Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification: A Color Atlas

Human and

Nonhuman Bone Identification A C O L O R AT L A S

260

250

240

230

Human

220

210

and

200

Nonhuman Bone Identification

190

180

170

160

150

A C O L O R AT L A S

140

130

120

110

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

150

160

170

180

190

200

0

mm

CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487‑2742 © 2009 by Diane L. France CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid‑free paper 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 International Standard Book Number‑13: 978‑1‑4200‑6286‑1 (Hardcover) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978‑750‑8400. CCC is a not‑for‑profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation with‑ out intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data France, Diane L. Human and nonhuman bone identification : a color atlas / Diane L. France. p. ; cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978‑1‑4200‑6286‑1 (alk. paper) 1. Bones‑‑Atlases. 2. Anatomy, Comparative‑‑Atlases. 3. Forensic anthropology‑‑Atlases. I. Title. [DNLM: 1. Forensic Anthropology‑‑methods‑‑Atlases. 2. Anatomy, Comparative‑‑methods‑‑Atlases. 3. Bone and Bones‑‑anatomy & histology‑‑Atlases. 4. Humans‑‑anatomy & histology‑‑Atlases. 5. Mammals‑‑anatomy & histology‑‑Atlases. W 617 F815h 2008] QM25.F68 2008 612.7’50222‑‑dc22 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com

2008040949

If any person thinks the examination of the rest of the animal kingdom an unworthy task, he must hold in like disesteem the study of man. Aristotle De partibus Animalium

Contents Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi Acknowledgments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Cranium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Artiodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Perissodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Carnivora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Rodentia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Xenarthra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Marsupialia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Chiroptera. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Marine Mammals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Mandible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Artiodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Perissodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Carnivora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Rodentia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Xenarthra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Marsupialia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Marine Mammals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Dentition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Artiodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Perissodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Carnivora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Rodentia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Xenarthra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Marsupialia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Chiroptera. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Marine Mammals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141



vii

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification Scapula. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Artiodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Perissodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carnivora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rodentia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Xenarthra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Marsupialia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Marine Mammals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

145 147 159 161 171 179 181 183

Humerus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Artiodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Perissodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Carnivora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Rodentia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Xenarthra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Marsupialia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Marine Mammals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Radius. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Artiodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Perissodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Carnivora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Rodentia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Xenarthra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Marsupialia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 Marine Mammals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 Ulna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 Artiodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Perissodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 Carnivora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 Rodentia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Xenarthra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 Marsupialia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 Marine Mammals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 Metacarpals and Forelimbs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 Artiodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 Perissodactyle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 Carnivora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 Rodentia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 Chiroptera. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Marine Mammals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353

viii



Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Vertebrae. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357 Artiodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 Carnivora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 Rodentia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Pelvic Girdle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 Artiodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 Perissodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 Carnivora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 Rodentia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 Xenarthra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 Marsupialia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 Marine Mammals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 Femur. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417 Artiodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 Perissodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433 Carnivora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 Rodentia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445 Xenarthra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453 Marsupialia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455 Marine Mammals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 Tibia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461 Artiodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465 Perissodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477 Carnivora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479 Rodentia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489 Xenarthra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497 Marsupialia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499 Marine Mammals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501 Fibula. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505 Artiodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509 Carnivora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511 Rodentia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521 Xenarthra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 Marsupialia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531 Marine Mammals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533 Metatarsals and Hindlimbs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537 Artiodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541 Perissodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553 Carnivora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555

ix

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification Rodentia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559 Xenarthra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563 Chiroptera. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565 Skeletons Arranged by Species. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569 Artiodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 Perissodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631 Carnivora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637 Rodentia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675 Xenarthra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705 Marsupialia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711 Chiroptera. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717 Marine Mammals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719 Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725

x

Preface When someone presents a bone (or series of bones) to a forensic anthropologist for identification, decid­ ing whether or not the bone is human is one of the first steps in determining its importance in a medico­ legal investigation.  Almost every forensic anthropologist has been asked to drop everything and go to a scene that has been secured by law enforcement because someone believes that the skeleton in the bushes is human, only to discover that those remains are from a deer.  The inconvenience and expense associated with an exercise such as this is one reason why human/nonhuman bone identification is one of the most popular subjects in seminars I present to law enforcement. This book is intended to give law enforcement, medicolegal investigators, forensic anthropologists, and even the general public an atlas with photographs and other information necessary for bone identifi­ cation. Admittedly, it is difficult to create a reference book such as this for such a large audience. Some professionals will be able to skim or skip certain sections of the book that are designed for the novice reader, while some readers will find it necessary to study the initial osteology section to learn the basic terminology used in bone identification. This text is divided into three sections:



I. General Osteology What Is Bone? Form Follows Function — the Major Differences between Humans and Other Animals Growth and Development II. Major Bones of the Bodies of Different Animals (Grouped by Bone) III. Skeletal Elements of Human and Nonhuman Animals (Bones from Each Species Are Shown Together)

In Sections II and III, all bones are from the left side of the body. The scales shown with bones are in millimeters. This book is NOT intended to give all of the answers! It is NOT intended as a replacement for expe­ rienced professionals. It is intended as a rough guide to help determine human from nonhuman bone. There is variation among species and among individuals within species, and this natural variation can lead to misdiagnoses.

IF YOU ARE UNSURE OF YOUR DIAGNOSIS, CONSULT A PROFESSIONAL!

Although every attempt was made to find complete skeletons in good condition, some skeletons were incomplete or abraded. Some skeletal elements were oddly colored, and, although Photoshop® was used to make the color more appropriate, some of the photographs are still somewhat oddly colored. Not all the bones of the body are represented. It is logical and it has been my experience that the bones represented in this book are the bones most often discovered.



xi

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification One final note: this book discusses the gross morphological differences between the species repre­ sented. It does not address the biochemical nor the microscopic differences between humans and non­ humans. If a bone or bone fragment cannot be identified with help from this book, the reader should be aware that other methods exist to identify whether or not a bone is human.

A note about the language used in this book Although it is typical to hear someone ask whether a bone is “human or animal,” it is true that humans ARE animals, and a more appropriate and technically correct way to ask the question is: “Is it human or nonhuman?” Also because this book is intended for the researcher who is trying to distinguish between humans and nonhumans, although nonhuman skeletons have different names for some skeletal and dental elements, the human equivalent term is used.

xii

Acknowledgments Authors of many books say that the book could not have been completed except with the help of oth­ ers, and that statement is no more true than with this book. If I had to single out one person without whose help this book would not have been possible, that person would be Dr. Linda Gordon, Collec­ tion Manager, Division of Mammals at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. Although Dr. Gordon had as much work to do and as many deadlines to meet as any person can have, she always offered me her time, expertise, and access to the collections, and for that I am most grateful. I owe her a great deal. My husband, Art Abplanalp, is incredibly supportive and kind at all times, and that support did not waver while I was focused on this book. I am a lucky person to have him as my partner in life. Although my family and friends asked me “Is it done yet?” countless times, and even though a couple of them threatened me with “an intervention” if I didn’t come out to ride horses once in awhile, it was all done in friendship. Shane Walker, the manager of my small business, France Casting, took over many responsibilities so that I could make the trips to Washington, D.C., and so that I could take the time to write. He is fantastic. Becky Masterman and Jill Jurgensen from CRC Press/Taylor & Francis, have been terrific. They have both been quick to answer emails, and continued to have great senses of humor throughout the entire process. Thank you both! With all of this help and support, it might be difficult to believe that I could have made any mistakes in this book. If I did, it’s my own fault.



xiii



Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Cranium Mandible Hyoid Cervical Vertebrae Clavicle Sternum Scapula Ribs Humerus Thoracic Vertebrae Lumbar Vertebrae Radius Ulna Os Coxa Sacrum Coccygeal Vertebrae Carpals Metacarpals Phalanges Femur Patella Tibia Fibula Tarsals Metatarsals Phalanges

Figure 1.1 Human skeleton.



xv

xvi

Figure 1.2 Dog skeleton.

Phalanges

Metatarsals

Tarsals

Fibula

Femur

Sacrum Os Coxa

Coccygeal Vertebrae (tail) Ribs

Tibia

Patella

Lumbar Vertebrae

Scapula

Thoracic Vertebrae

Phalanges

Metacarpals

Carpals

Radius

Ulna

Humerus

Sternum

Cervical Vertebrae

Mandible

Cranium

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification



Figure 1.3 Bison skeleton.

Phalanges

Metatarsals

Tarsals

Tiba

Fibula

Patella

Femur

Os Coxa

Sacrum

Coccygeal Vertebrae

Ribs

Lumbar Vertebrae

Sternum (out of position)

Scapula

Thoracic Vertebrae

Phalanges

Metacarpals

Carpals

Radius

Ulna

Humerus

Mandible

Cervical Vertebrae Cranium

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

xvii

Part I Introduction Before diagnosing whether or not a bone is human (indeed, at the start of any forensic investigation involving suspected skeletal remains) the first step is to determine whether or not the object in question is actually bone. Many organic and inorganic materials can mimic bone (see Figure 1.4). This can be even more confusing because bone can take on the color of its environment (bone can be darker when in dark soil, red in red soil, greenish when exposed to copper, and can be bleached white when exposed to the sun, wind, and water) (see Figures 1.5 and 1.6).

Figure 1.4 Human femur (top), wood (middle), very weathered bone (bottom).

Figure 1.5 Bleached white vertebra that has been in the elements (left), vertebra that was discovered in reddish soil (middle), vertebra that has been cleaned and preserved (right).



1

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Figure 1.6 Copper-stained bone (on left) from contact with copper while decomposing.

Figure 1.7 Human femoral neck. Note external textural differences between the femoral head and the neck.

In addition to the general gross morphology (shape) of the skeletal element, the external and internal textures of the bone are vital to diagnosing the bone and the species (see Figure 1.7 for an example of texture on bone). The basis for understanding why this is important involves knowledge of the different components of bone. While the color of the bone is not as important as other considerations when diagnosing species, it is very important in determining the taphonomic influences at work. Taphonomy is defined as anything that happens to a body after death. This includes the decomposition environment and patterns (climate, water, and insects, for example, and even the temperature of the laboratory in which the remains are stored). The postmortem (after death) history of the remains is sometimes one of the most important clues in solving a forensic case, and should never be dismissed when collecting evidence (including remains).

What Is Bone? Bone is composed of both an organic and an inorganic component. That is, bone is not entirely min­ eral; there is a soft tissue component as well. The mineral component is a compound of calcium and phosphates called hydroxyapatite that is formed in and around an organic matrix containing collagen. Collagen is similar in consistency to very thick, relatively hard gelatin (like a hard Jello® made with much less water than usual). In living bone and in bone that is still relatively fresh after death, the col­ lagen component is significant, but as the body and bone decompose, this organic collagen component usually decays before the mineral component is significantly affected. There are exceptions to this rule if, for example, the bone is exposed to chemicals that dissolve the mineral component and leave the organic component (most people will remember grade-school biology in which chicken bones were soaked in vinegar to dissolve the minerals and leave a rubbery, soft material that looked like a chicken bone). Remembering that there is an organic as well as an inorganic component to bone also helps to explain the way in which bone develops and the way it reacts to various stresses (fractures, cuts, dis­ eases, etc.).

2



Bone Morphology Bone is a living, dynamic tissue that responds to its environment. To a large extent, the form of a bone is determined by its function and the function is determined by its form. For example, humans use our forelimbs largely for manipulating and carrying objects, while a cow uses its forelimbs for locomotion and to support the cranial half of its body. It makes sense, therefore, that a cow forelimb will be more massive and have a narrower range of motion than will the human forelimb. If an investigator under­ stands and uses this basic principle, it will not be necessary to memorize the form of each bone of each species to diagnose whether or not the bone is human! At the same time, however, it is interesting that the individual bones of human and nonhuman mammals (the concentration of this book) are similar enough in morphology that it is relatively easy to determine whether the bone is an ulna or a femur (Figures 1.8 and 1.9). If the investigator is able to determine which bone of the body he is holding, it becomes relatively easy to determine whether or not the bone is human. This book contains hints intended to help with this initial determination. In determining whether or not a bone is human, it is important to distinguish between an area of bone-to-bone articulation, an area of muscle attachment (origin and/or insertion), and an area of relatively smooth bone that is neither an area of articulation nor an area of muscle attachment (Figure 1.10). In healthy bone, the area of articulation between two bones that are designed to move against each other* will have a smooth surface. This surface will be separated from the

Figure 1.8 Ulna of human (left) and antelope (right).

Figure 1.9 Femur of human (left) and moose (right).

*  There are other types of joints between bones in which motion is limited or essentially absent (such as at the sutures of the cranium). These articular surfaces are not smooth.



3

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Smooth bone of articular surface.

Roughened area of muscle attachment.

Long bone shaft.

Smooth bone of articular surface.

Figure 1.10 Articulation and muscle attachment areas of a common long bone.

articular surface of the other bone by a layer of cartilage able to withstand normal movement, and is sometimes filled with a slippery lubricant called synovial fluid (somewhat like egg whites, and in fact the word can be broken down to “syn” meaning “together” and “ovia” meaning egg). If the cartilage or articular surface is damaged, the joint surfaces may break down causing degeneration and perhaps areas of eburnation (areas where the bones polish each other by the rubbing action) (Figure 1.11). This and other pathological conditions may confuse the diagnosis of species, and if a pathological condition is suspected, the bone should be taken to an expert for diagnosis. The area of origin or insertion of a muscle (or muscle tendon) or ligament on bone is rough and often raised (though not all rough areas are locations of muscle attachment). Generally, the larger and more powerful a muscle is, the more area of the bone it needs on which to anchor itself. Note, for example, the large crest at the back of the cranium of the moose in Figure 1.12a and compare that to the smoother corresponding area on the human (Figure 1.12b). The neck muscles in the moose must work against gravity to hold up a very large head, while the head of a human is balanced on top of the spinal column and does not require large muscles to hold the head up (the specifics of these actions will not be covered in this book). After determining the bone in question (femur, humerus, etc.) and identifying the areas of articula­ tion and muscle insertion on the bone, one can determine whether the bone is from a quadruped and whether it is from a mature individual. Figures 1.10, 1.13, and 1.14 show common features and termi­ nology used in osteological analysis.

4



Eburnation (polishing) due to boneon-bone contact. Figure 1.11 Degenerative process in knee joint with breakdown of the articular surface and eburnation (polishing).

Figure 1.12 Moose cranium (left) showing large area of muscle insertion and human cranium (right) showing smaller area for muscle insertion.

Cortical bone.

Trabecular bone (also called cancellous bone or spongy bone). Figure 1.13 Cross section of typical long bone.



5

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Caudal

Cranial

Dorsal Ventral Note: Posterior in humans is analogous to dorsal in quadrupeds, and anterior in humans is analogous to ventral in quadrupeds. Medial Lateral

Anterior

Proximal

Distal

Midsagittal Plane Figure 1.14 Planes of the body.

6

Posterior



Table 1.1

Anatomical terminology

Anterior: in front (analogous to ventral in nonhumans) Appendicular: the skeleton of the limbs Axial: the skeleton of the head and trunk Caudal: toward the tail Coronal plane: parallel to the coronal suture Cranial: toward the head Distal: away from trunk of body along a limb Dorsal: in back (analogous to posterior in humans) External: outside of Inferior: lower Internal: inside of Lateral: perpendicularly away from midsagittal plane Longitudinal: coursing or placed lengthwise Medial: perpendicularly toward the midsagittal plane Midsagittal plane: in a line defined by the sagittal suture of the cranium Posterior: behind, to the back (analogous to dorsal in nonhumans) Pronation: rotation of the hand and forearm so that the palm faces posteriorly Proximal: toward the trunk of the body along a limb Sagittal section: any section of the body parallel to the sagittal suture of the cranium Superficial: near the surface Superior: above, top Supination: turning the palm of the hand anteriorly Transverse: any crosswise section Ventral: in front (analogous to anterior in humans) Vertex: top, highest point In mouth: Buccal: toward the cheek Distal: at the greatest distance from the anterior midline of the mouth Labial: toward the lips Lingual: toward the tongue Mesial: toward the anterior midline of the mouth Occlusal: the chewing surface of the teeth



7

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification Table 1.2

Features of Bone

Feature (plural)

Definition

Cavity (cavities):

an open area

Condyle (condyles):

rounded process near the point of articulation with another bone

Crest (crests):

a projecting ridge

Diaphysis (diaphyses):

the shaft of bone

Epiphysis (epiphyses):

a process of bone initially attached to another piece of bone by cartilage, and usually later consolidated with it by bone

Fontanelle (fontanelles):

membranous space between cranial bones in fetal life and infancy

Foramen (foramina):

a hole or opening

Fossa (fossae):

a pit, depression, or cavity

Meatus (meatuses):

a canal

Process (processes):

any outgrowth or prominence of bone (also, in this book, called a projection)

Sinus (sinuses):

bone cavity lined with mucus membrane

Suture (sutures):

areas of articulation between cranial bones

Torus (tori):

an elevation or prominence

Tubercle (tubercles):

a small, knob-like projection on bone

Tuberosity (tuberosities):

a large, rough eminence or projection on bone

Comparison of the Skeletons of Quadrupeds and a Biped Hints: More sculpted bones are usually nonhuman, even in immature bones. More sculpted articular surfaces have decreased range of motion while less sculpted articular surfaces may have greater range of motion. Quadruped: an animal that habitually walks on four limbs Bipeds: an animal that habitually walks on two limbs This book is intended to be a guide to the differentiation between human bipeds and nonhuman quadrupeds. Quadrupeds (or those animals who habitually walk on four limbs) and bipeds (humans who walk on two legs) are not the only two categories of locomotion, but they are the two categories pertinent to this book. For example, brachiators (those primates who habitually swing from branch to branch in trees) have significantly different skeletal morphology because of this greatly different loco­ motion pattern, and will not be covered in this book. Among the quadrupeds covered in this book, the differences in locomotor patterns are reflected in the morphology of the skeleton (particularly the postcranial skeleton). The skeleton of a deer reflects the need for an animal of moderate size to move quickly. Elk need to move quickly, but they are larger animals than deer, and the skeleton reflects that size difference (the bones are larger and more massive). The buffalo and cow are massive animals that do not move quickly, so their skeletons must support 8

much more weight without the need for speed. Horses are large, fast animals, and their skeletons are interesting because they are significantly different from any other animal studied in this book. Sheep and goats are relatively short animals with significant weight for their height and a moderate need for quickness. Dogs, and particularly cats, are fast runners that do not carry much weight. Beavers show skeletal modifications near the tail that allow for large muscle insertions to control that large tail. Bad­ gers are digging animals and their forearms demonstrate that pattern.

The Vertebral Column and Thorax (Chest) Area The vertebral column is divided into five sections: cervical (usually 7 in number), thoracic (usually 12 in number), lumbar (usually 4 to 6 in number), sacral (usually 4 to 6 in number but fused in the adult to form the sacrum) and coccygeal (varies in number according to whether or not the spe­ cies has a tail). Humans and nonhumans have about the same number of vertebrae (even giraffes have only 7 cervical or neck vertebrae! See Figure 1.15), but the shape of the vertebral column and of the individual vertebral bodies differs. The vertebral column in a typical quadruped has a single gradual curve from the neck to the pelvic girdle (somewhat like a cantilever bridge), while the human has an “S”-shaped column. This difference in vertebral column shape is reflected in the morphology of the vertebrae as well. The quadruped typically has a longer, more cylindrical vertebral body than does the human, and the vertebral bodies are more similar in length from the neck region to the pelvis. Humans have more wedged-shape vertebrae (Figure 1.16), and the bodies of the vertebrae are gradually larger from the neck region to the pelvis (each vertebra carries more weight than the vertebra above it, so the bodies are larger as one progresses “down” the vertebral column). The spinous process of a vertebra (in all species) is that projection on the dorsal or posterior aspect of the vertebra (dorsal in a quadruped is analogous to posterior in the human). The spinous process is the area of insertion muscles along the spine, and is very different between large quadrupeds (cows, horses, etc.) and humans or small quadrupeds. This is the general area of insertion of the neck muscles respon­ sible for holding the head up against gravity. Note that in the large quadrupeds the spinous processes are huge relative to the size of the vertebra (see Figure 1.17). Note that the thorax (chest cavity including ribs) is deep and narrow in quadrupeds and shallow and broad in humans (which brings the center of gravity of humans closer to the vertebral column). This, naturally, changes the shape of the ribs, making ribs straighter in quadrupeds and more curved in humans (see Figure 1.18).

Figure 1.15 Second cervical vertebra of human (left) and giraffe (right) placed in same plane. Notice the size of the scale in each photograph (smallest ticks are millimeters in each).



9

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Figure 1.16 Wedge-shaped vertebra of human (left) and cylindrical vertebra of mountain lion (right).

Figure 1.17 Spinous process of thoracic vertebra in bison (above) and human (right).

Figure 1.18 Typical ribs of human (left) and cow (right).

10



Figure 1.19 Superior human clavicle (left) and inferior human clavicle (right).

Figure 1.20 Human (left) posterior scapula and moose (right) dorsal scapula.

The clavicle maintains the distance between the sternum and the scapula and provides support for the shoulder girdle. It is present in humans and in some other mammals in which the forelimbs are used for manipulation (such as the beaver), though it is vestigial or absent in many mammals and is therefore of limited use in species identification. The clavicle of the human is shown in Figure 1.19. In both photo­ graphs, the sternal articular surface is on the left and the scapular articular surface is on the right. The scapula is elongated in most nonhuman mammals, with the glenoid fossa (the point of articula­ tion with the humerus) at the end of the long axis. In humans the scapula is more triangular in shape, with the glenoid fossa along the most lateral surface (see Figure 1.20).

The Cranium As stated above, the area of the occipital region of large quadrupeds is modified for the attachment of large neck muscles devoted to counteracting the effects of gravity on a large skull. The nasal region of many quadrupeds is long and narrow. In many animals, the increased sense of smell is reflected in this long nose though in some animals the length of the face is a reflection of the morphology of the dentition. For example, the canids have a keen sense of smell as carnivores while the horse has a dental complex that reflects its vegetarian diet. The foramen magnum of a typical quadruped is located more posteriorly (which makes sense because the skull is in front of the spinal column). The foramen magnum in a biped is more centrally located under the cranium, which helps in balanc­ ing the cranium on the vertebral column (Figure 1.21). The mastoid process (see Figure 1.22) is the

11

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Figure 1.21 Foramen magnum in the human (left) and moose (above).

Figure 1.22 Mastoid process in human (left, at arrow) and corresponding area in wolf (right).

point of insertion of the sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle that originates on the clavicle and sternum, and is responsible for maintaining the balance of the skull on top of the vertebral column and for turning the head. The mastoid process is very small in quadrupeds, as there is little need to bring the cranium from a dorsal to a ventral position.

The Pelvis Because of the changes in the ilium, the center of gravity of quadrupeds is different from that in the biped. The pelvic girdle (os coxae and sacrum) in quadrupeds is long and narrow and reflects the function of the leg muscles that attach to the pelvis. The lower limbs in the large quadrupeds move antero-posteriorly with very little lateral motion, so the strength of the muscles of the leg that make this movement possible are benefited by a long pelvis (which acts as a long lever arm) The pelvic girdle in humans has become shorter and wider, reflecting the different locomotion patterns (balancing the weight over each leg independently as forward movement occurs) as well as the difference in support of the abdominal contents and the need for a large pelvic outlet for childbirth in females (Figure 1.23). 12



Figure 1.23 Human pelvic girdle (left) compared to pig pelvic girdle (right).

The Limbs In general, the forelimbs and hindlimbs of quadrupeds are of roughly equal length, while in humans the hindlimbs are considerably longer than are the forelimbs. The forelimbs of most quadrupeds carry somewhat more weight than do the hindlimbs, as the center of gravity is usually closer to the forelimbs. Certain bones of the forelimbs and hindlimbs of many quadrupeds are modified to increase the power to the legs. The concept of lengthening certain bones (and therefore muscle attachment areas) to increase the power of the muscle is easy to understand if we liken it to jacking up a car to change a tire. If you are trying to use a jack to lift a car, would you use more energy if you used a short handle or a long one? Naturally a long handle would use less of your energy and it would move through a greater distance to get the car the same distance off the ground. The biomechanics of a long lever arm in animal locomotion works the same way. The animal uses less energy to move what is on the end of the long lever arm. In addition (and this is particularly important in animals that run at high speed), that lever (or leg) moves through a greater range of motion than does a leg that is shorter or that has a shorter lever arm. The radius and ulna and tibia and fibula allow rotary (pronation and supination) motion in humans and in most smaller mammals. In humans, the radius and ulna are roughly equal in size and allow great flexibility in pronation and supination (Figure 1.24). The tibia and fibula in humans still allow at least a little rotary motion in the foot (though it is greatly reduced when compared to other primates). In many small quadrupeds the tibia and fibula are still separate bones and allow some rotary motion, but in many of the large quadrupeds the fibula is greatly reduced, so that there is no rotary motion of the foot. Likewise, in many of the large quadrupeds the radius and ulna fuse in the adult, so that there is no rotary motion of the forelimb. In general, the articular surfaces of the limbs of quadrupeds such as dogs, cats, and horses are more sculpted than those of primates (and higher primates and humans in particular). Observe the articular surface of the distal femur of a moose and compare it to the human distal femur (Figure 1.25).

13

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Figure 1.24 Human radius and ulna (left) and Moose radius and ulna (right). Arrows point to olecranon process of the ulna, insertion point of muscles that extend the leg. Note the increased area of bone devoted to muscle insertion in a large quadruped (right). Also notice that the two bones in humans are roughly the same size and allow for pronation and supination (described in text).

Figure 1.25 Human distal femur (above) and moose distal femur (right).

14



Figure 1.26 Hand of human (left), paw of wolf (middle) and hoof of a horse (right).

The hands and feet reflect different lifestyles in mammals. Most mammals have five fingers and five toes, but the larger quadrupeds have reduced fingers and toes — the mammals such as cow and sheep have two digits while the horse has one. These mammals often have rudimentary digits higher up the hoof. The dog and cat have four pads that touch the ground, but also have a “dew claw” higher up on the forelimb and hindlimb (Figure 1.26).

Growth and Development One of the most confusing aspects of determining whether or not a bone is human is trying to diag­ nose an immature bone. Very young bones (fetal or, depending upon the species, varying lengths of time after birth) are not as “sculpted” as are adult bones. Human bones, for the most part, remain less “sculpted” throughout the life of the individual. As was mentioned earlier, bone is composed of both organic and inorganic components. Most bones of the mammalian body are first formed as a cartilage matrix, although some bones, such as many bones of the cranium, develop from a different kind of soft tissue (membrane). The initial cartilage matrix grows in the fetus, and at some point in its development cartilage begins to be transformed into bone. When this occurs depends not only upon the species, but also the individual bone within the body, as different bones throughout the body will develop at different rates and ages. Experts can take advantage of this fact in diagnosing the age of an individual. At the very earliest stages, the centers of bone growth start as a single bone cell, and for a time are indistinguishable from other centers of bone growth of the same size in the body. Their location in the body can, of course, be determined if the body is intact, and this can give valuable information about the age of the individual; however, if the amorphous centers are discovered dry and out of context, they are often impossible to differentiate. In the cartilage model, osteogenic (bone-forming) cells overtake the cartilage cells and replace them with bone one bone cell at a time. Often a single bone goes through this process at different parts of the bone at different times. The first area of the bone for this to happen is usually in the primary section of the bone called the diaphysis (plural: diaphyses) (the approximate center of the shaft of a long bone,

15

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Figure 1.27 Human femur at two stages of development.

for example). Secondary centers of bone growth can occur at the ends of the bone and are each called an epiphysis (plural: epiphyses) (these usually begin bone growth later than does the diaphysis). Until the bone ceases growth, there is the cartilage matrix between these centers and a unique surface at the ends of these growth plates (see Figures 1.27 and 1.28). A bone may have several secondary centers of growth (Figure 1.29). In bone that starts with the cartilage matrix, each secondary center will grow and develop and eventually fuse into the growing and developing primary center. Bone growth in a shaft begins where bone-forming cells (osteoblasts) enter the cartilage matrix and begin to secrete a substance that is quickly mineralized. These boneforming cells enter the matrix through a blood vessel (the nutrient foramen) that leaves a foramen in the completed bone. The position and size of this foramen may help somewhat in identifying a bone in question. The area of rapid growth between the diaphysis and the epiphysis (or epiphyses) is the growth plate, or metaphysis. As the cartilage matrix is turned into bone at the diaphysis and the epiphysis, the cartilage between the two continues to grow and add new cells. In this way the bone growth between the diaphysis and epiphysis can continue. When the bone formation at the diaphysis meets the formation of bone at the

Figure 1.28 Epiphyseal surface (growth surface) in the human and nonhuman (from two different bones of the body). Notice that the surface is a different texture than that of any other kind of bone surface.

16



Figure 1.29 Different growth centers in the human femur.

Figure 1.30 Normal femur length (left) and shortened femur growth in an achondroplastic dwarf (right). This may be confusing in species identification.

epiphysis, the two unite and longitudinal bone growth ceases (that bone will not grow longer). This union occurs at different times in different bones, and the sequence and degree of union are useful in determi­ nating age at death. Also, if this happens too quickly, the bones may be shorter than normal (Figure 1.30). If it happens too late, bones may be longer than normal. This massive difference in size caused by acceler­ ated or retarded union of the growth centers may create confusion in species identification. Initial bone formation occurs very quickly and produces loosely woven bone (more a collection or weaving of spicules of bone). A significant amount of cartilage remains within these areas of rapid bone growth, and if dry bone (in which much of the organic component is removed) is observed at this stage, it will appear to be very porous (Figure 1.31). This bone growth is so rapid that it traps osteo­ blasts, which then become osteocytes (bone cells). Microscopically, these bone cells are important to age determination as well as (often) species des­ ignation. As an individual ages, bone is constantly remodeled when bone-absorbing cells (osteoclasts) remove calcium in tunnels they create through the bone cells. New bone is formed in these tunnels but it overlaps the older osteocytes, creating fragmentary osteocytes. Relative age can be determined by counting the complete (younger) osteocytes and the fragmentary (older) osteocytes. Many species have osteocytes that differ from those in human bone. Artiodactyls, for example, have osteons that are more the shape of curved bricks (or plexiform bone) than the round pattern seen in humans (see Figure 1.32). Some nonhuman animals have round osteons, but the rest of the bone differs

17

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Figure 1.31 Human infant femur (right) and immature chicken femur (left). Though very similar, and both have porous bone, note that the distal articular surfaces are quite different.

Figure 1.32 Microscopic cross sections of deer bone (left) showing plexiform bone and human bone (right) showing round osteons.

in microscopic and macroscopic morphology. This histological examination is within the realm of expert diagnosis, however, and will not be discussed in detail in this book.

Dental Growth, Development, and Eruption There are two sets of teeth in mammals: the deciduous (or baby) teeth followed by the permanent denti­ tion. All teeth develop from the crown to the tip (apex) of the root (Figure 1.33), and begin to develop deep inside the maxilla or mandible before reaching a point in their development when they erupt beyond 18



Figure 1.33 Developing human molar. Den­ tition forms from the crown to the root.

the gum line (or the alveolus in bone) and become notice­ able in the mouth. Note that in a young mandible, there are large voids (called crypts) in which the crown of the tooth develops, and those voids close around the root of the tooth as it erupts beyond the alveolus. If you find that large void, (be careful you don’t mistake it for a void caused by a disease process such as an abscess or a fracture before or after death) you know that a tooth was developing in it (Figure 1.34). Beneath (in the mandible) or above (in the maxilla) the deciduous tooth, the permanent tooth is forming, and while it is expanding in size, the root of the deciduous tooth begins to resorb. When enough of the deciduous root is gone, the deciduous tooth falls out (Figure 1.35). The difference in tooth morphology between humans and nonhumans is a very important way to distinguish between them (and between nonhuman species).

Figure 1.34 Tooth crypt.

Figure 1.35 Cutaway mandible showing developing dentition.



19

Cranium Human Cranial Features. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Human (Homo sapiens). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Artiodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Moose (Alces alces). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Elk (Cervus elaphus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Deer (Odocoileus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Bison (Bison bison). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Cow (Bos taurus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Antelope (Antilocapra americana) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Domestic sheep (Ovis aries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Domestic pig (Sus scrofa). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Llama (Lama glama). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Perissodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Horse (Equus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Carnivora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Bear (Ursus americanus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Wolf (Canis lupus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Coyote (Canis latrans). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Domestic dog (Canis domesticus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Mountain lion (Felis concolor). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Bobcat (Lynx rufus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Raccoon (Procyon lotor). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Badger (Taxidea taxus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Skunk (Mephitis mephitis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 River otter (Lontra canadensis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Rodentia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Beaver (Castor canadensis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Marmot (Marmota monax). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Prairie dog (Cynomys gunnisoni) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Rabbit (Lepus sp.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

21

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Squirrel (Sciuridae sciurus niger). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Xenarthra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Marsupialia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Opossum (Didelphis virginiana). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Chiroptera. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Vampire bat (Vampyressa nymphaea). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Marine Mammals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Seal (Phoca vitulina). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

22

Cranium

The skull is the cranium plus the mandible. The cranium articulates with the first cervical vertebra by means of the occipital condyles, which lie on the periphery of the foramen magnum. The spinal cord passes through the foramen magnum on its way from the brain to the vertebral column. Note the placement of the foramen magnum in humans and nonhumans. In nonhumans the foramen magnum is usually placed more posteriorly. The posterior neck muscles insert on the cranium behind the foramen magnum. In humans the upper-most point of insertion is a raised line on the posterior portion of the occipital bone called the superior nuchal line or sometimes the superior nuchal crest (though the latter term is more often used with nonhumans, as many times that line is so raised as to form a crest). One large anterior neck muscle in humans inserts on the mastoid process, which is larger in humans than in most other animals. Although there is variation, the general shape of the cranium (even in fragments) along with the placement of the sutures and foramina can be of help in determining whether the fragment is from a human or nonhuman.

Foramen magnum. Note posterior placement in nonhuman.



23

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Human Cranial Features Frontal bone. Parietal bone. Orbit. Nasal aperture. Maxilla.

Temporal bone.

Zygomatic bone. Mandible. Mastoid process. External auditory meatus (ear).

Palate. Zygomatic arch.

Occipital condyle. Foramen magnum.

Coronal suture. Sagittal suture. Lambdoidal suture. Occipital bone.

24



Cranium

Superior nuchal line in humans. Note raised surface, but no crest.

Nuchal crest in coyote (Canis latrans). Note raised margin for muscle insertion.

Caution! Hydrocephaly (commonly called “water on the brain”) is a condition in which there is too much cerebrospinal fluid surrounding the brain. In general bone reacts to gentle pressure by giving way, or molding itself around that pressure, and the cranium reacts this way to the extra pressure of the fluid. In nonhumans this fluid builds and causes the cranium to be more bulbous in shape. This may cause confusion when you see the nonhuman hydrocephalic cranium without the face.

Hydrocephalic calf.

Caution! Often turtle carapace segments are mistaken for cranial fragments. Note that the sutures are very small relative to the size of the shell when compared to the sutures in cranial material of any animal.



25

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Human (Homo sapiens)

Note morphology of cranial sutures.

This individual has extra cusps on his teeth, which is a normal variation. 26

Artiodactyla



27

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Moose (Alces alces)

Arrow illustrates “bump” between antlers.

Fenestration (window) on maxilla.

No upper incisors.

Long nasal extension.

Expect some variation due to the sex of the animal.

28



Cranium

Elk (Cervus elaphus) Lacrimal pits.

No anterior teeth in front of canine.

Expect some variation in this area with the sex of the animal.

Buttressed, pillared cheek teeth.



29

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Deer (Odocoileus)

Fenestra (window).

No anterior teeth on maxilla.

Pillared cheek teeth.

Expect some variation due to the sex of the animal.

Close view of maxillary dentition. (Also see page 97.)

30



Cranium

Bison (Bison bison) Expect some variation due to the sex of the animal.

No fenestra.

No anterior maxillary teeth.

Buttressed, pillared check teeth.



31

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Cow (Bos taurus)

No fenestra (window).

Expect some variation in this area depending upon breed and sex.

No anterior maxillary teeth. Buttressed, pillared cheek teeth.

32



Cranium

Antelope (Antilocapra americana)

Knife-like horn core.

Large, extended, round orbit. No anterior dentition on maxilla.

Fenestra (window).

Foramina at base of horn core.

Buttressed, pillared teeth.



33

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis)

No fenestra.

Rough, round horn cores. No anterior teeth on maxilla.

Buttressed, pillared cheek teeth.

34



Cranium

Domestic sheep (Ovis aries)

Nasals long.

No fenestra.

No anterior maxillary teeth.



35

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Domestic pig (Sus scrofa)

Note crenulated molars.

No fenestra.

Very long narrow cranium.

Note angles at posterior cranium.

Postorbital projections.

Bony extension.

36



Cranium

Llama (Lama glama) Fenestra.

No incisors on maxilla.

Diamond-shaped cranium with long nasals.



37

Perissodactyla



39

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Horse (Equus) Long nasal extension. No fenestra.

Long diastema (gap).

Anterior maxillary dentition present.

Canines (sometimes absent).

40

Carnivora



41

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Bear (Ursus americanus) Relatively short nasals.

Gradual slope on frontal.

Elongated crenulated molars (see mandible).

42



Cranium

Wolf (Canis lupus) Sagittal crest.

No fenestra, long narrow snout.

Postorbital projections.

Shearing teeth, long canines.



43

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Coyote (Canis latrans)

No fenestra. Elongated nasal region (compared to cats), and most dogs possess more teeth.

Large shearing cheek teeth.

44



Cranium

Domestic dog (Canis domesticus)

Russian Wolfhound.

Pug.

To a large extent, dog skulls are dog skulls. However, with extreme breeding in the Pug or Bulldog, for example, a high frequency of dental crowding occurs with the short faces.

German Shepherd.



45

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Mountain lion (Felis concolor) Rounded, short cranium.

Large canines.

Postorbital projections.

Curled, locking temperomandibular joint.

Note projection on malar bone to more complete orbit (compared with dogs).

46



Cranium

Bobcat (Lynx rufus)

Projection.

Postorbital projections.

Triangular, short palate.

Rounded, short cranium.

Somewhat curled, locking temperomandibular joint.

Only two cheek teeth (premolars).



47

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Raccoon (Procyon lotor)

Note curve on frontal bone and nasals.

No postorbital projections.

48



Cranium

Badger (Taxidea taxus)

Triangular infraorbital foramen.

Note shape of posterior cranium.

Large bulla (contains middle and inner ear).

Angled frontal area.



49

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Skunk (Mephitis mephitis)

Short nasals.

No postorbital projections.

50

Shorter face, reduced cheek teeth compared to racoon.



Cranium

River otter (Lontra canadensis) Short nasal extension.

Flat cranium.

No postorbital projection.

Projections. Large infraorbital foramen.



51

Rodentia



53

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Beaver (Castor canadensis)

Projection forward.

No postorbital projection. Long incisors that continue to grow.

54

Note cheek teeth.

Deep notch.



Cranium

Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum)

Large nasal aperture (opening).

Large infraorbital foramen.

No postorbital projections.

Large incisors.

Different morphology above incisors than beaver.



55

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Marmot (Marmota monax)

Postorbital projections.

Rounded crest.

56

Note morphology above incisors.

Flat cranium.



Cranium

Prairie dog (Cynomys gunnisoni)

Postorbital projections.



Angled (convergent) tooth row.

57

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Rabbit (Lepus sp.)

Fenestra (window) on maxilla.

Long postorbital projections.

Two sets of incisors.

58

H-shaped cheek teeth.



Cranium

Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus)

Large infraorbital foramen. Large diastema (gap).

No postorbital projections.

Note pattern of incisors.



59

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Squirrel (Sciuridae sciurus niger)

Postorbital projections.

Note angle at nasal opening.

60

Xenarthra



61

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus)

No anterior teeth on maxilla or mandible.

Long, narrow nasal region.

Peg-like small teeth.

62

Marsupialia



63

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Opossum (Didelphis virginiana)

Note sagittal crest.

Large (wide) zygomatic arch.

Note morphology of incisors.

Small postorbital projections.

64

Chiroptera



65

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Vampire bat (Vampyressa nymphaea)

Thin, (translucent) cranial bones. Bulbous cranium.

66

Marine Mammals



67

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Seal (Phoca vitulina)

Pointed projections.

Rounded, bulbous cranium from superior view.

Straight slope to forehead.

68

Mandible Human (Homo sapiens). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Artiodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Moose (Alces alces). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Elk (Cervus elaphus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Deer (Odocoileus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Bison (Bison bison). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Cow (Bos taurus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Antelope (Antilocapra americana) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Domestic sheep (Ovis aries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Domestic pig (Sus scrofa). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Llama (Lama glama). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Perissodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Horse (Equus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Carnivora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Bear (Ursus americanus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Wolf (Canis lupus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Coyote (Canis latrans). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Mountain lion (Felis concolor). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Bobcat (Lynx rufus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Raccoon (Procyon lotor). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Badger (Taxidea taxus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Skunk (Mephitis mephitis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 River otter (Lontra canadensis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Rodentia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Beaver (Castor canadensis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Marmot (Marmota monax). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Prairie dog (Cynomys gunnisoni) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Rabbit (Lepus sp.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Squirrel (Sciuridae sciurus niger). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

69

Xenarthra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Marsupialia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Opossum (Didelphis virginiana). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Marine Mammals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Seal (Phoca vitulina). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Mandible

The shape and size of the mandible are influenced by, among other things, the size and form of the den­ tition (which, of course, reflects the diet of the animal), and the size of the nasal region (which reflects the importance of the senses of smell). Most animals that survive on vegetation have flatter cheek teeth for grinding while carnivores have dentition that grabs and tears tissue. The mandible (lower jaw) articulates with the cranium at the temporomandibular joint by its man­ dibular condyles. The condyles and the coronoid process are at the superior aspect of the ascending ramus (the coronoid process is the area of insertion of the masseter muscle, one of the muscles used in chewing). The angle, breadth, and height of the ascending ramus are different in different animals. Unlike other animals, the human mandible has a chin. A

A B

B

C

Human



C

A: Coronoid process B: Mandibular condyles C: Ascending ramus

Moose

71

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Human (Homo sapiens)

The dental arcade in humans is generally shorter than in most quadrupeds (the nasal region is much shorter), though there is some variation in the shape.

Wide ascending ramus.

Projecting chin.

72

Artiodactyla



73

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Moose (Alces alces) Curved coronoid process.

Long diastema.

Note morphology of cheek teeth.

74



Mandible

Elk (Cervus elaphus) Curved coronoid similar to moose.

Note morphology of cheek teeth.



75

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Deer (Odocoileus) Overall, the deer mandible is smaller and more delicate than those of moose and elk.

Curved coronoid process.

Note dental morphology.

76



Mandible

Bison (Bison bison)



77

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Cow (Bos taurus) The incisors are broken in this specimen, but would look very much like bison.

Curved coronoid process.

Thick mandible.

Note dental morphology.

78



Mandible

Antelope (Antilocapra americana)

The antelope has a narrow mandible.

Straight, projecting coronoid process.

Note dental morphology.



79

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis) Curved coronoid process.

Note dental morphology.

80



Mandible

Domestic sheep (Ovis aries) Coronoid process angles and then straightens.



81

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Domestic pig (Sus scrofa)

Crenulated cheek teeth.

Blocky ascending ramus with short coronoid process.

Note that this specimen has a broken left canine and an abscessed left molar.

82



Mandible

Llama (Lama glama) Coronoid process curves medially.

Coronoid process projects straight up and then curves posteriorly.



83

Perissodactyla



85

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Horse (Equus)

The horse mandible has a morphology unlike any other discussed in this book. Sometimes these canines are missing.

86

Carnivora



87

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Bear (Ursus americanus)

Bulky, projecting coronoid process.

Molars are crenulated until worn, and then are smoother.

88



Mandible

Wolf (Canis lupus)

Bulky projecting coronoid process.

Large canines.



Large molar (carnasial).

89

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Coyote (Canis latrans)

Similar to wolf, but smaller and more slender.

Ascending ramus not as thick as in wolf.

90



Mandible

Mountain lion (Felis concolor) Cats have shorter mandibles than do dogs, and have fewer teeth.

This area does not curve upward as in dogs.



91

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Bobcat (Lynx rufus) A bobcat is smaller than a mountain lion, and the mandible is a little more curved.

The reduction in the length of the mandible as well as the reduction in number of teeth is true with all cats (including domestic cats).

92



Mandible

Raccoon (Procyon lotor)



93

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Badger (Taxidea taxus)

94



Mandible

Skunk (Mephitis mephitis)



95

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

River otter (Lontra canadensis)

Bulky coronoid process.

Shearing molars.

96

Rodentia



97

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Beaver (Castor canadensis)

Rodent incisors and molars.

98



Mandible

Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum)

Rodent incisors and molars.



Somewhat narrower than beaver.

99

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Marmot (Marmota monax)

Narrow incisors relative to beaver or porcupine.

Note shape at gonial angle.

100



Mandible

Prairie dog (Cynomys gunnisoni) Note size of mandible.

Note shape of dental arcade.

Note shape at gonial angle.



101

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Rabbit (Lepus sp.)

Note shape at gonial angle that narrows quickly and significantly toward the anterior aspect.

Note shape of cheek teeth.

102



Mandible

Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus)

Note shape at gonial angle.



Note shape of coronoid process.

103

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Squirrel (Sciuridae sciurus niger)

Note shape at gonial angle.

104

Xenarthra



105

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus)

Long, narrow, thin-boned mandible with peg-like teeth. No anterior dentition.

106

Marsupialia



107

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Opossum (Didelphis virginiana)

Large coronoid process.

Curved lower border (almost semicircular). Curved inward at gonial angle.

108

Marine Mammals



109

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Seal (Phoca vitulina)

Note cusp pattern on unworn teeth.

110

Slanting ascending ramus.

Dentition Human (Homo sapiens). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Artiodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Moose (Alces alces). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Elk (Cervus elaphus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Deer (Odocoileus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Bison (Bison bison). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Cow (Bos taurus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Antelope (Antilocapra americana) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Domestic sheep (Ovis aries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Domestic pig (Sus scrofa). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Llama (Lama glama). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Perissodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Horse (Equus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Carnivora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Bear (Ursus americanus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Wolf (Canis lupus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Coyote (Canis latrans). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Mountain lion (Felis concolor). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Bobcat (Lynx rufus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Raccoon (Procyon lotor). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Badger (Taxidea taxus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Skunk (Mephitis mephitis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 River otter (Lontra canadensis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Rodentia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Beaver (Castor canadensis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Marmot (Marmota monax). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Prairie dog (Cynomys gunnisoni) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rabbit (Lepus sp.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Squirrel (Sciuridae sciurus niger). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

129 130 130 131 131 132 132 133 111

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification Xenarthra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Marsupialia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Opossum (Didelphis virginiana). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Chiroptera. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Vampire bat (Vampyressa nymphaea). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Marine Mammals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Seal (Phoca vitulina). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

112

Dentition

The size and shape of the dentition reflect the diet of the animal to a large degree. Carnivores typically have incisors, canines, and molars (and often premolars) and these types of dentition look quite different from those animals that eat only vegetable matter (moose, elk, horses, etc.). Most animals that survive by hunting meat have different kinds of teeth for grabbing and tearing tissue, while animals that browse or graze tend to have flatter teeth for grinding. This section primarily examines cheek teeth. I: Incisor C: Canine P: Premolar M: Molar

I C

P

I I

M

P

C

M



C

Human

P

M

Coyote

Horse

113

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Human (Homo sapiens)

114

Artiodactyla



115

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Moose (Alces alces)

Elk (Cervus elaphus)

116



Dentition

Deer (Odocoileus)

Bison (Bison bison)



117

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Cow (Bos taurus)

Antelope (Antilocapra americana)

118



Dentition

Mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis)

Domestic sheep (Ovis aries)



119

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Domestic pig (Sus scrofa)

Llama (Lama glama)

120

Perissodactyla



121

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Horse (Equus)

122

Carnivora



123

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Bear (Ursus americanus)

Wolf (Canis lupus)

124



Dentition

Coyote (Canis latrans)

Mountain lion (Felis concolor)



125

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Bobcat (Lynx rufus)

Raccoon (Procyon lotor)

126



Dentition

Badger (Taxidea taxus)

Skunk (Mephitis mephitis)



127

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

River otter (Lontra canadensis)

128

Rodentia



129

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Beaver (Castor canadensis)

Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum)

130



Dentition

Marmot (Marmota monax)

Prairie dog (Cynomys gunnisoni)



131

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Rabbit (Lepus sp.)

Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus)

132



Dentition

Squirrel (Sciuridae sciurus niger)



133

Xenarthra



135

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus)

136

Marsupialia



137

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Opossum (Didelphis virginiana)

138

Chiroptera



139

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Vampire bat (Vampyressa nymphaea)

140

Marine Mammals



141

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Seal (Phoca vitulina)

142

Scapula Human (Homo sapiens). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Artiodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Moose (Alces alces). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Elk (Cervus elaphus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Deer (Odocoileus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Bison (Bison bison). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Cow (Bos taurus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Antelope (Antilocapra americana) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Domestic sheep (Ovis aries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Domestic pig (Sus scrofa). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Llama (Lama glama). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Perissodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Horse (Equus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Carnivora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bear (Ursus americanus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wolf (Canis lupus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coyote (Canis latrans). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mountain lion (Felis concolor). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bobcat (Lynx rufus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Raccoon (Procyon lotor). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Badger (Taxidea taxus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Skunk (Mephitis mephitis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . River otter (Lontra canadensis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170

Rodentia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Beaver (Castor canadensis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Marmot (Marmota monax). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Prairie dog (Cynomys gunnisoni) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rabbit (Lepus sp.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Squirrel (Sciuridae sciurus niger). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178



143

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification Xenarthra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Marsupialia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Opossum (Didelphis virginiana). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Marine Mammals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Seal (Phoca vitulina). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

144

Scapula

The scapula is commonly called the shoulder blade and rests on the upper back in humans and on the dorsolateral surface in the nonhumans in this book. The scapular spine is an area of muscle insertion and generally points to the glenoid fossa, which articulates with the humerus. The scapula is triangular in most mammals, but in humans the spine is diagonal to the bone when it is in anatomical position (though it still “points” to the glenoid fossa. In many nonhuman mammals the scapula is elongated. Human

Moose Scapular spine.

Glenoid fossa.



145

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Human (Homo sapiens)

Note triangular shape.

Very strong acromion process.

Acromion process.

Curved, knobby coracoid process.

Coracoid process.

Glenoid fossa.

146

Artiodactyla



147

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Moose (Alces alces) Curved cranial edge. Spine fairly cranially situated.

Knobby projection.

Short, knobby coracoid.

148



Scapula

Elk (Cervus elaphus) Spine stops well short of glenoid fossa.

Long scapular neck. Shallow notch from acromion to base of spine.

Short acromion.

Short swelling for coracoid.



149

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Deer (Odocoileus)

Acromion process extends to just short of glenoid fossa.

Cranial edge more rounded in deer and more angled in sheep and goats.

Coracoid process short and curved.

150



Scapula

Bison (Bison bison) Spine located near cranial edge and is curled near midline.

Notch between acromion and spine.

Fairly straight cranial edge.

Note shape of acromion process.

Short coracoid process.



151

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Cow (Bos taurus)

Spine located near cranial edge.

Fairly straight cranial edge.

Short coracoid process.

152



Scapula

Antelope (Antilocapra americana)

Spine near cranial border.

Long neck.

Notch in glenoid fossa.



Curled coracoid process.

153

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis) Flat “table” on cranial vertebral border with straight vertebral border.

Relatively long neck.

Short, curved coracoid process.

154



Scapula

Domestic sheep (Ovis aries) Angle with shorter “table” than in mountain sheep.

Triangle shape with long neck.

Short, curved coracoid process.



155

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Domestic pig (Sus scrofa) Note angle on cranial surface.

Spine divides scapula into nearly equal upper and lower halves, and caudally turned spine at center of scapula.

No acromion process.

Sharp inferior angle.

Coracoid process small swelling.

156



Scapula

Llama (Lama glama) Angled surface.

Long concavity medial to glenoid fossa.

Curved, somewhat pointed coracoid process.



157

Perissodactyla



159

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Horse (Equus) Very long, narrow scapula with long, narrow blade.

Spine divides scapula almost equally.

Scapular spine ends well before glenoid fossa.

No significant acromion process.

Pronounced, knobby coracoid process.

160

Carnivora



161

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Bear (Ursus americanus) Raised, rounded “hump.”

Second spine. Fossa created by second spine.

Large acromion process.

Scapula is almost a square with rounded edges.

Large acromion process.

162



Scapula

Wolf (Canis lupus)

Spine is diagonal.

Buttressed angle. Heavy acromion process (more pronounced than in cats).

Outline is rectangular with rounded edges.

Acromion process.



163

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Coyote (Canis latrans) Somewhat more rounded on cranial surface and more triangular on caudal surface than in wolves.

Spine is diagonal.

Buttressed angle.

164



Scapula

Mountain lion (Felis concolor)

Spine diagonal with crest turned caudally.

Rounded cranial edge.

Straight caudal edge.

Short metacromial process (secondary acromion).



165

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Bobcat (Lynx rufus)

Same morphological features as mountain lion, but smaller.

Significant metacromial process (secondary acromion).

166



Scapula

Raccoon (Procyon lotor)

Rounded edge with significant notch medial to glenoid. Metacromial process (second acromion).



167

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Badger (Taxidea taxus)

Second fossa.

Wide notch. Long acromion process with significant caudal projection.

Note rectangular outline.

168



Scapula

Skunk (Mephitis mephitis)

Straight caudal edge.

Well-developed acromion process with metacromial process (second acromion).

Small bulbous coracoid.



169

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

River otter (Lontra canadensis) Large, rounded “hump” on cranial edge.

Strong acromion process.

Rounded vertebral border.

Straight caudal edge.

170

Rodentia



171

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Beaver (Castor canadensis)

Strong, undivided acromion.

Paddle-shaped blade.

172



Scapula

Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum) Triangular in shape, rounded cranial edge.

Metacromial process (secondary acromion).

Straight, diagonal caudal edge.

Small, blunt coracoid.



173

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Marmot (Marmota monax)

Wide acromial process with metacromial process (secondary acromion).

Large coracoid process.

174



Scapula

Prairie dog (Cynomys gunnisoni) Curved cranial edge.

Wide acromion process.

Slightly concave caudal edge.

Small, curved coracoid process.



175

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Rabbit (Lepus sp.) Straight cranial edge.

Sharp caudal point.

Long, narrow acromion process.

Notch.

Prominent metacromial process.

176



Scapula

Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus) Angled cranial edge. Wide concavity.

Strong acromion process.

Long, narrow coracoid process.



177

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Squirrel (Sciuridae sciurus niger) Rounded cranial edge.

Squared caudal angle.

Straight caudal edge.

D-shaped scapula.

Deep notch between acromion process and spine.

178

Long, curved coracoid process.

Xenarthra



179

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus)

Long caudal projection.

Very long acromion process.

Short, curved coracoid process.

180

Marsupialia



181

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Opossum (Didelphis virginiana)

D-shaped blade.

Triangular acromial projection.

Relatively short coracoid process.

182

Marine Mammals



183

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Seal (Phoca vitulina) Acromion process stops short of glenoid fossa.

Comma-shaped scapula.

184

Humerus Human (Homo sapiens). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Artiodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Moose (Alces alces). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 Elk (Cervus elaphus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Deer (Odocoileus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 Bison (Bison bison). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Cow (Bos taurus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Antelope (Antilocapra americana) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 Domestic sheep (Ovis aries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Domestic pig (Sus scrofa). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Llama (Lama glama). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Perissodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Horse (Equus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Carnivora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Bear (Ursus americanus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Wolf (Canis lupus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Coyote (Canis latrans). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Mountain lion (Felis concolor). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Bobcat (Lynx rufus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Raccoon (Procyon lotor). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Badger (Taxidea taxus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Skunk (Mephitis mephitis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 River otter (Lontra canadensis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 Rodentia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Beaver (Castor canadensis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Marmot (Marmota monax). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Prairie dog (Cynomys gunnisoni) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Rabbit (Lepus sp.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Squirrel (Sciuridae sciurus niger). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

185

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification Xenarthra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 Marsupialia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Opossum (Didelphis virginiana). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 Marine Mammals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Seal (Phoca vitulina). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

186

Humerus

The humerus is the most massive bone of the upper limb or forelimb. The rounded head at the proximal end articulates with the glenoid fossa of the scapula and the distal end articulates with the radius and ulna. All animals have a rounded humeral head, but the areas for insertion of the muscles surrounding the joint vary considerably. At the elbow joint, the trochlea articulates with the ulna and the capitulum articulates with the radius. The distal humerus and the proximal radius and ulna are quite different in the human, large quadrupeds, and smaller quadrupeds. Most large quadrupeds carry more weight over the forelimbs than on the hindlimbs, as the center of gravity is more cranially located. Humans have a moderate deltoid tuberosity (the raised area for the insertion of the deltoid muscle which draws the arm away from the midline), but in some animals, such as the beaver or badger (ani­ mals with powerful digging habits) the deltoid tuberosity is quite large.

Comparison of mountain lion (lower) and bobcat (upper). Note that they are very similar, but differ in size.



187

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

A A: B: C: D: E:

A

Humeral Head Deltoid Tuberosity Medial Epicondyle Trochlea Capitulum

B A B

B

C D

E

Human

188

C

D E Moose

D

E Beaver



Humerus

Human (Homo sapiens)

Proximal aspects above.

Some humans have an actual foramen in this olecranon fossa. This trait is quite variable and depends at least to some degree on the size of the bone. This humerus has no foramen.

Distal aspects.



189

Artiodactyla



191

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Moose (Alces alces)

Very large, strong longbone. Notch. Strong tubercle. Distal aspects below.

192

Proximal aspects above.



Humerus

Elk (Cervus elaphus)

Deep bicipital notch. Curved, large tubercle. Proximal aspects above and to left.

Short and stout humerus.

Distal aspects below.



193

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Deer (Odocoileus)

Notch. Note curvature.

194

Moderate concavity.

Large, curved tubercle.



Humerus

Bison (Bison bison)

Large deltoid tuberosity and ridge.

Large, fan-shaped tubercle.

Notch.

Note large, curved tuberosity.



195

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Cow (Bos taurus)

Deltoid tuberosity and ridge not as large as in bison.

Note large, curved tuberosity.

196

Large, fan-shaped tubercle.

Notch.



Humerus

Antelope (Antilocapra americana)

Tuberosity not as pronounced.

Very large, curved tubercle. Proximal aspects above and on right, distal aspects on left.



197

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis)

Long, curved tubercle.

Moderate tuberosity.

198



Humerus

Domestic sheep (Ovis aries)

Very large, curved tubercle.

Very similar to mountain sheep, but not as large.

Moderate tuberosity.



199

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Domestic pig (Sus scrofa)

Tubercle large and overhangs bicipital groove.

Large supinator ridge.

Humerus becomes greater in diameter proximally. Domestic pig long bones are longer and slimmer than those of wild pigs.

200

Large bicipital groove.

Note tubercle shape.



Humerus

Llama (Lama glama) Low crest.

Deltoid tuberosity.

Distal aspects bottom three photographs.



Moderate tuberosity.

Lobed tubercle.

201

Perissodactyla



203

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Horse (Equus)

Large deltoid tuberosity and ridge.

Notch.

Lobed, low tubercle.

Large tuberosity and deep incurvature. 204

Carnivora



205

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Bear (Ursus americanus)

Fairly well-developed supracondylar crest.

Splayed medial epicondyle.

Caution! The bear proximal humerus looks somewhat like a human humerus. Distal aspects bottom three photographs.

206

Deep incurvature.



Humerus

Wolf (Canis lupus)

Large supratrochlear perforation.



207

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Coyote (Canis latrans)

Large supratrochlear perforation.

208



Humerus

Mountain lion (Felis concolor)

Entepicondyle foramen. No supratrochlear foramen.



Cats have the entepicondylar foramen and no supratrochlear foramen, while dogs have the supratrochlear foramen and no entepicondylar foramen.

209

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Bobcat (Lynx rufus)

Entepicondyle foramen.

No supratrochlear foramen.

Cats have the entepicondylar foramen and no supratrochlear foramen, while dogs have the supratrochlear foramen and no entepicondylar foramen.

210



Humerus

Raccoon (Procyon lotor)

Small, round entepicondylar foramen.

Moderate supracondyloid crest.

No supracondyloid foramen.

Distal aspects bottom three photographs.



211

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Badger (Taxidea taxus)

Large medial epicondylar ridge.

212

Large supracondyloid ridge.

Entepicondylar foramen.



Humerus

Skunk (Mephitis mephitis)

Supracondyloid crest.

Deltoid tuberosity.

No entepicondylar foramen or supracondyloid foramen.



213

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

River otter (Lontra canadensis)

Large supracondyloid ridge.

Large medial epicondyle.

Very curved humeral shaft. Entepicondylar foramen.

214

Distal aspects below.

Rodentia



215

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Beaver (Castor canadensis)

Pronounced supracondyloid ridge.

Extremely pronounced deltoid tuberosity. Pronounced tubercle.

216



Humerus

Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum)

Moderate deltoid tuberosity and ridge.

Moderate tubercle.



217

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Marmot (Marmota monax)

Moderate supracondyloid ridge.

No entepicondylar foramen, no supracondyloid foramen.

218



Humerus

Prairie dog (Cynomys gunnisoni)

Medial and lateral tubercles.

Welldeveloped medial epicondyle.

Deltoid tuberosity.

Supracondyloid ridge.

Distal aspects bottom three photographs.



219

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Rabbit (Lepus sp.)

Tubercle relatively small. Rodents sometimes have a supratrochlear foramen.

Rabbits have a very long, thin shaft with no marked deltoid tuberosity, no pronounced medial epicondyle, and a relatively small tubercle.

220



Humerus

Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus)

Large deltoid tuberosity and ridge.

Large medial epicondyle.

Small bicipital groove.



221

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Squirrel (Sciuridae sciurus niger)

Entepicondylar foramen.

222

Large supracondyloid ridge.

Deltoid tuberosity.

Xenarthra



223

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus)

Large deltoid tuberosity and ridge.

Entepicondylar foramen.

224

Supracondylar ridge.

Marsupialia



225

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Opossum (Didelphis virginiana)

Large supracondylar ridge with abrupt angle superiorly.

Entepicondylar foramen.

226

Marine Mammals



227

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Seal (Phoca vitulina)

Entepicondylar foramen.

Extremely large deltoid tuberosity and ridge.

Supracondyloid ridge.

Large bicipital notch.

The humerus in a seal widens significantly toward the distal aspect to form the flipper.

Deltoid tuberosity and ridge. Distal aspects left and below.

228

Radius Human (Homo sapiens). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 Artiodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Moose (Alces alces). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 Elk (Cervus elaphus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Deer (Odocoileus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 Bison (Bison bison). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Cow (Bos taurus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 Antelope (Antilocapra americana) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Domestic sheep (Ovis aries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Domestic pig (Sus scrofa). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Llama (Lama glama). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Perissodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Horse (Equus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Carnivora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Bear (Ursus americanus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Wolf (Canis lupus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Coyote (Canis latrans). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 Mountain lion (Felis concolor). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Bobcat (Lynx rufus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 Raccoon (Procyon lotor). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 Badger (Taxidea taxus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Skunk (Mephitis mephitis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 River otter (Lontra canadensis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 Rodentia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Beaver (Castor canadensis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Marmot (Marmota monax). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Prairie dog (Cynomys gunnisoni) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Rabbit (Lepus sp.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 Squirrel (Sciuridae sciurus niger). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

229

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification Xenarthra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Marsupialia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 Opossum (Didelphis virginiana). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 Marine Mammals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 Seal (Phoca vitulina). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

230

Radius

The radius and ulna are the bones of the forearm, and are separate bones in humans. The radius moves over the ulna in pronation in humans and in some other animals, but in many animals the bones are fused and/or the ulna is significantly reduced in size so as to make rotation impossible. In humans the ulna articulates with the radius distally at the ulnar notch. In those animals in which the ulna is fused or reduced in size, there may be no ulnar notch. Because the radius and ulna are fused in some animals, some of the following photographs of the radius also show the ulna. Note some general differences in the photographs (proximal aspects top, distal aspects bottom):

Human (Homo sapiens)

Moose (Alces alces)

Wolf (Canis lupus)

Ulnar notch.



231

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification Proximal: closest to center of body. Head (articulates with humerus and ulna).

Shaft.

Distal articular surface articulates with two carpals of the wrist.

Ulnar notch. Distal: farther from center of body.

232



Radius

Moose

Cow

Domestic pig

Wolf



Elk

Antelope

Deer

Mountain sheep

Bison

Domestic sheep

Horse

Bear

Coyote Bobcat Various animal distal radii.

Human

Llama

233

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Human (Homo sapiens)

234

Artiodactyla



235

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Moose (Alces alces) Squared proximal ulna.

Note gap.

Notch on proximal posterior aspect.

Radius and ulna are fused in the adult.

Radius.

236

Ulna.

Notch on proximal posterior aspect.



Radius

Elk (Cervus elaphus)

Radius and ulna are fused in adult — note gap.

Radius.



Ulna.

237

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Deer (Odocoileus)

More rounded notch.

Radius and ulna are fused in the adult.

Remnant of distal ulna.

238



Radius

Bison (Bison bison)

Note gap.

Radius and ulna are fused in the adult.

Subadult at left.

Distal ulna.

Radius.



239

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Cow (Bos taurus)

Note gap.

Radius and ulna are fused in the adult.

Ulna.

Radius.

240



Radius

Antelope (Antilocapra americana)

Radius and ulna are fused in the adult — note gap approximately a third of the way from the proximal aspect of the ulna.

Distal surface.



Proximal surface.

241

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis)

Radius and ulna are fused in the adult — note large gap near proximal radius. Distal aspects right and below.

242



Radius

Domestic sheep (Ovis aries)

Radius and ulna are fused in the adult.



243

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Domestic pig (Sus scrofa)

Proximal radius with ulna.

Radius and ulna are fused in the adult.

Proximal radius without ulna.

Distal radius with ulna (arrow points to ulna).

244

Distal radius without ulna.



Radius

Llama (Lama glama)

Radius and ulna are fused in the adult so that very little remains of the ulna shaft.



245

Perissodactyla



247

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Horse (Equus) Note bulbous olecranon process.

Radius and ulna are fused in the adult.

Distal radius.

248

Carnivora



249

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Bear (Ursus americanus)

Human radius has smooth border. Bear has projection.

250



Radius

Wolf (Canis lupus)

Proximal.

Distal.



251

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Coyote (Canis latrans)

Proximal.

Distal.

252



Radius

Mountain lion (Felis concolor)

Distal aspects below.



253

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Bobcat (Lynx rufus)

254



Radius

Raccoon (Procyon lotor)



255

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Badger (Taxidea taxus)

Proximal views above.

Distal views at right and below.

256



Radius

Skunk (Mephitis mephitis)

Distal aspects right and below.



257

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

River otter (Lontra canadensis)

Proximal images above.

Distal images left and bottom two photographs.

258

Rodentia



259

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Beaver (Castor canadensis)

Proximal views above.

Distal images left and bottom two photographs.

260



Radius

Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum)

Proximal views above.

Distal views below.



261

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Marmot (Marmota monax)

Distal aspects.

262



Radius

Prairie dog (Cynomys gunnisoni)



263

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Rabbit (Lepus sp.)

264



Radius

Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus)



265

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Squirrel (Sciuridae sciurus niger)

266

Xenarthra



267

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus)

Notice elongated radial head (above) and elongated distal articular surface (lower middle photograph).

268

Marsupialia



269

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Opossum (Didelphis virginiana)

270

Marine Mammals



271

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Seal (Phoca vitulina)

Note fan-shaped radius leading to wide flipper.

272

Ulna Human (Homo sapiens). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 Artiodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Moose (Alces alces). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 Elk (Cervus elaphus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 Deer (Odocoileus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 Bison (Bison bison). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 Cow (Bos taurus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 Antelope (Antilocapra americana) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 Mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 Domestic sheep (Ovis aries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Domestic pig (Sus scrofa). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 Llama (Lama glama). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 Perissodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 Horse (Equus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 Carnivora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 Bear (Ursus americanus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 Wolf (Canis lupus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Coyote (Canis latrans). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 Mountain lion (Felis concolor). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 Bobcat (Lynx rufus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 Raccoon (Procyon lotor). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Badger (Taxidea taxus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 Skunk (Mephitis mephitis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 River otter (Lontra canadensis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Rodentia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Beaver (Castor canadensis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Marmot (Marmota monax). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 Prairie dog (Cynomys gunnisoni) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 Rabbit (Lepus sp.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Squirrel (Sciuridae sciurus niger). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310

273

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification Xenarthra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 Marsupialia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 Opossum (Didelphis virginiana). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 Marine Mammals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 Seal (Phoca vitulina). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316

274

Ulna

The ulna is the longer bone in the forearm and is responsible for flexion and extension. Because the radius is responsible for rotation, in those animals in which the radius and ulna are fused or in which the ulna is vestigial, no rotation of the forearm is possible. The radius is lateral to the ulna, though in some animals it is nearly anterior to the ulna. In many of the photographs of the ulna, the radius is, of necessity, included. Be aware that the radius and ulna may be separate bones in immature animals though they may be fused in adulthood.

Human (Homo sapiens)

Cow (Bos taurus)

Wolf (Canis lupus) 275

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification Proximal: closest to center of body.

Semilunar notch. Radial notch.

Shaft.

Styloid process.

Olecranon process.

Distal: farther from center of body.

276



Ulna

Human (Homo sapiens)

Note very short olecranon process (arrow).



277

Artiodactyla



279

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Moose (Alces alces) Immature radius (left bone) and ulna (right bone) are shown at left.

Radius and ulna are fused in the adult.

Distal ulna is circled on distal radius (lower right).

280



Ulna

Elk (Cervus elaphus)

Long olecranon process shown on proximal ulna. Two proximal aspects shown above.

Radius and ulna are fused in the adult. Distal ulna shown below within circle and at arrow. Radius.



Ulna.

281

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Deer (Odocoileus)

Distal ulna fused to distal radius is shown within circle below.

282



Ulna

Bison (Bison bison)

Radius and ulna are fused in the adult. Immature radius (top) and ulna (bottom) are shown below. Distal ulna in adult is shown within circle (lower right) fused to radius.



283

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Cow (Bos taurus)

Long olecranon process on proximal ulna.

Note small gap about a third of the way from the proximal radius.

Radius and ulna are fused in the adult. Distal ulna fused to radius shown at arrow and within circle (lower left and right).

284



Ulna

Antelope (Antilocapra americana)

Radius and ulna are fused in the adult. Immature ulna shown above in left three photographs.

Notice elongated gap between radius and ulna shafts.

Proximal ulna shown at left.



285

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis)

Notice very long olecranon proceess. Also, notice significant gap between radius and ulna when fused in the adult.

Distal radius and ulna in the adult. Arrow points to distal ulna.

286



Ulna

Domestic sheep (Ovis aries)

Long olecranon process in proximal ulna.

Notice relatively thin gap between radius and ulna in the adult.

Distal radius and ulna shown below. Distal ulna is within circle (lower right) and at arrow (lower left).



287

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Domestic pig (Sus scrofa)

Photographs above show immature ulna unfused to radius.

Three photographs above show proximal ulna (with radius fused in top two photographs).

The radius and ulna are fused in the adult.

Distal radius and ulna shown — distal ulna within circle (right photo) and at arrow (left photograph).

288



Ulna

Llama (Lama glama)

Proximal ulna and radius shown above.

Distal radius and ulna (fused in the adult) are shown below. Arrows point to distal ulna.



289

Perissodactyla



291

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Horse (Equus)

Proximal ulna with fused radius shown above.

The radius and ulna are fused in the adult. The ulna essentially “melts” into the radius distally.

Distal radius (ulna not visible).

292

Proximal posterior radius and ulna shown below.

Carnivora



293

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Bear (Ursus americanus)

Note shape of olecranon process.

Proximal ulna shown above. Distal ulna shown in bottom three photographs.

Ulna is broad proximally and tapers distally.

294



Ulna

Wolf (Canis lupus)

The olecranon process is lobed, similar to the coyote.



295

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Coyote (Canis latrans)

Note projections.

Proximal ulna shown in upper right two photographs. Distal ulna shown below and below right.

296



Ulna

Mountain lion (Felis concolor)

Notice bilobed olecranon process (square in lateral or medial view).



297

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Bobcat (Lynx rufus)

Note knobbed, square olecranon process.

Proximal ulna shown above and left.

Distal ulna shown left and below.

298



Ulna

Raccoon (Procyon lotor)

Proximal ulna shown above and right. Note knobbed olecranon process.

Distal ulna shown below and below right.



299

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Badger (Taxidea taxus)

Proximal ulna above and right.

Note long, curved olecranon process.

Note very long olecranon process.

Distal ulna shown below and below right.

300



Ulna

Skunk (Mephitis mephitis)

Proximal ulna shown above.

Distal ulna shown at right.



301

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

River otter (Lontra canadensis)

Proximal ulna shown above and below.

Note shape of olecranon process.

Note that ulna is wide proximally and tapers distally. Note large olecranon process.

Distal ulna is shown below and below right.

302

Rodentia



303

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Beaver (Castor canadensis)

Note shape of olecranon process (arrow).

Distal ulna above and below.

304

Proximal ulna above and below.



Ulna

Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum)

Proximal ulna above. Distal ulna below.



305

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Marmot (Marmota monax)

Proximal ulna shown in three photographs above.

Distal ulna shown below (left and right).

306



Ulna

Prairie dog (Cynomys gunnisoni)

Proximal ulna shown in photographs on the right.



307

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Rabbit (Lepus sp.)

Proximal radius and ulna shown in above two photographs and on right.

Very long, narrow radius and ulna fused in the adult.

Distal radius and ulna (right, below, and below right). Arrow shows distal ulna.

308



Ulna

Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus)

Proximal ulna and radius above and on right.

Radius and ulna are fused in the adult.

Distal radius and ulna shown below and below right. Arrow points to ulna.



309

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Squirrel (Sciuridae sciurus niger)

Radius and ulna shown above.

Proximal ulna, right three photographs.

310

Xenarthra



311

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus)

Rounded distal ulna.

Extremely long olecranon process.

Proximal ulna right and above right.

312

Proximal ulna above.

Marsupialia



313

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Opossum (Didelphis virginiana)

Proximal ulna upper three photographs.

Distal ulna below.

314

Marine Mammals



315

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Seal (Phoca vitulina)

Proximal ulna above and two lower photographs. Notice “hatchet” shape to ulna.

Distal ulna above and below.

316

Metacarpals and Forelimbs Human (Homo sapiens). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 Artiodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 Moose (Alces alces). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 Elk (Cervus elaphus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 Deer (Odocoileus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 Bison (Bison bison). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 Cow (Bos taurus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 Antelope (Antilocapra americana) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 Mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 Domestic sheep (Ovis aries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 Domestic pig (Sus scrofa). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 Llama (Lama glama). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 Perissodactyle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 Horse (Equus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 Carnivora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 Bear (Ursus americanus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 Wolf (Canis lupus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 Mountain lion (Felis concolor). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 Raccoon (Procyon lotor). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 Badger (Taxidea taxus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 Skunk (Mephitis mephitis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 Rodentia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 Marmot (Marmota monax). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 Rabbit (Lepus sp.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 Chiroptera. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Vampire bat (Vampyressa nymphaea). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 Marine Mammals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 Seal (Phoca vitulina). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354



317

Metacarpals and Forelimbs

Note: Some of the basic information presented in this section is either repeated or analogous to that presented in the Metatarsal section. The metacarpals are the bones that make up the palm in the human, and part of the leg (in large animals) or paw (in smaller animals). The number and morphology of metacarpals in humans and nonhumans have everything to do with how the hands, forepaws, and forelimbs are used (locomotion, manipulation, etc.). An array of five digits (for the hand or paw) is the most primitive condition. Many large animals have a reduced number to two (for example, in the elk, cow, sheep, etc.) and to one (as in the horse). In humans the metacarpals and phalanges are arranged in such a way as to facilitate manipulation of objects, while in many of the nonhuman small animals, the arrangement of the bones of the paw is more appropriate for running or digging. Note on the following page that even the alignment of the metacarpals and phalanges is different depending upon the kind of work the forelimb does. In many animals with paws the metacarpals and phalanges are very tightly grouped, while in humans and in other animals in which manipulation of objects is important, the array of the hand (or paw) is more widely spaced. This information can be important when trying to determine human from nonhuman, particularly in tissued specimens or in an x-ray.



319

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification Proximal: closest to center of body. A

A

A B

A

B

B

C C

B C

Human hand. Skunk paw. Wolf paw. C

Radius and ulna. A B A B

C

B C Moose forelimb.

C

Seal hand. Rat forelimb.

Bat wing.

Note that there are three rows of phalanges: proximal, middle, and distal. Distal phalanges are usually claws in small mammals and hooves in large mammals. A: carpals (wrist bones); B: metacarpals; C: phalanges. Distal: farthest from center of body.

320



Metacarpals and Forelimbs

Bear forepaw radiograph. One key area for distinguishing from human is circled. Caution! Bear paws (forepaws or hindpaws) are often left or thrown away when a bear is skinned. Without the claws (distal phalanges), and particularly if the paw still has soft tissue attached (as in the above left photograph), the paw looks very much like a human hand or foot.

There are several ways to determine whether or not the item is human.

Bear paw without claws.

Bear paw with claws.

Human hand superior view.

Human hand inferior view.

Bear metacarpal (left) and human (right). Area circled on bear shows ridge at center of distal articular surface, also circled on radiograph above.



321

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Moose

Elk

Deer

Antelope

Cow

Bison

Mountain sheep

Domestic sheep

Notice that metacarpals are flatter from front to back (top to bottom in these photographs) than are the metatarsals. Llama

Bear

Human Miscellaneous proximal metacarpals.

322

Horse



Metacarpals and Forelimbs

Human (Homo sapiens)

Metacarpals proximal ends.

Carpals.

Metacarpals distal ends.

Metacarpals posterior.

Metacarpals anterior.

Hand phalanges.



Proximal hand phalanges proximal view.

Proximal hand phalanges distal view. 323

Artiodactyla



325

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Moose (Alces alces)

326



Metacarpals and Forelimbs

Elk (Cervus elaphus)

Small groove and foramen in distal anterior surface.



Small foramen in distal posterior surface.

327

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Deer (Odocoileus)

Very small foramina in distal anterior and posterior surfaces.

328



Metacarpals and Forelimbs

Bison (Bison bison)

Bison and cow have very short metacarpals for the width. Proximal aspect.



Distal aspect.

329

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Cow (Bos taurus) Carpals.

Metacarpal.

Phalanges.

Bison and cow metacarpals are broad relative to the length.

330



Metacarpals and Forelimbs

Antelope (Antilocapra americana)

Foramen in proximal posterior surface.

Long metacarpals relative to the width. Note small foramina in distal anterior and posterior surfaces.

This is the proximal end of the terminal phalanx (one of the hooves).

331

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis)

Phalanges.

332



Metacarpals and Forelimbs

Domestic sheep (Ovis aries)

Small foramen and very narrow groove on distal anterior surface.



Small foramen on distal posterior surface.

333

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Domestic pig (Sus scrofa)

Phalanges.

Metacarpals.

Carpals.

Pig front hoof.

Phalanges.

334



Metacarpals and Forelimbs

Llama (Lama glama)

Proximal metacarpal above. Distal metacarpal divides completely.

Phalanges below.

Distal metacarpals below.



335

Perissodactyle



337

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Horse (Equus)

Note remnant metacarpals 2 and 4.

Proximal aspect shown above.

Distal aspect shown above and below. Note single articular surface because only one metacarpal remains in the horse.

Proximal, middle, and distal phalanges (hoof) shown at right. Proximal aspect of proximal phalanx above. 338

Carnivora



339

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Bear (Ursus americanus)

See more bear forepaw elements in Section III.

Bear forepaw with claws (pisiform is not in position).

Metacarpals anterior.

Bear forepaw posterior.

Metacarpals posterior.

Distal ends. Proximal ends.

340



Metacarpals and Forelimbs

Wolf (Canis lupus)

Notice the close proximity of metacarpals to each other. There are four metacarpals (numbers 2–5) in close proximity to each other, and sometimes the first metacarpal (arrow in top photograph) is still present in dried or fresh remains. Also notice the ridge on the distal metacarpal (arrow in bottom photograph) typical of nonhumans. Human distal metacarpals are smooth.



341

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Mountain lion (Felis concolor)

Notice ridge.

Two of five metacarpals shown.

Terminal phalanges (the claw slides over the projection on the terminal phalanx and into the sleeve shown).

Claw slides into this sleeve.

342



Metacarpals and Forelimbs

Raccoon (Procyon lotor) Carpals.

Metacarpals.

Phalanges.

Distal phalanx.



Claw.

343

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Badger (Taxidea taxus) Phalanges.

344

Metacarpals.

Carpals. Radius and ulna.



Metacarpals and Forelimbs

Skunk (Mephitis mephitis) Carpals.

Metacarpals.

Phalanges.



345

Rodentia



347

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Marmot (Marmota monax)

Radius and Ulna.

Metacarpals.

Phalanges.

These small round bones are sesamoid bones that are bones formed in cartilage.

348



Metacarpals and Forelimbs

Rabbit (Lepus sp.)

Metacarpals.

Phalanx.

These small round bones are sesamoid bones that are bones formed in cartilage.



349

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus)

Ulna.

Radius.

Metacarpals.

Phalanges.

350

Chiroptera



351

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Vampire bat (Vampyressa nymphaea)

Metacarpals.

Radius and ulna.

Phalanges.

Notice the modifications for flight and for support of the wing in the bat.

352

Marine Mammals



353

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Seal (Phoca vitulina)

Metacarpals.

Phalanges.

354

Vertebrae Human (Homo sapiens). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 Artiodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 Elk (Cervus elaphus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362 Deer (Odocoileus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362 Bison (Bison bison). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362 Cow (Bos taurus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 Antelope (Antilocapra americana) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 Mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 Domestic pig (Sus scrofa). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364 Carnivora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 Bear (Ursus americanus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 Wolf (Canis lupus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 Mountain lion (Felis concolor). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 Bobcat (Lynx rufus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 River otter (Lontra canadensis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 Rodentia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Beaver (Castor canadensis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370



355

Vertebrae

The vertebral column is divided into five sections: cervical (usually 7 in number), thoracic (usually 12 in number), lumbar (usually 4 to 6 in number), sacral (usually 4 to 6 in number but fused in the adult to form the sacrum) and coccygeal (varies in number according to whether or not the species has a tail). Humans and nonhumans have about the same number of vertebrae above the coccygeal vertebrae, (even giraffes have only 7 cervical or neck vertebrae!), but the shape of the vertebral col­ umn and of the individual vertebral bodies differs. The vertebral column in a typical quadruped has a single gradual curve from the neck to the pelvic girdle (somewhat like a cantilever bridge), while the human has an S-shaped column. This difference in vertebral column shape is reflected in the morphology of the vertebrae, as well. Quadrupeds typically have longer, more cylindrical vertebral bodies than does the human, and the vertebral bodies are more similar in length from the neck region to the pelvis. Humans have more wedged-shape vertebrae, and the bodies of the vertebrae are gradu­ ally larger from the neck region to the pelvis (each vertebra carries more weight than the vertebra above it, so the bodies are larger as one progresses down the vertebral column). Not all vertebrae are represented in this book. The sacrum is represented in the Pelvis section.



357

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Human (Homo sapiens)

Deer (Odocoileus) First cervical vertebra (atlas).

Bear (Ursus americanus)

Second cervical vertebra (axis). Arrows point to dens around which the atlas rotates.

Arrow points to vertebral foramen typical of cervical vertebrae. A: Articular facets B: Body C: Spinous process

B A C

B

C

Human (left) and bear (right) general cervical vertebrae.

A E B

D

C

Human typical thoracic vertebra.

358

A: A  rticular facet B: Body C: Spinous process (larger in thoracic vertebrae) D: Rib articular facet (one on transverse process, one on body in thoracic vertebrae, none on typical cervical or lumbar vertebrae) E: Transverse process

A

B

C

E A



Vertebrae

Human (Homo sapiens)

First cervical vertebra (atlas).

Second cervical vertebra (axis).

Typical cervical vertebra.

Typical thoracic vertebra.

Typical lumbar vertebra.

First coccygeal vertebra.



359

Artiodactyla



361

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Elk (Cervus elaphus)

First cervical vertebra (atlas).

Deer (Odocoileus)

First cervical vertebra (atlas).

Second cervical vertebra.

Bison (Bison bison)

Typical thoracic vertebra (long spinous process in thoracic vertebra is typical of large quadrupeds).

362



Vertebrae

Cow (Bos taurus)

First cervical vertebra (atlas). Vertebrae in bison and cow are similar.

Antelope (Antilocapra americana)

First cervical vertebra (atlas).

Mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis)

First cervical vertebra (atlas).



Second cervical vertebra.

363

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Domestic pig (Sus scrofa)

First cervical vertebra (atlas).

Typical thoracic vertebra (long spinous process). Lumbar vertebra (note curved articular facet typical of lumbar vertebrae). Many nonhuman animals have a ridge on the anterior center of the vertebral body. Humans do not have this.

364

Carnivora



365

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Bear (Ursus americanus)

First cervical (atlas).

Second cervical (axis).

Cervical (left), thoracic (right) vertebrae.

Wolf (Canis lupus)

First cervical (atlas).

Second cervical (axis).

Thoracic vertebra. 366



Vertebrae

Mountain lion (Felis concolor)

First cervical vertebra.

Second cervical vertebra.

Caudal (tail) vertebrae.

Bobcat (Lynx rufus) Cats and dogs each have thoracic vertebrae that are shorter (cranio-caudally) than the cervical or lumbar vertebrae. The thoracic vertebrae have longer spinous processes, while the lumbar vertebrae have longer transverse processes. Vertebrae in the tail are long and relatively cylindrical as those shown above in the mountain lion.

First cervical vertebra.

Thoracic vertebra.

Epiphysis (growth plate).

Caudal vertebrae.



Cervical vertebra.

Lumbar vertebra. This bobcat is immature. The epiphyses on the vertebral bodies are still separate on this individual.

367

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

River otter (Lontra canadensis)

Cervical vertebrae.

368

Rodentia



369

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Beaver (Castor canadensis)

First cervical vertebra.

Large spinous processes on lumbar vertebrae.

Just as the thoracic vertebrae in large quadrupeds such as the bison or horse have large spinous processes for the attachment of the muscles holding up the head, the beaver has large spinous processes on the lumbar vertebrae (above right) for attachment of the large muscles of the tail. The photograph at right shows the lumbar vertebra on top, the sacrum (fused sacral vertebrae) and the caudal vertebrae (or vertebrae in the large tail) near the bottom of the photograph.

370

Pelvic Girdle Human (Homo sapiens). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 Artiodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 Moose (Alces alces). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378 Elk (Cervus elaphus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 Deer (Odocoileus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 Bison (Bison bison). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 Cow (Bos taurus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 Antelope (Antilocapra americana) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383 Mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 Domestic sheep (Ovis aries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 Domestic pig (Sus scrofa). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 Llama (Lama glama). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 Perissodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 Horse (Equus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390 Carnivora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 Bear (Ursus americanus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 Wolf (Canis lupus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 Coyote (Canis latrans). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 Mountain lion (Felis concolor). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 Bobcat (Lynx rufus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 Raccoon (Procyon lotor). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397 Badger (Taxidea taxus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 Skunk (Mephitis mephitis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 River otter (Lontra canadensis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 Rodentia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 Beaver (Castor canadensis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 Marmot (Marmota monax). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404 Prairie dog (Cynomys gunnisoni) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405 Rabbit (Lepus sp.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 Squirrel (Sciuridae sciurus niger). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408

371

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification Xenarthra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 Marsupialia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 Opossum (Didelphis virginiana). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 Marine Mammals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 Seal (Phoca vitulina). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414

372

Pelvic Girdle

The pelvic girdle in all mammals is composed of a left and right os coxa (also called innominates) and the sacrum. In many mammals these three elements fuse into one unit in the adult, so they are consid­ ered together in this section of the book. Also, the os coxa is made of three bones: the ilium, ischium, and pubis which fuse into the os coxa (one unit) in the adult. The sacrum is made of, usually, 4 to 6 individual sacral vertebrae that fuse in the adult to create a single bone. The area of contact between the last lumbar vertebra and the first sacral vertebra is called the promontory. The wings on either side are the sacral alae. Some of the animals in this section have had the sacrum fused to the os coxae, a common condition in adults of many nonhuman species.

A B

A

B C

C Human Antelope A: Promontory B: Ala (plural: alae) C: Articular facet for lowest lumbar vertebra



373

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Ilium.

Acetabulum. Pubis.

Human Ischium. Bison Above: Os coxa of human and bison. Below: Sacrum of human and bison.

Promontory.

Ala (wing).

374



Pelvic Girdle

Human (Homo sapiens)

Wide ilium.

Acute greater sciatic notch.



375

Artiodactyla



377

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Moose (Alces alces)

Iliac crests project and curve.

378



Pelvic Girdle

Elk (Cervus elaphus) Narrower pelvic girdle than moose. Iliac crests do not project as far.

Notice “blending” of spinous processes of sacrum.



379

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Deer (Odocoileus)

Large, broad ischio-pubic area.

Notice relatively straight, solid spinous process area on sacrum.

380



Pelvic Girdle

Bison (Bison bison) Note shape of ilium.

Notice shape of sacrum and spinous process area.



381

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Cow (Bos taurus)

Note shape of iscium (left arrow) and ilium (right arrow).

Although this sacrum is complete, it is somewhat pathological in that the proximal end has a degenerative condition.

Note shape of spinous process area.

382



Pelvic Girdle

Antelope (Antilocapra americana)

Note shape and configuration of spinous process area of sacrum.



383

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis) Note shape of ilium.

Note shape of acetabulum.

Note shape of ischiopubic area.

384



Pelvic Girdle

Domestic sheep (Ovis aries)

Note shape of spinous process area of sacrum.



385

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Domestic pig (Sus scrofa)

Note position and size of acetabulum. Wide ischiopubic area.

Note thin sacrum with minimal spinous processes.

386

Wide, squared ilium.



Pelvic Girdle

Llama (Lama glama)

Most of the sacrum is absent in this photograph.

Though not part of sacrum, note size of transverse processes of lumbar vertebrae.



387

Perissodactyla



389

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Horse (Equus)

The ilium is very broad and does not extend a great distance cranio-caudally.

Note shape of sacrum and shape of spinous processes on sacrum.

390

Carnivora



391

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Bear (Ursus americanus)

392



Pelvic Girdle

Wolf (Canis lupus)

Wider ischiopubic area than in cats.



393

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Coyote (Canis latrans)

Wider ischiopubic area than in cats.

Spinous processes do not project greatly.

Tail (coccygeal) vertebrae.

394



Pelvic Girdle

Mountain lion (Felis concolor)

Note shape. Long spinous processes.



395

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Bobcat (Lynx rufus)

Note shape of spinous processes. Pelvic girdle with sacrum in place.

396



Pelvic Girdle

Raccoon (Procyon lotor)

Note shape.



397

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Badger (Taxidea taxus)

Strong ischial tuberosity.

398



Pelvic Girdle

Skunk (Mephitis mephitis)

Tail vertebrae.



399

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

River otter (Lontra canadensis)

400

Rodentia



401

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Beaver (Castor canadensis)

Note shape of spinous processes.

The sacrum in the beaver reflects the large tail. Note the shape of the sacrum (becoming larger caudally).

402



Pelvic Girdle

Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum)

Rounded ilium.

Long pubic bone.

Note shape of sacrum and spinous processes.



403

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Marmot (Marmota monax)

Short pubic bone. Long, narrow sacrum.

404



Pelvic Girdle

Prairie dog (Cynomys gunnisoni)

Tail.



405

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Rabbit (Lepus sp.)

406



Pelvic Girdle

Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus)



407

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Squirrel (Sciuridae sciurus niger)

408

Xenarthra



409

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus)

Unusual shape to pelvic girdle, including the sacrum, which widens near the tail.

410

Marsupialia



411

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Opossum (Didelphis virginiana)

412

Marine Mammals



413

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Seal (Phoca vitulina)

Pubis is very long.

Ilium is short.

414

Femur Human (Homo sapiens). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 Artiodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 Moose (Alces alces). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 Elk (Cervus elaphus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 Deer (Odocoileus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 Bison (Bison bison). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 Cow (Bos taurus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426 Antelope (Antilocapra americana) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 Mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428 Domestic sheep (Ovis aries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429 Domestic pig (Sus scrofa). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 Llama (Lama glama). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431 Perissodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433 Horse (Equus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434 Carnivora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 Bear (Ursus americanus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436 Wolf (Canis lupus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 Coyote (Canis latrans). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438 Mountain lion (Felis concolor). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439 Bobcat (Lynx rufus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 Raccoon (Procyon lotor). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441 Badger (Taxidea taxus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 Skunk (Mephitis mephitis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443 River otter (Lontra canadensis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444 Rodentia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445 Beaver (Castor canadensis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447 Marmot (Marmota monax). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448 Prairie dog (Cynomys gunnisoni) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449 Rabbit (Lepus sp.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451 Squirrel (Sciuridae sciurus niger). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452

415

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification Xenarthra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453 Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454 Marsupialia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455 Opossum (Didelphis virginiana). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456 Marine Mammals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 Seal (Phoca vitulina). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458

416

Femur

In humans the femur is the longest bone of the body and is long relative to its diameter (though many of the smaller nonhuman mammals also have long femoral shafts relative to the diameter). The head of the femur is round in all animals and articulates with the os coxa (hip joint) at the acetabulum. The articular surface at the distal end (at the knee) is divided into two condyles. These condyles are rela­ tively smooth in all animals, but the anterior articular surface in nonhumans is usually more “sculpted” than in humans. Caution! The femur can be confused with the humerus because of the ball joint at the proximal end. The head of the femur is a more complete ball than is the head of the humerus as it is nestled inside the acetabulum of the os coxa.

Smoother.

Human (Homo sapiens)

More sculpted.

Moose (Alces alces) 417

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification Proximal: closest to center of body.

Head (articulates with pelvis).

Shaft.

Condyles (articulate with tibia). Greater trochanter. Lesser trochanter.

Linea aspera (muscle insertion).

Distal: farther from center of body.

418



Femur

Human (Homo sapiens)

Smooth, “uncomplicated” articular surface.



419

Artiodactyla



421

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Moose (Alces alces) Large greater trochanter.

Lesser trochanter.

“Sculpted” articular surface.

422



Femur

Elk (Cervus elaphus) Neck at right angles to shaft.

Large condyles at posterior of shaft. Longer, more slender shaft than bovids.



Notch.

423

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Deer (Odocoileus)

Note angle.

High greater trochanter.

Notches.

424



Femur

Bison (Bison bison)

Large greater trochanter. No third trochanter.

Sculpted articular surface.



Notch.

425

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Cow (Bos taurus) Very large trochanter.

Notch.

426



Femur

Antelope (Antilocapra americana)

Very large trochanter.

Relatively slender, long shaft with no third trochanter, and smaller lesser trochanter.



427

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis) Large greater trochanter.

Note angle.

Notches.

428



Femur

Domestic sheep (Ovis aries)

Note angle.

Notches.



429

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Domestic pig (Sus scrofa)

Small lesser trochanter.

Small femoral head.

Large greater trochanter.

430



Femur

Llama (Lama glama)

Note angle.

Notches.



431

Perissodactyla



433

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Horse (Equus) Large greater trochanter. No significant constriction at neck. Third trochanter.

Flaring trochanter.

Large notch.

434

Carnivora



435

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Bear (Ursus americanus)

Relatively small greater trochanter. Ridge below greater trochanter.

Smaller lesser trochanter.

436



Femur

Wolf (Canis lupus)

No third trochanter, moderately sized greater trochanter. Relatively slim shaft, large femoral head.



437

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Coyote (Canis latrans) Longer femoral neck than in wolves with relatively smaller head.

Greater trochanter higher relative to neck and head than in wolf.

438



Femur

Mountain lion (Felis concolor)

Small greater trochanter with relatively small femoral head.



439

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Bobcat (Lynx rufus)

Similar to mountain lion, but smaller.

440



Femur

Raccoon (Procyon lotor)

Short greater trochanter.

Short lesser trochanter.



441

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Badger (Taxidea taxus)

Greater trochanter and ridge.

442



Femur

Skunk (Mephitis mephitis)

Greater trochanter does not project very far.

Small distal anterior articular surface.



443

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

River otter (Lontra canadensis)

Rounded head with long neck.

Wide distal aspect relative to length and width of proximal aspect.

444

Rodentia



445

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Beaver (Castor canadensis)

Large, projecting greater trochanter.

Thick, heavy shaft.

446

Well-developed third trochanter at midshaft.



Femur

Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum)

Moderate greater trochanter.

Relatively broad proximal aspect.

No third trochanter.



447

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Marmot (Marmota monax)

448



Femur

Prairie dog (Cynomys gunnisoni)

Third trochanter is rounded.



449

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Rabbit (Lepus sp.)

Third trochanter high on shaft.

Long femur relative to breadth.

Long anterior articular surface.

450



Femur

Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus) Large squared greater trochanter.

Note shape of lateral shaft.

Short femoral neck.

These are sesamoid bones, not part of the femur.



451

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Squirrel (Sciuridae sciurus niger)

Pronounced greater trochanter.

Third trochanter.

Pronounced lesser trochanter (arrow).

452

Xenarthra



453

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus)

High greater trochanter. Third trochanter.

Semicircular notch. Lesser trochanter pronounced.

454

Marsupialia



455

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Opossum (Didelphis virginiana)

Large lesser trochanter.

This is an immature individual: this line is not present in adults.

456

Marine Mammals



457

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Seal (Phoca vitulina)

Very short femur and wide distally (leading to flipper).

Articular surface does not take up majority of distal surface.

458

Tibia Human (Homo sapiens). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 Artiodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465 Moose (Alces alces). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466 Elk (Cervus elaphus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467 Deer (Odocoileus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468 Bison (Bison bison). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 Cow (Bos taurus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 Antelope (Antilocapra americana) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471 Mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472 Domestic sheep (Ovis aries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473 Domestic pig (Sus scrofa). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474 Llama (Lama glama). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475 Perissodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477 Horse (Equus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478 Carnivora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479 Bear (Ursus americanus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 Wolf (Canis lupus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481 Coyote (Canis latrans). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482 Mountain lion (Felis concolor). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483 Bobcat (Lynx rufus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484 Raccoon (Procyon lotor). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485 Badger (Taxidea taxus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486 Skunk (Mephitis mephitis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487 River otter (Lontra canadensis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488 Rodentia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489 Beaver (Castor canadensis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491 Marmot (Marmota monax). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492 Prairie dog (Cynomys gunnisoni) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493 Rabbit (Lepus sp.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494 Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495 Squirrel (Sciuridae sciurus niger). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496

459

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification Xenarthra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497 Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498 Marsupialia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499 Opossum (Didelphis virginiana). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500 Marine Mammals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501 Seal (Phoca vitulina). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502

460

Tibia

The tibia is the second-largest bone of the leg. The tibial tuberosity, which is anterior and near the proximal aspect of the bone, is the area of insertion for many of the muscles that flex the thigh at the hip and extend the leg. The medial malleolus is the part of the tibia in humans that forms the “bump” of the medial part of the ankle. It is more difficult to discern in some mammals. The distal tibia in nonhumans is often much more sculpted than in humans (though not always). In general, the tibia and fibula are analogous to the radius and ulna. In humans, because the radius and ulna are separate and because the radius can rotate around the ulna to some degree, humans can pronate and supinate their hands and forearms. In humans the tibia and fibula are still two separate bones, but there is very little rotation of the lower leg and foot so humans have lost the ability to pronate and supinate the lower limb. In many nonhumans the tibia and fibula are either fused or the fibula has become a vestigial bone or lost altogether, so no rotation is possible in the lower limb.

Distal aspect of human (left) and moose (right) tibia. Note the more “sculpted” nature of the nonhuman tibia.



461

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification Proximal: closest to center of body. Tibial plateau with condyles that articulate with the femur. Tibial tuberosity.

Shaft.

Medial malleolus.

In humans and some other animals, this is the articulation for fibula.

Distally, tibia articulated with talus (a tarsal or ankle bone). Distal: farther from center of body.

462



Tibia

Human (Homo sapiens)



463

Artiodactyla



465

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Moose (Alces alces)

Moose have no fibula.

466

Notch.



Tibia

Elk (Cervus elaphus)

Elk have no fibula.



Notch.

467

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Deer (Odocoileus)

Note angle.

The fibula is absent in deer.

468



Tibia

Bison (Bison bison)

Notch.

Bison and cow bones are relatively short and massive. Bison have no fibula.



469

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Cow (Bos taurus)

Bison and cow tibiae are very similar to each other. They are massive for their length.

470

Cows have no fibulae.



Tibia

Antelope (Antilocapra americana)

Remnant fibula. Note shape of notch.

Antelope tibia is long and slender when compared to moose, elk, bison, cow, or horse. They have only a remnant fibula.



471

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis) Note projection.

Sheep have no fibula. The tibia is long and narrow relative to moose, elk, bison, cow, and horse.

472

Notch.



Tibia

Domestic sheep (Ovis aries) Note shape with small projection on lateral side.

Note shape of notch.

Sheep have no fibula. The tibia is long and narrow relative to moose, elk, bison, cow, and horse.



473

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Domestic pig (Sus scrofa)

Tibial tuberosity large and curved.

Large tibial tuberosity and ridge.

Deep notch.

Note shape.

474



Tibia

Llama (Lama glama)

Notch.

This photo shows a tarsal attached by soft tissue.



475

Perissodactyla



477

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Horse (Equus)

Wide groove.

Fibula is a small splint. Angled grooves.

478

Carnivora



479

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Bear (Ursus americanus)

No notch.

Caution! Bear tibia can be confused with human if you have part of the bone. Bear tibia is more mas­ sive for its length, and, though the proximal and distal ends are more similar to humans, they are still somewhat more sculpted than in humans.

480

Less sculpted than most quadrupeds, but still more sculpted than humans.



Tibia

Wolf (Canis lupus)

Note shape of tibial tuberosity.

Prominent medial malleolus.

Notch is different from coyote.

Groove.



481

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Coyote (Canis latrans)

Coyote tibia thinner relative to length than wolf. Prominent medial malleolus.

482

Groove different from wolf.



Tibia

Mountain lion (Felis concolor)

Prominent proximal tibial tuberosity.

Relatively long, slender bone with prominent medial malleolus. No notch.



483

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Bobcat (Lynx rufus)

Prominent proximal tibial tuberosity.

No notch.

More slender tibia than wolf, the bobcat also has a prominent medial malleolus.

484



Tibia

Raccoon (Procyon lotor)

Note shape of distal articular surface.



485

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Badger (Taxidea taxus)

Note curvature in tibial shaft with relatively wide proximal aspect.

486



Tibia

Skunk (Mephitis mephitis)

Prominent ridge.

Prominent medial malleolus.



487

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

River otter (Lontra canadensis)

Strong, curved tibia with distinctive distal aspect.

488

Rodentia



489

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Beaver (Castor canadensis)

Note extension on fibula and curvature at distal tibia.

490



Tibia

Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum)

Note shape of proximal fibula.

Note curvature of tibia and fibula. The tibia and fibula are separate in young individuals but may be fused in older individuals.

Note extension on proximal tibia.



491

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Marmot (Marmota monax)

Remnant of fibular articulation.

492



Tibia

Prairie dog (Cynomys gunnisoni)

Note shape.



493

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Rabbit (Lepus sp.)

Long, slender tibia and fibula with the tibia and fibula fused approximately halfway.

Distinctive distal tibia shape.

494



Tibia

Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus)

Tibia and fibula are fused at distal third.

Note morphology at distal aspect.



495

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Squirrel (Sciuridae sciurus niger)

Tibia and fibula are separate.

Curved distal articular surface.

496

Xenarthra



497

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus)

Distinctive shape to fused tibia and fibula.

Distinctive distal articular surface.

498

Marsupialia



499

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Opossum (Didelphis virginiana)

500

Marine Mammals



501

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Seal (Phoca vitulina)

Tibia and fibula fused proximally. Tibia is very curved medially while fibula is relatively straight.

502

Fibula Human (Homo sapiens). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507 Artiodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509 Domestic pig (Sus scrofa). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 Carnivora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511 Bear (Ursus americanus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512 Wolf (Canis lupus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 Coyote (Canis latrans). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514 Mountain lion (Felis concolor). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515 Bobcat (Lynx rufus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516 Raccoon (Procyon lotor). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517 Badger (Taxidea taxus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518 Skunk (Mephitis mephitis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 River otter (Lontra canadensis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520 Rodentia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521 Beaver (Castor canadensis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522 Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523 Marmot (Marmota monax). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524 Prairie dog (Cynomys gunnisoni) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525 Rabbit (Lepus sp.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526 Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527 Xenarthra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530 Marsupialia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531 Opossum (Didelphis virginiana). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532 Marine Mammals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533 Seal (Phoca vitulina). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534



503

Fibula

The bison (and many other quadrupeds) have no fibula.

The fibula is, with the tibia, the analog of the radius and ulna of the arm, though the leg has lost most of the pronation–supination function in humans, and has been lost, much reduced, or fused to the tibia in many quadrupeds. The lateral malleolus of the distal fibula forms the lateral projection of the ankle felt in the living human subject. Distally, the fibula has a groove (called the malleolar fossa) on the pos­ terior surface. This is where a tendon crosses from the posterior leg to the plantar surface of the foot, and acts to, among other things, extend the foot. Proximally, the fibula articulates with the tibia.



505

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Proximal (articulates with tibia).

Human (Homo sapiens) Pig (Sus scrofa) Coyote (Canis latrans) Distal (articulates with talus, an ankle bone).

506



Fibula

Human (Homo sapiens) Proximal articular surface (articulates with tibia).

Distal articular surface (articulates with talus).



Malleolar fossa.

507

Artiodactyla



509

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Domestic pig (Sus scrofa)

Note oar-shaped fibula.

Malleolar fossa.

510

Carnivora



511

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Bear (Ursus americanus)

Malleolar fossa.

512



Fibula

Wolf (Canis lupus)

Notice that the wolf fibula is a heavier bone than in the coyote (next entry).



513

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Coyote (Canis latrans) Notice that the wolf fibula (previous entry) is a heavier bone than in the coyote.

514



Fibula

Mountain lion (Felis concolor)

Malleolar fossa.



515

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Bobcat (Lynx rufus)

Malleolar fossa.

516



Fibula

Raccoon (Procyon lotor)



517

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Badger (Taxidea taxus)

518



Fibula

Skunk (Mephitis mephitis)



519

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

River otter (Lontra canadensis)

520

Rodentia



521

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Beaver (Castor canadensis)

Notice large projection on fibula.

Tibia.

522

Fibula.



Fibula

Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum)

Tibia.



Fibula.

Notice protuberance at proximal fibula.

523

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Marmot (Marmota monax)

524



Fibula

Prairie dog (Cynomys gunnisoni)

Tibia.



Fibula.

525

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Rabbit (Lepus sp.)

Tibia.

Notice that the fibula fuses with the tibia at midshaft.

526

Fibula.



Fibula

Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus)

Fibula fuses with tibia at distal third of shaft.



Fibula.

Tibia.

527

Xenarthra



529

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus)

Tibia.

Three articular facets on distal tibia–fibula.

530

Fibula.

Tibia and fibula are fused proximally and distally.

Marsupialia



531

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Opossum (Didelphis virginiana)

532

Marine Mammals



533

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Seal (Phoca vitulina)

Tibia.

Fibula.

Tibia and fibula are fused proximally, but separate distally.

534

Metatarsals and Hindlimbs Human (Homo sapiens). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540 Artiodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541 Moose (Alces alces). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542 Elk (Cervus elaphus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543 Deer (Odocoileus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544 Bison (Bison bison). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545 Cow (Bos taurus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546 Antelope (Antilocapra americana) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547 Mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548 Domestic sheep (Ovis aries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549 Domestic pig (Sus scrofa). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550 Llama (Lama glama). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551 Perissodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553 Horse (Equus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 Carnivora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bear (Ursus americanus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coyote (Canis latrans). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bobcat (Lynx rufus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

555 556 557 558

Rodentia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559 Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560 Squirrel (Sciuridae sciurus niger). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561 Xenarthra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563 Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564 Chiroptera. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565 Vampire bat (Vampyressa nymphaea). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566



535

Metatarsals and Hindlimbs

Note: Some of the basic information presented in this section is either repeated or analogous to that presented in the Metacarpal section.

The metatarsals are the bones that make up the main part of the foot in the human (minus the toes), and part of the leg (in large animals) or paw (in smaller animals). The number and morphology of metatar­ sals in humans and nonhumans have everything to do with how the feet, hindpaws, and hindlimbs are used (primarily modes of locomotion). An array of five digits (for the foot or paw) is the most primitive condition. Many large animals have a reduced number to two (for example, in the elk, cow, sheep, etc.) and to one (as in the horse). The hindlimbs in humans and most other animals are responsible for locomotion. (The bat uses its forelimbs for locomotion.) Note on the following page that even the alignment of the metatarsals and phalanges is different in different animals. In many animals with paws the metatarsals and phalanges are very tightly grouped, and even in humans the bones in the foot are more tightly grouped than in the hand (the first metatarsal does not diverge from the rest of the metatarsals the way the first metacarpal diverges away from the rest of the metacarpals in the hand). This information can be important when trying to distinguish human from nonhuman, particular in tissued specimens or in an x-ray. Caution! It is possible (if not common!) to mistake a bear paw for a human hand or foot. Please see page 321 for details.



537

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Moose

Elk

Cow

Antelope

Llama

Mountain sheep

Domestic sheep

Horse

Bear

Human

Miscellaneous proximal metatarsals.

538

Bison

Deer



Metatarsals and Hindlimbs Proximal: closest to center of body. A A

A

A B

B B

B

C C Human foot C Mountain lion paw

C

Coyote paw A B

Tibia and fibula

C

B A Rat hindlimb

C

A B C Bat foot

Moose hindlimb

Armadillo foot

Note that there are three rows of phalanges: proximal, middle, and distal. Distal phalanges are usually claws in small mammals and hooves in large mammals. A: tarsals (ankle bones); B: metatarsals; C: phalanges. Distal: farther from center of body.



539

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Human (Homo sapiens)

Human metatarsals superior.

Human metatarsals inferior.

Tarsals. 540

Human phalanges.

Artiodactyla



541

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Moose (Alces alces)

Deep proximal posterior groove.

Well-defined foramen and groove. 542

No foramen on distal posterior surface.



Metatarsals and Hindlimbs

Elk (Cervus elaphus)

Relatively deep proximal posterior groove.

Proximal aspect can be confused with moose. Check size.

Deep distal anterior groove.



Distal posterior foramen. 543

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Deer (Odocoileus)

Wider proximal posterior groove.

Deep foramen and groove on distal anterior aspect.

544

No foramen or groove on distal posterior surface.



Metatarsals and Hindlimbs

Bison (Bison bison) Proximal posterior foramen.

Wide relative to its length.



545

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Cow (Bos taurus)

Groove extends below foramen.

Foramen on distal posterior aspect. 546



Metatarsals and Hindlimbs

Antelope (Antilocapra americana)

Very long, narrow metatarsals. Large foramen on distal anterior.

Small foramen on distal posterior.

547

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis)

No foramen or vascular groove on distal anterior. 548

No well-defined groove.



Metatarsals and Hindlimbs

Domestic sheep (Ovis aries)

Small foramen, no well-defined vascular groove.

Small foramen, no well-defined groove. 549

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Domestic pig (Sus scrofa)

Pig metatarsals anterior.

Pig metatarsals posterior.

Pig phalanges. 550



Metatarsals and Hindlimbs

Llama (Lama glama)

Complete separation of condyles.



551

Perissodactyla



553

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Horse (Equus)

Semicircular articular surface. Proximal (above) Distal below left.

Compare this distal articular surface to two-hooved animals. The horse exhibits a single articular surface. 554

Carnivora



555

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Bear (Ursus americanus)

Bear hindpaw with claws.

Bear metatarsals superior.

Bear hindpaw with claws detached.

Bear metatarsals inferior.

Tarsals.

Bear phalanges. Bear distal phalanges (claws). 556



Metatarsals and Hindlimbs

Coyote (Canis latrans)



557

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Bobcat (Lynx rufus)

558

Rodentia



559

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus)

560



Metatarsals and Hindlimbs

Squirrel (Sciuridae sciurus niger)



561

Xenarthra



563

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus)

564

Chiroptera



565

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Vampire bat (Vampyressa nymphaea)

566

Skeletons Arranged by Species Human (Homo sapiens). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570



Artiodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 Moose (Alces alces). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 Elk (Cervus elaphus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586 Deer (Odocoileus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591 Bison (Bison bison). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596 Cow (Bos taurus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601 Antelope (Antilocapra americana) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606 Mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611 Domestic sheep (Ovis aries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616 Domestic pig (Sus scrofa). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621 Llama (Lama glama). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625 Perissodactyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631 Horse (Equus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632 Carnivora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637 Bear (Ursus americanus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638 Wolf (Canis lupus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644 Coyote (Canis latrans). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648 Mountain lion (Felis concolor). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652 Bobcat (Lynx rufus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656 Raccoon (Procyon lotor). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660 Badger (Taxidea taxus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664 Skunk (Mephitis mephitis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668 River otter (Lontra canadensis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672 Rodentia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675 Beaver (Castor canadensis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676 Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680 Marmot (Marmota monax). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684 Prairie dog (Cynomys gunnisoni) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688 Rabbit (Lepus sp.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692 Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696 Squirrel (Sciuridae sciurus niger). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700

567

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification Xenarthra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705 Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706 Marsupialia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711 Opossum (Didelphis virginiana). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712 Chiroptera. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717 Vampire bat (Vampyressa nymphaea). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718 Marine Mammals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719 Seal (Phoca vitulina). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720

 568

Skeletons Arranged by Species This section is arranged by species instead of by skeletal element. The major bones of the body of each species are shown, but not all available views of each skeletal element are included in this section. If more detailed views of a skeletal element are required (such as a radius, humerus, etc.), then check that element for that species in Section 2. Multiple pages are given for most species, and the elements are arranged roughly from head to foot. Caution! The skeletal elements of many species may look very similar to other species, particu­ larly if they are roughly the same size! If you believe that you have a match by looking through the species in this section, be sure to check other species as well and to look at detailed photographs in Section 2 for confirmation!



If you have doubts about your diagnosis, consult a professional!



569

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Human (Homo sapiens)

Human Cranial views above. Maxillary dentition (top).

Mandibular dentition (bottom row).

Mandible.

570



Skeletons Arranged by Species

Hyoid bone. Note that this hyoid has not fused on the right side of the photograph. This is NOT a fracture!

Human

Clavicle (superior view on left and inferior view on right).

Sternum anterior (left) and posterior (right). Note that sternum on right has not fused at manubrium and body.

Scapula.



571

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Human Radius anterior (left) and posterior (right).

Humerus anterior (left) and posterior (right).

572



Skeletons Arranged by Species

Human

Hand posterior view.

Carpals. Ulna anterior (left) lateral (middle) and medial (right).

Phalanges.



Metacarpals.

573

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

First cervical vertebra. Typical cervical vertebra. Second cervical vertebra.

Human Typical thoracic vertebra.

Typical lumbar vertebra.

First coccygeal vertebra.

574



Skeletons Arranged by Species

Human

Pelvis and two views of os coxa.

Sacrum (anterior left, posterior middle, proximal top).

Left first rib superior view above.

Left ribs, superior view above. Inferior view above.



575

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Human Femur anterior left, posterior right.

Tibia anterior left, posterior right. Fibula, two photographs above right (lateral on left, medial on right).

Patella anterior left and posterior right.

576



Skeletons Arranged by Species

Human

Metatarsals superior view.

Human foot.

Metatarsals inferior view.

Metatarsals proximal view.

Foot phalanges.

Tarsals.



577

Artiodactyla

Artiodactyla



579

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Moose (Alces alces)

Moose

Cranium.

Mandible.

580



Skeletons Arranged by Species

Moose

Scapula: dorsal view (above left), ventral view (above right), glenoid fossa (left).

Pelvic girdle (above and below) with sacrum.

Sacrum: anterior (above), posterior (below).



581

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Moose

Humerus anterior (left), posterior (right).

Ulna (arrow) and radius. Medial view (left), lateral view (right), immature ulna and radius (right). Note that the radius and ulna are fused in the adult.

582

Skeletons Arranged by Species

Moose



Femur anterior (left), posterior (right).

Tibia anterior (left), posterior (right).



583

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Moose Metacarpals anterior (left), posterior (right).

Proximal metacarpal.

584

Metatarsals anterior (left), posterior (right).

Proximal metatarsal.

Skeletons Arranged by Species

Moose



Moose forelimb (carpals, metacarpals, phalanges).



Moose hindlimb (tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges).

585

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Elk (Cervus elaphus)

Cranium. Elk Mandible.

586



Skeletons Arranged by Species

Scapula dorsal (upper left), ventral (right), glenoid fossa (left).

Elk

Sacrum anterior (below), posterior (middle), lateral (bottom).

Pelvic girdle with sacrum above and below.



587

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Elk Humerus anterior (left) and posterior (right).

Proximal radius and ulna.

588

Ulna (arrow) and radius above. Medial view (left), lateral view (right). Note the gap in fusion in the adult (dotted arrow).

Distal radius and ulna.

Skeletons Arranged by Species

Elk



Femur anterior (left), posterior (right).

Tibia anterior (left), posterior (right).



589

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Elk Metacarpal anterior (left), posterior (right).

Proximal metacarpal.

590

Metatarsal anterior (left), posterior (right).

Proximal metatarsal.



Skeletons Arranged by Species

Deer

Deer (Odocoileus)

Cranium.

Mandible.



591

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Scapula dorsal (upper left), ventral (upper right), glenoid fossa (left).

Deer Os coxa lateral (above), pelvic girdle with sacrum (below). Sacrum anterior (above right), posterior (right), lateral (below right).

592

Skeletons Arranged by Species

Ulna medial (left), lateral (right).

Humerus anterior (left), posterior (right).

Radius anterior (left), posterior (right).



Proximal radius.

Deer



Distal radius and ulna.

593

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Deer Femur anterior (left), posterior (right).

Tibia anterior (left), posterior (right).

594

Skeletons Arranged by Species

Deer



Metacarpal anterior (left), posterior (right).

Proximal metacarpal.



Metatarsal anterior (left), posterior (right).

Proximal metatarsal.

595

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Bison (Bison bison)

Bison Cranium.

Mandibular dentition (above), mandible below.

596



Skeletons Arranged by Species

Bison

Scapula dorsal (left above), ventral (above), glenoid fossa (left).

Os coxa lateral view (below).

Sacrum anterior (top right), posterior (middle), lateral (below right). Note spinous process shape (arrows).



597

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Humerus anterior (left), posterior (right). Bison Ulna and radius fused in adult (left), unfused in immature individual (right).

Distal radius and ulna.

598

Skeletons Arranged by Species

Bison



Femur anterior (left), posterior (right).

Tibia anterior (left), posterior (right).



599

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Bison

Metacarpal anterior (left), posterior (right).

Metatarsal anterior (left), posterior (right).

Proximal metacarpal.

600

Proximal metatarsal.



Skeletons Arranged by Species

Cow (Bos taurus)

Cow

Cranium.

Maxillary dentition (above).

Mandible (below). Note: this specimen has broken anterior teeth.



601

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Scapula dorsal (above left), ventral (above), glenoid fossa (left).

Cow

Sacrum anterior (top right), posterior (middle right), lateral (bottom right). Note spinous processes (arrow). Note: this specimen has degeneration on proximal sacrum.

Os coxa lateral (left), anterior (right).

602

Skeletons Arranged by Species

Cow



Humerus anterior (left), posterior (right).

Proximal radius and ulna.



Radius and ulna fused in adult (left), posterior (right).

Distal radius and ulna.

603

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Cow Femur anterior (left), posterior (right).

Tibia anterior (left), posterior (right).

604

Skeletons Arranged by Species

Cow



Metacarpal anterior (left), posterior with carpals and phalanges (right).

Proximal metacarpal.



Metatarsal anterior (left), posterior (right).

Proximal metatarsal.

605

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Antelope (Antilocapra americana)

Antelope Cranium.

Mandibular dentition (above). Mandible (below).

606



Skeletons Arranged by Species

Antelope

Scapula dorsal (above left), ventral (above right), glenoid fossa (left).

Os coxa lateral (above), pelvis without sacrum (below). Sacrum anterior (top right), posterior (middle right), lateral (below right). Note spinous processes (arrow).



607

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Antelope

Humerus anterior (left), posterior (right).

Distal radius. Radius and ulna fused in adult (left), ulna unfused in immature individual (middle), radius (right).

Proximal radius.

608

Skeletons Arranged by Species

Antelope



Femur anterior (left), posterior (right).

Tibia anterior (left), posterior (right). Note remnant of fibula (arrow).



609

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Antelope Metacarpal anterior (left), posterior (right).

Proximal metacarpal.

610

Metatarsal anterior (left), posterior (right).

Proximal metatarsal.



Skeletons Arranged by Species

Mountain sheep

Mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis)

Cranium (above) and maxillary dentition (left).

Mandible and mandibular dentition (below).



611

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Scapula dorsal (above left), ventral (above), glenoid fossa (left).

Mountain sheep Pelvic girdle without sacrum below and left.

612

Skeletons Arranged by Species

Mountain sheep



Humerus anterior (left), posterior (right).

Radius and ulna fused in the adult. Medial (left), lateral (right). Note gap (arrow).

Proximal radius and ulna.



Distal radius and ulna.

613

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Mountain sheep Femur anterior (left), posterior (right).

Tibia anterior (left), posterior (right).

614

Skeletons Arranged by Species

Mountain sheep



Metacarpal anterior (left), posterior (right).

Proximal metacarpal.



Metatarsal anterior (left), posterior (right).

Proximal metatarsal.

615

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Domestic sheep (Ovis aries)

Domestic sheep

Cranium.

Mandibular dentition and mandible.

616



Skeletons Arranged by Species

Scapula dorsal (above left), ventral (above), glenoid fossa (left).

Domestic sheep

Sacrum anterior (right), posterior (middle right), lateral (below right). Note spinous process shape.

Os coxa above left, pelvic girdle without sacrum left.



617

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Domestic sheep

Humerus anterior (left), posterior (right).

Radius and ulna fused in adult. Lateral (left), anterior (right).

Proximal radius and ulna (left). Distal radius and ulna (right).

618

Skeletons Arranged by Species

Domestic sheep



Femur anterior (left), posterior (right).

Tibia anterior (left), posterior (right).



619

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Domestic sheep Metacarpal anterior (left), posterior (right).

Proximal metacarpal.

620

Metatarsal anterior (left), posterior (right).

Proximal metatarsal.



Skeletons Arranged by Species

Domestic pig

Domestic pig (Sus scrofa)

Clockwise from above left: skull quarter view, cranium, cranium inferior view, cranium superior view. Cranium posterior view (left).

Mandible, lateral view (right), mandible occlusal view (below), mandibular dentition (below right).



621

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Scapula dorsal (above left), ventral (above right), glenoid fossa (below right).

Domestic pig

Sacrum anterior (below left), posterior (below right), lateral (bottom photograph). This sacrum is not from a fully mature individual. Pelvic girdle above, below.

622



Skeletons Arranged by Species

Metacarpals proximal view.

Domestic pig

Above from left: humerus anterior, humerus posterior, fused ulna and radius medial, ulna lateral, fused radius and ulna anterior, radius ulna, radius posterior.

Proximal radius.

Distal radius. Metacarpals distal view.

Forefoot.



623

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Domestic pig

Above from left: femur anterior, femur posterior, tibia anterior, tibia posterior, fibula medial, fibula lateral.

Metatarsals proximal.

Tarsals.

Hindfoot. Metatarsals distal. Phalanges proximal.

624



Skeletons Arranged by Species

Llama (Lama glama)

Llama

Above clockwise from left: llama skull, cranium lateral view, cranium inferior view, cranium superior view.

Maxillary dentition. Mandible occlusal view (below left), mandible lateral view (below right).



625

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Scapula dorsal view (above left), ventral view (above), glenoid fossa (left).

Llama Os coxa lateral view (above left), pelvic girdle with sacrum and tail (left), sacrum anterior (below left), sacrum posterior (below right).

626

Skeletons Arranged by Species

Llama



Above: humerus anterior (left), humerus posterior (right).

Radius and ulna fused (above). Medial aspect (above left), lateral aspect (above right).

Distal radius (above).



627

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Llama Above from left: femur anterior, femur posterior, tibia anterior, tibia posterior.

628

Skeletons Arranged by Species

Llama



Metacarpals anterior (far left), posterior (left).

Proximal metacarpals.



Metatarsals anterior (far left), metatarsals posterior (left).

Proximal metatarsal.

629

Perissodactyla

Perissodactyla



631

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Horse (Equus)

Horse

Horse cranium (top photograph), cranium superior (above left), cranium inferior (above right).

Mandibular dentition

Mandible occlusal view (above and below left), mandible lateral view (below right).

632



Skeletons Arranged by Species

Horse

Scapula dorsal (above left), scapula ventral (above), scapula glenoid fossa (left).

Os coxa ventral view (above left), medial view (above right).

Sacrum anterior (above right), posterior (middle photograph), lateral view (right). Note spinous processes (arrow).



633

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Horse

Humerus anterior (above left), humerus posterior (above right).

Fused radius and ulna medial view (above left), lateral view (above right). Note gap in union (arrow).

Radius and ulna fused proximal view (above left), distal (above right).

634

Skeletons Arranged by Species

Horse



Femur anterior (above left), femur posterior (right).



Tibia anterior (above left), tibia posterior (right).

635

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Horse Metacarpals (anterior left, posterior right).

Metatarsals anterior (left), posterior (right).

Proximal metacarpals.

Proximal metatarsal.

Phalanges (proximal, middle, distal at left).

636

Carnivora

Carnivora



637

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Bear (Ursus americanus)

Bear Cranium.

Mandible. 638



Skeletons Arranged by Species

Bear

Scapula dorsal view (above left), ventral view (above right), glenoid fossa (left).

Os coxa (right), pelvic girdle (bottom three photographs).



639

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Bear

Humerus anterior (left), posterior (right).

Bear forepaw with claws (note pisiform at left).

640

Radius anterior (left), posterior (right). Ulna medial (left), lateral (right).

Bear forepaw without claws.



Skeletons Arranged by Species

Bear

Bear forepaw superior (far left), inferior (left). Carpals (above).

Metacarpals proximal (above), distal (below). Note ridges on metacarpals (arrow).

Proximal phalanges proximal (above left), distal (left). Middle phalanges proximal view (above).



641

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Bear

From left: femur anterior, femur posterior, tibia anterior, tibia posterior, fibula medial, fibula lateral.

Bear hindpaw with claws (far left), without claws (left), bear tarsals (below).

642

Skeletons Arranged by Species

Bear



Metatarsals proximal (above), distal (just above). Notice ridge (arrow).

Proximal foot phalanges proximal view (above), distal view (bottom photograph).



643

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Wolf (Canis lupus)

Wolf Cranium and mandible (top two photographs), cranium (bottom two photographs above). Photographs below clockwise from upper left: closeup of maxillary dentition, mandibular ramus, right side of mandible, occlusal view of mandible.

644



Skeletons Arranged by Species

Left scapula dorsal view(left), ventral view (right), glenoid (below left).



Wolf

Left os coxa (above right), pelvis without sacrum (below left), sacrum anterior (below right top photograph), sacrum posterior (below right bottom photograph).

645

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Wolf Clockwise from above left: Left humerus anterior, humerus posterior, ulna medial, ulna lateral, radius anterior, radius posterior, front paw.

646

Skeletons Arranged by Species

Wolf



From left to right: Femur anterior, femur posterior, tibia anterior, tibia posterior, fibula.



647

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Coyote (Canis latrans)

Coyote

Coyote skull and cranium. Occlusal view of maxillary dentition below.

Occlusal view of maxilla (above left), left side of maxilla (above right). 648



Skeletons Arranged by Species

Coyote

Scapula dorsal (above left), scapula ventral (above right), scapula glenoid (right).

Left os coxa (above left), pelvic girdle without sacrum (left), sacrum anterior (right), sacrum posterior (below right), sacrum lateral (below). Note spinous processes on sacrum (arrows).



649

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Coyote From left: Humerus anterior, humerus posterior, ulna medial, ulna lateral, ulna anterior, radius anterior, radius posterior.

650

Skeletons Arranged by Species

Coyote



From left: Femur anterior, femur posterior, tibia anterior, tibia posterior, fibula lateral, fibula medial. Below: hindpaw.



651

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Mountain lion (Felis concolor)

Mountain lion Cranium (above and right) and mandible (below and below right). This should not be confused with a canid as a cat’s face and dental arcade are much shorter.

652



Skeletons Arranged by Species

Mountain lion

Scapula dorsal view (top left), ventral (top right), scapular spine (far left), glenoid (left).

Left os coxa (above left), pelvic girdle without sacrum (left), sacrum anterior (right), sacrum posterior (bottom right), sacrum lateral (below). Note spinous processes (arrows).



653

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Mountain lion

From left: Humerus anterior, humerus posterior, ulna medial, ulna lateral, ulna anterior, radius anterior, radius posterior. Note projections on olectranon process (arrows).

654

Skeletons Arranged by Species

Mountain lion



From left: Femur anterior, femur posterior, tibia anterior, tibia posterior, fibula medial. Below: paw (left) and individual terminal phalanges (the bones within the claws (middle), vertebral segments of the tail (right).



655

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Bobcat (Lynx rufus)

Bobcat

Cranium and mandible (upper left), cranium (top right, above left, above), maxillary dentition (left).

Mandibular dentition (left), mandible (lateral view lower left, medial view lower right).

656



Skeletons Arranged by Species

Bobcat

Scapula dorsal view (above), ventral view (upper right), glenoid (left).

Os coxa (above), pelvic girdle without sacrum (left), pelvic girdle with sacrum (right).



657

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Bobcat Above from left: Humerus anterior, humerus posterior, ulna medial, ulna lateral, radius anterior, radius posterior. Below: proximal radius (left), distal radius (right).

658

Skeletons Arranged by Species

Bobcat



From left: Femur anterior, femur posterior, tibia anterior, tibia posterior, fibula medial.



659

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Raccoon (Procyon lotor)

Raccoon Skull (top), cranium superior view (upper left), inferior view (upper right), maxillary dentition (above). Below: mandible occlusal view (left), left side (right photograph).

660



Skeletons Arranged by Species

Raccoon

Scapula dorsal view (upper left), ventral view (above), glenoid (left).

Os coxa (above), pelvic girdle with sacrum (left).



661

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Raccoon Above from left: humerus anterior, humerus posterior, ulna medial, ulna lateral, radius anterior, radius posterior.

Raccoon paw, partial.

662

Proximal radius.

Distal radius.

Skeletons Arranged by Species

Raccoon



Above from left: femur anterior, femur posterior, tibia anterior, tibia posterior, fibula lateral, fibula medial.



663

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Badger (Taxidea taxus)

Badger Clockwise from top left: Badger skull quarter view, skull lateral view, cranium inferior, maxillary dentition, cranium lateral, cranium superior.

Below: mandible occlusal view (left), mandible lateral (right).

664



Skeletons Arranged by Species

Pelvic girdle with sacrum (below left), pelvic girdle lateral view (below), os coxa lateral view (bottom central), medial view (bottom right).



665

Badger

Scapula dorsal view (above left), ventral view (above), glenoid fossa (left).

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

From left: humerus anterior, humerus posterior, ulna medial, ulna lateral, ulna anterior, radius anterior, radius posterior. Badger Badger paw.

666

Proximal radius.

Distal radius.



Skeletons Arranged by Species



Badger

From top left: femur anterior, femur posterior, tibia anterior, tibia posterior. From bottom left: fibula lateral, fibula medial.

667

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Skunk (Mephitis mephitis)

Skunk

Above, clockwise from top left: skull quarter view, cranium lateral, cranium inferior, cranium superior.

Maxillary dentition (right).

Mandible occlusal view (lower left), lateral view (lower right).

668



Skeletons Arranged by Species

Pelvic girdle with sacrum (below left), pelvic girdle lateral view (below), os coxa lateral (bottom photograph).



669

Skunk

Scapula dorsal view (above left), ventral view (above), glenoid fossa (left).

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Skunk

From left: Humerus anterior, humerus posterior, ulna medial, ulna lateral, radius anterior, radius posterior.

Proximal radius (above left), distal radius (above right).

Skunk paw (left).

670



Skeletons Arranged by Species

Skunk

From left: Femur anterior, femur posterior, tibia anterior, tibia posterior, fibula medial, fibula lateral.



671

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

River otter (Lontra canadensis)

River otter

Clockwise from top left: Skull quarter view, cranium lateral view, cranium inferior, cranium superior.

Maxillary dentition (right).

Mandible occlusal view. 672

Mandible lateral view.



Skeletons Arranged by Species

Scapula dorsal (above left), ventral view (above), glenoid fossa (left).

River otter

Sacrum anterior (right), posterior (middle), proximal view (bottom photograph).

Os coxa medial view (left), lateral view (right).



673

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

From left: humerus anterior, humerus posterior, ulna medial, ulna lateral, ulna anterior, radius anterior, radius posterior.

River otter Proximal radius.

Distal radius.

From left: femur anterior, femur posterior, tibia anterior, tibia posterior, fibula medial, fibula lateral.

674

Rodentia

Rodentia



675

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Beaver (Castor canadensis)

Beaver

Clockwise from top left: cranium lateral view, skull lateral view, cranium inferior, cranium superior.

Maxillary dentition (right).

Mandible occlusal view (left), maxillary incisors (below), mandible lateral view (right, top), mandible medial view (right, bottom).

676



Skeletons Arranged by Species

Scapula dorsal (above left), ventral view (above right), glenoid fossa (left).

Beaver

Sacrum anterior (right), posterior view (middle right), sacrum lateral (below right). Note spinous processes (arrows).

Os coxa medial view (left), lateral view (right).



677

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Above from left: humerus anterior, humerus posterior, ulna medial, ulna lateral, ulna anterior, radius anterior, radius posterior. Beaver Proximal radius.

Fused radius and ulna (left).

678

Distal radius.

Skeletons Arranged by Species

Beaver



From left: femur anterior, femur posterior, fused tibia and fibula anterior, fused tibia and fibula posterior.



679

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum)

Porcupine Above, clockwise: Porcupine skull, cranium, cranium inferior view, maxillary dentition, cranium superior view. Bottom left to right: mandible occlusal view, mandible left side.

680



Skeletons Arranged by Species

Porcupine

Above left: scapula dorsal view; above: ventral view; left: glenoid fossa.

Above left to right: pelvic girdle with sacrum, lumbar vertebrae and caudal (tail) vertebrae; left os coxa lateral; left os coxa medial. Right side of page from top to bottom: sacrum anterior, sacrum posterior, sacrum lateral.



681

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Above left to right: Humerus anterior, humerus posterior, ulna medial, ulna lateral, ulna anterior, radius anterior, radius posterior.

Porcupine

Right: proximal radius, distal radius.

682

Skeletons Arranged by Species

Porcupine



Above left to right: femur anterior, femur posterior, tibia and fibula fused anterior, tibia and fibula fused posterior.



683

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Marmot (Marmota monax)

Marmot Above clockwise from left: marmot skull, marmot cranium lateral, cranium inferior, maxillary dentition, cranium superior.

Below from left: mandible occlusal view, mandible lateral.

684



Skeletons Arranged by Species

Marmot

Above left: scapula dorsal; above right, scapula ventral; left, scapula glenoid fossa.

Above from left: pelvic girdle with sacrum, os coxa lateral, os coxa medial, sacrum anterior (top), sacrum posterior (bottom).



685

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Above from left: humerus anterior, humerus posterior, ulna medial, ulna lateral, ulna anterior, radius anterior, radius posterior. Marmot

Below from left: forepaw, proximal radius, distal radius.

686

Skeletons Arranged by Species

Marmot



Above from left: femur anterior, femur posterior, tibia anterior, tibia posterior, fibula medial, fibula lateral.



687

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Prairie dog (Cynomys gunnisoni)

Prairie dog Above clockwise from left: Skull quarter view, cranium lateral, cranium inferior, maxillary dentition, cranium superior.

Bottom from left: mandible occlusal view, mandible lateral view.

688



Skeletons Arranged by Species

Prairie dog

Above left: scapula dorsal; above right: scapula ventral; left: scapula glenoid fossa.

Below left: pelvic girdle with sacrum; below right: pelvic girdle with tail lateral view.



689

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Above from left: humerus anterior, humerus posterior, ulna medial, ulna lateral, ulna anterior, radius anterior, radius posterior. Prairie dog

Proximal radius (left), distal radius (right).

690

Skeletons Arranged by Species

Prairie dog



Above from left: femur anterior, femur posterior, tibia and fibula fused anterior, tibia and fibula fused posterior.



691

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Rabbit (Lepus sp.)

Rabbit

Clockwise from upper left: skull lateral, cranium quarter view, cranium inferior, cranium superior.

Above left: double incisors characteristic of rabbits, maxillary dentition (above right). Below left: mandible occlusal view, mandible lateral view (right).

692



Skeletons Arranged by Species

Rabbit

Above left: scapula dorsal view; above, scapula ventral view; left, scapula superolateral view.

Pelvic girdle with sacrum (left), pelvic girdle lateral view (above).



693

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Rabbit From left: humerus anterior, humerus posterior, radius and ulna medial, radius and ulna lateral, radius and ulna anterior.

Distal radius and ulna (right).

694

Skeletons Arranged by Species

Rabbit



From left: femur anterior, femur posterior, tibia and fibula fused anterior, tibia and fibula fused posterior. Note that fibula is fused to tibia at midshaft.



695

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus)

Norway rat

Clockwise from upper left: skull lateral view, cranium quarter view, cranium inferior view, cranium superior view. Below: maxillary dentition.

Below: mandible occlusal view (left), mandible lateral view (right).

696



Skeletons Arranged by Species

Norway rat

Scapula dorsal view (upper right), scapula ventral view (above), scapula glenoid fossa (left).

Below from left: pelvic girdle with sacrum (left), pelvic girdle with sacrum (center), os coxa (right).



697

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Norway rat

Above from left: humerus anterior, humerus posterior, radius and ulna fused medial, radius and ulna fused lateral, radius and ulna fused anterior.

Below: rat forepaw from radius and ulna through distal phalanges (claws).

698

Skeletons Arranged by Species

Norway rat



Above from left: femur anterior, femur posterior, tibia and fibula fused anterior, tibia and fibula fused posterior. Notice that fibula is fused to tibia at distal third of tibia.

Left: right leg from femur through distal phalanges.



699

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Squirrel (Sciuridae sciurus niger)

Squirrel

Clockwise from above left: skull quarter view, skull side view, cranium inferior view, cranium superior view.

Maxillary dentition.

Below: mandible, occlusal view (left), mandible lateral view (right).

700

Skeletons Arranged by Species

Squirrel



Above clockwise from left: scapula dorsal, scapula ventral, scapula superior, scapula glenoid fossa.

Pelvic girdle with sacrum (left), pelvic girdle lateral (above).



701

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Above from left: humerus anterior, humerus posterior, ulna medial, ulna lateral, ulna anterior, radius anterior, radius posterior. Squirrel

Proximal radius (left), distal radius (right).

702

Skeletons Arranged by Species

Squirrel



Above from left: femur anterior, femur posterior, tibia anterior, tibia posterior, fibula.

Below: hindpaw.



703

Xenarthra

Xenarthra



705

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus)

Armadillo

Above clockwise from left: skull quarter view, skull lateral view, cranium inferior, cranium superior.

Maxillary dentition.

Mandible occlusal view (top left), mandible inferior (bottom left).

706



Skeletons Arranged by Species

Armadillo

Above clockwise from left: scapula dorsal, scapula ventral, scapula medial aspect inferior view, scapula glenoid fossa. Below: pelvic girdle with sacrum (left), pelvic girdle with sacrum lateral view (below).

Sacrum anterior (below left), posterior view (below right).



707

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Above from left: humerus anterior, humerus posterior, ulna medial, ulna lateral, ulna anterior, radius anterior, radius posterior. Armadillo

Proximal radius (left), distal radius (right).

708

Skeletons Arranged by Species

Armadillo



Above from left: femur anterior, femur posterior, tibia and fibula fused anterior, tibia and fibula fused posterior.

Below: hindpaw superior view (left), inferior view (right).



709

Marsupialia

Marsupialia



711

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Opossum (Didelphis virginiana)

Opossum

Above clockwise from left: skull lateral, cranium lateral, cranium inferior, cranium superior.

Maxillary dentition.

Mandible lateral view (right), mandible occlusal view (below), mandibular ramus (below right).

712



Skeletons Arranged by Species

Opossum

Scapula dorsal view (above left), scapula ventral view (above), scapula glenoid fossa (left).

Pelvic girdle with sacrum and tail lateral view (right), pelvis with sacrum (below), os coxa lateral (lower left), os coxa medial (lower right).



713

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Above from left: humerus anterior, humerus posterior, ulna medial, ulna lateral, ulna anterior, radius anterior, radius posterior. Opossum

Proximal radius.

714

Skeletons Arranged by Species

Opossum



Above from left: femur anterior, femur posterior, tibia anterior, tibia posterior, fibula medial, fibula lateral.



715

Chiroptera

Chiroptera



717

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Vampire bat (Vampyressa nymphaea)

Skull, quarter view (above left), cranium superior (above), cranium inferior (left).

Vampire bat Radius (at arrow), wrist, metacarpals, and phalanges.

Femur through distal phalanges. 718

Marine Mammals

Marine Mammals



719

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Seal (Phoca vitulina)

Seal

Above, clockwise from left: skull lateral, cranium lateral, cranium inferior, cranium superior.

Maxillary dentition (left).

Mandible occlusal view (below), mandible (right, lateral view).

720



Skeletons Arranged by Species

Scapula dorsal view (above left), scapula ventral view (above right), glenoid fossa (left).



Seal

Pelvic girdle with sacrum (below), os coxa lateral (right), os coxa medial (middle), sacrum anterior (right top photograph), sacrum posterior (middle right), sacrum lateral (below right).

721

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Above, from left: humerus anterior, humerus posterior, ulna medial, ulna lateral, radius anterior, radius posterior.

Seal Distal radius.

Proximal radius.

“Hand” bones in flipper: anterior (left), posterior (right).

722

Skeletons Arranged by Species

Seal



Above from left: femur anterior, femur posterior, fused tibia and fibula anterior, fused tibia and fibula posterior.



723

A

B

Acetabulum, 374 Achondroplastic dwarf, 17 Ala, 373, 374 Anatomical terminology, 6–7 Antelope, 234, 606–610 cranium, 33, 606 dentition, 118, 606 femur, 427, 609 humerus, 197, 607 mandible, 79, 606 metacarpals and forelimb, 322, 331, 610 metatarsals and hindlimbs, 538, 547, 610 os coxae, 607 pelvic girdle, 383 radius, 233 radius and ulna, 241, 285, 608 sacrum, 607 scapula, 153, 607 tibia, 471, 609 ulna, 3 vertebrae, 363 Anterior, 6, 7 Appendicular, 7 Armadillo, 706–709 cranium, 62, 706 dentition, 136, 706 femur, 454, 709 fibula, 532 foot, 539, 564, 709 humerus, 224, 708 mandible, 106, 706 pelvic girdle, 410, 707 radius, 268, 708 sacrum, 707 scapula, 180, 707 tibia and fibula, 498, 530, 709 ulna, 312, 708 Arm bones, See Humerus; Radius; Ulna Articulation areas, 3–4, 13 Ascending ramus, 71, 72 Axial, 7

Baby teeth, 18, 19 Badger, 664–667 cranium, 49, 664 dentition, 127 femur, 442, 667 fibula, 518, 667 humerus, 212, 666 locomotion and skeletal patterns, 9 mandible, 94, 664 os coxa, 665 paw bones, 344, 666 pelvic girdle, 398, 665 radius, 256, 666 scapula, 168, 665 tibia, 486, 667 ulna, 300, 666 Bat, See Vampire bat Bear, 638–643 cranium, 42, 638 dentition, 124 femur, 436, 642 fibula, 512, 642 humerus, 206, 640 mandible, 88, 638 metacarpals, 322, 340 metatarsals, 538, 556, 643 os coxa, 639 paw bones, 321, 340, 537, 556, 640–643 pelvic girdle, 392, 639 radius, 233, 250, 640 scapula, 162, 639 tibia, 480, 642 ulna, 294, 640 vertebrae, 358, 366 Beaver, 676–679 clavicle, 11 cranium, 54, 676 dentition, 130, 676 femur, 446, 679 humerus, 188, 216, 678 locomotion and skeletal patterns, 9 mandible, 98, 676



Index

Index

725

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Index

os coxa, 677 pelvic girdle, 402 radius, 260, 678 sacrum, 677 scapula, 172, 677 tibia and fibula, 490, 522, 679 ulna, 304, 678 vertebrae, 370 Biped skeleton, 8–15, See also Human bone; Skeletal morphology, quadruped and biped comparison Bison, 596–600 cranium, 31, 596 dentition, 117 femur, 425, 599 forelimb and metacarpals, 329 humerus, 195 locomotion and skeletal patterns, 8 mandible, 77, 596 metacarpals and forelimb, 322, 600 metatarsals and hindlimbs, 538, 545, 600 os coxa, 374, 597 pelvic girdle, 374, 381 radius, 233 radius and ulna, 239, 283, 598 sacrum, 597 scapula, 151, 597 tibia, 469, 599 vertebrae, 10, 362 Bobcat, 656–659 cranium, 47, 656 dentition, 126, 656 femur, 440, 659 fibula, 516, 659 humerus, 187, 210, 658 mandible, 92, 656 metatarsals and phalanges, 558 os coxa, 657 paw bones, 558 pelvic girdle, 396, 657 radius, 233, 254, 658 sacrum, 657 scapula, 166, 657 tibia, 484, 659 ulna, 298, 658 vertebrae, 367 Bone, 1–2 anatomical features and terms, 8 color, 1–2 composition, 2, 15 growth and development, 15–17 morphology, 3–4 remodeling, 17 taphonomy, 2

726

textures, 2 Bone-absorbing cells (osteoclasts), 17 Bone articulation areas, 3–4 Bone cells (osteocytes), 17 Bone-forming cells (osteoblasts), 16 Brachiators, 8 Buccal, 7 Buffalo, See Bison

C Capitulum, 187, 188 Carpal bones, 320, 323, 573, See also Metacarpals and forelimbs Cartilage, 4, 15, 17 Cat, See also Bobcat; Mountain lion articular surfaces, 13 locomotion and skeletal patterns, 9 paw bones, 15 Caudal, 6, 7 Cavity, 8 Cervical vertebrae, 9, 23, 357–370, 574, See also Vertebrae Chest area (thorax), 9 Chicken bones, 18 Chin, 71, 72 Clavicle, 11, 571 Coccygeal vertebrae, 9, 357, 359, 574 Collagen, 2 Color of bone, 1–2 Condyles, 8, 71, 417, 418 Coronal, 7 Coronal suture, 24 Coronoid process, 71 Cortical bone, 5 Cougar, See Mountain lion Cow, 601–605 cranium, 32, 601 dentition, 118, 601 femur, 426, 604 forelimb and metacarpals, 330 hooves, 15 humerus, 196, 603 locomotion and skeletal patterns, 8 mandible, 78, 601 metacarpals, 330 metacarpals and forelimb, 322, 605 metatarsals and hindlimbs, 538, 546, 605 os coxa, 602 pelvic girdle, 382 radius, 233 radius and ulna, 240, 284, 603 ribs, 10 sacrum, 602



D Deciduous teeth, 18, 19 Deer, 591–595 cranium, 30, 591 dentition, 117 femur, 424, 594 forelimb and metacarpals, 328 humerus, 194, 593 locomotion and skeletal patterns, 8 mandible, 76, 591 metacarpals and forelimb, 322, 595 metatarsals and hindlimbs, 538, 544, 595 pelvic girdle, 380, 592 radius, 233 radius and ulna, 238, 282, 593 sacrum, 592



scapula, 150, 592 tibia, 468, 594 vertebrae, 358, 362 Deltoid tuberosity, 187, 188 Dental growth and development, 18–19 Dentition, 113–142, See also Mandible carnivore, 123–128, 638, 644, 656, 668 human, 72, 114, 570 miscellaneous species, 135–142, 706, 712, 720 rodent, 129–133, 676, 680, 684, 692, 696, 700 ungulate, 114–120, 580, 586, 591, 596, 601, 606, 611, 616, 621, 625, 632 Diaphysis, 8, 15, 16 Distal, 6, 7 Dog, See also Coyote; Wolf articular surfaces, 13 cranium, 45 locomotion and skeletal patterns, 9 paw bones, 15 Domestic pig, See Pig Domestic sheep, See Sheep Dorsal, 6, 7

Index

scapula, 152, 602 tibia, 470, 604 ulna, 275 vertebrae, 363 Coyote, 648–651 cranium, 25, 44, 648 dentition, 113, 125 femur, 438, 651 fibula, 506, 514, 651 humerus, 208, 650 mandible, 90, 648 metatarsals and phalanges, 557 os coxa, 649 paw bones, 539, 557, 651 pelvic girdle, 394, 649 radius, 233, 252, 650 sacrum, 649 scapula, 164, 649 tibia, 482, 651 ulna, 296, 650 Cranial, 6, 7 Cranium, 21–23 biped and quadruped comparison, 11–12 carnivore, 42–51, 638, 644, 648, 652, 656, 660, 664, 668 human, 5, 12, 24–26, 570 hydrocephaly, 25 miscellaneous species, 62–68, 706, 712, 718, 720 muscle attachment, 4 rodent, 54–60, 676, 680, 684, 688, 692, 696, 700 turtle carapace vs., 25 ungulate, 5, 12, 28–40, 580, 586, 591, 596, 601, 606, 611, 616, 621, 625, 632 Crests, 8 Crypts, 19

E Eburnation, 4, 5 Elbow joint, 187 Elk, 586–590 cranium, 29, 586 dentition, 116 femur, 423, 589 humerus, 193, 588 locomotion and skeletal patterns, 8 mandible, 75, 586 metacarpals and forelimb, 322, 327, 590 metatarsals and hindlimbs, 538, 543, 590 pelvic girdle, 379, 587 radius, 233 sacrum, 587 scapula, 149, 587 tibia, 467, 589 ulna and radius, 237, 281, 588 vertebrae, 362 Epiphysis, 8, 16 External, 7

F Femur, 415–418 biped and quadruped comparison, 14 carnivore, 436–444, 642, 647, 651, 655, 659, 663, 667, 671

727

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Index

growth centers, 17 human, 1, 3, 14, 419, 576 human infant, 18 humerus morphology vs., 417 miscellaneous species, 454–458, 709, 715, 718, 723 proximal and distal, 418 rodent, 446–452, 679, 683, 687, 691, 695, 699, 703 ungulate, 3, 422–434, 583, 589, 594, 599, 604, 609, 614, 619, 624, 628, 635 Fibula, 13, 503–505 carnivore, 512–520, 642, 647, 651, 655, 659, 663, 667, 671 fused tibia, 490, 491, 493–495, 498, 522–523, 525–530, 679, 683, 691, 695, 699, 709, 723 human, 506, 507 miscellaneous species, 530–534, 709, 715, 723 proximal and distal, 506 rodent, 522–527, 679, 683, 687, 691, 695, 703 ungulate (pig), 510, 624 Flipper bones, 722 Fontanelle, 8 Foot, 709, 718 Foot bones, 537, 539, 540, 577, See also Metatarsals and hindlimbs Foramen, 8, 16 Foramen magnum, 11, 12, 23, 24 Forearm bones, See Radius; Ulna Fossa, 8 Frontal bone, 24

G German shepherd, 45 Giraffe, 9, 357 Glenoid fossa, 187 Goat, 9 Greater trochanter, 418 Growth and development of bone, 15–17 Growth plate, 16

H Hand bones, 319, 320, 321, 323, 573, See also Metacarpals and forelimbs; Paw bones; Phalanges biped and quadruped comparison, 15 Hip joint, 417 Hoof, 15 Horse, 632–636 cranium, 40, 632 dentition, 113, 122 femur, 434, 635 hoof, 15

728

humerus, 204, 634 locomotion and skeletal patterns, 9 mandible, 86, 632 metacarpals and forelimb, 322, 338, 636 metatarsals and hindlimbs, 538, 636 metatarsals and phalanges, 554 os coxa, 633 pelvic girdle, 390 radius, 234 radius and ulna, 248, 292, 634 sacrum, 633 scapula, 160, 633 sculpted articulated surfaces, 13 tibia, 478, 635 Human bone, 570–577 clavicle and scapula, 11, 571 cranium, 5, 12, 24–26, 570 femur, 1, 417, 419, 576 femur, infant, 18 femur, stages of development, 15 fibula, 506, 507 foot, 539, 540, 577 hand, 320, 321, 323, 573 humerus, 188, 189, 572 mandible, 24, 72, 570 metacarpals, 322, 573 metatarsals, 538, 539, 540, 577 os coxa, 374 patella, 576 pelvic girdle, 13, 374, 375, 378, 575 radius, 14, 232, 234, 572 ribs, 10, 575 scapula, 146 tibia, 463, 576 ulna, 14, 275 vertebrae, 10, 358, 359, 574 Human dentition, 113–114, 570 Humerus, 185–187 carnivore, 206–214, 640, 646, 650, 654, 658, 662, 666, 670 femur morphology vs., 417 human, 188, 189, 572 miscellaneous species, 224–228, 708, 714, 722 rodent, 216–222, 678, 682, 686, 690, 694, 698, 702 ungulate, 192–204, 582, 588, 593, 598, 603, 607, 613, 618, 623, 627, 634 Hydrocephaly, 25 Hydroxyapatite, 2 Hyoid bone, 571

I Ilium, 373, 374

Infant bones, 18 Inferior, 7 Innominates, 373 Internal, 7 Ischium, 373, 374

J Jaw, See Mandible

K Knee bone (patella), 576 Knee joint, 5

L Labial, 7 Lambdoidal suture, 24 Lateral, 6, 7 Lateral malleolus, 505 Leg bones, See Femur; Fibula; Tibia Lesser trochanter, 418 Linea aspera, 418 Lingual, 7 Llama, 625–629 cranium, 37, 625 dentition, 120, 625 femur, 431, 628 humerus, 201, 627 mandible, 83, 625 metacarpals and forelimb, 322, 335, 629 metatarsals and hindlimbs, 538, 629 metatarsals and phalanges, 551 os coxa, 626 pelvic girdle, 387, 626 radius, 234 radius and ulna, 245, 289, 627 sacrum, 626 scapula, 157, 626 tibia, 475, 628 Locomotion patterns, skeletal morphology and, 8–9, 13, 537 Longitudinal, 7 Lumbar vertebrae, 9, 359, 574

M Malleolar fossa, 505 Mandible



carnivore, 88–96, 638, 644, 648, 652, 656, 660, 664, 668 human, 24, 72, 570 miscellaneous species, 69–71, 106–110, 706, 712, 720, See also Dentition rodent, 98–104, 676, 680, 684, 688, 692, 696, 700 skull definition, 23 tooth growth, 19 ungulate, 74–86, 580, 586, 591, 596, 601, 606, 611, 616, 621, 625, 632 Marmot, 684–687 cranium, 56, 684 dentition, 131, 684 femur, 448, 687 fibula, 687 humerus, 218, 686 mandible, 100, 684 os coxa, 685 paw bones, 348, 686 pelvic girdle, 404, 685 radius, 262 radius and ulna, 348, 686 sacrum, 685 scapula, 174, 685 tibia, 492, 687 ulna, 306 Mastoid process, 11, 12, 24 Maxilla, 24 Meatus, 8 Medial epicondyle, 188 Medial malleolus, 461, 462 Medial plane, 6, 7 Mesial, 7 Metacarpals and forelimbs, 317–322, See also Paw bones carnivore, 340–345, 641 human hand, 320, 321, 323, 573 miscellaneous species, 352–354 rodent, 348–350, 698 ungulate, 326–338, 584–585, 590, 595, 600, 605, 610, 615, 619, 623, 629, 636 Metaphysis, 16 Metatarsals and hindlimbs, 535–539 carnivore, 556–558, 643 human foot, 538, 539, 540, 577 miscellaneous species, 564–566 proximal and distal, 539 rodent, 560–561 ungulate, 542–554, 584–585, 590, 595, 600, 605, 610, 615, 619, 624, 629, 636 Midsagittal plane, 6, 7 Moose, 580–585 cranium, 4, 5, 12, 28, 580 dentition, 116

729

Index



Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Index

femur, 3–4, 417, 422, 583 humerus, 188, 192, 582 mandible, 74, 580 metacarpals, 322 metacarpals and forelimb, 320, 326, 584–585 metatarsals and hindlimbs, 538, 539, 542, 584–585 pelvic girdle, 378, 581 radius, 231, 233 radius and ulna, 14, 236, 280, 582 scapula, 11, 148, 581 tibia, 466, 583 Mountain lion, 652–655 canid morphology vs., 652 cranium, 46, 652 dentition, 125 femur, 439, 655 fibula, 515, 655 humerus, 187, 209, 654 mandible, 91, 652 metacarpals, 342 os coxa, 653 paw bones, 343, 539, 655 pelvic girdle, 395, 653 radius, 253, 654 sacrum, 653 scapula, 165, 653 tibia, 483, 655 ulna, 297, 654 vertebrae, 10, 367 Mountain sheep, 611–615 cranium, 34, 611 dentition, 119, 611 femur, 428, 614 forelimb and metacarpals, 332 humerus, 198, 613 mandible, 80, 611 metacarpals and forelimb, 322, 615 metatarsals and hindlimbs, 538, 548, 615 pelvic girdle, 384, 612 radius, 233 radius and ulna, 242, 286, 613 scapula, 154, 612 tibia, 472, 614 vertebrae, 363 Muscle attachment area, 3–4

N Nasal aperture, 24 Norway rat, 696–699 cranium, 59, 696 dentition, 132, 696 femur, 451, 699

730

humerus, 221, 698 mandible, 103, 696 metacarpals and forelimb, 320, 350, 698 metatarsals and hindlimbs, 539, 560, 699 os coxa, 697 pelvic girdle, 407, 697 radius and ulna, 265, 350, 698 scapula, 177, 697 tibia and fibula, 495, 527, 699 ulna, 309 Nuchal crest, 23, 25

O Occipital bone, 24 Occlusal, 7 Olecranon process, 276 Opossum, 712–715 cranium, 64, 712 dentition, 138, 712 femur, 456, 715 fibula, 715 humerus, 226, 714 mandible, 108, 712 os coxa, 713 pelvic girdle, 412, 713 radius, 270, 714 scapula, 182, 713 seal, 182 tibia, 500, 715 ulna, 314, 714 Oral anatomical terminology, 7 Orbit, 24 Os coxa, 12, 373, 374, 417, 575, 592, 597, 602, 607, 617, 626, 633, 639, 645, 649, 653, 657, 661, 665, 669, 677, 681, 685, 697, 713, 721, See also Pelvic girdle; specific animals Osteoblasts, 16, 17 Osteoclasts, 17 Osteocytes, 17 Osteons, 17 Otter, See River otter

P Palate, 24 Parietal bone, 24 Patella anterior, 576 Paw bones, 15, 317, 319, 320–321, 340–350, 537, 539, 556–558, 640–643, 646, 651, 655, 662, 666, 670, 686, See also Metacarpals and forelimbs; Metatarsals and hindlimbs; specific animals





mandible, 101, 688 pelvic girdle, 405, 689 radius, 263, 690 scapula, 175, 689 tibia and fibula, 493, 525, 691 ulna, 307, 690 Process, 8 Promontory, 373, 374 Pronation, 7, 231 Proximal, 6, 7 Pubis, 373, 374 Pug dog, 45

Q Quadruped skeleton, 8–15, See also Skeletal morphology, quadruped and biped comparison

R Rabbit, 692–695 cranium, 58, 692 dentition, 132, 692 femur, 450, 695 humerus, 220, 694 mandible, 102, 692 paw bones, 349 pelvic girdle, 406, 693 radius and ulna, 264, 308, 694 scapula, 176, 693 tibia and fibula, 494, 526, 695 Raccoon, 660–663 cranium, 48 dentition, 126 femur, 441 fibula, 517 humerus, 211 mandible, 93 metacarpals and forelimb, 343 pelvic girdle, 397 radius, 255 scapula, 167 tibia, 485 ulna, 299 Radial notch, 276 Radius, 229–272 articulation, 187, 232 biped and quadruped comparison, 13 carnivore, 250–258, 640, 646, 650, 654, 658, 662, 666, 670 fused ulna, 236–248, 275, 280–292, 598, 603, 608, 613, 618, 623, 627, 634, 678, 694, 698

731

Index

Pelvic girdle, 371–374 biped and quadruped comparison, 12–13 carnivore, 392–400, 639, 649, 653, 657, 661, 665, 669 human, 13, 374, 375, 575 miscellaneous species, 410–414, 707, 713, 721 rodent, 402–408, 681, 685, 689, 693, 697, 701 ungulate, 378–390, 581, 587, 592, 607, 612, 617, 622, 626 Phalanges, 319, 320, 537, 643, See also Metacarpals and forelimbs; Metatarsals and hindlimbs; Paw bones human foot, 539, 540, 577 human hand, 323, 573 Pig, 621–624 cranium, 36, 621 dentition, 120, 621 femur, 430, 624 fibula, 506, 510, 624 humerus, 200, 623 mandible, 82, 621 metacarpals, 334 metacarpals and forelimb, 623 metatarsals and hindlimbs, 624 metatarsals and phalanges, 550 pelvic girdle, 13, 386, 622 radius, 233 radius and ulna, 244, 288, 623 scapula, 156, 622 tibia, 474, 624 vertebrae, 364 Planes of the body, 6 Plexiform bones, 17 Porcupine, 680–683 cranium, 55, 680 dentition, 130, 680 femur, 447, 683 fibula, 524 humerus, 217, 682 mandible, 99, 680 os coxa, 681 pelvic girdle, 403, 681 radius, 261, 682 sacrum, 681 scapula, 173, 681 tibia and fibula, 491, 523, 683 ulna, 305, 682 Possum, See Opossum Posterior, 6, 7 Prairie dog, 688–691 cranium, 57, 688 dentition, 131 femur, 449, 691 humerus, 219, 690

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification

Index

human, 14, 231–234, 572 miscellaneous species, 268–272, 708, 714, 722 proximal and distal, 232 rodent, 260–266, 678, 682, 686, 690, 694, 698, 702 ungulate, 14, 236–248, 582, 588, 593, 598, 603, 608, 613, 618, 623, 627, 634 Rat, See Norway rat Ribs, 9, 10, 575 River otter, 672–674 cranium, 51, 672 dentition, 128, 672 femur, 444, 674 fibula, 520, 674 humerus, 214, 674 mandible, 96, 672 os coxa, 673 pelvic girdle, 400 radius, 258, 674 sacrum, 673 scapula, 170, 673 tibia, 488, 674 ulna, 302, 674 vertebrae, 368 Russian wolfhound, 45

S Sacral alae, 373 Sacral vertebrae, 9, 357, 373 Sacrum, 9, 12, 373, 374, 575, 581, 587, 592, 597, 602, 607, 617, 626, 633, 645, 649, 653, 657, 677, 681, 685, 707, 721, See also Pelvic girdle; specific animals Sagittal section, 7 Sagittal suture, 24 Scapula, 143–145 carnivore, 162–170, 639, 645, 649, 653, 657, 661, 665, 669 human, 11, 146, 571 miscellaneous species, 180–184, 707, 713, 721 rodent, 172–178, 677, 681, 685, 689, 693, 697, 701 ungulate, 11, 148–160, 581, 587, 592, 597, 602, 607, 612, 617, 622, 626, 633 Scapular spine, 145 Sculpted bones, 8, 13, 15 Seal, 720–723 cranium, 68, 720 dentition, 142, 720 femur, 458, 723 flipper bones, 722 humerus, 228, 722 mandible, 110, 720 metacarpals, 320, 354 os coxa, 721

732

pelvic girdle, 414, 721 radius, 272, 722 sacrum, 721 scapula, 721 tibia and fibula, 502, 534, 723 ulna, 316, 722 Semilunar notch, 276 Sesamoid bones, 348, 349 Sheep, 616–620, See also Mountain sheep cranium, 35, 616 dentition, 119, 616 femur, 429, 619 hoof, 15 humerus, 199, 618 locomotion and skeletal patterns, 9 mandible, 81, 616 metacarpals and forelimb, 322, 333, 619 metatarsals and hindlimbs, 538, 549, 619 os coxa, 617 pelvic girdle, 385, 617 radius, 233 radius and ulna, 243, 287, 618 sacrum, 617 scapula, 155, 617 tibia, 473, 619 Shoulder blade, See Scapula Sinus, 8 Skeletal growth and development, 15–17 Skeletal morphology, quadruped and biped comparison, 8–15 clavicle and scapula, 11 cranium, 11–12 limbs, 13–15 locomotor patterns and, 8–9 pelvic girdle, 12–13 planes, 6 sculpted bones, 8, 13, 15 thorax (chest area), 9 vertebral column, 9 Skeletons arranged by species, 567–723, See also specific animals or bones Skull, See Cranium Skunk, 668–671 cranium, 50, 668 dentition, 127, 668 femur, 443, 671 fibula, 519, 671 humerus, 213, 670 mandible, 95, 668 os coxa, 669 paw bones, 320, 345, 670 pelvic girdle, 399, 669 radius, 257, 670



T Taphonomy, 2 Tarsals, 540, 577, See also Metatarsals and hindlimbs Teeth, See Dentition Temporal bone, 24 Temporomandibular joint, 71 Thoracic vertebrae, 9, 358, 359, 574 Thorax (chest area), 9 Tibia, 459–461, 642, 679, 683, 691, 695, 699, 709, 723 biped and quadruped comparison, 13 carnivore, 480–488, 642, 647, 651, 655, 659, 663, 667, 671 fused fibula, 490, 491, 493–495, 498, 522–523, 525–530, 679, 683, 691, 695, 699, 709, 723 human, 463, 576 miscellaneous species, 498–502, 709, 715, 723 proximal and distal, 462 rodent, 490–496, 679, 683, 687, 691, 695, 699, 703 ungulate, 466–478, 583, 589, 594, 599, 604, 609, 614, 619, 624, 628, 635 Tibial tuberosity, 461, 462 Tooth growth and development, 18–19 Torus, 8 Trabecular bone, 5 Transverse, 7



Trochlea, 187, 188 Tubercle, 8 Tuberosity, 8 Turtle carapace, 25

U Ulna, 273–316 articulation, 187, 232 biped and quadruped comparison, 13 carnivore, 294–302, 640, 646, 650, 654, 658, 662, 666, 670 fused radius, 236–248, 275, 280–292, 598, 603, 608, 613, 618, 623, 627, 634, 678, 694, 698 human, 3, 14, 277, 573 miscellaneous species, 312–316, 708, 714, 722 proximal and distal, 276 rodent, 304–310, 678, 682, 686, 690, 702 ungulate, 3, 14, 280–292, 582, 588, 593, 598, 603, 608, 613, 618, 623, 627, 634 Ulnar notch, 232, 233

V Vampire bat, 718 cranium, 66, 718 dentition, 140 femur, 718 foot, 539, 718 metatarsals and hindlimbs, 566 wing bones, 320, 352, 718 Ventral, 6, 7 Vertebrae, 1, 9–10, 355–357 human, 10, 359, 574 nonhuman, 10, 362–370, See also specific animals promontory, 373 spinous process, 9, 10 Vertebral column, 357 Vertex, 7

W Wing, bat, 320, 352 Wing bones, 718 Wolf, 644–647 cranium, 12, 43, 644 dentition, 124, 644 femur, 437, 647 fibula, 513, 647 humerus, 207, 646 mandible, 89, 644

733

Index

scapula, 169, 669 tibia, 487, 671 ulna, 301, 670 Spinal cord, 23 Spinous process, 9, 10 Squirrel, 700–703 cranium, 60, 700 dentition, 133, 700 femur, 452, 703 fibula, 703 humerus, 222, 702 mandible, 104, 700 metatarsals and hindlimbs, 561, 703 pelvic girdle, 408, 701 radius, 266, 702 scapula, 178, 701 tibia, 496, 703 ulna, 310, 702 Sternum, 571 Styloid process, 276 Superficial, 7 Superior, 7 Superior nuchal line, 23, 25 Supination, 7 Suture, 8 Synovial fluid, 4

Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification os coxa, 645 paw bones, 15, 320, 341, 646 pelvic girdle, 393 radius, 231, 233, 251, 646 sacrum, 645 scapula, 163, 645 tibia, 481, 647 ulna, 275, 295, 646 vertebrae, 366 Wrist bone (carpals), 320

Z Zygomatic bone, 24

Index 734