n o w you want to r e m o v e s o m e of what's left to provide r o o m for m o r e grass to grow. So, w h y n o t b u y a used bulldozer at a u c t i o n and root o u t the brush? B e f o r e you d o that, you n e e d to use t h e marginal reaction test to c o m pare the b r u s h clearing to the o t h e r possible alternatives f o r increasing solar e n e r g y conversion to m a k e sure you are g e t t i n g t h e highest r e t u r n possible o n t h e dollars invested. Again, this c o m p a r i s o n will n o t be quantifiable like the B a n k A / B a n k B e x a m p l e , so it d e m a n d s careful t h o u g h t . O t h e r actions that could g r o w m o r e grass are: •

Subdividing grazing areas or paddocks through fencing. This would increase animal impact, and it would improve the ratio between grazing/trampling and recovery periods as animals would spend less time on each unit of land.

•

Improving your skills in hohstic grazing planning.

•

Improving drainage a n d / o r aeration through increased animal impact (herd effect) in selected areas.

•

Buying or leasing more land.

T h e s e are b u t a f e w of t h e m o r e obvious measures that could increase the v o l u m e of solar energy c o n v e r t e d t h r o u g h plants, but for simplicity's sake and also because m a n y situations in fact boil d o w n to this choice, w e will c o m p a r e brush clearing to the case f o r m o r e f e n c i n g . W h a t does brush clearing offer o n t h e land c o m p a r e d w i t h m o r e f e n c ing this year? If you clear t h e b r u s h it will allow m o r e grass to g r o w by l e t ting in m o r e light, a n d the disturbance created by the tractors a n d chains may increase soil respiration and w a t e r p e n e t r a t i o n m u c h as animal impact w o u l d do. D e a d roots left u n d e r g r o u n d will provide a mass of organic m a t ter that will eventually e n h a n c e w a t e r r e t e n t i o n , m i n e r a l cycling, and soil s t r u c t u r e f o r s o m e years. M o r e forage in t h e cleared p a d d o c k m a y allow you to h o l d animals there a day o r t w o l o n g e r and that m e a n s m o r e recovery t i m e elsewhere a n d thus m o r e grass g r o w t h over a w i d e r area. ( C h a p t e r 38 o n time m a n a g e m e n t explains this in m o r e detail.) T h e cost of brush clearing will be $ 3 0 , 0 0 0 . O n the o t h e r h a n d at $ 3 0 0 a mile, you could build 10 miles of electric fence and split f o u r large p a d docks i n t o eight for a cost of $3,000. F r o m this you c o u l d anticipate the f o l l o w i n g benefits: •

Halving the size of the four paddocks would double the animal impact in the divided areas during each use. This will improve the distribution of d u n g and urine in the eight n e w paddocks. Forage

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production will consequently improve steadily in these paddocks for many years to come. •

W i t h four additional paddocks the grazing periods can n o w be decreased on average in every paddock on the ranch in every growing season over the fifty-year life of the fences. Thus, this single investment will increase the a m o u n t of grass that grows in all paddocks over the next fifty years.

•

Disease risks are reduced because animals receive a higher plane of nutrition and spend shorter times on fouled ground.

•

Grazing planning becomes easier, thanks to the versatility of having more paddocks to use. In addition, increasing paddocks now brings the possibility of cutting supplements by more efficient use of forage in d o r m a n t seasons.

A l t h o u g h you c a n n o t quantify perfectly the c o m p a r i s o n of brush clearing and f e n c e b u i l d i n g as ways to increase e n e r g y conversion, clearly the fence beats t h e bulldozer in terms of w h a t y o u gain. N o t only d o y o u g r o w m o r e grass year after year, you have also cleared a n o t h e r $ 2 7 , 0 0 0 to be a d d e d to the profit p l a n n e d this year. B u t you are n o t finished w i t h this test yet.You next have to d e c i d e w h i c h p a d d o c k s should b e split, again using t h e m a r ginal reaction test.You will achieve a h i g h e r marginal reaction by splitting t h e m o s t productive paddocks, if there is n o o v e r r i d i n g n e e d to split o t h ers, because that's w h e r e y o u will get t h e highest r e t u r n p e r dollar invested. T h i s subject is covered m o r e fully in the Holistic Land Planning Handbook.

Marginal Reaction per Hour of Effort N o w h e r e does t h e marginal reaction test apply m o r e than in o u r allocation of time. W e have only a fixed a m o u n t , and it ticks by day a n d night. C o n s t a n t awareness of the marginal reaction w h e n it c o m e s to investments of time frees t i m e to do things w e love, and the e m e r g e n c i e s and crisis m a n a g e m e n t w e thereby avoid saves the m o n e y to pay f o r t h e m . S o m e years ago I visited a t o b a c c o f a r m w h e r e n e a r - p a n i c reigned, as reaping was to start in ten days and t h e c u r i n g barns still had n o roofs. S o m e w h e r e in the p r i o r year, the o w n e r had spent t i m e in the coffee h o u s e or fixing a tractor w h e n h e m i g h t have w o r k e d o u t a c o n s t r u c t i o n s c h e d ule. N o w he was paying heavily in extra labor, r u s h e d transport, and high b l o o d pressure, n o t to m e n t i o n the probability of g e t t i n g s h o d d y w o r k and losing part of his crop anyway. Naturally the marginal reaction per h o u r of effort figures in Holistic Financial P l a n n i n g . T h e cost of m o s t actions c o n t e m p l a t e d will naturally be

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301

i n f l u e n c e d by the a m o u n t of labor or h o u r s of e f f o r t involved in i m p l e m e n t i n g t h e m . So will y o u r j u d g m e n t s a b o u t h o w m u c h each m a i n t e n a n c e e x p e n s e can be t r i m m e d . If, for instance, you d e c i d e d to save m o n e y by cleaning y o u r offices yourself, rather than pay s o m e o n e else to do it, you may b e g o i n g t o o far if y o u r time could reap h i g h e r gains w h e n d e v o t e d elsewhere. O r i m a g i n e s p e n d i n g a day of y o u r time, at y o u r salary, in the l a u n d r y business you o w n and m a n a g e , t r y i n g to fix o n e of y o u r n e w c o m p u t e r i z e d machines. H o w does that c o m p a r e to b r i n g i n g in a specialist w h o i m m e d i a t e l y k n o w s w h a t to do, has t h e r i g h t tools, and guarantees t h e repair? In C h a p t e r 26 I m e n t i o n e d how, as a struggling y o u n g sugar cane f a r m e r , I m a n a g e d to c u t my m a c h i n e r y m a i n t e n a n c e costs to a fraction of w h a t they had b e e n simply by s p e n d i n g m y t i m e w h e r e it w o u l d provide the highest r e t u r n at that m o m e n t , t h i n k i n g t h r o u g h t h e chain of events leading to each breakage and t h e n p l a n n i n g w h a t to d o a b o u t it. W h e n my n e i g h b o r s and I c o m p a r e d o u r costs, I realized that I had cut m i n e to half of theirs. H a d w e c o m p a r e d t h e n u m b e r of h o u r s each of us spent t h i n k ing a n d p l a n n i n g w i t h paper and pencil, I estimate I probably spent 10 h o u r s to their o n e . T h e marginal reaction achieved per h o u r of m y t i m e was so h i g h , it saved m y family and o u r f a r m at a t i m e w h e n the b o t t o m had fallen o u t of the sugar m a r k e t and o u r country's p r o d u c t s h a d b e e n s a n c t i o n e d by the rest of the w o r l d .

Conclusion I have stressed that t h e marginal reaction test is always in t h e end a s u b jective o n e . It has to b e because you are n o t just c o m p a r i n g actions to reap the greatest r e t u r n in terms of profit, b u t also in t e r m s of e v e r y t h i n g else i n c l u d e d in y o u r holistic g o a l . T h e r e will b e times w h e n profit is s e c o n d a r y to o t h e r needs a n d desires, particularly those relating to quality of life, and this will b e reflected in y o u r j u d g m e n t of w h e r e the highest marginal reaction is to be f o u n d . T h e n e x t test is far less subjective a n d is focused entirely on g e n e r a t i n g profit. H a v i n g t h e potential to convert sunlight o r raw materials into a marketable p r o d u c t is of little help if you c a n n o t be sure w h i c h of m a n y possible enterprises enable y o u to d o that m o s t effectively. T h e gross p r o f it analysis will enable y o u to find o u t .

29 Gross Profit Analysis: Bringing in the Most Money for the Least Additional Cost

h e gross profit analysis test is used to select those enterprises ( p r o d ucts o r services f r o m w h i c h y o u derive i n c o m e ) that, after associated costs and risks have b e e n factored in, p r o d u c e the m o s t i n c o m e . T h e i n c o m e f r o m these enterprises has to cover y o u r overhead costs and g e n erate s o m e excess f o r there to b e any p r o f i t . T h e question you ask is: Which enterprises contribute the most to covering the overheads of the business? T h i s is o n e of t h e few tests that requires a pencil and paper, a n d I susp e c t that this may k e e p those w i t h an allergy to p a p e r w o r k f r o m d o i n g it. Yet the m a r g i n a l reaction p e r h o u r of effort is hard to beat, especially if you p l u g a l o n g for a year p u t t i n g h u n d r e d s o f h o u r s into an e n t e r p r i s e that, a l t h o u g h it provides massive i n c o m e , p r o d u c e s a l o w gross profit, a n d thus a l o w e r n e t profit f o r t h e business as a w h o l e at years e n d . In m o s t businesses a great deal of m o n e y is tied up in overheads, or fixed costs—land, buildings, machinery, e q u i p m e n t , salaries, and so o n . W h i l e essential to the business, m o s t fixed costs d o n o t g e n e r a t e i n c o m e , a n d thus the w h e r e w i t h a l to keep the business g o i n g . T h a t is only d o n e by t h e various activities that actually lead to the sale of a p r o d u c t or service. To be m o s t profitable w e n e e d to f i n d that e n t e r p r i s e o r c o m b i n a t i o n o f e n t e r prises that brings in the m o s t i n c o m e for the least additional n o n o v e r h e a d costs each y e a r . T h e greater t h e spread b e t w e e n i n c o m e p e r year and additional n o n o v e r h e a d costs, t h e greater t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of that e n t e r p r i s e or c o m b i n a t i o n of enterprises to c o v e r i n g overheads a n d p r o d u c i n g the surplus that b e c o m e s profit. Various techniques exist to help you to d o this, b u t I find m o s t t o o c o m p l e x , c o n f u s i n g , and impractical for widespread use. C o m p u t e r p r o 302

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303

grams are also available for this p u r p o s e , b u t they generally d o away w i t h the n e e d to think through the variables involved. It is this t h i n k i n g that is so essential to the success of this analysis, particularly w h e n it involves p o t e n tial n e w enterprises. T h e gross profit analysis test, derived f r o m the w o r k of a C a m b r i d g e University agricultural e c o n o m i s t n a m e d D a v i d Wallace, has flaws w h e n p e r f o r m e d in isolation in that it does n o t take into a c c o u n t t h e social o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l costs associated w i t h an enterprise. B u t w h e n used a l o n g w i t h the r e m a i n i n g six testing guidelines this d r a w b a c k is o v e r c o m e , and the test provides a clear a n d simple way to d e t e r m i n e w h i c h enterprises are likely to g e n e r a t e t h e most profit. In t h e gross profit analysis y o u simply l o o k at t h e i n c o m e likely to be derived f r o m each e n t e r p r i s e and d e d u c t the additional m o n e y you will have to spend to b r i n g in that i n c o m e . The difference between money in and money out is the gross profit. T h e additional m o n e y t o b e spent is that m o n e y you w o u l d n o t spend unless you u n d e r t o o k the enterprise. T h r o u g h the analysis and c o m p a r i s o n of m a n y possible enterprises w i t h this test, y o u are selecting t h e best enterprise, o r c o m b i n a t i o n of enterprises, to create p r o f it and m i n i m i z e risk. Wallace originally used t h e t e r m gross profit in describing his analysis, but was later p e r s u a d e d to c h a n g e it to gross margin, a t e r m that has n o intrinsic m e a n i n g . A l t h o u g h Wallace realized that n e t profit, w h i c h factors in overhead costs, is quite a different animal f r o m gross profit, struggling British f a r m e r s f o u n d it c o n f u s i n g to c o m p u t e positive profits of any kind w h e n their actual b o t t o m h n e was b r i g h t red. 1 For m a n y years I w e n t along w i t h Wallace's change, b u t e n c o u n t e r e d a n u m b e r of problems. First of all, I f o u n d that A m e r i c a n businesses had " i m p r o v e d u p o n " the gross m a r g i n analysis, in ways I will cover shortly, but in d o i n g so largely had destroyed its value. S e c o n d , I f o u n d that m a n y p e o p l e c o n f u s e d gross m a r gin analysis w i t h m a r g i n a l reaction because b o t h c o n t a i n e d the w o r d " m a r gin." To avoid b o t h problems, I decided to revert back to Wallace's original n a m e , gross profit analysis. T h e key to Wallace's gross profit analysis, particularly w h e n researching possible n e w enterprises, is t h e careful distinction of fixed (overhead) and variable (direct or r u n n i n g ) costs at a given moment in rime. Wallace divided all business costs i n t o these t w o categories. Fixed costs exist n o m a t t e r w h a t or h o w m u c h is p r o d u c e d . Variable costs are a f u n c t i o n of v o l u m e of p r o d u c t i o n — t h e m o r e y o u p r o d u c e t h e m o r e these costs increase. H o w e v e r , w h e n p e r f o r m i n g a gross profit analysis, the d e f i n i t i o n of w h a t is fixed a n d w h a t is variable changes d e p e n d i n g on t h e c u r r e n t situation. W h e n you plan w h e a t p r o d u c t i o n , for example, seed a n d gasoline for the m a c h i n e r y d u r i n g s o w i n g a n d harvesting are variable costs. You i n c u r t h e m only if you g r o w w h e a t , a n d you c o m p u t e the a m o u n t f r o m t h e

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acreage you intend to plant. Payments on the harvesting c o m b i n e you already o w n , however, are fixed costs because even though you use it exclusively for wheat, you must make the payments w h e t h e r or n o t you actually g r o w wheat. N o matter h o w m u c h w h e a t you grow, these fixed costs remain u n c h a n g e d . M a n y of the techniques used for analyzing enterprises, including the " i m p r o v e d " gross m a r g i n analysis, try to a p p o r t i o n the fixed costs a m o n g various enterprises. In the case above, for example, all c o m b i n e expenses would be charged against the w h e a t . Perhaps half of the tractor costs w o u l d be charged to w h e a t and half to s o m e t h i n g else. Labor costs m i g h t w i n d up a p p o r t i o n e d u n d e r m a n y headings. T h i s practice, however, only clouds the picture and makes for a m u c h poorer analysis, as figures 29-1 and 2 9 - 2 illustrate.

_ Income Direct Costs Overhead (Fixed) Costs $6,000

Gross Margin

B

Gross Margin $5,000 $11,000

• $7,000 $3,000

Some Overhead (Fixed) Costs Added to Enterprises

Figure 29-1

In a conventional gross margin analysis, fixed costs are apportioned.

this case enterprise A looks slightly better than B.

In

2 9 | G R O S S P R O F I T ANALYSIS: T H E M O S T M O N E Y FOR T H E L E A S T A D D I T I O N A L C O S T

305

Income Direct Costs Overhead (Fixed) Costs B

$9,000

Gross Profit $11,000 Gross Profit > $11,000

I

$5,000

No Allocation of Overhead (Fixed) Costs to Enterprises

Figure 29-2

In a gross profit analysis, fixed

outcome is often different. In this case enterprise

costs are not apportioned

and the

B looks far better than enterprise

A.

Figure 2 9 - 1 compares i n c o m e and expense projections for two e n t e r prises in a conventional gross m a r g i n analysis w h e r e fixed costs are a p p o r tioned. I have used A and B to represent any two alternatives. T h e gross m a r g i n for A is only slighdy better, b u t if all other factors were equal you would, based on this analysis, probably favor enterprise A over B as it shows the highest gross margin. In figure 2 9 - 2 , using a gross profit analysis, fixed costs are n o t a p p o r tioned and the story is very different. Because most of the expense allocated to enterprise B would have to be paid anyway, clearly enterprise B contributes far m o r e toward covering the overhead expenses of the business than enterprise A. A n d if you n e e d e d an operating loan to cover variable costs, obviously B would take far less than A.

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M a n y find t h e m a t t e r of s o r t i n g o u t fixed and variable costs rather c o n fusing, particularly w h e n c o n s i d e r i n g a n e w enterprise. N o f o r m u l a o r list can assist y o u in this because w h e t h e r an i t e m is fixed o r variable d e p e n d s o n t h e situation and t h e t i m e f r a m e u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n — h e n c e my a p p r e h e n s i o n c o n c e r n i n g c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s used for analyzing potential n e w enterprises. W h e n c o n t e m p l a t i n g t h e addition of a n e w enterprise, it h e l p s t o r e m e m b e r t h a t in the very long term all costs are variable

(you could

sell t h e b u s i n e s s ) a n d in the very short term all costs are fixed ( t h e n e w

enter-

prise c o u l d be started by utilizing materials o n h a n d and already paid for). To d e t e r m i n e t h e fixed costs to be i g n o r e d in the new enterprise and t h e variable costs to include, picture yourself standing o n a b r i d g e l o o k i n g upstream. A n y w a t e r (cost) that has passed u n d e r y o u r feet is fixed and should b e i g n o r e d , w h i l e any w a t e r (cost) upstream is still variable and should be i n c l u d e d . If I w e r e t h i n k i n g o f a d d i n g a n e w line of p r o d u c t s to those I already m a n u f a c t u r e , for instance, t h e f a c t o r y I o w n , b u t am still paying for, w o u l d be a fixed cost a n d n o t i n c l u d e d in calculating the gross profit for this n e w enterprise. T h e expense involved in the purchase of t h e n e w m a c h i n e r y required w o u l d b e a variable cost, and that w o u l d have to be offset against the i n c o m e I c o u l d e x p e c t to receive. H o w e v e r , because I w o u l d n o t use up the m a c h i n e r y in o n e year, this variable cost w o u l d have to b e spread o u t over t h e estimated life span of the n e w m a c h i n e r y a n d t h e average yearly cost used in m y c a l c u l a t i o n s . T h e actual p a y m e n t f o r the m a c h i n e r y and h o w that will affect cash flow are p l a n n e d later (see C h a p t e r 44 o n Holistic Financial Planning) if t h e n e w e n t e r p r i s e passes t h e gross profit analysis test and any others that apply. If, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , I did n o t n e e d to purchase n e w machinery, b u t could utilize s o m e old, but o u t - o f - d a t e , m a c h i n e r y o n h a n d , t h e m a c h i n ery w o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d a fixed cost. H o w e v e r , it w o u l d take m o n e y to renovate a n d m o d e r n i z e the machinery, and this cost, annualized, as it was in the case of t h e n e w machinery, w o u l d be variable. It w o u l d b e offset against t h e annual i n c o m e anticipated to p r o v i d e the gross profit. U s e d in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h Holistic Financial P l a n n i n g , t h e gross profit analysis test will enable you to w e e d o u t any enterprises that drain the business in that they c o n t r i b u t e little o r n o t h i n g to c o v e r i n g overheads. Surprisingly, it is n o t u n c o m m o n , at least in agricultural businesses, to find that the m a i n line of business fails this test, a n d that it is t h e subsidiary enterprises that have kept the business a f l o a t — s o m e t h i n g m o r e c o m p l i c a t ed analysis t e c h n i q u e s o f t e n conceal. T h e gross profit analysis test is used at three different times in holistic financial planning. Initially, w h e n you have b r a i n s t o r m e d a list of possible i n c o m e sources, you use this test to n a r r o w d o w n the list. Very r o u g h estimates of anticipated i n c o m e and variable costs are all that is n e e d e d and the exercise can be d o n e in y o u r head, as you are only l o o k i n g f o r m a j o r

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differences in enterprises at this p o i n t . A q u i c k r u n t h r o u g h t h e rest of the tests will n a r r o w y o u r list d o w n further. T h e n you use this test a second time, b u t m o r e formally. You will n e e d to gather fairly accurate figures b e f o r e y o u can pass t h e final list of enterprises t h r o u g h this test, a n d you will n e e d to use pencil, paper, a n d calculator to get y o u r answers. T h o s e enterprises, b o t h old and new, that pass this test by c o n t r i b u t i n g t h e m o s t to c o v e r i n g overheads, and pass the r e m a i n i n g tests, will be t h e ones you e n g a g e in. Finally, y o u analyze e a c h e n t e r p r i s e again at t h e e n d of t h e year to d e t e r m i n e h o w well it actually p e r f o r m e d . Y o u t h e n take this i n f o r m a tion into a c c o u n t in p l a n n i n g for the n e x t year.

Refining Your Analysis T h e r e are several r e f i n e m e n t s that can, and o f t e n should, b e m a d e in calculating gross profits that will f u r t h e r clarify t h e picture.

Common

Units of

Measure

In agricultural businesses in particular there will be occasions w h e n y o u have to c o m p a r e very dissimilar enterprises. H o w , for instance, does p u t t i n g land into crops stand up against using the same land to graze livestock o r for various f o r m s of recreational, i n c o m e - b e a r i n g activities? You can c o m pare various crops, mixtures of crops, livestock, and recreation o r o t h e r enterprises to find the best strategy for c o v e r i n g those fixed overheads and m a k i n g a profit at m i n i m u m risk.To d o so effectively you will have to find a c o m m o n d e n o m i n a t o r o n w h i c h to base y o u r gross profit calculations. T h a t c o m m o n d e n o m i n a t o r in t u r n should be based o n the factor that most limits p r o d u c t i o n , generally the a m o u n t of land available, capital (in cash or assets), or labor. W h e n land area is t h e m o s t limiting factor, as it c o m m o n l y is in agricultural businesses, gross profit per acre or hectare per year shows best h o w to p u t t h e land to use. In o t h e r cases, gross profit per dollar of capital o r per h u m a n - h o u r of labor makes m o r e sense. T h e Holistic Financial Planning Handbook explains in m o r e detail h o w to calculate these figures.

When Enterprises

Do Not

Overlap

T h e r e will b e occasions w h e n o n e or t w o enterprises d o n o t overlap w i t h o t h e r s because they use only a p o r t i o n of t h e p r o d u c t i o n base (land, capital, or labor) a n d can stand o n their o w n . A n e x a m p l e w o u l d be a ranch that was c o n s i d e r i n g the establishment of a b e d and breakfast e n t e r p r i s e o n o n e small c o r n e r of t h e p r o p e r t y near a highway. T h e a m o u n t of land involved w o u l d be so insignificant it w o u l d n o t be a f a c t o r . T h e capital used to build t h e establishment c o u l d b e provided by a c o u p l e in t o w n w h o

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wished to retire and r u n the enterprise. T h e only variable costs associated w i t h t h e e n t e r p r i s e m i g h t b e t h e m o n e y required to pay t h e lawyer for d r a w i n g u p the a g r e e m e n t . T h a t w o u l d b e offset against the i n c o m e received f o r t h e lease of t h e land to provide a gross profit that c o u l d be fairly high. If t h e r e m a i n i n g tests s h o w e d the decision to be s o u n d , you w o u l d go ahead w i t h it. A similar scenario w o u l d u n f o l d if y o u w a n t e d to lease o u t u n u s e d office space. A n increasingly c o m m o n e x a m p l e that fits this case, b u t is generally missed, is w h e n y o u r business is g a m e r a n c h i n g and you are o p e r a t i n g in a m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t , as m o s t of these businesses do. You are likely to n e e d to b r i n g in livestock to k e e p t h e land vital and capable of p r o d u c i n g a d e q u a t e forage if t h e g a m e c a n n o t do this o n their o w n . In this case, t h e livestock are n o t c o m p e t i n g w i t h t h e m a i n e n t e r p r i s e (game), but are an essential tool for sustaining i t . T h e livestock c o u l d in fact b e considered a variable cost, b u t because they g e n e r a t e i n c o m e in their o w n right, they s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d a separate enterprise, in this case, o n e that should stand o n its o w n .

Break Enterprises

into

Segments

S o m e enterprises will yield to analysis best if b r o k e n into subunits or segm e n t s . F o r example, cattle p r o d u c t i o n c o u l d b e b r o k e n o u t into raising t h e calf, g r o w i n g the calf, o r finishing t h e animal f o r m a r k e t . W h e n y o u a n a lyze each s e g m e n t as t h o u g h it w e r e a separate enterprise, and y o u k n o w w h a t each segment's gross profit is, you can, if y o u choose, limit y o u r effort to those segments that c o n t r i b u t e t h e highest gross profit. T h u s , a c o w - c a l f o p e r a t o r may find it m o r e profitable and less risky to r e d u c e the c o w herd and thus f r e e u p land to carry t h e p r o g e n y l o n g e r b e f o r e m a r k e t i n g t h e m . T h e same t h i n k i n g w o u l d apply in m a n y o t h e r p r o d u c t i o n businesses. M o s t m a n u f a c t u r i n g firms have already f o u n d that it does n o t pay to u n d e r t a k e all facets of p r o d u c t i o n w i t h i n their o w n factories. By c o n tracting (outsourcing) certain segments of p r o d u c t i o n , as t h e a u t o m o t i v e and aerospace industries do, they are able to achieve a h i g h e r gross profit overall.

Assessment

of Risk

W h i l e d o i n g a gross profit analysis and calculating t h e anticipated i n c o m e and the variable costs involved in any possible n e w enterprise, y o u c o u l d be far off t h e m a r k in y o u r estimates because o f a n u m b e r o f variables o u t side y o u r c o n t r o l . T o assess t h e risks involved, you should project t h e worst, average, a n d best scenarios. W h e n d o i n g so, k e e p m o s t i n c o m e o r expense figures average, and in each scenario vary t h e figures f o r w h a t e v e r is least u n d e r y o u r control. F o r example, for a dryland f a r m e r of p i n t o beans in t h e

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A m e r i c a n S o u t h w e s t , w e a t h e r m i g h t b e t h e most critical factor. For a c l o t h i n g m a n u f a c t u r e r , i n p u t costs (mainly t h e cost of fabric) m i g h t be. T h e dryland f a r m e r w o u l d t h e r e f o r e pick an average p r i c e and c o m p u t e his gross profit for low, average, and high yields. For t h e c l o t h i n g m a n u f a c t u r er, a c o m p a r i s o n of low, average, and h i g h fabric costs w o u l d m e a n m o r e . Obviously, o n e could add infinite levels of sophistication to this process, given a c o m p u t e r and a bit of time. Y o u r focus, h o w e v e r , should b e o n m a j o r differences, n o t m i n o r ones. If in c o m p a r i n g n e w enterprises you find that the risks associated w i t h any o n e of t h e m are far higher, because t h e spread b e t w e e n t h e low, average, and h i g h gross profits is very great, this may i n f l u e n c e y o u r decision o n w h i c h o n e s to a d o p t .

Conclusion: Generating a Net Profit H a v i n g selected an e n t e r p r i s e or a c o m b i n a t i o n of enterprises based o n the gross profit analysis, y o u still d o n ' t k n o w if you can m a k e a net profit, the H o h s t i c Financial P l a n n i n g process, w h i c h C h a p t e r 44 and t h e Holistic Financial Planning Handbook describe in s o m e detail, will s h o w w h e t h e r y o u r strategy does o r does n o t add u p to black ink. In spite of all its benefits, gross profit analysis has s o m e serious s h o r t c o m i n g s , s o m e of w h i c h s h o w u p in t h e c o n t e x t o f o t h e r testing guidelines and s o m e in t h e light of c o m m o n sense. In t h e theoretical case portrayed in figure 2 9 - 2 , e n t e r p r i s e B turns o u t so far ahead of e n t e r p r i s e A that you could easily argue for c o m m i t t i n g t h e entire business to it. In practice, however, that c o u l d be very u n w i s e . First of all, the advantages of B derived f r o m b e i n g able t o use assets already o n h a n d and a c c o u n t e d for as fixed costs. If, however, d o u b l i n g e n t e r p r i s e B m e a n t paying for m o r e e q u i p m e n t o r labor, those w o u l d b e c o m e variable costs a n d m i g h t lead to a very different conclusion. M o r e i m p o r t a n t , gross profit analysis takes n o a c c o u n t of ecosystem processes o r m a n y less tangible considerations. In f a r m i n g it q u i t e f r e q u e n t l y shows a c o m p l e t e and chemically e n h a n c e d m o n o c u l t u r e as the m o s t profitable strategy, a n d yet w e k n o w that this damages soils a n d the life in t h e m a n d leads to spiraling c h e m i c a l d e p e n d e n c y and rising costs. T h e chemical c o m p a n i e s that m a n u f a c t u r e t h e pesticides and fertilizers n o d o u b t find that these enterprises yield a fairly h i g h gross profit as well, w h i c h , w h e n social a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l costs are not c o n s i d e r e d , appears very attractive. D e s p i t e these problems, however, the t e c h n i q u e still throws fresh light o n m a n y situations, and o t h e r testing guidelines usually c o m p e n s a t e for its l i m i t a t i o n s . T h e ideal is t o find t h e best e n t e r p r i s e o r c o m b i n a t i o n in w h i c h all the t e c h n o l o g y and o t h e r tools pass all tests. At that p o i n t to t h e best o f o u r k n o w l e d g e , y o u have enterprises that are economically, socially, a n d environmentally sound.

30 Energy and Money: Using the Most Appropriate Forms in the Most Constructive Way hapter 29 explained h o w gross profit analysis helps to d e t e r m i n e the most profitable enterprises, b u t it e n d e d o n a n o t e of w a r n i n g . T h e m e a n s to profit may n o t be holistically s o u n d . N o t only the e n t e r prise itself, but also the s e c o n d a r y inputs that s u p p o r t it, should pass all the o t h e r tests that apply. W i l l profit d e p e n d on suppressing s y m p t o m s r a t h e r than addressing causes? D o s o m e inputs pass m o s t tests, b u t t h e n fail to represent the best marginal reaction p e r dollar o r h o u r invested? R a t h e r late in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of Holistic M a n a g e m e n t , it b e c a m e e v i d e n t that w e had to press the testing o n e level d e e p e r and e x a m i n e b o t h the sources and the patterns of use of the energy and m o n e y involved in p r o d u c t i o n . W e l u m p m o n e y and energy t o g e t h e r because any action c o n t e m p l a t e d usually requires o n e or the other, and o f t e n b o t h . T h e questions you ask are: Is the energy or money to he used in this action derived from the most appropriate source in terms of our holistic goal? and Will the way in which the energy or money is to be used lead toward our holistic goal?

Sources of Energy In t e r m s of availability energy sources fall i n t o t w o categories: sources that are a b u n d a n t or u n l i m i t e d , and sources that are limited in s u p p l y . T h e s u n light e n e r g y used to g r o w the farmer's crops is u n l i m i t e d in that supplies are inexhaustible until o u r sun b u r n s out; but the p e t r o l e u m h e uses to fuel his tractor is l i m i t e d because it t o o k millions of years to p r o d u c e , and w e will eventually r u n o u t of secure and affordable supplies. In terms of their 310

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effects o n the e n v i r o n m e n t , e n e r g y sources also fall into t w o categories: sources that are b e n i g n o r sources that are potentially d a m a g i n g . This d e p e n d s o n t h e rate at w h i c h they are c o n s u m e d a n d t h e m e t h o d s used to harness a n d distribute t h e m . Obviously, w e stand a b e t t e r c h a n c e of l o n g t e r m success by f a v o r i n g t h e e n e r g y sources in u n l i m i t e d supply, b u t only if w e can ensure that their effects o n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t are b e n i g n . M o s t e n e r g y is derived either directly or indirectly f r o m s u n l i g h t . W h e n g r e e n plants convert sunlight directly t h r o u g h photosynthesis to a useable or edible f o r m , they d o n o d a m a g e in the process. W h e n those same plants are b u r n e d as a fuel, they can p r o d u c e p o l l u t i n g byproducts; b u t if allowed to d e c o m p o s e first, to p r o d u c e biogas, their effect o n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t is, as far as w e k n o w , b e n i g n . Solar panels o r collectors can also be used to convert sunlight directly to a useful a n d b e n i g n f o r m of energy. G e o t h e r m a l e n e r g y and e n e r g y derived indirectly f r o m sunlight (wind, the falling action of water, t h e rising a n d falling action of ocean tides) is a b u n d a n t or u n l i m i t e d a n d generally considered b e n i g n , a l t h o u g h the m a n n e r in w h i c h it is harnessed, such as a hydroelectric d a m , may n o t be. N u c l e a r energy, t h e only n o n s o l a r f o r m of energy w e use, is virtually u n l i m i t e d in supply, b u t its p r o d u c t i o n , t h r o u g h nuclear fission, is p o t e n tially d a m a g i n g , a n d its radioactive b y - p r o d u c t s can be lethal. M o d e r n society is p o w e r e d by e n e r g y sources derived f r o m sunlight trapped by a n c i e n t plants and c o n v e r t e d to coal, oil, and natural gas. Because they are also t h e fuels of c h o i c e of electric utilities, they also p r o vide very c o n v e n i e n t power. B u t all fossil fuels are finite, a n d w e are c o n s u m i n g t h e m at such a rapid rate that o u r ecosystem c a n n o t r e i n c o r p o r a t e the residues of their c o n s u m p t i o n quickly e n o u g h to m a i n t a i n a stable climate. A l t h o u g h y o u as an individual are o f t e n limited in y o u r ability to select t h e source of e n e r g y you use in y o u r h o m e o r business, you always have the o p t i o n of using that e n e r g y sparingly and of gradually c o n v e r t i n g to b e n i g n alternatives. You are c h o o s i n g a b e n i g n source of e n e r g y over a potentially d a m a g ing source of e n e r g y any t i m e you d e c i d e to walk o r ride y o u r bicycle rather than drive a car. So is t h e f a r m e r w h o uses livestock to break d o w n the stubble o n his c o r n field rather t h a n a tractor. W h a t should c o n c e r n you in this test is w h e t h e r or n o t the s o u r c e of e n e r g y you plan to use in i m p l e m e n t i n g any action is a p p r o p r i a t e in y o u r situation at t h e present time in light o f y o u r holistic goal. Ideally, g o v e r n m e n t s should consider t h e l o n g - t e r m health of nations w h e n f o r m i n g e n e r g y policies, b u t their track record is p o o r for reasons that s o o n e r or later (and h o p e f u l l y the f o r m e r ) m o s t societies will have to question. A l t h o u g h w e u n d e r s t a n d t h e d a n g e r now, o u r social and e c o n o m i c structure, based o n high c o n s u m p t i o n rates of f i r e w o o d , fossil, a n d n o w nuclear energy, still runs o n tracks laid d o w n l o n g ago w h e n a m u c h

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less n u m e r o u s h u m a n i t y c o u l d m o r e easily i g n o r e its i m p a c t o n n a t u r e . T h e Industrial R e v o l u t i o n that set us o n this c o u r s e did n o t o c c u r painlessly, and n e i t h e r perhaps will the changes that p u t us o n a n e w path.

Sources of Money T h e m o n e y used to i m p l e m e n t any action can b e derived f r o m either internal o r external sources. T h e source is internal if t h e m o n e y is taken f r o m y o u r o w n earnings, w h a t t h e business o r land generates. A n y t i m e y o u can rely o n an internal source, y o u are likely to b e b e t t e r off, but there will be m a n y occasions w h e n m o n e y will have to c o m e f r o m outside the business for y o u to m o v e forward. E c o n o m i s t s s o m e t i m e s argue that w h e n y o u finance a v e n t u r e w i t h y o u r o w n internal m o n e y , y o u should also c o n s i d er t h e " o p p o r t u n i t y cost," t h e interest y o u lose o n y o u r m o n e y by n o t investing it elsewhere. In m a n a g i n g holistically, that is rarely a c o n c e r n because t h e m a r g i n a l reaction test helps to d e t e r m i n e w h e r e , a m o n g various alternatives, y o u r m o n e y gives the highest r e t u r n in terms o f y o u r holistic goal, w h i c h is t h e m o r e i m p o r t a n t consideration. If y o u are in a s u n l i g h t - h a r v e s t i n g business, t h e n y o u w a n t m o s t of the internal m o n e y y o u invest in an action o r e n t e r p r i s e to c o m e f r o m solar dollars, and n o t mineral dollars gained t h r o u g h using soil in a n o n r e n e w able m a n n e r . W h e n t h e m o n e y to b e invested is derived f r o m an external source, you need to b e w a r y of t h e strings attached to it. If t h e outside source is a b a n k or o t h e r l e n d i n g institution, interest will always be i n c l u d e d , and in m o s t cases interest is c o m p o u n d e d , w h i c h m e a n s y o u will b e using a m u c h greater s u m of m o n e y to repay t h e loan. A m e r i c a n s are m a d e aware of j u s t h o w astronomical this s u m can be w h e n they purchase a h o m e m o r t g a g e . In m a n y states t h e law requires t h e b o r r o w e r to sign a d o c u m e n t indicating h e o r she has b e e n s h o w n t h e full a m o u n t and is aware of the cost of b o r r o w i n g the m o n e y . It is u n f o r t u n a t e lenders are n o t obliged to d o t h e same for any type of loan that carries c o m p o u n d interest. E x t e r n a l m o n e y can also b e derived f r o m t h e g o v e r n m e n t in s o m e f o r m of c o s t - s h a r i n g o r subsidy. T h i s is a s o u r c e of m o n e y that c o m m o n l y b e c o m e s addictive, and its s u d d e n w i t h d r a w a l can spell financial r u i n . T h e r e are strings attached, as well, generally in t h e f o r m of regulations that may lead y o u away f r o m , rather than toward, y o u r holistic goal. It is also i m p o r tant to realize that g o v e r n m e n t s have n o m o n e y to give, unless they first take it f r o m y o u a n d y o u r fellow citizens. B e a r this in m i n d if y o u are c o n sidering an action purely because the g o v e r n m e n t is giving y o u half the money. If the action fails most of t h e tests a n d y o u g o ahead anyway, it m e a n s that n o t only t h e half supplied by y o u , b u t also the half supplied by the taxpayers, is wasted. We'll r e t u r n to ethical and m o r a l considerations such as these in C h a p t e r 32 o n t h e society and culture test.

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ENERGY A N D M O N E Y : U S I N G THE M O S T APPROPRIATE F O R M S

P h i l a n t h r o p i c organizations are a n o t h e r source of external money, and a c o m m o n o n e for n o n p r o f i t organizations. O n l y in relatively f e w instances are p h i l a n t h r o p i c grants o r gifts m a d e w i t h o u t strings attached, o f t e n in the f o r m of i n f l u e n c e o r bureaucratic red tape or, o n occasion, o u t r i g h t i n t e r ference in m a n a g e m e n t . F o r e i g n aid p r o g r a m s are n o t o r i o u s for m a k i n g m o n e y available to a d e v e l o p i n g country, t h e n insisting t h e m o n e y be used to b u y t e c h n o l o g y and expertise f r o m the d o n o r n a t i o n . If the i n f l u e n c e o r i n t e r f e r e n c e that c o m e s w i t h the m o n e y in such situations will cause you to deviate f r o m y o u r holistic goal, you will likely fail this test unless you can n e g o t i a t e m o r e favorable terms.

Energy and Money Patterns of Use In the s e c o n d part of this test you l o o k at the specific way in w h i c h the e n e r g y o r m o n e y will be used and w h e t h e r it will take you toward y o u r holistic goal. T h e r e are n o rules that tell y o u w h a t is r i g h t o r w r o n g , b u t there are s o m e questions that will help you decide: •

Is the proposed holistic

use providing

infrastructure

that will assist in reaching

your

goal?

Infrastructure refers to t h e sort of things that are essential to r u n n i n g y o u r business m o r e effectively: k n o w l e d g e , skills, trained staff, buildings, roads, e q u i p m e n t , m a c h i n e r y , transport. In the case o f the f a r m e r m e n t i o n e d in C h a p t e r 27 w h o s e m a r k e t i n g strategy d e m a n d e d a storage shed so his o n i o n s c o u l d hit the local market w h e n o t h e r f a r m e r s had sold o u t their crop, the storage shed was essential infrastructure. H e w o u l d earn m o n e y if h e built it. B u i l d i n g a l u x u r i o u s h o m e o n his f a r m w o u l d n o t be. I a m n o t saying h e s h o u l d n ' t build o n e w h e n h e can afford it, if that figures in his quality o f life. H e j u s t should n o t fool himself i n t o believing that the l u x u r i o u s h o m e is essential infrastructure. If energy o r m o n e y are used to create infrastructure and all the m a t e r i als o r o t h e r aspects involved pass the o t h e r tests, you w o u l d tend to say that the p r o p o s e d infrastructure passes. If you are creating infrastructure that is n o t n e e d e d this year, and it does n o t pass the o t h e r tests, you w o u l d likely fail this test, too.You m i g h t t h i n k this is so o b v i o u s it hardly n e e d s stating, b u t you w o u l d b e surprised. A n u m b e r of r a n c h e r s have p u t m o n e y i n t o f e n c i n g w h e n it fails o t h e r tests, particularly the w e a k link test, w h i c h w o u l d indicate the m o n e y w o u l d yield far m o r e if spent elsewhere. In this case, a l t h o u g h the m o n e y w o u l d b e b u i l d i n g infrastructure, that i n f r a s t r u c ture is n o t n e e d e d now. •

Is the proposed

use merely consumptive,

with no lasting

effect?

A use of m o n e y o r e n e r g y is c o n s u m p t i v e if it is c o n s u m e d in a o n e t i m e use. If the same action were to b e u n d e r t a k e n again, it w o u l d require

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TESTING YOUR DECISIONS

n e w m o n e y a n d / o r n e w energy. M a n y of the r u n n i n g costs involved in a business are c o n s u m p t i v e uses, such as the fuel required for y o u r vehicles, a c c o u n t i n g fees, o r salaries. So are m a n y of the services you m i g h t purchase relating to a particular action, such as legal fees o r c o n s u l t i n g advice. If the source of the m o n e y o r energy used is in line w i t h y o u r holistic goal, and the action passes most of the o t h e r tests, a c o n s u m p t i v e use automatically tends to pass this o n e as l o n g as it moves you toward y o u r holistic goal. •

Is the proposed

use cyclical in that once initiated,

money, or the purchase

of more

it would

not require

more

energy?

A g o o d e x a m p l e of cyclical use w o u l d be the single e x p e n d i t u r e of m o n e y to install a hydraulic r a m for p u m p i n g water. Since falling water provides the e n e r g y that drives the p u m p , all water is thereafter p u m p e d at n o cost, assuming you i g n o r e the m i n i m a l m a i n t e n a n c e it takes to o p e r a t e the ram, w h i c h has f e w m o v i n g parts. U s i n g animal impact to break d o w n crop residues is a n o t h e r . T h i s m i g h t require an initial e x p e n d i t u r e of m o n e y for the t e m p o r a r y p o l y w i r e f e n c i n g that confines t h e animals in any o n e place. B u t each year thereafter, it w o u l d m e r e l y require p l a n n i n g , i m p l e m e n t a t i o n , and reuse of the m o v e able fences to have the animals d o the j o b using only solar energy. A cyclical use of m o n e y can be achieved in a n u m b e r of ways. W h e n m o n e y is used for a c o m m u n i t y revolving loan, for instance, it is cycling constantly, and, if e m p l o y e d wisely, it is g r o w i n g , too. So is the m o n e y you invest to purchase e q u i t y in a g r o w i n g business. Generally, a cyclical use that makes y o u r m o n e y g r o w o r enables you to forgo f u r t h e r purchases of e n e r g y is highly desirable, but again, t h e answer will d e p e n d on w h a t you have specified in y o u r holistic goal. •

Is the proposed dependence

use addictive

on further

in that once initiated,

inputs of energy or

you risk an

undesirable

money?

It is usually wise to avoid an addictive use of m o n e y or energy. A n addictive use is o n e that obliges y o u to take the same action again and again, possibly w i t h increasing f r e q u e n c y a n d / o r increasing cost. Addictive uses are c o m m o n l y associated w i t h agricultural businesses, particularly w h e n they involve a cause and effect situation in w h i c h the cause is n o t addressed. A n e x a m p l e of an addictive use of m o n e y and energy w o u l d be a parasite control p r o g r a m w h e r e t h e animals were d i p p e d in a c h e m i c a l (derived f r o m the e n e r g y c o n t a i n e d in fossil fuels) that n o t only killed the parasites b u t also their predators and thus g e n e r a t e d a greater parasite p r o b l e m n e e d i n g m o r e chemicals a n d m o r e money. M a i n s t r e a m a g r i c u l t u r e is full of similar examples. In o t h e r businesses, addictive uses of m o n e y will m o r e o f t e n b e d u e to h u m a n behavior patterns, and thus the action or tool tested w o u l d n o t

30

ENERGY AND M O N E Y : U S I N G T H E M O S T A P P R O P R I A T E F O R M S

315

likely b e addictive, b u t y o u r b e h a v i o r in using it c o u l d be. C r e d i t card p u r chases are a g o o d e x a m p l e . Y o u r decisions to purchase t h e items may well pass t h e testing, but y o u r b e h a v i o r w o u l d n e e d w a t c h i n g . T h e millions of A m e r i c a n s using credit cards probably feel each p u r c h a s e is n e e d e d , but the average credit card d e b t has c l i m b e d to over $7,000, o n w h i c h c o m p o u n d interest at 18 p e r c e n t or m o r e must be paid. 1 T h e m o s t o b v i o u s e x a m p l e of energy used in an addictive fashion is the fossil fuel—based e c o n o m y w e live in today. O u r d e p e n d e n c e o n these finite e n e r g y sources is f r i g h t e n i n g and possibly lethal. W e are c o n s u m i n g ever greater a m o u n t s of fossil fuels a n d s p e n d i n g m o r e a n d m o r e m o n e y to d o so. As c o m m u n i t i e s o r individuals w i t h holistic goals that specify a different scenario, w e can b e g i n w e a n i n g ourselves away f r o m the a d d i c t i o n . I am n o t suggesting w e stop c o n s u m i n g fossil fuels entirely. It is n o t their c o n s u m p t i o n , but the high rate of c o n s u m p t i o n that e n d a n g e r s life o n o u r planet.

Conclusion As I m e n t i o n e d , m o s t individuals have only limited p o w e r to c o n t r o l the source o f e n e r g y they use, a l t h o u g h citizens can speak o u t for b e t t e r g o v e r n a n c e , policies, planning, a n d regulation. You can also let c o n s c i e n c e e n t e r y o u r o w n decisions to flip a switch, design a building, or raise a crop. In t h e d e c a d e that s p a n n e d t h e 1980s, t h e millions of little things A m e r i c a n s did to w e a t h e r i z e their h o m e s and p l u g up leaks, plus t h e p u r chase of m o r e fuel efficient cars, yielded over seven times as m a n y a d d i tional B T U s as the net increase in supply f r o m all the n e w oil and gas wells, coal mines, and p o w e r plants built in the same p e r i o d . 2 R e m e m b e r that y o u r final decision will s e l d o m b e based o n any o n e of the tests. You will b e b u i l d i n g a m e n t a l p i c t u r e based on y o u r answers to each of t h e testing questions. O n l y at t h e e n d of t h e testing, w h e n t h e p i c ture is fully f o r m e d , will you d e c i d e w h e t h e r or n o t to i m p l e m e n t t h e decision.

31 Sustainability: Generating Lasting Wealth

h e sustainability test asks you to consider t h e l o n g - t e r m e n v i r o n mental a n d social c o n s e q u e n c e s of y o u r decisions relative to y o u r f u t u r e resource b a s e . T h e q u e s t i o n y o u ask is: If we take this action, ivill it lead toward or away from the future resource base described in our holistic goal? In every case t h e r e will be people w h o i n f l u e n c e or are i n f l u e n c e d by y o u r decisions and biological communities o n land and in t h e air o r w a t e r that will be affected either directly o r indirectly by y o u r decisions. In m a n y cases, t h e human community you live in or w o r k in will greatly affect y o u r success, and the services available in that c o m m u n i t y m a y be critical to y o u r future. T h i s is o n e of t h e f e w tests that asks y o u to focus o n a specific aspect of y o u r holistic goal, t h e f u t u r e resource base. T h e quality of life y o u seek and t h e f o r m s of p r o d u c t i o n that will s u p p o r t it are things y o u n e e d to have as s o o n as possible. T h e f u t u r e resource base is s o m e t h i n g you may w a n t j u s t as m u c h a n d can b e g i n m o v i n g toward, b u t achieving it in t h e short t e r m is n o t essential. In t h e l o n g t e r m , it does b e c o m e essential f o r sustaining a way of life a n d all that it takes to p r o d u c e it. T h u s t h e sustainability test ensures that all t h e decisions you m a k e to m e e t s h o r t - t e r m needs also provide lasting g a i n — t h a t they are socially, environmentally, a n d e c o n o m i c a l l y s o u n d in t e r m s of b o t h t h e f u t u r e and t h e present. Far t o o m a n y decisions that prove c o r r e c t in the s h o r t t e r m have disastrous c o n s e q u e n c e s in the l o n g t e r m . T h i s test seeks to avoid that. In earlier chapters, I w r o t e of past civilizations that had b e e n destroyed a l o n g w i t h their e n v i r o n m e n t as a direct result of decisions p e o p l e m a d e to m e e t their i m m e d i a t e needs. T h e millions of e n v i r o n m e n t a l refugees c a u g h t in t h e 316

395 3 1 I SUSTAINABILITY: GENERATING LASTING W E A L T H

m i r e of increasing civil unrest a n d violence, disease, a n d starvation today are a p r o d u c t of circumstances p r o d u c e d by s h o r t - t e r m decisions their parents, grandparents, a n d past g o v e r n m e n t s m a d e . T h e i r desperate plight will b e shared by us all if w e d o n o t b e g i n to consider h o w every significant d e c i sion affects o u r f u t u r e resource base.

Social Considerations For ease of expression, I have divided t h e e l e m e n t s of t h e f u t u r e resource base i n t o t w o categories—social and e n v i r o n m e n t a l . T h e p e o p l e affected by y o u r decisions, t h e c o m m u n i t y you live in, and t h e services available in y o u r c o m m u n i t y , if applicable, involve similar considerations, w h i l e the e n v i r o n m e n t a l category requires a different focus.

The People Affected

by Your

Decisions

N o m a t t e r w h a t type of business you are in, you n e e d to c o n s i d e r h o w the p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e p e o p l e i n c l u d e d i n y o u r f u t u r e r e s o u r c e base ( c l i e n t s / c u s t o m e r s a n d suppliers, e x t e n d e d family, advisors, and so on) are affected by t h e decisions you make. If y o u have described yourselves as h o n e s t , reliable, and professional, you w a n t to m a k e sure that t h e actions y o u take reflect this behavior. In a w o r k s h o p I ran s o m e years ago, o n e of the participants had a small e n g i n e e r i n g f i r m that designed a n d m a n u f a c t u r e d spare parts. H e asked if w e c o u l d help h i m to d e c i d e w h e t h e r or n o t to b u y an expensive piece of n e w m a c h i n e r y that w o u l d enable the f i r m to d o s o m e j o b s they c u r r e n t ly s u b c o n t r a c t e d to others. As a class, w e d e v e l o p e d a t e m p o r a r y holistic goal w i t h h i m , w h e r e h e expressed t h e n e e d for his c u s t o m e r s to see the f i r m as reliable, timely, and quality conscious. As w e b e g a n to test t h e decision of w h e t h e r o r n o t to b u y t h e n e w m a c h i n e , h e told us that t h e s u b c o n t r a c t o r s h e had w o r k e d w i t h u p to this p o i n t did n o t pay as m u c h a t t e n t i o n to quality as his f i r m w o u l d have liked. Also, they rarely got t h e j o b d o n e w h e n they said it w o u l d b e d o n e . B u y i n g a n e w piece of expensive m a c h i n e r y for a small s t a r t - u p c o m pany, as his was, w o u l d require a relatively large i n v e s t m e n t of m o n e y , m o s t of w h i c h w o u l d have to be b o r r o w e d . B u t the n e w m a c h i n e w o u l d enable the c o m p a n y to greatly i m p r o v e the quality of their p r o d u c t s a n d w o u l d enable t h e m to get those p r o d u c t s to t h e c u s t o m e r o n time. T h u s , they w o u l d b e g i n to m e e t the c o n d i t i o n s they had stipulated in their f u t u r e resource base, and b u y i n g t h e n e w m a c h i n e passed this test. It also passed all the o t h e r s that applied. A l t h o u g h t h e p u r c h a s e of t h e m a c h i n e w o u l d require the diversion of m o n e y to interest payments, t h e profit specified in t h e holistic goal was still

3'20 PART V I

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TESTING YOUR DECISIONS

e n h a n c e d . T h i s decision h a p p e n e d to be o n e that w o u l d result in a certain a m o u n t of g r o w t h for t h e f i r m . B u t the n e e d to c o m p e t e or g r o w was n o t part of the decision. M a k i n g a b e t t e r p r o d u c t and b e i n g able to deliver it to c u s t o m e r s o n t i m e was. T h e f i r m already had p l e n t y of business. T h i s decision w o u l d help to ensure they kept it.

The Community

You Live In

If t h e success of y o u r efforts d e p e n d s o n t h e c o m m u n i t y you live in, you n e e d to be sure that the actions you take p r o m o t e w h a t y o u r holistic goal envisions and espouses, or at least d o n o t adversely affect it. Suppose, for instance, that you p u r c h a s e d a t i m b e r lease in a national forest, a resource you shared w i t h multiple users. In describing y o u r f u t u r e resource base, you w o u l d have i n c l u d e d references as to h o w those p e o p l e w o u l d have to p e r ceive y o u , b u t y o u w o u l d also likely have expressed the desire to w o r k in a c o m m u n i t y w h e r e relationships were h a r m o n i o u s and peaceful. In p l a n n i n g h o w you will extract the timber, you see t h e highest profit in g r a d i n g roads capable of h a n d l i n g heavy e q u i p m e n t . H o w e v e r , this m e t h o d of extraction fails several tests toward y o u r holistic goal (sustainability, and energy, m o n e y source a n d use, in particular).Your road g r a d i n g w o u l d wash into the t r o u t streams, and y o u r e q u i p m e n t a n d the recreational vehicles and p o a c h e r s that followed it w o u l d upset the wildlife, hvestock, and aesthetics of the area in general. D o you lobby for special t r e a t m e n t and risk creating discord in t h e c o m m u n i t y or fold up y o u r business? S u c h dilemmas can b e agonizing, b u t rarely d o w e face only t w o choices, given a little h u m a n creativity. In this case s k i d d i n g logs w i t h m u l e teams or elephants ( d e p e n d i n g o n the c o n t i nent) m i g h t satisfy all parties, i n c l u d i n g y o u r banker.

Community

Services

If the f u t u r e resource base in y o u r hohstic goal includes a description of the sort of services that will n e e d to be available in y o u r c o m m u n i t y to provide t h e kind of life you aspire to, you w a n t to ensure that y o u r decisions gradually lead to those services b e i n g available. In this case y o u r decisions are likely to play only an indirect role, but t h e n again y o u r holistic goal m i g h t c o m p e l you to reshape certain decisions that c o u l d lead directly to t h e desired result. O n e of the small rural c o m m u n i t i e s I have w o r k e d w i t h in Z i m b a b w e has listed in its holistic goal a n u m b e r of services they h o p e to have in their c o m m u n i t y o n e day. O n e of these is a dental clinic, w h i c h at this p o i n t is only a d r e a m and is unlikely to b e p r o v i d e d by t h e cash-strapped g o v ernment.

395 3 1 I SUSTAINABILITY: GENERATING LASTING W E A L T H

T h e c o m m u n i t y has recently b e e n invited to participate in t h e h u n t i n g safari business. In r e t u r n for m a k i n g their land available to h u n t e r s , they receive a sizeable fee that, in t h e o r y at least, is shared all a r o u n d . H o w e v e r , in similar s c h e m e s in o t h e r parts of t h e country, m i d d l e m e n have taken their share of the fees and left little for distributing in t h e c o m m u n i t i e s . A l t h o u g h they have m a d e n o decision yet, I k n o w the p e o p l e in this p a r ticular c o m m u n i t y are hesitant to accept the offer because they are aware of t h e problems others have e x p e r i e n c e d . Instead, perhaps they could develop an alternative that w o u l d also enable t h e m to get the desired d e n tal clinic. S u p p o s e they m a d e their land available specifically to g r o u p s of E u r o p e a n o r A m e r i c a n dentists w h o relished the c h a n c e to h u n t o r v i e w g a m e in e x c h a n g e for their p e r i o d i c services and d o n a t e d e q u i p m e n t . T h i s c o u l d rather quickly and inexpensively p r o d u c e a desired service they m i g h t n o t o t h e r w i s e see for decades.

Environmental Considerations It is impossible to have a properly f o r m u l a t e d holistic goal w i t h o u t s o m e reference to t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e r e is n o t a citizen a m o n g us w h o does n o t eat, d r i n k , p r o d u c e bodily wastes that must be disposed of, o r c o n s u m e p r o d u c t s that affect o u r e n v i r o n m e n t either in their m a n n e r of p r o d u c t i o n or in their final resting place (usually t h e landfill). T h o s e specifically engaged in land or resource m a n a g e m e n t will have described a f u t u r e landscape in terms of h o w each of t h e f o u r ecosystem processes ( c o m m u n i t y dynamics, water cycle, m i n e r a l cycle, a n d e n e r g y flow) should f u n c t i o n . O t h e r s may have only a fairly general reference to the e n v i r o n m e n t in their f u t u r e resource base that refers to t h e landscape s u r r o u n d i n g their business o r c o m m u n i t y . H o w e v e r , the civil e n g i n e e r and the land use p l a n ner should a t t e m p t to find o u t h o w the layout and design o f a n e w road or plans for a residential d e v e l o p m e n t , o r for disposing of w a t e r r u n o f f f r o m roads and roofs, are g o i n g to affect t h e f o u r ecosystem processes, relative to t h e f u t u r e resource base described by t h e c o m m u n i t y and the level of brittleness that exists in that e n v i r o n m e n t . As m o r e urban c o m m u n i t i e s begin to m a n a g e holistically and describe their resource base of the future, they will begin to appreciate t h e value of this test. M o s t p e o p l e and m a n y businesses, particularly those that provide services rather than m a n u f a c t u r e d products, m a y find it difficult to see h o w their actions affect land they are n o t directly responsible for. As m e n t i o n e d in C h a p t e r 9, all of t h e m at s o m e p o i n t , t h r o u g h c o n s u m p t i o n of raw materials m a n u f a c t u r e d i n t o a p r o d u c t and their use of technology, have a tie back to the land and affect the f u n c t i o n i n g of the f o u r ecosystem processes. T h u s , any actions they take should pass t h r o u g h this test if they

3'20

PART V I

I TESTING YOUR DECISIONS

involve t h e c o n s u m p t i o n of products or t h e use of technology. I single o u t sunlight-harvesting and m a n u f a c t u r i n g businesses b e l o w because in b o t h cases they involve fairly detailed considerations and d e m o n s t r a t e t h e c o n siderable p o w e r of this test.

Sunlight

Harvesting

Businesses

If you are in a sunlight-harvesting business (farming, ranching, wildlife, or forest m a n a g e m e n t ) most of the decisions y o u m a k e will be related to land m a n a g e m e n t . T h e actions you test o f t e n deal w i t h o n e or m o r e of the tools covered in C h a p t e r s 16 to 24. In this test you w a n t to d e t e r m i n e h o w the proposed action o r tool is likely to affect t h e f o u r ecosystem processes relative to t h e brittleness of y o u r e n v i r o n m e n t . Is the likely result g o i n g to take y o u toward o r away f r o m t h e f u t u r e resource base described in y o u r hohstic goal? If y o u r f u t u r e landscape describes o p e n grassland, and certain areas are m o v i n g toward dense brushland, y o u m i g h t consider applying t h e tool of fire, b u t b e f o r e taking this action you w o u l d first review t h e effects o f fire on the f o u r ecosystem processes: •

Community dynamics: Will fire actually kill the brush in question or merely damage the above-ground parts temporarily and cause the brush to resprout more thickly? W h a t fire-sensitive species are present that you do not want to kill? H o w will other species and their y o u n g fare in the microenvironment that fire creates at the surface? W h a t species will find opportunity in the bare soil exposed by the flame? H o w often will fire be necessary? W h a t about the atmospheric pollution created and its effects far from the site?

•

Water cycle: Fire will damage it somewhat. H o w m u c h damage can the land stand? W h a t loss in soil structure and aeration quality can the land afford?

•

Mineral cycle: H o w well is this functioning now? W h e n the fire exposes the surface and reduces its population of microorganisms, h o w long will it take to build t h e m back to levels that cycle minerals effectively? D o you have ways to cope w i t h o u t b u r n i n g again before that?

•

Energy flow: H o w m u c h of the present energy flow enhances production? Would this be increased or reduced by fire?

Your answers to each of these questions will vary d e p e n d i n g o n h o w b r i t tle y o u r e n v i r o n m e n t is. If m a n y of these answers t u r n up negative, you should consider a n o t h e r tool to stop the b r u s h . Ideally it w o u l d be o n e that w o u l d m a i n t a i n grass root vigor w i t h o u t e x p o s i n g the soil b e t w e e n plants or aggravating the brush p r o b l e m . Y o u m i g h t well decide in this particular case to use herd effect (animal impact) and to apply limited doses of h e r -

395 3 1 I SUSTAINABILITY: GENERATING LASTING W E A L T H

bicide (technology) in the w o r s t places, but again only if these decisions passed all the same tests. A n y time y o u are dealing w i t h organisms that b e c o m e a p r o b l e m because they are either t o o f e w o r t o o m a n y in n u m b e r , focus first o n c o m m u n i t y dynamics. As m e n t i o n e d in C h a p t e r 13, w h e n you m a n a g e for t h e health of t h e w h o l e c o m m u n i t y , various species t e n d to take care of t h e m selves and thrive w i t h i n their c o m m u n i t y w i t h o u t b e c o m i n g so n u m e r o u s as to be classified as pests or so f e w that w e classify t h e m as rare and e n d a n gered. A n y actions that address a particular species in isolation, with little regard for the whole, can m e e t only w i t h s h o r t - t e r m success and will g e n e r ally fail this test for l o n g - t e r m sustainability. M a n y p e o p l e dedicated to saving a particular species find this t h i n k i n g surprisingly difficult to translate into action, as n u m e r o u s laws a n d p r o grams for saving the ferret, t h e owl, t h e tortoise, t h e gorilla, or t h e local t r o u t show. H o w m a n y c o m m i t e n o r m o u s resources i n t o p r o t e c t i o n , o f t e n to t h e d e t r i m e n t of t h e p r o t e c t e d species as well as o t h e r species a n d little i n t o r e g e n e r a t i n g the e n v i r o n m e n t as a w h o l e ? N o a m o u n t of captive breeding, plantings, culling of predators, p o i s o n i n g of c o m p e t i t o r s , or o t h e r n a r r o w l y focused actions will b r i n g back a creature that has lost its n i c h e entirely o r even a critical e l e m e n t , such as cover or water, in its habitat. T h e w o r l d a b o u n d s in examples of failures s t e m m i n g f r o m failure to consider t h e c o m m u n i t y as a w h o l e . I t h i n k back to Z i m b a b w e w h e r e early in this c e n t u r y vast ranches in t h e s o u t h e r n part of t h e c o u n t r y had high p o p u l a t i o n s of sable a n d roan a n t e l o p e alongside significant herds of wildebeest a n d zebra. As t h e ranchers regarded t h e latter as serious c o m p e t i t o r s , they shot t h e m o n sight by t h e thousands, w h i l e t h e majestic sable a n d roan, valued as "royal game," e n j o y e d c o m p l e t e p r o t e c t i o n f r o m hunting. Nevertheless, w i t h i n a b o u t thirty years t h e roan a n d sable disappeared completely, and t h e s h o o t i n g of zebra a n d wildebeest c o n t i n u e s , n o w for the c o m m e r c i a l m a r k e t . D u r i n g this t i m e t h e f o u r ecosystem processes have c h a n g e d p r o f o u n d l y in this area. Biological c o m m u n i t i e s have simplified as m a n y species have disappeared, w a t e r and mineral cycles are badly d a m a g e d , and e n e r g y flow has declined to a fraction of its potential as the land desertifies. It is this, n o t h u n t i n g policy, that explains w h a t h a p p e n e d to t h e game. H a d the g o v e r n m e n t ' s e x t e n s i o n service and legislators focused o n the health of t h e f o u r ecosystem processes a n d h o w they had to be to sustain t h e sable and roan p o p u l a t i o n s and ultimately people, the o u t c o m e w o u l d have b e e n very different. Z e b r a and wildebeest survive over a w i d e range of successional c o m munities, w h e r e a s the sable a n d roan thrive only in a m u c h n a r r o w e r range that is h i g h e r in succession. Figure 3 1 - 1 shows w h a t h a p p e n e d . E u r o p e a n colonists f o u n d w o n d e r f u l l y p r o d u c t i v e cattle c o u n t r y in c o n d i t i o n A, but by t h e 1950s they had r e d u c e d it to c o n d i t i o n B t h r o u g h t h e way they

3'20 PART V I

TESTING YOUR DECISIONS

Sable and Roan Zebra and Wildebeest

Population Size

Simple CommunityFew Species Figure 31-1

I

-Complex Community Many Species

Sable and roan populations

declined because the environment

had

deteriorated to such an extent that it could no longer support them. In the 1920s environment

the

was at condition A, but within 30 years had been reduced to condition

The zebra and wildebeest could survive over a wider range of environmental than the roan and sable populations

and therefore continued

B.

conditions

to thrive.

decided to apply t h e m a n a g e m e n t tools. O v e r g r a z i n g of plants, partial rest of t h e soil, f e n c i n g that i m p e d e d g a m e m o v e m e n t , killing t h e predators that h a d p r o m o t e d g a m e c o n c e n t r a t i o n and m o v e m e n t , a n d increased use of fire caused succession to slip b e l o w the level that s u p p o r t s roan and sable. Typical policies toward predators present a n o t h e r e x a m p l e of deeply i n g r a i n e d blindness that a t t e n t i o n to c o m m u n i t y d y n a m i c s in particular m i g h t e n l i g h t e n . W e n e e d m u c h m o r e research into t h e role of predators, but w e at least are b e g i n n i n g to sense h o w t h e relationship b e t w e e n p r e d a tors a n d h e r d i n g animals kept brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s f r o m desertifying over millions of years. W e can only guess at the n u m b e r of o t h e r situations w h e r e o u r u n i n f o r m e d d e s t r u c t i o n of predators has cost us dearly. C h a p t e r 42, o n p o p u l a t i o n m a n a g e m e n t , discusses possible ways to deal w i t h p r e d a tors that b e c o m e a p r o b l e m . T h e sustainability test also is particularly i m p o r t a n t in assessing the p o l i cies that p r e d o m i n a t e d d u r i n g the so-called G r e e n R e v o l u t i o n , that era w h e n w e had s u p r e m e c o n f i d e n c e that m o d e r n h i g h - t e c h a g r i c u l t u r e could feed t h e w o r l d w i t h o u t any p r o b l e m . As a result, w e still rarely q u e s tion t h e fertilizers, pesticides, extraordinary machines, a n d o t h e r tools e m e r g i n g u n d e r t h e h e a d i n g of technology. T h e s e have e n c o u r a g e d m o n o culture plantings of annual crops, and t h e e n g i n e e r i n g of n e w plants and n e w pesticides to w h i c h these plants and n o others are i m m u n e . H o w e v e r , a b u n d a n t evidence n o w indicates t h e resultant d a m a g e to all f o u r of the ecosystem processes. W h e n phasing f a r m s f r o m G r e e n R e v o l u t i o n a g r i c u l t u r e to m o r e sci-

395 3 1 I SUSTAINABILITY: GENERATING LASTING W E A L T H

entifically, and holistically, s o u n d practices, w e o f t e n have to use measures initially that fail the sustainability test, just to stay solvent. H o w e v e r , this is n o t d o n e in ignorance. K n o w i n g that a measure is u n s o u n d allows you to start shifting y o u r m a n a g e m e n t , in t h e t i m e b o u g h t by its use, a n d to f m d a way back to sustainable agricultural practices.

Manufacturing

Businesses

T h e m a j o r i t y of actions taken in a m a n u f a c t u r i n g business will involve the tool of technology, w h i c h , a l t h o u g h it may n o t b e used directly o n the land, will i m p a c t t h e e n v i r o n m e n t at various stages: w h e n the raw m a t e r i als to be used in m a n u f a c t u r i n g are extracted o r p r o d u c e d , d u r i n g the m a n u f a c t u r i n g process itself (and the wastes it generates), and in t h e final disposal of the m a n u f a c t u r e d products. In this test, y o u are c o n s i d e r i n g h o w actions relating to any o n e of those three stages will affect t h e ecosystem processes relative to the future resource base you have described. F e w m a n u f a c t u r i n g businesses include a detailed description of the ecosystem processes in their f u t u r e resource base, b u t s o m e k n o w l e d g e of t h e m b e c o m e s necessary to w e i g h t h e effects of any decision o n the e n v i r o n m e n t . T h o s e effects are m o s t obvious w h e n you l o o k at c o m m u n i t y dynamics. T h e waste p r o d u c e d in the m a n u f a c t u r i n g process and m a n y of the materials used in the products themselves may n o t break d o w n . Very f e w p r o d u c t s m a n u f a c t u r e d today are biodegradable, m e a n i n g that organisms of o n e f o r m or a n o t h e r can c o n s u m e t h e m rapidly and completely. E v e n w o o d e n f u r n i t u r e is o f t e n varnished w i t h p r o d u c t s that can persist in the soil, water, and air f o r years. T h e cumulative effects of these n o n b i o d e g r a d a b l e and unnatural substances affect t h e w e b of interrelationships that exist in all biological c o m m u n i t i e s , their health, and stability. B e i n g " u n n a t u r a l " the substances are f r e q u e n t l y toxic to m a n y organisms, adversely affecting their ability to f u n c t i o n , i m p a i r i n g their ability to p r o d u c e healthy offspring, and occasionally killing t h e m and the organisms that feed o n t h e m . Because water and mineral cycles and e n e r g y flow all d e p e n d o n living organisms, these are adversely affected as well. A l m o s t certainly, the f u t u r e resource base of any m a n u f a c t u r i n g business will include customers, clients, a n d e m p l o y e e families w h o will b e c o n c e r n e d w i t h the business's i m p a c t on t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . So there is n o situation w h e n these considerations and this test w o u l d n o t apply. In C h a p t e r 3 , 1 n o t e d the m a n y successes and the g e n u i n e c o m f o r t that t e c h nology have afforded us. Each example, however, c o u l d be considered successful only if w e ignored the effects o n o u r e n v i r o n m e n t s t e m m i n g f r o m its m a n u f a c t u r e or disposal. T h i s test is a r e m i n d e r of that, a n d should e n c o u r a g e m a n u f a c t u r e r s to f i n d ways to create products that f r o m their

3'20 PART V I

I

TESTING YOUR DECISIONS

c o n c e p t i o n to the end of their useful lives, are e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y b e n i g n , if not enhancing. S o m e t i m e s d e v e l o p i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y b e n i g n p r o d u c t s can b e as easy as m a k i n g a switch f r o m raw materials suppliers w h o use e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y d a m a g i n g m e t h o d s of e x t r a c t i o n o r r e f i n e m e n t to those w h o have m i n i m i z e d the d a m a g e o r eliminated it altogether. S o m e t i m e s w i t h c o n s i d e r ably m o r e creativity and effort you can m o d i f y the m a n u f a c t u r i n g process itself to eliminate d a n g e r o u s wastes by c o n v e r t i n g t h e m to n o n t o x i c b y p r o d u c t s that can b e safely c o n s u m e d by living organisms or recycled for o t h e r uses. E l i m i n a t i n g the e n v i r o n m e n t a l d a m a g e that occurs w h e n a p r o d u c t is finally disposed of has its o w n challenges. Ultimately, p r o d u c t disposal will require a different relationship than c u r r e n t l y exists b e t w e e n the m a n u f a c t u r e r and the p r o d u c t c o n s u m e r . M a n u f a c t u r e r s can d o e v e r y t h i n g in their p o w e r to r e d u c e or eliminate n o n b i o d e g r a d a b l e materials in the p r o d u c t s they m a n u f a c t u r e , b u t are unlikely to b e able to eliminate t h e m all. T h u s , if the m a n u f a c t u r e r is to ensure that the p r o d u c t is n o t to be e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y d a m a g i n g w h e n finally discarded, it is likely that the m a n u f a c t u r e r will have to take the p r o d u c t back f r o m t h e c o n s u m e r and recycle t h e materials that d o n o t break d o w n . T h i s is n o t as f a r - f e t c h e d as it sounds. A t least o n e G e r m a n a u t o m a n ufacturer, B M W , has built a pilot disassembly plant to recycle its older cars, and n e w e r m o d e l s are b e i n g designed w i t h disassembly in m i n d . T h e n u m ber of different types of plastic and o t h e r materials have b e e n r e d u c e d to e n h a n c e reusability. W i t h these and o t h e r modifications, the designers h o p e to create a car w h o s e c o m p o n e n t s are 100 p e r c e n t reusable. 1 O n c e m i n i n g c o m p a n i e s c o m e to see themselves as p r i m a r i l y in the business of p r o v i d i n g minerals, rather t h a n limiting themselves to m i n i n g minerals f r o m d i m i n i s h i n g deposits, they c a n e x p a n d their business o p p o r tunities e n o r m o u s l y by e x t r a c t i n g minerals f r o m m a n u f a c t u r e d p r o d u c t s and m a k i n g t h e m available for reuse. M a n y m i n i n g c o m p a n i e s already have the t e c h n o l o g y and m o s t of the skills to d o this. T h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l O r g a n i z a t i o n for Standardization (ISO) o n E n v i r o n m e n t a l l y R e s p o n s i b l e M a n a g e m e n t , h e a d q u a r t e r e d in G e n e v a and r e p resenting over a h u n d r e d c o u n t r i e s , has p r o d u c e d a series of e n v i r o n m e n t a l m a n a g e m e n t standards k n o w n as I S O 14000. T h e s e standards are a m a j o r step f o r w a r d , and a n u m b e r of m a n u f a c t u r e r s are already a t t e m p t i n g to c o m p l y w i t h t h e m . T h e N a t u r a l Step, a p r o g r a m developed in S w e d e n and recently i n t r o d u c e d in the U n i t e d States, also aims to e n c o u r a g e e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y responsible m a n a g e m e n t . T h e p r o g r a m is based o n f o u r principles or system c o n d i t i o n s that serve as a standard for e n v i r o n m e n t a l and social responsibility. 2 This p r o g r a m emphasizes i n t e r n a l m o t i v a t i o n and creativity over c o m p l i a n c e w i t h m o r e specific standards and a l t h o u g h less well k n o w n has attracted the a t t e n t i o n of a n u m b e r of large m a n u f a c t u r e r s .

31

I SUSTAINABILITY: GENERATING LASTING W E A L T H

Service Providers,

Households,

and

395

Consumers

N o t only does t h e c o m p a n y m a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o d u c t s need to c o n c e r n itself w i t h the p o l l u t i o n it creates, b u t so do t h e p e o p l e w h o purchase, use, and t h e n discard t h e products. If an action y o u plan to take involves the p u r chase o r use of a p r o d u c t that, o n c e discarded, will n o t b e c o n s u m e d by living organisms, y o u may w a n t to substitute it for a n o t h e r or find ways to recycle it. In s o m e cases y o u r options will b e severely limited because m o s t of w h a t is m a n u f a c t u r e d and available today is n o t e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y b e n i g n . B u t y o u will k n o w that if t h e future resource base y o u have described in y o u r holistic goal includes healthy land a n d healthy p e o p l e o n it, y o u will have to do s o m e t h i n g — a n d fortunately, y o u will n o t b e alone in y o u r dilemma. All of us face the same future, and if w e wait m u c h l o n g e r to tackle this f u n d a m e n t a l p r o b l e m it will ultimately destroy us.You can m a k e a start by decreasing y o u r c o n s u m p t i o n of n o n b i o d e g r a d a b l e products, s u p p o r t i n g w i t h y o u r p u r c h a s i n g p o w e r m a n u f a c t u r e r s w h o w o r k to create p r o d u c t s that d o n o t d a m a g e t h e e n v i r o n m e n t and participating in recycling efforts in y o u r o w n c o m m u n i t y .

Conclusion N o n e of w h a t is described in y o u r f u t u r e resource base will be attained quickly and w i t h only a f e w actions. Yet every action, h o w e v e r small, that takes y o u in t h e direction y o u w a n t to go is progress, and cumulatively small actions add up to a big difference. All of this may s e e m a lot to c o n c e r n yourself w i t h . B u t until y o u do, until w e all do, w e c a n n o t h o p e to create a c o m m u n i t y , nation, or even a civilization that is viable or sustainable.

32 Society and Culture: Personal Values and Social Responsibility

o w do t h e actions w e take affect the quality of o u r lives? In o u r pursuit of progress n o consideration deserves m o r e reflection, and typically n o n e gets less. C o r p o r a t i o n s c o n c e n t r a t e o n shareholder response to the n e x t quarterly report; politicians o n t h e n e x t election; ranchers c o n centrate o n p r o d u c t i o n of livestock; f a r m e r s o n p r o d u c t i o n per acre; e n v i ronmentalists o n g r o w i n g trees; loggers o n c u t t i n g trees. Generals fixate o n c o u n t i n g bodies and missionaries o n c o u n t i n g souls. F e w of us stop l o n g e n o u g h to n o t i c e that in o u r pursuit of progress, w e s h o o t d o w n o u r o w n dreams and those of others. W h e r e the o t h e r tests have only t o u c h e d o n quality of hfe c o n c e r n s , this o n e addresses t h e m directly.The questions you

H

ask i n t h i s t e s t a r e : How

do we feel about this action now? Will it lead to the

ity of life we desire? Will

it adversely

affect the lives of

qual-

others?

T h e society and culture test is n o r m a l l y p e r f o r m e d last because it should take i n t o a c c o u n t the m e n t a l p i c t u r e that has f o r m e d after passing t h r o u g h all the others. In each of the previous tests you have in effect b e e n l o o k i n g at o n e of t h e small squares in the h o l o g r a m of Lincoln's face. N o w you are asked to blur t h e m t o g e t h e r to see t h e face as a w h o l e , and, based o n that picture, m a k e y o u r decision. B u t w h e r e each of the o t h e r tests asked w h a t you t h i n k , this o n e asks h o w you feel. H o w you feel is in large part g o i n g to be based o n t h e values reflected in y o u r quality of life s t a t e m e n t . A n d these, in m a n y respects, are a reflection of t h e traditions, customs, and culture shared by those w h o have f o r m e d the hohstic goal. Occasionally, this test may cause you to q u e s t i o n the value of certain customs o r traditions. Are they really w o r t h preserving? H a v e circumstances c h a n g e d t o such an e x t e n t that they have b e c o m e 326

32

SOCIETY AND CULTURE: PERSONAL VALUES AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY

327

c o u n t e r p r o d u c t i v e ? If you did n o t ask these questions w h e n f o r m i n g y o u r holistic goal, they may have to be addressed here. T h e answers may well cause you to revise your v i e w of h o w you w a n t y o u r life, in this particular w h o l e , to be. As m e n t i o n e d in C h a p t e r 10, the testing process o f t e n leads to r e f i n e m e n t s in y o u r holistic goal, and this e x a m p l e is a case in p o i n t . O n the o t h e r h a n d , this test should also b e used to ensure that customs and traditions you value are n o t lost. Last, this test asks you to consider h o w an action c o u l d affect t h e lives of those outside your i m m e d i a t e w h o l e , f r o m the society you live in, to the greater society that comprises all h u m a n s . Pleasing e v e r y b o d y may seem impossible, but y o u can go a l o n g way by e m b r a c i n g the holistic p r i n ciple that the health of your particular interest is n o t distinct f r o m the health of the greater w h o l e . T h i s is, in effect, a test for social consciousness, and m o r e than any other, it helps to ensure that a decision is socially s o u n d . T h e lack of a t t e n t i o n to the quality of o u r lives in o u r national decision m a k i n g has resulted in n u m e r o u s tragedies, o n e of t h e most obvious b e i n g the state of A m e r i c a n agriculture. T h e A m e r i c a n g o v e r n m e n t , w i t h the acquiescence of m a n y in t h e industry, u n d e r t o o k to increase p r o d u c t i o n solely in terms of quantity. F r o m g o v e r n m e n t and universities and i n d u s try leaders the message was p u t over powerfully: get big or get o u t . N o o n e paid e n o u g h a t t e n t i o n to t h e families that w o u l d be displaced as big f a r m s swallowed smaller ones and m o r e p o w e r f u l m a c h i n e r y a n d larger m o n o culture fields displaced labor. P r o d u c t i o n b o o m e d , b u t at t h e cost of a polluted e n v i r o n m e n t , massive soil erosion, and e n o r m o u s social dislocation. H u n d r e d s of thousands of family f a r m s vanished, dissipating generations of practical k n o w l e d g e . T h e dispossessed drifted to urban centers and struggled to adjust to an alien cult u r e . T h e churches, small businesses, and cultural centers in the small t o w n s that served those p e o p l e have w i t h e r e d away. Suicide has n o w overtaken accidents as the chief cause o f death a m o n g the f a r m e r s that remain. H i n d s i g h t gives us perfect vision. W h a t if w e had f o r m e d a national holistic goal and used the society and culture test b e f o r e so optimistically t u r n i n g agriculture i n t o a m e c h a n i z e d , chemically addicted, capital-intense industry? W i t h its o n c e vast a n d fertile prairie soils, the likes of w h i c h n o nation had ever enjoyed, t h e U n i t e d States w o u l d still m o s t likely have b e c o m e the world's greatest agricultural p r o d u c e r , w h i l e m a i n t a i n i n g its healthy rural p o p u l a t i o n s , t h e villages and t o w n s that served t h e m , and vast, diversified markets. S o m e people, such as t h e Amish, did n o t i g n o r e the quality of life factor in m a k i n g their decisions. Quality of life was a n d still remains p a r a m o u n t . Y e t while m o r e so-called progressive, p r o d u c t i o n - o r i e n t e d f a r m e r s f l o u n d e r , the A m i s h c o n t i n u e to flourish. M o s t of the decisions y o u consider will n o t be of this m a g n i t u d e . Yet it is j u s t as i m p o r t a n t that y o u r holistic goal spell o u t quality of life desires as

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clearly as possible. Individuals or families m a n a g i n g their o w n lives have n o less n e e d to do this than o t h e r s . T h e difference that clarity in t h e quality of life s t a t e m e n t makes in c o n s i d e r i n g t h e society and culture test can b e startling, as o n e c o u p l e discovered w h e n they tested a decision almost as an afterthought. C h r i s K n i p p e n b e r g ' s m o t h e r had offered to give h e r a horse that h e r t w o children c o u l d ride. All C h r i s and h e r h u s b a n d Phil ( H o b b i e ) h a d to d o was pay t h e cost of having the horse s h i p p e d f r o m h e r parents' ranch in C o l o r a d o to their f a r m in V e r m o n t . C h r i s i m m e d i a t e l y started p r i c i n g transportation, w h i c h t u r n e d o u t to be expensive, b u t t h e h o r s e was after all a gift, and t h e horse itself w o u l d be free. "I was a p h o n e call away f r o m h i r i n g t h e shippers," says C h r i s , " w h e n Phil suggested w e test taking t h e horse against n o t taking it. Well, t h e gift horse started failing all the tests, particularly t h e financial ones. T h i s horse wasn't g o i n g to e a r n us any i n c o m e o n the f a r m ; it w o u l d require feed and possibly n e w f e n c i n g and even a shelter. A n d w e k n e w almost n o t h i n g a b o u t taking care of horses." B u t the society and culture test clinched their decision. " W e w a n t to have a close, caring family w h e r e w e d o things together. W i t h o n e h o r s e and f o u r p e o p l e , w e w o u l d n o t be able to e n j o y it as a f a m i l y . T h e h o r s e w o u l d be yet a n o t h e r solitary pursuit f o r o n e of us. It w o u l d take t i m e and resources away f r o m us, rather than b r i n g us together." In f i g u r i n g o u t h o w to break the n e w s to Chris's m o t h e r , they n o t e d that their quality of life i n c l u d e d s t r e n g t h e n i n g ties w i t h their extended family. " I t d a w n e d o n us that f o r t h e p r i c e of s h i p p i n g t h e horse o u t here to V e r m o n t , w e c o u l d instead afford to fly t h e w h o l e family out to m y p a r ents' ranch for a w e e k , and s p e n d t i m e w i t h t h e m . T h e y have lots of h o r s es, and all the facilities and expertise, and w e could spend a w e e k r i d i n g horses t o g e t h e r as a family. I was a m a z e d at h o w clearly t h e testing enabled us to see w h a t was so obviously t h e right decision for us."' If you have b e e n slightly o v e r w h e l m e d by all t h e factors considered in each of the seven tests, I h o p e t h e above e x a m p l e d e m o n s t r a t e s h o w easily and quickly m o s t d a y - t o - d a y decisions can be m a d e . T h i s is j u s t as o f t e n the case w h e n y o u are r u n n i n g a business and p l a n n i n g y o u r profit. O n e e x a m p l e W a s h i n g t o n f a r m e r B r u c e G r e g o r y likes to cite involved a d e c i sion h e a n d his wife, C o l l e e n , m a d e b e t w e e n u p g r a d i n g s o m e old fencing, as part of a l o n g - t e r m p r o g r a m , and b u i l d i n g a n e w s o l a r - p o w e r e d p u m p ing station. B o t h actions had m u c h in their favor, b u t there was m o n e y e n o u g h to i m p l e m e n t only o n e of t h e m . A c c o r d i n g to B r u c e , B o t h actions ultimately dealt with the harvesting of solar e n e r gy a n d addressed the w e a k link in o u r chain of p r o d u c t i o n . N e i t h e r w o u l d lead to an addictive use of e n e r g y or m o n e y

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(energy, wealth source a n d use), and b o t h w o u l d lead us toward t h e f u t u r e resource base described in o u r holistic goal (sustainability). M a r g i n a l reaction, however, really s h o w e d u p the differences a n d h e l p e d us to m a k e t h e decision. O u r filbert orchard h a d suffered over each of t h e last twelve years d u r i n g t h e d r y m o n t h s d u e to lack of water, w h i c h t h e n e w p u m p i n g station c o u l d provide at little cost. T h e primitive w a t e r i n g t e c h n o l o g y w e were using was inefficient and was d r a g g i n g us d o w n w i t h extra h u m a n labor. It p r o v i d e d a p o o r marginal reaction p e r h o u r of effort. N e w f e n c i n g , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d w o u l d d o little in t e r m s of marginal reaction per h o u r o f effort, n o r w o u l d it give as high a r e t u r n in t e r m s of the additional dollars invested in it. H o w did w e feel n o w ? T h e s o l a r - p o w e r e d p u m p i n g station was the o b v i o u s way to g o that year; it w o u l d e n h a n c e the q u a l ity of o u r lives a n d it w o u l d n ' t adversely affect a n y o n e else. O u r f e n c i n g p r o g r a m w o u l d be set back a year, but t h e existing f e n c e c o u l d easily last a n o t h e r grazing season. O u r backs and the tractor used for h a u l i n g tankfuls of w a t e r c o u l d n o t . W e really d i d n't have to talk a b o u t this decision f o r m o r e than t e n m i n u t e s , t h e differences b e t w e e n t h e t w o actions were p r e t t y e v i d e n t . 2 Because y o u r final decision is based o n the m e n t a l p i c t u r e that f o r m s as you pass t h r o u g h t h e o t h e r six tests, the society a n d culture test may b e o n e that those unfamiliar w i t h the process fail to u n d e r s t a n d . T h e s e p e o p l e may in fact exert considerable pressure, o f t e n o u t of g e n u i n e c o n c e r n , to dissuade you f r o m taking a particular a c t i o n . T h a t ' s only o n e m o r e reason w h y o w n e r s h i p in y o u r holistic goal is so essential. Several years ago, I spent a day in a w o r k s h o p w i t h a n u m b e r of business executives, o n e of w h o m attracted m y a t t e n t i o n because h e was r u n n i n g a profitable business based o n an a m b i t i o u s social mission: to e n c o u r a g e all m o t h e r s to breastfeed their babies. His firm m a n u f a c t u r e d a l l - c o t t o n c l o t h i n g f o r w o m e n that was designed to m a k e breastfeeding in public easy and discreet, a n d therefore, m o r e desirable. T h e firm was p r o f itable e n o u g h that each year they c o u l d m a k e g e n e r o u s c o n t r i b u t i o n s to social p r o g r a m s that s u p p o r t e d the c o m p a n y ' s mission. R e c e n t l y t h e e x e c utive h a d c o m m i s s i o n e d an outside firm to c o n d u c t a " g r e e n a u d i t " that scrutinized every aspect o f t h e o p e r a t i o n to assess t h e i m p a c t of his business o n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e results had b e e n v e r y positive. W h e n I asked h i m a b o u t t h e source of t h e c o t t o n fabric he purchased, he n a m e d a local supplier w h o in t u r n purchased it f r o m mills located in the U n i t e d States a n d overseas. I suggested that w h e r e h e b o u g h t his f a b -

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TESTING YOUR DECISIONS

ric was a decision h e m i g h t w a n t to test. C o t t o n g r o w n in t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l m a n n e r generally requires large doses of pesticides a n d damages soil s t r u c ture and microorganisms, w h i c h in t u r n causes soil to e r o d e and silt to clog lakes, rivers, a n d dams and ultimately leads to social p r o b l e m s associated w i t h land d e g r a d a t i o n . In a n u m b e r of d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s , D D T , a pesticide c o m m o n l y applied to c o t t o n , is n o w present in h u m a n breast milk. O b v i o u s l y this is not s o m e t h i n g a socially responsible f i r m w o u l d w a n t to c o n t r i b u t e to. So I asked t h e executive to roughly define a holistic goal that h e and his employees w o u l d aspire to so w e c o u l d c o m p a r e t w o sources of c o t t o n f a b r i c — t h e supplier h e was already using a n d a n o t h e r w h o specialized in organic c o t t o n fabric. M a n y of the tests did n o t apply in h e l p i n g us to decide w h i c h source was better. W e w e r e n ' t dealing w i t h a p r o b l e m (cause and effect), c o m p a r i n g enterprises (gross profit analysis), assessing the weak link in t h e chain o f p r o d u c t i o n , o r c o n c e r n e d at this stage w i t h the source or use of t h e e n e r g y a n d money. B u t t h e o t h e r tests gave us p l e n t y to c o n sider. T h e sustainability test favored t h e organic c o t t o n over t h e c o n v e n tional, but the m a r g i n a l reaction test favored t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l c o t t o n over the organic in t e r m s of t h e dollars invested. T h e final decision w o u l d be based o n the society and culture test, w h i c h I left to h i m to c o n s i d e r o n his o w n . T h i s final test, m o r e than any other, can b e d o n e only by those w h o f o r m e d the holistic goal. O u t s i d e r s can o f t e n help w i t h advice o r expertise o n m a n y of the others, but it is c o u n t e r p r o d u c t i v e in this test.You are c o n sidering decisions in this case based o n y o u r o w n cultural and social values, and it w o u l d be close to impossible f o r a n y o n e else to u n d e r s t a n d t h e m as well as you do. I can only guess w h a t this m a n d e c i d e d to do. Because his c o m p a n y had a well-deserved r e p u t a t i o n as a socially conscious business, I a m sure he and his c o - w o r k e r s d e c i d e d to d o something, a l t h o u g h they w o u l d n o t b e able to m a k e radical changes o v e r n i g h t .

Testing Guidelines Summary W e have n o w covered all of the testing guidelines d e v e l o p e d to date. If you have considered each of these tests in evaluating any action you plan to take, y o u will have g o n e far in p r e v e n t i n g costly and u n s o u n d decisions. Ideally, all actions should pass all tests that apply, and those that d o almost certainly will give economically, ecologically, and socially s o u n d results. A n y actions that fail this year may pass later as y o u r m a n a g e m e n t takes effect and the w h o l e situation changes. R e m e m b e r that speed is essential to the process. It is the speed that gives y o u the b i g - p i c t u r e clarity you n e e d . If you c a n n o t quickly answer

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"yes" o r " n o " to a qtiestion, bypass t h e test. M o s t of the t i m e you will c o m e back to that test only if you are unable to reach a c o n c l u s i o n after passing t h r o u g h all t h e others. H o w e v e r , if y o u have t o bypass t h e cause a n d effect or w e a k link tests, it may be pointless to c o n t i n u e the testing until y o u have answers for these two. Given time and practice, the c o n c e p t s u n d e r l y i n g t h e seven tests will b e c o m e so familiar that you will automatically take t h e m into a c c o u n t b e f o r e y o u c o m e close to m a k i n g a decision.You will start to l o o k for the u n d e r l y i n g cause of a p r o b l e m b e f o r e y o u even b e g i n to consider p o t e n tial remedies. B e f o r e y o u c o n t e m p l a t e w h a t to d o a b o u t t h e borers eating y o u r c o r n , you will l o o k for t h e weak link in the borer's life cycle. G o i n g into a p r e l i m i n a r y financial p l a n n i n g session, y o u will already have calculated t h e gross profit o n that e n t e r p r i s e you are so k e e n to develop. W h e n you have reached this stage, t h e testing really does go quickly and g e n u i n e l y b e c o m e s n o t h i n g m o r e than a final c h e c k to enstire t h e decision is s o u n d a n d in line w i t h y o u r holistic goal. In t h e m e a n t i m e , bear in m i n d the f o l l o w i n g points: •

All actions must be tested toward a holistic goal, otherwise the tests b e c o m e meaningless. T h e tendency to slip back into conventional decision making will always be with you, especially in emergencies. Take actions to deal with the emergency by all means, but test each of t h e m toward your holistic goal, not toward the problem.

•

W h e n you are dealing with a problem, go to the cause and effect test first. If an action does not address the underlying cause of the problem, you will not solve it.

•

T h e gross profit analysis test applies only w h e n two or m o r e enterprises are being compared, the marginal reaction test applies only w h e n two or more actions are being compared.

•

T h e weak link test applies in three different contexts: financial, b i o logical, and social. Look for the financial weak link (in the chain of production) w h e n engaged in Holistic Financial Planning; consider a biological weak link only w h e n an action is taken to increase or decrease a population of organisms; look for a social weak link any time an action is contemplated that will affect people w h o s e support yoti will need.

•

T h e society and culture test is based on the picture that emerges after passing through all the other tests that apply and should be d o n e last.

R e m e m b e r that there is n o tyranny in the testing. You may d e c i d e to i m p l e m e n t a decision that fails o n e o r m o r e tests simply because y o u have little o p t i o n at present to d o otherwise.You at least k n o w that t h e decision

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is n o t in line w i t h w h a t you h o p e to achieve in the l o n g r u n , a n d that you have to d o s o m e t h i n g a b o u t it, w h i c h brings us to the subject of the n e x t chapter. E v e n w h e n a decision passes all the tests, it c o u l d still prove w r o n g . You c a n n o t b e sure unless you m o n i t o r w h a t you have p l a n n e d .

Part VII Completing the Feedback Loop

33 Monitoring Your Plans and Keeping on Track

n c e a plan is m a d e , m o n i t o r i n g b e c o m e s essential because even t h o u g h t h e decisions involved have b e e n tested, events rarely u n fold exactly as p l a n n e d . M o n i t o r i n g can m e a n m a n y different things, b u t in H o h s t i c M a n a g e m e n t it m e a n s l o o k i n g for deviations f r o m the plan for the p u r p o s e of c o r r e c t i n g t h e m . A l t h o u g h m o s t q u a l i t y - c o n s c i o u s c o r p orations w o u l d define m o n i t o r i n g in t h e same way as w o u l d any n u m b e r of engineers, in far t o o m a n y situations w e m e r e l y m o n i t o r " t o see w h a t happens." N o w h e r e is this m o r e apparent than in a g r i c u l t u r e . T h e t e n d e n c y there, over t h e last fifty years or so, has b e e n to seek and apply the best grazing system or the best c r o p p i n g system o r the best of various m a n a g e m e n t practices, and n o t w o r r y a b o u t t h e o u t c o m e until things go w r o n g . W h e n things d o go w r o n g , a n o t h e r system or a n o t h e r practice is tried until things go w r o n g again. In the l o n g r u n , things never do go r i g h t because there never can b e o n e system o r practice that applies e v e r y w h e r e and gives u n i f o r m results. T h e r e are always t o o m a n y variables o p e r a t i n g in any situat i o n . T h a t is w h y plans have to b e specific to each situation and m o n i t o r e d relative to the e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s that exist a n d to the needs and aspirations of t h e p e o p l e involved.

O

In any situation w e m a n a g e , w e should b e m o n i t o r i n g in o r d e r to m a k e h a p p e n w h a t w e w a n t to h a p p e n , to b r i n g a b o u t desired changes in line w i t h a holistic g o a l . T h e w o r d plan b e c o m e s a t w e n t y - f o u r - l e t t e r w o r d : planmonitor-control-replan, w i t h positive action f o l l o w i n g each step. All h o p e of r e a c h i n g any goal o r objective w i t h o u t great deviation o r waste d e p e n d s o n this process: O n c e a plan is m a d e , it is t h e n monitored. If results b e g i n to 335

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deviate f r o m w h a t was p l a n n e d , t h e n control is instituted and the deviation is b r o u g h t back to plan. S o m e t i m e s events go b e y o n d o u r control, and there is a n e e d to replan. A simple analogy illustrates the process. Let's say m y objective is to visit a f r i e n d w h o lives in a h o u s e at the top of a hill at the e n d of a w i n d i n g road. M y plan is to use m y car to get there. I start the car and m o v e off, b u t clearly I have n o h o p e of achieving my objective unless I do s o m e t h i n g m o r e than just drive. I am g o i n g to leave t h e road at the first b e n d unless I monitor t h e road well ahead of me. T h e n I ana g o i n g to have to control by t u r n i n g t h e steering w h e e l to stay o n the road. N o w if all goes well and there are n o earthquakes o r flash floods, or my car does n o t break d o w n and my m o n i t o r i n g and control are adequate, I will get to the house. In real life, however, things s e l d o m go so smoothly. I m a y n o t m o n i t o r well because I am w a t c h i n g t h e scenery a n d m y m i n d w a n d e r s . I m a y n o t control well because w h e n I stop my d a y d r e a m i n g and w i t h a s u d d e n f r i g h t realize I ' m g o i n g off t h e road, I t u r n back t o o sharply and go off the o t h e r side. If a n y t h i n g does cause m e to break d o w n , hit t h e ditch at the roadside, or whatever, I have to replan to ensure that I still reach my o b j e c tive. In r e p l a n n i n g I will always be w o r k i n g w i t h a c h a n g e d set of r e s o u r c e s — m y car has b r o k e n d o w n and I a m n o w o n f o o t , for example. I n o w plan to walk to the h o u s e o n the hill, b u t I still have to m o n i t o r the road ahead and t u r n to k e e p o n it, and so o n . In t h e Holistic M a n a g e m e n t m o d e l , w e depict this process as a circle or l o o p because it is a c o n t i n u o u s effort. T h r o u g h o u t the process you should be seeking indicators of c h a n g e and r e s p o n d i n g to the f e e d b a c k you receive, constantly a d j u s t i n g y o u r actions to stay on track. W h e n you fail to r e s p o n d to the f e e d b a c k , y o u fail to c o m p l e t e the f e e d b a c k loop, and you will n o t achieve w h a t you set o u t to achieve. C o m p l e t i n g the f e e d b a c k l o o p is the final step in the holistic d e c i s i o n m a k i n g process, and it is w h a t makes m a n a g e m e n t proactive rather than reactive. O n several occasions I have b e e n asked, " W h a t will h a p p e n to the deer, o r the weeds, or the people, or whatever, on my place if I m a n a g e holistically?" M y r o u t i n e reply is:"I d o n ' t k n o w . W h a t do you w a n t to h a p p e n ? " W h a t y o u w a n t to h a p p e n should be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o y o u r holistic goal. T h e n it b e c o m e s your responsibility to achieve it. W h e n y o u r m o n i t o r i n g shows that n o c h a n g e has o c c u r r e d w h e r e c h a n g e was p l a n n e d , or if any c h a n g e o c c u r s that is adverse to plan, and thus y o u r holistic goal, take action immediately. If c o n t r o l is quick, a simple a d j u s t m e n t may b e all you n e e d to get back o n track. M o s t quality-conscious c o m p a n i e s routinely m o n i t o r using t h e f e e d back l o o p principle. T h e c o n c e p t helped to revolutionize Japanese m a n u f a c t u r i n g and has m a d e an e n o r m o u s difference to the success of thousands of businesses in t h e U n i t e d States and elsewhere. T h e m a i n difference in h o w w e use the c o n c e p t is that m o n i t o r i n g is d o n e n o t j u s t to ensure you

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reach the objective for w h i c h a plan was created and a feedback l o o p established, b u t that you also m o v e closer to y o u r holistic goal. W e have also d e v e l o p e d a specific m o n i t o r i n g process allied to H o h s t i c Financial P l a n n i n g (see C h a p t e r 44) and guidelines for m o n i t o r i n g the effects of any plan m a d e to alter ecosystem processes. In m a n y cases, y o u r biggest challenge initially is in i d e n t i f y i n g w h i c h indicators to m o n i t o r . If y o u have m a d e a plan for dealing w i t h a p r o b l e m , for instance, m o n i t o r i n g should tell y o u w h e t h e r o r n o t you have f o u n d the r o o t cause of t h e p r o b l e m . If the p r o b l e m remains o r worsens, you obviously have n o t . W h a t can you m o n i t o r that will indicate that t h e cause has in fact b e e n r e m o v e d ? L e t s say y o u r p r o b l e m c o n c e r n s p o o r quality in a line of goods you p r o d u c e , and that you have identified i n a d e q u a t e training of w o r k e r s o n t h e assembly line as t h e cause. To address the cause and rectify t h e p r o b l e m you have initiated a f o r m a l training p r o g r a m , a d e c i sion that passed t h r o u g h all the testing guidelines that applied and will take y o u toward y o u r holistic goal. O n e of the m o s t obvious indicators to m o n itor w o u l d be t h e n u m b e r of defects per so m a n y items p r o d u c e d . If there is a m a r k e d decrease in the n u m b e r of defects f o l l o w i n g the training p r o g r a m , t h e n y o u will k n o w that t h e p r o g r a m has b e e n effective and that y o u have probably identified t h e r o o t cause of y o u r p r o b l e m . T h i s e x a m p l e is admittedly simple, and o n e that has probably b e e n e x p e r i e n c e d by countless c o m p a n i e s . T h e only real difference in this case is that t h e decision to initiate the training p r o g r a m was first tested to ensure that it was in line w i t h the hohstic goal and only t h e n i m p l e m e n t e d and monitored. T h e same sort of reasoning w o u l d apply in m o s t situations. If y o u are clear o n w h a t y o u are trying to achieve, y o u will have little difficulty i d e n tifying the indicators that will give y o u t h e feedback y o u n e e d . In s o m e cases, y o u will also n e e d to consider h o w to gather the f e e d b a c k . A plan for i m p r o v i n g client satisfaction, for instance, may require t h e use of q u e s t i o n naires, t e l e p h o n e surveys, and so o n . T h e m a j o r i t y of t h e decisions y o u m a k e a n d test will n o t involve a f o r mal plan, such as a decision to b u y office supplies f r o m a certain v e n d o r , or any of t h e m a n y smaller decisions you m a k e o n a d a y - t o - d a y basis. T h e actions involved will be i m p l e m e n t e d a n d the results achieved i m m e d i a t e ly. N o t h i n g you c o u l d m o n i t o r w o u l d affect t h e o u t c o m e . M o s t decisions involving an e x p e n d i t u r e of m o n e y will be m o n i t o r e d in a larger c o n t e x t — h o w they affect t h e overall financial plan.

Monitoring a Holistic Financial Plan T h o s e m a n a g i n g any w e l l - r u n business will appreciate t h e i m p o r t a n c e of m o n i t o r i n g a financial plan. T h e j o b of k e e p i n g t h e plan o n track should be a priority. In Holistic Financial P l a n n i n g ( C h a p t e r 44) i n c o m e , expense,

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and i n v e n t o r y figures are m o n i t o r e d m o n t h l y to ensure that actual figures m a t c h w i t h w h a t was p l a n n e d . T h i s should b e d o n e within the first ten days of the follou'ing month. N o excuses a c c e p t e d . If y o u r business utilizes the services o f an outside a c c o u n t a n t , you can't afford to wait for her to supply these figures, and you d o n ' t usually have to. You k n o w h o w m u c h m o n e y you have spent and h o w m u c h you have received and can r e c o r d the a m o u n t s as the m o n e y c o m e s in or as you c o m m i t to each expense. You n e e d to have actual figures quickly so you can r e s p o n d quickly if s o m e figures are n o t o n target. You d o n ' t n e e d to nail d o w n every cent. M o n i t o r i n g quickly a n d o n t i m e matters m o r e than perfect accuracy. If survival prospects l o o k critical, t h e n m o n i t o r actual figures daily, and p r o j e c t t h e m to m o n t h ' s e n d daily to see w h e r e they stand relative to y o u r plan. In d e v e l o p i n g a sugar f a r m f r o m virgin bush in Africa, I c a m e to the p o i n t of d a d y m o n i t o r i n g , and the ability to see expenses m o u n t i n g toward the p l a n n e d m o n t h l y limit saved m e m o r e than once. S h o r t of capital and heavily in debt, I was p u s h e d to the edge of desperation by a rapid fall in prices. P l a n n i n g a w a y o u t t o o k ages. M y m a i n crop, sugar cane, w o u l d n o t r e t u r n any i n c o m e until 18 m o n t h s f r o m the date it was planted, and the p r i c e trend and interest rate destroyed any c h a n c e of b o r r o w i n g m o r e against the crop. Eventually I m a n a g e d to plan survival a r o u n d a series of crops that w o u l d m a t u r e at different stages and sustain cash flow, b u t all aspects o f the plan simply had to w o r k . E v e n o n e m o n t h of o v e r - b u d g e t expenses o n any crop w o u l d have p u t m e o u t of business. O n l y daily m o n i t o r i n g a n d p r o j e c t i n g trends ahead allowed m e to take corrective action i n time. In Holistic Financial P l a n n i n g w h e n e v e r any e x p e n s e i t e m is greater than p l a n n e d , actions are taken to b r i n g that item back i n t o line. T h e o u t of-line e x p e n s e is n o t balanced against o t h e r expenses that may have c o m e in less t h a n p l a n n e d . You c a n n o t allow yourself the l u x u r y o f saying, "Well, I used t o o m u c h fuel this m o n t h , b u t we're okay because the m e e t i n g in C i n c i n n a t i was canceled, so w e ' r e ahead o n travel." Just be g r a t e f u l for every i t e m that is b e t t e r than p l a n n e d . B a l a n c i n g against o t h e r expenses will lead to sloppy m a n a g e m e n t and e r o d e profits; every surplus you can retain will soften the shock of e m e r g e n c i e s you d o n o t foresee. A n i n c o m e i t e m that falls s h o r t of plan creates a m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d situ a t i o n . You can s e l d o m c o n t r o l it against itself as t h e r e may b e n o f u r t h e r i n c o m e f r o m that s o u r c e in that year.You can r e s p o n d only by finding n e w sources of i n c o m e , w h i c h is generally difficult to do, particularly later in the year, o r by r e d u c i n g expenses, w h i c h offers m o r e possibilities.You will have to r e w o r k as m a n y e x p e n s e items as it takes to find the m o n e y w h i l e figuring h o w to p r e v e n t the same p r o b l e m in the f u t u r e . S u c h control is vital to success and warrants a f o r m a l process, r e c o r d e d in w r i t i n g , of r e c o g n i z i n g a p r o b l e m , analyzing it, d e c i d i n g o n corrective

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action, and n a m i n g the individuals responsible for seeing that t h r o u g h . T h e Holistic Financial Planning Handbook describes this process in m o r e detail. C o n t r o l is t h e hardest part of financial planning, b u t it is essential for c o m p l e t i n g the f e e d b a c k loop. A l t h o u g h y o u m i g h t have spent m o n t h s creating t h e best possible plan, w h e n y o u r m o n i t o r i n g t u r n s u p a f e w adverse figures y o u have n o o p t i o n b u t to d o b e t t e r than y o u r best. You c a n n o t afford to simply i g n o r e t h e signs and g r i n d o n in h o p e s that fate will err in y o u r favor s o m e w h e r e d o w n the road. If y o u are serious a b o u t m a k i n g a profit, k n u c k l e d o w n and do that seemingly impossible control. M o n i t o r i n g may o f c o u r s e s h o w drastic problems, as will h a p p e n w h e n i n c o m e slumps because of s o m e internal or external crisis.Then m e r e c o n trol makes little sense. I m m e d i a t e l y get e v e r y o n e c o n c e r n e d together, and s p e n d t h e necessary t i m e to replan entirely.

Biological Monitoring W i t h o u r rising c o m p r e h e n s i o n of the holistic n a t u r e of o u r ecosystem, w e are g a i n i n g s o m e idea of its truly incredible c o m p l e x i t y . T h u s , w e must take the attitude that m u c h of w h a t w e do as land m a n a g e r s m a y lead to u n a n ticipated effects. A n y t i m e y o u plan to alter ecosystem processes in any way, y o u must always assume you could be wrong, even t h o u g h t h e decision, or decisions, involved have passed all the relevant tests. As y o u apply any o n e of the m a n a g e m e n t tools (technology, animal impact, fire, grazing, rest, o r living organisms) you will n e e d to d e t e r m i n e w h a t criteria y o u can m o n i t o r that will give t h e earliest w a r n i n g s of adverse change. M a k e sure y o u are clear o n w h a t y o u are t r y i n g to achieve, and t h e n ask yourself, "If this does n o t h a p p e n , w h e r e is t h e very earliest p o i n t at w h i c h I c o u l d detect it?" T h a t is t h e p o i n t y o u n e e d to m o n i t o r in t h e simplest way you can devise. R e m e m b e r , you are n o t t r y i n g to record change, you are trying to steer all changes in t h e direction of y o u r holistic goal. M o n i t o r i n g changes in plant o r animal species, a c o m m o n practice, is a m e a s u r e m e n t that c o m e s t o o late, indicating that considerable c h a n g e has already o c c u r r e d that may n o t have b e e n in line w i t h y o u r holistic goal. You w a n t to detect changes well b e f o r e that. The earliest changes are most likely to occur at or near the soil suiface. T h e y c o u l d s h o w u p in plant spacings, soil litter cover, soil density, soil aeration o r organic c o n t e n t , insect activity, seedling success, quality of w a t e r r u n o f f , a n d a host of o t h e r things. D e p e n d i n g o n w h a t y o u r m o n i t o r i n g indicates, y o u will either c o n t i n ue to apply the tools as you have b e e n o r you will n e e d to m a k e a d j u s t m e n t s . Obviously, if all is g o i n g as anticipated w h e n t h e particular tool was selected, n o a d j u s t m e n t is necessary. If n o t , you will have to diagnose w h a t w e n t w r o n g (see C h a p t e r 48) and develop alternatives y o u can use as you replan.

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Ideally the m o n i t o r i n g should be d o n e by the p e o p l e m a n a g i n g the land, w h o usually lack the t i m e to d o a full-dress a c a d e m i c study. In the Handbook

for Early-Warning

Biological

Monitoring

the simple technique

we

have d e v e l o p e d over m a n y years for m o n i t o r i n g rangelands and pastures, and m o r e recently croplands is covered in m o r e detail. W e are constantly i m p r o v i n g this t e c h n i q u e and w o r k i n g o n others for m o n i t o r i n g wetlands, forests, and so o n , in a n e v e r - e n d i n g a t t e m p t to i n c o r p o r a t e ever simpler and m o r e practical m e t h o d s for m e a s u r i n g precursors to m a j o r change. T h e m a i n t h i n g to r e m e m b e r is that y o u are l o o k i n g for basic i n f o r m a t i o n y o u can measure and u n d e r s t a n d that indicates to you w h a t changes are taking place, rather than a mass of data that is of little practical use. Soil surface changes are t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t because they p r e c e d e most changes in p o p u l a t i o n s that m a k e up t h e c o m m u n i t i e s u n d e r y o u r responsibility. O b s e r v i n g these allows you to p r e e m p t m a n y f u t u r e problems. Obviously, you d o n o t start m o n i t o r i n g a w e e k or a m o n t h or a year d o w n t h e road. Start now, before i m p l e m e n t i n g y o u r plans.You n e e d a g o o d idea of t h e health of all four ecosystem processes right at t h e outset. F r o m that baseline, you can build toward the f u t u r e landscape described in y o u r holistic goal. A n y time y o u r m o n i t o r i n g throws up a serious deviation f r o m a plan that c a n n o t be controlled w i t h m i n o r a d j u s t m e n t s and you are forced to replan, again assume y o u r plans are w r o n g , d e t e r m i n e t h e early w a r n i n g criteria y o u will m o n i t o r , and c o n t i n u e w o r k i n g y o u r way a r o u n d t h e loop. W h e n the f e e d b a c k l o o p is n o t c o m p l e t e d , progress can be seriously affected. S o m e years ago the U.S. Forest Service initiated a pilot p r o j e c t in A r i z o n a in w h i c h Holistic M a n a g e m e n t was to be practiced o n land leased by a local rancher. A holistic goal was f o r m e d , and animal i m p a c t a n d grazing were the m a i n m a n a g e m e n t tools that w o u l d be used to m o v e toward the f u t u r e landscape described. O v e r the n e x t eight years, the r a n c h e r o p e r a t e d m o r e or less a c c o r d i n g to plan, and the Forest Service m e t h o d i c a l l y m o n i t o r e d the results, ably assisted by the local university. T h e y rightly focused o n soil capping, soil erosion, and plant spacing, all of w h i c h w o u l d provide early w a r n i n g s of any adverse changes. Each year t h e m o n i t o r i n g s h o w e d that, as p l a n n e d , soil c a p p i n g was decreasing. B u t it also s h o w e d that soil erosion was increasing w h e n it should have b e e n decreasing and that plant spacing was w i d e n i n g w h e n it should have b e e n n a r r o w i n g . S o m e t h i n g was clearly w r o n g , yet no control was implemented. E v e r y o n e involved was w a i t i n g to "see if it (Holistic M a n a g e m e n t ) w o r k e d , " instead of r e s p o n d i n g to such a serious deviation f r o m t h e holistic goal. A simple and timely a d j u s t m e n t in animal n u m b e r s and b e h a v i o r in the s e c o n d or third years w o u l d have c h a n g e d everything. N o t h i n g was d o n e , however, and w h e n t h e p r o j e c t w o u n d u p at the e n d of t h e eight-year p e r i o d , it was considered a failure.

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Monitoring Technology in the Environment N e w t e c h n o l o g i e s are continually b e i n g d e v e l o p e d that have the potential t o affect t h e e n v i r o n m e n t profoundly. W h i l e these t e c h n o l o g i e s are o f t e n m o n i t o r e d for their effects o n site o r in specific applications, their effects elsewhere and m u c h later s e l d o m are, a l t h o u g h awareness of the n e e d to d o so is increasing. T h e C F C s used in refrigeration systems, fire e x t i n guishers, a n d cleaning solvents a n d their effects o n stratospheric o z o n e are o n e of t h e b e t t e r examples that have alerted t h e public to just h o w m u c h later and j u s t h o w far f r o m t h e site of application t h e effects can b e c o m e manifest. In the case of substances, such as C F C s , that can persist in the e n v i r o n m e n t , t h e p r o b l e m of d e c i d i n g w h a t , w h e r e , a n d w h e n to m o n i t o r is e n o r m o u s . N o t only can the t i m e delays r u n to m a n y years, b u t t h e adverse effects may s h o w up in places w e w o u l d never t h i n k to l o o k . T o c o m p o u n d t h e p r o b l e m , a l t h o u g h a substance may o n its o w n be proven safe, in c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h o t h e r substances in the e n v i r o n m e n t it can b e c o m e lethal. H o w d o you d e t e r m i n e w h i c h criteria to m o n i t o r f o r t h e earliest w a r n ing that t h e c u m m u l a t i v e effects of any n e w t e c h n o l o g y are d a m a g i n g , w h e n w e have so little u n d e r s t a n d i n g of nature's c o m p l e x i t y ? I d o n o t have answers, b u t I d o k n o w that m o s t of us n o w see the n e e d for answers. W h e n h u m a n s see a n e e d and p u t their m i n d s to it a m a z i n g things can h a p p e n . P r i o r to i n t r o d u c i n g n e w products, I envision us t h i n k i n g o u t t h e path the p r o d u c t s (or their b y - p r o d u c t s ) will take f r o m t h e earliest stages of p r o d u c t i o n to their u l t i m a t e resting place, presumably the scrap heap. H o w a p r o d u c t affects any life f o r m s e n c o u n t e r e d a l o n g that path could provide t h e earliest w a r n i n g of changes that w o u l d adversely affect t h e f o u r ecosystem processes. T h i s sort of m o n i t o r i n g will require considerable expertise a n d very sophisticated technology, b o t h of w h i c h are potentially w i t h i n o u r reach. H o w e v e r , in t h e case of u n n a t u r a l substances that persist for m a n y years o n c e released in t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , w e may have little alternative b u t to ban their p r o d u c t i o n altogether if c o n t a i n m e n t c a n n o t be g u a r a n t e e d .

Conclusion A plan, n o m a t t e r h o w s o u n d , serves little p u r p o s e unless its i m p l e m e n t a tion is m o n i t o r e d and deviations are controlled. O t h e r w i s e , even assuming n o lapses at all in m a n a g e m e n t , unpredictable events s o o n e r or later r e n d e r the best plan irrelevant or even destructive. S o m e will ask, " T h e n w h y plan in t h e first place?" W e m u s t plan, m o n i t o r , control, and replan simply because it is the only way w e can m a k e h a p p e n w h a t w e have said in o u r holistic goal w e w a n t to see h a p p e n .

Part VIII Some Practical Guidelines for Manage me nt

34 Lessons Learned in Practice

h e m a n a g e m e n t guidelines covered in t h e n e x t eight chapters have crystalized o u t of a struggle to c o n n e c t w h a t is possible in t h e o r y w i t h w h a t is practical in real life. T h e y reflect years of e x p e r i e n c e in a variety of situations and t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s and criticisms of m a n y p e o ple, b u t these guidelines are chiefly the result of w h a t w e have learned t h r o u g h continually m a k i n g mistakes. T h e y represent the c u t t i n g edge of Holistic M a n a g e m e n t , the area of greatest c h a n g e so m u c h so that w i t h i n a very short time, s o m e of w h a t I have w r i t t e n here is likely to be o u t of date. T h e m a n a g e m e n t guidelines will i n f l u e n c e any n u m b e r of decisions you test because they in fact help to shape those decisions, p r o v i d i n g d e f i n i t i o n and detail that m i g h t o t h e r w i s e be lacking. T h i s is certainly the case f o r the oldest of the guidelines, those w h i c h arose w h e n w e discovered the significance of h e r d i n g animals to t h e health of brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s . B e f o r e w e c o u l d utilize livestock to restore d e t e r i o r a t i n g land, w e had to develop guidelines f o r m a n a g i n g their grazing and t r a m p l i n g to ensure that t h e animals, t h e land, and t h e p e o p l e involved all benefited. O t h e r guidelines e m e r g e d as a result of t h e holistic d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g process itself, w h i c h forced us to l o o k a n e w at c o n v e n t i o n a l approaches to learning, leadership, a n d r u n n i n g a business. S o m e of the guidelines that d e v e l o p e d as a result w e r e gradually t r a n s f o r m e d into fairly m e t h o d i c a l p l a n n i n g a n d m o n i t o r i n g procedures, w h i c h are i n t r o d u c e d later in Part I X of this b o o k .

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General Guidelines T h e n e x t three chapters cover t h e guidelines that apply m o s t generally. M u c h of t h e material covered will b e familiar to s o m e readers, p a r t i c u l a r ly those w h o have expertise in adult learning, organizational d e v e l o p m e n t , and m a r k e t i n g . B u t for m a n y o t h e r s these three chapters will p r o v i d e a basic u n d e r s t a n d i n g of subjects they n e e d to k n o w a b o u t , particularly in the c o n t e x t of Holistic M a n a g e m e n t . C h a p t e r 35 deals w i t h the challenges p e o p l e face in l e a r n i n g to p r a c tice Holistic M a n a g e m e n t . A n u m b e r of guidelines are given to assist you in m o v i n g b e y o n d t h e obstacles that inevitably arise a n d to b e t t e r prepare you for i n t r o d u c i n g t h e ideas to those w h o s e s u p p o r t you will n e e d . Your ability as an o r g a n i z a t i o n to m a k e h a p p e n w h a t y o u w a n t to h a p p e n will d e p e n d largely o n h o w free p e o p l e are to t h i n k a n d b e creative and h o w t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n is led. C h a p t e r 36 discusses ways to s t r u c t u r e and lead a business or organization that will e n h a n c e creativity and holistic decision m a k i n g . T h e a p p r o a c h you take to m a r k e t i n g may c h a n g e substantially in t h e c o n t e x t of Holistic M a n a g e m e n t because each of t h e steps involved, f r o m d e v e l o p i n g the p r o d u c t or service to r e a p i n g a profit, will require decisions that s h o u l d b e tested toward y o u r holistic goal. C h a p t e r 37 provides g u i d e lines for d e v e l o p i n g a m a r k e t i n g strategy in line w i t h y o u r hohstic goal and thus y o u r values.

Land Management Guidelines T h e guidelines covered in t h e last five chapters apply m o r e c o m m o n l y in land m a n a g e m e n t situations. If y o u are m a n a g i n g land, study these c h a p ters thoroughly. If you are n o t , a lighter reading will suffice. A n y o n e m a k ing o r s u p p o r t i n g decisions that will affect t h e land in any way should find these chapters relevant. A n y t i m e w e a t t e m p t to alter ecosystem processes w e d o so t h r o u g h the use of a particular t o o l . T h e last five chapters i n c l u d e specific guidelines for the use of f o u r of those tools—fire, grazing, animal impact, and living o r g a n i s m s — i n a variety of situations. In each case, t h e guidelines a t t e m p t to w o r k w i t h N a t u r e rather than against h e r to ensure that w h e n y o u use a particular tool it will achieve w h a t y o u w a n t it to achieve. W h e n a c h i e v i n g y o u r holistic goal involves grazing animals for any reason, y o u n e e d to m a k e sure that their p r e s e n c e e n h a n c e s all f o u r ecosystem p r o c e s s e s . T i m i n g t h e e x p o s u r e and r e e x p o s u r e of t h e plants and soils to the animals will b e critical to e n s u r i n g plants are n o t overgrazed or soils overtrampled. C h a p t e r 38 gives guidelines for m a n a g i n g g r a z i n g a n d t r a m p l i n g

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time d e p e n d i n g o n the climate, the season, the types of plants, a n d the needs of t h e animals. T h e stock density and h e r d effect guidelines, covered in C h a p t e r 39, apply w h e n y o u are using t h e tool of animal i m p a c t to alter soil c o n d i t i o n s or vegetation. T h e guidelines f o r m a n a g i n g stock density mainly seek to avoid l o w - d e n s i t y grazing, w h i c h almost always causes p r o b l e m s o n t h e land a n d can impair animal p e r f o r m a n c e . T h e biggest challenge in i n d u c i n g h e r d effect, w h i c h requires that y o u p r o d u c e a b e h a v i o r c h a n g e in the animals, is i n d u c i n g it o f t e n e n o u g h a n d over a large e n o u g h area, p a r t i c ularly in the m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s . C h a p t e r 39 s u m m a r i z e s t h e t e c h niques d e v e l o p e d to date. If w e are to sustain o u r present civilization and its e n o r m o u s p o p u l a tion, w e must strive to create an agriculture that m o r e closely m i m i c s nature, o n e that e n h a n c e s rather than diminishes w a t e r and mineral cycles, e n e r g y flow, a n d c o m m u n i t y dynamics. Toward that e n d C h a p t e r 40 gives s o m e f u n d a m e n t a l guidelines that apply in any c r o p p i n g situation. W h i l e fire is a tool that has a definite a n d useful role to play in m a n a g e m e n t , w e always n e e d to q u e s t i o n its use. C h a p t e r 41 r e m i n d s t h e dangers associated w i t h b u r n i n g , w h i l e p r o v i d i n g a p p r o p r i a t e guards. G u i d e l i n e s are given f o r w h e n and h o w to b u r n and w h i c h to apply f o l l o w i n g a b u r n .

land us of safetools

T h e p o p u l a t i o n m a n a g e m e n t guideline, covered in C h a p t e r 42, bears o n t h e tool of living organisms, b u t m o r e generally o n the m a n a g e m e n t of c o m m u n i t y dynamics. It applies any t i m e w e w a n t to e n c o u r a g e o r disc o u r a g e t h e success o f a species. G u i d e l i n e s are given f o r assessing t h e health of a species' p o p u l a t i o n , f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l factors that will e n h a n c e o r limit that population's success, a n d f o r dealing w i t h p r e d a t o r s that b e c o m e a p r o b l e m . T h e m a n a g e m e n t guidelines are m e r e l y a set of principles that help you to d e t e r m i n e a c o u r s e of a c t i o n . T h e s e chapters i n c l u d e only t h e m o s t o b v i o u s principles and t h e relevant guidelines d e v e l o p e d to date. As Holistic M a n a g e m e n t e x p a n d s i n t o n e w realms and as n e w challenges are created, f u r t h e r guidelines will surely b e a d d e d .

35 Learning and Practice: Shifting Your Paradigms

e a r n i n g to m a n a g e holistically is very m u c h a practical exercise. You w o n ' t really c o m e to u n d e r s t a n d Holistic M a n a g e m e n t until y o u do it. It is n o different f r o m l e a r n i n g h o w to fly. H o w far w o u l d a student pilot fly, if his training consisted only of reading b o o k s o n flying, w a t c h i n g videos, o r using flight-simulation c o m p u t e r programs, but n o actual p r a c tice t i m e in a plane? O f course, t h e n e w pilot will b e n e f i t f r o m t h e b o o k s , videos, and so o n , but only w h e n their use a c c o m p a n i e s practice sessions. In t h e student pilot's case, practice time in t h e plane requires t h e presence of a qualified instructor. In l e a r n i n g to practice Holistic M a n a g e m e n t , that is not always necessary, but it helps to have s o m e o n e available w h o has m o r e e x p e r i e n c e than you d o and, in t h e early stages in particular, training and e x p e r i e n c e in t e a c h i n g others.

L

T h e advantage of w o r k i n g w i t h an i n s t r u c t o r is that you have the o p p o r t u n i t y to ask questions in the p r e s e n c e of s o m e o n e w i t h m o r e e x p e r i e n c e w h o can coach y o u in a n s w e r i n g t h e m . T h a t is also the a d v a n tage of training w i t h a g r o u p of people, rather than g o i n g it alone. In any case, training is a lifelong process, n o t a o n e - t i m e event. To be effective, it should o c c u r in small doses over time to avoid i n f o r m a t i o n overload and to provide o p p o r t u n i t i e s b e t w e e n sessions to practice w h a t you have learned. W h e t h e r t h e w h o l e you are m a n a g i n g encompasses y o u r personal life, a small family business, or a large c o r p o r a t i o n , you will face a n u m b e r of challenges, particularly in t h e early stages, that a little t r a i m n g and s u p p o r t f r o m o t h e r s will enable you to m e e t m o r e effectively.

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Early Challenges In t h e early 1980s I was paid rather h a n d s o m e l y to provide training to h u n d r e d s of g o v e r n m e n t agency and land grant college people. I saw this as a w o n d e r f u l o p p o r t u n i t y to b r o a d e n t h e practice of Holistic M a n a g e m e n t , b u t f o u n d I had taken o n m o r e than I had bargained for. I had n o t realized h o w difficult it was for p e o p l e vested in old paradigms to a d o p t n e w ones, n o r was I even aware of t h e p h e n o m e n o n of paradigms. As it t u r n e d o u t , m a n y of t h e ranchers, farmers, and others I was training at the same t i m e f o u n d it j u s t as difficult to shift to t h e new, a l t h o u g h they f o u g h t it less.

Shifting

Paradigms

A m a j o r part of a c o n t i n u i n g e d u c a t i o n in Holistic M a n a g e m e n t is a b o u t shifting paradigms, l e a r n i n g to o p e r a t e u n d e r a n e w set of guidelines. Your ability to d o this will d e p e n d to a large e x t e n t o n h o w deeply vested you are in s o m e of y o u r old paradigms, particularly those b r o u g h t into q u e s tion by t h e f o u r n e w insights ( C h a p t e r s 3 t h r o u g h 6 ) . T h i s c o m e s as a surprise to s o m e people. If y o u t h i n k a r a n c h e r w o u l d b e eager to c o n c e n t r a t e his animals and k e e p t h e m m o v i n g because in d o i n g so h e could r u n m a n y m o r e of t h e m , you w o u l d b e w r o n g . E v e n t h o u g h intellectually he grasps the reasoning in t h e n e w ideas related to grazing and animal impact, the rancher's s u b c o n s c i o u s fears o f t e n prevent h i m f r o m p u t t i n g t h e ideas into practice. T h e environmentalist w h o can see w i t h her o w n eyes that rest is killing t h e plants in a brittle e n v i r o n m e n t a n d thus t h e habitat of a wildlife species her g r o u p is t r y i n g to save, will go to great lengths to d e n y it if t h e only practical way of reversing the d a m a g e requires t h e use o f l i v e s t o c k . For m o s t of us, t h i n k i n g in t e r m s of w h o l e s will fall by t h e wayside w h e n a q u i c k fix appears to solve p r o b l e m s w e d o n ' t o t h e r w i s e have t h e t i m e and e n e r g y to tackle. In each of these cases, a little practice can help t h e shift to occur. T h e r a n c h e r can c o n d u c t an e x p e r i m e n t o n a small area of his o w n land that simulates w h a t w o u l d h a p p e n all over if h e b u n c h e d animals t o g e t h e r in o n e place for a very short time. T h e environmentalist c o u l d d o t h e same if she was c o m f o r t a b l e enlisting the help of a rancher. A n y of us w h o have c h o s e n the q u i c k fix r o u t e o f t e n e n o u g h generally k n o w w h a t h a p p e n s : t h e p r o b l e m w e fixed only returns o r leads to n e w ones. A little practice using the testing guidelines s o o n convinces m o s t p e o p l e that holistic alternatives to the q u i c k fix require far less t i m e and energy, particularly over t h e l o n g r u n , than they originally t h o u g h t . Holistic decision m a k i n g is itself a n e w p a r a d i g m that, like all n e w p a r -

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adigms, requires a f u n d a m e n t a l shift in t h i n k i n g . You cannot adopt parts of it and hope to succeed. You could n o t , for instance, test decisions w i t h o u t h a v ing a holistic goal to test decisions toward.Yet a n u m b e r of p e o p l e shy away f r o m w r i t i n g o u t a hohstic goal because they fear t h e responsibility they take o n for a c h i e v i n g it. T h a t is w h y such large segments of o u r p o p u l a t i o n j u s t w a n t to be told w h a t to d o and w h y w e so o f t e n p r e f e r t h e answers prescribed by experts to t h i n k i n g o u t solutions for ourselves. T a k i n g back that responsibility can be an e n o r m o u s leap for s o m e p e o p l e . T h e biggest s t u m b l i n g block for m a n y is t h e idea of t h e f e e d b a c k loop. If a decision has b e e n t h o u g h t o u t carefully and tested, h o w c o u l d it b e w r o n g ? W h y should y o u m o n i t o r ? This is particularly difficult to accept for p e o p l e in positions of a u t h o r i t y w h o are e x p e c t e d to m a k e t h e " r i g h t " decisions. I ' m n o t j u s t talking of bureaucrats or academics, b u t also of c o r p o r a t e C E O s , s y m p h o n y c o n d u c t o r s , teachers, and m a n y others, especially parents. O n c e they d o realize they d o n ' t always have to be right, they heave a collective sigh of relief. B u t only t h r o u g h practice will they m a k e this discovery. M o s t will find that c o n f i d e n c e in their abilities does n o t d e p e n d so m u c h o n m a k i n g t h e right decisions as in k n o w i n g quickly w h e n those decisions prove w r o n g or n e e d m o d i f i c a t i o n .

Fear of Making

Mistakes

In t h e early stages of practicing Holistic M a n a g e m e n t , y o u are likely to feel that y o u d o n o t k n o w e n o u g h to really m a n a g e holistically. M o r e than likely y o u do k n o w e n o u g h , b u t are afraid of m a k i n g mistakes. R e s t assured that even w h e n y o u d o k n o w e n o u g h y o u will m a k e mistakes. W h a t y o u really w a n t to avoid are the big ones y o u d o n o t discover until t o o late. T h a t is o n e reason for establishing a f e e d b a c k l o o p that enables you to c o r rect mistakes b e f o r e they cause m u c h d a m a g e . To avoid m a k i n g mistakes, t h e natural h u m a n t e n d e n c y is to a t t e m p t to c h a n g e g r a d u a l l y — f e w e r changes m e a n f e w e r mistakes. H o w e v e r , w h e n y o u d e c i d e m e r e l y to a d o p t " s o m e o f the Holistic M a n a g e m e n t p r i n c i p l e s " or take a "holistic approach," y o u are n o t actually shifting any p a r a d i g m s — decision m a k i n g remains f u n d a m e n t a l l y u n c h a n g e d . G r a d u a l change, w h e n f u n d a m e n t a l c h a n g e is required, ultimately leads to c o n f u s i o n and a lack of progress. In S w e d e n s o m e years ago t h e g o v e r n m e n t decided to c h a n g e f r o m d r i v i n g o n t h e left of t h e road to d r i v i n g on t h e right. T h e y set a date a n d c h a n g e d o n that d a y W h a t d o y o u t h i n k w o u l d have h a p p e n e d if they had tried to c h a n g e gradually? O n c e y o u have a basic u n d e r s t a n d i n g of H o h s t i c M a n a g e m e n t and have f o r m e d a holistic goal, set a date for c h a n g e and c h a n g e y o u r decision m a k ing o n that day.You have n o t h i n g to fear in d o i n g so; y o u risk far m o r e by n o t c h a n g i n g . H o w e v e r , any t i m e you m a k e a f u n d a m e n t a l c h a n g e there is

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b o u n d to b e s o m e c o n f u s i o n , and you will b e t e m p t e d to revert back to w h a t is m o r e familiar. Resist this t e m p t a t i o n , and k e e p practicing. S o o n e r , rather than later, there will c o m e a day w h e n t h e n e w d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g process beats t h e old o n e every time. A n y o n e w h o has a t t e m p t e d to learn to play a musical i n s t r u m e n t k n o w s that proficiency only c o m e s t h r o u g h p r a c t i c e — a n d lots o f it. Progress may s e e m to be m i n i m a l , or even to backslide, i f j u d g e d at the e n d o f each practice session, particularly in sessions w h e r e you try harder and m a k e m o r e mistakes. O v e r time, however, the i m p r o v e m e n t is measurable. You are unlikely to achieve p e r f e c t i o n , b u t you d o n o t n e e d to in o r d e r to b e c o m e proficient or even accomplished. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , if you decide to forgo t h e practice sessions, n o a m o u n t of t h i n k i n g a b o u t it, o r w i s h i n g it, w o u l d result in y o u r b e i n g able to play t h e i n s t r u m e n t . L e a r n i n g to practice Holistic M a n a g e m e n t is n o different. T h o s e w h o have b e c o m e proficient m o s t quickly in practicing Holistic M a n a g e m e n t have o f t e n b e e n those w h o had the most to l o s e . T h e y overc a m e their fear of the new, of m a k i n g mistakes, and o f taking responsibility simply because their situation was desperate. T h e y had n o greater c o n fidence than t h e rest of us and n o t i m e to prove a n y t h i n g to themselves. T h e y simply began to practice, o p e r a t i n g m o r e o n faith than k n o w l e d g e , w h i c h taught t h e m w h a t they n e e d e d to k n o w a n d pulled t h e m t h r o u g h .

Peer

Pressure

U n t i l practice e n h a n c e s y o u r c o n f i d e n c e , it is easy to s u c c u m b to peer pressure—perhaps t h e biggest d e t e r r e n t there is to acceptance of n e w k n o w l e d g e in any h u m a n c o m m u n i t y . A n y t i m e you m a k e a change, you o p e n yourself up to ridicule and m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g . T h e banana that leaves t h e b u n c h gets s k i n n e d . T h a t is why, for us, training individuals in isolation f r o m their families, coworkers, or c o m m u n i t y proved singularly unsuccessful. W h e n these p e o p l e r e t u r n e d to their h o m e s or offices and a t t e m p t e d to explain, perhaps a little t o o enthusiastically, w h a t they had learned, they were regarded as s o m e w h a t d e r a n g e d . T h i s u n e x p e c t e d response, generally proved t o o m u c h for t h e m to b e a r — h u m a n s are social creatures, after all— and they quickly fell back i n t o line. Peer pressure is only slightly less bearable w h e n it c o m e s f r o m outsiders l o o k i n g in o n w h a t you are d o i n g . N e i g h b o r s and colleagues will question decisions you m a k e because they have n o k n o w l e d g e of the c o n t e x t in w h i c h they were m a d e . If well m e a n i n g , these p e o p l e will try to c o n v i n c e you to c h a n g e y o u r m i n d ; if n o t , they may simply ridicule y o u r efforts. T h e c o w b o y s o n o n e ranch I w o r k e d w i t h s o m e years ago were ostracized by o t h e r c o w b o y s in t h e c o m m u n i t y because of their c o m m i t m e n t to this " n u t t y fad f r o m Africa." Attitudes later c h a n g e d as t h e ranch staff w o r k e d

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to e d u c a t e others in the c o m m u n i t y , b u t the sting planted in those early days was quite painful.

Maintaining Momentum In The Path of Least Resistance, h u m a n d e v e l o p m e n t consultant R o b e r t Fritz traces the creative process f r o m the m o m e n t of inspiration t h r o u g h to the w o r k or p r o d u c t that finally results. H e identifies three stages in t h e process that I believe apply equally w h e n l e a r n i n g s o m e t h i n g n e w a n d p u t t i n g it i n t o practice. In the germination stage, you feel the special e n e r g y that c o m e s as you are i n t r o d u c e d to the n e w idea and b e g i n to p u t it i n t o practice. T h e n e x t stage, assimilation is the p e r i o d d u r i n g w h i c h y o u i n c o r p o r a t e skills in such a way that they b e c o m e a natural part of yourself. In practicing Holistic M a n a g e m e n t , this is w h e r e y o u m a k e m o s t of y o u r m i s takes as y o u w o r k to solidify y o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g . T h e last stage, completion, is reached w h e n y o u have internalized c o n c e p t s you may previously only have grasped intellectually a n d b e c o m e reasonably c o n f i d e n t in practice. You will still m a k e mistakes, of course, b u t they will n o l o n g e r threaten y o u r c o n f i d e n c e in the process. T h e assimilation stage is t h e m o s t difficult to pass t h r o u g h because s o m e t i m e s , even for l o n g periods, it seems as if n o t h i n g of significance is h a p p e n i n g or b e i n g learned. T h e m o m e n t u m that has propelled y o u f o r ward until n o w may stall.This is w h e n m o s t p e o p l e w h o e n t e r fitness p r o grams give up or w h e n m a n y adults w h o w a n t to learn a foreign language lose interest or b e c o m e " t o o busy to c o n t i n u e . " A n d it is w h e n those a t t e m p t i n g to practice Holistic M a n a g e m e n t b e g i n to q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r it is w o r t h t h e effort. P e o p l e o f t e n feel d i s c o m f o r t , frustration, and d i s a p p o i n t m e n t at this stage and m a y seek to ease these feelings by l o w e r i n g their expectations. This is s o m e t h i n g you must resist, because it will curtail y o u r f o r w a r d m o m e n t u m . In any creative endeavor, says R o b e r t Fritz, the process has to start w i t h a vision of w h a t y o u really w a n t , followed by an assessment of w h a t y o u c u r r e n t l y have. T h e discrepancy b e t w e e n t h e t w o creates a t e n sion y o u can use to help to propel you toward the vision. As l o n g as you hold to t h e vision of w h a t y o u w a n t to create, e n o r m o u s e n e r g y and p o w e r are g e n e r a t e d because t h e path of least resistance to resolve this discrepancy b e t w e e n w h a t you c u r r e n t l y have and w h a t you really w a n t favors the latter. So, w h e n you lower y o u r expectations, you w e a k e n t h e creative t e n sion because you are n o l o n g e r aspiring to w h a t you truly w a n t . S o m e t h i n g similar is at w o r k w h e n in practicing Holistic M a n a g e m e n t , you o u t g r o w a t e m p o r a r y hohstic goal. In t h e m o n t h s since you f o r m e d it, p e o p l e have gained m a n y insights t h r o u g h practice, and these n o w n e e d to be reflected in the holistic g o a l . T h i s will increase b u y - i n and m a k e t h e goal

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better reflect w h a t p e o p l e truly w a n t for themselves a n d for t h e organization as a w h o l e . If y o u can k e e p the focus o n w h a t y o u really desire and w a n t to accomplish, as clearly expressed in y o u r holistic goal, t h e o u t c o m e of t h e assimilation stage is that it teaches y o u w h a t y o u n e e d to learn to create w h a t you w a n t .

Introducing Holistic Management to Others You c a n n o t , after reading this b o o k , m e r e l y rush h o m e o r i n t o t h e office b e n t on f o r m i n g a holistic goal w i t h the o t h e r s in y o u r w h o l e . P e o p l e will naturally resist a n y t h i n g that is thrust o n t h e m , n o m a t t e r h o w enthusiastic y o u are, if they d o n o t k n o w m u c h a b o u t it. Generally, a brief o u t l i n e of t h e d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g process will serve as an initial i n t r o d u c t i o n , followed by t h e q u i c k f o r m a t i o n of a very t e m p o r a r y holistic goal and the testing of o n e or t w o decisions. D o n ' t try to explain the testing guidelines in detail. Your u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e m is likely to b e fuzzy anyway, a n d y o u r aim should m e r e l y be to s h o w h o w t h e process works. T h i s exercise usually generates e n o u g h interest that at least s o m e p e o p l e will w a n t to learn m o r e . H o w you address that desire will d e p e n d o n several factors relating to t h e position you hold in t h e w h o l e b e i n g m a n a g e d and o n t h e nature of that w h o l e .

Within an

Organization

If you are a r e c o g n i z e d leader, it can b e relatively easy to i n t r o d u c e Holistic M a n a g e m e n t to an organization, a l t h o u g h n o t necessarily s m o o t h . If you are n o t , y o u r task can b e c o m e extraordinarily difficult, d e p e n d i n g o n the type of organization. Bureaucracies are n o t o r i o u s l y slow in a d o p t i n g n e w ideas, or even b e i n g o p e n to t h e m , b u t even in a small family business a y o u n g e r m e m b e r m a y risk r e p r i m a n d f r o m a parent if t h e parent perceives Holistic M a n a g e m e n t as a threat to his o r h e r authority. T h e r e are n o surefire m e t h o d s for o v e r c o m i n g this d i l e m m a , b u t suggestions are offered later in this chapter. In either case, to m o v e past t h e initial i n t r o d u c t i o n i n t o practice and s o m e sort of training p r o g r a m , y o u either n e e d to engage s o m e o n e to w o r k w i t h y o u or to struggle t h r o u g h as a team, using this b o o k as y o u r g u i d e and any o t h e r w r i t t e n material available and d e v e l o p i n g a n e t w o r k of outsiders w h o are f u r t h e r a l o n g and can p r o v i d e s o m e c o a c h i n g . L e a r n i n g g r o u p s a n d n e t w o r k s are helpful in m a n y situations, as you will If y o u are responsible for leading the organization, t h e n it is i m p o r t a n t that y o u have s o m e training yourself, even if that m e a n s training alongside those you are leading. It will b e y o u r responsibility to facilitate t h e c h a n g e

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to holistic decision m a k i n g by p r o v i d i n g an e x a m p l e o t h e r s can follow as y o u learn together. P e o p l e should be allowed to m a k e mistakes, b u t it is i m p o r t a n t that y o u help t h e m to recognize w h a t they have l e a r n e d f r o m t h e m . It is also y o u r responsibility to k e e p p e o p l e f o c u s e d o n t h e holistic goal and to ward off t h e natural h u m a n t e n d e n c y to slide back i n t o c o n ventional decision m a k i n g . T h e fact that y o u are in a p o s i t i o n to d o this is w h a t generally ensures success. If y o u are n o t in a position w h e r e y o u can o p e n l y i n t r o d u c e n e w ideas and facihtate f u r t h e r training, y o u will n e e d far m o r e p a t i e n c e a n d skill. It will b e essential that y o u e n g a g e t h e leaders of the o r g a n i z a t i o n in t h e process at s o m e p o i n t , or y o u will e n d u p in conflict. In a typical hierarchy superiors m a y feel t h r e a t e n e d if y o u m o v e f o r w a r d w i t h o u t t h e m , and they can m a k e life very unpleasant. S o m e individuals in g o v e r n m e n t b u r e a u c r a cies have received c a r e e r - t h r e a t e n i n g r e p r i m a n d s o r have b e e n transferred to insignificant positions elsewhere in the bureaucracy. Occasionally, a s u p e r i o r has given t h e g o - a h e a d to others to b e g i n practicing H o h s t i c M a n a g e m e n t , b u t refused any personal i n v o l v e m e n t . T h i s only puts the others o n t h e spot to " p r o v e it works," but w i t h o u t the superior's particip a t i o n it never will. W h a t can y o u d o in such circumstances? You have several options. T h e first o n e is to establish o r j o i n a l e a r n i n g n e t w o r k outside the o r g a n i z a t i o n that will at least p r o v i d e s o m e s u p p o r t as y o u learn to practice in y o u r p e r sonal life.This is s o m e t h i n g y o u s h o u l d be d o i n g anyway because it enables y o u to speak to o t h e r s w i t h greater c o n v i c t i o n . S e c o n d , y o u can gradually build a l e a r n i n g n e t w o r k w i t h i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n m a d e u p of those w h o have expressed an interest in l e a r n i n g m o r e . If the g r o u p creates e n o u g h m o m e n t u m , the leaders may well follow. Finally, y o u can m e r e l y f o r m a t e m p o r a r y hohstic goal f o r t h e organization that y o u k e e p to yourself and use f o r testing decisions. W h e n y o u are asked to express y o u r o p i n i o n in m e e t i n g s or discussions, y o u r views o n decisions u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n are b o u n d to differ f r o m t h e others, b u t the logic a n d c o m m o n sense of y o u r ideas are likely to appeal to many.You can j u d g e w h e n t h e time is right to let t h e o t h e r s k n o w w h a t y o u are d o i n g a n d have t h e m try d o i n g it w i t h you.

Within a

Community

M o v i n g f r o m a general i n t r o d u c t i o n to Holistic M a n a g e m e n t to practice w i t h i n a c o m m u n i t y is s o m e t i m e s m u c h easier than it is w i t h i n a rigidly structured organization, a l t h o u g h t h e challenges can b e equally great. As a c e n t e r w e have had e x p e r i e n c e w o r k i n g b o t h directly and i n d i rectly t h r o u g h o u r certified e d u c a t o r s w i t h c o m m u n i t i e s that range f r o m a fairly r e m o t e island c o m m u n i t y off t h e W a s h i n g t o n coast to sprawling

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c o u n t i e s in C o l o r a d o and W y o m i n g , a h a n d f u l of villages in s o u t h e r n and w e s t e r n Africa, t h e inhabitants of a critical w a t e r s h e d in Australia, and a g r o u p of Indian tribes in the A m e r i c a n N o r t h w e s t . W e have not w o r k e d with any of these c o m m u n i t i e s l o n g e n o u g h ( n o n e m o r e t h a n f o u r years at this point) to k n o w w h a t w o r k s w i t h any certainty. B u t w e can p r o v i d e g u i d e lines based o n w h a t w e have learned so far, m u c h of w h i c h is applicable to i n t r o d u c i n g Holistic M a n a g e m e n t in an organizational setting as well. In m o s t of these c o m m u n i t i e s , s o m e o n e living o r w o r k i n g w i t h i n t h e c o m m u n i t y was responsible for g e n e r a t i n g an initial interest in Holistic M a n a g e m e n t . In at least t w o c o m m u n i t i e s , w e as a c e n t e r sparked t h e initial interest, in o n e of t h e m only after s p e n d i n g t w o years getting to k n o w t h e p e o p l e first. W h a t is i m p o r t a n t in m o v i n g b e y o n d initial interest into practice is t o identify o n e o r t w o local leaders w h o grasp the i m p o r t a n c e of Holistic M a n a g e m e n t and are willing to assume responsibility for c o o r d i n a t i n g t h e effort. In s o m e cases these p e o p l e also provide t r a i n i n g . T h e y generally d o n o t h o l d official leadership positions, b u t rather serve i n f o r m a l l y as o p i n i o n shapers w h o s e advice is s o u g h t o u t . T h e y tend to be w e l l - k n o w n , t r u s t ed, and involved in c o m m u n i t y activities, and they have their h a n d o n the pulse of c o m m u n i t y relationships. T h e y also t e n d , in m a n y cultures, to be women. Ideally, those w h o provide training should c o m e f r o m w i t h i n t h e c o m m u n i t y and, if applicable, should d o so in the local language, o r languages if m o r e than o n e is s p o k e n . O t h e r w i s e m e m b e r s of t h e c o m m u n i t y m i g h t see t h e n e w ideas as s o m e t h i n g b e i n g i m p o s e d f r o m t h e outside and will take l o n g e r to m a k e t h e m their o w n . D e p e n d i n g o n t h e circumstances, it m a y b e necessary for outsiders to initiate the process by first training a smaller g r o u p of individuals, i n c l u d i n g t h e local leaders, w h o can t h e n facilitate t h e training of others. In every case leadership skills are essential for t h e facilitators, as are skills in consensus building. If these skills are lacking, efforts should be m a d e to acquire t h e m . Fairly early o n t h e local leaders n e e d to identify a g r o u p of p e o p l e w h o share their c o m m i t m e n t to b r i n g i n g Holistic M a n a g e m e n t i n t o t h e c o m m u n i t y and will s u p p o r t their efforts. In larger c o m m u n i t i e s (200 or m o r e individuals) these p e o p l e have proven invaluable in h e l p i n g to gather s u p p o r t , k e e p i n g e v e r y o n e in t o u c h , and facilitating s o m e training themselves. W i t h o u t t h e m , the local leaders find their j o b m u c h m o r e difficult. It is o f t e n j u s t as i m p o r t a n t f o r c o m m u n i t y leaders to n e t w o r k w i t h each other, e x c h a n g i n g w h a t each has l e a r n e d that c o u l d be of help to the others. In t h e A f r i c a n villages, in particular, this sharing of i n f o r m a t i o n has played a critical role in c o m m u n i t i e s j u s t getting started. T h e e x p e r i e n c e shared by others has h e l p e d t h e m to avoid c o m m o n mistakes and has increased their c o n f i d e n c e in t h e process.

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In m o s t c o m m u n i t i e s there will be s o m e individuals o r g r o u p s w h o p r e f e r to sit o n the sidelines, w a i t i n g to see w h a t h a p p e n s b e f o r e they j o i n in. S o m e t i m e s they stay o u t of sight, a n d s o m e t i m e s they m a k e an a p p e a r a n c e only to criticize w h a t they perceive is g o i n g o n . T h e s e p e o p l e may n e g a tively affect y o u r efforts, usually unintentionally, and c a n n o t be i g n o r e d . D e v e l o p a plan for e n g a g i n g t h e m , and c o n t i n u e to provide o p p o r t u n i t i e s for their involvement.

Learning Groups or Networks P e o p l e generally find that l e a r n i n g in g r o u p s e n h a n c e s their u n d e r s t a n d i n g of Holistic M a n a g e m e n t and p r o m o t e s collaboration in o t h e r areas.That is w h y I so strongly s u p p o r t t h e idea of l e a r n i n g n e t w o r k s , s u p p o r t groups, m a n a g e m e n t clubs, o r w h a t e v e r o n e prefers to call t h e m . T h e idea of s t r u c tured l e a r n i n g g r o u p s is certainly n o t new. In the late n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y Scandinavians d e v e l o p e d w h a t they called study circles to enable their largely u n e d u c a t e d p o p u l a t i o n s to better u n d e r s t a n d c u r r e n t issues a n d to acquire n e w skills. T h e n , as now, t h e study circles m e t in participants' h o m e s , w i t h o u t formally trained teachers, to appraise their k n o w l e d g e , c o m p a r e notes, a n d achieve n e w insights. Study circles have p r o v e n so valuable a m e t h o d for involving t h e public in discussion of a w i d e variety of issues that the g o v e r n m e n t s of b o t h S w e d e n and D e n m a r k today subsidize t h e m and almost a third of all Swedish adults participate in t h e m . R a n c h e r s and f a r m e r s living in geographically isolated c o m m u n i t i e s have used w h a t m a n y call m a n a g e m e n t clubs for years to s h a r p e n their u n d e r s t a n d i n g of Holistic M a n a g e m e n t and to k e e p u p - t o - d a t e . B u t the same sort of g r o u p - l e a r n i n g effort is useful even w i t h i n a c o r p o r a t i o n or a m o n g unrelated businesses o r families, if y o u follow these simple g u i d e lines: •

Don't try to force participation. Put the invitation out, perhaps several times, but don't pressure people to get involved. W h e n the readiness is there people will come, and not before. It is better to start with two people w h o are c o m m i t t e d than with twenty w h o are not.

•

Meet regularly. Set regular meeting times (once a m o n t h seems to w o r k well for most) and stick to t h e m so they b e c o m e routine and the learning is continuous. O n e of the most successful groups I am aware of has m e t m o n t h l y for over six years and postponed a m e e t ing only once.

•

Clarify your expectations. Find out what each person hopes to gain by the meetings. T h e n decide h o w often you will meet and where, w h o will set the agenda, if there is one, what rules you want to put into effect (e.g., Should some or all discussions be kept confidential? Should outsiders be allowed to j o i n in f r o m time to time?), and so on.

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•

Keep numbers

357

small and fairly constant. T h e s m a l l e r t h e g r o u p , t h e b e t -

ter individuals tend to k n o w one another and the better able they are to provide meaningful feedback. However, you need to balance the need for intimacy with the need for diversity, w h i c h greater numbers will provide. A dozen or so people, about the n u m b e r that would fit into an average-size living room, seems to work well. W i t h more than twenty you may need a m i c r o p h o n e to make yourselves heard, and fewer people will have the opportunity to express themselves in a given time. If numbers remain constant, but people continually leave and join, you do not have the opportunity to develop the trusting relationships or the continuity and m o m e n t u m that are crucial to successful learning. •

Keep the focus on learning. Your purpose in meeting as a group is to enhance your learning. Socializing is a natural by-product of getting together, but if the focus shifts too m u c h in that direction, motivation will wane and the group will eventually break apart. If you find this happening you may need to structure the learning to some extent. D e t e r m i n e topics for discussion beforehand, and make s o m e o n e responsible for leading these discussions or using their o w n experiences as case studies. Pool tunds together and arrange for an outsider to c o m e in to provide training in areas where everyone teels weak. Better still, teach each other. T h e r e is no better way to increase your understanding of Holistic M a n a g e m e n t than to teach it. If o n e m e m ber of the group has recently attended a training session, have that person teach the rest of you what he or she learned. O r select one or two people from the group w h o have more experience in Holistic Financial Planning, or any other subject, to run training sessions for the w h o l e group.

•

Be patient. It takes time for a group to mature to the point that their meetings truly become an effective learning tool. Relationships w i t h in the group will fluctuate, depending on the circumstances each individual faces—people will at times be confused and angry and at others engaged and exuberant. As one learning group m e m b e r put it, "We have had boring meetings, painful meetings, exciting meetings, and we have had a lot of fun together. It is all part of building a learning community. And it is a rich, stimulating highlight of my life." 1

I a m aware of at least o n e l e a r n i n g g r o u p that, because of the g e o g r a p h i cal distance b e t w e e n t h e m (three c o u n t r i e s w e r e involved) has had to f o r g o f a c e - t o - f a c e m e e t i n g s in favor of electronic ones via t h e I n t e r n e t . T h e y have f o u n d that m o s t of the guidelines a p p l y — t h e y have had to limit their n u m b e r s , agree o n their expectations and s o m e rules at the outset, and so f o r t h . T h e i r m e e t i n g s may lack t h e w a r m t h and n u a n c e that c o m e s f r o m physical contact, b u t they have m a d e s o m e h e a d w a y nonetheless. A n d they

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are b e n e f i t i n g f r o m s u p p o r t they o t h e r w i s e w o u l d n o t have had. If y o u are isolated as these p e o p l e are, this is an o p t i o n you m i g h t consider.

Role of the Center for Holistic Management Holistic M a n a g e m e n t has d e v e l o p e d far b e y o n d w h a t it was ten years ago, w h e n t h e first edition of this b o o k was published. It will c o n t i n u e to develo p as t h e n u m b e r and diversity of practitioners grow. T h e p r i m a r y role of the C e n t e r for Holistic M a n a g e m e n t is to ensure that this k n o w l e d g e is n o t lost. W e are continually collecting, synthesizing, and disseminating i n f o r m a t i o n based o n t h e lessons w e and others have learned t h r o u g h practice, and h o p e always to r e m a i n a place a n y o n e w i s h i n g to be kept abreast of d e v e l o p m e n t s can approach. (We publish a b i m o n t h l y j o u r n a l that includes regular updates a n d w e also m a i n t a i n an i n f o r m a t i o n - e x c h a n g e c o n f e r e n c e o n t h e Internet.) O u r o w n training efforts are focused mainly o n training and continually u p d a t i n g trainers. T h e s e people, as C e r t i f i e d E d u c a t o r s , then w o r k w i t h g r o u p s of individuals or businesses in their o w n or n e i g h b o r i n g communities. For m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n o n h o w to contact these people, see A b o u t the C e n t e r for Holistic M a n a g e m e n t o n page 617 of this b o o k . W i t h o u t s o m e p o i n t of focus and c o o r d i n a t i o n there is always a danger that k n o w l e d g e will dissipate or b e c o m e unintelligible, as s o m e languages have b e c o m e w h e n i n t r o d u c e d i n t o n e w c o u n t r i e s that lost c o n t a c t w i t h the old. As a center, however, w e are also aware that c o o r d i n a t i o n can b e perceived as a f o r m of c o n t r o l that stifles, rather than encourages, creativity. M a i n t a i n i n g a balance b e t w e e n t h e t w o tendencies is likely to r e m a i n a challenge. As m e n t i o n e d , training should n o t be considered an event, b u t a c o n tinual process. W h a t y o u learn today will be e n r i c h e d by w h a t y o u learn t o m o r r o w a n d t h r o u g h o u t the rest of y o u r life. Holistic M a n a g e m e n t is n o t a subject any of us, i n c l u d i n g me, can ever say w e have mastered, merely s o m e t h i n g w e can continually get b e t t e r at practicing.

36 Organization and Leadership: Creating an Environment That Nurtures Creativity

rganizing is an instinctive habit. All h i g h e r f o r m s of animal life and a g o o d m a n y rather primitive ones do it in ways r a n g i n g f r o m the simple p e c k i n g o r d e r of the chickens in t h e backyard, to the t e r r i t o r i al patterns established by m a n y predators, to the highly c o m p l e x divisions of labor in the t e r m i t e colony. O r g a n i z a t i o n in a flying w e d g e of geese, c o l o n y of beavers, hive of bees, o r p r i d e of lions defines t h e species as m u c h as feather, fur, stinger, o r claw do. Leadership is an integral aspect of organization in all h i g h e r life f o r m s , and realization of t h e n e e d f o r it is also instinctive; w i t h o u t leadership, t h e organization dissolves into chaos. T h u s , t h e two, organization and l e a d e r ship, are inseparable, and survival d e p e n d s o n t h e m . H u m a n i t y is n o different f r o m o t h e r species in this respect. N o creature w h o s e offspring spend so l o n g in helpless infancy could persist f o r l o n g w i t h o u t t h e caring family s t r u c t u r e f r o m w h i c h in t i m e g r e w t h e m y r i a d clan, tribal, and national structures that still define us today. H o w e v e r ,

O

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O v e r t h e millennia w e have elaborated ever m o r e c o m p l e x organizations a n d leadership structures to cater to increasing p o p u l a t i o n , g r o w i n g e c o n o m i e s , warfare, a n d especially t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n n o v a t i o n . T h e flood of i n f o r m a t i o n o c c u r r i n g today as t h e result of e n h a n c e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n t e c h n o l o g i e s has only accelerated t h e pace of c h a n g e a n d t h e n e e d to find organizational structures and leadership styles that can deal w i t h it. To a large e x t e n t this search is f o r structures and leadership styles that e n h a n c e c r e a t i v i t y — h u m a n i t y ' s u n i q u e a n d m o s t p o t e n t a t t r i b u t e and the only o n e that enables us to adapt to e v e r - c h a n g i n g circumstances. 359

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As C h a p t e r 18 explained, because all w h o l e s are u n i q u e , and u n i q u e l y different every year, n o f o r m u l a o r m a n a g e m e n t system can w o r k o t h e r than short t e r m . D i f f e r e n t p e r s o n s in different situations have to be able to t h i n k creatively for themselves and their situation. Creativity is key to using money, labor, a n d the o t h e r tools of m a n a g e m e n t successfully, and it is the only tool that can p r o d u c e a holistic goal and plan its a c h i e v e m e n t . W e use the organization and leadership guideline to help us to e n h a n c e creativity t h r o u g h organizational structure and f u n c t i o n , seeking those that foster the m o s t o p e n , fearless, and g e n u i n e c o m m u n i c a t i o n , w i t h o u t w h i c h creativity shrivels.

Hierarchies and Bureaucracies O n e of t h e simplest f o r m s of h u m a n organization, and t h e r e f o r e perhaps the most primitive, is the hierarchy, t h e chain of c o m m a n d d o w n w h i c h orders travel f r o m t h e head p e r s o n to successive layers of s u b o r d i n a t e s . T h e a r g u m e n t for o r g a n i z i n g in this way rests o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n that the p e r son o r p e o p l e at t h e t o p have greater w i s d o m o r can see the bigger picture because of access to m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e r e f o r e , l o w e r levels m u s t o b e y for t h e g o o d of the w h o l e and for the sake of efficiency. F o r m a l structure, however, does n o t always d e t e r m i n e h o w well an organization f u n c t i o n s . In t h e case of hierarchies, that generally d e p e n d s o n h o w m u c h w i s d o m or access to i n f o r m a t i o n t h e c o m m a n d i n g layer a c t u ally has. W i s e c o m m a n d s d e p e n d o n g o o d c o m m u n i c a t i o n of intelligence, but c o m m a n d i n g and c o m m u n i c a t i n g differ so f u n d a m e n t a l l y that in the f u n c t i o n i n g of m a n y hierarchies they b e c o m e mutually exclusive. C o m m a n d s are messages that g o in o n e direction only and accept n o reply but, "mission c o m p l e t e d . " A l t h o u g h that has a definite place, an envir o n m e n t built only o n c o m m a n d s is unlikely to foster t h e o p e n a n d fearless t w o - w a y c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n p e o p l e necessary for i n f o r m e d actions at any level of t h e organization. N o r is it likely to e n c o u r a g e i n d i vidual creativity; in most cases such an e n v i r o n m e n t actually stifles it. A l t h o u g h the leader at t h e t o p may have the big picture in m i n d , he c a n n o t see the detail familiar to t h e w o r k e r at the b o t t o m . W h e n the latter sees a way to d o a j o b better, he has to ask p e r m i s s i o n to i m p l e m e n t the change, a n d that goes u p the chain of c o m m a n d f r o m supervisor to supervisor, each of w h o m distorts the message to s o m e extent because of their state of m i n d , their reaction to t h e message, o r their relationship to the messenger. A n old a r m y j o k e tells of h o w the u r g e n t request " S e n d r e i n f o r c e m e n t s . W e ' r e g o i n g to advance." got r e n d e r e d by this process into " S e n d refreshments. We're g o i n g to a d a n c e . " W h e n that kind of t h i n g h a p pens, t h e message u n d e r s t a n d a b l y c o m e s back d o w n t h e chain to r e p r i -

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m a n d t h e hapless individual w h o started t h e wave. T h u s , a l o w - r a n k i n g p e r s o n risks r e p r i m a n d w i t h every o p e n and honest c o m m u n i c a t i o n he or she makes, and creativity withers. B u r e a u c r a c y was a natural o u t g r o w t h of the hierarchical structure. Fairly early on it b e c a m e obvious the head p e r s o n c o u l d n o t m a k e every decision, but regulations and p r o c e d u r e s c o u l d be devised that those at each d e s c e n d i n g level of a u t h o r i t y c o u l d follow to ensure they m a d e the right decisions.This practice only w i d e n e d t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n chasm and discouraged creativity even f u r t h e r . As regulations a n d p r o c e d u r e s w e r e o p e n to i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , and as t h e p u n i s h m e n t for, o r the h u m i l i a t i o n of, n o t i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e m correctly c o u l d be severe, decisions w e r e p o s t p o n e d , s o m e t i m e s forever. M o s t of us have b e e n part of, or have dealt w i t h , bureaucracies l o n g e n o u g h to k n o w that this f o r m of organization p r o d u c e s efficiency only occasionally, is o f t e n i m m u n e to n e w k n o w l e d g e and rapid change, and routinely creates spectacular blunders. All of this is encapsulated f o r m e in o n e e x a m p l e : t h e 2 0 0 years it t o o k Britain's R o y a l N a v y to abolish scurvy, a disease that c o m m o n l y killed t h e m a j o r i t y of sailors if they r e m a i n e d at sea for long. In 1601 C a p t a i n James Lancaster discovered that scurvy c o u l d be p r e v e n t e d if sailors d r a n k l e m o n j u i c e . H e fed a f e w teaspoons of it each day to the sailors o n o n e navy ship a n d n o n e . t o the sailors o n three o t h e r ships traveling in the same fleet. Close to fifty p e r c e n t of t h e sailors o n t h e o t h e r three ships died of scurvy, b u t n o n e o n the ship w h e r e sailors had c o n s u m e d l e m o n j u i c e . Yet the R o y a l Navy, led by highly intelligent officers, a r g u e d and discussed t h e issue for the n e x t 150 years w h i l e tens of t h o u sands of sailors died of scurvy. W h e n a naval s u r g e o n , J a m e s Lind, repeated Lancaster's e x p e r i m e n t , using oranges a n d l e m o n s , h e achieved t h e same results, s h o w i n g f u r t h e r m o r e that t h e fruit n o t only p r e v e n t e d scurvy, b u t also c o u l d cure it even w h e n t h e disease was well advanced. Still, it t o o k the R o y a l N a v y a n o t h e r f o r t y - e i g h t years to provide citrus rations to sailors a n d finally banish the disease. Britain's M e r c h a n t Navy, a l t h o u g h in f r e q u e n t and regular c o n t a c t w i t h the R o y a l Navy, suffered h u g e losses in m e n d u e to scurvy for a n o t h e r seventy years b e f o r e they, too, a d o p t e d the practice. 1 E v e n universities, w h i c h originated as an a t t e m p t by w a n d e r i n g scholars to sidestep t h e c o n t r o l o n l e a r n i n g exerted by c h u r c h and state b u r e a u cracies, have generally s u c c u m b e d to t h e p o w e r of their o w n b u r e a u c r a cies. M a n y an i n d e p e n d e n t scholar is n o w w o r k i n g outside the university system in o r d e r to p u r s u e creative ideas. A l t h o u g h m a n y academics r e c o g nize this p r o b l e m a n d d o p r o m o t e i n d e p e n d e n t scholarship, creative p e o ple in a university all t o o o f t e n m u s t risk losing t e n u r e and security. T h a t

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universities themselves have d o n e s o m e of t h e best w o r k o n ways to i m prove organizations does n o t contradict t h e fact that they also are a m o n g t h e best laboratories for that effort. W h e n t h e emphasis in an organization is o n o b e d i e n c e to c o m m a n d s or a d h e r e n c e to regulations and procedures, p e o p l e t e n d to b e c o m e n o n collaborative, manipulative, a n d c o m p e t i t i v e in c a r r y i n g t h e m o u t . E v e n in the m o r e b e n e v o l e n t hierarchies o r simpler bureaucracies, p e o p l e at all levels c o m e to fear rejection, fear w h a t others m a y think, fear g o i n g against t h e m a i n s t r e a m . N o n e of this leads to t h e o p e n n e s s r e q u i r e d for g o o d c o m m u n i c a t i o n , creativity, a n d i n f o r m e d decision m a k i n g , all of w h i c h are essential in the practice of Holistic M a n a g e m e n t . H o w e v e r , in an organization that operates w i t h fewer layers and less stringent d e p e n d e n c e o n regulations and p r o c e d u r e s , c o m m u n i c a t i o n should vastly i m p r o v e , creativity flourish, a n d decision m a k i n g be e n h a n c e d . W h e t h e r o r n o t these things d o o c c u r d e p e n d s o n h o w t h e o r g anization is led, a subject w e will r e t u r n to. I call such a w o r k i n g envir o n m e n t collaborative simply because it enables p e o p l e to w o r k t o g e t h e r m o r e effectively.

The Collaborative Organization A collaborative organization first a n d f o r e m o s t treats p e o p l e as h u m a n beings r a t h e r than as " m a c h i n e s of p r o d u c t i o n . " In s t r u c t u r e it m a y r e s e m ble o t h e r organizations, b u t it f u n c t i o n s q u i t e differently. T h e autocratic boss has disappeared, b u t there is still a leader w h o bears ultimate r e s p o n sibility for g e t t i n g t h e j o b d o n e . N o w , however, that j o b includes e n c o u r a g i n g leadership skills in those w h o w o r k alongside h i m o r her so they can share s o m e of that responsibility. Leadership style distinguishes a collaborative o r g a n i z a t i o n . T o create a n d m a i n t a i n a collaborative e n v i r o n m e n t requires different beliefs, skills, and practices f r o m those traditionally e m p h a s i z e d . T h e leader m u s t b e c o m e less of a m a n a g e r a n d m o r e of a coach. His o r h e r chief responsibility is to e m p o w e r and s u p p o r t p e o p l e , giving t h e m m o r e leeway to utilize their creativity and to m a n a g e f o r themselves. T h e rest of this c h a p t e r e x a m i n e s t h e qualities n e e d e d in the leader of a collaborative organization. M u c h of w h a t I w r i t e is based o n personal e x p e r i e n c e w o r k i n g in a n u m b e r of o r g a n i z a t i o n s — f r o m a traditional u n i versity, to t h e vast b u r e a u c r a c y of the British C o l o n i a l O f f i c e , a n d t h e slightly smaller o n e of a national army; f r o m a f a r m a n d a r a n c h w i t h n u m e r o u s employees, to several large c o r p o r a t i o n s , a n d a national g o v e r n m e n t (as a m e m b e r of p a r l i a m e n t and president of a political party); and finally in a n o n p r o f i t c o r p o r a t i o n , the C e n t e r for Holistic M a n a g e m e n t , struggling to m a n a g e itself holistically. A l o n g the way, I have b e n e f i t e d

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a great deal f r o m o t h e r s w h o have t h o u g h t m o r e deeply o n t h e subject and have shared their results in n u m e r o u s b o o k s , r e f e r e n c e d at t h e e n d of this o n e .

Leadership Beliefs W h a t leaders believe a b o u t their p e o p l e greatly influences w h a t those p e o ple a n d thus t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n can a c h i e v e . T h e f o l l o w i n g f o u r beliefs appear to be widespread a m o n g leaders w h o have m a n a g e d to create collaborative organizations that n o t only f u n c t i o n effectively, b u t also consistently p e r f o r m well: •

Most people have a need and desire to exercise and display personal competence. W h e n they are allowed to c o m e up with their o w n solutions, they will work harder to i m p l e m e n t them. A good leader seeks to e m p o w e r people by continually seeking to better understand what it takes to b r i n g out the best in them.

•

People can do what needs to be done if they are c o m p e t e n t in their areas of responsibility. N o matter h o w c o m m i t t e d or well meaning, a person lacking the basic skills or knowledge required of t h e m will u n d e r m i n e the overall effort. A good leader can spot the difference between knowledge or skills that merely need sharpening and those that are fundamentally deficient, and will act quickly to rectify the situation in either case.

•

To the extent people feel recognized, appreciated, cared about, and supported, they will go to extremes to help those w h o help them. T h e leader's primary role is to support the efforts of others. A good leader will go out of his or her way to help people to discover their own answers. A good leader appreciates each individual's strengths and makes sure they are utilized.

•

Most people p e r f o r m at their highest level w h e n they find meaning and challenge in their work. W h e n they derive a sense of personal identity and self-esteem f r o m doing a task well, they give m o r e to the j o b and get more f r o m it. A good leader helps people to stay focused on what they want (the holistic goal), rather than what they don't want (the obstacles that stand in the way of its achievement). 2

A leader w h o s e b e h a v i o r does n o t reflect these beliefs will find it difficult i n d e e d to create an e n v i r o n m e n t in w h i c h creativity can flourish. In my o w n case, o n e m a j o r e x p e r i e n c e colored m y leadership beliefs ever after. Q u a l i f i e d only by a pristine u n d e r g r a d u a t e d e g r e e in b o t a n y and z o o l o g y a n d instructions o n filling o u t a g o v e r n m e n t purchase o r d e r for a m m u n i t i o n and fuel, I e n t e r e d t h e w o r k a d a y w o r l d as a lowly

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g a m e ranger. T h e n at age 21, after less than a year in t h e bush, I was suddenly p r o m o t e d to Provincial G a m e O f f i c e r in charge of t w o provinces c o n t a i n i n g 8,000 square miles of s o m e of t h e world's richest g a m e reserves and 2 0 0 w i d e l y scattered employees. I arrived in heavy rain in m y m u d - s p a t t e r e d Land R o v e r , had a brief h a n d o v e r f r o m m y superior, a n d did n o t see a n o t h e r superior, in t h e provinces for nearly t w o years. In the course of t h e transfer formalities, I learned that a g a m e ranger was b e i n g transferred to m y h e a d q u a r t e r s to deal w i t h elephants that w e r e causing trouble in the s u r r o u n d i n g villages. W h e n I q u e s t i o n e d the n e e d for that in t h e light of o t h e r priorities, m y s u p e r i o r a d d e d in c o n f i d e n c e that the m a n in q u e s t i o n was a dishonest, lazy, d r u n k e n thief. If h e w o r k e d f r o m m y headquarters, perhaps I could catch h i m o u t a n d fire h i m . S o o n t h e fellow arrived in a t h r e e - t o n t r u c k loaded d o w n to t h e blocks w i t h f u r n i t u r e a n d family, and w e had a c a n d i d talk. I c o u l d n ' t i m a g i n e h o w in m y n e e d to learn t h e ropes of my n e w post I c o u l d waste e n e r g y spying o n o n e ranger, so I told h i m t h e t r u e agenda. T h e n e w s shattered h i m , a n d he w o n d e r e d aloud w h y I had told h i m . In fact, h o w e v e r justified his r e p u t a t i o n , I said I c o u l d n ' t afford to believe it. I h a d n o time to w a t c h s o m e o n e day a n d night. W e had a t r e m e n d o u s task to accomplish and t o o few g o o d m e n to help. O n e m o r e c o u l d really m a k e a difference. I told h i m he had a clean slate a n d t h e c h a n c e to prove himself by starting a l e c h w e a n t e l o p e c o n t r o l unit in t h e B a n g u e l o swamps. T h e G a m e D e p a r t m e n t h a d for years a r g u e d lack of f u n d s w h i l e the fine l e c h w e a n t e l o p e of the swamps w e r e slaughtered by the thousands. I h a d at the m o m e n t n o h o u s e for h i m and n o staff a n d n o m o n e y . H e w o u l d have to f i n d a suitable place to c a m p w i t h his family a n d start f r o m there and trust that I w o u l d start s e n d i n g h i m m e n , e q u i p m e n t , a n d m o n e y as soon as I could. H e never let m e d o w n , d o i n g a s u p e r b j o b o n very little. H e c a u g h t m o r e p o a c h e r s than all the rest of my staff p u t together. Despite t h e lack of any s u p p o r t initially, h e s u c c e e d e d in establishing a c o n t r o l u n i t nonetheless. N o d o u b t u n d e r m y s u p e r i o r his sins did m a t c h the accusations, but because I h a d n o t i m e to give t o f o l l o w i n g that suspicion, I l e a r n e d a greater t r u t h a b o u t h u m a n nature.

Leadership Skills and Practices T h e skills and practices that a c c o m p a n y t h e leader's beliefs are equally i m p o r t a n t in creating a collaborative e n v i r o n m e n t . Creativity tends to be greatest w h e n t h e leader's actions display trust and c o n f i d e n c e in his o r h e r people, w h e n w o r k is seen to be m e a n i n g f u l , w h e n all feel free to express ideas, and w h e n all feel valued.

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As I l e a r n e d in m y g a m e d e p a r t m e n t days, a leader w h o displays trust in p e o p l e f r o m t h e outset, can b r i n g o u t t h e best in t h e m . P e o p l e may j e o p ardize that trust if they betray a c o n f i d e n c e , break a c o m m i t m e n t , o r c o n sistently u n d e r p e r f o r m , but there is less likelihood of this if t h e leader's trust is given at the outset. A leader displays c o n f i d e n c e in p e o p l e by giving t h e m o p p o r t u n i t i e s to develop their o w n solutions to m a n a g e m e n t challenges. If the leader truly believes p e o p l e are capable of this and asks to hear a b o u t potential solutions, t h e creativity can really b e g i n to flow. If the leader does n o t believe this, p e o p l e will sense it and may feel that t h e w h o l e exercise is a setup that will n o t b e n e f i t t h e m in any way. In Enlightened Leadership E d O a k l e y and D o u g K r u g stress that t h e way in w h i c h leaders ask questions is also i m p o r tant. A m o n g o t h e r things, they say, effective questions e m p h a s i z e what and how rather than why (e.g., " W h a t should w e d o ? " and " H o w d o w e go a b o u t d o i n g it" rather than " W h y did this h a p p e n ? " ) . Wiry questions o f t e n p u t p e o p l e o n t h e d e f e n s i v e — t h e y may assume they are b e i n g b l a m e d for the p r o b l e m in s o m e way. What and how questions force p e o p l e to t h i n k and to b e creative in i d e n t i f y i n g solutions, w h i c h in t u r n builds their c o n fidence. MEANINGFUL WORK

P e o p l e w a n t to feel they are c o n t r i b u t i n g to a vision that is greater than themselves. In Holistic M a n a g e m e n t t h e holistic goal should provide that vision, b u t it will n o t be very h e l p f u l if everyday practices d o n o t reinforce it. T h e leader needs to ensure that t h e organization's focus is kept o n t h e vision, r a t h e r than o n any obstacles that stand in the way. W h e n o u r a t t e n tion is focused o n s o m e t h i n g w e d o n ' t w a n t , w e tend to be d r a w n closer to it. It makes m o r e sense to focus o n w h a t w e do w a n t , so w e keep m o v ing toward the desired o u t c o m e . P e o p l e always have this choice, b u t m a n y are unable to exercise it w i t h o u t s o m e r e i n f o r c e m e n t , w h i c h t h e leader should be ready to provide. For w o r k to be m e a n i n g f u l , p e o p l e must also u n d e r s t a n d w h e r e their o w n tasks fit w i t h i n t h e overall effort. T h e y c a n n o t c o n t r i b u t e m e a n i n g fully if they d o n o t have access to the b i g - p i c t u r e i n f o r m a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g financial figures. N o r can they c o n t r i b u t e m e a n i n g f u l l y if c o m m u n i c a t i o n isn't constantly f l o w i n g and e v e r y o n e i n f o r m e d of progress. M e e t i n g s will be necessary, and it is t h e leader's responsibility to m a k e sure n o t only that they occur, but also that discussions are i n f o r m a t i v e a n d focused. FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION

You, as leader, must create an e m o t i o n a l climate w h e r e p e o p l e really are free to speak, n o t only of w h a t they think, but m o r e i m p o r t a n t l y of w h a t

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they feel. O f t e n feelings p r e c e d e clear u n d e r s t a n d i n g of crucial issues. T o g e t h e r you m a y plan a p r o j e c t that n o o n e criticizes, a l t h o u g h m a n y may feel antagonistic o r d o u b t f u l . N o r m a l l y such a p r o j e c t w o u l d go ahead, s o m e t i m e s to disaster, as those w h o feel d o u b t s they c a n n o t articulate keep silent. W h e n p e o p l e feel free to speak up, and do, you o f t e n find a c o m m o n p a t t e r n in their response to n e w ideas. O a k l e y and K r u g , w h o specialize in c h a n g e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n , have m a d e a study of this p h e n o m e n o n w h i c h they discuss in Enlightened Leadership. A b o u t 20 p e r c e n t of t h e p e o p l e in a group, they say, are continually o p e n to n e w ideas and will l o o k for ways to m a k e t h e m w o r k ; t h e o t h e r 80 p e r c e n t are m o r e likely to resist n e w ideas to s o m e degree, n o m a t t e r h o w m u c h sense they m a k e a n d may u n c o n s c i o u s l y sabotage their i m p l e m e n t a t i o n . Y o u c a n n o t address t h e c o n cerns of t h e latter unless y o u k n o w w h a t they are. In s o m e cases, however, these c o n c e r n s will b e tied to self-esteem, as a suggestion for d o i n g s o m e t h i n g differently is seen as an indication p e o p l e have d o n e s o m e t h i n g w r o n g . If t h e leader is aware of this possibility, h e or she can w o r k w i t h these individuals to build their c o n f i d e n c e . P e o p l e m u s t also feel free to argue a m o n g s t themselves w h e n t r y i n g to hash o u t a n e w p r o j e c t or in d e c i d i n g h o w they will reach an objective. G o o d a r g u m e n t leads to g o o d questions a n d eventually n e w insights. B u t a r g u m e n t s can get a bit rowdy, especially w h e n those e n g a g e d in t h e m sacrifice politeness for t h e sake of clarity. In No More Teams, M i c h a e l Schrage w r i t e s at l e n g t h o n w h a t h e calls " c o n s t r u c t i v e d i s a g r e e m e n t . " T o m a k e a p o i n t a b o u t t h e c a n d o r n e e d e d for g o o d a r g u m e n t , he quotes f r o m the m e m o i r s of t h e w e l l - k n o w n musical collaborators R o g e r s and H a r t : " T h e noise [from o u r arguments] c o u l d be heard all over t h e city. O u r fights over words w e r e f u r i o u s , b l a s p h e m o u s , a n d f r e q u e n t , b u t even in their hottest m o m e n t s w e b o t h k n e w that w e w e r e a r g u i n g academically a n d not personally" (emphasis added). T h e latter p o i n t is critical. A r g u m e n t serves little p u r p o s e , a n d can even be destructive, w h e n it b e c o m e s personal. I learned this lesson myself s o m e years ago w h i l e serving as a m e m b e r of p a r l i a m e n t at t h e h e i g h t of t h e bitter civil w a r in w h a t was t h e n R h o d e s i a ; I was at the t i m e a o n e - m a n o p p o s i t i o n against f o r t y - n i n e m e m b e r s of t h e r u l i n g party. In o u r debates over t h e war, racism, and resource m a n a g e m e n t , I was repeatedly r u l e d o u t of o r d e r by t h e S p e a k e r — t o t h e e x t e n t that I felt justified in publicly accusing h i m of bias in favor of t h e r u l i n g party a n d thus i n c o m p e t e n t in his role as Speaker. In private, however, h e explained that h e was f o r c e d to rule m e o u t of o r d e r because I was a t t r i b u t i n g bad motives to those I was d e b a t i n g a n d thus attacking t h e m personally, rather than attacking their proposals. I t o o k his advice a n d f o u n d I was able to speak far m o r e effectively, even w i n n i n g t h e d e b a t e o n o n e m a j o r issue despite o v e r w h e l m i n g opposition.

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FEELING VALUED

P e o p l e feel valued w h e n their c o n t r i b u t i o n s are a c k n o w l e d g e d and g e n uinely appreciated. A n n u a l awards and t h e public r e c o g n i t i o n that acc o m p a n i e s t h e m , have l o n g b e e n used to a c k n o w l e d g e a g o o d effort, but s p o n t a n e o u s expressions of praise may have m o r e p o w e r . In m y o w n case, private a c k n o w l e d g m e n t f r o m leaders I a d m i r e d and respected has m e a n t far m o r e than public praise, especially w h e n t h e a c k n o w l e d g m e n t s were followed u p w i t h m o r e responsibility. I was ready to m o v e m o u n t a i n s for these people. T h i s brings m e to s o m e final t h o u g h t s o n t h e role of a leader in a collaborative organization. A l t h o u g h that role differs in m a n y ways f r o m the role of the leader in a c o n v e n t i o n a l organization, s o m e aspects are the same. Leaders still n e e d to balance t h e e n e r g y they p u t i n t o taking care of p e o p l e w i t h the n e e d for creating results t h r o u g h those people. G o o d leaders readily accept ti'ho p e o p l e are, b u t c a n n o t afford to tolerate u n a c c e p t able behavior. A n d leaders still n e e d to inspire p e o p l e . T h i s is n o t s o m e t h i n g a leader can d o in a series of p e p talks, b u t rather s o m e t h i n g p e o p l e derive f r o m t h e e x a m p l e the leader sets. Leaders m u s t be o p e n and h o n e s t for their associates to b e c o m e so. Leaders m u s t d e m o n s t r a t e t h e behaviors they w o u l d like to see f r o m others, such as trust, appreciation and caring, a willingness to a d m i t mistakes quickly, and the ability to say, "I d o n ' t know." Leaders can talk a b o u t collaboration all day long, b u t if their b e h a v i o r doesn't m a t c h their words, p e o p l e will n o t trust t h e m . As G a n d h i said, "You have to be the c h a n g e y o u expect."

Conclusion Holistic M a n a g e m e n t is a proactive process in w h i c h y o u are a t t e m p t i n g to m a k e h a p p e n w h a t you w a n t to h a p p e n . Your ability as an o r g a n i z a t i o n to d o this will d e p e n d largely o n h o w free p e o p l e are to t h i n k a n d b e creative. T h e way an organization is s t r u c t u r e d and t h e way it f u n c t i o n s can e n h a n c e or d i m i n i s h creativity. W h a t I have called a collaborative o r g a n i zation is o n e that tends to e n h a n c e it. Leadership is critical in a collaborative organization, because it fills the v a c u u m left w h e n t h e c o m m a n d - a n d - c o n t r o l structure of t h e hierarchy is g o n e and t h e regulations a n d p r o c e d u r e s of t h e b u r e a u c r a c y n o l o n g e r g o v e r n f u n c t i o n . M o s t collaborative organizations will retain e l e m e n t s of the hierarchy in their structure a n d will utilize regulations and p r o c e d u r e s to g u i d e s o m e activities. In t h e e n d , the p e o p l e w i t h i n t h e organization will n e e d to d e f i n e f o r themselves w h a t they m e a n by a collaborative e n v i r o n m e n t . M o s t i m p o r t a n t , t h o u g h , is that h o w e v e r it is d e f i n e d or n a m e d , t h e right e n v i r o n m e n t is o n e that is capable of u n l e a s h i n g t h e creativity i n h e r ent in us all.

37 Marketing: Developing a Strategy in Line with Your Holistic Goal

h e w o r d s marketing and selling are o f t e n used interchangeably, and a l t h o u g h they b o t h deal w i t h g e t t i n g a p r o d u c t into t h e hands of a paying c u s t o m e r , they are far f r o m s y n o n y m o u s . M a r k e t i n g has to do w i t h strategy: h o w to develop a p r o d u c t that meets y o u r c u s t o m e r s ' needs, and t h e n get it to the c u s t o m e r at a profit to y o u . Selling is only o n e aspect of a m a r k e t i n g strategy. T h e f o l l o w i n g guidelines f o r d e v e l o p i n g a m a r k e t i n g strategy i n c l u d e i n f o r m a t i o n that m i g h t be f o u n d in any basic m a r k e t i n g text, b u t are based mainly o n lessons gleaned f r o m t h e e x p e r i e n c e s of a variety of Holistic M a n a g e m e n t practitioners. Because t h e m a r k e t i n g challenges f o r a g r i c u l tural p r o d u c e r s are o f t e n greater than for any o t h e r c o m m e r c i a l sector, however, I w a n t to digress s o m e w h a t and discuss t h e m first. T h e s e challenges go back a l o n g way, to t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e first cities, w h i c h only b e c a m e possible w h e n f a r m e r s w e r e able to p r o d u c e m o r e than was required to feed their o w n families. B u t ways also had to be f o u n d to transport t h e products f r o m small f a r m s scattered over a large area to the cities, w h i c h were o f t e n a fair distance away. T h e f a r m e r , w h o g e n erally lacked c o m m e r c i a l k n o w l e d g e , a d e q u a t e transport, o r t h e m e a n s to finance it, was obliged to sell soon after harvesting. T h e transporter, or "dealer," h e sold to b e c a m e indispensable. Because the products w e r e perishable, outlets f o r their distribution had to b e set up in advance by t h e dealer so the products c o u l d b e resold or f u r t h e r processed b e f o r e spoiling. T h u s , fairly early o n the dealer t o o k o n the responsibility of m a r k e t i n g a n d e n j o y e d a m u c h stronger e c o n o m i c

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position than t h e farmer. O n c e t h e dealer p e r f e c t e d s o m e f o r m of storage, he c o u l d respond better to fluctuations in m a r k e t prices because he had an ability to build u p stocks w h e n prices w e r e l o w and release t h e m w h e n d e m a n d was high. H o w e v e r , such b u y i n g and selling o f t e n t u r n e d into speculation, w h i c h t e n d e d to exacerbate p r i c e fluctuations.The f a r m e r , o n the o t h e r h a n d , had little c o n t r o l over t h e v o l u m e of his business because his o u t p u t was subject to natural variations, w e a t h e r conditions, pests, and so o n . In g o o d years he fared well, but in bad years he m i g h t have httle for sale. As u r b a n e c o n o m i e s b e c a m e m o r e industrialized, they could n o t aflord to lose t h e f a r m e r s that supplied t h e m w i t h f o o d and o t h e r raw materials, so g o v e r n m e n t s b e g a n to shelter f a r m e r s f r o m price fluctuations w i t h r e g ulations of various types, p r i c e supports (subsidies), and tariff p r o t e c t i o n in the event i m p o r t s flooded t h e m a r k e t at prices b e l o w local p r o d u c t i o n costs. M e a n w h i l e , the dealers b e c a m e ever better at m a r k e t i n g and g r e w m o r e p o w e r f u l , i n t e g r a t i n g transport, delivery, and processing until their businesses eventually b e c a m e h u g e m a n u f a c t u r i n g c o n c e r n s that d o m i n a t e d the f o o d m a r k e t and linked it to m a n y o t h e r markets. In t h e U n i t e d States, for example, excess oil p r o d u c t i o n was diverted into the m a n u f a c t u r e of fertilizers and pesticides f o r grain f a r m i n g . W h e n excessive a m o u n t s of grain were p r o d u c e d as a result, f o o d industry marketers c o n v i n c e d A m e r icans that g r a i n - f e d cattle were s u p e r i o r in taste and r e d e f i n e d t h e cattle business. Given that history, it is probably n o t surprising that so f e w agricultural p r o d u c e r s have b e c o m e skilled marketers and that so m a n y have r e m a i n e d passive sellers. W h e n e v e r I have t h e c h a n c e to talk to g r o u p s of f a r m e r s or ranchers, I o f t e n ask f o r a s h o w of hands f r o m those w h o like m a r k e t i n g . N o m a t t e r w h a t c o u n t r y I ' m in, very f e w h o l d u p their hands (I w o u l d guess less than 3 percent). B u t times are c h a n g i n g , particularly in t h e i n dustrialized nations, w h e r e m a n y f a r m e r s and ranchers have access to e d u c a t i o n , i n f o r m a t i o n , and t e c h n o l o g y and are n o t e n c u m b e r e d by the bureaucracy that exists in m o s t f o o d m a n u f a c t u r i n g c o r p o r a t i o n s . T h e s e p r o d u c e r s can avoid c o m p e t i n g directly w i t h t h e c o r p o r a t i o n s by carving o u t their o w n n i c h e in t h e f o o d market, w h i c h is exactly w h a t t h e m o s t successful p r o d u c e r s are d o i n g . T h e n i c h e m a r k e t e r s have a distinct advantage over the f o o d c o r p o r a tions in this regard because they have the o p p o r t u n i t y to develop f a c e - t o face relationships w i t h their customers. Likewise, they can g u a r a n t e e the quality of t h e finished o r v a l u e - a d d e d p r o d u c t s they p r o d u c e , because they also raise o r g r o w t h e raw materials that go into t h e m . T h i s additional a m o u n t of c o n t r o l over p r o d u c t quality enables t h e m to tailor their p r o d -

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uct to t h e needs of their c u s t o m e r s , and this a d d e d value is s o m e t h i n g cust o m e r s are p r e p a r e d to pay for. T h u s , n i c h e marketers are able to set their o w n p r i c e s — t h e y b e c o m e p r i c e makers. P r o d u c e r s w h o only raise or g r o w c o m m o d i t i e s for t h e g e n e r i c mass m a r k e t , however, are far less c o n c e r n e d w i t h quality, a n d they have n o idea w h o t h e ultimate c o n s u m e r s of their p r o d u c t s are. T h e i r a n o n y m i t y and the lack of any reward for a h i g h e r quality p r o d u c t only tempts t h e m to cut c o r n e r s , w i t h b o t h e n v i r o n m e n t a l and social c o n s e q u e n c e s , a n d to p r o d u c e products that are less perfect than they c o u l d or should be. N o t h i n g discourages i n t e g r i t y m o r e t h a n anonymity. T h e s e p r o d u c e r s r e m a i n hostage to prices they have n o part in setting. T h e y c o n t i n u e to be p r i c e takers. N i c h e m a r k e t i n g is used in every c o m m e r c i a l sector for similar reasons and generally w i t h impressive results, b u t agricultural p r o d u c e r s have only just b e g u n to explore t h e limitless o p p o r t u n i t i e s it affords t h e m .

Developing a Marketing Strategy F a r m e r s a n d ranchers aren't t h e only ones w h o have a t e n d e n c y to dislike m a r k e t i n g . A n y n u m b e r of p e o p l e f r o m a variety o f b u s i n e s s e s find it o n e r ous. I b e h e v e m u c h of this is d u e to a m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of w h a t m a r k e t i n g entails. Far t o o m a n y assume that m a r k e t i n g m u s t i n c l u d e sophisticated research into t h e attitudes, preferences, habits, and p u r c h a s i n g p o w e r of the c o n s u m e r , or that it entails p o r i n g over m o u n t a i n s o f statistics o n p r i c e trends, distribution channels, a n d so f o r t h . A l t h o u g h s o m e research is n e c essary, it does n o t have to b e this sophisticated. T h o s e w h o specialize in m a r k e t research a d m i t that it is n o t a very exact science anyway. M a r k e t research has n o t eliminated i m p o r t a n t areas of u n c e r t a i n t y and probably never will. It only indicates t h e c o n d i t i o n s that exist, n o t w h a t to do a b o u t t h e m . M a r k e t research may also b e expensive, and its value must b e m e a sured against its cost. Finally, the i n f o r m a t i o n p r o v i d e d s o o n b e c o m e s o u t of date. A l t h o u g h there is hardly a f o r m of c o m m e r c i a l activity that does n o t require s o m e m a r k e t research, it is m o s t w i d e l y used in m a n u f a c t u r i n g w h e r e t h e p r o d u c t is f u r t h e s t r e m o v e d f r o m the c o n s u m e r . T h e service provider, the retailer, and even t h e wholesaler all have o p p o r t u n i t i e s to m e e t f a c e - t o - f a c e w i t h c o n s u m e r s and to ascertain their needs a n d p r e f e r ences firsthand. T h e a p p r o a c h a n y o n e takes to m a r k e t i n g may c h a n g e substantially in t h e c o n t e x t of Holistic M a n a g e m e n t , because each of t h e steps involved (developing t h e p r o d u c t , f i n d i n g the c u s t o m e r , distributing t h e p r o d u c t , and t u r n i n g a profit) will require decisions that should b e tested toward y o u r holistic goal. As y o u will see, t h e p r o d u c t s y o u develop will be

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i n f l u e n c e d by t h e quality of life you aspire to. (I a m using the w o r d product in t h e broadest sense. Services, such as a c c o u n t i n g o r c o n s u l t a t i o n for instance, are a f o r m of p r o d u c t . ) R e l a t i o n s w i t h c u s t o m e r s will be largely g o v e r n e d by h o w y o u have described y o u r b e h a v i o r as it affects those relations in y o u r f u t u r e resource base. B o t h t h e creation and distribution of p r o d u c t s will affect t h e natural e n v i r o n m e n t n e e d e d to sustain y o u r efforts in t h e l o n g r u n . T h u s , m a r k e t i n g , in effect, begins w i t h t h e f o r m a t i o n of y o u r hohstic goal. W i t h these points in m i n d , let m e go t h r o u g h t h e steps that should b e i n c l u d e d in any m a r k e t i n g strategy.

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a

Product

M a r k e t i n g is n o t really a b o u t products, it is a b o u t p e o p l e . If y o u design a p r o d u c t w i t h o u t k n o w i n g s o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e p e o p l e w h o will b u y it, you will only b e g a m b l i n g w i t h success. A t the outset, however, w h a t you mainly n e e d to consider is t h e k i n d of p r o d u c t , or line of products, you will p r o d u c e . W h a t d o you already have in the way of raw materials, skills, o r e q u i p m e n t that c o u l d potentially be t u r n e d i n t o a p r o d u c t p e o p l e will w a n t to buy? W h a t are you g o o d at? W h a t do y o u w a n t to b e k n o w n for? In Holistic Financial P l a n n i n g , these are t h e sorts of questions y o u ask yourself p r i o r to creating a plan f o r the y e a r . T h e n y o u b r a i n s t o r m a list of all t h e p r o d u c t possibilities, f r o m the m o s t practical to t h e ridiculous. You d o n o t necessarily have to c o m e u p w i t h s o m e t h i n g entirely new. You m i g h t c h o o s e to alter an existing p r o d u c t o r develop n e w uses f o r it. P e o p l e generally b r a i n s t o r m m o r e than o n e h u n d r e d ideas and t h e n w h i t t l e those d o w n to a h a n d f u l that appear realistic w h e n tested toward their holistic goal. A n y ideas that obviously conflict w i t h t h e quality of life s t a t e m e n t (society and culture test) are d r o p p e d , as are those that w o u l d fail to c o n t r i b u t e a n y t h i n g toward c o v e r i n g t h e overheads of the business (gross profit analysis). T h e p r o d u c t s o r enterprises that r e m a i n are t h e n passed t h r o u g h t h e o t h e r five tests, w h i c h usually pares t h e list d o w n to three or f o u r products w i t h real potential. E v e n t h o u g h these final possible p r o d u c t s e m e r g e d because y o u felt they c o u l d m e e t a d e m a n d s o m e o n e was n o t already filling and that you c o u l d m e e t that d e m a n d b e t t e r t h a n a n y o n e else, you still n e e d to find and talk to t h e potential c o n s u m e r s of a p r o d u c t b e f o r e y o u finalize its design.

Identifying

Your Customers

and Meeting

Their

Needs

If y o u are a m a n u f a c t u r e r a t t e m p t i n g to reach a mass m a r k e t , y o u will probably n e e d to engage the services of a m a r k e t researcher to help y o u to

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identify potential c u s t o m e r s and their needs. B u t there is m u c h you can d o o n y o u r o w n , particularly if you aim to serve a niche, or specialty, m a r ket, w h o s e clientele is already s o m e w h a t d e f i n e d . Ideally, you should talk directly to t h e c u s t o m e r s themselves, b u t this is n o t always practical or p o s sible. You can, however, talk to p e o p l e that you k n o w are likely to be in direct c o n t a c t w i t h t h e m , namely, retailers w h o p r o m o t e a n d / o r sell p r o d ucts similar to yours. O n e r a n c h e r w h o s o u g h t to learn m o r e a b o u t t h e m a r k e t for "lean, clean, and n a t u r a l " b e e f first talked to a fitness club director w h o assured her there was a d e m a n d for h e r p r o d u c t , but that his clients didn't k n o w w h e r e to get it. T h e r a n c h e r t h e n visited restaurants and g r o c e r y stores that catered to h e a l t h - c o n s c i o u s c o n s u m e r s a n d f o u n d they had special r e q u i r e m e n t s that, if m e t , w o u l d pave t h e way for the sale of h e r p r o d u c t . T h e s e special r e q u i r e m e n t s necessitated visits to m e a t packers a n d distributors to find o n e or t w o w h o c o u l d help h e r to get h e r p r o d u c t to t h e retailers in the f o r m they n e e d e d it, w h e n they n e e d e d it. Each o n e of these needs i n f l u e n c e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of her p r o d u c t line. T h i s rancher's case illustrates a n o t h e r p o i n t . Y o u have to k n o w n o t only w h o y o u r c u s t o m e r s are, but also w h e r e they can be f o u n d . In h e r case, she figured correctly that the ultimate c o n s u m e r s of h e r p r o d u c t w o u l d be h e a l t h - c o n s c i o u s a n d likely to f r e q u e n t stores and restaurants that catered to the health conscious. Since n o n e of these retail outlets w e r e f o u n d in her o w n n e i g h b o r h o o d , but only in college t o w n s and larger m e t r o p o l i t a n areas, she had to figure o u t h o w she was g o i n g to get h e r p r o d u c t s to the retailer. A n d that brings us to the n e x t step, w h i c h is o n e that will also i n f l u e n c e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of y o u r p r o d u c t .

Getting the Product

to the

Customer

This really m e a n s distribution, and there are a n u m b e r of different ways to accomplish it. A n y t i m e y o u i n c l u d e a m i d d l e m a n f o r any reason in y o u r distribution n e t w o r k , you risk distancing yourself f r o m t h e c o n s u m e r and decreasing y o u r profit. Nevertheless, there are o f t e n g o o d , if n o t essential, reasons f o r i n c l u d i n g m i d d l e m e n in s o m e cases, as y o u will see. H e r e are s o m e simplified descriptions of the various distribution structures to consider. DIRECT TO THE CONSUMER

T h i s is t h e oldest a n d simplest f o r m of distribution in w h i c h the link b e t w e e n p r o d u c e r a n d c o n s u m e r is shortest. It has t h e big advantage of p u t t i n g you in direct contact w i t h t h e c o n s u m e r s of y o u r p r o d u c t and affords t h e o p p o r t u n i t y to build t h e k i n d of personal relationships that lead

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to loyal customers.* In this s t r u c t u r e you are basically assuming t h e role of retailer and can affect distribution in three ways: (1) t h e c u s t o m e r c o m e s to y o u r p r o d u c t i o n site; (2) you go to t h e c u s t o m e r (delivery); or (3) you send y o u r p r o d u c t t h r o u g h the mail. T h e r e are varying legal r e q u i r e m e n t s and restrictions involved f r o m state to state a n d c o u n t r y to c o u n t r y that may limit your ability to distribute directly to the c o n s u m e r (particularly if agricultural p r o d u c t s are involved), b u t m a n y p e o p l e have f o u n d creative ways to w o r k a r o u n d stifling regulations, w h i l e r e m a i n i n g well w i t h i n the T h e retail business is n o t for everyone. S o m e p e o p l e have a k n a c k for it, o t h e r s d o n o t . It's i m p o r t a n t to be realistic here a b o u t w h o y o u are as people, w h a t you are seeking in t e r m s of quality of life, and w h e t h e r this is r i g h t for you. In addition, you have to realize that w h i l e you are c u t t i n g o u t t h e m i d d l e m a n , y o u may be a d d i n g to y o u r o v e r h e a d e x p e n s e s — s o m e o n e still has to p r o m o t e t h e product(s), a n d s o m e o n e has to d o the p a p e r w o r k involved in any sales transaction, even w h e n the c u s t o m e r s c o m e to y o u r p r o d u c t i o n site. If you are delivering a p r o d u c t , vehicles may n e e d to be purchased. If direct mail is used, s o m e o n e m u s t be responsible f o r p r o cessing a n d s e n d i n g orders. In a very small business, w h e r e a h a n d f u l of p e o p l e can h a n d l e b o t h p r o d u c t i o n and distribution, overhead expenses may n o t increase immediately, b u t if t h e business is allowed to grow, they surely will. At s o m e p o i n t you may decide that i n c l u d i n g at least o n e m i d d l e m a n spares y o u a lot of stress a n d that w h a t you lose in revenue to this p e r s o n or f i r m is m o r e than m a d e u p for in t h e overhead you d o n o t have to take o n . This is the sort of decision y o u will w a n t to test toward your hohstic goal. WHOLESALE

W h o l e s a l e usually means distributing y o u r p r o d u c t to s o m e o n e else w h o t h e n gets it to t h e c o n s u m e r , either directly o r t h r o u g h yet a n o t h e r m i d d l e m a n . If you m a n u f a c t u r e f u r n i t u r e , for example, you m i g h t sell directly to o n e or m o r e f u r n i t u r e stores or to a f u r n i t u r e distributor w h o t h e n sells y o u r p r o d u c t to a variety of retailers. B y t h e time y o u r p r o d u c t reaches its ultimate c o n s u m e r , it may have risen in p r i c e as m u c h as 200 p e r c e n t or m o r e , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e n u m b e r of m i d d l e m e n in b e t w e e n . E a c h of these m i d d l e m e n has taken over some of the responsibility for delivering y o u r p r o d u c t a n d for m a i n t a i n i n g relationships w i t h the customer, leaving you

* S o m e p e o p l e prefer to use the t e r m " c l i e n t " r a t h e r than " c u s t o m e r " to distinguish b e t w e e n a p e r s o n w h o may or may n o t be a c o n t i n u o u s b u y e r of y o u r p r o d u c t , and o n e w h o has a m o r e lasting c o n n e c t i o n to you as t h e p r o d u c e r . I appreciate this difference, but I have held to the c o n v e n t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n of client (one for w h o m p r o fessional services are rendered) t h r o u g h o u t this b o o k .

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s o m e w h a t freer to c o n c e n t r a t e o n m a k i n g f u r n i t u r e . I stress t h e w o r d some here, because a necessary part of y o u r m a r k e t i n g strategy is to m a i n t a i n relationships w i t h t h e m i d d l e m e n w h o serve as valuable c o n d u i t s f o r f e e d back o n t h e r e c e p t i o n of y o u r p r o d u c t . T h e y are generally t h e first to hear of p r o b l e m s w i t h quality o r w h y d e m a n d f o r y o u r p r o d u c t is decreasing. T h e n u m b e r of m i d d l e m e n y o u c h o o s e to use generally d e p e n d s o n t h e v o l u m e o f y o u r business, t h e a m o u n t of w o r k you are willing to d o y o u r self, a n d the particular m a r k e t . W h e n y o u sell directly to a retailer, y o u have to w o r k hard to build a m u t u a l l y beneficial relationship. You w a n t to be able to m e e t h e r needs so she can m e e t yours. She is n o w the o n e selling directly to the c o n s u m e r , and she o f t e n has any n u m b e r of o t h e r p r o d u c t s to sell as well.You w a n t to m a k e sure that selling y o u r p r o d u c t is easy f o r W o r k i n g t h r o u g h a wholesale distributor, w h o t h e n sells to various retailers, requires even m o r e effort at relationship building, as you are n o w several steps r e m o v e d f r o m t h e c o n s u m e r . T h e wholesaler is generally n o t the p e r s o n y o u w a n t to w o r k w i t h as you b e g i n to m a r k e t a n e w p r o d u c t . It is wiser to w o r k directly w i t h t h e retailer o r c o n s u m e r . H o w e v e r , if t h e p r o d u c t fares well and you c h o o s e to allow t h e business to grow, a w h o l e sale distributor will probably b e c o m e necessary.You n e e d to t h i n k carefully a b o u t j u s t h o w large y o u w a n t y o u r business to grow, a n d be sure to test any decisions associated w i t h g r o w t h . T h e r e are a n u m b e r of reasons w h y you may w a n t to limit g r o w t h — q u a l i t y of life b e i n g a m a j o r o n e . As y o u r business grows, so d o t h e pressures. T h e r a n c h e r I s p o k e of earlier w h o was w o r k i n g o u t a m a r k e t i n g strategy f o r lean, clean, natural beef, started w o r k i n g first w i t h retailers, but quickly a d d e d a wholesale distributor w h o c o u l d t h e n h a n d l e deliveries to several restaurants. S h e did, h o w e v e r , w o r k to m a i n t a i n relationships w i t h the restaurant o w n e r s so she c o u l d c o n t i n u e to get firsthand feedback o n ways to i m p r o v e h e r p r o d u c t . COOPERATIVES

C o - o p s are a n o t h e r s t r u c t u r e w o r t h c o n s i d e r i n g if y o u j u s t plain d o n o t like m a r k e t i n g , find buyers difficult to deal w i t h in general, and, in s o m e cases, are willing to give u p a d e g r e e of c o n t r o l over y o u r business. L o n g used by f a r m e r s as a s t r u c t u r e in w h i c h they c o u l d p o o l their p r o d u c t s together, m a r k e t t h e m as a batch, and thus c o m p e t e w i t h larger distributors, cooperatives have l o n g since e x p a n d e d i n t o o t h e r industries. H o w e v e r , they vary considerably in aim and structure. In addition to taking o n t h e responsibility of m a r k e t i n g f o r their m e m b e r s , w h o generally have a say in t h e a p p r o a c h taken, s o m e cooperatives purchase supplies, o b t a i n loans, e n c o u r a g e research, and offer a host of services, i n c l u d i n g f u r ther p r o d u c t processing, all of w h i c h n e e d to be paid for. M e m b e r s h i p in

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m o s t cooperatives is limited to p r o d u c e r s , b u t s o m e also include c o n s u m e r s w h o purchase shares in t h e c o - o p t h r o u g h m e m b e r s h i p s , p r o v i d i n g n e e d ed capital in e x c h a n g e for p r o d u c t s they receive later o n . B e f o r e f o r m i n g or j o i n i n g a cooperative, m a k e sure you u n d e r s t a n d the costs involved and that t h e g r o u p holds values similar to y o u r o w n .

Promoting

Your

Product

Based o n y o u r research so far, you should have gathered a fair a m o u n t of i n f o r m a t i o n to use to finalize t h e design of y o u r p r o d u c t . B e f o r e you go into p r o d u c t i o n , however, y o u still have s o m e decisions to make, an i m p o r tant o n e b e i n g h o w you will p r o m o t e y o u r p r o d u c t . I will n o t deal here w i t h t h e vehicles f o r p r o m o t i o n (advertising t h r o u g h various m e d i a , p u b licity, c r o s s - p r o m o t i o n , etc.) because they are constantly c h a n g i n g , as is the t e c h n o l o g y (videos, t h e I n t e r n e t , and so on) for utilizing t h e m . W h a t e v e r ones you choose, however, will entail s o m e costs and these have to be c o n sidered in p r i c i n g y o u r p r o d u c t . A n y n u m b e r of b o o k s a n d trade magazines are available to help y o u to d e t e r m i n e t h e m o s t effective media for p r o moting your product. P a c k a g i n g is a n o t h e r aspect of p r o m o t i o n that I will n o t dwell o n . O r i g i n a l l y used as a m e a n s f o r p r o t e c t i n g a p r o d u c t f r o m d a m a g e o r spoilage, p a c k a g i n g has b e c o m e a m a j o r p r o m o t i o n a l tool in itself, p a r t i c ularly f o r m a n u f a c t u r e r s serving a mass m a r k e t w h o d e p e n d on flashy labels and fancy wrappers, rather than relationships, to w i n customers. If you are m a n u f a c t u r i n g o n a smaller scale a n d / o r p r o d u c i n g for a n i c h e m a r k e t , you d o n ' t necessarily have to c o m p e t e w i t h b i g - n a m e p r o d u c e r s because you can build relationships w i t h the c o n s u m e r , either directly or indirectly, w i t h t h e help of a retailer. Nevertheless, in m o s t cases y o u will require p a c k a g i n g in s o m e f o r m , and even if a distributor or retailer is d o i n g the p a c k a g i n g f o r y o u , you w a n t to have a h a n d in its design, and c e r t a i n ly in t h e creation of y o u r p r o d u c t label. W h a t I w a n t to address specifically in this step is y o u r p r o m o t i o n a l m e s sage. S o m e businesses have e a r n e d a deservedly bad r e p u t a t i o n over the years f o r e n g a g i n g in p r o m o t i o n a l campaigns that a t t e m p t to p s y c h o l o g i cally m a n i p u l a t e c o n s u m e r s into b u y i n g p r o d u c t s they d o n ' t really n e e d or that may n o t b e g o o d for t h e m . This is easy to d o w h e n y o u v i e w y o u r c u s t o m e r s as nameless, faceless beings w i t h m o n e y to spend, and y o u r p r o d u c t s solely as vehicles for raking in that money. If you are a t t e m p t i n g to m a n a g e y o u r business holistically, however, it is n o t likely you h o l d these views. T h e inclusion in y o u r holistic goal of the m a n y things besides m o n e y that are i m p o r t a n t to y o u and the specific m e n t i o n of h o w you w a n t to relate to c u s t o m e r s w o u l d discourage such t h i n k i n g . Generally, y o u will w a n t to feel g o o d a b o u t y o u r p r o d u c t s a n d w h a t they can p r o v i d e for

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p e o p l e . A n y p r o d u c t s y o u d o n o t feel g o o d a b o u t are n o t likely to pass the testing toward y o u r holistic goal. In y o u r p r o m o t i o n a l message you should share y o u r reasons for c h o o s ing to p r o d u c e the p r o d u c t and let t h e c u s t o m e r k n o w h o w it was p r o d u c e d . If you are m a n a g i n g holistically you have to the best of y o u r ability ensured that the decisions that led to t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of y o u r p r o d u c t ^ ) as well as y o u r m e t h o d s of p r o d u c t i o n w e r e economically, socially, and e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y s o u n d . T h i s is s o m e t h i n g that should b e c o m e m a n d a tory for any business. As it is, a g r o w i n g n u m b e r of m a r k e t surveys indicate that c o n s u m e r s are increasingly c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e social and e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n s e q u e n c e s associated w i t h p r o d u c t s they buy. A n y n u m b e r of c o m p a n i e s have a t t e m p t e d to address this c o n c e r n in their p r o m o t i o n a l messages, but can't always supply e v i d e n c e to back u p their claims. B e a r this in m i n d w h e n d e v e l o p i n g y o u r p r o m o t i o n a l message. If you c a n n o t provide m e a n i n g f u l evidence, you will n o t c o n v i n c e a n y o n e that w h a t you are saying m a t c h e s w h a t you are d o i n g . In p r o m o t i n g t h e p r o d u c t itself, e m p h a s i z e its benefits over its feat u r e s — i n o t h e r words, w h a t t h e p r o d u c t does, rather than w h a t it is. For example, in p r o m o t i n g a c o p i e r you w o u l d emphasize the n u m b e r of copies it can p r o d u c e p e r m i n u t e , the excellent quality of t h e copies, and so o n , over the size of its m o t o r , the d i m e n s i o n s of its p a p e r trays, o r t h e materials used in its frame. W h e n y o u r p r o d u c t c o m p e t e s w i t h others, you need to convey w h a t yours does well that t h e c o m p e t i t i o n ' s does n o t . Yet, avoid focusing t o o m u c h o n t h e c o m p e t i t i o n , or you may lose sight of w h a t makes y o u r p r o d u c t special. T h i s is a lot to consider in p r o m o t i n g a p r o d u c t , b u t it is essential if y o u r message is to b e effective. T r y to capture the essence of y o u r message in a phrase that you can t h e n back u p w i t h f u r t h e r explanation in p a m p h l e t s or o t h e r p r o m o t i o n a l materials you m i g h t p r o d u c e . B e careful, however, that you d o n ' t try to convey t o o m u c h or give the impression that y o u r m e s sage is constantly c h a n g i n g , o r you will only c o n f u s e t h e c u s t o m e r . K e e p y o u r message simple, honest, and consistent and y o u c a n n o t lose.

Establishing

a Price for Your

Product

By now, y o u should have a fairly g o o d idea of w h a t it is g o i n g to cost to p r o d u c e y o u r p r o d u c t and get it to the c o n s u m e r . T h u s , you are ready to d e t e r m i n e w h a t p r i c e to charge for it. Ideally, you w a n t t h e p r o d u c t to p r o d u c e a healthy gross profit ( i n c o m e m i n u s direct costs), b u t you also w a n t to be sure that, n o m a t t e r w h a t y o u r v o l u m e , y o u r r e t u r n is e m o t i o n a l l y rewarding as well. If you are n o t m a k i n g a satisfying living f r o m w h a t you are d o i n g , it is only a m a t t e r of time b e f o r e you either quit d o i n g it or are forced to quit. Obviously, any m a r k e t has limitations, and if you p r i c e y o u r -

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self t o o high, y o u will p r i c e yourself o u t of the m a r k e t . B u t it is surprisingly c o m m o n for p e o p l e to e r r in the o t h e r direction. D o n ' t b e afraid to ask a fair price for w h a t y o u p r o d u c e . T h e r e are a lot of p e o p l e w h o will pay f o r quality and w h o w a n t to d o business w i t h s o m e o n e they like and trust.

Keeping

Your

Customers

N o m a r k e t i n g strategy is c o m p l e t e if it does n o t i n c l u d e a plan for m o n i t o r i n g c u s t o m e r s a t i s f a c t i o n . T h e greater t h e satisfaction w i t h y o u r p r o d u c t and t h e way y o u c o n d u c t y o u r business, t h e h i g h e r the likelihood of repeat c u s t o m e r s — t h e c o r n e r s t o n e of any business, and key to creating the f u t u r e resource base that will sustain it. K e e p i n g c u s t o m e r s is far m o r e lucrative than finding n e w ones. So w h e n y o u d o lose a customer, do as m u c h research as y o u can to find o u t why, and respond to their reasons accordingly. W h e n y o u build relationships w i t h c u s t o m e r s — w h e t h e r they b e c o n sumers, retailers, o r wholesale d i s t r i b u t o r s — t h a t are based o n m e e t i n g their needs, y o u have a b u i l t - i n f e e d b a c k m e c h a n i s m . If t h e relationship is a close o n e , they will tell y o u w h e n y o u aren't m e e t i n g their n e e d s w i t h o u t h a v ing to be asked. T h e y will w a n t y o u r p r o d u c t s to succeed because they w a n t you to succeed.

Conclusion Follow all these steps and y o u r m a r k e t i n g strategy should be fairly c o m plete. A t s o m e p o i n t a l o n g t h e way, y o u will have gathered e n o u g h i n f o r m a t i o n and tested e n o u g h decisions to k n o w w h e t h e r o r n o t the p r o d u c t u n d e r consideration is t h e r i g h t o n e for y o u . If it is, t h e n y o u r challenge is to r e m a i n c o m m i t t e d to m a r k e t i n g it. C o m m i t m e n t is w h a t makes m a r k e t i n g w o r k . A less than perfect m a r k e t i n g strategy to w h i c h e v e r y o n e is c o m m i t t e d will w o r k far better than a brilliant m a r k e t i n g strategy w i t h o u t that c o m m i t m e n t . N o w , let's m o v e o n to t h e guidelines that specifically address the m a n a g e m e n t of land, livestock, wildlife, crops, and p o p u l a t i o n s of living organisms.

38 Time: When to Expose and Reexpose Plants and Soils to Animals

ost holistic goals that involve grazing animals for any reason require m a x i m u m f u n c t i o n i n g of all f o u r ecosystem processes.To m e e t this r e q u i r e m e n t , overgrazing a n d o v e r b r o w s i n g n e e d to be avoided or m i n i m i z e d . Earlier chapters have m e n t i o n e d the f i n d i n g of A n d r e Voisin that overgrazing is linked to t h e t i m e plants are e x p o s e d to animals rather than to the n u m b e r of animals, b u t h o w in practice do w e time t h e e x p o sure a n d r e e x p o s u r e of plants to animals? S h o u l d w e m o n i t o r "key i n d i c a t o r " plants, set arbitrary grazing o r recovery p e r i o d s , o r follow s o m e aspect of animal p e r f o r m a n c e ? S h o u l d t i m i n g in p l a n n i n g reflect the g r o w t h rates of plants, and if so w h i c h of the millions in the c o m m u n i t y ? D o w e c h o o s e individuals of a particular species o r a r a n d o m selection? W h a t a b o u t t h e t i m e animals are e x p o s e d to p o i s o n o u s plants? W h a t a b o u t t h e wildlife grazing t h e same land? S h o u l d animals b e allowed to select their diets, o r should they be forced to eat e v e r y t h i n g in a nonselective m a n n e r over a s h o r t time?

M

Voisin's o u t s t a n d i n g w o r k in pastures in n o n b r i t t l e e n v i r o n m e n t s answered only a f e w of these questions for m e w h e n , b a c k in t h e 1960s, I first b e g a n to see that t i m i n g m a t t e r e d o n the savannas of Africa and b e g a n to l o o k f o r ways to successfully m a n i p u l a t e it. H e a l t h y savannas i n c l u d e a m i n d - b o g g l i n g diversity of plant species, f r o m the simplest algae-like f o r m s to a variety of trees. A n i m a l life ranges f r o m billions of m i c r o o r g a n i s m s to a vast c o m p l e x i t y of birds a n d animals, small and large. T h e greater mass of b o t h flora and fauna is h i d d e n a m o n g s t t h e plants or u n d e r g r o u n d , and even if o n e could see it all, activity differs greatly f r o m day to night. In such a w h o l e , any c h a n g e p r o d u c e d by m a n a g e m e n t in o n e area inevitably 378

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REEXPOSE PLANTS AND

SOILS TO

ANIMALS

379

changes e v e r y t h i n g to s o m e degree. So w h e n w e d e c i d e that a particular plant species can b e sacrificed to overgrazing, as s o m e range scientists do, w e unleash c o n s e q u e n c e s b e y o n d h u m a n ability to even u n d e r s t a n d , let alone m a n a g e . O t h e r species d e p e n d o n species that d e p e n d o n species that d e p e n d o n those w e have sacrificed, and o n and o n . W e c a n n o t play G o d and in g o o d c o n s c i e n c e eliminate anything. If y o u r holistic goal involves r e b u i l d i n g a n d sustaining biological c o m m u n i ties, y o u n e e d to m i n i m i z e overgrazing o n every plant you possibly c a n . T o achieve this y o u base the t i m e of e x p o s u r e o n t h e m o s t severely grazed plants, w h e r e v e r they are and w h a t e v e r species they are. Adverse c o n s e q u e n c e s of t r a m p l i n g are also a f u n c t i o n of t h e t i m e soil and plants are e x p o s e d to animals rather t h a n t h e absolute n u m b e r of a n i mals. P r o l o n g e d t r a m p l i n g has largely adverse effects, such as pulverization of t h e soil surface, excessive u n d e r g r o u n d c o m p a c t i o n , and i n j u r y to plants. C h a p t e r 22, o n animal impact, gave t h e e x a m p l e of 3 6 5 successive d o n k e y days of traffic p r o d u c i n g a b e a t e n - o u t track b e t w e e n a h o u s e and a w a t e r hole. H o w e v e r , t h e same traffic p r o d u c e d by 3 6 5 d o n k e y s o n a single day, followed by 3 6 4 days of recovery time, w o u l d p r o d u c e a far different result. T h e plants and t h e w h o l e soil c o m m u n i t y c o u l d recover f r o m any d a m a g e d u e to t r a m p l i n g and b e n e f i t f r o m t h e intense d e p o s i t i o n of d u n g and u r i n e . T i m e , rather t h a n n u m b e r s , governs t h e ultimate i m p a c t . In t h e d o n k e y analogy every animal w o u l d t r a m p o n exactly t h e same piece of g r o u n d , thus m a x i m i z i n g the d a m a g e o n t h e day it o c c u r r e d . In reality that s e l d o m h a p p e n s — e v e n o n trails, as animals follow m u l t i p l e r o u t e s — b u t the principle remains t h e same. M a x i m u m i m p a c t over minimum time followed by a sufficient recovery p e r i o d makes trampling an extremely effective tool f o r m a i n t a i n i n g brittle savannas and w a t e r c a t c h m e n t s as well as cropland soils. Specific guidelines for t r a m p l i n g are given in C h a p t e r 39. As I eventually c a m e to learn, a n u m b e r of factors affect one's ability to plan t h e moves of animals to m i n i m i z e overgrazing. Because of t h e m a n y variables involved, a systematic a c c o u n t i n g of time is nearly impossible. G r a z i n g animals select different plants a n d different parts of plants in different seasons. D i f f e r e n t plants recover at different rates. A n d plants o n different parts of the land are e x p e r i e n c i n g v e r y different g r o w t h c o n d i t i o n s daily. A t t h e b e g i n n i n g of m y wrestling w i t h this p r o b l e m , I had to m a k e a practical c o m p r o m i s e , p u r s u e it, m o n i t o r t h e results, and m o d i f y as n e c e s sary. I chose to w a t c h the p e r e n n i a l grass plants as t h e g r o u p m o s t vital to the stability of t h e w h o l e c o m m u n i t y .

Monitor the Perennial Grasses W e did n o t t h e n recognize t h e distinction b e t w e e n brittle and n o n b r i t t l e e n v i r o n m e n t s , b u t e x p e r i e n c e has b o r n e o u t the hypothesis that, p a r t i c u -

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larly in low-rainfall, brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , perennial grass stability in fact c o n t r i b u t e s to t h e health and stability of t h e w h o l e biological c o m m u n i t y m o r e than any o t h e r factor. Perennial grass provides t h e m a i n source of soil cover required f o r t h e stability of e v e r y t h i n g else. Since well over half the world's land surface leans to the m o r e brittle e n d of the scale and little of that enjoys e n o u g h rainfall to s u p p o r t a full tree cover, the health of p e r e n nial grass acquires e n o r m o u s significance. In less brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s w h e r e t h e f u t u r e landscape includes the m a i n t e n a n c e of grassland, perennial grasses are naturally d o m i n a n t over annuals, and their health will affect y o u r ability to p r e v e n t or slow the c o m m u n i t y f r o m m o v i n g to w o o d l a n d or f o r e s t . T h e overgrazing of p e r e n nial grasses in these e n v i r o n m e n t s causes little o r n o soil exposure. S o m e pastures in E n g l a n d have b e e n overgrazed for c e n t u r i e s and still r e m a i n c o m p l e t e l y covered. H o w e v e r , forage v o l u m e and thus e n e r g y f l o w are greatly decreased w h e n plants are overgrazed. In c h o o s i n g to consider perennial grass first, w e risk o v e r l o o k i n g t w o i m p o r t a n t factors. A tree o r s h r u b species m i g h t suffer severe defoliation b e f o r e animals start o n the grass. Also, t i m e allowed f o r recovery of a severely bitten grass plant m i g h t n o t suffice for a severely browsed s h r u b or tree. T h i s potential p r o b l e m had to be w o r k e d out, and 1 will r e t u r n to it f u r t h e r o n in a way that still justifies the practical guideline: to reach the richest level of biological diversity in any predominantly grassland environment, time grazings according to the needs of perennial grasses.

Monitor Plant Growth Rates O v e r g r a z i n g , r e m e m b e r , occurs w h e n a severely bitten plant is b i t t e n severely again w h i l e using e n e r g y it has taken f r o m its s t e m bases, crowns, or roots to reestablish leaf. T h i s can h a p p e n in the grazing period, w h e n the plant is e x p o s e d to t h e animals f o r t o o m a n y days and they are a r o u n d to regraze it as it tries to regrow. It can also o c c u r f o l l o w i n g a recovery period, w h e n animals have m o v e d away b u t r e t u r n e d t o o s o o n a n d grazed t h e plant again w h i l e it is still r e f o r m i n g leaf using previously stored energy. T h e plant can b e safely regrazed w h e n all its roots have reestablished. So h o w l o n g is t o o l o n g a grazing p e r i o d , a n d h o w short is t o o s h o r t a recovery p e r i o d ? N o m a t t e r w h a t t h e perennial grass species, this d e p e n d s o n t w o things: the p r o p o r t i o n of leaf r e m o v e d by the grazing and the daily g r o w t h rate of the plant. T h e less leaf r e m o v e d , the quicker t h e s u b s e q u e n t r e g r o w t h and t h e faster the recovery. To be safe, w e assume that t h e grazing has b e e n severe because s o m e plants are always grazed severely, and thus w e focus o n plant g r o w t h rate. If g r o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s are favorable, and a severely grazed plant can thus g r o w half an i n c h (one c e n t i m e t e r ) or m o r e per day, y o u can e x p e c t plants

m

f Mature plant ready to be grazed.

Day 5 Thus, plant mobilizes energy from crown and roots, killing off many roots.

*

* Day 10 Leaves are beginning to grow on energy from crown and roots. If animal returned now, plant would be overgrazed.

Figure 38-1

Day 1 Animal has grazed plant severely. With most leafy material gone, plant is unable to convert the sunlight energy it needs to grow.

Day 20 Leaves are now converting enough sunlight energy not only to grow but also to reestablish roots. If animal returned now, plant would be overgrazed.

1 Day 40 Leaves have fully regrown and nearly all roots have been reestablished. If animal returned now, plant would not be overgrazed.

To avoid overgrazing, monitor daily growth rates.

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to be overgrazed after a b o u t t h r e e days' e x p o s u r e to animals. If g r o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s are p o o r and a severely grazed plant can only g r o w half an inch (one c e n t i m e t e r ) every f o u r o r five days, overgrazing will o c c u r after a b o u t t e n d a y s . Thus,

the faster

the growth

rate, the shorter

the grazing

period

needs

to

be. T h e slower t h e g r o w t h rate, t h e l o n g e r t h e grazing p e r i o d can be. W h e n it c o m e s to t h e recovery time n e e d e d for plants to restore r o o t g r o w t h , t h e situation is similar. W h e n t h e daily g r o w t h rate is fast, because g r o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s are g o o d , t h e plant restores its roots quickly. T h u s , t h e faster t h e g r o w t h rate, the s h o r t e r t h e recovery time n e e d e d . W i t h r u n n e r type grasses, w h e r e a smaller p r o p o r t i o n of leaf is always r e m o v e d , t h e recovery time n e e d e d can be as s h o r t as 12 to 15 days. W i t h b u n c h e d grasses, w h e r e a h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n of leaf is usually r e m o v e d , recovery t i m e can be as s h o r t as 25 to 30 days. W h e n the daily g r o w t h rate is slow, t h e plants n e e d l o n g e r to restore their roots f o l l o w i n g a severe grazing. R e c o v e r y times for r u n n e r grasses can stretch to 30 t o 50 days, f o r b u n c h grasses 60 to 120 days or even a year o r m o r e . Figure 3 8 - 1 illustrates t h e principle rising a b u n c h grass as an e x a m p l e .

Grazing and Recovery Periods Are Always Linked As l o n g as a herd of livestock remains o n t h e same p r o p e r t y a n d moves t h r o u g h a series of subdivisions o r paddocks, the g r a z i n g p e r i o d s will be inextricably linked to t h e recovery periods. T h e dynamics of this r e l a t i o n ship are simple, b u t easy to o v e r l o o k . A s s u m e that t h e t o p d i a g r a m (A) in figure 3 8 - 2 represents a piece of land divided i n t o 6 areas that animals will graze f o r 4 days each. F r o m the t i m e they leave an area until they r e t u r n to it will then take 2 0 days (4 days in each of 5 areas [6 g r a z i n g areas m i n u s the o n e they are in]). Plants in each area will get 4 days of e x p o s u r e to grazing a n d 20 days to recover. If, o n leaving area 1 you d e c i d e d it will require 40 days for a severely grazed plant to recover, you will have to add 20 m o r e days s o m e w h e r e in the o t h e r 5 areas, as t h e m i d d l e d i a g r a m (B) shows. T h e r e i n lies t h e rub. A n y c h a n g e in recovery t i m e in o n e area will c h a n g e t h e grazing times in the r e m a i n i n g areas to b e grazed. In the b o t t o m diagram (C), the o p e r a t o r p l a n n e d a 4 0 - d a y recovery p e r i o d for t h e plants in each area a n d thus 8 day grazing periods. B u t after 5 days of grazing, area 3 l o o k e d a bit sparse, so h e m o v e d o n . H e thereby cut t h e recovery t i m e in all areas back to 37 days. E a c h area that is grazed f o r fewer days than p l a n n e d reduces recovery times in all areas. C o n v e r s e l y each day that stock are held l o n g e r in an area adds a day of recovery to all r e m a i n i n g areas. To maintain a d e q u a t e recovery p e r i o d s y o u have to plan t h e m well ahead (as covered in C h a p t e r 46 o n Holistic G r a z i n g Planning), because it

B If

4

Days M y C

4 Days

y

4 Days

;

4 Days

— ik

Q

B

u

a

*

B

4 Days

/ .

V

4 Days

If animals are to spend 4 days in each of 6 grazing areas, then from the time they leave an area until they return to it will take 20 days—4 days in each of 5 areas (6 grazing areas minus the one they are in). The plants in each area thus have 20 days to recover.

1 If

4 Days ^

u

8 Days

B

B iy

B 10 Days

6 Days ii V

Q

B ^•

f

7 Days

^;

9 Days

If, on leaving area 1 you decided it would require 40 days for a severely grazed plant to recover, you would have to add 20 more days somewhere in the other five areas (10 + 6 + 9 + 7 + 8 = 40 days).

B

B 4 Days

I u

<> ^ 8 Days

B 8 Days

•

5 Days r |

B j

8 Days

] If

8 Days

*

Here the manager planned a 40-day recovery period and thus 8-day grazing periods. But after 5 days of grazing, area 3 looked a bit sparse, so he moved on. He thereby cut the recovery time in all areas back to 37 clays (8 + 8 + 8 + 8 + 5 = 37). Figure 38-2

Grazing periods and recovery periods are linked. Any change in grazing

time in one area will change the recovery times in all the remaining areas.

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takes t i m e to build t h e m up. G r a z i n g p e r i o d s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , can be c h a n g e d o n impulse by simply m o v i n g the animals, but r e m e m b e r that any time y o u d o this, it will have a cumulative effect o n recovery periods.

Base Grazing Periods on a Preselected Recovery Period Land m a n a g e d as a unit for grazing, I call a grazing cell. T h e t i m i n g of herd moves w i t h i n t h e cell naturally d e p e n d s o n t h e n u m b e r of subdivisions, or paddocks. D o m e s t i c stock, b e i n g severe grazers (as are m o s t of their wild cousins), will predictably defoliate s o m e plants severely, s o o n after e n t e r i n g a p a d d o c k , regardless of h o w f e w animals there are. P h o t o 3 8 - 1 shows w h a t o n e h o r s e did in o n e h o u r to o n e plant a m o n g h u n d r e d s of thousands of plants. Perennial grass plants in the R i o G r a n d e Valley of N e w M e x i c o , w h e r e this p h o t o g r a p h was taken, m i g h t n e e d a recovery p e r i o d of 60 days in slow g r o w t h . If, in o u r simple case, t h e grazing cell contains n i n e equal p a d docks, t h e n a 6 0 - d a y recovery p e r i o d will require a 7 . 5 - d a y grazing p e r i o d in each p a d d o c k . T h e reasoning goes thus: A f t e r leaving any o n e of t h e n i n e p a d d o c k s , t h e horse can pass t h r o u g h the eight o t h e r s b e f o r e c o m i n g back. A 6 0 - d a y recovery p e r i o d divided by eight p a d d o c k s yields 7.5 days of grazing in each p a d d o c k .

P h o t o 38-1

One of a Jew severely grazed perennial grass plants amongst millions of

plants after one horse had grazed for one hour in a paddock.

New

Mexico.

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PLANTS AND SOILS TO

385

ANIMALS

In contrast to this m e t h o d , s e a t - o f - t h e - p a n t s m a n a g e m e n t w o u l d tend to eyeball each p a d d o c k after stock had b e e n in it awhile and t h e n decide w h e n they should move. It m i g h t w o r k , but it m o r e likely w o u l d not, because it leaves to c h a n c e t h e really crucial time, t h e recovery p e r i o d . As t h e n u m b e r of p a d d o c k s increases, naturally t h e l e n g t h of t h e g r a z i n g p e r i od decreases, because the same recovery p e r i o d gets divided by a larger n u m b e r . As it t u r n s out, there are a n u m b e r of o t h e r advantages that flow f r o m having m a n y p a d d o c k s in a cell.

T h e A d v a n t a g e s of M a n y P a d d o c k s Increasing p a d d o c k n u m b e r s , by s u b d i v i d i n g a cell f u r t h e r , either by f e n c ing, o r by strip grazing w i t h i n a p a d d o c k using herders a n d / o r t e m p o r a r y fencing, decreases the time in each p a d d o c k (or strip) a n d thus increases y o u r ability to m i n i m i z e overgrazing. W h a t is m o r e , as p a d d o c k size decreases stock density increases, causing b e t t e r distribution of d u n g , urine, and t r a m p l i n g a n d a n u m b e r of t h e f o l l o w i n g benefits:

More Even

Grazing

As p a d d o c k size decreases, given a constant herd size a n d constant r e c o v ery p e r i o d , the proportion of plants grazed increases. T h i s does n o t , h o w e v er, m e a n that animals are any less able to select and balance their diets. Because the t i m e they spend in the p a d d o c k also decreases, t h e same v o l u m e of forage essentially is taken. In general, only a change in the number of animals forage

or in the time they spend they will

in the cell as a whole ivill change

the amount

of

harvest.

W h a t we d o t e n d to find is that, as t h e animals select a diet balanced for levels of protein, energy, fiber, and o t h e r nutrients, they tend to feed over a h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n of the plants available. T h i s has t h e m a r k e d t e n d e n c y to k e e p a h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n of t h e leaf and stems o n m o r e of t h e plants fresh a n d y o u n g . W h e n grazing at lower densities, animals generally feed off a smaller p r o p o r t i o n of t h e available plants and thus allow a h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n to b e c o m e cluttered w i t h old stems and leaves of l o w nutritive value. I have also f o u n d that t h e l o n g e r w e hold any n u m b e r of animals in any p a d d o c k , the h i g h e r b e c o m e s the p r o p o r t i o n of plants that get severely grazed.

Increased

Energy

Flow

M u c h research in several c o u n t r i e s has s h o w n that d u r i n g the g r o w i n g season the a m o u n t of green leaf r e m o v e d greatly affects t h e rate at w h i c h plants r e g r o w after b e i n g grazed. Figure 3 8 - 3 shows t w o equal perennial

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3

Plant A

Plants at Starr

Extent of Grazing

5 days of Recovery

10 days of Recovery

[ 15 days of Recovery

F i g u r e 38-3 The amount of leaf removed in a grazing affects the rate at which the plant regrows. Plant B loses far less leaf than plant A and thus draws less energy from roots, stem bases, and crowns. Less root is killed and it begins to regrow almost immediately.

grass plants. B o t h had almost all their old leaf and stem material removed in the previous year and began g r o w t h as equals in this season. Early o n some animal severely defoliates A, r e m o v i n g 90 percent of the leaf, but takes only about 40 percent of the leaf on B . T h e two plants then recover at very different rates. B draws less stored energy and loses less root and starts r e g r o w t h almost immediately. O v e r the next two weeks, it produces m u c h m o r e v o l u m e of leaf and stem than A. At some point, however, B slows d o w n and A will catch up. Plant A, o n the other hand, suffers a severe setback to root g r o w t h following the severe grazing because so m u c h leaf has b e e n lost. It will be a while before e n o u g h n e w leaf has g r o w n to c o n centrate sufficient energy to regrow the lost r o o t s . T h e higher the p r o p o r tion of less severely grazed plants to severely grazed plants, the m o r e total forage p r o d u c e d in a given recovery period. T h u s , in practice the m o r e paddocks per cell, the better the distribution of the grazing o n the plants, the fewer severely grazed plants, and the greater the p r o p o r t i o n of plants able to recover quickly f r o m grazing, all of w h i c h results in increased energy flow. 1 Unfortunately, m a n y people in

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such situations try to prevent animals f r o m selecting their diets by f o r c i n g t h e m to eat everything. T h i s is hardly necessary a n d generally unwise. For a t i m e in the early days, I reasoned that w e c o u l d capitalize f u r t h e r o n the increase in e n e r g y f l o w s t e m m i n g f r o m f e w e r severely grazed plants by s h o r t e n i n g recovery periods. T h i s w o u l d in t u r n s h o r t e n grazing p e r i ods ( r e m e m b e r , they are linked) a n d p r o d u c e a snowball effect. B u t , w h e r e t h e t h e o r y appeared s o u n d , in reality s o m e animals always did graze s o m e plants severely. As t h e recovery p e r i o d s s h o r t e n e d , these plants did n o t recover a n d w e r e overgrazed. As they w e a k e n e d a n d vanished, t h e same fate befell others. In Africa I n o t i c e d this first a r o u n d ant hills ( t e r m i t e m o u n d s ) w h e r e cattle are attracted to m o r e n u t r i t i o u s p l a n t s . W h e n I s h o r t e n e d grazing and r e c o v e r y periods, plants in these areas began to s h o w visible signs of overgrazing w h e n all should have b e e n well. W e h a d to go back to basing recovery p e r i o d s o n the a s s u m p t i o n that s o m e plants w o u l d b e grazed severely, and o n the first day.

Improved

Animal

Nutrition

T h e fact that animals m o v e m o r e f r e q u e n t l y o n t o fresh, u n f o u l e d g r o u n d , m e a n s they receive a b e t t e r plane of n u t r i t i o n and r e d u c e d d a n g e r of p a r asite i n f e c t i o n a n d buildup. Animals m o v i n g into a fresh p a d d o c k are free to graze almost e v e r y w h e r e , as they e n c o u n t e r n o f o u l i n g of past d u n g a n d u r i n e . T h e y easily take in a g o o d v o l u m e of a well-balanced diet. M o s t o f t e n , they select f o r high p r o t e i n and e n e r g y and f o r l o w fiber. O n e can w a t c h t h e m take m o u t h f u l s of t h e m o s t leafy m a t e r i a l available o n first e n t e r i n g a p a d d o c k a n d w i t h i n a f e w h o u r s see the p a d d o c k t r a n s f o r m e d f r o m dark to light g r e e n in color, even t h o u g h forage v o l u m e appears to have hardly c h a n g e d . D u r i n g t h e first day in a p a d d o c k , t h e animals t e n d to select w h a t is readily available, w h i l e at t h e same time d u n g i n g , trampling, a n d u r i n a t i n g over m u c h of t h e p a d d o c k . T h e y d o t h e same t h e f o l l o w i n g day, b u t d o n o t find it q u i t e so easy, because less of t h e m o s t desirable leafy material remains a n d they try to avoid grazing o n their o w n f o u l i n g of t h e p r e v i ous day. C o n s e q u e n t l y , the s e c o n d day t h e animals m a y e x p e r i e n c e a lower quality diet. Q u a l i t y drops again t h e third day, a n d so o n . T h e p a t t e r n of d e c l i n i n g quality a n d / o r v o l u m e of diet c o n t i n u e s until the animals g o to a n e w p a d d o c k . If they ever stay in a p a d d o c k until all forage is d e p l e t ed, t h e c o n s e q u e n t severe drop in n u t r i t i o n inevitably results in p o o r performance. T h e n e x t c h a p t e r will f u r t h e r explain h o w to m a n a g e t h e generally beneficial aspects of smaller p a d d o c k s . Nevertheless, r e d u c i n g p a d d o c k size has o n e o t h e r effect that falls u n d e r t h e h e a d i n g of t i m e m a n a g e m e n t .

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B e c a u s e animals are g r a z i n g at h i g h e r density, if they are left in a p a d d o c k l o n g e n o u g h to o v e r g r a z e plants, they will o v e r g r a z e m a n y m o r e plants t h a n they w o u l d if g r a z i n g at a l o w e r density. E v e n a t w e n t y - f o u r - h o u r mistake in t i m i n g c o u l d m e a n e x t r e m e d e p l e t i o n of f o r a g e in a g i v e n p a d d o c k , loss of selectivity, and a d r o p in a n i m a l p e r f o r m a n c e , so t i m e m a n a g e m e n t a n d p l a n n i n g b e c o m e s m o r e critical as p a d d o c k sizes decrease. S o m e , o n c o n s i d e r i n g this possibility, have d e c i d e d that m o r e p a d d o c k s m e a n m o r e m f e . T h i s w o r d implies c h a n c e b e y o n d m a n a g e m e n t c o n t r o l . I w o u l d r a t h e r say that m o r e p a d d o c k s decrease risk f r o m w e a t h e r p r o b l e m s b u t increase t h e penalty for poor management—poor planning, poor m o n i t o r i n g , or leaving crucial stock m o v e s to u n t r a i n e d p e o p l e . S o m e r a n c h e r s are n o w w o r k i n g w i t h w h a t a m o u n t s to well over five h u n d r e d p a d d o c k s in a cell by using a c o m b i n a t i o n of m o v e a b l e electric f e n c i n g a n d h e r d i n g . T h e y have almost e l i m i n a t e d risk o f w e e d s , d r o u g h t s , disease, b u t w o u l d pay dearly in a n i m a l p e r f o r m a n c e f o r n e g l i g e n c e a n d p o o r p l a n n i n g .

Time and Overbrowsing Earlier I p r o m i s e d to r e t u r n to t h e q u e s t i o n o f possible

discrimination

against w o o d y plants w h e n g r a z i n g is t i m e d to t h e n e e d s o f p e r e n n i a l grasses. A c o u p l e o f real-life e x a m p l e s illustrate h o w this a p p a r e n t d i l e m m a generally w o r k s o u t in practice. T h e K a r r o o area of S o u t h A f r i c a has seen s o m e t h r e e h u n d r e d years o f o v e r g r a z i n g o f plants and partial rest o f soils over a vast e x p a n s e of l o w - r a i n f a l l , very brittle e n v i r o n m e n t . S o m e of t h e r a n c h e s w h e r e I w o r k e d h a d o n c e b e e n grassland u n d e r h e r d i n g wildlife p o p u l a t i o n s , b u t h a d l o n g ago d e c l i n e d to bare soil and a f e w scattered desert bushes. In t h e a b s e n c e o f any alternative, these d e s e r t b u s h e s h a d b e c o m e t h e m a i n f e e d for all livestock a n d w e r e c o n s e q u e n t l y

highly

p r i z e d by r a n c h e r s a n d r a n g e m a n a g e m e n t professionals alike. G i v e n a holistic goal r e q u i r i n g t h e r e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f p e r e n n i a l grassland, I advised the use o f r e c o v e r y p e r i o d s t h a t w o u l d p r o m o t e p e r e n n i a l grass plants. To m a n y a c a d e m i c s this s e e m e d illogical, as f o r all practical p u r p o s e s p e r e n n i a l grasses n o l o n g e r existed. T h e y c l a i m e d , as did m a n y r a n c h e r s , that severely d e f o l i a t e d desert b r u s h c o u l d n o t recover in t h e s h o r t r e c o v e r y p e r i o d s m y r e c o m m e n d a t i o n suggested. Available research s h o w e d t h a t t h e desert s h r u b s in q u e s t i o n r e q u i r e d a n y t h i n g f r o m a year to 18 m o n t h s to r e c o v e r after severe b r o w s i n g . Pressure g r e w t o m a k e r e c o v ery p e r i o d s reflect this

finding.

T h e r a n c h e r s generally h a d b e t w e e n 5 a n d 16 p a d d o c k s

available.

To p l a n o n an 1 8 - m o n t h r e c o v e r y p e r i o d in a 9 - p a d d o c k cell m e a n s g r a z i n g p e r i o d s of a b o u t 67 days. E v e n in a 1 6 - p a d d o c k

cell,

18-month

r e c o v e r y p e r i o d s w o u l d r e q u i r e average g r a z i n g p e r i o d s of 3 6 days. S u c h g r a z i n g p e r i o d s w o u l d g u a r a n t e e o v e r g r a z i n g of any p e r e n n i a l grass p l a n t

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that m i g h t try to establish. In addition, such grazing pressure at the increased stock density of t h e smaller p a d d o c k s w o u l d severely defoliate t h e desert shrubs, thus probably causing t h e m to require the very l o n g recovery p e r i o d . At the same time, it w o u l d p u t extraordinary n u t r i t i o n a l stress o n t h e livestock and c o u l d lead to d a m a g e f r o m o v e r t r a m p l i n g in s o m e areas. It w o u l d , in o t h e r words, m a k e t h e reestablishment of p e r e n n i al grassland e x t r e m e l y difficult, if n o t impossible. Also it w o u l d m a k e it difficult to achieve g o o d animal p e r f o r m a n c e w i t h o u t heavy and costly s u p plementation. W i t h n i n e p a d d o c k s , 6 0 - d a y recovery p e r i o d s w o u l d result in 7.5-day average grazing periods. Sixteen p a d d o c k s lowers this to 4 days. S u c h a r e g i m e reduces stress o n animals, cuts t r a m p l i n g time, and ensures a g o o d c h a n c e of achieving a grassland landscape. Also, it does n o t in fact expose bushes to the kind of heavy and p r o l o n g e d b r o w s i n g that necessitates l o n g recovery. Bushes d o not r e g r o w f r o m e n e r g y in crowns or roots, as d o grasses, but rather f r o m r e m a i n i n g leaf. T h u s , the species that had survived u n d e r t h e c o n d i t i o n s described w e r e n o t likely to die out f r o m a little overbrowsing. E v e n their seedlings, o n c e c o m p l e x i t y r e t u r n e d , w o u l d have m o r e c h a n c e of survival. In this case, perennial grass and m a n y o t h e r plants, vestiges of w h i c h had in fact persisted, did increase, l o w e r i n g t h e pressure o n the shrubs still f u r ther. As the grass b e g a n to provide soil cover, b e t t e r w a t e r and mineral cycles and e n e r g y flow s u p p o r t e d increasingly rapid c h a n g e back to a p r e d o m i n e n t l y perennial grass c o m m u n i t y . In C h a p t e r 2 1 , 1 gave the e x a m p l e of t h e very desirable w i n t e r f a t plants that greatly increased p r o d u c t i o n o n an Arizona ranch u n d e r h i g h e r a n i mal n u m b e r s but w i t h the grazing properly p l a n n e d . W i t h i n three years, w e began to find y o u n g seedlings of this valued plant, w h i c h had n o t o c c u r r e d in t h e c o m m u n i t y for years. In this case, p l a n n i n g recovery p e r i o d s that advanced perennial grasses lessened severe b r o w s i n g a n d allowed a critical a m o u n t of r e g r o w t h . F u r t h e r m o r e , it p r o v i d e d a healthier grass c o m m u n i ty that probably lessened the t e n d e n c y of animals to select w i n t e r f a t , and it obviously i m p r o v e d the m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t at t h e soil surface t h r o u g h increased animal impact, p e r m i t t i n g seeds to establish w h e r e they c o u l d n o t before. T h e a r g u m e n t that w o o d y plants can also thrive w h e n t h e l e n g t h of recovery p e r i o d s is designed for the b e n e f i t of perennial grass may seem paradoxical in light of my statements a b o u t shifting t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of the biological c o m m u n i t y away f r o m w o o d y plants and toward g r a s s l a n d . T h e length of recovery p e r i o d s , a n d thus grazing p e r i o d s , and the d e g r e e and n a t u r e of animal impact, however, can be m a n i p u l a t e d to m o v e the c o m position of biological c o m m u n i t i e s in either direction. By having animals graze grasses w i t h o u t overgrazing t h e m a n d by using high animal impact,

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f o r instance, m o s t grasslands r e m a i n grassland w i t h o u t excessive weeds o r shrubs.

Grazing in the Dormant Season So far w e have l o o k e d at m a n a g i n g time to m i n i m i z e overgrazing, o v e r browsing, and t r a m p l i n g d u r i n g t h e g r o w i n g season. W h a t a b o u t m a n i p u lating recovery p e r i o d s and g r a z i n g p e r i o d s w h i l e perennial grasses are d o r m a n t , and thus n o t as susceptible to overgrazing? E v e n t h e n of c o u r s e animals eat and have a physical i m p a c t o n soil and plants, so m a n y of t h e same considerations g o v e r n t h e situation as before. Stock will avoid g r o u n d f o u l e d by d u n g a n d urine, and parasites and i n f e c t i o n will usually increase w h e n herds linger in t h e same area. H o o v e s will c o n t i n u e to trample. T h e t i m i n g m u s t still ensure that these factors c o n t r i b u t e to t h e health of t h e soil surface m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t a n d g o o d p e r f o r m a n c e of animals, b o t h wild and domestic. D o r m a n t p e r i o d s are the m o s t critical times of year for m o s t wildlife, a n d their f o o d a n d cover r e q u i r e m e n t s are heavily i n f l u e n c e d by t h e g r a z ing plan for the livestock. If livestock are m e r e l y rotated t h r o u g h the p a d docks o n an arbitrary schedule, as is tragically so c o m m o n , it can devastate wildlife. In addition, such rotational grazing c o m m o n l y results in very high s u p p l e m e n t a l feed costs because d o m e s t i c animals will suffer f r o m t h e same decreasing plane of n u t r i t i o n inflicted o n the wild ones.

Limit the Number

of

Selections

F r o m w h a t w e c u r r e n t l y know, animals select their diet in t h e same way, regardless of season. E a c h t i m e stock e n t e r a fresh p a d d o c k , they balance their diets as best they can. If they e n t e r t h e same p a d d o c k a s e c o n d t i m e d u r i n g d o r m a n c y , plants will n o t have r e g r o w n any n e w leaf. H o w e v e r , the effect o n animal n u t r i t i o n will n o t be the same as a single p r o l o n g e d stay. A n i n t e r v e n i n g recovery p e r i o d will have allowed f o u l i n g to w e a r off a n d the m e r e act of m o v i n g o n t o fresh forage, even w h e n depleted, seems to stimulate livestock in ways w e d o n o t properly understand.Yet u n d o u b t e d l y the selection f r o m t h e forage r e m a i n i n g the second, third, a n d f o u r t h time a r o u n d will certainly c o n t a i n less p r o t e i n a n d e n e r g y a n d m o r e fiber than before, because n o r e g r o w t h has o c c u r r e d b e t w e e n each of these grazings. In t h e d o r m a n t season, y o u r a i m t h e r e f o r e is to limit t h e n u m b e r of times t h e animals have to select forage f r o m t h e same p a d d o c k and to m o v e the animals as f r e q u e n t l y as possible. T h e m o r e p a d d o c k s you have, t h e greater y o u r ability to m e e t b o t h r e q u i r e m e n t s . For e x a m p l e , given a 2 0 0 day d o r m a n t p e r i o d , 100 p a d d o c k s w o u l d enable you to plan o n e selection f r o m each p a d d o c k a n d grazing periods of 2 days o n average in each p a d d o c k . If you had only 10 p a d d o c k s , stock w o u l d have to select over t h e

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s a m e f o r a g e m o r e t h a n o n c e , p r o b a b l y several times, a n d m o v e s w o u l d b e far f r o m f r e q u e n t . T o w a r d t h e e n d o f e a c h g r a z i n g p e r i o d , s t o c k w o u l d r e q u i r e s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n to m a i n t a i n t h e r u m e n a l m i c r o b e p o p u l a t i o n s essential t o t h e i r d i g e s t i o n . ( T h e r u m e n s , o r s t o m a c h s , o f c u d - c h e w i n g a n i mals, s u c h as cattle, sheep, goats, deer, a n d a n t e l o p e , c a n n o t a c h i e v e d i g e s tion w i t h o u t these microorganisms.) In c o n t r a s t , w i t h 1 0 0 p a d d o c k s , t h e s t o c k will c o n s t a n t l y m o v e to fresh g r o u n d t h r o u g h o u t t h e d o r m a n t season, a n d even o n t h e last day will still e n j o y a r e a s o n a b l e p l a n e o f n u t r i t i o n a n d a q u i c k m o v e to fresh g r o u n d . B o t h c o v e r a n d f o r a g e c o n d i t i o n s f o r w i l d l i f e will i m p r o v e c o n s i d e r a b l y as w e have f o u n d . B u t t h e h i g h a m o u n t o f f e n c i n g that i n h i b i t s f r e e w i l d l i f e m o v e m e n t c o u n t e r s this t o s o m e e x t e n t . If h e r d i n g o r s t r i p - g r a z i n g c a n b e s u b s t i t u t e d f o r massive f e n c i n g , n o t o n l y d o e s t h e w i l d l i f e b e n e f i t , b u t t h e l a n d s c a p e is far m o r e p l e a s i n g to t h e eye.

Plan a Drought

Reserve

It u s e d t o b e that r a n c h e r s w o u l d p l a n f o r d r o u g h t b y w i t h h o l d i n g c e r t a i n areas f r o m g r a z i n g d u r i n g t h e g r o w i n g m o n t h s so t h e y c o u l d a c c u m u l a t e f o r a g e to b e k e p t in reserve if t h e f o l l o w i n g d o r m a n t season lasted l o n g e r t h a n e x p e c t e d . T h i s practice, h o w e v e r , always d e c r e a s e d t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f b o t h f o r a g e a n d animals. N o w , w e plan f o r d r o u g h t b y reserving

time.There

are a n y n u m b e r o f reasons w h y this m e t h o d is s u p e r i o r a n d far less risky, w h i c h t h e Holistic Grazing

Planning

Handbook

covers in detail.

S u f f i c e it to say h e r e , that all t h e l a n d available is used in t h e g r o w i n g season b e c a u s e w i t h m o r e p a d d o c k s , t h e b e t t e r y o u r c o n t r o l o f g r a z i n g t i m e a n d t h u s t h e g r e a t e r y o u r f o r a g e p r o d u c t i o n . If t h e d o r m a n t season is e x p e c t e d to last 2 0 0 days, y o u a d d an a d d i t i o n a l 3 0 t o 9 0 days o r m o r e to that figure, d e p e n d i n g o n t h e reliability o f y o u r rainfall. T h e n u m b e r o f selections a n d t h e f r e q u e n c y o f m o v e s t h r o u g h t h e d o r m a n t season will b e based o n this h i g h e r figure. T o e n s u r e t h a t y o u d o n o t r u n o u t o f f o r a g e , y o u calculate t h e n u m b e r o f animal days o f f o r a g e (the a m o u n t o f f o r a g e a n a n i m a l harvests in a day) available f r o m e v e r y p a d d o c k a n d r a t i o n t h e m o u t carefully. T h i s reflects t h e fact that w e also m e a s u r e d r o u g h t in d a y s — d a y s u n t i l t h e rain c o m e s , days u n t i l g r o w t h starts. Y o u r b a n k e r d o e s n ' t ask, " H o w m a n y acres d o y o u have in reserve?" b u t s i m p l y , " H o w l o n g can y o u hold out?"

Time and the Management of Wild Grazers and Browsers E x a c t l y t h e s a m e p r i n c i p l e s that a p p l y to livestock g o v e r n w i l d g r a z i n g a n d h e r d i n g animals. T r a m p l e d litter a n d soil d o n o t d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n b u f falo a n d cow. T h e h e a l t h o f t h e c o m m u n i t y in t h e m o r e b r i t t l e e n v i r o n -

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m e n t s d e m a n d s s o m e trampling, but any n u m b e r of animal species can provide it either in a beneficial way or in a d e t r i m e n t a l way if they stay t o o l o n g o r c o m e back t o o o f t e n . In t h e case of livestock w e can easily distinguish b e t w e e n t i m e a n d n u m b e r s as, n o m a t t e r w h a t the n u m b e r s are, w e can c o n t r o l t h e time t h r o u g h f e n c i n g o r herding. Wild animals d o n o t s u b m i t to the same kind of control, and the distinction blurs, especially because in their case, numbers can influence time. T h e social b e h a v i o r of large unrestricted herds o n h o m e ranges bears little resemblance to that of smaLl bands m o v i n g r a n d o m l y in a limited area. In addition, predators, i n c l u d i n g h u m a n s , have a decided effect o n t h e time their prey spends in t h e p r o x i m i t y of any plant. W h e r e heavy predation, accident, and disease c o n t r o l n u m b e r s , t h e size of a herd's t e r r i t o r y or h o m e range tends to regulate t h e f r e q u e n c y of r e t u r n to f e e d i n g areas. T h e c o n c e n t r a t e d f o u l i n g of animals b u n c h e d for self-protection will ensure s h o r t periods of grazing o n t h e same g r o u n d . If lack of p r e d a t i o n or of o t h e r causes of d e a t h allow n u m b e r s to rise, h o m e ranges and territories appear to b e c o m e smaller as m o r e herds o c c u p y the same area and herds r e t u r n to past f e e d i n g g r o u n d s sooner. T h i s starts a s n o w b a l l i n g b r e a k d o w n of the ecosystem processes, i n c l u d i n g the loss of m a n y n o n h e r d i n g wildlife species. I t h o u g h t t h r o u g h the logic of all this years ago w h e n d o i n g m y early w o r k in t h e L u a n g w a and Z a m b e z i Valleys of Z a m b i a and Z i m b a b w e . H o w e v e r , o n e bit of e v i d e n c e did n o t fit and appeared to disprove the t h e ory. B o t h the areas in question had very heavy natural p r e d a t i o n , w h i c h should have p r o v i d e d b o t h p o p u l a t i o n c o n t r o l and reinforced h e r d i n g i n s t i n c t s . T h e L u a n g w a in particular had t h e highest k n o w n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of lions in the w o r l d . W h y were the ecosystem processes b r e a k i n g d o w n so badly after w e f o r m e d g a m e reserves? O n e t h i n g b o t h areas had in c o m m o n was the removal of h u m a n s as a predator. D i d M a n the H u n t e r have a n i c h e that n o t h i n g else c o u l d fill? N e a r b y areas w h e r e h u m a n h u n t e r s a n d g a m e still coexisted were also b r e a k i n g d o w n , so perhaps h u m a n s were n o t a vital predator. A closer l o o k at h u n t e d and p r o t e c t e d areas h o w e v e r revealed a n o t h e r d i f f e r e n c e . Where

humans

tion could clearly be linked

still held rank among to soil exposure

natural

through frequent

predators, fire.

the

deteriora-

In the p r o t e c t -

ed areas, soil e x p o s u r e clearly c a m e m o r e f r o m overgrazing and t h e c o n s e q u e n t d e s t r u c t i o n of vegetation. T h e e v i d e n c e was striking in t h e 1 950s and early 1960s, w h e n the Z a m b i a n side of t h e Z a m b e z i had p r e d a t i o n f r o m h u m a n s and t h e Z i m b a b w e a n side did n o t . C h a p t e r 21 described the d e s t r u c t i o n of vegetation a n d soil c o m m u n i ties o n the Z i m b a b w e a n side despite years of heavy e l e p h a n t culling, initiated as a result of m y o w n faulty research. To k e e p the elephants t a m e for tourists, park m a n a g e r s shot t h e m well away f r o m the river, a n d t h e

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elephants soon l e a r n e d that the river was t h e safer place to be. As m o r e elephants c r o w d e d i n t o the riparian areas, park managers increased their culling efforts, b u t again, they shot t h e m well away f r o m t h e river. As a result, t h e vegetation a l o n g the river was badly overgrazed a n d overbrowsed. Yet m u c h of t h e vegetation away f r o m the river r e m a i n e d u n g r a z e d and g r e w rank and old.To m a k e it m o r e palatable, park m a n a g e r s b u r n e d i t . T h e m o r e they b u r n e d , t h e m o r e fibrous and less palatable t h e vegetation g r a d ually b e c a m e as species c h a n g e d . M o r e elephants c o n g r e g a t e d a l o n g the river. T h e cull-burn—cull-burn cycle has c o n t i n u e d w i t h o u t letup, even t h o u g h e l e p h a n t n u m b e r s are a fraction of w h a t they o n c e w e r e a n d the d e t e r i o r a t i o n of t h e riparian areas has only w o r s e n e d . W h e r e w e o n c e , as principal predator, ensured constant m o v e m e n t of the herds w e preyed u p o n and had limited ability to light fires, w e have n o w taken t h e part of p r o t e c t o r a n d f r i e n d , s t o p p i n g m o v e m e n t and r e d u c ing o t h e r predators w h i l e increasing the f r e q u e n c y of fire w o r l d w i d e . Successional c o m m u n i t i e s that evolved over millions of years c o u l d c o m pensate n o b e t t e r if wolves and lions d o n n e d business suits, m o v e d to the suburbs, and sent their agents o u t to b u r n the forage and expose soil. O u r c o n c e p t o f national parks set aside for large g a m e needs to change, and fortunately circumstances are c o m p e l l i n g scientists in m a n y disciplines to r e t h i n k old c o n c e p t s . In Africa in particular, h o m e of m o s t of t h e largeg a m e national parks, the sense o f u r g e n c y to increase u n d e r s t a n d i n g has g r o w n dramatically as the decline of the parks is so obvious. M u c h n e w w o r k will be n e e d e d to find ways of i n d u c i n g m o v e m e n t again in wild h e r d i n g p o p u l a t i o n s and to m a i n t a i n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s in b r i t tle e n v i r o n m e n t s . M a n a g e m e n t schemes n o w c o m m o n l y call for c u t t i n g off w a t e r periodically to force herds to m o v e to o t h e r sources.To an extent, this causes m o v e m e n t . H o w e v e r , it does n o t cause c o n c e n t r a t i o n . It does n o t cause f r e q u e n t e n o u g h m o v e m e n t . It may let n o n m o b i l e species die of thirst, thus h i n d e r i n g the b u i l d u p of c o m p l e x c o m m u n i t i e s . I have seen attempts to use this t e c h n i q u e , b u t never seen it w o r k as a realistic means of m a n a g i n g the crucial time factor. Attractants such as w e use w i t h livestock (about w h i c h m o r e in C h a p t e r 39) n e e d m o r e research. I started s o m e w o r k in m y o w n g a m e reserve, w i t h e n c o u r a g i n g signs, b u t w h e n the land was e x p r o p r i a t e d to f o r m a n a t i o n al park, the w o r k was n o t c o n t i n u e d . In t h e 1950s a m a n by t h e n a m e o f V e s e y - F i t z g e r a l d , w o r k i n g in the R u k w a valley o f T a n z a n i a observed w h a t h e called " g r a z i n g succession," w h i c h m i g h t give a clue to t h e use of livestock herds to i n d u c e m o v e m e n t in o t h e r species. In each w e t season, m o s t big g a m e m o v e d o u t of t h e valley a n d vegetation b e c a m e very rank. At the onset of the dry m o n t h s , t h e g a m e r e t u r n e d in a definite p a t t e r n . T h o s e , like elephants, that c o u l d h a n dle a n d digest very coarse, tall, fibrous grass r e t u r n e d first. N e x t c a m e o t h -

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ers that c o u l d h a n d l e coarse forage o p e n e d u p to s o m e e x t e n t by t h e elephants. T h i s g r o u p i n c l u d e d zebra ( w h i c h have front t e e t h o n b o t h jaws), and buffalo. Finally smaller species r e q u i r i n g m o r e o p e n e d forage c a m e in. It is c o m m o n in Africa to travel miles l o o k i n g f o r g a m e and see n o t h ing. T h e n o n e type of animal is seen and i m m e d i a t e l y several o t h e r s c o m e into view. D i f f e r e n t species of grazing animals d o associate to varying degrees, i n c l u d i n g g a m e and d o m e s t i c stock. W e first d e t e c t e d this o n a Z i m b a b w e a n ranch that ran 6 0 , 0 0 0 cattle a n d a g a m e r a n c h i n g o p e r a t i o n o n o n e and a q u a r t e r million acres. W e had a test p r o j e c t o n 4,000 acres in w h i c h w e used for t h e first t i m e a central w a t e r i n g p o i n t and a radial layo u t of 30 p a d d o c k s divided by simple fences that, w h i l e restraining cattle, allowed g a m e to m o v e freely. W e trebled t h e s t o c k i n g rate of t h e cattle and ran t h e m as o n e large herd to test t h e n e w design u n d e r very rapid increases in livestock n u m b e r s , all of w h i c h attracted c o n d e m n a t i o n f r o m range and wildlife experts. H u n t e r s in t h e test area s o o n discovered that the game, mainly zebra, k u d u , w i l d e beest, giraffe, and impala, routinely t u r n e d u p in p a d d o c k s t w o moves b e h i n d the large herd of cattle. D e p e n d i n g o n plant g r o w t h rate and speed of cattle move, they thus chose to feed t w o to f o u r days later o n the r e s p r o u t i n g plants. Investigation o n o t h e r ranches c o n f i r m e d a similar link b e t w e e n livestock m o v i n g in c o n c e n t r a t i o n a n d game. S o m e t i m e s t h e g a m e followed cattle or sheep, and at o t h e r times m o v e d w i t h t h e m in w h a t a m o u n t e d to a m i x e d herd, a l t h o u g h the g a m e m i g h t stay slightly off to o n e side or else m i n g l e at n i g h t w h e n h u m a n disturbance was absent. S u c h assocations o p e n u p real m a n a g e m e n t possibilities for better control of t i m e w h e n b o t h wild and d o m e s t i c grazers are present. In t h e case of o u r test p r o j e c t in Z i m b a b w e , t h e c o m i n g of t h e g a m e only a f e w days after t h e stock l e n g t h e n e d t h e grazing p e r i o d . E v e n w h e n t h e cattle m o v e d every day, plants were exposed for three days (a single i n t e r v e n i n g day b e t w e e n t h e cattle and t h e g a m e was n o t e n o u g h t i m e for grazed plants to recover). In t h e same way, the recovery p e r i o d was s h o r t ened f r o m the t i m e the g a m e left until t h e cattle r e t u r n e d . In this case, I t o o k t h e decision to leave the timings as they were to see if high animal i m p a c t w o u l d o v e r c o m e a slight d e g r e e of overgrazing periodically, and it did. T h e land recovered dramatically. At this stage, y o u may feel that even a s u p e r h u m a n t i m e m a n a g e r could n o t simultaneously restore t h e m o s t severely b i t t e n plant a n d t h i n k a b o u t g a m e tagging a l o n g b e h i n d his cattle. F o r t u n a t e l y time factors d o n o t stand alone, and p e r f e c t i o n is n o t necessary. O t h e r influences, such as animal impact, go o n simultaneously in t h e c o m m u n i t y , and you will n o t have to reach y o u r holistic goal solely t h r o u g h t i m e m a n a g e m e n t and grazing. You should d o y o u r best, t h r o u g h careful p l a n n i n g of time, to m i n i m i z e

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overgrazing, but b e t w e e n t h e livestock a n d t h e w i l d grazers s o m e will o c c u r nonetheless. Yet, even as overgrazing tends to p u s h biological s u c cession b a c k w a r d , at t h e same t i m e high animal i m p a c t can o v e r w h e l m that t e n d e n c y and k e e p it m o v i n g forward. Today's a l a r m i n g d e g r e e of overgrazing in the m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s c a m e a b o u t u n d e r l o w animal i m p a c t , w h i c h in t u r n p r o v i d e d less than ideal c o n d i t i o n s for the establishm e n t of y o u n g plants. If seeds and sprouts can establish, losses to overgrazing m a t t e r far less, as eons of e v o l u t i o n a r y history show.

Conclusion Because it is so n e w to us, it has b e e n necessary to d e v o t e considerable space to t h e c o n c e p t of time as it relates to o u r m a n a g e m e n t of plants, soils, livestock, and wildlife. E x p e r i e n c e in m a n y c o n t e x t s in m a n y c o u n t r i e s is n o w s h o w i n g clearly that p l a n n i n g grazings to m a n a g e t i m e will be i m p o r tant in m a i n t a i n i n g t h e health o f savannas and w a t e r c a t c h m e n t s and in halting t h e advance of deserts t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d . I a m sure w e have by n o m e a n s yet seen the full implications. Let's n o w p r o c e e d to those m a n a g e m e n t guidelines that cover animal i m p a c t , the o t h e r aspect of livestock grazing that has to be u n d e r s t o o d and p l a n n e d for.

39 Stock Density and Herd Effect: Using Animals to Shape the Landscape

t o c k density and herd effect are the t w o m a n a g e m e n t guidelines that apply w h e n the tools o f grazing and animal i m p a c t are used to alter soil c o n d i t i o n s o r vegetation. Stock density refers to the n u m b e r of animals at a given m o m e n t in time in a given c o n f i n e d area of land. T h u s , if 100 animals are in a 1 0 0 acre p a d d o c k today, the stock density is 1 to 1 (one animal to o n e acre). If t o m o r r o w these 100 animals are m o v e d to a 2 0 0 - a c r e p a d d o c k , the stock density w o u l d t h e n b e 1 to 2 (one animal to t w o acres).

S

H e r d effect, o n the o t h e r h a n d , c a n n o t b e quantified. It is merely the effect o n soils and plants that a large n u m b e r of animals have if they b u n c h so closely that their behavior changes. W h e n the animals are spread o u t , their hooves leave f e w signs of disturbance o n the soil surface, apart f r o m w h e n it is wet. W h e n they are b u n c h e d and milling a r o u n d o n the land o r are excited, they tread d o w n old coarse plant material, raising dust at times, and c h i p p i n g the soil s u r f a c e . T h e larger the h e r d , the greater t h e effect.

Stock Density As C h a p t e r 38 m a d e clear, stock density has a strong relationship to the m a n a g e m e n t of grazing, browsing, and t r a m p l i n g time, b u t it deserves s o m e discussion in its o w n right. Because of the p r e j u d i c e that hooves in any c o n t e x t damage soils and plants, l o w stock density has usually characterized m a n a g e m e n t of livestock o n croplands, grasslands, and w a t e r c a t c h m e n t s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , grazing at l o w stock density almost universally causes p r o b lems o n t h e l a n d — c h i e f a m o n g t h e m partial rest of soils a n d p l a n t s — a n d , 3 9 6

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in the l o n g t e r m , for the animals. O u r traditional bias, however, m a d e us attribute t h e m a n y d a m a g i n g side effects of grazing at l o w stock density to o t h e r causes. L o w stock density and the partial rest allied w i t h it, n o t overgrazing or overstocking, should bear the blame for m a n y serious range and p r o d u c tion problems, i n c l u d i n g severe trailing, successional shifts toward b r u s h and weeds, grasshopper outbreaks, p o o r animal p e r f o r m a n c e and high s u p plemental feed costs, excessive use of fire to even o u t grazing and to stippress brush, the d e v e l o p m e n t of mosaics of g r a z e d - o u t patches, decreased water cycle effectiveness, and thus an increase in b o t h d r o u g h t and flood problems. A high d e g r e e of patchiness and trailing is a hallmark of low density, the grazed patches c o m m o n l y e n d i n g sharply w h e r e u n g r a z e d plants, o f t e n of the same species, b e g i n , as if a gardener h a d laid t h e m o u t . S o m e p e o p l e seeing this talk of patch grazing or spot grazing. W h e n I first recognized it, 1 called it h i p p o grazing because hippos m o v e over grassland like a lawn m o w e r , their w i d e flat m o u t h s taking e v e r y t h i n g and leaving a sharp edge w h e r e they s t o p . T h e t e r m low-density grazing serves b e t t e r than any of these names because it describes the process and suggests a solution. P h o t o 3 9 - 1 is an aerial v i e w of a ranch that has seen m a n y years of l o w density grazing. A mosaic of heavily overgrazed and seriously overrested

P h o t o 39-1

Low density grazing pattern seen from the air with two different

stocking

rates. The land in the lower left corner, grazed at very low density (and a lower stocking rale), shows less of the light-colored patches where grasses are heavily overgrazed and more of the darker-colored patches where grass plants have overrested and a shift is occurring to woody vegetation, mainly mesquite. Coahuila,

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patches shows clearly. T h i s situation d e v e l o p e d at the old so-called c o r r e c t s t o c k i n g rate a n d u n d e r c o n t i n u o u s grazing. W h e n I have s h o w n similar pictures before, s o m e viewers have insisted that the p a t t e r n of dark and light patches was d u e to soil differences a n d n o t grazing at low densities. So I t o o k this p i c t u r e a l o n g a f e n c e b e t w e e n t w o p a d d o c k s o n t h e same ranch that were grazed at different densities. T h e land in t h e f o r e g r o u n d , grazed at very l o w density, shows less of t h e l i g h t - c o l o r e d patches w h e r e plants are heavily overgrazed, a n d thus shows clearly that t h e mosaic seen is d u e to grazing p a t t e r n s a n d n o t soil differences. C h a p t e r 38 m a d e an a m p l e case for d e v e l o p i n g m a n y p a d d o c k s o r strip grazing w i t h i n p a d d o c k s and described how, as this proceeds, certain things follow automatically. T i m e in p a d d o c k s , o r o n the land w i t h i n a p a d d o c k , gets shorter, w h i l e stock densities get higher, d u n g and u r i n e are m o r e evenly distributed, and animals m o v e faster to fresh g r o u n d . H o w e v e r , aside f r o m these effects, there are g o o d reasons f o r increasing stock density for its o w n sake. A n i m a l p e r f o r m a n c e c o m m o n l y ranks first a m o n g t h e m .

Stock Density

and Animal

Performance

P o o r animal p e r f o r m a n c e p l a g u e d my early w o r k w i t h ranchers. A l t h o u g h careful m o n i t o r i n g clearly d o c u m e n t e d t h e i m p r o v e m e n t of plant c o m m u n i t i e s a n d soils w h e n w e started m a n a g i n g grazing time, n o class of livestock p e r f o r m e d as well as t h e same animals c o n t i n u o u s l y grazing a d e t e r i o r a t i n g c o n t r o l area. O n stable irrigated pastures, A n d r e Voisin's w o r k g u i d e d us to success, b u t large c o n c e n t r a t e d herds o n rangelands did n o t thrive until I grasped t h e full significance of stock density. For eight years, I carried t h e albatross of almost c o n t i n u o u s p o o r a n i mal p e r f o r m a n c e w h i l e my m a n y critics r u b b e d their hands and snickered. As it t u r n e d o u t , a m a j o r part of t h e p r o b l e m was m y failure to q u e s t i o n t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l w i s d o m that p a t c h y grazing was d u e to animals selecting certain species of m o r e palatable grasses a n d rejecting o t h e r s less palatable. A c a d e m i c papers a n d t e x t b o o k s had b e l a b o r e d t h e subject ad n a u s e a m and allayed any d o u b t . O n e day, w h i l e discussing t h e p r o b l e m of p o o r p e r f o r m a n c e w i t h a ranch m a n a g e r in Swaziland as w e walked over his land, a pair of grass plants of the same species c a u g h t m y eye, a n d t h e pieces of the puzzle b e g a n to fall in place. R a n g e scientists considered this species undesirable, believing that its strong aroma m a d e it unpalatable, a n d i n d e e d o n e plant s t o o d u n t o u c h e d in a rank clump, b u t a n o t h e r , right n e x t to it, h a d b e e n eaten r i g h t d o w n . I h a d n o t i c e d such things b e f o r e b u t h a d never paid t h e m m u c h a t t e n t i o n , so I j u s t sat d o w n and t h o u g h t f o r a l o n g time. I asked myself, " W h y w o u l d t w o plants of the same k i n d , e n j o y i n g the

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same weather, soil, moisture, a n d e x p o s u r e to cattle, c o m e to such different ends?" A f t e r a while, I startled t h e already b e w i l d e r e d m a n a g e r by b l u r t i n g o u t t h e observation that "cattle d o n ' t select species, they d o n ' t even k n o w the Latin n a m e of this p l a n t . " W h a t they w e r e selecting was the freshest and leafiest forage o n any species. It had taken m e years to register that a l t h o u g h cattle carefully and intelligently select their diet, they d o it by w h a t they actually sense in f r o n t of t h e m , n o t by c h o o s i n g f r o m a L i n n e a n m e n u of desirable and undesirable s p e c i e s . T h e y will eat fresh t e n d e r leaves of undesirable b r a n d X a n d leave old, stale leaves of desirable b r a n d Y. I i m m e d i a t e l y d e t e r m i n e d to approach m y old d i l e m m a f r o m a n e w tack. I h a d already n o t e d that in smaller p a d d o c k s , w h e r e animals grazed at h i g h e r density, the plant c o m m u n i t y t e n d e d to have m o r e leaf and less fiber. If w e increased stock density all over, by s u b d i v i d i n g large p a d d o c k s and c o m b i n i n g several herds i n t o o n e or t w o larger ones, w e s h o u l d be able to i m p r o v e animal p e r f o r m a n c e generally. To c o n v i n c e t h e ranchers I was t h e n w o r k i n g w i t h to try it, I used the f o l l o w i n g analogy. A s s u m e I asked y o u to visit for a year. As a g o o d host, I ask y o u f o r a list of y o u r favorite f o o d s (your most desired species), and o n y o u r arrival you find a smorgasbord of every o n e of y o u r selections, f r o m w h i c h y o u c h o o s e a substantial meal but of course leave m a n y items u n t o u c h e d or only n i b b l e d . W h i l e y o u rest, I replace exactly w h a t y o u ate, leaving everyt h i n g else as before. At the next meal y o u c h o o s e again, and I replace only w h a t y o u actually ate. A f t e r a f e w m o n t h s , you will only dare eat things I replaced in the last day o r so, despite t h e fact that e v e r y t h i n g o n the table started o u t as a "desirable species." S o m e of t h e m o s t delectable dishes n o w reek f r o m m o l d a n d decay. If I s u d d e n l y s t o p p e d replacing y o u r daily selection, y o u r p e r f o r m a n c e w o u l d take a nasty drop as you spent eating t i m e p i c k i n g t h r o u g h that old garbage. T h e p r o b l e m was, of course, l o w - d e n s i ty feeding! H a d I invited e n o u g h p e o p l e to sit a r o u n d t h e table and replaced e v e r y t h i n g in the same way, every meal w o u l d have b e e n as g o o d as t h e last. As s o o n as the ranchers increased stock density, animal p e r f o r m a n c e did in fact improve, but the d e g r e e of i m p r o v e m e n t varied o n t h e different properties and w i t h different managers. B y this time I had several h u n d r e d clients in five c o u n t r i e s and a m p l e e v i d e n c e led to a diagnosis that h e l p e d to clarify t h e spotty results. All of these ranchers had started out with a fairly high p e r c e n t a g e of overrested or stale plants because of l o w - d e n s i t y grazing in the past, and this was a factor in every case. H o w e v e r , rainfall and soil type a n d the manager's ability to plan a n d m o n i t o r t h e grazings w e r e largely responsible f o r the variation in animal p e r f o r m a n c e o n c e stock density was increased.

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and Soil Type Make a

I

S O M E P R A C T I C A L G U I D E L I N E S FOR

M A N A G E M E N T

Difference

A n i m a l p e r f o r m a n c e i m p r o v e d t h e m o s t in low-rainfall areas w i t h highly mineralized and m o r e alkaline soils. T h e s e areas s u p p o r t e d forage that had less fiber, s h o r t e r h e i g h t , a n d b e t t e r c u r i n g properties. H i g h e r mineralization in t h e plants f r o m these soils, I surmised, kept r u m e n a l m i c r o b e p o p u l a t i o n s high in t h e animals, thus m a x i m i z i n g digestive efficiency and leading to better p e r f o r m a n c e , even on old forage. H i g h e r - r a i n f a l l areas, h o w ever, characterized by leached a n d m o r e acidic soils, p r o d u c e d generally taller, t o u g h e r forage of m u c h h i g h e r fiber c o n t e n t . O l d e r perennial grass plants had little or n o feed value c o m p a r e d to plants of similar age in low-rainfall, highly mineralized soils. W i t h o u t heavy mineral, protein, and e n e r g y s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n r u m e n a l m i c r o b e s m o s t likely decreased and livestock p e r f o r m a n c e fell badly. It was a p p a r e n t that w e c o u l d increase stock density i m m e d i a t e l y in t h e l o w - r a i n f a l l / h i g h l y mineralized soil situation and e x p e r i e n c e little or n o initial drop in p e r f o r m a n c e . F r o m there o n , t h e situation w o u l d only get better. In the h i g h - r a i n f a l l / l e a c h e d soil situation, however, w e had to m a k e s o m e decisions a b o u t h o w to deal w i t h t h e old forage a n d the inevitable d r o p in p e r f o r m a n c e : we c o u l d b u r n the forage or perhaps m o w it, at c o n siderable expense; we c o u l d provide a high level of s u p p l e m e n t a r y feed to the animals, or w e c o u l d bite the bullet a n d accept the p e r f o r m a n c e loss d u r i n g t h e first few times t h r o u g h t h e p a d d o c k s , r e c o g n i z i n g it as a legacy of t h e past. T h e latter c o u l d b e mitigated s o m e w h a t if o n e tried to graze and to trample d o w n t h e old stale forage at a t i m e w h e n t h e animals c o u l d drop in c o n d i t i o n w i t h o u t t h e r a n c h e r s u f f e r i n g a financial loss. R a i n f a l l and soil type also affected the amount of stock density n e e d e d . In low-rainfall areas w i t h highly mineralized soils, you c o u l d get by w i t h less density and c o u l d afford to increase it gradually. In these areas, grazing cells w i t h as few as eight p a d d o c k s typically s h o w e d the patchiness o f l o w density grazing at least part of t h e year. A l t h o u g h stock density had m o r e than d o u b l e d in these cases, it still was n o t sufficient to even o u t t h e f o r age b e f o r e the e n d of the g r o w i n g season. M a n y plants w o u l d be left u n g r a z e d , simply because in t h e g r o w i n g season you are basing recovery periods o n h o w l o n g it takes a severely grazed plant to recover. D u r i n g p e r i o d s o f rapid g r o w t h , w h e n grazing p e r i o d s w e r e shorter, m a n y plants w o u l d r e m a i n u n g r a z e d . D u r i n g slow g r o w t h , animals w o u l d start to graze s o m e of t h e u n g r a z e d plants that, because they w e r e still fairly n u t r i t i o u s caused n o drop in p e r f o r m a n c e . M o s t of the time, however, you w o u l d end the g r o w i n g season w i t h a d e g r e e of patchiness. O n c e g r o w t h ceased and you began to ration o u t the r e m a i n i n g forage, the u n g r a z e d patches w o u l d generally be cleaned up, w i t h the animals d r o p p i n g in p e r f o r m a n c e only slightly.

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In areas of h i g h rainfall and leached soils, animal p e r f o r m a n c e almost always suffered w h e n p a d d o c k s w e r e this f e w and stock density relatively low, even t h o u g h s t o c k i n g rates had b e e n d o u b l e d . In t h e g r o w i n g season, animals w o u l d start to d r o p in p e r f o r m a n c e w h e n g r o w t h slowed a n d grazing p e r i o d s l e n g t h e n e d , because m u c h of t h e forage available had n o t b e e n grazed previously and had lost its n u t r i t i o n a l value. T h e patchiness that d e v e l o p e d in these areas was even greater because of t h e v o l u m e of forage p r o d u c e d as a result of the h i g h rainfall. B y t h e e n d of t h e g r o w i n g season, a large p r o p o r t i o n of the forage was rank and of little use in sustaining a n i mals t h r o u g h t h e d o r m a n t season, unless missing n u t r i e n t s w e r e p r o v i d e d in a s u p p l e m e n t . In t h e days b e f o r e I u n d e r s t o o d t h e full implications of stock density and time, I cost m y l o n g - s u f f e r i n g clients in high-rainfall areas m a n y t h o u sands of dollars in p o o r animal p e r f o r m a n c e by r e c o m m e n d i n g they start off w i t h as f e w as eight to ten p a d d o c k s . N o w , in o r d e r to attain g o o d a n i mal p e r f o r m a n c e in that situation, I w o u l d try to get to o n e h u n d r e d p a d docks o r strip-graze w i t h i n p a d d o c k s as quickly as possible. T h a t w o u l d allow e n o u g h density to ensure that animals w o u l d graze o r trample a m u c h h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n of plants in each p a d d o c k d u r i n g t h e g r o w i n g season, k e e p i n g t h e m fresh and n u t r i t i o u s in fast or slow g r o w t h a n d m o r e capable of sustaining animals t h r o u g h t h e d o r m a n t season.

Grazing

Planning

Makes a

Difference

O n c e w e had sorted o u t t h e variations o c c u r r i n g because of rainfall and soil types, w e still had to c o n t e n d w i t h the differences that appeared to be attributable to m a n a g e m e n t . T h e poorest results o c c u r r e d a m o n g m a n a g e r s w h o failed to m o n i t o r plant g r o w t h rates and thus to properly adjust the grazing a n d recovery p e r i o d s they had p l a n n e d . T h e p r o b l e m s generally arose w h e n fast g r o w t h slowed d o w n , b u t grazing and recovery periods w e r e n o t c h a n g e d to reflect this. R a p i d moves, and thus s h o r t e r grazing p e r i o d s generally led to a s h o r t - t e r m b e n e f i t to the animals as they m o v e d o n t o n e w g r o u n d . H o w e v e r , t h e q u i c k e r moves m e a n t that recovery times w e r e s h o r t e n e d as well, and in slow g r o w t h p e r i o d s that m e a n t t h e animals w o u l d r e t u r n b e f o r e plants had had t i m e to recover f r o m a previous grazi n g . T h o s e plants grazed severely in the previous grazing p e r i o d w o u l d n o w be overgrazed. T h o s e plants n o t grazed at all o r only lightly w o u l d t e n d to be left and to g r o w s o m e w h a t m o r e stale. U s i n g t h e s m o r g a s b o r d analogy o n c e m o r e , it is as t h o u g h p e o p l e have s u d d e n l y f o u n d they d o n ' t have t i m e to eat all they actually can because their meal time has b e e n s h o r t e n e d . T h e butler moves t h e m o n half way t h r o u g h t h e m a i n course. T h a t f o o d eaten gets replaced a c c o r d i n g to standard practice, b u t the rest grows a little m o r e stale. W h e n again t h e n e x t

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day t h e y have o n l y ten m i n u t e s to eat, the stale gets staler. O n c e again, m a t ters progress until they have to eat stale f o o d , and p e r f o r m a n c e drops. Technically w e have e n o u g h p e o p l e (density) at t h e table to keep t h e f o o d fresh, b u t w i t h o u t e n o u g h t i m e to clean their plates, m u c h of t h e f o o d grows stale anyway. In this case, t h e animals are forced to eat the stale f o o d almost i m m e d i ately because t h e plants they overgrazed t h e last time have b e e n unable to p r o d u c e e n o u g h fresh forage to feed t h e m all. In a low-rainfall area w i t h highly mineralized soils, p e r f o r m a n c e in this case may d r o p t o o little to d r a w i m m e d i a t e a t t e n t i o n . In high-rainfall areas, t h e old grass will have so little n u t r i t i o n a l value that serious stock stress and h u n g e r appear almost at once. By m o v i n g t h e animals a c c o r d i n g to plant g r o w t h rates, b o t h overgrazing and overresting are thus m i n i m i z e d and the plants are m o r e evenly used. W h e n e v e r livestock moves have to b e slowed d o w n w i t h slower daily g r o w t h rates, individual animal p e r f o r m a n c e is likely to be less than it w o u l d have b e e n o n c o n t i n u e d fast moves. H o w e v e r , as w e have just learned, w h e r e c o n t i n u e d fast moves b e n e f i t the animals in the s h o r t t e r m , they d a m a g e b o t h land and animals in the l o n g t e r m if recovery periods are t o o short. E v e n at high stock densities, grazing p l a n n i n g is a b a n d o n e d at great peril. In s p e a k i n g o f stock density I have n o t m a d e m u c h distinction b e t w e e n brittle and n o n b r i t t l e e n v i r o n m e n t s because stock density seems to be required at either e x t r e m e of t h e brittleness scale if you are attempting to manage and maintain grasslands. R a i n f a l l and soil leached by high rainfall play a bigger role than position o n t h e brittleness scale in d e t e r m i n i n g h o w m u c h density y o u need or h o w little you can get away w i t h . T h e brittleness scale very m u c h influences the n e e d for herd effect, however, f o r t h e simple reason that h e r d i n g ungulates and p a c k - h u n t i n g predators evolved w i t h the soils and vegetation in t h e m o r e brittle, l o w e r rainfall e n v i r o n m e n t s , w h i c h herd effect helped to shape.

Herd E f f e c t H e r d effect is t h e m a i n m a n a g e m e n t g u i d e l i n e w e use to achieve high animal i m p a c t w h e r e v e r n e e d e d , be it o n croplands, rangelands, o r critical w a t e r c a t c h m e n t s s u r r o u n d i n g t o w n s and cities in brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s . As m e n t i o n e d , herd effect is p r o d u c e d by a c h a n g e in animal behavior. A l t h o u g h this b u n c h i n g , milling, excited b e h a v i o r strongly affects the entire biological c o m m u n i t y , and wild herds in truly wild c o n d i t i o n s exhibit it frequently, h e r d i n g either wildlife o r livestock d o n o t p r o d u c e m u c h h e r d effect w i t h o u t outside stimulus. I n d u c i n g herd effect thus c o n stitutes o n e of t h e biggest challenges in t h e m a n a g e m e n t of brittle e n v i -

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r o n m e n t grasslands and forests, and the difficulty of i n d u c i n g e n o u g h of it is equally taxing. It is clear f r o m t h e study of h e r d i n g animals (and s o m e fish and birds), that large n u m b e r s and b u n c h e d , milling behavior w e r e t h e m o s t effective p r o t e c t i o n d e v e l o p e d against predators until t h e advent of m o d e r n h u m a n ity. M a n y excellent television d o c u m e n t a r i e s s h o w h o w hard predators m u s t w o r k to beat that defense to isolate the w e a k calf or t h e a g i n g bull and to b r i n g it d o w n . W h i l e t h e carnivores d o their j o b , t h e ungulates in the milling herd, c o n c e n t r a t e d for p r o t e c t i o n , d o n o t respect t h e grass and b r u s h b e n e a t h their hooves as they do w h e n grazing u n m o l e s t e d . Free f r o m fear of fang, claw, or t h e spear of p a c k - h u n t i n g h u m a n s , even instinctively timid wild animals s o o n lose t h e habit of vigilance, scatter w i d e l y w h e n grazing, and avoid s t e p p i n g o n a n y t h i n g as u n c o m f o r t a b l e as a tussock of old grass o r a spiny shrub. Starting in m y g a m e d e p a r t m e n t days, I gradually built o n t h e observation that w h e r e v e r predators caused b u n c h i n g and t h e f o r m a t i o n of large herds, the c o n c e n t r a t e d d u n g and u r i n e of the herd also i n d u c e d m o v e m e n t , and this in t u r n regulated the overgrazing of plants by g o v e r n i n g their t i m e of e x p o s u r e and r e e x p o s u r e to animals. W h e r e v e r t h e p a c k h u n t i n g predators and their large prey w e r e r e d u c e d or absent altogether over p r o l o n g e d periods, the grassland b e c a m e m u c h m o r e fragile, plant spacing w i d e n e d , and m o r e algae f l o u r i s h e d o n g r o u n d that b e c a m e bare b e t w e e n plants. R h i z o m e s , r u n n e r s , and stolons, rather than seeds, o f t e n b e c a m e the m a m agents of grass p r o p a g a t i o n . For several years I lived close to large buffalo herds, as well as elephants and m a n y o t h e r g a m e animals, followed by a varied host of predators in high n u m b e r s . B u f f a l o gathered i n t o herds r u n n i n g to thousands, and even elephants o n g o o d grassland gathered in loose herds that I estimated at six h u n d r e d o r m o r e . A t times, I w o u l d pick up tracks several days old and follow t h e m to find a herd. In places, even an i n e x p e r i e n c e d tracker c o u l d foll o w t h e s p o o r at a trot. E l s e w h e r e the trail w o u l d dissipate almost entirely, a l t h o u g h t h e c o u n t r y did n o t change. T h a t h a p p e n e d w h e n e v e r t h e animals spread to feed. At such times, their hooves avoided coarse plants and did n o t break soil surfaces or trample old plant material as m u c h as they did w h e n they were b u n c h e d or excited. Since t h e n I have observed the same differences a m o n g all h e r d i n g animals and even h u m a n s . W h e n tracking m e n , as I did o f t e n d u r i n g Z i m b a b w e ' s l o n g civil war, o n e learns m u c h a b o u t t h e m e n t a l and physical state of the q u a r r y by n o t i n g t h e way h e places his feet. Individuals in an excited group, w a l k i n g and talking, leave a very different trail f r o m an individual w a l k i n g quietly alone. A starving, thirsty, or p a n i c k i n g p e r s o n will n o t place his feet the way a calmer m a n w o u l d . W i t h o u t p a c k - h u n t i n g predators, m o s t h e r d i n g animals break into smaller herds and remain spread o u t m o s t of t h e time. For several million

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years, p r e d a t o r - i n d u c e d herd effect was a feature of evolving grasslands. B u t in t h e last instant of t h e last million years, h u m a n activity c h a n g e d that, initially by e h m i n a t i n g m a n y o f t h e large h e r d i n g populations, and later their predators w h e n they t u r n e d o n d o m e s t i c stock. In e n v i r o n m e n t s that are brittle to any degree, w e have generally failed to grasp w h a t this massive c h a n g e in animal b e h a v i o r m e a n s to a piece o f g r o u n d and the biological c o m m u n i t y h v i n g w i t h i n and o n it. T h e vast scale of desertification in the w o r l d today attests to t h e e n o r m o u s i m p a c t of these h u m a n - i n d u c e d changes. W e w o u l d instinctively u n d e r s t a n d the devastation caused by w i t h h o l d i n g rain showers that had o c c u r r e d f o r e o n s , b u t the damage nating

herd effect and replacing

to water cycles, in particular,

it with fire, has in reality

caused by

done that very

elimi-

thing.

Earlier, we d e f i n e d stock density as a f u n c t i o n o f p a d d o c k size and n u m b e r of animals. H e r d effect, however, results f r o m animal n u m b e r s and behavior, regardless of p a d d o c k size. L o n g ago the world's m o s t p r o d u c t i v e brittle grasslands, such as those in N o r t h A m e r i c a and Africa, had e x t r e m e ly l o w stock density, as the p a d d o c k was a w h o l e c o n t i n e n t . H o w e v e r , as herds w e r e so vast and wolves, lions, cheetahs, hyenas, wild dogs, and h u n t ing tribes so prevalent, herd effect was great and o c c u r r i n g s o m e w h e r e m o s t of the time. C h a p t e r 22 explained that t h e tool of animal i m p a c t is applied t h r o u g h the guidelines o f stock density and herd effect. A situation m a y call for o n e o r t h e o t h e r o r b o t h for m a x i m u m effect. A n u m b e r of researchers have p u b h s h e d papers c o n c l u d i n g that animal i m p a c t does n o t p r o d u c e the sort of changes in t h e biological c o m m u n i t y , w a t e r and mineral cycles, a n d e n e r g y f l o w that I describe in m y w o r k . In fact, they designed their projects w i t h o u t any u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the totally n e w c o n c e p t o f h e r d e f f e c t a n d m a d e n o e f f o r t to a p p l y it. T h u s , t h e y have e f f e c tively proved that low stock density does n o t d o w h a t I claim high herd effect does. In t w o of the research projects that I have in m i n d , stock density was a p p h e d to brittle e n v i r o n m e n t c o m m u n i t i e s that really n e e d e d herd effect. T h e herds, in fact, w e r e m i n u t e , in o n e case consisting of t w o steers that c o u l d n o t have d o n e m u c h even if t h e researchers had excited or b u n c h e d t h e m . 1 T w o steers enclosed in a o n e - a c r e p a d d o c k will n o t have a n y w h e r e near t h e same effect as t w o h u n d r e d steers b u n c h e d for a t i m e w i t h i n a 100-acre p a d d o c k , a l t h o u g h t h e stock density is the same. W h y researchers s t u d y i n g animal i m p a c t have consistently i g n o r e d h e r d effect is n o t easy to u n d e r s t a n d . A great deal of m o n e y and effort has b e e n wasted over the years s t u d y i n g l o w animal i m p a c t over p r o l o n g e d t i m e instead of s t u d y i n g high animal i m p a c t over b r i e f periods. A l t h o u g h it c a n n o t easily be isolated for research, herd effect can readily b e observed and m o n i t o r e d in t h e field. Grazing, too, c a n n o t b e easily isolated for study, b u t m a n y researchers have still studied it and given us m a n y insights. Perhaps

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o u r belief that heavy t r a m p l i n g is d a m a g i n g is so d e e p that w e c a n n o t b r i n g o u r s e l v e s t o i n v e s t i g a t e a known

Practical

Demonstrations

fact.

of Herd

Effect

To help researchers a n d s t o c k m e n alike to o v e r c o m e their fear of t r a m pling, a n d t h e r e f o r e of h e r d effect, w e n o w e n c o u r a g e t h e m to c o n d u c t

P h o t o 39-2

The response to herd effect. Nearly every plant was grazed or trampled

down (top photo) when Jour hundred cattle were crowded into thisfwe-acre

test enclosure

for the better part of a day. One year later (bottom photo) the growth inside the enclosure was more lush than any outside it. Arizona

(courtesy Dan

Daggett).

406

PART V I I I

I

S O M E P R A C T I C A L G U I D E L I N E S FOR

MANAGEMENT

simple e x p e r i m e n t s for their o w n benefit. T h e s e usually take t h e f o r m of placing h u n d r e d s of animals v e r y b r i e f l y — a few h o u r s at m o s t — i n t o small enclosures to see w h a t h a p p e n s to the land over time. P h o t o 3 9 - 2 includes b e f o r e and after p h o t o s of o n e of these e x p e r i m e n t a l plots. In this case b o t h the r a n c h m a n a g e r and his staff, as well as local environmentalists, w a n t e d to see for themselves if w h a t I was saying a b o u t herd effect applied in their case. T h e day b e f o r e 4 0 0 cattle w e r e to b e enclosed o n a b o u t 5 acres of land, it rained heavily and they p h o n e d m e to see if they should wait until the soil d r i e d o u t . I saw n o n e e d as w e t soils have b e e n trampled billions of times over the eons. T h e y w e n t ahead, and as y o u can see in the top p h o t o , nearly every plant was grazed o r trampled d o w n . B u t o n e year later, the b o t t o m p h o t o shows that the g r o w t h inside the enclosure was m o r e lush than any outside it. A l t h o u g h t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n was c o n v i n c i n g , its greater value was t h e c o n f i d e n c e it built in those w h o participated in t h e exercise. C o m m o n l y , these enclosures are m a d e fairly small, such as o n e acre (half a hectare) or less in size. T h e n u m b e r of cattle (or o t h e r stock) used has ranged f r o m 300 to 1,000. In all cases, t h e a i m is to achieve m a x i m u m d e n sity for m i n i m u m t i m e — a n y t h i n g f r o m an h o u r to a f e w h o u r s , d e p e n d ing o n t h e n u m b e r of animals a n d the a m o u n t of t r a m p l i n g and d u n g i n g they are able to p r o d u c e w i t h i n t h e space allowed t h e m . Bear in m i n d that a h e r d of 5 , 0 0 0 wild grazers w o u l d n o r m a l l y have given any particular piece of g r o u n d only a few minutes of c o n c e n t r a t e d i m p a c t in m a n y m o n t h s or even years.

Inducing

Herd Effect

Routinely

W h e n o u r ancestors first d o m e s t i c a t e d livestock and p r o t e c t e d t h e m f r o m predators by h e r d i n g t h e m , w e r e m o v e d m u c h of t h e t e n d e n c y to p r o d u c e herd effect. This holds t r u e for the A m e r i c a n r a n c h e r as well as t h e Andalusian s h e p h e r d or A f r i c a n n o m a d today. F e n c i n g a n d grazing systems designed to spread livestock evenly over the land in a totally u n n a t u r a l m a n n e r have e x a c e r b a t e d t h e p r o b l e m , severely d i s r u p t i n g t h e e v o l u t i o n ary i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e of animals, plants, and soils. U n f o r t u n a t e l y even t h o u g h w e n o w see t h e n e e d to p r o d u c e herd effect over large areas, g e n e r a t i n g it r o u t i n e l y remains a p r o b l e m . O b viously, wolves a n d lions enlisted in t h e m a n a g e m e n t of d o m e s t i c sheep and cattle m i g h t eat i n t o profit. M a n y people, however, d o n o t see that the same p r o b l e m arises in m a n a g i n g wild animals even in o u r national parks. In m a n y parks predators are few, and typically subsistence h u n t i n g by i n d i g e n o u s h u m a n p o p u l a t i o n s is rarely p e r m i t t e d . F r e q u e n t l y t h e land base is so limited that it does n o t allow h e r d sizes large e n o u g h to provide a d e q u a t e trampling, or sufficient to sustain e n o u g h predators.

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| STOCK DENSITY AND H E R D EFFECT: U S I N G ANIMALS TO SHAPE THE LANDSCAPE

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N o w , w e must learn h o w to simulate the p r e d a t o r - i n d u c e d behavior, a n d w e have learned m u c h over the past thirty years. T h e most successful m e t h o d s so far involve training and attracting animals to an edible reward that i n d u c e s e x c i t e m e n t a n d is c o n s u m e d quickly or using a c o m b i n a t i o n of h e r d i n g and t e m p o r a r y electric f e n c i n g to push stock density so high that animal b e h a v i o r changes. M o r e on b o t h these techniques will c o m e later.

The Type of Livestock

Matters

W h i l e herd effect provided by any type of animal is b e t t e r than n o n e , the type of animal may m a k e a difference. A l m o s t any livestock—sheep, goats, cattle, or h o r s e s — c a n p r o d u c e a d e q u a t e i m p a c t o n sandy soil. H o w e v e r , on tropical clay soils that p r o d u c e a hard surface cap, sheep a n d goats have l i m ited effect. O n l y cattle or horses are capable of b r e a k i n g it e n o u g h f o r soil respiration to improve. O n s o m e soils, horses have a m u c h m o r e effective i m p a c t than cattle, b u t u n f o r t u n a t e l y w e seldom have very large horse herds, so cattle must suffice. T h e vegetation also should i n f l u e n c e t h e type of animal you select. A l t h o u g h sheep a n d goats in a n i m a t e d herds can t r a m p l e s h o r t vegetation, they simply avoid very tall old grass clumps. For such situations and for o p e n i n g up very dense b r u s h to let in light and increase grass g r o w t h , larger animals, such as cattle, are necessary.

Herd Size

Matters

D e e p l y r o o t e d e m o t i o n a n d m y t h s u r r o u n d the q u e s t i o n of herd sizes, especially a m o n g cattle p r o d u c e r s . P r o m i n e n t c a t t l e m e n heavily c o n d e m n e d m e f o r even suggesting that herds of 2 0 0 cows c o u l d b e r u n and still b r e e d well. B e y o n d 140 cows lay the e d g e of the w o r l d and a l o n g fall to disaster. Nevertheless, w e have gradually increased h e r d sizes w i t h o u t e n c o u n t e r i n g any problems. To date, w e have n o t yet h a d o n e scrap of evid e n c e that c o n c e p t i o n rate or w e a n i n g w e i g h t in b r e e d i n g herds d e p e n d s o n a n y t h i n g outside quality of handling, health, and n u t r i t i o n . W e have n o e v i d e n c e yet of any drop in p e r f o r m a n c e in any large h e r d , given g o o d h a n d l i n g facilities, calm handling, and w e l l - p l a n n e d grazing. H a v i n g w o r k e d w i t h vast b u f f a l o herds, as well as cattle herds of u p to 5,000, I have n o d o u b t in m y o w n m i n d that, to m a n a g e b r i t t l e - e n v i r o n m e n t w a t e r c a t c h m e n t s in particular, the larger the h e r d t h e better. H e r d s of 2 , 0 0 0 to 5 , 0 0 0 h e a d followed by l o n g e r recovery p r o d u c e far b e t t e r results than small ones of 2 0 0 to 5 0 0 followed by s h o r t e r recovery periods. U n f o r t u n a t e l y land is n o w so divided and attitudes so e n t r e n c h e d that w e o f t e n have to m a k e d o w i t h small herds and accept t h e painfully slow land recovery that results.

PART V I I I

408

Using Attractants

to Induce

I

Herd

S O M E P R A C T I C A L G U I D E L I N E S FOR

MANAGEMENT

Effect

T w o m e t h o d s for i n d u c i n g herd effect have so far proven effective. T h e use of attractants to b u n c h a n d excite t h e animals for short p e r i o d s is the t e c h n i q u e w e have used the longest, and it is t h e simplest to apply. S u p p l e m e n t a l feed cubes, a bale of hay, o r a few h a n d f u l s o f granular salt, for animals p u r p o s e l y d e p r i v e d of salt, will w o r k as attractants. L o n g lasting blocks of s u p p l e m e n t , molasses/urea liquid licks or salt blocks d o n o t because they generally d o n o t excite t h e animals, w h i c h c o m e for the blocks a few at a t i m e a n d linger t o o l o n g in the vicinity, p u l v e r i z i n g the surface and excessively c o m p a c t i n g t h e soil. Occasionally situations arise that allow use of herd effect w i t h o u t a c o n c e r n for k e e p i n g t h e t i m e short. Say, for e x a m p l e , you n e e d e d a firebreak t h r o u g h very dense b r u s h . In this case attractants can be used that h o l d animals for l o n g e r periods, such as a dilute molasses or saline spray over t h e vegetation, or s u p p l e m e n t blocks. You can easily train animals to c o m e to a piece of g r o u n d o n w h i c h you have scattered an attractant if you b l o w a whistle each time you do. T h e animals s o o n associate t h e s o u n d of t h e whistle w i t h a reward and will generally c o m e to you a n y w h e r e . If you have a constantly c h a n g i n g herd, as ranchers r u n n i n g yearlings o f t e n do, it helps to h o l d back a f e w trained animals so t h e n e w g r o u p learns faster. O n c e they learn to r e s p o n d , a herd can b e d r a w n in an excited b u n c h to any spot o n t h e land w h e r e h e r d effect is n e e d e d to build toward a f u t u r e landscape. P h o t o 3 9 - 3 shows a herd of 2 , 0 0 0 animals o n a Texas ranch. T h e herd

P h o t o 39-3

Part of a herd of 2,000

cattle. Not fearing predation,

the animals are

widely dispersed; even very young calves lie far from their mothers. Texas.

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| STOCK DENSITY AND H E R D EFFECT: U S I N G ANIMALS TO SHAPE THE LANDSCAPE

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has n o fear of p r e d a t o r s and is spread o u t in t h e fashion typical today o n m o s t ranges. E v e n y o u n g animals lie in t h e grass away f r o m others, fearless and safe. P h o t o 3 9 - 4 is a c l o s e - u p v i e w of t h e g r o u n d itself u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e of this large, b u t thinly spread, herd. T h e soil is barely i m p a c t e d , and a slick of algae covers the surface despite three years of relatively high stock density. N e w plants have difficulty establishing, and soil respiration is badly impeded. In p h o t o 3 9 - 5 , t h e herd has b e e n attracted to t h e area s h o w n in the p r e vious illustration. T h e animals are b u n c h e d , milling and excited to the e x t e n t that they are k i c k i n g u p dust. P h o t o 3 9 - 6 s h o w s t h e same piece of g r o u n d a b o u t three m i n u t e s later. T h e contrast is great i n d e e d . A n y gard e n e r w a n t i n g to g r o w seeds o n that soil w o u l d appreciate t h e difference immediately. Soil respiration is i m p r o v e d , w a t e r can p e n e t r a t e faster, and n e w plants can g e r m i n a t e and establish m o r e quickly. T h i s t e c h n i q u e has o n e m a j o r d r a w b a c k : very little g r o u n d is i m p a c t e d over time. T w o t h o u s a n d head will seriously affect an area only a b o u t 50 yards across each t i m e they are attracted, a l t h o u g h s o m e w h a t lesser i m p a c t grades o u t f r o m there. Very f e w managers are able, n o r is it practical, to i n d u c e herd effect w i t h attractants m o r e f r e q u e n t l y than o n c e a day. T h e herds of t h e past w e r e of m a n y different species a n d vulnerable to p r e d a t i o n day and night, year r o u n d . E a c h h e r d m i g h t have r e m a i n e d b u n c h e d f o r a b o u t sixteen h o u r s a day w h i l e n o t f e e d i n g . N o w , w e typically have o n e species, usually cattle o r sheep, f e e d i n g o r resting u n b u n c h e d

Photo 39-4 of photo 39-3.The

Close-up

view of the soil surface between grass plants in the foreground

soil is hard-capped, covered with algae, and barely able to breathe,

making it difficult for new plants to establish.

Photo

39-5

To induce herd effect., the herd of 2,000

shown in Photo 39-4

with supplementary

has been attracted to the spot

feed. The bunched and excited animals place

their hooves carelessly, breaking the soil cap and raising dust.

P h o t o 39-6

Close-up

view of the same spot three minutes later. The soil looks as if a

gardener had hoed it and can now breathe. Water can also penetrate faster, and new plants can germinate

and establish more quickly.

39

| STOCK DENSITY AND H E R D EFFECT: U S I N G ANIMALS TO SHAPE THE LANDSCAPE

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for over t w e n t y - t h r e e h o u r s a day. W h e n w e supply attractants w e m i g h t c o n c e n t r a t e t h e m o n a s m i d g e o n of land for only five or ten m i n u t e s .

Using Ultra-high

Densities

to Induce

Herd

Effect

At this w r i t i n g , three ranchers in Z i m b a b w e , J o h a n n and Wessel Z i e t z m a n and H e n d r i k O ' N e i l l , are p i o n e e r i n g t h e use of u l t r a - h i g h densities of cattle to p r o d u c e herd effect similar in e x t e n t to w h a t may have o c c u r r e d in the past. U s i n g a c o m b i n a t i o n of h e r d i n g and p o r t a b l e electric f e n c i n g to strip-graze very small areas of land w i t h i n a f e w p a d d o c k s d u r i n g t h e day, they have achieved u n i m a g i n a b l e stock d e n s i t i e s — r a n g i n g f r o m 1,000 to 2 , 0 0 0 animals to t h e acre (3,000 to 5 , 0 0 0 p e r h e c t a r e ) — a n d nearly c o n tinual h e r d effect. R e m e m b e r that as p a d d o c k size decreases, so do grazing p e r i o d s , and thus o n these ranches grazing p e r i o d s are m e a s u r e d in h o u r s rather than days. R e c o v e r y times, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , r u n as l o n g as 2 0 0 days o r m o r e , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e grazing plan and t h e needs of the land, cattle, and wildlife. T h e b e h a v i o r of t h e animals clearly changes at such densities—their hooves break u p c a p p e d soils and k n o c k d o w n old plants. T h o u g h w e c a n n o t say for sure w h y it does, w e d o k n o w it is related to the large animal n u m b e r s and t h e limited grazing space that each animal appears eager to call its o w n . A l t h o u g h o n e m i g h t e x p e c t otherwise, animal p e r f o r m a n c e appears n o t to suffer unduly, even, as in the case of these three ranchers, w h e n r u n n i n g b r e e d i n g herds that i n c l u d e small calves. As you can see in p h o t o 3 9 - 7 , a p h o t o taken o n t h e O ' N e i l l ranch, there is n o shortage of forage. It is the d o r m a n t season and the cattle are b e i n g used to clean u p w h a t remains of t h e old forage, w h i c h is n o w less r a n k than it was in earlier years. T h e cattle are in reasonably g o o d c o n d i tion, even t h o u g h this is a fairly high-rainfall ( 3 0 - i n c h / 7 5 0 - m m ) a r e a . T h e y

P h o t o 39-7 Cattle grazing ultra-high

at

density.

The herdsman is removing the single electric wire that contains the herd so the animals can move onto the next small area, which they will graze for about an hour. Zimbabwe.

412

P h o t o 39-8

PART V I I I

Healthy

high cattle densities.

I

S O M E PRACTICAL G U I D E L I N E S FOR

stream vegetation following

planned grazing

MANAGEMENT

and periodic

ultra-

Zimbabwe.

are a b o u t to m o v e i n t o the area to the left of the fence, w h i c h was last grazed m a n y m o n t h s before. P h o t o 3 9 - 8 is a v i e w of a riparian area o n t h e same r a n c h that has healed nicely after several doses of h e r d effect p r o d u c e d by animals grazing at u l t r a - h i g h density. Obviously, h e r d effect is greatest w h e n t h e animals are n e w to grazing at such h i g h densities and decreases as they g r o w a c c u s t o m e d to t h e p r a c tice. H o w e v e r , herd effect is still greater and m o r e c o n t i n u a l o n these ranches than w e have ever m a n a g e d to achieve before. T h i s , for me, is the m o s t exciting d e v e l o p m e n t in years, because it offers a practical (and p r o f itable) w a y to attain increased herd effect over millions of acres of r a n g e land that have suffered f r o m several c e n t u r i e s o f l o w - d e n s i t y grazing a n d partial rest. T h e Holistic Grazing Planning Handbook covers this subject in m o r e detail.

Conclusion T h e guidelines f o r stock density and herd effect c o n c e r n a tool n e w to us of great p o w e r — a n i m a l impact. I h o p e readers o t h e r than livestock o p e r a tors have stuck w i t h m e thus far, as an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of herd effect in particular is essential in m a k i n g i n f o r m e d decisions regarding t h e water catchm e n t s that sustain towns and cities in brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s . In the future, as k n o w l e d g e increases a n d attitudes change, I believe that fewer, larger herds will b e c o m e the principal tool in watershed m a n a g e m e n t o n the public lands of A m e r i c a a n d in desertification reclamation w o r k all over t h e world.

40 Cropping: Practices That More Closely Mimic Nature

r o w i n g crops always involves t h e creation of artificial c o n d i t i o n s and t h e loss of the natural balances and i n h e r e n t stability of the original biological c o m m u n i t y . Instead of a variety of plants a n d perennial g r o u n d cover, a small n u m b e r of crops m a k e only p a r t - t i m e use of the space available. T h e soil is e x p o s e d to w i n d and rain to a far greater e x t e n t than before, particularly w h e r e fields are left bare for part of the year, leading to m u c h h i g h e r rates of soil erosion and a less effective w a t e r cycle than u n d e r natural c o n d i t i o n s . M i n e r a l cycling is also d i s r u p t e d and extra inputs in t h e f o r m of m a n u r e s or fertilizers are required to k e e p soils productive. T h e history of a g r i c u l t u r e is, in effect, the story of h o w various societies have a t t e m p t e d to deal w i t h the inevitable p r o b l e m s linked w i t h its d e v e l o p m e n t : soil erosion, loss of fertility, loss of biodiversity, and t h e instability associated w i t h simplicity. M o r e than t w e n t y civilizations, starting w i t h those in M e s o p o t a m i a , t h e Indus Valley, C h i n a , and later the A m e r i c a s , have collapsed, largely because these problems o v e r w h e l m e d t h e m . T h e advantage of g r o w i n g crops, as o p p o s e d to g a t h e r i n g t h e m in the wild, is that m o r e f o o d can b e p r o d u c e d f r o m a smaller area of land, g e n erating a surplus over t h e needs of the f a r m e r . This surplus is w h a t m a d e civilization possible because, as m e n t i o n e d elsewhere, it freed s o m e p e o p l e to p u r s u e o t h e r activities. H o w e v e r , reliance o n a small n u m b e r of crops g r o w n in a specialized e n v i r o n m e n t increased vulnerability to crop failure and initiated the decline o f increasingly vast areas of land. C o n t i n u o u s c u l tivation of t h e same area lowered soil fertility, crop p r o d u c t i o n b e c a m e m o r e difficult, yields fell and w i t h t h e m t h e surplus available for d i s t r i b u tion w i t h i n society. 413

414

PART V I I I

I

S O M E P R A C T I C A L G U I D E L I N E S FOR

MANAGEMENT

H u m a n p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h c o m p o u n d e d the p r o b l e m . P r o d u c t i v i t y w o u l d rise as m o r e land was b r o u g h t u n d e r cultivation to feed g r o w i n g n u m b e r s ; as n e w crops, such as those discovered in t h e A m e r i c a s , w e r e added; as crop rotations improved; o r w h e n b e t t e r e q u i p m e n t was d e v e l o p ed. B u t p o p u l a t i o n w o u l d also rise. As m o s t p e o p l e t e n d e d to be m a l n o u r ished even in t h e best of times, crop failures that o c c u r r e d w h e n a p o p u lation was at its peak f r e q u e n t l y led to f a m i n e . Historical a c c o u n t s catalog an u n r e l e n t i n g series of famines o n every c o n t i n e n t o n w h i c h a g r i c u l t u r e had b e e n a d o p t e d r i g h t u p to the n i n e t e e n t h century. U n t i l that time, m o s t of t h e world's h u m a n inhabitants lived o n t h e edge of starvation. A n u m b e r of innovations gradually h e l p e d to even o u t fluctuations in t h e f o o d supply. I m p r o v e d transportation, b e g i n n i n g w i t h railways, enabled crops to reach areas w h e r e they w e r e in d e m a n d b e f o r e t h e crops perished; chilling a n d refrigeration m a d e it possible to ship p r o d u c e over even greater distances. B u t the m o s t notable i n n o v a t i o n was t h e use of fertilizers. U n t i l t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y f a r m s d e p e n d e d almost entirely o n m a n u r e s and c o m p o s t s p r o d u c e d on the f a r m itself to m a i n t a i n soil fertility. T h e n E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s , a n d later the U n i t e d States, began to i m p o r t g u a n o a n d p h o s p h a t e s m i n e d f r o m territories u n d e r their control, w h i c h increased p r o d u c t i o n in these c o u n t r i e s markedly. W i t h the creation of t h e first artificial fertilizers (superphosphates) in t h e 1840s a n d n i t r o g e n o u s fertilizers in t h e 1920s the focus o f a g r i c u l t u r e in the industrialized c o u n t r i e s b e g a n to c h a n g e f r o m o n e based o n a relationship b e t w e e n soils, plants, and animals, to o n e based o n inputs a n d o u t p u t s . A g r i c u l t u r e b e c a m e an industry. M e c h a n i z a t i o n of agriculture had an equally dramatic i m p a c t because it led to a shift f r o m small, m i x e d fields to large ones devoted to a single crop that m a c h i n e s c o u l d harvest m o r e efficiently. Since m o n o c r o p s are m o r e susceptible to diseases a n d pests, this resulted in t h e increasing use of chemically e n g i n e e r e d herbicides and insecticides, a f u r t h e r decrease in biodiversity, and ever rising i n p u t costs. P r o d u c t i v i t y soared u n d e r h i g h - i n p u t m e c h a n i z e d c r o p p i n g practices, but t h e social a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l costs w e r e staggering. Millions of small f a r m e r s have since b e e n displaced, m o r e land is n o w lost to cultivation ( t h r o u g h d e t e r i o r a t i o n ) than is b r o u g h t i n t o p r o d u c t i o n annually, a n d w e have r e n d e r e d m a n y e n v i r o n m e n t s toxic or sterile to v a r y i n g degrees. T h e r e can b e little d o u b t that a c h a n g e in direction is n e e d e d f o r a g r i culture if w e are to sustain o u r present civihzation a n d its e n o r m o u s p o p u l a t i o n . In t h e last fifty years w e have t e n d e d to treat o u r soils m e r e l y as a m e d i u m in w h i c h to h o l d crops u p r i g h t w h i l e w e p o u r chemicals over t h e m . In reality, soil is a living organism, o n e that respires and r e p r o duces itself, as m o s t living organisms do, and it has to be n u r t u r e d . To do so w e must strive to create an agriculture that m o r e closely m i m i c s nature, o n e that enhances, rather than diminishes, water a n d mineral cycles,

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e n e r g y flow, and c o m m u n i t y dynamics. In m y o w n e x p e r i e n c e and that of o t h e r s seeking to find better ways, this focus leads to s o m e f u n d a m e n t a l guidelines.

Keep Soil Covered Throughout the Year All living organisms have a skin or protective c o v e r i n g of s o m e sort. If a significant p r o p o r t i o n of it is r e m o v e d , the o r g a n i s m dies w h e t h e r the organism b e living soil or h u m a n b u r n victim. A soil's skin is m a d e u p p r i m a r i l y of plant m a t e r i a l — s o m e of it living, but m o s t of it dead o r decaying at t h e soil surface. T h i s c o v e r i n g insulates the life in the soil f r o m t e m p e r a t u r e and m o i s t u r e e x t r e m e s over s h o r t p e r i o d s and protects t h e soil c r u m b structure so essential to water p e n e t r a t i o n and aeration f r o m d e s t r u c t i o n by raindrops. It also provides a hospitable e n v i r o n m e n t for billions of organisms that break n u t r i e n t s d o w n so they can r e t u r n u n d e r g r o u n d for recycling. A n exposed soil is at the m e r c y of w i n d and rain, w h i c h will e r o d e it ruthlessly. T h e W o r l d R e s o u r c e s Institute estimates that w o r l d w i d e farms are losing a b o u t 24 billion tons of topsoil a year because o f soil exposure. O n conventionally m a n a g e d croplands, t h e m a j o r i t y of the soil surface b e t w e e n the plants is exposed. A f t e r harvest, even m o r e soil is exposed. M a n y croplands r e m a i n bare over winter. O t h e r s are deliberately kept bare a n d h a r r o w e d over a fallow year to g r o w a crop o n t w o years' rainfall. Yet, there are any n u m b e r o f ways to keep cropland soils covered throughout the year i n c l u d i n g t h e use o f c o n s e r v a t i o n tillage; t h e planting of cover crops over w i n t e r ; i n t e r c r o p p i n g l o w - g r o w i n g , s h a d e - t o l e r a n t crops a m o n g taller ones; using animals rather than fire, plow, or h a r r o w to r e m o v e crop residues (while leaving e n o u g h material to provide soil cover). If t h e A m e r i c a n researchers m e n t i o n e d in C h a p t e r 2 2 are able to develop perennial grain crops that can replace the annual grains w e cultivate today, this will enable us to keep m a n y millions o f acres of soil covered year round.

Do Not Turn Soil Over To m i m i c nature, soil should b e w o r k e d f r o m the surface j u s t as for m i l lions of years t h e hooves of h e r d i n g animals have d o n e , or t h e claws of turkeys, g u i n e a f o w l , o t h e r birds, and m a n y small creatures have d o n e . Yet, dating f r o m t h e i n v e n t i o n o f t h e first plow, w e have generally d o n e j u s t the opposite. In t h e 1940s E d w a r d Faulkner, in his b o o k , Plowman's Folly, alerted f a r m e r s to t h e d a m a g e d o n e by d e e p p l o w i n g in w h i c h top soil is t u r n e d r i g h t u n d e r a n d subsoil b r o u g h t to the surface en masse. In t u r n i n g over t h e protective surface m u l c h , h e explained, p l o w i n g n o t only exposes soil to t h e elements, it also compresses t h e t u r n e d - u n d e r " t r a s h " i n t o a

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n a r r o w layer d e e p e r d o w n that is unable to decay and thus h a m p e r s t h e g r o w t h of plant roots. W h e n you t h i n k of soil in t e r m s of t h e c o m p l e x biological c o m m u n i ty that it is, Faulkner's a r g u m e n t makes sense. If a mass of plant material grows and only a small p r o p o r t i o n of it is harvested (corn for instance) w h a t h a p p e n s to all that residue? Generally it is p l o w e d u n d e r "so t h e organic m a t t e r can be r e t u r n e d to t h e soil." B u t this is raw organic matter, n o t t h e m a t u r e h u m u s that develops gradually w i t h the help of plant roots and billions of m i c r o o r g a n i s m s . R a w organic matter, t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e mass aeration caused by t h e p l o w i n g , leads to problems, i n c l u d i n g an increase in bacteria that c o n s u m e t h e m u c h - n e e d e d h u m u s . A n y t i m e you t u r n soil over, organisms that have established in a certain m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t , either d e e p e r u n d e r g r o u n d or close to t h e surface, are suddenly placed in a different o n e . T h e result is n o t unlike w h a t w o u l d o c c u r if you d u m p e d all t h e residents of a E u r o p e a n city i n t o the m i d d l e of the Sahara and t h e Sahara's f e w inhabitants i n t o t h e city o v e r n i g h t . A l t h o u g h w e can i m a g i n e t h e chaos, suffering, a n d d e a t h caused by such an action, w e fail to see its parallel in t h e billions of soil organisms that are displaced any t i m e w e t u r n soil over. U n l i k e the plow, t h e surface disturbance provided by h e r d i n g o r r o o t i n g animals, or even h u m a n gardeners, is generally beneficial as they d o n o t actually t u r n d e e p e r soil layers over. A f t e r a field is plowed, soil c o m m u n i t i e s will start to rebuild, b u t they are i m m e d i a t e l y set back o n c e t h e field is p l o w e d again. In t h e 1960s F r e n c h pasture specialist A n d r e Voisin r e c o r d e d the "years of depression" that followed t h e p l o w i n g of a field. P r o d u c t i o n steadily d r o p p e d to a l o w in a b o u t the seventh year. If t h e field was n o t p l o w e d again, it w o u l d steadily improve, eventually surpassing its initial productivity. 1 A f e w years ago I t o o k a h a n d f u l of pristine soil f r o m an u n c l e a r e d f o r est in Pennsylvania that b o r d e r e d an organic f a r m i n g research station. T h e forest soil was dark a n d alive a n d smelled like soil s h o u l d . Placed o n the organically f a r m e d fields nearby, w h i c h had b e e n p l o w e d for m a n y years, the contrast was stark i n d e e d , a l t h o u g h m a n a g e m e n t o n that f a r m far surpassed most in t h e country. So m u c h of t h e fragrance, life, and organic c o n tent h a d left t h e pale soil in the c r o p p e d field. Fortunately, there are alternatives to p l o w i n g . C r o p residues can be dealt w i t h by animals, livestock in m o s t cases, wildlife in s o m e , that r e d u c e t h e m to d u n g , u r i n e , a n d m u l c h , leaving dead roots in t h e soil to f u r t h e r e n h a n c e fertility. C o n s e r v a t i o n tillage can b e used in p r e p a r i n g fields. In fact, roughly a third of all U.S. cropland is n o w u n d e r s o m e f o r m of c o n s e r v a t i o n tillage. In m o s t cases, however, it is linked w i t h heavy h e r b i cide usage that tends to c o u n t e r a c t t h e benefits. T h e s o l u t i o n to the p r o b lem of u n w a n t e d plants, w h i c h o f t e n increase w h e n tillage is m i n i m i z e d , lies again in approaches that try to m i m i c nature. In this case, t h e answer

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may lie in c o m b a t t i n g diversity (which weeds represent) w i t h even m o r e diversity.

Endeavor to Maintain Diversity and Complexity in the Community W h a t w e call w e e d s should n o t be blamed for stealing w a t e r and n u t r i e n t s f r o m o u r crops, b u t valued f o r t h e diversity they c o n t r i b u t e , i n c l u d i n g the insects and microorganisms they attract. T h i s added c o m p l e x i t y offers p r o tection against the f e w insects o r m i c r o o r g a n i s m s that actually d a m a g e crops or cause disease. All t o o o f t e n w e r e d u c e this c o m p l e x i t y in o u r croplands for n o g o o d reason. P h o t o 4 0 - 1 portrays j u s t such an example. T h e apple trees in this organically f a r m e d orchard are b e i n g irrigated and thus are n o t s h o r t of water. T h e y are t a p - r o o t e d trees w i t h extensive, well-established root systems. T h u s , the s u r r o u n d i n g grasses and weeds c a n n o t deprive t h e m of w a t e r ; in fact they help to create a m o r e effective w a t e r cycle and to p r o tect against soil e r o s i o n . T h e grasses and weeds also provide ideal habitat for a m u l t i t u d e of insects and m i c r o o r g a n i s m s that help to c o n t r o l apple pests and thus could d o n o t h i n g but g o o d in this orchard. D e s p i t e this, and at s o m e expense in n o n r e n e w a b l e resources, t h e orchard has b e e n m o w n and a host of habitat niches r e m o v e d . Similar practices are c o m m o n t h r o u g h out the world.

P h o t o 40-1

Organic apple orchard that is regularly mowed to keep it looking

neat,

but the mowing has removed ideal habitat for a host of insects and microorganisms

that

help to control apple pests.

Pennsylvania.

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Monocultures

You s h o u l d avoid planting m o n o c u l t u r e s , particularly over large areas, as m u c h as possible, if for n o o t h e r reason than to avoid large-scale d a m a g e f r o m insects and plant diseases. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , the m a j o r i t y of f a r m s in the U n i t e d States a n d m a n y o t h e r c o u n t r i e s today are m o n o c u l t u r e deserts. T h e recently planted b e a n field in p h o t o 4 0 - 2 is a typical example. S u c h large fields of o n e crop are very attractive to insects that only feed o r lay eggs o n that o n e crop, and they will c o n g r e g a t e in great n u m b e r s . Unless s o m e f o r m of pesticide is used, t h e f a r m e r will reap little f r o m this field. If h e c o n t i n u e s to plant beans in it year after year, even insects that have never fed o n b e a n plants m i g h t s o o n find t h e m to their liking, given t h e ability of their populations, t h r o u g h rapid b r e e d i n g cycles, to adapt so quickly. W h e n a f a r m e r plants a m o n o c u l t u r e , h e invites insect d a m a g e apart f r o m all t h e o t h e r adverse effects b r o u g h t a b o u t by so m u c h bare soil. F a r m e r s in s o m e of t h e m o s t heavily insect-infested areas of t h e w o r l d — t r o p i c a l rain forest e n v i r o n m e n t s — h a v e for thousands of years g r o w n crops in c o m p l e x polycultures w i t h o u t using pesticides. A l t h o u g h cultivated o n a smaller scale, these p o l y c u l t u r e fields yield far m o r e p e r acre than h i g h - i n p u t m o n o c u l t u r e s . H o w e v e r , m a n y f a r m e r s in d e v e l o p i n g nations are b e i n g p e r s u a d e d to a b a n d o n p o l y c u l t u r e fields in favor of

P h o t o 40-2

View of a recently planted monoculture

living in this field, what would you eat? Iowa.

of beans. If you were an insect

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m a c h i n e r y a n d c h e m i c a l - d e p e n d e n t m o n o c u l t u r e s of cash crops, w i t h u n f o r t u n a t e results for b o t h t h e land and the people. M o n o c u l t u r e fields c a n n o t b e c o n v e r t e d to p o l y c u l t u r e fields o v e r n i g h t . A l t h o u g h that m i g h t b e desirable, it w o u l d be highly impractical and financially risky. It makes m o r e sense to m o v e progressively away f r o m m o n o cultures, o r rotations of m o n o c u l t u r e s , to strip c r o p p i n g , i n t e r c r o p p i n g , alley c r o p p i n g , and, ultimately, m o r e c o m p l e x polycultures. Strip c r o p p i n g involves the use of t h r e e o r f o u r (or m o r e ) crops planted in strips w i t h i n a field that can generally be harvested w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l e q u i p m e n t . I n t e r c r o p p i n g involves the planting of l o w - g r o w i n g or early m a t u r i n g crops ( w h i c h may o r may n o t be harvested), a m o n g taller, later m a t u r i n g crops. In alley cropping, m i x e d crops are g r o w n b e t w e e n rows of trees. In s o m e cases, tree b r a n c h e s are l o p p e d off to provide g r e e n m a n u r e and a d d e d sunlight for t h e crops below. As the crops m a t u r e and n o l o n g e r require full sun, t h e trees r e g r o w t h e limbs and leaves they sacrificed. B y m o v i n g progressively toward a m o r e c o m p l e x c o m m u n i t y , y o u can learn as you go, m i n i m i z i n g the risk of financial setbacks, a n d steadily m o v ing toward y o u r holistic goal. There will be much to learn. Insect d a m a g e may c o n t i n u e until t h e right c o m b i n a t i o n of crops is w o r k e d o u t o r until small o r large stock are b r o u g h t in, either to feed on insects o r to r e n d e r the e n v i r o n m e n t less c o n d u c i v e to their r e p r o d u c t i o n . T h e role of livestock in c r o p p i n g p r o g r a m s is discussed later.

Create

Edges

O n e of the quickest ways to increase the diversity of species in any envir o n m e n t , w h e t h e r y o u are m a n a g i n g a garden, a r a n c h o r f a r m , a stream o r o c e a n inlet, is to increase t h e a m o u n t of edge—where t w o or m o r e habitats j o i n . A l d o L e o p o l d , the father of m o d e r n g a m e m a n a g e m e n t , was t h e first to n o t e t h e p h e n o m e n o n of edge effect, particularly as it related to wildlife p o p u l a t i o n s . M o s t wildlife occurs, he said, w h e r e t h e types of f o o d and cover they n e e d c o m e together, that is, w h e r e their edges m e e t . " E v e r y g r o u s e h u n t e r k n o w s this w h e n he selects t h e edge of a w o o d , w i t h its grape tangles, h a w - b u s h e s , and little grassy bays, as t h e likely place to l o o k f o r birds. T h e quail h u n t e r follows t h e c o m m o n edge b e t w e e n the b r u s h y d r a w and the w e e d y c o r n , the snipe h u n t e r the e d g e b e t w e e n t h e marsh and t h e pasture." 2 T h e reason for all these edge effects, a c c o r d i n g to L e o p o l d , is probably related to t h e greater variety of b o r d e r vegetation a n d the s i m u l t a n e o u s access the wildlife has to m o r e than o n e e n v i r o n m e n t . W h e r e forest meets m e a d o w , animals find cover in t h e w o o d , visibility across the o p e n land, and feed f r o m t w o types of e n v i r o n m e n t .

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It is, of course, possible to have t o o m u c h edge, as can b e seen in forests w h e r e t i m b e r harvesting has p r o d u c e d a p a t c h w o r k of trees and clearcut areas, a n d thus e l i m i n a t e d plant and animal species that required a larger expanse of forest to thrive. In t h e artificial e n v i r o n m e n t of the cropfield, however, t o o m u c h e d g e is rarely a p r o b l e m ; creating e n o u g h edge m o r e c o m m o n l y is. In figure 4 0 - 1 , o n e very large field provides m i n i m u m edge. T w o different crops provide t w o different habitats and the o n e w a t e r p o i n t p r o vides a third. T h e greatest diversity of species of all types will be a l o n g t h e edge w h e r e the three habitats m e e t , followed by the edges w h e r e t h e t w o crops m e e t . A s s u m e that a certain species of i n s e c t - e a t i n g bird r e q u i r e d cover f r o m its predators, feed, and p r o x i m i t y to water. If o n e of the habitat types p r o v i d e d cover and t h e o t h e r feed, b u t n o water, there w o u l d be n o birds of this species. E v e n w i t h i n t e r c r o p p i n g in this field there is little diversity. In figure 4 0 - 2 , h e d g e rows and trees have b e e n used to divide t h e large field i n t o six smaller o n e s and w a t e r has b e e n dispersed. W h a t a difference! T h e trees and h e d g e rows add a n o t h e r d i m e n s i o n of complexity, and t h e p r o p o r t i o n of edge is m a n y times greater. M a n y creatures can o b t a i n f o o d , cover, a n d water. W h e r e an i n s e c t - e a t i n g bird was restricted to t h e cover at t h e edge of the field in figure 4 0 - 1 , it can n o w range over t h e entire crop area. O n c e u p o n a t i m e most f a r m e r s planted h e d g e rows and trees a r o u n d their fields, w h i c h w e r e m u c h smaller than they generally are today, creating edge a n d habitat f o r n u m e r o u s species, i n c l u d i n g insects (90 p e r c e n t of w h i c h are beneficial to crops), insect predators, such as birds and bats, and larger animals as well. If the crops w i t h i n these smaller, b o r d e r e d fields were of m i x e d species, even m o r e edge was created. W h e n m a c h i n e r y f o r c e d t h e use of crop rows, a g o o d deal of m i x i n g c o u l d still be attained by a l t e r n a t ing t h e crops in each row. M o d e r n - d a y f a r m e r s , of course, have t h e o p t i o n of r e t u r n i n g to smaller fields b o r d e r e d w i t h natural or planted vegetation. T h e y b e n e f i t even m o r e if a planted b o r d e r p r o d u c e s a harvestable crop and additional i n c o m e , or f o d d e r f o r livestock, or serves o t h e r f u n c t i o n s , such as willows or eucalypts that help to drain b o g g y areas. In designing y o u r fields also give t h o u g h t to t h e needs of n o c t u r n a l creatures.You m i g h t add nesting boxes for birds b u t w h a t a b o u t bats? T h e t o n n a g e of insects eaten by bats each n i g h t is staggering. A single little b r o w n bat can catch 6 0 0 o r m o r e m o s q u i t o s in an h o u r , a c o l o n y of 30 could easily catch m o r e than 3 0 , 0 0 0 insects in an evening's f e e d i n g . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , m a n y bat p o p u l a t i o n s have b e e n seriously d e c i m a t e d or destroyed altogether by poisons used in o u r struggle to sustain m o n o c u l tures. You can e n c o u r a g e their r e t u r n by p r o v i d i n g habitat for t h e m . M o s t

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Crop field with limited edge—two

habitats and the one water point provides a third.

A

> >1

.A

different crops provide two different

Figure 40-2

In this crop field, the proportion of edge is many times greater.

colonies of bats c h o o s e roosts w i t h i n a q u a r t e r mile of w a t e r in areas of diverse habitat, especially w h e r e there is a m i x of croplands and natural vegetation. C r e a t i n g edges of c o u r s e also affects t h e species y o u c a n n o t see, and they will n u m b e r in t h e millions o r billions. All animal species are in o n e way o r a n o t h e r struggling for t h e best assortment o f places to feed, hide, rest, sleep, play, a n d b r e e d . B y creating edges, y o u can assist t h e m all in their quest.

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Preserve

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Diversity

M a i n t a i n i n g diversity refers not only to species diversity but also to the genetic diversity w i t h i n each species. G e n e t i c diversity is j u s t as i m p o r t a n t in d o m e s t i c a t e d plants as it is in wild ones. W e only have to r e m e m b e r w h a t a lack of it did to the p o t a t o crops in n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Ireland. It used to b e that the farmer's most valued possession was h e r seed, w h i c h reflected generations of selection for adaptation to a particular envir o n m e n t . H o w e v e r , in m a n y c o u n t r i e s today, most crops are g r o w n f r o m hybrid seed that must be purchased each year because seeds f r o m t h e resulting crop are infertile or d o n o t breed true. Because m o s t f a r m e r s n o l o n g e r raise their o w n seed, they are increasingly at the m e r c y of t h e giant c o r p o r a t i o n s that patent and m a r k e t hybrid seed and control b o t h their price and supply. A n y f a r m e r w h o w o r k s toward a holistic goal that includes security and self-sufficiency s h o u l d begin to question t h e use of hybrid seeds and perhaps consider g r o w i n g at least s o m e of her o w n seed to lessen the d e p e n d e n c y . T h e genetic material w e have lost as a result of the m o v e to m a n u f a c tured hybrids has led to the d e v e l o p m e n t of seed banks to preserve w h a t remains. B u t this is little different f r o m placing endangered animals in zoos in an effort to preserve their species. O u r chances of sustaining t h e m are slim if they aren't at s o m e p o i n t r e t u r n e d to t h e e n v i r o n m e n t that o r i g i nally h e l p e d to breed and shape t h e m .

Incorporate Livestock U p until fifty years ago livestock played an essential role in m a i n t a i n i n g cropland fertility, and n o f a r m was w i t h o u t t h e m . O n l y in t h e earliest f o r m s of agriculture, k n o w n as slash and b u r n , o r s w i d d e n , w e r e crops g r o w n in the absence of d o m e s t i c stock. Forests w e r e cleared and b u r n e d a n d crops planted in soil that was rich in n u t r i e n t s a n d organic matter. B u t w i t h i n five or so years, m u c h of the organic m a t t e r was lost and n u t r i e n t s leached by rainfall d o w n to layers shallow-rooted crops could n o t reach and the p e o p l e w o u l d b e forced to m o v e o n . W h e n the forest had r e g r o w n and t h e soil rejuvenated, t w e n t y years or m o r e later, t h e land could be cultivated o n c e m o r e . W h e n rising p o p u l a t i o n s m a d e s w i d d e n agriculture impossible, p e o p l e were forced to settle and continually crop the same land. Fertility c o u l d t h e n b e m a i n t a i n e d only t h r o u g h t h e use of animal manures, b u t t h e n u m ber of animals that could be fed t h r o u g h o u t the year was o f t e n q u i t e small because of the lack of f o d d e r crops. M a n u r e was r e m o v e d f r o m pastures to fertilize cropfields, and this, c o m b i n e d w i t h overgrazing, w h i c h even then was believed to b e associated w i t h animal n u m b e r s rather than time,

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r e d u c e d hay a n d grass yields o n t h e pastures. In colder climates, m a n y a n i mals h a d to be slaughtered in the a u t u m n because of a shortage of w i n t e r feed. W h e n f o o d was short, m o r e land w o u l d be put u n d e r crops as a s h o r t t e r m measure to try to increase f o o d p r o d u c t i o n , thus setting u p a vicious cycle. W h e n m o r e land was p u t into crops animal n u m b e r s had to be r e d u c e d . Less m a n u r e was p r o d u c e d a n d crop yields decreased. Today, w i t h i m p r o v e d forages a n d b e t t e r grazing p l a n n i n g w e can g r o w m u c h m o r e forage o n less land and can b e t t e r integrate livestock i n t o c r o p p i n g plans as well. Forages, such as alfalfa, that are built into crop rotations feed n o t only livestock b u t soil organisms too. Forages g r o w n o n terraces a n d in grassed waterways, or i n t e r s e e d e d as cover crops, also provide stock feed w h i l e stabilizing e r o d i n g soil. Livestock can also utilize m a n y so-called wastes, such as d a m a g e d grains, a d r o u g h t - f a i l e d c o r n crop, f o o d processing b y - p r o d u c t s , grain screenings, a n d especially weeds. T h e c o m b i n a t i o n of crops a n d livestock makes the waste of o n e e n t e r p r i s e a valuable resource for a n o t h e r . O n e of the most practical and i m p o r t a n t uses of livestock (cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, or poultry) is for b r e a k i n g d o w n after-harvest crop residues. As m e n t i o n e d , p l o w i n g raw organic m a t t e r i n t o the soil does m o r e d a m a g e than g o o d . B u r n i n g residues is equally destructive because of the soil e x p o sure and a t m o s p h e r i c p o l l u t i o n it causes. Animals, o n the o t h e r h a n d , will r e d u c e the residues to d u n g and u r i n e and still leave a m u l c h to cover the soil. P o u l t r y also c o n s u m e insects and help to keep their n u m b e r s in c h e c k . H o w e v e r , the t i m e t h e animals spend o n any u n i t of land must be carefully p l a n n e d . C o n c e n t r a t i n g the animals o n small areas for very s h o r t p e r i ods usually achieves the best results and can easily be d o n e using portable electric fencing, tight h e r d i n g , or for poultry, m o b i l e , bottomless cages. W h e n they are allowed to spread over t h e w h o l e field for an e x t e n d e d time, t h e animals are likely to c o n s u m e t o o m u c h material and may leave s o m e areas exposed. A n d h o o f e d animals will almost certainly pulverize the soil, destroying its structure a n d m a k i n g it highly susceptible to erosion. O n land that is marginal because it contains steep slopes or highly erodible soil you may be b e t t e r off g r o w i n g s o d - f o r m i n g forages that livestock can graze, rather than annual crops. As l o n g as the grazing is well p l a n n e d , you are likely to achieve a b e t t e r financial r e t u r n w h i l e i m p r o v i n g the land. In fact, s o m e f a r m e r s have used animal i m p a c t to help to establish grass o n steeper slopes and saved the time and cost of reseeding them. W h e n l i v e s t o c k — b e they cattle, sheep, goats, horses, pigs, chickens, ducks, geese, or rabbits—are i n c o r p o r a t e d into a c r o p p i n g plan, you w a n t to k e e p t h e m o n the land a n d o u t of buildings as m u c h as possible. A n u m ber of f a r m e r s have already d e m o n s t r a t e d that even small stock, such as

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chickens, turkeys, and rabbits, can spend a g o o d p o r t i o n o f the year o u t o n the land, given a d e q u a t e p r o t e c t i o n f r o m predators and f r e q u e n t moves. H o w e v e r , t h e trend o n most farms has l o n g b e e n in the o t h e r direction. C o n f i n i n g animals to pens, stalls, o r barns n o t only p r o m o t e s ill health, but also requires extra w o r k in m o v i n g m a n u r e o u t o n t o fields. T h e n u t r i e n t s c o n t a i n e d in u r i n e may be lost altogether. T h e beneficial trampling, d i g ging, a n d scratching that helps to loosen m u l c h and aerate soils is c e r t a i n ly lost. S o m e f a r m e r s w h o w o u l d o t h e r w i s e k e e p their animals o u t o n the land find it necessary to c o n f i n e t h e m d u r i n g the w i n t e r m o n t h s . T h e y have d e v e l o p e d i n g e n i o u s ways to o v e r c o m e t h e p o l l u t i o n hazard created by the wastes that a c c u m u l a t e over the m o n t h s of c o n f i n e m e n t , b u t still have the j o b of t r a n s p o r t i n g m a n u r e back o n t o fields. T h e y may yet o v e r c o m e this obstacle by d e v e l o p i n g portable buildings that can be m o v e d w i t h m i n i m a l effort to n e w sites each w i n t e r . S o m e C a n a d i a n f a r m e r s have m a n a g e d to keep cattle o n the land all w i n t e r by piling d r i e d forage in large rows that animals can easily find u n d e r the snow.

Minimize Irrigation Irrigation renders t h e cropland e n v i r o n m e n t even m o r e artificial than d r y land f a r m i n g , w h i c h relies o n rainfall only.To date w e have b e e n unable to sustain any irrigation-based civilization over time. O v e r w a t e r i n g , t h r o u g h the m o s t c o m m o n f o r m o f irrigation, flood irrigation, is largely the reason why. In a sandy soil, o v e r w a t e r i n g causes n u t r i e n t s to leach d o w n b e l o w the crop root zone. A l t h o u g h t h e excess w a t e r still p r o d u c e s crops, yields are r e d u c e d and f o o d value is d i m i n i s h e d t h r o u g h plants p i c k i n g up fewer nutrients. In a p o o r l y drained soil (one that is mostly clay or contains an i m p e r v i o u s clay layer) o v e r w a t e r i n g leads to waterlogging, w h i c h prevents plants f r o m a b s o r b i n g n e e d e d nutrients. It also alters t h e mineral c o n t e n t of the soil and m a y eventually, especially in h o t areas w i t h high evaporation rates, p r o d u c e a thick layer of salt o n t h e surface that makes f u r t h e r c r o p p i n g difficult, if n o t impossible. T h u s , o v e r w a t e r i n g should be avoided. T h e use of drip irrigation, or p o r o u s piping, o r any o t h e r t e c h n o l o g y that enables w a t e r to be rationed, currently offers the m o s t p r o m i s e for sustaining land u n d e r i r r i g a t i o n . T h a t these alternatives are n o t used m o r e w i d e l y is largely d u e to t h e h i g h e r outlay of capital required to purchase t h e materials and, in s o m e cases, the energy for p u m p i n g t h e water. U n l i k e m o s t f l o o d irrigation systems, w h i c h rely o n gravity to carry w a t e r to fields, w a t e r in a drip irrigation system usually has to be delivered u n d e r pressure, and energy is required for p u m p s that can d o this.

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Manage the Water Catchments U p to this p o i n t o u r focus has b e e n o n the health of t h e soil o n t h e c r o p lands themselves, but n o crop field can be sustained for l o n g if t h e land surr o u n d i n g it is e x p o s e d and losing biodiversity. As m e n t i o n e d , livestock have b e e n used o n s o m e farms to help establish soil-stabilizing perennial grasses o n hillsides a n d o t h e r m a r g i n a l areas that are unsuitable for cropping. B u t such individual efforts, necessary as they are, will prove futile in the l o n g r u n if land a n y w h e r e above t h e f a r m is also bare and eroding. U n a b l e to soak in w h e r e it falls, rainwater moves d o w n w a r d , g a t h e r i n g silt as it goes, m o r e o f t e n than n o t creating a flood at s o m e p o i n t . Floods can destroy crops, of course, but t h e silt they carry also fills irrigation canals and drainage c h a n n e l s . T h e loss of the first great civilization based o n irrigated agriculture in M e s o p o t a m i a was largely d u e to t h e silt f r o m e r o d i n g c a t c h m e n t s that filled canals and dams. T h e demise of t h e Mayan civilization in the j u n g l e s of C e n t r a l A m e r i c a was largely d u e to silt f r o m d e f o r ested c a t c h m e n t s that filled t h e channels draining the marshes in w h i c h their raised-bed crops were g r o w n . T h e only civilization w e k n o w of that did m a n a g e to survive and sustain its agriculture, despite massive erosion h i g h e r up t h e c a t c h m e n t , was the Egyptians of the lower N i l e Valley. D e f o r e s t a t i o n and soil erosion o c c u r r i n g 2,000 miles away in t h e highlands of E t h i o p i a and U g a n d a p r o vided n u t r i e n t - r i c h silt that annual floods deposited in the n a r r o w valley t h r o u g h natural overflow channels. T h e f l o o d i n g o c c u r r e d at just t h e right time and land r e m a i n e d m o i s t l o n g e n o u g h afterward to g r o w a plentiful supply of crops. T h e sandy soil ensured g o o d drainage and thus w a t e r l o g ging, and a b u i l d u p of salts did n o t b e c o m e a p r o b l e m . By e x p l o i t i n g a n a t ural process, and someone else's environmental problems, t h e p e o p l e of lower Egypt m a n a g e d to sustain their fields over 7 , 0 0 0 years.This security e n d e d w h e n t h e Aswan dain was built in the 1960s and t h e silt that had kept the fields fertile was trapped b e h i n d it. Obviously, if w e are to create a sustainable agriculture, w h i c h d e p e n d s o n healthy w a t e r c a t c h m e n t s , w e c a n n o t p u t all the responsibility o n i n d i vidual farmers. T h e y can do their best to stabilize t h e c a t c h m e n t s o n the land u n d e r their care, but even if every f a r m e r m a n a g e d to stabilize the c a t c h m e n t s o n every f a r m , w e could n o t guarantee f u t u r e f o o d supplies unless the r e m a i n i n g c a t c h m e n t s (the m o u n t a i n s , forests, prairies, savannaw o o d l a n d s , and rangelands) that cover a far m o r e extensive area, are stabilized. T h i s will require a m u c h larger effort than I can even b e g i n to describe in this b o o k . N o n e t h e l e s s , it is o n e that must be u n d e r t a k e n . In the m e a n t i m e , y o u as an individual f a r m e r can m a k e a start by w o r k i n g to ensure that the rain y o u receive, a n y w h e r e o n y o u r f a r m , soaks in w h e r e it falls.

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Minimize Energy Consumption M o s t so-called primitive agricultural systems are highly energy efficient, p r o d u c i n g a b o u t t w e n t y times as m u c h e n e r g y as they use. Paddy fields in C h i n a and southeast Asia p r o d u c e 50 times m o r e e n e r g y than they use. M o d e r n industrialized grain f a r m i n g , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , p r o d u c e s only a b o u t t w i c e as m u c h e n e r g y as it c o n s u m e s in the f o r m of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and machinery, and it is b e c o m i n g steadily less e n e r g y efficient. W h e n processing and distribution are taken into a c c o u n t , t h e n all f o o d p r o d u c t i o n in t h e industrialized nations uses m o r e energy than it creates. 3 E v e n f a r m e r s w h o feel n o m o r a l obligation to curtail e n e r g y inputs will be forced to d o so because of t h e m o u n t i n g costs associated w i t h t h e use of s y n t h e t i c , f o s s i l - f u e l - b a s e d fertilizers, pesticides, a n d m a c h i n e r y . A l t h o u g h fossil fuel supplies may last a n o t h e r c e n t u r y or m o r e , they will b e c o m e increasingly costly.

Feed Soil Rather

Than

Plants

W e can r e d u c e t h e n e e d for pesticides simply by increasing diversity in o u r croplands, as m e n t i o n e d . B u t r e d u c i n g t h e n e e d for fertilizer is a slightly different matter. W i t h the d e v e l o p m e n t of synthetic fertilizers, w e c h a n g e d o u r focus f r o m f e e d i n g the soil to f e e d i n g t h e plants, w i t h catastrophic c o n s e q u e n c e s . W e n e e d to shift o u r focus back to w h e r e it b e l o n g s — o n t h e soil. Soil fertility involves m u c h m o r e than m e r e nutrients. As I f o u n d o n my o w n f a r m , y o u can have all t h e necessary nutrients, but m a n y may be unavailable to plants because the soil is p o o r l y aerated. P o o r drainage, excessive acidity, a n d exposed soil all affect fertility. It is j u s t as i m p o r t a n t to identify and to c o r r e c t these limiting factors as it is to supply the a p p r o priate nutrients. W h e n y o u d o supply nutrients, you should a t t e m p t to s u p p l e m e n t only w h a t is lacking. S o m e t i m e s an o t h e r w i s e healthy soil will p r o d u c e p o o r yields merely because a m i n o r e l e m e n t o r m i c r o n u t r i e n t is deficient. L o n g ago s o m e f a r m e r s f o u n d they c o u l d correct a c o p p e r deficiency merely by d r a g g i n g a piece of c o p p e r wire b e h i n d a plow. All t o o often, w h e n w e base fertilizer applications o n the needs of plants rather t h a n t h e needs of the soil, w e overfertilize, creating a chemical imbalance in the soil that damages organic material, soil structure, and soil life. G r o u n d w a t e r also b e c o m e s polluted by excess chemicals. Because m o s t of t h e crops w e g r o w are annual grains that c o n c e n t r a t e n u t r i e n t s taken f r o m t h e soil into the plant's seedhead, w h e n w e harvest these seedheads, w e are r e m o v i n g a significant a m o u n t of n u t r i e n t s that w o u l d o t h e r w i s e b e r e t u r n e d to the soil. In most cases w e will have to

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replace w h a t w e have taken away. At present, however, nutrient losses due to harvested

grain

are insignificant

in comparison

to the nutrients

being

lost

through

eroding soil. Fortunately, there are a n u m b e r of alternatives to synthetic fertilizers. By i n c l u d i n g l e g u m e s in crop rotations, for instance, w e can replace s o m e of the n i t r o g e n lost w i t h t h e removal of a c o r n crop. T h e legume's d e e p e r roots will also draw u p n u t r i e n t s that may have leached d o w n to lower soil layers. A n i m a l m a n u r e s a n d c o m p o s t s can provide m o s t of w h a t t h e synthetic fertilizers d o and, as l o n g as they are n o t applied in excess, w i t h o u t killing microorganisms. H o w e v e r , they d o n o t replace all that is lacking or has b e e n lost, a challenge that still requires research, i n t o b o t h w h a t may be lacking and b e n i g n m e t h o d s for p r o v i d i n g it. B i o d y n a m i c a g r i c u l t u r e uses m i n u t e a m o u n t s of various preparations that e n h a n c e soil m i c r o o r g a n i s m s and thus soil structure, w i t h impressive results that w a r r a n t f u r t h e r research. As a general rule, any n u t r i e n t s a d d e d to a soil should e n h a n c e the life w i t h i n it. O t h e r w i s e , w e c a n n o t k e e p soil alive n o r b e n e f i t f r o m the " i n t e r e s t " such biological capital c o u l d provide.

Human

Labor versus

Machines

H u m a n s p r o v i d e d t h e m a i n e n e r g y i n p u t i n t o f a r m i n g in every society until t h e m e c h a n i z a t i o n of agriculture. For thousands of years the f o u n d a tion of every civilization rested o n vast a m o u n t s of h u m a n toil a n d effort, o f t e n p r o v i d e d unwillingly a n d u n d e r insufferable c o n d i t i o n s . Animals w e r e always a s e c o n d a r y source of p o w e r in a g r i c u l t u r e because a l t h o u g h oxen, donkeys, and horses p r o d u c e d a h i g h e r e n e r g y o u t p u t they ate m o r e than h u m a n s a n d w e r e generally considered less e c o n o m i c . M o d e r n , m e c h a n i z e d f a r m i n g has p r o d u c e d its o w n f o r m s of cruelty and h u m a n suffering, even t h o u g h m a c h i n e r y has replaced a g o o d deal of h u m a n labor. I d o n ' t believe t h e answer is a r e t u r n to an agriculture that is fueled p r e d o m i n a n t l y by h u m a n labor b u t it certainly c o u l d be o n e that i n c o r p o r a t e s m o r e h u m a n labor, that is n e i t h e r d e g r a d i n g , n o r i n h u m a n e , and p e r h a p s m o r e animal labor as well. It should b e o n e that features smaller, m o r e e n e r g y - e f f i c i e n t m a c h i n e r y that can harvest small fields of m i x e d crops effectively and at l o w cost. Fortunately, this is w i t h i n the realm of o u r t e c h n o l o g i c a l capabilities.

Conclusion T h r o u g h o u t this c h a p t e r I have referred o f t e n to t h e agriculture of t h e past in an a t t e m p t to s h o w that, g o o d as m u c h of it was, it is n o t s o m e t h i n g w e can e m u l a t e a l t o g e t h e r to solve today's problems. S l a s h - a n d - b u r n a g r i c u l -

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ture m a n a g e d to m a i n t a i n small h u m a n p o p u l a t i o n s , b u t quickly b r o k e d o w n w h e n those p o p u l a t i o n s increased. Settled p o p u l a t i o n s m a n a g e d to p r o l o n g the useful life of c o n t i n u o u s l y c r o p p e d fields by a d d i n g animal m a n u r e s and c o m p o s t s and later crop rotations and soil-building cover c r o p s — m o r e o r less f a r m i n g organically. B u t soils c o n t i n u e d to d e t e r i o r a t e in w h a t is likely to always r e m a i n an artificial e n v i r o n m e n t as l o n g as w e cultivate crops w i t h i n it. T h e agriculture of the future, I believe, will have to include greater c o m p l e x i t y still in t h e crops w e plant and t h e animals w e m a n a g e w i t h t h e m . It will also require the use of n e w t e c h n o l o g i e s that, unlike those used in the past, are first tested toward a holistic goal for their ecological, social, a n d e c o n o m i c soundness. Perhaps o n e day even genetic e n g i n e e r i n g will be p u t to g o o d use, p r o d u c i n g crops that e n h a n c e , rather than a t t e m p t to o v e r w h e l m , ecological processes. A n d m a y b e new, m o r e b e n i g n f o r m s of e n e r g y will be develo p e d . W h a t w e d o k n o w is that a n u m b e r of changes will have to b e m a d e if w e are to c o n t i n u e m o d i f y i n g o u r e n v i r o n m e n t w i t h o u t destroying it a n d ourselves. N o w let's p r o c e e d to the guidelines d e v e l o p e d f o r the use of that p o w erful and ancient tool, fire.

41 Burning: When and How to Burn, and What to Do Before and A f t e r

ire is at times the only tool for t h e j o b , but as w e l e a r n e d in C h a p ter 19, there are dangers w h e n it is used excessively, as it u n d o u b t edly is today. M o s t p e o p l e have n o idea of t h e a m o u n t of b u r n i n g that takes place each year o n croplands, grasslands, a n d savanna w o o d l a n d s , or of its c o n s e q u e n c e s , and w o u l d n o t be aware of t h e a m o u n t o c c u r r i n g in w e t tropical forests if t h e m e d i a had n o t exposed it. A l t h o u g h fire is a tool that has a definite and useful role to play in land m a n a g e m e n t , w e n e e d to q u e s tion its use m o r e rigorously. T h e b u r n i n g guideline serves to r e m i n d us of the dangers w h i l e p r o v i d i n g a p p r o p r i a t e safeguards.

F

U s e fire only w h e n the testing guidelines s h o w it to b e the m o s t a p p r o priate tool at t h e t i m e for taking y o u t o w a r d y o u r holistic goal. Particularly avoid b u r n i n g purely for the sake of tradition, accepted practice, or w h a t o t h e r p e o p l e say. Because results may vary considerably even in the best of circumstances, y o u must, as w i t h any decision that attempts to m o d i f y an e n v i r o n m e n t , m o n i t o r closely after a b u r n o n the assumption y o u r d e c i sion was w r o n g . If t h e f u t u r e landscape described in y o u r holistic goal includes great diversity, t h e n m a i n t a i n i n g species that d e p e n d o n p e r i o d i c b u r n s will require it. Nevertheless, m a n y w h o advocate b u r n i n g to invigorate grassland in brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s fail to u n d e r s t a n d that t h e b e n e f i t c o m e s f r o m disturbance in any f o r m , n o t j u s t fire. A n i m a l impact, for instance, can o f t e n be used to achieve the same e n d , b u t w i t h o u t t h e adverse effects of fire. H o w e v e r , any u n i f o r m type of disturbance applied c o n tinually, i n c l u d i n g animal i m p a c t , will tend to p r o d u c e a m o r e u n i f o r m , less diverse, c o m m u n i t y , so even an a n i m a l - m a i n t a i n e d grassland may 430

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require occasional b u r n i n g in part o r overall to sustain f i r e - d e p e n d e n t species. W h e n you are m a n a g i n g holistically, t h e m o s t c o m m o n justifications for b u r n i n g include: •

to invigorate and freshen mature or senescent perennial grass plants if, for some reason, animals cannot be used, or in cases where you want to sustain fire-dependent vegetation

•

to invigorate and thicken up brush as cover or feed for wildlife

•

to expose soil in patches to create a mosaic of different communities that can support a greater diversity of plant and animal species

•

to reduce selected w o o d y species that are fire-sensitive at certain stages of their lives

•

to provide intense disturbance to a c o m m u n i t y in which many dead plants are hindering growth

Before You Burn To b u r n or n o t to b u r n is a decision that m u s t always be tested toward a holistic goal. S o m e of t h e c o n c e r n s the testing should address follow.

Cause and

Effect

If you i n t e n d to b u r n to o v e r c o m e a p r o b l e m p r o d u c e d by past m a n a g e m e n t decisions, y o u must at least ensure that you simultaneously act to r e c tify the problem's cause. N o t d o i n g this c o m m o n l y results in p e o p l e using fire to fight the effects p r o d u c e d by past fires. B u r n i n g very rank, fibrous grass to m a k e it m o r e palatable is a g o o d e x a m p l e seen in t h e m a n a g e m e n t of m a n y ranches and national parks. T h e fire will freshen individual plants by clearing the old g r o w t h , b u t because it exposes t h e soil b e t w e e n plants, it tends to increase the spacing b e t w e e n p l a n t s . T h i s results in fewer, larger plants that in t u r n b e c o m e coarser and m o r e fibrous, thus r e q u i r i n g f u r t h e r b u r n i n g to be edible at all. B u r n i n g forbs considered weeds that s p r i n g f r o m the cracks in bare, exposed soil is equally self-defeating. S u c h t a p - r o o t e d plants, w h i c h take hold easily in t h e cracks left by a previous fire, are the b e g i n n i n g of an advance in biological succession. T h e material of their stems, leaves, a n d so on, will provide the soil cover for o t h e r species as the c o m m u n i t y b e c o m e s m o r e diverse, d y n a m i c , and stable. B u r n i n g t h e m sets the process back to square one, l e n g t h e n i n g the time it will take to reach the landscape you require in t h e f u t u r e . E l s e w h e r e I m e n t i o n e d m y belief that t h e tsetse fly p o p u l a t i o n in

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Africa, Glossina morsitans in particular, increased w h e n w e b u r n e d f r e quently, because b u r n i n g e x p o s e d soil a n d increased b r e e d i n g sites. W e b u r n e d as policy to m a k e it easier to h u n t the g a m e p r o v i d i n g t h e b l o o d n e e d e d to feed t h e flies. T h e s e efforts proved useless in the e n d , because e n o u g h small host animals r e m a i n e d to supply b l o o d anyway, a n d o u r f r e q u e n t b u r n i n g increased t h e fly's egg-laying sites a t h o u s a n d f o l d .

Weak Link

(Social)

Because t h e prevailing belief is that fire is natural a n d t h e r e f o r e an a c c e p t able m a n a g e m e n t practice, it is n o t likely that y o u r b u r n i n g will o f f e n d or c o n f u s e t h e p e o p l e w h o s e s u p p o r t you will n e e d in a c h i e v i n g y o u r holistic goal. H o w e v e r , this belief m i g h t well c h a n g e in t h e future.

Weak Link

(Biological)

If y o u w e r e a t t e m p t i n g to r e d u c e t h e p o p u l a t i o n of a fire-sensitive w o o d y species by b u r n i n g , you w o u l d n e e d to b e aware o f the weakest p o i n t in the species' life cycle. If it was a species that established best in cracked bare soil y o u m i g h t , by b u r n i n g , kill adult plants, b u t you w o u l d also b e likely to e n h a n c e t h e success of t h e n e x t g e n e r a t i o n . If it w e r e a species that established best in l o n g - r e s t e d clumps of perennial grass w i t h w e a k e n e d root systems, you w o u l d t h e n b e likely to kill t h e adult plants and r e d u c e the ability of their seedlings to establish.

Weak Link

(Financial)

T h e w e a k link in the chain of p r o d u c t i o n that stretches f r o m raw resources to m o n e y should always b e considered b e f o r e y o u b u r n . B u r n i n g to r e d u c e a fire-sensitive w o o d y species b e c o m e s m o s t t e m p t i n g in years of l o w f o r age p r o d u c t i o n because t h e b r u s h stands o u t amid t h e p o o r grass. B u t low forage p r o d u c t i o n o f t e n indicates that e n e r g y conversion is t h e c u r r e n t w e a k link, in a livestock or wildlife m a n a g e m e n t situation, and if that is the case, it could be a mistake to b u r n . Y o u n e e d all t h e forage y o u ' v e got this year, a n d y o u d o n o t w a n t to risk losing any to fire. B u r n i n g w o u l d best b e left to a year in w h i c h forage is a b u n d a n t and e n e r g y conversion is n o t the w e a k link.

Marginal

Reaction

W e o f t e n v i e w t h e tool of fire as c h e a p because t h e only investment involved is a box of matches. H o w e v e r , w h e n b u r n i n g either forage or crop residues, f a c t o r i n g in lost forage and grazing time a n d t h e r e d u c e d effec-

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tiveness of rainfall shows t h e t r u e cost to b e h i g h in relation to t h e m i n i mal financial investment. W i t h t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of biomass b u r n i n g to a t m o s p h e r i c p o l l u t i o n factored in, t h e cost b e c o m e s h i g h e r still.

Gross Profit Analysis,

Energy/Money

Source and Use

As b u r n i n g is s e l d o m an e n t e r p r i s e that can b e m a r k e t e d , gross profit analysis w o u l d n o t n o r m a l l y apply. T h e E n e r g y / M o n e y test probably will n o t affect m o s t decisions o n b u r n i n g either, b u t that does n o t m e a n y o u can forget either test. Like the pilot w h o keeps " l a n d i n g g e a r " o n his c h e c k list, even t h o u g h he flies a fixed-wheel plane, by k e e p i n g all t h e tests o n yours, you t o o will avoid the c h a n c e of s o m e d a y c o m i n g in w h e e l s up.

Sustainability In this test, you l o o k specifically at t h e f u t u r e resource base described in y o u r holistic goal. In t e r m s of t h e land and the f o u r ecosystem processes, y o u n e e d to consider a n u m b e r of questions: W h a t d e g r e e of soil e x p o s u r e d o y o u have n o w ? W h a t litter will you lose? W h a t m i g h t fire do to the mineral a n d w a t e r cycles envisioned in y o u r holistic goal? W h a t will h a p p e n to the m i c r o e n v i r o n m e n t at t h e soil surface, and h o w will that i n f l u e n c e the biological c o m m u n i t y y o u are a t t e m p t i n g to create? In c o n s i d e r i n g these questions, r e m e m b e r to t h i n k a b o u t t h e entire f u t u r e c o m m u n i t y a n d the age structure of its p o p u l a t i o n s , n o t j u s t adult plants a n d animals that will b e present only f o r the short t e r m . In C h a p t e r 19 I cited the e x a m p l e of the annual b u r n i n g of teak forests early in the d r y season to save the trees f r o m m o r e d a m a g i n g fires later. T h e p r a c tice d o o m e d t h e forest because teak seedlings c o u l d n o t establish o n the bare, i n o r g a n i c sand left by t h e f r e q u e n t , l o w - i n t e n s i t y fires set to save the forest. B u r n i n g to eradicate b r u s h , a c o m m o n reason given by e x t e n s i o n services, almost always fails to pass the sustainability test. Fire, rather than killing, invigorates m a n y w o o d y species, causing t h e m to thicken u p and send o u t m u l t i p l e stems. Because it exposes soil, it also tends to p r o d u c e l o n g - t e r m d a m a g e to the grassland y o u m i g h t h o p e to e n h a n c e . In t e r m s of t h e p e o p l e in y o u r f u t u r e resource base, y o u will at least have to consider h o w a b u r n m i g h t affect y o u r n e i g h b o r s and w h a t the ramifications will b e should the fire get o u t of control and spread to their properties. Are there p e o p l e n e a r b y w h o m i g h t be adversely affected by t h e smoke, such as asthma sufferers? Are there regulations o r c o m m o n c o u r t e sies y o u should respect that, if i g n o r e d , w o u l d affect y o u r s t a n d i n g in t h e community?

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Society and

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S O M E PRACTICAL G U I D E L I N E S FOR

MANAGEMENT

Culture

A f t e r passing t h r o u g h all these tests, h o w d o you fee 1 a b o u t b u r n i n g n o w ? If you, o r any o t h e r s m a k i n g this decision w i t h you, have h a d a strong disposition toward b u r n i n g in t h e past, based o n l o n g - h e l d beliefs or c u s t o m , I h o p e the o t h e r six tests have h e l p e d y o u to question that stance.You w a n t to be sure that t h e decision to b u r n is in this instance economically, environmentally, and socially s o u n d . You should bear in m i n d that any t i m e you b u r n you are releasing c a r b o n a n d o t h e r pollutants i n t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e that are b e g i n n i n g to adversely affect all of humanity. You will c o n t r i b u t e to this w o r s e n i n g situation if you use fire reflexively w h e n alternative treatm e n t s are available or w h e n y o u b u r n large areas w h e n m u c h smaller ones will suffice.

Planning Considerations Several factors involved in p l a n n i n g for a b u r n will affect t h e o u t c o m e of y o u r testing. How you plan to b u r n is j u s t as i m p o r t a n t as why in m a k i n g y o u r decision. So let m e go t h r o u g h each of these factors.

Prior to

Burning

A p a r t f r o m the legalities that m a y apply in any particular area regarding w a r n i n g s to n e i g h b o r s , you will probably n e e d to create firebreaks. To avoid t h e e r o d i n g eyesores o f t e n created by b u r n i n g or mechanically creating firebreaks, y o u can use animal i m p a c t to create t h e m instead. As m e n t i o n e d in C h a p t e r 39, you can spray a fine molasses—water o r salt—water solution ( w h e n animals have b e e n d e p r i v e d o f salt) in a strip w h e r e you w a n t t h e firebreak in o r d e r to attract stock to t h e area. T h e y will r e m o v e e n o u g h f l a m m a b l e material to create a break f r o m w h i c h to b a c k b u r n , b u t w i t h o u t e x p o s i n g the soil.

Types of Burn B u r n s may be either h o t or cool, d e p e n d i n g o n the a m o u n t of fuel, its m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t , and a t m o s p h e r i c humidity. H o t b u r n s o c c u r w h e n large a m o u n t s of c o m b u s t i b l e material and dry c o n d i t i o n s p r o d u c e large flames that persist for a l o n g time and can seriously d a m a g e t h e a b o v e - g r o u n d parts of w o o d y plants. In t h e tropics w h e r e t h e year divides i n t o w e t a n d dry seasons, t h e best time f o r h o t b u r n s c o m e s toward t h e e n d of t h e dry season. In t e m p e r a t e zones, o p p o r t u n i t i e s m a y d e p e n d on several factors. C o o l b u r n s are d o n e w h e n forage is still partially g r e e n or d a m p and difficult to ignite. In this case, t h e fire trickles along, barely s c o r c h i n g t h e

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w o o d y plants. W h e n cool b u r n s c o m e at t h e b e g i n n i n g of a dry season, as they o f t e n do in t h e tropics, w h e r e they are also called early b u r n s , the soil will r e m a i n e x p o s e d l o n g e r than it w o u l d be w i t h a h o t b u r n that c o m e s later in t h e season.This consideration also varies considerably a c c o r d i n g to local c o n d i t i o n s . W h e r e h o t fires, b e i n g fierce, t e n d to b u r n uniformly, cool b u r n s are generally patchy and b r o k e n , as n o t all t h e material b u r n s e q u a l ly well. If y o u decide y o u r situation calls for a h o t b u r n for high heat, m o r e u n i f o r m b u r n i n g , and s h o r t e r soil exposure, y o u must ensure t h e presence of sufficient fuel by n o t grazing it d o w n j u s t b e f o r e y o u n e e d it. T h e Holistic G r a z i n g P l a n n i n g p r o c e d u r e covered in C h a p t e r 46 deals w i t h this in m o r e detail. If y o u i n t e n d the h o t b u r n to kill a fire-sensitive plant, t h e n t h e b u r n date s h o u l d be w h e n it is at its most vulnerable stage, be it d u r i n g fast g r o w t h , d o r m a n c y , or j u s t b e f o r e d o r m a n c y . T h e stage of life of t h e plant, w h e t h e r seedling or m o r e m a t u r e , may also be crucial. A cool b u r n requires less fuel, w h i c h may m e a n taking s o m e grazing o u t before the b u r n . Again, the grazing plan should assure this well b e f o r e t h e event. For s o m e years I tried to perfect a n o t h e r f o r m of b u r n in t h e h i g h - r a i n fall areas of Z i m b a b w e and Paraguay that I called a singe b u r n . It was s u p posed to c o n s u m e only the old oxidizing grass d u r i n g t h e early rains w h e n w e t g r o u n d w o u l d k e e p h t t e r f r o m b u r n i n g and thus n o t e x p o s e soil. A l t h o u g h attractive in theory, it was nearly impossible to achieve in p r a c tice. For fire to r u n over litter w i t h o u t b u r n i n g it, perfect w i n d , t e m p e r a ture, a n d m o i s t u r e c o n d i t i o n s m u s t coincide, and that may h a p p e n for only a f e w h o u r s o n o n e o r t w o days. W i t h o u t a m a m m o t h labor force s t a n d i n g by to seize t h e m o m e n t , y o u c a n n o t cover m u c h g r o u n d . For o u r e x p e r i m e n t s , w e w o u l d start early in t h e m o r n i n g after an inch of rain d u r i n g t h e n i g h t a n d spend the m o r n i n g battling to get the fire to r u n . If w e decided to wait a f e w h o u r s until the tops d r i e d a bit m o r e , the w r e t c h e d fire o f t e n as n o t c a u g h t t o o well, dried o u t w h o l e plants, and b u r n e d t h e litter anyway. To cover m o r e g r o u n d w e had lines of m e n o n h o r s e b a c k d r a g g i n g b u r n i n g tires, b u t n o t h i n g proved w o r k a b l e over w i d e areas. A l t h o u g h the idea failed as a substitute for grazing to rejuvenate grassland, it is w o r t h m e n t i o n i n g because it did succeed in isolated p a t c h es, a n d that s o m e t i m e s has value in itself.

Tools to Associate

with

Burning

W h e n using fire, y o u n e e d to r e m i n d yourself that t h e decision to d o so is n o t c o m p l e t e until o n e o t h e r tool is selected to be applied f o l l o w i n g the b u r n . Fire o n its o w n , by default, b e c o m e s fire followed by rest. If the envir o n m e n t h a p p e n s to b e a brittle one, a n d m o s t are w h e r e b u r n i n g is d o n e , t h e n fire a n d rest m e a n you are c h o o s i n g to use t w o tools in c o n c e r t , b o t h

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of w h i c h have t h e t e n d e n c y to p r o d u c e bare g r o u n d . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , fire followed by rest is standard practice in m o s t parts of the w o r l d w h e r e g o v e r n m e n t e x t e n s i o n services advocate prescribed b u r n i n g . O n public lands in the U n i t e d States regulations generally require it. A n i m a l i m p a c t will of c o u r s e offset the rest and is t h e tool y o u w o u l d m o s t o f t e n w a n t to e m p l o y in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h fire. W i l d grazers o f t e n c o n c e n t r a t e o n b u r n e d areas, w h i c h provide g o o d visibility, a n d s o o n flush green, a m o n g o t h e r reasons. In Africa they will m o v e o n to a b u r n even b e f o r e t h e g r o u n d cools off. H o w e v e r , in m o s t cases, w e d e p e n d o n livestock to provide t h e animal i m p a c t . W e can i n d u c e t h e m to provide it by creating h e r d effect o n the b u r n e d area using an attractant o r using a single-strand t e m p o r a r y electric f e n c e to greatly increase stock density over the area. If the area is fairly large, t h e f e n c e can be m o v e d until all areas have b e e n treated. W h e n n e i t h e r of these ideas are feasible, y o u can at least achieve s o m e d e g r e e of i m p a c t if animals have access to u n b u r n e d areas for grazing w h i l e in a p a d d o c k . In m o s t cases they will t e n d to w a n d e r over the b u r n e d areas a n d lie u p o n t h e m . If y o u are r a n c h i n g o n public lands a n d are p r o h i b i t e d f r o m using a n i mal i m p a c t f o l l o w i n g a b u r n , y o u m i g h t consider establishing s o m e test plots f o r t h e b e n e f i t of the g o v e r n m e n t agency p e o p l e w h o may in fact be p e r s u a d e d to help c h a n g e t h e regulations.You will n e e d t w o small e n c l o sures. O n e w h i c h y o u b u r n a n d t h e n rest, and o n e w h i c h y o u b u r n and then subject to animal i m p a c t (animals at ultra high density to create h e r d effect). W i t h i n t h e n e x t year o r two, this should allow e v e r y o n e interested to observe t h e differences f o r themselves.

Burning to Enhance Wildlife Habitat Biological Communities

or

Reinvigorate

As so m a n y plants and animals are to v a r y i n g degrees f i r e - d e p e n d e n t , it can be a mistake in s o m e e n v i r o n m e n t s to suppress fire altogether if y o u r holistic goal requires increased biological diversity. A c o m m u n i t y depressed by excessive old, oxidizing plant material will c o m m o n l y require a h o t b u r n if animal i m p a c t c a n n o t b e used to reinvigorate it. H o w e v e r , the patchiness that characterizes c o o l b u r n s o f t e n p r o d u c e s the m o s t varied wildlife habitat. Patchy b u r n i n g increases edge effect, w h i c h , as m e n t i o n e d in t h e previous chapter, can e n h a n c e y o u r ability to s u p p o r t large a n d diverse p o p u l a tions of g a m e animals, birds, a n d o t h e r creatures. If w i t h firebreaks and c o n t r o l you can m a k e a h o t fire b u r n in patches, all t h e better. B y e l i m i nating m o r e w o o d y vegetation, at risk of m o r e erosion, it will increase the contrast w i t h u n b u r n e d areas. R e p e a t e d cool b u r n s , a l t h o u g h initially p r o v i d i n g patchiness, eventually lead to greatly increased w o o d y c o m m u n i t i e s

41

| BURNING: W H E N

AND H o w

TO BURN, AND W H A T TO D o

BEFORE AND AFTER

437

of s o m e w h a t fire-tolerant species and loss o f patchiness. T h i s may significantly r e d u c e t h e contrast in habitat type.

Monitoring O n c e t h e decision has b e e n m a d e to b u r n , y o u n e e d to assume that despite all t h e testing y o u c o u l d still b e w r o n g . D e t e r m i n e w h a t criteria y o u can m o n i t o r f r o m t h e outset that will give t h e earliest possible i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e direction y o u r decision is taking y o u . Because t h e key to m a n a g e m e n t of all f o u r ecosystem processes is the soil surface, w h i c h fire can e x p o s e so ruthlessly, y o u generally start there. A n o t h e r c o m m o n indicator of early c h a n g e is the type o r species of plants that establish f o l l o w i n g a b u r n . A p a r t f r o m h e l p i n g to avoid potential crises, y o u r m o n i t o r i n g will help y o u to gain a b e t t e r w o r k i n g k n o w l e d g e of t h e effects of fire o n t h e land. W h e r e fire itself does little d a m a g e in m a n y situations and advances t h e landscape toward t h e holistic goal, f r e q u e n t use of fire, as m e n t i o n e d , can b e c o m e very d e t r i m e n t a l . H a d w e m o n i t o r e d the effects of fire o n the soil surface a n d the i n c o m i n g g e n e r a t i o n of plants d u r i n g m y g a m e d e p a r t m e n t days, w e w o u l d surely never have set fires w i t h such c h e e r f u l a b a n d o n . W e never even considered t h e ecosystem processes o r realized their i m p o r tance. T h i n k i n g only of adult trees, grasses, a n d animals, w e m a n a g e d for species, n o t process o r p o p u l a t i o n structure, a topic covered in m o r e detail in the n e x t chapter. B u t o n e m u s t m a n a g e for t h e w h o l e , n o t for select species a n d t h e r e fore m u s t m o n i t o r constantly t h e factors that reflect the health of all f o u r ecosystem processes, such as litter cover, soil exposure, and plant spacings. C h a n g e s in these give the earliest w a r n i n g of c h a n g e in the w a t e r cycle t h r o u g h increased r u n o f f a n d surface evaporation a n d decreased p e n e t r a tion. C h a n g e s in t h e age structure of plant populations, in particular, s h o w w h a t is h a p p e n i n g to c o m m u n i t y dynamics. W h i c h plants s h o w t h e g r e a t est influx of y o u n g that survive t h r o u g h the seedling stage? W h e n they mature, will that b e the c o m m u n i t y y o u want? You m u s t particularly w a t c h for any early signs indicating a n e e d for a n o t h e r b u r n w i t h i n a few years. If such develop, try to find an alternative tool to d o the task, especially in m o r e arid a r e a s . T h e d r i e r the climate, the m o r e dramatic the effects of fire a n d the less f r e q u e n t its use should be. B u t w h a t is frequent? For m a n y years in Z i m b a b w e , the f o u r - p a d d o c k - t h r e e - h e r d grazing system was c o m m o n practice. O n e p a d d o c k was b u r n e d each year and the animals rotated t h r o u g h t h e o t h e r three; thus each p a d d o c k was b u r n e d o n c e every f o u r years. In the early days of m y search for better ways, I visited n u m e r o u s ranches as well as t h e research stations p r o m o t i n g this p r a c tice to see if it offered any h o p e . T h i s t o o k m e to a variety of areas that

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i n c l u d e d b o t h sandy a n d clay soils and rainfall averages that r a n g e d f r o m 8 to 7 0 inches (200 to 1750 m m ) . N o w h e r e , i n c l u d i n g on the research stations, did I find land on w h i c h t h e w a t e r cycle was n o t d e t e r i o r a t i n g . M a n y published papers had attested to t h e healthy grassland p r o d u c e d by b u r n ing every f o u r years, b u t all w e r e based on the plant species present, rather than w h a t was h a p p e n i n g to t h e soil surface a n d reflected in t h e ecosystem processes.

Conclusion M o n i t o r i n g t h e soil surface for c h a n g e will help y o u d e t e r m i n e h o w f r e q u e n t a b u r n should be. W h e r e a p e r i o d i c fire every t w e n t y to fifty years can d o g o o d , a b u r n every t w o to five years, by e x p o s i n g soil, can lead to tragedy. N o w let's m o v e on to t h e last of the m a n a g e m e n t guidelines, p o p u l a tion m a n a g e m e n t , w h i c h relates in s o m e respects to m a n y of t h e others.

42 Population Management: Look to Age Structure Rather Than Numbers, Diversity Rather Than Single Species h e p o p u l a t i o n m a n a g e m e n t g u i d e l i n e bears on t h e t o o l of living organisms, b u t m o r e generally o n t h e m a n a g e m e n t of c o m m u n i t y dynamics. It applies any time w e w a n t to e n c o u r a g e or discourage the s u c cess of a species. C o m m o n l y , w h e n w e say w e w a n t m o r e c o r n or cattle, or fewer fruit flies a n d m o s q u i t o e s , or m o r e of o u r t e a m , a n d less of theirs, w e tend to consider only the raw n u m b e r s of w h a t e v e r interests us at the m o m e n t . T h e r a n c h e r asks, " W h a t is y o u r s t o c k i n g rate?" G a m e enthusiasts ask, " W h a t is the deer c o u n t ? " F a r m e r s ask, " H o w m a n y bushels?" E c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t specialists talk a b o u t p e o p l e per square mile, c o n s u m p t i o n per capita, a n d g r o w t h of G N P . All of these questions are i m p o r tant, b u t in addition, or even ahead of t h e m , this guideline raises o t h e r c o n siderations that clarify t h e m a n a g e m e n t of p o p u l a t i o n s in the c o n t e x t of whole communities. O n e e x a m p l e shows b o t h h o w m u c h this b r o a d e r a p p r o a c h can c o n tribute to the solution of s o m e of o u r m o s t u r g e n t p r o b l e m s and h o w easily t h e best of m i n d s fall i n t o t h e old rut. S o m e years ago, a c o n s u l t i n g assignment f r o m the U n i t e d N a t i o n s F o o d and A g r i c u l t u r e O r g a n i z a t i o n t o o k m e to Pakistan's Baluchistan province. H a v i n g b e e n charged w i t h r e p o r t i n g o n t h e overall status of resource m a n a g e m e n t in this province, I had read n u m e r o u s reports previously prepared by o t h e r consultants to Pakistan a n d t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s , as well as g o v e r n m e n t officials. T h e s e all cited o n e p r o b l e m that o v e r s h a d o w e d m o s t others: t h e overharvesting of desert bushes for fuel. People were scavenging an e v e r - e x p a n d i n g area surr o u n d i n g their villages for desert bushes, the only fuel r e m a i n i n g , and did n o t j u s t l o p off branches, b u t t o o k roots a n d all. A n e v e r - w i d e n i n g circle 439

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of bare g r o u n d e x t e n d e d a r o u n d most settlements. All t h e reports stressed w h a t this was d o i n g to e x p a n d t h e desert, b u t h o w else c o u l d t h e villagers c o o k their food? M o s t of the reports c o n c l u d e d that alternative stoves a n d fuel h a d to be f o u n d , but n o o n e had an idea t h e villagers c o u l d afford. T h e report w r i t ers, however, l o o k e d only at t h e n u m b e r of bushes available and t h e rate of harvesting, i g n o r i n g all o t h e r aspects of p o p u l a t i o n d y n a m i c s and the m a i n t e n a n c e of healthy biological c o m m u n i t i e s . N o r e p o r t i n g scientist apparently n o t i c e d t h e fact that there w e r e n o y o u n g bushes, even t h o u g h n e w g r o w t h , lacking fuel value, did not interest w o o d gatherers and billions of seeds had b e e n p r o d u c e d over the life of t h e plants. It was like w o r r y ing a b o u t a disease killing very old p e o p l e w h i l e failing to n o t i c e t h e p e o ple h a d n ' t raised any children successfully in eighty years. W i t h o u t any harvesting at all, a p o p u l a t i o n that does n o t r e p r o d u c e will disappear. Bushes that reseed themselves will provide a source of fuel that satisfies a g o o d share of the village d e m a n d forever. T h e rate of c o n s u m p tion of m a t u r e bushes was n o t the p r o b l e m that n e e d e d to be addressed at all. T h e challenge lay in d e t e r m i n i n g w h y n o n e o f t h e billions o f seeds p r o d u c e d over a great m a n y years by the m a t u r e bushes survived. W e will r e t u r n to this case later. T h e p o i n t I wish to m a k e now, w h i c h this case highlights so well, is that there is a n e e d for t w o kinds of k n o w l edge in m a n a g i n g a living p o p u l a t i o n . First, o n e must be able to assess its health and stability. T h e n o n e must p i n p o i n t t h e cause o f its c o n d i t i o n . T h e p o p u l a t i o n m a n a g e m e n t g u i d e l i n e addresses these questions on t h e basis of s o m e rather o b v i o u s principles that m o d e r n p r o d u c t i o n systems have increasingly o b s c u r e d . In crop f a r m i n g particularly, w e have c o m e to t h i n k in t e r m s of a n n u al o r s h o r t - t e r m m o n o c u l t u r e s w h e r e w e plant an entire p o p u l a t i o n , n u r ture it artificially, t h e n harvest it completely. T h e same logic e x t e n d s to t h e clear c u t t i n g and reseeding of timber. W e even rip u p fruit orchards at a certain age and replant t h e m because it suits o u r m e c h a n i z e d h a n d l i n g t e c h n i q u e s to have e v e r y t h i n g the same age and o n t h e same schedule. All of that, however, does v i o l e n c e to the natural dynamics of p o p u l a t i o n s in w h o l e c o m m u n i t i e s and inevitably leads to instability and failure at s o m e point.

Self-Regulating and Non-Self-Regulating Populations A m o n g animal p o p u l a t i o n s t h e r e are t w o f u n d a m e n t a l types, referred to briefly in C h a p t e r 20: those that regulate their o w n and those that d o n o t . W e d o n ' t yet u n d e r s t a n d h o w s o m e of t h e ulating p o p u l a t i o n s m a n a g e to limit their n u m b e r s , b u t they

which I numbers self-regdo, even

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t h o u g h they have very high b r e e d i n g rates a n d thus a potential f o r rapid e x p a n s i o n . S o m e of t h e small a n t e l o p e of Africa, such as the d u i k e r o r s t e m b u c k , are g o o d examples. If w e p r o t e c t t h e m f o r years, they do n o t increase. If w e try to s h o o t t h e m o u t , as various tsetse fly eradication s c h e m e s a t t e m p t e d , they b r e e d a b o u t as fast as they are shot. S u c h antelope, w h i c h are solitary creatures, appear to have small, b u t strict, territories that may b e t h r e a t e n e d w h e n n u m b e r s reach a certain threshold. Q u i t e possibly this threat stresses t h e animals in s o m e way that inhibits b r e e d i n g . N o m a t t e r h o w a b u n d a n t the f o o d , cover, and o t h e r r e q u i r e m e n t s , the p o p u l a t i o n appears to s o m e h o w r e m a i n limited. Self-regulating p o p u l a t i o n s present little k n o w n difficulty in m a n a g e m e n t . N o n - s e l f - r e g u l a t i n g populations, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , present a very different picture, unless the c o m m u n i t i e s they inhabit are intact a n d c o m plex. S o m e n o n - s e l f - r e g u l a t i n g p o p u l a t i o n s d o n o t appear as such, as l o n g as they exist in c o m p l e x biological c o m m u n i t i e s that r e m a i n relatively stable. P r e d a t i o n and o t h e r f o r m s o f attrition limit p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h . A m o n g m a m m a l s , birds, a n d insects, m o s t of the h e r d i n g , flocking, or gregarious species s e e m to fall in this c a t e g o r y . T h e i r p o p u l a t i o n s o f t e n r e m a i n limited in a c o m p l e x c o m m u n i t y , b u t can break o u t in p r o b l e m n u m b e r s should the i n t e g r i t y of t h e c o m m u n i t y as a w h o l e be d a m a g e d . O n c e predators, in particular, are r e m o v e d or r e d u c e d , such p o p u l a t i o n s can e x p l o d e and face p e r i o d i c heavy d i e - o f f or b e c o m e severe pests.This d a n g e r f r o m n o n self-regulating species threatens w h e n e v e r w e simplify any biological c o m munity. A f e w species are n o t o r i o u s f o r their unrestricted g r o w t h potential, such as prickly pear a n d rabbits in Australia a n d quelea finches a n d locusts in Africa. T h e bison of N o r t h A m e r i c a and t h e s p r i n g b o k of S o u t h Africa are s o m e o f t h e best k n o w n . N o m a t t e r h o w m u c h p r e d a t i o n they e n c o u n t e r e d f r o m i n d i g e n o u s h u n t e r s and o t h e r predators, bison and s p r i n g b o k n u m b e r s g r e w s o h i g h t h a t their survival

depended

on die-offs

and

high

accident rates. Early travelers told of incredible n u m b e r s of bison that a n n u ally b r o k e t h r o u g h t h e ice o n rivers like t h e Yellowstone and d r o w n e d in w h o l e herds. A p p a r e n t l y millions of s p r i n g b o k m a r c h e d to their deaths o n the seashore. Excellent films o n the m i g r a t i o n of t h e wildebeest and zebra herds in t h e Serengeti plains of East Africa s h o w s o m e t h i n g of the culling that occurs as they cross s t e e p - b a n k e d rivers leaving m a n y individuals c r u s h e d or d r o w n e d . O n e should n o t v i e w this as bad, as such p o p u l a t i o n s have g o n e b e y o n d p r e d a t i o n s capacity to c o n t r o l t h e m . H u m a n i t y , to its sorrow, b e l o n g s to t h e same category. For millions of years as h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s , o u r p o p u l a t i o n s r e m a i n e d small and in balance w i t h t h e c o m m u n i t i e s that sustained us. N o longer! W e historically overc a m e so m a n y limiting factors that o u r n u m b e r s e x p l o d e d and c o n t i n u e to

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d o so.Yet even today, s o m e cultures, such as t h e B u s h m e n of Africa, d e p e n d o n heavy infant mortality, slow breeding, and short lives for their very survival, because their world will n o t sustain greater n u m b e r s . D o e s o n e pity t h e m and thus provide t h e basic h y g i e n e and m e d i c i n e that may e v e n tually destroy t h e m as a culture, or does o n e create a vast reservation for t h e m and allow t h e m to exist for m a n y m o r e centuries in h a r m o n y w i t h their biological c o m m u n i t y , b u t as m u s e u m pieces in the m o d e r n world? Since Homo sapiens c a n n o t escape nature's principles w e have b u t t w o options: b e c o m e self-regulating t h r o u g h b i r t h control and family p l a n n i n g ; o r c o n t i n u e as a n o n - s e l f - r e g u l a t i n g p o p u l a t i o n and allow massive death losses f r o m war, accident, disease, and starvation to regulate o u r n u m b e r s . To date, w e have m o s t o f t e n c h o s e n the s e c o n d , w h i c h holds n o promise of a b r i g h t future, as w e k n o w all t o o well f r o m o u r past. T h e series of famines that o c c u r r e d in E u r o p e t h r o u g h o u t t h e M i d d l e Ages w e r e p r e ceded by a steady g r o w t h in p o p u l a t i o n that d r o p p e d precipitously foll o w i n g t w o or three years of p o o r w e a t h e r in w h i c h m a n y crops failed. M a n y p e o p l e died o f starvation, and m a n y m o r e o f diseases, such as B u b o n i c plague, that they c o u l d n o t survive in their w e a k e n e d c o n d i t i o n . C a n n i b a l i s m was r a m p a n t . Bodies w e r e d u g u p f r o m graves to provide f o o d and e x e c u t e d criminals were eaten. 1

Age Structure and Population Health Figure 4 2 - 1 shows w h a t is k n o w n as the sigmoid, or S - s h a p e d , c u r v e that describes t h e g r o w t h of virtually all p o p u l a t i o n s . Starting at p o i n t A w i t h very few individuals, the p o p u l a t i o n of a species increases gradually. By p o i n t B, g r o w t h accelerates as t h e p o p u l a t i o n expands geometrically. At a b o u t p o i n t C, f u r t h e r g r o w t h in n u m b e r s e n c o u n t e r s difficulties of s o m e kind and t h e rate falls off as n u m b e r s a p p r o a c h t h e biological c o m m u n i t y ' s capacity to sustain t h e m . A l t h o u g h individuals may b r e e d as fast as ever, the pressure for f o o d , cover, space, and so on b e c o m e s so e x t r e m e that accident, disease, m a l n u t r i t i o n , increased success of p r e d a t i o n , and the like i m p o s e heavy losses on t h e p o p u l a t i o n . In t h e case of a self-regulating p o p u l a t i o n , it appears that b r e e d i n g is s o m e h o w r e d u c e d . T h e i m p o r t a n c e of the individual changes as the p o p u l a t i o n grows. At p o i n t A, t h e survival of each individual has a great i n f l u e n c e o n progress along the curve. W i t h o u t that first plant there can b e n o others; w i t h o u t that first b r e e d i n g pair, there will be n o f u r t h e r animals. T h e old a n e c d o t e a b o u t a p e n n y that doubles every day illustrates this p o i n t . If I agree to give you a p e n n y today and t h e n d o u b l e it every day for a m o n t h y o u w o u l d have over $10 million by m o n t h ' s end. H o w e v e r , if I didn't h a p p e n to have a p e n n y that first day and w a i t e d until t h e s e c o n d , by t h e thirty-first you w o u l d have only $5 million. B y contrast, if I c a m e u p o n e p e n n y s h o r t o n

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C

Many individuals must die for health of population

Time

Figure 42-1 curve. Numbers geometrically to sustain

Virtually all populations

grow according to a sigmoid, or

S-shaped,

increase gradually between point A and B, but then accelerate

until point

C when the biological community

begins to lose its capacity

them.

the sixteenth day you w o u l d lose only a b o u t $16. Obviously each penny, seedling, or breeding pair has t r e m e n d o u s impact at the outset, but less as the g e o m e t r i c progression advances. By p o i n t B, the loss of o n e individual hardly matters to the health of the w h o l e community. In practice, this c o n c e p t is frequently overlooked. T h e rancher w h o wants to advance his annual cheat grass range to perennial species may allow, for instance, a couple of horses free rein of the place t h r o u g h o u t the year, t h i n k i n g it unnecessary, and even inconvenient, to put t h e m w i t h the m a i n cattle herd. W h e n this happens, the first perennial grasses that try to establish are exposed to 2 x 365 = 730 horse-days of grazing, most of t h e m w h e n the cheat grass has dried off and the horses have every incentive to scavenge remorselessly for every blade of green. R a r e indeed is the perennial grass that can withstand such overgrazing. T h e same 730 horse-days of grazing d o n e by 365 horses over 2 days of the year w o u l d of course lead to the establishment of m a n y p e r e n nial grasses. By p o i n t C, the very survival of the p o p u l a t i o n depends o n the death of m a n y individuals. S o m e t i m e s this occurs in ways that allow the p o p u l a tion to remain high and relatively stable. This w o u l d be the case if the high n u m b e r s have n o t , in and of themselves, damaged the biological c o m m u nity sustaining t h e m . W h e n it is otherwise, a n u m b e r of limiting pressures will p r o d u c e a catastrophic die-off that returns the w h o l e process to p o i n t A.

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Resistance

T h e father of g a m e m a n a g e m e n t , Aldo L e o p o l d , called t h e limiting pressures o n a p o p u l a t i o n at p o i n t C environmental resistance, because they c o m e f r o m t h e entire biological c o m m u n i t y . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , w h e n w e upset the built-in checks and balances, as w e do, for instance, by r e m o v i n g predators, s o m e populations, c o m m o n l y of herbivores o r o m n i v o r e s such as pigs, m o n k e y s , or b a b o o n s , e x p l o d e to h i g h e r n u m b e r s that in t u r n exert great pressure o n yet o t h e r p o p u l a t i o n s and thus destabilize t h e w h o l e . Predators, r e m e m b e r , consist of m o r e than lions and coyotes. Spraying pesticide o n insect pests also kills millions of their predators, m o s t of w h i c h are t h e m selves insects. At each p o i n t o n t h e sigmoid g r o w t h curve, the p o p u l a t i o n has a c h a r acteristic age structure. Figure 4 2 - 2 shows in sketch 1 h o w at p o i n t A (from figure 4 2 - 1 ) , the p r o p o r t i o n of y o u n g is h i g h , a l t h o u g h n u m b e r s are low. At p o i n t B, the age structure looks m o r e like sketch 2. T h e y o u n g r e m a i n n u m e r o u s and n u m b e r s decline regularly t h r o u g h all age classes. Sketch 2 represents a very healthy p o p u l a t i o n w i t h i n a biological c o m munity. It will r e m a i n healthy if kept at that level by h u m a n m a n a g e m e n t o r by p r e d a t i o n that takes off individuals in a way that maintains the age structure. S k e t c h 3 shows the age structure at p o i n t C, w h e r e b r o a d e r e n v i r o n m e n t a l resistance b e c o m e s i m p o r t a n t . Because disease, starvation, a n d accidents affect the very y o u n g and t h e very old m o r e than they d o adults in their p r i m e , the n u m b e r s dip sharply at p o i n t (a).This l o w reflects t h e high p r o p o r t i o n o f l a s t year's y o u n g that did n o t survive. A herd of deer that bear y o u n g o n c e a year, for example, m i g h t have relatively f e w t w o - y e a r - o l d s . T h e age classes at p o i n t (b) are relatively a b u n d a n t , however, because they represent individuals in their p r i m e that can b e t t e r w i t h s t a n d disease, o r starvation. By p o i n t (c) the n u m b e r s drop off again as f e w e r individuals reach really old age u n d e r the stress of e n v i r o n m e n t a l resistance. T h e s e diagrams of p o p u l a t i o n age structure cover almost all situations w h e r e i n d i viduals in a p o p u l a t i o n have any sort of p r o l o n g e d life. A n n u a l plant and insect populations, of course, w o u l d n o t follow this p a t t e r n . M o s t living organisms acquire t h e age structure in sketch 3 w h e n they reach t h e limit of their biological c o m m u n i t y to s u p p o r t t h e m . H u m a n kind, h o w e v e r can get there prematurely. W e are perhaps t h e only creature that can so d a m a g e its e n v i r o n m e n t that it starts to die off b e f o r e r e a c h i n g its full potential. E v e r y decade or so, in Africa in particular, millions of p e o ple starve, n o t because of o v e r p o p u l a t i o n , b u t because h u m a n decision m a k i n g and m a n a g e m e n t have led to d e t e r i o r a t i o n of w a t e r a n d mineral cycles, energy flow, a n d loss of biological diversity. Well m a n a g e d , I believe Africa c o u l d sustain its present p o p u l a t i o n . Likewise in N e w M e x i c o , t h e f o u r ecosystem processes have suffered as

Sketch 1

c

1

When a population is low on the sigmoid growth curve, numbers are low but the proportion of young is high.

Ln

C3

-a c

O -S3 O cx o

c >—

1

CD _o

0-

e

z

Old

Young Sketch 2

Midway on the growth curve, when populations are growing exponentially, young remain numerous and numbers decline regularly through all age classes.

c o

Sketch 3

At the top end of the sigmoid growth curve where numbers begin to reach the capacity the environment and community can sustain, the very young and very old find it harder to survive; adults in their prime are greatest in number.

3 -o -o e cx o

V

\

CD

J2

a

(b)

N

• (a)

Z

(c)

Young \ 3 C £ o T3

I

Sketch 4

A serious AIDS epidemic within a human population would produce an age structure like this one.

c _S

'— cx O O ^ oCD _o g

z Young F i g u r e 4 2 - 2 Proportion of different age classes at various points on the sigmoid growth curve of a population.

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dramatically as I have seen a n y w h e r e , and t h e rural p o p u l a t i o n is in fact l o w and declining. If N e w M e x i c o had to s u p p o r t t h e sort of p o p u l a t i o n that m a n y d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s m u s t o n a similar area of land, its chief e x p o r t w o u l d also b e g r u e s o m e p h o t o g r a p h s f r o m relief agencies. H u m a n s also occasionally kill off the p r i m e age classes of their p o p u l a tions first. Warfare does this w h e n t h e b r u n t falls o n t h e actual soldiers, as o p p o s e d to civilian p o p u l a t i o n s . N o w t h e A I D S e p i d e m i c threatens the adults of t h e p o p u l a t i o n m o r e than the very y o u n g or the very old. A serious A I D S e p i d e m i c w o u l d p r o d u c e a h u m a n p o p u l a t i o n as s h o w n in sketch 4, as s o m e A f r i c a n villages n o w d e m o n s t r a t e .

Age Structure versus Numbers Because age structure reflects so precisely w h e r e on the S - c u r v e a p o p u l a tion lies, it provides m u c h m o r e useful i n f o r m a t i o n for m a n a g e m e n t p u r poses than n u m b e r s of individuals generally do. K n o w i n g t h e size of a p o p u l a t i o n s e l d o m helps to d e c i d e w h a t to d o a b o u t it, w h e r e a s t h e age structure o f t e n does. A c c u r a t e counts, especially of wild and m o b i l e p o p u lations, are nearly impossible w i t h c u r r e n t l y available t e c h n i q u e s , w h e r e a s a simple r a n d o m sample will tell a lot a b o u t age structure. Field counts, even of i m m o b i l e plants, f r e q u e n t l y fail to m e e t a c c e p t able scientific standards. In Pakistan, for instance, I h a d n o way to c o u n t those desert bushes. E v e n if I c o u l d have c o u n t e d every one, h o w w o u l d it have h e l p e d in m a n a g e m e n t ? A f t e r sampling several sites, however, I can argue for t h e high d e g r e e of accuracy in t h e age s t r u c t u r e s h o w n by t h e solid line in figure 4 2 - 3 . T h e d o t t e d line represents w h a t a healthy desert bush p o p u l a t i o n in this biological c o m m u n i t y should be, as p e o p l e d o n o t pull o u t seedlings or y o u n g plants. If the Pakistani villagers f o r m e d a holistic goal it w o u l d likely describe a f u t u r e landscape of great diversity and health w i t h m a n y millions of desert bushes. Given such a holistic goal, I believe t h e villagers w o u l d find that the c o r r e c t decision w o u l d b e to c o n t i n u e to harvest desert bushes for h o m e c o o k i n g . Total p r o t e c t i o n of these plants is n o t n e e d e d . T h e p o p u l a tion is n o w h e r e near p o i n t A in figure 4 2 - 1 , w h e r e every plant is terribly i m p o r t a n t to the health of the p o p u l a t i o n . In C h a p t e r 48 I will discuss this case in m o r e detail s h o w i n g w h a t m a n a g e m e n t tools the p e o p l e c o u l d use to save the brush. T h e failure of p e o p l e to n o t i c e and act o n such readily apparent i n f o r m a t i o n extends far b e y o n d the d e v e l o p i n g w o r l d . W h e n I first visited California in 1978 I traveled t h r o u g h miles of oak w o o d l a n d s w i t h o u t seeing a single seedling or y o u n g tree, b u t n o o n e voiced t h e slightest c o n cern. D e e r and cattle p o p u l a t i o n s had p r o d u c e d a b r o w s e line as h i g h as adults c o u l d reach o n nearly every tree so early in the season that f e w fawns could possibly survive after w e a n i n g . H u n t i n g , c o n f i n e d mainly to m a t u r e

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P O P U L A T I O N M A N A G E M E N T : L O O K T O A G E STRUCTURE AND DIVERSITY

F i g u r e 42-3 population.

447

The solid line shows the age structure I found in the desert bush

The dotted line shows what a healthy desert bush population

would look like.

males, was clearly n o t h e l p i n g to r e d u c e pressure o n t h e fawns. As local ranchers killed coyotes o n sight, little besides annual starvation of t h e f a w n crop, accidents, or disease was k e e p i n g t h e deer n u m b e r s in c h e c k . W h e n m a j o r tree p o p u l a t i o n s as well as g a m e s h o w n o significant s u r vival of y o u n g , bad trends already afflict all f o u r ecosystem processes, and of course h u m a n prospects as well, but a n u m e r i c a l c o u n t of d e e r or oak trees does n o t reveal this, w h e r e a s an age s t r u c t u r e sample does. O n rangelands, plant age s t r u c t u r e tells us m u c h m o r e a b o u t the health of the biological c o m m u n i t y than n u m b e r s w i t h i n key species. P h o t o 4 2 - 1 is a close-up v i e w of an i m p o r t a n t piece of range in N e w

P h o t o 42-1

Relic site used by government

agencies as the yardstick against which to

measure similar sites as it reflects the potential

they could reach if "left to nature," that is,

rested. "Desirable" species are present, but if looked at in terms of age structure, the situation

is not healthy. All the desirable plants are either dead or senile and dying.

Even

though millions of seeds have been produced, new plants have been unable to establish for many years. Neu> Mexico.

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M e x i c o . L o n g rested, this relic, or pristine, site was believed to b e at its o p t i m u m d e v e l o p m e n t w h e n the p h o t o was taken and was b e i n g used by g o v e r n m e n t agencies in the state as the standard against w h i c h to measure m a n a g e m e n t o n similar sites as it reflects t h e potential they could reach. It contains t h e key, o r desirable, species all right, but every plant is already dead or senile after sixteen years of total rest. D e s p i t e the fact that millions of seeds w e r e p r o d u c e d in those sixteen years, there is n o t a single y o u n g plant. All f o u r of t h e ecosystem's f u n d a m e n t a l processes are f u n c t i o n i n g at very l o w levels a n d t h e desertification process is well established. W h e n such sites are used as t h e standard f o r m a n a g e m e n t , it renders m o s t g o v e r n m e n t statistics o n success w i t h range m a n a g e m e n t suspect at best.

The Limitations

of Game

Counts

T h e m a n a g e m e n t of g a m e provides m a n y dramatic examples of the limitations of c o u n t i n g , and yet w e persist in d o i n g it. W h e n e v e r a g a m e m a n a g e m e n t p r o g r a m is initiated, p e o p l e usually sink a large part of t h e initial b u d g e t into a census and base f u r t h e r decisions o n that. H o w e v e r , t h e n u m b e r s c o u n t e d in t h e census s e l d o m c o m e close to t h e n u m b e r s actually present. W h e n c o n s t r u c t i o n b e g a n o n o n e of t h e world's first m e g a d a m s , the Kariba D a m o n the Z a m b e z i R i v e r b e t w e e n Z i m b a b w e and Z a m b i a , I was w o r k i n g w i t h t h e G a m e D e p a r t m e n t , w h i c h was responsible for rescuing g a m e f r o m the islands that f o r m e d as t h e lake filled. T h e large n u m b e r of islands and the logistics involved required a high level of p l a n n i n g and g o o d estimates of g a m e n u m b e r s . T h e perfect hindsight possible, as w e t o o k t h e last animals off t h e d w i n d l i n g bits of land, consistently revealed the utter inaccuracy of o u r best t e c h n i q u e s . I recall o n e island w i t h a large, flat, 3 5 - a c r e (14-hectare) t o p that was grassy and easy to m o v e over. It had large trees scattered a b o u t that m a d e g o o d v i e w i n g platforms, and t h e g a m e had browsed off all leaves b e l o w a b o u t six feet, m a k i n g visibility excellent. O u r highly e x p e r i e n c e d crew, a m o u n t i n g to m o r e than a m a n per acre, c o u n t e d 60 k u d u , 150 impala, a n d n u m e r o u s o t h e r animals. B u t t h e r e w e r e in fact 120 k u d u and over 3 0 0 impala w h e n all w e r e finally captured. O u r e x p e r i e n c e was by n o m e a n s exceptional. H o w m a n y p e o p l e rely for m a n a g e m e n t o n the c o u n t i n g d o n e by o n e o r t w o p e o p l e over a f e w days over thousands of acres of heavily vegetated land? T h e m y s t i q u e of aerial c o u n t i n g has also p r o v e n h o l l o w in m y e x p e r i ence. I used to allow tourist planes to fly over m y o w n g a m e reserve regularly w h e n t h e public g a m e reserves and national parks f o r b a d e t h e m . If I was flying myself and h a p p e n e d to spot a herd of e l e p h a n t o r buffalo, I

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449

w o u l d radio t h e t o u r pilots and tell t h e m w h e r e they could find t h e a n i mals for their clients, but o f t e n they could n o t see the animals until I flew close o v e r h e a d and d i p p e d a w i n g . At o t h e r times, they w o u l d see herds and r e p o r t to m e , but I c o u l d n o t find t h e m . F e w animals stand out b e t t e r f r o m the air than elephant and buffalo. W i t h less c o n s p i c u o u s animals t h e situation was hopeless. O n c e I circled f o u r times at very l o w altitude over a herd of sable a n t e l o p e in o p e n w o o d land w h i l e f o u r observers in t h e plane classified t h e m as to sex and age. O n l y after the f o u r t h t u r n did any of us n o t i c e t h e herd c o n t a i n e d m o r e zebra than sable. F o u r times w e had circled w i t h o u t n o t i c i n g a single zebra. T h e m o m e n t o n e was seen, m a n y were seen. S u c h is t h e nature of aerial surveys. Large masses of g a m e can r e n d e r themselves practically invisible. I r e m e m b e r o n e 2 0 , 0 0 0 - a c r e tract in Z i m b a b w e w h e r e I was assisting t h e o w n e r to start g a m e r a n c h i n g . T h e r e w e r e m a n y species, b u t t h e m o s t n u m e r o u s w e r e impala. W e had b e e n using the plane to c o u n t h i p p o because it enabled us t o l o o k d o w n o n t h e m in t h e river pools. T h e reedbeds were t o o thick to even get near t h e m o n t h e g r o u n d . W h i l e airb o r n e , w e decided to fly over t h e rest of t h e ranch so t h e o w n e r c o u l d see his a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 , 0 0 0 impala. W e flew the area at various altitudes searching all the places w e k n e w t h e m to spend t h e day, w i t h o u t seeing a single o n e . T h e o w n e r , in despair, c o n c l u d e d that since they obviously m i g r a t e d on such days to n e i g h b o r i n g land, he c o u l d n o t c o u n t o n a c o m mercial harvest. T h e n , d r i v i n g back f r o m t h e air strip a l o n g t h e river, w e saw h u n d r e d s s t a n d i n g there as usual. Ultimately, I c a m e to mistrust aerial c o u n t i n g m o r e than any o t h e r t e c h n i q u e . W e have learned t h e same lesson w h e n t r y i n g to spot h u m a n s f r o m t h e air. D u r i n g Algeria's war f o r i n d e p e n d e n c e , t h e Algerians m a r c h e d large bodies of m e n over o p e n c o u n t r y r i g h t u n d e r F r e n c h spotter planes. T h e y had only to walk in ragged fashion, rather than in f o r m a t i o n , and n o t l o o k up at the planes. W e have to use spotter pigeons to find p e o p l e lost in boats at sea because h u m a n s c a n n o t see t h e m , even w h e n t h e boats are dayglo o r a n g e and t h e water a calm dark blue. If aerial c o u n t i n g is hopeless, w h a t a b o u t estimates by p e o p l e w h o live a m o n g t h e g a m e a n d " k n o w the place like t h e back of their h a n d . " Surely after m a n y years in t h e field, a r a n c h e r or park ranger k n o w s r o u g h l y h o w m a n y deer, elk, impala, or kangaroos h e has. I o n c e spent a full w e e k s t r i p - c o u n t i n g g a m e o n an A f r i c a n g a m e ranch in the c o m p a n y of t h e o w n e r . In this p r o c e d u r e , o n e covers roads and tracks m o r n i n g and e v e n i n g w i t h several observers r e c o r d i n g t h e distance traveled and the distance f r o m the center of the track to t h e nearest animal sighted in each herd. U s i n g t h e distance traveled a n d the average w i d t h of

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the sample strip o n e assumes a constant density over the w h o l e area a n d c o m p u t e s total p o p u l a t i o n figures, w h i c h , t h o u g h better than m o s t estimates, usually t u r n o u t low. A f t e r s p e n d i n g a w e e k at this, the r a n c h e r declared that in all his years o n t h e place h e h a d never actually seen so m u c h of it. W h e n w e w o r k e d o u t the size of t h e sample, however, w e h a d covered only t w o p e r c e n t of his land. W h a t did either of us really k n o w ? O n m a n y r a n c h inspections, I have r e c o r d e d every c o w a n d deer or impala sighted as w e traveled the r o a d s . T h e r a n c h e r m i g h t tell m e h e had a b o u t 3 0 0 impala, deer, or whatever. O n q u e s t i o n i n g , h e w o u l d agree that they lay u p in cover m o s t of the day a n d hid f r o m t h e s o u n d of vehicles, w h i l e t h e cattle h u n g a r o u n d t h e roads and gates. T h e r a n c h e r w o u l d always be d u m b f o u n d e d w h e n I later p o i n t e d o u t w e had seen over 60 p e r cent of his wild animals, based o n his estimate of their n u m b e r s , and less than 30 p e r c e n t of his cattle. In o r d e r o f i m p o r t a n c e , probably t w e n t y o t h e r questions deserve m o r e a t t e n t i o n than n u m b e r s in t h e m a n a g e m e n t of g a m e . Besides age structure, o t h e r factors such as t h e sex ratio in adults; t h e feed, cover, and water r e q u i r e m e n t s ; h o m e ranges; levels of use of feed plants; the age s t r u c ture of those feed plants; arid so o n , deserve far m o r e a t t e n t i o n than g a m e counts.

Monitoring

a Culling Program

Through Age-Class

Sampling

Years ago an A m e r i c a n wildlifer, A r c h i e M o s s m a n , a n d I assisted the Forestry C o m m i s s i o n in Z i m b a b w e to start g a m e r a n c h i n g in their forests. T h e p r o j e c t called for culling and m a r k e t i n g sable a n t e l o p e and eland, o u r largest antelope. T h e forest was dense a n d large, a n d eland in particular avoid p e o p l e . I personally did t h e first survey and f o u n d t h e m impossible to even sample by sighting t h e m . E v e n t h o u g h their tracks and d u n g i n d i cated a large p o p u l a t i o n , I saw only six after traveling t h e tracks for days and lying in wait countless h o u r s at waterholes. In this case, w e said "let there be X n u m b e r of eland that w e assume f r o m e v i d e n c e to be large e n o u g h to allow culling of 2 0 0 animals." A l t h o u g h w e had seen few f r o m o u r vehicles o r at water holes, professional h u n t e r s had n o trouble tracking a n d s h o o t i n g that n u m b e r . T h e n , of course, w e had a r a n d o m sample, as the animals were shot on sight w i t h o u t regard to age, c o n d i t i o n , o r sex, as l o n g as they appeared adult. T h e age structure of such a sample can be w o r k e d o u t by w e i g h i n g the eye lenses, w h i c h get heavier w i t h age o r by n o t i n g t o o t h w e a r and r e p l a c e m e n t . R a n k i n g the j a w s of all 2 0 0 eland on a scale of 1 to 10 p r o d u c e d the age s t r u c t u r e s h o w n in sketch 1 of Figure 4 2 - 4 . This, plus the

42

POPULATION MANAGEMENT: LOOK

Figure 42-4 2) well-planned

To

AGE

STRUCTURE AND

Age structure of a land population culling

451

DIVERSITY

before (Sketch

1) and after

(Sketch

operations.

signs of b r o w s i n g o n vegetation c o n f i r m e d that the X n u m b e r of eland had arrived at p o i n t C in figure 4 2 - 1 . A f t e r three years of culling at this level, the curve c h a n g e d to that s h o w n in sketch 2 of figure 4 2 - 4 . T h i s indicated that t h e culling had b e g u n to r e d u c e t h e n u m b e r of y o u n g animals d y i n g each year and to increase the n u m b e r b e c o m i n g b r e e d i n g adults. B y steadily w a t c h i n g this age s t r u c ture and s a m p l i n g the density of tracks and t h e response o f vegetation, w e

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gradually refined herd m a n a g e m e n t w i t h o u t ever k n o w i n g h o w m a n y a n i mals w e had. I have dwelt p e r h a p s o v e r l o n g o n this m a t t e r of n u m b e r s because it so obsesses m a n y p e o p l e . M y o w n examples c o m e mostly f r o m g a m e m a n a g e m e n t , because natural cases give the purest illustrations, but t h e same principle applies to all plant and animal p o p u l a t i o n s . O n e vital c o n s i d e r a t i o n w o r t h m e n t i o n i n g is that t h e a m o u n t of h a b i tat available may ultimately d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r any o n e p o p u l a t i o n of species thrives o r declines to e x t i n c t i o n . T h i s finding g r e w o u t of t h e w o r k of island biologists w h o first n o t e d that t h e smaller t h e island and t h e m o r e r e m o t e t h e m a i n l a n d , t h e fewer the species t h e island c o u l d sustain and t h e m o r e extinctions it suffered. S u b s e q u e n t research into t h e "islands of h a b i tat" created by d e v e l o p m e n t s o n mainlands has s h o w n that the same p r i n ciple applies. T h u s , w i t h o u t s o m e alterations m a n y of o u r national parks and reserves may n o t be able to ensure t h e survival of the species they w e r e set aside to save.

Bottlenecks To survive, all creatures must be able to satisfy basic needs for f o o d , cover, and w a t e r throughout the year. If there is even a short p e r i o d w h e n any o n e of these needs c a n n o t be m e t in full f o r h i g h n u m b e r s of a particular species, its p o p u l a t i o n will be limited. W e refer to this p h e n o m e n o n as a b o t t l e n e c k , o r limiting factor. T h e M e x i c a n rancher, m e n t i o n e d in C h a p t e r 12, w h o acquired a large p o p u l a t i o n of toads by c o n s t r u c t i n g ramps in his water troughs, illustrates t h e b o t t l e n e c k principle. By m a k i n g w a t e r accessible to his resident toad p o p u l a t i o n at a t i m e w h e n they m i g h t n o t o b t a i n it any o t h e r way, he e l i m inated a b o t t l e n e c k that had probably b e e n k e e p i n g toad n u m b e r s low. W h e n a t t e m p t i n g to increase t h e n u m b e r s of a certain species y o u should m a k e sure that t h e actions taken first address t h e weakest link in the species' life cycle, as t h e w e a k link test r e m i n d s you. If y o u t h e n find that n u m b e r s still d o n ' t increase, l o o k for a b o t t l e n e c k that c o u l d b e l i m i t i n g the p o p u l a t i o n . W a t e r for crucial short p e r i o d s o f t e n constitutes t h e b o t t l e n e c k for p o p u l a t i o n s that m u s t d r i n k routinely. T h e y may have feed, cover, and water e n o u g h for e n o r m o u s n u m b e r s , b u t if w a t e r lacks for several days at o n e p o i n t in the year, t h e entire p o p u l a t i o n , if n o n m o b i l e , dies. H a v i n g w a t e r present is o f t e n n o t e n o u g h , as it has to actually be available to t h e species. I had m a n y sand grouse in m y g a m e reserve in Z i m b a b w e . T h e y n o t only n e e d e d water, b u t also had to b e able to walk into it each e v e n i n g to t h o r o u g h l y w e t their breast feathers. In this m a n ner, they carried w a t e r miles o u t into t h e dry c o u n t r y for their chicks,

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w h i c h could n o t survive w i t h o u t it. A simple r a m p p r o v i d i n g d r i n k i n g access, t h e n was n o t e n o u g h . I had to ensure t h e birds could walk into w a t e r that was d e e p e n o u g h to w e t their chests, but shallow e n o u g h to p r e vent d r o w n i n g . M a n y a r a n c h e r has told of placing w a t e r p o i n t s o u t o n the land that can be used by birds, small animals, and game, b u t failed to u n d e r s t a n d that steep-sided stock troughs in sites of m a x i m u m d i s t u r b a n c e and n o cover d o n o t serve those species and may even kill t h e m . At l o w w a t e r levels, birds and o t h e r creatures f r e q u e n t l y can clear the sides, b u t d r o w n w h e n they c a n n o t get back o u t . 1 like to ask such ranchers h o w they w o u l d fare if they crossed a h o t desert toward the scent of w a t e r to find a 1 0 , 0 0 0 - g a l lon reservoir six inches o u t of reach. M a n y bottlenecks, however, require m o r e diligent observation than that. I have a f a l c o n e r f r i e n d in Scotland w i t h w h o m I have e n j o y e d s o m e g o o d days of sport o n his g r o u s e m o o r . O n c e , after m a n y h o u r s of t r u d g ing t h r o u g h t h e h e a t h e r b e h i n d t h e pointers, he c o m m e n t e d that t h e grouse p o p u l a t i o n should be h i g h e r given t h e q u a n t i t y of f o o d , cover, and w a t e r — t h e m o s t c o m m o n bottlenecks. A f t e r m u l l i n g t h e evidence, w e hit o n the fact that a m o r e p r o d u c t i v e m o o r nearby had graveled roadsides that m i g h t offer m o r e grit for a bird's crop and digestion of heather. S o o n afterward h e p u t o u t m o u n d s of b r o k e n shells at several sites, but later r e p o r t e d that t h e grouse i g n o r e d t h e m , so h e a b a n d o n e d the idea. C l o s e inspection a f e w years later w h e n I r e t u r n e d , nevertheless s h o w e d that a l t h o u g h t h e piles had n o t visibly d i m i n i s h e d , s o m e creature, p r e s u m ably grouse, had m e t h o d i c a l l y r e m o v e d t h e tiniest bits of shell, leaving only larger, unusable pieces. T h e b o t t l e n e c k principle applies equally to plants. A g o o d e x a m p l e are t h e potentially very p r o d u c t i v e vleis (grassy valleys) in m u c h of s o u t h e r n Africa. M o i s t u r e , soil d e p t h , and all o t h e r c o n d i t i o n s for a highly c o m p l e x biological c o m m u n i t y exist. H o w e v e r , in t h e dry season, t h e l o w - l y i n g vlei can e x p e r i e n c e a frost o r t w o that limits d e v e l o p m e n t to c o m m u n i t i e s d o m i n a t e d by grasses and forbs. B e y o n d the frost fine, the biological c o m m u n i t y can develop to w o o d l a n d . A b s e n c e of a particular trace mineral is a n o t h e r c o m m o n b o t t l e n e c k in plant g r o w t h . I o n c e w o r k e d w i t h a r a n c h e r in Africa in o p e n , grassy c o u n try that, for n o o b v i o u s reason, lacked a g o o d m i x t u r e of w o o d y , d e e p e r r o o t e d plants. O n e day w h i l e surveying the bleak c o u n t r y s i d e f r o m t h e ranch h o u s e veranda, I n o t i c e d that t h e scraggly h e d g e his w i f e had tried t o establish r o u n d t h e h o u s e was noticeably healthier at o n e p o i n t . N e i t h e r t h e r a n c h e r n o r his w i f e c o u l d explain this, so w e d u g u p t h e earth for evid e n c e and discovered the c o p p e r g r o u n d of their l i g h t n i n g rod. As a c o n s e q u e n c e , I r e c o m m e n d e d t h e addition of c o p p e r to t h e s u p p l e m e n t a r y feed given the cattle so they c o u l d b e g i n to spread it on t h e land.

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U n f o r t u n a t e l y , as t h e war heated up in Z i m b a b w e , I was unable to get back to t h e r a n c h and never k n e w the o u t c o m e .

Dealing with Predators That Become a Problem Typical policies toward predators reveal a deeply i n g r a i n e d blindness that an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of c o m m u n i t y dynamics and p o p u l a t i o n m a n a g e m e n t m i g h t e n l i g h t e n . W e n e e d m u c h m o r e research into the role of predators, but w e at last sense h o w t h e relationship b e t w e e n predators and h e r d i n g animals keeps entire c o m m u n i t i e s in brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s vital. W e can only guess at t h e n u m b e r of o t h e r situations w h e r e o u r u n i n f o r m e d d e s t r u c t i o n of predators has cost us dearly. Livestock o w n e r s the world over have t e n d e d to regard all predators as enemies. N o w h e r e has this aversion led to f u r t h e r extremes than the U n i t e d States, w h e r e ranchers and g o v e r n m e n t agencies go to incredible lengths to kill predators w h i l e m a k i n g little g e n u i n e e f f o r t to live w i t h t h e m o r to p r o t e c t livestock by o t h e r simple means. I have w o r k e d w i t h ranchers w h o w e n t o u t of business killing p r e d a tors, w h i l e n o t m a k i n g the slightest effort to p r o t e c t their stock. In o n e case, t h e r a n c h e r had access to at least half a d o z e n w e l l - k n o w n and tested m e t h o d s to eliminate losses to coyotes w i t h o u t killing a single one, yet he kept killing coyotes until h e w e n t broke. T h a t his war o n the coyote did n o t save h i m was n o t surprising. Typically t h e predators that take o n m a n and his livestock are particular individuals that learn to be increasingly c u n n i n g as attempts to kill t h e m fail. Killing coyotes does little g o o d , particularly if y o u fail to get the o n e that is killing y o u r stock. N o m a t t e r h o w m a n y y o u kill that have n o t acquired the habit, the killer remains a n d b e c o m e s ever m o r e clever and will in t i m e e d u c a t e others. If y o u d o u b t that animals d o learn destructive habits f r o m each other, consider h o w quickly a c o w that breaks t h r o u g h fences can pass o n the trick. W i t h m a n - e a t i n g lions, tigers, and leopards, as'well as p r o b l e m hippos, elephants, a n d bears, w e have l o n g k n o w n that o n e must deal w i t h t h e p a r ticular animal, n o t the w h o l e p o p u l a t i o n . W e have recognized the same p r i n c i p l e w h e n o n e of o u r o w n k i n d b e c o m e s a m u r d e r e r . Killing p e o p l e at r a n d o m is n o response. We have to try, n o m a t t e r h o w hard, to catch the murderer. S o m e years ago in Z i m b a b w e , a n a s t y - t e m p e r e d e l e p h a n t had b r o u g h t railroad m a i n t e n a n c e to a virtual halt o n an i m p o r t a n t section of a m u c h used line to the seaports. E a c h night, h e harassed t h e w o r k e r s as they slept and so terrified t h e m that they refused to t u r n o u t the n e x t day. Several bulls w e r e shot in t h e vicinity, b u t each t i m e the section c a m p t u r n e d in in peace, it w o k e in terror. By t h e t i m e I arrived t h e rogue had acquired a d e f -

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inite style. I waited on the edge of t h e c a m p at night, and w h e n an elep h a n t singled m e o u t for attack I k n e w I had t h e culprit. After that, despite m a n y elephants in t h e area, t h e c a m p slept in peace. C h a p t e r 5 m e n t i o n e d a research study in w h i c h only o n e species of p r e d a t o r was r e m o v e d f r o m a c o m m u n i t y . W i t h n o o t h e r disturbance, as w e saw, w i t h i n o n e year t h e n u m b e r of species in t h e c o m m u n i t y had b e e n drastically r e d u c e d . F e w simple studies have so clearly illustrated t h e vital stabilizing role of predators in c o m m u n i t i e s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y in m a n y areas, particularly those n o w set aside as national parks in brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , h u m a n s w e r e for thousands of years a m a j o r predator, k e e p i n g animals healthy a n d wild, b u t today's sightseeing crowds w a n t t a m e animals. M a n y years ago Charles E l t o n , o n e of t h e earliest animal ecologists, as they w e r e t h e n called, described t h e Eltonian pyramid of n u m b e r s . In c o n cept, it resembles t h e e n e r g y p y r a m i d s h o w n in C h a p t e r 15 (figure 15-1). A l t h o u g h w e n o r m a l l y see t h e relationship in t e r m s of the n u m b e r of lower animals it takes to s u p p o r t o n e predator, if p r e d a t i o n plays the c r u cial role w e suspect it does, the p y r a m i d also shows h o w m a n y prey a n i mals d e p e n d o n a single species of predator. H a v i n g b e e n a rancher, I u n d e r s t a n d t h e frustration w h e n a wild h u n t e r turns o n d o m e s t i c stock, b u t it does n o t excuse the wholesale slaughter of predators that w e r e i n n o c e n t and play a vital part in balancing populations, i n c l u d i n g m a n y that are agricultural pests. C e r t a i n l y as I t h i n k back o n the m a n y years that I have w o r k e d w i t h croplands, rangelands, livestock, and g a m e populations, t h e healthiest situations c o n t a i n e d high levels of p r e d a tors. T h e only e x c e p t i o n was w h e r e a p o p u l a t i o n of omnivores, such as b a b o o n s , m o n k e y s , pigs, or h u m a n s , t u r n e d predatory. Because o m n i v o r e s are n o t solely d e p e n d e n t o n p r e d a t i o n for their subsistence, they can kill o u t t h e species they prey o n a n d c o n t i n u e to thrive. To prevent this o u t c o m e , o m n i v o r e p o p u l a t i o n s may have to be r e d u c e d t h r o u g h direct i n t e r vention. Conversely, t h e m o s t u n h e a l t h y situations for t h e land, crops, wildlife, and stock have always had a history of p r e d a t o r p e r s e c u t i o n . I d o n ' t believe this is c o i n c i d e n c e . Clearly, w e have m u c h to learn a n d m a n y attitudes to c h a n g e b e f o r e w e will see intelligent and wise m a n a g e m e n t of p r e d a t o r p o p u l a t i o n s and of o u r ecosystem as a w h o l e .

Conclusion In s u m m a r y , h u m a n i t y d e p e n d s entirely o n living organisms, w h i c h are indivisible c o m p o n e n t s of c o m m u n i t i e s of c o m p l e x i t y b e y o n d o u r c o m p r e h e n s i o n . W e must, however, m a n a g e p o p u l a t i o n s w i t h i n those c o m m u nities. T h e f u n d a m e n t a l i m p o r t a n c e of t h e w h o l e c o m m u n i t y can t o o easily be overlooked w h e n w e focus o n rare, e n d a n g e r e d , or p r e f e r r e d species.

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B u t in reality, the m e m b e r s of any o n e species c a n n o t exist outside their relationship w i t h millions of o t h e r organisms of different species. In the short t e r m , a species m i g h t have to be favored to be saved, b u t in the l o n g r u n truly saving it can only rest o n sustaining the biological c o m m u n i t y in w h i c h it thrives.

Part IX Planning Procedures Unique to Holistic Management

43 Departing from the Conventional

h e next chapters i n t r o d u c e p l a n n i n g t e c h n i q u e s used in three areas w h e r e Holistic M a n a g e m e n t has enabled us to depart substantially f r o m conventional practice: t h e annual p l a n n i n g of any business finances; the layout of facilities and infrastructure o n extensive land areas; and the m a n a g e m e n t of grazing animals. Each c h a p t e r is an o v e r v i e w of a p a r t i c u lar p r o c e d u r e that is addressed fully in separate h a n d b o o k s : Holistic Financial Planning,

Holistic

Land

Planning,

a n d Holistic

Grazing

Planning,

all o f w h i c h

are c u r r e n t l y in preparation.* C h a p t e r 44, H o h s t i c Financial Planning, applies m o s t generally to p e o ple in a variety of situations, a l t h o u g h for reasons of focus it is w r i t t e n for those w h o are r u n n i n g a business of s o m e sort. Unless you are actually m a n a g i n g grazing animals and large tracts of land, such as a f a r m , ranch, national park, o r forest, you may w a n t to skip C h a p t e r s 45 and 46, a l t h o u g h if you have a particular interest i n these subjects, a light reading of these chapters could prove e n l i g h t e n i n g .

Holistic Financial Planning T h e Holistic Financial P l a n n i n g p r o c e d u r e is so closely allied to hohstic decision m a k i n g , that its d e v e l o p m e n t over t h e last thirty or so years has

*Contact the C e n t e r for Holistic M a n a g e m e n t (see page 617) for m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n on these h a n d b o o k s or o n the interim planning and m o n i t o r i n g guides available from the center. 459

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followed a similar c o n v o l u t e d path. C h a p t e r 3 described m y f r u s t r a t i o n as a consultant in w a t c h i n g a n u m b e r of m y r a n c h i n g clients go b a n k r u p t even t h o u g h w e w e r e healing t h e land a n d i m p r o v i n g livestock p r o d u c tion. In the m a i n , this was o c c u r r i n g because of o t h e r ventures these p e o ple had b e e n lured i n t o by attractive g o v e r n m e n t p r o g r a m s and soft loans, particularly those relating to t h e b u i l d i n g of dams to irrigate cash crops. T h e i r financial situation i m p r o v e d rather quickly o n c e w e b r o u g h t in a c o u p l e of consultants w h o w o r k e d w i t h these clients to develop a s o u n d financial plan that w e n t well b e y o n d t h e "cigarette b o x " calculations m o s t of t h e m had o p e r a t e d o n for years. B u t this success was s h o r t lived. I n c o m e increased, b u t w i t h i n n o t i m e at all expenses rose to m a t c h it, a n d by year's e n d they m i g h t be w o r s e off than ever. T h i s was especially the case w h e n they planned expenses based o n t h e i n c o m e they anticipated receiving and that i n c o m e did n o t c o m e in o n time, o r c a m e in short. B u t even m o r e w o r r i s o m e was that t h e p l a n n i n g did n o t a c c o u n t f o r any " e x t e r n a l i t i e s " — t h e social and e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n s e q u e n c e s s t e m m i n g f r o m their plans. Holistic Financial P l a n n i n g g r e w o u t of these challenges. M y clients' t e n d e n c y to let costs rise to t h e anticipated i n c o m e appeared to b e a trait m o s t h u m a n s share, i n c l u d i n g myself. In an a t t e m p t to t h w a r t this t e n d e n cy, w e n o w plan t h e profit b e f o r e p l a n n i n g expenses. T h e n w h e n p l a n n i n g expenses w e give p r i o r i t y to those that will g e n e r a t e the m o s t n e w i n c o m e this year over those that m e r e l y k e e p the business ticking along. W i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e holistic goal and t h e seven testing guidelines in the early 1980s, w e finally h a d a way to a c c o u n t f o r all t h e externalities n o r mally absent f r o m c o n v e n t i o n a l p l a n n i n g approaches. Years of trial a n d e r r o r and m a n y mistakes have finally given us a p l a n n i n g p r o c e d u r e in w h i c h w e have c o n f i d e n c e and that p r o d u c e s lasting results. A l t h o u g h it was originally d e v e l o p e d f o r use by those e n g a g e d in s u n l i g h t - h a r v e s t i n g businesses, particularly f a r m i n g and r a n c h i n g , t h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e d u r e has since b e e n m o d i f i e d for use in o t h e r businesses.

Holistic Grazing Planning and Holistic Land Planning T h e p r o c e d u r e s f o r grazing and land p l a n n i n g w e r e d e v e l o p e d in t a n d e m . O n c e w e u n d e r s t o o d t h e role of t i m e in grazing a n d trampling, w e k n e w that animals w o u l d have to m o v e continually, but to do that required n e w t h i n k i n g in the way fencing, w a t e r points, and h a n d l i n g facilities w e r e laid W h e n w e t o o k o n this challenge in t h e 1960s, w e w e r e pressed by war and i n t e r n a t i o n a l trade sanctions f o l l o w i n g R h o d e s i a ' s unilateral declarat i o n of i n d e p e n d e n c e f r o m Britain. M o s t f a r m e r s had to diversify f r o m w h a t had b e c o m e a traditional crop rotation of o n e year of t o b a c c o and

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five years of grass. To m a k e ends m e e t , the c o n t i n u o u s grass fallows had to yield to o t h e r crops interspersed b e t w e e n t h e years of t o b a c c o and grass. In addition, serious livestock raising e n t e r e d t h e picture for the first time o n m a n y t o b a c c o f a r m s as a way to p r o d u c e extra i n c o m e off the r e m a i n ing range, grass fallows, and crop residues. Prevailing w i s d o m required f e n c i n g off range sites of different types to p r e v e n t overgrazing or o v e r t r a m p l i n g of favored areas. Stock w e r e to feed in certain p a d d o c k s at certain times a c c o r d i n g to a systematic p a t t e r n . H o w e v e r , this never s u c c e e d e d in practice because m o s t of the f a r m s w e r e in b r o k e n , hilly c o u n t r y w h e r e arable land lay in small pockets a m o n g a m a t r i x of roads, tracks, rivers, grassy valleys, and w o o d l a n d remnants. W e had to find a n e w approach that w o u l d h a n d l e such c o m p l e x i t y o n the g r o u n d a m i d e v e r - c h a n g i n g circumstances. A f t e r several years o f trying o u t all sorts o f f e n c i n g designs and p l a n n i n g t e c h n i q u e s , w e finally developed a c o m b i n a t i o n of t h e land p l a n n i n g a p p r o a c h s u m m a r i z e d in C h a p t e r 45 and the grazing p l a n n i n g covered in C h a p t e r 46. T h e t w o go hand in glove w h e r e livestock r u n o n any land. T h e land p l a n n i n g p r o c e d u r e s h o u l d be used w h e n e v e r large tracts of land r e q u i r i n g a considerable i n v e s t m e n t in infrastructure, such as roads, w a t e r d e v e l o p m e n t , or w o r k i n g and storage facilities, are involved. T h e old rules n o l o n g e r apply w h e n p l a n n i n g n e w d e v e l o p m e n t s or w h e n m o d i f y i n g old ones. As you will see, t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s for i m p r o v e m e n t are i m m e n s e and only limited by the creativity of the planners. Smaller tracts of land, such as those s u r r o u n d i n g a homesite, rarely require a l o n g - t e r m land plan as the a m o u n t of infrastructure n e e d e d is m i n i m a l a n d can usually be d e v e l o p e d w i t h i n a few years at relatively low cost. T h e infrastructure required m i g h t i n c l u d e t e c h n o l o g y that enables o n e to recycle h o u s e h o l d wastes o r a cistern for s t o r i n g rainwater collected o n rooftops, small stock pens, or a w e b of f o o t paths. B u t t h e emphasis in such cases is o n p l a n n i n g f o r different vegetation p a t t e r n s — t h e siting of trees, shrubs, vegetable gardens, and so o n , rather than m a j o r physical develo p m e n t s . T h i s sort of p l a n n i n g is s o m e t h i n g that those familiar w i t h the principles of p e r m a c u l t u r e design have addressed very well. For f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n o n p e r m a c u l t u r e design refer to t h e references p e r t a i n i n g to this c h a p t e r at t h e e n d of the b o o k . C u r r e n t l y we, as a center, have n o e x p e r i e n c e in p l a n n i n g any t o w n or city holistically, b u t there w o u l d obviously be benefits to d o i n g so. Towns and cities d e m a n d a great deal of infrastructure, the d e v e l o p m e n t of w h i c h s h o u l d be g u i d e d far m o r e t h a n it is n o w by social needs and, despite t h e artificiality of t h e u r b a n e n v i r o n m e n t , by ecological principles. A n earlier chapter suggested that the least w e m i g h t d o in the latter case is i m p r o v e the w a t e r cycle by e n c o u r a g i n g rainfall to soak in rather than r u n off. In brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , w e should pay particular a t t e n t i o n to t h e w a t e r cycle

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o n t h e c a t c h m e n t s s u r r o u n d i n g urban areas. If these c a t c h m e n t s are n o t m a n a g e d in a way that e n h a n c e s the effectiveness of the w a t e r cycle, the t o w n o r city is ultimately d o o m e d . Holistic Financial P l a n n i n g is tactical in scope.You plan o n c e a year and i m p l e m e n t the plan w i t h i n that year. Holistic G r a z i n g P l a n n i n g is also a tactical exercise, a l t h o u g h the p l a n n i n g is usually d o n e t w i c e a year. In b o t h financial and grazing planning, m o n i t o r i n g w h a t y o u plan is critical and almost certainly will lead to m o d i f i c a t i o n s of t h e plan t h r o u g h o u t t h e year, s o m e t i m e s even daily in the case of t h e grazing plan. Holistic Land P l a n n i n g , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , is strategic in scope a n d only needs to be d o n e o n c e . I m p l e m e n t i n g y o u r plan is an o n g o i n g process that is likely to take m a n y years. T h e biological m o n i t o r i n g process, referred to in C h a p t e r 33 as essential for e n s u r i n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n of the f u t u r e landscape described in y o u r holistic goal, is n o t strictly a p l a n n i n g p r o c e d u r e a n d is n o t covered in this section. It is explained at l e n g t h , however, in the Handbook for EarlyWarning Biological Monitoring (currently in preparation), w h i c h is essential reading for a n y o n e engaged in land m a n a g e m e n t . O t h e r areas of e n d e a v o r that require d e v e l o p i n g a specific p l a n n i n g p r o c e d u r e to facilitate Holistic M a n a g e m e n t have n o t yet c o m e to l i g h t . T h e r e is the likelihood, however, that this could c h a n g e as practitioners in m a n y m o r e fields of e n d e a v o r shift away f r o m p l a n n i n g that focuses o n s h o r t - o r l o n g - t e r m objectives to p l a n n i n g that focuses o n a c h i e v i n g a holistic goal.

44 Holistic Financial Planning: Creating the Financial Roadmap to Your Holistic Goal

olistic Financial P l a n n i n g is the single m o s t i m p o r t a n t activity u n d e r t a k e n each year to ensure that all the m o n e y e a r n e d and spent is in line w i t h y o u r hohstic goal. If prosperity and financial security are i n c l u d e d in y o u r holistic goal, t h e n f e w activities d u r i n g t h e year c o u n t m o r e than this p l a n n i n g . It takes p r e c e d e n c e over vacations, i n t e r r u p t i o n s , o r excuses of any kind. In Holistic Financial P l a n n i n g you plan a c c o r d i n g to attitudes, p r i o r i ties, and considerations n o t n o r m a l l y i n c l u d e d in p r e p a r i n g an annual b u d get. A l t h o u g h t h e c o m p l e t e d physical layout of t h e holistic financial plan, either o n p a p e r o r o n c o m p u t e r spreadsheet, looks like a c o n v e n t i o n a l b u d g e t o r cash flow plan, t h e resemblance ends there. C o n v e n t i o n a l financial p l a n n i n g generally has t h r e e stages. First, c o m e s an estimate of i n c o m e from enterprises d e t e r m i n e d m o s t profitable. T h e n , expenses are b u d g e t e d in c o l u m n s for capital investment, overhead and variable costs, loan repayments, a n d so o n . Y o u try to k e e p costs b e l o w t h e anticipated gross i n c o m e by using past records and i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m experts and o t h e r sources and by adjusting for inflation and cost trends. Finally, y o u calculate t h e cost of b o r r o w e d m o n e y , and o u t c o m e s a b o t t o m line in red o r black. If this is n o t satisfactory, you redo this and that and j u g g l e t h e figures till t h e results are acceptable. As l o n g as all e n d e a v ors appear cost-effective and t h e plan "cash flows" well in that it predicts n o cash shortages t h e b a n k will n o t cover, all should go well. For m a n y years I did such financial p l a n n i n g in great detail w i t h e c o n omists a n d a c c o u n t a n t s and also t a u g h t it to clients. W i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e holistic d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g process, however, I realized h o w far s h o r t

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this a p p r o a c h fell f r o m w h a t was attainable t h r o u g h Holistic M a n a g e m e n t . Holistic Financial P l a n n i n g departs f r o m c o n v e n t i o n a l m e t h o d s in t w o significant ways: (1) it is g u i d e d by a holistic goal and decisions that take you toward it; and (2) it a c c o u n t s f o r h u m a n n a t u r e and requires an attitude b e n t o n success, especially w h e n y o u r holistic goal includes profit. B u t even w h e n it does n o t , as may b e the case in s o m e g o v e r n m e n t agencies and n o n p r o f i t organizations p r o v i d i n g a service, this same positive attitude will result in less waste a n d the provision of b e t t e r services at less cost.

Psychology of the Planning A f t e r years of c o n s u l t i n g in m a n y c o u n t r i e s f o r clients o f great variety in sophistication a n d enterprise, I c a m e to the c o n c l u s i o n that t h e attitudes held by t h e p e o p l e involved in financial p l a n n i n g caused far t o o m a n y of t h e m to actually plan nonprofitability a n d t h e n c o m p l a i n loudly w h e n they achieved it. H o w c o u l d this be? T h o r o u g h research, rigorous c o m p u t a t i o n of costeffectiveness, and sophisticated a c c o u n t i n g t e c h n i q u e s s e e m e d to m a k e little difference. P e o p l e of every description finished t h e year in the same nail-biting suspense over their b o t t o m line. N o m a t t e r w h a t state, country, or currency, n o m a t t e r w h a t size of business, w h a t m a r k e t o r price c o n d i tions, I always f o u n d t h e same picture. P l a n n e d i n c o m e , $ 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 ; e x penses $ 1 9 5 , 0 0 0 . P l a n n e d i n c o m e $ 1 , 3 5 0 , 0 0 0 ; expenses, $ 1 , 3 4 0 , 0 0 0 . Like the u n a n i m o u s elections in totalitarian c o u n t r i e s , this defied logic. Profit m a r g i n s simply c o u l d n o t b e so u n i f o r m a n d p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y small across so m a n y situations. Eventually it d a w n e d o n m e that the p r o b l e m m u s t lie in the o n l y c o m m o n factor, h u m a n nature. Like m o s t people, m y clients w e r e allowing their expenses to rise to m e e t t h e i n c o m e drey anticipated receiving. I suffered f r o m t h e same weakness. P o i n t A in figure 44-1 shows m y c o n d i t i o n on g r a d u a t i n g f r o m u n i v e r sity. T h e l e f t - h a n d bar of t h e g r a p h shows m y i n c o m e f r o m w h i c h I b u y the essentials of life at a cost represented by t h e r i g h t - h a n d bar. T h e m i n u s cule surplus surprises m e as I had t h o u g h t that e a r n i n g real m o n e y after years of s c r o u n g i n g t h r o u g h university w o u l d p u t m e in clover, so I l o o k e d f o r w a r d to g e t t i n g a raise. P o i n t B shows m y situation after g e t t i n g t h e raise. I still d o n ' t have any extra m o n e y a n d w o u l d n ' t even say I a m living better. O n the o t h e r h a n d , I traded m y m o t o r b i k e and s o m e cash for a car so I c o u l d get a r o u n d m o r e comfortably, and I really did n e e d that n e w rifle, that pair of binoculars, and so m a n y o t h e r things. Points C and D represent f u r t h e r raises, b u t each t i m e t h e e x p e c t e d savings a c c o u n t never materializes. M o s t p e o p l e m a n a g e life in this way until

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J Income Expenses

A

Figure 44-1

B

C

D

My personal expenses always rose to match the income I anticipated

receiving.

they have to m a k e d o o n a p e n s i o n . If you l o o k back over t h e years at w h a t you e a r n e d and w h a t you saved, they probably bear little relationship. Far m o r e i m p o r t a n t than savings w e r e the things you b o u g h t because of p e e r pressure, advertising, o r simply because the material culture a r o u n d you m a d e t h e m seem necessary.

The Debt

Trap

Businesses tend to operate in the same way, automatically allowing their expenses to rise toward the anticipated i n c o m e . W h e n the i n c o m e c o m e s only o n c e o r t w i c e a year, however, as it does for those e n g a g e d in seasonal businesses o r p r o d u c i n g agricultural c o m m o d i t i e s , the t e n d e n c y to let expenses rise to anticipated i n c o m e o f t e n leads to trouble because the m o n e y to cover expenses is c o m m o n l y b o r r o w e d . T h e retailer w h o s e business is o p e n only over a t h r e e - m o n t h tourist season, can easily calculate the i n c o m e she expects to receive o n c e the tourists arrive, and t h e n b o r r o w on the strength of that f u t u r e i n c o m e . T h e f a r m e r can d o the same for the crops o r livestock h e will have ready for sale in the fall. In either case, almost always t h e expenses will c o m e close to anticipated i n c o m e . H o w e v e r , in the retailer's case, t h e tourists, for a variety of reasons, may n o t materialize in the n u m b e r s e x p e c t e d . In t h e farmer's case, w h e a t o r lamb prices c o u l d s u d d e n l y tumble. N e i t h e r of t h e m w o u l d b e able to repay w h a t they b o r r o w e d w h e n t h e bill c a m e due. Servicing that d e b t n o w

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b e c o m e s a m a j o r expense, m o s t of w h i c h is interest, and all of w h i c h is u n p r o d u c t i v e in that it will n o t generate any additional i n c o m e .

Plan Profit

Before

You Plan

Expenses

C r u d e l y expressed, profit is t h e difference b e t w e e n t h e m o n e y received for p r o d u c t s o r services sold and the m o n e y spent o n p r o d u c i n g those p r o d ucts or services. N o m a t t e r h o w you l o o k at it, every aspect o n either side of this simple e q u a t i o n lies w i t h i n the c o n t r o l ot t h e p e o p l e r u n n i n g the business. P r o d u c t i o n costs are certainly w i t h i n y o u r control, and because controlling t h e m is so vital to profitability, w e will r e t u r n to this subject a g a i n . T h e price you receive for y o u r p r o d u c t s is also w i t h i n y o u r control. E v e n w h e n y o u r p r o d u c t s are sold as raw g o o d s (calves, w h e a t , c o p p e r ore) and their price is set by the c o m m o d i t i e s m a r k e t , you can elect to add value to the r a w goods or in s o m e cases p r o d u c e s o m e t h i n g else entirely. If you have m a d e u p y o u r m i n d that you are powerless to plan a profit, a n d t h e r e fore n o t responsible f o r the o u t c o m e of y o u r planning, you c a n n o t e x p e c t a n y t h i n g b u t t h e m o s t m e d i o c r e results. To c o u n t e r t h e t e n d e n c y to let t h e costs of p r o d u c t i o n rise to t h e a n t i c ipated i n c o m e level, in Holistic Financial P l a n n i n g you plan t h e profit before allocating any m o n e y to expenses. O n c e you have figures for t h e total i n c o m e y o u e x p e c t to receive, cut that figure by up to o n e half and set that

Planned Income Planned Profit •

50%

Money Allocated for all Expenses

Figure 44-2

Plan the profit before you allocate any money to expenses. Once you

have calculated the total income you expect to receive, cut that figure by up to half and set that amount aside as your profit.

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a m o u n t aside as y o u r profit. You have n o w set a limit o n the a m o u n t of m o n e y available for expenses a n d to w h i c h costs can rise. T h e principle is illustrated simply in figure 4 4 - 2 . If y o u are p l a n n i n g for a g o v e r n m e n t a g e n c y o r n o n p r o f i t o r g a n i z a t i o n y o u use t h e same principle and plan a "profit." H o w e v e r , this profit, w h i c h by law (usually) must be used w i t h i n the organization to m e e t the p u r p o s e f o r w h i c h it was f o r m e d , can n o w be used to e n h a n c e t h e services p r o v i d ed, as will b e c o m e clear later. T h e profit p l a n n e d needs to b e substantial so that severe restraints are placed o n the f u n d s left for r u n n i n g the business. If t h e a m o u n t of profit set aside is t o o great, however, p e o p l e will b e d e m o r a l i z e d as there is so little left to r u n t h e business. If t h e profit p l a n n e d is t o o low, plenty of m o n e y is left a n d there is little challenge in k e e p i n g costs of p r o d u c t i o n d o w n . T h i s m e n t a l exercise is vital, yet m o s t p e o p l e at first blush consider it impossible to do. Nevertheless, collective creativity a n d c o n c e n t r a t e d effort can p r o d u c e a m a z i n g results w h e n you plan y o u r profit first.

The Planning Process T h e Holistic Financial P l a n n i n g p r o c e d u r e includes t w o phases. T h e p r e l i m i n a r y phase is devoted to i n f o r m a t i o n - g a t h e r i n g a n d decision testing. It takes place in several sessions held periodically over several m o n t h s . In t h e s e c o n d phase, w h i c h generally requires a day o r t w o (or m o r e in a large or fairly c o m p l e x business), y o u create the actual p l a n — s e t aside t h e profit, finalize i n c o m e a n d expense figures, a n d m a k e any a d j u s t m e n t s n e e d e d to ensure an even cash flow over t h e year. It is i m p o r t a n t that y o u schedule this final session well in advance and that y o u find a quiet, w e l l - o r d e r e d w o r k s p a c e in w h i c h to h o l d it. As y o u r m e n t a l state governs t h e quality of y o u r p l a n n i n g , y o u should pick t h e t i m e a n d place carefully. You c a n n o t afford to have this session d i s r u p t e d by key p e o p l e w h o leave to attend to p h o n e calls or to o t h e r chores. If there are daily tasks that are essential to the business, spread t h e p l a n n i n g session over several u n i n t e r r u p t e d half days. S o m e people, particularly those e n g a g e d in a family business that is r u n o u t of the h o m e , find it easiest to s c h e d u l e their p l a n n i n g session at a h o t e l o r retreat c e n t e r away from h o m e . Start the p r e l i m i n a r y phase well b e f o r e the e n d of y o u r financial year, a n y w h e r e f r o m three to six o r m o r e m o n t h s p r i o r to y o u r final p l a n n i n g session. It will take this a m o u n t of t i m e to gather t h e i n f o r m a t i o n y o u n e e d , discuss it, test it, and to arrive at a n u m b e r of decisions. B e assured that t h e sessions involved in this phase n e e d n o t b e l o n g and that t h e i n f o r m a t i o n g a t h e r i n g is generally divided a m o n g various teams of p e o p l e . Decisions will b e m a d e at each p r e l i m i n a r y session that will p r o m p t f u r t h e r research, t h e results of w h i c h will i n f l u e n c e the o u t c o m e of t h e fol-

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l o w i n g session. W e will l o o k at t h e c o n t e n t of each of these p r e l i m i n a r y sessions in m o r e detail shortly. First, however, w e n e e d to consider who does the p l a n n i n g .

Determine

Who Should Be Involved

and to What

Extent

Far t o o m a n y businesses t u r n their financial p l a n n i n g over to the firm's i n h o u s e a c c o u n t a n t or a c c o u n t i n g d e p a r t m e n t because these individuals deal w i t h figures all t h e t i m e and have a record o f previous business transactions they can consult. T h e skills a n d k n o w l e d g e required of an a c c o u n t a n t , however, are n o t t h e same as those n e e d e d for Holistic Financial P l a n n i n g . T h e r e will be times w h e n it is a p p r o p r i a t e to utilize their expertise, but a c c o u n t a n t s should never lead t h e p l a n n i n g process. T h a t role should go instead to a p e r s o n w i t h a g o o d grasp of the business a n d skills in facilitation and c o o r d i n a t i o n . In larger organizations, it will be necessary to divide responsibilities a m o n g teams. Generally each e n t e r p r i s e (a specific p r o d u c t o r service, or line of products or services, f r o m w h i c h you derive i n c o m e ) will have a team of p e o p l e associated w i t h it. T h o s e p e o p l e will be responsible f o r m u c h of t h e i n f o r m a t i o n g a t h e r i n g required in the preliminary phase, as well as f o r testing a n u m b e r of decisions related to their enterprise. Expenses that are n o t linked directly to o n e enterprise, b u t affect t h e business as a w h o l e , also n e e d to b e assigned to o n e or m o r e p e o p l e or teams w h o will assume t h e same responsibility. In smaller organizations, each t e a m m e m b e r also serves o n the m a i n p l a n n i n g team, w h i c h is ultimately responsible for p r o d u c i n g the plan. In larger organizations, the m a i n p l a n n i n g t e a m includes representatives f r o m each of the m a n a g e m e n t teams. T h e p e o p l e responsible for e a r n i n g and s p e n d i n g the m o n e y , that is, those creating the products, dealing w i t h t h e clients, p u r c h a s i n g supplies and c o n s u m i n g t h e m , n e e d to c o m e u p w i t h t h e figures that are directly u n d e r their control. If s o m e o n e else does this for t h e m , t h e figures are likely to be inaccurate. M o r e i m p o r t a n t , the p e o p l e w h o e a r n and s p e n d the m o n e y and c o n s u m e t h e supplies have n o o w n e r s h i p in t h e figures s o m e o n e else plans, and thus n o incentive to m a k e sure that o n c e t h e plan is i m p l e m e n t e d t h e figures stay o n target. W h e n you d o n o t involve everyo n e to at least this extent, the results you obtain will be far f r o m ideal. P e o p l e will be at all different levels of u n d e r s t a n d i n g and sophistication, and you will have to m a k e j u d g m e n t s and decisions o n h o w m u c h each individual can handle, but err o n the side of giving p e o p l e responsibility rather than n o t d o i n g so o u t of fear. You also n e e d to r e m e m b e r that e v e r y o n e in the business or organization is w o r k i n g toward the same holistic goal and needs to feel assured that the plan as a w h o l e is taking t h e m toward i t . T h e m a i n p l a n n i n g t e a m needs

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to be limited in size, simply because w i t h m o r e than a d o z e n o r so p e o p l e d o i n g the actual p l a n n i n g on spreadsheets, the process will b o g d o w n . In most small businesses this is n o t an issue because nearly e v e r y o n e is i n c l u d ed in t h e m a i n p l a n n i n g team. In larger businesses it b e c o m e s an issue only w h e n c o m m u n i c a t i o n is p o o r o r access to i n f o r m a t i o n is d e n i e d . E v e r y o n e involved in the business needs to have a h a n d in d e v e l o p i n g t h e figures for w h i c h their t e a m is directly responsible, b u t m u s t also u n d e r s t a n d t h e figures d e v e l o p e d , i n c l u d i n g t h e decision testing that led to t h e m , for t h e business as a w h o l e . O t h e r w i s e they m a y n o t see h o w their w o r k relates to t h e w o r k of the w h o l e and t h e a c h i e v e m e n t of the holistic goal.

Preliminary Planning Sessions E a c h of t h e p l a n n i n g sessions in the p r e l i m i n a r y phase requires s o m e p r e p a r a t i o n if it is to b e p r o d u c t i v e and brief. In large businesses, only the m a i n p l a n n i n g t e a m needs to be present at these sessions, but each of its m e m b e r s must b e able to reflect accurately t h e views of t h e m a n a g e m e n t teams they represent. In s o m e cases, t h e preparation involved is m e r e l y to ask each individual to reflect o n t h e c o n t e n t so that discussions are m o r e m e a n i n g f u l . In o t h e r cases, facts and figures have to be researched in advance, or t h e session will be fruitless. T h e p r e l i m i n a r y sessions o u t l i n e d are those w e as a c e n t e r have f o u n d necessary. O t h e r businesses and o r g a nizations may find that c o m b i n i n g sessions o r r e a r r a n g i n g t h e c o n t e n t serves t h e m better.Treat the f o l l o w i n g as a g u i d e that you can adapt to y o u r o w n situation.

First Session: Annual

Review

A n annual review is an essential first step in Holistic Financial P l a n n i n g . It is a t i m e for you to reflect o n w h e r e you have b e e n and w h a t m i g h t b e standing in the way of w h e r e you w a n t to go. T h e r e are three basic q u e s 1 tions to answer in t h e annual review, each of w h i c h is likely to i n f l u e n c e y o u r financial plan for the c o m i n g year: Is There a Logjam? E a c h year, it is essentia] that you mentally scan t h r o u g h y o u r w h o l e o p e r a t i o n to see if a logjam exists that is p r e v e n t i n g you f r o m m a k i n g g e n u i n e progress toward y o u r holistic goal. If y o u have b e e n m a n a g i n g holistically for a c o u p l e of years and y o u have yet t o see a dramatic t u r n a r o u n d i n y o u r situation, you n e e d to find the blockage and identify its cause. As C h a p t e r 4 8 will explain, the first place to look is w i t h in y o u r o w n organization, particularly at t h e d e g r e e of c o m m i t m e n t p e o ple have to the holistic goal. C o m m i t m e n t m a y be lacking because of any n u m b e r of reasons: t h e holistic goal may n e e d to be m o r e clearly defined, k n o w l e d g e or skills m a y b e lacking, c o m m u n i c a t i o n m a y b e p o o r , and so

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o n . M a r k e t factors are s e l d o m responsible f o r i m p e d i n g rapid progress toward y o u r holistic goal. Insufficient capital occasionally is.You will find t h e answer m o r e quickly if e v e r y o n e takes t i m e to reflect p r i o r to t h e session. If a l o g j a m is f o u n d and it takes m o n e y to help to r e m o v e it, t h e n that e x p e n d i t u r e will have p r i o r i t y w h e n you b e g i n to allocate m o n e y to c o v e r i n g e x p e n s e s . T h e reason for this is obvious. If that o n e e x p e n d i t u r e helps to r e m o v e t h e blockage, the w h o l e business can m o v e f o r w a r d . Are

There Any

Other

Factors Adversely

Affecting

the Business

As

a

Whole?

T h e r e m a y b e administrative s h o r t c o m i n g s that a l t h o u g h n o t directly c o n n e c t e d to a specific enterprise c o u l d adversely affect all enterprises if n o t rectified.Your a c c o u n t a n t m i g h t n e e d an assistant, for instance, because the v o l u m e of w o r k has increased to such an e x t e n t that she can n o l o n g e r s u p p o r t each e n t e r p r i s e adequately.You may require a n e w c o p y m a c h i n e in t h e c o m i n g year because the o n e y o u c u r r e n t l y have is constantly in n e e d of repair a n d t h e f r e q u e n t b r e a k d o w n s waste everyone's t i m e and cause u n n e e d e d stress. O r you m a y be r u n n i n g a business o u t of y o u r h o m e and n o w find y o u n e e d to build an office or rent space nearby, because y o u r ability to w o r k is seriously impaired by c o n s t a n t i n t e r r u p t i o n s f r o m family and friends and by t h e lack of a place w h e r e you can keep all business-related items w i t h i n easy reach. In each of these cases the expenses i n v o l v e d — t o hire an assistant, to b u y or lease a n e w copier, or to build o r rent office s p a c e — w o u l d rank h i g h o n y o u r list of priorities as l o n g as you are sure they are g e n u i n e l y n e e d ed. In relieving e v e r y o n e of a fair a m o u n t of stress, they w o u l d help to increase p r o d u c t i v i t y in each e n t e r p r i s e and thus b e n e f i t t h e business as a w h o l e . D o n ' t w o r r y t o o m u c h at this stage a b o u t the n u m b e r of items n e e d i n g a t t e n t i o n . Later sessions will help you to sort o u t t h e ones that will b e n e f i t y o u m o s t in the c o m i n g year. Are

the Gross Profits

on Current

Enterprises

As

Good As Planned?

Although

you are n o t at t h e e n d of y o u r c u r r e n t financial year, y o u will k n o w h o w each enterprise is f a r i n g because y o u are m o n i t o r i n g figures m o n t h l y . Will the gross profits p l a n n e d be achieved this year? Are t h e gross profits likely to r e m a i n the same, increase, o r decrease n e x t year? If the p l a n n e d gross profits are n o t likely to be achieved by t h e e n d of t h e c u r r e n t year, you n e e d to k n o w why. Unless y o u are dealing w i t h a n e w e n t e r p r i s e that involves a l e a r n i n g curve, w h i c h can easily t h r o w y o u r calculations off, you may n e e d to e n h a n c e or m o d i f y the p r o d u c t o r service involved, or p e r haps d r o p the e n t e r p r i s e altogether. T h e latter consideration will be addressed m o r e t h o r o u g h l y in later sessions. If y o u r answers to any o n e of these questions require f u r t h e r research b e f o r e y o u can i n c o r p o r a t e t h e expenses involved i n t o y o u r financial plan, m a k e sure that individuals are assigned to d o that w o r k in p r e p a r a t i o n for the f o l l o w i n g sessions.

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Session:

Brainstorming

New Sources

of

471

Income

N o m a t t e r w h a t enterprises you are e n g a g e d in, you n e e d to challenge t h e m as y o u start to m a n a g e holistically and periodically thereafter. All t o o o f t e n businesses add o r drop enterprises only w h e n faced w i t h hardship o r crisis. W h y wait until circumstances force a change? You are generally b e t ter off and m o r e secure if you take a proactive attitude. M a n y businesses today v i e w g r o w t h solely in t e r m s of sales v o l u m e , b u t in the f u t u r e may well seek to g r o w in t e r m s o f q u a l i t y — i n their p r o d u c t s a n d in t h e lives of those p r o d u c i n g and c o n s u m i n g t h e p r o d u c t s . T h e idea that enables you to m o v e in this d i r e c t i o n c o u l d well e m e r g e f r o m b r a i n s t o r m i n g . Periodically b r a i n s t o r m i n g n e w ideas will help to keep y o u ahead of the game. B u t d o n ' t overdo it. Few businesses survive by c h o p p i n g a n d c h a n g ing enterprises every year. A n y n e w e n t e r p r i s e always involves a l e a r n i n g c u r v e and will take a year o r m o r e to prove o u t . B r a i n s t o r m i n g sessions held every three to five years are usually sufficient. T h e f o r m a l b r a i n s t o r m i n g process w e use is described in detail in t h e Holistic Financial Planning Handbook. Briefly, it should involve e v e r y o n e w h o w o r k s w i t h y o u , as well as s o m e outsiders w h o do n o t k n o w y o u r business well a n d thus are n o t already c o n v i n c e d of w h a t can't b e d o n e . It pays to even i n c l u d e children, w h e n appropriate, because their creativity and i m a g i n a t i o n are boundless. W i t h i n a very s h o r t t i m e the g r o u p you have g a t h e r e d s h o u l d b e able to b r a i n s t o r m a list of o n e h u n d e d or m o r e possibilities for n e w enterprises, or m o d i f i c a t i o n s to old ones, r a n g i n g f r o m the patently ridiculous to t h e e m i n e n t l y practical. T h i s b r a i n s t o r m i n g session can be held any t i m e p r i o r to the actual p l a n n i n g session, b u t the earlier the b e t t e r because it will take t i m e to n a r r o w d o w n t h e list, to estimate t h e i n c o m e and expenses for enterprises that m a k e t h e final cut, a n d to r u n these enterprises t h r o u g h the testing guidelines. B e f o r e e n g a g i n g in n e w enterprises c o n s i d e r t h e following: •

It takes time to develop skills and perfection in any enterprise. T h e r e is always a learning curve, w h i c h can be costly. As you change to the new, plan a solid overlap with the old w h e r e possible.

•

Your managerial effectiveness is diluted by the n u m b e r of enterprises for which you are responsible.This is especially applicable to small businesses with few staff. In taking on n e w enterprises, the staff are often stretched too thin, which tends to destabilize all enterprises and the business as a whole. This problem can be overcome if the m a n agement of the n e w enterprise is contracted out to s o m e o n e else.

•

T h e r e is a direct relationship between m a n a g e m e n t effectiveness and the proximity to what is being managed.This is the reasoning behind

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the old cliche that the finest fertilizer in the world is a farmer's f o o t steps or behind the m o r e current n o t i o n of " m a n a g i n g by walking around." Obviously, the more frequent the contact with the enterprise, the greater your chances of spotting trouble early, and the more opportunities you have for finding ways to improve the enterprise. I experienced a similar p h e n o m e n o n as a schoolboy. At my school we had four boarding houses and we competed as houses in all sports. T h e tennis courts for the house I resided in were only five paces from the back door. T h e boys in the other three houses had to walk several hundred yards to get to their courts. Even t h o u g h we were allocated to our houses at random, my house w o n the tennis cup twenty-six years in a row. I believe our winnings were directly related to our distance from the tennis courts. We played or watched tennis constantly, even while waiting to go for our meals. O u r rivals spent far less time playing or watching tennis because, for them, it took some forethought and effort. •

It is often easier to alter an existing product, or develop n e w uses for it, than to create something entirely new. Bear this in mind as you brainstorm n e w sources of income. T h e r e may well be a variety of uses your current products could be put to that you are not p r o m o t ing. T h e first artificial kidney (dialysis machine) was created from a slightly modified Maytag washing machine. Countless other inventions have been developed by finding n e w uses for old products.

SELECTING THE APPROPRIATE ENTERPRISES

B e a r i n g these points in m i n d , you n o w n e e d to n a r r o w d o w n the list of possibilities you have b r a i n s t o r m e d to find the ones that suit you best. A d d y o u r present enterprises to the list to see h o w they c o m p a r e to the n e w possibilities. W e use t h e f o l l o w i n g process to w e e d o u t i n a p p r o p r i a t e enterprises. •

In the first cut, drop any ideas that conflict with h o w you have said you want your lives in this particular whole to be (society and culture test). T h e r e are likely to be many, if the brainstorming was free flowing, f u n , and irreverent.

•

In the second cut, drop the ideas that are patently ridiculous, such as raising purple mice or engaging in the flea circus business. But be care/ u / . T h e best ideas are initially often ridiculed by people w h o are the most knowledgeable. T h e first person to propose the post office use small pieces of g u m m e d paper with a financial value printed on the reverse—the postage stamp—was ridiculed by the Post Master General of Britain. T h e first copy machine, which few offices are

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withoLit today, was rejected by every m a n u f a c t u r e r it was originally presented t o . T h e w o r l d is riddled w i t h such examples. So look twice at ridiculous ideas. Even t h o u g h y o u may reject t h e m o u t r i g h t , they could spark ideas that are n o t so ridiculous. •

T h e third cut involves the rather i n f o r m a l use of the gross profit analysis test, as you will n o t have actual figures to use. L o o k at the r e m a i n i n g possibilities and, t h i n k i n g broadly, ask w h a t each m i g h t b r i n g in as i n c o m e over and above w h a t it m i g h t cost to engage in that enterprise.You w a n t to keep for later consideration those e n t e r prises that b r i n g in the most i n c o m e for the least cost. T h e s e will result in the most gross profit, w h i c h , after c o v e r i n g all costs, will finally lead to a greater n e t profit. S o m e enterprises may b r i n g in a lot of i n c o m e but will n o t necessarily lead to a large gross profit, because the costs associated with r u n n i n g t h e m w o u l d b e so high. In this step y o u are purely trying to single out for m o r e detailed w o r k those enterprises that clearly offer far m o r e r e t u r n than others. You are not l o o k i n g for m i n o r differences, but m a j o r ones.

•

In the f o u r t h cut, use the rest of the testing guidelines to help you to assess w h e t h e r the likely actions and inputs involved in each possible enterprise will m o v e you closer to y o u r holistic goal. W o u l d the enterprise use significant energy? W h e r e f r o m and w h a t type? W h e r e w o u l d the m o n e y c o m e from? W o u l d it use substances in its m a n u facture that do n o t break d o w n ? W o u l d it result in products ultimately d a m a g i n g to the e n v i r o n m e n t , or c o u l d all c o m p o n e n t s be r e t u r n e d for reuse? W o u l d there be social c o n s e q u e n c e s n o t in line w i t h y o u r holistic goal? If any of the tools o r actions used in the enterprise w o u l d obviously n o t take you toward y o u r holistic goal, but lead y o u away f r o m it, eliminate the enterprise for now.

•

B y the t i m e you have reached the fifth cut, y o u are likely to have only three o r f o u r of y o u r original h u n d r e d ideas left, plus, in all likelih o o d , y o u r c u r r e n t enterprises. N o w y o u are ready to d o a detailed gross profit analysis w i t h actual figures, c o m p a r i n g each enterprise to the others to see w h i c h ones are m o s t profitable. You c a n n o t d o this in the c u r r e n t session as it will take time to gather the i n f o r m a t i o n n e e d e d , w h i c h includes reasonably accurate i n c o m e and expense figures. Assign those responsible for each enterprise to get that i n f o r m a tion and b r i n g it to t h e n e x t session.

Second Session: Determine in This Year

the Enterprises

You Will

Engage

T h e m a i n task o f this session is to p e r f o r m a detailed gross profit analysis

of

all t h e e n t e r p r i s e s y o u m i g h t e n g a g e in over t h e c o m i n g y e a r . T h e s e e n t e r -

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prises will i n c l u d e t h e ones you are c u r r e n t l y e n g a g e d in and any n e w enterprises you may have b r a i n s t o r m e d o r that y o u r m a r k e t research shows have promise. In the case o f t h e latter, m a k e sure that any actions associated w i t h these enterprises pass t h e testing, m u c h as you did f o r enterprises you b r a i n s t o r m e d . R e m e m b e r that in d e t e r m i n i n g the gross profit o n each possible e n t e r prise (the i n c o m e it generates m i n u s the expenses directly linked to it) you are m e r e l y f i g u r i n g w h a t each is likely to c o n t r i b u t e to c o v e r i n g t h e overheads o f t h e business each year. If you are c o n s i d e r i n g a n e w e n t e r p r i s e that involves t h e e x p e n d i t u r e o f substantial capital y o u d o n ' t n o w have, you first n e e d to k n o w that its gross profit is satisfactory and h o w it c o m p a r e s to t h e o t h e r enterprises b e i n g analyzed. If it still looks promising, t h e n f o l l o w i n g this session you will n e e d to d e t e r m i n e h o w that capital will be raised and the t e r m s and c o n d i t i o n s f o r r e p a y m e n t . T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n will be n e e d e d in p l a n n i n g the cash flow d u r i n g t h e s e c o n d phase of p l a n n i n g . If y o u are n o t c o n s i d e r i n g a d d i n g any n e w enterprises, this session is likely to be brief, but it is still essential because the gross profits o n c u r r e n t enterprises are likely to c h a n g e as a result of p r i c e increases o r decreases, p r o d u c t m o d i f i c a t i o n s you m a k e as part of y o u r m a r k e t i n g strategy, a n d so on. All of these factors and m o r e will have to b e considered p r i o r to this session so you can b e reasonably sure that y o u r i n c o m e a n d e x p e n s e figures f o r c u r r e n t enterprises are a c c u r a t e . T h e s e same figures will b e used in d e t e r m i n i n g total i n c o m e a n d expenses in the s e c o n d phase of p l a n n i n g . If you are c o n s i d e r i n g additional enterprises, t h e gross profit analysis will give y o u a v e r y g o o d idea of w h i c h ones should be a d d e d in t h e c o m ing year. If y o u r original p r o d u c t lines or services were s o u n d , you will likely c o n t i n u e w i t h t h e m . B u t if o n e of t h e n e w enterprises offers far m o r e promise, you should d e v o t e the r e m a i n d e r of this session to discussing h o w to a c c o m p l i s h the c h a n g e o v e r f r o m the old to the n e w w i t h o u t loss or d i s r u p t i o n .

Third Session: Determine and How to Address It

the Weak Link in Each

Enterprise

In p r e p a r a t i o n for this session, t h e teams responsible f o r each existing e n t e r p r i s e n e e d to c o n s i d e r w h i c h link in the enterprise's chain of p r o d u c t i o n is w e a k e s t — a n d there will always be o n e . As C h a p t e r 27 explained, the chain of p r o d u c t i o n has t h r e e links (resource conversion, p r o d u c t conversion, a n d m a r k e t i n g ) , the first of w h i c h varies d e p e n d i n g o n t h e type of enterprise. W h e n you allocate m o n e y to cover expenses, actions taken to address t h e w e a k link will have p r i o r i t y because they g e n e r a t e additional m o n e y over and above w h a t you are c u r r e n t l y able to generate. O n c e each t e a m has d e t e r m i n e d t h e c u r r e n t w e a k link in their p a r t i c -

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ular enterprise, they n e e d to consider t h e actions that will address it, s o m e of w h i c h may have already b e e n considered in g a t h e r i n g figures for the gross profit analysis. A n i n - d e p t h discussion a m o n g t e a m m e m b e r s may t u r n u p o t h e r possibilities, each of w h i c h should b e r u n t h r o u g h the foll o w i n g tests, any of w h i c h c o u l d apply: cause and effect, w e a k link (social or biological), e n e r g y / m o n e y — s o u r c e and use, sustainability, and society a n d culture. E a c h t e a m n o w reports o n t h e results of their w o r k o n each e n t e r p r i s e to t h e m a i n p l a n n i n g t e a m , t h e reason f o r this third s e s s i o n . T h e m a i n p l a n n i n g t e a m needs to b e aware of t h e weak link in each enterprise, h o w each m a n a g e m e n t t e a m plans to address it, a n d h o w t h e t e a m arrived at these decisions. A l t h o u g h this is largely an i n f o r m a t i o n - s h a r i n g session, it can also lead to changes in s o m e decisions, as p e o p l e n o t directly e n g a g e d in a specific e n t e r p r i s e o f t e n c o n t r i b u t e insights gained f r o m their perspective as outsiders. S o m e actions m a y n e e d to be tested again w i t h t h e participation of t h e w h o l e group, w h i c h c o u l d lead to s o m e m o d i f i c a t i o n s . O n l y rarely, however, w o u l d t h e m a i n p l a n n i n g t e a m d e t e r m i n e that a n o t h e r link was weakest because they s e l d o m k n o w t h e e n t e r p r i s e as well as those directly responsible for and w o r k i n g w i t h it daily.

Fourth Session: Make a Preliminary

Allocation

of

Expenses

W h e n you c o n d u c t e d y o u r annual review, and later w h e n y o u d e t e r m i n e d the w e a k link in each enterprise, you were b e g i n n i n g to d e t e r m i n e t h e expenses that w o u l d have p r i o r i t y as y o u allocated funds. M a n y o t h e r expenses of c o u r s e will have to be considered, a n d this b e c o m e s easier if y o u l u m p t h e m i n t o categories: •

Wealth-generating expenses are those that will increase your i n c o m e over and above what you are currently earning. In the case of a gove r n m e n t or nonprofit organization these expenses would be those that would enhance the services provided. Wealth-generating expenses include, but are not limited to, any expenditures that would address the weak link in each individual enterprise, clear a logjam, or rectify administrative shortcomings adversely affecting all enterprises. Occasionally, what starts out as the weakest link in a particular enterprise might be addressed quickly and with minimal expense early in the year, and another link could then take over as the weakest. Go ahead and also include the expenses that would address the u p c o m ing weak link in the wealth-generating category. You will later test the various wealth-generating, or service-enhancing, expenses against each other, and some could be dropped in favor of those that g e n erate the most new i n c o m e or provide the greatest e n h a n c e m e n t of services.

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•

Inescapable expenses are those that are absolutely inescapable: they cannot be adjusted, delayed, or changed in any way, and you are morally obligated to pay them. Very few expenses are assigned to this category and many businesses will have none. An example might include payments on a contract you have with your parents or a partner to buy t h e m out of the business on fixed terms, or a land tax that cannot be delayed or negotiated. If you have any doubt w h e t h e r an expense falls in this category, assign it to the next one, maintenance expenses.The inescapable category is a m i n o r one. It merely gives you a place to park expenses you are morally obligated to pay in the c o m i n g year, so you can concentrate on the remaining expenses, w h i c h you will have to think a great deal about.

•

Maintenance expenses, are those that are essential to r u n n i n g the business and maintaining present i n c o m e levels, but will not in themselves generate additional i n c o m e by strengthening the weak link in any of your enterprises, clearing a logjam, and so on. Most expenses fall into this category: the r u n n i n g costs associated with any enterprise, salaries (with the exception of n e w staff that will generate additional i n c o m e in the c o m i n g year), taxes, professional services, machinery maintenance, fuel, travel, parts and supplies, utilities, telephone, postage, insurance, and so on. An expense we often suggest be included in this category as well is a depreciation fund to w h i c h you contribute annually so that w h e n an asset has lived out its lifespan you have the m o n e y to replace it w i t h o u t having to borrow.

Placing an e x p e n s e in t h e m a i n t e n a n c e category does n o t imply that it is u n i m p o r t a n t . It only m e a n s that a l t h o u g h it is vital to m a i n t a i n i n g p r e sent i n c o m e levels it will n o t g e n e r a t e additional income in the c o i n i n g year. If m a r k e t i n g is y o u r w e a k link and you have identified a n u m b e r o f wealthgenerating expenses to address it, you still have to cover t h e r o u t i n e m a i n t e n a n c e expenses associated w i t h y o u r m a r k e t i n g plan or risk a d r o p in income. In p r e p a r i n g for this session, y o u will n e e d to obtain fairly accurate figures for all t h e expenses considered to d a t e — t h o s e associated w i t h each e n t e r p r i s e a n d those that s u p p o r t the business as a w h o l e — t h e overhead expenses. T h e teams responsible for each e n t e r p r i s e should be responsible for g a t h e r i n g t h e figures relevant to their particular e n t e r p r i s e and for separating t h e wealth-generating expenses f r o m the m a i n t e n a n c e expenses. (Inescapable expenses generally fall into t h e m a i n t e n a n c e category.) T h e t e a m responsible for overhead expenses should gather the rest of t h e figures and assign t h e m to a category. T h e only wealth-generating expenses they will be responsible for are those that address a l o g j a m or a s h o r t c o m i n g affecting t h e w h o l e business; m o s t of the expenses they deal w i t h will be m a i n t e n a n c e expenses.

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T h e wealth-generating expenses should have m o n e y allocated to t h e m first. B u t , since y o u can never allocate all t h e m o n e y y o u w o u l d like to t h e m w i t h o u t c o m i n g up s h o r t in t r y i n g to cover inescapable a n d m a i n t e n a n c e expenses, each t e a m needs to d e c i d e w h i c h wealth-generating expenses will be f u n d e d in t h e c o m i n g year and h o w m u c h they will get. Here's h o w y o u d o this: First, divide t h e wealth-generating expenses in each e n t e r p r i s e into t w o groups: those that m u s t have a specific a m o u n t allocated to t h e m o r n o t h ing will h a p p e n ; and those that n e e d every dollar they can get, but can still g e n e r a t e additional i n c o m e w i t h w h a t e v e r you can allocate to t h e m . A n e x p e n s e b e l o n g i n g in the first g r o u p w o u l d be t h e $ 3 , 0 0 0 it costs to b u y a c o m p u t e r and the lessons in h o w to use it. It w o u l d be pointless allocating only $ 1 , 5 0 0 to this expense. If you were d e v e l o p i n g a n e w m a r k e t i n g p r o g r a m that i n c l u d e d advertising in several publications, you c o u l d spend a n y w h e r e f r o m $ 1 , 0 0 0 to $ 1 0 , 0 0 0 o n advertising, d e p e n d i n g o n the f u n d s available. T h i s advertising e x p e n s e w o u l d fall into t h e s e c o n d group, because you c o u l d get the p r o g r a m off t h e g r o u n d even if you w e r e able to allocate only $1,000, a l t h o u g h obviously you w o u l d w a n t to allocate m o r e . Relatively f e w expenses fall into t h e first g r o u p and t h e a m o u n t s involved are usually small; those that help to rectify an administrative s h o r t c o m i n g , for e x a m p l e , o f t e n require an a l l - o r - n o t h i n g allocation. S o m e t i m e s a wealth-generating expense in the first g r o u p m i g h t be t h e first installment on p a y m e n t s that will c o n t i n u e for several years. In those s u b s e q u e n t years they b e c o m e a m a i n t e n a n c e expense because they are n o t g e n e r a t i n g a d d i tional i n c o m e , but merely help to ensure that present i n c o m e levels are maintained. S e c o n d , use t h e marginal reaction test to c o m p a r e t h e wealth-generating expenses w i t h i n each enterprise. W h a t you are a t t e m p t i n g to d o in passing t h r o u g h this test is to eliminate any expenses that provide a relatively small marginal r e t u r n toward y o u r holistic goal c o m p a r e d to t h e o t h ers. R e m e m b e r , the marginal reaction test is always a subjective o n e . You will n o t b e able to quantify t h e dollar figures precisely in m o s t cases, and you d o n o t n e e d to in order to get y o u r answer. If the expenses in the first group, w h i c h require an a l l - o r - n o t h i n g allocation, l o o k fairly g o o d , t h e n allocate m o n e y to t h e m right away so you can t u r n y o u r a t t e n t i o n to the w e a l t h - g e n e r a t i n g expenses in t h e s e c o n d group. T h e expenses in t h e s e c o n d g r o u p , r e m e m b e r , can generate a d d i tional i n c o m e w i t h a m i n i m a l investment, but will g e n e r a t e even m o r e w i t h a larger investment. In livestock enterprises in particular, o n e of these i n c o m e g e n e r a t i n g expenses may p r o d u c e such a high rate of r e t u r n that it is senseless to invest in any of t h e others. T h e e x a m p l e I used in C h a p t e r 27 of t h e r a n c h e r c h o o s i n g b e t w e e n t w o alternative wealth-generating expenses that w o u l d address his resource conversion weak link, is a case in p o i n t . W h e n h e c o m p a r e d b r u s h clearing to fence b u i l d i n g the r e t u r n o n

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his investment was thousands of times greater for t h e f e n c i n g . T h u s , h e w o u l d s p e n d the $ 3 , 0 0 0 required for the fencing, but allocate n o t h i n g to clearing t h e b r u s h in t h e c o m i n g year. A n y additional m o n e y h e was able to find w o u l d b e used to build m o r e fence rather than to clear b r u s h this year. In o t h e r cases, you will m o r e c o m m o n l y n e e d to allocate a m i n i m a l a m o u n t of m o n e y to several wealth-generating expenses in t h e s e c o n d cate g o r y because t h e r e t u r n they provide is spread fairly evenly b e t w e e n t h e m . S u p p o s e you w e r e m a n a g i n g a wildlife park and that o n e of the enterprises f r o m w h i c h you derived i n c o m e was d r i v e - t h r o u g h tourists, several t h o u s a n d of w h i c h visited each day. T h i s year you have identified product—specifically, t h e e x p e r i e n c e of t h e visitors o n c e they arrive—as y o u r w e a k link. To address t h e w e a k link you have p r o p o s e d a n u m b e r of actions, o n e of w h i c h is to acquire a n e w p h o n e system that requires an allo r - n o t h i n g allocation.Your old system c a n n o t h a n d l e all t h e i n c o m i n g calls and f r e q u e n t l y cuts off t h e callers w h o d o get t h r o u g h — t h u s giving a bad impression b e f o r e visitors even arrive at the g a t e . T h e p r o b l e m is fairly serious, so y o u allocate m o n e y to a n e w p h o n e system a n d t u r n n o w to the o t h e r p r o p o s e d actions that require a m i n i m u m investment b u t n e e d all t h e m o n e y they can get: •

Improve the internal roads. T h e r e are bad potholes that are unsightly and potentially damaging to visitors' cars and distract t h e m f r o m their viewing of the park.

•

Improve the signs along the drive. T h e original signs were constructed hastily of poor-quality materials and the paint has faded, m a k i n g t h e m hard to read. N e w signs could also provide m o r e educational information.

•

S o m e of the shelters at rest stops along the drive are looking shabby and losing their plaster, and the paths leading f r o m the shelters to the lavatories have large cracks and irregularities in them, making it difficult for the elderly and handicapped to get around.

•

You are short of internal c o m m u n i c a t i o n radios. Sometimes key staff cannot c o m m u n i c a t e in a visitor-related emergency.

•

You are short of vehicles. Sometimes staff have to use their personal vehicles to reach visitors w h o need assistance.

All b u t t h e last t w o actions indicate that in t h e past i n a d e q u a t e f u n d s w e r e allocated to m a i n t a i n i n g the business's infrastructure, a n o t u n c o m m o n plight f o r businesses struggling to survive. S u c h expenses have b e c o m e wealth generators n o w because if these actions are taken, they are certain to lead to greater c u s t o m e r satisfaction, an increase in visitors, and thus an

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increase in revenue. All of these actions probably require m o n e y allocated to t h e m . Allocate only the m i n i m u m each expense requires. Later on, in the final p l a n n i n g session y o u will seek ways to increase these a m o u n t s . R e m e m b e r that the wealth-generating expenses are p r o d u c i n g a d d i tional i n c o m e over and above w h a t you p l a n n e d last year. Occasionally, this additional i n c o m e m i g h t b e delayed until the f o l l o w i n g year, m e r e l y because s o m e actions will take m o r e t h a n a year to p r o d u c e the desired effect. If y o u d o n o t allocate m o n e y to t h e m now, you will f u r t h e r delay the p o t e n t i a l increase in i n c o m e . I m p o r t a n t as wealth-generating expenses are, you still have to have m o n e y available to cover all those m a i n t e n a n c e expenses to ensure y o u sustain present i n c o m e levels, and any expenses that are inescapable. A n y wealth-generating expenses that are questionable or, as in the livestock e n t e r p r i s e example, yield very little w h e n c o m p a r e d to a n o t h e r , should b e d r o p p e d , at least for this year. E a c h of the teams responsible for p l a n n i n g the expenses for their various enterprises, as well as the t e a m responsible for p l a n n i n g overhead expenses, will n e e d to s u m m a r i z e t h e results of their w o r k for the m a i n p l a n n i n g t e a m in this f o u r t h session. T h e p u r p o s e of this session, as f o r the third session, is to share the i n f o r m a t i o n gathered and the decisions m a d e . It also provides an o p p o r t u n i t y for discovering w h e r e efforts m i g h t b e overlapping and possibly w h e r e s o m e expenses m i g h t be shared. T h o s e p l a n n i n g the overhead expenses will have m a d e s o m e p r e l i m i n a r y d e c i sions that will affect e v e r y o n e if they allocated m o n e y to expenses that addressed a l o g j a m o r a s h o r t c o m i n g affecting all e n t e r p r i s e s . T h e i r results, in particular, are likely to e n g e n d e r s o m e discussion b e f o r e everyone u n d e r s t a n d s and supports t h e m (salaries, r e m e m b e r , are considered an overh e a d expense) and could e n g e n d e r a fair a m o u n t o f discussion at this p o i n t . N o w having l o o k e d at all the expenses in detail, y o u are ready to m o v e o n to the last session of the p r e l i m i n a r y phase.

Fifth Session: Brainstorm

Ways to Cut

Expenses

U n t i l now, the focus has b e e n mainly o n the various enterprises o f the business. In this session the focus turns to the r o u t i n e costs involved in r u n n i n g those enterprises as well as the business as a w h o l e . E v e r y dollar you can cut f r o m a m a i n t e n a n c e expense, as all of these are, can in the final p l a n n i n g session be a d d e d to t h o s e wealth-generating expenses that n e e d e d every dollar they c o u l d get to p r o d u c e n e w i n c o m e — a n d thus m o r e p r o f i t — i n the c o m i n g year. T h i s session s h o u l d include everyone, n o t j u s t the m a i n p l a n n i n g t e a m m e m b e r s , and could also benefit f r o m the creativity of a f e w outsiders—a very large g r o u p is n o d i s a d v a n t a g e . T h e session will be fairly b r i e f and should i n c l u d e n o t h i n g else o n the agenda.

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Ac the start, list y o u r c u r r e n t e x p e n s e headings o n a chart o r b o a r d e v e r y o n e can see and m a k e sure that each p e r s o n u n d e r s t a n d s w h a t each h e a d i n g entails. In b r a i n s t o r m i n g ways t o cut these expenses you have t h e o p t i o n of c o n s i d e r i n g the w h o l e list in o n e go, or better, c o n s i d e r i n g various categories of expenses, such as fuel, m a c h i n e r y , labor, o r office s u p plies, in several r o u n d s of a b o u t ten m i n u t e s each. To be effective, b r a i n s t o r m i n g m u s t b e d o n e quickly. T h e resulting list o f eighty to o n e h u n d r e d or m o r e c o s t - c u t t i n g ideas will require s o m e sifting, testing, and in m a n y cases additional i n f o r m a t i o n that will have to b e gathered in o r d e r to i m p l e m e n t t h e m . Generally, these tasks can b e assigned to the various teams w h o s e enterprises w o u l d b e n e fit and to the team responsible for p l a n n i n g and m o n i t o r i n g the various categories of overhead expenses. In c o n s i d e r i n g the ideas, those c o m p l e t ing these tasks s h o u l d b e careful that in c u t t i n g expenses they d o n ' t also cut c o r n e r s and sacrifice q u a l i t y — s o m e t h i n g the testing s h o u l d ensure.

Creating Your Plan O n c e you have c o m p l e t e d the steps in the p r e l i m i n a r y p l a n n i n g phase, you should have gathered all of the figures n e e d e d for creating the actual p l a n . T h e s e should be r e c o r d e d o n simple w o r k s h e e t s that list each i n c o m e o r e x p e n s e item and the m o n t h s in w h i c h the m o n e y will b e received o r spent. E a c h e n t e r p r i s e generally requires o n e w o r k s h e e t for i n c o m e figures and o n e or m o r e for expenses. Separate w o r k s h e e t s are usually n e e d e d to plan the rate of c o n s u m p t i o n for any supplies p u r c h a s e d in bulk. O n c e the rate of c o n s u m p t i o n is k n o w n , you will k n o w the a m o u n t that has to b e purchased and w h e n . W h e n you later i m p l e m e n t the plan, you will m o n i tor t h e rate of c o n s u m p t i o n p l a n n e d t o avoid the unpleasant surprise of h a v i n g to order, and thus spend m o n e y , ahead of plan. Each overhead e x p e n s e c a t e g o r y usually has its o w n w o r k s h e e t (e.g., office expenses, salaries). Agricultural businesses o f t e n have livestock e n t e r prises that require a m o r e sophisticated w o r k s h e e t because they must track animals that breed, die, c h a n g e age classification, are culled, or have their w o o l or hair sheared, and so o n w i t h i n the year. W h e n the figures f r o m all these w o r k s h e e t s are finalized, they will b e transferred to a general spreadsheet w i t h c o l u m n s that c o r r e s p o n d to each s u p p o r t i n g w o r k s h e e t . T h e m a i n p l a n n i n g t e a m — w h i c h , in a small business, r e m e m b e r , includes everyone, b u t in a larger business ( m o r e t h a n a d o z e n staff) includes representatives f r o m the various teams—is responsible for finalizing the figures and c o m p l e t i n g the spreadsheet. O n c e c o m p l e t e d , it will provide a b i g - p i c t u r e v i e w of the final plan a n d will later be used for m o n i t o r i n g cash flow and to ensure that t h e i n c o m e and expenses planned remain o n target. ( C o m p u t e r software is available f r o m the C e n t e r for

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Holistic M a n a g e m e n t that greatly eases the task of creating a holistic f i n a n cial plan and m o n i t o r i n g and controlling it.) C r e a t i n g y o u r plan involves f o u r basic steps: plan t h e i n c o m e ; plan t h e profit; plan t h e expenses; a n d assess t h e plan b e f o r e i m p l e m e n t i n g it. T h e bulk of t h e p l a n n i n g session, however, is d e v o t e d to p l a n n i n g expenses, and for g o o d reason: they are the key to profit.

Plan the

Income

T h i s can b e d o n e fairly quickly if the teams responsible for each e n t e r p r i s e have c o m p l e t e d i n c o m e worksheets. A l t h o u g h e a c h team estimated i n c o m e figures m u c h earlier, w h e n d e t e r m i n i n g the gross profit for their enterprise, these figures m a y have c h a n g e d by t h e e n d of the p r e l i m i n a r y p l a n n i n g p h a s e . Any

actions

taken

to address

the weak

link

will

most

likely

increase income estimates and this increase s h o u l d be taken i n t o a c c o u n t w h e n estimating the figures r e c o r d e d o n t h e worksheets. O n c e you have transferred all these i n c o m e figures to the spreadsheet, w h i c h covers the entire year, y o u can i m m e d i a t e l y see the m o n t h s in w h i c h i n c o m e f r o m all e n t e r prises will peak a n d w h e n it c o u l d be dangerously low. A d d t o g e t h e r the i n c o m e totals for each m o n t h to get the total p l a n n e d i n c o m e f o r t h e year.

Plan the

Profit

N o w d e t e r m i n e h o w m u c h of y o u r total p l a n n e d i n c o m e to set aside as profit. T h e a m o u n t r e m a i n i n g , r e m e m b e r , will have to cover all y o u r expenses. H a v i n g m a d e a preliminary allocation o f m o n e y to these e x penses in earlier sessions, y o u should k n o w the a p p r o x i m a t e total a m o u n t n e e d e d . In t h e h a p p y event that the gap b e t w e e n total i n c o m e a n d p r e liminary total expenses is very w i d e , and thus the profit m a r g i n very high, you will only have m i n o r a d j u s t m e n t s to m a k e w h e n it c o m e s to finalizi n g y o u r expenses. M o r e likely, t h e gap will b e t o o n a r r o w for c o m f o r t and y o u have s o m e hard r e p l a n n i n g to d o if y o u are serious a b o u t m a k i n g a profit. D e c i d i n g h o w m u c h to set aside as profit is o n c e again a subjective exercise. R e m e m b e r , y o u r sole p u r p o s e in taking this step is to place a ceiling o n h o w high y o u r expenses can rise. For s o m e people, setting aside 50 p e r c e n t of total i n c o m e as profit provides a doable challenge; for others, 50 p e r c e n t w o u l d be d e m o r a l i z i n g — 2 0 to 30 p e r c e n t w o u l d provide e n o u g h challenge. If y o u are deeply in d e b t and a large p o r t i o n of y o u r i n c o m e must go to servicing that debt, a smaller p e r c e n t a g e still may b e all you can afford to set aside. If y o u allocated t o o m u c h to profit, the m o n e y left to r u n the business, after subtracting d e b t service payments, w o u l d depress rather than challenge everyone. In these cases, it is s o m e t i m e s b e t -

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ter p s y c h o l o g y to first subtract annual d e b t servicing p a y m e n t s f r o m the total i n c o m e figure and t h e n d e t e r m i n e h o w m u c h of the r e m a i n i n g a m o u n t to set aside as profit. T h e profit y o u are p l a n n i n g , r e m e m b e r , is mainly to ensure that y o u place a firm c e d i n g o n h o w high y o u will allow expenses to rise. O n c e that profit is achieved, y o u will of course d o w h a t ever suits y o u , such as reinvest it in t h e business, pay off y o u r debt, o r take a vacation.

Plan the

Expenses

If you have to r e d u c e expense allocations m a d e in t h e p r e l i m i n a r y session to stay w i t h i n t h e limits y o u have set, start w i t h the m a i n t e n a n c e e x p e n s es. C u t o u t any that are n o t absolutely essential to r u n n i n g t h e business o r that can be p u t off f o r a n o t h e r year w i t h o u t d a m a g i n g the business. H e r e y o u are c h a l l e n g i n g all m a i n t e n a n c e expenses and n o t h i n g is s a c r e d — e v e n r o u t i n e expenses d o n ' t necessarily have to c o n t i n u e . If y o u c a n n o t t r i m e n o u g h off the m a i n t e n a n c e expenses to g u a r a n t e e y o u r p l a n n e d profit, t h e n t h e profit p l a n n e d is probably t o o high. B e f o r e decreasing t h e a m o u n t set aside as profit, however, c o n s i d e r r e d u c i n g s o m e of t h e wealth-generating expenses. In d o i n g so, h o w e v e r , b e aware that y o u will lose t h e a d d i tional i n c o m e they w o u l d have g e n e r a t e d . In t h e e n d y o u may well d e c i d e that, in lieu of decreasing y o u r wealth-generating expenses, y o u accept a lower profit.You have in effect taken t h e decision to f o r g o profit in favor of investing m o r e m o n e y in t h e business w h i c h is fine as long as you are doing this intentionally a n d n o t j u s t letting t h e expenses rise to y o u r total anticipated i n c o m e . N o w y o u n e e d to l o o k at those m a i n t e n a n c e expenses o n c e again to see if y o u can shave t h e m a little closer ( w i t h o u t i m p a i r i n g y o u r ability to f u n c t i o n and p r o d u c e i n c o m e ) and apply w h a t y o u gain to those wealthgenerating expenses that n e e d e d every dollar they c o u l d get. As m e n t i o n e d in C h a p t e r 28, y o u c o u l d shave dollars off y o u r p h o n e bill by using a different t e l e p h o n e service; r e d u c e y o u r travel b u d g e t by s c h e d u l i n g fewer trips, and so on. P l e n t y of ideas should have e m e r g e d w h e n y o u b r a i n s t o r m e d ways to cut expenses in t h e p r e l i m i n a r y p l a n n i n g phase. If y o u d o y o u r j o b well, t h e dollars shaved will add u p to a tidy s u m . Your decision o n w h i c h wealth-generating expenses in w h i c h enterprises should get those dollars will d e p e n d o n w h e r e they give y o u t h e highest r e t u r n in t e r m s of y o u r holistic goal.

Assess the Plan Before Implementing

It

O n c e t h e expenses are finalized o n t h e worksheets, y o u should record their totals o n t h e m a i n spreadsheet. It is a g o o d idea also to add a separate

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e x p e n s e c o l u m n on t h e spreadsheet f o r t h e p r o f i t you plan to set aside, m a r k i n g in p r e d e t e r m i n e d a m o u n t s each m o n t h , that c o u l d b e paid into an i n t e r e s t - b e a r i n g a c c o u n t . In assessing t h e plan, c h e c k to see that the total i n c o m e p l a n n e d f o r each m o n t h offsets total m o n t h l y expenses. You m a y have to d o s o m e j u g gling to m a k e sure that t h e cash flows s m o o t h l y m o n t h by m o n t h . If t h e business is c u r r e n t l y r u n n i n g o n b o r r o w e d m o n e y o r an overdraft a r r a n g e m e n t w i t h the b a n k , each m o n t h ' s interest should b e calculated a n d given a separate c o l u m n at the e n d o f the sheet. A d d t h e interest to t h e a c c u m u lating o r decreasing d e b t each m o n t h in a c o l u m n n e x t to it. F r o m this you can see the total cost of b o r r o w i n g , spot peaks of i n d e b t e d n e s s m o n t h s ahead, and c o m p u t e that final b o t t o m line figure. T h e Holistic Financial Planning Handbook shows t h e details. Finally, c h e c k to m a k e sure that t h e total i n c o m e is equal to o r slightly greater than t h e total expenses. Since t h e profit has b e e n set aside o r i n c l u d e d as an expense, these total figures are almost always close. H a v e y o u r a c c o u n t a n t review the plan, w h i c h should provide all t h e i n f o r m a t i o n she needs to assess its tax c o n s e q u e n c e s and advise o n h o w best to address t h e m . S h e will, of course, calculate d e p r e c i a t i o n based o n standard d e p r e c i a t i o n tables rather than any figures y o u may have used in setting aside a m o u n t s to cover t h e r e p l a c e m e n t of assets. She will also have to calculate any " n o n - c a s h i n c o m e " or increase in y o u r n e t w o r t h , o n w h i c h y o u m a y be taxed.

Monitoring the Plan B e prepared to m o d i f y t h e plan as you progress t h r o u g h the year. Events will rarely transpire exactly as p l a n n e d , w h i c h is w h y you must plan in t h e first place; if y o u k n e w w h a t was g o i n g to h a p p e n b e f o r e h a n d , there w o u l d b e n o n e e d to plan. C h a p t e r 33 described in s o m e detail the a p p r o a c h w e take to m o n i t o r i n g and c o n t r o l l i n g t h e financial p l a n . T h e Holistic Financial Planning Handbook elaborates f u r t h e r .

Rewarding People A n e n v i r o n m e n t that p r o d u c e s m o t i v a t e d p e o p l e is o n e in w h i c h their ideas a n d efforts are recognized and w h e r e they are g e n u i n e l y involved in p l a n n i n g and m a n a g e m e n t decisions, w h i c h Holistic M a n a g e m e n t r o u tinely p r o m o t e s . W h e n r e c o g n i t i o n is a c c o m p a n i e d by any sort of financial reward, however, y o u can easily get into trouble. Establishing a financial reward p r o g r a m that is fair to e v e r y o n e and does n o t in any way destroy trust is a perennial challenge in m o s t businesses. C o n v e n t i o n a l b o n u s p r o grams generally fail o n b o t h accounts. For instance, w h e n p e o p l e are given

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a b o n u s for increased p r o d u c t i o n , y o u may well find that i n p u t costs have increased r i g h t a l o n g w i t h the o u t p u t and thus n o greater profit has b e e n realized. E v e n t h o u g h t h e business may be r u n n i n g at a loss, you are obliged to pay t h e bonuses, w h i c h p e o p l e feel they have e a r n e d . All t o o easily bonuses b e c o m e a right and are n o l o n g e r associated w i t h e x t r a o r d i n a r y performance. Alternatively, y o u can base rewards on net m a n a g e r i a l i n c o m e ( N M I ) , w h i c h provides a direct and i m m e d i a t e m e a s u r e of m a n a g e m e n t success in k e e p i n g i n c o m e u p and costs d o w n . N M I is derived by subtracting all t h e expenses u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l of those r u n n i n g t h e business o r e n t e r p r i s e f r o m all t h e i n c o m e they are responsible f o r p r o d u c i n g . If there are a b s e n tee o w n e r s w h o occasionally i n j e c t m o n e y into t h e business, that i n c o m e w o u l d n o t b e c o n s i d e r e d , n o r w o u l d i n c o m e p r o v i d e d by investors or in t h e f o r m of a loan f r o m t h e b a n k . If an absentee o w n e r incurs expenses over w h i c h t h e m a n a g e m e n t t e a m has n o control, a c o m m o n o c c u r r e n c e o n a b s e n t e e - o w n e d f a r m s and ranches, these w o u l d n o t be considered in figuring t h e N M I . H o w e v e r , you d o n e e d to factor in a r e t u r n o n t h e c a p ital invested by absentee o w n e r s , investors, o r shareholders, if applicable, b e f o r e d e c i d i n g t h e p e r c e n t of N M I to share a m o n g staff because these are real expenses that have to be m e t b e f o r e any s h a r i n g takes place. In allocating a p e r c e n t a g e of N M I a m o n g all staff, I w o u l d e n c o u r a g e you to divide the a m o u n t s equally. In a traditional b o n u s p r o g r a m , a h i g h er p e r c e n t a g e is paid to t h e p e o p l e "at the top," even t h o u g h it is t h e effort of everyone, n o t j u s t the t o p few, that is responsible for y o u r success.Those l o w e r d o w n are o f t e n in the best position to find ways to r e d u c e costs and are o f t e n closest to the c l i e n t s . T h e y are also generally y o u n g e r , raising f a m ilies, and in greater n e e d of i n c o m e . H i g h e r - l e v e l managers are o f t e n q u i c k to tell p e o p l e in m u n d a n e j o b s h o w vital their p e r f o r m a n c e is to the s u c cess o f t h e w h o l e , b u t slower to s h o w j u s t h o w vital w h e n it c o m e s to sharing t h e rewards. H i g h e r - l e v e l m a n a g e r s are paid h i g h e r salaries, for g o o d reason; t h e sharing of success, however, should, in m y o p i n i o n , reflect everyone's efforts equally.

Conclusion W h e n profit is i n c l u d e d in y o u r hohstic goal, t h e Holistic Financial P l a n n i n g process will help to ensure that you achieve it in t h e m o s t socially, economically, a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y s o u n d way. All of us have b e e n guilty in t h e past of c o n t r i b u t i n g to social, e c o n o m i c , and e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o b lems by t h e lifestyles w e have a d o p t e d and t h e purchases w e have m a d e , and can b e g i n to m a k e changes to rectify t h i s . T h o s e e n g a g e d in s u n l i g h t harvesting businesses, such as ranching, f a r m i n g , fishing, timber, o r wildlife p r o d u c t i o n , carry a m u c h bigger b u r d e n than the rest of us, however,

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because in m a k i n g a profit they have the ability to e n h a n c e o r diminish t h e biological capital that sustains us all.That ability has n o w b e c o m e a r e s p o n sibility that p e o p l e w h o m a k e a living directly f r o m t h e soil or the seas have n o c h o i c e b u t to accept. T h e bill for decades of treating their businesses as industries i n d e p e n d e n t of n a t u r e has c o m e d u e in the f o r m of lost or lifeless soil a n d water. To reflect a t r u e profit, a successful business must also e n h a n c e t h e soil a n d w a t e r and t h e life w i t h i n t h e m that fuels their p r o d u c t i o n . If soil is destroyed rather than e n h a n c e d , or w a t e r polluted or depleted of life, t h e profits gained will n o t be g e n u i n e because biological capital is b e i n g c o n s u m e d . H o w e v e r , w h e n you e n h a n c e biological capital, you b e n e f i t n o t only t h e land, but also yourself; biological capital is t h e o n e f o r m of capital gain n o g o v e r n m e n t can tax, even t h o u g h it is the most productive.

45 Holistic Land Planning: Developing Infrastructure on Large Tracts of Land

I

f t h e w h o l e you have d e f i n e d includes land directly u n d e r y o u r m a n a g e m e n t and that land is extensive e n o u g h to require a fair a m o u n t of infrastructure, y o u w a n t to ensure that this infrastructure truly serves y o u r holistic g o a l — a n d this takes s o m e p l a n n i n g . M a n y q u e s t i o n this n e e d to replan w h e n , o n m o s t properties, roads, fences, w a t e r delivery systems, cropfields, w o r k i n g and storage facilities, t i m b e r extraction routes, and so o n have b e e n in place for years, s o m e t i m e s h u n d r e d s o f years, and c o n s i d erable expense has already g o n e i n t o d e v e l o p i n g t h e m . B u t you have to r e m e m b e r that t h e p e o p l e laying o u t that infrastructure did so based o n c o n v e n t i o n a l decision m a k i n g . T h e y had n o k n o w l e d g e of such c o n c e p t s as brittle and n o n b r i t t l e e n v i r o n m e n t s or of t h e essential role of large animals in m a n a g i n g certain lands, and they generally focused o n i m m e d i ate needs rather than l o n g - t e r m social, e c o n o m i c , and e n v i r o n m e n t a l soundness. U p until n o w w e have rarely p l a n n e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t s o n f a r m s and ranches, public forests, national parks, o r tribal lands w i t h any l o n g - t e r m vision in m i n d . Forests were p l a n n e d for easy extraction, and national parks for t h e needs of tourists. Farms were p l a n n e d a r o u n d t h e original h o m e site, and fields w e r e o f t e n dictated by roads and tracks o r h e d g e r o w s and m o r e recently by t h e m a c h i n e r y used to w o r k t h e m . R a n c h e s were p l a n n e d a r o u n d h o m e sites and h a n d l i n g facilities as well. F e n c i n g w e n t in a c c o r d i n g to w h e r e t h e w a t e r was and, m o r e recently, w h e r e " r a n g e sites" differed, t h e belief b e i n g that certain soils and plant c o m m u n i t i e s n e e d e d different grazing r e g i m e n s to limit d a m a g e f r o m

486

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overgrazing or overtrampling. N a t i o n a l parks o f t e n developed f r o m the first access track and administrative settlement. As tourist g r o w t h and d e m a n d e x p a n d e d , tracks, campsites, water points, and o t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t s were added, b u t almost always w i t h o u t any l o n g - t e r m vision (or hohstic goal) in m i n d . If you are n o t to be tied forever to an inferior infrastructure layout, w h i c h can have m a n y h i d d e n costs associated w i t h it, it pays to start afresh and to plan n o w a c c o r d i n g to t h e needs and desires expressed in y o u r holistic g o a l . T h e plan you create will be for the l o n g t e r m (one h u n d r e d years o r more) a n d will be i m p l e m e n t e d in steps and stages, g u i d e d largely by y o u r annual holistic financial plan. As y o u will later see, the c h a n g e o v e r f r o m old to n e w n e e d n o t be costly; in fact it can usually be accomplished in ways that earn money. A f t e r g o i n g t h r o u g h the p l a n n i n g p r o c e d u r e described in this c h a p t e r y o u may find that y o u r existing layout is the best that can be devised. In most instances, however, even m i n o r revisions will m a k e a big difference in efficiency and profitability and in achieving y o u r holistic goal. M y o w n e x p e r i e n c e bears this o u t . W h e n I t o o k over t h e last r a n c h I o w n e d , I inherited a fence and w a t e r layout that greatly decreased my efficiency as m a n a g e r and was very e x p e n sive to m a i n t a i n . T h e r e were e i g h t e e n w a t e r points for cattle and only t w o that were available to wildlife, w h o s e presence was o n e of the m a i n reasons I b o u g h t the place. A l o n g w i t h all those w a t e r points was a c o m p l e x of roads and tracks that had to be m a i n t a i n e d as well as water pipelines, troughs, and float valves. O n c e I had c o m p l e t e d the p l a n n i n g process described, the ranch only had three w a t e r points serving cattle, five serving wildlife, and far less pipeline, road, and track to maintain. You d o n ' t n e e d to be exceptionally b r i g h t to w o r k o u t t h e annual savings in t i m e and dollars created by the n e w plan. B u t I did n o t go p u t and b o r r o w m o n e y to m a k e t h e changeover. I m o v e d toward t h e n e w plan gradually, g e n e r a t i n g t h e capital f r o m t h e land to d o so and a d d i n g a n e w feature only w h e n my financial plan indicated it w o u l d m a k e money. H o h s t i c Land P l a n n i n g involves f o u r distinct phases. T h e first phase is d e v o t e d to g a t h e r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n and t h e p r e p a r i n g of p l a n n i n g maps a n d can take u p to a year o r m o r e to c o m p l e t e . In t h e s e c o n d phase, w h i c h lasts only a day o r so, you b r a i n s t o r m m a n y possible layouts for the p l a n n e d d e v e l o p m e n t s . In t h e third phase, w h i c h lasts a year o r m o r e , you create the ideal plan based o n t h e w o r k entailed in the first t w o phases. In the f o u r t h and final phase, w h i c h can take decades to c o m p l e t e , you gradually i m p l e m e n t t h e plan using t h e Holistic Financial P l a n n i n g process to d e t e r m i n e the o r d e r of i m p l e m e n t a t i o n .

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P h a s e 1: G a t h e r t h e I n f o r m a t i o n This phase can take several m o n t h s to a year or m o r e to c o m p l e t e and includes the f o l l o w i n g series of steps, n o t all of w h i c h will apply in every case. B e f o r e you start, you will n e e d the best c o n t o u r maps available a n d of a scale suitable to w o r k o n in s o m e detail. In the U n i t e d States, for e x a m ple, U.S. Geological Survey l - i n - 2 4 , 0 0 0 maps are generally a d e q u a t e for p l a n n i n g m o s t ranches a n d o t h e r extensive properties. In t h e case of smaller properties or farms, you will n e e d a larger-scale m a p that shows m o r e detail. T h e s e can generally be m a d e by using a copy m a c h i n e to enlarge existing maps. Avoid using aerial p h o t o g r a p h i c strips a n d stereo viewers, because these are generally t o o small in scale a n d c o n t o u r s t e n d to be e x a g gerated in t h e t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l view.

Map the Future Landscape

Described

in Your Holistic

Goal

If t h e land you are m a n a g i n g covers an extensive area, measured in h u n dreds or thousands rather t h a n tens of acres, a n d / o r varied terrain, you will n e e d to record o n a m a p t h e b r o a d landscape features described in y o u r holistic goal. If you described a variety of e n v i r o n m e n t s , such as a treelined riparian c o m m u n i t y , wetlands, o p e n w o o d l a n d , c r o p p i n g areas, dense brush, o r o p e n grassland c o m m u n i t i e s , you n e e d to indicate generally w h e r e you i n t e n d to p r o d u c e t h e s e . T h e y are likely to differ considerably f r o m the features of y o u r present landscape, as s h o w n in figure 4 5 - 1 . T h u s , if you d o n o t m a p t h e different c o m m u n i t i e s and features you w a n t to p r o d u c e , you can easily lose sight of t h e m . T h e m o s t useful way to record these features is o n a transparent or clear plastic sheet overlaying the c o n t o u r m a p of the property. You will refer to this overlay w h e n b r a i n s t o r m i n g m a n y possible layouts and later w h e n selecting t h e best of t h e m . O n a crop f a r m , you may w a n t to pencil in areas w h e r e you plan to p r o d u c e o r maintain a w o o d l o t , or riparian areas w h e r e you n n g h t w a n t trees to establish. C r o p p i n g areas will be m a r k e d in, but individual fields and their h e d g e r o w s w o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d infrastructure and will b e p l a n n e d later. O n a livestock ranch y o u w o u l d also m a r k in riparian, w o o d l a n d , brushy, o r o p e n areas because, unless they are m a p p e d , t h e r e is n o t h i n g to r e m i n d you that they have to be p r o d u c e d t h r o u g h t h e grazing p l a n n i n g p r o c e d u r e discussed in the n e x t chapter. In a national park or forest, y o u r holistic goal may have described m a n y different successional levels to m a x imize t h e diversity of the wildlife o r the age structure of t h e trees. B u t these levels generally c a n n o t b e m a i n t a i n e d o n the same site forever; they may n e e d to shift w i t h i n t h e park or forest over time. D o n o t a t t e m p t to m a p these shifts as part of y o u r holistic goal; a w r i t t e n description i n d i c a t -

45

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H O L I S T I C L A N D P L A N N I N G : D E V E L O P I N G INFRASTRUCTURE O N LARGE T R A C T S OF L A N D

Figure 45-1

The features

recorded on the map of your future

differ considerably from the features of your present

511

landscape are likely to

landscape.

i n g the desire to facilitate t h e necessary shifts over a very l o n g t i m e f r a m e (usually several h u n d r e d years) is generally sufficient. Shortly, in c o n s i d e r i n g all t h e m a n a g e m e n t factors affecting y o u r plan, you will m a p the different c o m m u n i t i e s you w a n t to p r o d u c e t h r o u g h successional shifts over time. R e m e m b e r that y o u r hohstic goal should never i n c l u d e items w i t h i n it, such as infrastructure o r any d e v e l o p m e n t s r e q u i r i n g a financial investm e n t , that will n e e d to b e t e s t e d . T h i s is w h y the m w - " - 1 1 f u t u r e landscape are so general in '

Identify Factors

and Map the Natural. Affecting Your Plan

T h e s e factors will vary, d e p e n d i n g o n t h e entity cases they will i n c l u d e things y o u c a n n o t change, such as o r that are n o t directly u n d e r y o u r control, such as public roaas. N a t u r a l factors to consider i n c l u d e those related to weather, such a, d i r e c t i o n of prevailing w i n d s and areas likely to b e covered in d e e p s n o w o r p r o n e to f l o o d i n g ; g e o g r a p h i c features such as w a t e r sources a n d riparian areas, if n o t already indicated o n y o u r base map, e r o d i n g c a t c h m e n t areas that lead o n t o y o u r property, m a j o r differences in soil types (because they c o u l d d e t e r m i n e the p l a c e m e n t o f crop fields); areas of m a j o r fire threat; wildlife c o n c e r n s such as t h e need for roosting, m a t i n g , and nesting sites, a n d seasonal m o v e m e n t routes; areas of heavy predation; a n d areas in w h i c h e n d a n g e r e d species are present. Social factors to be considered i n c l u d e present o w n e r s h i p b o u n d a r i e s

"

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(some properties may be divided a m o n g different o w n e r s o r p o r t i o n s may b e leased) and f u t u r e b o u n d a r i e s (an estate plan m i g h t require that t h e land b e divided later a m o n g several family m e m b e r s ) , areas w h e r e mineral rights are leased o r c o u l d be, any f u t u r e d e v e l o p m e n t s p l a n n e d o n t h e land s u r r o u n d i n g the property, recreational access areas for h u n t e r s o r hikers, areas p r o n e to vandalism, archaeological sites n e e d i n g p r o t e c t i o n , and so o n . All of these factors can affect y o u r plan in o n e way or a n o t h e r . T h e p r e vailing w i n d s m i g h t i n f l u e n c e the p l a c e m e n t of roads that can serve a dual p u r p o s e as firebreaks.You w o u l d n o t w a n t to place a h o m e or a road in a f l o o d - p r o n e area and b e f o r c e d to e n g a g e in costly repair w o r k year after year. L o c a t i n g a fence w h e r e it w o u l d inhibit t h e m o v e m e n t of the public in an area they have access to c o u l d invite vandalism. R e c o r d these factors o n clear plastic o r transparent p a p e r sheets s u p e r i m p o s e d o n y o u r c o n t o u r map. Several factors can be p u t o n o n e transp a r e n t sheet as l o n g as t h e sheet does n o t b e c o m e cluttered. T h e m o r e c o m p l e x t h e situation, t h e greater the n u m b e r of overlays likely to be r e q u i r e d . T h e s e overlays will be used later o n in h e l p i n g y o u select t h e best of m a n y possible plans.

Identify

Management

Factors

Affecting

Your

Plan

R e v i e w y o u r holistic goal in its entirety as you w o r k t h r o u g h this step. M a k e sure that all t h e relevant f o r m s of p r o d u c t i o n are addressed in c o n sidering m a n a g e m e n t f a c t o r s — n o t just those related to p r o d u c i n g profit. Q u a l i t y of life and aesthetic c o n c e r n s are also m a j o r considerations. List all t h e m a n a g e m e n t factors y o u can t h i n k of. M a n y of t h e m will require f u r t h e r research b e f o r e y o u e m b a r k o n t h e actual p l a n n i n g phase. U n l i k e t h e previous steps, m o s t of this i n f o r m a t i o n will n o t n e e d to be r e c o r d e d o n m a p s or overlays, b u t notes should be k e p t of all these factors because they will d e t e r m i n e t h e infrastructure n e e d e d a n d w h e r e y o u place it. F o l l o w i n g are examples of s o m e of the m a n a g e m e n t factors that w o u l d n e e d to b e considered in p l a n n i n g t h e infrastructure o n a ranch w h e r e livestock graze p r i m a r i l y o n rangelands; o n a f a r m w h e r e crops are t h e m a i n enterprises; o n stock f a r m s o r dairies w h e r e planted pasture is t h e m a i n crop, and m e a t , milk o r b r e e d i n g / g r o w i n g stock t h e m a i n products; a n d finally in national parks and forests. O N A RANCH

To c o n t r o l livestock m o v e m e n t s , f e n c i n g in s o m e f o r m is usually necessary, as are h a n d l i n g facilities, w a t e r points, and a m i n i m u m of roads o r tracks. B e f o r e y o u can d e t e r m i n e t h e extent of these " i m p r o v e m e n t s , " y o u must consider t h e following:

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•

Possible future stocking rates. These will influence the size and n u m b e r of grazing cells, or grazing areas, and handling facilities.

•

Herd sizes. These will enable you to determine h o w m u c h water needs to be available in any one place.

In t h e future, you are likely to require m a n y m o r e divisions of land (fenced p a d d o c k s o r u n f e n c e d areas in w h i c h livestock moves are planned) than y o u n o w have (from as f e w as t w e n t y o r thirty divisions t o as m a n y as three h u n d r e d or m o r e . / l / i o bear the following in mind: •

Access by livestock to water and other points, such as overnight holding areas, should allow nonrepetitive m o v e m e n t to avoid damage from trampling. For every day of trampling, you need many days of recovery time for soil and plants.

•

Less brittle environments tend to need high stock density (meaning small paddocks) and frequent livestock moves to ensure good animal performance.

•

M o r e brittle environments tend to need higher herd effect, as opposed to stock density. Paddocks can thus be large if a behavior change is brought about by attractants, which cause animals to briefly bunch, mill around, chip the soil surface, and lay d o w n litter over a small area. Animals grazing at very high densities can produce the same effect almost continually over a m u c h larger area.To reach these densities, a great many very small paddocks are required. Fortunately, these paddocks can be created with portable electric fencing or by tight herding within larger p a d d o c k s . T h e ranchers w h o are pioneering this concept (mentioned in Chapter 39) have removed most of their existing internal fencing, but they still find some is required and that its placement is critical.

E v e n if f u t u r e technological innovations enable us t o b u n c h a n d m o v e animals w i t h o u t any f o r m o f fencing, w e still n e e d to plan roads, h a n d l i n g facilities, and grazing distances f r o m w a t e r a n d to d e m a r c a t e larger grazing areas for grazing p l a n n i n g purposes. O t h e r factors you c o u l d c o n s i d e r are potential d a m sites, if additional water is g o i n g to b e n e e d e d ; storage facilities; and areas f r o m w h i c h hay c o u l d be harvested if necessary. In addition, you s h o u l d t h i n k seriously a b o u t r u n n i n g m o r e than o n e species of livestock if the e n v i r o n m e n t allows it. If you are n o w r u n n i n g cattle only, you m i g h t w a n t to c o n s i d e r a d d i n g sheep a n d / o r goats, hogs, pastured poultry, a n d so o n , all of w h i c h c o u l d affect the a m o u n t and type o f f e n c i n g n e e d e d (as w o u l d resident g a m e populations) a n d w a t e r availability a n d h a n d l i n g facilities. T h o u g h

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you may n o t r u n additional species for years to c o m e , p l a n n i n g for t h e p o s sibility n o w saves having to m o d i f y y o u r plan later w h e n it w o u l d be m o r e costly to d o so. O N A CROP FARM

W h e r e farms include r o w crops, orchards, pastures, and perhaps timber, soil types and their distribution may partially d e t e r m i n e the layout of y o u r infrastructure. If the land is flood irrigated a n d you have n o plans to c h a n g e to a less wasteful f o r m of irrigation, the layout of crop fields will be d e t e r m i n e d largely by t h e canals you irrigate f r o m . T h e r e are a n u m b e r of factors that are entirely w i t h i n y o u r c o n t r o l and should b e considered: •

Small fields are more manageable ecologically than large ones.

•

T h e greater the proportion of "edge," both in and around fields, the greater the diversity and numbers of insects, birds, and other wildlife.

•

Use surroundings (i.e., hedgerows, tree belts, and naturally vegetated waterways) as well as the fields for attaining overall complexity.

•

Consider utilizing grazing animals in your crop rotations. This is especially important in the more brittle environments, w h e r e livestock play a critical role in nutrient and carbon cycling. We may not, in fact, be able to keep soils alive in such environments w i t h o u t the help of grazing animals that speed decay by passing crop residues through their gut. In nonbrittle environments, small organisms alone can p e r f o r m this role, but livestock, small or large, are often desired as a source of manure, and may in the end prove necessary to keep soils vital.

If you plan to add either small or large stock in t h e future, w h a t facilities o r d e v e l o p m e n t s will b e n e e d e d ? W o u l d t h e animals r e m a i n o n the f a r m t h r o u g h o u t t h e year, o r only seasonally? H o w w o u l d y o u m o v e t h e m to and f r o m fields w i t h o u t trailing? If you w a n t to attract birds, bats, and o t h e r wildlife, w h a t are their habitat r e q u i r e m e n t s ? If you plan to develop a p o n d or d a m , w h a t general siting r e q u i r e m e n t s d o y o u n e e d to be aware of? D o you n e e d to research different t e c h n i q u e s for i n c l u d i n g m o r e diversity in fields, such as strip c r o p p i n g , alley c r o p p i n g , and so on? W h a t m a c h i n e r y will be n e e d e d in t h e future? As m e n t i o n e d in C h a p t e r 40, t h e smaller, m o r e intelligent m a c h i n e r y that can plant and harvest p o l y culture crops does n o t exist yet, apart f r o m the o d d inventions s o m e creative f a r m e r s have p r o d u c e d in their o w n w o r k s h o p s , b u t it is likely to b e c o m e available at s o m e p o i n t as d e m a n d increases. If you are g r o w i n g

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crops Linder irrigation, is the form of delivery likely to c h a n g e in t h e future (i.e., f r o m flood or overhead irrigation to drip irrigation)? STOCK AND DAIRY FARMS

T h e m a n a g e m e n t factors to consider in p l a n n i n g stock or dairy f a r m s w o u l d in m a n y instances parallel those considered on a livestock ranch or crop f a r m . F e n c i n g layouts for a dairy herd need to take into a c c o u n t the f r e q u e n c y of animal h a n d l i n g (two or three times per day) to m a k e these times as unstressful as possible for the animals and people.You will w a n t to avoid repetitive m o v e m e n t over t h e same g r o u n d and site c o r r i d o r s and any o t h e r sacrificial areas carefully to m i n i m i z e soil erosion and pollution problems. R e m e m b e r that pastures are severely d a m a g e d w h e n they are plowed up and replanted, as m e n t i o n e d in C h a p t e r 40. T h u s , y o u m i g h t w a n t to develop pastures that are " m a n a g e d " almost entirely by y o u r animals. NATIONAL PARKS AND FORESTS

In national forests and national parks, far m o r e a t t e n t i o n must be paid to p l a n n i n g for t h e specific biological c o m m u n i t i e s w e h o p e to p r o d u c e or sustain w i t h i n these c o n f i n e d areas, n o n e of w h i c h are natural, as b o u n d aries are a h u m a n invention. W i t h i n t h e m w e are a t t e m p t i n g to m a n a g e wildlife p o p u l a t i o n s w h o s e h o m e ranges and territories have b e e n restricted by physical barriers and to utilize vegetation w i t h i n forest interiors that are n o w t o o small to sustain m a n y species. I m m e n s e a m o u n t s of research are n e e d e d if w e are to a t t e m p t to m i m i c w h a t o n c e o c c u r r e d naturally and restore s o m e of w h a t w e have lost. In addition to these challenges, m a n a g e m e n t of national parks and forests m u s t o f t e n cater to a variety of users, all ot w h o s e needs will affect the d e v e l o p m e n t s included in a land p l a n . T h e users w h o specifically n e e d to be included in t h e land p l a n n i n g t e a m w o u l d b e those w h o helped to f o r m t h e holistic goal w i t h the g o v e r n m e n t agency, foresters, or park rangers responsible for overall m a n a g e m e n t . T h e s e users w o u l d p r i m a r i l y include managers of h u n t i n g , timber, grazing, or tourist-related concessions w i t h i n the park or forest, all of w h o m m a k e d a y - t o - d a y decisions that can affect overall m a n a g e m e n t . All t o o m a n y national parks were f o r m e d at a time w h e n t h e best m a n a g e m e n t was believed to b e m a n a g e m e n t by b e n i g n neglect, w i t h the e x c e p t i o n of c o n c e r t e d efforts to eliminate p o a c h i n g of the resident wildlife. It is highly unlikely that the c o m m u n i t i e s w i t h i n any of today's national parks, in brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s in particular, have ever b e e n static, a l t h o u g h they can appear so in t h e very s h o r t t e r m . T h e biological c o m -

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munities f o u n d in Yellowstone N a t i o n a l Park w h e n t h e first E u r o p e a n s " d i s c o v e r e d " the area were probably very different f r o m t h e c o m m u n i t i e s that attracted the first A m e r i c a n s to t h e area thousands of years earlier, a l t h o u g h w e o f t e n use t h e f o r m e r as t h e b e n c h m a r k in trying to restore c o m m u n i t i e s to a so-called pristine state. D e c i d i n g w h i c h c o m m u n i t i e s to favor o r m o d i f y w i t h i n a national park should d e p e n d entirely o n the hohstic goal. A c h i e v i n g that goal, however, will require very l o n g - t e r m considerations a n d p l a n n i n g . In m a n y cases, the p l a n n i n g t e a m will n e e d to m a p t h e various changes to be p r o d u c e d over a h u n d r e d o r m o r e years. T h e y m a y seek to have certain areas shift f r o m grassland to s a v a n n a - w o o d l a n d , b r u s h o r forest, o r vice versa, over time using t h e tools at their disposal: rest, fire, technology, living organisms, and the grazing and animal i m p a c t p r o v i d e d by either wildlife or d o m e s t i c stock. A series of m a p overlays will help to illustrate w h e r e t h e p l a n n i n g t e a m wants to develop various c o m m u n i t i e s and h o w they w a n t t h e m to c h a n g e over time. W h i l e considerable t h o u g h t will have to go into such a l o n g t e r m plan, w h a t t h e p l a n n i n g t e a m finally draws o n t h e overlays will only be an a p p r o x i m a t i o n of w h e r e t h e shift f r o m o n e c o m m u n i t y to a n o t h e r will o c c u r a n d w h e n . R e s e a r c h in t h e future, as well as lessons l e a r n e d over time, will almost certainly result in c o n t i n u o u s r e f i n e m e n t s . M u c h t h e same a p p r o a c h is required in m a p p i n g vegetation shifts in a national forest, w h e r e t h e p l a n n i n g t e a m is a t t e m p t i n g to m o v e a c o m m u nity from m e a d o w to b r u s h l a n d to n e w forest and eventually o l d - g r o w t h forest, or to rotate small areas of clearcut w i t h i n larger areas of m a t u r e f o r est, a n d so o n . T h i s sort of m a p p i n g , however, is d o n e over t h e very l o n g t e r m (500 years o r m o r e ) . S u c h p l a n n i n g is of c o u r s e far r e m o v e d f r o m most of today's efforts, w h e r e t h i n k i n g t w e n t y years ahead w o u l d be c o n sidered l o n g t e r m . In s o m e national forests, p l a n n i n g must also cater to h u m a n inhabitants, a n d their representatives should b e i n c l u d e d o n the p l a n n i n g team. S o m e wet tropical forests have to sustain h u m a n p o p u l a t i o n s practicing s w i d d e n (slash and b u r n ) agriculture. As m e n t i o n e d in C h a p t e r 40, s w i d d e n a g r i culture can remain remarkably productive, as l o n g as t h e h u m a n p o p u l a tion is l o w e n o u g h . It quickly breaks d o w n w h e n p o p u l a t i o n s rise and p e o p l e must r e t u r n to a previously cultivated site b e f o r e soils have fully recovered and t h e forest reestablished. W e can conceivably learn h o w to m e e t t h e needs of a larger h u m a n p o p u l a t i o n w i t h o u t d a m a g i n g t h e forest if, t h r o u g h b e t t e r c r o p p i n g practices a n d t h e use of soil a m e n d m e n t s , w e can p r o l o n g t h e p e r i o d of cultivation in each site. In m o s t instances, land can b e cultivated only for a p e r i o d of three to five years b e f o r e n u t r i e n t s are lost t h r o u g h leaching. If w e are able to stretch that p e r i o d to thirty o r

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fifty years, the fallow p e r i o d c o u l d likewise b e l e n g t h e n e d to ensure full soil a n d forest recovery. T h e p l a n n i n g t e a m w o u l d n e e d to m a p t h e shifting cultivation sites carefully and over p r o l o n g e d time. T i m b e r harvesting m e t h o d s will also i n f l u e n c e vegetation m a p p i n g , particularly if they include clearcutting.ThoLigh t h e days are, I h o p e , n u m b e r e d for those w h o c o n t i n u e to clearcut extensive areas of forest, clearcutting smaller areas can m a k e sense w h e n you w a n t to create different s u c cessional levels w i t h i n the forest or increase t h e a m o u n t of edge. H o w e v e r , you risk d o i n g d a m a g e if these smaller clearcuts b e c o m e t o o extensive and break up t o o m u c h of an intact forest at any given time. Selective harvesting, in w h i c h the best trees are taken f r o m the forest as a w h o l e , a n d the m o r e sustainable selection harvesting, in w h i c h the best trees are left to p r o d u c e seed for f u t u r e generations, will have little i n f l u e n c e o n vegetation m a p p i n g , a l t h o u g h t h e use of these m e t h o d s will later affect the layout of infrastructure. A n u m b e r of o t h e r m a n a g e m e n t considerations will i n f l u e n c e the layo u t of infrastructure in a national forest or park. In forests you s h o u l d strive to m i n i m i z e the n u m b e r of roads a n d the use of heavy machinery. M a n y existing roads c o u l d be eliminated w i t h a c h a n g e in l o g g i n g m e t h o d s . D a m a g e d o n e to soils by heavy m a c h i n e r y can b e r e d u c e d if l o g g i n g is p l a n n e d to c o i n c i d e w i t h a t i m e of year w h e n the risk of d a m a g e is lower. In the n o r t h e r n U n i t e d States, for instance, little or n o d a m a g e is d o n e to the forest floor w h e n l o g g i n g takes place in w i n t e r o n frozen g r o u n d . M a c h i n e r y is n o w u n d e r d e v e l o p m e n t that is less d a m a g i n g to the soil than the large, heavy e q u i p m e n t used today. In N o r w a y , f o r example, a t i m b e r extractor that simulates an e l e p h a n t w a l k i n g into t h e forest and p i c k i n g up a felled tree is b e i n g tested. H o w e v e r , such a m a c h i n e w o u l d still have to be t r a n s p o r t e d to the worksite a n d the collected logs also m o v e d to w h e r ever they will b e processed, so the n e w m a c h i n e has n o t eliminated the n e e d for roads entirely. America's national forests c o n t a i n m o r e miles of road than t h e country's freeways, w h i c h are the m o s t extensive in t h e w o r l d . Inevitably such a great expanse of u n p a v e d road a m o u n t s to m a n y billions of gallons of water r u n o f f and tons of p o l l u t i o n , erosion, a n d silt. Clearly this is n o t in the interests of any forest i n t e n d e d to last a n d serve h u m a n needs for c e n t u r i e s to c o m e . M a i n t a i n i n g biodiversity in m a n a g e d forests, w h i l e w e extract timber, inevitably means w e have to d e t e r m i n e a sustainable rate of cut, w h i c h m i g h t require a r e d u c e d cut in s o m e o l d - g r o w t h forests, b u t an increased cut in y o u n g forests w h e r e dense stands of y o u n g trees can retard d e v e l o p m e n t to healthy, m a t u r e forest. A decrease o r increase in the rate of cut in the f u t u r e will obviously i n f l u e n c e the infrastructure to be p l a n n e d .

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O n e of the i m p o r t a n t m a n a g e m e n t factors to c o n s i d e r in a national park is h o w best to h a n d l e t h e h u n d r e d s o r thousands of visitors that u s u ally spend time in the park each year. C a n they be t r a n s p o r t e d t h r o u g h the park w i t h o u t having to rely o n personal vehicles that n o t only add to c o n gestion b u t also diminish the aesthetic values for w h i c h the park was f o r m e d ? H o w is the w h o l e e x p e r i e n c e to be designed to be e d u c a t i n g and satisfying for the visitors? T h e s e t w o questions may affect t h e f u t u r e infrastructure n e e d e d as m u c h as the natural factors related to t h e m a n a g e m e n t of the land and wildlife. N a t i o n a l parks and forests that lie in e n v i r o n m e n t s that are brittle to any d e g r e e may b e n e f i t f r o m the use of livestock in a c c o m p l i s h i n g a variety of objectives: to clear flammable u n d e r s t o r y and so r e d u c e the risk of forest fires; to r e t u r n f r o m f i r e - d e p e n d e n t forests to t h e fire-sensitive forests that may have p r e c e d e d t h e m ; to prevent m e a d o w s f r o m r e t u r n i n g to scrub or forest; a n d so o n . Obviously, the use of livestock w o u l d affect the p l a n n i n g of infrastructure considerably.

Make a List of the Infrastructure

Needed

Based o n all the m a n a g e m e n t factors you have considered and the m a n a g e m e n t plans you have u n d o u b t e d l y d e v e l o p e d as a result, you should have a g o o d idea of the infrastructure required to achieve y o u r holistic goal. D r a w up a list o f the basic facilities you will n e e d and k e e p t h e list h a n d y for t h e n e x t phase, w h e n you will share it w i t h those w h o will assist in creating a n u m b e r of possible plans. P r e p a r a t i o n is n o w c o m p l e t e . If you have d o n e y o u r j o b well you will greatly e n h a n c e t h e results of the n e x t phase.

Phase 2: Brainstorm a Series of Plans In this phase, w h i c h generally lasts n o m o r e than a day or two, the aim is to create as m a n y plans as possible, w i t h the help of as large a g r o u p o f p e o ple as p r a c t i c a l . T h e p e o p l e w h o k n o w the land well a n d h o w it is p r e s e n t ly m a n a g e d are the worst p e o p l e to d o the creative p l a n n i n g that is n o w required. You w a n t p e o p l e w h o d o n o t have y o u r prejudices and d o n o t k n o w w h a t is impossible. E a c h p l a n n i n g g r o u p should i n c l u d e three to six p e o p l e w o r k i n g o n a single map. A l t h o u g h they can c o m e f r o m any walk of life, it is i m p o r t a n t that at least o n e m e m b e r of a t e a m u n d e r s t a n d s the significance of the m a n a g e m e n t factors that must be taken i n t o a c c o u n t as they w o r k to create their plans.You and t h e p e o p l e k n o w i n g the land and business well will ultimately select the best plan, as you are most qualified to d o so.

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Prepare

Maps for

497

Planning

You will n e e d to duplicate the basic c o n t o u r m a p you used w h e n creating t h e overlays (ten or m o r e copies will be n e e d e d for each p l a n n i n g team). Ideally these maps should have n o t h i n g o n t h e m b u t g e o g r a p h i c features (contours, rivers, lakes, etc.) and any c o n s t r u c t e d features, such as public roads, railway tracks, or h o m e s , that it w o u l d be illegal or impractical to change. D o n o t d r a w any o t h e r i n h e r i t e d d e v e l o p m e n t s o n these maps because you d o n o t w a n t t h e m to i n f l u e n c e the p l a n n i n g . T h e n , if you d o n ' t already have one, prepare a m a p w i t h all existing d e v e l o p m e n t s (water points, buildings, fences, croplands, roads, w o r k i n g facilities, etc.) m a r k e d o n it. M a k e o n e copy for each p l a n n i n g t e a m and set it aside. E a c h t e a m will be given an o p p o r t u n i t y to create a final plan using this m a p after they have e x h a u s t e d all possibilities w i t h t h e basic maps. W h e r e livestock will be r u n over large tracts of land, there is o n e m o r e t h i n g to prepare. T h e s e are w h a t we refer to as p l a n n i n g circles, circular disks cut f r o m transparent or clear plastic overlay that are scaled to y o u r basic c o n t o u r map. E a c h disk represents t h e acreage you w a n t to i n c l u d e in grazing cells or a r o u n d a given distance to water. If, for e x a m p l e , you w a n t to ensure that livestock have to walk n o f u r t h e r t h a n t w o miles to w a t e r at any time, y o u w o u l d size the circles so that the radius equals t w o miles o n y o u r map. ( M o r e detailed instructions are i n c l u d e d in t h e Holistic Land

Planning

Brief the

Handbook.)

Planners

O n c e you have divided the g r o u p into p l a n n i n g teams, you n e e d to m a k e sure they are clear o n their task. Share those aspects o f y o u r holistic goal w i t h t h e m that will i n f l u e n c e t h e planning, and display a copy of your f u t u r e landscape if you have m a p p e d it. Give a general o v e r v i e w of the m a n a g e m e n t factors you listed in the first phase of p l a n n i n g a n d h o w those relate to t h e d e v e l o p m e n t s b e i n g p l a n n e d . Display o r pass o u t a list of all the infrastructure n e e d e d , so the planners can refer to it t h r o u g h o u t the session. W h e r e livestock are involved, m a k e sure that y o u indicate w h e t h e r h e r d i n g o r f e n c i n g will be e m p h a s i z e d . Ask for a specific n u m b e r of p a d docks o r divisions because high p a d d o c k n u m b e r s in particular affect the siting of water and approaches to it w i t h i n grazing cells. D o this to force the p l a n n i n g teams to l o o k very hard at the t o p o g r a p h y and c o m p l i c a t i o n s in transportation, m o v i n g , h a n d l i n g , a n d w a t e r i n g stock. If you have a vision of 500 u n f e n c e d " p a d d o c k s " in w i n c h cattle are grazed to m a n a g e a national forest, have t h e planners figure o u t h o w to create t h e m so that a n i -

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mals are s e l d o m m o v e d over t h e same g r o u n d w i t h i n a given year, especially as they m o v e to a n d f r o m water.

Create Many Possible

Plans

E a c h of t h e p l a n n i n g teams s h o u l d n o w be asked to create as m a n y possible layouts as they can for t h e infrastructure n e e d e d , b e a r i n g in m i n d all the factors m e n t i o n e d . Provide each t e a m w i t h ten o r m o r e copies of the basic c o n t o u r m a p a n d give t h e m three to f o u r h o u r s to a c c o m p l i s h their task. In creating each plan, they should b e c o n c e r n e d only w i t h t h e layout of m a j o r features, such as grazing areas (not t h e actual subdivisions w i t h in), access to w a t e r f o r livestock, cropfields, w o r k i n g and storage facilities, and landings, or staging areas, w h e r e t i m b e r is b e i n g extracted. M o r e detailed planning, s u c h as t h e siting of individual fences or m i n o r roads, will be d o n e later. For n o w you w a n t t h e participants to avoid c o n c e n t r a t i n g t o o m u c h o n any o n e possible layout because it may close their m i n d s to f u r t h e r possibilities. As s o o n as any t e a m has c a p t u r e d an idea o n o n e o f the maps, set it aside a n d have t h e m start o n a n e w one. A l t h o u g h this is a serious exercise in m a n y respects, it is i m p o r t a n t that each t e a m brings a playful attit u d e to it a n d has f u n in the p r o c e s s . T h e m o r e you can e n c o u r a g e this, t h e m o r e creative and p r o m i s i n g t h e results.

Make One Last Plan Based on Existing

Structures

Finally, at the e n d of t h e day, give each t e a m a c o p y of t h e m a p o n w h i c h all existing physical structures are s h o w n . H a v e t h e m see if they can c r e atively develop a layout for the infrastructure of t h e f u t u r e f r o m the p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n . Make existing

structures

sure you

do this exercise

last because

earlier on will reduce the planners'

an awareness

of the

creativity.

P h a s e 3: D e s i g n a n d S e l e c t t h e I d e a l P l a n In this third phase you will take considerable time to select t h e best plan or to create t h e best o n e by c o m b i n i n g ideas f r o m several. P e o p l e w h o k n o w the land and business well should select o r create t h e ideal plan f r o m the m a n y possibilities already p r o p o s e d . U s e the m a p overlays you m a d e e a r l i e r — t h e o n e illustrating y o u r f u t u r e landscape and those r e c o r d i n g n a t ural and social factors affecting t h e p l a n — t o help you in y o u r selection. If you are p l a n n i n g t h e infrastructure for a national park or forest, y o u will probably have a n u m b e r of additional landscape overlays, representing changes over time, to consider as well. B e f o r e c o m i n g to any conclusions, you should also take i n t o a c c o u n t

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t h e detail that was n o t considered w h e n t h e p l a n n i n g teams created their layouts. F o r e x a m p l e , if m a n y p a d d o c k s are required, certain g r a z i n g cell, or grazing area, layouts will facilitate this w h i l e others m a y n o t . If you have p l a n n e d m a n y small cropfields that will be harvested mechanically, bulk h a n d l i n g f r o m centralized crop collection points, and the r o u t i n e use of livestock in t h e m a n a g e m e n t of the cropfields, certain layouts will e n h a n c e m a n a g e m e n t efficiency w h i l e o t h e r s m i g h t decrease it. In either case you are specifically l o o k i n g f o r layouts that enable y o u to m o v e livestock a n d / o r m a c h i n e r y to almost any p o i n t w i t h o u t constantly m o v i n g over the same g r o u n d . As y o u place t h e overlays over each possible plan, you will b e g i n to see b o t h g o o d and bad features f r o m the p o i n t of v i e w of each c o n s i d e r a t i o n o n the overlay. Q u i t e c o m m o n l y at this p o i n t , you will b e g i n to d r a w up n e w plans that c o m b i n e the best features of the others. B u t d o n ' t r u s h to any final decisions yet. In c o n s i d e r i n g all the possibilities, t h i n k b o t h s h o r t and l o n g t e r m . For e x a m p l e , a capital-intensive layout may lead to h i g h e r s h o r t - t e r m cost b u t m u c h l o w e r l o n g - t e r m o p e r a t i n g costs, a n d vice versa. C a r e f u l t h o u g h t at this stage may also prevent t h e loss of valuable f u t u r e sites to d e v e l o p m e n t . In Z i m b a b w e , for instance, villagers w h o initiated a wildlife t o u r i s m e n t e r prise discovered that t h e campsite f r o m w h i c h they c o u l d earn t h e most revenue was already o c c u p i e d by the facilities of t h e g o v e r n m e n t agency assisting t h e m . H a d they identified potential campsites b e f o r e c o m m i t t i n g to t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of any infrastructure, this c o u l d have b e e n avoided. O n e set of plans you should consider after assessing all o t h e r possibilities are those derived f r o m the m a p s that i n c l u d e d c u r r e n t l y existing develo p m e n t s . If the c u r r e n t layout is i n d e e d t h e best, y o u will n o w c o n f i r m it. If n o t , you n o w k n o w that there is a b e t t e r layout to w h i c h y o u should gradually convert.

Phase 4: Implement Your Plan O n c e you have settled o n t h e ideal plan for the future, y o u can b e g i n t h e gradual process of c h a n g i n g over f r o m t h e old to t h e new. C o m m o n l y the cost of t h e c h a n g e o v e r is a m a j o r limiting factor in t h e rate of change. H o w e v e r if a d e q u a t e m o n e y is available, t h e rate o f c h a n g e n e e d n o t be slow, b u t it should be s o u n d and in line w i t h y o u r holistic goal in every respect. In creating y o u r annual financial plan you will be allocating m o n e y toward t h e desired d e v e l o p m e n t s in a w a y that differs from t h e c o n v e n tional. N o r m a l l y y o u w o u l d regard m o s t of t h e physical structures to b e d e v e l o p e d as capital e x p e n d i t u r e s — t h e capital c o m i n g f r o m y o u r previous earnings or m o r e c o m m o n l y f r o m an outside source that involves repaym e n t w i t h c o m p o u n d interest or high dividends. E v e n t u a l l y capital e x p e n -

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ditures yield a r e t u r n o n the investment, a l t h o u g h there can be s o m e delay b e f o r e this r e t u r n is seen. P r o v i d e d a profit can be penciled in, the capital is usually invested. T h i s a p p r o a c h can be very costly. Fortunately, in m a n y land m a n a g e m e n t businesses, h a v i n g a lot of capital available u p f r o n t is n o m o r e necessary than it is in a small start-up c o m pany r u n o u t of a h o m e . N o d e v e l o p m e n t should cost y o u otitside m o n e y unless you c h o o s e to apply it. O v e r the years, the land itself should b e able to generate most, if n o t all, of the f u n d s you will need. To i m p l e m e n t y o u r plan in such a way, you will have to break it d o w n into the smallest plausible steps and c o m p u t e the cost of each, t h e n d e t e r m i n e t h e s e q u e n c e in w h i c h the d e v e l o p m e n t s n e e d to c o m e on line. E a c h year thereafter, w h e n creating y o u r holistic financial plan, you will decide h o w m u c h you can allocate t o w a r d the land plan. Ideally, n o costs should be i n c u r r e d on any d e v e l o p m e n t until that d e v e l o p m e n t b e c o m e s a wealthgenerating expense (as discussed in the last c h a p t e r ) . T h i s will ensure that each dollar spent on n e w d e v e l o p m e n t s o r on m o v i n g old ones will earn m o r e m o n e y than was spent. I m p l e m e n t i n g y o u r plan in this gradual way, and g e n e r a t i n g the capital to d o it f r o m the land, m e a n s that you can c o n t i n u e to operate at a profit year after year, and that each year the o t h e r needs expressed in y o u r holistic goal c o n t i n u e to be met.

Conclusion M a n y p e o p l e try to avoid any l o n g - t e r m p l a n n i n g of this sort, especially w h e n the land involved has a considerable a m o u n t of infrastructure in place. T h e s e p e o p l e automatically assume that any changes will be very costly. I h o p e , after reading t h r o u g h this o v e r v i e w ot the H o h s t i c Land P l a n n i n g process, that you n o w u n d e r s t a n d that the cost of the p l a n n i n g is very l o w i n d e e d — m a i n l y a few pencils, paper, transparencies, and maps. T h e cost of not p l a n n i n g , however, can easily a m o u n t to h u n d r e d s of t h o u sands, or even millions, of dollars over the years. Likewise, as you g r a d u a l ly i m p l e m e n t y o u r ideal plan, its greater efficiency and soundness will cause i n c o m e to rise and r u n n i n g costs to tall. Few can afford not to plan afresh.

46 Holistic Grazing Planning: Getting Animals to the Right Place, at the Right Time, and for the Right Reasons h e n livestock are i n c l u d e d in the w h o l e you are m a n a g i n g , their m o v e m e n t s m u s t be p l a n n e d . If left in any o n e place t o o long, or if r e t u r n e d to it t o o s o o n , they will overgraze plants and c o m p a c t and pulverize soils. B u t m o r e than this is at s t a k e . T h e w h o l e you are m a n a g i n g includes m u c h m o r e than livestock, a l t h o u g h they will be critical to a c h i e v i n g t h e holistic goal you have f o r m e d . T h e traditional goal of " p r o d u c i n g meat, milk, o r fiber" generally b e c o m e s a b y - p r o d u c t of m o r e p r i m a r y p u r p o s e s — c r e a t i n g a landscape and harvesting sunlight. In t h e process of creating a landscape, you must also plan for t h e needs of wildlife, crops, a n d o t h e r uses, as well as the potential fire o r d r o u g h t . To harvest the m a x i m u m a m o u n t of sunlight, you have to decrease the a m o u n t of bare g r o u n d and increase the mass of plants. You must t i m e livestock p r o d u c t i o n cycles to the cycles o f nature, m a r k e t d e m a n d s , and y o u r o w n abilities. If profit f r o m livestock is specified in y o u r holistic goal, you will n e e d to f a c t o r that in too. At times y o u must favor the needs of the livestock, at times the needs of wildlife o r the needs of plants. Because so m a n y factors are involved, and because they are always c h a n g i n g , m o s t p e o p l e t h r o w up their hands at the idea of p l a n n i n g for t h e m . O n e can easily be swayed by those w h o say you can i g n o r e all t h e variables—you'll do all right if you just w a t c h the animals a n d the grass or if you j u s t keep y o u r animals rotating t h r o u g h the pastures. W h a t a relief! You hate p l a n n i n g anyway. B u t c h o o s i n g to i g n o r e t h e w h o l e , and the m a n y variables that i n f l u e n c e it, is n o t t h e answer. In this case w h a t you d o n ' t k n o w can h u r t y o u . A n d h u r t you plenty. T h e H o h s t i c G r a z i n g P l a n n i n g p r o c e d u r e described in this c h a p t e r is 501

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an adaptation of a f o r m a l military p l a n n i n g p r o c e d u r e d e v e l o p e d over h u n d r e d s of years to enable t h e h u m a n m i n d to h a n d l e m a n y variables in a constantly c h a n g i n g , a n d o f t e n stressful, e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e t e c h n i q u e reduces incredible c o m p l e x i t y s t e p - b y - s t e p to absolute simplicity. It allows y o u to focus o n t h e necessary details, o n e at a time, w i t h o u t losing sight of the w h o l e o r of w h a t y o u h o p e to achieve in yoLir holistic goal. E a c h of the factors i n f l u e n c i n g y o u r p l a n — w h e n y o u e x p e c t to b r e e d and w e a n , w h e n a n d w h e r e areas will be covered in s n o w or t h r e a t e n e d by fire, w h e n and w h e r e a n t e l o p e are d r o p p i n g their y o u n g , w h e n and w h e r e g r o u n d - n e s t i n g birds are laying, w h e n and w h e r e you will n e e d to create herd effect, or graze or trample a cropfield, e t c . — a r e r e c o r d e d o n a chart. This provides a clear picture of w h e r e livestock n e e d to b e and w h e n , and this d e t e r m i n e s h o w y o u plan their moves. A g o o d plan can deploy livestock to r e d u c e or cure excessive g r o w t h of p r o b l e m plants, r e d u c e b r u s h and r e m o v e its causes, heal a gully, m a i n t a i n wildlife habitat, or decrease g r a s s h o p p e r b r e e d i n g sites, and at the same time p r o d u c e a high v o l u m e of forage and quality animal products. As m o s t livestock o w n e r s list profitability in their holistic goals, their stock must e n j o y the best possible plane of n u t r i t i o n a n d the least possible n e e d for s u p p l e m e n t a r y feed. P l a n n i n g m u s t also routinely h a n d l e u n e x p e c t e d fires, flash floods, droughts, p o i s o n o u s plant infestations, a n d o t h e r catastrophes. In l o w - a n d erratic rainfall e n v i r o n m e n t s , d r o u g h t s are n o t an u n k n o w n ; they are predictable m o r e than half the years and thus can be p l a n n e d for. T h e list c o n t i n u e s almost w i t h o u t e n d , b u t Holistic G r a z i n g P l a n n i n g requires c o n s i d e r a t i o n of all factors simultaneously. Jokes aside a b o u t n o t b e i n g able to walk a n d c h e w g u m at the same time, t h e h u m a n brain has difficulty w o r k i n g o n t w o t h o u g h t s at o n c e , and large n u m b e r s of animals, extensive tracts of land, and l o n g periods o f t i m e are particularly hard to conceptualize, even singly. Clearly, a m e t h o d i c a l p l a n n i n g process, on paper, offers t h e only h o p e in m o s t situations. H o w e v e r , because m a n y parts of the w o r l d are u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e of illiterate livestock operators, there is a greatly simplified version of this p r o c e d u r e that requires n o paper, b u t a great deal of k n o w l e d g e of t h e land a n d livestock. I will t o u c h o n this briefly later. In this c h a p t e r I have limited the discussion to the principles involved in Holistic G r a z i n g P l a n n i n g , rather than t h e details. S t u d y these principles first, a n d t h e n refer to The Holistic Grazing Planning Handbook for t h e stepby-step instructions o n d e v e l o p i n g y o u r o w n plan.

The Planning Approach A large p e r c e n t a g e of the f a r m e r s and ranchers w h o have heard m y case for p l a n n i n g have v o l u n t e e r e d vigorous a r g u m e n t s w h y their o w n situation

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makes it impossible for t h e m to d o it. " T o o m a n y things c h a n g e all the time," goes the excuse, o r " I ' m a practical p e r s o n and have to be able to m a k e decisions o n e day, and c h a n g e t h e m t h e next." W h a t they d o n o t u n d e r s t a n d is that p l a n n i n g is n o t an event and that n o plan can b e rigid. P l a n n i n g m u s t b e c o m e a process that i n c o r p o r a t e s m o d i f i c a t i o n s based o n c o n t i n u o u s f e e d b a c k . If w e k n e w h o w e v e r y t h i n g w o u l d t u r n o u t , w e w o u l d n o t n e e d to plan at all. T h e only reason w e n e e d to plan is because w e can't be sure w h a t will h a p p e n next. W h e n I e n c o u n t e r e d such remarks as a consultant in Africa, and p e r haps because so m u c h of my life was tied u p in war at t h e time, I c o u l d n o t help m a k i n g c o m p a r i s o n s w i t h armies. W h a t w o u l d a general t h i n k of a brigade c o m m a n d e r in the field w h o gave t h e same reasons for n o t p l a n ning? " W h a t d o you m e a n plan, sir? I d o n ' t k n o w w h a t the hell the enemy's g o i n g to d o next. I ' m a practical soldier. I j u s t deal w i t h w h a t e v er c o m e s w h e n it gets here." W a r had its o w n ways of e l i m i n a t i n g such attitLides if the general d i d n't, and e c o n o m i c reality, like war, culls f a r m e r s and ranchers w h o d o n o t plan. Slowly b u t surely they fall by the wayside, b l a m i n g droughts, prices, and e v e r y t h i n g b u t themselves. A really professional soldier understands that t h e w o r s e and m o r e unpredictable events b e c o m e , t h e m o r e he must plan. A f t e r researching the p r o c e d u r e s of m a n y professions, t h e parallels b e t w e e n a g r i c u l t u r e and t h e military still impress m e . Like farmers, g e n e r als m u s t k n o w n o t only h o w to plan t h o r o u g h l y b u t also h o w to replan instantly if all s h o u l d fad. In addition, they have had to face the p r o b l e m of large civilian call-ups and the n e e d to train p e o p l e rapidly in p l a n n i n g t e c h n i q u e s . W h o l e nations have over c e n t u r i e s e m p l o y e d s o m e of their best brains to perfect such t e c h n i q u e s . M y a c a d e m i c specialty, biology, had n o history of forward p l a n n i n g . M u c h of the business p l a n n i n g that is taught in schools has b e c o m e very academic and requires considerable training before it can be mastered. C o n s e q u e n t l y I have taken the simple p l a n n i n g p r o c e d u r e d e v e l o p e d at the R o y a l Military A c a d e m y at Sandhurst, E n g l a n d , and adapted it to b i o l o g i cal use. It thus represents several h u n d r e d years of e x p e r i e n c e in fields of battle, and several decades of use in a g r i c u l t u r e have s h o w n t h e same a p p r o a c h to be j u s t as effective in m a n a g i n g c o m p l e x land, wildlife, and livestock situations.

The Aide Memoire Because so m a n y factors i n f l u e n c e any plan, y o u c a n n o t tackle t h e m all at once, b u t as a n y o n e w h o has reassembled a c o m p l i c a t e d m a c h i n e k n o w s , p u t t i n g things in a s e q u e n c e that is n o t carefully p l a n n e d has risks too.

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Toward t h e e n d of t h e j o b you discover a piece that w o n ' t fit w i t h o u t t h e disassembly of half the day's w o r k , or worse, a piece that appears i m p o r t a n t but remains in t h e parts b u c k e t w h e n you're ready to clean up and go home. T h e expression used at S a n d h u r s t for a g u i d e that prevents those p r o b lems is aide m e m o i r e , w h i c h is derived f r o m the F r e n c h for " m e m o r y aid."This is m u c h m o r e than a simple checklist because it gives a s e q u e n c e f o r m a k i n g decisions that takes into a c c o u n t the effect of o n e decision on a n o t h e r . T h e questions raised in the aide m e m o i r e are generally q u i t e broad and d e m a n d a g o o d deal of creative, detailed t h o u g h t , and they are arranged in a specific o r d e r so that the answers build u p o n o n e a n o t h e r . T h e specific aide m e m o i r e used for Holistic G r a z i n g P l a n n i n g has u n d e r g o n e over thirty years of a d j u s t m e n t and d e v e l o p m e n t by ranchers, farmers, foresters, wildlifers, tribal people, and o t h e r s using livestock to sustain themselves a n d / o r achieve holistic goals. Every situation a n d p r o b l e m e x p e r i e n c e d by thousands of p e o p l e on several c o n t i n e n t s has i n f l u e n c e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e aide. E v e n now, if a practitioner e n c o u n t e r s a p r o b l e m n o t anticipated by it, w e (the C e n t e r for Holistic M a n a g e m e n t ) m o d i f y it at once, a d d i n g a f o o t n o t e or c h a n g i n g a s e q u e n c e to cover that case. A m a i n b e n e f i t of p l a n n i n g a c c o r d i n g to such a tested p r o c e d u r e is peace of m i n d . U s i n g the aide y o u can truly relax in the m o s t a l a r m i n g situations, have c o n f i d e n c e in t h e process, and c o n c e n t r a t e fully on o n e step at a time w i t h o u t w o r r y i n g a b o u t s o m e t h i n g that m i g h t c o m e first or get left o u t . A t each step y o u record y o u r w o r k o n a grazing p l a n n i n g chart, w i p e that f r o m y o u r m i n d and m o v e on to the next. Because your wind can handle

only one thing

have completed

at a time, you concentrate

the step, you forget

about

only on what

it completely

is asked.

and concentrate

Once

you

in turn

on

the next. In d o i n g so, y o u will find that the overall plan that e m e r g e s has covered every i m a g i n a b l e detail in a logical fashion a n d represents the best plan possible f o r t h e present. T h i s ability to c o n c e n t r a t e c o m p l e t e l y and c o n f i d e n t l y on o n e p o i n t at a t i m e bears fruit, particularly in e m e r g e n c i e s w h e n a t e n d e n c y to panic a n d to lose focus can destroy y o u . T h i s p o i n t c a m e h o m e forcefully to m e w h e n I got a call o n e night f r o m a client in Z i m b a b w e after a fire h a d raged t h r o u g h a b o u t half of his very fine ranch. It h a d struck w o r s t in the areas w h e r e he had w a t e r f o r stock b u t spared s o m e areas w h e r e w a t e r points had already d r i e d up. H e n e e d e d advice o n w h e t h e r to lease land to get h i m t h r o u g h the season or destock, and, if t h e latter, by h o w m u c h . W h e n he m e t m e at t h e local airstrip h e was eager to take m e off to see t h e b u r n e d area a n d the cattle as soon as possible, b u t I asked to see his grazing plan. " N o , " he said. H o w c o u l d that help, if I had n o t seen the fire d a m a g e or his livestock? H e got e x t r e m e l y h o t at the suggestion that o n e m o r e l o o k at b l a c k e n e d g r o u n d and idle cattle w o u l d waste

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505

m y t i m e and his money, so perhaps h e had rather m u d d l e t h r o u g h by h i m self. H e did n o t of c o u r s e have a plan. T h e various charts w e had d e v e l o p e d t o g e t h e r had disappeared, but by luck his w i f e retrieved the aide m e m o i r e , reeking of t o m c a t , f r o m the b o t t o m of her son's toy chest. I g o t o u t s o m e fresh charts and insisted, against vigorous protest, that w e n o w plan step by step. Gradually, however, his protests w e a k e n e d as a picture of his ranch b e g a n to e m e r g e o n the p l a n n i n g chart h e had b e e n t a u g h t h o w to use b u t had n o t t h o u g h t i m p o r t a n t . His enthusiasm really began to m o u n t after w e laid o u t all the problems and began to plot actual cattle moves. It was a very sheepish m a n w h o finally a c c o m p a n i e d m e to t h e b u r n e d areas to c o n f i r m s o m e final j u d g m e n t s . W i t h o u t any i n p u t f r o m me, o t h e r than the k n o w l e d g e that the longer h e p u t off p l a n n i n g , the m o r e h o u r s I w o u l d add to my bill, h e had proved to himself o n p a p e r (followed by a c o u p l e of final field checks), that he could carry his w h o l e herd t h r o u g h w i t h o u t risk o r leased pasture. In a c o u p l e of h o u r s of p l a n n i n g , he had saved m a n y t h o u s a n d s of dollars. In ranching, sad to say, losses d u e to lack of p l a n n i n g are the rule, n o t the e x c e p t i o n . T h a t stems only in part f r o m i g n o r a n c e of t h e p l a n n i n g tools available. In the m a i n , it stems f r o m a l i f e - t h r e a t e n i n g allergy to paper that u n f o r t u n a t e l y afflicts m a n y p e o p l e besides ranchers. It is an allergy they will fail to o v e r c o m e unless they develop s o m e real o w n e r s h i p in their holistic goal. Obviously, Holistic G r a z i n g P l a n n i n g ties in closely to the l o n g - t e r m land p l a n n i n g discussed in C h a p t e r 45. For instance, a c o m m o n c o n c e r n for stream banks d a m a g e d by years of livestock p r e s e n c e can be addressed t h r o u g h a c o m b i n a t i o n of a f e n c i n g o r h e r d i n g p a t t e r n developed especially for riparian m a n a g e m e n t and the grazing p l a n n i n g just described.

The Planning Chart As you cover each step in the aide m e m o i r e , you record the details o n the p l a n n i n g chart, the principles of w h i c h are s h o w n in figure 4 6 - 1 (details a r e i n c l u d e d i n t h e Holistic

Grazing

Planning

Handbook).

T h e b o d y of the chart is divided i n t o s e v e n - m o n t h sections for the sake of size b u t across the chart smaller divisions a c c o u n t for time d o w n to the day. T h e rows represent areas of land, p a d d o c k s in a fenced cell, o r m a j o r grazing areas w h e r e portable f e n c i n g o r h e r d i n g is used. In this m a i n p l a n n i n g p o r t i o n c o v e r i n g b o t h days and areas of land, all p r o b l e m s and needs can b e s h o w n by c o l o r - c o d e d marks. O r a n g e shading in p a d d o c k 3 in May m i g h t s h o w p o i s o n o u s plant danger. B r o w n in p a d d o c k 4 in A u g u s t m i g h t s h o w lack of water. R e d in N o v e m b e r m i g h t s h o w p r i m e h u n t i n g sites. T h e n , w i t h i n the c o n t e x t of all these factors, you plan the livestock m o v e s

506

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PLANNING PROCEDURES U N I Q U E TO HOLISTIC

Time in Days

I

>

Main body of chart on which most details are recorded - problems, landscape needs, wildlife, crops, timber, weather, etc., and finally the actual livestock moves.

Figure 46-1

MANAGEMENT

The layout, in principle, of the grazing planning

Planning Figures and Calculations

chart.

in a rational way, using the slowest moves that the stock are likely to m a k e in p e r i o d s of slow daily plant g r o w t h . W h e r e grazing " r o t a t i o n s " are n o r m a l l y p l a n n e d o n grazing periods a n d p l a n n e d f o r w a r d in the sense that f r o m a certain p a d d o c k the animals will go to a n o t h e r a n d t h e n a n o t h e r , m o s t c o m m o n l y in a clockwise rotation, this p l a n n i n g is v e r y different. First of all, t h e emphasis is o n t h e p l a n n i n g of recovery periods, rather than grazing p e r i o d s . T h i s is o n e reason a chart is required: recovery p e r i o d s s h o w up only w h e n p l o t t e d o n a chart. S e c o n d , and especially over critical m o n t h s for the animals, moves are plotted backivards. You first reserve certain areas for t h e animals at crucial times, and then indicate o n t h e chart w h e r e t h e animals w o u l d have to c o m e f r o m to get there, and so o n , backwards. A t t h e base of t h e chart and o n t h e left- and r i g h t - h a n d sides are space and f o r m a t for various p l a n n i n g figures a n d c a l c u l a t i o n s . T h e latter include p r o c e d u r e s for s h o r t e n i n g grazing periods d u r i n g times w h e n rapid plant g r o w t h is indicated by t h e daily m o n i t o r i n g that is required w h e n p a d d o c k n u m b e r s are f e w and thus grazing p e r i o d s long. Figures s h o w i n g p l a n n e d and actual animal days p e r a c r e / h e c t a r e ( A D A / H ) of forage harvested d u r i n g e a c h grazing p e r i o d a c c o m p a n y entries for each p a d d o c k o n t h e m a i n b o d y of t h e chart, s h o w i n g at a glance h o w m u c h o n average every a c r e / h e c t a r e of g r o u n d is r e q u i r e d to c o n t r i b u t e to total forage c o n s u m e d . T h a t allows for f i n e - t u n i n g f u t u r e plans and provides increasingly accurate assessments of forage availability.

When Do You Plan? Holistic G r a z i n g P l a n n i n g by d e f i n i t i o n requires that y o u plan, m o n i t o r progress continuously, control deviations as soon as possible, and replan w h e n e v e r necessary. Nevertheless, a l t h o u g h this p l a n - m o n i t o r - c o n t r o l -

46

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507

r e p l a n s e q u e n c e p r o c e e d s w i t h o u t gaps a n d covers e m e r g e n c y situations, n o r m a l p r a c t i c e in livestock o p e r a t i o n s calls f o r m a j o r p l a n n i n g t w i c e a year in m o s t climates. M a k e t h e first p l a n at least a m o n t h b e f o r e t h e o n s e t o f t h e m a i n g r o w i n g season. In this p l a n , y o u are t r y i n g to g r o w as m u c h f o r a g e as possible a n d y o u d o n o t have to plan to a specific date. T h e p l a n r e m a i n s o p e n , b e c a u s e y o u d o n o t k n o w w h e n g r o w t h will slow o r e n d o r e x a c t l y h o w m u c h f o r a g e will g r o w b e f o r e that date. M a k e t h e s e c o n d p l a n t o w a r d t h e e n d o f t h e g r o w i n g season, w h e n f o r age reserves available f o r t h e n o n g r o w t h p e r i o d b e c o m e k n o w n . In this p l a n , y o u r a t i o n o u t t h e f o r a g e o v e r t h e m o n t h s a h e a d to a t h e o r e t i c a l e n d p o i n t , w h i c h s h o u l d b e a m o n t h o r m o r e a f t e r y o u r m o s t pessimistic estimate of w h e n n e w growth could occur. T h i s a d d i t i o n a l " m o n t h or m o r e " b e c o m e s y o u r drought reserve. F i g u r e 4 6 - 2 illustrates t h e o p e n - a n d c l o s e d - e n d e d plan p r i n c i p l e , s h o w i n g h o w t h e t i m e reserve f o r d r o u g h t fits in. In s o m e r e g i o n s w h e r e rainfall is v e r y l o w a n d unreliable, t h e r e m a y b e a m a j o r overlap o f t h e

Closed Plan

Open-Ended Plan 1

II ^f&k,

- ' ' '

„•

I

B

C

1

Growing Season • Forage volume progressively increasing

Dormant Season Forage volume

Reserve Drought reserve forage being used or new growth and new plan under way

F i g u r e 4 6 - 2 The growing season plan is open-ended because you don't know when growth will end or exactly how much forage will grow before that date. The dormant (nongrowing) season plan goes into effect once growth stops (point A). It is a closed plan in that you are rationing out a known amount offorage over a specific period of time from A to B), which should extend a month or more later than your most pessimistic estimate of when new growth could occur. This additional time from B to C) is the drought reserve.

508

PART I X

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P L A N N I N G PROCEDURES U N I Q U E TO H O L I S T I C

MANAGEMENT

d r o u g h t reserve in the closed plan and t h e start of the n e x t o p e n plan d u e to the necessity of m a k i n g d r o u g h t reserves e x t e n d to as l o n g as a year o r more.

Record Keeping T h e record of actual grazing times and animal days per a c r e / h e c t a r e ( A D A / H ) harvested plus the w e a t h e r and g r o w t h rate i n f o r m a t i o n set d o w n o n the chart should p r o v i d e all the i n f o r m a t i o n n e e d e d for f u t u r e p l a n n i n g and will give an excellent picture of the strengths and w e a k nesses of each part of t h e land. T h a t b e n e f i t n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , professional grazing advisors f o l l o w i n g my w o r k f r e q u e n t l y fall into the mistake of t u r n i n g the p l a n n i n g chart into n o t h i n g b u t a record of the past, d r o p p i n g the aide m e m o i r e and all f o r ward planning. T h i s is fatal. In fact m o s t r e c o r d k e e p i n g that I have c o m e across o n f a r m s and ranches yields little profit for the t i m e and e f f o r t given to it. N o t i n f r e q u e n t l y the least profitable ranches had the most c o m p l e t e records to satisfy their advisors. T h u s , the grazing c h a r t w i t h o u t t h e aide m e m o i r e is just a waste of paper. I c a n n o t m a k e this p o i n t strongly e n o u g h . P l a n n i n g is like l o o k i n g f o r ward t h r o u g h t h e windshield of y o u r car to see w h e r e you w a n t to go, m o n i t o r i n g for curves that may p u t you in t h e ditch, and controlling speed, gears, and steering to k e e p you o n t h e road until you reach y o u r destination. Obviously, you c a n n o t d o this efficiently facing backwards. Excessive record k e e p i n g is like gazing o u t t h e rear w i n d o w to savor w h e r e you have b e e n , w h e n all you really n e e d is a p e r i o d i c glance in the rearview mirror.

Assessing Stocking Rates M a n y critics have charged that Holistic G r a z i n g P l a n n i n g ignores t h e fact that a given piece of land can feed only a limited n u m b e r of creatures.This m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g arises because w e d o n o t base s t o c k i n g rates o n the c o n ventional criteria. Based o n t h e old belief that linked overgrazing to high animal n u m b e r s , scientists d e v e l o p e d a variety of m e t h o d s for d e t e r m i n i n g s t o c k i n g rates. T h e s e m e t h o d s c o m m o n l y linked animal n u m b e r s to the physiology of i m p o r t a n t grasses in ways that required a g o o d deal of e x p e r tise and subjective j u d g m e n t . T h e discovery that overgrazing reflects timing, n o t n u m b e r s , m e a n s that w e n o w d e t e r m i n e s t o c k i n g rate by m u c h m o r e straightforward criteria, chiefly t h e v o l u m e of forage, t h e time it m u s t last, and the holistic goal. A l m o s t by accident I hit o n a way to m a k e this assessment u n d e r n o r m a l w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s in t h e field.

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In the midst of a d r o u g h t in Africa I got an e m e r g e n c y call to assist a ranch o w n e r and t w o managers in d e c i d i n g h o w m u c h to destock. All the way to the assignment I puzzled over ways to add a n y t h i n g to the c o n s i d erable k n o w l e d g e these three m u s t already have of their land and local climate. As an outside advisor, I could only fall back o n the theoretical assumptions used in planning, but to everyone's relief they proved p e r f e c t ly s o u n d in practice. If o n e can c o m p u t e h o w m a n y A D A / H of forage a herd will require for a w h o l e season, t h e n o n e can also figure out h o w m a n y animals a single a c r e / h e c t a r e m u s t feed for o n e day. In this case the 15,000-acre ranch had 9 5 0 head of cattle, and f r o m the b e g i n n i n g of the dry season they faced at least 180 days of n o g r o w t h and conceivably 40 m o r e in a hard luck situation. N o one, n o m a t t e r h o w e x p e r i e n c e d , can visualize that m a n y acres, cattle, and days simultaneously. H o w e v e r , a q u i c k calculation shows that, i n c l u d i n g the d r o u g h t reserve time, forage d e m a n d w o r k s o u t to 13.9 A D A . W e w e n t o u t on the land and began to pace off a r a n d o m sampling of o n e - a c r e plots and asked ourselves, " C o u l d this acre feed 14 cows for a day o n t h e forage here n o w ? " Consistently w e agreed it could. N e x t w e s a m pled k n o w n p o o r e r areas and c a m e to the same happy conclusion. In the e n d , the evidence p o i n t e d against any r e d u c t i o n at all. N o n e was m a d e and all w e n t well. F o l l o w i n g this e x p e r i e n c e , w h i c h p r e v e n t e d t h e loss of t h o u s a n d s of dollars t h r o u g h unnecessary r e d u c t i o n , w e refined the t e c h n i q u e so that w e only had to assess the area required to teed o n e animal for o n e day. Figure 4 6 - 3 shows the calculations (using b o t h A m e r i c a n a n d m e t r i c figures). If o n e acre (or 4 , 0 4 8 square yards) must feed 13.9 cows for a day, t h e n 3 4 8 . 2 square yards m u s t feed 1 c o w for o n e day. T h e square root of this ( f o r t u nately m o s t calculators have a square r o o t b u t t o n ) is 18.6.You only have to pace off a square a b o u t 19 yards o n a side and j u d g e w h e t h e r it w o u l d feed a c o w for a day. T h e weaknesses in this t e c h n i q u e are almost entirely d u e to a h u m a n t e n d e n c y to fudge, first in selecting samples and t h e n in j u d g i n g t h e m . A truly r a n d o m sample will include every kind of area—roads, hillsides, and brush. If y o u r way of selecting samples does n o t allow for that, t h e n b e f o r e you start, r e d u c e the total acreage by the a m o u n t of land tied u p in roads and r o u g h c o u n t r y that you d o n ' t intend to measure. Likewise, in j u d g i n g each sample, set yourself u p to err o n the c o n s e r vative side. First, "estimate like a cow." I m a g i n e yourself w i t h a large bag a r o u n d y o u r n e c k and the j o b of filling it in eight h o u r s using o n l y o n e h a n d by p i c k i n g leafy material a w h o l e handful at a time. A cow, having teeth only in the lower jaw, c a n n o t pick individual leaves and will avoid taking old oxidizing stems a m o n g the leaves. If you i m a g i n e any difficulty in this task, then a c o w w o u l d probably

American Ranch size: 15,000 acres Herd: 950 animals Days of dormancy: 180 Plus reserve of 40 days = 220 days

Metric Ranch size: 6,073 hectares Herd: 950 animals Days of dormancy: 180 Plus reserve of 40 days = 220 days

Animal days per acre/hectare of forage required:

950 animals x 220 days = 13-9 ADA

950 animals x 220 days = 34.4 ADH

15,000 acres

6,073 hectares

Therefore, a square of 1 acre must be

Therefore, a square of 1 hectare must

able to provide enough forage for

be able to provide enough forage for

13.9 animals today.

3 4 . 4 animals today.

-69.57-

-100-

= 1 acre or 4,840 sq. yards

T 69.57

r

= 1 hectare or 10,000 sq. meters

100

If this is the case then the area of land needed to provide forage for 1 animal today is:

4,840 = 348.2 sq. yards 13.9

10,000 = 290.7 sq. meters 34.4

n/34872 = 18.6 (square root)

\f 290.7 = 17 meters (square root)

18.6 —•

T

18.6 x 18.6 yards

I

Must feed 1 animal for 1 day

18.6

T

17 4

«-17-> 17 x 17 meters Must feed 1 animal for 1 day

F i g u r e 4 6 - 3 Assessing the forage required to feed one animal for one day.

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511

have trouble, too. Again, to k e e p all errors o n the safe side, fail t h e sample if you hesitate even a m o m e n t . In o t h e r words, if you c a n n o t instantly see that full bag w h e n you l o o k at the sample, record it as deficient. If it is sheep, horses, pigs, o r any o t h e r animal y o u are r u n n i n g , you can m a k e a similar j u d g m e n t . You w o u l d have to m a k e allowances for t h e fact that horses have teeth o n b o t h j a w s and can bite plants r i g h t to g r o u n d level; and t h e n a r r o w m o u t h s of sheep o r goats can nibble t h e leaves and get d o w n i n t o c l u m p s of old material that a c o w c a n n o t , and so o n . A n d r e Voisin first used this idea of filling the bag in evaluating n o n b r i t tle pastures, but I have f o u n d it to be of even greater value in evaluating t h e m o r e brittle rangelands. For all its apparent crudity, it yields very g o o d results. At training sessions, w e inevitably have academics w h o suggest that t h e grass be clipped, w e i g h e d , and recorded, b u t w e d o n o t e n c o u r a g e that for several reasons: •

Cattle and other livestock do not clip grass. T h e i r grazing far more resembles a human's harvesting by the handful and avoiding old stems.

•

R a n c h e r s will not, and often cannot, clip, dry, and weigh grass, but they can make good estimates by eye "like a cow."

•

Clipping and weighing, t h o u g h perhaps less subjective in terms of o n e sample, takes time, and thus reduces the n u m b e r of samples. M o r e sample j u d g m e n t s by eye, even if less precise, yield a more accurate overall picture.

In addition, y o u will find w i t h e x p e r i e n c e that you can vary t h e q u e s tion to suit y o u r o w n needs. Given lactating cows it m i g h t go, " W o u l d this sample feed o n e c o w v e r y well?" In a n o t h e r case it m i g h t go, " W i l l it keep a steer alive?" o r " W h a t c o u l d a p r o n g h o r n find t o m o r r o w , after t h e c o w has g o n e ? " The

Holistic

Grazing

Planning

Handbook

adds embellishments

to

this

general m e t h o d f o r assessing s t o c k i n g rates given a p r o l o n g e d d o r m a n t p e r i o d . T h e same t e c h n i q u e s , however, will w o r k d u r i n g the g r o w i n g season, even t h o u g h r e g r o w t h o c c u r s b e t w e e n grazings. R e g r o w t h makes the p r o b l e m tricky, however, because o n e c a n n o t predict t o m o r r o w ' s weather. D u r i n g t h e g r o w i n g season w h e n a h e r d depletes t h e forage in a given p a d d o c k b e f o r e you plan to m o v e t h e m , this signals a w a r n i n g that t h e s t o c k i n g rate m a y be t o o h i g h o r the grazing p e r i o d t o o l o n g for t h e size of t h e p a d d o c k . You c o u l d of c o u r s e ease t h e situation by c u t t i n g grazing days f r o m a p o o r p a d d o c k and a d d i n g t h e m to a b e t t e r o n e . H o w e v e r , a series of slightly s h o r t e n e d grazing p e r i o d s add up to a m u c h s h o r t e r recovery p e r i o d ; a n d in slow g r o w t h c o n d i t i o n s , that ensures that m a n y

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plants will b e overgrazed, t h e m o s t c o m m o n d o w n f a l l of rotational g r a z ing schemes. K n o w i n g that there are only t w o factors responsible for the a m o u n t of forage taken o u t of a p a d d o c k (the n u m b e r of animals and the a m o u n t of t i m e spent in each p a d d o c k ) helps you to assess w h e t h e r or n o t you are overstocked. If y o u find, for instance, that you will r u n o u t of forage b e f o r e t h e animals are d u e to leave a p a d d o c k , it m e a n s that y o u have either t o o m a n y animals or have allotted t o o m a n y days of grazing to that p a d d o c k . If in t h e latter case y o u c a n n o t r e d u c e the n u m b e r of grazing days w i t h o u t overgrazing plants (because recovery p e r i o d s w o u l d b e c o m e t o o s h o r t and animals w o u l d r e t u r n t o o soon), t h e n y o u may b e overstocked. If t h e p r o b l e m occurs only in o n e p a d d o c k t h e n y o u probably m i s j u d g e d t h e p a d d o c k , and may n o t be c a r r y i n g t o o m a n y animals overall. B u t if it shows u p in several paddocks, t h e n you are almost certainly overstocked. B y m i n i m i z i n g time, you leave only o n e variable to j u d g e , animal n u m b e r s . In this way s t o c k i n g rates can be checked at any t i m e of year o n the basis of forage available at the time. S u p p o s e for e x a m p l e that y o u m a d e this c h e c k m i d w a y t h r o u g h a very d r y s u m m e r and f o u n d that the n e x t f e w p a d d o c k s y o u r h e r d was d u e to e n t e r did n o t have e n o u g h forage f o r even t h e shortest foreseeable grazing p e r i o d . T h a t w o u l d indicate overs t o c k i n g even

if ideal conditions

return

tomorrow.

So you w o u l d

immediately

replan c o n s i d e r i n g all y o u r alternatives to f i n d t h e o n e that w o u l d advance y o u toward y o u r holistic goal.

Basing Stocking

Rates on Annual

Rainfall

S o m e ranchers and grazing consultants have tried to use r u n n i n g averages o f actual precipitation to d e t e r m i n e s t o c k i n g rates. T h e figure includes t h e rainfall received over several of the past years and as each n e w year's rainfall total is added, t h e last is d r o p p e d . T h i s is an appealing strategy, b u t it breaks d o w n for t h e simple reason that r u n n i n g averages of actual rainfall d o n o t reflect the effectiveness of that rainfall, w h i c h d e p e n d s o n m a n y factors. S o m e years ago, I had a c h a n c e to d e m o n s t r a t e this p o i n t in t h e field to a g r o u p o f W o r l d B a n k officials o n a t o u r of a Texas r a n c h . T h e n i g h t b e f o r e their arrival, a s o a k i n g rain fell over the entire area. W e first visited three sites w h e r e we had used h i g h animal i m p a c t w i t h a large herd and m a n y p a d d o c k s for one, two, and three years, respectively. T h e n w e l o o k e d at an area p r o t e c t e d f r o m livestock f o r m a n y years. I claimed that grass in the last area had p o o r c o l o r d u e to the l o w effectiveness of the previous night's rain, b u t the visitors did n o t believe it. To settle t h e question, and so I w o u l d n ' t bias the result, I had t h e m pick c l u m p s of g r e e n g r o w i n g grass themselves f r o m all f o u r areas and arrange

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t h e m in o r d e r a l o n g t h e r o a d s i d e . T h e y did in fact range f r o m pale to quite a rich g r e e n a c c o r d i n g to the t r e a t m e n t o n the place w h e r e they grew, a l t h o u g h all were the same species and had received t h e same rain. H a d s t o c k i n g rate b e e n based o n v o l u m e of rain, it w o u l d have b e e n meaningless, as t h e resultant g r o w t h was so different in four close areas receiving t h e same rain b u t different m a n a g e m e n t . H a d w e based o u r j u d g m e n t o n effectiveness of rain, w e w o u l d have r e c o m m e n d e d a stock r e d u c tion in t h e area that had n o stock. T h e only realistic means of assessing s t o c k i n g rates is o n t h e actual forage g r o w n in every season, w h i c h will be d e t e r m i n e d in large part by t h e effectiveness of t h e w a t e r cycle.

Conflicts

with

Wildlife

H o h s t i c G r a z i n g P l a n n i n g also helps to o v e r c o m e t h e age-old conflict b e t w e e n wildlife and livestock, that widespread d e s t r u c t i o n of wildlife habitat by c o m m e r c i a l grazing interests has m a d e a political issue. T h e p l a n n e d grazing of c o n c e n t r a t e d herds gives positive c o n t r o l over w h e r e t h e livestock go o n any given day a n d takes into a c c o u n t all of the k n o w n wildlife needs (nesting, cover, habitat, b r e e d i n g privacy, etc.) so that livestock will n o t disturb crucial areas at critical times. T h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of herds m e a n s that m o s t sites have n o livestock present up to 90 p e r c e n t of the t i m e a n d even t h e n , w h e r e they are has b e e n carefully p l a n n e d c o n sidering all factors. Fitting in wildlife considerations seldom presents as m u c h difficulty as m a n y p e o p l e fear. T h e o n e weakness remains t h e p r o b l e m of assessing the n u m b e r s of wild grazers o r browsers reliably e n o u g h to use in planning, as C h a p t e r 42 explained. Sex and age structures provide s o m e h a n d l e for m a n a g e m e n t , b u t in terms of actual n u m b e r s and s t o c k i n g rates, w e can only m a k e e d u cated guesses on t h e basis of t h e animals' c o n d i t i o n , vegetation bulk, and e v i d e n c e of b r o w s i n g t h r o u g h o u t the year. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , a l t h o u g h p e o p l e can easily learn to observe signs of o v e r b r o w s i n g by wildlife, it is n o t as easy to d e t e c t overgrazing by t h e m . Also, a l t h o u g h the f o r m e r quickly leads to high mortality a m o n g j u v e n i l e browsers that c a n n o t reach as high as adults, overgrazing does n o t have this effect because even the y o u n g e s t can reach t h e g r o u n d . T h i s area requires research o n better m a n a g e m e n t t e c h n i q u e s , but w h e n that bears fruit, t h e grazing p l a n n i n g process o u t h n e d h e r e can p u t t h e n e w k n o w l e d g e to w o r k .

Planning without Paper Millions of hectares of land are today o c c u p i e d by p e o p l e a t t e m p t i n g to subsist, to varying degrees, o n grazing stock. W i t h f e w e x c e p t i o n s these lands are u n d e r c o m m u n a l o w n e r s h i p o r tenure, rather than privately held,

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are located in brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , a n d are rapidly t u r n i n g to desert. M a n y o f the p e o p l e involved are unlikely to have t h e ability o r t h e inclination to plan o n paper. F o r t u n a t e l y there is a way to plan that does n o t require the use of p a p e r or even m u c h arithmetic, b u t it does require that t h e o p e r a tors of t h e plan have e x t r e m e l y g o o d m e m o r i e s , are highly observant, have a d e e p k n o w l e d g e of b o t h their animals and t h e land, and are able to herd their livestock—abilities and skills these p e o p l e generally have. T h i s simpler p l a n n i n g process is covered in m o r e detail in T h e Holistic Grazing Planning Handbook; here again, I only cover t h e basic principles it entails. C h i e f a m o n g t h e m is t h e n e e d to achieve m a x i m u m density (of animals) for m i n i m u m time, followed by a p r o l o n g e d recovery p e r i o d . W h e n this g u i d e l i n e is followed, plants are favored t h r o u g h o u t t h e year because overgrazing wiLl be m i n i m i z e d in t h e g r o w i n g season, a n d m o s t of t h e old g r o w t h cleared by t h e e n d of the d o r m a n t season. N o matter w h a t t h e class o r type of livestock, t h e animals t e n d to receive t h e highest plane of n u t r i t i o n and suffer t h e least a m o u n t of disease and t h e least d a n g e r of parasite infestation if they are constantly m o v i n g and thus offered fresh, u n f o u l e d forage to feed o n — a s l o n g as t h e animals are m o v e d w i t h o u t stress. T h e soil, n o m a t t e r w h a t type, also benefits f r o m t h e same t r e a t m e n t because m o r e plants grow, r o o t systems are healthier, s o i l - c o v e r i n g litter is a b u n d a n t , plants g r o w m o r e closely t o g e t h e r and h o l d m o r e litter in place, and t h e soil surface is periodically b r o k e n and aerated and c o m p a c t e d s u f ficiently to provide seed-to-soil contact. U s i n g the p r i n c i p l e of m a x i m u m density for m i n i m u m t i m e in c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h the people's skills, k n o w l e d g e , a n d talents makes it relatively easy to create a grazing plan. W h e n h e r d i n g stock, y o u have t h e ability to create very high " p a d d o c k " n u m b e r s immediately. H o w e v e r , in m o s t cases, w a t e r p o i n t s are limited and animals m u s t r e t u r n to t h e same o n e e a c h day, n o m a t t e r w h i c h area they m i g h t be grazing. T h e r e f o r e , p l a n n i n g t h e grazi n g also requires p l a n n i n g t h e routes to w a t e r in such a way that these routes are n o t d a m a g e d by overgrazing and o v e r t r a m p l i n g . For example, let's say w e have divided o u r grazing lands i n t o 3 6 5 p a d docks, b u t that w e have only t w o w a t e r p o i n t s to serve t h e m . H o w can w e w a t e r all o u r animals each day and n o t t r a m p l e over t h e same plants a n d soil day after day? O n e possibility is to use stones, or a s h o r t l e n g t h of f e n c ing, to d e m a r c a t e thirty approaches radiating o u t f r o m each water p o i n t , giving us a total of sixty ways to approach t h e w a t e r w i t h o u t t r a m p l i n g over the same g r o u n d . T h e n w e can use o n e of these n a r r o w approaches as the r o u t e f o r m o v i n g the animals o u t to t h e small area they will graze each day a n d back to w a t e r for a p e r i o d of 3 to 10 days (an average of 6 days) b e f o r e utilizing t h e n e x t a p p r o a c h route. T h e r e is very little c h a n c e any plants will b e overgrazed w i t h i n an a p p r o a c h r o u t e over this a m o u n t of time, or that d a m a g e will ensue f r o m o v e r t r a m p l i n g , because t h e a p p r o a c h r o u t e will have almost a year (359 days o n average) in w h i c h to recover.

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If w e were in an area w h e r e rainfall t e n d e d to b e m o r e reliable and t h e g r o w i n g season e x t e n d e d t h r o u g h six m o n t h s or m o r e , w e c o u l d base o u r plan o n half t h e n u m b e r of grazing areas (182) and approximately sixm o n t h recovery periods, w h i c h w o u l d give us t w o grazings per year o n average. In practice there may b e m o r e than t w o water points, and there will b e additional factors to consider, such as i n t e g r a t i n g livestock w i t h crop rotations, creating firebreaks, i m p r o v i n g wildlife habitat, healing gullies, a n d all the o t h e r things a r a n c h e r o r f a r m e r w o u l d plan o n a grazing chart. Simple maps may b e required in s o m e cases, b u t maps d r a w n o n t h e g r o u n d are o f t e n q u i t e a d e q u a t e to clarify any points over w h i c h there m i g h t b e c o n f u s i o n . In m y o w n e x p e r i e n c e of w o r k i n g w i t h p e o p l e in such situations, their k n o w l e d g e of t h e land and their c o m m o n sense generally m a k e t h e m capable o f w o r k i n g o u t the detail of t h e plan w i t h m i n i m a l help. A clearly t h o u g h t - o u t holistic goal, in w h i c h they have o w n e r s h i p , is essential in every case. W i t h o u t it, the m o t i v a t i o n for creating t h e plan and seeing it t h r o u g h will n o t b e there.

Monitoring and Controlling A plan, n o m a t t e r h o w s o u n d , serves little p u r p o s e unless its application is m o n i t o r e d and deviations controlled. O t h e r w i s e , even assuming n o lapses at all in administration, u n p r e d i c t a b l e events s o o n e r or later r e n d e r t h e best plan irrelevant o r even destructive. O n c e again, s o m e will ask, " T h e n w h y plan in the first p l a c e ? " W e must plan simply because it is t h e only way to p r o d u c e desired results in c o m p l e x situations. If t h e situation is simple e n o u g h , a r o u g h plan in o u r heads w i t h c o m m o n s e n s e a d j u s t m e n t s as w e go is adequate. U n f o r t u n a t e l y such simplicity is almost n o n e x i s t e n t in the m a n a g e m e n t of biological resources, i n c l u d i n g livestock. In creating y o u r grazing plan you will b e using y o u r livestock to p r o d u c e , a m o n g o t h e r things, t h e landscape of t h e f u t u r e described in y o u r holistic goal. Progress toward that f u t u r e landscape must b e m o n i t o r e d annually t h r o u g h t h e biological m o n i t o r i n g process described briefly in C h a p t e r 33 and m o r e fully in the Handbook for Early-Warning Biological Monitoring. T h e m o n i t o r i n g to w h i c h I refer n o w is the m o n i t o r i n g of progress w i t h t h e grazing plan itself.

Monitoring

Daily Growth

Rates of

Plants

M o n i t o r i n g daily g r o w t h rates is less critical if y o u r plan involves a h u n dred o r m o r e p a d d o c k s o r grazing areas.This w o u l d m a k e grazing p e r i o d s n o l o n g e r than three days and recovery periods m o r e than a d e q u a t e for roots to recover, n o m a t t e r w h a t t h e g r o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s . H o w e v e r , y o u

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may w a n t to m o n i t o r daily g r o w t h rates anyway to b e n e f i t f r o m t h e k n o w l e d g e gained. If y o u r grazing plan involves f e w p a d d o c k s or grazing areas (i.e., less than a h u n d r e d ) and thus grazing periods r u n f r o m three to fifteen or m o r e days, y o u will n e e d to m o n i t o r daily g r o w t h rates t h r o u g h o u t t h e g r o w i n g season.You always plan for slow g r o w t h , as m e n t i o n e d , b u t w h e n y o u find rapid g r o w t h o c c u r r i n g , y o u n e e d to s h o r t e n grazing and recovery periods o r plants will b e overgrazed. As s o o n as g r o w t h slows, o n c e again you have to l e n g t h e n b o t h grazing and recovery periods. You will recall f r o m earlier chapters that plants can be overgrazed in three situations: 1. W h e n the plant is exposed to the animals for too many days and they are around to regraze it as it tries to regrow. 2. W h e n animals move away but return too soon and graze the plant again while it is still using stored energy to reform leaf. 3. Immediately following d o r m a n c y w h e n the plant is growing n e w leaf from stored energy. E x p e r i e n c e has s h o w n us that t h e greatest d a m a g e is usually d o n e w h e n s h o r t e n e d grazing a n d recovery periods have n o t b e e n l e n g t h e n e d o n c e again after g r o w t h has slowed d o w n . R e m e m b e r that the grazing and recovery periods are always linked. W h e n you s h o r t e n the grazing p e r i o d , y o u also s h o r t e n the recovery p e r i o d . This is w h a t catches o f f - g u a r d those w h o stop p l a n n i n g a n d merely rotate their livestock based o n s h o r t grazing periods. T h e y fail to see that recovery p e r i o d s have also s h o r t e n e d and thus that animals are r e t u r n i n g to p a d d o c k s in w h i c h plants have n o t recovered f r o m their first grazing and m a n y plants are overgrazed as a result. O n t h e b u n c h grass ranges that typify the m o r e brittle grazing lands, w e j u d g e g r o w t h rates o n the basis of severely grazed individual plants a n d n o t o n t h e general v i e w of the plants o n the range as a w h o l e . To d o this, w e find a n d m a r k severely grazed plants alongside u n g r a z e d plants of the same species j u s t as livestock leave a p a d d o c k . A t w o - or t h r e e - f o o t wire c a r r y ing a fluorescent flag, such as surveyors use, makes f i n d i n g t h e severely grazed sample plant days or weeks later a simple matter, and a k i n k in the wire can record the g r a z e d - d o w n height. S u c h flags o f course n e e d to be r e m o v e d b e f o r e animals r e t u r n to prevent t h e m f r o m eating the plastic. As the livestock graze in the m a n n e r p l a n n e d , we periodically r e t u r n to the m a r k e d plants and assess their recovery rate using t h e nearby u n g r a z e d plants as a yardstick. If the plants have barely g r o w n weeks later and the livestock are d u e back in that p a d d o c k any day, t h e n w e k n o w the m o v e m e n t s are t o o fast for t h e prevailing slow g r o w t h a n d overgrazing will o c c u r as t h e livestock r e t u r n to t h e u n r e c o v e r e d p l a n t s . T h e livestock, h o w -

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ever, wiJJ u n d o u b t e d l y p e r f o r m well o n the fast move, w h i c h is w h y rotational grazers k e e p m o v i n g t h e animals t o o fast. If o u r inspection shows that t h e plants are g r o w i n g so fast that they are already barely distinguishable f r o m the u n g r a z e d plants, and the plan shows that the livestock are n o t d u e back for a m o n t h or m o r e , overgrazing is probably o c c u r r i n g in each of the p a d d o c k s grazed since you m a r k e d plants, unless you have very high p a d d o c k n u m b e r s and c o n s e q u e n t l y always short grazing periods. If this is o c c u r r i n g in cases w h e r e you have f e w p a d d o c k s and l o n g g r a z i n g periods, t h e n livestock p e r f o r m a n c e will be p o o r e r than it n e e d be, as the animals are b e i n g held l o n g e r than necessary o n f o u l e d g r o u n d that has already b e e n well selected over. P e o p l e c o m m o n l y ask when a plant has recovered; the answer is w e d o n ' t really know. M u c h research c o n f i r m s overgrazing as a f u n c t i o n of the time plants are exposed or reexposed to animals, but f e w have investigated the p o i n t at w h i c h a plant has fully recovered f r o m a severe defoliation. In practice, however, this matters little o n rangelands because so m a n y o t h e r factors obscure the question. A healthy range contains myriad species that all have different g r o w t h rates. Slope, soil variations, shade, aeration, and o t h e r things all affect the g r o w t h rate w i t h i n species and w i t h i n areas o f t h e p a d d o c k . You only can observe t h e m o s t severely grazed plants of w h a t e v e r species and consider t h e m recovered w h e n they resemble u n g r a z e d plants alongside t h e m u n d e r virtually identical c o n d i t i o n s and health. T h i s apparently r o u g h m e t h o d has p r o d u c e d excellent results for over thirty years. In planted pastures or natural grasslands in less brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , individual plants are n o t always distinguishable, and you have to use less precise m e t h o d s . It is still i m p o r t a n t to m o n i t o r the daily g r o w t h rate, but you d o so by e x a m i n i n g t h e color of t h e grass and c h e c k i n g t h e h e i g h t of forage b o t h b e h i n d and ahead of the livestock. W h e n grass is g r o w i n g fast the c o l o r is n o r m a l l y a darker o r r i c h e r shade of g r e e n . Also you will n o t i c e this w h e n you find yourself h a v i n g to cut y o u r lawn frequently. As g r o w t h slows d o w n , so t h e color b e c o m e s paler. B y g o i n g b e h i n d the livestock to p a d d o c k s they grazed o n e to three days o r m o r e before, you can j u d g e t h e speed of r e g r o w t h by c h e c k i n g the h e i g h t in the areas w h e r e grazing was heavy. B y c h e c k i n g p a d d o c k s ahead into w h i c h the livestock will s o o n be g o i n g , you can see if they have recovered e n o u g h f o r their n e x t grazing by again c h e c k i n g t h e h e i g h t of t h e forage and h o w well g r o w n o u t it appears. If p a d d o c k s d u e to b e grazed soon are visibly n o t ready for grazing, t h e n clearly y o u r moves have b e e n t o o fast for the p r e vailing g r o w t h rate. You will n e e d to slow the moves by l e n g t h e n i n g y o u r grazing and recovery periods. A c o m m o n question that arises in any n u m b e r of situations runs, " W h e n t h e general rule is fast g r o w t h fast move—slow g r o w t h slow move,

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w h a t h a p p e n s w h e n s o m e grasses g r o w slowly and s o m e fast?" Fortunately, this q u e s t i o n is n o t as difficult to answer as it first appears. Figure 4 6 - 4 shows h o w y o u w o u l d pencil o u t such a situation, a n d t h e n m a k e a decision. In this case, y o u have only a f e w p a d d o c k s f o r y o u r herd. As you see, w i t h 5 p a d d o c k s y o u have grazing periods that are l o n g , w h a t ever the g r o w t h rate of the plants (7 to 2 2 days if y o u use recovery p e r i ods of 30 to 90 days). Let's assume that you are m o n i t o r i n g in the p e r i o d toward t h e e n d of A p r i l (Point A) and you detect slow g r o w t h o n s o m e severely grazed w a r m - s e a s o n grasses and fast g r o w t h o n severely grazed cool-season grasses. Ask yourself these questions and w o r k o u t t h e answers. W h a t if I m o v e fast? Clearly w i t h the 7 - d a y grazing p e r i o d , y o u are d o i n g t h e best you can w i t h five p a d d o c k s in t h e grazing p e r i o d f o r either type of grass. W h a t of the recovery p e r i o d ? L o o k i n g at the. d i a g r a m you can see that t h e c o o l season grasses are likely to be in d o r m a n c y o n y o u r r e t u r n in 30 days (Point B), but that t h e w a r m - s e a s o n grasses c o u l d be g r o w i n g fast. If the w a r m season grasses have c o n t i n u e d to g r o w at a slow rate, t h e n you are likely to overgraze those plants that w e r e bitten severely.Your alternative was to go to the slow move, but t h e n you w o u l d have increased the chances of overgrazing s o m e of the cool-season plants that were g r o w i n g fast. N o w w h a t of the animals? Holistic M a n a g e m e n t strives to c o n s i d e r all factors. A look at t h e livestock m a n a g e m e n t year (top row) shows lactating cows in late April and bulls j o i n i n g t h e m o n M a y first. T h i s m i g h t j u s t i f y faster moves to gain h i g h e r animal p e r f o r m a n c e at this short, b u t crucial t i m e of year, even t h o u g h it m e a n s a c c e p t i n g t h e c h a n c e of overgrazing t h e w a r m - s e a s o n plants, if g r o w t h c o n t i n u e s slow i n t o J u n e . H o w serious will that be? N o t very, if y o u are applying high animal i m p a c t and y o u r p l a n n i n g is g o o d . T h i s is n o t even near t h e d e g r e e of overg r a z i n g that w e accept daily u n d e r c o n v e n t i o n a l grazing m a n a g e m e n t o r rotational grazing systems. It will affect o n e p e r i o d only e n o u g h to set back the vigor of those plants that get b i t t e n t w i c e b e f o r e recovery. W e are n o t talking a b o u t repeated overgrazing to t h e p o i n t of plant distortion or death. T h i s situation w o u l d l o o k s o m e w h a t different w i t h 35 or m o r e p a d docks per herd. R e c o v e r y p e r i o d s of 30 to 90 days w o u l d m e a n grazing p e r i o d s of only 1 to 3 days. E v e n t h e fastest g r o w i n g plant will n o t suffer overgrazing d u r i n g t h e longest grazing p e r i o d of 3 days, so slow moves m i g h t w o r k . Again, however, livestock factors could qualify that decision. T h e 35 p a d d o c k s m e a n m u c h h i g h e r stock density and faster c o n s u m p t i o n o f A J D A / H in each p a d d o c k . H o l d i n g stock in p a d d o c k s t o o l o n g at a c r u cial t i m e c o u l d cause a drop in c o n c e p t i o n rates. M o v i n g faster, to gain o n c o n c e p t i o n rates a n d c a l f / l a m b / k i d weights, m i g h t result in c o m i n g back o n t o plants after 30 days b u t at high stock density, thus overgrazing m a n y

541 PART I X

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PLANNING PROCEDURES U N I Q U E TO HOLISTIC

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academics a n d researchers w h o have since t h e n criticized my w o r k seems to have b e e n w i l l i n g o r able to grasp this p o i n t . T h e vast m a j o r i t y of research projects c o n d u c t e d in A m e r i c a , allegedly to study m y m e t h o d s , i g n o r e d the h e a r t of the m a t t e r — t h i s p l a n n i n g process and the c o n t i n u a l m o n i t o r i n g allied to it. Instead they set u p countless s h o r t d u r a t i o n grazing rotations w i t h radial fence layouts, paying n o a t t e n t i o n at all to t h e planning procedure. W h a t p l a n n i n g was d o n e was usually in the p r o j e c t manager's head, a l t h o u g h he o r she o f t e n r e c o r d e d t h e date a p a d d o c k was grazed in a n o t e b o o k o r c o m p u t e r . M o v e s w e r e generally p l a n n e d forward, rather than b a c k w a r d and w e r e based o n short g r a z i n g periods, rather than a d e q u a t e recovery periods. T h e r e are any n u m b e r of rotational grazing systems that involve dividi n g large pastures i n t o smaller ones and rotating livestock t h r o u g h t h e m . T h e y are c o m m o n l y referred to as " m a n a g e m e n t - i n t e n s i v e " because they involve m u c h m o r e than t u r n i n g animals o u t in t h e s p r i n g and g a t h e r i n g t h e m in the fall. G r a z i n g rotations can w o r k fairly well in less brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , w h e r e livestock are mainly r u n o n planted and fertilized pastures and t h e variables are fewer. A n i m a l p e r f o r m a n c e and f o r a g e p r o d u c t i o n are generally n o t as high as they c o u l d be, a n d very dry or very w e t years can cause real p r o b l e m s ( w h i c h managers feel they can d o n o t h i n g a b o u t ) . In t h e m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , w h e r e livestock are m a i n l y r u n o n r a n g e lands, grazing rotations b r e a k d o w n quickly because there are so m a n y variables, and very few, if any, are addressed. M a n y of t h e rotational grazing systems w e r e derived f r o m the w o r k of A n d r e Voisin, w h o first discovered the link b e t w e e n overgrazing a n d time. H e d e v e l o p e d rational ( m e a n i n g w e l l - t h o u g h t - o u t ) grazing in response to this discovery a n d w o u l d probably t u r n in his grave to see w h a t has b e c o m e of it. H e spoke o u t v e h e m e n t l y o n the dangers of rotational grazing. In less brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , rational grazing can b e very successful and for a p r o l o n g e d time. B u t it, too, breaks d o w n quickly in the m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s f o r w h i c h it was n o t designed. Figure 4 6 - 5 attempts to s h o w w h e r e rotational grazing, rational grazing, a n d Holistic G r a z i n g P l a n n i n g differ. B e a r in m i n d that I have g e n e r alized t h e i n f o r m a t i o n u n d e r each c o l u m n for simplicity. In practice, the c o l u m n s are probably n o t q u i t e so distinct. T h e Holistic G r a z i n g P l a n n i n g p r o c e d u r e was d e v e l o p e d over thirty years ago. Since that time, it has u n d e r g o n e c o n t i n u o u s r e f i n e m e n t based o n t h e e x p e r i e n c e s of thousands of p e o p l e o n several c o n t i n e n t s , an effort that c o n t i n u e s to be c o o r d i n a t e d by the C e n t e r for Holistic M a n a g e m e n t . This p r o c e d u r e offers the simplest way w e have f o u n d f o r m a n a g i n g t h e c o m p l e x i t y of any ranch, f a r m , w a t e r c a t c h m e n t , forest, or any o t h e r area

542 46

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HOLISTIC G R A Z I N G P L A N N I N G : G E T T I N G ANIMALS TO THE R I G H T PLACE

Personally, I w o r r y a b o u t such approaches because soils, slopes, and plants vary t o o m u c h to fit a general f o r m u l a . In N e w Z e a l a n d , w h e r e g e n erous and predictable rainfall and heavy fertilization m a k e a fairly h o m o g e n e o u s e n v i r o n m e n t , perhaps it pays. In m o r e brittle areas, I believe it wise to j u d g e f r o m actual plant g r o w t h rates m a d e by on-site managers. W h e n y o u r m o n i t o r i n g of g r o w t h rates tells you plants are g r o w i n g rapidly t h e n you n e e d to c o m p l e t e t h e n e x t step in t h e p l a n n i n g process and that is to control. In the case of a few p a d d o c k s , w h e r e the p l a n n i n g p r o d u c e d t w o alternative grazing p e r i o d s , o n e for rapid a n d o n e for slow g r o w t h , you switch to t h e s h o r t e r grazing periods. You t h e n keep m o n i t o r i n g , and as g r o w t h rates slow d o w n the livestock moves b e g i n to l e n g t h en toward t h e l o n g e r grazing periods planned. As you go t h r o u g h t h e season, m o n i t o r i n g and adjusting to the prevailing g r o w t h rate, you will n e e d to k e e p an eye o n t h e recovery periods, w h i c h s h o w up clearly o n the grazing chart. W h a t you should never do, and w h i c h u n f o r t u n a t e l y s o m e p e o p l e have d o n e , is to say, "Well the g r o w t h rate will be s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n fast and slow, so I'll plan and graze o n an average." W h e n you d o this you quickly find yourself in trouble because g r o w t h rates are s e l d o m average. T h e y tend to s w i n g w i d e l y b e t w e e n fast and slow t h r o u g h a g r o w i n g season, especially in e n v i r o n m e n t s w i t h erratic precipitation and n o n e f f e c t i v e w a t e r cycles.

Replanning R e p l a n n i n g , the final step in the p l a n n i n g process, b e c o m e s necessary only in a few instances. Occasionally you could e x p e r i e n c e a p r o l o n g e d p e r i o d of rapid g r o w t h a n d will k e e p to s h o r t e r grazing p e r i o d s for so l o n g that the plan, w h i c h is based o n l o n g e r grazing periods, will get skewed, and animals that were s u p p o s e d to b e in a certain place at a crucial time will get there m u c h sooner. In such cases, all that is n e e d e d is to erase t h e p l o t ted grazings over t h e n e x t f e w m o n t h s ahead and to replot t h e m . T h e only o t h e r situations that w o u l d call for m a j o r r e p l a n n i n g w o u l d b e any that involved a m a j o r catastrophe, such as a fire that sweeps across m o s t of t h e land, o r a m a j o r b r e a k d o w n in t h e water supply to s o m e areas. D r o u g h t s , w h i c h p e o p l e t h i n k constitute a need for replanning, s e l d o m require it, as they s h o u l d have b e e n p l a n n e d for in the b e g i n n i n g .

Conclusion F r o m the very first series of lectures I gave in the U n i t e d States, I have stressed that the H o h s t i c G r a z i n g P l a n n i n g p r o c e d u r e u n d e r p i n s all my w o r k in grazing situations and all m y claims for success. N o n e of the

WORKSHEET

CENTER FOR HOLISTIC M A N A G E M E N T

January

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April

June

Hay

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Date . August

WORK SHEET NO. . September

October

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December Total

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Figure 46-4

How to determine speed of mooes when you have few paddocks

warm- and cool-season

plants.

and are dealing simultaneously

with different growth rates among

544 PART I X

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PLANNING PROCEDURES U N I Q U E TO H O L I S T I C

MANAGEMENT

w a r m - s e a s o n plants if g r o w t h rates c o n t i n u e to be slow. A m a n a g e m e n t decision has to b e m a d e and t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s accepted. In either of these cases, and generally in m o s t cases, t h e land will f o r give a reasonable c o m p r o m i s e as l o n g as you have a g o o d grazing plan a n d keep applying h i g h animal i m p a c t . You truly o v e r c o m e t h e d i l e m m a of h o w to deal w i t h s i m u l t a n e o u s fast and slow g r o w t h w h e n y o u reach h i g h p a d d o c k (or grazing area) n u m b e r s (i.e., 100 or m o r e ) . A t high p a d d o c k n u m b e r s , r e m e m b e r , stock density is also h i g h , and e x p o s u r e of t h e plants and animals to o n e a n o t h e r very short. T h i s tends to keep t h e p r o p o r t i o n of l e a f - t o - f i b e r in t h e plants high, and this, t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e short grazing periods, allows b e t t e r animal p e r f o r m a n c e o n l o n g e r rested grass.

The Importance

of Monitoring

Actual

Growth

Rates

D o n o t m a k e assumptions a b o u t g r o w t h rates just because rain has fallen or t h e t e m p e r a t u r e seems right. R e m e m b e r t h e story of t h e W o r l d B a n k t e a m in Texas that f o u n d f o u r shades of g r e e n in grass plants that had all received t h e same rain t h e n i g h t before b u t had b e e n u n d e r different m a n a g e m e n t . T h e darker color represented faster g r o w t h that s t e m m e d f r o m a better w a t e r cycle. S o m e years ago o n a N e w M e x i c o ranch, I saw a g o o d d e m o n s t r a t i o n of w h y it is a mistake to assume that rain always translates into rapid g r o w t h . U n d e r pressure f r o m l e n g t h e n i n g d r o u g h t , this r a n c h e r had c o m b i n e d f o u r 8 - p a d d o c k cells into o n e 3 2 - p a d d o c k plan and c o m b i n e d his herds into one. T h r e e - d a y moves gave each p a d d o c k over 90 days' r e c o v ery time. B o t h his t h i n k i n g and his p l a n n i n g w e r e s o u n d , b u t w h e n 2 inches of rain fell and the v i e w f r o m his p i c k u p l o o k e d a bit greener, he assumed i m m e d i a t e fast g r o w t h and cut back to daily moves and a 3 0 - d a y recovery p e r i o d to e n h a n c e animal p e r f o r m a n c e . N i n e days after t h e rain I visited, and w e got o u t o f t h e t r u c k and actually c h e c k e d t h e plants. W e f o u n d n o e v i d e n c e of fast g r o w t h . O u t in t h e paddocks, t h e general level of soil c a p p i n g a n d c o n s e q u e n t p o o r aeration had suppressed t h e g r o w t h rate. O n l y the roadsides, w h i c h had better aeration, were s h o w i n g fast daily g r o w t h and darker g r e e n c o l o r . T h e w r o n g a s s u m p t i o n had led to a plan that w o u l d soon p u t cattle at q u a d r u p l e n o r m a l density o n p a d d o c k s that had had a third t h e required recovery t i m e — t h e m o s t rapid p a t h to disaster h e could have c h o s e n in a d r o u g h t . N e w Z e a l a n d sheep f a r m e r s have a great awareness of t h e a t t e n t i o n o n e must pay to plant g r o w t h rates, and in s o m e districts t h e radio a n n o u n c e s daily g r o w t h rates as a service to t h e m . T h e r e a n d elsewhere the daily evapo r a t i o n rate is also broadcast, so f a r m e r s can c o m p u t e transpiration rates for crops a n d alter irrigation schedules accordingly.

Rotational Grazing

Rational Grazing (Voisin)

Holistic Grazing Planning

Number of paddocks and desired rest period

Recovery periods needed during fast and slow growth

Recovery periods needed during fast and slow growth

Height of grazed plants in paddock

Daily growth rate of plants

Daily growth rate of plants, livestock performance, and/or wildlife needs

Estimated dry matter intake and/ or rainfall received

Animal days per acre/hectare (ADA/ADH)

ADA/ADH available for the dormant season, plus a "time reserve" for drought, and effectiveness of water cycle rather than rainfall received

Estimated dry matter intake and daily monitoring of animals

ADA/ADH estimates and daily monitoring of animals

ADA/ADH estimates, daily monitoring of animals and allocating best paddocks for critical times, then planning backward from those critical periods

Not planned

Not planned

Incorporated into p l a n essential in brittle environments

Not planned for

Not planned for

Incorporated into plan so livestock can be used to enhance

Reserving grazing areas

Reserving time (days of grazing) spread over all paddocks

Reserving time in all paddocks, and ADA/ADH estimates at end of growing season in a closed plan

Per forma nee in brittle environments (most ol" the world)

Breaks down in brittle environments

Breaks down in brittle environments

Does not break down in any environment

Performance in less brittle environments

Good short term, but likely to break down long term

Good short and long term

Does not break down in any environment

Not planned

Not planned

Routinely planned

Multiple goals involving either forage, animals, or finances at any one time

Multiple goals, involving either forage, animals, or finances at any one time

A single holistic goal that addresses social, environmental, and economic factors simultaneously

Grazing periods are based on: Adjustments to grazing periods based on;

Stocking rate based on.

Animal nutritional needs addressed by:

Use of herd effect for land restoration

Wildlife and other users, uses

Drought planned for by:

Fire prevention

Management decisions based on:

F i g u r e 46-5

Rotational,

rational, and Holistic

Grazing

Planning—how

they

differ.

524

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shared by livestock and o t h e r risers. It will lead to the best possible plan in the m o s t difficult and seemingly hopeless situations. E v e n w h e n the rains have failed to c o m e at all, and even t h r o u g h times of crisis, i n c l u d i n g war, this p l a n n i n g p r o c e d u r e has never failed m e . N o r d o I believe it will ever fail you.

Part X New Perspectives

47 Expanding the Uses of the Holistic Management Model

h e n m a n y years ago I set o u t to find a s o l u t i o n to t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e g r a d a t i o n o c c u r r i n g in Africa, I had n o idea w h e r e the quest w o u l d lead. O b v i o u s l y haphazard remedies did n o t w o r k , b u t n e i t h e r did prescribed systems of m a n a g e m e n t that did n o t a c c o u n t for actual c o n ditions. W h a t w e n e e d e d was a m e t h o d i c a l way to t h i n k t h r o u g h real cases and m a k e plans that led to specific i m p r o v e m e n t s . T h e various p l a n n i n g p r o c e d u r e s entailed in H o h s t i c M a n a g e m e n t arose f r o m that insight, but they w e r e hopelessly i n a d e q u a t e for solving the larger problems w e faced, mainly because the d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g that created the p r o b l e m s had n o t yet c h a n g e d . T h e n e w framework f o r decision m a k i n g , reflected in the Holistic M a n a g e m e n t m o d e l , d e v e l o p e d only gradually in response to each of the obstacles w e struck as w e tried to find a s o l u t i o n that truly w o r k e d , c o u l d apply a n y w h e r e , a n d w o u l d give sustained results.

W

M y early aim had b e e n m e r e l y to u n d e r s t a n d w h a t was causing m u c h of t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e t e r i o r a t i o n I had witnessed and successfully tailor a response, b u t as t h e Holistic M a n a g e m e n t m o d e l evolved into an ever better tool for d o i n g this, the breadth of its p o w e r b e c a m e evident. In at least three areas of endeavor, t h e n e w f r a m e w o r k greatly e n h a n c e d o u r p e r spective: diagnosing the u n d e r l y i n g cause of p r o b l e m s related to the f u n c t i o n i n g of the f o u r ecosystem processes, o r to a general lack of progress toward t h e hohstic goal; o r i e n t i n g research to better m e e t m a n a g e m e n t needs; and analyzing policies of m a n y kinds to predict the likelihood of their success. Key to holistic decision m a k i n g are the hohstic goal a n d the planning, m o n i t o r i n g , controlling, a n d r e p l a n n i n g it takes to m o v e steadily t o w a r d it. 5 2 7

528

PART X

NEW

PERSPECTIVES

As this process was increasingly p u t into practice o n t h e land, w e f o u n d a n e e d to diagnose w h a t was g o i n g w r o n g w h e n m o n i t o r i n g s h o w e d w e were deviating f r o m o u r i n t e n d e d result. Later still, w e realized that obstacles s o m e t i m e s existed that c o u l d block overall progress toward the holistic goal. T h e s e h a d to b e identified and their cause diagnosed. C h a p t e r 48 describes h o w t h e Holistic M a n a g e m e n t m o d e l can be used to assist in b o t h tasks. In any n u m b e r of m a n a g e m e n t situations w e f o u n d instances w h e r e w e lacked k n o w l e d g e of certain finer points, such as the establishment c o n d i tions for certain plants, that p i n p o i n t e d areas for f u r t h e r investigation. B u t h o w c o u l d w e b e sure, o n c e t h e i n f o r m a t i o n was available, that it was relevant to o u r particular situation? As C h a p t e r 49 explains, t h e Holistic M a n a g e m e n t m o d e l can be used to help you find o u t . T h e m o d e l can also serve as an o r g a n i z i n g f r a m e w o r k in designing n e w approaches to projects u n d e r t a k e n by multidisciplinary research teams. Finally, w e b e g a n to realize that if w e u n d e r s t o o d the i n t e n t of a p o l i cy a n d k n e w or c o u l d d e d u c e a holistic goal f o r those affected by it, w e c o u l d use t h e Holistic M a n a g e m e n t m o d e l to help us analyze such a p o l icy. W e did n o t n e e d to wait for t h e result to learn that yet a n o t h e r effort to fight crime, halt deserts, save a c o m m u n i t y , or whatever, had failed. W e c o u l d d e t e r m i n e b e f o r e application w h e t h e r or n o t a policy was likely to succeed, and, if n o t , why. If w e c o u l d d o that, w e could t h e n w o r k o u t h o w to m o d i f y the policy to increase its chances for success, as covered in C h a p t e r 50. T h e e n h a n c e d perspective the Holistic M a n a g e m e n t m o d e l provides for d i a g n o s i n g causes, o r i e n t i n g research, and analyzing policies has greatly c h a n g e d the way w e v i e w and approach these challenges. In years to c o m e w e will u n d o u b t e d l y find that t h e same applies in m a n y m o r e areas of endeavor.

48 Diagnosing the Cause of Problems

ery early o n w e realized that t h e H o h s t i c M a n a g e m e n t m o d e l c o u l d be used to help diagnose w h a t had g o n e w r o n g w h e n land w e w e r e m a n a g i n g failed to respond in the way w e had anticipated. It c o u l d also be used to help find the cause of distortions in the f u n c t i o n i n g of the f o u r ecosystem processes generally (e.g., outbreaks of p r o b l e m plants and insects, o r disease; t h e disappearance of species; increased floods o r droughts). In either instance, diagnosing w h a t had g o n e w r o n g rested o n k n o w i n g h o w brittle the e n v i r o n m e n t was, a n d k n o w i n g t h e effects the six categories of tools ( C h a p t e r s 19—24) tend to have o n water and mineral cycles, energy flow, and c o m m u n i t y dynamics. M u c h later, w e f o u n d w e c o u l d also diagnose problems of a very different n a t u r e by using t h e m o d e l to help identify obstacles, or logjams, that m i g h t be h o l d i n g u p overall progress toward a holistic goal. In each o f these instances, t h e a p p r o a c h to diagnosis is fairly straightforward.

Land Management Monitoring In any land m a n a g e m e n t situation, y o u r holistic goal will n e e d to include a description of the f o u r ecosystem processes in t e r m s of h o w they will have to f u n c t i o n if they are to sustain y o u r efforts. E a c h year, y o u will be m o n i t o r i n g y o u r progress toward that e n d , l o o k i n g for the earliest signs that y o u could be straying off track. ( T h e Handbook for Early-Warning Biological Monitoring describes t h e process w e use.) T h e earliest signs generally appear first at the soil surface. C o n d i t i o n s there in large part d e t e r m i n e t h e effectiveness of t h e water and mineral 5 2 9

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cycles, t h e a m o u n t o f s u n l i g h t e n e r g y c a p t u r e d , a n d t h e h e a l t h a n d d i v e r sity o f t h e b i o l o g i c a l c o m m u n i t i e s that o c c u p y a site. If t h e soil is bare, f o r instance, t h e f u n c t i o n i n g o f all f o u r e c o s y s t e m processes is d i m i n i s h e d ; if it is c o v e r e d , all f o u r are g e n e r a l l y e n h a n c e d . If y o u r m o n i t o r i n g s h o w s y o u t o w a r d , t h e d e s c r i p t i o n i n c l u d e d in a c t i o n (control) a n d a d j u s t w h a t y o u h o w e v e r , y o u have to f i n d t h e cause

are m o v i n g away f r o m , r a t h e r t h a n y o u r holistic goal, y o u n e e d to take have b e e n d o i n g . B e f o r e y o u can act, of the deviation.

C o n s i d e r a r a n c h in a v e r y b r i t t l e e n v i r o n m e n t w h e r e shows

that

capped

soil

has

decreased,

but

bare ground

has

monitoring

increased.

Plant

s p a c i n g has n o t c h a n g e d , b u t t h e r e is less litter c o v e r i n g t h e soil. T h e r a n c h e r , h o w e v e r , h a d i n t e n d e d j u s t t h e o p p o s i t e . T o f i n d t h e cause o f t h e p r o b l e m , w h i c h will i n d i c a t e t h e m a n a g e m e n t c h a n g e s h e n e e d s to m a k e to g e t b a c k o n track, h e n o w c o n s i d e r s e a c h o f t h e tools h e m i g h t have used: •

Rest. A l t h o u g h rest does increase bare g r o u n d in a very brittle envir o n m e n t , it also causes increased soil capping. C a p p i n g decreased, however, and deliberate efforts had b e e n m a d e n o t to rest the land (he had increased the n u m b e r of animals and b u n c h e d t h e m often).

•

Fire. N o fire was used.

•

Grazing. M o n i t o r i n g does n o t s h o w overgrazed plants, and the grazing plan appears s o u n d o n this p o i n t . Grazing, as opposed to overgrazing, has the t e n d e n c y to increase grass vigor and thus to p r o d u c e m o r e material that can be trampled d o w n to serve as soil-covering litter, but clearly s o m e t h i n g offset this.

•

Animal impact. This was applied well w i t h plenty of herd effect i n d u c e d o n selected sites.The decrease in capping reflects this, as does the fact that plant spacing is n o wider. Such g o o d animal impact, p a r ticularly allied to well-planned grazing, should have increased litter because m o r e old plant material w o u l d have b e e n trampled d o w n . Y e t declining litter cover appears to have created the bare g r o u n d p r o b lem.

•

Living organisms. Aside f r o m the livestock, n o n e were used as a m a n a g e m e n t tool. D i d the livestock change significantly in any way? Yes, livestock n u m b e r s were increased, as m e n t i o n e d .

•

Technology. Apart f r o m fencing, n o n e was used. Practices remained u n c h a n g e d f r o m p r i o r years and w o u l d be unlikely to p r o d u c e the s y m p t o m s in question.

T h i s first r e v i e w o f t h e tools d o e s n o t t h r o w an a n s w e r i n t o h i g h relief, b u t t h e h e a r t o f t h e p r o b l e m s e e m s to lie in t h e r e d u c t i o n o f litter. As n o

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m a j o r catastrophe such as unusual w e a t h e r or an o u t b r e a k of harvester ants w o u l d explain t h e loss of litter, a closer l o o k at the tools should. Fire played n o part in this case. R e s t , partial or otherwise, did n o t occur, as s u p p o r t e d by t h e decrease in capping. A n i m a l i m p a c t light e n o u g h to cause decreasing litter w o u l d be likely to increase capping. G r a z i n g was n o t applied as overgrazing, b u t h o w did it measure u p in o t h e r respects? Also, did the c h a n g e in s t o c k i n g rate n o t e d in the r e v i e w of rest and living organisms have any significant effect? In fact, a l o o k at the grazing plan shows that livestock ran s h o r t of forage in late w i n t e r and grazings w e r e s h o r t e n e d to m a i n t a i n animal c o n d i t i o n until spring g r o w t h started. T h i s did n o t result in overgrazing, as the grass was d o r m a n t , b u t it did leave less plant material b e h i n d for litter and m i g h t have caused stock to actually eat litter already o n the g r o u n d . T h u s , o v e r s t o c k i n g appears to explain t h e situation best. C o n t r o l w o u l d t h e n involve adjusting livestock n u m b e r s and i m p r o v ing the accuracy o f forage estimates in the n e x t g r a z i n g plan. F u t u r e m o n i t o r i n g should s o o n s h o w an increase in litter, r e d u c e d bare g r o u n d , and m o r e insect activity if t h e diagnosis was correct. T h e same sort of analysis will also diagnose p r o b l e m s on cropland o r forest, the only difference b e i n g a m o r e t h o r o u g h m o n i t o r i n g of soil c o n ditions b o t h above and b e l o w g r o u n d o n croplands and, in forests, age structure in the trees and the diversity of o t h e r organisms. Surface cover and litter b r e a k d o w n , soil m o v e m e n t d u e to w i n d or water, c o m p a c t i o n , organic c o n t e n t , a n d biological activity in response to various tools n e e d m o n i t o r i n g in almost all cases. Problems that o c c u r in aquatic e n v i r o n m e n t s will o f t e n be associated w i t h h o w tools have b e e n applied in t h e c a t c h m e n t areas drained by the lake, river, or stream. Partial o r total rest applied in a m o r e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t tends to increase r u n o f f , flash f l o o d i n g , turbidity, and silt loads w i t h in waterways. T h e overgrazing of a large n u m b e r of plants and c o n t i n u a l t r a m p l i n g by livestock or wildlife w o u l d d o the same in e n v i r o n m e n t s that range f r o m less brittle to very brittle. O f course, m a n y c r o p p i n g and forestry practices p r o d u c e considerable silt, flooding, and pollution. K e e p r e m i n d i n g yourself that most changes, b a r r i n g those b r o u g h t a b o u t by a m a j o r natural catastrophe, result f r o m the application of o n e o r m o r e tools by p e o p l e over time. Avoid snap j u d g m e n t s , and reason t h r o u g h t h e six tool categories o n e by o n e .

Diagnosing Ecological Problems Generally In d i a g n o s i n g t h e cause of p r o b l e m s revealed t h r o u g h regular biological m o n i t o r i n g y o u r focus is almost entirely o n the tools you have applied in the last year or t w o to m a n a g e the situation. In d i a g n o s i n g the cause of a

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m a l f u n c t i o n in any o n e of t h e f o u r ecosystem processes m o r e generally, such as a widespread infestation of an undesirable plant o r animal, y o u have to consider h o w t h e tools have b e e n applied by others over large areas and for m a n y years. T h e f o l l o w i n g questions can help to focus y o u r a t t e n t i o n and speed t h e diagnosis. 1. W h i c h ecosystem process is the most appropriate to focus o n to help you reason out what is happening? If the problem involves an increase or decrease in a particular organism, for example, look to c o m m u n i t y dynamics; if it involves a gain or loss of water (e.g., a falling water table or increased flooding) look to water cycle, and so on. H o w would you describe the condition of the ecosystem process under consideration in relation to h o w it potentially could be? 2. Has any natural disaster occurred that could have contributed to the problem? 3. H o w brittle is the environment? 4. W h i c h tools have been applied generally, for a prolonged period of time, and how? 5. H o w does each tool applied tend to affect the ecosystem process u n d e r consideration at that level on the brittleness scale? 6. Based on your answers, what is the probable cause of the problem? 7. W h a t should be done to remedy the cause? Is this something you can test on a sample area to c o n f i r m that the diagnosis is correct? 8. W h a t criteria could you m o n i t o r to ensure your diagnosis and the proposed remedy are on target? T h e case cited in C h a p t e r 42 of t h e desert bushes in Pakistan that did n o t regenerate illustrates t h e approach. As t h e p r o b l e m deals w i t h an o r g a n i s m that is decreasing (the desert bushes) t h e ecosystem process to focus o n is c o m m u n i t y dynamics. A healthy p o p u l a t i o n should have had m a n y y o u n g , fewer adults, and even f e w e r adults of very old age. T h i s p o p u l a t i o n h a d n o y o u n g plants w h a t e v e r . G o v e r n m e n t advisors w e r e s e e k i n g to redress t h e situation by f o r b i d d i n g bush harvesting and seeking an alternative fuel, w h e n t h e real p r o b l e m to be tackled was the lack of r e g e n e r a t i o n , w h i c h h a d little to d o w i t h harvesting of the adult bushes. T h e r e had b e e n n o c h a n g e in the w e a t h e r , such as a r u n o f very wet, dry, or cold years, a n d n o natural disasters h a d o c c u r r e d that m i g h t have c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e lack o f r e g e n e r a t i o n . So, in diagnosing this p r o b l e m , w e

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l o o k to t h e tools that have b e e n applied m o s t c o m m o n l y to large areas over time and the effects they w o u l d tend to p r o d u c e in this very brittle envir o n m e n t — p a r t i c u l a r l y at the soil surface. •

Rest. Total rest was applied in isolated areas under government protection. Partial rest was applied on the bulk of the land, although it was grazed by many small flocks. Because it was a low-rainfall, very brittle environment in w h i c h the c o m m u n i t y could move only beyond algae and lichens with difficulty, rest in b o t h forms had resulted in a mature cap of algae and lichens on the ground between bushes that was utterly inhospitable to n e w seedlings. N e a r market places w h e r e concentrated livestock periodically provided considerable disturbance, there were plenty of seedlings, but few were able to survive because of the very high level of overbrowsing. T h e mere presence of the seedlings, however, confirmed my suspicion that the smooth, capped surfaces everywhere else were not suitable sites on w h i c h desert bushes could establish.

•

Fire. Fire had not been used for a very long time.

•

Grazing. This tool had been applied mainly in the f o r m of overgrazing/overbrowsing w h i c h would tend to reduce the n u m b e r of plant species and kill the seedlings of any favored plant. Although animals were herded, herders had inadequate knowledge to herd in such a manner as to minimize overgrazing and overbrowsing.

•

Animal impact. Apart from those areas near market places, animal impact was always applied at a low level. Although animals were herded, herd effect was never induced. Lack of animal impact over most of the land tends to produce bare ground, which again, if hard-capped, is not suited to the establishment of desert bush seedlings.

•

Living organisms. Apart from the livestock, no other living organisms were used in management.

•

Technology. N o n e was used, other than the primitive digging implements for harvesting bushes.

In s u m , the e v i d e n c e clearly s h o w e d that t h e p r o b l e m s t e m m e d f r o m a c o m b i n a t i o n of l o w animal i m p a c t and overbrowsing, either of w h i c h alone c o u l d a c c o u n t for the failure of the bushes to establish n e w g e n e r a tions. A n y r e m e d y that did n o t address b o t h o v e r b r o w s i n g and l o w animal i m p a c t w o u l d surely fail, m o s t decisively if t h e r e m e d y also involved fire or increased rest. A n i m a l i m p a c t w o u l d n e e d to be increased to break up c a p p e d soil surfaces so n e w plants c o u l d establish, and animal m o v e m e n t s

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w o u l d have to b e p l a n n e d so plants w o u l d n o t b e overbrowsed o r overgrazed.

Identifying L o g j a m s Periodically, it pays to stand back and l o o k at y o u r business, or entity, as a w h o l e and ask w h e t h e r a n y t h i n g could be b l o c k i n g overall progress toward y o u r holistic goal. If you find s o m e t h i n g is, t h e n you will n e e d to d e t e r m i n e w h a t has caused it b e f o r e you can clear t h e blockage. It helps to v i e w such a b l o c k a g e as a logger w o u l d . If you were floating h u n d r e d s of logs d o w n a river a n d o n e o r t w o got stuck, they w o u l d g r a d ually snare others until you had a m a j o r l o g j a m . A skilled logger will c h m b a tree or hill w h e r e he can v i e w t h e j u m b l e f r o m above a n d identify t h e logs that initiated the blockage. O n c e h e removes t h e m , all the o t h e r s are freed to c o n t i n u e their d o w n s t r e a m float. A n d so it is w i t h Holistic M a n a g e m e n t . If t h e logs causing t h e j a m are n o t identified a n d dealt w i t h , progress c o u l d halt altogether. In practice, at least o n c e a year you should d e t e r m i n e l o g j a m exists, a n d p r i o r to creating y o u r annual holistic g o o d t i m e to d o so. Funds m a y be n e e d e d to r e m o v e blockage a n d such an expense will have high priority, C h a p t e r 44.

w h e t h e r or not a financial plan is a t h e cause of t h e as m e n t i o n e d in

Especially in y o u r early years of practicing Holistic M a n a g e m e n t , t h e l o g j a m may b e related to an i n a d e q u a t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e process, w h i c h in t u r n leads to a lack of c o m m i t m e n t to t h e holistic goal and t h e process itself. O n c e you c h a n g e to holistic decision m a k i n g , you should b e g i n to i m p r o v e the quality of y o u r life, lessen any conflicts that w e r e p r e sent, b e c o m e m o r e profitable, a n d so o n . It is inconceivable that a c h a n g e for the better w o u l d n o t o c c u r if the decision makers in y o u r w h o l e f o r m e d a holistic goal to w h i c h they were all c o m m i t t e d , tested the decisions they m a d e to ensure their plans w o u l d take t h e m toward it, m o n i tored their plans o n c e i m p l e m e n t e d , and r e s p o n d e d i m m e d i a t e l y if t h e results b e g a n to deviate f r o m t h e o u t c o m e envisioned. If you have b e e n practicing Holistic M a n a g e m e n t for a year or m o r e and n o t m u c h has c h a n g e d , you have a l o g j a m s o m e w h e r e . To find it, start at the top of t h e Holistic M a n a g e m e n t m o d e l and w o r k y o u r way d o w n . •

The whole under management. Have you defined a manageable w h o l e (decision makers, resource base, and money)? Are all the right people included and in the right places, either as decision makers or as resources to you in achieving your holistic goal? Is the w h o l e too large to be managed effectively as a single entity? Should smaller wholes be f o r m e d within it?

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•

The hohstic goal. Does it lack clarity? sions toward it, or do you need to committed to achieving it? Are you holistic goal f o r m e d in some haste all the decision makers?

Are you able to test all your decirevise and update it? Are people still working toward a temporary and w i t h o u t the involvement of

•

The tools. Pay particular attention to the tools of H u m a n Creativity, Money, and Labor.There are times w h e n undercapitalization prevents you from applying the tool of m o n e y effectively, but experience has taught us that most logjams are related to h u m a n creativity and labor. A lack of knowledge, specific skills, p o o r c o m m u n i c a t i o n , or any other h u m a n behavior could be affecting your ability to use either tool effectively.

•

The management guidelines. Are these guidelines being heeded, particularly Organization and Leadership and Learning and Practice? As you will recall from Chapter 26, in d e t e r m i n i n g the cause of problems related to h u m a n behavior, look first to h o w your organization is structured, h o w m a n a g e m e n t functions, and h o w it is led. T h e Organization and Leadership guideline addresses these issues specifically. A lack of knowledge of Holistic M a n a g e m e n t , or a lack of skill in practicing it is just as likely to be the cause of the problem, w h i c h the Learning and Practice guideline addresses. B o t h these guidelines were developed in tandem with the holistic decision-making process. T h e struggles that resulted in the development of these guidelines forced us to look anew at conventional approaches to organization, leadership, and learning in the n e w context of Holistic M a n a g e m e n t .

•

The Planning Procedures. Have you put into practice those that apply, particularly Holistic Financial Planning?

•

The feedback loop. W h e n results begin to deviate f r o m what you have planned, are you taking action immediately to correct the situation, or are you merely waiting in the h o p e the situation will resolve itself? Holistic M a n a g e m e n t , remember, is a proactive process in w h i c h you are constantly responding to the feedback gained from m o n i t o r i n g the results of your decisions.

W e as a center t o o k several years to identify a n d address o n e l o g j a m . T o g e t h e r o u r b o a r d a n d staff had f o r m e d , a n d gradually r e f m e d , a holistic goal. Yet t w o years later, w e had failed to m a k e m u c h progress toward its a c h i e v e m e n t . W e identified p o o r c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n b o a r d a n d staff as the logjam, a n d its cause as t h e failure of the staff to k e e p b o a r d m e m b e r s adequately i n f o r m e d b e t w e e n quarterly m e e t i n g s . Accordingly, t h e staff m a d e a c o n c e r t e d effort to rectify this by k e e p i n g in t o u c h w i t h

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PERSPECTIVES

board m e m b e r s m o r e regularly t h r o u g h p h o n e calls, faxes, e-mail, m o r e f r e q u e n t reports, a n d so o n . B u t this m a d e little difference. Several clues eventually led us to a diagnosis. First of all, w e realized, t h e c o m m i t m e n t to achieving o u r holistic goal varied greatly a m o n g the m e m b e r s of o u r b o a r d a n d staff t e a m . T h e staff m e m b e r s , w h o s e very livelih o o d s d e p e n d e d o n achieving o u r holistic goal, w e r e deeply c o m m i t t e d . T h e board m e m b e r s , w h o lacked this i n d u c e m e n t , as well as daily e x p o sure to t h e rewards a n d challenges faced by t h e staff, had less of a sense of o w n e r s h i p in the holistic goal. T h i s was n o t surprising, b u t w e had failed as a t e a m to even discuss it. It was i m p o r t a n t , t h o u g h , because it i n f l u e n c e d t h e results of the decisions w e tested together. S e c o n d , w e realized that a l t h o u g h w e considered ourselves o n e team, w e w e r e still legally separated i n t o t w o teams. O u r bylaws required that t h e board m e e t separately to vote o n policy and financial decisions that c o u l d p r o f o u n d l y affect the staff.Yet staff were p r e v e n t e d by o u r c o r p o r a t e bylaws f r o m voting. Staff c o u l d provide i n p u t b e f o r e a vote was taken, and almost always did, b u t o n occasion w e r e unable t o provide e n o u g h i n f o r m a t i o n in the t i m e allotted to truly clarify a situation. S o m e of t h e p r o b l e m s this resulted in c o u l d have b e e n p r e v e n t e d if w e had ensured at the outset that all m e m b e r s of o u r b o a r d - s t a f f t e a m had a reasonably g o o d u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the holistic d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g process. W e c a m e to t h e c o n c l u s i o n that w e c o u l d b e g i n to clear o u r c o m m u nications logjam by c h a n g i n g t h e bylaws that dictated n o t only o u r s t r u c ture b u t also, to s o m e extent, h o w w e h a d to f u n c t i o n . W i t h the help of a legal advisor, we redrafted the bylaws to allow f o r up to three staff m e m bers to serve (and vote) o n o u r b o a r d of directors, all of w h o m had to have e x p e r i e n c e in t h e practice of Holistic M a n a g e m e n t , and reduced t h e total n u m b e r of directors f r o m fifteen to a m a x i m u m of seven.To a large e x t e n t , these changes h e l p e d us to o v e r c o m e t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n p r o b l e m s that had existed. T h e varying levels of c o m m i t m e n t to the holistic goal, w h i c h is to b e e x p e c t e d w h e n s o m e m e m b e r s of a t e a m are only occasionally present and their livelihood is n o t directly c o n n e c t e d to t h e goal's achievem e n t , remains b u t it has ceased to b e t h e p r o b l e m it was. In m a k i n g these changes, w e w e r e aware that w e w o u l d lose t h e p e r spective c o n t r i b u t e d previously by t h e large n u m b e r of talented and c o n c e r n e d individuals w h o had served o n o u r board at any o n e time. To m a k e u p for that loss, w e created a board of advisors w h o m w e could c o n sult, and m a n y of w h o m also proved willing to c r i t i q u e o u r efforts w i t h o u t o u r having to ask. W e also w o r k e d at s t r e n g t h e n i n g relationships w i t h the clients w e served in the e x p e c t a t i o n that because they w o u l d w a n t to see us succeed they w o u l d tell us w h a t w e n e e d e d to k n o w . T h e r e could be any n u m b e r of obstacles standing b e t w e e n y o u and y o u r holistic goal that an orderly review of t h e Holistic M a n a g e m e n t

48

DIAGNOSING THE CAUSE OF PROBLEMS

537

m o d e l m a y t h r o w n o light o n . T h e cause of a l o g j a m c o u l d prove to b e an unsuitable location f o r y o u r business, f o r instance. O r , in m a n a g i n g y o u r personal life, you m a y find y o u have fallen into a r u t and n e e d to c h a n g e j o b s or careers. S o m e t i m e s , a l o g j a m b e c o m e s apparent only w h e n a series of unrelated p r o b l e m s b e g i n to f o r m a p a t t e r n . If, w h e n creating a holistic financial plan, y o u discover that each e n t e r p r i s e shares t h e same w e a k link, w h i c h is n o t u n c o m m o n , a l o g j a m probably exists that has n o t yet b e e n identified. If, f o r instance, m a r k e t i n g was t h e w e a k h n k in every enterprise, it c o u l d b e that y o u r business has a public i m a g e p r o b l e m , t h e cause of w h i c h is an i n a p p r o p r i a t e n a m e for y o u r business o r an inability to express w h a t y o u r business is a b o u t in t e r m s t h e public, a n d thus y o u r potential chents, can u n d e r s t a n d . In a t t e m p t i n g to identify a logjam and diagnose its cause, the most i m p o r t a n t t h i n g to r e m e m b e r is the n e e d to step back f r o m t h e c o n c e r n s of d a y - t o - d a y m a n a g e m e n t o r daily living so y o u can see t h e bigger p i c t u r e — m u c h as t h e logger w h o climbs t h e hill or tree so h e can spot the o n e o r t w o logs that are key to releasing t h e flow of all t h e others.

49 Making Research Relevant

O

c c a s i o n a l l y w h e n t e s t i n g a d e c i s i o n w e d i s c o v e r a gap in

our

k n o w l e d g e t h a t r e s e a r c h c o u l d h e l p t o b r i d g e . If s u c h r e s e a r c h

exists, w e h a v e t o e n s u r e t h a t it is r e l e v a n t t o o u r o w n s i t u a t i o n a n d i n l i n e w i t h w h a t w e h o p e t o a c h i e v e in o u r h o l i s t i c goal. T h a t , t o o , w e c a n assess t h r o u g h t h e seven testing guidelines, b u t only by m o n i t o r i n g o u r applicat i o n o f t h a t i n f o r m a t i o n can w e e n s u r e t h a t t h e e x p e c t e d results d o m a t e rialize. M o s t s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h t e n d s t o b e r e d u c t i o n i s t i n t h a t it seeks t o r e d u c e p h e n o m e n a to a simple f o r m for study by c o n t r o l l i n g m o s t variables. It d o e s this t o s h o w t h a t o n e f a c t o r a n d n o t a n o t h e r c o n t r i b u t e s t o a g i v e n result. M a n a g e m e n t , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , deals w i t h i n n u m e r a b l e v a r i ables a n d

cannot ignore

any of t h e m

without

adverse

consequences.

A l t h o u g h this f u n d a m e n t a l d i f f e r e n c e exists b e t w e e n t h e t w o types

of

e n d e a v o r , t h e y c a n still c o m p l e m e n t e a c h o t h e r , a n d i n f a c t n e e d to, a s u b j e c t w e will r e t u r n to.

Closing Knowledge Gaps I n s e e k i n g t o address t h e c a u s e o f a p r o b l e m , w e o f t e n m a k e u s e

of

i n f o r m a t i o n derived f r o m reductionist research. In d i a g n o s i n g t h e cause o f a n i n s e c t o u t b r e a k , f o r i n s t a n c e , w e o f t e n rely o n s u c h r e s e a r c h h e l p us d e t e r m i n e

the weakest point

in t h e insect's life cycle so

to we

c a n d e a l w i t h t h e i n s e c t at its m o s t v u l n e r a b l e stage. Similarly, basic b i o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h has p r o v i d e d i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t c o n d i t i o n s f o r v a r i o u s p l a n t s a n d t h u s m a d e it p o s s i b l e f o r m a n a g e m e n t t o i n c r e a s e 538

54:-) 49

M A K I N G RESEARCH

RELEVANT

p o p u l a t i o n s o f d e s i r e d plants a n d to d e c r e a s e p o p u l a t i o n s o f u n d e s i r a b l e ones. H o w e v e r , t h e r e are also i n s t a n c e s w h e n c o n v e n t i o n a l r e s e a r c h has m i s l e d us. M a n y scientists, f o r i n s t a n c e , h a v e s o u g h t t o d i s p r o v e t h e p o s i t i v e e f f e c t s o f a n i m a l i m p a c t , specifically t r a m p l i n g , y e t t h e i r a t t e m p t s t o d o so have b e e n largely i n a p p r o p r i a t e ; c o m m o n l y , s o m e f o r m of metal artifact was u s e d t o s i m u l a t e t h e a n i m a l h o o f . I s o l a t e d f r o m t h e w h o l e i n t h e s i m plified c o n t e x t of a l a b o r a t o r y e x p e r i m e n t , simulated h o o f action

com-

p a c t e d b a r r e n soil in j u s t t h e s a m e m a n n e r as a s h e e p ' s f o o t roller c o m p a c t s an e a r t h e n d a m . B a s e d o n t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s , t h e r e s e a r c h e r s

concluded

t h a t if w e u s e d t h e t o o l o f a n i m a l i m p a c t it w o u l d o n l y c a u s e d a m a g e , n o t h e l p t o r e v e r s e it. In p r a c t i c e , h o w e v e r , t r a m p l i n g b y real a n i m a l s n e v e r o c c u r s in i s o l a t i o n . T h e h o o f a c t i o n itself v a r i e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e b e h a v i o r o f t h e a n i m a l s , w h i c h m a y reflect territorial restrictions, fences, predators, avoidance of f o u l e d g r o u n d , a n d o t h e r f a c t o r s . It n e v e r o c c u r s i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f d u n g a n d u r i n e a n d o t h e r o r g a n i s m s , litter, r o o t a c t i o n , a n d c l i m a t e . A n d

of

c o u r s e , t i m i n g is e v e r y t h i n g . L i v e s t o c k t h a t m o v e a c c o r d i n g t o a holistic g r a z i n g p l a n rarely l i n g e r l o n g e n o u g h t o severely c o m p a c t soil, a n d a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e p l a n m i n i m i z e s o v e r g r a z i n g , t h e r o o t g r o w t h o f v i g o r o u s plants will l o o s e n w h a t c o m p a c t i o n d o e s o c c u r . E v e n w h e n soils are o f a t y p e t h a t c o m p a c t s severely w h e n w e t a n d t r a m p l e d , e x p e r i e n c e s h o w s t h a t h e a l t h y plant roots soon loosen the c o m p a c t i o n . Knowing

that

a certain

research

finding comes

from

reductionist

m e t h o d o l o g y s i m p l y w a r n s us t o o b s e r v e a n d to m o n i t o r c a r e f u l l y as w e a p p l y it in t h e w h o l e w e are m a n a g i n g . B e c a u s e all w h o l e s are u n i q u e , t h e results o f a n y r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s m a y n o t f o l l o w p r e d i c t i o n s o r e v e n b e r e p l i c a b l e , as w e k n o w f r o m t h e d i s a p p o i n t i n g lack o f success o f t h e m a n y p r e p a c k a g e d m a n a g e m e n t systems or "best m a n a g e m e n t practices" p r o m o t e d for widespread application. I n d e t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r r e s e a r c h is r e l e v a n t t o y o u r o w n m a n a g e m e n t s i t u a t i o n , y o u also h a v e t o k n o w s o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s i n w h i c h it was c o n d u c t e d . In t h e U n i t e d States, f o r i n s t a n c e , a fair a m o u n t o f data have b e e n c o l l e c t e d o n s p e c i e s a n d t h e i r i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s in areas set aside as b i o r e s e r v e s . T h e Sevilleta W i l d l i f e R e f u g e in N e w

Mexico,

m e n t i o n e d in C h a p t e r 2 0 , is o n e o f t h e s e . In this case, t h e e n v i r o n m e n t is very brittle and thus requires s o m e f o r m of disturbance of vegetation and soil s u r f a c e s t o m a i n t a i n p l a n t v i g o r , c o m p l e x i t y o f species, a n d h e a l t h y soils, b u t i n s t e a d t h e l a n d has b e e n r e s t e d f o r m a n y years. T h e a i m o f t h e r e s e a r c h is t o p r o v i d e g u i d e l i n e s f o r b e t t e r m a n a g e m e n t , b u t h o w u s e f u l will this r e s e a r c h b e t o m a n a g e r s w h e n it is b a s e d o n s u c h an u n n a t u r a l a n d deteriorating situation? In a n y n u m b e r o f s i t u a t i o n s , y o u m a y b e in a p o s i t i o n t o c o n d u c t y o u r

540

PART X

NEW

PERSPECTIVES

o w n r e s e a r c h o r t o c o l l a b o r a t e w i t h o t h e r s t o a d d r e s s a k n o w l e d g e gap. F o r example,

there

is a g r o w i n g

movement

of farmer-initiated,

on-farm

r e s e a r c h i n m a n y U . S . states i n w h i c h f a r m e r s , u n i v e r s i t y r e s e a r c h e r s , a n d e x t e n s i o n a g e n t s all c o l l a b o r a t e . T h e s e r e s e a r c h e f f o r t s b e c o m e far m o r e m e a n i n g f u l w h e n the f a r m e r can explain h o w the k n o w l e d g e h e needs w i l l b e u s e d a n d f o r w h a t p u r p o s e — t o e n a b l e h i m t o m o v e t o w a r d his h o h s t i c g o a l . T o g e t h e r , h e a n d t h e r e s e a r c h e r s c a n test t h e r e s e a r c h p l a n t h e y d e v e l o p t o m a k e s u r e it delivers t h e n e e d e d i n f o r m a t i o n a n d t h a t it can b e used. At o t h e r times y o u m i g h t n e e d to contract others to d o research for y o u . A small m a n u f a c t u r i n g c o m p a n y f o r i n s t a n c e , m a y h a v e d e c i d e d t o find a profitable a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y responsible way to utilize s o m e o f the r e s i d u e s l e f t f r o m its m a n u f a c t u r i n g processes. S o m e o f t h e r e s e a r c h c o u l d be c o n d u c t e d in-house, but m u c h of the technical i n f o r m a t i o n may have t o b e g a t h e r e d b y o u t s i d e speciahsts. T h e c o m p a n y w o u l d h a v e t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e s e r e s e a r c h e r s are a w a r e o f t h e desires e x p r e s s e d in t h e c o m p a n y ' s holistic goal and that the i n f o r m a t i o n gained f r o m their research will have t o pass e a c h o f t h e s e v e n tests t h a t a p p l y t o b e u s e f u l .

Product Development P r o d u c t d e v e l o p m e n t g e n e r a l l y falls i n t h e r e a l m o f m a r k e t i n g , a s u b j e c t c o v e r e d in C h a p t e r 3 7 . It is r e l e v a n t h e r e as well b e c a u s e t h e

research

b e h i n d so m a n y p r o d u c t s t h a t h a v e p r o v e n t o h a v e a d v e r s e social a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n s e q u e n c e s w a s d r i v e n by n a r r o w goals o r o b j e c t i v e s r e l a t e d t o a c o m p a n y ' s b o t t o m line. G i v e n t h e c h a l l e n g e o f p r o d u c i n g p r o d u c t s t h a t w i l l pass t e s t i n g t o w a r d a h o l i s t i c g o a l t h e y h a v e h e l p e d t o f o r m , I b e h e v e t h e s a m e r e s e a r c h e r s w o u l d b e c a p a b l e o f c r e a t i n g p r o d u c t s t h a t are socially a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y s o u n d — a n d j u s t as p r o f i t a b l e . O n e o f t h e g r e a t e s t c h a l l e n g e s m a n u f a c t u r e r s will f a c e is in d e v e l o p i n g p r o d u c t s t h a t d o n o t in t h e i r m a n u f a c t u r e , use, o r final disposal, release s u b stances t h a t w i l l n o t b r e a k d o w n . N o early w a r n i n g m e t h o d s h a v e y e t b e e n d e v e l o p e d for m o n i t o r i n g t h e effects o f persistent substances w i t h i n

our

e c o s y s t e m . W e d o k n o w t h a t t h e e f f e c t s are likely t o b e a d v e r s e , t h a t t h e y m a y n o t b e a p p a r e n t u n t i l m a n y years later, a n d t h a t w e c a n n o t p r e d i c t w h e r e they will manifest themselves. D e t e c t i n g t h e m only w h e n animals p r o d u c e d e f o r m e d o f f s p r i n g o r fail t o b r e e d , o r w h e n s t r a t o s p h e r i c o z o n e is d e p l e t e d , is far t o o late. R e s e a r c h t h a t is o r i e n t e d t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f products c o m p o s e d of biodegradable substances or p r o d u c t s in w h i c h n o n b i o d e g r a d a b l e s u b s t a n c e s c a n easily b e e x t r a c t e d f o r r e c y c l i n g w o u l d h a v e h i g h p r i o r i t y w h e n t e s t e d t o w a r d t h e h o l i s t i c goals f o r m e d b y m o s t m a n u f a c t u r e r s . As m e n t i o n e d in C h a p t e r 3 1 , c o m p a n i e s a t t e m p t i n g t o c o m p l y

54:-) 49

M A K I N G RESEARCH

RELEVANT

w i t h the I S O 14000 standards or to follow the principles o f T h e

Natural

S t e p p r o g r a m , are b e g i n n i n g to r e s p o n d to this c h a l l e n g e .

Beyond Reductionist Research W h e r e o n c e any b u t the m o s t reductionist research was f r o w n e d u p o n or e v e n r i d i c u l e d , w e a r e b e c o m i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y w a r y o f r e l y i n g o n it totally. A l t h o u g h s o m e r e s e a r c h is c o n d u c t e d o u t o f p u r e c u r i o s i t y , m o s t r e s e a r c h e f f o r t s a r e d r i v e n b y a d e s i r e t o b e t t e r h u m a n life i n s o m e way. A l l r e s e a r c h d e a l s w i t h t h e w o r l d a r o u n d us, a n d if t h e w o r l d is o r g a n i z e d i n w h o l e s , as w e are increasingly b e g i n n i n g to a c k n o w l e d g e , t h e n m u c h o f that research w o u l d benefit f r o m a holistic perspective. O f t e n in d i a g n o s i n g a p r o b l e m w e can e x p e c t to find that w e j u s t d o n o t k n o w e n o u g h a b o u t t h e p r o b l e m t o a d d r e s s it e f f e c t i v e l y , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e case o f h e r e t o f o r e u n k n o w n o r r e c e n t l y i n t r o d u c e d f u n g i , b a c t e r i a , a n d v i r u s e s , a n d t h e s e a r e a r e a s f o r u r g e n t r e s e a r c h . T o d a t e , m a n a g e m e n t as w e l l as r e s e a r c h o n s u c h p r o b l e m s has t e n d e d t o b e r e d u c t i o n i s t , as i s o l a t e d calls f o r a b r o a d e r a p p r o a c h g e n e r a l l y w e n t

unheeded.

It is h i g h l y u n l i k e l y t h a t s u c h s i m p l e o r g a n i s m s live o u t s i d e t h e s u c c e s sional process a n d e c o s y s t e m f u n c t i o n i n g generally. W h e r e w e create ideal survival c o n d i t i o n s f o r an organism, or w h e r e w e i n t r o d u c e o n e w i t h o u t t h e p r e d a t o r s a n d d i s e a s e s t h a t r e s t r a i n e d it, a n i n v a d i n g o r g a n i s m

can

f l o u r i s h t o p r o b l e m levels, as r a b b i t s a n d p r i c k l y p e a r d i d i n A u s t r a l i a , o r as s y p h i l i s d i d in r e n a i s s a n c e E u r o p e , a n d m e a s l e s a n d s m a l l p o x i n

North

A m e r i c a . It is h i g h l y l i k e l y t h a t p r e s e n t - d a y e p i d e m i c s , s u c h as D u t c h e l m d i s e a s e o r e v e n A I D S , e x i s t because an environment

exists

that supports

them.

O u r task is t o f i n d w h a t w e h a v e d o n e t o p r o d u c e t h a t e n v i r o n m e n t . I n o u r passion to cure w i t h technological nonsolutions rather than

prevent

t h e s e diseases, w e o f t e n o v e r l o o k this b a s i c q u e s t i o n . L e t m e c i t e

three

instances that w o u l d s u p p o r t this a p p r o a c h .

The Great

Plague

Today w e k n o w that the b u b o n i c plague that devastated Europe's p o p u l a t i o n i n m e d i e v a l t i m e s , w a s d e r i v e d f r o m b a c t e r i a t h a t w e r e s p r e a d b y fleas l i v i n g o n rats. T h e p l a g u e r e a c h e d e p i d e m i c p r o p o r t i o n s w h e n o v e r c r o w d e d u r b a n slums p r o d u c e d t h e r i g h t c o n d i t i o n s for a massive increase in the rat p o p u l a t i o n , w h i c h in t u r n p r o v i d e d t h e r i g h t e n v i r o n m e n t f o r a m a s sive i n c r e a s e i n fleas. A t t e m p t s t o t a c k l e t h e d i s e a s e h e a d - o n b y s e e k i n g a c u r e f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l s a f f l i c t e d b y t h e p l a g u e w e r e u n s u c c e s s f u l . It w a s n ' t until the slum conditions w e r e rectified, and thus the e n v i r o n m e n t less c o n d u c i v e t o rat a n d f l e a , t h a t t h e d i s e a s e w a s c o n t a i n e d .

made

542

PART X

Foot and Mouth

NEW

PERSPECTIVES

Disease

T h i s viral disease, w h i c h m a i n l y affects cattle, is i n d i r e c t l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the destruction

of g a m e in Africa o n

a massive scale. A m e r i c a n

and

E u r o p e a n i m p o r t e r s o f A f r i c a n b e e f insist t h a t t h e m e a t c o m e f r o m d i s e a s e f r e e areas, w h i c h is a r e a s o n a b l e d e m a n d as t h e v i r u s a p p a r e n t l y takes o n a p a r t i c u l a r l y v i r u l e n t f o r m w h e n it r e a c h e s n o r t h e r n c l i m e s . V e t e r i n a r i a n s b e l i e v e t h e v i r u s is c a r r i e d b y w i l d l i f e , b u f f a l o in p a r t i c u l a r , a n d s p r e a d to cattle t h r o u g h close c o n t a c t . T o p r e v e n t a n y c o n t a c t , t h e y f e n c e l i v e s t o c k areas t o e x c l u d e g a m e , s o m e t i m e s s h o o t o u t t h e g a m e , a n d v a c c i n a t e t h e l i v e s t o c k as well. In t a c k l i n g t h e p r o b l e m h e a d - o n , today's v e t e r i n a r i a n s h a v e f a i l e d t o address t h e l a r g e r q u e s t i o n s , t h e m o s t o b v i o u s o n e

being

w h a t k i n d o f e n v i r o n m e n t is c o n d u c i v e t o t h e virus? I n I n d i a d u r i n g t h e 1930s, B r i t i s h r e s e a r c h e r Sir A l b e r t H o w a r d d e m o n s t r a t e d r e p e a t e d l y t h a t cattle r u n n i n g o n h e a l t h y soils a n d m a i n t a i n i n g a healthy diet could actually r u b noses w i t h infected animals and n o t c o n tract t h e disease. M y o w n e x p e r i e n c e b a c k s this u p . T h e o u t b r e a k s t h a t o c c u r r e d in Z i m b a b w e u p u n t i l 1 9 6 4 , w h e n I l e f t t h e G a m e D e p a r t m e n t , always s h o w e d a far g r e a t e r c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h n u t r i t i o n a l l y stressed l i v e s t o c k , c e r t a i n soil types, a n d a d e t e r i o r a t i n g e n v i r o n m e n t t h a n t h e y e v e r d i d w i t h g a m e p o p u l a t i o n s . In f a c t in o u r areas o f g r e a t e s t b u f f a l o - t o - c a t t l e c o n t a c t , o u t b r e a k s w e r e a l m o s t u n k n o w n . W h e n o n e d i d o c c u r in a small cattle h e r d in t h e m i d d l e o f a l a r g e g a m e reserve, t h e v e t e r i n a r i a n s j u m p e d o n it as p r o o f t h a t b u f f a l o w e r e s p r e a d i n g t h e v i r u s . W h e n w e i n v e s t i g a t e d f u r t h e r , w e f o u n d t h a t i m m e d i a t e l y b e f o r e t h e o u t b r e a k t h e area h a d b e e n v i s i t e d b y a v e t e r i n a r y o f f i c e r , w h o h a d c o m e f r o m a f o o t - a n d - m o u t h area in nearby Zambia. W h e n e v e r an o u t b r e a k o c c u r r e d , a c o r d o n was p l a c e d a r o u n d t h e area, w h i c h m e a n t t h a t all r o a d s l e a d i n g o u t o f it h a d c h e c k p o i n t s w h e r e s h o e s a n d tires w e r e s p r a y e d . T h i s c o n t r o l o f h u m a n m o v e m e n t e f f e c t i v e l y c o n t r o l l e d t h e s p r e a d o f t h e disease. M a n y species o f g a m e , i n c l u d i n g b u f f a l o a n d v u l t u r e s , still m o v e d f r e e l y b a c k a n d f o r t h , w h i c h i n d i c a t e d t h a t g a m e w e r e n o t t h e m a i n a g e n t in s p r e a d i n g t h e disease. I n f a c t , it w o u l d b e h a r d t o i m a g i n e a b e t t e r e x p e r i m e n t t o clear g a m e o f t h e a c c u s a t i o n t h a t t h e y s p r e a d t h e disease. D e s p i t e this, f e n c e s c o n t i n u e to b e b u i l t a n d g a m e s h o t to k e e p t h e m away f r o m livestock. Clearly w e n e e d to research the relationship b e t w e e n health and infect i o n — t h e h e a l t h n o t o n l y o f t h e cattle b u t also o f t h e soil a n d p l a n t c o m m u n i t i e s . M u c h like t h e u r b a n s l u m s o f m e d i e v a l t i m e s c o n t r i b u t e d t o o u t b r e a k s o f p l a g u e , I b e l i e v e l i v e s t o c k l i v i n g i n " s l u m c o n d i t i o n s " are m o r e s u s c e p t i b l e t o f o o t - a n d - m o u t h a n d m a n y o t h e r diseases. In t h e m e a n t i m e , h u n d r e d s o f t h o u s a n d s o f g a m e a n i m a l s are d y i n g o f thirst b e c a u s e f e n c e s d e n y t h e m access t o w a t e r , a n d w h o l e b u f f a l o h e r d s are s h o t w h e n f e n c e s do not contain them.

49

M A K I N G RESEARCH RELEVANT

The Irish Potato

54:-)

Famine

O v e r a m i l l i o n p e o p l e s t a r v e d as a resrdt o f t h e b l i g h t t h a t s t r u c k Ireland's staple c r o p in t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . A l t h o u g h t h e s i t u a t i o n w a s e x a c e r bated by the i n e p t i t u d e of the British bureaucracy, w e n o w

understand

w h y t h e blight's s p r e a d w a s so e x t e n s i v e : w e h a d c r e a t e d an e n v i r o n m e n t t h a t w a s ideal f o r t h a t p a r t i c u l a r f u n g u s t o

flourish.

N o t only were the

p o t a t o e s g r o w n as n e a r m o n o c u l t u r e s , t h e y w e r e also v i r t u a l l y all d e r i v e d from

t h e s a m e s e e d s t o c k a n d t h u s l a c k e d g e n e t i c diversity. T h e r e f o r e , t h e

b l i g h t e n c o u n t e r e d little o r n o resistance in t h a t e n v i r o n m e n t a n d s p r e a d readily. T h e s a m e p r i n c i p l e is at w o r k t o d a y w h e r e v e r m o n o c u l t u r e c r o p p i n g is p r a c t i c e d , b u t w e p u t l a r g e - s c a l e blights o f f t o a later day by p o i s o n i n g t h e o f f e n d i n g f u n g u s , virus, o r b a c t e r i a . D e v e l o p i n g p o i s o n s t h a t c a n kill t h e

offending organisms, while

not

t a k i n g steps t o r e d u c e

them

t h r o u g h e n v i r o n m e n t a l m a n a g e m e n t , c a r r y t h e real d a n g e r t h a t t h e o r g a n isms m u t a t e a n d b e c o m e e v e n m o r e lethal. T r a g i c a l l y m o s t r e s e a r c h e f f o r t s still c o n c e n t r a t e o n t h e s e i n s t a n t cures r a t h e r t h a n t h e l o n g e r - t e r m

pre-

v e n t i o n b r o u g h t a b o u t by g r e a t e r diversity i n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . In t h e f u t u r e w e m u s t c o n c e n t r a t e o n w h o l e c o m m u n i t i e s r a t h e r t h a n o n t h e o f f e n d i n g o r g a n i s m in o u r e n d e a v o r s b o t h t o u n d e r s t a n d a n d t o p r e v e n t m a j o r disease o u t b r e a k s . O n c e t h e c a u s e is d e t e r m i n e d a n d r e c t i f i e d , w e c o m m o n l y f i n d w e n e e d d o n o t h i n g f u r t h e r t o c o n t a i n t h e disease t o p r o p o r t i o n s w e c a n live w i t h .

Multidisciplinary Research A s w e e n t e r a n e w era in r e s e a r c h , m u l t i d i s c i p l i n a r y r e s e a r c h t e a m s will play an i n c r e a s i n g role. B u t t h e y w i l l first h a v e t o o v e r c o m e t h e m a j o r s h o r t c o m i n g m e n t i o n e d in C h a p t e r 3: t h e i r t e n d e n c y t o f a v o r t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l disciplines at t h e e x p e n s e o f t h e " w h o l e , " w h i c h has qualities n o t p r e s e n t w i t h i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l o r e v e n t h e c o m b i n e d disc i p l i n e s . T h i s is easier said t h a n d o n e , b u t t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f o n e r e s e a r c h e r is p r o m i s i n g . D r . C l i f f M o n t a g n e , a soil scientist at M o n t a n a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , is p a r t of a multidisciplinary team researching ways for rural c o m m u n i t i e s

to

e n h a n c e t h e i r sustainability. T h e e x p e r i e n c e , h e says, has s h o w n h i m h o w v a l u a b l e t h e H o l i s t i c M a n a g e m e n t m o d e l c a n b e as an o r g a n i z i n g

frame-

w o r k in d e s i g n i n g r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s . It d i d n o t start o u t t h a t way, h o w e v e r . T h e p r o j e c t b e g a n as a b r a i n s t o r m i n g session, by a g r o u p o f a c a d e m i c s s i t t i n g in t h e i r i v o r y t o w e r , o n h o w t o c o n d u c t

the

research. W h a t i n f o r m a t i o n w o u l d be n e e d e d ? W h o w o u l d collect it? a n d H o w w o u l d it b e m e a s u r e d ? W e w o u l d n e e d

to

k n o w this in o r d e r t o v a l i d a t e p a r t i c u l a r h y p o t h e s e s . T h i s o f c o u r s e w a s s o m e t h i n g w e w e r e all t r a i n e d t o d o .

544

PART X

NEW

PERSPECTIVES

S u d d e n l y it d a w n e d o n m e t h a t w e c o u l d n ' t d o a n y t h i n g r e l evant w i t h o u t defining a m i n i m u m whole, w h i c h w o u l d have t o i n c l u d e t h e m e m b e r s o f t h e c o m m u n i t y w e p l a n n e d to u s e as a case s t u d y . S o m e w h a t r e l u c t a n t l y , t h e o t h e r s a g r e e d . T h e c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s w o u l d have to b e i n c l u d e d i n t i m a t e l y in t h e p l a n n i n g a n d in the c o n d u c t o f t h e research. T h r o u g h a series of e v e n i n g d i n n e r m e e t i n g s , t h e values a n d aspirations of a s p e c t r u m of c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s have since b e e n shared a n d used to drive the research hypotheses for the p r o j e c t . T h i s inclusivity has b e e n a m a j o r key to t h e success o f t h e p r o j e c t s o far. H o w e v e r , w e a r e c u r r e n t l y b a t t l i n g

(myself

i n c l u d e d ) t o t r u l y i n t e r n a l i z e a n d u t i l i z e t h e m o d e l in t a k i n g t h i n g s f u r t h e r . I a m c o n v i n c e d t h a t it w i l l b e n e c e s s a r y f o r b o t h the t e a m m e m b e r s a n d the c o m m u n i t y to " b u y i n " to holistic d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g for this research t o p r o d u c e results that will m a k e a difference. T h e c o n s u m e r - c e n t e r e d a p p r o a c h is c u r r e n t l y g a i n i n g p o p ularity in research. T h e U.S. D e p a r t m e n t of Agriculture's F u n d for R u r a l A m e r i c a a n d the Sustainable Agriculture

Research

a n d E d u c a t i o n ( S A R E ) p r o g r a m s , f o r i n s t a n c e , call s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r i n v o l v e m e n t o f t h e f a r m e r s as i n t e g r a l p a r t i c i p a n t s i n

the

r e s e a r c h p r o c e s s . O u r e x p e r i e n c e so f a r s u g g e s t s t h a t if r e s e a r c h dealing with humans

is t o b e r e l e v a n t , it m u s t b e

centered

a r o u n d identification of a m a n a g e m e n t w h o l e that includes the people w h o

w i l l b e a f f e c t e d b y t h e r e s e a r c h , as w e l l as t h e

researchers themselves. I believe that the Holistic M a n a g e m e n t m o d e l is o n e o f t h e b e s t t o o l s a v a i l a b l e t o d o this e f f e c t i v e l y , a n d I suspect o t h e r researchers m a y well c o m e to the same c o n c l u sion."1 R e s e a r c h e r s have l o n g resisted a close i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h t h o s e would benefit

from

their research for fear that such i n v o l v e m e n t

who would

c o m p r o m i s e t h e r e s e a r c h e r s ' o b j e c t i v i t y . O n e c o u l d also a s k w h y t h e s a m e f e a r d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o exist w h e n r e s e a r c h is f u n d e d b y c o r p o r a t i o n s w i t h a v e s t e d interest i n t h e results. N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e researchers' lack o f i n v o l v e m e n t in t h e p r a c t i c a l r e a l i t i e s o f m a n a g e m e n t h a s o f t e n r e s u l t e d i n c o n c l u s i o n s t h a t a r e o u t o f t o u c h w i t h r e a l i t y a n d t h u s o f little u s e t o t h o s e w h o could otherwise benefit from them. T h e trend toward

consumer-centered

r e s e a r c h is w e l l w o r t h c u l t i v a t i n g if r e s e a r c h is t r u l y t o b e n e f i t m a n a g e m e n t . I n a l a r g e r s e n s e , o n e c o u l d j u s t as easily c o n c l u d e t h a t if r e a l i t y is s t r u c t u r e d a n d f u n c t i o n s in w h o l e s , that is w h a t r e s e a r c h e r s s h o u l d p r i m a r ily s t u d y .

50 Creating Sound Policies

M

ost p o l i c i e s are c r e a t e d e i t h e r t o solve a p r o b l e m o r t o p r e v e n t a

p r o b l e m f r o m o c c u r r i n g . I n t h e case o f t h e f o r m e r , t h e p o l i c y

w i l l p r e s c r i b e a c o u r s e o f a c t i o n ; in t h e latter, a set o f r u l e s o r g u i d e l i n e s t o b e f o l l o w e d . H o w e v e r , in e i t h e r case a p o l i c y f o r m e d w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a h o h s t i c g o a l is likely t o fare b e t t e r t h a n o n e o r i e n t e d t o w a r d o b j e c t i v e s t o solve o r p r e v e n t p r o b l e m s . F o r m e d w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a holistic g o a l , t h e p o l i c y w o u l d t h e n r e f l e c t , a n d lead to, w h a t y o u d o w a n t t h a t t h e p r o b l e m o r p o t e n t i a l p r o b l e m is p r e v e n t i n g (or w o u l d p r e v e n t ) y o u f r o m having. P o l i c i e s d e s i g n e d t o p r e v e n t p r o b l e m s are b y far t h e m o s t c o m m o n a n d are u s e d i n a v a r i e t y o f s i t u a t i o n s . In y o u r h o m e y o u m i g h t h a v e a p o l i c y t h a t limits t h e n u m b e r o f h o u r s y o u r c h i l d r e n w a t c h t e l e v i s i o n (to p r e v e n t t h e m f r o m w a t c h i n g t o o m u c h o f it). I n t h e w o r k p l a c e , y o u m i g h t h a v e a p o l i c y f o r h a n d l i n g c u s t o m e r c o m p l a i n t s (to a v o i d c o n f u s i o n ) , a p o l i c y c o v e r i n g safety p r e c a u t i o n s w h e n w o r k i n g i n a d a n g e r o u s area (to avoid a c c i d e n t s ) , a n d so o n . B e c a u s e t h e s e sorts o f p o l i c i e s are fairly s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d a n d easy t o f o r m , I d o n o t d w e l l o n t h e m i n this c h a p t e r . I m e n t i o n t h e m o n l y b e c a u s e t h e y o f t e n c h a n g e i n detail, w h e n t h e r u l e s o r g u i d e lines t h e y p r e s c r i b e are assessed i n t e r m s o f w h a t y o u w a n t , as d e s c r i b e d i n y o u r holistic goal. P o l i c i e s d e s i g n e d t o solve p r o b l e m s are m o r e c o m m o n t h a n t h e y s h o u l d be, b e c a u s e all t o o o f t e n t h e y fail t o t a c k l e t h e u n d e r l y i n g c a u s e o f t h e p r o b l e m and merely w o r k to suppress s y m p t o m s . W h e n enforced, they may i n f a c t alleviate s o m e o f t h e s e s y m p t o m s , b u t b e c a u s e t h e c a u s e has n o t b e e n a d d r e s s e d , t h e s y m p t o m s ( a n d t h e p r o b l e m ) persist. A n o t h e r p o l i c y 5 4 5

PART X

546

NEW

PERSPECTIVES

m a y t h e n b e d e v e l o p e d , b u t it t o o fares n o b e t t e r f o r t h e s a m e r e a s o n . T h e m a n y p o l i c i e s c r e a t e d t o c o m b a t c r i m e are an e x a m p l e . W h e n m o r e a n d b e t t e r e q u i p p e d p o l i c e o f f i c e r s d o n o t solve t h e c r i m e p r o b l e m , w e b u i l d m o r e p r i s o n s , a n d w h e n t h a t d o e s n o t solve it, w e e n f o r c e stiffer p e n a l t i e s o n r e p e a t o f f e n d e r s , a n d so o n . E a c h o f t h e s e p o l i c i e s m i g h t h e l p t o r e d u c e c r i m e , b u t b e c a u s e n o n e o f t h e m address t h e u n d e r l y i n g cause, t h e p r o b l e m n e v e r g o e s away. W h e n p o l i c i e s a i m t o solve a p r o b l e m , t h e holistic g o a l w i l l h e l p t o p u t t h e p r o b l e m in p e r s p e c t i v e , b u t a t h o r o u g h analysis o f t h e p o l i c y u s i n g t h e H o l i s t i c M a n a g e m e n t m o d e l is also r e q u i r e d . T h i s s h o u l d start w i t h a d i a g nosis o f t h e p r o b l e m ' s cause. T h e n , e a c h o f t h e a c t i o n s p r e s c r i b e d in t h e p o l i c y n e e d s to b e passed t h r o u g h t h e s e v e n t e s t i n g g u i d e l i n e s . If n o n e o f t h o s e a c t i o n s address t h e r o o t c a u s e o f t h e p r o b l e m (cause a n d e f f e c t test), t h e p o l i c y m a y r e q u i r e fairly drastic r e v i s i o n . If an a c t i o n fails a n y o f t h e r e m a i n i n g tests, slight m o d i f i c a t i o n s m a y b e all t h a t are r e q u i r e d t o m a k e t h e p o l i c y e c o n o m i c a l l y , socially, a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y s o u n d a n d i n l i n e w i t h t h e holistic goal. N o w h e r e is s u c h an analysis n e e d e d m o r e t h a n w h e n f o r m i n g p o l i c i e s t h a t a t t e m p t to solve r e s o u r c e m a n a g e m e n t p r o b l e m s — t h e f o c u s o f this c h a p t e r . It a p p e a r s t h a t n o t h i n g r e m o t e l y r e s e m b l i n g t h e H o l i s t i c M a n a g e m e n t m o d e l directs r e s o u r c e m a n a g e m e n t p o l i c y c u r r e n t l y , at a n y level n a t i o n a l l y o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y . I n p o l i c y analysis c o u r s e s t h e C e n t e r H o l i s t i c M a n a g e m e n t has r u n f o r u n i v e r s i t y e d u c a t o r s a n d

for

researchers,

g o v e r n m e n t officials, a n d a d v i s o r s — t h o s e w h o m o s t o f t e n p r o v i d e t e c h n i cal a d v i c e t o p o l i t i c i a n s — w e asked t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s t o c o m m e n t o n t h e f o l l o w i n g p o l i c i e s a c t u a l l y i m p l e m e n t e d in t h e U n i t e d States: 1. W i t h t h e a i m o f rescuing a vanishing breed o f t r o u t in a w i l d e r n e s s area, a p r e d a t o r y t r o u t is b e i n g p o i s o n e d . 2. To stave off t h e day w h e n a large a n d vital d a m inevitably fills w i t h silt, its wall is b e i n g raised. T h e r e is s o m e c o n t r o v e r s y o n w h e t h e r to raise it a f e w feet at a t i m e so as n o t to i m m e d i a t e l y destroy eagle n e s t i n g sites, o r all at o n c e (the c h e a p e r course). 3. T o h e l p to rid rangelands o f n o x i o u s plants, livestock n u m b e r s are b e i n g r e d u c e d and t h e plants p o i s o n e d . A t the same t i m e r a n c h e r s are b e i n g e n c o u r a g e d , w i t h c o s t - s h a r i n g p r o g r a m s , to invest in m o r e f e n c i n g a n d w a t e r points. 4. To destroy grasshoppers that t h r e a t e n c r o p and forage yields, an a e r i al spraying p r o g r a m is b e i n g i m p l e m e n t e d . 5. To r e d u c e b r u s h e n c r o a c h m e n t ( m e s q u i t e trees), a liquid h e r b i c i d e is b e i n g applied.

50

CREATING S O U N D POLICIES

6.

547

T o h e a l t h e l a n d a f t e r a severe d r o u g h t , e x t e n s i o n a g e n t s are a d v i s i n g a p r o l o n g e d rest p e r i o d .

E v e r y p o h c y e x c e p t t h e last p r e s c r i b e s a c t i o n s i n v o l v i n g t h e t o o l

of

t e c h n o l o g y , a n d i n n e a r l y all s i t u a t i o n s t h e t e s t i n g t o w a r d e v e n t h e m o s t r u d i m e n t a r y h o l i s t i c g o a l w o u l d s h o w it t o b e c o u n t e r p r o d u c t i v e . A l l t h e p r o p o s e d s o l u t i o n s a d d r e s s a s y m p t o m a n d fail t h e c a u s e a n d e f f e c t test. N o n e passes t h e s u s t a i n a b i l i t y test e i t h e r . W h e r e p r o f i t a b i l i t y a n d e c o s y s t e m s t a b i l i t y a r e f a c t o r s , t h e w e a k l i n k a n d m a r g i n a l r e a c t i o n tests w o u l d e l i m i n a t e m o s t , if n o t all, o f t h e m . A f t e r t h e b r i e f e x p o s u r e t o h o l i s t i c p o h c y analysis g i v e n i n t h e c o u r s e s , all t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s — n u m b e r i n g w e l l o v e r a t h o u s a n d , a n d i n c l u d i n g s o m e of the very people w h o had m a s t e r m i n d e d these p o l i c i e s — c a m e to similar c o n c l u s i o n s . All a g r e e d t h a t p u b l i c f u n d s h a d b e e n w a s t e d o n t h e s e p o l i cies b e c a u s e n o n e o f t h e m c o u l d s u c c e e d i n t h e l o n g r u n . All a g r e e d t h a t t h e s a m p l e w a s n o t b i a s e d . S u c h p o l i c i e s w e r e t y p i c a l , t h e y said, b o t h i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , a n d i n c o u n t r i e s t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w a s assisting. O n e class o f t h i r t y - f i v e , a f t e r s o m e d i s c u s s i o n , a c t u a l l y s t a t e d as a g r o u p t h a t they now see that unsound

resource management

was universal

in the United

could

States.

T h e o n l y p o i n t o n w h i c h t h e y w e r e n o t u n a n i m o u s l y a g r e e d was in d e t e r m i n i n g w h o a c t u a l l y p r o d u c e d t h e p o l i c i e s . S o m e laid t h e r e s p o n s i bility o n the politicians, a n d o t h e r s o n the public, or professional advisors and consultants f r o m private or p u b h c institutions, the media, or industrial f i r m s w i t h v e s t e d f i n a n c i a l i n t e r e s t s . W h e n a s k e d t o t h i n k a b o u t w h e r e w e m i g h t start to rectify such a situation, discussion r a n g e d widely, b u t most

participants

arrived

at

a similar

breakdown. About

75

percent

believed the policies ultimately e m a n a t e f r o m o u r educational system and t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l a d v i s o r s a n d c o n s u l t a n t s it p r o d u c e s . A b o u t 2 5 p e r c e n t f e l t t h a t t h o u g h this a c c o u n t s f o r m o s t cases, v e s t e d i n t e r e s t s ( f i n a n c i a l , p r o f e s s i o n a l , l o b b y i s t g r o u p s ) also i n f l u e n c e a c e r t a i n p r o p o r t i o n o f p o h c i e s . E v e n assuming that s o m e participants m i g h t have publicly accepted the m a j o r i ty o p i n i o n w h i l e n o t e n t i r e l y a g r e e i n g , t h e c o n s e n s u s i n d i c a t e s a real n e e d to rethink o u r approach to f o r m i n g resource m a n a g e m e n t pohcies. A l s o s i g n i f i c a n t is t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t p r o c e d u r e s p r e s e n t l y e n f o r c e d i n A m e r i c a to screen o u t bad pohcies apparently don't w o r k . In the U n i t e d States n e i t h e r p u b h c n o r private u n d e r t a k i n g s affecting t h e land can p r o ceed w i t h o u t an E n v i r o n m e n t a l I m p a c t S t a t e m e n t that presents an interdisciplinary study of t h e p o h c y a c c o r d i n g to strict guidelines. Yet u n s o u n d a n d d a m a g i n g p r o j e c t s r o u t i n e l y slip t h r o u g h this f i l t e r . T h e E n v i r o n m e n t a l I m p a c t S t a t e m e n t usually consists of a c o m p e n d i u m o f various v i e w p o i n t s , u n c o n n e c t e d b y a n y t h i n g e v e n r e m o t e l y r e s e m b l i n g a h o h s t i c g o a l as a p o i n t of reference for relating o n e v i e w to another. T h e interpretation of the d o c u m e n t remains a m a t t e r of n e g o t i a t i o n b e t w e e n forces in

which

548

PART X

NEW

PERSPECTIVES

vested p o w e r , a c a d e m i c seniority, a n d political e x p e d i e n c y often

count

m o r e t h a n l o g i c o r c o m m o n sense.

Analyzing an Existing Policy I c o u l d t a k e any o n e o f t h e p o l i c i e s m e n t i o n e d t o illustrate t h e p r o c e s s in detail, b u t I w i l l use t h e g r a s s h o p p e r s p r a y i n g p o l i c y b e c a u s e it is large in scope and representative of m a n y others. E m e r g e n c y appropriations in the m i l l i o n s o f dollars t o spray m a l a t h i o n o r s o m e o t h e r p e s t i c i d e o n o f f e n d i n g g r a s s h o p p e r s are n o t u n u s u a l . In this case $ 3 5 m i l l i o n w a s a p p r o p r i a t e d t o address t h e g r a s s h o p p e r p r o b l e m in t h e state o f W y o m i n g .

The Cause of the

Problem

As C h a p t e r 4 8 e x p l a i n e d , w h e n d i a g n o s i n g a p r o b l e m i n v o l v i n g an i n c r e a s e o r d e c r e a s e in t h e n u m b e r s o f a p a r t i c u l a r o r g a n i s m , f o c u s y o u r a t t e n t i o n o n c o m m u n i t y d y n a m i c s . As y o u will r e m e m b e r ( f r o m C h a p t e r 13), p o p u l a t i o n s c a n n o t b u i l d in n u m b e r s unless an e n v i r o n m e n t has b e e n c r e a t e d that enables t h e m to

flourish.To

f i g u r e o u t w h a t t h a t ideal e n v i r o n m e n t is,

y o u n e e d t o k n o w s o m e t h i n g o f t h e basic b i o l o g y o f t h e species. W h a t stage i n t h e g r a s s h o p p e r ' s life c y c l e is its w e a k e s t , a n d w h a t c o n d i t i o n s d o e s it r e q u i r e t o s u r v i v e at t h a t p o i n t ? I n g r a s s h o p p e r s , t h e w e a k e s t p o i n t is at t h e e g g o r n y m p h stage, so w e l o o k f o r t h e c o n d i t i o n s t h a t w o u l d p r o m o t e survival o f t h e eggs a n d n y m p h s . It t u r n s o u t t h a t t h e g r a s s h o p p e r s p e c i e s t h a t t e n d t o b e c o m e pests p r e f e r t o lay t h e i r eggs i n b a r e g r o u n d , w h i c h m u s t r e m a i n w a r m a n d d r y f o r t h e n y m p h s t o h a t c h . B a r e g r o u n d has steadily i n c r e a s e d in W y o m i n g , as it has i n m o s t w e s t e r n states, a n d t h u s so h a v e e g g - l a y i n g sites. I n m o s t years t h e m a j o r i t y o f eggs laid i n t h e b a r e g r o u n d o r t h e n y m p h s t h a t e m e r g e f r o m t h e m will n o t s u r v i v e b e c a u s e t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d rainfall are t o o h i g h o r t o o low. B u t w h e n t h e r i g h t t e m p e r a t u r e c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e r i g h t a m o u n t o f r a i n , m i l l i o n s o f eggs w i l l h a t c h a n d g r o w i n t o n y m p h s , a n d e v e n t u a l l y g r a s s h o p p e r s . T h e c a u s e o f t h e p r o b l e m is m o s t likely t o b e t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f vast areas o f b a r e soil b e t w e e n p l a n t s p r o v i d i n g i d e a l b r e e d i n g sites.

The Whole In this case, all o f t h e p e o p l e i n t h e state o f W y o m i n g are a f f e c t e d , b u t m o s t d i r e c t l y t h e f a r m e r s , r a n c h e r s , a n d o t h e r s w h o s e l i v e l i h o o d has b e e n d a m a g e d b y t h e loss o f f o r a g e a n d c r o p s . T h e l a n d w i t h i n t h e state a n d t h e b i o l o g i c a l c o m m u n i t i e s it e n c o m p a s s e s serve as t h e r e s o u r c e base. T h e m o n e y

50

CREATING S O U N D

POLICIES

549

available f o r i m p l e m e n t i n g this p o l i c y is $ 3 5 m i l l i o n , g l e a n e d f r o m state and federal treasuries.

The Holistic

Goal

W e c a n p r o b a b l y s u r m i s e t h a t t h e p e o p l e in t h e state o f W y o m i n g w o u l d like t o h a v e stable families, p r o s p e r i t y , g o o d h e a l t h , physical a n d f i n a n c i a l s e c u r i t y , a n d so o n . T o sustain t h e f o r m s o f p r o d u c t i o n t h a t will p r o d u c e all this, t h e y are b o u n d t o r e q u i r e a h e a l t h y l a n d base i n w h i c h w a t e r a n d m i n eral cycles are e f f e c t i v e , e n e r g y f l o w h i g h , a n d c o m m u n i t i e s r i c h in b i o logical diversity—all o f w h i c h w o u l d r e d u c e the likelihood o f grasshopper o u t b r e a k s . E v e n s u c h a s i m p l e s t a t e m e n t as this is e n o u g h t o e n a b l e us t o use t h e t e s t i n g g u i d e l i n e s t o d i s c o v e r if t h e c o u r s e o f a c t i o n o u t l i n e d in t h e p o l i c y is likely t o p r o d u c e d e s i r a b l e results.

The Actions

Proposed

T h e p o h c y p r e s c r i b e s o n l y o n e a c t i o n — t h e use o f a p o i s o n o u s s p r a y ( t h e t o o l o f t e c h n o l o g y ) t h a t kills g r a s s h o p p e r s .

The

Testing

T h e s p r a y i n g clearly fails t h e c a u s e a n d e f f e c t test b e c a u s e it d o e s n o t h i n g t o treat t h e b a r e g r o u n d — t h e u n d e r l y i n g c a u s e o f t h e o u t b r e a k . W e m i g h t also p r e d i c t a n e g a t i v e v e r d i c t o n t h e s u s t a i n a b i l i t y test, p a r t i c u l a r l y w h e n w e g a u g e t h e likely e f f e c t s o f s p r a y i n g o n c o m m u n i t y d y n a m i c s . T h i s is because w e have already established that the w e a k link in the grasshopper's life c y c l e is at t h e e g g a n d n y m p h stage, b u t t h e s p r a y i n g m a i n l y affects a d u l t grasshoppers. R e s e a r c h shows that o n c e n y m p h s assume the adult f o r m , t h e y r e q u i r e a b o u t f o u r t e e n days b e f o r e t h e y c a n r e p r o d u c e a n d m o s t p r o b ably h a v e d o n e so b e f o r e a n y sprayers c a n m o b i l i z e . T h e b u l k o f t h e a d u l t p o p u l a t i o n will d i e at t h e e n d o f t h e g r o w i n g season, a n d t h u s t h e s p r a y i n g p r o g r a m will b e killing g r a s s h o p p e r s d o o m e d t o d i e s h o r t l y anyway. P o i s o n i n g t h e a d u l t s will at best save s o m e c r o p s a n d f o r a g e , b u t t h e p o i s o n n e v e r kills all i n d i v i d u a l s . S o m e s u r v i v e t o b r e e d a m o r e c h e m i c a l l y

tolerant

strain, e v e n if t i m e l y s p r a y i n g c a t c h e s t h e b u l k b e f o r e t h e y g e t a c h a n c e . W y o m i n g p r o b a b l y hosts m o r e t h a n t w o h u n d r e d o r g a n i s m s t h a t p r e y o n g r a s s h o p p e r s i n t h e i r v a r i o u s stages a n d h e l p t o l i m i t o u t b r e a k s , b u t s p r a y i n g d o e s n o t in t h e least b e n e f i t a n y o f t h e s e p r e d a t o r s . It is likely t o kill o f f h i g h p r o p o r t i o n s o f m a n y a n d t h u s t o p r o m o t e t h e h a t c h i n g a n d survival o f m o r e g r a s s h o p p e r s . R e s e a r c h f r o m t h e U.S. D e p a r t m e n t o f A g r i c u l t u r e d o c u m e n t s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e s e p r e d a t o r s . W o r k i n g in

550

PART X

NEW

PERSPECTIVES

M o n t a n a , D r . J. A . O n s a g e r has s h o w n t h a t n a t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s o f grassh o p p e r s i n a r e a s o n a b l y h e a l t h y e n v i r o n m e n t s u f f e r 2 t o 13 p e r c e n t daily m o r t a l i t y at t h e n y m p h stage, w h i c h at t h e l o w e n d translates t o a 5 0 p e r c e n t r e d u c t i o n o f adults. A t t h e h i g h e n d , less t h a n 1 p e r c e n t s u r v i v e t o maturity.1 C h a p t e r 4 2 discussed t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c S - s h a p e d g r o w t h c u r v e o f p o p u l a t i o n s a n d e x p l a i n e d t h e e x t r e m e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f early m o r t a l i t y . S p r a y i n g t h a t also d e c i m a t e s a b r o a d r a n g e o f p r e d a t o r s u n l e a s h e s t h e full p o w e r o f t h e p r i n c i p l e in t h e w r o n g d i r e c t i o n , h o w e v e r , b e c a u s e p r e y p o p u l a t i o n s always r e c o v e r b e f o r e t h e p r e d a t o r s . T h e n e x t t i m e ideal c o n d i t i o n s prevail, an a b u n d a n t egg supply and r e d u c e d predators will g u a r a n t e e a n o t h e r o u t b r e a k . C l e a r l y this p o l i c y fails t h e s u s t a i n a b i l i t y test. E v e n w i t h o u t f u r t h e r testing, w e c a n d e f i n i t e l y call this p o l i c y u n s o u n d . T h e spraying p r o g r a m , apart f r o m n o t addressing the cause of the p r o b l e m , a d v e r s e l y affects c o m m u n i t y d y n a m i c s b y r e d u c i n g t h e diversity

within

biological c o m m u n i t i e s . People face increased pollution danger. A n d a c o u n t r y s t r u g g l i n g t o b a l a n c e its b u d g e t w a s t e s $ 3 5 m i l l i o n . O b v i o u s l y w e should seek o t h e r solutions. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t o d a y m o s t p e o p l e still l o o k f o r f u r t h e r r e m e d i e s

in

o t h e r f o r m s o f t e c h n o l o g y , s u c h as m o r e s p e c i f i c p e s t i c i d e s o r g e n e t i c e n g i n e e r i n g , w h e n living organisms could b e harnessed to p e r f o r m the same task w i t h o u t d a m a g i n g t h e f o u r e c o s y s t e m processes. H o w e v e r , n e i t h e r t e c h n o l o g y n o r l i v i n g o r g a n i s m s will h e l p t o p r e v e n t f u t u r e g r a s s h o p p e r o u t b r e a k s in W y o m i n g if t h e u n d e r l y i n g c a u s e is n o t a d d r e s s e d . T h a t w o u l d f i g u r e l a r g e l y in t h e r e v i s e d p o l i c y w e w o u l d c r e a t e u s i n g t h e H o l i s t i c M a n a g e m e n t m o d e l t o g u i d e us.

Revising

the

Policy

G i v e n t h e g e n e r i c h o l i s t i c g o a l d e s c r i b e d , c o n s i d e r h o w y o u as a p o l i t i c i a n m i g h t a p p r o a c h t h e g r a s s h o p p e r p r o b l e m . As a p r i m a r y r u l e , y o u w o u l d t r y t o c e n t e r o n t h e holistic g o a l a n d a v o i d c o n f u s i n g t h a t b y d e b a t e o v e r c h e m i c a l p o i s o n s , b i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l s , o r a n y o t h e r tools. T h e n , g i v e n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a $ 3 5 m i l l i o n a p p r o p r i a t i o n , y o u m i g h t p r o p o s e a l l o c a t i n g it in t h e f o l l o w i n g way. 1. T o s o f t e n t h e i m m e d i a t e i m p a c t o f t h e grasshoppers y o u m i g h t use s o m e o f t h e m o n e y to directly c o m p e n s a t e p e o p l e w h o truly suffered d a m a g e to their livelihood. If biological pest c o n t r o l , o r any o t h e r m e t h o d o f c o n t r o l l i n g adult p o p u l a t i o n s c o u l d pass t h e testing, f u n d s m i g h t g o to that as well. S u p p o s e this cost $ 2 0 million. 2.

O f t h e r e m a i n i n g $ 1 5 m i l l i o n , $5 m i l l i o n c o u l d g o to t r a i n i n g f a r m ers, ranchers, refuge, and p a r k m a n a g e r s , and so o n , in m a n a g e m e n t

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POLICIES

p r a c t i c e s that w o u l d p r o m o t e t h e g e n e r i c holistic goal a n d address t h e cause o f t h e o u t b r e a k . I n c r e a s e d g r o u n d c o v e r w o u l d r e d u c e e g g - l a y i n g sites. I n c r e a s e d g r o u n d c o v e r w o u l d e n h a n c e t h e w a t e r cycle as well, w h i c h in t u r n w o u l d e n h a n c e t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f f u n g i a n d m i c r o o r g a n i s m s that d e s t r o y g r a s s h o p p e r eggs. I n c r e a s e d b i o d i v e r s i t y w o u l d h e l p t o k e e p p r e d a t i o n levels h i g h . All o f this w o u l d m o v e us in t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e holistic g o a l a n d p r o v i d e a l o n g - t e r m s o l u t i o n . M o r e species o f g r a s s h o p p e r m i g h t i n h a b i t t h e i n c r e a s i n g l y c o m p l e x c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t d e v e l o p , b u t in l o w e r n u m b e r s c h a r a c t e r i z e d

by

smaller, if any, o u t b r e a k s . 3.

Y o u c o u l d r e t u r n $ 1 0 m i l l i o n to t h e t r e a s u r y t o h e l p t o b a l a n c e t h e b u d g e t a n d r e d u c e t a x a t i o n . If s u c h a c o m m o n s e n s e s o l u t i o n p r o v e d h a r d to sell, $1 m i l l i o n m i g h t g o t o w a r d a p u b l i c a w a r e n e s s c a m p a i g n .

F r o m m y o w n p o l i t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e , I b e l i e v e it p o s s i b l e t o sell s u c h a p r o g r a m t o v o t e r s far m o r e easily t h a n t h e p o i s o n i n g t h a t w i l l a d d t o t a x a t i o n , e n d a n g e r h u m a n health, and u l t i m a t e l y lead t o m o r e g r a s s h o p p e r s . I n a n e x t r e m e case, w h e r e s p r a y i n g j u s t h a d t o e m p l o y all o f t h e m o n e y t o p r e v e n t e x c e s s i v e c r o p d a m a g e , it w o u l d n o t m a k e s e n s e t o d o t h i s w i t h o u t simultaneously taking measures to prevent a recurrence. A n y

policy

t h a t c o n c e n t r a t e s o n c u r e r a t h e r t h a n p r e v e n t i o n a n d t h a t at t h e s a m e t i m e exacerbates

the cause u l t i m a t e l y c o n t r i b u t e s t o e v e r - m o u n t i n g crisis m a n a g e -

ment. Grasshoppers represent only o n e of thousands of problems t h r o u g h o u t the w o r l d consistently e x a c e r b a t e d by m a n a g e m e n t that r e m a i n s f o c u s e d o n p r o b l e m s r a t h e r t h a n o n w h a t lies b e y o n d

them. Altogether,

many

nations annually s p e n d h u n d r e d s of millions of dollars o n futile policies a t t e m p t i n g t o c o m b a t soil e r o s i o n , t h e s p r e a d o f d e s e r t s , n o x i o u s p l a n t s , a n d so o n t h r o u g h a c t i o n s t h a t a r e e i t h e r socially, e c o n o m i c a l l y , o r

environ-

mentally unsound.

Analysis Prior to Forming a Policy W h e n a p r o b l e m has b e e n identified a n d various r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s

made

t o a d d r e s s it, y o u c a n a n a l y z e t h e s e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s p r i o r t o f o r m i n g a p o h c y a n d save c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e in t h e p r o c e s s . T h e analysis f o l l o w s t h e s a m e b a s i c s t e p s as t h o s e listed e a r l i e r , a l t h o u g h it is u s u a l l y less d e t a i l e d . Take for e x a m p l e , t h e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s m a d e a f e w years ago by a g r o u p o f s c i e n t i s t s a l l i e d in t h e i r c o n c e r n f o r t h e b i o m a s s b u r n i n g

occurring

t h r o u g h o u t m u c h o f A f r i c a , m a i n l y in t h e g r a s s l a n d s . T h e s m o k e f r o m t h e s e fires has b e c o m e a m a j o r s o u r c e o f t h e g r e e n h o u s e gas e m i s s i o n s a f f e c t i n g g l o b a l c l i m a t e c h a n g e , w h i c h is t h e m a i n c o n c e r n o f t h e s e s c i e n t i s t s . T h e y have addressed their r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s to p o l i c y m a k e r s in the h o p e

that

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t h r o u g h policy, t h e b u r n i n g m i g h t b e greatly curtailed. O n c e m o r e , the f o c u s is o n t h e p r o b l e m r a t h e r t h a n o n w h a t t h e p r o b l e m is p r e v e n t i n g people f r o m achieving. These recommendations include removing

live-

stock a l t o g e t h e r f r o m grasslands a n d f e e d i n g t h e m in pens; w h e r e possible, c o n v e r t i n g grasslands i n t o plantations (orchards a n d e n e r g y crops m a i n l y ) , that c o u l d feed b o t h p e o p l e a n d livestock; b u r n i n g strategic areas to limit t h e e x t e n t o f a n y n a t u r a l fires t h a t o c c u r ; i n c o r p o r a t i n g w i l d g r a z e r s i n t o game

ranching schemes; and where

nomadic

or seminomadic

cultures

exist, settling t h e p e o p l e in p e r m a n e n t villages w h e r e t h e y c o u l d cultivate crops and w o u l d require fewer livestock.2

The Cause of the

Problem

A f r i c a ' s g r a s s l a n d s a r e m o s t c o m m o n l y b u r n e d in o r d e r t o p r o d u c e

more

n u t r i t i o u s forage for livestock o r wildlife, and to p r e v e n t a shift to w o o d y v e g e t a t i o n . T h e b u r n i n g is m o s t f r e q u e n t w h e r e a n i m a l n u m b e r s a r e t o o l o w t o f u l l y u t i l i z e t h e f o r a g e p r o d u c e d e a c h y e a r , w h i c h results i n

the

a c c u m u l a t i o n o f o l d m a t e r i a l . W h e r e f o r a g e is so s p a r s e t h a t f e w a n i m a l s c a n s u r v i v e , t h e r e is n o t e n o u g h m a t e r i a l t o b u r n . A s d e s c r i b e d i n e a r l i e r c h a p t e r s , o l d , u n u s e d grass s t e m s a n d l e a v e s c h o k e o u t n e w g r o w t h , a n d t a p - r o o t e d s h r u b s c a n m o r e easily e s t a b l i s h a m o n g t h e w e a k e n e d r o o t s o f t h e d y i n g grass p l a n t s . G i v e n e n o u g h a n i m a l s a n d e n o u g h herd effect, t h e p l a n t s w o u l d n o t g r o w stale a n d m o r i b u n d . T o o f e w a n i m a l s s c a t t e r e d t o o thinly o n the land appears to b e the cause of the p r o b l e m , w h i c h

should

c o m e as n o s u r p r i s e t o a n y o n e w h o h a s r e a d t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r s o f this b o o k . G o v e r n m e n t destocking programs t h r o u g h o u t m o s t of Africa have r e d u c e d livestock n u m b e r s substantially over the decades. D r o u g h t s have f u r t h e r r e d u c e d the n u m b e r s of b o t h livestock and wildlife, and wildlife c u l l i n g p r o g r a m s i n n a t i o n a l p a r k s a n d tsetse

fly-infested

areas h a v e also

t a k e n t h e i r toll.

The Whole and Holistic

Goal

Africa's grasslands s u p p o r t millions of p e o p l e , m o s t of w h o m d e p e n d

to

varying degrees o n livestock for their living and to maintain their culture. M a n y o f these l i v e s t o c k - d e p e n d e n t c u l t u r e s are n o m a d i c o r s e m i n o m a d i c . W e c a n e n v i s i o n t h e basic d e s i r e s t h a t w o u l d b e e x p r e s s e d in a h o l i s t i c g o a l o n t h e reasonable a s s u m p t i o n that the p e o p l e living in Africa's grasslands w o u l d h a v e s i m i l a r n e e d s , s u c h as p r o s p e r i t y a n d s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y , f r e e d o m t o f o l l o w t h e i r o w n r e l i g i o n s a n d t o p r e s e r v e w h a t t h e y v a l u e in t h e i r c u l t u r e s , a n d s o o n . T o s u s t a i n this t h e y w o u l d n e e d t o p r o d u c e h e a l t h y g r a s s l a n d s w i t h c o v e r e d soil, b i o l o g i c a l diversity, e f f e c t i v e m i n e r a l a n d cycles, a n d h i g h e n e r g y

flow.

water

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CREATING S O U N D

The

POLICIES

553

Testing

O b v i o u s l y , n o n e o f t h e a c t i o n s p r o p o s e d b y t h e scientists w o u l d pass t h e c a u s e a n d e f f e c t test b e c a u s e n o n e o f t h e m address t h e p r o b l e m : t o o f e w a n i m a l s (scattered t o o t h i n l y ) . I n fact, m o s t o f t h e a c t i o n s e x a c e r b a t e t h e p r o b l e m b y r e d u c i n g a n i m a l n u m b e r s i n o n e w a y o r a n o t h e r . O t h e r tests w o u l d b e failed as w e l l , m o s t n o t a b l y t h e s u s t a i n a b i l i t y a n d s o c i e t y a n d c u l t u r e tests. R e m o v i n g h v e s t o c k a l t o g e t h e r w o u l d d i s r u p t p e o p l e ' s lives a n d d e s t r o y n o m a d i c c u l t u r e s . It w o u l d also a f f e c t t h e l a n d d r a m a t i c a l l y s i n c e m o s t o f t h e s e grasslands t e n d t o b e v e r y b r i t t l e . R e s t i n g t h e l a n d i n a l o w - r a i n f a l l b r i t t l e e n v i r o n m e n t causes it t o d e s e r t i f y W h e r e rainfall is h i g h e n o u g h , t h e grassland w o u l d shift t o f o r e s t , w h i c h w o u l d sustain f e w e r p e o p l e . P l a c i n g l i v e s t o c k i n f e e d p e n s w o u l d lead t o p o l l u t i o n a n d an i n c r e a s e in disease. G r o w i n g t h e f e e d t o s u p p o r t t h e a n i m a l s c o u l d m e a n t h a t p e o p l e h a d less l a n d available f o r f e e d i n g t h e m s e l v e s . C o n v e r t i n g grasslands t o o r c h a r d s w o u l d r e q u i r e h i g h rainfall o r i r r i g a t i o n , a n d a g a i n w o u l d lead t o a drastic c h a n g e i n t h e w a y p e o p l e live t h e i r hves. It w o u l d also r e q u i r e a c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t t h a t p r o b a b l y is n o t available locally. B u r n i n g s t r a t e g i c areas t o lessen t h e c h a n c e o f n a t u r a l fires o c c u r r i n g w o u l d e x p o s e soil a n d c r e a t e p o l l u t i o n . Incorporating

remnant

wild

animals

into

game

ranching

schemes

w o u l d c o n t i n u e t h e partial r e s t i n g o f t h e l a n d , d i s r u p t t h e hves o f t h o s e in livestock-based cultures, and increase the n e e d to b u r n the

grasslands.

( S o m e o f A f r i c a ' s n a t i o n a l p a r k s h a v e t o b e b u r n e d as f r e q u e n t l y as e v e r y t w o t o t h r e e years.) Settling millions of n o m a d i c or s e m i n o m a d i c p e o p l e in p e r m a n e n t villages w h e r e t h e y c o u l d c u l t i v a t e c r o p s a n d w o u l d r e q u i r e f e w e r h v e s t o c k w o u l d o n l y a d d t o t h e o v e r p o p u l a t i o n t h a t a l r e a d y exists o n l a n d s s u i t a b l e f o r c r o p p i n g . C o n f l i c t w o u l d i n e v i t a b l y result. E v e n this q u i c k a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e v a r i o u s a c t i o n s p r o p o s e d is e n o u g h t o call t h e m u n s o u n d in t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e g e n e r i c h o l i s t i c goal d e s c r i b e d . M o s t w o u l d o n l y a g g r a v a t e an a l r e a d y s e r i o u s s i t u a t i o n . H a d this assessm e n t s h o w n any of these r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s had serious merit, t h e n a m o r e d e t a i l e d analysis w o u l d h a v e f o l l o w e d t o see if a n y m i n o r m o d i f i c a t i o n s needed to be made. A n y p o h c y t h a t e v e n t u a l l y is f o r m e d t o p r o m o t e t h e h e a l t h y grasslands t h a t w o u l d sustain t h e s e p e o p l e a n d t h e i r w a y o f life w o u l d n e e d t o deal w i t h t h e issue o f b i o m a s s b u r n i n g b y a d d r e s s i n g t h e c a u s e o f t h e p r o b l e m : t o o f e w a n i m a l s , d o m e s t i c o r w i l d , are p r e s e n t t o k e e p grasses a n d soils healthy. L i v e s t o c k a n d w i l d l i f e , p r o p e r l y m a n a g e d , are t h e o b v i o u s t o o l s o f c h o i c e f o r d e a h n g w i t h t h e p r o b l e m o n m i l l i o n s o f acres. H o w e v e r , a n y p o h c y f o r m e d w o u l d also h a v e t o address t h e w i d e s p r e a d i g n o r a n c e t h a t

554

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a t t r i b u t e s o v e r g r a z i n g t o t o o m a n y a n i m a l s — w h e n w e n o w k n o w it is t h e r e s u l t o f h o w l o n g t h e y r e m a i n i n a n y o n e p l a c e — a n d t h a t fails t o r e c o g n i z e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f herd effect i n m a i n t a i n i n g h e a l t h y g r a s s l a n d s i n a brittle environment.

Conclusion A n y p o l i c y that aims to solve a p r o b l e m s h o u l d b e analyzed, ideally in the p l a n n i n g stages. S e v e n basic s t e p s a r e i n v o l v e d in a n a l y z i n g a p o l i c y h o l i s tically: 1.

Identify

the cause of the problem

the policy seeks to address. First m a k e sure

y o u u n d e r s t a n d w h a t t h e p r o b l e m is, t h e n i d e n t i f y its c a u s e . (See C h a p t e r 2 5 , o n c a u s e a n d e f f e c t , f o r ways t o a p p r o a c h

this, a n d

C h a p t e r 4 8 if t h e p r o b l e m is r e l a t e d t o r e s o u r c e m a n a g e m e n t . ) 2.

Loosely define the whole the policy encompasses—the

people involved, the

r e s o u r c e s a f f e c t e d , a n d t h e m o n e y available. Y o u d o n o t n e e d t o b e as specific as y o u w o u l d in d e f i n i n g a w h o l e f o r m a n a g e m e n t p u r p o s e s . 3.

Depending

on the policy, form a holistic goal or identify

the conditions

that

would exist if the problem did not. D o n ' t w o r r y a b o u t m a k i n g a s s u m p t i o n s o n b e h a l f o f p e o p l e y o u m a y n o t k n o w . Y o u can a s s u m e t h a t for m o s t p e o p l e q u a l i t y o f life involves m e e t i n g basic n e e d s , s u c h as f o o d a n d shelter, a n d basic desires f o r security, h e a l t h , c o m f o r t , love, a n d c o m p a n i o n s h i p , o n e o r m o r e o f w h i c h m a y b e t h r e a t e n e d by t h e p r o b l e m t h e p o l i c y addresses. W h a t t h e p e o p l e h a v e to p r o d u c e t o m e e t t h e s e n e e d s o r desires can b e left v a g u e in m o s t c a s e s . T h e f u t u r e r e s o u r c e base r e q u i r e d t o sustain t h e m s h o u l d b e fairly o b v i o u s a n d can be d e s c r i b e d in v e r y g e n e r a l t e r m s . Y o u n e e d n o t b e a n y m o r e specific t h a n this. All y o u are a t t e m p t i n g to d o h e r e is t o e n l a r g e t h e p e r s p e c t i v e so that t h e f o c u s is n o t o n t h e p r o b l e m b u t o n w h a t t h e p r o b l e m is p r e v e n t i n g y o u f r o m a c h i e v i n g . T h i s will e n a b l e y o u t o b e t t e r see t h e r a m i f i c a t i o n s o f a n y a c t i o n s t a k e n , s o m e t h i n g that is n o t visible w h e n t h e f o c u s r e m a i n s fixed o n t h e p r o b l e m . 4.

Identify

the actions proposed in the policy. Policies t h a t a t t e m p t t o resolve

a p r o b l e m will always p r e s c r i b e o n e o r m o r e a c t i o n s a n d h o w t h e y are t o b e c a r r i e d o u t . H o w e v e r , t h e l a n g u a g e u s e d in s o m e policies o f t e n o b s c u r e s this i n f o r m a t i o n . Y o u m a y have t o read t h r o u g h a d o c u m e n t several t i m e s b e f o r e y o u u n d e r s t a n d w h a t a c t i o n s are b e i n g p r o p o s e d ( w h i c h y o u m u s t d o t o test t h e a c t i o n s ) . O c c a s i o n a l l y , y o u m a y find s o m e p o l i c i e s totally i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e . I have o f t e n w o n d e r e d in s u c h cases if e v e n t h e p o l i c y m a k e r s o r t h e i r a d v i s o r s u n d e r s t a n d w h a t t h e y are p r o p o s i n g .

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CREATING S O U N D

5.

POLICIES

Test each of the actions identified

555

to see if they would lead to achieving

the

holistic goal. T h e c a u s e a n d e f f e c t test is p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t in a n a l y z i n g a n y policy. If n o n e o f t h e a c t i o n s p r e s c r i b e d address t h e u n d e r l y i n g c a u s e o f t h e p r o b l e m , t h e p r o b l e m will r e m a i n a n d p r o b a b l y s p a w n n e w s y m p t o m s . If e v e n a f e w of t h e a c t i o n s p r e s c r i b e d address t h e r o o t cause o f t h e p r o b l e m , success is m o r e likely. M o r e o f t e n t h a n n o t , a p o l i c y will n e e d t o address s y m p t o m s t o alleviate i n t e r i m s u f f e r i n g o r d a m a g e . T h i s is n o t an issue as l o n g as t h e r o o t cause o f t h e p r o b l e m is b e i n g a d d r e s s e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . T h e r e m a i n i n g tests c a n b e j u s t as p o w e r f u l in h e l p i n g t o e n s u r e a p o l i c y s u c c e e d s . T h e m a r g i n a l r e a c t i o n test, f o r e x a m p l e , m a y s h o w t h a t t h e r e t u r n o n t i m e o r m o n e y s p e n t is far g r e a t e r f o r o n e a c t i o n t h a n a n o t h e r a n d t h a t m o r e r e s o u r c e s s h o u l d b e a l l o c a t e d t o it. A w e a k l i n k t h a t is n o t a d d r e s s e d will t h w a r t t h e best o f i n t e n t i o n s , as will a n y a c t i o n s that a d v e r s e l y affect t h e lives o f t h e p e o p l e i n v o l v e d . 6.

Modify

the policy if necessary. B y t h e t i m e y o u have f i n i s h e d t e s t i n g t h e

a c t i o n s p r e s c r i b e d in t h e policy, y o u will u n d o u b t e d l y f i n d t h a t t h e p o l i c y c o u l d b e i m p r o v e d . A n y test t h a t p o i n t s o u t a w e a k n e s s a u t o m a t i c a l l y f o r c e s y o u t o c o n s i d e r alternatives, a n d t h e s e will h e l p to s h a p e t h e n e c e s s a r y revisions. In s o m e cases t h e p o l i c y m a y n e e d t o b e r e w r i t t e n entirely. In a f e w t h e p o l i c y m i g h t n o t b e n e e d e d at all if t h e u n d e r l y i n g c a u s e o f t h e p r o b l e m it addresses c o u l d b e dealt w i t h m o r e e f f e c t i v e l y w i t h o u t a policy. In f i n a l i z i n g y o u r revisions, give s o m e t h o u g h t t o h o w t h e revised p o l i c y m i g h t b e r e c e i v e d . N o p o l i c y is w o r k a b l e in t h e l o n g r u n if p e o p l e d o n o t u n d e r s t a n d a n d a c c e p t it. H o w e v e r , it is i m p o r t a n t that y o u n o t w o r r y a b o u t h o w t o sell t h e p o l i c y b e f o r e y o u h a v e clarity o n t h e r e v i s i o n s that n e e d t o b e m a d e . O n c e y o u h a v e that clarity, y o u c a n d e t e r m i n e w h a t a c t i o n s m i g h t n e e d to b e i n c l u d e d in t h e p o l i c y t h a t w o u l d address this issue. F o r e x a m p l e , s o m e o f t h e f u n d s u s e d in i m p l e m e n t i n g the policy m i g h t have to be allocated for e d u c a t i o n . 7.

Determine implemented,

what criteria to monitor

to ensure that the revised policy, once

will be successful. If t h e p o l i c y is s o u n d , t h e n o b v i o u s l y t h e

p r o b l e m will b e r e s o l v e d o r will n e v e r m a t e r i a l i z e . B u t can y o u a f f o r d t o w a i t t o f i n d o u t ? W h a t if y o u w e r e slightly o f f t h e m a r k in i d e n t i f y i n g t h e c a u s e o f t h e p r o b l e m , o r w h a t if y o u m i s s e d t h e m a r k a l t o g e t h e r ? A n d w h a t if t h e m o d i f i c a t i o n s y o u h a v e m a d e fall s h o r t i n a c h i e v i n g w h a t t h e y are s u p p o s e d t o a c h i e v e ? I d e n t i f y what y o u c a n m o n i t o r f o r t h e earliest sign that y o u m i g h t b e w r o n g . T h e s e s t e p s c a n s e r v e as a g u i d e i n a n a l y z i n g o r forming

any policy that

aims to solve a p r o b l e m , n o m a t t e r h o w large or small in s c o p e or i m p o r t a n c e . A l t h o u g h this c h a p t e r h a s f o c u s e d o n r e s o u r c e m a n a g e m e n t p o l i c i e s ,

556

PART X

NEW

PERSPECTIVES

I h o p e y o u c a n see t h a t p o l i c i e s o f m a n y k i n d s w o u l d b e n e f i t j u s t as m u c h f r o m h o l i s t i c analysis. A l t h o u g h H o l i s t i c M a n a g e m e n t is still in its i n f a n c y , it is d e v e l o p i n g exponentially, particularly

as its p r a c t i c e

expands

into

new

realms

of

endeavor. This, c o m b i n e d w i t h an equally rapid increase in o u r scientific k n o w l e d g e in g e n e r a l a n d a w o r l d w i d e a w a r e n e s s t h a t h u m a n i t y

faces

e x t r a o r d i n a r y c h a l l e n g e s in t h e n e w m i l l e n n i u m , has m a d e m e m o r e c u r i ous t h a n ever a b o u t w h a t the future m i g h t hold, the subject of the n e x t chapter.

Part XI Conclusion

51 Changing Course: Creating the Future We Want

O

ur lovely planet n o w staggers u n d e r massive h u m a n i m p a c t and f a s t - r i s i n g p o p u l a t i o n s t h a t if u n c h e c k e d c a n o n l y l e a d t o p o v e r -

ty, w a r , d i s e a s e , a n d s t a r v a t i o n . S o m e p e o p l e r e m a i n o p t i m i s t i c t h a t t e c h n o l o g y in o n e f o r m o r a n o t h e r will alleviate t h e d a m a g e w e have d o n e a n d e n a b l e us t o c o n t i n u e o n o u r p r e s e n t c o u r s e . O t h e r s a r e d e e p l y p e s s i m i s t i c t h a t a n y t h i n g c a n save us, a n d it is easy t o s e e w h y . A s f i g u r e 5 1 - 1 s h o w s , h u m a n p o p u l a t i o n s a r e g r o w i n g e x p o n e n t i a l l y e v e n as t h e h e a l t h o f o u r e n v i r o n m e n t d e c l i n e s p r e c i p i t o u s l y . If w e d o n o t a c t , t h e t w o c u r v e s w i l l c o l l i d e in a c a t a s t r o p h e f o r h u m a n i t y , a n d all h i g h e r life f o r m s , t o o t e r r i b l e to c o n t e m p l a t e . T h a t w e are a c c e l e r a t i n g t o w a r d c a t a s t r o p h e m e a n s that m i n o r i m p r o v e m e n t s t h a t o n l y s l o w t h e r a t e o f a c c e l e r a t i o n are u l t i m a t e l y m e a n i n g l e s s . S l o w i n g d o w n w i l l n o t p r e v e n t y o u f r o m d r i v i n g y o u r c a r o v e r a cliff, o n l y d e l a y t h e t i m e o f t h e c r a s h ; you have to change direction altogether.That

is w h a t

w e m u s t d o n o w t o a v o i d a f u t u r e n o n e o f us w a n t s . D o i n g so w i l l n o t b e easy o n a w o r l d scale, b u t I b e l i e v e it is m o r e p o s s i b l e n o w t h a n e v e r b e f o r e because f o u r d e v e l o p m e n t s have c o i n c i d e d that will enable a significant t u r n a r o u n d to occur: 1. A new framework

for decision making.

U n t i l r e c e n t l y n o t a single s c i e n -

tist, i n c l u d i n g m y s e l f , w h e t h e r h e o r s h e c o m m a n d e d t h e w e a l t h o f Texas o r t h e p o v e r t y o f s u b - S a h a r a n A f r i c a , u n d e r s t o o d w h y a g r i c u l t u r e a n d r e s o u r c e m a n a g e m e n t w e r e r u n n i n g i n t o crisis e v e r y w h e r e . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , f o r 1 0 , 0 0 0 years h u m a n k i n d d r e a m e d o f f l y i n g a n d n o t a single p e r s o n k n e w h o w , a l t h o u g h o t h e r c r e a t u r e s

had

d o n e it f o r m i l l i o n s o f years. T h e n , w i t h i n s e v e n t y years o f t h e first 559

560

PART X I I

CONCLUSION

Health of Our Environment

Pace of Change Accelerating

Human Population Growth 1000

1200 1300

1400

BC

1500 1600 1700

1800 1900 2000

AD

F i g u r e 5 1 - 1 Human populations are growing exponentially even as the health of our environment has declined precipitously. If we do not act soon, the two curves will collide with catastrophic consequences.

successful flight, h u m a n s w a l k e d o n t h e m o o n . H o l i s t i c d e c i s i o n m a k ing and m a n a g e m e n t promise the same kind of p h e n o m e n a l advance. A l t h o u g h w e h a v e u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y a d v a n c e d t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f life o n o u r planet over m a n y millennia, given w h a t w e n o w k n o w and w h a t w e will l e a r n as w e go, w e c a n b e g i n t o r e s t o r e m u c h o f w h a t w e h a v e lost, a n d at e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g s p e e d . T h e s i m p l e b u t successful f r a m e w o r k f o r m a n a g e m e n t a n d d e c i s i o n m a k i n g o u t l i n e d in this b o o k will surely b e i m p r o v e d a n d e x t e n d e d by t h o u s a n d s o f p e o p l e . A s l o n g as it r e m a i n s s i m p l e e n o u g h f o r o r d i n a r y p e o p l e t o use, t h e p o w e r o f t h e ideas b e h i n d it will e n c o u n t e r f e w limits. 2.

A common enemy. Historically, p e o p l e h a v e s e l d o m b e e n u n i t e d in o u t l o o k o r a c t i o n s unless f a c e d w i t h t r a g e d y o r a t h r e a t f r o m s o m e e x t e r n a l f o r c e . T h e rest o f t h e t i m e w e h a v e g e n e r a l l y fallen t o s q u a b b l i n g a m o n g o u r s e l v e s o v e r a n y n u m b e r o f divisive issues. If w e have failed to l e a r n to live w i t h e a c h o t h e r a n d o u r e n v i r o n m e n t h a r m o n i o u s l y o n a g l o b a l scale, it is p e r h a p s b e c a u s e w e h a v e l a c k e d a c o m m o n e n e m y o f similar m a g n i t u d e . T h i s w e n o w h a v e in t h e p h e n o m e n o n o f g l o b a l c l i m a t e c h a n g e , w h i c h is a d i r e c t result o f o u r inability t o g a u g e t h e effects o f h u m a n a c t i o n s o n t h e g r e a t e r e c o s y s t e m that sustains us all. W e n o w k n o w that the a m o u n t s of carbon and other substances released i n t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e d u e t o t h e b u r n i n g o f fossil fuels a n d

51

C H A N G I N G COURSE: CREATING THE FUTURE W E

WANT

561

forest a n d grassland v e g e t a t i o n is m o r e t h a n o u r a t m o s p h e r e

can

a b s o r b . A n d w e are b e c o m i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y a w a r e that a d e t e r i o r a t i n g E a r t h c a n n o l o n g e r a b s o r b t h e m e i t h e r . T h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e planet's l a n d s u r f a c e is n o w b a r e a n d c a p p e d , o r sealed, r e d u c i n g t h e soil's a b i l ity t o b r e a t h e a n d t h e ability o f n e w p l a n t s t o establish. B o t h p l a n t s a n d l i v i n g soils play a critical r o l e in m a i n t a i n i n g t h e b a l a n c e

of

a t m o s p h e r i c gases essential t o s u s t a i n i n g all h i g h e r life f o r m s . A l t h o u g h the majority of people may not recognize the e n e m y

yet,

they surely will w i t h i n the c o m i n g decade. 3.

Advances

in technology. T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s o p h i s t i c a t e d i n s t r u m e n t s

has e n a b l e d us t o d i s c o v e r that o z o n e h o l e s exist a n d t h a t c h e m i c a l s p r o d u c e d on E a r t h have c o n t r i b u t e d to their e x p a n s i o n . T h e s e instrum e n t s h a v e also e n a b l e d us t o d i s c o v e r j u s t h o w l o n g c e r t a i n h u m a n m a d e s u b s t a n c e s c a n persist in a n e n v i r o n m e n t . P e o p l e c a n n o l o n g e r a r g u e t h a t t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n o c c u r r i n g o n E a r t h o r in its a t m o s p h e r e is d u e e n t i r e l y t o n a t u r a l causes. T e c h n o l o g y is also e n a b l i n g us t o r e d u c e o u r c o n s u m p t i o n o f fossil fuels a n d t o d e v e l o p

alternative

e n e r g y s o u r c e s that are e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y b e n i g n . In m a n y areas o f e n d e a v o r it is e n a b l i n g us t o d o m u c h m o r e w i t h far less. A l t h o u g h t h e use o f t e c h n o l o g y has led t o m a n y o f o u r p r o b l e m s , w e c a n n o w see that it w i l l also b e critical t o s o l v i n g t h e m . 4.

Advances

in communications.

W i t h the help of m o d e r n technology, w e

have, f o r t h e first t i m e i n history, t h e ability t o pass i n f o r m a t i o n t o m i l l i o n s o f p e o p l e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a n d o n e v e r y c o n t i n e n t . Ideas that h a v e b e e n i g n o r e d b y t h e m a i n s t r e a m m e d i a o r c e n s o r e d by o t h e r s , o r that risk b e i n g lost i n a m a z e o f b u r e a u c r a c y , n o w h a v e an o u t l e t o n t h e I n t e r n e t . T h i s u n c o n t r o l l e d e x c h a n g e o f v i e w s m a y yet p r o v e to be the greatest benefit c o m p u t e r s b r i n g to humanity. W i t h o u t these f o u r d e v e l o p m e n t s in place I d o n o t believe w e have c h a n g e d c o u r s e . H a d y o u a n d I lived in t h e days o f t h e

could

Roman

E m p i r e w h e n N o r t h Africa was m o v i n g f r o m p r o d u c t i v e grasslands

to

d e s e r t , w h a t c o u l d w e h a v e d o n e a b o u t it? W e k n e w n o t h i n g a b o u t

the

b r i t t l e n e s s scale t h e n , o r a b o u t t h e r o l e p l a y e d b y g r a z i n g a n d

trampling

herds a n d their p r e d a t o r s in p r e v e n t i n g s u c h devastation in brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s . E v e n if w e h a d k n o w n , h o w c o u l d w e h a v e c o m m u n i c a t e d w h a t w e k n e w to A b o r i g i n e s in Australia or the Indians in N o r t h A m e r i c a ?

How

could either of those cultures have evaluated the e n o r m o u s impact

their

b u r n i n g w o u l d have o n the landscapes that w o u l d have to sustain f u t u r e generations? H o w c o u l d w e h a v e k n o w n a n y w h e r e t h a t h e a l t h y soil, p l a n t , a n d a n i m a l c o m m u n i t i e s w e r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r m a i n t a i n i n g a b a l a n c e o f gases i n o u r a t m o s p h e r e c o n d u c i v e t o h u m a n a n d o t h e r life f o r m s ? H o w c o u l d w e

PART X I I

562

CONCLUSION

have k n o w n o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f o z o n e , let a l o n e u p p e r - l e v e l o z o n e , a n d its i m p o r t a n c e in p r o t e c t i n g t h e i m m u n e s y s t e m s o f all l i v i n g

organisms?

O n l y n o w , as w e e n t e r a n e w m i l l e n n i u m d o w e h a v e a n s w e r s , a n d o n l y n o w are w e able t o take m e a n i n g f u l a c t i o n . T h u s , I a m n o t p e s s i m i s t i c a b o u t o u r f u t u r e . In fact, I a m m o r e o p t i m i s t i c t h a n I c o u l d h a v e b e e n at a n y t i m e in history. I b e l i e v e w e will i n h a b i t a f u t u r e w h e r e t h e w o r l d ' s d e s e r t s are h e a l i n g , w h e r e life is o n c e a g a i n d i v e r s e a n d a b u n d a n t i n o u r soils, rivers, a n d seas a n d able t o a b s o r b t h e far s m a l l e r a m o u n t s o f c a r b o n a n d o t h e r s u b s t a n c e s released i n t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e . K e y to c r e a t i n g s u c h a f u t u r e will b e t o address t h e u n d e r l y i n g c a u s e t h a t has p r e v e n t e d us f r o m c r e a t i n g it u p u n t i l n o w : the way w e m a k e decisions. S o m e years a g o I a t t e n d e d a c o n f e r e n c e at w h i c h N o r w a y ' s

Prime

Minister G r o H a r l e m B r u n d t l a n d in a k e y n o t e speech suggested that the environmental

problems

besetting

the

governments

and

development

a g e n c i e s in e v e r y c o u n t r y w e r e i n f a c t i n t e r l i n k e d . F i g u r e 5 1 - 2 illustrates the interlinking problems she t o u c h e d on. M o r e progress could be made, she said, a n d at l o w e r cost, if o u r p o l i c i e s a n d p r o g r a m s t o o k this i n t o a c c o u n t . M o s t o f t h o s e p r e s e n t n o d d e d t h e i r h e a d s in a g r e e m e n t , a n d m a n y have since acted on her suggestion. B u t based o n w h a t w e n o w

know—

t h a t all t h e s e p r o b l e m s u l t i m a t e l y have t h e s a m e r o o t cause, as d e p i c t e d in f i g u r e 5 1 - 3 — w e c a n p r o g r e s s m u c h f u r t h e r a n d m o r e r a p i d l y b y first a d d r e s s i n g t h a t cause. I n s t e a d o f s p e n d i n g b i l l i o n s o f dollars o n e a c h p r o b l e m , o r c l u s t e r o f p r o b l e m s , as m a n y g o v e r n m e n t s d o today, a f e w m i l l i o n s p e n t o n a d d r e s s i n g t h e c o m m o n c a u s e w o u l d e n a b l e p e o p l e t o solve m o s t of these p r o b l e m s o n their o w n . Alongside the deterioration of land, water, and o u r atmosphere, the e x p l o s i o n o f t h e h u m a n p o p u l a t i o n t h a t has p a r a l l e l e d t h e d e g r a d a t i o n o f o u r r e s o u r c e s will also h a v e t o b e t a c k l e d . W e c a n n o t m a n a g e

resources

holistically a c c o r d i n g t o t h e n a t u r a l laws o f o u r e c o s y s t e m if w e c o n t i n u e t o act as if t h o s e laws d i d n o t a p p l y to h u m a n i t y as well. V a r i o u s culttires a n d r e l i g i o n s f a v o r large f a m i l i e s f o r r e a s o n s d e e p l y r o o t e d i n h i s t o r i c a l c o n d i t i o n s i n w h i c h s e c u r i t y i n o l d age o r s u r v i v a l o f a race d e p e n d e d o n m a n y children. N o w , however, u n c o n t r o l l e d p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h t h r e a t e n s o u r survival, a n d w e h a v e o t h e r m e a n s to p r o v i d e o l d age s e c u r i t y . T h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d r e l i g i o n s in m o d e r n s o c i e t y t h a t e n c o u r a g e h i g h n u m b e r s o f c h i l d r e n d o n o t r e f l e c t t h e p r e s e n t state o f t h e w o r l d . T h e sages w h o f o u n d e d t h e m s p o k e o u t o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e t i m e s in w h i c h t h e y lived, b u t i n all cases t h e i r u n i v e r s a l m e s s a g e w a s c o m p a s s i o n . I f i n d it d i f ficult

t o b e l i e v e t h a t , w e r e t h e y p r e a c h i n g today, t h e y w o u l d s u g g e s t t h a t

w e c o n t i n u e to p r o d u c e h i g h n u m b e r s of children k n o w i n g that by d o i n g

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' Rising Crime and L Violence . Increased Floods

Insect Outbreaks

' Social > Breakdown

Soil Erosion Loss of Biodiversity

Deforestation Increased Droughts DesertificaV tion ,

Noxious Weeds

Global Climale Change

Poverty

Pollution

F i g u r e 5 1 - 2 Some people hold the view that if governments and development agencies saw most of the environmental problems they seek to address as interlinked, they could solve these problems more quickly and at lower cost.

so w e e n s u r e p o v e r t y , v i o l e n c e , s o c i a l b r e a k d o w n , e v e n g e n o c i d e , a n d u l t i m a t e l y t h r e a t e n o u r s u r v i v a l as a s p e c i e s . I myself a m n o t a c o n v e n t i o n a l l y religious m a n . I d o h o w e v e r feel infinitely small a n d powerless in t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e w o n d e r s of N a t u r e a n d o u r u n i v e r s e . S u c h m a r v e l o u s c r e a t i o n d i d n o t o c c u r b y c h a n c e . T h e r e is a p o w e r t h a t is g r e a t e r t h a n all h u m a n k i n d , a n d o u t o f d e f e r e n c e t o it w e s h o u l d r e s p e c t e a c h o t h e r a n d t h e e c o s y s t e m t h a t s u s t a i n s us a l l . T h i s m e a n s c o n t r o l l i n g o u r p o p u l a t i o n and respecting t h e diversity o f cultures, tribes, n a t i o n s , a n d s p i r i t u a l b e l i e f s as a g r e a t g i f t t o all h u m a n k i n d , a n d t h e s a m e d u t y i n c l u d e s t h e c o m p a n i o n t a s k o f h a l t i n g t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f life o n Earth.

564

PART X I I

CONCLUSION

F i g u r e 5 1 - 3 Based on what we now know—that

all these problems ultimately have the same root cause—we can progress much further and more rapidly by first addressing that cause. A few million dollars directed toward the cause, compared to the billions now spent addressing each problem, or cluster of problems, would enable people to develop their own solutions at low cost.

F o r t u n a t e l y w e d o n o t h a v e to w a i t f o r an era o f w o r l d p e a c e

and

c o l l a b o r a t i o n to m a k e a start b e c a u s e holistic d e c i s i o n m a k i n g leads to c o n flict r e s o l u t i o n a n d t h e H o l i s t i c M a n a g e m e n t m o d e l will f u n c t i o n f o r any p e o p l e in any place, regardless o f religion, system of g o v e r n m e n t , e c o n o m ic b a s e , o r c l i m a t e . A great m a n y of o u r conflicts arise directly o u t o f t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n of resources and o u t of i g n o r a n c e a b o u t the tools w e have to m a n a g e t h e m , b u t e v e n s u c h a materialistic e x p l a n a t i o n has a p h i l o s o p h i c a l aspect. I o n c e heard of a Navajo medicine m a n w h o , in mediating a grazing

dispute

b e t w e e n t w o f a m i l i e s said, " Y o u a r e n e i g h b o r s w h e t h e r y o u w a n t t o b e o r

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n o t , b e c a u s e t h e l a n d itself u n i t e s y o u . It l i n k s y o u b o t h as y o u w a l k o n it t o d a y , a n d y o u w i l l b o t h h e i n it t o g e t h e r w h e n y o u d i e . T h e n t h e p l a n t s t h a t g r o w i n t h e soil y o u b e c o m e w i l l i n f e c t y o u r c h i l d r e n w i t h e i t h e r y o u r h a t r e d o r a f f e c t i o n as y o u c a n c h o o s e n o w . If y o u bless y o u r l a n d , it w i l l r e t u r n the blessing a n d y o u r present a r g u m e n t will b e c o m e insignificant." T o the prayers, songs, a n d practical gestures t h e m e d i c i n e m a n had in mind

I w o u l d a d d h o h s t i c d e c i s i o n m a k i n g . I n c a s e a f t e r case w e

have

a l r e a d y w i t n e s s e d w h a t it c a n c o n t r i b u t e t o c o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n , a n d this' role will surely b e c o m e ever greater. T h e conflict o f t e n b e g i n s to resolve itself as a n t a g o n i s t s b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r t o f o r m a h o l i s t i c g o a l d i s c o v e r t h a t w h a t t h e y h a v e i n c o m m o n is f a r g r e a t e r t h a n t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s . S e v e r a l y e a r s f o l l o w i n g t h e civil w a r i n Z i m b a b w e , f o r i n s t a n c e , I r a n a w o r k s h o p that included participants w h o

h a d f o u g h t o n o p p o s i n g sides. W e

were

a t t e m p t i n g to analyze a national pohcy, and in advance I had prepared a h o l i s t i c g o a l I f e l t m o s t Z i m b a b w e a n s w o u l d a s p i r e to. W h e n

I r e a d it

aloud, there was a l o n g silence, followed by s o m e discussion a m o n g

the

p a r t i c i p a n t s . O n e o f t h e m s p o k e f o r all w h e n h e said, " M y g o d , if w e h a d o n l y k n o w n w e all w a n t e d t h e s a m e t h i n g s , w e w o u l d n e v e r h a v e f o u g h t the war." H o h s t i c M a n a g e m e n t starts w i t h a h o l i s t i c g o a l b e c a u s e it e s t a b l i s h e s at t h e o u t s e t w h a t p e o p l e w a n t . B e c a u s e p e o p l e always act in their o w n selfi n t e r e s t it is i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e y e x p r e s s w h a t is i n t h e i r o w n i n t e r e s t . I n t h e s a m e b r e a t h , h o w e v e r , t h e y m u s t also e x p r e s s w h a t t h e y w i l l h a v e t o p r o d u c e to sustain w h a t they n e e d a n d w a n t for themselves a n d for f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s . W h e n t h e y t h e n test d e c i s i o n s t o w a r d that, t h e y b e g i n t o s e e t h a t k e e p i n g t h e l a n d v i t a l is i n t h e i r o w n s e l f - i n t e r e s t , a n d t h a t b u i l d i n g h u m a n r e l a t i o n s h i p s , r a t h e r t h a n d e s t r o y i n g t h e m , is i n t h e i r o w n s e l f - i n t e r e s t . T h e i r actions b e g i n t o reflect this u n d e r s t a n d i n g . Self-interest b e c o m e s e n l i g h t e n e d self-interest. Selfish national interest in a w o r l d i n e x t r i c a b l y linked by g e o g r a p h y , e c o n o m i c s , a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s has s u b v e r t e d m o r e e n l i g h t e n e d m a n a g e m e n t o f t h e w o r l d ' s r e s o u r c e s as m u c h as a n y o t h e r f o r c e . F e w t h i n g s i n d i c a t e this m o r e c l e a r l y t h a n o u r w i l l i n g n e s s t o l e t p o l l u t a n t s t h a t w e w o u l d not

tolerate drift d o w n w i n d

or downstream

to bedevil foreigners.

Or

w h e n w e b a n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f h a r m f u l s u b s t a n c e s , s u c h as D D T o r C F C s by m a n u f a c t u r e r s in o u r o w n country, b u t allow t h e m to c o n t i n u e to p r o d u c e these substances in o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . Similarly, t h e A m e r i c a n

appetite

f o r h a m b u r g e r o r t h e J a p a n e s e d e m a n d f o r l u m b e r is s o m e h o w a l l o w e d t o j u s t i f y t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t r o p i c a l f o r e s t s t h a t t h e w o r l d as a w h o l e c a n n o t a f f o r d t o lose. S u c h a c t i o n s w o u l d b e c o m e a t h i n g o f t h e p a s t if g o v e r n m e n t s w o r k e d toward a national hohstic goal and began testing decisions t o w a r d it. S e l f i s h n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t w o u l d g i v e w a y t o e n h g h t e n e d n a t i o n a l interest.

PART X I I

566

CONCLUSION

H o w e v e r , n o g o v e r n m e n t is c u r r e n t l y s t r u c t u r e d t o m a n a g e its

own

r e s o u r c e s holistically, l e t a l o n e c o n t r o l its i n t e r n a t i o n a l i m p a c t . M o s t g o v ernment

s t r u c t u r e s d i v i d e e v e r y a s p e c t o f o u r lives i n t o p o r t f o l i o s ,

or

d e p a r t m e n t s , a n d n o w h e r e c a n y o u d i s c u s s t h e w h o l e as o n e . A s I f o u n d in m y o w n p a r l i a m e n t a r y e x p e r i e n c e , if y o u t r y t o d i s c u s s a b r o a d f i e l d u n d e r a n y o n e m i n i s t e r ' s p o r t f o l i o y o u a r e r u l e d o u t o f o r d e r . If y o u t r y t o d i s cuss a b r o a d field u n d e r t h e p r i m e m i n i s t e r ' s p o r t f o l i o y o u a r e a g a i n r u l e d o u t o f o r d e r as t h a t s h o u l d b e d i s c u s s e d u n d e r e a c h a p p r o p r i a t e m i n i s t e r ' s portfolio. W h e n we cannot even debate the w h o l e and the interconnectedness of all t h a t g o v e r n m e n t s t a k e u p o n t h e m s e l v e s t o d o , h o w c a n w e e v e r t r a n s c e n d t h e p r o b l e m s that are c r e a t e d by c o m p a r t m e n t a l i z e d t h i n k i n g a n d a c t i o n s . T o o o f t e n g o v e r n m e n t s p e r f o r m l i k e a t e a m o f b l i n k e r e d h o r s e s all p u l l i n g in different directions, b u t y o u are f o r b i d d e n by the system

to

r e m o v e t h e b l i n k e r s a n d g e t t h e m p u l l i n g t o g e t h e r . O n l y in t h e i r m e c h a nisms for control of finances and budgets do most g o v e r n m e n t s even c o m e close to s o m e f o r m of c o o r d i n a t i o n . I n t h e t h o u s a n d s o f y e a r s o f s t r u g g l e t o find w a y s t o g o v e r n o u r s e l v e s , w e h a v e a c t e d in t e r m s o f p o w e r , w e a l t h , d e f e n s e , r e l i g i o n , t r i b e , o r r a c e b u t n e v e r o u t o f c o n c e r n f o r l i v i n g w i t h i n t h e c o n f i n e s o f o u r life s u p p o r t syst e m . O n l y in the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y did w e e n c o u n t e r t h e harsh necessity to even t h i n k a b o u t that. A n a x i o m of politics that impressed m e early in m y o w n p o l i t i c a l c a r e e r says t h a t u n l e s s all f e e l s e c u r e a n d w e l l g o v e r n e d n o n e are. A s l o n g as w e c o n t i n u e t o u n d e r m i n e o u r r e s o u r c e base, f e w , if any, g o v e r n m e n t s c a n t r u l y g o v e r n t h e i r c i t i z e n s w e l l . T h e n a g a i n , a n y g o v e r n m e n t t h a t is a b l e t o m a k e d e c i s i o n s a n d f o r m u late p o h c i e s that are in line w i t h a n a t i o n a l holistic goal a n d c o n s i s t e n t l y socially, e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y , a n d e c o n o m i c a l l y s o u n d , w i l l p r o v i d e g o o d g o v ernance. G o v e r n m e n t s w o u l d have to restructure their bureaucracies

to

g o v e r n a l o n g h o l i s t i c l i n e s , b u t this is n o t a n i m p o s s i b l e task. A l t h o u g h l o n g noted

for their abdity

t o resist c h a n g e , s o m e b u r e a u c r a c i e s a r e

b e g i n n i n g t o b u i l d a d i f f e r e n t r e p u t a t i o n . I n Banishing

Bureaucracy,

already David

O s b o r n e a n d P e t e r P l a s t r i k c i t e a n u m b e r o f cases i n w h i c h e l e c t e d l e a d ers a n d b u r e a u c r a t s h a v e w o r k e d t o g e t h e r t o m a k e f a i r l y r a d i c a l c h a n g e s in b u r e a u c r a t i c s t r u c t u r e s , a n d h a v e d o c u m e n t e d t h e e s s e n t i a l s t e p s t a k e n so that others m i g h t follow. A s m u c h as g o v e r n m e n t s w i l l h a v e t o c h a n g e , t h e y c a n n o t l e a d a c h a n g e to holistic decision m a k i n g . B y d e f i n i t i o n , d e m o c r a t i c a l l y elected leaders c a n n o t l e a d , o t h e r t h a n i n crisis o r w a r , b u t m u s t a l w a y s f o l l o w t h e w i l l o f t h e m a j o r i t y . T h a t m e a n s t h e c h a n g e t o h o h s t i c d e c i s i o n m a k i n g has to start at t h e grass r o o t s . T h e m a g n i t u d e of world desertification alone, taking but o n e of the factors responsible f o r global c l i m a t e c h a n g e , has already g r o w n b e y o n d t h e

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p o w e r o f a n y h u m a n o r g a n i z a t i o n t o h a n d l e . S o g r e a t is t h e c h a l l e n g e n o w o f r e - c r e a t i n g a p l a n e t t h a t is r i c h in b i o l o g i c a l d i v e r s i t y a n d w h e r e d e s e r t s are h e a l i n g , t h a t o n l y o r d i n a r y p e o p l e c a n d o i t — y o u a n d

I—teachers,

f a r m e r s , foresters, range m a n a g e r s , m o t h e r s , fathers, businesspeople,

or

w h a t e v e r w e are o u t s i d e o u r i n s t i t u t i o n a l o r social i d e n t i t i e s . U n t i l e a c h o f us i n d i v i d u a l l y b e g i n s t o c h a n g e t h e w a y w e m a k e d e c i s i o n s t h e r e will n o t b e a s u f f i c i e n t g r o u n d s w e l l o f o p i n i o n t o m a k e it safe f o r e l e c t e d l e a d e r s t o c h a n g e the way they m a k e decisions. Fortunately, that groundswell

is

b e g i n n i n g to build. Earlier

in

my

life t h e

magnitude

of problems

without

solutions

d e p r e s s e d m e utterly. N o w , at last, I see t h e possibility o f w o n d e r f u l t i m e s a h e a d as w e b o t h e n j o y t h e f r u i t s o f t e c h n o l o g y a n d l e a r n t o live w i t h i n o u r e c o s y s t e m ' s r u l e s . H a d I a n o t h e r s t o c k o f years t o r e p l a c e t h o s e I've s p e n t already, I c o u l d n o t i m a g i n e a m o r e e x c i t i n g t i m e t o live t h e m t h a n now.

Glossary

A n u m b e r of new words and phrases are associated with Holistic Management, particularly for aspects related to the use of grazing animals in restoring degraded landscapes. This glossary defines many of those new terms, along with a few others that involve new ways of looking at the land in order to j u d g e its condition. A n i m a l days per acre ( A D A ) or hectare ( A D H ) . A term used simply to express the volume of forage taken from an area in a specified time. It can relate to one grazing in a paddock or several, in that more grazings than one can be added to give a total ADA or A D H figure.The figure is arrived at by a simple calculation as follows: Animal N u m b e r s x Days of Grazing Area of Land in Acres or Hectares

_

^

ADH

A n i m a l i m p a c t . T h e sum total of the direct physical influences animals have on the land—trampling, digging, dunging, urinating, salivating, rubbing, etc. Most commonly achieved with herding animals in high concentration. Biodiversity. T h e diversity of plant and animal species—and of their genetic material and the age structure of their populations—within a given community. B i o m a s s . T h e mass, or volume, of life—plants, animals, and microorganisms. Brittleness scale. All terrestrial environments, regardless of total rainfall, lie somewhere along a continuum from nonbrittle to very brittle. For simplicity, we refer to this continuum as a 10-point scale—1 being nonbrittle and 10 being very brittle. Completely nonbrittle environments are characterized by: (1) reliable precipitation regardless of volume; (2) good distribution of humidity throughout the year as a whole; (3) a high rate of biological decay in dead plant material, which is most rapid close to the soil surface (thus, dead trees rot at their bases and topple over relatively quickly); (4) speedy development of new communities on any bare surface; and (5) the development of complex and stable communities even where they are not physically disturbed for many years. In such environments it is virtually impossible to produce or maintain millions of acres where the ground between plants is bare, other than on croplands that are continually exposed by machinery. 5 6 9

570

GLOSSARY

Very brittle environments, on the other hand, are characterized by: (1) unreliable precipitation, regardless of volume; (2) poor distribution of humidity through the year as a whole; (3) chemical (oxidation) and physical (weathering) breakdown of dead plant material, generally slow and from the upper parts of plants d o w n ward (thus, dead trees remain standing for many years); (4) very slow development of communities from bare soil surfaces unless physically disturbed; and (5) soil surfaces that can be covered with algae and lichens for centuries unless adequately disturbed. In such environments it is very easy to produce millions ot acres where the ground between plants is bare or capped by algae or lichen by merely by resting the land excessively, burning it frequently, or overgrazing many grass plants. Such areas tend to maintain biodiversity and stability only w h e n adequately disturbed. C a p p i n g , i m m a t u r e . A soil surface that has sealed with the last rainfall and on which there is no visible sign yet of successional movement. Capping is initiated by raindrop action on an exposed soil.The energy from the raindrop breaks crumb structure and frees fine soil particles; and these in turn seal the surface so the soil cannot respire easily. Some people use the term crusting instead of capping. C a p p i n g , m a t u r e . An exposed soil surface on which succession has proceeded to the level of an algae-, lichen-, a n d / o r moss-dominated c o m m u n i t y and has stalled at that level. If not adequately disturbed, such communities can remain in this state for centuries provided the soil is level enough to inhibit erosion by water. C o m m u n i t y d y n a m i c s . T h e development of communities of living organisms. This process is ongoing because of the constant interplay of species, changing c o m position, and changing microenvironment. However, the greater the biodiversity within a community, the more complex, and thus the more stable, it tends to be. C r u m b structure. A soil that has good crumb structure is made up largely of aggregates or crumbs of soil particles held together when wet or dry with "glue" provided by decomposing organic matter. T h e space around each crumb provides room for water and air, and this in turn promotes plant growth. D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . A process characterized by a loss of biodiversity, plant mass, and soil cover. Symptoms include increased incidence of flood and drought, declining levels of soil organic matter, increased soil surface exposure, and erosion. Forbs. Tap-rooted herbaceous plants, often referred to as weeds. Grazing cell. An area of land planned for grazing management purposes, normally as one unit to ensure adequate timing of grazing/trampling and recovery periods. It is generally divided into smaller units of land (paddocks) by fencing in some f o r m or marks on the ground or vegetation that herders can observe. A grazing cell will normally contain hvestock year round or at least for a prolonged period. G r a z i n g , f r e q u e n t . Grazing that takes place with short intervals between the actual grazings on the plant. W i t h most plants, frequent grazing is not harmful as long as the defoliation is light. G r a z i n g , severe. Grazing that removes a high proportion of the plant's leaf in either the growing or n o n g r o w i n g season. In the growing season this causes a temporary setback in the plant's growth. In the more brittle environments severe graz-

GLOSSARY

571

ing at some time during the year is generally beneficial to most bunched perennial grass plants, and especially those with growth points, or buds, at their bases. H e r d effect. T h e impact on soils and vegetation produced by a large herd of animals in high concentration or in an excited state. Herd effect is not to be confused with stock density, as they are different, although often linked. You can have high herd effect with very low stock density (e.g., the bison of old that ran in very large herds at very low stock density, as the whole of N o r t h America was the paddock.) You can have high stock density with no herd effect, such as w h e n two or three animals are placed in a one-acre paddock. At ultra-high densities, the behavior of livestock will change adequately to provide herd effect. Note: Herd effect is the result of a change in animal behavior and usually has to be brought about by some actual management action—stimulating the behavior change with the use of an attractant, or crowding animals to ultra-high density. Herd effect is generally used to break up a capped soil surface, to compact soil enough to get good seed-to-soil contact, and to trample dead plant material to the ground where it provides soil cover and slows water movement and erosion. Applied too long or too frequently it tends to pulverize most soils and cause excessive compaction. L o w - d e n s i t y g r a z i n g (sometimes referred to as patch or selective grazing). This refers to the grazing of certain areas while others nearby are left ungrazed and on which plants b e c o m e old, stale, and moribund. Normally it is caused by stock grazing at too low a stock density, too small a herd, or a combination of these, with too short a time in a paddock. O n c e it has started, even by only one grazing, it tends to get progressively worse, as the nutritional contrast between regrowth on grazed areas and old material on ungrazed areas increases with time.The c o m m o n remedy calls for holding stock longer to force them to graze everything equally (nonselectively), but this is a bad mistake and results in stock stress and p o o r performance. It is low-density grazing and is corrected by increasing density and generally shortening time to avoid stock stress. O v e r g r a z i n g . W h e n a plant bitten severely in the growing season gets bitten severely again while using energy it has taken from its crown, stem bases, or roots to reestablish leaf. Generally, this results in the eventual death of the plant. In intermediate stages it results in reduced production from the plant. Overgrazing occurs at three different times: (1) W h e n the plant is exposed to the animals for too many days and they are around to regraze it as it tries to regrow; (2) w h e n animals move away but return too soon and graze the plant again while it is still using stored energy to reform leaf; or (3) immediately following dormancy w h e n the plant is growing new leaf from stored energy. O v e r r e s t e d plant. A bunched perennial grass plant that has been rested so long that accumulating dead material prevents light from reaching growth points at the plant's base, hampering new growth and eventually killing the plant. Overrest occurs mainly in the more brittle environments where, in the absence of large herbivores, most old material breaks down through oxidation and weathering rather than decay. P a d d o c k . A small division of land within a grazing cell in which stock are grazed for short periods—hours to days. Paddocks can be fenced or merely marked for herders to observe.

P l a n n e d g r a z i n g . (A c o m m o n abbreviation for Holistic Grazing Planning.) T h e planning of livestock grazing that caters simultaneously to many variables: animal behavior, breeding, performance, wildlife needs, other land uses, weather, plant growth rates, poisonous plants, dormant periods, droughts, etc. T h e purpose of such planning is to utilize livestock to bring about the future landscape described in a holistic goal. R e s t , partial. Takes place w h e n grazing animals are on the land but w i t h o u t a full complement of pack-hunting predators to excite them and cause them to bunch. In walking around the grazing animals barely disturb soil surfaces and trample very little material onto the ground. R e s t - t o l e r a n t grasses. Perennial grasses able to thrive under rest in very brittle environments. Commonly, such plants have some growth points, or buds, well above ground along their stems where unflltered sunlight can reach them; or they are short in stature or sparse-leafed, enabling unflltered light to reach their ground-level growth points. In the past, such grasses tended to be found in steep gorges and other sites large grazing animals did not frequent, but today where overgrazing is believed to be linked to animal numbers and thus numbers have been reduced, these grasses can be found all over. R e s t , total. Prolonged nondisturbance of soils and plant or animal communities. A lack of any physical disturbance a n d / o r fire. R o t a t i o n a l g r a z i n g . Grazing in which animals are rotated through a series of paddocks, generally on some flexible basis, but without any planning that caters for the many variables inherent in the situation. Strip g r a z i n g . T h e grazing of animals in narrow strips of land generally behind a frequently moved electric fence. In some cases, different areas are strip-grazed within a paddock. S t o c k density. T h e n u m b e r of animals run on a subunit (paddock) of land at a given m o m e n t of time. This could be from a few minutes to several days. Usually expressed as the n u m b e r of animals (of any size or age) run on one acre or hectare. S t o c k i n g rate. T h e n u m b e r of animals run on a unit of land expressed usually in the n u m b e r of acres or hectares required to run one full-grown animal throughout the year or part thereof. S u c c e s s i o n . An important aspect of community dynamics, succession describes the stages through which biological communities develop. As simple communities become ever more diverse and complex, succession is said to be advancing. W h e n complex communities are reduced to greater simplicity and less diversity, succession is set back. If the factors that set it back are removed, succession will advance once again. U l t r a - h i g h - d e n s i t y g r a z i n g . T h e grazing of livestock in such a manner that they are at extremely high stock densities throughout the day. Generally, these densities are achieved either by herding the stock, by enclosing them in a small area with the use of moveable fencing, or by utilizing a combination of both. T h e aim is to induce herd effect, and thus high animal impact, over most of the land most of the time.

References

In addition to the works cited within the text of this b o o k , a n u m b e r of other resources were utilized in preparing the manuscript, many of w h i c h are listed here for the reader w h o wishes to pursue the various subjects in greater depth. Additional background information is also provided on some of the topics raised. CHAPTER 1 . CHANGING THE WAY W E MAKE DECISIONS

In the last tew decades advanced radiocarbon dating techniques have begun to show that the majority of the world's large m a m m a l species became extinct relatively recently and that their disappearance strongly coincides with the arrival of skilled h u m a n hunters. T h o u g h mammals had been the d o m i n a n t animals in terrestrial environments for over 70 million years, the majority of the larger species—those weighing at least 100 p o u n d s (44 kg)—suddenly became extinct at the very end of the Pleistocene, from 10,000 to 35,000 years ago, d e p e n d i n g o n the continent. All continents except Antarctica were affected, the Americas and Australia to a m u c h greater degree than Africa and Asia. In N o r t h America 74 percent of the large m a m m a l genera disappeared, possibly within a few centuries. In South America 79 percent of the genera disappeared in an equally short time, and in Australia 86 percent became extinct over a slightly longer period. Geoscientist Paul Martin (University of Arizona) has developed a theory called the "blitzkrieg hypothesis," the central tenet of w h i c h is that the extinctions occurred within a few h u n d r e d years of the first arrival of h u m a n s in any o n e place. H e and o t h e r proponents of the theory suggest that the large mammals, as well as large flightless birds, were easy prey to early h u m a n s because they did n o t recognize h u m a n s as predators. To back his claims M a r t i n points out that the extinctions occurred at greater intensity on continents of h u m a n invasion than on those of h u m a n origin. In Africa, w h e r e h u m a n s evolved f o r millions of years with large mammals, the extinctions had been minimal (19 percent), compared with the tremendous losses in the Americas, w h i c h were colonized by highly advanced h u n t i n g societies at the peak of their powers. T h e idea that people wiped o u t the great animals w i t h i n a few h u n d r e d years of arriving on the scene does pose a problem: there is n o archaeological evidence, other than in N e w Z e a l a n d — a n d even that was within the last 1,000 years—that h u m a n s systematically slaughtered the biggest animals. M a o r i b u t c h e r i n g sites have been f o u n d where between 30,000 and 90,000 moa w e r e killed. Analysis of these 5 7 3

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sites by m o d e r n - d a y archaeologists suggests that t h e wastage of m e a t was e n o r m o u s . E n t i r e m o a legs have b e e n f o u n d baked in ovens that w e r e never o p e n e d . W h o l e bodies w e r e f r e q u e n t l y left to rot. In Australia there is n o sign of h u n t i n g at all, despite the fact that A b o r i g i n e s were h u n t e r s . I n d e e d , n o t until t h e r e c e n t excavation of a site near C u d d i e Springs was there u n e q u i v o c a l e v i d e n c e that p u t p e o p l e and the large m a m m a l s in t h e same place at the same time. S o m e scientists still attribute t h e mass extinctions in Australia and the A m e r i c a s to climatic changes, m o s t notably t h e last ice age. H o w e v e r , in N o r t h A m e r i c a t h e large m a m m a l s persisted a n o t h e r 2 0 , 0 0 0 years after the ice had retreated to t h e poles; in Australia, almost all t h e large m a m m a l s appear to have vanished 15,000 years b e f o r e t h e ice age reached its m a x i m u m . E v e n so, t h e last ice age was only o n e of seventeen that had o c c u r r e d over a 2 - m i l l i o n - y e a r p e r i o d , and n o n e of t h e others had triggered such a rash of extinctions. I a m inclined to believe that o u r earlier ancestors of 10,000 or m o r e years ago played a critical role in t h e late Pleistocene e x t i n c t i o n s — b o t h t h r o u g h overkill and t h r o u g h t h e dramatic changes they p r o d u c e d t h r o u g h their b u r n i n g . T h e r e is c o n siderable e v i d e n c e that a m u c h greater p r o p o r t i o n of t h e p r e - h u m a n arrival vegetation was fire sensitive f o l l o w i n g millions of years of c o e v o l u t i o n (of plants, soils, and large m a m m a l s ) . T h e b u r n i n g of fire-sensitive vegetation o n the scale early h u m a n s did alone probably w o u l d have p r o d u c e d e n o u g h of a c h a n g e to cause m a j o r extinctions, even if o v e r - h u n t i n g w e r e n o t a factor. O n e simply c a n n o t c h a n g e a c o n t i n e n t f r o m largely fire-sensitive vegetation to f i r e - d e p e n d e n t v e g e tation (as t h e pollen record shows, for instance, in Australia) w i t h o u t causing m a s sive d i s r u p t i o n to animal p o p u l a t i o n s . A n y prey p o p u l a t i o n stressed by e n v i r o n mental d e t e r i o r a t i o n is m o r e susceptible to p r e d a t i o n , w h i c h h u m a n h u n t e r s w o u l d have exploited. A l t h o u g h Africa's extinctions, in t e r m s of t h e n u m b e r of genera lost, w e r e low d u r i n g t h e Pleistocene E p o c h , t h e c o n t i n e n t is e n o r m o u s and a n u m b e r of large m a m m a l s have b e c o m e extinct in areas w h e r e they were o n c e plentiful, such as in t h e savannas and marshes n o w c o n s u m e d by t h e Sahara desert and m o r e r e c e n d y all a l o n g its b o u n d a r i e s . In the last c e n t u r y m a n y extinctions have o c c u r r e d in s u b Saharan Africa as a direct c o n s e q u e n c e of o v e r h u n t i n g . For f u r t h e r reading o n this subject, I r e c o m m e n d : Flannery, T i m . 1994. The Future Eaters. C h a t s w o o d N S W , Australia: R e e d B o o k s . Kay, Charles E. 1994. " A b o r i g i n a l Overkill: T h e R o l e of Native A m e r i c a n s in S t r u c t u r i n g W e s t e r n Ecosystems," Human

Nature, vol. 5, no. 4: 3 5 9 - 3 9 8 .

M a r t i n , P. S. 1984. " P r e h i s t o r i c Overkill: T h e Global M o d e l . " In P. S. M a r t i n and R . G. Klein, eds., Quaternary Extinctions:A

Prehistoric Revolution,

pp. 354—403.

Tucson: University of A r i z o n a Press. S t e a d m a n , David W. 1995. " P r e h i s t o r i c

Extinctions

of Pacific Island

Birds:

Biodiversity M e e t s Z o o a r c h e o l o g y , " Science, vol. 2 6 7 : 1 1 2 3 — 1 1 2 2 . T h e a u t h o r states that t h e loss of birds d u e to h u m a n overkill may e x c e e d 2 , 0 0 0 species, s o m e 20 p e r c e n t of t h e w o r l d s bird species. For m o r e

on

t h e archaeological

sites at C u d d i e

Springs, Australia, see:

S t e p h a n i e Pain, 1997. " C o o k i n g U p a Storm,'" New Scientist, vol. 156, no. 2107: 36-40. T w o b o o k s that treat t h e relationship of h u m a n s to their e n v i r o n m e n t m o r e generally are: Leakey, R i c h a r d , and R o g e r Lewin. 1995. The Sixth Extinction: Patterns of Life and the Future of Mankind. N e w York: D o u b l e d a y . U n i t e d N a t i o n s E n v i r o n m e n t P r o g r a m m e . 1983. The Human Environment: Action or Disaster? An Account of the Public Hearing Held in London, June 1982. D u b l i n : Tycooly I n t e r n a t i o n a l Publishing Inc. CHAPTER 2 . THE POWER OF PARADIGMS For m o r e o n t h e p a r a d i g m effect, see: Barker, Joel A. 1993. Paradigms: The Business of Discovering the Future. N e w York: HarperCollins. K u h n , T h o m a s S. 1962. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. C h i c a g o : H a r p e r Collins. R e a d e r s interested in t h e l o n g history o f ideas in science and h o w h u m a n s have consistently reacted to n e w k n o w l e d g e s h o u l d see such b o o k s as: B e v e r i d g e , W. I. B. 1957. The Art of Scientific Investigation. N e w York: R a n d o m House. B o o r s t i n , D a n i e l . 1983. The Discoverers. N e w York: R a n d o m H o u s e . F e r g u s o n , M a r i l y n . 1980. The Aquarian Conspiracy. B o s t o n : H o u g h t o n Mifflin. Sobel, Dava. 1995. Longitude:TheTrue Story of a Lone Genius Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time. N e w York: Walker and C o . CHAPTER 3 . THE WHOLE IS GREATER THAN THE SUM OF ITS PARTS R e a d e r s interested in l e a r n i n g m o r e a b o u t t h e origins of h o l i s m and a b o u t the m a n w h o c o i n e d t h e t e r m should read Holism and Evolution, by Jan C h r i s t i a n Smuts, r e p r i n t e d in 1996 by T h e Gestalt J o u r n a l Press ( H i g h l a n d , N.Y.), and the b i o g r a p h y w r i t t e n by his son, J. C. S m u t s , J a n Christian Smuts. L o n d o n : Cassell & C o m p a n y , 1952. U s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n is also c o n t a i n e d in Piet Beukes's The Holistic Smuts: A Study in Personality ( C a p e T o w n : H u m a n & R o u s s e a u , 1990). U n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e difference b e t w e e n t h e integrated a p p r o a c h and t h e holistic a p p r o a c h is crucial and readers are e n c o u r a g e d to read M a u r i c e B e r m a n ' s Reenchantment of the World (Ithaca, N.Y.: C o r n e l l University Press, 1981). W h e r e a s I c o n c l u d e d that t h e i n t e g r a t e d and t h e hohstic a p p r o a c h are opposites f r o m the practical failures in m a n a g e m e n t of m y o w n and o t h e r i n t e g r a t e d teams, B e r m a n arrived at this c o n c l u s i o n f r o m an a c a d e m i c and philosophical perspective. O t h e r r e c o m m e n d e d reading to help o n e u n d e r s t a n d t h e p r o b l e m s i n h e r e n t in reductionist or linear approaches is Peter Senge's The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization ( N e w York: Doubleday, 1990), a n d J a m e s Gleick's Chaos: Making a New Science ( N e w York: P e n g u i n B o o k s , 1987). C u r r e n t l y I am aware of few references to t h e s h o r t c o m i n g s of t h e integrated and interdisciplinary approaches. Z e v N a v e h and A r t h u r L i e b e r m a n refer to these s h o r t c o m i n g s in Landscape Ecology: Theory and Application, 2 n d ed. ( N e w York:

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Springer-Verlag, 1994). It is m y belief that such approaches still have a vital role to play. W h i l e I d o n o t believe that systems t h i n k i n g alone will provide t h e success desired of these approaches, w e r e t h e decision m a k i n g w i t h i n t h e m to be c h a n g e d , I believe m o s t of their s h o r t c o m i n g s w o u l d b e addressed. CHAPTER 4 . VIEWING ENVIRONMENTS A WHOLE N E W WAY

T h e f o l l o w i n g sources o u t l i n e t h e fate o f earlier civilizations: B e n n e t t , H u g h . 1939. Soil Conservation. N e w York: M c G r a w - H i l l . D a s m a n n , R a y m o n d . 1959. Environmental

Conservation. N e w York: W i l e y & Sons.

L o w d e r m i l k , W. C . 1975. " C o n q u e s t of the Land t h r o u g h 7 , 0 0 0 Years," Agriculture Information

Bulletin

No.

99,

U.S.

Department

of Agriculture,

Soil

C o n s e r v a t i o n Service, Issued 1953 and slightly revised in 1975. P o n t i n g , Clive. 1991. A Green History of the World: The En vironment and the Collapse of Great Civilizations.

N e w York: St. Martin's Press.

W h e r e earlier plant ecologists t e n d e d to see plant c o m m u n i t i e s i n d e p e n d e n t of large animal p o p u l a t i o n s and disturbance and v i e w e d such things as essentially " u n n a t u r a l , " a n u m b e r o f researchers n o w c o m e to t h e o p p o s i t e c o n c l u s i o n . See, for example, A n d r e w H . W i l l i a m s , 1997. " I n Praise of Grazing," Restoration and Management Notes, vol. 15, no. 2: 1 1 6 - 1 1 8 ; J o c e l y n Kaiser, 1998. " B i s o n P r i m e Prairie Biodiversity," Science, vol. 280: 677; and Scott L. Collins, Alan K. Knapp, J o h n M . Briggs, J o h n M . Blair, and E r n e s t M . Steinauer, 1998. " M o d u l a t i o n o f Diversity by G r a z i n g and M o w i n g in Native Tallgrass Prairie," Science, vol. 280: 7 4 5 - 7 4 7 . Also of interest are publications such as S.T. A. Pickett and P. S . W h i t e ' s The Ecology of Natural Disturbance and Patch Dynamics ( N e w York: A c a d e m i c Press, 1985), and " D i s t u r b a n c e , Diversity, and Invasion: Implications for C o n s e r v a t i o n , " Conservation Biology, vol. 6, no. 3: 324—337, by R i c h a r d J. H o b b s , and Laura F. Huenneke. D a v i d W e s t e r n , in his autobiography, In the Dust of Kilimanjaro (Washington, D.C.: Island P r e s s / S h e a r w a t e r B o o k s , 1997), e n g a g i n g l y describes his research and eventual u n d e r s t a n d i n g that constant c h a n g e a n d d i s t u r b a n c e are t h e n o r m in t h e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t of East Africa's A m b o s e l i N a t i o n a l Park and its s u r r o u n d i n g s . Eventually I believe w e will l o o k at w h o l e communities, rather than plant c o m m u n i t i e s alone, and c o m e to u n d e r s t a n d that b o t h m a j o r climatic and seasonal w e a t h e r fluctuations, c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e natural presence of large h e r d i n g u n g u lates and their predators, provided t h e c o n s t a n t c h a n g e essential to t h e health o f c o m m u n i t i e s in t h e world's brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s . Several of t h e papers by S. J. M c N a u g h t o n , listed in t h e references to C h a p t e r 5, c o n t a i n remarks a b o u t the c o e v o l u t i o n of h e r d i n g animals and grasslands. I n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e collapse of wildlife p o p u l a t i o n s in t h e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t o f t h e Tuli Circle area o f Z i m b a b w e is c o n t a i n e d in t h e f o l l o w i n g reports and papers w r i t t e n by myself: " R a n g e A s s e s s m e n t — T u l i Circle ( N a t i o n a l Land)," u n p u b l i s h e d R e p o r t to G a m e R a n c h e r s Association o f R h o d e s i a (1966); " G a m e Utilization in R h o d e s i a , " Zoologica Africana, vol. 1, no. 2 (1964); " T h e Utilization o f W i l d l i f e o n R h o d e s i a n M a r g i n a l Lands and Its R e l a t i o n s h i p to H u m a n s , D o m e s t i c Stock and L a n d D e t e r i o r a t i o n , " Proceedings of the First Congress of the Associated Scientific Societies of Rhodesia Symposium on Drought and Development,

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B u l a w a y o (1966); and "Crisis in R h o d e s i a , " Oryx,Journal Society, vol. 10, no. 1 (May 1969).

ofThe

Fauna

Preservation

T h e s e papers represent s o m e o f m y early observations and t h i n k i n g . T h e most significant, " E f f o r t s in R h o d e s i a to Apply an Ecological P h i l o s o p h y and Practice to t h e H u m a n E n v i r o n m e n t to Avert S e m i d e s e r t F o r m a t i o n , " is regrettably n o t available. P r e s e n t e d at the S y m p o s i u m o n Terrestrial A n i m a l Ecology, Pretoria, S o u t h Africa, 1967, it was n o t published w i t h the p r o c e e d i n g s because the findings and views expressed o f f e n d e d the scientific t h i n k i n g of the day. A t t e m p t s shortly afterward to have t h e w o r k p u b l i s h e d in A m e r i c a in t h e Journal of Range Management m e t w i t h t h e same fate. It was in those years u n a c c e p t a b l e that livestock could even b e considered as constructive agents in t h e reversal of desertification. CHAPTER 5 . T H E PREDATOR-PREY CONNECTION

N o t h i n g has g e n e r a t e d as m u c h controversy in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f Holistic M a n a g e m e n t as t h e use of large h e r d i n g animals as a tool in land restoration and m a n a g e m e n t , a l t h o u g h in r e c e n t years the controversy has subsided. Early references to t h e positive role of animals, at least in pasture m a n a g e m e n t , are c o n t a i n e d in A n d r e Voisin's, Crass Productivity, w h i c h was first p u b l i s h e d in 1959 (and r e p r i n t ed by Island Press in 1988), and Better Grassland Sward ( L o n d o n : Crosby L o c k w o o d & S o n , 1960). O t h e r references to t h e beneficial effects of large herbivores are c o n tained in: Bell, R i c h a r d . 1971. " A G r a z i n g E c o s y s t e m in t h e Serengeti," American

Scientist,

vol. 225, no. 1 : 8 6 - 9 3 . Collins, S. L., A. K . K n a p p , J . M . Briggs, and E. M . Steinauer. 1998. " M o d u l a t i o n of Diversity by G r a z i n g and M o w i n g in N a t i v e Tallgrass P r a i r i e , " Science, vol. 280: 7 4 5 - 7 4 7 . Davies, W i l l i a m . 1938. "Vegetation of Grass Verges and O t h e r Excessively T r o d d e n Habitats,''Journal of Ecology, vol. 26: 38—49. Geist, Valerius. 1974. " O n t h e R e l a t i o n s h i p o f Social E v o l u t i o n and E c o l o g y in U n g u l a t e s , " American

Zoologist, vol. 14:205—220.

G o r d o n , Iain, and Patrick D u n c a n . 1988. "Pastures N e w for C o n s e r v a t i o n , " New Scientist, vol. 117, no. 1604: 5 4 - 5 9 . M c N a u g h t o n , S . J . 1979. " G r a z i n g As an O p t i m i z a t i o n Process: G r a s s - U n g u l a t e R e l a t i o n s h i p s in t h e Serengeti," The American

Naturalist,

vol. 113, no. 5:

691-703. M c N a u g h t o n , S. J. 1984. " G r a z i n g Lawns: Animals in Herds, Plant F o r m , and C o e v o l u t i o n , " The American

Naturalist,

vol. 124, no. 6: 8 6 3 - 8 8 3 .

M c N a u g h t o n , S. J., M . B. C o u g h e n o u r , and L. L. Wallace. 1982. "Interactive Processes in Grassland Ecosystems." In J. R . Estes, R . J. Tyrl, and J. N . B u n k e n , eds., Grasses and Grasslands: Systematics

and Ecology, pp. 167—193.

N o r m a n : University of O k l a h o m a Press. M c N a u g h t o n , S. J., F. F. B a n y i k w a , and M . M . M c N a u g h t o n . 1997. " P r o m o t i o n of the C y c l i n g of D i e t - E n h a n c i n g N u t r i e n t s by A f r i c a n Grazers," Science, vol. 278:1798-1800. Paige, K e n , and T h o m a s W h i t h a m . 1987. " O v e r c o m p e n s a t i o n

in R e s p o n s e to

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M a m m a l i a n H e r b i v o r y : T h e Advantage of B e i n g Eaten," American vol. 129: 4 0 7 - 4 1 6 .

Naturalist,

Williams, A n d r e w H . 1997. " I n Praise of Grazing," Restoration and Management Notes, vol. 15, no. 2: 1 1 6 - 1 1 8 . Bell and M c N a u g h t o n in particular d r a w a t t e n t i o n to t h e i m p o r t a n c e of large h e r d i n g ungulates o n t h e grasslands of East Africa (mainly brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s ) . In all cases, unfortunately, the role o f herd b e h a v i o r and p r e d a t i o n was missed. M c N a u g h t o n theorizes that t h e h e r d i n g ungulates in s o m e m a n n e r l e a r n e d that their c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o d u c e d a m o r e palatable f o r m of t h e grass plants o n w h i c h they fed and thus d e v e l o p e d the h e r d i n g / m o v i n g p a t t e r n . Based o n m y observations, 1 believe that predators p r o d u c e the t e n d e n c y to c o n c e n t r a t e and that c o n c e n t r a t e d d u n g and u r i n e d e p o s i t i o n p r o d u c e s the t e n d e n c y for animals f e e d i n g close to t h e g r o u n d to move. W h e r e large predators have b e e n r e m o v e d , their prey remain scattered and b e c o m e m o r e static. A n o t h e r reason for my belief c o n c e r n s t h e different h o o f action and p l a c e m e n t u n d e r e x c i t e m e n t n o t p r o d u c e d w h i l e f e e d i n g as a h e r d — h e n c e the d e v e l o p m e n t of animal i m p a c t as a n e w tool in Holistic M a n a g e m e n t . Just as scientists are b e g i n n i n g to u n d e r s t a n d t h e c o e v o l u tion of h e r d i n g herbivores and grasslands, I believe they will c o m e to u n d e r s t a n d that p r e d a t o r s w e r e also vital c o m p o n e n t s . T h e research of lain G o r d o n and Patrick D u n c a n indicates that t h e i m p a c t of large herbivores is greater than w e realized, even in less brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s . T h e y r e p o r t the loss of species diversity in E u r o p e a n wetlands w i t h the removal of livestock. A n d r e w Williams reports the same loss of biodiversity in W i s c o n s i n grasslands, as does S. L. Collins et al. in the N o r t h A m e r i c a n tallgrass prairie. B o t h papers also r e p o r t that w i t h t h e reestabl i s h m e n t of grazing, biodiversity was e n h a n c e d . CHAPTER 6 . TIMING I S EVERYTHING

R e s e a r c h e r s in a n u m b e r o f c o u n t r i e s have observed the d a m a g e to grass root systems f r o m severe defoliation, b u t n o n e have related their observations to the time animals w e r e present as o p p o s e d to animal n u m b e r s m o r e clearly than A n d r e Voisin, w h o r e p o r t e d his findings in Grass Productivity (first published in 1959 and r e p r i n t e d in 1988 by Island Press), Better Grassland Sward (1960), and Rational Grazing: The Meeting of Cow and Grass, a Manual of Grass Productivity (1962), all published by C r o s b y L o c k w o o d & S o n , L o n d o n . A m e r i c a n researcher Franklin C n d e r also discussed t h e fate of grass roots u n d e r severe and f r e q u e n t grazing in his 1955 paper, " R o o t G r o w t h Stoppage," w h i c h a p p e a r e d in Technical Bulletin No. 1102, published by t h e U.S. D e p a r t m e n t of A g r i c u l t u r e . It was f r o m his w o r k that the U.S. Soil C o n s e r v a t i o n Service (again missing t h e time e l e m e n t ) d e v e l o p e d the idea of s t o c k i n g at a rate that w o u l d have t h e livestock "take half and leave h a l f " of key indicator plants. Also in 1955, in Africa H . W e i n m a n n c o n f i r m e d the d a m a g e to roots f o l l o w i n g severe defoliation and w r o t e " T h e C h e m i s t r y and Physiology of Grasses," w h i c h was published in D. M e r e d i t h , ed., The Grasses and Pastures of South Africa ( C a p e T o w n : Central N e w s A g e n c y ) , and w h i c h h e later followed up w i t h "Effects of D e f o l i a t i o n o n Veld Pastures," in Proceedings of the Veld Management Conference, Bulawayo, M a y 1 9 6 9 (Salisbury, R h o d e s i a : D e p a r t m e n t o f C o n s e r v a t i o n and E x t e n s i o n ) . The

findings

of J o h n Acocks are r e p o r t e d in his 1 9 6 6 paper, " N o n - s e l e c t i v e

REFERENCES

G r a z i n g As a M e a n s ofVeld R e c l a m a t i o n , " Proceedings of the Annual Grassland Association of South Africa, vol. 1: 33—39.

579

Conference of the

Classic range m a n a g e m e n t texts such as L a u r e n c e S t o d d a r t and A r t h u r Smith's Range Management ( N e w York: M c G r a w - H i l l , 1955), a n d H a r o l d H e a d y ' s Rangeland Management ( N e w York: M c G r a w Hill, 1975), c o n t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e effects of grazing and b r o w s i n g o n plants. H o w e v e r , in t h e light o f prevailing paradigms, t h e authors i n t e r p r e t t h e data to m e a n that w h e n " o v e r u s e " occurs, t o o m a n y animals are t h e p r o b l e m . CHAPTER 8 . DEFINING THE WHOLE: WHAT A R E Y o u MANAGING?

T h i s c h a p t e r refers to t w o e i g h t - y e a r - l o n g "trials" of Holistic M a n a g e m e n t c o n d u c t e d by t h e U.S. Forest Service in c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h t w o r a n c h i n g families w h o had p e r m i t s allowing t h e m to r u n cattle o n t w o a l l o t m e n t s . T w o reports published by t h e U.S. D e p a r t m e n t of A g r i c u l t u r e Forest Service, S o u t h w e s t e r n R e g i o n , s u m m a r i z e the results: " H o l i s t i c R e s o u r c e M a n a g e m e n t ( H R M ) D o d s o n Pilot P r o j e c t S u m m a r y , Apache-Sitgreaves N a t i o n a l Forest," S e p t e m b e r 1990; and " H o l i s t i c R e s o u r c e M a n a g e m e n t ( H R M ) B o n y b a c k Pilot P r o j e c t S u m m a r y , T o n t o N a t i o n a l Forest," S e p t e m b e r 1991, b o t h prepared by myself and D a r r o l L. H a r r i s o n , U S D A Forest Service, S o u t h w e s t e r n R e g i o n . CHAPTER 9 . FORMING A HOLISTIC GOAL: WHAT I S IT Y o u REALLY WANT? CHAPTER 1 0 . DEVELOPING A S E N S E OF OWNERSHIP: A R E Y o u SURE THAT'S WHAT Y o u REALLY WANT?

M a n y g r o u p s have f o u n d it helpful, even necessary, to utilize special t e c h n i q u e s or processes to set t h e stage for holistic goal setting. O n e c o n s e n s u s - b u i l d i n g process a n u m b e r of practitioners have used successfully was d e v e l o p e d by R o b e r t C h a d w i c k in the U n i t e d States. For m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n c o n t a c t C h a d w i c k at C o n s e n s u s Associates, P O B o x 2 3 5 , T e r r e b o n n e , O r e . 9 7 7 6 0 , tel: (503) 5 4 8 - 7 1 1 2 . Families a t t e m p t i n g to i m p r o v e c o m m u n i c a t i o n w h i l e f o r m i n g and later refining their holistic goal w o u l d b e n e f i t f r o m Virginia Satir's Peoplemaking (Palo Alto, Calif.: Science a n d B e h a v i o r B o o k s , 1972), a very readable and i n f o r m a t i v e b o o k o n family d y n a m i c s that contains exercises to e n h a n c e self-awareness and ideas to stimulate family discussion. Steven W . V a n n o y s The Ten Greatest Gifts I Give My Children ( N e w York: S i m o n & Schuster, 1994) is also helpful, b o t h for families and for those w o r k i n g in large c o r p o r a t i o n s . T h e i m p o r t a n c e of creating a c o m m o n vision and d e v e l o p i n g c o m m i t m e n t to it is addressed in Peter Senge's The Fifth Discipline:The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization ( N e w York: Doubleday, 1990), and The Fifth Discipline Fieldbook ( N e w York: Doubleday, 1994), by Peter Senge, M . Senge, Art Kleiner, C h a r l o t t e R o b e r t s , R i c h a r d B. R o s s , and Bryan J. S m i t h . T h e section in t h e Fieldbook o n " B u i l d i n g Shared Vision," particularly C h a p t e r s 4 4 - 4 7 , is helpful in d e v e l o p i n g a quality o f life s t a t e m e n t in organizations of any k i n d , as is C h a p t e r 29, " C o r p o r a t e C o n s t i t u t i o n s , " in Principle-Centered Leadership, by S t e p h e n R . C o v e y ( N e w York: S i m o n & Schuster, 1990). T w o b o o k s have b e e n h e l p f u l to individuals and families a t t e m p t i n g to d e f i n e w h a t quality of life means to t h e m . In How: The Psychology of Optimal Experience

REFERENCES

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( N e w York: H a r p e r , 1991), M i h a l y Csikszentmihalyi reviews t h e research o n t h e i m p o r t a n c e of h a v i n g a vision b e y o n d yourself and provides m a n y e x a m p l e s of p e o p l e w h o have led fulfilled lives, s o m e t i m e s after t h e m o s t debilitating accidents. In Your Money or Your Life ( N e w York: P e n g u i n B o o k s , 1992), a u t h o r s J o e D o m i n g u e z a n d V i c k i R o b i n e x a m i n e t h e relationship b e t w e e n m o n e y and w h a t w e really w a n t in life. To b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d t h e challenges o n e faces in m a i n t a i n i n g c o m m i t m e n t to the holistic goal, I suggest R o b e r t F r i t z s The Path of Least Resistance: Principles for Creating What You Want to Create (Walpole, N . H . : Stillpoint Publishing, 1984).

CHAPTER 1 1 . THE FOUR FUNDAMENTAL PROCESSES THAT DRIVE OUR ECOSYSTEM CHAPTER 1 2 . WATER CYCLE: THE CIRCULATION OF CIVILIZATION'S LIFE BLOOD CHAPTER 1 3 . COMMUNITY DYNAMICS: THE EVER-CHANGING PATTERNS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF LIVING COMMUNITIES CHAPTER 1 4 . MINERAL CYCLE: THE CIRCULATION OF LIFE-SUSTAINING NUTRIENTS CHAPTER 1 5 . ENERGY FLOW: THE FLOW OF FUEL THAT ANIMATES ALL LIFE I have yet to find a single publication w h e r e t h e f o u r e c o s y s t e m processes covered in these chapters are simply stated and described. K n o w l e d g e a b o u t t h e m has to b e gleaned f r o m m a n y sources, s o m e o f w h i c h I have listed here. A l t h o u g h these b o o k s and papers give a general o u t l i n e of these f o u r basic c o n c e p t s , n o n e refer to t h e different n a t u r e of t h e b r e a k d o w n of material (decay or physical o x i d a t i o n and w e a t h e r i n g ) and early successional processes in brittle and n o n b r i t t l e e n v i r o n ments, w h i c h is a m o r e r e c e n t discovery. (Note: M a n y of t h e b o o k s listed b e l o w will have n e w e r editions available. I have listed t h e editions I have personally read, only because n e w e r editions occasionally c h a n g e in scope or focus and m a y n o t i n c l u d e t h e material that to m e was valuable): A l b r e c h t , W i l l i a m A. 1982. In Charles Walters, ed., TheAlbrecht Papers, Vol. I. Kansas C i t y : Acres U S A . Allee, W. C . , Alfred E . E m e r s o n , O r l a n d Park, T h o m a s Park, and Karl S c h m i d t . 1955. Principles of Animal Ecology. Philadelphia: W. B. S a u n d e r s C o m p a n y . B r a n s o n , Farrel A., Gerald F. Gifford, K e n n e t h G. R e n a r d , a n d R i c h a r d F. Hadley. 1981. In E l b e r t H . R e i d , ed., Rangeland Hydrology D u b u q u e , Iowa: K e n d a l l / H u n t Publishing C o m p a n y . D a s m a n n , R a y m o n d F. 1975. Environmental Conservation, 4th ed. N e w York: Wiley. Ehrlich, Paul. 1981. The Machinery of Nature: The Living World around Us and How It Works. N e w York: S i m o n & Schuster. O d u m , E u g e n e P. 1963. Fundamentals of Ecology. Philadelphia: W. B. S a u n d e r s Company. Russell, Sir E . J o h n . 1961. Soil Conditions and Plant Growth. L o n d o n : L o n g m a n s . Satterlund, D o n a l d R . 1972. Wildland Watershed Management. N e w York: Wiley. In t h e vast brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s o f the w o r l d it is probable that w e c o u l d p r o -

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vide far m o r e w a t e r for cities, e n h a n c e the balance o f a t m o s p h e r i c gases, and reverse t h e desertification process w i t h a greater u n d e r s t a n d i n g of h o w t h e ecosyst e m processes f u n c t i o n . A n interesting p a p e r aligned w i t h this idea is P i m e n t e l , D a v i d , James. H o u s e r , E r i k a Preiss, O m a r W h i t e , H o p e Fang, Leslie M e s n i c k , T r o y Barsky, S e p h a n i e Tariche, J e r r o d Schreck, and Sharon Alpert. 1997. " W a t e r R e s o u r c e s : A g r i c u l t u r e , the E n v i r o n m e n t , and Society: A n Assessment o f t h e Status o f W a t e r R e s o u r c e s , " Bioscience, vol. 47, no. 2: 9 7 - 1 0 6 . T h e a u t h o r s p o i n t o u t that n e w w a t e r supplies are likely to c o m e f r o m c o n s e r v a t i o n , recycling, reuse, and i m p r o v e d w a t e r use efficiency rather than f r o m large d e v e l o p m e n t projects. In " C o n s e r v a t i o n Tillage Impacts o n N a t i o n a l Soil and A t m o s p h e r i c C a r b o n Levels," Soil Science Society of America Journal, vol. 57, no. 1: 2 0 2 - 2 1 0 (1993), J. S. K e r n and M . G . J o h n s o n provide useful i n f o r m a t i o n o n c a r b o n r e t e n t i o n in c o v ered soils. In " G r e e n Grass, C o o l C l i m a t e ? " Science, vol. 274: 1 6 1 0 - 1 6 1 1 (1996), J o c e l y n Kaiser provides i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e greater c a r b o n storage in t h e r o o t systems o f healthy grasslands than in u n h e a l t h y ones. In " I n f l u e n c e of N i t r o g e n L o a d i n g and Species C o m p o s i t i o n o n t h e C a r b o n Balance of Grasslands," Science, vol. 274: 1 7 2 0 - 1 7 2 3 (1996), D a v i d A . W e d i n and D a v i d T i l m a n r e p o r t o n a twelve-year, study indicating greater c a r b o n storage in m o r e natural and healthy grasslands. In " E n v i r o n m e n t a l and E c o n o m i c Costs o f Soil E r o s i o n and C o n s e r v a t i o n Benefits," Science, vol. 267: 1 1 1 7 - 1 1 2 1 (1995), D a v i d P i m e n t e l , C. Harvey, P. R e s o s u d a r m o , K . Sinclair, D. K u r z , M . M c N a i r , S. C h r i s t , L. Shpritz, L. Fitton, R . Saffouri, R . Blair, a t t e m p t to p u t an e c o n o m i c cost o n priceless soil and provide s o m e useful figures o n t h e scale o f soil erosion w o r l d w i d e . T h e f o l l o w i n g e x p l o r e s o m e of the topics covered in t h e c h a p t e r o n c o m m u nity d y n a m i c s in m o r e detail: A l b r e c h t , W i l l i a m A. 1975. In Charles Walters, ed., Soil Fertility and Animal Health, vol. II, Kansas City: Acres U S A A n g e r m e i e r , Paul L., and J a m e s R . Karr. 1994. "Biological I n t e g r i t y versus Biological Diversity As Policy Directives," BioScience, vol. 44, no. 10: 690-697. E l t o n , Charles. 1956. Animal

Ecology. L o n d o n : Sidgewick & Jackson.

F u k u o k a , M a s a n o b u . 1978. The One Straw Revolution: An Introduction to Natural Farming. E m m a u s , P e n n . : R o d a l e Press. Fuller, B u c k m i n s t e r R . 1978. Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth. N e w York: E. P. Dutton. H o w a r d , Sir Albert. 1975. The Soil and Health. N e w York: S c h o c k e n B o o k s . L e o p o l d , Aldo. 1966. A Sand County Almanac: With Essays on Conservation from Round Rh'er. N e w York: Ballantine. Lovelock, J a m e s E. 1979. Gaia:A New Look at Life on Earth. N e w York: O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press. Lovelock, James E. 1988. The Ages of Gaia: A Biography of Our Living Earth. N e w York: N o r t o n . (Few publications a p p r o a c h these t w o by Lovelock for giving m e a n i n g to the c o n c e p t of o u r planet as a living o r g a n i s m , so c o m p l e x and i n t e r d e p e n d e n t is e v e r y t h i n g o n it.)

582

REFERENCES

Maser, C h r i s . 1988. The Redesigned Forest. San Pedro, Calif.: R & E Miles. M o o r e , J o h n . 1985. " S c i e n c e As a Way of K n o w i n g — H u m a n Ecology,"

American

Zoologist, vol. 25: 4 8 6 - 6 3 7 . Q u a m m e n , D a v i d . 1996. The Song of the Dodo: Island Biogeography in an Age of Extinctions. N e w York: S i m o n & Schuster. Weaver, J o h n E., and Frederic E . C l e m e n t s . 1938. Plant Ecology. N e w York: McGraw-Hill. CHAPTER 1 7 . MONEY AND LABOR: ONE OR BOTH OF THESE TOOLS IS ALWAYS REQUIRED A l t h o u g h a nation's w e l l - b e i n g ultimately d e p e n d s o n t h e s o u n d f u n c t i o n i n g of o u r ecosystem, and a l t h o u g h w e have witnessed civilization after civilization collapse because it destroyed its f o u n d a t i o n (soil), I have yet to read any e c o n o m i c text that even m e n t i o n s t h e essential processes w h e r e b y o u r ecosystem f u n c t i o n s , even t h o u g h t h e t w o words, e c o n o m y and ecology, share t h e same G r e e k r o o t . B o o k s I suggest are: D r u c k e r , Peter F. 1986. The Frontiers of Management: Where Tomorrow's Decisions Are Being Made Today. N e w York: E.P. D u t t o n . H a w k e n , Paul. 1983. The Next Economy. N e w York: Ballantine. H a w k e n , Paul. 1993. The Ecology of Commerce. N e w York: H a r p e r C o l l i n s . H a w k e n , Paul, A m o r y Lovins, and H u n t e r Lovins. 1999. Natural Capitalism. NewYork: Little, B r o w n . Hazlitt, H e n r y . 1979. Economics in One Lesson. N e w York: A r l i n g t o n H o u s e . H e n d e r s o n , Hazel. 1996. Building a Win-Win World: Life Beyond Economic Warfare. San Francisco: B e r r e t - K o e h l e r Publishers. Walters, Charles. 1991. Raw Materials Economics:A USA.

Norm Primer. Kansas C i t y : Acres

In " T h e Capitalist T h r e a t , " Atlantic Monthly, vol. 279, no. 2: 4 5 - 5 8 (1997), G e o r g e Soros makes a c o n v i n c i n g case for his view that t h e free m a r k e t capitalist system u n d e r m i n e s t h e very values o n w h i c h o p e n a n d d e m o c r a t i c societydepend. C o m p o u n d i n g interest is responsible for m u c h o f the e n o r m o u s increase in the trade o f m o n e y as a c o m m o d i t y as well as t h e increase in the m o n e y supply, o t h erwise k n o w n as inflation. G e r m a n a u t h o r M a r g r i t K e n n e d y in h e r b o o k (with D e c l a n K e n n e d y ) , Interest and Inflation Free Money ( O k e m o s , M i c h . : Seva I n t e r n a t i o n a l , 1995), illustrates the effects o f c o m p o u n d i n g interest w i t h this e x a m p l e : O n e p e n n y invested at t h e birth of C h r i s t at 4 p e r c e n t interest w o u l d have b o u g h t o n e ball of gold equal to the w e i g h t o f the earth in 1750. In 1990 it w o u l d have b o u g h t 8 , 1 9 0 balls of gold. At 5 p e r c e n t interest it w o u l d have b o u g h t o n e ball o f gold by t h e year 1466; by 1990, 2.2 billion balls of gold equal to t h e w e i g h t of t h e earth. Clearly that single investment at m o d e r a t e interest w o u l d b e c o m e impossible to h o n o r at s o m e p o i n t . N o w t h i n k o f all of t h e b o r r o w i n g that millions of i n d i viduals, businesses, and g o v e r n m e n t s engage in every day, at m u c h h i g h e r c o m p o u n d i n g interest rates. A l t h o u g h a l e n d e r should b e entitled to charge t h e b o r -

REFERENCES

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rower a fee, w h e n that fee b e c o m e s c o m p o u n d interest it creates havoc in most e c o n o m i e s . To cover t h e escalating cost of b o r r o w e d m o n e y , individuals d e m a n d h i g h e r salaries, w h i l e businesses and g o v e r n m e n t s pass t h e cost o n to t h e c o n sumers (and taxpayers) o f t h e g o o d s or services they provide. So even those w h o d o n o t b o r r o w end up paying for those w h o do. A n d inflation b e c o m e s inevitable, no m a t t e r h o w sophisticated a n a t i o n b e c o m e s at m a n i p u l a t i n g its m o n e y supply. A n y e c o n o m y in w h i c h heavy b o r r o w i n g is a feature c a n n o t avoid r u n n i n g i n t o severe problems. W h e r e real wealth was o n c e dispersed a m o n g m a n y people, money, t h e t o k e n of that wealth, b e c o m e s c o n c e n t r a t e d in ever fewer hands, largely d u e to c o m p o u n d interest, until revolution or d r a c o n i a n r e a d j u s t m e n t starts the process all over again. S o m e of the latest t h i n k i n g by ecological e c o n o m i s t s is c u r r e n t l y b e i n g p u b lished in Ecological Economics: The Journal of the International Society for Ecological Economics. In 1 9 9 1 , 1 a t t e m p t e d to i n t r o d u c e Holistic M a n a g e m e n t to m e m b e r s of the Society in, " H o l i s t i c R e s o u r c e M a n a g e m e n t : A C o n c e p t u a l F r a m e w o r k for Ecologically S o u n d E c o n o m i c M o d e l i n g , " Ecological Economics, vol. 3: 181—193. CHAPTER 1 8 . HUMAN CREATIVITY: K E Y TO USING ALL TOOLS EFFECTIVELY

A b o o k that has proven h e l p f u l to a n u m b e r o f p e o p l e a t t e m p t i n g to m a n a g e their t i m e m o r e effectively is First Things First, by S t e p h e n Covey, R o g e r M e r r i l l , and R e b e c c a M e r r i l l ( N e w York: S i m o n Sc Schuster, 1994). A n u m b e r of b o o k s describe t e c h n i q u e s and ideas for releasing the creativity latent in most p e o p l e , but a m o n g t h e best are R o b e r t Fritz's The Path of Least Resistance: Principles for Creating WhatYou Want to Create (Walpole, N . H . : Stillpoint Publishing, 1984) a l o n g w i t h his later b o o k Creating ( N e w York: Ballantine, 1991). In The Mind Map Book ( N e w York: P e n g u i n , 1996), T o n y and B a r r y B u z a n i n t r o d u c e an innovative tool ( m i n d m a p p i n g ) that enables y o u to find y o u r way t h r o u g h t h e c o n f u s i o n that precedes u n d e r s t a n d i n g . CHAPTER 1 9 . FIRE: T H E M O S T ANCIENT TOOL

H e n r y A . W r i g h t and A r t h u r W Bailey in Fire Ecology ( N e w York: Wiley, 1982), cover t h e role and m a n a g e m e n t o f fire in s o m e detail, b u t n o t holistically. D e s p i t e this it is w o r t h reading for t h e w e a l t h of detailed i n f o r m a t i o n . A n i m p o r t a n t refe r e n c e b o o k for a n y o n e interested in the effects of fire o n o u r a t m o s p h e r e is: Joel S. L e v i n e (ed.), 1991, Global Biomass Burning: Atmospheric, Climatic, and Biospheric Implications. C a m b r i d g e , Mass.: M I T Press. Additional papers o n this subject include t h e following: C i c e r o n e , R a l p h J. 1994. "Fire A t m o s p h e r i c Chemistry, and t h e O z o n e Layer," Science, vol. 263: 1 2 4 3 - 1 2 4 4 . Fishman, J., K. F a k h r u z z a m a n , B. Cros, and D. H g a n g a . 1991. " I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f W i d e s p r e a d Pollution in t h e S o u t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e D e d u c e d f r o m Satellite Analyses," Science, vol. 252: 1 6 9 3 - 1 6 9 6 . M a n o , Stein, and M e i n r a t O. Adreae. 1994. " E m i s s i o n o f M e t h y l B r o m i d e f r o m Biomass B u r n i n g , " Science, vol. 263: 1 2 5 5 - 1 2 5 6 . Alston Chase's Playing

God

in Yellowstone: The

Destruction

of America's

First

584

REFERENCES

National Park ( B o s t o n : T h e Atlantic M o n t h l y Press, 1986); and J o h n Bakeless's The Journals of Lewis and Clark ( N e w York: N e w A m e r i c a n Library, 1964), p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e early Native A m e r i c a n use of fire and list a n u m b e r of o t h e r references. In The Future Eaters ( C h a t s w o o d N S W , Australia: R e e d B o o k s , 1994), T i m F l a n n e r y provides i n f o r m a t i o n o n early A b o r i g i n a l b u r n i n g in Australia, w h i c h appears to have b e e n even m o r e extensive than in N o r t h A m e r i c a . W h e n t h e first E u r o p e a n s " d i s c o v e r e d " Australia, they described it as " t h e c o n t i n e n t of smoke." In t h e references for C h a p t e r 21, I have m e n t i o n e d the w o r k b e i n g d o n e in the K r u g e r N a t i o n a l Park in S o u t h A f r i c a . T h e references cited will be of interest to a n y o n e e n g a g e d in national park m a n a g e m e n t and w h o uses fire to offset the adverse effects o f l o w animal n u m b e r s . A useful study that shows h o w m u c h m o r e f r e q u e n t h u m a n - l i t fires w e r e than l i g h t n i n g - i n d u c e d fires over a 2 , 0 0 0 - y e a r p e r i o d can be f o u n d in C h r i s t o p h e r H . Baisan and T h o m a s W S w e t n a m , " I n t e r a c t i o n s of Fire R e g i m e s and L a n d U s e in t h e C e n t r a l R i o G r a n d e Valley," (Research Paper P J V l - R P - 3 3 0 , Fort Collins, C o l o . , U.S.D.A. Forest Service, R o c k y M o u n t a i n Forest and R a n g e E x p e r i m e n t a l Station, 1997). CHAPTER 2 0 . REST: T H E M O S T MISUNDERSTOOD TOOL

So d e e p l y ingrained is o u r belief that rest is always beneficial to soils and plants that little serious investigation has b e e n d o n e . W h e r e exclosure plots w e r e p u t in d u r i n g t h e 1930s by g o v e r n m e n t agencies and universities to prove a positive response to rest, w h i c h they generally did initially, n o o n e b o t h e r e d to f o l l o w up t h e recordings. W h e r e established in brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s , plots that still survive have suffered varying degrees of d e t e r i o r a t i o n . M a n y of these plots are still intact in a n u m b e r of w e s t e r n states and are w o r t h visiting. Several papers are available d e s c r i b i n g t h e situation in very brittle long-rested e n v i r o n m e n t s in U t a h : D u n n e , J i m . 1 9 8 9 . " C r y p t o g a m i c Soil Crusts in A r i d Ecosystems," Rangelands, 11, no. 4: 1 8 0 - 1 8 2 .

vol.

Kleiner, Edgar, F., and K. T. H a r p e r . 1972. " E n v i r o n m e n t and C o m m u n i t y O r g a n i z a t i o n in Grasslands o f C a n y o n l a n d s N a t i o n a l Park," Ecology, vol. 53, no. 2: 2 0 9 - 3 0 9 . Kleiner, Edgar, F., and K. T. H a r p e r . 1977. "Soil P r o p e r t i e s in R e l a t i o n to C r y p t o g a m i c G r o u n d c o v e r in C a n y o n l a n d s N a t i o n a l Park ''Journal of Range Management, vol. 33, no. 3: 202—205. Kleiner, Edgar, F., and K. T. H a r p e r . 1977. " O c c u r r e n c e of F o u r M a j o r Perennial Grasses in R e l a t i o n to E d a p h i c Factors in a Pristine Community,'"Journal of Range Management, vol. 30, no. 4: 286—289. T h e observations in a brittle e n v i r o n m e n t grassland in U t a h never reached by large g a m e animals and livestock (Virginia Park) indicate t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of algae and lichens ( c r y p t o g a m i c c o m m u n i t i e s ) as a m a j o r p a r t o f t h e soil cover. T h e a u t h o r s refer to it several times as a " c l i m a x c o m m u n i t y " because of t h e absence of large animals. It is m y belief that t h e s u r r o u n d i n g rock f o r m a t i o n s that have

REFERENCES

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accidentally p r e c l u d e d the large animals, w h i c h generally coevolved w i t h soils and v e g e t a t i o n in t h e brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s of N o r t h A m e r i c a , have m a d e it a less-thannatural c o m m u n i t y to w h i c h the t e r m climax c a n n o t be a t t r i b u t e d . T h e i m p l i c a tion is that if this is truly climax, t h e n large ungulates w e r e u n n a t u r a l , w h i c h clearly is n o t t h e case. T h r o u g h o u t , Virginia Park is c o m p a r e d w i t h C h e s l e r Park, w h i c h has b e e n subjected over t h e years to overgrazing of plants and partial rest b r o u g h t a b o u t by p r o l o n g e d light s t o c k i n g w i t h hvestock. W e n o w k n o w that these t w o influences are d e t r i m e n t a l to t h e health of brittle e n v i r o n m e n t grassland c o m m u n i t i e s and d o n o t a p p r o x i m a t e the m a n n e r in w h i c h natural p o p u l a t i o n s of ungulates f u n c t i o n e d in such e n v i r o n m e n t s . It follows that any c o m p a r a t i v e conclusions d r a w n are of limited value since t w o u n n a t u r a l situations are, in effect, u n d e r c o m p a r i s o n . It is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e t h e relative flatness of t h e land in Virginia Park. W h e r e equally b r i t d e areas are n o t flat (i.e., sloping canyon walls in the i m m e d i a t e area), t h e c o m m u n i t y u n d e r equal rest has b e e n unable to stabilize at even t h e algae level. T w o w o r k s will be of interest to readers c o n c e r n e d by t h e rapid d e t e r i o r a t i o n of land in t h e w e s t e r n U n i t e d States since t h e 1890s, w h i c h I believe is d u e m a i n ly to t h e partial rest that o c c u r r e d as a result of decreasing animal n u m b e r s ( t h o u g h t h e a u t h o r s attribute t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n to overgrazing): C o t t a m , Walter P. 1947. "Is U t a h Sahara B o u n d ? " Bulletin of the University of Utah, vol. 37, no. 11, 40 pp. Lockett, H . C. 1940. Along the Beale Trail (a p u b l i c a t i o n of t h e E d u c a t i o n Division, U.S. O f f i c e of Indian Affairs, P r i n t i n g D e p a r t m e n t , Haskell Institute, Lawrence, Kansas). T h i s small b o o k l e t contains p h o t o g r a p h s of actual sites described in his travels by L i e u t e n a n t E d w a r d Fitzgerald Beale, w h o was c o m m i s s i o n e d by t h e War D e p a r t m e n t to survey a w a g o n road f r o m F o r t Defiance, Arizona', to t h e C o l o r a d o R i v e r in 1857. Alongside Beale's d e s c r i p t i o n of each site is a p i c t u r e of it as it appeared e i g h t y - o n e years later. M a n y of t h e early p h o t o g r a p h s used to illustrate c h a n g e s over t h e years w e r e taken a r o u n d p e r m a n e n t m i n i n g or a r m y c a m p sites, w h i c h r e n d e r e d t h e m less useful than general range sites. In this case Beale's descriptions of the o p e n c o u n t r y serve us b e t t e r for c o m p a r i s o n p u r p o s e s because the land was n o t yet disturbed by p e o p l e o r their d o m e s t i c animals. T h e adverse changes in these brittle e n v i r o n m e n t areas subjected to livestock overgrazing and partial rest over these years are dramatic i n d e e d . In m y observations of t h e r e d u c e d health and p r e m a t u r e d e a t h of brittle e n v i r o n m e n t b u n c h grasses that are n e i t h e r grazed, t r a m p l e d , or b u r n e d , I had assumed it was t h e lack o f total light r e a c h i n g g r o w t h p o i n t s that m a t t e r e d . B u t research c o n d u c t e d in A r g e n t i n a suggests that it is the quality of t h e light that matters. T h e researchers r e p o r t their findings in: Casal,J.J.,V. A. D e r e g i b u s , and R . A. Sanchez. 1985. "Variations in Tiller D y n a m i c s a n d M o r p h o l o g y in Lolium m u l t i f l o r u m Lam. Vegetative and R e p r o d u c t i v e Plants As A f f e c t e d by D i f f e r e n c e s in R e d / F a r - R e d Irradiation," Annals of Botany, vol. 56: 553—559.

586

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D e r e g i b u s , V i c t o r Alejandro, R o d o l f o A. Sanchez, and J o r g e Jose Casal. 1983. "Effects o f Light Q u a l i t y o n Tiller P r o d u c t i o n in Lolium spp.," Plant Physiology, vol. 72: 9 0 0 - 9 0 2 . D e r e g i b u s , V. A., R . A. Sanchez, J. J. Casal, and M . J. Trlica. 1985. " T i l l e r i n g in R e s p o n s e s to E n r i c h m e n t of R e d Light B e n e a t h t h e C a n o p y in a H u m i d N a t u r a l Grassland;"Journal of Applied Ecology, vol. 22: 199—206. CHAPTER 2 1 . GRAZING: T H E M O S T ABUSED TOOL

T h e references cited earlier in C h a p t e r 6 are all p e r t i n e n t to this chapter. In a d d i tion, those readers g r a p p l i n g w i t h t h e severe difficulties of m a n a g i n g g a m e animals n o w c o n f i n e d to relatively small national parks that o f t e n o f f e r i n a d e q u a t e p r e d a tion and h o m e ranges will find the a p p r o a c h of the biologists in t h e K r u g e r N a t i o n a l Park of interest. T w o g o o d papers b o t h appear in R . N o r m a n O w e n S m i t h , ed., Management of Large Mammals in African Conservation Areas (Pretoria: H a u m E d u c a t i o n a l Publishers, 1983). T h e first is U deV. Pienaar's, " M a n a g e m e n t by I n t e r v e n t i o n : T h e P r a g m a t i c / E c o n o m i c O p t i o n , " pp 2 3 - 3 6 , and t h e s e c o n d is V d e Vos, R . G. Bengis, and H . J. Coetzee's, in " P o p u l a t i o n C o n t r o l of Large M a m m a l s in the K r u g e r N a t i o n a l Park," pp. 2 1 3 - 2 3 1 . T h e fact that the K r u g e r Park is n o l o n g e r " n a t u r a l " is accepted a l o n g w i t h the realization that it has to be scientifically m a n a g e d . A policy of h o l d i n g animal n u m b e r s d o w n t h r o u g h culling has b e e n a d o p t e d in p r e f e r e n c e to p e r i o d i c high die off in dry years. T h i s policy is of course based on the belief that vegetative d a m a g e is caused by t o o m a n y animals rather than time of exposure. T h i s park lies in a m o d e r a t e - r a i n f a l l , very brittle e n v i r o n m e n t , and thus large quantities o f f o r age a c c u m u l a t e ( t h r o u g h the slow b r e a k d o w n involved in o x i d a t i o n and w e a t h e r ing) w h e n animal n u m b e r s are deliberately held at a low level. C o n s e q u e n t v e g e tative changes lead to excessive b r u s h e n c r o a c h m e n t and excessive use o f fire as the m a i n c o n t r o l m e c h a n i s m . T h i s in t u r n leads to desertification and c o n t r i b u t e s to a t m o s p h e r i c p o l l u t i o n . CHAPTER 2 2 . ANIMAL IMPACT: T H E LEAST U S E D TOOL

T h e references cited in C h a p t e r s 5 and 6 are also applicable to this chapter. D u e to o u r d e e p a n t a g o n i s m to livestock t r a m p l i n g over p r o l o n g e d t i m e w e have little in t h e literature o f its possible benefits over s h o r t t i m e periods. O n e o f t h e f e w p e o p l e in the U n i t e d States to see the i m p o r t a n c e of livestock t r a m p l i n g was A u g u s t L. H o r m a y , w h o w r o t e " P r i n c i p l e s of R e s t R o t a t i o n G r a z i n g and M u l t i p l e - U s e Land M a n a g e m e n t " (publication o f U.S.D.I. B u r e a u of Land M a n a g e m e n t , and U.S.D.A. Forest Service, W a s h i n g t o n : D.C.: G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1971). H a r o l d F. H e a d y devotes a c h a p t e r in Rangeland Management ( N e w York: M c G r a w - H i l l , 1975) to the physical effects o f grazing animals w i t h a n u m b e r of references to the observations of others. In all cases, the i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e time d i m e n s i o n was missed. T r a m p l i n g is w i t h o u t m e a n i n g if its d u r a t i o n and f r e q u e n cy are o v e r l o o k e d . T i m e and trampling, like t i m e and grazing, are inseparable. D e s p i t e this, H e a d y m e n t i o n s s o m e beneficial effects o f t r a m p l i n g in b r e a k i n g

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capped algal soil surfaces and a l l o w i n g b e t t e r seed establishment, as well as laying dead material o n t h e surface w h e r e d e c o m p o s i t i o n increases and t h e minerals r e t u r n to t h e soil. CHAPTER 2 3 . LRVING ORGANISMS: T H E M O S T COMPLEX TOOL

M a n y of the publications m e n t i o n e d in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h C h a p t e r s 1 1 - 1 5 c o n c e r n i n g the c o m p l e x i t y of living c o m m u n i t i e s are applicable to this chapter. As a c c e p t a n c e of the n e e d to seek solutions o t h e r than chemical p o i s o n s — w i t h or w i t h o u t genetic e n g i n e e r i n g — g a i n s g r o u n d , there will be m u c h n e w i n f o r m a t i o n e m e r g i n g o n t h e use of c o m p l e x crop mixes, beneficial insects, and m o r e . In t h e m e a n t i m e t h e f o l l o w i n g periodicals o f t e n p r o v i d e g o o d i n f o r m a t i o n : Acres USA: A Voice for Eco-Agriculture is a m o n t h l y p u b l i c a t i o n obtainable from Acres U S A , P.O. B o x 8800, M e t a i n e , LA 7 9 9 1 1 - 8 8 0 0 ; American Journal of Alternative Agriculture, published by t h e H e n r y A. Wallace Institute for Alternative A g r i c u l t u r e , Inc., 9 2 0 0 E d m o n s t o n R o a d , Suite 117, G r e e n b e l t , M D 2 0 7 7 0 - 1 5 5 1 ; Biodynamics: Farming and Gardening in the 21st Century, published by B i o d y n a m i c F a r m i n g and G a r d e n i n g Association, Inc., P.O. B o x 550, K i m b e r t o n , PA 19442; and The 1PM Practitioner: Monitoring the Field of Pest Management, published by B i o Integral R e s o u r c e C e n t e r ( B I R C ) P.O. B o x 7 4 1 4 , Berkeley, C A 9 4 7 0 7 . T h e p e r m a c u l t u r e publications listed in the references to C h a p t e r 4 3 are e x c e l lent sources for ideas and t e c h n i q u e s already in use in m a n y parts of t h e world. R e a d e r s may also find Charles Walters, Jr., Weeds: Control without Poisons (Kansas City: Acres U S A , 1991) helpful. CHAPTER 2 4 . TECHNOLOGY: T H E M O S T U S E D TOOL

A g o o d source of i n f o r m a t i o n in the U n i t e d States o n b o t h n e w and traditional t e c h n o l o g y is: A p p r o p r i a t e T e c h n o l o g y Transfer f o r R u r a l Areas ( A T T R A ) (P.O. B o x 3 6 5 7 , Fayetteville, A R 72702). Increasingly w e are b e c o m i n g aware o f the actual or potential d a m a g i n g effects of persistent substances o n biological c o m m u n i t i e s . G o o d sources o f i n f o r m a t i o n are: R a c h e l Carson's Silent Spring (Boston: H o u g h t o n - M i f f l i n , 1962); B a r r y C o m m o n e r ' s The Closing Circle: Nature Man and Technology ( N e w York: Alfred A. K n o p f , 1971); and Our Stolen Future, b y T h e o C o l b o r n , D i a n n e D u m a n o s k i , and J o h n Peterson Myers ( N e w York: P e n g u i n , 1997). Our Stolen Future, d o c u m e n t s the l o n g - t e r m effects of e x t r e m e l y small c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of certain substances, o f t e n in association w i t h o t h e r substances, o n h u m a n s , and particularly h o w these substances affect fetal d e v e l o p m e n t . Samuel S. Epstein's 1987 paper, " L o s i n g the War against C a n c e r , " in The Ecologist (vol. 17, no. 2 / 3 : 9 1 - 1 0 1 ) , explains the c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n c a n c e r and e n v i r o n m e n t a l factors, b u t in particular discusses carc i n o g e n i c pollutants in o u r air, water, and f o o d . It contains a wealth of additional references. T w o w a t c h d o g organizations p r o v i d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n o n possible effects of p e r sistent a n d / o r u n n a t u r a l substances o n a regular basis are: t h e N o r t h w e s t C o a l i t i o n for Alternatives to Pesticides (P.O. B o x 1393, E u g e n e , O R 97440) and the N a t i o n a l Wildlife Federation (8925 Leesburg P i k e , V i e n n a , V A 22184). A n interesting study of t h e effects of o u r t e c h n o l o g y o n decreasing mineral

588

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cycles and t h e h e a l t h of A m e r i c a n w a t e r s h e d s is G. T. Fincher's paper, " I m p o r t a t i o n , C o l o n i z a t i o n , and R e l e a s e of D u n g - B u r y i n g Scarabs," in Biological Control of Muscoid Flies, Miscellaneous P u b l i c a t i o n N o . 61. U S D A A g r i c u l t u r a l R e s e a r c h Service. C o l l e g e Station, Texas.: Veterinary Toxicology and E n t o m o l o g y R e s e a r c h Laboratory, 1985. W h i l e h i g h level t e c h n o l o g y will, I believe, b e essential to f i n d i n g solutions to e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e g r a d a t i o n , there are i n h e r e n t dangers in t h e c o n c e p t of sustaining m o n o c u l t u r e s t h r o u g h b i o t e c h n o l o g y that is u n b a l a n c e d w i t h a b r o a d e r a p p r o a c h . Views w o r t h n o t i n g are expressed in a n u m b e r of papers and articles, including: K l o p p e n b u r g , Jack, Jr., and B e t h B u r r o w s . 1996. " B i o t e c h n o l o g y to t h e R e s c u e ? Twelve R e a s o n s W h y

Biotechnology

Is I n c o m p a t i b l e

with

Sustainable

A g r i c u l t u r e , " The Ecologist, vol. 26, no. 2: 6 1 - 6 7 . Steinbrecher, R i c a r d i a A. 1996. " F r o m G r e e n R e v o l u t i o n to G e n e R e v o l u t i o n : T h e E n v i r o n m e n t a l R i s k s o f Genetically E n g i n e e r e d Crops," The

Ecologist,

vol. 26, no. 6: 2 7 3 - 2 7 8 . T h e a u t h o r w a r n s that genetically e n g i n e e r e d plants are likely to increase the use of pesticides and herbicides d u e to t h e acceleration of " s u p e r w e e d s " and "superbugs." S h e states that risk assessments are limited and mainly based o n an o u t d a t e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g of g e n e behavior. W u e t h r i c h , B e r n i c e . 1994. " M i g r a t i n g G e n e s C o u l d Spread Resistance,"

New

Scientist, vol. 144, no. 1947: 9. CHAPTER 2 6 . CAUSE AND EFFECT: STOP THE BLOWS TO YOUR H E A D BEFORE Y O U TAKE THE ASPIRIN

W e use t h e t e r m cause and effect o f t e n and casually, b u t f e w realize h o w m u c h w e i g n o r e it in daily life. F o r f u r t h e r reading, I r e c o m m e n d the w o r k s of H e n r y Hazlitt and Peter Senge. In Economics in One Lesson ( N e w York: A r l i n g t o n H o u s e , 1979), Hazlitt goes to great lengths to identify t h e c o m m o n s m o k e s c r e e n s that c l o u d the simple c o n n e c t i o n s f r o m an action to its c o n s e q u e n c e s . H e points o u t , w i t h m a n y examples, h o w missing the simple c a u s e - a n d - e f f e c t relationships leads to increasing depths of crisis m a n a g e m e n t , as w e react to the u n e x pected. S e n g e deals particularly well w i t h t h e c o m p l e x i t y of t h e i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n s in business, c a u s e - a n d - e f f e c t relationships, and t h e l o n g delay in the effects of o u r actions in b o t h The Fifth Discipline:The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization ( N e w York: D o u b l e d a y , 1990), and The Fifth Discipline Fieldbook ( N e w York: Doubleday, 1994), w r i t t e n w i t h c o - a u t h o r s M . Senge, A r t Kleiner, C h a r l o t t e R o b e r t s , R i c h a r d B. R o s s , and B r y a n J. S m i t h . T h e latter b o o k provides practical guidelines for c o r p o r a t e m a n a g e r s a t t e m p t i n g to track d o w n t h e causes of their problems. In Farming in Nature's Image: An Ecological Approach to Agriculture (Washington, D C . : Island Press, 1992), J u d i t h Soule and J o n P i p e r d o c u m e n t the m a n y e n v i r o n m e n t a l and social p r o b l e m s w h o s e roots can be traced to m o d e r n industrialized agriculture.

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CHAPTER 2 9 . GROSS PROFIT ANALYSIS: BRINGING IN THE MOST MONEY FOR THE LEAST ADDITIONAL COST A g o o d a c c o u n t of the original gross m a r g i n analysis, as o p p o s e d to t h e A m e r i c a n " i m p r o v e d version," is f o u n d in " P l a n n i n g t h e F a r m , " by D. B.Wallace and H . B u r r , Farm Economics Branch Report No. 60, F a r m E c o n o m i c s B r a n c h , S c h o o l of A g r i c u l t u r e , C a m b r i d g e , University, J u n e 1963. Wallace's c h o i c e of t h e original n a m e "gross profit analysis" described in the text is f r o m p e r s o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e . CHAPTER 3 0 . ENERGY AND MONEY: USING THE MOST APPROPRIATE FORMS IN THE MOST CONSTRUCTIVE WAY Entropy: A New World View, by J e r e m y R i f k i n ( N e w York: B a n t a m Books, 1981) is an excellent, t h o u g h t - p r o v o k i n g b o o k a b o u t o u r c u r r e n t attitude toward energy. T h e a u t h o r also provides a w e a l t h of references. T h e reader interested in energy use in a g r i c u l t u r e in t h e U n i t e d States will find interesting, " E n e r g y and Agriculture," by A m o r y B. Lovins, L. H u n t e r Lovins, and M a r t y B e n d e r in Meeting the Expectations of the Land: Essays in Sustainable Agriculture and Stewardship, edited by Wes Jackson, W e n d e l l Berry, and B r u c e C o l m a n (San Francisco: N o r t h P o i n t Press, 1984). T h e R o c k y M o u n t a i n Institute p r o d u c e s a n u m b e r of publications o n energy c o n s e r v a t i o n in t h e h o m e , w o r k p l a c e , and factory. W r i t e for their free Publications Catalog, R M I , 1739 S n o w m a s s C r e e k R o a d , Snowmass, C O 8 1 6 5 4 , (970) 9 2 7 3851, (970) 9 2 7 - 3 4 2 0 (fax), o r d e r s @ r m i . o r g (email). CHAPTER 3 1 . SUSTAINABILITY: GENERATING LASTING WEALTH For m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n o n T h e N a t u r a l Step, c o n t a c t their offices at P.O. B o x 2 9 3 7 2 , San Francisco, C A 9 4 1 2 9 , (415) 5 6 1 - 3 3 4 4 , [email protected]. Inside ISO 14000: The Competitive Advantage of Environmental Management by D o n Sayre (St. Lucie, Fla.: St. Lucie Press, 1996) is an i n f o r m a t i v e g u i d e for c o r p o r a t i o n s w i s h i n g to c o m p l y w i t h the guidelines established by the I n t e r n a t i o n a l O r g a n i z a t i o n for Standardization o n E n v i r o n m e n t a l l y R e s p o n s i b l e M a n a g e m e n t . A l t h o u g h n e e d e d , w e l l - m e a n t , and a serious start to d o t h e right t h i n g i n t e r n a tionally, t h e guidelines tend to be bureaucratic, regulatory, and in m a n y ways d e m o t i v a t i o n a l . T h e r e is far m o r e emphasis on regulatory c o m p l i a n c e than o n s o u n d training o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of ecosystem processes and f u n c t i o n i n g . CHAPTER 3 2 . SOCIETY AND CULTURE: PERSONAL VALUES AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY A g o o d i n t r o d u c t i o n to t h e basic ways in w h i c h cultures differ and t h e i m p o r t a n c e of u n d e r s t a n d i n g h o w those differences affect c o m m u n i c a t i o n can b e f o u n d in E d w a r d T. Hall's Beyond Culture ( N e w Y o r k : Doubleday, 1976). CHAPTER 3 3 . MONITORING YOUR PLANS AND KEEPING ON TRACK In The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization ( N e w York: D o u b l e d a y , 1990), Peter Senge discusses at l e n g t h the i m p o r t a n c e of f e e d b a c k loops. H e makes a p o w e r f u l p o i n t a b o u t l e a r n i n g f r o m e x p e r i e n c e w h e n b e states, " H e r e i n lies the c o r e learning dilemma that c o n f r o n t s organizations: W e learn best

f r o m e x p e r i e n c e b u t w e never directly e x p e r i e n c e the c o n s e q u e n c e s of m a n y of o u r m o s t i m p o r t a n t decisions." Utilizing f e e d b a c k loops helps o v e r c o m e this dilemma. CHAPTER 3 6 . ORGANIZATION AND LEADERSHIP: CREATING AN ENVIRONMENT THAT NURTURES CREATIVITY T h e publications b e l o w w e r e useful to m e in p r e p a r i n g t h e m a n u s c r i p t o f this b o o k and are highly r e c o m m e n d e d for those w h o wish to e x p l o r e these subjects in greater d e p t h : Case, J o h n . 1996. Open-Book

Management:

The Coming

Business Revolution.

New

York: H a r p e r C o l l i n s . Covey, S t e p h e n . 1990. Principle-Centered Gibb, Jack. 1978. Trust: A New

Leadership. N e w York: S i m o n & Schuster.

View oj Personal and Organizational

Development.

La Jolla, Calif.: O m i c r o n Press. H a y w a r d , Steven. 1997. Churchill Adversity.

on Leadership:

Executive

Success in the Face of

R o c k l i n , Calif.: P r i m a P u b l i s h i n g F o r u m .

H e r z b u r g , Frederick. 1982. The Managerial Choice:To Be Efficient and to Be

Human.

Salt Lake C i t y : O l y m p u s Publishing. Land, G e o r g e , and B e t h J a r m a n . 1993. Breakpoint

and Beyond: Mastering the Future

Today. N e w York: H a r p e r C o l l i n s . Lipnack, Jessica, and Jeffrey Stamps. 1993. The TeamNet

Factor. Essex J u n c t i o n , Vt.:

O l i v e r W i g h t Publications. Oakley, E d , and D o u g K r u g , 1991. Enlightened

Leadership: Getting to the Heart of

Change. N e w York: S i m o n & Schuster. Osborne,

David, and Ted

Entrepreneurial

Gaebler,

1992. Reinventing

Spirit Is Transforming

Government:

How

the

the Public Sector. N e w York: P e n g u i n .

(Gives m a n y e n c o u r a g i n g case studies, a l t h o u g h almost all are fairly small bureaucracies.) Schrage, M i c h a e l . 1995. No More Teams! Collaboration. N e w York: Doubleday. Senge, Peter. 1990. The Organization.

Fifth

Discipline:

Mastering The Art

the Dynamics

and

of

Practice of the

Creative Learning

N e w York: D o u b l e d a y . (Senge stresses t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f l e a d -

ership and a shared vision in w h a t h e refers to as " l e a r n i n g organizations.") W h e a t l e y , M a r g a r e t J. 1994. Leadership and the Neiv Science. San Francisco: B e r r e t t K o e h l e r Publishers. ( W h e a t l e y seeks a simpler way to lead organizations, based o n m i m i c k i n g nature: " O u r c o n c e p t o f organizations is m o v i n g away f r o m the m e c h a n i s t i c creations in the age o f bureaucracy. W e have b e g u n to speak in earnest of m o r e fluid, organic structures, even o f b o u n d a r y l e s s o r g a nizations.") CHAPTER 3 7 . MARKETING: DEVELOPING A STRATEGY IN LINE WITH YOUR HOLISTIC GOAL N u m e r o u s b o o k s have b e c o m e available in r e c e n t years that focus on m a r k e t i n g for smaller businesses. T h o s e I w o u l d r e c o m m e n d include:

REFERENCES

591

A n d e r s o n , Kare. 1994. Walk Your Talk: Grow Your Business Faster through Successful Cross-Promotional Partnerships. Berkeley: Spiral Publishing. H a w k e n , Paul. 1987. Growing a Business. N e w York: S i m o n & Schuster. L e v i n s o n , Jay C o n r a d . 1993. Guerrilla Marketing: Secrets for Making Big Prof ts from Your Small Business. N e w York: H o u g h t o n Mifflin. Levinson, Jay C o n r a d , and Seth G o d i n . 1994. The Guerrilla Marketing Handbook. N e w York: H o u g h t o n Mifflin. T h o s e e n g a g e d in agricultural businesses w h o w a n t to develop a n i c h e m a r k e t w o u l d b e n e f i t f r o m the t w o b o o k s w r i t t e n by Joel Salatin, Pastured Poultry Profits (1993) and Salad Bar Beef (1995) (Swoope,Va.: Polyface). A l t h o u g h n e i t h e r b o o k is d e v o t e d strictly to m a r k e t i n g , b o t h c o n t a i n valuable i n f o r m a t i o n based o n Salatin's e x p e r i e n c e in d e v e l o p i n g his p r o d u c t s and building relationships w i t h his customers. CHAPTER 3 8 . TIME: W H E N TO EXPOSE AND REEXPOSE PLANTS AND SOILS TO ANIMALS

T h e references in C h a p t e r 6 are relevant here. In this c h a p t e r I m e n t i o n m y o b s e r vations o n the c o r r e l a t i o n of certain soils w i t h b e t t e r livestock n u t r i t i o n . T w o a u t h o r s w h o have r e c o r d e d such observations are Sir A l b e r t H o w a r d in An Agricultural Testament ( N e w York: O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1943), and W i l l i a m A. A l b r e c h t in Charles Walters, Jr., ed., The Albrecht Papers, vol. II, (Kansas City: Acres U S A . , 1975). T h e first culling of large g a m e in Z i m b a b w e ' s g a m e reserves was instigated by m y " R e p o r t o n t h e Status of G a m e and M a n a g e m e n t N e e d s in t h e U r u n g w e N o n - h u n t i n g Area," unpublished report to the D e p a r t m e n t of Wildlife C o n s e r v a t i o n , S o u t h e r n R h o d e s i a , 1 9 6 1 . T h i s official r e p o r t o n t h e extensive d a m age that was taking place in w h a t is today t h e M a n a Pools N a t i o n a l Park of Z i m b a b w e c o n t a i n e d m y r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s to u n d e r t a k e heavy culling of elep h a n t , buffalo, and s o m e o t h e r species. Like m o s t scientists, m y conclusions w e r e strongly i n f l u e n c e d by m y training, and thus m y paradigms at t h e time.Vegetative d a m a g e equaled t o o m a n y animals, I believed, and thus did n o t suspect that t h e d a m a g e could b e d u e to t h e c h a n g e in b e h a v i o r of these animals, b r o u g h t o n by t h e removal of m o s t o f t h e large predators, i n c l u d i n g h u m a n s , and t h e increased use of fire. In the Dust of Kilimanjaro (Washington, D . C . : Island P r e s s / S h e a r w a t e r B o o k s , 1997) by David W e s t e r n moves b e y o n d traditional attitudes toward national parks and contains refreshing n e w t h i n k i n g a b o u t wildlife c o n s e r v a t i o n in Africa. CHAPTER 3 9 . STOCK DENSITY AND H E R D EFFECT: USING ANIMALS TO SHAPE THE LANDSCAPE

W h e r e a s I lived w i t h and e x p e r i e n c e d s o m e of t h e vast g a m e herds of Africa, thenN o r t h A m e r i c a n equivalents had vanished f r o m t h e c o n t i n e n t b e f o r e today's scientists c o u l d witness t h e m firsthand. T h e r e are, h o w e v e r , s o m e references to t h e large herds that o n c e existed in N o r t h A m e r i c a , even as recently as t w o c e n t u r i e s ago. The Journals of Lewis and Clark: A New Selection by J o h n Bakeless ( N e w York: N e w A m e r i c a n Library, 1964) includes several a c c o u n t s of large n u m b e r s of bison

592

REFERENCES

b r e a k i n g t h r o u g h the river ice and d r o w n i n g . A n o t h e r g o o d source of material a b o u t past n u m b e r s is David A. Dary's The Buffalo Book: The Full Saga of the American Animal (Chicago: T h e Swallow Press, 1974), w h i c h has a n u m b e r o f references to the e n o r m o u s herds and their a c c o m p a n y i n g p r e d a t o r s that characterized the vast and p r o d u c t i v e prairies as f o u n d by E u r o p e a n settlers. U n f o r t u n a t e l y o u r obsession w i t h published literature ("If it is n o t in t h e literature it is n o t so") o f t e n obliterates c o m m o n sense and observation in science, w h i c h can h i n d e r o u r learning. A great deal can be " r e a d " in t h e b o o k o f nature. O n c e y o u k n o w h o w grasslands in t h e very brittle e n v i r o n m e n t s f u n c t i o n y o u can t h e n gleati a fair a m o u n t of i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t the land's history f r o m a r c h a e o l o g ical records. T h e r e are areas of A r i z o n a , for instance, that are today characterized by millions of acres of bare g r o u n d . Yet relatively r e c e n t records s h o w that b o u n tiful grasslands o n c e e x i s t e d — s o w e k n o w for certain that h e r d i n g animals had to have b e e n present. W e also k n o w that h u n t i n g tribes, such as t h e Apaches, either h e a d q u a r t e r e d or c a m p e d there frequently, w h i c h w o u l d again indicate the prese n c e of e n o u g h animals to feed t h e m . Because t h e grasslands have disappeared, many environmentalists today maintain that there w e r e n o large herds of bison, and that may well b e true. B u t they are i g n o r i n g all the o t h e r h e r d i n g species, such as p r o n g h o r n , elk, and deer, a n d the fact that h u n t i n g tribes favored such areas. S u c h a r g u m e n t s are used to e x c l u d e large d o m e s t i c stock, t h e only tool n o w left w i t h w h i c h to restore the d e g r a d e d landscapes to healthy grassland. CHAPTER 4 0 . CROPPING: PRACTICES THAT M O R E CLOSELY MIMIC NATURE

For a g o o d history of a g r i c u l t u r e and c r o p p i n g practices, read Clive Ponting's A Green History of the World: The Environment and the Collapse of Great Civilizations ( N e w York: St. Martin's Press, 1991). It is o f t e n stated that if o n e does n o t h e e d history, o n e is b o u n d to repeat it. T h i s b o o k is full of m a n y historical lessons, i n c l u d i n g an a c c o u n t of t h e agricultural practices that led to t h e n u m e r o u s famines that plagued E u r o p e u p until fairly recent times. P o n t i n g makes the p o i n t that w h i l e m o d e r n m e c h a n i z e d agriculture and its vast i n f r a s t r u c t u r e — t r a n s p o r t , p r o cessing, and storage—finally h e l p e d end the famines, it is rapidly d e p l e t i n g the u n d e r l y i n g biological infrastructure, w h i c h , if n o t c h e c k e d , is likely to cause the demise of o u r c u r r e n t civilization. In a related article, " O l d England's Bitter Harvest," New Scientist, vol. 148, no. 2 2 0 9 / 2 0 1 0 : 15 (1995), Philip C o h e n cites historical e v i d e n c e of t h e serious b r e a k d o w n o f soil n u t r i e n t s u n d e r early organic agriculture in E n g l a n d . Nea! Kinsey's Hands-on Agronomy, by N e a l Kinsey and Charles Walters (Kansas City: Acres U S A , 1993), is an invaluable b o o k for f a r m e r s striving to m o v e b e y o n d c o n v e n t i o n a l crop fertilization to t h e use of s u p p l e m e n t a l a m e n d m e n t s to help build soil life. In The Soul of the Soil: A Guide to Ecological Soil Management, 2 n d ed. (St. J o h n s b u r y , Vt., and Erie, Q u e b e c , C a n a d a : Gaia Services, 1986), G r a c e G e r s h u n y and J o s e p h Smillie s h o w great sensitivity to t h e n a t u r e of s o i l . T h e y have a d e l i g h t ful s e n t e n c e on page 4: " F i n d o u t w h a t soils live in your area, h o w they are classified and described by soil scientists, and h o w that c o m p a r e s w i t h w h a t you observe a b o u t t h e m yourself (emphasis a d d e d ) . " T h e y p o i n t o u t h o w hard it is to find literature that is helpful to t h e f a r m e r w h i c h is n o t d o m i n a t e d by t e c h n o l o g y use

REFERENCES

593

and sales interests. For t h e serious s t u d e n t of soil science, the classic text by N y l e C. Brady and R a y R . W e i l , The Nature and Properties of Soils, 11th ed. ( E n g l e w o o d Cliffs, N.J.: P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1996), contains a wealth of i n f o r m a t i o n . In "Alley C r o p p i n g : Trees As Sources of G r e e n M a n u r e and M u l c h in t h e Tropics," Biological Agriculture and Horticulture, vol. 3, no. 2 / 3 : 2 5 1 - 2 6 8 (1986), G. F. W i l s o n , B. T. K a n g , and K. M u l o n g o y report o n t h e p r o m i s i n g results achieved w h e n m i x e d crops are g r o w n in rows b e t w e e n trees. G o o d m a n a g e m e n t of the t i m i n g of various operations, t o g e t h e r w i t h his d e e p u n d e r s t a n d i n g of biological succession, has enabled M a s a n o b u F u k u o k a to a p p a r ently increase yields and decrease insect d a m a g e in his crops. H e describes his m e t h o d s in The One Straw Revolution: An Introduction to Natural Farming ( E m m a u s , P e n n . : R o d a l e Press, 1978), and The Natural Way of Farming:The Theory and Practice of Green Philosophy ( N e w York: Japan Publications, 1985). M o r e than fifty years ago in Plowman's Folly ( N o r m a n : University of O k l a h o m a Press, 1943; r e p r i n t e d in 1987 by Island Press, W a s h i n g t o n , D.C.), E d w a r d H . F a u l k n e r s h o w e d conclusively that soil i m p o v e r i s h m e n t and decreasing crop yields, and m a n y of the adverse effects f o l l o w i n g d r o u g h t s o r floods, could be traced directly to p l o w i n g natural fertilizers d e e p into the soil. By i n c o r p o r a t ing g r e e n m a n u r e s into t h e soil surface w i t h a disk h a r r o w h e was able to transf o r m o r d i n a r y and even infertile soils into e x t r e m e l y productive, high-yield crop lands. CHAPTER 4 2 . POPULATION MANAGEMENT: LOOK TO AGE STRUCTURE RATHER THAN NUMBERS, DIVERSITY RATHER THAN SINGLE SPECIES

T h e case o f t h e desert bushes d y i n g o u t is c o n t a i n e d in m y r e p o r t " H o l i s t i c R e s o u r c e M a n a g e m e n t in Pakistan" of N o v e m b e r 1983 to the U n i t e d N a t i o n s F o o d and Agricultural O r g a n i z a t i o n T C P / P A K / 2 3 0 5 P R O J E C T . Assistance to R a n g e l a n d and Livestock D e v e l o p m e n t Survey in Baluchistan. A n u m b e r of the readings suggested for C h a p t e r s 11 to 15 c o n t a i n valuable i n f o r m a t i o n o n p o p u l a t i o n d y n a m i c s and principles. A l d o Leopold's Game Management (Madison: University o f W i s c o n s i n Press, 1986) is still o n e of t h e best for clarity and simplicity, followed closely by R a y m o n d F. Dasmann's Wildlife Biology ( N e w York: Wiley, 1966). D a v i d Q u a m m e n ' s The Song of the Dodo: Island Biogeography in an Age of Extinctions ( N e w York: S i m o n & Schuster, 1996) explains in simple and c o m p e l l i n g prose h o w the size of a t e r r i t o r y can limit t h e g r o w t h and survival of a p o p u l a t i o n . A n n e H . Ehrlich's " T h e H u m a n P o p u l a t i o n : Size and D y n a m i c s , " in American Zoologist, vol. 25: 3 9 5 - 4 0 6 (1985) is also g o o d reading. In m y early life as a g a m e ranger having to deal w i t h p r o b l e m lions, elephants, hippos, and o t h e r large g a m e t u r n e d killer, I learned that such situations were never resolved until t h e actual rogue animal was killed. Little has b e e n w r i t t e n o n this aspect o f p r e d a t o r c o n t r o l in t h e scientific j o u r n a l s . H o w e v e r , t w o a u t h o r s w h o had to deal w i t h such p r o b l e m s w r o t e fascinating b o o k s . Man-Eaters of Kumaon, by J i m C o r b e t t ( N e w York: O x f o r d University Press, 1946), tells of t h e author's e x p e riences in having to kill m a n - e a t i n g tigers in India. In The Man-Eaters ofTsavo ( N e w York: St. Martin's Press, 1986), Lt. C o l o n e l J. H . Patterson r e c o u n t s t h e story o f t w o lions that killed a great n u m b e r of railway w o r k e r s in East Africa. R a i l w a y

594

REFERENCES

c o n s t r u c t i o n was b r o u g h t to a halt until Patterson was able to identify and kill the lions responsible. CHAPTER 4 3 . DEPARTING FROM THE CONVENTIONAL T h o s e interested in l e a r n i n g m o r e a b o u t p e r m a c u l t u r e design will find g o o d i n t r o d u c t o r y reading in: M a r r o w , R o s e m a r y . 1993. Earth

User's Guide

to Permaculture.

Kenthurst

NSW,

Australia: K a n g a r o o Press. M o l l i s o n , Bill, and R e n y Mia Slay. 1991. Introduction to Permaculture. Tyalgum N S W , Australia: Tagari Publications. M o l l i s o n , Bill. 1990. Permaculture: A Practical Guide for a Sustainable Future. W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . : Island Press. CHAPTER 4 4 . HOLISTIC FINANCIAL PLANNING: CREATING THE FINANCIAL ROADMAP TO YOUR HOLISTIC GOAL S o m e o f t h e references i n c l u d e d u n d e r C h a p t e r 37 c o u l d b e o f help in creating y o u r financial plan. For a greater u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e p h i l o s o p h y b e h i n d this p l a n n i n g a n d t h e n e e d to a c c o u n t for biological as well as m o n e t a r y capital, t h e b o o k s m e n t i o n e d in t h e references for C h a p t e r 17 will b e helpful. If y o u have difficulty g e n e r a t i n g ideas t h r o u g h b r a i n s t o r m i n g , read D o u g Hall's Jump Start Your Brain ( N e w York: W a r n e r B o o k s , 1995). Hall's irreverent a p p r o a c h w o u l d b e h e l p f u l to a n y o n e a t t e m p t i n g to p r o d u c e n e w i n c o m e - g e n e r a t i n g ideas, b u t t h e b o o k appears to have b e e n w r i t t e n largely for those w o r k i n g w i t h i n large, t r a d i t i o n - b o u n d , or conservative c o r p o r a t i o n s . CHAPTER 4 9 . MAKING RESEARCH RELEVANT W i t h m o s t research today c o n d u c t e d w i t h i n a reductionist f r a m e w o r k , t h e r e is n o t m u c h in the literature that is h e l p f u l in u n d e r s t a n d i n g h o w to place research w i t h in a holistic f r a m e w o r k . S o m e useful papers are: Agricultural Research for Resource Poor Farmers: A Parsimonious Paradigm, by R o b e r t C h a m b e r s and Janice Jiggins ( B r i g h t o n , E n g l a n d : Institute o f D e v e l o p m e n t Studies, U n i v e r s i t y of Sussex, A u g u s t 1986) is a r e f r e s h i n g l o o k at research for d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s f r o m t h e perspective of a social a n t h r o p o l o g i s t w h o c o n siders t h e needs of t h e p e o p l e t h e m s e l v e s . T h e a u t h o r s ' ideas a p p r o a c h t h e findings of t h e C e n t e r for Holistic M a n a g e m e n t . M a n a g e m e n t c a n n o t b e i m p o s e d b u t must flow f r o m t h e desires of t h e p e o p l e themselves. Towards Sustainability: A Plan for Collaborative Research on Agriculture and Natural Resource Management (Washington, D . C . : N a t i o n a l A c a d e m y Press, 1991) was p u b lished in response to t h e call by t h e U.S. C o n g r e s s for t h e U.S. A g e n c y for I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t to create a n e w Collaborative R e s e a r c h S u p p o r t P r o g r a m ( C R S P ) to focus o n t h e research needs o f sustainable a g r i c u l t u r e and n a t ural resource m a n a g e m e n t . T h i s p u b l i c a t i o n contains m u c h useful i n f o r m a t i o n b u t is a classic e x a m p l e of t h e s h o r t c o m i n g s of the c o n v e n t i o n a l t o p - d o w n interdisciplinary a p p r o a c h . "Biodiversity As an O r g a n i z i n g P r i n c i p l e in A g r o e c o s y s t e m M a n a g e m e n t : Case Studies o f Holistic R e s o u r c e M a n a g e m e n t Practitioners in t h e U S A " (Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, vol. 62: 1 9 9 - 2 1 3 , 1997), by D e b o r a h H .

REFERENCES

595

Stinner, B e n j a m i n R . Stinner, E d w a r d Martsolf, describes an a t t e m p t to m o v e b e y o n d purely reductionist research in o r d e r to d o c u m e n t w h a t h a p p e n s w h e n w h o l e situations are m a n a g e d . T h e inordinately l o n g delay b e t w e e n t h e b i r t h of n e w i n n o v a t i o n s and their a c c e p t a n c e is associated b o t h w i t h t h e p a r a d i g m effect and w i t h t h e research r e q u i r e d to c o n f i r m t h e results o f t h e innovation's application. A valuable c o n t r i b u t i o n to t h e b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of this p r o b l e m is: " I n n o v a t i o n a n d Evaluation," by F r e d e r i c k Mosteller (Science, vol. 211, no. 4 4 8 5 : 2 2 1 - 2 2 6 , 1981). CHAPTER 5 0 . CREATING SOUND POLICIES

T h e w o r k that p r o v i d e d s o m e o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n used in t h e grasshopper spraying policy analysis was d o n e by a g r o u p of researchers in M o n t a n a and p u b l i s h e d in t h e f o l l o w i n g papers: O n s a g e r , J. A. 1985. " A n Ecological Basis f o r P r u d e n t C o n t r o l of Grasshoppers in t h e W e s t e r n U n i t e d States," P r o c e e d i n g s 3rd Triennial M e e t i n g , Pan A m e r i c a n A c r i d i d a e Society 5 - 1 0 July, 1981. O n s a g e r , J e r o m e A. 1986. " C u r r e n t Tactics for Suppression o f Grasshoppers o n R a n g e , " Symposium Proceedings, Integrated Pest Management on Rangeland: State of the Art in the Sagebrush Ecosystem. B o z e m a n , M o n t . : R a n g e l a n d Insect Laboratory, Agricultural R e s e a r c h Service, U S D A . O n page 11, t h e a u t h o r states, " I n s u m m a r y , it appears that any range m a n a g e m e n t practice that significantly o p e n s u p t h e plant canopy, either t e m p o r a r i l y o r p e r m a n e n t l y , will t e n d to i m p r o v e t h e m i c r o h a b i t a t , either t e m p o r a r i l y or p e r m a n e n t l y , for i m p o r t a n t pest species o f grasshoppers. D e c r e a s e d relative h u m i d i t y , increased t e m p e r a t u r e , and increased solar radiation all will tend to e n h a n c e grasshopper d e v e l o p m e n t , and all will t e n d to debilitate i m p o r t a n t g r a s s h o p p e r pathogens." O n s a g e r , J. A., and G. B. H e w i t t . 1982. " R a n g e l a n d Grasshoppers: Average L o n g e v i t y and Daily R a t e o f M o r t a l i t y a m o n g Six Species in N a t u r e , " Environmental Entomology, vol. 10: 127—133. I n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e biomass b u r n i n g policy was o b t a i n e d f r o m "Policy O p t i o n s for M a n a g i n g Biomass B u r n i n g to M i t i g a t e Global C l i m a t e C h a n g e , " by K e n n e t h J. Andrasko, Dilip R . A h u j a , Steven M . W i n n e t t , and D e n n i s A . T i r p a k in Joel S. Levine, ed., Global Biomass Burning: Atmospheric, Climatic, and Biospheric Implications ( C a m b r i d g e , Mass.: M I T Press, 1991). CHAPTER 5 1 . CHANGING COURSE: CREATING THE FUTURE W E WANT

T h e obvious fact that t h e decline in resources leads eventually to serious conflict, g e n o c i d e and war is slowly g a i n i n g a c c e p t a n c e w i t h the p u b l i c a t i o n o f such papers as, " E n v i r o n m e n t a l C h a n g e a n d V i o l e n t C o n f l i c t : G r o w i n g Scarcities o f R e n e w a b l e R e s o u r c e s C a n C o n t r i b u t e to Social Instability and Civil Strife," by T h o m a s F. H o m e r - D i x o n , Jeffrey H . B o u t w e l l , and G e o r g e W. R a t h j e n s , in Scientific American, vol. 268: 3 8 - 4 5 , 1993. I a m n o t aware, apart f r o m t h e G r e e n M o v e m e n t initiated in G e r m a n y , of any c o n c e r t e d effort to b r i n g ecological t h i n k i n g i n t o g o v e r n m e n t . I e n t e r e d parliam e n t in Z i m b a b w e d u r i n g a very difficult p e r i o d of civil war b u t did e n d e a v o r to

596

REFERENCES

b r i n g a b o u t ecological c o o r d i n a t i o n of g o v e r n m e n t policies. Interested readers will find o n e d e b a t e in t h e R e c o r d of P a r l i a m e n t a r y Debates, R h o d e s i a , H o u s e of Assembly, First Session, Twelfth Parliament, 1970. Hansard c o l u m n s 7 3 7 to 7 4 1 . M y idea was to have an Ecological C o o r d i n a t i o n C o u n c i l at cabinet level t h r o u g h w h i c h all g o v e r n m e n t actions w o u l d have to pass. M y efforts at t h e time were o v e r r u n by war and by m y crossing the floor in p a r l i a m e n t to rebuild and lead t h e o p p o s i t i o n , b u t I believe the idea still has m e r i t . Today, however, I w o u l d e x p a n d it and w o u l d have g o v e r n m e n t m a k e all decisions toward a national holistic goal. In " W i l l W e B e Able to Sustain Civilization?" Population and Environment., vol. 16, no. 2: 1 3 9 - 1 4 7 (1994), I o u t l i n e d m y c o n c e r n s a b o u t o u r ability to sustain civilization u n d e r either organic o r c o n v e n t i o n a l agriculture. In the m a i n , h o w e v e r , I a t t e m p t e d to focus the debate o n sustainable civilization r a t h e r than sustainable agriculture, and for g o o d reason. As l o n g as w e c o n t i n u e to talk of sustaining a g r i culture, t h e mass o f p e o p l e w h o today live in cities will feel it is t h e farmer's p r o b lem and of little c o n c e r n to t h e m . T h e p r o b l e m s associated w i t h bureaucratic organizations are well d o c u m e n t e d in Voltaire's Bastards: The Dictatorship of Reason in the West, by J o h n R a l s t o n Saul ( N e w York: R a n d o m H o u s e , 1993). Successful strategies for o v e r c o m i n g m a n y of these p r o b l e m s are suggested in Banishing Bureaucracy: The Five Strategies for Reinventing Government ( R e a d i n g , Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1997), by David O s b o r n e and Peter Plastrick.

Notes

CHAPTER 1. CHANGING THE WAY W E MAKE DECISIONS 1 . T i m Flannery, 1994. The Future Eaters ( C h a t s w o o d N S W , Australia: R e e d Books). 2. P. S. M a r t i n , 1984. " P r e h i s t o r i c O v e r k i l k T h e Global M o d e l , " pp. 3 5 4 - 4 0 3 in P. S. M a r t i n and R . G. Klein, eds., Quaternary Extinctions: A Prehistoric. Revolution (Tucson: University of A r i z o n a Press). 3. Charles E . K a y , 1994. " A b o r i g i n a l Overkill: T h e R o l e of Native A m e r i c a n s in S t r u c t u r i n g W e s t e r n Ecosystems," Human Nature, vol. 5, no. 4: 3 5 9 - 3 9 8 . CHAPTER 3 . THE WHOLE IS GREATER THAN THE SUM OF ITS PARTS 1.J. C . Smuts, 1973. Holism and Evolution (Westport, C o n n . : G r e e n w o o d Press), 336. 2 . J . C. Smuts, 1 9 5 2 . J a n Christian Smuts ( L o n d o n : Cassell & C o m p a n y ) , 290. 3. R o b e r t T. Paine, 1966. " F o o d "Web C o m p l e x i t y and Species Diversity," American Naturalist, vol. 100, no. 910: 6 5 - 7 5 . 4. Z e v N a v e h and A r t h u r L i e b e r m a n , 1983. Landscape Ecology: Theory and Application ( N e w York: Springer-Verlag), 56. CHAPTER 5 . THE PREDATOR-PREY CONNECTION 1. R e s e a r c h e r S. J. M c N a u g h t o n (Biological R e s e a r c h Labs, Syracuse University, N e w York) has c o n d u c t e d a n u m b e r o f field studies in East Africa d o c u m e n t i n g t h e relationship b e t w e e n h e r d i n g grazers and the plants they feed on: S . J . M c N a u g h t o n , 1979. " G r a z i n g As an O p t i m i z a t i o n Process: G r a s s - U n g u l a t e R e l a t i o n s h i p s in the Serengeti," The American Naturalist, vol. 5: 6 9 1 - 7 0 3 . , 1984. " G r a z i n g Lawns: Animals in H e r d s , Plant F o r m , and C o e v o l u t i o n . The American Naturalist, vol. 6: 8 6 3 - 8 8 3 . S. J. M c N a u g h t o n , M . B. C o u g h e n o u r , and L. L. Wallace, 1982. "Interactive Processes in Grassland Ecosystems," in Grasses and Grasslands: Systematic! and Ecology ( N o r m a n : University of O k l a h o m a Press). S. J. M c N a u g h t o n , F. F. B a n y i k w a , and M . M . M c N a u g h t o n , 1997. " P r o m o t i o n o f the C y c l i n g of D i e t - E n h a n c i n g N u t r i e n t s by A f r i c a n Grazers," Science, vol. 278: 1 7 9 8 - 1 8 0 0 .

597

598

NOTES

CHAPTER 1 0 . DEVELOPING A SENSE OF OWNERSHIP: ARE YOU SURE THAT'S WHAT Y o u REALLY WANT? 1. D o n Halladay and R a n d e e Halladay, 1993. " I n D e v e l o p i n g Your G o a l - G e t Specific!" Holistic Resource Management

Quarterly, no. 41: 2.

2. Ibid. CHAPTER 1 2 . WATER CYCLE: THE CIRCULATION OF CIVILIZATION'S LIFE BLOOD 1. P. A. Yeomans, Water for Every

Farm: Using the Keyline

Plan

(Katoomba,

Australia: S e c o n d Back R o w Press). CHAPTER 1 3 . COMMUNITY DYNAMICS: THE EVER-CHANGING PATTERNS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF LIVING COMMUNITIES 1. R o d e r i c k M a c D o n a l d , 1986. " E x t r a c t i o n of M i c r o o r g a n i s m s f r o m the Soil," Biological Agriculture and Horticulture, no. 3: 3 6 1 - 3 6 5 . 2. C h r i s Maser, 1988. The Redesigned 24-38.

Forest (San Pedro, Calif.: R & E Miles),

3. Les K a u f m a n , 1992. " C a t a s t r o p h i c C h a n g e in S p e c i e s - R i c h Ecosystems," Bioscience, vol. 42, n o 11: 8 4 6 - 8 5 8 .

Freshwater

4. D a v i d T i l m a n , D a v i d W e d i n , and J o h a n n e s K n o p s , 1996. " P r o d u c t i v i t y and Sustainability I n f l u e n c e d by Biodiversity in Grassland Ecosystems," Nature, vol. 379:718-720. 5. N y l e C . Brady and R a y R . Weil, 1996. The Nature and Properties of Soils, 11th ed. ( N e w York: P r e n t i c e Hall), 3 3 3 . 6. A n d r e Voisin, 1988. Grass Productivity

(Washington, D . C . : Island Press), 45.

7. D o u g l a s H . C h a d w i c k , 1 9 9 5 . " W h a t Is a Prairie?" Audubon,

vol. 97, no. 6: 36.

8. R o b e r t van d e n Bosch, 1980. The Pesticide Conspiracy ( G a r d e n City, N.Y.: A n c h o r Books), 24. CHAPTER 1 7 . MONEY AND LABOR: ONE OR BOTH OF THESE TOOLS IS ALWAYS REQUIRED 1. M a r g r i t K e n n e d y , w i t h D e c l a n Kennedy, 1995. Interest and Inflation Money ( O k e m o s , M i c h . : Seva International), 27.

Free

2. N i c h o l a s Hildyard, 1996. " T o o M a n y for W h a t ? T h e Social G e n e r a t i o n o f F o o d 'Scarcity' and ' O v e r p o p u l a t i o n , ' " The Ecologist, vol. 26, no. 6: 288. CHAPTER 1 9 . FIRE: THE MOST ANCIENT TOOL 1. J e a n M i c h e l B r u s t e t , Jean B r u n o Vickos, Jacques F o n t a n , Alain Podaire, and Francois Lavenu, 1992. " C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of Active Fires in West A f r i c a n Savannas by Analysis o f Satellite Data: Landsat T h e m a t i c M a p p e r , " in Joel S. Levine, ed., Global Biomass Burning ( C a m b r i d g e , Mass.: M I T Press), 5 3 - 6 0 . 2. (. Fishman, K. F a k h r u z z m a n , B. Cros, and D. N g a n g a , 1991. " I d e n t i f i c a t i o n of W i d e s p r e a d P o l l u t i o n in t h e S o u t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e D e d u c e d f r o m Satellite Analyses," Science, vol. 252: 1 6 9 3 - 9 6 . 3. Stein M a n o and M e i n r a t O. A n d r e a e , 1994. " E m i s s i o n o f M e t h y l B r o m i d e f r o m Biomass B u r n i n g , " Science, vol. 263: 1 2 5 5 - 5 6 ; M o l l y O ' M e a r a , 1996. " T h e N e x t H u r d l e in O z o n e R e p a i r , " World Watch, vol. 9, no. 6: 8.

NOTES

599

CHAPTER 2 0 . REST: THE MOST MISUNDERSTOOD TOOL 1. D a v i d S h e r i d a n , 1981. Desertification C o u n c i l o n E n v i r o n m e n t a l Q u a l i t y ) , 21.

of the United States (Washington, D.C.:

CHAPTER 2 3 . LIVING ORGANISMS: THE MOST COMPLEX TOOL 1. M a s a n o b u

F u k u o k a , 1978. The

One

Straw Revolution:

An

Introduction

to

Natural Farming ( E m m a u s , P e n n . : R o d a l e Press). 2. C . W . Gay, D. D. D w y e r , C . Allison, S. H a t c h , and J. Schickedanz, 1980. New Mexico

Range

Plants,

New

Mexico

State U n i v e r s i t y

Cooperative

Extension

Circular 3 3 7 4 : 43. 3. Paul R . E h r l i c h , 1986. The Machinery

of Nature:The

Living World around Us

and How It Works ( N e w York: S i m o n & Schuster), 162. CHAPTER 2 4 . TECHNOLOGY: THE MOST USED TOOL 1 . T h e "tragedy of the c o m m o n s " c o n c e p t was first expressed by the R e v . W i l l i a m Forster Lloyd in Two Lectures on the Checks to Population, Delivered Before the University of Oxford, Michaelmas Term, 1832 ( O x f o r d , E n g l a n d : C o l l i n g w o o d , 1933). T h i s rare text was r e p r i n t e d in 1968 by A u g u s t u s M . Kelly E c o n o m i c Classics. A m e r i c a n e c o n o m i s t G a r r e t t H a r d i n revived t h e idea and e x p o u n d e d o n it in his f a m o u s essay, " T h e Tragedy o f t h e C o m m o n s , " w h i c h has b e e n r e p r i n t e d in n u m e r o u s anthologies. Hardin's 1972 b o o k Exploring New Ethics for SurvivahThe Voyage of the Spaceship Beagle ( N e w York: Viking) is an e l a b o r a t i o n of t h e essay. 2. A r n o l d Aspelin, 1994. Pesticide Industry Sales and Usage: 1992 and 1993 Market Estimates. R e p o r t issued by E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n Agency, O f f i c e of Pesticide P r o g r a m s , Biological and E c o n o m i c Analysis Division. 3. R o b e r t R o d a l e , 1983. " I m p o r t a n c e of R e s o u r c e R e g e n e r a t i o n , " ResourceEfficient Farming Methods for Tanzania ( E m m a u s , P e n n . : R o d a l e Press), 21. CHAPTER 2 6 . CAUSE AND EFFECT: STOP THE BLOWS TO YOUR HEAD BEFORE Y o u TAKE THE ASPIRIN 1. Insight on the News,

O c t o b e r 28, 1996, 38 (figures supplied by t h e U.S.

Beverage M a r k e t i n g Association). 2. A g e n d a 21, C h a p t e r 12: R e p o r t o n t h e Plan of A c t i o n to C o m b a t D e s e r t i f i cation, U . N . C o n f e r e n c e o n E n v i r o n m e n t and D e v e l o p m e n t , R i o de Janeiro, 1992. 3. T o m Larson, 1996. " S w i n g i n g the 'Balance o f N a t u r e ' in M y D i r e c t i o n , " Nebraska Sustainable Agriculture Society Newsletter, N o v e m b e r : 4. CHAPTER 2 9 . GROSS PROFIT ANALYSIS: BRINGING IN THE MOST MONEY FOR THE LEAST ADDITIONAL COST 1. I n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d f r o m personal c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h David Wallace. CHAPTER 3 0 . ENERGY AND MONEY: USING THE MOST APPROPRIATE FORMS IN THE MOST CONSTRUCTIVE WAY 1. Stacy P e r m a n , 1998. " G o o d b y e , F r e e b i e s - H e l l o

Fees," Time,

vol. 151,

no. 1: 62. 2.

L. H u n t e r Lovins and A m o r y B. Lovins, 1989. " H o w N o t to P a r a c h u t e

NOTES

600

M o r e Cats: T h e H i d d e n Links B e t w e e n E n e r g y and Security," p a p e r prepared tor the C e n t e r for a P o s t m o d e r n W o r l d c o n f e r e n c e , Toward a Postmodern Presidency: Vision for a Planet in Crisis, held at the University of California at Santa Barbara, 30 J u n e - 4 July. (Available f r o m R o c k y M o u n t a i n Institute, 1739 S n o w m a s s C r e e k R o a d , Snowmass, C O 81564.) CHAPTER 3 1 . SUSTAINABILITY: GENERATING LASTING WEALTH 1. Paul H a w k e n , 1993. The Ecology of Commerce: A Declaration of ( N e w York: H a r p e r C o l l i n s ) .

Sustainability

2. T h e t o u r system c o n d i t i o n s included in T h e N a t u r a l Step p r o g r a m are: •

Substances f r o m the earth's crust m u s t n o t systematically increase in nature.

•

Substances p r o d u c e d by society must n o t systematically increase in nature.

•

T h e physical basis for t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y and diversity of nature must n o t b e systematically d i m i n i s h e d .

•

Fair and efficient use of e n e r g y and o t h e r resources.

Source: J o h n H o l m b e r g , K a r l - H e n r i k R o b e r t , and K a r l - E r i k Eriksson, 1996. " S o c i o - e c o l o g i c a l Principles for a Sustainable Society," in R . Costanza, O. Segura, and J. Martinez-AJier, eds., Getting Down to Earth: Practical Applications of Ecological Economics (Washington D.C.: Island Press), 1 7 - 4 8 . CHAPTER 3 2 . SOCIETY AND CULTURE: PERSONAL VALUES AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY 1. C h r i s K n i p p e n b e r g , 1996. " M a k i n g t h e Testing Personal: Testing a G i f t H o r s e , " Holistic Management Quarterly, no. 53: 6. 2. B r u c e Gregory, 1996. " M a k i n g the Testing Personal: Filberts or F e n c i n g T h i s Year?" Holistic Management Quarterly, no. 53: 6. CHAPTER 3 5 . LEARNING AND PRACTICE: SHIFTING YOUR PARADIGMS 1. D a v i d Irvine, 1994. " B u i l d i n g M a n a g e m e n t C l u b s T h a t W o r k , " Resource Management

Holistic

Quarterly, no. 44: 2.

CHAPTER 3 6 . ORGANIZATION AND LEADERSHIP: CREATING AN ENVIRONMENT THAT NURTURES CREATIVITY 1. Everett M . R o g e r s , 1983. Diffusion

of Innovations,

3rd ed. ( N e w York:

Macmillan), 7 - 8 . 2. T h e s e beliefs are based o n w h a t I have observed in leaders I have served u n d e r o r w o r k e d w i t h in o n e capacity or a n o t h e r . T h e f o l l o w i n g also d o c u m e n t the relationship b e t w e e n these leadership beliefs and an organization's ability to f u n c t i o n well: Jay

Hall,

1982.

The

Competence

International, 2 2 6 - 2 2 9

Process. T h e W o o d l a n d s , Tex.: T e l e o m e t r i c s

NOTES

601

E d O a k l e y and D o u g K r u g , 1991. Enlightened Schuster.

Leadership.

N e w York: S i m o n &

CHAPTER 3 8 . TIME: W H E N TO EXPOSE AND REEXPOSE PLANTS AND SOILS TO ANIMALS

1. M y assertion that it was easy to d o u b l e c o n v e n t i o n a l s t o c k i n g rates w i t h p l a n n e d grazing g e n e r a t e d e n o r m o u s controversy and c o n d e m n a t i o n of m e in R h o d e s i a , S o u t h Africa, and A m e r i c a . To p u t t h e m a t t e r to rest o n c e and for all, t h e t h e n R h o d e s i a n minister of a g r i c u l t u r e publicly challenged m e to d e m o n s t r a t e this in a c o n t r o l l e d t r i a l . T h e " C h a r t e r T r i a l , " n a m e d after the c o m p a n y that provided the land and cattle, ran for eight years and was m o n i t o r e d by t h e University of R h o d e s i a and the Marandellas R e s e a r c h Station. We successfully ran d o u b l e the c o n v e n t i o n a l s t o c k i n g rate w i t h o u t any d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f t h e land, as I had p r e d i c t ed. T h e c o n c l u s i o n was w r i t t e n u p in " R e s u l t s of the Botanical Analyses in the C h a r t e r T r i a l , " by J. N . C l a t w o r t h y for the R h o d e s i a n B r a n c h of t h e S o u t h A f r i c a n Society of A n i m a l P r o d u c t i o n , in 1976 and published in t h e Zimbabwe Agricultural Journal, in 1984, vol. 81, no. 2: 4 9 - 5 2 . N o great c h a n g e was m e a s u r e d o n the g r o u n d despite vast m a n - h o u r s spent in collecting data because only plant species c o m p o s i t i o n , n o t ecological process, was considered by those d o i n g t h e m o n i t o r i n g . H o w e v e r , as t h e effects o n ecosystem processes were sufficiently p r o n o u n c e d , C l a t w o r t h y felt the n e e d for additional c o m m e n t o n observations that w e r e n o t reflected in species c o m p o s i t i o n : U n d e r the conservative stocking rate of the Charter system [the c o n trol] the grass grew tall and dead top hamper accumulated so that periodic b u r n i n g was necessary to remove this. O n the rotationally grazed plots (planned grazing) the heavier stocking rate kept the grass short and there was n o build-up of dead m a t e r i a l This gave the sward a very healthy appearance. Incidentally, this trial i n t e n d e d to end all controversy m e r e l y increased resistance a m o n g range scientists. C o m m o n sense suggests that a d e m o n s t r a t i o n to sway public o p i n i o n will i n f l u e n c e p e o p l e . It does i n f l u e n c e a few, usually w h e n they are far r e m o v e d f r o m it. B u t to those closely involved, t h e u n d e r l y i n g m e s sage of any successful d e m o n s t r a t i o n is " l o o k h o w clever w e are a n d h o w stupid y o u are." F o l l o w i n g t h e C h a r t e r T r i a l e x p e r i e n c e , I have consistently refused to b e involved in similar d e m o n s t r a t i o n s . C o l l a b o r a t i n g w i t h o t h e r s in m u t u a l l e a r n i n g situations has proven far m o r e effective as it does n o t create the psychological b a r riers that d e m o n s t r a t i o n s of this sort can. CHAPTER 3 9 . STOCK DENSITY AND H E R D EFFECT: USING ANIMALS TO SHAPE THE LANDSCAPE

1. D. M . G a m m o n and B. R . R o b e r t s , 1980. "Aspects o f D e f o l i a t i o n d u r i n g S h o r t D u r a t i o n G r a z i n g of the M a t o p o s Sandveld of Z i m b a b w e , " Zimbabwe Journal of Agricultural Research, v o l 18: 29. W h e n I visited t h e M a t o p o s R e s e a r c h Station, w h e r e this study on m y w o r k t o o k place, I f o u n d that only t w o steers w e r e b e i n g used to constitute t h e h e r d . T h e researchers w o u l d n o t accept that t w o steers can never simulate t h e effects

NOTES

602

that a real herd of t w o h u n d r e d or m o r e steers p r o d u c e d , and thus t h e research trial c o n t i n u e d despite t h e defect, w h i c h r e n d e r e d t h e results meaningless. CHAPTER 4 0 . CROPPING: PRACTICES THAT MORE CLOSELY MIMIC NATURE 1. A n d r e Voisin, 1960. Better Grassland Sward ( L o n d o n : C r o s b y L o c k w o o d & Son), 9 5 - 1 2 4 . 2. A l d o L e o p o l d , 1986. Game Management (Madison: U n i v e r s i t y of W i s c o n s i n Press), 1 2 4 - 1 3 6 . 3. Clive P o n t i n g , 1991. A Green History of the World: The Environment and the Collapse of Great Civilizations ( N e w York: St. Martin's Press), 292. CHAPTER 4 2 . POPULATION MANAGEMENT: LOOK TO AGE STRUCTURE RATHER THAN NUMBERS, DIVERSITY RATHER THAN SINGLE SPECIES 1. Clive P o n t i n g , 1991. A Green History of the World: The Environment Collapse of Great Civilizations ( N e w York: St. Martin's Press), 1 0 3 - 6 .

and the

CHAPTER 4 9 . MAKING RESEARCH RELEVANT 1. Cliff M o n t a g n e , 1 9 9 7 . " O r i e n t i n g R e s e a r c h to M e e t H u m a n N e e d s , " Holistic Management Quarterly, no. 56: 17. CHAPTER 5 0 . CREATING SOUND POLICIES 1. J. A. O n s a n g e r , 1985. " A n Ecological Basis for P r u d e n t C o n t r o l of Grasshoppers in t h e W e s t e r n U n i t e d States," Proceedings of the Third Triennial Meetings, Pan American Acrididae Society, 5 - 1 0 July, 1981. T h e Pan A m e r i c a n A c r i d i d a e Society, 98. 2. K . J . Andrasko, D. R . A h u j a , S. M . W i n n e t t , and D. A . T i r p a k , 1995. "Policy O p t i o n s for M a n a g i n g Biomass B u r n i n g to M i t i g a t e Global C l i m a t e C h a n g e , " in S.J. Levine, ed., Global Biomass Burning (Boston: M I T Press), 4 4 5 - 4 5 6 .

Index

A b o r i g i n e s in A u s t r a l i a , 6

A n c i e n t cities, 3 4 , 3 5 , 1 1 5

Accountants, 103

A n i m a l days p e r a c r e / h e c t a r e

Acocks, John, 44-45, 48

(ADA/H)

harvested, 5 0 6 , 5 0 8 , 5 0 9 , 5 1 8

Addictive use of m o n e y or energy, 3 1 4 - 1 5

Animal impact:

A e r a t i o n , 106, 110, 114

bare g r o u n d , 1 1 1 - 1 2 , 1 1 4 - 1 5 , 2 3 7 , 287,

Aerial c o u n t i n g , 4 4 9

439-40

Aesthetic environment, 68

o n c r o p l a n d s , 246—47

Africa, 30, 1 8 3 , 2 2 6

diagnosing the cause of problems,

see also Z i m b a b w e

533

A f r i c a C e n t r e for H o l i s t i c M a n a g e m e n t

fire,

187-88

forests, 2 4 7

( A C H M ) , 95, 9 6 - 9 7 Age structure and population health,

grazing separated f r o m , 2 1 6 - 1 7

442-46

l e a f , area o f , 1 6 2

A g e s t r u c t u r e vs. n u m b e r s , 4 4 6 - 5 2

m o n i t o r i n g plans, 5 3 0

Agriculture:

p o w e r and versatility of, 2 3 6 - 4 0

animal impact o n croplands, 2 4 6 - 4 7

resting land, 2 1 2

biodynamic, 428

summary, 2 4 8 - 4 9

chemical farming, 255

w h a t animal impact does, 2 4 1 - 4 2

creativity, h u m a n , 1 7 8 - 7 9

see also C o m m u n i t y d y n a m i c s ; D e n s i t y

diversity of plants o n croplands, 2 8 7

and herd effect, stock; Grazing; H e r d i n g

Green Revolution, 254-55, 322-23

animals; Livestock, the role of; Living

herbicides, 256, 2 6 0

organisms; Population

land planning, 493

P r e d a t o r - p r e y c o n n e c t i o n ; T i m e plants

marketing, 368-70

a n d soils are e x p o s e d t o t h e a n i m a l s ; Trampling; individual animal

m o n i t o r i n g plans, 3 3 5

A n n u a l plant populations, 2 1 7

m o n o c u l t u r e s , 138, 139, 141, 2 6 1 , 279,

Annual review and financial planning,

281,417-19 organic farming, 2 8 1 - 8 2

469-70

pesticides, 261 preliminary

financial

management;

A n t e l o p e , 441 p l a n n i n g sessions,

A p p l e t o n - W h i t t e l Biological Research

480

Station, 211

s o c i e t y a n d c u l t u r e test, 3 2 7

A p p l e trees, 4 1 7 , 4 1 8

technology, 2 6 0 - 6 1 , 414, 428

Area o f leaf m a t t e r , 1 6 1 - 6 2

see also C r o p p i n g

Argument, 366

Agriculture, U.S. D e p a r t m e n t of, 5 4 4

Assessing t h e plan, 4 8 2 - 8 3

Aide memoire, 503-5

see also M o n i t o r i n g p l a n s

A I D S (acquired i m m u n e deficiency

Assimilation stage a n d creativity, 3 5 2

syndrome), 446

A t m o s p h e r i c gases k e p t in b a l a n c e , 1 0 2

Algae, 1 3 2 - 3 4 , 2 4 4

Atmospheric pollution, 190-92, 236

Algeria, 449

A t o m bomb, 258

A m e r i c a s , 183, 2 2 6

Attractants to i n d u c e herd effect, 4 0 7 - 1 0

Amish people, 279, 327

Australia, 6, 116, 183, 2 2 6

6 0 3

604

INDEX

Baboons, 241

Burning, prescribed,

B a c o n , R o g e r , 18 Banishing

182-84

see also F i r e

Bureaucracy

( O s b o r n e & Plastrik),

B u s h e s for fuel, harvesting, 4 3 9 - 4 0

566 Bare ground, 111-12, 1 1 4 - 1 5 , 2 3 7 , 287,

Cabbage,

130

California, 262, 446

439-40 Bee, honey, 123

C a n e f a r m i n g , 106

Berry,Wendell, 178

Canyonlands National Park, 214

B i g picture, f o c u s i n g o n the, 6 2 - 6 4

C a p p i n g , 108-9, 162, 238, 244, 2 8 7

B i n g h a m , Sam, 103

C a r b o n dioxide, 191

Biodiversity, 126, 287, 4 9 5

Cattle, 227, 406

Biodynamic agriculture, 428

see also H e r d i n g a n i m a l s ; L i v e s t o c k , t h e

B i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l s in l i e u o f c h e m i c a l s , 2 5 5 Biological m o n i t o r i n g , 3 3 9 - 4 0 , 462, 531 Biological

Monitoring

Handbook,

529

role o f C a u s e a n d e f f e c t test: fire,

431-32

Biological w e a k link, 284, 2 8 6 - 8 8 , 4 3 2

future problems, unleashing, 282

Birds, 6, 125

h u m a n b e h a v i o r , p r o b l e m s related to,

Birth control, 442 B M W

280-81

324

i d e n t i f y i n g the cause, 2 7 5 - 8 1

Bonus programs, 4 8 3 - 8 4

r o o t cause of the problem, addressing the,

Botswana, 29

273-74

B o t t l e n e c k s in p o p u l a t i o n

management,

452-54

s h o r t - t e r m and l o n g - t e r m effects, 2 8 1 - 8 2 summary, 268, 283

Boundaries, no, 2 4 - 2 6

C e n t e r for Holistic M a n a g e m e n t , 70, 95,

B r a i n s t o r m i n g process, 4 7 1 - 7 2 , 4 7 9 - 8 0 , 496-98

358,546-47 Challenge and growth, 73

Brandes, R o n ,

xv

C h a n g e o c c u r r i n g in successional stages,

Breastfeeding, 3 2 9 - 3 0

130-37

Britain's R o y a l Navy, 36

Chemical farming, 255

Brittle/nonbrittle

C h e m i c a l treatments, 261

environments:

animal impact, 236-37, 240, 2 4 8 - 4 9

C h l o r o f l u o r o c a r b o n s ( C F C s ) , 191

density and herd effect, stock, 402, 404

Cities:

d e n s i t y o f p l a n t s , 157—61

agriculture, 369

deserts/desertification, 34, 48

ancient, 3 4 , 3 5 , 115

e n v i r o n m e n t s responding differently to the same influences, 3 0 - 3 4 fire, 1 9 2 - 9 4

Coal mining, 238

grazing, 2 2 2 - 2 4

C o l l a b o r a t i o n vs. c o m p e t i t i o n , 1 2 4 - 2 6 ,

hooves of herding populations and

health

of the land, 3 7 - 4 0 land planning, 491 predator-prey connection,

362-63 C o l l e c t i v e c o n s c i e n c e , d e v e l o p i n g a, 2 6 2 - 6 3 C o m m i t m e n t , d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s o f , 90—91

mineral cycle, 1 4 5 - 4 7

C o m m o n g r o u n d , the paradox of, 2 5 9 16

C o m m u n i c a t i o n issues, 2 3 , 5 6 1

resting land, 1 9 6 - 2 0 9 , 2 1 5 succession,

resting land, 2 0 2 - 3 w a t e r cycle, noneffective, 115, 1 1 8 - 1 9

C o m m u n i t y , i n t r o d u c i n g holistic

134-37

m a n a g e m e n t w i t h i n a, 8 3 , 3 1 8 - 1 9 ,

t i m e p l a n t s a n d soils are e x p o s e d t o t h e see also W a t e r c y c l e ; individual

354-56 Community

animals, 4 1 - 4 9 subject

headings B r o a d - m o u t h e d grazers, 221

dynamics:

animal impact, 248, 249 c h a n g e o c c u r r i n g in s u c c e s s i o n a l s t a g e s , 130-37

B r o m i n e in m e t h y l b r o m i d e , 191

c o l l a b o r a t i o n vs. c o m p e t i t i o n ,

Browsing, 217, 2 2 9 - 3 5 , 3 8 8 - 9 0

conclusion, 140

Brundtland, Gro H., 562

d e f i n i n g , 120

Brush encroachment, 238, 277-78, 287,

fire, 1 9 2 ,

299-300 B u b o n i c plague, 541

124-26

193,320

f u t u r e r e s o u r c e base, 82 grazing, 222, 223

Buffalo, 20, 42, 43, 4 0 3

h a r d y species, t h e r e are no, 121—22

Bureaucracies and hierarchies, 3 6 0 - 6 2 , 566

living organisms, 2 5 1 - 5 2

INDEX

605

m a n a g e m e n t a n d , 137—39

D D T , 261

n a t u r e , l e a v i n g it to, 1 3 9 - 4 0

D e b t trap, 4 6 5 - 6 6

n o n n a t i v e s p e c i e s , 122—24

Decisions:

stability increasing w i t h increasing complexity, 126-27

d e c i s i o n m a k e r s , 60—61 D e c i s i o n - M a k i n g Age, xv

u n d e r g r o u n d , m o s t biological activity

n e w f r a m e w o r k f o r , 6, 7, 2 3 , 26—27, 50-55, 559-60

o c c u r s , 129—30 w h o l e s f u n c t i o n at t h e c o n m i u n i t y l e v e l ,

testing, 53, 2 6 7 - 7 2 , 3 3 0 - 3 2 , 4 3 1 - 3 4 , 549-50, 553-54

n a t u r e ' s , 127—29 see also L i v i n g o r g a n i s m s ; P o p u l a t i o n

see also C a u s e a n d e f f e c t test; W e a k l i n k test; M a r g i n a l

management

r e a c t i o n test; G r o s s p r o f i t

C o m p e t i t i o n vs. c o l l a b o r a t i o n , 124—26

analysis test; E n e r g y / m o n e y s o u r c e a n d

C o m p l e x i t y , stability i n c r e a s i n g w i t h

u s e ; S o c i e t y a n d c u l t u r e test; S u s t a i n a b i l i t y test; W e a k link test

i n c r e a s i n g , 126—27 C o n c e n t r a t i n g livestock, 4 5 - 4 6

Deer, 446-47

Confidence, 365

Denmark, 356

C o n s c i e n c e , d e v e l o p i n g a collective,

Density and herd eflect, stock: a n i m a l p e r f o r m a n c e , 397—99

262-63 Constructive disagreement, 366

attractants to i n d u c e herd effect, 4 0 7 - 1 0

Consumer-centered approach, 544

conclusion, 412

C o n s u m p t i v e use o f m o n e y / e n e r g y ,

g r a z i n g p l a n n i n g , 401—2, 5 1 4 herd effect, defining, 2 4 2 - 4 3 , 402

313-14

ignoring, researchers, 404

C o n t o u r ridges, 116 C o n t r i b u t i o n and purpose, 7 4 - 7 5

i n d u c i n g herd effect routinely, 406

C o n t r o l as t h e h a r d e s t p a r t o f

practical d e m o n s t r a t i o n s o f herd effect,

financial

planning, 339

405-6

C o o l burns, 4 3 4 - 3 7

predator-prey connection, 4 0 3 - 4

C o o p e r a t i v e s , 374—75

r a i n f a l l a n d s o d type, 4 0 0 - 4 0 1

C o p e r n i c u s , 14

resting land, 244

Corporate decision-making, 8

size, h e r d , 4 0 7

Creativity, h u m a n , 1 7 8 - 8 1 , 352

s t o c k density, 3 9 6 - 4 0 2

Credit, 174

trampling, 2 4 4 - 4 5 , 404

Crisis m a n a g e m e n t , 180, 2 1 0 - 1 2

type of livestock, 407

Crocodiles, 2 2 - 2 3

ultra-high densities to i n d u c e herd effect,

Cropping:

410-12

animal impact on croplands, 2 4 6 - 4 7

D e n s i t y o f plants, 1 5 7 - 6 1

conclusion, 4 2 8 - 2 9

" D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n in t h e D e v e l o p e d

edges, creating, 4 1 9 - 2 2

Countries:

W h y C a n ' t W e S t o p It?", 4 8

energy consumption, 4 2 7 - 2 8

D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , 2 0 7

g e n e t i c diversity, 4 2 3

Deserts/desertification:

h i s t o r y o f a g r i c u l t u r e , 413—14

brittle/nonbrittle environments, 34, 48

irrigation, 425

bushes for fuel, overharvesting, 4 3 9 - 4 0

land planning, 4 9 2 - 9 3

capping, 238

l i v e s t o c k , i n c o r p o r a t i n g , 423—25

cause and effect, 2 7 9

monocultures, 417-19

fire, 182

soil c o v e r e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e year, 4 1 5

grass r o o t o r g a n i z a t i o n s , 5 6 6 - 6 7

soil o v e r , t u r n i n g t h e , 415—18

mineral cycle, 147

water catchments, 426

Oregon, 214

see also A g r i c u l t u r e

resting land, 2 1 2

C r u m b s t r u c t u r e , soil, 1 0 8

s i m p l i c i t y a n d stability, 1 2 6

C u l l i n g p r o g r a m t h r o u g h age-class s a m p l i n g ,

v i e w i n g e n v i r o n m e n t s in a n e w way,

450-52 C u s t o m s , 326—27 C y c l i c a l use, 3 1 4

28-30 Deteriorated environments, history of and c o m m o n d e n o m i n a t o r b e h i n d , 4—7 D i a g n o s i n g the cause of problems:

Dairy farms, 493

ecological problems, 5 3 1 - 3 4

D a m s , 115, 116

land m a n a g e m e n t m o n i t o r i n g , 5 2 9 - 3 1

DaiAvin, C h a r l e s , 1 2 5

l o g j a m s , i d e n t i f y i n g t h e , 534—37

606

INDEX

Disagreement, constructive, 366 Disciplines, narrow, 2 2 - 2 4 Distribution:

use, e n e r g y a n d m o n e y p a t t e r n s of, 313-15 Enlightened

c o o p e r a t i v e s , 374—75

Leadership

(Oakley & Krug), 365,

366

direct to the consumer, 3 7 2 - 7 3

E n l i g h t e n e d self-interest, 5 6 5

wholesale, 3 7 3 - 7 4

E n v i r o n m e n t a l issues, 16

Dollar invested, marginal reaction per, 296-300 D o r m a n t s e a s o n , g r a z i n g in t h e , 390-91

e n e m y , a c o m m o n , 560—61 e n v i r o n m e n t s , s p e a k i n g in t e r m s o f

Drainage, 110, 162

different, 1 0 1 - 3

Droughts, 29, 1 1 0 - 1 1 , 391, 507, 509 D r y - t y p e o f p l a n t s , 161

history of and c o m m o n behind deteriorated

D y n a m i c s of living c o m m u n i t i e s , see C o m m u n i t y

brittle/nonbrittle environments, 30-34 desertification, 2 8 - 3 0

dynamics;

Living organisms Dysfunction, dealing with, 9 2 - 9 4

denominator environments,

4-7 holistic goal, 3 1 9 m a n u f a c t u r i n g businesses, 3 2 3 - 2 5 population management, 444 ranchers and environmentalists, conflict

Earth S u m m i t of 1992, 279 E a r t h w o r m s , 110 E c o n o m i c well-being, 7 1 - 7 2 Economists, 102-3 E c o s y s t e m processes, 5 2 - 5 3 , 1 0 1 - 3 , 320, 531-34 see also C o m m u n i t y d y n a m i c s ; E n e r g y flow;

Mineral cycle; Water cycle

Edge effect, 4 1 9 - 2 2 , 4 3 6

between, 89-90 service

providers/households/consumers,

325 s o c i e t y a n d c u l t u r e test, 328—30 solar dollars, 1 7 6 s u n l i g h t h a r v e s t e r s , 320—23 vegetation, c o n s u m p t i o n / b r e a k d o w n of, 3 3 - 3 4 , 36 see also C o m m u n i t y d y n a m i c s ; E n e r g y

Effective w a t e r cycle, 106, 1 0 9 - 1 1 , 1 1 3

flow;

Egyptians, 426

M i n e r a l cycle;Water cycle

E n e r g y / m o n e y source a n d use;

Elephants, 42, 43, 189, 241, 3 9 2 - 9 3

E r o s i o n gullies, 2 3 7 - 3 8

Elk, 123

Ethiopia, 262

Elton, Charles, 455

E v a p o r a t i o n , soil s u r f a c e , 1 1 2

Eltonian pyramid of numbers, 455

Expenses:

E n e m y , a c o m m o n , 560—61

maintenance, 297-98, 476

Energy

p l a n n i n g the, 4 8 2

flow:

animal impact, 248, 2 4 9

p r e l i m i n a r y p l a n n i n g process, 4 7 5 - 8 0 , 4 8 2

area o f l e a f , 1 6 1 - 6 2

profit before, planning, 466

c o n c l u s i o n , 163—64

see also F i n a n c i a l p l a n n i n g ; M o n e y a n d

defining, 149 density o f plants, 1 5 7 - 6 1

labor E x p r e s s i n g personal values, 9 1 - 9 2

fire, 1 9 3 , 1 9 4 , 3 2 0

E x p r e s s i o n , f r e e d o m o f , 365—66

grazing, 222, 223

E x t e r n a l m o n e y , 312—13

p y r a m i d , t h e e n e r g y , 150—52

E x t i n c t i o n s , mass, 6 - 7

technology, 162-63, 260 tetrahedron, the energy, 1 5 2 - 5 5 t i m e ( d u r a t i o n and rate o f g r o w t h ) , 155-57 t i m e p l a n t s a n d soils a r e e x p o s e d t o t h e animals, 3 8 5 - 8 7 E n e r g y / m o n e y source a n d use:

Facilitators a n d f o r m i n g holistic goals, 9 0 Family planning, 4 4 2 Family relationships, 3 2 8 Famines, 414, 442, 543 F e e d b a c k l o o p , 8, 5 4 , 3 3 6 , 3 5 0 , 5 3 5 see also M o n i t o r i n g y o u r p l a n s

conclusion, 315

Fertilizers, 414, 4 2 7

cropping, 4 2 7 - 2 8

Field c o u n t s , 446, 4 4 7 - 5 0

e n e r g y , s o u r c e s o f , 310—12

Financial planning, 4 5 9 - 6 0

fire, 4 3 3

c o n c l u s i o n , 484—85

money, sources of, 3 1 2 - 1 3

c r e a t i n g y o u r plan, 480—83

s o c i e t y a n d c u l t u r e test, 328—30

land m a n a g e m e n t , 8

summary, 268

limitations of, 4 6 3 - 6 4

INDEX

607

m o n i t o r i n g plans, 3 3 7 - 3 9 , 4 8 3 preliminary

financial

p l a n n i n g sessions,

469-80

e l e m e n t s t o c o n s i d e r in d e s c r i b i n g y o u r , 78-79 e v o l u t i o n o f a holistic goal, 8 8

problems involved, 23 process, the planning, 4 6 6 - 6 9

g o v e r n m e n t agency managing a national forest and f o r m i n g holistic goal, 85

p s y c h o l o g y o f t h e p l a n n i n g , 464—66

h o l i s t i c g o a l , 68—69

r e w a r d i n g p e o p l e , 483—84

land, the, 8 0 - 8 2

stages, t h r e e , 4 6 3

m i d d l e - a g e d c o u p l e f o r m i n g holistic goal,

w e a k link, financial, 284, 2 8 8 - 9 3 , 4 3 2

84

w h o l e , defining the, 95

people, the, 7 9 - 8 0

see also G r o s s p r o f i t analysis test; M o n e y

resting land, 197, 2 0 0

and labor

wholes within wholes, 95

Finches, quelea, 441

Future w e want, creating the:

Fire, 5 3

c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , advances in, 561 decision-making, a new framework

animals, 1 8 7 - 8 8 a p p r o p r i a t e use of, 4 3 0 conclusion, 438

for,

559-60 enemy, a c o m m o n , 5 6 0 - 6 1

c o o l a n d h o t fires, 1 8 6 - 8 7 , 4 3 4 - 3 7

governments, 566

desertification, 182

grass r o o t o r g a n i z a t i o n s , 566—67

diagnosing the cause of problems, 5 3 3

Holistic M a n a g e m e n t M o d e l , 5 6 4 - 6 5

e a r l i e s t h u m a n p o p u l a t i o n s , 6, 7

h u m a n p o p u l a t i o n , e x p l o s i o n o f , 562—63

ecosystem processes, 3 2 0

optimism, 562, 567

e n v i r o n m e n t b e f o r e h u m a n s s e t fires, 3 1

self-interest, 5 6 5

firebreaks, 237

technology, 561

grasslands, 1 8 8 - 8 9 i n c r e a s i n g use o f , 1 2 8 - 2 9

G a m e counts, 4 4 7 - 5 0

justifications for b u r n i n g , c o m m o n , 431

Geller, U n , 169

m o n i t o r i n g p l a n s , 437—38

G e n e t i c e n g i n e e r i n g / d i v e r s i t y , 256—57, 423

n a t u r a l fires, 1 8 2 p l a n n i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , 434—37

G e o t h e r m a l energy, 311

polluting effect, 145, 1 9 0 - 9 2 , 2 3 6

G e r m i n a t i o n s t a g e a n d creativity, 3 5 2

prescribed burning,

G o b i desert, 252

182-84

soil s u r f a c e , 1 8 4 - 8 5 summary, 192-94 testing the decision to burn, 4 3 1 - 3 4 v e g e t a t i o n , 6, 7, 1 8 2 - 8 7 , 436 Fish a n d W i l d l i f e S e r v i c e , U S . ( F W S ) , 212 Fish m a n a g e m e n t , 2 3 8 F i x e d ( o v e r h e a d ) costs, 303—6

G o v e r n m e n t agency m a n a g i n g a national forest a n d f o r m i n g holistic goal, 84-85 G o v e r n m e n t and creating the future w e want, 566 G r a s s h o p p e r s , 1 3 8 , 550—51 Grasslands: coarse/fibrous, 238

Floods, 426

c o m p l e x i t y a n d stability, 1 2 6 - 2 7

F o o d s u p p l y , f l u c t u a t i o n s in t h e , 4 1 4

fire, 1 8 8 - 8 9

F o o t a n d m o u t h disease, 5 4 2

g r a z e r s , r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n grass a n d

Forbs, 2 2 3

s e v e r e , 224—29

Foreign aid programs, 3 1 3

Hall's p a n i c grass, 2 5 5

Forests, 2 4 7 , 4 9 3 - 9 6

m u l c h , w o o d w o o l , 132—34

Fossil f u e l s , 1 2 9 , 1 4 9 - 5 0 , 3 1 1 , 5 6 0

resting land, 1 9 8 - 2 0 9

F r e e d o m of expression, 3 6 5 - 6 6

see also E n e r g y listings; G r a z i n g ; T i m e

F r e e z i n g a n d t h a w i n g , air p o c k e t s in t h e soil and annual, 39

p l a n t s a n d soils a r e e x p o s e d t o t h e animals; Vegetation

Fritz, R o b e r t , 3 5 2

Grass Productivity

F u k u o k a , M a s a n o b u , 252—53

Grass r o o t o r g a n i z a t i o n s , 5 6 6 - 6 7

(Voism), 4 3

Fund for R u r a l America, 544

Grazing:

F u t u r e landscape, 68, 103, 320, 4 8 8 - 8 9

animal impact separated from, 2 1 6 - 1 7

F u t u r e r e s o u r c e base:

annual plant populations, 2 1 7

c o m m u n i t y y o u live i n / w o r k i n , 8 2

britde/nonbrittle environments, 222-24

defining, 52

b r o w s i n g , 229—35

608

INDEX

G r a z i n g (continued)

Herbicides, 109, 256, 2 6 0

conclusion, 235

H e r d i n g animals:

defining, 217

brittle/nonbrittle environments, 4 1 - 4 9

diagnosing the cause of problems, 5 3 3

c o n c e n t r a t i n g livestock, 4 5 - 4 6

fire a n d rest, r a n k e d as a t o o l a l o n g s i d e ,

hooves of herding populations and health

216

of the land, 3 7 - 4 0

grass a n d s e v e r e g r a z e r s , r e l a t i o n s h i p between, 224-29

overgrazing, 227 predator-prey connection, 2 0 - 2 2

m o n i t o r i n g plans, 5 3 0

soil c o v e r , 1 1 0

o v e r g r a z i n g , 16, 2 9 - 3 0 , 4 2 , 4 3 - 4 4 , 2 1 7 ,

vegetation, consuming/breaking d o w n , 33

2 1 8 - 2 0 , 222, 223, 2 2 7 - 2 9 , 2 3 4 - 3 5

see also D e n s i t y a n d h e r d e f f e c t , s t o c k ;

p e r e n n i a l grasses, 2 1 7 - J 8 , 3 7 9 - 8 0

G r a z i n g ; L i v e s t o c k , t h e role o f ;

types of grazers, 2 2 0 - 2 2

Population m a n a g e m e n t ; T i m e plants

see aba H e r d i n g a n i m a l s ; T i m e p l a n t s a n d

a n d soils are e x p o s e d t o t h e a n i m a l s ;

soils a r e e x p o s e d t o t h e a n i m a l s Grazing planning, 4 6 0 - 6 2

Trampling H e r o d o t u s , 28. 29

aide m e m o i r e , 5 0 3 - 5

H i e r a r c h i e s a n d b u r e a u c r a c i e s , 360—62

chart, the planning, 5 0 5 - 6

History of deteriorated environments, 4 - 7

conclusion, 5 2 1 - 2 4

Holism

and Evolution

density and herd effect, stock, 4 0 1 - 2

Holistic

Financial

m o n i t o r i n g and controlling, 515-21 paper, p l a n n m g w i t h o u t , 5 1 3 - 1 5

( S m u t s ) , 19

Planning

Handbook,

Holistic goal, 26

planning approach, the, 5 0 2 - 3

challenges, c o m m o n , 9 1 - 9 4

record keeping, 508

conclusion, 85, 9 7 - 9 8

replanning, 521

decision-making, 271-72

s t o c k i n g rates, assessing, 5 0 8 - 1 3

d e f i n i n g the, 52

variables influencing, varied, 5 0 1 - 2

d e v e l o p m e n t of the, 6 7 - 6 9

w h e n d o you plan, 5 0 6 - 8

e n v i r o n m e n t a l issues, 3 1 9

Green Revolution, 254-55, 322-23

evaluating the, 7 - 8

G r o s s p r o f i t analysis test:

e v o l u t i o n o f a, 8 7 - 8 8

complex techniques, 3 0 2 - 3

339,

471

future landscape, 4 8 8 - 8 9

conclusion, 309

f u t u r e r e s o u r c e base, 7 8 - 8 2

defining, 303

g o v e r n m e n t agency managing a national

e n t e r p r i s e s y o u w i l l e n g a g e in t h i s year, d e t e r m i n e the, 4 7 3 - 7 4

forest, 8 4 - 8 5 logjams, i d e n t i f y i n g the, 5 4 5

fire, 4 3 3

nustakes, c o m m o n , 8 9 - 9 1

fixed (overhead) and variable (direct or

pohcies, creating sound, 549, 552

r u n n i n g ) costs, 3 0 3 - 6 flaws

p r o d u c t i o n , f o r m s o f , 75—78

of, 3 0 3

purpose, statement of, 6 9 - 7 0

overlap, enterprises that don't, 3 0 7 - 8

q u a l i t y o f life, 7 0 - 7 5 , 3 2 7 - 2 8

pencil and paper needed, 302

resting land, 197

r e f i n i n g y o u r analysis, 3 0 7 - 9

s e r v i c e s available in y o u r c o m m u n i t y , 8 3

risk, assessment of, 3 0 8 - 9

temporary, quickly formulating, 8 6 - 8 7

segments, breaking enterprises into, 3 0 8

w a t e r c y c l e . 106

summary, 268

wealth and money, distinction b e t w e e n ,

Group-learning effort, 3 5 6 - 5 8 Gullies, erosion, 2 3 7 - 3 8

175 wholes within wholes, 9 4 - 9 7 see also individual

H a b i t , 181

Holistic

Halladay, D o n , 87, 9 8

Crazing

subject

Planning

headings

Handbook,

391, 412,

505,51 1,514

Halladay, R a n d e e , 87, 9 8

Holistic

Hall's p a n i c grass, 2 5 5

Holistic M a n a g e m e n t International

Handbook'

for Early-Warning

Monitoring,

Biological

340, 462

Land

Planning

Handbook,

497 (HMI),

95-96 Holistic perspective:

H a r d y species, there are no, 1 2 1 - 2 2

b o t t l e n e c k s to u n d e r s t a n d i n g the, 1 4 - 1 6

Hedging, 230

boundaries, no, 2 4 - 2 6

INDEX

609

conclusion, 27

I n s i g h t s l e a d i n g t o an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f

difficult to understand and bring to p r a c t i c e , 17

holistic m a n a g e m e n t , 1 4 - 1 6 I n t e r c o n n e c t i o n s , 25—26, 1 4 7

disciplines, narrow, 2 2 - 2 4

Interdisciplinary approach, 26

e m p o w e r i n g people, 9

International Organization for

feedback loop, 336

Standardization (ISO), 3 2 4 - 2 5

Holistic M a n a g e m e n t M o d e l , 5 0 - 5 5 , 527-28, 564-65

International Society for Ecological Economics, 54

see also D i a g n o s i n g t h e c a u s e o f p r o b l e m s

International trade, 174

i n t r o d u c i n g holistic m a n a g e m e n t to

Irish p o t a t o f a m i n e , 5 4 3 Irrigation, 425

others, 3 5 3 - 5 6 n e w d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s , 3—4

I S O 9 0 0 0 series o f standards, 3 2 4 - 2 5

Paine, R o b e r t , 20 Smuts, Jan C., 1 9 - 2 0 Z a m b i a / Z i m b a b w e and

Japanese companies, 276 human

p o p u l a t i o n , 20—22 see also individual Holistic

Resource

subject

Management,

Kariba D a m , 448 headings xiii

K a u f e National Park, 184 K e y l i n e c o n t o u r i n g s y s t e m , 116

H o n e y bee, 123

K n o w l e d g e gaps, c l o s i n g , 5 3 8 - 4 0

H o n e y g u i d e birds, 125

Krug, Doug, 365

H o o v e s of herding populations and health of

K r u g e r National Park, 189

the land, 3 7 - 4 0 , 241 see also A n i m a l i m p a c t ; H e r d i n g a n i m a l s

L a b o r , see M o n e y a n d l a b o r

H o p i Indians, 2 3 0

Lake Victoria, 122

H o r s e s , 124, 2 2 7

Lancaster, James, 36

H o u r of effort, marginal reaction per,

L a n d e l e m e n t in f u t u r e r e s o u r c e base, 8 0 - 8 2

300-301 Howell, Denise, 45 Howell, Len, 45 H u m a n l a b o r vs. m a c h i n e s , 4 2 8 see also P e o p l e Humidity,

16,30-34

Hunting, 7

Land Institute, 2 4 6 L a n d m a n a g e m e n t , 8, 3 4 6 - 4 7 , 5 2 9 - 3 1 see also C r o p p i n g ; D e n s i t y a n d h e r d e f f e c t , s t o c k ; Fire; P o p u l a t i o n

management;

T i m e p l a n t s a n d soils a r e e x p o s e d t o t h e animals Land planning, 4 6 0 - 6 2 b r a i n s t o r m i n g p r o c e s s , 496—98

Identifying customers and meeting their needs, 3 7 1 - 7 2 I d e n t i f y i n g the cause, 2 7 5 h u m a n b e h a v i o r , p r o b l e m s r e l a t e d to, 280-81 resource m a n a g e m e n t problems, 2 7 6 - 7 9 I n c o m e , plan the, 481

conclusion, 500 cropping, 4 9 2 - 9 3 design and select t h e ideal plan, 4 9 8 - 9 9 i m p l e m e n t the plan, 4 9 9 - 5 0 0 i n f o r m a t i o n , g a t h e r i n g , 488—96 phases, four distinct, 4 8 7 vision, l o n g - t e r m , 4 8 6

I n c o m e - b o o s t i n g e x p e n s e s , 476—79

Landscape, future, 68, 103, 320, 4 8 9 - 9 0

Indian Affairs, U.S. B u r e a u of, 226

Landscape

Inescapable expenses, 476

L a w y e r s , 103

Biology

I n f o r m a t i o n , flood of, 359

Leaching, 146-47

Information, gathering:

Leadership:

infrastructure, 496 m a n a g e m e n t factors affecting plans, 490-96 m a p p i n g f u t u r e l a n d s c a p e d e s c r i b e d in holistic goal, 4 8 8 - 8 9 natural and social f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g plans, 489-90 Infrastructure, 313, 496 see also L a n d p l a n n i n g Insects, 2 5 5 , 2 8 7 , 4 1 7 , 4 1 9

( N a v e h & L i e b e r m a n ) , 24

beliefs, 3 6 3 - 6 4 f r e e d o m of expression, 3 6 5 - 6 6 meaningful work, 365 trust and c o n f i d e n c e , 365 valued, feeling, 367 L e a f , area o f , 1 6 1 - 6 2 Learning and practice: C e n t e r for Holistic M a n a g e m e n t , 3 5 8 creativity, 1 7 8 - 8 1 , 3 5 2 early challenges, 3 4 9 - 5 2

610

INDEX

Learning and pracdce

(continued)

M a n u f a c t u r i n g businesses, 3 2 3 - 2 5

instructor, w o r k i n g w i t h an, 348

M a o r i peoples, 6

i n t r o d u c i n g h o h s t i c m a n a g e m e n t to

M a p p i n g f u t u r e landscape in holistic goal, 488-89

others, 3 5 3 - 5 6 mistakes, fear o f m a k i n g , 3 5 0 - 5 1

M a r g i n a l r e a c t i o n test:

m o m e n t u m , maintaining, 3 5 2 - 5 3

conclusion, 301

n e t w o r k s , l e a r n i n g g r o u p s o r , 356—58

defining, 2 9 4 - 9 6

p e e r p r e s s u r e , 351—52

per dollar invested, 2 9 6 - 3 0 0

s h i f t i n g p a r a d i g m s , 349—50

fire,

432-33

Leopold, Aldo, 419, 444

per h o u r of effort, 3 0 0 - 3 0 1

Libya, 28, 2 9

preliminary

Lichens, 125, 132

financial

p l a n n i n g sessions,

477

Lions, 2 0

summary, 268

L i v e s t o c k , t h e r o l e of:

Marketing:

c o n c e n t r a t i n g livestock, 4 5 - 4 6

agriculture, 3 6 8 - 7 0

c r o p p i n g and i n c o r p o r a t i n g livestock,

conclusion, 377 distribution, 3 7 2 - 7 5

423-25 grazing planning, 518

financial

information, gathering, 4 9 0 - 9 1

identifying customers and m e e t i n g their

predator-prey connection, 454 t i m e p l a n t s a n d soils a r e e x p o s e d t o t h e animals, 392

w e a k link, 289, 292

needs, 3 7 1 - 7 2 niche, 3 6 9 - 7 0 p r i c i n g , 376—77

u n n a t u r a l w a y c a t t l e are f a t t e n e d f o r

p r o d u c t , d e v e l o p i n g a, 3 7 1 p r o m o t i n g y o u r p r o d u c t , 375—76

slaughter, 2 4 0 - 4 1 see also A n i m a l i m p a c t ; D e n s i t y a n d h e r d effect, stock; H e r d i n g animals

satisfaction, customer, 377 selling contrasted w i t h , 3 6 8 strategy, d e v e l o p i n g a m a r k e t i n g , 3 7 0 - 7 1

Living organisms: c o m m u n i t y dynamics, 2 5 1 - 5 2

M a x P l a n c k I n s t i t u t e , 191

diagnosing the cause o f problems, 533

M a y a n civilization, 4 2 6

diversity o f plants o n croplands, 2 8 7

M c N a u g h t o n , N o e l , 91

genetic engineering, 2 5 6 - 5 7

M e a n i n g f u l work, 68, 365

m o n i t o r i n g plans, 5 3 0

M e c h a n i c a l areas o f e n d e a v o r , 18, 4 2 8

practical applications, 2 5 2 - 5 6

Meeting

separate h e a d i n g for, reasons for, 2 5 0 see also C o m m u n i t y

dynamics

the Expectations

of the Land

(Berry),

178-79 M e m o r y aid, 5 0 3 - 5

Locusts, 441

M e t h y l b r o m i d e , 191

Logjams, identifying the, 5 3 4 - 3 7

M i c r o o r g a n i s m species, m o n o c u l t u r e s

L o n g - t e r m effects, 2 8 1 - 8 2

d i s c o u r a g i n g d i v e r s i t y in, 141 M i d d l e - a g e d couple f o r m i n g hohstic goal,

M a c h i n e r y used o n croplands, 109

83-84

M a i n t e n a n c e expenses, 2 9 7 - 9 8 , 476

M i d d l e East, 30, 2 2 6

M a m m a l g e n e r a , e x t i n c t i o n o f l a r g e , 6—7

M i d d l e - t y p e o f plants, 1 6 1 - 6 2

M a n a g e m e n t guidelines, 53

M i n d - o v e r - m a t t e r p h e n o m e n a , 169

c o m m u n i t y dynamics, 1 3 7 - 3 9

M i n e r a l cycle:

crisis m a n a g e m e n t , 1 8 0 - 8 1 , 2 1 0 - 1 2

above g r o u n d to surface, 1 4 4 - 4 6

fish,

animal impact, 248, 249

238

forests, 2 4 7

b o t t l e n e c k s in p l a n t g r o w t h , 4 5 3

information, gathering, 4 9 0 - 9 6

c o n c l u s i o n , 147—48

l a n d , 8, 3 4 6 - 4 7 , 5 2 9 - 3 1

defining, 1 4 1 - 4 2

l e s s o n s l e a r n e d in p r a c t i c e , 3 4 5 - 4 7

fire, 1 9 3 , 3 2 0

logjams, identifying the, 5 3 5

grazing, 222, 2 2 3

see also C r o p p i n g ; D e n s i t y a n d h e r d e f f e c t ,

l a n d e l e m e n t i n f u t u r e r e s o u r c e base, 8 1

s t o c k ; Fire; L e a r n i n g a n d p r a c t i c e ;

soil s u r f a c e , i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e , 1 4 7

Marketing; Organization and leadership;

surface, minerals to the, 1 4 2 - 4 4

Planning procedures; Population

technology, 260

m a n a g e m e n t ; T i m e p l a n t s a n d soils are e x p o s e d to the animals

u n d e r g r o u n d , s u r f a c e to, 146—47 M i n e r a l dollars, 175

611

INDEX

M i n i m u m w h o l e w h e r e holistic m a n a g e m e n t b e c o m e s possible, 59, 6 2 - 6 4

N e t w o r k s , l e a r n i n g g r o u p s o r , 356—58 N e w M e x i c o , 207, 212, 446, 447, 520

Mining companies, 324

N e w M e x i c o State University, 255

Mission statements, 92

N e w Z e a l a n d , 6, 5 2 0 , 521

M i s t a k e s , f e a r o f m a k i n g , 350—51

Nibblers, 221

M o m e n t u m , m a i n t a i n i n g , 352—53

Niche marketing, 3 6 9 - 7 0

M o n e y and labor, 6 2

N i l e p e r c h , 122

c o n c l u s i o n , 177

N o M o r e Teams (Schrage), 3 6 6

credit, 174

N o n e f f e c t i v e w a t e r cycle:

marginal reaction per dollar invested, 296-300

bare g r o u n d , 1 1 1 - 1 2 , 1 1 4 - 1 5 c o n s e q u e n c e s o f , 115—16

m i n e r a l dollars, 175

d e f i n i n g a, 1 0 6

p a p e r d o l l a r s , 175—76

droughts, 111

settlement and specialization, 172

e f f e c t i v e w a t e r c y c l e c o m p a r e d to, 1 1 3

solar dollars, 176

r e c o g n i z i n g a, 1 1 6 - 1 8

tokens, 1 7 2 - 7 5

N o n m e c h a n i c a l areas o f e n d e a v o r , 1 8

trade, international, 174

N o n n a t i v e s p e c i e s , 122—24

wealth and money, distinction between,

N o r t h A m e r i c a , 183, 2 2 6

171, 174 see also E n e r g y / m o n e y s o u r c e a n d u s e ; F i n a n c i a l p l a n n i n g ; G r o s s p r o f i t analysis

N o x i o u s plants, 2 3 7 Nutrients, 1 4 2 , 4 2 7 - 2 8 see also M i n e r a l c y c l e Nutrition, animal, 3 8 7 - 8 8

test M o n i t o r i n g plans: agriculture, 335

Oakley, Ed, 365

biological m o n i t o r i n g , 3 3 9 - 4 0 , 462, 531

Oil-eating bacteria, 119

conclusion, 341

O'Neill, Hendrik, 410

feedback loop, 3 3 6 - 3 7

O p t i m i s m , 562, 567

financial

O r e g o n , 214

fire,

planning, 3 3 7 - 3 9 , 483

437-38

g r a z i n g p l a n n i n g , 515—21

Organic farming, 281-82 Organization and leadership:

land m a n a g e m e n t , 5 2 9 - 3 1

collaborative organization, 3 6 2 - 6 3

p o p u l a t i o n m a n a g e m e n t , 450—52

conclusion, 367

purpose of, 3 3 5 - 3 6

framework

technology, 341 t i m e p l a n t s a n d soils are e x p o s e d t o t h e a n i m a l s , 379—81 Monocultures: a v o i d i n g , 417—19 c o m m u n i t y dynamics and management, 138,139 dependency, debilitating, 261

for m a k i n g decisions,

o r g a n i z i n g , 6 , 7, 2 3 , 2 6 - 2 7 , 5 0 - 5 5 hierarchies and bureaucracies, 3 6 0 - 6 2 i n f o r m a t i o n , flood o f , 3 5 9 i n t r o d u c i n g holistic m a n a g e m e n t w i t h i n an o r g a n i z a t i o n , 3 5 3 - 5 4 l e a d e r s h i p b e l i e f s , 363—64 l e a d e r s h i p skills a n d p r a c t i c e s , 364—67 p u r p o s e of, 3 6 0

m i c r o o r g a n i s m s p e c i e s , d i v e r s i t y i n , 141

Osborne, David, 566

p r o b l e m s s p a w n e d by, 2 7 9 , 2 8 1

Overlap, enterprises that don't, 3 0 7 - 8

M o n t a g n e , Cliff, 5 4 3

O x y g e n , 102

Moss, 132 Mulch, wood wool, 132-34

Paddocks, 384-88, 4 9 1 , 5 1 2 Paine, R o b e r t , 20

National forests/parks, 4 9 3 - 9 6

Pakistan, 4 3 9 - 4 0 , 4 4 6

N a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t , selfish, 5 6 5

P a p e r dollars, 1 7 5 - 7 6

Native Americans, 6 - 7 , 3 9 - 4 0 , 123

Paradigm effect, 1 3 - 1 4

N a t u r a l , w h a t is, 2 1 3 - 1 5

Paradigms, shifting, 3 4 9 - 5 0

N a t u r a l factors a f f e c t i n g plans, 4 8 9 - 9 0

Parks, national, 4 9 3 - 9 6

Nature Conservancy,The, 212

P a r t i a l rest, 1 9 5 , 2 0 9 - 1 1

Navajo peoples, 3 9 - 4 0 , 232, 5 6 4 - 6 5

Patch burning, 436

N e t profit, 303, 3 0 9

Path of Least Resistance,

N e t w o r k s , business m a n a g e r i a l i n c o m e

Paving materials allowing penetration and

(NMI), 484

the ( F r i t z ) , 3 5 2

a b s o r p t i o n o f water, 119

INDEX

G12

Pears, prickly, 2 5 5 - 5 6 , 4 4 1

b r i t t l e / n o n b r i t t l e e n v i r o n m e n t s , 1 6 , 37—40

Peer pressure, 3 5 1 - 5 2

d e n s i t y a n d h e r d e f f e c t , s t o c k , 403—4

People:

h u m a n beings, 2 0 - 2 2

b e h a v i o r , c a u s e a n d e f f e c t test a n d p r o b l e m s r e l a t e d t o h u m a n , 280—81 d e c i s i o n s , p e o p l e a f f e c t e d by, 3 1 7 - 1 8 f u t u r e r e s o u r c e base, p e o p l e e l e m e n t in,

overgrazing, 227 Paine, R o b e r t , 20 p o p u l a t i o n m a n a g e m e n t , 454—55 p y r a m i d , t h e e n e r g y , 1 5 0 , 151 self-regulating and non-self-regulating

79-80 population explosion, 5 6 2 - 6 3 rewarding, 4 8 3 - 8 4 r i g h t p e o p l e in t h e r i g h t p l a c e , 64—65

populations, 441 t i m e p l a n t s a n d soils are e x p o s e d t o t h e animals, 3 9 2 - 9 3

Perch, Nile, 122

P r e h i s t o r i c t i m e s , 17

P e r e n n i a l grasses, 2 1 7 - 1 8 , 3 7 9 - 8 0

Prejudices against f u t u r e tools/actions

Pesticides, 2 6 1 , 4 2 7 Philanthropic organizations, 3 1 3 Photosynthesis, 149

a p p e a r i n g in t h e h o l i s t i c g o a l , 9 0 P r e s c r i b e d b u r n i n g , 182—84 see also F i r e

Plague, the great, 541

Pricing, 3 7 6 - 7 7

Planning procedures, 5 3 - 5 4

Prioritizing actions, 2 9 7

c o n v e n t i o n a l , d e p a r t i n g from t h e , 4 5 9 - 6 2

P r i o r i t i z i n g ideas in q u a l i t y o f life s t a t e m e n t , 90

fire, 4 3 4 - 3 7 logjams, identifying the, 5 3 5

P r o d u c t c o n v e r s i o n Jink, 2 8 9 , 2 9 2

plan-monitor-control-rcplan, 335-36

P r o d u c t d e v e l o p m e n t , 3 7 I, 540—41

see also F i n a n c i a l p l a n n i n g ; G r a z i n g

P r o d u c t i o n , f o r m s of:

planning; Land planning; M o n i t o r i n g

defining, 52

plans

e v o l u t i o n of a holistic goal, 8 8

P l a n t s , see G r a s s l a n d s ; V c g e t a t i o n Plastrik, Peter, 5 6 6 Pohcies, creating sound: analysis p r i o r t o f o r m i n g a p o l i c y , 5 5 1 - 5 4 analyzing

an e x i s t i n g p o l i c y , 5 4 8 - 5 1

bad policies, screening out, 547 C e n t e r for Holistic M a n a g e m e n t , 5 4 6 - 4 7

g o v e r n m e n t agency m a n a g i n g a national forest and f o r m i n g holistic goal, 8 5 hohstic goal, 68, 69 m i d d l e - a g e d couple f o r m i n g hohstic goal, 83-84 q u a l i t y o f life, 7 5 - 7 8 q u a n t i f y i n g the, 90

c o n c l u s i o n , 554—56

Productivity, 280, 414

s y m p t o m s vs. u n d e r l y i n g c a u s e s , 5 4 5 - 4 6

Profits:

Politicians, 2 7 9

expenses, plan profit b e f o r e p l a n n i n g , 4 6 6

Pollution:

p l a n n i n g for, 4 8 1 - 8 2

chemical farming, 255

pricing, 3 7 6 - 7 7

enemy, a c o m m o n , 5 6 0 - 6 1

s o c i e t y a n d c u l t u r e test, 3 2 8 - 3 0

fire, 1 4 5 , 1 9 0 - 9 2 , 2 3 6

see also F i n a n c i a l p l a n n i n g ; G r o s s p r o f i t

Population

management:

age structure and p o p u l a t i o n health, 442-46

analysis test; M o n e y a n d l a b o r P r o m o t i o n a l m e s s a g e , 375—76 see also M a r k e t i n g

a g e s t r u c t u r e vs. n u m b e r s , 446—52

Psychology of the planning, 4 6 4 - 6 6

bottlenecks, 4 5 2 - 5 4

P u p p e t shows, 103

conclusion, 4 5 5 - 5 6

P u r p o s e , statement of, 6 9 - 7 0 , 84, 95

h u m a n population, explosion of, 5 6 2 - 6 3

P y r a m i d , t h e e n e r g y , 150—52

predator-prey connection, 454-55 self-regulating and non-self-regulating populations, 4 4 0 - 4 2 w h o l e c o m m u n i t i e s , in t h e c o n t e x t o f ,

Q u a l i t y o f life: challenge and growth, 73 crafting your statement, 7 4 - 7 5 defining, 52

439-40 Pork barrel legislation, 279

economic well-being, 7 1 - 7 2

Prairie dogs, 132

e m o t i o n a l responses, 98

P r e c i p i t a t i o n a n d h u n u d i t y , 30—34

e v o l u t i o n of a holistic goal, 8 8

see also R a i n f a l l ; W a t e r c y c l e Predator-prey

connection:

blindness of typical policies, ingrained, 3 2 2

g o v e r n m e n t agency m a n a g i n g a national f o r e s t a n d f o r m i n g a h o l i s t i c g o a l , 84—85 h o h s t i c g o a l , 7, 7 0

INDEX

613

l a n d e l e m e n t in f u t u r e r e s o u r c e base, 8 1

R e w a r d i n g people, 4 8 3 - 8 4

middle-aged couple, 8 3 - 8 4

Risk, assessment of, 3 0 8 - 9

p r i o r i t i z i n g ideas in q u a l i t y o f life

R o a d materials allowing penetration and

statement, 90

a b s o r p t i o n o f w a t e r , 11 9

p r o d u c t i o n , f o r m s o f , 75—78

Roan, 321-22

purpose and contribution, 7 4 - 7 5

R o d a l e Institute, 246

relationships, 7 2 - 7 3

R o o f s catching water, 119

s o c i e t y a n d c u l t u r e test, 3 2 7 - 2 8

R o o t cause o f the p r o b l e m , addressing the,

Q u a n t i f y i n g the forms of production, 90

273-74

Q u i c k fixes, 2 5 9 - 6 0 , 2 7 4

R o o t s t r u c t u r e o f p l a n t s , 110, 1 2 9

R a b b i t s , 441

Royal Military Academy (England), 503

Rainfall, 3 0 - 3 4 , 107, 4 0 0 - 4 0 1 , 5 1 2 - 1 3

R u n o f f , 1 1 2 , i 15

Rotational grazing, 522, 523

see also W a t e r c y c l e

R u r a l c o m m u n i t i e s e n h a n c i n g their

R a n c h e r s and environmentalists, conflict

s u s t a i n a b i l i t y , 543—44

between, 89-90 R a n g e l a n d s , see G r a s s l a n d s

Sable, 3 2 1 - 2 2

Rational grazing, 522, 523

Sahara desert, 7

Record keeping, 508

Sand dunes, 4

R e c o v e r y p e r i o d , base grazing p e r i o d s o n a

Sandia Indians, 226 Satisfaction, customer, 3 7 7

preselected, 3 8 4 - 8 5 , 506

Scientific m e t h o d , 18

R e d e s i g n e d Forest (Maser), 121 R e d u c t i o n i s t r e s e a r c h , b e y o n d , 541—44

see also R e s e a r c h , s c i e n t i f i c

Regional Training Centre, 9 5 - 9 7

Scurvy, 36

Rcid.Ace, 209

Segments, breaking enterprises into, 3 0 8

R e l a t i o n s h i p s , 72—73

S e l e c t i n g a p p r o p r i a t e e n t e r p r i s e s , 472—73

R e l i g i o n , 68, 5 6 2 - 6 3

Self-interest, 565

R e p l a n n i n g , 521

Selfish national interest, 5 6 5

R e s e a r c h , scientific:

Self-regulating and non-self-regulating

f o o t a n d m o u t h disease, 5 4 2

populations, 221, 4 4 0 - 4 2

Irish p o t a t o f a m i n e , 5 4 3

Selling, 3 6 8

k n o w l e d g e gaps, c l o s i n g , 538—40

see also M a r k e t i n g

plague, the great, 541

S e r v i c e s a v a i l a b l e in y o u r c o m m u n i t y , 8 3 ,

product development, 540-41

318-19

r e d u c t i o n i s t r e s e a r c h , b e y o n d , 541—44

S e t t l e m e n t a n d s p e c i a l i z a t i o n , 172

rural c o m m u n i t i e s e n h a n c i n g their sus-

Sevilleta R e f u g e , 2 1 2

tainability, 5 4 3 - 4 4

S h a r e d values, 71

Resources and resource m a n a g e m e n t : enhancers, resource, 2 8 8 - 8 9 . 291

S h o r t - t e r m effects, 2 8 1 - 8 2 Silt, 115, 4 2 6

policies, creating s o u n d , 5 4 6

Smuts, Jan C , 1 9 - 2 0 , 2 2 , 59

problems, 2 7 6 - 7 9

S o c i a l f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g plans, 4 8 9 - 9 0

w h o l e , d e f i n i n g the, 6 1 - 6 2

Social responsibility, 8

see also F u t u r e r e s o u r c e b a s e

see also S o c i e t y a n d c u l t u r e test

R e s t i n g land: brittle/nonbrittlc environments,

Social w e a k link, 2 8 4 , 2 8 5 , 4 3 2 196-209

conclusion, 215

S o c i e t y a n d c u l t u r e test: c u s t o m s o r t r a d i t i o n s , 326—27

crisis m a n a g e m e n t , 210—12

fire, 4 3 4

density and herd effect, stock, 244

profits, 3 2 8 - 3 0

d i a g n o s i n g t h e c a u s e of p r o b l e m s , 5 3 3

q u a l i t y o f life, 3 2 7 - 2 8

m o n i t o r i n g plans, 5 3 0

summary, 268

n a t u r a l , w h a t is, 2 1 3 - 1 5

Soil:

overrest, 2 3 6

a e r a t i o n , 1 0 6 , 1 1 0 , 114

soil c o v e r , 1 10

algal c r u s t s , 1 3 2 - 3 3

tool for m a n a g i n g ecosystem processes, 5 3

bare g r o u n d , 1 1 1 - 1 2 , 1 1 4 - 1 5 , 2 3 7 , 287,

total a n d p a r t i a l rest, 1 9 5 , 2 0 9 - 1 0 v i e w i n g e n v i r o n m e n t s in a n e w way, 2 9 , 34

439-40 c a p p i n g , 1 0 8 - 9 , 162, 238, 244, 2 8 7 cover, 110, 4 1 5

INDEX

614

Soil (continued) c r u m b structure, 108

diagnosing the cause of problems, 5 3 3 e n e r g y f l o w , 162—63, 2 6 0

erosion, 6

f u t u r e w e want, creating the, 561

f e e d i n g soil r a t h e r t h a n p l a n t s , 427—28

h u m a n l a b o r vs. m a c h i n e s , 4 2 8

fire,

184-85

hooves of herding populations and health of the land, 3 7 - 4 0 organisms in the, 110, 141 t i m e p l a n t s a n d soils are e x p o s e d t o t h e a n i m a l s , 41—49 t i m e w a t e r s p e n d s in t h e , 104—7 t u r n i n g over the, 1 4 1 , 4 1 5 - 1 8 see also A g r i c u l t u r e ; C r o p p i n g ; Deserts/desertification; M i n e r a l cycle; Vegetation; Water cycle Solar dollars, 176

i n c r e a s i n g p o w e r o f , 17—18 land planning, 491 m a g n i f y i n g potential for causing damage, 7 m e c h a n i c a l areas o f e n d e a v o r , 18 m o n i t o r i n g plans, 3 4 1 , 5 3 0 n a t u r a l laws, a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t e c h n o l o g y can supplant, 255 n o n e f f e c t i v e w a t e r cycle, 116 p r o b l e m at h a n d vs. l a r g e r i m p l i c a t i o n s , focusing on, 2 5 8 - 5 9 q u i c k fixes, 259—60

S o l a r e n e r g y , 328—29

resting land, 2 1 2

Specialization, settlement and, 172

soil e x p o s u r e , 1 0 9

S p r i n g , c o i l e d , 138—39

sophisticated forms of, 6

Squirrels, 2 8 1 - 8 2

tool for m a n a g i n g ecosystem processes, 5 3

Stability increasing w i t h increasing c o m p l e x i t y , 126—27

w a t e r cycle, 1 1 9 T e n d e n c i e s o f tools, 1 6 9 - 7 0

Starfish, 2 0

Termites, harvester, 132

Starvation, 414, 442, 543

T e s t i n g d e c i s i o n s , g u i d e l i n e s for, 5 3

S t o c k i n g rates, assessing, 508—13 see also D e n s i t y a n d h e r d e f f e c t , s t o c k Stress, s u b c o n s c i o u s , 1 8 0 S t u d y circles, 3 5 6

fire,

431-34

policies, creating s o u n d , 5 4 9 - 5 0 , 5 5 3 - 5 4 socially a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y s o u n d d e c i s i o n s , 267—72

S u b c o n s c i o u s w o r r i e s a n d stresses, 1 8 0

s u m m a r y , 330—32

S u c c e s s i o n , b i o l o g i c a l , 130—38, 2 5 2 - 5 3 ,

see also C a u s e a n d e f f e c t test;

393-94 Sunlight, 311 S u n l i g h t h a r v e s t i n g b u s i n e s s e s , 2 8 8 , 290—91, 298-300,320-23 S u s t a i n a b i l i t y test, 3 1 6

E n e r g y / m o n e y s o u r c e and use; Gross p r o f i t analysis test; S o c i e t y a n d c u l t u r e test; S u s t a i n a b i l i t y test; W e a k l i n k t e s t T e t r a h e d r o n , t h e e n e r g y , 152—55 Texas, West, 4 - 5

c o m m u n i t y y o u Live i n , 318—19

Tillage, conservation, 416

conclusion, 325

T i m e p l a n t s a n d soils a r e e x p o s e d t o t h e

environmental considerations, 3 1 9 - 2 5 fire,

433

rural c o m m u n i t i e s e n h a n c i n g their sustainability, 5 4 3 - 4 4 s o c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , 317—18 summary, 268 Sustainable Agriculture R e s e a r c h and Education (SARE), 544

animals, 378 b r i t t l e / n o n b r i t d e e n v i r o n m e n t s , 41—49 conclusion, 395 creativity, h u m a n , 1 8 0 - 8 1 d o r m a n t s e a s o n , g r a z i n g in t h e , 3 9 0 - 9 1 e n e r g y flow, 1 5 5 - 5 7 g r a z i n g a n d r e c o v e r y p e r i o d s are l i n k e d , 381,383-84

Sweden, 356

m o n i t o r i n g p e r e n n i a l grasses, 3 7 9 - 8 0

Symbiosis, 1 2 4 - 2 6

m o n i t o r i n g p l a n t g r o w t h rates, 3 8 0 - 8 2

S y m p t o m s attacked w i t h o u t t h o u g h t for the

o v e r b r o w s i n g , 388—90

cause, 279, 5 4 5 - 4 6

overgrazing and damage from trampling,

16 Take-half-leave-half management, 4 3 - 4 4

p a d d o c k n u m b e r s , i n c r e a s i n g , 385—88

Tallgrass p l a n t , 1 2 9

q u a l i t y o f an e v e n t c h a n g e d by, 2 4 2

Technology:

r e c o v e r y p e r i o d , base g r a z i n g p e r i o d s

agriculture, 2 6 0 - 6 1 , 414, 428 c o l l e c t i v e c o n s c i e n c e , d e v e l o p i n g a, 262-63

o n a p r e s e l e c t e d , 384—85 w i l d g r a z e r s a n d b r o w s e r s , 391—95 Tokens, 1 7 2 - 7 5

INDEX

615

T o o l - m a k i n g h u m a n s , 31

Vision statement, 92

T o o l s for m a n a g i n g e c o s y s t e m processes, 5 3 ,

Voisin, A n d r E , 4 3 , 4 7 , 5 1 1 , 5 2 2

1 6 7 - 7 0 , 241, 4 3 5 - 3 6 , 535

v o n Kieist, H e i n r i c h , 1 0 3

see also A n i m a l i m p a c t ; C r e a t i v i t y , h u m a n ; Fire; G r a z i n g ; L i v i n g o r g a n i s m s ; M o n e y

Wallace, Alfred, 125

a n d l a b o r ; R e s t e d land; T e c h n o l o g y

Wallace, D a v i d , 3 0 3

T o t a l rest, 1 9 5 , 2 0 9 - 1 1

War, 48

Tourism, 499

Wasps, 125

Trade, international, 174

W a t e r cycle:

Traditions, 3 2 6 - 2 7

animal impact, 248, 249

Trampling:

capping, 108-9

c u r i n g d a m a g e d o n e by, 2 3 8 , 2 8 7

in cities, 1 1 8 - 1 9

density and herd effect, stock, 404

conclusion, 119

i s o l a t i o n , n e v e r o c c u r s in, 5 3 9

c r e a t i n g an effective, 1 0 9 - 1 2

o v e r t r a m p l i n g , 245—46

cropping and managing water catchments,

standard doctrine, 244 t i m e p l a n t s a n d soils are e x p o s e d t o t h e a n i m a l s , 16, 4 2 , 3 7 9 t o o l l o r m a n a g i n g e c o s y s t e m processes, 241 see also A n i m a l i m p a c t ; H e r d i n g a n i m a l s Trust, 1 8 1 , 3 6 5

426 e f f e c t i v e , 107, 1 0 9 - 1 1 fire, 1 9 2 , 1 9 3 , 3 2 0 grazing, 222, 2 2 3 g r a z i n g p l a n n i n g , 514—15 l a n d e l e m e n t in f u t u r e r e s o u r c e base,

81

T s e t s e fly, 2 9 , 1 3 8 , 4 4 1

limiting factor to the g r o w t h o f

U l t r a - h i g h densities t o i n d u c e h e r d e f f e c t ,

noneffective, 1 1 1 - 1 8

c i t i e s / a g r i c u l t u r e / i n d u s t r y , 104 410-12 U n d e r g r o u n d , m o s t b i o l o g i c a l activity o c c u r s , 129—30

soil, t i m e w a t e r s p e n d s in t h e , 1 0 4 - 7 technology, 260 Texas, West, 4

United Nations, 4 3 9 - 4 0

Waterlogging, 106

U t i l i z a t i o n levels a n d o v e r g r a z i n g ,

W e a k l i n k test:

221-22

biological weak link, 2 8 6 - 8 8 financial

p l a n n i n g , 474—75

Valued, feeling, 367

financial

w e a k l i n k , 288—93

Values, 6 8 , 7 1 , 9 0 , 9 1 - 9 2

fire, 4 3 2

see also S o c i e t y a n d c u l t u r e test Variable (direct o r r u n n i n g ) costs, 303—6 Vegetation: brittle/nonbrittle environments, 30-34 c o n s u m p t i o n / b r e a k d o w n o f , 16, 3 3 - 3 4 , 36

q u e s t i o n s t o ask, 2 8 4 social w e a k l i n k , 2 8 5 summary, 268 Wealth and money, distinction b e t w e e n , 171, 174, 1 7 5 see also M o n e y a n d l a b o r Wealdi-generating expenses, 475

density and herd effect, stock, 1 5 7 - 6 1

W e a t h e r i n g , physical, 1 4 5

f e e d i n g soil r a t h e r t h a n plants, 4 2 7 - 2 8

W e e d i n g out inappropriate enterprises,

fire, 6 , 7 , 1 8 2 - 8 7 , 4 3 6 hooves of herding populations and health of d i e land, 3 7 - 4 0 m o n o c u l t u r e s , 1 3 8 , 1 3 9 , 141 n o n n a t i v e i m m i g r a n t s , 124

472-73 Weeds, 2 2 3 , 4 1 7 W e t - t y p e o f plants, 1 6 1 W h o l e , defining the, 26 b i g p i c t u r e , f o c u s i n g o n t h e , 62—64

n o x i o u s plants, 2 3 7

c o m m u n i t y d y n a m i c s , 127—29

photosynthesis, 149

decision-makers, 6 0 - 6 1

r o o t s t r u c t u r e of plants, 110, 1 2 9

first s t e p in holistic m a n a g e m e n t , 15

see also A g r i c u l t u r e ; C r o p p i n g ; E n e r g y

logjams, identifying the, 534

flow; G r a z i n g ; M i n e r a l cycle; P o p u l a t i o n m a n a g e m e n t ; T i m e p l a n t s a n d soils are e x p o s e d to t h e a n i m a l s ; W a t e r cycle V i c t o r i a Falls, 1 1 7 , 1 8 3

m i n i m u m w h o l e w h e r e holistic m a n a g e m e n t b e c o m e s possible, 5 9 money, 62 policies, c r e a t i n g s o u n d , 5 4 8 - 4 9 , 5 5 2

616

Whole, defining the

INDEX

(continued)

Zebra, 321

population management, 439^10

Zietzman, Johann, 410

r e s o u r c e base, t h e , 6 1 - 6 2

Z i e t z m a n , Wessel, 4 1 0

wholes within wholes, 65-66, 9 4 - 9 7

Zimbabwe:

see also H o h s t i c l i s t i n g s

drainage, 162

Wholesale, 3 7 3 - 7 4

fire, 1 8 7 , 1 8 9 , 4 3 7 - 3 8

Wildebeest, 321

f o o t and m o u t h disease, 5 4 2

Winterfat, 234

game counts, 449

World Bank, 5 1 2 - 1 3

land planning, 4 9 9 p r e d a t o r - p r e y c o n n e c t i o n , 20—22

Y e o m a n s , K e i t h , 116

t i m e p l a n t s a n d soils are e x p o s e d t o t h e

Z a m b e z i R i v e r , 1 17

t s e t s e fly, 2 9 , 1 3 8

Zambia, 2 0 - 2 2 , 173

w a t e r cycle, 11 7

animals, 394

About the Center for Holistic Management T h e C e n t e r for Holistic M a n a g e m e n t was established in 1984 as an international n o n p r o f i t c o r p o r a t i o n to advance t h e practice of H o h s t i c M a n a g e m e n t and to c o o r d i n a t e its c o n t i n u e d d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e C e n t e r serves as the h u b of an i n f o r m a t i o n e x c h a n g e n e t w o r k that includes an association o f educators certified to provide training in Holistic M a n a g e m e n t , individual practitioners, g r o u p s of practitioners w h o associate as m a n a g e m e n t c l u b s / l e a r n i n g g r o u p s or m o r e formally as state, regional, or national affiliates, and a sister organization, f o u n d e d in 1992, the Africa C e n t r e for Holistic M a n a g e m e n t , in Victoria Falls, Z i m b a b w e . To facilitate the flow of i n f o r m a t i o n , t h e C e n t e r publishes a b i m o n t h l y newsletter, Holistic Management IN PRACTICE, w h i c h regularly updates the ideas presented in this b o o k and provides a f o r u m in w h i c h readers can share n e w insights or case studies of particular challenges they have o v e r c o m e . T h e C e n t e r also hosts several c o n f e r e n c e s on t h e I n t e r n e t that enable those w i t h pressing q u e s tions to receive a variety of timely responses. E a c h year w e r u n training p r o g r a m s for u p to t w e n t y individuals w h o , o n c o m pletion of t h e t w o - y e a r p r o g r a m , are certified to provide H o h s t i c M a n a g e m e n t training and f o l l o w - u p s u p p o r t to p e o p l e in their o w n c o m m u n i t i e s or in the institutions they represent. C e r t i f i e d E d u c a t o r training p r o g r a m s are c u r r e n t l y r u n in t h e U n i t e d States and in s o u t h e r n Africa and are planned in o t h e r c o u n t r i e s in the near future. To s u p p o r t t h e efforts of its certified e d u c a t o r s the C e n t e r has e n g a g e d in a n u m b e r of research projects that e x p l o r e ways to i n t r o d u c e Holistic M a n a g e m e n t in a variety of f o r u m s , most recently w i t h i n rural c o m m u n i t i e s in t h e U n i t e d States and in villages in d e v e l o p i n g nations that subsist entirely or largely o n agriculture. In r e t u r n , certified e d u c a t o r s also w o r k w i t h C e n t e r staff to design e d u cational materials and p r o d u c t s for practitioners, such as p l a n n i n g and m o n i t o r i n g guides, charts and f o r m s , Holistic Financial P l a n n i n g software, and a n u m b e r of o t h e r publications. T h e C e n t e r provides m a n a g e m e n t services and consultation to a variety of businesses, organizations, and g o v e r n m e n t institutions. T h r o u g h a f o r - p r o f i t s u b sidiary, Holistic M a n a g e m e n t International, t h e C e n t e r engages in c o m m e r c i a l activity that makes it possible to i n t r o d u c e Holistic M a n a g e m e n t to n e w audiences w h i l e d e r i v i n g r e v e n u e to help s u p p o r t o u r n o n p r o f i t efforts. As this b o o k was g o i n g to press, t h e C e n t e r ' s board and staff w e r e in t h e process of c h a n g i n g t h e C e n t e r ' s n a m e to T h e Allan Savory C e n t e r for Holistic M a n a g e m e n t in h o n o r of its f o u n d e r . For m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n on any of o u r programs, products, or services, contact the C e n t e r for Holistic M a n a g e m e n t , 1010 Tijeras, N W , A l b u q u e r q u e , N M 8 7 1 0 2 ; tel: ( 5 0 5 ) 8 4 2 - 5 2 5 2 ; fax: (505) 8 4 3 - 7 9 0 0 ; e-mail: c e n t e r @ h o l i s t i c m a n a g e m e n t . o r g ; website: w w w . h o h s t i c m a n a g e m e n t . o r g .

Island Press Board of Directors SUSAN E. SECHLER, Chair Vice President, Aspen Insitute

HENRY REATH, Vice Chair President, Collector's Reprints, Inc.

D R U M M O N D PIKE, Secretary President, The Tides Foundation

ROBERT E . BAENSCH, Treasurer Professor of Publishing, New York University

CATHERINE M . CONOVER

G E N E E . LIKENS

Director, The Institute of Ecosystem Studies D A N E NICHOLS

JEAN RICHARDSON

Director, Environmental Programs in Communities (EPIC), University of Vermont CHARLES C . SAVITT

President, Center for Resource Economics/Island Press VICTOR M . SHER

Environmental Lawyer PETER R . STEIN

Managing Partner, Lyme Timber Company RICHARD TRUDELL

Executive Director, American Indian Resources Institute WREN WIRTH

President, The Winslow Foundation

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