I MAGES, I CONOCLASM, and tile C AROLINGIANS
Thomas F. X. Noble
I
n [he year 726 c. E., the BYLantine emperor
Leo
III issued an edict declaring images to be idols,
forbidde n by Exodus, and ordering all such images in churches co be destroyed . Thus was set
011' the
first wave of Byzamim: ico noclasm, which ran its "iolene course um J ;8;, when the underlying issues
were temporarily resolved at [he Second Counci l of Nicaca. In 815, a seco nd great wave of iconoclasm was set 0([, only
to
were rescored
[he churches of the East and the
to
end in 842, w hen (he icons
iconoclasts exco mmunicated. The iconoclast concroversies have lo ng been undcrsrood as marking majo r hssures between
the \Vcsrcrn and Eastern churches. In Images,
Iconoclasm. alId rill: Carolinglans, Thomas F. X. Noble reveals (hat the lin es of di\~sion wc rc not so dear.
It is t raditionally maintained that the
Caro lingians in the 790S did not understand the basic issues involved in the Byzantine dispute. Noble contends that th ere was, in fact., a signihcant Carolingian controversy about visual an and, if its tics
to
Byzantine iconoclasm were tenuous, they
were also compl ex and deeply rooted in central co ncerns of the Carolingian court. Furc.hc rmore, he asserts that the Caro lingians made distinctive and o riginal co ntribut ions
to
the whole debate over
rel igious an .
Imagr$. Iconoclasm, alld dll! ClirolillbrillllS is the first book
to
provide a comprehensive study of the
\Vesrern response co Byzantine iconoclasm.
By
comparing art-texts with laws, leners, poems, an d other sou rces, Noble reveals the power and magnitude of the key discourses of the Carolingian wo rld during its most dynamic and creative decades.
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CONTENTS
Introduction
[
CHAPTER ONE
An, Icons, and Their Critics and Defenders Before the Age of Iconoclasm CHAP T ER TWO
Byzantine Iconoclasm in the Eighth Century
46
CHAPTER T H REE
An and An Tal k in the West in the First Age of Iconoclasm CHAPTER
FO U R
The Franks and N icaea: Opus CaroN Rtgii CHAPTER
[58
F[VE
Tradition, Order, and Wo rship in the Age of Charlemagne CHAPTER StX
The Age of Second Iconoclasm
244
C HAPTER SEVEN
Art and Argument in the Age of Louis the Pious CONCLUSION
NOTES
366
37 '
BIBLIOGRAPHY INDEX
[[[
437
481
AC KNO W L EDGMENTS
487
287
207
[0
Introduction
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on o ne in>p"'n.n, hu, ne· g1c<>ed . nd mi,undc<s[ood ..-gm<m of too.. hi""rid. B. ThroJ"lf uf with the lid of $C>'"",I of hi' ",,,.. mpo,,,,i .., ,od 00 the "" "",.,,,1 of O"rle"ug''''. h1--h;ng to""h", to hi> 0. ntln. i-inurn. Jon.... [fu,il<. origi ... lly Ix-g.. n >< , he '«I.""" of Loui, [h. I''''u. ,n 817 ,nd compkr"" un the ur
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b<~n
,00...[ 780 ,nd 800. G oodnl b)' II N;ClCI ,he
0,,01;<>19'''' ""~ ,he",,,,I""';II di"i""i..., ""'Y'
,bou,
l'''*'leo>, ,h" ~e impon' nl [0 ,hom ,nd ,h., were fund, mem.lly dilf.rem from m.ny, but no< .11. o( ,h. pfObkm. [h .. cx<,c;,.ro [he Byunrin... V, ...-..l in thi, "'.y. the 61",/1 becomes I"" , n i!>COmperent 'n unrompreh.ndin& re.pon", to Brun,jum ",.n • cunning.•Ibei, un6ni>h<, w''l1< ''l Loui, ,he Pious 1(' . nlO .. hi, ,id..,d 'Uppofl , nd I'l <> writt.n .. P, ri, in 8,S io [0 Ix: sough[ . mid m.jo, prcoccup-:u;"ns of Lou;"he Piou,..,d hi, kC)' ."""i.... ,0 the fif,..,n 01.., o( ",ign of Ch>rlcm'gn<', hci,. A, jun .bou, ,IK ,ime when Loui.'. ,hrologi. n. werr g,.. hering in P.rio ,he F,::mki,h wo,ld COun,."", . Itorne-gro",," .11.."",ion . Chadiu, ofTulin, ,h. Sop,;rn.,,"'" p,oI:>.>hly V"igOlhic. bishop, ,h~n, .".l.rch """«0,,,,,;,1;51, w<:m on ... mp>g< of i""'g< dCSII"qion , nd ironophobic plOp>g>nd •. Loui. dimoted -"mao of O,le, n. ...+'0 Iud p,,,,W;kd .. ,h. p,ri, delibe .. ,ion., '0 n:.pond '0 Cbadiu •. He did", by begi nning hi' D< "''''' ;",ar;i~~'" byt under .Iiglllly m),>'criouJ <1lO1m"",,ccs laid if ",id., unnni,hed . O[hg:oin>< (;l. udi..,: 11""",kmil. ,he.bbo< of Psalmody and Du~!;>I . the chief .. hoolm,n in PaY;'. mo>1 promi. n.mly. AgoIurd 0( 1.yon , m .. n...-hile, ,,~ighed in on his'l",n " 'i,h . ,<e>ti .. ,h .. .. p~ f'CS<'".. ,ion, .bou, Ch,;"i,o .n m.u:h g.."Ct ,Ito", ,,,icul.,ed hy ,he Pari, throl"ll;'n" Throdimi,. 0' DunS'l, bm In< =klc.s [!un [ho", of Cl.ydi .... S,ill ",h« ",,;«.--I·I.-.wnu. M,uru,> Eloban.l . anJ W.I.hfrid S, .. '0 mcmion ,he ,h= mm< plOminen, on<>-,",'..". On ." ,,., bu, dOl '"' i" ,e,nu o>ole .pp",.;ng ,ha" ,h.,.. • • I'...... d by A&>ba,d .tld CbuJiu •. )'Ct quite diffi:rcnt o n k when ,he F... nt.. lOugh, ci"il "'.", p,;m"m ,h" h.d ch" ...... ri=! ,he ",;g" "rCh"Ie""ll'" ,nd ,t.. •.,Iy yeo" of u>u;, ,h. Pi",,, S"nd" d "'Oft.. un Catolinp.n .n hinory "rely discu .. the t«:ot,l<$ . nd
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doo.,mcn" i"" ....... ,ion«l. To. -holl rtp::a.edly -'SI><. Mn''''''ics ,Iu. wn. sp>ricJ by "'me probl<m Iuving '" 00 wi.h an rurnod in[o ""';Or .""cmen .. of or <4< qu>.rd> """'.ml"'.. ...,. m.... [Iu[ did nO! Iu", Ch,i,,;'n.n .. ,hci. p,im • ...,. .... bjrd imrn¢di1ld y of P""", .. n, imn<:>1 iconocl"m of.he Frtn prov;dcs. ,h .... rtful ~"' .oJ [.... in [he "",i.! f..btie of. gi ... n place 0' "DIe. In >-hon. I ,h.1I ",~ .he .....0."0 look me., an.in problen .. ,n Camlingi, n hiSlory i" ""'Y' .Iu ......... 1<1 k<m 1",~l y n.... m.! to hi""ri.n, ofmh« ,imt>.oJ pU=. n..., i, hmod view. In , he .... row vi ..... C.rul;"~;'" hi,,,,,;',,, "'"r di.o«w.. ".,.. 'l, i,,~ h..... I ;nvi .. ,h.m ," rc/Irt. "'j,h DI. on ncgI.'"o:J ,..... and prohlc"". And I hnp< '0 pd. '" h .. ,o,;,ns m .hink in new "'"YO .bou. ,he . ubjec .. of,h", in ...,iga,i .... " Thu. F.. [he I>r-gc il<"" to ,,·h id. 'his book i, oddress«l. The no[ f.y,. ~. provide • , h.pICl. by-<:lup«. oric~ ... ion '0 how [he book KI""lIy ",000«1 •. Clup,m 4 [0 7 fotm [he h",n of ,he book. Th. 6 .. , thrtt m.pce... r< no[ m'rI}·.Iw......" . By looking ,n d... ,1 ., ,h. p<.iod from [h. founh ""nlUry '" [he .igluh. [h ... elup"" .... bl .. h [he I>ngu.gt. m......nd ideas ,,·hieh , h. Caroling,"ns mod;~cd, ncgIcc=I. Th.
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n-.. 6", chop«r .urn. u, the .nei.n • • oJ 1>« . mi~ ... Mo:Jitcrran<1n hom._ Iarld boIh of Brun.ine . oJ Frankish .n and of Christi.., il}". I [fC>' 1 ....... in ')",><>p';" f.. hion. W}", ki .od, of d'>eul< iconoclasm! \1Vha. <=tI~ Of. . . ned i",n<. and who, pw:. do 'hC)' occupy wi.hin the larger coma, of~g<, raI an gtn .... lly. of "'ppon fo' nr oppos"ion '0 .",h . n . and of 'digi",,, p..,.,ica in ,he r...., .OJ in ,he We,,! ,,",'Iu. kiNl. of di ..".,i"", of . n ,,,,",,, pl.a in Ih. W.., bcfQ.. It." outb=k of icon...e!=" .nd ",I... , cull .. p""';"", if .n)". an he :ouoc;"o:J w" h WO'ks of.n in.he "",'",,, W"h()tl, h.", . n,i.i"". ing the diKu"ion ,Iu. will follow. fur [h. pU' p<»<> of .hi. "udy I .drnowlo:Jgt
"'''''''''1}".
,hot .ny itrug< co~IJ I><.n iron. b", f'O'i, ,ha, ...red icons . re not inugcs o f, !"" icul .. . ryl< .• i... or 1"<;::l1 ion bU! ins'.,.d inug<> th.u did. '" ,h., W<'f< <x. p«t«.l to do. ",,,,uhing. Thf)' im. g« '0 which ~uh "'as paid . These a .. hUg< ... bjecu wi,h el>bon ... comp l<. .• nd con«miou> bibliog«lphi... Ou, . im hore will mon:ly I>< to pid OUt ct,,.in k<".. ,,, ",,,Io .. ,,n
w,,,.
p'''' , os""
bosic Carolingi. n "",i,ion>. In 'urn. ct .. wh" l.n8""SO' ... , .. .. >oJ p~n" ,...."" • ..,i bblc '" I>< .cc
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o:mlt')'.
Ch.p wi,h .n in'I"",ion of.
r.... 1»,,10 ,i,,,,,
in ,he t~"",u,
o"e' lIy"n, i"e i<"""eI"", , E''''Y''ne 'g<=,h" ,I>< llrun'ine irooophi. Ii. following ,he 6,,, phu. "f Byumine ;"on..>d..m """,i",,<:<1 ,he Op~, Glro/i,
""",nil
'" i, i, imp<""i,,, '0 cxplot. wha, ny "",U h.", f'" 'p<>nd«.l '0. Thi. ch.p,., ..",nd, ,he discu .. ion begun in Ch ,p'" , of how F.... , . nd W... won: . Iih and dif!i:n:n' in d.il)' cult p.... 'io: .. .....ell as in theologicol <\>o:o,b,i"". AM, h" im!",,,.n, objec,i,'. of rh i. pte, is '" "'mind ",.de" mOK familiar wi,h d.. W.., ,han ,II< F.as, ,h" r=m "h...J. "bip bas d<",,, quo .. ,ion, from Ladntt.fHl f lo,,,,,.ky no,...;,], ... fHling. Brun,i", ico,>od.,n, "-.. '''~ '' . opi. lOdic .nd tIC\'cr as dcvos['lIing in hulllitlt or lllittcriol 'erml . 1 for me,j), bdinnl. Proctdi ng tho Carulingi.>.n "",rlJ wi.h ,hi. n.... undemanding of Byun,ium in mind will help ILl '0 i t t ,ha, we .n: not d",ling wi,h ,he bi.... no and inntp!ico. bit as)'m mttl)" of . ,i";liu,ion') .bock at ono ond of ,he M",li,.,r.no.n ,hOI pruduetxl only . ,ipplo" 'ho o,h .. ond. Fin.lly, ano".n' objec.i" of tili, ch. p<<< will 1>< . dimming of 'ho in' <m. have goo,en ow.y wi,h both protOpl;" ond """Iop'ic ".di ng> .,f ,ho eigh,h "'''''\try ,ha, ptrmi' vi"""lIy , II undt .... ndings of w;rtn, !D h,ve h.:.n p,cscn, rh.n . If one .....,,".. ,h" ,ho ..,.rin~ ,h""lugicaI ~jghu of ";,,,h«"I\Iry w,i,. ... "",h ",k Po"i.",h Nio:phoru, ond Abbot 1"k<>d<:,,,, "f S",d ion wen: .I,..dy p.... n' in ,he . .. Iy and m;,WI< d=Jo ~ f ,he . ;t;h.h <>:mury, 0' .... , .10. lofty o. . ,h.n i, i, ""y '0 po" "'y Throdulf. 'hrology 0' on ugly. Aigiulao bird , W. ,hall 'I)" imerp'" ,h. hi"ory ' liuk d""" '" rhe ",dt, in which i, ",,,,,lIy Iuppt,>«.I. Ch'p'e' J p""'ides .. ,1i>C\WKln o f rh. \I:'""",n h>d:SIOI,nd ,h. Op~ , Car<>li. T ho Angio.S;uon Ikpc<. mo
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h",1<.< .", • ...,j 'HIO • solemn .lIi.""" ,he 71"'" _'. ,1"ply d,,,reskd by B)'z.1n!in< iron<:>d>sm . nd ClIp licit!y objected '" it On numd,t.n I (n1-<;l1) 1""1""' W"," frtqu< inuge crisi, . nd ~cld ... of council, ,~" odd........t 'm'geo--om""s 011.., th 'np.. Begin ning in ,he 7)00 the ft.nlu .00 the popes .nt.toil",,,, inc ....... ngly inl< .... rn
ne.
.. king noIice of B)'z.1n,''''' iconocwm in ,I>< 7\'" bue ,he ",,,';'inS ""''''.. convey li" l. ",n.. ,Iu, i.... go> 'q>' ,he F... nl<.<. 0". ,>.4: of Clupl<' J. ,i>e<eIi>r<, is '0 ""pl.;n the diff.";ng pe"p . nd of ,I>< Fr.mlu on B)'z.1min. ,digiou> poli UIO<wed w;,h ... . How " ... • n .< Fr.mk.i.h wo,ld. in Rom •• • nd in Byun,ium! In ",h ..
..... yo d id ,h. F... nim.p"p"1 .lIi,,,,,,, oondi[;"n ,h. p""n.,' ''''00", '0 ''', <0 B,.... ntine iolnocbsm. ",d to One an<'!th ..1 By the end of Clupte. , the 'a' .... I. polil . • nd dc.o[io ...1 K< O C willluvc bttn "'[ wi,h ,ullicicn,
~ "io"
.nd
d .. iry to",..u """ibic.n und ..... nd illg ofThrodulr. wo,k in his pt..ce . nd lin",.
ClupljlCCilic rom ... t of ,he Carolingi.on COItl! du,ing ,he moot deci,ive. c,... ,ive , f""'dn"';"" yn" of the reign of Ch .. lom.gne. The d"pte, kgin' wi,h • diocu .. ion of tl>< mak.ing or 'he 0"... c..roG th.. depend. h<>vily On the m.gi"nial wotk of Ann Freeman h,,' ,ho, .dds ,,, kr findi"S> ""nc pet1peaivd .nd in' con.;nua wi,h a lengthy ... mm .. ion of the """text< or th e Op~, c"roG. a u ••,i;c th., has ....... been tt ... <m.. [Iu. run ,h",,,gh ,h.
.h.
0,•. Afte. Chop t.. ~', ":COUnt of .he mojo< "gu men t< in the 0P"" Ch.p'« \ ,,,rn, [0 ,h. wide, Fr.mkish ""n .... by mc»u,iog , I><m .. in .he 0, ... c"roJi "Vin" , nlU!" cop'lUu,i«. d;pLo ...... la,",' codes. I." .... poem ... nd """ k. or Carolingion .rt .nd . .. hi ..H UI<. 8 y ....ding ,I>< Op'" c"roJi 'gai"" hOlh [I>< imn...Ji ... h.nk,,,, ""or ... ' .n,l . full unde .."nding of ,he ""n_F"nh .h """, .." . i, will become" possihl<. h>' ,he 6.., ,im<, .o ."pbi n ,he cent,..! conee,", of Th<»Uy aaord bully wit/, wha, ..... ,..id 1nd don ... N i· eaea? Doc; the Op~' ev ince COn""''''" bc~n .h< Caro1insi .... and the vny
f"lpacy ,her had pIc.lged 10 kn'~ alld defrncl~ Wh .. ,riigiou. ",Iur did ,he CaIOIiogi.n . . .. ign ,,, the ,·i •...J .",! Doc. the Op",.t.:d lisht on i",I"''''''' ""n,.on_ I"'r:uy il$UQ' Do th""" is>u<> hdp u, to undc" .. nd tl>< Ch.:tl" "pe .... wi,h . diOCt, .. io" of ,Il...new«! o",h",.k of K:on""b "" in Byz.>nlium... pIorcs ..,me of [h. inoohm.1 dim.",i"", of . nd ch.:tng<> in s.o:.nd ko"",,!..,m, .nd go<> on [0 < how .... d in wh" form "Scmnd kooocla<m " it ;, oftrn ..... lIed_C"" . to tl>< .fI< Ff1n k. in 814. n.. ,h.:tl"" rontinuC\. wi[h . p",>cn.. tion of ... h.:t[ the Fronh did in 814-l5 b)' inf«prrting tl>< In witll ,I>< 81\ Pni. CoIk>qu)~fOr it W1> " ' " • "",uncil, a< i. u. u.Jly m.im .ined . n.. chop«r ... mind the cent rol th.me> in ,h.:t[ dos.ier on th.ir own «rm. md [h .... oomp''''' ,ho.< [he"...,. '0 .:o.",mpo"'<)1 Byz.>ntlne Idu. .nd pne'K'" .... d to
Of-"
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P'''''''''' F",,.,ki.h po.i,ion>.
Chapt« 7 thon p:t$$Q in "",iew the m.io, f"lni,ip. n" in tl>< nin,h«ntUfY ;m"l;< qu. rtd in the F,.,nk;,h ....."Id . nd toll< h..w th<)l b=m< inv.. lvcd . 11,e;, w,;ting< are lUmm. ';zcd and th.ir maio< . rgum.nt> highligh,ed. The ""'p«r m"" .. 10 it> concl".io" by interp ..,jnS chose ,he",.. in light of ""noe of th< m.;Or p'C<XCUp",iom ..,.ltm in . he fOf the .. is'' of lo"i. the piou •. A. with ,h. OP~I in Ch. rl.m:agn.·s tim •. nOW ,h. P~ri! doosi.r . nd ,h. mnn.nts of [h. Carolingi.n l"Il"m>in" ", her hi,lOrial .nd .n;'.ie "'''<=1 from ,he «ign of IhO;, rho I';"u•. l '1> i. eh.:tptcoUlS<> that ...... prom in.", in the CarolinS'. n """tid. By "di<.:ouf><" [ mean no mo .. ,h.:tn ,he ",..ed Inform>1ion, ."irudes, .nd mo
..,,,te..
io".
m""i,i ..:· ,h., i., group, of propl. united by com",o" UI> of.•od pc,hap> "", ian.< m<>bih=Ilty, ,,,,,, ...1 m.,.,i,l, ,k. , .... « no, n""""""ily k"o>w" dir< .. i"ed ",m.in, [0 be dcroon" ... ed. I do not wish to impl)' th .. I . m Of)' wid<. 1\[..,... S.ock de"",,,,,,·,,.. , prople ,,·hoo< ",,&,,!Ond'ng> we .. formed by COm"",n tats .nd C'JIp«i.nc.m . h. rp diug«<mrnrs grounded in .....ed knowledg •• nd uoo ..... nding. If we I;".n ",«fully.o fi f.y
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le••' _ n h ofCarolingi.. di th .. "'.... imJlO"l.n, ,hom in ,he d•."..,ic h,ll_ <entu!)' b,.tkt..,[ aploi ...nd the eivU "'.... . nd ".,.. in flu[ """,«I up his ,mpi ... T"ttt di"",,,,,,,,, tttu, in til< ." ,Id which ,hi. J...gial ,ime. Iu un. ' ;m< u. ,,,,,th., tk Carolingian. [hought "f them«lvc< '" hei" of the H$ uridtndy .mi_Brun.in •. WIlik [h. [.:oJi[io",,1 dUcoun< i. ,h. powe.fUl on. in ,he c"roh. i, bICn m ,hi> on. "'" <:an hca....... C.roIingian< tolking .bou, h.... to ordct a ... t< 0.-. church. a.;k;ng qu,""ion, .bou, . ud\On,y . nd l [h. bu,inc« of go>Cil whost 1"II";mocr ,h< c.,,,,,,,g;a,,, d.,.,t"",l. He "'-. , oJ"" «> .. "",,,«1 '" .I~ ............ a>'
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" 'hy Clurl.m'l;[lC "'.. , tI" ngln kind of rukt " 'hile Bru",ine 'm",,"''' rouId no, 1><. and why C:irolir>gian bi,hops "',:re 1""1"" chu«h"",n ",'k"". T..... i"., , ..... p",;, «h of C.""'.ntinopl,. was nOl, Ordt, waJ a nujot th ....... fa. The<>Julf. """'nd (01). '0 ,.-..lition, hut it became ,I>< m.jo, ,hom •• t Pali, in 8'j . Rd .. ion. wi,h Bp.ln';um and with the P"I""'J' we« discu,..,J .. I.ngth, . Ioog wi[h ,h. kgi[inucy 01 roneil;., acoion and I""blem. of """",n.", . nd di_m, Oo-d .. th .. [hing>. ..room .iou '0 ..",cd)' di...,.-Jc" Th. C.",I;ngi.n ;m'~ t""" i .gc< waJ in di.pme. P""umablr ,hi> cub ...... Iu[ n..o. d"lf ",od·..!. V... ., we.tull -""" ,h.,~ "'.... in ... t;,y. "" cui, of i""g<> in ,he ~b, . Altho"gh Throdulf Ius >ome inom<: f.",i",,[ing ,hi"", ro -t» •• bou, Ch,i>[ion .n. and. numhe. of ..-Il do<si«.
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CHA PTE R ONE
Art, icons, and Thei r Critics and Defenders Before Ihe Age of Iconoclasm
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T.m C tl~.T U lOOKS .. 'h~ long JI<.iod bnwcon 'k tim< wkn Ch.isci.ni.y g>ir>«l kpI ..... in tIw: Ro_n Empi .... and tIw: .... of 1I),..",i"" iconocLosm: _ghl)'1 .he )'C"'" )00 ,,, ]00. 0.... f<.cuo "';U he on ...t..r ""tK" in doi> peri<Jd Wd lip",l." , On tIw: ""'" lund ..... ...;0 i00i:", the- porn" tlut ...now "";.m modt fO. <)r >pi ... , the: pooonsion and ,he ..... of the- ~ am. On theodr... tw.d, .... win k>oIc cloJdy r." momm ................ ......, only • k ....... ... i,m ...:....tI)' .........t '" ~npgt ..... .....,. ....... 111;' dupi<1 ...·i lllq ,he """nd, .....k fO. ... undcn.undins of tIw: l\rnou. .'8".............. rdipou> ut ..... btoko ou •• n.1It n gh'h a"II'ury.
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Th...i".""" of ,h. ,ul"',b." "'orl<> ,h.,.", ,h. glory of churches . nd m"scmru the wodd <>vcr m un no< temp< u. to think thot .uch . rt in""it.bl,. Inbtd, "",.raI fo,ctS mili",ed ,gain" ,he emergtnox ofeh,i"i." Iigu",1 'rl. Moraw<'. word.. .nd ronted .nd had '0 en,., in,,, com,non di"",,, ... , fo' di",u ..~>n' of.n '0 book ,,·ill h,,-. • ...,,;"n d""",,,,, " a" .o s->.he. "'!loth" . nd ." rg)o' •• nd ,hei' .rgumen..
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Ahhough ,he (;,..,1<> .nd ,he ({oman, p«>liry .nd gr< O"tulogy of ;m_ 'ges. tl> of which ."..,. .r< ,n.de. S.. tu<>, 11, rot .nd 'un; i"""", i",..de them : mOe<: '''''' in ",."', t,;,d, roul ,!rem , Soch d,o" m. tt" i....I.olly unsuited to . he depiction of ",blim •. pc,h.p. ineffa· ble.... Ii.ies, In addi.ion, m.ny Greek' th inke" ... Iutd tho in tdl«, over the I< pc",i~ by .he of «,nl<mrh,io" ..... "'pcriOi to . ny.ning tn" <"'eltd coruciousnei> b~ nl<'''' of «nlOry npcri,nCt: , l'u, in sligildy diff co'«med ,he spiri ....1 mOl< highJ~ ' Mn the m,I<,i.l . ,h •• "'trK' morr , hm ,I>< p:micul>r, ,I>< men .. 1 mOf< ,han ,h••;'u.l. md ,he un; .....1 m()", tI,." ,he fi"i .. Somr Rom.n, f..m:! ,h" l:><.uty"'" softening. that be.utiful thing< wuuld "rip R""... n m'" of ,heir m.,,;'1 >nd " "''''y '>".1 ..... "10'<0"<" Rom,,,, f..,td, 0' ",m< inAu.mi.1 Rom.,.. .1f«Ted '0 feu, """ide id ..... . nd ,Iw>)'$ ... umed ' Mt 3ft would import tl«- ''''Y notion •• h.,.. ... ished '0 ,n: ntly "rict p,ohibi,io n of im.gery ap.-..!
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,;"n. could be U!xk",.,.,d ,n "",.),>, T<> ,h. ",.. n, ,Iu. 'hq focu,..! <>n the m." .. of " 'hieh im.1;<" ,,~,. mado, thry...no ,imil.. to G,..,k .nd R<>man rdaYOIt;"n •. But ",,,,, now thoOld .nteted the di"",..;"n too. Som...id tlu, .he foi,h of b nd drp:ndoIa" long m.innined ,Iu..... Iy Ch,i";',,i.Io",," .. r. i. ;; n(}W clear frum th< ff<1lctJeS in the S)"nagugucs .r 0.. ... Eu. Ain ed· [h,k. .00 lleth Alph . ......11 .. fro m the V".. Torlo.,i. in Rum< •• nd abo from .ni!tic m<>Iif; M:cn <>vet br Ch.;;t;'" book J>Ointc .. fro m }ewi>h book>. th .. Chr'";'n'tr'. Jewi.h en""'","e"t ..... "'" ,,';tl<""t villCau..ed li, . ... in w<>ny;ng m<1 im.I!">' In. ,...! b m ili .. and impon.nt f..m .... of ,h. ",hu ...1 b..,d>(::lpc. it ;; Q>Y '" ""' why ..rI)· Chris,;'n ",ri,." would Iu .. b«n coD«m«i '0 condemn ,doL...y.' Justin M.ltyr too W1i co<>c<m «l .bou, the . n,hropomog .bout an per ",,,0
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,db of .n im:og< of him , h., he hod .",u.II)' >«n . nd rejew:d a$ in.pp w;u no p. "ivc OMc:rvcT of ,ni"k rcplc n.. hi"g radi,,>cc of "",h glory." "id h. "'. minded eo...... nti. ,hat cY<'n Ch,i,,', 0"'0 Ji>cipl'" h.d t.xo "n,bk t were "b.ni>hcd.nd ",eluded from ChUM'" ,II ' ....er the _Id." and ",iled" p>g>n. ", ho wonhiped im,,!!" uf their god. .nJ philo""'he ... .. This secm. cl..., .""ugh. Sr'rim,1 reoli, ... ctn he n.i,her &
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!>Or rep,cscn' living ~Ii'y. H e;' nuking the poi nt ,!.at no im.ge can be "luivakn' wi, h ,.h~, i, Ktlu to p,mr.y. ["",billS', p<»ition wa> not c;ump~dy ironophobic. In hi! Lift t{Q"",mliM he mentioned. with no nptc$.<> ,h., ,be Chri .. ",n ertlpcI>iu. "'... evid.ntly P"p'r<:gef ,h • • were mcrd y ,ymbol. ,h., pointed to ,"Ii,;"" hcy\",d rncm,dvco. Ch,;" """Id ,,'" be Jep;cloo 1" " .. om< o f Gud', my>letKs ruuIJ be rtvcakd by .tti.. ie .. nderingo. Ewcbiu! '. observa,ion! ykld >om<: pcttinem fact •• bout emerging Gti"i", utitudes 1O"".,d an. Fi"" .. Ie.., >om. art i. p<ussing ..... ue of ,he wom.n " ,;th • hemorrh.ap: (Mark j.1j- J-oI). Eu«bill> call. it a "wondCTfu l memori. 1 of ,h. bene~, the S,vior co"f;: ... cd Ul'On ~.,. "" Se.:.:md , w!oik "'" aacdy 'PI''''''· ;ng "f pic,,"'" "f Ch,;". 1'.«<.• oJ 1' .,,1 .lIoy-dly I"';",.,.l ;n .h.ci< !;k,;mQ, EU>cI>ill> .",ibut.. ruch "",,u,a to ,be ".ncien" h.bitually following thei, <>Wn Gcn tile autum."" The poin' kern' be that somc peoplc m.k. ;m,,!>'" inn<>untly .nout;!> while "''''''' ough, '0 know be"c" Pcrn.p>, '00, he .. ulking .oou, ,h.c i",cn,ion,. The C"n",,,,i . i•• _~d <""ked ",h« e,i,ic;, ,,,, of II", ncw Ch';" "",." .nJ its U><>, Uc.. n tiu, (ca. 1jO-on Cri 'l'U!, .,ked wh)' "")'
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y,', ""k....! wi,h grim humot ""'«10... if ,)"',.,. war no "'.. gco. 'I><~' would HO[ know 'hey wm: bring won hipcd. A< 'he wotk of . tti ... n... ,nd .. ,,~.,ioo, from .ile: ma" ... im"S"" a nn", ba, ,oy n '0 "'p[_n" Thu. ,ru:,e i. ,bool u[dy n" rth emerging ,nd d..wi ng ,ritirum f"'m 'he impcri.1 COurt 'igh' on down, ,h.", "owl~ 'roo< • m),h of C h,i,,;"n . nicon""' , D"iJ Fmedborg i. cen.inly",,'=' '0 ,",plus;,,, ,h", from b[e .n'iquity '" [h. Reform.,i,," .nd beyond ,her<: .... bc.:n • pc"",en' "m),h of . nironi""," n..: point of thi' myth is '" .bim ro' it> ..110.","" ",.,...1 ."oJ ..,i,i,u.1 >upga. 1'«:Ipl. who wo"hip' GOO who i, from mm .. n»1 ..dl ,.,/;"" '0 "'P'='" ' hei' ('~iJ by m.,ns n"!tot .nd "»1 di>i" [hose who do so. P"""m, who emb",,,,, the myth impu'" ,hoi, po,ition [0,]1 ">o"><:"ts of ,100 hi ..,,')' of ,heir pwpl•• nd f.i,h .nd. 'OIXO,dingly. cri, ic'" ,10"", who> . ", ironic. '" [0 opak.., O,i,iQill. " Condi,ion. m.y h... ba:n unpmmising for ,h. <:m '''''''lfi« wi,.......,j • "",i,.hl. o.p!o>i.on of .n in m.ny 1'"""", ""Ip'u ... p>in,iog, ",,,,,,ie, "' ..... and m<. i~ a,orornb>. Ch,'"i.n, 10..1 Ixgun [0 m< """",I .10"", ... I)·mhol;'; rq>fQe. " N.,r 01>< 'l'ruolMl"" at Du", Emopo< w.., Christi. n building "'i,h. piclUr<: of Ad.:om .Dd Ev< hel.,,,,. and .!",. GooJ Shepherd. M"" Chn" i.n ." "',i .... f,,,m l><:fflr<: Joo .. fu,,,,,,'Y . nJ p,i"", .. Ch''''i.ni'r W1I, 11, il~L Af,., JOO, ~~" Ch ri,tian ,nim bq;an «gu1.rI~ to trptd<1" >ubj""" from Scri ... u.~ il><:n",;"n.1 Kru:m<> '0 be WOfW out . Afw Ch,Loti. nity become lici" i, ,i<:h p."on. >mly dcro",,«1 '1"=. 1nd buil, '" ,ook " ... 1.'1;< bui!Jing> .... , p.... id«l 'pac< .nd so:>p< fOr .ni«.. ,,1<0<: .... 11 p.in,ings. nlo .. ict. . nd I!"U" .pp<>1'ec in .n ..... ' m"ft richly ",n.m.n,....! «I_ Som •. "iling in [h. " ..... of Adolf ,'on Hmud:., '''8&'''' [Iu, I"'pul.., ''If'<,.,i,w,,,, coo,bin«l w"h ,100 ","ing.,tanding i"«!pma,ion hoW. Ch[i"i, n' '1'1""pri.,«I '" "wn u>< ,h.n"" .."I ",,,,if, of imp,:
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.. plon.,;"n i, hc"Cf., "='ibing wI,.. h.ppcn«! ,h.n it i, .. apbini<>g ..... r.... A .ecen' "i"", 5ugl;cm ,ho, Clu;"i.", ernbra=l . ..... man, of "prmoid;ng .pirit ....1 r<mings"f,heOId TCi .. ment and . hence. 10, 'endcring'pi'i' ....I.~ ;i, =il>l<. Pinl< ,im •. """.1 its hidden sign ;"""n",.'" Pu, ;imply, Chri"i,n, r i. con.l«t«! "'ith enllogical e>«gc< cross .nd of relic>. how.v.,. it i. <2SLa '" di",,", • com,ibution to p"cti= """",i.,ed with v<""",;on mo" promi. nently. than to thc =Cf-g<'nc< of ,I>< '" i"elf. I...,•• n.i<jut ",,,,,,,,I po",.i". w.h u .h"", know" from F~l'" m. y h.... b«n in ~uemi.1 in tl>< 'p«illc J ...dopment of sac""'- icono, by, thei, conn ... tion with Ch,;"i." '" in gen.",1 ;. h.der '" f.,h"rn ," Likcv.'il<. ,h. ,remenJoul popul.rity of ,he coIumn.sitting Styli,.. may have given a !pu, «' rq>.odUCfiono of 'hei' pinu"" . • nd thuo '" ieoo;, but i, ..,.nlS ,hat ,raditio", of Ch,;,,;on on were well under W'f I>cfure ,he ~.>t pillar .... ' dimbed, " An clf"n to 'W"'P'''t< ho.h ,he I<]''',.en,.,io" . nd ,I>< poICIKJ" of the h•• I("(". ,he wi"" man •• nd ,I>< m.gician could h"e pla~ • role." Munifi«ncr: b)' membe .. of the "ppe,.lu.rcs who """t< ";,,,.-,,omal .0 • richly ..!curt.,'" cn.i"""",,,,, '''''y h ••e heen , f>c,o,." I mp"',i,1 .h.. 'p".. k;ng in ..,rn. of· ·m.gni"'=", '" . nd " abundancc:' ""')' apl.in oom. docoratcd eovilOl1",eo"." Simibrly. ,he f"'t ,hoc Ch,;sti.", 'PPr<>JI,i"", m."y gen"" of cI ..."'al litCT.ture m.y ptuvid~ • due .. '" why ,hey .... ntwlly < ....;doncc '" p""u.dc.1I ,he ",hoi.". Ir ,uffioo to .. y tha, "'r<>ioI ,he fu.., .. h ce nt",.,. di"" ... Christi," .',. ...... ",d I'rolif("(" .. «1 rapi,Uy . T h.. . " adopted moch from i" p>gan
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16
CHArTEIl ON E
far. Among the defenses of art, one that grew in prominence in each succeeding generation maintained that worship was n ansm itted from an image to [he person whom that image represented. This argument is associated with St. Basil (329-79). In a homily on the H oly Spirit, Basil was trying to explai n how the Son and the Father could be twO in person without being two gods. To make his point he used the analogy of the imperial images. If a person looks at an image of the emperor he will say, "That is the emperor," but there do nor thereby appear two emperors since "the honor shown to the image is transferred to irs model."JcO At roughly the same lime a similar argument was presented by Athanasius (ca. 296-373) in his Third Dircouru Against fhr Arians. lS A second line of defense emphasized the capacity of images to evoke emotional responses that greatly enhanced piety. Gregory of Nyssa (ca. 335-ca· 39S), speaking about the sacrifice of Isaac, said, " I have often secn this tragic event depicted in painting and could not walk by the sight of it without shedding tears.".16 Basil, again, spoke of the way images call deeds to memory " jUSt like writing. For feats of war done bravely are sometimes expressed by orators and sometimes by painters, these adorning those deeds with words. those painting them on tablets, and each one incites nor a few to courage. For whatever of history language communicates thro ugh hearing. silent pictures put those images before the eye for imitation."37 At about the same time John Chrysostom (347- 407) mentions a tendency in Antioch to make images of SL Meletius. a former bishop: "For you [the Antiochenes) were not only touched by his name but also by the figure (tUl"tov) of his body. And what you did with respect to his name yo u did also with respect to his image (dxova) . Indeed, on rings, seals. vials, on the walls of dwellings, and everywhere many put up that holy image that they might not only hear his holy name but also see the figure of his body and take some consolation for his do uble exile.".18 John's account differs from those of Gregory and Basil in speaking of a proliferation of images intended to bring "consolation." Right down to the thirteenth century many writers maintained that words did nOt have the same capacity to arouse the mind and the heart as picmres.3'! Third. images were seen to be useful for instruction. G regory of Nyssa, again, said that "painting, even if it is silent, is capable of speaking ftom the wall and being of the greatest benefit . . . . When scenes of marty rdom arc painted on the walls of a church ... this is of the greatest benefit and is like writing."'" G regory was the first to draw a parallel between verbal eloquence and the visual arts. T he word graphr could mean painting or writing, and historiai could mean a picture or a Story. Gregory compared pictures to "a book endowed with speech ." Eventually this became a topOS in Christian discourse
An.l..- 'i .., _" A. oo.h Ihoil ,ru;I G...gory .. ;,J. ,he I"'in, of g.uing" Chris,im m indu"" em"b,i,,~. Emul""'n. i,ni,.,;"". mi,,,,,,;,, ""',. wot,,1 ,heme of Ch. i"i.n "-";'ing. from [he GQSl'iogy we", b< en,i,dy. Second. ,hc.c ... , i«r< .... « nei,he< odJ'minJ; one .no,he. Jrknding [hem,d"" ",d ,hei, p<»i'ion. from .ny known ..... ibn[. Third. 'heir d of ....no ""..med in plO«I)' in"rumen ..I .."",: :>n[h«;": ron,id.""ioru :0'" en,itd)· .boen' , They talk ,he, cflttt. ,ho, . n <:on h.v<, The,e is no ques,ion he", of . ",I. """,;,[ed wi[h ... . h i, .1", in .., ..[ing ,ho, none of ,hesc ,,'ri,... fd, ailed upon '0 rtbu" in. ",. iOl" .nd comp'1< f<m nd .mo,,!; ,he wo.b of Potri..«h Niccphoru. (7\8- 8,8). whom we: ",.11 m"", >go in," John of O.m"",,,. (a. 660----0. 7501. ,h. S""" honiw, E"", mindful of cccklimicaJ ".dillon!. )<>hn ...,m, .o h,,,,, fd, ,h .. Epipluniu. vi.IU.,lly . L,n, in "I'I""ing im>gc< .nd could he ccily ignorro: '"one .""lIow d<>
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T.... mcn, ngu,.,,) "'.OOmi n..<:<1 ,he idol, of ,he gen. ile>. . " .. ro.k. images of ,he .. in ..... memo,i. 1 ", them and wo«hip ,h«c in 'heir oono •. ·· He g<><>"n men,;"n propl. ,,·ho ho"e p.im<: (~",6v.S>. IIr keeping the . p<»[{)li. <x>mmmJmen' " Epiphoni ... "'Y', "" cr'"'' ,he G...., inugn of [he ."",. Ies. Epipltonio. ,1", < lifd ... nunc. of ,hei' pier",."." h' a l.n," tl> rJx £"'1'< .... ·1J,..,J,n;~, Epiphonio. comploin<:< 'rk" to both Old .nd New T"m_ me", hgurnl ""'ct I"'in,ed an im"l;< ofCh,i« .nd pu, i. ,n . church Of ' 100,,« [0
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. od th .. no On< b.d fg>: .."I !O ,.mo,'. mosaics wh••• """,bl •. '· Fin.lly. in a Lntn kI ,Mm, Bi>I»p ofAdi.. (Adi. Capi. rolin. i, jeru.<>km), I::pipluni u, "'pl. ined ,ha, h. Iu.d dioeov ""ith. doo, CI""in on ,,-hich ,he,. " ... an imag< ,I.", tlx loa!. bdicv..! 10 be ofeh.i .. 0 ' of one of the .. inu. Epiphanius pulled it i, be ..=I ... hu.;'1 do,h fu, a POO' man. Epiphaniu. down .nd in.i"..! cuncl.>
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Another teStimony . urvive> ""Iy .nlOng the doCl"".nu prc:ilu. of Sinai (d. "'. 4;10), " Leo,"..! """ltn'u' h .. rcsardcd thClt I........ • "'hen,i, ...... ,ino: ,668. when 1.«> Alb,iu" ,heir Ii", wi,o., includW ,hem .lonB wi,h ,he n... fly une thou«"",,1 .n ""'""Phobic o.,undl "f 714 ,.f "' ...·'''';ng , ....... 1. "<,, in • "'r h"'tilc to i..... go. it w'-l in fa« SOd .. ved him """'u.. he had "f,cn >fo ... bl~ in ." "",Iy The """,nd I."er .. ~ .. ,he fif,h· ,h.n in .....~n,h. '" cigh,h-ocn,,,'Y Ii,n" of. ""P'''''' '" ,he F...... rch OlyonpK,do .... wh" was 'hinking .,rd -.II\IJ t" ,,.. • """" . I"ng ,,·i,., OIJ ."d N.... T", ... mem >ccn<> bocau .. ,hc nafU"lilti" imagn ,,"Oulg, The gen · lIin, ..,.;on of ,h" 1,"'<1 p,oh.bly in,i " ..! "n, cm".nd r,.,,.., ".. II, bocau .. in • church d..!ic:r,et! '» .h. ".,ny" ,be n,.,n,,'Y .J""• .,r ,Il.,.., wh" had diet! .hould ",Ai« to ... ,,,in tbc fait hful N il", m.y ha~ sDl tha, the ind ... ion of • . whil. Nil", , ,,,,,Iy Jjd no' bug /",. -4-40---1'))' bi,hup of H il"rapoli. in Syti., d.imcd ,h .. it .... «nbwf,,1 ro .ndow .ng"''' with bodi .. hca. ... they ""',. in
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..;d ,h., d", only im.ge of o,ri ....... wo"hip in spiri, .nO 'Mh Uoho . ,')- .... ). W,ong too. in rt.ilo ... ,~. "'C'" 1",,, .. r>( ,he Hr>ly Sp"" .. • dov<:, Philo",n", .1>0 "to<)k dow" . nd obli[.r:ot«l im.ga of .ngel. ,n Jmlny pl.ces, " ,I,il. tl>"'" "'ptc«nting Chri" hc ...., .... N in ,n>C<'t:S>,ble . pots."" I'hi· loxni,m. nowcv<'. '" hi> .ct"'nl 'Pi n>! im"l\<> m. y n=l t<, be .i.",t«l in tn. t COn'e~t onol< ,h,n " 'i,hin . r> evol.i"g Chri,,;.n di"""t"" on ,n." Phil,}>.",,, .. mind, u, ,Iu, ,h. pokmic:ll ... nee uf the p!<'-Con ... n,ini. n pe'~..J "-,,, "ill.li,... Th, Aown ('<0", At>b.r 5<,1""'''' (("",,10 ee"""y) wi,h which ,hi> clul"C! hogi" •. Sop'''''' ..... 0<)[ "",dly .. Iking .ho", .";,,ic rt of. kind of viswl p<.«ption which [h<)l 'o"t depicting Ch,i.\, ,,·h il. O[herS argued th .. Ch,;,, ', hum.nity could i,\f:I[«I Him (10m Hi> F.,hct. A, h.n"iu. coun,.rro [hi, vicw Zi.n,u,) worked ou' the t,.,i< Iong""ge lOr .. Iking .hom ('..,d. As W< luvo ...,n. n"il .nJ C''"'. in I'. n;cul .. , f"u"J in"'!!", bo,h I;.", .".1 Ir;n in ,he'S" of i<XlOocwm, f i"" of all. th<)l .......1 to "" d.. .",,'" 'u which i"",go> had .p,.. d and ,he wide .my o( hoi)' propk who "",. heing "od«l her<.
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1>h «,ul things u. not rui ..bI. chmncl, fo, ....... hip. in p.n brom'" of th< ""'".. of which ,hey ,re mad •• nd in 1" '" of ,he f.llihilicy of ,he hUl"'u» .... ho m.k. ,hem. Pictu'CI.re.!so indcc.rmin.tc. A co,!",rcal .ngel i~ """fu.i~g. fO. i..... n~ .• nd in Aruu.1u p«>pl< " ..,," u.... u« wh_ im>g< "" .. on the cu .... i•. P.int.rs an"'" .gtcc on how .0 Jcpia .he: .. in.cd h.1OcO of Chris.i..,ity. Sym~ic .epmcn ... ion_.he do .... fut in"'m'<-~ ""yiou.ly opreading .nd ~ $ern to be renr .... illi0Y' .... o ",I.",...y rnl;.oli~ "'I"'""""orio_,h. Good Shepherd, in p>n icul... AnthroJ>Ornorphic "'p.elCn.. lio", W'rr.cling ""d fJOSi. ivdy w.m>ging to 'he ineff..,k ... Iily of. pUf'. so roo the ico"", phobc> :odd,~ o,di",ry ronduct which diSrurbr:d ,hem. They did no< expli,. itly uldf<$i ,h. rupporn: .. of i ....g<> .od ,Ir.cy do !>Ot 'ppa' '0 Iu.", br:or> clull. 1". chureh hi.."ti.>n Engtiu. (a. 136 - 600) tell. of a freeo at Ap......a depicting. rni",ek The im'gr ........... tip in.he ~ilins of ,he church ro m.k< kno"", ,he!< "",nrs by m..", Qf p>;m;ng '" , .... ,.. w .... , W<''''' ;!no",n, of ,h<m ."" A, ~,,)~nrl $arne .ime the: hioton .. Agi"h~ (a. I) t-G. 1110) .. id. coocccning an image of tire "eb.ngol Michac:1. " nre "",",I "lim .... h" behold< the i.... go di"",. hio mind '0 ' hiv.e, oonlOmpb,ion. Hi. ""n .... ,ion io no longr. d'""",«I, "ngr>v· ins .... i,h.n him,df ,h. I"d.. ogrl'.] ,ni, .. h. ,remble>,. ifh. """e in ,he buer'. I"=n« . n..."..,. <"",~".ge Jeep th,~,~" . • nd.It i, .ble by ..... n' ,,{ 0:«10" to bry "vet (," in ""i«.1 thoc pla)",< "f the mind."" Thc:sc f"'grnenrs .re f
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" K"lIy. One of ,hem. Hyparim. who ...... aKhbiohop of Epheow from Ij' to. pe'_ h,p" 1)8. addressor! "'In< MiJ"u,,_. 1"'1~irin to Ri$hop Julu .. of Atrym;· .;urn. Julun had booo.ne t.I.rrnerl t.I>o~t im.ge p... ct""" in his dio<<gOin disturbing divine •...di,ion •." Julun "l'P>',,"Iy biblieol p",hibi.ion, .~i" .... >Ch 'cpn:scnt>t;"n, bo,u .,td...t tlu, he permitted the "",.. hip of p>mtings but not of statun. Hypatiu. goes through. "".dUl cumina,ion of ",hy the Sctiprur<> ...y IIttmingly mn, .. diaory things .oou. images . nd he ~ th" "",ml wri,ings. implicitly both Sctiprutcs.nd .. in •• Ii,..... " " ,ul"" "". "We u l e n<) pl
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nundme",,) wilh 'egard ,,, ,ho ""«U"'es 00' we ",etch 0"' our hand in • mOlc ",i,,1>1< w>y to [hOI< who , rc "ill ",her imptrfct:<. yet we do no[ I".ve ,I><m U""ugh, .. t" ,h. rno .. ptrfoc, Ikn",,'I«it:"'1 bu, we "''''' ,h.m to know .h.. [he divine lxing is no[" >II idem;",1 or ,he 0' .imiLa, <0 .n)· of ,h.
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In ,he cat ,h. ,..,... tl>< fifth of which i. "Id,.....d espec",bin> "" ,he .,k, beause H e comnunded Ez«hicl [0 dcco...,e ,!.c Temple; becam. Solomon pm imag<'> in [hc Tomple. Lromiu. challengn [hc Jew> to r<:pr<:l>g'" to be m ...k A Jew """,Id ' <>p<J "d---m"ch "f ,I>< ""mon is os, .. . J i.logu<-n would .n>w<, , h.......... harJly regard ,he>< lilUKt~;) and imag... (dxove;) ,nd fo.m. (t,;JI'o!) of ..in .... if ' hey " ..". goo,." likcn"""" .,c hooo",d for wha[ they "p,<><>d,« pu, '''!;'II .. , ", m. 1.c a cross, I v~n."". (JtQO<J;(tvWI ,he fig.... on KCOun, "f Clui« who ~ crucified 0" i" if ,I>< pi of ~ ...... re >q>.r.,od win. J wuuld tltrow ,hem in,o ,I>< fi ... A"d "". wh~" SQ"\¢O)n< «CCi,.... " o,J« fron t ,I>< <"'I"''''' and I>< .. I...... ,h....1, h. do.. "'" honor (h 4.l)tJf,v ) ,hc d,y. ,h. P'pe', or ,he Ic..!. bUl I>< <.«nd. his ,'one", ion ("QOO",;v'l'JIv) and fap«1 (o[fIu,) to [!.c empelO'." lromi", [hen u JIu of boy. who. wben .hei, f.. I><, goc. 'W"l.y . ..,. hi. " ..If, cloak, 0 ' chair and emblU< ,hem wi,h [", honor objcc« bcc:o.uoc ,hey
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g<S t<">.lIy idols. why do "'0 wo<>hip in t<mpln dediat«l to tho< martyn who ddtroyal idols? If Chri";,,,, honor wood ., • gOO. wh)' do they hono' nunyfl who des,roytd woodrn ,inluben' Jow> .« ""hbo PU' domons to Right. They ",ill_ ""kn~ how ,rumy vi"",· tio" ... in,i"ti"" ... ,,> llut they ko:p ""ny ",.n"f;lC1Utcd ,hi ng> fot ,ho,- glof)"'..J memory of God: 'ho ".ff of M""". ,he ",bIcs of ,he uw. the bum ;ng huw. ,he nunn •. b<:oring urn. the ,It••.• he p""e with (;;,d', !Ume. 'ho cphod. ,he T.her_ n.<1<. Ch,i><''"''« no diffi,«n, .nd do n", &,..,,< ,h< e1",s< of 'dol",1'." Th....... nth «" tul)' 1 ",he. an';-Jrwi'ibly by H.,ocli .. ,', ' n, i·jcv.-i.sh kgi,l"ion. " ... mong thex. of Bi.sh<>p S' erh." of lIos'n """ p>nirly iml"'n' ~, booh I>ea".. i, was i~R"e~,i.II., .. 0" "" d l>eau .. he ...,. ,he fi", G .... k w,i,~, ,n ."empo. <:aJdU1 .. pIa""io" of tho diA;"."". bcrwt:<:n .,lo,.,otm .nd ""n.... ion. His t<>t ","-;v.,. in • ~f)" f.-.gm<"t1f)" It .pp<ar> th .. St. fo, ="'ple. 'h>t e--''Y'hing mad. i" (;;,d', !\an.. i, sood .. ,.J ,h .. Chti.«i. ns !lo"C' ..-,,<>hip m."«f."",,-.d thinS' fur the", .. I~.. but fo, ,h. I"'""n. Ihey ~n' _ Mo,..,..". ,inu o"e,)-,hinl\ is ",.n"r"". t"""t i, ",.de by hum,,, h.,Ids. If "0 =p<et i, tu k """.-do.! ,,, ",."uf"",umi [hing>. wh~ 00 Jew> """""'.. 1M wood~n aI ..,. the urn wi,h mon"". the ",hie ond light> in,id<: .nd oul>i a« """ ,hing. idolt .n· oth.., Si"". God tn.d. Ag<. art ""'. "",,.ho... idols?" ... Ithough tho .rgum of !..ronu"" and Sr<· " hen"", «>,,,,. ,,,i,,,,>1 ."d. fOr the n..... I"rt. fa",;!;" tu '" by nvw. ,hm:'f<" some impliei, in ,heir wtitings. We", the", 'o::ally dialoguc,; Qn ,h< 'p<:' cifi, .uhirtt of ;rn.g« I;.m.'~ 1"";'''1., Ch""i.o>-----wh.cther !.romiu•. 5,-.nd ""'".] Jew>? No the t<."" t/u., ",,,,i .. mor<: Ii[«'f)" in«n,io".' \l;1\y '''S'''' ",ilh Jow>" all, let al""< in ""nn"""io" ..-ith ;"'>gd? [ ,-.n ,hough .... know c<>mp, ... tivdy 10,,1 0 .bout ,h< Jew> on tho ,i"h ."d ", ~,i.w
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seventh cemuries,!.o scholars have in r«ent years devoted considerable attention to a substantial corpus of ami-Jewish literature that arose in this period.M This is not the place for a derailed assessment of that literature, but one aspect of its appearance deserves mention because it hdps to place the writings of Lrontius and S((:phen into sharper focus. Byz.antium was subjected to severe military pressu re and frequent defeat by Slavs, Persians, and then, most disastrously, Arabs. The Arabs of coursc represemed not only a military threat of immense proportions but also a profound religious challenge. In ways tha t are still a little hard to fatho m, one dement of Byz.antium's response to this ongoing crisis was a series of literary polemics against the defenseless and unthreatening Jews. For David 0ls[er the polemics " used (he Jew as a rhetorical device to personify the doublS of their own community with a recognizable, evil, and most important, eminent ly defearable. opponent."6l Muslims were, on the other hand, triumphant and they were iconophobic, albeit less militantly so [han has usually been assumed. 6J T he dialogues of Leontius and Stephen may not represent actual Jewish-Christian dialogue so much as an imaginary way of addressing the legitimacy of the rising prominence of images. Once again. in other words. the very texts that seem at first to reveal an intense discussion of the legitimacy of sacred art may actually bear lillIe connection to any such discussions and may not even have much rdevance to the topic of an . Along the Greek world's frontier . in seventh-cemury Armenia, there was some discussion of images. Apparently Vrt'am:s K'er['ogh, an influential churchman, was combating Christian iconoclasts in Armenia. One of his writings on images, or an extract from onc of them , has survived. Vn'anes begins by rejecting the heretics' contention that no paintings or images (statues?) should be in churches. Their charge is idolatry and it is based on the Old Testantent. The immediate response is to cite Old Testament passages where God commanded images to be made. Vn'anes then memions Paul and the altar of the unknown God at Athens (Acts 17.23) and says that church fathers mention and approve of images. H e adds tha t the cross is veneratcd because Christ died on it and then says, " what is astonishing is {hat you accept the commandments and you persccUie the Lord; you prostrate yourselves before the symbol [the cross] but you 5tone the ki ng [presumably a corpus on a crucifix]; you hono r the cross and yo u outrage the cruci fied . For this is how the Manichaeans and the Marcionites behave who consider the Lord, who reall y took a body, an apparition, and when Ihey $tt images of him they grow angry, become furious, and insult them." Vrt'anes Ihen mentions the Story in Eusebius (Hist. 7. 18) of the woman at Paneas whose hemorrhage was cured by a smue of ChriSI. He then talks of all the pictu res of Mary, marryrs, and sainls that e:list in the churches of the C hristians
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rapondtd ,""i.h bibli",I'rgumtn" of "i, Own . H •• r>,ion, on Mo.... [tn' .nd ,h •• """,me"t of m. Ttmpl •. Th ...... "Y' nothi"S .bout [h • .. n...,;"n "rin ... ~ .nd dot> no< ..... .1 , hi&h~" ,Ji,hoologial.p iiIuc." M."y of ch.t >Ufcmc:nU by ,hot w,i ........ by ""'" f.mil .. , to .... B", ," .... _ ""'.. h.l"" .nund ,hot music. Fint. Ag>.h~ .. Iks • ..,I>t< <'YI"ieally. of 'mas<> dlm:,i"5 [he Yicwcr It> a !Up« """empLltion. Hyp.ui .... n,h ... mDr< dear1y. ~ of , ........" brins SUidcd up It> ,I>. dm ... n... oounds .~ mudo lik I puur;< ntal oJ.. bim the: I.......x..A~ ... .,. euIy Jix'h..omnuy ,a' d..... dtq> d..m from ,he ..-&O of Ntopl.a,,,,,ie tl.""gI". Poeu-I)en)'l ooid. " 1)1'. l i t ltd up . .. f.... posoible .• hrouglt ....'hi. imagco to tIM: ro'"empb,,,,,,, of ,hot Ji........·... For I<WI'IC J><W UI" word j,.., II h.., .. nly gr>« and i",c~ion "'.r< eh.nn.1td oo,..'nwa.d, A pictUl' 'hu. benm< apabl< no, m<.dy.,r """.... nting hu. in fur of mtdiaring '0 ,hot obot ...... the ,hing 010 ..,,-.<1. This i........, K.t! Mo.';"'" h.. alltd. "al"", 1.,«1. «yli....! mi"'ndc: .. ,.nding. ...' n. .... an I>. '''' doubt ,h.. NropI.,,,,,jc
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thought c..'entu. i!y CQnuibutw to. b=kdo",n " f the barrier ,lut "l".... tcd ,he im,S" from ,he 1'<""" ",hom i, rep....,n",d . JlU!, jotdging from Ag:.. hi:u .00 Hyp:uiu., P.S, in the .;'th c< "Ie> ,Iu, im'l;< I"'rticip:o.ed (ItWr;t.;) in. ur .h.f<' "nly in ,he nin.h ""'>!"I)'. Scrond, Lron.i", .nd. bs explicitly. V,t.nes reft, to mi t:ld« ><sociatcd with im.ses. Thi, 'opic ,",'ililt,,,m brge • • nd b'l;« in br •• di>ru»inm o( im.. gc>. Fo. nOW. it i. worth noting tlu, twO ¥cry difft.ent ",ri.... rould p>« ovrt !hi• • ubject ... ith compl«c «tuonimity. Thi,d, Hyp.. iu. in f"rticul.tr do<> no. '" mn.1> dd<"d im"ll" in goo ..... I ..1d on princ;ple .. .... gge<, .Iu, ,hOl-' nul'l>< of v.. l"" '0 the ,impl., Im>&", ""'''' .Iw.y> "",n by ,hei, .uwort." .. " .. ful in 'C'OChing b". here w< bm who ~ to be .. ught by them- flO' .he whole communi!)- bu, only it> humN« mcml:>en. Th. impli"""", i, ,bat ,I:>e beTt .. 50" of 1>«>1'1, ........ ble ,,, rik .. oo.e "'c'" I'<""'p.ion. of ,ho fif,h .... ion of II Nicu-:z. but not o,helWi.. Eml:>etldcd ;n ,lefcnk "f i.. ,,8<" lIi, h"p John ofTh""",. kin;';' i, qUilled, in Ihe plm:... ba,-ing ~id. f"" quire ,,,di,ion,1 thin!:). He g<:s heco"k thO}' <xi« unly fe" ","", ,,,b.ting ,,,d h"""'ing ,ho .. dcpicf<'< im.SC" ,ho",..k .., ;nde«l..re not hollof<'e inCOfpor<>1 d;.in;,y," John e,,,,dotd<>l by dcwlopinS ,ho .. me ..sumem w;,h "'PCC' '0 ,"1;<10. Of co,,'" .hl . nd.., ,bat;. how ,hq.re of Chris, (0' eucrly ,ho ........ rnson ,ba, Joh n di& Ch,,,, h.J 'I'pc'"cd.,. m.n ,nd.., ;"" 8< "fhim ",."ifc>tcd ,I,., , •• Iity·· F... front the I>c:o" of Dyun,iunt. Atu$'>liu$ of S;n .. ttArocd on im .. gcs In the 1,,< IlOphical .lobo,.. • 00.." the ",I"i,.. excdl""cc of sctinK .nd I>c:o'ing or re.. ding ,h.. """'''''',I w;,h com.mpor,,)' co"«"'" .1>0<" ,h. ,u'h<"'ici1)' of ' .....00 ,ba, u!S«l ,-.,,)' CU ffe,,' concem,- in tI.. world of Mon",hcl i.i.m .nd.1>< .i"h roun.i1 of 6!k>, .boot Chri ..·, fuli hum.:znity. Ho .. id. defeooing dcp"'ion. of ,ho crucifixion, ,ba, ",ho tx., ruk: of ,h. wi ..., mon ;, ch'" nu,e,i.1 refut:Hion, ."d "'pr...,n,,· ,iom .. ", ",,,ngt' .nd "''''e heliev.. hle ,,>r .h,,, both spokrn
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WOld. 1M b . n«l quo=. fOf ,he m,, ,e'''1 "'p,=o",ion ",ono. I>< gJ,....,d OJ rorgd. wh.rea< ,h. ,pok.n .."",;,;on. "fbook.< on." sufl'cr .ddi,;""" .od omis.,i"". 1t ' he h.nw of cvil"pe-rwe<:n piau"'" .nJ ",,,,,elf .ho" wi.h .d'u,ing ,he Theop.Khi"'" who hdicv«l ,ho, God h.J ",ffi:.«1 on ~ Fo. A""" ..;u •• u. who rufferOO 10d di«l!' Th. Lu, p~ia)flod,,'i~ ,,~i.inll' on ;m>.g<> _;n >om< .~ ,hoe impo''''''_ In 692 .1>< c<>uncil '"in Trullo" (oft<-n ",11«1 ,h. " Quini"",,'" 'If " hf.h·Si ..h ") >dd«l • kng. h~ .... of di.< d<>gnU,ic . Th..,. .imes .h. Chu,",;1 >ddtes>l;'c. n Thi, ",nOlI "",u.. lJ y did '10 mo •• ,!u.n "'p<>,.n «lie, ofTh«><," ,h""ld be n" ,"",,,< minJ.oo ncit< I:>.s< plca$urQ:'" Thi. CtnOn ~ r~.dy no,iced 1»- h~'on.n> of the inugr. I.. mconing i•• mbig""u, in ,h. a'",me': If could ",Lot< [0 >om~ connection to ,h~ kind of 'hinking .h., b'er ",,,,.. ion«l ,~c imerpob. i"", in . ho loner of S, _Nil .... of Sin.i (_ >bov< p_ ,8) who,..,. .1Incc",«1 ,h .. ." ,n churc"," ",;gh. t.. Ji..."";ng and nO' ;n"'u",;,-• . Churches "'<'" pt.a.. of """,hip. no. of ""t<".inmen'. ~nd no or' ..... j ~"ifi .bk ,ha, did no' .nh .. n« ,II< pi.ty of wonhirrn. Fin. lly. in ito mas, famow i.... g< aOOn, number 8>. ,hoe Trulbn Council de<:roed:
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thot d.pth <)f d,e Immilit)· of d,e Word of God. atod . tc kd to thot ",memb",ncc <>fhi< IiI< in the firsh. hi. p' «;o" anJ hi. "" 'ing dc.,h . • nd the rndemptitKI .... hOch therd,y arne to the _tid." It i. < ,c.d in thi' W»', T,ken "'gct~« w;th ,~c """<.10 ofJ"~" of n.c.s:.lonicl ,00 Con, ..",in. Ch ....ophyl ••. ,rKl vi ..... cd in ,he of the oont;nuing Chri"olog;al battlc< that d;«urkd the O"OOdox Church. this anon can he: t.ken ,0 m"" n th.,.;n ,,,dot til ""'rt ,hc d.,c,rin. of ,h. ;n",m,_ tion. Chri!t an ,nd ,hould he: dcpi«ed a' , man . S"ued dilk«ntly. th i< Trulb n ".. >on on be in«'p'oted ... an ,n;'''''''''n ,hot . the \\'",,1 h,v;ng betn maJ. R..... ,here W>.< ,w) n«PrY .... i,h .1>"",«. ,)'mool;c rc><m",ion•. n.c Trull... f.,hm ,,"<'" a liul< dubio,," ,oou, 'Ymooh and romen' wi,h 'r, ,he chutch prooounced offic o..lly On <.oITog<s. The (ormer ..id thot Cod ..... purdy iC!;"nl. in . ny ,,"ting imag<>o p,c\ume to .It>" in God ·, "wk. lm.:lg<> we'" ;Jol •. 0< '" ,'cry mulIy. God hod m'etkd him,dfin word"~ no' in piau"". The d~nJ<,. Qf i m.~ used did.«k a'1)u men", Art w .. good for ,I>< ,,,,,,,ue';,,n "f d", ;s<>or." •. " " " ;muh,e ,h.. JiJ <>0(. Aft encouf"J.g1 h wltox example «. m.ined , continu ing P'ClCnC< .nd «>mfOf!. An helped to!O.;U\ ,nd to r<:fc, ,he p"'y"" of ,he bel..,..". An .... mad. of ,.;). n"t"t. pc,h,p, . bo' til< ""net W>S 'nc ,& ~ ..1 to ,h. pU'l""'" of , n . M",,,,,,,,,,. GOd cr.",,«l . 11 ,h 'ng< .nd haJ pronounced ,hem good. M~,,« C(>uld I>< ,bwcd. c<'t>'nl y. bUl it,,~ nO! 'n(f';"' '''lIy 1»<1. In some .,.... :ICc;ng ...." prcfc"bl. ,,, he";"g Or n:W;"S' Im.s<' """ked mi,>ny ploco. SUlci)' ,hi, helped '0 ",,,,hlilh ,heir
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k$irim>q . fifully, im'geI of eh,;,r h~lpd.>i'" rft< docrr;n. "f ,he inc:IIn... ion," Ernst Ki!l!ing<' onco .. HI th .. ,he", .... s no ,ime brtwt-rn the fou,," ""ntuty .nd rhe nimh when rl><", wu no di",,-';on of ;m:ogcs. " 'I'h" i, '''' •. i, is " Iso true ,h,,, the dilCU...on, ,.'<'" ""~ in comparison wi.h, fOl tumple. tt.. f.e"", ,es . " "oundi"! .1><: I"',..,n ,nd n""r, of Jesu, ChriS!. Th. moo. commo n ch'rg< ~n".rr WU idoL"ty and the mOO' rommon dekn'" WU ,h••. in cert.in circumst. nce, GOO him!< mule. In. ""y. rl><: inug< q ......d. wert 1'<>11)' hurl .. """. bibl",,1 "". Thi, ""'Y I><:lp .0 ""phin ,I>< cme
