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DR.SUSANGRAYisaresearchassociatetotheCanadaResearch ChairinAboriginalPeoplesinanUrbanandRegionalContextat theUniversityofWinnipeg.
“IWILLFEARNOEVIL”
TheOjibwawereactiveparticipantsinthesemissionaryencounters. Theyacceptedthosemissionarieswhotreatedthemwithsensitivity andrespect,andintegratedChristianbeliefsandpracticesintotheir establishedbeliefsystem.Today,ablendofChristianandOjibwaideas isstillinterwoveninthelivesofBerensRiverresidents,withbothtraditionsholdingmeaningandsincerity.Theiruniquelyadaptivereligion shedsnewlightonourunderstandingofculturalcontactandconversion,placingtheindigenousexperienceoftheseeventsatcentrestage.
G RAY
ThehistoryofChristianmissionsinCanadahastraditionallybeentold onlyfromthepointofviewofthemissionaries,andnotthosethey wereattemptingtoconvert.In“IWillFearNoEvil”authorSusanGray offersanewperspectiveonmissionary-aboriginalencountersbetween theBerensRiverOjibwaandMethodistandCatholicmissionaries between1875and1940.Supplementingherhistoricalresearchwith conversationsandinterviewswithBerensRiverelders,Grayexplores thewaysinwhichChristianbeliefshavebecomeincorporatedintothe traditionalOjibwaworldview.
“IWILL FEARNO EVIL” Ojibwa-MissionaryEncounters AlongtheBerensRiver,1875–1940
www.uofcpress.com 1-55238-198-6 978-1-55238-198-4
S U SA N E LA I N E G RAY
“IWillFearNoEvil” Ojibwa-MissionaryEncounters AlongtheBerensRiver,1875–1940
“IWillFearNoEvil” Ojibwa-MissionaryEncounters AlongtheBerensRiver,1875–1940
BySusanElaineGray
©2006bySusanElaineGray PublishedbytheUniversityofCalgaryPress 2500UniversityDriveNW Calgary,Alberta,CanadaT2N1N4 www.uofcpress.com Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem ortransmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans,withoutthepriorwritten consentofthepublisheroralicencefromTheCanadianCopyright LicensingAgency(AccessCopyright).ForanAccessCopyrightlicence, visitwww.accesscopyright.caorcalltollfreeto1-800-893-5777. LibraryandArchivesCanadaCataloguinginPublication Gray,SusanElaine “Iwillfearnoevil”:Ojibwa-missionaryencountersalongtheBerens River,1875-1940/SusanElaineGray. Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex. ISBN-13:978-1-55238-198-4(UniversityofCalgaryPress) ISBN-13:978-0-87013-792-1(MichiganStateUniversityPress) ISBN-10:1-55238-198-6(UniversityofCalgaryPress) ISBN-10:0-87013-792-1(MichiganStateUniversityPress) 1.OjibwaIndians—Missions—Manitoba—BerensRiverValley— History.2.MethodistChruch—Missions—Manitoba—BerensRiver Valley—History.3.CatholicChurch—Missions—Manitoba—BerensRiver Valley—History.I.Title. E99.C6G732006266.0089’733371272C2006-904005-2 WeacknowledgethefinancialsupportoftheGovernmentofCanada,throughthe BookPublishingIndustryDevelopmentProgram(BPIDP),andtheAlberta FoundationfortheArtsforourpublishingactivities.WeacknowledgethesupportoftheCanadaCouncilfortheArtsforourpublishingprogram.
PrintedandboundinCanadabyAGMVMarquis Thisbookisprintedon60lb.RollandEnviro100naturaltext CoverdesignbyMelinaCusano.PagedesignandtypesettingbyMiekaWest.
ForW.H.Brooks,whotellsmethatalthoughmypersonalityis definitelydeteriorating,Iamgettingbetterlookingwithage.
Contents
Forewordbyt heVer yReverendDr.StanMcK ay/vi ixi
xiii Preface/x i
xxxi Ack nowledg ment s/x xxi
1 LifeA longt heBerensR iver,1875 –1940/1 2 “ Listentot heMemeg wesiwagSinging” TheOjibwaWorl dView/19 3 “ T heyFoughtJustLi keaCatandaDog! ” Catholic-ProtestantEncounters ontheMissionFiel d/43 4 “ You’rePret t yGood ;butI’ l lTel l YouW hatMed icinetoUse” Encounters,1875 –1916/63
I magesandmap/8 9
5 “ IGotPret t yClosetot heF lames t hatTime ;T henIWokeUp” AcceptancesandRejec tions,1917–1940/97 6 “ I’veHadMyDreamsa l lT heseYears” Sur vival sandIntegrations,1917–1940/131 7 “ IWi l lFearNoEvi l ” Conclusions/155
Append i x CastofCharac ters/163
Bibl iography/16 9
Notes/181
I ndex/205
Foreword
WhenIhadaconversationwithSusanGrayaboutherresearchand writingonaperiodofmissionaryhistoryalongtheBerensRiver, Iwasveryinterested.Mygreat-grandfatherJosephEverettwas fromBerensRiverandthatwasaconnectionforme.Evenmore importantwasmylifelonginvolvementintheworkoftheUnited Churchandadesiretohaveagreaterunderstandingofthehistoric developmentsinthechurch.SusanaskedifIwouldbewillingto writetheforewordtoherbook.Ireplied,“Sendmethemanuscript andweshallseewhatispossible.” Thereadingofthemanuscripthasbeenexciting.SusanGray hasdemonstratedtheremarkabledisciplinethatisrequiredto focusherwritingonafixedperiodofhistory.Thelimitingof herbookinthismannerisespeciallynotablebecauseshewas interviewingelderswhowouldoftenwanderbeyondthisperiod ofhistoryinthenaturalprocessofstorytelling. Theprefaceisavaluablecontributiontocross-cultural understanding.SusanGrayhadaplaninplacebeforehervisit toBerensRiverbutitwasnotthe“people’splan.”Thelearned patienceandthetestingofmotivesexplainstherequirement forbuildingrightrelationshipswiththeOjibwaofBerensRiver. Thetestingofintentionswasapartoftreatynegotiationsa centurybeforeSusanvisitedBerensRiveranditisthecontinuing tradition. Theprojectbuiltmomentumwhenitwasunderstoodthatit wouldbeameansofgivingvoicetotheelders.Theprocesswith eachinterviewhadapatternwhichalsowasaboutbuildingtrust. TheeldersofBerensRiverhavebeenquestionedbyacademics
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beforenow,butthiswasdifferentbecausetheywerebeing encouragedtoreflectonmissionhistoryfromtheirperspective. Therecordedinterviewsarevaluableandtheeldersobviously felttheywererespected.Thegrowthofconfidence,knowing thattheycouldcontributehelpfulinformation,isobvious.The eldersusedtheoraltraditiontopassonteachingsaboutspiritual andphilosophicalinsights.Equallysignificantisthesharingof laughterwithmemoriesoflifeontheBerensRiver.Theyspoke openlyoftheirdreams. Theeldersinterviewedsharedtheirmemoriesofhowitwas, anawarenessofhowitisnow,andhintsoftheirconcernforhow itwillbe.Thestoriesofthechurchworkingtomakeconversions andofthecompetitionbetweenCatholicsandMethodistsfor thewinningofsoulsreflectsthelevelofmisunderstandingwhich existedinthosetimes.TheShakingTentceremonycontinued butOjibwapeoplewerecalledontomakeachoicebetweentheir traditionalpracticesandmembershipinachurch. Thehistoriccontextisachallengingbackdropasmany issuesarose.Therewasaproblemwithfisherymanagement asthemovementofcommercialfisheriesenteredtheareaand huntingwaslessdependable.ChiefJacobBerensrequestedthat thecommercialfishersleavetheareabutdepletionofresources continued.Childrenwerebeingtakentoresidentialschoolsand fluepidemicsimpactedthecommunity. Thestruggletomaintainself-sufficiencywasamajor challengeby1930andChiefWilliamBerenswaspropheticinhis resistancetothepeoplebecomingdependentonrationsfromthe government.SusandescribesthemissionhistoryastheOjibwa weremovingfromabountyoffoodtoaperiodofhunger.There wasapoliticallinkbetweenillnessandhungerwhichresultedin more“conversions.”Thetwodenominationscertainly“keptscore” astheycountedtheirmembersandreportedtheminlettersto regionalchurchoffices. Thisresearchoffersinsightsintotheunfoldingofthe historyofmission.Fromceremoniesoflifeontheland,there wasamovementtosettlementonthebanksofBerensRiver,
Foreword
withschoolsandchurches.Itwasasituationofconversionand compromisebutSusanmaintainstheOjibwakeptavisionwhich istheirown.Shedefendstheconceptof“afusionofcultural traditions”whichshedescribesassyncretism.Herconversations withtheeldersindicatedtherewere“strongroots”withthe missionchurchesbutthattheyalsovaluedtheirowntraditions. Thechallengeofthisimportanthistoricalresearchishowto applythelearningstothepresentcontext.Virginia,Percy,and JohnwerethelastgenerationofOjibwatoliveself-sufficientlives onthelandalongtheBerensRiver.Theirstrongself-confidence andidentityasOjibwaelderswasgroundedintheirknowledge oftheirlanguageandthetraditionalculturalteachings.Overthe pastfiftyyearstheyhadwatchedthedevelopmentofagrowing dependencyonsocialassistanceandtheacceptanceofaconcept called“unemployment,”somethingthattheyneverknew.Now theOjibwaalongtheBerensRiverhavemanymorechapelsbuilt byreligiousdenominationswhichaddtothehistoricCatholicMethodisttensions. Asyoureadthisbookyouwillbeguidedthroughasignificant periodofCanadianhistoryasexperiencedbyasmallcommunity ofOjibwa.Thefocusonspiritualandphilosophicalreflections givesadepthtothestorieswhichisnotoftenavailableto Canadianreaders.Iamencouragedbyit. Iprayitmightbeusedtoliftupdiscussionsaboutour relationshipsinCanada–pastandpresent–sothatwemaylearn moreoftheteachingsofrespectfordiversity.Thisbookhasmuch tooffertothosewhostudymissiology,andthematerialmight engagestudentsofhistoryincreativereflection.Mostimportantly itmayopendoorsforFirstPeoplesasweseektounderstandthe influenceofmissionsonourlives. TheVeryReverendDr.StanMcKay, PastModeratoroftheUnitedChurchofCanada
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Preface
OnmyfourthChristmasIwentwithmyfamilytovisitmy grandmother,AnnaMahase,inTrinidadandTobago.In1919she hadqualifiedtobecomethefirstEastIndianwomanteacheronthe island.Hermother,Rookabai,hadbeenconvertedbyPresbyterian missionarieswhofoundthetwelve-year-oldBrahmanstowaway hiddeninaboatthathadcarriedhertoTrinidadfromIndia–away fromanarrangedmarriagetoamansheconsideredoldandugly. Anna,whowasraisedasaChristian,marriedKennethMahase,the firstEastIndianschoolprincipalinTrinidad,inAugust1919. KennethMahasecamefromawealthyBrahmanfamilythat hadnoneedofandlittlerespectforthePresbyterianMission. YoungMahaseconverted,however,sothathemightattend theNaparimaTrainingCollegeandthejubilantmissionaries bequeatheduponhimtheChristiannameKenneth.Itistobe questionedhowmuchjubilationwasfeltbyMahase’sfamilywho subsequentlynamedtheirdogKenneth. OnmyChristmasvisit,Annahadbeenawidowforalmost adecadebutstilllivedinthefamilyhomeinSangreGrande, Trinidad.AdeeplycommittedChristian,shewasthetreasurerof thecommunity’sPresbyterianchurch.Onthenightofourarrival, aswesatinherlargelivingroom,ahuge,many-colouredmoth flewthroughthedoorwayanddriftedtomymother,hoveringfor afewmagicmomentsinfrontofherface.Itthenwaftedtoeach ofthenewcomersendingupatmyfatherwhobeganswatting atthecreature.Inaninstant,thepillarofthePresbyterian Churchlookedathimandsaidquietly,“Don’tdothat,that’s Susan’sgrandfather.”Sheexplainedthatwheneveranyofthe Mahasechildrencamehomefromoverseasforavisit,themoth, xiii
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areincarnationofmygrandfather,enteredtheroomandgreeted thetravellers.Thisnever-forgottenincidentunderliesmyinterest inencountersbetweenworldviews. ThehistoriesofNorthAmericannativepeoplesembody variedandfascinatingdialoguesanddebatesamongnativepeople andmissionaries.OjibwapeoplelivingalongtheBerensRiver ofManitobaandnorthwesternOntariobetween1870and1940 interpretedconversions,andthetakingonofChristianityhad multi-dimensionalmeaningsinamyriadofdifferentways.They respondedtotheMethodistandRomanCatholicmissionaries byintegratingChristianritualsandpracticesintotheirworld viewinwaysthattheycontrolledandfoundmeaningful.Today, peoplewhogrewupwhenthemissionsweremostactivecontinue tointerweavebothChristianandOjibwaideas.Bothstrands holdpower,meaning,andsincerity.Thefaithandscripturesof Christianitystrengthenmanyintheirdailylife,anditisequally truethatmanyofthesamepeople’sbeliefsremaingroundedin suchOjibwaconceptsastheThunderbirds,thepowerofmedicine menandconjurorsandtheuseofdreamsasvehiclesofprediction, guidance,andforeshadowing. TheBerensRiverOjibwaoftendescribethemselvesin EnglishasSaulteaux.WhentheFrenchfirstencounteredthe earlyancestorsoftheseIndiansatSaultSte.Marie,theyreferred tothemasSaulteurs(atermwhichlaterbecameSaulteaux) andOutchibouec(whichlaterbecameOjibwaorChippewa). InteractionsandintermarriageswithintheFrenchfurtrade blurreddistinctionsbetweenlocalethnicgroupsandfosteredthe spreadofSaulteauxandOjibwatonamegenerallymanyformerly separatepeopleswhohadbeenconnectedtotheOutchibouec andSaulteursthroughtraderelationshipsandkinship.Some AboriginalpeoplerejectthetermSaulteauxasaEuropeanword. Awordmustalsobesaidhereabouttheuseoftheterms “medicineman”and“conjuror,”termsthatarestillusedatBerens RiverwhenpeoplespeakinEnglish.Somescholarshavereacted againsttheuseoftheseterms,seeingthemasembodimentsof ethnocentricandjudgementalthought.I,however,incorporate
Preface
thembecausetheyarethetermsofchoiceusedbymyOjibwa friendsandinformantslivingalongtheBerensRiver.Intryingto makethisstoryastruetotheirstoriesaspossible,Ihavemade apointofnotsuperimposingacademicjudgementsoverthe judgementsoftheplayers.OutofrespecttotheOjibwawomen andmenwhoopenedthemselvesuptomeduringmyfieldwork,I havechosentoadopttheirterminologyinthisbook.1 OjibwapeoplealongtheBerensRiverexperiencedandstill liveadeep,dynamic,andcomplexreligionbasedonthepowerof beliefandyetwhichisadaptiveandflexible.Newideasarriving intheirmidst–suchritualsasFairWind’sDreamDrumDance (alongtheupperBerensRiver)–haveoftenbeenwelcomed iftheyappearedpowerfulandvaluable.2Contrarytothe assumptionsofgenerationsofwesterners,theSaulteauxemployed empiricismandcriticalthinkingatdeeplevels.Theabilityto incorporateoutsideideasintoanexistingworldviewdoesnot implythattheirbeliefsweresuperficial. Beginninginthe1870s,BerensRiverencounterswith Christianitybecamebothcommonplaceandlocallyintense. Duringthistime,manyOjibwainthisareaactivelytookonand participatedinMethodismorRomanCatholicism,adoptingand adaptinganumberofbeliefsandritualsintotheirworldviews. NativepeoplewhorespondedpositivelytoChristianitywere influencedbymanyfactors.Theseincludedawishforliteracyand Westerneducationandtechnicalresources,adesiretounderstand theBibleasasourceofpotentiallyhelpfulandbeneficial messages,addeddivineprotectionfromillnessandothercrises, protectionagainstbadmedicine,accesstoWesternmedicine,and theenhancingofexistingpowersderivedfromtraditionaldreams andrituals. Missionsuccessesinthesecommunitiesusuallydependedon thesustainedpresenceofadevotedmissionarywhostayedlong enoughtoachieverespectandearntrust.Bythelatenineteenth century,manyOjibwaatthemouthoftheBerensRiverwere second-generationChristians;thenewtraditionandloyaltyhad firmrootsinmanyfamilies.
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“IWillFearNoEvil ”
Christianity,however,wasnotacceptedoutofhand.Lackof empathyfrommissionaries,lackofagreementwiththelessons taughttochildreninschools,lackofafeltneedforanewreligion, orlackofrespectbyamissionaryforsacredOjibwaritualscould allbereasonsforrejection.Clearly,nativepeoplewereincontrol ofmakingchoiceshere;itwastheywhodecidedwhenandhow theywouldorwouldnotacceptChristianity. Untilrecently,historianshavewrittenaboutChristian missionslargelyfromEuropeanperspectives,usingethnocentric criteriaforevaluatingtheirsuccessandfailures.Nativeresponses havereceivedfarlessattentionthanthegoalsofthemissionaries; often,infact,thediversityofNativeresponseshasnotevenbeen perceived. 3 Churchhistorianshavetendedtowriteglowingaccountsof missionaryendeavour,gloryinginnativeconversionsandthe usurpingof“paganism”bythestronger,morelegitimateand dynamicChristianfaith.Theseuncriticalhagiographiescelebrate thesuccessesoftheirdenominationalmissionaryheroesand areconspicuousintheirlackofattentiontotheperspectivesof nativepeople.Theirrenderingsportraythetrees’leavesbutnot theirbranches,trunks,ortwigs–thoseverythingsessentialto structureanddepth.4 Anothertypeofinterpretationpresentsmissionariesand governmentagentsasculturalmurderers,bentonsmashing traditionallifeways.Theonly“realIndians”werepre-contact,and nativegroupswhichexperiencedchangethroughcontactwere seenasweakenedvictimswhoexistedinastateofsuspension, beingneitherIndiannorwhite. 5Conversions,accordingtothis model,wereblind-deaf-and-dumbaffairswithconfusednatives merelygoingthroughthemotions.Thoughmarredbycontact, theirmindsweresufficientlyIndiantoensurethattheywould nevertrulysuccumbtotheforeign,lethalwhitereligion.This viewreflectedtheromantichopesofmanyscholarsthata primitiveortraditionalconsciousnesssurvived.Thecompulsion topatronizenativeintellectsandcondemnChristianityand missionariesasagentsofthedominantsociety,however,too
Preface
commonlydoesnotdojusticetoanyofthecastofcharacters: Indianorwhite. Thebestnewwritingrecognizesthatnativeperspectives arecrucialtoafullunderstandingofmissionhistory.Recently, scholarshiphasmadeexcitingadvancesinstudiesofsyncretism (creativewaysbywhichChristianityandtraditionalnative religionsmet,mixed,andblendedideas)andintegrations(waysin whichChristianityandtraditionalreligiousworldviewscoexisted asinterlockingsetsofideaswithinindividuals).Nativepeople hadmanyreasonsforacceptanceorrejectionofChristianity. Manyoutsideideas,oncethoughttohavebeenforcedon unwittingnativevictims,wereactuallyfilteredandmouldedto suitnativecultureswithinnativeframeworks.Anunderstanding oftheseprocessescomesonlyfromstudyingindividualnative communitiesandmissionswithasopenamindaspossible.The carefultracingofindividualnativeperspectivesandresponses overgenerationscanhelptoplaceindigenousperspectivesat centrestageamongtheothervoicesthathavetoolongdominated theseconversations. IntheNorthAmericancontext,asmallbutgrowingbody ofliteratureonsyncretismandChristianmissionsprovidesa usefulcontextforthisstudy.RaymondDeMalliehasstudiedthe influenceofChristianteachingsonLakotacultureinthiscentury throughanin-depthlookatthelifeofBlackElk.6Inthewestern subarctic,Jean-GuyGouletlearnedfromAthapaskanCatholics thattheseDenehavetworeligioussystemsavailabletothem, experiencingbothAboriginalandChristianideologiesas“socially availableandmeaningful.”7 Aswell,closerandmorebalancedscrutiniesofindividual missionaries–theirpersonalities,backgrounds,motivations, knowledgeofAboriginallanguageandculture,sensitivityto nativevalues,andtheirinteractionsinthefieldcanetchpictures that,asAnnFienup-Riordanputsit,are“subtleandfullof nuance.” 8 ThehistoryofIndian-missionaryencountersmustalsobe seenasinteractiveandprocessual–asmeetingsandnegotiations
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betweendifferentsystemsofmeaning,embodiedincomplex humanindividuals. TheMoravianmissionofJohnandEdithKilbucktothe Yup’ikEskimo,forexample,wassuccessfulinthat,by1895,it haddrawnmanyconverts,implantedmanyaspectsofWestern technology(suchassawmills,boats,printedlanguage)and reducedthecredibilityofshamans.Therealbasisofsuccess, though,wastheintegrationofnativeandwhiteideas.Although theKilbucks’effortsrepresentedsomebeneficialaspectsof Christianity,thepoweroftheseelementswas,asFienup-Riordan explains,traditionallydefined.BothChristianityandYup’ik religionwerebasedonaconnectionbetweenthoughtandaction. TheChristianideathatprayerwouldevokeafavourableresponse fromGodwascompatiblewithtraditionalYup’ikideasofhunting magic.BecausetheYup’ikwerefamiliarwiththeideathatritual performancewouldensurethesuccessoffutureaction,they couldmakesenseoftheKilbucks’message.Inaddition,the missionaries’useofIndiansaspreachersandtranslatorsprovided stillmoreintegrativedimensionsintheirwork. 9Therealimpact oftheKilbucks’workwasthatitcreatedatransformedworld withaplacewithinitfortheYup’ik. Preachingthevalueoftime,money,andthewrittenword, theirpracticalmissionengenderedanovelperceptionofthe worldandtheYup’iks’placewithinit.“Althoughthe[Yup’ik] increasinglyspokeEnglish,livedwithinfourwalls,workedfor wages,andattendedchurch,theyremainedindependent,their livesfocusedonextendedfamilyrelationsandthepursuitofthe fishandgameonwhichtheyhadreliedforcenturies…thepeople ignored…eminently‘civilized’activitieswhentheyconflicted withtraditionalsubsistenceandsettlementpatterns.Though muchhadchanged,muchalsoremainedoftheYup’ikEskimos’ traditionalviewoftheworld.”10 JamesAxtellemphasizedsomeyearsagothathistoriansmust evaluatemissionsuccessbyaskingthequestion:WhydidIndians converttoChristianity?11Similarly,whenstudyinginteractions betweenMethodists,Catholics,andOjibwaatBerensRiver,
Preface
weneedtoaskwhymanyBerensRiverOjibwaconverted,what meaningsthoseconversionsheldfornewChristians,andhowthe OjibwaandChristianworldviewsinteractedinfollowingyears. TheworkofMethodistmissionaryThomasCrosbywho workedamongtheTsimshiansinPortSimpson,BritishColumbia, between1874and1897providesanotherexampleofIndians assuming“adecisiveroleintheconversionprocessandin determiningthesuccessofthemission.”12PriortoCrosby’sarrival, thesepeoplehadrejectedtheoverturesofAnglicanmissionary WilliamDuncanbecauseatthetime,theysawnoneedtotakeon Christianity.Theirviewschangedbythe1870sforanumberof reasonsincluding:adesiretoacquireWesternmaterialgoods,a loveofthemusicanddramainMethodistworshipservices(which offeredsomeparallelstotheirownrichritualandceremonial life),awishtoacquireadditionalpowerfromChristianitythat couldhelpwardoffdisease,andahopethattheirChristianity,by servingtoshowthattheyhadtakenonthenewcomers’lifestyle, wouldbringthemeconomicandpoliticalpower. TheessentialpointisthattheTsimshiansdetermined theirownresponsestomissions;theythemselvessoughtout themissionaryandlaterrejectedCrosby.By1885,theywere disillusioned.Althoughtheyhadworkedhardandspentmuch moneyinimprovingtheirvillageandbuildingaschooland church,moneyandworkwerescarceandthelandquestionhad notbeensettledtotheirsatisfaction.Theeconomicandpolitical powerthattheysoughtwas,intheend,deniedthem. AlthoughtheirconversionwassincereandtheTsimshians changedtheirvillageintoanidealVictorianCanadiantownand “offeredlittleresistancetothedismantlingoftheirwayoflife,”13 manytraditionalcustomswereretained.Christianity,education, andmedicalaidchangedthelivesofthecommunitymembers whogotridofcommunallonghouses,dancing,gambling,feasting, potlatching,andtheideaofcommunalownership,andreplaced theirtraditionalleadershipwithavillagecouncilledbyCrosby. Thegivingofhereditarynames,propertyrights,rulesofexogamy, customscontrollingmarriage,andlawspertainingtofunerals,
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however,“remainedoperativebeneaththeveneerofwestern mores.”14 SergeiKanhasstudiedtraditionalbeliefsandpracticesthatare stillflourishingamongAlaskanTlingitswhoconsiderthemselves tobeChristians.15TheTlingitsincorporatedChristianrituals andobjectsintoolderceremonies,whileretainingbeliefsabout reincarnationandpracticessuchasthepotlatchasamemorial rite. TherehavebeenexcitingdevelopmentsbeyondNorthAmerica inhistory,anthropology,religion,andsociology.Thisstudyof theBerensRiverareahasalsofoundinspirationinthewaysthat Aboriginalpeoplesaroundtheworldinterpretedthetransmission ofideasandgeneratednewbeliefstructuresthroughthestrength, flexibility,andinfluenceoftheirtraditionalworldviews.These ongoingprocessesensuredthatAboriginalpeoplesreshapedtheir culturesanddealtwithchange.16 AlongtheBerensRiverweseemuchevidenceofmany-faceted responsestoChristianity.ChiefJacobBerens(ca.1835–1917),for example,wasbaptizedasayoungmanbytheMethodistsin1861 andthemissionarieswerethrilledwhenthisconvertbecamethe TreatyChiefatBerensRiveruponthesigningofTreaty5in1875. ChiefBerensraisedhischildrentobeMethodists.Anthropologist A.IrvingHallowell,however,foundinthe1930sthatsomeof thesechildrenhadextensiveknowledgeoftheOjibwaMidiwiwin orGrandMedicineCeremonyandtheShakingTentrituals andJacob’sson,William,provedtobethekeycollaboratorin Hallowell’sstudiesoftheOjibwaworldviewandhistory.William Berensrevealedtheessenceofsyncretismandintegrationat BerensRiverwhenhetoldHallowell,“Myfatherusedtosayto me…youwillseelotsofnewthingsandyouwillfindaplacein yourmindforthemall.”17 Thisbookhasbeengivensparkle,vitality,andnuancethrough thestoriesofwomenandmenwholiveintheBerensRiver community.Thesepeopleessentiallybreathedlifeintothetext. Likeanyothermethodology,oralhistorybringswithititsshare ofproblemsandrequiresthehistoriantoapplythesamecritical
Preface
questioningofsourcesassheorhewouldinthecaseofanyother source.WhileA.IrvingHallowellwasafriendandcollaboratorof WilliamBerens,thecommunityofBerensRiverisnotgenerally familiarwithHallowell’swritings(althoughWilliam’ssons anddaughtersremembertheanthropologist).Thus,people’s memoriesarenotinfluencedbyreadingHallowell;noristherea senseofanimosity,ofhavingto“settherecordstraight”orasense ofneedingtotailorstoriestofitaprescribedmould. ItwastheOjibwapeoplewholiveinBerensRiverwhoinjected life-breathintomyworkand,insodoing,turnedmyworkabout thepastintolivingpassionatehumanity.Itwasonethingtoread andthink,forexample,abouthowtheOjibwaincorporatednew ideasorritualsintotheirmidst,butamultitudeofmeaningsand arushoflifebloodweretransfusedintothestudywhenIsatwith thepeopleofBerensRiverwhoopenedtheirheartsandmindsto me.Theyblewoffacademicdustandturnedonlights.Theywere theprismsthroughwhichlightshoneandrefractedintonuance andclarity.Irealizedthattheirvoiceswerecentraltothisstory andthatIneededtojusticetotheirpassionsandconvictions. Afterexaminingaplethoraofwrittenrecords,Imade arrangementsforaresearchtriptoBerensRiver.Agoodmonth beforeIplannedtoarriveinthecommunity,Ispokeseveraltimes onthephonetoapleasanthelpfulmanwhoworkedintheBand Office.Heassuredmethathewouldarrangeformetointerview someoftheeldersinthecommunityandthathewouldmeetmy planeattheairport.ButwhenmysmallplanelandedinBerens Riveronafreezingcold,greyDecembermorning,mytelephone friendwasconspicuouslyabsent. Throughsomeluckyencountersandthekindnessoftheowner oftheBerensRiverHotelIfinallymadeittotheBandOffice, feelingvulnerablebuthopeful.Mystomachliterallyturnedover, however,whenmyinquirywasansweredatthefrontdeskby, “Percy?Percy’sinthebush!”Vulnerabilityshiftedtopanic.Ihad limitedtimetodosomeinterviewsandmysolecontactwasinthe bush.Notonepersonintheofficeseemedtocareawitaboutmy agenda.Someonetoldmetositdownonabench,whichIdid.I
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satandsatinmutemiseryandtriedtoimaginewhatIwouldsay tomydissertationadvisorwhenIreturnedwithblanktapes. Butsomethingwashappening,althoughIdidn’trealizeitat thetime.Iwasbeingcarefullyobserved.Afteranhourandahalf, Iwasfranticandbecomingquitebitter.Justthen,someonecame overandinvitedmeintooneoftheoffices.AgroupofOjibwa menweregatheredthereandtheycalmlysurveyedme.They askedwhatIwantedandwhatIwasdoinginBerensRiver.I, somewhatlesscalmly,explainedwhyIwantedtospeaktopeople inthecommunity.Theirexpressionswereimpassiveexceptfor onemanwhointroducedhimselfasAndrewBitternandwho smiledoncewhenIexplainedhowmuchthisworkmeanttome andhowworriedIwas.Theywentawayforawhileandcame back.Withinminutestheymadealistofsomeoftheoldest, accessiblepeopleinthecommunity.ItwasAndrewBitternwho volunteeredtodrivemeeverywhereIwouldneedtogoduringmy stayinBerensRiver. IhadreadagreatdealaboutOjibwaadaptabilityand flexibility.ItwasamazingtoseeinactionwhatIhadreadin theabstract.Herewasaclearexampleofpeoplechoosingto participateandfacilitatingeventsontheirownterms.Asit turnedout,Iwouldhavebeenlostwithouttheirsupport.Because hehaddecidedthatmyworkwasinterestingandworthyofhis effortandattention,Andrewfaithfullypickedmeup,droppedme off,andpickedmeupagainfrommanyhomeswithinafairlywide geographicradius,takingmebacktomyhoteltoeatortopassthe timebetweenappointments.ItwasAndrewwhowentfirsttothe doorofthepeople’shousesandspoketotheminOjibwa,telling themwhatIwantedandaskingthemiftheywantedtoseeme. Theydid.ItwasAndrewwhogotpeopletotaketheirbigdogs away(eventhoughIknowforafactthatacoupleoftimeshewas almostasintimidatedbythemasIwas). Meanwhile,thepeopleintheBandOfficespreadtheword. Withinashorttime,oneyoungmanapproachedme,suggestingI talktohisgranduncle.Afterbreakfastinthehotel,anotherman toldmeIshouldspeaktohismother,whomhedrovemetomeet.
Preface xxiii
Somehow,Iwasbecomingasflexibleastheyallwereandthis waskeytothetrip’ssuccess.Iwasopentoanyandallshiftsand encounters.Wordspreadwithremarkablespeed,anditwasnot longbeforepeopleweresayinguponmyarrival,“Iheardyouwere around!I’msurprisedyoutooksolongtogethere!”Thepeople haddecidedtheywantedtotalktome,andtheydid. Anotherimportantphenomenonoccurredineveryinterview, illustratinghowtheolderpeopleImetdecidedoncoursesof actionandcontrolleddynamics.Eachpersonlistenedpolitely whileIexplainedwhatIwasdoing.Eachpersonspentthefirst houransweringmyquestionspleasantlyandreservedly,along fairlystandardlines.Theyrelatedthenamesoftheirministersor priests,andtoldmeaboutattendingSundaySchoolaschildren.In manycasesitappearedthatoutsidershadtalkedtothembefore, andtheyhadsomestockresponsesinhand.Thetonewasalways polite,impersonal,andguarded.Ineachcase,Ibegantowonder ifthepersonwouldeverreallytalktomeandwasafraidthatI wouldnotbeabletomakeaconnection. Andthen,amagicmomentwouldarrivewhenthesepeople suddenlyopenedupandtheirsoulsshoneout.Iamstillnotsure whatmadethegreycloud-coveringblowaway.Didtheybecome satisfiedthatIhonestlywantedtoknowwhattheythought?Did theydecidetheysimplylikedmeandwantedtohelp?Didthey realizethatthiswasawayforthemtomaketheirstoriesheard? Whateveritwas,theybecamepassionateandopenandspoke fromtheirhearts.WalterGreen,forexample,hadbeenused tomakingpublicappearancesinmanyschoolsthroughoutthe province,includingWinnipeg.Itwasremarkabletowitnessthe momentwhenhestoppedrelatingstandardstoriesofOjibwalore andbegantalkingtomeabouthisownvisionsandhisfearsand thedeeplovesofhislife—hisloveformusicandthebeautyand powerofsomeofhisdreams. SometimesIhadtohavethecouragetorevealalittleofmyself beforethetransformativemoment.FredBaptiste,forexample, answeredquestionsforanhourinachant-likemonotone.AsI lookedaroundthewallsofhistinyhouse,Iwassuddenlystruck
xxiv “IWillFearNoEvil ”
byhismanypictures,allofwhichillustratedBiblicalstoriesand themes.ItoldhimIlovedtheirbrilliant,vividcolours.Hesat quietly,lookingatmeforalongtime.Thenabruptly,heaskedme tointerpretthemeaningbehindapictureofChristknockingat thedoorofahouse.“Youknowthat’sapictureofJesus,”hesaid. “Canyoumakeanythingoutofthat?”Iwasmindfulofcreating biasandcontaminatingtheconversationwithtoomanyofmy ownideas.Andso,abitantiseptically,Ianswered,“Well,Isee Jesusknockingatadoor,andit’sclosedandit’snight.What’syour takeonthat?”Fredjumpedupandleanedoverthetable,hisnose inmyface.“He’sstandingatthedoor,knockingatthedoor.He’s knockingatthedoortoyourheart.Andwouldyoulethiminor not?Iwantyoutoanswerthat!”Ifroze.WhatifIsaidthewrong thingandthisinterviewwouldbeheldupyearslaterbysome academicasproofofmylackofaproperapproach?“Youwantme toanswerthat?”“Yes!Yes!IfJesusknocksatyourdoor–that’s yourheart’sdoor,eh?–areyougoingtolethimin?”Isaidfaintly thatIthoughtIwould. Andwiththatpersonalexposure,Fredwentontolayhimself barealso.“Sure!Sure!Nobody’deverturnhimdown!”Thenhe toldmethatforyearshehadownedawonderfulfeather.Itwas, heexplained,thefeatherofababyThunderbird.Thisnewand realFredsharedhisresponsetotherecentfuneralofhisfriend, AlecMcKay.InspiredbyhispaintingoftheLastSupper,Fred putapieceofcakeinAlec’scoffin.Heexplainedthathewas havingtheLastSupperwithAlecandthathewouldtakethefood withhimonhisroadtothenextlife. Ononelevel,Fred’sresponserepresentedawonderful exampleofhisblendingoftheChristianideaoftheLastSupper withtheOjibwaconceptofplacingarticlesoffoodandtobacco withadeceasedpersontopreparehisspiritforthejourneyto theafterlife.Onanotherlevel,itwasaheartwarmingshared experience.Fredwastalkingtomeasonehumanbeingto another. Inthesameway,otherconcepts,relationships,andbeliefswere illuminatedbytheoldpeoples’discourseandremembrances.
Preface
IhadgleanedfromthelettersofRev.Niddrie,BrotherLeach, andhissuperior,FatherDeGrandpré(whowassometimesat BerensRiverwithLeach)thatProtestant-Catholicdynamics weresometimesratherstrainedatBerensRiver.Thistension tookonanewdimension,however,whenIheardPercyBerens andFredBaptisteroarwithlaughter,Percyrememberinghow “theyusedtofightjustlikeacatandadog!Really!I’mtelling youthetruth!”18Thelettersofthemissionariestoldofstrong denominationaltensionsandIhadtheimpressionthatthiswas atrulydividedcommunity.Butsittingaroundkitchentablesat BerensRiver,Irealizedthat,despitetheenmitybetweenclergy, theOjibwamembersofthechurchesgenerallygotonverywell withoneanotherandmanyattendedservicesatbothCatholicand ProtestantchurchesonSundays. TherealpresenceoftheOjibwabeliefsysteminthelivesof modernBerensRiverfolkwasbestconveyedthroughthestories andthoughtsofthepeoplethemselves.WalterGreen,adedicated UnitedChurchmember,toldmeaboutanangelwhohadtaught himtoplaytheorganinadreamandoftheprotectivevisionhe hadonaseriesofeveningsashelayinbedwithasevereillness.It isonethingtoreadofOjibwapeoples’beliefinspirits,andquite anothertohearavoicefilledwithwarmthandawesay,“ohthey’re justsowonderful,theycandoanything!”19Walter’seyesshoneas hesaidthisandIremember,atthatmoment,contrastingthelight ofhiseyeswiththehoursIspentinthearchivesstrugglingtoread microfilminthedarkness. A.IrvingHallowellwroteaboutfearsaroundbadconjuring. IntellectuallyIhadwhatIthoughtwasagraspofthisidea. However,itspowerandrealitywerelostonmeuntilIheardthe bitternessinPercyBerens’svoicewhenhetoldmeaboutthe pricehisbrother,Jacob,paidforincurringthejealouswrathofa conjuror.“Oneofmybrothersdiedofthatkindofthing,”hesaid, “becausetheywerejealousofhim.Theythoughtmybrotherwas usingmedicineforhisdogteamtobesogood.” 20 Theesteemforthegoodthatmedicinemencoulddowasalso conveyedclearlyandpassionatelybythesamepeoplewhospoke
xxv
xxvi “IWillFearNoEvil ”
withpassionofthecontributionsofthechurchesandschoolsin theircommunity.WhenIaskedPercyBerensaboutLeach’sand Niddrie’sabhorrenceofmedicinemen,hevehementlyexplained, “Becausetheydidn’tbelieveinit.Thatwaswhatwaswrong. That’sthetrouble.Theydidn’treallyhaveitexplainedtothem whatitmeansforanIndiantobeamedicineman.Theyshould haveknownbetter.Thatmanthere,thatmedicineman,he’sgoing tosavelives!Forotherpeople!It’sagoodthing!Iveryappreciate yourbringingthiswholethingup,thismedicinething.Theold peoplelivedlonginmytime,nobabiesdiedthatmuchaswhat theydonowbecausetheIndiansknewthemedicine.” 21Other eldersexplainedthatitwasunfortunatethatthemissionaries hadnotrealizedthatthepowerofmedicinemenandwomenhad comefromGodandthatolderpeopleusedtousethatmedicine toaccomplishwonderfulthings. TheThunderbirdsalsocamealiveformeinthesehomes. WhenIaskedPercyBerensifhebelievedinthesebeings,he waspassionate.“Ohyeah!It’sabird!It’sabird.Youshouldgo toPoplarRiver[toseetheirnestofboulders].Whitepeople don’tbelieveit’sabird,aThunderbird,theydon’tbelieveon that.ButweIndiansabsolutelybelieveit’sabird.”Withoutthe Thunderbirds,heexplained,therewouldneverhavebeenrain andeverythingwouldhavelongdriedup. 22Equallyimpassioned onthissubjectwasJohnEdwardEverett,apractisingRoman Catholic.“TodayI’maCatholic,”hesaid,“Cross–water–God, thereisonlyoneGod.TheHolyWaterisgood.Myreligionis onereligion.WhenIwasborn,theybaptizedmeCatholic.I’ll staythatway’tilIdie.” 23AboutThunderbirds,heexplained, “Wesmokeourpipeswest–allthedirections–north,east –becauseweseeabigcloudandwhere’sitcomingupfrom? Thismovingcloud!What’sgoingtohappen?Allofasudden it’slikeabomb,eh?Ifyousmoke,thethundercloudwillgo past.TheThunderbirds.Manymoons.Loveyourneighbouras youloveyourself.Listeningtothewhitepeopletoday,youhear Thunderbirdscomewhenthere’scoldairwithhotair.Noway.
Preface xxvii
YoungThunderbirdsinthefall,they’rejustlike–oh!theymakea reallyloudnoise!” 24 Oralhistoryvastlyenhancedmyunderstandingsaboutthe powerofbeliefandOjibwaflexibilityorgive-and-takeregarding choiceofbelief.PercyBerensprobablysummeditupbest.“You sayyoudon’tbelieveinspiritsatall,”Isaidtohim.“NoIdon’t,” hereplied,“I’vegotonlyonebeliefandonlyonespirit.”Iasked himifhewassayingthatspiritsdonotexistatallorwhetherhe wassimplysayingthathedidnotchoosetobelieveinthem.He wasclear.“Idon’tchoosetobelieveinthemspirits.…Buttheycan existforotherpeople.Ifyoubelievestrongenoughtobelievethat there’sspiritsthere,thenthey’rethere.Andthat’swhatthoseold timeIndianshad.Theystronglybelievedinthemspiritsofevil andrighteousness.Thatwastheirbelief,see?Evilandrighteous spirits.”Ipressedhimalittleonhowheintegratedaspectsof twodifferentworldviews–apracticesoforeigntoChristian missionaries.“Percy,”Iasked,“Somewhitepeoplesayyoushould believeintheBiblebutthatyoushouldn’tbelieveintheability toconjureorinThunderbirds.SohowcometheIndiansare differentfromthewhitepeoplethatway?”Iwillneverforget thelaughterthatfilledthesunnyroomonthatwinterafternoon. “That’sveryeasytoanswerthatquestion!BecausetheIndiansare smart,clever–butthewhitemanisstupid,ignorant.Isn’tthat correctenough?Sure!Webelieve.” 25 Finally,myencountersatBerensRiverhadaformativeimpact onmywork.AsIsuggestedearlier,Irealizedthenecessity ofsteppingoutofthestructureandordershapedbyarchival researchandintoanotherkindoforder.Historically,whenI encounterednewsituations,especiallythosewhereIhadalimited timetoaccomplishagreatdealofwork,Itriedtocontrolthings byplanningahead.WhatthepeopleatBerensRivertaughtme isthattherealwaytoensurequality,ofworkandoflife,isto embraceeverything–fromchanceencounters,tounforeseen bendsintheroad–tobeopen,listeningandflexible–wordstruly reminiscentoftheOjibwaworldview.Itwasfascinating,aswell, formetonotonlyreadaboutbuttoexperienceOjibwapeople
xxviii “IWillFearNoEvil ”
assessingasituationintheirmidst,decidingwhetherornotto participateandinitiatingagentlecontrolovertheevents. Thevoicesoftheactorsinthedramasthatplayedoutbetween Ojibwapeopleandmissionariesgaveameaningandaddeda dimensionthatInevercouldhaveexperiencedthroughwritten sourcesalone.Thesepeopledidmuchmorethansimplyfillin gaps;theybreathedlifeintomyworkandmadeitsparkle.Indeed, intheend,oralhistoryledmetobegintocomprehendthedepth oftheSaulteauxcapacitytointegrateaspectsofboththeOjibwa andChristianworldviews.Theonlywayformetounderstand theBerensRiverelders’passionbehindtheirfeelingsaboutthe powerofbelief–wastolistentothem.Ihopethisworkprovides examplesofthemagicthatcomesfromthelifeandlightthat caninfusescholarlyworkwhenonemakesaconnectionbetween writtensourcesandthelivedlivesofthehumanbeingswhotryto speaktousthroughthesesources.Forhistorians,theseworldsare usuallyseparatedbyagreatchasm.Ifwedoitwell,oralhistory enablesusasresearcherstostepeasilyacrossthatabyss. Bothoralandwrittensourcesrelyonconventional,culturallyspecificnarrativegenresthathelppeopleconstruct,maintain, andpassonunderstandingofhowtheworldworksandshould work,restrictingone’sanalysistowrittensourcesensures thatinterpretationswillnotalwaysensurethatnuancesand dimensionsareevoked.Whileitistruethatoralandwritten sourcesareverydifferentfromoneanother,itislargelybecause ofthesedifferencesthathistoriansmusttakeoralevidenceinto accountwhenitisavailable. 26 Culturesbasedonoraltransmissionofknowledgeprivilege oralhistoryasaspoken“archive”tobecarefullypassedon.Yet themethodologyoforalhistoryhasdrawncriticismfromsome historianswhoquestionthewisdomofrelianceonmemory, suggestingthatmemorieschangewithageandthatthisyields somewhatficklenarrative.Whilememoriescananddochange overtime,itisinterestingthatsomanyofmyinformantsshared bothdetailsandinterpretationsofevents–notinsoclosea fashionthatonemightsuspectteachingshadbeenimposedon
Preface xxix
them,butcloseenoughformetodrawsomestrongparallels amongsources.Interesting,also,istheconsistencyoffindings fromoraltestimonyandwrittentexts.Forexample,Maureen MatthewsandRogerRoulettecomparedthewrittenandoral sourcesregardingtheoriginsofFairWind’sDrumDanceand werestruckbythepersistenceandaccuracyofpeoples’memories andtheircorrespondenceswithHallowell’stexts.Sixtyyears afterHallowell’svisits,theoralstoriesoftheOjibwapeopleof Pauingassi,Manitoba,aboutFairWind’sdreamandtheceremony itself,comparestrikinglywithHallowell’scontemporary observations.27 Anothercriticismoftheuseoforalevidencecomesfrom historianswhobelievethatthoseinformantswhospeakhighlyof missionariesandChristianityaregliblyutteringdogma.Ispoke withmanymembersoftheBerensRivercommunityabouttheir thoughtsandfeelingsaboutMethodism,Catholicism,andthe missionarieswhomtheyhadencountered.Ofstartlingnotewere theirpositiveinterpretationsofChristianity.Towhatextentwere communityeldersromanticizingtheirpasts?Werethesepeople carefullyrepeatingorthodoxpositions,uncomfortableabout admittingtoholdingtraditionalOjibwabeliefsasaresultofyears ofmissionarysanction?Whileonecannotreadthemindsofthe menandwomenwhotoldtheirstories,itissurelynotuptoan academicscholartoimposeherownsanctionsontheirwords. AnnaMahase,myEastIndiangrandmother,whomIdescribedin theprefaceofthisbook,held,withinherworldview,manyHindu concepts.ShewasalsothetreasurerofthePresbyterianChurch andastaunchChristian.Toimplythatshehadbeenavictimof lossorthatshehadsomehowbeenfrightenedbymissionariesinto espousingthechurchistopatronizeherintelligenceandintegrity. Itisdifficultbutcrucialforethnohistorianstoavoidlaying priormoralinterpretationsovertheirfindings.WhenIwasin thefirstyearofmydoctoralwork,Idecidedtowriteapaper onthePresbyterianmissionariesinTrinidadwhoworkedin thecommunitywheremymothergrewup.Iwasresentfulof whatIbelievedtobethecondescensionandmanipulationof
xxx
“IWillFearNoEvil ”
thesemissionaries,oftheethnocentricwaystheyviewedEast Indians,andofthepejorativeviewstheyheld.Mymother,two uncles,andfourauntswereimportantasoralhistorysources. Itwasdevastatingformewhenonlyoneauntexpressedangry viewsaboutmissionaryinterferenceandpatronization.Ineeded toexplainawaytheviewsofmymotherandherbrothersand sisters–tomakethemchangetheirminds–tosaythattheywere romanticizingtheiryouth–tosaythattheyshouldknowbetter –tosaythattheyhadbeenbamboozledbymissionaries.Isee nowthat,infact,Iwastheonewhowaspatronizing;Ihadno righttoexpectthattheirideasshouldfitwithinthecontextofmy academicmoralitythatloathedtheseChristian“badguys.” WinonaStevenson,aCreescholar,writesoftheinterpretive problemssheencounteredwhenwritingthehistoryofCharles Pratt,herCree-AssiniboinegrandfatherwhowasanAnglican missionaryinpresent-daySaskatchewan.Dealingwiththe discrepanciesbetweenherfamily’soralhistoryandPratt’swritten accountswasterriblydifficultforher. 28Throughoutthewriting ofthisbook,I,too,havehadtostruggletoseparatemysubjective andemotionalselffrommyobjectiveandanalyticalself.This separationcanneveroccurcompletely,however,andIhavecome torealizethat,aswithWinonaStevenson,thishasproduced deeperunderstandingonmypart. Theideathatthestoriesandexperiencesof“ordinarypeople” wouldactuallybeputintoabookwaswarmlyreceived.Itismy hopethatHallowell’sworkandthisworkwillfindtheirwayinto thecommunitywheretheybelong,fortheyhavereliedsoheavily onthecontributionsofthepeople.Thepeoplewhohelpedme wereconversantinEnglish,aluckythingformesinceIamnot fluentinOjibwa.Alltheinterviewspresentedinthisbookare literaltranscriptionsandhavenotbeenreworkedinanyway.
Acknowledgments
PercyBerens,WalterGreen,IdaGreen,BetseyPatrick,Fred Baptiste,JohnEdwardEverett,andVirginiaBoulanger,all residentsofBerensRiver,Manitoba,openedtheirhearts,minds andlivestome. JenniferS.H.Brownhasprovidedkeeninsight,immeasurable support,andconstantencouragementbothpersonallyand professionallyforoveradecade.Herguidancehasbeeninvaluable. FundsfromherCanadaResearchChairinAboriginalPeoplesin anUrbanandRegionalContextenabledmetocompletethisbook andtoincludephotographsandamap.JohnKendle,throughout myacademiccareer,hasinspiredandgroundedmeashasW. H.Brooks,whohasbeen“alightthroughthetreesandintothe darkness”inboththelifeandthework.TheresaSchenckprovided mewithexcellentinsightswhichmadethisworksomuchbetter. JohnS.Longwasagreatsupport,providingmewithhelpful criticism,advice,andencouragement,whilesharinghisownwork. MaureenMatthewswasextremelygenerousinsharinghersources andthoughts.IwouldalsoliketothankDarleneRoseOverby forgivingmethewonderfulfamilyphotographofJacobandMary Berenstouseinthisbook,andBruceHanksforhistechnical expertiseinreproducingithere. Iwouldliketoexpressmysinceregratitudetomanypeople whohelpedmeinthepreparationofthiswork.DianeHaglund, theUnitedChurcharchivistattheUniversityofWinnipeg,Gilles Lesage,archivistattheOblateArchives,ManitobaProvince, andRuthDyckWilson,ReferenceCoordinatorattheUnited ChurchArchivesatVictoriaUniversity,Toronto,providedgreat assistance. xxxi
xxxii “IWillFearNoEvil ”
ThanksarealsoduetothestaffatUniversityofCalgaryPress (especiallyWalterHildebrandt,JohnKing,PeterEnmanand KarenButtner)andtoJeanLlewellynforherthoughtfuland meticulouscopyediting. Ineedtoexpressspecialgratitudetofriendsandfamily:to mydearfriendValerieRegehrforhersenseandsensibilityandto myparentsElaineandAlGrayfortheireternalencouragement. DeepestthankstoDavidMcCrady,forhissteadfastsupport, vision,andforcarryingmyheart. Finally,Iwashumbledanddeeplygratefulforthegenerosity andgentlenessoftheVeryReverendDr.StanMcKay,whokindly wroteaforewordforthisbook.He,andtheeldersofBerens River,havemadethisallworthwhile. Mythanksandmylovetoallofyou.Mayyouhavegood dreams.
1
LifealongtheBerensRiver from1875to1940
Between1875and1940,theOjibwa communitiesalongtheBerensRiverexperiencedsomeprofound transformations.Socialandtechnologicalchangescameabout inmanyways.Forexample,in1875,theCanadiangovernment negotiatedTreaty5withtheOjibwapeopleoftheregionthat includesBerensRiver.Commercialfisherieswereestablished, introducingoutsidersaswellasnewfishingtechnology,fishing boatsandnewcapital.Steamboatsbecamemorecommonsights onLakeWinnipegandthefurtraders’largecanoesandYorkboats disappeared. Euro-Canadianinstitutions,includingProtestantandCatholic churchesandschools,asrepresentedbyvariousmissionaries,and theDepartmentofIndianAffairs,representedbyIndianagents andinspectorsofIndianagenciesarrivedatthemouthofthe BerensRiver.Thegrowingrolesoftheseinstitutionsinthelives ofcommunityresidentsbroughtprofoundchanges.Throughout the1875to1940period,BerensRiverOjibwapeoplenegotiated thesechangeswithinthestructureoftheirworldviewasthey selectivelyadaptedtoorrejectedfeaturesofanewlife. Thesedecisionswerealwaysmadewithintherealitiesoflife inasubarcticclimate.TheBerensRiverareawiththePoplar, BerensandBloodveinRiversmakingupitsmajorriversystems, containsatopographywhichrangesfromrollingtohillyto fairlyflat.Althoughclimateandprecipitationallowmuchtree growth,glacialravageshaveexposedandpolishedtheancient graniticrocksoftheCanadianShieldandsoilsarethinand acidic,precludingagricultureonmorethanasmallscale.Average 1
2
“IWillFearNoEvil ”
temperaturesinwinterare–32degreesCelsiusandsummers donotgetmuchwarmerthan22degrees.Wintersarelong, withsnowoftenappearingbeforeNovemberandaccumulating toanywherebetween38and254centimetresbyFebruary, thecoldestmonthoftheyear.SnowbeginstomeltinApril anddeciduoustreesyieldleavesinJune.Summerinnorthern ManitobaextendsfromJunetoAugust.Annualtemperature, windanddaylightchangesinthisseasonalcycledetermine thearrivalanddepartureofmigratorybirdsandthehabitsof fur-bearinganimals.TheeconomicactivitiesofAboriginal communitieswerecloselyregulatedbythelimitationsofclimate andhabitatinthissubarcticforest.1 Theeconomywasbasedonhuntingandtrappingperformed byindividualsactingwithinsmallkingroups.Peopledispersed orcongregatedasgamepopulationsfluctuated.Large,permanent settlementswereonlypossibleduringsummerfishingseasons. Adaptationstotheseenvironmentalconditionsrequiredahigh degreeofindependence,self-relianceandindividualeffort, combinedwithaneedforself-restraint. 2
HistoricalConditions:The1870s BythetimeEgertonRyersonYoungestablishedthefirstMethodist missionatBerensRiverin1873,Ojibwacommunitiesalongthe riverhadbeeninteractingwithoneanotherand,tosomedegree, withCreesandwithBritish,FrenchandMétisfurtradersfora centuryandahalf.Thereexisted,byYoung’sinitialforaysintothe area,adynamicsituationwhichembodiedahostofadaptationsto communitylife.Bythe1870s,BerensRiverwas“acrossroadsfor Ojibwafurtradersandformissionaries,governmentadministrators andotheroutsiders.”3
LifealongtheBerensR iverfrom1875to1940
BythetimeTreaty5wassignedin1875,achurchand schoolhousehadbeenerectedinthecommunityandclasses hadbegun.SteamnavigationwasbeginningonLakeWinnipeg andvaluablemineralsandtimberhadbeenfoundintheLake’s vicinity(causingaflurryofapplicationstothegovernmentto buyland).DavidLaird,MinisteroftheInterior,wroteofgood landforagricultureonthewestshoreandadded,“withpending PacificRailwayconstructionwestoftheLake…theLakeand theSaskatchewanRiveraredestinedtobecometheprincipal thoroughfareofcommunicationbetweenManitobaandthefertile prairiesintheWest.”4 Asayoungman,JacobBerens,in1860,wasprobablyamong theOjibwaatBerensRiverwhoapproachedRev.George McDougall,thenenroutetotheRossvilleMethodistmissionat NorwayHouse,askingforamissionaryandexpressinganinterest inChristianity.McDougallbaptizedJacobatRossvilleon25 February1861,anditwastherethatthefuturechieflearned CreesyllabicsandmovedontoestablishthebaseforaMethodist missionintheBerensRivercommunity.Hisconversionand baptism,andtherumouredconversionsofanumberofothersin thatarealedtheMethodistEgertonRyersonYoungtofoundthe 1873mission(althoughformuchofthistime,Jacobwasaway fromhomeworkingontheHudson’sBayCompanyYorkboatson LakeWinnipegoratWhiteDog,aHudson’sBayoutpost). 5 Youngleftin1876andwasreplacedbyRev.JohnSemmens. OfhisfirstarrivalattheBerensRivermissioninJuly1876, Semmenswrote: Abeautiful…MissionHousewaserectedbyRev.E.R.Young inthesummerof1874.Aschoolhousewaserectedatthesame timeonthelean-toorshantyprinciple,butnochurchadorns thespot.…Thereare11houses–nativehomes–hereandthere amongthetrees,withlittlegardenplotsattachedtoeach.… Thefisheriesarecloseandinexhaustible.Theforest–varied andinterminable.TheMissionHousefilledtwiceaweekwith respectablydressedandorderlycongregations.Thereisanaverage
3
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“IWillFearNoEvil ”
attendanceof25,aresidentChurchmembershipof24,atotal populationofabout60.6
Bythesigningofthetreaty,JacobhadbeenbackatPigeonBay –livinginoneofthearea’sfirstloghousesandtradingfurswith theBerensRiverHudson’sBaypost–forfiveyears.7Methodism andloghousesnotwithstanding,theoldwayswereamajorpartof bothfamilyandcommunitylifeforJacobwhosefather,Bear,held ShakingTentandMidewiwinceremoniesuntilhisdeathin1873. 8 Withthesigningofthetreaty,Jacob,aleaderinthe negotiations,waselectedchiefofBerensRiver,LittleGrand Rapids,PoplarRiverandPikangikum.Thismovedhimonto centrestageinaregionfacingsignificanttransitions.After1875, Jacobbecameanactiveregionalplayerinthebureaucraticworld ofIndianAffairs. 9
HistoricalConditions:The1880s In1883,thefirstcommercialfisheriesopenedonLakeWinnipeg and,withthis,cameaboominthefishingindustrywithitsnew steamschoonersandaccesstoAmericanmarkets.Youngmenlike WilliamBerensmovedseasonallyintothesenewlabouractivities whilecontinuingtoworkwiththeirfamiliesonwintertraplinesin thebush.Some,likeBerens,alsofoundworkasinterpreters.Far frombeingincapableofcopingunderoppressivechangesfoisted uponthem,thesepeoplemovedbetweenworldswithaskillthat wasasourceofadmirationtosomewhitetraders,missionariesand governmentagents–andasourceoffrustrationtoothers. Newpressurebroughtdifficulties,however;in1885Ebenezer E.McColl,InspectorofIndianAgencies,reportedthattheOjibwa wereupsetoverfishingpartiesfromWinnipegencroachingon theirwaters,saying,“ifallowedtocontinuethedestructionof
LifealongtheBerensR iverfrom1875to1940
whitefishandsturgeonatthepresentrate[they]willexhaust thesupplyanddeprivethemoftheirprincipalsourceof subsistence.”10Thenextyear,IndianAgentAngusMacKaynoted theOjibwas’displeasureovertheencroachmentandtheiranger overtheapplicationofManitobagamelawstotheIndiansinthat partoftheprovince.11 Generally,however,the1880sinBerensRiver,withthe exceptionofillnessfromanepidemicin1887,wereatimeof goodhuntingandplentifulfishing.MacKay,in1883,reported excellentfishingwithplentyoffoodoverthewinterand,in1885, wrotethattherewasnoshortageoffoodinthedifficultwinter/ springperiodduetotheprevalenceoffish,deer,rabbitsandfurbearinganimals.Theyear1887againyieldedaplentifulfood supplyandgoodpricespaidforfursbytraders,althoughmuch sicknessoccurred.MacKayreportedthatmanydiedandmany morewereunabletohuntregularly.By1888,MacKaywasstill reportinganabundanceofmooseanddeeraswellasgoodfall fishing–theslaughterwasparticularlygoodthatyearasunusually deepsnowmadeitimpossibleforanimalstorunfarorfast.12
HistoricalConditions:The1890s Whilehunting,trappingandfishingremainedcentralaspects ofOjibwalife,manydependedincreasinglyuponcommercial industriessuchassawmills,cordwoodcampsandcommercial fishingcompaniesforemployment.Theybuiltpermanenthouses, ownedcattle,grewhayandplantedgardensonlandthatwasfairly hostiletoseriousagriculturalendeavour. Thecommunityexperiencedhardtimesbetween1889and 1899.In1889,abushfiresweptoveralargeportionofthearea aroundthereserve,burningthehuntinggroundsbare.13Fishing (especiallyforwhitefish,pickerelandpike)andthehuntingof
5
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“IWillFearNoEvil ”
mooseandcaribouwerethetwostaplesmostdependeduponby IndiansinnorthernManitoba.14Drasticdepletionoffishandgame promptedtheInspectorofIndianAgenciestoreportin1890that “nowthatfishingandhuntinggroundsarebecomingdepleted, Indians(whoformerlyonlycultivatedpotatoes)arelookingmore totheDepartmentofIndianAffairsforhelp.”15 Indianagentreportsforthedecadereflectthestrugglein BerensRiver.AngusMacKaynotedin1890thatwinterwas severe,fur-bearinganimalswererapidlydecreasing,andthat manychildrenandelderlypeoplehaddiedfrominfluenza,which hadsweptthedistrict.16In1892,thecommunitywasstillselfsupportingbutthefurhuntturnedoutpoorlyagainandfarming, asMacKayadmitted,wasverydifficultowingto“wooded, rockylandandcoldlingeringsprings.”Thepeople,however, werepleasedthatyearthatthegovernmenthadfinallyexcluded portionsoftheLakeandriversfromlicensedfishermen.17Asevere measlesepidemicinApril,MayandJuneof1893resultedin needformedicalaidfromtheMethodistMissionarySocietyand theHudson’sBayCompany,andmanycattlediedofdiseaseand starvation.18 Perhapsthemostrevealingdocumentisthereportof SuperintendentInspectorEbenezerMcCollwhowrotein1894, “ThemajorityofIndiansarebeginningtorealisetheadvantages [of]devotingthemselvestoagriculture…andlesstothewild, nomadicandprecariouspursuitsofthechase.”19Government agentsalmostuniversallyexpressedfrustrationoverIndian reluctancetobecomeseriouslyinvolvedwithagriculture.When AngusMacKay,inthesamesentence,notedtheimpossible farmingconditionsandthenremarkedthat,“evenifconditions wereexcellent,Indiansstillwouldnotbeinterestedinfarming,” 20 herevealedassumptionsandstereotypicalattitudesthatwere deeplyingrainedintheofficialthinkingofhistime.Thefact thattheOjibwaofBerensRiverwerefacingenougheconomic hardshiptocultivatecropsinthepoorlandsaroundthe communityistelling.Thefactthatagentsexpectedthemtodo this,eveningoodtimes,isalsotelling.
LifealongtheBerensR iverfrom1875to1940
Theyear1894wasaparticularlybadyearforbothfur-bearing animalsandgardens;scarletfeverandinfluenzaalsohitBerens River.Hugestormsruinedthefishermen’snetsandfishingwas sopoorthatthecommunityfinallyhadtoreceiveaidfrom missionaries,governmentandtheHudson’sBayCompany. 21 CorrespondencebetweenAgentMacKayandthegovernment reflectedtheseriousnessofthetimes.InavisittoBerensRiver on10February1894,theagentnotedthatfishbuyerscouldno longerbedependedupontobuyfishatgoodpricesastradershad stoppedpurchasingthewhitefishwhichweregettingincreasingly scarce.Thehuntinfurandgame,healsonoted,wasverypoor. On31March,healertedMcColltothefactthatthe“Indians [were]verybadoffforfish–they[couldnot]catchanywhitefish orotherfish.”MacKaywoundupbuying1,200perchfromMr. Disbrowe,theHudson’sBaypostmanager,to“relievethemof theirsuffering.”Whenhereturnedon23April,hewasalarmed, saying“TheIndiansareverybadlyoffforfish.[I]neversawthem worseoffforfishatthisplace–theirnetsaredowneverywhere possiblebutthisyieldsnothing.Ihavegiventhemnowover1,000 whitefishofmyown.” 22 Huntingconditionsimprovedslightlyoverthelasthalfofthe decade;theIndianAgentreportedthatmoose,caribouandrabbits wereavailable“infairamounts,”althoughapparentlytraderswere not“payingsowell.” 23Environmentalconditionscontinuedto yieldsluggishfishing,resultinginmoreandmoreOjibwaworking inlumbercamps,millsandfisheries.Healthwaspoorandthe communitybattledwavesofscrofulaandtuberculosis.By1898, AgentJ.W.Shortnotedthattherewassignificantlymoreland cultivationduetothefishscarcityonthereserveandthehunting incomewaswellbelowaverage. 24 Thereisnodoubtthatcommercialfishingseriouslydisturbed theNativeeconomy.WhileOjibwapeoplelivingnorthofthe BerensRiverin1888werecatchingsubstantialamountsof whitefish,nativepeoplesouthoftheriverwerecatchingfew. FrankToughexplainsthatoverfishingwastheculpritbehind decliningwhitefishyields. 25In1890,theNorwayHouse
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“IWillFearNoEvil ”
bandpetitionedLieutenant-GovernorGeorgeSchultzforthe protectionofthewhitefish.Inthesummerofthatyear,chief JacobBerensatBerensRiverrequestedthatthefishingcompany removeitsnetsandsomebandmemberstalkedofsabotagingthe company’ssturgeonnets.26Thedepletionscausedbytheravages ofcommercialfishingwasamajorfactorbehindOjibwademands forexclusiveareasforIndianfishinginthelate1890s. 27 The1890salsosawthearrivalofthefirstlong-termMethodist missionary,JamesArthurMcLachlanandhiswife,Sarah.Before hisarrivalin1893,themissionatBerensRiverhadexperienced aconsiderableturn-overofresidentpreachers.Semmens’s departurewasfollowedbyagapofthreeyearsbeforeWilliam Hopearrivedtoliveinthecommunityfrom1881to1883.He wasreplacedbyRev.EnosLangfordwhowastransferredto Winnipegin1885.Rev.J.W.Butlerreplacedhimforabriefyear in1888.Itwasnotuntil1893thatthese“SupplyMissionaries” werereplacedbyMcLachlanasresidentmissionary. 28 TheMethodistchurchmembershiprosesteadilyandrapidly duringMcLachlan’stenure(1893–1903).Thenumberoffull membersincreasedfromfifty-eightin1893toninety-threeby 1903.Between1896and1898,membershiprosefromsixtytwotoeighty-sevenmembers–possiblyduetoahugerevival conductedbyMacLachlaninthewinterof1897. 29Although hardtimesprobablystimulatedthisgrowth,causinginterestin Christianityasasourceofaddedpowerandsupport,peoplewere respondingtoamissionarywhomtheylikedandwhobecame involvedincommunitylifeoverenoughtimetoestablishsome trustamongresidents. 30Hisdrowningin1903,alongwithsix childrenwasfeltasaterribletragedy. FredBaptisterememberedthetrustthattheOjibwashadfor themissionaryandtheimpactonthecommunityoftheevent: F.B. Theytookabunchofkidsinasailboatto[theBrandon Industrial]schoolinthesouth.Andthisministerhere [JamesMcLachlan]hisbody’srightacrosshere[pointsout thewindow].Hedrownedwithabunchofkids.Hetook
LifealongtheBerensR iverfrom1875to1940
S.G. F.B. S.G. F.B.
abunchofmoneytoputinthebankforthemandhetook kidstogototheschool–buttheyallgotdrowned.And thenwhentheyfoundthosebodiestherewasaparaderight acrosshere[points].Thechurchwaswaybackinthereand therewasalotofbusharoundit.Theyburiedeverythingin onelonggrave. WhatdidthepeoplethinkaboutMcLachlan?Didthey blamehimfortheaccident? No,no.Peopleusedtogivehimmoneytotaketothebank. Theytrustedhimwiththeirmoneyandtheirchildren.That seemstoshowthattheytrustedtheman. Wellhewasaminister–theytrustedhimwitheverything.31
TothismilieuwasaddedthefirstRomanCatholicchapelatBerens Riverin1897.AlthoughtheOblatepresenceinthecommunity wouldnotbecomesubstantialuntiltheopeningoftheirdayschool in1918,theProtestantswouldneveragainenjoyadenominational monopoly.
HistoricalConditions: TheEarlyTwentiethCentury Fromthemid-1890son,IndianAgentsAngusMacKayandJ.W. Shortincreasinglymentionedwithpleasurethemarkedprogress towardscivilizationbeingmadebytheresidentsofBerensRiver. EbenezerMcCollwrote(albeitsomewhatnaively)in1895that “IntheBerensRiverAgency,theIndiansareundertheabsolute controloftheAgent[MacKay],whoseinstructionsareimplicitly carriedout…hisinfluenceamongthemisgreatonaccountofhis thoroughknowledgeoftheirlanguageandcharacter.”32Thefact thatthepeoplehadjustemergedfromwhatmayhavebeenthe hungriestwinter/springinalongtimemighthavehadsomethingto
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dowiththeirseemingcompliancetowardtheAgentwhohadgiven themfish.TheOjibwaofBerensRiverwereindeedchangingasthe environmentandtheworldchangedaroundthem;theywere,to therepeatedfrustrationofgovernmentworkersandmissionaries, however,selectingthenatureofthesechangesandcontrollingthe speedoftheiradaptationtothem. Duringthisperiod,thecommunitybecameincreasingly involvedincommercialindustries.In1900,agovernmentfish hatcherywasbuiltonthereserveandtwofishingstationsopened atBerensRiveronSheepIslandandYankeeIsland.InspectorJohn Semmensreportedin1901thattheIndianswere“inexcellent conditionduetothegoodfishingindustryandextensivelumber interestsofCaptainRobinsonofSelkirk.” 33 AnnieE.McEwenandherhusbandDougarrivedfrom Winnipegin1906andspentfouryearsinthecommunitywhere Dougworkedatthefishhatchery. 34Hermemoirsprovidesome glimpsesintocommunitylifeintheearly1900s.AfterRev. McLachlandrownedin1903,hewasreplacedbyWillisShoup untilRev.ThomasNevilleandhiswifearrivedin1904.The NevilleswerejustleavingBerensRiverwhentheMcEwens arrived,asThomashadbeentransferredtoaWinnipegchurch.In September,Rev.ArthurOkesandhiswife,Janewerestationed atBerensRiver.In1909,afterhavingspent“therequiredthree years”ontheReserve,theOkesweretransferredtosouthwestern ManitobaandRev.JosephHenryLowesarrivedwithhiswife in1909.Thatsummerastudent,DouglasDurkin,arrivedasa supplymissionaryforthreemonths. 35TheLowesstayedinthe communityuntil1916.Mrs.Lowestookonanactiverolein teachingthedayschool. AstheMethodistmissionariescameandwent,peopleinthe communityjoinedthechurchorretainedtheirmembership duringthetenuresofmissionarieswhomtheyappreciatedand whomadeaconnectionwiththem.Inturn,theyrejectedthe churchwhenitwasledbypreacherswhomtheyfoundwanting. Forexample,ThomasNevilleincreasedchurchmembershipfrom ninetytoninety-eight,butthemissionlostfourteenmembers
LifealongtheBerensR iverfrom1875to1940
duringOkes’stenurefrom1906to1909.Inthe1908Manitoba ConferenceReportoftheMethodistMissionarySociety,onefinds thebriefbuttellingstatementthat,“AtBerensRiver…some difficultieshavebeenencounteredthroughtheoppositionofsome newmethodsintroducedbyachangeofministers.” 36Loweswould takesevenyearstobuildthenumberoffullmembersbackup toninety-eight. 37AnnieMcEwencontrastedthetwomissionary wives,describingMrs.Lowesas“abright,attractivewoman,”who “wasquitepopularwiththeIndiansfor,thoughnotparticularly religious,shetreatedeveryonefairlyanddidnottrytotellthem theirreligiousdutiesasMrs.Okehaddone.” 38JaneOke,shesaid, wasagenerouswomanwithanursingbackgroundandprovided muchmedicalaid.However,“noneofthisseemedtooffsether bossiness…IthinktheIndians,womenaswellasmen,prefer womentogivetheirlecturesprivately.” 39 WhiletheOjibwawelcomedthosemissionarieswhoproved congenialandhelpful,theirownworldviewremainedcentralin theirlives.JohnSemmenswrotein1903that eventhemedicinessuppliedarenotadministeredasdirected, andinmanywaysarenotgivenatall,andnotinfrequentlythe complicationsarebroughtonbythecombineduseofIndianand whitemedicines.Themoralityofthepeopleisnotsufficiently developedtomerithighpraise.Thisistheoutcomeofold associationsandoldmethodsofliving.…Itisnoteasytocorrect wrongswhicharewinkedatbytheeldersofthetribe.…However wehopethatsocietyismovingoutofdarknessintolightand knowledgeandthatthefuturewillbringapurersocialcondition.40
Ofnote,here,isSemmens’scondescensionandpoorly informedinterpretations.Alsonoteworthy,however,isthatthe Ojibwawerenotcastingofftraditionallifeways. BerensRiverpeoplewere,bynow,usedtomissionariesand otherresidentoutsidersandcouldbeamiableandsupportive. McEwenwrotefavourablyaboutlifeinBerensRiver, rememberingthefriendlyrapportbetweenherhusband,Doug,
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andChiefJacobBerens.HersonNorman’sbestfriendwasJohn JamesEverett,thechief’sgrandson.Thefamilyreceivedawarm farewellwhentheyleftin1910,wroteMcEwen:“Whatacrowd ofIndianscameout…toseeusleave;eithertheylikedusorthey weregladtoseeusgo.”41 Itwasnotonlyintheirreceptionofmissionariesthat historicalchangecanbeseenintheBerensRivercommunity. WilliamBerens,whobecamechiefin1916onhisfather’sdeath, exemplifiedthewillingnessofatleastcomeOjibwatoembrace agriculture. Until1920,thefishingindustrypaidgoodpriceswhichhelped tooffsettheinstabilityandpoorpricesinthefurmarketcaused byWorldWarI.By1919,thevalueoffishandfurpriceshad doubledfromwhatithadbeenduringthefiveyearspriortothe War.42 Thestateofhealthinthecommunitywasunremarkableuntil 1918,whenthehuge1918–1919influenzapandemichitBerens River.Thefirstburialwasheldon7November1918andtwentytwomorediedoverthenextelevendays.Deathratesonthe reserveclusteredaroundahundredperthousand,theunder-six agegroupsufferingthemostwiththehighdeathrateof250per thousand.43RecordsshowadecreaseintheMethodistpopulation. ThiswaslikelycausedbydeathsofMethodistOjibwa.Therewas alsoanincreaseinCatholicchurchmembershipatthistime.44 Whilethismayhavebeenapartialresultofconversionsresulting fromtheSpanishFlu,Catholicrecordsdonotmentionthe connection. Onthemissionfront,JosephLowesleftBerensRiverin1916 andwasreplacedbyPercyEarlJonesandhiswifeNelliewho remainedthereuntilRev.JohnNiddriearrivedin1920.Joneswas agoodfriendofWilliamBerens,whochosetheminister’sname foroneofhissonsatbaptism.Sevendecadeslater,PercyEarl Berens,sonofWilliamandNancy,hasfondmemoriesoftheJones familyandtheminister,hisnamesake. Hewasagoodman.It’snotverymanyministersthatgoesinto theseIndiansettlementstogoandvisitthechiefandcouncillors.
LifealongtheBerensR iverfrom1875to1940
PercyJonesusedtobeatthehousevisitingmyoldman,mydad. That’showIhappentoknow…WinnonaandLeslieJones[the Joneschildren].He[Leslie]wasalittleboylikemyself;weusedto playoutsidewhiletheyweretalkinginside.45
In1918,FatherJosephDeGrandpréandBrotherFrederickLeach openedtheRomanCatholicdayschoolundertheauspicesof BrotherLeach.PercyBerensalsoremembersLeachfavourably: P.B. I’lltellyousomething,I’dsoonerhavethatBrotherLeach onthatBerensRiverReserveinsteadofthatnursingstation. BecauseifMr.Leachhadtowalktovisitaround…the Reservewiththesnowuptohisknees,hedid.Andthemon thatReservetoday,they’llneverwalkinmyhouseandseeif I’maliveornot. S.G. SoyouthoughtthatBrotherLeachcaredaboutthepeople? P.B. Yeah,hedid–verymuchhecaredforthepeople.46
Duringthe1920sand1930s,OjibwamenofBerensRiver continuedwithhuntingandfishingastheirmainlineofwork.47 Thepeopleinthecommunityhadalso,bynow,clearlychosento atleastpartiallyadapttomanyEuro-Canadianinstitutions.They participatedincommercialventures,attendedthedayschools, erectedpermanentbuildingsandraisedstockaccordingtotheir needs. Rev.JohnNiddriearrivedattheMethodistmissionin1920 andremainedasministeruntilhisretirementin1938.Formost ofthattime,hisCatholiccounterpartswereJosephDeGrandpré andFrederickLeach. In1927,AnnieNiddriearrivedinBerensRivertohelpher brother,John,keephouse.Shewoundupstayingforthirty-three yearsandwroteinhermemoirsoflifeinthecommunity,the beautyofwhichaffectedherdeeply.“ThesceneryuptheRiver wasbeautiful.Thegreenandgoldleavesonthetreeswasasight tobehold.…Ineverhadonelonesomedayallthoseyears.”48
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“IWillFearNoEvil ”
Inthe1930s,sheremembered,everybodyrodeinaboat,and fishingandtrappingweretheprimarywaystomakealiving. Olderpeoplemadefishoil,smokedfishandmoosemeat,made pemmicananddriedberriesforwinter.Mailwasbroughtacross theLakebydogtrainuntilthelate1950s.Inthe1930s,airplanes beganlandingatBerensRiver,smalloutboardmotorsbeganto beusedoncanvascanoesorthenewwoodenfishingyawlsand tractortrailer“cats”replaceddogteamsforwinterfreighting.49 Anniealsowroteoftheincreasinglydifficulteconomic conditionsfacedbythepeople.TheDepressionhitBerensRiver hardandmanyfamilieswereextremelyshortoffoodandclothes. Babieswerefedonthewaterinwhichwhitefishhadbeenboiled, oronwaterthathadbeenusedtoboiltherootsofplantsfound inthebush(althoughtheythrivedonthis).Thereservewas fulloftuberculosisandotherillnesses.By1940,foodshortages warrantedtheopeningofahomeforthepoorbytheDepartment ofIndianAffairsandAnnieNiddriewasplacedincharge,taking inanypeoplethepolicemansentherway. 50 Thesourcesusedhererequiremuchcriticalquestioning,and donotalwaysleadtosolidconclusions.Timeswereindeedhard atBerensRiverduringthe1930sjustastheywerehardacross thecountry.However,Indian-agentandmissionaryreportsof starvingIndianswerepreparedforsuperiorsfromwhomthe writersneededattentionandfinancialsupport.Inaddition,the stereotypeofthedependentOjibwawasadeep-runningandoften usefulone.Communitiesofhelplessandneedynativevictims conferredafeelingofpowerandimportanceongovernment agentswhichhelpedtofuelanentiremissionarymovement. FrederickLeach’sjournalfor1930,atfacevalue,seemstoprovide evidenceforstarvinganddependentIndiansatBerensRiver.His ownnotesontheviewthatWilliamBerenstookofthesituation, however,callsintoquestionthedegreeofcommunitydesperation anddependence. Thefishingseasoninthesummerof1929hadbeenpoor andon7January1930,Leachwrote,“TheIndianshereare almostdestituteandthesituationisgettingserious.Thereis
LifealongtheBerensR iverfrom1875to1940
practicallynofurorfish.”On8January,Leachsentanaerogram totheIndianAgent,alertinghimtothesadstateonthereserve, andbegangivingoutsouptosomefamilies.On10January,he recordedthatmostfamilieswereinastateofsemi-starvation. On18January1930,Leachwrote,“sawthechieftodayre.his starvingIndians.Hehassomefoolideathatmanycouldliveon rabbits.Heforgetsthatrabbitsareveryscarce.” Emergencymeetingswereheldon21Januaryand11March. MissionariesLeachandNiddrieandtheIndianAgentwere convincedthattheIndiansneededrations,theHudson’sBay managerwasconcernedabouttheunavailabilityofrationsand WilliamBerenscontinuedtosaythathispeopledidnotneed rations.Atathirdmeetingon30March,ChiefBerenssuggested that,insteadofreceivingrations,thecommunitycouldperhaps getanadvanceontheirtreatymoney.Thiswasthesolutionfinally agreedupon. 51 Obviously,WilliamBerensdidnotwishtoacceptrations, amovethatwouldhaveplacedthecommunityinadependent position,andheworkedtofindanalternativesolutiontoa problemthatwasprobablyveryserious.Leach’scondescending disregardoftherabbit-huntingideashowsasuperiorattitude andcloudedjudgement–what,afterall,wouldhehaveknown abouthuntingrabbits?Berens,whohadspenthislifehunting, understoodmuchmoreabouttheviabilityofthissolution.The issuewasdependency,withWilliamBerenswantingtoaffirm thecommunity’sindependenceandthemissionariesandagent working,intentionallyornot,todecreaseit. By1940,theOjibwaofBerensRiverhadbeen“wards”ofthe Dominiongovernmentforsixty-fiveyearsandthecommunity had,ashadthewiderworld,undergonemanychanges. Throughout,theyselectedtheirresponsestothosechanges, tookinstridethoseaspectsofEuro-Canadianinstitutionswhich wereeitherunavoidable(suchastheneedforchildrentoattain aEuro-Canadianeducation)and/orwhichwereofusetothem andmovedonwithlife.Throughout,changeandgrowthoccurred withinframeworksthatremainedclearlyOjibwa.
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MethodistMissionaries
AtBerensRiver Year(s) 1874 1876–1877 1881–1884 1885–1887 1888–1892 1893–1903 1904 1905–1906 1907–1909 1910–1916 1917–1919 1920–1937 1938–1940
Name E.R.Young JohnSemmens WilliamJ.Hope EnosLangford supply JamesArthurMcLachlin WillisW.Shoup ThomasNeville ArthurOke JosephH.Lowes PercyE.Jones JohnW.Niddrie LutherL.Schuetze
AtLittleGrandRapids Year(s) 1899–1901 1905–1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1914 1917–1918 1923 1927–1937 1938 1939–1940
Name visitedbyJ.A.McLachlan WilliamIvens J.Woodsworth JosephJones RoyTaylor J.H.Wilding AlfredG.Johnson MaryNanakwap supply LutherL.Schuetze R.Schuetze ColinDouglasStreet
LifealongtheBerensR iverfrom1875to1940
RomanCatholicMissionariesatBerensRiver Year(s) 1912–1914 1913 1914–1917 1915 1916 1917 1918–1921 1919 1921 1921 1921 1922–1925 1925–1927 1926–1941 1927 1930–1936 1937 1938 1939–1948 Year(s) 1917–1922;1923–1926 1918 1918–1921;1924–1926; 1927–1936 1922 1936–1944 1939–1949
Fathers SiméonPerreault CélienGauthier CamillePerreault GustaveFafard EugèneBaillargeon SiméonPerreault PhilippeValès JosephDeGrandpré EdouardPlanet EtienneBonnald ClaudeKerbrat JosephDeGrandpré AlphonseParadis JosephDeGrandpré LéandreGauthier CélienGauthier JulienJalbert EugèneBaillargeon GérardPinette Brothers JacquesGrall ThéodoredeBijl FrederickLeach EugènePaquet ArthurLimoges AlcideGagnon
RomanCatholicMissionariesatLittleGrandRapids Year(s) 1925–1926 1928–1929 Year(s) 1926–1927
Fathers JosephDeGrandpré LéandreGauthier Brothers FrederickLeach
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“Listentothe Memegwesiwag Singing” TheOjibwaWorldView
InhisdiscussionofOjibwaontology, worldview,andbehaviour,A.IrvingHallowelldrewuponRobert Redfield’sdefinitionofworldviewas“thepicturethemembers ofasocietyhaveofthepropertiesandcharactersupontheirstage ofaction.…[it]referstothewaytheworldlookstothatpeople lookingout.”Apeoples’worldviewcomprises“thatoutlookupon theuniversethatischaracteristicof[them],ascontrastedtothe perspectivesofoutsiderslookinginatthem.”1Theworldviewof theBerensRiverOjibwaconstantlyfoundexpressioninactions thatrevolvedaroundrelationshipsbetweenhumanpersonsand other-than-humanpersons,andparticularlyaroundindividual questsforspiritualpowerandsurvival. Missionaries,settlers,andmanyauthors,pastandpresent, haverepresentedAboriginalreligionsasbeingstaticand “traditional”fromtimeimmemorial.TheOjibwaworldview, however,encompassesadepthandcomplexityinadynamic religiouslifewhich,likeothergreatreligionsoftheworld,was foundedonthepowerandpassionofbeliefandyetwhichhasan enormouscapacityforflexibility,adaptation,criticalthinking, andempiricism.AsHallowellwrote,thepsychologicalcoreof theOjibwareligioninvolvesother-than-humanbeings:afaithin theirpower,trustintheirvitallyneededaidtohumanbeings, andadependenceontheminordertoexperienceagoodlife.The heartofthisreligionis“intheinterpersonalrelationships[Ojibwa people]seektomaintainbetweenthemselvesandother-than19
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humanbeings.”Sincehumansarealwaysworkingtoincreasetheir ownpowersthroughtheaidofever-presentother-than-humans, religiousbehaviourisnotacompartmentalizedaspectoflifethat isconfinedtospecialritesandceremonies;rather“thisreligious coremanifestsitselfinwidelyramifiedcontexts.” 2 ThehistoryoftheOjibwahealerandleaderFairWind (Naamiwan)providesanexampleofthedynamismthatexisted intheOjibwaworldviewandinitsongoingcreationoftradition. 3 Hallowellwastoldthattheideasofdrumdancescametothe upperBerensRiverfromanAboriginalvisitortoLittleGrand Rapidsaround1912.Recentresearchhasshownthatseveral featuresofthesedanceswereverysimilartotheOjibwadream drumceremonieswhichspreadthroughMinnesotaandWisconsin inthe1870s.ThelatterwereinitiatedbyTailfeatherWoman,a Sioux,whowastoldinadreamhowtomakealargedrumandof thesongstoaccompanyit.Theensuingceremony“becamethe vehicleformakingpeacebetweentheSiouxandtheOjibwa.”4 Subsequently,Thunderbirds(pinésiwuk)gaveMaggieWilsonher drumdancethroughdreamsanditwasperformedattheManitou ReserveinnorthwesternOntariofrom1918to1929.Clearly,the pivotalideasinvolvedweremovingthroughouttheRainyRiver andtheLakeoftheWoodsarea.ItisprobablethatOjibwapeople carriedthemnorthtoJackheadandtheBloodveinRiverviathe WinnipegRiverandLakeWinnipeg. 5 By1932,threeorfourbigdrumswereusedinanumberof ceremoniesbydifferentfamiliesatLittleGrandRapids.They boreastrikingresemblancetothoseusedinMinnesotaand Wisconsin,yetlikeFairWind’sdrum,theywereeachdistinctive. TheirhistoriesunderscoretheOjibwaabilitytoreceivenewideas, examinethem,andeitherreject,recast,orintegratethem(inbits orintotality)intoadynamiclife. Thepowerofbeliefhasbeenacornerstoneofreligions throughouttheworld.Homer’sOdysseybeginswiththeline, “Singtome,OMuse,ofman’smanywanderings.”Thisinvocation oftheMuseexpressedaconvictionheldbysuchwritersasHomer andVirgil–itreflectedtheirquestforaidfromahigherpower,a
TheOjibwaWorldView
sourceoutsidethemselves,whichtheysoughtbeforewritingtheir classicepics. InJohn14:10and12,Jesusdiscussedmiraclessaying,“The Fatherthatdwellethinme,hedoeththeworks.…Hethat believethonMe,theworksthatIdoshallhedoalso,andgreater worksthantheseshallhedo.”ThegreatcomposersBrahms, BeethovenandMozartdescribedtheirentriesintodreamlike statesthatwereinfusedwithGod,existencesofanalmostpure beliefduringwhichahigherpowerwrotethroughthem.In Brahms’swords, Itcannotbedonemerelybywillpowerworkingthroughthe consciousmind,whichisanevolutionaryproductofthephysical realmandperisheswiththebody.Itcanonlybeaccomplished bythesoul-powerswithin–therealegowhichsurvivesbodily death.Thosepowersarequiescenttotheconsciousmindunless illuminedbySpirit.TorealizethatweareonewiththeCreator, asBeethovendid,is…awe-inspiring.Veryfew…havecome intothatrealizationandthatiswhytherearesofew…creative geniuses.[Inthedreamstates]theSpirit[illuminates]thesoulpowerswithin,and…Iseeclearlywhatisobscureinmyordinary moods;thenIfeelcapableofdrawinginspirationfromabove …theideasflowuponme,directlyfromGod,andnotonlydo Iseedistinctthemes…buttheyareclothedintherightforms, harmonies.6
YellowLegs,apowerfulleaderoftheMidéwiwinandthegreatgrandfatherofChiefWilliamBerens,oncewalkedonthewater toanislandonLakeWinnipeginsearchofaspecialremedy.On anotheroccasionhesenttwomentoanislandinsearchofastone thathedescribedcarefullytothem.Thestonelaterprovedto havemagicalqualitiesintheMidéwiwinLodge.7Morethansixty yearsafterWilliamBerensdescribedtheseeventstoHallowell, William’sson,Percy,discussedthemwithme.Hewasclearonthe importanceofbelief.
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S.G. I’veheardthatyourgreat-great-grandfatherYellowLegs walkedonthewater.Haveyouheardaboutthat? P.B. AnIndianofthatlongtimeagothatwasreallyreally–that knewitwasagiftgiventothem–giventothem–thatthey coulddothemthingswhatyouandIcouldn’tdo. S.G. Whycan’twedothemanymore?Whycan’tyouwalkon thewater? P.B. That’sasimpleword.Nobelief. S.G. WhatdidYellowLegsbelieveinsostrongly?Yousayitwas becauseofhisstrongbeliefthathecouldwalkonthewater. P.B. Becausehehadthatbelief…inthespirits.Inthespirits, that’sthebelief.8
PercyBerensexplainedthathecouldneverwalkonthewater, saying,“mybeliefisnotstrongenough.”Similarly,WalterGreenof BerensRiverrespondedtothestoryofYellowLegsbyemphasizing thecentralityofbelief: Ineverheardaboutthat[YellowLegswalkingonthewater]but Iheardalotaboutmedicinemen.They’resowonderful–they candoanything.Someonewastellingmetherewasabigrock inthelake.Andsomeonesaid,“doyouknowthatthemedicine menintheolddayscouldopenthatstoneinhalfandputitback together?”That’showmuchtheybelievedinwhattheywere doing.Theywereblessed.9
Inthe1930s,RuthLandesnotedthattheOjibwasawallreligion andmagicasmedicineoraspower.10Priortothe1875signing ofthetreatyatBerensRiver,leadershipwasinthehandsof medicinemen–thosewhohadgainedthemostpowerwithin theircommunitiesthroughvisitationsintheirdreamsfromthe pawáganak(dreamvisitorsconferringblessingsandspecialgifts). Thesewerethefirstchiefsandthesignificancehereisinthepower ofreligionwithinOjibwasociety.11 Certainlyreligion,andthepowerandprotectionthatresulted fromrelationshipswithother-than-humanbeings,wereseen
TheOjibwaWorldView
bythesepeopleascriticalforsurvivalandsuccess.Thepower ofmedicineandmagiccanperhapsbestbeseeninoneOjibwa interpretationoftheirhistory:inthenineteenthcentury,much animosityexistedbetweentheSuckerclanandtheclanswho livedinadjacentterritory:theLoonstothesouth,theMoose andKingfisherclansontheeastshoresofLakeWinnipegand alongtheBerensRiver.Itwasnotmilitarywarfare,however,but shamanistickillingsthattooklivesinthestrugglebetweenthe RiverpeopleversustheBerensRiverandLittleGrandRapids folk.12 A.IrvingHallowelldiscussedOjibwareligioninsomedepth.13 IntheOjibwaworld,heexplained,humanswereextremely dependentonother-than-humanbeingsthattookpityonmortals andfulfilledtheirdesires.14AtthecoreofOjibwareligionwas faithinthepowerofthesebeings,trustintheircrucialaid tosurvival,anddependenceonthemfortheexperienceofa richlife.Agoodrelationshipwithother-than-humanbeings wascritical,andthisledtheOjibwaoftheBerensRiverarea, especiallyadolescentandadultmales,intoaconstantquestto increasetheirgiftsofpower.Hallowell,infact,definedOjibwa religiousbehaviourasanyactivitybywhichanindividualor groupseeksto“promoteagoodlifeforhumanbeingsbymaking explicitrecognition,directorindirect,ofman’sfaithinand dependenceonother-than-humanpersons.”15Theissuewasnot theaccumulationofintrinsicpersonalpowerbuttheblessings andsupportgivenfromothers.Thusreligionwaslinkedcloselyto goodconductandrespectforthegiversofpowers. Sinceonlymedicinemenhadthemeanstodirectlyinvokethe mostpowerfulother-than-humanspirits,averageOjibwasought theirhelp;thevalidityoftheconjurorswasthattheythemselves hadbeenempoweredbyother-than-humanbeings.16AsOjibwa theoriesofcausationweremorepersonalized,impersonalcauses didnotexist.Allphenomenaandoccurrencesresultedfrom interactionsbetweenhumanandother-than-humanpersons orbetweenhumansandotherhumans.17Themostvitalsource ofcontactforaveragehumanswiththeirother-than-human
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pawáganakor“grandfathers”wasthroughdreams,andthenumber ofguardianspiritswhomanindividualacquiredvariedfrom persontoperson.18 Missionariesusuallyfailedtounderstandthatnativepeoples possessedacoherent,self-containedsystemofbeliefsthatwas continuallyexaminedandmeasuredagainstindividuals’life experiences.AsHallowellsaid,itisdifficulttopresentreligions ofso-called“primitive”(toWesterners)peoplesin“rationally convincing”ways.Sincethesebeliefsystemswereburiedunder thedauntingweightof“historic”religions(suchasChristianity) notmuchcouldbeexpectedof“primitive”religions,justaslittle couldbeexpectedof“primitiveman”who“wasoftenconceived aschildlikeincharacter,pre-logicalinmentalityandpsychoticin personality.”19EarlyinhisBerensRiverwork,Hallowellcautioned againstassumingthatOjibwareligiousbeliefsweremechanically passeddownwithonlydogmaandmythologytosupportthem. Rather,Ojibwareligiousexperienceswere“asubjectofrelative thinkinganddiscussion…[and]inevitablysubjecttochallenge onempiricalgrounds.” 20 ThemenofBerensRiverwereprimarilyhuntersandit wascriticalforthemtobeintimatelyengagedwiththeir environments:withthepresentandwithwhatwasactually occurringintheirmidst.Whiletheirtraditionalworldview providedaframeworkfortheiroutlooksandinterpretations,their first-handperceptionsof“celestial,meteorologicalandbiotic phenomena[were]alsoimportant.” 21Experienceandbeliefwere harmonizedinorderforbeliefstobegenuineandtosurvive. Westernsocietyinthenineteenthcenturywasalsointhethroes ofanempiricismthathadbeengeneratedintheEnlightenment. Themethodologyofcriticalquestioningwasemerginginscience, socialscience,andreligion. Acriticaldifferencebetweenthetwosocieties,however, centredaroundbelief.Althoughbothbelievedinthepowerof belief,Ojibwagroupsencompassed,withintheirworldview,an enormouscapacityforflexibilityindefiningrealitycompared withtheratherrigiddoctrinalstructuresofthemissionariesthey
TheOjibwaWorldView
encountered.PercyBerens,aChristian,doesnotbelieveinspirits but,heexplained,thisdoesnotmeanthattheydonotexist: SG P.B. S.G. P.B. S.G. P.B. S.G.
Yousayyoudon’tbelieveinspiritsatall? No,Idon’t.I’veonlygotonebeliefandonespirit. Foryou,that’stheanswer? Right.Ichoosethat. ButYellowLegschosetobelieveinspirits–wasthatokay? That’sokaytoo,that’sgoodtoo. Soyou’renotsayingthatspiritsdon’texist?You’resaying thatyoudon’tchoosetobelieveinthem? P.B. Yes,Idon’tchoosetobelieveinthemspirits. S.G. Buttheycanexistforotherpeople? P.B. Yes,theywillexist.Ifyoubelievestrongenoughtobelieve thatthere’sspiritstherethenthey’rethere.Nowyouknow whatImean?Andthat’swhatthoseoldtimeIndians had.Theystronglybelievedinthemspiritsofeviland righteousness.Thatwastheirbelief,see?Evilandrighteous spirits.22
Empiricismhas,forwesterners,lentcredibilitytotheirinstitutions andtheyhaveoftenassumedthatothersocietieslackedthistool toapplytotheirownbeliefsystems.23TheOjibwaworldview, however,alsobuildsupontheideathatseeingisbelieving.William BerensgrewupinaMethodisthome.Yethisparentsneverallowed theirChristianitytoseparatethemfromhisfather’snon-Christian family.WilliamparticipatedinanumberofMethodistandOjibwa ceremoniesandevents,thelatterhavingalastingimpact.After attendingtheMidéwiwinandseeinghisgrandfather,Bear,curing withhismedicinesandconductingtheshakingtentceremony, hedecidedthatOjibwaritualshadapowerthatChristianrituals lacked: [Bear]practisedtheoldIndianreligion.Hemayhavediedabout thetimethefirstmissionarycame.Butifhelivedlongerhenever changedhisbeliefs.Thisgrandfatherhadlostallthefingersof
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hislefthandexceptthethumb,yethewasaconjuror.Howcould hehaveshakenthetenthimself?Iusedtoseehimgointothe conjuringtentbutthevoicesIheardcomingoutofitdidnotseem likehisvoice.Isawhimcuresickpeoplewithhismedicineand bynibkiwin.Ihadreasontobelievethatmygrandfatherknew whathewasdoingandthathisbeliefsweretrue.Iusedtohear mymothertalkaboutGodbutIdidnotseeanythingthatmy motherdidthatprovedtomethatwhathappenedwasthrough thehelpofGod.IsawnopowercomparabletowhatIhadseen mygrandfatheruse.ForIsawmygrandfatherintheMidéwiwin once.Itmusthavebeenthelastoneeverheldatthemouthofthe river.Mygrandfatherwastheheadman.ThatisanotherthingIcan neverforget.24
FredBaptiste,anOjibwaresidentofBerensRiver,isaChristian whoalsogroundshisbeliefintheThunderbirdsinempiricalproof, furnishedinoneinstancebyanOjibwaMethodistpreacher.Inhis words: WhenIwasupatPikangikum,Ontario,Iusedtoknowguyswho camedownfromPikangikumandpreachhere–Fiddler,Adam Fiddler,Ithinkitwas.He’dtaketheservicehere–oldNiddrielet himpreachintheafternoon.Andthenhegavemeafeather–a featherthat’sthatwide[measuresatwo-footspanwithhishands] andaboutthatlong[measuresafour-footspan].Hesays,“you knowwhatthisis?”AndIsays,“that’sfromabigbird.”Hegotthat fromthehighrockswherethere’sthunderonPercyIsland–that’s wherethey[theThunderbirds]keeptheiryoungones.That’s wherehegotthisfeather,it’sjustayoungone’sfeather.25
AnotherOjibwamemberoftheBerensRivercommunity remembershisdoubt,asayoungman,inthevalidityoftheshaking tentritual.JohnEdwardEverettexplained:
TheOjibwaWorldView
Ididn’tbelieveitmyselfbutIwastoldthen,“okay,you’regoing toseehim.”[DavidEaglestick,amedicinemanatLittleGrand Rapids] S.G. Thenwhathappened? J.E.E.Igavehimsometobaccofirst. S.G. Andthenwhathappened? J.E.E.WellIwantedtofindoutaboutit–itwasboltedrighttothe ground,youknow.Thethingwouldshake!! S.G. Yousawthetentshakingandthat’swhenyoubelieved? J.E.E.Iwantedtofindoutaboutit.…itwasinthatevening–there werefiveofus.Well,actually,Iwasjustaboutscaredthat thingwasgoingtotakeoff–everythingwasshaking! S.G. Whatdidyouhear? J.E.E.Well,onewaytofindout.Youdon’thavetoopenthat.You talkfromtheoutside.Iwanttofindouthowmyfriendsin BerensRiverweredoing.[Oneoftheusesoftheshaking tentwastolearnofpeopleoreventsatadistance.] S.G. So,John,beforeyousawtheshakingtent,youdidn’tbelieve init? J.E.E.WellactuallyIdidn’tbelieve.That’sthereasonIwantedto findout.26
PercyBerenstoldofhearingthedrummingandsingingofwhat hecalledthe“moundbuilders”(Memegwesiwag)atthreedifferent timesinhislife.Theexperiencesarewhatsupportedhisbeliefin theirexistence. P.B. That’sanotherthing.Moundbuilders–Memegwesiwag –that’sanIndianname.Iheardthemdrumming.Maybe it’shardforyoutobelieve.Iheardthemdrumming.Three timesinmylifeIheardthat. S.G. Whyweretheydrumming? P.B. Idon’tknow,Iguesstheyweregoingtoblessme,Iguess. It’sjustaswellIheardthemdrums,see?Itwasaniceday andIwasinthecanoebecauseIwasgoingdownonamoose
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hunt.AndthenIwaspaddling.AllofasuddenIheard drumssoIjustputmypaddledownandIwaslisteninglike that.Mycousinonthesternsteeringthecanoesaid,“What doyouhear?”Isaid,“Listentothemdrums,”Isaid.“Listen totheMemegwesiwagsinging.”Andhestoppedpaddling. Thecanoewasdriftingalongtheriver.“Idon’thear nothing!”hesays.“Ohcomeon!”Isaid,“youcanjusthearit plain.”Andhestoppedagainand:“No,Idon’thearnothing. You’reallb.s.,”hesaystome[laughter].27
InPercyBerens’swords,“ButIheardthem,threetimesinmylifeI heardthatsamething.Andthat’swhyIfullybelievethere’speople, Memegwesiwag,moundbuilderstheyare.…Itrulybelieveonthat becausethreetimesIheardthatdrummingandsinging.”28Itis interestingthatwhile,forPercy,theexistenceoftheMemegwesiwag wasvalidatedthroughhisownexperience,hiscousin,whoheard nothing,didnotblindlybelievePercyatthetime. Percy’sbrother,Gordon,aUnitedChurchminister,explained theMemegwesiwagthus:“There’speopleliving,isolatedpeople like,thatcoulddoalotofthings.TheycallthemMemegwesiwag. They’rethepeoplethatdidalotofmagicthings.Andtheyliveon rocks.Theyhadahomeonarock.Theirhomeswereinarock. Andthat’sonethingalotofwhitepeopledon’tbelieve.They don’tbelievetheirhomewasinarockandiftheywanttobless you,you’llhearthatdrum.Firstyou’llhearthatdrumandthen they’llshowinpersonandgiveyouwhatyouwanttoknowor whatyouwanttodoinamagicalway.Theycomeindreamstoo. Youcouldhavethemindreamsinadreamlike.Theycallthem Memegwesiwag,SmallPeople.”Percywas,indeed,blessedbythe Memegwesiwag.GordontellsofPercy’sencounter,remembering howhisbrotherofferedtobaccototheSmallPeopleafterhearing themdrum.Thefollowingday,thetobaccowasgoneandinits placelaytheribofananimalnotfoundinthoseparts.Gordon says,“Wellhekeptthatthing,youknow,andwhenhewas trappingnobodycouldbeathim.Hewasalwaystheheadtrapper. Nobodycouldbeathim.Hewasalwaysthehighestone.” 29
TheOjibwaWorldView
GordonBerens’sdiscussionsabouttheMemegwesiwagalso presentinterestingglimpsesintoenduringbelief.Gordon rememberedanotherofPercy’sexperienceswiththeMound Buildersthisway: MybrotherPercyheardthembeatingthedrum.Wherewehave ourcabinonthelake,whenweweretrapping,there’sahighrock andthere’sariverontheeastsideofthelakeandthere’sahigh rockthere.Andmybrotherwasout,Iwasout,Iwasoutwithhim butIturnedback…andIcamerightbacktoourcamp.Itwas kindoflateintheevening.Seenhimcoming.Ihadteaallready, supperallready,supperwaitingforhim.Sohecomein.Ilookat himand,oh,didheeverlookpale.“Oh,”Isaid“whathappened? Oh!”Isays,“youlooksodarnpale!Areyousick?”“No,”hesays “I’mnotsick.”“Whathappened?”“Well,boy,”hesays“I’lljust tellyou.Boy,Ihearthem,whatyoucallMemegwesiwag.Iheard theMemegwesiwagsinging,”hesays.“Onthelasthighrockonthe lakethere,”hesays,“andIwenttothelittleislandthere,”hesays “Iwenttothelittleislandthere.Iwenttothisplacewherethere wasopenwater.Ibentdowntohaveadrinkand,boy,Icouldhear thatdrum,“hesays“inthewater,likeanecho.SoIhadadrink and,boy,Icouldhearthatdrum,”hesays“inthewaterlikean echo.SoIhadadrinkandIkindofsat,andboy,”hesays“Isat. Welltheystarttosing.Beatthedrum,”hesays“andstarttosing. Oh,Istaythere,”hesays“Isatthereandlistened.”Well,youknow thenextthinghehadtodo.Hehadtoputtobaccowhereheheard themsinging,like,youknow.That’sapresent,like,youknow–so hehadtogothere.Hesays“Boy,Iputthattobaccoontheledge ofarock.Walkaway.”Nexttimehewent,hewentandcheckif thattobaccowasgone.Thetobaccowasgoneandtherewasarib, ablade,like,youknow–abladeofananimal.Sohetookthat.It wasrightontop,wherehehadthetobacco,sohepickitupand hebroughtittoourcampandhesaidtomydad.…Mydadlook atthatrib,atthatblade.…Hecouldn’tfigureoutwhatkindof animalitwas.SohetoldPercy“Idon’t–thisanimal,”hesays“is notfromthisplace.Differentplace,thisanimalisfromadifferent
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place.”Well,hekeptthatthing,youknow,whenhewastrapping nobodycouldbeathim.Hewasalwaystheheadtrapper.Nobody couldbeathim.–’Causeheusedtocarrythiswithhimallthe time.Heusedtocarrythisbladeallthetimeandnobodycould beathim.Hewasalwaysthehighestone.Yeah,hewasthehighest one.So,alotofthemaskedhimwhyhewaskillingsomuch fur.My,hewouldn’ttellthem,hewouldn’tgiveawayhimself, wouldn’tgiveawayhimselfwhyhewaskillingsomuch.Hejust didn’twanttotellthem.30
WhenMaureenMatthewsaskedGordonifhebelievedthatthe MemegwesiwaghadgivenpowerstoPercy,hereplied“Ibelieveit. Ibelieveit.Surethere’speoplelivingandtheonlywayaperson seesthempeopleiswhentheydream.”31Ofsignificancehereisnot justthestrengthofGordonBerens’sbelief,butalsohisperception andunderstandingofhisbrotherasahunter,blessedbythe Memegwesiwag. WhenGordondiscussedhisfather’sbeliefinthe Memegwesiwag,heemphasizedthatseeingwasbelieving:“He believedinthem[theMemegwesiwag].Hebelievedonthat.He wasastrongbelieveronthatbecausehehadseenquiteafew things.[That’s]whyhewassuchastrongbeliever.” 32 WhenaskedifWilliamBerenshadbelievedinthe Thunderbirds,Percyreplied,“hebelievedontheThunderbirds becauseofwhathappenedtohim.Heseenitwithhisown eyes.…IbelievewhatIseewithmyowneyes.AndIbelievethat. Thunder.Ibelievethat.[Andearlier]Yes,youcanbelieveinthem [Thunderbirds]easilybecauseyoucanhearthem.” 33 Similarly,theOjibwaofFondduLacusedempirical observationindrawingtheirconclusionsthatcattlepossessed magicpowers.Tradershadintroducedtheseanimalstotheregion by1806and,overaperiodofthreedecades,theOjibwamade carefulobservations,gainingsomeusefulinsights.In1834,they explainedtothemissionaryEdmundFranklinElythatcattle closelyresembledbuffalo,aperceptionthatwasreinforcedbythe traders’penchanttoallowthebeaststoroamfreelyinthewoods.
TheOjibwaWorldView
Theynoticedthatcattle,however,atemanyplantsthatnobuffalo orotherwildanimalseverate.InherstudyofElyandtheOjibwa, RebeccaKugelexplainsthatthisobservationledtotheOjibwa conclusionthatcattlemustpossessspirituallyderivedpowers andmusthavegreatvirtue.Shamansthusworkedtoharnessthis powerduringhealingceremonies,holdinguppicturesofcows infrontoftheill,thusinducingthesicktodreamofcattle.“In whatwasclearprooftotheOjibwaofthespiritualpowerofcattle [theyobservedthat]aftersuchdreamsthesick[recovered].” 34 Thevaliditygiventopersonaltestimonyiscarefully distinguishedfromsecond-handreportsandprovides corroborativeevidenceforBerensRiverOjibwaincasesof doubt.WhenPeterBerens,ayoungboyofelevenortwelve, toldofseeingastrangebirdlyingontherocksafterastorm, eldersweresceptical.Inhisfieldnotes,Hallowellexplainedthat thiswasbecause“it[was]sounusualtohaveseenpinesiwith nakedeye.”Onlywhenhisdescriptionwassupportedbyanother corroborativesource,didpeoplebelievethattheboyhadactually seenaThunderbird.“Anoldmanhaddreamedofthisp-[pinesi]. Bydescriptionhesaidtheboywasright–hehadseenp-and wouldlivetobeanoldman.” 35 Multipletestimonieshavealwaysbeenseenasevenmore difficulttocontradict,especiallyincasesinvolvingthesightings ofgiantanimals.WilliamBerens,togetherwithhistwosons, sightedtheGreatSnake,forexample,andthishadrealvalidity intheircommunity.Discussingthehighrankinggiventofirsthandtestimonyasobservedfact,Hallowellsaid,“Oraltestimony amongtheSaulteaux…parallelstheexaggeratedemphasisupon theauthorityofthewrittenwordamongusaspresented,e.g.,in thenewspaperreports,‘truestory’magazines,etc.” 36InOjibwa historytherehavebeenveryfewreportsofsightingsofthegiant animalsandthis,too,addscredibilitytothestoriesofthosewho haveseenthem. Yet,evenpersonaltestimonywasseencritically.Notall sightingswereconsideredvalid.Someonewhodescribedan encounterwithastrangecreatureoutsidetherealmofrecognized
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mythologyandtraditionwouldhavebeen,inHallowell’swords, “subjecttoridicule.” 37PercyBerens’scontemptforcharlatan conjuringatBerensRiverprovidedanexampleofcritical reflection. S.G. Haveyoueverseenaconjuringtent? P.B. I’veseenit!Butitwasamockery.TheydidthatatBerens River.Buttheydidn’treallyknowwhattodo. S.G. Whynot? P.B. Becauseitwaslost!Andthatguythatwentinthattent didn’thavenopoweratallfromthespirits.38
Ojibwabeliefsinaflatearthandinthedailyjourneyofthesun acrosstheskyweresimilarlybasedonpracticaldailyobservation. Whileitwastruethattheideaoftheearthexistingasanisland wasrootedindogma,contactwithwhitetransoceanicvisitors supportedtheideathattheirworldwassurroundedbywaterand schoolroommapsreinforcedtheideaof“flatness.”39 TheThunderbirdsprovideanexampleofOjibwaempirical measurement.InApril,boththeThunderbirdsandtheordinary birdsarriveinBerensRiverfromthesouth.Inthefallthe Thunderbirdsandbirdsmovesouth,followingthe“summerbirds’ trail”(theMilkyWay).Theexistenceofthunderislinkedtothe presenceofbirdsandissupportedbytheOjibwaconvictionthat naturalphenomenaareanimate.40 Dreamshavebeenanexceedinglyimportantpartofthe religiouscultureamongOjibwawhobelievethatthey“obtain directpersonalknowledgeofthespiritualentitiesofthecosmos, e.g.,the‘bosses’or‘owners’ofthephenomenalworld,aswell asotherbeings,throughdreams.”41JackFiddler,aleaderofthe SuckerclanfromSandyLake,oncetoldEdwardPaupanakiss,a CreemissionaryfromNorwayHouse,“Ibelieveinmydreams. Everythingwedreamisrightforus.…Ourdreamsareour religions.”42 Thepubertyfast,undergonebyyoungboys,institutionalized theimportanceofdreaming;thiswasthetimewhenthe
TheOjibwaWorldView
pawáganakwhowouldblessandaidtheboysthroughouttheir liveswereattained.AsfarasOjibwapeoplewereconcerned,men wererenderedpracticallypowerlesswithoutthese“grandfathers,” especiallyiftheyaspiredtoleadreligiousceremoniesorbe especiallygoodhunters.43Differentpeople,however,attained varyingdegreesofpowerfromother-than-humans;oneman mighthaveseveralguardianspirits,anothermighthaveonlyone, whileanothermightnothaveacquiredanyatall.Onlyafew acquiredexceptionalpowers.44 ForOjibwapeople,dreamshavebeenasourceofempirical evidenceregarding“thegeniiofthecosmos.”45Interestingly,in thecaseoftheboywhosawtheThunderbirdlyingonarock,the latersourcewhichconfirmedthesightingcamefromamanwho dreamedofThunderbirds.46Sincethepawáganak(dreamvisitors) werenormallyseenonlyindreams,theboy’sstoryofseeingthe Thunderbirdhadtobeconfirmedbythetestimonyoftheman whodreamedofthem,ratherthantheotherwayaround. HallowelldescribedthedreamofaChristianOjibwathat showedhowdreamswereconcretelytestedbytheSaulteaux.The manwashavingapoorhuntandlaydowntosleep,dreamingof alongtrailrunningnorth.Inhisdreamhewalkedonthispath towardadeadfalluntilhesawtwoattractivegirlsdressedin white.Onewassettingatablewithfoodanditwasshewhomhe approached.Asshetoldhimthefoodwasforhim,heawokeand beganwalkingnorth,despitethefactthatthepathwasdangerous sincehehadjustsetmanysteeltrapsonthisline.“ButwhenIgot there[tothedeadfall],Ifoundafisher.…Itwasfemale.Iknew whatmydreammeantthen.”47Afemalecreaturehadprovided foodforthemanbothinhisdreamandinreality.Forhim,the dream’svaliditywasobvious,Christianitynotwithstanding. TheOjibwaattainedempiricalproofofthevalidityof pawáganakbyobservingrelativehuntingsuccess.Allmen inacommunityhadgoodhuntingskillsandsharedasimilar technology.Fur-bearinganimalsweredistributedfairlyevenly. How,then,couldoneexplainwidevariationsinhuntingresults? Successfulmenhadclearlybeenblessedwiththehelpofanimal
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“owners.”Thelesssuccessfulhadeithernotbeenhelpedor,ifso, somethinghadgonewrong:eithertheirpawáganakwereweak, oramanhadfailedtoproperlyhonouran“owner”–orhewas simplyapoorhunter.48 AlsocentraltotheOjibwaworldviewistheinterpretation ofdreams.Thetellingofandlearningfromdreamsplayedmajor rolesintheSaulteauxsocioculturalsysteminawaythat,as Hallowellexplained,gavemeaningtoindividuals’lives.Thevision questwas,ofcourse,akeyelementintheprocessofgrowingup Ojibwaanddreamsingeneralwereoftenseenasinsightfulways toteachlessonstoyoungpeople.Somedreamsofferedprophecies orominouswarningsoffutureeventsandothersauthenticated wakingincidents(suchasinthecaseofyoungPeterBerenswhose Thunderbirdsightingwasconfirmedthroughthedreamofanold man).49 BetseyPatrick,anOjibwawomanfromBerensRiver,described adreamwhichchangedthecourseofherlifeandwhichillustrates thekindofhelpofferedtohumansbyother-than-humans throughdreams.Althoughshecouldhavebeenaverygood medicinewomanthroughadreamgiftthatcametoher,she chose,inheryouth,nottofollowthiscourse.SarahJaneMacKay, fromSplitLake,wasanexcellentmedicinewoman,abletocure thosewhomnobodyelsecouldcure.Sarah’sgranddaughterhad diedand,missingthecompanyofalittlegirl,shebecamefondof BetseyPatrick.WhenBetseywastwelveyearsoldshewentona canoetripwithSarah.Theycampedonanisland.Betseyknew thatSarahwantedhertobecomeamedicinewomanandtoteach herinthisart.AlthoughBetseywasfrightenedonthefirstnight ofthetrip,shesaidnothingtoSarah. Thatnightshedreamedofariver.Alogledacrossthewater toahugerockwhichsatatthetopofawaterfall.Betseycrossed thelog,movingtowardsthisrockinwhichadoorappearedand opened.“Atinylittleoldshrunkenmanwasinthatrock.Hetold metocomein.Iwentinandhegavemeabookmadeofbirchbark andtoldmetoreadthisbook,hesaidthesewerethesecretsof
TheOjibwaWorldView
life.”Betseyremembersthatthepages,sherecognized,described “thejoyofthehumanheart.” Whenshehadfinished,themantoldhertherewassomething elsetosee.Anotherdoorappearedinawalloftherock.Asshe passedthroughthisdoorsheencounteredaThunderbirdandas shelookedathiseyes,shesawthattheywerefilledwithlightning. Theydazzledandterrifiedher.Betseyranaway–awayfromthe littleman,awayfromtherock,acrossthelogandbacktothe shore. Whensheawoke,SarahwasmakingteaandBetseysaidtothe olderwoman,“Icannotdowhatyouwantmetodo.”AsBetsey Patrickseesherlife,thiswasherchoiceandshemadeadecision nottotakeonthosepowers. 50 AdreamthatWalterGreenhadasachildreflectedthe continuingimpactofdreamsonthelivesoftheSaulteaux,the significanceofthepowerofbeliefintheirreligiouslife,and thesyncretismthathascomefromOjibwapeoplecreatively integratingaspectsofbothSaulteauxandChristianconcepts. S.G. Didyoulearntoplaytheorganfrom[Rev.Niddrie]? W.G.ThisiswhatIcallagift.Youknow,whenIwasalittleboy …acoupleofmyunclessentanorgantowheremyaunt andIwereliving.Andtheyusedtoaskmyuncletoplay theorgan.Boy,IusedtowishIcouldplay–manytimes I’dstandtherewatchinghim.ButonenightwhenIwas sleepingIhadadream.Somebodycametome–likean angel,youknow–alady.Soshetookmeandgrabbedmy handandsaid,“Comeonoverthisway.”Herfacewasjust beautifulandtherewereflowersallaroundher.Soshe tookmeoutandwecametoagreatbigbuilding.Itwas abuildinglikemarble,youknow.Andshetookmeinto thatbuilding.Wewalkedforalongwayand,whilewe werewalking,sheturnedtooneroomandsaid,“Thisis theplace.”AndIlookedaroundandsawanorgan–apipe organ.Soshesaid,“Isthiswhatyouwanttoplay?”Isaid, “Yes,verymuch.”AndthenshesatdownandIsatdown
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besideherandfirstsheplayedJesusLovesMe–doyouknow thatsong?Thensheplayedittwice.Thenshesaid,“Okay, youplay.”SoIsatdown,andIplayedforalongtime.That’s howIlearned.WhenIwasfourteen,Iplayedtheorganin thechurch,prayermeetings,wakes. S.G. Whatdidtheangellooklike? W.G. Well,likewhatyou’dseeinapicture.Herdresswaswhite andshehadaglitteringcrown,alongwhitegown,alittlebit ofsomethingaroundherwaist.Whatshehadonherhead wasjustglittering,likesilverorgold.Somekindofwings,I couldn’tseeverygood. S.G. Canyoutellmeabouthowdreamsareimportant? W.G.Italldependsonwhoyouwere.Ifyoudon’tbelievein dreams,they’reuseless.Yougottobelieveinthem.51
Shamans,too,hadtobeblessedbycertainkindsofpawáganak; theirpowerswerenotseenasinherited,norweretheyformally taught.Eachshamanhadtoreceivehisorherpowersfrom thepawáganak.Althoughmedicinemenandwomenimparted technicalskillstoproteges,spiritualpowercouldnotbetaught. Heretoo,abuseorfalseclaimingofone’spowerscouldresultin abandonmentbythepawáganak.Itisintherealmoftheconjuring tentthatweseeoneofthestrongestmodesofempiricaltestingin Ojibwasociety.Herepeoplecouldhavedirectcontactwithmany pawáganak. Duringtheceremony,thetent,whichwasshakenbythe controllersofthewinds,wasfilledwiththevoicesoftheentities. Onecouldhearratherthanseethespiritualentities.Always presentwereMikinak(thebosssnappingturtle),oneormore winds,andthespiritual“owner”oftheconjuringinstitution, “theonewhotakesthemout.” 52Thisritualwasusedtoobtain informationaboutpeoplelivingoreventsoccurringatadistance intimeorspace,torecoverlostorstolenitemsand,atone time,todetectandcombatsourcesofwitchcraft.Thislastwas especiallyimportantincuringillnessbecauseitwasimportantto discoverwhetherapersonwasillduetosorceryorduetohisor
TheOjibwaWorldView
herownmoraltransgressions.Withthehelpofagoodconjuror onecouldforetellevents,killanotherperson,orbringthedeadto life. 53 ConjuringwasempiricallytestedinOjibwasociety.This wasbasedonauditoryperceptionaswellasondirectresults. Wastheinformationobtainedcorrect?Wasthelostarticle recovered?Ifso,therewasnoroomforscepticism.Although manyEuro-Canadianshavelookedattheshakingtentceremony withcondescension,Hallowellmakesaninterestingpointwhen heremarksthatwhitecultureappliesthesameteststofortunetelling.54 Certainly,theartofconjuringhadadarkside.Hallowell notedthatevenChristianizedIndiansbelievedthatsorceryby conjuringcouldcomefromone’srelativesorneighbours:“Inthe lastanalysis,almosteverySaulteauxbelievesthatitispossiblefor anotherpersontoharmhimbycovertmeans.” 55 WilliamBerens’sfamilyexperiencedsomebadtimesatthe handsofconjurorsandPercyBerensrememberedthisvividly.In onestory,aconjurorsoldhismuskratfursafterthespringhuntto atrader.ThemanowedmoneytotheHudson’sBayCompany,for whomWilliamworkedatthattime. P.B. HehadthatbillintheHudson’sBaystorewheremydad was,see?Andthenhegoesandsellshisfurstothistrader –hisspringhuntfurs. S.G. InsteadofpayingoffhisdebtstotheHudson’sBay? P.B. Yeah.…Thenthisoldman,Iguessbecausehewaslooking fortrouble,thisconjuroryouknow,hewalksintotheold man’sstore,theHudson’sBaystore.Sohesays,assoonashe opensthedoor,“Tobacco!Tobacco!”Mydadtoldhim,“You goandgetyourtobaccofromthetrader.You’renotgetting anytobaccoinhere.” S.G. Sodidtheconjurormakelifemiserableforyourdadafter that?
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P.B. Hetried.Afterhe[theconjuror]movedouttoPoplarRiver, they[WilliamandNancy]movedouttheretooandthat’s thetimethatthunderstormcame. S.G. Andtheconjurormadethathappen? P.B. Yeah,yeah.Momwasthere,sheusedtotalkaboutittoo.It soupsether,thatthunderstorm.Youcouldseethelightning ontherocks. S.G. IsthatwhyWilliamalwaystoldyouboysnottogetinto conjuring–becauseyoucouldhurtpeoplewithit? P.B. Sure!Sure!That’swhyhetoldusthat.Neverhaveanything todowithit,thatconjuringkindofbusiness.56
Percyrememberedatragedythatoccurredasaresultofbad conjuring: Oneofmybrothersdiedofthatkindofthing. S.G. Whichone? P.B. Theoldest,Jacobwashisname. S.G. Jacobdiedfrombadconjuring? P.B. Yes,yes.Justbecausethatman–whentheHudson’sBay Companyusedtohavedogtrainstakingthefurin,dogs fromIslandLakeandOxfordHouse,that’scalledafur train.Andtheyusedtogetatrainofdogsandaguyfrom PoplarRiver,maybe.Andthat’swheremybrother–hebeat themguysfromIslandLakeandOxfordHouseandNelson House.Becausetheywerejealousofhim,theythoughtthat mybrotherwasusingamedicineforhisdogteamtobeso good.57
Onthepositiveside,however,inthehistoryoftheOjibwa people,shamanswithfullpowerswereusuallyleadersintheir communities.Thiswasbecauseoftheirabilitytohealandcure, findanimalsinhuntingseasons,andwardoffattacksfromother shamans. 58GordonBerens,indiscussingFairWind,revealed thecomplexityandambiguousnatureofbothconjurorsandthe institutionofconjuring:
TheOjibwaWorldView
G.B. Hewashelpingpeople…asmuchashecould.Evenwhen somepersonwassick,hewasrighttheretomakethat personwell,givethemmedicine,youknow,outofherbs, barkofatree.Heknewwhattogiveapersontomakethem rightagain. M.M.Werethepeopleatallafraidofhim? G.B. Theywereafraidofhimbecausetheyknewthey’ddieif theydidn’t.That’sright,heusedhismagic,likesee–yeah, theywereafraidofhim.Theyhadtorespecthimbuthe knew,heknewthathewasrespected.Butifheknewthat apersondidn’trespecthim,like,trytomakeafoolof him,like,that’sthepersonhewasafter.Andhelaidhim underground.Sixfeetundergroundtoo.59
Finally,inestablishingacontextforthestudyofsyncretismand OjibwaencounterswithChristianity,adiscussionofaSupreme Beingisessential.ThisBeingwastheonlyentitywhoneverentered theconjuringtent.Itwasneverinanywayanthropomorphized regardingsexorbodilyformandtherearenoiconographic representationsoftheCreatorandRulerofallthings–theBossof Bosses. Althoughscholarsaredividedonthequestionofwhether thisBeingwasapre-orpost-contactphenomenon,bythemidnineteenthcentury,Ojibwapeoplegenerallybelievedinsome formofSupremeBeing.TherearetwowaystosayGodin Ojibwa:Gaa-dibenjidorGaa-dibendang(theall-encompassing poweroflife).Thesewordsaregenerallyneverspokenbutmay havebeenlinkedtothoughtsaboutthegenesisofmetaphysical gifts.TheOjibwaconceptofaManitouormanidooreferstomore accessiblespiritssuchastheThunderbirds.Likelytheconcept ofaSupremeBeingwasnotmissionary-inducedastheideaof anintimateandpersonalrelationshipwithGodisaChristian oneandtheOjibwarelationshipwiththeSupremeBeingwas highlyimpersonal.60Eventoday,thisdifferenceisarealone. BetseyPatrick,forexample,discussedherconfusionoverthetwo conceptssaying“IalwaysgrewuphearingaboutGodtheFather
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andprayingtoGodtheFather–butnowIhearsomuchtalk aboutGodtheCreator.HowcanpeoplepraytoGodtheCreator? BecausethisisManitou?”61Thestatementshowsthepersonal relationshipinvolvedwithonegodandamoreimpersonalone withanothergod.ThetermManitouisreservedforonebeingby thepeoplealongtheBerensRiver. Pre-ChristianAlgonquianbeliefswerenotcentredarounda dualisticnotionofgoodversusevil;ahighgodversusthedevil. SeeminglythroughChristianinfluence,however,thisconceptdid gainafirmfootholdinOjibwareligion.Bythemid-nineteenth century,theexistenceofgoodandevilforceswasapartofthe Saulteauxworldview. PercyBerenshadstrongwordsregardingbothOjibwabeliefin aSupremeBeingandontheincorrectassumptionsmadebyEuroCanadiansthattheyhadbeentheonestointroduceGodtonative communities: Sure!Webelieve.WeIndiansbelievethisworldwascreatedby oneperson.TheGreatSpirit.Manitou.Youknow,whenthe missionariesfirstcamehere,theythoughtthatourancestorsthat wereIndianstheydidn’tknowGod.Yeteverythingtheydid,these ancestors–waybackbeforetheyeverseenamissionary–they weretalkingaboutManitou.WhatisManitou?God.62
TheOjibwaalongtheBerensRiver,groundedintheknowledge thatpowercamefromthestrengthofbelief,thoughtfully incorporatednewconceptsandelementsintotheirownframework astheysawfitandappliedempiricalthoughttotheirreligious life.Theirmentallandscapewaswideandinclusiveanditisfrom thevantagepointofthistruththatweneedanewlookattheir religioushistory. Thefactthatmostmissionaries,settlers,andtraderssuffereda failureofunderstandingonallthesefrontsprofoundlyinfluenced missionary/Indianencounters,sculptedinteractionsbetween thetwocultures,andcolouredEuro-Canadianinterpretationsof presentandpast.Thenewcomers’senseofpossessingexclusive
TheOjibwaWorldView
truthsustainedboththeirconvictionsandprejudices.Thenext chapterlooksattheseplayers,exploringtheireffortstograpple withtheOjibwawhomtheyencounteredinthefieldandtheir effortstopreparesoulsfortheworldtocome.
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“TheyFoughtJustLike aCatandaDog! ” Catholic-ProtestantEncounters ontheMissionField
RomanCatholicandProtestant missionariesoftenoccupiedthesamemissionfieldsinnorthern Manitoba,especiallyafter1900,althoughthecomplexdynamics ofcoexistencevariedfromterritorytoterritory.Innorthern Manitoba,competitionbetweenthetwodenominationswas usuallyfierce,butacrisisorhardeconomictimesmightrequire CatholicandProtestantmissionariestopulltogetherinacommon questforsurvival.Trulyfascinatingisthehybridbetween ChristianityandAboriginalreligionsthatdevelopedoutof thesepositiveexperiencescomparedtotheongoingheatedand passionatecompetitiontowinsoulsforChristandsave“their” Indiansfromthefollyofmembershipinthewrongchurch. CatholicsandProtestantsbothheldthattheonlyroadto salvationwasawholeheartedacceptanceofChristianity.Mathias Kalmes’sstoryof“Kinebikons”madethispointblatantlyclear. “Kinebikons”wasawell-knownserialstoryaboutthesalvation andsubsequentleadingofaChristianlifebyayoungOjibwa womannamedKinebikons.Kinebikonsandhergrandmother, Teweigan,werefoundbyamissionaryandtakentoaschoolat theFortFrancesMission.Thetworesidedthereandabaptized Kinebikonswasrenamed“Lucy.”TheSisteratthemissionworked tomakeoldTeweiganseetheerrorsinherentinOjibwareligion andspokefairlybrutally:
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Openyoureyes,Teweigan.…WhereareallthoseIndianswho livedaroundRainyLakeandLakeoftheWoods?Attheendof thelastcenturytheywerefourthousand.Whyhavetheynearly alldisappeared?Andthoselittlewoodenhutswhichyouerecton theirgraves…whathappenedtothem?Weretheynotsupposed toprotect[yourdead]?Theyhavefallenawayandtheirdust mingledwiththedustofthedeadhasblownallover.…Lookat theWhitepeoplelivingaroundyou.Theydonotofferthemselves toManitouandyettheylivelongandareincreasingsorapidlythat theyareinvadingallyourlands.…Andyou,followersofsorcerers, yourpopulationdecreases.Ifsomemetishadnotcometomix withyouyourReservewouldbeempty.1
LikeProtestants,CatholicsofthetimesawIndiansalmostasa differentspeciesofhumanity.Adrien-GabrielMorice,writingin 1910,expressedatypicalview: The[North]AmericanIndianisabeingpossessedofaspirations, waysofthinkingandstandardsofjudgementwhichareentirely differentfromours.…Adegradedcreaturewhopartakesmore ofthechildthanoftheadult,withoutbeingblessedwiththe innocenceoftheformerorthecontroloverthepassionsofthe latter,theredskinmustbetreatedwithfirmness,theprudenceand foresightrequiredbythegovernmentofyouth,towhichmustbe addedalittleperspicacity,sothatthewilesofanaturallyshrewd, thoughnaive,naturemightnotleadtofalseconclusions.Aboveall, themissionarymustaimhighertohitlower…heshouldaskfor more,becauseheissuretogetless.…Beingagrown-upchild,the nativemustconstantlybewatched,oftenreproved,and…attimes tested.2
AsRosadelC.Bruno-Jofréexplains,late-nineteenthand mid-twentiethcenturyOblatefatherssawtheIndianas“an unfortunatenaturalbeing,”a“sadoffspringofanignoredrace” wholackedanintellectualculture,asenseofmorality,and“a comfortingreligion.”3Theiruselessandbarbaricstatewascapable
Catholic-ProtestantEncountersontheMissionField
ofredemptiononlythroughtheOblatefathers,withintensive follow-upwork,ifpossible,bytheworkofSistersfromvarious congregations. Asnotedbefore,however,theclergyactuallyworkingwith nativepeoplesinterpretedeventsdependingontheirindividual characterandbackground,thegroupofpeoplewithwhomthey worked,thenatureofcircumstancesoccurringduringcontact, thelengthofexperience,andthedegreetowhichChristianideas wereacceptedorrejectedinthefield.By1937,BrotherFrederick LeachhadspentnineteenyearsamongtheOjibwaalongthe BerensRiver.Hisviewsreflectedatoleranceandunderstanding thatcamefrombeingthereforalongtime.On19November 1937hewrote: It’squiteaproblemtoknowwhattodoforsomeofthesepeople; onecanseethatsomearebadlyinneedofextrafoodbutsome don’tseemtotrysufficiently.Thenagain…ifIwerecontinually livinginahalf-starvedconditionwouldIfindmuchenergytodo things?…Onlythosewhoareinchargeofissuingthedestitute rationscanknowwhataproblemitis.4
Whilemissionariessharedsomesimilarperspectivesregarding conversion,however,theycompetedintenselywithoneanother forconvertsandwerenotafraidtocriticizeordevaluetheirfellow missionaries.CommunitiesalongtheBerensRiverwerestages onwhichweredisplayedsomewonderfulexamplesofauditions towinconverts,rivalryforleadingroles,anddynamictheatrical productions.Theywerealsothescenesofaninterestingmixwhere rivalOblateandMethodistmissionsplayedtotheiraudienceto varyingdegreesononehandandunitedtoformonevoiceonthe otherhand. TothechagrinoftheMethodists,theRomanCatholicsbuilt theirfirstchapelatBerensRiverin1897.Theybecameatruly activepresenceinthecommunityin1918,whenOblatesFather JosephDeGrandpréandBrotherFrederickLeachopenedthe RomanCatholicdayschoolundertheauspicesofBrotherLeach. 5
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Fromthebeginning,theCatholicmissionariesatBerensRiver felttheeffectsofbeing“ontheouts,”religiouslyspeaking,with theBerensfamily.In1919,theOblateswishedtoestablisha schoolatBloodvein.On9April,FrederickLeachwrotefrom BerensRivertohisProvincial: Thepeople[atBloodvein]aregreatlyinfavorofaCatholicschool andsaidtheywouldwaituntilthissummertogiveusachance tobuildone.…Thedangeristhatifwedon’tbuildonethis summertheMethodistscertainlywillforthechiefofthisReserve [WilliamBerens,whosucceededhisfatherJacobin1917]hasa positionwiththeHudson’sBayCompanyandhereportsallour doingstotheMethodistminister.…Father[DeGrandpré]hasjust interruptedmetotellmetoreportagainthatthischurchmust bebuiltthissummer…andheadds“theIndianpopulationthere haveabetterdispositionthanthosehere.”6
Leach’scommentsimplyagooddealaboutthesecondaryplace oftheCatholicsinBerensRiveratthattime;hislettersuggests theextentofteamworkbetweenthechiefandtheMethodist missionary. TheMethodists’underlyingbeliefwasthatindividualscould transcendtheircircumstancesthroughthepoweroftheGospel. In1876,EgertonRyersonYoungwroteofunconvertedBerens RiverOjibwa:“Whilerejoicing[thatmanydesiretolearntheplan ofsalvation]wehavetomournovertheabsenceof…thegenuine conversionoftheinnermanbythetransformingpowerofthe HolyGhost.”Writingoftheconversionofmixed-bloodNelson HousepostmasterWilliamIsbisterin1875,JohnSemmensnoted, “HebecameachildofGodandutterlychanged.Thepeople… wereamazedatthesuddenandcompletechangeofcharacter.”7 And,oftheNelsonHousecommunity,heassertedthatthe missionwasenjoyingpositiveresultsby1876:“Thosewhohave notseensuchatransformationcannotproperlyrealisewhatis impliedinallthis.Ourpoorimperfecthumaneffortsdidnot
Catholic-ProtestantEncountersontheMissionField
accountforthisgreatchange…theywhohadbeenborninthe shadowofdeathrejoicedinthedawningofthegospelmorning.” 8 Thisbeliefwasasustainingforceinallmissionwork,and missionariesrejoicedinthegloryofwhattheyperceivedasGod’s workwiththeminthefield.Attimes,itmusthavebeeneasyto hangontothisfaith.In1883,forexample,AlexanderSutherland, superintendentofMethodistmissions,wasproudofthefield workinBritishColumbia.“Asadirectresultofmissionaryefforts amongtheIndians…tribalwarshaveceasedentirely,heathen villageshavebeentransformedintoChristiancommunities andthegrossimmoralities…havegivenplacetoassembliesfor Christianinstruction.” 9OftheMississaugas,Sutherlandwrotein thesameyear:“TheseIndianswerenotoriouslythemostdrunken andfilthyinthecountry,theverylowestofthelow,andyet theyreceivedtheGospelmorereadilythananyothersandits transformingpoweruponthemwaswonderful…nowtheybegan toliveinaChristianfashion.”10 Atothertimes,however,itmusthaveseemedthatmanyof theiridealsfromhomewerebeingsoakedinrains,frozenincold, andtrampleduponbytheheathen.Methodistrecordswerefull ofdisappointments.Yettherewasalwaysastrongaccompanying currentofhopeandanexpectationthattrueconversionwasjust aroundthecorner.AsMethodistmissionaryS.D.Gaudinwrote in1903:“Idosolongforarealdeepspiritualworkamongour people,andyetitseemsnottocome,oratleastpermanentresults areoftensodisappointing.Andyet,Ithoroughlybelieve…these poorpeoplearesincerelylongingandhungeringafterGod.”11 MissionariesinthenorthernManitobafieldbelieved,asdid missionariesaroundtheworldwhodealtwiththeconversion ofnon-Christianpeoples,thattheirdutywastoeradicateall aspectsofindigenouscultureinorderforsalvationtobeachieved. Theirperceptionsoftheirnativeclientsranalongacontinuum whichplacedNativepeoplesasfallinganywherefromadegraded speciestochildrenoftheforesttofairlynoblesavages.“Foryears theIndianshavebeenpleadingforamissionary,”wroteEgerton RyersonYoungfromBerensRiverin1875.“Itis…cheeringto
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hearvoices…onceaccustomedto…unmeaningmutteringsofa vileanddebasingsuperstition,liftedupinprayer.”12 TheBerensRivermissionariesbelongedtotheCanadian Methodistmainstream.Itwasthusmuchmoreanagencyofthe modernstatethanwasCatholicism:althoughultramontanists cooperatedwiththegovernment,theyrepresentedtheforcesof reactionagainsttheefficiencyofthemodernstate.Forthem, perfectionwasnevertobeattainedonthissideofthegrave. TheMethodistnotionofgracewasnon-Calvinist.JohnCalvin, intheearlyseventeenthcentury,heldthatgracewasirresistible, duetothepowerofGod.InMethodism,however,gracecould beresistedinspiteofthepowerofGod;unliketheCalvinists, theywerenotcaughtupinpredestinationism.Methodists,in fact,calledthemselvesArminians,aftertheDutchtheologian ArminiuswhoclearlyopposedCalvinism.Methodisttheology leftmuchroomforindividualinitiativeandsocialaction.By the1850s,MethodisminCanadahadjoinedtheProtestant mainstream;13itwasverymuchanagencyofmodernism(theidea thatweareconstantlyinanopen-endedstateofimprovement andthatthenewisalwaysbetterthantheold),withan increasingstressonorganizationandlackofmystery.14Catholic spirituality,incontrast,containsanelusiveanduntouchable dimension,conveyingasenseofmysteriesthatcannotbefully comprehended,thatarebeyondhumangrasp,andthatembody unansweredquestions.Thiswasespeciallypronouncedbefore VaticanIIwhenaltarswerehiddenfromviewandLatintext abounded. CatholicsandProtestantssharedtheviewthatconversion producedacompletetransformationinthelifeofanewChristian, butthetwodenominationsdifferedintheirideasabouthowone actuallygotintoheaven.Methodistsbelievedthatconversion andfaithensuredasafepassage.ForCatholics,gettinginto heavendependedoncontinualgoodworksandactions,suchas missionworkorpenance.Thisconvictionseemstohavebolstered missionariesinthetoughconditionstheyoftenencounteredinthe field.Inthewinterof1926,forexample,BrotherLeachfrequently
Catholic-ProtestantEncountersontheMissionField
wroteinhisjournalaboutthegreatlonelinessandfeelingsof isolationheexperiencedinthelongperiodswhenhispartner, FatherJosephDeGrandpré,wasawayatothercommunities.Just asoften,however,herecordedmakingthosesacrificesinorder togetintoheaven.EvenanOblatebrothercouldnotrestonthe laurelsofhisbaptism,churchmembership,andfaithinGod. Leachnevertookforgrantedthathewasassuredaplacein thehereafter.Itseemshecontinuallysoughtextrasupportfrom hiscommunityofparishionerstohelpensurehisultimatearrival inheaven.On5May1929,oneoftheBerensRiverwomen,Pat McKay,died.Leachwrote,“Pat,prayformesothatwhenmy turncomesImaygoandjoinyouinHeavenforever.”Writingon 15May1929ofCatherineGoosehead,whohaddiedamonth earlier,Leachsaid,“IoftenthinkofCatherineandPat[McKay]. IfIhavebeenevenalittlehelptothemonearthmaytheyhelp mewiththeirprayerstogainHeaven.”15 InordertounderstandencountersbetweenOjibwapeople andRomanCatholics,itisnecessarytoexaminetheCatholic understandingofsalvation,conversion,andbaptism.Writinga pieceforTheIndianMissionaryRecordin1939,FatherGuyde BretagneprovidedaviewofCatholicismthatwasrepresentative ofthepositionofthechurchasawhole:“Thereisnofanaticism intheheartofatrueChristianCatholic.Broadmindedness doesnotmeanthathethinksallthereligionsaregood:there isonlyoneGodandoneFaithandoneChurch.”16ForRoman Catholics,salvationcouldonlybeattainedthroughthechurch andthesacramentswhichintegratedthenewlyinitiatedinto theinstitutionanditsstructure.Clergyandhierarchythuslay attheheartofmissionwork.Conversioninvolvedarejectionof customsthatrancontrarytochurchdoctrine,andachangeof heartandbelief.Originalsincouldbetranscendedonlythrough theconversionoftheindividualwho,throughbaptism,joinedthe CatholicChurch,whichwassanctionedthroughtheredemptive bloodofChristtoprovidethemechanismforsalvation:
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Christ,thesolerepairerofheavenandearth,unitesHimself withtheChurchintheunityofthesamebodyfortheworkof Redemption.TheChurch…integratesChrist,priestandvictim, theentireworld.…ThusthemissionoftheChurchisthatof ChristHimself…shehasthepowerandthedutyofuniversal expansion…thehypothesisandtheoryofmissionrestonthe existenceanduniversalityoforiginalsin.Allmenhavesinnedin Adam,thusdestroyingtheirsupernaturalresemblancetoGod andbecoming…subjecttodeathandeternaldamnation.Itis impossibleformantoescapethisstatethroughhisownstrength andmeans.ButGodprovidesforthispowerlessness.Inan excessofloveandmercy,HegavehimaRedeemer…theplanof Redemptionis…thesalvationofallmenthroughChrist.17
ForCatholicsaswellasProtestants,conversionwasexpectedto producecompletechange.InthewordsofFatherdeBretagne,the Truth“willbathetheirlifeinanewlight,andmakethempartakers ofthedivinegifts,andlivealifehonest,pureandbeautiful.”18 RomanCatholicsbelievedthatinspirationforconversionand baptismcouldcomefromGod,fromMaryorfromthesaints. Tothisend,thedistributionofamuletsormedalsinthemission fieldswascommon.Reportingon“TheConversionofanIndian,” FatherFrançoisPoulinattributedhissuccessinthiscasetoMary. HehadbeenworkingwithanIndianforsometime,askinghim to“choosetherightpathandbecomebaptized”buttonoavail. Thenonenight,afterapowerfuldream,theIndianapproached thepriest,askingtobebaptized.Poulinpuzzledforsometime overthechange,finallyconcludingthatit“isbecausetheBlessed VirginMarywantedtoprove…evenbymeansofavision,[that] anysoultrustinginherhelpwillnotbeforsaken.Ihadpreviously givenhimamiraculousmedaloftheBlessedVirginMaryand confidedhimtoourMother’scare.Shedidtherest.”19 CatholicandProtestantspokesmenoftenexpressedmutual contemptanddistrust.Forexample,in1948JosephEtienne Champagne,writingoutoftheCanadianCatholicmission experienceoftheprevioushalfcentury,listedlackofstability,
Catholic-ProtestantEncountersontheMissionField
lackofunity,andconfusionofdoctrinesastheweaknesses inherentinProtestanttheology.AsforwhathecalledProtestant psychology,Protestantswerefundamentallyweakenedbytheir senseofindividualismwhich“rejects‘authority’…asa‘support’ anda‘guide.’Deprivedofthis…theyfindthemselvesalone.” 20 Thissolitude,hewrote,generatedreligiousanxietyanddistress, emptinessofsoul,anddepressionwhichwasaggravatedby “thepollutionofcontradictoryreligiousopinions.” 21Italso created“agreatdangerofbecomingimmersedinsubjectivism …neverforgetthat[aProtestant]lackstheunfailingmagistery andeffectiveexopereoperatoofthesacraments.” 22Concluded Champagne, Protestanttheologyhasnosystem.Thewhole“credo”isdrawn upon…intimate,personalintercoursewiththeHolySpiritof privateinspiration.ThefoundationofProtestantreligiosity…lives onthisnon-dogmaticandconsequentlypurelypsychologicaland humanitarianmysticism…a…fanaticformalismseekstomake upforthedogmaticvoid.23
FatherGuydeBretagnealsowrotecriticallyofProtestantism asa“deliquescent,creedless,codelessmodernism[with]no supernaturalandunique‘authority.’”Itwould,thus,neverholdup overtime.24 WritingofdenominationalrivalrybetweenProtestantsand Catholicsinthelastcentury,J.R.MillerconcludesthatCatholics sawCatholicismasembodyingtheonetruechurchandviewed Protestantismas,atbest,apoorlyrefinedreligion–andatworst, heresy.Quebecultramontanism,hesays,wasthemainbastionof thisoutlookthatinfiltratedprairieCatholicismduringthe1880s and1890s.25AsChampagnewroteinhisManualofMissionary Action: WhenwespeakofCatholicmissionsandProtestantmissions,we speakoftwototallydifferentthings…
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.…Properlyspeaking,theonlyChristianmissionariesarethe Catholicmissionaries,becauseChristhasgiventhemissionary mandateonlytotheCatholicChurch.…[Protestantmissionaries are]missionariesofahumansocietyofachurchwhichisnotthe ChurchofChrist.26
Protestantschafedagainstthisarroganceandbecameembroiled inthe“PapalAggression”controversywhich“conditionedthemto regardRome’srepresentativeswithsuspicionatthebestoftimes andactivehostilityattheworst.”27Allnon-Catholicbodiesatthis timesharedanimositytowardsCatholicism. Certainly,Protestantswereguiltyofthesamearrogance concerningthesuperiorityoftheirreligion.In1918,Methodist missionaryPercyE.JoneswroteanitemfortheMissionary Bulletinentitled,“OurWorkWiththeIndiansatBerensRiver.”A RomanCatholicOjibwawomantoldthemissionarythatJesushad visitedheratherbedsideduringthenight.AccordingtoJones, Christsaidtoher,“YouseetwochurcheshereatBerensRiver,the CatholicandtheMethodist;oneteachesthatwhichisright,the otherdoesnot…gotoyourCatholicfriendsandtellthemthat theymustgototheMethodistChurchtohearthegospel…for thereitispreachedright.” 28Whilethetrulyinterestingthinghere isJesusappearingtothiswomaninadream,Jonescrowedloudly aboutChrist’svalidationofthetruth–thattheMethodistswere superiortotheCatholics. Ill-willbetweenCatholicsandProtestantshadbeengenerated inthe1880sand1890sthroughargumentsoverseparateschools westoftheOttawaRiver;the1888JesuitsEstatesAct;the foundingoftheEqualRightsAssociationandtheProtestants ProtectionAssociation;andaccusationsofclericalinterferencein politics.Suchanimosityembitteredrelationsinthemissionfield. Catholicsinthediocesesofthenorthwest,whichincluded theBerensRiverarea,expressedsomeofthemostnegativeviews regardingProtestant-Catholiccoexistence.Protestantmissions therewerewell-organizedby1900,andfrictionbetweenFrench- andEnglish-speakingsettlersaddedtotheproblems.Protestants
Catholic-ProtestantEncountersontheMissionField
receivedsubstantialfinancialbackingfrombiblesocieties,eastern Canadians,theMethodistBureau,andtheChurchMissionary Society,whileCatholicsdidnothavethiswiderangeofsupport. TheOblateswereangrywithfederalandlocalgovernmentsfor showingbiastowardsProtestantsincompetitionforjobsinthe DepartmentofIndianAffairs.Protestantemployees,theysaid, purposelyworkedtospreadProtestantismonreservesintheir capacitiesasIndianagents.29 InBerensRiver,CatholicandProtestantmissionariesdidnot getalongwellontheologicalmatters.PercyBerens,sonofChief WilliamBerensrememberedwithhumourtherockyrelationship thatexistedbetweenRev.JohnNiddrieandFatherJosephDe GrandpréatBerensRiver. P.B. FatherDeGrandpréwasthepriest’sname,andNiddriewas theUnitedChurchminister–andtheyusedtofightjust likeacatandadog[laughter]!Really…I’mtellingyouthe truth! S.G. Whatwouldtheyfightabout? P.B. Theirreligion.Niddriethoughthisreligionwasbetterthan FatherDeGrandpré’sreligion[laughter].Sure!Theyfought justlikeacatandadog. S.G. Didthepeople[inthecommunity]getinvolvedinthe fighting? P.B. No,justthemtwo,thepriestandthemissionary. S.G. Yelling? P.B. No–they’djustsendnotes,theyhadmessengers[laughter]. FatherDeGrandpréwouldsendamessengertogoand givethatnotetoNiddrie[morelaughter].Yeah,theynever contactedeachothertotalkbusiness,like,youknow–no, theyjustsentnotes–Niddriewouldanswerthenotefrom FatherDeGrandpré[laughter]. P.B. [Niddrie]wastoogenerous,IguessIhavetousethat word–toogeneroustothepeople,totheUnitedChurch members.ButitwasdifferentwiththeCatholics,hedidn’t havenothingtodowiththeCatholics.
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S.G. WhatabouttheCatholics?DidtheCatholic[clergy]only givetotheCatholics? P.B. No. S.G. Theygavetoeverybody? P.B. Uh-huh[yes].30
FredBaptistehadsimilarmemories. S.G. Youknow,PercyBerenstoldmethatFatherDeGrandpré andNiddrieusedtogetintofights. F.B. Theydidn’tgetalongsogoodthemtwo[laughter]!You know,thisFatherDeGrandpréwantedtochangesomeof thepeopletobeaCatholic,like. S.G. HewantedtoconverttheMethodists? F.B. Yes,yes!Andsotheydidn’tgetalongtoogood.After theybothdied,everyonegotalongfine–everyoneof them.There’sonethingIcansayaboutMr.Niddrie;when somebodydiedfromtheRomanCatholicmission,they’d takethebodytothechurchandhe’dringthebellwhenhe seenthisbodygoingby–hewas,like,sayinggoodbye,eh?31
VirginiaBoulangeralsorememberedthatalthoughCatholicand Protestantmembersofthecommunitygotalongwell,Niddrie andDeGrandpréwereconstantlyfighting.Althoughshenever understoodthedetailsofthebattlesorexactlywhythetwodid notgetalong,sherecalledthetwoclergymenbeinginheated competitionforchurchmembers. 32 Methodistrecordscontainsomeextremelyagitatedresponses toproposedCatholicmissionsencroachingontheirterritory.On 17August1911,forexample,Rev.JosephLoweswrotetoT.E. EgertonShore,generalsecretaryoftheForeignDepartmentofthe MethodistMissionSociety,abouttheCatholicmissionatBerens River: IamverymuchafraidthattheRomanCatholicsaregoingtobest ushere.Theyaregoingtobuildanewchurchherethisfall,at
Catholic-ProtestantEncountersontheMissionField
leastsoIamtold.Twopriestsareexpected,onetostayrighthere [BrotherLeach]andtheothertovisitabout[FatherDeGrandpré] andbothtoproselytizeasmuchaspossiblethenpressfora BoardingSchooloftheirownatBerensRiver.Theyuseallsortsof underhandmethodsandmeans.PerhapsIdotakethistohearttoo muchbutIdofeelverybadlyaboutit.33
TheprospectofanewCatholicboardingschoolatCrossLake promptedasimilarlettertoShorefromMethodistmissionaryS.D. Gaudin. [ShouldtheCatholicsbuildaboardingschool]ourchurchwill haveaverypoorchanceatCrossLake.Withthingsevenasthey areatpresent,withonlyonepriestonthegroundwearehavinga hardbattletoanythinglikeholdourownbutwhatitwillbewith theaddedprestigewhichaboardingschoolwillgivethemwith priests,BrothersandSistersgalore.Youcanhardlyimaginehow theCatholicreligionappealstotheIndiannorhowtheIndiansof thatfaithareseekingtowinovertheirProtestantfriends.34
TheCatholicswereequallynegativeintheircorrespondence andprivatepapersabouttheProtestants.Sometimesthiswas revealedfairlysubtly.InMarch1927,BrotherLeachandMethodist laymissionaryJohnJamesEverettwerebothcalledtoGeorge Boucher’shometovisitGeorge’sdyingeleven-year-olddaughter, Elizabeth.LeachwascriticalofhisMethodistcounterpart.“Saw thelittlegirlandtoldthem[herparents]theonlythingwasprayer. Shediedwithinanhour.…ThankGodIamaCatholic.Ashort fewlinesoftheBible,ashortprayerwasall[fromEverett].Nota wordaboutGodtothechild.NonamesofJesusandMaryonher lips.”35 On23December1928,LeachandtheMethodistsfound themselvestogetheragain,thistimehelpingasickbabyatJoe Boucher’shome.Thenextday,however,Leachwrotecriticallyof theMethodists’participationintheincident:“SawJoeBoucher’s baby.Someone[obviouslytheMethodists]gaveitAspirin.Mrs.
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Street[theMethodistschoolteacher’swife]givessomeother dope,followingmyusualrule[I]willnotgiveanythingtobe takeninternal.Itisgoingfast.” 36 Sometimessharpconflictsflared,especiallyoverchildren.In January1919,LeachwrotetohissuperiorsinSt.Boniface,saying thathemayhave“gainedavictoryovertheProtestantminister.” CubbyGreenwasanOjibwaMethodistmanlivingatBerens River.Hiswifehaddiedandheapparentlyrelinquishedcontrol ofhistwoProtestantdaughters,Alma(whowassubsequently adoptedbyaCatholicwomannamedSarahShaw)andSophia (whowasadoptedbyMargeuriteMcKay,alsoaCatholic).The girlswerebaptizedintheCatholicChurchinNovember1913. In1918,Rev.PercyE.Joneswasapparentlyworkingtohavethe girlstakenawayfromtheiradoptiveCatholicparentsandsent totheProtestantschoolatNorwayHouse.AccordingtoLeach: “theministercamewhileIwasawayforafewminutes,tookthe childrenandhidthemuntiltheboatcameandplacedtheminthe Captain’scharge.Inearlyhadafightwiththeministerforhewas mostinsulting.” 37ThegirlsdidgotoNorwayHouse,however,and amajorbattleensued.LeachwrotetohissuperiorsinSt.Boniface that“Mr.Jonesthoughthehaduscorneredbecausehemadeone oftheguardianssignapaperreleasingthechildren…sayingthat ifshedidn’tsignhewouldexposeher(shewaswithchildthrough anothermannotherhusband).”LeachappealedtoIndianAgent Carterwho,on28September,orderedthatthegirlsbereturned totheirguardiansandattendtheCatholicschoolatBerens River.CarteralsowrotetoIndianAffairsministerD.C.Scott inOttawarecommendingthegirls’releasefromNorwayHouse. Ottawaacquiesced. 38 Leach’slettersrecordedotherstruggleswiththeProtestants overchildren.Inthesummerof1919,forexample,hewrote angrily: Theywishtotakeanotherchildfromus.NameAlfredBerens, protestantMother,Catholicfatherdead.Motherhasgivenusa writingrequestwantingherboytocomeovertoourschool.He
Catholic-ProtestantEncountersontheMissionField
hasbeenatthisschooloneyear.Herefusestobebaptizedat presentasallhisrelationsthreatenedhimwithbodilyinjuryifhe becameCatholic.Hismotherwantshimtobebaptised. 39
InJuly1919: Myattendance[atthedayschool]isverygood.Iamnotgoingto sayitiseasyworktokeepthechildrenregular.Itisveryhardwork indeed.TheProtestantministeristryinghisbesttogetusoutof here,andheisgettingverypowerfulsupportfromtheMethodist Society.Childrenwillbechildrenandafewofourmembersfindit hardtounderstandwhytheministerfeedsandclotheshischildren andwecan’t.40
Hewasstillwritinginthisveinadecadelater: TheMethodistshaveconcentratedtheirforcesthisyear[1929].… Theycannotgetthechildrenbyordinarymeanssoareusingrather foulmeans.Lastfall,over30balesofusedclothingweresent out.AnyIndianwishingtogetsomemustattendtheProtestant ChurchorSchool.WehadourschoolregisterCatholicchildren whoseparents,practicallyspeaking,hadnoreligion.These parentsareofferedclothingbytheMethodistsandinconsequence changedtheirchildrenfromourschooltotheother.Inowhere [sic]thatthechildrenareProtestant.41
Catholics,however,werenotalwaysthelosers.In1928,Leach wrotetoFatherJosephatMagnan,hisprovincial,that“The Methodistshavegivenusverykeencompetitionandarebyno meanspleasedasIhavetakenaway4oftheirbestpupils.Ihave everyrighttodosoasthesechildrenareCatholics.”42 Eachsidewasclearlywillingtousealmostanymeansto outdotheother.On22August1919LeachwrotetotheOblate headquartersinSt.Bonifacethathehadaskedtheprovincial governmentforanallowanceofonehundreddollarsayearfor teachingnon-treatychildren,andthatDeputyMinisterR.
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Fletcherhadgrantedtherequest.WroteLeach:“Bytheletteryou willseethatheknowsnothingabouttheMethodistschoolandI supposeitisnotnecessaryformetotellhimabouttheotherNonTreatychildrenwhogothere.Infactunlessyouthinknecessary otherwiseIamkeepingitquietfromall.”43 IfProtestantsworriedaboutbeingbestedbytheCatholics, CatholicshadthesamefearsabouttheirProtestantcompetition. WroteasomewhatwistfulLeachtoSt.Bonifaceon4January 1926: Allkindsoftricksareused[bytheMethodiststoattractchildren totheirschool],thechiefattractionbeingquantitiesofclothing givenfreetoparentsandchildren…thechildrenarebought.It isthelackofspiritualfaithwhichdoessomuchharm.Ioften wonderhowtheProtestantministerhassuchaholdoverhis people.Thereareseveralbelongingtohischurchlivingclosetous andregularlyyouwillseethempassingourgateonSundaytogo tochurchadistanceofoverthreemiles.NotonlythatbutIhave oftenseenourownCatholicscomingoutoftheMethodistChurch onaSundayafternoonandtheynumbernotafew.Why?Isit becausetheserviceismorepopular,moreattractive?44
Itisnecessarytoreadthesesourcescritically.Catholicand Protestantmissionariesinthefield,whenwritinglettersto theirsuperiorsathome,oftenemphasizedtheworstaspectsof agivensituation.Thismayhavebeenawayofsolicitingmoral orfinancialsupportorofmakingsurethatpeopleathome graspedsomeideaofthehardshipsoflivinginaremotenorthern community.Overstatementandsomeselectionofdataserveda tacticalpurpose.RobertChoquettebelievesthatarealdifference existedbetweenthebusinesswritingsoffieldmissionariesand theiractuallifeexperiences.Hegoessofarastosaythatthe differencebetweenwritingsandactuallifemakemissionaries look“schizophrenic”–apsychologistwouldhavea“fieldday.” Choquetteisspeakingwithsomehumourhere;neverthelessthe pointmeritsseriousconsideration.45
Catholic-ProtestantEncountersontheMissionField
Onemustnotgeneralizetoomuchintheinterpretationof Catholic-Protestantrelations.Uniqueandcomplexsituations resultedwhendiverseindividualsenteredmissionfields.46As RobertChoquettesays,thewiderangeoftheologicaltenets withinProtestantismmakestoomuchgeneralizationaboutthe feelingsandreactionsofclergydangerous(althoughwithin Methodismthiswiderangewasdrasticallynarrowed,tobesure). RelationsbetweenCatholicsandProtestantsduringthelatter halfofthenineteenthcenturycommonlyexhibitedmistrust, rivalry,andanimosity.Yetnotallpriestsandministersfeltthis way–nordidtheirconverts.Someclergyandlaypeople,infact, “managedtoovercometheirprejudicesanddevelopconstructive andcharitablerelationshipswithpeopleoftheothercamp.”47 InherstudyofnineteenthcenturymissionstotheDene,Kerry Abelconcludedthat,althoughhistorianshavelonggiventhe impressionthatCatholicandProtestantmissionarieswere foreveratoneanother’sthroatsinherregionofstudy,therewas noevidenceofconflictbetweenthetwogroups.Anycontests forinfluenceandpoweramongtheDenehadalwaysoccurred betweenshamans.48InChoquette’swords,“Protestant-Catholic relationscouldbecomplex,noteasilyreducedtosimpleformulae. Thesamepeoplewhohurledideologicalandtheologicalmissiles ateachotheronedaycouldendupembracingeachotheronthe next.”49 InBerensRiver,hardtimesorsharedinterestscouldcreate unionsbetweenCatholicsandProtestants.Inanearlierchapter, thehungeroftheBerensRiverOjibwainthewinterof1930was discussed.BrotherLeach,Rev.Niddrie,andtheIndianagent unitedinthefaceofthiscrisistopersuadeChiefWilliamBerens totakemorerationsforhisband.Whenneedarose,Leachand Niddriewereabletoworkinconcert. 50 Thewinterof1931inLittleGrandRapidspresentsanother anexampleofthebittercoldofwintergeneratingwarmthamong missionaries.LutherSchuetzewroteinhismemoirsaboutthe scarcityoffood,theprevalenceofillness,andthemanydeaths. HehadheardthatBonifaceGuimond,theRomanCatholic
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missionary-teacher,washavingaparticularlyhardtimemaking endsmeet.Oneday,GuimondpassedbySchuetze’shomeonhis wayhomefromthestore.AsSchuetzerecalled:“Hiseyeslooked veryhungrywhenhesaid,‘My,youhavealotofnicefish.’[Igave himastickoftenwhitefish.]…hewasovercomeandfinally stuttered‘Mr.LutherI’llpraythatyouwillbeaSaintinheaven.’ Ireplied,‘Notyet,I’dliketostickaroundalittlelonger.’” 51 Differentmissionariesalsoevokeddifferentresponsesfrom communities.Inthe1950s,theteacheratLittleGrandRapids wrotetoLutherSchuetzeaskinghimaboutthemethodshehad usedinhisworkamongthepeople.Shewasnotachievingsuccess atteachingEnglish,andtheonlyOjibwaonthereservewhocould speakthislanguageweretheonesSchuetzehadtaught.Schuetze answeredthathehadcombinedasincereloveforthechildrenand communitywiththefactthathe,unlikethosewhohadpreceded him,hadstayedinthemissionlongenoughtobeeffective.He andhiswifehadmadetheirownpaddlesandsnowshoesandso earnedtheOjibwas’respect.Hiswordsaresimple,respectful, andafarcryfromthepompous,condescendingtoneofothers: “Somehowtheysensedthatweknewwhatweweretalkingabout fortheseSaulteauxNativesoftendescribedbywritersasblack heartedandstiffneckedpeople,werenotsoatall,whenyougot toknowthemyoufoundthemtobekindheartedandgenerous, whowoulddoanythingforyou.” 52 Finally,despitetypicalChristiandualismandevangelical concernsthatsawnativereligionintheoppositionaltermsof SatanagainstChrist,somemissionariesinthefieldactually learnedtobendalittlesometimes.LutherSchuetze,forexample, changedhisattitudetowardthedrumdance,whileF.G.Stevens, anotherMethodistmissionaryworkinginthenorthernManitoba field,remainedhostiletowardthepractice,whichhedenounced asevilwithoutsomuchasmakingapassingstudyofitsreal elements.53SchuetzesaidthatwhenhefirstarrivedatLittle GrandRapids,hefeltthesamewayasthemissionarywhohad precededhim,“whosawinthedrumdancessomethingpagan thathadtobedoneawaywith.”Hethustook“forcibleaction
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andkickedthedruminandsaiditwasofthedevil.”But,in thewinterof1931,therewasmuchillnessandmanydeathsin thecommunity.Schuetzeconcludedthatmuchoftheproblem stemmedfromthe“moderndances”thathadbeguntobeheldin peoples’homes.Participantsbecameoverheatedandthenchilled inthenightair.Hewrote: LaterwhenIbecameaccustomedtoitIstillmoreorlesstalked againsttheseseeminglypagandances.…ButnowIusedallmeans tostopthesemoderndancesinsmallcrowdedhouses,forIsawthe eviltheycaused,andsincetheDrumDancewasalwaysoutsidein theopen,Iwasallforthem,iftheyweredoneinathankfulmood ofhappinessandsoIencouragedthemtogobacktotheirDrum Dances.54
AndsoCatholicsandProtestantsworkedon,ever-conscious ofthemselvesasbeingpartsofagreaterwhole.Protestants endeavouredtoevangelizeandcreatetheKingdomofGodon earth.Catholicsweremotivatedbytheirdesirefortheunityand universalityoftheCatholicreligion.Whilethemissionfieldoften existedasabattlegroundbetweencompetingdenominations, underlyingkinshipwithinthehumanracecould,underthe rightcircumstances,prodwarringmissionariesintotruceand cooperation.FrederickLeachandJohnNiddriearerememberedin BerensRiverwithwarmthandagentlehumour.Bothmissionaries chosetoremainamongtheOjibwa;LeachretiringtoWinnipegat theendofhislifeandNiddrielivingouthisdaysatBerensRiver. Forthepeopleofthecommunity,perhapstheologicalbattleswere notveryimportanttoachievingsuccessinthemissionfield.More importantwasthemissionaries’willingnesstobendtoNativeways (ifnottothewaysofeachother!).
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Myreligiousbackgroundreallydidshapealmosteverything.It gavemethemythologicalframeworkIwasbroughtupinsideof, andIknowfromexperiencethatonceyou’reinsideamythological frameworkyoucan’tbreakoutsideofit.Youcanalteroradaptit toyourself,butit’salwaysthere.(NorthropFrye) 1
WhenAnnFienup-Riordanstudiedtheencounterbetweenthe Yup’ikEskimoofwesternAlaskaandJohnandEdithKilbuck,two Moravianmissionaries,shetracedalongprocessofnegotiationin whichtheYup’ikeventuallyinternalizedmanyChristianconcepts without,however,surrenderingtheirculturalintegrity.2Similarly, thehistoryofencountersbetweentheOjibwapeopleandChristian missionariesbetween1875and1916yieldsarichstoryinwhich Indianstookaleadingroleindeterminingtheirreligiouscourses ofactionandshapingthoseideasthattheychosetoacceptand integrateintotheirworldview. MethodistmissionaryFrederickG.Stevensandhiswife, Frances,documentedencountersthatshowjustsuchnative controlovertheirreligiousdecision-making.In1901,they encounteredtheNorthernOjibwaSuckerandCraneIndians whiletheyweretravellingfromOxfordHousetoIslandLake. TheCranes,Franceswrote,“wereanxioustohearmoreofthe Gospel.”TheSuckers,however,“weremoreorlessindifferent andclungstubbornlyontooldideas.” 3AccordingtoFrances,both
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bandswerepractisingpolygamyandtheStevensesused“wisdom anddiplomacy”todealwiththesituation. TheCranesfeltthattheyshouldtakeonanewwayoflifeand readilybegantomakethedrasticchange.Theyoungestwifewas invariablychosenandthatmeantthatmanyformerwiveshadtobe lookedafter.Thiswasagreedto.TheSuckerbandwasindifferent andclungstubbornlytotheirlifeasitwas.Oureffortsmetwith somesuccessbutenthusiasmforthenewlifewasconspicuousby itsabsence.4
F.G.Stevenscontinuedthestory.In1907,thechiefofthe Suckerclan,JackFiddler,andhisbrotherwerechargedwiththe murderofawomanwhohadbecomea“windigo”or,inOjibwa thinking,acannibalmonster.5JackFiddlerhangedhimselfwhile ontrialatNorwayHouseandhisbrotherdiedinStonyMountain Penitentiary.AccordingtoStevens,“whenthishappened,the Suckersrealizedwhatpaganismhaddonetothemanddecidedto becomeChristians.”6AdamFiddler,alreadyaChristian,offeredto teachhispeoplewhathecould,andthecommunitysentwordto NorwayHouseandBerensRiver,askingforanannualvisitfroman ordainedmissionaryandofferingtoconveyhimfromandtoBerens Riverfreeofcharge.Unfortunately,nomissionarytookonthejob. In1910,someoftheSandyLakerswhohadcomeundertreaty movedtoDeerLake.Itwasnotuntil1913,however,thatStevens venturedtothesepeopleand,onhisarrival,foundawarmly welcomingbutfrustratedgroup.“Theirchurchwastherebut, tiredofthelongwaiting,thoseinclinedtopaganismhadputup the‘longtent’and…said,‘Ifthemissionarydoesnotcomesoon, wewillbegindrummingagain.’”7WhenStevensleft,thechief toldhim“Myexperiencehastaughtmethatallmenareliars, especiallymissionaries.Weseeyounow.Yousayyouwillcome againnextyear–wearenotsure.Ifyoucomeagainnextyear,we willaccepttheSacramentsoftheChurch.” 8 AlongtheBerensRiver,Ojibwalikewisemaintainedcontrol overtheirreligiouslife.In1854,Rev.JohnRyersonstoppedat
Encounters,1875 –1916
BerensRiveronhiswaytoNorwayHouse.Atthattime,although theHudson’sBayCompanyfactortoldhimthattheIndians therewantedamissionary,hisinteractionwiththemwasnotso encouraging. 9TheOjibwalikelyresistedRyersonbecausethey hadnointerestineitherthemanorhisideas.ItwasJacobBerens who,in1861,becamethefirstBerensRiverSaulteauxtoconvert. InspeculatingonthepossiblereasonsforBerens’sconversion, JenniferS.H.Brownsurmisesthattheexperiencecouldwellhave beenaquestfornewpowers.Aswell,JacobwantedtowedMary McKay,aChristianwoman.Hisreligiousstatusmaywellhave beenaprerequisiteasfarasMary’sparentswereconcerned.10 HisbaptismandensuingconversionmadetheMethodists optimistic.Then,in1871,Rev.EgertonRyersonYoungwas approachedathisNorwayHousemissionbyagroupofSaulteaux fromuptheBerensRiver.ThesemenaskedYoungtovisitand, in1874,aftersomepreliminarygroundworkwaslaidbyhis assistant,TimothyBear,Youngopenedamissionatthemouth oftheriver.FromtherehealsomadetripstotheLittleGrand Rapidsarea.AsBrownexplains,Young’svisits“andthoseof upriverpeopletohismissionwerethefirstinalongchainof encountersbetweenmissionariesandtheupperriverOjibwa, withresultsthatranthegamutfromconfrontationandavoidance todialogueandconversionorcreativesyncretism.”11 JacobBerensandhiswife,Mary,aneducatedmixed-blood woman,encouragedtheirchildrentowelcometechnologicaland socialchange.12Thisflexibleattitudeenabledhisson,William,to choosehisownideasandpathwaysthroughouthislifetime.Asa youngmanfromaMethodistfamily,Williamchosenottoseek outandtaketraditionalOjibwasacredpower;hedidnotembark onavisionquestthatwouldhaveenabledhimtoconnectwith hispawáganak.However,suchknowledgewasapartofhisworld viewandWilliamalwaysbelievedthathecouldhaveaccessto thatrouteofpowerifeverhechosetoseekitout.Brownwrote thatWilliamBerens
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wasnotapristineaboriginalOjibwafromastatic,unchanged Saulteauxcommunity.Hewastheproductofseveralcenturiesof culturalchangeandadaptation…despitehislife-longinvolvement withthingsandwaysAnglo-Canadian,helivedlargelywithan innerOjibwaworldview,sensitizedtoOjibwaviewsofsacred powerandwell-being,committedtofundamentalOjibwanorms andstylesinpersonalrelationsandinteraction.13
WiththesigningofTreaty5in1875,JacobBerensenteredinto aneraofintimateinteractionswithgovernmentandmissionaries. JustasthechiefwelcomedEuro-Canadianchange,however,his Methodismdidnotcausehimtodissociatehimselforhisfamilyin anywayfromhisfellowOjibwawhopractisedtraditionalreligion. Hischildrenparticipatedin“bothMethodistobservancesandin Ojibwareligiouseventsthatleftlastingimpressions.”14 AnexampleofhisabilitytobridgeOjibwaandCanadian worldsoccurredinNovember1876.ThreeBerensRivermen killedtheirmotherintheirwintercampbecausetheywere afraidshewasbecomingawindigo.Atthehearingconductedby RoderickRoss,theHudson’sBayCompanyfactorandjusticeof thepeacefortheKewatinDistrict,Jacobpleadedforthesons. Heexplainedtheboysbelievedthat,bykillingthewindigo, theywouldactuallybesavinglivesinthelongrunandthat thoseOjibwadidnotyetunderstandChristianways.Inaletter toAlexanderMorris,Rosswrotethat“Thereisagooddealof excitementhereamongtheIndiansatBerensRiver…aboutthe probablepunishmentofthepartiesimplicatedinthemurder.… [They]areopposedtoanyfurtheractionsinthecase.”15The chargeswereultimatelydropped. TheOjibwaatBerensRiverhavealonghistoryofparticipating activelyinmissionandgovernmentlifeintheircommunity. TheirreactionstotheMethodistdayschoolinthe1880sprovide examples.In1880,theMethodistssentWilliamHopetoteach atBerensRiver;theyoungmanhadreceivedaliberaleducation atSt.John’sCollegeinWinnipegbutheldnoprovincialteaching certificate.EbenezerE.McColl,inspectorofIndianagencies,
Encounters,1875 –1916
wroteascathingreporttotheDepartmentofIndianAffairsfor theyearending31December1881.“Thewholebandcomplains oftheinefficiencyoftheMissionschoolandaskforaGovernment school.Thechief[JacobBerens]statedthathevaluedhisreligion andlovedhisminister,butthatheneverknewofaninstance whereanyofhispeoplewereeducatedattheMissionschools, asonlythemostinferiorteacherswereinvariablyemployed.”16 McColl’sreportforthenextyearshowedthatthesituationwas nobetterandcommunitymembersweretakingmattersintotheir ownhands.Mr.Hope’sschoolwasnotprogressingwellandthe attendancewasverypoor.TheOjibwaatBerensRiverplaced enoughvalueonprovidingeducationfortheirchildrentobecome activelyinvolved;inthiscasethevalueofagoodeducation wonoutoverloyaltytotheMethodistmissionary.Thepeople, explainedMcColl,“startedtobuildaschoolhouseoftheir ownlastwinter,butwerepreventedbyanepidemicbreaking outamongthem…buttheyintendonfinishingitassoonas possible.”17 Itseemsthatamajordisagreementoccurredinthecommunity in1884overthewholedayschoolissue:shouldthenew buildingbeagovernmentoraMethodistschool?Initiallyboth agovernmentandaMethodistschoolbeganoperationsin1885. AgentAngusMacKayreportedtothedepartmentthatMiss JaneFletthadbeenrecentlyappointedbythegovernmentto teachinthenewlyappointedgovernmentIndianSchool;she hadforty-fournamesonherroll.WroteMacKay:“nowthatthe bandhavegotwhattheylongaskedfor–ateacherappointed bythegovernment,whocanspeakIndianaswellastheEnglish language,andtheschoolissolelyunderthesupervisionand controloftheDepartment…therewillbeachangeforthe better.”18OftheMethodistschool,however,hewrote: Thebanddisagreedanddividedinopinionandabitterfeeling aroseamongstthemonthequestionofgivingconsenttogrant apieceoflandinthecentreofthereservetotheMethodist MissionarySociety,andoneofthereasons…wasonaccount
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oftheschool.Theysaidtheydidnotwantittobeunderthe managementofthemission,andtheyfearedthataneffort wouldbemadetogetcontroloftheschoolifthey…established themselvesontheschoolsite…they[objectedto]theschool beingunderthemanagementofanysociety…otherthanthe Department.19
EbenezerMcColl’s1884reporttothedepartmentasinspectorof theManitobasuperintendencyshedmorelightonthedynamicsof themeeting.Hewrote: Inaccordancewiththeinstructionsreceivedfromthe Department,IsummonedameetingoftheIndianstoascertain ifthemajorityofthemarefavorabletosurrenderingtothe MethodistMissionthegroundwithintheReservewhereon theirpresentbuildingsaresituated.Mr.AgentMacKayandthe ReverendsMessers.RossandParkinsontogetherwiththeChief andCouncillorsandalltheresidentmemberswerepresent.After anexhaustivediscussion…adecision…infavorofgrantingthe requestoftheMission[wasmade]byatwothirdvote.20
Ayearlater,AngusMacKaytoldMcCollinaletterdated25March 1885thatthemissionschool,taughtbyMissGussieParkinson, was“poorlyattendedbecauseparentswantagovernmentschool instead.”Seventreatychildren(threebeingthechief’schildren) andtwonon-treatychildrenwereinattendance.Williamandhis brotherJacob,agedaboutfifteenandseventeen,wereamongthe studentsandMacKayremarkedthatthetwowroteandspelled verybadly.21Thegovernmentschoolhadobviouslyclosedwiththe continuationoftheMethodistschoolandparentswerestillnot onlydissatisfiedbutwerelookingforotheroptions.On25April 1885,MacKaywrotetoMcColl,saying: AftertheclosingoftheGovernmentSchoolinBerensRiver,Miss Flettopenedaprivateschoolattherequestofthepeopleofthe Hudson’sBayCompanyPost,forthebenefitofsomeWhiteand
Encounters,1875 –1916
Treatychildrenofmenbelongingtotheestablishment.Manyof theIndiansaskedforpermissiontosendtheirchildrentherealso butMissFlettrefusedthemadmittancelestitmightbesaidthat shewashinderingthemfromattendingtheMissionschool.22
OntheMethodistside,theannualreportofRev.EnosLangford fortheyear1884–85isinteresting.Heexplainedthattherehad beennomissionaryatBerensRiverforthepastfouryearswith theexceptionofoccasionalvisitsfromRev.AndrewW.Rossfrom FisherRiver.TheIndians,hesaid,hadbeenupsetoverthelossof theirmissionary. LastJune[I]wasappointedtotakechargeofthefield.We werewelcomedbytheIndians,whosaidtheirprayershadbeen answered.Theyappearedreadytocooperatewithus.…Wehad greathopesofasuccessfulyear.Butthroughcounter-influences thepoorIndiansweresadlyperplexedandunnecessarily disturbed.We…hadfullyexpectedtheaid…ofall,Indiansand whites.23
Langford’sphrasethattheIndianshad“appearedreadyto cooperate”isrevealing.ItseemsthatnotalltheIndianshadbeen readytocooperate!Werecommunitymemberstakingavocal, activeroleinasituationthatmeantmuchtothem?Hadthe Methodistssimplyassumedthatthesepeoplewouldwelcomea Protestantschoolwholeheartedlyortakenforgrantedthatany recalcitrantparentscouldbeeasilywonover? TheinterplaybetweenmissionariesandOjibwacommunities alongtheBerensRiverandnativeresponsestoaspectsof Christianitymaybetracedinrecordsofconversionsand baptismsaswellasinevidenceofsurvivalsofOjibwaideasand customs.Someinterestingdynamicsappearinthefluctuationsin MethodistchurchmembershipatBerensRiverandLittleGrand Rapids. ForBerensRiver,thefirstextantstatisticsbeginin1889 duringthetenureofRev.JamesArthurMcLachlan.Hischurch
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membershipincreasedsteadilyandrapidlyfromfifty-eightin 1893toninety-threeby1903.McLachlanwasrespectedinthe communityandlivedatBerensRiverlongenoughtowinthe supportandconfidenceofthepeople.Hislarge,sizzling1897 revivalespeciallyspikedenrolmentbytwenty-five.McLachlan’s tragicdrowningalongwithsixBerensRiverchildrenrockedthe communityin1903. By1909,membershiphaddroppedfromninety-eightto eighty-six.24ThiswasduringthetenureofRev.ArthurE.Okes (1907–1909)andhiswifeJane.Asnotedearlier,theywerenot popularinBerensRiver. MembershiprosesteadilyduringtheministriesofRev.Joseph HenryLowes(1909–1916)andRev.PercyEarlJones(1916– 1921),however.Jones’stenuresawaparticularlyabruptjumpof thirteenmembersin1918.25Thiswastheyearoftheinfluenza epidemicthatkilledmanypeopleinthecommunity;itispossible thatthecrisisspurredsomepeopletowardsconversionand baptism. Membershipcontinuedtograduallyincreasebetween1921 and1928,movingfromeighty-fiveto117membersunderRev. JohnNiddrie’sministry(1921–1938).Aparticularlylargeincrease occurredin1923withaleapoftwenty-fiveconverts. 26Thesame year,thenumberofMethodistfamiliesinBerensRiverincreased fromfifty-onetofifty-seven.Itispossiblethatnewpeoplemoved intothecommunityandwereconvertedbyNiddrie,orthat existingRomanCatholicfamilieschangeddenominations,but therecordsrevealnoexplanationoftherise.Between1928and 1934,Niddrie,itseems,didnotpreservedetailedrecords.His submissionfor1936,however,showsthatthemembershipinhis missionhadrisenfrom117to158. 27Membershipwouldonly increasebytwoby1940. AlthoughMethodiststatisticsforLittleGrandRapidsdonot beginuntil1909,weknowthatRev.McLachlanoccasionally visitedthatcommunityfromBerensRiveruntilhisdeath. WilliamIvensarrivedtoteachtherein1904.28Evidencesuggests thattheOjibwaherewerereceptivetoIvensandinterestedin
Encounters,1875 –1916
education.In1904,S.J.Jackson,inspectorofIndianagencies, reportedfromLittleGrandRapids,“Theactingcouncillorandthe bandareverymuchpleasedattheschoolopeningandwouldlike …tohaveaschoolhousebuilt.” 29 JosephF.WoodsworthreplacedIvensin1908;JosephJones tookoverin1909andwasreplacedbyRev.RoyTaylorwhostayed for1910.Statisticsfor1909submittedbyJonesreflectasudden dropinchurchmembershipwhichfellfromfifty-fourtozero. 30 Somemajoreventmusthavecausedfifty-fourOjibwatoleavethe MethodistchurchandpossiblymadeJonesleavethatcommunity almostimmediatelythereafter.Jones’sbiographiesmakeno mentionofhistenureatLittleGrandRapidsandMethodist recordsaremute.In1905,Rev.ThomasNevillehadreportedthat WilliamIvenswasworking“amongareallypaganpeople.” 31While Ojibwaresistanceclearlyprevailedhere,thepeopleseemtohave alsobeenopentoChristianideassincetherewasasignificant enrolmentinthechurchpriortotheJonesyear. WeknowthatMcLachlan’s1897winterrevivalhadaffected LittleGrandRapids.Inhisannualreportthatyear,themissionary wrote: Lastwinterthismission[BerensRiver]enjoyedagraciousrevival, duringwhichmostofouryoungpeopleprofessedconversionand unitedwiththeChurch.Asaconsequenceourworkhasbeen largelyalongthelineofeducationandconsolidation.…Ivisited the[LittleGrandRapids]Indians.Avolunteerband[group]from BerensRiveraccompaniedmeanddidsplendidwork.…[now thereis]aclassof20memberswherenoneexistedbefore.32
Onepossibleexplanationforthedropinchurchmembershipat LittleGrandRapidsduringJones’stenureliesinthememoirsof LutherSchuetze.Discussinghisowngrowingunderstandingand toleranceofthedrumdancingatLittleGrandRapids,Schuetze mentionedthatinitiallyhe,likeamissionarybeforehim(possibly Jones),hadoriginallybeenveryuncomfortablewiththepractice. Thisformermissionary“sawinthedrumdancessomethingpagan,
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thathadtobedoneawaywith,hetookforcibleactionandkicked thedruminandsaiditwasofthedevil.”Itislikelythatthiskind of“forcibleaction”offendedtheentirecommunityandresultedin theOjibwarejectingthemission. In1911,J.H.Wildingwasinchargeofthemission.Alfred G.Johnsonreplacedhimin1914.Fortheyearsbetween1917 and1923,Methodistrecordsgenerallystated“nativeassistance” intheirreportsforLittleGrandRapids;in1919,however,Mrs. MaryJ.Nanakwapwasnamedasteachingatthedayschool.It ispossiblethatshewasthenativeassistantreferredtobythe Methodists.Nostatisticsarelistedfrom1909to1916when welearnthatapparentlyeightinfantbaptismsoccurredand fivemarriagesweresolemnizedthatyear. 33Itisnotuntil1919 thatweseeanincreasefromzerototwelve,bringingthetotal churchmembershiptotwelve. 34WasMaryNanakwap,anOjibwa woman,responsibleforthesudden1919success? 35Didthethreat ofthe1918influenzaepidemicspursomeChristianconversionsin thiscommunity? Significantly,MethodistchurchmembershipatLittleGrand RapidsroseafterthearrivalofLutherSchuetze.Between1931 and1934,enrolmentsoaredfromtwelveto135. 36By1937,148 Ojibwabelongedtothechurch,andforty-onechildrenwere enrolledintheSundayschool. 37Schuetzewasadedicatedand sinceremanwhospentmanyyearsamongtheOjibwainthis community.Yetitisinterestingthatevenhemadenoincreasein churchmembershipforfiveyears;itlikelytookhimthisamount oftimetoestablishtrustandacceptance. AlongtheBerensRiverbetween1875and1916,wesee acomplexdialoguebetweenmissionariesandOjibwa.Itis important,however,todistinguishbetweensyncretismand situationswhereIndianscarriedoutbothChristianandnonChristianactivitiesintheirdailylives.AsAntonioGualtieri explains,syncretismis“a…radicalformofcultureencounterin whichthetraditionsentailedarefused–eitherdeliberatelyor, moreusuallyunconsciously,overaperiodoftime–intoanovel
Encounters,1875 –1916
emergentwhosemeaningsandsymbolicexpressionsareinsome respectsdifferentfromeitheroftheoriginalsingulartraditions.” 38 Thatnativepeopleacceptedmissionariesandaspects ofChristianityontheirowntermsandattheirownspeed reverberatesthroughthehistoryoftheseencounters.AtBerens RiverandLittleGrandRapidsweseeagrowinginvolvement inChristianityamongthepeopleinthecommunities.Onthe surface,missionaries’reportsseemconfusing;inoneparagraph theylamentthepersistenceofpaganpracticesamongnative peoplesandinanother,oftenwithinthesamedocument,they rejoiceinthetriumphofChristianityoverheathenism.The heartoftheissuewasthatmissionariesexpectedconversionto automaticallyreorientnativepeopletoaEuro-Canadianagrarian andsociallife.Sincethismodelcontainednoframesofreference forthesocialphenomenatheywitnessedalongtheBerens River,theycouldonlyinterpretsuchphenomenaasafailureof conversionandmissionwork. TheessentialpointhereisthattheOjibwahaddifferent responsesatdifferenttimestodifferentmissionaries.Reasons fortheiracceptanceofChristianideasweremany,andoften dependedonlocalcircumstancesorenvironmentalfactors.It waspossibleforagrouporcommunitytorejectamissionaryat onepointandacceptpartsofhismessageonanotheroccasion dependingonlocalchangesoreventsortheextentoftherapport withanindividualmissionary. F.G.Stevens,forexample,wroteofan1898encounterwith theSandyLakeIndianswho“askedmetocomethenextyear …toteachthemtheGospel.”Thesepeopleexpressedgenuine interest,tellinghim:“Oncewemenlistenedtothemissionary [EdwardPaupanikiss]atIslandLakeandweallowedourselves tobebaptizedandreturninghomewefoundwecouldnotstand againsttheoldpeople.SonowwedonotwanttoheartheGospel unlessall…hearitwithus.” 39 Sometimes,nativepeoplehadothermaterialreasonsforbeing receptivetomissionaries.Stevenswroteofan1899encounter withagroupofIndiansatKicheMut-ta-kwum(BigTeepee)who
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werestarving.“Theywereheathenbutlongingtohearmoreof religion.”40Rev.andMrs.Stevensfedthepeople,talkedwiththem andwentontheirway.Shortly,however,themissionarieswere theonestogetintotrouble;ashortageoffoodcausedthemto returntoBigTeepeewheretheyweregratefultogetabitofdried deerblood.“Nextmorning,”wroteStevens,“wetriedtogive themsomereligiousinstructionbutitseemedalmosthopeless.”41 WhentheStevensesnextmettheseIndiansin1900theypressed inaroundthem,hungryandaskingforfoodandtobacco.Once again,theywereinterestedincommunicationandtrade. SuckerclansmanRobertFiddlerprobablyconvertedinthe early1900sbecauseoftreatyinterests.TheIslandLakeIndians hadbeenexperiencingpovertyfromthelate1880sonward, andby1891wereaskingthegovernmentforatreaty,writingto AngusMacKayatBerensRiver.By1909,theopportunityfor negotiationswasnighandRobertFiddler,leaderofthePelican, Sucker,andCraneclansatIslandLake,wasthinkingseriously abouttermsofapossibletreaty. Fiddlerhadanearbrushwithconversionwhileattendinga prayermeetingledbyMethodistmissionary,A.H.Cunningham. HisdescendantThomasFiddlersaysthatRoberthadbeen veryupsetoverBibleversesdiscussingpunishmentforsinners. “Robertamongstothers,”heexplained,“weregreatlyshakenup, camenearacrashbutgotaway.”42AfterwhatThomasFiddler describedas“moreBibleonslaught,”Robertfinallyconverted. Hisconversionledtothesubsequentconversionofhis“warriors” andCunninghamreportedthat“everythingwentfromthereina floodtime,theyflockedinandarounduntilIcouldnotgetaway atnight.”43 Itisinterestingthat,whileThomasFiddlerdescribed Robertas“[breaking]…underthisonslaughtagainstboreal belief,”andsobbing,healsomadeitclearthattheSuckers adoptedChristianityinordertohelpthem“gainsympathywith westernersintheir[theSuckers’]questforsurvival.”44Atleast partofthereasonsforconversionmayhavestemmedfromthese people’swishforatreaty.ThisisnottosaythatRobertFiddler
Encounters,1875 –1916
wasinsincereinhistakingonofMethodism.Itsuggests,however, thatreasonsforconversionamongnorthernManitobaIndians couldbemulti-dimensionalandcomplex. Anotherstorybeautifullyillustratesdifferentresponsesmade bydifferentgroupsofIndians.In1901,Stevensandhiswifewere enroutetoIslandLakefromOxfordHousewhentheymetthe LittleCranegroupwhowereinbadshape;fourhadrecently starvedtodeathandinaseemingresponsetotrauma,“theyall becameChristians.”45AlsopresentweremenfromtheSucker Clanwho,Stevenssaid,deceivedthem,sayingtothemissionaries, “Wearesorrywedidnotknowyouwouldbehereorwewould havebroughtourwomenandchildrenjustliketheCranes.”After theStevensesleft,theyfoundthattheSuckershadhiddentheir womenandchildrenacrosstheportage;inhiswords,“Theydid notwanttobecomeChristians.”46 EpidemicscouldalsospuraleaningtowardChristianityby groupswhobelievedduringatimeofcrisisthattheyneededall thespiritualpowertheycouldget.Inhis1874–75annualreport forBerensRiver,E.R.Youngwrote: Anepidemicthatragedduringthewintermonthshasbeenmade ablessingtosomeofthepeople.TheMissionary,whileactingthe partofadoctor,wasabletorecommendtheGreatPhysician…at atimewhenhearts,evenoftheobstinate…weresusceptibleto religioustruth.Some,alas,…withreturninghealthwentbackto theiroldways,butothershaveremainedtruetotheirvows.47
Andin1894,JamesMcLachlanwrote: Ourpeoplehavepassedthroughfierytrialsthisyearinconnection withthemeaslesepidemic;butGodhasbroughtthemoutwitha deepenedChristianexperience,thatwillbehelpfulinourfuture work.Ithasnotallbeensunshine,however:Therehavebeenmany difficulties.…Evilinfluencesfromwithout[medicinemen?]have beenhardtomeetandhavegreatlyhinderedthework.48
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Conversionstoriesofindividualsalsoshowthatsomegenuinely seemedtohavebeenaffectedbytheChristianmessage.Sandy Hartie,sonofNelsonHousechiefJohnHartie,wasconverted byEgertonRyersonYoungin1871.AccordingtoYoungandto JohnSemmenswholaterencounteredHartie,theyoungmanwas trulyexcitedbytheGospel.Inthiscasealso,however,hehad aneedtotakeonthenewreligion.Accidentallyshotintheleg whilehunting,Hartiewascarriedtohisfather’scampwhere,“his homecomingwas…anunwelcomeone.”49Hisillnesswas,“akeenly feltburdentohisfamily”who,toRev.E.R.Young’ssurprise, broughttheboytoYoung’sRossvillemissionatNorwayHouse. There,theboyreceivednursing,schoolingandChristianeducation. Hartiewasconvertedatanevangelicalmeetingandbecamean enthusiasticMethodist.50 Atthistime,SemmenspassedthroughonhiswaytoNelson Housetobeginthefirstmissionthere;herememberedSandy Hartie’sinvaluablehelpinteachinghimCreeandCreesyllabics. ThetwowenttogethertoNelsonHousewhereHartieworked hardtoroundupthesummerhunters,tellingthemthat,“a teacherhadarrivedwhowouldpreachtothemthetruthfulnessof theGreatSpirit.” 51Manyrespondedbybringingtheircanoesand goingtohearSemmenspreachthanks,inlargepart,totheefforts ofHartie. ConversiontoChristianitydidnotnecessarilygeneratealoss offaithinOjibwareligionandmedicine.WhileJacobBerensdid, onhisconversion,castawayhismedicinessometimeduringhis mid-twenties,hedidnotcastawayhisfaithorbelief.Thisbecame apparentyearslaterwhenhisson,William,hadaseverelyinjured knee.AmedicaldoctorinWinnipegextractedtwograinsofshot andtwopiecesofmetalfromthewound,butthekneerefusedto heal.Themysterywasthattheyoungmanhadneverbeenshotin hislife.JacobcouldnotexplainthistotheWinnipegdoctorand thereforelostnotimeintakingWilliamtoamedicineman–in thiscasehisbrotherAlbert.AlthoughJacobwouldnotperform thecurehimself,hegaveAlberttobaccoforhisservices,saying, “Iknowyouareprettygood…butI’lltellyouwhatmedicine
Encounters,1875 –1916
touse.” 52Jacob,however,wasabletoclearlyexplainthecauseto hisminister,tellingJamesMcLachlan,“Youwhitepeopledon’t believeit.ButI’vetoldyouaboutsuchthings.Thisisthroughan Indian’smagicpower.” 53 PercyBerenstalkedaboutJacob’sconversionandsubsequent castingoffofhisconjuringpractises: S.G. Doyouknowpeoplewhoweren’tChristiansandthen decidedtobecomeChristians? P.B. Yeah.Mygrandfather,Jacob,hewasn’tareligiousfellow.… Hewasamanwhobelievedonnature.Conjuringisthe rightword–conjuring.Hewasaconjuringman,my grandfather.WhenthereligioncametoBerensRiver,the missionaries,youknow,wanthimtoquit.Sohepacked upparcelsoftobaccoandhegottwomentotakethisto Jackhead.HesentitouttotheJackheadconjuror,you know?Itwasgivenout.Hewaslettingallthisthinggo, conjuring.HesentittoBloodvein,Jackhead,LittleGrand Rapids,evenDeerLake–that’s300milesfromBerens RivertogotoDeerLake.Hesentguystheretotakethat tobacco,he’sfinishedwithit. S.G. Soheconverted? P.B. Sohewasconverted. S.G. Whatdidthatmeanforhim? P.B. Itchangedhislifealtogether.Hedidn’tbelievenoneofthat stuffthathehadbelieved.…He’sgettingoverwiththat. S.G. Whydidhewanttoconvert? P.B. BecauseIguessthemissionarywaspreachingthegospeland hebelievedwhatheheardsohethoughthehadtoletitgo, hisconjuring.That’swhyhequit.54
Clearly,Jacoblethisconjuringgooutofaconsciouschoicethat hewasrequiredtomakeuponhisbaptism;however,heandhis childrenneverlosttheirfaithintherealityandvalidityofthis magicanditspower.Atnotimedidtheydecidethattheirbeliefs constitutedshallowsuperstitions.Therejectionofconjuringwas
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likelydoneoutofarespectforChristianityandperhapssomefear oftherepercussionsofthe“darkside”ofthiskindofmagic. Inthesamevein,WilliamBerens,outofrespecttohis Christianfaith,chosenottogoonavisionquest;thisdidnot mean,however,thathedidnotbelievethatitwouldbeentirely possibleforhimatanytimetodothisandacquireapawágan. Percydiscussedthefamilydynamicsthatcentredaroundthis issue. S.G. IknowthatWilliamtoldHallowellthathecouldhavegone onavisionquestbut,becausehewasaMethodist,hechose notto.Buthealwaysfeltthatanytimehewanted,hecould havemetupwithhispawáganak.Didhereallybelievethat? P.B. Ohyeah–ohyeah!Hetalkedtousfamilyaboutit.He couldhavebeenlikethatbecausehisdadusedtoaskhim tobelievethesameasthisconjuringbusiness.Hewantedto handitovertohim,butdadsaidthat“Iwouldn’twantit.” S.G. JacobaskedWilliamtotakethaton? P.B. Yeah. S.G. Becausehewasinlineforit? P.B. Sure–itwasJacob’sson.Butmydadsaid“no.” S.G. DidthatupsetJacob? P.B. No.It’sokay.Heneverusedtosayhisdadgotmadathim becauseheturnedthatdown.He[Jacob]said“that’syours, that’syourchoice–sodowhatyoulike.”55
DiscussinghisowndecisiontofollowChristianity,Williamwas clear,tellingHallowell“WhenthemissionaryEgertonYoungcame andpreachedtousabouttheloveofGodandhisSon,Iwantedto understandwhatthismanwastalkingabout.FinallyIgotenough sensetobelieveinChristianity.Alotofothershadthesame experience.”56Methodismplayedanimportantrolethroughouthis lifetimeandheraisedhischildrenwithinthechurch.Atnotime, however,didheceasetobelieveintheexistenceofspiritsorlose respectforordenythepowerofOjibwareligion.
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TheconversionandbaptismofthemedicinemanSowanas (SouthWind)duringthetenureofJohnSemmensisanother interestingexampleofretentionofbeliefinthingsOjibwa. Sowanas’swordsrevealaquestforknowledgeandanideathatthe Gospelcouldprovideanextrasafeguardfortheafterlife: Ihavelivedmanyyearsinsin.IhaveservedtheDevil.…In witchcraftIwaschiefofallthepeoplehere.Inmedicinework Ihavelongledthevan[beenintheforefront].Mypagan countrymenlookuptomeasthepriestofmytribe.…NowIwish toputallevilfrommeandlearnwisdombeforeIdie.Mychildren andmywifearebaptized.TheyhavegonetheirwayandIhave gonemine,butmyhearttellsme…I…amwrong.Ihavelistened toscripturalteachingand…Ifeelmostanxioustobesavedafter theGospelfashion.Itseemstobemyonlyhope.…Perhapsthe Indianswillfollowmeinrightpathsaftertheyhavegoneinwrong directions.Atanyrate,Iwilltrybydivinehelptosetthemagood example.…Iam[hoping]…Imayatleastattaintoeverlasting life.57
Semmensmay,ofcourse,haveaddedtoorembellishedthespeech eitherfordramaticappealorbecausememoriescanchangeover time.ItislikelythatSowanaswantedtobebaptized,butitis difficulttoknowhowmanythingswerephrasedinawaythat wouldbeacceptabletoSemmens;afterall,ifthemissionarywere notconvincedoftheOjibwa’smotivation,hecouldrefusebaptism. Sowanashadbeenobserving“conversion-style”rhetoricformany yearsandwouldhaveknowntherightthingstosay.Theoldman couldwellhavebeenconcernedabouttheafterlifeandbelieved thatChristianitywouldindeedprovideanadditionalsafeguardin eternity.Itisalsolikelythathewasundersomepressuretoconvert becausehisfamilyhadbecomeChristians;conversionssometimes followedalongkinshiplineswithconvertedfamilyurgingtheir “pagan”relativestoconvert. Wedoknow,however,thatthismedicinemanwasan influentialandrespectedleaderinhiscommunity,livingata
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timewhenChristianitywasbecomingaforcetobereckoned withatBerensRiver.Itisentirelypossiblethathisunionwith thisreligionwouldkeepSowanasonthevan.Wealsoknow,if Semmenscanbebelieved,thatafter4February1877,Sowanas buriedhismedicineintheswamp.Accordingtothemissionary, “hisdeportmentwhollychanged…hisheathenpracticeswere abolishedforever.” 58Didthiscastingoffofhismedicines, however,showthathenolongerbelievedinOjibwamedicine? Notlikely. Governmentandmissionaryrecordsarefullofstoriesshowing thatChristianityandOjibwabeliefscoexistedalongtheBerens River.TheOjibwaabilitytointegratetheseseeminglydisparate conceptsconfused,angered,andupsetmanyamissionarywho expectedasheddingoftheoldandawholeheartedacceptanceof thenew.JacobandWilliamBerens,anddoubtlessotherOjibwa, madeacriticaldistinction,however,thatthemissionarieswould nothaveappreciated.ForconvertedOjibwas,practisingtraditional medicinewasincompatiblewithChristianity;believinginthe powersoftraditionalmedicinewasnot.Thisdistinctionwasone oftheessentialwaysinwhichSaulteauxpeopleharmonizedtheir worldviewwithChristianity. VaryingdegreesofacceptanceofChristianitybetween communities,andevenamongdifferentindividualswithinthose communities,presentchallengesforobserverswhowishto makegeneralizationsaboutChristianconversionsonthebasisof historicalrecords.Whileonereportmaycomplainofmembersof acommunitypursuinganomadiclifestyleorengagingin“pagan practices,”anothercontemporarydocumentmaydetailthesesame Indianscongregatingatthemissiononspecialdays,attending church,orbaptizingtheirchildrenwithconsistency. IfBerensRiverpeoplelookedpositivelyonsomeaspects ofsomemissionaries’messages,thatdidnotmeanthatthey werewillingtoabandontheirbeliefswholesaleatthebehest ofpreachers.Forexample,in1876,E.R.Youngreportedthat, whileChristianitywaspositivelyreceivedbytheBerensRiver community,ithadnotbeendeeplyinternalized.In1875,he
Encounters,1875 –1916
hadwrittenhappilythatatBerensRiver“everyconjuringdrum hasceasedtobeatandeveryoutwardpaganritehasbeengiven up.” 59Hisreportforthenextyear,however,showedthatOjibwa identitywasaliveandwell;thesepeoplewerehardlybecoming lostintheirChristianity.SaidYoung: Notonlyhastheoutwardappearanceofdegradingpaganism disappeared,butthereisnowanalmostuniversalbeliefinour holyreligionand,onthepartofmany,anearnestdesireto… understandtheplanofsalvation.…Whilerejoicing,wehaveto mournovertheabsenceofthatthoroughheart-work,thegenuine conversionoftheinnermanbythetransformingpoweroftheHoly Ghost.60
Twoyearslater,JohnSemmensreportedinthesamevein: Frommanyawigwamwhere,butafewshortmonthsago,idols wereworshippedanddemonsinvoked,ascendwith…regularity, thesongsandpetitionsofawakenedmen.Childishlipshave learnedtolisp,“OurFatherwhichartinHeaven”.…Thechange hasnotbeensodeepasIcouldwish…but…groundhasbeen broken.Thesoiloftheirheartsisnowreadyforthegoodseed.61
Generally,theBerensRivercommunityseemstohaveresponded positivelytomissioneffortswiththepeoplepartakinginchurch lifetovaryingdegrees.Especiallyby1899,numerousfavourable reportsindicatedthattheOjibwatherewerepleasedwith JamesMcLachlan.J.W.Short,Indianagent,wrotein1898that Methodistserviceswerewellattended.62Thenextyear,Ebenezer McCollcommentedthatMcLachlan“havingcontended…against immorality[has]raisedthestandardofvirtueonthereserve.”63 JohnSemmens’s1901reportindicatedaninterestin Christianitybutshowsthatitdidnotaboundtotheexclusionof allelse:“Ifoundineveryplacemuchregardfortheknowledge andworshipofGod.Intwoorthreeplacesvestigesofan hereditarypaganismwerefound,placeswherebigamywas
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toleratedandidol-worshipwaspractised.Yeteventheremightbe discoveredahungerforbetterthings.”64 FollowingtheMcLachlantragedy,observersfoundthatthe ChristianityofmanypeopleatBerensRiverwasgenuineand integratedintotheirlives.S.J.Jackson,InspectorofIndian agencies,notedthat“TheIndiansofthisband…showtheeffects oftheirearlyreligioustrainingandputtoshamemanyofoursocalledChristianpeople.Everynightbeforegoingtotheirbeds theyholdashortserviceofprayer.…Theyfeltverybadoverthe loss[ofRev.McLachlanandthechildren].”65By1908,Semmens couldreportthat“Thenativesaremoreorlessfavourably disposedtowardChristianity,andnotafewaredevoutmembers of…themissionaryenterprise.”66 TheOjibwacontinuedtoadheretonativemedicinalpractices andthebeliefssurroundingthem,however.Forexample, in1877–78,fearspreadamongtheBerensRiverIndiansof poisoningsbymedicinemen.On9November1877,Alexander Morris,Lieutenant-GovernorofManitoba,sentadispatchtothe deputyministerofjusticeabouttheallegedpoisonings,orfear ofpoisoningsatBerensRiver,perpetuatedbyaMrs.Bains.This sparkedamajorinvestigationandnothingcouldbeprovendespite herreputationfor“dealingextensivelyinwhattheIndianscall ‘badmedicine.’“InMarch1878,RoderickRossaskedF.Graham, actingIndiansuperintendentforManitoba,toinitiatelegislation “forthespeedysuppressionofacustomthatisconstantlybeing presentedtotheattentionoftradersandmissionarieswholive amongIndians.”Rosswrotethatthewhole“badmedicine” issuecouldbedividedintotwoareas;the“higherbranch… professestogive…them…thepoweroftakinghumanlife… orincapacitatinganenemyfromkillinggame,catchingfish,or runningorwalking.…Thissuperstition[is]firmlybelievedin byallIndians…andcausesastateofterrorism…thatgenerally impedestheadvancementofnativesin…civilizedhabitsof life.”67Thesecondbranchinvolvedabonafidepoisoningthrough theuseofapowderthat“onlytheIndiansofsouthernSaulteaux tribesknowhowtomake…theysellitforalotofmoneytothe
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northernIndians.”68Thecontinuanceofthemanufactureandsales ofnativemedicinesshowsthecontinuingvitalityofOjibwabelief inthepoweroftraditionalcuresandthevalidityofmedicine men. Certainly,astrongOjibwaworldviewprevailedbetween1875 and1916.RecordsshowthatOjibwapeoplewerestillpractising polygamyinthe1890s.AreportbyEbenezerMcCollin1893 bitterlyrailedagainstthis.McCollcomplainedthat“thelaw isimpotenttoinflictpunishmentupon…transgressorsfor… unfaithfulness;consequentlythisloathsomeandinfectiousmoral leprosyiscontaminatingIndiancommunities,destroyingthe chastityofthevirtuous.”69 InherreminiscencesofBerensRiver,JuliaAsher(neéShort) wroteoflivingwithherIndianagentfatherinthecommunity between1898and1900.JuliarememberedtheMethodistchurch beingfullonSundaysandthefriendlyrelationsbetweenher familyandtheBerenses.Oneevening,Jacobtoldheralegend ofthewindigo,addingthatmostoftheolderIndiansbelievedin windigosdespitethechurch’steachingagainsttheirexistence. “Christianizedastheywere,”shewrote,“thisbelief…lingered on,eveninourtime.…Wehadtwoindicationsofitonour ReservewhileIwasthere.”70 AtLittleGrandRapids,theOjibwaworldviewstillprevailed widely.Beliefinmedicinemen,polygamy,andSaulteaux ceremoniesabounded.WritingaboutbothBerensRiverand LittleGrandin1880,Rev.A.W.Rosslamented,“We…cannot speakencouraginglyofthesepolygamousbandsandyetthereisa longingtoheartheWord.”71 W.M.Chapman,theHudson’sBayCompanytraderatLittle GrandRapids,observednumerouscontinuingOjibwapractices there.InOctober1912,forexample,hewrote“ManyIndians areattendingadog-feast,”andthenextmonthmentioned“The peopleareverynoisyatL.G.Rapids.Theybeattheirdrum allnight.”72On2August1913,Chapmanwrote:“JohnDuck conjuringduringthenightandearlyhoursofthemorning.…He hadsomeveryvigorouswrestlinginsidethetentandthebirch
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bark‘temple’nearlypulleddownonseveraloccasions.”73Againin 1915:“thedog-feasttakesplacetonight,incessantdrumminguntil earlySundaymorning.”74 IntegrationsofChristianitywiththeOjibwareligion sometimesproducedvividinstancesofsyncretism.William BerensrelatedanexperiencetoA.IrvingHallowellthat representsoneofthemostfascinatingexamplesofthisblending. WilliamsawandinterpretedtheeventwithinadistinctlyOjibwa context.Atthesametime,hefoundthesolutiontothecrisisin Christianity.WilliamandNancyBerenswerefishingatthemouth ofPoplarRiverwhenoneevening,aroundsixo’clock,Williamfelt asifhewasgoingcrazy. Icouldhardlyseethelamp.Whenitgotlater,Iwasworseand worse.FinallyIhadtotellmy[hired]mantotiemeupandthrow meinthecellar–tonailitupandtakemywifetothemission house.…Bothofthemwerescared.Theydidnotknowwhatto do,didnotwishtodoasIsaid.…AllofasuddenIthoughtof something–wehadtheBibleinthehouse.Itookitandopened itandtriedtoreadit.Icouldmakeoutnothing.ThefirstwordI madeoutwasGod;assoonasIdid,thingsgotbrighteritseemed.75
Evenineverydaylifewehaveevidenceofintegrationsbetween theOjibwaandChristianworldviews.Typicalwasthe1903 reportofJohnSemmenswhowrote,“notinfrequently[medical complications]arebroughtonbythecombineduseofIndianand whitemedicines.…Themoralityofthesepeopleisnotsufficiently developedtomerithighpraise.Thisistheoutcomeofold associationsandoldmethodsofliving.…Itisnoteasytocorrect wrongswhicharewinkedatbytheeldersofthetribe.”76 Alongwithintegrations,syncreticblendsalsooccurredalong theBerensRiveryieldingcreativeandnovelresults.77 Astrikingexampleofsyncretismcanbefoundinthelifeof AdamFiddler.In1901,asayoungman,Christappearedtohimin adreamwhilehewasonatripwithF.G.Stevensandfromthen
Encounters,1875 –1916
on,accordingtoThomasFiddler,“Christbecameanother-thanhumanguide.”78ThomasdescribesAdamas cautiousinhisacceptanceofChristianity.Hedidnotdiscardwhat hefoundgoodandnecessaryinhisforestbeliefsandheisnot describedasbeingaHolyManamongtheclansmenratherthana MethodistChristian.AdamFiddlerwasaSuckerclansmanwho couldconfrontwindigo,utilizetheshakingtent,issueprophecies, andsingoverthedrum.AdamFiddlerwasmorethanaChristian. Adam’sadoptionofsomeChristianbeliefs,though,didstarta processofchangeawayfromsomeoftheancientways.79
MoresyncretismcanbeseeninthelifeofFairWind(Naamiwan), amedicinemanatPauingassi,Manitoba.After1914,hebecamea notedreligiousinnovator. 80Hiscloseconnectionswithother-thanhumansandadeepkinshipwiththeThunderbirdsmadehiman exceptionalhunter.Interestingly,ashisreligiousinfluencegrew, FairWinddrewincreasinglyonabroadrangeofconceptsthat were“bothOjibwaandnon-Ojibwa,Christianandnon-Christian, whoserootslayalongwayfromBerensRiver.”81FairWind’s drumdance,theinspirationofwhichcametohiminadream, representedthiskindofmergingofideas.Theceremonyappalled missionaryF.G.Stevenswhosawitasthreateningandpagan; viewingreligioninblackandwhite,Stevenssawthosearoundhim aseitherwiththedevilorwithChrist.However,whenHallowell observedthisdanceofconsolationinthe1930s,herecordedFair Wind’swords:“Whenapersonhaslostabrother,child,orsome otherrelative,wecalluponthemtolookdownuponus.They havebeenonthisearthonce,andbeforethattheyweresentfrom abovetocomeonthisearth.Jesus,too,camefromabovetobe thebossoftheearth.”82Hallowellsawthat,attheconclusionof thedancing,thegroupsangaChristianhymn,FairWindlifted hishandinChristianbenedictionstyleandmentionedJesusonce again.Theanthropologistwascuriousaboutwhichspirithadgiven FairWindhisdanceandaskedifithadcometohimfromthe djibaiyak(spiritsofthedead)orfromapawágan(dreamhelper).
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“IWillFearNoEvil ”
Neither,repliedthemedicineman:ithadcometohimfromGod. ToHallowell,“thisdance…illustratesextremelywellhowdiverse strandsofbeliefandpracticecanbewieldedtogetherunderthe influenceofastrongpersonality,andyetstillbekeptwithinthe frameworkoftheSaulteauxinterpretationoftheuniverse.”83 Aninterestingalternativeinterpretationoftheoriginof thedrumdanceispursuedbyMaureenMatthewsandRoger Roulette.TheysuggestthatHallowell’suseoftheword“God” mayhavebeenatranslationproblem.Theysuggest,onthe basisoflinguisticevidence,thataThunderbirdgavethegiftto Naamiwan.84 WilliamBerensembodiedanexcellentexampleofsyncretism; throughouthislifehefeltaprofoundregardforthepowerof Ojibwareligionwhile,atthesametime,maintainingrespectfor Methodismandministers.Evenasayoungmanthiswaspresent. Beforehebecamechief,Williamvisitedamissionaryheknew atEmerson,Manitoba,Rev.McHaffie,whohadbeenatFisher RiverandtravelledwithhiminNorthDakota.Williamtold HallowellthathewentintothePembinaHotel“fordinnerand somedrinksbesides.…Iwasverycarefulnottooverloadmyself becauseIwastravellingwithaministerandwasstayingwith him.” 85Noteworthyhereisthat,yearslater,inreminiscingwith theanthropologist,Berensrememberedthesensitivityhehadfelt towardsamanofthecloth. AnotherbriefclueisfoundlaterinWilliam’s“Reminiscences” toHallowell.HehadjustreturnedtoBerensRiveraftera trip.“WhenwegottoMr.Short’splace…Iaskedhimifthe celebrationwasoveratthechurch,sohetoldme,‘Ijustcame fromthere–it’sjustover.’IwasdisappointedthatIwasnot there.” 86Thisisonesmallstatementinasubstantialmanuscript, yetitsveryinclusionandsimplesincerityhaverealimpact. IndiscussingmissionstonativepeoplesincolonialNorth America,JamesAxtellpointsoutthatChristianityaddedtothe cosmologyofmanygroups,givingthemanexplanationofthe newandlargerworld.87TheOjibwaalongtheBerensRiver,while experiencingchangesandadaptationsintheirreligiouslife,also
Encounters,1875 –1916
guidedthesechangesandinfluencedthespeedatwhichthey occurredbetween1875and1916.Atthesametime,offeringa paralleltowhatNorthropFryesaidofhisMethodism,theworld viewattheircoreremainedessentiallyOjibwa.
87
JacobandMary(neeMcKay)Berens,BerensRiver,c.1915(personal collectionofDarleneRoseOverby.Usedbypermission).
Treatypayments,BerensRiver,c.1925(PAM,BerensRiver3,N3581).
Shakingtent,LittleGrandRapids,c.1933(PAM,Indians81,N10757).
JohnDuckandhisWabanopavilion,atornearLittleGrand Rapids,c.1933(PAM,Indians83,N22310).
89
WabenopavilionatornearLittleGrandRapids, c.1933(PAM,Indians82,N18635).
Boysatdesk,Pikangikum(UnitedChurchArchives,Conference ofManitobaandNorthwesternOntario,AlbumNo.4).
90
OjibwacampatPikangikum(UnitedChurchArchives,Conference ofManitobaandNorthwesternOntario,AlbumNo.1).
LutherSchuetze’scongregation,LittleGrandRapids(UnitedChurchArchives, ConferenceofManitobaandNorthwesternOntario,AlbumNo.1).
91
Missionhouseandinterpreter,Pikangikum(UnitedChurchArchives, ConferenceofManitobaandNorthwesternOntario,AlbumNo.4).
Littlegirlswithmother,Pikangikum(UnitedChurchArchives, ConferenceofManitobaandNorthwesternOntario,AlbumNo.1).
92
LutherSchuetzeandhiswife,Augusta,LittleGrandRapids(UnitedChurch Archives,ConferenceofManitobaandNorthwesternOntario,AlbumNo.4).
93
Pikangikumcongregation(manymemberswereabsentdue tosturgeonfishing).(UnitedChurchArchives,Conferenceof ManitobaandNorthwesternOntario,AlbumNo.1).
94
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Berensfamilychart
YellowLegsMistamut Bear(Maskwa)Amo(Victoria) JacobBerensMaryMcKay WilliamBerensNancyEverett JacobBerensWilliamBerensJr.GordonBerensPercyBerensJohnBerensAlice(Dolly)BerensRosieBerens
5
“IGotPrettyClosetotheFlames thatTime;ThenIWokeUp” Acceptancesand Rejections,1917–1940
Wesmokeourpipeswest–allthedirections–north,east –becauseweseeabigcloudandwhere’sitcomingupfrom? Thismovingcloud!What’sgoingtohappen?Allofasudden it’slikeabomb,eh?Ifyousmoke,thethundercloudwillgo past.TheThunderbirds.Manymoons.Loveyourneighbouras youloveyourself.Listeningtothewhitepeopletoday,youhear Thunderbirdscomewhenthere’scoldairwithhotair.Noway. YoungThunderbirdsinthefall,they’rejustlike–oh!theymakea reallyloudnoise!1
JamesAxtellobservesthatcolonialNorthAmericannativepeople convertedtoChristianitybecauseitprovidedasolutiontourgent socialandreligiousquestions.Intheprayingtownsthatsprangup acrossNewEngland,IndiansusedChristianityinthesameways theywouldhaveusedanativerevitalizationledbyaprophet–asa meansofsurvivingtheirpresentandbywhichtheycouldsecurea newleaseonthefuture.Didthisrepresentatragiclossfornative peoples?Aloss,yes,explainsAxtell,atragicloss,no.Tragedy wouldonlybeapparentwerewetoviewpre-contactIndiansas theonlyrealIndians(aviewwhichcomesdangerouslycloseto embodyingthenoblesavagestereotype).2 Between1917and1940,manyOjibwapeoplelivinginreserve communitiesalongtheBerensRiveracceptedChristianityand
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“IWillFearNoEvil ”
subsequentlyconvertedtothisreligion.Therewerealsoinstances inwhichChristianitywasrejected. In1917,WilliamBerenssucceededhisfather,Jacob,aschief ofBerensRiver.Thecommunityhadbeenundertreatyforfortytwoyears,theMethodistshadbeenestablishedamongthepeople forforty-threeyearsandtheCatholicmissionwouldbeinfull swingthefollowingyear.A.IrvingHallowellconsideredthese river-mouthfolktobeheavilyacculturatedduetoprolonged andsustainedcontactwithEuro-Canadianculture.Acloser looksuggests,however,thattherewasnotasimple“one-way progressioninvolvingculturallossandreplacement,”butrather thestoryof“afarmorecomplexcomplementarityorfusion.” 3 By1917,theMethodistdayschoolhadbecomeafixture ontheBerensRiverReserve.Thepeopleinthecommunity, andparticularlytheBerensfamily,hadtakenanactiverole inthisinstitutionfromthebeginning.NeartheendofJacob Berens’slifeandtenureaschief,Berens,throughInspector Bunn,requestedthattheDepartmentofIndianAffairshirea competent,preferablyolderteachertoreplacethemissionary. Althoughthismayhavereflectedaneffortonhisparttoaidthe Methodistsintheirselectionofateacher,thepartnershipitselfis ofsignificance.4 Itis,ofcourse,importantnottogeneralizetoomuchabout thefeelingsandopinionsoftheentirecommunitybasedonthe actionsoftheBerensfamily.JacobBerenshadalwaysbeeninthe vanguardwhenitcametomattersofconversion,education,and theintegrationofaspectsofOjibwaandEuro-Canadianlifestyles. EvenamidtheadoovertheMethodistversusgovernmentschool issueinthe1880s,Jacob,althoughdispleasedwiththesituation, continuedtosendhissonstotheMethodistdayschool.His boysmadeuptwoofitsonlysevenstudents.Thisattitudehad animpactonWilliam;heandhiswife,Nancy,valuededucation encouragingtheirchildrentoattendschoolandlearnasmuchas theycould.Education,theyrealized,wasthewayofthefuture andlearningwasathingtobevalued.
AcceptancesandRejections,1917–1940
PercyBerensrememberedthisclearly.WilliamandNancysent himontotheBrandonIndustrialSchoolafterhisyearsatthe BerensRiverMethodistdayschoolhadcometoanend.Decades later,hisenthusiasmforthislearningexperiencewasstillobvious. S.G. P.B. S.G. P.B.
WhatwastheBrandonIndustrialSchoollike? Oh,theytaughtuseverything! Didyouenjoyit? Ireallyenjoyedit.Ilearnedalotofthings.Youknowwhy IndianAffairsshutthatplacedown?BecausetheIndians weregettingtoosmart. S.G. WhydidyourparentssendyoutotheIndustrialschool? P.B. SothatIcouldhaveaneducation.5
AlthoughattendancewasirregularattheMethodistandCatholic schools,itisimportantnottoinferOjibwaattitudessimplyfrom statisticsandthelamentsofteachersandagents.6Jacoband WilliamBerensvaluededucation,yettheirchildrendidnotattend schoolonaregularbasisthroughouttheyear.William,andlater, hischildrenwerepresentatschoolwhentheirlifestylemadethis possibleandconvenient;foroutsiderstodecidethatthesepeople didnotvalueeducationbecausetheyattendedschoolirregularly isshortsighted.Rather,thisisanotherexampleoftheOjibwaat BerensRiverselectingandadoptingaspectsofEuro-Canadian lifethattheyfoundnecessaryandimportantwithintheirown frameworks.Thecontinualbalancingofmanydifferentpriorities wasanongoingfactoflifeforBerensRiverpeople. Statisticsshowthataverageattendanceremainedfairlystable. Familiesfollowedapatternalternatingbetweentimespentin thebushandtimespentinthecommunity.Whentheywereon thereserve,children,forthemostpart,attendedschoolquite regularly(withaverageattendanceremainingfairlyconsistent). Thetableslocatedattheendofthischapter,createdfromdata inthereportsforIndianAffairsintheCanadianSessionalPapers, revealafairlysteadypatternofattendance.
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“IWillFearNoEvil ”
Interestingly,whiletheBerensRiverCatholicschoolwasina minoritypositioncomparedtotheMethodistschool,theCatholic schoolupriveratLittleGrandRapidsseemstohaverunneck andneckwithitsProtestantcompetition.AtBerensRiver,the Protestantshadgainedafirmfootholdandensconcedthemselves threedecadesbeforetheCatholicsmadeovertures.Thefact thatChiefsJacobandWilliamBerenswerestaunchsupporters oftheMethodistchurchmayhaveslowedCatholicadvancesat BerensRivertosomedegree.Perhapsalso,William,aschief,had someproblemswithareligionthatwasinrivalrywithhisown denominationofChristianityandwhichcouldunderminehis authority.Whateverthereasons,therewasalwaysacoolness, stillevidenttoday,towardsCatholicismonthepartoftheBerens family. Anexampleofthisattitudecanbeseeninadreamthat WilliamBerensrelatedtoA.IrvingHallowellinthe1930s.The dream(c.1917)predictedthecomingoftheRomanCatholics toBerensRiverjustbeforetheirarrival.ItisclearthatWilliam, whoseMethodistloyaltiescertainlyshowedthemselveshere, wasoperatingwithinanentirelyOjibwacontextinhisfaithin dreamsasaccuratevehiclesofforeshadowingandprediction. Finally,William’sinterpretivecommentstoHallowellrevealedan attitudethatseemedtobetypicalamongtheIndiansalongthe BerensRiver–asenseofthinkingaboutandlisteningtodifferent religiousmessages,selectingthoseelementsthatweresensible, necessary,ordesirableanddisregardingtherest. IhadthisdreambeforetheCatholicsstartedtheirmissionhere.I had4or5childrenatthetime.IdreamedthatIwasclosetothe placewherethewoodpileoftheHudson’sBayCo.nowstands. TwoCatholicpriestswereholdingme,oneoneachside.Another Indianwastheretoo(named).Oneoftheprieststookhishead off.Therehestoodwithoutanyhead.Iwasfightingthembutthey draggedmeofftowardswheretheCatholicmissionnowstands. Wecametoabigfurnaceandtheseprieststriedtopushmeinto it.Atthesametimetherewasanoldmanwhostuckhisheadout
AcceptancesandRejections,1917–1940
oftheflamesandtriedtopullmein.Buttheywerenotableto getmein.Ikeptonfightingthemandtheydraggedmetoanother placewheretherewasanotherfurnace.Therethesamething happened.Anoldmanstuckhisheadoutandtriedtopullmein whiletheprieststriedtopushmein.Thisoldmanhadaspear.I gotprettyclosetotheflamesthattime:thenIwokeup.7
Hallowellnotedthat“Thedreamercommentedthathenow knewthemeaningofthedream.Itgavehimforeknowledgeof thestrugglewiththeCatholicsinwhichheisengaged.Thefirst incidentshowsthatthepriestscandowhattheywantwithIndians whodonotthinkforthemselves.Theycanputanyideasinyour headtheywantto.”8 IdaGreen,WilliamandNancy’sniece,grewupwiththe Berensfamilyaftertheyadoptedherin1918(hermother,Sarah Everett,Nancy’ssister,diedinthe1918influenzaepidemic).She shedsomerevealinglightonWilliamandNancy’sattitudetothe OblatemissionatBerensRiver. I.G. IwasbaptizedwhenIwasababy–Catholic.Ididn’tknow that‘tillmyAuntieMargarettoldmethat.Shesaid“You shouldgotochurchoverthere.”That’swhereIbelongsto.I said“No,Idon’tlikethat.”BecauseIdon’tlikethat,togoto churchthere. S.G. Whynot? I.G. Well,Idon’tknow–Idon’tlikeit.OnereasonthatIdon’t likeit–youknowwhenyoutaketheSacrament?Youhave totelleverythingtothatminister.That’swhyIdon’tlikeit. S.G. Confession? I.G. Yeah.BecauseGodseesmewhatI’mdoing–God–don’t letanybodyelseknow. S.G. WhatwouldWilliamandNancyhavedoneifyouhad decidedtogototheCatholicChurch? I.G. Theywouldn’thaveletmegooverthere.Theydidn’tlike thatchurch. S.G. Why?Howdoyouknowtheydidn’tlikeit?
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I.G. Becausetheydidn’tletmegotochurch[there]–justin here–theUnitedChurch. S.G. DidyoueveraskthemifyoucouldgototheCatholic Church? I.G. No,becausetheydidn’tlikethatkindofachurch.Ifthey wouldlikeit,theywouldhaveletmegotochurchover there.… S.G. DidyourfathereverhaveBrotherLeachorFatherDe Grandprévisithiminhishome? I.G. Well,FatherDeGrandprécameandsawmehere–after Iwasmarried.Andsohesaid“Whydon’tyoucometo church?”Isaid–Imadeanexcuse[Ida,intypicalOjibwa fashion,refusedtoconfrontDeGrandprédirectly],you know–IsaidIgotnothingtotakemeoverthereandit’sa longwalkbecause,youknow,Icouldn’tleavemykidsalone, becauseGordon[Ida’shusband]wasplayingtheorganin theUnitedChurcheverySundaysoIwasaloneinhere.9
PercyBerensalsosubtlyexpressedsomedisdain,despitehis positivememoriesofFrederickLeach.HeexplainedwhyCatholic OjibwapeopleinthecommunityventuredtoRev.Niddrie’s afternoonservicesattheUnitedChurch. P.B. theserviceintheafternoonwasaltogetherdifferentfrom thekindofservicetheyhad.TheUnitedChurchpreached fromtheBibleandtheyknewthat,see? S.G. SotheywantedtoheartheBible? P.B. Sure! S.G. Wouldyousaytheywantedbothchurches? P.B. No.Theywantedtolearnwhatreallycomesoutofthe Bible,see?That’swhattheywantedtoknow.Andthey wantedtohearNiddriepreaching–whatkindofasermon hepreachesabout.10
BerensRiverelderswhowerechildreninthe1920sand1930s emphasizethatthecommunityvalueditsschoolsandmissionaries.
AcceptancesandRejections,1917–1940
JustasWilliamandNancyBerensweregoodfriendswithPercy Jones,olderresidentsofthecommunityrememberRev.John Niddrie,teacherColinStreet,andBrotherFrederickLeachwith warmth.PercyBerenssaysthatColinStreet“wasthebestteacher thatevertaughtschoolinBerensRiver.Hewasthelongestteacher thateverbeeninthatschoolhouse.Becausesometeachersjust cameinforayearandsaid‘oh,toheckwiththeIndians.’Notlike Street.”11 Someofthestoriestakeonahumorousvein.FredBaptiste rememberedbeingapupilofColinStreet. S.G. DidyouknowColinStreet? F.B. Yeah,Iknewhim!Hewastheteacherrighthere–hewas agoodteacher!Hestrappedmeonce[laughter].Hecaught mesmoking[laughter]!HestrappedmerightonmyhandI guessand–well,hedidn’tliketobacco.But,lateron,Iwas workingonthisoldboat–thisoldKeenora–andthenIseen him[Street]inWinnipegandWalterGreensaid“Freddie, comehere!”Wewereloadingfreight–wewererightin theRedwooddock.Heseensomebodycomingdownthe hillthere,comingtoseeus–andhewassmokingapipe! “Boy,MrStreet,”Isaid,“youstrappedmeonceatschoolfor smokingtobaccoandnowhereyouareoutofschooland you’resmokingtobacco!”Well,whathappenedtohim,he toldme,thedoctortoldhimtousethattobaccoforhisown good.12
WalterGreenalsohadpoignantandrevealingmemoriesabout theplaceofthechurchandschoolinthelivesofhimselfandhis family. S.G. Whatdoyourememberaboutschool? W.G.Well,theschoolwasverygood–Ilikedit.C.D.Streetwas suchagoodteacher.Hewaskind.Hereallydidn’tpushthe kidstolearn,hehelpedthem.Becauseitdoesn’thelpto push.I’vebeenintheUnitedChurchallmylife.
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S.G. Whatdoyourememberaboutchurchandtheministers? W.G.Well,thechurch–Imusthavebeenaboutfiveorsixyears old–Iwenttochurchwithmyaunt.Thechurchwasone specialdayforthepeople.Everybodywouldgotochurch. Saturday,theywouldcutallthewood,takeitinsideandget readyeverythingsotheywouldn’thaveanythingtodoon Sunday.Theywouldputtheiraxesaway,theywouldput theirgunsaway,theywouldputtheirhuntingknivesaway. AlltheythoughtaboutonSundaywasgoingtochurch. S.G. Whywaschurchsoimportant? W.G.Wellthat’swhattheybelieved,youknow–that’soneday theyhavetorespectandhonourbecauseit’sSunday–rest day.TheministerthatbaptizedmewasJones.Iremember Niddriereallywell.Hewasthebestministerweeverhad. Heusedtoinvitemeorsomeoftheboystosupperorto workforhim,likecuttingwood,haulingwood,andallthat inthewinter.AndinthesummerIwouldgothereandhoe hisgardenandgetalltheweedsout. S.G. Whenheinvitedyouforsupper,whatwerethoseevenings like? W.G.Oh,weusedtositandtalk.That’showIlearnedalittlebit ofEnglish.13
ThechurchwasalsoanimportantpartoflifeforPercyBerensas hewasgrowingup.LikeWalter,Percyspokewithrespectforthe churchandChristianity. S.G. P.B. S.G. P.B.
Percy,yourDadandMomwereinchurchmosttimes? Ohyeah! Anddidyoulikethat?Didyoulikegoingtochurch? Ohyeah!I’llexplainthis.Atfuneralsandweddings, thechurchwasfullbecausepeoplerespectedthat,they respectedthat.Notliketoday,norespectatallforanything. S.G. Whydidtheyrespectthingslikethatbackthen? P.B. Becausetheygotochurch–andthemissionarywould explainwhatamarriedlifemeans,thepromisesyou’re
AcceptancesandRejections,1917–1940
makingwhenyou’retakingthevowsonthewedding,see? Theywantedtoexplain.14
RespondingtotheideathatmanyOjibwapeoplebelievein boththeThunderbirdsandtheBible,hespokewithrespect forChristianityandplacedahighvalueonunderstandingthe Bible.“Yeah,buttheBibleisbest.Ifyoureallyexplainittoan IndianwhatthatBiblereallymeansandwhat’sintheBible,the Scriptures,like–thenthey’llbeabletobelieveit,see?That’s thetrouble,nobodyevercomesalongtoexplainitproperly.”15A strongandprevalentthemethatarisesinmanydiscussionswith OjibwapeopleoccursinthereminiscencesofWilliamBerens. Thisisthegreatemphasisplacedonunderstanding;without properunderstandingtherecanbenorealbelief.Whenaskedwhy WilliamspentsomuchtimereadinghisBible,Percyexplainedthat “Hewantedtolearn!IknowmanyatimeIreaditforhimwhenhe wasgettingshort-sighted.”16 FredBaptiste’sfamilyalwayswenttochurchbecause,asheput itsimply,“TheybelievedinGod.”17 S.G. Ihavetheimpressionthatwhenyouwereyoungalotof peoplewenttochurch.Whydidtheydothis? F.B. Well,theyallwantedtolistentothepreaching–thestories aboutJesus,allthatstuffthat’sintheBible.That’swhy weusedtohaveaSundayschool,theteacher’sgoingtotell thosekidsabouttheBible.InchurchonSundaysupatthe frontinthefirsttworowstherewastheschoolkids,they satuptherelisteningonSundays.Whensomebodydied, Mr.Streetwouldletuscometothechurchifitwasaschool day. S.G. Streetwouldclosetheschooliftherewasaburial? F.B. Yes.Wewouldallgotothechurchandsitatthefront.18
ToFred’smind,peopleheknewwhohadmadedecisionsto becomeChristiansandjointhechurchdidsobecause“They wantedtobringuptheirchildrenproperlike,youknow?”19
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Bythe1920sand1930s,Christianityseemstohavebeen integratedintothecommunityenoughforittoserveasastandard forwhatwasproper,acceptable,andright.InthecaseofBerens River,thisgrewfromthestrongrelationshipsforgedbetween missionariesandagoodmanyofthepeopleaswellasthedegree towhichcommittedmissionarieswereabletoworkconsistently andoveralongperiodwiththeOjibwa. BetseyPatrickdiscussedthisintegrationandteamwork betweenmissionaryandcommunity. S.G. B.P. S.G. B.P.
WhatdidthepeoplethinkofNiddrie? Theyalllikedthatoldmissionary. Whydoyouthinkthatwas? Icouldn’ttellyouexactlywhytheylikedhimsomuch. Heusedtokeepboysthere–heusedtokeepboysinthat house,youknow.Andthoseboys,theywereallgoodorgan players,theyallplayedatchurch.Onewasmycousinand anotherwasaGreenboyandtherewasanEverettboy.So theyusedtotaketurnsinchurch,youknow? S.G. Whotaughtthemtoplaytheorgan? B.P. Well,thatwashim,thatoldman.AndofcoursethatAnnie, thatnieceofhiswasreallygood.…WhatIreallythink… thekidsinthosedaysreallyweren’tthatbad,theyweren’t badwhentheywerewiththereligiousinstitutions.Like thisMr.Street,youknow,wewenttoschoolforawhile whenwewerehere.Andinthemorningwhenheusedto gointotheclass,heusedtosaytheprayersandwe’dread onechapter[oftheBible],youknow,St.Johnor–notalot, justalittleone,youknow,eachchild.Andthen,afterthat, weusedtosingOhCanadaandthenwe’dstarttowork. Nowadaystheydon’tteachthemnoprayersatall–they getintomischief,thissniffingbusiness[gluesniffing]and everything,theysteal,breakin.Andbefore,weusedto pray.Thenunsusedtoteachthemwhat’snotgood,what’s badandwhat’sgood.Whattheyshoulddoattheschool,
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theyshouldgetthemissionariestogoatleastonFridaysand teachthekids. S.G. Soitwastheministersthemselveswhogavethestability? Ordoyouthinkitwastheprayerthatgavethestability? B.P. Well,Ithinkitwasjustthattheygavethemgooddiscipline. They’dtakeallthekidsandtalktothemgoodandallthat andtellthemgood.Ofcoursesomenowadayssaythey’re sobad,butformeIcouldn’tsaynothing[bad].Theytaught megood,theytaughtmeeverything–howtoknit,howto sewandeverything.Andifyoulistentoyoursupervisors andlistentothemcarefully,they’llteachyou,anddothat. Teachyounottobeignorant.20
Betsey’sparentssenttheirchildrentochurchregularlybecause “Theytoldusthat’sgoodforyoutogoandlistentothe preaching.”21Shealso,however,suggestedanotherreasonforahigh degreeofchurchattendanceatBerensRiver.Hermothergrewup withJacobBerens,hergranduncle,andinhishouseholdeveryone wenttochurchregularly. B.P. Intheoldendays,theoldpeopleusedtogotochurchall thetime.[LooksataBerensfamilypicture.]Youknow,I usedtovisittheseoldpeoplelongago.Youknowtheyused tohavechurchinthemorning,churchintheafternoon–so thoseoldpeopleusedtogotwiceadaytochurch. S.G. Whydidtheydothat? B.P. Idon’tknow!TheyhadnothingtodoonSundays–mightas wellgotochurch.EvenonNewYear’sEve,youknow,they usedtogetupateleveno’clockandgotochurchandthey’d havenightwatch,youknow?22
CatholicOjibwapeoplelivingintheBerensRivercommunity alsoexperiencedtheirchurchasasubstantialpartoftheirlives astheygrewup.VirginiaBoulangerrememberedthatthere werealwaysmanypeopleinchurchonSundays.Herfather, JamesMacKay(IndianAgentAngusMacKay’sson)andmother,
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CatherineGoosehead(anOjibwawoman)ownedastorewhere, Virginiasays,theyworkedveryhard.Sheexplainsthatitwas especiallyimportanttoCatherine,whohadattendedtheBrandon IndustrialSchool,thatherchildrenwenttoschool“Becausethey hadtolearn.”23LikeBetsey,Virginiaisadamantaboutthepositive contributionofthemissionariestothecommunity. V.B. OnethingIwanttotellyou.WhenIwasyoung,ayoung girl,Ineverseekidshangthemselvesliketheydotoday. [Virginiaisreferringtothehighsuiciderateamong adolescentsonNorthernManitobareserves.]That’s somethingIalwaystellwhitepeople. S.G. Whyisitdifferentnow? V.B. Becausebackthentheyusedtotellthemeverything–they wouldtellkids“Don’tdothat.” S.G. Whotoldthekidswhattodoandtaughtthemeverything? V.B. Theirfamilies.Theytaughttheirkids,andIteachmy grandkids,togotochurchandlistentowhattheysayand learnthingstodoandnottodo. S.G. Whenyouweregrowingup,doyouthinkbothparentsand churchhelpedwiththis? V.B. Yes!Yes!Yes! S.G. Doyouthinktheyactedasateam? V.B. Ohyes,yes.Theyallhadthekidslisten.24
Percy,Betsey,andVirginiaallreferwithconvictionandconsistency totheideaofdoingrightandbeinggood.Thisidea,sostrongin Christianity,alsohasOjibwarootsandis,possibly,onereason peoplefeltsopassionatelyabouttheideaofbeingtaughtand helpedinthisregard.ForOjibwas,badbehaviourwhichoffends aconjurororother-than-humanbeingcanresultinsevere consequencesandbitterregret.AsA.IrvingHallowellexplained, inOjibwacultureitiswisetoavoidoffendingothers;therefore, puttingonafriendlyfront,suppressingone’sownopinionsand beinghelpfularebeneficial.Thefoundationhereisoneofcaution andanxiety.25AsIdaGreenputitwhenaskedwhyshealwaystried
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tolistentowhatshewastoldbyherparentsandminister,“Ihave tolistenbecauseifIdon’tbehavemyself,Goddoesn’tlikemeifI don’tbehavemyself.”26 JohnEdwardEverettremembersPatriciaFuller,histeacherin theCatholicdayschool. J.E.E.A llthosedays–oneopenclassroom–Icanrememberher name,MissFuller.Wehadschool–Catholics–wehadtogo totheCatholicschool. S.G. SowhataboutMissFuller?Whatwasshelike? J.E.E.M issFuller.Shewasakindteacher.MadesureIsayathome “InthenameoftheFather,theSon,andtheHolyGhost.” S.G. Shetaughtyouthat? J.E.E.Yes.27
JohnalsoexpressestheplaceofChristianityinhislifewhenhewas growingup. Well,whenIwasasmallkidevenIcouldn’tevengotosleep.My auntusedtocomeandsay“Areyougoingtosleep?Dothis.”[He foldshishandsinprayer.]ThanktheLord.Nextmorningshe asked“DidyousayyourLord’sPrayer?”Well,inaperson’slife youjusthavetocontinueon–it’sahabit.Youcannoteveneatat thetablewithoutprayer.IwasbroughtuplikethisandwhatamI goingtodo?WhoamIgoingtolistento?Auntie.Myuncle.28
TheseBerensRiverpeoplespokewithpassionateintensity aboutChristianityandthegiftsbroughttothecommunityby missionaries.DoesthetakingonofChristianitygohandinhand withculturalloss?Recentscholarshipsuggeststhat,infact,they donot.TheconclusionsabouttheYup’ikEskimodrawnbyAnn Fienup-Riordan,forexample,supporttheideathatcultural changeasexperiencedbyagroupinencounterwithChristianity caninvolveacreativeexchangeandisnotmerelyadestructive imposition.29
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Ojibwareligionhasalwaysbeenadynamicforce,moving andchanginginresponsetotheimportationofnewideas.This wastrueintheevolutionofthedreamdrumdanceasitistrue ofChristianity.Itisnotuptooutsideacademicstodetermine whatisalossandwhatisagain.CertainlyPercyBerens,Fred Baptiste,orJohnEdwardEverettdonotseethemselvesasvictims ofloss,andtosuperimposeatextovertheirassertionsisto demonstratepompouscondescension.Whatistrulysignificant isthatthesamewomenandmenwhospokesopositivelyabout Mary,Jesus,orthemissionariesinonebreathall,withinthenext breath,describewithequalexcitementsomethinginherently Ojibwa.AnassertionofChristianfaithisfollowedimmediately byanawe-filledstatementaboutthepowerofmedicinemen orapassionatedeclarationaboutgiftsfromtheThunderbirds ortheMemegwesiwagorgrief-filledutterancesaboutthehavoc wreakedbyconjurors.Thesepeoplearenotafraidtoasserttheir faithinthingsOjibwaandhavenoproblemwiththetwobeliefs coexisting.Itisimportantthatscholarsacceptthatbeliefscan coexist;toooften,scholarsareasaptasmissionariestoreject whattheydonotlike. By1935,likeitsMethodistcounterpart,theCatholicmission seemstohavegainedasolidplaceinthecommunityatBerens River.Leachwrotewithsatisfactiontohisprovincialon24 November: Theworkattheschoolismostencouragingthisyear.Thereare 27ontheregister.Allagreetogetherasonehappyfamily.Their conductisexcellentandtheirattendanceatmass,inspiteof handicaps,isverygood.…Asyouareawaretheoppositionwe havehereismostfanatical.ForaverylongtimenowIhavehada dailysouvenirinmyprayersfortheconversionofbothCatholics andProtestants.ItseemsthatGod,inHismercyisbeginningto hearourpetitions.Today,forinstance,practicallyeveryCatholic whowasabletoattendMassdidso.30
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Bythe1920s,Christianityhadalsogainedaplacewithinthe LittleGrandRapidscommunity.Theyearwas1919whenMary NanakwaptaughtintheMethodistdayschoolandinthatyear churchmembershipforthisdenominationrosefromzeroto twelvemembersonprobation. 31Thenextyear,thoseprobationary membersbecamefullmembersandalthoughstatisticsshowno increasesuntil1934,neitherdotheyshowanydecreases. Bythisyear,LutherSchuetzehadbeenworkingatLittle GrandRapidsforsevenyearswithmembershipclinging tenaciously,ifnotstubbornly,totwelve.Nostatisticsareavailable for1932and1933;however,in1934,membershipshotupto 135. 32By1936,theMethodistmissionhad140fullmembersand by1940therewere149. 33Schuetzewrotethat“Spirituallywe foundournativesmuchmorereceptivethanourwhiteBrethren totheChristianGospel.” 34 TheconversionofMachkajence(JohnDuck)atLittleGrand Rapidsisaparticularlyinterestingstory.LutherSchuetze describedthischarismaticandpowerfulheadmedicineman asbeing“astrikingfigurewithcoalblackeyesthatseemed tospewfire.” 35AccordingtoSchuetze,Machkajenceandhis wifeappeared,carryingadrum,attheMethodistmissionone morning.TheIndiansaid“Ihavecometogiveyouthisdrum.”He hadsoldonelikeitthepreviousyeartoaPoplarHilldrummer forfivehundreddollarsandA.IrvingHallowellhadtriedwithout successtobuythisparticulardrum.(ItwasMachkajencewho conjuredfortheanthropologistsothatthelattercouldfindout howhisillfatherinPhiladelphiawasfaring. 36 )Schuetzewas adamantthathewantednothingtodowithitbecause,tohim,it wasevil.Foryears,MachkajencehadbeentheMethodist’sgreat foeandthesourceofmuchfrustration.Inthemissionary’swords: IsawinJohnDuckmygreatestopponentinourWork,heused todrumandchantintheeveningandeveryoneheardhim,and whenamanhaddonesomethingtodispleaseJohnDuckhewould makemedicineagainsthim,forinstancehewould[ask]thatthat …personwouldnotcatchanyfursthatwinter,andithappened
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oftenthatitwasso.Ifitwasadeadlyinsulthewouldsingfortheir death,andoftenthatpersonlaiddownanddied.Nowherestood thisman,nocringingandstuttering,butstraightanderect,hehad cometoadecisiontoacceptChristashisSaviorandMaster.37
Intheend,Schuetze,whosawthisapparenttransformationasa miracle,toldtheOjibwathathewouldtakethedrumandwrite onit“ThisdrumhasbeengiventomethisdatefortheGloryof GodbyJohnDuck.”38Themedicinemanandhiswifewereboth subsequentlybaptized. Unfortunately,Machkajenceleftnorecordregardinghis conversiondecisionandSchuetze’smanuscriptoffersnoclues. Themissionarywasmakingaseriousimpactonthecommunity bythistimeaswecanseefromrisingchurchmembership. PerhapstheOjibwawastiredoftheongoingrivalryandfelt somepressurefromthecommunitywhichwasmovingtowards generalacceptanceofChristianityasScheutzebecamemore trusted.InorderforMachkajencetoretainhispower,itmayhave beennecessaryforhimtokeepintouchwithhisfellowOjibwa onapoliticallevel.Thegivingupofthedrumwasatangible andserioussignthattherewassinceritybehindMachkajence’s motives. TheRomanCatholicsmadetheirinitialforayintoLittleGrand Rapidsin1924.Ontheirfirstvisittothecommunityinthe autumnofthatyear,DeGrandpréandLeachbaptizedtwentythreechildren.On4February1925,FatherDeGrandpréwrote toSt.Bonifacerequestingthatadayschoolbeerected.Thirteen ofthenewlybaptizedchildrenwereofschoolage,twelvemore hadrecentlybeenbaptizedandthisgroupwouldbeofschool ageinonetotwoyears.Allshouldhavehadinstructionin Catholicism,hemaintained;henceparentsandcouncillorswere askingforaschooltobeestablished. 39Thecommunitysupport seemstohavebeenrealbecauseparentslikeJohnDuck,Charles Dunsford(senior),JohnLeveque,HughAlbertOwen,and CharlesDunsford(junior)wouldbementionedoverthedecades byBrotherLeachasbeingsupportivetothemissionwork.Of
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interesthereistheinclusionofthenameJohnDuck,doubtless thesamepersonofwhoseconversionLutherScheutzewrote.John Duck,inanotuncommonOjibwastyle,mayhavebeenmoving betweentwoseparatemissionsdependinguponwhooffered what. Leachenjoyedhistimeinthiscommunity,writingthatlife therewasgood;therewasnoalcoholonthereserve,thechildren werepleasantandmadefairprogressatschool.40TheOblate arrivedinthecommunitytobeginhisworkinthenewschoolat precisely1:00P.M.onMonday,25October1926.TheCatholic Indianshadbeenpersuadedto“buildafewshacksandleave theirwivesandkiddies”(whiletheywentintothebush).Leach wasgenuinelyshockedtoseesomanychildrenatschoolashe expectedalltheOjibwatobeaway.Onhisfirstdayofteaching, elevenchildrenappearedandhewroteinhisjournalthatnight “Hopetheycontinue.Seemtobeabrightbunch.Theirnamesare certainlyhopeless.Kakijep,Mijioketc.”41 Thepeopleinthecommunityseemedinterestedandcurious. Leachwrotethattheirhousewas“fullofvisitorsalldayweareon inspection.”Thathouse,hecommented,wasin“awfulcondition,” but,“Stillwe’rehappy.ThisisthemissionarylifeandmayGod helpustopersevereandgiveuscourageandhealthtocarryon.”42 Hisentriesoftenmentionedthathisparishionersattendedmass, listenedattentivelytothesermons,showedinterestandfilled theOblates’houseonSundayafternoons.Childrencontinuedto attendschoolregularlyandinNovemberof1926,Leachwrote “Allthekiddiesandevenbabiescametoschooltoday.Sentafew home.”43 AnotherwaytheCatholicssecuredafootholdatLittleGrand Rapidswasthroughtheirmedicalaid.Theturningpointseemsto havecomein1926.ThewifeofamancalledOmimideveloped anabscessonherknee.Leachwrote:“AtfirstshehadanIndian doctorandwouldnotacceptmyhelp,butafteranumberofdays whentheIndianremediesprovedtobeofnoavail,shecalledfor me.…After…successfultreatmentsickcalls[toothersinthe community]weremorefrequent.”44
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KnowledgeineducationandtheScripturesaswellasmedical helpseemtohavebeenactivelysoughtbytheIndiansatLittle GrandRapids.ItisunlikelythatLeachwasmisrepresentingthese situationsinhisjournalandmemoirs,especiallywhenheclearly expresseddissatisfactionanddemoralizationoverworksituations inothercommunities. ThestoryofCharleyDunsford(junior)isinteresting.Charley andhisfatherwereamongthefirstCatholicparishionersonthe reserveandsupportedthemissionfromitsbeginning.During thefirstmass,CharleyDunsford(senior),“afineoldman,”was somovedtoextendgladwelcomethat,inthemidstofFatherDe Grandpré’ssermon,hehadjumpedfromhisseatandapproached thepriest,shakinghishandandrepeating,“Bonjour,bonjour!”45 On26April1927,LeachwascalledouttoseeCharley(junior) whohadbeenillfortwomonths.Writingwiththeusualsarcasm reservedforthesematters,theOblaterecordedthat“Doctors(?) BaptisteandDuckpresentwithDrums.”46Sixdayslater,Leach notedthatCharley,moreillbytheday,hadconsentedtobe baptized.Still,however,he“[got]Dr.(?)Ducktodoctorhim. Dr.(?)DuckplayshisdrumsinCharley’stentduringthenight.” OnGoodFriday,15April,Charley“receivedExtremeUnction andsenthispagandoctorsaway.Quiteafewcame[toMass]. Charley’sconversionhaddonegoodtoall.”47 Significantly,untiltheendofhislife,Charleywas incorporatingbothChristianandOjibwaaid.Itisdifficultto knowwhetherhisfinaldecisiontosendthemedicinemenaway wasbecauseCharleyknewthatLeachwouldnotbaptizehim otherwise,orwhetherhesimplymadeachoiceofoneoverthe otherinhisdyingmoments.Ojibwamedicinedidnotrequire exclusivityofdevotionwhereasCatholicismcertainlydoes. Possibly,inordertotrulyacquirethepowerfromthelatter,the Indianhadtosendawaythedrummersalthoughtheirabsence fromhissickbedneednothavemeantthattheywereabsent fromhisheart.On24April,CharleydiedandLeachnotedinhis journal:“MayGodgrantthatIdieasresignedtoHisHolyWill asCharley.Sinceherenouncedpaganismhehasdonehisutmost
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toinfluencealltoacceptGod’sWord.Hislastwordstohisold Fatherwere,‘HelptheseWhitepeopleallyoucanandtaketheir Belief.’Hislittleson,‘LittleDogskin’wasbaptizedandgiventhe nameJosephTache.”48Neartheend,Charleywastotallyalone inhishouse.“Hisrelativesandfriendswerefollowinganold oldcustom.…Theywereleavinghimtodieinpeace.”49After Charley’sdeath,Charley(senior)exchangedpipeswithLeach, tellingtheOblatethatsincehehadtakencareofhisson,Charley wouldnowtakecareofLeach. 50Informingthisbondandcreating anobligationtotakecareoftheChristianLeach,Charleymade hisoverturewithinapurelyOjibwacontext.Hegavehispipe– whichhecontinuedtoseeaspowerfulandspirituallycharged–to theOblateinexchangeforthelatter’sEuropean-manufactured tobaccopipe. In1938,theOblatescontinuedtoreporttoSt.Bonifacewith pleasureandoptimismabouttheirworkatLittleGrandRapids. On17Januaryofthatyear,FatherDeGrandpréwrotethat churchattendancewasthrivingthankstotheworkofBoniface Guimond.AsinthecaseofLutherSchuetze,Guimondhad,by thistime,beenworkinginthecommunityforanumberofyears (since1927)andhadearnedsomerespectandtrust. 51 MethodistmissionariesRoscoeTrannerChapinandF.G. Stevenswrotesomesimilarreportsfromfarthernorthaboutthe vigourwithwhichtheirnativeclienteletookonChristianity. ChapinbeganworkattheIslandLakeMissionin1922.Discussing thewarmth,sincerity,andgoodwilloftheIslandLakeCree,he wrote: Duringthesummerandfall,beforetheyleftfortheirwinter camps,Sundaywasagaladay.Fromthemoredistantpointsonthe lakemanywouldstartthenightbefore,campontheway,andbe attheMissionpointforbreakfastandavisitbeforethemorning service.Ihave…countedabout50canoesheadingformorning worshiptogether.Thrilling?Itdidsomethingtoyou.52
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TheSandyLakeOjibwaembodyanothergoodexampleofnative acceptanceofChristianity.Rev.Niddrievisitedthemannually between1920and1930untilhegottoooldtomakethetrips.F. G.Stevensexplainedthat,bythistime,thepopularityofIndian missionworkhadsodeclinedandtheBoardofHomeMissionhad becomesoincompetentinitsplanningandtrainingpolicythat SandyLakewasneglectedandfinallydroppedfromtheMethodist field.OnlyAdamFiddlerremainedatworkamongthesepeople. Thegroup,however,nevergaveuptheirquestforamissionaryand sentpetitionafterpetitiontotheHomeMissionBoardaskingfor aid.In1937,theCatholicsstartedamissionatDeerLake,butmost remainedloyaltoMethodism. 53 InBerensRivertoday,thelivesofmanyolderpeoplehave longbeenaffectedbytheirChristianfaith.Theconceptofthe sheddingofChrist’sbloodforthesinsofhumankindseemsto havehadparticularimpact.IntheOjibwaworldview,angry conjurorsandinjuredother-than-humanbeingscanwreak enormoushavocinone’slife.Itfollows,then,thattheconceptof JesusChristsheddingbloodsothataperson’ssinsormistakescan beforgivenandsothatpeoplecanenterheavenispowerfulfor manyOjibwa. Theconnectionbetweendeathandappeasing“bosses”or “owners”waspotentinOjibwabeliefsabouthuntinganddisease. Allspeciesoffloraandfaunawerebelievedtobecontrolledby these“owners”or“bosses”(notdiscernablebypropernames oftheirown)andanimalscouldonlybehuntedwiththeir permission.Partofpayingsomeoftheseother-than-humanbeings theirduerespectentailedtreatingmaterialremainsinprescribed ways.Muskratandbeaverboneswerereturnedtothewater,bear noseswerecutoffandhung,festoonedwithribbons,fromtrees. 54 Jesus’sdeathonthecrosswouldhavebeeneasilyinterpretedfrom thisOjibwaperspective.Aswell,contemporaryChristianOjibwa withwhomIspokewereprofoundlymovedbytheideaofJesus givinguphislifeforthem.WhiletheOjibwaworldviewdoesnot precludeanyonefromentryintotheafterlife,theideaofadded
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protectionfromabenevolentother-than-humanperson–Jesus Christ–isbeneficial. Afewyearsago,WalterGreenhadaseriousoperationina Winnipeghospital.Despitehistraditionalbeliefs,thepresence ofaministerwascrucialforhimduringthistimeofdistress.His tellingoftheeventemphasizedhissenseofrelationshipwith Christianclergy;hewasnotcomfortableinacceptingspiritual supportfromarabbi. W.G.AministercameintoprayformebecausethatmorningI wastogoontheoperatingtable.AndIaskedthatminister whichchurchdoeshebelongto.…Hewasarabbi.He wantedtoprayformebutIsaidtohim“Ibelongtothe UnitedChurch.Idon’tthinkIwantyou.”Becausehewas goingtodothisthing–theysprinklesomethingonyour foreheadanditmeansyoubelongtotheirchurch.SoI didn’twantanybodyelsetocomeandprayforme,justa ministerfromtheUnitedChurch. S.G. Inotice,though,thatthetimeyouhad[a]visionwhenyou weresickathomewithacold,youtalkedaboutthatvision toaPentecostalminister.Butyou’renotaPentecostal.Was itthattherabbiwasmorethreatening–thatyoufelthe wouldtakeyou? W.G.That’swhatIfelt,youknow.He,mightwantmetosignthe paperandbelongtohischurch.ThisPentecostalminister, he’sagoodfriendofmine.There’ssomekindofrelationship betweenmeandhim.SoIjustwantedtoknowhowhefelt aboutmydream.…IwanttosticktotheUnitedChurch whereIwasbaptized.55
FredBaptiste’shousewasfullofpicturesdepictingChristian themessuchasJesus,theLastSupperandtheCrucifixion.A particularlylarge,colouredpaintingdominatedonewall. F.B. YouknowthispictureofJesus.Canyoumakeanythingout ofthat?
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S.G. Well,IseeJesusknockingatadoor,andit’sclosedandit’s night.What’syourtakeonthat? F.B. He’sstandingatthedoor,knockingatthedoor.…He’s knockingatyourheart–andwouldyoulethiminornot?I wantyoutoanswerthat! S.G. Youwantmetoanswerthat? F.B. Yes,yes.IfJesusknocksatyourdoor–that’syourheart’s door,eh?–wouldyoulethimin? S.G. IthinkIwould. F.B. Sure!Sure!Nobody’deverturnhimdown.
[TheninreferencetotheCrucifixion:] F.B. Ilikeboththosepictures.Jesuscarriedthatcross–forour sins–andwhenhegottheretotheend,Hewasstripped andhewascrucified.Hishandshere[pointstohispalms] –hegotfivebleedingwounds:Hishands,hisfeet,hisside –that’swherethebloodcameout,throughhere.Yoursins shouldbewashedbythebloodofJesusChrist. S.G. Doesthathavealotofmeaningforyou? F.B. Ohyes!Ohyes! 56
JohnEdwardEverettspokewithsimilarpassionandloyalty:“Today I’maCatholic–cross,water–God,thereisonlyoneGod.The holywaterisgood.Myreligionisonereligion.WhenIwasborn, theybaptizedmeasaCatholic.I’llstaythatway’tilIdie.”57About Christ,Johnsaid:“There’sonlyone.Hediedforusonthecross. Whathappened?Therewastwomoreonthecross–sinners.What didonesaytoJesus?‘Releaseusfromthistrouble.’Theotherone said‘Remembermewhenyouenterparadise.’ManytimesItake theSacramentsatBloodvein.Remember.Iremember.Thathedied foryou–that’swhythatbloodwasshed–forme.Mysinshewill forgive.”58 VirginiaBoulangeralsohadreligiouspicturesandBible verseplaquesonherwalls.Forher,theVirginMaryhadspecial meaningandsignificance.Shehadmanypictures,paintings,
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drawings,andtapestriesofMaryandwhenIaskedwhyshewasso importanttoVirginia,sheresponded:“[because]shehadtosuffer whenhersonwascrucified.Onlyamothercouldfeelthat,you know.Andyouhavetoremember–whenyoupray,youhaveto signwiththecrossandrememberthathewasdyingforyou–for oursins.Godishelpinguseveryday.” 59 JustasChristianityhadpersonalmeaningstotheindividuals describedabove,mostconvertstoChristianityhadtheirown definitereasonsforconversion.Theirreasonsvaried,even amongthemembersofonefamily,andwerenotnecessarily aboutreligiousbelief.Mygrandfather,Mahase,convertedfrom HinduismtoChristianityinordertogotouniversity.Mygreatgrandmother,Rookabi,convertedinordertosurvive,uponfinding herselfsuddenlyimmersedamongstrangersinanewworld. RaymondDeMallieconcludesthattheconversionoftheLakota holymanBlackElktoRomanCatholicismwasrootedinthe Siouxleader’sunwillingnesstobeartheburdenofthedestructive powerbestowedonhimthroughavision.Accordingly,he decidedtobecomeaChristianandneverpractiseLakotareligious ceremoniesagain. BlackElkwasprobablyattractedtothesocialandmaterial benefitsofchurchlife.AlthoughtheUnitedStatesgovernment washostiletoanyexpressionsoftribalsolidarityandsubsequently soughttosystematicallydestroyallLakotasocialinstitutions, itviewedChristianchurchesasanacceptablemeansof congregation.Annualreligiousconventionsunitedlargegroupsof Indiansfromseveralstates.ByusingtheCatholicchurch’saccess toresources,theLakotaleadercouldcontinuetobeasourceof spiritualandmaterialsupportwhile,atthesametime,achieving prestigeandrespect.Thus,Lakotaleadershipshiftedfromthe politicaltothereligious.60However,justasindividualscould decidetoembraceChristianity,theycouldalsodecidetoreject Christianity. Christianitycertainlydidnotthriveandgrowatalltimesinall places.The1918influenzaepidemic,combinedwithMethodist neglectofthefield,causedtroubleforF.G.StevensatSandy
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Lake.Hewrote:“Now,inAugust,1918,underagreatfear, theyhadmadearelapseintopaganpractices.Adam[Fiddler] hadbecomediscouragedandhadgivenhiswork.Vexedand disappointed,hehadpracticallybackslidden.…Thentheyturned againstme.ThreatshadbeenmadeonmylifeifIcame.There wasnowelcomeforme…butIstoodfirmly.”61Stevensfound, thatsameyear,thattheIndiansatDeerLakealsopossesseda mindoftheirownandclearlyrejectedthemissionschoolthere. Uponvisitingthesepeople,hefoundthattheLittleCrane childrenwerenotattendingthedayschoolthathadbeenopened in1917.Theparentscomplainedthattheteacherhadtakenthe namesoftheirchildrenawayandfirmlytoldthemissionarythat thiswasnotacceptable.Also“[he]toldourchildrennottokill littlebirds.Wedonotwantourchildrentaughtthat.”62 NotallOjibwapeoplesoughtbaptismforthemselvesortheir families.Forexample,on20April1927,GeorgeBoucher,aLittle GrandRapidsman,askedFrederickLeachtocomeandseehis daughter,sixteen-year-oldMary,whowasdyingofconsumption. Fivedayslater,theOblatewroteinhisjournalthatshewas “veryweak.IwishIcouldgetherbaptisedCatholic.”63On30 ApriltherewasnoimprovementandLeachaskedthefatherto allowMarytobeinstructedinCatholicism.George“deferred hisanswer.”Although(orperhaps,because)theLittleGrand RapidsOjibwahadlosttwochildrenthatyeartoconsumption,he wascertainlyinnohurrytojointhechurchorallowMarytobe converted.On8May,afrustratedLeachnotedthat“Georgeisas obstinateasamuleandwillnotletherbebaptised.”On11May “MaryBoucherhadaverybadspelltowardsevening.Poorlittle kiditmademyheartachetoseeher.…Geo.Boucherrefuses religiousconsolationtoMary.”64 ThatChristianOjibwapeoplehavefreelyselectedaspectsof Christianitythatappealtothemandhaverejectedaspectsthat aremeaninglesstothemwasmadeclearinJohnEdwardEverett’s theologicaldiscussions. S.G. IwanttoaskyouabouttheVirginMary.
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J.E.E.Icansaythis:inthenameoftheFather,theSon,andthe HolyGhost,amen.Why?Becauseshe’sastatue,eh?Virgin Mary–she’sastatue.Idon’twanttokneeldownthereand askVirginMarytoforgivemysins.Well,Iusedtodoit,you know–justbecauseIwastaughttobethatway.Butnow whoamIaskingtoday? S.G. Whoareyouaskingtoday? J.E.E.Lord,Isay,forgivememysins. S.G. SoyougostraighttoGod? J.E.E.Yeah. S.G. Youdon’tgothroughtheVirginMary? J.E.E.No!No!Igotacross–beads–rosarybeadsforsayingthat prayer.Butnotnow.There’smanymanymoons,yes.[He hadbeencommunicatingdirectlywithGodforalongtime.] S.G. Soyoudon’tfeellikeyouhavetogothroughMaryany more? J.E.E.No.There’sonlyone.Hediedforus.Okay,hediedforus onthecross.65
PossiblytherewasagenderissuehereforJohn.AsHallowell’s informantsexplainedtohim“women,becauseofmenstruation, were,relativetomen,wiinzi,inastateofimpurity,whichput atriskthecleannessorreligiouspurity(bekize)requiredwhen interactingwithbawaaganak[pawaganak].”66JohnEdwardEverett probablyunderstoodtheconceptoftheVirginMarythroughthis Ojibwalens.Alsonoteworthyistheevolutionthathadtakenplace inJohn’sperspectiveoversixdecades.Histhinkingandpractice werenotstaticand,ratherthanlivingaccordingtorotebeliefin dogma,herejectedideasthatdidnothaverealmeaningandappeal forhim.Asachild,hehadbeentaughttoconfesshissinstoMary; nowhehadconcludedthatthiswasunnecessary–andpossibly risky. Catholicdayschoolstatisticsindicatethatthismission occupiedadefiniteminoritypositionontheReserve,owingin parttothechief’sfamily’sresistanceasnotedearlier.Catholic missionrecordsalsoindicateafairlylukewarmcommunity
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responsetotheirovertures(althoughthismission’sadherents seemtohavebeenasloyalastheMethodistparishioners).The priests’journalsandlettersarefullofreferencestoboredomand loneliness,aproblemthatdoesnotseemtohavebeenshared byMethodistcounterpartsatBerensRiver.WroteFatherDe GrandprétoSt.Bonifaceon5January1920:“alittletooquiet. Wewouldbeboredifwedidn’thavemanualworktooccupyus. Theworkoftheclergyisverylittle–itwouldnotbesufficient tooccupyaFatherandwearetwo.SincefourmonthsIthat havebeenhere,Ihaven’theardfifteenconfessionsexceptat Christmasorwherethereisabiggathering.Inthatcase,Ihad sevenconfessions.”67“Inourpoormission,thedayspassby monotonouslyandtranquilly,”wroteE.Planettohisprovincial, Rev.FatherJeanBaptisteBeyson22November1921.68Perhaps oneofthemostrevealingdocumentsisaletterfromFather LeándreGauthiertotheReverandFatherJosephatMagnanon 4October1927.Thepassage,besidesrevealingmuchabout Gauthier’spersonalbiases,reflectsacoolnesstowardsthemission onthepartofmanyOjibwaatBerensRiver. Idon’tbelievetheacquisitionoflanguagewillbethebiggest difficultythatIwillencounterinmissionwork–thiswillbe,I believe,tosucceedinlikingIndiansbecauseIfindthemtobevery fullofpride,concealmentandhypocrisy,nottomentionuntidy. Thiscausesthat…Ihaven’talotofsympathyforthem.Ibelieve thattheproximityoftheMethodistsmakesthemworsethan elsewhere.ButIhopethat,withtime,Iwillsucceedinfinding somequalityinthesebeingswhoare,afteralloftheworld.Ifinish …withthehopethatinmynextletterIwillbeabletowriteto youintotaltruth:IlikemyIndiansandambeginningtospeak withthemintheirlanguage.69
ThemosttangibleevidenceofnativerejectionofChristian missionworkatBerensRiverisinthestoryoftheRomanCatholic boardingschool.In1936,aresidentialschoolwasbuiltinthe communityandtheOblateSistersagreedtoassumeadministrative
AcceptancesandRejections,1917–1940
responsibilities.However,“Inspiteofeffortsandpainstakenby thegoodteachers,theresidentialschoolwasnotasuccessdueto thelackofco-operationfromtheparentsofthechildren.”70When theOblatesdecidedtousethenewbuildingasanursingstation instead,theOjibwawelcomedtheidea.SincetheOblateSisters didnotdothiskindofwork,theGreyNunsacceptedthejobof runningthefacilityandprovideddayschoolteachingaswell. Whilemissionariesexpectedconversiontoentailawholesale reorientationofworldview,itisclearthat,inmostcases,after conversion,indigenousandChristianelementscoexistedinthe livesofaboriginalpeoplesworldwide.AsJeanandJohnComaroff putit,“professionofanewbeliefbeliedthefactthatothermodes ofthoughtandactionwereneverfullylaidaside.”71“Conversion hasoftenmeantrecastingthemessageofthemissionariesinto one’sownlanguageandworldview.”72 Thisdualityextendsbeyondtherealmofreligiontoembrace conceptsofWesternmodernityingeneral.Forexample,looking atSouthAfrica,theComaroffsconcludedthat,whateverMarxist ormodernizationtheoriesmaycontend,globalforces“playedinto local[SouthAfrican]…conditionsinunexpectedways,changing knownstructuresintostrangehybrids.…[P]reciselybecause thecross,thebookandthecoinweresuchsaturatedsigns,they werevariouslyandingeniouslyredeployedtobearahostofnew meaningsasnon-Westernpeoples…fashionedtheirownvisions ofmodernity.”73 Similarly,RobertHefnerobservesthatconversionisnotalways “anexclusivisticchangeofreligiousaffiliationrequiringthe repudiationofpreviouslyheldbeliefs,[but,rather,it]assumes avarietyofformsbecauseitisinfluencedbyalargerinterplay ofidentity,politics,andmorality.”74Thisideaissupportedby scholarshiparoundtheworld.Forexample,theDeneTha’of northwesternAlbertademonstratedtoanthropologistJean-Guy GouletthatwhiletheyarenearlyallChristians,missionariesdid notsucceedinabolishingDenespiritualvalues.Althoughthe DeneTha’seminomadiclifehasgone,thecrucifixandrosary areprominentfeaturesinthecommunity,andthedreamers
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(orprophets)praytoNdawatá(theChristianGod),thesame peoplestillfeedtea,tobacco,andanimalfattoafireinthe hopesofbetterhealthandmoresuccessfulhunts.Toachieve theseends,theystillperformteadancesatwhichthedreamer, “theonewithastrongmindabletoseeintothefuture,”still officiates.75FordreamerAlexisSeniantha,thedrumandcrucifix “havebecomepersonalsymbolsofhisroleasadreamerwho travelsfromourlandtotheotherlandtohelphispeople.He hasbecomeaChristianDeneTha’shamanwho,intheprocess ofhisvision,transformedChristiansymbolsandincorporated themintoadistinctDeneworldview.”76Denedreamersachieve theirknowledgefromyak’ewodené(thespiritsofthedeceased), Ndawotá(theChristianGod)andNdawotáchuen(God’sson, Jesus).77EventheChristianrosaryhasdistinctivemeaningto theDeneTha’whoseetheindividualbeadsassymbolsofplaces wheretheSonofGodlandedwhenwalkingbetweenheavenand earth.78 Sometimes,integrationswereconsciouseffortsofagroupto copewithanewworldand,atthesametime,maintainidentity. Anexcellentexamplecanbefoundinnineteenth-centuryNew Zealand.AsChristianitybecameintertwinedwiththeMaori meaningsystem,longwarswerefoughtinthemajorChristian churchesovergivingthishybridcredencethroughseparate Maoriservices.79Theleadersofthenineteenth-centuryMaori charismaticreligiousmovements,whichblendedChristianity withtraditionalMaorispiritualideas,playedkeyrolesinthe formationofanewidentity.Allhadmillennialdreamsandall builtbridgesbetweenMaoriandEuropeanworlds.Atthesame time,however,theyalladvocatedMaoriindependenceandsought topreservetheMaoriworldview.80 FormanyAboriginalpeoples,conversionrepresentedthe acquiringofnewpowerthatcouldsupplementorenhance thepowertheyalreadyhadfromtheirownspirithelpers.In southeasternAlaska,mostTlingitconvertstoChristianityinthe mid-1800ssawconversion“asanadditionalsourceofpowerand materialbenefit.” 81TheDeneTha’decidedthattheywouldhavea
AcceptancesandRejections,1917–1940
betterchanceofsuccessinfishing,huntingandtradeiftraditional magicformulasweresupplementedbyprayertotheChristian God.Forthesepeople,RomanCatholicsymbolsandpractices servedtocomplement,notsupplant,theirownbelief.82 By1936,theBerensRiverOjibwaretainedsomecontrolover theirreligiouslives.LiketheLittleCranesatDeerLakewhohad withdrawntheirchildrenfromschoolbecausetheydidnotlike themessagesthatwerebeingimparted,theOjibwaatBerens Riverdidnotsupportthatwhichwasforcedonthemagainst theirwill.ThattheOblateswouldconstructanentirebuilding andsecurestaffbeforereallyexploringthewishesofparentssays muchabouttheirattitudetowardsthatwhichtheydecidedwas good,proper,andbeneficialfor“their”Indians. Itisimportanttonote,however,thatBerensRiverwasa visiblecrossroads.UnliketheresidentsofLittleGrandRapids andPikangikumwhoexisted,geographicallyspeaking,beyond thereachofthelaw,thereisnodoubtthatOjibwaparticipation inMide,drumdances,orotherceremonieswouldhavebrought agentsandpolicetothescene.TheprovisionoftheIndian Actwhichbanned“objectionablefeatures”ofnativereligions inCanadaimpactedOjibwapeoplelivinginlargenorthern ManitobacommunitiessuchasBerensRiver,Bloodvein,and Jackhead.TheDepartmentofIndianAffairswascommittedto repressAboriginalpoliticalorganizationthroughthesupression ofceremonies.Forexample,atBloodvein,agiveawaydancewas interruptedin1916.In1921,thepolicedestroyedagiveaway drumwhileinformingChiefCouncillorJamesTraversthatthe IndianActprohibitedgiveawayceremonies.IndianAgentCarter recommendedthatTraverssubsequentlyberemovedfromoffice.83 Whiletheirnortherlysettinggavethemsomedistancefromthe Prairieconflictsof1885,thusprotectingtheminsomemeasure fromEuro-Canadianpressures,theirreligiouslifewasprofoundly affectedbyrestrictions. Whatisclear,however,isthatbetween1917and1940, theOjibwaalongtheBerensRiverdidactivelyshapetheir ownreligiousideasand,whennecessary,foundwaystoreject
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undesirablesituations.Inmanyways,theynotonlyactively decidedwhethertoletthemselvesbeledtowater,buttheyclearly decidedwhere,when,andhowmuchtheywoulddrink.
AcceptancesandRejections,1917–1940
BerensRiverMethodistDaySchool
Year 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1896 1897 1900 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1910 1914 1915 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929
Teacher GussieParkinson G.Parkinson G.Parkinson J.W.Butler E.H.West E.H.West CharlesFrench S.E.Batty S.E.Batty S.E.Batty MinnieWilson B.Alexander MissLawford ElizaPostill E.Postill LouieA.Showler L.A.Showler L.A.Showler BessieHayter Mrs.Lowes Mrs.Lowes A.A.Smith IdaFairservice ZellaRichardson A.WilkieLonsley ColinDouglasStreet C.D.Street C.D.Street C.D.Street C.D.Street C.D.Street
TotalEnrolment
Average Attendance
35 38 39 32 25 36 39 59 22 33 40 48
16 18 17 14 9 7 11 30 7 16 10 9
28
8
38 24 33 33 36 36 37 28 29 37 38 41 38 38
11 10 10 10 17 17 23 16 15 22 23 28 27 23
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BerensRiverRomanCatholicDaySchool Year 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929
Teacher
Total Enrolment
FrederickLeach F.Leach JosephineSt.Denis A.Langlais PatriciaFuller P.Fuller F.Leach BonifaceGuimond F.Leach F.Leach
25 29 29 23 25 22 22 23 25 25
Average Attendance 17 20 15 12 13 11 16 15 15 18
LittleGrandRapids MethodistDaySchool Year 1906 1907 1908 1910 1914 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929
Teacher WilliamIvens W.Ivens JosephF.Woodsworth RoyL.Taylor AlfredG.Johnson MinaMoar JohnJamesEverett J.J.Everett LutherL.Schuetze L.L.Schuetze
Total Enrolment 46 38 43 50 45 17 19 23 25 30
Average Attendance 19 14 20 15 18 8 10 8 11 12
AcceptancesandRejections,1917–1940
LittleGrandRapidsRoman CatholicDaySchool Year 1928 1929 1930
Teacher BonifaceGuimond B.Guimond B.Guimond
Total Enrolment
Average Attendance
27
15
15
11
129
6
“I’veHadMyDreams allTheseYears” SurvivalsandIntegrations, 1917–1940
IsitpossiblethatbeneaththeChristianityofthenativepeoples oftheArcticandsub-Arctictherestillflourishesinthepsychic lifeofemotionalorientationandfundamentalattitudes,thepreChristianaboriginalreligion?1
SowritesanthropologistAntonioR.Gualtieriinarecentbook, citingexamplesofreligiouspersistence,notonlyamongnorthern peoples,butaroundtheworld.InNewGuinea,forexample, amongtribesofMarkhamValley,vitalnativeanimismand medicinalritualwere,in1941,coexistingwiththeGerman Lutheranismbroughtbymissionaries. Anotherexampleoccursinaratherbitterletterwrittenon 27November1883fromOblatemissionaryBishopPaulDurieu toFatherJeanMarieLeJacqintheCariboocountryofBritish Columbia.Thebishopwasupsetaboutnativereligiousideas existingbeneaththeoverlayofRomanCatholicismamongthe ChilcotinIndians: ItisatruismthattheIndianquicklybringshisreligionin accordwithactionsthatflatterhisself-interestandpassion.… TheIndians,althoughbaptised,sayingtheirprayersandeven confessingveryoften,retainwithintheirheartspaganideasand maximswhichwilloftenbethenormoftheirdailyactions.2
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InTheRoleofConjuringinSaulteauxSociety,A.IrvingHallowell notedthattheshakingtentceremonyreinforcedSaulteauxvalues andbeliefsbytangiblyvalidatingideasrelatingtothedynamic entitiesofthecosmos(therebyhumanizingspiritsandincreasing intimacybetweenhumansandother-than-humans),supporting theOjibwasocialstructurebyexposingthedangersofviolating socialmores,generatingconfidenceindealingwithlife’spitfalls, andprovidingentertainmentforparticipatingaudiences.Thus,he explained,itwasunderstandablethatconjuringhad“persistedup untilthepresentdayevenincommunitieswhereIndianshavebeen Christianized…theoccurrenceofconjuringinsuchcasesisan indexofthevalidityofnativebeliefs,attitudesandvaluesdespite theveneerofacculturation.”3 Evenneartheendofhiscareer,BrotherFrederickLeachwas protestingtheongoingpowerandinfluenceheldbymedicinemen innorthernManitoba.In1952,forexample,anupsetOjibwa friendwarnedhimthathehadoffendedamedicinemanwhowas consequentlypreparingtodohimharm.AlthoughLeachsaidhe feltlikesmilingoveraharmlessthreat,hegavehisfriendcredit forshowingenoughcouragetoactuallydeliverawarning.4That Leachfeltcompelledtopublishanarticleabouttheproblemsof Indianpeoplerelyingonmedicinemenshowstheirfirmplacein Ojibwasociety. 5 SpeakingtoHallowellinthe1930s,WilliamBerensrecalled anincidentwherehebelieved,asayoungman,hehadactually beenbewitched.AnumberofinstanceswhenWilliamhadused Christianitytoovercomepotentialharmfromconjurorshave beennoted,reflectinghisstronglyOjibwaapproachtothenew religion.Inthiscase,however,hewasactuallytakenoverbya spellandfellinlovewithayoungwoman.Whileworkingon asurveyingjobuptheBerensRiver,hewassmittenwiththis beautifulyoungwomanwhohad“lightskinandflashingblack eyes.”Tooshytopursueher,Williamleftthenextmorning; however,ashepassedher,shereachedoutandtouchedhim. Thatnight,inanothercampwithsixmen,Williamdreamedof
SurvivalsandIntegrations,1917–1940
thiswomanwhowaswalkingonthewater,straighttowardshim. “Comeacrosstome,”shesaid. ThenextthingWilliamknew,hewasoutofthetentandcalling foraboat.Howhegotoutovertheothermenheneverknew. Theyshookhimandaskedhimifhewerecrazy.Thenextday aftertheyhadstarted,Williamaskedthebosswhetherhecould payhimoffandlethimgo.Requestrefused.Stilllaterhenoticed thathisvestwasgone.Whereitgottoheneverknew.Wassure hehaditonwhenhestarted.Wholethingwastheresultofalove charmashecouldnotstopthinkingofthegirlforseveraldays.Put intoeffectwhenshetouchedhim.Musthavehadmedicineinher hand.6
William’ssonsPercyandGordonBerens,andFredBaptisteall expressedarealrespectforthepowerofconjurors.AsWalter Greenputit,“They’resowonderful–theycandoanything.… Theywereblessed!”7 PercyBerensprovidedanexplanationforthemissionaries’ ongoingbattlesagainstOjibwahealers: S.G. Itseemstomethatmanymissionaries,likeBrotherLeach andRev.Niddrie,andevenPercyJones,wereprettydown onmedicinemen. P.B. Ohyeah!Onereasonwhy.Theydidn’twantthisnew generationtolivethatkindoflife. S.G. Whatwaswrongwiththatkindoflife? P.B. Becausetheydidn’tbelieveinit,thatwaswhatwaswrong. That’sthetrouble.Theydidn’treallyhaveitexplainedto themwhatitmeansforanIndiantobeamedicineman. S.G. WhatdoesitmeanforanIndiantobeamedicineman? Whatshouldthemissionarieshaveunderstood? P.B. Theyshouldhaveknownbetter.Thatmanthere,that medicineman,he’sgoingtosavelives!Forotherpeople! It’sagoodthing!Iveryappreciateyourbringingthiswhole thingup,thismedicinething.Theoldpeoplelivedlongin
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mytime–nobabiesdiedthatmuchaswhattheydonow becausetheIndiansknewthemedicine…themedicine menhadtheknowledgeandthemedicine.8
Percyarticulatedtheproblemthatlayattheheartofmissionary interpretationsandexpectations.TheseagentsoftheGospel steadfastlyrefusedeventoexaminewhattheydeemedtobepagan practices,sosureweretheyofencounteringtheDevilinthemidst oftheproceedings.Hadtheymadeapointoflearningaboutthese conceptsandceremonies,theywouldlikelyhavebeenaffected bytheelementsofChristianitythathad,bythistime,become integratedwithinthem.Onceagain,however,missionarieshad arigid,narrow,preconceivedtemplateintheirmindsregarding thewaystrueconvertsoughttoact,andmedicinemenpractising traditionalhealingwerenotapartofthismodel. WhileVirginiaBoulangersaysthatshedoesnotbelievein, nordoesshetrust,thepowerofmedicine,sheconcedesthatfor awhile,themedicinemendidhaverealpowers. 9Virginia’sCree husbandwasaconvertedMethodist.TomBoulangercertainly experiencedfirst-handthehealingpowersofamedicineman duringthe1920s.Bythattime,FairWind(Naamiwan)had becomeapowerfulhealeratPauingassi.Tombecamestricken withpneumoniawhiletrappingatCharronLake,aboutforty milesnorthofPauingassi,Manitoba.ALittleGrandRapidsman tookhimbysleightoseeFairWindwhomBoulangerpresented withtobacco,matches,anewpipe,andnewstore-boughtclothes. Thefollowingday,FairWind’ssonsbroughtrootsfromthe shorewhichFairWindboiled,adding“apowermedicine,about halfateaspoon.”ItisinterestingthatFairWindprayedbefore administeringthedose–afactthatcertainlyimpressedhis Christianpatient.10 Clearly,thebeliefinOjibwamedicinewassurviving.Yet,Fair Wind’sprayerbeforeheadministeredTomBoulanger’sdoseof powermedicineisalsoanexcellentexampleoftheintegrationof ChristianbeliefswiththeOjibwaworldview.
SurvivalsandIntegrations,1917–1940
Hadthemissionariesallowedthemselvestoobservethiskind ofphenomenon,wouldithavemadethembreathealittleeasier? PercyBerens,withhisfaithintheabilityofhumanbeingstobe reasonableonceanideaisfullyexplainedtothem,wouldsay “yes.”Perhapsso;buttherigidworldviewofmostonlyallowed themonelensthroughwhichtheyexpectedtobeabletoview andinterprettheextremelycomplexandnuancedphenomena whichtookplaceintheirfields;and,sadly,thatlensoften produceddistortedimages. ThemanyinstanceswhereIndianscalledbothmedicinemen andChristianmissionariestothebedsidesofthesickanddying areonrecord.FredBaptiste’sinterpretationofmedicinemen wastypicalandrevealedahighlyintegrativewayofthinking.He discussedthisafterIaskedhimabouthisviewofYellowLegs walkingonthewater: F.B. Unlesshebelieved,unlesshefullybelievedinJesusChrist –maybehehelpedhimwalkonthewater.Jesuswalkedon thewater. S.G. ButYellowLegswon’thaveknownaboutJesus. F.B. Well,I’veseenalotofpeoplewhobelievedalltheother stufffrombefore.Theyusedtohealpeoplewhoweresick. [TellsthestoryofaBerensRivermanwhowastoldbyhis doctorthathehadsixmonthstolivebutwhowascuredby amedicinewoman.]Howcomehegotbetter?Youknow, Godplanseverythinginthisworld.Themedicinewoman usedthatplantthatGodplantedinthisworld–roots,like, youknow–becauseit’smedicine. S.G. SothepowerofthatmedicinecamefromGod? F.B. Yes.Everythingyouseehere.Theolderpeopleusedtouse thatmedicine. S.G. YousaidthatChristwalkedonthewater.AndChristsays intheBiblethatifyoubelieveenough,youcanwalkon thewater.ButwhenYellowLegswalkedonthewaterhe hadneverheardaboutChristbecausethatwaslongbefore
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F.B. S.G.
F.B. S.G. F.B.
themissionariescame.Sowherewouldhehavegottenthe powertowalkonthewater? Well,theyhadtheirownpower,Iguess. Wherewouldtheyhavegottentheirpowerfromifthey didn’tknowaboutChrist?IsitpossiblethatYellowLegsgot hispowerfromspirits? Theyhadtheirownspirits. Wellwhathappenedtothosespirits? Idon’tknow,they’regone,Iguess–whenthey[theold people]died.Themolderpeoplediedandnowthespirits aregone.Nowthere’snothingleft.11
ForPercyBerens,too,medicinemenarenotseparatefrom Christianity. S.G. Whatdoyouthinkaboutmedicinemen? P.B. Well,I’lltellyouonethingthat’smybelief.It’sagift.And thepersonknowsthat–that’sagift. S.G. Agiftfromwhom? P.B. Manitou.AsItoldyou,theIndians–beforetheyeverseena whiteman–theyalreadytalkedaboutManitou. S.G. TheChristianGodandManitou–aretheythesame? P.B. They’rethesame.That’sthesameGod.12
Thethemeofmissionaryagainstshamanisclearlyseeninthe historyoftheTlingitofsoutheasternAlaska.Beginninginthe 1830s,shamanism(akeyelementofTlingitculture)wasisolated byAmericanProtestantmissionariesastheworstexampleof paganism.Withthehelpofcivilauthorities,theyembarked uponahugewarwiththeresultthat,bythe1930s,therewere veryfewshamansleftamongtheTlingit,mostofwhomhad convertedbythelatenineteenthcentury.Interestingly,however, intheirongoingeffortstoreconciletheirtraditionalculture withChristianity,Tlingiteldersforgevariousinterpretationsof shamanism–generatinghistoricalaccountswhichchallengethe ideaoftheinferiorityofAboriginalTlingitreligiontoChristianity.
SurvivalsandIntegrations,1917–1940
Thestories,whichtheycontinuallyreshapeinthefaceofcurrent events,vehementlyopposeEuropeanaccountsoftheirhistory. AlthoughtheTlingitacceptedmanyWesternideas,theyhave incorporatedwithintheirvisionofthepast.13 Alongwithabidingfaithinthepowersandbenefitsof medicinemen,thebeliefinthepowerofThunderbirds(pinesi) isprevalentamongpeopleintheBerensRivercommunity.Fred Baptiste,passionateinhisexpressionsofChristianfaith,wasalso passionateabouttheThunderbirdfeatherheonceowned.Percy Berenswasequallyvocalabouthisbeliefinthesepawáganak. “Thunderbirds?Oh,yeah.Ibelievethat.Ifullybelieve.It’sa bird!It’sabird.YoushouldgotoPoplarRiver[toseetheirnestof boulders].Whitepeopledon’tbelieveit’sabird,aThunderbird, theydon’tbelieveonthat.ButweIndiansabsolutelybelievethat’s abird.”14Percywascomfortablewithbelievinginsomethingin which“whitepeople”expressdisbeliefand,inthecaseofthe missionaries,evencontemptandrepulsion.Heandtheother OjibwawithwhomIspokewerenotsimplyspoutingpromissionaryrhetoric,fearfulofconfessingbeliefinanythingthat wasnotontheChristianpath. PercyexplainedthattoJenniferBrownandMaureen Matthews. J.B. SotheThunderbirdsmovedaway? P.B. Theymoved,Iguess.Toomuchtravellingonthatlake.… Ifyou’reonthenorthendofthatlake,Iwas,andyoulook throughonaclearday,looktowardsthewestendthere,it’s justlikethatplaceabovealltherest.Themainshoreishere, like–andthatthunderwheretheThunderbirdsusedtonest iswayuphigherthanthat. J.B. Didtheygoawaypartlybecauseofairplanesandthingslike that? P.B. Iguessso.Andthebushfiresusedtobeonthatlakeallthe timeandforestplaneswouldbethereallthetime.Maybe that’swhythey’regone.
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Thunderbirdsareimportantspiritbeingsintheworldviewsof mostCanadianNativepeoples.Thegiganticbirdsmigrateduring thespringandfall,enshroudedinmist.Appearingasbirdsor ashumanbeings,theThunderbirdsarespiritualguardianswith whomhumanbeingscancommunicate.Theycangiveblessings andtheycankill.Typically,thereexists,withinAboriginalworld views,enormousflexibilityregardingthephysicalappearance oftheseother-than-humanbeings.Thisisalso,inpart,because Thunderbirdsusuallyappearonlyindreams–inpersonaland secretexchanges.15 RogerRouletteisanOjibwafromsouthernManitoba.His fatherwasamedicineman.Heexplainedtheenormouspowerof ThunderbirdstoMaureenMatthews,saying,“Theyhavealmost absoluterule.Theycantakeyourlife,too.Idon’tknowofany otherspiritualentitythatiscapableofdoingthat.Ifaperson choosesnottounderstand,that’stoobadforthem.Because wedo.…Theyareforemostandmostfierceguardians.Those aretheoneswhogivegiftstohumanity.Themostgiftedhave connectionswiththeThunderbirds.”16“They’rethere,”explained MargaretSimmons,WilliamBerens’sgranddaughter,“Go;look attheclouds.Youhearthem;youseethelightning;youseethe dark,black,ominouscloudsandthey’rethere.Theyjustexist.”17 ItisparamounttotreatThunderbirdswithutmostrespect. Theyliketosmoketobacco,whichisofferedtothembyhuman beingswholightapipeforthem.MargaretSimmonsremembered thatasachild,whenthefamilyheardThunderbirdscoming, everyonewentinsidetositquietly.HarrietBear,anOjibwa woman,livesatBrokenhead,areservejustnorthofWinnipeg. Shetooremembered:“Wewerenotallowedtoplayoutside… Reverence…isgiventothepassingoftheThunderers.Youmust covereverything,soyoudon’tactasanimposterofthepowerof theThuderbirds,theThuderers.That’swhythingsarecovered, likeglassandmetal.That’soneofthemainOjibwarules.”18 WhenaskedifhefearsThunderbirds,Percyresponded: No.No,Idon’t.Iknowlotsofpeopledo.Eventheyjustputblinds ontheirwindowswhenthere’sathunderstorm.Old-timersusedto
SurvivalsandIntegrations,1917–1940
bereallyreallyafraidof–mymom,myself,mymomusedtocover upallthewindowsandallthemirrorsinthehouse,usedtocover themallupwhenthere’sathunderstorm.19
AsRogerRoulettesaid,itisonlythemostgiftedpeoplewhocan hearThunderbirds.Thegreatmedicineman,FairWind,hada specialbondwithThunderbirds.JohnJamesEverett,oneofA. IrvingHallowell’sOjibwaassistants,toldtheanthropologistabout aneventthatoccurredduringastormatPauingassiaround1912. FairWindandhiswife,Koowin,wereinatentwhenagreatpeal ofthundersounded.HeexplainedtoKoowinthataThunderbird hadjustaskedhim“whetherhehadapipeandwhydon’tIgive himasmoke.”KoowinfetchedFairWind’spipewhichanoskabewis (servant)lit.Afterafewpuffs,themedicinemanliftedthepipe abovehisheadandswungitinaclockwisedirection.Heprayed and“askedpardonfromthethunder–pleadingforhimself.”Everett realizedthat“pinesimusthavebeenhispawágan.”Hallowell,too, concludedthatthismusthavebeenso,sincethunderwouldnot otherwisehavecommunicatedwithFairWind.20 GordonBerens,Percy’sbrother,whobecameaUnitedChurch ministerlateinlife,wasanotherofthosegiftedpeoplewhocan communicatedirectlywithThunderbirds.Thisseemstohave beenlinked,inpart,withthespecialtieshesharedwithhis grandfather,Jacob. Iwasababyforhim,mygrandfather.Thatoldfellowsawalotof me.Iknowalotofwhitepeopledon’tbelievetheoldIndianways. Theold–mygrandpa–blessedmewithThunders,Thunderbirds. Yeah,heblessedmewithaThunderbirdandtherewasonetime, Iwasoutatasandbarpickingstrawberries–sothattime,there wasabigthunderstorm.Rainpoureddown.Iwasoutpicking strawberries.WhileIstoodout,like,wehadatalk–whileIstood out–andIholdupmyhandlikethat.“That’senough!That’s enough!Letitstop,”Isaid,“letitstopbecause,”Isaid,“you’re goingtoweteverybodyexceptme.”Thatrainjuststoppedlike that.Andnoneofmyhairwaswet.…TheThunderbirdsblessedme.
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And:
[Whenmymotherwentintolabour]Thunder! Thunderstormcamesoheavyandmydadputdowntwo tentsontopoftheother.AndwhenIwasborn,thewater poureddownthemtwotentsjustlikeasiftheywasno coveratall,excepttheplacewheremyMomwaslying,not adrop.Notadropofrain.Buttherestofitwasjustpouring downbetweenthemtwotentsbypailfulsyousee,but wheremymomwaslying,norainatall.Ohyes,mymom oftenusedtotellmeaboutit.Mydaddidtoo,soIguess that’swhyI’mstillalivetoday. M.M.Whentherewasthunder,couldyouheartheThunderbirds talking? G.B. Well,ofcourseIdo.…Youknow,alotofpeopledon’t believeme.Whenathunderstormcomes,Iknowwhatit is,buttrytotellthem,theywon’tbelieveit.SoIjustkeep ittomyself.Itrieditonceandtheywouldn’tbelieveme.I said“That’sall.You’refinished.Iwon’tinterpretnomore.I won’tinterpretnomoreifyoudon’tbelievewhatIinterpret thistime,”Isays.…ButIunderstandthem.Icantalkto theminmyownlanguageandtheyunderstandme.IfIsay [to]abigthunderstorm“That’senough!Youscarethekids. Youscarethechildren.That’senough[softly]!”Thunder justtalklikethat,yeah. J.B. Didyoulearnalotfromyourgrandfather,fromJacob? G.B. Oh,Idid–Idid.Oh,Iwasn’ttooold,butIlearnedalot. Heusedtotellme“That’sgoingtohappen.”Hepredict thingsaheadoftime.Andthatalwayscametrue.Hesays “Remember,that’sgoingtohappen.WhatI’mtellingyou, I’mpredictingnow,”hesays“you’llrememberassoon asyou,assoonasyouhearthethunder,”hesays“you’ll understand.”Yeah,thathappened.Stillhappenstomelike that.Stillhappens.21
SurvivalsandIntegrations,1917–1940
Afterfiftyyearsofmissionaryencounters,Ojibwabeliefsremained strongatLittleGrandRapidsinthe1930s.JustasLutherSchuetze andFrederickLeachrecalleddrumminggoingonatthebedsides ofsickpeople,soJohnNiddrierememberedthecommunityas“a strongholdofpaganism,andateventide,thesoundoftheconjurors’ drumscouldbeheardinalldirections.”22Leachrememberedmuch illnessthereduringthe1920sand1930sandcommented,“on occasionstherewaslittlecooperationfromtheparentsorpatient; …manypreferredIndianremediestothewhiteman’s.”23And: WhenwewerestationedatLittleGrandRapidsweheardthe beatingofdrumsquiteoften.Attimes,itwouldbethe“medicineman”drummingafterhehadbeencalledouttogiveherbsto apatient.This…wassupposedtoincreasetheefficacyofhis medicine.24
ThefearofwindigoswasstilltangibleamongChristianaswellas non-ChristianOjibwaatLittleGrandRapidsinthelate1920s. In1929,themembersoftheUnitedChurchsawtheirfirst Christmastree,inLutherSchuetze’schurch.Theyalsogottheir firstexposuretotheideaofSantaClaus.Whenthemissionary explainedthatSantaisastrangerwhoarriveswithpresents,the reactionwasstrong.ToShuetze’ssurprise,everyone“panickedas theyweredeathlyafraidofstrangersandhadthemostweirdstories aboutstrangersoftenbeingwindigoe…whooftenkilledand ateupsomeofthenativepeoples,itseemedayearlyoccurrence withthemthatsomeonesawastrangersomewhereanditmost likelywouldbeawindigoe,theywouldallpackupandmove.”25 Schuetze,atthispoint,hadnoideahowstrongtheirfearswere. HeexplainedthatSantawouldarriveatthechurchandwouldbe accompaniedbythesoundofbells.OnChristmasEve,hedressed uptherangerfromEagleLakeasSantaClaus.“Ihaveneverseen anythinglikewhathappenedwhenthosebellsjingledandthedoor opened.ThewholeCongregationallsittingonthoselogbenches disappearedunderthem,howtheydidit,Idon’tknow…there weresomerealstoutwomen.”26Schuetze’sattemptatlighthumour
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notwithstanding,itisclearthathisparishionerswerenotgivingup theirbeliefswhiletheyweretakingonMethodism. Schuetzealsotoldanotherstorywhichwasmeanttogently scoffatthephenomenonofwindigosandshowthattheIndiansat LittleGrandRapidswere“Gradually…emergingfromtheyoke ofsuperstitionandfear.” 27Itseemstosuggestmore,however, abouttheprevalenceoftheOjibwaworldviewinthiscommunity. ThechiefofLittleGrandRapidsandhisbrotherwerepaddling acanoeonPauingassiLake.Suddenly,thebrotherthoughthe sawawindigo,andsaidtheyshouldleaveimmediatelyandgo hometowarnothers:“thechiefwasfollowingsuit,andthen saidherememberedwhatIhadsaidinoneofmysermons,that theyshouldalwaysmakecertainofanythingbeforetheyspreada falserumour,sounderhisbrother’sprotest,hesteeredthecanoe closer,andfounditwasatreestump.” 28Inthisinstance,the availabilityoftwoalternativeframesofreferencegaveanadded scopeforOjibwaempiricism. Christianityandnativeworldviewssometimesmelded powerfullywhenCreeandOjibwafoundthemselvesundersevere stress.WritingfromFisherRiver,F.G.Stevenscomplainedto MethodistmissionaryJ.A.C.Kell,whowasstationedatOxford House,in1927,“NowheredoIfindmuchstability.TheHartMuskegopeoplewerepagansinthebushandChristiansatthe mission.Theothers,ontheotherside,werenotmuchforpagan customsbutIalwaysfindthatwhenthesituationbecomes desperatethatmostfinddowndeepintheirheartsomepaganism. ThisIfoundoutatOxfordHouseasIdohereandeverywhere.” 29 Anexampleofsuchadesperatesituationoccurredamong theIndiansatDeerLakein1918.F.G.Stevenshadjustleftthat communitytoreturntoOxfordHousewhenamanbecamevery illandcouldnotbecured.Stevenswroteinhismemoirs: Allthetime,someoftheoldermenwerejustovertheborder betweenpaganismandChristianity.Othermeansfailingthem, theybroughtouttheirdrums.Themandied.Thentheywerevery muchafraidofwhatthey’ddone.Thatwastheyearofthe“flu”
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andalthough…noneofthemtookit,theywereexcitedallwinter. Moreorlessconjuringwentonallthenextspring.Notallofthem turnedbacktopaganism.AdamFiddlerremainedfaithful.30
TheDeerLakeIndianswereinafrighteningsituation.Awarethat peopleinmanycommunitiesweredyingoftheepidemic,they wereprobablyusingallpossiblemeansavailabletoseethemselves throughacrisis,ratherthansimplyabandoningChristianity. Althoughthepeoplewereangryoverhavingbeenwithouta missionaryduringthistime(Stevenswrotethathehadbeen warnedthatifhereturnedtoDeerLakehewouldbeshot),they allappearedatchurchinthesummerof1919–presumablywith AdamFiddlerpresiding.WhenStevensarrivedhefoundamixture ofresponsesthatrangedfromfurious(“Ihadadesperatetimewith these”)to“Steadfastandfaithful.”Stevensreported,however,that he“masteredthemall”;heleftDeerLakesafelyanddidnotreturn fortwenty-oneyears. A1928articleentitled“Wetigoes–OrWhat?”,writtenby Kell,providesanexcellentexample. 31AgroupofIndianscameto callonKellatOxfordHouse. “DonaldWoodhasbeenbroughtinfromhiscamptotheChief’s house.Heisafraidthatheisgoingcrazyandwantsyoutogivehim theSacrament.”That…soundedsimple…butwasit?Itwasmore thanhalfacenturysinceOxfordHouseIndiansfinallyrenounced theirpaganbeliefsandpracticesoftheirancestorsand,asa community,acceptedChristianity.Forawhiletheirenthusiasm andthenoveltyofthisnewwayofliving[upliftedthem].But itisnotreasonabletoexpectthataprimitivepeoplecanintwo generationscastofftheinstincts,superstitionsandprejudices inheritedfrommanygenerationsofpaganancestors.Atpresent… some…areleadinggoodChristianlives,butmanyaresemi-pagan andsemi-Christian.TheyrealisethepowerofGodbutcannotlose theirfearofevilspiritsandmedicinemen.32
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KellexplainedthatDonaldWoodwasanexcellentbushman, addingthatthiswasaninheritedtraitaswashisvulnerabilityto superstition.Woodandhissonhadexperiencedproblemswith theirhealth.“Consequently,beingnaturallyofasuperstitious nature…[Wood]firmlybelievesthathismisfortunesaredueto evilspirits.Hehasnowgotitintohisheadthattheonlyremedy istheSacrament,whichheregardsassuperiormedicine,ableto counteractevilinfluences.”33Thispassagetellsofacomfortableand meaningfulintegrationofCreeandChristianreligiousideasonthe partofDonaldWood. Inanotherpieceentitled“TheSocialOrganizationofthe NorthernCree,”Kellwrote: TheeffectofChristianityonthesepeopleisdifficulttogauge… asonlyveryfewhaveunderstoodthemeaningofChristianity… unfortunately[exceptforafewcases]thegreatmajorityofIndians areonlyhalfChristianandhalfpagan.Theystillbelieveinbad medicineandwetigoesbuthavetheirchildrenbaptized,attend churchandpray,presumablytotheChristianGod.Alongwith theirfearsoftheirownoldsuperstitionstheyaddfearsofthedevil andofhell.They…alternatebetweenperiodsofgreatcarelessness andmoralrecklessnessandperiodsofpenitenceandself-nourished sanctity.34
ForAboriginalpeoplesworldwide,complexintegrationsand nuancedsyncreticphenomenaemergefromtheunionoftraditional worldviewswithChristianity.AsJeanandJohnComaroffexplain, “livedrealitiesdefyeasydualisms…worldseverywhereare complexfusionsofwhatweliketocallmodernitywithmagicality, rationalityandritual.…Infact,ourstudiesoftheSouthernTswana have…proved…thatnoneofthesewereopposedinthefirstplace –except,perhaps,inthecolonizingimagination…”35 PoignantexamplesofthisphenomenaarefoundacrossNorth America.TheReverandPeterJones,MississaugaMethodist leaderofNewCreditmission,southernOntario,inthefirst halfofthenineteenthcentury,marriedaBritishwomanand
SurvivalsandIntegrations,1917–1940
movedcompletelyinEuropeansociety;yet,aswastrueforthe Lakotaleader,BlackElk,histraditionallifewayswereongoing pointsofreference.Hekepttheeaglefeatherfromhisnaming ceremony,wasproudofhiseagletotem,fastedbeforeperforming importantGospelsermons,continuallylentmoneytodestitute Indians,madebusinessagreementsorally,gavehissonsenormous freedomduringtheirchildhoods,andbelievedtohisdeathin thesuperiorityofNativemedicines.ThoseMississaugatowhom heministeredalsoblendedoldandnewbeliefs.AtPeterJones’s deathbed,theyprayedtotheChristianGod–butmadesureto haveanIndiandoctorinattendance. 36 RaymondDeMallieandDouglasParksfound,inthe1980s, greatdiversityofreligiouspracticesonSiouxreservations, reflectingavarietyofinteractionsbetweenChristianityand indigenousreligion.SomeSiouxgroupshaveamalgamated thetwoandothergroupskeepthemseparate.Buttraditional religiousbeliefsandpracticesenduretosomeextentinevery Siouxcommunity.Theseinclude:thepipe,thesweatlodge,the individualsacrificeofthevisionquests,thecollectivesacrificeof thesundance,andthehealingandconjuringritesoftheyuwipi. Inmoderntimes,Siouxpeopleareexperiencingareawakening oftheirtraditionalreligiousroots.Atthesametime,many Sioux,whilerecoveringtheirheritage,retaintheirmembership andbeliefinsomeChristiandenomination.Theyseenoconflict betweenChristianityandtraditionalreligiousrites. 37 InhisarticleontheReverendGeorgeBarnleyandthe JamesBayCree,JohnS.LongshowsthatwhiletheIndians demonstratedasincereinterestinChristianityandincorporated ChristianritesandEuropeannamesthesewere“essentially additionstoCreeculturewhichneednothavereplacedor threatenedtradition...”Untilthetwentieth-centuryeconomy impactedtheirsociety,theJamesBayCree“couldchooseto behaveaschurch-goingChristianswhileatthepostforafew weeks,anddoastheypleasedwhiledispersedintheirhunting andfishingcamps.” 38
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Ontheinternationalfront,someamazingexamplesof integrationsandsyncretismcanbefound.Alandmarkstudyby TerrenceRangerlookedatgroupsinlate-nineteenth-century CentralAfrica.Hefoundevidenceofgeneralopennesstonew myths,rites,symbols,andtechniquesalthoughthisopennessdid notnecessarilyimplythattherewasalwaysharmonybetween Africangroups.Rather,thesebandsweregenerallyreadyto takeonnewideasandrespectshownforthespiritualpowerof outsiders.ItwastheEnglishProtestantandCatholicmissionaries wholookedforhostilitybecausetheyhadanexclusiveviewofthe encounters,expectingonereligionortheothertowinout.Very fewAfricanreligiousspokesmenhadsuchanattitude.Theywere notonlyborrowingfromChristianityinordertodevelopand copewithchangingsituations–whenthemissionariesarrived, Africanreligionsweredevelopingconceptsofthehighgodand seekingfromwithintheirownresourcestomeetanever-changing world. Indeed,onsomefronts,Christianitywastoolimitedtooffer effectivesolutionstothekindsofproblemswithwhichAfrican groupsweretryingtocope.Forexample,Africanreligiousleaders weresearchingfornewways–orseekingtostrengthencurrent ways–ofdealingwithwitchcraftandevil.Sometimes,they lookedtomissionariesandChristianityaseffectivecleansers; forexample,Ufipacharmswerepiledfordestructionatthefeet ofRomanCatholicpriests;theLalahadhopesofacleansing millennium;innorthernNyasaland,movementsofrevivalin Scottishmissionsarousedhopesfortheeradicationofwitchcraft; andinNewala(southernTanzania),thechiefsoughtmissionary helpforwitchcraftproblems.Overthecourseofthenineteenth century,however,African’sdecidedthatthemissionarieswere notpreparedtoexercisespiritualpowerinwaysthatwouldtruly disempowerwitchcraft.Althoughdifferentmissionsdealtwith witchcraftindifferentways,Christiansgenerallytackledthe problembyemphasizingconfidenceinthepowerofGod.Bythat time,Christianchurchesnolongersawthemselvesasoperatingin aworldofcauseandeffect–theageofmiraclesandexorcismhad
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ended.CentralAfricanreligionswere,thus,leftontheirownto workoutsolutionstowitchcraftandcleansing. 39 AtBerensRiver,wefindarichhistoryinvolvingthe integrationsoftwoworldviews.GordonBerenswasclearthat hisbrother,Percy,acquiredhisspecialhuntingpowersfrom theMemegwesiwagandthatFairWindderivedhisamazinggifts fromtheThunderbirds.Hisdiscussionofhowheandhisfather combinedChristianwithOjibwaconceptsisenlightening. Well,itcombinestogether.That’stherealwaytosay.Thereal truewordtouse,combinetogether.Churchandtheotherbelief combinestogetherlikeone.Sothechurchbelievesthepeople andthepeoplebelievesthechurch,bothways,like.Sothere’s noproblem.There’saconnection,like,thatcouldn’tbreakoff betweentheoldIndianwaysandthepresentbelief.Thetwo beliefsareconnectedtogether,justlikeone.…Botharetrue.Both waysaretrue.TheIndianwaysaretrueandthewhitemanbelief istrue,soit’shardtobreakthetwolinks.40
WhileOjibwapeoplehadnoproblemintegratingideasinaneffort toexpandtheirknowledgeandpower,GordonBerensknewthat thesamewasnottrueofEuro-Canadians. Theytriedtothrowitaway,theytriedtodestroytheIndian way.…Alotofwhitepeopledon’tbelieveanIndianbeliefanda whitemanbeliefarejustlikeone.Theycan’tbreaktheIndianway fromthewhiteman,thewhitepeople’sway.41
ForGordonBerens,theOjibwaandChristianworldviewsare inextricablylinkedwithinhisbeing.Thisintegrationwasthebasis ofthestructureofmeaningandbeliefforhim. “You’llneverbeawhiteman,”Isays[tohisnephew].“Irespect thewhiteman’sway,“Isaid,“butIstillholdon[to]myIndian ways,”Isaid.“Justlikeone,mywayandthewhiteman’sway.I believehiswaysandIbelievemyways”.…AndIsays,“There’sa
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linkthat’llneverbebrokenapart.Thewhiteman’swayandan Indianway.…I’vehadmydreamsalltheseyearsandI’vebeen withthewhitepeoplemorethanIdowithmyownpeopleand that’swhatIsay.Bothwaysarelinkedtogether.”42
Gordon’sreferencetotheongoingimportanceofhisdreamswas equallysignificant.Dreamsandvisionsasvehiclesofprediction, andbringersofclarityaresuchimportantpartsoftheOjibwa worldviewthattheycarryoverstronglyintoOjibwaChristianity. Inthe1930s,WilliamBerensdescribedavisiontoA.Irving HallowellthatpresentsanotherstrikingexampleofChristianity weddedtoSaulteauxbelief.Theapparitioninthismystical foreshadowingwasclearlyanangel: MywifeandIwenttobedaboutthesametimeasusualonenight butIdidnotfallasleepatonce.Myheadwasturnedtowardsthe doorleadingtothekitchenandallofasuddenIsawawoman standingthere.Shewasslender,dressedinwhiteandhadgolden hairthatfelltohershoulders.Icaughtaglimpseofwingsspringing fromherback.Itrembledallover,Iwassoscared.ButImanaged tonudgemywifewithmyelbow.Shehadgonetosleepbutturned overatthis.WhenIlookedagainIcouldnotseetheangel,forthat iswhatthefigureseemedtobe.AllIcouldseewassomething mistylikeacloud.MywifesawnothingbutItoldherwhatIhad seen.Iwonderedwhatwasgoingtohappen.Thenextday,which wasSunday,mybossdroveupwithhisdogteam.Hesaidthathe wasonhiswaytoBerensRiverandaskedmetogoalongwithhim. ItoldhimthatIwasnotpreparedtogoandthatIhadnogrub.But heinsisted.SoIgotreadyandwentwithhim.Whenwearrived atBerensRiverImetmybrother-in-law.Hetoldmemysister wasveryill.Shehadbeencontinuallyaskingforme.Theywere eventhinkingofsendingadogtrainformebuttheycouldnotget one.IstayedatBerensRiverfortendays.Mysistergrewworse andworse.Thenshedied.Iwasgettingworriedbutmyboss,who hadreturnedfromatripuptheriverbythistime,setmymindat rest.Hetoldmethathewasgladhehadbroughtmealongsothat
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Iwasabletobewithmysisterthelastdaysofherlife.Itwasvery strangethatheaskedmebecausehedidnotseemtohaveanygood reason,exceptthathewantedcompany.YetIgotthereintime althoughIdidnotevenknowmysisterwassickwhenIstarted.43
Similarly,WalterGreen,asnotedearlier,hadadreaminwhich aChristianangelappearedtohimandtaughthimhowtoplay theorgan.44LikeGordon,Walterfounditperfectlynaturalto linkChristianandOjibwabeliefs.Iaskedhimabouthisthoughts regardingtheexpectationsofmissionariesthatconvertsshould layasideOjibwabeliefs.Helaughed,saying,“Ithinktheyhadthe wrongfeeling.Theministersshouldhavegonefirstandseenif whethertherewasanythingbadthere.Thisisjustwhatthepeople believe–that’stheirbelief–eitherthey’regoingoutorsomebody’s leaving–sothey’llcomebacktothesamewaytheylived.”45 S.G. IsittruethatyoucanbelieveinChristandbeamemberof aChristianchurchliketheUnitedChurchandstillbelieve indoingthedrumdancesanddoingtheshakingtent? W.G.Ohyes!AndwhenSundaycomes,it’saspecialday.46
DreamsandvisionshaveplayedintegralrolesinWalter’slife.He describedanothervisionhehadhadduringtheprevioussummer: IwasalonehereinJuneandthenIgotaverybadcold.Icouldn’t sleepatnights,Icouldn’tlaydown.…AndthenIhadadream–it wasn’tadream,itwasavision.Therewassomebodysittingby thedoorway–onachairbythedoorway–lookingatme;andI wasturningoverandover,tryingtosleep.Andthatwasthefirst night.Then,whenthemorningcame,beforesunrise,itwasgone. ThenthenextnightIwasfeelingalittlebetter,Icouldsleepfor awhile,thengetupandgobacktobedforalittlewhile.Andthe samepersoncameback–andtheyweresittingclosertomybed thanonthefirstnight.Thenbeforesunrisehewasgone.Itwasa man.Thatnight,Iwasalotbetter,Iwasn’tcoughingatnighttime, Icouldsleepgood.Andthatthirdnighthecameback–hewas
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sittingattheendofmybed.Andbeforesunrisehewasgone.SoI toldthistoaPentecostalminister.Doyouknowwhathetoldme? Hesaid,“Somebody’stakingcareofyou–fromGod.”Iwastelling himthatIknownowthere’ssomebodywithmehere,I’mnot alone.Imusthavegotblessed.AndnowI’mneverfrightened.Now Ineverhaveanytroubleoffearthatanythingwillhappenwhen I’msleeping.Idon’tthinkaboutit,Igotobedandsleep.47
Walter,duringatimeofstressandillness,experiencedincreased powersofprotectionthroughacombinationofOjibwaand Christianideology.HisexperienceofavisionisclearlyOjibwa. Atthesametime,theideathathisvisitorhadbeensentbythe ChristianGodmadesensetohimandfeltbelievableandgood. AfewdaysbeforeImethim,FredBaptistehadattended thefuneralofanoldfriend.Whathedidthereisanexampleof syncretism,afusionofculturaltraditions: F.B. LiketheotherdayIwaslookingatthatpictureonthewall there[pointstoalargecolourprintoftheLastSupper].I wenttothelastservicesforAlecMcKay.Andtheysaythey representthis[theLastSupper].Itookapieceofcakein apieceofkleenexandIgotup.Theyweretalkingabout JesuswiththislastsupperhehadwiththeDisciplesbefore hegoestoHeaven.“There’sapieceofcakeinthiskleenex,” Isays“you’realwaystalkingaboutJesushavingtheLast Supper.NowI’mgoingtoputthiscakewhereAleccan –insidehiscoffin.We’rehavingtheLastSupperwithAlec –hisbodyisgoingdownintothegrave.”Iknowsomedidn’t likeit. S.G. Youputthatcakeinhiscoffinbecause,intheLastSupper, Christateforalasttime? F.B. Yes.…IwashavingthelastsupperwithAlecbeforehegoes downintothegrave–hesaidwhenhegoeshome[tothe afterlife]he’sgoingtotellotherpeople[spiritsofthedead] thatIdidthat. S.G. Wheredidyougettheideatodothat?
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F.B. Throughthat[pointstothepicture]andfromreadingthe Bible.Iwasjustthinkingaboutthis,youknow.Ididthat before,thiswasthesecondtimeIdidthat[Fredhadplaced foodinsideacoffinatapreviousfuneral].48
TheChristianideaoftheLastSupperconvergedinhismindwith theOjibwacustomofplacingarticlessuchasfoodandtobaccoon graves.A.IrvingHallowellspeculatedthat“Indianswhoadhere tothenativeconceptsoflifeafterdeath…mustfeelmuchless remotefromthespiritsofthedeadthandomostwhohave… capitulatedtoChristiannotions.”49Christianitydoesnot(except inthecaseofCatholicsprayingtosaints)allowforcommunication withthedead.TraditionalOjibwas,incontrast,heldthatfoodand tobaccoshouldbeplacedandreplacedongravessubsequentto burial,toaidthejourneyofthedjibaiorspiritofthedeadperson, andtoprovideforcontinuedvisitsfromtheliving. 50 By1926,ChristianityatBerensRiverhadgrownstrongroots. YetasLeachwrotetohisfatherprovincialinSt.Boniface,“We saythattheIndiansarefarmorecivilizedthaninyearsgoneby. Itistrue,buthowtheydoclingtosomeoftheiroldcustoms.” 51 TheOjibwawereclearlyincorporatingChristianelementsinto theirlives,hencetheassessmentthattheyweremore“civilized,” butLeachwouldhavebeenevenmoreimpressedhadhelooked harderforChristianelementsintegratedwithinthe“cling[ing]to oldcustoms.” PercyBerenswassometimesfrustratedatthelimitationsof Euro-NorthAmericanstothinkandbelieveinawidescope.This cameoutduringadiscussionaboutThunderbirds. P.B. Wellthewhitepeopledon’tbelieveinnothingatall!I mightjustsaythat.Theydon’tbelieveinnothingatall.Not likeweIndians–becauseourancestorsbelievedonallthese things.Andthenwe’restartingtoseeit’strue–andthenwe believeit.LiketheseThunderbirdsnow,theIndiansbelieve fromalongtimethatit’sabird. S.G. SotheyhavetheThunderbirdsandtheBible.
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P.B. Yeah!ButtheBibleisbest.Ifyoureallyexplainittoan Indian,whattheBiblereallymeansandwhat’sintheBible, theScriptures,like,thenthey’llbeabletobelieveit,see? S.G. Butit’sokaytobelieveintheBibleandtheThunderbirds? P.B. Yeah!Sure! S.G. Why? P.B. Whynot?Ifwedidn’thaveThunderbirds,maybewewould neverhavehadnorain!Andthewholeearthwouldbe justdriedup.Andthenwherearewegoingtobe?Don’t youknow,youwhitepeople,don’tyouknowenoughthat everythingGodcreatedmeantsomethingtothepeopleand tothebeastsoftheearth? S.G. SomewhitepeoplesayyoushouldbelieveintheBible butthatyoushouldn’tbelieveintheabilitytoconjureor inThunderbirds.ButyousayyoucanbelieveintheBible andyoucanbelieveintheThunderbirds.Sohowcomethe Indiansaredifferentfromthewhitepeoplethatway? P.B. That’sveryeasytoanswerthatquestion.Becausethe Indiansaresmart,clever–butthewhitemanisstupid, ignorant.[Laughs.]Isn’tthatcorrectenough?Sure!We believe.52
BerensRiverOjibwaflexibilityaboutreligionwasearlymanifested inwillingnesstopartakeofeventsinbothCatholicandProtestant churches.Oncethetwomissionshadearnedsomeconfidenceand acceptanceamongthepeople,theseSaulteauxseemtohavemoved fairlyfreelybetweenthetwo,althoughtheydidmaintainaloyalty tothechurchinwhichtheyhadbeenbaptized.Forexample,the CatholicJohnEdwardEverettrememberedtheMethodistNiddrie as“abigminister,akindminister.…There’sbeenmanytimessince thatI’vesaid‘God,IwishwehadaministerlikeMr.Niddrie.’A kindnaturedperson.”53WhenaskedwhetherheattendedNiddrie’s churchservices,hereplied“Yes!Don’tyouknowthere’soneGod? Itdoesn’tmatter.I’maCatholic.God,soloveus–wehaveto go!”54
SurvivalsandIntegrations,1917–1940
AlthoughPercyBerenswasclearlypartialtotheUnited Church,heshowstypicalOjibwaflexibilityinexplainingwhythe BerensRiverpeopleattendedtheservicesofbothdenominations. BecausetheIndiansknowenoughtoknowwhyChristwasborn –soitdidn’tmakenodifferencewhichchurchtheygo.…They wantedtocelebratethebirthofChrist.See,itdidn’tmatterwhere theygo.SamewiththeCatholics–theycouldgototheUnited ChurchonChristmasservicebecausethat’swhatthatministerdid –notonlyonChristmas–alsoonordinarySundays.55
VirginiaMcKay,aCatholic,marriedTomBoulanger,aProtestant CreemanfromOxfordHouse,on25September1925.FatherDe GrandpréofficiatedattheservicewhichwasheldattheBerens RiverRomanCatholicChurch. S.G. AlthoughyouwereaCatholic,didyoueverattendservices intheMethodistchurch? V.B. Ohyes–toheartheBible,youknow? S.G. WhywasitimportanttolistentotheBible? V.B. Becausetheywantedkids,like,toknowabouteverything. S.G. DidyoulikeattendingservicesattheMethodistchurch? V.B. Ohyes–becausemyhusbandwasProtestant. S.G. SoyoumarriedaProtestant? V.B. HewenttotheProtestantchurchandgotbaptizedthere. HewasnotaCatholicbutwegotmarriedattheCatholic church. S.G. HowdidyourparentsfeelaboutyoumarryingaProtestant? V.B. Theydidn’twanttoletme,Iguess.Theywantedthe childrentogototheCatholicChurch. S.G. DidtheycarethatTom,himself,wasn’taCatholic? V.B. No,theydidn’tcare–there’sonlyoneGod.There’sonly onedoor,too,inHeaven,theysay. S.G. WhenyoumetTomandthenfoundoutthathewasn’ta Catholic,howdidyoufeelaboutthat? V.B. Nothing,Ididn’tfeelnothing.
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S.G. Soafteryougotmarriedwhichchurchdidyougoto–did yougotoboth? V.B. Yeah,sometimeshewouldgowithmetotheCatholic Church,sometimestheother.56
Insum,ChristianandOjibwabeliefsstillcombine,tovarying degrees,inthemindsofmanyindividualsinfluencedbytheBerens Rivermissions.ThesincerityoftheirChristianityandthereality oftheirOjibwaworldviewhaveremainedinevidenceandthe presenceofonehasnotdetractedfromthemeaningorvalueofthe other.
7
“IWillFearNoEvil” Conclusions
WhentworeligionsmetalongtheBerens River,OjibwapeopleacceptedelementsofChristianityandwove selectedMethodistorRomanCatholicthreadsintotherichcloth oftheirworldview.Whichthreadsdidtheyselect?Whichdid theyreject,andwhy?Howdidtheyblendthem?Alongwith theChristianitythatsustainedthemintheirday-to-daylife,the individualsImetretainedabeliefinsuchOjibwabeliefsasthe Thunderbirdsandthepowerofmedicinemenandconjurors, aswellasindreamsasvehiclesofprediction,guidance,and foreshadowing.Aswell,manybeliefsandideassharedbetween thesetworeligionsfacilitatedtheintegrationofChristianitywith traditionalOjibwaconcepts.Strivingforhonesty,beinghelpful,not hurtingothers/doinguntootherswhatanindividualwouldhave doneuntothem,thepowerofbelief,andtheforgivenessofsins inthefaceofconfessionandrepentanceareafewofthecommon threadsinboththeteachingsofChristandtheOjibwabelief structure. Ojibwapeople,uponconversion,hadnointentionofgiving upthepowertheyalreadycouldreceiveasgiftsfromother-thanhumanspirits.Rather,theyoftenlookedtoChristianityasa meansofaddingtotheirrepertoire–ofaddinganotherlayerof armourthatcouldprotectthemfromevilandbringthemcloser toasecureandhappylife.Whenthemissionariesdictatedthat conversiontoChristianityentailedcompletetransformationand thecastingoffofoldways,Ojibwapeopledidnotunderstand–
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nordidtheywishtounderstand–theseimposedlimitations.Why giveupthingsthatarealreadyworkingwellandarebeneficial? Beliefinthepowersoftheshakingtent,aritestillpractised atLittleGrandRapidsduringmuchofthisperiod,isanexcellent exampleofOjibwaChristiansretainingimportantelements oftheirtraditionalreligion.Thisceremonyhascurativeand clairvoyantfunctions,asHallowelllearned,observingitsuseon theupperBerensRiverinthe1930s.Inthecaseofhealing,ithas oftenbeenusedtodiscoverthehiddencausesofillnessaswellas forproducingacure.Forexample,didtheillnesscomeaboutasa resultofsorcery,orbecauseofthemoraltransgressionsoftheill person?Ifthelatteristrue,untilthetransgressionisknownanda confessionismadetotheshaman,nomedicinecanbeofuse.1 Aswell,theconceptofpersonalrelationshipsbetween individualsandthedivinehaveprovidedabridgebetweenOjibwa andChristianworldviews.Methodismembodiestheprinciple ofapersonalrelationshipbetweenGodandtheindividual. Certainly,oneoftheprimarysocialfunctionsoftheshakingtent istopersonalizespiritsandincreaseintimacybetweenthemand theaudience.2Intheseways,bothreligionscontainamechanism thatgeneratesasenseofsafetyandconfidenceinfacinglife’s dangers. Conjuringmayimplicitlyhavereinforcedtheconceptofahigh godthroughitsconspicuousabsenceintheshakingtent–this Beingistheonlyother-than-humanentitythatisneverpresent duringtheserituals;anditandotherceremoniessharedasa premisetheideaoflifeafterdeath(throughcommunicationwith thespiritsofthedead).Theshakingtentindirectlysupportsthe Ojibwasocialstructurebyexposingthedangersthatbefallpeople whoviolatesocietalmores. 3Theseaspectsmakeitpossibleto forgealinkwithChristianitywhich,ofcourse,iscentredonthe ideaofoneGod,isfoundedontheideaofanafterlife,andwhich serves,throughitslaws,toencourageindividualstoconfirmtothe moresoftheirJudeo-Christiansociety. Aslateasthe1930s,theOjibwasawallspiritualityas medicineandpower.Bothcandidatesforchiefatthesigningof
Conclusions
the1875treatyatBerensRiverunderstoodOjibwamedicine (onewasactivelypractisingandtheother,uponconversionto Christianity,hadceasedpractising)andtheirpowerandesteem inthecommunityshowsthesignificanceofspiritualityintheir society.Religionandtheprotectionthatresultedwithclose allianceswithother-than-humanspiritswerecriticalforsurvival andsuccess.Thisviewpersiststoday,whetherOjibwapeople arediscussingtheconceptofChristdyingforoursinsorspecial huntingpowersgrantedtoanindividualbytheMemegwesiwag,or theThunderbirds. BerensRiverOjibwabeliefsinThunderbirds,thepowerof medicinemen,andtheuseofdreamswereunderpinnedintheir frameofreferencebyempiricalproof;indeed,forpeoplelivingin atoughphysicalenvironmentandrelyingonhuntingandtrapping skillsforsurvival,experienceandbeliefmustbeharmonizedin orderforthelattertohavecredibility.Ojibwapeoplebelieved becausetheysaw,heard,andexperienced.Personaltestimony, aninstrumentofvalidationinSaulteauxsociety,hasservedfor generationstoprovidecorroborativeevidence,especiallyinthe caseofmultipletestimonies.However,evenpersonaltestimony hasbeencriticallyweighed.Thosepeopledescribingexperiences orsightingsofthingsthatexistedoutsidetherealmofrecognized traditionandmythologyorclaimingpowersthatwerenot demonstrated,weregivennocredence. PartoftheChristiancontextinBerensRivercommunities wasprovidedbyMethodistscaughtupinanoptimisticfervour andstrivingtocreatetheKingdomofGodonearth.Missionaries throughouttheworldbelievedthattheirmessagecouldtranscend time,place,andcircumstance.Theybelievedtheirconverts, uponconversion,wouldtakethemoralhighroadandelevate themselvestoanewlife. Untilthe1920s,Protestantismwasavitalandformative elementinEnglishCanadiancultureandMethodistsdid integratenewconceptsofthedayintotheirmissionto regeneratetheworld.This,coupledwithalackofunderstanding
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andappreciationoftheirCree/Ojibwafields,madeformiscommunicationandmisjudgements. Aroundtheworld,RomanCatholicswereascaughtupin missionzealasProtestants.Withtheadventofultramontanism inthenineteenthcentury,thechurchexperiencedatremendous surgeoflifeandrenewalwithclericalexpansion,anincreased impactofthechurchonthelivesofCatholics,arevitalizationof itsclergy,andanexplosionofmissioneffort.Catholicism’svitality waspartofthemosaicthatmadeupthegreatinfluenceofreligion innineteenthandearlytwentieth-centuryCanadianculture. LikeProtestantgroups,Catholicsbelievedthattheyhad beenchosenbyGodtofulfilanimportantmission.InQuebec, theclergywasmuchinfluencedbytheultramontanecurrent thatinvigoratedtheirtheologyandmissioneffort.Itwasthis awakeningthatwasmanifestinthearrivaloftheOblatesofMary Immaculate,anorderdevotedtomissionworkandwhichinsisted onRomansupremacyandtheopeningofmissionfieldsacross Canada. InencounterswithChristianity,anumberoffactorsinfluenced positiveresponsesamongnativepeoplealongtheBerensRiver. Theseincluded:awishforliteracyandWesterneducationto assistsurvivalinaworldthatwasbeingcontinuallyaffectedand changedbyEuro-Canadianinstitutions,awishtounderstandthe Bibleasasourceofpotentiallyhelpfulandbeneficialmessages, addeddivineprotectionfromillnessorothercrises,safetyfrom badmedicineandharmfulconjurors,accesstoWesternmedicine, andaddeddimensionsandpowerstoexistingonesderivedfrom traditionalOjibwavenuessuchasrituals. Wheremissioneffortsweresuccessfulinthesecommunities, weusuallyseethesustainedpresenceofadevotedmissionary wholivedlongenoughinacommunitytoachieverespectand earntrustamongthepeople.Bythelatenineteenthcentury, manyOjibwayoungpeopleatthemouthoftheBerensRiverwere alreadysecondgenerationChristians.Atraditionandloyaltyhad beenestablishedamongindividualfamilies,andpeoplewishedto remaininthechurchwheretheyandtheirparentsbeforethem
Conclusions
hadbeenbaptized.Missionariesprovidedmedicalandspiritual aidthatbolsteredandoftenranintandemwiththatreceived fromtraditionalsourcessuchasmedicinemen.Socialinteraction betweenmissionariesandparishionersaswellasentertainment suchasChristmasservicesorget-togethersattheministers’ homesforyoungpeoplegaveavitalityandpresenceofthechurch inthecommunity. AmajorthemeintheconversionhistoryofBerensRiver Ojibwaistheircontinualsearchforprotectionagainsttheir enemies.PercyBerensspokewithpassionabouthisfavourite BiblicalPsalm,recitingfrommemorytheverseswhichcan beasmeaningfulwithinanOjibwacontextasinaChristian interpretation.Themessageofthetwenty-thirdPsalmisoneof protectionfromevilandatrustinGodtoleadabelieverintothe goodlife. TheLordismyshepherd;Ishallnotwant.…YeathoughIwalk throughthevalleyoftheshadowofdeath,Iwillfearnoevil;for thouartwithme;thyrodandthystafftheycomfortme.Thou preparestatablebeforemeinthepresenceofmineenemies.… Surelygoodnessandmercyshallfollowmeallthedaysofmylife; andIwilldwellinthehouseoftheLordforever.
ForPercy,theChristianGodandhisson,JesusChrist,are powerfulspirithelperswhocareprofoundlyforhiswell-being. Theyprotecthimfromevil.Hewillfearnoevil. Christianity,however,wasnotalwaysacceptedoutofhand. Lackofsupportbymissionaries(suchastheDeerLakeIndians beinglefttofendforthemselvesatthetimeofthe1918influenza epidemic),lackofagreementwiththemethodsorlessonstaught tochildreninschools,orlackofneedtotakeonaspectsofanew religionandlackofrespectbyamissionaryforsacredOjibwa rituals(suchastheepisodeofaMethodistmissionarykickingin thedrumatLittleGrandRapids)couldallyieldcoldresponses. ItisclearthattheBerensRiverOjibwamaintainedconsiderable controlovermakingchoices–itwastheywhodecidedwhenand
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howtheywouldorwouldnotacceptChristianity,whenandif theywouldsendtheirchildrentoanewschool,andwhetheror nottheywouldallowbaptismforthemselvesortheirsickand dyingrelatives.UnliketheLittleGrandRapidscommunity, however,BerensRiverwasanimportantcrossroads.General legislationmadeitimpossiblefortheseOjibwatoparticipatein manyrituals.Theirnortherlysettingandrelativedistancefrom thePrairieconflictsof1885,however,probablyallowedthem greateropportunitytomaintainaspectsoftheirworldview. ConversionsandthetakingonofChristianityhadmultidimensionalmeaningsforOjibwapeoplelivingalongtheBerens Riverbetween1875and1940.Theyinterpretedthesemeanings inmyriadwaysandincorporatedChristianritualsandpractices intothefabricoftheSaulteauxworldview.Thistheydidin waysthatwerecontrolledbyandmeaningfultothemselves asparticipants.UponacceptingChristianity,thoseOjibwa whomImetandwhomthemissionariesknewbestintegrated itsmoothlyintotheirexistingworldview,strivingtolearnthe Bible,attendingchurchregularlyatthosetimeswhentheywere atthemission,andderivingasmuchpowerandstrengththrough thismediumaspossible.Christianitydidnotreplacetraditional ideasasmuchasitservedtoenhancepossibilitiesandincrease dimensionsoftheunderstandingandexperiencingoflifeinthis world.InlisteningtomyOjibwafriends,thethemeofwanting toknowandunderstand“everything”isasstrongasitwaswhen JacobBerenstoldhisson,William,thathemustfindaplacein hismindforallthathewouldmeet.Thispivotalaspectofthe Ojibwaworldviewcontributesimportantlytoourunderstanding ofmissioneffortsinNorthAmericafromanativeperspective. Essentially,Ojibwapeoplesynthesizedtwophilosophiesthat workedinconcerttoyieldaflexibilityandopennessofspirit;on onehand,theyrealizedthattheydidnotknoweverything(when JacobBerenstoldWilliamthathemustfindaplaceinhismind forallthings,hebeganbywarninghissonthatheshouldnot makethemistakeofthinkinghekneweverything)andfromthat premise,theysoughtmeaningandunderstanding.
Conclusions
Itisespeciallycrucialtolistentoamultiplicityofvoicesand totrytohearbothsidesofthedialoguethatoccurredbetween Ojibwaandmissionary.Ontheirown,neithertheoralnorthe writtennarrativescanbeconsideredasthetruthwhereinthe realfactslie.Neitherstilldoesthecombinationofthenarratives yield“truehistory.”Rather,asJulieCruikshankexplains,“both ofthemhavetobeunderstoodaswindowsonthewaythepast isconstructedanddiscussedindifferentcontexts,fromthe perspectiveofactorsenmeshedinculturallydistinctnetworks ofsocialrelationships.”4Ojibwaandmissionariesalikeperceived oneanotherthroughthelensesoftheirownworldview,lenses thatwerealsotintedbythecoloursofindividualexperienceand personality.Theselensescontinuallyoverlayoneanother,yielding amyriadofshadesandpatterns.
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Bear(Maskwa):YellowLegs’seldestson,Bear,wasWilliam Berens’spaternalgrandfather.Bornabout1790,hemarriedAmo (Bee)orVictoria.HediedatBerensRivercirca1873–74,without convertingtoChristianity,justbeforethemissionopenedthere, althoughhedidadopttheChristiansurnameBerens.Travelling withAmoandhisyoungerbrotherCauwanastotheeastsideof LakeWinnipeg,theybroughthisfather’ssacredstoneand,in the1860sand1870s,conductedthelastMidéwiwinceremonies atBerensRiver.ThethreewerepivotalinmaintainingOjibwa traditionsamongsubgroupsthatmingledalongtheriver,reflecting avarietyofadaptationstolifeinadynamiccommunity.(A. IrvingHallowell,ed.,“ReminiscencesofChiefWilliamBerens,” unpublishedpaper,1940,p.7.) Berens,Jacob:A.IrvingHallowelldatedJacob’sbirthto1832; others,translatinghisnameto“SomethingThatMovesAcross theSky”–areferencetoHalley’scomet–believehewasbornin 1834.HemarriedMaryMcKaye[McKay],whosefather,William, wasaHudson’sBayCompanytraderattheTroutLakepostin Ontario’sSevernRiverdrainage.HewasborninScotlandandcame toCanadain1818.JacobBerenshadfourbrothers,Joseph,James, John,andSamuel.Betsey’smother,VictoriaKeeper,wasJohn’s daughter.Victoria’sparentsdiedwhenshewasayounggirlandshe wasraisedbyJacob.(JenniferS.H.Brown,“ChiefJacobBerens” DictionaryofCanadianBiography,vol.14[Toronto:Universityof TorontoPress,1998].) 163
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DeGrandpré,Joseph:DeGrandpréwasbornatIsleduPas, Québec,on26March1882anddiedatSaint-Adolphe,Manitoba, on7March1973.HestudiedatAssumptionCollegefrom1896 to1905andenteredthenovitiateatLachineon14August1905. HewasordainedatOttawaon5June1909.Heservedinwestern CanadaatCamperville,Manitoba;Beauval,Saskatchewanand BerensRiver;BloodveinandLittleGrandRapids,Manitoba. (GastonCarriére,DictionnaireBiographiquedesOblatsdeMarie ImmaculéeauCanada,vol.1[Ottawa:Éditionsdel’Université d’Ottawa,1976],p.261.) Durkin,Douglas:Durken(1884–1968)wasbornandraisedin ParrySound,Ontario.Hismother,astrongMethodist,wanted himtobecomeamissionaryinChinaand,whilehehadlost interestinreligiouseducationbyhisearlyteens,herpersonality andinfluenceremainedwithhimthroughouthislife.Asayoung man,heworkedwithrailwaygangsandasapianistforsilent moviesinWinnipegtheatres.AftergraduatingwithaB.A.from theUniversityofManitoba,Durkinlecturedatanumberof schoolsinEnglishandhistory,mostnotablyBrandonCollege,until 1917whenheacceptedapositionasalecturerinEnglishatthe UniversityofManitobawherehelaterbecameassistantprofessor. HemovedtoNewYorkCityin1921wherehedevotedhislife towritinghisnovels,themostnotableofwhichisTheMagpie (1923),andteachingatColumbiaUniversity.Durkinmarriedand collaboratedonanumberofliteraryworkswithMarthaOstenso whowasalsowellknowntotheNorthAmericanliterati.Hisshort storiesappearedinsuchpopularmagazinesasHarper’sMagazine, Liberty,andCentury.Durkinalsocomposedanumberofballads incollaborationwithCarlSandbergandwroteascreenplay,Union Depot,withGeneFowler.Hismother’sMethodistidealsmanifested themselvesthroughoutDurkin’slife;hewassocialisticinoutlook andespousedprogressivereformsregardlessofpublicopinion.“His hopeforman’sregenerationdependeduponhumanity’sspiritual salvation,notonpoliticalaction.”(PeterE.Rider’sintroductionto
Appendix
DouglasDurkin,TheMagpie[Toronto:UniversityofTorontoPress, 1974],pp.xvi–xviii.) Everett,JohnJames:EverettwasborninBerensRiverin1894 andspenthislifeworkinginseveralothernorthernManitoba andnorthwesternOntariocommunities.Ahunterandtrapper, Everettalsokeptcowsandhorses.Heandhiswife,Alice,raised theirownaswellasmanyadoptedandorphanedchildren.An elderintheBerensRiverChurchformanyyears,heundertook full-timeministryworkabout1960.EverettservedasLaySupply atLittleGrandRapids,PikangikumandBerensRiver.Hedied inSt.Adopheon17May1976.Aswellasministerialduties, EverettworkedontranslatingtheNewTestamentScripturesand collaboratedwithCharlesFière,ofCrossLake,ontranslating theGospelintoSaulteaux.Helivedtoseethefirstcopiesofthe GospelofMarkpublishedbytheCanadianBibleSociety.(Victoria UniversityArchives,BiographicalFiles.) Jones,Rev.Joseph:JosephJones(1881–1970)originallytrained asacarpenter,wasborninLancashire,England,andarrivedin Canadain1902.Heservedasacarpenterandphysicalinstructor atBrandonIndustrialSchoolbetween1904and1907andworked atLittleGrandRapidsfrom1907to1911whenhelefttoattend theologicalstudiesatWesleyCollegefromwhencehegraduated in1911.Between1911and1914,theyearofhisordination,Jones servedasassistantprincipalattheBrandonSchool,designinga newschoolforNorwayHousewhereheservedfrom1914to1916. AfteroverseasserviceinWorldWarI,Jonesservedtherestof hiscareerinIndiancommunitiesinnorthernManitoba,building missionhousesatNorwayHouse,CrossLake,IslandLake,and God’sLake,andservingasPrincipalofPortagelaPrairie’sIndian ResidentialSchoolfrom1934to1942.JonesmarriedFlorence Consterdine(1882–1988)whoservedasfieldmatronatCrossLake from1926to1929andmatronatthePortagelaPrairieschool. (VictoriaUniversityArchives,BiographicalFiles.)
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Jones,Rev.PercyEarl:PercyEarlJoneswasborninTunbridge Wells,England,in1888.In1908,hebeganhistheologicalstudies inWinnipeg’sWesleyCollege.JonesservedtenyearsinMethodist workatPoplarRiverandBerensRiver.HediedinMelita, Manitoba,on8May1940.Leach,Frederick:Leachwasbornin London,Englandon14July1892.HejoinedtheOblatesofMary Immaculateon9March1913atLachine,Québec,andtookhis perpetualvowson9March1920atBerensRiver.Leachalsoserved atBloodveinandLittleGrandRapids.Hecontinuedlivingin BerensRiverafterhissemi-retirementin1965until1978wherehe enteredfullretirementinSt.Boniface.Leachdiedon12July1982 attheresidenceoftheOblatesofMaryImmaculate,St.Boniface. (BrotherFrederickLeach,SixtyyearsWithIndiansandSettlerson LakeWinnipeg[Winnipeg:OblatesofMaryImmaculate,Manitoba Province,c.1983].) McEwen,AnnieE.:McEwenwasamemberofaprominentRed Riversettlementfamily.(PAM,A.E.McEwenPapers,MG8B52, fos.36–42,A.E.McEwen,Memoirs,“FourYearsatBerensRiver.”) McKay,Mary:McKay(1836–1908)wasthegranddaughterof DonaldMcKay,aScottishfurtraderwhowasemployedbythe Hudson’sBayCompany.Herfather,WilliamMcKay,wasthe Hudson’sBayCompanytraderatTroutLakeinOntario’sSevern Riverdrainage.HerparentsandgrandparentswereofScottishand Creedescent.Herskinwaslightandtheredidnotexistamong BerensRiverOjibwatheintermediateracialterm,métis.Aswell, shespokeEnglishandpossessedEnglishculturalcharacteristics. Thisledthecommunitytoseeheraswhite(A.IrvingHallowell, TheOjibwaofBerensRiver,Manitoba:EthnographyintoHistory, editedwithPrefaceandAfterwordbyJenniferS.H.Brown[Fort Worth,Texas:Harcourt,BraceJovanovichCollegePublishers, 1992],p.15,n.8). McLachlan,JamesA.:McLachlanwasbornnearAylmer, Ontario,on22October1855.AfterattendingtheVictoriaand
Appendix
theWesleyanTheologicalColleges,hewasordainedbythe Conferencein1879.AftertwelveyearsinchargeoftheVictoria IndianMission,hewastransferredtoBerensRiverin1893.He andaboatloadofsixchildren,enroutetotheBrandonIndustrial School,weredrownedonLakeWinnipegon12September1903. McLachlanwasburiedatBerensRiver.(VictoriaUniversity Archives,BiographicalFiles.) Niddrie,Annie:NiddriewasborninMorley,Alberta,on18 February1892anddiedatBerensRiveron19February1982.She workedatBerensRiverasorganist,taughtSundaySchooland, inherwords,“satupwiththedeadwhentherewasnooneelse available.” Niddrie,Rev.John:theReverendNiddriewasborninOban, Scotland,on22September1863.AfterarrivinginCanadain 1884,hewasordainedin1915andwasstationedattheMcDougall MissioninMorley,Alberta,from1889to1909.InManitoba, heworkedatOxfordHousefrom1910to1915andIslandLake from1915to1920.HethenministeredatBerensRiveruntilhis retirementin1938.NiddriediedandwasburiedatBerensRiveron 4May1940.(VictoriaUniversityArchives,BiographicalFiles.) Semmens,Rev.John:Semmensbeganhisworkinnorthern ManitobaasaMethodistmissionary.InApril1901heacceptedthe positionofIndianagentatBerensRiver,replacingJ.W.Short,who wasretiring.HewentontobecomeinspectorofIndianagencies fortheDepartmentofIndianAffairs.Hespokehighlyofthe firstconvertatBerensRiver,describingJacobBerensas“amost thoughtfulman,agoodreasonerandawiseadministrator.”(United ChurchArchives,ConferenceofManitobaandNorthwestern Ontario,PersonalPapersofJohnSemmens,PP34,FileM,Rev. JohnSemmens,“UnderNorthernLights:NotesonPersonal History,”p.62.)
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YellowLegs:YellowLegs,whomarriedMistamut,livedonthe westsideofLakeWinnipeginthelate1700s.Itislikelythathis originswereintheLakeSuperiorareaandifthisistrue,hewould havebeenoneofthefirstOjibwatomoveintotheLakeWinnipeg areaasthefirstmajormigrationstherelikelyoccurredbetween the1780sand1790s,atimewhentheOjibwaandtheirMontrealbasedfurtradecounterpartsexpandedtheirterritorieswestward. Hediedbefore1830.
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Notes
NotestoPreface 1 See,forexample,EmmaLarocque’s“OntheEthicsofPublishingHistorical Documents”inJenniferS.H.BrownandRobertBrightman,eds.,“TheOrders oftheDreamed”:GeorgeNelsononCreeandNorthernOjibwaReligionandMyth, 1823(Winnipeg:UniversityofManitobaPress,1988),p.201.
2 JenniferS.H.BrownincollaborationwithMaureenMatthews,“FairWind: MedicineandConsolationontheBerensRiver,”inJournaloftheCanadian HistoricalAssociation(1993),pp.55–74.
3 Forexample,CarolDevensandElizabethGrahaminterpretnativepeople ashelplessorpassivelyresponsivetoEuro-Canadianstimuli.CarolDevens, CounteringColonization:NativeAmericanWomenandGreatLakesMissions, 1630–1900(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1992);ElizabethGraham, MedicineMantoMissionary:MissionariesasAgentsofCulturalChangeAmong theIndiansofSouthernOntario,1784–1867(Toronto:PeterMartinAssociates, 1975).
4 Examplesofchurchhistoriesinclude:JohnCarroll,CaseandHisCotemporaries (Toronto:WesleyanOffice,1867–77)andNanShipley,TheJamesEvansStory (Toronto:RyersonPress,1966).Thefollowingworks,whileofferingmore depth,stillprovidenarrativesgeneratedsolelyfromtheperspectivesofthe missionaries:A.G.Morice,HistoryoftheCatholicMissionsinWesternCanada fromLakeSuperiortothePacific,1659–1895(Toronto:MissionBookCompany, 1910);J.H.Riddell,MethodismintheMiddleWest(Toronto:RyersonPress, 1946);T.C.B.Boon,TheAnglicanChurchfromtheBaytotheRockies(Toronto: RyersonPress,1973);RobertChoquette,TheOblateAssaultonCanada’s Northwest(Ottawa:UniversityofOttawaPress,1995).
5 HowardAdams,PrisonofGrass:CanadafromaNativePointofView (Saskatoon:FifthHousePublishers,1989).
6 RaymondJ.DeMallie,TheSixthGrandfather:BlackElk’sTeachingsGiven toJohnNiehardt(Lincoln:UniversityofNebraskaPress,1984);Raymond DeMallieandDouglasR.Parks,eds.,SiouxIndianReligion:Traditionand Innovation(Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,1987).
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7 Jean-GuyGoulet,“ReligiousDualismAmongAthapaskanCatholics,” CanadianJournalofAnthropology3,1(1982),p.1. 8 AnnFienup-Riordan,TheRealPeopleandtheChildrenofThunder:TheYup’ik EskimoEncounterwithMoravianMissionariesJohnandEdithKilbuck(Norman: UniversityofOklahomaPress,1991),p.7.
9 Ibid.,p.361. 10 Ibid.,p.363. 11 JamesAxtell,“SomeThoughtsontheEthnohistoryofMissions,”Ethnohistory 29,1(1982),pp.35–41.
12 ClarenceR.Bolt,“TheConversionofthePortSimpsonTsimshian:Indian ControlorMissionaryManipulation? ”BCStudies57(1983),p.42.
13 Ibid.,p.39. 14 Ibid.,pp.45–46. 15 SergeiKan,“ShamanismandChristianity:Modern-DayTlingitEldersLook atthePast,”Ethnohistory38,4(1991)andhisSymbolicImmortality:TheTlingit PotlatchoftheNineteenthCentury(Washington:SmithsonianInstitutionPress, 1989).
16 Forexample,Maoricharismaticreligiousmovementsinthenineteenthcentury blendedChristianitywithtraditionalbeliefs.InCentralAfrica,TerenceRanger tracedparallelsinthetransmissionofideasfrommissionarytoAfricanand subsequentAfricanreinterpretations.SeeHansMol,TheFixedandtheFickle: ReligionandIdentityinNewZealand(Waterloo:WilfridLaurierPress,1982); RangerandJohnWeller,eds.ThemesintheChristianHistoryofCentralAfrica (Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1975).
17 JenniferS.H.Brown,“‘APlaceinYourMindForThemAll’:ChiefWilliam Berens”inBeingandBecomingIndian:BiographicalSketchesofNorthAmerican Frontiers,JamesA.Clifton,ed.(Chicago:DorseyPress,1989).
18 PercyBerenstoSusanGray,Winnipeg,Manitoba,15November1994. 19 WalterGreentoSusanGray,BerensRiver,Manitoba,1December1994. 20 PercyBerenstoSusanGray,Winnipeg,Manitoba,15November1994. 21 Ibid. 22 Ibid. 23 JohnEdwardEveretttoSusanGray,BerensRiver,Manitoba,2December1994. 24 Ibid. 25 PercyBerenstoSusanGray,Winnipeg,Manitoba,15November1994. 26 JulieCruikshank,“TheDiscoveryofGoldontheKlondike:Perspectivesfrom OralTradition,”JenniferS.H.BrownandElizabethVibert,eds.,Reading BeyondWords(Peterborough,Ont.:BroadviewPress,1996),p.452.
27 MaureenMatthewsandRogerRoulette,“FairWind’sDream:Naamiwan Obawaajigewin,”BrownandVibert,pp.330–59.
Notes
28 “TheJournalsandVoicesofaChurchofEnglandNativeCatechist:Askenootow (CharlesPratt),1851–1884,”BrownandVibert,pp.305–6.
NotestoChapter1 1 A.IrvingHallowell,ContributionstoAnthropology(Chicago:Universityof ChicagoPress,1976),p.333.
2 SusanElaineDueck,“MethodistIndianDaySchoolsandIndianCommunities inNorthernManitoba,1890–1925,”M.A.Thesis,UniversityofManitoba, 1986,pp.43–44.
3 Brown,“APlaceinYourMindForThemAll,”p.210. 4 “ReportoftheDepartmentoftheInterior,1875,”SessionalPapers(1876),vol. 9,p.viii.
5 JenniferS.H.Brown,“ChiefJacobBerens,”DictionaryofCanadianBiography, vol.14(Toronto:UniversityofTorontoPress,1998).
6 PersonalPapersofRev.JohnSemmons(UnitedChurchArchives,Conference ofManitobaandNorthwesternOntario),p.48.
7 AHudson’sBayCompanyposthadexistedatBerensRiversince1824,though recordsshowoccupationofthepostasearlyas1814bymensentfromtheJack Rivermouth.HBCA,DistrictReports,1805–1825.
8 TheShakingTentceremonyisdescribedindetailinchapter2.TheMidewiwin isconsideredbymanytoembodythecentraltenetsoftheOjibwaworldview.It wasalife-givingceremonyperformedtocureillnessesanditsteachingshelped peopletoobtainhealth,agoodlife,andtopreparefortheafterlife.SeeLaura Peers,TheOjibwaofWesternCanada,1780to1870(Winnipeg:Universityof ManitobaPress,1994),pp.23–24.
9 Brown,“ChiefJacobBerens,”pp.5–6. 10 “ReportofE.McColl,InspectorofIndianAgencies,1885,”SessionalPapers (1886),vol.18,p.129.
11 “ReportofA.MacKay,IndianAgent,1885,”SessionalPapers(1886)vol.9,p. 110.
12 “ReportofA.MacKay,IndianAgent,1883,”SessionalPapers(1884),vol.17,p. 97;“ReportofA.MacKay,IndianAgent,1885,”SessionalPapers(1886),vol. 19,p.68;“ReportofA.MacKay,IndianAgent,1887,”SessionalPapers(1887), vol.21,p.292;NationalArchivesofCanada(hereafterNAC),RecordsRelating toIndianAffairs,RG10,vol.3801,file48638.
13 “ReportofA,MacKay,IndianAgent,1889,”SessionalPapers(1890),vol.23,p. 309.
14 JamesG.E.Smith,“WesternWoodsCree,”inHandbookofNorthAmerican Indians,vol.6,Subarctic,JuneHelm,ed.(Washington:Smithsonian Institution,1981),p.259.
183
184
15 “ReportofE.McColl,InspectorofIndianAgencies,1890,”SessionalPapers (1892),vol.24,p.202.
16 “ReportofA.MacKay,IndianAgent,1890,”SessionalPapers(1891),vol.23,p. 131.
17 “ReportofA.MacKay,IndianAgent,1891,”SessionalPapers(1892),vol.25,p. 68.
18 “ReportofA.MacKay,IndianAgent,1893,”SessionalPapers(1894),vol.27,p. 71.
19 “ReportofE.McColl,SuperintendentInspector,1893,”SessionalPapers (1894),vol.27,p.46.
20 “ReportofA.MacKay,1891,”SessionalPapers(1892),vol.25,p.68.Seealso SarahCarter,LostHarvests:PrairieIndianReserveFarmersandGovernment Policy(Montreal:McGill-Queen’sUniversityPress,1990).Carterexposesthe mythsbehindthestandardviewthatagriculturefailedonwesternCanadian reservesbecauseIndianpeoplescouldnotbemotivatedtopursueorgraspthe needfortheenterprise.
21 “ReportofA.MacKay,IndianAgent,1894,”SessionalPapers(1895),vol.28,p. 73.
22 NAC,RG10,vol.3946,file123454. 23 “ReportofA.MacKay,IndianAgent,1896,”SessionalPapers(1897),vol.21,p. 260.
24 “ReportofJ.W.Short,IndianAgent,1898,”SessionalPapers(1899),vol.33,p. 70.
25 “AsTheirNaturalResourcesFail”:NativePeoplesandtheEconomicHistoryof NorthernManitoba,1870–1930(Vancouver:UBCPress,1996),p.180.
26 Ibid.,p.183. 27 Ibid.,p.237. 28 Theterm“SupplyMissionary”referstoamissionary,usuallyinexperienced, whowastemporarilyplacedinacommunityforatransitionalperiodduring whichtheMethodistMissionarySocietysearchedforapermanentmissionary placement.
29 “ReportofJ.A.McLachlan,1897–8,”AnnualReportofMissionarySociety,p. xlix.
30 AnnualReportoftheMissionarySocietyoftheMethodistChurch,1893–1894,p. lviii;1895–1896,p.xlix;1896–1897,p.xlv;1897–1898,p.xlviii;Proceedingsof theSixteenthSessionoftheManitobaandNorth-WestConferenceoftheMethodist Church,1899,p.332;ProceedingsoftheSeventeenthSession,1900,p.332; ProceedingsoftheEighteenthSession,p.27;ProceedingsoftheNineteenthSession, p.41,ProceedingsoftheTwentiethSession,p.20.CopiesintheUnitedChurch Archives,ConferenceofManitobaandNorthwesternOntario.
31 FredBaptistetoSusanGray,BerensRiver,Manitoba,1December1994. 32 “ReportofEbenezerE.McColl,SuperintendentInspector,1895,”Sessional Papers(1896),vol.29,p.210.
Notes
33 “ReportofJohnSemmens,IndianAgent,BerensRiverAgency,1901,”Sessional Papers(1902)vol.36,p.73.NotingthatmostOjibwawereconnectedwith oneoranotherofthesepursuits,helistedtheDominionFishCompany,the NorthernFishCompany,EwingandFryerandtheJ.K.McKenzieCompanyas dominatingforcesintheindustry.
34 AnnieE.McEwenwasamemberofaprominentRedRiverSettlementfamily. A.E.McEwen,FourYearsatBerensRiver,A.E.McEwenMemoirs,Provincial ArchivesofManitoba,MG8B52,fos.36-42.
35 Ibid.,pp.2,6. 36 ManitobaConferenceReport,1908,p.45.CopiesintheUnitedChurch Archives,ConferenceofManitobaandNorthwesternOntario.Itisimpossible toascertainexactlywhatthese“newmethods”involvedalthoughitislikelythat theycentredarounda“firmerstance”takenbythemissionary.Thismaywell havebeenexpressedinintolerance,harshjudgementsofbehaviourandcustoms and,possibly,morepublicchastisingofsinners.
37 AnnualReportofMissionarySociety,1904–1905,p.xxii;1905–1906,p.xxi; MinutesoftheManitoba,AssiniboiaandAlbertaAnnualConferencesofthe MethodistChurch,1907,p.33;AnnualReportofMissionarySociety,1908,p.44; 1909,p.224;1910,pp.176–77;MinutesoftheThirteenthSessionoftheManitoba ConferenceoftheMethodistChurch,1916,p.231.
38 McEwen,Memoirs,p.6. 39 Ibid.,p.6. 40 “ReportofJohnSemmens,IndianAgent,BerensRiverAgency,1903,”Sessional Papers(1904),vol.38,pp.82–83.
41 McEwen,Memoirs,pp.2–3,7. 42 “ReportofDuncanC.Scott,DeputySuperintendent-GeneralofIndianAffairs, 1919,”SessionalPapers(1920),vol.56,p.47.
43 D.AnnHerring,“The1918FluEpidemicinManitobaAboriginal Communities:ImplicationsforDepopulationTheoryintheAmericas,” paperpresentedattheAmericanSocietyforEthnohistorymeeting,Toronto, November1990,p.5.Seealso“‘TherewereYoungPeopleandOldPeopleand BabiesDyingEveryWeek’:The1918–1919InfluenzaPandemicatNorway House,”inEthnohistory41,no.1(1993),pp.73–99.
44 KristenM.Beckett,“InvestigatingDiseaseExperienceinAboriginal PopulationsinCanada:The1918InfluenzaPandemicinBerensRiverand PoplarRiver,Manitoba,”M.A.thesis,McMasterUniversity,1998,pp.53–54.
45 PercyBerenstoSusanGray,Winnipeg,15November1994. 46 Ibid. 47 “ReportofDuncanC.Scott,DeputySuperintendent-GeneralofIndianAffairs, 1919,”SessionalPapers(1920),vol.54,p.47.
48 AnnieNiddrie,“AnnieNiddrieofBerensRiver”(unpublishedmanuscript editedbyJohnW.Chalmers),p.5.
49 Ibid.
185
186
50 Ibid.,pp.8,12.Thefirstpoliceman,CorporalStewart,hadarrivedwithhis familyin1928.
51 OblateArchives,ManitobaProvince,JournalofFrederickLeach.
NotestoChapter2 1 ContributionstoAnthropology,p.357. 2 A.IrvingHallowell,TheOjibwaofBerensRiverManitoba:Ethnographyinto History,ed.withprefaceandafterwordbyJenniferS.H.Brown(FortWorth, Texas:Harcourt,BraceandJovanovich,1992),p.81.
3 BrownwithMatthews,“FairWind,”pp.55–74. 4 Ibid.,p.64. 5 Ibid. 6 ArthurM.Abell,TalkswithGreatComposers:CandidConversationswith Brahms,Puccini,Strauss,andOthers(NewYork:PhilosophicalLibrary,1955), p.5.
7 Brown,“‘APlaceinYourMindforThemAll’,”p.208. 8 PercyBerenstoSusanGray,Winnipeg,Manitoba,15November1994. 9 WalterGreentoSusanGray,BerensRiver,Manitoba,1December1994. 10 RuthLandes,OjibwaReligionandtheMidéwiwin(Madison:Universityof WisconsinPress,1968),p.22.
11 A.IrvingHallowell,CultureandExperience(Philadelphia:Universityof PennsylvaniaPress,1955),p.121.
12 JamesR.Stevens,ed.,LegendsFromtheForest:ToldbyChiefThomasFiddler (Moonbeam,Ont:PenumbraPress,1985),p.42.PercyBerensprovidedan exampleofashamanistickillingwhenhedescribedhowhisbrotherhadbeen killedbyaconjurer.Seelaterthischapter.
13 TheOjibwaofBerensRiver. 14 WritingtoanthropologistFrankSpeckon19July1931,Hallowellexplained that“Thepawaganakarecentralintheactivelifeofman,sincetheyarethe spiritualaspectsoftheconcreteforces+objectsofnaturewhichhemustuse foralivingwhilemanituisremote(cannotbeapawagan,bytheway)andis onlyinfrequentlyreferredto(e.g.,inthemidewin)directly.…”Accountsof Ojibwacosmologyfromotherareasrefertonumerousmanitous;however, HallowelldidnotfindthesealongtheBerensRiver.On1August1931,hetold Speckthat“…it’sstrangethatasidefromDavidThompsonIhavenowhere[in writtensources]runacrossthetermpawagan.Yetthatistheuniversalterm amongCree+Saulteauxfordream-guardianandoneofthe‘keys.’mantuis neverusedinthepluralandcannotbeapawagan.”CorrespondenceofFrank Speck,LibraryoftheAmericanPhilosophicalSociety,Philadelphia,Manuscript coll.170(2:F3).TranscribedbyJenniferS.H.Brown.
Notes
15 Hallowell,TheOjibwaofBerensRiver,p.82. 16 Ibid.,p.82. 17 Ibid.,p.71. 18 Ibid.,pp.86,91.Pawágan(dreamvisitor)wasagenerictermforaspiritual being,aswas“grandfather”–atermconveyingrespect.A.IrvingHallowell,The RoleofConjuringinSaulteauxSociety(NewYork:OctagonBooks,1971),p.7.
19 A.IrvingHallowell,“SomeEmpiricalAspectsofNorthernSaulteauxReligion,” AmericanAnthropologist36(1934),p.389.
20 Ibid.,p.392. 21 Ibid.,p.393. 22 PercyBerenstoSusanGray,Winnipeg,Manitoba,15November1994. Interestingly,Percy’sdichotomizingofevilversusrighteousspiritssuggeststhe influenceofChristianityinhislife.
23 Foranexcellentdiscussiononthis,seeOlivePatriciaDickason,TheMythof theSavage:TheBeginningsofFrenchColonialismintheAmericas(Edmonton: UniversityofAlbertaPress,1984).AllAmerindiansocietiesledstructured livesbasedoncoherentbeliefsystemsandcyclicalpatterns.Itwasthe Europeans’ignoranceofthisthatledtothelabel“savage.”
24 A.IrvingHallowell,ed.,“ReminiscencesofChiefWilliamBerens,”unpublished paper,1940,A.IrvingHallowellPapers,AmericanPhilosophicalSociety,p.7.
25 FredBaptistetoSusanGray,BerensRiver,Manitoba,1December1994.The Thunderbirdsareotherother-than-humanbeings.Thesemembersofthehawk familymanifestthemselvesthroughthunderandlightening.
26 JohnEdwardEveretttoSusanGray,BerensRiver,2December1994. 27 PercyBerenstoSusanGray,Winnipeg,Manitoba,15November1994. 28 PercyBerenstoMaureenMatthews,Winnipeg,Manitoba,12September1994. 29 GordonBerenstoMaureenMatthewsandJenniferS.H.Brown,FisherRiver SeniorsResidence,20March1995.
30 Ibid. 31 Ibid. 32 Ibid. 33 PercyBerenstoSusanGray,Winnipeg,Manitoba,15November1994. 34 RebeccaKugel,“OfMissionariesandTheirCattle:OjibwaPerceptionsofa MissionaryasEvilShaman,”Ethnohistory41,no.2(1994),pp.228–29.
35 “SomeEmpiricalAspects,”p.395.Seealso,Hallowell’sfieldnotesheldinthe AmericanPhilosophicalSocietyLibrary,Philadelphia,Ms.Coll.26.
36 Ibid. 37 Ibid. 38 PercyBerenstoSusanGray,Winnipeg,Manitoba,15November1994. 39 CultureandExperience,p.199.
187
188
40 Hallowell,“SomeEmpiricalAspects,”pp.394–95. 41 Ibid.,p.398. 42 ThomasFiddlerandJamesR.Stevens,KillingtheShamen(Moonbeam,Ont.: PenumbraPress,1985),p.44.
43 Hallowell,“SomeEmpiricalAspects,”p.398. 44 A.IrvingHallowell,“TheOjibwaofBerensRiver,”p.89.Thepawáganakcould beseenthroughtheeyesofthesoulasopposedtothebody.Anintegralpart ofreality,theyhaveneverbeenregardedbytheOjibwaassupernaturalbeings althoughtheirpowerswereindeedgreaterthanthoseofthehuman,plant oranimalentitiesundertheircontrol.Ifamanwishedtohuntanindividual animal,itwasimportantforhimtogainfavourwiththatanimal’s“boss”or “owner.Oncethishadbeendone,itwasequallyimportantforhimtoavoid offendingthatentity.SeeHallowell,“SomeEmpiricalAspects,”p.398.
45 Hallowell,“SomeEmpiricalAspects,”p.398. 46 Ibid.,p.398. 47 Ibid.,p.400. 48 Ibid. 49 AnexcellentdiscussionofthiscanbefoundinJenniferS.H.Brown,“Going toSchoolinDreams:OjibwaConversationsfromBerensRiver,1930–1940,” paperpresentedattheAnnualEdwardS.RogersLectureinAnthropology, RoyalOntarioMuseum,28February1997.
50 BetseyPatricktoSusanGray,BerensRiver,Manitoba,1December1994. 51 WalterGreentoSusanGray,BerensRiver,1December1994. 52 A.IrvingHallowell,“SomeEmpiricalAspects,”p.402. 53 Foranin-depthdiscussion,seeTheRoleofConjuringinSaulteauxSociety. 54 Hallowell,“SomeEmpiricalAspects,”p.402. 55 CultureandExperience,p.147. 56 PercyBerenstoSusanGray,Winnipeg,15November1994.Williamrelated thisexperiencetoHallowellinthe1930s,saying“Aboutsundown,Icouldsee acloudrisinginthewest.Itwascalm.…ThenIcouldhearthethunder…just assomethingstrikingmybodywhenIheardit.ThenIknewwhatitmeant.I thoughtIwasgoingtobekilledbythethunderthatnight.…youcouldseethe lightningwhenitstruckthatrockyisland…runningalloverlikesnakes… fearful.Wehidourheads.…Ontheothersideoftheislandwhentheysawthe lightningtheyneverexpectedustolive.…ButInevergaveuphope.…thenshe [Nancy]sawthedayskycoming.…Ijumpedupandwalkedoutthen.Isaid “Thisoldfellowdidnotkillusyet.”SeeJenniferS.H.Brown,“APlaceinYour MindforThemAll,”p.216.
57 Ibid. 58 FiddlerandStevens,KillingtheShamen,p.22. 59 GordonBerenstoMaureenMatthewsandJenniferS.H.Brown,FisherRiver SeniorsResidence,20March1995.
Notes
60 SeeMatthewsandRoulette,pp.354–55andA.IrvingHallowell,“Spiritsof theDeadinSaulteauxLifeandThought,”JournaloftheRoyalAnthropological Institute70(1940),pp.29–51.
61 BetseyPatricktoSusanGray,BerensRiver,1December1994. 62 PercyBerenstoSusanGray,Winnipeg,15November1994.Inanunpublished paperontheCreeconceptoftheSupremeBeing,ReginaFlanneryexplainsthat other-than-humanspiritsweregivenresponsibilitybyaBeingsuperiortothem. TheBeing,whomno-onehaseverseen,isanimate,non-anthropomorphicand hasnopropername.TheCreesbelievethisspiritisconcernedforhumankind’s well-beingandhasultimatecontrolofthefoodsupply(althoughday-to-day activitiesweregovernedbyspiritualCaretakersoftheanimals).Significantto FlanneryistheideathattheSupremeBeingowns“everythingontheearth, butnotman.”TheEastCreetraditionalSupremeBeingisnotworshipped,but ratherhispresence“somewhereupthere”isanomniscientgiven.Conjurors derivetheirpowerthroughpawáganak,butultimatelyfromtheSupreme Being.InthecaseoftheOjibwa,Hallowell(quotedinFlannery’spaper)states definitivelythat“theultimatecontrollingpoweroftheuniverseiskadabéndjiget (owner),theSupremeBeing.Hisnameisseldomuttered,‘he’remainsunsexed andextremelyremotefromanydirectparticipationinhumanaffairs.”Regina Flannery,“ThoughtsontheCreeConceptoftheSupremeBeinginResponse toLong’sInterviewwithPreston:‘TheNorthernAlgonquianSupremeBeing Revisited,’”unpublishedpaper,1984,inthepossessionofJenniferS.H. Brown.JohnLongprovidesanexcellentdiscussionoftheconceptofManitou amongnineteenth-centuryWesternJamesBayCreeinhis1987article.See his“Manitu,Power,BooksandWiihtikow:SomeFactorsintheAdoptionof ChristianitybyNineteenth-CenturyWesternJamesBayCree,”NativeStudies Review3,no.1(1987),pp.1–30.
NotestoChapter3 1 TheIndianMissionaryRecord,1,no.8(September1938). 2 Morice,HistoryoftheCatholicChurchinWesternCanada,vol.2,p.350. 3 “TheOblateSisters,AManitobanOrder:ReconstructingEarlyYears, 1904–1915,”RosadelC.Bruno-Jofréed.,IssuesintheHistoryofEducationin Manitoba:FromtheConstructionoftheCommonSchooltothePoliticsofVoices (Queenston,Ont.:EdwinMellenPress,1993),p.552.
4 OblateArchives,ManitobaProvince,JournalofBrotherFrederickLeach. 5 BishopIgnaceBourgethadinvitedtheOblatesofMaryImmaculatetoMontreal in1841.Thisorderwasdevotedexpresslytomissionwork,steadfastlyinsisting onsupremacyandtheopeningupofmissionfieldsacrossCanada.SeeJohn WebsterGrant,MoonofWintertime:MissionariesandtheIndiansofCanadain EncounterSince1534(Toronto:UniversityofTorontoPress,1984),p.184.
6 ArchivesDeschâtelets,OblatesofMaryImmaculate,BerensRiver,andLittle GrandRapidsCorrespondence,boxL581.M27L,no.16.
189
190
7 UnitedChurchArchives,ConferenceofManitobaandNorthwesternOntario, Rev.JohnSemmensPersonalPapers,PP34,Semmens,“UnderNorthern Lights,”p.26.
8 Ibid.,p.39. 9 Ibid.,p.248.Undoubtedly,theIndiansinvolvedhadaratherdifferentviewof whathadbeengoingon;however,thethingtonotehereistheperspectiveof themissionaries,whowereonsincere,ifshaky,ground.
10 AlexanderSutherland,“AddressoftheTorontoConferenceoftheMethodist Church,”MinutesoftheTorontoAnnualConferenceoftheMethodistChurch,1884 (Toronto:WilliamBriggs,1884),p.248.
11 S.D.Gaudin,MissionaryBulletin1,no.3(September1903),p.308. 12 “AnnualReportofE.R.YoungforBerensRiver,1874–1875,”AnnualReports oftheWesleyanMethodistMissionarySociety,1873–1876(Toronto:Wesleyan ConferencePrintingOffice,1876),p.xxix.
13 W.J.Townsend,H.B.Workman,GeorgeEayrs,ANewHistoryofMethodism (London:HodderandStoughton,1909),p.496.
14 E.P.Thompson,TheMakingoftheEnglishWorkingClass(England:Penguin Books,1981),pp.441–44.
15 OblateArchives,ManitobaProvince,JournalofBrotherFrederickLeach. 16 TheIndianMissionaryRecord2,no.9(November1939). 17 JosephEtienneChampagne,ManualofMissionaryAction(Ottawa:University ofOttawaPress,1948),pp.277,324.
18 TheIndianMissionaryRecord2,no.1(January1939). 19 TheIndianMissionaryRecord1,no.8(September1938). 20 ManualofMissionaryAction,p.564. 21 Ibid.,p.599. 22 Ibid.,p.600. 23 Ibid. 24 TheIndianMissionaryRecord1,no.7(July/August1938). 25 J.R.Miller,“DenominationalRivalryinIndianResidentialEducation,”in RaymondHuel,ed.,WesternOblateStudies2(Lampeter,Wales:Edwin MellenPress,1992).ReligiousenmitybetweenProtestantsandCatholics didnotbecomerampantintheCanadasuntilthe1840sand1850s.See J.M.S.Careless,TheUnionoftheCanadas,1841–1857(Toronto:McClelland &Stewart,1971).Ultramontanismfocusedoncentralizationunderpapal directionandpapalcontrolofthechurch.Thepopelivedbeyondthe mountainsinRome(asopposedtothekingwholivedinFrance):hencethe nameultramontanism.ItwasareactiontotheeffectsoftheFrenchRevolution withitsliberalsecularism.SeeSusanElaineGray,“TheOjibwaWorldView andEncountersWithChristianityAlongtheBerensRiver,1875–1940”(Ph.D. dissertation,UniversityofManitoba,1996),chapterII.
26 Champagne,ManualofMissionaryAction,p.37.
Notes
27 Ibid.,p.40. 28 TheMissionaryBulletin1,no.3(September1918),p.315. 29 MarkG.McGowan,“RethinkingCatholic-ProtestantRelationsinCanada:The EpiscopalReportsof1900–1901,”CanadianCatholicHistoricalAssociation59 (1992),pp.22–23.
30 PercyBerenstoSusanGray,Winnipeg,Manitoba,15November1994. 31 FredBaptistetoSusanGray,BerensRiver,Manitoba,1December1994. 32 VirginiaBoulangertoSusanGray,BerensRiver,Manitoba,1December1994. GordonPolsonandRogerSpielmann,intheirstudyoftwocompetingChristian denominationswithintheAlgonquincommunityofWinneway,quotean Algonquinpersonwhomakesthesimilarpointthatitwasthemissionaries, nottheAboriginals,whohadrigiddefinitionsofwhoisaChristian.“The Pentecostalsfigureifyou’reaCatholicyou’renotaChristianandviceversa.It’s suchaviciouscircle.Wedon’thavetoputthosekindoflabelsonwho’sright andwho’swrong.”PolsonandSpielmann,“‘OnceThereWereTwoBrothers…’: ReligiousTensioninOneAlgonquinCommunity,”inPapersoftheTwenty-First AlgonquianConference,WilliamCowan,ed.(Ottawa:CarletonUniversity Press,1990),p.308.
33 VictoriaUniversityArchives,T.E.EgertonShoreCorrespondence,fonds14, subseries5,box5,file98.
34 Ibid. 35 OblateArchives,ManitobaProvince,JournalofBrotherFrederickLeach. 36 Ibid. 37 ArchivesDeschâtelets(hereafterAD),OblatesofMaryImmaculate,Berens RiverandLittleGrandRapids,Correspondence,boxL581.M27L,no.14.
38 AD,boxL581.M27L,no.20.CubbyGreenwasWalterGreen’sfather. Interestingly,WilliamBerenshimselfgotinvolvedinthisstruggle,working withGreenandJones.Hesaidthatalthoughhehadreceivednoofficial authoritytoreturnthechildrentoCubby,hewaschiefandhadarighttorule hisband.Leachwroteinexasperation,“Thechiefhasnotactedinanimpartial mannerasheshouldhavedoneforhehasadmittedthathetriedtoinfluence theguardianstorelinquishtheirrightsofguardianship,especiallyMissSarah Shaw.”
39 AD,boxL581.M27L,no.20,1919. 40 AD,boxL581.M27L,no.21,June–July1919. 41 AD,boxL581.M27L,no.110,18January1929. 42 AD,boxL581.M27L,no.107. 43 AD,boxL581.M27L,no.23. 44 AD,boxL581.M27L84. 45 RobertChoquette,“L’histoiredel’eglisedel’ouest:hieretaujourd’hui,”paper presentedattheFourthWesternOblateStudiesConference,Winnipeg,25 August1995.Aswell,whetheronewroteforapublicasopposedtoaprivate audiencemadeadifferencetobothstyleandcontent.
191
192
46 See,forexample,theaccountofthemeetingbetweenRobertRundleandJesuit FatherDeSmetinGlenbowArchives,RobertTerrillRundleFonds,Journal.
47 Choquette,TheOblateAssault,p.178. 48 KerryAbel,DrumSongs:GlimpsesofDeneHistory(Montreal:McGill-Queen’s UniversityPress,1993),p.134.
49 Choquette,TheOblateAssault,pp.183. 50 OblateArchives,LeachJournal. 51 UnitedChurchArchives,ConferenceofManitobaandNorthwesternOntario, PersonalPapersofLutherL.Schuetze,PP36,p.23.
52 Schuetze,PersonalPapers,p.33. 53 SeeBrownwithMatthews,p.67. 54 Schuetze,PersonalPapers,p.24.
NotestoChapter4 1 DavidCayley,NorthropFryeinConversation(Concord,Ont.:Anansi,1992),p. 39.
2 TheRealPeople,Introduction. 3 UnitedChurchArchives,ConferenceofManitobaandNorthwesternOntario, PersonalPapersofFrancesG.Stevens,PP35,fileA,p.56.
4 Ibid. 5 Therearethreecategoriesofwindigos:asuperhumanmonsterwhomayormay nothavedescendedfromhumanbeings;humanbeingspossessedbythespirit ofthecannibalmonster;anda“culture-specificpsychoticsyndrome”where thevictimssufferacompulsiveneedtoeathumanflesh.Thewindigoconcept isalsoassociatedwiththefearofbeinglostinthebush.SeeLouMarano, “WindigoPsychosis:TheAnatomyofanEmic-EticConfusion,”Current Anthropology23,no.4(August1982):386.JohnLongelaboratesonhow WesternJamesBayCreesusedthepowerofChristianity,theBible,andthe other-than-humanfigureofChrist,toovercomeother-than-humanthreatssuch aswindigos.SeeLong’s“Manitu,Power,BooksandWiihtikow.”
6 F.G.StevensPapers,p.10. 7 Ibid. 8 Ibid.,p.11. 9 Rev.JohnRyerson,Hudson’sBay(Toronto:G.R.Sanderson,1855),p.81. 10 JenniferS.H.Brown,“APlaceinYourMindForThemAll,”pp.209–10. 11 JenniferS.H.Brown,“FairWind,”p.62. 12 A.IrvingHallowelled.,“ReminiscencesofChiefWilliamBerens,”p.1. 13 JenniferS.H.Brown,“APlaceinYourMind,”p.204.
Notes
14 Ibid.,p.211. 15 ProvincialArchivesofManitoba,Lieutenant-Governor’sCollection,MG12B1, no.1443,29March1877.
16 “ReportofE.McColl,InspectorofIndianAgencies,1881,”SessionalPapers (1882),vol.15,p.107.Unfortunately,thesessionalpapersforthisyeardonot containanystatisticalmaterialforattendanceintheschool;thisdatawasnot generateduntil1885.McColl(1835–1902)actedfirstasinspectorandthenas superintendentofIndianAffairsforManitobaandtheNorthwestTerritories from1877to1902.HisagenciesrangedfromCumberlandHousewestto LakeSuperior.(SeeFrancesMcColl,EbenezerMcColl:“FriendtotheIndians” [Winnipeg:HignellPrinting,1989]).BothJacobandWilliamBerensgotalong wellwithMcColl;WilliamtoldA.IrvingHallowellin1940thattheinspector was“thebest...theIndianseverhadsincetreatywassigned–averyclever speaker.”WhenWilliamwasayoungman,heandafriendhadbeenhiredby McColltoworkforhim,andattheendofthetriphadgiventhepair“supper athisowntable....Howmanymencanyoufindtodaytoofferyouthat? ”Not onlyhadMcCollpaidthemenallthemoneytheyhadcomingtothem,healso gaveeachapresentofasuitofclothes,andWilliamBerensneverforgotthe kindness.SeeHallowell,“ReminiscencesofChiefWilliamBerens,”pp.39,41.
17 “ReportofE.McColl,InspectorofIndianAgencies,1882,”SessionalPapers (1883),vol.16,p.142.
18 “ReportofA.MacKay,IndianAgent,1885,”SessionalPapers(1886),vol.19,p. 110.
19 Ibid. 20 NAC,RG10,vol.3703,file17665.Rev.A.W.RosswasstationedatFisher RiverandvisitedBerensRiveroccasionally.
21 NAC,RG10,vol.3715,file21257. 22 Ibid.AccordingtoMacKayin1885,JaneFlett’sschoolhadsixwhitechildren andseventreatychildrenontheroll;allweremakingexcellentprogress. MacKaycommentedthatshewasnotreceivingasalaryforhereffortsand suggestedthat,althoughshedidnotaskforfinancialcompensation,sheshould bepaidsomesortofsalary.MissParkinsonstayedattheMethodistschooluntil 1888whenherbrother-in-lawRev.EnosLangfordwastransferredtoWinnipeg. Althoughnoteacherreplacedherfortwoyears,missionaryJ.W.Butlertook overteachingdutieswhenhecould.MacKayreportedtoMcCollon23May 1888,thatButlerwas“muchesteemedbytheIndiansandgreatlyinterestedin theMissionwork.”NAC,RG10,vol.3801,file48638.
23 “ReportofRev.E.LangfordforBerensRiver,”SixtyFirstAnnualReportof theMissionarySocietyoftheMethodistChurch,1884–85(Toronto:Methodist MissionRooms,1885)p.xxix.
24 Eighty-SixthAnnualReportoftheMissionarySocietyoftheMethodist Church,1909(Toronto:MethodistMissionRooms,1910),p.176.
25 MinutesoftheFifteenthSessionoftheManitobaConferenceoftheMethodist Church,1918,p.300.
193
194
26 MinutesoftheTwentiethSessionoftheManitobaConferenceoftheMethodist Church,1923,p.322.
27 TheUnitedChurchofCanadaYearBook(Toronto:UnitedChurchofCanada GeneralOffices,1936),p.399.
28 WilliamIvenswentontobeactiveintheSocialGospelmovementand foundtheCanadianLabourChurches.HeultimatelylefttheMethodist Churchforareasofactivitywhichhebelievedheldmorescopeandhopefor societalchange.Althoughthechurch,in1918,hadformallyadvocatedsocial reconstructionbyashiftingofemphasisfromcompetitiontocooperation, theemergingradicalgroup(menlikeIvens,J.S.WoodsworthandSalem Bland)differedintheextremefromMethodistleadershipregardingtheaction requiredforthis“reconstruction.”WhiletheoutspokenBlandwasdismissed, WoodsworthandIvenschosetoleavethechurchwhentheyrealizeditwould beimpossibleforthemtocarryouttheirwork(concerningtheplightofthe “commonman”andproblemscausedbytheindustrialrevolution)withinthe structuresthatsurroundedthem.BothIvensandWoodsworthwerearrestedfor theirparticipationinWinnipeg’s1919GeneralStrike.TheCanadianLabour Churcheswereavariationofthe“LabourChurches”foundedinEnglandin 1890andweresetuptoappealtothosewithwhomthechurchhadlosttouch. By1920,therewereatleasttenLabourChurchesinManitoba,eachwithits ownflavour.SeeRichardAllen,TheSocialPassion:ReligionandSocialReformin Canada1914–28(Toronto:UniversityofTorontoPress,1971),pp.66–85.
29 “ReportofS.J.Jackson,InspectorofIndianAgencies,1904,”SessionalPapers (1905),vol.39,p.123.
30 MinutesoftheManitobaAnnualConferenceoftheMethodistChurch,1909,p.43. 31 “ReportofThomasNevilleforBerensRiver,1904–05,”AnnualReportofthe MethodistMissionarySociety(Toronto:MethodistBookRooms,1905),p.xxiv.
32 “TheIndianWork:J.A.McLachlan’sReportonBerensRiver,”SeventyFourth AnnualReportoftheMissionarySocietyoftheMethodistChurch,1897–98 (Toronto:MethodistMissionRooms,1898),p.xlix.
33 MinutesoftheThirteenthSessionoftheManitobaConferenceoftheMethodist Church,1916,p.231.
34 MinutesoftheSixteenthSessionoftheManitobaConferenceoftheMethodist Church,1919,p.327.
35 “ReportofD.C.Scott,DeputySuperintendentGeneralofIndianAffairs, 1919,”SessionalPapers(1920),vol.56,p.47.
36 TheUnitedChurchofCanadaYearBook(Toronto:UnitedChurchofCanada GeneralOffices,1934),p.458.
37 TheUnitedChurchofCanadaYearBook(Toronto:UnitedChurchofCanada GeneralOffices,1937),p.380.
38 AntonioR.Gualtieri,ChristianityandNativeTraditions:Indiginizationand SyncretismAmongtheInnuitandDeneoftheWesternArctic(NotreDame,Ind: CrossCulturalPublications,1984),p.1.
39 F.G.StevensPapers,“TheSandyLakeStory,”p.1.
Notes
40 Ibid.,p.2. 41 Ibid.,p.3. 42 FiddlerandStevens,KillingtheShamen,p.122. 43 Ibid. 44 Ibid.,p.125. 45 F.G.StevensPapers,“TheSandyLakeStory,”p.8. 46 Ibid. 47 “AnnualReportofE.R.YoungforBerensRiver,1874–75,”AnnualReports oftheWeslyanMethodistMissionarySociety,1873–76(Toronto:Wesleyan ConferencePrintingOffice,1876),p.xxix.
48 “ReportofJ.A.McLachlanforBerensRiver,”SeventiethAnnualReportofthe MissionarySocietyoftheMethodistChurch,1888–89(Toronto:Methodist MissionRooms,1894),p.x.
49 UnitedChurchArchives,ConferenceofManitobaandNorthwesternOntario, PersonalPapersofJohnSemmens,PP34,“NotesonPersonalHistory,”p.27.
50 Thereisadiscrepancyinthesourceshere.WhileYoungwrotethattheNelson HouseCreebroughttheboytohim,SemmenssaidthatHartiewastakento NorwayHousebyYoungwhohadvisitedSandyHartie’scampandrealizedthat theboy,withhisinjury,constitutedarealburdenonthefamily.SeeEgerton RyersonYoung,OntheIndianTrail:StoriesofMissionaryWorkAmongthe CreeandSaulteauxIndians(NewYork:YoungPeople’sMissionaryMovement, 1897),pp.96–99.
51 Semmens,“NotesonPersonalHistory,”p.28. 52 Hallowell,ed.,“ReminiscencesofChiefWilliamBerens,”p.46. 53 Ibid.,p.44.RichardPreston,inhisstudyoftheoralaccountsofJohnBlackned, discussesamedicinemanfromtheJamesBayareawhocontrolledtheShaking Tent(The-one-who’s-kneeling-inside-here).Thisistheoppositesituationthat couldexistwhenAboriginalhealerswerealsoChristians.Here,thispractising shamanstudiedtheBible,readitoften,hadastrongsenseofbeingaChristian, andimplied“thathisconjuring[was]notinconflictwithhisChristianity.” RichardJ.Preston,CreeNarrative,2nded.(Montreal:McGill-Queen’s UniversityPress,2002),p.96.
54 PercyBerenstoSusanGray,Winnipeg,Manitoba,15November1994. 55 Ibid. 56 Hallowell,“ReminiscencesofChiefWilliamBerens,”p.7. 57 Semmens,“NotesonPersonalHistory,”p.54. 58 Ibid. 59 “AnnualReportofE.R.YoungforBerensRiver,1874–75,”AnnualReports oftheWesleyanMethodistMissionarySociety,1873–76(Toronto:Wesleyan ConferencePrintingOffice,1876),p.xxx. 60 Ibid.,p.xxii.
195
196
61 “ReportonIndianMissions,1877–78:J.Semmens:BerensRiver,”Fifty-Fourth AnnualReportoftheMissionarySocietyoftheMethodistChurchofCanada, 1877–78(Toronto:MethodistConferenceOffice,1878),p.xviii.
62 “ReportofJ.W.Short,IndianAgent,BerensRiverAgency,1898,”Sessional Papers(1899),vol.33,p.71.
63 “ReportofE.McColl,InspectorofIndianAgencies,LakeWinnipeg Inspectorate,1899,”SessionalPapers(1900),vol.34,p.102.
64 “ReportofJohnSemmens,IndianAgent,BerensRiverAgency,1901,”Sessional Papers(1902),vol.36,p.73.
65 “ReportofS.J.Jackson,InspectorofIndianAgencies,1904,”SessionalPapers (1905),vol.39,p.119.
66 “ReportofJohnSemmens,1908,”SessionalPapers(1909),vol.43,p.113. 67 NAC,RG10,vol.3655,file8977. 68 Ibid. 69 “ReportofE.McColl,SuperintendentInspector,1893,”SessionalPapers (1894),vol.27,p.45.
70 UnitedChurchArchives,ConferenceofManitobaandNorthwesternOntario, JuliaAnnaAsher,“Reminiscences,”1950,p.89.Theincidentsinvolvedaman namedMusquomoatandhisfamily.Theyhadkilledtheirmotherwho,they believed,wasturningintoawindigo.Musquomoatlaterconvertedandthis, accordingtoAsher,invokedinhimanincreasingsenseofguiltthroughout hisliferegardinghismother’sdeath.Thesecondcaseoccurredovera“crazy woman”namedSarahRosswhowasonthetraplinewhenpeopleinher midstperceivedthatshewasbecomingawindigo.ShediedbeforeShortand McLachlancouldgettoher.Whiletherewasinsufficientevidencetoprosecute ThomasBearandhiswifewhohadbeenalonewithherwhenshehaddied,the understandingwasthatshehadbeen“killedasawetigo.”
71 “ReportofA.W.Ross:BerensRiverandLittleGrandRapids,”AnnualReport oftheAuxiliaryMissionarySocietyoftheTorontoConference,1880–81(Toronto: TheMethodistMissionRooms,1881),p.xxiii.
72 PAM,MG1C5,“JournalofW.M.Chapman,”October1912–November1915. 73 Ibid.,2August1913. 74 Ibid.,18September1915. 75 Hallowell,ed.,“ReminiscencesofChiefWilliamBerens,”p.54. 76 “ReportofJ.Semmens,IndianAgent,BerensRiverAgency,1903,”Sessional Papers(1904),vol.38,pp.82–83.
77 ForanexcellentexampleofsyncretismamongnorthernManitobaIndiansin the1840s,seeJenniferS.H.Brown,“TheTracktoHeaven:TheHudsonBay CreeReligiousMovementof1842–1843,”PapersoftheThirteenthAlgonquian Conference,WilliamCowan,ed.(Ottawa:CarletonUniversityPress,1982).
78 FiddlerandStevens,KillingtheShamen,p.173. 79 Ibid.
Notes
80 JenniferS.H.BrownwithMaureenMatthews,“FairWind,”p.62. 81 Ibid. 82 Ibid.,p.67. 83 JenniferS.H.BrownwithMaureenMatthews,“FairWind,”p.62. 84 MaureenMatthewsandRogerRoulette,“FairWind’sDream:Naamiwan Obawaajigewin,”BrownandVibert,pp.354–55.
85 Hallowell,ed.,“ReminiscencesofChiefWilliamBerens,”p.47. 86 Ibid.,p.50. 87 TheInvasionWithin.
NotestoChapter5 1 JohnEdwardEveretttoSusanGray,BerensRiver,Manitoba,2December 1994.Here,Everettcontrastshisexperiences(whicharegroundedinthe Ojibwaworldview)regardingThunderbirdswiththeEuro-Canadianscientific explanationofweatherphenomena.
2 JamesAxtell,AfterColumbus:EssaysontheEthnohistoryofColonialNorth America(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1988),pp.49–52.
3 JenniferS.H.Brown,“Afterword,”inA.IrvingHallowell,TheOjibwaofBerens River,p.113.
4 SusanElaineGray,“MethodistIndianDaySchoolsandIndianCommunitiesin NorthernManitoba,1890–1925,”ManitobaHistory30(Autumn1995),p.5.
5 PercyBerenstoSusanGray,Winnipeg,Manitoba,15November1994. 6 SusanElaineGray,“MethodistIndianDaySchools,”p.5. 7 A.IrvingHallowellPapers,MSColl.26,APS,Philadelphia. 8 Ibid. 9 IdaGreentoSusanGray,BerensRiver,Manitoba,1December1994. 10 PercyBerenstoSusanGray,Winnipeg,Manitoba,15November1994. 11 Ibid. 12 FredBaptistetoSusanGray,BerensRiver,Manitoba,1December1994. 13 WalterGreentoSusanGray,BerensRiver,Manitoba,1December1994.Annie Niddrie,speakingofBerensRiverinthe1920s,alsomentionedtherespectheld bythepeoplefortheSabbath.“TheolderIndiansweresohonestandtruthful andtheverysoulofhonor…nodrinkingandnoworkingonSundays.Itwasa hallowedday.”SeeAnnieNiddrie,“AnnieNiddrieofBerensRiver.”
14 PercyBerenstoSusanGray,Winnipeg,Manitoba,15November1994. 15 Ibid. 16 Ibid.
197
198
17 FredBaptistetoSusanGray,BerensRiver,Manitoba,1December1994. 18 Ibid. 19 Ibid. 20 BetseyPatricktoSusanGray,BerensRiver,Manitoba,1December1994. GordonGreen(Ida’shusband)andHarryEverettwerelikelytheboyswho livedwithRev.Niddrie.NiddriesentHarry,Betsey’scousin,tocollegetobe trainedasaminister.Betseydoesnotknowwhathappenedtohimafterheleft BerensRiver.
21 Ibid. 22 Ibid. 23 VirginiaBoulangertoSusanGray,BerensRiver,Manitoba,1December1994. 24 Ibid. 25 CultureandExperience,p.147. 26 IdaGreentoSusanGray,BerensRiver,Manitoba,1December1994. 27 JohnEdwardEveretttoSusanGray,BerensRiver,Manitoba,2December1994. 28 Ibid. 29 TheRealPeople,ch.1. 30 AD,L581,M27L,130. 31 MinutesoftheSixteenthSessionoftheManitobaConferenceoftheMethodist Church(1919),p.327.
32 TheUnitedChurchofCanadaYearBook(Toronto:UnitedChurchofCanada GeneralOffices,1934),p.458.
33 TheUnitedChurchofCanadaYearBook(Toronto:UnitedChurchofCanada GeneralOffices,1936),pp.400,424.
34 LutherL.SchuetzePersonalPapers,p.24. 35 Ibid.,p.37. 36 TheRoleofConjuring,pp.53–55. 37 LutherL.SchuetzePersonalPapers,p.38. 38 Ibid.,p.39.Thisdrumhasdisappeared.WhenSchuetzemovedfromLittle GrandRapids,hegaveittoaMr.Davidsonwhowasthecreditmanagerof Ashdown’sWholesaleandtheSundayschoolsuperintendentinaWinnipeg church.
39 “DansunepremierevisitefaitesauPetitGrandRapidel’automne1924,vingttroisenfantsontétébaptistécatholiques,donttreizedel’âgeal’école.… Douzeautreenfantsplusjeunesontaussiétébaptiséetplusieursd’entreeux aurontdansunanoudeuxl’agedeecole.Tousdevrontavoiruneinstruction enrapportavecleurreligionetleurfoi.C’estpourquoilesconseilluersetles parentsdemandentavecinstanceuneecolecatholiquesurlaReserveduPetit GrandRapide.”AD,L1001,M27L,2.
Notes
40 BrotherFrederickLeach,O.M.I.,Fifty-FiveYearswithIndiansandSettlerson LakeWinnipeg(Winnipeg:TheOrderofMaryImmaculate,ManitobaProvince, 1973),p.32.
41 “JournalofBrotherFrederickLeach.” 42 Ibid. 43 Ibid. 44 SixtyYears,p.31. 45 Ibid.,p.25. 46 “JournalofBrotherFrederickLeach.” 47 Ibid. 48 Ibid. 49 Ibid.,p.31. 50 Ibid. 51 “Beaucoupdemondeestvenuàl’égliseledimanche.C’estdirequeBoniface [Guimond]faitbontravailparlaet…jesouhaitequ’ilyresteencore.”AD, L581,M27L,161.
52 RoscoeTrannerChapin,“MemoirsofaHappyJourneyThroughLife,”p.44. 53 F.G.StevensPapers,“TheSandyLakeStory,”p.12. 54 Hallowell,TheOjibwaofBerensRiver,p.62. 55 WalterGreentoSusanGray,BerensRiver,Manitoba,1December1994. 56 FredBaptistetoSusanGray,BerensRiver,Manitoba,1December1994. 57 JohnEdwardEveretttoSusanGray,BerensRiver,Manitoba,2December1994. 58 Ibid. 59 VirginiaBoulangertoSusanGray,BerensRiver,Manitoba,1December1994. 60 TheSixthGrandfather,IntroductiontoPartI. 61 F.G.StevensPersonalPapers. 62 Ibid.,p.12.JohnS.Longalsopresentsinterestingaccountsofmissionaries whosefailuresweretheresultofcontemptforAboriginalcultures,an unwillingnesstocompromise,andinflexibility.See,forexample,his“The ReverendGeorgeBarnley,WesleyanMethodism,andtheFurTradeCompany FamiliesofJamesBay,”OntarioHistory77,no.1(March1985),pp.43–64and “Rev.EdwinWatkins:MissionarytotheCree,1852–1857,”pp.91–117inPapers oftheSixteenthAlgonquianConference,WilliamCowan,ed.(Ottawa:Carleton UniversityPress,1985).
63 “JournalofBrotherFrederickLeach.”Itisinterestingthatthisgirlhadthe ChristiannameMary.ItispossiblethattheMethodistshadbeeninfluential here.
64 Ibid.WedonotlearnexactlywhenMarydiedbutcanassumeitwasfairly soonafter27MaywhenLeachnotedthathewasspendingmostnightsather bedside;shewasneverbaptized.
199
20 0
65 JohnEdwardEveretttoSusanGray,BerensRiver,Manitoba,2December1994. 66 JenniferS.H.Brown,“FieldsofDreams:RevisitingA.I.Hallowellandthe BerensRiverOjibwa,”inSergeiKanandPaulineTurnerStrongeds.,Native Americans:Histories,Cultures,andRepresentations(Lincoln:Universityof NebraskaPress,2006),p.11.
67 “[U]npeutroptranquille,l’enseraitennuyeuxs’iln’yavaitpaslestravaux manuelspournousoccuper.Letravailduministèreestbienpeudechoseilne sufferaitpaspur[sic]occuperunpèreetnoussommesdeux.Depuisquatre moisquejesuis[ici]jen’aientenduentoutqu’unequinzainedeconfessions. ExceptéàNoelouilyaungrandconcours.Celors[sic]j’aienseptconfessions.” AD,L581,M27L,29.
68 “[D]ansnotrepauvremission,lesjourss’écoulentmonotonesettranquilles.” AD,L581,M27L,50.
69 “[J]enecroispasquel’acquisitiondelalanguesoitlaplusgrandedifficulté quejerencontreraidansletravaildesmissions.Ceseraplutôt,jecrois,de parveniràaimerlessauvages,carjelestrouvebienindependants[orgueilleux] (?),dissimulésethypocrites,sansparlerdeleurmalpropreté.Celafaitque jen’aipasbeaucoupdesympathiepoureux.Jecroisquele[voisinage?]des méthodistéslesrenduspiresqu’ailleurs.Maisj’espèrequ’avecletemps,je parviendraiàtrouverquelquequalitédanscesêtresquisontpourtantdu monde.Jetermine…avecl’espoirequesurmaprochainelettre,jepourrainous écrireentouteverité:j’aimemessauvages,etjecommenceàparleraveceux dansleurlangue.”AD,L1001,M27L,2.
70 Leach,SixtyYears,p.49. 71 JeanComaroffandJohnL.Comaroff,OfRevelationandRevolution(Chicago: UniversityofChicagoPress,1991),p.247.
72 Ibid.,p.245. 73 JeanandJohnL.Comaroff,EthnographyandtheHistoricalImagination (Boulder,Colorado:WestviewPress,1992),p.5.
74 RobertHefner,“Introduction:WorldBuildingandtheRationalityof Conversion,”inRobertW.Hefner,ed.,ConversiontoChristianity:Historical andAnthropologicalPerspectivesonaGreatTransformation(Berkeley:University ofCaliforniaPress,1993),p.4.
75 Jean-GuyA.Goulet,WaysofKnowing:Experience,KnowledgeandPowerAmong theDeneTha’(Lincoln:UniversityofNebraskaPress,1998),p.209.
76 Ibid.,p.200. 77 Ibid.,p.207. 78 Ibid.,p.211. 79 HansMol,TheFixedandtheFickle,Conclusion. 80 Ibid.,Introductionandch.II. 81 SergeiKan,“ShamanismandChristianity,”p.380. 82 WaysofKnowing,pp.216–17.
Notes
83 SeeKatherinePettipas,SeveringtheTiesthatBind:GovernmentRepression ofIndigenousReligiousCeremoniesonthePrairies(Winnipeg:Universityof ManitobaPress,1994),p.156.
NotestoChapter6 1 Gualtieri,ChristianityandNativeTraditions,p.71. 2 Ibid.,p.71. 3 Hallowell,TheRoleofConjuring,p.7. 4 BrotherF.Leach,“IndianMedicineMenandTheirRemedies,”Moccasin Telegraph(Winter1966),pp.36–37.
5 Specifically,Leachwasconcernedaboutmisdiagnosisandimproperdosesof medicinesadministeredtosickpeoplebymedicinemen–althoughhedid acknowledgetheusefulnessofIndianmedicalrootsandherbsandretaineda lifelonginterestinthesethings.
6 A.IrvingHallowellPapers,MSColl.26,APS,Philadelphia. 7 WalterGreentoSusanGray,BerensRiver,Manitoba,1December1994. 8 PercyBerenstoSusanGray,Winnipeg,Manitoba,15November1994. 9 VirginiaBoulangertoSusanGray,BerensRiver,Manitoba,1December1994. 10 TomBoulanger,AnIndianRemembers:MyLifeasaTrapperinNorthern Manitoba(Winnipeg:PemmicanPress,1971),pp.63–64.
11 FredBaptistetoSusanGray,BerensRiver,Manitoba,1December1994. 12 PercyBerenstoSusanGray,Winnipeg,Manitoba,15November1994. 13 SergeiKan,“ShamanismandChristianity.” 14 PercyBerenstoSusanGray,Winnipeg,Manitoba,15November1994.At PoplarRiver,explainsPercy,thereisahighplacewhereonecanseethe Thunderbirds’nests.
15 TranscriptfromMaureenMatthews,“Thunderbirds,”aCanadianBroadcasting CorporationIdeasdocumentarybroadcast,15,16May1995.
16 Ibid.,pp.4,5. 17 Ibid.,p.13. 18 Ibid.,p.14. 19 PercyBerenstoJenniferS.H.BrownandMaureenMatthews,Winnipeg, Manitoba,12September1994.
20 BrownwithMatthews,p.59. 21 GordonBerenstoJenniferS.H.BrownandMaureenMatthews,FisherRiver SeniorsResidence,20March1995.
22 Rev.JohnNiddrie,“NorthoftheNorthwest,”p.109.
201
202
23 Leach,SixtyYearsWithIndians,p.30. 24 Ibid.,p.31. 25 PersonalPapersofLutherSchuetze,p.11. 26 Ibid. 27 Ibid.,p.24. 28 Ibid. 29 UnitedChurchArchives,ConferenceofManitobaandNorthwesternOntario, PersonalPapersofRevJ.A.C.Kell.
30 StevensPapers,F.G.Stevens,“TheSandyLakeStory,”p.12. 31 PersonalPapersofRev.J.A.C.Kell,“Wetigoes–OrWhat? ”(1928). 32 Ibid. 33 Ibid. 34 KellPapers,J.A.C.Kell,“TheSocialOrganizationoftheNorthernCree,” OxfordHouse,1928,p.8.
35 EthnographyandtheHistoricalImagination,p.5. 36 DonaldB.Smith,SacredFeathers:TheRev.PeterJonesandtheMississauga Indians(Toronto:UniversityofTorontoPress,1987),ch.6.
37 SiouxIndianReligion,Introduction. 38 JohnS.Long,“TheReverendGeorgeBarnleyandtheJamesBayCree,”The CanadianJournalofNativeStudies6,no.2(1986):322–23.GordonPolsonand RogerSpielmannpresentaninsightfuldescriptionofwhattheyterm“ethnoChristianity.”TheyquoteanAlgonquinmemberoftheCatholicChurchwho says,“Ibelievewhatthechurchteaches,butIstillhavemyownbeliefs,too.” PolsonandSpielmannsuggestthatthereis“adistinctlynative,in-groupviewof understandingtheChristianmessage,perhapsevenakindofreligiousdualism.” PolsonandSpielmann,“OnceThereWereTwoBrothers,”p.306.
39 RangerandWeller,ThemesintheChristianHistory,Introduction. 40 GordonBerenstoJenniferS.H.BrownandMaureenMatthews,FisherRiver SeniorsResidence,20March1995.
41 Ibid. 42 Ibid. 43 HallowellPapers. 44 SarahPrestondocumentsasimilarsituationwhenCreewomanAliceJacob describesadreamwithChristianovertones.Aboutthisdream,shesaysshe “wentawaysomeplace.”PrestonnotesthatdreamsareverysignificanttoCree peopleasasourceofknowledgeand/orasignofthedreamer’sspiritualpower. BothAlice’sandWalter’sdreamshadstrongculture-specificbasesoverlain withChristianelements.SeeSarahPreston,LetthePastGo:ALifeHistory, CanadianEthnologyServicePaperNo.104(Ottawa:NationalMuseumsof Canada,1986),pp.21,33.
45 WalterGreentoSusanGray,BerensRiver,Manitoba,1December1994.
Notes
46 Ibid. 47 Ibid. 48 FredBaptistetoSusanGray,BerensRiver,Manitoba,1December1994. 49 Hallowell,CultureandExperience,p.157. 50 Ibid.,pp.157–58. 51 AD,L581,M27L,86,1926. 52 Ibid. 53 JohnEdwardEveretttoSusanGray,BerensRiver,Manitoba,2December1994. 54 Ibid. 55 PercyBerenstoSusanGray,Winnipeg,Manitoba,15November1994. 56 VirginiaBoulangertoSusanGray,BerensRiver,Manitoba,1December1994.
NotestoChapter7 1 TheRoleofConjuring,p.54. 2 Ibid.,pp.85–86. 3 Ibid.,p.86. 4 JulieCruikshank,“TheDiscoveryofGoldontheKlondike,”p.435.
203
Index
A Abel,Kerry,59 afterlife,79,116–17.Seealsoheaven commontoOjibwaandChristianity,156 conjuringaspremiseof,156 agriculture,7,12–13 cattle,5–6 difficultyof,6 Indianreluctance,6 permanenthousesand,2,5,13 angels,xxv,35,148–49 Asher,Julia(neéShort),83 Axtell,James,xviii,86,97
B babies Indianmedicineand,xxvi,134 ‘badmedicine,’82 Bains,Mrs.,82 Baptiste,Fred,xxiii,xxv,8,110,114 onacceptanceofJesus,117 onCatholic-Protestantrelations,54 integrativewayofthinking,135 onJesus’crucifixion,118 onmedicinemen,135 memoriesofchurch,105 memoriesofColinStreet,103 respectforpowerofconjurors,133 syncretism,xxiv,150 onThunderbirds,26,137 Barnley,George,145 Bear,Harriet,138 Bear,Timothy,65 Bear(Maskwa),4,26 biography,163 shakingtentceremony,25
belief,xxvii groundedinempiricalproof,26 importanceof,21–22,25,40 powerof,24,35,155 understandingand,105 Berens,Albert,76 Berens,Alfred,56 Berens,Gordon,28–30,38,147 communicationwithThunderbirds, 139–40 importanceofdreamsandvisions,148 respectforpowerofconjurors,133 Berens,Jacob,8,12,80,88,139–40 baptizedasMethodist,xx,3 becameTreatyChiefatBerensRiver (1875),xx,4 biography,163 faithinOjibwareligionandmedicine, 76–77 integrationofOjibwaandEuro-Canadian lifestyles,66,98 onMissionschools,67 reasonsforconversion,65 rejectionofconjuring,77 technologicalandsocialchangeand,65 valueofeducation,98 Berens,Jacob(sonofChiefJacobBerens) deathfrombadconjuring,xxv,38 missionschool,68 Berens,Nancy,84,98 Berens,Percy,xxv,xxvii,12–13,77,110, 135,153 blessedby“moundbuilders” (Memegweisiwag),27–30 onBrandonIndustrialSchool,99 onCatholic-Protestantrelations,53
206
Index
onCatholicism,102 onChristianGodandManitou,136,159 onconjuring,32,37–38,133 onEuro-Canadianassumptions,40,151 ontheimportanceofbelief,21–22,25 onmedicinemen,136 memoriesofchurch,104 onmissionaries’battleagainstOjibwa healers,133 specialhuntingpowers,147 onThunderbirds,xxvi,xxvii,30,105, 137–38,151 onWilliam’srejectionofvisionquest,78 Berens,Peter,31 Berens,William,xxi,4,12,14,21,25,30, 59,80 abilitytochoosehisownideas,65 emphasisonunderstanding,105 faithindreamsasaccurateprediction, 100 onhisdecisiontoconvert,78 injuredknee,76 lovecharmorbewitchment,132–33 missionschool,68 Ojibwaworldview,66,78 relationshipwithMethodistmissionary, 46 reluctancetoacceptrations,15 sightingofgreatsnake,31 syncretism,xx,84,86 valueofeducation,98 visionofangel,148 visionquestand,65,78 Berensfamily coolnesstowardsCatholicism,100–102 supportforMethodistchurch,100 Berensfamilychart,96 BerensRiver.Seealsohistoricalconditions governmentsuppressionofcultural ceremonies,125,160 integrationoftwoworldviews,147 Methodistchurchmembership,69–70 Bible,xv,74,84,102,105–6,118,151–52, 160 assourceofhelpfulmessages,158 Twenty-ThirdPsalm,159 biblesocieties,53 bigamy,81.Seealsopolygamy Bittern,Andrew,xxii BlackElk,xvii
oldandnewbeliefs,145 reasonforconversion,119 “boss”or“owner,”116,188n44 Boucher,Elizabeth,55 Boucher,George,55 rejectionofbaptism,120 Boulanger,Tom,153 integrationofChristianbeliefswith Ojibwaworldview,134 Boulanger,Virginia,54,107,153 importanceofVirginMary,118 onmedicinemen,134 BrandonIndustrialSchool,99,108,165 Bretagne,Guyde,49–50 onProtestantism,51 Brown,JenniferS.H.,65,137 Bruno-Jofré,RosadelC.,44 Butler,J.W.,8
C
caribou,6 Carter(IndianAgent),56 CatholicboardingschoolatBerensRiver Ojibwarejectionof,122–23 CatholicchapelatBerensRiver(1897),9, 45 CatholicChurchinBerensRiver,107,110 secondaryposition,46,100,121–22 CatholicChurchmembership,12 Catholicdayschool,LittleGrandRapids, 113 CatholicdayschoolatBerensRiver,13,45, 56,100,109–10 Catholicmedicalaid,113–14 Catholicmissionaries.Seemissionaries Catholic-Protestantencounters,xxv,43–61, 190n25 Berensfamilyand,46 competitionforconversion,45 cooperation,59–60 disputesoverchildrenandschools,56–58 mutualdistrust,50,59 separateschoolissue,52 sharedviewonconversion,48 Catholic-Protestantrelations(community members),53–54 Catholicism,112 amuletsormedals,50 onconversion,49–50
Index
onheaven,48 Methodistviewof,54(SeealsoCatholicProtestantencounters) needforcontinualgoodworksand actions,48 ultramontanism,51,158 viewofsalvation,49 cattle,5 deathfromdiseaseandstarvation,6 spiritualpower,30–31 causation Ojibwatheoriesof,23 Champagne,JosephEtienne ManualofMissionaryAction,50–51 onProtestantism,50–51 Chapin,RoscoeTranner,115 Chapman,W.M.,83 Chippewa.SeeOjibwa Choquette,Robert,58–59 Christ.SeeJesus ChristianGod,86,136,150 aspersonal,39–40 powerbehindmedicinemenandwomen, xxvi aspowerfulspirithelper,159 ChristianmessageorGospel asreasonforconversion,76 Christianity.Seealsoconversion acceptanceof,xv,xvi,116,158 addingprotectionandpower,xv,xix,8, 65,79,97,124,155,158 diversityofNativeresponses,xvi,xx enhancingpossibilitiesratherthan replacingtraditionalideas,160 explanationofnewandlargerworld,86 indigenousandChristianelements coexisting,123–24,150 integratedintocommunity(1920sand 1930s),106 materialreasonsforaccepting,73,75 rejectionof,xvi,119–20,159 asstandardforwhatwasproperandright, 106 church positionincommunity,102–9,159 ChurchMissionarySociety,53 Comaroff,Jean,123,144 Comaroff,John,123,144 commercialfisheries,1,4–5
depletionsfrom,8 impactonNativeeconomy,7 condescension,11,15,37,110 confessionandrepentance,155 conjurorsandconjuring,xiv,23,26,36,83, 132,155 ambiguousnatureof,38 badconjuring,xxv,32,37–38 empiricaltesting,36–37 premiseofafterlife,156 conversion.SeealsoChristianity addingprotectionandpower,xv,xix,8, 65,79,97,124,155,158 Catholicviewof,49–50 ChristianmessageorGospel,76 ascompletetransformation,47,50,134, 149,155 ascreativeexchange,109 multi-dimensionalreasonsfor,75 notnecessarilyaboutreligiousbelief,119 conversionasculturalloss,xvi,98,110 recentscholarshipon,109 cordwoodcamps,5 CraneIndians,63–64,120 reasonsforconversion,75 criticalthinking,19,32 Crosby,Thomas,xviii,xix Cruikshank,Julie,161 Cunningham,A.H.,74
D dayschoolissue,66–69,98 DeGrandpré,Joseph,xxv,13,45,53–55, 102,112,114–15,122 biography,164 deathbedvisits CatholicandProtestantattendance,55 ChristianGodandIndiandoctor,145 medicinemenandChristianmissionaries, 135,141 DeMallie,Raymond,xvii,119,145 Dene,xvii,59,123–24 DepartmentofIndianAffairs,1,6,14 Protestantbias,53 suppressionofindigenousculture,125, 160
207
208
Index Depression,14 djibaiyak(spiritsofthedead),85 dog-feast,83–84 dreamers,124 dreams,xxiii,xxv,20–21,24,28,30,148–50 withChristianovertones,52,149, 202n44 dreamdrumdance,85,110 empiricaltestingof,33 interpretationof,34 inreligiousculture,32 Thunderbirdsin,20,35,138 asvehiclesofprediction,xiv,155 WilliamBerens,100 drumdances,60–61,110 FairWind’s,xv,xxix,85–86 missionaryresponsesto,71–72,159 originof,20 Duck,John,83,89,111–14 Duncan,William,xix Dunsford,Charles(junior),112 ChristianandOjibwamedicineand beliefs,114–15 Dunsford,Charles(senior),112 Durieu,Paul,131 Durkin,Douglas,10 biography,164
E Eaglestick,David,27 education.Seealsoschools literacy,xv,158 Ojibwainterestin,67,71,98–99 Ely,EdmundFranklin,30 empiricaltesting,xv,19,25–27,142,157 ofconjuring,36–37 multipletestimonies,31,157 Enlightenment,24 epidemics,5 effectonconversiontoChristianity,72, 75,119 influenza,12,70,72,101 EqualRightsAssociation,52 ethnocentricism,xvi Everett,JohnEdward,26,109–10,118,152 onThunderbirds,xxvi onVirginMary,120–21 Everett,JohnJames,12,55,139 biography,165 Everett,Sarah,101
F FairWind(Naamiwan),20,38 bondwithThunderbird,85,139,147 healingofTomBoulanger,134 syncretism,85 FairWind(Naamiwan)’sdrumdance,xv, xxix fromGod,86 mergingofideas,85 farming.Seeagriculture Fiddler,Adam,64,116,120,143 syncretism,84–85 Fiddler,Jack,32,64 Fiddler,Robert,74 Fiddler,Thomas,85 Fienup-Riordan,Ann,xvii,63,109 fisheriesandfishingindustry,7,12,14 commercialfisheries,1,5,7–8 governmentfishhatchery(1900),10 whiteencroachmenton,4–5 Fletcher,R.,58 Flett,Jane,67–69 fluepidemic.Seeinfluenzaepidemic French-Englishfriction,52 Frye,Northrop,63,87 Fuller,Patricia,109
G Gaudin,S.D.,47,55 Gauthier,Leándre,122 giantanimalsightings,31 giftedpeople connectionswithThunderbirds,138–39 God.SeeChristianGod goodandevilforces inOjibwaworldview,40 goodconduct,23,108 Goosehead,Catherine,49,108 Goulet,Jean-Guy,xvii,123 governmentbiastowardsProtestants,53 governmentfishhatchery(1900),10 governmentschools,67–68 governmentsuppressionofindigenous culture,125,160 Graham,F.,82 GrandMedicineCeremony(Midewiwin), xx,4,25–26,183n8 “grandfathers,”24,33,187n18 Green,Alma,56
Index
Green,Cubby,56 Green,Ida,101,108 Green,Sophia,56 Green,Walter,xxiii,22 dreamofChristianangel,xxxv,35,149 linkingChristianandOjibwabeliefs, 149–50 memoriesofchurchandschool,103–4 onmissionariesexpectations,149 respectforpowerofconjurors,133 senseofrelationshipwithChristian clergy,117 Gualtieri,Antonio,72,131 guardianspirits,24,33.Seealsoother-thanhumanbeings Guimond,Boniface,59–60,115
H Hallowel,A.Irving,xx,xxi,xxix,19–21,24, 31,78,98 onconjuring,xxv,37 ondreams,33–34 onFairWind’sdrumdance,85–86 JohnDuck’sdrumand,111 onoffendingothersinOjibwaculture, 108 onOjibwareligion,23 RoleofConjuringinSaulteauxSociety, The,132 Hartie,John,76 Hartie,Sandy,76 heaven,48–49.Seealsoafterlife Hefner,Robert,123 historicalconditions(1870s) BerensRiverascrossroadsforOjibwafur traders,missionaries,2 churchandschoolhouseerected,3 firstMethodistmission,2–3,65 JacobBerenselectedchief,4 Treaty5(1875),3 historicalconditions(1880s) epidemic(1887),5 firstcommercialfisheriesopened(1883), 4 fishingpartiesencroachingonOjibwa area,4–5 historicalconditions(1890s),5–9 bushfire,5
depletionoffishandgame,6–8 firstlong-termMethodistmissionary (1893),8 firstRomanCatholicchapel(1897),9 influenzaandotherillness,6–7 landcultivation,7 Ojibwaworkinginlumbercamps,mills andfisheries,7 permanenthouses,5 petitionforprotectionofwhitefish,8 rationsfrommissionaries,government, andHudson’sBayCompany,7 historicalconditions(twentiethcentury), 9–15 agriculture,12–13 Depression,14 governmentfishhatchery,10 homeforpooropened(1940),14 influenzapandemic(1918–19),12 lumberindustry,10 permanentbuildings,13 RomanCatholicdayschool,13 WilliamBerensbecamechief(1916),12 honesty,155 Hope,William,8,66–67 Hudson’sBayCompany,3–4,6–7 hunting,trappingandfishing,2,5,13.See alsofisheriesandfishingindustry
I idol-worship,82 independence,2,15 IndianAct.SeeDepartmentofIndianAffairs IndianMissionaryRecord,The,49 individualeffort,2 influenza,6–7 influenzaepidemic(1918),12,70,101 effectonChristianconversion,72,75, 119 paganismand,142 integrations(Christianandtraditionalworld views),xvii,xviii,xx,43,84,134, 144–47.Seealsosyncretism interpreters,4 Isbister,William,46 IslandLakeMission,115 Ivens,William,70–71
20 9
210
Index
J
Jackson,S.J.,71,82 JamesBayCree ChristianritesasadditionstoCree culture,145 JesuitsEstatesAct(1888),52 Jesus,21,52 asother-than-humanguide,85,117 walkingonwater,135 Jesus’deathonthecross compatibilitywithOjibwaworldview, 116–18 Johnson,AlfredG.,72 Jones,Joseph,71 biography,165 Jones,Nellie,12 Jones,PercyEarl,12–13,103 biography,166 onCatholicism,52 disputesoverchildren,56 MethodistChurchmembershipunder,70 “OurWorkWiththeIndiansatBerens River,”52 Jones,Peter oldandnewbeliefs,144–45
K Kalmes,Mathias,43 Kan,Sergei,xx Kell,J.A.C.,142 “SocialOrganizationoftheNorthern Cree,The,”144 “Wetigoes–OrWhat?”,143 Kilbuck,Edith,xviii,63 Kilbuck,John,xviii,63 “Kinebikons”story,43
L Laird,David,3 Lakotaculture,xvii,119 landcultivation.Seeagriculture Landes,Ruth,22 Langford,Enos,8,69 Leach,Frederick,14,55,110,112–13,120, 141 biography,166 condescension,15 ongettingtoheaven,49 onmedicinemen,xxvi,114,132
positivememoriesof,13,61,102–3 Protestant-Catholicdynamics,xxv,56–59, 61 toleranceandunderstanding,45 Leveque,John,112 literacy,xv,158 LittleGrandRapids,4,65 Catholicchurchattendance,112,115 dayschool,72 fearofwindigos,141 MethodistChurchmembership,70–72, 111 Ojibwaworldview,83,141–42 schoolopening,71 strongholdofpaganism,141 lovecharmorbewitchment,132 Lowes,JosephHenry,10–12,54 MethodistChurchmembershipunder, 11,70 lumberindustry,7,10
M
Machkajence(JohnDuck),83,89,113–14 conversion,111–12 givingupofdrum,112 MacKay,Angus,5–6,9,67–68,74 stereotypicalattitude,6 MacKay,James,107 MacKay,SaraJane,34–35 magic,28 Magnan,Josephat,57 Manitobagamelaws,5 Manitou,39–40 sameasChristianGod,136 ManitouReserve,Ontario,20 ManualofMissionaryAction(Champagne), 50–51 Maoricharismaticreligiousmovements blendingChristianitywithMaoriideas, 124 Mary(Virgin).SeeVirginMary Matthews,Maureen,xxix,86,137–38 McColl,EbenezerE.,4,6,9,66–68,81,83 McDougall,George,3 McEwen,Annie,10–12,166 McEwen,Doug,10 McKay,Alec,xxiv McKay,Margeurite,56 McKay,Mary(laterBerens),65,88
Index
biography,166 McKay,Pat,49 McKay,Virginia.SeeBoulanger,Virginia McLachlan,JamesArthur,8,75,77,81–82 biography,166 Methodistchurchmembershipunder, 69–70 winterrevival(1897),71 McLachlan,Sarah,8 measlesepidemic,6 medicine ‘badmedicine,’82 Catholicmedicalaid,113–14 GrandMedicineCeremony(Midewiwin), xx,4,25–26,183n8 Ojibwa,xxvi,80,82–84,114,134 Sacramentas,144 spiritualityas,144 Western,xv,158 white,xxvi,11,84,114 medicinemen,xiv,xxv,23,34,36,79, 82–83,85,111,145,155 giftfromManitou,136 leadershipand,22 missionaryreactionto,xxvi,114,132–34 powerfromGod,xxvi Memegweisiwag,27–29,147,157 Methodism,xv,xx,2,59 agencyofmodernism,48 beliefinpowerofGospel,46–47 onheaven,48 individualinitiativeandsocialaction,48 musicanddrama,xix optimisticfervour,157 aspartofProtestantmainstream,48 MethodistBureau,53 MethodistChurchmembership,8,11–12, 69–70 fluctuationrelatedtomissionaries,10 Methodistdayschools,98,111 Ojibwadissatisfactionwith,66–68 MethodistMissionarySociety,6 ManitobaConferenceReport(1908),11 Midewiwin,xx,4,25–26,183n8 Miller,J.R.,50–51 mills,7 miracles,21 missionschools.Seedayschoolissue;schools missionaries,xvii,40,50,55.Seealsonames ofindividualmissionaries
beliefinpowertotranscendtimeand place,157 conversionascompletetransformation, 47,50,73,123,131,134,142,149, 155 asculturalmurderers,xvi failuretounderstandnativebelief systems,24,40 list,16–17 ongoingbattlesagainstOjibwahealers, xxvi,133–34 overstatementorexaggerationinreports, 58 perceptionofNativepeople,44,47 positivecontribution,106,108,110 rigidworldview,24,135 senseofpossessingexclusivetruth,40–41 successofmissionsand,xv,8,71–73,158 “SupplyMissionaries,”8,10 themeofmissionaryagainstshaman,136 MissionaryBulletin,52 moose,6 Morice,Adrien-Gabriel,44 Morris,Alexander,66,82 “moundbuilders”(Memegweisiwag),27–28, 147,157 murdercharges,64,66 musicanddrama inMethodistworshipservices,xix
N Nanakwap,MaryJ.,72,111 nativepeople.SeealsoOjibwa controlofchoices,xvi,73 unionoftraditionalworldviewswith Christianity,144 nativeperspective importanceinunderstandingmission history,xvi,xvii NelsonHouse,76 Neville,Thomas,10,71 NewGuinea religiouspersistence(coexistence),131 Niddrie,Annie,13–14 biography,167 Niddrie,John,xxv,xxvi,12–13,53–54,59, 61,102,104,106,141,152 biography,167 MethodistChurchmembershipunder,70 positivememoriesof,103
211
212
Index
noblesavagestereotype,xvi,97 NorwayHouse,7,76
O Oblatefathers.SeeCatholicism;missionaries offendingothers inOjibwaculture,108 Ojibwa originofname,xiv Ojibwaadaptabilityandflexibility,xxii, xxvii,19–20,24,65 attendingbothCatholicandProtestant churches,xxv,113,152–53 changinginresponsetonewideas,110 Ojibwacontrolofreligiouslifeandchoices, xv,63–65,86,99,120,125,159 Ojibwaflexibilityindefiningreality,24 Ojibwaworldview,xxvii,19–41,66,83, 87,142 coexistencewithChristianity,80,105, 110 commonalitieswithChristianity,23,108, 116–18,155–56 criticalthinking,32 dreams,20–21,24,32–33,35 dynamism,20 goodandevilin,40 importanceofbelief,21–22,24–25,35, 40 integrationofChristianbeliefs,134,144 medicinemenin,22–23,36 other-than-humanbeings,19,22–23, 33–34,85,117,156–57 powerofreligionin,22 retentionof,11,79,141 SupremeBeing,39–40 Okes,Arthur,10 Methodistchurchmembershipunder, 11,70 Okes,Jane,10–11,70 oralhistory,xviii,xx,xxvii,xxviii criticismof,xxix oraltestimony,157 inOjibwaworldview,31 other-than-humanbeings,19,34,85,116, 157 allianceswith,156 humandependenceon,23 Jesusas,85,117 powerfrom,22,33
Thunderbirdsas,138 “OurWorkWiththeIndiansatBerens River”(Jones),52 Owen,HughAlbert,112
P “PapalAggression”controversy,52 Parkinson,Gussie,68 Parks,Douglas,145 Patrick,Betsey,34–35,39,106 Paupanakiss,Edward,32 Pawágan,85,187n18 pawáganak,22,24,33,36,65,78,137, 186n14,188n44 permanenthouses,2,5,13 pickerel,5 Pikangikum,4 pike,5 pipes,xxvi,97,103,139,145.Seealso tobacco Planet,E.,122 poisonings,82 polygamy,64,83 PoplarRiver,4 potlatch,xx Poulin,François,50 pre-contactIndians asonlyrealIndians,xvi,97 Protestant-Catholicdynamics.SeeCatholicProtestantencounters Protestantism Catholicviewson,49–50 onconversion,50 financialbacking,52–53 Methodism,xv,xix,xx,2,46–48,59,157 rangeoftheologicaltenets,59 UnitedChurch,xxv,28,53,55,102,117, 139,141,149,153 vitalroleinEnglishCanadianculture,157 ProtestantsProtectionAssociation,52 pubertyfast,32
R Ranger,Terrence,146 Redfield,Robert,19 reincarnation,xx religiouspersistence,131 RoleofConjuringinSaulteauxSociety,The (Hallowel),132
Index
RomanCatholicism.SeeCatholicism Ross,AndrewW.,69,83 Ross,Roderick,66,82 Roulette,Roger,xxix,86,138–39 Ryerson,John,64 Ojibwaresistanceto,65
S Sacramentassuperiormedicine,144 SandyLakeOjibwa,116 rejectionofChristianity,120 SantaClaus,141 Saulteaux.SeeOjibwa sawmills,5 scarletfever,7 schoolattendance,68,99,113 schools,1,13,57–58,104 BrandonIndustrialSchool,99,108,165 CatholicboardingschoolatBerensRiver, 122–23 Catholicdayschool,LittleGrandRapids, 113 CatholicdayschoolatBerensRiver,56, 100,109–10 dayschoolissue,66–69,98 government,67–69 Methodistdayschools,66–68,98,111 ProtestantschoolatNorwayHouse,56 valuedincommunity,103 Schuetze,Augusta,93 Schuetze,Luther,59,93,141–42 ondrumdances,60–61,71 JohnDuck’sdrumand,111–12 MethodistChurchmembershipunder,72 Schultz,George,8 Scott,D.C.,56 scrofula,7 seeingisbelieving.Seeempiricaltesting self-reliance,2 self-restraint,2 Selkirk,10 Semmens,John,3,8,10,46,76,80–82 biography,167 condescension,11 onIndianandwhitemedicines,84 Seniantha,Alexis,124 separateschoolissue,52 SessionalPapers,99 shakingtentceremony,xx,4,25–26,89 curativeandclairvoyantfunctions,156
anddangersofviolatingsocialmores,156 shamans,23,31,36,38 credibilityof,xviii missionarywaragainst,136 sharedbeliefsandideas(Christianityand Ojibwabeliefstructure),19,22–23, 33–34,85,108,116–18,155–57 SheepIsland,10 Shore,T.E.Egerton,54–55 Short,J.W.,7,9,81 Shoup,Willis,10 Simmons,Margaret,138 Sioux,20 Siouxreservations interactionsbetweenChristianityand indigenousreligion,145 socialandtechnologicalchange,1,65 “SocialOrganizationoftheNorthernCree, The”(Kell),144 Sowanas(SouthWind),80 conversion,79 questforknowledge,79 spirits,25,78 Ojibwabeliefin,xxv spiritualityasmedicineandpower,156 steamnavigation,1,3 Stevens,Frances,63 Stevens,FrederickG.,63–64,73–75,115–16 animositytowards,119–20,142–43 hostilitytodrumdance,60,85 Stevenson,Winona,xxx Street,Colin,105–6 positivememoriesof,103 sturgeon,5 SuckerIndians,63–64 reasonsforadoptingChristianity,74 requestformissionary,64 sundance,145 “SupplyMissionaries,”8,10 SupremeBeing,39,189n62 inOjibwaworldview,39–40 Sutherland,Alexander,47 sweatlodge,145 syncretism,xi,xvii,xx,35,39,65 definition,72 FairWind,85 FredBaptiste,150 internationalexamples,146 WilliamBerens,84,86
213
214
Index
T Tache,Joseph,115 TailfeatherWoman,20 Taylor,Roy,71 teadances,124 technologicalandsocialchange,65 Teweigan,43–44 Thunderbirds,xiv,31–32,39,155,157, 187n25 connectionswithmostgiftedpeople, 138–39 dreamsand,20,35,138 FairWind’sbondwith,85–86,139,147 FredBaptisteon,xxiv,26,137 PercyBerenson,xxvi,xxvii,30,105,137, 151 asspiritualguardians,138 Tlingits(Alaska),xx,136 tobacco,27–29,76–77,138,151.Seealso pipes Tough,Frank,7 Treaty5(1875),xx,1,3,22,66 Tsimshians(PortSimpson,British Columbia),xix tuberculosis,7,14 Twenty-ThirdPsalm,159
U ultramontanism,51,158,190n25 UnitedChurch,xxv,28,53,55,102,117, 139,141,149,153
V VirginMary,50,118,120–21 visionquest,34,145.Seealsodreams
W walkingonwater,21–22,133 Jesus,135 YellowLegs,135 Westerneducationandtechnicalresources, xv,xviii Westernmaterialgoods,xix Westernmedicine,xv,158 “Wetigoes–OrWhat?”(Kell),143 whitefish,5,7 petitionforprotection,8 Wilding,J.H.,72 Wilson,Maggie
drumdance,20 windigos,64,66,83,141–42,192n5, 196n70 witchcraft,146–47 Wood,Donald,143–44 Woodsworth,JosephF.,71
Y YankeeIsland,10 YellowLegs biography,168 walkingonwater,21–22,135 Young,EgertonRyerson,2–3,46–47, 75–76,78,80–81 openedmissionatBerensRiver,65 Yup’ikEskimo,xviii,63,109 yuwipi,145