In Defense of Lost Causes

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

SLAVOJ

ZIZEK

VERSO London • New York

First published by Verso 2008 Copyright © Slavoj Zizek 2008 All rights reserved The moral right of the author has been asserted 1 3 5 7 9

10 8 6 4 2

Verso UK: 6 Meard Street, London W I F OF.G USA: 180 Varick Street, New York, NY lOOH-4606 www.versobooks.com Verso is the imprint of New I^ft Books ISBN-13: 9 7 8 - 1 - 8 4 4 6 7 - 1 0 8 - 3 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication D a t a A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress Typeset in Cochin by Hewer Text U K Ltd, Edinburgh Printed in^he U S A by iVlaple Vail

Alain Badiûu wiu once deated amongét the public in a room where 1 wad delivering a talk, when hid cellphone (which, to add iiuult to injury, waj mine —I ha? lent it to him) all of a dudden dtarled to ring. Instead of turning it off, he gently interrupted me and adked me if I could talk more doftly, M that he could hear hut interlocutor more clearly . . . If thUi WAi not an act of true friendship, I do not know what friendship u. So, th'u book id dedicated to Alain Badiou.

Contents

Introduction: Causa Locuta, Roma Finita

PART I

1

T h e S t a t e of

1

Things

H a p p i n e s s a n d T o r t u r e in t h e A t o n a l W o r l d

11

Human, all too human — The jcreen of civility — Gift and exchange — UlyMM'

rcalpoUtik— The atonal world—Serbdky

Institute, Malibu—Poland oj a ifymptoni—Happy to torture? 2

T h e F a m i l y M y t h of I d e o l o g y

52

"Capitalst realLtm "— The production of the couple in Hollywood . . . —. . . and out—The real Hollywood Left—Hiitory

and

family in F r a n k e n s t e i n — A letter whœh d i d arnve at Ltd destination 3

R a d i c a l I n t e l l e c t u a l s , or, W h y H e i d e g g e r T o o k the R i g h t Step (Albeit in the W r o n g D i r e c t i o n ) in 1933

95

Hiding the tree in a forest—A domestication of Nietzsche — Michel Foucault and the Iranian Event—The trouble with Heidegger — Ontolagical difference—Heidegger's smoking gun?—Repetition and the New—From Heidegger to the drive — Heidegger's 'dwine violence"

P A R T II •4

L e s s o n s from the

Past

R e v o l u t i o n a r y T e r r o r f r o m R o b e s p i e r r e to M a o "What do you want?"—Asserting the inhuman — Tranjubstantiatiouii of ÄlarxLim — The limits of Mao s dialectical — Cultural revolution and power

157

S t a l i n i s m R e v i s i t e d , or, H o w S t a l i n

Saved

the H u m a n i t y of M a n

211

The Stalinidt culturai counter-revolution —A letter which did not reach its destination (and thereby perhaps saved the world) — Krenilinology—From

objective to subjective

guilt—Shostakovich

in C a s a b l a n c a — T i é i ; StalinLil c a r n i v a l i n the films of Sergei Eisenstein — The minimal difference

W h y P o p u l i s m Is ( S o m e t i m e s ) G o o d E n o u g h in P r a c t i c e , b u t N o t in T h e o r y Good enough in praetiee

264

but not good enough in

theory— The "determining role of the economy": Marx with Freud—Drawing the line —The act —The Real—The

vacuity

of the politivé of jouissance

PART HI 7

W h a t Is to B e D o n e ?

T h e C r i s i s of D e t e r m i n a t e N e g a t i o n The humorous superego ...—...

and its politics of

337 resistance-

"Goodbye Muter Refuting Nonmd"—Negri in Davos —Deleuze without Negri— Governance and movements 8

A l a i n B a d i o u , or, t h e V i o l e n c e of S u b t r a c t i o n Materialism,

381

democratic and dialectical—Responses to the

Event—Do we need a new world?—The lessons of the Cultural Revolution —Which subtraction? —Give the dictatorship of the proletariat a chance! 9

U n b e h a g e n in d e r N a t u r

420

Beyond Fukuyama —From fear to trembling —Ecology against nature —The uses and misuse,* of Heidegger— What is to be done? Notes

463

Index

493

Introduction: Causa Locuta, Roma Finita

Roma locuta, caMa finita—t\\e

d e c i s i v e w o r d s of a u t h o r i t y t h a t s h o u l d e n d

a d i s p u t e , in a l l its v e r s i o n s , from "the C h u r c h s y n o d h a s d e c i d e d " to "the C e n t r a l C o m m i t t e e h a s p a s s e d a r e s o l u t i o n " a n d , w h y not, " t h e p e o p l e h a s m a d e c l e a r i t s c h o i c e at t h e b a l l o t b o x " . . . H o w e v e r , i s not t h e w a g e r of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s t h e o p p o s i t e o n e : let t h e C a u s e i t s e l f s p e a k (or, a s L a c a n p u t it, "I, t h e t r u t h , s p e a k " ) , a n d t h e E m p i r e (of R o m e , t h a t i s , c o n t e m p o r a r y g l o b a l c a p i t a l i s m ) w i l l fall a p a r t ? Ab lata causa tolluntur effectua: w h e n t h e c a u s e i s a b s e n t , t h e effects t h r i v e

{TJCS

effets ru se portent

bien qu'en absence de la cause). W h a t a b o u t t u r n i n g t h i s p r o v e r b a r o u n d ? W h e n t h e c a u s e i n t e r v e n e s , t h e effects a r e d i s p e l l e d . . . H o w e v e r , which C a u s e s h o u l d s p e a k ? T h i n g s l o o k b a d for g r e a t C a u s e s today, in a "postmodern"

e r a w h e n , a l t h o u g h the ideological scene is

f r a g m e n t e d i n t o a p a n o p l y of p o s i t i o n s w h i c h s t r u g g l e for h e g e m o n y , t h e r e i s a n u n d e r l y i n g c o n s e n s u s : t h e e r a of b i g e x p l a n a t i o n s i s o v e r , w e n e e d " w e a k t h o u g h t , " o p p o s e d to a l l f o u n d a t i o n a l i s m , a t h o u g h t a t t e n t i v e to t h e r h i z o m a t i c t e x t u r e of r e a l i t y ; in p o l i t i c s too, w e s h o u l d n o l o n g e r a i m a t a l l explaining systems a n d global e m a n c i p a t o r y projects; the violent imposi­ t i o n of g r a n d s o l u t i o n s s h o u l d l e a v e r o o m for forms of s p e c i f i c r e s i s t a n c e a n d i n t e r v e n t i o n . . . If t h e r e a d e r f e e l s a m i n i m u m of s y m p a t h y w i t h t h e s e lines, she should stop r e a d i n g a n d cast aside this volume. Even

t h o s e w h o o t h e r w i s e t e n d to d i s m i s s " F r e n c h "

postmodern

t h e o r y w i t h its " j a r g o n " a s a n e x e m p l a r y c a s e of " b u l l s h i t " t e n d to s h a r e i t s a v e r s i o n t o w a r d s " s t r o n g t h o u g h t " a n d its l a r g e - s c a l e e x p l a n a t i o n s . T h e r e i s i n d e e d a lot of b u l l s h i t t i n g g o i n g on t h e s e d a y s . U n s u r p r i s i n g l y , e v e n t h o s e w h o p o p u l a r i z e d t h e notion of " b u l l s h i t , " s u c h a s

Harry

F r a n k f u r t , a r e not free from it. In t h e e n d l e s s c o m p l e x i t y of t h e c o n ­ t e m p o r a r y w o r l d , w h e r e t h i n g s , m o r e often t h a n not, a p p e a r a s t h e i r opposites — Intolerance as tolerance, religion as rational common sense, a n d so on a n d so forth — t h e t e m p t a t i o n is g r e a t to c u t it s h o r t w i t h a v i o l e n t g e s t u r e of " N o b u l l s h i t ! " — a g e s t u r e w h i c h s e l d o m a m o u n t s to

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

m o r e t h a n a n Impotentpasöage à l'acte. S u c h a d e s i r e to d r a w a c l e a r l i n e of d e m a r c a t i o n b e t w e e n s a n e truthful

talk and "bullshit" cannot but re­

p r o d u c e a s truthful t a l k t h e p r e d o m i n a n t i d e o l o g y itself. N o w o n d e r that, for F r a n k f u r t himself, e x a m p l e s of " n o b u l l s h i t " p o l i t i c i a n s a r e H a r r y T r u m a n , D w i g h t E i s e n h o w e r , a n d , t o d a y , J o h n M c C a i n — a s if t h e p o s e of o u t s p o k e n p e r s o n a l s i n c e r i t y i s a g u a r a n t e e of t r u t h f u l n e s s . T h e c o m m o n s e n s e of o u r e r a t e l l s u s t h a t , w i t h r e g a r d to t h e o l d d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n doxa ( a c c i d e n t a l / e m p i r i c a l o p m i o n , W i s d o m ) a n d T r u t h , or, e v e n m o r e r a d i c a l l y , e m p i r i c a l p o s i t i v e k n o w l e d g e a n d a b s o ­ lute Faith, one should d r a w a line b e t w e e n w h a t one c a n think a n d do t o d a y . A t t h e l e v e l of c o m m o n s e n s e , t h e f u r t h e s t o n e c a n g o i s e n ­ lightened conservative liberalism: obviously, there are no viable alter­ n a t i v e s to c a p i t a l i s m ; a t t h e s a m e t i m e , left to itself, t h e c a p i t a l i s t d y n a m i c t h r e a t e n s t o u n d e r m i n e its o w n f o u n d a t i o n s . T h i s c o n c e r n s not o n l y t h e e c o n o m i c d y n a m i c ( t h e n e e d for a s t r o n g s t a t e a p p a r a t u s to m a i n t a i n t h e m a r k e t c o m p e t i t i o n i t s e l l , a n d so o n ) , but, e v e n m o r e , t h e i d e o l o g i c o p o l i t i c a l d y n a m i c s . I n t e l l i g e n t c o n s e r v a t i v e d e m o c r a t s , from D a n i e l B e l l to F r a n c i s F u k u y a m a , a r e a w a r e t h a t c o n t e m p o r a r y g l o b a l c a p i t a l i s m t e n d s to u n d e r m i n e its o w n i d e o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s ( w h a t , l o n g a g o . B e l l c a l l e d t h e " c u l t u r a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n s of c a p i t a l i s m " ) : c a p i t a l i s m c a n o n l y t h r i v e in the c o n d i t i o n s of b a s i c s o c i a l s t a b i l i t y , of i n t a c t s y m b o l i c trust, of i n d i v i d u a l s not o n l y a c c e p t i n g t h e i r o w n r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for t h e i r fate, b u t a l s o r e l y i n g on t h e

b a s i c " f a i r n e s s " of t h e s y s t e m — t h i s i d e o l o g i c a l

b a c k g r o u n d h a s to b e s u s t a i n e d t h r o u g h a s t r o n g e d u c a t i o n a l , c u l t u r a l a p p a r a t u s . W i t h i n this horizon, the a n s w e r is thus neither radical liberal­ i s m à la H a y e k , n o r c r u d e c o n s e r v a t i s m , still l e s s c l i n g i n g to o l d w e l f a r e s t a t e i d e a l s , b u t a b l e n d of e c o n o m i c l i b e r a l i s m w i t h a m i n i m a l l y " a u t h o r ­ i t a r i a n " s p i r i t of c o m m u n i t y ( t h e e m p h a s i s on s o c i a l stability', " v a l u e s , " a n d so f o r t h ) t h a t c o u n t e r a c t s t h e s y s t e m ' s e x c e s s e s — i n o t h e r

words

w h a t Third W a y social-democrats such as Blair have been developing. T h i s , t h e n , i s t h e l i m i t of c o m m o n s e n s e . W h a t l i e s b e y o n d i n v o l v e s a L e a p of F a i t h , faith in lost C a u s e s , C a u s e s that, from w i t h i n t h e s p a c e of skeptical wisdom, cannot but a p p e a r as crazy. A n d the present

book

s p e a k s from w i t h i n t h i s L e a p of F a i t h — b u t w h y ? T h e p r o b l e m , of c o u r s e , is that, in a t i m e of c r i s i s a n d r u p t u r e s , s k e p t i c a l e m p i r i c a l w i s d o m itself, c o n s t r a i n e d to the h o r i z o n of t h e d o m i n a n t form of c o m m o n s e n s e , c a n n o t p r o v i d e t h e a n s w e r s , so o n e must r i s k a L e a p of F a i t h , T h i s shift is t h e shift from "I s p e a k the t r u t h " to " t h e t r u t h i t s e l f s p e a k s ( i n / t h r o u g h m e ) " ( a s in L a c a n ' s " m a t h e m e " of t h e a n a l y s t ' s d i s c o u r s e ,

INTRODUCTION

w h e r e t h e a g e n t s p e a k s from t h e p o s i t i o n of t r u t h ) , to t h e p o i n t a t w h i c h I c a n s a y , h k e M e i s t e r E c k h a r t , "it i s t r u e , a n d t h e t r u t h s a y s it itself."'^ A t t h e l e v e l of p o s i t i v e k n o w l e d g e , it i s , of c o u r s e , n e v e r p o s s i b l e to ( b e s u r e t h a t w e h a v e ) a t t a i n ( e d ) t h e t r u t h — o n e c a n o n l y e n d l e s s l y a p p r o a c h it, b e c a u s e l a n g u a g e i s u l t i m a t e l y a l w a y s s e l f - r e f e r e n t i a l , t h e r e i s n o w a y to d r a w a d e f i n i t i v e l i n e of s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n s o p h i s m , s o p h i s t i c e x e r c i s e s , and T r u t h itself (this is Plato's p r o b l e m ) . L a c a n ' s w a g e r is h e r e the P a s c a l e a n o n e : t h e w a g e r of T r u t h . B u t h o w ? N o t b y r u n n i n g

after

"objective" truth, b u t b y holding onto the truth about the position

from

which one speaks. T h e r e a r e still o n l y t w o t h e o r i e s w h i c h i m p l y a n d p r a c t i c e s u c h a n e n g a g e d n o t i o n of t r u t h : M a r x i s m a n d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s . T h e y a r e b o t h s t r u g g l i n g t h e o r i e s , not o n l y t h e o r i e s a b o u t s t r u g g l e , b u t t h e o r i e s w h i c h a r e t h e m s e l v e s e n g a g e d i n a s t r u g g l e : t h e i r h i s t o r i e s d o n o t c o n s i s t in a n a c c u m u l a t i o n of n e u t r a l k n o w l e d g e , for t h e y a r e m a r k e d b y s c h i s m s , h e r e s i e s , e x p u l s i o n s . T h i s i s w h y , i n b o t h of t h e m , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between theory a n d practice is properly dialectical, in other w o r d s , that of a n i r r e d u c i b l e t e n s i o n : t h e o r y i s n o t j u s t t h e c o n c e p t u a l g r o u n d i n g of practice,

it s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a c c o u n t s

for w h y p r a c t i c e

is ultimately

d o o m e d to f a i l u r e —or, a s F r e u d p u t it c o n c i s e l y , p s y c h o a n a l y s i s w o u l d o n l y b e fully p o s s i b l e i n a s o c i e t y t h a t w o u l d n o l o n g e r n e e d it. A t its m o s t r a d i c a l , t h e o r y i s t h e t h e o r y of a failed p r a c t i c e : " T h i s i s w h y t h i n g s w e n t w r o n g . . . " O n e u s u a l l y forgets t h a t F r e u d ' s five g r e a t c l i n i c a l r e p o r t s a r e b a s i c a l l y r e p o r t s on a p a r t i a l s u c c e s s a n d u l t i m a t e f a i l u r e ; i n t h e s a m e w a y , t h e g r e a t e s t M a r x i s t h i s t o r i c a l a c c o u n t s of r e v o l u t i o n a r y e v e n t s a r e t h e a c c o u n t s of g r e a t f a i l u r e s ( o f t h e G e r m a n J a c o b i n s in t h e F r e n c h

Revolution,

P e a s a n t s ' W a r , of t h e

of t h e P a r i s C o m m u n e ,

O c t o b e r R e v o l u t i o n , of t h e C h i n e s e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n a n e x a m i n a t i o n of f a i l u r e s c o n f r o n t s

of t h e

. . . ) . Such

u s w i t h t h e p r o b l e m of

h o w to r e d e e m t h e e m a n c i p a t o r y p o t e n t i a l of t h e s e f a i l u r e s

fidelity: through

a v o i d i n g t h e t w i n t r a p of n o s t a l g i c a t t a c h m e n t t o t h e p a s t a n d of a l l - t o o slick a c c o m m o d a t i o n to " n e w c i r c u m s t a n c e s . " T h e t i m e of t h e s e t w o t h e o r i e s s e e m s o v e r . A s T o d d D u f r e s n e r e c e n t l y p u t it, n o f i g u r e i n t h e h i s t o r y of h u m a n t h o u g h t w a s m o r e w r o n g a b o u t all t h e f u n d a m e n t a l s of h i s t h e o r y t h a n F r e u d ^ — w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of M a r x , s o m e w o u l d a d d . A n d , i n d e e d , in l i b e r a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s , t h e t w o n o w e m e r g e a s t h e m a i n " p a r t n e r s in c r i m e ' ot t h e t w e n t i e t h

century:

p r e d i c t a b l y , m 2 0 0 5 , t h e i n f a m o u s The Black Book of Coinmunuun,

listing all

t h e C o m m u n i s t crimes,*^ w a s f o l l o w e d b y The Black Book of P.iychoanalyjLi,

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

l i s t i n g a l l t h e t h e o r e t i c a l m i s t a k e s a n d c l i n i c a l f r a u d s of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s / In t h i s n e g a t i v e w a y , at l e a s t , t h e p r o f o u n d s o l i d a r i t y of M a r x i s m a n d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s i s n o w d i s p l a y e d for a l l to s e e . There are nonetheless signs w h i c h disturb this postmodern compla­ c e n c y . C o m m e n t i n g on t h e g r o w i n g r e s o n a n c e of A l a i n B a d i o u ' s t h o u g h t , A l a i n F i n k e l k r a u t r e c e n t l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d it a s " t h e m o s t v i o l e n t p h i l o ­ s o p h y , s y m p t o m a t i c of t h e r e t u r n of r a d i c a l i t y a n d of t h e c o l l a p s e of a n t i t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m " — a n h o n e s t a n d s u r p r i s e d a d m i s s i o n of t h e f a i l u r e of t h e l o n g a n d a r d u o u s w o r k of all k i n d s of " a n t i - t o t a l i t a r i a n s , " d e f e n d e r s of human

rights, combatants

a g a i n s t " o l d leftist p a r a d i g m s , " from

F r e n c h nouveaux philosophes to t h e a d v o c a t e s of a " s e c o n d

the

modernity."

W h a t s h o u l d h a v e b e e n d e a d , d i s p o s e d of, t h o r o u g h l y d i s c r e d i t e d , is r e t u r n i n g w i t h a v e n g e a n c e . O n e c a n u n d e r s t a n d t h e i r d e s p a i r : h o w c a n it b e that, after h a v i n g e x p l a i n e d for d e c a d e s not o n l y i n s c h o l a r l y t r e a t i s e s , b u t a l s o in t h e m a s s m e d i a , to a n y o n e w h o w a n t e d to l i s t e n ( a n d to m a n y w h o d i d n o t ) t h e d a n g e r s of t o t a l i t a r i a n " M a s t e r - T h i n k e r s , " t h i s k i n d of p h i l o s o p h y i s r e t u r n i n g in i t s m o s t v i o l e n t f o r m ? H a v e p e o p l e not c a u g h t on that t h e t i m e of s u c h d a n g e r o u s Utopias i s o v e r ? O r a r e w e d e a l i n g w i t h s o m e strange i n e r a d i c a b l e b l i n d n e s s , o r a n i n n a t e

anthropological

c o n s t a n t , a t e n d e n c y to s u c c u m b to t o t a l i t a r i a n t e m p t a t i o n ? O u r p r o p o s a l is to t u r n t h e p e r s p e c t i v e a r o u n d : a s B a d i o u h i m s e l f m i g h t p u t it in h i s unique Platonic w a y , true ideas are eternal, they are indestructible, they a l w a y s r e t u r n e v e r y t i m e t h e y a r e p r o c l a i m e d d e a d . It i s e n o u g h

for

B a d i o u to state t h e s e i d e a s a g a i n c l e a r l y , a n d a n t i - t o t a l i t a r i a n t h o u g h t a p p e a r s in a l l its m i s e r y a s w h a t it r e a l l y i s , a w o r t h l e s s s o p h i s t i c e x e r c i s e , a pseudo-theorization

of t h e l o w e s t o p p o r t u n i s t s u r v i v a l i s t f e a r s a n d

i n s t i n c t s , a w a y of t h i n k i n g w h i c h i s not o n l y r e a c t i o n a r y b u t

also

p r o f o u n d l y reactive in N i e t z s c h e ' s s e n s e of t h e t e r m . L i n k e d to t h i s is a n i n t e r e s t i n g s t r u g g l e w h i c h h a s b e e n g o i n g on r e c e n t l y ( n o t o n l y ) a m o n g L a c a n i a n s ( n o t o n l y ) in F r a n c e . T h i s s t r u g g l e c o n c e r n s t h e s t a t u s of t h e " O n e " a s t h e n a m e of a p o l i t i c a l s u b j e c t i v i t y , a s t r u g g l e w h i c h h a s l e d to m a n y b r o k e n

personal

friendships

(say,

b e t w e e n B a d i o u a n d J e a n - C l a u d e M i l n e r ) . The i r o n y is that this s t r u g g l e is

taking place

among

ex-Maoists

(Badiou,

Milner,

Levy,

Miller,

Regnault, F i n k e l k r a u t ) , a n d between " J e w i s h " and " n o n - J e w i s h " in­ t e l l e c t u a l s . T h e q u e s t i o n i s : is t h e n a m e of t h e O n e

t h e r e s u l t of a

c o n t i n g e n t p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e , o r i s it s o m e h o w r o o t e d in a m o r e s u b s t a n t i a l p a r t i c u l a r i d e n t i t y ? T h e p o s i t i o n of " J e w i s h M a o i s t s " i s t h a t " J e w s " i s s u c h a n a m e w h i c h s t a n d s for t h a t w h i c h r e s i s t s t o d a y ' s g l o b a l t r e n d to

INTRODUCTION

o v e r c o m e a l l l i m i t a t i o n s , i n c l u s i v e of t h e v e r y

finltude

of t h e h u m a n

condition, in radical capitalist "deterritorialization" a n d "fluidification" ( t h e t r e n d vv^hich r e a c h e s i t s a p o t h e o s i s in t h e g n o s t i c - d i g i t a l d r e a m of transforming h u m a n s t h e m s e l v e s into virtual software that c a n reload i t s e l f from o n e h a r d w a r e to a n o t h e r ) . T h e n a m e " J e w s " t h u s s t a n d s for t h e m o s t b a s i c fidelity t o w h a t o n e i s . A l o n g t h e s e l i n e s , F r a n ç o i s R e g n a u l t c l a i m s t h a t t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y Left d e m a n d s of J e w s ( m u c h m o r e t h a n of o t h e r e t h n i c g r o u p s ) t h a t t h e y " y i e l d w i t h r e g a r d to t h e i r n a m e " — a r e f e r e n c e to L a c a n ' s e t h i c a l m a x i m " d o n o t y i e l d w i t h r e g a r d to y o u r d e s i r e " . . . O n e s h o u l d r e m e m b e r h e r e t h a t t h e s a m e shift from r a d i c a l e m a n c i p a t o r y p o l i t i c s to t h e f i d e l i t y to t h e J e w i s h n a m e i s a l r e a d y d i s c e r n i b l e i n t h e fate of t h e F r a n k f u r t S c h o o l , e s p e c i a l l y in H o r k h e i m e r ' s later texts. J e w s here a r e the exception: in the liberal multiculturalist perspective, all groups can assert their identity — except J e w s ,

whose

v e r y s e l f - a s s e r t i o n e q u a l s Z i o n i s t r a c i s m . . . In c o n t r a s t to t h i s a p p r o a c h , B a d i o u a n d o t h e r s i n s i s t on t h e f i d e l i t y to t h e O n e w h i c h e m e r g e s a n d i s c o n s t i t u t e d t h r o u g h t h e v e r y p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e of/for n a m i n g a n d , a s s u c h , cannot b e g r o u n d e d in a n y particular determinate content (such a s ethnic o r r e l i g i o u s r o o t s ) . F r o m t h i s p o i n t of v i e w , f i d e l i t y to t h e n a m e " J e w s " i s t h e o b v e r s e ( t h e s i l e n t r e c o g n i t i o n ) of t h e d e f e a t of a u t h e n t i c e m a n c i ­ p a t o r y s t r u g g l e s . N o w o n d e r t h a t t h o s e w h o d e m a n d f i d e l i t y to t h e n a m e " J e w s " a r e a l s o t h o s e w h o w a r n u s a g a i n s t t h e " t o t a l i t a r i a n " d a n g e r s of a n y radical e m a n c i p a t o r y movement. Their politics consists in accepting the fundamental

finitude

a n d l i m i t a t i o n of o u r s i t u a t i o n , a n d t h e J e w i s h

L a w i s t h e u l t i m a t e m a r k of t h i s f i n i t u d e , w h i c h is w h y , for t h e m , a l l a t t e m p t s to o v e r c o m e L a w a n d t e n d t o w a r d s a l l - e m b r a c i n g L o v e (from Christianity through the French J a c o b i n s to S t a l i n i s m ) must e n d u p in t o t a l i t a r i a n t e r r o r . T o p u t it s u c c i n c t l y , t h e o n l y t r u e s o l u t i o n to t h e J e w i s h q u e s t i o n " i s t h e "final s o l u t i o n " ( t h e i r a n n i h i l a t i o n ) , b e c a u s e J e w s qua objet a a r e t h e u l t i m a t e o b s t a c l e to t h e "final s o l u t i o n " of H i s t o r y itself, to t h e o v e r c o m i n g

of d i v i s i o n s i n a l l - e n c o m p a s s i n g u n i t y a n d

flexibility. B u t i s it n o t r a t h e r t h e c a s e that, in t h e h i s t o r y of m o d e r n E u r o p e , t h o s e w h o stood for t h e s t r i v i n g for u n i v e r s a l i t y w e r e p r e c i s e l y a t h e i s t J e w s from S p i n o z a to M a r x a n d F r e u d ? T h e i r o n y i s t h a t in t h e h i s t o r y of a n t i S e m i t i s m J e w s s t a n d for b o t h of t h e s e p o l e s : s o m e t i m e s t h e y s t a n d for t h e s t u b b o r n a t t a c h m e n t to t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r life-form w h i c h p r e v e n t s

them

from b e c o m i n g full c i t i z e n s of t h e s t a t e t h e y l i v e in, s o m e t i m e s t h e y s t a n d for a " h o m e l e s s " a n d r o o t l e s s u n i v e r s a l c o s m o p o l i t a n i s m i n d i f f e r e n t t o a l l

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

p a r t i c u l a r e t h n i c forms. T h e first t h i n g to r e c a l l i s t h u s t h a t t h i s s t r u g g l e i s ( a l s o ) inherent to J e w i s h i d e n t i t y . A n d , p e r h a p s , t h i s J e w i s h s t r u g g l e is o u r c e n t r a l s t r u g g l e t o d a y : t h e s t r u g g l e b e t w e e n fidelity to t h e M e s s i a n i c i m p u l s e a n d t h e reactive (in t h e p r e c i s e N i e t z s c h e a n s e n s e ) " p o l i t i c s of f e a r " w h i c h f o c u s e s on p r e s e r v i n g o n e ' s p a r t i c u l a r i d e n t i t y . T h e p r i v i l e g e d r o l e of J e w s in t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e s p h e r e of t h e " p u b l i c u s e of r e a s o n " h i n g e s on t h e i r s u b t r a c t i o n from

e v e r y state

p o w e r — t h i s p o s i t i o n of t h e " p a r t of n o - p a r t " of e v e r y o r g a n i c n a t i o n s t a t e c o m m u n i t y , not t h e a b s t r a c t - u n i v e r s a l n a t u r e of t h e i r m o n o t h e i s m , m a k e s t h e m t h e i m m e d i a t e e m b o d i m e n t of u n i v e r s a l i t y . N o w o n d e r , t h e n , that, w i t h t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e J e w i s h n a t i o n - s t a t e , a n e w figure of t h e J e w e m e r g e d : a J e w r e s i s t i n g i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h t h e S t a t e of I s r a e l , r e f u s i n g to a c c e p t t h e S t a t e of I s r a e l a s h i s t r u e h o m e , a J e w

who

" s u b t r a c t s " h i m s e l f from t h i s s t a t e , a n d w h o i n c l u d e s t h e S t a t e of I s r a e l a m o n g t h e s t a t e s t o w a r d s w h i c h h e i n s i s t s on m a i n t a i n i n g a d i s t a n c e , l i v i n g in t h e i r i n t e r s t i c e s — a n d it i s thu u n c a n n y J e w w h o i s t h e o b j e c t of w h a t o n e c a n n o t b u t d e s i g n a t e a s " Z i o n i s t a n t i - S e m i t i s m , " a foreign e x c e s s d i s t u r b i n g t h e n a t i o n - s t a t e c o m m u n i t y . T h e s e J e w s , t h e " J e w s of t h e J e w s t h e m s e l v e s , " w o r t h y s u c c e s s o r s of S p i n o z a , a r e t o d a y t h e o n l y J e w s w h o c o n t i n u e to i n s i s t on t h e " p u b l i c u s e of r e a s o n , " r e f u s i n g to s u b m i t t h e i r r e a s o n i n g to t h e " p r i v a t e " d o m a i n of t h e n a t i o n - s t a t e . T h i s b o o k is u n a s h a m e d l y c o m m i t t e d to t h e " M e s s i a n i c " s t a n d p o i n t of t h e s t r u g g l e for u n i v e r s a l e m a n c i p a t i o n . N o w o n d e r , t h e n , t h a t to t h e p a r t i s a n s of the " p o s t m o d e r n " doxa t h e list of lost C a u s e s d e f e n d e d h e r e m u s t a p p e a r a s a h o r r o r s h o w of t h e i r w o r s t n i g h t m a r e s e m b o d i e d , a d e p o s i t o r y of t h e g h o s t s of t h e p a s t t h e y p u t a l l t h e i r e n e r g i e s i n t o e x o r c i z i n g : H e i d e g g e r ' s p o l i t i c s a s t h e e x t r e m e c a s e of a

philosopher

s e d u c e d b y t o t a l i t a r i a n p o l i t i c s ; r e v o l u t i o n a r y t e r r o r from R o b e s p i e r r e to Mao;

S t a l i n i s m ; t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p of t h e p r o l e t a r i a t . . . In e a c h c a s e , t h e

p r e d o m i n a n t i d e o l o g y not o n l y d i s m i s s e s t h e c a u s e , b u t offers a r e p l a c e ­ m e n t , a "softer" v e r s i o n of it: not t o t a l i t a r i a n i n t e l l e c t u a l e n g a g e m e n t , b u t i n t e l l e c t u a l s w h o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e p r o b l e m s of g l o b a l i z a t i o n a n d fight in t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e for h u m a n r i g h t s a n d t o l e r a n c e , a g a i n s t r a c i s m a n d s e x i s m ; not r e v o l u t i o n a r y s t a t e t e r r o r , b u t t h e s e l f - o r g a n i z e d d e c e n t r a l i z e d m u l t i ­ t u d e ; not t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p of t h e p r o l e t a r i a t , b u t t h e c o l l a b o r a t i o n a m o n g multiple agents (civil-society initiatives, private money, state regulation . . . ) . T h e t r u e a i m of t h e " d e f e n s e of lost c a u s e s " i s not to d e f e n d S t a l i n i s t t e r r o r , a n d so on, a s s u c h , b u t to r e n d e r p r o b l e m a t i c t h e a l l - t o o - e a s y liberal-democratic alternative. Foucault's and, especially, Heidegger's

INTRODUCTION

political commitments, w h i l e acceptable in their basic motivation, w e r e c l e a r l y " r i g h t s t e p s in t h e w r o n g d i r e c t i o n " ; t h e m i s f o r t u n e s of t h e fate of r e v o l u t i o n a r y t e r r o r c o n f r o n t u s w i t h t h e n e e d —not to r e j e c t t e r r o r in tote, b u t — t o r e i n v e n t it; t h e f o r t h c o m i n g e c o l o g i c a l c r i s i s s e e m s to offer a u n i q u e c h a n c e of accepting a r e i n v e n t e d v e r s i o n of t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p of t h e proletariat. The a r g u m e n t is thus that, w h i l e these p h e n o m e n a w e r e , each in i t s o w n w a y , a h i s t o r i c a l f a i l u r e a n d m o n s t r o s i t y ( S t a l i n i s m w a s a nightmare which

caused perhaps

even more

human

suffering

fascism; t h e a t t e m p t s to e n f o r c e t h e " d i c t a t o r s h i p of t h e produced

than

proletariat"

a r i d i c u l o u s t r a v e s t y of a r e g i m e in w h i c h p r e c i s e l y t h e

p r o l e t a r i a t w a s r e d u c e d to s i l e n c e , a n d so o n ) , this u not the whole truth: t h e r e w a s in e a c h of t h e m a r e d e m p t i v e m o m e n t w h i c h g e t s lost in t h e l i b e r a l - d e m o c r a t i c r e j e c t i o n ^—and it is c r u c i a l to i s o l a t e t h i s m o m e n t . O n e s h o u l d b e c a r e f u l not to t h r o w o u t t h e b a b y w i t h t h e d i r t y w a t e r — a l t h o u g h o n e i s t e m p t e d to t u r n t h i s m e t a p h o r a r o u n d , a n d c l a i m t h a t it i s t h e l i b e r a l - d e m o c r a t i c c r i t i q u e w h i c h w a n t s to d o t h i s ( s a y , t h r o w i n g o u t t h e d i r t y w a t e r of t e r r o r , w h i l e r e t a i n i n g t h e p u r e b a b y of a u t h e n t i c socialist d e m o c r a c y ) , forgetting t h e r e b y that the w a t e r w a s o r i g i n a l l y p u r e , t h a t a l l t h e d i r t in it c o m e s from t h e b a b y . W h a t o n e s h o u l d do, r a t h e r , i s to t h r o w o u t t h e b a b y b e f o r e it s p o i l s t h e c r y s t a l l i n e w a t e r w i t h its e x c r e t i o n s , so that, to p a r a p h r a s e M a l l a r m é , rien que l'eau n'aura eu lieu dans le bain de l'histoire. Our

defense

of lost C a u s e s i s t h u s not

e n g a g e d in a n y k i n d

of

d e c o n s t r u c t i v e g a m e in t h e s t y l e of " e v e r y C a u s e first h a s to b e lost in o r d e r to e x e r t its e f f i c i e n c y a s a C a u s e . " O n t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e g o a l i s to l e a v e b e h i n d , w i t h all t h e v i o l e n c e n e c e s s a r y , w h a t L a c a n m o c k i n g l y r e f e r r e d to a s t h e " n a r c i s s i s m of t h e lost C a u s e , " a n d to c o u r a g e o u s l y a c c e p t t h e full a c t u a l i z a t i o n of a C a u s e , i n c l u d i n g t h e i n e v i t a b l e r i s k of a catastrophic disaster. Badiou w a s right w h e n , apropos the disintegration of t h e C o m m u n i s t r e g i m e s , h e p r o p o s e d t h e m a x i m : mieux vaut un désa,itre qu'un désètre. B e t t e r a d i s a s t e r of f i d e l i t y to t h e E v e n t t h a n a n o n - b e i n g of i n d i f f e r e n c e t o w a r d s t h e E v e n t . To p a r a p h r a s e B e c k e t t ' s

memorable

p h r a s e , to w h i c h I s h a l l r e t u r n m a n y t i m e s l a t e r , after o n e fails,

one

c a n g o on a n d fail b e t t e r , w h i l e i n d i f f e r e n c e d r o w n s u s d e e p e r a n d d e e p e r in t h e m o r a s s of i m b e c i l i c B e i n g .

A c o u p l e of y e a r s a g o . Premiere m a g a z i n e r e p o r t e d

on a n

ingenious

i n q u i r y i n t o h o w t h e m o s t f a m o u s e n d i n g s of Holl3rwood Films w e r e t r a n s l a t e d i n t o s o m e of t h e m a j o r n o n - E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e s . In J a p a n , C l a r k

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

G a b l e ' s " F r a n k l y , m y d e a r , 1 d o n ' t g i v e a d a m n ! " to V i v i e n L e i g h from Gone With the Winà w a s r e n d e r e d a s : "T fear, m y d a r l i n g , t h a t t h e r e i s a s l i g h t m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g b e t w e e n t h e t w o of u s " — a b o w to p r o v e r b i a l J a p a n e s e c o u r t e s y a n d e t i q u e t t e . In c o n t r a s t , t h e C h i n e s e (in t h e P e o p l e ' s R e p u b l i c of C h i n a ) r e n d e r e d t h e " T h i s i s t h e b e g i n n i n g of a b e a u t i f u l f r i e n d s h i p ! " from Casablanca a s " T h e t w o of u s w i l l n o w c o n s t i t u t e a n e w cell of a n t i - f a s c i s t s t r u g g l e ! " — s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t t h e e n e m y b e i n g t h e top p r i o r i t y , far a b o v e p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s . A l t h o u g h t h e p r e s e n t v o l u m e m a y often a p p e a r to i n d u l g e in e x c e s ­ sively confrontational a n d "provocative" statements ( w h a t today can be m o r e " p r o v o c a t i v e " t h a n d i s p l a y i n g e v e n a m i n i m a l s y m p a t h y for

or

u n d e r s t a n d i n g of r e v o l u t i o n a r y t e r r o r ? ) , it r a t h e r p r a c t i c e s a d i s p l a c e ­ m e n t a l o n g t h e l i n e s of t h e e x a m p l e s q u o t e d in Premiere: w h e r e t h e t r u t h i s that I don't give a d a m n about m y opponent, I s a y that there is a slight m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g ; w h e r e w h a t i s at s t a k e i s a n e w

theoretico-political

s h a r e d field of s t r u g g l e , it m a y a p p e a r t h a t I a m t a l k i n g a b o u t a c a d e m i c friendships a n d alliances . . .

In s u c h c a s e s , it i s u p to t h e r e a d e r to

u n r a v e l t h e c l u e s w h i c h lie before h e r .

THE STATE OF THINGS

I

Happiness and Torture in the Atonal World

Human, alt too hunuin In c o n t r a s t to t h e s i m p h s t i c o p p o s i t i o n of g o o d g u y s a n d b a d g u y s , s p y t h r i l l e r s w i t h a r t i s t i c p r e t e n s i o n s d i s p l a y all t h e " r e a l i s t i c p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o m p l e x i t y " of t h e c h a r a c t e r s from " o u r " s i d e . F a r from s i g n a l i n g a balanced view, however, this "honest"

acknowledgment

of o u r

own

" d a r k s i d e " s t a n d s for its v e r y o p p o s i t e , for t h e h i d d e n a s s e r t i o n of o u r s u p r e m a c y : w e a r e " p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y c o m p l e x , " full of d o u b t s , w h i l e the o p p o n e n t s a r e o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l f a n a t i c a l k i l l i n g m a c h i n e s . T h e r e i n r e s i d e s t h e lie of S p i e l b e r g ' s Munich: it w a n t s to b e " o b j e c t i v e , " p r e s e n t i n g moral c o m p l e x i t y a n d a m b i g u i t y , psychological doubts, the problematic n a t u r e of r e v e n g e , of t h e I s r a e l i p e r s p e c t i v e , but, w h a t its " r e a l i s m " d o e s is r e d e e m t h e M o s s a d a g e n t s still further: "look, t h e y a r e not j u s t c o l d k i l l e r s , b u t h u m a n b e i n g s w i t h t h e i r d o u b t s ^—they h a v e d o u b t s , w h e r e a s the Palestinian terrorists

. . . " One

cannot

but sympathize with

the

h o s t i l i t y w i t h w h i c h the s u r v i v i n g M o s s a d a g e n t s w h o r e a l l y c a r r i e d o u t t h e r e v e n g e k i l l i n g s r e a c t e d to t h e film ( " t h e r e w e r e n o p s y c h o l o g i c a l d o u b t s , w e j u s t d i d w h a t w e h a d to d o " ) for t h e r e i s m u c h m o r e h o n e s t y in their stance.' T h e first l e s s o n t h u s s e e m s to b e t h a t t h e p r o p e r w a y to

fight

the

d e m o n i z a t i o n of t h e O t h e r is to s u b j e c t i v i z e her, to l i s t e n to h e r s t o r y , to understand

h o w s h e p e r c e i v e s t h e s i t u a t i o n —or, a s a p a r t i s a n of t h e

M i d d l e E a s t d i a l o g u e p u t it: " A n e n e m y i s s o m e o n e w h o s e s t o r y y o u h a v e not h e a r d . "

Practicing this noble

m o t t o of m u l t i c u l t u r a l

tolerance,

I c e l a n d ' s a u t h o r i t i e s r e c e n t l y i m p o s e d a u n i q u e form of e n a c t i n g t h i s s u b j e c t i v i z a t i o n of t h e O t h e r . In o r d e r to fight g r o w i n g x e n o p h o b i a ( t h e r e s u l t of i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r s of i m m i g r a n t w o r k e r s ) , a s w e l l a s s e x u a l intolerance, they organized w h a t they called "living libraries": members of e t h n i c a n d s e x u a l m i n o r i t i e s ( g a y s , i m m i g r a n t E a s t E u r o p e a n s b l a c k s ) a r e p a i d to v i s i t a n I c e l a n d i c f a m i l y a n d j u s t t a l k to

or

them. II

IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S

a c q u a i n t i n g t h e m w i t h t h e i r w a y of life, t h e i r e v e r y d a y p r a c t i c e s , t h e i r d r e a m s , a n d so on — in t h i s w a y , t h e e x o t i c s t r a n g e r w h o i s p e r c e i v e d a s a t h r e a t to o u r w a y of life a p p e a r s a s s o m e b o d y w e c a n e m p a t h i z e w i t h , w i t h a c o m p l e x w o r l d of h e r o w n . . . T h e r e i s , h o w e v e r , a c l e a r l i m i t to t h i s p r o c e d u r e . C a n w e i m a g i n e i n v i t i n g a N a z i t h u g to tell u s h i s s t o r y ? A r e w e r e a d y to affirm t h a t H i t l e r w a s an e n e m y because his story hadn't been h e a r d ? A S e r b journalist r e c e n t l y r e p o r t e d a s t r a n g e p i e c e of n e w s from t h e p o l i t i c i a n w h o , after l o n g p a i n f u l t a l k s , c o n v i n c e d S l o b o d a n M i l o s e v i c in h i s v i l l a to s u r r e n d e r to t h e p o l i c e a n d let h i m s e l f b e a r r e s t e d . M i l o s e v i c s a i d y e s a n d t h e n a s k e d to b e a l l o w e d to g o to t h e first floor of t h e v i l l a to a t t e n d to s o m e b u s i n e s s . T h e n e g o t i a t o r , a f r a i d t h a t M i l o s e v i c w a s g o i n g to

commit

suicide, expressed his doubts, but Milosevic calmed him down, saying t h a t h e h a d g i v e n h i s w o r d to h i s w i f e , M i r a M a r k o v i c , t h a t h e w o u l d w a s h his hair before leaving. D o e s this personal-life detail " r e d e e m " the h o r r o r s t h a t r e s u l t e d from M i l o s e v i c ' s r e i g n , d o e s it m a k e h i m

"more

h u m a n " ? One can well imagine Hitler washing Eva Braun's hair — and o n e d o e s not h a v e to i m a g i n e , s i n c e w e a l r e a d y k n o w t h a t H e y d r i c h , t h e a r c h i t e c t of t h e H o l o c a u s t , l i k e d to p l a y B e e t h o v e n ' s l a t e s t r i n g q u a r t e t s w i t h f r i e n d s in t h e e v e n i n g s . R e c a l l t h e c o u p l e of " p e r s o n a l " l i n e s t h a t u s u a l l y c o n c l u d e t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a w r i t e r on t h e b a c k c o v e r of a b o o k : "In h i s free t i m e , X l i k e s to p l a y w i t h h i s c a t a n d g r o w t u l i p s . . ."—^such a s u p p l e m e n t w h i c h " h u m a n i z e s " t h e a u t h o r i s i d e o l o g y a t its p u r e s t , t h e s i g n t h a t h e i s " a l s o h u m a n l i k e u s . " (I w a s t e m p t e d to s u g g e s t for t h e c o v e r of o n e m y b o o k s ; "In h i s free t i m e , Z i z e k l i k e s to s u r f t h e i n t e r n e t for c h i l d p o r n o g r a p h y a n d to t e a c h h i s s m a l l son h o w to p u l l t h e l e g s off spiders . . . " ) O u r m o s t e l e m e n t a r y e x p e r i e n c e of s u b j e c t i v i t y is t h a t of t h e " r i c h n e s s of m y i n n e r l i f e " : t h i s i s w h a t I " r e a l l y a m , " in c o n t r a s t to t h e s y m b o l i c d e t e r m i n a t i o n s a n d m a n d a t e s I a s s u m e in p u b l i c life (father,

professor,

p h i l o s o p h e r ) . T h e first l e s s o n of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s h e r e i s t h a t t h i s " r i c h n e s s of o u r i n n e r l i f e " i s f u n d a m e n t a l l y a (ak.e: a s c r e e n , a false d i s t a n c e , w h o s e function

i s , a s it w e r e , to s a v e m y a p p e a r a n c e ,

to r e n d e r

palpable

( a c c e s s i b l e to m y i m a g i n a r y n a r c i s s i s m ) m y t r u e s o c i a l - s y m b o l i c i d e n t i t y . O n e of t h e w a y s to p r a c t i c e t h e c r i t i q u e of i d e o l o g y i s t h e r e f o r e to i n v e n t s t r a t e g i e s to u n m a s k t h i s h y p o c r i s y of " i n n e r l i f e " a n d its " s i n c e r e " e m o t i o n s , in t h e m a n n e r s y s t e m a t i c a l l y e n a c t e d b y L a r s v o n T r i e r in his

12

films:

HAPPINESS AND TORTURE

M y v e r y first film, The Orchid Gardener, o p e n e d w i t h a c a p t i o n s t a t i n g t h a t t h e film w a s d e d i c a t e d to a g i r l w h o h a d d i e d of l e u k a e m i a , g i v i n g t h e d a t e s of h e r b i r t h a n d d e a t h . T h a t w a s e n t i r e l y f a b r i c a t e d !

And

m a n i p u l a t i v e a n d c y n i c a l , b e c a u s e I r e a l i z e d t h a t if y o u s t a r t e d a film l i k e t h a t , t h e n t h e a u d i e n c e w o u l d t a k e it a lot m o r e s e r i o u s l y . ^

T h e r e i s m u c h m o r e t h a n m a n i p u l a t i o n a t w o r k h e r e : in h i s f e m i n i n e t r i l o g y {Breaking the

Waves, Dancer in the Dark, Dogville), v o n

p r o v o k e s u s in o u r i n n e r m o s t b e i n g , s t i r r i n g u p a u t o m a t i c

Trier

sympathy

w i t h t h e u l t i m a t e a r c h e t y p a l i m a g e of the v i c t i m i z e d w o m a n w h o , w i t h h e r hecirt of g o l d , suffers p a i n . T h r o u g h h i s " m a n i p u l a t i o n , " h e d i s p l a y s the l i e of t h i s s y m p a t h y , t h e o b s c e n e p l e a s u r e w e g a i n from s e e i n g t h e v i c t i m suffer, a n d t h e r e b y d i s t u r b s o u r s e l f - s a t i s f a c t i o n . D o e s t h i s m e a n , h o w e v e r , t h a t m y " t r u t h " i s s i m p l y in m y s y m b o l i c i d e n t i t y o b f u s c a t e d b y m y i m a g i n a r y " i n n e r l i f e " ( a s a s i m p l i s t i c r e a d i n g of L a c a n s e e m s to Indicate, o p p o s i n g t h e s u b j e c t of t h e s i g n i f i e r to t h e i m a g i n a r y e g o ) ? Let u s t a k e a m a n w h o , d e e p d o w n , c u l t i v a t e s s a d i s t i c f a n t a s i e s w h i l e in p u b l i c life h e i s p o l i t e , f o l l o w s r u l e s , a n d so forth; w h e n h e g o e s o n l i n e to express t h o s e f a n t a s i e s in a c h a t r o o m , s a y , h e is s h o w i n g h i s t r u t h in t h e g u i s e of a fiction. B u t i s it not the c a s e , on t h e c o n t r a r y , t h a t t h e p o l i t e p e r s o n a i s t h e t r u t h h e r e a n d t h e s a d i s t i c f a n t a s i e s s e r v e a s a k i n d of d e f e n s e ? A s in a n e w v e r s i o n of t h e o l d J e w i s h j o k e : " Y o u a r e p o l i t e , so w h y do y o u a c t a s if y o u w e r e p o l i t e ? " Is not, t h e n , t h e i n t e r n e t , w h e r e w e s u p p o s e d l y e x p r e s s on s c r e e n o u r d e e p e s t t r u t h s , r e a l l y a site for t h e p l a j à n g o u t of d e f e n s i v e f a n t a s i e s t h a t p r o t e c t u s from t h e b a n a l n o r m a l i t y that i s our t r u t h ? ' ' T w o c a s e s a r e to b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d h e r e . W h e n I a m a b r u t a l e x e c u t i v e w h o , d e e p w i t h i n m y s e l f feel t h a t this i s j u s t a p u b l i c m a s k a n d t h a t m y t r u e S e l f d i s c l o s e s itself in m y s p i r i t u a l m e d i t a t i o n s ( a n d i m a g i n e m y friends t e l l i n g p e o p l e : " H i s b r u t a l b u s i n e s s efficiency s h o u l d n ' t d e c e i v e y o u ~ h e i s r e a l l y a v e r y r e f i n e d a n d g e n t l e p e r s o n . . . " ) , this is not t h e s a m e a s w h e n I a m , in r e a l i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h o t h e r s , a polite p e r s o n w h o , on the internet, g i v e s w a y to v i o l e n t f a n t a s i e s . T h e site of s u b j e c t i v e i d e n t i ­ fication

shifts: in the i n t e r n e t c a s e , I t h i n k t h a t I r e a l l y a m a polite p e r s o n ,

a n d t h a t I a m j u s t p l a y i n g w i t h v i o l e n t fantasies, w h i l e , a s a N e w A g e b u s i n e s s m a n , I t h i n k that I a m j u s t p l a y i n g a p u b l i c role in m y b u s i n e s s dealings, w h i l e m y true identity is m y inner Self enlightened

through

n i e d i t a t i o n . In o t h e r w o r d s : in both c a s e s , t r u t h is a fiction, b u t t h i s

fiction

IS differently l o c a t e d . In t h e i n t e r n e t c a s e , it is i m a g i n a b l e that, a t s o m e 13

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

point, I w i l l " t a k e off'the m a s k " a n d e x p l o d e , t h a t i s , c a r r y out m y v i o l e n t fantasies in r e a l life—-this e x p l o s i o n w i l l effectively e n a c t "the t r u t h of m y Self." In t h e c a s e of t h e N e w A g e b u s i n e s s m a n , m y t r u t h i s m y p u b l i c p e r s o n a , a n d , h e r e , " t a k i n g off t h e m a s k , " e n a c t i n g m y N e w A g e self in r e a l i t y , n a m e l y , really a b a n d o n i n g m y b u s i n e s s m a n t r a i t s , w o u l d i n v o l v e a r e a l shift in m y s u b j e c t i v e p o s i t i o n . In t h e t w o c a s e s , " t a k i n g off t h e m a s k " t h u s w o r k s d i f f e r e n t l y . In t h e i n t e r n e t c a s e , t h i s g e s t u r e is w h a t H i t l e r d i d with actual anti-Semitic measures (realizing anti-Semitic fantasies), a false act, w h i l e in t h e N e w A g e b u s i n e s s m a n c a s e , w o u l d b e a t r u e a c t . In o r d e r to r e s o l v e t h e a p p a r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n , o n e s h o u l d r e f o r m u l a t e t h e t w o c a s e s in t h e t e r m s of L a c a n ' s t r i a d I m a g i n a r y — S y m b o l i c - R e a l : w e a r e not d e a l i n g w i t h t w o , b u t w i t h t h r e e e l e m e n t s . T h e d i r t y f a n t a s i e s I a m p l a y i n g w i t h on t h e n e t d o not h a v e t h e s a m e s t a t u s a s m y " t r u e S e l f " d i s c l o s e d in m y m e d i t a t i o n s : t h e first b e l o n g to t h e R e a l , t h e s e c o n d to t h e I m a g i n a r y . T h e t r i a d is t h e n I—S—R. Or, m o r e p r e c i s e l y , in t h e i n t e r n e t c a s e , m y p o l i t e p u b l i c p e r s o n a i s I m a g i n a r y — S y m b o l i c v e r s u s t h e R e a l of m y f a n t a s i e s , w h i l e , in t h e N e w A g e e x e c u t i v e c a s e , m y p u b l i c p e r s o n a i s Symbolic—Real v e r s u s m y I m a g i n a r y "true Self."

( A n d , to t a k e a c r u c i a l

f u r t h e r t h e o r e t i c a l s t e p , in o r d e r for t h i s t r i a d to function, o n e h a s to a d d a f o u r t h t e r m , n o n e o t h e r t h a n t h e empt)? c o r e of s u b j e c t i v i t y : t h e L a c a n i a n " b a r r e d s u b j e c t " ( S ) is n e i t h e r m y S y m b o l i c i d e n t i t y , n o r m y I m a g i n a r y " t r u e S e l f , " n o r t h e o b s c e n e R e a l c o r e of m y f a n t a s i e s , b u t t h e e m p t y container w h i c h , like a knot, ties the three dimensions together.) It is t h i s c o m p l e x " k n o t " t h a t a c c o u n t s for a w e l l - k n o w n t r a g i c f i g u r e from t h e C o l d W a r e r a : t h o s e W e s t e r n leftists w h o h e r o i c a l l y d e f i e d a n t i C o m m u n i s t h y s t e r i a in t h e i r o w n c o u n t r i e s w i t h u t m o s t s i n c e r i t y . T h e y w e r e r e a d y e v e n to g o to p r i s o n for t h e i r C o m m u n i s t c o n v i c t i o n s a n d t h e i r d e f e n s e of t h e S o v i e t U n i o n . Is it not t h e v e r y i l l u s o r y n a t u r e of t h e i r b e l i e f t h a t m a k e s t h e i r s u b j e c t i v e s t a n c e so t r a g i c a l l y s u b l i m e ?

The

m i s e r a b l e r e a l i t y of t h e S t a l i n i s t S o v i e t U n i o n r e n d e r s t h e f r a g i l e b e a u t y of t h e i r i n n e r c o n v i c t i o n a l l t h e m o r e m a j e s t i c . T h i s l e a d s u s to a r a d i c a l a n d u n e x p e c t e d c o n c l u s i o n : it i s not e n o u g h to s a y t h a t w e a r e d e a l i n g here with a tragically misplaced ethical conviction, with a blind trust that a v o i d s c o n f r o n t i n g t h e m i s e r a b l e , t e r r i f y i n g r e a l i t y of its e t h i c a l p o i n t of r e f e r e n c e . W h a t if, on t h e c o n t r a r y , s u c h a b l i n d n e s s , s u c h a v i o l e n t g e s t u r e of r e f u s i n g - t o - s e e , s u c h a d i s a v o w a l - o f - r e a l i l y , s u c h a fetishlstic a t t i t u d e of "I k n o w v e r y w e l l t h a t t h i n g s a r e h o r r i b l e in t h e S o v i e t U n i o n , b u t I n o n e t h e l e s s b e l i e v e in S o v i e t s o c i a l i s m , " i s t h e i n n e r m o s t

consti­

t u e n t p a r t of every e t h i c a l s t a n c e ? K a n t w a s a l r e a d y w e l l a w a r e of t h i s 14

HAPPINESS A N D TORTURE

p a r a d o x w h e n h e d e p l o y e d h i s n o t i o n of e n t h u s i a s m Revolution

in h i s Conflict of Faculties

(1795). The

for t h e

French

Revolution's

true

s i g n i f i c a n c e d i d not r e s i d e in w h a t a c t u a l l y w e n t on in P a r i s — m u c h of w h i c h w a s t e r r i f y i n g a n d i n c l u d e d o u t b u r s t s of m u r d e r o u s p a s s i o n — b u t in t h e e n t h u s i a s t i c r e s p o n s e t h a t t h e e v e n t s in P a r i s g e n e r a t e d in t h e eyes of s y m p a t h e t i c o b s e r v e r s all a r o u n d

Europe:

T h e r e c e n t R e v o l u t i o n of a p e o p l e w h i c h i s rich in spirit, m a y w e l l e i t h e r fail o r s u c c e e d , a c c u m u l a t e m i s e r y a n d a t r o c i t y , it n e v e r t h e l e s s a r o u s e s in t h e h e a r t of a l l s p e c t a t o r s ( w h o a r e not t h e m s e l v e s c a u g h t u p in i t ) a t a k i n g of s i d e s a c c o r d i n g to d e s i r e s \eine Tcilaehmung dem Wunsche nach^ w h i c h b o r d e r s on e n t h u s i a s m a n d w h i c h , s i n c e i t s v e r y e x p r e s s i o n w a s not w i t h o u t d a n g e r , c a n o n l y h a v e b e e n c a u s e d b y a moral disposition within the human race.''

T h e r e a l E v e n t , t h e d i m e n s i o n of t h e R e a l , w a s not i n t h e i m m e d i a t e r e a l i t y of t h e v i o l e n t e v e n t s in P a n s , b u t in h o w t h i s r e a l i t y a p p e a r e d to o b s e r v e r s a n d in t h e h o p e s t h u s a w a k e n e d in t h e m . T h e r e a l i t y of w h a t w e n t on in P a r i s b e l o n g s to t h e t e m p o r a l d i m e n s i o n of e m p i r i c a l h i s t o r y ; t h e s u b l i m e i m a g e t h a t g e n e r a t e d e n t h u s i a s m b e l o n g s to E t e r n i t y . . . And, mutatis mutandù», t h e s a m e a p p l i e s for t h e W e s t e r n a d m i r e r s of t h e Soviet Union.

The

S o v i e t e x p e r i e n c e of " b u i l d i n g s o c i a l i s m in

one

c o u n t r y " c e r t a i n l y d i d " a c c u m u l a t e m i s e r y a n d a t r o c i t y , " b u t it n e v e r t h e l e s s a r o u s e d e n t h u s i a s m in t h e h e a r t of t h e s p e c t a t o r s ( w h o w e r e not t h e m s e l v e s c a u g h t u p in i t ) . T h e q u e s t i o n h e r e i s : d o e s every e t h i c s h a v e to r e l y on s u c h a g e s t u r e of fetishistic d i s a v o w a l ? Is e v e n t h e m o s t u n i v e r s a l e t h i c s not o b l i g e d to d r a w a l i n e a n d i g n o r e s o m e sort of s u f f e r i n g ? W h a t a b o u t

animals

s l a u g h t e r e d for o u r c o n s u m p t i o n ? W h o w o u l d b e a b l e to c o n t i n u e e a t i n g p o r k c h o p s after v i s i t i n g a n i n d u s t r i a l f a r m in w h i c h p i g s a r e h a l f b l i n d and c a n n o t e v e n p r o p e r l y w a l k , b u t a r e j u s t f a t t e n e d to b e k i l l e d ? A n d w h a t a b o u t , s a y , t h e t o r t u r e a n d s u f f e r i n g of m i l l i o n s a b o u t w h i c h w e k n o w b u t c h o o s e to i g n o r e ? I m a g i n e t h e effect on o n e of u s if w e w e r e forced to w a t c h o n e s i n g l e s n u f f m o v i e of w h a t g o e s on t h o u s a n d s of t i m e s a d a y a r o u n d t h e e a r t h — b r u t a l t o r t u r e ( p l u c k i n g o u t of e y e s , c r u s h i n g of t e s t i c l e s , for e x a m p l e ) ? W o u l d w e c o n t i n u e to g o on l i v i n g a s u s u a l ? Y e s — i f w e w e r e a b l e to s o m e h o w f o r g e t ( s u s p e n d t h e s y m b o l i c effic i e n c y ) of w h a t w e h a d w i t n e s s e d . S o , a g a i n , d o e s not ^ t w y e t h i c s h a v e to r e l y on s u c h a g e s t u r e of fetishistic IS

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

d i s a v o w a l ? ' ' Y e s , e v e r y e t h i c s — with the exception of the ethics ofpàychoanalysL» w h i c h is a k i n d of a n t i - e t h i c s : it f o c u s e s p r e c i s e l y o n w h a t t h e s t a n d a r d ethical enthusiasm excludes, on the traumatic Thing that o u r J u d e o Christian tradition calls the "Neighbor." his reluctance to endorse

the injunction

F r e u d h a d g o o d r e a s o n s for "Love thy

neighbor!"—the

t e m p t a t i o n to b e r e s i s t e d h e r e i s t h e e t h i c a l d o m e s t i c a t i o n of t h e N e i g h b o r . T h i s is w h a t E m m a n u e l L e v i n a s d i d w i t h h i s notion of t h e N e i g h b o r a s t h e a b y s s a l p o i n t from w h i c h t h e c a l l of e t h i c a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y e m a n a t e s : h e t h e r e b y o b f u s c a t e d t h e m o n s t r o s i t y of t h e N e i g h b o r , t h e m o n s t r o s i t y on a c c o u n t of w h i c h L a c a n a p p l i e d t o t h e n e i g h b o r t h e t e r m T h i n g {da>> Ding), u s e d b y F r e u d t o d e s i g n a t e t h e u l t i m a t e o b j e c t of o u r d e s i r e s i n i t s u n b e a r a b l e i n t e n s i t y a n d i m p e n e t r a b i l i t y . O n e s h o u l d h e a r in t h i s t e r m a l l t h e c o n n o t a t i o n s of h o r r o r fiction: t h e N e i g h b o r i s t h e ( E v i l ) T h i n g w h i c h p o t e n t i a l l y l u r k s b e n e a t h e v e r y h o m e l y h u m a n face, l i k e t h e h e r o of S t e p h e n K i n g ' s The Shining, a g e n t l e f a i l e d w r i t e r , w h o g r a d u a l l y t u r n s i n t o a k i l l i n g b e a s t a n d , w i t h a n e v i l g r i n , g o e s on to s l a u g h t e r h i s e n t i r e f a m i l y . W h e n F r e u d a n d L a c a n i n s i s t o n t h e p r o b l e m a t i c n a t u r e of t h e b a s i c J u d e o - C h r i s t i a n i n j u n c t i o n to " l o v e t h y n e i g h b o r , " t h e y a r e t h u s n o t j u s t m a k i n g t h e s t a n d a r d c r i t i c o - i d e o l o g i c a l p o i n t a b o u t h o w e v e r y n o t i o n of universality is colored b y our particular values and thus implies secret exclusions. They are making a much stronger point about the incompat­ i b i l i t y of t h e N e i g h b o r w i t h t h e v e r y d i m e n s i o n of u n i v e r s a l i t y ' . W h a t r e s i s t s u n i v e r s a l i t y i s t h e p r o p e r l y inhuman d i m e n s i o n of t h e N e i g h b o r . T h i s b r i n g s u s b a c k t o t h e k e y q u e s t i o n : d o e s every u n i v e r s a l i s t e t h i c s h a v e to r e l y o n s u c h a g e s t u r e of f e t i s h i s t i c d i s a v o w a l ? T h e a n s w e r i s : e v e r y e t h i c s t h a t r e m a i n s " h u m a n i s t " ( i n t h e s e n s e of a v o i d i n g t h e i n h u m a n c o r e of b e i n g - h u m a n ) , t h a t d i s a v o w s t h e a b y s s a l d i m e n s i o n of t h e N e i g h b o r . " M a n , " " h u m a n p e r s o n , " is a m a s k t h a t c o n c e a l s t h e p u r e s u b j e c t i v i t y of the

Neighbor.

Consequently, w h e n one asserts the Neighbor as the impenetrable " T h i n g " that eludes a n y attempt at gentrification, at its transformation i n t o a c o z y f e l l o w m a n , t h i s d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t t h e u l t i m a t e h o r i z o n of ethics is deference towards this unfathomable Otherness that subverts any encompassing

universality. Following Alain Badiou, one should

a s s e r t that, o n t h e c o n t r a r y , only a n " i n h u m a n " e t h i c s , a n e t h i c s a d d r e s ­ sing a n i n h u m a n subject, not a fellow person, c a n sustain true u n i v e r s a h t y . T h e most difficult t h i n g for c o m m o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s to g r a s p t h i s s p e c u l a t i v e - d i a l e c t i c a l r e v e r s a l of t h e s i n g u l a r i t y of t h e s u b j e c t qua Neighbor-Thing 16

into universality, not s t a n d a r d " g e n e r a l " universality.

HAPPINESS A N D TORTURE

but universal singularity, the universality g r o u n d e d

in t h e

subjective

s i n g u l a r i t y e x t r a c t e d from all p a r t i c u l a r p r o p e r t i e s , a k i n d of d i r e c t s h o r t circuit b e t w e e n the s i n g u l a r a n d the universal, b y p a s s i n g the particular. W e s h o u l d c e l e b r a t e t h e g e n i u s of W a l t e r B e n j a m i n w h i c h

shines

t h r o u g h in t h e v e r y title of h i s e a r l y w o r k : On Language in General and Human Language in Particular. T h e p o i n t h e r e is not t h a t h u m a n l a n g u a g e is a s p e c i e s of s o m e u n i v e r s a l l a n g u a g e " a s s u c h " w h i c h c o m p r i s e s a l s o o t h e r s p e c i e s ( t h e l a n g u a g e of g o d s a n d a n g e l s ? A n i m a l l a n g u a g e ? T h e l a n g u a g e of s o m e o t h e r i n t e l l i g e n t b e i n g s o u t t h e r e in s p a c e ? C o m p u t e r l a n g u a g e ? T h e l a n g u a g e of D N A ? ) : t h e r e i s n o a c t u a l l y - e x i s t i n g l a n g u a g e o t h e r t h a n h u m a n l a n g u a g e — b u t , m o r d e r to c o m p r e h e n d t h i s " p a r t i ­ c u l a r " l a n g u a g e , o n e has to i n t r o d u c e a m i n i m a l d i f f e r e n c e , c o n c e i v i n g it w i t h r e g a r d to t h e g a p w h i c h s e p a r a t e s it from l a n g u a g e " a s s u c h " ( t h e p u r e s t r u c t u r e of l a n g u a g e d e p r i v e d of t h e i n s i g n i a of t h e h u m a n f i n i t u d e , of e r o t i c p a s s i o n s a n d m o r t a l i t y , of t h e s t r u g g l e s for d o m i n a t i o n a n d t h e o b s c e n i t y of p o w e r ) . ^ T h i s m i n i m a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n i n h u m a n l a n ­ g u a g e a n d h u m a n l a n g u a g e i s c l e a r l y a P l a t o n i c o n e . W h a t if, t h e n , w e h a v e to t u r n t h e s t a n d a r d r e l a t i o n s h i p a r o u n d : t h e o b v e r s e of t h e fact that, in C h r i s t , G o d i s f u l l y h u m a n , i s t h a t we, humans, are not. G.K.

Chesterton

b e g a n The Napoleon of Nothing Hill w i t h : " T h e h u m a n r a c e , to w h i c h so m a n y of m y r e a d e r s b e l o n g . . . " — w h i c h , of c o u r s e , d o e s not m e a n t h a t s o m e of u s a r e n o t h u m a n , b u t t h a t t h e r e i s a n i n h u m a n c o r e in a l l of u s , or, t h a t w e a r e " n o t - a l l

human."

The screen of civility T h e p r e d o m i n a n t w a y of m a i n t a i n i n g a d i s t a n c e t o w a r d s t h e " i n h u m a n " N e i g h b o r ' s i n t r u s i v e p r o x i m i t y i s politeness—^but w h a t is p o l i t e n e s s ? T h e r e i s a g e n t l e v u l g a r s t o r y t h a t p l a y s on t h e i n n u e n d o s of s e d u c t i o n : A b o y a n d a g i r l a r e s a y i n g g o o d b y e l a t e in t h e e v e n i n g , in front of h e r h o u s e ; h e s i t a n t l y , h e s a y s : " W o u l d y o u m i n d if I c o m e in w i t h y o u for a c o f f e e ? " , to w h i c h s h e r e p l i e s : " S o r r y , n o t t o n i g h t , I h a v e m y p e r i o d . . . " A p o l i t e v e r s i o n w o u l d b e t h e o n e in w h i c h t h e g i r l s a y s : " G o o d n e w s , m y p e r i o d i s o v e r — c o m e u p to m y p l a c e ! " , to w h i c h t h e b o y r e p l i e s : " S o r r y , I ^

not in a m o o d for a c u p of coffee r i g h t n o w . . . " T h i s , h o w e v e r ,

immediately confronts unmistakable

u s w i t h t h e a m b i g u i t y of p o l i t e n e s s : t h e r e i s a n

dimension

answer—as John

Lennon

of h u m i l i a t i n g b r u t a l i t y in t h e b o y ' s p u t it in h i s " W o r k i n g C l a s s H e r o " :

polite "you

ö i u s t l e a r n h o w to s m i l e a s y o u k i l l . " 17

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

The

a m b i g u i t y of p o h t e n e s s

is best

rendered

in

Henry

James's

m a s t e r p i e c e s : in t h i s u n i v e r s e w h e r e tact r e i g n s s u p r e m e , w h e r e t h e o p e n e x p l o s i o n of o n e ' s e m o t i o n s is c o n s i d e r e d a s t h e u t m o s t v u l g a r i t y , e v e r y ­ thing is said, the most painful decisions are m a d e , the most delicate m e s s a g e s a r e p a s s e d o v e r — h o w e v e r , it a l l t a k e s p l a c e i n t h e g u i s e of a f o r m a l c o n v e r s a t i o n . E v e n w h e n I b l a c k m a i l m y p a r t n e r , I d o it w i t h a p o l i t e s m i l e , offering h e r t e a a n d c a k e s . . . Is it, t h e n , that, w h i l e t h e b r u t a l d i r e c t a p p r o a c h m i s s e s t h e O t h e r ' s k e r n e l , a tactful d a n c e c a n r e a c h i t ? In h i s /Minima Aloralia,

A d o r n o pointed out the utter a m b i g u i t y

of t a c t c l e a r l y d i s c e r n i b l e a l r e a d y in H e n r y J a m e s : t h e r e s p e c t f u l s i d e r a t i o n for t h e o t h e r ' s s e n s i t i v i t y , t h e c o n c e r n

con­

not to v i o l a t e h e r

i n t i m a c y , c a n e a s i l y p a s s o v e r i n t o t h e b r u t a l i n s e n s i t i v i l y for t h e o t h e r ' s p a i n . T h e s a m e spirit, e l e v a t e d to t h e l e v e l of a b s u r d i t y , w a s d i s p l a y e d b y F i e l d M a r s h a l l v o n K l u g e , t h e c o m m a n d e r of t h e A r m y G r o u p C e n t r e on t h e R u s s i a n front. In J a n u a r y 1 9 4 3 , a g r o u p of G e r m a n

officers in

S m o l e n s k , w h e r e t h e h e a d q u a r t e r s of t h e a r m y g r o u p w a s b a s e d , w a s p l a n n i n g to k i l l H i t l e r d u r i n g t h e l a t t e r ' s v i s i t ; t h e i d e a w a s t h a t , d u r i n g a m e a l in t h e m e s s , s o m e t w o d o z e n officers w o u l d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y d r a w their pistols and shoot him, thus r e n d e r i n g the responsibility collective, a n d a l s o m a k i n g s u r e t h a t H i t l e r ' s b o d y g u a r d s w o u l d not b e a b l e to p r e v e n t a t l e a s t s o m e of the b u l l e t s h i t t i n g t h e i r t a r g e t . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , v o n K l u g e v e t o e d the plan, a l t h o u g h he w a s anti-Nazi a n d w a n t e d Hitler d e a d . H i s a r g u m e n t w a s that, b y t h e t e n e t s of t h e G e r m a n Officer C o r p s , "it i s not s e e m l y to s h o o t a m a n at l u n c h . " ^ ^ A s s u c h , p o l i t e n e s s c o m e s c l o s e to c i v i l i t y . In a s c e n e from Break Up, t h e nervous Vince V a u g h n angrily reproaches

Jennifer Anniston;

"You

w a n t e d m e to w a s h t h e d i s h e s , a n d I'll w a s h t h e d i s h e s — w h a t ' s t h e p r o b l e m ? " S h e r e p l i e s : "I d o n ' t w a n t y o u to w a s h t h e d i s h e s — I w a n t y o u to want to w a s h t h e d i s h e s ! " T h i s is t h e m i n i m a l r e f l e x i v i t y of d e s i r e , its " t e r r o r i s t " d e m a n d : I w a n t y o u n o t o n l y to d o w h a t I w a n t , b u t to d o it a s if y o u r e a l l y w a n t to d o it —I w a n t to r e g u l a t e not o n l y w h a t y o u do, b u t a l s o y o u r d e s i r e s . T h e w o r s t t h i n g y o u c a n d o , e v e n w o r s e t h a n not d o i n g w h a t I w a n t y o u to do, is to d o w h a t I w a n t y o u to d o w i t h o u t w a n t i n g to d o i t . . . A n d t h i s b r i n g s u s to c i v i l i t y : a n a c t of c i v i l i t y i s p r e c i s e l y to feign t h a t I w a n t to d o w h a t t h e o t h e r a s k s m e to do, so t h a t m y c o m p l i a n c e w i t h t h e o t h e r ' s w i s h d o e s not e x e r t p r e s s u r e on h e r . T h e m o v i e Borat is at its m o s t s u b v e r s i v e not w h e n t h e h e r o i s s i m p l y r u d e a n d offensive (for o u r W e s t e r n e y e s a n d e a r s , at l e a s t ) , b u t , on t h e c o n t r a r y , w h e n

he

d e s p e r a t e l y t r i e s to b e p o l i t e . D u r i n g a d i n n e r p a r t y in a n u p p e r - c l a s s 18

HAPPINESS AND TORTURE

house, he a s k s w h e r e the toilet is, w h e n c e he then r e t u r n s w i t h his e x c r e m e n t c a r e f u l l y w r a p p e d in a p l a s t i c b a g , a n d a s k s h i s h o s t e s s in a h u s h e d v o i c e w h e r e h e s h o u l d p u t it. T h i s is a m o d e l m e t a p h o r of a t r u l y s u b v e r s i v e p o l i t i c a l g e s t u r e : b r i n g i n g t h o s e in p o w e r a b a g of e x c r e m e n t a n d p o l i t e l y a s k i n g t h e m h o w to g e t r i d of it. In a p e r s p i c u o u s s h o r t e s s a y on c i v i l i t y , R o b e r t P i p p i n e l a b o r a t e s t h e e n i g m a t i c i n - b e t w e e n s t a t u s of t h i s n o t i o n w h i c h d e s i g n a t e s a l l t h e a c t s t h a t d i s p l a y t h e b a s i c s u b j e c t i v e a t t i t u d e of r e s p e c t for o t h e r s a s free a n d a u t o n o m o u s a g e n t s , e q u a l to u s , t h e b e n e v o l e n t a t t i t u d e of t r a n s c e n d i n g t h e strict u t i l i t a r i a n or " r a t i o n a l " c a l c u l a t i o n of c o s t s a n d b e n e f i t s in relations with others

and

e n g a g i n g in t r u s t i n g

h u m i l i a t e t h e m , a n d so forth.

them,

t r y i n g not

to

A l t h o u g h , m e a s u r e d b y t h e d e g r e e of

i t s o b l i g a t o r y c h a r a c t e r , it i s m o r e t h a n k i n d n e s s o r g e n e r o s i t y

(one

c a n n o t o b l i g e p e o p l e to b e g e n e r o u s ) , b u t d i s t i n c t l y l e s s t h a n a m o r a l o r l e g a l o b l i g a t i o n . T h i s is w h a t i s w r o n g in p o l i t i c a l l y c o r r e c t a t t e m p t s to m o r a l i z e o r e v e n d i r e c t l y p e n a l i z e m o d e s of b e h a v i o r w h i c h b a s i c a l l y p e r t a i n to c i v i l i t y ( l i k e h u r t i n g o t h e r s w i t h v u l g a r o b s c e n i t i e s of s p e e c h , a n d so o n ) : t h e y p o t e n t i a l l y u n d e r m i n e t h e p r e c i o u s " m i d d l e g r o u n d " of civility, m e d i a t i n g b e t w e e n uncontrolled private fantasies a n d the strictly r e g u l a t e d forms of i n t e r s u b j e c t i v e b e h a v i o r . In m o r e H e g e l i a n t e r m s , w h a t g e t s lost in t h e p e n a l i z a t i o n of u n - c i v i l i t y is " e t h i c a l s u b s t a n c e " a s s u c h : in c o n t r a s t to l a w s a n d e x p l i c i t n o r m a t i v e r e g u l a t i o n s , c i v i l i t y i s , b y definition, " s u b s t a n t i a l , " s o m e t h i n g e x p e r i e n c e d a s a l w a y s - a l r e a d y g i v e n , never imposed/instituted as such.

W h i c h i s w h y c i v i l i t y p a r t i c i p a t e s in

all t h e p a r a d o x e s of t h e " s t a t e s - t h a t - a r e - e s s e n t i a l l y - b y - p r o d u c t s " : it c a n ­ not b e p u r p o s e f u l l y e n a c t e d — i f it i s , w e h a v e t h e full r i g h t to s a y t h a t it i s f a k e c i v i l i t y , n o t a t r u e form. P i p p i n i s r i g h t to l i n k t h e c r u c i a l r o l e of c i v i l i t y in m o d e r n s o c i e t i e s to t h e r i s e of t h e a u t o n o m o u s free i n d i v i d u a l — not o n l y i n t h e s e n s e t h a t c i v i l i t y is a p r a c t i c e of t r e a t i n g o t h e r s a s e q u a l , free, a n d a u t o n o m o u s

s u b j e c t s , b u t in a m u c h m o r e r e f i n e d w a y : t h e

fragile w e b of c i v i l i t y is t h e " s o c i a l s u b s t a n c e " of free

independent

i n d i v i d u a l s , it i s t h e i r v e r y m o d e of ( i n t e r ) d e p e n d e n c e . If t h i s s u b s t a n c e d i s i n t e g r a t e s , t h e v e r y social s p a c e of I n d i v i d u a l f r e e d o m i s f o r e c l o s e d . T h e p r o p e r l y M a r x i s t n o t i o n of t h e superstructure")

should

not

" b a s e " (in c o n t r a s t

be understood

with

as a foundation

d e t e r m i n e s a n d t h u s c o n s t r a i n s t h e s c o p e of o u r f r e e d o m

the

which

("we think

w e a r e free, b u t w e a r e r e a l l y d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e b a s e " ) ; o n e s h o u l d r a t h e r c o n c e i v e it a s t h e v e r y b a s e ( f r a m e , t e r r a i n , s p a c e ) of anà for o u r f r e e d o m . The

b a s e " is a s o c i a l s u b s t a n c e w h i c h s u s t a i n s o u r f r e e d o m —in t h i s 19

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

s e n s e , t h e r u l e s of c i v i l i t y d o not c o n s t r a i n o u r f r e e d o m , b u t p r o v i d e t h e only space within w h i c h our freedom can thrive; the legal order enforced by

s t a t e a p p a r a t u s e s i s t h e b a s e for o u r f r e e - m a r k e t e x c h a n g e s ; t h e

g r a m m a t i c a l r u l e s a r e t h e i n d i s p e n s a b l e b a s e for o u r free t h o u g h t

(in

o r d e r to " t h i n k f r e e l y , " w e h a v e to p r a c t i c e t h e s e r u l e s b l i n d l y ) ; h a b i t a s o u r " s e c o n d n a t u r e " i s t h e b a s e for c u l t u r e ; t h e c o l l e c t i v e of b e l i e v e r s i s t h e b a s e , t h e o n l y t e r r a i n , w i t h i n w h i c h a C h r i s t i a n s u b j e c t c a n b e free, a n d so on. T h i s i s a l s o h o w o n e s h o u l d u n d e r s t a n d t h e i n f a m o u s M a r x i s t p l e a tor " c o n c r e t e , r e a l f r e e d o m " a s o p p o s e d to t h e b o u r g e o i s " a b s t r a c t , m e r e l y formal f r e e d o m " : t h i s " c o n c r e t e f r e e d o m " d o e s not c o n s t r a i n the possible content

( " y o u c a n o n l y b e t r u l y free

if y o u

support

our.

C o m m u n i s t , s i d e " ) ; the question is, rather, w h a t " b a s e " s h o u l d be s e c u r e d for f r e e d o m . F o r e x a m p l e , a l t h o u g h w o r k e r s in c a p i t a l i s m a r e f o r m a l l y free, t h e r e i s n o " b a s e " t h a t w o u l d a l l o w t h e m to a c t u a l i z e t h e i r f r e e d o m a s p r o d u c e r s ; a l t h o u g h t h e r e i s " f o r m a l " f r e e d o m of s p e e c h , o r g a n i z a t i o n , a n d so forth, t h e b a s e of t h i s f r e e d o m i s c o n s t r a i n e d . T h e t h e o r e t i c a l p o i n t of c i v i l i t y i s t h u s t h a t free s u b j e c t i v i t y h a s to b e s u s t a i n e d b y f e i g n i n g . C o n t r a r y to w h a t w e m i g h t e x p e c t , h o w e v e r , t h i s i s not f e i g n i n g to p e r f o r m a free a c t w h e n o n e i s s i m p l y d o i n g w h a t o n e i s u n d e r p r e s s u r e o r o b l i g e d to d o ( t h e m o s t e l e m e n t a r y form of it is, of c o u r s e , t h e r i t u a l of " p o t l a t c h , " e x c h a n g e of gifts, in " p r i m i t i v e " s o c i e ­ t i e s ) , f i o w , t h e n , d o e s c i v i l i t y r e l a t e to t h e set of u n w r i t t e n r u l e s w h i c h de facto c o n s t r a i n m y f r e e d o m

w h i l e s u s t a i n i n g its a p p e a r a n c e ? I^et u s

i m a g i n e a s c e n e in w h i c h , to b e p o l i t e a n d not to h u m i l i a t e t h e o t h e r , I f o r m u l a t e m y o r d e r to h i m ( s i n c e I a m in t h e p o s i t i o n of a u t h o r i t y t o w a r d s h i m , so t h a t h e h a s to o b e y m y o r d e r s ) a s a k i n d r e q u e s t : " C o u l d y o u p e r h a p s b e so k i n d a s to . . . " ( A l o n g t h e s a m e l i n e s , w h e n p o w e r f u l o r f a m o u s p e o p l e r e c e i v e a n u n k n o w n i n d i v i d u a l , o n e of t h e p o l i t e f o r m s is to p r e t e n d t h a t it i s t h e u n k n o w n i n d i v i d u a l w h o is d o i n g t h e m a f a v o r b y v i s i t i n g t h e m — " T h a n k y o u for b e i n g so k i n d a s to p a y m e a v i s i t . . . " ) T h i s , h o w e v e r , i s n o t t r u e c i v i l i t y : c i v i l i t y is n o t s i m p l y o b l i g a t l o n - f e i g n e d a s - f r e e - a c t ; it i s r a t h e r its e x a c t o p p o s i t e : a free act feigned ad an obligation. B a c k to o u r e x a m p l e : t h e t r u e a c t of c i v i l i t y from s o m e o n e in p o w e r w o u l d b e for h i m to feign t h a t h e i s s i m p l y d o i n g s o m e t h i n g h e h a s to d o w h e n , in r e a l i t y , it i s a n a c t of g e n e r o s i t y on h i s p a r t . F r e e d o m i s t h u s s u s t a i n e d b y a p a r a d o x t h a t t u r n s a r o u n d t h e S p i n o z a n d e f i n i t i o n of f r e e d o m a s c o n c e i v e d n e c e s s i t y : it i s f r e e d o m w h i c h is f e i g n e d n e c e s s i t y . T o p u t it in f l e g e l i a n t e r m s , f r e e d o m

is s u s t a i n e d b y the ethical

s u b s t a n c e of o u r b e i n g . In a g i v e n s o c i e t y , c e r t a i n f e a t u r e s , a t t i t u d e s , 20

HAPPINESS AND TORTURE

a n d n o r m s of life a r e n o l o n g e r p e r c e i v e d a s i d e o l o g i c a l l y m a r k e d , t h e y a p p e a r a s " n e u t r a l , " a s t h e n o n - i d e o l o g i c a l c o m m o n - s e n s e form of life; i d e o l o g y is the e x p l i c i t l y posited

( " m a r k e d " in t h e s e m i o t i c s e n s e )

position w h i c h stands out from/against this b a c k g r o u n d (like e x t r e m e religious zeal, dedication

to

some

political orientation,

etc.).

H e g e l i a n p o i n t h e r e w o u l d h a v e b e e n t h a t it i s p r e c i s e l y t h i s t r a l i z a t i o n of s o m e f e a t u r e s i n t o t h e s p o n t a n e o u s l y a c c e p t e d

The neu­ back­

g r o u n d w h i c h i s i d e o l o g y par excellence ( a n d at its m o s t e f f e c t i v e ) — t h i s is the d i a l e c t i c a l " c o i n c i d e n c e of t h e o p p o s i t e s " : t h e a c t u a l i z a t i o n of a notion ( i d e o l o g y , in t h i s c a s e ) a t i t s c o i n c i d e s w i t h (or, m o r e p r e c i s e l y , a p p e a r s a s ) i t s o p p o s i t e ( a s n o n - i d e o l o g y ) . A n d , inutati) mutandis, t h e s a m e g o e s for v i o l e n c e : s o c i a l - s y m b o l i c v i o l e n c e u n a d u l t e r a t e d a p p e a r s as its o p p o s i t e , a s t h e s p o n t a n e i t y of t h e m i l i e u in w h i c h w e d w e l l , of the a i r t h a t w e b r e a t h e . T h i s notion of c i v i l i t y i s at t h e v e r y h e a r t of t h e i m p a s s e s of m u l t i c u l t u r a l i s m . A c o u p l e of y e a r s a g o , t h e r e w a s a d e b a t e i n G e r m a n y a b o u t Leäkultur

(the

dominant

culture): against abstract

multiculturalism,

c o n s e r v a t i v e s i n s i s t e d t h a t e v e r y s t a t e i s b a s e d on a p r e d o m i n a n t c u l t u r a l s p a c e w h i c h t h e m e m b e r s of o t h e r c u l t u r e s w h o l i v e in t h e s a m e s p a c e s h o u l d r e s p e c t . A l t h o u g h l i b e r a l leftists a t t a c k e d t h i s notion a s c o v e r t r a c i s m , o n e s h o u l d a d m i t t h a t , if n o t h i n g e l s e , it offers a n a d e q u a t e d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e facts. R e s p e c t of i n d i v i d u a l f r e e d o m s a n d r i g h t s , e v e n if a t the e x p e n s e of g r o u p r i g h t s , full e m a n c i p a t i o n of w o m e n , f r e e d o m of r e l i g i o n ( a n d of a t h e i s m ) a n d s e x u a l o r i e n t a t i o n , f r e e d o m to p u b l i c l y a t t a c k a n y o n e a n d a n y t h i n g , a r e c e n t r a l c o n s t i t u e n t e l e m e n t s of W e s t e r n l i b e r a l Leitkultur,

a n d t h i s c a n b e u s e d to r e s p o n d t o t h o s e M u s l i m

t h e o l o g i a n s in W e s t e r n c o u n t r i e s w h o p r o t e s t a g a i n s t t h e i r

treatment,

w h i l e a c c e p t i n g it a s n o r m a l t h a t in, s a y , S a u d i A r a b i a , it i s p r o h i b i t e d to practice publicly religions other than Islam. T h e y should accept that the s a m e Leitkultur w h i c h a l l o w s t h e i r r e l i g i o u s f r e e d o m i n t h e W e s t , d e ­ m a n d s of t h e m a r e s p e c t for all o t h e r f r e e d o m s . T o p u t it s u c c i n c t l y : freedom

for M u s l i m s i s p a r t a n d p a r c e l of t h e f r e e d o m

for S a l m a n

R u s h d i e to w r i t e w h a t h e w a n t s — y o u c a n n o t c h o o s e t h e p a r t of W e s t e r n freedom

w h i c h s u i t s y o u . T h e a n s w e r to t h e s t a n d a r d c r i t i c a l a r g u m e n t

t h a t W e s t e r n m u l t i c u l t u r a l i s m i s not t r u l y n e u t r a l , t h a t it p r i v i l e g e s specific v a l u e s , i s t h a t o n e s h o u l d s h a m e l e s s l y a c c e p t t h i s

paradox:

Universal o p e n n e s s i t s e l f i s r o o t e d in W e s t e r n m o d e r n i t y . A n d , to a v o i d a n y m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g , t h e s a m e a p p l i e s to C h r i s t i a n i t y Itself. O n M a y 2, 2 0 0 7 , LVdJermtore

Romano, t h e V a t i c a n ' s official n e w s 2!

IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S

p a p e r , a c c u s e d A n d r e a R i v e r a , a n I t a l i a n c o m e d i a n , of " t e r r o r i s m " for c r i t i c i z i n g t h e p o p e . A s a p r e s e n t e r of a t e l e v i s e d M a y D a y r o c k c o n c e r t , R i v e r a a t t a c k e d t h e p o p e ' s p o s i t i o n on e v o l u t i o n ( " T h e p o p e s a y s h e d o e s n ' t b e l i e v e in e v o l u t i o n .

I a g r e e , in fact t h e C h u r c h

has

never

e v o l v e d . " ) H e a l s o c r i t i c i z e d t h e C h u r c h for r e f u s i n g to g i v e a C a t h o l i c funeral

to P i e r g i o r g i o W e l b y , a v i c t i m of m u s c u l a r d y s t r o p h y

who

c a m p a i g n e d for e u t h a n a s i a a n d d i e d in D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 6 after a d o c t o r a g r e e d to u n p l u g h i s r e s p i r a t o r ("I c a n ' t s t a n d t h e fact t h a t t h e V a t i c a n r e f u s e d a f u n e r a l for W e l b y b u t t h a t w a s n ' t t h e c a s e for P i n o c h e t

or

F r a n c o " ) . H e r e is t h e V a t i c a n ' s r e a c t i o n : " T h i s , too, i s t e r r o r i s m .

It's

t e r r o r i s m to l a u n c h a t t a c k s on t h e C h u r c h . It's t e r r o r i s m to s t o k e b l i n d a n d i r r a t i o n a l r a g e a g a i n s t s o m e o n e w h o a l w a y s s p e a k s in t h e n a m e of l o v e , l o v e for hfe a n d l o v e for m a n . " It is t h e u n d e r l y i n g e q u a t i o n of intellectual critique with physical terrorist attacks w h i c h brutally violates t h e W e s t E u r o p e a n Leäkullur, w h i c h i n s i s t s on t h e u n i v e r s a l s p h e r e of t h e " p u b l i c u s e of r e a s o n , " w h e r e o n e c a n c r i t i c i z e a n d p r o b l e m a t i z e e v e r y ­ t h i n g — i n t h e e y e s of o u r s h a r e d Tjeitkaltur, R i v e r a ' s s t a t e m e n t s a r e t o t a l l y acceptable. C i v i l i t y is c r u c i a l h e r e : m u l t i c u l t u r a l f r e e d o m a l s o f u n c t i o n s o n l y w h e n it is s u s t a i n e d b y t h e r u l e s of c i v i l i t y , w h i c h a r e n e v e r a b s t r a c t , b u t a l w a y s e m b e d d e d w i t h i n a Leitkidtur. W i t h i n o u r Leltkultur, it i s not R i v e r a b u t L'OMervatore Roimino w h i c h i s " t e r r o r i s t i c " w i t h i t s d i s m i s s a l of R i v e r a ' s s i m p l e a n d r e a s o n a b l e o b j e c t i o n s a s e x p r e s s i o n s of " b h n d a n d i r r a t i o n a l r a g e . " F r e e d o m of s p e e c h f u n c t i o n s w h e n a l l p a r t i e s follow t h e

same

u n w r i t t e n r u l e s of c i v i l i t y t e l l i n g u s w h a t k i n d of a t t a c k s a r e i m p r o p e r , a l t h o u g h t h e y a r e not l e g a l l y p r o h i b i t e d ; c i v i l i t y t e l l s u s w h i c h f e a t u r e s of a s p e c i f i c e t h n i c o r r e l i g i o u s " w a y of l i f e " a r e a c c e p t a b l e a n d w h i c h a r e not a c c e p t a b l e . If a l l s i d e s d o not s h a r e o r r e s p e c t t h e s a m e c i v i l i t y , t h e n m u l t i c u l t u r a l l s m t u r n s into l e g a l l y r e g u l a t e d m u t u a l i g n o r a n c e or hatred. O n e of the L a c a n i a n n a m e s for t h i s c i v i l i t y is t h e " M a s t e r - S i g n i f l e r , " t h e set of r u l e s g r o u n d e d o n l y in t h e m s e l v e s ("it is so b e c a u s e it i s so, b e c a u s e it is o u r c u s t o m " ) — a n d

it is this d i m e n s i o n of t h e

Master-

S l g n i f i e r w h i c h i s m o r e a n d m o r e t h r e a t e n e d in o u r s o c i e t i e s .

Gift and exchange S o w h a t i s a A l a s t e r - S i g n i f i e r ? A p r o p o s school e x a m s , L a c a n p o i n t e d o u t a s t r a n g e fact: t h e r e m u s t b e a m i n i m a l g a p , d e l a y , b e t w e e n t h e p r o c e d u r e of m e a s u r i n g m y q u a l i f i c a t i o n s a n d t h e a c t of a n n o u n c i n g t h e 22

result

HAPPINESS A N D TORTURE

( g r a d e s ) . In o t h e r w o r d s , e v e n if I k n o w t h a t I p r o v i d e d p e r f e c t a n s w e r s to t h e e x a m q u e s t i o n s , t h e r e r e m a i n s a m i n i m u m e l e m e n t of i n s e c u r i t y , of c h a n c e , till t h e r e s u l t s a r e a n n o u n c e d — t h i s g a p i s t h e g a p b e t w e e n t h e c o n s t a t i v e a n d t h e p e r f o r m a t i v e , b e t w e e n measuring t h e r e s u l t s a n d taking note of t h e m ( r e g i s t e r i n g t h e m ) in t h e full s e n s e of t h e s y m b o l i c a c t . T h e w h o l e m y s t i q u e of b u r e a u c r a c y at its m o s t s u b l i m e h i n g e s on t h i s g a p : y o u k n o w t h e facts, b u t y o u c a n n e v e r b e q u i t e s u r e of h o w t h e s e facts v^rill be r e g i s t e r e d b y b u r e a u c r a c y . T h e s a m e h o l d s for e l e c t i o n s : in t h e e l e c t o r a l p r o c e s s t h e m o m e n t of c o n t i n g e n c y , of h a z a r d , of a " l o t t e r y , " i s c r u c i a l . F u l l y " r a t i o n a l " e l e c t i o n s w o u l d not b e e l e c t i o n s at all, b u t a transparent objectivized process. Traditional (pre-modern) societies resolved this problem b y invoking a t r a n s c e n d e n t a l s o u r c e w h i c h " v e r i f i e d " t h e result, c o n f e r r i n g a u t h o r i t y on it (God, K i n g . . . ) . T h e r e i n r e s i d e s t h e p r o b l e m of m o d e r n i t y : m o d e r n societies p e r c e i v e t h e m s e l v e s a s a u t o n o m o u s , s e l f - r e g u l a t e d ; t h a t i s , t h e y can no l o n g e r r e l y on a n e x t e r n a l ( t r a n s c e n d e n t a l ) s o u r c e of a u t h o r i t y . B u t , n o n e t h e l e s s , t h e m o m e n t of h a z a r d h a s to r e m a i n o p e r a t i v e in t h e e l e c t o r a l process, w h i c h i s w h y c o m m e n t a t o r s l i k e to d w e l l on t h e " i r r a t i o n a l i t y " of votes (one n e v e r k n o w s w h i c h w a y v o t e s w i l l s w i n g in t h e last d a y s before elections . . . ) . In o t h e r w o r d s , d e m o c r a c y w o u l d not w o r k if it w e r e reduced to p e r m a n e n t o p i n i o n - p o l l i n g — f u l l y m e c h a n i z e d a n d q u a n t i f i e d , deprived of its " p e r f o r m a t i v e " c h a r a c t e r . A s C l a u d e Lefort p o i n t e d

out,

voting h a s to r e m a i n a ( s a c r i f i c i a l ) r i t u a l , a r i t u a l i s t i c s e l f - d e s t r u c t i o n a n d rebirth of s o c i e t y .

T h e r e a s o n i s t h a t t h i s h a z a r d itself s h o u l d not b e

t r a n s p a r e n t , it s h o u l d b e m i n i m a l l y e x t e r n a l i z e d / r e i f i e d : t h e " p e o p l e ' s w i l l " IS our e q u i v a l e n t of w h a t t h e A n c i e n t s p e r c e i v e d a s t h e i m p o n d e r a b l e wUl of God o r t h e h a n d s of F a t e . W h a t p e o p l e c a n n o t a c c e p t a s t h e i r d i r e c t arbitrary c h o i c e , t h e r e s u l t of a p u r e c o n t i n g e n c y , t h e y c a n d o if this h a z a r d 18 r e f e r r e d to a m i n i m u m of t h e " r e a l " — H e g e l k n e w t h i s l o n g a g o , t h i s i s t h e e n t i r e p o i n t of h i s d e f e n s e of m o n a r c h y . A n d , l a s t b u t not least, t h e same g o e s for l o v e : t h e r e s h o u l d b e a n e l e m e n t of t h e " a n s w e r of t h e R e a l " m it ( w e w e r e f o r e v e r m e a n t for e a c h o t h e r " ) , I c a n n o t r e a l l y a c c e p t t h a t m y falling in l o v e h i n g e s on a p u r e l y a l e a t o r y p r o c e s s . ' ^ It is o n l y a g a i n s t t h i s b a c k g r o u n d t h a t o n e c a n p r o p e r l y l o c a t e t h e function of t h e M a s t e r . T h e M a s t e r is t h e o n e w h o r e c e i v e s gifts in s u c h a ^ a y that h i s a c c e p t a n c e of a gift i s p e r c e i v e d b y t h e s u b j e c t w h o p r o v i d e d *ne gift a s i t s o w n r e w a r d . A s s u c h , t h e M a s t e r is t h u s c o r r e l a t i v e to t h e s u b j e c t c a u g h t in t h e d o u b l e m o v e m e n t of w h a t F r e u d c a l l e d Vertagung ( r e n u n c i a t i o n ) : t h e g e s t u r e b y m e a n s of w h i c h t h e s u b j e c t g i v e s w h a t i s 23

IN D E F E N S E OF L O S T C A U S E S

m o s t p r e c i o u s to h i m a n d , i n e x c h a n g e , is h i m s e l f t u r n e d m t o a n o b j e c t of e x c h a n g e , is c o r r e l a t i v e to t h e g e s t u r e of g i v i n g in t h e v e r y a c t of r e c e i v i n g . T h e M a s t e r ' s r e f u s a l of e x c h a n g e i s c o r r e l a t i v e to t h e

re­

doubled,

ex­

s e l f - r e f l e c t e d , e x c h a n g e on t h e s i d e of t h e s u b j e c t w h o

c h a n g e s ( g i v e s w h a t i s m o s t p r e c i o u s to h i m ) a n d Is e x c h a n g e d . T h e t r i c k of c a p i t a l i s m , of c o u r s e , i s t h a t t h i s a s y m m e t r y Is c o n c e a l e d in the

ideological a p p e a r a n c e

of e q u i v a l e n t e x c h a n g e : the d o u b l e

non-

e x c h a n g e i s m a s k e d a s free e x c h a n g e . T h i s i s w h y , a s w a s c l e a r to L a c a n , p s y c h o a n a l y s i s —not o n l y a s a t h e o r y , b u t a b o v e a l l a s a s p e c i f i c i n t e r s u b j e c t i v e p r a c t i c e , a s a u n i q u e form of s o c i a l l i n k — c o u l d h a v e emerged only within capitalist society w h e r e intersubjective relations are m e d i a t e d b y m o n e y . M o n e y — p a y i n g t h e a n a l y s t — i s n e c e s s a r y in o r d e r to k e e p h i m o u t of c i r c u l a t i o n , to a v o i d g e t t i n g h i m i n v o l v e d in t h e i m b r o g l i o of p a s s i o n s w h i c h g e n e r a t e d t h e p a t i e n t ' s p a t h o l o g y . T h i s i s why

a p s y c h o a n a l y s t i s not

a Master-figure, but,

rather,

a kind

of

" p r o s t i t u t e of t h e m i n d , " h a v i n g r e c o u r s e to m o n e y for the s a m e r e a s o n s o m e p r o s t i t u t e s l i k e to b e p a i d so t h a t t h e y c a n h a v e s e x w i t h o u t p e r s o n a l involvement, maintaining their distance —here, w e encounter the

func­

tion of m o n e y a t i t s p u r e s t . There are similarities between analytic treatment

a n d t h e r i t u a l of

p o t l a t c h . M a r c e l M a u s s , in h i s " E s s a i s u r le don,"^'^ first d e s c r i b e d t h e p a r a d o x i c a l l o g i c of p o t l a t c h , of t h e r e c i p r o c a l e x c h a n g e of gifts. Gift a n d e x c h a n g e a r e , of c o u r s e , o p p o s e d in t h e i r i m m a n e n t l o g i c : a t r u e gift i s b y d e f i n i t i o n a n a c t of g e n e r o s i t y , g i v e n w i t h o u t e x p e c t i n g s o m e t h i n g return,

while exchange

is n e c e s s a r i l y reciprocal — I g i v e

in

something,

e x p e c t i n g s o m e t h i n g e l s e in e x c h a n g e . P o t l a t c h i s a s h o r t - c i r c u i t

(inter­

s e c t i o n ) of t h e t w o s e t s : a n e x c h a n g e i n t h e form of its o p p o s i t e , of t w o a c t s of v o l u n t a r y g i f t - g i v i n g ( a n d t h e p o i n t i s , of c o u r s e , t h a t s u c h a c t s a r e n o t s e c o n d a r y w i t h r e g a r d to e x c h a n g e , b u t p r e c e d e a n d g r o u n d i t ) . T h e s a m e h o l d s for p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t r e a t m e n t , in w h i c h t h e a n a l y s t i s not p a i d for t h e w o r k h e d o e s in a set of e q u i v a l e n t e x c h a n g e s ( s o m u c h for a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a d r e a m , s o m u c h for t h e d i s s o l u t i o n of a s y m p t o m , etc., w i t h t h e Ironic p r o s p e c t of offering a s p e c i a l d i s c o u n t : " b u y t h r e e d r e a m i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a n d g e t o n e for free . . . " ) — t h e m o m e n t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s t a r t s to function l i k e t h i s , w e a r e no l o n g e r in t h e a n a l y s t ' s d i s c o u r s e (social l i n k ) . B u t neither is the a n a l y s t restoring the patient's

mental

h e a l t h o u t of t h e g o o d n e s s of h i s h e a r t , for free: t h e a n a l y s t ' s a c t s h a v e nothing

to d o w i t h g o o d n e s s ,

with helping a neighbor— again,

the

m o m e n t t h e p a t i e n t p e r c e i v e s t h e a n a l y s t a s a c t i n g o u t of g o o d n e s s , this 24

HAPPINESS AND TORTURE

can l e a d e v e n to a p s y c h o t i c c r i s i s , a n d t r i g g e r a p a r a n o i d o u t b u r s t . S o , a s in p o t l a c h , t h e e x c h a n g e b e t w e e n

the a n a l y s t a n d t h e a n a l y s a n d i s

b e t w e e n t w o i n c o m m e n s u r a b l e e x c e s s e s : t h e a n a l y s t is p a i d l o r n o t h i n g , as a gift, h i s p r i c e is a l w a y s e x o r b i t a n t ( t y p i c a l l y , t h e p a t i e n t s o s c i l l a t e b e t w e e n c o m p l a i n i n g t h a t t h e p r i c e i s too h i g h a n d b o u t s of e x c e s s i v e g r a t i t u d e ^—"how c a n I e v e r r e p a y y o u for w h a t y o u d i d . . . " ) , and t h e p a t i e n t g e t s s o m e h e l p , a n i m p r o v e m e n t in h i s c o n d i t i o n , a s a n u n i n tended b y - p r o d u c t . A s L a c a n m a k e s c l e a r , t h e u n d e r l y i n g p r o b l e m h e r e is h o w to d e t e r m i n e t h e p r i c e of t h a t w h i c h h a s n o p r i c e . How, t h e n , a r e w e to r e s o l v e t h e e n i g m a of p o t l a t c h ? M a u s s ' s s o l u t i o n is a m y s t i c a l X w h i c h c i r c u l a t e s i n e x c h a n g e . C l a u d e L é v i - S t r a u s s reduced t h e m y s t i q u e to i t s " r a t i o n a l c o r e " : r e c i p r o c i t y , e x c h a n g e a s s u c h — t h e m e a n i n g of r e c i p r o c a l e x c h a n g e of gifts i s exchange itdetf a.s t h e e n a c t m e n t of social l i n k .

T h e r e is, h o w e v e r , s o m e t h i n g m i s s i n g in t h i s

L é v i - S t r a u s s i a n solution;

it w a s P i e r r e B o u r d i e u

crucial " M a r x i s t " question Economy

as to w h y

w h o a s k e d here the

(in M a r x ' s w o r d s )

"Political

has indeed analyzed, however incompletely, value and

its

m a g n i t u d e , a n d h a s d i s c o v e r e d w h a t l i e s b e n e a t h t h e s e forms. B u t it has n e v e r o n c e a s k e d t h e q u e s t i o n w h y l a b o r i s r e p r e s e n t e d b y the v a l u e of i t s p r o d u c t a n d l a b o r - t i m e b y t h e m a g n i t u d e of t h a t v a l u e . " ' ^ If t h e secret core

of p o t l a t c h

is the

r e c i p r o c i t y of e x c h a n g e , w h y i s t h i s

r e c i p r o c i t y not a s s e r t e d d i r e c t l y , w h y d o e s it a s s u m e t h e " m y s t i f i e d " form of t w o c o n s e c u t i v e a c t s e a c h of w h i c h i s s t a g e d a s a free v o l u n t a r y d i s p l a y of g e n e r o s i t y ? H e r e w e e n c o u n t e r t h e p a r a d o x e s of f o r c e d c h o i c e , of f r e e d o m to d o w h a t is n e c e s s a r y , a t its m o s t e l e m e n t a r y : I h a v e to d o freely w h a t I a m e x p e c t e d to d o . (If, u p o n r e c e i v i n g a gift, I i m m e d i a t e l y return it to t h e g i v e r , t h i s d i r e c t c i r c u l a t i o n w o u l d a m o u n t to a n e x t r e m e l y a g g r e s s i v e g e s t u r e of h u m i l i a t i o n , it w o u l d s i g n a l t h a t I refused t h e o t h e r ' s gift—recall those e m b a r r a s s i n g m o m e n t s w h e n e l d e r l y people forget a n d g i v e us l a s t y e a r ' s p r e s e n t o n c e a g a i n . . . ) H o w e v e r , B o u r d i e u ' s s o l u t i o n r e m a i n s a l l too v u l g a r M a r x i s t : h e e v o k e s h i d d e n e c o n o m i c " i n t e r e s t s . " It was M a r s h a l l S a h l i n s w h o p r o p o s e d a different, m o r e p e r t i n e n t , s o l u t i o n : the r e c i p r o c i t y of e x c h a n g e i s in i t s e l f t h o r o u g h l y a m b i g u o u s ; at its m o s t frindamental,

it is deétnœtwe of t h e social b o n d , it i s t h e l o g i c of r e v e n g e , tit

for tat.^"^ T o c o v e r t h i s a s p e c t of e x c h a n g e , to m a k e it b e n e v o l e n t a n d pacific, o n e h a s to pretend t h a t e a c h p e r s o n ' s gift i s free a n d s t a n d s on its own. T h i s b r i n g s u s to p o t l a t c h a s t h e " p r e - e c o n o m y of t h e e c o n o m y , " its zero-level, t h a t i s , e x c h a n g e a s t h e r e c i p r o c a l r e l a t i o n of t w o p r o d u c t i v e e x p e n d i t u r e s . If t h e gift b e l o n g s to M a s t e r a n d

non-

exchange 2S

IN D E F E N S E OF L O S T C A U S E S

to t h e S e r v a n t , p o t l a t c h i s t h e p a r a d o x i c a l e x c h a n g e b e t w e e n M a s t e r s . P o t l a t c h i s t h u s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t h e z e r o - l e v e l of c i v i l i t y , t h e p a r a d o x i c a l point at w h i c h restrained civility and obscene consumption overlap, t h e p o i n t a t w h i c h it i s p o l i t e t o b e h a v e i m p o l i t e l y .

UlyMCii ' reaipoiitlk

T h e o b s c e n e u n d e r s i d e t h a t h a u n t s t h e d i g n i t y of t h e M a s t e r - S i g n i f i e r from its v e r y i n c e p t i o n , o r t h e s e c r e t a l l i a n c e b e t w e e n t h e d i g n i t y of t h e L a w a n d i t s o b s c e n e t r a n s g r e s s i o n , w a s first c l e a r l y o u t l i n e d b y S h a k e ­ s p e a r e i n TroUud and CreMida, h i s m o s t

uncanny

play, effectively a

p o s t m o d e r n w o r k amnt la lettre. In h i s i n f l u e n t i a l Shakespearean Tragedy, w h i c h s e t t h e c o o r d i n a t e s of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a c a d e m i c r e a d i n g of S h a k e ­ speare, A . C . B r a d l e y , t h e g r e a t English Hegelian, s p e a k s of

a c e r t a i n l i m i t a t i o n , a p a r t i a l s u p p r e s s i o n of t h a t e l e m e n t i n S h a k e ­ speare's mind which unites him with the mystical poets a n d with the g r e a t m u s i c i a n s a n d p h i l o s o p h e r s . In o n e o r t w o of h i s p l a y s , n o t a b l y in Trolluà and Cre^s'ida, w e a r e a l m o s t p a i n f u l l y c o n s c i o u s of t h i s s u p p r e s ­ sion; w e feel a n i n t e n s e i n t e l l e c t u a l a c t i v i t y , b u t a t t h e s a m e t i m e a c e r t a i n c o l d n e s s a n d h a r d n e s s , a s t h o u g h s o m e p o w e r i n h i s soul, a t o n c e t h e h i g h e s t a n d t h e s w e e t e s t , w e r e for a t i m e i n a b e y a n c e . I n o t h e r p l a y s , n o t a b l y i n The Tempest, w e a r e c o n s t a n t l y a w a r e of t h e p r e s e n c e of t h i s power.'^^

T h e r e i s t r u t h i n t h i s p e r c e p t i o n : it i s a s if, i n TroiluA, t h e r e i s n o p l a c e for the r e d e m p t i v e qualify of m e t a p h y s i c a l pathos a n d bliss w h i c h s o m e h o w c a n c e l s t h e h o r r i b l e a n d r i d i c u l o u s e v e n t s t h a t t o o k p l a c e . T h e first d i f f i c u l t y i s h o w t o c a t e g o r i z e Trodiu: a l t h o u g h a r g u a b l y t h e b l e a k e s t of S h a k e s p e a r e ' s p l a y s , i t i s often l i s t e d a s a c o m e d y — c o r r e c t l y , s i n c e i t lacks dignified tragic pathos.

I n o t h e r w o r d s , i f Troiliu i s a c o m e d y , t h e n

it Is for t h e s a m e r e a s o n t h a t a l l g o o d films a b o u t t h e H o l o c a u s t a l s o a r e c o m e d i e s : it i s a b l a s p h e m y t o c l a i m t h a t t h e p r e d i c a m e n t of p r i s o n e r s i n a concentration c a m p w a s t r a g i c —their p r e d i c a m e n t w a s so terrifying that t h e y w e r e d e p r i v e d of t h e v e r y p o s s i b i l i t y o f d i s p l a y i n g t r a g i c g r a n d e u r . Tro'diu p l a y s t h e s a m e s t r u c t u r a l r o l e i n S h a k e s p e a r e ' s o p u s a s Coslfan tutte a m o n g M o z a r t ' s o p e r a s : i t s d e s p a i r i s s o t h o r o u g h g o i n g t h a t t h e o n l y way

t o o v e r c o m e it i s t h r o u g h

t h e r e t r e a t i n t o f a i r y - t a l e m a g i c (The

Tempest a n d o t h e r l a t e S h a k e s p e a r e p l a y s ; M o z a r t ' s Magic Flute). 16

HAPPINESS A N D TORTURE

M a n y of S h a k e s p e a r e ' s p l a y s r e t e l l a n a l r e a d y w e l l - k n o w n g r e a t s t o r y (of J u l i u s C a e s a r , of E n g l i s h k i n g s ) ; w h a t m a k e s Trollus t h e e x c e p t i o n i s that, i n r e t e l l i n g t h e w e l l - k n o w n s t o r y , it shifts t h e a c c e n t t o w h a t w e r e i n t h e o r i g i n a l m i n o r a n d m a r g i n a l c h a r a c t e r s : Troiliu i s n o t p r i m a r i l y a b o u t Achilles a n d Hector, P r i a m a n d A g a m e m n o n ; its love couple is not H e l e n a n d P r i a m , b u t C r e s s i d a a n d T r o i l u s . In t h i s s e n s e , Troäus c a n b e s a i d t o p r e f i g u r e o n e of t h e p a r a d i g m a t i c p o s t m o d e r n p r o c e d u r e s , t h a t of r e ­ t e l l i n g a w e l l - k n o w n c l a s s i c a l s t o r y from t h e s t a n d p o i n t of a m a r g i n a l c h a r a c t e r . T o m S t o p p a r d ' s Rodencranz and Gildendtcrn Are Dead d o e s it w i t h Hamlet, w h i l e h e r e , S h a k e s p e a r e h i m s e l f c a r r i e s o u t t h e m o v e .

This

displacement also undermines Shakespeare's standard procedure,

from

h i s r o y a l c h r o n i c l e s , of s u p p l e m e n t i n g t h e " b i g " r o y a l s c e n e s s t a g e d i n a dignified w a y with scenes

figuring

common people w h o introduce

a

c o m i c c o m m o n - s e n s e p e r s p e c t i v e . In t h e r o y a l c h r o n i c l e s , t h e s e c o m i c i n t e r l u d e s s t r e n g t h e n t h e n o b l e s c e n e s t h r o u g h t h e i r c o n t r a s t to t h e m ; in Troduà, e v e r y b o d y , e v e n t h e n o b l e s t of w a r r i o r s , is " c o n t a m i n a t e d " b y t h e ridiculing perspective w h i c h m a k e s us see them either a s blind a n d s t u p i d l y p a t h e t i c o r a s i n v o l v e d i n r u t h l e s s i n t r i g u e s . T h e " o p e r a t o r " of t h i s u n d o i n g of t h e t r a g i c d i m e n s i o n , t h e s i n g l e a g e n t w h o s e i n t e r v e n t i o n s systematically undermine

tragic pathos,

is Ulysses—this m a y sound

s u r p r i s i n g in v i e w of U l y s s e s ' first inter-vention, a t t h e G r e e k w a r c o u n c i l in A c t I w h e r e t h e G r e e k ( o r " G r e c i a n , " a s S h a k e s p e a r e p u t it, in w h a t n o w m a y b e c a l l e d " B u s h m o d e " ) g e n e r a l s t r y to a c c o u n t for t h e i r f a i l u r e to o c c u p y a n d d e s t r o y T r o y after e i g h t y e a r s of

fighting.

U l y s s e s inter­

v e n e s from a t r a d i t i o n a l " o l d v a l u e s " p o s i t i o n , l o c a t i n g t h e t r u e c a u s e of t h e G r e e k s ' f a i l u r e i n t h e i r n e g l e c t of t h e c e n t r a l i z e d h i e r a r c h i c a l o r d e r w h e r e e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l is i n h i s p r o p e r p l a c e :

T h e s p e c i a l t y of r u l e h a t h b e e n n e g l e c t e d . A n d look h o w m a n y Grecian tents do stand Hollow upon this plain: so m a n y hollow factions. [. . . ] O w h e n d e g r e e i s s h a k e d . W h i c h i s t h e l a d d e r to a l l h i g h d e s i g n s , Then enterprise is sick. H o w could communities, D e g r e e s in s c h o o l s a n d b r o t h e r h o o d s i n c i t i e s . P e a c e f u l c o m m e r c e from d i v i d a b l e s h o r e s . T h e p r i m o g e n i t y a n d d u e of b i r t h , P r e r o g a t i v e of a g e , c r o w n s , s c e p t r e s , l a u r e l s . B u t b y d e g r e e s t a n d in a u t h e n t i c p l a c e ? 27

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

T a k e but degree a w a y , untune that string, And, hark, w h a t discord follows. Each thing meets In m e r e o p p u g n a n c y . T h e b o u n d e d w a t e r s S h o u l d lift t h e i r b o s o m s h i g h e r t h a n t h e s h o r e s A n d m a k e a s o p of a l l t h i s s o l i d g l o b e ; S t r e n g t h s h o u l d b e l o r d of i m b e c i l i t y , A n d the r u d e son should strike his father d e a d . F o r c e s h o u l d b e r i g h t —or r a t h e r , r i g h t a n d w r o n g . Between whose endless jar justice resides, S h o u l d lose t h e i r n a m e s , a n d so s h o u l d j u s t i c e too. T h e n e v e r y t h i n g i n c l u d e s itself in p o w e r [. . . ] (I, 3 ) W h a t , t h e n , c a u s e s t h i s d i s i n t e g r a t i o n w h i c h e n d s u p in t h e d e m o c r a t i c h o r r o r of e v e r y o n e p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n p o w e r ? L a t e r in t h e p l a y ,

when

U l y s s e s w a n t s to c o n v i n c e A c h i l l e s to r e j o i n t h e b a t t l e , h e m o b i l i z e s t h e m e t a p h o r of t i m e a s t h e d e s t r u c t i v e force t h a t g r a d u a l l y u n d e r m i n e s t h e n a t u r a l h i e r a r c h i c a l o r d e r : in t h e c o u r s e of t i m e , y o u r old h e r o i c d e e d s w i l l s o o n b e forgotten, y o u r g l o r y w i l l b e e c l i p s e d b y t h e n e w h e r o e s — so if y o u w a n t to c o n t i n u e s h i n i n g in y o u r w a r r i o r g l o r y , r e j o i n t h e b a t t l e :

T i m e hath, m y lord, A w a l l e t at his back, w h e r e i n he puts A l m s for o b l i v i o n , a great-sized monster Of ingratitudes. Those scraps are good d e e d s past, W h i c h are devoured a s fast a s t h e y a r e m a d e . Forgot as soon As done. Perseverance, dear m y lord, K e e p s h o n o u r b r i g h t . T o h a v e d o n e is to h a n g Q u i t e o u t of fashion, l i k e a r u s t y m a i l In m o n u m e n t a l m o c k ' i y . [. . . ] O, l e t n o t v i r t u e s e e k R e m u n e r a t i o n for t h e t h i n g it w a s ; F"or b e a u t y , w i t . H i g h b i r t h , v i g o u r of b o n e , d e s e r t in s e r v i c e , 28

HAPPINESS A N D TORTURE

Ix>ve, f r i e n d s h i p , c h a r i t y , a r e s u b j e c t s all To envious a n d calumniating time. (Ill,

3)

U l y s s e s ' s t r a t e g y h e r e is p r o f o u n d l y a m b i g u o u s . In a first a p p r o a c h , h e merely restates his argumentation

about

the

n e c e s s i t y of

"degrees"

( o r d e r e d social h i e r a r c h y ) , and p o r t r a y s time as the corrosive

force

w h i c h u n d e r m i n e s old t r u e v a l u e s — a n a r c h - c o n s e r v a t i v e motif.

How­

e v e r , on a c l o s e r r e a d i n g , it b e c o m e s c l e a r t h a t U l y s s e s g i v e s to h i s a r g u m e n t a t i o n a s i n g u l a r c y n i c a l t w i s t : h o w a r e w e to fight a g a i n s t t i m e , to k e e p old v a l u e s alive? Not

b y directly sticking to them, but

by

s u p p l e m e n t i n g t h e m w i t h t h e o b s c e n e r e a l p o l i t i k of c r u e l m a n i p u l a t i o n , of c h e a t i n g , of p l a y i n g o n e h e r o a g a i n s t t h e o t h e r . It i s o n l y t h i s d i r t y underside, this hidden disharmony, that can sustain harmony (Ulysses p l a y s w i t h A c h i l l e s ' e n v y , h e r e f e r s to e m u l a t i o n — t h e v e r y a t t i t u d e s t h a t w o r k t o d e s t a b i l i z e the h i e r a r c h i c a l o r d e r , s i n c e t h e y s i g n a l t h a t o n e i s n o t satisfied b y o n e ' s s u b o r d i n a t e

p l a c e w i t h i n t h e social b o d y ) . S e c r e t

m a n i p u l a t i o n of e n v y — t h a t i s , t h e v i o l a t i o n of t h e v e r y r u l e s a n d v a l u e s U l y s s e s c e l e b r a t e s in h i s first speech—^is n e e d e d to c o u n t e r a c t t h e effects o f t i m e a n d s u s t a i n t h e h i e r a r c h i c a l o r d e r of " d e g r e e s . " T h i s w o u l d b e U l y s s e s ' v e r s i o n of H a m l e t ' s f a m o u s " T h e t i m e i s o u t of joint; O c u r s e d spite, / T h a t e v e r I w a s b o r n to set it r i g h t ! " — t h e o n l y w a y to " s e t it r i g h t " is t o c o u n t e r a c t t h e t r a n s g r e s s i o n of O l d O r d e r w i t h its inherent tranögres/wn, w i t h c r i m e s e c r e t l y c o m m i t t e d to s e r v e t h e O r d e r . T h e p r i c e w e p a y f o r t h i s i s t h a t t h e O r d e r w h i c h t h u s s u r v i v e s is a m o c k e r y of itself, a b l a s p h e m o u s i m i t a t i o n of O r d e r . T h i s i s w h y i d e o l o g y i s not s i m p l y a n o p e r a t i o n of c l o s u r e , d r a w i n g t h e line b e t w e e n w h a t is i n c l u d e d a n d w h a t is excluded/prohibited, but the o n g o i n g r e g u l a t i o n of n o n - c l o s u r e . In t h e c a s e of m a r r i a g e , i d e o l o g y not o n l y p r o h i b i t s e x t r a m a r i t a l affairs; its c r u c i a l o p e r a t i o n i s to r e g u l a t e s u c h i n e v i t a b l e t r a n s g r e s s i o n s ( s a y , t h e p r o v e r b i a l C a t h o l i c p r i e s t ' s a d v i c e to a p r o m i s c u o u s h u s b a n d ; if y o u r e a l l y h a v e n e e d s t h a t y o u r w i f e

cannot

satisfy, v i s i t a p r o s t i t u t e d i s c r e e t l y , f o r n i c a t e a n d t h e n r e p e n t , a s l o n g a s y o u d o not d i v o r c e ) . In t h i s w a y , a n i d e o l o g y a l w a y s a d m i t s t h e f a i l u r e of c l o s u r e , a n d t h e n g o e s on to r e g u l a t e t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y of t h e e x c h a n g e "With its o u t s i d e . T o d a y , h o w e v e r , in o u r " p o s t m o d e r n " w o r l d , t h i s d i a l e c t i c of the L a w a n d its i n h e r e n t t r a n s g r e s s i o n i s g i v e n a n a d d i t i o n a l t w i s t : t r a n s g r e s s i o n i s "flore a n d m o r e d i r e c t l y e n j o i n e d b y t h e L a w i t s e l f 29

IN D E F E N S E OF L O S T C A U S E S

The atonal world W h y d o e s p o t l a t c h a p p e a r s o m y s t e r i o u s o r m e a n i n g l e s s to u s ? T h e b a s i c f e a t u r e of o u r " p o s t m o d e r n " w o r l d i s t h a t it t r i e s to d i s p e n s e w i t h t h e a g e n c y of t h e M a s t e r - S i g n i f i e r : t h e " c o m p l e x i t y " of t h e w o r l d s h o u l d b e a s s e r t e d u n c o n d i t i o n a l l y , e v e r y M a s t e r - S i g n i f i e r m e a n t to i m p o s e s o m e o r d e r on it s h o u l d b e " d e c o n s t r u c t e d , " d i s p e r s e d , " d i s s e m i n a t e d " : " T h e m o d e r n a p o l o g y for t h e ' c o m p l e x i t y ' of t h e w o r l d [. . . ] i s r e a l l y n o t h i n g b u t a g e n e r a l i z e d d e s i r e for a t o n a l i t y . "^'^ B a d i o u ' s p e r s p i c u o u s e x a m p l e of s u c h a n " a t o n a l " w o r l d i s t h e p o l i t i c a l l y c o r r e c t v i s i o n of s e x u a l i t y , a s p r o m o t e d b y g e n d e r s t u d i e s , w i t h its o b s e s s i v e r e j e c t i o n of " b i n a r y l o g i c " : t h i s w o r l d i s a n u a n c e d , r a m i f i e d w o r l d of m u l t i p l e s e x u a l p r a c t i c e s w h i c h t o l e r a t e s n o d e c i s i o n , n o i n s t a n c e of t h e T w o , n o e v a l u a t i o n (in t h e s t r o n g Nietzschean s e n s e ) . This suspension of the M a s t e r - S i g n i f i e r leaves a s the o n l y a g e n c y of i d e o l o g i c a l i n t e r p e l l a t i o n t h e " u n n a m e a b l e " a b y s s of jouLtdance: t h e u l t i m a t e i n j u n c t i o n t h a t r e g u l a t e s o u r l i v e s in " p o s t m o d e r n i t y " i s " E n j o y ! " — r e a l i z e y o u r p o t e n t i a l , e n j o y in a l l m a n n e r of w a y s , from i n t e n s e s e x u a l p l e a s u r e s t h r o u g h

s o c i a l s u c c e s s to s p i r i t u a l self-

fulfilment. However,

far from

l i b e r a t i n g u s from

t h e p r e s s u r e of g u i l t , s u c h

dispensing w i t h the M a s t e r - S i g n i f i e r comes at a price, the price signaled b y L a c a n ' s q u a l i f i c a t i o n of t h e s u p e r e g o c o m m a n d :

"Nothing

forces

a n y o n e to e n j o y e x c e p t t h e s u p e r e g o . T h e s u p e r e g o i s t h e i m p e r a t i v e of y^wwa/zce — E n j o y 1"'^^ In s h o r t , t h e d e c l i n e of t h e M a s t e r - S i g n i f i e r e x p o s e s t h e s u b j e c t to a l l t h e t r a p s a n d d o u b l e - t a l k of t h e s u p e r e g o : t h e v e r y i n j u n c t i o n to e n j o y , in o t h e r w o r d s , t h e (often i m p e r c e p t i b l e ) shift from

t h e p e r m i s s i o n to e n j o y to t h e I n j u n c t i o n

sabotages enjoyment, superego command,

( o b l i g a t i o n ) to

enjoy

so t h a t , p a r a d o x i c a l l y , t h e m o r e o n e o b e y s t h e the more one feels guilty. This same a m b i g u i t y

affects t h e v e r y b a s i s of a " p e r m i s s i v e " a n d " t o l e r a n t " s o c i e t y : " w e s e e from d a y to d a y h o w t h i s t o l e r a n c e i s n o t h i n g e l s e t h a n a f a n a t i c i s m , s i n c e it t o l e r a t e s o n l y its o w n v a c u i t y . "

A n d , effectively, e v e r y decision, e v e r y

d e t e r m i n a t e e n g a g e m e n t , is potentially "intolerant" t o w a r d s all others. In h i s Logiqiieé Bej mondes, B a d i o u d e v e l o p s t h e n o t i o n worlds

(monde atone),'^^ w o r l d s l a c k i n g a

"point,"

in

of " a t o n a l "

Lacanese:

the

" q u i l t i n g p o i n t " (point de capiton), t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n of a M a s t e r - S i g n i f i e r t h a t i m p o s e s a p r i n c i p l e of " o r d e r i n g " i n t o t h e w o r l d , t h e p o i n t of a s i m p l e d e c i s i o n ( " y e s o r n o " ) in w h i c h t h e c o n f u s e d

multiplicity is violently

r e d u c e d to a " m i n i m a l d i f f e r e n c e . " N o n e o t h e r t h a n J o h n F. K e n n e d y 30

HAPPINESS AND TORTURE

p r o v i d e d a c o n c i s e d e s c r i p t i o n of t h i s point: " T h e e s s e n c e of u l t i m a t e d e c i s i o n r e m a i n s i m p e n e t r a b l e to t h e o b s e r v e r —often,

i n d e e d , to

the

decider h i m s e l f " This g e s t u r e w h i c h can n e v e r be fully g r o u n d e d r e a s o n s , i s t h a t of a M a s t e r —or,

a s G.K.

Chesterton

put

in

it i n h i s

i n i m i t a b l e m a n n e r : " T h e p u r p o s e of an o p e n m i n d , l i k e h a v i n g a n o p e n m o u t h , i s to c l o s e it u p o n s o m e t h i n g s o l i d . " If t h e fight a g a i n s t a w o r l d p r o c e e d s b y w a y of u n d e r m i n i n g its " p o i n t , " t h e f e a t u r e t h a t s u t u r e s it i n t o a s t a b l e t o t a l i t y , h o w a r e w e to p r o c e e d w h e n ( a s i s t h e c a s e t o d a y ) w e d w e l l in a n a t o n a l w o r l d , a w o r l d of m u l t i p l i c i t i e s l a c k i n g a d e t e r m i n a t e t o n a l i t y ? T h e a n s w e r i s : o n e h a s to o p p o s e it in s u c h a w a y t h a t o n e c o m p e l s it to " t o n a l i z e " i t s e l f to o p e n l y admit t h e secret tone that sustains its atonality. For e x a m p l e , w h e n one confronts

a w o r l d w h i c h presents itself a s tolerant a n d pluralist, dis­

s e m i n a t e d , w i t h n o c e n t e r , o n e h a s to a t t a c k t h e u n d e r l y i n g s t r u c t u r i n g p r i n c i p l e w h i c h s u s t a i n s t h i s a t o n a l i t y — s a y , t h e s e c r e t q u a l i f i c a t i o n s of "tolerance" w h i c h e x c l u d e s a s "intolerant" certain critical questions, or t h e s e c r e t q u a l i f i c a t i o n s w h i c h e x c l u d e a s a " t h r e a t to f r e e d o m " q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e l i m i t s of t h e e x i s t i n g f r e e d o m s . T h e p a r a d o x , t h e s i g n of h i d d e n c o m p l i c i t y b e t w e e n t o d a y ' s r e l i g i o u s fundamentalisms

and the "postmodern"

ciously, is that fundamentalism

u n i v e r s e t h e y r e j e c t so fero­

a l s o b e l o n g s to t h e " a t o n a l w o r l d " —

w h i c h i s w h y a f u n d a m e n t a l i s t d o e s not believe, h e knows d i r e c t l y . T o p u t it ' in a n o t h e r w a y , b o t h l i b e r a l - s k e p t i c a l c y n i c i s m a n d f u n d a m e n t a l i s m t h u s s h a r e a b a s i c u n d e r l y i n g f e a t u r e : t h e l o s s of t h e a b i l i t y to b e l i e v e i n t h e p r o p e r s e n s e of t h e t e r m . F o r b o t h of t h e m , r e l i g i o u s s t a t e m e n t s a r e q u a s i e m p i r i c a l s t a t e m e n t s of d i r e c t k n o w l e d g e : f u n d a m e n t a l i s t s a c c e p t t h e m a s s u c h , w h i l e s k e p t i c a l c y n i c s m o c k t h e m . W h a t is u n t h i n k a b l e for t h e m i s t h e " a b s u r d " a c t of a d e c i s i o n w h i c h e s t a b l i s h e s e v e r y a u t h e n t i c belief, a d e c i s i o n w h i c h c a n n o t b e g r o u n d e d in t h e c h a i n of " r e a s o n s , ' in p o s i t i v e k n o w l e d g e : t h e " s i n c e r e h y p o c r i s j ' " of s o m e b o d y l i k e A n n e F r a n k w h o , i n t h e face of t h e t e r r i f y i n g d e p r a v i t y of t h e N a z i s , in a t r u e a c t of credo qua ohsurdum a s s e r t e d h e r b e l i e f in t h e f u n d a m e n t a l g o o d n e s s of a l l h u m a n s . No w o n d e r t h e n t h a t r e l i g i o u s f u n d a m e n t a l i s t s

are among

the

most

p a s s i o n a t e d i g i t a l h a c k e r s , a n d a l w a y s p r o n e to c o m b i n e t h e i r r e l i g i o n ""^^th t h e l a t e s t

findings

of s c i e n c e : for t h e m , r e l i g i o u s s t a t e m e n t s

and

Scientific s t a t e m e n t s b e l o n g to t h e s a m e m o d a l i t y of p o s i t i v e k n o w l e d g e . (In t h i s s e n s e , t h e s t a t u s of " u n i v e r s a l h u m a n r i g h t s " i s a l s o t h a t of a p u r e belief: t h e y c a n n o t b e g r o u n d e d in o u r k n o w l e d g e of h u m a n n a t u r e , t h e y are an axiom posited b y our decision.) The occurrence

of t h e

term 31

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

" s c i e n c e " in t h e v e r y n a m e of s o m e of t h e f u n d a m e n t a U s t s e c t s ( C h r i s t i a n Science,

S c i e n t o l o g y ) is not j u s t a n

obscene

joke, but

signals this

r e d u c t i o n of b e l i e f to p o s i t i v e k n o w l e d g e . T h e c a s e of t h e T u r i n s h r o u d is h e r e s y m p t o m a l : i t s a u t h e n t i c i t y w o u l d b e a w f u l for e v e r y t r u e b e l i e v e r ( t h e first t h i n g to d o t h e n w o u l d b e to a n a l y z e t h e D N A of t h e b l o o d s t a i n s a n d t h u s s o l v e e m p i r i c a l l y t h e q u e s t i o n of w h o J e s u s ' f a t h e r w a s . . . ) , w h i l e a t r u e f u n d a m e n t a l i s t w o u l d r e j o i c e in t h i s o p p o r t u n i t y . W e find t h e s a m e p h e n o m e n o n in s o m e f o r m s of c o n t e m p o r a r y I s l a m : h u n d r e d s of b o o k s b y s c i e n t i s t s " d e m o n s t r a t e " h o w t h e l a t e s t s c i e n t i f i c a d v a n c e s c o n f i r m t h e i n s i g h t s a n d i n j u n c t i o n s of t h e Koran—^the d i v i n e p r o h i b i t i o n of i n c e s t i s c o n f i r m e d b y r e c e n t g e n e t i c k n o w l e d g e a b o u t t h e d e f e c t i v e c h i l d r e n b o r n of i n c e s t u o u s c o p u l a t i o n , a n d so on a n d so forth. ( S o m e e v e n g o so far a s to c l a i m t h a t w h a t t h e K o r a n offers a s a n a r t i c l e of faith to b e a c c e p t e d b e c a u s e of i t s d i v i n e o r i g i n i s not

finally

demonstrated

a s s c i e n t i f i c t r u t h , t h e r e b y r e d u c i n g t h e K o r a n Itself to a n i n f e r i o r m y t h i c v e r s i o n of w h a t h a s a c q u i r e d i t s a p p r o p r i a t e f o r m u l a t i o n in c o n t e m p o r a r y science.)^'^ T h e s a m e g o e s a l s o for B u d d h i s m , w h e r e m a n y s c i e n t i s t s v a r y the m o t i f of t h e " T a o of m o d e r n p h y s i c s , " t h a t i s , of h o w t h e

contem­

p o r a r y s c i e n t i f i c v i s i o n of r e a l i t y a s a d e s u b s t a n t i a l i z e d flux of o s c i l l a t i n g events

finally

c o n f i r m e d t h e old B u d d h i s t o n t o l o g y . . .

O n e is t h u s

c o m p e l l e d to d r a w t h e p a r a d o x i c a l c o n c l u s i o n : in t h e o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n traditional secular humanists and religious fundamentalists,

it i s t h e

h u m a n i s t s w h o s t a n d for b e l i e f w h i l e f u n d a m e n t a l i s t s s t a n d for k n o w l ­ e d g e — in short, t h e t r u e d a n g e r of f u n d a m e n t a l i s m d o e s not r e s i d e in t h e fact t h a t it p o s e s a t h r e a t to s e c u l a r s c i e n t i f i c k n o w l e d g e , b u t in t h e fact t h a t it p o s e s a t h r e a t to a u t h e n t i c b e l i e f itself. W h a t w e s h o u l d b e a r in m i n d h e r e is h o w t h e o p p o s i t i o n of k n o w l e d g e a n d faith e c h o e s t h e o n e b e t w e e n t h e c o n s t a t i v e a n d t h e p e r f o r m a t i v e : faith (or, r a t h e r , t r u s t ) i s t h e b a s i c i n g r e d i e n t of s p e e c h a s t h e m e d i u m of s o c i a l b o n d , of t h e s u b j e c t ' s e n g a g e d p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h i s b o n d , w h i l e s c i e n c e — e x e m p l a r l l y in its f o r m a l i z a t i o n — r e d u c e s l a n g u a g e to n e u t r a l r e g i s t r a t i o n . L e t u s n o t forget t h a t s c i e n c e h a s , for L a c a n , t h e s t a t u s of t h e " k n o w l e d g e i n t h e r e a l " : t h e l a n g u a g e of s c i e n c e i s not t h e l a n g u a g e of s u b j e c t i v e e n g a g e m e n t , b u t t h e l a n g u a g e d e p r i v e d of Its

performative

dimension, desubjectivized language. The predominance

of s c i e n t i f i c

d i s c o u r s e t h u s e n t a i l s t h e r e t r e a t , t h e p o t e n t i a l s u s p e n s i o n , of t h e v e r y s y m b o l i c function a s t h e m e t a p h o r c o n s t i t u t i v e of h u m a n s u b j e c t i v i t y . P a t e r n a l a u t h o r i t y is i r r e d u c i b l y b a s e d on faith, on t r u s t a s to t h e i d e n t i t y of t h e f a t h e r : w e h a v e f a t h e r s ( a s s y m b o l i c f u n c t i o n s , a s t h e 32

Name-of-the-

HAPPINESS A N D TORTURE

F a t h e r , t h e p a t e r n a l m e t a p h o r ) , b e c a u s e w e d o not d i r e c t l y know w h o o u r f a t h e r i s , w e h a v e t o t a k e h i m at hit word a n d tnuit h i m . T o p u t it p o i n t e d l y , the m o m e n t I k n o w w i t h s c i e n t i f i c c e r t a i n t y w h o m y f a t h e r i s , f a t h e r h o o d ceases to be the function w h i c h g r o u n d s social-symbolic Trust. In the scientific u n i v e r s e , t h e r e is n o n e e d for s u c h faith, t r u t h c a n b e e s t a b l i s h e d t h r o u g h D N A a n a l y s i s . . . T h e h e g e m o n y of t h e s c i e n t i f i c d i s c o u r s e t h u s p o t e n t i î i l l y s u s p e n d s t h e e n t i r e n e t w o r k of s y m b o l i c t r a d i t i o n t h a t s u s ­ t a i n s t h e s u b j e c t ' s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s . P o l i t i c a l l y , t h e shift i s from

Power

g r o u n d e d i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s y m b o l i c a u t h o r i t y to b i o p o l i t i c s . T h e " w o r l d l e s s " c h a r a c t e r of c a p i t a l i s m i s l i n k e d to t h i s h e g e m o n i c r o l e of s c i e n t i f i c d i s c o u r s e i n m o d e r n i t y , a f e a t u r e c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i e d a l r e a d y b y H e g e l w h o w r o t e that, for u s m o d e r n s , a r t a n d r e l i g i o n n o l o n g e r o b e y a b s o l u t e r e s p e c t : w e c a n a d m i r e t h e m , b u t w e n o l o n g e r k n e e l d o w n in front of t h e m , o u r h e a r t i s n o t r e a l l y w i t h t h e m — t o d a y , o n l y s c i e n c e (conceptual k n o w l e d g e ) deserves this respect. "Postmodernity" as the " e n d of g r a n d n a r r a t i v e s " i s o n e of t h e n a m e s for t h i s p r e d i c a m e n t i n w h i c h t h e m u l t i t u d e of l o c a l fictions t h r i v e s a g a i n s t t h e b a c k g r o u n d of scientific d i s c o u r s e a s t h e o n l y r e m a i n i n g u n i v e r s a l i t y d e p r i v e d of s e n s e . W h i c h i s w h y t h e p o l i t i c s a d v o c a t e d b y m a n y a leftist t o d a y , t h a t of c o u n t e r i n g t h e d e v a s t a t i n g w o r l d - d i s s o l v i n g effect of c a p i t a l i s t m o d e r ­ nization b y inventing n e w

fictions,

imagining " n e w w o r l d s " (like the

P o r t o A l e g r e s l o g a n " A n o t h e r w o r l d i s p o s s i b l e ! " ) , i s i n a d e q u a t e or, a t least, p r o f o u n d l y a m b i g u o u s : it a l l d e p e n d s on h o w t h e s e fictions r e l a t e to t h e u n d e r l y i n g R e a l of c a p i t j J i s m — d o t h e y j u s t dupplement it w i t h t h e i m a g i n a r y m u l t i t u d e , a s t h e p o s t m o d e r n " l o c a l n a r r a t i v e s " d o , or d o t h e y disturb i t s f u n c t i o n i n g ? In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e t a s k is to p r o d u c e a dymhoLic fiction (a truth) that intervenes into the Real, t h a t c a u s e s a c h a n g e w i t h i n it.^^ It i s o n l y p s y c h o a n a l y s i s t h a t c a n d i s c l o s e t h e full c o n t o u r s of t h e s h a t t e r i n g i m p a c t of m o d e r n i t y ( i n i t s t w o a s p e c t s : t h e h e g e m o n y of scientific d i s c o u r s e a n d c a p i t a l i s m ) on t h e w a y o u r i d e n t i t y is p e r f o r m a t i v e l y g r o u n d e d i n s y m b o l i c i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s , o n t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h t h e S y m b o l i c o r d e r i s c o u n t e d o n to p r o v i d e t h e h o r i z o n t h a t a l l o w s u s t o l o c a t e e v e r y e x p e r i e n c e in a m e a n i n g f u l t o t a l i t y . T h e n e c e s s a r y o b v e r s e o f m o d e r n i t y i s t h e " c r i s i s of m e a n i n g , " t h e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e l i n k — i d e n t i t y e v e n — b e t w e e n T r u t h a n d M e a n i n g . S i n c e , in E u r o p e , m o d e r ­ n i z a t i o n w a s s p r e a d o v e r c e n t u r i e s , w e h a d t h e t i m e t o a c c o m m o d a t e to t h i s b r e a k , t o soften i t s s h a t t e r i n g i m p a c t , t h r o u g h Kulturarbeit,

through

t h e f o r m a t i o n of n e w s o c i a l n a r r a t i v e s a n d m y t h s , w h i l e s o m e

other

s o c i e t i e s — e x e m p l a r i l y t h e M u s l i m o n e s — w e r e e x p o s e d to t h i s i m p a c t 33

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

d i r e c t l y , w i t h o u t a p r o t e c t i v e s c r e e n o r t e m p o r a l d e l a y , so t h e i r s y m b o l i c u n i v e r s e w a s p e r t u r b e d m u c h m o r e b r u t a l l y , t h e y lost t h e i r ( s y m b o l i c ) g r o u n d w i t h n o t i m e left to e s t a b l i s h a n e w ( s y m b o l i c ) b a l a n c e .

No

w o n d e r , then, t h a t t h e o n l y w a y for s o m e of t h e s e s o c i e t i e s to a v o i d total b r e a k d o w n w a s to e r e c t in p a n i c t h e s h i e l d of " f u n d a m e n t a l i s m , " p s y c h o t i c - d e l i r i o u s - i n c e s t u o u s r e a s s e r t i o n of r e l i g i o n a s d i r e c t

the

insight

into the divine R e a l , w i t h all the terrifying c o n s e q u e n c e s that such a r e a s s e r t i o n e n t a i l s , u p to t h e r e t u r n w i t h a v e n g e a n c e of t h e superego divinity demanding

sacrifices. The

obscene

r i s e of t h e s u p e r e g o

another feature that postmodern permissiveness and the n e w

is

fundament­

a l i s m s h a r e ; w h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h e m i s t h e site of t h e e n j o y m e n t

de­

m a n d e d : o u r o w n in p e r m i s s i v e n e s s , G o d ' s o w n in f u n d a m e n t a l i s m . F r o m a l l s i d e s . R i g h t a n d Left, c o m p l a i n t s a b o u n d t o d a y a b o u t h o w , in o u r p o s t m o d e r n s o c i e t i e s c o m p o s e d of h e d o n i s t i c s o l i p s i s t s , s o c i a l b o n d s a r e p r o g r e s s i v e l y d i s i n t e g r a t i n g ; w e a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y r e d u c e d to s o c i a l a t o m s , a s e x e m p l i f i e d b y t h e l o n e i n d i v i d u a l h o o k e d on t h e

computer

s c r e e n , p r e f e r r i n g v i r t u a l e x c h a n g e s to c o n t a c t s w i t h o t h e r

flesh-and-

blood p e r s o n s , p r e f e r r i n g However,

c y b e r s e x to b o d i l y c o n t a c t , a n d so

forth.

this v e r y e x a m p l e r e n d e r s visible w h a t is w r o n g w i t h

the

d i î i g n o s i s on s u s p e n d e d s o c i a l ties: in o r d e r for a n i n d i v i d u a l to i m m e r s e h e r s e l f in t h e v i r t u a l s p a c e , t h e b i g O t h e r h a s to b e t h e r e , m o r e p o w e r f u l t h a n e v e r in t h e g u i s e of c y b e r s p a c e itself, t h i s d i r e c t l y u n i v e r s a l i z e d form of s o c i a l i t y w h i c h e n a b l e s u s to b e c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e e n t i r e w o r l d w h i l e s i t t i n g a l o n e in front of a s c r e e n . It m a y s e e m t h a t L a c a n ' s doxa " t h e r e i s no b i g O t h e r " h a s t o d a y lost its subversive edge and turned

into a g l o b a l l y a c k n o w l e d g e d

common­

p l a c e — e v e r y b o d y s e e m s to k n o w t h a t t h e r e is n o " b i g O t h e r " in t h e s e n s e of a s u b s t a n t i a l s h a r e d s e t of c u s t o m s a n d v a l u e s , t h a t w h a t H e g e l c a l l e d " o b j e c t i v e S p i r i t " ( t h e s o c i a l s u b s t a n c e of m o r e s ) i s d i s i n t e g r a t i n g i n t o p a r t i c u l a r " w o r l d s " ( o r life s t y l e s ) w h o s e c o o r d i n a t i o n i s r e g u l a t e d b y p u r e l y f o r m a l r u l e s . T h i s i s w h y not o n l y c o m m u n i t a r i a n s b u t e v e n l i b e r a l leftists a d v o c a t e t h e n e e d to e s t a b l i s h n e w t i e s of s o l i d a r i t y a n d

other

s h a r e d v a l u e s . H o w e v e r , t h e e x a m p l e of c y b e r s p a c e c l e a r l y d e m o n s t r a t e s h o w the b i g O t h e r i s p r e s e n t m o r e t h a n e v e r : s o c i a l a t o m i s m c a n o n l y function w h e n it i s r e g u l a t e d b y s o m e ( a p p a r e n t l y ) n e u t r a l m e c h a n i s m — d i g i t a l s o l i p s i s t s n e e d a v e r y c o m p l e x g l o b a l m a c h i n e r y to b e a b l e to p e r s e v e r e in t h e i r s p l e n d i d i s o l a t i o n . W a s not R i c h a r d R o r t y t h e p a r a d i g m a t i c p h i l o s o p h e r of s u c h a n O t h e r w i t h o u t a p r i v i l e g e d l i n k to o t h e r s ? H i s b i g O t h e r is t h e set of n e u t r a l 34

HAPPINESS A N D TORTURE

p u b l i c r u l e s w h i c h e n a b l e e a c h of t h e i n d i v i d u a l s to "tell h e r o w n s t o r y " of d r e a m s a n d s u f f e r i n g . T h e s e r u l e s g u a r a n t e e t h a t t h e " p r i v a t e " s p a c e of p e r s o n a l i d i o s y n c r a s i e s , i m p e r f e c t i o n s , v i o l e n t f a n t a s i e s , a n d so on, w i l l n o t spill o v e r i n t o a d i r e c t d o m i n a t i o n of o t h e r s . R e c a l l o n e of t h e l a t e s t u p s h o t s of s e x u a l l i b e r a t i o n : t h e " m a s t u r b a t e - a - t h o n , " a c o l l e c t i v e e v e n t in w h i c h h u n d r e d s of m e n a n d w o m e n p l e a s u r e t h e m s e l v e s for c h a r i t y , r a i s i n g m o n e y for s e x u a l - a n d r e p r o d u c t i v e - h e a l t h a g e n c i e s , a n d — a s t h e o r g a n i z e r s p u t it — r a i s i n g a w a r e n e s s a n d d i s p e l l i n g t h e s h a m e a n d t a b o o s t h a t p e r s i s t a r o u n d t h i s m o s t c o m m o n p l a c e , n a t u r a l , a n d safe form of sexual activity. The ideological stance u n d e r l y i n g the notion masturbathon

of

the

i s m a r k e d b y a c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n its form a n d c o n t e n t : it

b u i l d s a c o l l e c t i v e o u t of i n d i v i d u a l s w h o a r e r e a d y to share w i t h o t h e r s t h e s o l i p s i s t i c e g o t i s m of t h e i r s t u p i d p l e a s u r e . T h i s c o n t r a d i c t i o n ,

how­

ever, is more a p p a r e n t than real. F r e u d a l r e a d y k n e w a b o u t the

con­

n e c t i o n b e t w e e n n a r c i s s i s m a n d i m m e r s i o n in a c r o w d , b e s t

rendered

p r e c i s e l y b y t h e C a l i f o r n i a n p h r a s e " s h a r i n g a n e x p e r i e n c e . " A n d w h a t is crucial is the u n d e r l y i n g s y m b o l i c pact w h i c h e n a b l e s the

assembled

m a s t u r b a t o r s to " s h a r e a s p a c e " w i t h o u t i n t r u d i n g on e a c h o t h e r ' s s p a c e . T h e m o r e o n e w a n t s to b e a n a t o m i s t , t h e m o r e s o m e figure of t h e b i g O t h e r i s n e e d e d to r e g u l a t e o n e ' s d i s t a n c e from o t h e r s . P e r h a p s

this

a c c o u n t s for t h e s t r a n g e , b u t a d e q u a t e , i m p r e s s i o n it i s difficult to a v o i d w h e n o n e e n c o u n t e r s a t r u e h e d o n i s t solipsist: i n s p i t e of h e r

uncon­

strained i n d u l g e n c e in personal idiosyncrasies, she strikes us as w e i r d l y i m p e r s o n a l — w h a t s h e l a c k s i s t h e v e r y s e n s e of t h e " d e p t h " o l a p e r s o n . W h a t , t h e n , i s m i s s i n g in t o d a y ' s social b o n d , if it i s not t h e

big

Other?^^ The a n s w e r is clear: a small other w h i c h w o u l d e m b o d y , stand in f o r , t h e b i g O t h e r — a p e r s o n w h o is not s i m p l y " l i k e t h e o t h e r s , " b u t w h o d i r e c t l y e m b o d i e s a u t h o r i t y . In o u r p o s t m o d e r n

universe, every

s m a l l o t h e r i s " f i n i t i z e d " ( p e r c e i v e d a s fallible, i m p e r f e c t , " m e r e l y h u ­ m a n , ' r i d i c u l o u s ) , i n a d e q u a t e to g i v e b o d y to a b i g O t h e r — a n d , in t h i s w a y , p r e s e r v e s t h e p u r i t y of t h e b i g O t h e r u n b l e m i s h e d b y its f a i l i n g s . W h e n , in a d e c a d e o r so, m o n e y w i l l finally b e c o m e a p u r e l y v i r t u a l p o i n t o f r e f e r e n c e , n o l o n g e r m a t e r i a l i z e d i n a p a r t i c u l a r object, t h i s d e m a t e r i a l i z a t i o n w i l l r e n d e r its fetishistic p o w e r a b s o l u t e : its v e r y i n v i s i b i l i t y w i l l r e n d e r it a l l - p o w e r f u l a n d o m n i p r e s e n t . T h e t a s k of r a d i c a l p o l i t i c s i s t h e r e f o r e n o t to d e n o u n c e t h e i n a d e q u a c y of e v e r y s m a l l o t h e r to s t a n d in for the big O t h e r (such a " c r i t i q u e " only reinforces the big O t h e r ' s hold o v e r u s ) , b u t to u n d e r m i n e t h e v e r y b i g O t h e r a n d , in t h i s w a y , to u n t i e the social bond the big O t h e r sustains. Today, w h e n e v e r y o n e complains 35

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

about dissolving social ties ( a n d t h e r e b y obfuscating their hold over us, w h i c h i s s t r o n g e r t h a n e v e r ) , t h e t r u e j o b of u n t y i n g t h e m is still a h e a d of us, m o r e u r g e n t t h a n e v e r . Lyacan's s t a n d a r d n o t i o n of a n x i e t y is that, a s t h e o n l y affect t h a t d o e s not l i e , it b e a r s w i t n e s s to t h e p r o x i m i t y of t h e R e a l , to t h e i n e x i s t e n c e of t h e b i g O t h e r ; s u c h a n x i e t y h a s to b e c o n f r o n t e d b y c o u r a g e , it s h o u l d l e a d to a n a c t p r o p e r w h i c h , a s it w e r e , c u t s i n t o t h e r e a l of a s i t u a t i o n . T h e r e i s , h o w e v e r , a n o t h e r m o d e of a n x i e t y w h i c h p r e d o m i n a t e s t o d a y : t h e a n x i e t y c a u s e d b y t h e c l a u s t r o p h o b i a of t h e a t o n a l w o r l d w h i c h l a c k s any

s t r u c t u r i n g " p o i n t , " t h e a n x i e t y of t h e " p a t h o l o g i c a l N a r c i s s u s "

frustrated

b y t h e fact t h a t h e i s c a u g h t in t h e e n d l e s s

m i r r o r i n g of h i s f e l l o w m e n

competitive

( a - a ' - a " - a " ' . . . ) , of t h e s e r i e s of " s m a l l

o t h e r s " n o n e of w h i c h f u n c t i o n s a s t h e s t a n d - i n for t h e " b i g O t h e r . " ^ ' T h e r o o t of t h i s c l a u s t r o p h o b i a i s t h a t t h e l a c k of e m b o d i e d s t a n d - i n s for t h e b i g O t h e r , i n s t e a d of o p e n i n g u p t h e s o c i a l s p a c e , d e p r i v i n g it of a n y Master-figures, r e n d e r s the invisible "big O t h e r , " the m e c h a n i s m that r e g u l a t e s t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of " s m a l l o t h e r s , " a l l t h e m o r e a l l - p e r v a s i v e .

Serhdky Itutitute, Malibu With

t h i s shift

towards

the

"atonal w o r l d , " the

obscene

solidarity

b e t w e e n t h e L a w a n d its s u p e r e g o u n d e r s i d e is s u p p l a n t e d b y t h e h i d d e n solidarity between tolerant permissiveness a n d religious fundamentalism. A r e c e n t s c a n d a l in M a l i b u not o n l y d i s p l a y e d t h e o b s c e n e p a c t b e t w e e n t h e biopoUtlcal " t h e r a p e u t i c " a p p r o a c h a n d t h e f u n d a m e n t a l i s t r e a c t i o n to it, b u t a l s o t h e c a t a s t r o p h i c e t h i c a l p r i c e w e h a v e to p a y for t h i s p a c t . In g o o d o l d S o v i e t t i m e s , t h e S e r b s k y I n s t i t u t e in M o s c o w w a s t h e p s y c h i a t r i c f l a g s h i p for p u n i t i v e p o l i t i c a l c o n t r o l ; its p s y c h i a t r i s t s d e v e l ­ o p e d p a i n f u l d r u g m e t h o d s to m a k e d e t a i n e e s t a l k a n d e x t r a c t t e s t i m o n y for u s e in n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . U n d e r p i n n i n g t h e a b i l i t y of p s y c h i a t r i s t s to i n c a r c e r a t e p e o p l e w a s a n i n v e n t e d p o l i t i c a l m e n t a l d i s o r d e r k n o w n a s ( " s l u g g i s h viiotekujhchaia

schizophrenia"). Psychia­

trists described symptoms thus: a person might a p p e a r quite normal most of t h e t i m e b u t w o u l d b r e a k o u t w i t h a s e v e r e c a s e of " i n f l e x i b i l i t y of c o n v i c t i o n s , " or " n e r v o u s e x h a u s t i o n b r o u g h t on b y h i s o r h e r s e a r c h for j u s t i c e , " o r " a t e n d e n c y to l i t i g a t i o n " o r " r e f o r m i s t

delusions." The

t r e a t m e n t i n v o l v e d i n t r a v e n o u s i n j e c t i o n s of p s y c h o t r o p i c d r u g s t h a t w e r e so p a i n f u l l y a d m i n i s t e r e d t h a t p a t i e n t s b e c a m e u n c o n s c i o u s . T h e o v e r r i d i n g belief w a s t h a t a p e r s o n h a d to b e ituane to be o p p o s e d 36

to

HAPPINESS AND TORTURE

Communism.

Is t h i s p s y c h i a t r i c a p p r o a c h

to p o h t i c a l l y p r o b l e m a t i c

p o s i t i o n s a t h i n g of t h e p a s t ? U n f o r t u n a t e l y , no: not o n l y is t h e S e r b s k y I n s t i t u t e t o d a y h a p p i l y t h r i v i n g in P u t i n ' s R u s s i a , b u t , a s a r e c e n t i n c i d e n t •with M e l G i b s o n i n d i c a t e s , it w i l l soon o p e n a b r a n c h in M a l i b u ! F l e r e i s G i b s o n ' s o w n d e s c r i p t i o n of w h a t h a p p e n e d to h i m on F r i d a y , J u l y 2 8 , 2006: I d r o v e a c a r w h e n 1 s h o u l d not h a v e , a n d w a s s t o p p e d b y t h e L A C o u n t y S h e r i f f s . T h e a r r e s t i n g officer w a s j u s t d o i n g h i s j o b a n d I feel f o r t u n a t e t h a t I w a s a p p r e h e n d e d b e f o r e I c a u s e d i n j u r y to a n y o t h e r p e r s o n . I a c t e d l i k e a p e r s o n c o m p l e t e l y out of c o n t r o l w h e n 1 w a s a r r e s t e d , a n d s a i d t h i n g s t h a t I d o not b e l i e v e to b e t r u e a n d w h i c h a r e despicable. It i s r e p o r t e d

that

Gibson

said, "F

Jews

. . . The

Jews

are

r e s p o n s i b l e for a l l t h e w a r s in t h e w o r l d , " a n d a s k e d a d e p u t y , " A r e y o u a J e w ? " Gibson apologized, but his apology w a s rejected b y the A n t i - D e f a m a t i o n L e a g u e . H e r e i s w h a t A b r a h a m F o x m a n , d i r e c t o r of t h e League, wrote: M e l Gibson's a p o l o g y is unremorseful

a n d i n s u f f i c i e n t . It's n o t

a

p r o p e r a p o l o g y b e c a u s e it d o e s not g o to t h e e s s e n c e of h i s b i g o t r y a n d h i s a n t i - S e m i t i s m . H i s t i r a d e finally r e v e a l s h i s t r u e self a n d s h o w s t h a t h i s p r o t e s t a t i o n s d u r i n g t h e d e b a t e o v e r h i s film The Peusion of the Christ, t h a t h e i s s u c h a t o l e r a n t , l o v i n g p e r s o n , w e r e a s h a m .

L a t e r , G i b s o n offered a m o r e s u b s t a n t i a l a p o l o g y , a n n o u n c i n g t h r o u g h a s p o k e s m a n t h a t h e w o u l d u n d e r g o r e h a b i l i t a t i o n for a l c o h o l a b u s e . H e a d d e d : " H a t r e d of a n y k i n d g o e s a g a i n s t m y faith. I'm not j u s t a s k i n g for f o r g i v e n e s s . I w o u l d l i k e to t a k e it o n e s t e p f u r t h e r , a n d m e e t w i t h l e a d e r s •in t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y , w i t h w h o m I c a n h a v e a o n e - o n - o n e d i s c u s s i o n to d i s c e r n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e p a t h for h e a l i n g . " G i b s o n s a i d h e i s " i n t h e p r o c e s s of u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h e r e t h o s e v i c i o u s w o r d s c a m e from d u r i n g that d r u n k e n

display." This time, Foxman

accepted his apology as

sincere:

T w o y e a r s a g o , I w a s t o l d b y h i s p u b l i c i s t t h a t h e w a n t s to m e e t w i t h nie a n d h a v e a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g . I'm still w a i t i n g . T h e r e i s no c o u r s e , t h e r e i s n o c u r r i c u l u m . W e n e e d i n - d e p t h c o n v e r s a t i o n . It's t h e r a p y — 37

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

a n d t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t s t e p in a n y t h e r a p y i s to a d m i t t h a t y o u h a v e a problem, w h i c h is a step he's a l r e a d y t a k e n . Why

w a s t e p r e c i o u s t i m e on s u c h a v u l g a r i n c i d e n t ? F o r a n o b s e r v e r of

t h e i d e o l o g i c a l t r e n d s in t h e U S , t h e s e e v e n t s d i s p l a y a

nightmarish

d i m e n s i o n : t h e m u t u a l l y r e i n f o r c i n g h y p o c r i s y of t h e t w o s i d e s , t h e a n t i Semitic Christian fundamentalists

and the

Zionists,

is

breathtaking.

Politically, the reconciliation b e t w e e n Gibson a n d F o x m a n signals an obscene pact between anti-Semitic Christian fundamentalists and ag­ gressive

Zionists,

whose

expression

is the

g r o w i n g s u p p o r t of

the

f u n d a m e n t a l i s t s for t h e S t a t e of I s r a e l ( r e c a l l P a t R o b e r t s o n ' s c l a i m t h a t S h a r o n ' s h e a r t a t t a c k w a s d i v i n e r e t r i b u t i o n for t h e e v a c u a t i o n of G a z a ) . T h e J e w i s h p e o p l e w i l l p a y d e a r l y for s u c h p a c t s w i t h t h e d e v i l — c a n o n e i m a g i n e w h a t a b o o s t a n t i - S e m i t i s m w i l l r e c e i v e from F o x m a n ' s

offer?

" S o if I n o w s a y s o m e t h i n g c r i t i c a l a b o u t J e w s , I w i l l be f o r c e d to s u b m i t to p s y c h i a t r i c t h e r a p y

..."

W h a t u n d e r l i e s t h e final r e c o n c i l i a t i o n i s , o b v i o u s l y , a n o b s c e n e q u i d p r o q u o . F o x m a n ' s r e a c t i o n to G i b s o n ' s o u t b u r s t w a s n o t e x c e s s i v e l y s e v e r e a n d d e m a n d i n g ; on the c o n t r a r y , it let G i b s o n a l l too e a s i l y off t h e h o o k . It a c c e p t e d G i b s o n ' s r e f u s a l to t a k e full p e r s o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for his w o r d s ( h i s a n t i - S e m i t i c r e m a r k s ) : t h e y w e r e not r e a l l y h i s o w n , it w a s p a t h o l o g y , s o m e u n k n o w n force t h a t t o o k o v e r u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e of a l c o h o l . H o w e v e r , t h e a n s w e r to G i b s o n ' s q u e s t i o n " W h e r e d i d t h o s e vicious w o r d s come f r o m ? " is r i d i c u l o u s l y simple: t h e y a r e p a r t

and

p a r c e l of h i s i d e o l o g i c a l i d e n t i t y , f o r m e d ( a s far a s o n e c a n t e l l ) to a l a r g e e x t e n t b y h i s father. W h a t s u s t a i n e d G i b s o n ' s r e m a r k s w a s not m a d n e s s , but a w e l l - k n o w n ideology' ( a n t i - S e m i t i s m ) . In o u r d a i l y life, r a c i s m w o r k s a s a s p o n t a n e o u s d i s p o s i t i o n l u r k i n g b e n e a t h t h e s u r f a c e a n d w a i t i n g for a " r e m a i n d e r of t h e d a y " to w h i c h it c a n a t t a c h itself a n d c o l o r it in i t s o w n w a y . I r e c e n t l y read Man Li Wolf lo Man,

Janusz

Bardach's

(a Polish

J e w ) memoirs

of h i s

miraculous

s u r v i v a l in K o l y m a , t h e w o r s t S t a l i n i s t c a m p , in t h e w o r s t of t i m e s w h e n c o n d i t i o n s w e r e e s p e c i a l l y d e s p e r a t e ( d u r i n g W o r l d W a r I I ) .''^ In e a r l y 1945, a s t h e r e s u l t of a n a m n e s t y to c e l e b r a t e t h e v i c t o r y o v e r G e r m a n y , h e w a s freed b u t not y e t a b l e to l e a v e t h e r e g i o n . S o , m o r d e r to p a s s t h e t i m e a n d e a r n s o m e m o n e y , h e a c c e p t e d a p o s t in a h o s p i t a l . T h e r e , on t h e a d v i c e of a c o l l e a g u e , a d o c t o r , h e o r g a n i z e d a d e s p e r a t e m e t h o d providing

the

sick and

starving prisoners

with

some

vitamins

of and

n u t r i t i o u s foodstuffs. T h e c a m p h o s p i t a l h a d too l a r g e a s t o c k of h u m a n 38

HAPPINESS AND TORTURE

b l o o d for t r a n s f u s i o n s w h i c h it w a s p l a n n i n g to d i s c a r d ; B a r d a c h r e ­ p r o c e s s e d it, e n r i c h e d it w i t h v i t a m i n s from l o c a l h e r b s , a n d sold it b a c k to t h e h o s p i t a l . W h e n t h e h i g h e r a u t h o r i t i e s l e a r n e d a b o u t t h i s , h e w a s a l m o s t r e a r r e s t e d ; t h e y b a n n e d h i m from p r a c t i c i n g w h a t t h e y d e s i g n a t e d a s " o r g a n i z e d c a n n i b a l i s m . " B u t h e f o u n d a w a y out, r e p l a c i n g h u m a n b l o o d w i t h t h e b l o o d of t h e d e e r k i l l e d b y t h e I n u i t l i v i n g n e a r b y , a n d soon d e v e l o p e d a s u c c e s s f u l b u s i n e s s . . . M y i m m e d i a t e r a c i s t a s s o c i a t i o n w a s , of c o u r s e : " T y p i c a l J e w s ! E v e n in t h e w o r s t g u l a g , t h e m o m e n t t h e y a r e g i v e n a m i n i m u m of f r e e d o m a n d s p a c e for m a n e u v e r , t h e y s t a r t trading —in h u m a n

blood!"

The s t a k e s are m u c h h i g h e r w h e n this obscene u n d e r s i d e is institu­ t i o n a l i z e d , a s in the c a s e of t h e C a t h o l i c p r i e s t s ' p e d o p h i l i a , a p h e n o m ­ e n o n t h a t i s i n s c r i b e d i n t o t h e v e r y f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e C h u r c h a s a s o c i o S3mibolic i n s t i t u t i o n . It i s t h e r e f o r e not a m a t t e r of t h e " p r i v a t e " u n c o n ­ s c i o u s of i n d i v i d u a l s , b u t r a t h e r of t h e " u n c o n s c i o u s " of t h e i n s t i t u t i o n itself; not s o m e t h i n g t h a t h a p p e n s b e c a u s e t h e C h u r c h h a s to a c c o m ­ m o d a t e i t s e l f to t h e p a t h o l o g i c a l r e a l i t i e s of l i b i d i n a l life in o r d e r

to

s u r v i v e , b u t r a t h e r a n i n h e r e n t p a r t of t h e w a y t h e i n s t i t u t i o n r e p r o d u c e s i t s e l f . T h i s i n s t i t u t i o n a l u n c o n s c i o u s h a s n o t h i n g to d o w i t h a n y k i n d of J u n g i a n "collective unconscious," a spiritual substance that encompasses i n d i v i d u a l s ; its s t a t u s i s t h o r o u g h l y n o n - p s y c h o l o g i c a l , s t r i c t l y d i s c u r s i v e , c o r r e l a t i v e to t h e

"big Other" as the

" r e i f i e d " s y s t e m of s y m b o l i c

c o o r d i n a t e s . It i s t h e set of p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s a n d e x c l u s i o n s i m p l i e d b y t h e p u b l i c d i s c o u r s e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e r e s p o n s e to t h e C h u r c h ' s r e l u c ­ t a n c e to a c k n o w l e d g e i t s c r i m e s s h o u l d b e t h a t t h e s e a r e i n d e e d c r i m e s a n d that, if it d o e s n o t fully p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e i r i n v e s t i g a t i o n , t h e C h u r c h is a n a c c o m p l i c e after t h e fact; m o r e o v e r , t h e C h u r c h as duch, a s a n institution, m u s t b e m a d e to r e c o g n i z e t h e w a y s it s y s t e m a t i c a l l y c r e a t e s the conditions

for

such

c r i m e s to t a k e p l a c e . N o

wonder

that,

in

c o n t e m p o r a r y I r e l a n d , w h e n s m a l l c h i l d r e n h a v e to g o o u t a l o n e , it i s becoming standard

for

their mothers

to

supplement

the

traditional

w a r n i n g " D o n ' t t a l k to s t r a n g e r s ! " w i t h a n e w a n d m o r e s p e c i f i c o n e , • • . a n d d o n ' t t a l k to p r i e s t s ! " C o n s e q u e n t l y , w h a t G i b s o n n e e d s i s not t h e r a p y ; it i s not e n o u g h for b i m to s i m p l y a d m i t t h a t " h e h a s a p r o b l e m " so l o n g a s h e fails to a c c e p t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for h i s r e m a r k s , a s k i n g h i m s e l f in w h a t w a y h i s o u t b u r s t i s l i n k e d to h i s C a t h o l i c i s m a n d f u n c t i o n s a s its o b s c e n e u n d e r s i d e . W h e n Foxman

offered

to t r e a t

Gibson's

o u t b u r s t a s a c a s e of i n d i v i d u a l

p a t h o l o g y w h i c h n e e d s a t h e r a p e u t i c a p p r o a c h , h e not o n l y c o m m i t t e d 39

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

t h e s a m e e r r o r a s t h o s e w h o w a n t to r e d u c e c a s e s of p e d o p h i h a

to

i n d i v i d u a l p a t h o l o g i e s ; m u c h w o r s e , h e c o n t r i b u t e d to t h e r e v i v a l of t h e S e r b s k y I n s t i t u t e ' s m a n n e r of d e a l i n g w i t h p r o b l e m a t i c p o l i t i c a l a n d i d e o l o g i c a l a t t i t u d e s a s p h e n o m e n a t h a t c a l l for p s y c h i a t r i c i n t e r v e n t i o n . In t h e s a m e w a y t h a t t h e o v e r r i d i n g b e l i e f u n d e r l y i n g t h e

Serbsky

I n s t i t u t e ' s m e a s u r e s w a s t h a t a p e r s o n h a d to b e ituane to b e a g a i n s t C o m m u n i s m , so F o x m a n ' s offer i m p l i e s t h a t a p e r s o n h a s to b e i n s a n e to b e a n t i - S e m i t i c . T h i s e a s y w a y o u t e n a b l e s u s to a v o i d t h e k e y i s s u e : that, p r e c i s e l y , a n t i - S e m i t i s m in o u r W e s t e r n s o c i e t i e s w a s — a n d i s —not a n i d e o l o g y d i s p l a y e d b y t h e d e r a n g e d , b u t a n i n g r e d i e n t of

spontaneous

i d e o l o g i c a l a t t i t u d e s of p e r f e c t l y sane p e o p l e , of o u r i d e o l o g i c a l sanity itself. T h i s , t h e n , i s w h e r e w e s t a n d t o d a y : a s a d c h o i c e b e t w e e n G i b s o n a n d F o x m a n , b e t w e e n t h e o b s c e n e b i g o t r y of f u n d a m e n t a l i s t b e l i e f s a n d t h e n o l e s s o b s c e n e d i s q u a l i f i c a t i o n of p r o b l e m a t i c b e l i e f s a s c a s e s of mentîd illness that require therapy.

Poland Otf a symptom This h i d d e n complicity b e t w e e n the postmodern "atonal w o r l d " a n d the f u n d a m e n t a l i s t r e a c t i o n to it e x p l o d e s w h e n a s o c i e t y e n t e r s a c r i s i s of its s y m b o l i c i d e n t i t y . A s c a n d a l r i p p e d P o l a n d a p a r t in M a r c h 2 0 0 7 , t h e soc a l l e d " O l e k s y - g a t e , " w h e n a t a p e of a p r i v a t e c o n v e r s a t i o n w a s m a d e p u b l i c . J o s e f O l e k s y , t h e f o r m e r P r i m e M i n i s t e r a n d o n e of t h e D e m o ­ c r a t i c Left A l l i a n c e ' s ( S L D , e x - C o m m u n l s t s ) l e a d i n g f i g u r e s , w a s r e ­ v e a l e d to h a v e m a d e d i s p a r a g i n g r e m a r k s a b o u t t h e S L D p o l i t i c i a n s , c a l l i n g t h e m " a b u n c h of l o s e r s a n d s w i n d l e r s , " c y n i c a l l y b o a s t i n g t h a t t h e S L D h a d really introduced capitalism into Poland, a n d claiming that the S L D leaders cared nothing about

Poland, but just about their

own

s u r v i v a l a n d w e a l t h . T h e t r u l y s h o c k i n g f e a t u r e of t h e s e t a p e s i s a c e r t a i n coincidence: O l e k s y used e x a c t l y the same w o r d s as the rightist antiC o m m u n i s t o p p o n e n t s of t h e S L D w h o r e f u s e d to a d m i t i t s l e g i t i m a c y , c l a i m i n g t h a t it w a s a p a r t y w i t h o u t a p r o p e r p r o g r a m , j u s t a n e t w o r k of ex-nomenklatura

s w i n d l e r s l o o k i n g after t h e i r o w n b u s i n e s s i n t e r e s t s —

this harsh external characterization w a s n o w confirmed as the

inner

c y n i c a l s e l f - d e s i g n a t i o n of t h e S L D i t s e l f . . . a s u r e s i g n t h a t t h e first t a s k of the n e w Left in p o s t - C o m m u n i s t s t a t e s i s to r e j e c t all l i n k s w i t h t h e e x C o m m u n i s t "left" p a r t i e s w h i c h , a s a r u l e , a r e t h e p a r t i e s of b i g c a p i t a l . The

counterpart

to t h i s s c a n d a l is t h e

fact t h a t P o l a n d

has

the

d i s t i n c t i o n of b e i n g the first W e s t e r n c o u n t r y in w h i c h t h e a n t i - m o d e r n i s t 40

HAPPINESS A N D TORTURE

b a c k l a s h h a s w o n , e f f e c t i v e l y e m e r g i n g a s a h e g e m o n i c force; c a l l s for t h e total b a n on a b o r t i o n ,

anti-Communist

" l u s t r a t i o n , " t h e e x c l u s i o n of

D a r w i n i s m from p r i m a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n , u p to t h e b i z a r r e i d e a of a b o l i s h i n g t h e p o s t of t h e P r e s i d e n t of t h e R e p u b l i c a n d p r o c l a i m ­ i n g J e s u s C h r i s t t h e E t e r n a l K i n g of P o l a n d , a n d so forth, a r e c o m i n g t o g e t h e r i n t o a n a l l - e n c o m p a s s i n g p r o p o s a l to e n a c t a c l e a r b r e a k a n d constitute a n e w Polish republic u n a m b i g u o u s l y b a s e d on anti-modernist C h r i s t i a n v a l u e s . Is, h o w e v e r , t h i s b a c k l a s h r e a l l y so d a n g e r o u s t h a t t h e Left s h o u l d a c c e p t t h e l i b e r a l b l a c k m a i l : " t h e t i m e h a s c o m e for a l l of u s to u n i t e forces, t h w a r t t h i s t h r e a t a n d r e a s s e r t l i b e r a l - s e c u l a r m o d e r n i z a ­ t i o n " ? ( S o m e t h i n g , i n c i d e n t a l l y , w h i c h c a n n o t b u t r e c a l l t h e m e m o r y of S o c i a l - D e m o c r a t i c e v o l u t i o n i s t s w h o c l a i m e d that, in n o t y e t fully d e v e l ­ o p e d c o u n t r i e s , t h e Left s h o u l d first s u p p o r t t h e b o u r g e o i s p r o j e c t of t h e m o d e r n d e m o c r a t i c state, a n d o n l y in t h e " s e c o n d p h a s e " s h o u l d it m o v e on to r a d i c a l p o l i t i c s p r o p e r , to t h e

overcoming

bourgeois democracy

to r e m e m b e r

thoroughly opposed

...

It i s g o o d

to t h i s " s t a g e i s t " a p p r o a c h ,

of c a p i t a l i s m that Lenin

and was

r e i n s t i t u t e d in l a t e r

Stalinism w i t h its scholastic distinction b e t w e e n the " l o w e r " a n d

the

" h i g h e r " s t a g e s of C o m m u n i s m . ) T h e t a s k of t h e Left i s , on t h e c o n t r a r y , m o r e t h a n e v e r to " s u b t r a c t " itself from t h e e n t i r e field of t h e o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n l i b e r a l m o d e r n i z a t i o n a n d t h e a n t i - m o d e r n i s t b a c k l a s h . I n s p i t e of t h e i r z e a l o u s p u r s u i t of a p o s i t i v e p r o j e c t of i n s t a l l i n g s t a b l e C h r i s t i a n v a l u e s i n t o s o c i a l life, o n e s h o u l d n e v e r forget t h a t t h e a n t i - m o d e r n i s t f u n d a m e n t a l i s t b a c k l a s h i s a p r o f o u n d l y reactive p h e n o m e n o n (in t h e N i e t z s c h e a n s e n s e ) : a t i t s c o r e , t h e r e i s not a p o s i t i v e p o l i t i c s , a c t i v e l y p u r s u i n g a n e w s o c i a l project, b u t a p o l i t i c s of f e a r w h o s e m o t i v a t i n g force i s d e f e n s e a g a i n s t a p e r c e i v e d t h r e a t . H e r e , r e d u c e d to its m o s t e l e m e n t a r y c o n t o u r s , i s t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e v i e w of o u r p r e d i c a m e n t , w h o s e c e n t r a l f e a t u r e is t h a t " s e c u l a r - p r o g r e s ­ sive c u l t u r e h a s s w e p t a w a y t r a d i t i o n a l b e l i e f s " :

T o r e p l a c e t h i s loss of s p i r i t u a l i t y , m i l l i o n s of E u r o p e a n s h a v e e m b r a c e d t h e s e c u l a r c o n c e p t of " r e l a t i v i s m . " A c c o r d i n g to t h i s w a y of t h i n k i n g , there is no absolute truth, no certain right a n d wrong. Everything is r e l a t r v e . " W h a t i s w r o n g in m y e y e s m i g h t not b e w r o n g in y o u r e y e s . B y this logic, e v e n h e i n o u s a c t s c a n b e e x p l a i n e d , so t h e y s h o u l d not — i n fact, t h e y c a n n o t — b e c o n d e m n e d . In o t h e r w o r d s , no definite j u d g ­ ments

about

behavror

should

be

made

because there

are

always

e x t e n u a t i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s to j u s t i f y not t a k i n g a s t a n d . 41

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

The wide acceptance confused,

of r e l a t i v i s m h a s r e n d e r e d

Europe

weak,

a n d chaotic. Socialist or quasi-socialist governments

now

p r o v i d e t h e n e c e s s i t i e s of life to t h e i r c i t i z e n s , a l l o w i n g m a n y E u r o p e a n s to live e n t i r e l y w i t h i n t h e m s e l v e s . W h e n t h a t h a p p e n s to a p e r s o n , it i s h a r d to r a l l y h i m or h e r to a g r e a t e r c a u s e . T h u s , n o t h i n g is w o r t h f i g h t i n g for o u t s i d e of o n e ' s i m m e d i a t e w e l l - b e i n g . T h e o n l y c r e e d i s a b e l i e f in p e r s o n a l gratification.^^

H o w a r e w e to u n i t e t h i s o p p o s i t i o n

(of t r a d i t i o n a l i s m v e r s u s s e c u l a r

r e l a t i v i s m ) w i t h the o t h e r g r e a t i d e o l o g i c a l o p p o s i t i o n on w h i c h t h e e n t i r e l e g i t i m a c y of t h e W e s t a n d its " W a r on T e r r o r " r e l i e s : t h e

opposition

b e t w e e n l i b e r a l - d e m o c r a t i c i n d i v i d u a l rights a n d r e l i g i o u s f u n d a m e n t a l ­ ism e m b o d i e d p r i m a r i l y in " I s l a m o - f a s c i s m " ? T h e r e i n r e s i d e s t h e s y m p ­ t o m a t i c I n c o n s i s t e n c y of t h e U S n e o c o n s e r v a t i v e s : w h i l e , in

domestic

p o l i t i c s , t h e y p r i v i l e g e t h e fight a g a i n s t l i b e r a l s e c u l a r i s m ( a b o r t i o n , g a y m a r r i a g e s , a n d so o n ) , t h a t is, t h e i r s t r u g g l e i s t h e s o - c a l l e d " c u l t u r e of l i f e " a g a i n s t t h e " c u l t u r e of d e a t h , " in f o r e i g n affairs, t h e y p r i v i l e g e t h e v e r y o p p o s i t e v a l u e s of t h e l i b e r a l " c u l t u r e of d e a t h . " O n e w a y to r e s o l v e this d i l e m m a is the h a r d l i n e C h r i s t i a n fundamentalist solution, a r t i c u l a t e d in t h e w o r k s of T i m L a H a y e et coiuortes: to u n a m b i g u o u s l y s u b o r d i n a t e t h e s e c o n d o p p o s i t i o n to t h e first o n e . T h e title of o n e of L a H a y e ' s l a t e s t n o v e l s p o i n t s in t h i s d i r e c t i o n : The Europa Conspiracy. In t h i s a c c o u n t , t h e t r u e e n e m y of t h e U S i s not M u s l i m t e r r o r i s m , t h e l a t t e r i s m e r e l y a p u p p e t secretly m a n i p u l a t e d b y European secularists, w h o are the true f o r c e s of t h e A n t i c h r i s t i n t e n t on w e a k e n i n g t h e U S a n d e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e N e w W o r l d O r d e r u n d e r the d o m i n a t i o n of t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s .

Op­

p o s e d to t h i s m i n o r i t y v i e w i s t h e p r e d o m i n a n t l i b e r a l - d e m o c r a t i c v i e w w h i c h s e e s t h e p r i n c i p a l e n e m y in a l l k i n d s of f u n d a m e n t a l i s m s , perceives U S Christian fundamentalism

as a deplorable

and

homegrown

v e r s i o n of " I s l a m o - f a s c i s m . " T h e r e a c t i v e n a t u r e of r e l i g i o u s f u n d a m e n t a l i s m i s d i s c e r n i b l e In Its h i d d e n r e f l e x i v e p o s i t i o n . L e t u s t a k e a l o o k a t t h i s r e f l e x i v i t y a t its ( a r t i s t i c ) h i g h e s t , in t h e w o r k of A n d r e i T a r k o v s k y . T a r k o v s k y himself, a n d not o n l y t h e h e r o e s of h i s ( l a t e )

films,

s t a n d s for t h e

regained

i m m e d i a c y of a u t h e n t i c belief, a s o p p o s e d to t h e W e s t e r n i n t e l l e c t u a l ' s d o u b t a n d s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e d i s t a n c e . B u t w h a t if t h e c o n s t e l l a t i o n i s m o r e c o m p l e x ? T h e u l t i m a t e figure of t h i s d i r e c t b e l i e f i s Stalker—^to q u o t e T a r k o v s k y himself:

42

HAPPINESS AND TORTURE

I a m often a s k e d w h a t t h i s Z o n e s t a n d s for. T h e r e i s o n l y o n e p o s s i b l e answer: the Zone doesn't exist. S t a l k e r himself invented his Zone. H e c r e a t e d it, so t h a t h e w a s a b l e to b r i n g t h e r e s o m e v e r y u n h a p p y p e r s o n s a n d i m p o s e on t h e m t h e i d e a of h o p e . T h e r o o m o l d e s i r e s is e q u a l l y S t a l k e r ' s c r e a t i o n , y e t a n o t h e r p r o v o c a t i o n in t h e f a c e of t h e m a t e r i a l w o r l d . T h i s p r o v o c a t i o n , f o r m e d in S t a l k e r ' s m i n d ,

corre­

s p o n d s to a n a c t of faith."

W h a t , h o w e v e r , if w e t a k e t h e c l a i m t h a t S t a l k e r i n v e n t e d t h e

Zone

l i t e r a l l y ? W h a t if S t a l k e r , far from d i r e c t l y b e l i e v i n g , m a n i p u l a t e s , f e i g n s belief, i n o r d e r to f a s c i n a t e t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l s h e b r i n g s to t h e

Zone,

a r o u s i n g in t h e m t h e p r o s p e c t of b e l i e f ? W h a t i f far from b e i n g a d i r e c t b e l i e v e r , h e a s s u m e s t h e r o l e of a s u b j e c t s u p p o s e d to b e l i e v e for t h e e y e s of t h e d e c a d e n t i n t e l l e c t u a l o b s e r v e r s ? W l i a t if t h e t r u l y n a i v e p o s i t i o n i s t h a t of t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l s p e c t a t o r , of h i s f a s c i n a t i o n w i t h S t a l k e r ' s n a i v e b e l i e f ? A n d w h a t if t h e s a m e g o e s for T a r k o v s k y himself, w h o — f a r from b e i n g t h e a u t h e n t i c O r t h o d o x b e l i e v e r in c o n t r a s t to W e s t e r n s k e p t i ­ c i s m — a c t s o u t t h i s r o l e in o r d e r to f a s c i n a t e the W e s t e r n i n t e l l e c t u a l public?

J o h n G r a y i s t h e r e f o r e r i g h t to s a y t h a t " R e l i g i o u s f u n d a m e n ­

t a l i s t s s e e t h e m s e l v e s a s h a v i n g r e m e d i e s for t h e m a l a d i e s of t h e m o d e r n w o r l d . In r e a l i t y t h e y a r e s y m p t o m s of t h e d i s e a s e t h e y p r e t e n d

to

..38

cure. T o p u t it in N i e t z s c h e ' s t e r m s : t h e y a r e t h e u l t i m a t e n i h i l i s t s , s i n c e t h e v e r y form of t h e i r a c t i v i t y ( s p e c t a c u l a r m e d i a t i c m o b i l i z a t i o n , a n d

so

f o r t h ) u n d e r m i n e s t h e i r m e s s a g e . O n e of t h e first e x p o n e n t s of e a r l y litereuy modernism, L a u t r é a m o n t (Isidore D u c a s s e ) , followed his pro­ v o c a t i v e Chanta of Maldoror w i t h Poédied, a w e i r d r e a s s e r t i o n of t r a d i t i o n a l m o r a l i t y . A t t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g of a r t i s t i c m o d e r n i t y , h e t h u s s t a g e s its final

p a r a d o x i c a l r e v e r s a l : w h e n a l l s o u r c e s of t r a n s g r e s s i o n a r e e x ­

h a u s t e d , t h e o n l y w a y to b r e a k o u t of t h e s u f f o c a t i n g w e a r i n e s s of t h e L a s t M e n i s to p r o p o s e t r a d i t i o n a l a t t i t u d e s t h e m s e l v e s a s t h e u l t i m a t e t r a n s g r e s s i o n . A n d t h e s a m e g o e s for o u r p o p u l a r c u l t u r e : W h a t w i l l h a p p e n w h e n w e r u n o u t of n e w v i c e s ? H o w w i l l s a t i e t y a n d i d l e n e s s b e s t a v e d off w h e n d e s i g n e r s e x , d r u g s a n d v i o l e n c e n o l o n g e r s e l l ? A t t h a t point, w e m a y b e s u r e , m o r a l i t y w i l l c o m e b a c k i n t o fashion. W e m a y not b e far from a t i m e w h e n " m o r a l i t y " i s m a r k e t e d a s a n e w b r a n d of t r a n s g r e s s i o n . " ' ' '

43

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

O n e s h o u l d b e v e r y p r e c i s e h e r e ; t h i s r e v e r s a l i s not t h e s a m e a s t h e o n e , d e s c r i b e d b y C h e s t e r t o n , in w h i c h m o r a l i t y i t s e l f a p p e a r s a s t h e g r e a t e s t transgression, or l a w - a n d - o r d e r a s the greatest ( u n i v e r s a l i z e d ) crime. H e r e , in c o n t r a s t to C h e s t e r t o n ' s m o d e l , t h e e n c o m p a s s i n g u n i t y is not t h a t of c r i m e , b u t t h a t of t h e l a w : it i s not m o r a l i t y w h i c h i s t h e g r e a t e s t transgression,

it i s t r a n s g r e s s i o n

which

is the

fundamental

"moral"

i n j u n c t i o n of c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i e t y . T h e t r u e r e v e r s a l s h o u l d t h u s o c c u r within this s p e c u l a t i v e i d e n t i t y of o p p o s i t e s , of m o r a l i t y a n d its t r a n s g r e s ­ sion: a l l o n e h a s to d o i s to shift t h e e n c o m p a s s i n g u n i t y of t h e s e t w o t e r m s from m o r a l i t y to t r a n s g r e s s i o n . A n d , s i n c e t h i s e n c o m p a s s i n g u n i t y h a s to a p p e a r a s its o p p o s i t e , w e t h u s h a v e to a c c o m p l i s h a shift from a s o c i e t y m w h i c h t h e L a w r u l e s — i n the g u i s e of a p e r m a n e n t t r a n s g r e s s i o n — t o a s o c i e t y in w h i c h t r a n s g r e s s i o n r u l e s — i n t h e g u i s e of a n e w L a w .

Happy to torture? T h i s e l e v a t i o n of t r a n s g r e s s i o n Itself Into a m o r a l i n j u n c t i o n h a s a p r e c i s e n a m e ; happineé.i as the supreme duty. N o w o n d e r t h a t , o v e r t h e l a s t d e c a d e , t h e s t u d y of h a p p i n e s s e m e r g e d a s a scientific d i s c i p l i n e of i t s o w n ; t h e r e are now

"professors

of h a p p i n e s s " a t u n i v e r s i t i e s , " q u a l i t y of

life"

i n s t i t u t e s a t t a c h e d to t h e m , a n d n u m e r o u s r e s e a r c h p a p e r s ; t h e r e i s e v e n t h e Journal

of Happiness Studies. R u u t V e e n h o v e n ,

its

editor-in-chief,

wrote:

W e c a n n o w s h o w w h i c h b e h a v i o r s a r e r i s k y a s far a s h a p p i n e s s g o e s , in t h e s a m e w a y m e d i c a l r e s e a r c h h a s s h o w n u s w h a t i s b a d for o u r h e a l t h . W e s h o u l d e v e n t u a l l y b e a b l e to s h o w w h a t k i n d of l i f e s t y l e s u i t s w h a t k i n d of p e r s o n .

This n e w discipline has t w o b r a n c h e s . On the one hand, there is a more s o c i o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h , b a s e d on d a t a g a t h e r e d from h u n d r e d s of s u r v e y s m e a s u r i n g h a p p i n e s s a c r o s s different social a n d economic for

cultural

groups. One

cultures, professions,

cannot reproach

b i a s : t h e y a r e w e l l a w a r e of h o w

constitutes happiness depends

the

these

religions, researches

notion

on t h e c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t

of

what

(It i s o n l y in

individualistic W e s t e r n countries that h a p p i n e s s is seen a s a reflection of p e r s o n a l a c h i e v e m e n t ) . O n e a l s o c a n n o t d e n y t h a t t h e d a t a c o l l e c t e d a r e often i n t e r e s t i n g : h a p p i n e s s Is n o t t h e s a m e t h i n g a s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h o n e ' s life ( s e v e r a l n a t i o n s t h a t r e p o r t l o w or a v e r a g e lite s a t i s f a c t i o n a t t h e 44

HAPPINESS AND TORTURE

s a m e t i m e r e p o r t h i g h p e r c e n t a g e s of v e r y h a p p y p e o p l e ) ; t h e h a p p i e s t nations —mostly W e s t e r n and individualistic ones—tend

to h a v e

the

h i g h e s t l e v e l s of s u i c i d e ; a n d , of c o u r s e , t h e k e y r o l e of e n v y — w h a t c o u n t s i s not w h a t y o u h a v e so m u c h a s w h a t o t h e r s h a v e ( t h e m i d d l e c l a s s e s a r e far l e s s s a t i s f i e d t h a n the p o o r , for t h e y t a k e a s t h e i r r e f e r e n c e point the v e r y w e a l t h y , w h o s e income a n d status t h e y will be h a r d p u s h e d to m a t c h ; t h e p o o r , m e a n w h i l e , t a k e a s t h e i r r e f e r e n c e p o i n t t h e middle earners, w h o are more within their reach). O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e r e i s a m o r e p s y c h o l o g i c a l (or, r a t h e r , b r a i n sciences) a p p r o a c h , c o m b i n i n g cognitivist scientific r e s e a r c h w i t h occas i o n a l i n c u r s i o n s into N e w A g e m e d i t a t i o n w i s d o m : t h e e x a c t m e a s u r i n g of b r a i n p r o c e s s e s t h a t a c c o m p a n y f e e l i n g s of h a p p i n e s s a n d s a t i s f a c t i o n , etc. T h e c o m b i n a t i o n of c o g n i t i v e s c i e n c e a n d B u d d h i s m ( w h i c h i s not n e w — i t s last g r e a t p r o p o n e n t w a s F r a n c i s c o V a r e l a ) is here g i v e n an e t h i c a l t w i s t : w h a t i s offered i n t h e g u i s e of s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h is a n e w m o r a l i t y t h a t o n e i s t e m p t e d to c a l l hiomoraUty—Ûie t r u e c o u n t e r p a r t to t o d a y ' s b i o p o l i t i c s . A n d i n d e e d , w a s it not t h e D a l a i L a m a h i m s e l f w h o w r o t e : " T h e p u r p o s e of life is to b e h a p p y "

—this L) not true for pdycho-

anatydù), o n e s h o u l d a d d . In K a n t ' s d e s c r i p t i o n , e t h i c a l d u t y f u n c t i o n s l i k e a f o r e i g n t r a u m a t i c i n t r u d e r t h a t from t h e o u t s i d e d i s t u r b s t h e s u b j e c t ' s h o m e o s t a t i c b a l a n c e , its u n b e a r a b l e p r e s s u r e f o r c i n g the s u b j e c t to a c t " b e y o n d t h e p l e a s u r e p r i n c i p l e , " i g n o r i n g t h e p u r s u i t of p l e a s u r e s . F o r L a c a n , e x a c t l y t h e s a m e d e s c r i p t i o n h o l d s for d e s i r e , w h i c h i s w h y enjo3nnent i s n o t s o m e t h i n g t h a t c o m e s n a t u r a l l y to t h e s u b j e c t , a s a r e a l i z a t i o n of h e r i n n e r p o t e n t i a l , b u t i s t h e c o n t e n t of a t r a u m a t i c • -

. 4 3

superego injunction.

C o n s e q u e n t l y , if o n e s t i c k s to t h e e n d to t h e " p l e a s u r e p r i n c i p l e , " it i s difficult

to

abandon

a radical conclusion.

The artificial-intelligence

p h i l o s o p h e r T h o m a s M e t z i n g e r c o n s i d e r s artificial s u b j e c t i v i t y p o s s i b l e , e s p e c i a l l y in t h e d i r e c t i o n of h y b r i d b i o r o b o t i c s , a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , an e m p i r i c a l , n o t p h i l o s o p h i c a l " issue.'^'* H e e m p h a s i z e s its e t h i c a l l y p r o b l e m a t i c c h a r a c t e r : "it i s n o t

at a l l c l e a r if t h e

b i o l o g i c a l form

of

c o n s c i o u s n e s s , a s so far b r o u g h t a b o u t b y e v o l u t i o n on o u r p l a n e t , is a desirable form of e x p e r i e n c e , a n a c t u a l good in itself.""^^ T h i s p r o b l e m a t i c f e a t u r e c o n c e r n s c o n s c i o u s p a i n a n d suffering: e v o l u t i o n

h a s c r e a t e d a n e x p a n d i n g o c e a n of s u f f e r i n g a n d confusion

where

t h e r e p r e v i o u s l y w a s n o n e . A s not o n l y t h e s i m p l e n u m b e r of i n d i v i d u a l c o n s c i o u s s u b j e c t s b u t a l s o t h e d i m e n s i o n a l i t y of t h e i r p h e n o m 45

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

enal state s p a c e s is c o n t i n u o u s l y increasing, this ocean is also deepen46

ing. A n d it i s r e a s o n a b l e to e x p e c t t h a t n e w a r t i f i c i a l l y g e n e r a t e d f o r m s of a w a r e n e s s w i l l c r e a t e n e w " d e e p e r " f o r m s of s u f f e r i n g . . . O n e s h o u l d b e c a r e f u l to n o t e h o w t h i s e t h i c a l t h e s i s i s not a n i d i o s y n c r a s y of M e t z i n g e r a s a p r i v a t e p e r s o n , b u t i s a c o n s i s t e n t i m p l i c a t i o n of h i s t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k : t h e m o m e n t o n e e n d o r s e s t h e full n a t u r a l i z a t i o n of h u m a n s u b j e c t i v i t y , t h e a v o i d a n c e of p a i n a n d s u f f e r i n g c a n n o t b u t a p p e a r a s t h e u l t i m a t e e t h i c a l p o i n t of r e f e r e n c e . T h e o n l y t h i n g o n e s h o u l d a d d to t h i s is t h a t , if o n e f o l l o w s t h i s l i n e of r e a s o n i n g to t h e e n d , d r a w i n g a l l t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s from t h e fact t h a t e v o l u t i o n " h a s c r e a t e d a n e x p a n d i n g o c e a n of s u f f e r i n g a n d c o n f u s i o n w h e r e t h e r e p r e v i o u s l y w a s n o n e , " t h e n o n e s h o u l d a l s o r e n o u n c e h u m a n s u b j e c t i v i t y itself: w e w o u l d h a v e h a d m u c h l e s s s u f f e r i n g if w e h a d r e m a i n e d a n i m a l s . . . a n d , to p u s h it y e t f u r t h e r . If a n i m a l s h a d r e m a i n e d p l a n t s , if p l a n t s h a d r e m a i n e d s i n g l e c e l l s , if c e l l s h a d r e m a i n e d m i n e r a l s . O n e of t h e g r e a t i r o n i e s of o u r p r e d i c a m e n t i s t h a t t h i s s a m e b i o m o r a l i t y , f o c u s e d on h a p p i n e s s a n d on p r e v e n t i n g suffering, i s t o d a y i n v o k e d a s t h e u n d e r l y i n g p r i n c i p l e for t h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n of t o r t u r e : w e s h o u l d t o r t u r e — i m p o s e p a i n a n d s u f f e r i n g — i n o r d e r to p r e v e n t m o r e s u f f e r i n g . O n e i s t r u l y t e m p t e d to p a r a p h r a s e D e Q u i n c e y y e t a g a i n : "ITow m a n y p e o p l e b e g a n w i t h c o m m i t t i n g a l i t t l e a c t of t o r t u r e , e m b r a c i n g as their cause the

fight

and ended

up

against pain and suffering!" This

d e f i n i t e l y h o l d s for S a m f i a r r i s w h o s e d e f e n s e of t o r t u r e in The End of Faith is b a s e d on t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n o u r i m m e d i a t e s t a t e of b e i n g I m p r e s s e d b y t h e s u f f e r i n g of o t h e r s a n d o u r a b s t r a c t n o t i o n of o t h e r s ' s u f f e r i n g : it i s m u c h m o r e difficult for u s to t o r t u r e a s i n g l e p e r s o n t h a n to d r o p a b o m b from a g r e a t d i s t a n c e w h i c h w o u l d c a u s e t h e m o r e p a i n f u l d e a t h of t h o u s a n d s . W e a r e t h u s a l l c a u g h t in a k i n d of e t h i c a l i l l u s i o n , p a r a l l e l to p e r c e p t u a l i l l u s i o n s . T h e u l t i m a t e c a u s e of t h e s e i l l u s i o n s Is t h a t , a l t h o u g h o u r p o w e r of a b s t r a c t r e a s o n i n g h a s d e v e l o p e d i m m e n s e l y , our emotional-ethical responses remain conditioned

b y millennia-old

i n s t i n c t u a l r e a c t i o n s of s y m p a t h y to s u f f e r i n g a n d p a i n t h a t i s d i r e c t l y w i t n e s s e d . T h i s is w h y s h o o t i n g s o m e o n e p o i n t - b l a n k i s , for m o s t of u s , m u c h m o r e r e p u l s i v e t h a n p r e s s i n g a b u t t o n t h a t w i l l kill a t h o u s a n d absent persons:

G i v e n w h a t m a n y of u s b e l i e v e a b o u t t h e e x i g e n c i e s of o u r w a r on 46

HAPPINESS AND TORTURE

t e r r o r i s m , t h e p r a c t i c e of t o r t u r e , in c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s , w o u l d s e e m to b e not o n l y p e r m i s s i b l e b u t n e c e s s a r y . S t i l l , it d o e s n o t s e e m a n y m o r e a c c e p t a b l e , in e t h i c a l t e r m s , t h a n it d i d b e f o r e . T h e r e a s o n s for t h i s a r e , I t r u s t , e v e r y bit a s n e u r o l o g i c a l a s t h o s e t h a t g i v e r i s e to t h e m o o n i l l u s i o n . . . . It m a y b e t i m e to t a k e o u t o u r r u l e r s a n d h o l d t h e m u p to t h e s k y . N o w o n d e r t h a t H a r r i s r e f e r s to A l a n D e r s c h o w i t z a n d h i s l e g i t i m i z a t i o n of torture.^^ In o r d e r to s u s p e n d t h i s e v o l u t i o n a r y c o n d i t i o n e d

vulner­

a b i l i t y to t h e p h y s i c a l d i s p l a y of o t h e r s ' suffering, H a r r i s i m a g i n e s a n i d e a l " t r u t h p i l l , " a n effective t o r t u r e e q u i v a l e n t to d e c a f f e i n a t e d coffee o r diet coke: a d r u g t h a t w o u l d d e l i v e r b o t h t h e i n s t r u m e n t s of t o r t u r e a n d

the

i n s t r u m e n t of t h e i r u t t e r c o n c e a l m e n t . T h e a c t i o n of t h e pill w o u l d b e to p r o d u c e t r a n s i t o r y p a r a l y s i s a n d t r a n s i t o r y m i s e r y of a k i n d t h a t n o h u m a n b e i n g w o u l d w i l l i n g l y s u b m i t to a s e c o n d t i m e . I m a g i n e h o w w e t o r t u r e r s w o u l d feel if, after g i v i n g t h i s pill to c a p t i v e t e r r o r i s t s , e a c h l a y d o w n for w h a t a p p e a r e d to b e a n h o u r ' s n a p o n l y to a r i s e a n d i m m e d i a t e l y c o n f e s s e v e r y t h i n g h e k n o w s a b o u t t h e w o r k i n g s of h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n . M i g h t w e not b e t e m p t e d to c a l l it a " t r u t h p i l l " in t h e endr

T h e v e r y first l i n e s — " a d r u g t h a t w o u l d d e l i v e r b o t h t h e i n s t r u m e n t s of t o r t u r e a n d t h e i n s t r u m e n t of t h e i r u t t e r c o n c e a l m e n t " — i n t r o d u c e s

the

t y p i c a l l y p o s t m o d e r n l o g i c of t h e c h o c o l a t e l a x a t i v e : t h e t o r t u r e i m a g i n e d h e r e i s l i k e d e c a f c o f f e e — w e g e t t h e r e s u l t w i t h o u t h a v i n g to

suffer

u n p l e a s a n t s i d e effects. A t t h e S e r b s k y I n s t i t u t e in M o s c o w , t h e a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d p s y c h i a t r i c o u t l e t of t h e K G B , t h e y d i d i n v e n t j u s t s u c h a d r u g w i t h w h i c h to t o r t u r e d i s s i d e n t s : a n i n j e c t i o n i n t o t h e p r i s o n e r ' s

heart

Zone w h i c h s l o w e d d o w n h i s h e a r t b e a t a n d c a u s e d t e r r i f y i n g a n x i e t y . V i e w e d from t h e o u t s i d e , t h e p r i s o n e r s e e m e d j u s t to b e d o z i n g , w h i l e in fact h e w a s l i v i n g a n i g h t m a r e . There is, h o w e v e r , a m u c h more d i s q u i e t i n g prospect at w o r k here: the proximity (ol the tortured subject) w h i c h c a u s e s s y m p a t h y and m a k e s t o r t u r e u n a c c e p t a b l e i s not h i s m e r e p h y s i c a l p r o x i m i t y , but, a t i t s m o s t f u n d a m e n t a l , t h e p r o x i m i t y of t h e N e i g h b o r , w i t h all t h e J u d e o - C h r i s t i a n - F r e u d i a n w e i g h t of t h i s t e r m , t h e p r o x i m i t y of t h e T h i n g w h i c h , no " l a t t e r h o w far a w a y it is p h y s i c a l l y , i s a l w a y s b y d e f i n i t i o n "too c l o s e . " 47

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

W h a t H a r r i s i s a i m i n g at w i t h h i s i m a g i n e d " t r u t h p i l l " i s n o t h i n g l e s s t h a n the aboiit'wn of the diinetulon of the Neighbor. T h e t o r t u r e d s u b j e c t is no l o n g e r a N e i g h b o r , b u t a n o b j e c t w h o s e p a i n i s n e u t r a l i z e d , r e d u c e d to a p r o p e r t y t h a t h a s to b e d e a l t w i t h in a r a t i o n a l u t i l i t a r i a n c a l c u l u s (so m u c h p a i n i s t o l e r a b l e if it p r e v e n t s a m u c h g r e a t e r a m o u n t of p a i n ) . W h a t d i s a p p e a r s h e r e is t h e a b y s s of t h e i n f i n i t y t h a t p e r t a i n s to a s u b j e c t . It is t h u s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t t h e b o o k w h i c h a r g u e s for t o r t u r e is a l s o a b o o k e n t i t l e d The End of Faith —not in t h e o b v i o u s s e n s e of " Y o u s e e , it is o n l y o u r b e l i e f in G o d ,

the divine injunction

to l o v e y o u r n e i g h b o r ,

that

u l t i m a t e l y p r e v e n t s u s from t o r t u r i n g p e o p l e ! " b u t i n a m u c h m o r e r a d i c a l s e n s e . A n o t h e r s u b j e c t ( a n d , u l t i m a t e l y , t h e s u b j e c t a s s u c h ) is for L a c a n not s o m e t h i n g d i r e c t l y g i v e n , b u t a " p r e s u p p o s i t i o n , " something presumed, an object of belief—\\o^

c a n I e v e r be s u r e t h a t w h a t I s e e in front of m e is

a n o t h e r s u b j e c t , not a b i o l o g i c a l m a c h i n e l a c k i n g a n y d e p t h ? T h e r e i s , h o w e v e r , a p o p u l a r a n d s e e m i n g l y c o n v i n c i n g r e p l y to t h o s e w h o w o r r y a b o u t t h e r e c e n t U S p r a c t i c e of t o r t u r i n g s u s p e c t e d t e r r o r i s t p r i s o n e r s . It i s : " W h a t ' s a l l t h e fuss a b o u t ? T h e U S a r e n o w o n l y ( h a l f ) o p e n l y a d m i t t i n g w h a t not o n l y t h e y w e r e d o i n g a l l the t i m e , b u t w h a t a l l o t h e r s t a t e s a r e a n d w e r e d o i n g a l l t h e time^—if a n y t h i n g , w e h a v e l e s s h y p o c r i s y n o w . . . " To this, one should retort w i t h a simple counterq u e s t i o n : "If t h e s e n i o r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e U S m e a n o n l y t h i s , why, then, are they telling luf this? W h y d o n ' t t h e y j u s t s i l e n t l y g o on d o i n g it, a s t h e y d i d u p u n t i l n o w ? " T h a t i s to s a y , w h a t is p r o p e r to h u m a n s p e e c h i s the

irreducible gap between

enunciation:

"You

the

s a y this, but

enunciated

content and

w h y are y o u

telling me

its a c t it

of

openly

n o w ? " Let us imagine a wife a n d h u s b a n d w h o coexist w i t h a tacit a g r e e m e n t t h a t t h e y c a n l e a d d i s c r e e t e x t r a - m a r i t a l affairs; if, a l l of a s u d d e n , t h e h u s b a n d o p e n l y t e l l s h i s w i f e a b o u t a n o n g o i n g affair, she w i l l h a v e g o o d r e a s o n to b e in p a n i c : "If it i s j u s t a n affair, w h y a r e y o u t e l l i n g m e t h i s ? It m u s t b e s o m e t h i n g more!"^** T h e a c t of p u b l i c l y r e p o r t i n g on s o m e t h i n g i s n e v e r n e u t r a l , it affects t h e r e p o r t e d c o n t e n t itself. A n d the

s a m e g o e s for t h e

recent open

a d m i s s i o n of t o r t u r e :

in

N o v e m b e r 2005, Vice-President Dick C h e n e y said that defeating terror­ ists m e a n t t h a t " w e a l s o h a v e to w o r k . . . sort of t h e d a r k s i d e . . . A lot of w h a t n e e d s to b e d o n e h e r e w i l l h a v e to b e d o n e q u i e t l y , w i t h o u t a n y d i s c u s s i o n " — w a s h e not t a l k i n g l i k e a r e b o r n K u r t z ? S o w h e n w e h e a r people like Dick C h e n e y m a k i n g their obscene statements about

the

n e c e s s i t y of t o r t u r e , w e s h o u l d a s k t h e m : "If y o u j u s t w a n t to t o r t u r e s e c r e t l y s o m e s u s p e c t e d t e r r o r i s t s , t h e n w h y a r e y o u s a y i n g it p u b l i c l y ? " 48

HAPPINESS A N D TORTURE

T h a t i s to s a y , t h e q u e s t i o n to b e r a i s e d i s : w h a t m o r e is t h e r e h i d i n g in this statement that m a d e the s p e a k e r e n u n c i a t e it? W e c o u l d n o t e ( m o r e t h a n ) a h i n t of w h a t t h e r e i s w h e n , in t h e m i d d l e of M a r c h 2 0 0 7 , K h a l i d S h e i k h M o h a m m e d ' s c o n f e s s i o n d o m i n a t e d t h e h e a d l i n e s of o u r m e d i a . M o r a l o u t r a g e a t t h e e x t e n t of h i s c r i m e s w a s m i x e d w i t h d o u b t s . C a n h i s c o n f e s s i o n b e t r u s t e d ? W h a t if h e c o n f e s s e d e v e n m o r e t h a n h e d i d , e i t h e r b e c a u s e of a v a i n d e s i r e to b e r e m e m b e r e d a s t h e b i g t e r r o r i s t M a s t e r m i n d , o r b e c a u s e h e w a s r e a d y to

confess

a n j ^ h i n g in o r d e r to s t o p b e i n g s u b j e c t e d to w a t e r - b o a r d i n g a n d o t h e r "enhanced interrogation techniques"? W h a t attracted m u c h less atten­ tion w a s t h e s i m p l e fact t h a t , for t h e first t i m e , t o r t u r e w a s normalized, p r e s e n t e d a s s o m e t h i n g a c c e p t a b l e . T h e e t h i c a l a n d l e g a l c o n s e q u e n c e s of it a r e s o m e t h i n g to t h i n k a b o u t . W i t h a l l t h e o u t c r y a b o u t t h e h o r r o r of M o h a m m e d ' s c r i m e s , v e r y little w a s h e a r d a b o u t the fate o u r s o c i e t i e s r e s e r v e for t h e h a r d e s t c r i m i n a l s — to b e j u d g e d a n d s e v e r e l y p u n i s h e d . It is a s if, b y t h e n a t u r e of h i s a c t s (and b y t h e n a t u r e of t h e t r e a t m e n t to w h i c h h e w a s s u b m i t t e d b y t h e U S a u t h o r i t i e s ) , M o h a m m e d i s not e n t i t l e d to t h e s a m e t r e a t m e n t a s e v e n the most d e p r a v e d m u r d e r e r of c h i l d r e n , n a m e l y to b e t r i e d a n d p u n i s h e d a c c o r d i n g l y . It i s a s if not only the terrorbtd thenuebeö, but aUo fight agairut them hoj to proceed in a grey zone of legality, using illegal means. W e t h u s de facto h a v e " l e g a l " a n d " i l l e g a l " c r i m i n a l s : t h o s e w h o a r e to b e t r e a t e d w i t h legcJ p r o c e d u r e s (using l a w y e r s etc.), a n d those w h o a r e outside legality. M o h a m m e d ' s legal trial and punishment are now rendered

meaning­

l e s s — n o c o u r t w h i c h o p e r a t e s w i t h i n t h e f r a m e s of o u r l e g a l s y s t e m c a n d e a l w i t h i l l e g a l d e t e n t i o n s , c o n f e s s i o n s o b t a i n e d b y t o r t u r e , a n d so on. T h i s fact s a y s m o r e t h a n it i n t e n d s . It p u t s M o h a m m e d a l m o s t l i t e r a l l y into t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e l i v i n g d e a d , o c c u p y i n g t h e p l a c e of w h a t t h e I t a l i a n p o l i t i c a l p h i l o s o p h e r G i o r g i o A g a m b e n c a l l s homo éacer. l e g a l l y d e a d ( d e p r i v e d of a d e t e r m i n a t e l e g a l s t a t u s ) w h i l e b i o l o g i c a l l y still a l i v e — a n d t h e U S a u t h o r i t i e s w h i c h t r e a t t h e m in t h i s w a y a r e a l s o of a n i n - b e t w e e n s t a t u s w h i c h f o r m s t h e c o u n t e r p a r t to homo ,iacer: a c t i n g a s a l e g a l p o w e r , t h e i r a c t s a r e no l o n g e r c o v e r e d a n d c o n s t r a i n e d b y t h e l a w — t h e y o p e r a t e in a n e m p t y s p a c e t h a t i s s u s t a i n e d b y the l a w , a n d y e t not r e g u l a t e d b y t h e r u l e of l a w . S o , b a c k to t h e " r e a l i s t i c " c o u n t e r - a r g u m e n t : t h e " W a r on T e r r o r " Li d i r t y , o n e i s p u t in s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e t h e l i v e s of t h o u s a n d s d e p e n d

on

i n f o r m a t i o n w e c a n g e t from o u r p r i s o n e r s . ( I n c i d e n t a l l y , the t o r t u r i n g of - M o h a m m e d w a s not a c a s e of t h e " t i c k i n g - c l o c k " s i t u a t i o n e v o k e d b y t h e 49

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

a d v o c a t e s of t o r t u r e a s t h e r e a s o n for its l e g i t i m i z a t i o n : M o h a m m e d ' s c o n f e s s i o n s a v e d no l i v e s . ) A g a i n s t t h i s k i n d of " h o n e s t y , " o n e s h o u l d s t i c k to t h e a p p a r e n t h y p o c r i s y . I c a n w e l l i m a g i n e t h a t , in a v e i y specific s i t u a t i o n , I w o u l d r e s o r t to t o r t u r e ^ — h o w e v e r , in s u c h a c a s e , it i s c r u c i a l t h a t I d o not e l e v a t e t h i s d e s p e r a t e c h o i c e i n t o a u n i v e r s a l p r i n c i p l e . F o l l o w i n g t h e u n a v o i d a b l e b r u t a l u r g e n c y of t h e m o m e n t , 1 s h o u l d s i m p l y do it. O n l y in t h i s w a y , in t h e v e r y i m p o s s i b i l i t y of e l e v a t i n g w h a t I h a d to d o i n t o a u n i v e r s a l p r i n c i p l e , d o I r e t a i n t h e p r o p e r s e n s e of t h e h o r r o r of w h a t I did. In a w a y , t h o s e w h o , w i t h o u t o u t r i g h t l y a d v o c a t i n g t o r t u r e , a c c e p t It a s a l e g i t i m a t e t o p i c of d e b a t e , a r e in a w a y m o r e d a n g e r o u s t h a n t h o s e w h o explicitly endorse

it. M o r a l i t y i s n e v e r j u s t a m a t t e r

of i n d i v i d u a l

c o n s c i e n c e . It o n l y t h r i v e s if it i s s u s t a i n e d b y w h a t

Hegel called

" o b j e c t i v e s p i r i t , " t h e s e t of u n w r i t t e n r u l e s w h i c h form t h e b a c k g r o u n d of e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l ' s a c t i v i t y , t e l l i n g u s w h a t i s a c c e p t a b l e a n d w h a t Is u n a c c e p t a b l e . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e s i g n of p r o g r e s s in o u r s o c i e t i e s i s t h a t o n e d o e s not n e e d to a r g u e a g a i n s t r a p e : it i s " d o g m a t i c a l l y " c l e a r to e v e r y o n e t h a t r a p e Is w r o n g , a n d w e a l l feel t h a t e v e n a r g u i n g a g a i n s t It i s t o o m u c h . If s o m e o n e w e r e to a d v o c a t e t h e l e g i t i m a c y of r a p e , it w o u l d b e a s a d s i g n if o n e h a d to a r g u e a g a i n s t h i m — h e s h o u l d s i m p l y a p p e a r r i d i c u l o u s . A n d t h e s a m e s h o u l d h o l d for t o r t u r e . T h i s i s w h y t h e g r e a t e s t v i c t i m s of p u b l i c l y a d m i t t e d t o r t u r e a r e a l l of us, t h e p u b l i c t h a t i s i n f o r m e d a b o u t It. W e s h o u l d all b e a w a r e t h a t s o m e p r e c i o u s p a r t of o u r c o l l e c t i v e i d e n t i t y h a s b e e n i r r e t r i e v a b l y lost. W e a r e in t h e m i d d l e of a p r o c e s s of m o r a l c o r r u p t i o n : t h o s e i n p o w e r a r e l i t e r a l l y t r y i n g to b r e a k a p a r t of o u r e t h i c a l b a c k b o n e , to d a m p e n a n d u n d o w h a t is a r g u a b l y c i v i l i z a t i o n ' s g r e a t e s t a c h i e v e m e n t , the g r o w t h of o u r s p o n ­ taneous moral senslti\'lty. N o w h e r e i s t h i s c l e a r e r t h a n in a s i g n i f i c a n t d e t a i l of M o h a m m e d ' s confession.

It w a s r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e a g e n t s t o r t u r i n g

him

submitted

t h e m s e l v e s to w a t e r - b o a r d i n g a n d w e r e a b l e to e n d u r e it for o n l y t e n to fifteen s e c o n d s b e f o r e b e i n g r e a d y to c o n f e s s a n y t h i n g a n d e v e r y t h i n g , w h i l e M o h a m m e d g a i n e d t h e i r g r u d g i n g a d m i r a t i o n b y e n d u r i n g it for two and a half minutes, the longest time a n y o n e could r e m e m b e r someone r e s i s t i n g . A r e w e a w a r e t h a t t h e l a s t t i m e s u c h s t a t e m e n t s w e r e p a r t of p u b l i c d i s c o u r s e w a s w a y b a c k in t h e l a t e M i d d l e A g e s w h e n t o r t u r e w a s still a p u b l i c s p e c t a c l e , a n h o n o r a b l e w a y to t e s t a c a p t u r e d w o i ' t h y e n e m y w h o g a i n e d t h e a d m i r a t i o n of t h e c r o w d if h e b o r e t h e p a i n w i t h d i g n i t y ? D o w e r e a l l y n e e d t h i s k i n d of p r i m i t i v e w a r r i o r e t h i c s ? 50

HAPPINESS A N D TORTURE

A r e w e , t h e n , a w a r e of w h a t is at t h e e n d of t h i s r o a d ? W h e n , in t h e fifth s e a s o n o£24, it b e c a m e c l e a r t h a t t h e m a s t e r m i n d b e h i n d t h e t e r r o r i s t p l o t w a s n o n e o t h e r t h a n t h e P r e s i d e n t of the U S h i m s e l f m a n y of u s ^ e r e e a g e r l y w a i t i n g to s e e if J a c k B a u e r w o u l d a l s o a p p l y to

the

p r e s i d e n t — " t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l m a n on e a r t h " , " t h e l e a d e r of t h e free w o r l d " (and other standard procedure

K i m - Y o n g - I l - e s q u e titles that

he

possesses)—his

for d e a l i n g w i t h t e r r o r i s t s w h o d o not w a n t

to

d i v u l g e a s e c r e t t h a t m a y s a v e t h o u s a n d s of l i v e s . W i l l h e torture t h e president? U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e a u t h o r s d i d not r i s k t h i s r e d e e m i n g s t e p . B u t o u r i m a g i n a t i o n c a n g o e v e n f u r t h e r , m a k i n g a m o d e s t p r o p o s a l in J o n a t h a n S w i f t s t y l e : w h a t if p a r t of t h e p r o c e d u r e to test t h e c a n d i d a t e s for t h e U S p r e s i d e n c y w e r e a l s o t h e p u b l i c t o r t u r e of t h e c a n d i d a t e ? S a y , a w a t e r b o a r d i n g of t h e c a n d i d a t e s on t h e W h i t e f i o u s e l a w n , t r a n s m i t t e d l i v e to m i l l i o n s ? T h o s e q u a l i f i e d for t h e post of t h e l e a d e r of t h e free w o r l d w o u l d be those w h o could last longer than M o h a m m e d ' s two a n d a half minutes.

51

2

The Family Myth of Ideology

N u m e r o u s t r e a t i s e s h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n a b o u t t h e p e r c e p t i o n of a h i s t o r i c a l R e a l in t h e t e r m s of a f a m i l y n a r r a t i v e a s a f u n d a m e n t a l

ideological

o p e r a t i o n : a s t o r y a b o u t t h e conflict of l a r g e r s o c i a l f o r c e s ( c l a s s e s a n d so f o r t h ) i s f r a m e d i n t o t h e c o o r d i n a t e s of a f a m i l y d r a m a . T h i s i d e o l o g y , of c o u r s e , finds its c l e a r e s t e x p r e s s i o n in f i o l l 3 ' w o o d a s t h e u l t i m a t e i d e o l o g i c a l m a c h i n e : in a t y p i c a l HolljAvood p r o d u c t , e v e r y t h i n g , from

the

fate of t h e k n i g h t s of the R o u n d T a b l e t h r o u g h t h e O c t o b e r R e v o l u t i o n u p to a s t e r o i d s h i t t i n g t h e E a r t h , i s t r a n s p o s e d i n t o a n O e d i p a l n a r r a t i v e . ( A D e l e u z i a n c a n n o t r e s i s t t h e t e m p t a t i o n of p o i n t i n g o u t h o w t h e m a i n t h e o r e t i c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n of s u c h f a m i l l a l i z a t l o n i s p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , w h i c h m a k e s it t h e k e y i d e o l o g i c a l m a c h i n e . )

"Capitaiidt realijm " Our

first

s t e p s h o u l d b e to a n a l y z e t h i s f a m i l y n a r r a t i v e a t its m o s t

e l e m e n t a r y , k i t s c h , l e v e l . E x e m p l a r y h e r e is M i c h a e l C r i c h t o n , t o d a y ' s s u c c e s s o r of A r t h u r H a i l e y , t h e first g r e a t a u t h o r of " c a p i t a l i s t r e a l i s m " ( w h o s e b e s t s e l l e r s , b a c k in t h e \96Qs—Hotel, Airport, Cam . . . — a l w a y s focused

on a p a r t i c u l a r site of p r o d u c t i o n

mixing a melodramatic functions,

plot

or c o m p l e x

with lengthy descriptions

organization, of t h e

site's

in a n u n e x p e c t e d e c h o of t h e S t a l i n i s t c l a s s i c s of t h e l a t e

1 9 2 0 s a n d 1 9 3 0 s s u c h a s G l a d k o v ' s Cement)} C r i c h t o n a d d e d to t h e g e n r e a p o s t m o d e r n t e c h n o - t h r i l l e r t w i s t , in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t o d a y ' s p r e d o m i n a n t p o l i t i c s of fear: h e i s t h e u l t i m a t e n o v e l i s t of f e a r — f e a r of t h e p a s t {Jurasdic Park, Eaters of the Dead), of t h e n a n o t e c h n o l o g i c a l f u t u r e of J a p a n ' s e c o n o m i c s t r e n g t h

(The Runny Sun),

of s e x u a l

{Prey),

harassment

(DisclûJure), of r o b o t i c t e c h n o l o g y {Westworld), of t h e m e d i c a l I n d u s t r y (Coma), of a l i e n i n t r u s i o n s (Andromeda Strain),

of e c o l o g i c a l c a t a s t r o p h e s

(State of Fear). State of Fear, h i s m o s t r e c e n t b o o k , b r i n g s a n u n e x p e c t e d final 52

a d d i t i o n to t h i s s e r i e s of s h a d o w y forces w h i c h l u r k a m o n g u s ,

THE FAMILY MYTH OF I D E O L O G Y

p o i s e d to w r e a k h a v o c : A m e r i c a ' s fiercest e n e m i e s a r e n o n e o t h e r t h a n t h e environmentahsts themselves.^ A s m a n y a critic h a s noted, Crichton's books are not really novels, t h e y a r e m o r e l i k e u n f i n i s h e d drafts, p r o s p e c t u s e s for s c r e e n p l a y s ; h o w e v e r , it is t h i s v e r y f e a t u r e w h i c h m a k e s h i s w o r k i n t e r e s t i n g for a n a n a l y s i s of contemporary

i d e o l o g y : t h e v e r y l a c k of s t y l i s t i c q u a l i t i e s , t h e t o t a l l y

" t r a n s p a r e n t " m o d e of w r i t i n g , a l l o w s t h e u n d e r l y i n g i d e o l o g i c a l f a n t a s i e s to b e s t a g e d a t t h e i r e m b a r r a s s i n g l y d e s u b l i m a t e d p u r e s t , in n a k e d form, a s it w e r e . E x e m p l a r y

h e r e i s Prey^

in w h i c h a

nanotechnological

e x p e r i m e n t in a l a b o r a t o r y in t h e N e v a d a d e s e r t g o e s h o r r i b l y w r o n g ; a c l o u d of n a n o p a r t i c l e s — m i l l i o n s of m i c r o r o b o t s — e s c a p e s . T h e c l o u d — v i s i b l e to o b s e r v e r s a s a b l a c k s w a r m — i s s e l f - s u s t a i n i n g ,

self-reprodu-

c i n g , i n t e l l i g e n t , a n d it l e a r n s from e x p e r i e n c e , e v o l v i n g h o u r b y h o u r . E v e r y effort to d e s t r o y it fails.'* It h a s b e e n p r o g r a m m e d to b e c o m e a p r e d a t o r ; h u m a n s a r e its p r e y . O n l y a h a n d f u l of s c i e n t i s t s t r a p p e d in t h e l a b o r a t o r y c a n h a l t t h e r e l e a s e of t h i s m e c h a n i c a l p l a g u e on a d e f e n s e l e s s w o r l d . . . A s i s a l w a y s t h e c a s e in s u c h s t o r i e s , t h i s " b i g p l o t "

(the

c a t a s t r o p h e t h a t t h r e a t e n s to r u i n h u m a n i t y itself) i s c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e " s e c o n d a r y p l o t , " a set of r e l a t i o n s a n d t e n s i o n s a m o n g s t t h e g r o u p of s c i e n t i s t s , vrith t h e t r o u b l e d r o l e - r e v e r s a l m a r r i e d c o u p l e at its c e n t e r . J a c k , t h e n o v e l ' s n a r r a t o r , w a s t h e m a n a g e r of a c u t t i n g - e d g e c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m d i v i s i o n in a m e d i a - t e c h n o l o g y c o m p a n y b e f o r e h e w a s m a d e a s c a p e g o a t for s o m e o n e e l s e ' s c o r r u p t i o n a n d fired; n o w h e i s a h o u s e h u s b a n d w h i l e h i s w i f e , J u l i a , i s t h e w o r k a h o l i c v i c e - p r e s i d e n t of X y m o s , the nanotechnology c o m p a n y w h i c h o w n s the N e v a d a desert l a b o r a t o r y w h e r e t h e c a t a s t r o p h e o c c u r s — e r o t i c , m a n i p u l a t i v e , a n d c o l d , she i s a n e w v e r s i o n of t h e c o r p o r a t e v i x e n from DidclMure. A t t h e n o v e l ' s start. J a c k h a s to c o p e w i t h t h e i r t h r e e c h i l d r e n , d i s c u s s e s P a m p e r s v e r s u s H u g g i e s w i t h a n o t h e r f a t h e r in t h e s u p e r m a r k e t , a n d t r i e s to c o n t r o l h i s s u s p i c i o n s t h a t h i s w i f e i s h a v i n g a n affair. F a r from p r o v i d i n g a m e r e h u m a n - i n t e r e s t s u b p l o t , t h i s f a m i l y plot i s w h a t t h e n o v e l r e a l l y t u r n s on: t h e c l o u d of n a n o p a r t i c l e s s h o u l d

be

c o n c e i v e d of a s a m a t e r i a l i z a t i o n of t h e f a m i l y ' s t e n s i o n s . T h e first t h i n g t h a t c a n n o t b u t s t r i k e the e y e of a n y o n e w h o k n o w s L a c a n i s h o w t h i s s w a r m r e s e m b l e s w h a t L a c a n , in h i s Seminar XI,

c a l l e d " l a m e l l a " : it

a p p e a r s i n d e s t r u c t i b l e , in its infinite p l a s t i c i t y ; it a l w a y s r e a s s e m b l e s Itself, a b l e to m o r p h i n t o a m u l t i t u d e of s h a p e s ; m it, p u r e evil a n i m a l i t y o v e r l a p s w i t h m a c h i n e - l i k e b l i n d i n s i s t e n c e . T h e l a m e l l a is a n e n t i t y consisting

of p u r e

surface, without

the

d e n s i t y of a s u b s t a n c e ,

an 53

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

I n f i n i t e l y p l a s t i c o b j e c t c a p a b l e n o t j u s t of i n c e s s a n t l y c h a n g i n g its form, b u t e v e n of t r a n s p o s i n g

i t s e l f from

o n e to a n o t h e r

medium: imagine

" s o m e t h i n g " t h a t i s first h e a r d a s a s h r i l l s o u n d , a n d t h e n p o p s u p a s a m o n s t r o u s l y d i s t o r t e d b o d y . A l a m e l l a is i n d i v i s i b l e , i n d e s t r u c t i b l e , a n d i m m o r t a l — m o r e p r e c i s e l y , u n d e a d in t h e s e n s e t h i s t e r m h a s in h o r r o r fiction:

not s u b l i m e s p i r i t u a l i m m o r t a l i t y , b u t t h e o b s c e n e I m m o r t a l i t y of

t h e " l i v i n g d e a d " w h i c h , after e v e r y a n n i h i l a t i o n , r e c o m p o s e t h e m s e l v e s a n d c l u m s i l y c a r r y on t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s . A s L a c a n p u t s it, t h e l a m e l l a d o e s n o t e x i s t , it i n s i s t s : it i s u n r e a l , a n e n t i t y of p u r e s e m b l a n c e , a m u l t i p l i c i t y of a p p e a r a n c e s w h i c h s e e m to e n v e l o p a c e n t r a l v o i d — i t s s t a t u s i s p u r e l y f a n t a s m a t i c . T h i s b l i n d i n d e s t r u c t i b l e i n s i s t e n c e of t h e l i b i d o i s w h a t F r e u d c a l l e d t h e " d e a t h d r i v e , " a n d o n e s h o u l d b e a r in m i n d t h a t t h e " d e a t h d r i v e " i s , p a r a d o x i c a l l y , t h e F r e u d i a n n a m e for its v e r y o p p o s i t e , for t h e w a y i m m o r t a l i t y a p p e a r s w i t h i n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s : for a n u n c a n n y e x c e s s of life, for a n " u n d e a d " u r g e w h i c h p e r s i s t s b e y o n d t h e ( b i o l o g i c a l ) c y c l e of life a n d d e a t h , of g e n e r a t i o n a n d c o r r u p t i o n . F r e u d e q u a t e s t h e death drive with the so-called "compulsion-to-repeat," an u n c a n n y u r g e to r e p e a t p a i n f u l p a s t e x p e r i e n c e s w h i c h s e e m s to o u t g r o w t h e n a t u r a l l i m i t a t i o n s of t h e o r g a n i s m affected b y it a n d to i n s i s t e v e n b e y o n d t h e o r g a n i s m ' s d e a t h . A s s u c h , t h e l a m e l l a i s " w h a t i s s u b t r a c t e d from

the

l i v i n g b e i n g b y v i r t u e of t h e fact t h a t it i s s u b j e c t to t h e c y c l e of s e x e d reproduction":^

it p r e c e d e s s e x u a l d i f f e r e n c e , it m u l t i p l i e s a n d

d u c e s itself b y m e a n s of a s e x u a l s e l f - d i v i s i o n .

repro­

In the n o v e l ' s c l i m a c t i c

s c e n e . J a c k h o l d s J u l i a in h i s a r m s w h i l e s h e , u n b e k n o w s t t o h i m , i s a l r e a d y i n f e c t e d b y t h e s w a r m a n d l i v e s in s y m b i o s i s w i t h t h e t i c l e s , r e c e i v i n g from t h e m a s u p e r h u m a n

nanopar-

life-power.

I h e l d h e r h a r d . T h e s k i n of h e r face b e g a n to s h i v e r , v i b r a t i n g r a p i d l y . A n d t h e n h e r f e a t u r e s s e e m e d to g r o w , to s w e l l a s s h e s c r e a m e d . I thought her eyes looked frightened. b e g a n to b r e a k u p into

rivulets,

The

swelling continued,

and

and streams.

A n d t h e n in a s u d d e n r u s h J u l i a l i t e r a l l y d i s i n t e g r a t e d b e f o r e

my

e y e s . T h e s k i n of h e r s w o l l e n f a c e a n d b o d y b l e w a w a y from h e r in s t r e a m s of p a r t i c l e s , l i k e s a n d b l o w n off a s a n d d u n e . T h e p a r t i c l e s c u r v e d a w a y in t h e a r c of t h e m a g n e t i c field t o w a r d t h e s i d e s of t h e room. I felt h e r b o d y g r o w i n g l i g h t e r a n d l i g h t e r in m y a r m s . S t i l l t h e p a r t i c l e s c o n t i n u e d to flow a w a y , w i t h a k i n d of w h o o s h i n g s o u n d , to all c o r n e r s of t h e r o o m . A n d w h e n it w a s 54

finished,

w h a t w a s left

T H E F A M I L Y M Y T H OF I D E O L O G Y

behind—what

I still h e l d in m y a r m s — ^ w a s a p a l e a n d

cadaverous

form. J u l i a ' s e y e s w e r e s u n k d e e p in h e r c h e e k s , t i e r m o u t h w a s t h i n and cracked, her skin translucent. H e r hair w a s colorless, brittle. Her c o l l a r b o n e s p r o t r u d e d from h e r b o n y n e c k . S h e l o o k e d l i k e s h e w a s d y i n g of c a n c e r . H e r m o u t h w o r k e d . I h e a r d faint w o r d s , h a r d l y m o r e t h a n b r e a t h i n g . 1 l e a n e d in, t u r n e d m y e a r to h e r m o u t h to h e a r . " J a c k , " she w h i s p e r e d , "it's eating m e . " ( 4 6 8 - 9 )

T h i s s e p a r a t i o n i s t h e n u n d o n e , t h e p a r t i c l e s r e t u r n to J u l i a a n d r e v i t a l i z e her: T h e p a r t i c l e s on t h e w a l l s w e r e d r i f t i n g free o n c e m o r e . N o w

they

s e e m e d to t e l e s c o p e b a c k , r e t u r n i n g to h e r face a n d b o d y . . ./ A n d s u d d e n l y , in a whoodh, a l l t h e p a r t i c l e s r e t u r n e d , a n d J u l i a w a s full a n d b e a u t i f u l a n d s t r o n g a s b e f o r e , a n d s h e p u s h e d m e a w a y from h e r w i t h a contemptuous look . . . ( 4 7 1 )

In t h e final c o n f r o n t a t i o n ,

w e then get both J u l i a s side b y side, the

g l i m m e r i n g J u l i a c o m p o s e d of t h e s w a r m a n d t h e e x h a u s t e d r e a l J u l i a : J u l i a came swirling u p through the air t o w a r d me, spiralling like a c o r k s c r e w — a n d g r a b b e d the l a d d e r alongside me. Except she w a s n ' t J u l i a , s h e w a s t h e s w a r m , a n d for a m o m e n t t h e s w a r m w a s d i s ­ o r g a n i z e d e n o u g h t h a t I c o u l d s e e r i g h t t h r o u g h h e r in p l a c e s ; I c o u l d see t h e s w i r l i n g p a r t i c l e s t h a t c o m p o s e d h e r . I l o o k e d d o w n a n d s a w t h e r e a l J u l i a , d e a t h l y p a l e , s t a n d i n g a n d l o o k i n g u p at m e , h e r face a skull. B y now the s w a r m alongside me become solid-appearing, as 1 h a d s e e n it b e c o m e solid b e f o r e . It l o o k e d l i k e J u l i a . ( 4 7 6 )

H e r e , w e a r e not t a l k i n g a b o u t s c i e n c e , not e v e n p r o b l e m a t i c s c i e n c e , b u t o n e of t h e f u n d a m e n t a l f a n t a s y s c e n a r l i , or, m o r e p r e c i s e l y , the s c e n a r i o of t h e v e r y d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e l i n k b e t w e e n f a n t a s y a n d r e a l i t y , so t h a t w e g e t t h e t w o of t h e m , f a n t a s y a n d r e a l i t y , t h e J u l i a - s w a r m a n d t h e r e a l " J u l i a , s i d e b y s i d e , a s in t h e w o n d e r f u l s c e n e from t h e b e g i n n i n g of Terrj^ G i l l i a m ' s Brazil, w h e r e food is s e r v e d in a n e x p e n s i v e r e s t a u r a n t in s u c h a w a y t h a t w e g e t on a p l a t e itself a s m a l l p a t t y - l i k e c a k e w h i c h l o o k s ( a n d p r o b a b l y t a s t e s ) l i k e e x c r e m e n t , w h i l e a b o v e the p l a t e , h a n g s a c o l o r photo which shows us w h a t w e are "really eating," namely a nicely cooked juicy steak . . . 55

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

T h i s , t h e n , i s h o w o n e s h o u l d r e a d Prey: a l l t h e ( p s e u d o - ) s c i e n t l l i c s p e c u l a t i o n s a b o u t n a n o t e c h n o l o g y a r e h e r e a p r e t e x t to tell t h e s t o r y of a h u s b a n d r e d u c e d to a d o m e s t i c r o l e , f r u s t r a t e d b y h i s a m b i t i o u s c o r p o r a t e v i x e n of a w i f e . N o w o n d e r that, a t t h e n o v e l ' s e n d , a " n o r m a l " c o u p l e is r e c r e a t e d : a t J a c k ' s s i d e is M a e , t h e p a s s i v e b u t u n d e r s t a n d i n g

Chinese

c o l l e a g u e s c i e n t i s t , s i l e n t a n d faithful, l a c k i n g J u l i a ' s a g g r e s s i v e n e s s a n d ambition.

The production of the couple in Hollywood . . . A v a r i a n t of t h e s a m e motif, t h e i m p a s s e of p a t e r n a l a u t h o r i t y a n d its restoration, secretly r u n s t h r o u g h all k e y S t e v e n S p i e l b e r g Empire of the Sun, Jurasdic Park, Schindler'd hut.

films—^T",

. . One should remember

t h a t t h e s m a l l b o y to w h o m E T a p p e a r s w a s a b a n d o n e d b y h i s f a t h e r ( a s we

l e a r n i n t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g ) , so t h a t E T i s u l t i m a t e l y a k i n d of

"vanishing m e d i a t o r " w h o provides a n e w father (the good scientist w h o , in t h e film's last shot, i s a l r e a d y s e e n e m b r a c i n g t h e m o t h e r ) — w h e n t h e n e w f a t h e r a r r i v e s , E T c a n l e a v e a n d " g o h o m e . " Empire of the Sun f o c u s e s on a b o y d e s e r t e d b y h i s f a m i l y in w a r - t o r n C h i n a a n d s u r v i v i n g t h r o u g h t h e h e l p of a n e r s a t z f a t h e r ( p l a y e d b y J o h n M a l k o v i c h ) . In t h e v e r y first s c e n e of Jurassic Park, w e s e e t h e p a t e r n a l figure ( p l a y e d b y S a m N e l l l ) j o k i n g l y t h r e a t e n i n g the t w o k i d s w i t h a d i n o s a u r b o n e — t h i s b o n e is c l e a r l y the t i n y object-stain w h i c h , later, e x p l o d e s into g i g a n t i c dinosaurs, so t h a t o n e c a n r i s k t h e h j / p o t h e s i s t h a t , w i t h i n t h e

film's

fantasmatic

u n i v e r s e , t h e d i n o s a u r s ' d e s t r u c t i v e f u i y m e r e l y m a t e r i a l i z e s t h e r a g e of t h e p a t e r n a l s u p e r e g o . A b a r e l y p e r c e p t i b l e d e t a i l t h a t o c c u r s l a t e r , in t h e m i d d l e of t h e film, c o n f i r m s t h i s r e a d i n g . N e l l l a n d t h e t w o c h i l d r e n , p u r s u e d b y t h e m o n s t e r s , t a k e r e f u g e from t h e m u r d e r o u s

carnivorous

d i n o s a u r s in a g i g a n t i c t r e e , w h e r e , d e a d t i r e d , t h e y fall a s l e e p ; on t h e t r e e , N e l l l l o s e s t h e d i n o s a u r b o n e t h a t w a s s t u c k in h i s belt, a n d it i s a s if t h i s a c c i d e n t a l l o s s h a s a m a g i c a l effect —before t h e y fall a s l e e p , N e i l l i s r e c o n c i l e d w i t h t h e c h i l d r e n , d i s p l a y i n g w a r m affection a n d

tenderness

t o w a r d s them. Significantly, the d i n o s a u r s w h i c h a p p r o a c h the tree the n e x t m o r n i n g a n d a w a k e n t h e s l e e p i n g p a r t y , t u r n o u t to b e of t h e b e n e v o l e n t h e r b i v o r o u s k i n d . . . Schindler's List i s , a t t h e m o s t b a s i c l e v e l , a r e m a k e of Jurassic Park ( a n d , if a n y t h i n g , w o r s e t h a n t h e o r i g i n a l ) , w i t h t h e N a z i s a s t h e d i n o s a u r m o n s t e r s , S c h i n d l e r a s ( a t t h e film's b e g i n n i n g ) the c y n i c a l , p r o f i t e e r i n g ,

and opportunistic

parental

figure,

and

the

g h e t t o J e w s a s t h r e a t e n e d c h i l d r e n ( t h e i r i n f a n t i l i z a t i o n in t h e film is 56

THE FAMILY MYTH OF I D E O L O G Y

s t r i k i n g ) - T h e s t o i y t h e film t e l l s i s a b o u t S c h i n d l e r ' s g r a d u a l r e d i s c o v e r y of h i s p a t e r n a l d u t y t o w a r d s t h e J e w s , a n d h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n

into a

c a r i n g a n d r e s p o n s i b l e father. A n d i s The War of the Worlds not t h e l a t e s t i n s t a l l m e n t of t h i s s a g a ? T o m C r u i s e p l a y s a d i v o r c e d w o r k i n g - c l a s s father w h o n e g l e c t s h i s t w o c h i l d r e n ; t h e i n v a s i o n of t h e a l i e n s r e a w a k e n s in him the proper paternal instincts, a n d he rediscovers himself a s a c a r i n g f a t h e r — n o w o n d e r that, in l a s t s c e n e , h e f i n a l l y g e t s t h e r e c o g n i ­ t i o n from h i s son w h o , t h r o u g h o u t t h e film, d e s p i s e d h i m . In t h e m o d e of e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y s t o r i e s , t h e film c o u l d t h u s a l s o h a v e b e e n s u b t i t l e d " A s t o r y of h o w a w o r k i n g f a t h e r i s finally r e c o n c i l e d w i t h h i s s o n . " . . . O n e c a n e a s i l y i m a g i n e t h e film without t h e b l o o d t h i r s t y a l i e n s so t h a t w h a t r e m a i n s is in a w a y " w h a t it i s r e a l l y a b o u t , " t h e s t o r y of a d i v o r c e d w o r k i n g - c l a s s f a t h e r w h o s t r i v e s to r e g a i n t h e r e s p e c t of h i s t w o c h i l d r e n . T h e r e i n r e s i d e s t h e film's i d e o l o g y : w i t h r e g a r d to t h e t w o l e v e l s of t h e s t o r y ( t h e O e d i p a l l e v e l of lost a n d r e g a i n e d p a t e r n a l a u t h o r i t y ;

the

s p e c t a c u l a r l e v e l of t h e c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e i n v a d i n g a l i e n s ) , t h e r e i s a c l e a r diss3mimetry, s i n c e t h e O e d i p a l l e v e l i s w h a t t h e s t o r y i s " r e a l l y a b o u t , " w h i l e t h e e x t e r n î J s p e c t a c u l a r i s m e r e l y its m e t a p h o r i c e x t e n s i o n . T h e r e is a n i c e d e t a i l in t h e film's s o u n d t r a c k w h i c h m a k e s c l e a r t h e p r e d o m i ­ n a n c e of t h i s Oedipeil d i m e n s i o n : t h e a l i e n s ' a t t a c k s a r e a c c o m p a n i e d b y a terrifying one-note low-trombone sound w e i r d l y resembling the low bass and trumpet

s o u n d of t h e T i b e t a n B u d d h i s t c h a n t , t h e v o i c e of t h e

suffering, d y i n g evil f a t h e r ( i n c l e a r c o n t r a s t to t h e " b e a u t i f u l "

five-tones

m e l o d i c f r a g m e n t t h a t i d e n t i f i e s t h e " g o o d " a l i e n s in S p i e l b e r g ' s Encounterd of the Third Kind). N o w o n d e r , t h e n , t h a t t h e s a m e k e y d i s c l o s e s t h e u n d e r l y i n g m o t i f of t h e g r e a t e s t c i n e m a h i t of a l l t i m e s , J a m e s C a m e r o n ' s Titanic. Is Titanic r e a l l y a film a b o u t t h e c a t a s t r o p h e of a s h i p h i t t i n g a n i c e b e r g ? O n e s h o u l d b e a t t e n t i v e to t h e p r e c i s e m o m e n t of t h e d i s a s t e r : it t a k e s p l a c e when the two y o u n g lovers (Leonardo Di Caprio a n d Kate W i n s l e t ) , m i m e d i a t e l y after c o n s u m m a t i n g t h e i r a m o r o u s e n c o u n t e r in t h e s e x u a l act, r e t u r n to t h e s h i p ' s d e c k . T h i s , h o w e v e r , i s not a l l : if t h i s w e r e a l l , t h e n t h e c a t a s t r o p h e w o u l d h a v e b e e n s i m p l y t h e p u n i s h m e n t of F a t e for t h e d o u b l e t r a n s g r e s s i o n ( i l l e g i t i m a t e s e x u a l act; t r a n s g r e s s i o n of t h e c l a s s d i v i s i o n s ) . W h a t i s m o r e c r u c i a l is t h a t , on t h e d e c k , K a t e p a s s i o n a t e l y tells h e r l o v e r that, w h e n t h e s h i p r e a c h e s N e w Y o r k t h e n e x t m o r n i n g , s h e w i l l l e a v e w i t h h i m , p r e f e r r i n g a life of p o v e r t y w i t h h e r t r u e l o v e to a false a n d c o r r u p t e d e x i s t e n c e a m o n g t h e r i c h ; a t thü m o m e n t t h e s h i p h i t s t h e i c e b e r g , in o r d e r to prevent w h a t w o u l d u n d o u b t e d l y h a v e b e e n t h e 57

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

true d i s a s t e r , n a m e l y t h e c o u p l e ' s life in N e w Y o r k . O n e c a n s a f e l y g u e s s t h a t t h e m i s e r y of e v e r y d a y life w o u l d soon h a v e d e s t r o y e d t h e i r l o v e . T h e a c c i d e n t t h u s o c c u r s in o r d e r to s a v e t h e i r l o v e , in o r d e r to s u s t a i n t h e i l l u s i o n t h a t , h a d it not h a p p e n e d , t h e y w o u l d h a v e l i v e d " h a p p i l y e v e r after" . . . B u t t h i s i s n o t a l l . A f u r t h e r c l u e is p r o v i d e d b y t h e final m o m e n t s of Di C a p r i o . f^e i s f r e e z i n g to d e a t h i n t h e c o l d w a t e r , w h i l e W i n s l e t i s s a f e l y floating

on a l a r g e p i e c e of w o o d ; a w a r e t h a t s h e is l o s i n g h i m , s h e c r i e s :

"I'll n e v e r let y o u g o ! " , all t h e w h i l e p u s h i n g h i m a w a y w i t h h e r h a n d s — w h y ? B e c a u s e h e h a s s e r v e d h i s p u r p o s e . For, b e n e a t h t h e l o v e story, Titanœ t e l l s a n o t h e r t a l e , t h a t of a s p o i l e d h i g h - s o c i e t y g i r l in a n i d e n t i t y c r i s i s : s h e is c o n f u s e d , d o e s not k n o w w h a t to d o w i t h herself, a n d , m u c h m o r e t h a n h e r l o v e r , D i C a p r i o i s a k i n d of " v a n i s h i n g m e d i a t o r " w h o s e function is to r e s t o r e h e r s e n s e of i d e n t i t y a n d p u r p o s e in life, h e r selfi m a g e (quite literally, also: he s k e t c h e s her i m a g e ) ; once his job is done, h e c a n d i s a p p e a r . T h i s is w h y h i s l a s t w o r d s , before h e d i s a p p e a r s into t h e f r e e z i n g N o r t h A t l a n t i c , a r e not t h e w o r d s of a d e p a r t i n g l o v e r , but, r a t h e r , t h e l a s t m e s s a g e of a p r e a c h e r , t e l l i n g h e r h o w to l e a d h e r life, to b e h o n e s t a n d faithful to herself, a n d so o n a n d so forth. W h a t t h i s m e a n s is t h a t C a m e r o n ' s s u p e r f i c i a l H o l l y w o o d M a r x i s m ( h i s a l l too o b v i o u s p r i v i l e g i n g of t h e l o w e r c l a s s e s a n d c a r i c a t u r a l d e p i c t i o n of t h e c r u e l e g o t i s m a n d o p p o r t u n i s m of t h e rich) s h o u l d not d e c e i v e u s : b e n e a t h t h i s s y m p a t h y for t h e p o o r , t h e r e i s a n o t h e r n a r r a t i v e , t h e p r o f o u n d l y r e a c t i o n a r y m3'th, first fully d e p l o y e d b y K i p l i n g ' s Captains Coiirageoiid, of a y o u n g rich k i d in c r i s i s w h o s e v i t a l i t y i s r e s t o r e d b y a b r i e f i n t i m a t e c o n t a c t w i t h t h e f u l l - b l o o d e d life of t h e p o o r . W h a t l u r k s b e h i n d

the

c o m p a s s i o n for t h e p o o r i s t h e i r v a m p i r i c e x p l o i t a t i o n . T h e r i d i c u l o u s c l i m a x of t h i s H o l l y w o o d p r o c e d u r e of s t a g i n g g r e a t h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s a s t h e b a c k d r o p to t h e f o r m a t i o n of a c o u p l e i s W a r r e n B e a t t y ' s Reds, in w h i c h H o l l y w o o d found

a w a y to r e h a b i l i t a t e

the

O c t o b e r R e v o l u t i o n itself, a r g u a b l y t h e m o s t t r a u m a t i c h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t of t h e t w e n t i e t h

century.

How,

e x a c t l y , is t h e

October

Revolution

d e p i c t e d in t h e film? T h e c o u p l e of J o h n R e e d a n d L o u i s e B i y a n t a r e in a d e e p e m o t i o n a l c r i s i s ; t h e i r l o v e is r e i g n i t e d w h e n L o u i s e w a t c h e s John

on a p l a t f o r m

delivering an impassioned revolutionary

W h a t then follows is their love-making, intersected w i t h

speech.

archetypal

s c e n e s from t h e r e v o l u t i o n , s o m e of w h i c h r e v e r b e r a t e in a n a l l too patent m a n n e r w i t h the love-making; say, w h e n J o h n penetrates Louise, t h e r e is a c u t to a s t r e e t w h e r e a d a r k c r o w d of d e m o n s t r a t i n g 58

people

THE F A M I L Y M Y T H O F I D E O L O G Y

envelops a n d stops a p e n e t r a t i n g " p h a l l i c " t r a m w a y . . . all this a g a i n s t b a c k g r o u n d of t h e s i n g i n g of " T h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l e . " W h e n , a t t h e o r g a s m i c c l i m a x , L e n i n h i m s e l f a p p e a r s , a d d r e s s i n g a p a c k e d h a l l of delegates, he is more a w i s e t e a c h e r overseeing the couple's love initiation than a cold revolutionary

leader. Even

the

October

Revolution

is

ax;ceptable, if it s e r v e s t h e r e c o n s t i t u t i o n of a c o u p l e . . . T o w h a t e x t e n t , o n e m i g h t a s k , i s t h i s H o l l y w o o d f o r m u l a of t h e c r e a t i o n of t h e c o u p l e a s t h e f o r e g r o u n d of a g r e a t h i s t o r i c a l e p i c p r e s e n t also in o t h e r c u l t u r e s ? L e t u s t a k e a l o o k a t t h e s u c c e s s o r s of t h e O c t o b e r Revolution itself—there are surprises awaiting us here. T a k e C h i a u r e l i ' s i n f a m o u s The Fall of Berlin ( 1 9 4 8 ) , t h e s u p r e m e c a s e of t h e S t a l i n i s t w a r e p i c , t h e s t o r y of t h e

Soviet victory over

Hitler's

G e r m a n y . T h e film b e g i n s in 1 9 4 1 , j u s t p r i o r to t h e G e r m a n

assault

on t h e U S S R ; t h e h e r o , a S t a k h a n o v i t e s t e e l w o r k e r in l o v e w i t h a l o c a l tecLcher, b u t too s h y to d i r e c t l y a p p r o a c h her, i s a w a r d e d t h e S t a l i n P r i z e a n d r e c e i v e d b y S t a l i n m h i s d a c h a . In a s c e n e w h i c h w a s c u t after 1 9 5 3 a n d t h e n lost, after t h e official c o n g r a t u l a t i o n s , S t a l i n n o t i c e s a n e r v o u s u n e a s i n e s s in t h e h e r o a n d a s k s h i m w h a t is w r o n g . T h e h e r o t e l l s S t a l i n a b o u t h i s l o v e p r o b l e m s , a n d S t a l i n g i v e s h i m a d v i c e : r e c i t e p o e t r y to h e r , t h a t ' s t h e w a y to w i n a g i r l ' s h e a r t , a n d so on. B a c k h o m e , t h e

hero

s u c c e e d s in s e d u c i n g t h e g i r l , b u t a t t h e v e r y m o m e n t w h e n h e i s c a r r y i n g h e r in h i s a r m s i n t o t h e g r a s s (to m a k e l o v e , in all p r o b a b i l i t y ) , t h e b o m b s f r o m G e r m a n p l a n e s s t a r t to f a l l — t h i s i s J u n e 2 2 , 1 9 4 1 . In t h e e n s u i n g confusion, t h e g i r l i s t a k e n p r i s o n e r b y t h e G e r m a n s a n d t a k e n to a w o r k c a m p n e a r Berlin, w h i l e the hero joins the R e d A r m y ,

fighting

on t h e

fi-ont l i n e s to g e t h i s l o v e b a c k . A t t h e film's e n d , w h e n t h e j u b i l a n t c r o w d of c a m p p r i s o n e r s l i b e r a t e d b y t h e R e d A r m y m i n g l e s w i t h t h e R u s s i a n s o l d i e r s , a p l a n e l a n d s on a field n e a r b y ; S t a l i n h i m s e l f s t e p s o u t a n d W a l k s t o w a r d s t h e c r o w d w h i c h g r e e t s h i m j o y f u l l y . A t t h a t v e r y point, a s if a g a i n m e d i a t e d b y S t a l i n ' s h e l p , t h e c o u p l e a r e r e u n i t e d : t h e g i r l n o t e s t h e h e r o in t h e c r o w d ; before e m b r a c i n g h i m , s h e a p p r o a c h e s S t a l i n a n d a s k s h i m if s h e c a n g i v e h i m a k i s s . . . T r u l y , t h e y d o n ' t m a k e t h e m l i k e that a n y morel

The Fall of Berlin i s e f f e c t i v e l y t h e s t o r y of a c o u p l e

r e u n i t e d : W o r l d W a r II s e r v e s a s t h e o b s t a c l e to b e o v e r c o m e so t h a t t h e h e r o c a n r e a c h h i s b e l o v e d , l i k e t h e d r a g o n t h e k n i g h t h a s to kill to w i n t h e p r i n c e s s i m p r i s o n e d in t h e c a s t l e . T h e r o l e of S t a l i n is t h a t of a n i a g i c i a n a n d m a t c h m a k e r w h o w i s e l y l e a d s t h e c o u p l e t o its r e u n i o n . . . T h e s a m e i n t e r p r e t i v e k e y fits s c i e n c e - f i c t i o n c a t a s t r o p h e films. In a r e c e n t e x a m p l e of t h e s e r i e s of c o s m i c c a t a s t r o p h e films, M i m i L e d e r ' s 59

IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S

Deep Impact ( 1 9 9 8 ) , a g i g a n t i c c o m e t t h r e a t e n s to h i t t h e E a r t h a n d to e x t i n g u i s h a l l life for m i l l e n n i a ; a t t h e e n d of t h e film, t h e E a r t h i s s a v e d d u e to t h e h e r o i c a n d s u i c i d a l a c t i o n of a g r o u p of a s t r o n a u t s w i t h a t o m i c w e a p o n s ; o n l y a s m a l l f r a g m e n t of t h e c o m e t falls i n t o t h e o c e a n e a s t of N e w Y o r k a n d c a u s e s a c o l o s s a l w a v e , h u n d r e d s of y a r d s h i g h , t h a t flushes

t h e e n t i r e n o r t h e a s t c o a s t of t h e U S A , i n c l u d i n g N e w Y o r k a n d

Washington. This comet-Thing also creates a couple, but an unexpected o n e : t h e i n c e s t u o u s c o u p l e of t h e y o u n g , o b v i o u s l y n e u r o t i c , s e x u a l l y inactive T V reporter ( T e a L e o n i ) a n d h e r promiscuous father

(Max­

imilian Schell), w h o h a s divorced h e r mother a n d just married a y o u n g w o m a n of t h e s a m e a g e a s h i s d a u g h t e r . It i s c l e a r t h a t t h e film is effectively a d r a m a about this u n r e s o l v e d proto-incestuous f a t h e r - d a u g h ­ t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p : t h e t h r e a t e n i n g c o m e t o b v i o u s l y g i v e s b o d y to t h e selfd e s t r u c t i v e r a g e of t h e h e r o i n e , w h o i s s i n g l e , a n d h a s a n o b v i o u s t r a u m a t i c f i x a t i o n on h e r f a t h e r . F l a b b e r g a s t e d b y h e r f a t h e r ' s r e m a r ­ r i a g e , s h e i s u n a b l e to c o m e t o t e r m s w i t h t h e fact t h a t h e h a s a b a n d o n e d h e r for h e r p e e r . T h e P r e s i d e n t ( p l a y e d b y M o r g a n F r e e m a n , i n a p o l i f i c a l l y c o r r e c t v e i n ) w h o , i n a b r o a d c a s t to t h e n a t i o n , a n n o u n c e s t h e l o o m i n g c a t a s t r o p h e , a c t s a s t h e i d e a l c o u n t e r p o i n t to t h e o b s c e n e r e a l father, a s a c a r i n g p a t e r n a l

figure

(without a noticeable wife!) w h o ,

significantly, gives h e r a p r i v i l e g e d role at the press conference, allowing h e r t o a s k t h e first q u e s t i o n s . T h e l i n k of t h e c o m e t w i t h t h e d a r k , o b s c e n e u n d e r s i d e of p a t e r n a l a u t h o r i t y i s m a d e c l e a r t h r o u g h t h e w a y t h e h e r o i n e g e t s in t o u c h w i t h t h e P r e s i d e n t : in h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n , s h e d i s c o v e r s a n impending

financial

scandal (large illegal g o v e r n m e n t s p e n d i n g ) con­

n e c t e d w i t h " E l l e " — h e r first i d e a , of c o u r s e , i s t h a t t h e P r e s i d e n t h i m s e l f is I n v o l v e d i n a s e x s c a n d a l , t h a t " E l l e " r e f e r s to h i s m i s t r e s s ; s h e t h e n d i s c o v e r s t h e t r u t h : " E . L . E " i s a c o d e n a m e for t h e e m e r g e n c y m e a s u r e s to be t a k e n w h e n a n a c c i d e n t t h a t c o u l d l e a d to total e x t i n c t i o n of life threatens the Earth, a n d the g o v e r n m e n t w a s secretly spending funds building a gigantic u n d e r g r o u n d shelter in w h i c h a million A m e r i c a n s w o u l d b e a b l e to s u r v i v e t h e c a t a s t r o p h e . T h e a p p r o a c h i n g c o m e t is t h u s c l e a r l y a m e t a p h o r i c s u b s t i t u t e for p a t e r n a l i n f i d e l i t y , for t h e l i b i d i n a l c a t a s t r o p h e of a d a u g h t e r f a c i n g t h e fact t h a t h e r o b s c e n e f a t h e r h a s c h o s e n a n o t h e r y o u n g w o m a n o v e r h e r . T h e e n t i r e m a c h i n e r y of t h e g l o b a l d i s a s t e r i s t h u s s e t i n m o t i o n s o t h a t the f a t h e r ' s y o u n g w i f e w i l l a b a n d o n h i m , a n d t h e f a t h e r w i l l r e t u r n ( n o t to h i s w i f e , t h e h e r o i n e ' s m o t h e r , b u t . . . ) to h i s d a u g h t e r : t h e c u l m i n a t i o n of t h e film i s t h e s c e n e in w h i c h t h e h e r o i n e r e j o i n s h e r f a t h e r w h o , a l o n e 60

THE FAMILY MYTH OF I D E O L O G Y

in h i s l u x u r i o u s s e a s i d e h o u s e , a w a i t s t h e i m p e n d i n g w a v e . S h e f m d s h i m w a l k i n g along the shoreline; they m a k e peace with each other

and

embrace, silently a w a i t i n g the w a v e ; w h e n the w a v e a p p r o a c h e s

and

is a l r e a d y c a s t i n g its l a r g e s h a d o w o v e r t h e m , she d r a w s h e r s e l f c l o s e r to h e r father, g e n t l y c r y i n g " D a d d y ! " , a s if to s e a r c h for p r o t e c t i o n in h i m , r e c o n s t i t u t i n g t h e c h i l d h o o d s c e n e of a s m a l l g i r l s h e l t e r e d b y t h e f a t h e r ' s loving embrace, a n d a second later t h e y are both swept a w a y b y the g i g a n t i c w a v e . T h e h e r o i n e ' s h e l p l e s s n e s s a n d v u l n e r a b i l i t y in t h i s s c e n e s h o u l d not d e c e i v e u s : s h e is t h e evil s p i r i t w h o , in t h e u n d e r l y i n g l i b i d i n a l roaichinery finding

of t h e film's n a r r a t i v e , p u l l s t h e s t r i n g s , a n d t h i s s c e n e of

d e a t h in t h e p r o t e c t i v e f a t h e r ' s e m b r a c e i s t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of h e r

u l t i m a t e w i s h . . . f l e r e w e a r e a t t h e o p p o s i t e e x t r e m e to The Forbidden Planet: in b o t h c a s e s w e a r e d e a l i n g w i t h t h e i n c e s t u o u s

relationship

b e t w e e n f a t h e r a n d d a u g h t e r , y e t w h i l e in Forbidden Planet t h e d e s t r u c t i v e m o n s t e r m a t e r i a l i z e s the fathers

i n c e s t u o u s d e a t h w i s h , in Deep Impact it

m a t e r i a l i z e s t h e daughter'^ i n c e s t u o u s d e a t h w i s h . T h e

s c e n e on

the

waterfront w i t h the gigantic w a v e s w e e p i n g a w a y the embraced daughter a n d f a t h e r i s to b e r e a d a g a i n s t t h e b a c k g r o u n d of t h e s t a n d a r d H o l l y ­ w o o d m o t i f ( r e n d e r e d f a m o u s in F r e d Z i n n e m a n ' s From Here to Eternity) of t h e c o u p l e m a k i n g l o v e on t h e b e a c h , c a r e s s e d b y w a v e s Lancaster and D e b o r a h Kerr): here, the couple is truly an

(Burt

incestuous

one, so t h e w a v e i s e n o r m o u s a n d d e s t r u c t i v e , not t h e s o o t h e i n g e b b a n d flow of s m a l l b e a c h w a v e l e t s . I n t e r e s t i n g l y e n o u g h , t h e o t h e r b i g 1 9 9 8 b l o c k b u s t e r v a r i a t i o n on t h e t h e m e of a g i g a n t i c c o m e t t h r e a t e n i n g E a r t h , Armageddon, a l s o f o c u s e s on the incestuous f a t h e r - d a u g h t e r

r e l a t i o n s h i p . H e r e , h o w e v e r , it i s t h e

father ( B r u c e W i l l i s ) w h o i s e x c e s s i v e l y a t t a c h e d to h i s d a u g h t e r ;

the

c o m e t ' s d e s t r u c t i v e force g i v e s b o d y to hit f u r y a t h e r l o v e affairs w i t h o t h e r m e n of h e r o w n a g e . S i g n i f i c a n t l y , t h e d e n o u e m e n t i s a l s o m o r e p o s i t i v e , " n o t s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e : t h e f a t h e r s a c r i f i c e s h i m s e l f in o r d e r to s a v e E a r t h , t h a t i s , e f f e c t i v e l y — a t t h e l e v e l of t h e underl3ring l i b i d i n a l e c o n o m y — e r a s i n g h i m s e l f i n o r d e r to b l e s s t h e m a r r i a g e of h i s d a u g h t e r to h e r y o u n g l o v e r .

• • . and out R a t h e r s u r p r i s i n g l y , o n e often finds a v e r s i o n of t h e s a m e f a m i l y m y t h u n d e r l y i n g e v e n t h e o f f - H o l l y w o o d a r t films. L e t u s b e g i n w i t h F l o r i a n H e n c k e l v o n D o n n e r s m a r c k ' s Das Leben der Anderen {The Lived of Otherd, 61

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

2 0 0 6 ) , often f a v o r a b l y c o m p a r e d w i t h U l r i c h B e c k e r ' s Goodbye Lenin —the c l a i m i s t h a t it p r o v i d e s t h e n e c e s s a r y c o r r e c t i v e to Goodbye Lenin w i t h its s e n t i m e n t a l Ostalgie, b y p r o v i d i n g a n i n s i g h t i n t o t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h S t a s i t e r r o r p e n e t r a t e d e v e r y p o r e of p r i v a t e l i v e s . Is, h o w e v e r , t h i s r e a l l y the c a s e ? U p o n a closer look, a n almost inverted i m a g e a p p e a r s : as is the case w i t h m a n y d e p i c t i o n s of t h e h a r s h n e s s of t h e C o m m u n i s t r e g i m e s . The Lives of 0them m i s s e s the t r u e h o r r o r of t h e s i t u a t i o n in i t s v e r y a t t e m p t to p o r t r a y i t — h o w ? F i r s t , t h e t r i g g e r for t h e e v e n t s in t h e film is t h e corrupted

m i n i s t e r of c u l t u r e w h o w a n t s to g e t r i d of t h e top

GDR

p l a y w r i g h t G e o r g D r e y m a n , so t h a t h e w i l l b e a b l e to p u r s u e u n i m p e d e d h i s affair w i t h D r e y m a n ' s p a r t n e r , t h e a c t r e s s C h r i s t a - M a r i a . In t h i s w a y , the horror inscribed into the v e r y formal structure

of t h e s y s t e m is

r e l e g a t e d to a n effect of a p e r s o n a l w h i m — t h e p o i n t lost i s that, e v e n w i t h o u t the minister's personal corruption,

with only dedicated

and

devoted bureaucrats, the system w o u l d be no less terrifying. T h e w r i t e r from

whom

t h e m i n i s t e r w a n t s to t a k e t h e w o m a n

is

i d e a l i z e d in t h e o p p o s i t e m a n n e r : if h e i s s u c h a g o o d w r i t e r , b o t h h o n e s t a n d s i n c e r e l y d e d i c a t e d to t h e C o m m u n i s t s y s t e m , p e r s o n a l l y c l o s e to t h e top r e g i m e f i g u r e s ( w e l e a r n t h a t M a r g o t f i o n e c k e r , t h e p a r l y l e a d e r ' s w i f e , g a v e h i m a b o o k b y S o l z h e n i t s y n w h i c h is s t r i c t l y p r o h i b i t e d

for

o r d i n a r y p e o p l e ) , h o w i s it t h a t h e d i d not c o m e i n t o conflict w i t h t h e r e g i m e m u c h e a r l i e r ? H o w i s it t h a t h e w a s not c o n s i d e r e d at l e a s t a little bit problematic b y the regime, w i t h his excesses nonetheless tolerated b e c a u s e of h i s I n t e r n a t i o n a l f a m e , a s w a s t h e c a s e w i t h a l l f a m o u s a u t h o r s from B e r t o l t B r e c h t to H e i n e r M ü l l e r a n d C h r i s t a W o l f ?

GDR One

c a n n o t b u t r e c a l l h e r e a w i t t y f o r m u l a r e g a r d i n g life u n d e r a h a r s h C o m m u n i s t r e g i m e : of t h r e e f e a t u r e s — p e r s o n a l h o n e s t y , s i n c e r e s u p p o r t for t h e r e g i m e , intelligence^—it w a s p o s s i b l e to c o m b i n e o n l y t w o , n e v e r all t h r e e . If o n e w a s h o n e s t a n d s u p p o r t i v e , o n e w a s not v e r y b r i g h t ; if o n e w a s b r i g h t a n d s u p p o r t i v e , o n e w a s not h o n e s t ; if o n e w a s h o n e s t a n d bright, one w a s not supportive. The problem w i t h D r e y m a n is that he does a c t u a l l y combine all three features. S e c o n d , d u r i n g a r e c e p t i o n a t t h e s t a r t of t h e film, a d i s s i d e n t d i r e c t l y a n d a g g r e s s i v e l y c o n f r o n t s t h e m i n i s t e r , w i t h o u t c o n s e q u e n c e s — if s u c h a t h i n g w a s p o s s i b l e , w a s t h e r e g i m e r e a l l y so t e r r i b l e ? L a s t , it i s C h r i s t a M a r i a w h o b r e a k s d o w n a n d b e t r a y s t h e h u s b a n d , w h i c h l a t e r l e a d s to h e r s u i c i d a l flight from the a p a r t m e n t , c r u s h e d u n d e r t h e w h e e l s of a t r u c k , w h e r e a s in t h e o v e r w h e l m i n g m a j o r i t y of r e a l c a s e s of m a r r i e d 62

THE F A M I L Y M Y T H OF I D E O L O G Y

c o u p l e s w h e n a s p o u s e b e t r a y e d h i s p a r t n e r a n d s p i e d on her, it w a s t h e 0ien w h o b e c a m e " I M , " "inforinelieMitarheiter

( i n f o r m a l c o l l a b o r a t o r s ) " of

the S t a s i . T h e m o s t e x t r a o r d i n a r y C o l d W a r l o v e s t o r y w a s the o n e b e t w e e n V e r a L e n g s f e l d a n d K n u d W o l l e n b e r g e r w h o , in t h e n o w d e f u n c t

German

Democratic R e p u b l i c , got m a r r i e d a n d h a d t w o children together. After t h e fall of t h e W a l l , w h e n V e r a , a G D R d i s s i d e n t , g a i n e d a c c e s s to h e r S t a s i file, s h e l e a r n e d t h a t K n u d , a S t a s i i n f o r m e r c o d e n a m e d

Donald,

held m a r r i e d a n d l i v e d w i t h h e r on t h e o r d e r s of h i s m a s t e r s , so t h a t h e w a s a b l e to r e p o r t on h e r a c t i v i t i e s ; u p o n l e a r n i n g t h i s , s h e i m m e d i a t e l y d i v o r c e d h i m a n d t h e y h a v e not s p o k e n s i n c e . A f t e r w a r d s , K n u d s e n t h e r a l e t t e r e x p l a i n i n g t h a t h e w a n t e d to s h i e l d h e r a n d t h a t h i s b e t r a y a l w a s , i n factj a n a c t of l o v e . N o w t h a t h e i s d y i n g of a g a l l o p i n g form Parkinson's, V e r a has announced

of

that she h a s forgiven him . . . No

w o n d e r H o l l y w o o d i s c o n s i d e r i n g m a k i n g a film w i t h M e r y l S t r e e p a s V e r a . ^ B e t r a y a l a s a n a c t of l o v e — t h e f o r m u l a h a d a l r e a d y b e e n p r o p o s e d b y J o h n L e C a r r é in h i s m a s t e r p i e c e , A Perfect Spy. T h e o n l y w a y to a c c o u n t for t h e shift in The Lives of Otherd is to e v o k e a w e i r d u n d e r c u r r e n t of t h e s t o r y ; in a b l a t a n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n to t h e k n o w n f a c t s , i s t h e r e a s o n for t h i s o d d

distortion

of r e a l i t y not t h e

secret

h o m o s e x u a l u n d e r c u r r e n t in t h e film? It is c l e a r t h a t , in t h e c o u r s e of h i s s p y i n g on t h e c o u p l e , G e r d W i e s l e r b e c o m e s l i b i d i n a l l y a t t r a c t e d to D r e y m a n , e f f e c t i v e l y o b s e s s e d b y h i m — it i s t h i s affection t h a t g r a d u a l l y p u s h e s h i m to h e l p D r e y m a n . After die Wende, D r e y m a n d i s c o v e r s w h a t h a d g o n e on b y g a i n i n g a c c e s s to h i s files; f o l l o w i n g w h i c h h e r e c i p r o c a t e s in amorous terms, including tailing W i e s l e r w h o now w o r k s as a postman. The situation is thus effectively reversed: the observed victim is n o w the o b s e r v e r . In t h e

film's

l a s t s c e n e , W i e s l e r g o e s to a b o o k s t o r e

l e g e n d a r y Karl-Marx-Biichhandiung

(the

on t h e S t a l i n A l l e e , of c o u r s e ) , b u y s

t h e w r i t e r ' s n e w n o v e l . Sonata for an Honedt Man, a n d d i s c o v e r s t h a t it i s d e d i c a t e d to h i m ( d e s i g n a t e d b y h i s S t a s i c o d e n a m e ) . T h u s , to i n d u l g e m a s o m e w h a t c r u e l i r o n y , t h e finale of The Lived of Otherd r e c a l l s t h e f a m o u s ending

Codablanca: t h e p r o v e r b i a l " b e g i n n i n g of a b e a u t i f u l f r i e n d s h i p "

between

Dreyman

and

Conveniently disposed

W i e s l e r , w i t h the of—a

true

intrusive

female

Christological gesture

of

obstacle sacrifice

(no w o n d e r h e r n a m e i s C h r i s t a - M a r i a ! ) . In c o n t r a s t to t h i s i d y l l , t h e v e r y a p p e a r a n c e of H g h t - h e a r t e d n o s t a l g i c c o m e d y in Goodbye Lenin is a f a ç a d e w h i c h c o v e r s a m u c h

harsher

U n d e r l y i n g r e a l i t y ( s i g n a l l e d at t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g b y t h e b r u t a l i n t r u s i o n 63

IIN Libl-tNSE OF LOST CAUSES

of t h e S t a s i i n t o t h e f a m i l y h o m e after t h e h u s b a n d e s c a p e s to t h e W e s t ) . T h e l e s s o n is t h u s m u c h m o r e d e s p e r a t e t h a n t h a t of The. Lived of Otherd: n o h e r o i c r e s i s t a n c e to t h e G D R r e g i m e w a s u l t i m a t e l y s u s t a i n a b l e , t h e o n l y w a y to s u r v i v e w a s t o e s c a p e i n t o m a d n e s s , t o d i s c o n n e c t from r e a l i t y . T h i s , of c o u r s e , in n o w a y i m p l i e s t h a t Goodbye Lenin i s w i t h o u t faults of i t s o w n . A c o m p a r i s o n w i t h a n o t h e r r e c e n t p o l i t i c a l t h r i l l e r c a n b e of s o m e h e l p h e r e : J o h n M a l k o v i c h ' s Dancer Updtaird. In b o t h films, v i o l e n c e is f r a m e d b y l o v e : t h e l o v e of a s o n for h i s m o t h e r (Goodbye Lenin), t h e l o v e of a m a n for a w o m a n (Dancer). In b o t h c a s e s , t h e f u n c t i o n of l o v e i s dtricto densu i d e o l o g i c a l : it m y s t i f i e s a n d t h e r e b y d o m e s t i c a t e s , r e n d e r s t o l e r a b l e , the

confrontation

w i t h t h e R e a l of b r u t a l ,

t r a u m a t i c v i o l e n c e — the

v i o l e n c e of t h e G D R r e g i m e , a s w e l l a s of its c o l l a p s e a n d t h e W e s t e r n t a k e o v e r ; t h e v i o l e n c e of S e n d e r o L u m i n o s o ' s r u t h l e s s

revolutionary

t e r r o r . W h i l e b o t h Lenùi a n d Dancer c o n f r o n t a r e c e n t " r a d i c a l " p o l i t i c a l p a s t , s i g n i f i c a n t l y , o n e w a s a b i g h i t a n d t h e o t h e r a box-office f a i l u r e . Goodbye Lenin t e l l s t h e s t o r y of a son w h o s e m o t h e r , an h o n e s t

GDR

b e l i e v e r , h a s a h e a r t a t t a c k o n t h e c o n f u s e d n i g h t of t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n s w h i c h a c c o m p a n i e d t h e f o r t y - y e a r a n n i v e r s a r y c e l e b r a t i o n s In 1 9 9 1 ; s h e survives, but t h e doctor w a r n s the son that a n y traumatic experience c o u l d c a u s e t h e m o t h e r ' s d e a t h . W i t h t h e h e l p of a friend, t h e s o n t h u s s t a g e s for t h e m o t h e r , w h o i s r e s t r i c t e d t o h e r a p a r t m e n t , t h e s m o o t h c o n t i n u a t i o n of t h e G D R : e v e r y e v e n i n g , t h e y p l a y o n t h e T V v i d e o r e c o r d e d f a k e G D R n e w s , a n d s o on. T o w a r d s t h e film's e n d , t h e h e r o s a y s t h a t t h e g a m e h a s g o n e t o o far^—the

fiction

s t a g e d for t h e d y i n g

m o t h e r h a s b e c o m e a n a l t e r n a t i v e G D R , r e i n v e n t e d a s it s h o u l d h a v e been . . . Therein resides t h e k e y political question, b e y o n d t h e rather b o r i n g topic o f Odtaigie ( w h i c h is n o t a r e a l l o n g i n g for t h e G D R , b u t t h e e n a c t m e n t of a r e a l p a r t i n g from it, t h e a c q u i r i n g of a d i s t a n c e , d e t r a u m a t i z a t l o n ) ; w a s t h i s d r e a m of a n " a l t e r n a t i v e G D R " i n h e r e n t in t h e G D R i t s e l f ? W h e n , in t h e final fictional T V r e p o r t , t h e n e w G D R l e a d e r ( t h e first G D R a s t r o n a u t ) d e c i d e s t o o p e n t h e b o r d e r s , a l l o w i n g t h e W e s t G e r m a n c i t i z e n s to e s c a p e c o n s u m e r t e r r o r i s m , r a c i s m , a n d t h e h o p e l e s s s t r u g g l e t o s u r v i v e , It i s c l e a r t h a t t h e n e e d for ditch a Utopian e s c a p e i s r e a l . T o p u t i t q u i t e b r u t a l l y , w h i l e Odtaigie Is w i d e l y p r a c t i c e d in t o d a y ' s G e r m a n y w i t h o u t c a u s i n g e t h i c a l p r o b l e m s , o n e (for t h e t i m e b e i n g , a t least) cannot imagine publicly practicing a Nazi-nostalgia—"Goodbye H i t l e r " instead of "Goodbye L e n i n . " Does this not b e a r witness to t h e fact t h a t w e a r e still a w a r e o f t h e e m a n c i p a t o r y p o t e n t i a l , d i s t o r t e d a n d t h w a r t e d a s it w a s , in C o m m u n i s m b u t w h i c h w a s c o m p l e t e l y m i s s i n g i n 64

THE FAMILY MYTH OF I D E O L O G Y

f a s c i s m ? T h e q u a s i - m e t a p h y s i c a l e p i p h a n y t o w a r d s t h e film's e n d ( w h e n t h e m o t h e r , on h e r first w a l k o u t s i d e t h e a p a r t m e n t , finds h e r s e l f f a c e - t o face w i t h a s t a t u e of L e n i n b e i n g t r a n s p o r t e d

b y helicopter,

whose

o u t s t r e t c h e d h a n d s e e m s to a d d r e s s / i n t e r p e l l a t e h e r d i r e c t l y ) i s t h u s to b e t a k e n m o r e s e r i o u s l y t h a n it m a y first a p p e a r . T h e w e a k p o i n t of t h e film i s t h a t ( l i k e R o b e r t o

B e n i g n i ' s Life

h

Beautiful) it s u s t a i n s a n e t h i c s of p r o t e c t i n g o n e ' s i l l u s i o n s : it m a n i p u l a t e s t h e t h r e a t of a s e c o n d h e a r t a t t a c k a s t h e m e a n s to b l a c k m a i l u s i n t o a c c e p t i n g t h e n e e d to p r o t e c t o n e ' s f a n t a s y a s t h e h i g h e s t e t h i c a l d u t y . D o e s t h e film h e r e not e n d o r s e u n e x p e c t e d l y L e o S t r a u s s ' s t h e s i s on t h e n e e d for a " n o b l e l i e " ? B u t i s it r e a l l y t h a t t h e e m a n c i p a t o r y p o t e n t i a l of C o m m u n i s m i s o n l y a " n o b l e l i e " to b e s t a g e d a n d s u s t a i n e d for n a i v e beUevers, a l i e w h i c h

actually only m a s k s the

ruthless violence

of

C o m m u n i s t r u l e ? T h e m o t h e r i s t h e " s u b j e c t s u p p o s e d to b e l i e v e " h e r e : t h r o u g h her, otherd s u s t a i n t h e i r belief. ( T h e i r o n y i s t h a t it i s u s u a l l y t h e m o t h e r w h o i s s u p p o s e d to b e t h e c a r e - g i v e r , p r o t e c t i n g h e r c h i l d r e n from c r u e l r e a l i t y . ) Is t h e m o t h e r in Goodbye Lenin not t h e o n e w h o m a k e s t h e l a w on b e h a l f of t h e ( a b s e n t ) f a t h e r h e r e ? S o — s i n c e , for L a c a n , t h e r e i n r e s i d e s t h e g e n e s i s of m a l e h o m o s e x u a l i t y — t h e t r u e q u e s t i o n i s : w h y is the hero not g a y , as he should h a v e b e e n ? In c o n t r a s t

to Goodbye Lenin, Dancer Updtaird s e e s n o

potential in the

figure

redemptive

of E v i l w i t h w h i c h it i s s t r a n g e l y f a s c i n a t e d ; it

s h o u l d r a t h e r b e r e a d a s y e t a n o t h e r v e r s i o n of C o n r a d ' s v o y a g e i n t o t h e " h e a r t of d a r k n e s s , " e p i t o m i z e d h e r e b y t h e e x c e s s i v e c r u e l t y a n d r u t h l e s s n e s s of t h e S e n d e r o L u m i n o s o m o v e m e n t w h i c h , so w e a r e told, showed

no

programs,

interest but

in

conquering

simply w a g e d

its

public

opinion

murderous

with

campaign.

ideological Rejas,

the

" h o n e s t l i b e r a l " p o l i c e i n v e s t i g a t o r a n d t h e film's h e r o , i s split b e t w e e n t h e c o r r u p t i o n of t h o s e i n p o w e r a n d t h e a b s o l u t e E v i l of t h e R e v o l u ­ tion. T h i s s p l i t i s t h e o n e b e t w e e n form a n d c o n t e n t : R e j a s s u p p o r t s t h e form of t h e e x i s t i n g d e m o c r a t i c o r d e r . A l t h o u g h c r i t i c a l of i t s p r e s e n t content

(the

corrupt

rapist

president,

and

so

on),

he

rejects

the

r e v o l u t i o n a r y " t r a n s g r e s s i o n " of t h e form, t h e " l e a p of f a i t h " i n t o t h e inhuman

dimension.

However,

the e n i g m a that the

film

a d d r e s s e s i s d o u b l e : it i s not

p r i m a r i l y t h e e n i g m a of t h e " r a d i c a l E v i l " of S e n d e r o L u m i n o s o

terror,

b u t t h e e n i g m a of R e j a s ' s l o v e - o b j e c t : h o w i s it p o s s i b l e for a c u l t i v a t e d a n d b e a u t i f u l m i d d l e - c l a s s b a l l e t d a n c e r to b e a " f a n a t i c a l " m e m b e r of S e n d e r o L u m i n o s o ? W h y does Y o l a n d a totally reject R e j a s at the e n d ? 65

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

H o w to a c c o u n t for t h e g a p t h a t s e p a r a t e s t h i s s e n s i t i v e a n d b e a u t i f u l w o m a n from t h e f a n a t i c a l a n d m e r c i l e s s r e v o l u t i o n a r y t h a t e x p l o d e s at t h e e n d ? T h e r e i n r e s i d e s w h a t o n e is t e m p t e d t o c a l l t h e c o n s t i t u t i v e s t u p i d i t y of t h e film ( a n d of t h e n o v e l on w h i c h it i s b a s e d ) : p u b l i c i z e d a s a n a t t e m p t to " u n d e r s t a n d " t h e S e n d e r o L u m i n o s o p h e n o m e n o n ,

it is

p r e c i s e l y a d e f e n s e a g a i n s t s u c h a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a n a t t e m p t to p e r p e ­ t u a t e t h e " e n i g m a " it c o n f r o n t s .

N o w o n d e r t h a t , u l t i m a t e l y . Dancer

Upstairs —wWich p r i d e s itself on b e i n g a n t i - H o l l y w o o d — r e l i e s on

the

b a s i c H o l l y w o o d f o r m u l a of t h e " p r o d u c t i o n of t h e c o u p l e . "

The real Hollywood Left If e v e n t h e m a r g i n a l n o n - H o l l y w o o d p r o d u c t i o n s r e m a i n d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e f a m i l y motif, w h e r e , t h e n , a r e w e to find t r u e e x c e p t i o n s to i t s r u l e ? In M a r c h 2 0 0 5 , t h e V a t i c a n i t s e l f m a d e a h i g h l y p u b l i c i z e d s t a t e m e n t , c o n d e m n i n g in t h e s t r o n g e s t t e r m s D a n B r o w n ' s The Da Vinci Code a s a b o o k b a s e d on l i e s a n d w h i c h s p r e a d false t e a c h i n g s (for e x a m p l e , t h a t J e s u s had married Alary M a g d a l e n e and that they had descendants — t h e t r u e i d e n t i t y of t h e G r a i l i s M a r y M a g d a l e n e ' s v a g i n a ! ) , e s p e c i a l l y regretting the book's popularity among the y o u n g e r generation search­ i n g for s p i r i t u a l g u i d a n c e . T h e a b s u r d i t y of t h i s V a t i c a n i n t e r v e n t i o n , s u s t a i n e d b y a b a r e l y c o n c e a l e d l o n g i n g for the g o o d old d a y s w h e n t h e i n f a m o u s I n d e x of p r o h i b i t e d b o o k s w a s still o p e r a t i v e , s h o u l d not b l i n d u s to the fact that, w h i l e t h e form i s w r o n g ( o n e a l m o s t s u s p e c t s a c o n s p i r a c y b e t w e e n t h e V a t i c a n a n d t h e p u b l i s h e r t o g i v e a n e w boost to t h e s a l e s of t h e b o o k ) , t h e c o n t e n t is b a s i c a l l y right: The Da Vinci Code d o e s in fact p r o p o s e a N e w A g e r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of C h r i s t i a n i t y in t e r m s of t h e b a l a n c e of t h e m a s c u l i n e a n d f e m i n i n e p r i n c i p l e s , t h a t i s , t h e b a s i c i d e a of t h e n o v e l i s t h e r e i n s c r i p t i o n of C h r i s t i a n i t y ' i n t o a p a g a n sexualized ontology: the feminine principle is sacred, perfection resides in t h e h a r m o n i o u s c o u p l i n g of t h e m a l e a n d f e m a l e p r i n c i p l e s . . . T h e p a r a d o x to b e a c c e p t e d h e r e is that, in t h i s c a s e , e v e r y f e m i n i s t s h o u l d s u p p o r t t h e C h u r c h : it is only t h r o u g h t h e " m o n o t h e i s t i c " s u s p e n s i o n of t h e f e m i n i n e s i g n i f i e r , of t h e p o l a r i t y of the m a s c u l i n e a n d opposites,

feminine

t h a t t h e s p a c e e m e r g e s for w h a t w e b r o a d l y r e f e r to a s

" f e m i n i s m " p r o p e r , for t h e r i s e of f e m i n i n e s u b j e c t i v i t y . T h e f e m i n i n i t y a s s e r t e d in t h e a f f i r m a t i o n of t h e c o s m i c " f e m i n i n e p r i n c i p l e " i s , on t h e contrary, a l w a y s a subordinated the active "masculine principle." 66

(passive, r e c e p t i v e ) pole, opposed

to

THE FAMILY MYTH OF I D E O L O G Y

T h i s i s w h y t h r i l l e r s l i k e The Da Vinci Code a r e o n e of t h e k e y i n d i c a t o r s of contemporary

i d e o l o g i c a l shifts: t h e h e r o

is in s e a r c h of a n o l d

manuscript w h i c h will reveal some shattering secret w h i c h

threatens

to u n d e r m i n e t h e v e r y f o u n d a t i o n s of ( i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d ) C h r i s t i a n i t y ; t h e " c r i m i n a l " e d g e i s p r o v i d e d b y t h e d e s p e r a t e a n d r u t h l e s s a t t e m p t s of t h e C h u r c h ( o r s o m e h a r d l i n e faction w i t h i n i t ) t o s u p p r e s s t h i s d o c u m e n t . T h i s s e c r e t f o c u s e s on t h e " r e p r e s s e d " f e m i n i n e d i m e n s i o n o l t h e d i v i n e : C h r i s t w a s m a r r i e d to M a r y M a g d a l e n e , t h e G r a i l i s a c t u a l l y t h e f e m a l e b o d y . . . i s t h i s r e v e l a t i o n r e a l l y s u c h a s u r p r i s e ? Is t h e i d e a t h a t J e s u s h a d s e x w i t h M a r y M a g d a l e n e n o t r a t h e r a k i n d of o b s c e n e o p e n s e c r e t of C h r i s t i a n i t y , a C h r i s t i a n j^cre/ depotichineLlel T h e t r u e s u r p r i s e w o u l d h a v e b e e n to g o a s t e p f u r t h e r

a n d claim that M a i y h a d really been

transvestite, so that J e s u s ' lover h a d been a beautiful

a

ephebe!

T h e i n t e r e s t of t h e n o v e l ( a n d , a g a i n s t t h e s u s p i c i o u s l y h a s t y d i s m i s s a l o f t h e film, o n e s h o u l d s a y t h a t t h i s h o l d s e v e n m o r e for t h e film) r e s i d e s in a f e a t u r e w h i c h , s u r p r i s i n g l y , e c h o e s The X-Filed w h e r e t h e fact t h a t s o m a n y t h i n g s h a p p e n " o u t t h e r e " w h e r e t h e t r u t h i s s u p p o s e d to d w e l l ( a l i e n s i n v a d i n g E a r t h a n d s o o n ) fills i n t h e void, t h a t i s , t h e m u c h c l o s e r truth that nothing

(no sexual relation) is going on between the t w o

a g e n t s , M u l d e r a n d S c u l l y . In The Da Vinci Code, t h e s e x u a l life of C h r i s t a n d M a r y M a g d a l e n e is t h e e x c e s s w h i c h i n v e r t s ( c o v e r s u p ) t h e fact t h a t t h e s e x u a l life of S o p h i e , t h e h e r o i n e , C h r i s t ' s l a s t d e s c e n d a n t , i s n o n ­ e x i s t e n t : dhe rs l i k e a c o n t e m p o r a r y M a r y , v r r g i n a l , p u r e , a s e x u a l ; t h e r e i s no h i n t of s e x b e t w e e n h e r a n d R o b e r t

Langdom.

H e r t r a u m a is t h a t s h e w i t n e s s e d t h e p r i m o r d i a l f a n t a s m a t i c s c e n e of p a r e n t a l c o p u l a t i o n , t h i s e x c e s s oijouuMance

which totally "neutralized"

h e r s e x u a l l y : it i s a s if, i n a k i n d of t e m p o r a l loop, s h e w a s p r e s e n t a t t h e a c t of h e r o w n c o n c e p t i o n , s o t h a t , for h e r , all s e x i s i n c e s t u o u s a n d t h u s p r o h i b i t e d . H e r e e n t e r s R o b e r t w h o , far from b e i n g h e r l o v e r , a c t s a s h e r " w i l d a n a l y s t " whose task is to construct a narrative frame, a myth, w h i c h w i l l e n a b l e h e r to b r e a k o u t of t h i s f a n t a s m a t i c c a p t i v i t y , not b y w a y of r e g a i n i n g " n o r m a l " h e t e r o s e x u a l i t y , b u t b y w a y of a c c e p t i n g h e r a s e x u a l i t y a n d " n o r m a l i z i n g " it a s p a r t of t h e n e w m y t h i c n a r r a t i v e . In t h i s s e n s e . The Da Vinci Code b e l o n g s i n t h e s e r i e s w e a r e a n a l y z i n g : i t i s n o t r e a l l y a film a b o u t r e l i g i o n , a b o u t t h e " r e p r e s s e d " s e c r e t of C h r i s t i a n i t y , b u t a film a b o u t a f r i g i d a n d t r a u m a t i z e d y o u n g w o m a n w h o i s r e d e e m e d , freed from h e r t r a u m a , p r o v i d e d w i t h a m y t h i c a l f r a m e w o r k t h a t e n a b l e s h e r t o fully a c c e p t h e r a s e x u a l i t y . T h e m 3 ^ h i c a l c h a r a c t e r of t h i s s o l u t i o n e m e r g e s c l e a r l y if w e c o n t r a s t 67

R o b e r t a s i t s p r o p o n e n t to S i r L e i g h , t h e c o u n t e r p o i n t to O p u s D e i in t h e film ( a n d n o v e l ) : h e w a n t s to d i s c l o s e t h e s e c r e t of M a r y a n d t h u s s a v e h u m a n i t y from t h e o p p r e s s i o n of official C h r i s t i a n i t y . T h e film r e j e c t s t h i s r a d i c a l m o v e a n d o p t s for a

fictional

compromise

s o l u t i o n : w h a t is

i m p o r t a n t a r e n o t facts ( t h e D N A t h a t w o u l d p r o v e t h e g e n e a l o g i c a l link between h e r a n d M a r y a n d Christ), but w h a t she ( S o p h i e ) be­ l i e v e s ^—the m o v i e o p t s for s y m b o l i c fiction a g a i n s t g e n e a l o g i c a l f a c t s . T h e m y t h of b e i n g C h r i s t ' s d e s c e n d a n t c r e a t e s for S o p h i e a n e w s y m b o l i c i d e n t i t y : a t t h e e n d , s h e e m e r g e s a s t h e l e a d e r of a c o m m u n i t y . It i s a t t h i s l e v e l of w h a t g o e s on i n t e r r e s t r i a l life t h a t The Da Vinci Code r e m a i n s C h r i s t i a n : i n t h e p e r s o n of S o p h i e , it e n a c t s t h e p a s s a g e from s e x u a l l o v e to d e s e x u a l i z e d agape a s p o l i t i c a l l o v e , l o v e t h a t s e r v e s a s t h e b o n d of a c o l l e c t i v e . T h e r e i s n o t h i n g " p r e - F r e u d l a n " i n t h i s s o l u t i o n —it c a n o n l y a p p e a r p r e - F r e u d i a n if o n e a c c e p t s t h e c r u d e n o r m a t i v e

heterosexual

v e r s i o n of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h , for a w o m a n , e v e r y t h i n g but "normal" heterosexual desire is pathological. For a true Freudian, on t h e c o n t r a r y , " t h e r e Is n o s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p , " n o s t a n d a r d of n o r m a l i t y , b u t o n l y a n i n e v i t a b l e d e a d l o c k , a n d t h e a s e x u a l p o s i t i o n of w i t h d r a w i n g from t h e c o m m e r c e b e t w e e n t h e s e x e s Is a s g o o d a dinthom ( a s y m p t o m a l "knot" w h i c h holds a subject together) to deal w i t h this d e a d l o c k a s a n y other position. In s p i t e of t h i s i n t e r e s t i n g d i s p l a c e m e n t of t h e s t a n d a r d

Hollywood

f o r m u l a , it w o u l d b e , of c o u r s e , r i d i c u l o u s to c l a i m t h a t The Da Vinci Code b e l o n g s to t h e H o l l y w o o d Left. O n e h a s t o l o o k for t h e r e a l H o l l y w o o d Left e l s e w h e r e — b u t w h e r e ? Z a c k S n y d e r ' s 300, t h e s a g a of t h e t h r e e h u n d r e d S p a r t a n s o l d i e r s w h o s a c r i f i c e d t h e m s e l v e s a t T h e r m o p y l a e to h a l t t h e i n v a s i o n of X e r x e s ' P e r s i a n a r m y , w a s a t t a c k e d a s t h e w o r s t k i n d of p a t r i o t i c m i l i t a r i s m w i t h c l e a r a l l u s i o n s to t h e r e c e n t t e n s i o n s w i t h I r a n a n d e v e n t s i n I r a q — a r e , h o w e v e r , t h i n g s r e a l l y s o c l e a r ? T h e film s h o u l d , rather, be thoroughly defended against these accusations. T h e r e a r e t w o p o i n t s to b e m a d e . T h e first c o n c e r n s t h e s t o r y i t s e l f — i t i s t h e s t o r y of a s m a l l a n d p o o r c o u n t r y ( G r e e c e ) I n v a d e d b y t h e a r m y of a m u c h l a r g e r state ( P e r s i a ) , at that point m u c h more developed, a n d w i t h a d v a n c e d military technology—are the Persian elephants, giants a n d l a r g e fire a r r o w s n o t t h e a n c i e n t v e r s i o n of h i g h - t e c h w e a p o n r y ? W h e n t h e l a s t s u r v i v i n g g r o u p of S p a r t a n s a n d t h e i r k i n g , L e o n i d a s , a r e k i l l e d b y t h e t h o u s a n d s of a r r o w s , a r e t h e y n o t i n a w a y b o m b e d to d e a t h b y t e c h n o - s o l d i e r s o p e r a t i n g s o p h i s t i c a t e d w e a p o n s from a safe d i s t a n c e , l i k e t o d a y ' s U S s o l d i e r s w h o a t t h e p u s h of a b u t t o n l a u n c h r o c k e t s from 68

T H E F A M I L Y M Y T H OF I D E O L O G Y

t h e w a r s h i p s m i l e s a w a y in t h e P e r s i a n G u l f ? F u r t h e r m o r e ,

Xerxes'

w o r d s w h e n h e a t t e m p t s to c o n v i n c e L e o n i d a s to a c c e p t P e r s i a n d o m ­ i n a t i o n , d e f i n i t e l y d o not s o u n d l i k e t h o s e of a f a n a t i c a l M u s l i m f u n d a ­ m e n t a l i s t : h e t r i e s to s e d u c e L e o n i d a s i n t o s u b j e c t i o n b y p r o m i s i n g h i m p e a c e a n d s e n s u a l p l e a s u r e s if h e r e j o i n s t h e P e r s i a n g l o b a l e m p i r e . All h e asks from h i m i s t h e f o r m a l g e s t u r e of k n e e l i n g in a c k n o w l e d g m e n t of P e r s i a n s u p r e m a c y — if t h e S p a r t a n s d o t h i s , t h e y w i l l b e g i v e n s u p r e m e a u t h o r i t y o v e r a l l G r e e c e . Is t h i s not s i m i l a r to w h a t P r e s i d e n t R e a g a n d e m a n d e d from t h e N i c a r a g u a n S a n d i n i s t a g o v e r n m e n t ? All t h e y h a d to d o w a s s a y " H e y u n c l e ! " to t h e U S . . . A n d is X e r x e s ' c o u r t not d e p i c t e d as a kind

of m u l t i c u l t u r a l i s t d i f f e r e n t - l i f e s t y l e s p a r a d i s e ?

p a r t i c i p a t e s in o r g i e s t h e r e ,

different

Everyone

races, lesbians and gays,

the

h a n d i c a p p e d , a n d so f o r t h ? A r e , t h e n , t h e S p a r t a n s , w i t h t h e i r d i s c i p l i n e a n d s p i r i t of s a c r i f i c e , not m u c h c l o s e r to s o m e t h i n g l i k e t h e T a l i b a n d e f e n d i n g A f g h a n i s t a n a g a i n s t t h e U S o c c u p a t i o n (or, a n elite u n i t of t h e I r a n i a n R e v o l u t i o n a r y G u a r d r e a d y to s a c r i f i c e i t s e l f in the c a s e of a n American invasion)? Perspicuous historians have a l r e a d y noted

this

p a r a l l e l — t h i s i s from t h e b l u r b of T o m H o l l a n d ' s Persian Fire:

In t h e fifth c e n t u r y BC, a g l o b a l s u p e r p o w e r w a s d e t e r m i n e d to b r i n g t r u t h a n d o r d e r to w h a t it r e g a r d e d a s t w o t e r r o r i s t s t a t e s .

The

s u p e r p o w e r w a s P e r s i a , i n c o m p a r a b l y r i c h in a m b i t i o n , g o l d

and

men. The terrorist states w e r e A t h e n s a n d S p a r t a , eccentric cities in a p o o r a n d m o u n t a i n o u s b a c k w a t e r : G r e e c e .

W e s t e r n r a c i s t i n v e s t m e n t i n t h e b a t t l e of T h e r m o p y l a e i s e v i d e n t : it w a s v r i d e l y r e a d a s t h e first a n d d e c i s i v e v i c t o r y of t h e free W e s t a g a i n s t t h e d e s p o t i c E a s t —no w o n d e r H i t l e r a n d G o e r i n g c o m p a r e d t h e

German

d e f e a t at S t a l i n g r a d in 1 9 4 3 to L e o n i d a s ' s h e r o i c d e a t h at T h e r m o p y l a e . H o w e v e r , it i s for t h i s v e r y r e a s o n t h a t o n e s h o u l d i n v e r t t h e p e r s p e c t i v e . W e s t e r n c u l t u r a l r a c i s t s l i k e to c l a i m t h a t , h a d t h e P e r s i a n s s u c c e e d e d in subduing Greece, there w o u l d today be minarets all over Europe. This s t u p i d c l a i m i s d o u b l y w r o n g : not o n l y w o u l d t h e r e b e n o I s l a m in t h e c a s e of t h e d e f e a t of t h e G r e e k s ( s i n c e t h e r e w o u l d h a v e b e e n n o a n c i e n t G r e e k t h o u g h t a n d no C h r i s t i a n i t y , t w o h i s t o r i c a l p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s

of

I s l a m ) ; e v e n m o r e i m p o r t a n t is t h e fact t h a t t h e r e are m i n a r e t s in m a n y European

c i t i e s t o d a y , a n d t h e k i n d of m u l t i c u l t u r a l t o l e r a n c e w h i c h

m a d e t h i s p o s s i b l e w a s p r e c i s e l y t h e r e s u l t of t h e G r e e k v i c t o r y o v e r t h e Persians. 69

IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S

The main Greek arm against Xerxes' overwhelming military supre­ m a c y w a s d i s c i p l i n e a n d t h e s p i r i t of s a c r i f i c e — a n d , to q u o t e

Alain

Badiou: W e n e e d a p o p u l a r discipline. I w o u l d even s a y . . . that "those w h o have nothing h a v e only their d i s c i p l i n e . " T h e poor, those w i t h financial

no

or m i l i t a r y m e a n s , those w i t h no p o w e r — a l l t h e y h a v e is their

d i s c i p l i n e , t h e i r c a p a c i t y to a c t t o g e t h e r . T h i s d i s c i p l i n e i s a l r e a d y a form of o r g a n i z a t i o n .

In t o d a y ' s e r a of h e d o n i s t p e r m i s s l v i t y w h i c h s e r v e s a s t h e

dominant

i d e o l o g y , t h e t i m e h a s c o m e for t h e Left to ( r e ) a p p r o p r i a t e d i s c i p l i n e a n d t h e s p i r i t of s a c r i f i c e : t h e r e i s n o t h m g i n h e r e n t l y " f a s c i s t " a b o u t

these

values. B u t e v e n t h i s f u n d a m e n t a l i s t i d e n t i t y of t h e S p a r t a n s i s m o r e a m b i g ­ u o u s . A p r o g r a m m a t i c s t a t e m e n t t o w a r d s t h e e n d of t h e film d e f i n e s t h e G r e e k s ' a g e n d a a s " a g a i n s t t h e r e i g n of m y s t i q u e a n d t y r a n n y , t o w a r d s t h e b r i g h t f u t u r e , " f u r t h e r s p e c i f i e d a s t h e r u l e of f r e e d o m a n d r e a s o n — w h i c h sounds l i k e an elementai"y E n l i g h t e n m e n t p r o g r a m , w i t h even a communist

twist! Recall also that, at the

film's

beginning,

Leonidas

o u t r i g h t l y r e j e c t s t h e m e s s a g e of t h e c o r r u p t " o r a c l e s " a c c o r d i n g

to

w h o m t h e g o d s f o r b i d t h e m i l i t a r y e x p e d i t i o n to s t o p t h e P e r s i a n s — a s we

learn later, the " o r a c l e s " w h o w e r e allegedly receiving the divine

m e s s a g e in a n e c s t a t i c t r a n c e h a d in fact b e e n p a i d b y t h e P e r s i a n s , l i k e t h e T i b e t a n " o r a c l e " w h o , In 1 9 5 9 , d e l i v e r e d t h e m e s s a g e to t h e D a l a i L a m a to l e a v e T i b e t a n d w h o w a s — a s w e n o w k n o w — o n t h e p a y r o l l of the C I A ! B u t w h a t a b o u t t h e a p p a r e n t a b s u r d i t y of t h e i d e a of d i g n i t y , f r e e d o m , a n d r e a s o n , s u s t a i n e d b y e x t r e m e m i l i t a r y d i s c i p l i n e . I n c l u d i n g of t h e p r a c t i c e of d i s c a r d i n g w e a k c h i l d r e n ? T h i s " a b s u r d i t y " i s s i m p l y t h e p r i c e of f r e e d o m — f r e e d o m i s not free, a s t h e y p u t it in t h e film. F r e e d o m i s n o t s o m e t h i n g g i v e n , it i s r e g a i n e d t h r o u g h a h a r d s t r u g g l e i n w h i c h

one

s h o u l d b e r e a d y to r i s k e v e r y t h i n g . S p a r t a n r u t h l e s s m i l i t a r y d i s c i p l i n e i s not s i m p l y t h e e x t e r n a l o p p o s i t e of A t h e n i a n " l i b e r a l d e m o c r a c y , " it Is i t s i n h e r e n t c o n d i t i o n , it l a y s t h e f o u n d a t i o n for it: t h e free s u b j e c t of R e a s o n c a n o n l y e m e r g e t h r o u g h r u t h l e s s s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e . T r u e f r e e d o m i s not a f r e e d o m of c h o i c e m a d e from a safe d i s t a n c e , l i k e c h o o s i n g b e t w e e n a strawberry cake and

a chocolate

cake; true

freedom

overlaps

with

n e c e s s i t y , o n e m a k e s a t r u l y free c h o i c e w h e n o n e ' s c h o i c e p u t s a t s t a k e 70

THE FAMILY MYTH OF I D E O L O G Y

o n e ' s v e r y e x i s t e n c e — o n e d o e s it b e c a u s e o n e s i m p l y " c a n n o t d o o t h e r vvise." W h e n o n e ' s c o u n t r y i s u n d e r foreign o c c u p a t i o n a n d o n e is c a l l e d b y a r e s i s t a n c e l e a d e r to j o i n t h e fight a g a i n s t t h e o c c u p i e r s , t h e r e a s o n g i v e n i s n o t " y o u a r e free to c h o o s e , " b u t : " C a n ' t y o u s e e t h a t t h i s i s t h e o n l y t h i n g y o u c a n d o if y o u w a n t to r e t a i n y o u r d i g n i t y ? " N o w o n d e r t h a t a l l t h e e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y e g a l i t a r i a n r a d i c a l s , from R o u s s e a u to t h e Jacobins, imagined republican France a s the n e w Sparta: there is an e m a n c i p a t o r y c o r e i n t h e S p a r t a n s p i r i t of m i l i t a r y d i s c i p l i n e w h i c h survives even w h e n

w e subtract

a l l t h e h i s t o r i c a l p a r a p h e r n a l i a of

S p a r t a n c l a s s r u l e , r u t h l e s s e x p l o i t a t i o n of a n d t e r r o r o v e r t h e i r s l a v e s , a n d s o forth —no w o n d e r t o o t h a t T r o t s k y h i m s e l f c a l l e d t h e S o v i e t U n i o n i n t h e difficult y e a r s of " w a r c o m m u n i s m " a " p r o l e t a r i a n S p a r t a . " E v e n m o r e i m p o r t a n t i s , p e r h a p s , t h e film's f o r m a l a s p e c t : t h e e n t i r e film w a s s h o t in a w a r e h o u s e in M o n t r e a l , w i t h t h e e n t i r e

background

a n d m a n y of t h e p e o p l e a n d o b j e c t s d i g i t a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d . T h e a r t i f i c i a l c h a r a c t e r of t h e b a c k g r o u n d s e e m s to infect t h e " r e a l " a c t o r s t h e m s e l v e s , w h o often a p p e a r l i k e c h a r a c t e r s from c o m i c s b r o u g h t to life ( t h e film i s b a s e d on F r a n k M i l l e r ' s g r a p h i c n o v e l 300). F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e a r t i f i c i a l ( d i g i t a l ) n a t u r e of t h e b a c k g r o u n d c r e a t e s a c l a u s t r o p h o b i c

atmosphere,

a s if t h e s t o r y i s n o t t a k i n g p l a c e in " r e a l " r e a l i t y w i t h i t s e n d l e s s o p e n h o r i z o n s , b u t i n a " c l o s e d w o r l d , " a k i n d of r e l i e f - w o r l d of c l o s e d s p a c e . A e s t h e t i c a l l y , w e a r e h e r e s t e p s a h e a d of t h e Star Ward a n d Tjord of the Ringd s e r i e s : a l t h o u g h , in t h e s e s e r i e s a l s o , m a n y b a c k g r o u n d o b j e c t s a n d p e r s o n s a r e d i g i t a l l y c r e a t e d , t h e i m p r e s s i o n i s n o n e t h e l e s s o n e of ( r e a l a n d ) digital actord and ohjectd ( e l e p h a n t s , Y o d a , U r k h s , p a l a c e s , e t c . ) placed in a "real" open world; i n 300, o n t h e c o n t r a r y , a l l t h e m a i n c h a r a c t e r s a r e "real" actord placed against an artifical background, a c o m b i n a t i o n

which

p r o d u c e s a m u c h m o r e u n c a n n y " c l o s e d " w o r l d of a " c y b o r g " m i x t u r e of r e a l p e o p l e i n t e g r a t e d i n t o a n a r t i f i c i a l w o r l d . It is o n l y w i t h 300 t h a t t h e c o m b i n a t i o n of " r e a l " a c t o r s a n d o b j e c t s w i t h a d i g i t a l e n v i r o n m e n t h a s c o m e c l o s e to c r e a t i n g a t r u l y n e w a u t o n o m o u s a e s t h e t i c s p a c e . T h e p r a c t i c e of m i x i n g different a r t s , of i n c l u d i n g i n o n e a r t i s t i c form t h e r e f e r e n c e to a n o t h e r , h a s a l o n g t r a d i t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h r e g a r d to c i n e m a ; m a n y of H o p p e r ' s p o r t r a i t s of a w o m a n a t a n o p e n

window,

l o o k i n g out, a r e c l e a r l y m e d i a t e d b y t h e e x p e r i e n c e of c i n e m a ( t h e y offer a s h o t w i t h o u t its c o u n t e r - s h o t ) . W h a t m a k e s 500 n o t a b l e is t h a t in it ( n o t for t h e first t i m e , of c o u r s e , b u t in a w a y w h i c h i s a r t i s t i c a l l y m u c h m o r e m t e r e s t i n g t h a n , s a y . W a r r e n B e a t t y ' s Dick Tracy) a t e c h n i c a l l y m o r e d e v e l o p e d a r t form ( d i g i t a l i z e d c i n e m a ) r e f e r s to a l e s s d e v e l o p e d

form 7!

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

( c o m i c s ) . T h e effect p r o d u c e d i s t h a t of " t r u e r e a h t y " l o s i n g i t s i n n o c e n c e , a p p e a r i n g a s p a r t of a c l o s e d a r t i f i c i a l u n i v e r s e , w h i c h is a p e r f e c t f i g u r a t i o n of o u r s o c i o - l d e o l o g i c a l p r e d i c a m e n t . T h o s e c r i t i c s w h o c l a i m e d t h a t t h e " s y n t h e s i s " of t h e t w o a r t f o r m s in 300 i s a f a i l u r e a r e t h u s w r o n g b e c a u s e t h e y a r e r i g h t : of c o u r s e t h e " s y n t h e s i s " falls, of c o u r s e t h e u n i v e r s e w e s e e on t h e s c r e e n i s t r a v e r s e d b y a p r o f o u n d a n t a g o n i s m a n d i n c o n s i s t e n c y , b u t it i s t h i s v e r y a n t a g o n ­ ism w h i c h i s a n i n d i c a t i o n of t r u t h .

History and family in F r a n k e n s t e i n There is, however, a more fundamental question to be raised apropos the f a m i l y myth a s i n t e r p r e t i v e tool. It s e e m s o b v i o u s t h a t t h e first t a s k of t h e c r i t i q u e of i d e o l o g y i s , of c o u r s e , t o t r e a t t h e f a m i l y n a r r a t i v e a s a n ideological m y t h w h i c h should be h a n d l e d like a d r e a m ' s explicit text, w h i c h should be d e c i p h e r e d b a c k into the true struggle obfuscated b y the f a m i l y n a r r a t i v e . W h a t if, h o w e v e r , o n e f o l l o w s h e r e t h e h o m o l o g y w i t h t h e F r e u d i a n l o g i c o f d r e a m s to t h e e n d , b e a r i n g in m i n d t h a t t h e t r u e f o c u s of a d r e a m , i t s " u n c o n s c i o u s d e s i r e , " i s n o t t h e d r e a m - t h o u g h t , b u t s o m e t h i n g that, p a r a d o x i c a l l y , i n s c r i b e s itself i n t o a d r e a m - t e x t t h r o u g h t h e v e r y m e c h a n i s m s of t h e t r a n s p o s i t i o n of t h e d r e a m - t h o u g h t i n t o t h e d r e a m - t e x t ? In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e u n c o n s c i o u s d e s i r e i n a d r e a m i s not s i m p l y i t s c o r e w h i c h n e v e r a p p e a r s d i r e c t l y , w h i c h Is d i s t o r t e d b y t h e t r a n s l a t i o n i n t o t h e m a n i f e s t d r e a m - t e x t , b u t t h e v e r y p r i n c i p l e of t h i s d i s t o r t i o n — h e r e i s F r e u d ' s u n s u r p a s s e d f o r m u l a t i o n of t h i s p a r a d o x :

The latent dream-thoughts a r e the material w h i c h the dream-work t r a n s f o r m s i n t o t h e m a n i f e s t d r e a m . [. . . ] T h e o n l y e s s e n t i a l t h i n g about d r e a m s is the d r e a m - w o r k that h a s influenced the thoughtm a t e r i a l . W e h a v e n o right to i g n o r e it in o u r t h e o r y , e v e n t h o u g h w e m a y d i s r e g a r d it in certain practical situations. A n a l y t i c observation s h o w s f u r t h e r t h a t t h e d r e a m - w o r k n e v e r r e s t r i c t s i t s e l f to t r a n s l a t i n g t h e s e t h o u g h t s i n t o t h e a r c h a i c o r r e g r e s s i v e m o d e of e x p r e s s i o n t h a t i s f a m i l i a r to y o u . I n a d d i t i o n , it r e g u l a r l y t a k e s p o s s e s s i o n of s o m e t h i n g e l s e , w h i c h i s n o t p a r t of t h e l a t e n t t h o u g h t s of t h e p r e v i o u s d a y , b u t w h i c h i s t h e t r u e m o t i f force for t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e d r e a m . T h i s i n d i s p e n s a b l e a d d i t i o n [^unentbehrliche Zutat^ i s t h e e q u a l l y u n c o n s c i o u s w i s h for t h e fulfillment of w h i c h t h e c o n t e n t of t h e d r e a m is g i v e n its n e w form. A d r e a m m a y t h u s b e a n y sort of t h i n g i n s o f a r a s y o u a r e 72

THE FAMILY MYTH OF I D E O L O G Y

o n l y t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e t h o u g h t s it r e p r e s e n t s — a w a r n i n g , a n i n t e n t i o n , a p r e p a r a t i o n , a n d so on; b u t it i s a l w a y s a l s o t h e fulfillment of a n u n c o n s c i o u s w i s h a n d , i f y o u a r e c o n s i d e r i n g it a s a p r o d u c t of t h e d r e a m - w o r k , it i s o n l y that. A d r e a m is t h e r e f o r e n e v e r s i m p l y a n i n t e n t i o n , o r a w a r n i n g , b u t a l w a y s a n Intention etc., t r a n s l a t e d i n t o t h e a r c h a i c m o d e of t h o u g h t b y t h e h e l p of a n u n c o n s c i o u s w i s h a n d transformed

to fulfill t h a t w i s h . T h e o n e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , t h e w i s h -

fulfillment, i s t h e i n v a r i a b l e o n e ; t h e o t h e r m a y v a r y . It m a y for i t s p a r t o n c e m o r e b e a w i s h , in w h i c h c a s e t h e d r e a m w i l l , w i t h t h e h e l p of a n u n c o n s c i o u s w i s h , r e p r e s e n t a s fulfilled a l a t e n t w i s h of t h e p r e v i o u s

E v e r y d e t a i l i s w o r t h a n a l y z i n g in t h i s m a r v e l o u s p a s s a g e , from

its

i m p l i c i t o p e n i n g m o t t o " w h a t i s g o o d e n o u g h for p r a c t i c e — n a m e l y t h e s e a r c h for t h e m e a n i n g of d r e a m s — i s n o t g o o d e n o u g h for t h e o r y , " to its c o n c l u d i n g r e d o u b l i n g of t h e w i s h . Its k e y i n s i g h t i s , of c o u r s e , t h e " t r i a n g u l a t i o n " of l a t e n t d r e a m - t h o u g h t s , m a n i f e s t d r e a m - c o n t e n t , a n d t h e u n c o n s c i o u s w i s h , w h i c h l i m i t s t h e s c o p e of—or, r a t h e r , d i r e c t l y u n d e r m i n e s — t h e h e r m e n e u t i c m o d e l of t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of d r e a m s ( t h e p a t h from t h e m a n i f e s t d r e a m - c o n t e n t to i t s h i d d e n m e a n i n g , t h e l a t e n t d r e a m - t h o u g h t ) , w h i c h r u n s b a c k w a r d s t h e p a t h of t h e f o r m a t i o n of a d r e a m

( t h e t r a n s p o s i t i o n of t h e l a t e n t d r e a m - t h o u g h t

manifest dream-content

into

b y d r e a m - w o r k ) . The p a r a d o x is that

d r e a m - w o r k i s not m e r e l y a p r o c e s s of m a s k i n g t h e d r e a m ' s

the this

"true

m e s s a g e " : the d r e a m ' s true core, its u n c o n s c i o u s w i s h , i n s c r i b e s itself o n l y t h r o u g h a n d in t h i s v e r y p r o c e s s of m a s k i n g , so t h a t t h e m o m e n t w e r e t r a n s l a t e t h e d r e a m - c o n t e n t b a c k i n t o t h e d r e a m - t h o u g h t e x p r e s s e d in it, w e l o s e t h e " t r u e m o t i f f o r c e " of t h e d r e a m — i n s h o r t , it i s t h e p r o c e s s of m a s k i n g i t s e l f w h i c h i n s c r i b e s i n t o t h e d r e a m i t s t r u e s e c r e t .

One

s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e t u r n a r o u n d t h e s t a n d a r d n o t i o n of t h e e v e r d e e p e r p e n e t r a t i o n to t h e c o r e of t h e d r e a m : it i s n o t t h a t w e first p e n e t r a t e from t h e m a n i f e s t d r e a m - c o n t e n t to t h e thought,

a n d then,

first-level

in a s t e p f u r t h e r ,

secret, the latent d r e a m -

e v e n d e e p e r , to t h e

dream's

u n c o n s c i o u s core, the u n c o n s c i o u s w i s h . The " d e e p e r " w i s h is l o c a t e d in the v e r y g a p b e t w e e n the latent d r e a m - t h o u g h t a n d manifest d r e a m content.^'' A p e r f e c t e x a m p l e of t h i s l o g i c in l i t e r a t u r e is M a r y S h e l l e y ' s Franken­ stein. A s t a n d a r d M a r x i s t c r i t i c a l p o i n t a b o u t t h e n o v e l i s t h a t it i s f o c u s e d on t h e d e n s e f a m i l y - a n d - s e x u a l i t y n e t w o r k in o r d e r to o b l i t e r a t e (or, 73

IN UthENSE OF LOST CAUSES

r a t h e r , r e p r e s s ) i t s t r u e h i s t o r i c a l r e f e r e n c e : h i s t o r y is e t e r n a l i z e d a s a f a m i l y d r a m a , l a r g e r s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l t r e n d s (from t h e " m o n s t r o s i t y " of r e v o l u t i o n a r y terror to the i m p a c t of scientific a n d technological revolu­ tions) are reflected/staged in a distorted m a n n e r as Victor Frankenstein's t r o u b l e s w i t h h i s father,

fiancée,

a n d monstrous p r o g e n y . . . W h i l e all

t h i s i s t r u e , a s i m p l e m e n t a l e x p e r i m e n t d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e l i m i t a t i o n s of this approach: i m a g i n e t h e same story (of D r F r a n k e n s t e i n

and his

m o n s t e r ) t o l d a s a s t o r y of t h e s c i e n t i s t a n d h i s e x p e r i m e n t ,

without

the a c c o m p a n y i n g family m e l o d r a m a ( t h e monster a s t h e a m b i g u o u s o b s t a c l e t o t h e s e x u a l c o n s u m m a t i o n of m a r r i a g e : "I'll b e t h e r e o n y o u r w e d d i n g night, " a n d so o n ) — w h a t w e w o u l d e n d u p with i s an i m ­ poverished

story, deprived of t h e dimension

w h i c h a c c o u n t s for i t s

e x t r a o r d i n a r y l i b i d i n a l i m p a c t . S o , t o p u t it m F r e u d i a n t e r m s : it i s t r u e that the explicit narrative is like a d r e a m - t e x t w h i c h refers in a n encoded w a y to its t r u e referent, i t s " d r e a m - t h o u g h t "

( t h e l a r g e r socio-histoi'lcal

d i m e n s i o n ) , r e f l e c t i n g i t i n a d i s t o r t e d w a y ; h o w e v e r , it i s t h r o u g h t h i s v e r y distortion a n d displacement that the text's "unconscious w i s h " (the s e x u a l i z e d f a n t a s y ) i n s c r i b e s Itself. T h e R o m a n t i c notion of m o n s t r o s i t y i s t o b e u n d e r s t o o d a g a i n s t t h e b a c k g r o u n d of t h e d i s t i n c t i o n , e l a b o r a t e d b y S a m u e l T a y l o r C o l e r i d g e , b e t w e e n I m a g i n a t i o n a n d F'ancy: I m a g i n a t i o n i s a c r e a t i v e p o w e r w h i c h generates organic a n d harmonious

b o d i e s , w h i l e F a n c y s t a n d s for a

m e c h a n i c a l a s s e m b l a g e of p a r t s w h i c h d o n o t fit e a c h o t h e r , s o t h a t the p r o d u c t is a m o n s t r o u s c o m b i n a t i o n l a c k i n g a n y h a r m o n i o u s u n i t y . In F rankelutein, t h e s t o r y of a m o n s t e r , t h i s t o p i c of m o n s t r o s i t y is n o t l i m i t e d to t h e n a r r a t i v e c o n t e n t ; It s o m e h o w s p i l l s o v e r a n d p e r v a d e s o t h e r l e v e l s . T h e r e a r e t h r e e l e v e l s of m o n s t r o s i t y / f a n c y .

1. First, m o s t o b v i o u s l y , t h e m o n s t e r r e a n i m a t e d b y V i c t o r i s m e ­ c h a n i c a l l y c o m p o s e d of p a r t s , n o t a h a r m o n i o u s

organism.

2. T h e n , a s t h e n o v e l ' s s o c i a l b a c k g r o u n d , s o c i a l u n r e s t a n d r e v o l u t i o n as a monstrous

decomposition

of s o c i e t y : w i t h

t h e a d v e n t of

modernity, traditional h a r m o n i o u s society is r e p l a c e d b y an i n d u s ­ trialized society in w h i c h people interact m e c h a n i c a l l y a s indivi­ duals, following their egotistic interests, n o l o n g e r feeling that t h e y belong to a w i d e r W h o l e , a n d occasionally exploding in violent rebellions.

Modern

societies oscillate between

oppression a n d

a n a r c h y : t h e o n l y u n i t y t h a t c a n t a k e p l a c e i n t h e m i s t h e artificial u n i t y Imposed b y b r u t a l 74

power.

THE FAMILY MYTH OF I D E O L O G Y

3. F i n a l l y , t h e r e is t h e novel itself, a m o n s t r o u s , c l u m s y , i n c o n s i s t e n t c o m p o s i t e of different p a r t s , n a r r a t i v e m o d e s , a n d g e n r e s . T o t h e s e t h r e e , o n e s h o u l d a d d a fourth l e v e l of m o n s t r o s i t y , t h a t of t h e interpretations provoked b y the novel: w h a t does the monster mean, w h a t d o e s it s t a n d for? It c a n m e a n t h e m o n s t r o s i t y of s o c i a l r e v o l u t i o n , of s o n s r e b e l l i n g a g a i n s t f a t h e r s , of m o d e r n i n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t i o n , of a s e x u a l r e p r o d u c t i o n , of s c i e n t i f i c k n o w l e d g e . W e t h u s g e t a m u l t i t u d e of m e a n ­ i n g s w h i c h d o n o t form a h a r m o n i o u s w h o l e , b u t j u s t c o e x i s t s i d e b y s i d e . T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of m o n s t r o s i t y t h u s e n d s u p i n m o n s t r o s i t y ( f a n c y ) of interpretations. H o w a r e to find o u r w a y in this m o n s t r o s i t y ? It i s e a s y to s h o w t h a t t h e t r u e f o c u s of M a r y S h e l l e y ' s Frankenstein i s t h e " m o n s t r o s i t y " of t h e F r e n c h Revolution, its d e g e n e r a t i o n into terror a n d dictatorship. M a r y a n d P e r c y S h e l l e y w e r e a r d e n t s t u d e n t s of t h e l i t e r a t u r e a n d p o l e m i c s r e g a r d i n g t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n . V i c t o r c r e a t e s h i s m o n s t e r in t h e s a m e city, I n g o l s t a d t , t h a t a c o n s e r v a t i v e h i s t o r i a n of t h e R e v o l u t i o n , B a r r u e l — M a r y r e a d h i s b o o k r e p e a t e d l y — c i t e s a s t h e s o u r c e of t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n (it w a s in I n g o l s t a d t t h a t t h e s e c r e t s o c i e t y of l U u m i n a t i p l a n n e d t h e R e v o l u t i o n ) . T h e m o n s t r o s i t y of t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n w a s d e s c r i b e d b y E d m u n d B u r k e p r e c i s e l y in t h e t e r m s of a s t a t e k i l l e d a n d revived as a monster:

o u t of t h e t o m b of t h e m u r d e r e d m o n a r c h y in F r a n c e h a s a r i s e n a v a s t , t r e m e n d o u s , u n f o r m e d s p e c t r e , in a far m o r e t e r r i f i c g u i s e t h a n a n y w h i c h ever y e t have overpowered the imagination, and s u b d u e d the f o r t i t u d e of m a n . G o i n g s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d to its e n d , u n a p p a l l e d b y p e r i l , u n c h e c k e d b y r e m o r s e , d e s p i s i n g all c o m m o n m a x i m s a n d a l l common means, that hideous phantom overpowered those w h o could not b e l i e v e it w a s p o s s i b l e s h e c o u l d a t all e x i s t .

F u r t h e r m o r e , Frankenstein i s d e d i c a t e d to M a r y ' s father, W i l l i a m G o d w i n , k n o w n for h i s Utopian i d e a s a b o u t t h e r e g e n e r a t i o n of t h e h u m a n r a c e . G o d w i n e n t e r t a i n e d m i l l e n n i a l e x p e c t a t i o n s in An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Political Justice ( 1 7 9 3 ) , w h e r e h e e x u l t e d in n o t h i n g l e s s t h a n t h e c o m i n g of a n e w h u m a n r a c e . T h i s r a c e , to e m e r g e o n c e population h a d been scientifically brought

over­

u n d e r c o n t r o l , w a s to b e

p r o d u c e d b y s o c i a l e n g i n e e r i n g , not s e x u a l i n t e r c o u r s e . In t h e n o v e l , Victor says: 7S

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

A n e w s p e c i e s w o u l d bless m e a s its c r e a t o r a n d s o u r c e ; m a n y h a p p y a n d e x c e l l e n t n a t u r e s w o u l d o w e t h e i r b e i n g to m e . N o f a t h e r c o u l d c l a i m t h e g r a t i t u d e of h i s c h i l d s o c o m p l e t e l y a s I s h o u l d d e s e r v e t h e i r s . T h e s y m b o l i c a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n G o d w i n a n d m o n s t e r s w a s f o r g e d in 1 7 9 6 - 1 8 0 2 , w h e n t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t h i m r e a c h e d Its p e a k . D u r i n g t h o s e y e a r s , d e m o n s a n d t h e g r o t e s q u e w e r e f r e q u e n t l y u s e d to d e f l a t e G o d w i n ' s t h e o r i e s a b o u t t h e Utopian r e g e n e r a t i o n of h u m a n i t y . Conservatives depicted Godwin a n d his writings as a nascent t h a t h a d to b e s t a m p e d

monster

o u t , l e s t E n g l a n d w e r e to g o t h e w a y of

r e v o l u t i o n a r y F r a n c e , f i o r a c e W a l p o l e c a l l e d G o d w i n " o n e of t h e g r e a t ­ e s t m o n s t e r s e x h i b i t e d b y h i s t o r y . " In 1 8 0 0 , T\\e AntiJacohm Review, w h i c h championed the attack upon William Godwin a n d M a r y Wollstonecraft, d e n o u n c e d t h e c o u p l e ' s d i s c i p l e s a s " t h e s p a w n of t h e m o n s t e r . " Frankenstein d o e s n o t d i r e c t l y a p p r o a c h Its t r u e focus; i n s t e a d , it t e l l s the story a s a depoliticized family d r a m a or a family m y t h . T h e c h a r a c t e r s of t h e n o v e l r e - e n a c t e a r l i e r p o l i t i c a l p o l e m i c s on t h e l e v e l of p e r s o n a l p s y c h o l o g y . In t h e 1 7 9 0 s , w r i t e r s s u c h a s E k i m u n d B u r k e h a d w a r n e d of a c o l l e c t i v e , p a r r i c i d a l m o n s t e r — t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y r e g i m e In F r a n c e ; In t h e a f t e r m a t h of t h e r e v o l u t i o n , M a r y S h e l l e y s c a l e s t h i s s y m b o l i s m d o w n to d o m e s t i c s i z e . H e r n o v e l r e - e n a c t s t h e m o n s t e r t r o p e , b u t it d o e s so from the p e r s p e c t i v e of i s o l a t e d a n d s u b j e c t i v e n a r r a t o r s w h o a r e l o c k e d i n p a r r i c i d a l s t r u g g l e s of t h e i r o w n . I n t h i s w a y , t h e n o v e l c a n m a i n t a i n i t s t r u e t o p i c a t a d i s t a n c e , i n v i s i b l e . A s w e h a v e n o t e d , t h i s Is a l s o t h e s t a n d a r d M a r x i s t c r i t i c a l p o i n t a b o u t Frankeiutein: it i s f o c u s e d o n t h e d e n s e f a m i l y - a n d - s e x u a l i t y n e t w o r k i n o r d e r to o b l i t e r a t e ( o r , r a t h e r , repress) its true historical reference. B u t w h y m u s t Frankeiutein

obfuscate

its true

historical

referent?

B e c a u s e i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p to t h i s t r u e f o c u s / t o p i c ( t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n ) is d e e p l y a m b i g u o u s a n d c o n t r a d i c t o r y , a n d t h e form of t h e f a m i l y m y t h m a k e s it p o s s i b l e to n e u t r a l i z e t h i s c o n t r a d i c t i o n , to e v o k e a l l t h e s e i n c o m p a t i b l e a t t i t u d e s a s p a r t s of t h e s a m e s t o r y . N o t o n l y i s Frankenstein a m y t h In L e v i - S t r a u s s ' s s e n s e , a n I m a g i n a r y r e s o l u t i o n of r e a l c o n t r a ­ dictions. O n e should also follow L é v i - S t r a u s s w h e n h e claims that F r e u d ' s a n a l y s i s of t h e O e d i p u s m y t h Is a n o t h e r v e r s i o n of t h e O e d i p u s m y t h , to b e t r e a t e d in t h e s a m e w a y a s t h e o r i g i n a l m y t h :

further

v a r i a t i o n s of a m y t h t r y to d i s p l a c e a n d r e s o l v e i n a n o t h e r w a y t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n w h i c h t h e o r i g i n a l m y t h t r i e d to r e s o l v e . In the c a s e of Frankenstein, o n e s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e t r e a t a s p a r t of t h e s a m e m y t h , a s i t s 76

THE FAMILY MYTH OF I D E O L O G Y

f u r t h e r v a r i a t i o n , t h e c i n e m a t i c v e r s i o n s (of w h i c h t h e r e a r e m o r e t h a n fifty),

a n d the m a n n e r t h e y t r a n s f o r m t h e o r i g i n a l s t o r y . H e r e a r e t h e

main moments: 1. Frankenstein

( t h e b e s t - k n o w n , J a m e s W h a l e ' s c l a s s i c from 1 9 3 1 ,

w i t h B o r i s Karloff a s t h e m o n s t e r ) : its m a i n f e a t u r e i s t h a t it l e a v e s o u t t h e s u b j e c t i v i z a t i o n of t h e

monster

(the monster

is n e v e r

a l l o w e d to tell t h e s t o r y in t h e first p e r s o n , it r e m a i n s a m o n s t r o u s Other). 2. In Frankenstein:

The True Story

handsome young man whom

(1973),

Frankenstein

creates

h e e d u c a t e s for s o c i e t y , b u t

c r e a t u r e ' s b o d y b e g i n s to d e g e n e r a t e , t u r n i n g

a

the

him against his

maker. 3. In

The Bride ( 1 9 8 5 ) , after

Frankenstein

abandons

his original

creature a s a failure, he creates a beautiful female a n d educates h e r to b e h i s p e r f e c t m a t e ; b u t s h e a l s o e s c a p e s h i s c o n t r o l . A. In K e n n e t h B r a n a g h ' s / ^ < z n / Shelley's Frankenstein, after t h e m o n s t e r k i l l s V i c t o r ' s b r i d e , V i c t o r in a d e s p e r a t e m o v e r e a s s e m b l e s a n d r e a n i m a t e s her ( t h e s c e n e c u l m i n a t e s in V i c t o r d a n c i n g w i t h h i s reanimated wife). 5. F i n a l l y , a l t h o u g h it d o e s not d i r e c t l y refer to Frankenstein, in R i d l e y S c o t t ' s BLide Runner ( 1 9 8 2 ) , P o l i c e Lt. D e c k a r d i s a s s i g n e d to h u n t d o w n a n d e l i m i n a t e a g r o u p of " r e p l i c a n t s , " s u p e r - h u m a n c r e a t u r e s g e n e t i c a l l y e n g i n e e r e d for s l a v e l a b o r , w h o h a v e r e b e l l e d a g a i n s t t h e i r c r e a t o r s a n d a r e h i d i n g in L o s A n g e l e s . T h e between

Deckard

showdown

a n d " B a t t y , " the replicant leader, obviously

r e f e r s to t h e conflict b e t w e e n F r a n k e n s t e i n a n d t h e m o n s t e r — h e r e . B a t t y , in t h e final a c t of r e c o n c i l i a t i o n , s a v e s D e c k a r d from c e r t a i n death.

W h a t a l l t h e s e films h a v e i n c o m m o n i s t h a t t h e y a l l r e p r o d u c e t h e b a s i c p r o h i b i t i o n of t h e o r i g i n a l n o v e l : n o n e of t h e m d i r e c t l y a p p r o a c h e s t h e p o l i t i c a l t o p i c ( t h e " m o n s t r o s i t y " of s o c i a l r e b e l l i o n ) ; t h e y a l l tell t h e s t o r y t h r o u g h t h e f r a m e of f a m i l y / l o v e r e l a t i o n s . S o in w h a t d o e s t h e n o v e l ' s c o n t r a d i c t o r y a t t i t u d e to its c e n t r a l t o p i c c o n s i s t ? The

m o t i f of t h e m o n s t r o s i t y

of t h e

revolution

is a

conservative

e l e m e n t , a n d the n o v e l ' s form ( a c o n f e s s i o n of t h e p r i n c i p a l c h a r a c t e r a t t h e p o i n t o l d e a t h ) is c l e a r l y r e l a t e d to a c o n s e r v a t i v e g e n r e p o p u l a r in S h e l l e y ' s t i m e , in w h i c h , after t h e y a r e f o r c e d to c o n f r o n t t h e c a t a s t r o p h i c 77

uicrcrNSt

Uh

LOST

CAUSES

r e s u l t s of t h e i r d r e a m s a b o u t u n i v e r s a l f r e e d o m a n d b r o t h e r h o o d , r e ­ pentant ex-radicals renounce their reforming w a y s . However,

Shelley

d o e s h e r e s o m e t h i n g t h a t a c o n s e r v a t i v e w o u l d n e v e r h a v e d o n e : in t h e c e n t r a l p a r t of t h e book, she m o v e s a s t e p f u r t h e r a n d d i r e c t l y g i v e s a v o i c e to t h e m o n s t e r h i m s e l f w h o i s a l l o w e d to tell t h e s t o r y from h i s o w n p e r s p e c t i v e . T h i s s t e p e x p r e s s e s t h e Hberal a t t i t u d e of f r e e d o m of s p e e c h a t its m o s t

radical: everyone's point

of v i e w s h o u l d

be h e a r d .

In

Franketuteln,

t h e m o n s t e r i s not a T h i n g , a h o r r i b l e o b j e c t no o n e d a r e s

to confront; h e is i^^Ay dubjectivized. M a r y S h e l l e y m o v e s i n s i d e t h e m i n d of the m o n s t e r a n d a s k s w h a t it i s l i k e to b e l a b e l e d , d e f i n e d , excommunicated, even physically distorted

oppressed,

by society. The

ultimate

c r i m i n a l i s t h u s a l l o w e d to p r e s e n t h i m s e l f a s t h e u l t i m a t e v i c t i m . T h e m o n s t r o u s m u r d e r e r r e v e a l s h i m s e l f to b e a d e e p l y h u r t a n d d e s p e r a t e i n d i v i d u a l , y e a r n i n g for c o m p a n y a n d l o v e . S o it i s c r u c i a l to s e e in what c o n s i s t s t h e m o n s t e r ' s o w n s t o r y . T h e m o n s t e r t e l l s u s t h a t h i s i d e n t i t y a s a r e b e l a n d m u r d e r e r w a s l e a r n e d , not i n n a t e . In d i r e c t c o n t r a d i c t i o n to t h e B u r k e a n t r a d i t i o n of t h e m o n s t e r a s e v i l i n c a r n a t e , t h e c r e a t u r e t e l l s F r a n k e n s t e i n : "I w a s b e n e v o l e n t a n d g o o d ; m i s e r y m a d e m e a fiend." S u r p r i s i n g l y , t h e m o n s t e r p r o v e s to b e a v e r y p h i l o s o p h i c a l r e b e l : h e e x p l a i n s h i s a c t i o n s in t r a d i t i o n a l r e p u b l i c a n t e r m s . H e c l a i m s to h a v e b e e n d r i v e n to r e b e l l i o n b y t h e f a i l i n g s of t h e ruling order. His superiors a n d protectors h a v e shirked their responsi­ b i l i t i e s t o w a r d s h i m , i m p e l l i n g h i m to i n s u r r e c t i o n . M o n s t e r s r e b e l not b e c a u s e t h e y a r e i n f e c t e d b y t h e e v i l s of t h e g o d l e s s r a d i c a l p h i l o s o p h y , but because t h e y have been oppressed and misused b y the regnant order. M a r y S h e l l e y ' s s o u r c e w a s h e r e h e r o w n m o t h e r ' s s t u d y . An Hutarical and Moral View of the Origin and Progresd of the French Revoiution ( 1 7 9 4 ) , i n w h i c h M a r y W o l l s t o n e c r a f t , after a g r e e i n g w i t h t h e B u r k e a n c o n s e r v a t i v e s t h a t rebels are monsters, resolutely insists that these monsters are social p r o d u c t s . T h e y a r e not t h e l i v i n g d e a d , n o r a r e t h e y s p e c t e r s a r i s e n from t h e t o m b of t h e m u r d e r e d m o n a r c h y . R a t h e r , t h e y a r e the p r o d u c t s of o p p r e s s i o n , m i s r u l e , a n d d e s p o t i s m u n d e r t h e ancien régime. T h e l o w e r o r d e r s a r e d r i v e n to r e b e l l i o n , t h e y t u r n a g a i n s t t h e i r o p p r e s s o r s

in

p a r r i c i d a l f a s h i o n . It is h e r e t h a t t h e n o v e l c o m e s c l o s e s t to p o l i t i c s : t h e m o n s t e r d e v e l o p s a r a d i c a l c r i t i q u e of o p p r e s s i o n a n d i n e q u a h t y : "I h e a r d of t h e d i v i s i o n of p r o p e r t y , of I m m e n s e w e a l t h a n d s q u a l i d p o v e r t y ; of r a n k , d e s c e n t , a n d n o b l e b l o o d . " H e s p e a k s in t h e m a n n e r of r e v o l u ­ tionary-era radicals:

78

THE FAMILY MYTH OF IDEOLOGY

I learned that the possessions most esteemed b y y o u r fellow-creatures w e r e , h i g h a n d u n s u l l i e d d e s c e n t u n i t e d w i t h riches. A m a n m i g h t b e r e s p e c t e d w i t h o n l y o n e of t h e s e a c q u i s i t i o n s , b u t w i t h o u t e i t h e r h e w a s considered, except in v e r y rare occasions, a s a v a g a b o n d a n d a s l a v e , d o o m e d t o w a s t e h i s p o w e r s for t h e profit of t h e c h o s e n few.

H e r e M a r y S h e l l e y e f f e c t i v e l y d e v e l o p s t h e " d i a l e c t i c of E n l i g h t e n m e n t " 1 5 0 y e a r s before A d o r n o a n d H o r k h e i m e r . S h e g o e s m u c h f u r t h e r

than

the usual conservative w a r n i n g s about h o w scientific a n d political pro­ gress t u r n s into n i g h t m a r e , chaos, a n d violence, h o w m a n should retain p r o p e r h u m i l i t y i n t h e face o f t h e m y s t e r y of c r e a t i o n a n d n o t t r y t o b e c o m e a m a s t e r of life, w h i c h s h o u l d r e m a i n a d i v i n e p r e r o g a t i v e . T h e m o n s t e r i s a p u r e s u b j e c t o f t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t : after h i s r e a n i m a ­ tion, h e i s a " n a t u r a l m a n , " h i s m i n d a tabula

rasa.

Left a l o n e , a b a n d o n e d

b y h i s c r e a t o r , h e h a s t o r e - e n a c t t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t t h e o r y of d e v e l o p ­ m e n t : h e h a s t o l e a r n e v e r y t h i n g from z e r o - l e v e l b y r e a d i n g a n d b y e x p e r i e n c e . H i s first m o n t h s a r e e f f e c t i v e l y t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of a k i n d o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l e x p e r i m e n t . T h e fact t h a t h e m o r a l l y fails, t h a t h e t u r n s i n t o a m u r d e r o u s v e n g e f u l m o n s t e r , i s n o t a c o n d e m n a t i o n o f h i m b u t of the s o c i e t y w h i c h h e a p p r o a c h e s w i t h t h e b e s t i n t e n t i o n s a n d a n e e d to l o v e a n d b e l o v e d . H i s s a d fate i l l u s t r a t e s p e r f e c t l y R o u s s e a u ' s t h e s i s t h a t m a n is b y n a t u r e g o o d , a n d t h a t i t i s s o c i e t y t h a t c o r r u p t s h i m . T h e v e r y fear of p r o g r e s s i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a c o n s e r v a t i v e motif. R e c a l l that, i n M a r y S h e l l e y ' s E n g l a n d , " L u d d i t e s , " g a n g s of d e s p e r a t e w o r k e r s , w e r e d e s t r o y i n g i n d u s t r i a l m a c h i n e s in p r o t e s t a g a i n s t t h e l o s s of j o b s a n d t h e g r e a t e r e x p l o i t a t i o n t h a t m a c h i n e s m e a n t for t h e m . f e m i n i s t s r e a d Frankeiutein

Furthermore,

not a s a conservative warning about the

d a n g e r s of p r o g r e s s , b u t a s a p r o t o - f e m i n i s t

c r i t i q u e of t h e d a n g e r s of

masculine k n o w l e d g e a n d technology w h i c h a i m to dominate t h e world a n d g a i n c o n t r o l o v e r h u m a n life itself. T h i s fear i s still w i t h u s t o d a y : t h e f e a r t h a t s c i e n t i s t s w i l l c r e a t e a n e w form of life o r a r t i f i c i a l i n t e l l i g e n c e w h i c h will r u n o u t of our control a n d turn a g a i n s t u s . T h e r e i s , finally, a f u n d a m e n t a l a m b i g u i t y t h a t p e r t a i n s t o t h e v e r y motrf of t h e s o n ' s r e b e l l i o n a s a m o n s t r o s i t y — w h o s e r e b e l l i o n i s t h i s In t h e n o v e l ? R e b e l l i o n i s r e d o u b l e d : t h e first r e b e l a g a i n s t p a t e r n a l o r d e r i s V i c t o r himself, a n d t h e m o n s t e r r e b e l s a g a i n s t t h e r e b e l l i o u s son. V i c t o r r e b e l s a g a i n s t t h e p r o p e r p a t e r n a l o r d e r : h i s c r e a t i o n of t h e m o n s t e r i s asexual reproduction,

n o t t h e n o r m a l s u c c e s s i o n of g e n e r a t i o n s i n a

family. 79

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

T h i s b r i n g s u s to t h e F r e u d i a n n o t i o n of t h e Unheimliche ( t h e u n c a n n y ) . W h a t i s t h e m o s t unheimlich t h i n g , t h a t c l o s e s t to u s a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e t h e o b j e c t of h o r r o r a n d d i s g u s t ? Incest: t h e I n c e s t u o u s s u b j e c t l i t e r a l l y s t a y s a t h o m e , h e d o e s not n e e d to l o o k for h i s s e x u a l p a r t n e r o u t s i d e , and h e e n g a g e s in a s e c r e t a c t i v i t y w h i c h i n s p i r e s fear a n d s h a m e in a l l of u s . N o w o n d e r , t h e n , t h a t h i n t s of i n c e s t o c c u r t w i c e in Frankemtein:

Walton

w r i t e s h i s l e t t e r s ( a n d , a t t h e n o v e l ' s e n d , d e c i d e s to r e t u r n ) not to h i s w i f e , b u t to h i s sister; in t h e first e d i t i o n of t h e n o v e l , V i c t o r ' s b r i d e i s h i s h a l f - s i s t e r . ( S o w h e n t h e m o n s t e r i s r e a l l y " t h e r e at [ t h e ] w e d d i n g n i g h t " a n d k i l l s t h e b r i d e , h e p r e v e n t s a t t h e l a s t m o m e n t t h e c o n s u m m a t i o n of an incestuous union.) W a l t o n ' s a n d V i c t o r ' s u r g e to l e a v e h o m e a n d e n g a g e in a r i s k y t r a n s g r e s s i v e a c t is t h u s m o r e a m b i g u o u s t h a n it m a y s e e m : t h e y b o t h d o it n o t o u t of s o m e p a t h o l o g i c a l b l a s p h e m o u s a m b i t i o n , b u t in o r d e r to e s c a p e t h e i n c e s t u o u s stuffiness of t h e i r h o m e . T h e r e m u s t b e s o m e t h i n g w r o n g at home. M a r y ' s husband, Percy, described w h a t w a s w r o n g in his f a m o u s s o n n e t " E n g l a n d in 1 8 1 9 " :

A n old, m a d , b l i n d , d e s p i s e d , a n d d y i n g k i n g . P r i n c e s , t h e d r e g s of t h e i r d u l l r a c e , w h o

flow

T h r o u g h p u b l i c s c o r n — m u d from a m u d d y s p r i n g . R u l e r s w h o n e i t h e r s e e , n o r feel, n o r k n o w . B u t l e e c h - l i k e to t h e i r f a i n t i n g c o u n t r y c l i n g , Till t h e y d r o p , b l i n d in b l o o d , w i t h o u t a b l o w , A p e o p l e s t a r v e d a n d s t a b b e d in t h e u n t i l l e d

field.

An army, w h i c h libertlcide a n d p r e y M a k e s a s a t w o - e d g e d s w o r d to a l l w h o w i e l d , Golden a n d sanguine laws w h i c h tempt and slay. Religion Christless, Godless — a book seal'd, A S e n a t e — T i m e ' s worst statute unrepealed. A r e g r a v e s , from w h i c h a g l o r i o u s P h a n t o m m a y B u r s t , to i l l u m i n e o u r t e m p e s t u o u s d a y .

A c o n s e r v a t i v e w o u l d r e p l y , of c o u r s e , t h a t t h i s p h a n t o m w h i c h m a y b u r s t from a g r a v e "to i l l u m i n e o u r t e m p e s t u o u s d a y " , m a y t u r n o u t not to b e so g l o r i o u s a t all, b u t r a t h e r a p h a n t o m of m u r d e r o u s r e v e n g e l i k e F r a n k e n s t e i n ' s m o n s t e r . T h i s b r i n g s u s to M a r y S h e l l e y ' s c o n t r a d i c t i o n : the c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n " o p p r e s s i o n a n d a n a r c h y " , b e t w e e n t h e stifling a n d o p p r e s s i v e h o m e a n d t h e m u r d e r o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s of o u r a t t e m p t s to 80

THE FAMILY MYTH OF I D E O L O G Y

b r e a k o u t of it. U n a b l e to r e s o l v e t h i s c o n t r a d i c t i o n , a n d not w i l l i n g to c o n f r o n t it d i r e c t l y , s h e c o u l d o n l y tell it a s a f a m i l y m y t h . T h e l e s s o n of a l l t h e s e i m p a s s e s i s not t h a t o n e s h o u l d b y p a s s t h e f a m i l y m y t h a n d t u r n d i r e c t l y to s o c i a l r e a l i t y ; w h a t o n e s h o u l d d o i s s o m e t h i n g m u c h m o r e difficult: to u n d e r m i n e t h e f a m i l y m y t h from within. T h e k e y t e s t i m o n y of a s t r u g g l e to a c h i e v e t h i s g o a l i s K a f k a ' s l e t t e r to h i s father.

A letter which d i d arrive at ltd dedtinxition T h e 2 0 0 1 D a r w i n A w a r d for t h e m o s t s t u p i d a c t w a s p o s t h u m o u s l y c o n f e r r e d on a n u n f o r t u n a t e w o m a n from r u r a l R o m a n i a w h o w o k e u p d u r i n g h e r f u n e r a l p r o c e s s i o n . C r a w l i n g o u t of h e r coffin a n d r e a l i z i n g w h a t w a s g o i n g on, s h e r a n a w a y in b l i n d t e r r o r , o n l y to b e hit b y a t r u c k on a b u s y r o a d a n d i n s t a n t l y k i l l e d . S o s h e w a s p u t b a c k i n t o t h e coffin a n d t h e f u n e r a l p r o c e s s i o n c a r r i e d on . . . Is t h i s not t h e u l t i m a t e e x a m p l e of w h a t w e c a l l f a t e — o f a l e t t e r a r r i v i n g a t its d e s t i n a t i o n ? A l e t t e r c a n a l s o r e a c h its d e s t i n a t i o n p r e c i s e l y i n s o f a r a s its a d d r e s s e e r e f u s e s to r e c e i v e i t — a s i s t h e c a s e t o w a r d s t h e e n d of Troihid and Creddida, S h a k e s p e a r e ' s aforementioned neglected masterpiece, w h e n the deceived l o v e r T r o i l u s r i p s u p a n d t h r o w s a w a y t h e l e t t e r from h i s C r e s s i d a in w h i c h s h e t r i e s to e x p l a i n h e r

flirtation

with Diomedes. W e never learn

w h a t w a s in t h e l e t t e r , a l t h o u g h t h e s c e n e c a n n o t

but

m e l o d r a m a t i c e x p e c t a t i o n s : w i l l C r e s s i d a r e d e e m herself,

arouse

our

" e x p l a i n it

a l l " ? T h e force of t h i s e x p e c t a t i o n a c c o u n t s for t h e fact that, t h r o u g h o u t t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e v e r s i o n of t h e p l a y u s u a l l y p e r f o r m e d w a s D i y d e n ' s r e v i s i o n from 1 6 7 9 , in w h i c h C r e s s i d a i s fully r e d e e m e d : w e leeirn t h a t s h e h a s p l o t t e d w i t h h e r f a t h e r a n e s c a p e b a c k to T r o y a n d to T r o i l u s , a n d t h a t h e r s e e m i n g s u r r e n d e r to D i o m e d e s w a s m e r e l y a p l o y to e n a b l e t h a t . S o , w h a t if S h a k e s p e a r e w a n t e d to m a k e a p o i n t — a n d not j u s t k e e p o u r c u r i o s i t y in s u s p e n s i o n — w h e n h e r e f u s e s to d i v u l g e its c o n t e n t ? W h a t if t h e l e t t e r w a s meant to b e r e j e c t e d ? T h e s c e n e to w h i c h t h i s l e t t e r r e f e r s o c c u r r e d e a r l i e r , w h e n , after C r e s s i d a a n d T r o i l u s s p e n d t h e i r first ( a n d o n l y ) n i g h t t o g e t h e r , s h e w a s d e l i v e r e d b y h e r o w n f a t h e r to t h e G r e e k s , a s p a r t of a c o l d b a r g a i n , in e x c h a n g e for a T r o j a n w a r r i o r c a p t u r e d b y t h e G r e e k s . In t h e G r e e k c a m p , s h e w a s g i v e n a s a b o o t y to D i o m e d e s ; in h i s tent, s h e flirts w i t h h i m , s h a m e l e s s l y offering h e r s e l f U n d e r t h e g a z e of T r o i l u s , w h o h a s b e e n b r o u g h t to t h e t e n t b y U l y s s e s . After D i o m e d e s l e a v e s t h e tent, s h e r e f l e c t s a l o u d :

81

L . ' c r c i v o i : ur

LUb I CAUSES

T r o i l u s , f a r e w e l l ! O n e e y e y e t l o o k s on t h e e , B u t w i t h m y heart the other e y e doth see. A h , p o o r o u r s e x ! T h i s fault in u s I

find:

T h e e r r o r of o u r e y e d i r e c t s o u r m i n d . W h a t error leads must err. O then conclude: JVlinds s w a y e d b y e y e s a r e full of t u r p i t u d e . (V, 2 ) T h e k e y q u e s t i o n to b e r a i s e d h e r e i s : w h a t if C r e s s i d a h a d b e e n all t h e t i m e a w a r e of b e i n g o b s e r v e d b y T r o i l u s , a n d j u s t p r e t e n d e d

to b e

t h i n k i n g a l o u d a l o n e ? W h a t if t h e e n t i r e s e d u c t i o n s c e n e , h e r s h a m e l e s s a t t e m p t t o a r o u s e D i o m e d e s ' d e s i r e , w a s staged for Troiliis'é gaze'l L e t u s n o t f o r g e t t h a t C r e s s i d a a n n o u n c e s h e r split n a t u r e a l r e a d y a t t h e l o v e r s ' first a n x i o u s m e e t i n g , w h e n s h e o m i n o u s l y w a r n s T r o i l u s of h o w

I h a v e a k i n d of self [ t h a t ] r e s i d e s w i t h y o u — B u t a n u n k i n d self, t h a t i t s e l f w i l l l e a v e T o b e a n o t h e r ' s fool.

(in,

2)

t h e r e b y f o r e s h a d o w i n g h i s b i t t e r s t a t e m e n t , after w i t n e s s i n g h e r f l i r t i n g w i t h D i o m e d e s , that, in h e r , t h e r e i s n o " r u l e in u n i t y itself." T h i s s t r a n g e i n t e r n a l d i s l o c a t i o n of h e r s i s m o r e c o m p l e x t h a n it m a y a p p e a r : p a r t of h e r l o v e s h i m , b u t t h i s p a r t is " u n k i n d , " a n d , w i t h t h e s a m e n e c e s s i t y t h a t it l i n k e d h e r to T r o i l u s , w i l l soon p u s h h e r t o w a r d s a n o t h e r m a n . T h e g e n e r a l l e s s o n of t h i s is that, in o r d e r to i n t e r p r e t a s c e n e o r a n u t t e r a n c e , s o m e t i m e s , t h e k e y t h i n g t o d o i s to Locate its true aedrcdsee. In o n e of t h e b e s t P e r r y M a s o n n o v e l s , t h e l a w y e r w i t n e s s e s a p o l i c e i n t e r r o g a t i o n of a couple

in t h e c o u r s e of w h i c h t h e h u s b a n d

tells t h e p o l i c e m a n i n

u n e x p e c t e d l y great detail w h a t happened, w h a t he saw, a n d w h a t he t h i n k s h a p p e n e d — w h y t h i s e x c e s s of i n f o r m a t i o n ? T h e s o l u t i o n : t h i s couple c o m m i t t e d the murder, a n d since the h u s b a n d k n e w that he a n d h i s w i f e w o u l d soon b e a r r e s t e d o n s u s p i c i o n of t h e m u r d e r a n d k e p t s e p a r a t e d , h e u s e d t h i s o p p o r t u n i t y to tell h i s w i f e t h e ( f a l s e ) s t o r y t h e y s h o u l d b o t h c l i n g to —the t r u e a d d r e s s e e of h i s e n d l e s s t a l k w a s t h u s n o t the p o l i c e m a n , but his wife. A n d t h u s w e c o m e to F r a n z K a f k a ' s l e t t e r to h i s father, i n w h i c h h e a r t i c u l a t e d t h e c r i s i s of p a t e r n a l a u t h o r i t y i n a l l i t s a m b i g u i t y — n o w o n d e r t h a t t h e f i r s t i m p r e s s i o n o n e g e t s i n r e a d i n g K a f k a ' s l e t t e r i s t h a t t h e r e is 82

THE FAMILY MYTH OF I D E O L O G Y

s o m e t h i n g m i s s i n g in it, t h e final t w i s t a l o n g t h e l i n e s of t h e p a r a b l e on t h e D o o r of t h e L a w ( " T h i s d o o r w a s h e r e o n l y for y o u . . . " ) : t h e f a t h e r ' s d i s p l a y of t e r r o r a n d r a g e i s h e r e o n l y for y o u , y o u h a v e i n v e s t e d in it, y o u a r e s u s t a i n i n g it . . . O n e c a n w e l l i m a g i n e t h e r e a l H e r m a n n K a f k a a s a benevolent a n d nice gentleman, g e n u i n e l y surprised at the role he p l a y e d i n h i s s o n ' s imagination.*'^ T o p u t it in C a l i f o r n i a n s t y l e , K a f k a h a d a s e r i o u s a t t i t u d e

problem

w i t h r e g a r d to h i s f a t h e r . W h e n K a f k a i d e n t i f i e d h i m s e l f a s " L o w y , " assuming his mother's

n a m e , h e l o c a t e d h i m s e l f in a s e r i e s w h i c h

c o m p r i s e s A d o r n o ( w h o a l s o s h i f t e d from f a t h e r ' s n a m e , W i e s e n g r u n d , to h i s m o t h e r ' s

f a m i l y n a m e ) , n o t to m e n t i o n

H i t l e r (from

e l g r u b e r ) — a l l u n e a s y w i t h a s s u m i n g t h e r o l e of t h e

Schick-

b e a r e r of

the

p a t e r n a l n a m e . T h i s i s w h y o n e of t h e p o i n t s in t h e l e t t e r to h i s f a t h e r i s K a f k a ' s c l a i m t h a t it w o u l d h a v e b e e n p o s s i b l e for h i m to a c c e p t ( t h e p e r s o n of) h i s father, to e s t a b l i s h a n o n - t r a u m a t i c

relationship with

h i m , if h e w e r e h i s f r i e n d , b r o t h e r , b o s s , e v e n f a t h e r - i n - l a w , j u s t n o t his father . . . W h a t b o t h e r s K a f k a i s t h e e x c e s s i v e p r e s e n c e of h i s father: h e i s too m u c h a l i v e , too o b s c e n e l y i n t r u s i v e . H o w e v e r , t h i s f a t h e r ' s e x c e s s i v e p r e s e n c e i s not a d i r e c t fact: it a p p e a r s a s s u c h o n l y a g a i n s t t h e b a c k ­ g r o u n d of t h e s u s p e n s i o n of t h e f a t h e r ' s s y m b o l i c function. T h i s f a t h e r ' s "too-muchness"

( a s E r i c S a n t n e r w o u l d c a l l i t ) is u l t i m a t e l y t h e

too-

m u c h n e s s of life itself, t h e h u m i l i a t i n g q u a l i t y of t h e f a t h e r ' s e x c e s s of vitality w h i c h undermines his authority—let u s note h o w Kafka's notices his father's

taste for i n d e c e n t e x p r e s s i o n s , w h i c h y o u w o u l d p r o d u c e in t h e l o u d e s t possible voice, laughing about them as though y o u h a d said something p a r t i c u l a r l y g o o d , w h i l e in p o i n t of fact it w a s o n l y a b a n a l little o b s c e n i t y ( a t t h e s a m e t i m e t h i s a g a i n w a s for m e a h u m i l i a t i n g m a n i f e s t a t i o n of y o u r v i t a l i t y ) .

A g a i n , o n e s h o u l d b e a r in m i n d t h e p r o p e r o r d e r of c a u s a l i t y : it i s not t h a t h i s f a t h e r ' s e x c e s s i v e v i t a l i t y u n d e r m i n e s h i s s y m b o l i c a u t h o r i t y ; it i s , r a t h e r , t h e o t h e r w a y r o u n d , n a m e l y , t h e v e r y fact t h a t K a f k a i s b o t h e r e d b y his father's

excessive vitality already presupposes

the

failure

of

symbolic authority. W h a t i s t h e t r u e function of t h e N a m e - o f - t h e - F a t h e r ?

It i s , p r e c i s e l y , to

a l l o w t h e s u b j e c t to " s y m b o l i c a l l y k i l l " t h e father, to b e a b l e to abandon h i s 83

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

father ( a n d t h e c l o s e d f a m i l y c i r c l e ) a n d f r e e l y s e t out on h i s o w n p a t h in the w o r l d . N o w o n d e r , t h e n , t h a t K a f k a ' s r e l u c t a n c e to a s s u m e t h e N a m e o f - t h e - F a t h e r is t h e v e r y I n d i c a t i o n of h i s f a i l u r e to b r e a k a w a y from h i s father: w h a t t h e l e t t e r to K a f k a ' s f a t h e r b e a r s w i t n e s s to i s a s u b j e c t w h o w a s d o o m e d to r e m a i n f o r e v e r i n t h e p a t e r n a l s h a d o w , c a u g h t u p w i t h h i m in a l i b i d i n a l d e a d l o c k . F a r from e n a b l i n g h i m to e l u d e h i s f a t h e r ' s g r a s p , K a f k a ' s refusal to a c c e p t t h e f a t h e r ' s n a m e is the s u r e s t s i g n of t h i s imprisonment. N o t in a n y s e n s e a p a s s i v e v i c t i m of h i s f a t h e r ' s t e r r o r , K a f k a w a s d i r e c t i n g t h e g a m e ( r e c a l l f r o m t h e l o n g d e b a t e b e t w e e n t h e m a n from t h e c o u n t r y s i d e a n d t h e P r i e s t , w h i c h f o l l o w s t h e p a r a b l e a b o u t t h e D o o r of the L a w in K a f k a ' s The Triai, t h e P r i e s t ' s c l a i m t h a t t h e m a n from t h e c o u n t r y s i d e w a s in t h e s u p e r i o r p o s i t i o n a n d t h a t t h e g u a r d i a n of t h e d o o r w a s r e a l l y s u b o r d i n a t e d to h i m ) . T h e p r o o f ? If t h e r e e v e r w a s a s c r e e n m e m o r y , it i s t h e a c c i d e n t f r o m w h e n h e w a s t w o m o n t h s o l d t h a t K a f k a c l a i m s a s t h e o n l y t h i n g f r o m h i s c h i l d h o o d of w h i c h h e h a s a " d i r e c t m e m o r y " ( a n d a p p e a l s to h i s f a t h e r t h a t h e s h o u l d a l s o r e m e m b e r i t ) . It was

( r e ) c o n s t r u c t e d a f t e r w a r d s , p r o b a b l y from w h a t t h e p a r e n t s told

F r a n z a b o u t i t — b u t c o v e r i n g w h a t , w e m a y a s k ? L i k e t h e p r i m a l s c e n e of the W o l f m a n , it is a r e t r o a c t i v e f a n t a s y :

T h e r e i s o n l y o n e e p i s o d e In t h e e a r l y y e a r s of w h i c h 1 h a v e a d i r e c t m e m o r y . Y o u m a y r e m e m b e r it, t o o . O n e n i g h t I k e p t on w h i m p e r i n g for w a t e r , not, 1 a m c e r t a i n , b e c a u s e I w a s t h i r s t y , b u t p r o b a b l y p a r t l y to b e a n n o y i n g , p a r t l y to a m u s e m y s e l f . A f t e r s e v e r a l v i g o r o u s t h r e a t s h a d f a i l e d to h a v e a n y effect, y o u t o o k m e o u t of b e d , c a r r i e d m e o u t onto t h e pavlatche [ t h e C z e c h w o r d for t h e l o n g b a l c o n y in t h e i n n e r c o u r t y a r d of o l d h o u s e s in P r a g u e ] , a n d left m e t h e r e a l o n e for a w h i l e in m y n i g h t s h i r t , o u t s i d e t h e s h u t d o o r . I a m not g o i n g to s a y t h a t t h i s w a s w r o n g — p e r h a p s t h e r e w a s r e a l l y n o o t h e r w a y of g e t t i n g p e a c e a n d q u i e t t h a t n i g h t — b u t I m e n t i o n it a s t y p i c a l of y o u r m e t h o d s of b r i n g i n g u p a c h i l d a n d t h e i r effect on m e . I d a r e s a y I w a s q u i t e o b e d i e n t a f t e r w a r d a t t h a t p e r i o d , b u t it d i d m e i n n e r h a r m . W h a t w a s for m e a m a t t e r of c o u r s e , t h a t s e n s e l e s s a s k i n g for w a t e r , a n d t h e n t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y t e r r o r of b e i n g c a r r i e d o u t s i d e w e r e t w o t h i n g s t h a t I, m y n a t u r e b e i n g w h a t it w a s , c o u l d n e v e r p r o p e r l y c o n n e c t w i t h e a c h other. E v e n y e a r s a f t e r w a r d I s u f f e r e d from t h e t o r m e n t i n g f a n c y t h a t the h u g e m a n , m y father, t h e u l t i m a t e a u t h o r i t y , w o u l d c o m e a l m o s t for no r e a s o n a t a l l a n d t a k e m e o u t of b e d in t h e n i g h t a n d c a r r y m e o u t 84

THE FAMILY MYTH OF I D E O L O G Y

o n t o t h e pavlatche, a n d t h a t c o n s e q u e n t l y I m e a n t a b s o l u t e l y n o t h i n g a s far a s h e w a s c o n c e r n e d . T h e g u r g l i n g s i g n i f y i n g c h a i n of t h e c h i l d I n t e n d e d t o p r o v o k e t h e f a t h e r is l i k e t h e o b s c e n e soft s o u n d s o n t h e p h o n e l i n e from t h e C a s t l e , o r t h e U S m a r i n e s ' marching chants . . . There is thus a hidden link between the " s u b v e r s i v e " p r e - s y m b o l i c b a b b l e of t h e c h i l d a n d t h e i n a c c e s s i b l e P o w e r that terrorizes the K a l k e a n hero, between superego a n d id. The true u n d e r l y i n g reproach to the father is not his p o w e r a n d a r r o g a n t d i s p l a y of a u t h o r i t y , b u t , on t h e c o n t r a r y , h i s impotence, h i s lack of s j m i b o l i c a u t h o r i t y . A r e t h e f a t h e r ' s t e r r i f y i n g o u t b u r s t s

of r a g e

(y^uten) n o t so m a n y s i g n s of h i s b a s i c i m p o t e n c e , s i g n a l s t h a t h i s c o l d a n d efficient a u t h o r i t y h a s f a i l e d ? T h e f a t h e r h i m s e l f a c c o u n t e d for h i s " i m p e r i o u s t e m p e r a m e n t " a s " d u e to [ h i s ] n e r v o u s h e a r t c o n d i t i o n " — n o t e x a c t l y a s i g n of p o w e r , b u t , a s i s c l e a r to K a f k a himself, a m e t h o d of c h e a p m a n i p u l a t i o n w o r t h y of a w e a k l i n g : " t h e n e r v o u s h e a r t c o n d i t i o n i s a means b y w h i c h y o u exert y o u r domination more strongly, since the t h o u g h t of It n e c e s s a r i l y c h o k e s off t h e l e a s t o p p o s i t i o n from

others."

H e r e i s a n o t h e r of t h e f a t h e r ' s r i t u a l i s t i c d i s p l a y s of p o w e r : "It w a s a l s o terrible w h e n y o u r a n around the table, shouting, g r a b b i n g at one, o b v i o u s l y n o t r e a l l y t r y i n g to g r a b , y e t p r e t e n d i n g t o . . . " — a r i d i c u l o u s , s e l f - u n d e r m i n i n g , d i s p l a y of p o w e r . F u r t h e r m o r e , w h a t k i n d of a f a t h e r feels so t h r e a t e n e d b y h i s t w o - m o n t h - o l d s o n t h a t h e h a s to u n d e r t a k e t h e a b s u r d l y e x c e s s i v e m e a s u r e of t a k i n g h i m o u t of t h e a p a r t m e n t ? A t r u l y a u t h o r i t a t i v e figure w o u l d d e a l w i t h t h e p r o b l e m w i t h a c o l d s t a r e . . . (And, incidentally, in the standard patriarchal family w h i c h the Kafka f a m i l y c e r t a i n l y w a s , i s t h e first s i g n of t h e l a c k of a u t h o r i t y n o t a l r e a d y t h e fact t h a t it w a s t h e father, n o t t h e m o t h e r , w h o c a m e t o r e s p o n d to t h e c h i l d ? ) It i s n o l e s s c l e a r t h a t t h e d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e f a t h e r ' s " i n t e l l e c t u a l domination" is sustained b y a b a r e l y concealed fear that this obvious fraud, t h i s s e m b l a n c e of a u t h o r i t y , w i l l b u r s t l i k e a b a l l o o n , l a y i n g b a r e father's stupidity . . .

F r o m y o u r a r m c h a i r y o u r u l e d the w o r l d . Y o u r opinion w a s correct, e v e r y o t h e r w a s m a d , w i l d , rnedhugge, not n o r m a l . Y o u r s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e i n d e e d w a s so g r e a t that y o u h a d no need to be consistent at all a n d y e t n e v e r c e a s e d to b e in t h e r i g h t . It d i d s o m e t i m e s h a p p e n t h a t y o u h a d n o o p i n i o n s w h a t s o e v e r a b o u t a m a t t e r a n d a s a r e s u l t e v e r y con­ c e i v a b l e o p i n i o n w i t h r e s p e c t to t h e m a t t e r w a s n e c e s s a r i l y w r o n g , 85

I N D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

w i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n . Y o u w e r e c a p a b l e , for i n s t a n c e , of r u n n i n g d o w n the Czechs, a n d then the Germans, a n d then the J e w s , a n d w h a t is m o r e , not o n l y s e l e c t i v e l y b u t in e v e r y r e s p e c t , a n d finally n o b o d y w a s left e x c e p t y o u r s e l f . F o r m e y o u t o o k on t h e e n i g m a t i c q u a l i t y t h a t all t y r a n t s h a v e w h o s e r i g h t s a r e b a s e d on t h e i r p e r s o n a n d not on r e a s o n .

No wonder

K a f k a ' s " e x c l u s i v e s e n s e of g u i l t " h a s b e e n r e p l a c e d b y

"insight into our helplessness, y o u r s a n d m i n e . " W e h a v e t h u s to b e v e r y p r e c i s e w h e n w e a r e d e a l i n g w i t h t h e t o p i c of p a t e r n a l a u t h o r i t y , a u t h o r i t y i s not to b e c o n f u s e d w i t h a n o v e r b e a r i n g , v i o l e n t l y i n t r u s i v e p r e s e n c e . T h a t i s to s a y , o n e w a y to r e a d K a f l i a ' s b e w i l d e r m e n t w i t h r e g a r d to h i s f a t h e r is to d e c i p h e r it a s t h e e x p e r i e n c e of t h e g a p , t h e c o n t r a s t , b e t w e e n t h e r i d i c u l o u s , p r e t e n t i o u s , a n d i m ­ p o t e n t figure t h a t is t h e r e a l i t y of h i s f a t h e r a n d t h e I m m e n s e p o w e r he nonetheless exerts: " H o w can such a pathetic

figure

nonetheless exert

such p o w e r ? " The a n s w e r w o u l d then be the socio-symbolic network that m v e s t s a n e m p i r i c a l p e r s o n w i t h p o w e r , a n d t h e g a p w o u l d b e t h a t of s y m b o l i c c a s t r a t i o n . F r o m t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r i t u a l s of i n v e s t i t u r e , w e k n o w t h e o b j e c t s w h i c h not o n l y " s y m b o l i z e " p o w e r , b u t p u t t h e s u b j e c t w h o a c q u i r e s t h e m i n t o t h e p o s i t i o n of e f f e c t i v e l y exercinng p o w e r — i f a k i n g h o l d s in h i s h a n d s t h e s c e p t e r a n d w e a r s t h e c r o w n , h i s w o r d s w i l l b e t a k e n a s the w o r d s of a k i n g . S u c h i n s i g n i a a r e e x t e r n a l , not p a r t of m y n a t u r e : I d o n t h e m ; I w e a r t h e m in o r d e r to e x e r t p o w e r . A s s u c h , t h e y "castrate" me; they introduce a g a p between w h a t I immediately a m a n d t h e function t h a t I e x e r c i s e ( t h a t Is, I a m n e v e r fully a t t h e l e v e l of m y f u n c t i o n ) . T h i s , h o w e v e r , i s not t h e w a y K a f k a e x p e r i e n c e s h i s father; t h e p r o b l e m for K a f k a i s r a t h e r t h a t h i s f a t h e r ' s b o d i l y p r e s e n c e d i s t u r b s t h e e f f i c a c y of t h e p a t e r n a l s y m b o l i c function, i n o t h e r w o r d s , h i s f a t h e r ' s excessive, almost spectral, towering presence whose impact exceeds the i m m e d i a t e r e a l i t y of h i s p e r s o n i s n o t t h e e x c e s s of t h e s y m b o l i c a u t h o r i t y o v e r i m m e d i a t e r e a l i t y ; it i s t h e e x c e s s of t h e f a n t a s m a t i c o b s c e n i t y of t h e R e a l . In F r e u d i a n t e r m s , t h e p r o b l e m w i t h K a f k a ' s f a t h e r i s t h a t , in F r a n z ' s e y e s , h e h a s " r e g r e s s e d " from t h e a g e n c y of syrmbolic L a w to t h e "primordial father

\lJr-Valer\."

T h e r e a r e t w o m o d e s of t h e M a s t e r , t h e p u b l i c s y m b o l i c M a s t e r a n d the secret Evil M a g i c i a n w h o effectively p u l l s the strings a n d does his w o r k d u r i n g the night. W h e n the subject is e n d o w e d w i t h symbolic a u t h o r i t y , h e a c t s a s a n a p p e n d i x to h i s s y m b o l i c title, t h a t i s , it is t h e b i g O t h e r , t h e s y m b o l i c i n s t i t u t i o n , w h i c h a c t s t h r o u g h h i m : suffice it to 86

THE FAMILY MYTH OF I D E O L O G Y

recall a j u d g e , w h o m a y be a miserable a n d corrupted person, but the m o m e n t h e p u t s on h i s r o b e a n d o t h e r i n s i g n i a , h i s w o r d s a r e t h e w o r d s of the

L a w itself

On

the

other hand,

the

"invisible" Master

(whose

e x e m p l a r y c a s e is t h e a n t i - S e m i t i c f i g u r e of t h e " J e w " w h o , i n v i s i b l e to t h e p u b l i c e y e , p u l l s t h e s t r i n g s of s o c i a l hfe) i s a k i n d of u n c a n n y d o u b l e of p u b l i c a u t h o r i t y : h e h a s to a c t in t h e s h a d o w s , i r r a d i a t i n g a p h a n t o m - l i k e , s p e c t r a l o m n i p o t e n c e . T h e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e p a t r i a r c h a l s y m b o l i c a u t h o r i t y , of t h e N a m e - o f - t h e - F a t h e r , g i v e s r i s e to a n e w f i g u r e of t h e M a s t e r w h o i s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y o u r c o m m o n p e e r , o u r " n e i g h b o r , " o u r i m a g i n a r y d o u b l e , a n d for t h i s v e r y r e a s o n f a n t a s m a t i c a l l y e n d o w e d w i t h a n o t h e r d i m e n s i o n of t h e Evil G e n i u s . In L a c a n i a n t e r m s :

the

s u s p e n s i o n of t h e e g o i d e a l , of t h e f e a t u r e of s y m b o l i c i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , t h a t i s , t h e r e d u c t i o n of t h e M a s t e r to an i m a g i n a r y i d e a l , n e c e s s a r i l y g i v e s r i s e to its m o n s t r o u s o b v e r s e , to t h e omnipotent Evil Genius w h o controls

superego

figure

o u r l i v e s . In t h i s

of

the

figure,

the

I m a g i n a r y ( s e m b l a n c e ) a n d t h e R e a l (of p a r a n o i a ) o v e r l a p , d u e to t h e s u s p e n s i o n of p r o p e r s y m b o l i c e f f i c i e n c y . T h e K a f k e a n L a w i s not p r o h i b i t i v e , not e v e n i n t r u s i v e o r i m p o s i n g : its r e p e a t e d m e s s a g e to t h e s u b j e c t i s " Y o u a r e free to d o w h a t e v e r y o u want!

D o n ' t a s k m e for o r d e r s ! " — w h i c h ,

of c o u r s e , i s t h e

perfect

s u p e r e g o f o r m u l a . N o w o n d e r t h a t t h e m e s s a g e of K a f k a ' s father

to

h i s son w a s : " D o w h a t e v e r y o u l i k e . S o l a r a s I'm c o n c e r n e d y o u h a v e a free h a n d . Y o u ' r e of a g e , I've n o a d v i c e to g i v e y o u . . . " T h e s e r i e s of t h e father's "rhetorical m e t h o d s " as e n u m e r a t e d b y Kalk^a—"abuse, threats, i r o n y , spiteful l a u g h t e r , a n d — o d d l y e n o u g h — s e l f - p i t y " — a r e t h e m o s t concise rendering

of t h e

superego's

ambiguity. Kafka's

father

d e f i n i t e l y a luder, if e v e r t h e r e w a s o n e , a figure o u t of w h i c h a n

was "orgy

of m a l i c e a n d spiteful d e l i g h t " e m a n a t e d . ( T h e l i n k h e r e is b e t w e e n K a f k a a n d D a v i d L y n c h : n a m e l y , the excessive clownish

figures

of t e r r o r i s t

a u t h o r i t y in Blue Velvet, Wild at Heart, Dune, Lodt Highway . . .) T h e s u p e r e g o ' s b a s i c t r i c k c o n s i s t s in r e p r o a c h i n g t h e s u b j e c t for not l i v i n g u p to its h i g h e x p e c t a t i o n s , w h i l e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y s a b o t a g i n g t h e s u b j e c t ' s efforts

(or m o c k i n g l y e x p r e s s i n g d i s b e l i e f in t h e

subject's

capacities, and then l a u g h i n g at the subject's failure). Kafka

clearly

n o t i c e d t h i s p a r a d o x a p r o p o s of h i s f a t h e r ' s d e m a n d s t h a t h e

should

b e c o m e a n a u t o n o m o u s p e r s o n w h o s u c c e e d s on h i s o w n :

B u t t h a t w a s n ' t w h a t y o u w a n t e d a t a l l ; t h e s i t u a t i o n h a d , after a l l , b e c o m e q u i t e different a s a r e s u l t of a l l y o u r efforts, a n d t h e r e w a s n o 87

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

o p p o r t u n i t y to d i s t i n g u i s h o n e s e l f a s y o u h a d d o n e . S u c h a n o p p o r ­ t u n i t y w o u l d first of a l l h a v e h a d to b e c r e a t e d b y v i o l e n c e

and

r e v o l u t i o n s , it w o u l d h a v e m e a n t b r e a k i n g a w a y from h o m e ( a s s u m i n g o n e h a d h a d t h e r e s o l u t i o n a n d s t r e n g t h to d o so a n d t h a t

Mother

w o u l d n ' t h a v e w o r k e d a g a i n s t it, for h e r p a r t , w i t h o t h e r m e a n s ) . B u t t h a t w a s not w h a t y o u w a n t e d a t a l l , t h a t y o u t e r m e d

Ingratitude,

e x t r a v a g a n c e , d i s o b e d i e n c e , t r e a c h e r y , m a d n e s s . A n d so, w h i l e on the one hand y o u tempted

m e to it b y m e a n s of e x a m p l e , s t o r y ,

and

h u m i l i a t i o n , on t h e o t h e r h a n d y o u f o r b a d e it w i t h t h e u t m o s t s e v e r i t y .

T h i s i s t h e o b s c e n e s u p e r e g o in its c o n t r a s t to t h e

Name-of-the-Father:

t h e v e r y I n j u n c t i o n " b e a u t o n o m o u s , " in i t s m o d e of o p e r a t i o n , s a b o t a g e s its g o a l ; t h e v e r y i n j u n c t i o n " B e f r e e ! " t i e s t h e s u b j e c t u p f o r e v e r in t h e v i c i o u s c i r c l e of d e p e n d e n c e . O n e c a n r e t e l l in t h e s e s u p e r e g o t e r m s e v e n t h e r e m a r k a l l e g e d l y m a d e b y B r e c h t a p r o p o s t h e a c c u s e d at t h e M o s c o w s h o w t r i a l s in t h e 1 9 3 0 s : "If t h e y a r e i n n o c e n t , statement

they deserve all the more

is t h o r o u g h l y a m b i g u o u s — i t

to b e shot. " T h i s

can be read as the

standard

a s s e r t i o n of r a d i c a l S t a l i n i s m ( y o u r v e r y I n s i s t e n c e on y o u r i n d i v i d u a l i n n o c e n c e , y o u r r e f u s a l to s a c r i f i c e y o u r s e l f for t h e C a u s e , b e a r s w i t n e s s to y o u r g u i l t w h i c h r e s i d e s in p r i v i l e g i n g y o u r i n d l v i d u a l l l y o v e r

the

l a r g e r i n t e r e s t s of t h e p a r t y ) , o r it c a n b e r e a d a s its o p p o s i t e , in a r a d i c a l l y a n t i - S t a l i n i s t w a y : if t h e y w e r e i n a p o s i t i o n t o p l o t a n d e x e c u t e t h e e x e c u t i o n of S t a l i n a n d h i s e n t o u r a g e , a n d w e r e " m n o c e n t " ( t h a t i s , t h e y d i d n o t g r a s p t h e o p p o r t u n i t y ) , t h e y e f f e c t i v e l y d e s e r v e d to d i e for falling to r i d u s of S t a l i n . T h e t r u e g u i l t of t h e a c c u s e d is t h u s t h a t , I n s t e a d of rejecting the v e r y ideological framework

of S t a l i n i s m a n d

ruthlessly

a c t i n g a g a i n s t S t a l i n , t h e y n a r c i s s i s t i c a l l y fell in l o v e w i t h t h e i r v i c t i m i z a ­ tion a n d either protested their i n n o c e n c e or b e c a m e fascinated b y the u l t i m a t e s a c r i f i c e t h e y w e r e m a k i n g to t h e p a r t y b y c o n f e s s i n g t h e i r n o n ­ e x i s t e n t c r i m e s . S o t h e p r o p e r l y d i a l e c t i c a l w a y of g r a s p i n g t h e i m b r i c a ­ t i o n of t h e s e t w o m e a n i n g s w o u l d h a v e b e e n to s t a r t w i t h t h e first r e a d i n g , f o l l o w e d b y t h e c o m m o n - s e n s e m o r a l i s t i c r e a c t i o n to B r e c h t : " B u t h o w c a n y o u c l a i m s o m e t h i n g so r u t h l e s s ? C a n s u c h a l o g i c w h i c h d e m a n d s b l i n d s e l f - s a c r i f i c e for t h e a c c u s a t o r y w h i m s of t h e L e a d e r not

function

o n l y w i t h i n a t e r r i f y i n g c r i m i n a l t o t a l i t a r i a n u n i v e r s e ? F a r from a c c e p t i n g t h e s e r u l e s , it i s t h e d u t y of e v e r y e t h i c a l s u b j e c t to fight s u c h a u n i v e r s e w i t h all m e a n s p o s s i b l e , i n c l u d i n g t h e p h y s i c a l r e m o v a l ( k i l l i n g ) of t h e t o t a l i t a r i a n l e a d e r s h i p ? " " S o y o u s e e h o w , if t h e a c c u s e d a r e i n n o c e n t , 88

THE FAMILY MYTH OF I D E O L O G Y

t h e y d e s e r v e all t h e m o r e to b e s h o t — t h e y e f f e c t i v e l y were in a p o s i t i o n to o r g a n i z e a p l o t to r i d u s of S t a l i n a n d h i s h e n c h m e n ,

a n d missed this

u n i q u e o p p o r t u n i t y to s p a r e h u m a n i t y from t e r r i b l e c r i m e s ! " T h i s , a g a i n , is t h e t w i s t e d s u p e r e g o l o g i c a t i t s p u r e s t : t h e m o r e y o u a r e i n n o c e n t , t h e m o r e y o u a r e g u i l t y , b e c a u s e y o u r i n n o c e n c e itself ( i n n o c e n c e in t h e e y e s of w h o m ? W i t h r e g a r d to w h a t ? W i t h r e g a r d to t h e o b s c e n e c r i m i n a l p o w e r ) i s t h e p r o o f of y o u r g u i l t (of y o u r c o m p l i c i t y w i t h t h i s p o w e r ) . . . A l t h o u g h F r e u d u s e s t h r e e d i s t i n c t t e r m s for t h e a g e n c y t h a t p u s h e s t h e s u b j e c t to a c t e t h i c a l l y — h e s p e a k s of t h e i d e a l e g o (Idealœh), e g o i d e a l (Jch-Ideat), a n d s u p e r e g o [IJherLch^—as

a rule he conflated the three (he

often u s e s t h e e x p r e s s i o n IchOealoder Idealkh ( e g o i d e a l o r i d e a l e g o ) , a n d t h e title of c h a p t e r III of The Ego and the Id) i s " T h e E g o a n d S u p e r e g o (Ego I d e a l ) . " Lacan, however, introduces a precise distinction

between

t h e s e t h r e e t e r m s : t h e " i d e a l e g o " s t a n d s for t h e i d e a l i z e d s e l f - i m a g e of t h e s u b j e c t ( t h e w a y I w o u l d l i k e to b e , I w o u l d l i k e o t h e r s to s e e m e ) ; t h e e g o i d e a l i s t h e a g e n c y w h o s e g a z e I t r y to i m p r e s s w i t h m y e g o i m a g e , t h e b i g O t h e r w h o w a t c h e s o v e r m e a n d p u s h e s m e to g i v e m y best, t h e i d e a l I t r y to follow a n d a c t u a l i z e ; a n d t h e s u p e r e g o i s t h i s s a m e a g e n c y in i t s vengeful, sadistic, punishing aspect. The u n d e r l j a n g structuring principle of t h e s e t r e e t e r m s is c l e a r l y L a c a n ' s t r i a d I m a g i n a r y — S y m b o l i c — R e a l : t h e ideal ego is i m a g i n a r y , w h a t L a c a n calls the "small other," the idealized d o u b l e i m a g e of m y e g o ; t h e e g o i d e a l i s s y m b o l i c , t h e p o i n t of m y S3mibolic i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , t h e p o i n t in t h e b i g O t h e r from w h i c h I o b s e r v e ( a n d j u d g e ) myself; t h e s u p e r e g o i s r e a l , t h e c r u e l a n d i n s a t i a b l e a g e n c y which bombards

me with impossible demands and which mocks

my

failed a t t e m p t s to m e e t t h e m , t h e a g e n c y in t h e e y e s of w h i c h 1 a m a l l t h e m o r e g u i l t y , t h e m o r e I t r y to s u p p r e s s m y " s i n f u l " s t r i v i n g s a n d l i v e u p to its e x i g e n c i e s . W h a t f o l l o w s from t h e s e p r e c i s e d i s t i n c t i o n s i s that, for L a c a n , t h e s u p e r e g o " h a s n o t h i n g to d o w i t h m o r a l c o n s c i e n c e a s far a s its m o s t o b l i g a t o r y d e m a n d s a r e c o n c e r n e d . " * ^ T h e s u p e r e g o i s , on the c o n t r a r y , the a n t i - e t h i c a l a g e n c y , t h e s t i g m a t i z a t i o n of o u r e t h i c a l b e t r a y a l . S o w h i c h o n e of t h e o t h e r t w o L) t h e p r o p e r e t h i c a l a g e n c y ? S h o u l d w e — a s s o m e A m e n c a n p s y c h o a n a l y s t s p r o p o s e — set u p t h e " g o o d "

(rational-

moderate, c a r i n g ) ego ideal against the " b a d " (irrational-excessive, cruel, a n x i e t y - p r o v o k i n g ) s u p e r e g o , t r y i n g to l e a d t h e p a t i e n t to g e t r i d of t h e b a d " s u p e r e g o a n d follow the " g o o d " ego i d e a l ? L a c a n opposes this e a s y W a y o u t —for h i m , t h e o n l y p r o p e r a g e n c y is t h e f o u r t h o n e , m i s s i n g from F r e u d ' s t r i p a r t i t e list, t h e o n e s o m e t i m e s r e f e r r e d to b y L a c a n a s " t h e l a w 89

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

of d e s i r e , " t h e a g e n c y w h i c h t e l l s y o u to a c t in c o n f o r m i t y w i t h y o u r d e s i r e . T h e g a p b e t w e e n t h i s " l a w of d e s i r e " a n d t h e e g o i d e a l

(the

n e t w o r k of s o c i a l - s y m b o l i c n o r m s a n d i d e a l s t h a t t h e s u b j e c t i n t e r n a l i z e s in t h e c o u r s e of h e r e d u c a t i o n ) i s c r u c i a l h e r e . F o r L a c a n , t h e e g o i d e a l , t h i s s e e m i n g l y b e n e v o l e n t a g e n c y w h i c h l e a d s u s to m o r a l g r o w t h a n d m a t u r i t y , f o r c e s u s to b e t r a y t h e " l a w of d e s i r e " b y a d o p t i n g t h e " r e a s o n ­ a b l e " d e m a n d s of t h e e x i s t i n g s o c i o - s y m b o l i c o r d e r . T h e s u p e r e g o , w i t h its e x c e s s i v e f e e l i n g of g u i l t , is m e r e l y the n e c e s s a r y o b v e r s e of t h e e g o i d e a l : it e x e r t s i t s u n b e a r a b l e p r e s s u r e u p o n u s o n b e h a l f of o u r b e t r a y a l of t h e " l a w of d e s i r e . " In short, for L a c a n , t h e g u i l t w e e x p e r i e n c e u n d e r t h e s u p e r e g o ' s p r e s s u r e is not i l l u s o r y b u t a c t u a l — " t h e o n l y t h i n g of w h i c h o n e c a n b e g u i l t y i s of h a v i n g g i v e n g r o u n d

r e l a t i v e to

one's

d e s i r e , " a n d the s u p e r e g o ' s p r e s s u r e d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t w e e f f e c t i v e l y are g u i l t y of b e t r a y i n g o u r d e s i r e . B a c k to Kafka: he formulates this s a m e i n s i g h t a p r o p o s the

father's

r e a c t i o n s to h i s a t t e m p t s to g e t m a r r i e d ;

The fundamental thought behind both a t t e m p t s at m a r r i a g e w a s quite s o u n d : to set u p h o u s e , to b e c o m e i n d e p e n d e n t .

An idea that does

a p p e a l t o y o u , o n l y i n r e a l i t y it a l w a y s t u r n s o u t l i k e t h e c h i l d r e n ' s g a m e in w h i c h o n e h o l d s a n d e v e n g r i p s t h e o t h e r ' s h a n d , c a l l i n g out: "Oh, go a w a y , go a w a y , w h y don't y o u go a w a y ? "

W h a t the f a t h e r w a s t h u s p r e v e n t i n g is K a f k a ' s m a r r i a g e : in h i s c a s e , the f a t h e r d i d not a c t a s t h e g u a r a n t o r of m a r r i a g e , a s t h e a g e n t of s y m b o l i c authority (see L a c a n ' s thesis that a h a r m o n i o u s s e x u a l relationship can o n l y t a k e p l a c e u n d e r t h e c o v e r of t h e N a m e - o f - t h e - F a t h e r ) , s u p e r e g o o b s t a c l e , a s w h a t F r e u d , in h i s a n a l y s i s of E . T . A . Sandimin,

b u t a s its Hoffmann's

c a l l s LieheMtörer, t h e o b s t a c l e w h i c h d i s t u r b s / p r e v e n t s t h e l o v e

r e l a t i o n s h i p . W e e n c o u n t e r h e r e t h e s u p e r e g o p a r a d o x a t its p u r e s t ; t h e f a t h e r w h o p r e v e n t s the l o v e r e l a t i o n s h i p is p r e c i s e l y t h e o b s c e n e w h o e n j o i n s u s to " d o i t , " to e n g a g e in s e x u a l p r o m i s c u i t y

father

without

c o n s t r a i n t s ; a n d , i n v e r s e l y , t h e f a t h e r w h o o p e n s u p t h e s p a c e for a l o v e r e l a t i o n s h i p is the f a t h e r w h o i s the a g e n c y of p r o h i b i t i o n , of t h e s y m b o l i c Law.

T h a t i s to s a y , K a f k a ' s d e s i r e for a p r o p e r f a t h e r i s not a m a s o c h i s t i c

d e s i r e for s u b o r d i n a t i o n to a n a u t h o r i t y ; it i s , on t h e c o n t r a r y , a d e s i r e for f r e e d o m a n d a u t o n o m y . T h e p a r a d o x is t h u s t h a t freedom from h i s f a t h e r m e a n s aMumlng

h'u father's mime, w h i c h p u t s t h e m

on t h e s a m e l e v e l :

" M a r r i a g e c e r t a i n l y i s t h e p l e d g e of t h e m o s t a c u t e f o r m of s e l f - l i b e r a t i o n 90

T H E F A M I L Y M Y T H OF I D E O L O G Y

a n d i n d e p e n d e n c e . I w o u l d h a v e a f a m i l y , in m y o p i n i o n t h e h i g h e s t o n e c a n a c h i e v e , a n d so too t h e h i g h e s t y o u h a v e a c h i e v e d . " T h e c h o i c e K a f k a c o n f r o n t e d w a s b e t w e e n t h e t w o w a y s of e s c a p i n g from h i s father, t w o m o d e s of i n d e p e n d e n c e : m a r r i a g e o r w r i t i n g , U père ou pire, h i s father o r t h e " a l m o s t n o t h i n g " of w r i t i n g : in m y w r i t i n g , a n d in e v e r y t h i n g c o n n e c t e d w i t h it, I h a v e m a d e s o m e a t t e m p t s a t i n d e p e n d e n c e , a t t e m p t s a t e s c a p e , w i t h t h e v e r y s m a l l e s t of s u c c e s s ; t h e y w i l l s c a r c e l y l e a d a n y farther; m u c h c o n f i r m s t h i s for m e . N e v e r t h e l e s s it i s m y d u t y or, r a t h e r , t h e e s s e n c e of m y life, to w a t c h o v e r t h e m , to let n o d a n g e r t h a t I c a n a v e r t , i n d e e d n o p o s s i b i l i t y of s u c h a d a n g e r , a p p r o a c h t h e m . M a r r i a g e b e a r s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of s u c h a danger.

And he continues, t h e final o u t c o m e is c e r t a i n : I m u s t r e n o u n c e . T h e s i m i l e of t h e b i r d in t h e h a n d a n d t h e t w o in t h e b u s h h a s o n l y a fiery r e m o t e a p p l i c a t i o n h e r e . In m y h a n d I h a v e n o t h i n g , i n t h e b u s h is e v e r y t h i n g , a n d y e t —so it i s d e c i d e d b y t h e c o n d i t i o n s of b a t t l e a n d t h e e x i g e n c y of life —I m u s t choose the

Kafka's

nothing.

self-humiliation,

which

includes

excremental

identification

( " A n d so if t h e w o r l d c o n s i s t e d o n l y of m e a n d y o u , a n o t i o n I w a s m u c h i n c l i n e d to h a v e , t h e n t h i s p u r i t y of t h e w o r l d c a m e to a n e n d w i t h y o u a n d , b y v i r t u e of y o u r a d v i c e , t h e filth b e g a n w i t h m e " ) , i s t h u s p r o f o u n d l y d e c e p t i v e : it i s e a s y to d i s c e r n in K a f k a ' s c l a i m t h a t h e i s " t h e r e s u l t of y o u r u p b r i n g i n g a n d of m y o b e d i e n c e " t h e s t r a t a g e m of d e n y i n g o n e ' s o w n l i b i d i n a l i n v o l v e m e n t i n o n e ' s s a d fate. T h e s t r a t e g y i s c l e a r h e r e : / wiitingLy lUdunie

my fiith in order for my father to renuiin pure. T h i s

b e c o m e s e s p e c i a l l y c l e a r w h e n o n e b e a r s in m i n d w h e n , p r e c i s e l y , t h i s s e l f - i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h " f i l t h " o c c u r s : a t the e x a c t ( a n d m o s t t r a u m a t i c ) p o i n t of t h e letter, w h e n K a f k a r e p o r t s on t h e ( r a r e ) m o m e n t s w h e n h i s f a t h e r offered h i m " r e a l i s t i c " / o b s c e n e a d v i c e on h o w to d e a l w i t h s e x ( d o it d i s c r e e t l y , h a v e y o u r fun, d o n o t t a k e t h i n g s too s e r i o u s l y , d o not fall for t h e first girl w h o offers h e r s e l f to y o u , r e m e m b e r t h e y a r e a l l t h e s a m e w h o r e s , j u s t u s e t h e m a n d m o v e on . . . ) . F o r e x a m p l e , K a f k a r e c a l l s a "brief discussion" that followed

91

IN D E F E N S E OF L O S T C A U S E S

the

announcement

of m y l a t e s t m a r r i a g e p l a n s . Y o u

s a i d to

me

s o m e t h i n g l i k e t h i s : " S h e p r o b a b l y p u t on a f a n c y b l o u s e , s o m e t h i n g t h e s e P r a g u e J e w e s s e s a r e g o o d at, a n d decided

to m a r r y

tomorrow,

her.

And

right

a w a y , of c o u r s e , y o u

t h a t a s fast a s p o s s i b l e ,

in a w e e k ,

t o d a y . I c a n ' t u n d e r s t a n d y o u : after a l l , y o u ' r e a g r o w n

m a n , y o u l i v e in t h e c i t y , a n d y o u d o n ' t k n o w w h a t to d o b u t m a r r y the first g i r l w h o c o m e s a l o n g . Isn't t h e r e a n y t h i n g e l s e y o u c a n d o ? If y o u ' r e f r i g h t e n e d , I'll g o w i t h y o u . " Y o u p u t it in m o r e d e t a i l a n d m o r e plainly, but

I c a n n o l o n g e r r e c a l l t h e d e t a i l s , p e r h a p s too

things

b e c a m e a l i t t l e v a g u e b e f o r e m y e y e s , I p a i d a l m o s t m o r e a t t e n t i o n to M o t h e r w h o , t h o u g h in c o m p l e t e a g r e e m e n t w i t h y o u , t o o k s o m e t h i n g from

the

t a b l e a n d left t h e r o o m w i t h it. Y o u h a v e h a r d l y

ever

humiliated me more deeply with w o r d s a n d shown me y o u r contempt more clearly.

T h e " r e a l m e a n i n g " of t h i s a d v i c e w a s c l e a r to K a f k a : " w h a t y o u a d v i s e d m e to d o w a s in y o u r o p i n i o n a n d e v e n m o r e in m y o p i n i o n a t t h a t t i m e , t h e filthiest t h i n g p o s s i b l e . " F o r K a f k a , t h i s d i s p l a c e m e n t of " f i l t h " o n t o t h e son w a s p a r t of t h e f a t h e r ' s s t r a t e g y to k e e p h i m s e l f p u r e — a n d it is at this point that Kafka's o w n identification w i t h "filth" occurs:

T h u s y o u b e c a m e still p u r e r , r o s e still h i g h e r . T h e t h o u g h t t h a t y o u m i g h t h a v e g i v e n y o u r s e l f s i m i l a r a d v i c e b e f o r e y o u r m a r r i a g e w a s to m e u t t e r l y u n t h i n k a b l e . S o t h e r e w a s h a r d l y a n y s m u d g e of e a r t h l y filth on y o u at a l l . A n d it w a s y o u w h o p u s h e d m e d o w n i n t o t h i s filth — j u s t a s t h o u g h I w e r e p r e d e s t i n e d to it w i t h a f e w f r a n k w o r d s . A n d so, if t h e w o r l d c o n s i s t e d o n l y of m e a n d y o u ( a n o t i o n I w a s m u c h i n c l i n e d to h a v e ) , t h e n t h i s p u r i t y of t h e w o r l d c a m e to a n e n d w i t h y o u a n d , b y v i r t u e of y o u r a d v i c e , t h e filth b e g a n w i t h m e .

A g a i n , it is h e r e t h a t K a f k a c h e a t s : it i s not h i s f a t h e r ' s , b u t hi) own, d e s p e r a t e s t r i v i n g to k e e p t h e f a t h e r p u r e — i t is for K a f k a h i m s e l f t h a t a n y n o t i o n of h i s f a t h e r f o l l o w i n g s i m i l a r a d v i c e ( a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , d w e l l i n g in " f i l t h " ) i s " u t t e r l y u n t h i n k a b l e , " w h i c h m e a n s ; t o t a l l y c a t a s t r o p h i c , f o r e c l o s e d from h i s u n i v e r s e . T h e r e follows a w e i r d but crucial conclusion: the father's

prosopo­

p o e i a . In h i s f a t h e r ' s r e p l y a s i m a g i n e d b y K a f k a , t h e f a t h e r i m p u t e s to K a f k a t h a t w h a t e v e r h e w o u l d h a v e d o n e ( n a m e l y to s u p p o r t o r o p p o s e K a f k a ' s m a r r i a g e p l a n s ) , it w o u l d h a v e b a c k f i r e d a n d h a v e b e e n t w i s t e d 92

T H E F A M I L Y M Y T H OF I D E O L O G Y

b y K a f l i a i n t o an o b s t a c l e . T h e f a t h e r e v o k e s h e r e t h e s t a n d a r d l o g i c of (paternal) prohibition a n d its transgression: M y a v e r s i o n to y o u r m a r r i a g e w o u l d not h a v e p r e v e n t e d it; on t h e c o n t r a r y , it w o u l d h a v e b e e n a n a d d e d i n c e n t i v e for y o u to m a r r y t h e g i r l , for it w o u l d h a v e m a d e t h e " a t t e m p t a t e s c a p e , " a s y o u p u t it, complete. O n e h a s to b e v e r y p r e c i s e h e r e a n d a v o i d c o n f u s i n g t h i s e n t a n g l e m e n t of t h e l a w a n d its t r a n s g r e s s i o n ( t h e l a w s u s t a i n e d b y a h i d d e n c a l l for its o w n t r a n s g r e s s i o n ) w i t h t h e s u p e r e g o p r o p e r a s its ( a l m o s t ) s y m m e t r i ­ cally opposite.

On

the one hand,

it is t h e h i d d e n

(non-articulated)

i n j u n c t i o n " E n j o y ! V i o l a t e t h e l a w ! " t h a t r e v e r b e r a t e s in t h e e x p l i c i t p r o h i b i t i o n ; on t h e o t h e r ( m u c h m o r e i n t e r e s t i n g a n d u n e a s y ) h a n d , it i s t h e h i d d e n ( n o n - a r t i c u l a t e d ) i n j u n c t i o n to fail t h a t r e v e r b e r a t e s i n t h e explicit permissive call " B e free!

Enjoy!"

T h e l a s t p a r a g r a p h d o e s b r e a k t h e v i c i o u s c y c l e of m u t u a l a c c u s a t i o n s a n d i s t h u s h e s i t a n t l y " o p t i m i s t i c , " o p e n i n g u p a m i n i m a l s p a c e ol t r u c e and a symbolic pact. M y a n s w e r to t h i s i s that, after all, t h i s w h o l e r e j o i n d e r — w h i c h c a n p a r t l y a l s o b e t u r n e d a g a i n s t y o u — d o e s not c o m e from y o u , b u t from m e . N o t e v e n y o u r m i s t r u s t of o t h e r s i s a s g r e a t a s m y self-mistrust, w h i c h y o u h a v e b r e d in m e . I d o not d e n y a c e r t a i n j u s t i f i c a t i o n for t h i s r e j o i n d e r , w h i c h in i t s e l f c o n t r i b u t e s n e w m a t e r i a l to t h e c h a r a c t e r ­ i z a t i o n of o u r r e l a t i o n s h i p . N a t u r a l l y t h i n g s c a n n o t

in r e a l i t y

fit

t o g e t h e r the w a y t h e e v i d e n c e d o e s in m y l e t t e r ; h i e is m o r e t h a n a C h i n e s e puzzle. B u t w i t h the correction m a d e b y this r e j o i n d e r — a c o r r e c t i o n T n e i t h e r c a n n o r w i l l e l a b o r a t e in d e t a i l — in m y o p i n i o n s o m e t h i n g h a s b e e n a c h i e v e d w h i c h so c l o s e l y a p p r o x i m a t e s t h e t r u t h t h a t it m i g h t r e a s s u r e u s b o t h a little a n d m a k e o u r l i v i n g a n d o u r d y i n g easier. •)

W h a t w e h a v e h e r e is e t f e c t i v e l y a k i n d of ( s e l f - ) a n a l y s i s p u n c t u a t e d b y the father's ( a n a l y s t ' s ) i m a g i n e d intervention w h i c h brings about the c o n c l u s i o n : it is a s if K a f k a ' s l o n g , r a m b h n g

flow

finally

a n a l y s t ' s i n t e r v e n t i o n , a s a r e a c t i o n to w h i c h K a f k a finally

p r o v o k e s the

(the a n a l y s a n d )

e n a c t s t h e shift in his s u b j e c t i v e position, s i g n a l e d b y t h e o b v i o u s

b u t n o l e s s o d d c l a i m t h a t " t h i s w h o l e r e j o i n d e r — w h i c h c a n p a r t l y a l s o be 93

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

t u r n e d a g a i n s t y o u — d o e s not c o m e from y o u , b u t from m e . " T h e p a r a l l e l is c l e a r w i t h t h e c o n c l u s i o n of the p a r a b l e on the D o o r of t h e L a w , w h e n t h e m a n from t h e c o u n t r y i s told t h a t " t h i s d o o r w a s h e r e o n l y for y o u ' : h e r e too, K a f k a l e a r n s t h a t a l l t h e s p e c t a c l e of f a t h e r ' s o u t b u r s t s a n d so forth " w a s h e r e o n l y for h i m . " T h u s t h e l e t t e r to father did indeed a r r i v e at its d e s t i n a t i o n — b e c a u s e t h e t r u e a d d r e s s e e w a s t h e w r i t e r h i m s e l f . . . In t h i s w a y , K a f k a ' s s u b j e c t i v e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n shifts — m i n i m a l l y , b u t in a w a y w h i c h c h a n g e s e v e r y t h i n g —from t h e " a l m o s t n o t h i n g " of b e i n g ( f a t h e r ' s ) filth to " n o t h i n g a t a l l " ; if a l l of it " c o m e s from m e , " m y n u l l i t y c a n n o l o n g e r b e ( t h e o t h e r ' s ) filth. T h e m o v e t h a t c o n c l u d e s t h e l e t t e r is t h u s t h e o n e from d e a t h to s u b l i m a t i o n : K a f k a ' s c h o i c e of n o t h i n g a s o n e ' s p l a c e , the r e d u c t i o n of h i s e x i s t e n c e to t h e m i n i m u m w h e r e " n o t h i n g b u t t h e p l a c e t a k e s p l a c e , " to p a r a p h r a s e M a l l a r m é , c r e a t e s t h e s p a c e for creative sublimation (literature). To paraphrase y e t again Brecht's motto from The Threepenny Opera, w h a t is t h e filth of e n g a g i n g in s m a l l s e x u a l t r a n s g r e s s i o n s c o m p a r e d to t h e filthy p u r i t y of w r i t i n g , of l i t e r a t u r e a s " l i t t u r a t e r r e " ( L a c a n ' s p u n ) , a s t h e l i t t e r d e f i l i n g the s u r f a c e of e a r t h ?

94

3

Radical Intellectuals

O r , W h y Heidegger Tool< the Right Step (Albeit in the W r o n g Direction) in 1933

Hälng the tree in a foredl W h e n , in G.K. C h e s t e r t o n ' s " T h e S i g n of t h e B r o k e n S w o r d " ( a s t o r y from The Innocence of Father Brown),

Father B r o w n explains the m y s t e r y

to h i s c o m p a n i o n F l a m b e a u , h e b e g i n s w i t h " w h a t e v e r y o n e k n o w s " : A r t h u r St. C l a r e w a s a great and successful English general. [Every­ o n e ] k n o w s t h a t after s p l e n d i d y e t c a r e f u l c a m p a i g n s b o t h in I n d i a a n d A f r i c a h e w a s in c o m m a n d a g a i n s t B r a z i l w h e n t h e g r e a t B r a z i l i a n p a t r i o t O l i v i e r i s s u e d h i s u l t i m a t u m . [ E v e r y o n e ] k n o w s t h a t on t h a t o c c a s i o n S t . C l a r e w i t h a v e r y s m a l l force a t t a c k e d O l i v i e r w i t h a v e r y l a r g e o n e , a n d w a s c a p t u r e d after h e r o i c r e s i s t a n c e . A n d [ e v e r y o n e ] k n o w s t h a t after h i s c a p t u r e , a n d to t h e a b h o r r e n c e of t h e c i v i l i s e d w o r l d , S t . C l a r e w a s h a n g e d on t h e n e a r e s t t r e e . H e w a s

found

s w i n g i n g t h e r e after t h e B r a z i l i a n s h a d r e t i r e d , w i t h h i s b r o k e n s w o r d h u n g round his neck.

H o w e v e r , F a t h e r B r o w n n o t i c e s t h a t s o m e t h i n g d o e s not fit in t h i s s t o r y that e v e r y b o d y k n o w s : St. Clare, w h o w a s a l w a y s a prudent

commander,

c h a r a c t e r i z e d m o r e b y a s e n s e of d u t y t h a n b y d a s h i n g , m a d e a foolish a t t a c k w h i c h e n d e d i n d i s a s t e r ; O l i v i e r , w h o w a s m a g n a n i m o u s to t h e p o i n t of k n i g h t e r r a n t r y a n d a l w a y s set free p r i s o n e r s , c r u e l l y k i l l e d S t . C l a r e . T o a c c o u n t for t h i s m y s t e r y . F a t h e r B r o w n e v o k e s a m e t a p h o r :

" W h e r e d o e s a w i s e m a n h i d e a l e a f ? In t h e forest. B u t w h a t d o e s h e d o if t h e r e is n o f o r e s t ? H e g r o w s ajforest to h i d e it i n , " s a i d t h e p r i e s t in a n o b s c u r e v o i c e . " A fearful sin. [. . . ] A n d if a m a n h a d to h i d e a d e a d b o d y , h e w o u l d m a k e a Held of d e a d b o d i e s to h i d e it i n . " 95

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

T h e d e n o u e m e n t r e h e s on the h y p o t h e s i s of t h e d a r k c o r r u p t e d s i d e of the English hero: S i r Arthur St. Clare w a s a man w h o read his Bible. That w a s w h a t w a s the matter with him. W h e n will people understand

t h a t it i s u s e l e s s for a m a n

to

read his Bible unless he also reads e v e r y b o d y else's Bible? A printer r e a d s a B i b l e for m i s p r i n t s . A M o r m o n r e a d s h i s B i b l e , a n d

finds

p o l y g a m y ; a C h r i s t i a n S c i e n t i s t r e a d s h i s , a n d Finds w e h a v e

no

a r m s a n d l e g s . S t . C l a r e w a s a n old A n g l o - I n d i a n P r o t e s t a n t s o l d i e r . [. . . ] O f c o u r s e , h e f o u n d

In t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t a n y t h i n g t h a t h e

w a n t e d —lust, t y r a n n y , treason. Oh, you

I d a r e s a y he w a s honest,

c a l l it. B u t w h a t i s t h e g o o d of a m a n b e i n g h o n e s t

as

in his

w o r s h i p of d i s h o n e s t y ?

In t h e B r a z i l i a n j u n g l e , j u s t before t h e fatal battle, t h e g e n e r a l e n c o u n ­ t e r e d a n u n e x p e c t e d p r o b l e m : h i s a c c o m p a n y i n g y o u n g e r officer. M a j o r M u r r a y , had somehow guessed the hideous truth; and as they w a l k e d s l o w l y through the jungle, he killed M u r r a y w i t h his sabre. B u t w h a t c o u l d h e d o n o w w i t h t h i s b o d y h e w o u l d h a v e to a c c o u n t for? " H e c o u l d m a k e t h e c o r p s e l e s s u n a c c o u n t a b l e . H e c o u l d c r e a t e a hill of c o r p s e s to c o v e r t h i s o n e . In t w e n t y m i n u t e s e i g h t h u n d r e d E n g l i s h s o l d i e r s w e r e m a r c h i n g d o w n to t h e i r d e a t h . " H e r e , h o w e v e r , t h i n g s w e n t w r o n g for t h e g e n e r a l : the s u r v i v i n g E n g l i s h s o l d i e r s s o m e h o w g u e s s e d w h a t h e h a d done—^it w a s t h e y w h o k i l l e d t h e g e n e r a l , not O l i v i e r . O l i v i e r (to w h o m t h e s u r v i v o r s s u r r e n d e r e d ) g e n e r o u s l y s e t t h e m free a n d w i t h d r e w h i s troops; the surviving soldiers then tried St. C l a r e a n d h a n g e d him, a n d t h e n , in o r d e r to s a v e t h e g l o r y of t h e E n g l i s h a r m y , c o v e r e d u p t h e i r a c t b y the story that Olivier had h a d him killed. T h e s t o r y e n d s In t h e s p i r i t of J o h n

Ford's westerns which

prefer

h e r o i c l e g e n d to t r u t h ( r e c a l l J o h n W a y n e ' s final s p e e c h to t h e j o u r n a l i s t s a b o u t t h e r u t h l e s s g e n e r a l p l a y e d b y H e n r y F o n d a , from Fort Apache): "Millions w h o never k n e w him shall love him like a father—this

man

w h o m t h e l a s t f e w t h a t k n e w h i m d e a l t w i t h l i k e d u n g . H e shall b e a saint; a n d t h e t r u t h s h a l l n e v e r b e t o l d of h i m , b e c a u s e I h a v e m a d e u p m y m i n d at last." W h a t , t h e n , i s t h e H e g e l i a n l e s s o n of t h i s s t o r y ? Is it t h a t t h e s i m p l e c y n i c a l - d e n u n c i a t o r y r e a d i n g s h o u l d b e r e j e c t e d ? Is it t h a t t h e g a z e w h i c h r e d u c e s the g e n e r a l ' s c o r r u p t i o n to t h e t r u t h of h i s p e r s o n a l i t y is Itself m e a n a n d b a s e ? H e g e l d e s c r i b e d l o n g a g o t h i s t r a p a s t h a t of t h e 96

RADICAL INTELLECTUALS

B e a u t i f u l S o u l w h o s e g a z e r e d u c e s all g r e a t h e r o i c d e e d s to t h e p r i v a t e b a s e m o t i v e s of t h e i r

perpetrators:

N o h e r o is a h e r o to h i s v a l e t , not, h o w e v e r , b e c a u s e t h e h e r o i s not a h e r o , b u t b e c a u s e t h e v a l e t i s — t h e v a l e t , w i t h w h o m t h e h e r o h a s to do, not a s a h e r o , b u t a s a m a n w h o e a t s , d r i n k s , a n d d r e s s e s , w h o , in short, a p p e a r s a s a p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l w i t h c e r t a i n p e r s o n a l w a n t s a n d i d e a s of h i s o w n . In t h e s a m e w a y , t h e r e i s no a c t in w h i c h t h a t p r o c e s s of j u d g m e n t c a n n o t o p p o s e the p e r s o n a l a s p e c t of t h e i n d i v i d u a l i t y to t h e u n i v e r s a l a s p e c t of t h e act, a n d p l a y t h e p a r t of t h e " m o r a l " v a l e t t o w a r d s the agent.

Is, t h e n . F a t h e r B r o w n , if not t h i s k i n d of " m o r a l v a l e t " to t h e g e n e r a l , t h e n , at l e a s t , a c y n i c w h o k n o w s t h a t t h e u n p l e a s a n t t r u t h h a s to b e c o v e r e d u p for t h e s a k e of t h e p u b l i c g o o d ? C h e s t e r t o n ' s finesse

theological

is d i s c e r n i b l e in t h e w a y h e a l l o c a t e s t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for t h e

g e n e r a l ' s g r a d u a l d o w n f a l l : it i s n o t t h e g e n e r a l ' s b e t r a y a l of t h e C h r i s t i a n faith t h r o u g h

his moral corruption

d u e to t h e p r e d o m i n a n c e

of b a s e

m a t e r i a l i s t m o t i v e s . C h e s t e r t o n i s w i s e e n o u g h to d e p i c t t h e c a u s e of t h e g e n e r a l ' s m o r a l d o w n f a l l a s i n h e r e n t to C h r i s t i a n i t y : t h e g e n e r a ! " w a s a m a n w h o r e a d h i s B i b l e . T h a t w a s w h a t w a s t h e m a t t e r w i t h h i m . " It w a s the p a r t i c u l a r — i n this case, Protestant — r e a d i n g that is h e l d responsible. A n d c a n o n e not s a y t h e s a m e a b o u t H e i d e g g e r ' s a t t e m p t ( a n d a l s o t h a t of A d o r n o a n d H o r k h e i m e r , a n d e v e n of A g a m b e n ) to l a y t h e b l a m e for t h e e t h i c o - p o l i t i c a l c a t a s t r o p h e s of t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y on t h e s h o u l d e r s of the entire tradition

of " W e s t e r n

m e t a p h y s i c s " w i t h its

instrumental

R e a s o n , a n d so on a n d so forth, l e a d i n g in l i n e a r fashion "from to N a t o " (or, r a t h e r , t h e g u l a g ) ? S l o t e r d i j k h a s w r i t t e n t h e

Plato

following

a b o u t t h e leftist g l o b a l p r o b l e m a t i z a t i o n of " W e s t e r n c i v i l i z a t i o n " :

T h r o u g h t h e b o u n d l e s s f o r m s of c u l t u r a l c r i t i c i s m — s a y , t h e r e d u c t i o n of A u s c h w i t z b a c k to L u t h e r a n d P l a t o , o r t h e c r i m i n a l i z a t i o n of W e s t e r n c i v i l i z a t i o n in its e n t i r e t y — o n e t r i e s to b l u r t h e t r a c e s w h i c h b e t r a y h o w c l o s e to a c l a s s - g e n o c i d i c a l s y s t e m w e o u r s e l v e s w e r e standing.

T h e o n l y t h i n g o n e s h o u l d a d d h e r e is t h a t t h e s a m e a p p l i e s to H e i d e g g e r a n d o t h e r f o r m e r f a s c i s t s : t h e y too h i d t h e i r N a z i c o r p s e in t h e m o u n t a i n of c o r p s e s c a l l e d W e s t e r n m e t a p h y s i c s . . . A n d s h o u l d o n e not r e j e c t in 97

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

the same w a y , as a n over-hasty generalization, the liberal p o p u l a r w i s d o m a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h p h i l o s o p h e r s w h o m e d d l e in p o l i t i c s w i l l a l w a y s l e a d to d i s a s t e r ? A c c o r d i n g to t h i s v i e w , s t a r t i n g w i t h P l a t o , t h e y

either

m i s e r a b l y fail o r s u c c e e d . . . in s u p p o r t i n g t y r a n t s . T h e r e a s o n , so the s t o r y g o e s on, is t h a t p h i l o s o p h e r s t r y to i m p o s e t h e i r N o t i o n s on r e a l i t y , v i o l a t i n g it — n o w o n d e r t h a t , from P l a t o to f i e i d e g g e r , t h e y a r e r e s o l u t e l y anti-democratic

( w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of a few e m p i r i c i s t s a n d

pragma-

t i s t s ) , d i s m i s s i n g t h e " p e o p l e " a s t h e v i c t i m of s o p h i s t s , a t t h e m e r c y of a c o n t i n g e n t p l u r a l i t y . . . S o w h e n t h o s e w h o h o l d to t h i s c o m m o n s e n s i c a l w i s d o m h e a r of M a r x i s t s w h o d e f e n d M a r x , c l a i m i n g t h a t h i s i d e a s w e r e not faithfully r e a l i z e d b y S t a l i n i s m , t h e y r e p l y : " T h a n k G o d ! It w o u l d h a v e b e e n e v e n w o r s e h a d t h e y b e e n fully r e a l i z e d ! " H e i d e g g e r a t l e a s t w a s w i l l i n g to d r a w t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of h i s c a t a s t r o p h i c e x p e r i e n c e a n d c o n c e d e t h a t those w h o t h i n k o n t o l o g i c a l l y h a v e to e r r o n t l c a l l y , t h a t t h e g a p is i r r e d u c i b l e , t h a t t h e r e i s no " p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o l i t i c s " p r o p e r . It t h u s s e e m s t h a t G.K. C h e s t e r t o n w a s fully j u s t i f i e d in h i s i r o n i c p r o p o s a l to i n s t a l l a " s p e c i a l c o r p s of p o l i c e m e n , p o l i c e m e n w h o a r e a l s o p h i l o s o ­ phers":

It Is t h e i r b u s i n e s s to w a t c h t h e b e g i n n i n g s of t h i s c o n s p i r a c y ,

not

m e r e l y in a c r i m i n a l b u t in a c o n t r o v e r s i a l s e n s e . [. . . ] T h e w o r k of t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o l i c e m a n [. . . ] i s a t o n c e b o l d e r a n d m o r e s u b t l e t h a n t h a t of t h e o r d i n a r y d e t e c t i v e . T h e o r d i n a r y d e t e c t i v e g o e s to p o t ­ h o u s e s to a r r e s t t h i e v e s ; w e g o to a r t i s t i c t e a - p a r t i e s to d e t e c t p e s s i ­ m i s t s . T h e o r d i n a r y d e t e c t i v e d i s c o v e r s from a l e d g e r o r a d i a r y t h a t a c r i m e h a s b e e n c o m m i t t e d . W e d i s c o v e r from a b o o k of s o n n e t s t h a t a c r i m e w i l l b e c o m m i t t e d . W e h a v e to t r a c e t h e o r i g i n of t h o s e d r e a d f u l thoughts

that drive men

on a t l a s t to i n t e l l e c t u a l f a n a t i c i s m

and

intellectual crime.^

W o u l d not t h i n k e r s a s different a s P o p p e r , A d o r n o , a n d L e v i n a s a l s o s u b s c r i b e to a s l i g h t l y a m e n d e d v e r s i o n of t h i s i d e a , w h e r e t h e p o l i t i c a l c r i m e i s c a l l e d " t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m " a n d t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l c r i m e is c o n d e n s e d in t h e n o t i o n of " t o t a l i t y " ? A s t r a i g h t r o a d l e a d s from t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l n o t i o n of t o t a l i t y to p o l i t i c a l t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m , a n d t h e t a s k of t h e " p h i l o ­ s o p h i c a l p o l i c e " i s to d e t e c t in a b o o k of P l a t o ' s d i a l o g u e s o r a t r e a t i s e on the social contract b y R o u s s e a u that a political c r i m e will be committed. T h e o r d i n a r y p o l i t i c a l p o l i c e m a n g o e s to s e c r e t o r g a n i z a t i o n s to a r r e s t r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s ; t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o l i c e m a n g o e s to p h i l o s o p h i c a l s y m 98

RADICAL INTELLECTUALS

p o s i a to d e t e c t p r o p o n e n t s of t o t a l i t y . T h e o r d i n a r y a n t i - t e r r o r i s t p o l i c e ­ m a n t r i e s to d e t e c t t h o s e p r e p a r i n g to b l o w u p b u i l d i n g s a n d b r i d g e s ; t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o l i c e m a n t r i e s to a r r e s t t h o s e a b o u t to d e c o n s t r u c t

the

r e l i g i o u s a n d m o r a l f o u n d a t i o n s of o u r s o c i e t i e s . . T h i s p o s i t i o n i s t h a t of " w i s d o m " : a w i s e m a n k n o w s t h a t o n e s h o u l d not " e n f o r c e " r e a l i t y , t h a t a little bit of c o r r u p t i o n i s t h e b e s t against great corruption.

defense

C h r i s t i a n i t y i s in t h i s s e n s e a form of a n t i -

w i s d o m par excellence: a c r a z y w a g e r on T r u t h , in c o n t r a s t to p a g a n i s m w h i c h , u l t i m a t e l y , c o u n t s on w i s d o m ( " e v e r y t h i n g r e t u r n s to dust, t h e W h e e l of Life g o e s on f o r e v e r . . . " ) . T h e fateful l i m i t a t i o n of t h i s s t a n c e of w i s d o m r e s i d e s in t h e f o r m a l i s m t h a t p e r t a i n s to t h e n o t i o n of b a l a n c e , of a v o i d i n g t h e e x t r e m e s . W h e n o n e h e a r s f o r m u l a e s u c h a s " w e n e e d neither total state control nor totally non-regulated Irberalism/individuahsm, but the right m e a s u r e b e t w e e n these two e x t r e m e s , " the problem t h a t i m m e d i a t e l y p o p s u p i s the measurement of thid measure—the p o i n t of b a l a n c e i s a l w a y s s i l e n t l y p r e s u p p o s e d . S u p p o s e s o m e o n e w e r e to s a y : " W e n e e d n e i t h e r too m u c h r e s p e c t for J e w s , n o r t h e N a z i f i o l o c a u s t , b u t t h e r i g h t m e a s u r e i n b e t w e e n , s o m e q u o t a s for u n i v e r s i t i e s a n d p r o h i b i ­ tion of p u b l i c office for t h e J e w s to p r e v e n t t h e i r e x c e s s i v e i n f l u e n c e , " one cannot r e a l l y a n s w e r at a p u r e l y formal level. H e r e w e h a v e the f o r m a l i s m of w i s d o m : t h e t r u e t a s k i s to t r a n s f o r m t h e m e a s u r e i t s e l f not o n l y to o s c i l l a t e b e t w e e n t h e e x t r e m e s of t h e m e a s u r e . In h i s o t h e r w i s e a d m i r a b l e Holy Terror, T e r r y E a g l e t o n s e e m s to fall i n t o t h e s a m e t r a p w h e n h e d e p l o y s t h e pharmukoJ d i a l e c t i c of the e x c e s s of t h e S a c r e d , of t h e H o l y T e r r o r a s t h e e x c e s s of t h e R e a l w h i c h s h o u l d b e r e s p e c t e d , satisfied, b u t k e p t a t a d i s t a n c e . T h e R e a l i s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y generative and

destructive:

destructive

i l g i v e n Iree r e i n ,

but

also

d e s t r u c t i v e if d e n i e d , s i n c e its v e r y d e n i a l u n l e a s h e s a f u r y w h i c h i m i t a t e s i t — a g a i n a c a s e of t h e c o i n c i d e n c e of o p p o s i t e s . E a g l e t o n h e r e p e r c e i v e s freedom

as such

a s a pharmakoj,

which becomes

destructive

u n h i n d e r e d . Is, h o w e v e r , t h i s not a l l too c l o s e to a c o n s e r v a t i v e

when form

of w i s d o m ? Is it n o t a s u p r e m e i r o n y h e r e t h a t E a g l e t o n , a r g u a b l y t h e s h a r p e s t a n d m o s t p e r s p i c u o u s c r i t i c of p o s t m o d e r n i s m , d i s p l a y s h e r e h i s own secret postmodern

bias, endorsing one^of the great

postmodern

motifs, t h a t of t h e R e a l T h i n g t o w a r d s w h i c h o n e s h o u l d m a i n t a i n a p r o p e r d i s t a n c e ? N o w o n d e r t h a t E a g l e t o n p r o f e s s e s h i s s y m p a t h y for c o n s e r v a t i v e s s u c h a s B u r k e a n d h i s c r i t i q u e of F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n : not t h a t it w a s unjust, a n d so on, b u t t h a t it e x p o s e d t h e f o u n d i n g e x c e s s i v e v i o l e n c e of t h e l e g a l o r d e r , b r i n g i n g to l i g h t a n d r e - e n a c t i n g w h a t s h o u l d 99

MM

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b e at a l l c o s t s c o n c e a l e d — t h i s is t h e

function

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myths.

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TT

Unreason. W h e r e d o e s I^acan s t a n d w i t h r e g a r d to t h i s c o m p l e x t o p i c r e f e r r e d to b y t h e t i r e s o m e a n d s t u p i d d e s i g n a t i o n " t h e s o c i a l r o l e of i n t e l l e c t u a l s " ? L a c a n ' s t h e o r y , of c o u r s e , c a n b e u s e d to t h r o w n e w l i g h t on n u m e r o u s p o h t i c o - i d e o l o g l c a l p h e n o m e n a , b r i n g i n g to t h e fore t h e h i d d e n l i b i d i n a l economy that sustains them; but w e are asking here a more basic and n a i v e q u e s t i o n : d o e s Lyacan's t h e o r y i m p l y a p r e c i s e p o l i t i c a l s t a n c e ? S o m e L a c a n i a n s ( a n d not o n l y L a c a n i a n s ) , s u c h a s Y a n n i s S t a v r a k a k i s , e n d e a v o r to d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t L a c a n i a n t h e o r y d i r e c t l y g r o u n d s d e m o ­ c r a t i c p o l i t i c s . T h e t e r m s a r e w e l l k n o w n : " t h e r e is no b i g O t h e r " m e a n s t h a t t h e s o c i o - s y m b o l i c o r d e r is Inconsistent, n o u l t i m a t e g u a r a n t e e , a n d d e m o c r a c y is t h e w a y to i n t e g r a t e i n t o t h e e d i f i c e of p o w e r t h i s l a c k of u l t i m a t e f o u n d a t i o n . Insofar a s a l l o r g a n i c v i s i o n s of a h a r m o n i o u s W h o l e of s o c i e t y r e l y on a f a n t a s y , d e m o c r a c y t h u s a p p e a r s to offer a p o l i t i c a l stance w h i c h

"traverses the

fantasy," that is, w h i c h renounces

the

i m p o s s i b l e I d e a l of a n o n - a n t a g o n i s t i c s o c i e t y . The political theorist w h o serves as a k e y reference here is C l a u d e Lefort, w h o w a s h i m s e l f i n f l u e n c e d b y L a c a n a n d u s e s L a c a n i a n t e r m s in h i s d e f i n i t i o n of d e m o c r a c y : d e m o c r a c y a c c e p t s t h e g a p b e t w e e n

the

s y m b o l i c ( t h e e m p t y p l a c e of p o w e r ) a n d t h e r e a l ( t h e a g e n t w h o o c c u p i e s t h i s p l a c e ) , p o s t u l a t i n g t h a t n o e m p i r i c a l a g e n t " n a t u r a l l y " fits t h e e m p t y p l a c e of p o w e r . O t h e r s y s t e m s a r e i n c o m p l e t e , t h e y h a v e to e n g a g e in c o m p r o m i s e s , in o c c a s i o n a l s h a k e - u p s , to function; d e m o c r a c y e l e v a t e s i n c o m p l e t e n e s s i n t o a p r i n c i p l e , it i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e s t h e r e g u l a r s h a k e - u p in t h e

g u i s e of e l e c t i o n s . In

short,

S ( b a r r e d A ) is the

s i g n i f i e r of

d e m o c r a c y . D e m o c r a c y here goes further than the "realistic" nostrum a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h , in o r d e r to a c t u a l i z e a c e r t a i n p o l i t i c a l v i s i o n , o n e s h o u l d a l l o w for c o n c r e t e u n p r e d i c t a b l e c i r c u m s t a n c e s a n d b e r e a d y to m a k e c o m p r o m i s e s , to l e a v e t h e s p a c e o p e n for p e o p l e ' s v i c e s a n d i m p e r f e c t i o n s — d e m o c r a c y t u r n s i m p e r f e c t i o n itself i n t o a n o t i o n . H o w ­ e v e r , o n e s h o u l d b e a r in m i n d t h a t t h e d e m o c r a t i c s u b j e c t , w h i c h e m e r g e s t h r o u g h a v i o l e n t a b s t r a c t i o n from a l l its p a r t i c u l a r r o o t s a n d d e t e r m i n a ­ t i o n s , i s t h e l a c a n i a n b a r r e d s u b j e c t , S , w h i c h is a s s u c h f o r e i g n to, incompatible with, enjoyment: D e m o c r a c y a s e m p t y p l a c e m e a n s for u s ; t h e s u b j e c t of d e m o c r a c y is a 100

RADICAL

INTELLECTUALS

b a r r e d s u b j e c t . O u r s m a l l a l g e b r a e n a b l e s u s to g r a s p i m m e d i a t e l y t h a t t h i s l e a v e s o u t t h e s m a l l (a).

T h a t is to s a y : a l l t h a t h i n g e s on

the

p a r t i c u l a r i t y of e n j o y m e n t s . T h e e m p t y b a r r e d s u b j e c t of d e m o c r a c y f i n d s it difficult to l i n k i t s e l f t o a l l t h a t g o e s on, f o r m s itself, t r e m b l e s , in all t h a t w e d e s i g n a t e w i t h t h i s c o m f o r t a b l e s m a l l l e t t e r , t h e s m a l l (a). W e a r e t o l d : o n c e t h e r e i s t h e e m p t y p l a c e , e v e r y b o d y , if h e r e s p e c t s the l a w s , c a n b r i n g in h i s t r a d i t i o n s a n d h i s v a l u e s . [. . . ] H o w e v e r , w h a t w e k n o w is t h a t , e f f e c t i v e l y , t h e m o r e d e m o c r a c y i s e m p t y , t h e m o r e it i s a d e s e r t of e n j o y m e n t , a n d , c o r r e l a t i v e l y , t h e m o r e e n j o y m e n t c o n d e n s e s i t s e l f i n c e r t a i n e l e m e n t s . [. . . ] t h e m o r e t h e s i g n i f i e r i s " d i s a f f e c t e d , " a s o t h e r s p u t it, t h e m o r e t h e s i g n i f i e r i s p u r i f i e d , t h e m o r e it i m p o s e s i t s e l l m t h e p u r e form of l a w , of e g a l i t a r i a n d e m o c r a c y , of t h e g l o b a l i z a t i o n of t h e m a r k e t , [. . . ] t h e m o r e p a s s i o n a u g m e n t s itself, t h e m o r e h a t r e d i n t e n s i f i e s , f u n d a m e n t a l i s m s m u l t i p l y , d e s t r u c ­ t i o n e x t e n d s itself, m a s s a c r e s w i t h o u t p r e c e d e n t a r e a c c o m p l i s h e d , a n d unheard-of catastrophes occur.

W h a t t h i s m e a n s i s t h a t the d e m o c r a t i c e m p t y p l a c e a n d t h e d i s c o u r s e of t o t a l i t a r i a n f u l l n e s s a r e s t r i c t l y c o r r e l a t i v e , t w o s i d e s of t h e s a m e c o i n : it i s m e a n i n g l e s s to p l a y o n e a g a i n s t the o t h e r a n d a d v o c a t e a " r a d i c a l " democracy w h i c h w o u l d avoid this unpleasant supplement. So, w h e n leftists d e p l o r e the fact t h a t t o d a y o n l y t h e R i g h t h a s p a s s i o n , i s a b l e to p r o p o s e a n e w m o b i l i z i n g i m a g i n a r y , a n d t h a t t h e Left o n l y e n g a g e s in a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , w h a t t h e y d o not s e e is t h e s t r u c t u r a l n e c e s s i t y of w h a t t h e y p e r c e i v e a s a m e r e t a c t i c a l w e a k n e s s of t h e Left. N o w o n d e r t h a t t h e European

p r o j e c t w h i c h i s w i d e l y d e b a t e d t o d a y fails to e n f l a m e

the

p a s s i o n s : it i s u l t i m a t e l y a p r o j e c t of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , not of i d e o l o g i c a l c o m m i t m e n t . T h e o n l y p a s s i o n i s t h a t of t h e r i g h t i s t r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t E u r o p e — a l l t h e leftist a t t e m p t s to i n f u s e t h e n o t i o n of a u n i t e d E u r o p e with

political passion

(such the

Habermas-Derrida

i n i t i a t i v e in

the

s u m m e r of 2 0 0 3 ) fail to g a i n m o m e n t u m . T h e r e a s o n for t h i s f a i l u r e is that the fant(umailc

"fundamentalist" supplément,

attachment

to jouiMancc

i s the ohverde, the

of democracy itself.

W h a t to d o , t h e n , o n c e o n e d r a w s t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h i s Unbehagen in d e m o c r a c y ? S o m e L a c a n i a n s ( a n d not e x c l u s i v e l y L a c a n i a n s ) e n d e a ­ v o r t o a t t r i b u t e to L a c a n t h e p o s i t i o n of a n i n t e r n a l c r i t i c of d e m o c r a c y , a provocateur w h o raises unpleasant questions without proposing his own p o s i t i v e p o l i t i c a l p r o j e c t . P o l i t i c s a s s u c h is h e r e d e v a l u e d a s a d o m a i n of i m a g i n a r y a n d s y m b o l i c identifications, as the self by definition, involves 101

IN D E F E N S E OF L O S T C A U S E S

a m i s r e c o g n l t i o n , a form of s e l f - b l i n d i n g . L a c a n i s t h u s a p r o v o c a t e u r , in t h e t r a d i t i o n e x t e n d i n g from S o c r a t e s to l ü e r k e g a a r d , a n d h e d i s c e r n s democracy's illusions and hidden

metaphysical presuppositions.

The

o u t s t a n d i n g a d v o c a t e of t h i s s e c o n d p o s i t i o n i s W e n d y B r o w n w h o , although not a L a c a n i a n , d e p l o y s a n e x t r e m e l y important a n d perspic­ u o u s N i e t z s c h e a n c r i t i q u e of t h e p o l i t i c a l l y c o r r e c t p o l i t i c s of v i c t i m i z a ­ tion, of b a s m g o n e ' s i d e n t i t y on i n j u r y .

A domestication of Nietzsche B r o w n r e a d s t h e p o s t m o d e r n p o l i t i c s of i d e n t i t y b a s e d on t h e w r o n g s c o m m i t t e d to s p e c i f i c g r o u p s ( t h e s e x - g e n d e r - r a c e t r i n i t y ) a s a n e x p r e s ­ sion of t h e a m b i g u o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e l i b e r a l - d e m o c r a t i c e g a l i t a r i a n f r a m e w o r k of h u m a n r i g h t s : o n e feels b e t r a y e d b y it ( w i t h r e g a r d to w o m e n , b l a c k s , g a y s . . . t h e u n i v e r s a l i s t l i b e r a l r h e t o r i c d i d n o t d e l i v e r , it masks continuous exclusion and exploitation), while nonetheless remain­ i n g d e e p l y a t t a c h e d to t h e s e v e r y i d e a l s . In a r e f i n e d a n a l y s i s . B r o w n d e m o n s t r a t e s h o w t h e s e n s e of m o r a l o u t r a g e e m e r g e s i n o r d e r to find a p r e c a r i o u s c o m p r o m i s e b e t w e e n a h o s t of i n c o n s i s t e n t a n d o p p o s e d attitudes (sadism a n d masochism, attachment a n d rejection,

blaming

the other a n d feeling one's o w n guilt). S h e r e a d s moralizing politics "not o n l y a s a s i g n of s t u b b o r n c l i n g i n g to a c e r t a i n e q u a t i o n of t r u t h w i t h p o w e r l e s s n e s s , o r a s t h e a c t i n g o u t of a n i n j u r e d w i l l , b u t a s a s y m p t o m of a b r o k e n h i s t o r i c a l n a r r a t i v e to w h i c h w e h a v e n o t y e t f o r g e d a l t e r ­ n a t i v e s . " "It i s w h e n t h e t e l o s of t h e g o o d v a n i s h e s b u t t h e y e a r n i n g for it r e m a i n s t h a t m o r a l i t y a p p e a r s to d e v o l v e i n t o m o r a h s m in p o l i t i c s . " A f t e r t h e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e g r a n d , a l l - e n c o m p a s s i n g , leftist n a r r a t i v e s of p r o g r e s s , w h e n p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y d i s s o l v e d i n t o a m u l t i t u d e of i d e n t i t y i s s u e s , t h e e x c e s s o v e r t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r s t r u g g l e s c a n o n l y find an o u t l e t in impotent moralistic outrage. H o w e v e r , B r o w n t a k e s h e r e a c r u c i a l s t e p f u r t h e r a n d p u s h e s all t h e p a r a d o x e s of d e m o c r a c y to t h e e n d , m o r e r a d i c a l l y t h a n C h a n t a i JVlouffe did with h e r "democratic p a r a d o x . " A l r e a d y with S p i n o z a a n d Tocquev i l l e , it b e c a m e c l e a r t h a t d e m o c r a c y i s i n i t s e l f I n c h o a t e — e m p t y , l a c k i n g a f i r m p r i n c i p l e —it n e e d s a n t i - d e m o c r a t i c c o n t e n t t o fill i n its form; a s s u c h , it r e a l l y i s c o n s t i t u t i v e l y " f o r m a l . " T h i s a n t i - d e m o c r a t i c c o n t e n t is p r o v i d e d b y p h i l o s o p h y , i d e o l o g y , t h e o r y ^—no w o n d e r t h a t m o s t of t h e g r e a t p h i l o s o p h e r s , from P l a t o to H e i d e g g e r , w e r e m i s t r u s t f u l of d e m o c ­ r a c y , if not d i r e c t l y a n t i - d e m o c r a t i c : 102

RADICAL INTELLECTUALS

W h a t if d e m o c r a t i c p o l i t i c s , t h e m o s t u n t h e o r e t i c a l of a l l p o l i t i c a l forms, p a r a d o x i c a l l y r e q u i r e s t h e o r y , r e q u i r e s a n a n t i t h e s i s to i t s e l l in b o t h t h e form a n d s u b s t a n c e of t h e o r y , if it is to s a t i s f y its a m b i t i o n to p r o d u c e a free a n d e g a l i t a r i a n o r d e r ?

B r o w n d e p l o y s all t h e p a r a d o x e s from t h i s fact t h a t " d e m o c r a c y r e q u i r e s for its h e a l t h a n o n d e m o c r a t i c e l e m e n t " : a d e m o c r a c y n e e d s a p e r m a n e n t influx

of a n t i - d e m o c r a t i c

democracy—the

s e l f - q u e s t i o n i n g in onkr to remain a living

c u r e for d e m o c r a c y ' s ills is h o m o e o p a t h i c in form:

If, a s t h e m u s i n g s of S p i n o z a a n d T o c q u e v i l l e s u g g e s t , d e m o c r a c i e s t e n d t o w a r d s c a t h e x i s o n t o p r i n c i p l e s a n t i t h e t i c a l to d e m o c r a c y , t h e n c r i t i c a l s c r u t i n y of t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s a n d of t h e p o l i t i c a l

formations

a n i m a t e d b y t h e m i s c r u c i a l to t h e p r o j e c t of r e f o u n d i n g o r r e c o v e r i n g democracy.

B r o w n defines the tension b e t w e e n politics a n d t h e o t y as the tension b e t w e e n t h e p o l i t i c a l n e c e s s i t y to fix m e a n i n g , to " s u t u r e " t e x t u a l drift in a f o r m a l p r i n c i p l e w h i c h c a n o n l y g u i d e u s in a c t i o n , a n d permanent

"deconstruction"

theory's

which cannot ever be recuperated

in a

n e w positive program:

A m o n g h u m a n p r a c t i c e s , p o l i t i c s is p e c u l i a r l y u n t h e o r e t i c a l b e c a u s e t h e b i d s for p o w e r t h a t c o n s t i t u t e it a r e n e c e s s a r i l y a t o d d s w i t h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p r o j e c t of o p e n i n g u p m e a n i n g , of " m a k i n g m e a n i n g s l i d e , " in S t u a r t H a l l ' s w o r d s . D i s c u r s i v e p o w e r f u n c t i o n s b y c o n c e a l i n g t h e t e r m s of its f a b r i c a t i o n a n d h e n c e its m a l l e a b i l i t y a n d c o n t i n g e n c y ; d i s c o u r s e fixes m e a n i n g b y n a t u r a l i z i n g it, or e l s e c e a s e s to h a v e s w a y in a d i s c o u r s e . T h i s fixing o r n a t u r a l i z i n g of m e a n i n g s is t h e n e c e s s a r y i d i o m in w h i c h p o l i t i c s t a k e s p l a c e . E v e n t h e p o l i t i c s of d e c o n s t r u c t i v e displacement implicates such normativity, at least provisionally.*^

Theoretical analyses which unearth

the

contingent

and

inconsistent

n a t u r e a n d l a c k of u l t i m a t e f o u n d a t i o n of all n o r m a t i v e c o n s t r u c t s a n d political projects, "are anti-political e n d e a v o r s insofar as each destabilizes m e a n i n g w i t h o u t p r o p o s i n g a l t e r n a t i v e c o d e s or i n s t i t u t i o n s . Y e t e a c h m a y a l s o b e e s s e n t i a l in s u s t a i n i n g a n e x i s t i n g d e m o c r a t i c r e g i m e b y r e j u v e n a t i n g it."''^ It is t h u s a s if B r o w n is p r o p o s i n g a k i n d of K a n t i a n c r i t i q u e of d e c o n s t r u c t i v e

(anti-democratic) reason,"

distinguishing 103

b e t w e e n its l e g i t i m a t e a n d i l l e g i t i m a t e u s e : it i s l e g i t i m a t e to u s e it a s a negatively regulative corrective, a provocation,

a n d so on, b u t it is

i l l e g i t i m a t e to u s e it a s a c o n s t i t u t i v e p r i n c i p l e to b e d i r e c t l y a p p l i e d to reality^ a s a p o l i t i c a l p r o g r a m o r p r o j e c t . B r o w n d i s c e r n s the s a m e a m b i g u o u s l i n k in t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n s t a t e a n d p e o p l e : in t h e s a m e w a y t h a t d e m o c r a c y n e e d s a n t i - d e m o c r a c y to r e j u v e n a t e itself, t h e state n e e d s t h e p e o p l e ' s r e s i s t a n c e to r e j u v e n a t e itself:

O n l y t h r o u g h t h e s t a t e a r e t h e p e o p l e c o n s t i t u t e d a s a p e o p l e ; o n l y in r e s i s t a n c e to the s t a t e d o t h e p e o p l e r e m a i n a p e o p l e . T h u s , j u s t a s d e m o c r a c y r e q u i r e s a n t i d e m o c r a t i c c r i t i q u e in o r d e r to r e m a i n d e m o ­ c r a t i c , so too t h e d e m o c r a t i c s t a t e m a y r e q u i r e d e m o c r a t i c r e s i s t a n c e r a t h e r t h a n f e a l t y if it i s not to b e c o m e t h e d e a t h of d e m o c r a c y . S i m i l a r l y , d e m o c r a c y m a y r e q u i r e t h e o r y ' s p r o v i s i o n of u n l i v e a b l e critiques and u n r e a c h a b l e ideals.''*

ITere, h o w e v e r , in t h i s p a r a l l e l b e t w e e n t h e t w o c o u p l e s of d e m o c r a c y / anti-democracy

and

state/people.

Brown's

argumentation

becomes

c a u g h t u p in a s t r a n g e s y m p t o m a l d y n a m i c of r e v e r s a l s : w h i l e d e m o c r a c y n e e d s a n t i - d e m o c r a t i c c r i t i q u e to r e m a i n a l i v e , to s h a k e its false c e r t a i n ­ t i e s , t h e d e m o c r a t i c s t a t e n e e d s t h e d e m o c r a t i c r e s i s t a n c e of t h e p e o p l e , not a n t i - d e m o c r a t i c r e s i s t a n c e . D o e s B r o w n not c o n f o u n d h e r e t w o (or, r a t h e r , a w h o l e s e r i e s of) r e s i s t a n c e s to t h e d e m o c r a t i c s t a t e : t h e a n t i ­ democratic "elitist" theoreticians' resistance

(Plato-Nietzsche-Heideg­

g e r ) , and popular-democratic resistance against the insufficiently demo­ c r a t i c c h a r a c t e r of the s t a t e ? F u r t h e r m o r e , is not e a c h of t h e s e t w o k i n d s of r e s i s t a n c e a c c o m p a n i e d b y its d a r k s h a d o w y d o u b l e : b r u t a l c y n i c a l e l i t i s m t h a t j u s t i f i e s t h o s e in p o w e r ; t h e v i o l e n t o u t b u r s t s of t h e r a b b l e ? A n d w h a t if t h e t w o j o i n h a n d s , w h a t If w e h a v e anti-democratic resLtlance of the people themselves ( " a u t h o r i t a r i a n p o p u l i s m " ) ? F u r t h e r m o r e , d o e s B r o w n not d i s m i s s a l l too l i g h t l y a n t i - d e m o c r a t i c t h e o r i s t s s u c h a s N i e t z s c h e a s p r o p o s i n g " u n l i v e a b l e " c r i t i q u e s of d e ­ m o c r a c y ? H o w d o w e r e s p o n d to t h e c o m i n g - a b o u t of a r e g i m e t h a t e n d e a v o r s to " l i v e " t h e m , s u c h a s N a z i s m ? Is it n o t too s i m p l e to r e l i e v e N i e t z s c h e of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y b y c l a i m i n g t h a t t h e N a z i s d i s t o r t e d

his

t h o u g h t ? O f c o u r s e t h e y d i d , b u t so d i d S t a l i n i s m d i s t o r t M a r x , for e v e r y t h e o r y c h a n g e s ( i s " b e t r a y e d " ) i n its p r a c t i c o - p o l i t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n , a n d the H e g e l i a n p o i n t to b e m a d e h e r e is that, in s u c h c a s e s , t h e " t r u t h " is not s i m p l y on t h e s i d e of t h e o r y — w h a t if the a t t e m p t to a c t u a l i z e a 104

RADICAL INTELLECTUALS

t h e o r y r e n d e r s v i s i b l e t h e o b j e c t i v e c o n t e n t of t h i s t h e o r y , c o n c e a l e d from t h e g a z e of t h e t h e o r i s t itself? T h e w e a k n e s s of B r o w n ' s d e s c r i p t i o n i s p e r h a p s t h a t s h e l o c a t e s t h e u n d e m o c r a t i c i n g r e d i e n t t h a t k e e p s d e m o c r a c y a l i v e o n l y in t h e " c r a z y " t h e o r e t i c i a n s q u e s t i o n i n g its f o u n d a t i o n s from " u n l i v e a b l e " p r e m i s e s — b u t w h a t a b o u t t h e v e r y real u n d e m o c r a t i c e l e m e n t s t h a t s u s t a i n d e m o c ­ r a c y ? D o e s t h e r e i n not r e s i d e t h e m a j o r p r e m i s e of F o u c a u l t ' s ( B r o w n ' s m a j o r r e f e r e n c e ) a n a l y s e s of m o d e r n p o w e r : d e m o c r a t i c p o w e r h a s to b e s u s t a i n e d b y a c o m p l e x n e t w o r k of c o n t r o l l i n g a n d r e g u l a t i n g m e c h a n ­ i s m s ? In \y\sNoted Towards a Definition of Culture, T . S . Eliot, t h a t a r c h e t y p a l ^'noble conservative," convincingly a r g u e d that a strong aristocratic class i s a n e c e s s a r y i n g r e d i e n t of a f e a s i b l e d e m o c r a c y : t h e h i g h e s t c u l t u r a l v a l u e s c a n o n l y t h r i v e if t h e y a r e t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h a c o m p l e x a n d c o n t i n u o u s familial a n d g r o u p b a c k g r o u n d . S o w h e n B r o w n c l a i m s t h a t " d e m o c r a c y r e q u i r e s a n t i d e m o c r a t i c c r i t i q u e in o r d e r to r e m a i n d e m o ­ c r a t i c , " a l i b e r a l c o n s e r v a t i v e w o u l d d e e p l y a g r e e in t h e i r w a r n i n g s a g a i n s t " d e M O R E c r a c y " : t h e r e s h o u l d b e a t e n s i o n in t h e

opposition

b e t w e e n t h e s t a t e a n d d e m o c r a c y , a state s h o u l d not s i m p l y b e d i s s o l v e d in d e m o c r a c y , it s h o u l d r e t a i n t h e e x c e s s of u n c o n d i t i o n a l p o w e r over the p e o p l e , t h e firm r u l e of l a w , to p r e v e n t its o w n d i s s o l u t i o n . If the s t a t e , d e m o c r a t i c t h o u g h it m a y b e , i s not s u s t a i n e d b y t h i s s p e c t e r of t h e u n c o n d i t i o n a l e x e r c i s e of p o w e r , it d o e s n o t

have the authority

to

function: p o w e r is, b y d e f i n i t i o n , in e x c e s s , o r e l s e it i s not p o w e r . T h e q u e s t i o n h e r e i s : w h o i s s u p p l e m e n t i n g w h o m ? Is d e m o c r a c y a s u p p l e m e n t to f u n d a m e n t a l l y n o n - d e m o c r a t i c s t a t e p o w e r , o r i s u n d e m o ­ c r a t i c t h e o r y a s u p p l e m e n t to d e m o c r a c y ? A t w h a t p o i n t i s t h e p r e d i c a t e i n v e r t e d w i t h t h e s u b j e c t ? F u r t h e r m o r e , a p r o p o s " s t o p p i n g the s l i d i n g of m e a n i n g , " d o e s n o n - d e m o c r a t i c t h e o r y a s a r u l e not a r t i c u l a t e i t s h o r r o r at d e m o c r a c y p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e it p e r c e i v e s it a s too " s o p h i s t i c " (for P l a t o • • . ) , too i n v o l v e d in t h e s l i d i n g of m e a n i n g , so t h a t t h e o r y , far from r e p r o a c h i n g d e m o c r a c y for t h e fixity of m e a n i n g , d e s p e r a t e l y w a n t s to i m p o s e a s t a b l e o r d e r on social l i f e ? A n d , f u r t h e r m o r e , i s t h i s " i n c e s s a n t s l i d i n g of m e a n i n g " not s o m e t h i n g t h a t is a l r e a d y a f e a t u r e of t h e c a p i t a l i s t e c o n o m y itself w h i c h , in its c o n t e m p o r a r y ' d y n a m i c , r a i s e s to n e w h e i g h t s M a r x ' s o l d d e s c r i p t i o n of its d i s s o l v e n t p o w e r on a l l

fixed

identities? The " h o m o e o p a t h i c " logic e v o k e d b y B r o w n is thus a m b i g u o u s . O n t h e o n e h a n d , t h e r e m e d y a g a i n s t a n ossified d e m o c r a c y i s t h e o r e t i c a l a n t i - d e m o c r a t i c c r i t i q u e w h i c h s h a t t e r s its c e r t a i n t i e s a n d r e j u v e n a t e s it. 105

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

B u t , a t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e r e is t h e o p p o s i t e h o m o e o p a t h y : a s the s a y i n g g o e s , t h e o n l y t r u e r e m e d y a g a i n s t t h e o b v i o u s d e m o c r a t i c ills is m o r e d e m o c r a c y . T h i s d e f e n s e of d e m o c r a c y is a v a r i a t i o n of C h u r c h i l l ' s f a m o u s q u i p t h a t it is t h e w o r s t of all s y s t e m s , t h e o n l y q u a l i f i c a t i o n b e i n g t h a t t h e r e i s n o n e b e t t e r : t h e d e m o c r a t i c p r o j e c t i s i n c o n s i s t e n t , in its v e r y notion a n " u n f i n i s h e d p r o j e c t , " b u t Its v e r y " p a r a d o x " Is Its strength, a guarantee against totalitarian temptation. D e m o c r a c y Includes Its i m p e r f e c t i o n In Its v e r y notion, w h i c h Is w h y t h e o n l y c u r e a g a i n s t d e m o c r a t i c d e f i c i e n c i e s Is m o r e d e m o c r a c y . T h u s a l l t h e d a n g e r s t h a t l u r k In d e m o c r a c y c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d

as

g r o u n d e d In t h e s e c o n s t i t u t i v e I n c o n s i s t e n c i e s of t h e d e m o c r a t i c p r o j e c t , a s w a y s of d e a l i n g w i t h t h e s e I n c o n s i s t e n c i e s , b u t w i t h t h e p r i c e that, in t r y i n g to g e t r i d of t h e I m p e r f e c t i o n s of d e m o c r a c y , of Its n o n - d e m o c r a t i c Ingredients, w e Inadvertently lose d e m o c r a c y Itself—recall s i m p l y h o w the p o p u l i s t a p p e a l to a d i r e c t e x p r e s s i o n of t h e p e o p l e ' s G e n e r a l W i l l , b y p a s s i n g a l l p a r t i c u l a r I n t e r e s t s a n d p e t t y conflicts, e n d s u p stifling d e m o c r a t i c life itself. In a H e g e l i a n m o d e , o n e is t h u s t e m p t e d to c l a s s i f y B r o w n ' s v e r s i o n a s t h e e x t r e m e a g g r a v a t i o n of t h e " d e m o c r a t i c p a r a d o x " to t h e p o i n t

of d i r e c t s e l f - i n c o n s i s t e n c y . W h a t , t h e n , w o u l d b e

the

( r e ) s o l u r i o n of t h i s o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n " t h e s i s " ( L a c a n a s a t h e o r i s t of d e m o c r a c y ) a n d " a n t i t h e s i s " ( L a c a n a s its I n t e r n a l c r i t i c ) ? W e s u g g e s t t h a t It Is t h e r i s k y b u t n e c e s s a r y g e s t u r e of r e n d e r i n g p r o b l e m a t i c t h e v e r y notion of " d e m o c r a c y , " of m o v i n g e l s e w h e r e — of h a v i n g t h e c o u r a g e to e l a b o r a t e a p o s i t i v e Iweable p r o j e c t " b e y o n d d e m o c r a c y . " Is B r o w n not all too u n - N l e t z s c h e a n In h e r r e d u c t i o n of " N i e t z s c h e " to a p r o v o c a t i v e c o r r e c t i o n of d e m o c r a c y w h i c h , t h r o u g h h i s e x a g g e r a t i o n , r e n d e r s v i s i b l e t h e I n c o n s i s t e n c i e s a n d w e a k n e s s e s of t h e

democratic

p r o j e c t ? W h e n s h e p r o c l a i m s N i e t z s c h e ' s Implicit ( a n d a l s o e x p l i c i t ) a n t i ­ d e m o c r a t i c p r o j e c t " u n l i v e a b l e , " d o e s s h e not t h e r e b y a l l too g l i b l y p a s s o v e r t h e fact t h a t t h e r e w e r e v e r y r e a l p o l i t i c a l p r o j e c t s w h i c h d i r e c t l y r e f e r r e d to N i e t z s c h e , u p to a n d i n c l u d i n g N a z i s m , a n d t h a t N i e t z s c h e h i m s e l f c o n s t a n t l y r e f e r r e d to a c t u a l polltrcal e v e n t s a r o u n d hrm — s a y , t h e " s l a v e r e b e l l i o n " of t h e P a r i s C o m m u n e t h a t h e f o u n d so s h a t t e r i n g ? ' ^ B r o w n t h u s a c c o m p l i s h e s a domestication of N i e t z s c h e , t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of h i s t h e o r y Into a n e x e r c i s e In " I n h e r e n t t r a n s g r e s s i o n " : p r o v o c a t i o n s w h i c h a r e not r e a l l y " m e a n t s e r i o u s l y , " b u t a i m , t h r o u g h t h e i r " p r o v o ­ c a t i v e " c h a r a c t e r , to a w a k e n u s from o u r d e m o c r a t i c - d o g m a t i c s l u m b e r a n d t h u s c o n t r i b u t e to t h e r e v l t a l l z a t l o n of d e m o c r a c y itself . . . T h i s i s h o w t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t l i k e s Its " s u b v e r s i v e " t h e o r i s t s : h a r m l e s s g a d f l i e s 106

RADICAL INTELLECTUALS

•vvho s t i n g u s a n d t h u s a w a k e n u s t o t h e i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s a n d i m p e r f e c t i o n of o u r d e m o c r a t i c

enterprise — God

forbid

that they might take the

p r o j e c t s e r i o u s l y a n d t r y t o live it . . .

Michel Foucault ant) the Iraninn event O n e o f t h e m a i n a n t i - t o t a h t a r i a n c l i c h é s i s t h a t of " i n t e l l e c t u a l s " (in t h e i n f a m o u s P a u l J o h n s o n s e n s e of t h e t e r m ) s e d u c e d b y t h e " a u t h e n t i c " touch

of v i o l e n t s p e c t a c l e s a n d o u t b u r s t s ,

in love w i t h t h e ruthless

exercise of p o w e r w h i c h supplements their limp-wristed existence — the l o n g l i n e from P l a t o a n d R o u s s e a u t o f i e i d e g g e r , n o t to m e n t i o n the s t a n d a r d list of t h e d u p e s of S t a l i n i s m ( B r e c h t , S a r t r e . . . ) . T h e facile L a c a n i a n d e f e n s e a g a i n s t t h i s c h a r g e w o u l d b e to p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e l e a s t o n e c a n s a y a b o u t L a c a n i a n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s i s t h a t it r e n d e r s u s i m m u n e to s u c h " t o t a l i t a r i a n t e m p t a t i o n s " : n o L a c a n i a n h a s e v e r c o m m i t t e d a s i m i l a r p o l i t i c a l b l u n d e r of b e i n g s e d u c e d b y a m i r a g e of a t o t a l i t a r i a n revolution . . . H o w e v e r , i n s t e a d of s u c h a n e a s y w a y out, o n e s h o u l d r a t h e r h e r o i c a l l y a c c e p t t h i s " w h i t e i n t e l l e c t u a l ' s b u r d e n . " L e t u s a p p r o a c h it a t its m o s t p r o b l e m a t i c . T h e c o n t o u r s of t h e d e b a t e a b o u t t h e s t a t u s of H e i d e g g e r ' s Nazi

engagement

( w a s it j u s t

a passing

m i s t a k e of n o t h e o r e t i c a l

s i g n i f i c a n c e o r w a s i t g r o u n d e d i n h i s t h o u g h t itself'.' D i d it c o n t r i b u t e to t h e t u r n H e i d e g g e r ' s t h o u g h t t o o k a f t e r w a r d s ? ) a r e s t r a n g e l y r e m i ­ n i s c e n t of M i c h e l F o u c a u l t ' s b r i e f e n g a g e m e n t o n b e h a l f of t h e I r a n i a n revolution.

H o w c o u l d t h e f o l l o w i n g l i n e s not e v o k e a s t r i k i n g p a r a l l e l

with Heidegger?

M a n y s c h o l a r s of F o u c a u l t v i e w t h e s e w r i t i n g s [on I r a n ] a s a b e r r a n t o r t h e p r o d u c t of a p o l i t i c a l m i s t a k e . W e s u g g e s t t h a t F o u c a u l t ' s w r i t i n g s on I r a n w e r e i n fact c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o h i s g e n e r a l t h e o r e t i c a l w r i t i n g s on t h e d i s c o u r s e of p o w e r a n d t h e h a z a r d s of m o d e r n i t y . W e a l s o a r g u e t h a t F o u c a u l t ' s e x p e r i e n c e i n I r a n left a l a s t i n g i m p a c t o n h i s s u b ­ sequent oeuvre a n d that o n e cannot understand t h e sudden turn in Foucault's w r i t i n g s in the 1980s without recognizing the significance of t h e I r a n i a n e p i s o d e a n d h i s m o r e g e n e r a l p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h t h e Orient.*^

In b o t h c a s e s , o n e s h o u l d i n v e r t t h e s t a n d a r d n a r r a t i v e a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h t h e e r r o n e o u s e n g a g e m e n t a w a k e n e d t h e t h i n k e r to t h e l i m i t a t i o n s 107

IN DEFENSE OF LOST CAUSES

of h i s p r e v i o u s t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n a n d c o m p e l l e d h i m t o r a d i c a l i z e h i s thought,

to enact a " t u r n " that w o u l d prevent

o c c u r r i n g a g a i n ( H e i d e g g e r ' s shift

such mistakes

from

t o GeLuueiiheit, F o u c a u l t ' s t o t h e

a e s t h e t i c of t h e s e l f ) : F o u c a u l t ' s I r a n i a n e n g a g e m e n t , h k e H e i d e g g e r ' s N a z i e n g a g e m e n t , w a s i n i t s e l f (in i t s f o r m ) a n a p p r o p r i a t e g e s t u r e , t h e b e s t t h i n g h e e v e r d i d , t h e o n l y p r o b l e m b e i n g t h a t it w a s ( a s to i t s content) a commitment in t h e w r o n g direction. R a t h e r t h a n r e p r o a c h F o u c a u l t for h i s " b l u n d e r , " o n e s h o u l d r e a d h i s t u r n t o K a n t a c o u p l e of y e a r s l a t e r a s h i s r e s p o n s e

to t h i s failed

e n g a g e m e n t . F o u c a u l t is interested in t h e notion of e n t h u s i a s m a s Kant d e p l o y s it a p r o p o s t h e F r e n c h

R e v o l u t i o n ( i n h i s Conflict of Faculties,

w h i c h w e a l r e a d y q u o t e d i n C h a p t e r 1 ) : a s w e h a v e a l r e a d y n o t e d , for Kant, i t s t r u e s i g n i f i c a n c e d o e s n o t r e s i d e i n w h a t a c t u a l l y w e n t on in Paris — m a n y things there w e r e terrifying, outbursts of m u r d e r o u s p a s ­ sions—but in the enthusiastic response that the events in P a n s g e n e r a t e d in t h e e y e s of t h e s y m p a t h e t i c o b s e r v e r s a l l a r o u n d E u r o p e . . . D i d F o u c a u l t t h e r e b y n o t p r o p o s e a k i n d of m e t a - t h e o r y of h i s o w n e n t h u ­ s i a s m a b o u t t h e I r a n i a n r e v o l u t i o n of 1 9 7 8 - 7 9 ? W h a t m a t t e r s i s n o t t h e miserable reality that followed the upheavals, the bloody confrontations, t h e n e w o p p r e s s i v e m e a s u r e s , a n d so on, b u t t h e e n t h u s i a s m t h a t t h e e v e n t s i n I r a n s t i m u l a t e d in t h e e x t e r n a l ( W e s t e r n ) o b s e r v e r , c o n f i r m i n g h i s h o p e s i n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a n e w form

of s p i r i t u a l i z e d p o l i t i c a l

collective. W a s Iran, t h e n , for F o u c a u l t t h e o b j e c t of " i n t e r p a s s i v e a u t h e n t i c i t y , " the mythical O t h e r Place w h e r e the authentic happens —Cuba, Nicar­ a g u a , B o l i v i a t o d a y . . . — a n d for w h i c h W e s t e r n i n t e l l e c t u a l s h a v e a n i n e x h a u s t i b l e n e e d ? A n d , i n c i d e n t a l l y , o n e c o u l d r e d e e m in t h e s a m e w a y not o n l y t h e e n t h u s i a s m e v o k e d b y S t a l i n i s t R u s s i a i n m a n y W e s t e r n intellectuals a n d artists in t h e 1930s a n d 1940s, b u t even t h e enthusiasm s t o k e d i n t h o s e w h o w e r e o t h e r w i s e b i t t e r c r i t i c s of S t a l i n i s m b y t h e M a o i s t C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n : w h a t m a t t e r s w a s not t h e b r u t a l v i o l e n c e a n d t e r r o r i n C h i n a , b u t t h e e n t h u s i a s m fired u p b y t h i s s p e c t a c l e a m o n g s t t h e W e s t e r n o b s e r v e r s . . . ( A n d — w h y n o t ? — o n e c o u l d c l a i m t h e s a m e for t h e f a s c i n a t i o n of N a z i G e r m a n y for s o m e W e s t e r n o b s e r v e r s i n t h e first four y e a r s of H i t l e r ' s r u l e w h e n u n e m p l o y m e n t fell r a p i d l y , a n d so o n ! ) H o w e v e r , t h e p r o b l e m w i t h t h i s r e a d i n g is that, in h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the Iranian events, Foucault turns this perspective a r o u n d a n d opposes t h e e n t h u s i a s m of t h o s e e n g a g e d i n t h e e v e n t t o t h e cold v i e w o f t h e e x t e r n a l o b s e r v e r w h o d i s c e r n s t h e l a r g e r c a u s a l c o n t e x t , t h e i n t e r p l a y of I OB

RADICAL

INTELLECTUALS

c l a s s e s a n d t h e i r i n t e r e s t s , a n d so on a n d so forth. T h i s shift of t h e e n t h u s i a s m a r o u s e d in a n e x t e r n a l o b s e r v e r to t h e e n t h u s i a s m of t h o s e c a u g h t in t h e e v e n t s i s c r u c i a l — h o w a r e w e to thltik t h e l i n k of t h e s e t w o l o c a t i o n s of e n t h u s i a s m , t h e e n t h u s i a s m of d i r e c t p a r t i c i p a n t s a n d t h a t of e x t e r n a l a n d d i s e n g a g e d ( d i s i n t e r e s t e d ) o b s e r v e r s ? T h e o n l y s o l u t i o n is t o " d e c o n s t r u c t " t h e v e r y i m m e d i a c y of t h e l i v e d e x p e r i e n c e of t h e d i r e c t p a r t i c i p a n t s : w h a t if t h i s i m m e d i a c y is a l r e a d y s t a g e d for a n o b s e r v e r , for a n i m a g i n e d O t h e r ' s g a z e ? W h a t if, in t h e i r i n n e r m o s t l i v e d e x p e r i e n c e , t h e y a l r e a d y i m a g i n e t h e m s e l v e s b e i n g o b s e r v e d ? A l o n g t h e s e l i n e s , in h i s l a s t t e x t on I r a n ( " I s it U s e l e s s to R e v o l t ? " , from M a y 1 9 7 9 ) , F o u c a u l t o p p o s e s t h e h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t y of a c o m p l e x p r o c e s s of s o c i a l , c u l t u r a l , e c o n o m i c , p o l i t i c a l , a n d so on, t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s to t h e m a g i c a l e v e n t of t h e r e v o l t w h i c h s o m e h o w s u s p e n d s t h e n e t w o r k of h i s t o r i c a l c a u s a l i t y — t o w h i c h it i s i r r e d u c i b l e :

The

man

in r e v o l t i s u l t i m a t e l y i n e x p h c a b l e . T h e r e

must

be

an

u p r o o t i n g t h a t i n t e r r u p t s t h e u n f o l d i n g of h i s t o r y , a n d i t s l o n g s e r i e s of r e a s o n s w h y , for a m a n " r e a l l y " to p r e f e r t h e r i s k of d e a t h o v e r t h e c e r t a i n t y of h a v i n g to o b e y . ' ^

O n e s h o u l d b e a w a r e of t h e K a n t i a n c o n n o t a t i o n of t h e s e p r o p o s i t i o n s : r e v o l t i s a n a c t of f r e e d o m w h i c h m o m e n t a r i l y s u s p e n d s t h e n e x u s of historical causality, that is, i n revolt, the n o u m e n a l dimension transpires. T h e p a r a d o x , of c o u r s e , i s t h a t t h i s n o u m e n a l d i m e n s i o n c o i n c i d e s w i t h its o p p o s i t e , w i t h t h e p u r e s u r f a c e of a p h e n o m e n o n : t h e n o u m e n o n not o n l y a p p e a r s , t h e n o u m e n a l i s w h a t i s , in a p h e n o m e n o n ,

i r r e d u c i b l e to t h e

c a u s a l n e t w o r k of r e a l i t y t h a t g e n e r a t e d t h i s p h e n o m e n o n — i n short, t h e noumenon Li phenomenon qua phenomenon. T h e r e i s a c l e a r l i n k b e t w e e n t h i s i r r e d u c i b l e c h a r a c t e r of t h e p h e n o m e n o n a n d D e l e u z e ' s n o t i o n of e v e n t a s t h e flux of b e c o m i n g , a s a s u r f a c e e m e r g e n c e t h a t c a n n o t b e r e d u c e d to its " b o d i l y " c a u s e s . F l i s r e p l y to t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e c r i t i c s w h o the

miserable and

e v e n t e r r i f y i n g a c t u a l r e s u l t s of a

denounce

revolutionary

U p h e a v a l i s t h a t t h e y r e m a i n b l i n d to t h e d i m e n s i o n of b e c o m i n g :

It i s f a s h i o n a b l e t h e s e d a y s to c o n d e m n t h e h o r r o r s of r e v o l u t i o n . It's n o t h i n g n e w ; E n g l i s h R o m a n t i c i s m is p e r m e a t e d b y r e f l e c t i o n s on C r o m w e l l v e r y s i m i l a r to p r e s e n t - d a y r e f l e c t i o n s on S t a l i n . T h e y s a y revolutions turn out b a d l y . B u t t h e y ' r e constantly confusing

two

different t h i n g s , t h e w a y r e v o l u t i o n s t u r n o u t h i s t o r i c a l l y a n d p e o p l e ' s 109

r e v o l u t i o n a r y b e c o m i n g . T h e s e r e l a t e to t w o different s e t s of p e o p l e . M e n ' s o n l y h o p e l i e s in a r e v o l u t i o n a r y b e c o m i n g : t h e o n l y w a y of c a s t i n g off t h e i r s h a m e o r r e s p o n d i n g to w h a t i s i n t o l e r a b l e . ' ^ D e l e u z e r e f e r s h e r e to r e v o l u t i o n a r y e x p l o s i o n s in a w a y w h i c h i s s t r i c t l y p a r a l l e l to F o u c a u l t ' s :

T h e I r a n i a n m o v e m e n t d i d not e x p e r i e n c e t h e " l a w " of r e v o l u t i o n s t h a t w o u l d , some say, m a k e the t y r a n n y that a l r e a d y secretly inhabited t h e m r e a p p e a r u n d e r n e a t h t h e b l i n d e n t h u s i a s m of t h e m a s s e s . W h a t c o n s t i t u t e d t h e m o s t i n t e r n a l a n d t h e m o s t i n t e n s e l y l i v e d p a r t of t h e uprising touched,

in a n u n m e d i a t e d f a s h i o n , on a n a l r e a d y o v e r ­

c r o w d e d p o l i t i c a l c h e s s b o a r d , b u t s u c h c o n t a c t i s not i d e n t i t y . T h e s p i r i t u a l i t y of t h o s e w h o w e r e g o i n g to t h e i r d e a t h s h a s n o s i m i l a r i t y w h a t s o e v e r w i t h t h e b l o o d y g o v e r n m e n t of a f u n d a m e n t a l i s t

clergy.

T h e I r a n i a n c l e r i c s w a n t to a u t h e n t i c a t e t h e i r r e g i m e t h r o u g h

the

s i g n i f i c a t i o n s t h a t t h e u p r i s i n g h a d . It i s no different to d i s c r e d i t the fact of t h e u p r i s i n g on t h e g r o u n d s t h a t t h e r e is t o d a y a g o v e r n m e n t of m u l l a h s . In b o t h c a s e s , t h e r e i s " f e a r , " fear of w h a t j u s t h a p p e n e d l a s t fall in I r a n , s o m e t h i n g of w h i c h t h e w o r l d h a d not s e e n a n e x a m p l e for a l o n g time.'^*'

F o u c a u l t is here effectively D e l e u z i a n : w h a t interests him are not the I r a n i a n e v e n t s a t the l e v e l of a c t u a l s o c i a l r e a l i t y a n d its c a u s a l i n t e r a c ­ t i o n s , b u t t h e e v e n t a l s u r f a c e , t h e p u r e v i r t u a l i t y of t h e " s p a r k of l i f e " w h i c h o n l y a c c o u n t s for t h e u n i q u e n e s s of t h e E v e n t . W h a t t o o k p l a c e in I r a n in t h e i n t e r s t i c e of t w o e p o c h s of s o c i a l r e a l i t y w a s not t h e e x p l o s i o n of t h e P e o p l e a s a s u b s t a n t i a l e n t i t y w i t h a set of p r o p e r t i e s , b u t t h e e v e n t of a b e c o m i n g - p e o p l e . T h e p o i n t is t h u s n o t t h e shift in r e l a t i o n s of p o w e r and domination between actual socio-political agents, the redistribution of s o c i a l c o n t r o l , a n d so on, b u t t h e v e r y fact of t r a n s c e n d i n g —or, r a t h e r , m o m e n t a r i l y c a n c e l i n g — t h i s v e r y d o m a i n , t h e e m e r g e n c e of a t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t d o m a i n of " c o l l e c t i v e w i l l " a s a p u r e s e n s e - e v e n t in w h i c h a l l d i f f e r e n c e s a r e o b l i t e r a t e d , r e n d e r e d i r r e l e v a n t . S u c h a n e v e n t i s not o n l y n e w w i t h r e g a r d to w h a t h a p p e n e d before, it i s n e w "in i t s e l f " a n d t h u s forever remains new. H o w e v e r , h e r e , at t h e i r m o s t s u b l i m e , t h i n g s s t a r t to g e t c o m p h c a t e d . F o u c a u l t h a s to c o n c e d e t h a t t h i s d i v i s i o n w a s i n t e r n a l to the e n g a g e d individuals themselves: no

RADICAL

INTELLECTUALS

L e t ' s t a k e t h e a c t i v i s t in s o m e p o l i t i c a l g r o u p . W h e n h e w a s t a k i n g p a r t in o n e of t h o s e d e m o n s t r a t i o n s , h e w a s d o u b l e : h e h a d h i s p o l i t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n , w h i c h w a s t h i s or that, a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e h e w a s a n i n d i v i d u a l c a u g h t u p in t h a t r e v o l u t i o n a r y m o v e m e n t , or r a t h e r t h a t I r a n i a n w h o h a d r i s e n u p a g a i n s t t h e k i n g . A n d the t w o t h i n g s d i d not c o m e i n t o c o n t a c t , h e d i d not rise u p a g a i n s t t h e k i n g b e c a u s e h i s p a r t y h a d m a d e this or that calculation.^^

A n d t h e s a m e d i v i s i o n c u t s a c r o s s the e n t i r e s o c i a l b o d y : at t h e l e v e l of r e a l i t y , t h e r e w e r e , of c o u r s e , m u l t i p l e a g e n t s , c o m p l e x i n t e r a c t i o n s of c l a s s e s , t h e o v e r d e t e r m i n a t i o n of i n c o m p a t i b l e s t r u g g l e s ; h o w e v e r , at t h e l e v e l of t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y e v e n t p r o p e r , a l l t h i s w a s " s u b l a t e d " i n t o " a n absolutely collective w i l l " that united the entire social b o d y a g a i n s t the S h a h a n d his clique. There w a s no division within the social body, no " c l a s s s t r u g g l e , " a l l —from

p o o r f a r m e r s to s t u d e n t s ,

from

clergy

to

disappointed capitalists—wanted the same:

T h e c o l l e c t i v e w i l l is a p o l i t i c a l m y t h w i t h w h i c h j u r i s t s a n d p h i l o s o ­ p h e r s t r y to a n a l y z e or to j u s t i f y i n s t i t u t i o n s , etc. It's a t h e o r e t i c a l tool: nobody has ever seen the "collective w i l l " and, personally, I thought t h a t t h e c o l l e c t i v e w i l l w a s l i k e God, l i k e t h e soul, s o m e t h i n g

one

w o u l d n e v e r e n c o u n t e r . I d o n ' t k n o w w h e t h e r 3'ou a g r e e w i t h m e , b u t we

met, in T e h r a n

a n d t h r o u g h o u t Iran,

t h e c o l l e c t i v e w i l l of a

people.

F o u c a u l t o p p o s e s h e r e r e v o l t a n d r e v o l u t i o n : " r e v o l u t i o n " (in t h e m o d e r n E u r o p e a n s e n s e ) d e s i g n a t e s t h e r e i n s c r i p t i o n of a r e v o l t into t h e p r o c e s s of s t r a t e g i c - p o l i t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n : r e v o l u t i o n i s a p r o c e s s b y m e a n s of w h i c h the revolt is "colonized b y realpolitik":

"Revolution " g a v e these u p r i s i n g s a legitimacy, sorted out their good a n d b a d forms, a n d d e f i n e d t h e i r l a w s of d e v e l o p m e n t . [. . . ] E v e n t h e p r o f e s s i o n of r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a s d e f i n e d . B y t h u s r e p a t r i a t i n g r e v o l t i n t o t h e d i s c o u r s e of r e v o l u t i o n , it w a s s a i d , t h e u p r i s i n g w o u l d a p p e a r in all its t r u t h a n d c o n t i n u e to its t r u e c o n c l u s i o n .

N o w o n d e r F o u c a u l t c o m p a r e s t h e a p p e a r i n g of a c o l l e c t i v e w i l l w i t h t w o of K a n t ' s n o u m e n a l t h i n g s ( G o d , s o u l ) . W h e n t h e n o u m e n a l a p p e a r s , it is in t h e g u i s e of u l t i m a t e h o r r o r — a s F o u c a u l t is a w a r e : III

At t h i s s t a g e , t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a n d t h e m o s t a t r o c i o u s m i n g l e — t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y h o p e of" r e m a k i n g I s l a m i n t o a g r e a t l i v i n g c i v i l i z a t i o n a n d v a r i o u s f o r m s of v i r u l e n t x e n o p h o b i a , a s w e l l a s t h e g l o b a l s t a k e s a n d the r e g i o n a l r i v a l r i e s . A n d t h e p r o b l e m of i m p e r i a l i s m s . A n d t h e s u b j u g a t i o n of w o m e n , a n d so on.

W h a t h a s g i v e n t h e I r a n i a n m o v e m e n t its i n t e n s i t y h a s b e e n a d o u b l e register. O n the one hand, a collective w i l l that h a s been v e r y strongly e x p r e s s e d p o l i t i c a l l y a n d , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e d e s i r e for a r a d i c a l c h a n g e in o r d i n a r y life. B u t t h i s d o u b l e a f f i r m a t i o n c a n o n l y b e b a s e d on t r a d i t i o n s , i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t c a r r y a c h a r g e of c h a u v i n i s m , n a t i o n ­ a l i s m , e x c l u s i v e n e s s , w h i c h h a v e a v e r y p o w e r f u l a t t r a c t i o n for in­ d i v i d u a l s . T o c o n f r o n t so f e a r s o m e a n a r m e d p o w e r , o n e m u s t n ' t feel alone, nor begin w i t h nothing.

The picture

thus becomes blurred.

First,

Foucault withdraws

from

o v e r a l l s u p p o r t for t h e I r a n i a n r e v o l t ( s u s t a i n e d b y a h o p e t h a t a n e n t i r e l y different s o c i e t y w i l l e m e r g e o u t of it, b r e a k i n g o u t of t h e s p a c e of E u r o p e a n

m o d e r n i t y a n d i t s d e a d l o c k s ) to v a l o r i z i n g o n l y t h e e n ­

t h u s i a s t i c m o m e n t of r e v o l t itself: t h e E u r o p e a n

l i b e r a l s w h o w a n t to

d i s c r e d i t t h e I r a n i a n e v e n t s b e c a u s e t h e y e n d e d u p in a n

oppressive

theocracy move at the s a m e level a s the c l e r g y itself w h i c h is r e c l a i m i n g t h e r e v o l t in o r d e r to j u s t i f y i t s r u l e — t h e y b o t h a t t e m p t to r e d u c e t h e E v e n t to a factor in a p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e of s t r a t e g i c i n t e r e s t s . T h e n , in a m o r e s u b t l e a n d s u r p r i s i n g m o v e , F o u c a u l t d i s c e r n s another a m b i g u i t y w h i c h c a n n o t b e r e d u c e d to t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e l e v e l of p u r e r e v o l t a n d t h e l e v e l of m u l t i p l e s o c i o p o l i t i c a l I n t e r p l a y : " c h a u v i n i s m , " " v i r u l e n t x e n o p h o b i a , " t h e " s u b j u g a t i o n of w o m e n , " a n d so on, a r e not s i g n s of t h e c o n t a m i n a t i o n of t h e E v e n t b y s o c i o p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t y , t h e y a r e i n h e r e n t f o r c e s of t h e E v e n t itself, t h a t i s , t h e i r m o b i l i z a t i o n g a v e t h e E v e n t t h e s t r e n g t h to o p p o s e i t s e l f to t h e o p p r e s s i v e p o l i t i c a l r e g i m e a n d to a v o i d g e t t i n g c a u g h t in t h e g a m e of p o l i t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s . It i s t h i s v e r y r e l i a n c e on t h e " v i l e s t " r a c i s t , a n t i - f e m i n i s t , etc., motifs t h a t g a v e t h e I r a n i a n r e v o l u t i o n t h e p o w e r to m o v e b e y o n d a m e r e p r a g m a t i c p o w e r s t r u g g l e . To p u t it in B a d i o u i a n t e r m s , t h e a u t h e n t i c E v e n t t h u s b e c o m e s I n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from a

pseudo-Event.

A r e w e not d e a l i n g h e r e w i t h a k i n d of H e g e l i a n t r i a d i n w h i c h t h e e x t e r n a l o p p o s i t i o n i s g r a d u a l l y i n t e r n a l i z e d , r e f l e c t e d i n t o i t s e l f ? F'lrst, t h e e x t e r n a l o p p o s i t i o n of t h e I r a n i a n r e v o l u t i o n in i t s e l f ( a u n i q u e e v e n t ) 112

RADICAL INTELLECTUALS

a n d t h e w a y it a p p e a r s to E u r o p e a n s is i n t e r n a h z e d into t h e t w o a s p e c t s of t h e e v e n t s t h e m s e l v e s : t h e i r p r a g m a t i c s t r u g g l e - f o r - p o w e r s i d e , a n d t h e s i d e of a u n i q u e p o l i t i c o - s p i r i t u a l E v e n t . F i n a l l y , t h e s e t w o a s p e c t s a r e i d e n t i f i e d a s t h e form a n d c o n t e n t of t h e s a m e e v e n t : t h e

oppressive

m i s o g y n i s t i d e o l o g y , a n t i - S e m i t i s m , a n d so forth, a r e t h e o n l y i d e o l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l s at t h e d i s p o s a l of t h e I r a n i a n s t h a t c a n s u s t a i n t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l e l e v a t i o n of t h e

properly

Event—the Event turns into a p u r e l y

formal f e a t u r e , i n d i f f e r e n t t o w a r d s its specific h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e n t . In o t h e r w o r d s , F o u c a u l t e n d s u p a t a p o i n t at w h i c h o n e s h o u l d e f f e c t i v e l y r a i s e t h e q u e s t i o n u s u a l l y a d d r e s s e d to B a d i o u : w h y , t h e n , i s t i i t l e r ' s N a z i " r e v o l u t i o n " not a l s o a n E v e n t ?

D o e s it not s h a r e t h e v e r y

features

a t t r i b u t e d b y F o u c a u l t to the I r a n i a n r e v o l u t i o n ? D i d w e not h a v e t h e r e a l s o t h e s p i r i t u a l u n i t y of p e o p l e , u n d i v i d e d i n t o p a r t i c u l a r

subgroups

s e p a r a t e d b y i n t e r e s t s , a u n i t y for w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s w e r e r e a d y

to

s a c r i f i c e t h e m s e l v e s ? A n d , a s in t h e c a s e of Iran, w a s t h i s s p i r i t of u n i t y not s u s t a i n e d b y t h e " v i l e s t " e l e m e n t s of t r a d i t i o n ( r a c i s m a n d so o n ) ? A t t h i s point, t h e o n l y m o v e t h a t r e m a i n s i s to d r o p t h i s form i t s e l f — n o w o n d e r , t h e n , t h a t , after h i s I r a n i a n e x p e r i e n c e , F o u c a u l t w i t h d r e w to the t o p i c of t h e c a r e of t h e self, of t h e a e s t h e t i c s of e x i s t e n c e ( a n d , p o l i t i c a l l y , to s u p p o r t i n g

different

h u m a n - r i g h t s i n i t i a t i v e s , w h i c h m a k e s h i m in

F r a n c e a d a r l i n g of t h e n e o l i b e r a l - h u m a n i t a r i a n " n e w

philosophers").

H e r e , o n e c a n o n l y v e n t u r e t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e c o n c e p t u a l root of this F o u c a u l d i a n d e a d l o c k is h i s k e y notion of t h e àispoditif. A t first s i g h t , it m a y a p p e a r t h a t L a c a n ' s big O t h e r is the p o o r c o u s i n of F o u c a u l t ' s n o t i o n of t h e didpojUif, w h i c h i s m u c h

more productive

for s o c i a l a n a l y s i s .

H o w e v e r , t h e r e i s t h e d e a d l o c k of t h e dupositif •w\t\\ r e g a r d to t h e s t a t u s of t h e s u b j e c t : first (in h i s h i s t o r y of m a d n e s s ) , F o u c a u l t t e n d e d

to

e x c l u d e from it t h e r e s i s t i n g c o r e of s u b j e c t i v i t y ; t h e n , h e shifted h i s p o s i t i o n to i t s o p p o s i t e , to t h e r a d i c a l i n c l u s i o n of r e s i s t a n t s u b j e c t i v i t y i n t o t h e dutpositif

( p o w e r itself g e n e r a t e s resistance, a n d

t h e m e s of h i s DLicipUne and Punuh);

finally,

so

on—the

h e t r i e d to o u t l i n e t h e s p a c e

of t h e " c a r e of t h e self" t h a t a l l o w s t h e s u b j e c t to a r t i c u l a t e t h r o u g h selfr e l a t i n g h i s o w n " m o d e of l i f e " w i t h i n a diipoé'dif, a n d t h u s to r e g a i n a m i n i m u m of d i s t a n c e from

it. T h e s u b j e c t i s h e r e a l w a y s a c u r v e , a

d i s t u r b a n c e , of t h e diipojitif, t h e p r o v e r b i a l g r a i n of s a n d t h a t d i s r u p t s its s m o o t h r u n n i n g . W i t h L a c a n ' s " b i g O t h e r , " t h e p e r s p e c t i v e is c o m p l e t e l y t h e o p p o s i t e : the v e r y " p o s i t i n g " of t h e b i g O t h e r is a s u b j e c t i v e g e s t u r e , t h a t i s , t h e " b i g O t h e r " is a v i r t u a l e n t i t y t h a t e x i s t s o n l y t h r o u g h

the

s u b j e c t ' s p r e s u p p o s i t i o n ( t h i s m o m e n t is m i s s i n g in A l t h u s s e r ' s notion of 113

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

t h e " I d e o l o g i c a l S t a t e A p p a r a t u s e s , " w i t h its e m p h a s i s on t h e " m a t e r i ­ a l i t y " of t h e b i g O t h e r , its m a t e r i a l e x i s t e n c e in i d e o l o g i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d r i t u a l i z e d p r a c t i c e s — L a c a n ' s b i g O t h e r i s , o n t h e c o n t r a r y , ulti­ m a t e l y v i r t u a l a n d a s s u c h , in i t s m o s t b a s i c d i m e n s i o n , " i m m a t e r i a l " ) . B u t let u s r e t u r n to I r a n . F o u c a u l t ' s b l u n d e r in no w a y i m p l i e s t h a t t h e Iranian revolution w a s a pseudo-Event

(in a B a d i o u i a n s e n s e ) c o m p a r ­

a b l e to t h e N a z i " r e v o l u t i o n " : it w a s a n a u t h e n t i c E v e n t , a m o m e n t a r y opening t h a t u n l e a s h e d u n p r e c e d e n t e d forces of s o c i a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ,

a

m o m e n t in w h i c h " e v e r y t h i n g s e e m e d p o s s i b l e . " T o d e t e c t t h i s d i m e n ­ sion, it i s e n o u g h to f o l l o w c l o s e l y t h e shifts a n d r e v e r s a l s of t h e I r a n i a n e v e n t s , the g r a d u a l c l o s i n g of t h e m u l t i p l e m o d e s of s e l f - o r g a n i z a t i o n of the p r o t e s t i n g c r o w d s t h r o u g h t h e t a k e o v e r of p o l i t i c a l p o w e r b y t h e n e w I s l a m i c c l e r g y . T h e r e w a s n o t h i n g c o m p a r a b l e to the e f f e r v e s c e n t first m o n t h s after

the

shah's fall—the constant

frantic

activity, debates,

Utopian p l a n s , e t c . — i n G e r m a n y after t h e N a z i t a k e o v e r ( a l t h o u g h t h e r e wad s o m e t h i n g c o m p a r a b l e g o i n g on in t h e first y e a r s after t h e O c t o b e r R e v o l u t i o n ) . O n e s h o u l d not t a k e t h i s q u a l i t a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e a s s o m e t h i n g t h a t c o n c e r n s o n l y t h e f o r m a l l e v e l of e v e n t s (or, e v e n w o r s e , t h e g r o u p p s y c h o l o g i c a l l e v e l , a s if t h e I r a n i a n e x p l o s i o n w a s m o r e " s i n c e r e " t h a n t h e N a z i o n e ) — i t s c r u c i a l d i m e n s i o n w a s t h a t of s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l c o n t e n t : w h a t m a k e s the Iranian explosion an Event w a s the m o m e n t a r y emer­ g e n c e of s o m e t h i n g n e w t h a t p e r t a i n e d to t h e s t r u g g l e to f o r m u l a t e a n a l t e r n a t i v e b e y o n d t h e e x i s t i n g o p t i o n s of W e s t e r n l i b e r a l d e m o c r a c y or a r e t u r n to p r e - m o d e r n t r a d i t i o n . T h e N a z i " r e v o l u t i o n " w a s never " o p e n " in t h i s a u t h e n t i c s e n s e . F o u c a u l t w a s a l s o fully j u s t i f i e d in e m p h a s i z i n g S h l a I s l a m ' s p o t e n t i a l for s e r v i n g a s t h e i d e o l o g i c a l v e h i c l e for a d e m o c r a t i c - e g a l i t a r i a n m o v e ­ m e n t : the o p p o s i t i o n

S u n n i v e r s u s S h l a i s , in p o l i t i c a l t e r m s , o n e of

h i e r a r c h i c a l s t a t e o r g a n i z a t i o n v e r s u s t h e e g a l i t a r i a n o p e n i n g of t h e e v e n t . In c o n t r a s t to b o t h J u d a i s m a n d C h r i s t i a n i t y , t h e t w o o t h e r r e l i g i o n s of the b o o k , I s l a m e x c l u d e s G o d from t h e d o m a i n of p a t e r n a l l o g i c : A l l a h is n o t a father, not e v e n a s y m b o l i c o n e — G o d a s O n e is n e i t h e r b o r n n o r d o e s H e g i v e b i r t h to c r e a t u r e s : there Li no place for a Holy Family in Idlam. T h i s i s w h y I s l a m e m p h a s i z e s so m u c h t h e fact t h a t M u h a m m a d h i m s e l f was

a n o r p h a n ; t h i s is w h y , in I s l a m , G o d i n t e r v e n e s p r e c i s e l y at t h e

moments

of t h e

p a t e r n a l function

suspension,

w i t h d r a w a l , f a i l u r e , " b l a c k o u t , " of

( w h e n the mother

or the child are a b a n d o n e d

the or

i g n o r e d b y the b i o l o g i c a l f a t h e r ) . W h a t t h i s m e a n s is t h a t G o d r e m a i n s t h o r o u g h l y i n t h e d o m a i n of t h e i m p o s s i b l e - R e a l : H e i s t h e i m p o s s l b l e 114

RADICAL INTELLECTUALS

R e a l b e y o n d t h e father, so t h a t t h e r e i s a " g e n e a l o g i c a l d e s e r t b e t w e e n m a n a n d God."^'^ ( T h i s w a s t h e p r o b l e m w i t h I s l a m for F r e u d , s i n c e h i s e n t i r e t h e o r y of r e l i g i o n i s b a s e d on t h e p a r a l l e l of G o d w i t h t h e f a t h e r . ) jVlore i m p o r t a n t l y still, t h i s i n s c r i b e s p o l i t i c s i n t o t h e v e r y h e a r t of I s l a m , s i n c e t h e " g e n e a l o g i c a l d e s e r t " r e n d e r s i m p o s s i b l e a g r o u n d i n g of t h e c o m m u n i t y in t h e s t r u c t u r e s of p a r e n t h o o d blood: "the desert b e t w e e n political Institutes i t s e l f "

o r o t h e r b o n d s b a s e d on

God a n d F a t h e r is the p l a c e w h e r e

the

W i t h I s l a m , it i s n o l o n g e r p o s s i b l e to g r o u n d

a c o m m u n i t y in t h e m o d e of Totem and Taboo, t h r o u g h t h e m u r d e r of t h e father,

the ensuing guilt bringing brothers

together—thence

Islam's

u n e x p e c t e d a c t u a l i t y . T h i s p r o b l e m is a t t h e v e r y h e a r t of t h e ( i n ) f a m o u s umma, t h e M u s l i m " c o m m u n i t y of b e l i e v e r s " ; it a c c o u n t s for t h e o v e r ­ l a p p i n g of t h e r e l i g i o u s a n d t h e p o l i t i c a l ( t h e c o m m u n i t y s h o u l d

be

g r o u n d e d d i r e c t l y on G o d ' s w o r d ) , a s w e l l a s for t h e fact t h a t I s l a m i s " a t its b e s t " w h e n it g r o u n d s t h e f o r m a t i o n of a c o m m u n i t y "out of n o w h e r e , " in t h e g e n e a l o g i c a l d e s e r t , a s t h e e g a l i t a r i a n r e v o l u t i o n a r y fraternity—no

w o n d e r I s l a m s u c c e e d s w h e n y o u n g m e n find t h e m s e l v e s

d e p r i v e d of a t r a d i t i o n a l f a m i l i a l s a f e t y n e t w o r k . T h i s , too, c o m p e l s u s to q u a l i f y a n d l i m i t t h e h o m o l o g y Foucault's Iranian engagement and

Heidegger's Nazi

between

commitments:

F o u c a u l t w a s right in e n g a g i n g h i m s e l f h e correctly d e t e c t e d the e m a n c i ­ p a t o r y p o t e n t i a l in t h e e v e n t s ; a l l i n s i n u a t i o n s of l i b e r a l c r i t i c s t h a t t h i s w a s y e t a n o t h e r c h a p t e r in t h e s a d s a g a of W e s t e r n r a d i c a l i n t e l l e c t u a l s p r o j e c t i n g t h e i r f a n t a s i e s o n t o a n e x o t i c foreign z o n e of t u r b u l e n c e , w h i c h a l l o w s t h e m to s a t i s f y eimultaneously t h e i r e m a n c i p a t o r y d e s i r e s and t h e i r s e c r e t " m a s o c h i s t i c " l o n g i n g for h a r s h d i s c i p l i n e a n d o p p r e s s i o n , t o t a l l y miss the point. S o w h e r e w a s his m i s t a k e ? O n e can claim that he d i d the r i g h t t h i n g for t h e w r o n g r e a s o n : t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h h e t h e o r i z e d a n d justified his e n g a g e m e n t is misleading. The f r a m e w o r k w i t h i n w h i c h F o u c a u l t o p e r a t e s in h i s a n a l y s i s of t h e I r a n i a n s i t u a t i o n is t h e o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y E v e n t , the s u b l i m e e n t h u s i a s m of t h e u n i t e d people w h e r e all internal differences a r e m o m e n t a r i l y suspended, a n d the p r a g m a t i c d o m a i n of t h e p o l i t i c s of i n t e r e s t s , s t r a t e g i c p o w e r c a l c u l a t i o n s , a n d so f o r t h — t h e o p p o s i t i o n w h i c h , a s w e h a v e a l r e a d y s e e n , d i r e c t l y e v o k e s K a n t ' s d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e n o u m e n a l (or, m o r e p r e c i s e l y , t h e sublime w h i c h evokes the noumenal dimension) and the

phenomenal.

O u r t h e s i s is h e r e a v e r y p r e c i s e o n e : t h i s g e n e r a l f r a m e i s too " a b s t r a c t " to a c c o u n t for different m o d a l i t i e s of c o l l e c t i v e e n t h u s i a s m — t o d i s t i n ­ g u i s h b e t w e e n , s a y , t h e N a z i e n t h u s i a s m of t h e p e o p l e u n i t e d in its lis

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

r e j e c t i o n of t h e J e w s ( w h o s e effects w e r e u n d o u b t e d l y r e a l ) , t h e

en-

t h u s i a s m of t h e p e o p l e u n i t e d a g a i n s t t h e s t a g n a t i n g C o m m u n i s t r e g i m e , o r a p r o p e r l y r e v o l u t i o n a r y e n t h u s i a s m . T h e d i f f e r e n c e is s i m p l y t h a t t h e first t w o a r e not E v e n t s , m e r e l y p s e u d o - E v e n t s , b e c a u s e t h e y l a c k e d the m o m e n t of a t r u l y Utopian o p e n i n g . T h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s s t r i c t l y i m m a n e n t to e n t h u s i a s t i c u n i t y : o n l y in t h e l a s t c a s e , t h e c o m m o n d e n o m i n a t o r of t h i s u n i t y w a s t h e " p a r t of n o - p a r t , " t h e " d o w n t r o d d e n , "

t h o s e i n c l u d e d in

s o c i e t y w i t h n o p r o p e r p l a c e w i t h i n it a n d , a s s u c h , f u n c t i o n i n g a s t h e "universal s i n g u l a r i t y , " directly e m b o d y i n g the universal dimension. T h i s is a l s o w h y t h e o p p o s i t i o n

between noumenal enthusiasm

and

p a r t i c u l a r s t r a t e g i c i n t e r e s t s d o e s not c o v e r t h e e n t i r e field — i f it w e r e so, t h e n w e w o u l d r e m a i n s t u c k f o r e v e r in t h e o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n e m a n c i p a t o r y o u t b u r s t s a n d t h e s o b e r i n g " d a y a f t e r " w h e n life r e t u r n s to its p r a g m a t i c normal run. F r o m this constrained perspective, e v e r y attempt to a v o i d a n d / o r p o s t p o n e t h i s s o b e r i n g r e t u r n to t h e n o r m a l r u n of t h i n g s a m o u n t s to t e r r o r , to t h e r e v e r s a l of e n t h u s i a s m i n t o m o n s t r o s i t y . W h a t if, h o w e v e r , thit is w h a t i s t r u l y at s t a k e in a t r u e e m a n c i p a t o r y p r o c e s s : in J a c q u e s R a n c i è r e ' s t e r m s , h o w to u n i t e t h e p o l i t i c a l a n d t h e p o l i c e , h o w to t r a n s p o s e t h e p o l i t i c a l e m a n c i p a t o r y o u t b u r s t i n t o the c o n c r e t e r e g u l a t i o n of p o l i c i n g ? W h a t c a n b e m o r e s u b l i m e t h a n t h e c r e a t i o n of a n e w " l i b e r a t e d t e r r i t o r y , " of a p o s i t i v e o r d e r of b e i n g w h i c h e s c a p e s t h e g r a s p of the e x i s t i n g o r d e r ? T h i s is w h y B a d i o u i s r i g h t to d e n y the s t a t u s of a n E v e n t to

the

e n t h u s i a s m t h a t followed t h e c o l l a p s e of the C o m m u n i s t r e g i m e s . W h e n , m t h e last m o n t h s of 2 0 0 1 , t h e M i l o s e v i c r e g i m e in S e r b i a w a s finally t o p p l e d , m a n y M a r x i s t s in the W e s t r a i s e d t h e q u e s t i o n : " W h a t a b o u t t h e coal m i n e r s w h o s e s t r i k e l e d to t h e d i s r u p t i o n of t h e e l e c t r i c i t y s u p p l y a n d t h u s effectively b r o u g h t

M i l o s e v i c d o w n ? W a s t h a t not a g e n u i n e w o r k e r s '

movement, w h i c h w a s then manipulated b y the politicians, w h o

were

nationalists or corrupted

point

b y the C I A ? " The same symptomatic

e m e r g e s a p r o p o s of e v e r y n e w social u p h e a v a l ; in e a c h of t h e s e c a s e s , such people identify some w o r k i n g - c l a s s movement w h i c h allegedly disp l a y e d a t r u e r e v o l u t i o n a r y or, a t least, socialist potential, b u t w a s

first

e x p l o i t e d a n d t h e n b e t r a y e d b y t h e p r o - c a p i t a l i s t a n d / o r n a t i o n a l i s t forces. T h i s w a y , o n e c a n c o n t i n u e to d r e a m t h a t the R e v o l u t i o n is r o u n d

the

c o r n e r : all w e n e e d is a n a u t h e n t i c l e a d e r s h i p w h i c h w o u l d b e a b l e to o r g a n i z e t h e w o r k e r s ' r e v o l u t i o n a r y p o t e n t i a l . If o n e i s to b e l i e v e t h e m , Solidarnosc w a s originally a w o r k e r s ' democratic-socialist movement, later " b e t r a y e d " b y its l e a d e r s h i p w h i c h w a s c o r r u p t e d b y the C h u r c h a n d t h e 116

RADICAL

INTELLECTUALS

C I A . • . T h e r e i s , of c o u r s e , a g r a i n of t r u t h in t h i s a p p r o a c h : t h e u h i m a t e i r o n y of t h e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of C o m m u n i s m w a s t h a t the g r e a t r e v o l t s ( t h e G D R in 1953, H u n g a r y in 1 9 5 6 , S o l i d a r i t y in P o l a n d ) w e r e o r i g i n a l l y ivorker/ u p r i s i n g s w h i c h o n l y l a t e r p a v e d t h e w a y for t h e s t a n d a r d " a n t i C o m m u n i s t " m o v e m e n t s —before s u c c u m b i n g to t h e " e x t e r n a l " e n e m y , the regime got a message about

its f a l s i t y from

those w h o m

these

" w o r k e r s ' and peasants' states" evoked as their own social base. H o w ­ e v e r , t h i s v e r y fact a l s o d e m o n s t r a t e s h o w t h e w o r k e r s ' r e v o l t l a c k e d a n y s u b s t a n t i a l s o c i a l i s t c o m m i t m e n t : in all c a s e s , o n c e t h e m o v e m e n t

ex­

p l o d e d , it w a s s m o o t h l y h e g e m o n i z e d b y s t a n d a r d " b o u r g e o i s " i d e o l o g y ( p o l i t i c a l f r e e d o m , p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y , n a t i o n a l s o v e r e i g n t y , a n d so f o r t h ) .

The trouble with Heidegger H o w , t h e n , d o t h i n g s s t a n d w i t h H e i d e g g e r ' s e n g a g e m e n t ? W a s it, i n c o n t r a s t to F o u c a u l t ' s , not j u s t a m i s t a k e , b u t a m i s t a k e g r o u n d e d in h i s p h i l o s o p h y ? T h e r e i s s o m e t h i n g p r o f o u n d l y s y m p t o m a t i c in t h e c o m p u l ­ sion of m a n y l i b e r a l - d e m o c r a t i c c r i t i c s of H e i d e g g e r to d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t H e i d e g g e r ' s N a z i affiliation w a s not a m e r e t e m p o r a r y b l u n d e r , b u t in c o n s o n a n c e w i t h t h e v e r y f u n d a m e n t a l s of h i s t h o u g h t : it i s a s if t h i s c o n s o n a n c e a l l o w s u s to d i s m i s s H e i d e g g e r a s t h e o r e t i c a l l y i r r e l e v a n t a n d t h u s to a v o i d t h e effort to think w i t h a n d t h r o u g h H e i d e g g e r , to c o n f r o n t t h e u n e a s y q u e s t i o n s h e r a i s e d a g a i n s t s u c h b a s i c t e n e t s of m o d e r n i t y a s " h u m a n i s m , " " d e m o c r a c y , " " p r o g r e s s , " etc. O n c e H e i d e g g e r d i s a p p e a r s from t h e p i c t u r e , w e c a n s a f e l y c a r r y on w i t h o u r c o m m o n c o n c e r n s a b o u t t h e e t h i c a l p r o b l e m s o p e n e d u p b y b i o g e n e t i c s , a b o u t h o w to a c c o m ­ m o d a t e c a p i t a l i s t g l o b a l i z a t i o n w i t h i n a m e a n i n g f u l c o m m u n a l life — i n short, w e c a n s a f e l y a v o i d c o n f r o n t i n g w h a t i s r e a l l y n e w in g l o b a l i z a t i o n a n d b i o g e n e t i c d i s c o v e r i e s , a n d c o n t i n u e to m e a s u r e t h e s e

phenomena

w i t h old s t a n d a r d s , in t h e w i l d h o p e of a s y n t h e s i s t h a t w i l l a l l o w u s to k e e p t h e b e s t of b o t h w o r l d s . B u t t h i s , of c o u r s e , in n o w a y m e a n s t h a t w e s h o u l d r e h a b i l i t a t e t h e s t a n d a r d d e f e n s e of H e i d e g g e r ' s N a z i e p i s o d e , w h i c h , u n s u r p r i s i n g l y , follows y e t a g a i n the borrowed-kettle formula: ( 1 ) H e i d e g g e r w a s never r e a l l y a N a z i , h e j u s t m a d e s o m e s u p e r f i c i a l c o m p r o m i s e s in o r d e r to s a v e w h a t e v e r c o u l d h a v e b e e n s a v e d for the autonomy? of t h e u n i v e r s i t y ; w h e n h e r e a l i z e d t h a t t h i s t a c t i c w o u l d not w o r k , h e c o n s e q u e n t l y

stepped

d o w n a n d w i t h d r e w from p u b l i c life. ( 2 ) H e i d e g g e r w a s , for a l i m i t e d p e r i o d , a s i n c e r e l y c o m m i t t e d N a z i ; h o w e v e r , not o n l y d i d he w i t h d r a w 117

UN utI-tlNbt Of

LOST CAUSES

o n c e h e b e c o m e a w a r e of h i s b l u n d e r , b u t t h e a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h N a z i p o w e r p r e c i s e l y e n a b l e d h i m to g a i n a n i n s i g h t i n t o t h e n i h i l i s m of modern

t e c h n o l o g y a s t h e d e p l o y m e n t of t h e u n c o n d i t i o n a l

p o w e r . ( 3 ) H e i d e g g e r w a s a N a z i , a n d t h e r e i s n o t h i n g to

will-toreproach

h i m w i t h for t h i s c h o i c e : in t h e e a r l y 1 9 3 0 s , it w a s a p e r f e c t l y l e g i t i m a t e a n d u n d e r s t a n d a b l e c h o i c e . T h i s final p o s i t i o n i s E r n s t N o l t e ' s , a n d it is w o r t h r e c a l l i n g h e r e h i s b o o k on H e i d e g g e r , w h i c h b r o u g h t fresh w i n d to t h e s a i l s of t h e e n d l e s s d e b a t e on " H e i d e g g e r a n d p o l i t i c s " — f a r from e x c u s i n g H e i d e g g e r ' s i n f a m o u s p o l i t i c a l c h o i c e i n 1 9 3 3 , it j u s t i f i e s it, or, at l e a s t , d e - d e m o n i z e s it, r e n d e r i n g it a v i a b l e a n d m e a n i n g f u l c h o i c e . Against the

standard defenders

of H e i d e g g e r w h o s e m a n t r a i s t h a t

H e i d e g g e r ' s N a z i e n g a g e m e n t w a s a p e r s o n a l m i s t a k e of no f u n d a m e n t a l c o n s e q u e n c e for h i s t h o u g h t , N o l t e a c c e p t s t h e b a s i c c l a i m of H e i d e g g e r ' s c r i t i c s t h a t h i s N a z i c h o i c e is i n s c r i b e d i n t o h i s t h o u g h t — b u t w i t h a t w i s t : I n s t e a d of p r o b l e m a t i z i n g h i s t h o u g h t , N o l t e j u s t i f i e s h i s p o l i t i c a l c h o i c e as a justifiable option

In t h e l a t e 1 9 2 0 s a n d e a r l y

1930s, g i v e n the

e c o n o m i c c h a o s a n d t h e t h r e a t of C o m m u n i s m :

Insofar a s H e i d e g g e r resisted the a t t e m p t at the [ C o m m u n i s t ] solution, he, like countless others, w a s historically right . . . h i m s e l f to t h e

In

committing

[National Socialist] solution p e r h a p s he became

" f a s c i s t . " B u t In n o w a y d i d t h a t m a k e h i m h i s t o r i c a l l y w r o n g 1

a

from

29

the outset. A n d h e r e i s M a r k W r a t h a l l ' s m o d e l f o r m u l a t i o n of t h e s e c o n d p o s i t i o n :

H e i d e g g e r ' s w o r k after t h e w a r d i d g o s o m e w a y t o w a r d s o v e r c o m i n g t h e p o l i t i c a l n a i v e t e t h a t l e d to h i s d i s a s t r o u s i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h N a ­ t i o n a l S o c i a l i s m . H e d i d t h i s b y , first, g e t t i n g m u c h c l e a r e r t h a n h e h a d b e e n a b o u t t h e d a n g e r s of t h e m o d e r n w o r l d — t h e d a n g e r s w h i c h l e d h i m to t h i n k w e n e e d a n e w w o r l d d i s c l o s u r e . O n c e h e w a s a b l e to a r t i c u l a t e t h e d a n g e r of m o d e r n i t y i n t e r m s of t e c h n o l o g y , it b e c a m e clear that National Socialism w a s just another modern technological m o v e m e n t ( e v e n if it e m p l o y e d t e c h n o l o g y for r e a c t i o n a r y g o a l s ) .

T h i s p a s s a g e t e l l s m u c h m o r e t h a n m a y a p p e a r at first g l a n c e ^—the k e y w o r d s in it a r e t h e i n n o c u o u s " j u s t a n o t h e r " : i s t h e u n d e r l y i n g p r e m i s e not " e v e n t h e b e s t of p o l i t i c a l p r o j e c t s , t h e m o s t r a d i c a l a t t e m p t t o o p p o s e n i h i l i s m , r e m a i n e d j u s t a n o t h e r n i h i l i s t i c m o v e m e n t c a u g h t in t e c h n o l 118

RADICAL INTELLECTUALS

ogy'"- T h e r e is n o h o r r o r of N a z i s m h e r e , N a z i s m is " j u s t a n o t h e r " i n t h e s e r i e s , t h e d i f f e r e n c e is o n t o l o g i c a l l y i n s i g n i f i c a n t ( w h i c h is w h y , for H e i d e g g e r , t h e A l l i e d v i c t o r y i n W o r l d W a r II r e a l l y d e c i d e d n o t h i n g ) . H e r e H e i d e g g e r ' s r e f e r e n c e to H ö l d e r l i n ' s f a m o u s l i n e s e n t e r s : " w h e r e the d a n g e r i s r i s i n g , t h a t w h i c h c a n s a v e u s — C ' A / Rettende — also g r o w s ."—in order

to o v e r c o m e

t h e d a n g e r , o n e h a s to p u s h

it to t h e

e x t r e m e — i n s h o r t , i n o r d e r to a r r i v e a t t h e o n t o l o g i c a l t r u t h , H e i d e g g e r h a d to e r r o n t i c a l l y . S o w h e n W r a t h a l l w r i t e s a p r o p o s H e i d e g g e r ' s N a z i e n g a g e m e n t : "It i s d i s c o n c e r t i n g , to s a y t h e l e a s t , t h a t H e i d e g g e r , w h o p u r p o r t e d to h a v e a u n i q u e i n s i g h t into t h e m o v e m e n t of w o r l d h i s t o r y , p r o v e d t o b e s o t e r r i b l y b l i n d to t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e e v e n t s t h a t p l a y e d out before h i s e y e s " ^ * — a H e i d e g g e r i a n c o u l d e a s i l y t u r n t h i s a r g u m e n t a r o u n d : t h e " o n t i c " b l i n d n e s s t o t h e t r u t h ol t h e N a z i r e g i m e w a s a p o s i t i v e c o n d i t i o n of h i s " o n t o l o g i c a l " i n s i g h t . H o w e v e r , w h e n d e f e n d e r s of H e i d e g g e r c l a i m t h a t h i s a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h t h e N a z i e x e r c i s e of p o w e r p r e c i s e l y e n a b l e d h i m t o g a i n a n i n s i g h t i n t o t h e n i h i l i s m of m o d e r n t e c h n o l o g y a s t h e d e p l o y m e n t of t h e u n c o n d i t i o n a l w i l l - t o - p o w e r , d o e s t h i s l i n e of d e f e n s e n o t s o u n d a little bit l i k e t h e a t t i t u d e of t h e p r o v e r b i a l p r o s t i t u t e - t u r n e d - p r e a c h e r w h o , after h e r c o n v e r s i o n , f e r o c i o u s l y a t t a c k s c a r n a l s i n s , c l a i m i n g t h a t s h e k n o w s from

her own experience how

destructive they are? Steve Fuller writes:

I r o n i c a l l y , H e i d e g g e r ' s i n t e l l e c t u a l s t a t u r e m a y e v e n h a v e b e e n helped b y t h e t i m e - h o n o r e d p r a c t i c e of " l e a r n i n g from t h e o p p o n e n t " in w h i c h v i c t o r s i n d u l g e after

a w a r . In t h i s r e s p e c t ,

Heidegger's political

" g e n i u s " m a y lie in h a v i n g stuck with the N a z i s long enough

for

t h e A m e r i c a n s to d i s c o v e r h i m d u r i n g d e - N a z i f i c a t i o n w i t h o u t e n d i n g u p b e i n g j u d g e d a n u n t o u c h a b l e w a r c r i m i n a l w h o s e w o r k s h a d to b e banned.

As committed

anti-Nazis

ensconced

in A l l i e d

countries,

Heidegger's existentialist rivals never underwent such intense scrutiny n o r s u b s e q u e n t l y a c q u i r e d s u c h a m y s t i q u e for d e p t h a n d d a n g e r . ^ ^

T h e r e i s t r u t h i n t h e s e l i n e s , b u t it is m o r e c o m p l e x t h a n H e i d e g g e r ' s m e r e l u c k i n s t r i k i n g t h e r i g h t b a l a n c e in t h e d e p t h of h i s N a z i e n g a g e m e n t : t h e difficult t r u t h t o a d m i t i s t h a t H e i d e g g e r is " g r e a t " not in spite of, but because of\\\s N a z i e n g a g e m e n t , t h a t t h i s c o m m i t m e n t i s a k e y c o n s t i t u e n t of h i s g r e a t n e s s . " Imagine a H e i d e g g e r without this passage, or a H e i d e g g e r w h o , after W o r l d W a r II, h a d d o n e w h a t m a n y c o l l e a g u e s e x p e c t e d of h i m : n a m e l y , p u b l i c l y r e n o u n c e h i s N a z i e n g a g e m e n t a n d a p o l o g i z e for I 19

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

it^—would t h i s not s o m e h o w h a v e o c c l u d e d t h e r a d i c a l i t y of h i s i n s i g h t ? W o u l d it not h a v e c o n s t r a i n e d h i m to h u m a n i t a r i a n p o l i t i c a l c o n c e r n s w h i c h h e so b i t t e r l y d e s p i s e d ? M i g u e l d e B e i s t e g u i m a k e s a p e r s p i c u o u s o b s e r v a t i o n on t h e f u n d a m e n t a l a m b i g u i t y of F l e i d e g g e r ' s d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t w i t h N a z i s m : it w a s h i s " r e s i g n a t i o n a n d h i s d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t w i t h w h a t , u n t i l t h e e n d of h i s life, a n d w i t h a t o u c h of r e g r e t a t not h a v i n g s e e n it d e v e l o p i t s p o t e n t i a l , h e r e f e r r e d to a s 'the m o v e m e n t ' . " "

Is, h o w e v e r ,

t h i s not t h e r e a s o n w h y H e i d e g g e r ' s l a t e r w i t h d r a w a l from

political

c o m m i t m e n t a l s o c a n n o t b e c o n c e i v e d o n l y in t h e t e r m s of h i s i n s i g h t into t h e n i h i l i s m of c o n t e m p o r a r y p o l i t i c s ? D e B e i s t e g u i c o n c l u d e s h i s book with the statement that H e i d e g g e r

w i l l n o t b e c a u g h t o u t i n [ a belief i n t h e r e d e m p t i v e p o w e r of p o l i t i c a l e n g a g e m e n t ] t w i c e : h a v i n g b u r n e d h i s f i n g e r s in p o l i t i c s , a n d lost h i s i l l u s i o n s in t h e f a i l u r e of N a z i s m to c a r r y o u t a p r o j e c t of o n t o - d e s t i n a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , h i s h o p e s w i l l t u r n to t h e h i d d e n r e s o u r c e s of t h o u g h t , a r t a n d poetr3^ a l l d e e m e d to c a r r y a h i s t o r i c a l a n d d e s t i n a i p o w e r far g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t of politics.'''*

B u t I S H e i d e g g e r ' s r e f u s a l to b e c a u g h t t w i c e in t h e a c t of p o l i t i c a l e n g a g e m e n t a n d t h u s b u r n i n g h i s frngers a g a i n not a n e g a t i v e m o d e of h i s c o n t i n u i n g m e l a n c h o l i c a t t a c h m e n t to t h e N a z i " m o v e m e n t " ?

(His re­

fusal to e n g a g e a g a i n in p o l i t i c s w a s t h u s s i m i l a r to a d i s a p p o i n t e d l o v e r w h o , after t h e f a i l u r e of h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p , r e j e c t s l o v e a s s u c h a n d a v o i d s all f u r t h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s , t h e r e b y c o n f i r m i n g in a n e g a t i v e w a y h i s l a s t i n g a t t a c h m e n t to t h e f a i l e d r e l a t i o n s h i p . ) Is the p r e m i s e of t h i s r e f u s a l not that, to t h e e n d of h i s life, N a z i s m r e m a i n e d for H e i d e g g e r t h e o n l y p o l i t i c a l c o m m i t m e n t w h i c h at l e a s t t r i e d to a d d r e s s t h e r i g h t p r o b l e m , so t h a t t h e f a i l u r e of N a z i s m i s t h e f a i l u r e of t h e p o l i t i c a l a s s u c h ? It n e v e r e n t e r e d H e i d e g g e r ' s m i n d to p r o p o s e — s a y , in a l i b e r a l m o d e — t h a t t h e f a i l u r e of t h e N a z i m o v e m e n t w a s m e r e l y t h e farlure of a c e r t a i n k i n d of e n g a g e m e n t w h i c h c o n f e r r e d on t h e p o l i t i c a l t h e t a s k of c a r r y i n g o u t " a p r o j e c t of o n t o - d e s t i n a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , " so t h a t t h e l e s s o n to d r a w w a s s i m p l y a m o r e modest p o l i t i c a l e n g a g e m e n t . In o t h e r w o r d s , w h a t if o n e c o n c l u d e s from t h e f a i l u r e of H e i d e g g e r ' s p o l i t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e t h a t w h a t o n e s h o u l d r e n o u n c e Is t h e e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t a p o l i t i c a l e n g a g e m e n t w i l l h a v e d e s t i n a i o n t o l o g i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s a n d t h a t o n e s h o u l d p a r t i c i p a t e in " m e r e l y o n t i c " p o l i t i c s w h i c h , far from o b f u s c a t i n g t h e n e e d for a d e e p e r o n t o l o g i c a l reflection, p r e c i s e l y o p e n u p a s p a c e for i t ? W h a t if e v e n t h e 120

RADICAL INTELLECTUALS

v e r y last H e i d e g g e r , w h e n

he expressed

h i s d o u b t s a s to

whether

d e m o c r a c y w a s t h e p o l i t i c a l o r d e r w h i c h b e s t fitted t h e e s s e n c e of m o d e r n t e c h n o l o g y , h a d still not l e a r n t t h e u l t i m a t e l e s s o n of h i s N a z i p e r i o d , s i n c e h e c o n t i n u e d to c l i n g to t h e h o p e of f i n d i n g a n ( o n t i c ) p o l i t i c a l e n g a g e m e n t w h i c h w o u l d fit ( b e a t t h e l e v e l of) t h e o n t o l o g i c a l p r o j e c t of m o d e r n t e c h n o l o g y ? ( O u r p r e m i s e , of c o u r s e , i s t h a t t h e l i b e r a l e n g a g e ­ m e n t i s not t h e o n l y a l t e r n a t i v e : H e i d e g g e r w a s r i g h t in h i s d o u b t a b o u t liberal d e m o c r a c y ; w h a t he refused

to c o n s i d e r w a s a r a d i c a l leftist

engagement.) T h e r e i n r e s i d e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e l i n k b e t w e e n H e i d e g g e r a n d H a n n a h A r e n d t : w h a t is at s t a k e in the difficult r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n H e i d e g g e r a n d A r e n d t is H e i d e g g e r ' s m u c h - d e c r i e d a v e r s i o n to l i b e r a l ­ ism

and

(liberal)

democracy,

which

he

continuously,

to h i s

death,

r e j e c t e d a s " i n a u t h e n t i c , " not t h e i d i o s y n c r a s i e s of t h e i r p e r s o n a l l i a i s o n s . A r e n d t w a s not o n l y o p p o s e d to H e i d e g g e r a l o n g t h e d o u b l e a x i s of woman versus man and a "worldly" J e w versus a "provincial" German, she w a s ( w h i c h i s m u c h m o r e i m p o r t a n t ) the firjt liberal Heideggerian, t h e first to t r y to r e u n i t e H e i d e g g e r ' s i n s i g h t s w i t h t h e l i b e r a l - d e m o c r a t i c u n i v e r s e . In a c l o s e r r e a d i n g , of c o u r s e , it is e a s y to d i s c e r n w h a t e n a b l e d A r e n d t to s u p p o r t l i b e r a l i s m w h i l e m a i n t a i n i n g h e r b a s i c

fidelity

to

Heidegger's insights: her anti-bourgeois stance, her critical dismissal of p o l i t i c s a s " i n t e r e s t - g r o u p " p o l i t i c s , a s t h e e x p r e s s i o n of t h e c o m p e ­ titive a n d a c q u i s i t i v e s o c i e t y of t h e b o u r g e o i s i e . S h e s h a r e d t h e g r e a t c o n s e r v a t i v e s ' d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e l a c k of h e r o i s m a n d t h e p r a g m a t i c u t i l i t a r i a n o r i e n t a t i o n of b o u r g e o i s s o c i e t y :

S i m p l y to b r a n d a s o u t b u r s t s of n i h i l i s m t h i s v i o l e n t d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e p r e w a r a g e a n d s u b s e q u e n t a t t e m p t s a t r e s t o r i n g it

(from

N i e t z s c h e to S o r e l to P a r e t o , from R i m b a u d a n d T.E. L a w r e n c e to Juenger,

Brecht

and

Malraux,

from

Bakunin

and

Nechayev

to

A l e k s a n d e r B l o k ) is to o v e r l o o k h o w j u s t i f i e d d i s g u s t c a n b e in a society wholly permeated

w i t h the ideological outlook a n d

moral

s t a n d a r d s of t h e b o u r g e o i s i e . ^ ^

The opposition

A r e n d t m o b i l i z e s h e r e is t h e o n e b e t w e e n citoyen a n d

hoiirgeou: t h e first l i v e s in t h e p o l i t i c a l s p h e r e of p u b l i c e n g a g e m e n t for t h e c o m m o n g o o d , of t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p u b l i c affairs, w h i l e t h e s e c o n d i s t h e e g o t i s t i c u t i l i t a r i a n fully i m m e r s e d in the p r o c e s s of p r o d u c t i o n a n d w h o r e d u c e s a l l o t h e r d i m e n s i o n s of life to t h e i r r o l e in e n a b l i n g t h e 121

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

s m o o t h r u n n i n g of t h i s p r o c e s s . In A r i s t o t e l i a n t e r m s , t h i s o p p o s i t i o n i s t h a t b e t w e e n prax'ui a n d pole,iLi, b e t w e e n t h e " h i g h " e x e r c i s e of v i r t u e s in p u b l i c life, a n d t h e " l o w " i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y of l a b o r — t h e o p p o s i t i o n w h o s e e c h o e s r e v e r b e r a t e not o n l y in H a b e r m a s ' s d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n

commu­

n i c a t i v e a c t i o n a n d i n s t r u m e n t a l a c t i v i t y , b u t e v e n in B a d i o u ' s n o t i o n of t h e E v e n t ( a n d in h i s c o n c o m i t a n t d e n i a l t h a t a n E v e n t c a n t a k e p l a c e in t h e d o m a i n of p r o d u c t i o n ) . R e c a l l h o w A r e n d t d e s c r i b e s , in B a d i o u i a n t e r m s , t h e s u s p e n s i o n of t e m p o r a l i t y a s t h e d e f i n i n g o n t o l o g i c a l c h a r ­ a c t e r i s t i c of o n t i c p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n : a c t i n g , a s m a n ' s c a p a c i t y to b e g i n s o m e t h i n g n e w , "out of n o t h i n g , " not r e d u c i b l e to a c a l c u l a t e d s t r a t e g i c r e a c t i o n to a g i v e n s i t u a t i o n , t a k e s p l a c e in t h e n o n - t e m p o r a l gap b e t w e e n p a s t a n d future, in t h e h i a t u s b e t w e e n t h e e n d of t h e old o r d e r a n d the b e g i n n i n g of t h e revolution.

n e w w h i c h in h i s t o r y i s p r e c i s e l y t h e

moment

S u c h a n o p p o s i t i o n , of c o u r s e , r a i s e s a f u n d a m e n t a l

tion formulated b y R o b e r t

of

ques­

Pippin:

h o w c a n A r e n d t s e p a r a t e o u t w h a t s h e a d m i r e s in b o u r g e o i s c u l t u r e — its c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m , its a s s e r t i o n of f u n d a m e n t a l

human

r i g h t s , its

e q u a l i t y b e f o r e t h e l a w , i t s i n s i s t e n c e on a p r i v a t e z o n e in h u m a n life, e x e m p t from t h e p o l i t i c a l , its r e l i g i o u s t o l e r a n c e — a n d c o n d e m n w h a t s h e d i s a g r e e s w i t h — i t s s e c u l a r i s m , its c y n i c a l a s s u m p t i o n

of

the

p e r v a s i v e n e s s of s e l f - i n t e r e s t , the p e r v e r t i n g i n f l u e n c e of m o n e y on h u m a n v a l u e s , its d e p o l i t i c i z i n g t e n d e n c i e s , a n d t h e m e n a c e it p o s e s for t r a d i t i o n a n d a s e n s e of p l a c e ?

In o t h e r w o r d s , a r e t h e s e not t w o s i d e s of t h e s a m e p h e n o m e n o n ?

No

w o n d e r t h e n , t h a t , w h e n A r e n d t is p r e s s e d to p r o v i d e t h e o u t l i n e of t h e a u t h e n t i c " c a r e of t h e w o r l d " a s a p o l i t i c a l p r a c t i c e t h a t w o u l d n o t b e c o n t a m i n a t e d b y u t i l i t a r i a n p r a g m a t i c c a l c u l a t i o n of Interests, a l l s h e c a n e v o k e a r e f o r m s of s e l f - o r g a n i z a t i o n In r e v o l u t i o n a r y s i t u a t i o n s , from t h e e a r l y A m e r i c a n t r a d i t i o n of t o w n - h a l l m e e t i n g s of a l l c i t i z e n s to r e v o l u ­ t i o n a r y c o u n c i l s in t h e G e r m a n r e v o l u t i o n . N o t t h a t s h e i s not p o l i t i c a l l y justified

In

evoking these

examples—the

problem

is that t h e y

are

"utopian," that t h e y cannot be reconciled w i t h the liberal-democratic p o l i t i c a l o r d e r to w h i c h s h e r e m a i n s faithful. In o t h e r w o r d s , is A r e n d t w i t h r e g a r d to l i b e r a l d e m o c r a c y n o t t h e v i c t i m of t h e s a m e i l l u s i o n a s t h e democratic Communists w h o , within the "really-existing socialism," w e r e fighting

for i t s t r u l y d e m o c r a t i c i n s t a n t i a t i o n ? A r e n d t i s a l s o r i g h t w h e n

(implicitly a g a i n s t H e i d e g g e r ) she points out that fascism, although a 122

RADICAL INTELLECTUALS

r e a c t i o n to b o u r g e o i s b a n a l i t y , r e m a i n s its i n h e r e n t n e g a t i o n , t h a t i s , r e m a i n s w i t h i n t h e h o r i z o n of b o u r g e o i s s o c i e t y : t h e t r u e p r o b l e m

of

N a z i s m i s not t h a t it " w e n t too f a r " in its s u b j e c t i v i s t - n i h i l i s t h u b r i s of e x e r t i n g total p o w e r , b u t t h a t it did not go far enough, n a m e l y , t h a t i t s v i o l e n c e w a s a n i m p o t e n t a c t i n g - o u t w h i c h , u l t i m a t e l y , r e m a i n e d in t h e s e r v i c e of t h e v e r y o r d e r it d e s p i s e d . ( H o w e v e r , H e i d e g g e r w o u l d a l s o h a v e b e e n r i g h t in r e j e c t i n g A r e n d t ' s A r i s t o t e l i a n p o l i t i c s a s not r a d i c a l e n o u g h to b r e a k o u t of t h e n i h i l i s t s p a c e of E u r o p e a n

modernity.)

A r e n d t w o u l d t h u s h a v e b e e n j u s t i f i e d in c o u n t e r i n g P i p p i n ' s a l l - t o o e a s y v e r s i o n of a c o n t e m p o r a r y p o l i t i c a l H e g e l i a n i s m ; h i s b a s i c c l a i m i s t h a t w h i l e , of c o u r s e , from

t o d a y ' s perspective, H e g e l ' s notion

of a

r a t i o n a l s t a t e n o l o n g e r w o r k s , its l i m i t a t i o n s a r e e v i d e n t , a n d t h e s e v e r y l i m i t a t i o n s s h o u l d b e a d d r e s s e d in a H e g e l i a n w a y :

In s o m e f a i r l y o b v i o u s s e n s e a n d in t h e h i s t o r i c a l t e r m s h e w o u l d h a v e to a c c e p t a s r e l e v a n t to h i s o w n p h i l o s o p h y , h e w a s w r o n g . N o n e of these institutional realizations n o w looks a s stable, a s rational, or even a s r e s p o n s i v e to t h e c l a i m s of free s u b j e c t s a s H e g e l h a s c l a i m e d , e v e n t h o u g h s u c h c r i t i c i s m s a r e often t h e m s e l v e s m a d e in t h e n a m e of s u c h f r e e d o m . B u t t h e n a t u r e of t h a t w r o n g i s , I a m a r g u i n g , a l s o H e g e l i a n , a m a t t e r of b e i n g i n c o m p l e t e , not w h o l l y w r o n g - h e a d e d .

In short, it i s a m a t t e r of a n Aufhebung, of t h e i m m a n e n t s e l f - c r i t i q u e a n d s e l f - o v e r c o m i n g , of t h e s e s o l u t i o n s , not of t h e i r o u t r i g h t r e j e c t i o n . . . H o w e v e r , w h a t c a n n o t b u t s t r i k e t h e e y e is t h e " f o r m a l i s t " c h a r a c t e r of P i p p i n ' s f o r m u l a : h e d o e s not p r o v i d e a n y c o n c r e t e e x a m p l e s t h a t w o u l d r e n d e r it o p e r a t i v e . T h e q u e s t i o n i s , of c o u r s e , h o w far d o w e h a v e to g o in t h i s Aufhebung if w e a r e to b r i n g H e g e l ' s p r o j e c t of a r a t i o n a l s t a t e of f r e e d o m u p to t o d a y ' s c o n d i t i o n s — h o w " d e e p l y " is i r r a t i o n a l i t y i n s c r i b e d i n t o t o d a y ' s b o u r g e o i s s o c i e t y so t h a t its c r i t i q u e c a n still b e f o r m u l a t e d a s a d e f e n s e of b o u r g e o i s s o c i e t y ? D o w e h a v e to s t a y w i t h i n c a p i t a l i s m o r risk a move b e y o n d it? These, however, a r e not H e i d e g g e r ' s concerns: his f u n d a m e n t a l m o v e a p r o p o s o u r c r i t i c a l h i s t o r i c a l m o m e n t i s to e m p h a s i z e t h e u n d e r l y i n g s a m e n e s s of t h e

(ideological, political, economic . . .)

c h o i c e s w e confront:

from t h e p o i n t of v i e w of t h e i r o n t o - h i s t o r i c a l o r i g i n , t h e r e i s no real or fundarruntal

difference b e t w e e n the Christian doctrine and Bolshevism,

b e t w e e n t h e b i o l o g i s m a n d i m p e r i a l i s m of N a z i s m a n d t h e forces of 123

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

c a p i t a l ( w h i c h , t o d a y , h a v e p e r m e a t e d a l l s p h e r e s of life), a n d b e t w e e n vitalism a n d spiritualism. This, I believe, is at once the strength, and t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y w e a k n e s s a n d l i m i t a t i o n of f i e i d e g g e r ' s p o s i t i o n . F o r on t h e o n e h a n d it a l l o w s u s to e s t a b l i s h c o n t i n u i t i e s a n d c o m p l i c i t i e s w h e r e w e t h o u g h t t h e r e w e r e i n c o m p a t i b i l i t i e s , a n d to shift t h e w e i g h t of d i f f e r e n c e to a different t e r r a i n ( t h a t of t h e " m e a n i n g " o r t h e " t r u t h " of b e i n g ) . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h o u g h , b y r e v e a l i n g s u c h d i f f e r e n c e s a s pseudo-differences, he also neutralizes the decisions a n d choices they often c a l l for, t h e r e b y e r a s i n g t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s p a c e of p o l i t i c s a n d ethics.

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , d e B e l s t e g u l ' s s o l u t i o n to t h i s d e a d l o c k r e m a i n s a l l too commonsensical — a balanced approach

w h i c h t a k e s into account

the

l e g i t i m a t e d e m a n d s of b o t h l e v e l s : w h a t e v e r o u r c o m m i t m e n t s to t h e d e c o n s t r u c t l o n of m e t a p h y s i c s , a n d to t h e s t r u g g l e for n e w p o s s i b i l i t i e s of t h o u g h t a n d a c t i o n b e y o n d it, or p e r h a p s on its m a r g i n s , w e c o n t i n u e to live w i t h i n t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l , t e c h n i c a l f r a m e w o r k , a n d so m u s t r e m a i n c o m m i t t e d to t a k i n g ser­ iously, a n d discriminating between, the m a n y differences, choices and situations w e are faced w i t h at the historical, political, religious and a r t i s t i c l e v e l . [. . . ] T h e free r e l a t i o n to t e c h n o l o g y H e i d e g g e r a d v o ­ c a t e s m a y , after a l l , a l s o I n v o l v e a n a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n In m e t a p h y s l c a l p r o c e s s e s , a n d not j u s t a m e d i t a t i o n

intra-

of its e s s e n c e .

F o r w i t h i n t e c h n o l o g y , t h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n c e s t h a t m a t t e r , a n d to w h i c h w e c a n n o t — a n d m u s t not — r e m a i n b l i n d . W i t h o n e c r i t i c a l e y e , a n d t h e o t h e r d e c o n s t r u c t i v e , w e m a y b e b e t t e r e q u i p p e d to n a v i g a t e t h e often t r e a c h e r o u s w a t e r s of o u r t i m e .

B u t w h a t If t h e r e Is a f u n d a m e n t a l d i s c o r d a n c e b e t w e e n t h e o n t o l o g i c a l a n d t h e o n t i c , so that, a s H e i d e g g e r p u t It, t h o s e w h o r e a c h o n t o l o g i c a l t r u t h h a v e to e r r In t h e o n t i c ? W h a t If, If w e a r e to s e e w i t h the o n t o l o g i c a l e y e , o u r o n t i c e y e h a s to b e b l i n d e d ?

Ontological difference When

H e i d e g g e r s p e a k s of t h e u n t r u t h - c o n c e a l e d n e s s - w i t h d r a w a l

as

i n h e r e n t to t h e t r u t h - e v e n t itself, h e h a s in m i n d t w o different l e v e l s :

124

RADICAL INTELLECTUALS

1. O n t h e o n e h a n d , t h e w a y a m a n , w h e n e n g a g e d in i n n e r - w o r l d l y affairs, f o r g e t s t h e h o r i z o n of m e a n i n g w i t h i n w h i c h h e d w e l l s , a n d e v e n f o r g e t s t h i s f o r g e t t i n g itself ( e x e m p l a r y is h e r e t h e " r e g r e s ­ s i o n " of G r e e k t h o u g h t t h a t o c c u r s w i t h t h e r i s e of S o p h i s t s : w h a t w a s t h e c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h t h e v e r y f o u n d a t i o n of o u r B e i n g t u r n s i n t o a t r i f l i n g p l a y w i t h different l i n e s of a r g u m e n t a t i o n w i t h n o i n h e r e n t r e l a t i o n to T r u t h ) . 2. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e w a y t h i s h o r i z o n of m e a n i n g itself, insofar a s it i s a n e p o c h a l E v e n t , a r i s e s a g a i n s t t h e b a c k g r o u n d

of—and

t h e r e b y c o n c e a l s — t h e i m p o n d e r a b l e M y s t e r y of i t s e m e r g e n c e , in t h e s a m e w a y a c l e a r i n g in t h e m i d s t of a forest i s s u r r o u n d e d b y t h e d a r k t h i c k n e s s of t h e w o o d s .

T h e s a m e a m b i g u i t y r e p e a t s i t s e l f w i t h r e g a r d to t h e e a r t h a s t h a t w h i c h resists, r e m a i n s forever obscure a n d unfathomable:

"There a l w a y s is

something resisting a n d supporting our practices, and that something is very real."

S o , on t h e o n e h a n d , t h e e a r t h d e s i g n a t e s w h a t r e s i s t s t h e

m e a n i n g f u l t o t a l i t y of a h i s t o r i c a l w o r l d :

A s a w o r l d s t r i v e s to g r o w b a c k i n t o t h e e a r t h , it e n c o u n t e r s r e s i s t a n c e . In t h e p r o c e s s , t h e e a r t h a p p e a r s i n a d e t e r m i n a t e w a y i n t e r m s of t h e r e s i s t a n c e t h a t t h e w o r l d e n c o u n t e r s . In b u i l d i n g t h e c a t h e d r a l , w e d i s c o v e r p a r t i c u l a r w a y s in w h i c h o u r p r a c t i c e s a r e l i m i t e d a n d constrained.

[. . . ] O u r w o r l d s , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y o u r m e a n i n g f u l

r e l a t i o n s t o t h i n g s , a r e a l w a y s b a s e d in s o m e t h i n g explained

that can't be

in t e r m s of t h e p r e v a i l i n g i n t e l l i g i b l e s t r u c t u r e

of t h e

world.^^

O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , h o w e v e r , w h a t i s m o s t i m p e n e t r a b l e i s the basic structure of the worl2 itself. F o r e x a m p l e , w h e n w e a r g u e t h a t t h e m o d e r ­ n i z a t i o n of J a p a n w a s d e s i r a b l e b e c a u s e it b r o u g h t a b o u t a h i g h e r g r o s s domestic product fundamental

a n d p e r capita income, one should raise the more

question:

B u t w h y o n e s h o u l d h a v e j u s t t h o s e p r e f e r e n c e s is p r e c i s e l y w h a t is a t i s s u e — i f o n e w o u l d p r e f e r t h e p a c e a n d s t y l e of p r e m o d e r n J a p a n e s e life to a n i n c r e a s e of p e r c a p i t a i n c o m e , t h e n t h e a r g u m e n t t h a t J a p a n s h o u l d m o d e r n i z e i n o r d e r to i n c r e a s e a v e r a g e i n c o m e w i l l n o t b e p e r s u a s i v e . [. . . ] S o it s e e m s t h a t t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e d r i v e to e s t a b l i s h 125

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

a n e w w o r l d a n d d e s t r o y t h e old d e p e n d s on s o m e t h i n g w i t h d r a w i n g from v i e w — t h a t is b e c o m i n g so s e l f - e v i d e n t t h a t it i s n o l o n g e r o p e n to q u e s t i o n : n a m e l y , t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y of t h e n e w w o r l d itself. T h i s d e s i r a b i l i t y is a n e a r t h l y t h i n g : it w i t h d r a w s a n d s h e l t e r s the w o r l d it s u p p o r t s . [. . . ] O u r w o r l d i s s u p p o r t e d b y o u r m o s t b a s i c p r e f e r e n c e s — a t a s t e for e f f i c i e n c y a n d

flexibility—having

largely withdrawn

from view."*^

T h e e a r t h i s t h u s e i t h e r t h e i m p e n e t r a b l e a b y s s of t h e o n t i c w h i c h w i t h d r a w s from o n t o l o g i c a l d i s c l o s u r e , or t h e h o r i z o n of t h i s d i s c l o s u r e itself, i n v i s i b l e on a c c o u n t of its e x c e s s i v e s e l f - e v i d e n c e — w e d o not s e e it a s s u c h b e c a u s e it i s t h e v e r y m e d i u m t h r o u g h w h i c h w e s e e e v e r y t h i n g . O n e s h o u l d m a k e t h e p r o p e r l y H e g e l i a n m o v e of i d e n t i f y i n g t h e t w o l e v e l s : t h e B e y o n d a n d t h e o b s t a c l e - s c r e e n t h a t d i s t o r t s o u r a c c e s s to B e y o n d . S o t h i s is not s i m p l y H e i d e g g e r ' s m i s t a k e o r c o n f u s i o n (to be r e s o l v e d o r c o r r e c t e d b y i n t r o d u c i n g a f u r t h e r n o t i o n a l d i s t i n c t i o n : one t e r m for t h e e a r t h a s t h e d a r k n e s s of w h a t r e s i s t s d i s c l o s u r e , a n o t h e r for t h e i n v i s i b i l i t y of t h e v e r y h o r i z o n of d i s c l o s u r e ) . T h e o s c i l l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o l e v e l s is w h a t d e f i n e s t h e e a r t h . W h a t t h i s a l s o m e a n s i s t h a t o n t o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e i s not " m a x i m a l , " b e t w e e n all b e i n g s , the highest g e n u s , a n d something else/more/beyond, b u t , r a t h e r , " m i n i m a l , " t h e b a r e m i n i m u m of a d i f f e r e n c e not b e t w e e n b e i n g s b u t b e t w e e n t h e m i n i m u m of a n e n t i t y a n d t h e v o i d , n o t h i n g . I n s o f a r a s it i s g r o u n d e d in t h e finitude of h u m a n s , o n t o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e is t h a t w h i c h m a k e s a t o t a l i z a t i o n of " A l l b e i n g s " i m p o s s i b l e — o n t o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e m e a n s t h a t t h e field of r e a l i t y i s finite. O n t o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e is, in t h i s p r e c i s e s e n s e , " r e a l / i m p o s s i b l e " : to c i t e E r n e s t o L a c l a u ' s d e t e r m i n a t i o n of a n t a g o n i s m , in it, external difference overlap/) with internal difference. T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n b e i n g s a n d t h e i r B e i n g i s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a d i f f e r e n c e w i t h i n b e i n g s t h e m s e l v e s ; t h a t i s to s a y , t h e difference

between

beings/entities and

their

Opening,

their

horizon

of

m e a n i n g , a l w a y s a l s o c u t s i n t o the field of b e i n g s t h e m s e l v e s , r e n d e r i n g it i n c o m p l e t e / f i n i t e . T h e r e i n r e s i d e s t h e p a r a d o x : the difference between beings in their totality and their Being precùely "niLises the difference"and reduces Being to another "higher"entity. T h e p a r a l l e l b e t w e e n K a n t ' s a n t i n o m i e s a n d H e i d e g g e r ' s o n t o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e r e s i d e s in t h e fact that, in b o t h c a s e s , t h e g a p ( p h e n o m e n a l / n o u m e n a l ; o n t i c / o n t o l o g i c a l ) i s to b e r e f e r r e d to t h e n o n - A l l of t h e phenomenal—ontic d o m a i n itself. H o w e v e r , t h e l i m i t a t i o n of K a n t w a s t h a t h e w a s not a b l e to fully a s s u m e t h i s p a r a d o x of 126

finitude

RADICAL INTELLECTUALS

a s c o n s t i t u t i v e of t h e o n t o l o g i c a l h o r i z o n : u l t i m a t e l y , h e r e d u c e d t r a n s ­ c e n d e n t a l h o r i z o n to a w a y r e a l i t y a p p e a r s to a finite b e i n g ( m a n ) , w i t h a l l of it l o c a t e d i n t o a w i d e r e n c o m p a s s i n g r e a l m of n o u m e n a l r e a l i t y . H e r e there is a clear link w i t h the L a c a n i a n Real w h i c h , at its most r a d i c a l l e v e l , i s t h e d i s a v o w e d X o n a c c o u n t of w h i c h o u r v i s i o n of r e a l i t y is a n a m o r p h i c a l l y d i s t o r t e d : it i s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t h e T h i n g to w h i c h d i r e c t a c c e s s i s not p o s s i b l e and t h e o b s t a c l e w h i c h p r e v e n t s t h i s d i r e c t a c c e s s , t h e T h i n g w h i c h e l u d e s o u r g r a s p and t h e d i s t o r t i n g s c r e e n w h i c h m a k e s u s m i s s t h e T h i n g . M o r e p r e c i s e l y , t h e R e a l is u l t i m a t e l y t h e v e r y shift of p e r s p e c t i v e from

t h e first to t h e s e c o n d s t a n d p o i n t .

Recall the well-

k n o w n A d o r n i a n a n a l y s i s of t h e a n t a g o n i s t i c c h a r a c t e r of t h e notion of s o c i e t y : i n a first a p p r o a c h , t h e split b e t w e e n t h e t w o n o t i o n s of s o c i e t y (the A n g l o - S a x o n individualistic-nominalistic version a n d the D u r k h e i m i a n o r g a n i c i s t n o t i o n of s o c i e t y a s a t o t a l i t y w h i c h p r e e x i s t s i n d i v i d u a l s ) s e e m s i r r e d u c i b l e ; w e s e e m to b e d e a l i n g w i t h a t r u e K a n t i a n a n t i n o m y which cannot be resolved via a higher "dialectical synthesis," a n d w h i c h e l e v a t e s s o c i e t y i n t o a n i n a c c e s s i b l e T h i n g - i n - i t s e l f H o w e v e r , in a s e c o n d approach,

o n e s h o u l d m e r e l y t a k e n o t e of h o w t h i s r a d i c a l a n t i n o m y

w h i c h s e e m s to p r e c l u d e o u r a c c e s s to t h e T h i n g already Li the thing itself— t h e f u n d a m e n t a l f e a t u r e of t o d a y ' s s o c i e t y it t h e i r r é c o n c i l i a b l e a n t a g o n ­ ism

between

Totality and the individual. W h a t

t h i s m e a n s is that,

u l t i m a t e l y , t h e s t a t u s of t h e R e a l is p u r e l y p a r a l l a c t i c a n d , a s s u c h , n o n - s u b s t a n t i a l : it h a s n o s u b s t a n t i a l d e n s i t y in itself, it i s j u s t a g a p b e t w e e n t w o p o i n t s of p e r s p e c t i v e , p e r c e p t i b l e o n l y in t h e shift from t h e o n e to t h e o t h e r . T h e p a r a l l a x R e a l is t h u s o p p o s e d

to t h e s t a n d a r d

( L a c a n i a n ) n o t i o n of t h e R e a l a s t h a t w h i c h " a l w a y s r e t u r n s to its p l a c e , " namely, a s that w h i c h r e m a i n s the same in all possible

(symbolic)

u n i v e r s e s : t h e p a r a l l a x R e a l i s r a t h e r t h a t w h i c h a c c o u n t s for t h e v e r y multiplicity of a p p e a r a n c e s of t h e s a m e u n d e r l y i n g R e a l — i t i s n o t t h e h a r d c o r e w h i c h p e r s i s t s a s t h e S a m e , b u t t h e h a r d b o n e of c o n t e n t i o n w h i c h p u l v e r i z e s t h e s a m e n e s s i n t o t h e m u l t i t u d e of a p p e a r a n c e s . In a move, the Real is the impossible h a r d core w h i c h w e cannot d i r e c t l y , b u t o n l y t h r o u g h t h e l e n s e s of a m u l t i t u d e of s y m b o l i c

first

confront fictions.

Virtual f o r m a t i o n s . In a s e c o n d m o v e , t h i s v e r y h a r d c o r e i s p u r e l y v i r t u a l , actually non-existing, an X w h i c h can be reconstructed

only retroac­

t i v e l y , from t h e m u l t i t u d e of s y m b o l i c f o r m a t i o n s w h i c h a r e " a l l t h a t t h e r e actually i s . " It s e e m s t h a t H e i d e g g e r w a s n o t r e a d y to d r a w all t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s from t h i s n e c e s s a r y d o u b l e m e a n i n g of " u n c o n c e a l e d n e s s , " w h i c h , to p u t 127

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

it b l u n t l y , w o u l d h a v e c o m p e l l e d h i m to a c c e p t t h a t " o n t o l o g i c a l differ­ e n c e " i s u l t i m a t e l y n o t h i n g b u t a rift in t h e o n t i c o r d e r ( I n c i d e n t a l l y , in t h e e x a c t p a r a l l e l to B a d i o u ' s k e y a d m i s s i o n t h a t t h e E v e n t i s u l t i m a t e l y n o t h i n g b u t a t o r s i o n in t h e o r d e r of B e i n g ) . T h i s l i m i t a t i o n of H e i d e g ­ ger's thought

h a s a s e r i e s of p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n d e t h l c o - p o l i t l c a l c o n s e ­

q u e n c e s . P h i l o s o p h i c a l l y , it l e a d s to H e i d e g g e r ' s n o t i o n d e s t i n y w h i c h d e l i v e r s different

of h i s t o r i c a l

h o r i z o n s of t h e d i s c l o s u r e of B e i n g ,

d e s t i n y w h i c h c a n n o t a n d s h o u l d not b e in a n y w a y i n f l u e n c e d b y or d e p e n d e n t on o n t i c o c c u r r e n c e s . E t h i c o - p o l l t i c a l l y , it a c c o u n t s for H e i ­ d e g g e r ' s (not s i m p l y ethical, but p r o p e r l y ontological) indifference

to­

w a r d s t h e H o l o c a u s t , i t s l e v e l i n g t o j u s t a n o t h e r c a s e of t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l d i s p o s a l of life ( i n t h e i n f a m o u s p a s s a g e from t h e c o n f e r e n c e on t e c h ­ n i q u e ) : to a c k n o w l e d g e t h e H o l o c a u s t ' s e x t r a o r d i n a r y / e x c e p t i o n a l s t a t u s w o u l d e q u a l r e c o g n i z i n g in it a t r a u m a t h a t s h a t t e r s t h e v e r y o n t o l o g i c a l c o o r d i n a t e s of B e i n g . D o e s t h i s i n d i f f e r e n c e m a k e h i m a N a z i ?

Heidegger's smoking gun? T h e r e a r e t w o of H e i d e g g e r ' s s e m i n a r s w h i c h c l e a r l y d i s t u r b t h e official p i c t u r e of a H e i d e g g e r w h o o n l y e x t e r n a l l y a c c o m m o d a t e d h i m s e l f to the N a z i r e g i m e in o r d e r to s a v e w h a t e v e r c o u l d b e s a v e d of t h e u n i v e r s i t y ' s a u t o n o m y : Über Wesen und Begriff von Natur, Geschichte un? Staat (On the Essence and Notion of Nature, History, and State, W i n t e r 1 9 3 3 - 3 4 , p r o t o c o l c o n s e r v e d i n t h e D e u t s c h e s L i t e r a t u r a r c h i v , M a r b a c h a m N e c k a r ) ; Hegel, über den Staat (Hegel, on the State, W i n t e r 1 9 3 4 - 3 5 , p r o t o c o l a l s o c o n s e r v e d in t h e D L A ) . S i g n i f i c a n t l y , t h e first of t h e t w o i s not i n c l u d e d in t h e official Gesamtausgabe b y K l o s t e r m a n n V e r l a g — a fact t h a t r e n d e r s p r o ­ b l e m a t i c its d e s i g n a t i o n a s a " c o m p l e t e e d i t i o n . " T h e s e t w o s e m i n a r s a r e t h e c l o s e s t o n e c a n g e t to t h e p r o v e r b i a l s m o k i n g g u n , s i n c e t h e y e n a c t p r e c i s e l y w h a t , a c c o r d i n g to t h e official H e i d e g g e r i a n doxa, d i d not, c o u l d not, a n d s h o u l d not h a v e t a k e n p l a c e : f u l l - b o d i e d s u p p o r t for N a z i s m f o r m u l a t e d a n d g r o u n d e d in H e i d e g g e r ' s i n n e r m o s t p h i l o s o p h i c a l

pro­

j e c t . (It i s n o n e t h e l e s s w r o n g for a p h i l o s o p h e r to i n v e s t too m u c h i n t o finding

s m o k i n g g u n s : t h e y o n l y c o n f i r m w h a t i s a l r e a d y t h e r e in t h e

f o r m a l s t r u c t u r e of a t h o u g h t . ) H o w e v e r , o n e s h o u l d not l o s e o n e ' s n e r v e too fast h e r e a n d let o n e s e l f fall i n t o t h e s t a n d a r d l i b e r a l c o n d e m n a t i o n : H e i d e g g e r ' s failure is not

a s e a s y to l o c a t e a s It m a y a p p e a r .

The

a t m o s p h e r e of H e i d e g g e r ' s p o l i t i c a l r e f e r e n c e s in h i s t e x t s a n d c o u r s e s from t h e 1 9 3 0 s ( t h e e x a m p l e s h e u s e s , e t c . ) i s , a s e x p e c t e d , o m i n o u s — 128

RADICAL INTELLECTUALS

suffice it to r e c a l l t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e p a r a g r a p h w h i c h q u e s t i o n s t h e b e i n g of a s t a t e : " A s t a t e — it id. In w h a t c o n s i s t s i t s b e i n g ? In t h a t t h e s t a t e p o l i c e a r r e s t s a s u s p e c t [. . .]?"'^'* T h e v e r y e x a m p l e h e u s e s t o i l l u s t r a t e w h a t H e g e l m e a n s b y h i s c l a i m a b o u t t h e s p e c u l a t i v e i d e n t i t y of t h e r a t i o n a l a n d t h e a c t u a l i s , a g a i n , o m i n o u s : " T h e t r e a t y of V e r s a i l l e s is actual, but not rational." H e i d e g g e r ' s s t a r t i n g p o i n t i s a d e f e n s e of H e g e l a g a i n s t t h e f a m o u s p r o c l a m a t i o n b y C a r l S c h m i t t t h a t H e g e l d i e d in 1 9 3 3 , w h e n H i t l e r t o o k o v e r : "It w a s s a i d t h a t H e g e l d i e d in 1 9 3 3 ; q u i t e t h e c o n t r a r y : it w a s o n l y t h e n t h a t h e first b e g a n to l i v e . "

W h y ? Heidegger endorses Hegel's

t h e s i s o n t h e s t a t e a s t h e h i g h e s t form of s o c i a l e x i s t e n c e : " T h e h i g h e s t a c t u a l i z a t i o n of h u m a n b e i n g o c c u r s i n t h e s t a t e . "

H e even directly

"ontologizes" the state, defining the relationship b e t w e e n the people a n d t h e s t a t e i n t e r m s of o n t o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e : " T h e p e o p l e , t h e e x i s t i n g , h a s a fully d e t e r m i n e d relationship t o w a r d s its being, t o w a r d s the state." H o w e v e r , i n w h a t follows, it s o o n b e c o m e s c l e a r t h a t H e i d e g g e r o n l y n e e d s H e g e l i n o r d e r t o a s s e r t t h e e m e r g i n g N a z i "total s t a t e " a g a i n s t t h e l i b e r a l n o t i o n of t h e s t a t e a s a m e a n s to r e g u l a t e the i n t e r a c t i o n of civil s o c i e t y ; h e a p p r o v i n g l y r e f e r s to H e g e l ' s d e p l o j m i e n t of t h e l i m i t a t i o n of t h e " e x t e r n a l " s t a t e , t h e " s t a t e o i n e c e s s i t y , " t h e " s t a t e of U n d e r s t a n d i n g , " t h e s y s t e m of c i v i l society:'^'' " [ . . . ] w e c a n n o t g r a s p w h a t H e g e l u n d e r ­ s t a n d s a s f r e e d o m , if w e t a k e it a s a n e s s e n t i a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n of a s i n g u l a r I. [. . . ] F r e e d o m i s o n l y a c t u a l w h e r e t h e r e i s a c o m m u n i t y of T's, of subjects."'

B u t H e g e l u n d e r s t a n d s b y " f r e e d o m " aLw t h i s : h e i n s i s t s on

t h e " m o d e r n " p r i n c i p l e of t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s " i n f i n i t e r i g h t . " F o r H e g e l , civil s o c i e t y is the g r e a t m o d e r n a c h i e v e m e n t , t h e c o n d i t i o n of a c t u a l f r e e d o m , t h e " m a t e r i a l b a s i s " of m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n , a n d h i s p r o b l e m i s p r e c i s e l y h o w to luiile t h e u n i t y of t h e s t a t e a n d t h e d y n a m i c m e d i a t i o n of c i v i l s o c i e t y w i t h o u t c u r t a i l i n g t h e r i g h t s of civil s o c i e t y . T h e y o u n g H e g e l , e s p e c i a l l y in h i s System der Sittlichkeit, w a s still f a s c i n a t e d b y the G r e e k polid a s t h e o r g a n i c u n i t y of i n d i v i d u a l a n d s o c i e t y : h e r e , s o c i a l s u b s t a n c e d o e s n o t y e t s t a n d o p p o s e d to i n d i v i d u a l s a s a c o l d , a b s t r a c t , o b j e c t i v e l e g a l i t y i m p o s e d from o u t s i d e , b u t a s t h e l i v i n g u n i t y of " c u s t o m s , " of a c o l l e c t i v e e t h i c a l life in w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s a r e " a t h o m e , " r e c o g n i z i n g it a s t h e i r o w n s u b s t a n c e . F r o m t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , cold u n i v e r s a l l e g a l i t y i s a regression

from

t h e o r g a n i c u n i t y of c u s t o m s —the r e g r e s s i o n

from

G r e e c e to t h e R o m a n E m p i r e . A l t h o u g h H e g e l s o o n a c c e p t e d t h a t t h e s u b j e c t i v e f r e e d o m of m o d e r n i t y h a s t o b e a c c e p t e d , t h a t t h e o r g a n i c u n i t y of polu is f o r e v e r lost, h e n o n e t h e l e s s i n s i s t e d o n a n e e d for s o m e 129

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

k i n d of r e t u r n to r e n e w e d o r g a n i c u n i t y , to a nevjpolià t h a t w o u l d offer a s a c o u n t e r p a r t to i n d i v i d u a l s a d e e p e r s e n s e of s o c i a l s o l i d a r i t y a n d o r g a n i c u n i t y over and above the " m e c h a n i s t i c " interaction a n d individualist c o m p e t i t i o n of civil s o c i e t y . Hegel's crucial step t o w a r d s maturity occurs w h e n he really "abandons t h e p a r a d i g m of t h e poli/'^^ b y w a y of r e c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g t h e r o l e of civil s o c i e t y . F i r s t , civil s o c i e t y i s for H e g e l the " s t a t e of U n d e r s t a n d i n g , " t h e s t a t e r e d u c e d to t h e p o l i c e a p p a r a t u s r e g u l a t i n g t h e c h a o t i c i n t e r a c t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l s e a c h of w h o m p u r s u e s h i s e g o t i s t i c i n t e r e s t s — s u c h

an

i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c - a t o m i s t i c n o t i o n of f r e e d o m a n d t h e n o t i o n of l e g a l o r d e r a s i m p o s e d on i n d i v i d u a l s a s t h e e x t e r n a l l i m i t a t i o n of t h e i r f r e e d o m a r e s t r i c t l y c o r r e l a t i v e . T h e n e e d t h u s a r i s e s to p a s s from t h i s " s t a t e of U n d e r s t a n d i n g " to t h e t r u e " s t a t e of R e a s o n , " in w h i c h t h e i n d i v i d u a l s ' s u b j e c t i v e d i s p o s i t i o n s a r e h a r m o n i z e d w i t h t h e s o c i a l W h o l e , in w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s recognize the social substance as their own. The crucial step o c c u r s w h e n H e g e l fully d e v e l o p s t h e m e d i a t i n g r o l e of civil s o c i e t y : the " s y s t e m of m u l t i l a t e r a l d e p e n d e n c e " w h o s e u l t i m a t e m o d e r n form i s the market

economy,

separated

the

s y s t e m In w h i c h

particular and

universal

are

a n d o p p o s e d , in w h i c h e v e r y I n d i v i d u a l p u r s u e s o n l y h i s

p r i v a t e g o a l s , in w h i c h o r g a n i c s o c i a l u n i t y d e c o m p o s e s i n t o e x t e r n a l m e c h a n i c i n t e r a c t i o n , w h i c h i s in i t s e l f a l r e a d y t h e r e c o n c i l i a t i o n of the p a r t i c u l a r a n d t h e u n i v e r s a l in the g u i s e of t h e f a m o u s " i n v i s i b l e h a n d " of t h e m a r k e t , on a c c o u n t of w h i c h , b y p u r s u i n g p r i v a t e i n t e r e s t s a t t h e e x p e n s e of o t h e r s , e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l c o n t r i b u t e s to t h e w e l f a r e of a l l . It is t h u s not s i m p l y t h a t o n e h a s to " o v e r c o m e " t h e

mechanical/external

i n t e r a c t i o n of c i v i l s o c i e t y In a h i g h e r o r g a n i c u n i t y : c i v i l s o c i e t y a n d its d i s i n t e g r a t i o n p l a y a c r u c i a l m e d i a t i n g r o l e , so t h a t t h e t r u e r e c o n c i l i a t i o n ( w h i c h does not abolish m o d e r n subjective freedom) should recognize how

t h i s d i s i n t e g r a t i o n Is in i t s e l f a l r e a d y Its o p p o s i t e ,

a force

of

i n t e g r a t i o n . R e c o n c i l i a t i o n is t h u s r a d i c a l l y immanent: it i m p l i e s a shift of p e r s p e c t i v e a s to w h a t first a p p e a r s a s d i s i n t e g r a t i o n . In o t h e r w o r d s , i n s o f a r a s c i v i l s o c i e t y i s the s p h e r e of a l i e n a t i o n , of t h e between

s u b j e c t i v i t y p e r s i s t i n g In Its a b s t r a c t

separation

Individuality and

the

o b j e c t i v e s o c i a l o r d e r o p p o s i n g it a s a n e x t e r n a l n e c e s s i t y t h a t c u r t a i l s its f r e e d o m , t h e r e s o u r c e s of r e c o n c i l i a t i o n s h o u l d b e f o u n d in this very sphere (in what, in this sphere, appears "at first sight, as the least spiritual, as the most alienating: the system of needs'

) , n o t in t h e p a s s a g e to

another

" h i g h e r " s p h e r e . T h e s t r u c t u r e of t h i s r e c o n c i l i a t i o n in t h e m a t u r e H e g e l is, a g a i n , t h a t of t h e R a b i n o v i c h j o k e : " T h e r e a r e t w o r e a s o n s m o d e r n 130

RADICAL INTELLECTUALS

s o c i e t y is r e c o n c i l e d w i t h itself. T h e first i s t h e i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h i n civil s o c i e t y . . ." " B u t t h a t i n t e r a c t i o n i s c o n s t a n t strife, t h e v e r y m e c h a n i s m of d i s i n t e g r a t i o n , of r u t h l e s s c o m p e t i t i o n ! " " W e l l , t h i s i s the

second

r e a s o n , s i n c e t h i s v e r y strife a n d c o m p e t i t i o n m a k e s i n d i v i d u a l s t h o r ­ o u g h l y interdependent a n d thus g e n e r a t e s the ultimate social bond . . . " T h e w h o l e p e r s p e c t i v e t h u s c h a n g e s : it i s no l o n g e r t h a t t h e o r g a n i c Sittlichkeit

of t h e polu d i s i n t e g r a t e s u n d e r t h e c o r r o s i v e i n f l u e n c e

of

m o d e r n a b s t r a c t i n d i v i d u a l i t y in its m u l t i p l e m o d e s ( t h e m a r k e t e c o n o m y , protestantism,

a n d so o n ) , a n d t h a t this u n i t y s h o u l d

somehow

be

r e s t o r e d a t a h i g h e r l e v e l : t h e p o m t of H e g e l ' s a n a l y s e s of A n t i q u i t y , best exemplified b y his repeated readings

Antigone, is t h a t t h e G r e e k

poluf i t s e l f w a s a l r e a d y m a r k e d , c u t t h r o u g h , b y fatal i m m a n e n t a n t a g o n ­ i s m s (public—private, m a s c u l i n e — f e m i n i n e , h u m a n — d i v i n e , free—slaves, etc.)

w h i c h belie its organic unity. A b s t r a c t universal i n d i v i d u a l i s m

( C h r i s t i a n i t y ) , far from u n i t y , w a s , on

the

c a u s i n g t h e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of G r e e k

contrary,

the

necessary hrst step

r e c o n c i l i a t i o n . W i t h r e g a r d to t h e m a r k e t ,

far from

organic

towards

true

being simply a

c o r r o s i v e force, it i s m a r k e t i n t e r a c t i o n w h i c h p r o v i d e s t h e m e d i a t i n g p r o c e s s w h i c h f o r m s t h e b a s i s of t r u e r e c o n c i l i a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e u n i v e r s a l and the particular: m a r k e t competition brings people really together, while organic order divides them. T h e b e s t i n d i c a t i o n of t h i s shift in t h e m a t u r e H e g e l c o n c e r n s

the

o p p o s i t i o n of c u s t o m s a n d l a w : for t h e e a r l y H e g e l , the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of c u s t o m s i n t o i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d l a w i s a r e g r e s s i v e m o v e from o r g a n i c u n i t y to a l i e n a t i o n ( t h e n o r m i s n o l o n g e r e x p e r i e n c e d a s p a r t of m y s u b s t a n t i a l e t h i c a l n a t u r e , b u t a s a n e x t e r n a l force t h a t c o n s t r a i n s m y f r e e d o m ) , w h i l e for t h e m a t u r e

Hegel this transformation

i s a crucied s t e p

o p e n i n g u p a n d s u s t a i n i n g t h e s p a c e of m o d e r n s u b j e c t i v e

forward, freedom.

It i s in total o p p o s i t i o n to t h e s e H e g e l i a n i n s i g h t s t h a t H e i d e g g e r d e p l o y s his n o t i o n of a "total s t a t e " :

W e a r e t a l k i n g a b o u t a total s t a t e . T h i s s t a t e is not a p a r t i c u l a r d o m a i n ( a m o n g o t h e r s ) , it is not a n a p p a r a t u s w h i c h i s h e r e to p r o t e c t s o c i e t y (from t h e s t a t e i t s e l f ) , a d o m a i n w i t h w h i c h o n l y s o m e p e o p l e h a v e to deal.^^

[. . . ] t h e p e o p l e t h u s w i l l s a n d l o v e s t h e s t a t e a s its o w n w a y a n d m a n n e r to b e a s a p e o p l e . T h e p e o p l e i s d o m i n a t e d b y t h e s t r i v i n g , b y ero,i, for t h e s t a t e . 131

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

T h i s E r o s , of c o u r s e , i m p h e s p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n : l o v e i s a l w a y s l o v e for t h e O n e , the L e a d e r : The Führer-State—the

o n e w e h a v e — m e a n s t h e a c c o m p l i s h m e n t of

the historical development:

t h e a c t u a l i z a t i o n of t h e p e o p l e in

the

Führer.^^

It i s o n l y t h e l e a d e r ' s w i l l w h i c h m a k e s o t h e r s i n t o h i s f o l l o w e r s , a n d c o m m u n i t y a r i s e s o u t of t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p of f o l l o w i n g . T h e f o l l o w e r s ' s a c r i f i c e a n d s e r v i c e o r i g i n a t e in t h i s l i v i n g c o n n e c t i o n , not in t h e i r o b e d i e n c e to t h e c o n s t r a i n t of i n s t i t u t i o n s .

T h e l e a d e r h a s s o m e t h i n g to d o w i t h t h e p e o p l e ' s w i l l ; t h i s w i l l is not t h e s u m of s i n g u l a r w i l l s , b u t a W h o l e of a p r i m o r d i a l a u t h e n t i c i t y . T h e q u e s t i o n of t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s - o f - t h e - w i l l of a c o m m u n i t y i s a p r o b l e m in a l l d e m o c r a c i e s , w h i c h c a n o n l y b e r e s o l v e d in a fruitful w a y w h e n o n e r e c o g n i z e s t h e l e a d e r ' s w i l l a n d t h e p e o p l e ' s w i l l in t h e i r e s s e n t i ­ a l i t y . O u r t a s k t o d a y i s to a r r a n g e t h e f o u n d i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p of o u r c o m m u n a l b e i n g in t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h i s a c t u a l i t y of p e o p l e a n d l e a d e r , w h e r e , a s its a c t u a l i t y , t h e t w o c a n n o t b e s e p a r a t e d . O n l y w h e n t h i s b a s i c s c h e m e Is a s s e r t e d in its e s s e n t i a l a s p e c t t h r o u g h Its a p p l i c a t i o n , is t r u e l e a d e r s h i p p o s s i b l e .

T h i s , of c o u r s e , is a g a i n t o t a l l y o p p o s e d to H e g e l , for w h o m the h e a d of a r a t i o n a l state s h o u l d not b e a l e a d e r , b u t a k i n g . W h y ? L e t us t a k e a l o o k a t H e g e l ' s ( i n ) f a m o u s d e d u c t i o n of t h e r a t i o n a l n e c e s s i t y of h e r e d i t a r y m o n ­ a r c h y : t h e b u r e a u c r a t i c c h a i n of k n o w l e d g e h a s to b e s u p p l e m e n t e d b y t h e k i n g ' s d e c i s i o n a s t h e " c o m p l e t e l y c o n c r e t e o b j e c t i v i t y of t h e w i l l " w h i c h " r e a b s o r b s a l l p a r t i c u l a r i t y i n t o its s i n g l e self, c u t s s h o r t t h e w e i g h i n g of p r o s a n d c o n s b e t w e e n w h i c h it l e t s itself o s c i l l a t e p e r p e t u a l l y n o w t h i s w a y a n d n o w that, a n d b y s a y i n g T w i l l ' m a k e s its d e c i s i o n a n d so i n a u g u r a t e s all activity and actuality."

T h i s is w h y "the c o n c e p t i o n of t h e m o n a r c h " i s "of

all c o n c e p t i o n s t h e h a r d e s t for r a t i o c i n a t i o n , i.e. for t h e m e t h o d of reflection employed b y the Understanding."

In t h e n e x t p a r a g r a p h , H e g e l f u r t h e r

e l a b o r a t e s t h i s s p e c u l a t i v e n e c e s s i t y of the m o n a r c h :

T h i s u l t i m a t e self in w h i c h t h e w i l l of t h e s t a t e is c o n c e n t r a t e d i s , w h e n t h u s t a k e n in a b s t r a c t i o n , individuality. Hence 132

a single self a n d therefore

its " n a t u r a l " c h a r a c t e r

is i m m e d i a t e

is i m p l i e d in its v e r y

RADICAL INTELLECTUALS

conception. The monarch, therefore, is essentially c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s this i n d i v i d u a l , in a b s t r a c t i o n from all h i s o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a n d t h i s i n d i v i d u a l i s r a i s e d to t h e d i g n i t y of m o n a r c h y in a n i m m e d i a t e , n a t u r a l , fashion, i.e. t h r o u g h h i s b i r t h in t h e c o u r s e of n a t u r e .

T h e s p e c u l a t i v e m o m e n t t h a t U n d e r s t a n d i n g c a n n o t g r a s p is " t h e t r a n s i ­ tion of t h e c o n c e p t of p u r e s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n i n t o t h e i m m e d i a c y of B e i n g a n d so i n t o t h e r e a l m of n a t u r e . " ' ' ^ In o t h e r w o r d s , w h i l e U n d e r ­ s t a n d i n g c a n w e l l g r a s p t h e u n i v e r s a l m e d i a t i o n of a l i v i n g t o t a l i t y , w h a t it c a n n o t g r a s p is t h a t thi) totality, in order to actualize itself, has to acquire actiuil existence in the guue of an immediate "natural" singularity.

The

term

" n a t u r a l " s h o u l d b e g i v e n its full w e i g h t h e r e : in t h e s a m e w a y t h a t , a t t h e e n d of t h e Logic, t h e I d e a ' s c o m p l e t e d s e l f - m e d i a t i o n r e l e a s e s i t s e l f from N a t u r e , c o l l a p s e s into t h e e x t e r n a l i m m e d i a c y of N a t u r e , t h e S t a t e ' s r a t i o n a l s e l f - m e d i a t i o n h a s to a c q u i r e a c t u a l e x i s t e n c e in a w i l l w h i c h i s d e t e r m i n e d a s d i r e c t l y n a t u r a l , u n m e d i a t e d , stricto sensu " i r r a t i o n a l . ' W h i l e o b s e r v i n g N a p o l e o n on a h o r s e in t h e s t r e e t s of J e n a after t h e b a t t l e of 1 8 0 7 , H e g e l r e m a r k e d t h a t it w a s a s if h e h a d s e e n t h e W o r l d S p i r i t r i d i n g a h o r s e . T h e C h r i s t o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h i s r e m a r k a r e o b v i o u s : w h a t h a p p e n e d in t h e c a s e of C h r i s t i s t h a t G o d himself, t h e creator

of o u r

entire universe, w a s w a l k i n g around

as a

common

i n d i v i d u a l . T h i s m y s t e r y of i n c a r n a t i o n is d i s c e r n i b l e a t different l e v e l s , u p to t h e p a r e n t ' s s p e c u l a t i v e j u d g m e n t a p r o p o s a c h i l d " O u t t h e r e o u r l o v e i s w a l k i n g ! " , w h i c h s t a n d s for t h e H e g e l i a n r e v e r s a l of d e t e r m i n a t e reflexion into reflexive determination — the s a m e a s w i t h a king, w h e n his subject sees him w a l k i n g around: "Out

there our state is w a l k i n g . "

M a r x ' s e v o c a t i o n of r e f l e x i v e d e t e r m i n a t i o n ( i n h i s f a m o u s footnote in c h a p t e r 1 of Capital) a l s o falls s h o r t h e r e : i n d i v i d u a l s t h i n k t h a t t h e y t r e a t a p e r s o n a s a k i n g b e c a u s e h e i s a k i n g m himself, w h i l e , in fact, h e i s a k i n g o n l y b e c a u s e t h e y t r e a t h i m a s o n e . H o w e v e r , t h e c r u c i a l p o i n t is t h a t t h i s " r e i f i c a t i o n " of a s o c i a l r e l a t i o n in a p e r s o n c a n n o t b e d i s m i s s e d a s a s i m p l e " f e t i s h i s t i c m i s p e r c e p t i o n " ; w h a t s u c h a d i s m i s s a l itself m i s s e s i s s o m e t h i n g t h a t , p e r h a p s , c o u l d be d e s i g n a t e d a s t h e " H e g e l i a n p e r ­ f o r m a t i v e " : of c o u r s e a k i n g i s " i n h i m s e l f " a m i s e r a b l e i n d i v i d u a l , of c o u r s e h e is a k i n g o n l y i n s o f a r a s h i s s u b j e c t s t r e a t h i m a s o n e ; h o w e v e r , t h e p o i n t i s t h a t t h e " f e t i s h i s t i c i l l u s i o n " w h i c h s u s t a i n s o u r v e n e r a t i o n of a k i n g h a s in i t s e l f a p e r f o r m a t i v e d i m e n s i o n — ^ ^ ^ very unity of our state, that which the king "embodies, "actualizes itself only in the person of a king. W h i c h i s w h y it i s not e n o u g h to i n s i s t on t h e n e e d to a v o i d t h e " f e t i s h i s t i c t r a p " 133

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

a n d to d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t h e c o n t i n g e n t p e r s o n of a k i n g a n d w h a t h e s t a n d s for: w h a t t h e k i n g s t a n d s for o n l y c o m e s to b e in h i s p e r s o n , t h e same as w i t h a couple's love w h i c h (at least w i t h i n a certain traditional perspective) only becomes actual in their

offspring.

S o far, f-fegel s e e m s to s a y t h e s a m e t h i n g a s H e i d e g g e r ; t h e r e is, h o w e v e r , a k e y d i f f e r e n c e , m a d e c l e a r i n the A d d i t i o n to p a r a g r a p h 2 8 0 :

Addition: It is often a l l e g e d a g a i n s t m o n a r c h y t h a t it m a k e s t h e w e l f a r e of t h e s t a t e d e p e n d e n t on c h a n c e , for, it i s u r g e d , t h e m o n a r c h m a y b e i l l - e d u c a t e d , h e m a y p e r h a p s b e u n w o r t h y of t h e h i g h e s t p o s i t i o n in the state, a n d it i s s e n s e l e s s t h a t s u c h a s t a t e of affairs s h o u l d e x i s t b e c a u s e it i s s u p p o s e d to b e r a t i o n a l . B u t a l l this r e s t s on a

presupposition

w h i c h i s n u g a t o r y , n a m e l y t h a t e v e i y t h i n g d e p e n d s on t h e m o n a r c h ' s p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r . In a c o m p l e t e l y o r g a n i z e d state, it i s o n l y a q u e s t i o n of t h e c u l m i n a t i n g p o i n t of formal d e c i s i o n ( a n d a n a t u r a l b u l w a r k a g a i n s t p a s s i o n . It i s w r o n g t h e r e f o r e to d e m a n d

objective

q u a l i t i e s in a m o n a r c h ) ; h e h a s o n l y to s a y " y e s " a n d dot t h e " 1 " , b e c a u s e t h e t h r o n e s h o u l d b e s u c h t h a t t h e s i g n i f i c a n t t h i n g in its holder

is not

his particular make-up.

[. . . ] In

a well-organized

m o n a r c h y , t h e o b j e c t i v e a s p e c t b e l o n g s to l a w a l o n e , a n d t h e m o n ­ a r c h ' s p a r t IS m e r e l y to s e t to t h e l a w t h e s u b j e c t i v e "1 w i l l " .

W h a t i s m i s s i n g in H e i d e g g e r is t h i s r e d u c t i o n of t h e function

of the

M o n a r c h to the p u r e l y formal function of d o t t i n g t h e " i " s , that is, t h e s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n w h a t , t o d a y , w e w o u l d call t h e " c o n s t a t i v e " a n d the " p e r f o r m a t i v e " a s p e c t s (or, in L a c a n ' s t e r m s , t h e c h a i n of k n o w l e d g e a n d t h e M a s t e r - S i g n i f i e r ) : t h e " o b j e c t i v e a s p e c t " of g o v e r n i n g a state, the c o n t e n t of l a w s a n d m e a s u r e s

( w h i c h i s t h e b u s i n e s s of t h e

b u r e a u c r a c y ) , a n d its t r a n s f o r m a t i o n

expert

into a " s u b j e c t i v e " d e c i s i o n of the

state t h a t is to b e e n a c t e d . H e i d e g g e r ' s c o n c e p t of the L e a d e r

confounds

p r e c i s e l y t h e t w o d i m e n s i o n s H e g e l s t r i v e s to k e e p a p a r t . T h e

further

p a r a d o x of H e g e l ' s notion of m o n a r c h y i s t h a t t h e k i n g i s t h e c o n s t i t u t i v e e x c e p t i o n w h i c h , a s s u c h , g u a r a n t e e s t h e u n i v e r s a l l e g a l e q u a l i t y of all o t h e r s u b j e c t s ; no w o n d e r that, in c o n t r a s t to H e g e l , H e i d e g g e r e x p l i c i t l y r e j e c t s e q u a l i t y in favor of a " h i e r a r c h y of g r a d e s " e n f o r c e d b y t h e L e a d e r :

To d o m i n a t i o n b e l o n g s p o w e r , w h i c h c r e a t e s a h i e r a r c h y of g r a d e s t h r o u g h t h e i m p o s i t i o n of t h e w i l l of t h e o n e w h o r u l e s , i n s o f a r a s h e is a c t u a l l y p o w e r f u l , i.e., i n s o f a r a s h e d i s p o s e s t h o s e u n d e r h i s rule.^^ 134

RADICAL INTELLECTUALS

Heidegger—pace

t h o s e w h o a c c u s e h i m of l e a v i n g o u t of c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e

" c r u e l " a s p e c t s of a n c i e n t G r e e k life ( s l a v e r y a n d so o n ) — o p e n l y d r a w s attention

to h o w " r a n k a n d d o m i n a n c e " a r e d i r e c t l y g r o u n d e d

d i s c l o s u r e of b e i n g , t h e r e b y p r o v i d i n g a d i r e c t o n t o l o g i c a l

in a

grounding

for t h e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s of d o m i n a t i o n : If p e o p l e t o d a y from t i m e to t i m e a r e g o i n g to b u s y t h e m s e l v e s r a t h e r too e a g e r l y w i t h t h e polis of t h e G r e e k s , t h e y s h o u l d not s u p p r e s s t h i s s i d e of it; o t h e r w i s e t h e c o n c e p t of t h e polis e a s i l y b e c o m e s i n n o c u o u s a n d s e n t i m e n t a l . W h a t is h i g h e r in r a n k i s w h a t i s s t r o n g e r .

Thus

B e i n g , l o g o s , a s t h e g a t h e r e d h a r m o n y , i s not e a s i l y a v a i l a b l e for e v e r y m a n a t t h e s a m e p r i c e , b u t is c o n c e a l e d , a s o p p o s e d to t h a t h a r m o n y w h i c h is a l w a y s m e r e e q u a l i z i n g , t h e e l i m i n a t i o n of t e n s i o n , l e v e l i n g .

W h o , t h e n , i s t h e e n e m y of s u c h a h i e r a r c h i c a l o r d e r ? T h e J a n u s h e a d of n o n - h i e r a r c h i c a l e g a l i t a r i a n i s m w i t h its t w o faces, b o u r g e o i s - l i b e r a l individualism

and

communist

egalitarianism, grounded

in

C h r i s t i a n " spirituality, w h i c h is thus the common source a n d

"Judeofoundation

of b o t h o p p o s e d s t r a n d s of m o d e r n p o l i t i c s :

In a c c o r d a n c e to i t s m o d e , Jewuh-ChrLitian game, taking simultaneously the

domination plays a double

s i d e of t h e

"dictatorship

of

the

p r o l e t a r i a t " a n d t h e s i d e of t h e l i b e r a l - d e m o c r a t i c c u l t u r a l s t r i v i n g ; for s o m e t i m e , t h i s d o u b l e g a m e w i l l c o n t i n u e to c o n c e a l o u r a l r e a d y p r e s e n t l o s s of r o o t s a n d i n a b i l i t y to t a k e e s s e n t i a l d e c i s i o n s .

A n d H e i d e g g e r goes even a step further here against the liberal-demo­ c r a t i c doxa-, i n t h e a l t e r n a t i v e b e t w e e n

Communism

" E n g l i s h " d e m o c r a t i c liberalism is the more g e o i s - C h r i s t i a n form Without

of E n g l i s h

its a n n i h i l a t i o n , t h e

and

' B o l s h e v i s m ' i s the m o s t

modern

liberalism,

dangerous: "The

era will continue

bour­

dangerous. to b e

main­

tained.'"^^ D i s t r u s t of d e m o c r a c y i s a c o n s t a n t f e a t u r e of H e i d e g g e r ' s t h o u g h t , e v e n after t h e Kehre; w e find it in h i s N i e t z s c h e l e c t u r e s from

1936-37

( w h e r e h e w r o t e t h a t " E u r o p e a l w a y s w a n t s to c l i n g to ' d e m o c r a c y ' a n d d o e s not w a n t to s e e t h a t t h i s w o u l d b e a fateful d e a t h for i t " ^ ^ ) , a s w e l l a s in h i s p o s t h u m o u s l y p u b l i s h e d Spiegel i n t e r v i e w w h e r e h e e x p r e s s e d h i s d o u b t t h a t d e m o c r a c y w a s t h e p o l i t i c a l form

that best

fits

modern

technology. 135

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

Repetition and the New S o w e a r e b a c k to C h e s t e r t o n ' s n o t i o n of c o n c e a h n g a b o d y in a p i l e of corpses: w h e n one c o n d e m n s H e i d e g g e r ' s entire philosophical edifice a s " f a s c i s t , " o n e m a s k s o n e ' s i n a b i l i t y to i d e n t i f y { o n e ) c o r p s e — t h e s i n g u l a r i d e o l o g i c a l f e a t u r e w h i c h g a v e a fascist t o u c h to all o t h e r s — b y

con­

s t r u c t i n g a pile of c o r p s e s c a l l e d " H e i d e g g e r ' s fascist t h o u g h t . " In t h i s w a y , o n e c o n c e d e s too m u c h to t h e e n e m y : t h e r e i s n o t h i n g " i n h e r e n t l y f a s c i s t " In t h e n o t i o n s of d e c i s i o n , r e p e t i t i o n , a s s u m i n g o n e ' s d e s t i n y , a n d so forth (or, c l o s e r to " o r d i n a r y " p o l i t i c s , in t h e n o t i o n s of m a s s d i s c i p l i n e , s a c r i f i c e of t h e i n d i v i d u a l for t h e c o l l e c t i v e , a n d so f o r t h ) . In short, one s h o u l d n o t a l l o w t h e e n e m y to d e f i n e t h e t e r r a i n of t h e b a t t l e a n d its s t a k e s , so t h a t w e e n d u p a b s t r a c t l y o p p o s i n g h i m , s u p p o r t i n g a n e g a t i v e c o p y of w h a t h e w a n t s . T o b e c l e a r a n d b r u t a l to t h e e n d , t h e r e i s a l e s s o n to b e l e a r n e d from H e r m a n n G o e r i n g ' s r e p l y , in t h e e a r l y 1 9 4 0 s , to a f a n a t i c a l N a z i w h o a s k e d h i m w h y h e p r o t e c t e d a w e l l - k n o w n J e w from d e p o r t a t i o n : "In t h i s c i t y , I d e c i d e w h o i s a J e w ! " ( a n a n s w e r , i n c i d e n ­ t a l l y , a t t r i b u t e d a l r e a d y to m a n y o t h e r G e r m a n

figures

who

protected

t h e i r p r i v i l e g e d J e w s , from B i s m a r c k to K a r l L ü g e r ) . In t h i s c i t y , it i s w e w h o d e c i d e w h a t i s left, so w e s h o u l d s i m p l y i g n o r e l i b e r a l a c c u s a t i o n s of " i n c o n s i s t e n c y . " F o r e x a m p l e , in h i s r e v i e w of t h e G u e v a r a

film

The

Motorcycle Diaries, P a u l B e r m a n c r i t i c a l l y c l a i m e d t h a t

t h e e n t i r e m o v i e , in i t s c o n c e p t a n d tone, e x u d e s a C h r i s t o l o g i c a l c u l t of m a r t y r d o m , a c u l t of a d o r a t i o n for t h e s p i r i t u a l l y s u p e r i o r p e r s o n w h o is v e e r i n g t o w a r d d e a t h ^—precisely t h e k i n d of a d o r a t i o n t h a t L a t i n America's

Catholic

Church

promoted

for

several centuries,

with

miserable consequences. The rebellion against reactionary Catholicism in t h i s m o v i e i s Itself a n e x p r e s s i o n of r e a c t i o n a r y C a t h o l i c i s m . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l c h u r c h e s of L a t i n A m e r i c a a r e full of s t a t u e s of g r u e s o m e b l e e d i n g s a i n t s . A n d t h e m a s o c h i s t i c a l l u r e of t h o s e s t a t u e s i s p r e c i s e l y w h a t y o u s e e in t h e m o v i e ' s m a n y d e p i c t i o n s of y o u n g C h e c o u g h i n g o u t h i s l u n g s from a s t h m a a n d t e s t i n g h i m s e l f b y s w i m m i n g in cold ^

70

water. T o t h i s , o n e s h o u l d s i m p l y a n s w e r : t r u e , b u t —so w h a t ? W h y

should

r e v o l u t i o n a r y p o l i t i c s not t a k e o v e r t h e C a t h o l i c c u l t of m a r t y r d o m ? A n d o n e s h o u l d not b e a f r a i d to g o to ( w h a t for m a n y l i b e r a l s w o u l d b e ) t h e e n d a n d to s a y t h e s a m e a b o u t L e n l R i e f e n s t a h l . H e r w o r k s e e m s to l e n d 136

RADICAL INTELLECTUALS

itself to a t e l e o l o g i c a l r e a d i n g , p r o g r e s s i n g t o w a r d s i t s d a r k c o n c l u s i o n . It b e g a n w i t h Bergfiirne w h i c h c e l e b r a t e d h e r o i s m a n d b o d i l y effort i n t h e e x t r e m e c o n d i t i o n s of m o u n t a i n - c l i m b i n g ; it w e n t o n t o h e r t w o N a z i d o c u m e n t a r i e s , c e l e b r a t i n g t h e p o l i t i c a l a n d s p o r t f o r m s of b o d i l y d i s ­ c i p l i n e , c o n c e n t r a t i o n , a n d s t r e n g t h of t h e w i l l ; then, a f t e r W o r l d W a r II, i n h e r p h o t o a l b u m s , s h e r e d i s c o v e r e d h e r i d e a l of b o d i l y b e a u t y a n d g r a c e f u l s e l f - m a s t e r y i n t h e N u b i A f r i c a n t r i b e ; finally, i n t h e l a s t d e c a d e s , she l e a r n e d t h e difficult a r t of d e e p - s e a d i v i n g a n d s t a r t e d

shooting

d o c u m e n t a r i e s a b o u t t h e s t r a n g e life i n t h e d a r k d e p t h s o f t h e s e a . W e t h u s s e e m t o o b t a i n a c l e a r t r a j e c t o r y from t h e t o p t o t h e b o t t o m ; w e begin with the individuals struggling at the mountain

tops a n d

g r a d u a l l y d e s c e n d , till w e r e a c h t h e a m o r p h o u s t h r i v i n g of life i t s e l f a t t h e b o t t o m of t h e s e a — i s n o t w h a t s h e e n c o u n t e r e d

down there h e r

u l t i m a t e object, o b s c e n e a n d i r r e s i s t i b l e e t e r n a l life itself, w h a t s h e w a s s e a r c h i n g for a l l a l o n g ? A n d d o e s t h i s n o t a p p l y a l s o t o h e r p e r s o n a l i t y ? In fact, i t s e e m e d t h a t t h e f e a r o f t h o s e w h o w e r e f a s c i n a t e d b y L e n i w a s n o l o n g e r " W h e n w i l l s h e d i e ? " , b u t " W i l l s h e ever d i e ? " — a l t h o u g h w e r a t i o n a l l y k n e w s h e w o u l d soon d i e , w e s o m e h o w d i d n o t r e a l l y b e l i e v e it, s e c r e t l y c o n v i n c e d t h a t s h e w o u l d g o o n forever, s o h e r d e a t h w a s a genuine surprise. This continuity is u s u a l l y given a "proto-fascist"

twist, a s in t h e

e x e m p l a r y c a s e of S u s a n S o n t a g ' s f a m o u s e s s a y o n R i e f e n s t a h l , " F a s ­ cinating F a s c i s m . " T h e i d e a here is that even h e r p r e - a n d post-Nazi films a r t i c u l a t e a v i s i o n of life w h i c h i s " p r o t o - f a s c i s t " :

Riefenstahl's

fascism i s d e e p e r than h e r direct celebration of N a z i politics, it r e s i d e s a l r e a d y i n h e r p r e - p o l l t i c a l a e s t h e t i c s o f life, i n h e r f a s c i n a t i o n

with

beautiful b o d i e s d i s p l a y i n g their d i s c i p l i n e d m o v e m e n t s . . . P e r h a p s it i s t i m e t o p r o b l e m a t i z e t h i s t o p o s . L e t u s t a k e Bcu blaue Licht: i s i t n o t p o s s i b l e t o r e a d t h e film a l s o i n e x a c t l y t h e o p p o s i t e w a y ? I s J u n t a , t h e lonely a n d w i l d mountain girl, not a n outcast w h o almost becomes the v i c t i m of a p o g r o m b y t h e v i l l a g e r s in a m a n n e r w h i c h c a n n o t b u t r e m i n d u s of a n t i - S e m i t i c m a s s a c r e s ? P e r h a p s i t i s n o t a n a c c i d e n t t h a t B é l a Balâzs, Riefenstahl's lover at that time w h o co-wrote t h e scenario with her, w a s a M a r x i s t . . . T h e p r o b l e m i s h e r e m u c h m o r e g e n e r a l , i t g o e s far b e y o n d R i e f e n ­ stahl, L e t u s t a k e t h e v e r y o p p o s i t e of R i e f e n s t a h l , A r n o l d S c h o e n b e r g : i n t h e s e c o n d p a r t of Harmonienlehre, h i s m a j o r t h e o r e t i c a l m a n i f e s t o

from

1911, h e develops his opposition to tonal music i n terms w h i c h , super­ ficially, a l m o s t r e c a l l l a t e r N a z i a n t i - S e m i t i c t r a c t s : t o n a l m u s i c h a s 137

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

b e c o m e a " d i s e a s e d , " " d e g e n e r a t e " w o r l d In n e e d of a c l e a n s i n g solution; t h e t o n a l s y s t e m h a s g i v e n in to " i n b r e e d i n g a n d i n c e s t " ; r o m a n t i c c h o r d s such as the diminished seventh are "hermaphroditic," "vagrant," and " c o s m o p o l i t a n " . . . n o t h i n g e a s i e r t h a n to c l a i m t h a t s u c h a m e s s i a n i c apocaly^ptic a t t i t u d e i s p a r t of t h e s a m e " s p i r i t u a l s i t u a t i o n " w h i c h g a v e b i r t h to t h e N a z i " f i n a l s o l u t i o n . " T h i s , h o w e v e r , i s p r e c i s e l y t h e con­ c l u s i o n o n e s h o u l d awi/): w h a t m a k e s N a z i s m r e p u l s i v e i s n o t t h e r h e t o r i c of final s o l u t i o n M such, b u t t h e c o n c r e t e t w i s t it g i v e s to it. A n o t h e r p o p u l a r t o p i c of t h i s k m d of a n a l y s i s , c l o s e r to R i e f e n s t a h l , is t h e a l l e g e d l y " p r o t o - f a s c l s t " c h a r a c t e r of t h e m a s s c h o r e o g r a p h y d i s ­ p l a y i n g d i s c i p l i n e d m o v e m e n t s of t h o u s a n d s of b o d i e s ( p a r a d e s , m a s s p e r f o r m a n c e s in t h e s t a d i a , a n d so o n ) ; if o n e finds t h e s a m e p h e n o m ­ e n o n a l s o in s o c i a l i s m , o n e i m m e d i a t e l y d r a w s t h e c o n c l u s i o n a b o u t a "deeper solidarity" between the two "totalitarianisms." S u c h a proce­ d u r e , t h e v e r y p r o t o t y p e of i d e o l o g i c a l l i b e r a l i s m , m i s s e s t h e p o i n t : not o n l y a r e s u c h m a s s p e r f o r m a n c e s n o t I n h e r e n t l y f a s c i s t ; t h e y a r e not e v e n " n e u t r a l , " w a i t i n g to b e a p p r o p r i a t e d b y L e f t o r R i g h t — i t w a s N a z i s m t h a t stole t h e m a n d a p p r o p r i a t e d

t h e m from

the w o r k e r s '

m o v e m e n t , t h e i r o r i g i n a l c r e a t o r . N o n e of t h e " p r o t o - f a s c l s t " e l e m e n t s is per se fascist, w h a t m a k e s t h e m " f a s c i s t " i s o n l y t h e i r s p e c i f i c a r t i c u l a ­ t i o n — o r , to p u t it in S t e p h e n J a y G o u l d ' s t e r m s , a l l t h e s e e l e m e n t s a r e " e x - a p t e d " b y f a s c i s m . In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e r e i s n o " f a s c i s m asant la lettre, " b e c a u s e it is the letter itself (':he nomination) which makes out of the bundle of elements fascLnn proper. Along the s a m e lines, one should radically reject the notion

that

d i s c i p l i n e (from self-control to b o d y t r a i n i n g ) i s a " p r o t o - f a s c l s t " fea­ t u r e — t h e v e r y p r e d i c a t e " p r o t o - f a s c l s t " s h o u l d b e a b a n d o n e d : it i s t h e e x e m p l a r y c a s e of a p s e u d o - c o n c e p t w h o s e function i s to b l o c k con­ c e p t u a l a n a l y s i s . W h e n w e s a y t h a t t h e o r g a n i z e d s p e c t a c l e of t h o u s a n d s of b o d i e s (or, s a y , t h e a d m i r a t i o n of s p o r t s w h i c h d e m a n d i n t e n s e efforts a n d self-control such a s m o u n t a i n - c l i m b i n g ) is "proto-fascist," w e s a y strictly nothing, w e just express a v a g u e association w h i c h m a s k s our i g n o r a n c e . S o w h e n , t h r e e d e c a d e s a g o , K u n g F u films w e r e p o p u l a r ( B r u c e L e e a n d so f o r t h ) , w a s it not o b v i o u s t h a t w e w e r e d e a l i n g w i t h a g e n u i n e w o r k i n g - c l a s s i d e o l o g y of y o u n g s t e r s w h o s e o n l y m e a n s of s u c c e s s w a s t h e d i s c i p l i n e d t r a i n i n g of t h e i r o n l y p o s s e s s i o n , t h e i r b o d i e s ? S p o n t a n e i t y a n d t h e " l e t it a l l h a n g o u t " a t t i t u d e of i n d u l g i n g In e x c e s s i v e f r e e d o m s b e l o n g to t h o s e w h o c a n afford i t — t h o s e w h o h a v e n o t h i n g h a v e o n l y t h e i r d i s c i p l i n e . T h e " b a d " form of c o r p o r e a l d i s c i p l i n e , if t h e r e 138

RADICAL INTELLECTUALS

is o n e , is not c o l l e c t i v e t r a i n i n g , but, r a t h e r , j o g g i n g a n d b o d y - b u i l d i n g a s p a r t of t h e N e w A g e m y t h of t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of t h e self's i n n e r p o t e n t i a l — no w o n d e r that the obsession w i t h one's b o d y is an almost obligatory part of t h e p a s s a g e of ex-leftist r a d i c a l s i n t o t h e " m a t u r i t y " of p r a g m a t i c p o l i t i c s : from J a n e F o n d a t o J o s c h k a F i s c h e r , t h e " p e r i o d of l a t e n c y " b e t w e e n t h e t w o p h a s e s w a s m a r k e d b y t h e focus on o n e ' s o w n b o d y . S o , b a c k t o R i e f e n s t a h l , w h a t t h i s m e a n s i s not t h a t o n e s h o u l d d i s m i s s her Nazi engagement as a limited a n d unfortunate

episode. The true

problem is to sustain the tension w h i c h cuts through

her work: the

t e n s i o n b e t w e e n t h e a r t i s t i c p e r f e c t i o n of h e r p r o c e d u r e s a n d t h e i d e o ­ logical project w h i c h "co-opted" them. W h y should h e r case be different from t h a t of E z r a P o u n d , W . B . Y e a t s , a n d o t h e r m o d e r n i s t s w i t h fascist t e n d e n c i e s w h o l o n g a g o b e c a m e p a r t of o u r a r t i s t i c c a n o n ? P e r h a p s , t h e s e a r c h for t h e " t r u e i d e o l o g i c a l i d e n t i t y " of R i e f e n s t a h l i s m i s l e a d i n g : t h e r e is n o s u c h i d e n t i t y , s h e w a s g e n u i n e l y i n c o n s i s t e n t , b l o w n t h i s w a y a n d t h a t a s s h e w a s c a u g h t u p i n a c o n f l i c t u a l forcefield. T o r e t u r n to H e i d e g g e r , in h i s N a z i e n g a g e m e n t , h e w a s n o t " t o t a l l y wrong"^—the t r a g e d y is t h a t h e w a s almost right, d e p l o y i n g t h e s t r u c t u r e of a r e v o l u t i o n a r y a c t a n d t h e n d i s t o r t i n g it b y g i v i n g it a fascist t w i s t . H e i d e g g e r w a s c l o s e s t t o t r u t h p r e c i s e l y w h e r e h e e r r e d most, i n h i s w r i t i n g s from t h e l a t e 1 9 2 0 s to t h e m i d - 1 9 3 0 s . O u r t a s k t h u s is to repeat H e i d e g g e r a n d r e t r i e v e t h i s lost d i m e n s i o n / p o t e n t i a l of h i s t h o u g h t . In 1937-38, Heidegger wrote:

W h a t i s c o n s e r v a t i v e r e m a i n s b o g g e d d o w n in t h e h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l ; o n l y w h a t i s r e v o l u t i o n a r y a t t a i n s t h e d e p t h of h i s t o r y . R e v o l u t i o n d o e s not m e a n h e r e m e r e s u b v e r s i o n a n d d e s t r u c t i o n b u t a n u p h e a v a l a n d r e c r e a t i n g of t h e c u s t o m a r y s o t h a t t h e b e g i n n i n g m i g h t be r e s t r u c ­ t u r e d . A n d b e c a u s e t h e o r i g i n a l b e l o n g s to t h e b e g i n n i n g , t h e r e ­ s t r u c t u r i n g of t h e b e g i n n i n g i s n e v e r t h e p o o r i m i t a t i o n of w h a t w a s earlier; it is entirely other a n d nevertheless the same.

In itself, i s t h i s n o t a w h o l l y p e r t i n e n t d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e r e v o l u t i o n a l o n g Benjaminian lines? Recall the e x a m p l e provided b y W a l t e r Benjamin: the October Revolution repeated

the French

Revolution, redeeming its

f a i l u r e , u n e a r t h i n g a n d r e p e a t i n g t h e s a m e i m p u l s e . A l r e a d y for K i e r k e ­ gaard, repetition is "inverted m e m o r y , " a movement forward, the pro­ d u c t i o n of t h e N e w , a n d n o t t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n

of t h e O l d . " T h e r e i s

n o t h i n g n e w u n d e r t h e s u n " is t h e s t r o n g e s t c o n t r a s t to t h e m o v e m e n t of 139

IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S

r e p e t i t i o n . S o , it i s not o n l y t h a t r e p e t i t i o n i s ( o n e of t h e m o d e s of) t h e e m e r g e n c e of t h e N e w — the New can oniy emerge through répétition. T h e k e y to t h i s p a r a d o x i s , of c o u r s e , w h a t D e l e u z e d e s i g n a t e s a s t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n the virtual a n d the actual ( a n d w h i c h — w h y not? —one can also determine as the difference b e t w e e n the Spirit a n d the L e t t e r ) . Let us t a k e a g r e a t p h i l o s o p h e r s u c h a s K a n t — t h e r e a r e t w o m o d e s of r e p e a t i n g h i m : e i t h e r o n e s t i c k s to t h e l e t t e r a n d f u r t h e r e l a b o r a t e s o r c h a n g e s h i s s y s t e m , in t h e s p i r i t of t h e n e o - K a n t i a n s ( u p to a n d i n c l u d i n g H a b e r m a s a n d L u c F e r r y ) ; or, o n e t r i e s to r e g a i n t h e c r e a t i v e i m p u l s e t h a t K a n t h i m s e l f b e t r a y e d in t h e a c t u a l i z a t i o n of h i s s y s t e m ( t h a t i s , to c o n n e c t to w h a t w a s a l r e a d y "in K a n t m o r e t h a n

Kant himself," more than

his

e x p l i c i t s y s t e m , i t s e x c e s s i v e c o r e ) . T h e r e a r e , a c c o r d i n g l y , t w o m o d e s of b e t r a y i n g t h e p a s t . T h e t r u e b e t r a y a l i s a n e t h i c o - t h e o r e t i c a l a c t of t h e h i g h e s t fidelity: o n e h a s to b e t r a y t h e l e t t e r of K a n t in o r d e r to r e m a i n faithful to ( a n d r e p e a t ) t h e " s p i r i t " of h i s t h o u g h t . It i s p r e c i s e l y w h e n o n e r e m a i n s faithful to t h e l e t t e r of K a n t t h a t o n e r e a l l y b e t r a y s t h e c o r e of h i s thought,

the

c r e a t i v e i m p u l s e u n d e r l y i n g it. O n e

should

bring

this

p a r a d o x to Its c o n c l u s i o n : it is not o n l y t h a t o n e c a n r e m a i n r e a l l y faithful to a n a u t h o r b y w a y of b e t r a y i n g h i m ( t h e a c t u a l l e t t e r of h i s t h o u g h t ) ; a t a more radical level, the Inverse statement holds even more —one can o n l y t r u l y b e t r a y a n a u t h o r b y w a y of r e p e a t i n g h i m , b y r e m a i n i n g faithful to t h e c o r e of h i s t h o u g h t . If o n e d o e s not r e p e a t a n a u t h o r (in t h e a u t h e n t i c K l e r k e g a a r d i a n s e n s e of t h e t e r m ) , b u t m e r e l y " c r i t i c i z e s " h i m , m o v e s e l s e w h e r e , t u r n s h i m a r o u n d , a n d so forth, t h i s e f f e c t i v e l y m e a n s that one u n k n o w i n g l y r e m a i n s w i t h i n his horizon, his conceptual When

G.K.

Chesterton

describes his conversion

field.''^

to C h r i s t i a n i t y ,

he

c l a i m s t h a t h e " t r i e d to b e s o m e t e n m i n u t e s in a d v a n c e of t h e t r u t h . A n d I f o u n d t h a t I w a s e i g h t e e n y e a r s b e h i n d it."'^^ D o e s t h e s a m e not h o l d e v e n m o r e for t h o s e w h o , t o d a y , d e s p e r a t e l y t r y to c a t c h u p w i t h t h e New

b y w a y of f o l l o w i n g t h e

l a t e s t " p o s t - " fashion,

and

are

thus

c o n d e m n e d to r e m a i n f o r e v e r e i g h t e e n y e a r s b e h i n d t h e t r u l y N e w ? In h i s i r o n i c c o m m e n t s on t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n , M a r x o p p o s e s t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y e n t h u s i a s m to t h e s o b e r i n g effect of t h e " m o r n i n g

after":

t h e a c t u a l r e s u l t of t h e s u b l i m e r e v o l u t i o n a r y e x p l o s i o n , of t h e E v e n t of freedom, e q u a l i t y , a n d brotherhood, is the m i s e r a b l e utilitarian/egotistic u n i v e r s e of m a r k e t c a l c u l a t i o n . ( A n d , i n c i d e n t a l l y , is not t h i s g a p e v e n w i d e r in t h e c a s e of t h e O c t o b e r R e v o l u t i o n ? ) H o w e v e r , o n e s h o u l d not s i m p l i f y M a r x : h i s p o i n t i s not t h e r a t h e r c o m m o n s e n s i c a l i n s i g h t i n t o h o w t h e v u l g a r r e a l i t y of c o m m e r c e i s t h e " t r u t h " of t h e t h e a t e r 140

of

RADICAL INTELLECTUALS

r e v o l u t i o n a r y e n t h u s i a s m . In t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y e x p l o s i o n a s a n E v e n t , a n o t h e r Utopian d i m e n s i o n s h i n e s t h r o u g h , t h e d i m e n s i o n of u n i v e r s a l e m a n c i p a t i o n w h i c h , p r e c i s e l y , is the e x c e s s b e t r a y e d b y the m a r k e t r e a l i t y w h i c h t a k e s o v e r "the d a y a f t e r " — a s s u c h , t h i s e x c e s s is not s i m p l y a b o l i s h e d , d i s m i s s e d a s i r r e l e v a n t , b u t , a s it w e r e , transpoéed'intothe virtual state, c o n t i n u i n g t o h a u n t the e m a n c i p a t o r y i m a g i n a r y a s a d r e a m w a i t i n g to b e r e a l i z e d . T h e e x c e s s of r e v o l u t i o n a r y e n t h u s i a s m o v e r its o w n " a c t u a l s o c i a l b a s e " o r s u b s t a n c e i s t h u s l i t e r a l l y that of a n a t t r i b u t e - e f f e c t o v e r its o w n s u b s t a n t i a l c a u s e , a s p e c t r a l E v e n t w a i t i n g for i t s p r o p e r embodiment. O n l y repetition

brings out pure

difference. W h e n ,

in his famous

a n a l y s i s in Being and Time, H e i d e g g e r d e s c r i b e s t h e e x - s t a t i c s t r u c t u r e of Daseins t e m p o r a l i t y a s the c i r c u l a r m o v e m e n t w h i c h g o e s from

future

t h r o u g h t h e p a s t to t h e p r e s e n t , it i s not e n o u g h t o u n d e r s t a n d t h i s a s a m o v e m e n t i n w h i c h I, s t a r t i n g from t h e f u t u r e ( t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o p e n e d t o m e , m y p r o j e c t s , and so o n ) , g o b a c k t o the p a s t ( a n a l y z e t h e t e x t u r e of the historical situation into w h i c h I w a s " t h r o w n , "

in which I

find

m y s e l f ) ' a n d , from t h e r e , e n g a g e in m y p r e s e n t in o r d e r to r e a l i z e m y p r o j e c t s . W h e n H e i d e g g e r c h a r a c t e r i z e s f u t u r e itself a s " h a v i n g - b e e n " (gesewene) or, m o r e p r e c i s e l y , s o m e t h i n g that " i s a s h a v i n g - b e e n " (gewe­ sende), h e l o c a t e s t h e future i t s e l f into t h e p a s t — n o t ,

of c o u r s e , i n t h e

s e n s e t h a t w e l i v e i n a c l o s e d u n i v e r s e in w h i c h e v e r y f u t u r e p o s s i b i l i t y i s a l r e a d y contained in the past, so that w e c a n o n l y repeat, realize, w h a t a l r e a d y i s p r e s e n t i n t h e i n h e r i t e d t e x t u r e , but i n t h e m u c h m o r e r a d i c a l s e n s e of t h e " o p e n n e s s " of t h e p a s t itself: t h e p a s t itself i s n o t s i m p l y " w h a t t h e r e was," i t c o n t a i n s h i d d e n , n o n - r e a l i z e d p o t e n t i a l s , a n d the a u t h e n t i c f u t u r e i s t h e r e p e t i t i o n / r e t r i e v a l of this p a s t , not of the p a s t a s it w a s , b u t of t h o s e e l e m e n t s i n t h e p a s t w h i c h the p a s t itself, i n its r e a l i t y , b e t r a y e d , stifled, f a i l e d t o r e a l i z e . It i s in t h i s s e n s e that one s h o u l d t o d a y " r e p e a t L e n i n " : c h o o s i n g L e n i n a s o n e ' s h e r o ( t o p a r a p h r a s e H e i d e g g e r ) not i n o r d e r to follow him a n d d o t h e s a m e t o d a y , but to r e p e a t / r e t r i e v e him in t h e p r e c i s e s e n s e of b r i n g i n g o u t the n o n - r e a l i z e d p o t e n t i a l s of L e n i n i s m . A n d o n e s h o u l d n o t b e a f r a i d to c o n c e i v e i n t h e s e t e r m s t h e v e r y s e n s i t i v e t o p i c of H e i d e g g e r ' s r e l a t i o n to N a z i s m . A l t h o u g h it i s t r u e that, m c o n t r a s t to " r e a l l y - e x i s t i n g s o c i a l i s m , " o n e d o e s not t a l k a b o u t " r e a l l y e x i s t i n g f a s c i s m " ( s i n c e w e d i d n o t e x p e r i e n c e " a c t u a l " f a s c i s m a s the b e t r a y a l of its i n h e r e n t e m a n c i p a t o r y p o t e n t i a l ) , t h e r e i s n o n e t h e l e s s a p h i l o s o p h e r w h o p r e c i s e l y did e n g a g e in a k i n d of c r i t i q u e of " r e a l l y e x i s t i n g N a z i s m " on b e h a l f of i t s t r u e p o t e n t i a l ( i t s " i n n e r g r e a t n e s s " ) 141

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

b e t r a y e d b y its r a c i s t - t e c h n o l o g i c a l n i h i l i s t i c r e a l i t y — n o n e o t h e r H e i d e g g e r himself, of c o u r s e . After h i s m u c h - d e b a t e d

than

disappointment

w i t h t h e r e a l i t y of t h e N a z i r e g i m e in 1 9 3 4 , H e i d e g g e r ' s effort

throughout

t h e 1 9 3 0 s w a s e f f e c t i v e l y to s a l v a g e t h i s b e t r a y e d " i n n e r g r e a t n e s s , " the world-historic potential,

of t h e N a z i m o v e m e n t — t h e r e i n

resides

the

u l t i m a t e p o l i t i c a l w a g e r of H e i d e g g e r ' s e n d l e s s v a r i a t i o n s on t h e t o p i c of H ö l d e r l i n a n d t h e fate of G e r m a n y . A c c o r d i n g to t h e m e m o i r s of a l e a d i n g m e m b e r of t h e G e r m a n

student

m o v e m e n t i n t h e l a t e 1960s,''* a d e l e g a t i o n of s t u d e n t p r o t e s t e r s v i s i t e d H e i d e g g e r in 1 9 6 8 , a n d h e p r o f e s s e d h i s full s y m p a t h y a n d s u p p o r t for t h e s t u d e n t s , c l a i m i n g t h a t t h e y w e r e d o i n g t h e n w h a t h e h a d t r i e d to d o in 1 9 3 3 a s r e c t o r in F r e i b u r g , a l t h o u g h from a different p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n . O n e s h o u l d not d i s m i s s t h i s c l a i m a s H e i d e g g e r ' s h y p o c r i t i c a l i l l u s i o n . W h a t H e i d e g g e r w a s l o o k i n g for in N a z i s m (to a v o i d a m i s u n d e r s t a n d ­ ing: not o n l y d u e to a n a c c i d e n t a l e r r o r in h i s p e r s o n a l j u d g m e n t , b u t d u e to t h e flaws of h i s t h e o r e t i c a l e d i f i c e itself) w a s a r e v o l u t i o n a r y E v e n t , so t h a t e v e n s o m e m e a s u r e s h e I m p o s e d on t h e F r e i b u r g u n i v e r s i t y d u r i n g his b r i e f t e n u r e a s its r e c t o r b e a r w i t n e s s to h i s i n t e n t i o n to e n a c t t h e r e a k i n d of " c u l t u r a l r e v o l u t i o n " ( b r i n g i n g s t u d e n t s t o g e t h e r w i t h w o r k e r s a n d s o l d i e r s — w h i c h . In itself, i s not a fascist m e a s u r e , b u t

something

M a o i s t s t r i e d to d o in t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n ) . O n e i s t h u s t e m p t e d to a p p l y to H e i d e g g e r A n d r é G i d e ' s s a r c a s t i c c o m m e n t a s r e g a r d s T h é o p h i l e G a u t i e r : in 1 9 3 3 , h e p l a y e d a c r u c i a l r o l e in G e r m a n a c a d e m i c p o l i t i c s , it Is j u s t t h a t h e w a s n o t w o r t h y of t h e r o l e .

From Heidegger to the drive A l t h o u g h H e i d e g g e r ' s a l m o s t p h o b i c o v e r s e n s i t i v i t y to m o r a l i t y c a n b e easily accounted

for

as an

implicit admission

of h i s o w n

ethically

r e p u l s i v e b e h a v i o r a n d l a c k of e l e m e n t a r y e t h i c a l a t t i t u d e s , h i s o p p o ­ n e n t s ' i n s i s t e n c e on t h e s e s a m e f e a t u r e s of H e i d e g g e r a s a p e r s o n i s a l s o false — a s if, b y d e m o n s t r a f i n g H e i d e g g e r ' s p e r s o n a l l a c k of e t h i c s , o n e c a n a v o i d the h a r d t a s k of c o n f r o n t i n g t h e i s s u e s p o s e d b y H e i d e g g e r ' s thought.

There

is nonetheless

something

disturbing

in

Heidegger's

p r o v e r b i a l a l l e r g y a g a i n s t a n y m e n t i o n of m o r a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s ; in h i s r e a d i n g of P l a t o in t h e 1951—32 s e m i n a r , h e e v e n t r i e s to p u r i f y

the

P l a t o n i c to agathon from a l l l i n k s w i t h m o r a l g o o d n e s s t h r o u g h a s k i l l f u l reference

to o n e of t h e e v e r y d a y u s e s of the e x c l a m a t i o n

"Good!":

" ' g o o d ! ' m e a n s : It w i l l b e d o n e ! It Is d e c i d e d ! It h a s n o t h i n g to d o w i t h 142

RADICAL INTELLECTUALS

t h e m e a n i n g of moral g o o d n e s s ; e t h i c s h a s r u i n e d t h e g r o u n d i n g m e a n i n g of t h i s w o r d . " O n e c a n t h u s e a s i l y i m a g i n e , at t h e c o n c l u s i o n of t h e W a h n s e e c o n f e r e n c e , H e y d r i c h e x c l a i m i n g : " G o o d ! " , u s i n g t h e t e r m in t h e " a u t h e n t i c " P l a t o n i c s e n s e ("It w i l l b e d o n e ! It is d e c i d e d ! " ) . . . T h e fact t h a t t h e r e i s a r e a l p h i l o s o p h i c a l p r o b l e m h e r e c a n b e d e m o n s t r a t e d b y a c l o s e r e a d i n g of H e i d e g g e r ' s s e m i n a r on S c h e l l i n g ' s " P h i l o s o p h i c a l E n q u i r i e s i n t o t h e N a t u r e of H u m a n F r e e d o m , " in w h i c h H e i d e g g e r h a s to a d m i t a d i m e n s i o n of r a d i c a l Evil w h i c h c a n n o t b e h i s t o r i c i z e d , t h a t i s , r e d u c e d to t h e n i h i l i s m of m o d e r n t e c h n o l o g y . It i s t h e m e r i t of B r e t D a v i s to h a v e a n a l y z e d m d e t a i l t h i s d e a d l o c k of H e i d e g g e r ' s t h o u g h t . In h i s c l o s e r e a d i n g of H e i d e g g e r , D e r r i d a t r i e d to d e m o n s t r a t e " S p i r i t " (GeLit) i s the u n d e c o n s t r u c t e d philosophical edifice;

how

s y m p t o m a l p o i n t in H e i d e g g e r ' s

B r e t D a v i s h a s d o n e t h e s a m e t h i n g for t h e n o t i o n

of t h e W i l l . ' ^ A c o n s e n s u s is g r a d u a l l y e m e r g i n g in H e i d e g g e r s t u d i e s t h a t t h e r e a r e not t w o , but, r a t h e r , t h r e e d i s t i n c t p h a s e s of h i s t h o u g h t : t h e e a r l y p h a s e of t h e djaalytxc oî Dasein (Sein und Zeit); the m i d d l e p h a s e of t h e a s s e r t i o n of h e r o i c h i s t o r i c i t y (from t h e c o n f e r e n c e " W h a t Is M e t a ­ p h y s i c s ? " to t h e m a n u s c r i p t

Vom Ereignis— the k e y t e x t p u b l i s h e d

Introduction to Metaphysics); a n d t h e l a s t p h a s e of the w i t h d r a w a l

in

from

t e c h n o l o g i c a l n i h i l i s m i n t o p o e t r y a n d t h o u g h t , u n d e r t h e s i g n of Gelas­ senheit. In h i s first p h a s e , H e i d e g g e r i g n o r e s t h e p h e n o m e n o n of t h e W i l l ; in t h e s e c o n d p h a s e , it is f o r c e f u l l y a s s e r t e d , a n d w e l l b e y o n d H e i d e g g e r ' s N a z i e n g a g e m e n t (in t h e Vom Ereignis m a n u s c r i p t , w h i c h is u s u î d l y r e a d a s t h e b e g i n n i n g of l a t e H e i d e g g e r ,

h e still s p e a k s of the

Ereignis"); i n t h e l a s t p h a s e , a s t h e r e s u l t of H e i d e g g e r ' s

"will

to

confrontation

w i t h N i e t z s c h e , t h e w i l l i s , on t h e c o n t r a r y , p o s i t e d a s t h e v e r y c o r e of modern

s u b j e c t i v i t y , a n d t h u s a s t h a t w h i c h h a s to b e o v e r c o m e

if

m a n k i n d is to l e a v e b e h i n d t h e n i h i l i s m t h a t t h r e a t e n s its v e r y e s s e n c e . Through

a detailed and perceptive analysis,

Davis shows how

this

tripartite division is not self-evident: a l t h o u g h not explicitly thematized, t h e w i l l i s not o n l y l u r k i n g in t h e b a c k g r o u n d a l r e a d y in t h e first p h a s e ; m u c h m o r e c r u c i a l l y , it p e r s i s t s to t h e e n d , m y s t e r i o u s l y p o p p i n g u p in unexpected ways. Where

I d i s a g r e e w i t h D a v i s is in h o w to i n t e r p r e t

this

strange

p e r s i s t e n c e of t h e W i l l , w h i c h c o n t i n u e s to h a u n t H e i d e g g e r e v e n w h e n Its o v e r c o m i n g b e c o m e s t h e v e r y focus of h i s t h o u g h t . U n d e r t h e c l e a r Influence of h i s i n - d e p t h k n o w l e d g e of J a p a n e s e Z e n B u d d h i s m , D a v i s r e a d s t h i s p e r s i s t e n c e as a s i g n QVGelassenheit

as. an u n f i n i s h e d p r o j e c t " : it

b a s i c a l l y i n d i c a t e s t h a t H e i d e g g e r did not s u c c e e d in t h o r o u g h l y " d e 143

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

c o n s t r u c t i n g " t h e w i l l , so t h a t it is u p to u s , w h o c o n t i n u e in h i s p a t h , to finish t h e j o b a n d d r a w all t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s from GelMjenheit.

Our wager

is, h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e p e r s i s t e n c e of t h e W i l l e v e n in t h e l a t e r H e i d e g g e r , so b r i l l i a n t l y d i s c e r n e d b y D a v i s , r a t h e r d e m o n s t r a t e s the i n s u f f i c i e n c y of H e i d e g g e r ' s c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s of m o d e r n s u b j e c t i v i t y — not i n t h e s e n s e t h a t " H e i d e g g e r d i d n ' t g o far e n o u g h , a n d t h u s r e m a i n e d h i m s e l f m a r k e d b y subjectivity," but in the sense that he o v e r l o o k e d a n o n - m e t a p h y s i c a l core of m o d e r n

s u b j e c t i v i t y itself: t h e m o s t f u n d a m e n t a l

d i m e n s i o n of t h e

a b y s s of s u b j e c t i v i t y c a n n o t b e g r a s p e d t h r o u g h t h e l e n s of t h e n o t i o n of s u b j e c t i v i t y a s t h e a t t i t u d e of t e c h n o l o g i c a l d o m i n a t i o n . it is t h e symptom

of GelaMenheit,

In o t h e r w o r d s ,

a n i n d i c a t i o n of t h e l i m i t a t i o n of t h i s

n o t i o n itself, not o n l y of o u r f a i l u r e to f u l l y d e v e l o p its potential.'"^ D a v i s proposes the distinction

b e t w e e n ( 1 ) w h a t H e i d e g g e r c a l l s " t h e w i l l " of s u b j e c t i v i t y , a f u n d a ­ m e n t a l ( d i s ) a t t u n e m e n t that h a s risen u p a n d p r e v a i l e d in a p a r t i c u l a r e p o c h a l h i s t o r y of m e t a p h y s i c s , a n d ( 2 ) w h a t w e h a v e ( i n t e r p r e t i v e l y supplementing H e i d e g g e r ) called "ur-willing," a non-historical

dis­

s o n a n t e x c e s s w h i c h h a u n t s t h e p r o p e r e s s e n c e of non-willing.*^''

H e i d e g g e r d i r e c t l y a p p r o a c h e s t h i s p o i n t in h i s r e a d i n g of a f r a g m e n t of A n a x i m a n d e r on o r d e r a n d d i s o r d e r , w h e r e h e c o n s i d e r s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y that an entity

m a y insist \he
T h a t w h i c h l i n g e r s p e r s i s t s [beharrt^

in its p r e s e n c l n g . In t h i s w a y it e x t r i c a t e s i t s e l f from its t r a n s i t o r y w h i l e . It s t r i k e s t h e w i l l u l p o s e of p e r s i s t e n c e , n o l o n g e r c o n c e r n i n g i t s e l f w i t h w h a t e v e r e l s e Is p r e s e n t . It stiffens — a s if t h i s w e r e t h e o n l y way

to l i n g e r — a n d a i m s s o l e l y for c o n t i n u a n c e a n d s u b s i s t e n c e . ^ '

D a v i s ' s t h e s i s is t h a t t h i s ' r e b e l l i o u s w h i l i n g " r e f e r s to a n o n - h i s t o r i c a l u r w i l l i n g , a w i l l i n g w h i c h i s not l i m i t e d to the e p o c h of m o d e r n s u b j e c t i v i t y a n d its w i l l t o p o w e r , b u t b e l o n g s to t h e c o r e of B e i n g itself. T h i s is a l s o why

D a v i s is right in dismissing H a n n a h

Arendt's

r e a d i n g of thLs

" c r a v i n g to p e r s i s t " w h i c h r e d u c e s it to t h e t r a d i t i o n a l t h e o l o g i c a l n o t i o n of a " w i l f u l r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t t h e ' o r d e r ' of C r e a t i o n a s s u c h "

: this ur-

w i l l i n g is not t h e e g o t i s t i c w i t h d r a w a l - I n t o - i t s e l f of a p a r t i c u l a r c r e a t u r e from t h e g l o b a l O r d e r , it is a " p e r v e r s i o n " i n s c r i b e d into t h i s O r d e r itsell; 144

RADICAL INTELLECTUALS

Is t h e r e not a p r o b l e m of " w i l h n g " t h a t i s a n i n e r a d i c a b l e a s p e c t of man's ineradicable

finitude?

W o u l d not a p r o b l e m of " w i l l i n g " — e v e n

if not t h a t of i t s s p e c i f i c h i s t o r i c a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n s / e x a c e r b a t i o n s in t h e e p o c h s of m e t a p h y s i c s — r e m a i n e v e n in t h e o t h e r b e g i n n i n g ? ^ ^ What

Heidegger

c l e a r l y s a w is w h a t

the

great

Rheinland

mystics

( E c k h a r t , B ö h m e ) a l s o s a w : t h e f o r m u l a of evil a s t h e d i s t a n c e or F a l l from d i v i n e g o o d n e s s i s not e n o u g h ; t h e q u e s t i o n to b e a s k e d i s , h o w c a n this d i s t a n c e o c c u r ? T h e o n l y c o n s i s t e n t a n s w e r i s : t h e r e h a s to b e a n " i n v e r s i o n " in G o d h i m s e l f a s t r u g g l e , d i s s o n a n c e , a l r e a d y in t h e v e r y h e a r t of t h e d i v i n e O r i g i n . In the s a m e w a y , H e i d e g g e r g r o u n d s e x c e s s of s u b j e c t i v i t y , its n i h i l i s t i c f o r g e t f u l n e s s

the

of B e i n g , in a s t r i l e /

d i s c o r d in t h e v e r y h e a r t of B e i n g . D a v i s d r a w s t h e s a m e c o n c l u s i o n from H e i d e g g e r ' s o s c i l l a t i o n s in h i s r e a d i n g of S c h e l l i n g ' s Treatuc on Freedom: r a d i c a l Evil i s m o s t b r u t a l l y e x p o s e d

not in Ûxe faœlùào defacing t e c h n o l o g y of t h e e x t e r m i n a t i o n c a m p s , b u t r a t h e r in t h e fact t h a t it i s p o s s i b l e [. . . ] for a p e r s o n to l o o k a n o t h e r p e r s o n i n t h e f a c e a n d , c l e a r l y s e n s i n g t h e w i t h d r a w a l of i n t e r i o r i t y , w i l f u l l y p u l l t h e t r i g g e r , o r p o i n t a finger i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e g a s c h a m b e r s . T h e w i c k e d n e s s of Û\\s face-lo-face defacement—dms w i c k e d w i l l to p o w e r t h a t w i l l s t h e m u r d e r of t h e O t h e r a s Other, i n o t h e r w o r d s , t h a t w i l l s to m a i n t a i n a r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e O t h e r p r e c i s e l y in o r d e r to t a k e d i a b o l i c a l p l e a s u r e in a n n i h i l a t i n g h i s o r h e r o t h e r n e s s ^—radically e x c e e d s t h e evil of t h e c a l c u l a t i n g m a c h i n a t i o n s of t e c h n o l o g y . [. . . ] T h e t h o u g h t l e s s r e d u c t i o n of t h e O t h e r to a c o g in t h e w h e e l of t e c h n o l o g i c a l m a c h i n a t i o n is not y e t the w i c k e d w i l l to p o w e r

that

m a i n t a i n s a r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e a l t e r i t y of t h e O t h e r p r e c i s e l y in o r d e r to t a k e d i a b o l i c a l p l e a s u r e in c o n q u e r i n g h e r r e s i s t a n c e a n d w i t n e s s i n g h e r p a i n . T h i s t e r r i b l e fact of evil c a n n o t b e e x p l a i n e d t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y . H e i d e g g e r ' s h i s t o r y of m e t a p h y s i c s , w h i c h p r o c e e d s to c u l m i n a t e in t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l w i l l to w i l l [. . . ] p a s s e s b y the a b y s s of t h i s w i c k e d w i l l to p o w e r . After H e i d e g g e r therefore, w e m u s t s t e p b a c k to t h i n k t h e o r i g i n a i y d i s s o n a n t e x c e s s of u r - w i l l i n g a s t h e root p o t e n t i a l , not j u s t of t h e f a c e l e s s d e f a c i n g t e c h n o l o g i c a l w i l l to w ü l , b u t a l s o of this w i c k e d face-to-face d e f a c i n g w i l l to p o w e r . M o r e o v e r , insofar a s h u m a n freed o m c o u l d not b e d e t a c h e d from a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y w i t h r e g a r d to t h i s n o n t e c h n o l o g i c a l evil w i l l to p o w e r , a limit in H e i d e g g e r ' s t h i n k i n g of evil w o u l d a l s o m a r k a l i m i t in h i s t h i n k i n g of h u m a n

freedom. 145

IN DEFENSE OF LOST CAUSES

T h i s , t h e n , i s w h e r e H e i d e g g e r w a s w r o n g in h i s i n f a m o u s i n s e r t i o n of t h e Holocaust in t h e same series a s the a g r i c u l t u r a l exploitation of nature: W h a t is "scandalously i n a d e q u a t e " here is that H e i d e g g e r ' s

thought

a p p e a r s u n a b l e to m a r k a n essential difference b e t w e e n t h e reduction of v e g e t a b l e s t o s t a n d i n g - r e s e r v e for t h e p r o d u c t i o n a n d c o n s u m p t i o n of foodstuffs a n d t h e l i n i n g u p o f p e r s o n s t o b e s y s t e m a t i c a l l y m u r dered.^^

So, w h a t about t h e c o u n t e r - a r g u m e n t in H e i d e g g e r ' s defense according to w h i c h it IS n o t H e i d e g g e r b u t m o d e r n t e c h n o l o g y ' i t s e l f w h i c h r e d u c e s v e g e t a b l e s a n d h u m a n s t o t h e s a m e l e v e l of a v a i l a b l e / d i s p o s a b l e o b j e c t s ? T h e a n s w e r i s c l e a r : H e i d e g g e r i s s i m p l y ( a n d c r u c i a l l y ) wrong i n r e d u c i n g the Holocaust to a technological production of corpses; there is, in events l i k e t h e H o l o c a u s t , a c r u c i a l e l e m e n t o f the w i l l t o h u m i l i a t e a n d h u r t t h e o t h e r . T h e v i c t i m i s t r e a t e d a s a n o b j e c t in a r e f l e x i v e w a y , i n o r d e r to h u m i l i a t e h i m further, vegetable, where

in clear contrast to t h e industrially

this intention

t o h u r t i s a b s e n t — in

produced

industrialized

a g r i c u l t u r e , a v e g e t a b l e s i m p l y u r e d u c e d to a n o b j e c t of t e c h n o l o g i c a l manipulation. T h i s i s a l s o w h y t h e notion of t r a u m a h a s n o p l a c e i n h i s u n i v e r s e : d o e s , in H e i d e g g e r i a n t e r m s , t h e c o n c e p t o f t r a u m a , of a t r a u m a t i c

encounter,

not d e s i g n a t e p r e c i s e l y t h e u n t h i n k a b l e p o i n t a t w h i c h a n ontic i n t r u s i o n g e t s so e x c e s s i v e l y p o w e r f u l t h a t it s h a t t e r s t h e v e r y o n t o l o g i c a l h o r i z o n w h i c h p r o v i d e s t h e c o o r d i n a t e s w i t h i n w h i c h r e a l i t y i s d i s c l o s e d to u s ? T h i s i s w h y a t r a u m a t i c e n c o u n t e r e n t a i l s a " l o s s of r e a l i t y " w h i c h h a s t o b e u n d e r s t o o d i n t h e s t r o n g p h i l o s o p h i c a l s e n s e o f t h e loss of o n t o l o g i c a l h o r i z o n — i n t r a u m a , w e a r e m o m e n t a r i l y e x p o s e d t o t h e " r a w " ontic thing not y e t covered/screened

b y the ontological horizon.

T h i s , of

course, is w h a t happens w h e n w e witness something like the Holocaust: t h e e c l i p s e of t h e W o r l d itself. O n e h a s t o t a k e t h i s s t a t e m e n t a t its m o s t l i t e r a l : a n a c t of t h o r o u g h Evil t h r e a t e n s t h e v e r y W o r l d - d i s c l o s u r e . D a v i s ' s s o l u t i o n — t o " c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h [. . . ] b e t w e e n t h e o n t o l o g i c a l necessity of e r r a n c y a n d t h e inordinate e x c e s s of 'letting oneself b e l e d a s t r a y ' " " — comes d a n g e r o u s l y close to the all-too-simple between

distinction

t h e o n t o l o g i c a l l y n e c e s s a r y " n o r m a l " l e v e l o f Evil a n d t h e

ontic " e x c e s s " o v e r t h i s " n o r m a l " l e v e l ( s o m e t h i n g a k i n t o o l d H e r b e r t M a r c u s e s distinction between " n e c e s s a r y " libidinal repression a n d the u n n e c e s s a r y excessive repression). The problem w i t h this solution is that 146

RADICAL INTELLECTUALS

it d o u b l y m i s s e s t h e p o i n t . F i r s t , it o b v i o u s l y m i s s e s H e i d e g g e r ' s p o i n t , w h i c h i s , to t h e c o n t r a r y , t h a t t h e t r u e e x c e s s is t h e o n t o l o g i c a l " e v i l " of t e c h n o l o g i c a l n i h i l i s m — c o m p a r e d w i t h it, " o n t i c " e x c e s s e s a r e a m i n o r m i s h a p , so t h a t o n e m i g h t e v e n r i s k a t a s t e l e s s H e i d e g g e r i a n p a r a p h r a s e of B r e c h t : " W h a t i s t h e s l a u g h t e r of t h o u s a n d s of e n e m i e s c o m p a r e d to t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l r e d u c t i o n of m a n h i m s e l f to a n o b j e c t of t e c h n o l o g i c a l m a n i p u l a t i o n ? " S e c o n d , it m i s s e s a d i m e n s i o n i s o l a t e d a l r e a d y b y t h e G e r m a n m y s t i c s from E c k h a r t o n w a r d s : t h e v e r y n o n - h i s t o r i c a l " e x c e s ­ s i v e " b a s i c h u m a n evil ( t h e i n t e n t i o n to h u r t a n d h u m i l i a t e t h e o t h e r ) is not a s i m p l e falling-off from m a n ' s o n t o l o g i c a l e s s e n c e , b u t h a s to b e g r o u n d e d in t h i s o n t o l o g i c a l e s s e n c e . T w o f u r t h e r ( i n t e r c o n n e c t e d ) q u e s t i o n s a r e to b e r a i s e d h e r e . T h e first one, n a i v e b u t n e c e s s a r y : d o e s t h i s not u l t i m a t e l y a b s o l v e m a n

from

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for c o n c r e t e Evil, w h e n E v i l i s g r o u n d e d in the c o n v o l u ­ t i o n s of B e i n g itself? In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e q u e s t i o n i s " w h e t h e r H e i d e g g e r , in a s c r i b i n g t h e o r i g i n of e v i l to a n e g a t i v i t y in b e i n g itself, i m p l i c i t l y j u s t i f i e s evil a s a n o n t o l o g i o c a l l y n e c e s s i t a t e d e r r a n c y . "

The

second,

m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l - o n t o l o g i c a l : i s t h i s strife in the h e a r t of B e i n g p a r t of its H a r m o n y itself, i n t h e s e n s e t h a t b e i n g i s t h e v e r y h i d d e n c o n c o r d of t h e s t r u g g l i n g p o l e s , or i s it a m o r e r a d i c a l d i s c o r d , s o m e t h i n g

which

d e r a i l s t h e v e r y H a r m o n y of B e i n g ? Or, a s D a v i s p u t s it: " I s b e i n g a f u g u e i n t o w h i c h all d i s s o n a n c e i s in t h e e n d n e c e s s a r r l y h a r m o n i z e d ?

Or

d o e s e v i l h a u n t t h e gift of b e i n g a s its n o n - s u b l a t a b l e d i s s o n a n t e x c e s s ? "^^ H o w e v e r , a g a i n s t D a v i s ' s c l a i m t h a t t h e first o p t i o n " p u l l s H e i d e g g e r ' s t h o u g h t b a c k t o w a r d s t h e s y s t e m a t i c i t y of i d e a l i s m , " t h a t it i s , on t h e c o n t r a r y , p r e - m o d e r n

one should insist

(pre-ideahst) "paganism" whose

u l t i m a t e h o r i z o n i s t h e h i g h e r H a r m o n y of t h e s t r u g g l i n g forces, a n d t h a t "subjectivity," at its most fundamental, d e s i g n a t e s p r e c i s e l y a "dissonant e x c e s s " w h i c h c a n n o t b e c o - o p t e d i n t o a h i g h e r H a r m o n y of the s u b ­ s t a n t i a l o r d e r of B e i n g . T o a n s w e r t h e s e q u e s t i o n s , it i s not e n o u g h to t h i n k " w i t h H e i d e g g e r a g a i n s t H e i d e g g e r , " t h a t i s , to p u s h t h e " u n f i n i s h e d H e i d e g g e r p r o j e c t " to Its e n d . In o t h e r w o r d s , i m m a n e n t c r i t i q u e i s not e n o u g h h e r e ; o n e h a s to a b a n d o n H e i d e g g e r ' s b a s i c p r e m i s e of a d i a b o l i c a l i n v e r s i o n of t h e " f u g u e of b e i n g " . L e t u s g o b a c k to H e i d e g g e r ' s r e a d i n g of A n a x i m a n d e r . F o r a n y o n e m i n i m a l l y v e r s e d in F r e u d a n d L a c a n , H e i d e g g e r ' s r e a d i n g of Anaximander's

"disorder"

cannot

but

e v o k e the

Freudian

àrive: h i s

f o r m u l a t i o n r e n d e r s p e r f e c t l y t h e " s t u c k n e s s , " t h e f i x a t i o n , of t h e d r i v e on a c e r t a i n i m p o s s i b l e p o i n t a r o u n d

w h i c h it c i r c u l a t e s , o b e y i n g

a 147

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

" c o m p u l s i o n to r e p e a t . " A t its m o s t e l e m e n t a r y , t h e d r i v e is a " r e b e l l i o u s w h i l i n g " w h i c h d e r a i l s t h e " n a t u r a l " flow. S o , w h a t if t h e r e is dtricto

seiuti

no w o r l d , no d i s c l o s u r e of b e i n g , p r i o r to t h i s " s t u c k n e s s " ? W h a t if t h e r e is n o Gelcudenheit w h i c h i s d i s t u r b e d b y t h e e x c e s s of w i l l i n g , w h a t if it is t h i s v e r y e x c e s s - s t u c k n e s s w h i c h o p e n s u p t h e s p a c e for GeUudenheit'l W h a t if it i s o n l y a g a i n s t t h e b a c k g r o u n d of t h i s s t u c k n e s s t h a t a h u m a n b e i n g c a n e x p e r i e n c e h i m - o r h e r s e l f a s f i n i t e / m o r t a l , in c o n t r a s t to a n animal w h i c h s i m p l y is m o r t a l ? T h e p r i m o r d i a l fact is t h u s not t h e f u g u e of b e i n g ( o r t h e i n n e r p e a c e of Geiasdenheit), w h i c h c a n t h e n b e d i s t u r b e d / p e r v e r t e d b y t h e r i s e of u r w i l l i n g ; t h e p r i m o r d i a l fact i s t h i s u r - w i l l i n g itself, i t s d i s t u r b a n c e of the " n a t u r a l " f u g u e . T o p u t it in y e t a n o t h e r w a y : in o r d e r for a h u m a n b e i n g to b e a b l e to w i t h d r a w from i m m e r s i o n in t h e e v e r y d a y w o r l d to t h e i n n e r p e a c e of Gelasdenheit, t h i s i m m e r s i o n h a s first to b e b r o k e n

by

the

e x c e s s i v e " s t u c k n e s s " of t h e d r i v e . T w o further

c o n s e q u e n c e s s h o u l d b e d r a w n from

t h i s . First,

that

h u m a n finitude strictly e q u a l s infinity: the obscene "immortallty"/infinity of t h e d r i v e w h i c h i n s i s t s " b e y o n d life a n d d e a t h . " S e c o n d : t h e n a m e of t h i s d i a b o l i c a l e x c e s s of w i l l i n g w h i c h " p e r v e r t s " t h e o r d e r of b e i n g is the s u b j e c t . T h e s u b j e c t t h u s c a n n o t b e r e d u c e d to a n e p o c h of B e i n g , to m o d e r n s u b j e c t i v i t y b e n t on t e c h n o l o g i c a l d o m i n a t i o n — t h e r e i s , u n d e r ­ l y i n g it, a " n o n - h i s t o r i c a l " s u b j e c t .

Heidegtjer'd "divine violence" Tf t h e r e i s a p r o p o s i t i o n a g a i n s t w h i c h o u r e n t i r e r e a d i n g i s a i m e d , it is t h e notion that " f i e i d e g g e r a b a n d o n e d his romantic infatuation w i t h strug­ g l e , a n d m y t h i c a l p o l i t i c a l d e e d s a n d s a c r i f i c e s in favor of a m o r e g e n t l e a n d r e c e p t i v e form divinities."

of o p e n n e s s to t h e e a r t h a n d s k y , m o r t a l s

and

A s u b t i t l e to t h e p r e s e n t c h a p t e r c o u l d w e l l h a v e b e e n :

" B e w a r e of G e n t l e

Openness!"

W h a t t h i s m e a n s w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e t h r e e p h a s e s of H e i d e g g e r ' s t h o u g h t is that there

Is a p o t e n t i a l

breakthrough

towards

another

d i m e n s i o n in p h a s e 2, w h i c h g e t s lost in p h a s e 3: w h e r e H e i d e g g e r e r r e d m o s t ( h i s N a z i e n g a g e m e n t ) , h e c a m e c l o s e s t to t r u t h . F a r from r e s o l v i n g t h e i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s of p h a s e 2, p h a s e 3 p r o p o s e s a n e w p a r a d i g m w h i c h r e n d e r s t h e m i n v i s i b l e . In c o n t r a s t to t h i s a s s e r t i o n of t h e l a t e , g r e e n Geloddenheit H e i d e g g e r , o n e s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e e x p l o r e for n e w o p e n i n g s t h e v e r y H e i d e g g e r of v i o l e n c e , p o l i t i c a l d e e d s , a n d s a c r i f i c e s . A t t h e l e v e l 148

RADICAL INTELLECTUALS

of t e x t u a l a n a l y s i s , G r e g o r y F r i e d ^ ' h a s a l r e a d y d o n e a lot of s p a d e w o r k In h i s d e e p a n d p e r t i n e n t r e a d i n g of H e i d e g g e r ' s e n t i r e o p u s t h r o u g h t h e i n t e r p r e t i v e l e n s of h i s r e f e r e n c e t o H e r a c l i t u s ' s poienws ( s t r u g g l e — i n G e r m a n , Krieg, Kampf, or, p r e d o m i n a n t l y i n H e i d e g g e r , Aujeinanderdetxung) from t h e l a t t e r ' s f a m o u s F r a g m e n t 5 3 : " W a r i s b o t h f a t h e r of a l l a n d k i n g of all: it r e v e a l s t h e g o d s o n t h e o n e h a n d a n d h u m a n s o n t h e o t h e r , m a k e s s l a v e s o n t h e o n e h a n d , t h e free o n t h e o t h e r . "^^ A s e v e r y i n t e r p r e t e r of H e r a c l i t u s k n o w s , t h i s f r a g m e n t i s t o b e r e a d a s t h e i n v e r s i o n of t h e r e l i g i o u s v i s i o n of t h e u n i v e r s e a s g e n e r a t e d a n d r u l e d b y a d i v i n e p o t e n c y : for s o m e o n e l i k e H e s i o d , G o d ( Z e u s ) " t h e f a t h e r a n d k i n g o f a l l i s " ! If w e r e p l a c e Z e u s w i t h s t r u g g l e ( w a r ) , w e g e t a t o t a l l y different o v e r a l l m a p of t h e u n i v e r s e : n o t a h i e r a r c h i c a l w h o l e w h o s e l o c a l t e n s i o n s a n d s t r u g g l e s a r e c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e p a t e r n a l force of t h e o v e r ­ w h e l m i n g d i v i n e O n e , b u t t h e o n g o i n g p r o c e s s of s t r u g g l e i t s e l f a s t h e u l t i m a t e r e a l i t y , a s t h e p r o c e s s o u t of w h i c h all e n t i t i e s a s w e l l a s t h e i r ( t e m p o r a r y ) o r d e r e m e r g e . It i s n o t o n l y t h a t e a c h s t a b l e i d e n t i t y of e a c h entity is only temporary, that they all sooner or later disappear, disin­ tegrate, return to t h e primordial chaos; their ( t e m p o r a r y ) identity itself emerges through s t m g g l e , that is, stable identity is something one should g a i n t h r o u g h t h e o r d e a l of s t r u g g l e , o n e a s s e r t s i n c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h t h e other(s) . . . P e r h a p s this s o u n d s familiar? O n e can insist that it does — w h e n H e i d e g g e r , i n h i s r e a d i n g of t h e f r a g m e n t , i n s i s t s o n h o w t h e " s t r u g g l e m e a n t h e r e i s o r i g i n a r y s t r u g g l e , for it a l l o w s t h o s e w h o s t r u g g l e to o r i g i n a t e a s s u c h i n t h e first p l a c e , "^^ d o w e n o t h a v e h e r e n o t so m u c h t h e u s u a l Heidegger avec Hitler, b u t , r a t h e r , t h e u n e x p e c t e d Heidegger avec Staline! F o r S t a l i n a l s o , n a t u r e a n d h i s t o r y a r e a g r e a t o n g o i n g p r o c e s s of eternal "struggle between t h e opposites":

C o n t r a r y to metaphysics, dialectics holds that internal contradictions a r e i n h e r e n t i n a l l t h i n g s a n d p h e n o m e n a o f n a t u r e , for t h e y a l l h a v e t h e i r n e g a t i v e a n d p o s i t i v e s i d e s , a p a s t a n d a future, s o m e t h i n g d y i n g a w a y a n d something developing; a n d that the struggle between these opposites, t h e struggle between t h e old a n d t h e n e w , b e t w e e n that w h i c h is d y i n g a w a y a n d that w h i c h is being born, between that w h i c h is d i s a p p e a r i n g a n d t h a t w h i c h i s d e v e l o p i n g , c o n s t i t u t e s t h e i n t e r n a l c o n t e n t of t h e p r o c e s s of d e v e l o p m e n t , t h e i n t e r n a l c o n t e n t of t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of q u a n t i t a t i v e c h a n g e s i n t o q u a l i t a t i v e c h a n g e s . The dialectical method therefore holds that t h e process of devel­ o p m e n t from t h e l o w e r t o t h e h i g h e r t a k e s p l a c e n o t a s a h a r m o n i o u s 149

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

u n f o l d i n g of p h e n o m e n a , b u t a s a d i s c l o s u r e of t h e

contradictions

i n h e r e n t in t h i n g s a n d p h e n o m e n a , a s a " s t r u g g l e " of o p p o s i t e

ten­

d e n c i e s w h i c h o p e r a t e on t h e b a s i s of t h e s e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . ^ ^ E v e n t h e " c l a s s s t r u g g l e " is a l r e a d y t h e r e in H e r a c l i t u s , in t h e g u i s e of t h e s t r u g g l e w h i c h " m a k e s s l a v e s on t h e o n e h a n d , t h e free on t h e o t h e r " . . . A c c o r d i n g to s o m e s o u r c e s , o n e of H e i d e g g e r ' s v i s i t o r s i n t h e l a s t y e a r s of W o r l d W a r II w a s s u r p r i s e d to s e e on d e s k s o m e b o o k s on M a r x i s t p h i l o s o p h y ; h e r e p l i e d that, s i n c e t h e S o v i e t U n i o n w a s g o i n g to w i n t h e w a r , h e w a s g e t t i n g r e a d y to p l a y h i s r o l e in a n e w s o c i e t y . . . A p o c r y p h a l or not, w e c a n s e e t h e i n n e r l o g i c of t h i s a n e c d o t e , w h i c h r e s i d e s in t h e u n e x p e c t e d reverberation b e t w e e n the highest a n d the lowest, the terse p o e t i c b e a u t y a n d p r e c i s i o n of H e r a c l i t u s ' s a n c i e n t w i s d o m , a n d

the

s i m p l e b r u t a l i t y of S t a l i n ' s d i a l e c t i c a l - m a t e r i a l i s t " w o r l d - v i e w . " T h e o t h e r k e y G r e e k p a s s a g e on v i o l e n c e to w h i c h H e i d e g g e r r e p e a t ­ e d l y r e t u r n s is the famous

Chorus

from Antigone on t h e

"uncanny/

d e m o n i c " c h a r a c t e r of m a n . In h i s r e a d i n g of t h i s c h o r u s in t h e Introduc­ tion to Metaphyöwö, H e i d e g g e r d e p l o y s t h e notion of " o n t o l o g i c a l " v i o l e n c e t h a t p e r t a i n s to e v e r y f o u n d i n g g e s t u r e of t h e n e w c o m m u n a l W o r l d of a people, accomplished b y poets, thinkers, a n d statesmen:

V i o l e n c e i s u s u a l l y s e e n in t e r m s of t h e d o m a i n in w h i c h c o n c u r r i n g c o m p r o m i s e a n d m u t u a l a s s i s t a n c e set t h e s t a n d a r d for D a s e i n , a n d a c c o r d i n g l y all violence is n e c e s s a r i l y d e e m e d only a d i s t u r b a n c e a n d a n offense. [. . . ] T h e v i o l e n t one, t h e c r e a t i v e o n e w h o sets forth i n t o the unsaid, w h o b r e a k s into the unthought, w h o compels w h a t has n e v e r h a p p e n e d a n d m a k e s a p p e a r w h a t i s unseen—^this v i o l e n t o n e s t a n d s a t a l l t i m e s in d a r i n g . [. . . ] T h e r e f o r e t h e v i o l e n c e - d o e r k n o w s no k i n d n e s s a n d c o n c i l i a t i o n (in t h e o r d i n a r y s e n s e ) , n o a p p e a s e m e n t and mollification b y success or prestige a n d b y their

confirmation.

[. . . ] F o r s u c h a one, d i s a s t e r i s t h e d e e p e s t a n d b r o a d e s t Y e s to t h e O v e r w h e l m i n g . [. . . ] E s s e n t i a l d e - c i s i o n , w h e n it is c a r r i e d o u t a n d w h e n it r e s i s t s t h e c o n s t a n t l y p r e s s i n g e n s n a r e m e n t in t h e e v e r y d a y a n d t h e c u s t o m a r y , h a s to u s e v i o l e n c e . T h i s a c t of v i o l e n c e , t h i s d e ­ c i d e d s e t t i n g o u t u p o n the w a y to t h e B e i n g of b e i n g s , m o v e s h u m a n i t y o u t of t h e h o m i n e s s of w h a t is m o s t d i r e c t l y n e a r b y a n d w h a t i s u s u a l .

A s s u c h , t h e C r e a t o r i s "hupsipolLi apolLi" {Antigone, l i n e 3 7 0 ) : h e s t a n d s o u t s i d e a n d a b o v e poLu) a n d its ethod, h e i s u n b o u n d b y a n y r u l e s of ISO

RADICAL INTELLECTUALS

" m o r a l i t y " ( w h i c h a r e o n l y a d e g e n e r a t i v e form oîethoii); o n l y a s s u c h c a n h e g r o u n d a n e w form of ethos, of c o m m u n a l B e i n g in a poib . . . — o f c o u r s e , w h a t r e v e r b e r a t e s h e r e i s t h e t o p i c of a n " i l l e g a l " v i o l e n c e t h a t f o u n d s t h e r u l e of t h e l a w itself, d e p l o y e d a t t h e s a m e t i m e in different f o r m s b y W a l t e r B e n j a m i n a n d C a r l S c h m i t t . ^ ^ W h a t a c c o u n t s for t h e c h i l l i n g c h a r a c t e r of t h e s e p a s s a g e s i s t h a t , h e r e , f i e i d e g g e r d o e s m e r e l y p r o v i d e a n e w v a r i a t i o n on h i s s t a n d a r d r h e t o r i c a l

figure

not of

i n v e r s i o n ( " T h e e s s e n c e of v i o l e n c e h a s n o t h i n g to d o w i t h o n t i c v i o l e n c e , suffering, w a r , d e s t r u c t i o n , etc.; t h e e s s e n c e of v i o l e n c e r e s i d e s in t h e v i o l e n t c h a r a c t e r of t h e v e r y i m p o s i t i o n / f o u n d i n g of t h e n e w m o d e of t h e E s s e n c e — d i s c l o s u r e of c o m m u n a l B e i n g — i t s e l f " ) ; h e r e , H e i d e g g e r ( i m ­ plicitly, but

clearly) reads this essential violence as something

that

g r o u n d s — o r , a t l e a s t , o p e n s u p t h e s p a c e f o r — t h e e x p l o s i o n s of o n t i c v i o l e n c e t h e m s e l v e s . . . L i b e r a l c r i t i c s of H e i d e g g e r l i k e to d w e l l on t h e s e Unes, e m p h a s i z i n g h o w ,

in s u s p e n d i n g

even minimal moral

criteria,

H e i d e g g e r l e g i t i m i z e s the m o s t b r u t a l " o n t i c " v i o l e n c e of the s t a t e s ­ m a n - c r e a t o r , a n d t h u s p a v e s t h e w a y for h i s o w n N a z i e n g a g e m e n t a n d s u p p o r t for H i t l e r a s s u c h a s t a t e s m a n - c r e a t o r w h o , s t a n d i n g o u t s i d e a n d a b o v e t h e c o m m u n a l s p a c e of t h e m o r i b u n d W e i m a r R e p u b l i c , f e a r l e s s l y shattered its coordinates and thus violently g r o u n d e d a n e w c o m m u n a l B e i n g , t h a t of t h e

Germany

reawakened

in t h e

National

Socialist

revolution . . . H o w e v e r , w h a t o n e i s t e m p t e d to a d d h e r e i s that, in t h e c a s e of N a z i s m ( a n d f a s c i s m in g e n e r a l ) , t h e

c o n s t e l l a t i o n of v i o l e n c e is r a t h e r

the

o p p o s i t e : c r a z y , t a s t e l e s s e v e n , a s it m a y s o u n d , t h e p r o b l e m w i t h H i t l e r W a s t h a t he was not violent enough, t h a t h i s v i o l e n c e w a s not " e s s e n t i a l " e n o u g h . N a z i s m w a s not r a d i c a l e n o u g h , it d i d not d a r e to d i s t u r b t h e b a s i c s t r u c t u r e of t h e m o d e r n c a p i t a l i s t s o c i a l s p a c e ( w h i c h i s w h y it h a d to focus on d e s t r o 3 à n g a n i n v e n t e d e x t e r n a l e n e m y , J e w s ) . This is w h y one should oppose the fascination w i t h Hitler w h i c h c l a i m s that, of c o u r s e , h e w a s a n evil m a n , r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e d e a t h of m i l l i o n s — but that he definitely had courage, that he pursued w h a t he w a n t e d w i t h a n i r o n w i l l . . . T h e p o i n t i s t h a t t h i s i s not o n l y e t h i c a l l y r e p u l s i v e , b u t s i m p l y wrong: no. H i t l e r d i d ru)t " h a v e t h e c o u r a g e " to r e a l l y c h a n g e t h i n g s ; h e d i d not r e a l l y act, a l l h i s a c t i o n s w e r e f u n d a m e n t a l l y

restions,

t h a t i s , h e a c t e d so t h a t n o t h i n g w o u l d r e a l l y c h a n g e , h e s t a g e d a g r e a t s p e c t a c l e of R e v o l u t i o n so t h a t t h e c a p i t a l i s t o r d e r c o u l d s u r v i v e . If o n e r e a l l y w a n t s to c o m e u p w i t h a n a c t w h i c h w a s t r u l y d a r i n g , for w h i c h o n e t r u l y h a d to " h a v e t h e c o u r a g e " to t r y t h e i m p o s s i b l e , b u t w h i c h w a s 151

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a horrific act, an act w h i c h c a u s e d suffering comprehension,

beyond

o n e c o u l d n o m i n a t e S t a l i n ' s f o r c e d c o l l e c t i v i z a t i o n at

t h e e n d of 1 9 2 0 s i n t h e S o v i e t Union—^but e v e n h e r e , t h e s a m e r e p r o a c h h o l d s : t h e p a r a d o x of t h e 1 9 2 8 " S t a l i n i s t r e v o l u t i o n " w a s r a t h e r t h a t , in all its b r u t a l r a d i c a l i t y , it

not radical enough in e f f e c t i v e l y t r a n s f o r m i n g the

s o c i a l s u b s t a n c e . Its b r u t a l d e s t r u c t i v e n e s s h a s t o b e r e a d a s a n i m p o t e n t pockiage à l'acte.

F a r from

s i m p l y s t a n d i n g for a t o t a l f o r c i n g

of the

u n n a m a b l e R e a l on b e h a l f of t h e T r u t h , S t a l i n i s t " t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m " r a t h e r d e s i g n a t e s t h e a t t i t u d e of a b s o l u t e l y r u t h l e s s " p r a g m a t i s m , " of m a n i p ­ u l a t i n g a n d s a c r i f i c i n g a l l " p r i n c i p l e s " o n b e h a l f of m a i n t a i n i n g p o w e r . F r o m t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e i r o n y of H i t l e r w a s t h a t h i s g r a n d g e s t u r e s of d e s p i s i n g b o u r g e o i s s e l f - c o m p l a c e n c y a n d so on w e r e u l t i m a t e l y in t h e s e r v i c e of e n a b l i n g t h i s c o m p l a c e n c y t o c o n t i n u e : far from

effec­

t i v e l y d i s t u r b i n g t h e m u c h d i s p a r a g e d " d e c a d e n t " b o u r g e o i s o r d e r , far from a w a k e n i n g t h e G e r m a n s from i m m e r s i o n in its d e g e n e r a c y , N a z ­ i s m w a s a d r e a m w h i c h e n a b l e d t h e m t o c o n t i n u e w a l l o w i n g in it a n d to p o s t p o n e an a w a k e n i n g — G e r m a n y r e a l l y a w a k e n e d o n l y in the defeat of 1 9 4 5 . T h e w o r r y t h a t B a d i o u ' s n o t i o n of " c o u r a g e " ( w h i c h o n e n e e d s in o r d e r to p r a c t i c e t h e

fidelity

t o t h e E v e n t ) r a i s e s in l i b e r a l m i n d s i s :

b u t h o w a r e w e to d i s t i n g u i s h " g o o d " ( p r o p e r l y e v e n t a l ) c o u r a g e from " b a d " courage — say, w e r e the Nazis w h o defended Berlin m the winter of 1 9 4 4 ^ 5 o r t h e M u s l i m t e r r o r i s t s w h o b l o w t h e m s e l v e s u p w h e n t h e v p e r f o r m s u i c i d a l a t t a c k s a l s o not t r u l y c o u r a g e o u s ? O n e s h o u l d n o n e ­ theless insist that there is no " b a d c o u r a g e " : b a d c o u r a g e is a l w a y s a form of c o w a r d i c e . T h e " c o u r a g e " of t h e N a z i s w a s s u s t a i n e d b y t h e i r c o w a r d i c e c o n c e r n i n g a t t a c k i n g t h e k e y f e a t u r e of t h e i r s o c i e t y , t h e c a p i t a l i s t r e l a t i o n s of p r o d u c t i o n ; t h e " c o u r a g e " of t h e t e r r o r i s t s r e l i e s o n t h e " b i g O t h e r " w h o s e i n s t r u m e n t s t h e y p e r c e i v e t h e m s e l v e s to b e . The

true

courage

of a n

act

is a l w a y s

the

courage

to a c c e p t

the

i n e x i s t e n c e of t h e b i g O t h e r , t h a t i s , to a t t a c k t h e e x i s t i n g o r d e r at t h e p o i n t of its s y m p t o m a l k n o t . B a c k o n c e m o r e to H e i d e g g e r : w h a t t h i s m e a n s is t h a t H i t l e r ' s v i o l e n c e , e v e n a t its m o s t t e r r i f y i n g ( t h e m u r d e r of m i l l i o n s of J e w s ) , w a s all too " o n t i c , " t h a t i s , it too w a s a n i m p o t e n t pa^uage ci l'acte t h a t r e v e a l e d the i n a b i l i t y of t h e N a z i m o v e m e n t t o b e r e a l l y "apolu,"

to

question-con­

front—shatter t h e b a s i c c o o r d i n a t e s of b o u r g e o i s c o m m u n a l b e i n g . A n d w h a t if H e i d e g g e r ' s o w n N a z i e n g a g e m e n t i s a l s o to b e r e a d a s a paMage à l'acte: a v i o l e n t o u t b u r s t t h a t b e a r s w i t n e s s to H e i d e g g e r ' s i n a b i l i t y to r e s o l v e t h e t h e o r e t i c a l d e a d l o c k h e f o u n d h i m s e l f i n ? T h e q u e s t i o n of h o w 152

RADICAL INTELLECTUALS

H e i d e g g e r ' s N a z i c o m m i t m e n t r e l a t e s to h i s p h i l o s o p h y s h o u l d t h u s b e r e c a s t : it is no l o n g e r a q u e s t i o n of adequat'w ( c o r r e s p o n d e n c e )

between

H e i d e g g e r ' s t h o u g h t a n d h i s p o l i t i c a l a c t s , b u t of a n i n h e r e n t t h e o r e t i c a l d e a d l o c k ( w h i c h , in itself, h a s n o t h i n g to d o w i t h N a z i s m ) , a n d

the

v i o l e n t passage a s t h e o n l y w a y of e s c a p i n g it. This is h o w one should also reframe the old d i l e m m a . W h i c h w a s m the b e g i n n i n g t h e W o r d o r t h e A c t ? L o g i c a l l y , it all b e g a n w i t h t h e W o r d ; t h e A c t t h a t f o l l o w e d w a s a flailing o u t b u r s t t h a t b o r e w i t n e s s to t h e d e a d l o c k o f t h e W o r d . A n d t h e s a m e g o e s for t h e Act par excellence, t h e d i v i n e a c t of C r e a t i o n : it a l s o s i g n a l s t h e i m p a s s e of G o d ' s r a t i o c i n a t i o n s . In short, h e r e t o o , t h e n e g a t i v e a s p e c t of o n t o l o g i c a l p r o o f h o l d s : t h e fact t h a t c r e a t e d t h e w o r l d d o e s not d i s p l a y H i s o m n i p o t e n c e

God

a n d e x c e s s of

goodness, but rather His debilitating limitations.

153

LESSONS FROM THE PAST

4

Revolutionary Terror from Robespierre to Mao

"What do you want?" In h i s LoglquM ded mondes, A l a i n B a d i o u ^ e l a b o r a t e s t h e e t e r n a l I d e a of t h e p o h t i c s of r e v o l u t i o n a r y j u s t i c e at w o r k from t h e a n c i e n t C h i n e s e " l e g i s t s " t h r o u g h t h e J a c o b i n s to L e n i n a n d M a o . It c o n s i s t s of four moments:

voluntar'uitn ( t h e

belief that

one

can

"move

mountains,"

i g n o r i n g " o b j e c t i v e " l a w s a n d o b s t a c l e s ) ; terror ( a r u t h l e s s w i l l to c r u s h the

enemy

of

imposition, w i t h

the

p e o p l e ) ; egalitarian

no u n d e r s t a n d i n g

jiutice

(its i m m e d i a t e

brutal

for t h e " c o m p l e x c i r c u m s t a n c e s '

w h i c h a l l e g e d l y c o m p e l u s to p r o c e e d g r a d u a l l y ) ; a n d , l a s t b u t not l e a s t , truàt in the people—svS£\ce it to r e c a l l t w o e x a m p l e s h e r e ,

Robespierre

himself, h i s " a g r e a t t r u t h " ( " t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of p o p u l a r g o v e r n m e n t i s to b e trustful t o w a r d s t h e p e o p l e a n d s e v e r e t o w a r d s i t s e l f " ) , a n d M a o ' s c r i t i q u e of S t a l i n ' s Economic Probleme of Socialism in the USSR, w h e r e h e q u a l i f i e s S t a l i n ' s p o i n t of v i e w a s " a l m o s t a l t o g e t h e r w r o n g . T h e b a s i c e r r o r i s m i s t r u s t of t h e p e a s a n t s " . ^ In m o d e r n

European

h i s t o r y , t h e first to fully e n a c t t h e p o l i t i c s of

r e v o l u t i o n a r y j u s t i c e w e r e t h e J a c o b i n s in t h e c o u r s e of t h e

French

Revolution.^ W h e n , in 1953, Z h o u Enlai, the Chinese P r i m e M i n i s t e r , w a s in G e n e v a for t h e p e a c e n e g o t i a t i o n s to e n d t h e K o r e a n w a r , a F r e n c h journalist asked him w h a t he thought about the French Revolution; Zhou r e p l i e d : "It i s still too e a r l y to t e l l . " In a w a y , h e w a s r i g h t : w i t h t h e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e " p e o p l e ' s d e m o c r a c i e s " in t h e l a t e 1 9 9 0 s , t h e s t r u g g l e for t h e h i s t o r i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n flared u p a g a i n . T h e l i b e r a l r e v i s i o n i s t s t r i e d to i m p o s e t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h e d e m i s e of C o m m u n i s m i n 1 9 8 9 o c c u r r e d at e x a c t l y t h e r i g h t m o m e n t : it m a r k e d t h e e n d of t h e e r a w h i c h b e g a n in 1 7 8 9 , t h e

final

f a i l u r e of t h e

statist-

r e v o l u t i o n a r y m o d e l w h i c h first e n t e r e d t h e s c e n e w i t h t h e J a c o b i n s . N o w h e r e i s t h e d i c t u m " e v e r y h i s t o r y i s a h i s t o r y of t h e p r e s e n t " m o r e t r u e t h a n in t h e c a s e of t h e F r e n c h

R e v o l u t i o n : its h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l 157

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

r e c e p t i o n h a s a l w a y s c l o s e l y m i r r o r e d t h e t w i s t s a n d t u r n s of p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e s . T h e i d e n t i f y i n g m a r k of a l l k i n d s of c o n s e r v a t i v e s i s its flat rejection: the

French

Revolution

w a s a catastrophe

from

the

very

b e g i n n i n g , t h e p r o d u c t of t h e g o d l e s s m o d e r n m i n d , it i s to b e I n t e r p r e t e d a s G o d ' s p u n i s h m e n t for h u m a n i t y ' s w i c k e d w a y s , so its t r a c e s s h o u l d b e effaced

as thoroughly

as possible. The

typical liberal attitude

is a

d i f f e r e n t i a t e d o n e : its f o r m u l a i s " 1 7 8 9 w i t h o u t 1 7 9 3 . " In short, w h a t the sensitive liberals w a n t is a decaffeinated revolution, or a revolution w h i c h d o e s not s m e l l of a r e v o l u t i o n . F r a n ç o i s F u r e t a n d o t h e r s t h u s t r y to d e p r i v e t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n of i t s s t a t u s a s t h e f o u n d i n g e v e n t of m o d e r n d e m o c r a c y , r e l e g a t i n g it to a h i s t o r i c a l a n o m a l y : t h e r e w a s a h i s t o r i c a l n e c e s s i t y to a s s e r t t h e m o d e r n p r i n c i p l e s of p e r s o n a l

freedom

a n d so forth, but, a s t h e E n g l i s h e x a m p l e d e m o n s t r a t e s , t h e s a m e c o u l d h a v e b e e n m u c h m o r e e f f i c i e n t l y a c h i e v e d in a m o r e p e a c e f u l w a y . . . R a d i c a l s a r e , on t h e c o n t r a r y , p o s s e s s e d b y w h a t A l a i n B a d i o u c a l l s the " p a s s i o n of t h e R e a l " : if y o u s a y ^ — e q u a l i t y , h u m a n r i g h t s , a n d freed o m — y o u s h o u l d n o t s h i r k from its c o n s e q u e n c e s a n d g a t h e r t h e c o u r a g e to s a y ß — t h e t e r r o r n e e d e d to r e a l l y d e f e n d a n d a s s e r t t h e A. A n d t h e s a m e g o e s for t h e m e m o r y of M a y 1 9 6 8 . D a y s b e f o r e

the

s e c o n d r o u n d of t h e p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n s in M a y 2 0 0 7 , N i c o l a s S a r k o z y f o r m u l a t e d t h e e x o r c i s m of t h e g h o s t of M a y 6 8 a s t h e t r u e c h o i c e f a c i n g the electorate: "In this election, w e should l e a r n w h e t h e r the inheritance of M a y 6 8 i s to b e p e r p e t u a t e d , o r w h e t h e r it s h o u l d b e l i q u i d a t e d o n c e a n d for a l l . I w a n t to t u r n t h e p a g e of M a y 6 8 . " W h i l e o n e s h o u l d d e f e n d t h e m e m o r y of 6 8 , o n e s h o u l d a l s o b e a r i n m i n d t h a t t h e c o n t e n t of t h i s m e m o r y i s t h e s t a k e of a n i d e o l o g i c a l s t r u g g l e — a s D a n i e l B e n s a ï d a n d Alain Krivine pointed out recently: "There is their M a y and ours."

The

predominant liberal discourse appropriated the M a y 68 events as the b e g i n n i n g of t h e e n d of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l Left, a s t h e e x p l o s i o n of y o u t h f u l e n e r g y a n d creativity, a s F r a n c e ' s " b e l a t e d e n t r a n c e into hedonist mode r n i t y . " F o r t h e Left, on t h e c o n t r a r y , M a y 6 8 w a s t h e u n i q u e m o m e n t of a g e n e r a l s t r i k e w h i c h p a r a l y z e d F r a n c e a n d e v o k e d t h e s p e c t e r of t h e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of s t a t e p o w e r , t h e m o m e n t of u n i f i c a t i o n of t h e s t u d e n t s ' c o n t e s t a t i o n w i t h t h e w o r k e r s ' p r o t e s t s , p a r t of t h e l a r g e r

movement

w h i c h encompassed student movements in the U S , Germany, a n d Italy. H o w e v e r , it i s a l l too e a s y to s a y t h a t t o d a y ' s Left s h o u l d s i m p l y c o n t i n u e a l o n g t h i s p a t h . S o m e t h i n g , s o m e k i n d of h i s t o r i c a l r u p t u r e , e f f e c t i v e l y t o o k p l a c e in 1 9 9 0 : e v e r y o n e , t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y " r a d i c a l L e f t " i n c l u d e d , i s s o m e h o w a s h a m e d of t h e J a c o b i n l e g a c y of r e v o l u t i o n a r y t58

REVOLUTIONARY TERROR

t e r r o r w i t h i t s s t a t e - c e n t r a h z e d c h a r a c t e r , so t h a t t h e c u r r e n t doxa i s t h a t t h e Left, if it is to r e g a i n p o h t i c a l e f f i c a c y , s h o u l d t h o r o u g h l y r e i n v e n t itself,

finally a b a n d o n i n g

the

s o - c a l l e d " J a c o b i n p a r a d i g m . " In

our

p o s t m o d e r n e r a of " e m e r g e n t p r o p e r t i e s , " c h a o t i c i n t e r a c t i o n of m u l t i p l e s u b j e c t i v i t i e s , of free i n t e r a c t i o n i n s t e a d of c e n t r a l i z e d h i e r a r c h y , of a m u l t i t u d e of o p i n i o n s i n s t e a d of o n e T r u t h , t h e J a c o b i n d i c t a t o r s h i p i s f u n d a m e n t a l l y " n o t to o u r t a s t e " ( t h e t e r m " t a s t e " s h o u l d b e g i v e n a l l i t s historical weight, as a w o r d capturing a basic ideological disposition). C a n o n e i m a g i n e a n y t h i n g m o r e foreign to o u r u n i v e r s e of t h e f r e e d o m of o p i n i o n s , of m a r k e t c o m p e t i t i o n , of n o m a d i c p l u r a l i s t i n t e r a c t i o n , a n d so on a n d so forth, t h a n R o b e s p i e r r e ' s p o l i t i c s of T r u t h ( w i t h a c a p i t a l T, of c o u r s e ) , w h o s e p r o c l a i m e d g o a l i s "to r e t u r n t h e d e s t i n y of l i b e r t y i n t o t h e h a n d s of t h e t r u t h " ? S u c h a T r u t h c a n o n l y b e e n f o r c e d in a t e r r o r i s t manner:

If t h e m a i n s p r i n g of p o p u l a r g o v e r n m e n t in p e a c e t i m e i s v i r t u e , a m i d r e v o l u t i o n it i s a t t h e s a m e t i m e v i r t u e a n d t e r r o r : v i r t u e , w i t h o u t w h i c h t e r r o r i s fatal; t e r r o r , w i t h o u t w h i c h v i r t u e i s i m p o t e n t . nothing

but

Terror is

p r o m p t , s e v e r e , i n f l e x i b l e j u s t i c e ; it i s t h e r e f o r e

an

e m a n a t i o n of v i r t u e . It i s l e s s a s p e c i a l p r i n c i p l e t h a n a c o n s e q u e n c e of t h e g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e of d e m o c r a c y a p p l i e d to o u r c o u n t r y ' s m o s t pressing needs.

T h i s l i n e of a r g u m e n t a t i o n r e a c h e s its c l i m a x in t h e p a r a d o x i c a l i d e n t i ­ fication

of t h e o p p o s i t e s : r e v o l u t i o n a r y t e r r o r " s u b l a t e s " t h e

opposition

b e t w e e n p u n i s h m e n t a n d c l e m e n c y — j u s t a n d s e v e r e p u n i s h m e n t of t h e e n e m i e s i> t h e h i g h e s t form of c l e m e n c y , so t h a t r i g o r a n d c h a r i t y c o i n c i d e in t e r r o r :

T o p u n i s h t h e o p p r e s s o r s of h u m a n i t y i s c l e m e n c y ; to p a r d o n t h e m i s b a r b a r i t y . T h e r i g o r of t y r a n t s h a s o n l y rigor for a p r i n c i p l e ; t h e

rigor

of t h e r e p u b l i c a n g o v e r n m e n t c o m e s from c h a r i t y .

D o w e still h a v e e a r s for s u c h a r e v o l u t i o n a r y " c o i n c i d e n c e of t h e o p p o s i t e s " —of p u n i s h m e n t

a n d c h a r i t y , of t e r r o r a n d f r e e d o m ?

The

p o p u l a r i m a g e of R o b e s p i e r r e i s t h a t of a k i n d of i n v e r t e d E l e p h a n t M a n : while the latter h a d a terribly deformed

body hiding a gentle

and

i n t e l l i g e n t soul, R o b e s p i e r r e w a s a k i n d a n d p o l i t e p e r s o n h i d i n g i c e cold cruel determination as signaled b y his green e y e s . As such, Robe159

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

s p i e r r e s e r v e s p e r f e c t l y t o d a y ' s a n t i - t o t a l i t a r i a n l i b e r a l s w h o no l o n g e r n e e d to p o r t r a y h i m a s a c r u e l m o n s t e r w i t h a s n e e r i n g evil s m i l e , a s w a s the

c a s e for

nineteenth-century

reactionaries: e v e r y o n e is r e a d y

to

r e c o g n i z e h i s m o r a l i n t e g r i t y a n d full d e v o t i o n to t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y c a u s e , s i n c e h i s v e r y p u r i t y i s t h e p r o b l e m , t h e s o u r c e of a l l t r o u b l e , a s is i n d i c a t e d b y t h e t i t l e of t h e l a t e s t b i o g r a p h y of R o b e s p i e r r e , R u t h S c u r r ' s Fatal Purity.

A n d , so t h a t n o o n e m i s s e s t h e point, A n t o n i a F r a s e r , in h e r

r e v i e w , d r a w s " a c h i l l i n g l e s s o n for u s t o d a y " : R o b e s p i e r r e w a s p e r s o n ­ ally honest a n d sincere, but " [ t ] h e bloodlettings brought about b y this s i n c e r e ' m a n s u r e l y w a r n u s t h a t b e l i e f in y o u r o w n

righteousness

to the

e x c l u s i o n of a l l e l s e c a n b e a s d a n g e r o u s a s t h e m o r e c y n i c a l m o t i v a t i o n of a deliberate tyrant."

H a p p y a r e w e w h o live u n d e r cynical public-

o p i n i o n m a n i p u l a t o r s , not u n d e r t h e s i n c e r e M u s l i m

fundamentalists

r e a d y to fully e n g a g e t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e i r p r o j e c t s . . . w h a t b e t t e r p r o o f of t h e e t h i c o - p o l i t i c a l m i s e r y of o u r e p o c h w h o s e u l t i m a t e m o b i l i z i n g motif is t h e m i s t r u s t of v i r t u e ! W h a t , t h e n , s h o u l d t h o s e w h o r e m a i n faithful to t h e l e g a c y of t h e r a d i c a l Left d o w i t h a l l t h i s ? T w o t h i n g s , at t h e v e r y l e a s t . First, the t e r r o r i s t p a s t h a s to b e a c c e p t e d a s our^, e v e n —or p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e —it is c r i t i c a l l y r e j e c t e d . T h e o n l y a l t e r n a t i v e to t h e h a l l - h e a r t e d

defensive

p o s i t i o n of f e e l i n g g u i l t y f a c e d w i t h o u r l i b e r a l o r r i g h t i s t c r i t i c s i s : w e h a v e to d o t h e c r i t i c a l j o b b e t t e r t h a n o u r o p p o n e n t s . T h i s , h o w e v e r , is not t h e e n t i r e s t o r y : o n e s h o u l d a l s o not a l l o w o u r o p p o n e n t s to d e t e r m i n e the t e r m s a n d t o p i c of t h e s t r u g g l e . W h a t t h i s m e a n s i s t h a t r u t h l e s s selfc r i t i c i s m s h o u l d g o h a n d in h a n d w i t h a f e a r l e s s a d m i s s i o n of w h a t , to p a r a p h r a s e M a r x ' s j u d g m e n t on H e g e l ' s d i a l e c t i c s , o n e i s t e m p t e d to call t h e " r a t i o n a l k e r n e l " of t h e J a c o b i n

Terror:

M a t e r i a l i s t d i a l e c t i c s a s s u m e s , w i t h o u t p a r t i c u l a r j o y , t h a t , till n o w , no p o l i t i c a l s u b j e c t w a s a b l e to a r r i v e a t t h e e t e r n i t y of t h e t r u t h it w a s d e p l o y i n g w i t h o u t m o m e n t s of t e r r o r . For, a s S a i n t - J u s t a s k e d : " W h a t do those w h o w a n t neither V i r t u e nor T e r r o r w a n t ? " H i s a n s w e r is w e l l k n o w n : t h e y w a n t c o r r u p t i o n — a n o t h e r n a m e for t h e

subject's

defeat.'"

O r , a s S a i n t - J u s t p u t it s u c c i n c t l y e l s e w h e r e : " T h a t w h i c h p r o d u c e s t h e g e n e r a l g o o d is a l w a y s t e r r i b l e . "

T h e s e w o r d s s h o u l d not b e i n t e r p r e t e d

a s a w a r n i n g a g m n s t t h e t e m p t a t i o n to v i o l e n t l y i m p o s e t h e g e n e r a l g o o d on a s o c i e t y , but, on t h e c o n t r a i y , a s a b i t t e r t r u t h to b e fully e n d o r s e d . 160

REVOLUTIONARY TERROR

The further

c r u c i a l p o i n t to b e a r in m i n d i s t h a t , for R o b e s p i e r r e ,

r e v o l u t i o n a r y t e r r o r i s t h e v e r y o p p o s i t e of w a r : R o b e s p i e r r e w a s a pacifist, not o u t of h y p o c r i s y o r h u m a n i t a r i a n s e n s i t i v i t y , b u t b e c a u s e h e w a s w e l l a w a r e t h a t w a r between n a t i o n s a s a r u l e s e r v e s a s t h e m e a n s to o b f u s c a t e r e v o l u t i o n a r y s t r u g g l e within e a c h n a t i o n . R o b e s p i e r r e ' s s p e e c h " O n W a r " i s of s p e c i a l i m p o r t a n c e t o d a y : it s h o w s h i m a s a t r u e p e a c e l o v e r w h o r u t h l e s s l y d e n o u n c e s t h e p a t r i o t i c c a l l to w a r , e v e n if t h e w a r i s f o r m u l a t e d a s t h e d e f e n s e of t h e r e v o l u t i o n , for it i s t h e a t t e m p t of t h o s e w h o w a n t " r e v o l u t i o n w i t h o u t r e v o l u t i o n " to d i v e r t t h e r a d i c a l i z a t i o n of t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y p r o c e s s . H i s s t a n c e is t h u s t h e e x a c t o p p o s i t e of t h o s e w h o n e e d w a r to m i l i t a r i z e s o c i a l life a n d t a k e d i c t a t o r i a l c o n t r o l o v e r it. W h i c h i s w h y R o b e s p i e r r e a l s o d e n o u n c e d t h e t e m p t a t i o n to

export

r e v o l u t i o n to o t h e r c o u n t r i e s , f o r c e f u l l y " l i b e r a t i n g " t h e m :

T h e F r e n c h a r e not afflicted w i t h a m a n i a for r e n d e r i n g a n y n a t i o n h a p p y a n d free a g a i n s t i t s w i l l . A l l t h e k i n g s c o u l d h a v e v e g e t a t e d o r d i e d u n p u n i s h e d on t h e i r b l o o d - s p a t t e r e d t h r o n e s , if t h e y h a d b e e n a b l e to r e s p e c t t h e F r e n c h p e o p l e ' s i n d e p e n d e n c e . ^ ^

J a c o b i n r e v o l u t i o n a r y terror is sometimes (half) justified a s the "found­ i n g c r i m e " of t h e b o u r g e o i s u n i v e r s e of l a w a n d o r d e r , in w h i c h c i t i z e n s a r e a l l o w e d to p u r s u e t h e i r i n t e r e s t s in p e a c e , b u t o n e s h o u l d r e j e c t t h i s c l a i m on t w o a c c o u n t s . N o t o n l y i s it f a c t u a l l y w r o n g ( m a n y c o n s e r v a t i v e s w e r e q u i t e r i g h t to p o i n t o u t t h a t o n e c a n a c h i e v e b o u r g e o i s l a w a n d o r d e r w i t h o u t t e r r o r i s t e x c e s s e s , a s w a s t h e c a s e in G r e a t B r i t a i n — a l t h o u g h t h e r e i s C r o m w e l l to r e m e m b e r . . . ) ; m u c h m o r e i m p o r t a n t , t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y T e r r o r of 1792—94 w a s n o t a c a s e of w h a t W a l t e r B e n j a m i n a n d o t h e r s c a l l s t a t e - f o u n d i n g v i o l e n c e , b u t a c a s e of " d i v i n e violence."'"^ I n t e r p r e t e r s of B e n j a m i n w o n d e r w h a t " d i v i n e v i o l e n c e " c o u l d e f f e c t i v e l y m e a n — i s it y e t a n o t h e r leftist d r e a m of a " p u r e " e v e n t w h i c h n e v e r r e a l l y t a k e s p l a c e ? O n e s h o u l d r e c a l l h e r e F r i e d r i c h E n g e l s ' s r e f e r e n c e to t h e P a r i s C o m m u n e a s a n e x a m p l e of t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p of t h e p r o l e t a r i a t :

Of late, the S o c i a l - D e m o c r a t i c philistine has once more b e e n

filled

w i t h w h o l e s o m e t e r r o r a t t h e w o r d s : D i c t a t o r s h i p of t h e P r o l e t a r i a t . W e l l a n d g o o d , g e n t l e m e n , d o y o u w a n t to k n o w w h a t t h i s d i c t a t o r s h i p l o o k s l i k e ? L o o k a t t h e P a r i s C o m m u n e . T h a t w a s t h e D i c t a t o r s h i p of the Proletariat.

161

IN D E F E N S E OF L O S T C A U S E S

O n e s h o u l d r e p e a t t h i s , mutatut mutandui, a p r o p o s d i v i n e v i o l e n c e : " W e l l a n d g o o d , g e n t l e m e n c r i t i c a l t h e o r i s t s , d o y o u w a n t to k n o w w h a t t h i s d i v i n e v i o l e n c e l o o k s l i k e ? L o o k a t t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y T e r r o r of 1 7 9 2 - 9 4 . That w a s Divine Violence." ( A n d the series can continue: the R e d Terror of 1 9 1 9 . . . ) T h a t i s to s a y , o n e s h o u l d f e a r l e s s l y i d e n t i f y d i v i n e v i o l e n c e with positively existing historical phenomena, thus avoiding all obscur­ a n t i s t m y s t i f i c a t i o n . W h e n t h o s e o u t s i d e t h e s t r u c t u r e d s o c i a l field s t r i k e " b l i n d l y , " d e m a n d i n g and e n a c t i n g i m m e d i a t e j u s t i c e / v e n g e a n c e , t h i s i s " d i v i n e v i o l e n c e " — r e c a l l , a d e c a d e o r so a g o , t h e p a n i c in R i o d e J a n e i r o w h e n c r o w d s d e s c e n d e d from t h e f a v e l a s i n t o t h e w e a l t h y p a r t of t h e c i t y a n d started looting a n d burning s u p e r m a r k e t s — w a s "divine vio­ l e n c e " . . . L i k e b i b l i c a l l o c u s t s , d i v i n e p u n i s h m e n t for m e n ' s sinful w a y s , it s t r i k e s from o u t of n o w h e r e , a m e a n s w i t h o u t a n e n d —or, a s R o b e ­ s p i e r r e p u t it in h i s s p e e c h in w h i c h h e d e m a n d e d t h e e x e c u t i o n of L o u i s XVI:

P e o p l e s d o n o t j u d g e i n t h e s a m e w a y a s c o u r t s of l a w ; t h e y d o not h a n d d o w n s e n t e n c e s , t h e y t h r o w t h u n d e r b o l t s ; t h e y d o not c o n d e m n kings, they drop them back into the void; and this justice is w o r t h just a s m u c h a s t h a t of t h e c o u r t s . T h e " d i c t a t o r s h i p of t h e p r o l e t a r i a t " i s t h u s a n o t h e r n a m e for B e n j a m i nian "divine violence" w h i c h is outside the law, a violence exerted as brutal revenge/justice —but w h y " d i v i n e " ? " D i v i n e " points t o w a r d s the d i m e n s i o n of t h e " i n h u m a n " ; o n e s h o u l d t h u s p o s i t a d o u b l e e q u a t i o n : divine violence = inhuman Benjaminian

terror

= dictatorship

of t h e

proletariat.

" d i v i n e v i o l e n c e " s h o u l d b e c o n c e i v e d a s d i v i n e in t h e

p r e c i s e s e n s e of t h e o l d L a t i n m o t t o vox popuU, vox del: n o t in t h e p e r v e r s e s e n s e of " w e a r e d o i n g it a s m e r e i n s t r u m e n t s of t h e P e o p l e ' s W i l l , " b u t a s t h e h e r o i c a s s u m p t i o n of t h e s o l i t u d e of a s o v e r e i g n d e c i s i o n . It i s a d e c i s i o n (to k i l l , to risk o r l o s e o n e ' s o w n l i f e ) m a d e in a b s o l u t e s o l i t u d e , w i t h no c o v e r from t h e b i g O t h e r . If it i s e x t r a - m o r a l , it i s n o t " i m m o r a l , " it d o e s not g i v e t h e a g e n t t h e l i c e n s e j u s t to k i l l w i t h s o m e k i n d of a n g e l i c i n n o c e n c e . T h e m o t t o of d i v i n e v i o l e n c e is fiat iuàtitia, pereat mundiuf: it i s t h r o u g h jiutice,

t h e p o i n t of n o n - d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n j u s t i c e a n d v e n ­

g e a n c e , t h a t t h e " p e o p l e " ( t h e a n o n y m o u s p a r t of n o - p a r t ) i m p o s e s i t s t e r r o r a n d m a k e s o t h e r p a r t s p a y t h e p r i c e — J u d g m e n t D a y for t h e l o n g h i s t o r y of o p p r e s s i o n , e x p l o i t a t i o n , s u f f e r i n g — o r , a s R o b e s p i e r r e h i m s e l f p u t it in a p o i g n a n t m a n n e r : 162

REVOLUTIONARY TERROR

W h a t d o y o u w a n t , y o u w h o w o u l d h k e t r u t h to b e p o w e r l e s s on t h e l i p s of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e F r e n c h p e o p l e ? T r u t h u n d o u b t e d l y h a s its p o w e r , it h a s its a n g e r , i t s o w n d e s p o t i s m ; it h a s t o u c h i n g a c c e n t s a n d t e r r i b l e o n e s , t h a t r e s o u n d w i t h force in p u r e h e a r t s a s i n g u i l t y consciences, a n d that untruth can no more imitate than S a l o m e can i m i t a t e t h e t h u n d e r b o l t s of h e a v e n ; b u t a c c u s e n a t u r e of it, a c c u s e t h e p e o p l e , w h i c h w a n t s it a n d l o v e s it.

A n d t h i s i s w h a t R o b e s p i e r r e i s t a r g e t i n g in h i s f a m o u s a c c u s a t i o n to t h e moderates that w h a t t h e y r e a l l y w a n t is a "revolution w i t h o u t a revolu­ t i o n " : t h e y w a n t a r e v o l u t i o n d e p r i v e d of t h e e x c e s s in w h i c h d e m o c r a c y a n d t e r r o r c o i n c i d e , a r e v o l u t i o n r e s p e c t i n g s o c i a l r u l e s , s u b o r d i n a t e d to p r e e x i s t i n g n o r m s , a r e v o l u t i o n in w h i c h v i o l e n c e i s d e p r i v e d of t h e " d i v i n e " d i m e n s i o n a n d t h u s r e d u c e d to a s t r a t e g i c i n t e r v e n t i o n s e r v i n g precise and limited goals:

Citizens, d i d y o u w a n t a revolution w i t h o u t a revolution? W h a t is this s p i r i t of p e r s e c u t i o n t h a t h a s c o m e to r e v i s e , so to s p e a k , t h e o n e t h a t b r o k e o u r c h a i n s ? B u t w h a t s u r e j u d g e m e n t c a n o n e m a k e of t h e effects t h a t c a n f o l l o w t h e s e g r e a t c o m m o t i o n s ? W h o c a n m a r k , after t h e e v e n t , t h e e x a c t p o i n t a t w h i c h t h e w a v e s of p o p u l a r i n s u r r e c t i o n s h o u l d b r e a k ? A t t h a t p r i c e , w h a t p e o p l e c o u l d e v e r h a v e s h a k e n off t h e y o k e of d e s p o t i s m ? F o r w h i l e it i s t r u e t h a t a g r e a t n a t i o n c a n n o t r i s e in a s i m u l t a n e o u s m o v e m e n t , a n d t h a t t y r a n n y c a n o n l y b e h i t b y t h e p o r t i o n of c i t i z e n s t h a t i s c l o s e s t to it, h o w w o u l d t h e s e e v e r d a r e to a t t a c k it if, after t h e v i c t o r y , d e l e g a t e s from r e m o t e p a r t s c o u l d h o l d t h e m r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e d u r a t i o n o r v i o l e n c e of t h e p o l i t i c a l t o r m e n t t h a t h a d s a v e d t h e h o m e l a n d ? T h e y o u g h t to b e r e g a r d e d a s j u s t i f i e d b y t a c i t p r o x y for t h e w h o l e of s o c i e t y . T h e F r e n c h , f r i e n d s of l i b e r t y , m e e t i n g in P a r i s l a s t A u g u s t , a c t e d in t h a t r o l e , in t h e n a m e of a l l t h e d e p a r t m e n t s . T h e y s h o u l d either be a p p r o v e d or r e p u d i a t e d entirely. To m a k e them

c r i m i n a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e for a f e w a p p a r e n t

d i s o r d e r s , i n s e p a r a b l e from

so g r e a t a s h o c k , w o u l d b e to

or

real

punish

t h e m for t h e i r d e v o t i o n .

T h i s a u t h e n t i c r e v o l u t i o n a r y l o g i c c a n b e d i s c e r n e d a l r e a d y a t t h e l e v e l of r h e t o r i c a l figures, w h e r e R o b e s p i e r r e l i k e s to t u r n a r o u n d t h e s t a n d a r d p r o c e d u r e of first e v o k i n g a n a p p a r e n t l y " r e a l i s t i c " p o s i t i o n a n d t h e n d i s p l a y i n g its i l l u s o r y n a t u r e : h e often s t a r t s w i t h p r e s e n t i n g a p o s i t i o n o r 163

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

d e s c r i p t i o n of a s i t u a t i o n a s a n a b s u r d e x a g g e r a t i o n , a fiction, a n d t h e n g o e s on to r e m i n d u s t h a t w h a t , in a first a p p r o a c h , c a n n o t b u t a p p e a r a s a fiction,

is a c t u a l l y t r u t h itself: " B u t w h a t a m I s a y i n g ? W h a t I h a v e j u s t

p r e s e n t e d a s a n a b s u r d h y p o t h e s i s i s a c t u a l l y a v e i y c e r t a i n reedity. " It is this radical revolutionary stance w h i c h also enables Robespierre denounce

to

t h e " h u m a n i t a r i a n " c o n c e r n w i t h v i c t i m s of r e v o l u t i o n a r y

"divine violence": " A sensibility that w a i l s almost e x c l u s i v e l y over the e n e m i e s of l i b e r t y s e e m s s u s p e c t to m e . S t o p s h a k i n g t h e t y r a n t ' s b l o o d y r o b e i n m y face, o r I w i l l b e l i e v e t h a t y o u w i s h to p u t R o m e in c h a i n s . " ' ^

Averting

the inhuman

C r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s a n d t h e a c c e p t a n c e of t h e h i s t o r i c a l l e g a c y of J a c o b i n s o v e r l a p i n t h e r e a l q u e s t i o n to b e r a i s e d : d o e s t h e

the

(often

d e p l o r a b l e ) a c t u a l i t y of r e v o l u t i o n a r y t e r r o r c o m p e l u s to r e j e c t t h e v e r y i d e a of T e r r o r , o r i s t h e r e a w a y to repeat it in t o d a y ' s d i f f e r e n t h i s t o r i c a l c o n s t e l l a t i o n , to r e d e e m its v i r t u a l c o n t e n t from its a c t u a l i z a t i o n ? W e c l a i m h e r e t h a t it can a n d dhouß b e d o n e , a n d t h e m o s t c o n c i s e f o r m u l a of r e p e a t i n g t h e e v e n t d e s i g n a t e d b y t h e n a m e " R o b e s p i e r r e " i s to p a s s from ( R o b e s p i e r r e ' s ) h u m a n i s t t e r r o r to a n t i - h u m a n i s t (or, r a t h e r , i n h u m a n ) terror. In h i s Le Siècle, A l a i n B a d i o u d e t e c t s a s i g n of t h e p o l i t i c a l r e g r e s s i o n t h a t o c c u r r e d t o w a r d s the e n d of t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y in t h e shift from " h u m a n i s m and t e r r o r " to " h u m a n i s m or terror."^** In 1 9 4 6 , M a u r i c e M e r l e a u - P o n t y w r o t e Humanism and Terror, h i s d e f e n s e of S o v i e t C o m m u n i s m a s i n v o l v i n g a k i n d of P a s c a l e a n w a g e r t h a t a n n o u n c e s t h e t r o p e w h i c h B e r n a r d W i l l i a m s later called "moral luck": the present terror will b e r e t r o a c t i v e l y j u s t i f i e d if t h e s o c i e t y t h a t e m e r g e s from it i s t r u l y h u m a n ; t o d a y , s u c h a c o n j u n c t i o n of t e r r o r a n d h u m a n i s m i s p r o p e r l y u n t h i n k able, the predominant

l i b e r a l v i e w r e p l a c e s " a n d " w i t h "or":

either

h u m a n i s m o r t e r r o r . . . M o r e p r e c i s e l y , t h e r e a r e f o u r v a r i a t i o n s on t h i s motif: h u m a n i s m an? t e r r o r , h u m a n i s m or t e r r o r , e a c h e i t h e r in a " p o s i t i v e " o r i n a " n e g a t i v e " s e n s e . " H u m a n i s m a n d t e r r o r " in a p o s i t i v e sense

is w h a t

M e r l e a u - P o n t y e l a b o r a t e d : it s u s t a i n s S t a l i n i s m

(the

forceful — " t e r r o r i s t " — e n g e n d e r i n g of t h e N e w M a n ) , a n d is a l r e a d y c l e a r l y d i s c e r n i b l e in t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n , in t h e g u i s e of R o b e s p i e r r e ' s c o n j u n c t i o n of v i r t u e a n d t e r r o r . T h i s c o n j u n c t i o n c a n b e n e g a t e d in t w o w a y s . It c a n i n v o l v e t h e c h o i c e " h u m a n i s m or t e r r o r , " t h a t i s , t h e l i b e r a l h u m a n i s t p r o j e c t in all its v e r s i o n s , from d i s s i d e n t a n t i - S t a l i n i s t h u m a n 164

REVOLUTIONARY TERROR

ism u p to a n d i n c l u d i n g t o d a y ' s n e o - H a b e r m a s i a n s ( s u c h a s L u c F e r r y a n d A l a i n R e n a u t in F r a n c e ) a n d o t h e r d e f e n d e r s of h u m a n r i g h t s against ( t o t a l i t a r i a n , f u n d a m e n t a l i s t ) t e r r o r . O r it c a n r e t a i n t h e

conjunction

" h u m a n i s m and t e r r o r , " b u t in a n e g a t i v e m o d e : a l l t h o s e p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n d i d e o l o g i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n s , from H e i d e g g e r a n d c o n s e r v a t i v e C h r i s t i a n s to p a r t i s a n s of O r i e n t a l s p i r i t u a l i t y a n d d e e p e c o l o g y , w h o p e r c e i v e t e r r o r a s t h e t r u t h — t h e u l t i m a t e c o n s e q u e n c e —of t h e h u m a n i s t p r o j e c t itself, of its h u b r i s . T h e r e i s , h o w e v e r , a f o u r t h v a r i a t i o n , u s u a l l y left a s i d e : t h e c h o i c e " h u m a n i s m or t e r r o r , " b u t w i t h terror, not h u m a n i s m , a s a p o s i t i v e t e r m . T h i s i s a r a d i c a l p o s i t i o n w h i c h i s difficult to s u s t a i n , b u t , p e r h a p s , o u r o n l y h o p e : it d o e s n o t a m o u n t to t h e o b s c e n e m a d n e s s of o p e n l y p u r s u i n g a " t e r r o r i s t a n d i n h u m a n p o l i t i c s , " b u t s o m e t h i n g m u c h m o r e difficult to t h i n k t h r o u g h . In c o n t e m p o r a r y " p o s t - d e c o n s t r u c t i o n i s t " t h o u g h t (if o n e risks

t h i s r i d i c u l o u s d e s i g n a t i o n w h i c h c a n n o t b u t s o u n d l i k e its o w n

p a r o d y ) , the term " i n h u m a n " has g a i n e d n e w weight, especially through t h e w o r k of A g a m b e n a n d B a d i o u . T h e b e s t w a y to a p p r o a c h it i s v i a F r e u d ' s r e l u c t a n c e to e n d o r s e t h e m j u n c t i o n " L o v e t h y

neighbor!—the

t e m p t a t i o n to b e r e s i s t e d h e r e i s t h e e t h i c a l p r e t t i f i c a t i o n of t h e n e i g h b o r t h a t w e h a v e a l r e a d y n o t e d in t h e w o r k of E m m a n u e l

L e v i n a s . In a

p r o p e r l y d i a l e c t i c a l p a r a d o x , w h a t L e v i n a s , w i t h a l l h i s c e l e b r a t i o n of O t h e r n e s s , fails to t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t i s not s o m e u n d e r l y i n g S a m e n e s s of all h u m a n s b u t r a d i c a l l y " i n h u m a n " O t h e r n e s s itself: t h e O t h e r n e s s of a h u m a n b e i n g r e d u c e d to i n h u m a n i t y , t h e O t h e r n e s s e x e m p l i f i e d b y t h e t e r r i f y i n g figure of t h e MMelnmnn, t h e " l i v i n g d e a d " in t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n c a m p s . A t a d i f f e r e n t level, t h e s a m e g o e s for S t a l i n i s t C o m m u n i s m . In t h e s t a n d a r d S t a l i n i s t n a r r a t i v e , e v e n t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n c a m p s w e r e a l o c u s of t h e fight a g a i n s t f a s c i s m w h e r e i m p r i s o n e d C o m m u n i s t s w e r e o r g a n i z i n g n e t w o r k s of h e r o i c r e s i s t a n c e — i n s u c h a u n i v e r s e , of c o u r s e , t h e r e i s n o p l a c e for t h e l i m i t - e x p e r i e n c e of t h e Miueimann,

of t h e l i v i n g d e a d

d e p r i v e d of t h e c a p a c i t y for h u m a n e n g a g e m e n t — n o w o n d e r t h a t S t a ­ linist C o m m u n i s t s w e r e so e a g e r to " n o r m a l i z e " t h e c a m p s i n t o j u s t a n o t h e r site o l t h e a n t i - f a s c i s t s t r u g g l e , d i s m i s s i n g t h e Muöeimänner a s s i m p l y t h o s e w h o w e r e too w e a k to e n d u r e t h e s t r u g g l e . It i s a g a i n s t t h i s b a c k g r o u n d t h a t o n e c a n u n d e r s t a n d

w h y Lacan

s p e a k s of t h e itihuman c o r e of t h e n e i g h b o r . B a c k i n t h e 1 9 6 0 s , t h e e r a of s t r u c t u r a l i s m , L o u i s A l t h u s s e r l a u n c h e d t h e n o t o r i o u s f o r m u l a of " t h e ­ o r e t i c a l a n t i - h u m a n i s m , " a l l o w i n g , d e m a n d i n g e v e n , t h a t it b e s u p p l e niented

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IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

h u m a n i s t s , r e s p e c t i n g t h e o t h e r s , t r e a t i n g t h e m a s free p e r s o n s w i t h full d i g n i t y , c r e a t o r s of t h e i r w o r l d , f i o w e v e r , in t h e o r y , w e s h o u l d e q u a l l y a l w a y s b e a r in m i n d t h a t h u m a n i s m i s a n i d e o l o g y , t h e w a y w e s p o n t a ­ n e o u s l y e x p e r i e n c e o u r p r e d i c a m e n t , a n d t h a t t r u e k n o w l e d g e of h u m a n s a n d t h e i r h i s t o r y s h o u l d t r e a t i n d i v i d u a l s not a s a u t o n o m o u s s u b j e c t s , b u t a s e l e m e n t s i n a s t r u c t u r e w h i c h f o l l o w s i t s o w n l a w s . In c o n t r a s t to A l t h u s s e r , L a c a n a c c o m p l i s h e s t h e p a s s a g e from t h e o r e t i c a l to practical anti-humanidrn, t h a t i s , to a n e t h i c s t h a t g o e s b e y o n d t h e d i m e n s i o n of w h a t N i e t z s c h e c a l l e d t h e " h u m a n , all t o o h u m a n , " a n d c o n f r o n t s

the

i n h u m a n c o r e of h u m a n i t y . T h i s d o e s not o n l y m e a n a n e t h i c s w h i c h n o l o n g e r d e n i e s , b u t f e a r l e s s l y t a k e s i n t o a c c o u n t t h e l a t e n t m o n s t r o s i t y of b e i n g - h u m a n , t h e d i a b o l i c a l d i m e n s i o n w h i c h e x p l o d e d in

phenomena

u s u a l l y covered b y the c o n c e p t - n a m e " A u s c h w i t z " — an ethics that w o u l d b e still p o s s i b l e after A u s c h w i t z , to p a r a p h r a s e A d o r n o . T h i s i n h u m a n d i m e n s i o n i s for L a c a n , a t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e u l t i m a t e b e d r o c k of e t h i c s . In p h i l o s o p h i c a l t e r m s , t h i s " i n h u m a n " d i m e n s i o n c a n b e d e f i n e d a s t h a t of a s u b j e c t s u b t r a c t e d from a l l forms of h u m a n " i n d i v i d u a l i t y " or " p e r s o n a l i t y " ( w h i c h i s w h y , in c o n t e m p o r a r y p o p u l a r c u l t u r e , o n e of t h e e x e m p l a r y figures

of t h e p u r e s u b j e c t i s a n o n - h u m a n — a l i e n , c y b o r g — w h o d i s p l a y s

m o r e fidelity to t h e t a s k , m o r e d i g n i t y a n d f r e e d o m them its h u m a n c o u n t e r ­ p a r t s , from t h e R u t g e r - H a u e r a n d r o i d i n Blade Runner to t h e S c h w a r z e ­ n e g g e r - f i g u r e in Terminator). It i s a g a i n s t t h e b a c k g r o u n d of t h i s t o p i c of t h e s o v e r e i g n a c c e p t a n c e of d e a t h t h a t o n e s h o u l d r e r e a d t h e r h e t o r i c a l t u r n often r e f e r r e d to a s t h e p r o o f of R o b e s p i e r r e ' s " t o t a l i t a r i a n " m a n i p u l a t i o n of h i s a u d i e n c e .

T h i s t u r n t o o k p l a c e in t h e m i d s t of R o b e s p i e r r e ' s s p e e c h

in t h e N a t i o n a l A s s e m b l y on I I G e r m i n a l Y e a r II ( M a r c h 3 1 , 1 7 9 4 ) ; t h e previous night, Danton, Camille Desmoulins, and some others h a d been a r r e s t e d , s o m a n y m e m b e r s of t h e A s s e m b l y w e r e u n d e r s t a n d a b l y a f r a i d that their turn w o u l d also come. Robespierre directly addresses the m o m e n t a s p i v o t a l : " C i t i z e n s , t h e m o m e n t h a s c o m e to s p e a k t h e t r u t h . " H e t h e n g o e s on to e v o k e t h e f e a r floating in t h e r o o m :

O n e w a n t s [on veut] to m a k e y o u f e a r a b u s e s of p o w e r , of t h e n a t i o n a l p o w e r y o u h a v e e x e r c i s e d [. . . ] O n e w a n t s to m a k e u s fear t h a t t h e p e o p l e w i l l fall v i c t i m to t h e C o m m i t t e e s [. . . ] O n e f e a r s t h a t t h e p r i s o n e r s a r e b e i n g o p p r e s s e d [. . . ] .

T h e o p p o s i t i o n i s h e r e b e t w e e n t h e i m p e r s o n a l " o n e " ( t h e i n s t i g a t o r s of fear a r e n o t p e r s o n i f i e d ) a n d t h e c o l l e c t i v e t h u s p u t u n d e r 166

pressure,

REVOLUTIONARY TERROR

w h i c h a l m o s t i m p e r c e p t i b l y shifts from t h e p l u r a l s e c o n d - p e r s o n

"you"

(voiy) to t h e f i r s t - p e r s o n " u s " ( R o b e s p i e r r e g a l l a n t l y I n c l u d e s h i m s e l f i n t o t h e c o l l e c t i v e ) . H o w e v e r , t h e final f o r m u l a t i o n i n t r o d u c e s a n

ominous

t w i s t : it i s n o l o n g e r t h a t " o n e w a n t s t o m a k e y o u / u s f e a r , " b u t t h a t " o n e f e a r s , " w h i c h m e a n s t h a t t h e e n e m y s t i r r i n g u p f e a r is n o l o n g e r o u t s i d e " y o u / u s , " m e m b e r s of t h e A s s e m b l y , it i s h e r e , a m o n g s t u s , a m o n g s t t h e " y o u " a d d r e s s e d b y R o b e s p i e r r e , c o r r o d i n g o u r u n i t y from w i t h i n . A t t h i s precise moment,

R o b e s p i e r r e , in a t r u e

master stroke, assumes

full

s u b j e c t i v i z a t i o n — w a i t i n g a l i t t l e b i t for t h e o m i n o u s effect of h i s w o r d s to b e felt, h e t h e n c o n t i n u e d i n t h e first p e r s o n

duigidar:

I s a y t h a t a n y o n e w h o t r e m b l e s a t t h i s m o m e n t i s g u i l t y ; for i n n o c e n c e never fears public scrutiny.

W h a t c a n b e m o r e " t o t a l i t a r i a n " t h a n t h i s c l o s e d l o o p of " y o u r v e r y f e a r of b e i n g g u i l t y m a k e s y o u g u i l t y " — a w e i r d s u p e r e g o - t w i s t e d v e r s i o n of t h e w e l l - k n o w n m o t t o " t h e o n l y t h i n g to f e a r i s f e a r i t s e l f " ? O n e

should

n o n e t h e l e s s m o v e b e y o n d t h e facile d i s m i s s a l of R o b e s p i e r r e ' s r h e t o r i c a l s t r a t e g y a s t h e s t r a t e g y of " t e r r o r i s t

culpabilizatlon" a n d discern its

m o m e n t of t r u t h : t h e r e a r e n o i n n o c e n t b y s t a n d e r s i n t h e c r u c i a l m o m e n t s of r e v o l u t i o n a r y d e c i s i o n , b e c a u s e , i n s u c h m o m e n t s , i n n o c e n c e itself— e x e m p t i n g o n e s e l f from t h e d e c i s i o n , g o i n g o n a s if t h e s t r u g g l e I a m w i t n e s s i n g d o e s not r e a l l y c o n c e r n m e — ^ t h e h i g h e s t t r e a s o n . T h a t i s t o s a y , t h e f e a r of b e i n g a c c u s e d of t r e a s o n u m y t r e a s o n , b e c a u s e , e v e n if 1 " d i d not d o a n y t h i n g a g a i n s t t h e r e v o l u t i o n , " t h i s f e a r itself, t h e fact t h a t it e m e r g e d in m e , d e m o n s t r a t e s that m y subjective position is e x t e r n a l to the revolution,

that

I experience the

"revolution" as an

external

force

threatening me. B u t w h a t h a p p e n s s u b s e q u e n t l y in this u n i q u e speech is e v e n more revealing: R o b e s p i e r r e d i r e c t l y a d d r e s s e s the t o u c h y q u e s t i o n that h a s to a r i s e in t h e m i n d of h i s p u b l i c — h o w c a n h e h i m s e l f b e s u r e t h a t h e w i l l not b e t h e n e x t i n l i n e to b e a c c u s e d ? H e i s not t h e m a s t e r e x e m p t e d from the collective, the " I " outside " w e " — a f t e r all, he w a s once v e r y close to Danton, a powerful p r o x i m i t y to

figure

n o w u n d e r a r r e s t , so w h a t if, t o m o r r o w ,

D a n t o n w i l l b e u s e d a g a i n s t h i m ? In

short,

how

his can

R o b e s p i e r r e b e s u r e t h a t t h e p r o c e s s h e u n l e a s h e d w i l l not s w a l l o w h i m ? It i s h e r e t h a t h i s p o s i t i o n a c h i e v e s s u b l i m e g r e a t n e s s — h e accepts that

the d a n g e r

that

now

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Danton will

fully

tomorrow

t h r e a t e n h i m . T h e r e a s o n t h a t h e i s so s e r e n e , t h a t h e i s not a f r a i d of 167

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

t h i s fate, i s not t h a t D a n t o n w a s a t r a i t o r , w h i l e he, R o b e s p i e r r e , is p u r e , a d i r e c t e m b o d i m e n t of t h e p e o p l e ' s W i l l ; it is t h a t h e , R o b e s p i e r r e , id not afraid to die — h i s e v e n t u a l d e a t h w i l l b e a m e r e a c c i d e n t w h i c h c o u n t s for nothing: W h a t d o e s d a n g e r m a t t e r to m e ? M y life b e l o n g s to t h e F a t h e r l a n d ; m y h e a r t i s free from fear; a n d if 1 w e r e to d i e , I w o u l d d o so w i t h o u t r e p r o a c h a n d w i t h o u t ignominy.'^'*

C o n s e q u e n t l y , i n s o f a r a s t h e shift from " w e " to " I " c a n e f f e c t i v e l y b e d e t e r m i n e d a s t h e m o m e n t w h e n t h e d e m o c r a t i c m a s k falls off a n d w h e n R o b e s p i e r r e o p e n l y a s s e r t s h i m s e l f a s a M a s t e r ( u p to t h i s point, w e follow L e f o r t ' s a n a l y s i s ) , t h e v e r y t e r m " M a s t e r " h a s to b e g i v e n h e r e its full H e g e l i a n w e i g h t : t h e M a s t e r i s t h e figure of s o v e r e i g n t y , t h e o n e w h o is not a f r a i d t o d i e , w h o i s r e a d y to r i s k e v e r y t h i n g . In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e u l t i m a t e m e a n i n g of R o b e s p i e r r e ' s

first-person

s i n g u l a r ( " I " ) i s : I a m not

a f r a i d to d i e . W h a t a u t h o r i z e s h i m i s s i m p l y t h i s , not a n y k i n d of d i r e c t a c c e s s to t h e b i g O t h e r , t h a t i s , h e d o e s n o t c l a i m t h a t h e h a s d i r e c t a c c e s s to t h e p e o p l e ' s W i l l w h i c h s p e a k s t h r o u g h h i m . It i s a g a i n s t t h i s b a c k ­ g r o u n d t h a t o n e s h o u l d r e c a l l M a o Z e d o n g ' s m e s s a g e to t h e h u n d r e d s of m i l l i o n s of d o w n t r o d d e n , a s i m p l e a n d t o u c h i n g m e s s a g e of c o u r a g e —do not b e a f r a i d of t h e B i g P o w e r s : " B i g n e s s i s n o t h i n g to b e a f r a i d of. T h e big will be overthrown b y the small. The small will become big." The s a m e m e s s a g e of c o u r a g e s u s t a i n s a l s o M a o ' s ( i n ) f a m o u s s t a n c e t o w a r d s t h e p r o s p e c t of a n e w a t o m i c w o r l d w a r :

W e s t a n d firmly for p e a c e a n d a g a i n s t w a r . B u t if t h e i m p e r i a l i s t s insist on u n l e a s h i n g a n o t h e r w a r , w e s h o u l d n o t b e a f r a i d of it. O u r a t t i t u d e on t h i s q u e s t i o n is the s a m e a s o u r a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s a n y d i s t u r b a n c e : first, w e a r e a g a i n s t it; s e c o n d , w e a r e not a f r a i d of it. T h e F i r s t W o r l d W a r w a s f o l l o w e d b y t h e b i r t h of t h e S o v i e t U n i o n w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n of 2 0 0 m i l l i o n . T h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r w a s f o l l o w e d b y t h e e m e r g e n c e of t h e s o c i a l i s t c a m p w i t h a c o m b i n e d p o p u l a t i o n of 9 0 0 m i l l i o n . If t h e i m p e r i a l i s t s i n s i s t on l a u n c h i n g a t h i r d w o r l d w a r , it i s c e r t a i n t h a t s e v e r a l h u n d r e d m i l l i o n m o r e w i l l t u r n to s o c i a l i s m , a n d t h e n t h e r e w i l l n o t b e m u c h r o o m left on e a r t h for t h e i m p e r i a l i s t s [. . .J"^^

It i s a l l too e a s y to d i s m i s s t h e s e l i n e s a s t h e e m p t y p o s t u r i n g of a l e a d e r r e a d y to s a c r i f i c e m i l l i o n s for h i s p o l i t i c a l g o a l s ( t h e e x t e n s i o n ad ahdur()utn 168

REVOLUTIONARY TERROR

of M a o ' s r u t h l e s s d e c i s i o n to s t a r v e t e n s of m i l l i o n s to d e a t h in t h e l a t e 1 9 5 0 s ) — t h e f l i p s i d e of t h i s d i s m i s s i v e a t t i t u d e is t h e b a s i c m e s s a g e : " w e s h o u l d not b e a f r a i d . " Is t h i s not t h e only c o r r e c t a t t i t u d e a p r o p o s w a r : "first, w e a r e a g a i n s t it; s e c o n d , w e a r e not a f r a i d of i t " ? ( T h e l o g i c of M a o ' s a r g u m e n t is v e r y precise here: his "although w e are against w a r , w e a r e not a f r a i d of i t " i n v e r t s t h e " i m p e r i a l i s t s ' " t r u e a t t i t u d e , w h i c h i s "although

we

are

for

war,

we

are

afraid

of i t " — i m p e r i a l i s t s

are

N i e t z s c h e a n s l a v e s , t h e y n e e d w a r s , b u t a r e a f r a i d to l o s e t h e i r p o s s e s ­ s i o n s to w h i c h t h e y a r e a t t a c h e d , w h i l e t h e p r o l e t a r i a n s a r e t h e

true

a r i s t o c r a t i c M a s t e r s w h o d o not w a n t w a r ( t h e y d o not n e e d i t ) , b u t a r e not a f r a i d of it, b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e n o t h i n g to l o s e . . . ) M a o ' s a r g u m e n t g o e s on to its t e r r i f y i n g c o n c l u s i o n :

The U n i t e d S t a t e s cannot annihilate the C h i n e s e nation w i t h its small s t a c k of a t o m b o m b s . E v e n if t h e U S a t o m b o m b s w e r e so p o w e r f u l that, w h e n d r o p p e d on C h i n a , t h e y w o u l d m a k e a h o l e r i g h t t h r o u g h t h e e a r t h , o r e v e n b l o w it u p , t h a t w o u l d h a r d l y m e a n a n y t h i n g to t h e u n i v e r s e a s a w h o l e , t h o u g h it m i g h t b e a m a j o r e v e n t for t h e s o l a r 26

system. T h e r e i s o b v i o u s l y a n " i n h u m a n m a d n e s s " in t h i s a r g u m e n t : i s t h e fact t h a t t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of p l a n e t E a r t h " w o u l d h a r d l y m e a n a n y t h i n g to t h e universe as a w h o l e " not

rather

p o o r s o l a c e for

the

extinction

of

h u m a n i t y ? T h e a r g u m e n t o n l y w o r k s if, in a K a n t i a n w a y , o n e p r e ­ supposes a p u r e transcendental subject unaffected b y this catastrophe — a s u b j e c t w h i c h , a l t h o u g h n o n - e x i s t e n t in r e a l i t y , L) o p e r a t i v e a s a v i r t u a l point

of r e f e r e n c e . R e c a l l H u s s e r l ' s d a r k d r e a m , from

Meditatwtu,

his

of h o w t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t a l cogito w o u l d r e m a i n

Cartesian unaffected

b y a p l a g u e t h a t w o u l d a n n i h i l a t e a l l h u m a n i t y : it i s e a s y , a p r o p o s t h i s e x a m p l e , to s c o r e c h e a p p o i n t s a b o u t t h e s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e b a c k g r o u n d of t r a n s c e n d e n t a l s u b j e c t i v i t y , a n d a b o u t h o w H u s s e r l m i s s e s t h e p a r a d o x of w h a t F o u c a u l t , in h i s Led MoLi et

choéeà, c a l l e d t h e

"transcendental-

e m p i r i c a l d o u b l e t , " of t h e l i n k t h a t f o r e v e r a t t a c h e s t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t a l e g o to t h e e m p i r i c a l e g o , so t h a t t h e a n n i h i l a t i o n of t h e l a t t e r b y d e f i n i t i o n l e a d s to t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e of t h e first. H o w e v e r , w h a t if, fully r e c o g n i z i n g t h i s d e p e n d e n c e a s a fact ( a n d n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n t h i s — a b a l d fact of b e i n g ) , o n e n o n e t h e l e s s i n s i s t s on t h e t r u t h of i t s n e g a t i o n , t h e t r u t h of t h e a s s e r t i o n of t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e of t h e s u b j e c t w i t h r e g a r d to t h e e m p i r i c a l i n d i v i d u a l s qua l i v i n g b e i n g s ? C h e G u e v a r a a p p r o a c h e d t h e s a m e l i n e of 169

IN D E F E N S E OF L O S T C A U S E S

t h o u g h t w h e n , in t h e m i d s t of t h e u n b e a r a b l e t e n s i o n of t h e C u b a n m i s s i l e c r i s i s , h e a d v o c a t e d a f e a r l e s s a p p r o a c h of r i s k i n g t h e n e w w o r l d w a r w h i c h w o u l d i n v o l v e ( a t t h e v e r y l e a s t ) t h e t o t a l a n n i h i l a t i o n of t h e C u b a n p e o p l e — h e p r a i s e d t h e h e r o i c r e a d i n e s s of t h e C u b a n p e o p l e to r i s k its o w n d i s a p p e a r a n c e . A g a i n , there is definitely something terrifying about this attitude — h o w e v e r , t h i s t e r r o r i s n o t h i n g l e s s t h a n t h e c o n d i t i o n of f r e e d o m . T h i s is h o w Y a m a m o t o J o c h o , a Z e n p r i e s t , d e s c r i b e d t h e p r o p e r a t t i t u d e of a w a r r i o r : " e v e r y d a y w i t h o u t fail h e s h o u l d c o n s i d e r h i m s e l f a s d e a d . T h e r e i s a s a y i n g of t h e e l d e r s t h a t g o e s , ' S t e p from u n d e r t h e e a v e s a n d y o u ' r e a d e a d m a n . L e a v e t h e g a t e a n d t h e e n e m y i s w a i t i n g . ' T h i s i s not a m a t t e r of b e i n g c a r e f u l . It i s to c o n s i d e r o n e s e l f a s d e a d

beforehand."^^

T h i s i s w h y , a c c o r d i n g to H i l l l s L o i y , m a n y J a p a n e s e s o l d i e r s in W o r l d War

II p e r f o r m e d t h e i r o w n f u n e r a l s b e f o r e l e a v i n g for t h e b a t t l e f i e l d :

M a n y of t h e s o l d i e r s i n t h e p r e s e n t w a r a r e s o d e t e r m i n e d to d i e on t h e battlefield that t h e y conduct their o w n public funerals before leaving for t h e front. T h i s h o l d s n o e l e m e n t of t h e r i d i c u l o u s to t h e J a p a n e s e . R a t h e r , it i s a d m i r e d a s t h e s p i r i t of t h e t r u e s a m u r a i w h o e n t e r s the b a t t l e w i t h n o t h o u g h t of r e t u r n .

T h i s p r e e m p t i v e s e l f - e x c l u s i o n from t h e d o m a i n of t h e l i v i n g , of c o u r s e , t u r n s t h e s o l d i e r i n t o a p r o p e r l y s u b l i m e figure. I n s t e a d of d i s m i s s i n g t h i s feature

as part

of f a s c i s t i c m i l i t a r i s m , o n e

should

a s s e r t it a s a l s o

c o n s t i t u t i v e of a r a d i c a l r e v o l u t i o n a r y p o s i t i o n , w h i c h , a s S e n e c a p u t it l o n g a g o i n h i s Oedlpud, d e m a n d s of t h e s u b j e c t to " s e a r c h for a w a y to wander without

m i x i n g with the dead, and y e t removed

from

the

living." W h e n , in the

flashback

s c e n e from B r y a n S i n g e r ' s The Wual Siupectà,

t h e m y s t e r i o u s K e y s e r S o e z e r e t u r n s h o m e a n d finds h i s w i f e a n d s m a l l d a u g h t e r h e l d a t g u n p o i n t b y t h e m e m b e r s of a rival m o b , h e s h o o t s h i s wife a n d d a u g h t e r dead, a n d then declares that he will p u r s u e m e m b e r s of t h e r i v a l g a n g m e r c i l e s s l y , t r a c k i n g d o w n t h e i r

the

parents,

f a m i l i e s , a n d f r i e n d s , in o r d e r to k i l l t h e m a l l . . . In a s i t u a t i o n of a f o r c e d c h o i c e , t h e S o e z e - s u b j e c t m a k e s t h e c r a z y , i m p o s s i b l e c h o i c e of, i n a w a y , s t r i k i n g a t himself, a t w h a t i s m o s t p r e c i o u s to h i m , a n d t h i s act, far from a m o u n t i n g to a c a s e of i m p o t e n t a g g r e s s i o n t u r n e d t o w a r d s

oneself,

r a t h e r c h a n g e s t h e c o o r d i n a t e s of t h e s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h t h e s u b j e c t f o u n d himself: b y w a y of c u t t i n g h i m s e l f l o o s e from t h e p r e c i o u s o b j e c t t h r o u g h 170

REVOLUTIONARY TERROR

whose possession t h e e n e m y kept him in check, the subject g a i n s the s p a c e for a free a c t . T h e p r i c e of t h i s f r e e d o m i s , o f c o u r s e , t e r r i b l e : t h e o n l y w a y for t h e s u b j e c t t o n e u t r a l i z e t h e g u i l t o f s a c r i f i c i n g h i s m o s t p r e c i o u s o b j e c t ( s ) i s t o t u r n h i m s e l f i n t o a k i n g of t h e " l i v i n g d e a d , " t o r e n o u n c e all personal i d i o s y n c r a s i e s a n d p l e a s u r e s a n d to d e d i c a t e h i s e n t i r e life t o d e s t r o y i n g a l l t h o s e w h o f o r c e d h i m to p e r f o r m t h e s a c r i f i c i a l a c t . S u c h a n " i n h u m a n " p o s i t i o n of a b s o l u t e f r e e d o m ( i n m y l o n e l i n e s s , I a m free t o d o w h a t e v e r I w a n t , n o b o d y h a s a n y h o l d o v e r m e ) c o i n c i d i n g w i t h a b s o l u t e s u b j e c t i o n t o a T a s k ( t h e o n l y p u r p o s e of m y life i s t o e n a c t v e n g e a n c e ) i s w h a t , p e r h a p s , c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y s u b j e c t a t its innermost. A n o t h e r " i n h u m a n " d i m e n s i o n of t h e c o u p l e V i r t u e — T e r r o r p r o m o t e d b y R o b e s p i e r r e i s t h e r e j e c t i o n of h a b i t ( i n t h e s e n s e of t h e a g e n c y of rccJistic c o m p r o m i s e s ) . E v e r y legal o r d e r

( o r e v e r y o r d e r of e x p l i c i t

n o r m a t i v i t y ) h a s t o r e l y o n a c o m p l e x " r e f l e x i v e " n e t w o r k of i n f o r m a l r u l e s w h i c h tells u s h o w w e a r e to r e l a t e t o t h e e x p l i c i t n o r m s , h o w w e a r e to a p p l y t h e m : to w h a t e x t e n t w e a r e to t a k e t h e m l i t e r a l l y , h o w a n d w h e n a r e w e a l l o w e d , s o l i c i t e d e v e n , to d i s r e g a r d t h e m , a n d s o o n — a n d t h i s i s t h e d o m a i n o f h a b i t . T o k n o w t h e h a b i t s o f a s o c i e t y i s to know the meta­ rules of how to apply Ltd explicit normr. w h e n t o u s e t h e m o r n o t u s e t h e m ; w h e n t o v i o l a t e t h e m ; w h e n not t o c h o o s e w h a t i s offered; w h e n w e a r e e f f e c t i v e l y o b l i g e d t o d o s o m e t h i n g , b u t h a v e to p r e t e n d t h a t w e a r e d o i n g it a s a free c h o i c e ( a s i n t h e c a s e o f p o t l a t c h ) . I ^ t u s refer t o t h e p o l i t e offer-meant-to-be-refused:

it i s a " h a b i t " t o refuse s u c h a n offer, a n d

cinyone w h o a c c e p t s s u c h a n offer c o m m i t s a v u l g a r b l u n d e r . T h e s a m e g o e s for m a n y p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n s i n w h i c h a c h o i c e i s g i v e n on condition that we make the right choice: w e a r e s o l e m n l y r e m i n d e d t h a t w e c a n s a y n o — b u t w e a r e e x p e c t e d t o r e j e c t t h i s offer a n d e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y s a y y e s . W i t h m a n y s e x u a l prohibitions, the situation is the opposite: the explicit "no" effectively functions a s t h e implicit injunction

" d o it, b u t i n a

discreet w a y ! " . M e a s u r e d against this b a c k g r o u n d , revolutionary-egali­ t a r i a n figures from R o b e s p i e r r e t o J o h n B r o w n a r e ( p o t e n t i a l l y , a t l e a s t ) figured without habitd: t h e y r e f u s e t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e h a b i t s t h a t qualify the functioning of a universal rule.

Such is the natural

dominion

of h a b i t t h a t w e r e g a r d t h e m o s t

a r b i t r a r y conventions, sometimes i n d e e d t h e most defective institu­ t i o n s , a s a b s o l u t e m e a s u r e s of t r u t h o r f a l s e h o o d , j u s t i c e o r Injustice. It d o e s n o t e v e n o c c u r t o u s t h a t m o s t a r e i n e v i t a b l y still c o n n e c t e d 171

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

w i t h t h e p r e j u d i c e s on w h i c h d e s p o t i s m fed u s . W e h a v e b e e n

so

l o n g s t o o p e d u n d e r its y o k e t h a t w e h a v e s o m e d i f f i c u l t y m r a i s i n g o u r s e l v e s to t h e e t e r n a l p r i n c i p l e s of r e a s o n ; a n y t h i n g t h a t r e f e r s to the

sacred

source

of a l l l a w s e e m s to u s to t a k e

on

an

illegal

c h a r a c t e r , a n d t h e v e r y o r d e r of n a t u r e s e e m s to u s a d i s o r d e r . majestic

movements

of a

great

people,

the

sublime

The

fervours

v i r t u e often a p p e a r to o u r t i m i d e y e s a s s o m e t h i n g l i k e a n

of

erupting

v o l c a n o or t h e o v e r t h r o w of p o l i t i c a l s o c i e t y ; a n d it i s c e r t a i n l y not t h e l e a s t of t h e t r o u b l e s b o t h e r i n g

us, this contradiction

between

t h e w e a k n e s s of o u r m o r a l s , t h e d e p r a v i t y of o u r m i n d s , a n d p u r i t y of p r i n c i p l e a n d e n e r g y of c h a r a c t e r d e m a n d e d government

b y the

the free

to w h i c h w e h a v e d a r e d a s p i r e . ^ "

T o b r e a k t h e y o k e of h a b i t m e a n s : if all m e n a r e e q u a l , t h a n a l l m e n a r e to b e e f f e c t i v e l y t r e a t e d a s e q u a l ; if b l a c k s a r e a l s o h u m a n , t h e y s h o u l d b e i m m e d i a t e l y t r e a t e d a s s u c h . L e t u s r e c a l l t h e e a r l y s t a g e s of t h e s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t s l a v e r y in t h e U S , w h i c h , e v e n p r i o r to t h e C i v i l W a r , c u l m i n a t e d in t h e a r m e d conflict b e t w e e n t h e g r a d u a l i s m of c o m p a s s i o n a t e l i b e r a l s and the unique

figure

of J o h n

Brown:

A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n s w e r e c a r i c a t u r e s of p e o p l e , t h e y w e r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s buffoons a n d m i n s t r e l s , t h e y w e r e t h e b u t t - e n d of j o k e s in A m e r i c a n society. A n d even the abolitionists, as a n t i s l a v e i y as t h e y w e r e , the m a j o r i t y of t h e m d i d not s e e A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n s a s e q u a l s . T h e m a j o r i t y of t h e m , a n d t h i s w a s s o m e t h i n g t h a t A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n s c o m p l a i n e d a b o u t all t h e t i m e , w e r e w i l l i n g to w o r k for t h e e n d of s l a v e r y in t h e S o u t h b u t t h e y w e r e not w i l l i n g to w o r k to e n d d i s c r i m i n a t i o n in t h e North.

[. . . ] J o h n

Brown

wasn't

like that. For

him,

practicing

e g a l i t a r i a n i s m w a s a first s t e p t o w a r d e n d i n g s l a v e r y . A n d

African

A m e r i c a n s w h o c a m e in c o n t a c t w i t h h i m k n e w t h i s i m m e d i a t e l y . H e m a d e it v e r y c l e a r t h a t h e s a w n o d i f f e r e n c e , a n d h e d i d n ' t m a k e t h i s c l e a r b y s a j n n g it, h e m a d e it c l e a r b y w h a t h e d i d .

F o r t h i s r e a s o n , J o h n B r o w n i s a k e y p o l i t i c a l figure in t h e h i s t o r y of t h e U S : in h i s f e r v e n t l y C h r i s t i a n " r a d i c a l a b o l i t i o n i s m , " h e c a m e c l o s e s t to introducing the J a c o b i n logic into the A m e r i c a n political landscape:

J o h n B r o w n c o n s i d e r e d h i m s e l f a c o m p l e t e e g a l i t a r i a n . A n d it w a s v e r y i m p o r t a n t for h i m to p r a c t i c e e g a l i t a r i a n i s m on e v e r y l e v e l . [. . . ] 172

REVOLUTIONARY TERROR

H e m a d e it v e r y c l e a r t h a t h e s a w n o d i f f e r e n c e , a n d h e d i d n ' t m a k e t h i s c l e a r b y s a y i n g it, h e m a d e it c l e a r b y w h a t h e did.'^^ E v e n t o d a y , l o n g after s l a v e r y h a s b e e n a b o l i s h e d . B r o w n i s t h e p o l a r i z ­ ing

figure

in A m e r i c a n c o l l e c t i v e m e m o r y ; t h o s e w h i t e s w h o

support

B r o w n are all the more precious —among them, surprisingly, D a v i d T h o r e a u , t h e g r e a t o p p o n e n t of v i o l e n c e : a g a i n s t t h e

Henry

standard

d i s m i s s a l of B r o w n a s bloodthirsty^ foolish, a n d i n s a n e , T h o r e a u p a i n t e d a p o r t r a i t of a p e e r l e s s m a n w h o s e e m b r a c e m e n t of a c a u s e w a s u n p a r ­ a l l e l e d ; h e e v e n g o e s a s far a s to l i k e n B r o w n ' s e x e c u t i o n ( h e s t a t e s t h a t h e r e g a r d s B r o w n a s d e a d b e f o r e h i s a c t u a l d e a t h ) to

Christ.Thoreau

v e n t s h i s rcige at t h e s c o r e s of t h o s e w h o v o i c e d t h e i r s c o r n for

John

B r o w n : t h e y c o u l d not u n d e r s t a n d B r o w n d u e to t h e i r c o n c r e t e s t a n c e s a n d " d e a d " e x i s t e n c e s ; t h e y a r e not t r u l y a l i v e , o n l y a h a n d f u l of m e n c a n b e s a i d to h a v e l i v e d . It i s , h o w e v e r , t h i s v e r y c o n s i s t e n t e g a l i t a r i a n i s m w h i c h a l s o c o n s t i t u t e s t h e l i m i t a t i o n of J a c o b i n p o l i t i c s . R e c a l l M a r x ' s f u n d a m e n t a l about

the

" b o u r g e o i s " l i m i t a t i o n of t h e

insight

l o g i c of e q u a l i t y : c a p i t a l i s t

i n e q u a l i t i e s ( " e x p l o i t a t i o n " ) a r e not t h e " u n p r i n c i p l e d v i o l a t i o n s of t h e p r i n c i p l e of e q u a l i t y , " b u t a r e a b s o l u t e l y i n h e r e n t to t h e l o g i c of e q u a l i t y , t h e y a r e t h e p a r a d o x i c a l r e s u l t of its c o n s i s t e n t r e a l i z a t i o n . W h a t w e h a v e in m i n d h e r e i s not o n l y t h e w e a r i s o m e o l d m o t i f of h o w m a r k e t e x c h a n g e p r e s u p p o s e s f o r m a l l y / l e g a l l y e q u a l s u b j e c t s w h o m e e t a n d i n t e r a c t in t h e m a r k e t ; t h e c r u c i a l m o m e n t of M a r x ' s c r i t i q u e of " b o u r g e o i s " s o c i a l i s t s i s that capitalist exploitation

does not

involve a n y kind

of

"unequal"

e x c h a n g e b e t w e e n the w o r k e r and the c a p i t a l i s t — t h i s e x c h a n g e is fully equal a n d "just, " i d e a l l y (in p r i n c i p l e ) , t h e w o r k e r g e t s p a i d t h e full v a l u e of t h e c o m m o d i t y h e i s s e l l i n g ( h i s l a b o r - p o w e r ) . O f c o u r s e , r a d i c a l b o u r g e o i s r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s a r e a w a r e of t h i s l i m i t a t i o n ; h o w e v e r , t h e w a y t h e y t r y to c o u n t e r a c t it i s t h r o u g h a d i r e c t " t e r r o r i s t i c " i m p o s i t i o n of m o r e a n d m o r e àe facto e q u a l i t y ( e q u a l s a l a r i e s , e q u a l a c c e s s to h e a l t h s e r v i c e s . . . ) , w h i c h c a n o n l y b e i m p o s e d t h r o u g h n e w f o r m s of f o r m a l i n e q u a l i t y (different s o r t s of p r e f e r e n t i a l t r e a t m e n t s for t h e u n d e r p r i v i ­ l e g e d ) . In s h o r t , t h e a x i o m of " e q u a l i t y " m e a n s e i t h e r not e n o u g h r e m a i n s t h e a b s t r a c t form of a c t u a l i n e q u a l i t y ) o r too m u c h

(it

(enforce

" t e r r o r i s t i c " e q u a l i t y ) — i t i s a f o r m a l i s t i c n o t i o n in a strict d i a l e c t i c a l s e n s e , t h a t i s , its l i m i t a t i o n i s p r e c i s e l y t h a t i t s form i s not

concrete

e n o u g h , b u t a m e r e n e u t r a l c o n t a i n e r of s o m e c o n t e n t t h a t e l u d e s t h i s form. 173

IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S

T h e p r o b l e m h e r e is n o t t e r r o r a s s u c h — o u r t a s k t o d a y i s p r e c i s e l y to r e i n v e n t e m a n c i p a t o r y t e r r o r . T h e p r o b l e m l i e s e l s e w h e r e ; e g a l i t a r ­ ian

political " e x t r e m i s m " or "excessive r a d i c a l i s m " should a l w a y s be

read as a phenomenon

of i d e o l o g i c o - p o l i t l c a l déplacement: a s a n i n d e x

of its o p p o s i t e , of a l i m i t a t i o n , of a r e f u s a l e f f e c t i v e l y to " g o to t h e e n d . " W h a t w a s t h e J a c o b i n s ' r e c o u r s e to r a d i c a l " t e r r o r " if n o t a kind

of h y s t e r i c a l a c t i n g - o u t

bearing

disturb the very fundamentals

witness to their

of e c o n o m i c o r d e r

i n a b i l i t y to

(private

property,

e t c . ) ? A n d d o e s t h e s a m e n o t g o e v e n for t h e s o - c a l l e d " e x c e s s e s " of political

correctness?

Do

d i s t u r b i n g t h e effective

they

also

not

display the

retreat

from

( e c o n o m i c a n d o t h e r ) c a u s e s of r a c i s m a n d

s e x i s m ? P e r h a p s , t h e n , t h e t i m e h a s c o m e to r e n d e r p r o b l e m a t i c t h e s t a n d a r d t o p o s , s h a r e d b y p r a c t i c a l l y a l l " p o s t m o d e r n " leftists, a c c o r d ­ ing

to w h i c h

predominance jective

political "totalitarianism" somehow of m a t e r i a l p r o d u c t i o n

communication

and/or

results

a n d technology over

from

the

intersub­

s y m b o l i c p r a c t i c e , a s if t h e r o o t of

p o l i t i c a l t e r r o r r e s i d e s i n t h e fact t h a t t h e " p r i n c i p l e " of i n s t r u m e n t a l r e a s o n , of t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l e x p l o i t a t i o n of n a t u r e , i s e x t e n d e d a l s o to s o c i e t y , s o t h a t p e o p l e a r e t r e a t e d a s r a w stuff t o b e t r a n s f o r m e d New

Men. What

into

if it i s t h e e x a c t opposite w h i c h h o l d s ? W h a t if

p o l i t i c a l " t e r r o r " s i g n a l s p r e c i s e l y t h a t t h e s p h e r e of ( m a t e r i a l ) p r o ­ d u c t i o n is denied i t s a u t o n o m y a n d dubordinated to p o l i t i c a l l o g i c ? Is it not t h a t a l l p o l i t i c a l " t e r r o r , " from t h e J a c o b i n s to t h e M a o i s t C u l t u r a l Revolution, reduction

presupposes

to t h e t e r r a i n

the

foreclosure

of p r o d u c t i o n

proper,

of t h e p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e ? In o t h e r

its

words,

w h a t such a postmodern perspective effectively amounts to is nothing l e s s t h a n t h e a b a n d o n m e n t of M a r x ' s k e y I n s i g h t i n t o h o w t h e p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e i s a s p e c t a c l e w h i c h , i n o r d e r to b e d e c i p h e r e d , h a s t o b e r e f e r r e d t o t h e s p h e r e of t h e e c o n o m y ( " i f M a r x i s m h a d a n y a n a l y t i c a l v a l u e for political t h e o r y , w a s it n o t i n t h e i n s i s t e n c e t h a t t h e p r o b l e m of f r e e d o m

w a s contained in the social relations implicitly declared

'unpolitical' —that is, n a t u r a l i z e d — i n liberal d i s c o u r s e ? " ) ^ ^ It i s a t t h i s l e v e l t h a t o n e s h o u l d s e a r c h for t h e d e c i s i v e m o m e n t of a r e v o l u t i o n a r y p r o c e s s : s a y , i n t h e c a s e of t h e O c t o b e r R e v o l u t i o n , n o t t h e e x p l o s i o n of 1917—18, n o t e v e n t h e civil w a r t h a t f o l l o w e d , b u t t h e i n t e n s e e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n of t h e e a r l y 1 9 2 0 s , t h e ( d e s p e r a t e , often r i d i c u l o u s ) a t t e m p t s to i n v e n t n e w r i t u a l s of d a i l y life: h o w t o r e p l a c e t h e p r e r e v o l u t i o n a r y m a r r i a g e a n d f u n e r a l r i t u a l s ? H o w to o r g a n i z e t h e m o s t c o m m o n p l a c e i n t e r a c t i o n i n a f a c t o r y , i n a n a p a r t m e n t b l o c k ? It i s a t t h i s 174

REVOLUTIONARY TERROR

l e v e l of w h a t , a s o p p o s e d to t h e " a b s t r a c t t e r r o r " of t h e " g r e a t " p o l i t i c a l r e v o l u t i o n , o n e is t e m p t e d to c a l l the " c o n c r e t e t e r r o r " of i m p o s i n g a n e w o r d e r on q u o t i d i a n r e a l i t y , t h a t t h e J a c o b i n s a n d b o t h t h e S o v i e t a n d t h e C h i n e s e r e v o l u t i o n s u l t i m a t e l y f a i l e d — n o t for l a c k of a t t e m p t s in t h i s d i r e c t i o n , for s u r e . T h e J a c o b i n s w e r e a t t h e i r b e s t not i n t h e t h e a t r i c s of T e r r o r , b u t in t h e Utopian e x p l o s i o n s of p o l i t i c a l i m a g i n a t i o n a p r o p o s t h e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e e v e r y d a y : e v e r y t h i n g w a s t h e r e , p r o p o s e d in t h e c o u r s e of t h e f r a n t i c a c t i v i t y c o n d e n s e d i n t o a c o u p l e of y e a r s , from t h e s e l f - o r g a n i z a t i o n of w o m e n to c o m m u n a l h o m e s in w h i c h t h e o l d w e r e to b e a b l e to s p e n d t h e i r l a s t y e a r s i n p e a c e a n d d i g n i t y . consequence

to b e

accepted

The

harsh

h e r e i s t h a t t h i s e x c e s s of e g a l i t a r i a n

democracy over and above the democratic procedure can only "institu­ t i o n a l i z e " i t s e l f in t h e g u i s e of i t s o p p o s i t e , a s r e v o l u t i o n a r y - d e m o c r a t i c terror.

Traiuubdtantiatioru

of

Marxljm

In m o d e r n h i s t o r y , t h e p o l i t i c s of r e v o l u t i o n a r y t e r r o r c a s t s i t s s h a d o w o v e r t h e e p o c h w h i c h s p a n s from R o b e s p i e r r e to M a o , or, m o r e g e n e r a l l y , t h e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e C o m m u n i s t b l o c in 1 9 9 0 — i t s l a s t i n s t a l l m e n t w a s the Maoist Cultural Revolution. Obviously, the socio-historical context h a d c h a n g e d radically between t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n a n d t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n — t o p u t it in P l a t o n i s t t e r m s , w h a t u n i t e s t h e t w o i s p r e c i s e l y a n d o n l y t h e s a m e " e t e r n a l " I d e a of r e v o l u t i o n a r y J u s t i c e . In t h e c a s e of M a o , t h e q u e s t i o n i s e v e n w h e t h e r o n e c a n l e g i t i m a t e l y c o u n t h i m a s a M a r x i s t , s i n c e t h e s o c i a l b a s e of t h e M a o i s t revolution w a s not the w o r k i n g class. O n e of t h e m o s t d e v i o u s t r a p s w h i c h l u r k for M a r x i s t t h e o r i s t s i s t h e s e a r c h for t h e m o m e n t of t h e F a l l , w h e n t h i n g s t o o k t h e w r o n g t u r n i n g i n t h e h i s t o r y of M a r x i s m : w a s it a l r e a d y t h e l a t e E n g e l s w i t h h i s m o r e p o s i t i v i s t - e v o l u t i o n a r y u n d e r s t a n d i n g of h i s t o r i c a l m a t e r i a l i s m ? W a s it t h e r e v i s i o n i s m a n d t h e o r t h o d o x y of t h e S e c o n d I n t e r n a t i o n a l ? W a s it L e n i n ? ^ ^ O r w a s it M a r x h i m s e l f in h i s l a t e w o r k , after h e h a d a b a n d o n e d his y o u t h f u l h u m a n i s m ( a s s o m e " h u m a n i s t M a r x i s t s " c l a i m e d d e c a d e s a g o ) ? T h i s e n t i r e t r o p e h a s to b e r e j e c t e d : t h e r e i s n o o p p o s i t i o n h e r e , t h e F a l l i s to b e i n s c r i b e d in t h e v e r y o r i g i n s . ( T o p u t it e v e n m o r e p o i n t e d l y , s u c h a s e a r c h for t h e i n t r u d e r w h o i n f e c t e d t h e o r i g i n a l m o d e l a n d set in m o t i o n its d e g e n e r a t i o n c a n n o t b u t r e p r o d u c e t h e l o g i c of a n t i - S e m i t i s m . ) W h a t t h i s m e a n s i s t h a t , e v e n if—or, r a t h e r , e s p e c i a l l y i f — o n e s u b m i t s 175

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

t h e M a r x i s t p a s t to r u t h l e s s c r i t i q u e , o n e h a s first to a c k n o w l e d g e it a s " o n e ' s o w n , " t a k i n g full r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for it, not to c o m f o r t a b l y r e j e c t t h e " b a d " s i d e of t h i n g s b y a t t r i b u t i n g it to a f o r e i g n e l e m e n t ( t h e " b a d " E n g e l s w h o w a s too s t u p i d to u n d e r s t a n d M a r x ' s d i a l e c t i c s , t h e " b a d " L e n i n w h o d i d not g r a s p t h e c o r e of M a r x ' s t h e o r y , t h e " b a d " S t a l i n w h o spoilt t h e n o b l e p l a n s of t h e " g o o d " L e n i n , a n d so o n ) . T h e first t h i n g w e m u s t d o i s to fully e n d o r s e t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t in the h i s t o r y of M a r x i s m c o n c e n t r a t e d in t w o g r e a t p a s s a g e s (or, r a t h e r , v i o l e n t c u t s ) : t h e p a s s a g e from M a r x to L e n i n , a s w e l l a s t h e p a s s a g e from L e n i n to M a o . In e a c h c a s e , t h e r e i s a d i s p l a c e m e n t of t h e o r i g i n a l c o n s t e l l a t i o n : from t h e m o s t a d v a n c e d c o u n t r y

(as M a r x e x p e c t e d ) to a relatively

b a c k w a r d c o u n t r y — t h e r e v o l u t i o n " t o o k p l a c e in t h e w r o n g

country";

from w o r k e r s to ( p o o r ) p e a s a n t s a s t h e m a i n r e v o l u t i o n a r y a g e n t . In t h e s a m e w a y a s C h r i s t n e e d e d P a u l ' s " b e t r a y a l " in o r d e r for C h r i s t i a n i t y to e m e r g e a s a u n i v e r s a l C h u r c h ( r e c a l l that, a m o n g s t the t w e l v e a p o s t l e s , P a u l o c c u p i e s t h e p l a c e of J u d a s t h e t r a i t o r , r e p l a c i n g h i m ! ) , M a r x n e e d e d L e n i n ' s " b e t r a y a l " in o r d e r to e n a c t t h e first M a r x i s t r e v o l u t i o n : it is a n i n n e r n e c e s s i t y of t h e " o r i g i n a l " t e a c h i n g to s u b m i t to a n d s u r v i v e t h i s " b e t r a y a l " ; t o s u r v i v e t h i s v i o l e n t a c t of b e i n g t o r n o u t of o n e ' s o r i g i n a l c o n t e x t a n d t h r o w n i n t o a f o r e i g n l a n d s c a p e w h e r e it h a s to r e i n v e n t itself—öw/y in thui way id universality born. S o , a p r o p o s t h e s e c o n d v i o l e n t t r a n s p o s i t i o n , t h a t of M a o , it i s too e a s y e i t h e r to c o n d e m n h i s r e i n v e n t i o n of M a r x i s m a s t h e o r e t i c a l l y " i n a d e ­ q u a t e , " a s a r e g r e s s i o n w i t h r e g a r d to M a r x ' s s t a n d a r d s (it i s e a s y to s h o w t h a t p e a s a n t s l a c k s u b s t a n c e l e s s p r o l e t a r i a n s u b j e c t i v i t y ) , b u t it i s e q u a l l y too facile to b l u r t h e v i o l e n c e of t h e c u t a n d to a c c e p t M a o ' s r e f o r m u l a t i o n as a logical continuation

o r " a p p l i c a t i o n " of M a r x i s m ( r e l y i n g , a s i s

u s u a l l y t h e c a s e , o n t h e s i m p l e m e t a p h o r i c e x p a n s i o n of c l a s s s t r u g g l e : "today's predominant class struggle is no longer b e t w e e n capitalists and p r o l e t a r i a t in e a c h c o u n t r y , it h a s shifted to t h e T h i r d v e r s u s t h e F i r s t W o r l d , b o u r g e o i s v e r s u s p r o l e t a r i a n n a t i o n s " ) . T h e a c h i e v e m e n t of M a o is h e r e t r e m e n d o u s : h i s n a m e s t a n d s for t h e p o l i t i c a l m o b i l i z a t i o n of t h e hundreds

of m i l l i o n s of a n o n y m o u s

Third W o r l d layers whose

labor

p r o v i d e s t h e i n v i s i b l e " s u b s t a n c e , " t h e b a c k g r o u n d , of h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l ­ opment—the

mobilization

of all t h o s e w h o m

even

such

a poet

of

" o t h e r n e s s " a s L e v i n a s d i s m i s s e d a s t h e " y e l l o w p e r i l " , a s w e see in w h a t is a r g u a b l y his w e i r d e s t text, " T h e R u s s o - C h i n e s e D e b a t e a n d the D i a l e c t i c " ( 1 9 6 0 ) , a c o m m e n t on t h e S o v i e t — C h i n e s e conflict:

176

REVOLUTIONARY TERROR

T h e y e l l o w p e r i l ! It i s n o t r a c i a l , it i s s p i r i t u a l . It d o e s not i n v o l v e i n f e r i o r v a l u e s ; it i n v o l v e s a r a d i c a l s t r a n g e n e s s , a s t r a n g e r to t h e w e i g h t of its p a s t , from w h e r e t h e r e d o e s n o t filter a n y f a m i l i a r v o i c e o r inflection, a l u n a r or M a r t i a n p a s t .

Does this not recall H e i d e g g e r ' s insistence, throughout the 1930s, that the m a i n t a s k of W e s t e r n

thought

t o d a y w a s to d e f e n d

the

Greek

b r e a k t h r o u g h , t h e f o u n d i n g g e s t u r e of t h e " W e s t , " t h e o v e r c o m i n g of the p r e - p h i l o s o p h i c a l , m y t h i c a l , " A s i a t i c " u n i v e r s e , to s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t t h e r e n e w e d " A s i a t i c " t h r e a t — t h e g r e a t e s t a d v e r s a r y of t h e W e s t w a s " t h e mythical in general a n d the Asiatic in p a r t i c u l a r " ?

It i s thid A s i a t i c

"radical strangeness" w h i c h is mobilized, politicized, b y M a o Zedong's C o m m u n i s t m o v e m e n t . In h i s Phenomenology of Spirit, H e g e l i n t r o d u c e s his n o t o r i o u s

notion

of w o m a n k i n d a s " t h e e v e r l a s t i n g i r o n y of t h e

community": womankind

" c h a n g e s b y i n t r i g u e t h e u n i v e r s a l e n d of

the g o v e r n m e n t i n t o a p r i v a t e e n d , t r a n s f o r m s i t s u n i v e r s a l a c t i v i t y i n t o a w o r k of s o m e p a r t i c u l a r i n d i v i d u a l , a n d p e r v e r t s t h e u n i v e r s a l p r o p e r t y of t h e s t a t e i n t o a p o s s e s s i o n a n d o r n a m e n t for t h e f a m i l y . "^^ In c o n t r a s t to m a l e a m b i t i o n , a w o m a n w a n t s p o w e r i n o r d e r to p r o m o t e h e r o w n n a r r o w f a m i l y i n t e r e s t s or, e v e n w o r s e , h e r p e r s o n a l c a p r i c e , i n c a p a b l e a s she i s of p e r c e i v i n g t h e u n i v e r s a l d i m e n s i o n of state p o l i t i c s . H o w a r e w e not to r e c a l l F . W . J . S c h e l l i n g ' s c l a i m t h a t " t h e s a m e p r i n c i p l e c a r r i e s a n d h o l d s u s i n i t s i n e f f e c t i v e n e s s w h i c h w o u l d c o n s u m e a n d d e s t r o y u s in i t s effectiveness"?'*'^ A p o w e r w h i c h , w h e n it i s k e p t i n i t s p r o p e r p l a c e , c a n be b e n i g n a n d p a c i f y i n g , t u r n s i n t o i t s r a d i c a l o p p o s i t e , i n t o t h e m o s t d e s t r u c t i v e fury, t h e m o m e n t it i n t e r v e n e s a t a h i g h e r l e v e l , t h e l e v e l w h i c h i s n o t i t s o w n : the .tame f e m i n i n i t y w h i c h , w i t h i n t h e c l o s e d c i r c l e of f a m i l y life, i s t h e p o w e r of p r o t e c t i v e l o v e , t u r n s i n t o o b s c e n e f r e n z y w h e n d i s p l a y e d a t t h e l e v e l of p u b l i c a n d s t a t e a f f a i r s . . . I n short, it i s a c c e p t a b l e for a w o m a n to p r o t e s t a g a i n s t p u b l i c s t a t e p o w e r o n b e h a l f of t h e r i g h t s of t h e f a m i l y a n d k i n s h i p ; b u t w o e t o a s o c i e t y in w h i c h w o m e n e n d e a v o r d i r e c t l y to i n f l u e n c e d e c i s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e a f f a i r s of state, m a n i p u l a t i n g t h e i r w e a k m a l e p a r t n e r s , e f f e c t i v e l y e m a s c u l a t i n g t h e m . . . Is t h e r e n o t s o m e t h i n g s i m i l a r in t h e t e r r o r a r o u s e d b y t h e p r o s p e c t of t h e a w a k e n i n g of t h e a n o n y m o u s A s i a n m a s s e s ? T h e y a r e fine if t h e y p r o t e s t a t t h e i r fate a n d a l l o w u s to h e l p t h e m ( t h r o u g h l a r g e - s c a l e h u m a n i t a r i a n activity), b u t not w h e n t h e y " e m p o w e r " themselves, to the h o r r o r of s y m p a t h e t i c l i b e r a l s , a l w a y s r e a d y to s u p p o r t t h e r e v o l t of t h e p o o r a n d d i s p o s s e s s e d , s o l o n g a s it i s d o n e w i t h g o o d m a n n e r s . . . 177

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

G e o r g i M . D e r l u g u i a n ' s Bourdieu'é Secret Admirer in the CaucMiij t e l l s t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y s t o r y of M u s a S h a n i b from A b k h a z i a , t h e l e a d i n g intell e c t u a l of t h i s t u r b u l e n t

region whose incredible career passed

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figure.

T h e first r e a c t i o n i s to d i s m i s s it a s a l o c a l e c c e n t r i c i t y , to t r e a t it w i t h benevolent i r o n y — " w h a t a strange choice, B o u r d i e u — w h o k n o w s w h a t t h i s f o l k l o r i c g u y s e e s in B o u r d i e u . . . ? " T h e s e c o n d r e a c t i o n is to d i r e c t l y a s s e r t t h e u n i v e r s a l s c o p e of t h e o r y — " s e e h o w u n i v e r s a l t h e o r y is: e v e r y i n t e l l e c t u a l from P a r i s to C h e c h n y a a n d A b k h a z i a c a n d e b a t e B o u r d i e u ' s c o n c e p t s . . . " T h e t r u e t a s k , of c o u r s e , i s to a v o i d b o t h t h e s e o p t i o n s a n d to a s s e r t t h e u n i v e r s a l i t y of a t h e o r y a s t h e r e s u l t of h a r d t h e o r e t i c a l w o r k a n d s t r u g g l e , a s t r u g g l e t h a t i s n o t e x t e r n a l to t h e o r y : t h e p o i n t i s not ( o n l y ) t h a t S h a n i b h a d to d o a lot of w o r k to b r e a k the c o n s t r a i n t s of h i s l o c a l c o n t e x t a n d g r a s p B o u r d i e u — t h i s

appropriation

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M a o w i t h r e g a r d to L e n i n and S t a l i n c o n c e r n s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the w o r k i n g class a n d the p e a s a n t r y . Both L e n i n a n d S t a l i n w e r e d e e p l y d i s t r u s t f u l of t h e p e a s a n t r y , t h e y s a w b r e a k i n g t h e i n e r t i a of t h e p e a s a n t r y a s o n e of t h e m a i n t a s k s of S o v i e t p o w e r : to u p r o o t t h e i r s u b s t a n t i a l a t t a c h m e n t to l a n d , to " p r o l e t a r i a n i z e " t h e m a n d t h u s f u l l y e x p o s e t h e m to t h e d y n a m i c s of m o d e r n i z a t i o n — i n c l e a r c o n t r a s t to M a o w h o , a s w e h a v e n o t e d , i n h i s c r i t i c a l n o t e s o n S t a l i n ' s Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR (from

1 9 5 8 ) r e m a r k e d t h a t " S t a l i n ' s p o i n t of v i e w [. . . ] i s

a l m o s t a l t o g e t h e r w r o n g . T h e b a s i c e r r o r i s m i s t r u s t of t h e p e a s a n t s . " T h e t h e o r e t i c a l a n d p o l i t i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h i s shift a r e p r o p e r l y s h a t t e r ing: t h e y i m p l y n o l e s s t h a n a t h o r o u g h r e w o r k i n g of M a r x ' s H e g e l i a n n o t i o n of t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e p r o l e t a r i a t a s t h a t of " s u b s t a n c e l e s s s u b j e c t i v i t y , " of t h o s e w h o a r e r e d u c e d to t h e a b y s s of t h e i r s u b j e c t i v i t y . A s i s w e l l k n o w n b y t h o s e w h o still r e m e m b e r t h e i r M a r x i s m , t h e a m b i g u o u s centred p o i n t of i t s t h e o r e t i c a l s t r u c t u r e c o n c e r n s i t s p r e m i s e t h a t c a p i t a l i s m Itself c r e a t e s t h e c o n d i t i o n s for its t r a n s c e n d e n c e t h r o u g h p r o l e t a r i a n r e v o l u t i o n — h o w a r e w e to r e a d t h i s ? Is it to b e r e a d in a linear evolutionary w a y : revolution should take place w h e n capitalism fully d e v e l o p s all its p o t e n t i a l 178

a n d e x h a u s t s a l l its p o s s i b i l i t i e s , t h e

REVOLUTIONARY TERROR

j n y t h i c a l p o i n t a t w h i c h it c o n f r o n t s i t s c e n t r a l a n t a g o n i s m

("contra­

d i c t i o n " ) at its p u r e s t , in i t s n a k e d f o r m ? A n d is it e n o u g h to a d d t h e " s u b j e c t i v e " a s p e c t a n d to e m p h a s i z e t h a t t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s s h o u l d not j u s t sit a n d w a i t for t h e " r i p e m o m e n t , " b u t " e d u c a t e " i t s e l f t h r o u g h l o n g s t r u g g l e ? A s i s a l s o w e l l k n o w n , L e n i n ' s t h e o r y of t h e " w e a k e s t l i n k in t h e c h a i n " i s a k i n d of c o m p r o m i s e s o l u t i o n : a l t h o u g h it a c c e p t s t h a t t h e first r e v o l u t i o n c a n t a k e p l a c e , n o t i n t h e m o s t d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r y , b u t in a c o u n t r y in w h i c h t h e a n t a g o n i s m s of c a p i t a l i s t d e v e l o p m e n t a r e m o s t a g g r a v a t e d , e v e n if it i s l e s s d e v e l o p e d ( R u s s i a , w h i c h c o m b i n e d c o n ­ centrated modern capitalist-industrial islands with agrarian b a c k w a r d ­ n e s s a n d p r e - d e m o c r a t i c a u t h o r i t a r i a n g o v e r n m e n t ) , it still p e r c e i v e d t h e O c t o b e r R e v o l u t i o n a s a r i s k y b r e a k t h r o u g h w h i c h c o u l d o n l y s u c c e e d if it w a s s o o n a c c o m p a n i e d b y a l a r g e - s c a l e W e s t e r n E u r o p e a n r e v o l u t i o n (all e y e s w e r e f o c u s e d on G e r m a n y i n t h i s r e s p e c t ) . T h e r a d i c a l a b a n ­ d o n m e n t of t h i s m o d e l o c c u r r e d o n l y w i t h M a o , for w h o m t h e p r o l e t a r i a n r e v o l u t i o n s h o u l d t a k e p l a c e in t h e l e s s d e v e l o p e d p a r t of t h e w o r l d , a m o n g t h e w i d e m a s s e s of t h e T h i r d W o r l d ' s i m p o v e r i s h e d p e a s a n t s , w o r k e r s , a n d e v e n t h e " p a t r i o t i c b o u r g e o i s i e , " w h o a r e e x p o s e d to t h e a f t e r s h o c k s of c a p i t a l i s t g l o b a l i z a t i o n , o r g a n i z i n g t h e i r r a g e a n d d e s p a i r . In a total r e v e r s a l ( p e r v e r s i o n e v e n ) of M a r x ' s m o d e l , t h e c l a s s s t r u g g l e is thus reformulated

a s the

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n a t i o n s " a n d T h i r d W o r l d "proletarian nations." T h e p a r a d o x here is p r o p e r l y d i a l e c t i c a l , p e r h a p s in t h e u l t i m a t e a p p l i c a t i o n of M a o ' s t e a c h i n g on c o n t r a d i c t i o n s : its v e r y u n d e r d e v e l o p m e n t ( a n d t h u s " u n r i p e n e s s " for t h e r e v o l u t i o n ) m a k e s a c o u n t r y " r i p e " for t h e r e v o l u t i o n . S i n c e , h o w ­ e v e r , s u c h " u n r i p e " e c o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n s d o not a l l o w t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of p r o p e r l y post-capitalist socialism, the n e c e s s a r y correlate is the assertion of t h e " p r i m a c y of p o h t i c s o v e r e c o n o m i c s " : t h e v i c t o r i o u s r e v o l u t i o n a r y s u b j e c t d o e s not a c t a s a n i n s t r u m e n t of e c o n o m i c n e c e s s i t y , l i b e r a t i n g i t s potential w h o s e further development is thwarted b y capitalist contra­ d i c t i o n s ; it i s , r a t h e r , a v o l u n t a r i s t a g e n t w h i c h a c t s agalrut

"spontaneous"

e c o n o m i c n e c e s s i t y , i m p o s i n g its v i s i o n on r e a l i t y t h r o u g h r e v o l u t i o n a r y terror. O n e s h o u l d b e a r in m i n d h e r e t h e f u n d a m e n t a l

l e s s o n of H e g e l i a n

' c o n c r e t e u n i v e r s a l i t y " : u n i v e r s a l n e c e s s i t y i s not a t e l e o l o g i c a l force w^hich, o p e r a t i v e from t h e o u t s e t , p u l l s t h e s t r i n g s a n d r u n s t h e p r o c e s s , g u a r a n t e e i n g its h a p p y o u t c o m e ; on t h e c o n t r a r y , t h i s u n i v e r s a l n e c e s s i t y IS a l w a y s r e t r o a c t i v e , it e m e r g e s o u t of t h e r a d i c a l c o n t i n g e n c y of t h e p r o c e s s a n d s i g n a l s t h e m o m e n t of t h e c o n t i n g e n c y ' s se\î-Aufhebung.

One 179

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

s h o u l d t h u s s a y t h a t , o n c e t h e ( c o n t i n g e n t ) p a s s a g e from L e n i n i s m to M a o i s m t o o k p l a c e , it c a n n o t b u t a p p e a r a s " n e c e s s a r y , " t h a t i s , o n e c a n ( r e ) c o n s t r u c t t h e " i n n e r n e c e s s i t y " of M a o i s m a s t h e n e x t " s t a g e " of t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of M a r x i s m . In o r d e r to g r a s p t h i s r e v e r s a l of c o n t i n g e n c y into necessity, one should leave b e h i n d the standard linear historical time s t r u c t u r e d a s t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of p o s s i b i l i t i e s ( a t t h e t e m p o r a l m o m e n t X, there are multiple possible directions history can take, and w h a t actually t a k e s p l a c e i s t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of o n e of t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s ) : w h a t t h i s l i n e a r t i m e i s u n a b l e t o g r a s p i s t h e p a r a d o x of a c o n t i n g e n t a c t u a l e m e r g e n c y w h i c h r e t r o a c t i v e l y c r e a t e s its o w n p o s s i b i l i t y : o n l y w h e n t h e t h i n g t a k e s p l a c e c a n w e " s e e " h o w it w a s p o s s i b l e . T h e r a t h e r t i r e s o m e d e b a t e a b o u t t h e o r i g i n s of M a o i s m ( o r S t a l i n i s m ) o s c i l l a t e s a r o u n d t h r e e m a i n o p t i o n s : ( I ) t h e " h a r d " a n t i - C o m m u n i s t s a n d t h e " h a r d " p a r t i s a n s of S t a l i n i s m c l a i m t h a t t h e r e i s a d i r e c t i m m a n e n t l o g i c w h i c h l e a d s from M a r x to L e n i n a n d from L e n i n to S t a l i n ( a n d t h e n from S t a l i n to M a o ) ; ( 2 ) t h e "soft" c r i t i c s c l a i m t h a t t h e S t a l i n i s t (or, p r i o r to it, L e n i n i s t ) t u r n i s o n e of t h e h i s t o r i c a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s p r e s e n t in A i a r x ' s t h e o r e t i c a l s t r u c t u r e — it could h a v e t u r n e d out otherwise, but the Stalinist catastrophe is none­ t h e l e s s i n s c r i b e d a s a n o p t i o n i n t o t h e o r i g i n a l t h e o r y itself; ( 5 ) finally, the defenders

of t h e p u r i t y of t h e

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Stalinism (or indeed L e n i n i s m ) a s a simple distortion, betrayal, insisting on t h e r a d i c a l b r e a k b e t w e e n t h e t w o : L e n i n a n d / o r

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" k i d n a p p e d " M a r x ' s t h e o r y a n d u s e d it for p u r p o s e s t o t a l l y a t o d d s w i t h M a r x . O n e s h o u l d r e j e c t a l l t h r e e v e r s i o n s a s b a s e d on t h e s a m e u n d e r ­ l y i n g linear-historicist notion

of t e m p o r a l i t y , a n d opt for t h e

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v e r s i o n , b e y o n d t h e false q u e s t i o n "to w h a t e x t e n t w a s M a r x r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e S t a l i n i s t c a t a s t r o p h e ? " : M a r x L< e n t i r e l y r e s p o n s i b l e , b u t retro­ actively, t h a t i s , t h e s a m e h o l d s for S t a l i n a s for K a f k a in B o r g e s ' s f a m o u s formulation: they both created their o w n predecessors. Thid is t h e m o v e m e n t of " c o n c r e t e u n i v e r s a l i t y , " t h i s r a d i c a l " t r a n s u b s t a n t i a t i o n " t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e o r i g i n a l t h e o r y h a s to r e i n v e n t i t s e l f in a n e w c o n t e x t : o n l y b y w a y of s u r v i v i n g t h i s t r a n s p l a n t a t i o n c a n it e m e r g e a s e f f e c t i v e l y u n i v e r s a l . A n d , of c o u r s e , t h e p o i n t i s not t h a t w e a r e d e a l i n g h e r e w i t h t h e p s e u d o - H e g e l i a n p r o c e s s of " a l i e n a t i o n " a n d " d i s a l i e n a t i o n , " of h o w t h e o r i g i n a l t h e o r y i s " a l i e n a t e d " a n d t h e n h a s to I n c o r p o r a t e t h e f o r e i g n c o n t e x t , r e a p p r o p r i a t e it, s u b o r d i n a t e it to itself: w h a t such a p s e u d o - H e g e l i a n notion

m i s s e s is t h e w a y t h i s v i o l e n t

t r a n s p l a n t a t i o n i n t o a n e w c o n t e x t r a d i c a l l y affects t h e o r i g i n a l t h e o r y itself, so t h a t , w h e n 180

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( r e i n v e n t s i t s e l f in t h e f o r e i g n c o n t e x t ) , i t s v e r y s u b s t a n c e c h a n g e s — a n d y e t t h i s shift i s n o t j u s t t h e r e a c t i o n to a n e x t e r n a l s h o c k , it r e m a i n s a n i n h e r e n t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of t h e Jame

t h e o r y of t h e o v e r c o m i n g of c a p i t -

a l i s m . T h i s i s h o w c a p i t a l i s m i s a " c o n c r e t e u n i v e r s a l i t y " : it i s n o t t h e q u e s t i o n of i s o l a t i n g w h a t a l l t h e p a r t i c u l a r f o r m s of c a p i t a l i s m h a v e in c o m m o n , t h e i r s h a r e d u n i v e r s a l f e a t u r e s , b u t of g r a s p i n g t h i s m a t r i x a s a jpositive force i n itself, a s s o m e t h i n g w h i c h a l l a c t u a l p a r t i c u l a r f o r m s t r y to c o u n t e r a c t , t h e d e s t r u c t i v e effects of w h i c h t h e y s t r i v e to c o n t a i n .

The limiU of Mao'ö dialectics The m o s t r e l i a b l e s i g n of c a p i t a l i s m ' s i d e o l o g i c a l t r i u m p h i s t h e v i r t u a l d i s a p p e a r a n c e of t h e v e r y t e r m o v e r t h e l a s t t w o o r t h r e e d e c a d e s : i n t h e 1 9 8 0 s , " v i r t u a l l y n o o n e , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of a f e w a l l e g e d l y a r c h a i c M a r x i s t s ( a n ' e n d a n g e r e d s p e c i e s ' ) , r e f e r r e d to c a p i t a l i s m a n y l o n g e r . The t e r m w a s s i m p l y s t n i c k from t h e v o c a b u l £ u y of p o l i t i c i a n s , t r a d e unionists, w r i t e r s a n d journalists — not to mention social scientists, w h o had c o n s i g n e d it to h i s t o r i c a l oblivion.'"^^ S o w h a t a b o u t t h e u p s u r g e of the a n t i - g l o b a l i z a t i o n m o v e m e n t o v e r t h e l a s t f e w y e a r s ? D o e s it n o t clearly contradict this d i a g n o s t i c ? Not at all: a close examination q u i c k l y demonstrates that this movement also s u c c u m b s to "the temptation t r a n s f o r m a c r i t i q u e of c a p i t a l i s m i t s e l f ( c e n t r e d o n e c o n o m i c

to

mechan-

i s m s , f o r m s of w o r k o r g a n i z a t i o n , a n d profit e x t r a c t i o n ) i n t o a c r i t i q u e of 'imperialism'."^^ In this w a y , w h e n one t a l k s about "globalization a n d its a g e n t s , " t h e e n e m y i s e x t e r n a l i z e d (often i n t h e form of v u l g a r a n t i A m e r i c a n i s m ) . F r o m t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e m a i n t a s k t o d a y i s t o fight " t h e A m e r i c a n e m p i r e , " a n d a n y a l l y i s fine if it i s a n t i - A m e r i c a n ,

thus

unbridled Chinese "Communist" capitalism, violent Islamicist anti-modernism, a s well as the obscene

Lukashenko

regime in Belarus (see

C h a v e z ' s v i s i t to B e l a r u s i n J u l y 2 0 0 6 ) , m a y a p p e a r a s p r o g r e s s i v e anti-globalist comrades-in-arms . . . W h a t w e have here is thus another v e r s i o n of t h e i l l - f a m e d n o t i o n of " a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e r n i t y " : i n s t e a d of t h e c r i t i q u e of c a p i t a l i s m a s s u c h , i n s t e a d of c o n f r o n t i n g i t s b a s i c m e c h a n i s m , w e h a v e t h e c r i t i q u e of t h e i m p e r i a l i s t " e x c e s s , " w i t h t h e ( t a c i t ) i d e a of mobilizing capitalist mechanisms within another, more

"progressive,"

framework. T h i s rs h o w o n e s h o u l d a p p r o a c h w h a t is a r g u a b l y M a o ' s contribution

central

to M a r x i s t p h i l o s o p h y , h i s e l a b o r a t i o n s o n t h e n o t i o n of

c o n t r a d i c t i o n : o n e s h o u l d not d i s m i s s t h e m a s a w o r t h l e s s p h i l o s o p h i c a l 181

IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S

r e g r e s s i o n ( w h i c h , a s o n e c a n e a s i l y d e m o n s t r a t e , r e l i e s on a v a g u e notion of " c o n t r a d i c t i o n " w h i c h s i m p l y m e a n s " s t r u g g l e of o p p o s i n g

tenden­

c i e s " ) . T h e m a i n t h e s i s of h i s g r e a t t e x t " O n C o n t r a d i c t i o n " r e g a r d i n g t h e t w o f a c e t s of c o n t r a d i c t i o n , " t h e p r i n c i p a l a n d t h e n o n - p r i n c i p a l c o n t r a ­ d i c t i o n s in a p r o c e s s , a n d t h e p r i n c i p a l a n d t h e n o n - p r i n c i p a l a s p e c t s of a c o n t r a d i c t i o n , " d e s e r v e s a c l o s e r e a d i n g . M a o ' s r e p r o a c h to t h e " d o g m a t i c M a r x i s t s " i s t h a t t h e y " d o not u n d e r s t a n d t h a t it i s p r e c i s e l y in t h e p a r t i c u l a r i t y of c o n t r a d i c t i o n t h a t t h e u n i v e r s a l i t y of c o n t r a d i c t i o n r e ­ sides":

F o r i n s t a n c e , i n c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y t h e t w o forces in c o n t r a d i c t i o n , the p r o l e t a r i a t a n d t h e b o u r g e o i s i e , form t h e p r i n c i p a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n . T h e other contradictions, such a s those b e t w e e n the r e m n a n t feudal class a n d the bourgeoisie, b e t w e e n the peasant petty bourgeoisie and the bourgeoisie, between the proletariat a n d the peasant petty bourgeoisie, b e t w e e n the non-monopoly capitalists a n d the m o n o p o l y capitalists, b e t w e e n bourgeois d e m o c r a c y a n d bourgeois fascism, a m o n g

the

capitalist countries a n d between imperialism and the colonies, are all d e t e r m i n e d o r i n f l u e n c e d b y t h i s p r i n c i p a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n . W h e n i m p e r i a l i s m l a u n c h e s a w a r of a g g r e s s i o n a g a i n s t s u c h a c o u n t r y , a l l i t s v a r i o u s c l a s s e s , e x c e p t for s o m e t r a i t o r s , c a n t e m p o r a ­ r i l y u n i t e in a n a t i o n a l w a r a g a i n s t i m p e r i a l i s m . A t s u c h a t i m e , t h e contradiction b e t w e e n i m p e r i a l i s m a n d the c o u n t r y c o n c e r n e d

be­

comes the principal contradiction, w h i l e all the contradictions among the various classes within the

country

(including w h a t w a s

the

principal contradiction, b e t w e e n the feudal system a n d the great m a s s e s of t h e p e o p l e ) a r e t e m p o r a r i l y r e l e g a t e d to a s e c o n d a r y a n d subordinate position.

T h i s i s M a o ' s k e y p o i n t : t h e p r i n c i p a l ( u n i v e r s a l ) c o n t r a d i c t i o n d o e s not o v e r l a p w i t h t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n w h i c h s h o u l d b e t r e a t e d a s d o m i n a n t in a particular situation—the universal dimension

l i t e r a l l y redideo i n

this

p a r t i c u l a r c o n t r a d i c t i o n . In e a c h c o n c r e t e s i t u a t i o n , a d i f f e r e n t " p a r t i ­ c u l a r " c o n t r a d i c t i o n i s t h e p r e d o m i n a n t o n e , in t h e p r e c i s e s e n s e that, in o r d e r to w i n t h e b a t t l e for t h e r e s o l u t i o n of t h e p r i n c i p a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n , o n e s h o u l d t r e a t a p a r t i c u l a r c o n t r a d i c t i o n a s t h e p r e d o m i n a n t o n e , to w h i c h a l l o t h e r s t r u g g l e s s h o u l d b e s u b o r d i n a t e d . In C h i n a u n d e r t h e J a p a n e s e occupation, patriotic unity against the

Japanese was

the

p r e d o m i n a n t f e a t u r e if C o m m u n i s t s w a n t e d to w i n in t h e c l a s s s t r u g 182

REVOLUTIONARY TERROR

gießen these conditwiw, any directfocuj on cLus struggle harms the clajs struggle iUelf- ( T h e r e i n , p e r h a p s , r e s i d e s t h e m a i n f e a t u r e of " d o g m a t i c o p p o r t u n i s m " : to i n s i s t on t h e c e n t r a h t y of t h e p r i n c i p a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n a t t h e ^vvrong m o m e n t . ) T h e f u r t h e r k e y p o i n t c o n c e r n s t h e p r i n c i p a l aspect of a c o n t r a d i c t i o n ; l o r e x a m p l e , w i t h r e g a r d to t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e forces

productive

a n d t h e r e l a t i o n s of p r o d u c t i o n ,

the p r o d u c t i v e forces, p r a c t i c e a n d t h e e c o n o m i c b a s e g e n e r a l l y p l a y the p r i n c i p a l a n d d e c i s i v e r o l e ; w h o e v e r d e n i e s t h i s i s not a m a t e r i a l i s t . But it m u s t a l s o b e a d m i t t e d t h a t in c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s , s u c h a s p e c t s a s the r e l a t i o n s of p r o d u c t i o n ,

t h e o r y a n d the s u p e r s t r u c t u r e

in t u r n

m a n i f e s t t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e p r i n c i p a l a n d d e c i s i v e r o l e . W h e n it is i m p o s s i b l e for t h e p r o d u c t i v e forces to d e v e l o p w i t h o u t a c h a n g e In t h e r e l a t i o n s of p r o d u c t i o n , t h e n t h e c h a n g e in t h e r e l a t i o n s of p r o d u c t i o n plays the principal a n d decisive role.

The p o l i t i c a l s t a k e s of t h i s d e b a t e a r e d e c i s i v e : M a o ' s a i m i s to a s s e r t t h e k e y role, i n t h e p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e , of w h a t t h e M a r x i s t t r a d i t i o n u s u a l l y refers to a s t h e " s u b j e c t i v e f a c t o r " — t h e o r y , t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e . T h i s i s what, a c c o r d i n g to M a o , S t a l i n n e g l e c t e d :

S t a l i n ' s {Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR] from first to l a s t says n o t h i n g a b o u t t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e . It i s not c o n c e r n e d w i t h p e o p l e ; it c o n s i d e r s t h i n g s , not p e o p l e . [. . .] [It s p e a k s ] o n l y of t h e p r o d u c t i o n r e l a t i o n s , n o t of t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e n o r p o l i t i c s , n o r t h e r o l e of t h e people. C o m m u n i s m c a n n o t be r e a c h e d u n l e s s t h e r e is a c o m m u n i s t movement.

A l a i n B a d i o u , a t r u e M a o i s t h e r e , a p p l i e s t h i s to t h e

contemporary

c o n s t e l l a t i o n , a v o i d i n g t h e focus on t h e a n t i - c a p i t a l i s t s t r u g g l e , e v e n ridiculing

its m a i n form t o d a y ( t h e a n t i - g l o b a l i z a t i o n m o v e m e n t ) ,

defining the e m a n c i p a t o r y struggle in strictly political terms, a s struggle against (liberal) democracy, today's predominant

and the

ideologico-

p o l i t i c a l form. " T o d a y t h e e n e m y i s not c a l l e d E m p i r e o r C a p i t a l . It's c a l l e d D e m o c r a c y . " ^ ' ' W h a t , t o d a y , p r e v e n t s t h e r a d i c a l q u e s t i o n i n g of c a p i t a l i s m i t s e l f i s p r e c i s e l y the belief in the democratic form of the struggle against capitalism. L e n i n ' s s t a n c e a g a i n s t " e c o n o m i s m " a s w e l l a s a g a i n s t p u r e " p o l i t i c s i s c r u c i a l t o d a y , a p r o p o s t h e split a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s t h e r83

IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S

e c o n o m y i n ( w h a t r e m a i n s of) t h e Left: on t h e o n e h a n d , t h e

"pure

p o H t i c i a n s " a b a n d o n t h e e c o n o m y a s t h e site of s t r u g g l e a n d i n t e r v e n t i o n ; o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , the " e c o n o m i s t s , " f a s c i n a t e d b y t h e f u n c t i o n i n g of the contemporary

g l o b a l e c o n o m y , p r e c l u d e a n y p o s s i b i l i t y of a p o l i t i c a l

i n t e r v e n t i o n p r o p e r . W i t h r e g a r d to t h i s split, t o d a y , m o r e t h a n e v e r , w e s h o u l d r e t u r n to L e n i n : y e s , t h e e c o n o m y i s t h e k e y d o m a i n , t h e b a t t l e w i l l b e d e c i d e d t h e r e , o n e h a s to b r e a k t h e spell of g l o b a l capitalism—Z;«/^ the intervention

s h o u l d b e p r o p e r l y poUtical, n o t e c o n o m i c . T o d a y , w h e n

e v e r y o n e i s " a n t i - c a p i t a l i s t , " u p to a n d i n c l u d i n g t h e H o l l y w o o d " s o c i o c r i t i c a l " c o n s p i r a c y m o v i e s (from The Enemy of the State to The In,iu)er) In w h i c h t h e e n e m y a r e t h e b i g c o r p o r a t i o n s w i t h t h e i r r u t h l e s s p u r s u i t of profit, t h e s i g n i f i e r " a n t i - c a p i t a l i s m " h a s lost its s u b v e r s i v e s t i n g . W h a t o n e s h o u l d p r o b l e m a t i z e i s t h e s e l f - e v i d e n t o p p o s i t e of t h i s " a n t i - c a p i t a l i s m " : t h e t r u s t in d e m o c r a c y b y h o n e s t A m e r i c a n s w h o b r e a k u p the c o n s p i r a c y . Thû i s t h e h a r d k e r n e l of t o d a y ' s g l o b a l c a p i t a l i s t u n i v e r s e , its t r u e J V l a s t e r - S i g n i f i e r : d e m o c r a c y itself.'**^ M a o ' s f u r t h e r e l a b o r a t i o n on t h e n o t i o n of c o n t r a d i c t i o n in h i s " O n t h e C o r r e c t H a n d l i n g of C o n t r a d i c t i o n s A m o n g t h e P e o p l e " ( 1 9 5 7 ) a l s o c a n n o t b e r e d u c e d to i t s b e s t - k n o w n f e a t u r e , t h e r a t h e r

common-sense

p o i n t of d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e t w e e n t h e a n t a g o n i s t i c a n d t h e n o n - a n t a g o n i s t i c contradictions:

The contradictions between ourselves a n d the e n e m y are antagonistic c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . W i t h i n t h e r a n k s of t h e p e o p l e , t h e

contradictions

among the w o r k i n g people are non-antagonistic, while those between the exploited a n d the exploiting classes h a v e a non-antagonistic as well as an antagonistic aspect.

[. . . ] [ U J n J e r t h e p e o p l e ' s

dictatorship

methods,

t w o different

democratic

one dictatorial a n d the

other

d e m o c r a t i c , s h o u l d b e u s e d to r e s o l v e t h e t w o t y p e s of c o n t r a d i c t i o n s w h i c h d i f f e r in n a t u r e — t h o s e b e t w e e n o u r s e l v e s a n d t h e e n e m y a n d t h o s e a m o n g t h e people.'^^

O n e s h o u l d a l w a y s r e a d t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n t o g e t h e r w i t h its m o r e " o m i n o u s " s u p p l e m e n t , a w a r n i n g t h a t t h e t w o a s p e c t s m a y o v e r l a p : "In o r d i n a r y c i r c u m s t a n c e s , c o n t r a d i c t i o n s a m o n g t h e p e o p l e a r e not a n t a g o n i s t i c . B u t if t h e y a r e n o t h a n d l e d p r o p e r l y , or if w e r e l a x o u r v i g i l a n c e a n d l o w e r our guard, antagonism m a y arise." Democratic dialogue, the

peaceful

c o e x i s t e n c e of d i f f e r e n t o r i e n t a t i o n s in t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s , i s not s o m e t h i n g t h a t i s s i m p l y g i v e n , a n a t u r a l s t a t e of t h i n g s , it is s o m e t h i n g t h a t is 184

REVOLUTIONARY TERROR

^on a n d s u s t a i n e d b y v i g i l a n c e a n d s t r u g g l e . H e r e , t o o , s t r u g g l e h a s p r i o r i t y o v e r u n i t y : the v e r y s p a c e of u n i t y h a s t o b e w o n t h r o u g h

Struggle. S o w h a t a r e we t o d o w i t h t h e s e e l a b o r a t i o n s ? O n e s h o u l d b e v e r y precise i n d i a g n o s i n g , a t t h e v e r y a b s t r a c t l e v e l of t h e o r y , w h e r e M a o w a s y i g h t a n d w h e r e h e w a s w r o n g . M a o w a s r i g h t in r e j e c t i n g t h e s t a n d a r d potion of " d i a l e c t i c a l s y n t h e s i s " a s t h e " r e c o n c i l i a t i o n " of t h e o p p o s i t e s , a s IK higher u n i t y w h i c h e n c o m p a s s e s t h e i r s t r u g g l e ; he w a s w r o n g i n f o r m u l a t i n g t h i s r e j e c t i o n , t h i s i n s i s t e n c e o n t h e p r i o r i t y of s t r u g g l e , of d i v i s i o n , o v e r e v e r y s y n t h e s i s o r u n i t y , in t e r m s of a g e n e r a l c o s m o l o g y Ontology of t h e " e t e r n a l s t r u g g l e of o p p o s i t e s " — t h i s i s w h y he g o t c a u g h t tip in t h e s i m p l i s t i c , p r o p e r l y mm-d'uilectical, n o t i o n of t h e " b a d i n f i n i t y " of struggle. M a o c l e a r l y r e g r e s s e s h e r e t o p r i m i t i v e p a g a n " w i s d o m s " on how e v e r y c r e a t u r e , e v e r y d e t e r m i n a t e form of life, s o o n e r o r l a t e r m e e t s its end: " O n e thing destroys another, things emerge, develop, a n d a r e d e s t r o y e d , e v e r y w h e r e is l i k e t h i s . If t h i n g s a r e n o t d e s t r o y e d b y o t h e r s , t h e n they d e s t r o y t h e m s e l v e s . " O n e s h o u l d g i v e M a o h i s d u e a t t h i s l e v e l : he pushes to t h e e n d i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n , a p p l y i n g t h i s p r i n c i p l e to c o m ­ munism i t s e l f — ' S e e t h e f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e , i n w h i c h M a o a c c o m p l i s h e s a gigantic ontological "leap forward"

from

t h e d i v i s i o n of t h e a t o m i c

n u c l e u s i n t o p r o t o n s , a n t i - p r o t o n s , a n d so on, to t h e i n e v i t a b l e d i v i s i o n of c o m m u n i s m i n t o s t a g e s :

I d o n ' t b e l i e v e t h a t c o m m u n i s m w i l l n o t be d i v i d e d i n t o s t a g e s , a n d t h a t there w i l l be n o q u a l i t a t i v e c h a n g e s . L e n i n s a i d t h a t a l l t h i n g s c a n be divided. H e g a v e the atom a s a n example, a n d said that not only c a n the a t o m be d i v i d e d , b u t t h e e l e c t r o n , too, c a n be d i v i d e d . F o r m e r l y , h o w e v e r , it w a s h e l d t h a t it c o u l d n o t be d i v i d e d ; t h e b r a n c h of s c i e n c e d e v o t e d t o s p l i t t i n g t h e a t o m i c n u c l e u s i s still v e r y y o u n g , o n l y t w e n t y or t h i r t y y e a r s o l d . In r e c e n t d e c a d e s , t h e s c i e n t i s t s h a v e r e s o l v e d t h e atomic n u c l e u s into its constituents, such a s protons,

anti-protons,

neutrons, anti-neutrons, mesons a n d anti-mesons.'

H e e v e n g o e s a s t e p f u r t h e r a n d m o v e s b e y o n d h u m a n i t y itself, casting, i n a p r o t o - N i e t z s c h e a n

fore­

w a y , t h e " o v e r c o m i n g " of man^—

T h e life of d i a l e c t i c s i s t h e c o n t i n u o u s m o v e m e n t t o w a r d

opposites.

M a n k i n d w i l l a l s o finally m e e t i t s d o o m . W h e n t h e t h e o l o g i a n s t a l k about doomsday, they are pessimistic a n d terrify people. W e s a y the 185

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

e n d of m a n k i n d i s s o m e t h i n g w h i c h w i l l p r o d u c e

something

more

a d v a n c e d t h a n m a n k i n d . M a n k i n d is still in its i n f a n c y . ^ '

M o r e o v e r , h e e n v i s a g e s t h e r i s e of ( s o m e ) a n i m a l s t h e m s e l v e s t o the ( w h a t w e c o n s i d e r t o d a y a s e x c l u s i v e l y h u m a n ) l e v e l of c o n s c i o u s n e s s :

In t h e f u t u r e , a n i m a l s w i l l c o n t i n u e to d e v e l o p . I d o n ' t b e l i e v e t h a t m e n a l o n e a r e c a p a b l e of h a v i n g t w o h a n d s . C a n ' t h o r s e s , c o w s , s h e e p e v o l v e ? C a n o n l y m o n k e y s e v o l v e ? A n d c a n it b e , m o r e o v e r , t h a t of all the m o n k e y s only one species c a n evolve, a n d all the others

are

i n c a p a b l e of e v o l v i n g ? In a m i l l i o n y e a r s , t e n m i l l i o n y e a r s , w i l l h o r s e s , c o w s a n d s h e e p still b e the s a m e a s t h o s e t o d a y ? I t h i n k t h e y w i l l c o n t i n u e to c h a n g e . H o r s e s , c o w s , s h e e p , a n d i n s e c t s w i l l all c h a n g e .

T w o t h i n g s s h o u l d b e a d d e d to t h i s " c o s m i c p e r s p e c t i v e " :

first,

one

s h o u l d r e m e m b e r t h a t M a o is h e r e t a l k i n g to t h e i n n e r c i r c l e of p a r t \ ' i d e o l o g i s t s . T h i s i s w h a t a c c o u n t s for t h e t o n e of s h a r i n g a s e c r e t not t o b e r e n d e r e d p u b l i c , a s if M a o i s d i v u l g i n g h i s " s e c r e t t e a c h i n g " — a n d , in fact, M a o ' s s p e c u l a t i o n s c l o s e l y e c h o s o - c a l l e d " b i o c o s m i s m , " t h e s t r a n g e c o m b i n a t i o n of v u l g a r m a t e r i a l i s m a n d G n o s t i c s p i r i t u a l i t y w h i c h f o r m e d a n o c c u l t s h a d o w i d e o l o g y , t h e o b s c e n e s e c r e t t e a c h i n g , of S o v i e t M a r x ­ ism.

R e p r e s s e d from p u b l i c s i g h t d u r i n g t h e m a i n p e r i o d of t h e S o v i e t

s t a t e , b i o c o s m i s m w a s o p e n l y p r o p a g a t e d o n l y i n t h e first a n d i n t h e last t w o d e c a d e s of S o v i e t r u l e ; its m a i n t h e s e s w e r e : t h e g o a l s of r e l i g i o n (collective paradise, the

overcoming

immortality, the resurrection

of a l l s u f f e r i n g ,

full

individual

of t h e d e a d , t h e v i c t o r y o v e r t i m e

and

d e a t h , t h e c o n q u e s t of s p a c e far b e y o n d t h e s o l a r s y s t e m ) c a n b e r e a l i z e d in

terrestrial

life

through

the

development

of m o d e r n

science

and

t e c h n o l o g y . In t h e f u t u r e , n o t o n l y w i l l s e x u a l d i f f e r e n c e b e a b o l i s h e d , w i t h t h e r i s e of c h a s t e p o s t - h u m a n s

reproducing themselves

through

d i r e c t b i o t e c h n i c a l r e p r o d u c t i o n ; it w i l l a l s o b e p o s s i b l e t o r e s u r r e c t all t h e d e a d of t h e p a s t ( e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e i r b i o l o g i c a l f o r m u l a e t h r o u g h t h e i r r e m a i n s a n d t h e n r e - e n g e n d e r i n g t h e m — D N A h a d not y e t b e e n h e a r d of . . . ) , thus even e r a s i n g all p a s t injustices, " u n d o i n g " past suffering a n d d e s t r u c t i o n . In t h i s b r i g h t b i o p o l i t l c a l C o m m u n i s t f u t u r e , n o t o n l y h u ­ m a n s , but also a n i m a l s , all living b e i n g s , will p a r t i c i p a t e in a directly c o l l e c t i v i z e d R e a s o n of t h e c o s m o s . . . W h a t e v e r o n e m a y s a y a g a i n s t L e n i n ' s r u t h l e s s c r i t i q u e of M a x i m G o r k y ' s " G o d - b u i l d i n g " {bogograÔLteik'ötvo), 186

t h e d i r e c t d e i f i c a t i o n of m a n , o n e s h o u l d b e a r i n m i n d

that

REVOLUTIONARY TERROR

Gorky

h i m s e l f c o l l a b o r a t e d w i t h b i o c o s m i s t s . It i s I n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e

resemblances between

this "biocosmism" a n d contemporary

techno-

gnosis. S e c o n d , t h i s " c o s m i c p e r s p e c t i v e " i s for M a o n o t j u s t a n i r r e l e v a n t p h i l o s o p h i c a l c a v e a t ; it h a s p r e c i s e e t h i c o - p o l i t i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s . W h e n jVlao h i g h h a n d e d l y d i s m i s s e s t h e t h r e a t of t h e a t o m i c b o m b , h e i s n o t d o w n p l a y i n g t h e s c o p e of t h e d a n g e r — h e i s fully a w a r e t h a t s u c h a w a r tmoy

t°

e x t i n c t i o n of h u m a n i t y a s s u c h , so, t o j u s t i f y h i s d e f i a n c e ,

•'he h a s t o a d o p t t h e " c o s m i c p e r s p e c t i v e " from w h i c h t h e e n d o f life o n g 4 r t h " w o u l d h a r d l y m e a n a n y t h i n g to t h e u n i v e r s e a s a w h o l e . " T h i s ; "cosmic perspective" also g r o u n d s M a o ' s dismissive attitude t o w a r d s the h u m a n c o s t s of e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l e n d e a v o r s . If o n e i s t o b e l i e v e t h e l a t e s t b i o g r a p h y of M a o ,

h e caused t h e greatest famine in history b y

e x p o r t i n g food t o R u s s i a t o b u y a t o m i c a n d o t h e r t y p e s of a r m s : 3 8 million p e o p l e s t a r v e d o r w e r e s l a v e - d r i v e n t o d e a t h i n 1958—61. M a o supposedly k n e w e x a c t l y w h a t w a s happening, saying: "half of C h i n a may w e l l h a v e t o d i e . " T h i s i s t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l a t t i t u d e a t i t s m o s t r a d i c a l : k i l l i n g a s p a r t of a r u t h l e s s a t t e m p t t o r e a l i z e a g o a l , r e d u c i n g p e o p l e t o disposable m e a n s — a n d w h a t one should b e a r i n mind is that the Nazi H o l o c a u s t w a s not t h e s a m e : t h e m u r d e r of t h e J e w s w a s n o t p a r t of a rational strategy, but w a s autotelic, a meticulously p l a n n e d "irrational" e x c e s s ( r e c a l l t h e d e p o r t a t i o n of t h e l a s t J e w s from t h e G r e e k i s l a n d s i n 1944, j u s t b e f o r e t h e G e r m a n r e t r e a t , o r t h e m a s s i v e u s e of t r a i n s for t r a n s p o r t i n g J e w s i n s t e a d of w a r m a t e r i e l i n 1 9 4 4 ) . T h i s i s w h y H e i ­ degger w a s wrong when h e reduced the Holocaust

to t h e i n d u s t r i a l

p r o d u c t i o n of c o r p s e s : it w a s not t h a t , S t a l i n i s t C o m m u n i s m r a t h e r c o u l d be characterized better in this way.^^ T h e c o n c e p t u a l c o n s e q u e n c e of t h i s " b a d i n f i n i t y " t h a t p e r t a i n s t o v u l g a r e v o l u t i o n i s m i s JVlao's c o n s i s t e n t r e j e c t i o n of t h e " n e g a t i o n of t h e negation" as a u n i v e r s a l dialectical l a w . T h u s the explicit polemic a g a i n s t Engels (incidentally, following Stalin w h o , i n his " O n Dialectical a n d Historical M a t e r i a l i s m , " also does not mention

t h e "negation of the

n e g a t i o n " a m o n g t h e " f o u r m a i n f e a t u r e s of M a r x i s t d i a l e c t i c s " ) :

E n g e l s t a l k e d a b o u t t h e t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s , b u t a s for m e I d o n ' t b e l i e v e in t w o of t h o s e c a t e g o r i e s . ( T h e u n i t y of o p p o s i t e s i s t h e m o s t b a s i c l a w , t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of q u a l i t y a n d q u a n t i t y i n t o o n e a n o t h e r i s t h e u n i t y of t h e o p p o s i t e s q u a l i t y a n d q u a n t i t y , a n d t h e n e g a t i o n o f t h e n e g a t i o n d o e s n o t e x i s t a t a l l . ) [. . . ] T h e r e i s n o s u c h t h i n g a s t h e 187

I N D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

n e g a t i o n of t h e n e g a t i o n . A f f i r m a t i o n , n e g a t i o n , a f f i r m a t i o n , n e g a t i o n ...

in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h i n g s , e v e r y l i n k in t h e c h a i n of e v e n t s is

both affirmation a n d negation. S l a v e - h o l d i n g society n e g a t e d primitive s o c i e t y , b u t w i t h r e f e r e n c e to f e u d a l s o c i e t y it c o n s t i t u t e d , in t u r n , the affirmation.

Feudal society constituted

the negation in relation

to

s l a v e - h o l d i n g s o c i e t y b u t it w a s in t u r n t h e a f f i r m a t i o n w i t h r e f e r e n c e to c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y . C a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y w a s t h e n e g a t i o n in r e l a t i o n to f e u d a l s o c i e t y , b u t it i s , in t u r n , t h e a f f i r m a t i o n in r e l a t i o n to socialist • ^

55

society. Along

similar lines,

Mao

scathingly dismissed the

c a t e g o r y of

the

" d i a l e c t i c a l s y n t h e s i s " of o p p o s i t e s , p r o m o t i n g h i s o w n v e r s i o n of " n e g ­ a t i v e d i a l e c t i c s " — e v e r y s y n t h e s i s w a s for h i m u l t i m a t e l y w h a t A d o r n o in h i s c r i t i q u e of L u k a c s c a l l e d "erpreßte Verhöhnung" ( e n f o r c e d r e c o n c i l i a ­ t i o n ) , at b e s t a m o m e n t a r y p a u s e in t h e o n g o i n g s t r u g g l e , w h i c h o c c u r s not w h e n the opposites are united, but w h e n one side s i m p l y w i n s over the other:

W h a t i s s y n t h e s i s ? Y o u h a v e a l l w i t n e s s e d h o w t h e t w o o p p o s i t e s , the Kuomintang

a n d the

Communist

P a r t y , w e r e s y n t h e s i z e d on

the

mainland. T h e synthesis took place like this: their a r m i e s came, and w e d e v o u r e d t h e m , w e a t e t h e m b i t e b y b i t e . [. . . ] O n e t h i n g e a t i n g a n o t h e r , b i g fish e a t i n g l i t t l e fish, t h i s i s s y n t h e s i s . It h a s n e v e r b e e n p u t l i k e t h i s i n b o o k s . I h a v e n e v e r p u t it t h i s w a y i n m y b o o k s e i t h e r . F o r h i s p a r t , Y a n g H s i e n - c h e n b e l i e v e s t h a t t w o c o m b i n e i n t o one, a n d t h a t s y n t h e s i s i s t h e i n d i s s o l u b l e tie b e t w e e n t w o o p p o s i t e s . W h a t i n d i s ­ s o l u b l e t i e s a r e t h e r e in t h i s w o r l d ? T h i n g s m a y b e t i e d , b u t in t h e e n d t h e y m u s t b e s e v e r e d . T h e r e i s n o t h i n g w h i c h c a n n o t b e severed.'^'^

( N o t e , a g a i n , t h e t o n e of s h a r i n g a s e c r e t n o t to b e r e n d e r e d p u b l i c , t h e cruel-realistic lesson that u n d e r m i n e s the h a p p y public optimism . . .) T h i s w a s a t t h e c o r e of t h e f a m o u s d e b a t e , in t h e l a t e 1 9 5 0 s , a b o u t t h e O n e a n d the T w o (are the T w o u n i t e d into One, or is the O n e divided i n t o T w o ? ) : "In a n y g i v e n t h i n g , t h e u n i t y of o p p o s i t e s i s c o n d i t i o n a l , t e m p o r a r y a n d t r a n s i t o r y , a n d h e n c e r e l a t i v e , w h e r e a s t h e s t r u g g l e of o p p o s i t e s i s a b s o l u t e . " T h i s b r i n g s u s to w h a t o n e is t e m p t e d to c a l l M a o ' s e t h i c o - p o l i t i c a l injunction—^to

p a r a p h r a s e t h e l a s t w o r d s of

Beckett's

L'lnnomabU: " i n t h e s i l e n c e y o u d o n ' t k n o w , y o u m u s t g o on s e v e r i n g , I c a n ' t g o on, I'll g o on s e v e r i n g . 188

T h e p a r a d o x of M a o ' s r a d i c a l p o l i t i c s of

REVOLUTIONARY TERROR

the e t e r n a l l y o n g o i n g d i v i s i o n w h i c h n e v e r r e a c h e s t h e final p o i n t of p e a c e i s t h a t i t r e j o i n s i t s o p p o s i t e , t h e rightist s o c i a l - d e m o c r a t i c r e v i s i o n w h o s e founder Bernstein proposed the w e l l - k n o w n formula: "The goal is nothing, t h e m o v e m e n t i s e v e r y t h i n g . " S o w h e r e d o e s M a o fall s h o r t h e r e ?

I n t h e w a y h e opposes t h i s

injunction to sever, to divide, to dialectical synthesis. W h e n M a o m o c k i n g l y r e f e r s t o " s y n t h e s i z i n g " a s t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e enemy or h i s subordination, his mistake resides in this very mocking a t t i t u d e — h e d o e s not s e e t h a t t h i s i> t h e t r u e H e g e l i a n s y n t h e s i s . . . A f t e r aU, w h a t i s t h e H e g e l i a n " n e g a t i o n of t h e n e g a t i o n " ? F i r s t , t h e o l d o r d e r i s n e g a t e d w i t h i n its o w n i d e o l o g i c o - p o l i t i c a l form; t h e n , t h i s form i t s e l f h a s to be n e g a t e d . T h o s e w h o v a c i l l a t e , t h o s e w h o a r e a f r a i d t o t a k e t h e s e c o n d s t e p of o v e r c o m i n g t h i s form itself, a r e t h o s e w h o ( t o r e p e a t Robespierre) w a n t a "revolution without

a revolution" —and

Lenin

d i s p l a y s a l l t h e s t r e n g t h of h i s " h e r m e n e u t i c s of s u s p i c i o n " i n d i s c e r n i n g the different f o r m s of t h i s r e t r e a t . T h e t r u e v i c t o r y ( t h e t r u e " n e g a t i o n o f the n e g a t i o n " ) o c c u r s w h e n t h e e n e m y t a l k s y o u r l a n g u a g e . I n t h i s s e n s e , a t r u e v i c t o r y i s a v i c t o r y in d e f e a t : it o c c u r s w h e n o n e ' s s p e c i f i c m e s s a g e is a c c e p t e d a s a u n i v e r s a l f r a m e w o r k , e v e n b y t h e e n e m y . F o r e x a m p l e , i n the c a s e of r a t i o n a l s c i e n c e v e r s u s belief, t h e t r u e v i c t o r y of s c i e n c e t a k e s p l a c e w h e n t h e C h u r c h s t a r t s to d e f e n d i t s e l f in t h e l a n g u a g e of s c i e n c e . Or, i n t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y p o l i t i c s of t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m , a s m a n y a perspicuous commentator has observed, the Thatcher revolution w a s in Itself c h a o t i c , i m p u l s i v e , m a r k e d b y u n p r e d i c t a b l e c o n t i n g e n c i e s , a n d i t w a s o n l y t h e " T h i r d W a y " B l a i r i t e g o v e r n m e n t t h a t w a s a b l e t o institu­ tionalize it, t o s t a b i l i z e i t i n t o n e w i n s t i t u t i o n a l forms, or, t o p u t i t i n H e g e l e s e , t o r a i s e ( w h a t first a p p e a r e d a s ) a c o n t i n g e n c y , a h i s t o r i c a l accident, into

necessity. In this sense, Blair

repeated

Thatcherism,

e l e v a t i n g i t i n t o a c o n c e p t , i n t h e s a m e w a y t h a t , for H e g e l , A u g u s t u s repeated Caesar, transforming—sublating a (contingent) personal n a m e into a c o n c e p t , a t i t l e . T h a t c h e r w a s n o t a T h a t c h e r i t e , s h e w a s j u s t herself—it w a s only Blair (more than J o h n M a j o r ) w h o t r u l y forged T h a t c h e r i s m a s a n o t i o n . T h e d i a l e c t i c a l i r o n y of h i s t o r y i s t h a t o n l y a ( n o m i n a l ) i d e o l o g i c o - p o l i t i c a l e n e m y c a n d o t h i s to y o u , c a n e l e v a t e y o u m t o a c o n c e p t — t h e e m p i r i c a l i n s t i g a t o r h a s t o b e k n o c k e d off ( J u l i u s C a e s a r h a d to b e m u r d e r e d , T h a t c h e r h a d t o b e i g n o m i n o u s l y d e p o s e d ) . T h i s i s t h e s u r p r i s i n g l e s s o n o f t h e l a s t d e c a d e s , t h e l e s s o n of W e s t European

Third

W a y s o c i a l - d e m o c r a c y , b u t a l s o t h e l e s s o n of t h e

Chinese C o m m u n i s t s p r e s i d i n g over w h a t is a r g u a b l y the most explosive 189

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

d e v e l o p m e n t of c a p i t a l i s m i n t h e e n t i r e t y of h u m a n h i s t o r y : we can do il better. R e c a l l t h e c l a s s i c a l M a r x i s t a c c o u n t of t h e o v e r c o m i n g of c a p i t ­ a l i s m : c a p i t a l i s m u n l e a s h e d t h e b r e a t h t a k i n g d y n a m i c s of s e l f - e n h a n c i n g p r o d u c t i v i t y — i n c a p i t a l i s m , " a l l t h a t i s s o l i d m e l t s i n t o a i r , " c a p i t a l i s m is t h e g r e a t e s t r e v o l u t i o n i z e r in t h e h i s t o r y of h u m a n i t y ; on t h e o t h e r h a n d , this capitalist d y n a m i c is propelled b y its o w n inner obstacle or antagon­ i s m — t h e u l t i m a t e l i m i t of c a p i t a l i s m ( o f c a p i t a l i s t s e l f - p r o p e l l i n g p r o ­ d u c t i v i t y ) i s C a p i t a l itself, t h a t i s , c a p i t a l i s m ' s i n c e s s a n t d e v e l o p m e n t a n d r e v o l u t i o n i z i n g of i t s o w n m a t e r i a l c o n d i t i o n s , t h e m a d d a n c e of its u n c o n d i t i o n a l s p i r a l of p r o d u c t i v i t y , i s u l t i m a t e l y n o t h i n g b u t a d e s p e r a t e fuite en avant t o e s c a p e i t s o w n d e b i l i t a t i n g i n h e r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . . . M a r x ' s f u n d a m e n t a l m i s t a k e w a s h e r e t o c o n c l u d e , from t h e s e i n s i g h t s , that a new, higher social order ( c o m m u n i s m ) w a s possible, a n order that w o u l d n o t o n l y m a i n t a i n , b u t e v e n r a i s e to a h i g h e r d e g r e e a n d fully r e l e a s e t h e p o t e n t i a l of t h e u p w a r d s p i r a l of p r o d u c t i v i t y w i t h o u t it b e i n g t h w a r t e d b y s o c i a l l y d e s t r u c t i v e e c o n o m i c c r i s e s . In short, w h a t M a r x o v e r l o o k e d i s t h a t , to p u t i t i n s t a n d a r d D e r r i d e a n t e r m s , t h i s i n h e r e n t o b s t a c l e / a n t a g o n i s m a s t h e " c o n d i t i o n of i m p o s s i b i l i t y " of t h e full d e p l o y ­ m e n t of t h e p r o d u c t i v e f o r c e s i s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i t s " c o n d i t i o n of p o s s i ­ b i l i t y " : if w e a b o l i s h t h e o b s t a c l e , t h e i n h e r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n of c a p i t a l i s m , w e d o n o t g e t t h e f u l l y u n l e a s h e d d r i v e f i n a l l y freed from i t s s h a c k l e s , b u t r a t h e r w e lose p r e c i s e l y this v e r y p r o d u c t i v i t y that s e e m e d to b e simul­ t a n e o u s l y g e n e r a t e d a n d stifled b y c a p i t a l i s m , for it s i m p l y d i s s i p a t e s . . . A n d it i s a s if t h i s l o g i c of t h e " o b s t a c l e a s a p o s i t i v e c o n d i t i o n " w h i c h u n d e r l a y t h e f a i l u r e of s o c i a l i s t a t t e m p t s to o v e r c o m e c a p i t a l i s m , is n o w r e t u r n i n g w i t h a v e n g e a n c e i n c a p i t a l i s m itself: c a p i t a l i s m c a n f u l l y t h r i v e n o t i n t h e u n e n c u m b e r e d r e i g n of t h e m a r k e t , b u t o n l y w h e n a n o b s t a c l e (from m i n i m a l w e l f a r e - s t a t e i n t e r v e n t i o n , u p to a n d i n c l u d i n g t h e d i r e c t p o l i t i c a l r u l e of t h e C o m m u n i s t P a r t y , a s i n t h e c a s e of C h i n a ) c o n s t r a i n s its u n i m p e d e d r a m p a g e . S o , i r o n i c a l l y , thid i s t h e " s y n t h e s i s " of c a p i t a l i s m a n d C o m m u n i s m in M a o ' s s e n s e : i n a u n i q u e k i n d of p o e t i c j u s t i c e on a h i s t o r i c s c a l e , it w a s c a p i t a l i s m w h i c h " s y n t h e t i z e d " M a o i s t C o m m u n i s m . T h e k e y n e w fea­ t u r e i n C h i n a o v e r t h e l a s t f e w y e a r s h a s b e e n t h e e m e r g e n c e of a l a r g e scale w o r k e r s ' movement, protesting against the w o r k conditions which a r e t h e p r i c e C h i n a p a y s for r a p i d l y b e c o m i n g t h e w o r l d ' s

foremost

manufacturing power, a m o v e m e n t w h i c h h a s faced brutal repression — n e w proof, if it i s still n e e d e d , t h a t C h i n a i s t o d a y t h e i d e a l c a p i t a l i s t s t a t e : f r e e d o m for c a p i t a l , w i t h t h e s t a t e d o i n g t h e " d i r t y j o b " of c o n t r o l l i n g t h e 190

REVOLUTIONARY TERROR

v v o r k e r s . C h i n a a s t h e e m e r g i n g s u p e r p o w e r of the t w e n t y - f i r s t c e n t u r y t h u s s e e m s to e m b o d y a n e w k i n d of c a p i t a l i s m : d i s r e g a r d for e c o l o g i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s , d i s d a i n for w o r k e r s ' r i g h t s , e v e r y t h i n g s u b o r d i n a t e d to t h e r u t h l e s s d r i v e to d e v e l o p a n d b e c o m e t h e n e w w o r l d force. T h e q u e s t i o n i s : w h a t w i l l t h e C h i n e s e d o w i t h r e g a r d to the

big

biogenetic

r e v o l u t i o n ? Is it not a safe w a g e r t h a t t h e y w i l l h u r l t h e m s e l v e s i n t o unconstrained

genetic manipulation

of p l a n t s , a n i m a l s , a n d

humans,

bypassing all our " W e s t e r n " moral prejudices a n d limitations? T h i s i s t h e u l t i m a t e p r i c e for M a o ' s t h e o r e t i c a l m i s t a k e of r e j e c t i n g t h e " n e g a t i o n of t h e n e g a t i o n , " of h i s f a i l u r e to g r a s p h o w t h e " n e g a t i o n of t h e n e g a t i o n " i s not a c o m p r o m i s e b e t w e e n a p o s i t i o n a n d its e x c e s s i v e l y r a d i c a l n e g a t i o n , but, on t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e o n l y t r u e n e g a t i o n . A n d it i s b e c a u s e M a o i s u n a b l e to t h e o r e t i c a l l y f o r m u l a t e t h i s s e l f - r e l a t i n g n e g a ­ tion of form i t s e l f t h a t h e g e t s c a u g h t in t h e " b a d i n f i n i t y " of e n d l e s s n e g a t i n g , s c i s s i o n s i n t o t w o , s u b d i v i s i o n . . . In H e g e l e s e , M a o ' s d i a l e c t i c r e m a i n s a t t h e l e v e l of U n d e r s t a n d i n g , of fixed n o t i o n a l o p p o s i t i o n s ; it i s u n a b l e to f o r m u l a t e

t h e p r o p e r l y d i a l e c t i c a l s e l f - r e l a t i n g of

notional

d e t e r m i n a t i o n s . It i s t h i s " s e r i o u s m i s t a k e " (to u s e a S t a l i n i s t t e r m ) w h i c h l e d M a o , w h e n h e w a s c o u r a g e o u s e n o u g h to d r a w a l l t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s fi-om h i s s t a n c e s , to r e a c h a p r o p e r l y n o n s e n s i c a l c o n c l u s i o n that, in o r d e r to i n v i g o r a t e c l a s s s t r u g g l e , o n e s h o u l d d i r e c t l y o p e n u p t h e field to t h e enemy:

L e t t h e m g o in for c a p i t a l i s m . S o c i e t y i s v e r y c o m p l e x . If o n e o n l y g o e s in for s o c i a l i s m a n d not for c a p i t a l i s m , i s n ' t t h a t too s i m p l e ? W o u l d n ' t w e t h e n l a c k t h e u n i t y of o p p o s i t e s , a n d b e m e r e l y o n e - s i d e d ? L e t t h e m d o it. L e t t h e m a t t a c k u s m a d l y , d e m o n s t r a t e in t h e s t r e e t s , t a k e u p a r m s to r e b e l — • ! a p p r o v e a l l of t h e s e t h i n g s . S o c i e t y is v e r y c o m p l e x , t h e r e i s not a s i n g l e c o m m u n e , a s i n g l e hsien, a s i n g l e d e p a r t m e n t of t h e Central Committee, w h i c h one c a n n o t d i v i d e into t w o .

T h i s n o t i o n of d i a l e c t i c s p r o v i d e s t h e b a s i c m a t r i x of M a o ' s p o l i t i c s , its r e p e a t e d oscillation b e t w e e n " l i b e r a l " openness a n d then the " h a r d Une" p u r g e : first, l e t t h e p r o v e r b i a l " h u n d r e d f l o w e r s b l o s s o m , " so t h a t the e n e m i e s w i l l a c t u a l i z e a n d fully e x p r e s s t h e i r r e a c t i o n a r y h i d d e n

ten­

dencies; then, once everyone's true positions are clearly articulated, e n g a g e in a r u t h l e s s s t r u g g l e . A g a i n , w h a t M a o fails to d o h e r e i s to p r o c e e d to t h e p r o p e r l y H e g e l i a n " i d e n t i t y of o p p o s i t e s , " a n d to r e c o g ­ n i z e in t h e force t h e r e v o l u t i o n i s fighting a n d t r y i n g to a n n i h i l a t e its own 191

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

eddence, a s i s t h e c a s e in G.K. C h e s t e r t o n ' s The Man Who Waj Thurdday, in w h i c h t h e s e c r e t poHce c h i e f o r g a n i z i n g t h e s e a r c h for t h e

anarchist

l e a d e r a n d t h i s m y s t e r i o u s l e a d e r in t h e e n d a p p e a r to b e o n e a n d the same person

(God

Himself, i n c i d e n t a l l y ) . A n d d i d M a o h i m s e l f ulti­

m a t e l y not p l a y a s i m i l a r r o l e , t h a t of a s e c u l a r G o d w h o i s at t h e s a m e time the greatest rebel against himself? W h a t this Chestertonian identity of t h e g o o d L o r d w i t h t h e a n a r c h i s t R e b e l e n a c t s i s t h e l o g i c of t h e social carnivaL b r o u g h t to t h e e x t r e m e of s e l f - r e f l e x i o n : a n a r c h i s t o u t b u r s t s a r e n o t a t r a n s g r e s s i o n of I ^ w a n d O r d e r ; in o u r s o c i e t i e s , a n a r c h i s m a l r e a d y u) in p o w e r w e a r i n g t h e m a s k of L a w a n d O r d e r — o u r J u s t i c e i s the t r a v e s t y of J u s t i c e , the s p e c t a c l e of L a w a n d

O r d e r is an

obscene

carnival —the point m a d e clear b y a r g u a b l y the greatest political poem in

English,

S h e l l e y ' s " T h e M a s k of A n a r c h y " , w h i c h

describes

the

o b s c e n e p a r a d e of t h e f i g u r e s of p o w e r :

And m a n y more Destructions played In t h i s g h a s t l y m a s q u e r a d e . All d i s g u i s e d , e v e n to t h e e y e s . L i k e Bishops, l a w y e r s , peers, or spies. Last came A n a r c h y : he rode O n a w h i t e h o r s e , s p l a s h e d w i t h blood; H e w a s p a l e e v e n to t h e l i p s . Like Death in the Apocalypse. And he wore a kingly crown; A n d in h i s g r a s p a s c e p t r e s h o n e ; O n his b r o w this m a r k I s a w — "I A M G O D ,

A N D KING, A N D

LAW!"

T h i s i d e n t i t y i s difficult to a s s u m e , e v e n in c i n e m a . A l t h o u g h Vfor Vendetta w a s praised (by none other than Toni Negri, a m o n g others) and, even m o r e , c r i t i c i z e d for its " r a d i c a l " — p r o - t e r r o r i s t , e v e n — s t a n c e . It d o e s not p u s h t h e l o g i c to t h e e n d : it s h i r k s from d r a w i n g t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s from t h e p a r a l l e l s b e t w e e n S u t l e r a n d V, t h e t o t a l i t a r i a n d i c t a t o r a n d

the

a n a r c h i s t - t e r r o r i s t r e b e l . T h e " N o r s e f i r e " p a r t y Is, w e l e a r n , t h e i n s t i g a t o r of t h e t e r r o r it i s f i g h t i n g — b u t w h a t a b o u t t h e f u r t h e r i d e n t i t y of S u t l e r a n d V ? In b o t h c a s e s , w e n e v e r s e e t h e i r r e a l f a c e s ( e x c e p t t h e s c a r e d S u t l e r a t t h e v e r y e n d , w h e n h e i s a b o u t to d i e ) : S u t l e r w e see o n l y on T V 192

REVOLUTIONARY TERROR

s c r e e n s , a n d V i s a s p e c i a l i s t in m a n i p u l a t i n g t h e s c r e e n . F u r t h e r m o r e , V ' s d e a d b o d y i s p l a c e d on t h e t r a i n p a c k e d w i t h e x p l o s i v e s , i n a k i n d of V i k i n g f u n e r a l s t r a n g e l y e v o k i n g t h e n a m e of t h e r u l i n g p a r t y : N o r s e f i r e . S o w h e n E v e y i s i m p r i s o n e d a n d t o r t u r e d b y V in o r d e r to l e a r n h o w to o v e r c o m e f e a r a n d b e free, i s t h i s not p a r a l l e l to w h a t S u t l e r d o e s t o t h e e n t i r e E n g l i s h p o p u l a t i o n , t e r r o r i z i n g t h e m s o t h a t t h e y b e c o m e free a n d r e b e l ? B u t t h e film fails t o d r a w t h i s C h e s t e r t o n i a n l e s s o n of t h e u l t i m a t e identity b e t w e e n V a n d S u t l e r .

Cultural revolution and power Is n o t t h i s f i e g e l i a n - C h e s t e r t o n i a n shift from t h e c r i m i n a l t r a n s g r e s s i o n of L a w a n d O r d e r to L a w a n d O r d e r i t s e l f a s t h e h i g h e s t c r i m i n a l t r a n s g r e s s i o n d i r e c t l y e n a c t e d b y M a o ? T h i s is w h y , w h i l e s e t t i n g m m o t i o n a n d s e c r e t l y p u l l i n g t h e s t r i n g s of t h e s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e c a r n i v a l , M a o n o n e t h e l e s s r e m a i n e d e x e m p t e d from i t s p r o c e s s : a t n o m o m e n t w a s there ever a serious threat that M a o himself w o u l d be ritualistlcally deposed, treated as " y e s t e r d a y a king, t o d a y a beggar"—^he w a s not the tTciditional M a s t e r , b u t t h e " I x ) r d of M i s r u l e " :

In t h e E u r o p e a n M i d d l e A g e s it w a s c u s t o m a r y for g r e a t h o u s e h o l d s to c h o o s e a " L o r d of M i s r u l e . " T h e p e r s o n

c h o s e n w a s e x p e c t e d to

preside over the revels that briefly reversed or parodied the conven­ t i o n a l s o c i a l a n d e c o n o m i c h i e r a r c h i e s . [. . . ] W h e n t h e b r i e f r e i g n of m i s r u l e w a s o v e r , t h e c u s t o m a r y o r d e r of t h i n g s w o u l d b e r e s t o r e d : t h e L o r d s of M i s r u l e w o u l d g o b a c k t o t h e i r m e n i a l o c c u p a t i o n s , w h i l e t h e i r s o c i a l s u p e r i o r s r e s u m e d t h e i r w o n t e d s t a t u s . [. . . ] [ S J o m e t i m e s t h e i d e a of L o r d of M i s r u l e w o u l d spill o v e r from t h e r e a l m of r e v e l to t h e r e a l m of p o l i t i c s . [. . . ] [ T ] h e a p p r e n t i c e s t o o k o v e r from

their

g u i l d m a s t e r s for a r e c k l e s s d a y o r t w o , [. . . ] g e n d e r r o l e s w e r e r e v e r s e d for a d a y a s t h e w o m e n t o o k o v e r t h e t a s k s a n d a i r s n o r m a l l y associated only with men. C h i n e s e p h i l o s o p h e r s a l s o l o v e d t h e p a r a d o x e s of s t a t u s r e v e r s e d , t h e w a y s t h a t w i t o r s h a m e c o u l d d e f l a t e p r e t e n s i o n a n d l e a d to s u d d e n shifts of i n s i g h t . [. . . ] It w a s M a o ' s t e r r i b l e a c c o m p l i s h m e n t to s e i z e on s u c h i n s i g h t s from e a r l i e r C h i n e s e p h i l o s o p h e r s , c o m b i n e t h e m w i t h e l e m e n t s d r a w n from W e s t e r n s o c i a l i s t t h o u g h t , a n d t o u s e b o t h in t a n d e m to p r o l o n g t h e l i m i t e d c o n c e p t of m i s r u l e i n t o a l o n g - d r a w n out a d v e n t u r e in u p h e a v a l . To M a o , the former lords a n d masters 193

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

s h o u l d n e v e r b e a l l o w e d to r e t u r n ; h e felt t h e y w e r e not h i s b e t t e r s , a n d that society w a s liberated b y their removal. He also thought

the

c u s t o m a r y o r d e r of t h i n g s s h o u l d n e v e r b e r e s t o r e d . ^ ' Is, h o w e v e r , s u c h a " t e r r i b l e a c c o m p l i s h m e n t " n o t t h e e l e m e n t a r y g e s t u r e of e v e r y t r u e r e v o l u t i o n a r y ? W h y m a k e a r e v o l u t i o n a t all, if w e d o not t h i n k t h a t " t h e c u s t o m a r y o r d e r of t h i n g s s h o u l d n e v e r b e r e s t o r e d ? " W h a t M a o d i d w a s to d e p r i v e t h e t r a n s g r e s s i o n of its r i t u a l i z e d , l u d i c c h a r a c t e r b y t a k i n g it s e r i o u s l y : r e v o l u t i o n i s not j u s t a t e m p o r a r y s a f e t y v a l v e , a c a r n i v a l e s q u e e x p l o s i o n d e s t i n e d to b e f o l l o w e d b y a p r o c e s s of s o b e r i n g u p . H i s p r o b l e m w a s p r e c i s e l y t h e a b s e n c e of t h e " n e g a t i o n of t h e n e g a t i o n , " t h e f a i l u r e of t h e a t t e m p t s to t r a n s p o s e

revolutionary

n e g a t i v i t y i n t o a t r u l y n e w p o s i t i v e o r d e r : a l l t e m p o r a r y s t a b i l i z a t i o n s of t h e r e v o l u t i o n a m o u n t e d to j u s t so m a n y r e s t o r a t i o n s of t h e old o r d e r , so t h a t t h e o n l y w a y to k e e p t h e r e v o l u t i o n a l i v e w a s t h e " s p u r i o u s i n f i n i t y " of e n d l e s s l y r e p e a t e d n e g a t i o n w h i c h r e a c h e d its a p e x in t h e

Great

C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n . In h i s Logiques deé monèed, B a d i o u e l a b o r a t e d t w o subjective attitudes w h i c h counter an event: the "reactive subject" and the "obscure subject."

I n s o f a r a s o n e is r e a d y to a c c e p t t h e r i s k of

o b s c e n e l y d e s i g n a t i n g t h e r e i n t r o d u c t i o n of c a p i t a l i s m i n t o C h i n a a k i n d of e v e n t , o n e c a n c l a i m t h a t t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n a n d t h e r e v i s i o n i s m i d e n t i f i e d b y t h e n a m e " D e n g X i a o p i n g " s t a n d , r e s p e c t i v e l y , for

the

o b s c u r e a n d t h e r e a c t i v e s u b j e c t : D e n g o r c h e s t r a t e d t h e r e n a i s s a n c e of c a p i t a l i s m in C o m m u n i s t C h i n a , w h i l e t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n a i m e d at its total a n n i h i l a t i o n a n d w a s a s s u c h p r e c i s e l y w h a t B a d i o u c a l l s un dédoàlre obscur. B a d i o u h i m s e l f c o n c e d e s t h a t t h e

final

r e s u l t of

the

Cultural Revolution w a s negative:

it a l l b e g a n w h e n , b e t w e e n 1 9 6 6 a n d 1 9 6 8 , s a t u r a t i n g in the real t h e p r e v i o u s h y p o t h e s e s , t h e R e d G u a r d i s t h i g h - s c h o o l p u p i l s a n d stud e n t s , a n d t h e n t h e w o r k e r s of S h a n g h a i , p r e s c r i b e d for t h e d e c a d e s to c o m e t h e affirmative realization of t h i s b e g i n n i n g , of w h i c h t h e y t h e m selves, since their fury r e m a i n e d c a u g h t into w h a t t h e y w e r e rising a g a i n s t , e x p l o r e d o n l y t h e face of p u r e n e g a t i o n .

O n e s h o u l d t a k e a s t e p f u r t h e r h e r e : w h a t if t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n w a s " n e g a t i v e " n o t o n l y in t h e s e n s e of c l e a r i n g t h e s p a c e a n d o p e n i n g u p t h e w a y for a n e w b e g i n n i n g , b u t negative in itself, n e g a t i v e a s a n i n d e x of its impotence in g e n e r a t i n g t h e N e w ? T h i s b r i n g s u s b a c k to t h e 194

central

REVOLUTIONARY TERROR

w e a k n e s s of M a o ' s t h o u g h t and p o h t i c s . M a n y a c o m m e n t a t o r h a s m a d e i r o n i c r e m a r k s a b o u t t h e a p p a r e n t s t y h s t i c c l u m s i n e s s o f t h e t i t l e s of Soviet Communist books a n d articles, such a s their tautological char­ a c t e r , w i t h t h e r e p e a t e d u s e of t h e s a m e w o r d

(like

"revolutionary

d y n a m i c s in the e a r l y stages of the R u s s i a n revolution," or "economic c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e S o v i e t e c o n o m y " ) . H o w e v e r , w h a t if t h i s t a u t o l o g y p o i n t s t o w a r d s a n a w a r e n e s s of t h e l o g i c of b e t r a y a l b e s t r e n d e r e d b y t h e c l a s s i c r e p r o a c h of R o b e s p i e r r e t o t h e D a n t o n i s t opportunists: " W h a t y o u w a n t is a revolution without a revolution?" T h e tautological repetition thus signals t h e u r g e to repeat t h e negation, to relate i t t o i t s e l f — t h e t r u e r e v o l u t i o n i s " r e v o l u t i o n w i t h a r e v o l u t i o n , " a revolution which, in its course, revolutionizes its o w n starting presup­ p o s i t i o n s . H e g e l h a d a p r e s e n t i m e n t of t h i s n e c e s s i t y w h e n h e w r o t e , "It i s a m o d e r n folly t o a l t e r a c o r r u p t e t h i c a l s y s t e m , i t s c o n s t i t u t i o n a n d legislation, without c h a n g i n g the religion, to h a v e a revolution without a reformation."

H e t h e r e b y a n n o u n c e d the necessity of a cultural revolu­

tion as t h e c o n d i t i o n for t h e s u c c e s s f u l s o c i a l r e v o l u t i o n . T h i s , t h e n , s h o u l d b e o u r p r e c i s e v e r s i o n of R o b e s p i e r r e ' s r e t o r t : " W h a t y o u w a n t i s a revolution without a reformation!" T h e problem with revolutionary a t t e m p t s h i t h e r t o is t h u s n o t t h a t t h e y w e r e " t o o e x t r e m e , " b u t t h a t t h e y w e r e not radical enongh, t h a t t h e y d i d n o t q u e s t i o n t h e i r o w n p r e s u p p o s i ­ t i o n s . I n a w o n d e r f u l e s s a y o n Chevengur, P l a t o n o v ' s g r e a t p e a s a n t Utopia w r i t t e n i n 1 9 2 7 a n d 1 9 2 8 (just prior to forced collectivization), F r e d r i c J a m e s o n d e s c r i b e s t h e t w o m o m e n t s of t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y p r o c e s s . It begins w i t h t h e gesture of radical negativity:

t h i s first m o m e n t of w o r l d - r e d u c t i o n , of t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e i d o l s a n d the s w e e p i n g a w a y of a n old w o r l d in violence a n d pain, i s itself the p r e c o n d i t i o n for t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of s o m e t h i n g e l s e . A first m o m e n t of a b s o l u t e i m m a n e n c e i s n e c e s s a r y , t h e b l a n k s l a t e of a b s o l u t e p e a s a n t i m m a n e n c e or ignorance, before n e w a n d undreamed-of-sensatlons a n d feelings c a n come into being.

T h e n f o l l o w s t h e s e c o n d s t a g e , t h e i n v e n t i o n of a n e w l i f e — n o t o n l y t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e n e w s o c i a l r e a l i t y i n w h i c h o u r Utopian d r e a m s w o u l d he r e a l i z e d , b u t t h e ( r e ) c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e s e d r e a m s t h e m s e l v e s :

a p r o c e s s t h a t it w o u l d b e t o o s i m p l e a n d m i s l e a d i n g t o c a l l r e c o n ­ s t r u c t i o n o r U t o p i a n c o n s t r u c t i o n , s i n c e i n effect it i n v o l v e s t h e v e r y 195

IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S

effort to find a w a y to b e g i n i m a g i n i n g U t o p i a to b e g i n w i t h . P e r h a p s in a m o r e W e s t e r n k i n d of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c l a n g u a g e [. . . ] w e m i g h t t h i n k of t h e n e w o n s e t of t h e U t o p i a n p r o c e s s a s a k i n d of d e s i r i n g to d e s i r e , a l e a r n i n g to d e s i r e , t h e i n v e n t i o n of t h e d e s i r e c a l l e d U t o p i a in t h e first p l a c e , a l o n g w i t h n e w r u l e s for t h e f a n t a s i z i n g o r d a y d r e a m i n g of s u c h a t h i n g — a s e t of n a r r a t i v e p r o t o c o l s w i t h n o p r e c e d e n t in o u r previous literary institutions.

T h e r e f e r e n c e to p s y c h o a n a l y s i s i s h e r e c r u c i a l a n d v e r y p r e c i s e : in a r a d i c a l r e v o l u t i o n , p e o p l e not o n l y " r e a l i z e t h e i r o l d ( e m a n c i p a t o r y , e t c . ) d r e a m s " ; r a t h e r , t h e y h a v e to r e i n v e n t t h e i r v e r y m o d e s of d r e a m i n g . Is t h i s not t h e e x a c t f o r m u l a of t h e l i n k b e t w e e n t h e d e a t h d r i v e

and

s u b l i m a t i o n ? T h e r e i n r e s i d e s t h e n e c e s s i t y of t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n c l e a r l y g r a s p e d b y M a o : a s H e r b e r t M a r c u s e p u t it in a n o t h e r m a r v e l o u s c i r c u l a r f o r m u l a from t h e s a m e e p o c h , freedom (from i d e o l o g i c a l c o n ­ s t r a i n t s , from t h e p r e d o m i n a n t

m o d e of d r e a m i n g ) if the condition of

liberation, t h a t i s , if w e o n l y c h a n g e r e a l i t y in o r d e r to r e a l i z e o u r d r e a m s , a n d do not c h a n g e these d r e a m s themselves, sooner or later w e r e g r e s s b a c k to t h e old r e a l i t y . T h e r e i s a H e g e l i a n " p o s i t i n g of p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s ' a t w o r k h e r e : t h e h a r d w o r k of l i b e r a t i o n r e t r o a c t i v e l y f o r m s i t s o w n presupposition. It i s o n l y t h i s r e f e r e n c e to w h a t h a p p e n s after t h e r e v o l u t i o n , to the " m o r n i n g a f t e r , " t h a t a l l o w s u s to d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n p a t h e t i c l i b e r t a r i a n outbursts a n d true revolutionary u p h e a v a l s : the former lose their e n e r g y w h e n o n e h a s to s t a r t t h e p r o s a i c w o r k of s o c i a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n — a t

this

point, l e t h a r g y s e t s i n . In c o n t r a s t , r e c a l l t h e i m m e n s e c r e a t i v i t y of t h e J a c o b i n s j u s t p r i o r to t h e i r fall, t h e n u m e r o u s p r o p o s a l s a b o u t a n e w c i v i c r e l i g i o n , a b o u t h o w to d e f e n d t h e d i g n i t y of o l d p e o p l e , a n d so on. T h e r e i n a l s o r e s i d e s t h e i n t e r e s t of r e a d i n g t h e r e p o r t s a b o u t d a i l y life in t h e S o v i e t U n i o n in t h e e a r l y 1 9 2 0 s , w i t h t h e e n t h u s i a s t i c u r g e to i n v e n t n e w r u l e s for q u o t i d i a n e x i s t e n c e : w h a t a r e t h e n e w r u l e s of c o u r t i n g ? H o w should one celebrate a b i r t h d a y ? . . . A t t h i s p o i n t , t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n m i s e r a b l y f a i l e d . It i s difficult to m i s s t h e i r o n y of t h e fact t h a t B a d i o u , w h o a d a m a n t l y o p p o s e s t h e n o t i o n of t h e a c t a s n e g a t i v e , l o c a t e s the h i s t o r i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e M a o i s t C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n p r e c i s e l y in t h e n e g a t i v e g e s t u r e of s i g n a l i n g " t h e e n d of t h e p a r t y - s t a t e ELS t h e c e n t r a l p r o d u c t i o n of r e v o l u t i o n a r y p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y " — i t is here that he should h a v e b e e n consistent a n d denied the e v e n t a l s t a t u s of t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n : far from b e i n g a n E v e n t , it w a s 196

REVOLUTIONARY TERROR

r a t h e r a s u p r e m e d i s p l a y of w h a t B a d i o u l i k e s t o r e f e r to a s t h e " m o r b i d d e a t h d r i v e . " D e s t r o y i n g o l d m o n u m e n t s w a s n o t a t r u e n e g a t i o n of t h e past, i t w a s , o n c e a g a i n , r a t h e r a n impotent passage à l'acte b e a r i n g w i t n e s s to t h e f a i l u r e t o g e t r i d of t h e p a s t . S o , i n a w a y , t h e r e i s a k i n d of p o e t i c j u s t i c e i n t h e fact t h a t t h e final r e s u l t of M a o ' s C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n i s t o d a y ' s u n h e a r d - o f e x p l o s i o n of c a p i t a l i s t d y n a m i c s in C h i n a . T h a t i s to s a y , w i t h t h e full d e p l o y m e n t of c a p i t a l i s m , e s p e c i a l l y i n t o d a y ' s " l a t e c a p i t a l i s m , " it i s t h e p r e d o m i n a n t " n o r m a l " w a y of life w h i c h , in a w a y , b e c o m e s " c a r n i v a l i z e d , " w i t h constant self-revolutionizing, reversals, crises, a n d reinventions. Brian M a s s u m i c l e a r l y f o r m u l a t e d t h i s d e a d l o c k , w h i c h i s b a s e d o n t h e fact t h a t contemporary

c a p i t a l i s m h a s a l r e a d y o v e r c o m e t h e l o g i c of t o t a l i z i n g

n o r m a l i t y a n d a d o p t e d t h a t of e r r a t i c e x c e s s :

t h e m o r e v a r i e d , a n d e v e n e r r a t i c , t h e b e t t e r . N o r m a l c y s t a r t s t o lose i t s h o l d . T h e r e g u l a r i t i e s s t a r t to l o o s e n . T h i s l o o s e n i n g of n o r m a l c y is p a r t of c a p i t a l i s m ' s d y n a m i c . It's n o t a s i m p l e l i b e r a t i o n . It's c a p i t a l i s m ' s o w n form of p o w e r . It's n o l o n g e r d i s c i p l i n a r y I n s t i t u t i o n a l p o w e r t h a t defines everything, it's capitalism's p o w e r to p r o d u c e v a r i e i y — b e c a u s e markets get saturated. Produce

variety and y o u produce

a niche

m a r k e t . T h e o d d e s t of affective t e n d e n c i e s a r e o k a y — a s l o n g a s t h e y p a y . C a p i t a l i s m s t a r t s i n t e n s i f y i n g o r d i v e r s i f y i n g affect, b u t o n l y i n o r d e r to e x t r a c t s u r p l u s - v a l u e . It h i j a c k s affect i n o r d e r to i n t e n s i f y profit

potential.

It l i t e r a l l y v a l o r i s e s affect.

T h e c a p i t a l i s t l o g i c of

s u r p l u s - v a l u e p r o d u c t i o n s t a r t s to t a k e o v e r t h e r e l a t i o n a l field t h a t is a l s o t h e d o m a i n of p o l i t i c a l e c o l o g y , t h e e t h i c a l field of r e s i s t a n c e to i d e n t i t y a n d p r e d i c t a b l e p a t h s . It's v e r y t r o u b l i n g

and

confusing,

b e c a u s e it s e e m s to m e t h a t t h e r e ' s b e e n a c e r t a i n k i n d of c o n v e r g e n c e b e t w e e n the d y n a m i c of capitalist p o w e r a n d the d y n a m i c of resis­ tance.^^

There u thus, b e y o n d all cheap jibes a n d superficial analogies, a profound structural homology between M a o i s t permanent self-revolutionizing, the c o n t i n u o u s s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t t h e ossification of s t a t e s t r u c t u r e s , a n d t h e i n h e r e n t d y n a m i c s of c a p i t a l i s m . O n e i s t e m p t e d to p a r a p h r a s e

Brecht

h e r e , h i s " W h a t i s t h e r o b b i n g of a b a n k c o m p a r e d t o t h e f o u n d i n g of a n e w b a n k ? ", y e t a g a i n : w h a t a r e t h e v i o l e n t a n d d e s t r u c t i v e o u t b u r s t s of a R e d G u a r d i s t c a u g h t u p in t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n c o m p a r e d to t h e t r u e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n , t h e p e r m a n e n t d i s s o l u t i o n of a l l life-forms n e c e s s l 197

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

t a t e d b y c a p i t a l i s t r e p r o d u c t i o n ? T o d a y , t h e t r a g e d y of t h e G r e a t L e a p F o r w a r d itself i s r e p e a t i n g i t s e l f a s t h e f a r c e of t h e c a p i t a l i s t G r e a t L e a p F o r w a r d i n t o m o d e r n i z a t i o n , w i t h t h e o l d s l o g a n " a n iron f o u n d r y in e v e r y v i l l a g e " r e - e m e r g i n g a s " a s k y s c r a p e r in e v e r y s t r e e t . " It i s t h e r e i g n of c o n t e m p o r a r y g l o b a l c a p i t a l i s m w h i c h is t h e t r u e L o r d of M i s r u l e . N o w o n d e r , t h e n , t h a t , in o r d e r to c u r b t h e e x c e s s of social d i s i n t e g r a t i o n c a u s e d b y t h e c a p i t a l i s t e x p l o s i o n , C h i n e s e officials c e l e ­ brate religions a n d traditional ideologies w h i c h sustain social stability, from B u d d h i s m to C o n f u c i a n i s m , t h a t i s , t h e v e r y I d e o l o g i e s t h a t w e r e t h e t a r g e t of t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n . In A p r i l 2 0 0 6 , Y e X i a o w e n , C h i n a ' s top r e l i g i o u s official, t o l d t h e X i n h u a N e w s A g e n c y t h a t " r e l i g i o n i s o n e of t h e i m p o r t a n t forces from w h i c h C h i n a d r a w s s t r e n g t h , " a n d h e s i n g l e d out B u d d h i s m for its " u n i q u e r o l e in p r o m o t i n g a h a r m o n i o u s s o c i e t y , " t h e official f o r m u l a for c o m b i n i n g e c o n o m i c e x p a n s i o n w i t h s o c i a l d e v e l o p ­ ment

and

Forum.

care; the

same w e e k , C h i n a hosted

the World

Buddhist

T h e r o l e of r e l i g i o n a s a s t a b i l i z i n g force a g a i n s t c a p i t a l i s t

turbulence

is t h u s

officially sanctioned^—what

bothers

the

Chinese

a u t h o r i t i e s in t h e c a s e of s e c t s l i k e F a l u n G o n g i s m e r e l y t h e i r i n d e p e n ­ d e n c e from s t a t e c o n t r o l . ( T h i s i s w h y o n e s h o u l d a l s o r e j e c t t h e a r g u m e n t t h a t t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n s t r e n g t h e n e d s o c i a l i s t a t t i t u d e s a m o n g the p e o p l e a n d t h u s h e l p e d to c u r b t h e w o r s t d i s i n t e g r a t i v e e x c e s s e s of today's capitalist development:

quite the

contraiy,

by

undermining

t r a d i t i o n a l s t a b i l i z i n g i d e o l o g i e s s u c h a s C o n f u c i a n i s m , it r e n d e r e d

the

p e o p l e a l l t h e m o r e v u l n e r a b l e to t h e d i z z y i n g effects of c a p i t a l i s m . ) It Is a g a i n s t t h i s b a c k g r o u n d t h a t o n e s h o u l d r e a d t h e r e c e n t g r e a t c a m p a i g n in C h i n a to r e s u s c i t a t e M a r x i s m a s effective s t a t e i d e o l o g y ( l i t e r a l l y h u n d r e d s of m i l l i o n s of U S d o l l a r s a r e b e i n g i n v e s t e d i n t h i s v e n t u r e ) . T h o s e w h o s e e in t h i s o p e r a t i o n a t h r e a t to c a p i t a l i s t l i b e r a l ­ i z a t i o n , a s i g n t h a t h a r d l i n e r s w a n t to r e a s s e r t t h e i r h e g e m o n y , a r e t o t a l l y m i s s i n g t h e p o i n t . P a r a d o x i c a l a s it m i g h t s o u n d , t h i s r e t u r n of M a r x i s m i s t h e s i g n of t h e u l t i m a t e t r i u m p h of c a p i t a l i s m , t h e s i g n of its t h o r o u g h ­ g o i n g inetitutivnaLization. ( R e c e n t l e g a l m e a s u r e s w h i c h g u a r a n t e e p r i v a t e property, hailed b y the W e s t as a crucial step t o w a r d s legal stability, are p a r t of t h e s a m e t h r u s t . ) T h a t i s to s a y , w h a t k i n d of M a r x i s m i s b e i n g offered a s a p p r o p r i a t e for t o d a y ' s C h i n a ? E m p h a s i s is on t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n M a r x i s m a n d " l e f t i s m " : M a r x i s m i s not t h e s a m e a s " l e f t i s m , " a t e r m w h i c h r e f e r s to a n y t a l k of w o r k e r s ' l i b e r a t i o n , from free

trade

u n i o n s to t h e o v e r c o m i n g of c a p i t a l i s m . B a s e d o n t h e M a r x i s t t h e s i s of t h e development 198

of t h e forces of p r o d u c t i o n

a s t h e k e y factor of s o c i a l

REVOLUTIONARY TERROR

p r o g r e s s , t h e m a i n t a s k of p r o g r e s s i v e forces i s d e f i n e d a s t h a t of c r e a t i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n s for t h e c o n t i n u i n g r a p i d " m o d e r n i z a t i o n , " w h i l e a v o i d i n g all f o r m s of i n s t a b i l i t y , t h o s e c a u s e d b y " l e f t i s m " a s w e l l a s t h o s e c a u s e d b y " r i g h t i s m " ( c a m p a i g n s for m u l t i - p a r t y d e m o c r a c y a n d s o o n ) , w h i c h will bring chaos a n d thus hinder the v e r y modernization process. The conclusion

is clear: in today's China,

o n l y t h e l e a d i n g r o l e of t h e

Communist P a r l y can sustain a rapid transformation

of t h e c o n d i t i o n s

of s o c i a l s t a b i l i t y — t h e official ( C o n f u c i a n ) t e r m i s t h a t C h i n a s h o u l d become a "harmonious society." C o n s e q u e n t l y , t o p u t i t in t h e o l d M a o i s t t e r m s , a l t h o u g h it m a y a p p e a r that the m a i n e n e m y is the " b o u r g e o i s " threat, the "principal contradiction" is, in t h e e y e s of t h e r u l i n g elite, t h e o n e b e t w e e n t h e e x i s t i n g " h a r m o n i o u s " order (unfettered capitalist development sustained b y Communist Party r u l e ) a n d t h e t h r e a t of w o r k e r s ' a n d p e a s a n t s ' r e v o l t s — w h i c h i s w h y t h e r e c e n t s t r e n g t h e n i n g of t h e o p p r e s s i v e a p p a r a t u s e s ( t h e f o r m a t i o n of s p e c i a l u n i t s of riot p o l i c e t o c r u s h p o p u l a r u n r e s t , a n d s o f o r t h ) i s t h e a c t u a l s o c i a l e x p r e s s i o n o f w h a t , i n i d e o l o g y , a p p e a r s a s a r e v i v a l of M a r x i s m . T h e p r o b l e m w i t h t h i s r e v i v a l i s t h a t , t o p u t it i n K a n t ' s t e r m s , it t o t a l l y s u b o r d i n a t e s M a r x i s m to t h e " p r i v a t e u s e of r e a s o n . " F o r K a n t , t h e p u b l i c s p a c e of t h e " w o r l d civil s o c i e t y " d e s i g n a t e s t h e p a r a d o x of u n i v e r s a l s i n g u l a r i t y , of a s i n g u l a r s u b j e c t w h o , in a k i n d of s h o r t - c i r c u i t , b 3 ^ a s s i n g t h e m e d i a t i o n of t h e p a r t i c u l a r , d i r e c t l y p a r t i c i p a t e s in t h e u n i v e r s a l . T h i s i s w h a t K a n t , in t h e f a m o u s p a s s a g e of h i s " W h a t Is E n l i g h t e n m e n t ? " , m e a n s b y " p u b l i c " a s opposed to "private": " p r i v a t e " is not one's individual, a s o p p o s e d t o c o m m u n a l , t i e s , b u t t h e v e r y c o m m u n a l - i n s t i t u t i o n a l o r d e r of one's p a r t i c u l a r identification; w h i l e " p u b l i c " is the transnational u n i v e r s ­ ality of the exercise of Reason:

T h e p u b l i c u s e o f o n e ' s r e a s o n m u s t a l w a y s b e free, a n d it a l o n e c a n bring about

e n l i g h t e n m e n t a m o n g m e n . T h e p r i v a t e u s e of o n e ' s

r e a s o n , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , m a y often without

be v e r y narrowly restricted

p a r t i c u l a r l y h i n d e r i n g t h e p r o g r e s s of e n l i g h t e n m e n t . B y

p u b l i c u s e of o n e ' s r e a s o n I u n d e r s t a n d t h e u s e w h i c h a p e r s o n m a k e s of it a s a s c h o l a r b e f o r e t h e r e a d i n g p u b l i c . P r i v a t e u s e I call t h a t w h i c h o n e m a y m a k e of it in a p a r t i c u l a r c i v i l p o s t o r office w h i c h i s e n t r u s t e d to h i m .

T h e p a r a d o x of K a n t ' s f o r m u l a " T h i n k f r e e l y , b u t o b e y ! " i s t h u s t h a t o n e p a r t i c i p a t e s i n t h e u n i v e r s a l d i m e n s i o n of t h e " p u b l i c " s p h e r e p r e c i s e l y a s 199

UN

u c r c N S t

Ul- L O S T C A U S E S

a s i n g u l a r i n d i v i d u a l e x t r a c t e d from o r e v e n o p p o s e d to o n e ' s s u b s t a n t i a l communal

identification — one is truly universal only w h e n r a d i c a l l y

s i n g u l a r , in t h e i n t e r s t i c e s of c o m m u n a l contemporary

identities. Coming b a c k

C h i n a : t h e a r t i f i c i a l l y r e s u s c i t a t e d form

to

of M a r x i s m is

a n e x e m p l a r y c a s e of t h e primle u s e of r e a s o n : M a r x i s m i s m o b i l i z e d not on a c c o u n t of i t s i n h e r e n t u n i v e r s a l t r u t h , b u t in o r d e r t o l e g i t i m i z e the p r e s e n t C h i n e s e s t a t e i n t e r e s t of m a i n t a i n i n g C o m m u n i s t P a r t y p o w e r a n d t h u s g u a r a n t e e i n g s t a b i l i t y i n a p e r i o d of f a s t - m o v i n g

economic

d e v e l o p m e n t — s u c h a u s e of M a r x i s m i s " o b j e c t i v e l y c y n i c a l , " w i t h no c o g n i t i v e v a l u e a t a l l . T h e t r a g e d y i s t h a t t h e C h i n e s e s t a t e w i l l s o o n e r or later encounter

t h e l i m i t s of the f o r m u l a " c a p i t a l i s m w i t h

Confucian

v a l u e s , " a n d , at t h a t point, o n l y a n u n c o n s t r a i n e d " p u b l i c u s e of r e a s o n " w i l l b e a b l e to d o t h e j o b of i n v e n t i n g n e w s o l u t i o n s . N o w o n d e r t h a t , in today's China, the two terms, "public intellectual" a n d "civil society," are v e r y n e g a t i v e l y v i e w e d in official e y e s : a l t h o u g h t h e y a r e n o t e x p l i c i t l y p r o h i b i t e d , e v e r y i n t e l l e c t u a l k n o w s t h a t it i s b e t t e r to a v o i d t h e m if o n e w a n t s to r e m a i n on g o o d t e r m s w i t h t h o s e in p o w e r . A n y t h i n g ( a l m o s t ) is p e r m i t t e d — i n c l o s e d a c a d e m i c d e b a t e s , t h a t i s , a s l o n g a s it d o e s not reach the general public. T h e p a r a d o x i c a l s t a t u s of c o n t e m p o r a r y C h i n e s e M a r x i s m i s c o n d i ­ t i o n e d b y t h e fact t h a t C h i n a in t h e t w e n t y - f i r s t c e n t u r y is i n d e e d longer a totalitarian state, but r a t h e r w h a t some w o u l d call an

no

author­

i t a r i a n s t a t e : t h e r e a r e p a s s i o n a t e p u b l i c d e b a t e s , different o p i n i o n s on k e y issues are openly defended, but within v e r y precise limits (one cannot directly p u t into question the C o m m u n i s t P a r t y ' s pohtical m o n o p o l y ) ; w h i l e o n e c a n d r a w a t t e n t i o n to e c o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s , o n e i s o b l i g e d to d o it w i t h g r e a t r e s t r a i n t , a v o i d i n g hot t o p i c s l i k e t h e g i g a n t i c Y e l l o w R i v e r d a m ; a l t h o u g h o n e c a n w r i t e a b o u t t h e t e r r i b l e c o n d i t i o n s of u n s k i l l e d m a n u a l w o r k e r s , o n e s h o u l d t r e a t it a s l o c a l a n o m a l y a n d n e v e r p r o p o s e the formation

of a n y typ& of w o r k e r s ' d e f e n s e

organization such

as

i n d e p e n d e n t l a b o r u n i o n s ; a n d o n e i s often c o m p e l l e d to u s e a c o d e d l a n g u a g e , s u c h a s f o r m u l a t i n g a c r i t i q u e of s o c i a l i s m a s a d v o c a c y of o n e socialist orientation against another one. How, then, do l e a d i n g C o m m u n i s t theorists react w h e n

confronted

w i t h t h e a l l too o b v i o u s c o n t r a d i c t i o n : a C o m m u n i s t P a r t y w h i c h still l e g i t i m i z e s itself in M a r x i s t t e r m s , b u t r e n o u n c e s M a r x i s m ' s b a s i c p r e ­ m i s e , t h a t of w o r k e r s ' s e l f - o r g a n i z a t i o n a s a r e v o l u t i o n a r y force in o r d e r t o o v e r t h r o w c a p i t a l i s m ? It i s difficult to a v o i d t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t a l l t h e r e s o u r c e s of t h e l e g e n d a r y form of C h i n e s e p o l i t e n e s s a r e m o b i l i z e d h e r e : 200

REVOLUTIONARY TERROR

it i s c o n s i d e r e d Impolite t o d i r e c t l y r a i s e ( o r i n s i s t o n ) t h e s e q u e s t i o n s . T h i s r e s o r t t o p o l i t e n e s s i s n e c e s s a r y , s i n c e it i s t h e o n l y w a y t o c o m b i n e w h a t c a n n o t b e c o m b i n e d : t o e n f o r c e M a r x i s m a s official i d e o l o g y w h i l e o p e n l y p r o h i b i t i n g i t s c e n t r a l a x i o m s w o u l d c a u s e t h e c o l l a p s e of t h e e n t i r e i d e o l o g i c a l edifice, t h e r e b y r e n d e r i n g it m e a n i n g l e s s . T h e r e s u l t i s thus that, w h i l e certain things a r e clearly prohibited, this cannot

b e p u b l i c l y s t a t e d , b u t i s itself p r o h i b i t e d :

prohibited

prohibition

it is n o t m e r e l y

t o r a i s e t h e q u e s t i o n of w o r k e r s ' s e l f - o r g a n i z a t i o n

against

c a p i t a l i s t e x p l o i t a t i o n a s t h e c e n t r a l t e n e t of M a r x i s m , i t i s a l s o p r o h i b i t e d to p u b l i c l y c l a i m t h a t i t i s p r o h i b i t e d t o r a i s e t h i s q u e s t i o n . ( W h a t o n e u s u a l l y h e a r s from t h e o r i s t s i s a p r i v a t e a d m i s s i o n that, of c o u r s e , t h i s i s contradictory, b u t that, nonetheless, such a contradictory ideological edifice works, a n d w o r k s s p e c t a c u l a r l y : i t i s t h e o n l y w a y t o e n s u r e fast economic g r o w t h a n d stability in China. Need w e a d d that this is t h e " p r i v a t e u s e of r e a s o n " a t its p u r e s t ? ) T h i s p a r a d o x is n i c e l y r e n d e r e d in t h e title of a r e c e n t r e p o r t on C h i n a ; "Even W h a t ' s Secret Is a Secret i n C h i n a . "

M a n y troublesome in­

tellectuals w h o report on political oppression, ecological catastrophes, r u r a l p o v e r t y , a n d s o o n (for e x a m p l e , a C h i n e s e w o m a n w h o s e n t h e r h u s b a n d , w h o l i v e s a b r o a d , c l i p p i n g s from a local C h i n e s e n e w s p a p e r ) , suffer y e a r s of i m p r i s o n m e n t for b e t r a y i n g state s e c r e t s . H o w e v e r , " m a n y of t h e l a w s a n d r e g u l a t i o n s t h a t m a k e u p t h e s t a t e - s e c r e t r e g i m e a r e t h e m s e l v e s c l a s s i f i e d , m a k i n g it difficult for i n d i v i d u a l s t o k n o w h o w a n d w h e n t h e y ' r e i n v i o l a t i o n . " T h i s s e c r e c y of t h e p r o h i b i t i o n i t s e l f s e r v e s t w o different

purposes w h i c h should not b e confused.

Its commonly

a d m i t t e d r o l e i s t h a t o f u n i v e r s a l i z i n g g u i l t a n d fear: if y o u d o not k n o w w h a t is prohibited, y o u cannot even k n o w w h e n y o u a r e violating a prohibition, w h i c h m a k e s y o u potentially guilty all the time. O f c o u r s e , t h i n g s a r e m o r e p r e c i s e h e r e : e x c e p t a t t h e c l i m a x of t h e S t a l i n i s t p u r g e s w h e n , effectively, e v e r y o n e c o u l d b e f o u n d g u i l t y , p e o p l e do k n o w w h e n t h e y a r e d o i n g s o m e t h i n g t h a t w i l l a n n o y t h o s e in p o w e r . The function

of p r o h i b i t i n g p r o h i b i t i o n s

is thus not to give rise to

"irrational" fears, b u t to let t h e potential dissidents ( w h o think

they

c a n g e t a w a y w i t h t h e i r c r i t i c a l a c t i v i t y , s i n c e t h e y a r e not b r e a k i n g a n y l a w s , b u t o n l y d o i n g w h a t l a w s g u a r a n t e e t h e m — f r e e d o m of o p i n i o n , a n d so o n ) k n o w t h a t , if t h e y i r k t h o s e i n p o w e r t o o m u c h , t h e y c a n b e p u n i s h e d at the latters' w h i m : "Don't p r o v o k e us, w e c a n do w h a t e v e r w e w a n t t o y o u , n o l a w s a r e p r o t e c t i n g y o u h e r e ! " In e x - Y u g o s l a v i a , t h e infamous Article 133 of t h e penal code could a l w a y s b e invoked to 201

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

p r o s e c u t e w r i t e r s a n d j o u r n a l i s t s . It c r i m i n a l i z e d any t e x t t h a t f a l s e l y p r e s e n t e d t h e a c h i e v e m e n t s of t h e s o c i a l i s t r e v o l u t i o n o r t h a t might aroiuie tension and àuicontent among the public d u e to t h e w a y it d e a l t w i t h p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l , o r o t h e r t o p i c s . T h i s l a s t c a t e g o r y is o b v i o u s l y not o n l y i n f i n i t e l y p l a s t i c , b u t a l s o c o n v e n i e n t l y s e l f - r e f e r e n t i a l : d o e s n o t t h e v e r y fact t h a t y o u a r e a c c u s e d b y t h o s e in p o w e r o b v i o u s l y m e a n t h a t y o u h a v e "aroiued teiuion and discontent among the public"! D u r i n g t h o s e y e a r s , I r e m e m b e r a s k i n g a Slovene politician h o w he justified this l a w . H e just smiled and, w i t h a w i n k , t o l d m e : " W e l l , w e h a v e to h a v e s o m e tool to d i s c i p l i n e w h e n w e w a n t those w h o a n n o y us . . ." B u t t h e r e i s a n o t h e r function of p r o h i b i t i n g p r o h i b i t i o n s w h i c h is no l e s s c r u c i a l : t h a t of maintaining

appearances, a n d

we

all k n o w

how

absolutely crucial a p p e a r a n c e s w e r e u n d e r Stalinism: the Stalinist regime r e a c t e d w i t h total p a n i c w h e n e v e r t h e r e w a s a t h r e a t t h a t a p p e a r a n c e s w o u l d b e d i s t u r b e d ( s a y , t h a t s o m e a c c i d e n t w h i c h m a d e c l e a r t h e failure of t h e r e g i m e m i g h t b e r e p o r t e d i n t h e p u b l i c m e d i a : t h e r e w e r e , in t h e S o v i e t m e d i a , n o b l a c k c h r o n i c l e s , n o r e p o r t s on c r i m e s a n d p r o s t i t u t i o n , not to m e n t i o n w o r k e r s ' o r o t h e r t y p e s of p u b l i c p r o t e s t s ) . W h i c h i s w h y t h i s p r o h i b i t i o n of p r o h i b i t i o n s i s far from l i m i t e d to C o m m u n i s t r e g i m e s : It i s o p e r a t i v e a l s o In t o d a y ' s " p e r m i s s i v e " c a p i t a l i s m . A

"postmodern"

b o s s i n s i s t s t h a t h e i s not a m a s t e r b u t j u s t a c o o r d i n a t o r of o u r j o i n t c r e a t i v e efforts, t h e first a m o n g e q u a l s ; t h e r e s h o u l d b e n o f o r m a l i t i e s among us, w e should address him b y his nickname, he shares a dirty joke w i t h u s . . . b u t d u r i n g a l l t h i s , h e remains our niajter. In s u c h a s o c i a l l i n k , r e l a t i o n s of d o m i n a t i o n function

t h r o u g h t h e i r d e n i a l : in o r d e r to b e

o p e r a t i v e , t h e y h a v e to b e i g n o r e d . W e a r e not o n l y o b l i g e d to o b e y o u r m a s t e r s , w e a r e a l s o o b l i g e d to a c t a s if w e w e r e free a n d e q u a l , a s if t h e r e was

no domination—which,

of c o u r s e , m a k e s t h e s i t u a t i o n e v e n m o r e

h u m i l i a t i n g . P a r a d o x i c a l l y , i n s u c h a s i t u a t i o n , t h e first a c t of l i b e r a t i o n is to d e m a n d from t h e m a s t e r t h a t h e a c t l i k e o n e : o n e s h o u l d r e j e c t false c o U e g l a l i t y from t h e m a s t e r a n d i n s i s t t h a t h e t r e a t u s w i t h c o l d d i s t a n c e , a s a m a s t e r . ( T h e s a m e g o e s for p a t r i a r c h a l d o m i n a t i o n o v e r w o m e n : in m o d e r n s o c i e t i e s , t h i s d o m i n a t i o n i s n o l o n g e r a d m i t t e d a s s u c h — w h i c h is w h y o n e of t h e s u b v e r s i v e t a c t i c s of f e m i n i n e r e s i s t a n c e i s m o c k i n g l y to a c t a s if s u b o r d i n a t e d . . . ) T h i n g s g o e v e n d e e p e r h e r e : t h e u l t i m a t e g r o u n d of t h i s p a r a d o x i s t h e shift in s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s t h a t o c c u r s w i t h t h e r i s e of c a p i t a l i s m itself. O n e s h o u l d a p p l y h e r e M a r x ' s o l d f o r m u l a of c o m m o d i t y f e t i s h i s m i n w h i c h relations b e t w e e n people a p p e a r a s relations b e t w e e n things: this is w h y , 202

REVOLUTIONARY TERROR

in c a p i t a l i s m , w e a r e as people, a s p e r s o n s , all e q u a l , p o s s e s s i n g t h e s a m e d i g n i t y a n d f r e e d o m —the r e l a t i o n s of d o m i n a t i o n , w h i c h w e r e in p r e ­ vious societies directly hierarchical relations a m o n g persons, are

now

t r a n s p o s e d o n t o r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n " t h i n g s " ( c o m m o d i t i e s ) . T h e l o g i c of d o m i n a t i o n w h i c h n e c e s s a r i l y d e n i e s i t s e l f a s d o m i n a t i o n is i n s c r i b e d i n t o t h e v e r y c o r e of c a p i t a l i s t r e l a t i o n s . W h a t o n e s h o u l d b e a r i n m i n d i s that, w h i l e e v e r y s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e r e l i e s on c e r t a i n e x c l u s i o n s a n d p r o h i b i t i o n s , t h i s e x c l u s i o n a r y l o g i c is a l w a y s r e d o u b l e d : not o n l y is t h e s u b o r d i n a t e d O t h e r ( h o m o s e x u a l s , n o n white races . . .) excluded/repressed, the excluding and repressive p o w e r Itself r e l i e s on a n e x c l u d e d / r e p r e s s e d " o b s c e n e " c o n t e n t of its o w n ( s a y , t h e e x e r c i s e of p o w e r t h a t l e g i t i m i z e s itself a s l e g a l , t o l e r a n t .

Christian

. . ., r e h e s on a set of p u b l i c l y d i s a v o w e d o b s c e n e r i t u a l s of v i o l e n t h u m i l i a t i o n of t h e s u b o r d i n a t e d ) . M o r e g e n e r a l l y , w e a r e d e a l i n g h e r e w i t h w h a t o n e i s t e m p t e d to c a l l t h e i d e o l o g i c a l p r a c t i c e of d i s i d e n t i f i c a tion. T h a t i s to s a y , o n e s h o u l d t u r n a r o u n d t h e s t a n d a r d n o t i o n of i d e o l o g y a s p r o v i d i n g a firm i d e n t i f i c a t i o n for its s u b j e c t s , c o n s t r a i n i n g t h e m to t h e i r " s o c i a l r o l e s " : w h a t if, a t a d i f f e r e n t — b u t n o l e s s i r r e v o c a b l e a n d s t r u c t u r a l l y n e c e s s a r y — l e v e l , i d e o l o g y i s effective p r e c i s e l y b y w a y o f c o n s t r u c t i n g a s p a c e of false d i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , of false d i s t a n c e t o w a r d s t h e a c t u a l c o o r d i n a t e s of t h e s u b j e c t ' s social e x i s t e n c e ? Is t h i s l o g i c of d i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n not d i s c e r n i b l e from t h e m o s t e l e m e n t a r y c a s e of "I a m not o n l y a n A m e r i c a n ( h u s b a n d , w o r k e r . D e m o c r a t , g a y m a n . . . ) , b u t , beneath all these roles a n d m a s k s , a h u m a n being, a complex a n d unique personality" (where the v e r y distance t o w a r d s the symbolic feature that d e t e r m i n e s m y s o c i a l p l a c e g u a r a n t e e s t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h i s d e t e r m i ­ n a t i o n ) , u p to t h e m o r e c o m p l e x c a s e of c y b e r s p a c e p l a 3 à n g w i t h o n e ' s m u l t i p l e i d e n t i t i e s ? T h e m y s t i f i c a t i o n o p e r a t i v e in t h e p e r v e r s e

"just

g a m i n g " of c y b e r s p a c e i s t h u s d o u b l e : not o n l y a r e t h e g a m e s w e a r e p l a y i n g in it m o r e s e r i o u s t h a n w e t e n d to a s s u m e (is it not that, in t h e g u i s e of a fiction, of " i t ' s j u s t a g a m e , " a sub;iect c a n a r t i c u l a t e a n d s t a g e s a d i s t i c , " p e r v e r s e , " a n d so on, f e a t u r e s of h i s s y m b o l i c i d e n t i t y t h a t h e W o u l d n e v e r b e a b l e to a d m i t in h i s " r e a l " i n t e r s u b j e c t i v e c o n t a c t s ? ) , b u t the opposite also holds, that is, the m u c h - c e l e b r a t e d p l a y i n g w i t h multi­ ple, shifting p e r s o n a e ( f r e e l y c o n s t r u c t e d i d e n t i t i e s ) t e n d s to

obfuscate

( a n d t h u s f a l s e l y l i b e r a t e u s f r o m ) t h e c o n s t r a i n t s of s o c i a l s p a c e in w h i c h our existence is caught. T h i s l o n g d e t o u r b r i n g s u s b a c k to t h e p a r a d o x of Chinese

Marxism:

it

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standpoint

contemporary of

libertarian 203

IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S

Western

Marxism,

to

mock

this

Marxism

which

dispenses

M a r x i s m ' s central emancipatory premise (a truly decaffeinated ism,

with Marx­

M a r x i s m d e p r i v e d of its s u b v e r s i v e c o r e ) . H o w e v e r , a n y d i r e c t

i r o n i c c r i t i q u e of t h i s n e w C h i n e s e s t a t e - i d e o l o g y M a r x i s m m i s s e s t h e point, w h i c h

is that w e a r e not

M a r x i s m , but,

literally, with

inconsistency. There

d e a l i n g w i t h a s i m p l e b e t r a y a l of

its s y m p t o m ,

a formula

to r e s o l v e its

e f f e c t i v e l y w a s , in " o r i g i n a l " M a r x i s m i t s e l f

a

d i m e n s i o n w h i c h p o t e n t i a l l y l e d to t h e e n s l a v e m e n t of t h e w o r k e r s to " p r o g r e s s " ( t h e r a p i d d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e forces of p r o d u c t i o n ) ; w h i l e , u n d e r Stalinism, this " p r o g r e s s " w a s organized within the of t h e

centralized

state

economy,

today's

China

framework

d r a w s the

logical

c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e m o s t efficient m o t o r of d e v e l o p m e n t a r e c a p i t a l i s t r e l a t i o n s of p r o d u c t i o n . T h e p r e m i s e of c l a s s i c a l M a r x i s m ( u p to a n d i n c l u d i n g T o n i N e g r i ) w a s t h a t " h i s t o r y i s on

our

side": workers'

r e s i s t a n c e to c a p i t a l i s m " o b j e c t i v e l y " s e r v e s a n e v e n faster

develop­

m e n t of t h e f o r c e s of p r o d u c t i o n ; it i s i t s e l f a s i g n t h a t c a p i t a l i s m is no l o n g e r a m o t o r , b u t m o r e a n d m o r e a n o b s t a c l e to t h i s

development.

W h a t to do, t h e n , w h e n c a p i t a l i s m de facto p r o v e s itself a s t h e m o s t effective m o t o r of s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s ? T h e a n s w e r i s t h e C h i n e s e s o l u t i o n : to h o n e s t l y a d m i t that, in t h i s p h a s e of w o r l d h i s t o r y , w e s h o u l d fully e m b r a c e capitalism. W h e r e M a r x i s m enters is in the c l a i m that only t h e l e a d i n g r o l e of t h e C o m m u n i s t P a r t y c a n s u s t a i n s u c h tion

and

prevent

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maintain

social disintegration

a that

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moderniza­

society," that is,

characterizes Western

liberal

capitalism. T h i s c a p i t a l i s t r e a p p r o p r i a t i o n of r e v o l u t i o n a r y d y n a m i c s i s n o t w i t h ­ o u t its c o m i c s i d e effects. It w a s r e c e n t l y m a d e p u b l i c t h a t , in o r d e r to conceptualize the Israeli Defense

Forces' urban

w a r f a r e a g a i n s t the

P a l e s t i n i a n s , t h e I D F m i l i t a r y a c a d e m i e s s y s t e m a t i c a l l y r e f e r to D e l e u z e a n d G u a t t a r i , e s p e c i a l l y to Thoiuand Plateaud, u s i n g it a s

"operational

theory"—the catchwords used are "Formless Rival Entities," "Fractal Maneuver," "Velocity vs. Rhythms," "The

Wahabi War

Machine,"

" P o s t m o d e r n A n a r c h i s t s , " " N o m a d i c T e r r o r i s t s . " O n e of t h e k e y d i s ­ t i n c t i o n s t h e y r e l y on i s t h e o n e b e t w e e n " s m o o t h " a n d " s t r i a t e d " s p a c e , w h i c h r e f l e c t t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o n c e p t s of t h e " w a r m a c h i n e " a n d t h e " s t a t e a p p a r a t u s . " T h e I D F n o w often u s e s t h e t e r m "to s m o o t h e o u t s p a c e " w h e n t h e y w a n t to r e f e r to o p e r a t i o n in a s p a c e a s if it h a d n o b o r d e r s . P a l e s t i n i a n a r e a s a r e t h o u g h t of a s " s t r i a t e d " in t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e y a r e e n c l o s e d b y f e n c e s , w a l l s , d i t c h e s , r o a d b l o c k s , a n d so on: 204

REVOLUTIONARY TERROR

T h e a t t a c k c o n d u c t e d b y u n i t s of t h e I D F on t h e c i t y of N a b l u s in A p r i l 2 0 0 2 w a s d e s c r i b e d b y its c o m m a n d e r , B r i g a d i e r - G e n e r a l A v i v Kokhavi, as "inverse geometry", w h i c h he explained as "the reorga­ n i z a t i o n of t h e u r b a n s y n t a x b y m e a n s of a s e r i e s of m i c r o - t a c t i c a l actions". During the battle soldiers moved within the city across h u n d r e d s of m e t r e s of o v e r g r o u n d t u n n e l s c a r v e d o u t t h r o u g h a d e n s e and contiguous urban structure. Although several thousand soldiers a n d P a l e s t i n i a n g u e r r i l l a s w e r e m a n o e u v r i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y in t h e c i t y , t h e y w e r e so " s a t u r a t e d " i n t o t h e u r b a n f a b r i c t h a t v e r y f e w w o u l d h a v e b e e n v i s i b l e from t h e a i r . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e y u s e d n o n e of t h e c i t y ' s s t r e e t s , r o a d s , a l l e y s o r c o u r t y a r d s , o r a n y of t h e e x t e r n a l d o o r s , internal stairwells and windows, but moved horizontally through walls a n d v e r t i c a l l y t h r o u g h h o l e s b l a s t e d in c e i l i n g s a n d floors. T h i s form of m o v e m e n t , d e s c r i b e d b y t h e m i l i t a r y a s " i n f e s t a t i o n " , s e e k s to r e d e f i n e inside as outside, a n d domestic interiors as thoroughfares. The IDF's s t r a t e g y of " w a l k i n g t h r o u g h w a l l s " i n v o l v e s a c o n c e p t i o n of t h e c i t y a s not j u s t t h e site b u t a l s o t h e v e r y m e d i u m of w a r f a r e , " a f l e x i b l e , a l m o s t l i q u i d m e d i u m t h a t i s f o r e v e r c o n t i n g e n t a n d in flux".''^

S o w h a t f o l l o w s from a l l t h i s ? Not, of c o u r s e , t h e n o n s e n s i c a l a c c u s a t i o n t h a t D e l e u z e a n d G u a t t a r i a r e t h e o r i s t s of m i l i t a r i s t i c c o l o n i z a t i o n — b u t the conclusion that the conceptual m a c h i n e r y articulated b y Deleuze a n d G u a t t a r i , far from b e i n g s i m p l y " s u b v e r s i v e , " a l s o fits t h e ( m i l i t a r y , e c o n o m i c , a n d i d e o l o g i c o - p o l i t i c a l ) o p e r a t i o n a l m o d e of

contemporary

c a p i t a l i s m . H o w , t h e n , a r e w e to r e v o l u t i o n i z e a n o r d e r w h o s e v e r y principle is constant self-revolutionizing? Although a failure, the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution ( G P C R ) w a s u n i q u e in a t t a c k i n g t h e k e y p o i n t : n o t j u s t t h e t a k e o v e r of s t a t e p o w e r , b u t t h e n e w e c o n o m i c o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of d a i l y life. Its f a i l u r e w a s p r e c i s e l y t h e f a i l u r e to c r e a t e a n e w form of e v e r y d a y life: it r e m a i n e d a c a r n i v a l e s q u e e x c e s s , w i t h t h e s t a t e a p p a r a t u s ( u n d e r Z h o u E n l a i ' s c o n t r o l ) g u a r a n t e e i n g t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e of e v e r y d a y life, of p r o d u c t i o n .

A t t h e l e v e l of s o c i a l r e a l i t y , t h e r e i s

o b v i o u s l y s o m e t r u t h to t h e c l a i m t h a t t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n w a s t r i g g e r e d b y M a o in o r d e r to r e - e s t a b l i s h h i s p o w e r ( w h i c h h a d b e e n s e r i o u s l y c u r t a i l e d in t h e e a r l y 1 9 6 0 s , in t h e a f t e r m a t h of t h e s p e c t a c u l a r f a i l u r e of t h e G r e a t L e a p F o r w a r d , w h e n t h e m a j o r i t y of noinenklatura s t a g e d a s i l e n t i n n e r - p a r t y c o u p a g a i n s t h i m ) ; it i s t r u e t h a t t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n b r o u g h t i n c a l c u l a b l e suffering, t h a t it c u t d e e p w o u n d s in t h e 205

IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S

s o c i a l f a b r i c , t h a t its s t o r y c a n b e told a s t h e s t o r y of f a n a t i c a l c r o w d s c h a n t i n g s l o g a n s — h o w e v e r , t h i s i s s i m p l y n o t t h e e n t i r e s t o r y . I n s p i t e of (or, r a t h e r , because of) a l l i t s h o r r o r s , t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n u n d o u b t e d l y d i d c o n t a i n e l e m e n t s of a n e n a c t e d Utopia. A t i t s v e r y e n d , before t h e agitation w a s blocked b y M a o himself (since he h a d b y then achieved his g o a l of r e - e s t a b l i s h i n g h i s i n f l u e n c e a n d g e t t i n g r i d of t h e t o p nomenklatura competitors), there w a s the " S h a n g h a i C o m m u n e " : one million w o r k e r s w h o s i m p l y t o o k t h e official s l o g a n s s e r i o u s l y , d e m a n d i n g t h e a b o l i t i o n of t h e s t a t e a n d e v e n t h e p a r t y itself, a n d t h e d i r e c t c o m m u n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of s o c i e t y . It i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t it w a s a t t h i s v e r y p o i n t t h a t M a o o r d e r e d t h e a r m y to i n t e r v e n e a n d to r e s t o r e o r d e r . T h e p a r a d o x i s t h a t of a l e a d e r w h o t r i g g e r s a n u n c o n t r o l l e d u p h e a v a l , w h i l e t r y i n g to e x e r t full p e r s o n a l p o w e r — t h e o v e r l a p p i n g of e x t r e m e d i c t a t o r s h i p a n d e x t r e m e e m a n c i p a ­ t i o n of t h e m a s s e s . T h e a r g u m e n t t h a t t h e G P C R w a s t r i g g e r e d b y M a o in o r d e r to g e t r i d of r i v a l s in t h e i n n e r - p a r t y s t r u g g l e a n d r e a s s e r t h i s a u t h o r i t y , a n d t h a t it w a s t a m e d b y t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n of t h e a r m y t h e m o m e n t it t h r e a t e n e d to s p i r a l o u t of c o n t r o l , i s i r r e l e v a n t h e r e , e v e n if t r u e : it s i m p l y c o n f i r m s t h a t t h e e v e n t s a c q u i r e d a d y n a m i c of t h e i r o w n . T h i s g e n u i n e l y r e v o l u t i o n a r y a s p e c t of t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n i s s o m e ­ t i m e s a d m i t t e d e v e n b y c o n s e r v a t i v e c r i t i c s c o m p e l l e d t o t a k e n o t e of t h e "paradox" of t h e " t o t a l i t a r i a n " l e a d e r t e a c h i n g people to " t h i n k a n d a c t for t h e m s e l v e s , " t o r e b e l a n d d e s t r o y t h e v e r y a p p a r a t u s of " t o t a l i t a r i a n domination"—here

is w h a t G o r d o n C h a n g r e c e n t l y w r o t e in t h e con­

s e r v a t i v e j o u r n a l Commentary:

P a r a d o x i c a l l y , it weis M a o himself, t h e g r e a t e n s l a v e r , w h o i n h i s o w n w a y t a u g h t t h e C h i n e s e p e o p l e t o t h i n k a n d a c t for t h e m s e l v e s . I n t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n , h e u r g e d t e n s of m i l l i o n s of r a d i c a l y o u t h s [. . . ] to g o to e v e r y c o r n e r of t h e c o u n t r y to t e a r d o w n a n c i e n t t e m p l e s , destroy cultural relics, a n d d e n o u n c e their elders, i n c l u d i n g not only m o t h e r s a n d f a t h e r s b u t a l s o g o v e r n m e n t officials a n d C o m m u n i s t p a r t y m e m b e r s . [. . . ] T h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n m a y h a v e b e e n M a o ' s i d e a of r u i n i n g h i s e n e m i e s , b u t it b e c a m e a f r e n z y t h a t d e s t r o y e d t h e f a b r i c of s o c i e t y . A s g o v e r n m e n t b r o k e d o w n , i t s f u n c t i o n s t a k e n o v e r b y revolutionary committees a n d "people's c o m m u n e s , " t h e strict r e s t r a i n t s a n d r e p r e s s i v e m e c h a n i s m s of t h e s t a t e d i s s o l v e d . P e o p l e n o l o n g e r h a d to w a i t for s o m e o n e to i n s t r u c t t h e m w h a t to d o — A l a o had told t h e m t h e y h a d "the right to rebel." F o r the radical y o u n g , this was 206

a t i m e of e s s e n t i a l l y u n r e s t r a i n e d p a s s i o n . In o n e m a g n i f i c e n t

REVOLUTIONARY TERROR

s t r o k e , t h e G r e a t H e l m s m a n h a d d e l e g i t i m i z e d a l m o s t all forms of authority. "What t h i s m e a n s i s t h a t w e c a n r e a d t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n a t t w o different l e v e l s . If w e r e a d it a s a p a r t of h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t y ( b e i n g ) , w e c a n e a s i l y s u b m i t it to a " d i a l e c t i c a l " a n a l y s i s w h i c h p e r c e i v e s t h e

final

o u t c o m e of a h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s a s its " t r u t h " : t h e u l t i m a t e f a i l u r e of t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n b e a r s w i t n e s s to t h e i n h e r e n t i n c o n s i s t e n c y of t h e very project

("notion")

of c u l t u r a l r e v o l u t i o n , it i s t h e

explication-

d e p l o y m e n t — a c t u a l i z a t i o n of t h e s e i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s ( i n t h e s a m e w a y that, for M a r x , t h e v u l g a r , n o n - h e r o i c , c a p i t a l i s t d a i l y r e a l i t y of p r o f i t - s e e k i n g is the " t r u t h " of n o b l e J a c o b i n r e v o l u t i o n a r y h e r o i s m ) . If, h o w e v e r , w e a n a l y z e it a s a n E v e n t , a s a n e n a c t m e n t of t h e e t e r n a l I d e a of e g a l i t a r i a n j u s t i c e , t h e n t h e u l t i m a t e f a c t u a l r e s u l t of t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n , i t s catastrophic failure a n d reversal into the recent capitalist transformation, d o e s n o t e x h a u s t t h e r e a l of t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n : t h e e t e r n a l I d e a of t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n s u r v i v e s i t s d e f e a t i n s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t y , it c o n t i n u e s to l e a d a n u n d e r g r o u n d s p e c t r a l life of t h e g h o s t s of failed Utopias w h i c h h a u n t t h e f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s , p a t i e n t l y a w a i t i n g t h e i r n e x t r e s u r r e c t i o n . T h i s b r i n g s u s b a c k to R o b e s p i e r r e w h o e x p r e s s e d in a t o u c h i n g w a y t h e s i m p l e faith in t h e e t e r n a l I d e a of f r e e d o m

which

p e r s i s t s t h r o u g h a l l d e f e a t s , w i t h o u t w h i c h , a s w a s c l e a r to R o b e s p i e r r e , a r e v o l u t i o n " i s j u s t a n o i s y c r i m e t h a t d e s t r o y s a n o t h e r c r i m e , " t h e faith most

poignantly expressed

in

Robespierre's v e r y last speech

on

8

T h e r m i d o r 1794, the d a y before his arrest a n d execution:

B u t t h e r e d o e x i s t , I c a n a s s u r e y o u , s o u l s t h a t a r e f e e l i n g a n d p u r e ; it exists, that tender, imperious a n d irresistible passion, the torment a n d d e l i g h t of m a g n a n i m o u s h e a r t s ; t h a t d e e p h o r r o r of t y r a n n y , t h a t c o m p a s s i o n a t e z e a l for t h e o p p r e s s e d , t h a t s a c r e d l o v e for t h e h o m e ­ l a n d , t h a t e v e n m o r e s u b l i m e a n d h o l y l o v e for h u m a n i t y ,

without

w h i c h a great revolution is just a noisy crime that d e s t r o y s another c r i m e ; it d o e s e x i s t , t h a t g e n e r o u s a m b i t i o n to e s t a b l i s h h e r e on e a r t h t h e w o r l d ' s first R e p u b l i c . ' ' ^

D o e s t h e s a m e not h o l d e v e n m o r e so for t h e l a s t b i g i n s t a l l m e n t in t h e life of t h i s I d e a , t h e M a o i s t C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n — w i t h o u t t h i s I d e a w h i c h s u s t a i n e d r e v o l u t i o n a r y e n t h u s i a s m , t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n w a s to a n even g r e a t e r degree "just a noisy crime that destroys another c r i m e " ? 207

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

O n e s h o u l d r e c a l l h e r e H e g e l ' s s u b l i m e w o r d s on t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n from h i s Lectured on the Philodophy of World HLitory: It h a s b e e n s a i d t h a t the F r e n c h r e v o l u t i o n r e s u l t e d from p h i l o s o p h y , a n d it is not w i t h o u t r e a s o n t h a t p h i l o s o p h y h a s b e e n c a l l e d Weltweuheit [ w o r l d w i s d o m ] ; for it i s not o n l y t r u t h in a n d for itself, a s t h e p u r e e s s e n c e of t h i n g s , b u t a l s o t r u t h in i t s l i v i n g form a s e x h i b i t e d in the affairs of t h e w o r l d . W e s h o u l d not, t h e r e f o r e , c o n t r a d i c t t h e a s s e r t i o n t h a t t h e r e v o l u t i o n r e c e i v e d its first i m p u l s e from p h i l o s o p h y . [. . . ] N e v e r s i n c e t h e s u n h a d stood in t h e f i r m a m e n t a n d t h e

planets

r e v o l v e d a r o u n d h i m h a d it b e e n p e r c e i v e d t h a t m a n ' s e x i s t e n c e c e n t e r s in h i s h e a d , i.e. in t h o u g h t , i n s p i r e d b y w h i c h h e b u i l d s u p t h e w o r l d of r e a l i t y . [. . . ] n o t u n t i l n o w h a d m a n a d v a n c e d to t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t t h o u g h t o u g h t to g o v e r n s p i r i t u a l reality. This w a s a c c o r d i n g l y a glorious mental d a w n . All thinking b e i n g s h a r e d in t h e j u b i l a t i o n of t h i s e p o c h . E m o t i o n s

of a lofty

character stirred men's minds at that time; a spiritual enthusiasm t h r i l l e d t h r o u g h t h e w o r l d , a s if t h e r e c o n c i l i a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e d i v i n e a n d t h e s e c u l a r w a s n o w first accomplished.'''^

T h i s , of c o u r s e , d i d n o t p r e v e n t H e g e l from c o l d l y a n a l y z i n g t h e i n n e r n e c e s s i t y of t h i s e x p l o s i o n of a b s t r a c t f r e e d o m in t u r n i n g i n t o its o p p o s i t e , s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e r e v o l u t i o n a r y t e r r o r ; h o w e v e r , o n e s h o u l d n e v e r forget t h a t H e g e l ' s c r i t i q u e i s i m m a n e n t , a c c e p t i n g t h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s of the F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n ( a n d its k e y s u p p l e m e n t , t h e H a i t i a n R e v o l u t i o n ) . A n d o n e s h o u l d p r o c e e d in e x a c t l y t h e s a m e w a y a p r o p o s t h e O c t o b e r Revolution

(and, later, the

C h i n e s e R e v o l u t i o n ) : it w a s , a s

Badiou

p o i n t e d out, t h e first c a s e in t h e e n t i r e h i s t o r y of h u m a n i t y of t h e s u c c e s s f u l r e v o l t of t h e e x p l o i t e d p o o r — t h e y w e r e t h e z e r o - l e v e l m e m ­ b e r s of t h e n e w s o c i e t y , t h e y s e t t h e s t a n d a r d s . T h e r e v o l u t i o n s t a b i l i z e d itself i n t o a n e w s o c i a l o r d e r , a n e w w o r l d w a s c r e a t e d a n d m i r a c u l o u s l y s u r v i v e d for d e c a d e s , a m i d u n t h i n k a b l e e c o n o m i c a n d m i l i t a r y p r e s s u r e a n d isolation. This w a s effectively " a glorious mental d a w n . All thinking b e i n g s h a r e d in t h e j u b i l a t i o n of t h i s e p o c h . " A g a i n s t all h i e r a r c h i c a l o r d e r s , e g a l i t a r i a n u n i v e r s a l i t y d i r e c t l y c a m e to p o w e r . T h e r e is a basic philosophical d i l e m m a w h i c h u n d e r l i e s this alternative: it m a y s e e m t h a t t h e o n l y c o n s i s t e n t H e g e l i a n s t a n d p o i n t i s t h e o n e w h i c h m e a s u r e s t h e N o t i o n b y t h e s u c c e s s o r f a i l u r e of i t s a c t u a l i z a t i o n , so that, in t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e total m e d i a t i o n of t h e E s s e n c e b y its A p p e a r a n c e , 208

REVOLUTIONARY TERROR

a n y t r a n s c e n d e n c e of the I d e a o v e r its a c t u a l i z a t i o n is d i s c r e d i t e d . T h e c o n s e q u e n c e of t h i s is that, if w e i n s i s t on t h e e t e r n a l I d e a w h i c h s u r v i v e s its h i s t o r i c a l defeat, t h i s n e c e s s a r i l y e n t a i l s — i n H e g e l e s e — a r e g r e s s i o n from t h e l e v e l of t h e N o t i o n a s t h e fully a c t u a l i z e d u n i t y of E s s e n c e a n d Appearance,

to t h e l e v e l of t h e

Essence

supposed

to t r a n s c e n d

its

A p p e a r a n c e . Is it r e a l l y so, h o w e v e r ? O n e c a n a l s o c l a i m t h a t t h e e x c e s s o f t h e Utopian I d e a t h a t s u r v i v e s its h i s t o r i c a l d e f e a t d o e s not c o n t r a d i c t t h e total m e d i a t i o n of I d e a a n d i t s A p p e a r a n c e : t h e b a s i c H e g e l i a n i n s i g h t a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h t h e f a i l u r e of r e a l i t y to fully a c t u a l i z e a n I d e a i s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t h e f a i l u r e ( l i m i t a t i o n ) of t h i s I d e a i t s e l f c o n t i n u e s to h o l d . W h a t o n e s h o u l d s i m p l y a d d is t h a t t h e g a p t h a t s e p a r a t e s t h e I d e a from its a c t u a l i z a t i o n s i g n a l s a g a p w i t h i n t h i s I d e a itself. T h i s i s w h y t h e s p e c t r a l I d e a t h a t c o n t i n u e s to h a u n t h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t y signal) the faidty of the new historical reality itself, its inadequacy to its own Notion—the f a i l u r e of t h e J a c o b i n Utopia, i t s a c t u a l i z a t i o n in u t i l i t a r i a n b o u r g e o i s r e a l i t y , i s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t h e l i m i t a t i o n of t h i s r e a l i t y itself. Consequently,

one

should

invert

the

commonplace

reading

of

L a c a n ' s " K a n t a v e c S a d e " a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h S a d e a n p e r v e r s i o n t h e " t r u t h " of K a n t , m o r e " r a d i c a l " t h a n K a n t , t h a t it d r a w s o u t

is the

c o n s e q u e n c e s K a n t h i m s e l f d i d not h a v e t h e c o u r a g e to confront. B u t w e w o u l d c l a i m the c o n t r a r y : S a d e a n p e r v e r s i o n e m e r g e s a s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e K a n t i a n c o m p r o m i s e , of K a n t ' s a v o i d a n c e of t h e

consequences

o f h i s b r e a k t h r o u g h . S a d e i s t h e symptom of K a n t : w h i l e it is t r u e t h a t Kant

retreated

revolution,

the

from

drawing

s p a c e for

the

all the

consequences

of

f i g u r e of S a d e i s o p e n e d

his

ethical

up by

this

K a n t i a n c o m p r o m i s e , b y h i s u n w i l l i n g n e s s to p u s h t h r o u g h to t h e e n d , to r e t a i n full f i d e l i t y to h i s p h i l o s o p h i c a l b r e a k t h r o u g h . F a r from b e i n g s i m p l y a n d d i r e c t l y " t h e t r u t h of K a n t , " S a d e i s t h e s y m p t o m of K a n t ' s betrayal

of

the

truth

of

his

own

discovery — the

fouisseur i s a s t i g m a b e a r i n g w i t n e s s to K a n t ' s t h e a p p a r e n t " r a d i c a l i t y " of t h i s

figure

obscene

ethical

Sadean

compromise;

( t h e w i l l i n g n e s s of t h e S a d e a n

h e r o to g o to t h e e n d in h i s W i l l - t o - E n j o y ) i s a m a s k of i t s e x a c t o p p o s i t e . In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e t r u e h o r r o r i s not a S a d e a n o r g y , b u t t h e real core phrasing

of t h e

Kantean

ethic itself—if w e can

be forgiven

B r e c h t y e t a g a i n , w h a t i s t h e m i s e r a b l e E v i l of a

para­ Sadean

g r o u p o r g y in c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e " d i a b o l i c a l E v i l " t h a t p e r t a i n s to a pure

ethical

relationship explosion

act?

And,

between

the

mutatis

mutandis,

Chinese

of c a p i t a l i s t d e v e l o p m e n t

Cultural

the

same

a p p l i e s to

Revolution

and

the

today's

a s its " t r u t h " : t h i s e x p l o s i o n

is 209

IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S

a l s o a s i g n t h a t M a o r e t r e a t e d from d r a w i n g a l l t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n , t h a t i s , t h e s p a c e for t h e c a p i t a l i s t e x p l o s i o n was

o p e n e d u p b y t h i s c o m p r o m i s e , b y M a o ' s u n w i l l i n g n e s s to p u s h

t h r o u g h to t h e e n d , to r e t a i n full f i d e l i t y to t h e i d e a of t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n . A n d t h e l e s s o n i s , in b o t h c a s e s , t h a t of K a n t a s w e l l t h a t of M a o , t h e s a m e , n a m e l y t h a t w e t a k e from B e c k e t t ' s Worstward Ho: " T r y again. Fail again. Fail better. "

210

5

Stalinism Revisited

O r , How Stalin Saved the Humanity of Man

The Staliniat cultural counter-revolution A c o n s i s t e n t c o n s e r v a t i v e c a s e c a n b e m a d e t h a t , far from b e i n g t h e greatest catastrophe that could h a v e befallen Russia, S t a l i n i s m effectively s a v e d w h a t w e u n d e r s t a n d a s t h e h u m a n i t y of m a n . C r u c i a l h e r e i s t h e g r e a t shift of t h e e a r l y a n d m i d - 1 9 3 0 s from p r o l e t a r i a n e g a l i t a r i a n i s m to t h e full a s s e r t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n l e g a c y . In t h e c u l t u r a l s p h e r e ,

figures

s u c h a s P u s h k i n a n d T c h a i k o v s k y w e r e e l e v a t e d far a b o v e m o d e r n i s m ; t r a d i t i o n a l a e s t h e t i c n o r m s of b e a u t y w e r e r e a s s e r t e d ; h o m o s e x u a l i t y w a s outlawed, s e x u a l p r o m i s c u i t y condemned, a n d m a r r i a g e p r o c l a i m e d the e l e m e n t a r y c e l l of t h e n e w s o c i e t y . It w a s t h e e n d of t h e b r i e f m a r r i a g e of convenience b e t w e e n Soviet p o w e r a n d the artistic a n d scientific m o d ­ e r n i s t s . In c i n e m a , t h i s p a s s a g e i s c l e a r l y d i s c e r n i b l e in t h e shift

from

E i s e n s t e i n ' s s i l e n t films w i t h t h e i r m o n t a g e of " a t t r a c t i o n s " to h i s " o r g a n i c l s t " s o u n d films; in m u s i c , in t h e shift from S h o s t a k o v i c h ' s v i o l e n t p a r o d i c p r o v o c a t i v e m u s i c w i t h e l e m e n t s of c i r c u s a n d j a z z from

the

1 9 2 0 s to h i s r e t u r n to m o r e t r a d i t i o n a l f o r m s i n t h e l a t e 1 9 3 0 s . T h e s t a n d a r d r e a d i n g of t h i s shift s e e s it a s t h e " c u l t u r a l T h e r m i d o r , " t h e b e t r a y a l of t h e a u t h e n t i c r e v o l u t i o n . H o w e v e r , b e f o r e a c c e p t i n g t h i s j u d g m e n t at face v a l u e , o n e s h o u l d t a k e a c l o s e r l o o k a t t h e i d e o l o g i c a l v i s i o n w h i c h s u s t a i n e d r a d i c a l e g a l i t a r i a n i s m : w e r e f e r h e r e a g a i n to socalled "biocosmism."

A good e x a m p l e here is the following p a s s a g e b y

Trotsky:

W h a t i s m a n ? H e i s b y n o m e a n s a finished o r h a r m o n i o u s b e i n g . N o , h e i s still a h i g h l y a w k w a r d c r e a t u r e . M a n , a s a n a n i m a l , h a s not evolved b y plan but spontaneously, and has a c c u m u l a t e d m a n y contra­ d i c t i o n s . T h e q u e s t i o n of h o w to e d u c a t e a n d r e g u l a t e , of h o w

to

i m p r o v e a n d c o m p l e t e t h e p h y s i c a l a n d s p i r i t u a l c o n s t r u c t i o n of m a n . 211

IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S

is a c o l o s s a l p r o b l e m w h i c h c a n o n l y b e u n d e r s t o o d

o n t h e b a s i s of

s o c i a l i s m . [. . . ] T o p r o d u c e a n e w , " i m p r o v e d v e r s i o n " of m a n — t h a t is t h e f u t u r e t a s k of c o m m u n i s m . A n d for t h a t w e first h a v e to find out e v e r y t h i n g a b o u t m a n , h i s a n a t o m y , h i s p h y s i o l o g y a n d t h a t p a r t of his p h y s i o l o g y w h i c h is called his p s y c h o l o g y . M a n must look at himself a n d see himself a s a r a w material, or at best a s a s e m i - m a n u f a c t u r e d p r o d u c t , a n d s a y : " A t l a s t , m y d e a r homo sapieiu,

I w i l l w o r k on y o u . " ^

T h e s e w e r e not j u s t i d i o s y n c r a t i c t h e o r e t i c a l p r i n c i p l e s , b u t e x p r e s s i o n s of a r e a l m a s s m o v e m e n t i n a r t , a r c h i t e c t u r e , p s y c h o l o g y , p e d a g o g y , a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s c i e n c e s , c o m p r i s i n g h u n d r e d s of t h o u s a n d s

of p e o p l e .

T h e officially s u p p o r t e d c u l t of T a y l o r i s m , w h o s e m o s t r a d i c a l e x p o n e n t was

A l e x e i Gastev, a B o l s h e v i k e n g i n e e r a n d poet w h o used the term

" b i o m e c h a n i c s " a s e a r l y a s 1 9 2 2 , e x p l o r e d t h e v i s i o n of s o c i e t y i n w h i c h m a n a n d m a c h i n e w o u l d m e r g e . G a s t e v r a n t h e I n s t i t u t e of L a b o r , w h i c h c a r r i e d o u t e x p e r i m e n t s to t r a i n w o r k e r s to a c t l i k e m a c h i n e s . H e s a w the m e c h a n i z a t i o n of m a n a s t h e n e x t s t e p i n e v o l u t i o n , e n v i s a g i n g

a Utopia w h e r e "people" w o u l d b e r e p l a c e d b y " p r o l e t a r i a n

units"

Identified b y c i p h e r s s u c h a s " A , B , C , o r 3 2 5 , 0 7 5 , 0 , a n d so o n . " [. . . ] A " m e c h a n i z e d c o l l e c t i v i s m " w o u l d " t a k e t h e p l a c e of t h e i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n a l i t y i n t h e p s y c h o l o g y of t h e p r o l e t a r i a t . " T h e r e w o u l d

no

l o n g e r b e a n e e d for e m o t i o n s , a n d t h e h u m a n s o u l w o u l d n o l o n g e r b e measured

" b y a shout or a smile but

by a pressure

g a u g e or

a

speedometer."^

Is not t h i s d r e a m t h e first r a d i c a l f o r m u l a t i o n of w h a t , t o d a y , o n e u s u a l l y calls biopolitics? Counterintuitive a s this m a y sound, one can a r g u e that t h i s v i s i o n , h a d it r e a l l y b e e n i m p o s e d , w o u l d h a v e b e e n m u c h

more

t e r r i f y i n g t h a n S t a l i n i s m a c t u a l l y w a s . It w a s a g a i n s t t h i s t h r e a t of fulls c a l e m o d e r n i s t m e c h a n i z a t i o n t h a t S t a l i n i s t c u l t u r a l p o l i t i c s r e a c t e d ; it not o n l y d e m a n d e d a r e t u r n to a r t i s t i c f o r m s t h a t w o u l d b e a t t r a c t i v e to l a r g e c r o w d s , b u t also—^although it m a y a p p e a r c y n i c a l ^ — t h e r e t u r n

to

e l e m e n t a r y t r a d i t i o n a l f o r m s of m o r a l i t y . In t h e S t a l i n i s t s h o w t r i a l s , t h e v i c t i m s w e r e h e l d r e s p o n s i b l e for c e r t a i n a c t s , forced to c o n f e s s . . . in s h o r t , t h o u g h it m a y a p p e a r o b s c e n e ( a n d it w a s ) , t h e y w e r e t r e a t e d a s autonomous

e t h i c a l s u b j e c t s , not a s o b j e c t s of b i o p o l i t i c s . A g a i n s t t h e

Utopia of " m e c h a n i z e d c o l l e c t i v i s m , " h i g h S t a l i n i s m of t h e 1 9 3 0 s s t o o d for the 212

return

of e t h i c s at i t s m o s t v i o l e n t , a s a n

extreme

measure

to

STALINISM REVISITED

counteract the threat that traditional moral categories w o u l d be rendered j n e a n i n g l e s s , w h e r e u n a c c e p t a b l e b e h a v i o r w o u l d not b e p e r c e i v e d a s involving the subject's guilt, but as a malfunctioning special p r e s s u r e g a u g e or a

measured by a

speedometer.

T h i s i s a l s o w h y t h e i m p o s i t i o n of " S o c i a l i s t R e a l i s m " w a s s i n c e r e l y w e l c o m e d b y a l a r g e m a j o r i t y of p e o p l e : it s i g n a l e d t h a t

t h e r e g i m e [ h a d ] c o m p l e t e l y a b a n d o n e d its c o m m i t m e n t to t h e r e v o l u ­ t i o n a r y i d e a of e s t a b l i s h i n g a " p r o l e t a r i a n " o r " S o v i e t " form of c u l t u r e t h a t c o u l d b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d from t h e c u l t u r e of t h e p a s t . [. . . ] C o n ­ t e m p o r a r y w r i t e r s l i k e A k h m a t o v a c o u l d n o t find a p u b l i s h e r , b u t t h e c o m p l e t e w o r k s of P u s h k i n

and Turgenev,

Chekhov

and

Tolstoy

( a l t h o u g h n o t D o s t o e v s k y ) w e r e i s s u e d in t h e i r m i l l i o n s a s a n e w r e a d e r s h i p w a s i n t r o d u c e d to t h e m . ^

T h i s r e t u r n to c l a s s i c a l c u l t u r e r e a c h e d its p e a k in 1 9 3 7 , the c e n t e n a r y of Pushkin's death, w h e n

[t]he

whole

country

w a s involved

in f e s t i v i t i e s : s m a l l

provincial

t h e a t r e s p u t on p l a y s ; s c h o o l s o r g a n i z e d s p e c i a l c e l e b r a t i o n s ; Y o u n g C o m m u n i s t s w e n t on p i l g r i m a g e s to p l a c e s c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e p o e t ' s life; f a c t o r i e s o r g a n i z e d s t u d y g r o u p s a n d c l u b s of collective farms held Pushkin carnivals w i t h

figures

"Pushkinists";

dressed as char­

a c t e r s from P u s h k i n ' s f a i r y t a l e s .

These facts are w o r t h

mentioning

b e c a u s e t h e y b r i n g u s to

p a r a d o x : h o w t h e v e r y r e s i s t a n c e to S t a l i n i s m , m a r g i n a l a n d as

it w a s ,

followed

this

cultural

trend.

That

i s to

hypocritical a n d censured, this massive reintroduction

say,

another

oppressed although

of t h e c l a s s i c a l

R u s s i a n c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e w a s m o r e t h a n j u s t a m e a s u r e for e n l i g h t e n i n g t h e h a l f - i l l i t e r a t e m a s s e s : t h e u n i v e r s e of g r e a t c l a s s i c s s u c h a s P u s h k i n a n d T o l s t o y c o n t a i n e d a n e n t i r e v i s i o n of c u l t u r e , w i t h its o w n e t h i c s of s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , of s o l i d a r i t y w i t h t h e o p p r e s s e d a g a i n s t a u t o c r a t i c power:

Dissidence

in t h e

U S S R represented

truthfulness,

unexpurgated

r e a l i t y a n d e t h i c a l v a l u e s — a s a g a i n s t t h e f a n t a s y r e a l i t y of s o c i a l i s t r e a l i s m a n d t h e p e r v a s i v e f a l s e n e s s of S o v i e t p u b l i c d i s c o u r s e w i t h its c o n c e r t e d n e g a t i o n of t r a d i t i o n a l m o r a l i t y ( a n e x p l i c i t l y s t a t e d , i n d e e d 213

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

f u n d a m e n t a l , i n g r e d i e n t in the S o v i e t r e g i m e ' s f o r w a r d i n g of " r e v o l u tionary development").^ In t h i s s e n s e , S o l z h e n i t s y n h i m s e l f is t h e son of t h e S t a l i n i s t c u l t u r a l p o l i t i c s of t h e 1 9 3 0 s . T h i s i s a l s o w h y t h e " p r i v a t e " w o r k s of S h o s t a k o v i c h , full of m e l a n c h o l y , d e s p a i r , a n d p r i v a t e a n x i e t i e s ( c e n t e r e d on h i s s t r i n g q u a r t e t s ) a r e n o l e s s a n o r g a n i c p a r t of t h e S t a l i n i s t c u l t u r e t h a n h i s g r e a t " p u b l i c " w o r k s ( c e n t e r e d in h i s officially c e l e b r a t e d s y m p h o n i e s , 5, 7, a n d 1 1 ) . A n d t h i s b r i n g s u s to t h e t h i r d p a r a d o x . W i l h e l m F u r t w ä n g l e r r e m a r k e d a p r o p o s S t r a v i n s k y ' s " R i t e of S p r i n g " t h a t it s h o w s t h e l i m i t a t i o n of R u s s i a n s p i r i t u a l i t y : it e x u l t s in b r i l l i a n t m e c h a n i c r h y t h m i c e x p l o s i o n s , b u t it c a n n o t r e a c h t h e l e v e l of o r g a n i c l i v i n g u n i t y t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e s G e r m a n s p i r i t u a l i t y . T h e first i r o n y i s t h a t t h e v e r y s a m e c o m p o s e r s to w h i c h F u r t w ä n g l e r referred w e r e perceived b y the Russian traditionalists as W e s t e r n modern i z e r s e n d a n g e r i n g t h e R u s s i a n o r g a n i c h e r i t a g e . H o w e v e r , in a w a y , F u r t w ä n g l e r w a s right. M a n y W e s t e r n t r a v e l e r s to R u s s i a in t h e e i g h t e e n t h a n d n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s w e n t t h e r e in s e a r c h of a n o r g a n i c society, a l i v i n g s o c i a l W h o l e , a s o p p o s e d to W e s t e r n i n d i v i d u a l i s t societies w h i c h w e r e h e l d t o g e t h e r b y t h e e x t e r n a l p r e s s u r e of l a w s ; t h e y soon d i s c o v e r e d t h a t R u s s i a w a s a c t u a l l y a v a s t c h a o t i c e m p i r e , l a c k i n g p r e c i s e l y a n y i n n e r o r g a n i c form a n d therefore r u l e d b y t h e iron h a n d of t h e b r u t a l i m p e r i a l a u t o c r a c y . In o t h e r w o r d s , the notion of "old R u s s i a " w h o s e h a r m o n i o u s b a l a n c e w a s disturbed b y Western modernization w a s mythical: violent "modernism," t h e b r u t a l i m p o s i t i o n of a c e n t r a l o r d e r o n t o t h e c h a o t i c t e x t u r e of s o c i a l life, is t h u s a k e y c o m p o n e n t of t r a d i t i o n a l R u s s i a n social i d e n t i t y — S t a l i n w a s c o r r e c t to c e l e b r a t e I v a n t h e T e r r i b l e a s h i s p r e c u r s o r . Is, t h e n , t h e c o n c l u s i o n of t h i s that, w i t h r e g r e t , o n e s h o u l d e n d o r s e Stalinism as the defense against a m u c h w o r s e threat? W h a t

about

a p p l j n n g h e r e too L a c a n ' s m o t t o "le père ou le pire," a n d t a k e t h e r i s k of the choice of the worje: w h a t if t h e effective r e s u l t of c h o o s i n g to p u r s u e to the end the biopolitical d r e a m w o u l d have been something unpredictable t h a t w o u l d h a v e s h a k e n t h e v e r y c o o r d i n a t e s of t h i s d r e a m ?

A letter which did not reach its destination (and thereby perhaps saved the world) T h e S t a l i n i s t t e r r o r of t h e 1 9 3 0 s w a s a h u m a n i s t t e r r o r : i t s a d h e r e n c e to a "humanist" 214

c o r e w a s not

what

constrained

its h o r r o r , it w a s

what

STALINISM REVISITED

s u s t a i n e d it, it w a s i t s i n h e r e n t c o n d i t i o n of p o s s i b i l i t y . W h a t if t h e l e g a c y of t h e h u m a n i s t t r a d i t i o n r e s u s c i t a t e d b y h i g h S t a l i n i s m n o t o n l y c r e a t e d t h e i d e o l o g i c a l p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s for d i s s i d e n t r e s i s t a n c e , b u t a l s o " s a v e d the w o r l d " in a quite literal w a y — n a m e l y , p r e v e n t e d global n u c l e a r catastrophe during the C u b a n missile crisis? A s far a s o n e c a n r e c o n s t r u c t t h e e v e n t s t o d a y , t w o t h i n g s c o m b i n e d t o facilitate t h e h a p p y o u t c o m e . T h e first w a s p o l i t e tact, t h e r i t u a l s of p o l i t e f e i g n e d i g n o r a n c e — if o n e i s to b e l i e v e r e c e n t r e v e l a t i o n s . K e n n e d y ' s s t r o k e of g e n i u s , w h i c h w a s c r u c i a l for t h e r e s o l u t i o n of t h e C u b a n m i s s i l e crisis, w a s to p r e t e n d t h a t a k e y l e t t e r h a d not a r r i v e d a t i t s d e s t i n a t i o n , t o a c t a s if t h i s l e t t e r d i d n o t e x i s t — a s t r a t a g e m w h i c h , of c o u r s e , o n l y w o r k e d b e c a u s e t h e s e n d e r ( K h r u s h c h e v ) p a r t i c i p a t e d i n it. O n F r i d a y , O c t o b e r 2 6 , 1 9 6 2 , a l e t t e r from K h r u s h c h e v to K e n n e d y c o n f i r m s t h e offer p r e v i o u s l y m a d e t h r o u g h i n t e r m e d i a r i e s : t h e m i s s i l e s w o u l d b e r e m o v e d if t h e U S i s s u e d a p l e d g e n o t to i n v a d e C u b a . O n S a t u r d a y , O c t o b e r 2 7 , before a U S a n s w e r , a n o t h e r , h a r s h e r a n d m o r e d e m a n d i n g , letter from K h r u s h c h e v a r r i v e d , a d d i n g t h e r e m o v a l of U S m i s s i l e s from T u r k e y a s a c o n d i t i o n , a n d s i g n a l i n g a p o s s i b l e p o l i t i c a l c o u p in t h e S o v i e t Union. At 8.05 p . m . the same d a y , K e n n e d y sent a response to Khrush­ c h e v , i n f o r m i n g h i m t h a t h e w a s a c c e p t i n g t h e p r o p o s a l of O c t o b e r 2 6 , t h a t i s , acting as if the October 27 letter had never existed. O n S u n d a y , O c t o b e r 28, K e n n e d y r e c e i v e d a l e t t e r from K h r u s h c h e v i n w h i c h h e a g r e e d to t h e d e a l . . . T h e l e s s o n of t h i s i s t h a t , in s u c h m o m e n t s of c r i s i s w h e r e t h e fate of e v e r y t h i n g h a n g s in t h e b a l a n c e , s a v i n g a p p e a r a n c e s , p o l i t e n e s s , t h e awareness that one is "pla3àng a g a m e , " matters more than ever. One can also claim that w h a t triggered the crisis w a s a symmetrical fact, a l e t t e r w h i c h a l s o d i d n o t a r r i v e a t i t s a d d r e s s e e , b u t , t h i s t i m e , b e c a u s e it w a s n e v e r s e n t . S o v i e t m i s s i l e s w e r e s t a t i o n e d i n C u b a a s t h e r e s u l t of t h e s e c r e t m u t u a l s e c u r i t y p a c t b e t w e e n C u b a a n d t h e U S S R ; m a n y observers (most notably T e d S o r e n s e n ) suggested that the U S r e a c t i o n w o u l d h a v e b e e n m u c h l e s s offensive if t h e m u t u a l s e c u r i t y p a c t had been m a d e public in a d v a n c e ( a s Castro h a d w a n t e d , i n c i d e n t a l l y ! ) . It w a s t h e s e c r e c y on w h i c h S o v i e t s h a d i n s i s t e d t h a t m a d e t h e U S b e l i e v e t h a t t h e m i s s i l e e m p l a c e m e n t c o u l d h a v e n o p u r p o s e o t h e r t h a n to l a u n c h a n a t t a c k u p o n t h e U S : if t h e e n t i r e p r o c e s s of s i g n i n g t h e p a c t a n d i n s t a l l i n g t h e m i s s i l e s h a d b e e n i n t h e o p e n a n d t r a n s p a r e n t , it w o u l d h a v e been p e r c e i v e d a s something m u c h less threatening: not a s the p r e p a r a ­ tion of a r e a l a t t a c k , b u t s i m p l y a s d e m o n s t r a t i v e p o s t u r i n g w h i c h p o s e d no r e a l m i l i t a r y t h r e a t . 215

IN D E F E N S E OF L O S T C A U S E S

T h i s lesson w a s not l e a r n e d b y t h e U S m i l i t a r y e s t a b h s h m e n t ,

which

i n t e r p r e t e d the p e a c e f u l r e s o l u t i o n of t h e c r i s i s in a q u i t e d i l f e r e n t w a y / Its o p i n i o n

is b e s t r e n d e r e d

by Raymond

Garthoff,

at the time

an

i n t e l l i g e n c e a n a l y s t in t h e S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t :

If w e h a v e l e a r n e d an3rthing from t h i s e x p e r i e n c e , it i s t h a t w e a k n e s s , even only apparent w e a k n e s s , invites Soviet transgression. At the same time,

firmness

in t h e l a s t a n a l y s i s w i l l force t h e S o v i e t s to b a c k a w a y

from r a s h i n i t i a t i v e s . ^

T h e c r i s i s Is t h u s p e r c e i v e d a s t h e e y e b a l l - t o - e y e b a l l c o n f r o n t a t i o n of t w o p l a y e r s , a m a c h o g a m e of " c h i c k e n , " w h e r e t h e o n e w i t h g r e a t e r t o u g h ­ n e s s , i n f l e x i b i l i t y , a n d r e s o l v e w i n s . T h i s v i e w , of c o u r s e , d o e s not fit r e a l i t y : a w h o l e s e r i e s of d e t a i l s d e m o n s t r a t e K e n n e d y ' s

flexibility

a n d his

c o n c e s s i o n s to t h e S o v i e t n e e d to s a v e face b y w a y of s a l v a g i n g s o m e t h i n g p o s i t i v e from t h e c r i s i s . In o r d e r to b u y s o m e t i m e a n d a v o i d a d i r e c t confrontation,

h e p e r m i t t e d on O c t o b e r 2 5 a S o v i e t t a n k e r to p r o c e e d

through the quarantine; on October 28, he ordered that no interview s h o u l d b e g i v e n a n d n o s t a t e m e n t m a d e w h i c h w o u l d c l a i m a n y k i n d of victory; furthermore,

h e m a d e a n offer of r e m o v i n g U S m i s s i l e s from

T u r k e y , a s w e l l a s a g u a r a n t e e t h a t t h e U S w o u l d not i n v a d e C u b a , m e x c h a n g e for w h i c h t h e S o v i e t s w o u l d w i t h d r a w t h e i r m i s s i l e s from Cuba. T h e S o v i e t p e r c e p t i o n of t h e c r i s i s w a s different: for t h e m , it w a s not t h e t h r e a t of force t h a t e n d e d t h e c r i s i s . T h e S o v i e t l e a d e r s h i p b e l i e v e d t h e c r i s i s h a d e n d e d b e c a u s e b o t h S o v i e t a n d U S officials h a d r e a l i z e d t h e y w e r e a t t h e b r i n k a n d t h a t t h e c r i s i s w a s t h r e a t e n i n g to d e s t r o y h u m a n k i n d . T h e y d i d n o t fear o n l y for t h e i r i m m e d i a t e s a f e t y a n d w e r e not w o r r i e d m e r e l y a b o u t l o s i n g a b a t t l e i n C u b a . T h e i r f e a r w a s t h e fear of d e c i d i n g t h e fate of m i l l i o n s of o t h e r s , e v e n of c i v i l i z a t i o n itself. It w a s thU fear, e x p e r i e n c e d b y b o t h s i d e s at t h e p e a k of t h e c r i s i s , w h i c h e n a b l e d t h e m to r e a c h a p e a c e f u l s o l u t i o n ; a n d it w a s t h i s f e a r w h i c h w a s a t t h e v e r y c o r e of t h e f a m o u s e x c h a n g e of l e t t e r s b e t w e e n

Khrushchev

a n d F i d e l C a s t r o a t t h e c l i m a x of t h e c r i s i s . ^ In a l e t t e r to K h r u s h c h e v on October 26, Castro wrote that

if t h e i m p e r i a l i s t s i n v a d e C u b a w i t h t h e g o a l of o c c u p y i n g it, t h e d a n g e r t h a t t h a t a g g r e s s i v e p o l i c y p o s e s for h u m a n i t y is so g r e a t t h a t following that event the Soviet Union must n e v e r a l l o w the c i r c u m 216

STALINISM REVISITED

s t a n c e s in w h i c h t h e I m p e r i a l i s t s c o u l d l a u n c h t h e first n u c l e a r s t r i k e a g a i n s t it. I tell y o u

t h i s b e c a u s e I b e l i e v e t h a t the i m p e r i a l i s t s '

a g g r e s s i v e n e s s is e x t r e m e l y d a n g e r o u s a n d 11 t h e y a c t u a l l y c a r r y out t h e b r u t a l a c t of i n v a d i n g C u b a in v i o l a t i o n of i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w a n d m o r a l i t y , t h a t w o u l d b e t h e m o m e n t to e l i m i n a t e s u c h d a n g e r f o r e v e r t h r o u g h a n a c t of c l e a r l e g i t i m a t e d e f e n s e , h o w e v e r h a r s h a n d t e r r i b l e t h e s o l u t i o n w o u l d b e , for t h e r e i s no o t h e r .

K h r u s h c h e v a n s w e r e d C a s t r o on O c t o b e r 3 0 :

In y o u r c a b l e of O c t o b e r 2 7 y o u p r o p o s e d t h a t w e b e t h e first to l a u n c h a n u c l e a r s t r i k e a g a i n s t t h e t e r r i t o r y of t h e e n e m y . Y o u , of c o u r s e , r e a l i z e w h e r e t h a t w o u l d h a v e l e d . R a t h e r t h a n a s i m p l e s t r i k e , it w o u l d h a v e b e e n t h e s t a r t of a t h e r m o n u c l e a r w o r l d w a r . D e a r

Comrade

F i d e l C a s t r o , 1 c o n s i d e r t h i s p r o p o s a l of y o u r s i n c o r r e c t , a l t h o u g h I u n d e r s t a n d y o u r motivation. W e h a v e lived t h r o u g h the most serious m o m e n t w h e n a n u c l e a r w o r l d w a r c o u l d h a v e b r o k e n out. O b v i o u s l y , in t h a t c a s e , the U n i t e d S t a t e s w o u l d h a v e s u s t a i n e d h u g e l o s s e s , b u t the

Soviet Union

a n d the w h o l e socialist c a m p w o u l d have also

suffered g r e a t l y . A s far a s C u b a i s c o n c e r n e d , it w o u l d b e difficult to s a y e v e n in g e n e r a l t e r m s w h a t t h i s w o u l d h a v e m e a n t for t h e m . In the first p l a c e , C u b a w o u l d h a v e b e e n b u r n e d in t h e fire of w a r . T h e r e ' s no d o u b t t h a t t h e C u b a n p e o p l e w o u l d h a v e f o u g h t

cour­

a g e o u s l y or t h a t t h e y w o u l d h a v e d i e d h e r o i c a l l y . B u t w e a r e

not

s t r u g g l i n g a g a i n s t i m p e r i a l i s m in o r d e r to d i e , b u t to t a k e a d v a n t a g e of all o u r p o s s i b i l i t i e s , to lose l e s s in t h e s t r u g g l e a n d w i n m o r e

to

o v e r c o m e a n d a c h i e v e t h e v i c t o r y of c o m m u n i s m .

T h e e s s e n c e of K h r u s h c h e v ' s a r g u m e n t c a n b e b e s t s u m m e d u p b y N e i l K i n n o c k ' s a r g u m e n t for u n i l a t e r a l d i s a r m a m e n t , w h e n h e w a s t h e L a b o u r l e a d e r : "I a m r e a d y to d i e for m y c o u n t r y , b u t I a m not r e a d y to let m y c o u n t r y die for m e . " It is s i g n i f i c a n t to note that, in s p i t e of t h e "totalitar­ i a n " c h a r a c t e r of t h e S o v i e t r e g i m e , thy fear w a s far m o r e p r e d o m i n a n t in the S o v i e t l e a d e r s h i p t h a n in t h a t of t h e U S —so, p e r h a p s , t h e t i m e h a s c o m e to r e h a b i l i t a t e K h r u s h c h e v , not K e n n e d y , a s t h e r e a l h e r o of t h e C u b a n m i s s i l e c r i s i s . C a s t r o a n s w e r e d K h r u s h c h e v on O c t o b e r 3 1 :

I r e a l i z e d w h e n I w r o t e t h e m t h a t t h e w o r d s c o n t a i n e d in m y l e t t e r could be misinterpreted by y o u and that w a s w h a t happened, perhaps 217

IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S

because y o u

didn't

read

them

carefully, perhaps

b e c a u s e of

the

t r a n s l a t i o n , p e r h a p s b e c a u s e T m e a n t to s a y so m u c h in too few l i n e s . H o w e v e r , I d i d n ' t h e s i t a t e to d o it. D o y o u b e l i e v e . C o m r a d e K h r u s h ­ c h e v , t h a t w e w e r e s e l f i s h l y t h i n k i n g of o u r s e l v e s , of o u r g e n e r o u s p e o p l e w i l l i n g to s a c r i f i c e t h e m s e l v e s , a n d not a t a l l in a n u n c o n s c i o u s m a n n e r b u t fully a s s u r e d of t h e r i s k t h e y r a n ? N o , C o m r a d e

Khrush­

c h e v . F e w t i m e s m h i s t o r y , a n d it c o u l d e v e n b e s a i d t h a t n e v e r before, b e c a u s e n o p e o p l e h a d e v e r faced s u c h a t i - e m e n d o u s d a n g e r , w a s a p e o p l e so w i l l i n g to fight a n d d i e w i t h s u c h a u n i v e r s a l s e n s e of d u t y , [. . . ] W e k n e w , a n d d o not p r e s u m e t h a t w e i g n o r e d it, t h a t w e w o u l d h a v e b e e n a n n i h i l a t e d , a s y o u i n s i n u a t e i n y o u r l e t t e r , i n t h e e v e n t of n u c l e a r w a r . H o w e v e r , t h a t d i d n ' t p r o m p t u s to a s k y o u to w i t h d r a w t h e m i s s i l e s , t h a t d i d n ' t p r o m p t u s to a s k y o u to y i e l d . D o y o u b e l i e v e t h a t w e w a n t e d t h a t w a r ? B u t h o w c o u l d w e p r e v e n t it if t h e i n v a s i o n finally

t o o k p l a c e ? [. . . ] A n d if w a r h a d b r o k e n out, w h a t c o u l d w e do

w i t h the insane people w h o u n l e a s h e d the w a r ? Y o u y o u r s e l f h a v e said that u n d e r

current

conditions

such a w a r would inevitably have

e s c a l a t e d q u i c k l y into a n u c l e a r w a r . 1 u n d e r s t a n d t h a t o n c e a g g r e s s i o n is u n l e a s h e d , o n e s h o u l d n ' t c o n c e d e to t h e a g g r e s s o r t h e p r i v i l e g e of d e c i d i n g , m o r e o v e r , w h e n to u s e n u c l e a r w e a p o n s . T h e d e s t r u c t i v e p o w e r of t h i s w e a p o n r y i s so g r e a t a n d the s p e e d of i t s d e l i v e r y so g r e a t that the aggressor w o u l d have a considerable initial a d v a n t a g e . A n d 1 d i d not s u g g e s t to y o u , C o m r a d e K h r u s h c h e v , t h a t t h e U S S R s h o u l d b e t h e a g g r e s s o r , b e c a u s e t h a t w o u l d b e m o r e t h a n i n c o r r e c t , it w o u l d b e i m m o r a l a n d c o n t e m p t i b l e on m y p a r t . B u t from t h e i n s t a n t the imperialists attack C u b a and w h i l e there are Soviet a r m e d s t a t i o n e d in C u b a to h e l p in o u r d e f e n s e in c a s e of a n a t t a c k

forces from

abroad, the imperialists w o u l d b y this act become a g g r e s s o r s against C u b a a n d a g a i n s t the U S S R , a n d w e w o u l d r e s p o n d w i t h a s t r i k e that w o u l d a n n i h i l a t e t h e m . [. • • ] I d i d n o t s u g g e s t . C o m r a d e

Khrushchev,

t h a t in t h e m i d s t of this c r i s i s t h e S o v i e t U n i o n s h o u l d a t t a c k , w h i c h is w h a t y o u r l e t t e r s e e m s to s a y ; r a t h e r , t h a t f o l l o w i n g a n i m p e r i a l i s t attack, the U S S R should act without vacillation a n d should

never

m a k e t h e m i s t a k e of a l l o w i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s to d e v e l o p in w h i c h t h e e n e m y m a k e s t h e first n u c l e a r s t r i k e a g a i n s t t h e U S S R . A n d in t h i s s e n s e . C o m r a d e K h r u s h c h e v , I m a i n t a i n m y p o i n t of v i e w , b e c a u s e 1 u n d e r s t a n d it to b e a t r u e a n d j u s t e v a l u a t i o n of a s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n . Y o u m a y b e a b l e to c o n v i n c e m e t h a t I a m w r o n g , b u t y o u c a n ' t tell m e that I a m w r o n g without convincing me. 218

STALINISM REVISITED

Jt is c l e a r t h a t it w a s C a s t r o

himself w h o

(purposefully)

misread

Khrushchev here: Khrushchev understood very well w h a t Castro w a n t e d t h e U S S R to d o —not to a t t a c k t h e U S " o u t of n o w h e r e , " but, in t h e c a s e of t h e U S i n v a s i o n of C u b a (still a n a c t oî conventional -war, a n d a l i m i t e d one, a t t h a t — a t t a c k i n g a r e c e n t a l l y of t h e U S S R , not t h e U S S R itself), to r e t a l i a t e w i t h total nuclear c o u n t e r a t t a c k . T h i s i s w h a t t h e w a r n i n g t h a t t h e U S S R " s h o u l d n e v e r m a k e t h e m i s t a k e of a l l o w i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s to d e v e l o p in w h i c h t h e e n e m y m a k e s t h e first n u c l e a r s t r i k e a g a i n s t t h e U S S R " c a n o n l y m e a n : t h a t t h e U S S R s h o u l d b e t h e first to d e a l a decisive n u c l e a r strike —"once a g g r e s s i o n is u n l e a s h e d , one

shouldn't

c o n c e d e to t h e a g g r e s s o r t h e p r i v i l e g e of d e c i d i n g , m o r e o v e r , w h e n to u s e n u c l e a r w e a p o n s . " T o p u t it b l u n t l y , C a s t r o w a s d e m a n d i n g t h a t I ^ r u s h c h e v c h o o s e t h e e n d of c i v i l i z e d life on e a r t h o v e r t h e l o s s of C u b a . . . So, a g a i n , w h a t w e w i t n e s s here is a confrontation b e t w e e n chev's humanist

considerations

( u l t i m a t e l y , t h e l e g a c y of

Khrush­

traditional

c u l t u r e r e s u s c i t a t e d b y h i g h S t a l i n i s m ) a n d C a s t r o ' s r u t h l e s s total w a g e r , w h i c h e c h o e s M a o Z e d o n g ' s r e f l e c t i o n on t h e p o s s i b l e a n n i h i l a t i o n of t h e human race. A s w e have noted earlier, C h e G u e v a r a approached the same h n e of t h o u g h t w h e n h e p r a i s e d t h e h e r o i c r e a d i n e s s of t h e C u b a n p e o p l e to r i s k its o w n

effacement.

Kremlinology S t a l i n i s m ' s r o l e in s a v i n g t h e " h u m a n i t y of m a n " i s d i s c e r n i b l e a t t h e m o s t e l e m e n t a r y l e v e l of l a n g u a g e . If t h e l a n g u a g e of t h e n e w b e i n g w a s to h a v e b e e n

post-human

a l a n g u a g e of s i g n a l s , n o l o n g e r

properly

r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e s u b j e c t , no w o n d e r t h a t S t a l i n i s t l a n g u a g e i s t h e m o s t violent i m a g i n a b l e opposite. W h a t characterizes h u m a n

l a n g u a g e , in

c o n t r a s t to t h e m o s t c o m p l e x s i g n a l s of b e e s , i s w h a t L a c a n c a l l e d " e m p t y s p e e c h , " s p e e c h w h o s e d e n o t a t i v e v a l u e ( e x p l i c i t c o n t e n t ) is s u s p e n d e d on b e h a l f of its f u n c t i o n a s a n i n d e x of i n t e r s u b j e c t i v e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n s p e a k e r a n d h e a r e r , a n d t h i s s u s p e n s i o n i s a k e y f e a t u r e of S t a l i n i s t j a r g o n , t h e o b j e c t of t h e s c i e n c e of " K r e m l i n o l o g y " :

B e f o r e t h e S o v i e t - e r a a r c h i v e s o p e n e d w i d e , foreign s c h o l a r s t r y i n g to m a k e o u t w h a t h a d h a p p e n e d , a n d w h a t m i g h t c o m e to p a s s , t o o k a b u s e for r e l y i n g u p o n h e a r s a y : s o - a n d - s o h a d h e a r d from s o - a n d - s o , w h o m t u r n h a d h e a r d from s o m e o n e in t h e c a m p s , w h o w a s s u r e t h a t • . . [ i n s e r t f a n t a s t i c p a r t i c u l a r s h e r e ] . C r i t i c s of s u c h h e a r s a y - s c h o l a r 219

Ih4 DEFENSE OF LOST CAUSES

s h i p h a d a point. B u t w h a t few p e o p l e s e e m to r e a l i z e , e v e n n o w , is t h a t the s a l i e n t i s s u e m i g h t n o t b e t h e r e l i a b i l i t y i n S t a l i n ' s S o v i e t U n i o n of w o r d of m o u t h a n d p o l i t i c a l d i v i n a t i o n , b u t its p e r v a s i v e n e s s . K r e m l i n o l o g y a r o s e n o t a t H a r v a r d , b u t i n a n d a r o u n d t h e K r e m l i n . [. . . ] this w a s h o w t h e e n t i r e r e g i m e o p e r a t e d , a n d it w a s w h a t e v e r y o n e i n t h e S o v i e t U n i o n d i d t o a d e g r e e , t h e m o r e so t h e h i g h e r u p . A m i d t h e i n t e r - m i n i s t e r i a l w a r f a r e a n d M o b i u s - s t r i p i n t r i g u e s , S t a l i n i s t life a n d d e a t h r e m a i n e d o p a q u e , n o m a t t e r w h e r e y o u stood o r w h o m y o u k n e w . It w a s a t t h e s a m e t i m e f o r m u l a i c a n d i n d e t e r m i n a t e . In A p r i l 1 9 3 9 , [ t h e n o m i n a l h e a d o f C o m i n t e r n G e o r g i ] D i m i t r o v frets o v e r h i s s u d d e n o m i s s i o n i n Pravda's, c o v e r a g e of o n e h o n o r p r e s i d i u m a n d i n Izmitiyas

of a n o t h e r . H i s a g i t a t i o n e a s e s w h e n h e

l e a r n s t h a t h i s p o r t r a i t s w e r e b o r n e aloft a t t h e M a y D a y p a r a d e , w h i c h q u i e t e d t h e o m i n o u s c h i t c h a t a b o u t h i m . B u t t h e n it h a p p e n e d a g a i n . " F o r t h e first t i m e o n I n t e r n a t i o n a l W o m e n ' s D a y I w a s not elected to t h e h o n o r p r e s i d i u m , " h e r e c o r d s o n M a r c h 8, 1 9 4 1 . " T h a t , of c o u r s e , is n o a c c i d e n t . " A h , b u t w h a t did it mean';* D i m i t r o v — w h o

could

s c a r c e l y h a v e b e e n c l o s e r to t h e K r e m l i n — w a s a n i n v e t e r a t e K r e m l i nologlst, s t u d y i n g M a u s o l e u m c h o r e o g r a p h y , d i v i n i n g omens, d r o w n 11

ing in r u m o r s . Another comical detail along these lines: t h e public prosecutor in the s h o w trial against t h e " U n i t e d T r o t s k y i t e - Z i n o v i é v i t e C e n t e r "

pub­

l i s h e d a list of t h o s e t h a t t h i s " C e n t e r " w a s p l a n n i n g t o a s s a s s i n a t e ( S t a l i n , K i r o v , Z h d a n o v . . . ) ; t h i s list b e c a m e " a b i z a r r e h o n o r s i n c e inclusion signified p r o x i m i t y to S t a l i n . "

A l t h o u g h M o l o t o v w a s on

g o o d personal terms with Stalin, h e w a s shocked to discover that he w a s n o t o n t h e list: w h a t c o u l d t h i s s i g n m e a n ? J u s t a w a r n i n g from S t a l i n , o r a n i n d i c a t i o n t h a t soon it w o u l d b e h i s t u r n t o b e a r r e s t e d ? H e r e i n d e e d , t h e s e c r e t s of t h e E g y p t i a n s w e r e s e c r e t s a l s o for t h e E g y p t i a n s t h e m s e l v e s . It w a s t h e S t a l i n i s t S o v i e t U n i o n w h i c h w a s t h e true "empire of s i g n s . " A story told b y S o v i e t linguist Eric H a n - P i r a

provides a perfect

e x a m p l e of t h e total s e m a n t i c s a t u r a t i o n of t h i s " e m p i r e of s i g n s , " a saturation w h i c h , precisely, relied on t h e e m p t y i n g of direct denotative m e a n i n g . F o r m a n y y e a r s , w h e n the Soviet m e d i a a n n o u n c e d the funeral c e r e m o n i e s of a m e m b e r of t h e s e n i o r nomenklatura,

it u s e d a c l i c h é

f o r m u l a t i o n : " b u r i e d o n R e d S q u a r e b y t h e K r e m l i n w a l l . " In t h e 1 9 6 0 s , h o w e v e r , b e c a u s e of t h e l a c k of s p a c e , most of t h e n e w l y d e c e a s e d 220

STALINISM REVISITED

d i g n i t a r i e s w e r e c r e m a t e d a n d u r n s w i t h t h e i r a s h e s w e r e p l a c e d in n i c h e s inside the wall itself—yet the

s a m e old f o r m u l a w a s u s e d in

press

s t a t e m e n t s . T h i s i n c o n g r u i t y c o m p e l l e d fifteen m e m b e r s of t h e R u s s i a n L a n g u a g e I n s t i t u t e of t h e S o v i e t A c a d e m y of S c i e n c e s to w r i t e a l e t t e r to the C e n t r a l C o m m i t t e e

of t h e C o m m u n i s t

Party, s u g g e s t i n g that the

p h r a s e b e m o d i f i e d to fit t h e c u r r e n t r e a l i t y : " T h e u r n w i t h a s h e s w a s p l a c e d in t h e K r e m l i n w a l l . " S e v e r a l w e e k s l a t e r , a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e Central Committee p h o n e d the Institute, informing them that the C e n t r a l C o m m i t t e e h a d d i s c u s s e d t h e i r s u g g e s t i o n a n d d e c i d e d to k e e p t h e o l d f o r m u l a t i o n ; h e g a v e n o r e a s o n s for t h i s d e c i s i o n .

A c c o r d i n g to t h e r u l e s

that r e g u l a t e t h e S o v i e t " e m p i r e of s i g n s , " t h e C C w a s r i g h t : t h e c h a n g e w o u l d not

have been

perceived as simply registering the

fact

that

d i g n i t a r i e s w e r e n o w c r e m a t e d a n d t h e i r a s h e s p l a c e d in t h e w a l l itself; any d e v i a t i o n from t h e s t a n d a r d f o r m u l a w o u l d h a v e b e e n i n t e r p r e t e d a s a sign, t r i g g e r i n g f r e n z i e d i n t e r p r e t i v e a c t i v i t y . S o , s i n c e t h e r e w a s n o m e s s a g e to b e d e l i v e r e d , w h y c h a n g e t h i n g s ? O n e m a y o p p o s e to t h i s c o n c l u s i o n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a s i m p l e " r a t i o n a l " s o l u t i o n : w h y not c h a n g e the f o r m u l a t i o n a n d a d d a n e x p l a n a t i o n t h a t it m e a n t n o t h i n g , t h a t it simply registered a new reality? S u c h a "rational" approach totally misses the l o g i c of t h e S o v i e t " e m p i r e of s i g n s " : s i n c e , in It, everything h a s s o m e m e a n i n g , e v e n a n d cdpeciaily a d e n i a l of m e a n i n g , s u c h a d e n i a l w o u l d t r i g g e r a n e v e n m o r e frantic I n t e r p r e t i v e a c t i v i t y — It w o u l d h a v e b e e n r e a d not o n l y a s a m e a n i n g f u l s i g n w i t h i n a g i v e n , w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d , semiotic space, but as a m u c h stronger meta-semantic Indication that the v e r y b a s i c r u l e s of t h i s s e m i o t i c s p a c e w e r e c h a n g i n g , t h u s c a u s i n g total p e r p l e x i t y , p a n i c e v e n ! S o m e S o v i e t l e a d e r s r e t a i n e d a s e n s e of I r o n y a n d d i s p l a y e d a d a r k s e n s e of h u m o r w i t h r e g a r d to t h i s t o t a l p l a s t i c i t y of facts; w h e n , in e a r l y 1 9 5 6 , A n a s t a s M i k o y a n flew to B u d a p e s t to Inform the H u n g a r i a n u l t r a - S t a l i n i s t l e a d e r M a t y a s R a k o s i of M o s c o w ' s d e c i s i o n to d e p o s e h i m , h e t o l d R a k o s i : " T h e S o v i e t l e a d e r s h i p h a s d e c i d e d y o u a r e ill. Y o u w i l l n e e d t r e a t m e n t In M o s c o w . " ' It w o u l d b e i n t e r e s t i n g to r e r e a d , from this p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e m o d e l postW o r l d W a r II S o v i e t t e x t b o o k on d i a l e c t i c a l m a t e r i a l i s m , M a r k R o z e n t a l ' s The Marxut Moscow

In

Dialectical Method, w h o s e

1 9 5 1 . In

later reprints,

appeared

in

long passages w e r e omitted

first e d i t i o n

or

r e w r i t t e n ; h o w e v e r , t h e s e c h a n g e s h a d n o t h i n g w h a t s o e v e r to d o w i t h t h e a u t h o r ' s f u r t h e r r e f l e c t i o n s on i m m a n e n t p h i l o s o p h i c a l p r o b l e m s — t h e y a r e a l l to b e r e a d s t r i c t l y in K r e m l l n o l o g l c a l t e r m s , a s s i g n a l s of the shifts In t h e i d e o l o g i c o - p o l i t i c a l l i n e . T h e b o o k , of c o u r s e , r e l i e s on 221

S t a l i n ' s " s y s t e m a t i z a t i o n " of t h e method

four

( t h e u n i t y of a l l p h e n o m e n a ;

"main

f e a t u r e s " of d i a l e c t i c a l

t h e d y n a m i c n a t u r e of r e a l i t y ;

t h e p e r m a n e n t d e v e l o p m e n t of r e a l i t y ; t h e " r e v o l u t i o n a r y " n a t u r e of this d e v e l o p m e n t w h i c h p r o c e e d s through s u d d e n j u m p s , not only through c o n t i n u o u s g r a d u a l c h a n g e ) , from w h i c h , s i g n i f i c a n t l y , t h e " l a w " of the " n e g a t i o n of t h e n e g a t i o n " i s a b s e n t . ( S e e S t a l i n ' s " O n

Dialectical and

H i s t o r i c a l M a t e r i a l i s m . " ) In the s u b s e q u e n t e d i t i o n s of R o z e n t a l ' s book, t h e d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e s e four " m a i n f e a t u r e s " s u b t l y c h a n g e s : a t s o m e point, t h e " n e g a t i o n of the n e g a t i o n " i s s i l e n t l y r e a d m i t t e d , a n d so on a n d so forth. T h e s e c h a n g e s a r e K r e m l i n o l o g i c a l s i g n a l s of t h e shifts in the i d e o l o g i c o - p o l i t l c a l c o n s t e l l a t i o n , t h e shifts of d e - S t a l i n i z a t i o n w h i c h , paradoxically, began under

Stalin himself at his instigation

( s e e his

t w o l a t e e s s a y s on l i n g u i s t i c s a n d t h e e c o n o m y , w h i c h p a v e d t h e w a y for r e c o g n i z i n g t h e r e l a t i v e a u t o n o m y

and independence

from

class

s t r u g g l e o f — s o m e — s c i e n c e s ) . T h e fact t h a t t h e " n e g a t i o n of t h e n e g a ­ t i o n " is p o s i t e d a s a f u n d a m e n t a l o n t o l o g i c a l f e a t u r e of r e a l i t y , h a s t h u s n o t h i n g to d o w i t h the c o g n i t i o n of t h e w o r l d a n d e v e r y t h i n g to d o w i t h shifts in t h e i d e o l o g i c o - p o l i t l c a l c o n s t e l l a t i o n . Is t h e n K r e m l i n o l o g y n o t a k i n d of o b s c e n e d o u b l e of S o v i e t o l o g y , the latter studying the Soviet regime objectively, through sociological data, s t a t i s t i c s , p o w e r shifts, a n d so forth, t h e f o r m e r a s a n o b s c u r e s e m i o t i c system?

From objective to subjective guill W h a t k i n d of s u b j e c t i v e p o s i t i o n d o e s s u c h a u n i v e r s e i m p l y ? L e t u s t a k e as our

starting

point

Brecht's

" l e a r n i n g p l a y " Die Mcusnahme

(The

Measures Taken), in w h i c h a y o u n g r e v o l u t i o n a r y , p a r t of a g r o u p of C o m m u n i s t a g i t a t o r s s e n t to C h i n a to s t i m u l a t e r e v o l u t i o n a r y a c t i v i t y , i s killed b y fellow C o m m u n i s t s b e c a u s e t h e y consider him a security risk ( a n d h e d u t i f u l l y a s s e n t s to h i s e x e c u t i o n ) . A l t h o u g h t h i s p l a y i s often p r e s e n t e d a s a j u s t i f i c a t i o n of t h e S t a l i n i s t s h o w t r i a l s , t h e r e is a c r u c i a l distinction b e t w e e n the two:

what separated

Brecht's

fictional

a g i t a t o r s from

Stalin's v e r y real

prosecutors like V y s h i n s k y a n d policemen like B e r i a w a s the latters banal insistence that the defendants

h a d r e a l t y d o n e t h i s or

that

w i c k e d , blood-soaked, conspiratorial deed —rather than pursuing the i d e a of a p a r a d o x i c a l " o b j e c t i v e " g u i l t t r a n s c e n d i n g t h e a c t u a l facts 222

STALINISM REVISITED

[. . . ] B r e c h t s t a c k s t h e c a r d s in s u c h a w a y t h a t w e t h e a u d i e n c e a r e b o u n d to e m b r a c e t h e e x e c u t e d h e r o . [ B r e c h t ' s c r i t i c a l i n t e r p r e t e r H e r b e r t ] L u t h y a d m i t t e d that no C o m m u n i s t c o u n t r y or organization h a s e v e r s t a g e d t h e play'*" — " T h e P a r t y itself d o e s not l i k e so m u c h c a n d o u r . . . " — b u t f a i l e d to n o t i c e t h a t B r e c h t ' s " c a n d o u r " in e x ­ p o s i n g t h e r u t h l e s s n e s s of t h e P a r t y l i n e i s i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h s u b ­ s c r i b i n g to it. T h e t r u e b e l i e v e r s i n v a r i a b l y k e p t t h e i r k n o w l e d g e to themselves. ' ^

T h e p r o b l e m w i t h t h i s r e a d i n g i s t h a t it falsifies B r e c h t ' s p o s i t i o n in t w o k e y w a y s : ( 1 ) B r e c h t d o e s not j u s t i f y t h e k i l l i n g of t h e y o u n g c o m r a d e in t e r m s of " o b j e c t i v e g u i l t , " b u t in t e r m s of p r a g m a t i c e x p e d i e n c y ( t h e young comrade compromising

had removed

h i s m a s k a n d r e v e a l e d h i s face,

t h e m a l l ) — h i s k i l l i n g w a s not a p u n i s h m e n t .

thus

(2)

For

B r e c h t , t h e o p e n e x p o s i t i o n of t h e m e c h a n i s m is not i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h s u b s c r i b i n g to i t — t h e g r e a t d r a m a t i c t e n s i o n of t h e p i e c e i s that, w h i l e fully d i s p l a y i n g t h e h a r s h n e s s of t h e

" m e a s u r e t a k e n , " the w a y the

u n f o r t u n a t e y o u n g c o m r a d e ' s life i s r u t h l e s s l y s a c r i f i c e d , h e still c o n d o n e s it.

T h e t r u e q u e s t i o n i s : w h y c a n t h e l o g i c of " o b j e c t i v e g u i l t " not b e

e x p l i c i t l y a s s e r t e d ? W h y d o e s it h a v e to r e m a i n a k i n d of o b s c e n e s e c r e t , a d m i t t e d o n l y in a s e m i - p r i v a t e p l a c e ? W h y w o u l d i t s full p u b l i c a s s e r t i o n b e s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e ? W e e n c o u n t e r h e r e t h e m y s t e r y of a p p e a r a n c e a t its p u r e s t : " o b j e c t i v e g u i l t " — t h e fact t h a t " t h e m o r e y o u a r e s u b j e c t i v e l y i n n o c e n t ( w i t h r e g a r d to f a c t u a l a c c u s a t i o n s ) t h e m o r e y o u a r e ( o b j e c ­ t i v e l y ) g u i l t y " — m u s t not a p p e a r a s s u c h . T h e q u e s t i o n i s t h u s : w h a t k i n d of e t h i c s e n a b l e s u s to t a l k

about

" o b j e c t i v e g u i l t " ? O b v i o u s l y , a n i m m o r a l e t h i c s . The p h i l o s o p h e r

of

immoral ethics w a s Friedrich Nietzsche, a n d w e should r e m e m b e r that the title of h i s m a s t e r p i e c e is The Genealogy of MoraU — niorab, n o t e t h i c s : t h e t w o a r e not t h e s a m e . M o r a l i t y i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e S3nTimetry of m y r e l a t i o n s w i t h o t h e r h u m a n b e i n g s ; its z e r o - l e v e l r u l e i s " d o not d o to m e w h a t y o u d o not w a n t m e to d o to y o u " ; ' ^ e t h i c s , on t h e c o n t r a r y , d e a l s w i t h m y c o n s i s t e n c y w i t h myself, m y fidelity to m y o w n d e s i r e s . O n t h e b a c k f l y l e a f of a 1 9 3 9 e d i t i o n of L e n i n ' s Materialism and

Empiriocriticum,

S t a l i n m a d e t h e f o l l o w i n g n o t e in r e d p e n c i l :

1) W e a k n e s s 2) Idleness 3) Stupidity 223

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

T h e s e a r e t h e o n l y t h i n g s t h a n c a n b e c a l l e d v i c e s . E v e r y t h i n g else, in t h e a b s e n c e of t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d , NB!

If a m a n i s 1 ) s t r o n g

i s u n d o u b t e d l y virtue.

( s p i r i t u a l l y ) , 2 ) a c t i v e , 3 ) c l e v e r (or

c a p a b l e ) , t h e n h e is g o o d , r e g a r d l e s s of a n y o t h e r " v i c e s " ! 1) p l u s 3 ) m a k e 2 ) . ^ °

T h i s is a s c o n c i s e a s e v e r a f o r m u l a t i o n of immoral ethicd; in c o n t r a s t to it, a w e a k l i n g w h o o b e y s m o r a l r u l e s a n d w o r r i e s a b o u t h i s g u i l t , s t a n d s for unethical

morality,

t h e t a r g e t of N i e t z s c h e ' s c r i t i q u e of

ressenLiment.

T h e r e i s , h o w e v e r , a l i m i t to S t a l i n i s m : not t h a t it i s too i m m o r a l , but t h a t it i s s e c r e t l y too nwral, still r e l y i n g on a f i g u r e of t h e b i g O t h e r . A s w e h a v e s e e n , in w h a t i s a r g u a b l y t h e m o s t i n t e l l i g e n t l e g i t i m i z a t i o n of Stalinist terror, M e r l e a u - P o n t y ' s

Humanuni

and Terror from

1 9 4 6 , the

t e r r o r i s j u s t i f i e d a s a k i n d of w a g e r on t h e f u t u r e , a l m o s t in t h e m o d e of t h e t h e o l o g y of P a s c a l w h o e n j o i n s u s to m a k e a b e t o n G o d : i f t h e

final

r e s u l t of t o d a y ' s h o r r o r w i l l b e t h e b r i g h t C o m m u n i s t f u t u r e , t h e n t h i s o u t c o m e w i l l r e t r o a c t i v e l y r e d e e m the t e r r i b l e t h i n g s a r e v o l u t i o n a r y h a s to d o t o d a y . A l o n g s i m i l a r l i n e s , e v e n s o m e S t a l i n i s t s t h e m s e l v e s — w h e n ( h a l f p r i v a t e l y , u s u a l l y ) t h e y w e r e f o r c e d to a d m i t t h a t m a n y of the v i c t i m s of t h e p u r g e s w e r e i n n o c e n t , a c c u s e d a n d k i l l e d b e c a u s e p a r t y n e e d e d t h e i r blood to fortify its u n i t y " ^—would look to t h e

"the future

m o m e n t of final v i c t o r y i n w h i c h a l l t h e n e c e s s a r y v i c t i m s w o u l d a t l a s t be g i v e n t h e i r d u e a n d t h e i r i n n o c e n c e a n d h i g h e s t s a c r i f i c e for t h e c a u s e w o u l d b e r e c o g n i z e d . T h i s i s w h a t L a c a n , i n h i s Elhico s e m i n a r , r e f e r s to a s t h e " p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e L a s t J u d g m e n t , " a p e r s p e c t i v e e v e n

more

c l e a r l y d i s c e r n i b l e in o n e of t h e k e y t e r m s of t h e S t a l i n i s t d i s c o u r s e , t h a t of t h e " o b j e c t i v e g u i l t " a n d " o b j e c t i v e m e a n i n g " of y o u r a c t s : w h i l e you c a n b e a n h o n e s t i n d i v i d u a l w h o a c t e d w i t h the m o s t s i n c e r e i n t e n t i o n s , you

a r e n o n e t h e l e s s "objectively g u i l t y , " if y o u r acts serve r e a c t i o n a r y

f o r c e s — a n d it i s , of c o u r s e , t h e p a r t y w h i c h h a s t h e d i r e c t a c c e s s to w h a t y o u r acts "objectively m e a n . " f i e r e , again, w e not only h a v e the

per­

s p e c t i v e of the L a s t J u d g m e n t ( w h i c h f o r m u l a t e s t h e " o b j e c t i v e m e a n ­ i n g " of y o u r a c t s ) , b u t a l s o t h e p r e s e n t a g e n t w h o a l r e a d y h a s t h e u n i q u e a b i l i t y t o j u d g e t o d a y ' s e v e n t s a n d a c t s from t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e . ' ^ ' W e c a n s e e n o w w h y L a c a n ' s m o t t o " / / n'y a pao de grand Autre" ( t h e r e is no b i g O t h e r ) b r i n g s u s to t h e v e r y c o r e of t h e e t h i c a l p r o b l e m a t i c : w h a t it e x c l u d e s i s p r e c i s e l y t h i s " p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e L a s t J u d g m e n t , " t h e i d e a t h a t s o m e w h e r e — e v e n if o n l y a s a t h o r o u g h l y v i r t u a l p o i n t of r e f e r e n c e , e v e n if w e c o n c e d e t h a t w e c a n n o t e v e r o c c u p y i t s p l a c e a n d p a s s t h e 224

STALINISM REVISITED

a c t u a l j u d g m e n t — t h e r e m u s t b e a s t a n d a r d w h i c h allows u s to t a k e a m e a s u r e ot o u r a c t s a n d p r o n o u n c e ethical status. Even

their "true meaning," their true

J a c q u e s D e r r i d a ' s notion

o f "deconstruction

as

j u s t i c e " s e e m s to r e l y on a Utopian h o p e w h i c h s u s t a i n s the s p e c t e r of "infinite j u s t i c e , " f o r e v e r p o s t p o n e d ,

a l w a y s to c o m e , b u t

nonetheless

h e r e a s t h e u l t i m a t e h o r i z o n of o u r a c t i v i t y . T h e h a r s h n e s s of L a c a n i a n e t h i c s i s t h a t it d e m a n d s t h a t w e t h o r o u g h l y r e l i n q u i s h t h i s r e f e r e n c e — a n d its f u r t h e r w a g e r is that, not o n l y d o e s this a b d i c a t i o n not l e a v e u s in the g r i p of a n e t h i c a l i n s e c u r i t y or r e l a t i v i s m , o r e v e n u n d e r m i n e t h e v e r y f o u n d a t i o n s of e t h i c a l a c t i v i t y , b u t t h a t r e n o u n ­ c i n g t h e g u a r a n t e e of s o m e b i g O t h e r is t h e v e r y c o n d i t i o n of a t r u l y a u t o n o m o u s e t h i c s . R e c a l l t h a t t h e d r e a m a b o u t I r m a ' s injection t h a t F r e u d u s e d a s t h e e x e m p l a r y c a s e to i l l u s t r a t e h i s p r o c e d u r e of a n a l y z i n g d r e a m s is a d r e a m a b o u t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ( F r e u d ' s o w n r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for t h e f a i l u r e of h i s t r e a t m e n t of I r m a ) — t h i s fact a l o n e i n d i c a t e s t h a t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s a c r u c i a l F r e u d i a n notion. B u t h o w a r e w e to c o n c e i v e it';" H o w a r e w e to a v o i d the c o m m o n m l s p e r c e p t l o n t h a t t h e b a s i c e t h i c a l m e s s a g e of p s y c h o ­ a n a l y s i s i s , p r e c i s e l y , t h e o n e of r e l i e v i n g m y s e l f of m y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , of p u t t i n g the b l a m e on t h e O t h e r : " s i n c e t h e u n c o n s c i o u s i s t h e d i s c o u r s e of t h e O t h e r , I a m not r e s p o n s i b l e for m y u n c o n s c i o u s formations, it is t h e b i g O t h e r w h o s p e a k s t h r o u g h me, I a m m e r e l y its i n s t r u m e n t " ? L a c a n h i m s e l f p o i n t e d t h e w a y o u t of t h i s d e a d l o c k b y r e f e r r i n g to K a n t ' s p h i l o s o p h y a s t h e c r u c i a l a n t e c e d e n t of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c e t h i c s . A c c o r d i n g to t h e

s t a n d a r d c r i t i q u e , the l i m i t a t i o n of t h e

u n i v e r s a l i s t e t h i c of t h e

" c a t e g o r i c a l i m p e r a t i v e " (the

Kantian

unconditional

i n j u n c t i o n to d o o u r d u t y ) r e s i d e s in its f o r m a l i n d e t e r m i n a c y : t h e m o r a l L a w d o e s not tell m e what m y d u t y i s , it m e r e l y t e l l s m e that I s h o u l d a c c o m p l i s h m y d u t y , a n d s o l e a v e s t h e s p a c e o p e n for e m p t y v o l u n t a r i s m ( w h a t e v e r I d e c i d e to b e m y d u t y it m y d u t y ) . H o w e v e r , far from b e i n g a l i m i t a t i o n , t h i s v e r y f e a t u r e b r i n g s u s to t h e c o r e of K a n t i a n e t h i c a l a u t o n o m y : it i s not p o s s i b l e to d e r i v e t h e c o n c r e t e n o r m s I h a v e to follow m m y s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n from t h e m o r a l L a w i t s e l f — w h i c h m e a n s t h a t it i s t h e s u b j e c t h i m s e l f w h o h a s to a s s u m e the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for t r a n s l a t i n g the abstract

injunction

of t h e m o r a l L a w i n t o a s e r i e s of

concrete

o b l i g a t i o n s . T h e full a c c e p t a n c e of this p a r a d o x c o m p e l s u s to r e j e c t a n y r e f e r e n c e to d u t y a s a n e x c u s e : "I k n o w t h i s is h e a v y a n d c a n b e painful,

b u t w h a t c a n I do, t h i s i s m y d u t y . . . "

K a n t ' s e t h i c s of

u n c o n d i t i o n a l d u t y i s often t a k e n a s j u s t i f y i n g s u c h a n a t t i t u d e — n o W o n d e r Adolf E i c h m a n n h i m s e l f r e f e r r e d to K a n t i a n e t h i c s w h e n

he 225

I N D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

t r i e d to j u s t i f y h i s r o l e in p l a n n i n g a n d e x e c u t i n g t h e H o l o c a u s t : h e w a s j u s t d o i n g h i s d u t y a n d o b e y i n g t h e F ü h r e r ' s o r d e r s . H o w e v e r , the a i m of K a n t ' s e m p h a s i s on t h e s u b j e c t ' s full m o r a l a u t o n o m y a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s p r e c i s e l y to p r e v e n t a n y s u c h m a n e u v e r of shifting t h e b l a m e o n t o s o m e figure

of t h e b i g O t h e r .

S o , let u s r e t u r n to S t a l i n . T h e c o m m o n p l a c e c o n d e m n a t i o n of S t a l i n comprises t w o propositions: (1) he w a s a cynic w h o k n e w v e r y well how t h i n g s stood ( t h a t t h e a c c u s e d at t h e s h o w t r i a l s w e r e r e a l l y i n n o c e n t , a n d so o n ) ; a n d ( 2 ) h e k n e w w h a t h e w a s d o i n g , t h a t i s , h e h a d full control o v e r t h e e v e n t s . D o c u m e n t s from t h e n e w l y a c c e s s i b l e a r c h i v e s r a t h e r p o i n t in t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n : S t a l i n b a s i c a l l y dià b e l i e v e (in t h e official i d e o l o g y , in h i s r o l e a s a n h o n e s t l e a d e r , m t h e g u i l t of t h e a c c u s e d , a n d so o n ) , a n d h e d i d not r e a l l y c o n t r o l t h e e v e n t s ( t h e a c t u a l r e s u l t s of h i s o w n m e a s u r e s a n d i n t e r v e n t i o n s often s h o c k e d h i m ) . ^ ^ L a r s T. L i h p r o p o s e d a d i s t r e s s i n g c o n c l u s i o n : " T h e p e o p l e of t h e S o v i e t U n i o n w o u l d p r o b a b l y h a v e b e e n b e t t e r off 11 S t a l i n h a d b e e n m o r e c y n i c a l t h a n h e w a s . "

There

is, h o w e v e r , a different w a y to r e a d S t a l i n ' s "belief": it i s n o t t h a t h e " p e r s o n a l l y " b e l i e v e d — w a n t e d the big Other to believe. L i h h i m s e l f p o i n t s in t h i s d i r e c t i o n w h e n h e c o n d o n e s R o b e r t T u c k e r ' s a m a z e m e n t a t

how much

pain a n d suffering w e n t into the m a s s production

of

confessions d u r i n g 1937. These confessions served no earthly purpose; t h e y w e r e p r o m p t l y filed a w a y a n d forgotten. T u c k e r s p e c u l a t e s t h a t S t a l i n i n s i s t e d on t h e s e c o n f e s s i o n s a s p r o o f to p o s t e r i t y t h a t h i s v i s i o n of a w o r l d filled w i t h e n e m i e s w a s b a s i c a l l y c o r r e c t .

W h a t if, h o w e v e r , w e t a k e t h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t t h e e x t o r t e d

confessions

" s e r v e d no e a r t h l y p u r p o s e " more literally: t h e y w e r e "filed a w a y and f o r g o t t e n " b y a c t u a l p e o p l e , b e c a u s e t h e i r a d d r e s s e e w a s not t h e s e a c t u a l people but the virtual "big Other," the same big O t h e r that can only a c c o u n t for t h e w e l l - k n o w n i n c i d e n t c o n c e r n i n g t h e g r e a t S o v i e t en­ c y c l o p e d i a w h i c h o c c u r r e d in 1 9 5 4 , I m m e d i a t e l y after t h e fall of B e r i a . W h e n S o v i e t s u b s c r i b e r s r e c e i v e d t h e v o l u m e of t h e e n c y c l o p e d i a w h i c h c o n t a i n e d t h e e n t r i e s u n d e r t h e l e t t e r B , t h e r e w a s , of c o u r s e , a d o u b l e p a g e a r t i c l e on B e r i a , p r a i s i n g h i m a s t h e g r e a t h e r o of t h e S o v i e t U n i o n ; after h i s fall a n d d e n u n c i a t i o n a s a t r a i t o r a n d s p y , a l l s u b s c r i b e r s r e c e i v e d from t h e p u b l i s h i n g h o u s e a l e t t e r a s k i n g t h e m to c u t o u t a n d r e t u r n the p a g e on B e r i a ; in e x c h a n g e t h e y w e r e p r o m p t l y s e n t a d o u b l e - p a g e e n t r y ( w i t h p h o t o s ) on t h e B e r i n g S t r a i t , so that, w h e n t h e y i n s e r t e d it i n t o the 226

STALINISM REVISITED

v o l u m e , its w h o l e n e s s w a s r e e s t a b l i s h e d , t h e r e w a s n o b l a n k to b e a r w i t n e s s to t h e s u d d e n r e w r i t i n g of h i s t o r y . . . T h e m y s t e r y h e r e i s : for whom w a s t h i s ( s e m b l a n c e of) w h o l e n e s s m a i n t a i n e d , if e v e r y s u b s c r i b e r knew a b o u t t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n ( s i n c e h e h a d to p e r f o r m it himself)!

The

o n l y a n s w e r i s , of c o u r s e , for t h e i n n o c e n t g a z e of t h e b i g O t h e r . T h i s i s why

the structure

of S t a l i n i s m i s i n h e r e n t l y t h e o l o g i c a l ; t h i s i s w h y

S t a l i n i s m so d e s p e r a t e l y s t r l v e d to m a i n t a i n p r o p e r a p p e a r a n c e s . S u c h a s o l u t i o n to t h e e n i g m a a l s o a l l o w s u s to r e j e c t t h e d i l e m m a , " W a s S t a l i n a b e l i e v e r o r a c y n i c ? " a s a false o n e : h e w a s b o t h a t t h e s a m e t i m e . P e r s o n a l l y , h e , of c o u r s e , w a s often

a w a r e of t h e lie in t h e

official

d i s c o u r s e ; so, p e r s o n a l l y , h e w a s a c y n i c , b u t h e w a s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y q u i t e s i n c e r e in h i s efforts to s a f e g u a r d t h e i n n o c e n c e a n d s i n c e r i t y of t h e "big Other." The modern

n a m e for t h i s O t h e r w h o i s " s u p p o s e d

b e l i e v e " in o u r s t e a d i s t h e " p e o p l e " — w h e n

to

Golda M e i r w a s asked

w h e t h e r s h e b e l i e v e d in God, s h e s a i d : "I b e l i e v e In t h e J e w i s h p e o p l e , a n d t h e J e w i s h p e o p l e b e l i e v e in G o d . " O n e s h o u l d b e v e r y p r e c i s e in i n t e r p r e t i n g t h i s s t a t e m e n t : it d o e s not I m p l y t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e J e w s b e l i e v e in God ( a s a m a t t e r of fact, t h e S t a t e of I s r a e l is a r g u a b l y t h e m o s t a t h e i s t i c c o u n t r y in t h e w o r l d , t h e o n l y o n e in w h i c h a c l e a r m a j o r i t y of its c i t i z e n s d o not b e l i e v e in G o d ) . W h a t it i m p l i e s i s a ceri;ain f e t i s h i z a t i o n of the " p e o p l e " : e v e n i f — t o g o to t h e e x t r e m e —no i n d i v i d u a l J e w i s h c i t i z e n of I s r a e l b e l i e v e s , e a c h of t h e m p r e s u p p o s e s t h a t t h e " p e o p l e " b e l i e v e s , a n d t h i s p r e s u p p o s i t i o n i s e n o u g h to m a k e h e r a c t a s if s h e b e l i e v e s . . . A S t a l i n i s t a c t s n o t on b e h a l f of r e a l i n d i v i d u a l s , b u t on a c c o u n t of t h e " p e o p l e , " t h i s v i r t u a l b i g O t h e r w h i c h b e l i e v e s e v e n if n o e m p i r i c a l i n d i v i d u a l b e l i e v e s . In t h i s w a y , h e c a n c o m b i n e h i s i n d i v i d u a l c y n i c i s m w i t h h i s " o b j e c t i v e " s i n c e r i t y : h e d o e s not h a v e to b e l i e v e i n a C a u s e , h e o n l y b e l i e v e s in t h e " p e o p l e " s u p p o s e d to b e l i e v e . . . T h i s b r i n g s u s to t h e u n d e r l y i n g s u b j e c t i v e p o s i t i o n of t h e S t a l i n i s t C o m m u n i s t : the p o s i t i o n of a pervert. A true Stalinist politician loves mankind, but

nonetheless

p e r f o r m s h o r r i b l e p u r g e s a n d e x e c u t i o n s — h i s h e a r t is b r e a k i n g w h i l e h e is d o i n g it, b u t h e c a n n o t h e l p it, it i s h i s D u t y t o w a r d s t h e P r o g r e s s of H u m a n i t y . T h i s i s the p e r v e r s e a t t i t u d e of a d o p t i n g t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e p u r e i n s t r u m e n t of t h e b i g O t h e r ' s W i l l ; it i s not m y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , it i s not m e w h o i s e f f e c t i v e l y d o i n g it, I a m m e r e l y a n I n s t r u m e n t of t h e h i g h e r H i s t o r i c a l N e c e s s i t y . A s to t h e g e n e s i s of t h i s p e r v e r s e s u b j e c t i v e p o s i ­ tion, it w o u l d b e r e v e a l i n g to e n g a g e in a d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t of h o w the B o l s h e v i k m o v e m e n t r e l a t e d to m e d i c i n e , to t h e d o c t o r s w h o t o o k c a r e of the l e a d e r s . T h r e e d o c u m e n t s are crucial here. 227

IN D E F E N S E OF L O S T C A U S E S

F i r s t , a r e L e n i n ' s l e t t e r s to G o r k y from t h e fall of 1913^'^ in w h i c h , d e e p l y d i s t u r b e d b y G o r k y ' s s u p p o r t for t h e h u m a n i s t i d e o l o g y of " G o d b u i l d i n g , " L e n i n i m p l i e s t h a t G o r k y h a s s u c c u m b e d to t h i s d e v i a t i o n b e c a u s e of h i s b a d n e r v e s , a n d a d v i s e s h i m to g o to S w i t z e r l a n d a n d g e t t h e b e s t m e d i c a l t r e a t m e n t t h e r e . In o n e of t h e l e t t e r s , after m a k i n g it c l e a r h o w h e is s h o c k e d a t G o r k y ' s i d e a s ^—

D e a r A l e x e i M a x i m o v i t c h , w h a t a r e y o u d o i n g , t h e n ? R e a l l y , it is t e r r i b l e , s i m p l y t e r r i b l e ! W h y a r e y o u d o i n g t h i s ? It i s t e r r i b l y p a i n f u l . Yours, V.l.

— Lenin adds a strange postscript:

P.S.

Take care of yourself m o r e s e r i o u s l y , r e a l l y , so t h a t y o u w i l l b e

a b l e to t r a v e l in w i n t e r without catchitig cold (in w i n t e r , it i s d a n g e r ­ ous).

O b v i o u s l y , L e n i n is w o r r i e d that, a p a r t from c a t c h i n g cold, G o r k y w i l l c a t c h a m u c h m o r e s e r i o u s I d e o l o g i c a l d i s e a s e , a s i s c l e a r from

the

s u b s e q u e n t letter (posted together w i t h the previous o n e ) : P e r h a p s I d o n ' t u n d e r s t a n d y o u well'l P e r h a p s yi;?« were joking w h e n y o u w r o t e "for t h e m o m e n t " ?

Concerning

the "construction

of

God,"

p e r h a p s y o u d i d n ' t w r i t e t h a t s e r i o u s l y ? G o o d h e a v e n s , t a k e c a r e of y o u r s e l f a little b i t b e t t e r . Y o u r s , Lenin.

W h a t s h o u l d s u r p r i s e u s h e r e Is t h e w a y t h e root of i d e o l o g i c a l d e v i a t i o n is l o c a t e d in a b o d i l y c o n d i t i o n ( o v e r e x c i t e d n e r v e s ) t h a t n e e d s m e d i c a l t r e a t m e n t . Is it not a b i t of a s u p r e m e I r o n y that, i n T r o t s k y ' s d r e a m from 1 9 3 5 in w h i c h t h e d e a d L e n i n a p p e a r s t o h i m , h e g i v e s h i m e x a c t l y t h e

H e w a s q u e s t i o n i n g m e a n x i o u s l y a b o u t m y Illness. " Y o u s e e m to h a v e a c c u m u l a t e d nervous fatigue, y o u must r e s t . . . " I a n s w e r e d that I had a l w a y s r e c o v e r e d from l a t i g u e q u i c k l y , t h a n k s to m y n a t i v e Schwung­ kraft, b u t t h a t t h i s t i m e t h e t r o u b l e s e e m e d to l i e In s o m e

deeper

p r o c e s s e s . . . " t h e n y o u s h o u l d serioiuily ( h e e m p h a s i z e d t h e w o r d ) c o n s u l t t h e d o c t o r s ( s e v e r a l n a m e s ) . . ."

228

STALINISM REVISITED

S o , to b r i n g t h i s l o g i c to i t s c o n c l u s i o n , o n e i s t e m p t e d to i m a g i n e a s c e n e b e t w e e n L e n i n a n d S t a l i n in t h e l a s t y e a r of L e n i n ' s life, a f t e r h i s s t r o k e a n d collapse, w h e n , w i t h his last forces, he ferociously a t t a c k s Stalin, a n d S t a l i n a n s w e r s h i m p a t r o n i z i n g l y : " G o o d h e a v e n s , c o m r a d e I^enin, y o u s e e m to h a v e a c c u m u l a t e d n e r v o u s f a t i g u e , y o u m u s t r e s t ! Y o u s h o u l d consult

the

doctors

received his own

more

seriously!" . . . Here,

m e s s a g e in its i n v e r t e d - t r u e

Lenin

would

form — a n

have

appropriate

p u n i s h m e n t for h i s m i s t a k e . S e c o n d , t h e r e i s S t a l i n ' s s p e e c h a t L e n i n ' s f u n e r a l ( " O n t h e D e a t h of L e n i n " ) d e l i v e r e d o n J a n u a r y 2 6 , 1924, w h i c h b e g i n s w i t h :

C o m r a d e s , w e C o m m u n i s t s a r e p e o p l e of a s p e c i a l m o u l d . W e

are

m a d e of a s p e c i a l stuff. W e a r e t h o s e w h o form t h e a r m y of t h e g r e a t p r o l e t a r i a n s t r a t e g i s t , the a r m y of C o m r a d e L e n i n . T h e r e is n o t h i n g h i g h e r t h a n t h e h o n o r of b e l o n g i n g to t h i s a r m y . T h e r e i s n o t h i n g h i g h e r t h a n t h e title of m e m b e r of t h e P a r t y w h o s e f o u n d e r a n d l e a d e r w a s C o m r a d e L e n i n . It i s not g i v e n to e v e r y o n e to b e a m e m b e r of s u c h a p a r t y . It is not g i v e n to e v e r y o n e to w i t h s t a n d t h e s t r e s s e s a n d s t o r m s t h a t a c c o m p a n y m e m b e r s h i p in such a p a r t y .

L e n i n ' s o b s e s s i o n w i t h t h e b o d y of t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y , w h i c h for h i m w a s m e r e l y a n i d i o s y n c r a s y , is h e r e , a s it w e r e , e l e v a t e d i n t o a c o n c e p t ;

a

B o l s h e v i k " c a d r e " is p e r c e i v e d a s t h e o n e w h o p o s s e s s e s a s p e c i a l b o d y , not a b o d y l i k e o t h e r s — w h i c h is w h y s p e c i a l c a r e s h o u l d b e t a k e n of it ( a n d , e v e n t u a l l y , t h e b o d y d e s e r v e s to b e p r e s e r v e d in a m a u s o l e u m ) . T h i r d , i s t h e fact t h a t S t a l i n ' s l a s t p a r a n o i d o b s e s s i o n c o n c e r n e d t h e s o c a l l e d " d o c t o r ' s plot"; a l l t h e d o c t o r s w h o w e r e t r e a t i n g h i m a n d t h e t o p S o v i e t l e a d e r s h i p w e r e a r r e s t e d a n d t o r t u r e d to m a k e t h e m c o n f e s s t h a t t h e y w e r e p a r t of a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l

U S — J e w i s h c o n s p i r a c y to kill

the

Soviet l e a d e r s h i p . A g a i n , the continuity w i t h the p r e v i o u s t w o points is c l e a r : t h e d o c t o r s ' c r i m e w a s not m e r e l y k i l l i n g t h e i r o r d i n a r y

human

p a t i e n t s , b u t k i l l i n g t h e s a c r e d b o d i e s of r e v o l u t i o n a r y c a d r e s . S o w h a t i s a " c a d r e , " ? O n e is t e m p t e d to p l a y t h e H e i d e g g e r i a n g a m e for a b r i e f m o m e n t , d i s c e r n i n g rn " c a d r e " t h e a n c i e n t G r e e k telragonos, t h i s w o r d a p p e a r s a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of a p o e m b y S i m o n i d e s from t h e

as fifth

c e n t u r y BC: "It i s a r d u o u s to b e a n a b l e , a t r u l y a b l e m a n : In h a n d s a n d feet a s w e l l a s in m i n d

square

\tetragoiw,i\,

without

fault

..."

i n t e r m e d i a r y link b e t w e e n this G r e e k notion a n d the C o m m u n i s t

(The one

IS n o n e o t h e r t h a n K a z i m i r M a l e v i c h ' s " B l a c k S q u a r e o n W h i t e S u r f a c e " : 229

t h e s q u a r e figure a g a i n s t t h e n o n d e s c r i p t b a c k g r o u n d . ) S o , to p u t it in H e i d e g g e r e s e , t h e e s s e n c e of t h e c a d r e is to p r o v i d e a cadre ( s q u a r e , f r a m e ) for t h e e s s e n c e itself. F a r from b e i n g a m e r e " m e t a p h o r , " t h i s notion of t h e c a d r e ' s s p e c i a l b o d y is g r o u n d e d in t h e l o g i c of " o b j e c t i v e m e a n i n g " s h a r e d b y L e n i n a n d S t a l i n : w h i l e o r d i n a r y i n d i v i d u a l s a r e c a u g h t in h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s w h i c h s u r p a s s t h e m , b l i n d e d to t h e i r true m e a n i n g , so t h a t t h e i r c o n s c i o u s n e s s is " f a l s e , " a r e v o l u t i o n a r y c a d r e h a s a c c e s s to t h e true ( " o b j e c t i v e ") m e a n i n g of e v e n t s , t h a t i s , h i s c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s t h e d i r e c t s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s of h i s t o r i c a l n e c e s s i t y itself. (It is t h i s s p e c i a l position t h a t a l l o w s h i m to c r i t i c i z e o t h e r s in t h e w e l l - k n o w n s t y l e of " y o u r i n t e n t i o n s m a y b e g o o d a n d y o u r d e s i r e to h e l p p e o p l e s i n c e r e , but, n o n e t h e l e s s , o b j e c t i v e l y , w h a t y o u c l a i m m e a n s , m t h i s p r e c i s e m o m e n t of the s t r u g g l e , s u p p o r t for the r e a c t i o n a r y forces . . . " I n H e g e l e s e , w h a t t h i s position o v e r l o o k s i s h o w t h i s " o b j e c t i v e " m e a n i n g i s a l r e a d y s u b j e c t i v e l y m e d i a t e d . It i s , for e x ­ a m p l e , w h e n t h e p a r t y d e c i d e s to c h a n g e its p o l i t i c a l l i n e t h a t t h e s a m e politics c a n r a d i c a l l y c h a n g e its " o b j e c t i v e " m e a n i n g : u p until the H i t l e r S t a l i n p a c t in 1939, f a s c i s m w a s t h e p r i n c i p a l e n e m y , w h i l e if, after t h e pact, o n e c o n t i n u e d to focus on t h e anti-fascist s t r u g g l e , o n e " o b j e c t i v e l y " served imperialist reaction.) A n d the cadre's sublime b o d y is the ethereal s u p p o r t of t h i s d i r e c t s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s of the historical a b s o l u t e S u b j e c t . T h e r e is n o n e t h e l e s s a c r u c i a l r u p t u r e h e r e b e t w e e n L e n i n a n d S t a l i n : w h i l e L e n i n r e m a i n e d a t t h i s l e v e l , c l a i m i n g a c c e s s to t h e m e a n i n g " of t h e e v e n t s , S t a l i n t o o k a fateful f u r t h e r

"objective

s t e p a n d re-sub-

jectivbxd t h i s o b j e c t i v e m e a n i n g . In t h e S t a l i n i s t u n i v e r s e , t h e r e

are,

paradoxically, ultimately no dupes, everyone k n o w s the "objective mean­ i n g " of t h e i r a c t s , so that, i n s t e a d of i l l u s o r y c o n s c i o u s n e s s , w e g e t d i r e c t h y p o c r i s y a n d d e c e i t : t h e " o b j e c t i v e m e a n i n g " of y o u r a c t s i s w h a t y o u really wanted, a n d y o u r g o o d i n t e n t i o n s a r e m e r e l y a h y p o c r i t i c a l m a s k . F u r t h e r m o r e , a l l of L e n i n c a n n o t b e r e d u c e d to t h i s s u b j e c t i v e p o s i t i o n of p r i v i l e g e d a c c e s s to " o b j e c t i v e m e a n i n g " : t h e r e i s a n o t h e r , m u c h

more

" o p e n , " s u b j e c t i v e p o s i t i o n a t w o r k i n L e n i n ' s w r i t i n g s , t h e p o s i t i o n of total e x p o s u r e to h i s t o r i c a l c o n t i n g e n c y . F r o m this p o s i t i o n , t h e r e i s no " t r u e " p a r t y l i n e w a i t i n g to b e d i s c o v e r e d , no " o b j e c t i v e " c r i t e r i a to d e t e r m i n e it: t h e p a r t y " m a k e s all p o s s i b l e m i s t a k e s , " a n d t h e " t r u e " p a r t y l i n e e m e r g e s out of t h e z i g z a g of o s c i l l a t i o n s , t h a t i s , " n e c e s s i t y " is constituted

in p r a x i s , it e m e r g e s t h r o u g h t h e m u t u a l

interaction

of

subjective decisions. H i s t o r i a n s w h o t i y to d e m o n s t r a t e 230

the continuity between

Lenin's

STALINISM REVISITED

p o l i t i c s a n d S t a l i n i s m l i k e to focus on t h e f i g u r e of F e l i x D z e r z h i n s k y , t h e f o u n d e r of t h e C h e k a ( l a t e r the G P U , N K V D , K G B . . . ) , t h e B o l s h e v i k s e c r e t p o l i c e : a s a r u l e , h e Is p o r t r a y e d a s w h a t D e l e u z e w o u l d h a v e c a l l e d t h e " d a r k p r e c u r s o r " of S t a l i n i s m , in t h e p r e c i s e s e n s e of t h e t e r m as defined b y Ian B u c h a n a n : " D a r k p r e c u r s o r s a r e those m o m e n t s in a text w h i c h m u s t b e r e a d in r e v e r s e if w e a r e not to m i s t a k e effects

for

c a u s e s . " ^ ^ In t h e c o n t e x t of t h e p r e - S t a l i n i s t d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e S o v i e t U n i o n in t h e first d e c a d e after t h e O c t o b e r R e v o l u t i o n , D z e r z h i n s k y h a s to b e " r e a d in r e v e r s e , " a s a v o y a g e r w h o t r a v e l e d b a c k in t i m e from t h e S t a l i n i s t future a d e c a d e a h e a d . S u c h a r e a d i n g often a c q u i r e s p r o p e r l y f a n t a s m a t i c d i m e n s i o n s , a s in t h o s e h i s t o r i a n s w h o e m p h a s i z e

Dzerz­

h i n s k y s c o l d b l a n k g a z e , a l l e g e d l y a b o d i l y e x p r e s s i o n of h i s r u t h l e s s m i n d , d e p r i v e d of a l l h u m a n w a r m t h a n d c o m p a s s i o n . N o w o n d e r , t h e n , that the W e s t received w i t h chilled surprised the n e w s that the Putin g o v e r n m e n t in R u s s i a d e c i d e d to r e t u r n t h e D z e r z h i n s k y s t a t u e to t h e s q u a r e in front of t h e i n f a m o u s L u b y a n k a p a l a c e , t h e s e a t of t h e d r e a d e d K G B . . . T h e r e a r e , h o w e v e r , s o m e s u r p r i s e s in s t o r e for t h o s e w h o c l i n g to t h i s r e c e i v e d i m a g e . L e s l e y C h a m b e r l a i n ' s The Philosophy

Steamer—a

b o o k a b o u t t h e e x p u l s i o n from t h e S o v i e t U n i o n In 1 9 2 1 of t h e g r o u p of most e x p o s e d n o n - M a r x i s t i n t e l l e c t u a l s , a w o r k w h i c h i n s i s t s p r e c i s e l y on the

straight path

(if not

direct

continuity) between

Leninism

and

S t a l i n i s m — h a s a n A p p e n d i x of s h o r t b i o g r a p h i c a l n o t e s on a l l t h e p e r s o n s i n v o l v e d . H e r e i s t h e e n t r y on D z e r z h i n s k y :

FELTKS DZERZHINSKY ( 1 8 7 7 - 1 9 2 6 ) P o l i s h - b o r n h e a d of t h e C h e k a , l a t e r t h e G P U , o v e r s a w t h e e x p u l s i o n s . D z e r z h i n s k y s p e n t a q u a r t e r of his life — e l e v e n y e a r s —In t s a r i s t p r i s o n s a n d S i b e r i a n e x i l e , i n c l u d i n g t h r e e y e a r s of h a r d l a b o r . " H i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h , a n d c h a m p i o n s h i p of, t h e u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d a n d t h e o p p r e s s e d " (Leggett'^*') w a s u n q u e s ­ tionable. D z e r z h i n s k y remains an enigmatic figure.

T h e r e a r e m a n y f u r t h e r d e t a i l s w h i c h t h r o w a n u n e x p e c t e d l i g h t on t h i s e m b l e m a t i c f i g u r e ; h o w e v e r , t h e p o i n t i s not p r i m a r i l y to e m p h a s i z e h o w m u c h "softer," " m o r e h u m a n , " t h e e a r l y B o l s h e v i k s w e r e . O n e s h o u l d i n no w a y c o v e r u p t h e h a r s h n e s s of t h e i r r u l e — t h e p o i n t i s e l s e w h e r e : p r e c i s e l y w h e n t h e y r e s o r t e d to t e r r o r ( a n d t h e y often d i d it, o p e n l y , c a l l i n g t h e b e a s t b y its n a m e , " R e d T e r r o r " ) , t h i s t e r r o r w a s different from t h e S t a l i n i s t k i n d . O f c o u r s e , m a n y a h i s t o r i a n , w h i l e r e a d y to Concede t h i s point, w o u l d n o n e t h e l e s s i n s i s t t h a t t h e r e w a s a d e e p e r 231

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

n e c e s s i t y w h i c h l e d from t h e first to t h e s e c o n d : is t h e shift of r u t h l e s s r e v o l u t i o n a r y p u r i t y i n t o c o r r u p t e d t e r r o r not a c o m m o n p l a c e of the h i s t o r i e s of r e v o l u t i o n s ? N o d o u b t t h e e a r l y B o l s h e v i k s w o u l d h a v e b e e n s h o c k e d at w h a t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n t u r n e d i n t o in t h e 1 9 3 0 s ( a s m a n y of t h e m w e r e , a n d w e r e a l s o r u t h l e s s l y e x t e r m i n a t e d in t h e g r e a t p u r g e s ) ; h o w e v e r , t h e i r t r a g e d y w a s t h a t t h e y w e r e not a b l e to p e r c e i v e in t h e S t a l i n i s t t e r r o r t h e u l t i m a t e offspring of t h e i r o w n a c t s . W h a t t h e y n e e d e d w a s t h e i r o w n v e r s i o n of t h e old O r i e n t a l i n s i g h t " t a t v a m a s i " ( " t h o u a r t t h a t " ) . . . T h i s a c c e p t e d w i s d o m ^ — w h i c h , l e t m e s t a t e c l e a r l y , c a n n o t be d i s m i s s e d a s c h e a p a n t i - C o m m u n i s m : it h a s its o w n c o h e r e n t l o g i c , a n d it does a c k n o w l e d g e a tragic g r a n d e u r in the Bolshevik old g u a r d — i s w h a t one

should

nonetheless

p r o p o s e its o w n

render

problematic.

a l t e r n a t i v e to t h e n o w

Here,

the

Left

should

fashionable rightist what-if

h i s t o r i e s : t h e a n s w e r to t h e e t e r n a l leftist q u e r y " W h a t w o u l d

have

h a p p e n e d if L e n i n h a d s u r v i v e d ten y e a r s l o n g e r w i t h h i s h e a l t h intact, a n d s u c c e e d e d in d e p o s i n g S t a l i n ? " i s not a s c l e a r a s it m a y a p p e a r (the l i b e r a l w o u l d a n s w e r : b a s i c a l l y , nothing—that

is to s a y , n o t h i n g r e a l l y

different: t h e s a m e S t a l i n i s m , j u s t d e p r i v e d of its w o r s t e x c e s s e s ) , in spite of m a n y g o o d a r g u m e n t s on its b e h a l f ( d i d R o s a L u x e m b u r g h e r s e l f not a l r e a d y b a c k in 1 9 1 8 foretell t h e r i s e of b u r e a u c r a t i c S t a l i n i s m ? ) . S o , a l t h o u g h it i s c l e a r h o w S t a l i n i s m e m e r g e d from t h e i n i t i a l c o n ­ d i t i o n s of t h e O c t o b e r R e v o l u t i o n a n d its i m m e d i a t e a f t e r m a t h ,

one

s h o u l d not a priori d i s c o u n t t h e possibility that, h a d L e n i n s t a y e d h e a l t h y for a c o u p l e of y e a r s a n d r e m o v e d S t a l i n , s o m e t h i n g e n t i r e l y different w o u l d h a v e e m e r g e d —not, of c o u r s e , t h e Utopia of " d e m o c r a t i c s o c i a l ­ ism,"

b u t n o n e t h e l e s s s o m e t h i n g s u b s t a n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t from S t a l i n i s t

" s o c i a l i s m in o n e c o u n t r y , " t h e r e s u l t of a m u c h m o r e " p r a g m a t i c " a n d i m p r o v i s e d s e r i e s of p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c d e c i s i o n s , f u l l y a w a r e of its own

l i m i t a t i o n s . I>enin's d e s p e r a t e l a s t s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t r e a w a k e n e d

R u s s i a n n a t i o n a l i s m , h i s s u p p o r t for G e o r g i a n " n a t i o n a l i s t s , " h i s v i s i o n of a m u c h m o r e d e c e n t r a l i z e d f e d e r a t i o n , a n d so forth, w e r e not j u s t t a c t i c a l c o m p r o m i s e s : t h e y i m p l i e d a v i s i o n of s t a t e a n d s o c i e t y t o t a l l y incompatible w i t h t h e S t a l i n i s t p e r s p e c t i v e . T h e r e i n r e s i d e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e of T r o t s k y . A l t h o u g h T r o t s k y i s m often f u n c t i o n s a s a k i n d of p o l i t i c o - t h e o r e t i c a l o b s t a c l e , p r e v e n t i n g t h e r a d i c a l self-critical a n a l y s i s n e e d e d b y t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y

Left, t h e

figure

of

T r o t s k y n o n e t h e l e s s r e m a i n s c r u c i a l i n a s m u c h a s it s t a n d s for a n e l e m e n t w h i c h d i s t u r b s t h e a l t e r n a t i v e " e i t h e r ( s o c i a l - ) d e m o c r a t l c s o c i a l i s m or S t a l i n i s t t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m " : w h a t w e find in T r o t s k y , in h i s w r i t i n g s a n d h i s 2Î2

STALINISM REVISITED

r e v o l u t i o n a r y p r a c t i c e in the e a r l y y e a r s of t h e S o v i e t U n i o n , is r e v o l u ­ t i o n a r y t e r r o r , p a r t y r u l e , a n d so forth, b u t in a different mode from t h a t of S t a H n i s m . O n e s h o u l d t h u s , in o r d e r to r e m a i n faithful to T r o t s k y ' s r e a l a c h i e v e m e n t s , d i s p e l t h e p o p u l a r m y t h s of a w a r m d e m o c r a t i c

Trotsky

w h o favored p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , m i x e d w i t h surrealist artists a n d had an affair w i t h F r i d a K a h l o . A n d , a g a i n , t h e c o n c l u s i o n " e v e n if T r o t s k y h a d w o n , t h e u l t i m a t e r e s u l t w o u l d h a v e b e e n b a s i c a l l y t h e s a m e " (or, e v e n m o r e , t h e c l a i m t h a t T r o t s k y i s a t t h e o r i g i n of S t a H n i s m , n a m e l y , that, from

the late

1920s onwards,

Stalin merely applied and

developed

m e a s u r e s first e n v i s a g e d b y T r o t s k y in t h e y e a r s of " w a r c o m m u n i s m " ^ ^ ) i s w r o n g : h i s t o r y i s o p e n , o n e c a n n o t tell w h a t w o u l d h a v e h a p p e n e d if T r o t s k y h a d w o n . T h e p r o b l e m l i e s e l s e w h e r e : in t h e fact t h a t T r o t s k y ' s a t t i t u d e m a d e it inipoddible for hid orientatwn to win in t h e s t r u g g l e for s t a t e power. T h e shift from t h e L e n i n i s m of t h e 1 9 2 0 s to t h e S t a l i n i s m p r o p e r of t h e 1 9 3 0 s is d i s c e r n i b l e e v e n a t t h e level of h u m o r debates.A

certain

kind

of h u m o r

in t h e i n n e r

w a s always part

debates—^ L e n i n h i m s e l f s a i d at t h e E l e v e n t h

of

party

Bolshevik

Party Congress m

that " a j o k e is a v e r y good thing: w e cannot m a k e speeches

1922

without

c r a c k i n g a j o k e h e r e a n d there."^'^ T h i s h u m o r w a s s o m e t i m e s

rough,

s a r c a s t i c , l a c e d w i t h g l a c i a l i r o n y , b u t still p a r t of a d i a l o g u e of p a r t y c o m r a d e s ^—to q u o t e H a m l e t on t h e w a y to h i s m o t h e r in A c t 111 of t h e p l a y : "I w i l l s p e a k d a g g e r s to her, b u t u s e n o n e . " F u r t h e r m o r e ,

humor

a n d s a r c a s m in p o l e m i c a l e x c h a n g e s w e r e s t r i c t l y s y m m e t r i c a l — s a y , during the debate

between

the

Leninist majority and

the

Workers'

O p p o s i t i o n in 1 9 2 1 , b o t h s i d e s not o n l y r e s o r t e d to s a r c a s t i c a n d i r o n i c r e m a r k s , b u t a l s o r e p l i e d i n t h e s a m e w a y to t h e i r o p p o n e n t s ' r e m a r k s , b y t u r n i n g t h e m a r o u n d , e x t r a p o l a t i n g t h e m to t h e p o i n t of r i d i c u l e , a n d so on. In t h e 1 9 3 0 s , h o w e v e r , a m u c h m o r e c r u e l f o r m of s a r c a s m p r e ­ dominated,

which

the

Soviet press

Itself c a l l e d " v i c t o r s '

m a k i n g fun of a n d l a u g h i n g a t t h e r i d i c u l o u s e x c u s e s of t h e

laughter": impotent

a n d h u m i l i a t e d v i c t i m s w h o t r i e d to c o n v i n c e o t h e r s of t h e i r h o n e s t y . Examples a b o u n d — V y s h i n s k y , the public prosecutor,

s h o u t e d at K a -

m e n e v a n d Zinoviev d u r i n g the famous s h o w trial: " D r o p this clownish farce! " W h e n Smirnov, a defendant at the same trial, denied that he w a s a t e r r o r i s t , h e w a s told: " T h e p a t h e t i c a t t e m p t

to w r i g g l e free i s q u i t e

comical." Along the same lines, the Kafkaesque

q u a l i t y of t h e e e r i e

l a u g h t e r t h a t e r u p t e d a m o n g s t the p u b l i c d u r i n g B u k h a r i n ' s l a s t s p e e c h m front of t h e C e n t r a l C o m m i t t e e on F e b r u a r y 2 3 , 1 9 3 7 h i n g e s on t h e 233

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

radical discord b e t w e e n the speaker's utter seriousness (he is talking a b o u t h i s p o s s i b l e s u i c i d e , a n d w h y h e w o u l d n o t convmit it, s i n c e it c o u l d h u r t t h e p a r t y , b u t w o u l d r a t h e r g o on w i t h t h e h u n g e r s t r i k e till his d e a t h ) a n d t h e r e a c t i o n oF t h e C e n t r a l C o m m i t t e e m e m b e r s :

BUKHARIN: I w o n ' t s h o o t m y s e l f b e c a u s e t h e n p e o p l e w i l l s a y t h a t I k i l l e d m y s e l f so a s to h a r m t h e p a r t y . B u t if 1 d i e , a s it w e r e , from a n i l l n e s s , t h e n w h a t w i l l y o u lose b y i t ? ( L a u g h t e r . ) VOICES: B l a c k m a i l e r ! VOROSHILOV: Y o u s c o u n d r e l ! K e e p y o u r t r a p s h u t ! H o w v i l e ! H o w dare y o u speak like that! BUKHARIN: B u t y o u m u s t u n d e r s t a n d — i t ' s v e r y h a r d for m e to g o on living. STALIN: A n d it's e a s y for u s ? ! VOROSHILOV: D i d y o u h e a r t h a t : "I w o n ' t s h o o t myself, b u t I w i l l die"?! BUKHARIN: It's e a s y for y o u t o t a l k a b o u t m e . W h a t w i l l y o u l o s e , after a l l ? L o o k , if I a m a s a b o t e u r , a son of a b i t c h , t h e n w h y s p a r e m e ? 1 m a k e n o c l a i m s to a n y t h i n g . I a m j u s t d e s c r i b i n g w h a t ' s on m y m i n d , w h a t I a m g o i n g t h r o u g h . If t h i s in a n y w a y e n t a i l s a n y p o l i t i c a l d a m a g e , h o w e v e r m i n u t e , t h e n , n o q u e s t i o n a b o u t it, I'll d o w h a t ­ e v e r y o u say. ( L a u g h t e r . ) W h y are y o u l a u g h i n g ? T h e r e is abso­ l u t e l y n o t h i n g f u n n y a b o u t a n y of t h i s . . . '

T h e s a m e u n c a n n y l a u g h t e r a l s o a p p e a r e d in o t h e r p l a c e s :

BUKHARIN: W h a t e v e r t h e y a r e t e s t i f y i n g a g a i n s t m e is not

true.

( L a u g h t e r , n o i s e i n t h e r o o m . ) W h y a r e y o u l a u g h i n g ? T h e r e is n o t h i n g f u n n y in a l l this.^^

D o w e not h a v e h e r e , e n a c t e d i n r e a l life, t h e u n c a n n y l o g i c of J o s e f K's first

i n t e r r o g a t i o n in The TrUill

" W e l l , then," said the E x a m i n i n g M a g i s t r a t e , t u r n i n g over the l e a v e s a n d a d d r e s s i n g K. w i t h a n a i r of a u t h o r i t y , " y o u a r e a h o u s e - p a i n t e r ? " " N o , " s a i d K., "I'm the j u n i o r m a n a g e r of a l a r g e B a n k . " T h i s a n s w e r e v o k e d s u c h a h e a r t y o u t b u r s t of l a u g h t e r from t h e R i g h t p a r t y t h a t K. h a d to l a u g h too. P e o p l e d o u b l e d u p w i t h t h e i r h a n d s o n t h e i r k n e e s a n d s h o o k a s if in s p a s m s of coughing.'''^ 234

STALINISM REVISITED

In s u c h a u n i v e r s e , of c o u r s e , t h e r e is no p l a c e for e v e n t h e m o s t formal a n d e m p t y r i g h t of s u b j e c t i v i t y , on w h i c h B u k h a r i n c o n t i n u e s to insist: BUKHARIN: [ . . . ] !

c o n f e s s e d t h a t from

1 9 3 0 to 1 9 3 2 1 c o m m i t t e d

m a n y p o l i t i c a l s i n s . I h a v e c o m e to u n d e r s t a n d t h i s . B u t w i t h t h e same forcefulness w i t h w h i c h I confess m y real guilt, w i t h that same forcefulness I d e n y the guilt w h i c h is thrust u p o n me, a n d I shall d e n y it f o r e v e r . A n d not b e c a u s e it h a s o n l y p e r s o n a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , b u t b e c a u s e 1 b e l i e v e t h a t no o n e s h o u l d u n d e r a n y c i r c u m s t a n c e s t a k e u p o n himself a n y t h i n g superfluous, especially w h e n the p a r t y d o e s n ' t n e e d it, w h e n t h e c o u n t r y d o e s n ' t n e e d it, w h e n 1 d o n ' t n e e d it. ( N o i s e in t h e r o o m , l a u g h t e r . ) [. . . ] T h e w h o l e t r a g e d y of m y s i t u a t i o n l i e s in t h i s , t h a t t h i s P i a t a k o v a n d o t h e r s l i k e h i m so p o i s o n e d t h e a t m o s p h e r e , s u c h a n a t m o s p h e r e a r o s e t h a t n o o n e b e l i e v e s h u m a n f e e l i n g s —not e m o t i o n s , not t h e i m p u l s e s of t h e h e a r t , not t e a r s . ( L a u g h t e r . ) M a n y m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of h u m a n feeling, w h i c h h a d e a r l i e r r e p r e s e n t e d a form of

proof—and

t h e r e w a s n o t h i n g s h a m e f u l in t h i s — h a v e t o d a y lost t h e i r v a l i d i t y a n d force. KAGANOVICH: Y o u p r a c t i c e d too m u c h d u p l i c i t y ! BUKHARIN: C o m r a d e s , let m e s a y t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n c e r n i n g

what

happened — KHLOPLIANKIN: It's t i m e to t h r o w y o u in p r i s o n ! BUKHARIN: W h a t ? KHLOPLIANKIN: Y o u s h o u l d h a v e b e e n t h r o w n In p r i s o n a l o n g t i m e ago! BUKHARIN: W e l l , g o on, t h r o w m e in p r i s o n . S o y o u t h i n k t h e fact t h a t y o u a r e y e l l i n g : " T h r o w h i m in p r i s o n ! " w i l l m a k e m e t a l k differ­ e n t l y ? N o , it won't.^^

It i s e a s y to s e e h o w t h i s shift in h u m o r d e p e n d s on t h e p a s s a g e from t h e L e n i n i s t n o t i o n of t h e " o b j e c t i v e m e a n i n g " of o n e ' s a c t s to i t s S t a l i n i s t r e s u b j e c t i v i z a t i o n : s i n c e , in t h e S t a l i n i s t u n i v e r s e , t h e r e a r e u l t i m a t e l y n o dupes,

and

everyone

knows

the

"objective

meaning"

of t h e i r

acts,

d i s a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e official p a r t y l i n e c a n o n l y b e t h e r e s u l t of d i r e c t h y p o c r i s y a n d d e c e i t . W h a t is m o r e s u r p r i s i n g i s t h e r e a d i n e s s of W e s t e r n C o m m u n i s t o b s e r v e r s to p e r c e i v e t h i s h y p o c r i s y a s a t r u e p s y c h o l o g i c a l fact a b o u t the a c c u s e d . In a l e t t e r to B e n j a m i n from 1938, A d o r n o r e p o r t s a c o n v e r s a t i o n h e h a d w i t h H a n n s E i s l e r in N e w Y o r k : 235

IIN L J t h b N b t O F LOST C A U S E S

I l i s t e n e d w i t h not a little p a t i e n c e to h i s feeble d e f e n s e of t h e M o s c o w t r i a l s , a n d w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s g u s t to the j o k e h e c r a c k e d a b o u t the m u r d e r of B u k h a r i n . f i e c l a i m s to h a v e k n o w n t h e l a t t e r in M o s c o w , t e l l i n g m e t h a t B u k h a r i n ' s c o n s c i e n c e w a s a l r e a d y so b a d t h a t h e c o u l d not e v e n l o o k h i m , Eisler, h o n e s t l y in t h e e y e s . '

E i s l e r ' s p s y c h o l o g i c a l b l i n d n e s s is s t a g g e r i n g h e r e : h e m i s r e a d s B u k h a r in's terror, fearing contact w i t h foreigners, k n o w i n g that he is under o b s e r v a t i o n a n d c l o s e to a r r e s t , a s a n i n n e r feeling of g u i l t .

Shostakovich ui C a s a b l a n c a A l t h o u g h , of c o u r s e , t h e p e r v e r s e p o s i t i o n of t h e i n s t r u m e n t of t h e bigO t h e r w a s r e s e r v e d for t h e m e m b e r s of t h e nomenklatura, o r d i n a r y S o v i e t c i t i z e n s w e r e not r e d u c e d to t h e s i m p l e a l t e r n a t i v e of b e l i e v e r s o r nonb e l i e v e r s ; t h e split t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e i r p r e d o m i n a n t s u b j e c t i v e p o s i ­ tion w a s of a different n a t u r e . R e c a l l t h e d e b a t e a b o u t t h e t r u e m e s s a g e of S h o s t a k o v i c h ' s w o r k t h a t r a g e d in m u s i c o l o g i c a l c i r c l e s u n t i l r e c e n t l y : w h e r e did the

composer

truly stand

with

r e g a r d to h i s

(obviously

t o r t u r e d ) r e l a t i o n s h i p to C o m m u n i s m ? T h e t w o o p p o s e d p o s i t i o n s a r e that, in s p i t e of a l l h i s ( o b v i o u s ) d o u b t s a n d o s c i l l a t i o n s , S h o s t a k o v i c h w a s a faithful S o v i e t c o m p o s e r , o r t h a t i n fact S h o s t a k o v i c h w a s a closet d i s s i d e n t w h o s e m u s i c p r e s e n t s " d i s g u i s e d o r c o d e d c h a l l e n g e s to the v e r y p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m h e p r e t e n d e d to e n d o r s e . " In t h e s e c o n d c a s e , w e g e t c a u g h t in t h e interpreted

interpretive

madness

in w h i c h

e v e r y feature

a s a s i g n of its o p p o s i t e : " c o m p l a i n t h a t t h e

can

be

'triumphant'

e n d i n g of t h e L e n i n g r a d S y m p h o n y w a s b a n a l a n d y o u m i g h t g e t t h e r e s p o n s e , ' A h , b u t i t ' s meant to b e b a n a l ! ' T h e m e s s a g e c o n v e y e d w a s w h a t mattered."'*'' It i s t h u s o n l y a t h i n l i n e of r e f l e x i v i t y t h a t s e p a r a t e s t h e t w o r e a d i n g s : i l b a n a l i t y i s s e l f - d e c l a r a t o r y , i f it i s m e a n t a s s u c h , t h e n it c a n c e l s i t s e l f a n d r e v e r t s i n t o i r o n y . . . W h e r e , t h e n , d o e s t h e t r u t h r e s i d e ? W h a t I p r o p o s e is a f i e g e l i a n " s y n t h e s i s " of t h e s e o p p o s e d v i e w s , a l b e i t a s y n t h e s i s w i t h a n u n e x p e c t e d t w i s t : w h a t if w h a t m a k e s S h o s ­ t a k o v i c h ' s m u s i c " S t a l i n i s t , " p a r t of t h e S o v i e t u n i v e r s e . Is hii very diitance towards Ltl W h a t if a d i s t a n c e t o w a r d s t h e official i d e o l o g i c a l u n i v e r s e , far from u n d e r m i n i n g it, w a s a key coiutituent of its functioning! spontaneously

Shostakovich's

intimate attitude t o w a r d s politics is p r o b a b l y best ex­

p r e s s e d in h i s r e m a r k to a friend: " D o y o u n o t t h i n k t h a t history' i s r e a l l y a w h o r e ? " ' T h i s g e n e r a l i z e d d i s t r u s t of a l l p o l i t i c s ( w h i c h a l s o g r o u n d s h i s 236

STALINISM REVISITED

distance towards dissidents such as Solzhenltsyn) made his survival m u c h e a s i e r / ^ T h i s c r u c i a l i n s i g h t c o m p e l s u s to g i v e a s p e c i f i c t w i s t to t h e s t a n d a r d a r g u m e n t for S h o s t a k o v i c h ' s " d i s s i d e n c e " : e v e n t h e m o s t " o f f i c i a l " w r i t e r s [. . . ] w e r e , m o r e often

t h a n not,

p r i v a t e l y s k e p t i c a l a b o u t t h e S o v i e t r e g i m e a n d k n o w n to b e w i t h i n t h e d i s s i d e n t c u l t u r e . It i s , i n d e e d , r a r e t o find R u s s i a n w r i t e r s S o v i e t r u l e , h o w e v e r officially s a n c t i o n e d o r o s t e n s i b l y

under

conformist,

w h o d i d not, a t o n e t i m e or o t h e r , v o i c e a c r i t i c a l o u t l o o k o n " S o v i e t r e a l i t y " . [. . . ] [ S h o s t a k o v i c h ] w a s a l s o [. . . ] u n i q u e l y a c t i v e i n for­ w a r d i n g d i s s i d e n t v a l u e s in h i s w o r k

(an enterprise

substantially

p r o t e c t e d b y t h e d e n i a b i l l t y i n h e r e n t in n o n - v e r b a l d i s s i d e n c e ) . B u t h e w a s i n n o s e n s e a l o n e in p r i v a t e l y m a i n t a i n i n g a d i s s e n t i n g o u t l o o k on S o v i e t life w h i l e a t t h e s a m e t i m e n e c e s s a r i l y g i v i n g a c o n t r a r y p u b l i c i m p r e s s i o n of conformism.^^

So w h y did Stalin not liquidate Shostakovich (and m a n y other leading figures

from A k h m a t o v a to P a s t e r n a k w h o s e v i e w s w e r e " t r a n s p a r e n t l y "

d i s s i d e n t ) ? "In t h e c a s e of p o e t s , S t a l i n ' s s u p e r s t i t i o n p l a y e d a p a r t , b u t t h e m a i n a n s w e r is t h a t m a j o r ' l i q u i d a t e d ' w i t h o u t c a u s i n g foreign u p r o a r . .

s e e m s to h a v e

figures

could not be

—it l o o k s r e a l l y b a d for

a l i n e of r e a s o n i n g w h i c h h a s g o so far a s to e v o k e S t a l i n ' s s u p e r s t i t i o n . . . Is it n o t m u c h e a s i e r a n d m o r e l o g i c a l to a d m i t t h a t the gap between "public" allegiance to the regime and "private" diséideiwe was part of the very Identity of the Stalinist dubjectl If t h e r e i s a l e s s o n to b e l e a r n e d from t h e f u n c t i o n i n g of S t a l i n i s t i d e o l o g y , it i s t h a t ( p u b l i c ) appearances matter, w h i c h i s w h y o n e s h o u l d r e s e r v e t h e c a t e g o r y " d i s s i d e n c e " exclusively for t h e p u b l i c d i s ­ c o u r s e : " d i s s i d e n t s " w e r e only t h o s e w h o d i s t u r b e d t h e s m o o t h function­ i n g of t h e p u b l i c

discourse,

announcing

p u b l i c l y —in

one w a y or

another—what, privately, everybody already knew. W a s , h o w e v e r , s u c h a s u b j e c t i v e p o s i t i o n t h e o n l y o n e p o s s i b l e (if o n e w a n t e d to s u r v i v e , of c o u r s e . . . ) ? T h e fate of S e r g e i P r o k o f i e v , t h e o t h e r g r e a t n a m e of S o v i e t m u s i c , s h o w s a r a d i c a l l y different

p a t h . In h i s

(disputed) memoirs, Dmitri Shostakovich dismissed Sergei

Prokofiev,

his g r e a t c o m p e t i t o r ,

seriously,

a s r e f u s i n g to t a k e h i s t o r i c a l h o r r o r s

a l w a y s p l a y i n g t h e " w i s e g u y . " H o w e v e r , to n a m e j u s t o n e s u p r e m e example, Prokofiev's First Violin S o n a t a ( O p u s 8 0 ) clearly demonstrates t h e o b v e r s e of P r o k o f i e v ' s ( i n ) f a m o u s " i r o n y " :

237

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

T h r o u g h o u t its four m o v e m e n t s [. . . ] o n e s e n s e s a p o w e r f u l u n d e r t o w of s t r u g g l e . Y e t it i s n o t t h e s t r u g g l e of a w o r k a g a i n s t s o m e t h i n g o u t s i d e itself, b u t r a t h e r t h e s t r u g g l e of s o m e t h i n g w i t h i n t h e w o r k , u n m a n i f e s t e d , t r y i n g d e s p e r a t e l y to b r e a k out, a n d c o n s t a n t l y f i n d i n g its e m e r g e n c e " b l o c k e d " b y t h e e x i s t i n g , o u t w a r d form a n d l a n g u a g e of t h e p i e c e . T h i s b l o c k i n g of " s o m e t h i n g w i t h i n " [. . . ] h a s to d o w i t h the frustration

of a d e s i r e for c a t h a r t i c r e l e a s e i n t o s o m e

p o s i t i v e s t a t e of b e i n g , w h e r e m e a n i n g — m u s i c a l a n d c a l — is t r a n s p a r e n t ,

supremely supra-musi­

u n - i r o n i z a b l e : in s h o r t , a d o m a i n of s p i r i t u a l

purity.

It is h e r e t h a t P r o k o f i e v p a y s t h e p r i c e for h i s i r o n i c s t a n c e , a n d it is such p a s s a g e s t h a t b e a r w i t n e s s to h i s a r t i s t i c i n t e g r i t y : far from s i g n a l i n g a n y k i n d of v a i n i n t e l l e c t u a l s u p e r i o r i t y , t h i s i r o n i c s t a n c e i s j u s t t h e falsely b r i g h t o b v e r s e of t h e failure of Prokofiev's constant struggle to bring the "Thing from Inner Space" (the "something within") out. T h e s u p e r f i c i a l " p l a y f u l n e s s " of s o m e of P r o k o f i e v ' s w o r k s ( s u c h a s h i s p o p u l a r F i r s t S y m p h o n y ) m e r e l y s i g n a l s , in a n e g a t i v e w a y , t h e fact t h a t P r o k o f i e v i s t h e u l t i m a t e a n t i - M o z a r t , a k i n d of B e e t h o v e n w h o s e " t i t a n i c s t r u g g l e " e n d e d in d i s a s t e r : if M o z a r t w a s the s u p r e m e m u s i c a l g e n i u s , p e r h a p s t h e last composer w i t h w h o m the musical T h i n g transposed itself into musical n o t e s in a s p o n t a n e o u s flow, a n d if in B e e t h o v e n , a p i e c e o n l y a c h i e v e d its d e f i n i t i v e form after a l o n g h e r o i c s t r u g g l e w i t h t h e m u s i c a l m a t e r i a l , P r o k o f i e v ' s g r e a t e s t p i e c e s a r e m o n u m e n t s to t h e d e f e a t of this s t r u g g l e . S h o s t a k o v i c h n e v e r r e a c h e d t h e level of s u c h a n i m m a n e n t f a i l u r e . H i s p i e c e w h i c h c a n b e c o m p a r e d to P r o k o f i e v ' s First V i o l i n S o n a t a in its exceptional

s u b j e c t i v e l y e n g a g e d i n t e n s i t y is, of c o u r s e , h i s

String

Q u a r t e t N o . 8, a n d t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e t w o p i e c e s is s t r i k i n g . Whatever

subjective anguish

is detectable

beneath

the

quartet.

Its

musical expression flows u n h i n d e r e d , p o u r i n g out a n d g e n e r a t i n g an e a s i l y r e c o g n i z a b l e e m o t i o n a l i m p a c t ; S h o s t a k o v i c h ' s life a n d s u b j e c t i v e experience m a y h a v e been thwarted, m a r k e d by depressions and terrible a n d d e b a s i n g c o m p r o m i s e s , b u t t h i s b l o c k a d e d o e s n o t affect h i s m u s i c a l e x p r e s s i o n . In P r o k o f i e v ' s v i o l i n s o n a t a , on t h e c o n t r a r y , w e a r e d e a l i n g w i t h a m u c h m o r e r a d i c a l I m m a n e n t b l o c k a g e of m u s i c a l e x p r e s s i o n itself; t h e t r a g i c f a i l u r e , Is h e r e t h e f a i l u r e of t h e form itself, a n d t h i s f a i l u r e a c c o u n t s for t h e i n n e r t r u t h m i s s i n g in S h o s t a k o v i c h . In t h e l a s t d e c a d e a n d a h a l f of h i s life, P r o k o f i e v w a s c a u g h t u p in t h e S t a l i n i s t s u p e r e g o a t its p u r e s t : w h a t e v e r h e d i d w a s w r o n g . W h e n he 238

STALINISM REVISITED

s t u c k to h i s m o d e r n i s t roots, h e w a s a c c u s e d of " a n t i - p e o p l e f o r m a l i s m " a n d b o u r g e o i s d e c a d e n c e . W h e n , t h e r e a f t e r , h e t r i e d to d o h i s best to b o w to t h e p r e s s u r e in h i s i n f a m o u s Cantata for the 20th Anniversary of the October Jlgvolution, u s i n g t e x t s b y M a r x , L e n i n , a n d S t a l i n , t h e c a n t a t a wais a g a i n c r i t i c i z e d for " L e f t i s t d e v i a t i o n a n d v u l g a r i t y " ( t h a t i s , for d r a g g i n g M a r x a n d L e n i n i n t o i t ) . D e s p e r a t e to c o n t r i b u t e s o m e t h i n g — a n y t h i n g — t o t h e "twentieth a n n i v e r s a r y , P r o k o f i e v q u i c k l y t h r e w t o g e t h e r a c o n c o c t i o n of f o l k - t u n e s a n d p a r t y s i n g a l o n g s e n t i t l e d Songs of Our Days; t h e w o r k w a s j g a i n d i s m i s s e d a s " p a l e a n d l a c k i n g in i n d i v i d u a l i t y " — w h i c h , of c o u r s e , was true.

P r o k o f i e v m u s t b y n o w h a v e b e e n u t t e r l y b e w i l d e r e d . If h e w r o t e l i k e a s i m p l e t o n , h e w a s a d e p e r s o n a l i z e d Left d e v i a t i o n i s t ; if h e w r o t e l i k e Prokofiev, he w a s a m e r c e n a r y Formalist. Individual, non-individual . . . t h e r e m u s t h a v e s e e m e d n o r h y m e o r r e a s o n to it^—and, of c o u r s e , n o n e e x i s t e d .^"^

B u t t h e r e d e f i n i t e l y mis a " r h y m e a n d r e a s o n " to it: t h e r h y m e a n d r e a s o n of t h e S t a l i n i s t s u p e r e g o in t h e e y e s of w h i c h o n e is a l w a y s g u i l t y . . . H o w e v e r , t h e p r o b l e m w a s a d e e p e r one: t h e p a r a d o x of P r o k o f i e v ' s l a t e s t y l e w a s t h a t t h e l o g i c of h i s i m m a n e n t m u s i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t w h i c h l e d h i m a w a y from e x p r e s s i o n i s t p a t h o s t o w a r d s " n e w s i m p l i c i t y " s t r a n g e l y reverberated

w i t h t h e official d e m a n d s

for t h e

easy-listening music

a c c e s s i b l e to o r d i n a r y S o v i e t p e o p l e . In t h e c a s e of P r o k o f i e v a s w e l l a s in t h a t of S h o s t a k o v i c h , t h e r e a s o n w h y c r i t i c s so d e s p e r a t e l y look for t h e u l t i m a t e p r o o f of s e c r e t d i s ­ s i d e n c e i s to a v o i d a h i g h l y e m b a r r a s s i n g t r u t h : t h e i r m o s t

popular

W o r k s t o d a y In t h e W e s t o v e r l a p to a s u r p r i s i n g d e g r e e w i t h t h e v e r y W o r k s w h i c h g o t t h e g r e a t e s t official ( n o t o n l y p o p u l a r ) s u p p o r t

from

t h e r e g i m e : S h o s t a k o v i c h ' s Fifth, S e v e n t h , a n d E l e v e n t h

Symphonies,

P r o k o f i e v ' s Peter and the Wolf a n d the Romeo and Juliet

ballet.

Even

among Shostakovich's c h a m b e r music, his Piano Quintet, w h i c h got the S t a l i n p r i z e in 1 9 4 0 , i s h i s m o s t p o p u l a r p i e c e ! H o w c a n t h i s b e ? H e r e e n t e r s t h e h e r m e n e u t i c s of d i s s i d e n c e w h i c h s h o w s t h e e s c a p e S h o s t a k o v i c h ' s Fifth S y m p h o n y — t h e m o s t often p e r f o r m e d

route.

twentieth-

c e n t u r y s y m p h o n y a l s o in t h e W e s t ? It h a s to b e t h e c a s e t h a t

the

t n u m p h a n t finale i s r e a l l y m e a n t i r o n i c a l l y , m o c k i n g t h e e m p t i n e s s of S t a l i n i s t t r i u m p h a l i s m ! T h e e n d u r i n g p o p u l a r i t y of t h e S e v e n t h S y m p h ­ o n y ( t h e Leningrad)!

It h a s to b e t h a t t h e i n e x o r a b l e b r u t a l

marching 239

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

p r o g r e s s in t h e first m o v e m e n t d o e s not " r e a l l y " r e f e r to t h e

German

c o n q u e s t of R u s s i a in 1 9 4 1 , b u t to t h e C o m m u n i s t c o n q u e s t of R u s s i a ! S h o s t a k o v i c h ' s E l e v e n t h S y m p h o n y ( " 1 9 0 5 " ) a h i t ? It h a s to b e q u i c k l y c o n f i r m e d t h a t 1 9 0 5 is j u s t a p r e t e x t , t h a t t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y e x p l o s i o n " r e a l l y " r e f e r s to H u n g a r y i n 1 9 5 6 ! . . . B u t w h a t a b o u t t h e

Shosta­

k o v i c h s y m p h o n i e s w h i c h w e r e e f f e c t i v e l y u n a c c e p t a b l e for t h o s e power, like the Thirteenth

{Bahi-Yar)

a n d the last, the Fifteenth?

in The

a n s w e r is c l e a r : in a s u p r e m e t w i s t of i r o n y , t h e T h i r t e e n t h c a u s e d s u c h a

stir

at

its p r e m i e r e

precisely and

c i r c u m s t a n c e s —it functioned

only

as a gesture

because

of

the

political

of p o l i t i c a l d e f i a n c e — « o ^

b e c a u s e of its a r t i s t i c s t r e n g t h . T h e s e w o r k s a r e t o d a y r e s p e c t e d

and

p r a i s e d , b u t not r e a l l y e n j o y e d . T h e p u b l i c i t y t e x t for t h e n e w r e c o r d i n g of S h o s t a k o v i c h ' s F i r s t V i o l i n C o n c e r t o b y L e i l a J o s e f o w i c z s a y s t h a t s h e " p a y s h o m a g e to t h e s t r u g g l e s S h o s t a k o v i c h f a c e d u n d e r S t a l i n ' s r e g i m e " — t h e p a t e n t a b s u r d i t y of t h i s c l a i m c o n f i r m s M i c h a e l T a n n e r ' s t h e s i s t h a t " t h e r e i s a l m o s t no o t h e r composer

for

whom

the

lile-and-works mélange has achieved

such

o r t h o d o x status.'"*^ T a n n e r i s f u l l y j u s t i f i e d i n p o i n t i n g o u t h o w

the

e n d l e s s d e b a t e s r e g a r d i n g h o w s o m e s y m p h o n y m o v e m e n t s a r e to b e read, w i t h serious pathos or a s ironic subversion, or r e g a r d i n g w h i c h victorious

finales

a r e m e a n t t o r e n d e r t h e v i c t o r i e s p y r r h i c , " t e l l u s , in

fact, w h a t t h e m u s i c i t s e l f t a i l s t o a c h i e v e . " T h e r e i s n o g r e a t e r m o n u m e n t to S h o s t a k o v i c h ' s a r t i s t i c f a i l u r e t h a n

t h e o b s e s s i v e s e a r c h for

some

private (extra-artistic) document that would definitely prove his intimate anti-Communist

s t a n c e . T h i s is w h y , in t h e a m b i g u i t i e s in w h i c h t h i s

politically e n g a g e d b a c k g r o u n d

no

longer resonates,

Shostakovich's

m u s i c is s i m p l y " u n i n t e r e s t i n g l y e n i g m a t i c , " l i k e t h e r e f e r e n c e s to R o s s i n i a n d W a g n e r in t h e l a s t s y m p h o n y — t h e r e i s n o d e e p e r m e a n i n g t o b e d i s c o v e r e d h e r e , t h e " e n i g m a " is m u s i c a l l y flat. T h e i r o n y h e r e i s t h a t t h e v e r y s e a r c h for t h e e x t r a - m u s i c a l " s m o k i n g g u n " d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e t r u t h of t h e S t a l i n i s t a c c u s a t i o n a b o u t t h e " f o r m a l i s t " c h a r a c t e r of S h o s t a k o ­ v i c h ' s m u s i c — not, of c o u r s e , in t h e s e n s e in w h i c h it w a s i n t e n d e d

by

Z h d a n o v et contorted, b u t i n t h e s e n s e t h a t h i s m u s i c i s n e u t r a l w i t h r e g a r d to s o c i a l c o m m i t m e n t s ( w h i c h i s w h y o n e h a s t o l o o k for e x t r a - m u s i c a l s i g n s t o p i n it d o w n ) . S o w h a t if w e r e a d S h o s t a k o v i c h ' s p o p u l a r s y m p h o n i e s a l o n g t h e l i n e s of h o w w e m i g h t r e a d o n e of t h e g r e a t H o l l y w o o d c l a s s i c s ? In t h e w e l l k n o w n b r i e f s c e n e t h r e e - q u a r t e r s i n t o CiUicihiancaf^

Ilsa L u n d

(Ingrid

B e r g m a n ) c o m e s to R i c k B l a i n e ' s ( H u m p h r e y B o g a r t ' s ) r o o m to t r y to 240

STALINISM REVISITED

o b t a i n t h e l e t t e r s of t r a n s i t t h a t w i l l a l l o w h e r a n d h e r R e s i s t a n c e l e a d e r h u s b a n d V i c t o r L a s z l o to e s c a p e from C a s a b l a n c a to P o r t u g a l a n d t h e n to A m e r i c a . After R i c k r e f u s e s to h a n d t h e m o v e r , s h e p u l l s a g u n a n d t h r e a t e n s h i m . f i e t e l l s h e r , " G o a h e a d a n d shoot, y o u ' l l b e d o i n g m e a f a v o r . " S h e b r e a k s d o w n a n d t e a r f u l l y s t a r t s to tell h i m t h e s t o r y of w h y she left h i m in P a r i s . B y t h e t i m e s h e s a y s , "If y o u k n e w h o w m u c h I l o v e d y o u , h o w m u c h I still l o v e y o u , " t h e y a r e e m b r a c i n g in a c l o s e - u p . T h e Î m o v i e d i s s o l v e s i n t o a t h r e e - a n d - a - h a l f - s e c o n d shot of t h e a i r p o r t t o w e r at n i g h t , its s e a r c h l i g h t c i r c l i n g , a n d t h e n d i s s o l v e s b a c k to a s h o t

from

o u t s i d e t h e w i n d o w of R i c k ' s r o o m , w h e r e h e i s s t a n d i n g , l o o k i n g o u t a n d s m o k i n g a c i g a r e t t e . He t u r n s r o u n d a n d s a y s , " A n d t h e n ? " S h e r e s u m e s her story . . . The q u e s t i o n t h a t i m m e d i a t e l y p o p s u p h e r e , of c o u r s e , i s : w h a t happened

in between, d u r i n g t h e t h r e e - a n d - a - h a l f - s e c o n d

shot

of

the

a i r p o r t — d i d t h e y (h it or n o t ? M a l t b y is right to e m p h a s i z e that, a s to t h i s point, t h e film i s not s i m p l y a m b i g u o u s ; it r a t h e r g e n e r a t e s t w o v e r y c l e a r , a l t h o u g h m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e m e a n i n g s — t h e y d i d it, a n d t h e y d i d not d o it, t h a t i s , t h e film g i v e s u n a m b i g u o u s s i g n a l s t h a t t h e y d i d it, a n d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y u n a m b i g u o u s s i g n a l s t h a t t h e y c a n n o t h a v e d o n e it. O n the o n e h a n d , a s e r i e s of c o d i f i e d f e a t u r e s s i g n a l t h a t t h e y d i d d o it, n a m e l y t h a t t h e t h r e e - a n d - a - h a l f - s e c o n d shot s t a n d s for a l o n g e r p e r i o d of t i m e ( t h e d i s s o l v e of t h e c o u p l e p a s s i o n a t e l y e m b r a c i n g u s u a l l y s i g n a l s the a c t after t h e f a d e - o u t ; t h e c i g a r e t t e is a l s o t h e s t a n d a r d s i g n of post­ coital r e l a x a t i o n ; u p to t h e v u l g a r p h a l l i c c o n n o t a t i o n of t h e t o w e r ) ; on the o t h e r h a n d , a p a r a l l e l s e r i e s of f e a t u r e s s i g n a l s t h a t t h e y d i d not d o it, n a m e l y t h a t t h e t h r e e - a n d - a - h a l f - s e c o n d s h o t of t h e a i r p o r t t o w e r c o r r e ­ s p o n d s to t h e r e a l d i e g e t i c t i m e ( t h e b e d in t h e b a c k g r o u n d is u n d i s ­ t u r b e d ; t h e s a m e c o n v e r s a t i o n s e e m s to g o on w i t h o u t a b r e a k ; a n d so o n ) . E v e n w h e n , in t h e final c o n v e r s a t i o n b e t w e e n R i c k a n d I-^aszlo a t t h e a i r p o r t , t h e y d i r e c t l y t o u c h on t h e e v e n t s of t h i s n i g h t , t h e i r w o r d s c a n b e read in both w a y s :

RICK: Y o u s a i d y o u k n e w a b o u t I l s a a n d m e ? VICTOR:

Yes.

RICK: Y o u d i d n ' t k n o w s h e w a s a t m y p l a c e l a s t n i g h t w h e n y o u w e r e . . . she c a m e t h e r e for t h e l e t t e r s of t r a n s i t . Isn't t h a t t r u e , I l s a ? ILSA: Y e s .

RICK: S h e t r i e d e v e r y t h i n g to g e t t h e m a n d n o t h i n g w o r k e d . S h e d i d h e r b e s t to c o n v i n c e m e t h a t s h e w a s still in l o v e w i t h m e . T h a t w a s 241

IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S

all o v e r l o n g a g o ; for y o u r s a k e s h e p r e t e n d e d it w a s n ' t a n d I let h e r pretend. VICTOR: 1 u n d e r s t a n d . W e l l , / c e r t a i n l y do not u n d e r s t a n d —'is R i c k s a j ' i n g to V i c t o r t h a t h e m a d e l o v e to h i s w i f e o r n o t ? M a l t b y ' s s o l u t i o n is to i n s i s t t h a t t h i s s c e n e p r o v i d e d a n e x e m p l a r y c a s e of h o w Coàablanca " d e l i b e r a t e l y c o n s t r u c t s itself in s u c h a w a y a s to offer d i s t i n c t a n d a l t e r n a t i v e s o u r c e s of p l e a s u r e to t w o p e o p l e s i t t i n g n e x t to e a c h o t h e r in t h e s a m e c i n e m a , " t h a t i s , t h a t it " c o u l d p l a y to b o t h ' i n n o c e n t ' a n d ' s o p h i s t i c a t e d ' a u d i e n c e s a l i k e . W h i l e , a t t h e l e v e l of its s u r f a c e n a r r a t i v e line, t h e film c a n b e c o n s t r u c t e d b y t h e s p e c t a t o r a s o b e y i n g t h e s t r i c t e s t m o r a l c o d e s , it s i m u l t a n e o u s l y offers to t h e " s o p h i s t i c a t e d " e n o u g h c l u e s to c o n s t r u c t a n a l t e r n a t i v e , s e x u a l l y m u c h more d a r i n g n a r r a t i v e line. This s t r a t e g y is more complex t h a n it m a y a p p e a r : p r e c i s e l y because y o u k n e w t h a t y o u a r e a s it w e r e " c o v e r e d " o r " a b s o l v e d from g u i l t y i m p u l s e s " ' you

b y t h e official s t o r y line,

a r e a l l o w e d to i n d u l g e in d i r t y f a n t a s i e s ^—^you k n o w t h a t t h e s e

f a n t a s i e s a r e not " s e r i o u s , " t h a t t h e y d o not c o u n t in the e y e s of the b i g O t h e r . . . S o o u r o n l y c o r r e c t i o n to M a l t b y w o u l d b e t h a t w e d o not n e e d two s p e c t a t o r s s i t t i n g n e x t to e a c h o t h e r : one and the Mme

spectator,

s p l i t in t w o , i s sufficient. T o p u t it in L a c a n i a n t e r m s : d u r i n g t h e i n f a m o u s t h r e e a n d a h a l f s e c o n d s , I l s a a n d R i c k d i d n o t d o it for t h e b i g O t h e r , t h e o r d e r of p u b l i c a p p e a r a n c e , b u t t h e y d i d d o it for o u r d i r t y f a n t a s m a t i c i m a g i n a t i o n — t h i s is t h e s t r u c t u r e of i n h e r e n t t r a n s g r e s s i o n a t i t s p u r e s t , t h a t i s , Holl3rwood n e e d s both l e v e l s in o r d e r to f u n c t i o n . T o p u t it in t e r m s of t h e d i s c o u r s e theory elaborated

b y O s w a l d Ducrot, w e h a v e here the

opposition

b e t w e e n p r e s u p p o s i t i o n a n d surmise: t h e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n of a s t a t e m e n t is d i r e c t l y e n d o r s e d b y t h e b i g O t h e r , w e a r e not r e s p o n s i b l e for it, w h i l e t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for t h e s u r m i s e of a s t a t e m e n t r e s t s e n t i r e l y on

the

r e a d e r ' s ( o r s p e c t a t o r ' s ) s h o u l d e r s — t h e a u t h o r of t h e t e x t c a n a l w a y s c l a i m "It's not m y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y if t h e s p e c t a t o r s d r a w d i r t y c o n c l u s i o n s from t h e t e x t u r e of t h e film!" A n d , to l i n k t h i s to p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t e r m s , t h i s o p p o s i t i o n i s , of c o u r s e , t h e o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n s y m b o l i c L a w ( t h e e g o i d e a l ) a n d t h e o b s c e n e s u p e r e g o : at t h e l e v e l of t h e p u b l i c s y m b o l i c Law,

nothing

happens,

the t e x t i s c l e a n , w h i l e , a t a n o t h e r

level, it

b o m b a r d s the spectator w i t h the s u p e r e g o injunction "Enjoy!", that is, g i v e w a y to y o u r d i r t y i m a g i n a t i o n . T o p u t it in y e t a n o t h e r w a y , w h a t w e e n c o u n t e r h e r e is a c l e a r e x a m p l e of t h e fetishistic split, of t h e d i s a v o w a l 242

STALINISM REVISITED

s t r u c t u r e of "je MLI bien,

maLi

quand meine . . .": t h e v e r y a w a r e n e s s t h a t

t h e y d i d not d o it g i v e s free r e i n to y o u r d i r t y i m a g i n a t i o n — y o u c a n i n d u l g e i n it, b e c a u s e y o u a r e a b s o l v e d from t h e g u i l t b y t h e fact t h a t , for the b i g O t h e r , t h e y d e f i n i t e l y d i d not d o it . . . A n d t h i s d o u b l e r e a d i n g i s not s i m p l y a c o m p r o m i s e on t h e p a r t of t h e L a w , in t h e s e n s e t h a t the s y m b o l i c L a w i s i n t e r e s t e d o n l y in k e e p i n g u p a p p e a r a n c e s a n d l e a v e s y o u free to e x e r c i s e y o u r f a n t a s i e s , Insofar a s t h e y d o not e n c r o a c h u p o n the p u b l i c d o m a i n , n a m e l y i n s o f a r a s t h e y s a v e t h e a p p e a r a n c e s : the L a w itself n e e d s its o b s c e n e s u p p l e m e n t , it i s s u s t a i n e d b y it, so it g e n e r a t e s it. M a l t b y i s t h u s r i g h t in e m p h a s i z i n g t h a t t h e i n f a m o u s Production

C o d e of t h e 1 9 3 0 s a n d

Holljnvood

1 9 4 0 s w a s not s i m p l y a n e g a t i v e

censorship code, but also a positive (productive, as Foucault w o u l d h a v e put it) codification a n d regulation that g e n e r a t e d the v e r y e x c e s s w h o s e d i r e c t d e p i c t i o n it h i n d e r e d . I n d i c a t i v e i s h e r e t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n b e t w e e n J o s e f von Sternberg a n d Breen reported by M a l t b y : w h e n Sternberg said "At t h i s p o i n t , t h e t w o p r i n c i p a l s h a v e a b r i e f r o m a n t i c i n t e r l u d e , " B r e e n I n t e r r u p t e d h i m : " W h a t y o u ' r e t r y i n g to s a y i s t h a t t h e t w o of t h e n h o p p e d into the h a y . T h e y fucked." The i n d i g n a n t S t e r n b e r g a n s w e r e d : " M r . B r e e n , y o u offend m e . " B r e e n : " O h , for C h r i s t ' s s a k e , w i l l y o u stop the h o r s e s h i t a n d f a c e t h e i s s u e . W e c a n h e l p y o u m a k e a s t o r y a b o u t a d u l t e r y , if y o u w a n t , b u t not if y o u k e e p c a l l i n g a g o o d s c r e w i n g m a t c h a 'romantic interlude.' Now, w h a t do these t w o people do? Kiss and go h o m e ? " "No,"

said Sternberg,

"they fuck."

"Good," y e l p e d

pounding the desk, "now 1 can understand y o u r story." The

Breen, director

c o m p l e t e d h i s o u t l i n e , a n d B r e e n t o l d h i m h o w h e c o u l d h a n d l e it in s u c h a w a y a s to g e t p a s t t h e Code.^^ S o t h e v e r y p r o h i b i t i o n , in o r d e r to function p r o p e r l y , h a s to r e l y on a c l e a r a w a r e n e s s a b o u t w h a t r e a l l y h a p p e n e d at t h e l e v e l of t h e p r o h i b i t e d n a r r a t i v e l i n e : the

Production

C o d e d i d not s i m p l y p r o h i b i t s o m e c o n t e n t , it r a t h e r c o d i f i e d its c i p h e r e d articulation. A n d , b a c k to S h o s t a k o v i c h , w h a t if e x a c t l y t h e s a m e h o l d s for h i s p o p u l a r s y m p h o n i e s ? W h a t if t h e y a l s o o p e r a t e at t w o l e v e l s s i m u l t a ­ n e o u s l y , o n e , p u b l i c , i n t e n d e d for t h e r u l i n g i d e o l o g i c a l g a z e , a n d a n o t h e r w h i c h t r a n s g r e s s e s t h e p u b l i c r u l e s , b u t r e m a i n s , a s s u c h , its i n h e r e n t s u p p l e m e n t ? O n e c a n t h u s a p p r e c i a t e t h e a m b i g u i t y of t h e s e l i n e s : S i n c e t h e S t a l i n i s t a s s a u l t a g a i n s t h i s m u s i c in 1 9 3 6 , S h o s t a k o v i c h h a d d e v e l o p e d a sort of d o u b l e - s p e a k in h i s m u s i c a l l a n g u a g e , u s i n g o n e i d i o m to p l e a s e h i s m a s t e r s in t h e K r e m l i n a n d a n o t h e r to satisfy h i s 243

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

o w n m o r a l c o n s c i e n c e a s a n a r t i s t a n d a c i t i z e n . O u t w a r d l y h e s p o k e in a t r i u m p h a n t v o i c e . Y e t b e n e a t h t h e r i t u a l s o u n d s of S o v i e t r e j o i c i n g t h e r e w a s a softer, m o r e m e l a n c h o l i c v o i c e — t h e c a r e f u l l y c o n c e a l e d v o i c e of s a t i r e a n d d i s s e n t o n l y a u d i b l e to t h o s e w h o h a d felt the s u f f e r i n g h i s m u s i c e x p r e s s e d . T h e s e t w o v o i c e s a r e c l e a r l y a u d i b l e in S h o s t a k o v i c h ' s Fifth ovation

Symphony

of e l e c t r i f y i n g force

[. . . ] w h i c h r e c e i v e d a

when

it w a s

first

half-hour

performed

[. . . ] .

B e n e a t h t h e e n d l e s s f a n f a r e s t r u m p e t i n g t h e t r i u m p h of the S o v i e t s t a t e in t h e finale [. . . ] t h e a u d i e n c e m u s t h a v e felt its s a d n e s s [, . . ] a n d t h e y r e s p o n d e d to t h e m u s i c a s a s p i r i t u a l r e l e a s e .

A s t r a n g e h e r m e n e u t i c s i n d e e d — a " c a r e f u l l y c o n c e a l e d v o i c e " w h i c h is n o n e t h e l e s s c l e a r l y u n d e r s t o o d b y t h o u s a n d s ? W e r e t h e official c e n s o r s r e a l l y so s t u p i d a s not to g e t i t ? S o w h a t if w e r e a d t h e f r a g i l e c o e x i s t e n c e of t h e s e t w o i d i o m s a l o n g t h e l i n e s of t h e a m b i g u i t y i n s c r i b e d i n t o the n i g h t e n c o u n t e r s c e n e from Casablanca! W h a t if t h e S t a l i n i s t r e j e c t i o n of b o t h P r o k o f i e v ' s p r o p a g a n d i s t i c a n d i n t i m a t e w o r k s w a s r i g h t on i t s o w n t e r m s ? W h a t if w h a t t h e y w a n t e d from h i m w a s p r e c i s e l y t h e c o e x i s t e n c e of t w o l e v e l s , p r o p a g a n d i s t i c a n d i n t i m a t e , w h i l e h e w a s offering

them

e i t h e r t h e first o r t h e s e c o n d ? After W o r l d W a r II, P r o k o f i e v w i t h d r e w i n c r e a s i n g l y to the i n t i m a t e d o m a i n of c h a m b e r m u s i c , w h e r e he c o u l d find e x p r e s s i o n for h i s p r i v a t e s a d n e s s — w a s t h i s a n a c t of s i l e n t d e f i a n c e , w r i t i n g m u s i c "for t h e d r a w e r , " a s S h o s t a k o v i c h w o u l d h a v e p u t It? f i o w is it t h e n t h a t t h e m o s t m o v i n g a n d d e s p e r a t e of t h e s e w o r k s , h i s V i o l i n S o n a t a in D m a j o r w h o s e h a u n t i n g o p e n i n g m o v e m e n t w a s m e a n t to s o u n d " l i k e t h e w i n d in a g r a v e y a r d , " w a s a w a r d e d t h e S t a l i n P r i z e in 1947? O r l a n d o F i g e s c l a i m s that the a w a r d w a s m e a n t " i r o n i c a l l y " — but w h a t k i n d of s t r a n g e i r o n y i s this?"''^ L e t u s r e t u r n to S h o s t a k o v i c h . C a n w e r e a l l y b e so s u r e t h a t t h e p u b l i c b o m b a s t m u s i c is m e a n t i r o n i c a l l y , w h i l e t h e i n t i m a t e c o n f e s s i o n a l m o o d is m e a n t s i n c e r e l y ? W h a t if t h e i r o n y i s o b j e c t i v e a n d w e h a v e to r e a d t h i s m u s i c in t h e s a m e w a y M a r x r e a d t h e a t t i t u d e of t h e P a r t y of O r d e r in the F r e n c h p a r l i a m e n t after t h e 1 8 4 8 r e v o l u t i o n ? R e c a l l M a r x ' s c o r u s c a t i n g a n a l y s i s of h o w t h i s c o n s e r v a t i v e - r e p u b l i c a n p a r t y f u n c t i o n e d

a s the

c o a l i t i o n of t h e t w o b r a n c h e s of r o y a l i s m ( O r l e a n i s t s a n d L e g i t i m i s t s ) in t h e " a n o n y m o u s k i n g d o m of t h e R e p u b l i c . "

The parliamentary deputies

of t h e P a r t y of O r d e r p e r c e i v e d t h e i r r e p u b l i c a n i s m a s m o c k e r y : in p a r l i a m e n t a r y d e b a t e s , t h e y g e n e r a t e d r o y a l i s t s l i p s of t h e t o n g u e

and

r i d i c u l e d t h e R e p u b l i c to l e t it b e k n o w n t h a t t h e i r t r u e a i m w a s to r e s t o r e 244

STALINISM REVISITED

t h e k i n g - W h a t t h e y w e r e not a w a r e of is t h a t t h e y t h e m s e l v e s w e r e d u p e d g5 to t h e t r u e s o c i a l i m p a c t of t h e i r r u l e . T h e y u n k n o w i n g l y e s t a b l i s h e d t h e c o n d i t i o n s of t h e b o u r g e o i s r e p u b l i c a n o r d e r t h a t t h e y d e s p i s e d so m u c h ( b y , for i n s t a n c e , g u a r a n t e e i n g p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y ) . S o it is not t h a t they w e r e royalists w h o w e r e just w e a r i n g republican masks: although t h e y t h o u g h t of t h e m s e l v e s a s s u c h , it w a s t h e i r " i n n e r " r o y a l i s t c o n v i c ­ tion w h i c h w a s t h e d e c e p t i v e front m a s k i n g t h e i r t r u e social r o l e . In short, f a r from

being the hidden

t r u t h of t h e i r p u b l i c r e p u b l i c a n i s m ,

their

s i n c e r e r o y a l i s m w a s t h e f a n t a s m a t i c s u p p o r t of t h e i r a c t u a l r e p u b l i c a n jsm

^it w a s w h a t p r o v i d e d t h e p a s s i o n for t h e i r a c t i v i t y . Is it not, t h e n ,

t h a t t h e d e p u t i e s of t h e P a r t y of O r d e r w e r e a l s o feigning to feign to b e r e p u b l i c a n s , to b e w h a t t h e y r e a l l y w e r e — i n e x a c t l y t h e s a m e w a y t h a t S h o s t a k o v i c h w a s f e i g n i n g to f e i g n to b e a faithful Nonetheless,

Communist?

t h e s u b j e c t i v e p o s i t i o n of P r o k o f i e v

is here radically

different from t h a t of S h o s t a k o v i c h : one c a n p r o p o s e t h e t h e s i s that, in c o n t r a s t

to S h o s t a k o v i c h ,

P r o k o f i e v w a s e f f e c t i v e l y not a " S o v i e t

c o m p o s e r , " e v e n if h e w r o t e m o r e t h a n S h o s t a k o v i c h ' s s h a r e of official c a n t a t a s c e l e b r a t i n g S t a l i n a n d h i s r e g i m e . P r o k o f i e v a d o p t e d a k i n d of p r o t o - p s y c h o t l c p o s i t i o n of i n t e r n a l e x c l u s i o n t o w a r d s S t a l i n i s m : h e w a s not i n t e r n a l l y affected o r b o t h e r e d b y it, t h a t i s , h e t r e a t e d it a s j u s t a n e x t e r n a l n u i s a n c e . T h e r e w a s e f f e c t i v e l y s o m e t h i n g c h i l d i s h in P r o k o f i e v , l i k e t h e r e f u s a l of a s p o i l t c h i l d to a c c e p t o n e ' s p l a c e in t h e s o c i a l o r d e r of t h i n g s — h e r e t u r n e d to t h e S o v i e t U n i o n in 1 9 3 6 , a t t h e h e i g h t of t h e Stalinist purges, drove around in his imported A m e r i c a n car, dressed e c c e n t r i c a l l y in f a n c y c l o t h e s d e l i v e r e d from P a r i s , o r d e r e d b o o k s a n d food from t h e W e s t , i g n o r i n g t h e m a d n e s s a n d p o v e r t y a r o u n d h i m . T h i s is w h y , i n c o n t r a s t to S h o s t a k o v i c h , h e n e v e r r e a l l y "got i n t o " t h e S t a l i n i s t s u p e r e g o d o u b l e - t a l k i d i o m of c o m b i n i n g e x t e r n a l a c c o m m o d a t i o n w i t h i n n e r b i t t e r n e s s a n d s a d n e s s . E v e n t h e m e l a n c h o l y a n d d e s p a i r of h i s l a t e v i o l i n s o n a t a is not a r e a c t i o n to S t a l i n i s t o p p r e s s i o n : t h e s a m e s t y l e a n d m o o d a r e t h e r e a l r e a d y in h i s p r e - r e v o l u t i o n a r y w o r k s . T h e reaction

of t h e

two composers

to Z h d a n o v ' s

a t t a c k s in

different

1 9 4 6 - ^ 7 is

e x e m p l a r i l y h e r e : P r o k o f i e v s i m p l y d i d not u n d e r s t a n d w h a t t h e c h a r g e s w e r e a b o u t , h e d i d not i n t e r n a l i z e t h e t e n s i o n . W h e n , in 1 9 4 7 , h e w a s forced to a t t e n d a m e e t i n g of t h e C o m p o s e r ' s U n i o n a n d to l i s t e n to Z h d a n o v ' s speech a t t a c k i n g h i m and other S o v i e t composers, he a r r i v e d d r u n k , m a d e l o u d r u d e c o m m e n t s i n t e r r u p t i n g t h e s p e e c h a n d t h e n fell a s l e e p on h i s c h a i r in t h e m i d s t of it — m i r a c u l o u s l y , n o t h i n g h a p p e n e d , so accepted w a s his eccentricity. 245

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

A n d S h o s t a k o v i c h ? T h e p o p u l a r i t y a n d p u b l i c r e s o n a n c e of h i s m u s i c u n d e r w e n t a w e i r d c h a n g e : a c o u p l e of d e c a d e s a g o , t h e m a j o r i t y of c r i t i c s d i s m i s s e d h i m a s a " s o c i a l i s t r e a l i s t " o u t of t o u c h

with the

proper

d e v e l o p m e n t of m o d e r n m u s i c ; h o w e v e r , t o d a y , t h e g r e a t m u s i c a l m o d ­ e r n i s t s s u c h a s S c h o e n b e r g o r W e b e r n a r e p e r c e i v e d a s a t h i n g of the past, r e s p e c t f u l l y i g n o r e d , w h i l e S h o s t a k o v i c h h a s e m e r g e d a s a r g u a b l y t h e m o s t p o p u l a r " s e r i o u s " c o m p o s e r of t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y ; d o z e n s of v o l u m e s w e r e w r i t t e n not o n l y a b o u t h i s m u s i c , b u t a l s o a b o u t h i s closet d i s s i d e n c e . W h a t if, h o w e v e r , S h o s t a k o v i c h ' s p o p u l a r i t y i s t h e s i g n of a non-event,

of t h e o c c u l t a t i o n of t h e t r u e E v e n t of m o d e r n

music

b r o a d l y , a m o m e n t of t h e v a s t c u l t u r a l c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t i o n w h o s e p o l i t i c a l m a r k is t h e w i t h d r a w a l from r e f o c u s m g on h u m a n

The Slalinbt

rights

radical e m a n c i p a t o r y politics, a n d

the

a n d t h e p r e v e n t i o n of s u f f e r i n g ?

carnival . . .

W h a t d i d the t r a u m a of 1 9 3 5 ( t h e p u b l i c c a m p a i g n a g a i n s t h i s " L a d y M a c b e t h " t r i g g e r e d b y t h e Pravda a r t i c l e " M u d d l e I n s t e a d of M u s i c " ) do to h i s m u s i c ? P e r h a p s t h e c l e a r e s t i n d i c a t o r of t h e b r e a k i s t h e c h a n g e in t h e function of t h e s c h e r z o in S h o s t a k o v i c h ' s w o r k in t h e 1 9 4 0 s a n d e a r l y 1 9 5 0 s . P r i o r to 1 9 3 5 , h i s s c h e r z o s c a n still b e p e r c e i v e d a s t h e e x p l o s i v e e x p r e s s i o n of n e w a g g r e s s i v e a n d g r o t e s q u e v i t a l i t y a n d Joie de wV/-
flash

of t h w a r t e d a n d r e p r e s s e d a g g r e s s i o n —it i s the

" c a r n i v a l " of r a c i s t p o g r o m s a n d d r u n k e n g a n g r a p e s . ( T h e o u t s t a n d i n g c a s e s a r e t h e s e c o n d a n d t h i r d m o v e m e n t s of t h e E i g h t h S y m p h o n y , t h e f a m o u s s e c o n d m o v e m e n t of t h e T e n t h S y m p h o n y ( " P o r t r a i t of S t a l i n " ) , a n d , a m o n g t h e s t r i n g q u a r t e t s , the t h i r d m o v e m e n t of Q u a r t e t N o . 3 ( w h i c h , t o d a y , a l m o s t s o u n d s l i k e H e r r m a n n ' s s c o r e for Psycho), a n d t h e " f u r i o s o " m o v e m e n t of Q u a r t e t N o . 1 0 . ) ' 24«

STALINISM REVISITED

D o e s t h i s m e a n t h a t , in a d i s t u r b i n g w a y , the t r a u m a t i c e x p e r i e n c e of S t a l i n i s t c o n d e m n a t i o n h e l p e d S h o s t a k o v i c h to a c h i e v e h i s b i t t e r m a t u r i t y ? W o u l d h e o t h e r w i s e h a v e r e m a i n e d a c o m p o s e r of t h e n e w Sovietjok de ^/ivre, m i x i n g j a z z w i t h a g g r e s s i v e r h y t h m i c m o d e r n i s m ? W h a t if t h e O i i x t u r e of m e l a n c h o l i c o p p r e s s i v e d r a m a a n d t h e d e s t r u c t i v e

scherzo

e x p l o s i o n s i s not t h e o n l y w a y to r e p l y to t h e e x p e r i e n c e of S t a l i n i s t t e r r o r , b u t , r a t h e r , a r e p l y t h a t fits in w i t h S t a l i n i s t h u m a n i s m , i t s r e a f f i r m a t i o n of t h e o l d R u s s i a n t r a d i t i o n ? W h a t if t h e r e i s a different w a y w h i c h i s a l s o a l r e a d y p r e f i g u r e d in a n o t h e r o l d R u s s i a n t r a d i t i o n , t h e o v e r l a p p i n g of h o r r o r a n d h u m o r a s t h e s i g n of d i s t i n c t i o n of t h e s p e c i f i c a l l y R u s s i a n g r o t e s q u e w h o s e first g r e a t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e w a s G o g o l ? W h a t i s " T h e Nose," his most famous short story, about a low-level b u r e a u c r a t w h o s e n o s e b e c o m e s d e t a c h e d a n d a c q u i r e s a life of its o w n , o t h e r t h a n a g r o t e s q u e c o m e d y o r a h o r r o r s t o r y ? I n d i c a t i v e i s h e r e t h e r e c e p t i o n of S h o s t a k o v i c h ' s e a r l y " a b s u r d i s t " s h o r t o p e r a ( 1 9 3 0 ) b a s e d on t h i s s t o r y ; a l t h o u g h it i s u s u a l l y p l a y e d a s a s a t i r e or e v e n a f r e n e t i c f a r c e , S h o s t a k o v i c h h i m s e l f c a l l e d it " a h o r r o r s t o r y " : "I t r i e d not to m a k e j o k e s in The Nose. [. . . ] It's too c r u e l . " S o w h e n T h e O p e r a G r o u p w h i c h r e c e n t l y s t a g e d it c a l l e d it, i n t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n leaflet, " t h e f u n n i e s t o p e r a e v e r , a n o p e r a t i c v e r s i o n o£Monty Python," t h i s d e s i g n a t i o n s h o u l d r e m i n d u s of t h e u n d e r l y i n g n i g h t m a r i s h d i m e n s i o n of M o n t y P y t h o n ' s c o m e d y . S u c h a m i x t u r e of h o r r o r a n d h u m o r i s a t r a d e m a r k of t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n - c a m p u n i v e r s e — t h i s i s h o w P r i m o L e v i , in If This Id a Man,

describes the dreadful "selekcja," the

survival e x a m i n a t i o n in the c a m p :

T h e BUickältedter [ t h e e l d e r of t h e h u t ] h a s c l o s e d t h e c o n n e c t i n g - d o o r a n d h a s o p e n e d t h e o t h e r t w o w h i c h l e a d from the d o r m i t o r y a n d t h e Tagesraum [ d a y r o o m ] o u t s i d e . H e r e , in front of t h e t w o d o o r s , s t a n d s t h e a r b i t e r of o u r fate, a n S S D s u b a l t e r n . O n h i s r i g h t i s t h e Blockältedter, on h i s left, t h e q u a r t e r m a s t e r of t h e h u t . E a c h o n e of u s , a s h e c o m e s n a k e d o u t of t h e Tagesraum i n t o t h e c o l d O c t o b e r a i r , h a s to r u n t h e f e w s t e p s b e t w e e n t h e t w o d o o r s , g i v e t h e c a r d to t h e S S m a n a n d e n t e r t h e d o r m i t o r y d o o r . T h e S S m a n , i n t h e fraction of a s e c o n d between t w o successive crossings, w i t h a g l a n c e at one's b a c k a n d front, j u d g e s e v e r y o n e ' s fate, a n d in t u r n g i v e s t h e c a r d to t h e m a n on his r i g h t or h i s left, a n d t h i s i s t h e life o r d e a t h of e a c h of u s . In t h r e e or four m i n u t e s a h u t of t w o h u n d r e d m e n is " d o n e " , a s is t h e w h o l e c a m p of t w e l v e t h o u s a n d m e n in t h e c o u r s e of t h e

afternoon.

247

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

R i g h t m e a n s s u r v i v a l , left m e a n s t h e g a s c h a m b e r s . Is t h e r e not s o m e ­ t h i n g p r o p e r l y comic in t h i s , t h e r i d i c u l o u s s p e c t a c l e of t i y i n g to a p p e a r s t r o n g a n d h e a l t h y , to a t t r a c t for a b r i e f m o m e n t t h e i n d i f f e r e n t g a z e of t h e N a z i a d m i n i s t r a t o r w h o p r e s i d e s o v e r life a n d d e a t h ? f i e r e , c o m e d y and horror coincide: imagine the prisoners practicing their appearance, t r y i n g to h o l d t h e i r h e a d s h i g h a n d p u s h t h e i r c h e s t s f o r w a r d , w a l k i n g b r i s k l y , p i n c h i n g t h e i r Hps to a p p e a r l e s s p a l e , e x c h a n g i n g a d v i c e on h o w to I m p r e s s t h e S S m a n ; i m a g i n e h o w a s i m p l e m o m e n t a r y c o n f u s i o n of c a r d s o r a l a c k of a t t e n t i o n of t h e S S m a n c a n d e c i d e t h e i r fate . . . No w o n d e r , t h e n , t h a t o b s c e n e h u m o r i s a l s o a k e y i n d i c a t o r of t h e c a r n i v a l ­ e s q u e d i m e n s i o n of S t a l i n i s t t e r r o r . R e c a l l t h e a d v e n t u r e of S h o s t a k o ­ vich's interrogation b y the K G B in 1937:

1 w a s g i v e n a [ s e c u r i t y ] p a s s a n d w e n t to the [ N K V D ] office. T h e i n v e s t i g a t o r g o t u p w h e n I c a m e in a n d g r e e t e d m e . H e w a s v e r y f r i e n d l y a n d a s k e d m e to sit d o w n . H e s t a r t e d a s k i n g q u e s t i o n s a b o u t m y h e a l t h , m y f a m i l y , t h e w o r k I w a s d o i n g — a l l k i n d s of q u e s t i o n s . H e s p o k e in a v e r y f r i e n d l y , w e l c o m i n g a n d p o l i t e w a y . T h e n s u d d e n l y he a s k e d m e : " S o , tell m e . D o y o u k n o w T u k h a c h e v s k y ? " I s a i d y e s , a n d h e s a i d " H o w ? ". S o t h e n I s a i d : " A t o n e of m y c o n c e r t s . A f t e r the c o n c e r t , T u k h a c h e v s k y c a m e b a c k s t a g e to c o n g r a t u l a t e m e . H e s a i d he l i k e d m y m u s i c , t h a t h e w a s a n a d m i r e r . H e s a i d h e ' d l i k e to m e e t me w h e n h e c a m e to L e n i n g r a d to t a l k a b o u t m u s i c . H e s a i d it w o u l d be a p l e a s u r e to d i s c u s s m u s i c w i t h m e . H e s a i d if I c a m e to j M o s c o w h e ' d be h a p p y to s e e m e . " " A n d h o w often Tukhachevsky came here. H e "Who

did y o u meet? " "Only

usually invited me

for

when

dinner. " —

else w a s at the t a b l e ? " " J u s t his family. His family and

relatives." — " A n d w h a t d i d y o u d i s c u s s ? " " M o s t l y m u s i c . " —"Not politics?"

"No,

we

never

talked

politics.

I

knew

how

things

w e r e . " ^ — " D m i t r i D m i t r y e v i c h , t h i s i s v e r y s e r i o u s . Y o u m u s t remember. T o d a y i s S a t u r d a y . I'll s i g n y o u r p a s s a n d y o u c a n g o h o m e . B u t on M o n d a y n o o n , y o u m u s t b e h e r e . D o n ' t forget n o w . T h i s i s v e r \ ' serious, v e r y important." I understood this w a s the end. Those two d a y s until M o n d a y w e r e a n i g h t m a r e . I told m y wife I p r o b a b l y wouldn't return. S h e even prepared a bag lor me—the kind prepared for p e o p l e w h o w e r e t a k e n a w a y . S h e p u t in w a r m u n d e r w e a r . S h e k n e w I w o u l d n ' t be b a c k . I w e n t b a c k there at noon [on M o n d a y ] and r e p o r t e d to r e c e p t i o n . T h e r e w a s a s o l d i e r t h e r e . I g a v e h i m m y [ i n t e r n a l ] p a s s p o r t . I t o l d h i m I'd b e e n s u m m o n e d . H e l o o k e d 248

for

STALINISM REVISITED

m y n a m e : first, s e c o n d , t h i r d Hst. H e s a i d : " W h o s u m m o n e d y o u ? " I s a i d : " I n s p e c t o r Z a k o v s k y . " H e s a i d : " H e w o n ' t be a b l e to s e e y o u t o d a y . Go h o m e . W e ' l l notify y o u . " H e r e t u r n e d m y p a s s p o r t a n d I w e n t h o m e . It w a s o n l y l a t e r t h a t e v e n i n g t h a t I l e a r n e d t h a t t h e inspector had been arrested.'

If e v e r t h e r e w a s a c a r n i v a l in w h i c h t o d a y y o u a r e a k i n g a n d t o m o r r o w a b e g g a r , t h i s w a s it!'

A common-sense

reproach

nonetheless

imposes

itself h e r e : i s t h e r e not a r a t h e r o b v i o u s f u n d a m e n t a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n the c a r n i v a l p r o p e r a n d t h e S t a l i n i s t p u r g e s ? In t h e first c a s e , t h e e n t i r e social h i e r a r c h y i s m o m e n t a r i l y s u s p e n d e d , t h o s e w h o w e r e u p a r e c a s t d o w n a n d v i c e v e r s a , w h i l e , in t h e c a s e of S t a l i n i s m , t h e u n e x p e c t e d a n d " i r r a t i o n a l " c h a n g e s of f o r t u n e affect o n l y t h o s e w h o a r e s u b j e c t e d to power—far

from

being threatened,

symbolically suspended,

far from

the Communist

its p o w e r

being

nonienkLitura u s e s t h e

even "irra­

t i o n a l " shifts of a r b i t r a r y t e r r o r to fortify its r u l e . . . T h e r e a r e , h o w e v e r , m o m e n t s of p a r o x y s m in w h i c h r e v o l u t i o n a r y t e r r o r e f f e c t i v e l y r e a c h e s c a r n i v a l e s q u e d i m e n s i o n s , m o m e n t s in w h i c h , l i k e t h e p r o v e r b i a l s n a k e , t h e r u l i n g p a r t y s t a r t s to e a t itself, g r a d u a l l y s w a l l o w i n g its o w n tail. T h e s u r p r i s i n g fact t h a t " t h e m o s t d a n g e r o u s p l a c e to b e w a s c l o s e to t h e c e n t e r s of p o w e r " c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h e s S t a l i n i s m from fascist r e g i m e s — h e r e a r e t h e r e s u l t s of t h e m e r e t w o y e a r s oi yezhovdhchina:

F i v e of S t a l i n ' s P o l i t b u r o c o l l e a g u e s w e r e k i l l e d , a n d 9 8 o u t of 159 C e n t r a l C o m m i t t e e m e m b e r s . O f t h e C e n t r a l C o m m i t t e e of t h e U k ­ r a i n e R e p u b l i c o n l y t h r e e o u t of 2 0 0 s u r v i v e d ; 72 of t h e 9 3 m e m b e r s of t h e K o m s o m o l o r g a n i z a t i o n C e n t r a l C o m m i t t e e p e r i s h e d . O u t of 1,996 p a r t y l e a d e r s a t t h e S e v e n t e e n t h C o n g r e s s in 1 9 3 4 , 1,108 w e r e i m ­ p r i s o n e d or m u r d e r e d . In t h e p r o v i n c e s 3 1 9 o u t of 3 8 5 r e g i o n a l p a r t y s e c r e t a r i e s a n d 2 , 2 1 0 o u t of 2 , 7 5 0 d i s t r i c t s e c r e t a r i e s d i e d . ^

In h i s a n a l y s i s of t h e p a r a n o i a of t h e G e r m a n j u d g e S c h r e b e r , reminds us that w h a t w e u s u a l l y consider as m a d n e s s (the

Freud

paranoid

s c e n a r i o of t h e c o n s p i r a c y a g a i n s t t h e s u b j e c t ) i s e f f e c t i v e l y a l r e a d y a n a t t e m p t at r e c o v e r y : after t h e c o m p l e t e p s y c h o t i c b r e a k d o w n , t h e p a r a ­ n o i d c o n s t r u c t i s a n a t t e m p t b y t h e s u b j e c t to r e - e s t a b l i s h a k i n d of o r d e r in h i s u n i v e r s e , a f r a m e of r e f e r e n c e e n a b l i n g h i m to a c q u i r e a form of c o g n i t i v e m a p p i n g . " A l o n g t h e s a m e l i n e s , o n e i s t e m p t e d to c l a i m that, "when, in l a t e 1 9 3 7 , t h e S t a l i n i s t p a r a n o i d d i s c o u r s e r e a c h e d its a p o g e e 249

a n d set in m o t i o n its o w n d i s s o l u t i o n a s a s o c i a l l i n k , t h e 1 9 3 8 a r r e s t a n d l i q u i d a t i o n of Y e z h o v himself, S t a l i n ' s m a i n e x e c u t i o n e r in 1 9 3 7 , w a s e f f e c t i v e l y t h e a t t e m p t a t r e c o v e r y , a t s t a b i l i z i n g t h e u n c o n t r o l l e d f u r y of s e l f - d e s t r u c t i o n t h a t b r o k e o u t in 1 9 3 7 : t h e p u r g e of Y e z h o v w a s a k i n d of m e t a - p u r g e , t h e p u r g e to e n d all p u r g e s ( h e w a s a c c u s e d p r e c i s e l y oF k i l l i n g t h o u s a n d s of i n n o c e n t B o l s h e v i k s on b e h a l f of f o r e i g n p o w e r s — t h e i r o n y b e i n g t h a t the a c c u s a t i o n w a s l i t e r a l l y t r u e : h e d i d o r g a n i z e the k i l l i n g of t h e t h o u s a n d s

of i n n o c e n t

Bolsheviks . . . ) . However,

the

c r u c i a l p o i n t i s that, a l t h o u g h w e a r e h e r e r e a c h i n g t h e l i m i t s of the s o c i a l , the l e v e l a t w h i c h t h e s o c i a l - s y m b o l i c l i n k Itself a p p r o a c h e s its selfdestructive dissolution, this e x c e s s itself w a s nonetheless g e n e r a t e d b y a p r e c i s e d y n a m i c of s o c i a l s t r u g g l e , b y a s e r i e s of shifting a l i g n m e n t s a n d r e a l i g n m e n t s at t h e v e r y t o p of t h e r e g i m e (StaHn a n d h i s n a r r o w c i r c l e ) , t h e u p p e r nomenklatura a n d t h e r a n k - a n d - f i l e p a r t y m e m b e r s :

T h u s in 1 9 3 3 a n d 1 9 3 5 S t a l i n a n d t h e P o l i t b u r o u n i t e d w i t h a l l l e v e l s of t h e nomenkLilura e l i t e to s c r e e n , or p u r g e , a h e l p l e s s r a n k a n d T h e r e g i o n a l l e a d e r s t h e n u s e d t h o s e p u r g e s to c o n s o l i d a t e machines and expel "Inconvenient"

file. their

p e o p l e . T h i s , in t u r n ,

brought

a b o u t a n o t h e r a l i g n m e n t i n 1 9 3 6 , In w h i c h S t a l i n a n d t h e

Moscow

nomenklatura

sided

with

the

rank

r e p r e s s i o n b y t h e r e g i o n a l e l i t e s . In

and

file,

who

complained

of

1937 Stalin openly mobilized

t h e " p a r t y m a s s e s " a g a i n s t t h e nomenklatura a s a w h o l e ; t h i s p r o v i d e d a n i m p o r t a n t s t r a n d in t h e G r e a t T e r r o r ' s d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e e l i t e . B u t in 1 9 3 8 t h e P o l i t b u r o c h a n g e d a l i g n m e n t s a n d reinForced t h e a u t h o r ­ i t y of t h e r e g i o n a l nomenklatura a s p a r t of a n a t t e m p t to r e s t o r e o r d e r in t h e p a r t y d u r i n g t h e

terror.^'

T h e s i t u a t i o n t h u s e x p l o d e d w h e n S t a l i n m a d e t h e r i s k y m o v e of d i r e c t l y a p p e a l i n g to t h e l o w e r r a n k - a n d - f i l e m e m b e r s t h e m s e l v e s , s o l i c i t i n g t h e m to a r t i c u l a t e t h e i r c o m p l a i n t a g a i n s t t h e a r b i t r a r y r u l e of t h e l o c a l p a r t y b o s s e s ( a m o v e s i m i l a r to M a o ' s C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n ) — t h e i r f u r y at t h e r e g i m e , u n a b l e to e x p r e s s i t s e l f d i r e c t l y , e x p l o d e d a l l t h e m o r e v i c i o u s l y a g a i n s t t h e p e r s o n a l i z e d s u b s t i t u t e t a r g e t s . S i n c e t h e u p p e r nomenklatura a t t h e s a m e t i m e r e t a i n e d i t s e x e c u t i v e p o w e r in t h e p u r g e s t h e m s e l v e s , t h i s set in m o t i o n a p r o p e r l y c a r n i v a l e s q u e s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e v i c i o u s c y c l e in w h i c h v i r t u a l l y e v e r y o n e w a s t h r e a t e n e d (for e x a m p l e , of e i g h t y - t w o d i s t r i c t p a r t y s e c r e t a r i e s , s e v e n t y - n i n e w e r e s h o t ) . A n o t h e r a s p e c t of the s p i r a l i n g v i c i o u s c y c l e w a s t h e v e r y f l u c t u a t i o n s of t h e d i r e c t i v e s from t h e 250

STALINISM REVISITED

top a s to t h e t h o r o u g h n e s s m e a s u r e s , vt'hile at t h e

of t h e p u r g e s : t h e top d e m a n d e d

harsh

s a m e t i m e w a r n i n g a g a i n s t e x c e s s e s , so

the

e x e c u t o r s w e r e p u t in a n u n t e n a b l e p o s i t i o n — u l t i m a t e l y , w h a t e v e r t h e y d i d w a s w r o n g . If t h e y d i d not a r r e s t a sufficient n u m b e r of t r a i t o r s a n d discover enough conspiracies, they w e r e considered lenient and suppor­ t i v e of c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t i o n ; so, u n d e r t h i s p r e s s u r e , i n o r d e r to m e e t the q u o t a , a s it w e r e , t h e y h a d to f a b r i c a t e e v i d e n c e a n d i n v e n t p l o t s — t h e r e b y e x p o s i n g t h e m s e l v e s to t h e c r i t i c i s m t h a t t h e y w e r e t h e m s e l v e s saboteurs, destroying thousands

of h o n e s t C o m m u n i s t s

on b e h a l f of

•foreign p o w e r s . . . S t a l i n ' s s t r a t e g y of a d d r e s s i n g d i r e c t l y t h e

party

masses, co-opting their anti-bureaucratic attitudes, w a s thus very risky:

T h i s not o n l y t h r e a t e n e d to o p e n elite p o l i t i c s to p u b l i c s c r u t i n y b u t also r i s k e d d i s c r e d i t i n g t h e e n t i r e B o l s h e v i k r e g i m e , of w h i c h S t a l i n 1

h i m s e l f w a s a p a r t . [. . . ] F i n a l l y , in 1 9 3 7 , S t a l i n b r o k e a l l t h e r u l e s of the g a m e — i n d e e d , destroyed the g a m e c o m p l e t e l y — a n d unleashed a t e r r o r of a l l a g a i n s t all.^'^

O n e c a n d i s c e r n v e r y p r e c i s e l y t h e s u p e r e g o d i m e n s i o n of t h e s e e v e n t s : t h i s v e r y v i o l e n c e i n f l i c t e d b y t h e C o m m u n i s t P a r t y on its o w n m e m b e r s b e a r s w i t n e s s to t h e r a d i c a l s e l f - c o n t r a d i c t i o n of t h e r e g i m e , n a m e l y to t h e fact t h a t , at t h e o r i g i n s of t h e r e g i m e , t h e r e w a s a n " a u t h e n t i c " r e v o l u ­ t i o n a r y p r o j e c t — i n c e s s a n t p u r g e s w e r e n e c e s s a r y not o n l y to e r a s e t h e t r a c e s of t h e r e g i m e ' s o w n o r i g i n s , b u t a l s o a s a k i n d of " r e t u r n of t h e r e p r e s s e d , " a r e m i n d e r of t h e r a d i c a l n e g a t i v i t y a t t h e h e a r t of t h e r e g i m e . T h e S t a l i n i s t p u r g e s of h i g h p a r t y e c h e l o n s r e l i e d on t h i s

fundamental

betrayal: the a c c u s e d w e r e effectively g u i l t y insofar as they, as

the

m e m b e r s of the n e w nomenklatura, b e t r a y e d the R e v o l u t i o n . T h e S t a l i n i s t t e r r o r i s t h u s not s i m p l y t h e b e t r a y a l of t h e R e v o l u t i o n , t h a t is t h e a t t e m p t to e r a s e t h e t r a c e s of t h e a u t h e n t i c r e v o l u t i o n a r y p a s t ; it r a t h e r b e a r s w i t n e s s to a k i n d of " i m p of p e r v e r s i t y " w h i c h c o m p e l s t h e p o s t - r e v o l u ­ t i o n a r y n e w o r d e r to ( r e ) i n s c r l b e its b e t r a y a l of t h e R e v o l u t i o n w i t h i n itself, to " r e f l e c t " it o r " r e m a r k " it in t h e g u i s e of a r b i t r a r y a r r e s t s a n d k i l l i n g s w h i c h t h r e a t e n e d a i l m e m b e r s of t h e nomenklatura — a s in p s y c h o ­ a n a l y s i s , t h e S t a l i n i s t confession of g u i l t c o n c e a l s t h e t r u e g u i l t . ( A s i s w e l l k n o w n , S t a l i n w i s e l y r e c r u i t e d into t h e N K V D p e o p l e of l o w e r s o c i a l o r i g i n s w h o w e r e t h u s a b l e to a c t o u t t h e i r h a t r e d of t h e nomenklatura b y arresting between

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the 251

I N D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

p e r v e r t e d " r e t u r n of the r e p r e s s e d " in t h e g u i s e of t h e r e p e a t e d p u r g e s of the

r a n k s of t h e nomenklatura

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p h e n o m e n o n : p u r g e s a r e t h e v e r y form in w h i c h t h e b e t r a y e d r e v o l u ­ t i o n a r y h e r i t a g e s u r v i v e s a n d h a u n t s t h e r e g i m e . . . A s a l r e a d y n o t e d in t h e c a s e of M a o , o n e s h o u l d s p e c i f y h e r e t h e r o l e of t h e I-^eader: h e w a s e x e m p t e d from t h e s e shifts of f o r t u n e b e c a u s e h e w a s not t h e t r a d i t i o n a l M a s t e r , b u t t h e "Ivord of M i s r u l e " : t h e v e r y a g e n t of c a r n i v a l e s q u e subversion. B e c a u s e of t h i s c a r n i v a l e s q u e s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e d y n a m i c , t h e S t a l i n i s t nomenklatura c a n n o t y e t b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s t h e " N e w C l a s s " — a s A n d r z e j W a l i c k i n o t e d , p a r a d o x i c a l l y , t h e s t a b i l i z a t i o n of nomenklatura i n t o a n e w c l a s s is i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t r u e S t a l i n i s t " t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m " : it w a s o n l y in the Brezhnev y e a r s that this occurred:

t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n of t h e S o v i e t nomenkLilura, w h i c h for t h e first t i m e in S o v i e t h i s t o r y " s u c c e e d e d in e m a n c i p a t i n g i t s e l f from t h e s u b s e r v i e n c e to h i g h e r a u t h o r i t i e s , " a n d c o n s t i t u t e d

itself a s a stable privileged

s t r a t u m e n j o y i n g not o n l y p h y s i c a l s e c u r i t y ( w h i c h it h a d

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u n d e r K h r u s h c h e v ) b u t a l s o j o b s e c u r i t y , r e g a r d l e s s of p e r f o r m a n c e — in effect a s t a t u s s i m i l a r to t h a t of the n e w r u l i n g c l a s s . [. . . ] T h e h i g h w a t e r m a r k of t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m w a s t h e p e r i o d of t h e p e r m a n e n t p u r g e s , w h i c h a i m e d at t h e

a b s o l u t e e l i m i n a t i o n not

o n l y of a l l p o s s i b l e

d e v i a t i o n s , b u t a l s o of s t a b l e Interest g r o u p s w h o s e v e r y e x i s t e n c e might endanger

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specific

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c o m m i t m e n t to t h e g o a l of a n e g a l i t a r i a n a n d j u s t c o m m u n i s t s o c i e t y ) , t h e t e r r o r a n d p u r g e s of t h e nomenklatura i t s e l f w e r e n o t o n l y i n s c r i b e d i n t o its v e r y n a t u r e

( t h e v e r y e x i s t e n c e of nomenklatura

b e t r a y e d its

p r o c l a i m e d g o a l s ) , t h e y w e r e a l s o t h e r e v e n g e of t h e r e g i m e ' s

own

i d e o l o g y a g a i n s t its nomenkUitura w h i c h was i n d e e d g u i l t y of " b e t r a y i n g s o c i a l i s m . " F u r t h e r m o r e , t h i s is w h y t h e full s t a b i l i z a t i o n of t h e nomenk­ latura i n t o a n e w c l a s s w a s o n l y p o s s i b l e w h e n i t s m e m b e r s c e a s e d t o t a k e s e r i o u s l y t h e r e g i m e ' s i d e o l o g i c a l g o a l s — t h e r e i n r e s i d e s the r o l e of the term " r e a l l y - e x i s t i n g socialism," w h i c h e m e r g e d d u r i n g the

Brezhnev

y e a r s : it s i g n a l s t h a t t h e r e g i m e h a d r e n o u n c e d its c o m m u n i s t v i s i o n a n d l i m i t e d i t s e l f to a p r a g m a t i c p o w e r p o l i t i c s . T h i s a l s o c o n f i r m s t h e (often252

STALINISM REVISITED

n o t e d ) fact that t h e K h r u s h c h e v y e a r s w e r e t h e l a s t y e a r s in w h i c h t h e S o v i e t r u l i n g elite w a s still p o s s e s s e d b y a g e n u i n e h i s t o r i c a l (if not r e v o l u t i o n a r y ) e n t h u s i a s m a b o u t its o w n m i s s i o n — a f t e r

Khrushchev,

n o t h i n g l i k e h i s d e f i a n t m e s s a g e to t h e A m e r i c a n s " W e w i l l b u r y y o u ! Your grandchildren will be C o m m u n i s t s ! " w a s imaginable.

, . . ÜI the filma of Sergei Eueiutein B e s i d e s W e l l e s ' s Alagnificent Amherdoru, E i s e n s t e i n ' s Bezhin Meadow a n d P a r t in

of Ifan the Terrible b e l o n g to t h e s e r i e s of lost a b s o l u t e m a s t e r ­

p i e c e s of t h e h i s t o r y of c i n e m a . T h e s u p r e m e i r o n y of Bezhin Meadow is t h e film's t i t l e : it i s t a k e n from I v a n T u r g e n e v ' s s h o r t story, o n e of t h e Sketches from a Hunter's Album, a b o u t p e a s a n t b o y s d i s c u s s i n g s u p e r n a t u r a l s i g n s of d e a t h . W h a t d o e s t h i s to h a v e to d o w i t h the film's s t o r y , b a s e d on t h e ( i n ) f a m o u s c a s e of P a v l i k M o r o z o v , a b o u t a b o y from a p e a s a n t v i l l a g e in t h e y e a r s of dekulakization, w h o is killed b y his c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t i o n a r y father b e c a u s e he s u p p o r t e d collective farms? O n e

is a l m o s t t e m p t e d to r e p e a t

the

q u e s t i o n of t h e p e r p l e x e d v i e w e r in front of a p a i n t i n g s h o w i n g N a d h e z d a K r u p s k a y a in h e r office, e n g a g e d in w i l d s e x w i t h a y o u n g K o m s o m o l m e m b e r , e n t i t l e d " L e n i n in W a r s a w " — " W h e r e is L e n i n ? " ( T h e g u i d e ' s c a l m r e p l y : " L e n i n i s in W a r s a w . " ) S o w h e r e i s B e z h i n m e a d o w ? T h e r e a r e e c h o e s b e t w e e n t h e t w o s t o r i e s , b u t not a t t h e e x p l i c i t n a r r a t i v e l e v e l ; t h e y c o n c e r n t h e u n d e r l y i n g f a n t a s m a t i c " v i r t u a l " l e v e l . In the film, too, t h e r e i s a g r o u p of p e a s a n t b o y s s t r u g g l i n g w i t h t h e e a r t h l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l , t h e C h u r c h , b u t t h e y " d i s c u s s s u p e r n a t u r a l s i g n s of d e a t h " b y d e s t r o y i n g it in a c a r n i v a l e s q u e orgj^^"^ It w a s t h e g r e a t n e s s of E i s e n s t e i n that, in h i s films, h e r e n d e r e d t h e shift i n t h e h b i d i n a l e c o n o m y from t h e L e n i n i s t r e v o l u t i o n a r y f e r v o r to the Stalinist "Thermidor." Recall the archetypal Eisensteinian cinematic s c e n e w h i c h p o r t r a y s t h e e x u b e r a n t o r g y of r e v o l u t i o n a r y d e s t r u c t i v e violence ( w h a t Elsenstein

h i m s e l f c a l l e d " a v e r i t a b l e b a c c h a n a l i a of

d e s t r u c t i o n " ) : w h e n , in October, t h e v i c t o r i o u s r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s p e n e t r a t e the w i n e c e l l a r s of t h e W i n t e r P a l a c e , t h e y i n d u l g e in a n e c s t a t i c o r g y of s m a s h i n g t h o u s a n d s of e x p e n s i v e w i n e b o t t l e s ; in Bezhin Meadow, t h e v i l l a g e P i o n e e r s force t h e i r w a y i n t o t h e l o c a l c h u r c h a n d d e s e c r a t e it, r o b b i n g it of its r e l i c s , s q u a b b l i n g o v e r a n icon, s a c r i l e g i o u s l y t r y i n g on v e s t m e n t s , h e r e t i c a l l y l a u g h i n g a t the s t a t u a r y . . . In t h i s s u s p e n s i o n of g o a l - o r i e n t e d i n s t r u m e n t a l a c t i v i t y , w e e f f e c t i v e l y h a v e a k i n d

of 253

IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S

B a t a i l l e a n " u n r e s t r a i n e d e x p e n d i t u r e " — t h e p i o u s d e s i r e to d e p r i v e t h e r e v o l u t i o n of t h i s e x c e s s i s s i m p l y t h e d e s i r e to h a v e a r e v o l u t i o n w i t h o u t a r e v o l u t i o n . C o n t r a s t t h i s w i t h w h a t E i s e n s t e i n d o e s in P a r t II oilvan

the

Terrible, w h e r e t h e o n l y s c e n e shot in c o l o r ( t h e p e n u l t i m a t e r e e l ) i s the c a r n i v a l e s q u e o r g y in t h e g r e a t h a l l of t h e c o u n t , a B a k h t i n i a n f a n t a s m a t i c s p a c e i n w h i c h " n o r m a l " p o w e r r e l a t i o n s a r e i n v e r t e d : h e r e t h e t s a r i s the s l a v e of t h e idiot, w h o m he p r o c l a i m s a n e w t s a r , a n d I v a n p r o v i d e s the imbecile V l a d i m i r with all the imperial insignia, then h u m b l y prostrates h i m s e l f in front of h i m a n d k i s s e s h i s h a n d . T h e s c e n e b e g i n s w i t h the o b s c e n e c h o r u s a n d d a n c e of t h e "oprichniLi" ( I v a n ' s p r i v a t e a r m y ) , s t a g e d in a n e n t i r e l y " u n r e a l i s t i c " w a y : a n o d d m i x t u r e of H o l l y w o o d a n d J a p a n e s e t h e a t e r , a m u s i c a l n u m b e r w h o s e w o r d s tell a w e i r d s t o r y ( t h e y c e l e b r a t e t h e a x e w h i c h c u t s off t h e h e a d s of I v a n ' s e n e m i e s ) . T h e s o n g first d e s c r i b e s a g r o u p of b o y a r s h a v i n g a r i c h m e a l : "Down the middle . . , the golden goblets peu,!. . . / m w ^A/îi^/ï? ^öwt^." T h e C h o r u s t h e n a s k s w i t h p l e a s u r a b l e n e r v o u s e x p e c t a t i o n : "Come along. Come along. What happens next! Come on, tell us more!" A n d t h e solo oprichnik, b e n d i n g f o r w a r d a n d w h i s t l i n g , s h o u t s t h e a n s w e r : "Strike with the axes!" W e a r e h e r e a t the o b s c e n e site w h e r e m u s i c a l e n j o y m e n t m e e t s p o l i t i c a l l i q u i d a t i o n . A n d , t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e fact t h a t t h e film w a s shot i n 1 9 4 4 , d o e s t h i s not c o n f i r m t h e c a r n i v a l e s q u e c h a r a c t e r of t h e S t a l i n i s t p u r g e s ? W e e n c o u n t e r a s i m i l a r n o c t u r n a l o r g y in t h e t h i r d p a r t of h>an, w h i c h w a s not shot — see t h e s c e n a r i o , w h e r e t h e s a c r i l e g i o u s o b s c e n i t y i s e x p l i c i t : Ivan a n d his oprichniks p e r f o r m t h e i r n i g h t l y d r i n k i n g feast a s a b l a c k m a s s , w i t h black monastic robes over their normal clothing. Therein resides the true g r e a t n e s s of E i s e n s t e i n : t h a t h e d e t e c t e d ( a n d d e p i c t e d ) t h e f u n d a m e n t a l shift in t h e s t a t u s of p o l i t i c a l v i o l e n c e , from the " L e n i n i s t " l i b e r a t i n g o u t b u r s t of d e s t r u c t i v e e n e r g y to t h e " S t a l i n i s t " o b s c e n e u n d e r s i d e of the Law. I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h e m a i n o p p o n e n t of I v a n in b o t h p a r t s of t h e film i s not a man, but a w o m a n : the old powerful E u p h r o s y n a S t a r i t s k a y a , Ivan's a u n t , w h o w a n t s to r e p l a c e I v a n w i t h h e r i m b e c l l i c son V l a d i m i r a n d t h u s effectively r e i g n herself. In c o n t r a s t to I v a n , w h o w a n t s total p o w e r , b u t p e r c e i v e s it a s a " h e a v y l o a d , " e x e r c i s i n g it a s a m e a n s to a n e n d ( t h e c r e a t i o n of a g r e a t a n d p o w e r f u l R u s s i a n s t a t e ) , E u p h r o s y n a i s t h e s u b j e c t of a m o r b i d p a s s i o n . F o r her, p o w e r i s a n e n d in itself. T h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d l i n e s from

H e g e l ' s Phenomenology of the Spirit on t h e n o t i o n of

w o m a n k i n d ' ' * ' fit p e r f e c t l y t h e figure of O r t r u d in W a g n e r ' s Lohengrin: for W a g n e r , there is nothing more horrible a n d d i s g u s t i n g than a w o m a n 254

STALINISM REVISITED

w h o i n t e r v e n e s in p o l i t i c a l life, d r i v e n b y t h e d e s i r e for p o w e r . In c o n t r a s t t o m a l e a m b i t i o n , a w o m a n w a n t s p o w e r in o r d e r to p r o m o t e h e r o w n n a r r o w f a m i l y i n t e r e s t s or, e v e n w o r s e , h e r p e r s o n a l c a p r i c e , i n c a p a b l e a s s h e i s of p e r c e i v i n g t h e u n i v e r s a l d i m e n s i o n of s t a t e p o l i t i c s . A n d , d o e s t h e s a m e not hold for Imn the Terribicl Is E u p h r o s y n a not the n e c e s s a r y counterpoint

of t h e p o i s o n e d

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d e d i c a t e d a n d s u b m i t t e d to h e r h u s b a n d ? I v a n ' s p a r a d i g m a t i c g e s t u r e is t h e f o l l o w i n g o n e : h e p u t s on a s h o w of h o r r o r a n d r e p e n t a n c e a t t h e b l o o d s h e d h e h a d to set in t r a i n , a n d t h e n , in a s u d d e n r e f l e x i v e g e s t u r e , h e fully e n d o r s e s h i s c r u e l t y , d e m a n d i n g e v e n m o r e . In a t y p i c a l m o m e n t in P a r t II, i n s p e c t i n g t h e b o d i e s of t h e b o y a r s k i l l e d b y h i s oprichnlkj, h e h u m b l y c r o s s e s himself. S u d d e n l y , h e stops a n d p o i n t s a t t h e g r o u n d , a g l e a m of m a d f u r y in h i s e y e s , s a y i n g hoarsely: "Too

f e w ! " T h i s j o l t i n g shift

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e l e m e n t a r y t r a i t in h i s a c t i n g : r e p e a t e d l y , w e see I v a n s t a r i n g a h e a d , w i t h a p a t h e t i c e x p r e s s i o n on h i s face, a s if p a s s i o n a t e l y e n g r o s s e d in a n o b l e m i s s i o n ; t h e n , a l l of a s u d d e n , h e l o o k s a r o u n d s u s p i c i o u s l y w i t h a n e x p r e s s i o n b o r d e r i n g on p a r a n o i d m a d n e s s . A v a r i a t i o n of t h i s shift is t h e

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p r e m a t u r e l y a n d all too e a g e r l y s t a r t to p e r f o r m t h e r i t e s for the d y i n g . They cover his h e a d with a gigantic sacred book; holding a

burning

h a n d l e on h i s b r e a s t , I v a n p a r t i c i p a t e s in t h e r i t u a l , m u r m u r i n g p r a y e r s ; all o f a s u d d e n , h o w e v e r , h e s t r u g g l e s to r a i s e h i s h e a d from u n d e r the B i b l e , g l a n c e s a r o u n d t h e r o o m a s if t r y i n g d e s p e r a t e l y to g e t a v i e w of t h e s i t u a t i o n , a n d t h e n , e x h a u s t e d , d r o p s b a c k on the p i l l o w b e n e a t h t h e book. T h i s b r i n g s u s to a s c e n e w h i c h w a s p l a n n e d a s w h a t E i s e n s t e i n c a l l e d t h e donnée ( t h e p i v o t a l d r a m a t i c a n d e m o t i o n a l p o i n t ) of t h e e n t i r e t r i l o g y : in t h e m i d d l e of P a r t III, after t h e s i e g e a n d d e s t r u c t i o n of N o v g o r o d , a city w h i c h rebelled against his rule, Ivan, torn b y inner doubts

and

q u a l m s , a s k s for a p r i e s t a n d w a n t s to c o n f e s s . T h e s h o t i s a l o n g c o n t i n u o u s c l o s e - u p of I v a n ' s h e a d c o v e r i n g h a l f of the s c r e e n ; t h e o t h e r h a l f i s filled

b y the

confessor's

cross hanging b y

him while

Ivan

e n u m e r a t e s to t h e p r i e s t t h e h o r r i b l e d e e d s h e w a s forced to c a r r y o u t for t h e m o t h e r l a n d . A l l of a s u d d e n , E u s t a c e , t h e confessor, g e t s a l l t o o m t e r e s t e d in t h e n a m e s of t h o s e k i l l e d ( a fact n i c e l y s i g n a l e d b y t h e t r e m b l i n g of h i s c r o s s ) , a n d e a g e r l y a s k s a b o u t w h e t h e r o t h e r n a m e s a r e also a m o n g the d e a d : " P h i l l i p ? A n d . . . T i m o t h y ? A n d M i c h a e l ? " A f t e r reassuring him ( " W e will catch h i m ! " ) , Ivan is s u d d e n l y taken a b a c k . H e 2S5

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

s e i z e s E u s t a c e ' s c r o s s a n d d r a g s it d o w n until h e i s face to face w i t h his confessor. T h e n , h i s h a n d s r e a c h u p t h e c h a i n to t h e c o n f e s s o r ' s t h r o a t , a n d h e s t a r t s to a c c u s e h i m m e n a c i n g l y : " C a n it b e t h a t y o u too b e l o n g to this a c c u r s e d l i n e ? " Finally, he e x p l o d e s : "Arrest h i m ! Interrogate him! M a k e him talk!"''^ In a f u r t h e r c l i m a c t i c m o m e n t of P a r t III, I v a n i n v o l v e s G o d h i m s e l f in t h i s d i a l e c t i c . W h i l e , in t h e c h u r c h , a m o n k s l o w l y r e a d s t h e n a m e s of all t h o s e k i l l e d in N o v g o r o d , I v a n l i e s p r o s t r a t e in t h e d u s t b e n e a t h t h e l a r g e p a i n t i n g of t h e L a s t J u d g m e n t , on w h i c h s p a r k s s h o o t o u t of t h e e y e s of t h e c e l e s t i a l j u d g e a n d h i s g r i m face i s full of r a g e . I v a n r e f l e c t s on his b l o o d t h i r s t y a c t i o n s , t r y i n g to e x c u s e t h e m : "It's not w i c k e d n e s s . Not a n g e r . N o t c r u e l t y . It is to p u n i s h t r e a s o n . T r e a s o n a g a i n s t t h e c o m m o n c a u s e . " T h e n , in a n g u i s h , h e d i r e c t l y a d d r e s s e s G o d :

" Y o u s a y nothing. Celestial T s a r ? " He waits. There is no reply. Angrily, ad though hurling a challenge, the earthly Tsar repeats menacingly to the Celestinl Tsar: "You say nothing. Celestial T s a r ? " The earthly Tsar, with a sudden, violentgeoture, hurls his hejeweled scepter at the Celestial Tsar. The scepter snuisheo agaiiwt the flat wall.

In w h a t , e x a c t l y , r e s i d e s t h e l i b i d i n a l e c o n o m y of t h i s s t r a n g e t w i s t ? It i s not t h a t I v a n i s s i m p l y torn b y a n i n n e r conflict b e t w e e n h i s p e r s o n a l e t h i c a l q u a l m s a n d t h e d u t } ' of t h e r u l e r w h o h a s to p e r f o r m c r u e l a c t s for t h e s a k e of h i s c o u n t r y ; it i s a l s o not t h a t Ivan i s s i m p l y bluffing, j u s t h y p o c r i t i c a l l y f e i g n i n g m o r a l t o r m e n t . W h i l e h i s w i l l to r e p e n t i s absolutely sincere, h e d o e s not s u b j e c t i v e l y i d e n t i f y w i t h it. t f e i s l o d g e d w i t h i n the s u b j e c t i v e split i n t r o d u c e d b y t h e s y m b o l i c o r d e r : h e w a n t s t h e r i t u a l ol confession p e r f o r m e d a s a p r o p e r e x t e r n a l i z e d r i t u a l , a n d h e p l a y s the g a m e of c o n f e s s i o n in a t o t a l l y s i n c e r e w a y , w h i l e , a t t h e s a m e t i m e , r e t a i n i n g the p o s i t i o n of a s u s p i c i o u s e x t e r n a l o b s e r v e r of t h e

entire

s p e c t a c l e , c o n s t a n t l y v i g i l a n t , w a t c h i n g for a s u d d e n s t a b m t h e b a c k . All h e w a n t s i s t h a t t h e a g e n t w h o m h e i s a d d r e s s i n g , a n d from w h o m

he

e x p e c t s f o r g i v e n e s s , w i l l d o h i s j o b p r o p e r l y , a n d n o t m e d d l e in p o l i t i c s . In short, I v a n ' s p a r a n o i a is t h a t h e c a n n o t t r u s t t h e a g e n t to w h o m h e is r e a d y to c o n f e s s h i s s i n s — h e s u s p e c t s t h a t t h i s a g e n t ( u l t i m a t e l y , God himself) also harbors

a hidden

p o l i t i c a l a g e n d a of h i s o w n

running

c o u n t e r to I v a n ' s . T h i s i s w h y S t a l i n w a s h e r e too q u i c k w h e n , in t h e famous nighttime conversation w i t h Eisenstein, he r e d u c e d Ivan's re256

STALINISM REVISITED

lig-iosity to a m o r a l finishing

obstacle w h i c h prevented

Ivan

from

ruthlessly

off t h e j o b of d e s t r o y i n g h i s e n e m i e s :

I v a n t h e T e r r i b l e w a s e x t r e m e l y c r u e l . It i s p o s s i b l e to s h o w w h y h e h a d to b e c r u e l . O n e of t h e m i s t a k e s of I v a n t h e T e r r i b l e w a s t h a t h e d i d n o t c o m p l e t e l y finish off t h e five b i g feudal f a m i l i e s . If h e h a d d e s t r o y e d t h e s e five f a m i l i e s t h e n t h e r e w o u l d not h a v e b e e n t h e T i m e of T r o u b l e s . If I v a n the T e r r i b l e e x e c u t e d s o m e o n e t h e n h e r e p e n t e d a n d p r a y e d for a l o n g t i m e . God d i s t u r b e d h i m on t h e s e m a t t e r s . [. . . ] It w a s n e c e s s a r y to b e d e c i s i v e .

W h a t S t a l i n , in s p i t e of h i s g e n i u s , f a i l e d to g r a s p i s h o w t h e s p e c t a c l e of r e p e n t a n c e w a s not a n o b s t a c l e to t h e r u t h l e s s k i l l i n g of h i s e n e m i e s , b u t r a t h e r h e l p e d c o n s t i t u t e t h e s e l f - p r o p e l l i n g s p i r a l of t h e e n d l e s s o s c i l l a ­ tion b e t w e e n m u r d e r a n d r e p e n t a n c e . T h i s s p i r a l w o u l d h a v e r e a c h e d i t s u n b e a r a b l e c l i m a x in P a r t III of Imn the Terrible. In t h e s c r i p t for t h e film, t h e r e i s a s c e n e in t h e g r e a t h a l l of t h e c o u r t i n w h i c h I v a n a c c o m p l i s h e s a p r o t o - S t a l i n i s t p u r g e a m o n g h i s o w n oprichniké. A d d r e s s i n g t h e g a t h e r e d oprichnikd, h e o m i n o u s l y c l a i m s t h a t " t h e r e a r e s o m e a m o n g s t u s w h o h a v e t r a d e d t h e c a u s e of the oprichnikj for g o l d , " w i t h o u t n a m i n g a n y o n e ; h e g o e s on: " T h e r e is a m o n g s t y o u o n e w h o i s b o t h v e n e r a b l e a n d

who

e n j o y s t h e h i g h e s t c o n f i d e n c e [. . . ] A n d t h i s w r e t c h h a s b e t r a y e d m y c o n f i d e n c e . " A l l e y e s , f o l l o w i n g I v a n ' s g a z e , a r e fixed on I v a n ' s faithful Alexei Basmanov,

including the

e y e s of A l e x e i ' s g r i e f - s t r i c k e n

son

F y o d o r . T h e n , I v a n a s k s : " W h o i s w o r t h y e n o u g h to c u t off so w i s e a h e a d ? " H i s e y e s r e s t on F y o d o r w h o s e h e a d i s l o w e r e d . F y o d o r feels I v a n ' s g a z e on h i m ; h e r a i s e s h i s h e a d to l o o k I v a n r i g h t in t h e e y e s . W i t h a s c a r c e l y perceptible movement, Ivan nods his head; F y o d o r l e a v e s the t a b l e , g o e s u p to h i s f a t h e r a n d l e a d s h i m off. In a d a r k p l a c e o u t s i d e , A l e x e i c o n f e s s e s h i s g u i l t to h i s son, b u t t e l l s h i m t h a t h e h a s p i l e d u p m o u n t a i n s of g o l d for h i s son a n d f a m i l y , so t h a t o u r l i n e c o n t i n u e s " ; h e t h e n I m p l o r e s h i s s o n to p r o m i s e h i m that, after k i l l i n g h i m , h e w i l l k e e p all t h e g o l d for t h e i r d e s c e n d a n t s ; F y o d o r s w e a r s t h e o a t h , f a t h e r a n d son k i s s , a n d the son t h e n s w i f t l y d e c a p i t a t e s h i s father. T h e s c e n e t h e n r e t u r n s to t h e g r e a t h a l l , w h e r e I v a n , in a s t a t e of m o u n t i n g t e n s i o n a n d full of t o r m e n t , l o o k s a t the d o o r . A t l a s t t h e d o o r o p e n s a n d F y o d o r r e a p p e a r s ; h i s h e a d i s b o w e d , h i s h a i r s t i c k i n g to h i s forehead. H e raises his head; Ivan looks him straight in the e y e .

257

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

B u t a l r e a d y t h e g a z e of F y o d o r i s i m p u r e ; it c a n n o t w i t h s t a n d t h a t of I v a n . I v a n ' s l i p s t w i t c h a s h e s p e a k s h o l l o w l y : " Y o u s h o w e d n o p i t y to y o u r father, F y o d o r . W h y s h o u l d y o u p i t y o r d e f e n d m e ' / " F y o d o r g r a s p s t h a t t h e T s a r h a s d i v i n e d t h e s e c r e t t a l k b e t w e e n h i m a n d his father.

I v a n u t t e r s t h e o r d e r : " A r r e s t h i m ! " L i k e a m a d m a n , F y o d o r t r i e s to t h r o w h i m s e l f on I v a n , b u t is s t a b b e d b y S t a d e n ' s ( a G e r m a n oprlchnik's) d a g g e r . " A s i n g l e t e a r r o l l s d o w n the g r e y b e a r d of T s a r I v a n . It r e m a i n s s u s p e n d e d on t h e p o i n t of h i s b e a r d l i k e a r a i n d r o p on a funeral w r e a t h . I V A N : ' H a v e p i t y on m e , O L o r d , h a v e p i t y . . .' " W i t h t h e l a s t a t o m of his s t r e n g t h , t h e d y i n g F y o d o r w a r n s I v a n : " D o not t r u s t the G e r m a n , O T s a r ! . . . " I v a n r a i s e s h i s h e a v y e y e l i d s ; h i s g a z e s t o p s on S t a d e n : " H o w p r o m p t l y t h e f o r e i g n g u e s t c o m e s to t h e d e f e n s e of the T s a r a g a i n s t h i s o w n oprichnikA" T h e faithful M a l y u t a q u i c k l y g r a b s S t a d e n ' s s h o u l d e r w i t h his h e a v y h a n d . . .

E v e n h e r e , t h e c h a i n of b e t r a y a l a n d s u s p i c i o n

g o e s on: from A l e x e i to F y o d o r , from F y o d o r to S t a d e n . . . In b o t h c a s e s , I v a n ' s s u s p i c i o n falls on t h e v e r y p e r s o n w h o h a s j u s t p e r f o r m e d a m u r d e r to d e f e n d the t s a r . W h o m c a n I v a n trust, if e v e n t h e c o u p l e of faithful s e r v a n t s , A l e x e i B a s m a n o v a n d h i s son F y o d o r , e n d u p b e t r a y i n g h i m ( s t e a l i n g a n d a m a s s i n g t r e a s u r e s for t h e w e a l t h a n d g l o r y of t h e i r f a m i l y ) ? M a l y u t a S k u r a t o v , h i s m o s t t r u s t e d a n d d o g g l s h l y d e v o t e d e x e c u t i o n e r , first m e t him

w h e n h e l e d t h e m o b w h i c h b r o k e into t h e c h u r c h w h e r e I v a n ' s

c o r o n a t i o n w a s in p r o g r e s s , w i t h m u r d e r on h i s m i n d . A t t h e e n d of P a r t III, t h e d y i n g M a l y u t a a s it w e r e n o m i n a t e s h i s s u c c e s s o r (the p e r s o n w h o m I v a n c a n a b s o l u t e l y t r u s t ) : P e t e r V o l y n e t s , t h e y o u n g m a n w h o , at t h e e n d of P a r t II, h a d s t a b b e d V l a d i m i r to d e a t h , b e l i e v i n g t h a t h e w a s k i l l i n g I v a n —it i s a s t h r o u g h I v a n c a n t r u l y t r u s t o n l y f o r m e r t r a i t o r s .

The ininlnuii difference O n e c a n i m a g i n e a S t a l i n i s t t r a g e d y p r o p e r w h i c h w o u l d o c c u r w h e n the a c c u s e d in a s h o w t r i a l ( a n e x - m e m b e r of nomenklatura) i s c o m p e l l e d to a d m i t t h a t t h e u n j u s t p u n i s h m e n t t h a t befell h i m is t h e o u t c o m e of h i s o w n p r e v i o u s p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y , a n d i s , in t h i s s e n s e , a s i g n of a n i r o n i c j u s t i c e , t h a t i s , that, in t h i s s e n s e , h e e f f e c t i v e l y ii " o b j e c t i v e l y g u i l t y . " B u t can one i m a g i n e Stalin himself u n d e r g o i n g a similar experience, recog­ n i z i n g in t h e m a d n e s s of c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t i o n a r y p l o t s p o p p i n g u p all 258

STALINISM REVISITED

a x o u n d h i m t h e r e s u l t of h i s o w n m a d n e s s ? F o r s t r u c t u r a l r e a s o n s , n o . W l i a t o n e c a n i m a g i n e is a s u c c e s s f u l coup d'état s t a g e d b y t h e fUjmenklatura

upper

a g a i n s t S t a l i n ( s a y in t h e l a s t y e a r s of h i s life, w h e n t h e y

w e r e all a g a i n t h r e a t e n e d b y S t a l i n ' s a n t i - S e m i t i c p a r a n o i a ) ; b u t it w o u l d h a v e b e e n i m p o s s i b l e to o r g a n i z e a s h o w t r i a l a g a i n s t S t a l i n himself, c o m p e l l i n g h i m to c o n f e s s t h a t h e h a d h e a d e d a c o n s p i r a c y a g a i n s t t r u e s o c i a l i s m . T h e m o s t t h e y c o u l d h a v e d o n e w a s to k i l l h i m d i s c r e e t l y , w h i l e e l e v a t i n g h i m s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i n t o a n u n t o u c h a b l e d e a d M a s t e r . In a w a y , t h i s did h a p p e n i n t h e l a t e 1 9 3 0 s . O n e s h o u l d a l w a y s b e a r in m i n d t h a t t h e n o t i o n of t h e i n f a l l i b i l i t y of t h e p o p e w a s f o r g e d i n t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y not t o i n c r e a s e h i s p o w e r b u t to c u r b it: a p o p e c a n n o t n u l l i f y t h e d e c i s i o n s of h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s , s i n c e t h e y a r e , b y definition, i n f a l l i b l e . A n d a s i m i l a r p a r a d o x h o l d s for S t a l i n : h i s d e i f i c a t i o n , e l e v a t i o n i n t o

the

u n t o u c h a b l e s u p r e m e I^eader, c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e l i m i t a t i o n of h i s " r e a l " p o w e r . A t t h e c l i m a x of t h e g r e a t p u r g e s , w h e n t h e s p i r a l of c a r n i v a l e s q u e s e l f - d e s t r u c t i o n t h r e a t e n e d to s w a l l o w t h e u p p e r nomenklatura

itself, t h e

P o l i t b u r o s t o o d u p to S t a l i n , f o r c i n g h i m to s h a r e h i s a u t h o r i t y w i t h t h e m . T h e s t a n d a r d c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of S t a l i n i s t r e g i m e s a s

"bureaucratic

s o c i a l i s m " i s t o t a l l y m i s l e a d i n g a n d ( s e l f - ) m y s t i f y i n g : it i s t h e w a y t h e S t a l i n i s t r e g i m e i t s e l f p e r c e i v e d its p r o b l e m , t h e c a u s e of its f a i l u r e s a n d t r o u b l e s — i f t h e r e w e r e not e n o u g h p r o d u c t s i n t h e s t o r e s , if t h e a u t h o ­ rities f a i l e d to r e s p o n d to p e o p l e ' s d e m a n d s , a n d so on a n d so forth, w h a t w a s e a s i e r t h a n t o b l a m e t h e " b u r e a u c r a t i c " a t t i t u d e of i n d i f f e r e n c e , p e t t y a r r o g a n c e , e t c . ? N o w o n d e r t h a t , from t h e l a t e 1 9 2 0 s o n w a r d s , S t a l i n w a s w r i t i n g a t t a c k s on b u r e a u c r a c y , on b u r e a u c r a t i c a t t i t u d e s . " B u r e a u c r a t ­ i s m " w a s n o t h i n g b u t a n effect of t h e f u n c t i o n i n g of S t a l i n i s t r e g i m e s , a n d the p a r a d o x i s t h a t it i s t h e u l t i m a t e m i s n o m e r : w h a t S t a l i n i s t r e g i m e s r e a l l y l a c k e d w a s p r e c i s e l y a n efficient " b u r e a u c r a c y " ( a d e p o l i t i c i z e d and competent administrative apparatus). of t h o s e w h o i n s i s t t h a t C o m m u n i s m ,

not

f a s c i s m , w a s t h e t r u e e t h i c o - p o l i t i c a l c a t a s t r o p h e of t h e t w e n t i e t h

One

of t h e a r g u m e n t s

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t u r y , r e s t s on t h e fact t h a t in a l l of N a z i G e r m a n y t h e r e w e r e o n l y 2 5 , 0 0 0 G e s t a p o s e c r e t p o l i c e m e n to c o n t r o l t h e p o p u l a t i o n , w h i l e the t i n y G D R alone employed

1 0 0 , 0 0 0 s e c r e t p o l i c e m e n to control its m u c h s m a l l e r

population —clear proof

of t h e m u c h

m o r e o p p r e s s i v e n a t u r e of

the

C o m m u n i s t r e g i m e . H o w e v e r , w h a t if o n e r e a d s this fact i n a different w a y ? F e w e r Gestapo a g e n t s w e r e n e e d e d b e c a u s e the G e r m a n

popula­

tion w a s m u c h m o r e m o r a l l y c o r r u p t e d in s u p p o r t i n g t h e N a z i s ( a n d t h u s c o l l a b o r a t e d w i t h t h e r e g i m e ) t h a n the G D R p o p u l a t i o n — w h y ? W h y d i d 259

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

t h e G D R p o p u l a t i o n r e s i s t m u c h m o r e ? T h e a n s w e r i s a p a r a d o x i c a l one; it i s not t h a t t h e p e o p l e s i m p l y r e t a i n e d t h e i r e t h i c a l i n d e p e n d e n c e , so that the

r e g i m e w a s a l i e n a t e d from

the

"substantial

e t h i c a l l i f e " of

the

m a j o r i t y ; q u i t e t h e c o n t r a r y , r e s i s t a n c e w a s a n i n d i c a t i o n of t h e s u c c e s s of t h e r u l i n g i d e o l o g y . In t h e i r v e r y r e s i s t a n c e to t h e C o m m u n i s t r e g i m e , t h e p e o p l e r e l i e d on t h e official i d e o l o g y itself w h i c h often

blatantly

contradicted reality: actual freedom, social solidarity, true d e m o c r a c y . . O n e s h o u l d n e v e r f o r g e t the e x t e n t to w h i c h t h e d i s s i d e n t r e s i s t a n c e w a s i n d e b t e d to t h e official i d e o l o g y . F o r t h i s p r e c i s e r e a s o n , o n e c a n c l a i m t h a t t o d a y ' s N o r t h K o r e a is no l o n g e r a C o m m u n i s t c o u n t r y , not e v e n in t h e S t a l i n i s t s e n s e : it c u t t h e l i n k s w i t h t h e l e g a c y of t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t , w h o s e n o t i o n of u n i v e r s a l i t y c o m p e l s a r e g i m e to e x p o s e all its c i t i z e n s to official p r o p a g a n d a . S h i n D o n g Hyok, w h o escaped a "total-control

z o n e " in N o r t h K o r e a a n d

r e a c h e d S o u t h K o r e a v i a C h i n a , r e p o r t s t h a t t h e p r i s o n e r s s e n t to s u c h z o n e s c a n n e v e r c o m e out: t h e y a r e p u t to w o r k in m i n e s o r l o g g i n g c a m p s u n t i l t h e y d i e . T h e a u t h o r i t i e s d o n o t e v e n b o t h e r to g i v e t h e m i d e o l o g i c a l e d u c a t i o n : t h e c h i l d r e n w h o a r e b o r n to p a r e n t s in t h e s e z o n e s

(and

d e s t i n e d to s p e n d t h e i r e n t i r e l i v e s i n t h e m ) a r e o n l y t a u g h t t h e e l e m e n ­ t a r y s k i l l s n e c e s s a r y for m i n i n g a n d f a r m i n g . T h e r e w e r e u p to

1,000

c h i l d r e n b u t no t e x t b o o k s in t h e s c h o o l at V a l l e y N o . 2, the p a r t of the c a m p w h e r e S h i n l i v e d . In a l l of N o r t h K o r e a , v i l l a g e s a r e d e c o r a t e d w i t h C o m m u n i s t s l o g a n s a n d p o r t r a i t s of K i m J o n g II. V a l l e y N o . 2 h a d o n l y one slogan c a r v e d into a w o o d e n plaque: "Everyone o b e y the regula­ tions!"

W h a t w e h a v e h e r e i s t h u s t h e d i s c i p l i n a r y m e c h a n i s m at its

p u r e s t , d e p r i v e d of a n y i d e o l o g i c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n . A l l N o r t h K o r e a n s a r e e x p e c t e d to l o o k u p to t h e i r b e l o v e d l e a d e r ( w h e n b l i n d p a t i e n t s w e r e a s k e d b y W e s t e r n j o u r n a l i s t s w h y t h e y w a n t e d to s e e , t h e y a l l c l a i m e d t h a t it w a s in o r d e r to c a t c h t h e s i g h t of K i m Y o n g II, to w h o m t h e y o w e d e v e r y t h i n g ) — a l l e x c e p t t h o s e p r i s o n e r s w h o a r e t h u s l i t e r a l l y r e d u c e d to s u b h u m a n s t a t u s , e x c l u d e d from t h e social c o m m u n i t y . It is w o r t h r e t u r n i n g h e r e to E r n s t N o l t e ' s b o o k on H e i d e g g e r b e c a u s e it s e r i o u s l y a p p r o a c h e s the t a s k of g r a s p i n g N a z i s m a s a f e a s i b l e p o l i t i c a l project, of t r y i n g to r e c r e a t e " t h e s t o r y t h e N a z i s w e r e t e l l i n g t h e m s e l v e s a b o u t t h e m s e l v e s , " w h i c h i s a jine qua non of its effective c r i t i c i s m ; the s a m e h a s to b e d o n e for S t a l i n i s m .

Nolte also formulated the basic terms

a n d t o p i c s of t h e " r e v i s i o n i s t " d e b a t e w h o s e first t e n e t i s to " o b j e c t i v e l y compare"

fascism

and

Communism:

fascism and

even

Nazism

was

u l t i m a t e l y a r e a c t i o n to t h e C o m m u n i s t t h r e a t a n d a r e p e t i t i o n of its 260

STALINISM REVISITED

vvorst p r a c t i c e s

(concentration

c a m p s , m a s s l i q u i d a t i o n s of p o l i t i c a l

enemies): C o u l d it b e t h e c a s e t h a t t h e N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s t s a n d H i t l e r c a r r i e d o u t an "Asiatic" deed

[the

Holocaust] only because they

considered

t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e i r k i n d to b e p o t e n t i a l o r a c t u a l v i c t i m s of a [Bolshevik] " A s i a t i c " deed. Didn't the "Gulag A r c h i p e l a g o " precede Auschwitz? R e p r e h e n s i b l e a s it w a s , N a z i s m w a s t h u s t e m p o r a l l y w h a t a p p e a r e d after C o m m u n i s m ; it w a s a l s o , w i t h r e g a r d to its c o n t e n t , a n e x c e s s i v e reaction to t h e C o m m u n i s t t h r e a t . F u r t h e r m o r e ,

all the horrors committed

by

N a z i s m m e r e l y copied the horrors a l r e a d y committed b y Soviet Com­ m u n i s m : t h e r e i g n of t h e s e c r e t p o l i c e , c o n c e n t r a t i o n c a m p s , g e n o c i d a l terror . . . Nolte's conclusion is thus that C o m m u n i s m a n d N a z i s m share t h e s a m e t o t a l i t a r i a n form, a n d t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e c o n c e r n s o n l y t h e e m p i r i c a l a g e n t s w h i c h fill t h e s a m e s t r u c t u r a l p l a c e s ( " J e w s " i n s t e a d of " c l a s s e n e m y , " a n d so on a n d so f o r t h ) . T h e s t a n d a r d l i b e r a l - l e f t i s t r e a c t i o n to N o l t e Nazism, how

c o n s i s t e d in a m o r a l i s t i c o u t c r y : N o l t e r e l a t i v i z e s

r e d u c i n g it to a s e c o n d a r y e c h o

can one even compare

Communism,

of C o m m u n i s t this t h w a r t e d

Evil—but attempt

at

l i b e r a t i o n , w i t h t h e r a d i c a l Evil of N a z i s m ? In c o n t r a s t to t h i s d i s m i s s a l , o n e s h o u l d f u l l y c o n c e d e N o l t e ' s c e n t r a l point: y e s , N a z i s m w a s in fact a r e a c t i o n to t h e C o m m u n i s t t h r e a t ; it d i d i n d e e d j u s t r e p l a c e c l a s s s t r u g g l e with the struggle between A r y a n s and J e w s — t h e problem,

however,

r e s i d e s in t h i s " j u s t , " w h i c h i s b y no m e a n s a s i n n o c e n t a s it a p p e a r s . W e a r e d e a l i n g h e r e w i t h d i s p l a c e m e n t {Verschiebung) in t h e F r e u d i a n s e n s e of the term: N a z i s m displaces class struggle onto racial struggle a n d t h e r e b y o b f u s c a t e s its t r u e s i t e . W h a t c h a n g e s in t h e p a s s a g e from C o m m u n i s m to N a z i s m is t h e form, a n d it is in t h i s c h a n g e of t h e form t h a t t h e N a z i ideological mystification resides: the political s t r u g g l e is n a t u r a l i z e d into t h e r a c i a l conflict, t h e ( c l a s s ) a n t a g o n i s m i n h e r e n t in t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e IS r e d u c e d to t h e i n v a s i o n of a f o r e i g n ( J e w i s h ) b o d y w h i c h d i s t u r b s t h e h a r m o n y of t h e A r y a n c o m m u n i t y . T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n f a s c i s m a n d C o m m u n i s m i s t h u s " f o r m a l - o n t o l o g i c a l ": it i s n o t ( a s N o l t e c l a i m s ) t h a t w e h a v e in b o t h c a s e s t h e s a m e formal a n t a g o n i s t i c s t r u c t u r e , w h e r e o n l y t h e p l a c e of t h e E n e m y i s filled in w i t h a different p o s i t i v e e l e m e n t ( c l a s s , r a c e ) . In t h e c a s e of r a c e , w e a r e d e a l i n g w i t h a p o s i t i v e n a t u r a l i z e d e l e m e n t ( t h e p r e s u p p o s e d o r g a n i c u n i t y of s o c i e t y is p e r t u r b e d b y t h e 261

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

i n t r u s i o n of t h e foreign b o d y ) , w h i l e c l a s s a n t a g o n i s m i s a b s o l u t e l y i n h e r e n t in a n d c o n s t i t u t i v e of t h e s o c i a l field — f a s c i s m t h u s o b f u s c a t e s a n t a g o n i s m , t r a n s l a t i n g it i n t o a conflict of p o s i t i v e o p p o s e d t e r m s / ^ It is h e r e t h a t o n e h a s to m a k e t h e c h o i c e : t h e " p u r e " l i b e r a l s t a n c e of e q u i d i s t a n c e t o w a r d s leftist a n d

rightist

" t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m " ( t h e y a r e both

b a d , b a s e d on t h e i n t o l e r a n c e of p o l i t i c a l a n d o t h e r d i f f e r e n c e s ,

the

r e j e c t i o n of d e m o c r a t i c a n d h u m a n i s t v a l u e s , a n d so o n ) i s a priori false, o n e hiu to t a k e s i d e s a n d p r o c l a i m o n e f u n d a m e n t a l l y " w o r s e " t h a n the o t h e r — f o r t h i s r e a s o n , t h e o n g o i n g " r e l a t i v i z a t i o n " of f a s c i s m , t h e notion t h a t o n e s h o u l d r a t i o n a l l y c o m p a r e t h e t w o t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m s , etc., always i n v o l v e s t h e — e x p l i c i t or i m p l i c i t — t h e s i s t h a t f a s c i s m w a s " b e t t e r " than C o m m u n i s m , a n u n d e r s t a n d a b l e r e a c t i o n to t h e C o m m u n i s t t h r e a t . ^ In a l e t t e r (to w h i c h I h a v e a l r e a d y r e f e r r e d in C h a p t e r 3 ) to H e r b e r t M a r c u s e on J a n u a r y 2 0 , 1 9 4 8 , H e i d e g g e r w r o t e : To the serious legitimate c h a r g e s that y o u e x p r e s s "about a r e g i m e that m u r d e r e d m i l l i o n s ot J e w s . . . " I c a n m e r e l y a d d t h a t if i n s t e a d of " J e w s " y o u h a d w r i t t e n " E a s t G e r m a n s , " t h e n t h e s a m e h o l d s t r u e for o n e of t h e a l l i e s , w i t h t h e d i f f e r e n c e t h a t e v e r y t h i n g t h a t h a s o c c u r r e d s i n c e 1 9 4 5 h a s b e c o m e p u b l i c k n o w l e d g e , w h i l e t h e b l o o d y t e r r o r of t h e N a z i s in p o i n t of fact h a d b e e n k e p t a s e c r e t from t h e

German

people.

M a r c u s e w a s fully j u s t i f i e d in r e p l j à n g t h a t t h e t h i n d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n b r u t a l l y e x p a t r i a t i n g p e o p l e a n d b u r n i n g t h e m in a c o n c e n t r a t i o n

camp

is t h e l i n e that, a t t h a t m o m e n t , s e p a r a t e d c i v i l i z a t i o n from b a r b a r i s m . O n e s h o u l d not s h r i n k from g o i n g a s t e p f u r t h e r : t h e t h i n

difference

b e t w e e n t h e S t a l i n i s t g u l a g a n d t h e N a z i a n n i h i l a t i o n c a m p w a s a l s o , at that historical moment, the difference b e t w e e n civilization and barbar­ ism. L e t u s t a k e S t a l i n i s m a t its m o s t b r u t a l : t h e d e k u l a k i z a t i o n of t h e e a r l y 1930s. Stalin's slogan w a s that " k u l a k s as a class should be liquidated" — w h a t d o e s t h i s m e a n ? It c a n m e a n m a n y t h i n g s — from t a k i n g a w a y t h e i r p r o p e r t y ( l a n d ) , to f o r c i b l y r e m o v i n g t h e m to o t h e r a r e a s ( s a y , from U k r a i n e to S i b e r i a ) , o r s i m p l y i n t o a g u l a g — b u t it d i d not m e a n s i m p l y to k i l l t h e m a l l . T h e g o a l w a s to l i q u i d a t e t h e m as a cliuis, not a s i n d i v i d u a l s . E v e n w h e n t h e r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n w a s d e l i b e r a t e l y s t a r v e d ( m i l l i o n s of d e a d in U k r a i n e , a g a i n ) , t h e g o a l w a s not to kill t h e m a l l , b u t to b r e a k t h e i r b a c k b o n e , to b r u t a l l y c r u s h t h e i r r e s i s t a n c e , to s h o w t h e m w h o w a s 262

STALINISM REVISITED

the master. The diiterence — minimal, but crucial — persists here w i t h regard

to t h e N a z i d e - J u d a i z a t i o n , w h e r e t h e u l t i m a t e g o a l e f f e c t i v e l y

w a s to a n n i h i l a t e t h e m a s i n d i v i d u a l s , to m a k e t h e m d i s a p p e a r a s a r a c e . In t h i s s e n s e , then, E r n s t N o l t e is r i g h t : N a z i s m WM a r e p e t i t i o n , a c o p y of B o l s h e v i s m — i n N i e t z s c h e ' s t e r m s , it w a s a p r o f o u n d l y re-active p h e ­ nomenon.

263

W h y Populism Is (Sometimes) Good Enough in Practice, but Not Good Enough in Theory

G e r a l d F i t z g e r a l d , t h e Irish e x - P r i m e M i n i s t e r , o n c e f o r m u l a t e d a p r o p e r H e g e l i a n r e v e r s a l of t h e c o m m o n p l a c e w i s d o m " T h i s m a y b e g o o d for t h e o r y , b u t it i s not g o o d e n o u g h for p r a c t i c e " : " T h i s m a y b e g o o d in practice, but

it i s not

good

enough

in t h e o r y . "

This reversal

best

e n c a p s u l a t e s t h e a m b i g u o u s p o s i t i o n of p o p u l i s t p o l i t i c s : w h i l e it c a n s o m e t i m e s b e e n d o r s e d a s p a r t of a s h o r t - t e r m p r a g m a t i c c o m p r o m i s e , o n e s h o u l d c r i t i c a l l y r e j e c t t h e n o t i o n in its f u n d a m e n t a l The

dimension.

p o s i t i v e d i m e n s i o n of p o p u l i s m i s its p o t e n t i a l s u s p e n s i o n

of

d e m o c r a t i c r u l e s . D e m o c r a c y — i n t h e w a y t h i s t e r m is u s e d t o d a y — c o n c e r n s , a b o v e a l l , f o r m a l l e g a l i s m : its m i n i m a l d e f i n i t i o n is u n c o n d i t i o n a l a d h e r e n c e to a c e r t a i n set of f o r m a l r u l e s w h i c h g u a r a n t e e t h a t a n t a g o n i s m s a r e fiuty a b s o r b e d i n t o t h e a g o n i s t i c g a m e . " D e m o c r a c y " m e a n s that, w h a t e v e r e l e c t o r a l m a n i p u l a t i o n t o o k p l a c e , e v e r y p o l i t i c a l a g e n t w i l l u n c o n d i t i o n a l l y r e s p e c t t h e r e s u l t s . In t h i s s e n s e , t h e

US

p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n s of 2 0 0 0 w e r e e f f e c t i v e l y " d e m o c r a t i c " : in s p i t e of o b v i o u s e l e c t o r a l m a n i p u l a t i o n , a n d of t h e p a t e n t m e a n l n g l e s s n e s s of the fact t h a t a c o u p l e of h u n d r e d F l o r i d a v o i c e s d e c i d e d w h o w o u l d b e the p r e s i d e n t , t h e D e m o c r a t i c c a n d i d a t e a c c e p t e d h i s d e f e a t . In t h e w e e k s of u n c e r t a i n t y after the elections. Bill Clinton m a d e an a p p r o p r i a t e acerbic comment: "The American people have spoken; w e just don't k n o w w h a t t h e y s a i d . " T h i s c o m m e n t s h o u l d b e t a k e n m o r e s e r i o u s l y t h a n it w a s m e a n t : e v e n n o w , w e d o not k n o w it — a n d , m a y b e , b e c a u s e t h e r e w a s no s u b s t a n t i a l " m e s s a g e " b e h i n d the r e s u l t at a l l . . . J a c q u e s - A l a i n M i l l e r h a s s h o w n h o w d e m o c r a c y i m p l i e s t h e " b a r r e d " b i g O t h e r ; h o w e v e r , the F l o r i d a e x a m p l e d e m o n s t r a t e s that, n o n e t h e l e s s , t h e r e is a " b i g O t h e r " w h i c h c o n t i n u e s t o e x i s t in d e m o c r a c y : t h e p r o c e d u r a l

"big O t h e r " of

e l e c t o r a l r u l e s w h i c h s h o u l d b e o b e y e d w h a t e v e r t h e r e s u l t — a n d it is thù " b i g O t h e r , " t h i s u n c o n d i t i o n a l r e l i a n c e on r u l e s t h a t p o p u l i s m ( t h r e a t e n s t o ) s u s p e n d . W h i c h is w h y t h e r e is in p o p u l i s m a l w a y s s o m e t h i n g v i o l e n t . 264

W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H I N P R A C T I C E

t h r e a t e n i n g , for t h e h b e r a l v i e w : a n o p e n o r l a t e n t p r e s s u r e , a w a r n i n g that, if e l e c t i o n s a r e m a n i p u l a t e d , the " w i l l of t h e p e o p l e " w i l l h a v e to find a n o t h e r w a y to i m p o s e itself; e v e n if e l e c t o r a l l e g i t i m i z a t i o n of p o w e r i s r e s p e c t e d , it is m a d e c l e a r t h a t e l e c t i o n s p l a y a s e c o n d a r y r o l e , t h a t t h e y s e r v e o n l y to c o n f i r m a p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s w h o s e s u b s t a n t i a l w e i g h t l i e s e l s e w h e r e . T h i s is w h y t h e r e g i m e of H u g o C h a v e z in V e n e z u e l a i s g e n u i n e l y p o p u l i s t : a l t h o u g h it w a s l e g i t i m i z e d b y e l e c t i o n s , it i s c l e a r t h a t its e x e r c i s e of p o w e r r e l i e s on a different d y n a m i c ( d i r e c t o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e p o o r in f a v e l a s a n d o t h e r m o d e s of l o c a l s e l f - o r g a n i z a t i o n ) . T h i s i s w h a t g i v e s t h e " t h r i l l " to p o p u l i s t r e g i m e s : t h e d e m o c r a t i c r u l e s a r e n e v e r f u l l y e n d o r s e d , t h e r e is a l w a y s a n u n c e r t a i n t y t h a t p e r t a i n s to t h e m , a p o s s i b i l i t y a l w a y s l o o m s t h a t t h e y w i l l b e r e d e f i n e d , " u n f a i r l y c h a n g e d in t h e m i d d l e of t h e g a m e . " T h i s a s p e c t of p o p u l i s m e n d o r s e d —the p r o b l e m

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IN DEFENSE OF LOST CAUSES Stick a s to t h e " d e a d l e t t e r " i s t h e o n l y d e f e n s e r e m a i n i n g a g a i n s t the o n s l a u g h t of " t o t a l i t a r i a n " p a s s i o n s of t h e c r o w d . T h e p r o b l e m i s t h u s : h o w to r e g u l a t e / i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e t h e v e r y v i o l e n t e g a l i t a r i a n d e m o c r a t i c i m p u l s e , h o w to p r e v e n t

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c o e x i s t s w i t h r a c i s m , in w h i c h t h e b l i n d r e a c t i o n t o a p e r c e i v e d t h r e a t a n d fear of c h a n g e c o e x i s t w i t h v a g u e Utopian h o p e s . W e a r e t o l d t h a t t h e F r e n c h "no " w a s really a

' n o " to m a n y o t h e r t h i n g s : to A n g l o - S a x o n

n e o l i b e r a l i s m , to C h i r a c a n d h i s g o v e r n m e n t , to t h e i n f l u x of i m m i g r a n t w o r k e r s from P o l a n d w h o l o w e r t h e w a g e s of t h e F r e n c h w o r k e r s , a n d so on a n d so forth. T h e r e a l s t r u g g l e is g o i n g on n o w : n a m e l y t h e s t r u g g l e for t h e meaning of t h i s " n o " — w h o w i l l a p p r o p r i a t e i t ? W h o — i f a n y o n e — w i l l t r a n s l a t e it i n t o a c o h e r e n t a l t e r n a t i v e p o l i t i c a l v i s i o n ? If t h e r e i s a p r e d o m i n a n t r e a d i n g of t h e " n o , " it i s a n e w v a r i a t i o n on t h e o l d C l i n t o n m o t t o "It's t h e e c o n o m y , s t u p i d ! " : t h e " n o " w a s s u p p o ­ s e d l y a r e a c t i o n to E u r o p e ' s

e c o n o m i c l e t h a r g y , falling b e h i n d

with

r e g a r d to o t h e r n e w l y e m e r g i n g b l o c s of e c o n o m i c p o w e r , its e c o n o m i c , social, a n d ideologico-polItical i n e r t i a — p a r a d o x i c a l l y , an inappropri­ a t e r e a c t i o n , a r e a c t i o n on behalf of t h i s v e r y I n e r t i a of p r i v i l e g e d E u r ­ o p e a n s , of t h o s e w h o w a n t to c l i n g on to old w e l f a r e - s t a t e p r i v i l e g e s . It w a s t h e r e a c t i o n of " o l d E u r o p e , " t r i g g e r e d b y t h e f e a r of a n y r e a l c h a n g e , t h e r e f u s a l of t h e u n c e r t a i n t i e s of t h e B r a v e N e w W o r l d of g l o b a l i s t modernization.

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of n e a r - p a n i c a t t h e d a n g e r o u s , " i r r a t i o n a l , " r a c i s t a n d i s o l a t i o n i s t p a s ­

266

s i o n s t h a t s u s t a i n e d t h e " n o , " at a p a r o c h i a l r e j e c t i o n of o p e n n e s s

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the

W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H I N P R A C T I C E

g r o w i n g a p a t h y of t h e v o t e r s , a b o u t t h e d e c h n e of p o p u l a r p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p o l i t i c s , so w o r r i e d l i b e r a l s t a l k a l l t h e t i m e a b o u t t h e n e e d to m o b i l i z e p e o p l e in t h e g u i s e of c i v i l - s o c i e t y i n i t i a t i v e s , to e n g a g e t h e m m o r e in a p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s . J r l o w e v e r , w h e n t h e p e o p l e a w a k e n from t h e i r a p o l i t i c a l s l u m b e r , it is a s a r u l e in t h e g u i s e of a r i g h t i s t p o p u l i s t r e v o l t —no w o n d e r m a n y e n l i g h t e n e d t e c h n o c r a t i c l i b e r a l s n o w w o n d e r w h e t h e r the p r e ­ v i o u s form of " a p a t h y " w a s not a b l e s s i n g in d i s g u i s e . O n e s h o u l d b e a t t e n t i v e h e r e to h o w e v e n t h o s e e l e m e n t s w h i c h a p p e a r a s p u r e r i g h t i s t r a c i s m a r e in fact a d i s p l a c e d v e r s i o n of w o r k i n g - c l a s s p r o t e s t s : of c o u r s e t h e r e i s a form of r a c i s m i n d e m a n d i n g a n e n d to t h e i m m i g r a t i o n of f o r e i g n w o r k e r s w h o

pose a threat

to

employment;

h o w e v e r , o n e s h o u l d b e a r in m i n d t h e s i m p l e fact t h a t t h e i n f l u x of i m m i g r a n t w o r k e r s from t h e p o s t - C o m m u n i s t c o u n t r i e s is not t h e c o n ­ s e q u e n c e of m u l t i c u l t u r î J i s t t o l e r a n c e —it w i n d e e d p a r t of t h e s t r a t e g y of c a p i t a l to h o l d in c h e c k w o r k e r s ' d e m a n d s — t h i s i s w h y , in t h e U S , B u s h d i d m o r e for t h e l e g a l i z a t i o n of the s t a t u s of M e x i c a n i l l e g a l i m m i g r a n t s than did the Democrats caught up b y labor-union pressures. So, ironi­ c a l l y , r i g h t i s t r a c i s t p o p u l i s m i s t o d a y the b e s t a r g u m e n t t h a t t h e " c l a s s s t r u g g l e , " far from b e i n g " o b s o l e t e , " g o e s on — t h e l e s s o n t h e Left s h o u l d l e a r n from it i s t h a t o n e s h o u l d not c o m m i t the e r r o r s y m m e t r i c a l to t h a t of t h e p o p u l i s t r a c i s t m y s t i f i c a t i o n / d i s p l a c e m e n t of h a t r e d o n t o f o r e i g n ­ e r s , a n d to " t h r o w t h e b a b y o u t w i t h t h e b a t h w a t e r , " t h a t i s , to m e r e l y oppose populist anti-immigrant racism with multiculturalist openness, o b l i t e r a t i n g its d i s p l a c e d c l a s s c o n t e n t — b e n e v o l e n t a s it w a n t s to b e , t h e s i m p l e i n s i s t e n c e on t o l e r a n c e

is the

most

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of

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proletarian class struggle . . . T3rpical h e r e i s the r e a c t i o n of G e r m a n m a i n s t r e a m p o l i t i c i a n s to t h e f o r m a t i o n of t h e n e w L i n k s p a r t e i in t h e 2 0 0 5 e l e c t i o n s , a c o a l i t i o n of t h e E a s t G e r m a n P D S a n d leftist d i s s i d e n t s of t h e S P D — J o s c h k a F i s c h e r h i m s e l f r e a c h e d o n e of t h e l o w e s t p o i n t s in h i s c a r e e r w h e n h e c a l l e d O s k a r L a f o n t a i n e " a G e r m a n P l a i d e r " ( b e c a u s e L a f o n t a i n e p r o t e s t e d at t h e I m p o r t a t i o n of c h e a p E a s t E u r o p e a n l a b o r to l o w e r t h e w a g e s of German w o r k e r s ) . The e x a g g e r a t e d and p a n i c k y w a y the political ( a n d e v e n c u l t u r a l ) e s t a b l i s h m e n t r e a c t e d w h e n L a f o n t a i n e r e f e r r e d to "for­ e i g n w o r k e r s , " o r w h e n t h e s e c r e t a r y of t h e S P D c a l l e d t h e

financial

s p e c u l a t o r s " l o c u s t s , " is s y m p t o m a t i c — a s If w e w e r e w i t n e s s i n g a full neo-Nazi

r e v i v a l . T h i s total p o l i t i c a l b l i n d n e s s , t h i s l o s s of t h e v e r y

c a p a c i t y to d i s t i n g u i s h Left from R i g h t , b e t r a y s a p a n i c a t p o l i t i c i z a t i o n a s s u c h . T h e a u t o m a t i c d i s m i s s a l ot e n t e r t a i n i n g a n y t h o u g h t s o u t s i d e t h e 267

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

established post-political coordinates a s "populist d e m a g o g u e i y " is the h i t h e r t o p u r e s t p r o o f t h a t w e e f f e c t i v e l y l i v e u n d e r a n e w Denkverbolf' It is not o n l y t h a t t o d a y ' s p o l i t i c a l field is p o l a r i z e d b e t w e e n postpolitical administration a n d populist politicization; p h e n o m e n a such a s B e r l u s c o n i d e m o n s t r a t e h o w t h e t w o o p p o s i t e s c a n e v e n c o e x i s t in t h e s a m e p a r t y : i s t h e B e r l u s c o n i m o v e m e n t F o r z a I t a l i a ! n o t a c a s e of postpolitical populism,

t h a t i s , of a m e d i a t i c - a d m i n i s t r a t i v e

government

l e g i t i m i z i n g itself in p o p u l i s t t e r m s ? A n d d o e s t h e s a m e not h o l d to s o m e d e g r e e e v e n for t h e N e w L a b o u r g o v e r n m e n t in t h e U K , o r for the B u s h a d m m i s t r a t i o n in t h e U S ? In o t h e r w o r d s , i s p o p u l i s m n o t p r o ­ gressively replacing multiculturalist tolerance a s the "spontaneous" ideo­ logical

supplement

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post-pohtical

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c o n c r e t i z a t i o n , " i t s t r a n s l a t i o n i n t o a form t h a t c a n a p p e a l to i n d i v i d u a l s ' i m m e d i a t e e x p e r i e n c e ? T h e k e y fact h e r e is t h a t p u r e p o s t - p o l i t i c s ( a regime whose self-legitimization w o u l d be thoroughly

"technocratic,"

p r e s e n t i n g itself a s a c o m p e t e n t a d m m i s t r a t i o n ) i s i n h e r e n t l y I m p o s s i b l e : any

p o l i t i c a l r e g i m e n e e d s a s u p p l e m e n t a r y " p o p u l i s t " level of self-

legitimization. T h i s is w h y t o d a y ' s p o p u l i s m is different from t h e t r a d i t i o n a l v e r s i o n — w h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e s it i s t h e o p p o n e n t a g a i n s t w h i c h it m o b i l i z e s t h e p e o p l e : t h e r i s e of " p o s t - p o l i t i c s , " t h e g r o w i n g r e d u c t i o n

of p o l i t i c s

p r o p e r t o t h e r a t i o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of c o n f l i c t i n g i n t e r e s t s . In t h e h i g h l y d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r i e s of t h e U S a n d W e s t e r n E u r o p e , a t l e a s t , " p o p u l i s m " is e m e r g i n g a s t h e i n h e r e n t s h a d o w y d o u b l e of i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d postp o l i t i c s ; o n e i s a l m o s t t e m p t e d to s a y : a s i t s duppletnenl in t h e D e r r i d e a n s e n s e , a s t h e a r e n a in w h i c h p o l i t i c a l d e m a n d s t h a t d o not fit t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d s p a c e c a n b e a r t i c u l a t e d . In t h i s s e n s e , t h e r e

is a

c o n s t i t u t i v e " m y s t i f i c a t i o n " t h a t p e r t a i n s to p o p u h s m : i t s b a s i c g e s t u r e is to refuse t o confront t h e c o m p l e x i t y of t h e s i t u a t i o n , t o r e d u c e it to a c l e a r s t r u g g l e w i t h a p s e u d o - c o n c r e t e " e n e m y " f i g u r e (from t h e " B r u s s e l s b u r e a u c r a c y " t o i l l e g a l i m m i g r a n t s ) . " P o p u l i s m " is t h u s , b y definition, a negative phenomenon,

a p h e n o m e n o n g r o u n d e d i n a refusal, e v e n an

i m p l i c i t a d m i s s i o n of i m p o t e n c e . W e a l l k n o w t h e o l d j o k e a b o u t a m a n l o o k i n g for t h e k e y h e h a s d r o p p e d u n d e r t h e s t r e e t l i g h t ; w h e n a s k e d w h e r e h e lost it, h e a d m i t s t h a t it w a s in a n ill-lit spot; so w h y i s h e l o o k i n g for it h e r e , u n d e r t h e l i g h t ? B e c a u s e t h e v i s i b i l i t y is so m u c h b e t t e r h e r e . . . T h e r e i s a l w a y s s o m e t h i n g of t h i s t r i c k in p o p u l i s m . S o , n o t o n l y i s populism

not the a r e n a within w h i c h t o d a y ' s e m a n c i p a t o r y

projects

should inscribe themselves, but one should even g o a step further a n d 268

W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H IN P R A C T I C E

p r o p o s e t h a t t h e m a i n t a s k of c o n t e m p o r a r y e m a n c i p a t o r y p o l i t i c s , its lifea n d - d e a t h p r o b l e m , i s to find a form of p o l i t i c a l m o b i l i z a t i o n that, w h i l e ( l i k e p o p u l i s m ) c r i t i c a l of i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d p o l i t i c s , w i l l avoid t h e p o p u l i s t temptation. W h e r e , t h e n , d o e s a l l t h i s l e a v e u s w i t h r e g a r d to E u r o p e ' s i m b r o g l i o ? T h e F r e n c h v o t e r s w e r e not g i v e n a c l e a r s y m m e t r i c a l choice, since the v e r y t e r m s of t h e c h o i c e p r i v i l e g e d t h e " y e s " : t h e e l i t e p r o p o s e d a c h o i c e t o t h e p e o p l e w h i c h w a s in fact n o c h o i c e a t a l l — p e o p l e w e r e c a l l e d t o r a t i f y t h e i n e v i t a b l e , t h e r e s u l t of e n l i g h t e n e d e x p e r t i s e . T h e m e d i a a n d the political elite p r e s e n t e d the choice a s the one b e t w e e n k n o w l e d g e a n d ignorance, b e t w e e n expertise a n d ideology, between post-political ad­ m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d t h e a r c h a i c p o l i t i c a l p a s s i o n s of t h e Left a n d t h e Right.'^ T h e " n o " w a s t h u s d i s m i s s e d a s a s h o r t s i g h t e d r e a c t i o n u n a w a r e of its own

consequences:

a murky

reaction

of f e a r of t h e

emerging

new

postindustrial global order, a conservative instinct to protect c r e a k i n g w e l f a r e - s t a t e s t r u c t u r e s — a g e s t u r e of r e f u s a l l a c k i n g a n y p o s i t i v e a l t e r ­ n a t i v e p r o g r a m . N o w o n d e r t h a t t h e o n l y p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s w h o s e official s t a n c e w a s " n o " w e r e t h e p a r t i e s a t t h e o p p o s i t e e x t r e m e s of t h e p o l i t i c a l s p e c t r u m . L e P e n ' s F r o n t National on the R i g h t a n d the C o m m u n i s t s a n d T r o t s k 3 â s t s on the Left. H o w e v e r , e v e n if t h e r e i s a n e l e m e n t of t r u t h i n a l l t h i s , t h e v e r y fact that the " n o " w a s not s u s t a i n e d b y a coherent a l t e r n a t i v e political vision is t h e s t r o n g e s t p o s s i b l e c o n d e m n a t i o n of t h e p o l i t i c a l a n d m e d i a t i c e l i t e , a m o n u m e n t t o t h e i r i n a b i l i t y to a r t i c u l a t e , to t r a n s l a t e i n t o a p o l i t i c a l vision, the p e o p l e ' s l o n g i n g s a n d dissatisfactions. Instead, in their r e a c ­ t i o n to t h e " n o , " t h e y t r e a t e d t h e p e o p l e a s r e t a r d e d p u p i l s w h o h a d not l e a r n t t h e l e s s o n of t h e e x p e r t s : t h e i r s e l f - c r i t i c i s m w a s t h e o n e of t h e t e a c h e r w h o a d m i t s t h a t h e f a i l e d to e d u c a t e h i s s t u d e n t s p r o p e r l y . W h a t t h e a d v o c a t e s of t h i s " c o m m u n i c a t i o n " t h e s i s ( t h e F r e n c h a n d

Dutch

" n o " m e a n s t h a t t h e e n l i g h t e n e d e l i t e h a s f a i l e d to c o m m u n i c a t e a d e ­ q u a t e l y w i t h t h e m a s s e s ) f a i l to s e e is t h a t , o n t h e c o n t r a r y , the "no " in q u e s t i o n w a s a p e r f e c t e x a m p l e of c o m m u n i c a t i o n in w h i c h , a s L a c a n p u t it, t h e s p e a k e r g e t s from t h e a d d r e s s e e its o w n m e s s a g e i n i t s i n v e r t e d , t h a t i s , t r u e , form: t h e e n l i g h t e n e d E u r o p e a n b u r e a u c r a t s r e c e i v e d from t h e e l e c t o r a t e t h e s h a l l o w n e s s of t h e i r o w n m e s s a g e t o t h e m in its t r u e form. T h e p r o j e c t of E u r o p e a n U n i o n t h a t w a s r e j e c t e d b y F r a n c e a n d t h e N e t h e r l a n d s s t o o d for a k i n d of c h e a p t r i c k , a s if E u r o p e c o u l d r e d e e m itself a n d b e a t its c o m p e t i t o r s b y s i m p l y c o m b i n i n g t h e b e s t of b o t h W o r l d s : b y b e a t i n g t h e U S , C h i n a , a n d J a p a n in s c i e n t i f i c - t e c h n o l o g i c a l 269

modernization through k e e p i n g alive its cultural traditions. O n e

should

i n s i s t h e r e that, if E u r o p e i s to r e d e e m itself, it s h o u l d , on t h e c o n t r a r y , b e r e a d y to t a k e t h e r i s k of Lulng (in t h e s e n s e of r a d i c a l l y q u e s t i o n i n g ) both: d i s p e l l i n g t h e fetish of s c i e n t i f i c - t e c h n o l o g i c a l p r o g r e s s and stop r e l y i n g on t h e s u p e r i o r i t y of i t s c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e . S o , a l t h o u g h the c h o i c e w a s n o t t h a t b e t w e e n t w o p o l i t i c a l o p t i o n s , it was

a l s o not t h e c h o i c e b e t w e e n t h e e n l i g h t e n e d v i s i o n of a

modern

E u r o p e , r e a d y to fit i n t o t h e n e w g l o b a l o r d e r , a n d o l d c o n f u s e d p o l i t i c a l passions. W h e n

commentators

described the

" n o " a s a m e s s a g e of

b e w i l d e r m e n t a n d fear, t h e y w e r e w r o n g . T h e m a i n fear a t i s s u e h e r e is t h e f e a r t h e " n o " i t s e l f p r o v o k e d in t h e n e w E u r o p e a n p o l i t i c a l elite, the fear t h a t the people w o u l d no longer s w a l l o w their "post-political" vision. F o r t h e r e s t of u s , the " n o " is a m e s s a g e a n d e x p r e s s i o n of h o p e : h o p e t h a t potitLCd i s still a l i v e a n d p o s s i b l e , t h a t t h e d e b a t e a b o u t w h a t the

new

E u r o p e s h a l l a n d s h o u l d b e is still w i d e o p e n . T h i s i s w h y w e , o n t h e Left, s h o u l d r e j e c t t h e s n e e r i n g i n s i n u a t i o n b y l i b e r a l s t h a t , in o u r " n o , " w e find o u r s e l v e s w i t h s t r a n g e n e o - f a s c i s t b e d f e l l o w s . W h a t t h e n e w p o p u l i s t R i g h t a n d t h e Left s h a r e i s j u s t o n e t h i n g ; t h e a w a r e n e s s that poiiticd proper

id cUiU alive. T h e r e wa,i a p o s i t i v e c h o i c e in t h e " n o " : the c h o i c e of t h e c h o i c e itself; t h e r e j e c t i o n of t h e b l a c k m a i l b y t h e n e w e l i t e w h i c h offers u s o n l y t h e c h o i c e to c o n f i r m t h e i r e x p e r t k n o w l e d g e or to d i s p l a y o n e ' s " i r r a t i o n a l " i m m a t u r i t y . The " n o " is the positive decision to start a real political d e b a t e a b o u t w h a t k i n d of E u r o p e w e r e a l l y w a n t . L a t e in h i s life, F r e u d a s k e d t h e f a m o u s q u e s t i o n Wa,i will da^t Weih?—What

does the w o m a n

w a n t ? — a d m i t t i n g h i s p e r p l e x i t y w h e n f a c e d w i t h t h e e n i g m a of f e m i n i n e s e x u a l i t y . D o e s t h e i m b r o g l i o w i t h the E u r o p e a n

C o n s t i t u t i o n not b e a r

w i t n e s s to t h e s a m e p u z z l e m e n t : w h a t k i n d of E u r o p e d o w e w a n t ? T h e unofficial a n t h e m of t h e E u r o p e a n

Union, h e a r d at

numerous

p o l i t i c a l , c u l t u r a l , a n d s p o r t i n g p u b l i c e v e n t s , i s t h e " O d e to J o y " from the last m o v e m e n t

of B e e t h o v e n ' s N i n t h S y m p h o n y , a t r u e

"empt}^'

s i g n i f i e r " t h a t c a n s t a n d for a n y t h i n g . In F r a n c e , it w a s e l e v a t e d b y R o m a i n R o l l a n d i n t o a h u m a n i s t o d e to t h e b r o t h e r h o o d of a l l p e o p l e s ( " t h e ' M a r s e i l l a i s e ' of h u m a n i t y " ) ; in 1 9 3 8 , it w a s p e r f o r m e d

as the

h i g h p o i n t oî Reichs in luiktage a n d l a t e r for H i t l e r ' s b i r t h d a j ' ; in t h e C h i n a of t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n , in t h e febrile c o n t e x t of a m a s s r e j e c t i o n of European

c l a s s i c s , it w a s r e d e e m e d

s t r u g g l e , w h i l e in c o n t e m p o r a r y

a s a p i e c e of p r o g r e s s i v e

class

J a p a n , it h a s a c h i e v e d a c u l t s t a t u s ,

b e i n g w o v e n i n t o the v e r y social f a b r i c w i t h its s u p p o s e d m e s s a g e of " j o y 270

W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H I N P R A C T I C E

t h r o u g h s u f f e r i n g " ; u n t i l t h e 1 9 7 0 s , t h a t is, d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d w h e n b o t h W e s t a n d E a s t G e r m a n O l y m p i c t e a m s h a d to p e r f o r m t o g e t h e r a s o n e G e r m a n t e a m , t h e a n t h e m p l a y e d for G e r m a n g o l d m e d a l l i s t s w a s t h e O d e , a n d , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , t h e R h o d e s i a n w h i t e s u p r e m a c i s t r e g i m e of I a n S m i t h , w h i c h p r o c l a i m e d i n d e p e n d e n c e in t h e l a t e 1 9 6 0 s in o r d e r to maintain apartheid, also appropriated

t h e s a m e s o n g a s its n a t i o n a l

a n t h e m . E v e n A b l m a e l G u z m a n , t h e ( n o w i m p r i s o n e d ) l e a d e r of S e n d e r o Lumlnoso, w h e n asked w h a t music he loved, mentioned

the

fourth

m o v e m e n t of B e e t h o v e n ' s N i n t h . S o it i s e a s y to p i c t u r e a n i m a g i n a r y p e r f o r m a n c e a t w h i c h a l l t h e s w o r n e n e m i e s , from H i t l e r to S t a l i n , from B u s h to S a d d a m , forget t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s a n d p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e s a m e m a g i c m o m e n t of e c s t a t i c b r o t h e r h o o d . . H o w e v e r , before w e dismiss the fourth m o v e m e n t a s a p i e c e "de­ stroyed through

s o c i a l u s a g e , " let u s n o t e s o m e p e c u l i a r i t i e s of i t s

s t r u c t u r e . In t h e m i d d l e of t h e m o v e m e n t , after w e h e a r t h e m a i n m e l o d y ( t h e " J o y " t h e m e ) in t h r e e o r c h e s t r a l a n d t h r e e v o c a l v a r i a t i o n s , at t h i s first c l i m a x , s o m e t h i n g u n e x p e c t e d h a p p e n s w h i c h h a s b o t h e r e d c r i t i c s o v e r t h e l a s t 1 8 0 y e a r s , e v e r s i n c e t h e first p e r f o r m a n c e : a t b a r 3 3 1 , t h e t o n e c h a n g e s t o t a l l y , a n d , i n s t e a d of t h e s o l e m n h y m n i c p r o g r e s s i o n , t h e s a m e " J o y " t h e m e i s r e p e a t e d in marc'ui Turca ( " T u r k i s h m a r c h " ) s t y l e , b o r r o w e d from the m i l i t a r y m u s i c for w i n d a n d p e r c u s s i o n i n s t r u m e n t s t h a t e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E u r o p e a n a r m i e s h a d a d o p t e d from the T u r k i s h janissaries—^the m o d e is h e r e t h a t of a c a r n i v a l e s q u e p o p u l a r p a r a d e , a m o c k i n g s p e c t a c l e . ^ A n d after t h i s point, e v e r j ' t h i n g g o e s w r o n g , simple solemn

d i g n i t y of t h e

first

part

of t h e

movement

r e c o v e r e d : after t h i s " T u r k i s h " p a r t a n d in a c l e a r

is

the

never

counter-movement

to it, in a k i n d of r e t r e a t into i n n e r r e l i g i o s i t y , t h e c h o r a l - l i k e m u s i c ( d i s m i s s e d b y s o m e c r i t i c s a s a " G r e g o r i a n f o s s i l " ) t r i e s to d e p i c t t h e e t h e r e a l i m a g e of m i l l i o n s of p e o p l e w h o k n e e l d o w n e m b r a c i n g o n e a n o t h e r , c o n t e m p l a t i n g t h e d i s t a n t s k y in a w e a n d s e a r c h i n g for

the

l o v i n g p a t e r n a l G o d w h o m u s t d w e l l a b o v e the c a n o p y of s t a r s Çüberm Sternezell nuud ein lieber Vater wohnen"); h o w e v e r , t h e m u s i c , a s it w e r e , g e t s s t u c k w h e n t h e w o r d musj, first r e n d e r e d b y t h e b a s s e s , i s r e p e a t e d b y t h e t e n o r s a n d a l t o s , a n d f i n a l l y b y t h e s o p r a n o s , a s if t h i s r e p e a t e d

con­

j u r a t i o n is a d e s p e r a t e a t t e m p t to c o n v i n c e u s ( a n d Itself) of w h a t it k n o w s IS not t r u e , t u r n i n g t h e l i n e " a l o v i n g father m u s t d w e l l " i n t o a d e s p e r a t e a c t of b e s e e c h m e n t , a n d t h u s a t t e s t i n g to t h e fact t h a t t h e r e i s n o t h i n g beyond

the c a n o p y of s t a r s , n o l o v i n g f a t h e r to p r o t e c t

us and

to

g u a r a n t e e o u r b r o t h e r h o o d . After this, a r e t u r n to a m o r e c e l e b r a t o r y 271

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

m o o d i s a t t e m p t e d in t h e g u i s e of t h e d o u b l e f u g u e w h i c h c a n n o t

but

s o u n d false in its e x c e s s i v e l y a r t i f i c i a l b r i l l i a n c e , a f a k e s y n t h e s i s if t h e r e e v e r w a s one, a d e s p e r a t e a t t e m p t to c o v e r u p t h e v o i d o l t h e abjent G o d r e v e a l e d in t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n . B u t t h e final c a d e n z a is t h e s t r a n g e s t of t h e m a l l , s o u n d i n g l e s s l i k e B e e t h o v e n t h a n a p u f f e d - u p v e r s i o n of the finale

of M o z a r t ' s Abductiflii from

Seraglio,

combining

the

"Turkish"

e l e m e n t s w i t h t h e fast r o c o c o s p e c t a c l e . ( A n d let u s not f o r g e t

the

p r i n c i p a l l e s s o n of t h i s M o z a r t o p e r a : t h e f i g u r e of t h e o r i e n t a l d e s p o t is p r e s e n t e d t h e r e a s a t r u e e n l i g h t e n e d M a s t e r . ) T h e finale i s t h u s a b i z a r r e m i x t u r e of O r i e n t a l i s m a n d

regression into late

eighteenth-

c e n t u r y c l a s s i c i s m , a d o u b l e r e t r e a t from t h e h i s t o r i c a l p r e s e n t , a silent a d m i s s i o n of the p u r e l y f a n t a s m a t i c c h a r a c t e r of t h e j o y of a l l - e n c o m ­ p a s s i n g b r o t h e r h o o d . Tf t h e r e e v e r w a s a m u s i c t h a t l i t e r a l l y " d e c o n ­ s t r u c t s itself, " t h i s is it: t h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n t h e h i g h l y o r d e r e d l i n e a r progression

of t h e first p a r t of t h e

heterogeneous, a n d inconsistent,

movement

and the

precipitous,

c h a r a c t e r of t h e s e c o n d c a n n o t

s t r o n g e r —no w o n d e r t h a t a l r e a d y in 1 8 2 6 , t w o y e a r s after the

be first

p e r f o r m a n c e , s o m e r e v i e w e r s d e s c r i b e d t h e finale a s " a festival of h a t r e d t o w a r d s all that can be called h u m a n joy. W i t h g i g a n t i c strength

the

perilous hoard emerges, tearing hearts asunder and d a r k e n i n g the divine s p a r k of g o d s w i t h n o i s y , m o n s t r o u s

mocking."

B e e t h o v e n ' s N i n t h i s t h u s full of w h a t N i c h o l a s C o o k c a l l e d consummated

"un-

s y m b o l s " : e l e m e n t s w h i c h a r e i n e x c e s s of t h e g l o b a l

m e a n i n g of t h e w o r k ( o r of t h e m o v e m e n t in w h i c h t h e y o c c u r ) , w h i c h d o not fit t h i s m e a n i n g , a l t h o u g h It i s n o t c l e a r w h a t a d d i t i o n a l m e a n i n g they bring. movement,

C o o k lists t h e " f u n e r a l m a r c h " a t b a r 5 1 3 of t h e the abrupt

e n d i n g of t h e s e c o n d m o v e m e n t ,

first

the military

t o n e s in t h e t h i r d m o v e m e n t , t h e s o - c a l l e d " h o r r o r f a n f a r e s , " t h e T u r k i s h m a r c h , a n d m a n y o t h e r m o m e n t s In t h e fourth m o v e m e n t — a l l

these

elements "vibrate with an implied significance that overflows the musical scenario."

It i s not s i m p l y t h a t t h e i r m e a n i n g s h o u l d b e

uncovered

through attentive interpretation—the v e r y relationship between texture a n d m e a n i n g i s i n v e r t e d h e r e : if t h e p r e d o m i n a n t

"musical scenario"

s e e m s to set to m u s i c a c l e a r p r e e s t a b l i s h e d m e a n i n g ( t h e c e l e b r a t i o n of joy,

universal brotherhood

. . . ) , here the

m e a n i n g i s not

g i v e n in

a d v a n c e , b u t s e e m s to float in s o m e k i n d of v i r t u a l i n d e t e r m i n a c y — I t Is a s if w e k n o w ^^rt/^ t h e r e Is (or, r a t h e r , h a s to b e ) s o m e m e a n i n g , w i t h o u t e v e r b e i n g a b l e to e s t a b l i s h what t h i s m e a n i n g i s . W h a t , t h e n , is t h e s o l u t i o n ? T h e o n l y r a d i c a l s o l u t i o n i s to shift t h e 272

W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H I N P R A C T I C E

e n t i r e p e r s p e c t i v e a n d to r e n d e r p r o b l e m a t i c t h e v e r y first p a r t of t h e f o u r t h m o v e m e n t : t h i n g s d o not r e a l l y g o w r o n g o n l y a t b a r 3 3 1 , w i t h t h e e n t r a n c e of t h e marcia Turca, t h e y g o w r o n g from the ver>' s t a r t — o n e s h o u l d a c c e p t t h a t t h e r e is s o m e t h i n g of a n i n s i p i d s h a m in t h e O d e , so t h a t t h e c h a o s t h a t e n t e r s after b a r 3 3 1 i s a k i n d of " r e t u r n of t h e r e p r e s s e d , " a symptom of w h a t w a s w r o n g from t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g . W h a t if w e h a v e d o m e s t i c a t e d t h e O d e to J o y too m u c h , w h a t if w e h a v e g o t a l l too u s e d to it a s a s y m b o l of j o y f u l b r o t h e r h o o d ?

W h a t if w e s h o u l d

confront it a n e w , r e j e c t in it w h a t is f a l s e ? M a n y of t o d a y ' s l i s t e n e r s c a n n o t b u t b e s t r u c k b y the e m p t y p o m p o u s c h a r a c t e r a n d p r e t e n t i o u s ­ n e s s of t h e O d e , b y i t s s o m e w h a t r i d i c u l o u s s o l e m n i t y — r e c a l l w h a t w e see if w e w a t c h its p e r f o r m a n c e on t e l e v i s i o n : fat, self-satisfied, w e l l d r e s s e d s i n g e r s w i t h b u l g i n g v e i n s , m a k i n g a g r e a t effort, a c c o m p a n i e d b y r i d i c u l o u s w a v i n g of h a n d s , to g e t t h e i r s u b l i m e m e s s a g e t h r o u g h a s l o u d l y a s p o s s i b l e . . . W h a t if t h e s e l i s t e n e r s a r e s i m p l y right! W h a t if t h e t r u e o b s c e n i t y i s w h a t t a k e s p l a c e before the marcia Turca, not after i t ? W h a t if w e d i s p l a c e t h e e n t i r e p e r s p e c t i v e a n d p e r c e i v e t h e marcia a s a r e t u r n to e v e r y d a y n o r m a l i t y t h a t c u t s s h o r t t h e d i s p l a y of p r e p o s t e r o u s p o r t e n t o u s n e s s a n d t h u s b r i n g s u s b a c k to e a r t h , a s if it w e r e s a y i n g " Y o u want

to

celebrate the

brotherhood

of m e n ?

Here

it i s t h e n ,

real

h u m a n i t y . . . "? A n d d o e s t h e s a m e not h o l d for E u r o p e t o d a y ? After i n v i t i n g m i l l i o n s , from t h e h i g h e s t to t h e l o w e s t ( t h e w o r m ) to e m b r a c e , t h e s e c o n d s t r o p h e o m i n o u s l y e n d s : " B u t h e w h o c a n n o t r e j o i c e , let h i m s t e a l w e e p i n g a w a y " (IJnd wer's nie gekonnt, der stehle weinend sich aiui dem Bund). T h e i r o n y of B e e t h o v e n ' s O d e to J o y a s t h e unofficial E u r o p e a n a n t h e m i s , of c o u r s e , t h a t t h e m a i n c a u s e of t o d a y ' s c r i s i s of t h e U n i o n i s p r e c i s e l y T u r k e y : a c c o r d i n g to m o s t of t h e p o l l s , o n e of t h e r e a s o n s m o t i v a t i n g t h o s e w h o v o t e d " n o " in t h e l a s t r é f é r e n d u m s in F r a n c e a n d N e t h e r l a n d s w a s t h e i r o p p o s i t i o n to T u r k i s h m e m b e r s h i p . T h e " n o " c a n b e g r o u n d e d in r i g h t i s t p o p u l i s t t e r m s ( n o to t h e T u r k i s h t h r e a t to o u r c u l t u r e , n o to T u r k i s h c h e a p i m m i g r a n t l a b o r ) , or in l i b e r a l - m u l t i c u l t u r a l i s t t e r m s

(Turkey

s h o u l d not b e a l l o w e d in b e c a u s e , in its t r e a t m e n t of t h e K u r d s , it d o e s not d i s p l a y sufficient r e s p e c t for h u m a n r i g h t s ) . A n d t h e o p p o s i t e v i e w , t h e " y e s , " is a s false a s B e e t h o v e n ' s

final

c a d e n z a . . . T h e c a s e of

c o n t e m p o r a r y T u r k e y i s c r u c i a l for a p r o p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of c a p i t a l i s t g l o b a l i z a t i o n ; t h e p o l i t i c a l p r o p o n e n t of g l o b a l i z a t i o n i s t h e r u l i n g " m o d ­ e r a t e " I s l a m i s t p a r t y of t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r E r d o g a n . ' " It i s t h e fero­ ciously nationalist and

secular Kemalists w h o , focused

on

the

fully 273

IN D E F E N S E OF L O S T C A U S E S

s o v e r e i g n n a t i o n - s t a t e , r e s i s t full i n t e g r a t i o n i n t o t h e g l o b a l s p a c e ( a n d also have m i s g i v i n g s about T u r k e y joining the European U n i o n ) , while the I s l a m i s t s find it e a s y to c o m b i n e t h e i r r e l i g i o u s - c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y w i t h e c o n o m i c g l o b a l i z a t i o n . I n s i s t m g on o n e s p a r t i c u l a r c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y ig no o b s t a c l e to g l o b a l i z a t i o n : t h e t r u e o b s t a c l e i s t h e t r a n s c u l t u r a l nationstate universalism. S o , s h o u l d T u r k e y b e a l l o w e d i n t o t h e U n i o n o r s h o u l d it b e let to "steal itself w e e p i n g o u t of t h e u n i o n " (BiinJ)?

C a n E u r o p e s u r v i v e the

" T u r k i s h m a r c h " ? A n d , a s in t h e finale of B e e t h o v e n ' s N i n t h , w h a t if the t r u e p r o b l e m i s not T u r k e y , b u t the b a s i c m e l o d y itself, the s o n g of European

u n i t y a s it is p l a y e d to u s b y t h e

technocratic

elite?

Brussels post-political

W h a t w e n e e d is a t o t a l l y n e w m e l o d y , a

new

d e f i n i t i o n of E u r o p e Itself. T h e p r o b l e m of T u r k e y , t h e p e r p l e x i t y of t h e E u r o p e a n U n i o n a s to w h a t to d o a b o u t T u r k e y , is not a b o u t T u r k e y as such, but a confusion about w h a t E u r o p e itsell is. W h a t , then, is Europe's p r e d i c a m e n t t o d a y ? E u r o p e is c a u g h t b e t w e e n t h e g r e a t p i n c e r s of A m e r i c a on t h e o n e s i d e a n d C h i n a on t h e o t h e r . A m e r i c a a n d China, seen m e t a p h y s i c a l l y , are both the s a m e : the identical h o p e l e s s f r e n z y of u n c h a i n e d t e c h n o l o g y a n d of t h e r o o t l e s s o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e a v e r a g e m a n . W h e n t h e f a r t h e s t c o r n e r of t h e g l o b e h a s b e e n conquered technically and can be exploited economically; w h e n

any

i n c i d e n t y o u l i k e , in a n y p l a c e y o u l i k e , at a n y t i m e y o u l i k e , b e c o m e s a c c e s s i b l e a s fast a s y o u l i k e ; w h e n , t h r o u g h T V " l i v e c o v e r a g e , " y o u c a n simultaneously "experience " a battle in the Iraqi desert a n d an opera p e r f o r m a n c e in B e i j i n g ; w h e n , in a g l o b a l d i g i t a l n e t w o r k , t i m e is n o t h i n g b u t s p e e d , i n s t a n t a n e i t y , a n d s i m u l t a n e i t y ; w h e n a w i n n e r in a r e a l i t y T V s h o w c o u n t s a s t h e g r e a t m a n of t h e p e o p l e ; t h e n , y e s , still l o o m i n g l i k e a s p e c t e r o v e r a l l t h i s u p r o a r a r e t h e q u e s t i o n s . W h a t is it for? W h e r e a r e w e g o i n g ? W h a t i s to b e d o n e ? T h e r e i s t h u s a n e e d , a m o n g s t u s E u r o p e a n s , for w h a t H e i d e g g e r c a l l e d Auseinandersetziing ( I n t e r p r e t i v e c o n f r o n t a t i o n ) w i t h o t h e r s a s w e l l a s w i t h E u r o p e ' s o w n p a s t in its t o t a l i t y , from its a n c i e n t a n d J u d e o - C h r i s t i a n r o o t s to t h e r e c e n t l y d e c e a s e d w e l f a r e - s t a t e i d e a . E u r o p e i s t o d a y split between

the

so-called Anglo-Saxon model—accept

"modernization'

( a d a p t a t i o n to t h e r u l e s of t h e n e w g l o b a l o r d e r ) — a n d

the

Franco-

G e r m a n m o d e l — s a v e a s m u c h a s p o s s i b l e of t h e " o l d E u r o p e a n " w e l f a r e s t a t e . A l t h o u g h o p p o s e d , t h e s e t w o o p t i o n s a r e t w o s i d e s of the s a m e coin, a n d o u r t r u e p a t h is not to r e t u r n to a n y i d e a l i z e d form of t h e p a s t , for t h e s e m o d e l s a r e c l e a r l y e x h a u s t e d — n o r to c o n v i n c e E u r o p e a n s that, if 274

WHY

P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H I N P R A C T I C E

vve a r e to s u r v i v e a s a w o r l d p o w e r , w e s h o u l d a c c o m m o d a t e o u r s e l v e s a s fast a s p o s s i b l e to r e c e n t t r e n d s of g l o b a l i z a t i o n . N o r s h o u l d w e

be

t e m p t e d b y w h a t i s a r g u a b l y t h e w o r s t option, t h e s e a r c h for a " c r e a t i v e synthesis" b e t w e e n E u r o p e a n traditions a n d globalization, w i t h the aim of c o n s t r u c t i n g s o m e t h i n g o n e i s t e m p t e d to c a l l " g l o b a l i z a t i o n w i t h a European face." E v e r y c r i s i s i s in itself a s t i m u l u s for a n e w b e g i n n i n g ; e v e r y c o l l a p s e of s h o r t - t e r m s t r a t e g i c a n d p r a g m a t i c m e a s u r e s (for t h e

financial

reorga-

n i z a t i o n of t h e U n i o n e t c . ) a b l e s s i n g In d i s g u i s e , a n o p p o r t u n i t y r e t h i n k its v e r y f o u n d a t i o n s . repetition

(Wieder-Hoiung):

entire European

W h a t w e n e e d is a

through

to

retrieval-through-

a critical confrontation

with

the

tradition, one should repeat the question " W h a t is

E u r o p e ? " , or, r a t h e r , " W h a t d o e s it m e a n for u s to b e

Europeans?",

a n d t h u s f o r m u l a t e a n e w b e g i n n i n g . T h e t a s k i s difficult, it c o m p e l s u s to t a k e t h e g r e a t r i s k of s t e p p i n g i n t o t h e u n k n o w n — y e t i t s o n l y a l t e r n a t i v e is s l o w d e c a y , t h e g r a d u a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of E u r o p e i n t o w h a t G r e e c e w a s for t h e m a t u r e R o m a n E m p i r e , a d e s t i n a t i o n for n o s t a l g i c c u l t u r a l t o u r i s m w i t h n o effective r e l e v a n c e . T h e conflict on E u r o p e i s u s u a l l y p o r t r a y e d a s o n e b e t w e e n E u r o c e n t r i c C h r i s t i a n h a r d l i n e r s a n d l i b e r a l m u l t i c u l t u r a l i s t s w h o w a n t to O p e n t h e d o o r s of the E u r o p e a n U n i o n m u c h m o r e w i d e l y , to T u r k e y a n d b e y o n d . W h a t if t h i s conflict i s t h e w r o n g o n e ? W h a t if c a s e s l i k e P o l a n d s h o u l d c o m p e l u s to narrow e n t r y , to r e d e f i n e E u r o p e In s u c h a w a y t h a t it w o u l d e x c l u d e P o l i s h C h r i s t i a n f u n d a m e n t a l i s m ? M a y b e it i s t i m e to a p p l y to P o l a n d t h e s a m e c r i t e r i a a s to T u r k e y : t h e h i g h - c l a s s m a z u r k a should m a k e us no less suspicious than the low-class T u r k i s h march. T h e l e s s o n i s t h u s c l e a r : f u n d a m e n t a l i s t p o p u l i s m is filling in t h e v o i d of t h e a b s e n c e of a leftist d r e a m . D o n a l d R u m s f e l d ' s i n f a m o u s about the O l d and the N e w

E u r o p e is a c q u i r i n g a n e w

statement

unexpected

a c t u a l i t y : t h e c o n t o u r s a r e e m e r g i n g of t h e " n e w " E u r o p e of t h e m a j o r i t y of p o s t - C o m m u n i s t

countries (Poland, the Baltic countries, R o m a n i a ,

H u n g a r y . . . ) , with their Christian populist fundamentalism,

belated

a n t i - C o m m u n i s m , x e n o p h o b i a a n d h o m o p h o b i a , a n d so on. A f u r t h e r p o i n t a p r o p o s of w h i c h w e s h o u l d r i s k t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t H e i d e g g e r w a s r i g h t , a l t h o u g h not in t h e s e n s e h e m e a n t it, i s , w h a t if d e m o c r a c y i s not t h e a n s w e r to t h i s p r e d i c a m e n t ? In h i s Notes Towards a Definitiûn of Culture, t h e g r e a t c o n s e r v a t i v e T . S . Eliot r e m a r k e d t h a t t h e r e are m o m e n t s w h e n the only choice is the one b e t w e e n sectarianism a n d non-belief, w h e n t h e o n l y w a y to k e e p a r e l i g i o n a l i v e i s to e n g a g e in a 275

IN D E F E N S E OF L O S T C A U S E S

s e c t a r i a n split from its m a i n b o d y . T h i s i s o u r o n l y c h a n c e t o d a y : o n l y b y m e a n s of a " s e c t a r i a n s p l i t " from t h e s t a n d a r d E u r o p e a n

legacy,

by

c u t t i n g o u r s e l v e s off from t h e d e c a y i n g c o r p s e of o l d E u r o p e , can w e k e e p the r e n e w e d E u r o p e a n

l e g a c y a l i v e . S u c h a split s h o u l d

render

p r o b l e m a t i c t h e v e r y p r e m i s e s t h a t w e t e n d to a c c e p t a s o u r d e s t i n y , a s n o n - n e g o t i a b l e facts of o u r p r e d i c a m e n t — t h e p h e n o m e n o n u s u a l l y d e ­ signated as the global N e w W o r l d O r d e r a n d the need, t h r o u g h e r n i z a t i o n , " to a c c o m m o d a t e

"mod­

o u r s e l v e s to it. T o p u t it b l u n t l y , if t h e

e m e r g i n g N e w W o r l d O r d e r i s t h e i r r e f r a g a b l e f r a m e w o r k for a l l of us, t h e n E u r o p e i s lost, so t h e o n l y s o l u t i o n for E u r o p e i s to t a k e t h e r i s k a n d b r e a k t h i s spell of d e s t i n y . Nothing s h o u l d b e a c c e p t e d a s I n v i o l a b l e in this n e w refoundation,

n e i t h e r t h e n e e d for e c o n o m i c " m o d e r n i z a t i o n "

nor

the most s a c r e d liberal a n d democratic fetishes. S o a l t h o u g h t h e F r e n c h a n d D u t c h " n o " is not s u s t a i n e d b y a c o h e r e n t a n d d e t a i l e d a l t e r n a t i v e v i s i o n , it a t l e a s t clears the space for It, o p e n i n g u p a v o i d w h i c h d e m a n d s to b e filled in w i t h n e w p r o j e c t s ^—in c o n t r a s t to the p r o - C o n s t i t u t i o n s t a n c e w h i c h e f f e c t i v e l y / J / w / w r ^ t v thinking, p r e s e n t i n g u s w i t h a n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e - p o l i t i c a l fait a c c o m p l i . T h e m e s s a g e of t h e F r e n c h " n o " to a l l of u s w h o c a r e a b o u t E u r o p e i s : no, a n o n y m o u s e x p e r t s w h o s e merchandise

i s sold to u s in b r i g h t l y - c o l o r e d l i b e r a l - m u l t i c u l t u r a l i s t

p a c k a g e s w i l l not p r e v e n t u s from thinking. It i s t i m e for u s , c i t i z e n s of E u r o p e , to b e c o m e a w a r e t h a t w e h a v e to m a k e a p r o p e r l y political d e c i s i o n a b o u t w h a t w e w a n t . N o e n l i g h t e n e d a d m i n i s t r a t o r w i l l d o the j o b for u s .

. . . but not good enough in iheory The French—Dutch

" n o " t h u s p r e s e n t s u s w i t h t h e l a t e s t c h a p t e r in t h e

s t o r y of p o p u l i s m . F o r t h e e n l i g h t e n e d l i b e i ' a l - t e c h n o c r a t i c elite, p o p u ­ l i s m i s i n h e r e n t l y " p r o t o - f a s c i s t , " t h e d e m i s e of p o l i t i c a l r e a s o n , a r e v o l t in t h e g u i s e of a n o u t b u r s t of b l i n d Utopian passions. T h e e a s i e s t r e p l y to t h i s d i s t r u s t w o u l d b e to c l a i m t h a t p o p u l i s m is i n h e r e n t l y n e u t r a l : a k i n d of transcendental-formal

p o l i t i c a l dispositif t h a t c a n b e i n c o r p o r a t e d

into

different p o l i t i c a l e n g a g e m e n t s . T h i s o p t i o n h a s b e e n e l a b o r a t e d in d e t a i l by Ernesto Laclau. F o r L a c l a u , in a

nice

c a s e of s e l f - r e f e r e n t i a l i t y , t h e v e r y l o g i c of

h e g e m o n i c a r t i c u l a t i o n a p p l i e s a l s o to the c o n c e p t u a l o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n p o p u l i s m a n d p o l i t i c s : " p o p u l i s m " i s t h e L a c a n i a n objet a of p o l i t i c s , the p a r t i c u l a r figure w h i c h s t a n d s for t h e u n i v e r s a l d i m e n s i o n of t h e p o l i t i c a l , 276

W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H IN P R A C T I C E

•which is w h y it is " t h e r o y a l r o a d " to u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e p o l i t i c a l . H e g e l p r o v i d e d a t e r m for t h i s o v e r l a p p i n g of t h e u n i v e r s a l w i t h p a r t of i t s o w n particular content: "oppositional

determination"

(gegendätzliche Beshm-

mung) a s t h e point at w h i c h t h e u n i v e r s a l g e n u s e n c o u n t e r s itself a m o n g its p a r t i c u l a r s p e c i e s . P o p u l i s m i s not a s p e c i f i c p o l i t i c a l m o v e m e n t ,

but

t h e p o l i t i c a l a t its p u r e s t : t h e " i n f l e c t i o n " of t h e social s p a c e t h a t c a n affect a n y p o l i t i c a l c o n t e n t . Its e l e m e n t s a r e p u r e l y formal, not o n t i c : p o p u l i s m o c c u r s w h e n

"transcendental,"

a s e r i e s of p a r t i c u l a r

"democratic"

d e m a n d s (for b e t t e r s o c i a l s e c u r i t y , h e a l t h s e r v i c e s , l o w e r t a x e s , a g a i n s t w a r , a n d so o n ) i s e n c h a i n e d

in a s e r i e s of e q u i v a l e n c e s , a n d

this

enchainment produces "the p e o p l e " as the universal political subject. W h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e s p o p u l i s m i s not t h e o n t i c c o n t e n t of t h e s e d e m a n d s , b u t t h e m e r e formal fact t h a t , t h r o u g h t h e i r e n c h a i n m e n t , " t h e p e o p l e " e m e r g e a s a p o l i t i c a l s u b j e c t , a n d all different p a r t i c u l a r s t r u g g l e s a n d a n t a g o n i s m s a p p e a r a s p a r t s of a g l o b a l a n t a g o n i s t i c s t r u g g l e b e t w e e n " u s " ( t h e p e o p l e ) a n d " t h e m . " A g a i n , t h e c o n t e n t of " u s " a n d " t h e m " i s not p r e s c r i b e d in a d v a n c e b u t , p r e c i s e l y , t h e s t a k e of t h e s t r u g g l e for hegemony: even ideological elements such as brutal racism and

anti-

S e m i t i s m c a n be e n c h a i n e d in a p o p u l i s t s e r i e s of e q u i v a l e n c e s , in t h e w a y " t h e m " is c o n s t r u c t e d . It i s c l e a r n o w w h y L a c l a u p r e f e r s p o p u l i s m to c l a s s s t r u g g l e : p o p u l i s m p r o v i d e s a n e u t r a l " t r a n s c e n d e n t a l " m a t r i x of a n o p e n s t r u g g l e w h o s e c o n t e n t a n d s t a k e s a r e t h e m s e l v e s d e f i n e d b y t h e c o n t i n g e n t s t r u g g l e for h e g e m o n y , w h i l e " c l a s s s t r u g g l e " p r e s u p p o s e s a p a r t i c u l a r social g r o u p ( t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s ) a s a p r i v i l e g e d p o l i t i c a l a g e n t ; t h i s p r i v i l e g e i s not itself t h e o u t c o m e of h e g e m o n i c s t r u g g l e , b u t g r o u n d e d in t h e " o b j e c t i v e social p o s i t i o n " of t h i s g r o u p — t h e i d e o l o g i c o - p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e i s t h u s u l t i m a t e l y r e d u c e d to a n e p i p h e n o m e n o n of " o b j e c t i v e " s o c i a l p r o c e s s e s , p o w e r s a n d t h e i r c o n f l i c t s . F o r L a c l a u , on t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e fact t h a t s o m e particular struggle is elevated into the

" u n i v e r s a l e q u i v a l e n t " of a l l

s t r u g g l e s i s not a p r e d e t e r m i n e d fact, b u t i t s e l f t h e r e s u l t of t h e c o n t i n g e n t p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e for h e g e m o n y — in s o m e c o n s t e l l a t i o n s , t h i s s t r u g g l e c a n b e t h e w o r k e r s ' s t r u g g l e , in o t h e r

constellations, the

patriotic

c o l o n i a l i s t s t r u g g l e , in y e t o t h e r s t h e a n t i - r a c i s t s t r u g g l e for

anti-

cultural

t o l e r a n c e . . . there u nothing in the inherent positive (juntities of some particular •struggle that preèestmes it for such a hegemonic role a s t h e " g e n e r a l e q u i v a l e n t " of all s t r u g g l e s . T h e s t r u g g l e for h e g e m o n y t h u s not o n l y p r e s u p p o s e s a n irreducible gap between

the

u n i v e r s a l form

and

the

m u l t i p l i c i t y of

p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e n t s , b u t a l s o t h e c o n t i n g e n t p r o c e s s b y m e a n s of w h i c h 277

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

one a m o n g these contents

is " t r a n s u b s t a n t i a t e d "

into the

immediate

e m b o d i m e n t of t h e u n i v e r s a l d i m e n s i o n — s a y ( L a c l a u ' s o w n e x a m p l e ) , in t h e P o l a n d

of 1 9 8 0 , t h e p a r t i c u l a r d e m a n d s of S o l i d a r n o s c w e r e

elevated into the e m b o d i m e n t

of t h e p e o p l e ' s g l o b a l r e j e c t i o n of the

C o m m u n i s t r e g i m e , so t h a t a l l different v e r s i o n s of t h e a n t i - C o m m u n i s t opposition

(from

the conservative-nationalist opposition

through

the

l i b e r a l - d e m o c r a t i c v e r s i o n a n d c u l t u r a l d i s s i d e n c e to leftist w o r k e r s ' p r o t e s t s ) r e c o g n i z e d t h e m s e l v e s in t h e e m p t y s i g n i f i e r " S o l i d a r n o s c . " T h i s i s h o w L a c l a u t r i e s to d i s t i n g u i s h h i s p o s i t i o n b o t h from g r a d u ­ a l i s m ( w h i c h r e d u c e s t h e v e r y d i m e n s i o n of t h e p o l i t i c a l : a l l t h a t r e m a i n s is t h e g r a d u a l r e a l i z a t i o n of p a r t i c u l a r " d e m o c r a t i c " d e m a n d s w a t h i n the d i f f e r e n t i a l s o c i a l s p a c e ) a s w e l l a s from t h e o p p o s i t e i d e a of a total r e v o l u t i o n t h a t w o u l d b r i n g a b o u t a fully s e l f - r e c o n c i l e d s o c i e t y . W h a t b o t h e x t r e m e s m i s s i s t h e s t r u g g l e for h e g e m o n y in w h i c h a p a r t i c u l a r d e m a n d is " e l e v a t e d to t h e d i g n i t y of t h e T h i n g , " t h a t i s , c o m e s to s t a n d for t h e u n i v e r s a l i t y of " t h e p e o p l e . " T h e field of p o l i t i c s i s t h u s c a u g h t in an i r r e d u c i b l e tension b e t w e e n " e m p t y " a n d "floating" signifiers: some p a r t i c u l a r s i g n i f i e r s s t a r t to f u n c t i o n a s " e m p t y , " d i r e c t l y e m b o d y i n g the u n i v e r s a l d i m e n s i o n , i n c o r p o r a t i n g i n t o t h e c h a i n of e q u i v a l e n c e s w h i c h t h e y t o t a l i z e a l a r g e n u m b e r of " f l o a t i n g " s i g n i f i e r s .

Laclau mobilizes

t h i s g a p b e t w e e n t h e " o n t o l o g i c a l " n e e d for a p o p u l i s t p r o t e s t ( c o n d i t i o n e d b y t h e fact t h a t t h e h e g e m o n i c p o w e r d i s c o u r s e incorporate

a s e r i e s of p o p u l a r

demands)

and the

cannot

contingent

c o n t e n t to w h i c h t h i s v o t e g e t s a t t a c h e d , to e x p l a i n t h e s u p p o s e d of m a n y F r e n c h v o t e r s w h o , till t h e 1 9 7 0 s , s u p p o r t e d t h e P a r t y r a t h e r t h a n t h e r i g h t i s t p o p u l i s m of t h e F r o n t

vote ontic shift

Communist

National'^—the

e l e g a n c e of t h i s s o l u t i o n i s t h a t it r e l e a s e s u s from t h e t i r e s o m e t o p i c of t h e a l l e g e d " d e e p e r ( t o t a l i t a r i a n , of c o u r s e ) s o l i d a r i t y " b e t w e e n t h e far R i g h t a n d t h e " e x t r e m e " Left. A l t h o u g h L a c l a u ' s t h e o r y of p o p u l i s m s t a n d s o u t a s o n e of t o d a y ' s g r e a t ( a n d , u n f o r t u n a t e l y for s o c i a l t h e o r y , r a r e ) e x a m p l e s of t r u e c o n c e p t u a l s t r i n g e n c y , o n e s h o u l d n o t e a c o u p l e of p r o b l e m a t i c f e a t u r e s . T h e

first

c o n c e r n s h i s v e r y d e f i n i t i o n of p o p u l i s m : t h e s e r i e s of formal c o n d i t i o n s h e e n u m e r a t e s a r e not sufficient to j u s t i f y c a l l i n g a p h e n o m e n o n " p o p u ­ l i s t " — w h a t n e e d s to b e a d d e d i s t h e w a y t h e p o p u l i s t d i s c o u r s e d i s p l a c e s t h e a n t a g o n i s m a n d c o n s t r u c t s t h e e n e m y : in p o p u l i s m , t h e e n e m y is e x t e r n a l i z e d / r e i f i e d i n t o a p o s i t i v e o n t o l o g i c a l e n t i t y ( e v e n if t h i s e n t i t y is spectral), whose annihilation would restore balance and justice; symme­ trically, our o w n —the populist political a g e n t ' s - i d e n t i t y is also per278

W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H IN P R A C T I C E

ceived as preexisting the e n e m y ' s onslaught. Let us take Laclau s own p r e c i s e a n a l y s i s of w h y o n e s h o u l d c o u n t C h a r t i s m a s p o p u l i s m : Its d o m i n a n t l e i t m o t i v i s to s i t u a t e t h e e v i l s of s o c i e t y n o t in s o m e t h i n g t h a t i s i n h e r e n t in t h e e c o n o m i c s y s t e m , b u t q u i t e t h e o p p o s i t e : in t h e a b u s e of p o w e r b y p a r a s i t i c a n d s p e c u l a t i v e g r o u p s w h i c h h a v e c o n t r o l of p o l i t i c a l p o w e r — " o l d c o r r u p t i o n , " in C o b b e t t ' s w o r d s . [. . . ] It w a s for t h i s r e a s o n t h a t t h e f e a t u r e m o s t s t r o n g l y p i c k e d o u t in t h e r u l i n g c l a s s w a s its i d l e n e s s a n d p a r a s i t i s m .

In o t h e r w o r d s , for a p o p u l i s t , t h e c a u s e of t h e t r o u b l e is u l t i m a t e l y n e v e r t h e s y s t e m a s s u c h , b u t t h e i n t r u d e r w h o c o r r u p t e d it ( f i n a n c i a l m a n i p ­ u l a t o r s , not c a p i t a l i s t s a s s u c h , e t c . ) ; not a fatal f l a w I n s c r i b e d i n t o t h e s t r u c t u r e a s s u c h , b u t a n e l e m e n t t h a t d o e s not p l a y its p a r t w i t h i n t h e s t r u c t u r e p r o p e r l y . F o r a M a r x i s t , on t h e c o n t r a r y ( a s for a F r e u d i a n ) , t h e p a t h o l o g i c a l ( t h e d e v i a n t m i s b e h a v i o r of s o m e e l e m e n t s ) i s t h e s y m p t o m of t h e n o r m a l , a n i n d i c a t o r of w h a t i s w r o n g in t h e v e r y s t r u c t u r e t h a t i s t h r e a t e n e d w i t h " p a t h o l o g i c a l " o u t b u r s t s : for M a r x , e c o n o m i c c r i s e s a r e t h e k e y to u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e " n o r m a l " f u n c t i o n i n g of c a p i t a l i s m ; for Freud, pathological p h e n o m e n a such as hysterical outbursts provide the k e y to t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n ( a n d h i d d e n a n t a g o n i s m s t h a t s u s t a i n t h e func­ t i o n i n g ) of a " n o r m a l " s u b j e c t . T h i s i s a l s o w h y f a s c i s m d e f i n i t e l y is a p o p u l i s m : its f i g u r e of t h e J e w i s t h e e q u i v a l e n t i a l p o i n t of t h e s e r i e s of (heterogeneous, inconsistent even) threats experienced b y individuals: t h e J e w i s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y too i n t e l l e c t u a l , d i r t y , s e x u a l l y v o r a c i o u s , h a r d ­ working, financially exploitative . . . Here w e encounter

another

key

f e a t u r e of p o p u l i s m not m e n t i o n e d b y L a c l a u : not o n l y Is^—as h e i s r i g h t to e m p h a s i z e ^—the p o p u l i s t M a s t e r - S i g n i f i e r for t h e e n e m y e m p t y , v a g u e , i m p r e c i s e , a n d so on:

to s a y t h a t t h e o l i g a r c h y i s r e s p o n s i b l e for the f r u s t r a t i o n

of s o c i a l

d e m a n d s is not to state s o m e t h i n g w h i c h c a n p o s s i b l y b e r e a d o u t of t h e social d e m a n d s t h e m s e l v e s ; it is p r o v i d e d from ouLtide t h o s e s o c i a l d e m a n d s , b y a d i s c o u r s e on w h i c h t h e y c a n b e i n s c r i b e d . [. . . ] It i s h e r e t h a t t h e m o m e n t of e m p t i n e s s n e c e s s a r i l y a r i s e s , f o l l o w i n g t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of e q u i v a l e n t i a l b o n d s . Ergo, " v a g u e n e s s " a n d " i m p r e c i ­ s i o n , " b u t t h e s e d o not r e s u l t from a n y k i n d of m a r g i n a l or p r i m i t i v e s i t u a t i o n ; t h e y a r e I n s c r i b e d in t h e v e r y n a t u r e of t h e p o l i t i c a l . ' ^

279

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

Tn p o p u l i s m p r o p e r , t h i s " a b s t r a c t " c h a r a c t e r i s , f u r t h e r m o r e ,

always

s u p p l e m e n t e d b y t h e pseudo-concreteneM of t h e f i g u r e t h a t i s s e l e c t e d a s the e n e m y , the s i n g u l a r a g e n t b e h i n d a l l t h e t h r e a t s to t h e p e o p l e . O n e c a n t o d a y b u y laptops w i t h a k e y b o a r d that artificially imitates the resistance to t h e Fingers of t h e old t y p e w r i t e r , a s w e l l a s t h e t y p e w r i t e r s o u n d of the key

h i t t i n g the

paper—what

pseudo-concreteness?

better

e x a m p l e of the

recent

need

for

T o d a y , w h e n not o n l y s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s b u t a l s o

technology are becoming more and more opaque (who can visualize what g o e s on i n s i d e a P C ? ) , t h e r e i s a g r e a t t h i r s t to r e c r e a t e a n artificial c o n c r e t e n e s s m o r d e r to e n a b l e i n d i v i d u a l s t o r e l a t e to t h e i r c o m p l e x e n v i r o n s a s if it w e r e a m e a n i n g f u l l i f e - w o r l d . In c o m p u t e r

programming,

this w a s the step a c c o m p l i s h e d b y Apple: the pseudo-concreteness

of

i c o n s o n the d e s k t o p . G u y D e b o r d ' s o l d f o r m u l a a b o u t t h e " s o c i e t y of s p e c t a c l e " i s t h u s r e c e i v i n g a n e w t w i s t : i m a g e s a r e c r e a t e d in o r d e r to fill in t h e g a p t h a t s e p a r a t e s t h e n e w a r t i f i c i a l u n i v e r s e from o u r o l d lifew o r l d s u r r o u n d i n g s , t h a t i s , to " d o m e s t i c a t e " t h i s n e w u n i v e r s e . A n d is t h e p s e u d o - c o n c r e t e p o p u l i s t figure of t h e " J e w " t h a t c o n d e n s e s t h e v a s t m u l t i t u d e of a n o n y m o u s f o r c e s t h a t d e t e r m i n e u s not a n a l o g o u s to a computer k e y b o a r d that imitates the old t y p e w r i t e r k e y b o a r d ? The J e w as t h e e n e m y d e f i n i t e l y e m e r g e s from o u t s i d e the r e a l m of s o c i a l d e m a n d s that experience themselves as

frustrated.

T h i s s u p p l e m e n t to L a c l a u ' s d e f i n i t i o n of p o p u l i s m i n n o w a y i m p l i e s any

k i n d of r e g r e s s i o n to t h e o n t i c l e v e l : w e r e m a i n a t t h e

formal-

o n t o l o g i c a l l e v e l a n d , w h i l e a c c e p t i n g L a c l a u ' s t h e s i s t h a t p o p u l i s m is a

certain

formal

political logic,

not

bound

to

any

content,

simply

s u p p l e m e n t it w i t h t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ( n o l e s s " t r a n s c e n d e n t a l " t h a n its o t h e r f e a t u r e s ) of " r e i f y i n g " a n t a g o n i s m i n t o a p o s i t i v e e n t i t y . A s s u c h , p o p u l i s m , b y d e f i n i t i o n , c o n t a i n s a m i n i m u m , a n e l e m e n t a r y form,

of

i d e o l o g i c a l m y s t i f i c a t i o n ; w h i c h is w h y , a l t h o u g h it i s e f f e c t i v e l y a formal f r a m e / m a t r i x of p o l i t i c a l l o g i c t h a t c a n b e g i v e n d i f f e r e n t p o l i t i c a l t w i s t s (reactionary-nationalist, progressive-nationalist . . . ) , nonetheless, inso­ far a s it d i s p l a c e s , in i t s v e r y notion, t h e i m m a n e n t s o c i a l a n t a g o n i s m into t h e a n t a g o n i s m b e t w e e n t h e u n i f i e d " p e o p l e " a n d i t s e x t e r n a l e n e m y , it h a r b o r s "in the last i n s t a n c e " a long-term proto-fascist

tendency.

In short, I a g r e e w i t h L a c l a u ' s a t t e m p t to d e f i n e p o p u l i s m i n a formalc o n c e p t u a l w a y , a l s o t a k i n g n o t e of h o w , in h i s l a s t b o o k , h e h a s c l e a r l j ' shifted

his position

from

" r a d i c a l d e m o c r a c y " to p o p u l i s m

r e d u c e s d e m o c r a c y to the m o m e n t system); 280

however,

as

is c l e a r to

of d e m o c r a t i c d e m a n d him,

populism

can

also

(he

now

within t h e be

very

W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H I N P R A C T I C E

r e a c t i o n a r y — SO h o w a r e w e to d r a w a h n e h e r e ? ' ' ' S o , a g a i n , i s t h e r e a w a y to d r a w t h e h n e a t a f o r m a l - c o n c e p t u a l l e v e l ? M y w a g e r is t h a t t h e a n s w e r is " y e s . " E v e r y c o n s t r u c t i o n of a n d a c t i o n o n b e h a l f of t h e p e o p l e a s a p o l i t i c a l s u b j e c t is n o t eo ipso p o p u l i s m . In t h e s a m e w a y t h a t L a c l a u l i k e s to emphasize that S o c i e t y does not exist, nor does the People, a n d the p r o b l e m w i t h p o p u l i s m i s that, w i t h i n i t s h o r i z o n , t h e p e o p l e does e x i s t — t h e P e o p l e ' s e x i s t e n c e is g u a r a n t e e d b y i t s c o n s t i t u t i v e e x c e p t i o n , b y t h e externalization of t h e E n e m y i n t o a p o s i t i v e i n t r u d e r / o b s t a c l e . T h e f o r m u l a o f a t r u l y d e m o c r a t i c r e f e r e n c e to t h e p e o p l e s h o u l d t h u s b e a p a r a p h r a s e o f K a n t ' s d e f i n i t i o n of b e a u t y a s Zweckmässiffkeit ohne Zweck: t h e p o p u l a r w i t h o u t t h e P e o p l e , n a m e l y , t h e p o p u l a r cleft, t h w a r t e d , b y a c o n s t i t u t i v e a n t a g o n i s m w h i c h p r e v e n t s it from a c q u i r i n g t h e full s u b s t a n t i a l i d e n t i t y o f a P e o p l e . T h a t i s w h y p o p u l i s m , f a r from s t a n d i n g for t h e p o l i t i c a l a s s u c h , a l w a y s i n v o l v e s a m i n i m a l de-politicization, " n a t u r a l i z a t i o n , " of t h e political. T h i s a c c o u n t s for t h e f u n d a m e n t a l p a r a d o x of a u t h o n t a n a n

fascism,

w h i c h i s t h a t it a l m o s t s y m m e t r i c a l l y i n v e r t s w h a t C h a n t a i M o u f f e c a l l s t h e " d e m o c r a t i c p a r a d o x " : if t h e w a g e r of ( i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d ) d e m o c r a c y i s to i n t e g r a t e t h e a n t a g o n i s t i c s t r u g g l e i t s e l f into t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l / d i f f e r ­ e n t i a l s p a c e , t r a n s f o r m i n g it i n t o r e g u l a t e d a g o n i s m , fascrsm p r o c e e d s in t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n . W h i l e f a s c i s m , i n i t s m o d e of a c t i v i t y , b r i n g s t h e a n t a g o n i s t i c l o g i c to i t s e x t r e m e ( t a l k i n g a b o u t t h e " s t r u g g l e t o d e a t h " b e t w e e n itself a n d i t s e n e m i e s , a n d a l w a y s m a i n t a i n i n g — i f n o t r e a l i z ­ i n g — a m i n i m a l e x t r a - i n s t i t u t i o n a l t h r e a t of v i o l e n c e , of " d i r e c t p r e s s u r e o f t h e p e o p l e " b y p a s s i n g t h e c o m p l e x l e g a l - i n s t i t u t i o n a l c h a n n e l s ) , it posits a s its political goal p r e c i s e l y the opposite, a n e x t r e m e l y ordered hierarchical social b o d y

(no wonder

that fascism a l w a y s relies on

organicist-corporatlst metaphors). This contrast can be nicely rendered m t e r m s of t h e L a c a n i a n o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n t h e " s u b j e c t of e n u n c i a t i o n " a n d t h e " s u b j e c t of t h e e n u n c i a t e d ( c o n t e n t ) " : w h i l e d e m o c r a c y a d m i t s anteigonistic s t r u g g l e a s i t s g o a l ( i n L a c a n e s e : a s i t s e n u n c i a t e d , i t s content), its p r o c e d u r e is r e g u l a t e d - s y s t e m i c ; fascism, on the contrary, t n e s t o i m p o s e t h e g o a l of h i e r a r c h i c a l l y s t r u c t u r e d h a r m o n y t h r o u g h t h e m e a n s of a n u n b r i d l e d a n t a g o n i s m . In a h o m o l o g o u s w a y , t h e a m b i g u i t y of t h e m i d d l e c l a s s , t h i s c o n t r a ­ d i c t i o n e m b o d i e d ( a s M a r x p u t it a p r o p o s P r o u d h o n ) , is b e s t e x e m p l i f i e d b y t h e w a y it r e l a t e s to p o l i t i c s : on t h e o n e h a n d , t h e m i d d l e c l a s s i s a g a i n s t p o l i t i c i z a t i o n — i t j u s t w a n t s to s u s t a i n its w a y of life, t o b e left to 281

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

w o r k a n d l i v e its life in p e a c e , w h i c h i s w h y it t e n d s to s u p p o r t the a u t h o r i t a r i a n c o u p s w h i c h p r o m i s e to p u t a n e n d to t h e c r a z y p o l i t i c a l m o b i l i z a t i o n of s o c i e t y , so t h a t e v e r y b o d y c a n r e t u r n to h i s o r h e r w o r k . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , m e m b e r s of t h e m i d d l e c l a s s — i n t h e g u i s e of the threatened patriotic h a r d w o r k i n g moral majority—are the main instigat o r s of g r a s s r o o t s m a s s m o b i l i z a t i o n in t h e g u i s e of r i g h t i s t p o p u l i s m — for e x a m p l e , in F r a n c e t o d a y , t h e o n l y force t h a t t r u l y d i s t u r b s t h e postpolitical technocratic-humanitarian

admmistration

i s I^e P e n ' s

Front

National. P o p u l i s m is u l t i m a t e l y a l w a y s s u s t a i n e d b y o r d i n a r y people's frustrated e x a s p e r a t i o n , b y a c r y of "I d o n ' t k n o w w h a t ' s g o i n g on, I j u s t k n o w I've h a d e n o u g h of it! It c a n ' t g o o n ! It m u s t s t o p ! " — a n i m p a t i e n t o u t b u r s t , a refusal

to u n d e r s t a n d ,

e x a s p e r a t i o n at c o m p l e x i t y , a n d t h e

ensuing

c o n v i c t i o n t h a t t h e r e m u s t b e s o m e b o d y r e s p o n s i b l e for a l l t h e m e s s , w h i c h i s w h y a n a g e n t w h o i s b e h i n d t h e s c e n e s a n d e x p l a i n s it all is r e q u i r e d . T h e r e i n , i n t h i s r e f u s a l - t o - k n o w , r e s i d e s t h e properly fetùihùitic d i m e n s i o n of p o p u l i s m . T h a t i s to s a y , a l t h o u g h , at a p u r e l y f o r m a l level, the fetish i n v o l v e s a g e s t u r e of t r a n s f e r e n c e ( o n t o t h e fetish o b j e c t ) , it f u n c t i o n s a s a n e x a c t i n v e r s i o n of t h e s t a n d a r d f o r m u l a of t r a n s f e r e n c e ( w i t h t h e s u b j e c t s u p p o s e d to k n o w ) : w h a t t h e fetish g i v e s b o d y to is p r e c i s e l y m y d i s a v o w a l of k n o w l e d g e , m y r e f u s a l to s u b j e c t i v e l y a s s u m e w h a t I k n o w . T h e r e i n r e s i d e s t h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n t h e fetish a n d the symptom: a symptom embodies a repressed k n o w l e d g e , the truth about t h e s u b j e c t t h a t t h e s u b j e c t is not r e a d y to a c c e p t . T h i s i s w h y F r e u d e n g a g e d in s p e c u l a t i n g on h o w t h e fetish i s t h e l a s t o b j e c t s e e n before s t u m b l i n g u p o n t h e fact t h a t w o m e n d o not h a v e p e n i s e s : it i s t h e last s u p p o r t of t h e s u b j e c t ' s i g n o r a n c e . L i n k e d to t h i s a r e s o m e f u r t h e r w e a k n e s s e s of L a c l a u ' s a n a l y s i s . T h e s m a l l e s t u n i t of h i s a n a l y s i s of p o p u l i s m i s t h e c a t e g o r y of t h e " s o c i a l d e m a n d " ( i n t h e d o u b l e m e a n i n g of t h e t e r m : a r e q u e s t a n d a c l a i m ) . T h e s t r a t e g i c r e a s o n for c h o o s i n g t h i s t e r m i s c l e a r : t h e s u b j e c t of t h e d e m a n d is c o n s t i t u t e d t h r o u g h r a i s i n g t h i s d e m a n d ; t h e " p e o p l e " t h u s c o n s t i t u t e s itself t h r o u g h a n e q u i v a l e n t i a l c h a i n of d e m a n d s , it i s t h e p e r f o r m a t i v e r e s u l t of r a i s i n g t h e s e d e m a n d s , not a p r e e x i s t i n g g r o u p . L a c l a u c a l l s s u c h a n e l e m e n t a r y d e m a n d , p r i o r to its e v e n t u a l e n c h a i n m e n t into a s e r i e s of e q u i v a l e n c e s , " d e m o c r a t i c " ; in h i s s l i g h t l y i d i o s y n c r a t i c u s a g e , s u c h a t e r m r e f e r s to a d e m a n d t h a t f u n c t i o n s w i t h i n t h e s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m — in o t h e r w o r d s , it i s e n c o u n t e r e d a s a p a r t i c u l a r d e m a n d r a t h e r t h a n b e i n g f r u s t r a t e d a n d t h u s , f o r c e d to i n s c r i b e i t s e l f into a n a n t a g o n i s t i c s e r i e s of 282

W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H I N P R A C T I C E

e q u i v a l e n c e s . A l t h o u g h h e e m p h a s i z e s h o w , in a " n o r m a l "

institutiona­

l i z e d p o l i t i c a l s p a c e , t h e r e a r e , of c o u r s e , m u l t i p l e c o n f l i c t s , b u t conflicts a r e d e a l t w i t h o n e b y one, w i t h o u t

these

s e t t i n g in m o t i o n

any

t r a n s v e r s a l a l l i a n c e s / a n t a g o n i s m s , L a c l a u is w e l l a w a r e t h a t c h a i n s of e q u i v a l e n c e s c a n a l s o form t h e m s e l v e s w i t h i n a n i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d d e m o ­ c r a t i c s p a c e ; r e c a l l h o w , in t h e U K u n d e r J o h n M a j o r ' s

Conservative

l e a d e r s h i p in the l a t e 1 9 8 0 s , t h e f i g u r e of t h e " u n e m p l o y e d s i n g l e m o t h e r " w a s e l e v a t e d i n t o t h e u n i v e r s a l S3mibol of w h a t w a s w r o n g w i t h t h e old w e l f a r e - s t a t e s y s t e m — a l l " s o c i a l e v i l s " w e r e s o m e h o w r e d u c e d to t h i s figure

( W h y i s t h e r e a s t a t e b u d g e t c r i s i s ? B e c a u s e too m u c h m o n e y i s

s p e n t on s u p p o r t i n g t h e s e m o t h e r s a n d t h e i r c h i l d r e n . J u v e n i l e d e l i n ­ quency?

Because single mothers

do

not

exert enough

authority

to

p r o v i d e p r o p e r e d u c a t i o n a l d i s c i p l i n e ; a n d so on a n d so f o r t h ) . W h a t L a c l a u n e g l e c t e d to e m p h a s i z e is not o n l y t h e u n i q u e n e s s of d e m o c r a c y w i t h r e g a r d to h i s b a s i c c o n c e p t u a l o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n t h e l o g i c of d i f f e r e n c e s ( s o c i e t y a s a g l o b a l r e g u l a t e d s y s t e m ) a n d t h e l o g i c of e q u i v a l e n c e s ( t h e s o c i a l s p a c e a s split i n t o t w o a n t a g o n i s t i c

camps

w h i c h e q u a l i z e t h e i r i n n e r d i f f e r e n c e s ) , b u t a l s o the full i n n e r e n t w i n e m e n t of t h e s e t w o l o g i c s . T h e first t h i n g w e s h o u l d n o t e h e r e i s h o w , o n l y in a d e m o c r a t i c p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m , t h e a n t a g o n i s t i c l o g i c of e q u i v ­ a l e n c e s i s i n s c r i b e d i n t o the v e r y p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m , a s its b a s i c s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e . It s e e m s t h a t M o u f f e ' s w o r k is h e r e m o r e p e r t i n e n t , in i t s h e r o i c a t t e m p t to b r i n g t o g e t h e r d e m o c r a c y a n d the s p i r i t of a g o n i s t i c s t r u g g l e , r e j e c t i n g b o t h e x t r e m e s ; on t h e struggle-confrontation

that

one

side, the celebration

suspends

democracy

and

of

heroic

its

rules

( N i e t z s c h e , H e i d e g g e r , S c h m i t t ) ; on t h e o t h e r s i d e , t h e e v a c u a t i o n of t r u e s t r u g g l e from

t h e d e m o c r a t i c s p a c e , so t h a t all t h a t r e m a i n s i s

anemic rule-regulated competition ( H a b e r m a s ) .

Here, Mouffe is right

to p o i n t o u t t h a t v i o l e n c e r e t u r n s w i t h a v e n g e a n c e in t h e e x c l u s i o n of t h o s e w h o d o not fit t h e r u l e s of u n c o n s t r a i n e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n . ever, the m a i n threat

to d e m o c r a c y in t o d a y ' s d e m o c r a t i c

How­

countries

r e s i d e s i n n e i t h e r of t h e s e t w o e x t r e m e s , b u t in t h e d e a t h of t h e p o l i t i c a l t h r o u g h t h e " c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n " of p o l i t i c s . W h a t i s a t s t a k e h e r e i s n o t p r i m a r i l y the w a y politicians a r e p a c k a g e d a n d sold as m e r c h a n d i s e at elections;

a much

deeper

problem

is t h a t e l e c t i o n s t h e m s e l v e s

are

c o n c e i v e d a l o n g t h e l i n e s of b u y i n g a c o m m o d i t y ( p o w e r , in t h i s c a s e ) ; t h e y i n v o l v e a c o m p e t i t i o n b e t w e e n different m e r c h a n d i s e - p a r t i e s , our votes are like m o n e y w h i c h b u y s the government w e w a n t .

and What

g e t s lost in s u c h a v i e w of p o l i t i c s a s j u s t a n o t h e r s e r v i c e w e b u y i s 283

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

p o l i t i c s a s a s h a r e d p u b l i c d e b a t e of i s s u e s a n d d e c i s i o n s t h a t c o n c e r n u s all. T h u s d e m o c r a c y , it s e e m s , not only c a n i n c l u d e a n t a g o n i s m , it is t h e o n l y p o l i t i c a l form t h a t s o l i c i t s a n d p r e s u p p o s e s it, t h a t in^idtutwnaUzes it. W h a t o t h e r p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m s p e r c e i v e a s a t h r e a t ( t h e l a c k of a " n a t u r a l " p r e t e n d e r to p o w e r ) , d e m o c r a c y e l e v a t e s into a " n o r m a l " p o s i t i v e con­ d i t i o n of its f u n c t i o n i n g : t h e p l a c e of p o w e r is e m p t y , t h e r e is n o n a t u r a l c l a i m a n t for it; po/enwd/struggle

is irreducible, and e v e r y positive govern­

m e n t m u s t b e f o u g h t out, g a i n e d t h r o u g h po/enws. T h i s w h y L a c l a u ' s c r i t i c a l r e m a r k a b o u t Lefort m i s s e s t h e point:

[F]or

Lefort, t h e pLice of p o w e r in d e m o c r a c i e s is e m p t y . F o r m e , the

q u e s t i o n p o s e s itself d i f f e r e n t l y : it i s a q u e s t i o n of producing e m p t i n e s s o u t of t h e o p e r a t i o n of h e g e m o n i c l o g i c . F o r m e , e m p t i n e s s i s a t y p e of i d e n t i t y , not a s t r u c t u r a l l o c a t i o n .

T h e t w o e m p t i n e s s e s a r e s i m p l y not c o m p a r a b l e : the e m p t i n e s s of the " p e o p l e " i s t h e e m p t i n e s s of t h e h e g e m o n i c s i g n i f i e r w h i c h t o t a l i z e s the c h a i n of e q u i v a l e n c e s , t h a t i s , w h o s e p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e n t i s " t r a n s u b s t a n ­ t i a t e d " Into a n e m b o d i m e n t of t h e s o c i a l w h o l e , w h i l e t h e e m p t i n e s s of the p l a c e of p o w e r i s a d i s t a n c e w h i c h r e n d e r s e v e r y e m p i r i c a l b e a r e r of power "deficient," contingent and temporary. T h e c o n c l u s i o n to b e d r a w n i s t h a t p o p u l i s m (in t h e m a n n e r w e h a v e s u p p l e m e n t e d L a c l a u ' s d e f i n i t i o n of i t ) i s not t h e o n l y m o d e of e x i s t e n c e of t h e e x c e s s of a n t a g o n i s m o v e r t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l - d e m o c r a t i c f r a m e w o r k of r e g u l a t e d a g o n i s t i c s t r u g g l e : not o n l y t h e ( n o w d e f u n c t )

communist

r e v o l u t i o n a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n s , b u t a l s o t h e w i d e s c a l e p h e n o m e n a of noni n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d s o c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l p r o t e s t , from t h e s t u d e n t m o v e m e n t s of the l a t e 1 9 6 0 s a n d e a r l y 1 9 7 0 s to l a t e r a n t i - w a r p r o t e s t s a n d t h e m o r e r e c e n t a n t i - g l o b a l i z a t i o n m o v e m e n t , c a n n o t be p r o p e r l y c a l l e d " p o p u h s t . " E x e m p l a r y i s h e r e t h e c a s e of t h e a n t i - s e g r e g a t i o n m o v e m e n t in t h e U S in t h e l a t e 1 9 5 0 s a n d e a r l y 1 9 6 0 s , e p i t o m i z e d b y t h e n a m e of M a r t i n L u t h e r King: although

it e n d e a v o r e d

to a r t i c u l a t e a d e m a n d

that w a s

not

p r o p e r l y m e t w i t h i n t h e e x i s t i n g d e m o c r a t i c i n s t i t u t i o n s , it c a n n o t

be

c a l l e d p o p u l i s t in a n y m e a n i n g f u l s e n s e of t h e t e r m — t h e w a y it l e d the s t r u g g l e a n d c o n s t i t u t e d its o p p o n e n t w a s s i m p l y not " p o p u l i s t . " A m o r e g e n e r a l r e m a r k s h o u l d b e m a d e h e r e a b o u t the s i n g l e - i s s u e p o p u l a r m o v e m e n t s , for e x a m p l e , the " t a x r e v o l t s " in t h e U S : a l t h o u g h

they

function in a p o p u l i s t m a n n e r , m o b i l i z i n g t h e p e o p l e a r o u n d a d e m a n d 284

WHY

P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H IN P R A C T I C E

w h i c h is not m e t b y t h e d e m o c r a t i c i n s t i t u t i o n s , t h e y d o not s e e m to r e l y on a c o m p l e x c h a i n of e q u i v a l e n c e s , b u t r e m a i n f o c u s e d on o n e s i n g u l a r demand.

The "determining role of economy": Marx with Freud The t o p i c

of p o p u l i s m

v e r s u s c l a s s s t r u g g l e a l s o r a i s e s a s e r i e s of

fundamental conceptual problems. Let us begin with a precise theoretical p o i n t a b o u t t h e s t a t u s of u n i v e r s a l i t y : w e a r e d e a l i n g h e r e w i t h

two

o p p o s e d l o g i c s of u n i v e r s a l i t y to b e s t r i c t l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d . O n t h e o n e h a n d , t h e r e is t h e s t a t e b u r e a u c r a c y a s t h e u n i v e r s a l c l a s s of a s o c i e t y (or, in a l a r g e r s c o p e , t h e U S a s the w o r l d p o l i c e m a n , t h e u n i v e r s a l e n f o r c e r a n d g u a r a n t o r of h u m a n r i g h t s a n d d e m o c r a c y ) , t h e d i r e c t a g e n t of t h e g l o b a l O r d e r ; on t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e r e is " s u p e r n u m e r a r y " u n i v e r s a l i t y , the u n i v e r s a l i t y e m b o d i e d in t h e e l e m e n t w h i c h s t i c k s o u t of t h e e x i s t i n g O r d e r , w h i c h , w h i l e i n t e r n a l to it, h a s n o p r o p e r p l a c e w i t h i n it ( w h a t J a c q u e s R a n c i è r e c a l l s t h e " p a r t of n o - p a r t " ) . N o t o n l y a r e t h e t w o not the s a m e , '

b u t t h e s t r u g g l e i s u l t i m a t e l y a struggle between these two

universalities), not s i m p l y b e t w e e n t h e p a r t i c u l a r e l e m e n t s of the u n i v e r s aUty: not j u s t a b o u t w h i c h p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e n t w i l l " h e g e m o n i z e "

the

e m p t y form of u n i v e r s a l i t y , b u t a s t r u g g l e b e t w e e n t w o exclusive/(7/-RTJ
the

" p e o p l e " e m e r g e s a s a u n i f i e d a g e n t t h r o u g h t h e v e r y a c t of n o m i n a t i o n — t h e r e i s n o t h i n g in t h e h e t e r o g e n e i t y of d e m a n d s t h a t p r e d i s p o s e s t h e m to b e u n i f i e d i n t o a " p e o p l e . " H o w e v e r , M a r x d i s t i n g u i s h e s b e t w e e n the " w o r k i n g c l a s s " a n d t h e " p r o l e t a r i a t " : t h e " w o r k i n g c l a s s " i s i n d e e d a particular social group, w h i l e the "proletariat" designates a subjective position. This is w h y L a c l a u ' s critical d e b a t e a b o u t M a r x ' s opposition

between

proletariat a n d l u m p e n p r o l e t a r l a t also misses the point: the distinction is not o n e b e t w e e n a n o b j e c t i v e s o c i a l g r o u p a n d a n o n - g r o u p , a r e m a i n d e r e x c e s s w i t h n o p r o p e r p l a c e w i t h i n t h e social edifice, b u t a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t w o m o d e s of t h i s r e m a i n d e r - e x c e s s w h i c h g e n e r a t e t w o different s u b j e c t i v e p o s i t i o n s . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n of M a r x ' s a n a l y s i s i s t h a t , paradoxically,

although

the

lumpenproletarlat

seems

more

radically 285

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

" d i s p l a c e d " w i t h r e g a r d to t h e s o c i a l b o d y t h a n t h e p r o l e t a r i a t , it in fact fits m u c h m o r e s m o o t h l y i n t o t h e s o c i a l e d i f i c e : to r e f e r to t h e

Kantian

distinction b e t w e e n n e g a t i v e a n d infinite j u d g m e n t , the l u m p e n p r o l e t a r iat is not t r u l y a n o n - g r o u p ( t h e i m m a n e n t n e g a t i o n of a g r o u p , a g r o u p w h i c h i s a n o n - g r o u p ) , b u t not a g r o u p , a n d its e x c l u s i o n from a l l s t r a t a not o n l y c o n s o l i d a t e s t h e i d e n t i t y of o t h e r g r o u p s , b u t m a k e s it a freefloating

e l e m e n t w h i c h c a n b e u s e d b y a n y s t r a t u m o r c l a s s —it c a n b e the

r a d i c a l i z i n g " c a r n i v a l e s q u e " e l e m e n t of t h e w o r k e r s ' s t r u g g l e , p u s h i n g t h e m from c o m p r o m i s i n g m o d e r a t e s t r a t e g i e s to a n o p e n

confrontation,

o r t h e e l e m e n t w h i c h i s u s e d b y t h e r u l i n g c l a s s to d e n a t u r e from w i t h i n o p p o s i t i o n to i t s r u l e ( t h e l o n g t r a d i t i o n of t h e c r i m i n a l m o b s e r v i n g those in p o w e r ) . T h e w o r k i n g c l a s s , on t h e c o n t r a r y , i s a g r o u p w h i c h i s in itself, M a group w i t h i n t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e , a n o n - g r o u p , t h a t is, w h o s e p o s i t i o n i s i n i t s e l f " c o n t r a d i c t o r y " : it i s a p r o d u c t i v e force, s o c i e t y ( a n d t h o s e i n p o w e r ) n e e d it i n o r d e r to r e p r o d u c e t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e i r r u l e , but, n o n e t h e l e s s , t h e y c a n n o t find a " p r o p e r p l a c e " for it. B a s e d on t h i s m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g , L a c l a u p u t s f o r w a r d a g e n e r a l a r g u ­ ment rendered succinctly by Oliver M a r c h a i t :

on a f o r m a l l e v e l , every p o l i t i c s i s b a s e d on t h e a r t i c u l a t o i y l o g i c s of " a c o m b i n a t i o n a n d c o n d e n s a t i o n of i n c o n s i s t e n t a t t i t u d e s " , not o n l y the p o l i t i c s of f a s c i s m . A s a r e s u l t , t h e f u n d a m e n t a l s o c i a l a n t a g o n i s m w i l l a l w a y s b e d i s p l a c e d to s o m e d e g r e e s i n c e , a s w e h a v e n o t e d e a r l i e r , t h e ontological level —in this case, a n t a g o n i s m — can n e v e r be a p p r o a c h e d d i r e c t l y a n d w i t h o u t p o l i t i c a l m e d i a t i o n . It f o l l o w s t h a t d i s t o r t i o n is c o n s t i t u t i v e for e v e r y p o l i t i c s : p o l i t i c s a s s u c h , n o t o n l y fascist p o l i t i c s , proceeds through

"distortion".^'''

T h i s r e p r o a c h r e m a i n s c a u g h t in the " b i n a r y " tension b e t w e e n essence and a p p e a r a n c e : the fundamental

antagonism n e v e r a p p e a r s as such,

d i r e c t l y , in a t r a n s p a r e n t m a n n e r ( i n M a r x i s t t e r m s : t h e " p u r e " r e v o l u ­ t i o n a r y s i t u a t i o n in w h i c h a l l social t e n s i o n s w o u l d b e s i m p l i f i e d / r e d u c e d to t h e c l a s s s t r u g g l e n e v e r t a k e s p l a c e , it i s a l w a y s m e d i a t e d b y other^— ethnic, religious, etc. — a n t a g o n i s m s ) . S o : the " e s s e n c e " n e v e r

appears

d i r e c t l y , b u t a l w a y s i n a d i s p l a c e d / d i s t o r t e d w a y . W h i l e t h i s s t a t e m e n t is in p r i n c i p l e t r u e , t h e r e a r e a t l e a s t t w o t h i n g s to a d d to it. F i r s t , if t h i s i s the c a s e , w h y e v e n c o n t i n u e to t a l k a b o u t a " f u n d a m e n t a l s o c i a l a n t a g ­ o n i s m " ? A l l w e h a v e h e r e is a s e r i e s of a n t a g o n i s m s w h i c h ( c a n ) b u i l d a c h a i n of e q u i v a l e n c e s , m e t a p h o r i c a l l y " c o n t a m i n a t i n g " e a c h o t h e r , a n d 286

W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H IN P R A C T I C E

w h i c h a n t a g o n i s m e m e r g e s a s " c e n t r a l " is the contingent

r e s u l t of a

s t r u g g l e for h e g e m o n y . S o d o e s t h i s m e a n t h a t o n e s h o u l d r e j e c t t h e v e r y notion of a " f u n d a m e n t a l a n t a g o n i s m " ( a s L a c l a u d o e s ) ? I w o u l d propose a f l e g e l i a n a n s w e r —let me m a k e this point clear b y (yet

a g a i n ) r e f e r r i n g to o n e of m y s t a n d a r d e x a m p l e s : L y é v i - S t r a u s s ' s

e x e m p l a r y a n a l y s i s , from h i s Structural Anthropology, of t h e s p a t i a l d i s ­ p o s i t i o n of b u i l d i n g s a m o n g s t t h e W i n n e b a g o , o n e of t h e G r e a t

Lake

tribes. The tribe is divided into t w o s u b g r o u p s ("moieties"), "those w h o a r e from a b o v e " a n d " t h o s e w h o a r e from

below"; w h e n w e a s k an

. i n d i v i d u a l to d r a w on a p i e c e of p a p e r , or on s a n d , t h e g r o u n d - p l a n of h e r v i l l a g e ( t h e s p a t i a l d i s p o s i t i o n of c o t t a g e s ) , w e o b t a i n t w o q u i t e different a n s w e r s , d e p e n d i n g on h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p to o n e o r t h e o t h e r

subgroup.

B o t h p e r c e i v e t h e v i l l a g e a s a c i r c l e ; b u t for o n e s u b g r o u p , t h e r e i s w i t h i n t h i s c i r c l e a n o t h e r c i r c l e of c e n t r a l h o u s e s , so t h a t w e h a v e t w o c o n c e n t r i c c i r c l e s , w h i l e for t h e o t h e r s u b g r o u p , t h e c i r c l e i s split i n t o t w o b y a c l e a r d i v i d i n g l i n e . In o t h e r w o r d s , a m e m b e r of t h e first s u b g r o u p ( l e t u s c a l l it " c o n s e r v a t i v e - c o r p o r a t i s t " ) p e r c e i v e s t h e g r o u n d - p l a n of t h e v i l l a g e a s a ring of h o u s e s m o r e o r l e s s s y m m e t r i c a l l y d i s p o s e d a r o u n d t h e c e n t r a l t e m p l e , w h e r e a s a m e m b e r of t h e s e c o n d ( " r e v o l u t i o n a r y - a n t a g o n i s t i c " ) s u b g r o u p p e r c e i v e s h e r v i l l a g e a s t w o d i s t i n c t h e a p s of h o u s e s s e p a r a t e d b y a n i n v i s i b l e frontier. T h e p o i n t L é v i - S t r a u s s w a n t s to m a k e i s t h a t t h i s e x a m p l e s h o u l d in n o w a y e n t i c e u s i n t o c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i s m , a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h the p e r c e p t i o n of s o c i a l s p a c e d e p e n d s on t h e o b s e r v e r ' s g r o u p b e l o n g i n g : t h e v e r y s p l i t into t h e t w o " r e l a t i v e " p e r c e p t i o n s constant—not the

objective,

implies a hidden

"actual" disposition

reference

to

a

of b u i l d i n g s b u t

a

t r a u m a t i c k e r n e l , a f u n d a m e n t a l a n t a g o n i s m t h e i n h a b i t a n t s of t h e v i l l a g e w e r e u n a b l e to s y m b o l i z e , to a c c o u n t for, to " i n t e r n a l i z e , " to c o m e to t e r m s w i t h , a n i m b a l a n c e in s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s t h a t p r e v e n t e d t h e c o m m u ­ n i t y from s t a b i l i z i n g i t s e l f i n t o a h a r m o n i o u s w h o l e . T h e t w o p e r c e p t i o n s of t h e g r o u n d - p l a n a r e s i m p l y t w o m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e e n d e a v o r s to c o p e w i t h t h i s t r a u m a t i c a n t a g o n i s m , to h e a l its w o u n d v i a t h e i m p o s i t i o n of a b a l a n c e d s y m b o l i c s t r u c t u r e . It i s h e r e t h a t o n e c a n s e e in w h a t p r e c i s e sense the R e a l intervenes through actual," "objective," arrangement

anamorphosis. of t h e

houses,

W e h a v e first and

t h e n its

the two

different s y m b o l i z a t i o n s w h i c h b o t h d i s t o r t in a n a n a m o r p h i c w a y t h e a c t u a l a r r a n g e m e n t . H o w e v e r , t h e " r e a l " is h e r e not t h e a c t u a l a r r a n g e ­ m e n t , b u t t h e t r a u m a t i c c o r e of t h e s o c i a l a n t a g o n i s m w h i c h d i s t o r t s t h e t r i b e m e m b e r s ' v i e w of t h e a c t u a l a n t a g o n i s m . T h e R e a l is t h u s

the 287

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

d i s a v o w e d X on a c c o u n t of w h i c h o u r v i s i o n of r e a h t y i s a n a m o r p h i c a l l y d i s t o r t e d . It i s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t h e T h i n g to w h i c h d i r e c t a c c e s s i s not p o s s i b l e and t h e o b s t a c l e w h i c h p r e v e n t s t h i s d i r e c t a c c e s s ; t h e

Thing

w h i c h e l u d e s o u r g r a s p and t h e d i s t o r t i n g s c r e e n w h i c h m a k e s u s m i s s t h e T h i n g . M o r e p r e c i s e l y , t h e R e a l i s u l t i m a t e l y t h e v e r y shift of p e r s p e c t i v e from the first to t h e s e c o n d s t a n d p o i n t : t h e L a c a n i a n R e a l is not o n l y d i s t o r t e d , b u t the very principle of the distortion of r e a l i t y . T h i s t h r e e - l e v e l dùpooitif \& s t r i c t l y h o m o l o g o u s to F r e u d ' s t h r e e - l e v e l dispositif of t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

of d r e a m s : for F r e u d , too,

unconscious

d e s i r e in a d r e a m is not s i m p l y its c o r e w h i c h n e v e r a p p e a r s d i r e c t l y , d i s t o r t e d b y t h e t r a n s l a t i o n into t h e m a n i f e s t d r e a m - t e x t , b u t t h e v e r y p r i n c i p l e of t h i s d i s t o r t i o n . T h i s i s h o w , for D e l e u z e , in a s t r i c t c o n c e p t u a l h o m o l o g y , t h e e c o n o m y e x e r t s i t s r o l e of d e t e r m i n i n g t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e "in t h e l a s t i n s t a n c e " : t h e e c o n o m y m this r o l e is n e v e r d i r e c t l y p r e s e n t a s a n a c t u a l c a u s a l a g e n t , its p r e s e n c e i s p u r e l y v i r t u a l , it is t h e social "pseudo-cause," but,

precisely as such, absolute, non-relational,

the

absent cause, something that is n e v e r "in its o w n p l a c e " : "that is w h y 'the e c o n o m i c ' is n e v e r g i v e n p r o p e r l y s p e a k i n g , b u t r a t h e r d e s i g n a t e s a d i f f e r e n t i a l v i r t u a l i t y to b e i n t e r p r e t e d , a l w a y s c o v e r e d o v e r b y its forms of a c t u a l i z a t i o n . " ^ ^ It i s t h e a b s e n t X w h i c h c i r c u l a t e s b e t w e e n

the

m u l t i p l e s e r i e s of t h e s o c i a l field ( e c o n o m i c , p o l i t i c a l , i d e o l o g i c a l , legal . . .), distributing them in their specific artkulxition. O n e s h o u l d t h u s i n s i s t on t h e r a d i c a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e e c o n o m i c a s t h i s v i r t u a l X, t h e a b s o l u t e p o i n t of r e f e r e n c e of t h e s o c i a l field, a n d t h e e c o n o m i c in i t s a c t u a l i t y , a s o n e of t h e e l e m e n t s ( " s u b s y s t e m s " ) of t h e a c t u a l s o c i a l t o t a l i t y : w h e n t h e y e n c o u n t e r e a c h o t h e r , t h a t i s , to p u t it in H e g e l e s e , w h e n t h e v i r t u a l e c o n o m i c e n c o u n t e r s in t h e g u i s e of its a c t u a l c o u n t e r p a r t

i t s e l f in its

" o p p o s i t i o n a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n , " t h i s i d e n t i t y c o i n c i d e s w i t h a b s o l u t e (self-) contradiction. A s L a c a n p u t it in h i s Seminar XI, ii n'y a de caiue que de ce quicbche, t h e r e is n o c a u s e b u t a c a u s e of s o m e t h i n g t h a t s t u m b l e s / s l i p s / f a l t e r s ^ ^ — a t h e s i s w h o s e o b v i o u s l y p a r a d o x i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s e x p l a i n e d w h e n o n e t a k e s into a c c o u n t t h e o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n c a u s e a n d c a u s a l i t y : for L a c a n , t h e y a r e in n o w a y t h e s a m e , s i n c e a " c a u s e , " in t h e s t r i c t s e n s e of t h e t e r m , is p r e c i s e l y s o m e t h i n g w h i c h i n t e r v e n e s at t h e p o i n t s w h e r e t h e n e t w o r k of c a u s a l i t y ( t h e c h a i n of c a u s e s - a n d - e f f e c t s ) f a l t e r s , w h e n t h e r e is a cut, a g a p , in the c a u s a l c h a i n . In t h i s s e n s e , a c a u s e i s for L a c a n , b y definition, a d i s t a n t c a u s e ( a n " a b s e n t c a u s e , " a s o n e u s e d to p u t it in t h e j a r g o n of t h e h a p p y " s t r u c t u r a l i s t " of t h e 1 9 6 0 s a n d 1 9 7 0 s ) : it a c t s in t h e i n t e r s t i c e s of 288

W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H IN P R A C T I C E

t h e d i r e c t c a u s a l n e t w o r k . W h a t L a c a n h a s in m i n d h e r e is s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e w o r k i n g of t h e u n c o n s c i o u s . I m a g i n e a n o r d i n a r y s l i p of t h e t o n g u e : a t a c h e m i s t r y c o n f e r e n c e , s o m e o n e g i v e s a p a p e r a b o u t , s a y , t h e e x c h a n g e of fluids; all of a s u d d e n , h e s t u m b l e s a n d m a k e s a s l i p , b l u r t i n g

out

s o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e p a s s a g e of s p e r m in t h e s e x u a l a c t . . . a n " a t t r a c t o r " from w h a t F r e u d c a l l e d " a n O t h e r S c e n e " I n t e r v e n e s l i k e a t y p e of g r a v i t y , e x e r t i n g its i n v i s i b l e I n f l u e n c e from a d i s t a n c e , c u r v i n g t h e s p a c e of t h e s p e e c h - f l o w , i n t r o d u c i n g a g a p i n t o it. W h a t m a k e s t h i s L a c a n i a n t h e s i s so i n t e r e s t i n g for t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e i s t h a t it a l l o w s u s to a p p r o a c h in a n e w w a y t h e o l d t o p i c of " c a u s a l i t y a n d f r e e d o m " : f r e e d o m is o p p o s e d to c a u s a l i t y , b u t not to t h e c a u s e . T h e s t a n d a r d p o l i t i c a l t r o p e " t h e c a u s e of f r e e d o m " s h o u l d b e t a k e n m o r e l i t e r a l l y t h a n is u s u a l l y i n t e n d e d , i n c l u d i n g both m a i n m e a n i n g s of t h e t e r m " c a u s e , " a c a u s e w h i c h p r o d u c e s effects a n d a p o l i t i c a l c a u s e t h a t m o b i l i z e s u s . P e r h a p s , t h e t w o m e a n i n g s a r e not a s d i s p a r a t e a s t h e y m a y a p p e a r : t h e C a u s e t h a t m o b i l i z e s u s ( t h e " c a u s e of f r e e d o m " ) a c t s a s t h e a b s e n t C a u s e w h i c h d i s t u r b s t h e n e t w o r k of c a u s a l i t y . It is a c a u s e w h i c h m a k e s m e free, e x t r a c t i n g m e from t h e n e t w o r k of c a u s e s - a n d - e f f e c t s . A n d , p e r h a p s , t h i s is a l s o h o w o n e s h o u l d u n d e r s t a n d t h e i n f a m o u s M a r x i s t f o r m u l a of t h e " d e t e r m i n a t i o n in t h e l a s t i n s t a n c e " : t h e o v e r d e t e r m i n i n g i n s t a n c e of " e c o n o m y " i s a l s o a d i s t a n t c a u s e , n e v e r a d i r e c t o n e , t h a t i s , it i n t e r v e n e s in t h e g a p s of d i r e c t s o c i a l c a u s a l i t y . W i t h t h e c l a s s s t r u g g l e , it is t o d a y a l i t t l e b i t l i k e F r e u d ' s p a t i e n t ' s a n s w e r to t h e q u e s t i o n a s to t h e i d e n t i t y of t h e w o m a n in h i s d r e a m : " W h a t e v e r t h i s fight i s a b o u t , it i s not c l a s s s t r u g g l e . . . ( b u t : s e x i s m , c u l t u r a l i n t o l e r a n c e , r e l i g i o u s f u n d a m e n t a l i s m . . . ) . " O n e of t h e s t a n d a r d t o p i c s of p o s t - M a r x i s m i s t h a t , t o d a y , t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s i s no longer t h e " p r e d e s t i n e d " r e v o l u t i o n a r y subject, that c o n t e m p o r a r y

emancipatory

s t r u g g l e s a r e p l u r a l , w i t h n o p a r t i c u l a r a g e n t w h o c a n c l a i m to o c c u p y a p r i v i l e g e d p l a c e . T h e w a y to a n s w e r t h i s r e p r o a c h i s to c o n c e d e e v e n m o r e : t h e r e never was s u c h a p r i v i l e g e of t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s , t h e k e y s t r u c t u r a l r o l e of the w o r k i n g c l a s s d o e s not i m p l y t h i s k i n d of p r i o r i t y . H o w , t h e n , d o e s t h e " d e t e r m i n i n g r o l e of e c o n o m y " function, if it i s not t h e u l t i m a t e r e f e r e n t of t h e social

field?

Imagine a political struggle

f o u g h t in t h e t e r m s of p o p u l a r m u s i c a l c u l t u r e , a s w a s t h e c a s e in s o m e p o s t - " s o c i a l i s t " E a s t e r n E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s in w h i c h t h e t e n s i o n , in t h e field of p o p u l a r m u s i c , b e t w e e n p s e u d o - f o l k a n d r o c k f u n c t i o n e d a s a d i s p l a c e m e n t of t h e t e n s i o n b e t w e e n t h e n a t i o n a l i s t - c o n s e r v a t i v e R i g h t a n d t h e l i b e r a l Left. T o p u t it in o l d - f a s h i o n e d t e r m s : a p o p u l a r - c u l t u r a l 289

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

Struggle " e x p r e s s e d " ( p r o v i d e d t h e t e r m s in w h i c h ) a p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e (was

f o u g h t o u t ) . ( A s in t h e U S t o d a y , w h e r e c o u n t r y m u s i c i s p r e ­

dominantly conservative a n d rock predominantly left-liberal.) Following F r e u d , it is not e n o u g h to s a y t h a t t h e s t r u g g l e in p o p u l a r m u s i c w a s h e r e o n l y a s e c o n d a r y e x p r e s s i o n , a s y m p t o m , a n e n c o d e d t r a n s l a t i o n , of the political struggle, w h i c h w a s w h a t the w h o l e thing " w a s r e a l l y about." B o t h s t r u g g l e s h a v e a s u b s t a n c e of t h e i r o w n : t h e c u l t u r a l s t r u g g l e is not just a secondary phenomenon,

a b a t t l e f i e l d of s h a d o w s to b e " d e c i ­

p h e r e d " for its p o l i t i c a l c o n n o t a t i o n ( w h i c h , a s a r u l e , i s o b v i o u s e n o u g h ) . T h e " d e t e r m i n i n g r o l e of t h e e c o n o m y " d o e s not m e a n t h a t , in t h i s c a s e , w h a t a l l t h e fuss " r e a l l y w a s a b o u t " w a s t h e e c o n o m i c s t r u g g l e , so t h a t w e should imagine the economy a s a hidden

meta-Essence

which

then

" e x p r e s s e s " i t s e l f w i t h a t w o - l e v e l - d i s t a n c e in a c u l t u r a l s t r u g g l e (it d e t e r m i n e s p o l i t i c s , w h i c h in t u r n

determines culture . . . ) . On

the

c o n t r a r y , t h e e c o n o m y i n s c r i b e s i t s e l f i n t h e c o u r s e of t h e v e r y t r a n s l a tion/transposrtion

of t h e

political s t r u g g l e into

the

popular-cultural

s t r u g g l e , i n t o h o w t h i s t r a n s p o s i t i o n is n e v e r d i r e c t , b u t a l w a y s d i s p l a c e d , a s y m m e t r i c a l . T h e " c l a s s " c o n n o t a t i o n a s it i s e n c o d e d i n c u l t u r a l " w a y s of l i f e " c a n often t u r n a r o u n d t h e e x p l i c i t p o l i t i c a l c o n n o t a t i o n — r e c a l l h o w , in t h e f a m o u s p r e s i d e n t i a l T V d e b a t e in 1 9 5 9 r e s p o n s i b l e

for

N i x o n ' s defeat, it w a s t h e l i b e r a l K e n n e d y w h o w a s p e r c e i v e d a s a n upper-class patrician, w h i l e the rightist Nixon appeared as his opponent of m o r e h u m b l e o r i g i n s . T h i s , of c o u r s e , d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t t h e s e c o n d opposition

simply belies the

first

o n e , t h a t it s t a n d s for t h e

"truth"

o b f u s c a t e d b y t h e first, n a m e l y , t h a t K e n n e d y w h o , in h i s p u b l i c s t a t e ­ m e n t s , p r e s e n t e d h i m s e l f a s N i x o n ' s p r o g r e s s i v e - l i b e r a l o p p o n e n t , i n fact signaled t h r o u g h his life-style features enacted in the d e b a t e that he w a s " r e a l l y " s i m p l y a n u p p e r - c l a s s p a t r i c i a n ; b u t it d o e s m e a n t h a t

the

d i s p l a c e m e n t b e a r s w i t n e s s to t h e l i m i t a t i o n of K e n n e d y ' s p r o g r e s s i v i s m , t h a t i s , it d o e s p o i n t t o w a r d s t h e c o n t r a d i c t o r y n a t u r e of ideologico-polltical position.

Kennedy's

A n d it i s h e r e t h a t t h e d e t e r m i n i n g in­

s t a n c e of t h e " e c o n o m y " e n t e r s : t h e e c o n o m i c i s t h e a b s e n t c a u s e t h a t a c c o u n t s for

the d i s p l a c e m e n t in r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ,

for t h e

asymmetry

( r e v e r s a l , in t h i s c a s e ) b e t w e e n the t w o s e r i e s , t h e c o u p l e p r o g r e s s i v e / conservative politics a n d the couple u p p e r / m i d d l e class. T h e L a c l a u i a n s o l u t i o n w o u l d h a v e b e e n to c o n c e i v e s u c h

"contam­

i n a t i o n s " a s t h e e n c h a i n m e n t of a n t a g o n i s m s into a c o n t i n g e n t s e r i e s of e q u i v a l e n c e s : t h e fact t h a t t h e p o l i t i c a l o p p o s i t i o n L e f t / R i g h t " c o n t a m ­ i n a t e s " t h e p o p u l a r m u s i c a l o p p o s i t i o n of r o c k a n d c o u n t r y i s a c o n t i n g e n t 290

W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H I N P R A C T I C E

r e s u l t of t h e s t r u g g l e for h e g e m o n y , n a m e l y , t h a t t h e r e is no

inner

n e c e s s i i y for r o c k to be p r o g r e s s i v e o r for c o u n t r y to b e c o n s e r v a t i v e . There

is, however,

an

a s y m m e t r y here

that is obfuscated

by

this

s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d s o l u t i o n : t h e p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e i s not o n e a m o n g o t h e r s t r u g g l e s ( i n a s e r i e s a l o n g s i d e a r t i s t i c , e c o n o m i c , r e l i g i o u s , etc., s t r u g ­ g l e s ) ; it i s t h e p u r e l y f o r m a l p r i n c i p l e of a n t a g o n i s t i c s t r u g g l e a s s u c h . T h a t i s to s a y , t h e r e i s n o p r o p e r c o n t e n t of p o l i t i c s ; a l l p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e s a n d d e c i s i o n s c o n c e r n o t h e r s p e c i f i c s p h e r e s of s o c i a l life ( t a x a t i o n , t h e r e g u l a t i o n of s e x u a l m o r e s a n d p r o c r e a t i o n , t h e h e a l t h s e r v i c e , a n d so on a n d so f o r t h ) — " p o l i t i c s " i s m e r e l y a f o r m a l m o d e of d e a l i n g w i t h t h e s e t o p i c s , Insofar a s t h e y e m e r g e a s t o p i c s of p u b l i c s t r u g g l e a n d d e c i s i o n . T h i s i s w h y " e v e r y t h i n g i s (or, r a t h e r , c a n b e c o m e ) p o l i t i c a l " —Insofar a s it b e c o m e s a s t a k e in p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e . T h e " e c o n o m y , " on t h e

other

h a n d , i s not j u s t o n e of t h e s p h e r e s of p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e , b u t t h e " c a u s e " of the m u t u a l c o n t a m i n a t i o n - e x p r e s s i o n of s t r u g g l e s . To p u t it s u c c i n c t l y , L e f t - R i g h t i s t h e M a s t e r - S i g n i f i e r " c o n t a m i n a t e d " b y t h e s e r i e s of o t h e r o p p o s i t i o n s , w h i l e t h e e c o n o m y is t h e objet a, t h e e l u s i v e o b j e c t t h a t sustains this contamination

( a n d w h e n that contamination is d i r e c t l y

e c o n o m i c , t h e e c o n o m y e n c o u n t e r s Itself in its o p p o s i t i o n a l d e t e r m i n a ­ tion). P o l i t i c s i s t h u s a n a m e for t h e d i s t a n c e of t h e " e c o n o m y " from itself. Its space is opened u p b y the g a p that separates the economic a s the absent C a u s e from t h e e c o n o m y in its " o p p o s i t i o n a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n , " a s o n e of t h e e l e m e n t s of t h e s o c i a l t o t a l i t y : t h e r e i s p o l i t i c s hecaiue t h e e c o n o m y i s "non-all," b e c a u s e the economic is an "impotent" i m p a s s i v e p s e u d o c a u s e . T h e e c o n o m i c i s t h u s h e r e d o u b l y I n s c r i b e d in t h e p r e c i s e s e n s e w h i c h d e f i n e s t h e L a c a n i a n R e a l : it i s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t h e h a r d

core

e x p r e s s e d " in o t h e r s t r u g g l e s t h r o u g h d i s p l a c e m e n t s a n d o t h e r f o r m s of d i s t o r t i o n , a n d t h e v e r y s t r u c t u r i n g p r i n c i p l e of t h e s e d i s t o r t i o n s . In its l o n g a n d t w i s t e d h i s t o r y , JVLarxist s o c i a l h e r m e n e u t i c s h a s r e l i e d on t w o l o g i c s w h i c h , a l t h o u g h often c o n f o u n d e d u n d e r t h e a m b i g u o u s s h a r e d t e r m of t h e " e c o n o m i c c l a s s s t r u g g l e , " a r e c o m p l e t e l y different. O n t h e o n e h a n d , t h e r e i s t h e ( i n ) f a m o u s " e c o n o m i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of history": all struggles, artistic, ideological, political, a r e u l t i m a t e l y con­ ditioned b y the economic ("class") struggle, w h i c h is their secret m e a n i n g to b e d e c i p h e r e d . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , " e v e r y t h i n g i s p o l i t i c a l , " t h a t i s , t h e M a r x i s t v i e w of h i s t o r y i s t h o r o u g h l y p o l i t i c i z e d : t h e r e a r e no s o c i a l , i d e o l o g i c a l , c u l t u r a l , a n d o t h e r p h e n o m e n a t h a t a r e not " c o n t a m i n a t e d " b y t h e b a s i c p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e , a n d t h i s g o e s e v e n for the e c o n o m y —the 291

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

i l l u s i o n of " t r a d e u n i o n i s m " is p r e c i s e l y t h a t t h e w o r k e r s ' s t r u g g l e c a n b e d e p o l i t i c i z e d , r e d u c e d to a p u r e l y e c o n o m i c n e g o t i a t i o n for b e t t e r w o r k c o n d i t i o n s a n d so on. H o w e v e r , t h e s e t w o " c o n t a m i n a t i o n s " — t h e e c o ­ n o m i c d e t e r m i n e s e v e r y t h i n g " i n l a s t i n s t a n c e "; " e v e r y t h i n g i s politi­ c a l " — d o not o b e y the s a m e l o g i c . T h e " e c o n o m y " w i t h o u t t h e e x - t i m a t e p o l i t i c a l c o r e ( " c l a s s s t r u g g l e " ) w o u l d be a p o s i t i v e s o c i a l m a t r i x of d e v e l o p m e n t , a s it i s in t h e ( p s e u d o - ) M a r x i s t e v o l u t i o n a r y - h i s t o r i c i s t notion of d e v e l o p m e n t to w h i c h M a r x h i m s e l f c a m e d a n g e r o u s l y c l o s e in his " P r e f a c e " to t h e Critique of PoUtical Economy:

In t h e s o c i a l p r o d u c t i o n of t h e i r e x i s t e n c e , m e n i n e v i t a b l y e n t e r into d e f i n i t e r e l a t i o n s , w h i c h a r e I n d e p e n d e n t of t h e i r w i l l , n a m e l y r e l a t i o n s of p r o d u c t i o n a p p r o p r i a t e to a g i v e n s t a g e in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of their m a t e r i a l forces of p r o d u c t i o n . T h e t o t a l i t y of t h e s e r e l a t i o n s of p r o d u c ­ tion c o n s t i t u t e s t h e e c o n o m i c s t r u c t u r e of s o c i e t y , t h e r e a l f o u n d a t i o n , on w h i c h a r i s e s a l e g a l a n d p o l i t i c a l s u p e r s t r u c t u r e a n d to w h i c h correspond

definite forms

of s o c i a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h e

mode

of

p r o d u c t i o n of m a t e r i a l life c o n d i t i o n s t h e g e n e r a l p r o c e s s of s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l life. It i s n o t t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o l m e n t h a t determines their existence, but their social existence that determines t h e i r c o n s c i o u s n e s s . A t a c e r t a i n s t a g e of d e v e l o p m e n t , t h e m a t e r i a l p r o d u c t i v e forces of s o c i e t y c o m e i n t o c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e

existing

r e l a t i o n s of p r o d u c t i o n o r — t h i s m e r e l y e x p r e s s e s t h e s a m e t h i n g in l e g a l terms—^with t h e p r o p e r t y r e l a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k

of

w h i c h t h e y h a v e o p e r a t e d h i t h e r t o . F r o m f o r m s of d e v e l o p m e n t of the p r o d u c t i v e forces t h e s e r e l a t i o n s t u r n into t h e i r f e t t e r s . b e g i n s a n e r a of s o c i a l r e v o l u t i o n . T h e c h a n g e s in t h e f o u n d a t i o n l e a d s o o n e r or l a t e r to t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n

Then

economic

of t h e w h o l e

immense superstructure. In s t u d y i n g s u c h t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s it i s a l w a y s n e c e s s a r y to d i s t i n ­ g u i s h b e t w e e n t h e m a t e r i a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of t h e e c o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n s of p r o d u c t i o n , w h i c h c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d w i t h t h e p r e c i s i o n of n a t u r a l s c i e n c e , a n d t h e l e g a l , p o l i t i c a l , r e l i g i o u s , a r t i s t i c o r p h i l o s o p h i c — in short, i d e o l o g i c a l f o r m s in w h i c h m e n b e c o m e c o n s c i o u s of t h i s conflict a n d fight it out. J u s t a s o n e d o e s n o t j u d g e a n i n d i v i d u a l b y w h a t h e t h i n k s a b o u t h i m s e l f so o n e c a n n o t j u d g e s u c h a p e r i o d of t r a n s f o r m a ­ tion b y its c o n s c i o u s n e s s , but, on t h e c o n t r a r y , t h i s c o n s c i o u s n e s s m u s t b e e x p l a i n e d from t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s of m a t e r i a l life, from t h e conflict e x i s t i n g b e t w e e n t h e s o c i a l forces of p r o d u c t i o n a n d t h e r e l a t i o n s of 292

W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H I N P R A C T I C E

production. No social o r d e r is e v e r d e s t r o y e d before all the productive forces for w h i c h it is sufficient h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d , a n d n e w s u p e r i o r r e l a t i o n s of p r o d u c t i o n n e v e r r e p l a c e o l d e r o n e s b e f o r e t h e m a t e r i a l c o n d i t i o n s for t h e i r e x i s t e n c e h a v e m a t u r e d w i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k of t h e old s o c i e t y . ^ ' T h e e v o l u t i o n i s t l o g i c of t h e s e l i n e s is c l e a r : t h e " m o t o r " of s o c i a l p r o g r e s s Is t h e a p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e forces a n d m e a n s of p r o d u c t i o n ; t h e y d e t e r m i n e t h e r e l a t i o n s of p r o d u c t i o n , a n d so on. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , " p u r e " p o l i t i c s , " d e c o n t a m i n a t e d " from t h e e c o n omy, is no less ideological: v u l g a r economism a n d ideologico-political i d e i d i s m a r e t w o s i d e s of t h e s a m e c o i n . T h e s t r u c t u r e i s h e r e t h a t of a n i n w a r d l o o p : t h e " c l a s s s t r u g g l e " is p o l i t i c s in t h e v e r y h e a r t of t h e e c o n o m i c . Or,

to p u t it p a r a d o x i c a l l y , o n e c a n r e d u c e a l l p o l i t i c a l ,

j u r i d i c a l , c u l t u r a l c o n t e n t to t h e " e c o n o m i c b a s e , " " d e c i p h e r i n g " it a s i t s " e x p r e s s i o n " — a l l except c l a s s s t r u g g l e , w h i c h i s t h e p o l i t i c a l in t h e economic itself Mutatis mutandis, t h e s a m e h o l d s for p s y c h o a n a l y s i s : a l l d r e a m s h a v e s e x u a l c o n t e n t except e x p l i c i t l y s e x u a l d r e a m s — w h y ? B e c a u s e t h e s e x u a l i z a t i o n of a c o n t e x t i s formal, t h e p r i n c i p l e of its d i s t o r t i o n : t h r o u g h r e p e t i t i o n , t h e o b l i q u e a p p r o a c h , a n d so on, e v e r y t o p i c — i n c l u s i v e of s e x u a l i t y i t s e l f — i s s e x u a l i z e d . T h e u l t i m a t e p r o p e r l y F r e u d i a n l e s s o n Is t h a t t h e e x p l o s i o n of h u m a n s y m b o l i c c a p a c i t i e s d o e s n o t m e r e l y e x p a n d the metaphoric

s c o p e of s e x u a l i t y ( a c t i v i t i e s t h a t a r e in t h e m s e l v e s

thoroughly a s e x u a l can b e c o m e " s e x u a l i z e d , " e v e r y t h i n g can be "erotic i z e d " a n d s t a r t to " m e a n t h a t " ) , but, m u c h m o r e i m p o r t a n t l y ,

this

e x p l o s i o n sexuaLizes sexuality itself: t h e s p e c i f i c q u a l i t y of h u m a n s e x u a l i t y hïis n o t h i n g to d o w i t h t h e i m m e d i a t e , r a t h e r s t u p i d , r e a l i t y of c o p u l a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g the p r e p a r a t o r y m a t i n g r i t u a l s ; it i s o n l y w h e n a n i m a l c o u p l i n g g e t s c a u g h t in t h e s e l f - r e f e r e n t i a l v i c i o u s c i r c l e of t h e d r i v e , in

the

p r o t r a c t e d r e p e t i t i o n of its f a i l u r e to r e a c h t h e i m p o s s i b l e T h i n g , t h a t W e h a v e w h a t w e c a l l s e x u a l i t y , t h a t i s , t h a t s e x u a l a c t i v i t y itself b e c o m e s s e x u a l i z e d . In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e fact t h a t s e x u a l i t y c a n spill o v e r a n d function a s a m e t a p h o r i c c o n t e n t of e v e r y ( o t h e r ) h u m a n a c t i v i t y i s not a s i g n of its p o w e r b u t , on t h e c o n t r a r y , a s i g n of its i m p o t e n c e , f a i l u r e , its inherent b l o c k a g e . The class s t r u g g l e is thus a u n i q u e m e d i a t i n g term w h i c h , w h i l e m o o r i n g p o l i t i c s in t h e e c o n o m y ( a l l p o l i t i c s i s " u l t i m a t e l y " a n e x p r e s s i o n of c l a s s s t r u g g l e ) , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y s t a n d s for t h e i r r e d u c i b l e p o l i t i c a l m o m e n t in t h e v e r y h e a r t of t h e e c o n o m i c . 293

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

Drawing the line T h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h e s e c o n c e p t u a l e l a b o r a t i o n s for t h e d i l e m m a of the " d i r e c t e x p r e s s i o n of t h e u n i v e r s a l o r its c o n s t i t u t i v e d i s t o r t i o n " a r e c l e a r . L a c l a u ' s b a s i c p o l i t i c a l a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t m e is that, d u e to m y r i g i d c l a s s r e d u c t i o n i s t p s e u d o - r e v o l u t i o n a r y v i s i o n , I a m c o n d e m n e d to " w a i t i n g for t h e M a r t i a n s " : s i n c e t h e c o n d i t i o n s I set for r e v o l u t i o n a r y a g e n t s " a r e s p e c i f i e d w i t h i n s u c h a r i g i d g e o m e t r y of s o c i a l effects t h a t n o e m p i r i c a l a c t o r c a n fit t h e b i l l . " H o w e v e r , i n o r d e r to s u s t a i n t h e a p p e a r a n c e t h a t I a m t a l k i n g a b o u t r e a l a g e n t s , 1 h a v e t o h a v e r e c o u r s e t o t h e " p r o c e s s of ' M a r t i a n i z a t i o n ' ": "to a t t r i b u t e t o a c t u a l l y e x i s t i n g s u b j e c t s t h e

most

a b s u r d f e a t u r e s , w h i l e k e e p i n g t h e i r n a m e s so t h a t t h e i l l u s i o n of a c o n t a c t w i t h r e a l i t y i s m a i n t a i n e d . " O n e c a n n o t b u t t a k e n o t e of h o w c l o s e this p r o c e s s m o c k i n g l y d e s c r i b e d b y L a c l a u a s " M a r t i a n i z a t i o n " r e s e m b l e s his o w n t h e o r y of h e g e m o n y : a n e m p i r i c a l e v e n t is " e l e v a t e d to t h e d i g n i t y of t h e T h i n g , " it s t a r t s t o f u n c t i o n

as the embodiment

of t h e i m p o s s i b l e

f u l l n e s s of S o c i e t y . R e f e r r i n g to J o a n C o p j e c , L a c l a u c o m p a r e s h e g e ­ mony

to

mutandié,

the

"breast-value" attached

i s h i s t h e s i s not

that,

since

to

partial objects:

Martians

are

so,

nuitatLi

impossible

but

n e c e s s a r y , i n t h e p r o c e s s of h e g e m o n y , a n e m p i r i c a l s o c i a l e l e m e n t i s invested w i t h " M a r t i a n value"—-the difference

between me and

him

b e i n g that I ( a m s u p p o s e d to) b e l i e v e in real M a r t i a n s , w h i l e h e k n o w s t h a t t h e p l a c e of M a r t i a n s i s f o r e v e r e m p t y , so t h a t all w e c a n d o is i n v e s t empirical agents with "Martian value'"/ It is L a c l a u w h o is h e r e ( l i k e K a n t ) a l l too n a i v e in h i s c r i t i c a l s t a n c e , n a m e l y , in h i s a s s e r t i o n of t h e i r r e d u c i b l e g a p b e t w e e n e m p t y u n i v e r s a l i t y a n d its distorted representation. F r o m m y H e g e l i a n standpoint, this g a p c a n b e o v e r c o m e . H o w ? N o t t h r o u g h t h e a r r i v a l of a n a d e q u a t e d i r e c t p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e u n i v e r s a l , b u t so t h a t dittortion site of unwersalily:

aj euch b aMerted oti the

u n i v e r s a l i t y appearo a s t h e d i s t o r t i o n of the p a r t i c u l a r —

in a n e x a c t h o m o l o g y w i t h F r e u d ' s l o g i c of d r e a m s , w h e r e t h e " u n i v e r s a l " u n c o n s c i o u s d e s i r e ( w h i c h , to p u t it i n M a r x i s t t e r m s , d e t e r m i n e s

the

d r e a m " i n t h e l a s t i n s t a n c e " ) i s not t h e c o r e of t h e d r e a m e x p r e s s e d in t h e d r e a m ' s t e x t in a d i s p l a c e d / d i s t o r t e d form, b u t t h e p r o c e s s of t h e d i s ­ t o r t i o n itself. In t h i s p r e c i s e s e n s e , it i s w r o n g to s a y t h a t t h e " c e n t r a l " s o c i a l a n t a g o n i s m ( " c l a s s s t r u g g l e " ) i s a l w a y s e x p r e s s e d / a r t i c u l a t e d in a d i s t o r t e d / d i s p l a c e d w a y : it i s t h e v e r y principle of t h i s d i s t o r t i o n . C o n s e ­ quently, true "class politics" has nothing w h a t s o e v e r to do w i t h focusing e x c l u s i v e l y on c l a s s s t r u g g l e a n d r e d u c i n g a l l p a r t i c u l a r s t r u g g l e s to 294

W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H I N P R A C T I C E

s e c o n d a r y e x p r e s s i o n s a n d effects of t h e o n e a n d o n l y " t r u e " s t r u g g l e . L e t u s r e t u r n to M a o ' s " O n C o n t r a d i c t i o n " : h i s m a i n c l a i m t h e r e i s that, in each concrete

s i t u a t i o n , a different

"particular" contradiction

is the

p r e d o m i n a n t one, in t h e p r e c i s e s e n s e that, in o r d e r to w i n t h e b a t t l e for t h e r e s o l u t i o n of t h e p r i n c i p a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n , particular contradiction

as the predominant

one should treat

one, to w h i c h all

a

other

struggles should be subordinated. But the question remains: w h y does the economic o c c u p y this struc­ t u r i n g r o l e ? A g a i n , a h o m o l o g y w i t h p s j ' c h o a n a l y s i s c o u l d h e l p u s to c l a r i f y m a t t e r s , s i n c e o n e c a n ( a n d often d o e s ) r a i s e e x a c t l y t h e s a m e o b j e c t i o n a g a i n s t F r e u d : w h y i s it u n c o n s c i o u s d e s i r e w h i c h " o v e r d e t e r m i n e s " t h e e n t a n g l e m e n t of a l l o t h e r d r e a m - w i s h e s of s e x u a l n a t u r e ? W h y s h o u l d w e not a s s e r t o p e n i n t e r a c t i o n in w h i c h t h e p r e d o m i n a n t r o l e of a s p e c i f i c w i s h i s i t s e l f t h e r e s u l t of a " s t r u g g l e for h e g e m o n y " b e t w e e n different w i s h e s ? Is t h e c e n t r a l r o l e ol s e x u a l i t y not a c l e a r r e m i n d e r of F r e u d ' s " s e x u a l e s s e n t i a l i s m , " in a n e x a c t p a r a l l e l to M a r x ' s " e c o n o m i c e s s e n t i a l i s m " ? T h e a n s w e r i s s i m p l e for a t r u e F r e u d i a n : s e x u a l i t y s p i l l s o v e r all o t h e r c o n t e n t s , e v e r y c o n t e n t c a n b e " s e x u a l i z e d , " b e c a u s e of s e x u a l i t y s i n h e r e n t f a i l u r e ( " t h e r e is n o s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p " ) ; t h a t i s to s a y , t h e c e n t r a l e v e n t in t h e b e c o m i n g - h u m a n of h u m a n o i d s w a s "s3mib o l i c c a s t r a t i o n , " t h e i m p o s i t i o n of t h e b a r of i m p o s s i b i l i t y w h i c h e x ­ t r a c t e d s e x u a l i t y from t h e d o m a i n of i n s t i n c t u a l s a t i s f a c t i o n s r e g u l a t e d b y s e a s o n a l r h y t h m s , t r a n s f o r m i n g it i n t o a " m e t a - p h y s i c a l " infinite s e a r c h for t h e i m p o s s i b l e T h i n g . T h e F r e u d i a n h y p o t h e s i s is t h u s t h a t s e x u a l i t y is not j u s t o n e among t h e p o s s i b l e i n n u e n d o s ( c o n n o t a t i o n s ) of e v e r y s p e e c h ; it i s , m u c h m o r e s t r o n g l y , inherent to the form of connotation as such: t h e v e r y fact t h a t s o m e t h i n g " m e a n s m u c h m o r e t h a n it s e e m s " s e x u a l i z e s It, t h a t i s , s y m b o l i c c a s t r a t i o n s u s t a i n s t h e v e r y i n d e t e r m i n a c y of the s p a c e in w h i c h c o n n o t a t i o n s c a n float a r o u n d . ' ' ^ A n d t h e M a r x i s t h 3 ^ o t h e s i s i s that, mutatis mutandis, t h e s a m e g o e s for t h e " e c o n o m y , " for the c o l l e c t i v e p r o c e s s of p r o d u c t i o n : t h e social o r g a n i z a t i o n of p r o d u c t i o n ( t h e " m o d e of p r o d u c t i o n " ) i s not j u s t o n e a m o n g m a n y l e v e l s of s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . It i s t h e site of " c o n t r a d i c t i o n , " of s t r u c t u r a l i n s t a b i l i t y , of t h e c e n t r a l social a n t a g o n i s m ("there is no class r e l a t i o n s h i p " ) , w h i c h , a s such, spills over into all other levels. N o w w e c a n also a n s w e r the reproach that c o m m o d i t y fetishism relies On t h e o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n t h e d i r e c t e x p r e s s i o n of a n i d e a (or a s u b j e c t ) a n d its d i s t o r t e d m e t a p h o r i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . L e t m e e x p l a i n t h i s p o i n t b y r e f e r r i n g to t h e t h e s i s that, t o d a y , w e l i v e in a p o s t - i d e o l o g i c a l w o r l d . 295

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

T h e r e a r e t w o w a y s to u n d e r s t a n d t h i s t h e s i s : e i t h e r w e t a k e it in a n a i v e p o s t - p o h t i c a l s e n s e ( f i n a l l y l i b e r a t e d from t h e b u r d e n of g r e a t i d e o l o g i c a l n a r r a t i v e s a n d c a u s e s , w e c a n d e d i c a t e o u r s e l v e s to p r a g m a t i c a l l y s o l v i n g r e a l p r o b l e m s ) , o r in a m o r e c r i t i c a l w a y , a s a s i g n of t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y predominant

form

of c y n i c i s m ( p o w e r n o l o n g e r n e e d s a

consistent

i d e o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e to l e g i t i m i z e i t s r u l e ; it c a n afford to d i r e c t l y state the

o b v i o u s t r u t h —the s e a r c h

for

profits,

the

brutal

imposition

of

e c o n o m i c i n t e r e s t s ) . A c c o r d i n g to t h e s e c o n d r e a d i n g , t h e r e is n o l o n g e r a n e e d for t h e r e f i n e d p r o c e d u r e of Ideologiekritik, for a

"symptomal

r e a d i n g " t h a t d e t e c t s t h e f a u l t s in a n i d e o l o g i c a l e d i f i c e : s u c h a p r o c e d u r e k n o c k s at an open door, since the t h o r o u g h l y c y n i c a l p o w e r discourse c o n c e d e s a l l t h i s in a d v a n c e , l i k e t h e a n a l y s a n d of t o d a y w h o c a l m l y a c c e p t s t h e a n a l y s t ' s s u g g e s t i o n s a b o u t h i s i n n e r m o s t o b s c e n e d e s i r e s , no longer shocked by anything. Is t h i s r e a l l y t h e c a s e ? If it i s , t h e n [deologiekritik a n d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a r e u l t i m a t e l y of no u s e , s i n c e t h e w a g e r of t h e i r i n t e r p r e t i v e p r o c e d u r e is t h a t t h e s u b j e c t cannot o p e n l y a d m i t a n d r e a l l y a s s u m e t h e t r u t h a b o u t w h a t s h e i s d o i n g . H o w e v e r , p s y c h o a n a l y s i s o p e n s u p a w a y to u n m a s k t h i s a p p a r e n t p r o o f of its u s e l e s s n e s s , b y d e t e c t i n g , b e n e a t h t h e d e c e p t i v e o p e n n e s s of p o s t - i d e o l o g i c a l c y n i c i s m , the c o n t o u r s of f e t i s h i s m , a n d t h u s o p p o s i n g t h e fetishiitic m o d e of i d e o l o g y , w h i c h p r e d o m i n a t e s in o u r a l l e g e d l y " p o s t - i d e o l o g i c a l " e r a , to its t r a d i t i o n a l ogmptomal m o d e , in w h i c h t h e i d e o l o g i c a l l i e w h i c h s t r u c t u r e s o u r p e r c e p t i o n of r e a l i t y is t h r e a t e n e d b y s y m p t o m s qua " r e t u r n s of t h e r e p r e s s e d , " c r a c k s in the f a b r i c of t h e i d e o l o g i c a l l i e . T h e fetish i s e f f e c t i v e l y a k i n d of enver,i of the s y m p t o m . T h a t is to s a y , t h e s y m p t o m i s t h e e x c e p t i o n w h i c h d i s t u r b s the s u r f a c e of false a p p e a r a n c e , t h e p o i n t at w h i c h t h e r e p r e s s e d O t h e r S c e n e e r u p t s , w h i l e the fetish i s t h e e m b o d i m e n t of t h e lie w h i c h e n a b l e s u s to s u s t a i n t h e u n b e a r a b l e t r u t h . L e t u s t a k e the c a s e of t h e d e a t h of a b e l o v e d p e r s o n : i n t h e c a s e of a s y m p t o m , I " r e p r e s s " t h i s d e a t h , I t i y not to t h i n k a b o u t it, b u t t h e r e p r e s s e d t r a u m a r e t u r n s in t h e s y m p t o m ; in t h e c a s e of a fetish, o n t h e c o n t r a r y , I " r a t i o n a l l y " f u l l y a c c e p t this d e a t h , a n d y e t I c l i n g to t h e fetish, to s o m e f e a t u r e t h a t e m b o d i e s for m e t h e d i s a v o w a l of t h i s d e a t h . In t h i s s e n s e , a fetish c a n p l a y a v e r y c o n s t r u c t i v e r o l e b y a l l o w i n g u s to c o p e w i t h t h e h a r s h r e a l i t y . F e t i s h i s t s a r e n o t d r e a m e r s lost in t h e i r p r i v a t e w o r l d s , t h e y a r e t h o r o u g h l y " r e a l i s t , " a b l e to a c c e p t the w a y t h i n g s e f f e c t i v e l y a r e — s i n c e t h e y h a v e t h e i r fetish to w h i c h t h e y c a n c l i n g in o r d e r to c a n c e l the full i m p a c t of r e a l i t y . There 296

is a wonderful

e a r l y short

story

by

Patricia

Highsmith,

W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H IN P R A C T I C E

"Button," about a middle-class N e w Y o r k e r w h o lives with his intellec­ tually i m p a i r e d n i n e - y e a r - o l d son w h o b a b b l e s m e a n i n g l e s s s o u n d s a l l t h e time a n d s m i l e s , w i t h s a l i v a d r o o l i n g from h i s m o u t h . L a t e o n e e v e n i n g , unable to e n d u r e t h e s i t u a t i o n a n y l o n g e r , t h e m a i n c h a r a c t e r d e c i d e s to take a w a l k in t h e l o n e l y M a n h a t t a n s t r e e t s w h e r e h e s t u m b l e s u p o n a destitute h o m e l e s s b e g g a r w h o p l e a d i n g l y e x t e n d s h i s h a n d t o w a r d s h i m . In an a c t of i n e x p l i c a b l e fury, the h e r o b e a t s t h e b e g g a r to d e a t h a n d t e a r s a button from h i s j a c k e t . A f t e r w a r d s , h e r e t u r n s h o m e a c h a n g e d m a n , e n d u r i n g h i s f a m i l y n i g h t m a r e s e r e n e l y , c a p a b l e of e v e n a k i n d s m i l e for his h a n d i c a p p e d son; h e k e e p s t h i s b u t t o n a l l t h e t i m e in t h e p o c k e t of h i s trousers—^a p e r f e c t

fetish,

the e m b o d i e d

d i s a v o w a l of h i s

miserable

r e a l i t y , t h e c o n s t a n t r e m i n d e r t h a t , at l e a s t o n c e , h e h a d b e e n a b l e to strike b a c k a g a i n s t h i s m i s e r a b l e d e s t i n y . In StcuUxind, A n n a F u n d e r d e s c r i b e s a n e v e n c r a z i e r c a s e of t h e fetish w h i c h o c c u r r e d in t h e r e a l life of H ä g e n K o c h , t h e G D R S t a s i officer w h o attracted t h e a t t e n t i o n of t h e w o r l d ' s m e d i a on A u g u s t 13, 1 9 6 1 , w h e n t h e G D R a u t h o r i t i e s s t a r t e d to b u i l d t h e B e r l i n W a l l .

His (dubious) honor

w a s a s t h e m a n w h o l i t e r a l l y d r e w t h e l i n e of t h e W a i l : a w o r k e r in t h e m a p d e p a r t m e n t of t h e S t a s i , h e w a s o r d e r e d to m a r k w i t h w h i t e p a i n t t h e e x a c t l i n e t h a t s e p a r a t e s E a s t from W e s t B e r l i n , so t h a t t h e W a l l c o u l d then b e c o n s t r u c t e d a t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e p l a c e . F o r a w h o l e d a y , h e w a s Seen and p h o t o g r a p h e d , w a l k i n g s l o w l y w i t h o n e foot in t h e E a s t a n d t h e other in t h e W e s t a n d d r a w i n g t h e l i n e . It i s a s if t h i s i n - b e t w e e n p o s i t i o n somehow symbolized his basic attitude t o w a r d s political reality: he w a s l e a d i n g a life full of c o m p r o m i s e s a n d h e s i t a t i o n s , o s c i l l a t i n g b e t w e e n fidelity to t h e G D R

r e g i m e a n d a c t s of s m a l l r e b e l l i o n ( a m o n g

things, h e m a r r i e d a g i r l from a n o n - C o m m u n i s t

other

f a m i l y in s p i t e of t h e

opposition of h i s S t a s i s u p e r i o r s ) . F i n a l l y , h e g o t s i c k a n d t i r e d of h i s S t a s i job, a s k e d for a transfer, a n d w a s a l l o w e d to m o v e to a p o s t in t h e r e g u l a r army. A t t h i s p r e c i s e p o i n t in h i s life, h e c o m m i t t e d s o m e t h i n g of a n a c t . W h e n e m p t y i n g h i s office in t h e S t a s i b u i l d i n g , h e n o t i c e d for t h e

first

t i m e a c h e a p , k i t s c h g o l d - p a i n t e d p l a s t i c p l a t e h a n g i n g on t h e w a l l b y h i s desk, a r i d i c u l o u s official r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e h o n o r a b l e t h i r d p l a c e h i s u n i t had Won in t h e S t a s i r a n k i n g for w o r k in c u l t u r e . H e s m u g g l e d t h i s p l a t e out b e n e a t h h i s c o a t a s h i s a c t of " s m a l l p r i v a t e r e v e n g e " for all t h e c o m p r o m i s e s a n d h u m i l i a t i o n s of h i s life — s t e a l i n g t h i s p l a t e w a s t h e o n l y t h i n g for w h i c h h e c o u l d s u m m o n e n o u g h c o u r a g e . H e d r e w t h e l i n e h e r e , this t i m e Hterally, a n d h e h e l d it — b e c a u s e , to h i s s u r p r i s e a n d a s befits the 297

JN

u t h t N S E

OF LOST CAUSES

G e r m a n b u r e a u c r a c y , t h e r e w e r e r e a c t i o n s to a n d c o n s e q u e n c e s of h i s act, m o r e n u m e r o u s a n d s t r o n g e r t h a n h e h a d e x p e c t e d . First, t h r e e w e e k s l a t e r , t w o S t a s i s u p e r i o r officers v i s i t e d h i m at h o m e , a c c u s e d h i m of s t e a l i n g t h e p l a t e a n d d e m a n d e d t h a t h e r e t u r n it. H e d e n i e d it a n d , u p o n r e q u e s t , s i g n e d a s w o r n s t a t e m e n t t h a t h e h a d not t a k e n it. T h e n , y e a r s l a t e r , after die. Wende, h e i m p r o v i s e d in h i s a p a r t m e n t a small p r i v a t e m u s e u m about the W a l l , w h e r e things w e r e presented from t h e E a s t e r n p e r s p e c t i v e . S i n c e h e w a s a l s o k n o w n a s t h e p e r s o n w h o h a d d r a w n t h e h n e of t h e W a l l in 1 9 6 1 , t h i s c a u s e d s o m e i n t e r e s t a n d , in 1 9 9 3 , h e w a s i n t e r v i e w e d in h i s flat on T V , w i t h t h e s t o l e n p l a t e h a n g i n g on t h e w a l l b e h i n d h i m . A t e c h n i c i a n a s k e d h i m to r e m o v e t h e p l a t e b e c a u s e it r e f l e c t e d t h e l i g h t a n d c a u s e d t o o m u c h g l i t t e r ; K o c h f u r i o u s l y r e f u s e d to d o it: "I'll d o a n y t h i n g for y o u , b u t t h e p l a t e w i l l s t a y w h e r e it i s . " T h e p l a t e s t a y e d t h e r e . H o w e v e r , a c o u p l e of d a y s l a t e r , after the r e p o r t on h i s m u s e u m w a s s h o w n on T V , a T r e u h a n d a g e n t ( T r e u h a n d w a s t h e f e d e r a l a g e n c y d e a l i n g w i t h t h e fate of G D R

state p r o p e r t y )

a p p e a r e d a t h i s d o o r , a g a i n d e m a n d i n g t h e p l a t e : a c c o r d i n g to t h e n e w l a w , G D R s t a t e p r o p e r t y h a d n o w b e c o m e t h e p r o p e r t y of t h e u n i t e d F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c of G e r m a n y , a n d , s i n c e h e h a d stolen t h e p l a t e , h e n o w h a d to r e t u r n it. K o c h f u r i o u s l y t h r e w the a g e n t out; t h e a g e n t left w i t h t h r e a t s of a c o u r t p r o c e d u r e . W e e k s l a t e r , t h e a g e n t a g a i n v i s i t e d h i m . Informing h i m t h a t t h e c h a r g e s of t h e theft of s t a t e p r o p e r t y a g a m s t h i m h a d b e e n d r o p p e d ( t h e s t o l e n o b j e c t w a s of m i n i m a l v a l u e , a n d h i s c r i m e h a d t a k e n p l a c e y e a r s e a r l i e r , so t h a t t h e d e a d l i n e for a j u d i c i a l a c t i o n h a d p a s s e d long a g o ) . H o w e v e r , the a g e n t informed him, there w a s n o w a n e w c h a r g e r a i s e d a g a i n s t h i m , t h e c h a r g e of false t e s t i m o n y (to t h e S t a s i , s i n c e , d e c a d e s a g o , h e h a d s i g n e d t h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t h e h a d not stolen t h e p l a t e ) , a n d t h i s false s w o r n s t a t e m e n t still w a s a p u n i s h a b l e c r i m e . Koch t h r e w t h e a g e n t o u t a g a i n , b u t h i s t r o u b l e s c o n t i n u e d : b e c a u s e of r u m o r s t h a t h e w a s a thief, h i s c a r e e r s u f f e r e d a n d h i s w i f e e v e n lost h e r j o b . . . A s K o c h p u t it to A n n a F u n d e r : " A l l t h e c o u r a g e I h a d i s in t h a t p l a t e . T h e w h o l e s h i t t y l i t t l e s k e r r i c k of it. T h a t ' s a l l I h a d , t h a t p l a t e s t a y s t h e r e . " This i s a fetish a t i t s p u r e s t : a t i n y s t u p i d o b j e c t to w h i c h I c l i n g a n d w h i c h a l l o w s m e to e n d u r e a l l t h e d i r t y c o m p r o m i s e s of m y life. D o w e not a l l h a v e , in o n e o r a n o t h e r form, s u c h f e t i s h e s ? T h e y c a n b e o u r i n n e r s p i r i t u a l e x p e r i e n c e s ( w h i c h tell u s t h a t o u r s o c i a l r e a l i t y is m e r e a p p e a r a n c e w h i c h d o e s n o t r e a l l y m a t t e r ) , o u r c h i l d r e n (for w h o s e g o o d w e d o a l l t h e h u m i l i a t i n g t h i n g s in o u r j o b s ) , a n d s o on a n d s o forth. L e t u s t u r n to t h e s t a n d a r d r e p r o a c h t h a t c o m m o d i t y f e t i s h i s m r e l i e s on 298

W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H IN P R A C T I C E

t h e o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n d i r e c t e x p r e s s i o n of a n i d e a ( o r a s u b j e c t ) a n d i t s d i s t o r t e d m e t a p h o r i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n : t h i s r e p r o a c h o n l y h o l d s if o n e s t i c k s to t h e s i m p l i s t i c n o t i o n of t h e fetish a s a n i l l u s i o n o b f u s c a t i n g t h e t r u e state of t h i n g s . In p s y c h i a t r i c c i r c l e s , t h e r e is a s t o r y t o l d a b o u t a m a n whose wife w a s diagnosed with acute breast cancer and w h o died three m o n t h s l a t e r ; t h e h u s b a n d s u r v i v e d h e r d e a t h u n s c a t h e d , b e i n g a b l e to talk coolly about his traumatic last moments w i t h h e r — h o w ? W a s he a cold, d i s t a n t , a n d u n f e e l i n g m o n s t e r ? S o o n , h i s f r i e n d s n o t i c e d that, w h i l e t a l k i n g a b o u t h i s d e c e a s e d w i f e , h e a l w a y s h e l d a h a m s t e r in h i s h a n d s , h e r p e t o b j e c t a n d n o w h i s fetish, t h e e m b o d i e d d i s a v o w a l of h e r d e a t h . N o w o n d e r t h a t , w h e n , a c o u p l e of m o n t h s l a t e r , t h e h a m s t e r d i e d , t h e m a n b r o k e d o w n a n d h a d t o b e h o s p i t a l i z e d for a l o n g p e r i o d , t r e a t e d for a c u t e d e p r e s s i o n . S o , w h e n w e a r e b o m b a r d e d b y c l a i m s t h a t in o u r p o s t ideological c y n i c a l e r a n o b o d y believes in the proclaimed ideals, w h e n w e encounter

a person

w h o claims he has been

cured

of a n y b e l i e f s ,

a c c e p t i n g s o c i a l r e a l i t y t h e w a y it r e a l l y i s , o n e s h o u l d a l w a y s

counter

s u c h c l a i m s w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n : O K , b u t where w your hanuter—the fetLih which enabled you to (pretend to) accept reality "the way it Li "? A n d d o e s e x a c t l y t h e s a m e n o t h o l d for t h e M a r x i a n c o n c e p t of c o m m o d i t y f e t i s h i s m ? H e r e i s t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g of t h e f a m o u s s u b d i v i s i o n A of t h e first c h a p t e r of Capital, on " T h e F e t i s h i s m of t h e C o m m o d i t y a n d i t s S e c r e t " :

A c o m m o d i t y a p p e a r s a t first s i g h t a n e x t r e m e l y o b v i o u s , t r i v i a l t h i n g . B u t i t s a n a l y s i s b r i n g s o u t t h a t it i s a v e r y s t r a n g e t h i n g , a b o u n d i n g in metaphysical subtleties a n d theological niceties.' ' These lines should surprise us, since t h e y invert the standard

procedure

for d e m y s t i f y i n g a t h e o l o g i c a l m y t h , t h a t of r e d u c i n g it to i t s t e r r e s t r i a l b a s e : M a r x d o e s n o t c l a i m , in t h e u s u a l m a n n e r

of

Enlightenment

critique, that critical analysis should demonstrate h o w w h a t appears a m y s t e r i o u s t h e o l o g i c a l e n t i t y e m e r g e d o u t of " o r d i n a r y " r e a l - l i f e p r o c e s s ; h e c l a i m s , on t h e c o n t r a r y , t h a t t h e t a s k of c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s is to u n e a r t h t h e " m e t a p h y s i c a l s u b t l e t i e s a n d t h e o l o g i c a l n i c e t i e s " in w h a t a p p e a r s a t first s i g h t j u s t a n o r d i n a r y object. In o t h e r w o r d s , w h e n a c r i t i c a l M a r x i s t e n c o u n t e r s a b o u r g e o i s s u b j e c t i m m e r s e d In c o m m o d i t y fetishism, t h e M a r x i s t ' s r e p r o a c h to h i m is n o t " T h e c o m m o d i t y m a y s e e m to y o u to b e a m a g i c a l o b j e c t e n d o w e d w i t h s p e c i a l p o w e r s , b u t i t r e a l l y is j u s t a reified e x p r e s s i o n of r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n

people." The M a r x i s t ' s reproach is,

r a t h e r , " Y o u m a y t h i n k t h a t t h e c o m m o d i t y a p p e a r s to y o u a s a s i m p l e 299

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

e m b o d i m e n t of s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s (that, l o r e x a m p l e , m o n e y is j u s t a k i n d of v o u c h e r e n t i t l i n g y o u to a p a r t of t h e s o c i a l p r o d u c t ) , b u t t h i s i s not h o w t h m g s r e a l l y s e e m to y o u — in y o u r s o c i a l r e a l i t y , b y m e a n s of y o u r p a r t i c i p a t i o n in s o c i a l e x c h a n g e , y o u b e a r w i t n e s s to t h e u n c a n n y fact t h a t a c o m m o d i t y r e a l l y a p p e a r s to y o u a s a m a g i c a l object e n d o w e d w i t h special powers." It is in t h i s p r e c i s e s e n s e t h a t t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y e r a is p e r h a p s less atheistic than

any prior

o n e : w e a r e a l l r e a d y to i n d u l g e in

utter

s k e p t i c i s m , c y n i c a l d i s t a n c e , e x p l o i t a t i o n of o t h e r s " w i t h o u t a n y i l l u ­ s i o n s , " v i o l a t i o n s of a l l e t h i c a l c o n s t r a i n t s , e x t r e m e s e x u a l p r a c t i c e s , a n d so on a n d so f o r t h — p r o t e c t e d b y t h e s i l e n t a w a r e n e s s t h a t t h e b i g O t h e r is i g n o r a n t a b o u t it. N i e l s B o h r p r o v i d e d t h e p e r f e c t e x a m p l e of h o w this f e t i s h i s t i c d i s a v o w a l of b e l i e f w o r k s in i d e o l o g y . S e e i n g a

horseshoe

h a n g i n g a b o v e t h e e n t r a n c e to B o h r ' s c o u n t r y h o u s e , a s u r p r i s e d v i s i t o r s a i d t h a t h e d i d not b e l i e v e in t h e s u p e r s t i t i o n t h a t t h e h o r s e s h o e k e e p s t h e b a d s p i r i t s o u t of t h e h o u s e a n d b r i n g s l u c k , to w h i c h B o h r s n a p p e d b a c k : " N o r d o I b e l i e v e in it; I h a v e it t h e r e b e c a u s e I w a s t o l d t h a t it a l s o w o r k s if o n e d o e s not b e l i e v e in i t ! " F e t i s h i s m d o e s not o p e r a t e a t the l e v e l of " m y s t i f i c a t i o n " a n d

"distorted

knowledge": what

is literally

" d i s p l a c e d " i n t h e fetish, t r a n s f e r r e d o n t o it, i s n o t k n o w l e d g e b u t

illiunon

ddelf, t h e b e l i e f t h r e a t e n e d b y k n o w l e d g e . F a r from o b f u s c a t i n g " r e a l i s t i c " k n o w l e d g e of h o w t h i n g s a r e , t h e fetish i s , on t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e m e a n s t h a t e n a b l e s t h e s u b j e c t to a c c e p t t h i s k n o w l e d g e w i t h o u t p a y i n g t h e full p r i c e for it: "I k n o w v e r y w e l l [ h o w t h i n g s r e a l l y s t a n d ] , a n d I a m a b l e to e n d u r e t h i s b i t t e r t r u t h b e c a u s e of a fetish ( a h a m s t e r , a b u t t o n . . . ) in w h i c h t h e i l l u s i o n to w h i c h I s t i c k i s e m b o d i e d . " A l t h o u g h , at a p u r e l y f o r m a l l e v e l , t h e fetish a l s o i n v o l v e s a g e s t u r e of t r a n s f e r e n c e ( o n t o t h e fetish o b j e c t ) , it f u n c t i o n s a s a n e x a c t i n v e r s i o n of the

standard

formula

of t r a n s f e r e n c e

(with the subject supposed

to

k n o w ) : w h a t t h e fetish g i v e s b o d y to is p r e c i s e l y m y d i s a v o w a l of k n o w l e d g e , m y r e f u s a l to s u b j e c t i v e l y a s s u m e w h a t I k n o w .

Therein­

to e m p h a s i z e a p o i n t I m a d e e a r l i e r — r e s i d e s t h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n

the

fetish a n d t h e s y m p t o m : a s y m p t o m e m b o d i e s a r e p r e s s e d k n o w l e d g e , t h e t r u t h a b o u t t h e s u b j e c t t h a t t h e s u b j e c t i s not r e a d y to a s s u m e . In a c e r t a i n k i n d of C h r i s t i a n i t y , C h r i s t h i m s e l f i s e l e v a t e d i n t o a fetish, i n s o f a r a s h e is s u p p o s e d to b e t h e i n n o c e n t s u b j e c t w h o i g n o r e s t h e w i c k e d w a y s of t h e world. This

d i a l e c t i c of f e t i s h i s m

r e a c h e s its a p o g e e

in t o d a y ' s

"virtual

c a p i t a l i s m . " C a p i t a l i s m a s s u c h e n t a i l s t h e r a d i c a l s e c u l a r i z a t i o n of social 300

W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H IN P R A C T I C E

l i f e — i t m e r c i l e s s l y t e a r s a p a r t a l l a u r a of a u t h e n t i c n o b i l i t y , s a c r e d n e s s , h o n o r , etc.: It h a s d r o w n e d t h e m o s t h e a v e n l y e c s t a s i e s of r e l i g i o u s fervor,

of

c h i v a l r o u s e n t h u s i a s m , of p h i l i s t i n e s e n t i m e n t a l i s m , in t h e i c y w a t e r of e g o t i s t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n . It h a s r e s o l v e d p e r s o n a l w o r t h i n t o e x c h a n g e v a l u e , a n d in p l a c e of t h e n u m b e r l e s s i n d e f e a s i b l e c h a r t e r e d f r e e d o m s , h a s set u p t h a t s i n g l e , u n c o n s c i o n a b l e f r e e d o m — F r e e T r a d e . In o n e w o r d , for e x p l o i t a t i o n , v e i l e d b y r e l i g i o u s a n d p o l i t i c a l i l l u s i o n s , it h a s substituted n a k e d , shameless, direct, brutal exploitation.^^

H o w e v e r , t h e f u n d a m e n t a l l e s s o n of t h e " c r i t i q u e of p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y " e l a b o r a t e d b y t h e m a t u r e M a r x in t h e y e a r s after t h e Manifesto is t h a t t h i s r e d u c t i o n of a l l h e a v e n l y c h i m e r a e to t h e b r u t a l e c o n o m i c r e a l i t y g e n ­ e r a t e s a s p e c t r a l i t y of its o w n . W h e n

M a r x describes the m a d

self-

e n h a n c i n g c i r c u l a t i o n of c a p i t a l , w h o s e s o l i p s i s t i c p a t h of s e l f - f e c u n d a t i o n r e a c h e s its a p o g e e in t o d a y ' s m e t a - r e f l e x i v e s p e c u l a t i o n on f u t u r e s , it is far too s i m p l i s t i c to c l a i m t h a t t h e

s p e c t e r of t h i s

self-engendering

m o n s t e r t h a t p u r s u e s its p a t h d i s r e g a r d i n g a n y h u m a n o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n c e r n i s a n i d e o l o g i c a l a b s t r a c t i o n , a n d t h a t o n e s h o u l d n e v e r forget that, b e h i n d t h i s a b s t r a c t i o n , t h e r e a r e r e a l p e o p l e a n d n a t u r a l o b j e c t s on w h o s e p r o d u c t i v e capacities a n d r e s o u r c e s capital's circulation is b a s e d a n d on w h i c h it f e e d s i t s e l f l i k e a g i g a n t i c p a r a s i t e . T h e p r o b l e m i s t h a t t h i s " a b s t r a c t i o n " is not o n l y in o u r ( t h e

financial

speculator's) mlsper­

c e p t l o n of social r e a l i t y , b u t t h a t it i s " r e a l " in t h e p r e c i s e s e n s e of d e t e r m i n i n g t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e v e r y m a t e r i a l s o c i a l p r o c e s s e s : t h e fate of w h o l e s t r a t a of p o p u l a t i o n a n d s o m e t i m e s of w h o l e c o u n t r i e s c a n b e d e c i d e d b y t h e " s o l i p s i s t i c " s p e c u l a t i v e d a n c e of c a p i t a l , w h i c h p u r s u e s its g o a l of p r o f i t a b i l i t y in b l e s s e d i n d i f f e r e n c e a s to h o w its m o v e m e n t w i l l affect s o c i a l r e a l i t y . T o d a y i s t h i s not m o r e t r u e t h a n e v e r ? D o

phenom­

ena u s u a l l y designated as "virtual capitalism" (futures trading and similar abstract

financial

s p e c u l a t i o n s ) not p o i n t t o w a r d s t h e r e i g n of t h e " r e a l

a b s t r a c t i o n " a t its p u r e s t , m u c h m o r e r a d i c a l l y t h a n in M a r x ' s t i m e ? In short, t h e h i g h e s t form of i d e o l o g y d o e s n o t r e s i d e in g e t t i n g c a u g h t u p in t h e i d e o l o g i c a l s p e c t r a l i t y , f o r g e t t i n g a b o u t its f o u n d a t i o n in r e a l p e o p l e a n d t h e i r r e l a t i o n s , b u t p r e c i s e l y m o v e r l o o k i n g t h i s R e a l of s p e c t r a l i t y and

in p r e t e n d i n g

to a d d r e s s

directly "real people

with their

real

w o r r i e s . " V i s i t o r s to t h e L o n d o n S t o c k E x c h a n g e g e t a free leaflet w h i c h e x p l a i n s to t h e m t h a t t h e s t o c k m a r k e t is not a b o u t s o m e

mysterious 30!

IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S

fluctuations, its

b u t a b o u t r e a l p e o p l e a n d t h e i r products—thid i s i d e o l o g y at

purest. T h e s t a n d a r d M a r x i s t topic of " r e i f i c a t i o n " a n d " c o m m o d i t y f e t i s h i s m "

still r e l i e s o n t h e n o t i o n

of t h e fetish a s a solid o b j e c t w h o s e

stable

presence obfuscates its social mediation. P a r a d o x i c a l l y , fetishism r e a c h e s its a c m e p r e c i s e l y w h e n t h e fetish itself i s " d e m a t e r i a l i z e d , " t u r n e d into a fluid " i m m a t e r i a l " v i r t u a l e n t i t y ; m o n e y fetishism w i l l c u l m i n a t e w i t h the p a s s a g e to i t s e l e c t r o n i c form, w h e n t h e l a s t t r a c e s of its m a t e r i a l i t y w i l l d i s a p p e a r ^—electronic m o n e y i s the t h i r d form, after " r e a l " m o n e y w h i c h directly embodies

its v a l u e

(gold, silver)

and paper

money

which,

a l t h o u g h a " m e r e s i g n " w i t h n o i n t r i n s i c v a l u e , still c l i n g s to i t s m a t e r i a l e x i s t e n c e . A n d it i s o n l y a t t h i s s t a g e , w h e n m o n e y b e c o m e s a p u r e l y v i r t u a l p o i n t of r e f e r e n c e , t h a t it f i n a l l y a s s u m e s the form of a n i n d e s ­ tructible spectral presence: 1 o w e y o u $1,000, a n d no matter h o w m a n y material notes

I burn,

I still o w e y o u $ 1 , 0 0 0 , t h e d e b t i s i n s c r i b e d

s o m e w h e r e i n t h e v i r t u a l d i g i t a l s p a c e . . . It i s o n l y w i t h t h i s t h o r o u g h ­ g o i n g " d e m a t e r l a l l z a t l o n , " w h e n M a r x ' s c l a i m from t h e Manifesto that, u n d e r c a p i t a l i s m , "all that is solid melts into a i r , " a c q u i r e s a m u c h more l i t e r a l m e a n i n g t h a n t h e o n e M a r x h a d in m i n d , it i s o n l y a t t h i s p o i n t t h a t w h a t D e r r i d a c a l l e d t h e s p e c t r a l a s p e c t of c a p i t a l i s m i s fully a c t u a l i z e d . One should thus reject the enthusiastic claims regarding our

entry

Into a n e w e r a of v i r t u a l c a p i t a l i s m : w h a t t h i s " n e w e r a " m a k e s v i s i b l e i s a v i r t u a l d i m e n s i o n w h i c h w a s h e r e all t h e t i m e . R e c a l l K a n t ' s r e j e c t i o n of t h e o n t o l o g i c a l p r o o f of G o d ' s e x i s t e n c e w h i c h t a k e s a s its s t a r t i n g p o i n t h i s t h e s i s t h a t b e i n g i s not a p r e d i c a t e : if o n e k n o w s a l l p r e d i c a t e s of a n e n t i t y , i t s b e i n g ( e x i s t e n c e ) d o e s not follow, t h a t i s , o n e c o n c l u d e b e i n g from

a notion.

( T h e d e p a r t u r e from

cannot

L e i b n i z is clear

h e r e , a c c o r d i n g to w h o m t w o o b j e c t s a r e i n d i s c e r n i b l e if a l l of t h e i r p r e d i c a t e s a r e t h e s a m e . ) T h e i m p l i c a t i o n for t h e o n t o l o g i c a l p r o o f of G o d i s c l e a r : in t h e s a m e w a y t h a t I c a n h a v e a p e r f e c t n o t i o n of 1 0 0 t h a l e r s a n d still d o n o t h a v e t h e m in m y p o c k e t , I c a n h a v e a p e r f e c t n o t i o n of G o d a n d G o d still d o e s not e x i s t . T h e i r o n y i s t h a t K a n t t a l k s a b o u t t h a l e r s , m o n e y , w h o s e e x i s t e n c e as money i s not " o b j e c t i v e , " b u t d e p e n d s on "notional" determinations. True, a s Kant says, h a v i n g a c o n c e p t of 1 0 0 t h a l e r s i s not t h e s a m e a s h a v i n g t h e m in y o u r p o c k e t ; b u t let u s i m a g i n e a p r o c e s s of r a p i d i n f l a t i o n w h i c h t o t a l l y d e v a l u e s t h e t h a l e r s : y e s , t h e y a r e still t h e r e in m y p o c k e t , b u t t h e y a r e n o l o n g e r m o n e y , j u s t m e a n i n g l e s s , v a l u e l e s s c o i n s . In o t h e r w o r d s , m o n e y is p r e c i s e l y a n o b j e c t w h o s e s t a t u s d e p e n d s on h o w w e " t h i n k " a b o u t it: if 302

W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H IN P R A C T I C E

p e o p l e n o l o n g e r t r e a t t h i s p i e c e of m e t a l a s m o n e y , if t h e y n o l o n g e r " b e l i e v e " in it a s m o n e y , it n o l o n g e r it

money.

T h e l e s s o n of t h e s e p a r a d o x e s is t h e o d d o v e r l a p p i n g of c y n i c i s m a n d beUef. W h i l e c a p i t a l i s m is r e s o l u t e l y " m a t e r i a l i s t i c " ( w h a t u l t i m a t e l y matters is w e a l t h , real p o w e r , p l e a s u r e s , all other things a r e just "noble l i e s , " c h i m e r a e c o v e r i n g u p t h i s h a r d t r u t h ) , t h i s c y n i c a l w i s d o m itself h a s to r e l y on a v a s t n e t w o r k of belief: t h e w h o l e c a p i t a l i s t s y s t e m f u n c t i o n s o n l y i n s o f a r a s o n e p l a y s t h e g a m e a n d " b e l i e v e s " in m o n e y , t a k e s it seriously, and practices a fundamental

trust in o t h e r s w h o a r e a l s o

s u p p o s e d to p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e g a m e . C a p i t a l m a r k e t s , n o w v a l u e d a t a n e s t i m a t e d $ 8 3 t r i l l i o n , e x i s t w i t h i n a s y s t e m b a s e d p u r e l y on

self-

interest, in w h i c h h e r d b e h a v i o r , often b a s e d on r u m o r s , c a n inflate o r d e s t r o y t h e v a l u e of c o m p a n i e s —or w h o l e e c o n o m i e s — i n a m a t t e r of hours. It i s in t h i s v e r y i m b r i c a t i o n of b r u t a l c y n i c i s m w i t h w i d e - e y e d b e l i e f t h a t t h e o b j e c t i v e i r o n y of c a p i t a l i s m r e s i d e s . O n e c a n t h u s i m a g i n e , a s a c o u n t e r p o i n t to t h i s v i r t u a l c a p i t a l i s m in w h i c h " r e e J t h i n g s " t a k e p l a c e a t a p u r e l y v i r t u a l l e v e l of financial t r a n s f e r s , t o t a l l y d i s c o n n e c t e d from o u r o r d i n a r y r e a l i t y , a p u r e l y v i r t u a l c o l l a p s e , t h e c o l l a p s e of v i r t u a l m a r k e t s as a n " e n d of t h e w o r l d " in w h i c h n o t h i n g in o u r m a t e r i a l r e a l i t y w o u l d " r e a l l y c h a n g e " — it i s j u s t t h a t a l l of a s u d d e n , p e o p l e w o u l d r e f u s e to g i v e t h e i r t r u s t , t h e y w o u l d r e f u s e to p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e g a m e . T h a t i s to s a y , t h e v i r t u a l s t a t u s of m o n e y m e a n s t h a t it f u n c t i o n s l i k e a n a t i o n : w h i l e t h e n a t i o n is t h e p e o p l e ' s s u b s t a n c e , t h e c a u s e for w h i c h t h e y a r e ( s o m e t i m e s ) r e a d y to s a c r i f i c e e v e r y t h i n g , it h a s n o s u b s t a n t i a l r e a l i t y of its o w n —it e x i s t s o n l y i n s o f a r a s p e o p l e " b e l i e v e " t h a t it e x i s t s , it i s a C a u s e p o s i t e d r e t r o a c t i v e l y b y i t s o w n effects. O n e s h o u l d t h e n i m a g i n e a s c e n a r i o s i m i l a r to t h e o n e e n v i s a g e d b y S a r a m a g o i n h i s Seeuig (in w h i c h a p e o p l e a l l of a s u d d e n r e f u s e s to p a r t i c i p a t e in v o t i n g ) , o n l y t r a n s p o s e d to t h e e c o n o m i c d o m a i n : p e o p l e r e f u s i n g to p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e

financial

virtual

g a m e . P e r h a p s , s u c h a r e f u s a l w o u l d b e t o d a y t h e u l t i m a t e p o l i t i c a l act.

In " M u r d e r in t h e M e w s , " a n e a r l y A g a t h a C h r i s t i e s t o r y . H e r c u l e P o l r o t i n v e s t i g a t e s t h e d e a t h of M r s A l l e n , f o u n d s h o t in h e r a p a r t m e n t on G u y F a w k e s night. Although her death looks like suicide, numerous details indicate that a m u r d e r is m o r e likely a n d that a c l u m s y attempt has been m a d e to m a k e it l o o k l i k e M r s A l l e n t o o k h e r o w n life. S h e s h a r e d a flat w i t h M i s s P l e n d e r l e i t h w h o w a s a w a y a t t h e t i m e . S o o n a cufflink is f o u n d a t t h e m u r d e r s c e n e a n d i t s o w n e r , M a j o r E u s t a c e , i s i m p l i c a t e d in 303

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

t h e c r i m e . P o i r o t ' s s o l u t i o n i s o n e of t h e b e s t in C h r i s t i e ' s w o r k : it i n v e r t s t h e s t a n d a r d p l o t of a m u r d e r m a d e to l o o k l i k e a s u i c i d e . T h e v i c t i m , w h o , y e a r s a g o , h a d b e e n c a u g h t u p in a s c a n d a l in I n d i a , w h e r e she h a d a l s o m e t E u s t a c e , w a s e n g a g e d to m a r r y a C o n s e r v a t i v e M P . K n o w i n g t h a t t h e p u b l i c e x p o s u r e of h e r s c a n d a l w o u l d r u i n h e r c h a n c e s of m a r r i a g e , E u s t a c e h a d b e e n b l a c k m a i l i n g h e r . In d e s p a i r , M r s A l l e n s h o t herself. C o m i n g h o m e i m m e d i a t e l y after the s u i c i d e . M i s s P l e n d e r leith—who k n e w about Eustace's blackmail and hated him —quickly r e a r r a n g e d d e t a i l s a t t h e s c e n e of t h e d e a t h to m a k e it l o o k a s t h o u g h t h e m u r d e r e r h a d t r i e d c l u m s i l y to p r e s e n t t h e d e a t h a s s u i c i d e , so t h a t E u s t a c e w o u l d b e fully p u n i s h e d for d r i v i n g M r s A l l e n to k i l l herself. T h e s t o r y t h u s t u r n s t h e q u e s t i o n on its h e a d : H o w s h o u l d t h e i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s n o t e d on t h e s c e n e of c r i m e b e r e a d ? Is it a m u r d e r m a s k e d a s s u i c i d e o r a s u i c i d e m a s k e d a s m u r d e r ? T h e stor^' w o r k s b e c a u s e , i n s t e a d of the m u r d e r b e i n g c o v e r e d u p ( t h e u s u a l n a r r a t i v e ) , its a p p e a r a n c e i s s t a g e d , t h a t i s , a c r i m e i s not c o n c e a l e d b u t f a b r i c a t e d a s a l u r e . Is t h i s not w h a t t h e i n s t i g a t o r s of p o p u l i s t v i o l e n c e d o ? In o r d e r to ( r e ) d i r e c t t h e w r a t h of t h e d e c e i v e d c r o w d , t h e y m i s c o n s t r u e s u i c i d e a s c r i m e , in o t h e r w o r d s , t h e y falsify t h e c l u e s so t h a t a c a t a s t r o p h e w h i c h is a " s u i c i d e " ( t h e r e s u l t of i m m a n e n t a n t a g o n i s m s ) a p p e a r s a s t h e w o r k of a c r i m i n a l a g e n t . T h i s i s w h y , to p u t it in N i e t z s c h e a n t e r m s w h i c h a r e h e r e tully appropriate, the ultimate difference between true radical-emanci­ p a t o r y p o l i t i c s a n d p o p u l i s t p o l i t i c s i s t h a t a u t h e n t i c r a d i c a l p o l i t i c s is a c t i v e , i m p o s i n g , e n f o r c i n g its v i s i o n , w h i l e p o p u l i s m is f u n d a m e n t a l l y re­ active, a r e a c t i o n to a d i s t u r b i n g i n t r u d e r . In o t h e r w o r d s ,

populism

r e m a i n s a v e r s i o n of t h e p o l i t i c s of fear: it m o b i l i z e s t h e c r o w d b y w a y of i n v o k i n g the fear of the c o r r u p t

intruder.

The act Is, h o w e v e r , t h i s c r i t i q u e of L a c l a u r e a l l y L a c a n i a n ? Y a n n i s S t a v r a k a k i s ' s The Lacanian Left,

a n a t t e m p t to s u p p l e m e n t L a c l a u ' s a n d

Mouffe's

p r o j e c t of " r a d i c a l d e m o c r a c y " w i t h L a c a n i a n t h e o r y , d i s p u t e s it. A c ­ c o r d i n g to S t a v r a k a k i s , I s t a r t e d off w e l l , b u t t h e n , in m y w o r k , I " m o v e continuously into more bizarre and unfathomable directions."^^ T h e k e y r e p r o a c h c o n c e r n s m y a l l e g e d i d e a l i z a t i o n of A n t i g o n e , of t h e r a d i c a l a u t o n o m y of h e r s u i c i d a l " p u r e " d e s i r e : s u c h a s t a n c e e x c l u d e s h e r from t h e s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l field. I c l a i m t h a t t h e s u b j e c t of a n a c t " r i s k s " a n encounter w i t h death and " m o m e n t a r i l y " s u s p e n d s the symbolic/legal 304

W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H I N P R A C T I C E

f r a m e w o r k , b u t A n t i g o n e c l e a r l y d o e s not m e e t t h e s e c r i t e r i a — s h e not o n l y risks d e a t h , s h e d e s i r e s it: R i s k e n t a i l s a m i n i m u m of s t r a t e g i c o r p r a g m a t i c c a l c u l a t i o n , w h i c h i s s o m e t h i n g a l i e n to A n t i g o n e ' s p u r e d e s i r e . S u s p e n s i o n p r e s u p p o s e s a before a n d a n after, b u t for A n t i g o n e t h e r e i s n o after. In t h a t s e n s e , t h i s w a s n e v e r a c a s e of a n a c t effecting a d i s p l a c e m e n t of t h e s t a t u s q u o . H e r a c t i s a one-off a n d s h e c o u l d n ' t c a r e l e s s a b o u t w h a t w i l l h a p p e n i n t h e poiLi after h e r s u i c i d e .

Really"? F a r from j u s t t h r o w i n g h e r s e l f i n t o t h e a r m s of d e a t h , S o p h o c l e s ' A n t i g o n e i n s i s t s u p to h e r d e a t h o n p e r f o r m i n g

a precise symbolic

g e s t u r e : t h e p r o p e r b u r i a l of h e r b r o t h e r . L i k e Hamlet, Antigone is a d r a m a of a f a i l e d s y m b o l i c r i t u a l — L a c a n i n s i s t e d on t h i s c o n t i n u i t y ( h e a n a l y z e d Hamlet in h i s s e m i n a r t h a t p r e c e d e s The Ethics of PsychoanalysiS). A n t i g o n e d o e s n o t s t a n d for s o m e e x t r a - s y m b o l i c r e a l , b u t for t h e p u r e s i g n i f i e r — h e r " p u r i t y " is t h a t of a s i g n i f i e r . T h i s i s w h y , a l t h o u g h h e r a c t is s u i c i d a l , t h e s t a k e s a r e s y m b o l i c , a n d h e r p e r s i s t e n c e till d e a t h h a s a Cathartic effect n o t o n l y o n u s , t h e p u b l i c , b u t a l s o on t h e T h e b a n p e o p l e t h e m s e l v e s e m b o d i e d in the C h o r u s . S t a v r a k a k i s ' s point here is that I e l e v a t e A n t i g o n e ' s r a d i c a l s u i c i d a l a c t w h i c h e x c l u d e s h e r from t h e s y m b o l i c c o m m u n i t y i n t o t h e m o d e l for a p o l i t i c a l a c t , t h e r e b y i g n o r i n g not o n l y t h a t L a c a n n e v e r c o n c e i v e d A n t i g o n e in t h i s w a y , b u t a l s o t h e l a t e r shifts in h i s p o s i t i o n :

T o focus e x c l u s i v e l y o n L a c a n s c o m m e n t a r y

of A n t i g o n e

would

a m o u n t to I g n o r i n g t h e r a d i c a l shift i n L a c a n s o w n p o s i t i o n f o l l o w i n g t h e Ethics s e m i n a r . C l e a r l y , A n t i g o n e i s n o t L a c a n ' s last^—or m o s t i n s i g h t f u l — w o r d on t h e q u e s t i o n of e t h i c s a n d a g e n c y . H i s p o s i t i o n c o n t i n u e d to d e v e l o p i n a d i r e c t i o n t h a t u n d e r m i n e d h i s e a r l i e r focus on A n t i g o n e ' s p u r e d e s i r e . [. . . ] a n y o n e t a k i n g s e r i o u s l y t h e i m p o r t a n t shift i n L a c a n ' s p o s i t i o n h a s to a b a n d o n A n t i g o n e a s a m o d e l of t h e e t h i c o - p o l i t i c a l a c t , s o m e t h i n g t h a t Z i z e k fails to d o .

S t a v r a k a k i s s e e s a s t r a n g e r e g r e s s i o n i n m y w o r k : in m y e a r l y b o o k s , I m s i s t e d o n t h e " l a c k in t h e O t h e r " a s L a c a n ' s k e y Insight, w h i l e in m y m o r e r e c e n t w o r k , I c r i t i c i z e t h i s notion a s b e l o n g i n g t o d e c o n s t r u c t i o n ism, t h u s h a n d i n g o v e r t o t h e l a t t e r L a c a n ' s m o s t p r e c i o u s i n s i g h t . M y notion

of t h e a c t i n v o l v e s a m i r a c u l o u s e m e r g e n c e of u n c o n d i t i o n a l 305

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

p o s i t i v i t y w h i c h s u s p e n d s l a c k , t h a t i s , I r e l y on a " s t r i c t between

lack, denoting

finitude

and

denoting immortality and positivity.

negativity, and

opposition

divine miracle,

Assuming lack means assuming

n e g a t i v i t y a n d f i n i t u d e , w h i l e I c o n c e i v e the a c t a s a b s o l u t e - p o s i t i v e e t e r n a l , e x t e r n a l to t h e S y m b o l i c ; or, a s P l u t h a n d f i o e n s c l a i m , q u o t e d a p p r o v i n g l y b y S t a v r a k a k i s , " b y n e g l e c t i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e of a n a c t ' s i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h t h e s y m b o l i c , Z i z e k s e e m s to b e s a y i n g t h a t t h e r e a l of a n a c t h a p p e n s w i t h o u t t h e s y m b o l i c . " ^ ^ ( " S e e m s " is a c r u c i a l w o r d h e r e , a n d , a s w e shall see, m S t a v r a k a k i s ' s b o o k too: it r e g i s t e r s h i s o w n d o u b t a b o u t t h e a c c u r a c y of h i s o w n r e a d i n g . ) S u c h a n a b s o l u t i z a t i o n of t h e act, w h i c h e x t r a c t s it from its s o c i o - s y m b o l i c t e x t u r e , a l s o m a k e s it i m p o s s i b l e to d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t r u e a n d false a c t s o r e v e n t s , b e t w e e n e v e n t s and t h e i r s i m u l a c r a ( a s t a n d a r d a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t B a d i o u ) . . . a s if I h a v e not spent pages explaining how

one

can d i s t i n g u i s h

an

event

from

its

s i m u l a c r u m b y w a y of a n a l y z i n g h o w t h e e v e n t r e l a t e s to t h e s y m p t o m a l k n o t , t h e i n s c r i p t i o n of t h e lack in a s i t u a t i o n . S o w h i l e S t a v r a k a k i s ' s g e n e r a l l i n e of a r g u m e n t a t i o n

is t h a t I steer

a w a y from L a c a n u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e of B a d i o u , t h e u l t i m a t e j o k e is, p r e d i c t a b l y , t h a t e v e n B a d i o u i s m o r e L a c a n i a n t h a n m e : w h a t 1 d o not s e e ( a n d t h a t B a d i o u d o e s ) i s t h a t " t h e t r u e p o s i t i v i t y of a r e a l e v e n t d e p e n d s on its i n e x t r i c a b l e r e l a t i o n to t h e v o i d of t h e e v e n t a l site, to a r e g i s t e r i n g of n e g a t i v i t y . " ' N o w o n d e r t h a t I c r i t i c i z e B a d i o u w h e n he w a r n s of t h e t o t a l i t a r i a n d a n g e r of " e n f o r c i n g " a t r u t h on a s i t u a t i o n , of i g n o r i n g t h e " n a m e l e s s , " t h e e x c e s s of t h e m u l t i p l i c i t y of r e a l i t y w h i c h resists being subsumed u n d e r a truth-procedure.

T h i s is w h a t S t a l i n i s m

d i d : in i m p o s i n g f o r c e d c o l l e c t i v i z a t i o n a n d a c e n t r a l i z e d p l a n n e d e c o n ­ o m y , it e n a c t e d its v o l u n t a r i s m w h i c h i g n o r e d t h e i n e r t i a of r e a l i t y — a n d , in a q u i t e c o n s i s t e n t w a y , s i n c e S t a l i n i s m d i d not a d m i t t h i s e x c e s s of t h e " n a m e l e s s , " it h a d to i n t e r p r e t t h e r e s i s t a n c e of r e a l i t y to its p r o j e c t s a s i n t e n t i o n a l counter-revolution.'*'* A n d , a s e x p e c t e d , for S t a v r a k a k i s , this a l s o h o l d s for m y n o t i o n of t h e a c t a s u n c o n d i t i o n a l : i n s o f a r a s it k n o w s no l i m i t a t i o n (for w h i c h B a d i o u a l l o w s w h e n h e w a r n e d a g a i n s t the e x c e s s ol e n f o r c e m e n t ) , it n e c e s s a r i l y l e a d s to a t o t a l i t a r i a n a s s e r t i o n . T h e r e a s o n I find B a d i o u p r o b l e m a t i c h e r e i s t h a t , for m e , s o m e t h i n g is w r o n g w i t h the v e r y notion that one can e x c e s s i v e l y "enforce " a truth: o n e i s a l m o s t t e m p t e d to a p p l y h e r e t h e l o g i c of t h e j o k e q u o t e d b y L a c a n " m y f i a n c é e is n e v e r l a t e for a n a p p o i n t m e n t , b e c a u s e t h e m o m e n t she is late, she is no longer m y fiancée": a T r u t h is n e v e r enforced, b e c a u s e the m o m e n t t h e fidelity' to T r u t h f u n c t i o n s a s a n e x c e s s i v e e n f o r c e m e n t , 306

we

W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H IN P R A C T I C E

a r e n o l o n g e r d e a l i n g w i t h a T r u t h , w i t h f i d e h t y to a T r u t h - E v e n t . In t h e c a s e of S t a l i n i s m , its p r o b l e m w a s not s i m p l y t h a t of " e n f o r c i n g "

the

T r u t h , r u t h l e s s l y i m p o s i n g it o n t o t h e s i t u a t i o n : the p r o b l e m w a s r a t h e r t h a t the "truth" which was enforced—the vis'wn of a centralized planned economy, anddo forth —wchi in itself not a Truth, so t h a t t h e r e s i s t a n c e of r e a l i t y a g a i n s t it w a s a s i g n of its o w n f a l s i t y . T h e s t o r y g o e s on in a p r e d i c t a b l e w a y : m y n o t i o n of a

momentary

m i r a c u l o u s a c t I m p l i e s " a n a c t w i t h o u t after,"''^ t h a t i s , 1 i g n o r e t h e effects of t h e act, i t s i n s c r i p t i o n i n t o t h e s i t u a t i o n . . . a s if I h a v e not w r i t t e n m a n y p a g e s d e v e l o p i n g h o w w h a t m a t t e r s is not the a c t itself b u t " t h e d a y a f t e r , " t h e w a y a n a c t r e a r t i c u l a t e s the s i t u a t i o n . ( F u r t h e r m o r e ,

I am

a c c u s e d of p r i v i l e g i n g p o s i t i v i t y , of o b l i t e r a t i n g n e g a t i v i t y — b u t s u c h a n " a c t w i t h o u t a f t e r , " j u s t a r u p t u r e , a cut, w o u l d h a v e b e e n p r e c i s e l y a p u r e non-positivized negativity.) S o I ignore the l i z a t i o n of l a c k " : " Z i z e k s e e m s

"positivization/institutiona-

\sii-] to d e n y t h e v e r y p o s s i b i l i t y of

i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z i n g l a c k a n d d i v i s i o n , of a r t i c u l a t i n g a positive p o l i t i c a l o r d e r e n c i r c l i n g — b u t n o t n e u t r a l i z i n g — n e g a t i v i t y a n d impossibility"^'^ . . . a s if t h e w h o l e p o i n t of m y r e a d i n g of H e g e l ' s p o l i t i c a l t h o u g h t is not t h a t t h e H e g e l i a n s t a t e i s a n e g a t i v i t y i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d ! A s if m y p r i v i l e g i n g of t h e L e n i n of 1919—22 o v e r t h e L e n i n of 1 9 1 7 i s n o t p r e c i s e l y t h e p r i v i l e g i n g of t h e L e n i n of t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n of a n e w o r d e r w h i c h p o s i t i v i z e s revolutionary negativity! Furthermore, because I ignore negativity, I do not s e e h o w t h e n e g a t i v e g e s t u r e of c r e a t i n g e m p t y s p a c e i s a c o n d i t i o n of a p o s i t i v e act:

P a u l K l e e o n c e s a i d , s p e a k i n g ol JVlondrian: " T o c r e a t e e m p t i n e s s i s t h e principal act. A n d this is true creation, b e c a u s e this emptiness is p o s i t i v e " [. . . ] . In p o l i t i c s , t h i s is the r a d i c a l d e m o c r a t i c a n d t h i s i s w h a t Z i z e k s e e m s \sic\ u n a b l e to

strateg^^

understand.

A s if I h a v e not w r i t t e n p a g e s a n d p a g e s on o p e n i n g u p e m p t y s p a c e , on r e a c h i n g t h e p o i n t a t w h i c h rien n'aura eu lieu que le lieu — s a y , a p r o p o s t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e d e a t h d r i v e a n d s u b l i m a t i o n ( t h e n e g a t i v i t y of t h e d e a t h d r i v e a s t h e c o n d i t i o n of p o s i t i v e s u b l i m a t i o n ) . . . H o w , t h e n , d o e s S t a v r a k a k i s r e a c t to t h e nuusive e v i d e n c e t h a t I h a v e a m p l y d e v e l o p e d all t h e p o i n t s h e r e p r o a c h e s m e for i g n o r i n g ( l a c k in t h e O t h e r , n e g a t i v i t y , s y m b o l i c d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e a c t . . . ) ? I n s t e a d of q u e s t i o n i n g h i s o w n r e a d i n g of m y n o t i o n of t h e act, h e p r o c l a i m s me a p e r v e r t (in t h e o r y ) :

307

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

1 h a v e no i n t e n t i o n to t e a c h Z i z e k L a c a n i a n c o m m o n p l a c e s . 1 t a k e it for g r a n t e d t h a t h e k n o w s t h e m v e r y w e l l , b e t t e r t h a n I d o . But th'u U exactly why it

caiues

me great concern when Zizek hinuelf seenu to forget or

abandon them. It is not b y c o i n c i d e n c e t h a t I h a v e u s e d t h e p s y c h o ­ a n a l y t i c t e r m " d i s a v o w a l " to d e s c r i b e t h i s a t t i t u d e . A s i s w e l l k n o w n , d i s a v o w a l , a s t h e f u n d a m e n t a l o p e r a t i o n of p e r v e r s i o n , i n v o l v e s t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s r e c o g n i t i o n a n d d e n i a l of s o m e t h i n g — i n t h e c l i n i c , of c a s t r a t i o n . In fact, Z i z e k ' s r e s p o n s e s e e m s •

1

•

to c o m e u n d e r this

49

description. T h e s l e i g h t of h a n d i s h e r e t r u l y b r e a t h t a k i n g : e v e r y c o u n t e r - a r g u m e n t of m i n e i s in a d v a n c e d e v a l u e d . I a m a c c u s e d of c l a i m i n g y4; I c i t e p r o o f that I a m not c l a i m i n g y l , a n d t h e a n s w e r i s t h a t I m e r e l y d i s a v o w m y s t i c k i n g to A , t h a t m y r e a s o n i n g i s : "I k n o w v e r y w e l l t h a t A d o e s not h o l d , but, n o n e t h e l e s s , I c o n t i n u e to a c t a s i f / I h o l d s . . . " S o w h e n , at t h e e n d of the c h a p t e r d e d i c a t e d to m y w o r k , S t a v r a k a k i s w r i t e s " W h y d o e s [ Z i z e k ] b y p a s s the w h o l e L a c a n i a n t h e o r i z a t i o n oancel,"

of a n o t h e r

(feminine)

joaLi-

t h e r e i s n o p o i n t d e f e n d i n g m y s e l f b y r e f e r r m g to d o z e n s of

p a g e s in w h i c h I d e a l p r e c i s e l y w i t h

jouuisance

féminine — such

defense

w o u l d b e in a d v a n c e d e v a l u e d a s a p e r v e r s e " r e c i t a l of a b s u r d i t y " " ' ' . . . T h e o n l y p e r v e r t h e r e i s S t a v r a k a k i s himself, w h a t if hi,i u n d e r l y i n g logic is: "I k n o w v e r y w e l l t h a t m y r e p r o a c h e s to Z i z e k a r e m e a n i n g l e s s , b u t 1 c o n t i n u e to s t i c k to t h e m " ? W h a t i f h o w e v e r , S t a v r a k a k i s i s s i m p l y right in h i s c l a i m s a b o u t m y n o t i o n of t h e a c t ? O n w h a t e v i d e n c e a r e these c l a i m s b a s e d ? L l e r e i s a p a s s a g e in w h i c h h e a l l e g e d l y d e m o n s t r a t e s h o w my

w o r k d i s p l a y s " t h e m e c h a n i s m of d i s a v o w a l in its u n m i s t a k a b l e

purity":

C o n s i d e r t h e f o l l o w i n g t w o q u o t a t i o n s . First, Z i z e k a r g u e s that, " i n a s i t u a t i o n l i k e t o d a y ' s , t h e o n l y w a y r e a l l y to r e m a i n o p e n to a r e v o l u ­ t i o n a r y o p p o r t u n i t y i s to r e n o u n c e facile c a l l s to d i r e c t a c t i o n . [. . . ] T h e o n l y w a y to l a y t h e f o u n d a t i o n s for a t r u e , r a d i c a l c h a n g e is to w i t h d r a w from t h e c o m p u l s i o n to act, to 'do n o t h i n g ' — t h u s

opening

u p t h e s p a c e for a d i f f e r e n t k i n d of a c t i v i t y " . [. . . ] T h r e e p a g e s l a t e r h e condemns

t h e r e s i s t a n c e to p o l i t i c a l a c t s a n d t h e o b s e s s i o n

" r a d i c a l E v i l " : "It i s a s if t h e s u p r e m e G o o d t o d a y i s t h a t

with

nothing

s h o u l d h a p p e n " . [. . . ] W h a t i s o n e s u p p o s e d to c o n c l u d e from t h i s ? S u r e l y "to d o n o t h i n g " d o e s not m a k e s e n s e a s a r e m e d y a g a i n s t t h o s e w h o s u p p o s e d l y a r g u e that "nothing should happen"." 308

W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H IN P R A C T I C E

W l i a t o n e r e a l l y c o n c l u d e s from

t h i s p a s s a g e i s t h a t it e x e m p l i f i e s

fniireading "in i t s u n m i s t a k a b l e p u r i t y " : t h e a p p e a r a n c e of c o n t r a d i c t i o n v a n i s h e s t h e m o m e n t w e t a k e into a c c o u n t t h e ( r a t h e r o b v i o u s ) fact t h a t I ajn s y s t e m a t i c a l l y o p p o s i n g true a c t i v i t y ( f i d e l i t y to t h e a c t p r o p e r ) a n d false a c t i v i t y ( w h i c h m e r e l y r e p r o d u c e s t h e e x i s t i n g c o n s t e l l a t i o n —plus ça change, plu,> ça reste le meine,

w e a r e a c t i v e a l l t h e t i m e to m a k e s u r e t h a t

n o t h i n g w i l l c h a n g e ) . T h e c o n d i t i o n for t r u e c h a n g e ( a t r u e a c t ) Is to stop false a c t i v i t y , or, a s B a d i o u p u t s it in a s e n t e n c e 1 q u o t e r e p e a t e d l y : "It i s b e t t e r to d o n o t h i n g t h a n to c o n t r i b u t e to t h e i n v e n t i o n of f o r m a l w a y s of rendering visible that w h i c h Empire a l r e a d y recognizes a s existent."' ' A n o t h e r c a s e : after q u o t i n g p a s s a g e s i n w h i c h I a s s e r t c o n t i n g e n c y (every act is " e m b e d d e d "

in a c o n t i n g e n t

historical situation) a n d

p a s s a g e s in w h i c h I a s s e r t t h e " u n c o n d i t i o n a l " c h a r a c t e r of t h e a c t , Stavrakakis asks: H o w c a n a n a w a r e n e s s of c o n t i n g e n c y b e a n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n for something which actually presupposes

that w e abandon

it a n d i s

l o c a t e d b e y o n d a n y c o n d i t i o n a l i t y : the uncondit'wnal revolut'wnary actl^'^

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , for m e ( a s a H e g e l i a n ) , t h e r e is n o c o n t r a d i c t i o n h e r e : w h a t I r e f e r to a s t h e " u n c o n d i t i o n a l a c t " i s not t h e n o n s e n s e i m p u t e d to m e ( a n a c t o u t s i d e h i s t o r y , o u t s i d e t h e s y m b o l i c ) , b u t s i m p l y the act irreducible to its conditions. S u c h a n a c t Is n o t o n l y r o o t e d in i t s c o n t i n g e n t c o n d i t i o n s , t h e s e v e r y c o n d i t i o n s m a k e it i n t o an a c t : t h e s a m e g e s t u r e , performed at a w r o n g moment (too e a r l y or too late), is n o longer an act. T h e p r o p e r l y d i a l e c t i c a l p a r a d o x h e r e is t h a t w h a t m a k e s a n a c t " u n ­ c o n d i t i o n a l " is its very contingency: if t h e a c t w e r e n e c e s s a r y , t h i s w o u l d m e a n t h a t it i s fully d e t e r m i n e d b y i t s c o n d i t i o n s , t h a t it c a n b e d e d u c e d from t h e m ( a s t h e o p t i m a l v e r s i o n a r r i v e d a t t h r o u g h s t r a t e g i c r e a s o n i n g Or r a t i o n a l - c h o i c e t h e o r y ) . T h e r e i s n o n e e d e v e n to m e n t i o n H e g e l h e r e : D e r r i d a a n d L a c l a u suffice ( i n h i s r e a d i n g of K i e r k e g a a r d , D e r r i d a s p o k e a b o u t t h e " m a d n e s s " of t h e a c t of c h o i c e / d e c i s i o n ) . T h e l i n k b e t w e e n t h e s i t u a t i o n a n d t h e a c t i s t h u s c l e a r : far from b e i n g d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e s i t u a t i o n ( o r from i n t e r v e n i n g i n it from a m j ' s t e r i o u s o u t s i d e ) , a c t s a r e p o s s i b l e o n a c c o u n t of t h e o n t o l o g i c a l n o n - c l o s u r e , i n c o n s i s t e n c y , g a p s , i n a situation. F u r t h e r "proof" of m y p r a c t i c e of f e t i s h i s t i c d i s a v o w a l i s t h e a l l e g e d p e r v e r s e p a r a d o x " of m y r e j e c t i o n of Utopias w h i l e n o n e t h e l e s s c l a i m i n g t h a t t o d a y "it i s m o r e I m p o r t a n t t h a n e v e r to h o l d t h i s Utopian p l a c e of t h e 309

IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S

global alternative o p e n a s

if I h a v e not r e p e a t e d l y e l a b o r a t e d dif-

ferent m e a n i n g s of Utopia: Utopia a s s i m p l e i m a g i n a r y i m p o s s i b i l i t y ( t h e Utopia of a p e r f e c t e d h a r m o n i o u s s o c i a l o r d e r w i t h o u t a n t a g o n i s m s , the c o n s u m e r i s t Utopia of c o n t e m p o r a r y c a p i t a l i s m ) , a n d Utopia in t h e m o r e r a d i c a l s e n s e of e n a c t i n g w h a t , within the framework of the exioting

Mcial

rcLatioiu, a p p e a r s a s " i m p o s s i b l e " — t h i s s e c o n d Utopia i s " a - t o p i c " o n l y w i t h r e g a r d to t h e s e r e l a t i o n s . ^ ^ A n d so on — a l l S t a v r a k a k i s ' s " p r o o f s " r e l y on s u c h m i s r e a d i n g s . C o m m e n t i n g on m y " c l a i m that, i n L a c a n ' s l a t e r v e r s i o n s of the act, t h i s m o m e n t of ' m a d n e s s ' b e y o n d s t r a t e g i c i n t e r v e n tion r e m a i n s , " h e w r i t e s : " I s t h i s i d e a of t h e s u p p o s e d l y u n c o n d i t i o n a l r e a l act, of a n a c t u n b o u n d b y a n y r e l a t i o n to t h e s y m b o l i c field, w h a t d e f i n e s L a c a n ' s notion of t h e a c t ? "

N o t e t h e b r e a t h t a k i n g l y false p a r a p h r a s e :

from t h e c l a i m t h a t a l l a u t h e n t i c a c t s c o n t a i n a " m o m e n t of ' m a d n e s s ' b e y o n d s t r a t e g i c i n t e r v e n t i o n , " a c l a i m f o u n d a l s o in D e r r i d a o r L a c l a u , h e j u m p s to " a n a c t u n b o u n d b y a n y r e l a t i o n to t h e s y m b o l i c field " . . . w i t h s u c h paraphrases, a n y t h i n g c a n b e p r o v e n ! S i n c e S t a v r a k a k i s a l s o a c c u s e s m e of t o t a l l y i g n o r i n g t h e h i s t o r y of M a r x r s m , let m e r e c a l l K a r l K a u t s k y ' s d e f e n s e of m u l t i - p a r t y d e m o c r a c y : K a u t s k y c o n c e i v e d t h e v i c t o r y of s o c i a l i s m a s t h e p a r l i a m e n t a r y victor^' of the S o c i a l - D e m o c r a t i c P a r l y , a n d even suggested that the

appropriate

p o l i t i c a l form of t h e p a s s a g e from c a p i t a l i s m to s o c i a l i s m w o u l d b e t h e p a r l i a m e n t a r y c o a l i t i o n of p r o g r e s s i v e b o u r g e o i s p a r t i e s a n d s o c i a l i s t p a r t i e s . ( O n e i s t e m p t e d to p u s h t h i s l o g i c to t h e b r i n k a n d s u g g e s t that, for K a u t s k y , t h e o n l y a c c e p t a b l e r e v o l u t i o n w o u l d b e o n e t h a t t o o k p l a c e after a r e f e r e n d u m in w h i c h at l e a s t 5 1 p e r c e n t of v o t e r s a p p r o v e d i t . ) In h i s w r i t i n g s of 1 9 1 7 , L e n i n s a v e d h i s u t m o s t a c e r b i c i r o n y for t h o s e w h o e n g a g e in t h e e n d l e s s s e a r c h for s o m e k i n d of " g u a r a n t e e " for t h e r e v o l u t i o n . T h i s g u a r a n t e e a s s u m e s t w o m a i n forms: e i t h e r t h e reified n o t i o n of s o c i a l N e c e s s i t y ( o n e s h o u l d not r i s k t h e r e v o l u t i o n too e a r l y ; o n e h a s to w a i t for t h e r i g h t m o m e n t , w h e n t h e s i t u a t i o n is " m a t u r e " w i t h r e g a r d to t h e l a w s of h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t :

"it is too e a r l y for

the

s o c i a l i s t r e v o l u t i o n , t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s i s n o t y e t m a t u r e " ) or n o r m a t i v e ( " d e m o c r a t i c " ) l e g i t i m a c y ( " t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e p o p u l a t i o n is not on o u r s i d e , so t h e r e v o l u t i o n w o u l d not r e a l l y b e d e m o c r a t i c " ) . A s

Lenin

r e p e a t e d l y p u t s it in o t h e r w o r d s , it is a s if, before t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y a g e n t risks t h e s e i z u r e of s t a t e p o w e r , it s h o u l d g e t p e r m i s s i o n from s o m e figure

of t h e b i g O t h e r ( o r g a n i z e a r e f e r e n d u m w h i c h w i l l a s c e r t a i n t h a t

t h e m a j o r i t y s u p p o r t s t h e r e v o l u t i o n ) . W i t h L e n i n , a s w i t h L a c a n , the p o i n t i s t h a t a r e v o l u t i o n ne d'autorise que d'elle-même: o n e s h o u l d a c c e p t the 310

W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H IN P R A C T I C E

r e v o l u t i o n a r y act not c o v e r e d b y the b i g O t h e r — t h e f e a r of t a k i n g p o w e r " p r e m a t u r e l y , " t h e s e a r c h for t h e g u a r a n t e e , i s t h e f e a r of t h e a b y s s of t h e act. D e m o c r a c y i s t h u s not o n l y t h e " i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n of t h e l a c k in t h e O t h e r " ( i n c i d e n t a l l y , t h e w h o l e p o i n t of H e g e l ' s t h e o r y of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l j n o n a r c h y i s t h a t it is a l s o e x a c t l y t h e s a m e ) . B y i n s t i t u t i o n a h z i n g t h e l a c k , i t n e u t r a l i z e s — n o r m a l i z e s — i t , so t h a t t h e i n e x i s t e n c e of t h e b i g O t h e r ( L a c a n ' s d n'y a pas de grand Autre) i s a g a i n s u s p e n d e d : t h e b i g O t h e r i s a g a i n h e r e In t h e g u i s e of t h e d e m o c r a t i c l e g l t i m i z a t l o n / a u t h o r i z a t i o n of o u r acts—^in a d e m o c r a c y , m y a c t s a r e " c o v e r e d " a s l e g i t i m a t e a c t s w h i c h c a r r y o u t t h e w i l l of t h e m a j o r i t y . In c o n t r a s t to t h i s l o g i c , t h e r o l e of e m a n c i p a t o r y forces i s not to p a s s i v e l y " r e f l e c t " t h e o p i n i o n m a j o r i t y , b u t to i n s t i g a t e t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s e s to m o b i l i z e t h e i r

of

the

forces

a n d t h u s to create a n e w m a j o r i t y —or, a s T r o t s k y p u t it in Terrorism and Communia m: If t h e p a r l i a m e n t a r y r e g i m e , e v e n in t h e p e r i o d of " p e a c e f u l , " s t a b l e d e v e l o p m e n t , w a s a r a t h e r c r u d e m e t h o d of d i s c o v e r i n g t h e o p i n i o n of t h e c o u n t r y , a n d in t h e e p o c h of r e v o l u t i o n a r y s t o r m c o m p l e t e l y lost its c a p a c i t y to follow t h e c o u r s e of t h e s t r u g g l e a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of revolutionary consciousness, the Soviet regime, w h i c h is more closely, s t r a i g h t l y , h o n e s t l y b o u n d u p w i t h t h e t o l l i n g m a j o r i t y of t h e p e o p l e , d o e s a c h i e v e m e a n i n g , not in dtatically reflecting a majority, but

in

dynamically creating it.

T h i s l a s t p o i n t r e l i e s on a c r u c i a l p h i l o s o p h i c a l p r e m i s e w h i c h

renders

d e e p l y p r o b l e m a t i c t h e s t a n d a r d d i a l e c t i c a l - m a t e r i a l i s t t h e o r y of k n o w l ­ e d g e a s " r e f l e c t i o n " ( p r o p a g a t e d b y L e n i n h i m s e l f in h i s Materialism

and

EmpiriocriticMm). K a u t s k y ' s w o r r y t h a t t h e R u s s i a n w o r k i n g c l a s s t o o k p o w e r "too e a r l y " i m p l i e s t h e p o s i t i v i s t v i s i o n of h i s t o r y a s a n " o b j e c t i v e " p r o c e s s w h i c h d e t e r m i n e s in a d v a n c e t h e p o s s i b l e c o o r d i n a t e s of p o l i t i c a l mteiventions; within this horizon,

it i s u n i m a g i n a b l e t h a t a r a d i c a l

political intervention w o u l d c h a n g e these v e r y "objective" coordinates a n d t h u s , in a w a y , c r e a t e t h e c o n d i t i o n s for its o w n s u c c e s s . A n a c t p r o p e r i s not j u s t a s t r a t e g i c i n t e r v e n t i o n i n t o a s i t u a t i o n , b o u n d b y its c o n d i t i o n s —it r e t r o a c t i v e l y c r e a t e s i t s o w n c o n d i t i o n s . R e c a l l B o r g e s ' s p r e c i s e f o r m u l a t i o n of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n K a f k a a n d t h e m u l t i t u d e of h i s p r e c u r s o r s , from a n c i e n t C h i n e s e a u t h o r s to R o b e r t

Browning:

311

K a f k a ' s i d i o s y n c r a s y , in g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r d e g r e e , i s p r e s e n t in e a c h of t h e s e w r i t i n g s , b u t if K a f k a h a d n o t w r i t t e n w e w o u l d n o t p e r c e i v e it; t h a t i s to s a y , it w o u l d n o t e x i s t . [. . . ] [ E ] a c h w r i t e r creates h i s p r e c u r s o r s . H i s w o r k m o d i f i e s o u r c o n c e p t i o n of t h e past, a s it will m o d i f y t h e future.^^

T h e p r o p e r l y d i a l e c t i c a l s o l u t i o n of t h e d i l e m m a of " I s it r e a l l y t h e r e , in the s o u r c e , or d i d w e o n l y r e a d it i n t o t h e s o u r c e ? " i s t h u s : it i s t h e r e , b u t w e c a n o n l y p e r c e i v e a n d s t a t e t h i s r e t r o a c t i v e l y , from t o d a y ' s p e r s p e c ­ tive. This retroactivity w a s articulated b y Deleuze. W h e n D e l e u z e talks a b o u t g e n e s i s (of t h e a c t u a l o u t of t h e v i r t u a l ) , h e d o e s n o t

mean

t e m p o r a l - e v o l u t i o n a r y g e n e s i s , t h e p r o c e s s of t h e s p a t i o - t e m p o r a l b e c o m ­ i n g of a t h i n g , b u t a " g e n e s i s w i t h o u t d y n a m i s m , e v o l v i n g n e c e s s a r i l y in t h e e l e m e n t of a s u p r a - h i s t o r i c i t y , astatic genesis."^'^ T h i s s t a t i c c h a r a c t e r of t h e v i r t u a l field finds i t s m o s t r a d i c a l e x p r e s s i o n in D e l e u z e ' s notion of a pure past: a v i r t u a l p a s t w h i c h a l r e a d y c o n t a i n s t h i n g s still p r e s e n t . A p r e s e n t c a n b e c o m e p a s t b e c a u s e in a w a y it i s a l r e a d y ; it c a n p e r c e i v e itself a s p a r t of t h e p a s t — " w h a t w e a r e d o i n g n o w is ( w i l l h a v e b e c o m e ) history":

It i s w i t h r e s p e c t to t h e p u r e e l e m e n t of t h e p a s t , u n d e r s t o o d a s t h e p a s t in g e n e r a l , a s a n a p r i o r i past, t h a t a g i v e n f o r m e r p r e s e n t is r e p r o ­ d u c i b l e a n d t h e p r e s e n t p r e s e n t i s a b l e to reflect itself.*''' Does this m e a n that this p u r e past involves a t h o r o u g h l y deterministic notion of t h e u n i v e r s e i n w h i c h e v e r y t h i n g to h a p p e n (to c o m e ) , a l l a c t u a l s p a t i o - t e m p o r a l d e p l o y m e n t , is a l r e a d y p a r t of a n i m m e m o r i a l / a t e m p o r a l v i r t u a l n e t w o r k ? N o , a n d for a v e r y p r e c i s e r e a s o n : b e c a u s e t h e p u r e p a s t must b e " a m e n a b l e to c h a n g e through present."

the occurrence

of a n y n e w

It w a s n o n e o t h e r t h a n T . S . E l i o t w h o first c l e a r l y f o r m u l a t e d

t h i s l i n k b e t w e e n o u r d e p e n d e n c e on t r a d i t i o n a n d o u r p o w e r to c h a n g e the past:

[ t r a d i t i o n ] c a n n o t b e i n h e r i t e d , a n d if y o u w a n t it y o u m u s t o b t a i n it b y g r e a t l a b o r . It i n v o l v e s , i n t h e first p l a c e , t h e h i s t o r i c a l s e n s e , w h i c h w e m a y call n e a r l y indispensable to a n y o n e w h o w o u l d continue to be a p o e t b e y o n d h i s t w e n t y - f i f t h year; a n d t h e h i s t o r i c a l s e n s e i n v o l v e s a p e r c e p t i o n , n o t o n l y of t h e p a s t n e s s of t h e p a s t , b u t of i t s p r e s e n c e ; t h e h i s t o r i c a l s e n s e c o m p e l s a m a n t o w r i t e not m e r e l y w i t h h i s o w n 312

W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H IN P R A C T I C E

g e n e r a t i o n in h i s b o n e s , b u t w i t h a f e e h n g t h a t t h e w h o l e of t h e hterature

of E u r o p e from

literature

of h i s o w n

H o m e r a n d w i t h i n it t h e w h o l e of t h e

country

has a simultaneous

existence

and

c o m p o s e s a s i m u l t a n e o u s o r d e r . [. . . ] [ W ] h a t h a p p e n s w h e n a n e w w o r k of a r t i s c r e a t e d i s s o m e t h i n g t h a t h a p p e n s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y to a l l the w o r k s of a r t w h i c h p r e c e d e d it. T h e e x i s t i n g m o n u m e n t s form a n i d e a l o r d e r a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s , w h i c h i s m o d i f i e d b y t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of the n e w ( t h e r e a l l y n e w ) w o r k of a r t a m o n g t h e m . T h e e x i s t i n g o r d e r i s c o m p l e t e before t h e n e w w o r k a r r i v e s ; for o r d e r to p e r s i s t after t h e s u p e r v e n t i o n of n o v e l t y , t h e whole e x i s t i n g o r d e r m u s t b e , if e v e r so s l i g h t l y , a l t e r e d ; a n d so t h e r e l a t i o n s , p r o p o r t i o n s , v a l u e s of e a c h w o r k of art t o w a r d t h e w h o l e a r e r e a d j u s t e d ; a n d t h i s i s c o n f o r m i t y b e t w e e n the old a n d t h e n e w . W h o e v e r h a s a p p r o v e d t h i s i d e a of o r d e r , of t h e form of E u r o p e a n , of E n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e , w i l l not fmd it p r e p o s t e r o u s that t h e p a s t s h o u l d b e a l t e r e d b y t h e p r e s e n t a s m u c h a s the p r e s e n t is d i r e c t e d b y t h e past.*^*^

W h e n Eliot w r i t e s t h a t , w h e n j u d g i n g a l i v i n g poet, "you mudt set hun among the dead," h e p r o v i d e s a p r e c i s e e x a m p l e of D e l e u z e ' s p u r e p a s t . W h e n h e w r i t e s t h a t " t h e e x i s t i n g o r d e r is c o m p l e t e b e f o r e t h e n e w w o r k i i t r i v e s ; for o r d e r to p e r s i s t after t h e s u p e r v e n t i o n of n o v e l t y , t h e whole existing o r d e r m u s t b e , if e v e r so s l i g h t l y , a l t e r e d , " h e n o l e s s c l e a r l y f o r m u l a t e s t h e p a r a d o x i c a l l i n k b e t w e e n t h e c o m p l e t e n e s s of t h e p a s t a n d p u r c a p a c i t y to c h a n g e it r e t r o a c t i v e l y : p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e t h e p u r e p a s t is c o m p l e t e , e a c h n e w w o r k r e a r r a n g e s its e n t i r e b a l a n c e . R e c a l l B o r g e s ' s i d e a of h o w K a f k a c r e a t e d h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s — s u c h r e t r o a c t i v e c a u s a l i t y e x e r t e d b y t h e effect i t s e l f u p o n its c a u s e s , i s t h e m i n i m a l sine qiui non of freedom. ;

T h i s i s w h e r e P e t e r H a l l w a r d falls s h o r t in h i s o t h e r w i s e e x c e l l e n t Out

of This World, w h e r e h e s t r e s s e s o n l y t h e a s p e c t of t h e p u r e p a s t a s t h e Virtual field in w h i c h t h e fate of all a c t u a l e v e n t s i s s e a l e d in a d v a n c e , Smce " e v e r y t h i n g is a l r e a d y w r i t t e n " in it. A t t h i s p o i n t w h e r e w e v i e w r e a l i t y sub specie aeternitatis,

absolute freedom

coincides with

absolute

n e c e s s i t y a n d i t s p u r e a u t o m a t i s m : to be free m e a n s to l e t o n e s e l f f r e e l y flow i n / w i t h t h e s u b s t a n t i a l n e c e s s i t y . B u t w h i l e H a l l w a r d is r i g h t to e m p h a s i z e t h a t , for D e l e u z e , f r e e d o m "Isn't a m a t t e r of h u m a n l i b e r t y b u t of l i b e r a t i o n from humanlty,"^'^ of fully s u b m e r g i n g o n e s e l f in t h e c r e a t i v e flux

of t h e a b s o l u t e Life, h i s p o l i t i c a l c o n c l u s i o n from t h i s s e e m s too

facile: 313

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

s i n c e a free m o d e o r m o n a d is s i m p l y o n e t h a t h a s e l i m i n a t e d its r e s i s t a n c e to the s o v e r e i g n w i l l t h a t w o r k s t h r o u g h it, so t h e n it f o l l o w s that the more absolute the sovereign's power, the more "free" a r e those 1 •

-64

s u b j e c t to It. H a l l w a r d ignores the retroactive movement

on w h i c h D e l e u z e

also

i n s i s t s , t h e w a y t h i s e t e r n a l p u r e p a s t w h i c h fully d e t e r m i n e s u s i s itself s u b j e c t e d to r e t r o a c t i v e c h a n g e . W e a r e t h u s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y l e s s free a n d m o r e free t h a n w e t h i n k : w e a r e t h o r o u g h l y p a s s i v e , d e t e r m i n e d b y a n d d e p e n d e n t on t h e p a s t , b u t w e h a v e t h e f r e e d o m to d e f i n e t h e s c o p e of t h i s d e t e r m i n a t i o n , t h a t i s , to ( o v e r ) d e t e r m i n e t h e p a s t w h i c h w i l l d e t e r m i n e u s . D e l e u z e is h e r e u n e x p e c t e d l y c l o s e to K a n t , for w h o m I a m d e t e r ­ m i n e d b y c a u s e s , but I ( c a n ) retroactively d e t e r m i n e w h i c h c a u s e s will d e t e r m i n e m e : w e , s u b j e c t s , a r e p a s s i v e l y affected b y p a t h o l o g i c a l o b j e c t s a n d m o t i v a t i o n s ; but, in a r e f l e x i v e w a y , w e o u r s e l v e s h a v e t h e m i n i m a l p o w e r to a c c e p t ( o r r e j e c t ) b e i n g affected in t h i s w a y , in o t h e r w o r d s , w e r e t r o a c t i v e l y d e t e r m i n e t h e c a u s e s a l l o w e d to d e t e r m i n e u s , or, a t least, t h e mode of t h i s l i n e a r d e t e r m i n a t i o n .

"Freedom"

is thus

inherently

r e t r o a c t i v e : a t i t s m o s t e l e m e n t a r y , it i s not a free a c t w h i c h , o u t of n o w h e r e , s t a r t s a n e w c a u s a l l i n k , b u t a r e t r o a c t i v e a c t of e n d o r s i n g w h i c h l i n k / s e q u e n c e of n e c e s s i t i e s w i l l d e t e r m i n e m e . H e r e , o n e s h o u l d a d d a H e g e l i a n t w i s t to S p i n o z a : f r e e d o m i s not s i m p l y " r e c o g n i z e d / k n o w n n e c e s s i t y , " b u t r e c o g n i z e d / a s s u m e d n e c e s s i t y , t h e n e c e s s i t y con­ s t i t u t e d / a c t u a l i z e d t h r o u g h t h i s r e c o g n i t i o n . S o , w h e n D e l e u z e r e f e r s to P r o u s t ' s d e s c r i p t i o n of V i n t e u i l ' s m u s i c t h a t h a u n t s S w a n n — " a s if the p e r f o r m e r s not so m u c h p l a y e d t h e little p h r a s e a s e x e c u t e d t h e

rites

n e c e s s a r y for it to a p p e a r " — h e i s e v o k i n g t h e n e c e s s a r y i l l u s i o n : g e n ­ e r a t i n g the s e n s e - e v e n t is e x p e r i e n c e d a s a r i t u a l i s t i c e v o c a t i o n of a p r e e x i s t i n g e v e n t , a s if t h e e v e n t w a s a l r e a d y t h e r e , w a i t i n g for o u r call m its v i r t u a l p r e s e n c e . W h a t d i r e c t l y r e s o n a t e s in t h i s t o p i c i s , of c o u r s e , t h e P r o t e s t a n t t r o p e of p r e d e s t i n a t i o n : far from b e i n g a r e a c t i o n a r y t h e o l o g i c a l t r o p e , destination

pre­

is a k e y e l e m e n t of t h e m a t e r i a l i s t t h e o r y of

sense—on

c o n d i t i o n t h a t w e r e a d it a l o n g t h e l i n e s of t h e D e l e u z i a n

opposition

b e t w e e n t h e v i r t u a l a n d t h e a c t u a l . T h a t i s to s a y , p r e d e s t i n a t i o n d o e s not m e a n t h a t o u r fate i s s e a l e d in a n a c t u a l t e x t e x i s t i n g for e t e r n i t y in t h e d i v i n e m i n d ; t h e t e x t u r e w h i c h p r e d e s t i n e s u s b e l o n g s to t h e p u r e l y virtual eternal past w h i c h , a s such, can be r e t r o a c t i v e l y rewritten b y our a c t . T h i s , p e r h a p s , i s t h e u l t i m a t e m e a n i n g of t h e s i n g u l a r i t y of C h r i s t ' s 314

W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H IN P R A C T I C E

i n c a r n a t i o n : it is a n a c t w h i c h r a d i c a l l y c h a n g e s o u r d e s t i n y . P r i o r to C h r i s t , w e w e r e d e t e r m i n e d b y fate, c a u g h t in t h e c y c l e of sin a n d i t s p a y m e n t , w h i l e C h r i s t ' s e r a s u r e of o u r p a s t s i n s m e a n s p r e c i s e l y t h a t h i s sacrifice c h a n g e s o u r v i r t u a l p a s t a n d t h u s sets u s free. W h e n

Deleuze

w r i t e s t h a t " m y w o u n d e x i s t e d before m e ; I w a s b o r n to e m b o d y i t , " d o e s t h i s v a r i a t i o n on t h e t h e m e of t h e C h e s h i r e c a t a n d Its s m i l e from Alice in WonderLind ( t h e c a t w a s b o r n to e m b o d y i t s s m i l e ) n o t p r o v i d e a p e r f e c t f o r m u l a of C h r i s t ' s s a c r i f i c e : C h r i s t w a s b o r n to e m b o d y h i s w o u n d , to b e crucified'? T h e p r o b l e m is t h e l i t e r a l t e l e o l o g i c a l r e a d i n g of t h i s p r o p o s i ­ tion: a s if t h e a c t u a l d e e d s of a p e r s o n m e r e l y a c t u a l i z e its a t e m p o r a l e t e r n a l fate i n s c r i b e d in its v i r t u a l i d e a :

C a e s a r ' s o n l y r e a l t a s k is to b e c o m e w o r t h y of t h e e v e n t s h e h a s b e e n created

to

embody.

Amor fati.

What

n o t h i n g to w h a t h e v i r t u a l l y i s . W h e n

Caesar

actually does

adds

C a e s a r a c t u a l l y crosses the

R u b i c o n t h i s i n v o l v e s n o d e l i b e r a t i o n o r c h o i c e s i n c e it i s s i m p l y p a r t of t h e e n t i r e , i m m e d i a t e e x p r e s s i o n of C a e s a r n e s s , it s i m p l y u n r o l l s o r " u n f o l d s " s o m e t h i n g t h a t w a s e n c o m p a s s e d for a l l t i m e s in t h e n o t i o n of C a e s a r . ' ' ^

H o w e v e r , w h a t a b o u t t h e r e t r o a c t i v i t y of a g e s t u r e w h i c h ( r e ) c o n s t i t u t e s t h i s p a s t i t s e l f ? T h i s , p e r h a p s , i s t h e m o s t s u c c i n c t d é f i n i t i o n of w h a t a n a u t h e n t i c act i s : in o u r o r d i n a r y a c t i v i t y , w e e f f e c t i v e l y j u s t follow t h e ( v i r t u a l - f a n t a s m a t i c ) c o o r d i n a t e s of o u r i d e n t i t y , w h i l e a n a c t p r o p e r i s t h e p a r a d o x of a n a c t u a l m o v e w h i c h ( r e t r o a c t i v e l y ) c h a n g e s t h e v e r y v i r t u a l " t r a n s c e n d e n t a l " c o o r d i n a t e s of its a g e n t ' s b e i n g —or, i n F r e u d i a n t e r m s , w h i c h not o n l y c h a n g e s t h e a c t u a l i t y of o u r w o r l d , b u t a l s o " r o u s e s Its i n f e r n a l r e g i o n s . " W e h a v e t h u s a k i n d of r e f l e x i v e " f o l d i n g b a c k of t h e c o n d i t i o n o n t o t h e g i v e n it w a s t h e c o n d i t i o n for":^^ w h i l e t h e p u r e p a s t i s t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t a l c o n d i t i o n for o u r a c t s , o u r a c t s n o t o n l y c r e a t e a n a c t u a l n e w r e a l i t y , t h e y a l s o r e t r o a c t i v e l y c h a n g e t h i s v e r y c o n d i t i o n . In p r e d e s t i n a t i o n , fate i s s u b s t a n t i a l i z e d i n t o a d e c i s i o n t h a t p r e c e d e s t h e p r o c e s s , so t h a t t h e s t a k e of i n d i v i d u a l s ' a c t i v i t i e s i s not to p e r f o r m a t i v e l y c o n s t i t u t e t h e i r fate, b u t to d i s c o v e r ( o r g u e s s ) o n e ' s p r e e x i s t i n g fate. W h a t i s t h e r e b y o b f u s c a t e d is t h e d i a l e c t i c a l r e v e r s a l of c o n t i n g e n c y into n e c e s s i t y , or, t h e w a y t h e

outcome

of a c o n t i n g e n t

process is

the

a p p e a r a n c e of n e c e s s i t y : t h i n g s r e t r o a c t i v e l y " w i l l h a v e b e e n " n e c e s s a r y . This reversal w a s described by J e a n - P i e r r e

Dupuy:

315

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

T h e c a t a s t r o p h i c e v e n t is i n s c r i b e d into t h e future a s a d e s t i n y , for s u r e , b u t a l s o a s a c o n t i n g e n t a c c i d e n t : it c o u l d not h a v e t a k e n p l a c e , e v e n if, in futur antérieur, it a p p e a r s a s n e c e s s a r y . [. . . ] [ I ] f a n out­ s t a n d i n g e v e n t t a k e s p l a c e , a c a t a s t r o p h e , for e x a m p l e , it c o u l d not not h a v e t a k e n p l a c e ; n o n e t h e l e s s , Insofar a s it d i d not t a k e p l a c e , it is not i n e v i t a b l e . It i s t h u s t h e e v e n t ' s a c t u a l i z a t i o n — t h e fact t h a t it t a k e s p l a c e — w h i c h r e t r o a c t i v e l y c r e a t e s its n e c e s s i t y .

D u p u y t a k e s a s a n e x a m p l e t h e F r e n c h p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n s in M a y 1995; h e r e is t h e J a n u a r y f o r e c a s t of t h e m a i n p o l l i n g i n s t i t u t e : " I f

on

n e x t M a y 8, M r B a l l a d u r i s e l e c t e d , o n e c a n s a y t h a t t h e pr'esidential e l e c t i o n w a s d e c i d e d b e f o r e it e v e n t o o k p l a c e . " I f — a c c i d e n t a l l y — a n e v e n t t a k e s p l a c e , it c r e a t e s t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a i n w h i c h m a k e s it a p p e a r i n e v i t a b l e : this, not t h e c o m m o n p l a c e s r e g a r d i n g h o w the

underlying

n e c e s s i t y e x p r e s s e s itself in a n d t h r o u g h t h e a c c i d e n t a l p l a y of a p p e a r ­ a n c e s , i s in nuee t h e H e g e h a n d i a l e c t i c of c o n t i n g e n c y a n d n e c e s s i t y . T h e s a m e g o e s for t h e O c t o b e r R e v o l u t i o n ( o n c e t h e B o l s h e v i k s w o n and s t a b i l i z e d t h e i r h o l d on p o w e r , t h e i r v i c t o r y a p p e a r e d a s a n o u t c o m e a n d e x p r e s s i o n of a d e e p e r h i s t o r i c a l n e c e s s i t y ) , a n d e v e n of B u s h ' s m u c h c o n t e s t e d first U S p r e s i d e n t i a l v i c t o r y (after t h e c o n t i n g e n t a n d c o n t e s t e d F l o r i d a majority', h i s v i c t o r y r e t r o a c t i v e l y a p p e a r s a s a n e x p r e s s i o n of a d e e p e r U S p o l i t i c a l t r e n d ) . In t h i s s e n s e , a l t h o u g h w e a r e d e t e r m i n e d by d e s t i n y , w e a r e n o n e t h e l e s s free to choooe our destiny. T h i s , a c c o r d i n g to D u p u y , i s a l s o h o w w e s h o u l d a p p r o a c h t h e e c o l o g i c a l c r i s i s : not to " r e a l i s t i c a l l y " a p p r a i s e t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of t h e c a t a s t r o p h e , b u t to a c c e p t it a s D e s t i n y in t h e p r e c i s e H e g e l i a n s e n s e : l i k e t h e e l e c t i o n of B a l l a d u r , " i l the c a t a s t r o p h e h a p p e n s , o n e c a n s a y t h a t its o c c u r r e n c e w a s d e c i d e d b e f o r e it e v e n t o o k p l a c e . " D e s t i n y a n d free a c t i o n ( b l o c k i n g t h e " i f " ) t h u s g o h a n d in h a n d : f r e e d o m i s a t i t s m o s t r a d i c a l t h e f r e e d o m to c h a n g e one's Destiny.

The Real T h e r e is a n o t h e r c u r i o u s p o i n t t h a t s h o u l d b e m e n t i o n e d h e r e : S t a v r a ­ k a k i s ' s r e p r o a c h t h a t I o b l i t e r a t e n e g a t i v i t y (in m y w o r k , n e g a t i v i t y m a g i c a l l y d i s a p p e a r s in t h e p o s i t i v i t y of t h e A c t ) , i s , a s S t a v r a k a k i s h i m s e l f n o t e s , t h e e x a c t o p p o s i t e of P e t e r H a l l w a r d ' s c r i t i q u e of m y w o r k : H a l l w a r d ' s reproach concerns m y alleged morbid fascination with neg­ a t i v i t y , t h e d e a t h d r i v e , a n d so on, w h i c h m i s s e s t h e p o s i t i v i t y of the 316

W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H IN P R A C T I C E

g y e n t . Is t h i s not s t r a n g e : t w o c r i t i c a l r e a d i n g s of t h e s a m e w o r k w h i c h a t t r i b u t e to m e e x a c t l y o p p o s i t e p o s i t i o n s ? Is t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t i m p o s e s itself not t h a t b o t h of m y c r i t i c s m e r e l y use m y t h e o r y a s a k i n d of t o k e n to (ill in a p r e e s t a b h s h e d p l a c e in t h e i r m a t r i x of " w r o n g " posidons?*"^ , W h y , then, does

S t a v r a k a k i s h a v e to s t i c k so s t u b b o r n l y

to

the

r i d i c u l o u s n o t i o n of t h e a c t i m p u t e d to m e ? O b v i o u s l y , it is not t h e c a s e ( h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e i s o n l y v e r b a l , a m e r e m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g — i t i s not t h a t g t a v r a k a k i s and I claim the same thing a nd that he has merely misread l^e. H i s p e r v e r s i o n Is c o n d i t i o n e d b y a w e a k n e s s in h i s b a s i c t h e o r e t i c a l a p p a r a t u s , a fault line w h i c h a l s o p r e v e n t s h i m from a r t i c u l a t i n g a v i a b l e political project, so t h a t a l l h e offers i s a n e w v e r s i o n of t h e old F r e u d o JWarxist p l a t i t u d e s . T h i s b a s i c w e a k n e s s i s d i s c e r n i b l e a l r e a d y in h i s b r i e f j n e t h o d o l o g i c a l r e f l e c t i o n in t h e " I n t r o d u c t i o n , " w h e r e h e d r a w s a t t e n ­ tion to t h e c i r c u l a r i t y of p o s i t i v e s c i e n c e s w h i c h c l a i m t h a t t h e i r t h e o r i e s fully reflect r e a l i t y a n d a r e p r o v e n b y facts, t h e r e b y n e g l e c t i n g h o w t h e " o b j e c t i v e f a c t s " to w h i c h t h e y refer a r e not t h e d i r e c t p r e - S y m b o l i c R e a l , but a R e a l w h i c h is a l r e a d y mediated/constructed b y the S y m b o l i c :

c o n t r a r y to a p o p u l a r u n c o n d i t i o n a l E n l i g h t e n m e n t o p t i m i s m , k n o w l ­ e d g e in g e n e r a l i s n e v e r a d e q u a t e ; s o m e t h i n g a l w a y s e s c a p e s . It l o o k s a s if t h e o r y

is a straitjacket

unable

to

contain

our

vibrant

and

u n p r e d i c t a b l e field of r e a l e x p e r i e n c e .

T h e u n d e r l y i n g p r e m i s e i s h e r e t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of t h e c o u p l e k n o w l ­ e d g e - e x p e r i e n c e w i t h the couple Symbolic—Real: one should assert the "constitutive tension between k n o w l e d g e a n d experience, symbolic a n d real."''^ T h e

Lacanian couple

S y m b o l i c / R e a l is thus

reduced

to

the

c o m m o n - s e n s e e m p i r i c i s t m o t i f " t h e o r i e s a r e g r e y , w h i l e t h e t r e e of life IS g r e e n " : o u r k n o w l e d g e i s a l w a y s l i m i t e d , it c a n n o t e v e r fully e n c o m p a s s a n d a c c o u n t for the w e a l t h of e x p e r i e n c e . S i n c e , h o w e v e r , o n e

cannot

s t e p o u t of k n o w l e d g e a n d d i r e c t l y g r a s p t h e R e a l , o n e s h o u l d g o on, p u r s u i n g t h e e n d l e s s t a s k of s y m b o l i z i n g t h e R e a l w i t h t h e full a w a r e n e s s t h a t e v e r y d e t e r m i n a t e s y m b o l l z a t l o n i s u n s t a b l e , t e m p o r a r y , t h a t it w i l l be sooner or later destabilized t h r o u g h some t r a u m a t i c encounter w i t h the Real:

In t h e face of t h e i r r e d u c i b i l i t y of t h e r e a l of e x p e r i e n c e , w e s e e m to h a v e n o o t h e r o p t i o n b u t to s y m b o l i z e , to k e e p on s y m b o l i z i n g , t r y i n g to e n a c t a p o s i t i v e e n c i r c l i n g of n e g a t i v i t y . B u t t h i s s h o u l d not b e a ÎI7

[FN utl-bNbE OF LOST C A U S E S

f a n t a s m a t i c s y m b o l i z a t i o n a t t e m p t i n g to m o r t i f y t h e r e a l of e x p e r i e n c e [. . . ] It w i l l h a v e to a r t i c u l a t e a set of s y m b o l i c g e s t u r e s ( p o s i t i v i z a t i o n s ) t h a t w i l l i n c l u d e a r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e r e a l l i m i t s of t h e s y m b o l i c , t h e r e a l l i m i t s of t h e o r y , a n d a t t e m p t s s y m b o l i c a l l y to " i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e " r e a l l a c k , t h e ( n e g a t i v e ) t r a c e of e x p e r i e n c e , o r r a t h e r of o u r f a i l u r e to neutralize experience.

W e thus end w i t h w h a t H e g e l called "spurious infinity": the

subject

s t r i v e s to fill in h i s c o n s t i t u t i v e l a c k a n d p r o v i d e a n i d e n t i t y for i t s e l f through S y m b o l i c and I m a g i n a r y identifications; however, no identifica­ tion c a n p r o d u c e a full i d e n t i t y , l a c k a l w a y s r e e m e r g e s . . . S t a v r a k a k i s is h e r e not r a d i c a l e n o u g h in p u r s u i n g h i s o w n p r e m i s e : every S y m b o l i c field n e e d s a s i g n i f i e r of l a c k to s u t u r e i t s e l f — a s S p i n o z a a l r e a d y r e c o g n i z e d , in t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n , " G o d " is s u c h a s i g n i f i e r (from t h e s t a n d p o i n t true knowledge, "God" positivizes our

of

has no positive content, the signifier m e r e l y

i g n o r a n c e ) . In

short, a l t h o u g h

Stavrakakis endlessly

v a r i e s t h e m o t i f of h o w I d o not t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of l a c k itself b e i n g symbolized—positivized—institutionalized, h e h i m s e l f d o e s not s e e it w h e r e it a l r e a d y o p e r a t e s . There

is nothing inherently

" s u b v e r s i v e " or

n o t i o n of t h e

" s i g n i f i e r of l a c k " . Is t h e

Semitism

its s u p r e m e

not

figure

ideological example?

consistent positive content—what

" p r o g r e s s i v e " in of t h e This

J e w in figure

the anti-

has

no

h o l d s it t o g e t h e r is the name " J e w "

as the e m p t y signifier. T h a t is to say, the structure is here the s a m e a s t h a t of t h e g o o d old P o l i s h a n t i - C o m m u n i s t

j o k e from

the e p o c h

" r e a l l y - e x i s t i n g s o c i a l i s m " : " S o c i a l i s m i s t h e s y n t h e s i s of t h e

of

greatest

a c h i e v e m e n t s of all p r e v i o u s m o d e s of p r o d u c t i o n : from p r e - c l a s s t r i b a l s o c i e t y it t a k e s p r i m i t i v i s m , from t h e A s i a t i c m o d e of p r o d u c t i o n it t a k e s d e s p o t i s m , from A n t i q u i t y it t a k e s s l a v e r y , from f e u d a l i s m it t a k e s t h e s o c i a l d o m i n a t i o n of l o r d s o v e r serfs, from c a p i t a l i s m it t a k e s e x p l o i t a ­ tion, a n d from s o c i a l i s m it t a k e s the n a m e . " T h e a n t i - S e m i t i c f i g u r e of t h e J e w t a k e s from from

the hedonists

great capitalists their w e a l t h a n d social sexual debauchery,

from

commercialized

control, popular

c u l t u r e a n d t h e y e l l o w p r e s s t h e i r v u l g a r i t y , from t h e l o w e r c l a s s e s t h e i r filth a n d b a d s m e l l , fi-om i n t e l l e c t u a l s t h e i r c o r r u p t e d s o p h i s t r y , and from Jews their name. It i s t h i s i n t e r v e n t i o n of t h e p u r e / e m p t y s i g n i f i e r w h i c h e n g e n d e r s t h e m y s t e r i o u s X, t h e je ne sais quoi w h i c h m a k e s J e w s J e w s : for a t r u e a n t i - S e m i t e , a J e w is n o t s i m p l y c o r r u p t , p r o m i s c u o u s , a n d so on — h e is c o r r u p t , p r o m i s c u o u s , etc., becauoe he Li a Jew. In t h i s s e n s e , 318

W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H IN P R A C T I C E

" J e w " i s — w i t h i n t h e a n t i - S e m i t i c d i s c o u r s e — c l e a r l y a s i g n i f i e r of l a c k , t h e l a c k in t h e O t h e r . C o n s e q u e n t l y , S t a v r a k a k i s ' s e q u a t i o n of t h e R e a l w i t h t h e e x p e r i e n c e of t h e e x c e s s of r e a l i t y o v e r its s y m b o l i z a t i o n h a s n o t h m g to d o w i t h t h e L a c a n i a n (or, for t h a t m a t t e r , L a c l a u i a n ) R e a l . T h e L a c l a u i a n " a n t a g o n ­ i s m " i s not t h e p o s i t i v i t y of t h e R e a l o u t s i d e t h e S y m b o l i c , it i s t o t a l l y i n h e r e n t to the S y m b o l i c , its i m m a n e n t c r a c k o r i m p o s s i b i l i t y . T h e R e a l i s not t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t s u b s t a n t i a l r e a l i t y w h i c h from o u t s i d e d i s t u r b s t h e S3mibolic b a l a n c e , b u t t h e i m m a n e n t o b s t a c l e , s t u m b l i n g b l o c k , of t h e S y m b o l i c o r d e r itself. T h i s e m p i r i c i s t m i s r e a d i n g of t h e L a c a n i a n R e a l a c c o u n t s for S t a v r a k a k i s ' s s t r a n g e u s e of " n e g a t i v i t y " : t h e R e a l a s t h e e x c e s s of e x p e r i e n c e o v e r its s y m b o l i z a t i o n i s " n e g a t i v e " o n l y i n t h e s u p e r f i c i a l s e n s e t h a t it u n d e r m i n e s s y m b o l i z a t i o n , s i n c e it f u n c t i o n s

as

t h e O t h e r n e s s w h i c h r e s i s t s it; in itself, h o w e v e r , t h i s R e a l i s a p o s i t i v i t y of t h e e x u b e r a n t w e a l t h of e x p e r i e n c e . F o r I^acan, t h i n g s a r e e x a c t l y o p p o s i t e . It is t r u e t h a t t h e e a r l y L/acan (in h i s first s e m i n a r s ) s o m e t i m e s u s e s " t h e R e a l " to d e s i g n a t e p r e - S y m b o l i c r e a l i t y ; h o w e v e r , t h i s R e a l i s t h e p u r e p o s i t i v i t y of b e i n g w i t h o u t a n y l a c k — a s L a c a n r e p e a t s a g a i n a n d a g a i n in t h e s e y e a r s , rien ne manque dans le réel, l a c k is i n t r o d u c e d o n l y b y t h e S y m b o l i c . T h i s i s w h y , for L a c a n , n e g a t i v i t y i s not t h e R e a l u n d e r ­ m i n i n g t h e S y m b o l i c from o u t s i d e , b u t t h e S y m b o l i c itself, t h e p r o c e s s of symbolization w i t h its violent abstraction,

reduction

of t h e w e a l t h of

e x p e r i e n c e to the s i g n i f y i n g trait unaire. L a c a n q u o t e s F l e g e l : a w o r d Is t h e m u r d e r of t h e t h i n g it d e s i g n a t e s , i t s m o r t i f i c a t i o n . F o r L a c a n , t h e e l e m e n t a r y form of n e g a t i v i t y is t h u s not the e x c e s s of experience

over

symbolization

its s y m b o l i z a t i o n ,

from

experienced

but

the

very g a p that

reality. Recall the

e l e p h a n t on t h e c o v e r of t h e F r e n c h e d i t i o n of L a c a n ' s

first

t h e e l e p h a n t i s h e r e i n its signifier, e v e n if t h e r e i s n o " r e a l roaming

around—this

brutal

reduction

separates

b i g p h o t o of

an

seminar: elephant"

of the " r e a l " e l e p h a n t to

s i g n i f i e r i s n e g a t i v i t y ( o r t h e d e a t h d r i v e ) a t its p u r e s t . A l t h o u g h

its

Lacan

l a t e r shifts h i s p o s i t i o n ( t h e " d e a t h d r i v e " is l a t e r d e f i n e d a s t h e S y m b o l i c s y s t e m i t s e l f w h i c h o p e r a t e s a u t o n o m o u s l y . I g n o r i n g r e a l i t y ; finally, t h e "death d r i v e " is c o n c e i v e d a s the Real w h i c h resists s y m b o l i z a t i o n ) , the R e a l r e m a i n s i m m a n e n t to t h e S y m b o l i c , its i n h e r e n t t r a u m a t i c

core:

t h e r e i s n o R e a l w i t h o u t t h e S y m b o l i c , it i s t h e e m e r g e n c e of the S y m b o l i c w h i c h i n t r o d u c e s i n t o r e a l i t y t h e g a p of t h e R e a l . It i s t h u s t o u c h i n g to find s o m e o n e w h o c a n still ( t h i n k a n d ) w r i t e a s if H e g e l h a d not existed'''^ — a n d not o n l y H e g e l : w h a t a b o u t L a c a n ' s n o t i o n 319

I N D E F E N S E OF L O S T C A U S E S

of t h e inatheme, of t h e scientific r e a l a s t h e set of m a t h e m a t i z e d

formulae

o p p o s e d to i m a g i n a r y e x p e r i e n c e ? T h i s is w h y L a c a n s t r i c t l y o p p o s e s scientific " k n o w l e d g e in t h e r e a l " to i m a g i n a r y h e r m e n e u t i c ing. F u r t h e r m o r e ,

understand-

S t a v r a k a k i s ' s approach also misses the properly dia-

lectical relationship

between

theory

a n d p r a c t i c e in p s y c h o a n a l y s i s .

F r e u d ' s c l a i m w a s t h a t p s y c h o a n a l y s i s w o u l d o n l y b e fully p o s s i b l e in a s o c i e t y w h i c h w o u l d n o l o n g e r n e e d it, so t h a t p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r y is not o n l y t h e t h e o r y of w h a t g o e s on In t h e a n a l \ t i c p r a c t i c e , t h e t h e o r y of t h e c o n d i t i o n s of p o s s i b i l i t y of p r a c t i c e , b u t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t h e t h e o r y of its i m p o s s i b i l i t y , of w h y p r a c t i c e i s a l w a y s o p e n to f a i l u r e , e v e n d o o m e d to fall. In t h i s s e n s e , it is not s i m p l y p r a c t i c e w h i c h is in e x c e s s o v e r t h e o r y , it is t h e o r y w h i c h c o n c e p t u a l i z e s t h e l i m i t of p r a c t i c e , its Real. B e c a u s e h e n e g l e c t s t h i s real ( n o t m e r e l y s y m b o l i c ) s t a t u s of scientific k n o w l e d g e , S t a v r a k a k i s Identifies k n o w l e d g e a n d u n d e r s t a n d m g : in t h e s a m e l i n e of t h o u g h t r e g a r d i n g t h e l i m i t a t i o n of k n o w l e d g e , h e m e n t i o n s L a c a n ' s w a r n i n g t h a t " o n e of t h e t h i n g s w e m u s t g u a r d m o s t a g a i n s t i s to u n d e r s t a n d too m u c h . " H o w e v e r , L a c a n ' s p o i n t h e r e i s not, a s S t a v r a k a k i s c l a i m s , t h a t " t h e r e g i s t e r i n g of t h e l i m i t s of u n d e r s t a n d i n g a l l o w s for a b e t t e r , o r r a t h e r a different, t y p e of understanding."^"^ W h e n

Lacan

t a l k s a b o u t " a k i n d of r e f u s a l of u n d e r s t a n d i n g , " h e o p p o s e s

under-

s t a n d i n g a n d a n a l y t i c k n o w l e d g e : t h e a i m of a n a l y s i s i s n o t to u n d e r s t a n d t h e p a t i e n t , to p r o v i d e t h e h i d d e n m e a n i n g s of h i s s i g n i f i e r s , but, on t h e c o n t r a i y , to r e d u c e m e a n i n g to t h e " s i g n i f y i n g n o n - s e n s e , " a s h e p u t s it in h i s Seminar

XI.

T h e k e y p o i n t h e r e i s t h a t the L a c a n i a n R e a l , in its o p p o s i t i o n to the S y m b o l i c , h a s n o t h i n g w h a t s o e v e r to d o w i t h the s t a n d a r d e m p i r i c i s t (or p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l , or h i s t o r i c i s t , o r Leheruiphilûdophie) t o p i c of t h e w e a l t h of r e a l i t y t h a t c a n n o t b e r e d u c e d to a b s t r a c t c o n c e p t u a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n s . The

Lacanian

R e a l is e v e n more

"reductionist"

than

any

symbolic

s t r u c t u r e : w e t o u c h it w h e n w e s u b t r a c t from a s y m b o l i c field a l l t h e w e a l t h of its d i f f e r e n c e s , r e d u c i n g it to a m i n i m u m of a n t a g o n i s m . It i s b e c a u s e of t h i s " m i n i m a l i s t " — p u r e l y formal a n d insubstantial—^ s t a t u s of t h e R e a l that, for L a c a n , répétition precedes repression—oc, a s D e l e u z e p u t it s u c c i n c t l y : " W e d o not r e p e a t b e c a u s e w e r e p r e s s , w e r e p r e s s b e c a u s e w e repeat." then,

It is not that, first, w e r e p r e s s s o m e t r a u m a t i c c o n t e n t , a n d

s i n c e w e a r e u n a b l e to r e m e m b e r

it a n d t h u s

to c l a r i f y

our

r e l a t i o n s h i p to it, t h i s c o n t e n t c o n t i n u e s to h a u n t u s , r e p e a t i n g i t s e l l In d i s g u i s e d f o r m s . If t h e R e a l is a m i n i m a l d i f f e r e n c e , t h e n r e p e t i t i o n ( t h a t establishes this difference) 320

is primordial; the

p r i m a c y of

repression

W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H I N P R A C T I C E

e m e r g e s w i t h t h e " r e i f i c a t i o n " of t h e R e a l into a T h i n g t h a t r e s i s t s s y m b o l i z a t i o n — o n l y t h e n d o e s it a p p e a r t h a t t h e

excluded/repressed

R e a l i n s i s t s a n d r e p e a t s itself. T h e R e a l i s p r i m o r d i a l l y n o t h i n g b u t t h e g a p t h a t s e p a r a t e s a t h i n g from itself, t h e g a p of r e p e t i t i o n . T h e c o n ­ s e q u e n c e of t h i s i s a l s o t h e i n v e r s i o n of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n r e p e t i ­ tion a n d r e - m e m o r i a l i z a t i o n . F r e u d ' s f a m o u s m o t t o " w h a t w e d o

not

r e m e m b e r , w e a r e c o m p e l l e d to r e p e a t " s h o u l d t h u s b e t u r n e d u p s i d e d o w n : what we are uiiahU to repeat, we are haunted hy and are compelled to remember. T h e w a y to g e t r i d of a p a s t t r a u m a is not to r e m e m b e r it, b u t to fiilly repeal it in t h e K i e r k e g a a r d i a n s e n s e . W h a t i s D e l e u z i a n " p u r e d i f f e r e n c e " a t its p u r e s t , if w e m a y p u t it in t h i s t a u t o l o g i c a l w a y ? It i s t h e p u r e l y v i r t u a l d i f f e r e n c e of a n e n t i t y w h i c h r e p e a t s i t s e l f a s t o t a l l y i d e n t i c a l w i t h r e g a r d to its a c t u a l p r o p e r t i e s :

t h e r e a r e s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s in t h e v i r t u a l i n t e n s i t i e s e x p r e s s e d in o u r a c t u a l s e n s a t i o n s . T h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s d o not c o r r e s p o n d to a c t u a l r e c o g n i z a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s . T h a t t h e s h a d e of p i n k h a s c h a n g e d in a n i d e n t i f i a b l e w a y i s not a l l - i m p o r t a n t . It i s t h a t t h e c h a n g e is a s i g n of a r e a r r a n g e m e n t of a n i n f i n i t y of o t h e r a c t u a l a n d v i r t u a l r e l a t i o n s .

Is not s u c h a p u r e d i f f e r e n c e w h a t t a k e s p l a c e in t h e r e p e t i t i o n of the s a m e actual melodic line in R o b e r t S c h u m a n n ' s " H u m o r e s q u e " ? This piece is to b e r e a d a g a i n s t t h e b a c k g r o u n d of t h e g r a d u a l l o s s of t h e v o i c e in S c h u m a n n ' s s o n g s : it is not a s i m p l e p i a n o p i e c e , b u t a s o n g w i t h o u t t h e v o c a l l i n e , w i t h t h e v o c a l l i n e r e d u c e d to s i l e n c e , so t h a t all w e in fact h e a r is t h e p i a n o a c c o m p a n i m e n t . T h i s i s h o w o n e s h o u l d r e a d t h e f a m o u s " i n n e r v o i c e " {innere Stimme) a d d e d b y S c h u m a n n (in t h e w r i t t e n s c o r e ) as a third line b e t w e e n the t w o piano lines, higher and lower: as the vocal melodic line w h i c h remains a non-vocalized "inner voice" (which exists o n l y a&Augenmiuik, m u s i c for t h e e y e s o n l y , in t h e g u i s e of w r i t t e n n o t e s ) . T h i s a b s e n t m e l o d y i s to b e r e c o n s t r u c t e d on t h e b a s i s of t h e fact t h a t t h e first

a n d third levels (the

right-

a n d t h e l e f t - h a n d p i a n o l i n e s ) d o not

r e l a t e to e a c h o t h e r d i r e c t l y , t h a t i s , t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p is not t h a t of a n i m m e d i a t e m i r r o r i n g : in o r d e r to a c c o u n t for t h e i r i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n , o n e i s t h u s c o m p e l l e d to ( r e ) c o n s t r u c t

a third,

"virtual" Intermediate

level

( m e l o d i c l i n e ) w h i c h , for s t r u c t u r a l r e a s o n s , c a n n o t b e p l a y e d . S c h u m a n n b r i n g s t h i s p r o c e d u r e of a b s e n t m e l o d y to a n a p p a r e n t l y a b s u r d

self-

r e f e r e n c e w h e n , l a t e r in t h e s a m e f r a g m e n t of " H u m o r e s q u e , " h e r e p e a t s the same t w o effectively p l a y e d melodic lines, y e t this time the score 321

c o n t a i n s n o t h i r d a b s e n t m e l o d i c line, n o i n n e r v o i c e —^what i s a b s e n t h e r e is t h e a b s e n t m e l o d y , n a m e l y a b s e n c e itself. H o w a r e w e to p l a y t h e s e n o t e s w h e n , a t t h e l e v e l of w h a t i s in fact to b e p l a y e d , t h e y e x a c t l y r e p e a t t h e p r e v i o u s n o t e s ? T h e e f f e c t i v e l y p l a y e d n o t e s a r e d e p r i v e d o n l y of w h a t is not t h e r e , of t h e i r c o n s t i t u t i v e l a c k , or, to r e f e r to t h e B i b l e , t h e y lose even that w h i c h t h e y n e v e r had. T h e true pianist s h o u l d t h u s h a v e t h e savoir-faire

to p l a y t h e e x i s t i n g , p o s i t i v e , n o t e s in s u c h a w a y t h a t o n e

w o u l d b e a b l e to d i s c e r n t h e e c h o of t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g n o n - p l a y e d " s i l e n t " v i r t u a l n o t e s or t h e i r a b s e n c e . . . T h i s , t h e n , i s p u r e d i f f e r e n c e : the nothing-actual,

the virtual b a c k g r o u n d ,

w h i c h a c c o u n t s for

the

d i f f e r e n c e of t h e t w o m e l o d i c l i n e s . T h i s l o g i c of v i r t u a l d i f f e r e n c e

c a n a l s o b e d i s c e r n e d in

another

p a r a d o x . T h e c i n e m a t i c v e r s i o n of E d g a r D o c t o r o w ' s Billy Bathgate is basically a failure, but an interesting one: a failure w h i c h nonetheless e v o k e s in t h e v i e w e r the s p e c t e r of t h e m u c h b e t t e r n o v e l . H o w e v e r , w h e n o n e t h e n g o e s on to r e a d t h e n o v e l on w h i c h t h e film i s b a s e d , o n e is d i s a p p o i n t e d — t h i s i s not t h e n o v e l t h e film e v o k e d a s t h e s t a n d a r d w i t h r e g a r d to w h i c h it f a i l e d . T h e r e p e t i t i o n (of a f a i l e d n o v e l in t h e failed film)

t h u s g i v e s r i s e to a t h i r d , p u r e l y v i r t u a l , e l e m e n t , t h e b e t t e r n o v e l .

T h i s is a n e x e m p l a r y c a s e of w h a t D e l e u z e d e p l o y s in t h e c r u c i a l p a g e s of h i s Difference and Repetition:

w h i l e it m a y s e e m t h a t t h e t w o p r e s e n t s a r e s u c c e s s i v e , a t a v a r i a b l e d i s t a n c e a p a r t in the s e r i e s of r e a l s , in fact t h e y form, r a t h e r , two real serieii which coexist in relation to a virtual object of another kind, o n e w h i c h c o n s t a n t l y c i r c u l a t e s a n d i s d i s p l a c e d in t h e m .

[. . . ] R e p e t i t i o n is

c o n s t i t u t e d n o t from o n e p r e s e n t to a n o t h e r , b u t b e t w e e n t h e t w o c o e x i s t e n t s e r i e s t h a t t h e s e p r e s e n t s form in f u n c t i o n of t h e v i r t u a l o b j e c t ( o b j e c t = 'xjJ^

W i t h r e g a r d to Billy Bathgate: t h e film d o e s not " r e p e a t " t h e n o v e l on w h i c h it i s b a s e d ; r a t h e r , t h e y b o t h " r e p e a t " the u n r e p e a t a b l e v i r t u a l x , t h e " t r u e " n o v e l w h o s e s p e c t e r i s e n g e n d e r e d in t h e p a s s a g e from

the

a c t u a l n o v e l to t h e film. T h e u n d e r l y i n g m o v e m e n t i s h e r e m o r e c o m p l e x t h a n it m a y a p p e a r . It is not t h a t w e s h o u l d s i m p l y c o n c e i v e t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t ( t h e n o v e l ) a s a n " o p e n w o r k , " full of p o s s i b i l i t i e s w h i c h c a n b e d e p l o y e d l a t e r , a c t u a l i z e d in l a t e r v e r s i o n s ; o r — e v e n w o r s e — t h a t w e should conceive the original w o r k a s a pre-text w h i c h can later be i n c o r p o r a t e d in o t h e r c o n - t e x t s a n d g i v e n a m e a n i n g t o t a l l y different 322

W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H I N P R A C T I C E

from t h e o r i g i n a l o n e . W h a t is m i s s i n g h e r e is t h e r e t r o a c t i v e , b a c k w a r d s , m o v e m e n t t h a t w a s first d e s c r i b e d b y H e n r i B e r g s o n , a k e y r e f e r e n c e for D e l e u z e . In h i s " T w o

S o u r c e s of M o r a l i t y a n d

Religion," Bergson

d e s c r i b e s t h e s t r a n g e s e n s a t i o n h e e x p e r i e n c e d on A u g u s t 4, 1 9 1 4 , w h e n w a r w a s declared between France and

Germany:

In s p i t e of m y t u r m o i l , a n d a l t h o u g h a w a r , e v e n a v i c t o r i o u s one, a p p e a r e d to m e a s a c a t a s t r o p h e , 1 e x p e r i e n c e d w h a t [ W i l l i a m ] J a m e s s p o k e a b o u t , a f e e l i n g of a d m i r a t i o n for t h e f a c i l i t y of t h e p a s s a g e from the a b s t r a c t to t h e c o n c r e t e ; w h o w o u l d h a v e t h o u g h t t h a t s u c h a f o r m i d a b l e e v e n t c a n e m e r g e in r e a l i t y w i t h so little f u s s ? ' ' ^

C r u c i a l i s h e r e t h e m o d a l i t y of t h e b r e a k b e t w e e n b e f o r e a n d after: b e f o r e its o u t b u r s t , t h e w a r a p p e a r e d to B e r g s o n "simaitaneoiuiy probable and Impodsihle: a c o m p l e x a n d c o n t r a d i c t o r y n o t i o n w h i c h p e r s i s t e d to t h e end";''^ after its o u t b u r s t , it a l l of a s u d d e n b e c o m e s r e a l and p o s s i b l e , a n d t h e p a r a d o x r e s i d e s in t h i s r e t r o a c t i v e a p p e a r a n c e of p r o b a b i l i t y ;

I n e v e r p r e t e n d e d that one can insert reality into the past and thus w o r k b a c k w a r d s in t i m e . H o w e v e r , o n e c a n w i t h o u t a n y d o u b t i n s e r t t h e r e t h e p o s s i b l e , or, r a t h e r , a t e v e r y m o m e n t t h e p o s s i b l e i n s e r t s i t s e l f t h e r e . I n s o f a r a s u n p r e d i c t a b l e a n d n e w r e a l i t y c r e a t e s itself. Its I m a g e r e f l e c t s i t s e l f b e h i n d i t s e l f in t h e i n d e f i n i t e p a s t : t h i s n e w r e a l i t y finds itself a l l t h e t i m e h a v i n g b e e n p o s s i b l e ; b u t rt i s o n l y at t h e p r e c i s e m o m e n t of its a c t u a l e m e r g e n c e t h a t it begiiw to always have been, a n d t h i s i s w h y I s a y t h a t its p o s s i b i l i t y , w h i c h d o e s not p r e c e d e i t s r e a l i t y , w i l l h a v e p r e c e d e d it o n c e t h i s r e a l i t y e m e r g e s .

A n d thLi i s w h a t t a k e s p l a c e i n t h e e x a m p l e of Billy Bathgate: t h e i n s e r t s b a c k i n t o t h e n o v e l t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a different, m u c h n o v e l . A n d d o w e not e n c o u n t e r

a s i m i l a r l o g i c in the

film

better,

relationship

b e t w e e n S t a l i n i s m a n d L e n i n i s m ? H e r e a l s o , three m o m e n t s a r e in p l a y ; L e n i n ' s politics before the Stalinist takeover; S t a l m i s t politics; the specter of " L e n i n i s m " r e t r o a c t i v e l y g e n e r a t e d b y S t a l i n i s m (in i t s official S t a l i n i s t v e r s i o n , b u t also in t h e v e r s i o n c r i t i c a l of S t a l i n i s m , a s w h e n . In t h e p r o c e s s of " d e - S t a l i n l z a t l o n " in t h e U S S R , t h e m o t t o e v o k e d w a s t h a t of t h e " r e t u r n to o r i g i n a l L e n i n i s t p r i n c i p l e s " ) . O n e s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e stop t h e r i d i c u l o u s g a m e of o p p o s i n g t h e S t a l i n i s t t e r r o r to t h e " a u t h e n t i c " Leninist legacy betrayed

by

Stalinism: " L e n i n i s m " is a

thoroughly 323

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

StalinUit n o t i o n . T h e g e s t u r e of p r o j e c t i n g t h e

emancipatory-utopian

p o t e n t i a l of S t a l i n i s m b a c k w a r d s , i n t o a p r e c e d i n g t i m e , s i g n a l s t h e i n c a p a c i t y of the line of t h o u g h t i n e n d u r i n g t h e " a b s o l u t e c o n t r a d i c t i o n , " the u n b e a r a b l e tension, inherent

to t h e S t a l i n i s t p r o j e c t

itself. It is

t h e r e f o r e c r u c i a l to d i s t i n g u i s h " L e n i n i s m " ( a s t h e a u t h e n t i c c o r e of S t a l i n i s m ) from t h e a c t u a l p o l i t i c a l p r a c t i c e a n d i d e o l o g y of L e n i n ' s p e r i o d : t h e a c t u a l g r e a t n e s s of L e n i n is not t h e s a m e a s t h e S t a l i n i s t a u t h e n t i c m y t h of L e n i n i s m . A n d t h e i r o n y i s t h a t t h i s l o g i c of r e p e t i t i o n , e l a b o r a t e d b y D e l e u z e , the a n t i - H e g e l i a n par excellence, i s at t h e v e r y c o r e of t h e H e g e l i a n d i a l e c t i c : it r e l i e s on t h e p r o p e r l y d i a l e c t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t e m p o r a l r e a l i t y a n d t h e e t e r n a l a b s o l u t e . T h e e t e r n a l a b s o l u t e is t h e I m m o b i l e p o i n t of reference around w h i c h temporal

figurations

circulate, their presupposi­

tion; h o w e v e r , p r e c i s e l y a s s u c h , it is p o s i t e d b y t h e s e t e m p o r a l

figura­

t i o n s , s i n c e it d o e s not p r e e x i s t t h e m : it e m e r g e s in t h e g a p b e t w e e n t h e first a n d t h e s e c o n d — i n t h e c a s e oî Billy Bathgate, b e t w e e n t h e n o v e l a n d its r e p e t i t i o n in t h e film. Or, b a c k to " H u m o r e s q u e " : t h e e t e r n a l a b s o l u t e is t h e t h i r d u n - p l a y e d m e l o d i c l i n e , t h e p o i n t of r e f e r e n c e of t h e t w o l i n e s p l a y e d in r e a l i t y . It is a b s o l u t e , b u t f r a g i l e — i f the t w o p o s i t i v e l i n e s a r e p l a y e d w r o n g l y , it d i s a p p e a r s . . . T h i s i s w h a t o n e is t e m p t e d to call " m a t e r i a l i s t t h e o l o g y " : t h e n o t i o n t h a t t e m p o r a l s u c c e s s i o n itself c r e a t e s eternity.

The vacuity of the politicj

of jouuMance

The short-circuit between

S t a v r a k a k i s ' s o n t o l o g y a n d p o l i t i c s is not

difficult to g u e s s : the a c c e p t a n c e of t h e c o n s t i t u t i v e h o l e in t h e SvTnbolic, t h e " l a c k in t h e O t h e r , " p r o v i d e s t h e s p a c e for t h e o r i z i n g d e m o c r a c y a s t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n of c o n t i n g e n c y . T h i s b r i n g s u s to t h e p o l i t i c a l w a g e r of S t a v r a k a k i s ' s b o o k :

[to] combine an ethical attitude that reinvigorates m o d e r n d e m o c r a c y w i t h a r e a l p a s s i o n for t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , c a p a b l e of s t i m u l a t i n g the b o d y p o l i t i c w i t h o u t r e o c c u p y i n g t h e o b s o l e t e u t o p i a n i s m of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l Left.^''

S u c h a c o m b i n a t i o n h a s to e n a c t a " d e l i c a t e b a l a n c i n g act,"®' a v o i d i n g b o t h e x t r e m e s of p a s s i o n l e s s e g a l i t a r i a n d e m o c r a c y À la H a b e r m a s a n d of p a s s i o n a t e t o t a l i t a r i a n e n g a g e m e n t . T h e b a l a n c e is b e t w e e n l a c k a n d 324

W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H IN P R A C T I C E

e x c e s s : l a c k is a r t i c u l a t e d in d i s c o u r s e t h e o r y , w h i l e e x c e s s towards enjoyment as

A

political

FACTOR.

points

F o r e x a m p l e , in r e c e n t d e b a t e s

a b o u t E u r o p e a n i d e n t i t y , " t h e n e g l e c t of t h e affective s i d e of i d e n t i f i c a ­ tion l e a d s to A d i s p l a c e m e n t of c a t h e c t i c e n e r g y w h i c h i s n o w i n v e s t e d in anti-European political a n d ideological discourses."^^ M o d e r n s o c i e t y is d e f i n e d b y t h e l a c k of a n u l t i m a t e t r a n s c e n d e n t a l g u a r a n t e e , or, I N l i b i d i n a l t e r m s , of total joiuAiance. T h e r e a r e t h r e e m a i n w a y s to c o p e w i t h t h i s n e g a t i v i t y :

UTOPIAN,

democratic, and post-demo­

c r a t i c . T h e first ( t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m , f u n d a m e n t a l i s m ) t r i e s to r e o c c u p y t h e g r o u n d of a b s o l u t e jouLiMnce b y a t t a i n i n g a

UTOPIAN

and

harmonious

society w h i c h eliminates negativity. The second, the democratic, enacts A p o l i t i c a l e q u i v a l e n t of " t r a v e r s i n g t h e f a n t a s y " : it i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e s t h e l a c k itself b y c r e a t i n g t h e

SPACE

for p o l i t i c a l a n t a g o n i s m s . T h e t h i r d ,

con-

s u m e r i s t p o s t - d e m o c r a c y , t r i e s to n e u t r a l i z e n e g a t i v i t y b y t r a n s f o r m i n g politics into apolitical administration: individuals p u r s u e their consumerist f a n t a s i e s in t h e s p a c e r e g u l a t e d b y e x p e r t s o c i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . T o d a y , w h e n d e m o c r a c y is g r a d u a l l y evolving into consumerist post-democracy, o n e s h o u l d Insist t h a t t h e d e m o c r a t i c p o t e n t i a l i s not e x h a u s t e d — " d e ­ m o c r a c y as an unfinished project" could have been S t a v r a k a k i s ' s motto h e r e . T h e k e y to t h e r e s u s c i t a t i o n of t h i s d e m o c r a t i c p o t e n t i a l i s to r e m o b i l i z e e n j o y m e n t : " W h a t is n e e d e d , in o t h e r w o r d s , i s an enjoyable democratic ethics of the polilical."^^ It i s d e e p l y s y m p t o m a t i c t h a t S t a v r a k a k i s i s s i l e n t a b o u t a k e y shift in L a c l a u ' s w r i t i n g s o v e r t h e l a s t few y e a r s : in h i s Populist Reason, L a c l a u c l e a r l y c h a n g e d h i s p o s i t i o n from

" r a d i c a l d e m o c r a c y " to

populism,

r e d u c i n g d e m o c r a c y to t h e m o m e n t of d e m o c r a t i c d e m a n d within the s y s t e m . T h i s shift h a s c l e a r p o l i t i c a l g r o u n d s a n d I m p l i c a t i o n s — suffice it to m e n t i o n L a c l a u ' s s u p p o r t for H u g o C h a v e z . O n e c a n e a s i l y i m a g i n e a situation determined by a tension between the institutionalized demo­ c r a t i c p o w e r b l o c a n d t h e o p p o s i t i o n a l p o p u l i s t b l o c , in w h i c h L a c l a u (and, l e t m e a d d to a v o i d A m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g , h e r e I w o u l d s i d e w i t h h i m ) w o u l d opt for t h e p o p u l i s t b l o c — w h e n S t a v r a k a k i s c r i t i c i z e s m y c l a i m t h a t a " p r o g r e s s i v e m i l i t a r y d i c t a t o r s h i p " c a n p l a y a p o s i t i v e r o l e , h e is o b v i o u s l y n o t a w a r e of m y i m p l i c i t r e f e r e n c e to L a c l a u . ^ ^ B u t t h e k e y q u e s t i o n h e r e i s , of c o u r s e , what kind of e n j o y m e n t a r e w e talking about? L i b i d i n a l i n v e s t m e n t a n d t h e m o b i l i z a t i o n of jouissance a r e t h e n e c e s ­ s a r y p r e r e q u i s i t e for a n y s u s t a i n a b l e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n (from

nationahsm 325

to c o n s u m e r i s m ) . T h i s a l s o a p p l i e s to t h e r a d i c a l d e m o c r a t i c e t h i c s of t h e p o l i t i c a l . B u t t h e t y p e of i n v e s t m e n t i n v o l v e d h a s still to b e decided.^-'' S t a v r a k a k i s ' s s o l u t i o n i s : n e i t h e r t h e phallic e n j o y m e n t of p o w e r n o r t h e Utopia of t h e i n c e s t u o u s full e n j o y m e n t , b u t a non-phallic ( n o n - a l l ) partial e n j o y m e n t . P r e d i c t a b l y , I fit i n t o t h i s s c h e m e a s a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e i n c e s t u o u s u t o p l a , a m o n g t h e " d i s i l l u s i o n e d leftists w h o , u n a b l e to m o u r n ' p r o l e t a r i a n r e v o l u t i o n ' a n d ' u t o p i a ' , o p t for a n o s t a l g i c r e t u r n t o t h e o l d — d e f e a t e d a n d d a n g e r o u s — p o l i t i c s of r e o c c u p a t i o n "

—^again, a s if m y

L e n i n b o o k , RevoLdion at the Gates, i s n o t p r e c i s e l y a b o o k of m o u r n i n g — not of m e l a n c h o l i c a t t a c h m e n t , b u t of p a r t i n g w i t h L e n i n :

C o n s e q u e n t l y , to R E P E A T L e n i n d o e s N O T m e a n a R E T U R N

to

L e n i n —to repeat Lenin ui to accept that "Lenin is dead, " t h a t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s o l u t i o n f a i l e d , e v e n failed m o n s t r o u s l y , b u t t h a t t h e r e w a s a Utopian s p a r k in it w o r t h s a v i n g . T o r e p e a t L e n i n m e a n s t h a t o n e h a s to distinguish between

what

L e n i n e f f e c t i v e l y d i d a n d t h e field of

p o s s i b i l i t i e s t h a t h e o p e n e d u p , t h e t e n s i o n in L e n i n b e t w e e n w h a t he effectively d i d a n d another dimension, w h a t w a s "in Lenin more than Lenin h i m s e l f " To repeat Lenin is to repeat not w h a t Lenin D I D , but what he F A I L E D T O D O , his M I S S E D

opportunifies.®^

In t h e l a s t p a g e s of h i s b o o k , t i y i n g to d e m o n s t r a t e h o w " d e m o c r a t i c s u b j e c t i v i t y i s c a p a b l e of i n s p i r i n g h i g h passions,"^® S t a v r a k a k i s r e f e r s to t h e o t h e r L a c a n i a n jouiooance, " a jouLioance b e y o n d a c c u m u l a t i o n , d o m ­ i n a t i o n a n d f a n t a s y , a n e n j o y m e n t of t h e n o t - a l l o r not-whole."®^ H o w d o w e a c h i e v e t h i s jouüsancel

B y w a y of a c c o m p l i s h i n g " t h e s a c r i f i c e of t h e

f a n t a s m a t i c objet petit a" w h i c h c a n o n l y " m a k e t h i s o t h e r jouLi
T h e c e n t r a l t a s k in p s y c h o a n a l y s i s — a n d p o l i t i c s — i s to d e t a c h t h e objet petit a from t h e s i g n i f i e r of t h e l a c k in t h e O t h e r [. . . ] to d e t a c h ( a n t i ­ d e m o c r a t i c a n d p o s t - d e m o c r a t i c ) f a n t a s y from t h e d e m o c r a t i c Insti­ t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n of l a c k , m a k i n g p o s s i b l e t h e a c c e s s t o a p a r t i a l e n j o y ­ m e n t b e y o n d f a n t a s y . [. . . ] O n l y t h u s s h a l l w e b e a b l e t o r e a l l y e n j o y o u r p a r t i a l e n j o y m e n t , w i t h o u t s u b o r d i n a t i n g It to t h e c a t a c l y s m i c d e s i r e of f a n t a s y . B e y o n d i t s d i a l e c t i c s of d i s a v o w a l , t h i s i s t h e c o n c r e t e c h a l l e n g e t h e L a c a n i a n Left a d d r e s s e s t o u s . 326

W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H

IN P R A C T I C E

T h e u n d e r l y i n g i d e a i s a s t o n i s h i n g l y s i m p l i s t i c : in total c o n t r a d i c t i o n to L a c a n , S t a v r a k a k i s r e d u c e s t h e objet petit a t o its role in f a n t a s y — t h e objet a is t h a t e x c e s s i v e X w h i c h m a g i c a l l y t r a n s f o r m s t h e p a r t i a l o b j e c t s w h i c h o c c u p y t h e p l a c e of t h e l a c k in t h e O t h e r into t h e Utopian p r o m i s e of t h e impossible fullness

jouusance. W h a t S t a v r a k a k i s p r o p o s e s i s t h u s t h e

v i s i o n of a s o c i e t y in w h i c h d e s i r e f u n c t i o n s w i t h o u t a n objet a, w i t h o u t t h e destabilizing excess which transforms

it i n t o a " c a t a c l y s m i c d e s i r e of

f a n t a s y " — a s S t a v r a k a k i s p u t s it i n a s y m p t o m a t i c a l l y t a u t o l o g i c a l w a y , w e s h o u l d l e a r n to " r e a l l y e n j o y o u r p a r t i a l

enjoyment."

F o r L a c a n , on t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e objet a i s a ( n o t h e r ) n a m e for t h e F r e u d i a n " p a r t i a l o b j e c t , " w h i c h is w h y it c a n n o t b e r e d u c e d t o i t s r o l e in fantasy w h i c h

s u s t a i n s d e s i r e ; it is for t h i s r e a s o n

that, a s L a c a n

e m p h a s i z e s , o n e s h o u l d d i s t i n g u i s h its r o l e in d e s i r e a n d in t h e d r i v e . F o l l o w i n g J a c q u e s - A l a i n M i l l e r , a d i s t i n c t i o n h a s to b e i n t r o d u c e d h e r e b e t w e e n t w o t y p e s of l a c k , t h e l a c k p r o p e r a n d t h e h o l e : l a c k is s p a t i a l , d e s i g n a t i n g a v o i d within a s p a c e , w h i l e t h e h o l e i s m o r e r a d i c a l , it designates the point at w h i c h this spatial order itself b r e a k s d o w n ( a s in t h e " b l a c k h o l e " in p h y s i c s ) .

Therein resides the difference b e t w e e n

d e s i r e a n d d r i v e : d e s i r e i s g r o u n d e d i n its c o n s t i t u t i v e l a c k , w h i l e d r i v e c i r c u l a t e s a r o u n d a hole, a g a p i n t h e o r d e r of b e i n g . In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e c i r c u l a r m o v e m e n t of t h e d r i v e o b e y s t h e w e i r d l o g i c of t h e c u r v e d s p a c e in w h i c h t h e s h o r t e s t d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e t w o p o i n t s i s n o t a s t r a i g h t line, b u t a c u r v e : t h e d r i v e " k n o w s " t h a t t h e s h o r t e s t w a y to a t t a i n i t s a i m is t o c i r c u l a t e a r o u n d i t s g o a l - o b j e c t . ( O n e s h o u l d b e a r in m i n d

here

L a c a n ' s w e l l - k n o w n d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e a i m a n d t h e g o a l of t h e d r i v e : w h i l e t h e g o a l is t h e o b j e c t a r o u n d w h i c h t h e d r i v e c i r c u l a t e s , i t s ( t r u e ) a i m i s t h e e n d l e s s c o n t i n u a t i o n of t h i s c i r c u l a t i o n a s s u c h . ) M i l l e r also proposed a Benjaminian distinction between

"constituted

a n x i e t y " a n d " c o n s t i t u e n t a n x i e t y , " w h i c h i s c r u c i a l w i t h r e g a r d to t h e shift from d e s i r e to d r i v e : w h i l e t h e first d e s i g n a t e s t h e s t a n d a r d n o t i o n of t h e t e r r i f y i n g a n d f a s c i n a t i n g a b y s s of a n x i e t y w h i c h h a u n t s u s , i t s i n f e r n a l c i r c l e w h i c h t h r e a t e n s to d r a w u s in, t h e s e c o n d s t a n d s for the "pure " confrontation

w i t h t h e objet petit a a s c o n s t i t u t e d in i t s v e r y

loss.'''' M i l l e r is r i g h t to e m p h a s i z e h e r e t w o f e a t u r e s : t h e d i f f e r e n c e w h i c h s e p a r a t e s c o n s t i t u t e d from c o n s t i t u e n t a n x i e t y c o n c e r n s t h e s t a t u s of t h e o b j e c t w i t h r e g a r d to f a n t a s y . In a c a s e of c o n s t i t u t e d a n x i e t y , t h e o b j e c t d w e l l s w i t h i n t h e c o n f i n e s of a f a n t a s y , w h e r e a s w e g e t t h e c o n s t i t u e n t a n x i e t y o n l y w h e n the subject " t r a v e r s e s the f a n t a s y " a n d confronts the v o i d , t h e g a p , filled u p b y t h e f a n t a s m a t i c object. H o w e v e r , c l e a r a n d 327

c o n v i n c i n g a s it i s , t h i s f o r m u l a of M i l l e r ' s m i s s e s t h e t r u e p a r a d o x or, r a t h e r , t h e a m b i g u i t y of t h e objet a. W h e n h e d e f i n e s t h e objet a a s t h e o b j e c t w h i c h o v e r l a p s w i t h i t s l o s s , w h i c h e m e r g e s a t t h e v e r y m o m e n t of its l o s s (so t h a t a l l i t s f a n t a s m a t i c i n c a r n a t i o n s , from b r e a s t s t o v o i c e a n d gaze, are métonymie

figurations

of t h e v o i d , of n o t h i n g ) , h e r e m a i n s

w i t h i n t h e h o r i z o n of àe<>ire—ihe t r u e o b j e c t - c a u s e of d e s i r e i s t h e v o i d filled

in b y i t s f a n t a s m a t i c i n c a r n a t i o n s . W h i l e , a s L a c a n e m p h a s i z e s , t h e

objet a is a l s o t h e o b j e c t of t h e d r i v e , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p i s h e r e t h o r o u g h l y different: a l t h o u g h , in b o t h c a s e s , t h e l i n k b e t w e e n o b j e c t a n d l o s s i s c r u c i a l , in t h e c a s e of t h e objet a a s t h e o b j e c t - c a u s e of deoire, w e h a v e a n o b j e c t w h i c h i s o r i g i n a l l y lost, w h i c h c o i n c i d e s w i t h i t s o w n l o s s , w h i c h e m e r g e s a s lost, w h i l e , m t h e c a s e of t h e objet a a s t h e o b j e c t o l t h e d r i v e , t h e " o b j e c t " io directly the bdd iLtelf—m t h e shift from d e s i r e to d r i v e , w e p a s s from t h e lost object to IOM itdelf ao an object. T h a t is to s a y , t h e w e i r d m o v e m e n t c a l l e d " d r i v e " i s n o t d r i v e n b y t h e " i m p o s s i b l e " q u e s t for t h e lost object; it i s a push to directly enact the "loo/'—the gap, cut, diitance —itjelf. T h e r e i s t h u s a double d i s t i n c t i o n t o b e d r a w n h e r e : n o t o n l y b e t w e e n t h e objet a i n i t s f a n t a s m a t i c a n d p o s t - f a n t a s m a t i c s t a t u s , b u t a l s o , w i t h i n this p o s t - f a n t a s m a t i c d o m a i n itself, b e t w e e n t h e lost o b j e c t - c a u s e o f d e s i r e a n d t h e o b j e c t - l o s s of d r i v e . ^ The

s t a r t l i n g t h i n g is t h a t S t a v r a k a k i s ' s i d e a of s u s t a i n i n g

desire

w i t h o u t t h e objet a c o n t r a d i c t s n o t o n l y L a c a n , b u t a l s o L a c l a u ' s n o t i o n of h e g e m o n y : l a c l a u i s o n t h e r i g h t t r a c k w h e n

he emphasizes the

n e c e s s a r y r o l e of t h e objet a i n r e n d e r i n g a n i d e o l o g i c a l e d i f i c e o p e r a t i v e . In h e g e m o n y , a p a r t i c u l a r e m p i r i c a l object i s " e l e v a t e d t o t h e d i g n i t y of t h e T h i n g " ; i t s t a r t s to function a s t h e s t a n d - i n for, t h e e m b o d i m e n t of, t h e i m p o s s i b l e f u l l n e s s of S o c i e t y . A s w e h a v e n o t e d , h e r e f e r s to J o a n C o p j e c , c o m p a r i n g h e g e m o n y to t h e " b r e a s t - v a l u e " a t t a c h e d t o p a r t i a l o b j e c t s w h i c h s t a n d i n for t h e i n c e s t u o u s m a t e r n a l T h i n g ( b r e a s t ) . L a c l a u s h o u l d i n fact b e c r i t i c i z e d h e r e for c o n f o u n d i n g

desire (sustained b y

f a n t a s y ) w i t h d r i v e ( o n e of w h o s e d e f i n i t i o n s is a l s o " t h a t w h i c h r e m a i n s of d e s i r e after

its subject

t r a v e r s e s t h e f a n t a s y " ) : for h i m , w e a r e

c o n d e m n e d t o s e a r c h i n g for i m p o s s i b l e f u l l n e s s . D r i v e — i n w h i c h w e d i r e c t l y e n j o y l a c k i t s e l f — s i m p l y d o e s not a p p e a r o n h i s h o r i z o n . H o w ­ e v e r , t h i s i n n o w a y e n t a i l s that, in d r i v e , w e " r e a l l y e n j o y o u r p a r t i a l e n j o y m e n t , " w i t h o u t t h e d i s t u r b i n g e x c e s s : for L a c a n , l a c k a n d e x c e s s a r e s t r i c t l y c o r r e l a t i v e , t h e t w o s i d e s of t h e s a m e coin. P r e c i s e l y i n s o f a r a s it c i r c u l a t e s a r o u n d a hole, t h e d r i v e i s t h e n a m e of t h e e x c e s s t h a t p e r t a i n s to h u m a n b e i n g , it i s t h e " t o o - m u c h - n e s s " of s t r i v i n g w h i c h i n s i s t s b e y o n d 328

W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H

IN P R A C T I C E

life a n d d e a t h ( t h i s is w h y L a c a n s o m e t i m e s e v e n d i r e c t l y i d e n t i f i e s t h e d r i v e w i t h t h e objet a a s s u r p l u s - e n j o y m e n t . ) B e c a u s e h e I g n o r e s this e x c e s s of d r i v e , S t a v r a k a k i s a l s o o p e r a t e s w i t h a s i m p l i f i e d notion of " t r a v e r s i n g t h e f a n t a s y " — a s If f a n t a s y i s a k i n d of i l l u s o r y s c r e e n b l u r r i n g o u r r e l a t i o n to p a r t i a l o b j e c t s . T h i s n o t i o n fits p e r f e c t l y w i t h t h e c o m m o n - s e n s e i d e a of w h a t p s y c h o a n a l y s i s s h o u l d do: of c o u r s e It s h o u l d l i b e r a t e u s from t h e h o l d of i d i o s y n c r a t i c f a n t a s i e s a n d e n a b l e u s to c o n f r o n t r e a l i t y t h e w a y It e f f e c t i v e l y is . . . b u t

this,

p r e c i s e l y . Is w h a t L a c a n d o e s not h a v e In m i n d — w h a t h e a i m s a t is a l m o s t t h e e x a c t o p p o s i t e . In o u r d a i l y e x i s t e n c e , w e a r e i m m e r s e d In "reality" (structured-supported disturbed

b y t h e f a n t a s y ) , a n d this I m m e r s i o n is

b y s y m p t o m s w h i c h b e a r w i t n e s s to t h e fact t h a t

another

r e p r e s s e d l e v e l of o u r p s y c h e r e s i s t s t h i s I m m e r s i o n . T o " t r a v e r s e t h e fantasy" therefore

p a r a d o x i c a l l y m e a n s fully

identifying oneself with the

fantasy— namely w i t h t h e f a n t a s y w h i c h s t r u c t u r e s t h e e x c e s s r e s i s t i n g o u r i m m e r s i o n i n t o d a i l y reaHty, or, to q u o t e a s u c c i n c t f o r m u l a t i o n Richard

by

Boothby:

" T r a v e r s i n g t h e f a n t a s y " t h u s d o e s not m e a n t h a t t h e s u b j e c t s o m e h o w a b a n d o n s its i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h fanciful c a p r i c e s a n d

accommodates

itself to a p r a g m a t i c " r e a l i t y , " b u t p r e c i s e l y t h e o p p o s i t e : t h e s u b j e c t Is s u b m i t t e d to t h a t effect of the s y m b o l i c l a c k t h a t r e v e a l s t h e l i m i t of e v e r y d a y r e a l i t y . To t r a v e r s e t h e f a n t a s y in t h e L a c a n i a n s e n s e i s to b e m o r e p r o f o u n d l y c l a i m e d b y t h e f a n t a s y t h a n e v e r . In t h e s e n s e of b e i n g b r o u g h t i n t o a n e v e r m o r e i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n w i t h t h a t r e a l c o r e of the fantasy that transcends imaging.^''

B o o t h b y Is right to e m p h a s i z e t h e J a n u s - l i k e s t r u c t u r e of a f a n t a s y : a fantasy is s i m u l t a n e o u s l y pacifying, d i s a r m i n g (providing a n I m a g i n a r y s c e n a r i o w h i c h e n a b l e s u s to e n d u r e t h e a b y s s of t h e O t h e r ' s d e s i r e ) an? shattering,

disturbing,

Inasslmilable into our reality. The

ideologico-

p o l i t i c a l d i m e n s i o n of t h i s n o t i o n of " t r a v e r s i n g t h e f a n t a s y " w a s r e n d e r e d c l e a r b y t h e u n i q u e r o l e t h e r o c k g r o u p Top Lyta Nadrealuta of the SurrealLüS)

(The Top List

p l a y e d d u r i n g t h e B o s n i a n w a r in b e s i e g e d S a r a j e v o :

t h e i r Ironic p e r f o r m a n c e s w h i c h , in t h e m i d s t of t h e w a r a n d

hunger,

s a t i r i z e d t h e p r e d i c a m e n t of t h e S a r a j e v o p o p u l a t i o n , a c q u i r e d a c u l t s t a t u s not o n l y In c o u n t e r c u l t u r e , b u t a l s o a m o n g t h e c i t i z e n s of S a r a j e v o In g e n e r a l ( t h e g r o u p ' s w e e k l y T V s h o w w e n t on t h r o u g h o u t t h e w a r a n d was

e x t r e m e l y p o p u l a r ) . I n s t e a d of b e m o a n i n g

t h e t r a g i c fate of t h e 329

Bosnians, t h e y d a r i n g l y mobilized all the

clichés about

the

"stupid

B o s n i a n s " w h i c h w e r e a c o m m o n p l a c e in Y u g o s l a v i a , fully i d e n t i l y i n g w i t h t h e m —the p o i n t t h u s m a d e w a s t h a t t h e p a t h of t r u e s o l i d a r i t y l e a d s through

direct confrontation

with the obscene racist fantasies which

c i r c u l a t e d in t h e s y m b o l i c s p a c e of B o s n i a , t h r o u g h p l a y f u l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h t h e m , not t h r o u g h t h e d e n i a l of t h e s e o b s c e n i t i e s in t h e n a m e of "what people are really like." No

wonder,

concrete

then,

that, w h e n

S t a v r a k a k i s t r i e s to p r o v i d e

e x a m p l e s of t h i s n e w poHtics of p a r t i a l e n j o y m e n t ,

some things

become really "bizarre." H e starts w i t h M a r s h a l l Sahlins's thesis that t h e P a l e o l i t h i c c o m m u n i t i e s f o l l o w e d " a Z e n r o a d to a f f l u e n c e " : a l t h o u g h d e e p l y m a r k e d b y divisions, e x c h a n g e , sexual difference, violence a n d w a r , t h e y l a c k t h e " s h r i n e of t h e U n a t t a i n a b l e , " of "infinite N e e d s , " a n d t h u s t h e " d e s i r e for a c c u m u l a t i o n " . In t h e m ,

e n j o y m e n t s e e m s to b e h a d w i t h o u t

the m e d i a t i o n of f a n t a s i e s of

a c c u m u l a t i o n , f u l l n e s s a n d e x c e s s . [. . . ] [ T ] h e y d o s h o w t h a t a n o t h e r w o r l d m a y , in p r i n c i p l e , b e p o s s i b l e i n s o f a r a s a d e t a c h m e n t of ( p a r t i a l ) e n j o y m e n t from

d r e a m s of c o m p l e t e n e s s a n d f a n t a s m a t i c d e s i r e is

e n a c t e d . [. . . ] D o e s n ' t s o m e t h i n g s i m i l a r h a p p e n in t h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c c l i n i c ? A n d i s n ' t t h i s a l s o t h e c h a l l e n g e for r a d i c a l d e m o c r a t i c e t h i c s ?

A g a i n , i s t h e i d e a h e r e n o t p r e c i s e l y t h a t of a s o c i e t y w i t h o u t l a c k ? T h e w a y t h e P a l e o l i t h i c t r i b e s m e n a v o i d e d a c c u m u l a t i o n w a s to c a n c e l l a c k Itself—it i s t h e i d e a of s u c h a s o c i e t y w i t h o u t t h e e x c e s s of " i n f i n i t e N e e d s " w h i c h i s p r o p e r l y Utopian, t h e u l t i m a t e f a n t a s y , t h e f a n t a s y of a s o c i e t y before t h e F a l l .

W h a t t h e n f o l l o w s i s a s e r i e s of e x a m p l e s of h o w

" p o l i t i c a l t h e o r i s t s a n d a n a l y s t s , e c o n o m i s t s , a n d a c t i v e c i t i z e n s ^—some of t h e m d i r e c t l y i n s p i r e d b y L a c a n i a n t h e o r y — a r e c u r r e n t l y t r y i n g to p u t t h i s r a d i c a l d e m o c r a t i c o r i e n t a t i o n to w o r k in a m u l t i t u d e of e m p i r i c a l contexts."^® F o r e x a m p l e : " A g r o u p of c o o p e r a t i v e w o r k e r s [ B y r n e a n d H e a l y ] h a v e e x a m i n e d a n d t r i e d to r e s t r u c t u r e t h e i r e n j o y m e n t in a n o n f a n t a s m a t i c w a y " ' ' ^ — it w o u l d b e c e r t a i n l y i n t e r e s t i n g to h e a r in d e t a i l h o w this "restructuring" w a s carried out! Then comes Robin B l a c k b u r n ' s proposal

for t h e d e m o c r a t i z a t i o n

proposal

to p a s s from

Negri's proposal

of p e n s i o n

funds,

Roberto

Unger's

a f a m i l y to a s o c i a l i n h e r i t a n c e s y s t e m ,

for a m i n i m u m

Toni

citizenship income, the projects

of

p a r t i c i p a t o r y b u d g e t s in B r a z i l . . .""^ — w h a t a l l t h i s h a s to d o w i t h jûuùkiance féminine r e m a i n s a m y s t e r y . T h e v a g u e u n d e r l y i n g i d e a i s t h a t , in 330

W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H IN P R A C T I C E

all these cases, w e are d e a l i n g w i t h modest p r a g m a t i c proposals, with p a r t i a l s o l u t i o n s w h i c h a v o i d t h e e x c e s s of r a d i c a l Utopian

re-founda­

t i o n — d e f i n i t e l y not e n o u g h to q u a l i f y t h e m a s c a s e s of jouuMiince féminine w h i c h i s p r e c i s e l y L a c a n ' s n a m e for a b s o l u t e e x c e s s . S t a v r a k a k i s ' s a t t e m p t to r e l a t e L a c a n i a n c o n c e p t s l i k e f e m i n i n e

jouii-

sance, t h e s i g n i f i e r of t h e l a c k in t h e O t h e r , a n d so on, to c o n c r e t e s o c i o ­ political e x a m p l e s is thus t h o r o u g h l y unconvincing. W h e n he

quotes

J o a n C o p j e c ' s p r e c i s e t h e s i s on \\ow diippléance " a l l o w s u s to s p e a k w e l l of o u r d e s i r e not b y tVAnslating jouissance

i n t o l a n g u a g e , b u t b y f o r m a l i z i n g it

in a s i g n i f i e r t h a t d o e s not m e a n it b u t i s , r a t h e r , d i r e c t l y e n j o y e d , "

he

r e a d s it a s a " w a y t o t h i n k of e n j o y m e n t a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n of a s i g n i f i e r of l a c k in a d e m o c r a t i c p e r s p e c t i v e "

—but does Copjec's

description

not a l s o p e r f e c t l y fit n a t i o n a l i s m ? Is t h e n a m e of t h e n a t i o n not s u c h a suppléancel

When

a passionate patriot

exclaims "America!" does

t h e r e b y not p r o d u c e a s i g n i f i e r w h i c h " d o e s n o t t r a n s l a t e jouissance

he into

l a n g u a g e , b u t f o r m a l i z e s it i n a s i g n i f i e r t h a t d o e s not m e a n it b u t i s , rather, directly enjoyed"? S t a v r a k a k i s ' s p o l i t i c a l v i s i o n i s v a c u o u s . It i s not t h a t h i s c a l l for m o r e p a s s i o n i n p o l i t i c s i s i n i t s e l f m e a n i n g l e s s (of c o u r s e t h e

contemporary

Left n e e d s m o r e p a s s i o n ) ; the p r o b l e m i s r a t h e r t h a t it r e s e m b l e s a l l too m u c h t h e j o k e q u o t e d b y L a c a n a b o u t a d o c t o r a s k e d b y a friend for free m e d i c a l a d v i c e — u n w i l l i n g to g i v e h i s s e r v i c e s w i t h o u t

payment,

the

doctor e x a m i n e s the friend a n d t h e n c a l m l y states: " Y o u need medical a d v i c e ! " P a r a d o x i c a l l y , for a l l h i s ( j u s t i f i e d ) c r i t i q u e of F r e u d o - M a r x i s m , S t a v r a k a k i s ' s position can be designated as "Freudo-radical democracy": h e r e m a i n s w i t h i n F r e u d o - M a r x i s m , e x p e c t i n g p s y c h o a n a l y s i s to s u p p l e ­ m e n t the t h e o r y of r a d i c a l d e m o c r a c y in t h e s a m e w a y W i l h e l m R e i c h , a m o n g s t o t h e r s , e x p e c t e d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s to s u p p l e m e n t b o t h c a s e s , t h e p r o b l e m i s e x a c t l y the s a m e : w e h a v e t h e

M a r x i s m . In appropriate

s o c i a l t h e o r y , b u t w h a t is m i s s i n g i s t h e " s u b j e c t i v e f a c t o r " — h o w a r e w e to

mobilize people

so t h a t t h e y w i l l

e n g a g e in p a s s i o n a t e

political

struggle? Here psychoanalysis enters, explaining w h a t hbidinal mechan­ i s m s t h e e n e m y is u s i n g ( R e i c h t r i e d to d o t h i s for f a s c i s m , S t a v r a k a k i s for c o n s u m e r i s m a n d n a t i o n a l i s m ) , a n d h o w t h e Left c a n p r a c t i c e its o w n " p o l i t i c s of jouiisance."

The p r o b l e m is that such an a p p r o a c h is an ersatz

p o l i t i c a l a n a l y s i s : t h e l a c k of p a s s i o n i n p o l i t i c a l p r a x i s a n d t h e o r y s h o u l d b e e x p l a i n e d in its o w n t e r m s , t h a t i s , in the t e r m s of p o l i t i c a l a n a l y s i s itself. T h e t r u e q u e s t i o n i s : W h a t i s t h e r e to b e p a s s i o n a t e a b o u t ? W h i c h p o l i t i c a l c h o i c e s fit p e o p l e ' s e x p e r i e n c e a s " r e a l i s t i c " a n d f e a s i b l e ? 331

T h e m o m e n t w e p o s e t h e q u e s t i o n m t h i s w a y , t h e c o n t o u r s of o u r I d e o l o g i c a l c o n s t e l l a t i o n a p p e a r i n a different m a n n e r , u n d e r l i n i n g W . B . Y e a t s ' s f a m o u s l i n e s " T h e b e s t l a c k all c o n v i c t i o n , w h i l e t h e w o r s t a r e full of p a s s i o n a t e i n t e n s i t y . " T h e s e l i n e s s e e m to offer a p e r f e c t d e s c r i p t i o n of the c u r r e n t split b e t w e e n a n e m i c liberals and impassioned

fundamen­

talists ("the best" a r e no l o n g e r a b l e fully to e n g a g e , w h i l e "the w o r s t " e n g a g e in r a c i s t , r e l i g i o u s , s e x i s t f a n a t i c i s m ) . A r e , h o w e v e r , t h e t e r r o r i s t f u n d a m e n t a l i s t s , b e t h e y C h r i s t i a n o r M u s l i m , r e a l l y f u n d a m e n t a l i s t s in t h e a u t h e n t i c s e n s e of t h e t e r m ? D o t h e y r e a l l y b e l i e v e ? W h a t t h e y l a c k i s a f e a t u r e t h a t i s e a s y to d i s c e r n in all a u t h e n t i c f u n d a m e n t a l i s t s ,

from

T i b e t a n B u d d h i s t s to t h e A m i s h in the U S : the a b s e n c e of r e s e n t m e n t a n d e n v y , d e e p i n d i f f e r e n c e t o w a r d s t h e n o n - b e l i e v e r ' s w a y of life. If t o d a y ' s s o - c a l l e d f u n d a m e n t a l i s t s r e a l l y b e l i e v e t h a t t h e y h a v e f o u n d t h e i r w a y to T r u t h , w h y s h o u l d t h e y feel t h r e a t e n e d b y n o n - b e l i e v e r s , w h y s h o u l d t h e y e n v y t h e m ? W h e n a B u d d h i s t encounters a W e s t e r n hedonist, he h a r d l y condemns the latter. H e just benevolently notes that the hedonist's s e a r c h for h a p p i n e s s i s s e l f - d e f e a t i n g . In c o n t r a s t to t r u e f u n d a m e n t a l i s t s , terrorist pseudo-fundamentalists

a r e d e e p l y b o t h e r e d , i n t r i g u e d , fasci­

n a t e d , b y t h e sinful life of n o n - b e l i e v e r s . O n e s e n s e s t h a t , i n sinful o t h e r , t h e y a r e called

Christian

or

fighting

fighting

the

their o w n temptation. This is w h y the so-

M u s l i m fundamentalists

are

a d i s g r a c e to

true

fundamentalism. It i s h e r e t h a t Y e a t s ' s d i a g n o s i s falls s h o r t of t h e p r e s e n t p r e d i c a m e n t : the

passionate

i n t e n s i t y of a m o b

b e a r s w i t n e s s to a l a c k of

true

conviction. D e e p inside themselves, terrorist fundamentalists also lack t r u e c o n v i c t i o n — t h e i r v i o l e n t o u t b u r s t s a r e proof. H o w f r a g i l e t h e b e l i e f of a M u s l i m m u s t b e , if h e feels t h r e a t e n e d b y a s t u p i d c a r i c a t u r e i n a l o w c i r c u l a t i o n D a n i s h n e w s p a p e r ? F u n d a m e n t a l i s t I s l a m i c i s t t e r r o r is not g r o u n d e d i n t h e t e r r o r i s t s ' c o n v i c t i o n of t h e i r s u p e r i o r i t y a n d in t h e i r d e s i r e to s a f e g u a r d t h e i r c u l t u r a l - r e l i g i o u s i d e n t i t y from t h e o n s l a u g h t o l g l o b a l c o n s u m e r i s t c i v i l i z a t i o n . T h e p r o b l e m w i t h f u n d a m e n t a l i s t s is not t h a t w e c o n s i d e r t h e m i n f e r i o r to u s , b u t , r a t h e r , t h a t they secretly consider t h e m s e l v e s inferior. T h i s is w h y our

themjeiveJ

condescending

p o l i t i c a l l y c o r r e c t a s s u r a n c e s t h a t w e feel n o s u p e r i o r i t y t o w a r d s t h e m o n l y m a k e s t h e m m o r e f u r i o u s a n d f e e d s t h e i r r e s e n t m e n t . T h e p r o b l e m is not c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e ( t h e i r effort to p r e s e r v e t h e i r i d e n t i t y ) , b u t t h e o p p o s i t e fact t h a t t h e f u n d a m e n t a l i s t s a r e a l r e a d y l i k e u s , t h a t , s e c r e t l y , they have already internalized our standards and measure themselves b y them. 332

( T h i s c l e a r l y g o e s for t h e

Dalai L a m a w h o justifies

Tibetan

W H Y P O P U L I S M IS G O O D E N O U G H IN P R A C T I C E

B u d d h i s m in t h e W e s t e r n t e r m s of t h e p u r s u i t of h a p p i n e s s a n d

the

a v o i d a n c e of p a i n . ) P a r a d o x i c a l l y , w h a t f u n d a m e n t a l i s t s r e a l l y l a c k i s p r e c i s e l y a d o s e o f t h a t t r u e " r a c i s t " c o n v i c t i o n of o n e ' s o w n s u p e r i o r i t y . It w o u l d b e i n s t r u c t i v e to r e f e r h e r e to R o u s s e a u , w h o d e s c r i b e d t h e i n v e r s i o n of t h e l i b i d i n a l i n v e s t m e n t from t h e o b j e c t to t h e o b s t a c l e w h i c h p r e v e n t s o u r a c c e s s to t h e o b j e c t . T h i s i s w h y e g a l i t a r i a n i s m i t s e l f s h o u l d n e v e r b e a c c e p t e d a t face v a l u e : t h e n o t i o n ( a n d p r a c t i c e ) of e g a l i t a r i a n j u s t i c e , i n s o f a r a s it is s u s t a m e d b y e n v y , r e l i e s o n t h e i n v e r s i o n of t h e s t a n d a r d r e n u n c i a t i o n a c c o m p l i s h e d to b e n e f i t o t h e r s : "I a m r e a d y to r e n o u n c e it, so that otherö will (aUo) n o t (be able to) have it\" F a r from b e i n g o p p o s e d to t h e s p i r i t of s a c r i f i c e . E v i l i s t h u s t h e v e r y s p i r i t of s a c r i f i c e itself, r e a d y to i g n o r e o n e ' s o w n w e l l b e i n g —if, t h r o u g h m y s a c r i f i c e , 1 c a n d e p r i v e t h e O t h e r of h i s jouiMance

. . .

A n d d o w e not e n c o u n t e r t h e

s a m e n e g a t i v e p a s s i o n a l s o in p o l i t i c a l l y c o r r e c t m u l t i c u l t u r a l l i b e r a l i s m ? Is its i n q u i s i t o r i a l p u r s u i t of t h e t r a c e s of r a c i s m a n d s e x i s m in the d e t a i l s of p e r s o n a l b e h a v i o r not i n i t s e l f i n d i c a t i v e of t h e p a s s i o n of r e s e n t m e n t ? F u n d a m e n t a l i s m ' s p a s s i o n i s a false o n e , w h i l e a n e m i c l i b e r a l t o l e r a n c e r e l i e s on a d i s a v o w e d p e r v e r s e p a s s i o n . T h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n

funda­

mentalism a n d liberalism is sustained b y a shared u n d e r l y i n g feature: t h e y a r e b o t h p e r m e a t e d b y t h e n e g a t i v e p a s s i o n of r e s e n t m e n t .

333

W H A T IS TO BE DONE?

7

The Crisis of Determinate Negation

B a c k in t h e 1 9 5 0 s a n d 1 9 6 0 s , w h e n t h e F r a n k f u r t S c h o o l a d o p t e d a n i n c r e a s i n g l y c r i t i c a l a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s t h e c l a s s i c a l M a r x i s t n o t i o n of the h i s t o r i c a l n e c e s s i t y of r e v o l u t i o n , t h i s c r i t i q u e a l s o c u l m i n a t e d in t h e i r abandonment

of t h e

H e g e l i a n n o t i o n of " d e t e r m i n a t e n e g a t i o n , " t h e

o b v e r s e of w h i c h i s t h e r i s e of t h e notion of t h e " w h o l l y O t h e r "

(aw

ganx Andere) a s t h e p r o s p e c t of t h e Utopian o v e r c o m i n g of t h e g l o b a l t e c h n o - c a p i t a l i s t o r d e r . T h e i d e a i s t h a t , w i t h t h e " d i a l e c t i c of E n l i g h t ­ e n m e n t " w h i c h t e n d s t o w a r d s t h e z e r o - p o i n t of t h e t o t a l l y " a d m i n i s t e r e d " s o c i e t y , o n e c a n n o l o n g e r c o n c e p t u a l i z e b r e a k i n g o u t of t h e d e a d l y s p i r a l of t h i s d i a l e c t i c b y m e a n s of t h e c l a s s i c a l M a r x i s t n o t i o n a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h t h e N e w w i l l e m e r g e from t h e v e r y c o n t r a d i c t i o n s of t h e p r e s e n t s o c i e t y , t h r o u g h its i m m a n e n t s e l f - o v e r c o m i n g : the i m p e t u s for s u c h a n o v e r c o m i n g c a n o n l y c o m e from a n u n m e d i a t e d

Outside.'

T h i s a b a n d o n m e n t of " d e t e r m i n a t e n e g a t i o n " i s , of c o u r s e , t h e o b v e r s e of a c c e p t i n g c a p i t a l i s m ' s t r i u m p h . A s w e h a v e a l r e a d y n o t e d , t h e m o s t r e l i a b l e s i g n of c a p i t a l i s m ' s i d e o l o g i c a l t r i u m p h w a s t h e v i r t u a l d i s a p ­ p e a r a n c e of t h e v e r y t e r m o v e r t h e l a s t t w o or t h r e e d e c a d e s . ^ T h e c o n t e m p o r a r y Left h a s r e a c t e d in a w i d e s p e c t r u m of m o d e s ( w h i c h p a r t i a l l y o v e r l a p ) to t h e full h e g e m o n y of g l o b a l c a p i t a l i s m a n d its political supplement, liberal democracy:

1. full a c c e p t a n c e of t h i s f r a m e w o r k : c o n t i n u i n g to t i g h t for e m a n c i ­ p a t i o n within i t s r u l e s ( T h i r d W a y s o c i a l d e m o c r a c y ) ; 2. a c c e p t a n c e of t h i s f r a m e w o r k a s s o m e t h i n g t h a t is h e r e to s t a y , b u t w h i c h o n e s h o u l d n o n e t h e l e s s resist, w i t h d r a w i n g from its s c o p e a n d o p e r a t i n g from its " i n t e r s t i c e s " ( S i m o n C r i t c h l e y i s a n e x e m ­ p l a r of t h i s p o s i t i o n ) ; 3. a c c e p t a n c e of t h e futility of a l l s t r u g g l e , s i n c e t h e f r a m e w o r k i s t o d a y a l l - e n c o m p a s s i n g , c o i n c i d i n g w i t h its o p p o s i t e ( t h e l o g i c o l c o n c e n t r a t i o n c a m p s , t h e p e r m a n e n t s t a t e of e m e r g e n c y ) , so n o t h 337

IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S

i n g c a n r e a l l y b e d o n e , o n e c a n o n l y w a i t for a n o u t b u r s t of " d i v i n e v i o l e n c e " — a r e v o l u t i o n a r y v e r s i o n of H e i d e g g e r ' s " o n l y G o d c a n still s a v e u s " ( a p e r s p e c t i v e e m b o d i e d t o d a y b y G i o r g i o A g a m b e n a n d i n a w a y , before h i m , b y t h e l a t e A d o r n o ) ; 4. a c c e p t a n c e of t h e t e m p o r a r y futility of s t r u g g l e ("in t o d a y ' s t r i u m p h of g l o b a l c a p i t a l i s m , t r u e r e s i s t a n c e i s not p o s s i b l e , a t l e a s t not in t h e m e t r o p o l i s of c a p i t a l i s m , so a l l w e c a n d o till t h e r e n e w a l of the r e v o l u t i o n a r y s p i r i t in t h e g l o b a l w o r k i n g c l a s s is to d e f e n d w h a t t h e r e still i s of t h e w e l f a r e state, b o m b a r d i n g t h o s e in p o w e r w i t h d e m a n d s w e k n o w t h e y c a n n o t fulfill, a n d o t h e r w i s e w i t h d r a w into cultural studies, w h e r e one can silently pursue critical w o r k " ) ; 5. e m p h a s i s on t h e fact t h a t t h e p r o b l e m i s a m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l one, t h a t g l o b a l c a p i t a l i s m i s u l t i m a t e l y a n o n t i c effect of t h e u n d e r l y i n g o n t o l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e of t e c h n o l o g y o r " i n s t r u m e n t a l r e a s o n " ( f i e i d e g g e r , but, in a w a y , a g a i n also A d o r n o ) ; 6. b e l i e f t h a t o n e c a n u n d e r m i n e g l o b a l c a p i t a l i s m a n d s t a t e p o w e r , h o w e v e r , n o t b y w a y of d i r e c t l y a t t a c k i n g t h e m , b u t b y r e f o c u s i n g t h e field of s t r u g g l e on e v e r y d a y p r a c t i c e s , w h e r e o n e c a n " b u i l d a n e w w o r l d " — i n t h i s w a y , t h e f o u n d a t i o n s of t h e p o w e r of c a p i t a l a n d t h e s t a t e w i l l b e g r a d u a l l y u n d e r m i n e d , a n d , a t s o m e point, the s t a t e w i l l c o l l a p s e l i k e a c a t h o v e r i n g o v e r t h e p r e c i p i c e in t h e c a r t o o n s ( o n e t h i n k s h e r e of t h e Z a p a t i s t a m o v e m e n t ) ; 7. a " p o s t m o d e r n " shift of t h e a c c e n t from a n t i - c a p i t a l i s t s t r u g g l e to t h e m u l t i p l e forms of t h e p o l i t i c o - i d e o l o g i c a l s t r u g g l e for h e g e m o n y , c o n c e p t u a l i z e d a s a c o n t i n g e n t p r o c e s s of d i s c u r s i v e r e a r t i c u l a t i o n (Ernesto Laclau); 8. a w a g e r t h a t o n e c a n r e p e a t a t t h e p o s t m o d e r n l e v e l t h e c l a s s i c a l M a r x i s t g e s t u r e a n d e n a c t t h e " d e t e r m i n a t e n e g a t i o n " of c a p i t a l i s m : w i t h t o d a y ' s r i s e of " c o g n i t i v e w o r k , " t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n

between

social p r o d u c t i o n a n d capitalist relations h a s r e a c h e d an u n p r e c e ­ d e n t e d h e i g h t , r e n d e r i n g " a b s o l u t e d e m o c r a c y " p o s s i b l e for t h e first time (Hardt and Negri).

O n e i s t e m p t e d to c a t e g o r i z e t h e s e v e r s i o n s a s so m a n y m o d e s of the n e g a t i o n s of p o l i t i c s p r o p e r , w h i c h follow t h e different m o d e s of a v o i d i n g a t r a u m a t i c R e a l in p s y c h o a n a l y s i s : a c c e p t a n c e - t h r o u g h - d e n i a l {Vertuinuiig: a v e r s i o n of " w h o e v e r t h a t w o m a n in m y d r e a m i s , it is not m y m o t h e r " — " w h a t e v e r t h e n e w a n t a g o n i s m s a r e , t h e y a r e not c l a s s s t r u g ­ g l e " ) , psychotic foreclosure 338

{Verwerfung: the f o r e c l o s e d c l a s s s t r u g g l e

T H E C R I S I S OF D E T E R M I N A T E N E G A T I O N

r e t u r n s in t h e r e a l , in t h e p a r a n o i d g u i s e of a n i n v i s i b l e a n d a l l - p o w e r f u l E n e m y , l i k e t h e " J e w i s h p l o t " ) , n e u r o t i c r e p r e s s i o n {Verdrängung: t h e r e p r e s s e d c l a s s s t r u g g l e r e t u r n s in t h e g u i s e of a m u l t i p l i c i t y of " n e w a n t a g o n i s m s " ) , a n d f e t i s h i s t i c d i s a v o w a l {Verleugnung: t h e e l e v a t i o n into t h e p r i n c i p a l C a u s e of s o m e f e t i s h i s t i c e r s a t z of t h e c l a s s s t r u g g l e a s " t h e last t h i n g w h i c h w e s e e " p r i o r to c o n f r o n t i n g t h e c l a s s a n t a g o n i s m ) . W e a r e not d e a l i n g h e r e w i t h a s e r i e s of a v o i d a n c e s of s o m e " t r u e " r a d i c a l leftist p o s i t i o n —the t r a u m a t h e s e a v o i d a n c e s t r y to b l u r i s r a t h e r t h e l a c k of s u c h a position. T h e l e s s o n of t h e l a s t d e c a d e s , if t h e r e is one, is t h e i n d e s t r u c t i b i l i t y of c a p i t a l i s m — w h e n ( a l r e a d y ) M a r x c o m p a r e d it to a v a m p i r e , w e s h o u l d b e a r in m i n d t h e l i v i n g - d e a d a s p e c t of v a m p i r e s : t h e y a l w a y s r i s e u p a g a i n a n d a g a i n after b e i n g s t a b b e d to d e a t h . E v e n t h e r a d i c a l M a o i s t a t t e m p t in t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n to w i p e o u t t h e t r a c e s of c a p i t a l i s m e n d e d u p w i t h i t s t r i u m p h a n t

return.

The hiunorom .niperego . . . A fear i s h a u n t i n g ( w h a t e v e r r e m a i n s of) t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y Left: t h e fear of d i r e c t l y c o n f r o n t i n g s t a t e p o w e r . T h o s e w h o still insist on f i g h t i n g s t a t e p o w e r , let a l o n e d i r e c t l y t a k i n g it o v e r , a r e i m m e d i a t e l y a c c u s e d of b e i n g s t u c k in t h e " o l d p a r a d i g m " : t h e t a s k t o d a y i s to r e s i s t s t a t e p o w e r b y w i t h d r a w i n g from i t s s c o p e , s u b t r a c t i n g o n e s e l f from it, c r e a t i n g n e w s p a c e s o u t s i d e its c o n t r o l . T h i s d o g m a of t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y a c a d e m i c Left is b e s t e n c a p s u l a t e d b y t h e title of N e g r i ' s i n t e r v i e w - b o o k : Goodbye Miüer SoclalLim. T h e i d e a is t h a t t h e t i m e of the o l d Left in its t w o v e r s i o n s , reformist a n d revolutionary, w h i c h both a i m e d at t a k i n g over state p o w e r a n d p r o t e c t i n g the w o r k i n g c l a s s ' s c o r p o r a t e r i g h t s , i s o v e r . T o d a y , t h e p r e d o m i n a n t form of e x p l o i t a t i o n i s t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n of k n o w l e d g e , a n d so on a n d so forth — t h e r e i s a n e w " p o s t m o d e r n " s o c i a l d e v e l o p m e n t g o i n g on w h i c h t h e o l d Left r e f u s e s to t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t , a n d , in o r d e r

to

r e n o v a t e itself, t h e I ^ f t h a s to . . . r e a d D e l e u z e a n d N e g r i a n d s t a r t to p r a c t i c e n o m a d i c r e s i s t a n c e , follow t h e t h e o r y of h e g e m o n y , a n d so on. B u t w h a t if t h i s v e r y m o d e of d e f i n i n g t h e p r o b l e m i s p a r t of t h e p r o b l e m ? S i n c e t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d Left ( t h e T h i r d W a y s o c i a l d e m o c r a t s , t h e t r a d e u n i o n s , a n d o t h e r s ) so p e r s i s t e n t l y r e f u s e s to l e a r n t h i s l e s s o n , t h e p r o b l e m m u s t ( a l s o ) r e s i d e w i t h its " p o s t m o d e r n " c r i t i c s . W i t h i n t h i s " p o s t m o d e r n " field, S i m o n CritcUey's

/nflnllelg Demanding

IS a n a l m o s t p e r f e c t e m b o d i m e n t of t h e p o s i t i o n to w h i c h m y w o r k is a b s o l u t e l y opposed,'^ a n d t h a t at t w o d i s t i n c t , b u t i n t e r c o n n e c t e d , l e v e l s : 339

t h a t of t h e a c c o u n t of s u b j e c t i v i t y a s a r i s i n g out of e t h i c a l c o m m i t m e n t to a G o o d , a n d t h a t of t h e p r o p o s e d p o l i t i c s of r e s i s t a n c e . W h e n h e i n c l u d e s himself among

the "critical, secular, w e l l - d r e s s e d metro-sexual

post-

Kantians,'"^ t h e i r o n y of t h i s s e l f - c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o c c l u d e s i t s s e r i o u s ­ n e s s — no w o n d e r C r i t c h l e y i n c l u d e d in t h e list of t h o s e w h o " r e s i s t " t h e c l u t c h e s of s t a t e p o w e r P r i n c e s s D i a n a

herself.'''

C r i t c h l e y ' s s t a r t i n g p o i n t is t h e " m o t i v a t i o n a l d e f i c i t " of o u r l i b e r a l d e m o c r a t i c i n s t i t u t i o n s . T h i s deficit s u s t a i n s t w o m a i n p o l i t i c a l a t t i t u d e s , those

of " p a s s i v e " a n d

indifference,

" a c t i v e " n i h i l i s m : on

escape into consumerist

the

hedonism,

the other hand, violent fundamentalism

one

and

hand,

cynical

so on, a n d ,

on

w h i c h aims at destroying

the

c o r r u p t l i b e r a l u n i v e r s e . C r i t c h l e y ' s p r o b l e m is h o w to b r e a k o u t of t h i s d e a d l o c k , h o w to r e s u s c i t a t e e m a n c i p a t o r y p o l i t i c a l p a s s i o n . T h i s p r o ­ b l e m IS a real o n e — in o u r a l l e g e d l y " p o s t - i d e o l o g i c a l " e r a , after t h e selfp r o c l a i m e d e n d of g r e a t e m a n c i p a t o r y p r o j e c t s , t h e g a p b e t w e e n m e a n i n g a n d t r u t h s e e m s i n s u r m o u n t a b l e : w h o still d a r e s to c l a i m a c c e s s to a " c o g n i t i v e m a p p i n g " of o u r c o n s t e l l a t i o n t h a t w o u l d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y o p e n u p s p a c e for a m e a n i n g f u l r a d i c a l s o c i a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ?

Consequently,

t o d a y , t h e v e r y i d e a of a " p o l i t i c s of t r u t h " i s d i s m i s s e d a s t o t a l i t a r i a n — a b o v e a n d b e y o n d efficient s o c i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , t h e m a i n a c c e p t a b l e p o l i t i c a l g o a l s a r e n e g a t i v e : to p r e v e n t p a i n a n d suffering, to e s t a b l i s h t h e m i n i m a l c o n d i t i o n s for t h e t o l e r a t i o n of different w a y s of life . . . To e a c h t h e i r o w n t r u t h , a n d the t a s k of p o l i t i c s is s e e n a s t h e a r t of p r a g m a t i c c o m p r o m i s e , of t h e c o o r d i n a t i o n of i n t e r e s t s , of g u a r a n t e e i n g t h e p e a c e f u l c o e x i s t e n c e of w a y s of life — a s if e c o n o m i c u n i f o r m i t y

and

cultural

d i v e r s i t y w e r e t h e t w o s i d e s of t h e s a m e p r o c e s s . H o w e v e r , t h i s l i b e r a l d e m o c r a t i c p r o s p e c t r e m a i n s h a u n t e d b y t h e s p e c t e r of

"fundamental­

i s m . " R e c a l l t h e p u b l i c r e a c t i o n to t h e p o p e ' s d e a t h . W h o w o u l d l i k e to l i v e in a s t a t e w h i c h p r o h i b i t s a b o r t i o n a n d d i v o r c e ? A n d y e t the

dame

p e o p l e w h o r e j e c t t h e p o p e ' s v i e w s a d m i r e h i m for h i s firm, p r i n c i p l e d , e t h i c a l s t a n c e a n d h i s m e s s a g e of h o p e , t h e r e b y d i s p l a y i n g t h e n e e d for a firm

s t a n d a r d of T r u t h b e y o n d p r a g m a t i c r e l a t i v i s m .

H o w , t h e n , to b r e a k o u t of t h i s d e a d l o c k ? C r i t c h l e y p r o c e e d s in t w o s t e p s . First, in a c o m b i n a t i o n of L e v i n a s , B a d i o u , a n d L a c a n , h e d e p l o y s t h e n o t i o n of t h e s u b j e c t a s c o n s t i t u t e d b y its r e c o g n i t i o n in a n u n c o n d i ­ t i o n a l e t h i c a l C a l l e n g e n d e r e d b y t h e e x p e r i e n c e of i n j u s t i c e a n d w r o n g s . T h e n h e p r o p o s e s a n o t i o n of p o l i t i c s a s r e s i s t a n c e to s t a t e p o w e r

on

b e h a l f of t h i s e t h i c a l C a l l . T h e s u b j e c t e m e r g e s a s a r e a c t i o n to t h e t r a u m a t i c e n c o u n t e r of t h e 340

T H E C R I S I S OF D E T E R M I N A T E N E G A T I O N

h e l p l e s s s u f f e r i n g O t h e r ( N e i g h b o r ) , w h i c h i s w h y it is c o n s t i t u t i v e l y d e c e n t e r e d , not a u t o n o m o u s ,

b u t split b y t h e e t h i c a l C a l l , " a s u b j e c t

d e f i n e d b y t h e e x p e r i e n c e of a n i n t e r n a l i z e d d e m a n d t h a t it c a n n e v e r meet, a d e m a n d t h a t e x c e e d s it"; t h e p a r a d o x c o n s t i t u t i v e of t h e s u b j e c t is t h u s t h e d e m a n d t h a t t h e s u b j e c t c a n n o t m e e t , so t h a t t h e s u b j e c t is c o n s t i t u t i v e l y d i v i d e d , its a u t o n o m y " a l w a y s u s u r p e d b y t h e m o u s e x p e r i e n c e of the o t h e r ' s d e m a n d . "

heterono-

O n l y an omnipotent

and

infinite G o d w o u l d h a v e b e e n a b l e to m e e t s u c h a d e m a n d ; so, " k n o w i n g t h a t t h e r e i s no G o d , w e h a v e to s u b j e c t o u r s e l v e s to t h e d e m a n d to b e G o d - l i k e , k n o w i n g t h a t w e a r e s u r e to fail b e c a u s e of o u r finite c o n d i tion."^ C r i t c h l e y r e f e r s h e r e to L e v i n a s ' s c l a i m t h a t

m y r e l a t i o n to the o t h e r i s n o t s o m e b e n i g n b e n e v o l e n c e , c o m p a s s i o n a t e c a r e o r r e s p e c t for t h e o t h e r ' s a u t o n o m y , b u t i s t h e o b s e s s i v e e x p e r i e n c e of a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t h a t p e r s e c u t e s m e w i t h its s h e e r w e i g h t . I a m the other's hostage.

H o w , t h e n , c a n t h e s u b j e c t a t t e n u a t e t h e c r u s h i n g w e i g h t of t h e s u p e r e g o ? " H o w c a n I r e s p o n d in i n f i n i t e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to t h e o t h e r extinguishing myself as a subject?"

without

C r i t c h l e y t u r n s h e r e to L a c a n , to t h e

w a y L a c a n e l a b o r a t e d F r e u d ' s n o t i o n of s u b l i m a t i o n : a e s t h e t i c s u b l i m a tion e n a b l e s t h e s u b j e c t to a c h i e v e a m i n i m u m

of h a p p i n e s s . "

The

B e a u t i f u l i n t e r p o s e s itself b e t w e e n t h e s u b j e c t a n d t h e G o o d , it " p l a c e s the s u b j e c t in r e l a t i o n to t h e s o u r c e of the e t h i c a l d e m a n d , b u t w h i c h p r o t e c t s t h e s u b j e c t from t h e d i r e c t g l a r e of t h e T h i n g . " C r i t c h l e y a d d s h u m o r to t h e list of s u b l i m a t i o n s a s t h e

benevolent

a s p e c t of t h e s u p e r e g o : in c o n t r a s t to t h e evil, p u n i s h i n g s u p e r e g o , t h e s e v e r e j u d g e w h i c h c r u s h e s u s w i t h t h e w e i g h t of i n f i n i t e g u i l t on a c c o u n t of o u r f a i l u r e to l i v e u p to i t s C a l l , i n h u m o r — i n w h i c h w e a l s o o b s e r v e o u r finitude a n d r i d i c u l o u s f a i l u r e from t h e s t a n d p o i n t of t h e s u p e r e g o — our

finitude

a p p e a r s a s funny,

r i d i c u l o u s in its f a i l u r e s .

Instead

of

i n s t a l l i n g a n g u i s h a n d d e s p a i r , t h i s s u p e r e g o e n a b l e s u s to l a u g h at o u r l i m i t a t i o n s , f a i l u r e s , a n d false p r e t e n s i o n s . W h a t C r i t c h l e y s t r a n g e l y l e a v e s o u t of c o n s i d e r a t i o n is the brutal "éadùitlc" a^ipect of humor lUelf: h u m o r can be e x t r e m e l y cruel and d e n i g r a t i n g . L e t us t a k e an e x t r e m e e x a m p l e : t h e i n f a m o u s " A r b e i t m a c h t frei ! " o v e r t h e g a t e s of A u s c h w i t z is no a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t t h e d i g n i t y of w o r k . W o r k t r u l y m a k e s u s free, a s H e g e l p u t it in t h e f a m o u s p a s s a g e of h i s Phenomenology of Spirit on M a s t e r a n d S e r v a n t ; w h a t t h e N a z i s d i d w i t h t h e m o t t o at t h e g a t e s of A u s c h w i t z 341

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

is s i m p l y a n a c t of c r u e l m o c k e r y a n a l o g o u s t o r a p i n g s o m e o n e w h i l e w e a r i n g a T-shirt s a y i n g " S e x brings p l e a s u r e ! " C r i t c h l e y ' s c l a i m t h a t " [ s ] o m e v e r s i o n s of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , p a r t i c u l a r l y L a c a n s, h a v e a p r o b l e m w i t h t h e s u p e r e g o "

is thus odd: Lacan w a s

f u l l y a w a r e n o t o n l y of t h e l i n k b e t w e e n h u m o r a n d t h e s u p e r e g o , b u t a l s o of t h e b r u t a l - s a d i s t i c a s p e c t of h u m o r . T h e M a r x B r o t h e r s ' Duck Soup, t h e i r m a s t e r p i e c e , i s r e g a r d e d a s a w o r k t h a t m a k e s f u n of r i d i c u l o u s totalitarian state

rituals,

d e n o u n c i n g t h e i r e m p t y p o s t u r i n g , a n d so on:

laughter is the mightiest weapon, no w o n d e r that totalitarian regimes f o u n d it so t h r e a t e n i n g . . . T h i s c o m m o n p l a c e s h o u l d b e t u r n e d u p s i d e d o w n : t h e p o w e r f u l effect o£Duvk Soup d o e s n o t r e s i d e in i t s m o c k e r y of the

totalitarian

state's m a c h i n e r y a n d paraphernalia,

b u t in openly

d i s p l a y i n g t h e m a d n e s s , t h e " f u n , " t h e c r u e l i r o n y , w h i c h a r e already prejenl in t h e t o t a l i t a r i a n s t a t e . T h e M a r x b r o t h e r s ' " c a r n i v a l " i s t h e c a r n i v a l of t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m itself. W h a t is t h e s u p e r e g o ? R e c a l l t h e s t r a n g e fact, r e g u l a r l y e v o k e d b y Primo Levi a n d other ffolocaust survivors, regarding h o w their intimate r e a c t i o n to t h e i r s u r v i v a l w a s m a r k e d b y a d e e p split: c o n s c i o u s l y , t h e y w e r e fully a w a r e t h a t t h e i r s u r v i v a l w a s j u s t a m e a n i n g l e s s a c c i d e n t , t h a t they w e r e not in a n y w a y responsible

for it, t h a t t h e o n l y g u i l t y

perpetrators w e r e their Nazi torturers; at the same time, t h e y w e r e (more t h a n m i l d l y ) h a u n t e d b y t h e " i r r a t i o n a l " f e e l i n g of g u i l t , a s if t h e y h a d s u r v i v e d a t t h e e x p e n s e of o t h e r s w h o h a d d i e d a n d w e r e t h u s s o m e h o w r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e i r d e a t h s — a s i s w e l l - k n o w n , t h i s u n b e a r a b l e f e e l i n g of g u i l t d r o v e m a n y of t h e s u r v i v o r s to s u i c i d e . T h i s feeling of g u i l t d i s p l a y s t h e a g e n c y of t h e s u p e r e g o a t its p u r e s t : t h e o b s c e n e a g e n c y w h i c h m a n i p u l a t e s u s i n t o a s p i r a l i n g m o v e m e n t of s e l f - d e s t r u c t i o n . W h a t this m e a n s is t h a t t h e function of t h e s u p e r e g o i s p r e c i s e l y t o o b f u s c a t e t h e c a u s e of t h e t e r r o r c o n s t i t u t i v e of o u r b e i n g h u m a n , t h e i n h u m a n c o r e of b e i n g h u m a n , t h e d i m e n s i o n of w h a t t h e G e r m a n I d e a l i s t s c a l l e d n e g a ­ tivity a n d w h a t

Freud

called the death

drive. F a r from

being the

t r a u m a t i c h a r d c o r e of t h e R e a l from w h i c h s u b l i m a t i o n s p r o t e c t u s , t h e s u p e r e g o is i t s e l f t h e m a s k s c r e e n i n g t h e R e a l . T h e h u m o r o u s s u p e r e g o is t h e c r u e l a n d i n s a t i a b l e a g e n c y w h i c h b o m ­ b a r d s m e w i t h i m p o s s i b l e d e m a n d s a n d w h i c h m o c k s m y f a i l e d a t t e m p t s to m e e t t h e m , t h e a g e n c y in t h e e y e s of w h i c h I a m all t h e m o r e g u i l t y , t h e m o r e 1 t r y to s u p p r e s s m y " s i n f u l " s t r i v i n g s a n d m e e t its d e m a n d s . A s I h a v e noted, the c y n i c a l S t a l i n i s t m o t t o a b o u t t h e a c c u s e d a t t h e s h o w t r i a l s w h o p r o f e s s e d t h e i r i n n o c e n c e ( " t h e m o r e t h e y a r e innocent, t h e m o r e t h e y d e s e r v e to be 342

T H E C R I S I S OF D E T E R M I N A T E N E G A T I O N

s h o t " ) i s t h e s u p e r e g o a t its p u r e s t . C o n s e q u e n t l y , for L a c a n , the s u p e r e g o " h a s n o t h i n g to d o w i t h m o r a l c o n s c i e n c e a s far a s its m o s t o b l i g a t o r y d e m a n d s a r e c o n c e r n e d : " ' ' * t h e s u p e r e g o is, on t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e a n t i - e t h i c a l a g e n c y , t h e s t i g m a t i z a t i o n of o u r e t h i c a l b e t r a y a l . A s s u c h , t h e s u p e r e g o is, a t its m o s t e l e m e n t a r y , not a p r o h i b i t i v e , b u t a p r o d u c t i v e a g e n c y : " N o t h i n g forces a n y o n e to e n j o y e x c e p t the s u p e r e g o . T h e s u p e r e g o is t h e i m p e r a t i v e oijouL)Mnce—

^n)oy\"

' A l t h o u g h jouldMnce

c a n be t r a n s l a t e d a s " e n j o y ­

m e n t , " t r a n s l a t o r s of L a c a n often l e a v e it in F r e n c h in o r d e r to r e n d e r p a l p a b l e its e x c e s s i v e , p r o p e r l y t r a u m a t i c c h a r a c t e r : w e a r e n o t d e a l i n g with simple pleasures, but with a violent intrusion that brings more pain than pleasure. No wonder, then, that L a c a n posited an equation between jouMdance

a n d t h e s u p e r e g o : to e n j o y i s n o t a m a t t e r of f o l l o w i n g o n e ' s

s p o n t a n e o u s t e n d e n c i e s ; it i s r a t h e r s o m e t h i n g w e d o a s a k i n d of w e i r d a n d twisted ethical duty. W h e n , following Badiou, Critchley defines the subject as something t h a t e m e r g e s t h r o u g h fidelity t o t h e G o o d ( " A s u b j e c t i s t h e n a m e for t h e w a y in w h i c h a self b i n d s i t s e l f to s o m e c o n c e p t i o n of t h e g o o d a n d s h a p e s its s u b j e c t i v i t y i n r e l a t i o n to t h a t g o o d " ) , ' ^ from

a strict

Lacanian

perspective, he is confusing subject a n d subjectivization. L a c a n is here t o b e o p p o s e d to t h e d i s c o u r s e - t h e o r y doxa a b o u t t h e s u b j e c t a s a n effect o f t h e p r o c e s s of s u b j e c t i v i z a t i o n : for L a c a n , t h e s u b j e c t preceded

sub­

j e c t i v i z a t i o n , s u b j e c t i v i z a t i o n ( t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n of t h e s u b j e c t ' s " i n n e r l i f e " o f e x p e r i e n c e ) is a d e f e n s e a g a i n s t t h e s u b j e c t . A s s u c h , t h e s u b j e c t is a ( p r e ) c o n d i t i o n of t h e p r o c e s s of s u b j e c t i v i z a t i o n , i n t h e s a m e s e n s e i n w h i c h , b a c k in t h e 1 9 6 0 s , H e r b e r t M a r c u s e c l a i m e d t h a t f r e e d o m i s t h e c o n d i t i o n of l i b e r a t i o n . I n s o f a r a s , in a w a y , t h e s u b j e c t , in i t s c o n t e n t , " i s " n o t h i n g p o s i t i v e l y b u t t h e r e s u l t of t h e p r o c e s s of s u b j e c t i v i z a t i o n , o n e c a n a l s o s a y t h a t t h e s u b j e c t precedes

ihielf—'m

o r d e r to b e c o m e s u b j e c t , it

a l r e a d y h a s t o b e s u b j e c t , so that, i n its p r o c e s s of b e c o m i n g , it b e c o m e s w h a t it a l r e a d y i s . ( A n d , i n c i d e n t a l l y , t h i s f e a t u r e

distinguishes

the

p r o p e r l y H e g e l i a n d i a l e c t i c a l p r o c e s s from p s e u d o - H e g e l i a n " d i a l e c t i c a l e v o l u t i o n . " ) T h e o b v i o u s c o u n t e r - a r g u m e n t to t h i s i s t h a t w e a r e d e a l i n g h e r e w i t h t h e a r c h e t y p a l c a s e of i d e o l o g i c a l i l l u s i o n : t h e r e is n o s u b j e c t p r i o r to t h e p r o c e s s of s u b j e c t i v i z a t i o n , i t s p r é e x i s t e n c e i s p r e c i s e l y t h e i n v e r s i o n t h a t b e a r s w i t n e s s to t h e s u c c e s s of t h e i d e o l o g i c a l c o n s t i t u t i o n o f the subject; once constituted, the subject n e c e s s a r i l y e x p e r i e n c e s itself a s t h e c a u s e of t h e v e r y p r o c e s s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e s it, t h a t i s , it p e r c e i v e s t h i s p r o c e s s a s its " e x p r e s s i o n . " T h i s , p r e c i s e l y , i s t h e r e a s o n i n g o n e s h o u l d reject —but w h y e x a c t l y ? 343

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

L e t u s r e t u r n for a b r i e f m o m e n t to A l t h u s s e r . In A l t h u s s e r i a n t e r m s , t h e s u b j e c t is c o n s t i t u t e d t h r o u g h its a s s u m p t i o n of a n i d e o l o g i c a l C a l l , t h r o u g h r e c o g n i z i n g i t s e l f in i d e o l o g i c a l i n t e r p e l l a t i o n — t h i s r e c o g n i t i o n s u b j e c t i v i z e s t h e p r e - i d e o l o g i c a l i n d i v i d u a l . O f c o u r s e , a s i s c l e a r to C r i t c h l e y , t h i s i n t e r p e l l a t i o n , t h e a s s u m p t i o n of t h e call of the Good, u l t i m a t e l y a l w a y s fails, t h e s u b j e c t c a n n o t e v e r a c t a t the l e v e l of t h i s c a l l , its

endeavors

a l w a y s fall short. It i s h e r e that, from

the

Lacanian

perspective, one should s u p p l e m e n t the Althusserian account: the subject in a w a y w t h e f a i l u r e ot s u b j e c t i v i z a t i o n , t h e f a i l u r e of a s s u m i n g t h e s y m b o l i c m a n d a t e , of fully i d e n t i f y i n g w i t h t h e e t h i c a l C a l l . To p a r a ­ p h r a s e A l t h u s s e r ' s c e l e b r a t e d f o r m u l a : a n i n d i v i d u a l Is i n t e r p e l l a t e d into s u b j e c t h o o d , t h i s i n t e r p e l l a t i o n fails, a n d the '\iul)ject" Li thU failure. T h i s is w h y t h e s u b j e c t i s i r r e d u c i b l y d i v i d e d : d i v i d e d b e t w e e n its t a s k a n d t h e f a i l u r e to r e m a i n faithful to it. It i s in t h i s s e n s e that, for L a c a n , t h e s u b j e c t is


i n t e r p e l l a t i o n , t h e g n a w i n g w o r m q u e s t i o n i n g t h e i d e n t i t y I m p o s e d on the subject b y interpellation — " W h y a m I that n a m e ? " , w h y a m I w h a t the big Other claims I a m ? W h e n C r i t c h l e y e m p h a s i z e s h o w t h e s u b j e c t a l w a y s fails w i t h r e g a r d to t h e C a l l of t h e e t h i c a l T h i n g , h e s e e m s to fully e n d o r s e t h i s d i m e n s i o n , t h i s f a i l u r e a s c o n s t i t u t i v e of s u b j e c t i v i t y . T h e r e i s , h o w e v e r , a c r u c i a l a c c e n t to b e a d d e d h e r e : it is t o t a l l y w r o n g to d i r e c t l y i d e n t i f y t h i s f a i l u r e of i n t e r p e l l a t i o n — t h e fact t h a t t h e s u b j e c t n e v e r r i s e s to t h e l e v e l of its r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o w a r d s t h e C a l l of t h e Good—^with the s u b j e c t . a c c o u n t s for t h i s f a i l u r e i s not s i m p l y t h e l i m i t a t i o n of t h e finitude,

What

subject's

its i n a d e q u a c y to t h e " i n f i n i t e l y d e m a n d i n g " t a s k ; t h a t i s , w e a r e

not d e a l i n g w i t h t h e s i m p l e g a p b e t w e e n t h e s u b j e c t ' s i n f i n i t e e t h i c a l t a s k a n d its finite r e a l i t y w h i c h m a k e s it f o r e v e r i n a d e q u a t e to t h i s t a s k . T h e " s u b j e c t b e f o r e s u b j e c t i v i z a t i o n " i s a p o s i t i v e force in itself, t h e m i i n i t e force of n e g a t i v i t y c a l l e d b y F r e u d t h e " d e a t h d r i v e . " W h i c h i s w h y , from t h e L a c a n i a n p e r s p e c t i v e , it i s p r o b l e m a t i c to c l a i m t h a t w e h u m a n s " s e e m to h a v e e n o r m o u s d i f f i c u l t y in a c c e p t i n g o u r l i m i t e d n e s s , o u r a n d this f a i l u r e i s a c a u s e of m u c h t r a g e d y " :

finiteness,

on t h e c o n t r a r y , w e h u m a n s

h a v e e n o r m o u s d i f f i c u l t y in a c c e p t i n g t h e " i n f i n i t y " ( u n d e a d n e s s , e x c e s s of life) in t h e v e r y c o r e of o u r b e i n g , t h e s t r a n g e " i m m o r t a l i t y " w h o s e F r e u d i a n n a m e is the death drive. T h e e t h i c a l C a l l d o e s not i n t e r v e n e d i r e c t l y u p o n t h e h u m a n a n i m a l , d i s t u r b i n g its b a l a n c e w i t h its " i n f i n i t e l y d e m a n d i n g " i n j u n c t i o n ;

the

e t h i c a l C a l l , on t h e c o n t r a r y , a l r e a d y p r e s u p p o s e s t h a t t h e b a l a n c e of 344

T H E C R I S I S OF D E T E R M I N A T E N E G A T I O N

a n i m a l r e p r o d u c t i o n i s t h r o w n off t h e r a i l s , b e c o m e s o u t of j o i n t , t h r o u g h the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n

of t h e a n i m a l i n s t i n c t i n t o t h e d e a t h d r i v e . C o n s e ­

q u e n t l y , e t h i c s i s , for L a c a n , not d i r e c t l y t h e z e r o - l e v e l of t h e e n c o u n t e r w i t h t h e R e a l T h i n g ; it i s , r a t h e r , a l r e a d y a s c r e e n w h i c h p r o t e c t s u s from t h e d e s t r u c t i v e i m p a c t of t h e R e a l . It i s h e r e t h a t C r i t c h l e y falsifies in a s t r a n g e w a y L a c a n ' s n o t i o n s of t h e G o o d a n d t h e B e a u t i f u l from

The

Ethkd of Pdychnanalydid in t h a t h e p o s i t s t h e B e a u t i f u l a s t h e s c r e e n t h a t p r o t e c t s u s from

the d i r e c t e x p o s u r e to t h e R e a l T h i n g , w h e r e a s for

L a c a n , t h e G o o d o c c u p i e s p r e c i s e l y t h e s a m e s t r u c t u r a l p l a c e , t h a t i s , it i s not t h e R e a l T h i n g itself, b u t a s c r e e n p r o t e c t i n g u s from its b l i n d i n g impact. F o r C r i t c h l e y , the t r a u m a t i c i n t r u s i o n of t h e r a d i c a l l y h e t e r o g e n e o u s R e a l T h i n g w h i c h d e c e n t e r s t h e s u b j e c t i s identical with t h e e t h i c a l C a l l of the G o o d , w h i l e , for L a c a n , t h e r a d i c a l l y h e t e r o g e n e o u s T h m g

whose

t r a u m a t i c i m p a c t d e c e n t e r s t h e s u b j e c t i s , on t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e p r i m o r d i a l "evil T h i n g , " s o m e t h i n g t h a t c a n n o t e v e r be s u b l a t e d (aufgehoben) i n t o a v e r s i o n of t h e G o o d , s o m e t h i n g w h i c h f o r e v e r r e m a i n s a d i s t u r b i n g c u t . T h i s i s w h e r e C r i t c h l e y ' s r e f e r e n c e to S a d e falls short: h e c l a i m s t h a t t h e S a d e a n p r o j e c t still fits t h e c o o r d i n a t e s of t h e c o m m i t m e n t to t h e G o o d — S a d e s i m p l y p u t s w h a t w e p e r c e i v e a s to its c o n t e n t a s " e v i l " a t t h e p l a c e of the G o o d ; in o t h e r w o r d s , for S a d e , t h e u n b r i d l e d u s e of o t h e r s a s a m e a n s of s e x u a l e n j o y m e n t i s h i s G o o d to w h i c h h e i s t o t a l l y c o m m i t t e d (or, to q u o t e

S a t a n from

M i l t o n ' s Paradise Loot: " E v i l , b e t h o u

my

G o o d ! " ) . O n e s h o u l d r a t h e r Invert t h i s n o t i o n t h a t " e v i l " is a c o n t e n t w h o s e v e r y form ( t h e u n c o n d i t i o n a l e t h i c a l c o m m i t m e n t ) r e m a i n s t h a t of the G o o d : t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n G o o d a n d E v i l i s not t h a t of c o n t e n t , b u t t h a t of form — but, a g a i n , not m t h e s e n s e t h a t G o o d i s t h e form of unconditional commitment

to a C a u s e , a n d E v i l t h e b e t r a y a l of t h i s

c o m m i t m e n t . It i s , on t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e v e r y u n c o n d i t i o n a l " f a n a t i c a l " c o m m i t m e n t to a C a u s e w h i c h i s t h e " d e a t h d r i v e " a t its p u r e s t a n d , a s s u c h , t h e p r i m o r d i a l form of E v i l : it i n t r o d u c e s i n t o t h e flow of ( s o c i a l ) life a v i o l e n t c u t t h a t t h r o w s it o u t of j o i n t . T h e G o o d c o m e s a f t e r w a r d s , it is a n a t t e m p t to " g e n t r l f y , " to d o m e s t i c a t e , the t r a u m a t i c i m p a c t of t h e Evil T h i n g , In short, the G o o d i s t h e s c r e e n e d / d o m e s t i c a t e d E v i l . ( W a s K a n t h i m s e l f not on t h e t r a c k s of t h i s p a r a d o x in t h e d e a d l o c k of h i s n o t i o n ( s ) of r a d i c a l a n d d i a b o l i c a l E v i l ? ) R o u s s e a u h a d a l r e a d y n o t e d t h a t e g o i s m o r t h e c o n c e r n for o n e ' s o w n Wellbelng is not o p p o s e d to the c o m m o n good, s i n c e a l t r u i s t i c n o r m s c a n e a s i l y b e d e d u c e d from e g o t i s t i c c o n c e r n s . I n d i v i d u a l i s m v e r s u s com345

IN

UfchENSE O F L O S T

CAUSES

m u n i t a r i a n i s m , u t i l i t a r i a n i s m v e r s u s t h e a s s e r t i o n of u n i v e r s a l n o r m s , a r e faLe o p p o s i t i o n s , s i n c e t h e t w o o p p o s e d o p t i o n s a m o u n t t o t h e s a m e in their r e s u l t — t h e critics w h o c o m p l a i n how, in t o d a y ' s hedonistic-egotistic s o c i e t y , t r u e v a l u e s a r e l a c k i n g t o t a l l y m i s s t h e p o i n t . T h e t r u e o p p o s i t e of e g o t i s t i c s e l f - l o v e i s not a l t r u i s m , a c o n c e r n for t h e c o m m o n G o o d , b u t e n v y , reMcntbrunt,

w h i c h m a k e s m e a c t agaiiut

m y o w n interests. The

conservative or c o m m u n i t a r i a n critics complain that the " e t h i c s " one can g e n e r a t e from

utilitarian Individualist premises can only be a

"pact

b e t w e e n w o l v e s " w h o c o n c l u d e it i s in t h e b e s t i n t e r e s t of e a c h of t h e m to constrain their aggressivity, rather than genuine solidarity a n d altruism. But they miss the ironic point: w h a t utilitarian ethics cannot properly a c c o u n t for i s not t h e t r u e G o o d , b u t E v i l itself, w h i c h i s u l t i m a t e l y against m y long-term interests.

. . . and lté politico of re
Hegel,

w h e r e M a r x o p p o s e s t h e " t r u e d e m o c r a c y " of t h e s o c i a l l i n k of free p e o p l e to t h e s t a t e a s t h e I m p o s e d u n i t y ; h o w e v e r , i n c o n t r a s t to M a r x , w h o s e a i m i s t o a b o l i s h t h e s t a t e for t h i s r e a s o n , for C r i t c h l e y , t r u e d e m o c r a c y is only possible " a s the interstitial distance w i t h i n the state" — such a true democracy 346

THE CRISIS OF DETERMINATE N E G A T I O N

c a l l s t h e State i n t o q u e s t i o n a n d c a l l s t h e e s t a b l i s h e d o r d e r to a c c o u n t , n o t i n o r d e r to d o a w a y w i t h t h e s t a t e , d e s i r a b l e t h o u g h t h a t m i g h t w e l l b e i n s o m e Utopian s e n s e , b u t i n o r d e r to b e t t e r it o r a t t e n u a t e its m a l i c i o u s effect. S u c h p o l i t i c s is n e g a t i v e i n t h e s e n s e t h a t it s h o u l d n o t s e e k t o s e t i t s e l f u p a s t h e n e w h e g e m o n i c p r i n c i p l e of p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , b u t r e m a i n s t h e n e g a t i o n of t o t a l i t y a n d n o t t h e a f f i r m a t i o n of a n e w t o t a l i t y . A n a r c h y i s a r a d i c a l d i s t u r b a n c e of t h e state, a d i s r u p t i o n of t h e s t a t e ' s a t t e m p t to s e t i t s e l f u p o r e r e c t itself into a w h o l e .

T h u s , d e m o c r a c y i s n o t a fixed p o l i t i c a l form of s o c i e t y , b u t r a t h e r [. . . ] t h e deformation of s o c i e t y from i t s e l f t h r o u g h t h e a c t of m a t e r i a l political manifestation.

If, t h e n , p o l i t i c s ( a s t h e a e s t h e t i c - c a r n i v a l e s q u e m a n i f e s t a t i o n

of t h e

a n a r c h i c demod) a n d d e m o c r a c y a r e " t w o n a m e s for t h e s a m e t h i n g , " w h a t d o e s t h i s m e a n for d e m o c r a c y a s t h e s t a t e f o r m ? W h e n C r i t c h l e y w r i t e s t h a t t h e m o t i v a t i o n a l deficit w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s of l i b e r a l d e m o c r a c y ( t h e g r o w i n g i n d i f f e r e n c e t o w a r d s e l e c t i o n s , a n d so o n ) " h a s a l s o h a d p o s i t i v e effects, "^^ g i v i n g r i s e t o a s e r i e s of n o n - e l e c t o r a l p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t i e s , of N G O s , of social m o v e m e n t s s u c h a s t h e a n t i globalization movement,

t h e i n d i g e n o u s - r i g h t s m o v e m e n t s in M e x i c o

a n d A u s t r a l i a , a n d so forth, h i s p o s i t i o n b e c o m e s a m b i g u o u s : i s it a c t u a l l y better for e m a n c i p a t o r y p o l i t i c s if p e o p l e

are not committed

to t h e

democratic institutions? S o w h a t then should, s a y , the Democrats do in t h e U S ? S h o u l d t h e y w i t h d r a w ( " s u b t r a c t " t h e m s e l v e s ) from c o m p e t ­ i n g for t h e s t a t e p o w e r i n t o t h e i n t e r s t i c e s ol state, l e a v i n g s t a t e p o w e r to Republicans a n d e n g a g e in anarchistic resistance to it?

O f c o u r s e , h i s t o r y i s h a b i t u a l l y w r i t t e n b y the p e o p l e w i t h t h e g u n s a n d s t i c k s and o n e c a n n o t e x p e c t to d e f e a t t h e m w i t h m o c k i n g s a t i r e and f e a t h e r d u s t e r s . Y e t , a s t h e h i s t o r y of u l t r a - l e f t i s t a c t i v e n i h i l i s m e l o q u e n t l y s h o w s , o n e is lost t h e m o m e n t one p i c k s u p the g u n s a n d s t i c k s . A n a r c h i c p o l i t i c a l r e s i s t a n c e s h o u l d n o t s e e k to m i m i c a n d m i r r o r the a r c h i e v i o l e n t s o v e r e i g n t y it o p p o s e s . '

347

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

But Critchley w o u l d certainly support "picking u p the g u n s and sticks" w h e n o n e f a c e s a n a d v e r s a r y l i k e Flitler, w o u l d h e n o t ? S u r e l y in t h i s c a s e one should " m i m i c a n d mirror the a r c h i e violent sovereignty one op­ p o s e s " ? S o w h a t s h o u l d t h e Left d o — d i s t i n g u i s h t h e c a s e s w h e n

one

j o i n s f o r c e s w i t h t h e s t a t e in r e s o r t i n g to v i o l e n c e from t h e c a s e s w h e n all o n e c a n a n d s h o u l d d o is u s e " m o c k i n g s a t i r e a n d f e a t h e r d u s t e r s " ? W h e n C r i t c h l e y w r i t e s t h a t " o n e s h o u l d a p p r o a c h a l - O a e d a w i t h the w o r d s a n d a c t i o n s of b i n L a d e n r e s o n a t i n g

a g a i n s t t h o s e of

B l a n q u i , Mao,"^** a n d m a k e s t h e s a m e p o i n t a t t h e b o o k ' s

Lenin,

conclusion

w i t h t h e c l a i m t h a t " n e o - L e n i n i s m [. . . ] i s p r a c t i c a l l y e x p r e s s e d in the vanguardism

of g r o u p s

l i k e al-Qaeda,"^"^ h e e n g a g e s in t h e

purest

i d e o l o g i c a l f o r m a l i s m , b l u r r i n g t h e c r u c i a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t w o op­ posed political logics: radical egalitarian violence ( w h a t B a d i o u calls the " e t e r n a l I d e a " of t h e p o l i t i c s of r e v o l u t i o n a r y j u s t i c e a t w o r k from

the

a n c i e n t C h i n e s e " l e g i s t s " t h r o u g h J a c o b i n s to L e n i n a n d M a o ) , a n d a n t i m o d e r n i s t " f u n d a m e n t a l i s t " v i o l e n c e — a n e w v e r s i o n of t h e o l d l i b e r a l c o n s e r v a t i v e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of r i g h t a n d left " t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m . " Furthermore,

a c c o r d i n g to C r i t c h l e y , not o n l y i s t h e s t a t e h e r e

to

s t a y — t h e s a m e h o l d s for c a p i t a l i s m itself: C a p i t a l i s t d i s l o c a t i o n , in i t s r u t h l e s s

destruction

of t h e

bonds

of

tradition, local belonging, family a n d k i n s h i p structures that one might h a v e c o n s i d e r e d n a t u r a l , r e v e a l s t h e c o n t i n g e n c y of social life, t h a t is, its s t r u c t u r e d c h a r a c t e r , w h i c h is to s a y , its poUticai a r t i c u l a t i o n . [. . . ] O n c e t h e i d e o l o g i c a l i l l u s i o n s of t h e n a t u r a l h a v e b e e n s t r i p p e d a w a y and revealed as contingent formations b y capitalist dislocation, w h e r e f r e e d o m , for e x a m p l e , b e c o m e s t h e p r e c a r i o u s e x p e r i e n c e o l i n s e c u r i t y w h e n o n e s e l l s o n e s e l f on t h e l a b o r m a r k e t , t h e n t h e o n l y c e m e n t t h a t h o l d s p o l i t i c a l i d e n t i t i e s t o g e t h e r i s a h e g e m o n i c link."^*^

T h e ( u n i n t e n d e d ) i m p l i c a t i o n of t h i s r e a s o n i n g i s t h a t t h e v e r y " a n t i e s s e n t i a l i s t " e x p e r i e n c e of s o c i a l life a s c o n t i n g e n t , w i t h e v e r y i d e n t i t y t h e r e s u l t of d i s c u r s i v e a r t i c u l a t i o n , t h e o u t c o m e

of a n o p e n s t r u g g l e for

h e g e m o n y , i s g r o u n d e d i n t h e " e s s e n t i a l l s t " p r e d o m i n a n c e of c a p i t a l i s m , w h i c h , itself, no l o n g e r a p p e a r s a s o n e of p o s s i b l e m o d e s of p r o d u c t i o n , b u t a s s i m p l y t h e n e u t r a l " b a c k g r o u n d " of t h e o p e n p r o c e s s of c o n t i n g e n t ( r e ) a r t i c u 1 ation s. A c c o r d i n g to t h i s v i e w , c a p i t a l i s m m e a n s p e r m a n e n t m u l t i p l e d i s l o c a ­ t i o n s , a n d t h i s d i s l o c a t i o n o p e n s u p t h e s p a c e for t h e f o r m a t i o n of n e w 348

THE C R I S I S OF D E T E R M I N A T E N E G A T I O N

p o l i t i c a l s u b j e c t i v i t i e s ; h o w e v e r , it i s no l o n g e r p o s s i b l e to c o n t a i n t h e s e s u b j e c t i v i t i e s u n d e r t h e h e a d i n g of t h e " p r o l e t a r i a t . " M u l t i p l e d i s l o c a t i o n s c l e a r t h e s p a c e for m u l t i p l e s u b j e c t i v i t i e s ( t h r e a t e n e d i n d i g e n o u s p o p u l a ­ tions, s e x u a l a n d e t h n i c m i n o r i t i e s , s l u m - d w e l l e r s , a n d so o n ) , a n d w h a t w e s h o u l d a i m a t is t h e " c h a i n of e q u i v a l e n c e s " b e t w e e n t h e s e s e r i e s of d e m a n d s - g r i e v a n c e s . A s a n e x e m p l a r y c a s e of c r e a t i n g a n e w p o l i t i c a l s u b j e c t i v i t y t h r o u g h a n a c t of n a m i n g , C r i t c h l e y c e l e b r a t e s t h e i m p o v e r ­ i s h e d M e x i c a n p e a s a n t s ' r e i n v e n t i o n a s " i n d i g e n o u s " p e o p l e . Is it not, h o w e v e r , t h a t h i s e x a m p l e d e m o n s t r a t e s its o w n l i m i t a t i o n s ? A s h i s o w n a n a l y s i s m a k e s c l e a r , t h e p o o r p e a s a n t s h a d to r e m v e n t / r e n a m e selves as the " i n d i g e n o u s " people,

because the successful

them­

neoliberal

i d e o l o g i c a l offensive h a d m a d e a d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e to the e c o n o m i c p o s i t i o n of b e i n g e x p l o i t e d u n t e n a b l e , m e f f e c t i v e : in o u r " p o s t - p o l i t i c a l " e p o c h of t h e c u l t u r a l i z a t i o n of t h e p o l i t i c a l , t h e

o n l y w a y to f o r m u l a t e

one's

c o m p l a i n t i s a t t h e l e v e l of c u l t u r a l a n d / o r e t h n i c d e m a n d s : e x p l o i t e d w o r k e r s b e c o m e i m m i g r a n t s w h o s e " o t h e r n e s s " is oppressed,

and

so

forth. T h e p r i c e w e p a y for t h i s o p e r a t i o n i s a t l e a s t a m i n i m a l l e v e l of i d e o l o g i c a l m y s t i f i c a t i o n : w h a t the p o o r p e a s a n t s a r e d e f e n d i n g a p p e a r s as their " n a t u r a l " (ethnic) substantial identity. The c o n t e m p o r a r y liberal-democratic state a n d the "infinitely d e m a n d ­ i n g " a n a r c h i s t i c p o l i t i c s a r e t h u s e n g a g e d in a r e l a t i o n s h i p of m u t u a l p a r a s i t i s m : t h e s t a t e e x t e r n a l i z e s its e t h i c a l s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s in a n e x t r a s t a t a l e t h i c o - p o l i t i c a l a g e n c y , a n d t h i s a g e n c y e x t e r n a l i z e s its c l a i m to e f f e c t i v e n e s s in t h e s t a t e — a n a r c h i c a g e n t s d o t h e ethiced t h i n k i n g for t h e state, a n d t h e s t a t e d o e s t h e w o r k of r e a l l y r u n n i n g a n d r e g u l a t i n g s o c i e t y . The w a y Critchley's anarchic ethico-political

a g e n t r e l a t e s to

the

s u p e r e g o i s d o u b l e : not o n l y i s it c r u s h e d b y t h e s u p e r e g o , it a l s o a c t s Itself l i k e a s u p e r e g o a g e n t , c o m f o r t a b l y

bombarding

the

state

with

s u p e r e g o d e m a n d s — a n d t h e s t a t e i s a l l t h e m o r e g u i l t y , t h e m o r e it t r i e s to c o m p l y w i t h its d e m a n d s . ( I n c o m p l i a n c e w i t h t h i s s u p e r e g o l o g i c , t h e a n a r c h i c e x t r a - s t a t a l a g e n t s focus t h e i r p r o t e s t s not on o p e n

dictator­

s h i p s , b u t on t h e h y p o c r i s y of l i b e r a l d e m o c r a c i e s , w h i c h a r e a c c u s e d of not f o l l o w i n g c o n s i s t e n t l y t h e i r o w n i d e o l o g i c a l n o r m s . ) W h a t C r i t c h l e y offers i s t h u s l i b e r a l - c a p i t a l i s t - d e m o c r a c y w i t h a h u m a n face — w e r e m a i n f i r m l y w i t h m t h e F u k u y a m a u n i v e r s e . Or, to p a r a p h r a s e T h o m a s

De

Q u i n c e y ' s " S i m p l e A r t of M u r d e r " : l o o k h o w m a n y p e o p l e s t a r t e d w i t h a w r o n g r e a d i n g of L a c a n a n d e n d e d u p c e l e b r a t i n g P r i n c e s s D i a n a a s a f i g u r e of I n s u r g e n c y . . . T h e l e s s o n h e r e i s t h a t t h e t r u l y s u b v e r s i v e t h i n g is not to i n s i s t on 349

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

" i n f i n i t e " d e m a n d s w e k n o w t h o s e in p o w e r c a n n o t fiilfill ( s i n c e t h e y a l s o k n o w it t h a t w e k n o w it, s u c h a n " i n f i n i t e l y d e m a n d i n g " a t t i t u d e i s e a s i l y a c c e p t a b l e for t h o s e in p o w e r : "so w o n d e r f u l that, w i t h y o u r c r i t i c a l d e m a n d s , y o u r e m i n d u s w h a t k i n d of w o r l d w e w o u l d a l l l i k e to live in ~ u n f o r t u n a t e l y , h o w e v e r , w e live in t h e r e a l w o r l d , w h e r e w e a r e j u s t h o n e s t l y d o i n g w h a t is p o s s i b l e " ) , b u t , on t h e c o n t r a r y , to b o m b a r d t h o s e in p o w e r w i t h s t r a t e g i c a l l y w e l l - s e l e c t e d precuie, flnile

demands which

c a n n o t a l l o w for t h e s a m e e x c u s e .

"Goodbye Mutter ReöUting Nomad" In c o n t r a s t to C r i t c h l e y , T o n i N e g r i is t h e m o s t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e v e r s i o n of t h e h e r o i c a t t e m p t to s t i c k to f u n d a m e n t a l M a r x i s t c o o r d i n a t e s a n d to d e m o n s t r a t e h o w t h e v e r y " p o s t m o d e r n " t u r n of c a p i t a l i s m , t h e r i s e of t h e " p o s t i n d u s t r i a l " s o c i e t y w i t h its shift t o w a r d s i n f o r m a t i o n a l w o r k , c r e a t e s the c o n d i t i o n s for r e v o l u t i o n i z i n g s o c i e t y e v e n m o r e r a d i c a l l y t h a n M a r x i m a g i n e d it, o p e n i n g u p t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of " a b s o l u t e d e m o c r a c y . " N e g r i ' s s t a r t i n g p o i n t i s a r a t h e r s t a n d a r d one: t o d a y , i m m a t e r i a l cognitive w o r k p l a y s the k e y role m creating n e w value; and since these c o g n i t i v e a s p e c t s of w o r k p r e d o m i n a t e , o n e c a n n o l o n g e r m e a s u r e v a l u e w i t h rime ( l a b o r - t i m e ) , so t h e M a r x i s t n o t i o n of e x p l o i t a t i o n is n o l o n g e r operative:

N o w , it h a s to b e n o t e d i m m e d i a t e l y t h a t t o d a y t h e r e i s n o p r o d u c t i o n of v a l u e if not i m m a t e r i a l v a l u e , w h i c h i s c a r r i e d o u t b y free b r a i n s c a p a b l e of i n n o v a t i o n ; f r e e d o m i s t h e o n l y v a l u e t h a t d o e s n ' t s i m p l y r e p r o d u c e w e a l t h b u t t h a t p u t s it into c i r c u l a t i o n .

T o d a y ' s b a s i c p r o d u c t i v e force i s t h u s t h e " c o g n i t a r i a t , " t h e m u l t i t u d e ol cognitive w o r k e r s ; their w o r k p r o d u c e s freedom, a n d their freedom is p r o d u c t i v e . " F r e e d o m i s t h e fixed c a p i t a l t h a t i s i n s i d e t h e b r a i n of the people."

T h i s , t h e n , is o u r s i t u a t i o n :

t h e s u b a l t e r n c l a s s e s a r e a l r e a d y c l a s s e s w i t h a fixed c a p i t a l r i c h e r t h a n t h a t of t h e b o s s e s , a s p i r i t u a l p a t r i m o n y m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n w h a t t h e o t h e r s boast, a n d a n a b s o l u t e w e a p o n : t h e k n o w l e d g e e s s e n t i a l for t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n of the w o r l d . ' " I n s t e a d , t o d a y , w h e n t h e G e n e r a l I n t e l l e c t b e c o m e s h e g e m o n i c in capitalist production, w h e n , that is, immaterial and cognitive labor 350

THE CRISIS OF D E T E R M I N A T E N E G A T I O N

b e c o m e i m m e d i a t e l y p r o d u c t i v e , i n t e l l e c t u a l l a b o r - p o w e r n o w frees itself from

t h i s r e l a t i o n of s u b j e c t i o n a n d t h e p r o d u c t i v e

subject

a p p r o p r i a t e s for Itself t h o s e l a b o r i n s t r u m e n t s t h a t c a p i t a l p r e c o n s t i t u t e d b e f o r e . W e c a n s a y t h a t v a r i a b l e c a p i t a l r e p r e s e n t s itself a s fixed c a p i t a l . [ . . . ] ! a m p r o d u c t i v e o u t s i d e of m y r e l a t i o n w i t h c a p i t a l , a n d t h e flow of c o g n i t i v e a n d s o c i a l c a p i t a l n o l o n g e r h a s a n y t h i n g to d o w i t h c a p i t a l a s a p h y s i c a l s t r u c t u r e in t h e h a n d s of t h e bosses.'^^

T h e i d e a i s t h u s t h a t , w i t h t h e h e g e m o n i c r o l e of t h e g e n e r a l i n t e l l e c t , c a p i t a l l o s e s i t s f u n c t i o n of s o c i a l l y o r g a n i z i n g p r o d u c t i o n , of b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r fixed a n d v a r i a b l e c a p i t a l , t h e m e a n s of p r o d u c t i o n , a n d t h e l a b o r f o r c e : i t s f u n c t i o n i s n o w p u r e l y p a r a s i t i c , w h i c h i s w h y it f i n a l l y b e c o m e s p o s s i b l e to l o p it off.

It i s n o l o n g e r e v e n a q u e s t i o n of a

violent cut into the social texture: since production

a n d ( s o c i a l ) life

i t s e l f a r e p r o g r e s s i v e l y o r g a n i z e d , t h e m u l t i t u d e h a s s i m p l y to p u r s u e i t s w o r k of s e l f - o r g a n i z a t i o n , a n d c a p i t a l w i l l all of a s u d d e n

notice

t h a t it i s s u s p e n d e d in t h e a i r a n d w i l l c r a s h d o w n , l i k e t h e c a r t o o n c a t w a l k i n g in the air above a precipice a n d falling into the a b y s s beneath i t s feet w h e n it l o o k s d o w n a n d n o t i c e s t h a t t h e g r o u n d is n o l o n g e r there. T h e k e y c a t e g o r y h e r e i s t h a t of t h e f o r m a l a n d r e a l s u b s u m p t i o n of p r o d u c t i o n u n d e r c a p i t a l . In c l e a r c o n t r a s t to t h e e v o l u t i o n a r y l o g i c of t h e c h a n g e s in r e l a t i o n s of p r o d u c t i o n

f o l l o w i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e

m e a n s of p r o d u c t i o n , M a r x e m p h a s i z e s h o w f o r m a l s u b s u m p t i o n

pre­

c e d e s t h e r e a l form: c a p i t a l i s t s first o n l y f o r m a l l y s u b s u m e d t h e p r o d u c ­ tion p r o c e s s to t h e i r r u l e ( p r o v i d i n g r a w m a t e r i a l s a n d b u y i n g product

the

from i n d i v i d u a l a r t i s a n s w h o c o n t i n u e d to p r o d u c e t h e w a y

t h e y d i d b e f o r e t h i s s u b s u m p t i o n ) ; it i s o n l y a f t e r w a r d s t h a t t h e s u b ­ s u m p t i o n b e c o m e s m a t e r i a l , t h a t i s , t h a t t h e m e a n s a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n of p r o d u c t i o n a r e d i r e c t l y f o r m e d b y c a p i t a l ( t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of m a c h i n e r y , t h e f a c t o r y d i v i s i o n of l a b o r . F o r d i s m , a n d so o n ) . T h i s p r o c e s s r e a c h e s its c u l m i n a t i o n in l a r g e - s c a l e m e c h a n i z e d f a c t o r y p r o d u c t i o n , in w h i c h t h e s u b o r d i n a t i o n of t h e w o r k e r to c a p i t a l i s d i r e c t l y r e p r o d u c e d in t h e v e r y m a t e r i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s : the w o r k e r i s m a t e r i a l l y r e d u c e d to a c o g in t h e m a c h i n e , p e r f o r m i n g a p a r t i c u l a r t a s k , w i t h no o v e r v i e w of t h e e n t i r e p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s a n d n o i d e a of the s c i e n t i f i c k n o w l e d g e t h a t s u s t a i n s it — b o t h k n o w l e d g e a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n a r e on t h e s i d e of c a p i t a l ; h e r e is M a r x ' s d e s c r i p t i o n from h i s

Grundriue:

351

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

T h e a c c u m u l a t i o n of k n o w l e d g e a n d of s k i l l , of t h e g e n e r a l p r o d u c t i v e f o r c e s of t h e social b r a i n , is t h u s a b s o r b e d into c a p i t a l , a s o p p o s e d to l a b o r , a n d h e n c e a p p e a r s a s a n a t t r i b u t e of c a p i t a l , a n d m o r e s p e c i ­ fically

of fixed c a p i t a l , in so far a s it e n t e r s i n t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n

process

a s a m e a n s of p r o d u c t i o n p r o p e r . M a c h i n e r y a p p e a r s , t h e n , a s t h e m o s t a d e q u a t e form of fixed c a p i t a l , a n d fixed c a p i t a l , in so far a s c a p i t a l ' s r e l a t i o n s w i t h Itself a r e c o n c e r n e d , a p p e a r s a s t h e m o s t a d e q u a t e form of c a p i t a l a s s u c h .

H o w e v e r , w i t h t h e p o s t - F o r d i s t shift to t h e h e g e m o n i c r o l e of c o g n i t i v e labor, k n o w l e d g e and

organization

are again reappropriated

by

the

c o l l e c t i v e of w o r k e r s , so that, in a k i n d of " n e g a t i o n of t h e n e g a t i o n , " c a p i t a l o n c e a g a i n s u b s u m e s p r o d u c t i o n in a p u r e l y formal w a y : its r o l e is m o r e a n d m o r e p u r e l y p a r a s i t i c , t r y i n g to c o n t r o l a n d r e g u l a t e a p r o c e s s fully a b l e to r u n i t s e l f . . . T h e p r o b l e m w i t h N e g r i a n d H a r d t h e r e is t h a t t h e y a r e too M a r x i s t , t a k i n g o v e r t h e u n d e r l y i n g M a r x i s t s c h e m a of historical progress: like M a r x , t h e y celebrate the

"deterritorializing"

r e v o l u t i o n a r y p o t e n t i a l of c a p i t a l i s m ; l i k e M a r x , t h e y l o c a t e t h e c o n t r a ­ d i c t i o n w i t h i n c a p i t a l i s m in t h e g a p b e t w e e n t h i s p o t e n t i a l a n d t h e form of c a p i t a l , of t h e p r i v a t e - p r o p e r t y a p p r o p r i a t i o n

of t h e s u r p l u s . In short,

t h e y r e h a b i l i t a t e t h e old M a r x i s t n o t i o n of t h e t e n s i o n b e t w e e n p r o d u c ­ t i v e forces a n d t h e r e l a t i o n s of p r o d u c t i o n : c a p i t a l i s m a l r e a d y g e n e r a t e s t h e " g e r m s of t h e f u t u r e n e w f o r m s of l i f e , " it i n c e s s a n t l y p r o d u c e s the n e w " c o m m o n s , " so that, i n a r e v o l u t i o n a r y e x p l o s i o n , t h i s N e w i s s i m p l y to b e l i b e r a t e d from t h e o l d s o c i a l form. H e r e , t h e y r e m a i n D e l e u z i a n : w h e n D e l e u z e a n d G u a t t a r i w r i t e m Anti-Oedipiu

that, b y s t r i v i n g to r e a c h

t h e f u r t h e s t l i m i t of d e t e r r i t o r i a l i z a t i o n , a s c h i z o p h r e n i c " s e e k s o u t t h e v e r y l i m i t of c a p i t a l i s m : h e is its i n h e r e n t t e n d e n c y b r o u g h t to ment,"

do t h e y t h e r e b y not

confirm

that their o w n

fulfill­

socio-political

p r o j e c t i s a d e s p e r a t e a t t e m p t to r e a l i z e c a p i t a l i s m ' s o w n i n h e r e n t f a n t a s y , its v i r t u a l c o o r d i n a t e s ? Is c o m m u n i s m t h e r e b y not r e d u c e d to w h a t n o n e other than Bill Gates called "frictionless capitalism," capitalism elevated a n d i n t e n s i f i e d to t h e i n f i n i t e s p e e d of c i r c u l a t i o n ? N o w o n d e r t h a t N e g r i h a s r e c e n t l y p r a i s e d " p o s t m o d e r n " d i g i t a l c a p i t a l i s m , c l a i m i n g t h a t it is a l r e a d y c o m m u n i s t a n d t h a t it n e e d s j u s t a l i t t l e p u s h , a f o r m a l g e s t u r e , to o p e n l y b e c o m e s u c h . T h e b a s i c s t r a t e g y of c o n t e m p o r a r y c a p i t a l i s to c o v e r u p its s u p e r f l u o u s n e s s b y finding n e w s w a y s to o n c e a g a i n s u b s u m e t h e free p r o d u c t i v e

352

multitude:

THE CRISIS O F D E T E R M I N A T E N E G A T I O N

If fixed c a p i t a l i s n o w s i n g u l a r l y c a p a b l e of i m a g i n a t i o n , in o r d e r to p u t it to w o r k t h e r e i s t h e n e e d of a n e w m a c h i n e . T h i s i s t h e p a r a d o x i c a l " c o m m u n i s m of c a p i t a l , " t h e a t t e m p t to close b y m e a n s of

financiahza-

tion t h e g l o b a l m a c h i n e of p r o d u c t i o n a b o v e a n d b e y o n d t h e p r o d u c ­ t i v e s i n g u l a r i t i e s t h a t c o m p o s e it. It is the a t t e m p t to s u b s u m e

the

multitude. T h e r e i s a f e a t u r e of t h i s a c c o u n t w h i c h c a n n o t b u t s t r i k e t h e e y e . A c c o r d i n g to p h i l o s o p h i c a l c o m m o n s e n s e , w h e n o n e n e g l e c t s p h i l o s o ­ p h i c a l r e f l e c t i o n , t h e r e s u l t is t h a t o n e finds oneself r e l y i n g on t h e w o r s t a n d m o s t n a i v e p h i l o s o p h i c a l f r a m e w o r k . MutalLi

nmtandLi,

the same rule

h o l d s for f e r o c i o u s a n t i - H e g e l i a n s : it i s a s if t h e r e v e n g e for t h e i r total r e j e c t i o n of H e g e l i s t h a t t h e y u n k n o w i n g l y u s e t h e m o s t Hegelian categories."

superficial

T h i s a c c o u n t s for a d e t a i l w h i c h e f f e c t i v e l y func­

tions a s a s y m p t o m of N e g r i ' s w o r k : h i s u n c o n s t r a i n e d a n d u n r e f l e x l v e (one i s a l m o s t t e m p t e d

to s a y " w i l d , " in t h e s e n s e of " w i l d p s y c h o ­

a n a l y s i s " ) u s e of H e g e l i a n c a t e g o r i e s , w h i c h so b l a t a n t l y c o n t r a d i c t s h i s professed anti-Hegelianism."'

For e x a m p l e , the c o n t e m p o r a r y multitude

is in itself, b u t not for itself, a n d t h e t r a n s i t i o n isn't e a s y . It i s a n a l t e r n a t i o n of m o m e n t s , of t a k i n g c o n s c i e n c e of s o m e a n d not of o t h e r s , of a t o t a l i t y of t r a n s i t i o n s , i n t e r r u p t i o n s of t e n d e n c i e s a n d of drifts.^*'

Is t h i s not a s t r a n g e r e l i a n c e on t h e H e g e l i a n c o u p l e t of t h e In-itself a n d the For-ltself? S h o u l d , then, w e b e s u r p r i s e d t h a t , w h e n , in t h e i r Empire, N e g r i a n d H a r d t r e f e r to B a r t l e b y a s t h e f i g u r e of r e s i s t a n c e , of t h e N o ! to t h e e x i s t i n g u n i v e r s e of social m a c h i n e r y , t h e y i n t e r p r e t B a r t l e b y ' s "I w o u l d p r e f e r not t o " a s m e r e l y t h e first m o v e of, a s it w e r e , c l e a r i n g t h e d e c k s , of a c q u i r i n g a d i s t a n c e t o w a r d s t h e e x i s t i n g social u n i v e r s e ? W h a t i s t h e n n e e d e d i s a m o v e t o w a r d s the l o n g - t e r m w o r k of c o n s t r u c t i n g a n e w c o m m u n i t y — i f w e r e m a i n s t u c k a t t h e B a r t l e b y s t a g e , w e e n d u p in a s u i c i d a l m a r g i n a l p o s i t i o n w i t h n o c o n s e q u e n c e s . . . in short, for t h e m , B a r t l e b y ' s "I w o u l d p r e f e r not t o " is a H e g e l i a n " a b s t r a c t

negation"

w h i c h s h o u l d t h e n b e o v e r c o m e b y t h e p a t i e n t p o s i t i v e w o r k of t h e " d e t e r m i n a t e n e g a t i o n " of t h e e x i s t i n g social u n i v e r s e . T h e p o i n t e d n e s s of this H e g e l i a n formulation is intentional: Negri and Hardt, the t w o great anti-Hegelians, make apropos

B a r t l e b y the m o s t s t a n d a r d

(pseudo-)

H e g e l i a n c r i t i c a l point. 353

T h e i r o n y is t h a t N e g r i r e f e r s h e r e to t h e p r o c e s s w h i c h t h e i d e o l o g i s t s of c o n t e m p o r a r y " p o s t m o d e r n " c a p i t a l i s m t h e m s e l v e s c e l e b r a t e a s t h e p a s s a g e from m a t e r i a l to s y m b o l i c p r o d u c t i o n , from t h e c e n t r a l i s t - h i e r ­ a r c h i c a l l o g i c to t h e l o g i c o l a u t o p o i e t i c s e l f - o r g a n i z a t i o n , m u l t i - c e n t e r e d c o o p e r a t i o n , a n d so forth. N e g r i is h e r e I n d e e d faithful to M a r x : w h a t h e t r i e s to p r o v e i s t h a t M a r x w a s right, t h a t t h e r i s e of t h e " g e n e r a l i n t e l l e c t " is in t h e l o n g t e r m i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h c a p i t a l i s m . T h e i d e o l o g i s t s of postmodern

c a p i t a l i s m m a k e t h e e x a c t l y o p p o s i t e c l a i m : it is M a r x i s t

t h e o r y ( a n d p r a c t i c e ) w h i c h r e m a i n s w i t h i n t h e c o n s t r a i n t s of h i e r a r c h ­ i c a l , c e n t r a l i z e d s t a t e - c o n t r o l l o g i c , a n d t h u s c a n n o t c o p e w i t h t h e social effects of t h e n e w i n f o r m a t i o n a l r e v o l u t i o n . T h e r e a r e g o o d e m p i r i c a l r e a s o n s for t h i s c l a i m : a g a i n , t h e s u p r e m e i r o n y of h i s t o r y is t h a t t h e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of C o m m u n i s m i s t h e m o s t c o n v i n c i n g e x a m p l e of t h e v a l i d i t y of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l M a r x i s t d i a l e c t i c of f o r c e s a n d r e l a t i o n s of p r o d u c t i o n , a d i a l e c t i c on w h i c h M a r x i s m c o u n t e d in its e n d e a v o r to overcome capitalism. W h a t indeed ruined the Communist regimes w a s t h e i r i n a b i l i t y to a c c o m m o d a t e t h e n e w s o c i a l l o g i c s u s t a i n e d b y the "informational

r e v o l u t i o n " : t h e y t r i e d to s t e e r t h i s r e v o l u t i o n a s y e t

a n o t h e r l a r g e - s c a l e , c e n t r a l i z e d s t a t e - p l a n n i n g p r o j e c t . T h e p a r a d o x is t h u s t h a t w h a t N e g r i c e l e b r a t e s a s t h e u n i q u e c h a n c e for o v e r c o m i n g c a p i t a l i s m , t h e i d e o l o g i s t s of " i n f o r m a t i o n a l r e v o l u t i o n " e u l o g i z e a s t h e r i s e of t h e n e w " f r i c t i o n l e s s " c a p i t a l i s m . W h o , t h e n , i s r i g h t h e r e ? W h a t i s t h e r o l e of c a p i t a l in " i n f o r m a t i o n a l s o c i e t y " ? N e g r i ' s b a s i c r e f e r e n c e , the f a m o u s p a s s a g e s a b o u t the " g e n e r a l i n t e l l e c t " from M a r x ' s Grundruiée, is w o r t h q u o t i n g in extenM; in it, M a r x d e p l o y s a l o g i c of t h e s e l f - o v e r c o m i n g of c a p i t a l i s m w h i c h h e t o t a l l y a b s t r a c t s from

t h e a c t i v e r e v o l u t i o n a r y s t r u g g l e ^—it i s f o r m u l a t e d

in

purely economic terms:

C a p i t a l i t s e l f is t h e m o v i n g c o n t r a d i c t i o n , [ i n ] t h a t it p r e s s e s to r e d u c e l a b o r t i m e to a m i n i m u m , w h i l e it p o s i t s l a b o r t i m e , on t h e o t h e r s i d e , a s sole m e a s u r e a n d s o u r c e of w e a l t h . T h e " c o n t r a d i c t i o n " w h i c h w i l l r u m c a p i t a l i s m is t h u s t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e c a p i t a l i s t e x p l o i t a t i o n w h i c h r e l i e s on l a b o r t i m e a s t h e sole s o u r c e of v a l u e ( a n d t h u s t h e sole s o u r c e of s u r p l u s - v a l u e ) , a n d t h e s c i e n t i f i c - t e c h n o l o g i c a l

progress

w h i c h l e a d s to q u a n t i t a t i v e a n d q u a l i t a t i v e r e d u c t i o n of t h e r o l e of d i r e c t l a b o r ; t h i s l a b o r i s r e d u c e d b o t h q u a n t i t a t i v e l y , to a s m a l l e r p r o p o r t i o n , a n d q u a l i t a t i v e l y , a s a n , of c o u r s e , i n d i s p e n s a b l e

but

s u b o r d i n a t e m o m e n t , c o m p a r e d to g e n e r a l s c i e n t i f i c l a b o r , t e c h n o l o 354

THE CRISIS OF D E T E R M I N A T E N E G A T I O N

g i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n of n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s , on o n e s i d e , a n d to t h e g e n e r a l p r o d u c t i v e force a r i s i n g from s o c i a l c o m b i n a t i o n [Gliederung] in t o t a l production

on t h e o t h e r s i d e — a c o m b i n a t i o n w h i c h a p p e a r s a s a

n a t u r a l fruit of s o c i a l l a b o r ( a l t h o u g h it i s a h i s t o r i c p r o d u c t ) . C a p i t a l thus w o r k s t o w a r d s its o w n

dissolution as the

form

dominating

p r o d u c t i o n . [. . . ] T o t h e d e g r e e t h a t l a r g e i n d u s t r y d e v e l o p s , the c r e a t i o n of r e a l w e a l t h c o m e s to d e p e n d l e s s on l a b o r t i m e a n d on t h e a m o u n t of l a b o r e m p l o y e d t h a n on t h e p o w e r of t h e a g e n c i e s set in m o t i o n d u r i n g l a b o r time, w h o s e

"powerful

e f f e c t i v e n e s s " i s i t s e l f in t u r n

out

of a l l

p r o p o r t i o n to t h e d i r e c t l a b o r t i m e s p e n t on t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n ,

but

d e p e n d s r a t h e r on t h e g e n e r a l s t a t e of s c i e n c e a n d on t h e p r o g r e s s of t e c h n o l o g y , o r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h i s s c i e n c e to p r o d u c t i o n .

A l a r x ' s v i s i o n i s h e r e t h a t of a f u l l y a u t o m a t e d p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s in w h i c h t h e h u m a n b e i n g ( t h e w o r k e r ) " c o m e s to r e l a t e m o r e a s w a t c h m a n a n d r e g u l a t o r to t h e p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s itself":

N o l o n g e r d o e s t h e w o r k e r i n s e r t a m o d i f i e d n a t u r a l t h i n g \Naturgegendtandl a s m i d d l e l i n k b e t w e e n t h e o b j e c t [Objekt] a n d himself; r a t h e r , h e i n s e r t s t h e p r o c e s s of n a t u r e , t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a n i n d u s t r i a l p r o c e s s , a s a m e a n s b e t w e e n h i m s e l f a n d i n o r g a n i c n a t u r e , m a s t e r i n g it. H e s t e p s to t h e s i d e of t h e p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s i n s t e a d of b e i n g its c h i e f a c t o r . In this transformation,

it is n e i t h e r t h e d i r e c t h u m a n l a b o r h e h i m s e l f

performs, nor the time during w h i c h he w o r k s , but rather the appro­ p r i a t i o n of h i s o w n g e n e r a l p r o d u c t i v e p o w e r , h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of n a t u r e a n d h i s m a s t e r y o v e r it b y v i r t u e of h i s p r e s e n c e a s a s o c i a l b o d y — i t i s , in a w o r d , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e s o c i a l i n d i v i d u a l w h i c h a p p e a r s a s t h e g r e a t f o u n d a t i o n - s t o n e of p r o d u c t i o n a n d of w e a l t h . T h e theft of a l i e n l a b o r t i m e , on w h i c h t h e p r e s e n t w e a l t h i s b a s e d , a p p e a r s a m i s e r a b l e f o u n d a t i o n in face of t h i s n e w one, c r e a t e d b y l a r g e - s c a l e i n d u s t r y itself. A s soon a s l a b o r in t h e d i r e c t form h a s c e a s e d to b e t h e g r e a t w e l l s p r i n g of w e a l t h , l a b o r t i m e c e a s e s a n d m u s t c e a s e to b e its m e a s u r e . C r u c i a l IS h e r e t h e r a d i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of t h e s t a t u s of " f i x e d c a p i t a l " : T h e d e v e l o p m e n t of fixed c a p i t a l i n d i c a t e s to w h a t d e g r e e g e n e r a l social k n o w l e d g e h a s b e c o m e a d i r e c t force of p r o d u c t i o n , a n d to w h a t 355

IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S

d e g r e e , h e n c e , t h e c o n d i t i o n s of t h e p r o c e s s of s o c i a l life Itself h a v e c o m e u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l of the g e n e r a l i n t e l l e c t a n d b e e n t r a n s f o r m e d in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h it. T o w h a t d e g r e e t h e p o w e r s of s o c i a l

production

h a v e b e e n p r o d u c e d , not o n l y in t h e form of k n o w l e d g e , b u t a l s o a s i m m e d i a t e o r g a n s of s o c i a l p r a c t i c e , of t h e r e a l life p r o c e s s .

W h a t t h i s m e a n s i s that, w i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of g e n e r a l s o c i a l k n o w l ­ e d g e , t h e " p r o d u c t i v e p o w e r of l a b o r " i s " i t s e l f t h e g r e a t e s t p r o d u c t i v e p o w e r . F r o m t h e s t a n d p o i n t of t h e d i r e c t p r o d u c t i o n

p r o c e s s it c a n b e

r e g a r d e d a s t h e p r o d u c t i o n of fixed c a p i t a l , t h i s f i x e d c a p i t a l b e i n g m a n himself."

A n d , a g a i n , s i n c e c a p i t a l o r g a n i z e s its e x p l o i t a t i o n b y a p p e a r ­

ing as "fixed capital" against living labor, the moment the k e y component of fixed c a p i t a l i s " m a n h i m s e l f , " its " g e n e r a l social k n o w l e d g e , " t h e v e r y s o c i a l f o u n d a t i o n of c a p i t a l i s t e x p l o i t a t i o n i s u n d e r m i n e d , a n d t h e r o l e of capital becomes purely parasitic:

T o d a y c a p i t a l c a n n o l o n g e r e x p l o i t t h e w o r k e r ; it c a n o n l y e x p l o i t c o o p e r a t i o n a m o n g s t w o r k e r s , a m o n g s t l a b o r e r s . T o d a y c a p i t a l h a s no l o n g e r t h a t i n t e r n a l f u n c t i o n for w h i c h it b e c a m e t h e soul of c o m m o n labor, w h i c h p r o d u c e d that abstraction within w h i c h progress w a s m a d e . T o d a y c a p i t a l i s p a r a s i t i c a l b e c a u s e it i s n o l o n g e r i n s i d e ; it i s o u t s i d e of t h e c r e a t i v e c a p a c i t y of t h e m u l t i t u d e .

N e g r i ' s i d e a i s t h a t t h i s i m m a t e r i a l l a b o r o p e n s u p t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of " a b s o l u t e d e m o c r a c y , " it c a n n o t b e e n s l a v e d , b e c a u s e U if immediately, itcteif, theform (andpractice)

ofMcialfreedom.

in

In it, form a n d c o n t e n t c o i n c i d e : it

is i m m e d i a t e l y free ( i n v e n t i v e , c r e a t i v e , a n e x p r e s s i o n of t h e

subject's

p r o d u c t i v i t y , a c t i v e , not r e - a c t i v e ) a n d s o c i a l i z e d ( a l w a y s p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n c o m m o n , c o o p e r a t i v e i n its v e r y c o n t e n t ) . T h i s i s w h y it r e n d e r s c a p i t a l p a r a s i t i c a l : s i n c e it is d i r e c t l y s o c i a l i z e d , it n o l o n g e r n e e d s c a p i t a l to c o n f e r on it t h e form

of u n i v e r s a l i t y . E x p l o i t a t i o n

is t o d a y essentially "the

c a p i t a l i s t e x p r o p r i a t i o n of t h e c o o p e r a t i v e p o w e r t h a t t h e s i n g u l a r i t i e s of c o g n i t i v e l a b o u r d e p l o y i n t h e s o c i a l p r o c e s s . It i s n ' t c a p i t a l a n y m o r e t h a t o r g a n i z e s l a b o r , b u t l a b o r t h a t o r g a n i z e s i t s e l f in itself."

T h i s n o t i o n of t h e

d i r e c t p r o d u c t i v i t y of s o c i a l life i t s e l f l e a d s N e g r i to a s s e r t " b i o p o l i t i c s , " in m a n n e r d i f f e r e n t from A g a m b e n : " b i o p o l i t i c s " m e a n s t h a t h u m a n life i t s e l f is t h e d i r e c t t o p i c a n d p r o d u c t of c o l l e c t i v e l a b o r . It is p r e c i s e l y t h i s d i r e c t l y biopoHtical c h a r a c t e r of p r o d u c t i o n w h i c h e n a b l e s " a b s o l u t e d e m o c r a c y " : " B i o p o l i t i c a l p o w e r [potenza] 356

i s t h e r e f o r e c o n t r a s t e d to b i o p o w e r . "

THE CRISIS OF DETERMINATE N E G A T I O N

A s w e h a v e n o t e d , is t h i s g e s t u r e of N e g r i not t h e l a s t in t h e l o n g M a r x i s t s e r i e s of i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s of a m o m e n t in t h e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s ol p r o d u c t i o n a n d / o r of t e c h n o l o g y i t s e l f a s t h e m o m e n t t h a t c a p i t a l i s m w i l l no l o n g e r b e a b l e to i n t e g r a t e a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , w h i c h w i l l in t h e l o n g t e r m l e a d to its d e m i s e ? F o r N e g r i , w h a t is n e w in t h e

"postmodern"

c a p i t a l i s m of t o d a y i s t h e v e r y d i r e c t o v e r l a p p i n g of t h e t w o d i m e n s i o n s ( m a t e r i a l p r o d u c t i o n a n d its s o c i a l f o r m ) : n e w s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s a r e the e s s e n c e a n d g o a l of p r o d u c t i o n . In o t h e r w o r d s , p r o d u c t i o n i s i n c r e a s ­ i n g l y " d i r e c t l y " s o c i a l i z e d , s o c i a l i z e d in its v e r y c o n t e n t , w h i c h is w h y it no l o n g e r n e e d s t h e s o c i a l form of c a p i t a l i m p o s e d o n t o it. N e g r i p a s s e s a l l too q u i c k l y o v e r t h e fact t h a t w h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e s o u r t i m e i s hiocapitalLim, w h i c h , i n t h e n a r r o w e r s e n s e , d e s i g n a t e s t h e i m m e n s e field of

new

c a p i t a l i s t i n v e s t m e n t s i n t o t h e d i r e c t p r o d u c t i o n of n e w f o r m s of b i o l o ­ g i c a l life (from g e n e t i c a l l y m o d i f i e d c r o p s to t h e h u m a n g e n o m e ) . Surely, the redefine

first

in m o r e

task ol the M a r x i s t a p p r o a c h stringent

terms

the notion

here should be

to

of t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n

of

" i n t e l l e c t u a l l a b o r " ? In w h a t p r e c i s e t h e o r e t i c a l s e n s e i s , s a y . Bill G a t e s " e x p l o i t i n g " t h o u s a n d s of p r o g r a m m e r s w h o w o r k for h i m , if h i s e x ­ p l o i t a t i o n is n o l o n g e r t h e "theft of a l i e n l a b o r t i m e " ? Is h i s r o l e r e a l l y p u r e l y " p a r a s i t i c a l " u p o n the s e l f - o r g a n i z a t i o n of the

programmers?

D o e s h i s c a p i t a l not, in a m o r e s u b s t a n t i a l w a y , p r o v i d e t h e v e r y s o c i a l s p a c e for t h e i r c o o p e r a t i o n ? A n d in w h a t p r e c i s e s e n s e i s t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l l a b o r t h e " s o u r c e of v a l u e , " if t h e u l t i m a t e m e a s u r e of v a l u e is n o l o n g e r t i m e ? Is t h e c a t e g o r y of v a l u e still a p p l i c a b l e h e r e ? N e g r i ' s t h e s i s , r e d u c e d to its c o r e , i s t h u s t h a t , w i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of c y b e r - t e c h n o l o g i e s , t h e p r i m a r y m e a n s of p r o d u c t i o n

of profit i s n o

l o n g e r t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n of l a b o r , b u t t h e " h a r v e s t i n g " of

information;

w i t h t h i s shift, it b e c o m e s p o s s i b l e to l i b e r a t e l a b o r / m w within t h e l i m i t s of c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n , s i n c e t h e e x c h a n g e of " h a r v e s t e d " i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e m a r k e t no l o n g e r r e l i e s on t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n of l a b o r , t h a t i s , on t h e a p p r o p r i a t i o n of s u r p l u s - v a l u e :

T h e c u r r e n t p r o b l e m of p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y i s to c o n s i d e r h u m a n b e i n g s w h e n t h e y l i v e a n d not o n l y w h e n t h e y w o r k , a s h u m a n b e i n g s a r e a l w a y s p r o d u c e r s . A l w a y s , t h a t i s , in a n y m o m e n t of life. H o w i s t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n of life t h i n k a b l e ? It i s not.

W i t h t o d a y ' s g l o b a l i n t e r a c t i v e m e d i a , c r e a t i v e i n v e n t i v e n e s s is no l o n g e r i n d i v i d u a l , it is i m m e d i a t e l y c o l l e c t i v i z e d , p a r t of the " c o m m o n s , " so a n y ÎS7

U N i ^ c r c i N i E ui- L<JSI CAUSES

a t t e m p t to p r i v a t i z e it t h r o u g h c o p y r i g h t i n g is p r o b l e m a t i c — m o r e a n d m o r e l i t e r a l l y , " p r o p e r t y is theft" h e r e . S o w h a t a b o u t a c o m p a n y l i k e Microsoft

w h i c h does precisely this — organizing and exploiting

the

c o l l e c t i v e s y n e r g y of c r e a t i v e c o g n i t i v e s i n g u l a r i t i e s ? T h e o n l y r e m a i n i n g t a s k i s t h u s to c o n c e i v e of h o w c o g n i t i v e w o r k e r s w i l l " b e a b l e to b l o w t h e bosses a w a y , because the industrial command

of c o g n i t i v e l a b o r i s

c o m p l e t e l y dépiuidé."'^'^ W h a t n e w s o c i a l m o v e m e n t s s i g n a l is t h a t

t h e e p o c h of w a g e - l a b o r i s f i n i s h e d , a n d t h a t t h e s t r u g g l e h a s m o v e d from t h e l e v e l of a fight b e t w e e n l a b o r a n d c a p i t a l r e g a r d i n g t h e w a g e to a fight b e t w e e n t h e m u l t i t u d e a n d t h e s t a t e a r o u n d t h e c i t i z e n ' s

44 mcome. T h e r e i n r e s i d e s t h e b a s i c f e a t u r e of " t o d a y ' s s o c i a l r e v o l u t i o n a r y t r a n s i ­ t i o n " : " T h e r e i s t h e n e e d t o m a k e c a p i t a l a w a r e of t h e c o m m o n g o o d , a n d i f it d o e s n ' t w a n t to u n d e r s t a n d it, it is n e c e s s a r y to i m p o s e i t . " ' ( N o t e N e g r i ' s p r e c i s e f o r m u l a t i o n : not a b o l i s h c a p i t a l , b u t c o m p e l it to r e c o g ­ n i z e t h e c o m m o n g o o d — o n e r e m a i n s t h u s within c a p i t a l i s m . ) F r o m this brief description, one can see the p r o x i m i t y a s w e l l as the d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n M a r x a n d N e g r i . W h a t is not In M a r x , w h a t N e g r i projects onto M a r x ' s "general intellect," is his o w n central notion

of

" b i o p o l i t i c s " a s t h e d i r e c t p r o d u c t i o n of life Itself in its social d i m e n s i o n . W h e r e Negri sees a direct o b j e c t s of p r o d u c t i o n

(with "cognitive w o r k , " the ultimate

a r e social r e l a t i o n s t h e m s e l v e s ) , M a r x p o s i t s a

r a d i c a l gap, t h e e x c l u s i o n of t h e w o r k e r from t h e p r o d u c t i o n M a r x e n v i s a g e s a fully a u t o m a t e d worker

" s t e p s to

one

side" and

production is r e d u c e d

process:

process in w h i c h to its " w a t c h m a n

the and

r e g u l a t o r " ; w h a t t h i s u n e q u i v o c a l l y m e a n s i s t h a t the u n d e r l y i n g l o g i c i s h e r e t h a t of t h e " C u n n i n g of R e a s o n " : i n s t e a d of e n g a g i n g h i m s e l f d i r e c t l y in the p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s , m a n s t e p s a s i d e a n d l e t s n a t u r e w o r k u p o n itself. W h e n t h e w o r k e r n o l o n g e r " i n s e r t s a m o d i f i e d n a t u r a l t h i n g a s middle link b e t w e e n the object a n d himself," that is, w h e n he no longer u s e s tools to w o r k on t h e o b j e c t s h e w a n t s to t r a n s f o r m ; w h e n . Instead, h e " i n s e r t s t h e p r o c e s s of n a t u r e , t r a n s f o r m e d Into a n i n d u s t r i a l p r o c e s s , a s a m e a n s b e t w e e n h i m s e l f a n d i n o r g a n i c n a t u r e , m a s t e r i n g it, " h e t u r n s i n t o a wise manipulator,

regulating the production

p r o c e s s from

a

safe

d i s t a n c e . M a r x ' s s y s t e m a t i c u s e of t h e s i n g u l a r ( " m a n , " t h e " w o r k e r " ) is a k e y I n d i c a t o r of h o w t h e " g e n e r a l i n t e l l e c t " i s not i n t e r s u b j e c t i v e , it i s " m o n o l o g i c a l . " T h i s i s w h y , in t h i s M a r x i a n vision, the o b j e c t s of t h e 358

THE C R I S I S O F D E T E R M I N A T E N E G A T I O N

production

p r o c e s s a r e p r e c i s e l y not s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s t h e m s e l v e s : t h e

" a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h i n g s " ( c o n t r o l of a n d d o m i n a t i o n o v e r n a t u r e ) i s h e r e s e p a r a t e d from t h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n p e o p l e , it c o n s t i t u t e s a d o m a i n of t h e " a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h i n g s " w h i c h n o l o n g e r h a s to r e l y o n t h e domination over people. F r o m a " p o s t m o d e r n " v i e w , it w o u l d b e t e m p t i n g to r e a d t h i s d i s ­ crepancy between M a r x a n d Negri remained

a s a n i n d i c a t i o n of h o w M a r x

s t u c k i n t h e " o l d p a r a d i g m " of c e n t r a l i z e d

"instrumental

r e a s o n " w h i c h c o n t r o l s a n d r e g u l a t e s t h e p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s from t h e o u t s i d e ; h o w e v e r , t h e r e i s a l s o a m o m e n t of t r u t h i n M a r x ' s d e s c r i p t i o n which is obfuscated production

process.

b y N e g r i : t h e r e m a i n i n g r a d i c a l duality of t h e T o d a y , t h i s d u a l i t y h a s a c q u i r e d a form

which

w a s not e n v i s a g e d b y M a r x : t h e " k i n g d o m of f r e e d o m , " t h e d o m a i n of " c o g n i t i v e w o r k , " a n d t h e " k i n g d o m of n e c e s s i t y , " t h e d o m a i n of m a t e r i a l p r o d u c t i o n , a r e p h y s i c a l l y s e p a r a t e d , often e v e n b y s t a t e b o r d e r s . O n t h e one side a r e the "postmodern" c o m p a n i e s that exemplify N e g r i ' s criteria (free c o m m u n i t i e s of " e x p r e s s i v e m u l t i t u d e s " w h i c h i m m e d i a t e l y p r o d u c e life-forms, a n d so o n ) ; on t h e o t h e r s i d e , t h e r e i s t h e m a t e r i a l p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s w h e r e full a u t o m a t i z a t i o n is far from a c h i e v e d , s o t h a t w e h a v e — often l i t e r a l l y on t h e o t h e r s i d e of t h e w o r l d — ^ s w e a t s h o p s w i t h a strict " F o r d i s t " o r g a n i z a t i o n of l a b o r , w h e r e t h o u s a n d s a s s e m b l e

computers

a n d t o y s , p i c k b a n a n a s o r coffee b e a n s , m i n e for coal or d i a m o n d s , a n d s o forth. T h e r e i s n o " t e l e o l o g y " h e r e , n o p r o s p e c t of s w e a t s h o p s b e c o m i n g g r a d u a l l y i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e free s p a c e of " c o g n i t i v e w o r k . " O u t s o u r c i n g being more rule than exception, the t w o sides do not even directly relate to e a c h o t h e r : t h e y a r e b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r , " m e d i a t e d , " p r e c i s e l y b y capital. F o r e a c h s i d e , t h e o p p o s i t e s i d e a p p e a r s a s C a p i t a l : for t h e c r o w d s in t h e s w e a t s h o p s , C a p i t a l is t h e p o w e r w h i c h , on b e h a l f of " c o g n i t i v e w o r k , " e m p l o y s t h e m to m a t e r i a l i z e i t s r e s u l t s ; for t h e " c o g n i t i v e w o r k e r s , " C a p i t a l i s t h e p o w e r w h i c h e m p l o y s t h e m i n o r d e r to u s e t h e i r r e s u l t s a s t h e b l u e p r i n t s for m a t e r i a l p r o d u c t i o n .

It i s b e c a u s e of t h i s d u a l i t y

n e g l e c t e d b y N e g r i t h a t C a p i t a l i s n o t y e t p u r e l y p a r a s i t i c , b u t still p l a y s a k e y r o l e i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of p r o d u c t i o n : it b r i n g s t h e t w o s i d e s together.

Negri In

Daiw

Negri is right apropos forums such a s Davos: they are the enlightened c a p i t a l i s t s ' " g e n e r a l i n t e l l e c t , " t h e s p a c e for f o r m u l a t i n g t h e i r g e n e r a l 359

IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S

i n t e r e s t , t h e s p a c e to " h s t e n t o o t h e r v o i c e s , " to confront e c o l o g y , p o v e r t y , a n d s o on, to e x p o u n d on p r o b l e m s of s p i r i t u a l i t y a n d t h e rest, -with a viewto c o m b i n i n g t h e s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t p o l l u t i o n a n d p o v e r t y , o r w h a t e v e r it m a y be, w i t h c a p i t a l i s m . T h i s r e a l l y i s " c o m m u n i s t c a p i t a l i s m " ; c a p i t a l i s m w h i c h t r i e s to i n c l u d e t h e c o m m u n i s t t o p i c of t h e e n d a n g e r e d

commons.

T h e v e r y fact of t h e i m p o r t a n c e of D a v o s F o r u m ( m u c h m o r e t h a n t h e old T r i l a t e r a l C o m m i s s i o n , i t s p r e d e c e s s o r ) , t h e neeà for a f o r u m l i k e D a v o s , is p r o o f of t h e c r i s i s of c a p i t a l i s m , of t h e t h r e a t of t h e c o m m o n s . D a v o s is t h e C o l l e c t i v e B r a i n of t h e E m p i r e , i t s " t h i n k t a n k . " N e g r i e v e n p r o p o s e d to D a v o s a s t r a t e g i c p a c t a g a i n s t t h e A m e r i c a n p r o j e c t : a l t h o u g h , in t h e long term, the multitude a n d D a v o s a r e enemies, in the short term, they s h a r e t h e i n t e r e s t of d e f e a t i n g t h e U S coup detat a g a i n s t t h e g l o b a l Empire.

A s t r a n g e l o g i c i n d e e d ! I n s t e a d of e x p l o i t i n g t h e i n c o n s i s t e n c y

ol t h e e n e m y , o n e h e l p s h i m e s t a b l i s h t h e m o s t effective form . . . T o p u t it in o t h e r w o r d s , w h a t if t h e v e r y i d e a of a " p u r e " E m p i r e w h i c h l e a v e s b e h i n d t h e n a t i o n - s t a t e form, a n d i n w h i c h t h e c a p i t a l i s t g e n e r a l i n t e l l e c t r u n s t h i n g s d i r e c t l y , is a n i m p o s s i b l e a b s t r a c t i o n ? W h a t if t h e r o l e of n a t i o n - s t a t e s i s i r r e d u c i b l e a n d c r u c i a l ( a n d , w i t h it, t h e t e m p t a t i o n of s o m e n a t i o n - s t a t e ( s ) to c a r t y o u t coup.i è'état a g a i n s t t h e E m p i r e ) , so t h a t t h e e x c e p t i o n — t h e e x c e s s i v e r o l e of a n a t i o n - s t a t e i n t h e E m p i r e — i s in fact t h e r u l e ? N e g r i h e r e i s n o t L e n i n i s t e n o u g h . T o p u t it in D e l e u z i a n t e r m s a l r e a d y evoked, Lenin's moment is the "dark precursor," the vanishing mediator, t h e d i s p l a c e d o b j e c t n e v e r i n its o w n p l a c e , b e t w e e n t h e t w o s e r i e s , t h e initial " o r t h o d o x " M a r x i a n s e r i e s of r e v o l u t i o n in t h e m o s t

developed

c o u n t r i e s , a n d t h e n e w " o r t h o d o x " s e r i e s of S t a l i n i s t " s o c i a l i s m in o n e c o u n t r y " a n d t h e n t h e M a o i s t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of t h e T h i r d W o r l d n a t i o n s w i t h t h e n e w w o r l d p r o l e t a r i a t . T h e shift from L e n i n to S t a l i n i s m is h e r e c l e a r a n d e a s y to d e t e r m i n e : L e n i n p e r c e i v e d t h e s i t u a t i o n a s d e s p e r a t e , u n e x p e c t e d , b u t a s s u c h o n e w h i c h h a d t o b e c r e a t i v e l y e x p l o i t e d for n e w p o l i t i c a l c h o i c e s ; vrith t h e n o t i o n of " s o c i a l i s m i n o n e c o u n t r y , " S t a l i n r e n o r m a l i z e d t h e s i t u a t i o n i n t o a n e w n a r r a t i v e of l i n e a r d e v e l o p m e n t in " s t a g e s . " T h a t i s to s a y , w h i l e L e n i n w a s fully a w a r e t h a t a n " a n o m a l y " had happened

(revolution in a country w h i c h does not have the pre-

s u p p o s i t i o n s for d e v e l o p i n g a s o c i a l i s t s o c i e t y ) , h e r e j e c t e d t h e v u l g a r e v o l u t i o n i s t c o n c l u s i o n t h a t r e v o l u t i o n h a d t a k e n p l a c e " p r e m a t u r e l y , " so t h a t o n e s h o u l d t a k e a s t e p b a c k in o r d e r to d e v e l o p a m o d e r n d e m o c r a t i c c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y , w h i c h w o u l d t h e n s l o w l y c r e a t e t h e c o n d i t i o n s for s o c i a l i s t r e v o l u t i o n , c l a i m i n g t h a t — t o r e f e r b a c k to t h e c r u c i a l p a s s a g e w e 360

THE CRISIS OF D E T E R M I N A T E N E G A T I O N

q u o t e d e a r l i e r — t h i s v e r y " c o m p l e t e h o p e l e s s n e s s of t h e s i t u a t i o n " offers " t h e o p p o r t u n i t y to c r e a t e t h e f u n d a m e n t a l r e q u i s i t e s of c i v i l i z a t i o n in a different w a y from t h a t of t h e W e s t E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s . " ^ ^ W h a t L e n i n is p r o p o s i n g h e r e i s e f f e c t i v e l y a n i m p l i c i t t h e o r y of " a l t e r n a t e h i s t o r y " : u n d e r t h e " p r e m a t u r e " d o m i n a t i o n of t h e force of t h e f u t u r e , t h e s a m e " n e c e s s a r y " h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s ( o f m o d e r n c i v i l i z a t i o n ) c a n b e ( r e ) r u n in a different w a y . P e r h a p s t h i s a t t i t u d e i s t o d a y m o r e r e l e v a n t t h a n e v e r : t h e s i t u a t i o n is "completely hopeless," with no clear "realistic" revolutionary perspec­ tive; b u t d o e s t h i s n o t g i v e u s a k i n d of s t r a n g e f r e e d o m , a freedom to experiment!

O n e h a s o n l y t o t h r o w a w a y t h e d e t e r m i n i s t i c m o d e l of

" o b j e c t i v e n e c e s s i t i e s " a n d o b l i g a t o r y " s t a g e s " of d e v e l o p m e n t ? h a s t h u s to s u s t a i n a m i n i m u m

of a n t i - d e t e r m i n i s m :

nothing

One i s ever

w r i t t e n off, in a n " o b j e c t i v e s i t u a t i o n " w h i c h p r e c l u d e s a n y a c t , w h i c h c o n d e m n s u s fully to b i o p o l i t i c a l v e g e t a t i o n . T h e r e is alwayd a s p a c e to b e c r e a t e d for a n a c t — p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e , t o p a r a p h r a s e R o s a L u x e m ­ b u r g ' s c r i t i q u e of r e f o r m i s m , it is n o t e n o u g h to w a i t p a t i e n t l y for t h e " r i g h t m o m e n t " o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n . If o n e m e r e l y w a i t s for it, it w i l l n e v e r c o m e , for o n e h a s t o s t a r t w i t h " p r e m a t u r e " a t t e m p t s r e s i d e s t h e " p e d a g o g y of t h e r e v o l u t i o n " — i n t h e i r

which-therein v e r y failure

to

a c h i e v e t h e i r p r o f e s s e d g o a l c r e a t e t h e ( s u b j e c t i v e ) c o n d i t i o n s for t h e " r i g h t " m o m e n t . R e c a l l M a o ' s s l o g a n "from d e f e a t to defeat, to t h e final v i c t o r y , " w h i c h e c h o e s in B e c k e t t ' s a l r e a d y - q u o t e d m o t t o : " T r y a g a i n . Fail again. Fail

better."

In t h i s p r e c i s e s e n s e , L e n i n w a s a B e c k e t t l a n amnt Li lettre: w h a t h e basically proposed

that the Bolsheviks should

do in the

desperate

s i t u a t i o n a t t h e e n d of t h e C i v i l W a r w a s n o t to d i r e c t l y

"construct

s o c i a l i s m , " b u t to fall better t h a n a " n o r m a l " b o u r g e o i s s t a t e . It h o l d s a l s o for t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y p r o c e s s that, to p a r a p h r a s e D e r r i d a ' s w e l l - k n o w n d i c t u m o n c e a g a i n , t h e c o n d i t i o n of i m p o s s i b i l i t y is t h e c o n d i t i o n

of

p o s s i b i l i t y : t h e c o n d i t i o n of i m p o s s i b i l i t y - R u s s i a n b a c k w a r d n e s s a n d i s o l a t i o n w h i c h m a d e s o c i a l r s m i m p o s s i b l e — is p a r t of t h e s a m e e x c e p ­ t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n w h i c h m a d e t h e first s o c i a l i s t r e v o l u t i o n p o s s i b l e . In o t h e r w o r d s , i n s t e a d of b e m o a n i n g t h e h i s t o r i c a l a n o m a l y of a r e v o l u t i o n in a n exceptional a n d " i m m a t u r e " situation

(with the expectation that the

r e v o l u t i o n w o u l d s t a r t in t h e m o s t d e v e l o p e d c a p i t a l i s t c o u n t r i e s ) , o n e s h o u l d b e a r i n m i n d t h a t r e v o l u t i o n n e v e r a r r i v e s "on t i m e , " w h e n t h e o b j e c t i v e social p r o c e s s g e n e r a t e s t h e " m a t u r e " c o n d i t i o n s for it — t h e p o i n t of L e n i n ' s f a m o u s n o t i o n of t h e " w e a k e s t l i n k i n t h e c h a i n " is, a g a i n , 361

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

t h a t o n e s h o u l d u s e t h e " a n o m a l y " a s a l e v e r to e x a c e r b a t e t h e a n t a g o n ­ i s m s so t h a t t h e y r e n d e r p o s s i b l e a r e v o l u t i o n a r y explosion."^^ N e g r i i s a l s o r i g h t to p o i n t o u t that, in t h i s n e w g l o b a l o r d e r , w a r s in t h e o l d s e n s e of t h e t e r m a r e l e s s a n d l e s s f e a s i b l e : w h a t w e r e f e r to a s " w a r s " a r e p o l i c e i n t e r v e n t i o n s of a " g l o b a l " s t a t e i n t o a n a r e a w h i c h is e x p e r i ­ e n c e d a s a t h r e a t to t h e g l o b a l o r d e r . W a r a n d p o l i t i c s a r e c o m b i n e d in m i l i t a r y " p o l i c i n g , " in i m p o s i n g o r d e r in a c h a o t i c a r e a . It i s , p a r a d o x i ­ c a l l y . B u s h ' s p o l i t i c s w h i c h h a s c o n t i n u e d t h e t r a d i t i o n of old w a r s , b e i n g a n a t t e m p t b y a n a t i o n - s t a t e to c a r r y o u t a coup d'étal a g a i n s t t h e E m p i r e , to s u b o r d i n a t e t h e E m p i r e . W i t h r e g a r d to the E m p i r e , it is t h e U S w h i c h is the " b a n a n a r e p u b l i c . " H e r e , h o w e v e r , N e g r i b e c o m e s a m b i g u o u s : on t h e o n e h a n d , h e is c l e a r t h a t t h e c a p i t a l i s t g e n e r a l i n t e l l e c t is, in t h e l o n g t e r m , t h e t r u e e n e m y ; on t h e o t h e r h a n d , a p r o p o s L u l a , h e s u p p o r t s the policies w h i c h aim at b r e a k i n g U S h e g e m o n y a n d at establishing a pluricentric global capitalism (the U S , E u r o p e w i t h , m a y b e , Russia, C h i n a a n d t h e F a r East, L a t i n A m e r i c a , a n d so o n ) . C o n t r a r y to m i s l e a d i n g a p p e a r a n c e s , t h e " A m e r i c a n c e n t u r y " i s o v e r a n d w e a r e a l r e a d y e n t e r i n g t h e p e r i o d of t h e f o r m a t i o n

of m u l t i p l e

c e n t e r s of g l o b a l c a p i t a l i s m . Is t h e fact t h a t , on h i s v i s i t to t h e U S i n A p r i l 2 0 0 6 , the C h i n e s e P r e s i d e n t w a s first t h e g u e s t of B i l l G a t e s not a s i g n of t h e s e n e w t i m e s ? S o , p e r h a p s , in t h i s n e w e r a , e a c h of t h e n e w c e n t e r s w i l l s t a n d for c a p i t a l i s m w i t h a s p e c i f i c t w i s t : t h e U S for

neoliberal

c a p i t a l i s m ; E u r o p e ( w i t h , m a y b e , R u s s i a ) for w h a t r e m a i n s of t h e w e l f a r e state; C h i n a for " E a s t e r n

V a l u e s " and authoritarian capitalism; Latin

A m e r i c a for p o p u l i s t c a p i t a l i s m . . . A f t e r t h e f a i l u r e of t h e U S a t t e m p t to i m p o s e itself a s t h e sole s u p e r p o w e r ( t h e u n i v e r s a l p o l i c e m a n ) , t h e r e is n o w t h e n e e d to e s t a b l i s h t h e r u l e s of i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s e local c e n t e r s in c a s e of c o n f l i c t i n g i n t e r e s t s . ' A l t h o u g h E m m a n u e l T o d d ' s v i s i o n of t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y g l o b a l o r d e r is clearly one-sided,

it i s difficult to d e n y its m o m e n t of t r u t h : t h a t t h e U S

is a n e m p i r e in d e c l i n e . Its g r o w i n g n e g a t i v e b a l a n c e of t r a d e

demon­

s t r a t e s t h a t t h e U S is t h e u n p r o d u c t i v e p r e d a t o r : it h a s to s u c k u p a n i n f l u x of 1 b i l l i o n d o l l a r s a d a y from o t h e r n a t i o n s to m e e t its c o n s u m p t i o n n e e d s a n d is, as such, the universal K e y n e s i a n c o n s u m e r that k e e p s the world economy running.

( S o m u c h for t h e a n t i - K e y n e s i a n

economic

i d e o l o g y t h a t s e e m s to p r e d o m i n a t e t o d a y ! ) T h i s i n f l u x , w h i c h i s effec­ t i v e l y l i k e t h e t i t h e p a i d to R o m e in A n t i q u i t y , r e l i e s on a c o m p l e x e c o n o m i c m e c h a n i s m : the U S is " t r u s t e d " a s t h e safe a n d s t a b l e c e n t e r , so t h a t a l l o t h e r s , from t h e o i l - p r o d u c i n g A r a b c o u n t r i e s to W e s t e r n E u r o p e 362

THE C R I S I S OF D E T E R M I N A T E N E G A T I O N

a n d J a p a n , a n d n o w e v e n C h i n a , i n v e s t t h e i r s u r p l u s profits in t h e U S . S i n c e t h i s " t r u s t " is p r i m a r i l y i d e o l o g i c a l a n d m i l i t a r y , n o t e c o n o m i c , t h e problem

for t h e

U S is h o w to j u s t i f y its i m p e r i a l r o l e — i t n e e d s

a

p e r m a n e n t state of w a r , so it h a d to i n v e n t t h e " W a r on T e r r o r , " offering itself a s t h e u n i v e r s a l p r o t e c t o r of a l l o t h e r " n o r m a l " ( n o n - " r o g u e " ) s t a t e s . T h e e n t i r e g l o b e t h u s t e n d s to function a s a u n i v e r s a l S p a r t a w i t h t h r e e c l a s s e s , n o w e m e r g i n g a s t h e First, S e c o n d , a n d T h i r d W o r l d s : ( 1 ) t h e U S a s t h e m i l i t a r y - p o l i t i c a l - i d e o l o g i c a l p o w e r ; ( 2 ) E u r o p e a n d p a r t s of A s i a and Latin A m e r i c a as the industrial-manufacturing region (crucial here are Germany

a n d J a p a n , the w o r l d ' s l e a d i n g e x p o r t e r s , p l u s

rising

C h i n a ) ; ( 3 ) t h e u n d e v e l o p e d rest, t o d a y ' s h e l o t s . In o t h e r w o r d s , g l o b a l capitalism has brought about a n e w general trend towards oligarchy, m a s k e d a s t h e c e l e b r a t i o n of t h e " d i v e r s i t y of c u l t u r e s " : e q u a l i t y a n d universalism are r a p i d l y d i s a p p e a r i n g as actual political principles . . . H o w e v e r , e v e n b e f o r e it h a s f u l l y e s t a b l i s h e d itself, t h i s

neo-Spartan

w o r l d s y s t e m i s b r e a k i n g d o w n : in c o n t r a s t to 1 9 4 5 , t h e w o r l d d o e s not n e e d t h e U S , it i s t h e U S w h i c h n e e d s t h e w o r l d . S i n c e t h e w o r l d of t o d a y is c o m p o s e d of too m a n y r e g i o n a l c e n t e r s w h i c h c a n n o t b e c o n t r o l l e d , t h e o n l y t h i n g t h e U S c a n d o to a s s e r t i t s e l f a s t h e g l o b a l m i l i t a r y p o w e r i s to e n g a g e in t h e a t r i c a l w a r s o r " c r i s e s " w i t h w e a k a d v e r s a r i e s ( I r a q , C u b a , K o r e a , I r a n . . . ) , not w i t h t r u e a l t e r n a t i v e c e n t e r s of p o w e r

(China,

R u s s i a ) . T h e v i o l e n t o u t b u r s t s of t h e r e c e n t B u s h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a r e t h u s not e x e r c i s e s in p o w e r , b u t r a t h e r e x e r c i s e s in p a n i c , i r r a t i o n a l pcuöaqed à L'acte^'' P e r h a p s , t h i s focus on t h w a r t i n g t h e U S coup d'etat a g a i n s t

Empire

a c c o u n t s for N e g r i ' s s t r a n g e e l e v a t i o n of L u l a a t t h e e x p e n s e of C h a v e z :

T h e r e d o e s n ' t e x i s t in L a t i n A m e r i c a a n a l t e r n a t i v e to t h e p o l i t i c a l project promised

b y L u l a a n d the

Brazilian PT. Now,

a b o v e all

r e c e n t l y , t h e B o l i v a r i a n V e n e z u e l a of [ H u g o ] C h a v e z w a s p r e s e n t e d a s a n a l t e r n a t i v e to t h e p r o j e c t of L u l a . B u t , it is o b v i o u s t h a t t h i s a l t e r n a t i v e i s p u r e l y i d e o l o g i c a l , v e r y a b s t r a c t . [. . . ] In V e n e z u e l a in p a r t i c u l a r t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p o l i t i c a l p o w e r a n d t h e c a p a c i t y of developing

economic-productive

a l t e r n a t i v e s still

s e e m s to

be

in

deficit.'^-'

S o w h a t a r e t h e s e a c h r e v e m e n t s of L u l a ' s ? N e g r i m e n t i o n s o n l y t w o : t h a t L u l a g o v e r n s in a d i r e c t d i a l o g u e w i t h the m o v e m e n t s , a n d t h a t h e is p r a c t i c i n g n e w m e a s u r e s ( p a y i n g off t h e I M F d e b t a n d so o n ) to e n s u r e 363

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s a u t o n o m y from ( i n t e r n a t i o n a l ) c a p i t a l ; N e g r i h i m s e l f a d m i t s t h a t t h i s g o a l of e s t a b l i s h i n g a n e w i n t e r n a t i o n a l e q u i l i b r i u m h a s p r i o r i t y o v e r t h e s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t s o c i a l inequalities.^'^ S o w h a t w i l l h a p p e n w h e n t h e U S coup d'etat i s d e f e a t e d a n d t h e g e n e r a l Intellect w i l l r u n t h e E m p i r e ? H e r e e n t e r s a n o t h e r w e i r d f e a t u r e , N e g r i ' s unexpected

Eurocentrism:

In a s u b s e q u e n t p e r i o d , w h e n g l o b a l m u l t i l a t e r a l i s m i s s t a b i l i z e d a n d aristocratic global representations

a r e determined on a

continental

basis, Europe will become the only democratic mediator within this n e w global constitution.

W e need

E u r o p e b e c a u s e of t h i s . [. . . ]

E u r o p e i s t h e o n l y o c c a s i o n for a p l u r a l i s t a n d democratic p u s h of r e a l and d y n a m i c transformation a t the global level.' '

T h e p r o b l e m h e r e is n o t E u r o c e n t r i s m

a s s u c h , b u t r a t h e r t h e l a c k of

conceptual justification: w h y , exactly, is only E u r o p e c a p a b l e of trigger­ i n g " a p l u r a l i s t a n d d e m o c r a t i c p u s h of r e a l a n d d y n a m i c t r a n s f o r m a t i o n at the gloval level"?

Deleuzt without Negri N e g r i ' s E u r o c e n t r i s m is d i s c e r n i b l e a l r e a d y in t h e o p p o s i t i o n

between

e x p r e s s i o n a n d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , on w h i c h h i s e n t i r e t h o u g h t i s b a s e d : t h e l o g i c of p o l i t i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n

( t h e s t a t e —or p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s — a s r e ­

p r e s e n t i n g p e o p l e ) v e r s u s t h e l o g i c of e x p r e s s i o n ( s o c i a l

movements

e x p r e s s i n g t h e free c r e a t i v i t y of t h e m u l t i t u d e ) . R e p r e s e n t a t i o n

deals

w i t h individuals w h o a r e " r e p r e s e n t e d " in the universal sphere, m a r k e d b y the g a p between their empirical particularity a n d their transcendental or legal universality; singularities a r e a t o m s w h i c h a r e d i r e c t l y interactive and productive, expressing their creative power. Philosophically, this means Descartes/Kant

versus Spinoza. (There are clearly discernible

e c h o e s h e r e of S a r t r e ' s n o t i o n of t h e " p r a t i c o - i n e r t , " d e v e l o p e d in h i s CritUjuc of Diakcikal

Rexuon^ T h e t h e o r e t i c a l p r o b l e m h e r e i s : c a n o n e

i m a g i n e a s o c i e t y fully o r g a n i z e d in t e r m s of e x p r e s s i o n of t h e m u l t i t u d e , a s o c i e t y of " a b s o l u t e d e m o c r a c y , " a s o c i e t y w i t h o u t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ? A s o c i e t y of p e r m a n e n t m o b i l i z a t i o n , a s o c i e t y i n w h i c h e v e r y o b j e c t i v e structure

is a d i r e c t e x p r e s s i o n of s u b j e c t i v e p r o d u c t i v i t y ? W h a t w e

e n c o u n t e r h e r e i s t h e old p h i l o s o p h i c a l l o g i c of B e c o m i n g v e r s u s B e i n g ( l i v i n g p r o d u c t i v i t y v e r s u s t h e sterility' of a n i n e r t s t r u c t u r e 364

of r e -

T H E C R I S I S OF D E T E R M I N A T E N E G A T I O N

p r e s e n t a t i o n ) , w h e r e e v e r y re-presentation is p a r a s i t i c a l u p o n p r o d u c t i v e expressivity. P e r h a p s o n e s h o u l d shift t h e a c c e n t h e r e : from " n o

representation

w i t h o u t e x p r e s s i v e p r o d u c t i v i t y " to " n o e x p r e s s i v e p r o d u c t i v i t y w i t h o u t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . " It i s s t r u c t u r a l l y i m p o s s i b l e to " t o t a l i z e " t h e m u l t i t u d e of m o v e m e n t s : " a b s o l u t e d e m o c r a c y , " t h e full a n d d i r e c t r e i g n of m u l t i t u d e , is a p e r s p e c t i v a l i l l u s i o n , a c o m p o s i t e i m a g e of t h e false o v e r l a p p i n g of t w o h e t e r o g e n e o u s d i m e n s i o n s . T a r k o v s k y ' s Solari) e n d s w i t h t h e d i r e c ­ t o r ' s a r c h e t y p a l f a n t a s y of c o m b i n i n g w i t h i n t h e s a m e s h o t t h e O t h e r n e s s i n t o w h i c h t h e h e r o is t h r o w n ( t h e c h a o t i c s u r f a c e of S o l a r i s ) a n d t h e o b j e c t of h i s n o s t a l g i c l o n g i n g , t h e h o m e d a c h a to w h i c h h e l o n g s to r e t u r n , t h e h o u s e w h o s e c o n t o u r s a r e e n c i r c l e d b y t h e m a l l e a b l e s l i m e of S o l a r i s ' s s u r f a c e — w i t h i n r a d i c a l O t h e r n e s s , w e d i s c o v e r t h e lost o b j e c t of our

innermost

longing. The

same fantasmatic

staging

concludes

T a r k o v s k y ' s Nodtalgia: in t h e m i d s t of t h e I t a l i a n c o u n t r y s i d e e n c i r c l e d b y t h e f r a g m e n t s of a c a t h e d r a l in r u i n s , t h a t i s , of the p l a c e in w h i c h t h e h e r o i s adrift, c u t off from h i s roots, t h e r e s t a n d s a n e l e m e n t t o t a l l y o u t of p l a c e , t h e R u s s i a n d a c h a , t h e stuff of t h e h e r o ' s d r e a m s ; h e r e , too, t h e s h o t b e g i n s w i t h a c l o s e - u p of o n l y t h e r e c u m b e n t h e r o i n front of h i s d a c h a , so t h a t , for a m o m e n t , it m a y s e e m t h a t h e h a s in fact r e t u r n e d h o m e ; t h e c a m e r a t h e n s l o w l y p u l l s b a c k to d i v u l g e t h e p r o p e r l y f a n t a s m a t i c s e t t i n g of the d a c h a against the b a c k d r o p

of t h e

Italian countryside.

This

c o n c l u d i n g f a n t a s y i s a n a r t i f i c i a l c o n d e n s a t i o n of o p p o s e d , i n c o m p a t i b l e p e r s p e c t i v e s , s o m e h o w l i k e t h e s t a n d a r d o p t i c i a n ' s test in w h i c h w e s e e t h r o u g h o n e e y e a c a g e , t h r o u g h t h e o t h e r e y e a p a r r o t , a n d , if o u r t w o eyes are well coordinated in their axes, w h e n w e open both eyes, w e s h o u l d s e e t h e p a r r o t in t h e c a g e . A n d w h a t if it i s t h e s a m e w i t h N e g r i ' s " a b s o l u t e d e m o c r a c y , " for t h e m u l t i t u d e d i r e c t l y r u l i n g i t s e l f ? W h a t if t h e g a p b e t w e e n t h e m u l t i t u d e a n d p o w e r is h e r e to s t a y ? T h i s d o e s not m e a n t h a t w e s h o u l d a b a n d o n D e l e u z e — w h a t w e s h o u l d abandon

is m e r e l y N e g r i ' s one-sided

appropriation

of D e l e u z e , a n

appropriation w h i c h leaves out the radical d u a l i t y o f D e l e u z e ' s thought. T h e r e a r e t w o i n c o m p a t i b l e o n t o l o g i e s at w o r k in D e l e u z e : t h e D e l e u z e w h o celebrates the productive

p o w e r o f the virtual

flow

is

forever

h a u n t e d b y t h e D e l e u z e w h o c o n c e i v e s t h e v i r t u a l flow o f s e n s e a s a s t e r i l e i m m a t e r i a l effect, p o s i t i n g a n i r r e d u c i b l e g a p b e t w e e n m a t e r i a l p r o d u c t i v i t y a n d t h e v i r t u a l flow of S e n s e . The elementary coordinates o f Deleuze's ontology are provided by the Opposition b e t w e e n the Virtual a n d a n d the Actual: the space of the actual 365

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

( r e a l a c t s in t h e p r e s e n t , e x p e r i e n c e d r e a l i t y , a n d s u b j e c t s a s p e r s o n s qua formed

individuals) accompanied

b y its v i r t u a l s h a d o w

( t h e field of

p r o t o - r e a l i t y , of m u l t i p l e s i n g u l a r i t i e s , i m p e r s o n a l e l e m e n t s l a t e r s y n t h e t i z e d i n t o o u r e x p e r i e n c e of r e a l i t y ) . T h i s is t h e D e l e u z e of " t r a n s c e n ­ d e n t a l e m p i r i c i s m , " t h e D e l e u z e w h o g i v e s to K a n t ' s t r a n s c e n d e n t a l h i s u n i q u e twist: the proper

transcendental

s p a c e i s t h e v i r t u a l s p a c e of

m u l t i p l e s i n g u l a r p o t e n t i a l i t i e s , of " p u r e " i m p e r s o n a l s i n g u l a r g e s t u r e s , affects, a n d p e r c e p t i o n s t h a t a r e not y e t t h e of a p r e e x i s t i n g , s t a b l e , a n d

gestures-affects-perceptions

self-identical subject.

T h i s is w h y ,

for

e x a m p l e , D e l e u z e c e l e b r a t e s t h e a r t of c i n e m a : it " l i b e r a t e s " t h e g a z e , i m a g e s , m o v e m e n t s , a n d , u l t i m a t e l y , t i m e i t s e l f from t h e i r a t t r i b u t i o n to a g i v e n subject—^when w e w a t c h a m o v i e , w e s e e t h e flow of I m a g e s from t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e " m e c h a n i c a l " c a m e r a , a p e r s p e c t i v e w h i c h d o e s not b e l o n g to a n y s u b j e c t ; t h r o u g h t h e a r t of m o n t a g e , m o v e m e n t i s a l s o a b s t r a c t e d / l i b e r a t e d from i t s a t t r i b u t i o n to a g i v e n s u b j e c t o r o b j e c t —it is a n i m p e r s o n a l m o v e m e n t w h i c h i s o n l y s e c o n d a r i l y , a podterwn, a t t r i b u t e d to s o m e p o s i t i v e e n t i t i e s . H e r e , h o w e v e r , t h e first c r a c k in t h i s edifice a p p e a r s : in a m o v e w h i c h is far from

self-evident,

Deleuze links this conceptual

s p a c e to

the

traditional opposition between production a n d representation. The vir­ tual

field

is ( r e ) i n t e r p r e t e d

a s t h a t of g e n e r a t i v e , p r o d u c t i v e

forces,

o p p o s e d to t h e s p a c e of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s . H e r e w e face a l l t h e s t a n d a r d t o p i c s of t h e m o l e c u l a r m u l t i p l e s i t e s of p r o d u c t i v i t y c o n s t r a i n e d b y t h e m o l a r t o t a l i z i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s , a n d so on a n d so forth. U n d e r t h e h e a d i n g of t h e o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n b e c o m i n g a n d b e i n g , D e l e u z e t h u s s e e m s to identify these t w o logics, although they are fundamentally incompatible (one is t e m p t e d towards

the

to a t t r i b u t e t h e " b a d " i n f l u e n c e w h i c h p u s h e d

second

l o g i c to

F é l i x Guattari"'^). T h e

proper

site

him ol

p r o d u c t i o n i s not the v i r t u a l s p a c e a s s u c h , but, r a t h e r , t h e v e r y pa^Lnige from

it to c o n s t i t u t e d

r e a l i t y , t h e c o l l a p s e of t h e m u l t i t u d e

and

its

oscillations into one r e a l i t y — p r o d u c t i o n is f u n d a m e n t a l y a limitation of t h e o p e n s p a c e of v i r t u a l i t i e s , t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n / n e g a t i o n of t h e v i r t u a l m u l t i t u d e ( t h i s i s h o w D e l e u z e r e a d s S p i n o z a ' s omni determinatw eöt negatio against Hegel). T h e l i n e of D e l e u z e p r o p e r is t h a t of t h e g r e a t e a r l y m o n o g r a p h s

(the

k e y o n e s b e i n g Difference and Repetition a n d The Logic of Sende) a s w e l l a s s o m e of t h e s h o r t e r i n t r o d u c t o r y w r i t i n g s ( l i k e Prou.)t and Signd a n d t h e Introduction to Sacher-Ma,wch). In h i s l a t e w o r k , it is t h e t w o c i n e m a b o o k s w h i c h m a r k t h e r e t u r n to t h e t o p i c s of The Logic of Seruie. T h i s s e r i e s i s to 366

T H E C R I S I S OF D E T E R M I N A T E N E G A T I O N

be d i s t i n g u i s h e d from t h e b o o k s D e l e u z e a n d G u a t t a r i c o - w r o t e , a n d o n e c a n o n l y r e g r e t t h a t t h e A n g l o - S a x o n r e c e p t i o n of D e l e u z e ( a n d , a l s o , t h e p o l i t i c i a l i m p a c t of D e l e u z e ) is p r e d o m i n a n t l y t h a t of a " G u a t t a r i z e d " D e l e u z e . It is c r u c i a l to n o t e t h a t not a s i n g l e o n e of D e l e u z e ' s o w n t e x t s is In a n y w a y d i r e c t l y p o l i t i c a l ; D e l e u z e "in h i m s e l f " w a s a h i g h l y e l i t i s t a u t h o r , i n d i f f e r e n t to p o l i t i c s . T h e o n l y s e r i o u s p h i l o s o p h i c a l q u e s t i o n is t h u s : w h a t I n h e r e n t i m p a s s e c a u s e d D e l e u z e to t u r n t o w a r d s G u a t t a r i ? Is Anti-Oedipiu, a r g u a b l y D e l e u z e ' s w o r s t b o o k , not the r e s u l t of e s c a p i n g the full c o n f r o n t a t i o n

of a d e a d l o c k v i a a s i m p l i f i e d " f l a t " s o l u t i o n ,

h o m o l o g o u s to S c h e l l i n g e s c a p i n g t h e d e a d l o c k of h i s Weltalter p r o j e c t v i a h i s shift to the d u a l i t y of " p o s i t i v e " a n d " n e g a t i v e " p h i l o s o p h y , or H a b e r m a s e s c a p i n g t h e d e a d l o c k of t h e " d i a l e c t i c of E n l i g h t e n m e n t " v i a his shift to the d u a l i t y of I n s t r u m e n t a l a n d c o m m u n i c a t i v e r e a s o n ? O u r t a s k i s to c o n f r o n t a g a i n t h i s d e a d l o c k . W a s , t h e r e f o r e ,

Deleuze

not

p u s h e d t o w a r d s Guattari because Guattari presented a n alibi, an easy e s c a p e from t h e d e a d l o c k of h i s p r e v i o u s p o s i t i o n ? D o e s

Deleuze's

c o n c e p t u a l s t r u c t u r e not r e l y on two l o g i c s , on two c o n c e p t u a l o p p o s i t i o n s , w h i c h c o e x i s t in h i s w o r k ? T h i s i n s i g h t s e e m s so o b v i o u s , s t a t i n g it so close to w h a t the F r e n c h c a l l a LipaVtMade, t h a t o n e is s u r p r i s e d it h a s not yet been generally perceived: First, on t h e o n e h a n d , the l o g i c of s e n s e , of i m m a t e r i a l b e c o m i n g a s t h e s e n s e - e v e n t , a s t h e effect of b o d i l y - m a t e r i a l p r o c e s s e s - c a u s e s , t h e l o g i c of the r a d i c a l g a p b e t w e e n t h e g e n e r a t i v e p r o c e s s a n d its i m m a t e r i a l s e n s e effect:

m u l t i p l i c i t i e s , b e i n g i n c o r p o r e a l effects of m a t e r i a l c a u s e s , a r e i m p a s ­ s i b l e o r c a u s a l l y s t e r i l e e n t i t l e s . T h e t i m e of a p u r e b e c o m i n g , a l w a y s a l r e a d y p a s s e d a n d e t e r n e J l y y e t to c o m e , f o r m s t h e t e m p o r a l d i m e n ­ sion of t h i s i m p a s s i b i l i t y o r s t e r i l i t y of m u l t i p l i c i t i e s .

A n d i s c i n e m a not t h e u l t i m a t e c a s e of t h e s t e r i l e flow of becoming? The

cinematic i m a g e is Inherently sterile a n d

surface

Impassive,

the p u r e effect of c o r p o r e a l c a u s e s , a l t h o u g h n o n e t h e l e s s a c q u i r i n g its pseudo-autonomy. S e c o n d , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e l o g i c of b e c o m i n g a s t h e production of Beings:

t h e e m e r g e n c e of m e t r i c o r e x t e n s i v e p r o p e r t i e s s h o u l d b e t r e a t e d a s a s i n g l e p r o c e s s in w h i c h a c o n t i n u o u s virtual jpacetlnie p r o g r e s s i v e l y 367

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

differentiates itself into actual discontinuous spatio-temporal

struc­

tures.^^ In, s a y , h i s a n a l y s e s of films a n d l i t e r a t u r e , D e l e u z e e m p h a s i z e s the d e s u b s t a n t i a l i z a t i o n of affects: in a w o r k of a r t , a n affect ( b o r e d o m , for i n s t a n c e ) i s n o l o n g e r a t t r i b u t a b l e to a c t u a l p e r s o n s , b u t b e c o m e s a freefloating

e v e n t . H o w , t h e n , d o e s t h i s i m p e r s o n a l i n t e n s i t y of a n affect-

event relate to bodies or p e r s o n s ? H e r e , w e e n c o u n t e r the s a m e ambi­ g u i t y : e i t h e r t h i s i m m a t e r i a l affect i s g e n e r a t e d b y i n t e r a c t i n g b o d i e s a s a s t e r i l e s u r f a c e of p u r e B e c o m i n g , o r it i s p a r t of t h e v i r t u a l i n t e n s i t i e s out of w h i c h b o d i e s e m e r g e t h r o u g h a c t u a l i z a t i o n ( t h e p a s s a g e from B e c o m ­ i n g to B e i n g ) . A n d , i s this o p p o s i t i o n

not, y e t a g a i n , t h a t of m a t e r i a l i s m v e r s u s

i d e a l i s m ? In D e l e u z e , t h i s m e a n s : The Logic of

Seiwe

v e r s u s Aiiti-OexHpiu.

E i t h e r t h e S e n s e - E v e n t , t h e flow of p u r e B e c o m i n g , i s t h e i m m a t e r i a l effect ( n e u t r a l , n e i t h e r a c t i v e n o r p a s s i v e ) of t h e i n t r i c a t i o n of b o d i l y material causes, or the positive bodily entities a r e themselves the product of t h e p u r e flow of B e c o m i n g . E i t h e r t h e infinite field of v i r t u a l i t y is an i m m a t e r i a l effect of i n t e r a c t i n g b o d i e s , o r t h e b o d i e s t h e m s e l v e s e m e r g e , a c t u a l i z e t h e m s e l v e s , from t h i s field of v i r t u a l i t y . In The Logic of

Se/ue,

D e l e u z e h i m s e l f d e v e l o p s t h i s o p p o s i t i o n in t h e g u i s e of t w o p o s s i b l e m o d e s of t h e g e n e s i s of r e a l i t y : t h e formal g e n e s i s ( t h e e m e r g e n c e of r e a l i t y o u t of t h e i m m a n e n c e of i m p e r s o n a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s a s t h e p u r e flow of B e c o m i n g ) i s s u p p l e m e n t e d b y t h e real g e n e s i s , t h e l a t t e r a c c o u n t i n g for t h e e m e r g e n c e of t h e i m m a t e r i a l e v e n t - s u r f a c e i t s e l f o u t of b o d i l y interaction. Is t h i s o p p o s i t i o n of t h e v i r t u a l a s t h e site of p r o d u c t i v e B e c o m i n g a n d t h e v i r t u a l a s t h e site of t h e s t e r i l e S e n s e - E v e n t not, a t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e o p p o s i t i o n of t h e " b o d y w i t h o u t o r g a n s " ( B w O ) a n d " o r g a n s w i t h o u t a body"

(OwaB)?

Is, on t h e o n e h a n d ,

the productive

flux

of p u r e

B e c o m i n g not t h e B w O , t h e b o d y n o t y e t s t r u c t u r e d o r d e t e r m i n e d a s functional

o r g a n s ? A n d , on the other hand, a r e the O w a B not the

v i r t u a l i t y of t h e p u r e affect e x t r a c t e d from i t s e m b e d d e d n e s s i n a b o d y , l i k e t h e s m i l e in A/ice in Wonderland t h a t p e r s i s t s a l o n e , e v e n w h e n t h e C h e s h i r e c a t ' s b o d y is n o l o n g e r p r e s e n t ?

"All

r i g h t , " s a i d t h e C a t ; a n d t h i s t i m e it v a n i s h e d q u i t e

slowly,

b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e e n d of t h e tail, a n d e n d i n g w i t h t h e g r i n , w h i c h r e m a i n e d s o m e t i m e after t h e rest of it h a d g o n e . " W e l l ! I've often s e e n 368

T H E C R I S I S OF D E T E R M I N A T E N E G A T I O N

a c a t w i t h o u t a g r i n , " t h o u g h t A h c e ; " b u t a g r i n w i t h o u t a c a t ! It's t h e most curious thing I ever s a w in m y life!" T h i s n o t i o n of e x t r a c t e d O w a B r e e m e r g e s f o r c e f u l l y in The Time-Image, in t h e g u i s e of t h e gaze^ itself a s s u c h a n a u t o n o m o u s

organ no longer

a t t a c h e d to a b o d y . T h e s e t w o l o g i c s ( E v e n t a s t h e p o w e r w h i c h g e n e r a t e s r e a l i t y ; E v e n t a s t h e s t e r i l e , p u r e effect of b o d i l y i n t e r a c t i o n s ) a l s o i n v o l v e t w o p r i v i l e g e d p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t a n c e s : t h e g e n e r a t i v e E v e n t of B e c o m i n g r e l i e s on t h e p r o d u c t i v e force of t h e " s c h i z o , " t h i s e x p l o s i o n of t h e u n i f i e d s u b j e c t i n t h e i m p e r s o n a l m u l t i t u d e of d e s i r i n g i n t e n s i t i e s , i n t e n s i t i e s t h a t are s u b s e q u e n t l y constrained b y the Oedipal matrix; the Event a s sterile, i m m a t e r i a l effect r e l i e s on t h e f i g u r e of t h e m a s o c h i s t w h o finds s a t i s f a c ­ tion i n t h e t e d i o u s , r e p e t i t i v e g a m e of s t a g e d rituals w h o s e function i s to p o s t p o n e f o r e v e r t h e s e x u a l pa^htage à l'acte. C a n o n e e f f e c t i v e l y i m a g i n e a s t r o n g e r c o n t r a s t t h a n t h a t of t h e s c h i z o t h r o w i n g h i m s e l f w i t h o u t a n y r e s e r v a t i o n i n t o t h e f l u x of m u l t i p l e p a s s i o n s , a n d of t h e

masochist

c l i n g i n g to t h e t h e a t e r of s h a d o w s i n w h i c h h i s m e t i c u l o u s l y s t a g e d performances repeat a g a i n a n d a g a i n the same sterile g e s t u r e ? S o , w h a t if w e c o n c e i v e D e l e u z e ' s o p p o s i t i o n

of t h e i n t e r m i x i n g of

m a t e r i a l b o d i e s a n d t h e i m m a t e r i a l effect of s e n s e a l o n g t h e l i n e s of t h e M a r x i s t opposition

of b a s e a n d s u p e r s t r u c t u r e ?

Is n o t t h e

flow

of

b e c o m i n g t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e par excellence — t h e s t e r i l e t h e a t e r of s h a d o w s o n t o l o g i c a l l y c u t off from t h e site of m a t e r i a l p r o d u c t i o n , a n d p r e c i s e l y a s s u c h t h e o n l y p o s s i b l e s p a c e of t h e E v e n t ?

The tension

between

D e l e u z e ' s t w o o n t o l o g i e s c l e a r l y t r a n s l a t e s i n t o t w o different p o l i t i c a l l o g i c s a n d p r a c t i c e s . T h e o n t o l o g y of p r o d u c t i v e B e c o m i n g c l e a r l y l e a d s to t h e leftist topic of t h e s e l f - o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e m u l t i t u d e of m o l e c u l a r groups w h i c h resist a n d u n d e r m i n e power—the

old n o t i o n

t h e m o l a r , t o t a l i z i n g s y s t e m s of

of t h e s p o n t a n e o u s ,

non-hierarchical,

living

multitude opposing the oppressive, reified system, the e x e m p l a r y case of leftist r a d i c a l i s m l i n k e d to p h i l o s o p h i c a l i d e a l i s t s u b j e c t i v i s m . T h e p r o b l e m is t h a t t h i s i s t h e o n l y m o d e l of t h e p o l l t i c i z a t i o n of D e l e u z e ' s t h o u g h t a v a i l a b l e : t h e o t h e r o n t o l o g y , t h a t of t h e s t e r l h t y of t h e S e n s e E v e n t , a p p e a r s " a p o l i t i c a l . " H o w e v e r , w h a t if t h i s o t h e r o n t o l o g y a l s o i n v o l v e s a p o l i t i c a l l o g i c a n d p r a c t i c e of its o w n , of w h i c h D e l e u z e h i m s e l f W a s u n a w a r e ? S h o u l d w e not, t h e n , p r o c e e d l i k e L e n i n i n 1 9 1 5 w h e n , in o r d e r to g r o u n d a n e w r e v o l u t i o n a r y p r a c t i c e , h e r e t u r n e d to H e g e l — n o t to h i s d i r e c t l y p o l i t i c a l w r i t i n g s , b u t , p r i m a r i l y , to h i s Litglcl W h a t if, i n the s a m e w a y , t h e r e i s a n o t h e r D e l e u z l a n p o l i t i c s to b e d i s c o v e r e d h e r e ? 369

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

T h e first h i n t in t h i s d i r e c t i o n m a y b e p r o v i d e d b y t h e a l r e a d y - m e n t i o n e d p a r a l l e l b e t w e e n t h e c o u p l e corporeal caïuied/imniaterialj'Lm of heconung a n d t h e o l d M a r x i s t c o u p l e ba^ehiuperjlructure: s u c h a p o l i t i c s w o u l d t a k e into a c c o u n t b o t h t h e i r r e d u c i b l e d u a l i t y of " o b j e c t i v e " m a t e r i a l / s o c i o - e c o n o m i c p r o c e s s e s t a k i n g p l a c e in r e a l i t y a s w e l l a s t h e e x p l o s i o n

of

r e v o l u t i o n a r y E v e n t s , of t h e p o l i t i c a l l o g i c p r o p e r . W h a t if t h e d o m a i n of p o l i t i c s i s I n h e r e n t l y " s t e r i l e , " t h e d o m a i n of p s e u d o - c a u s e s , a s h a d o w t h e a t e r , b u t n o n e t h e l e s s c r u c i a l in t r a n s f o r m i n g r e a l i t y ? W h a t this m e a n s is that one should accept the g a p b e t w e e n sterile virtual m o v e m e n t s a n d t h e a c t u a l i t y of p o w e r . T h i s s o l u t i o n i s m o r e p a r a d o x i c a l t h a n it m a y a p p e a r : o n e s h o u l d b e a r in m i n d t h a t v i r t u a l i t y s t a n d s for e x p r e s s i v e p r o d u c t i v i t y , w h i l e a c t u a l s t a t e p o w e r o p e r a t e s a t t h e l e v e l of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n : p r o d u c t i v i t y i s " r e a l , " t h e s t a t e i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e . T h i s is the w a y to b r e a k o u t of t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l p a r a d i g m of p r o d u c t i v i t y v e r s u s the p o s i t i v e o r d e r of B e i n g : t h e t r u e g a p i s n o t t h a t b e t w e e n r e a l i t y a n d its r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ; r e a l i t y a n d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a r e not o p p o s e d b u t on t h e s a m e s i d e , t h e y form t h e s a m e o r d e r of p o s i t i v e B e i n g . P r o d u c t i v i t y is t h u s not the m e t a p h y s i c a l p r i n c i p l e o r s o u r c e of r e a l i t y , to b e o p p o s e d to t h e m e r e a p p e a r a n c e of s u b s t a n t i a l B e i n g : s u b s t a n t i a l B e i n g is " a l l t h e r e r e a l l y i s , " w h i l e t h e c a u s a l i t y of p r o d u c t i v i t y i s a p s e u d o - c a u s a l i t y , s i n c e p r o d u c t i v i t y o p e r a t e s in a " s t e r i l e " s h a d o w y v i r t u a l d o m a i n . Is t h i s d u a l i t y not p r e f i g u r e d in t h e H e i d e g g e r i a n s t r u g g l e b e t w e e n W o r l d a n d Earth, w h i c h w e encounter, today, in the a n t i n o m y that defines our e x p e r i e n c e ? O n

the one hand, there is the

fluidification

( v o l a t i l i z a t i o n ) of o u r e x p e r i e n c e , its d e s u b s t a n t i a l i z a t i o n ; t h i s e x p o n e n t i a l l y e x p l o d i n g " l i g h t n e s s of b e i n g " c u l m i n a t e s in t h e c y b e r - d r e a m of t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of o u r v e r y i d e n t i t y a s a h u m a n b e i n g from h a r d w a r e to s o f t w a r e , to a p r o g r a m a b l e to b e r e l o a d e d from o n e to a n o t h e r h a r d w a r e . R e a l i t y is here virtualized, a n y failure can be u n d o n e b y r e w i n d i n g and h a v i n g a n o t h e r t r y a t it. H o w e v e r , t h i s v i r t u a l i z e d w o r l d in w h i c h w e d w e l l is t h r e a t e n e d b y t h e s h a d o w of w h a t w e u s u a l l y d e s i g n a t e a s t h e prospect

of e c o l o g i c a l c a t a s t r o p h e — t h e

imponderable

heaviness and

c o m p l e x i t y , t h e i n e r t i a of E a r t h c a t c h i n g u p , r e m i n d i n g u s of t h e f r a g i l e equiHbrium w h i c h forms the invisible b a c k g r o u n d foundation

of o u r

s u r v i v a l on E a r t h a n d w h i c h w e c a n d e s t r o y ( a n d t h u s d e s t r o y o u r selves)—through global w a r m i n g , through n e w viruses, through a gig a n t i c a s t e r o i d h i t t i n g t h e E a r t h . . . N e v e r in t h e h i s t o r y of h u m a n i t y w a s t h e t e n s i o n so p a l p a b l e b e t w e e n t h e u n b e a r a b l e l i g h t n e s s of o u r b e i n g (the m e d i a p r o v i d i n g us w i t h the strangest sensations w i t h a click, cutting 370

THE CRISIS O F D E T E R M I N A T E N E G A T I O N

t h r o u g h t h e r e s i s t a n c e of reaUty, p r o m i s i n g a " f r i c t i o n l e s s " w o r l d ) a n d t h e u n p r e d i c t a b l e b a c k g r o u n d of t h e E a r t h . A t t h e p o l i t i c a l l e v e l p r o p e r , is not N e g r i h i m s e l f on t h e t r a c k s of t h i s solution of a s s e r t i n g t h e i r r e d u c i b l e g a p w h e n h e p r o p o s e s t h e f o r m u l a of " g o v e r n a n c e " a s t h e t e n s i o n / d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n s t a t e p o w e r a n d t h e selfo r g a n i z e d m u l t i t u d e ' s m o v e m e n t s ? M a o w a s w e l l a w a r e of t h i s d u a l i t y , w h i c h i s w h y h e i n t e r v e n e d a t t h e c l i m a x of t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n , t v h e n t h e S h a n g h a i c o m m u n e a t t e m p t e d to g e t r i d of t h e party—state j ^ p p a r a t u s i t s e l f a n d r e p l a c e it w i t h c o m m u n a l s e l f - o r g a n i z a t i o n — s u c h a n o r g a n i z a t i o n , h e w a r n e d , is "too w e a k w h e n it c o m e s to s u p p r e s s i n g counter-revolutionwhen

it c o m e s to t h i s t h r e a t , o n e n e e d s p u r e a n d

raw power:

O f a l l i m p o r t a n t t h i n g s , t h e p o s s e s s i o n of p o w e r i s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t . S u c h b e i n g t h e c a s e , t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y m a s s e s , w i t h a d e e p h a t r e d for t h e c l a s s e n e m y , m a k e u p t h e i r m i n d s to u n i t e , form a g r e a t a l l i a n c e , a n d seize p o w e r ! Seize p o w e r ! Seize p o w e r ! ! ! All the p a r t y power, political p o w e r , a n d financial p o w e r u s u r p e d b y the counterrevolu­ tionary revisionists a n d those d i e h a r d s w h o persistently cling to the bourgeois r e a c t i o n a r y line must be recaptured.

T h i s I n t e r v e n t i o n b y M a o is u s u a l l y q u o t e d a s t h e proof of h i s r u t h l e s s m a n i p u l a t i o n of t h e R e d G u a r d s : h e o n l y n e e d e d t h e m t o c r u s h h i s o p p o n e n t s w i t h i n t h e p a r t y nonunklatura,

so that the m o m e n t this job w a s

d o n e a n d t h e G u a r d l s t s p e r s i s t e d , w a n t i n g to d i s s o l v e t h e p a r t y - s t a t e a p p a r a t u s a n d e f f e c t i v e l y t a k e it o v e r , h e i n s t r u c t e d t h e a r m y , t h e o n l y Stable s t a t e a p p a r a t u s still f u n c t i o n i n g , to i n t e r v e n e , c r u s h i n g t h e R e d G u a r d s ' r e s i s t a n c e a n d s e n d i n g m i l l i o n s of t h e G u a r d l s t s to t h e c o u n t r y ­ side to " r e e d u c a t e " t h e m . . . W h a t if, h o w e v e r , s u c h a r e a d i n g is a l l too s i m p l e a n d m i s s e s t h e p o i n t ? W h a t if M a o w a s a w a r e t h a t t h e v e r y flourishing

of m o v e m e n t s of t h e m u l t i t u d e a l w a y s - a l r e a d y h a d t o r e l y o n

s o m e didpo.iitif of P o w e r w h i c h s t r u c t u r e s a n d s u s t a i n s t h e v e r y s p a c e w i t h i n w h i c h t h e y o p e r a t e ? T o d a y , t h e m o v e m e n t s for g a y r i g h t s , h u m a n r i g h t s , a n d so on, a l l r e l y o n s t a t e a p p a r a t u s e s , w h i c h a r e n o t o n l y t h e a d d r e s s e e of t h e i r d e m a n d s , b u t a l s o p r o v i d e t h e f r a m e w o r k for t h e i r a c t i v i t y ( s t a b l e civil l i f e ) . T h e m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l r e p r o a c h to M a o is t h e s t a n d a r d o n e of t h e p o s t m o d e r n Left to t r a d i t i o n a l " L e n i n i s t " M a r x i s t s ; t h a t t h e y a l l focus on state p o w e r , on t a k i n g o v e r s t a t e p o w e r . H o w e v e r , t h e v a r i o u s s u c c e s s e s 371

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

in t a k i n g s t a t e p o w e r m i s e r a b l y f a i l e d in t h e i r g o a l s , so t h e Left s h o u l d a d o p t a different, a p p a r e n t l y m o r e m o d e s t , b u t in fact m u c h m o r e r a d i c a l s t r a t e g y : to w i t h d r a w from s t a t e p o w e r a n d focus on d i r e c t l y t r a n s f o r m ­ ing t h e v e r y t e x t u r e of s o c i a l life, e v e r y d a y p r a c t i c e s w h i c h s u s t a i n the e n t i r e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . T h i s p o s i t i o n w a s g i v e n its m o s t e l a b o r a t e d form b y J o h n f i o l l o w a y : Change the World without Taking Power.^'^ T h e c o n ­ t i n u a l l y c o n t e s t e d s e p a r a t i o n of " d o i n g " ( h u m a n a c t i v i t y , l i v i n g l a b o r ) a n d "the d o n e " ( d e a d labor, c a p i t a l ) m e a n s that relations b e t w e e n people a r e r e d u c e d to r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h i n g s . T h e s o c i a l flow of d o i n g , w h a t H o l l o w a y t e r m s h u m a n " p o w e r - t o , " is b r o k e n b y " p o w e r - o v e r . "

Our

e v e r y d a y e x i s t e n c e i s a s e r i e s of s t r u g g l e s , h i d d e n a n d o p e n , v i o l e n t a n d s u p p r e s s e d , c o n s c i o u s a n d u n c o n s c i o u s . " W e a r e not a S l e e p i n g B e a u t y , a h u m a n i t y frozen in o u r a l i e n a t i o n u n t i l o u r p r i n c e - p a r t y c o m e s to k i s s us, w e l i v e r a t h e r i n c o n s t a n t s t r u g g l e to free o u r s e l v e s I r o m t h e c u r s e . " ' ' ^ Any

r a d i c a l s o c i a l c h a n g e m u s t t h e r e f o r e b e a n t i - f e t i s h i s t i c in its a p ­

p r o a c h , b u t t h e v e r y o p p o s i t e of f e t i s h i s m is p r e c i s e l y t h e " d a r k v o i d " w h i c h c a n n o t b e s e e n or p l o t t e d , t h e p a t h w e m a k e b y t r e a d i n g , the q u e s t i o n s w e a s k in a s k i n g itself. T h e r e i s a m o m e n t of t r u t h in t h i s a p p r o a c h — t h i s t r u t h i s t h e t r u t h first g i v e n its c l a s s i c f o r m u l a t i o n b y L a B o e t i e in h i s t r e a t i s e on v o l u n t a r y s e r v i t u d e : o u r p a s s i v e e n d u r e m e n t of p o w e r c o n s t i t u t e s it, w e d o not o b e y a n d i e a r p o w e r b e c a u s e it i s in i t s e l f so p o w e r f u l ; on t h e c o n t r a r y , p o w e r a p p e a r s p o w e r f u l b e c a u s e w e t r e a t it a s s u c h . T h i s fact o p e n s u p t h e s p a c e for a m a g i c a l p a s s i v e r e v o l u t i o n w h i c h , i n s t e a d of d i r e c t l y c o n f r o n t i n g p o w e r , g r a d u a l l y u n d e r m i n e s it t h r o u g h t h e s u b t e r r a n e a n d i g g i n g of t h e m o l e , t h r o u g h a b s t a i n i n g from p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e e v e r y d a y r i t u a l s a n d p r a c t i c e s t h a t s u s t a i n it. In a w a y , w a s M a h a t m a G a n d h i not

doing

e x a c t l y t h i s , w h e n h e l e d t h e a n t i - B r i t i s h r e s i s t a n c e in I n d i a ? I n s t e a d of d i r e c t l y a t t a c k i n g t h e c o l o n i a l s t a t e , h e o r g a n i z e d m o v e m e n t s of civil d i s o b e d i e n c e , of b o y c o t t i n g B r i t i s h p r o d u c t s , of c r e a t i n g a s o c i a l s p a c e o u t s i d e t h e s c o p e of the c o l o n i a l s t a t e . A n o t h e r field of s u c h u n d e r m i n i n g of t h e r u l e of c a p i t a l i s c o n s u m e r s ' s e l f - o r g a n i z a t i o n . O n this v i e w , o n e s h o u l d d r o p the t r a d i t i o n a l leftist p r i v i l e g i n g of p r o d u c t i o n a s t h e o n l y s u b s t a n t i a l r e a l i t y of s o c i a l life: t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e w o r k e r - p r o d u c e r a n d t h a t of c o n s u m e r s h o u l d b e s u s ­ t a i n e d a s i r r e d u c i b l e in t h e i r d i v e r g e n c e , w i t h o u t p r i v i l e g i n g o n e a s the " d e e p e r t r u t h " of t h e o t h e r . V a l u e i s c r e a t e d in t h e p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s ; h o w e v e r , it is, a s it w e r e , c r e a t e d t h e r e o n l y p o t e n t i a l l y , s i n c e it i s o n l y actualized a s v a l u e w h e n t h e p r o d u c e d c o m m o d i t y ' i s sold a n d t h e c i r c l e 372

THE CRISIS OF D E T E R M I N A T E N E G A T I O N

J V i - C - M ' is t h u s c o m p l e t e d . C r u c i a l is t h i s t e m p o r a l gap b e t w e e n t h e p r o d u c t i o n of v a l u e a n d its a c t u a l i z a t i o n : e v e n if v a l u e i s p r o d u c e d in p r o d u c t i o n , w i t h o u t t h e s u c c e s s f u l c o m p l e t i o n of t h e p r o c e s s of c i r c u l a ­ tion, t h e r e i s dtricto deiuti n o v a l u e — t h e t e m p o r a l i t y i s h e r e t h a t of t h e futur antérieur, i n o t h e r w o r d s , v a l u e " i s " n o t i m m e d i a t e l y , it o n l y " w i l l h a v e b e e n , " it i s r e t r o a c t i v e l y a c t u a l i z e d , p e r f o r m a t i v e l y e n a c t e d . In p r o d u c ­ tion, v a l u e is g e n e r a t e d " i n itself," w h i l e o n l y t h r o u g h t h e c o m p l e t e d c i r c u l a t i o n p r o c e s s d o e s it b e c o m e "for itself." T h i s i s h o w Kojin K a r a t a n i r e s o l v e s t h e K a n t i a n a n t i n o m y of v a l u e w h i c h LJ and id not g e n e r a t e d in t h e p r o c e s s of p r o d u c t i o n : it i s g e n e r a t e d t h e r e o n l y " i n itself." A n d it i s b e c a u s e of t h i s g a p b e t w e e n i n - a n d for-itself t h a t c a p i t a l i s m n e e d s formal democracy and equably:

W h a t p r e c i s e l y d i s t i n g u i s h e s c a p i t a l from t h e master—slave r e l a t i o n i s t h a t t h e w o r k e r c o n f r o n t s h i m a s c o n s u m e r a n d p o s s e s s o r of e x c h a n g e v a l u e s , a n d t h a t in t h e form of t h e p o s s e s s o r of m o n e y , in t h e form of m o n e y h e b e c o m e s a s i m p l e c e n t e r of c i r c u l a t i o n — o n e of i t s i n f i n i t e l y m a n y c e n t e r s , in w h i c h h i s s p e c i f i c i t y a s w o r k e r is e x t i n g u i s h e d .

W h a t t h i s m e a n s i s that, i n o r d e r to c o m p l e t e t h e c i r c l e of i t s r e p r o d u c ­ tion, c a p i t a l h a s to p a s s t h r o u g h t h i s c r i t i c a l point a t w h i c h t h e r o l e s a r e i n v e r t e d : " [ . . . ] s u r p l u s v a l u e is r e a l i z e d in p r i n c i p l e o n l y b y w o r k e r s in totality b u y i n g b a c k w h a t t h e y p r o d u c e . "

T h i s p o i n t i s c r u c i a l for

K a r a t a n i : it p r o v i d e s t h e k e y l e v e r a g e from w h i c h to o p p o s e t h e r u l e of c a p i t a l t o d a y : i s it n o t n a t u r a l t h a t t h e p r o l e t a r i a n s s h o u l d focus t h e i r a t t a c k on t h a t u n i q u e p o i n t a t w h i c h t h e y a p p r o a c h c a p i t a l from t h e p o s i t i o n of a b u y e r , a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , a t w h i c h it i s c a p i t a l w h i c h i s f o r c e d to c o u r t t h e m ? —

. . ] if w o r k e r s c a n b e c o m e s u b j e c t s a t a l l , it i s

o n l y a s consumers."^'^ Today,

t h i s k e y r o l e of c o n s u m p t i o n

has reasserted

itself in a n

u n e x p e c t e d w a y . R e f e r r i n g t o G e o r g e s B a t a i l l e ' s n o t i o n of t h e " g e n e r a l e c o n o m y " of s o v e r e i g n e x p e n d i t u r e , w h i c h h e o p p o s e s to t h e " r e s t r a i n e d e c o n o m y " of c a p i t a l i s m ' s e n d l e s s p r o f i t e e r i n g , t h e G e r m a n

post-humanist

p h i l o s o p h e r P e t e r S l o t e r d i j k p r o v i d e s t h e o u t l i n e s of c a p i t a l i s m ' s s p l i t from itself, its i m m a n e n t s e l f - o v e r c o m i n g : c a p i t a l i s m c u l m i n a t e s w h e n it c r e a t e s o u t of i t s e l f its o w n m o s t o p p o s i t e , t o t a l l y different

radical —and

t h e o n l y fruitful —

from w h a t t h e c l a s s i c a l Left, c a u g h t in i t s

rniserabilism, w a s able to d r e a m

about."

H i s positive mention

of

A n d r e w Carnegie shows the w a y : the sovereign self-negating gesture 373

IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S

of t h e e n d l e s s a c c u m u l a t i o n of w e a l t h i s to s p e n d t h i s w e a l t h o n t h i n g s b e y o n d price, a n d outside m a r k e t circulation: the public good, the arts a n d s c i e n c e s , h e a l t h , a n d so on. T h i s c o n c l u d i n g " s o v e r e i g n " g e s t u r e e n a b l e s t h e c a p i t a l i s t t o b r e a k o u t of t h e v i c i o u s c y c l e of e n d l e s s e x p a n d e d r e p r o d u c t i o n , of g a i n i n g m o n e y in o r d e r to e a r n m o r e m o n e y . W h e n he d o n a t e s h i s a c c u m u l a t e d w e a l t h to t h e p u b l i c g o o d , t h e c a p i t a l i s t selfn e g a t e s h i m s e l f a s t h e m e r e p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n of c a p i t a l a n d i t s r e p r o d u c t i v e c i r c u l a t i o n : h i s life a c q u i r e s m e a n i n g . It is n o l o n g e r j u s t reproduction

as an autotelic goal. Furthermore,

expanded

the capitalist

thus

a c c o m p l i s h e s t h e shift from eros to thynwd, from t h e p e r v e r t e d " e r o t i c " l o g i c of a c c u m u l a t i o n to p u b l i c r e c o g n i t i o n a n d r e p u t a t i o n . W h a t this a m o u n t s to is n o t h i n g l e s s t h a n e l e v a t i n g figures s u c h a s S o r o s or G a t e s to p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n s of t h e i n h e r e n t s e l f - n e g a t i o n of t h e c a p i t a l i s t p r o c e s s itself: t h e i r w o r k of c h a r i t y — t h e i r i m m e n s e d o n a t i o n s to p u b l i c w e l f a r e — is n o t j u s t a p e r s o n a l i d i o s y n c r a s y . W h e t h e r s i n c e r e o r h y p o c r i t i c a l , it is t h e l o g i c a l c o n c l u d i n g p o i n t of c a p i t a l i s t c i r c u l a t i o n , n e c e s s a r y from t h e strictly economic standpoint,

s i n c e it a l l o w s t h e c a p i t a l i s t s y s t e m to

p o s t p o n e its c r i s i s . It r e e s t a b l i s h e s b a l a n c e — a k i n d o l r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of w e a l t h t o t h e t r u l y n e e d y — w i t h o u t f a l l i n g i n t o a fatal t r a p : t h e d e s t r u c ­ t i v e l o g i c of r e s e n t m e n t a n d e n f o r c e d s t a t i s t r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of w e a l t h w h i c h c a n o n l y e n d i n g e n e r a l i z e d m i s e r y . It a l s o a v o i d s , o n e m i g h t a d d , t h e o t h e r m o d e of r e e s t a b l i s h i n g a k i n d of b a l a n c e a n d a s s e r t i n g thymod through sovereign expenditure, namely w a r s . . . This paradox signals a sad p r e d i c a m e n t of o u r s : c o n t e m p o r a r y c a p i t a l i s m c a n n o t r e p r o d u c e itself on its o w n . It n e e d s e x t r a - e c o n o m i c c h a r i l y to s u s t a i n t h e c y c l e of social reproduction.

Governance and nuweinentd E v e r y r e v o l u t i o n t h u s c o n s i s t s of t w o different a s p e c t s : f a c t u a l r e v o l u t i o n p l u s s p i r i t u a l r e f o r m , n a m e l y , a c t u a l s t r u g g l e for s t a t e p o w e r p l u s the v i r t u a l s t r u g g l e for t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of c u s t o m s , of t h e s u b s t a n c e of e v e r y d a y l i f e — w h a t H e g e l c a l l e d t h e " s i l e n t w e a v i n g of t h e S p i r i t , ' w h i c h u n d e r m i n e s t h e i n v i s i b l e f o u n d a t i o n s of p o w e r , so t h a t t h e formal c h a n g e is t h e final a c t of t a k i n g n o t e of w h a t h a s a l r e a d y t a k e n p l a c e , for o n e h a s o n l y to r e m i n d t h e d e a d form t h a t it i s d e a d , a n d it d i s i n t e g r a t e s . In h i s Phenomenology, a g a i n , H e g e l q u o t e s t h e f a m o u s p a s s a g e

from

D i d e r o t ' s Nephew of Rameau a b o u t t h e " s i l e n t , c e a s e l e s s w e a v i n g of t h e S p i r i t i n t h e s i m p l e i n w a r d n e s s of its s u b s t a n c e " : 374

THE C R I S I S OF D E T E R M I N A T E N E G A T I O N

[. . . ] it i n f i l t r a t e s t h e noble p a r t s t h r o u g h a n d t h r o u g h a n d soon h a s taken

complete

possession

of a l l t h e v i t a l s a n d m e m b e r s

of t h e

u n c o n s c i o u s idol; t h e n " o n e fine m o r n i n g it g i v e s i t s c o m r a d e a s h o v e w i t h t h e e l b o w , a n d b a n g ! c r a s h ! t h e idol l i e s o n t h e floor." O n " o n e fine m o r n i n g " w h o s e n o o n i s b l o o d l e s s if t h e i n f e c t i o n h a s p e n e t r a t e d t o e v e r y o r g a n of s p i r i t u a l life.

T h i s , h o w e v e r , i s n o t H e g e l ' s final w o r d : h e g o e s on t o p o i n t o u t t h a t t h i s " S p i r i t c o n c e a l i n g i t s a c t i o n from itself, i s o n l y o n e s i d e of t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of p u r e insight": at the same time, being a conscious act, this Spirit "must g i v e i t s m o m e n t s a d e f i n i t e m a n i f e s t e x i s t e n c e a n d m u s t a p p e a r on t h e s c e n e a s a s h e e r u p r o a r a n d a v i o l e n t s t r u g g l e w i t h i t s a n t i - t h e s i s . " ' ' ' ' In t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o t h e N e w , t h e r e i s a p a s s i o n a t e s t r u g g l e g o i n g on, w h i c h i s o v e r o n c e t h e o p p o s i n g force n o t i c e s h o w i t s v e r y o p p o s i t i o n i s a l r e a d y i m p r e g n a t e d w i t h t h e o p p o n e n t ' s l o g i c . T h i s , t h e n , i s h o w w e a r e to r e a d t h e t w o a p p a r e n t l y o p p o s e d f e a t u r e s ( t h e p r i o r i t y of t h e form; t h e " s i l e n t w e a v i n g of t h e S p i r i t " ) t o g e t h e r : t h e l a t t e r d o e s n o t c o n c e r n c o n t e n t , b u t t h e form i t s e l f — a g a i n , i n t h e c a s e of a t e l e v a n g e l i s t p r e a c h e r , t h i s " s i l e n t w e a v i n g " u n d e r m i n e s h i s m e s s a g e a t t h e l e v e l of its o w n form ( t h e w a y h e delivers the message subverts its content). T h e l e s s o n of f a i l u r e s s u c h a s t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n i s t h a t t h e focus s h o u l d b e shifted from t h e Utopian g o a l of t h e full r e i g n of p r o d u c t i v e expressivity that no longer needs representation, state order, capital, a n d So forth, to t h e q u e s t i o n , " W h a t k i n d of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s h o u l d r e p l a c e t h e e x i s t i n g l i b e r a l - d e m o c r a t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s t a t e ? " Is N e g r i ' s p r o p o s a l of a " c i t i z e n ' s i n c o m e " n o t a n i n d i c a t i o n in t h i s s e n s e ? It i s a n i n s t i t u t i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e m e a s u r e ( n o t for homini Mcer, for full c i t i z e n s — i t i m p l i e s state r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ) ; it i s n o t l i n k e d t o a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s p r o d u c t i v i t y , b u t i s t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e condltwn

and framework

for o p e n i n g u p t h e p o s s i b l e

S p a c e of e x p r e s s i v e p r o d u c t i v i t y . N e g r i c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y s i t u a t i o n a s o n e of " p e r m a n e n t governance":

P o w e r IS b r o k e n i n t w o . In o r d e r t o b e r e a l i z e d , it n o l o n g e r h a s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of d e t e r m i n i n g a n o r m , t h e n e x e c u t i n g it s u b s e q u e n t l y i n a concrete

administrative

act. The norm

can't

be realized

without

c o n s e n s u s , w h i c h h a s t o b e s e e n a s t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n of s u b j e c t s .

I n c i d e n t a l l y , t h i s n o t i o n of " d u a l p o w e r , " of " g o v e r n a n c e " a s t h e i n t e r 375

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

a c t i o n b e t w e e n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e state p o w e r a n d c o u n c i l s of " e x p r e s s i v e " movements,

has a long tradition

on t h e Left — a m o n g o t h e r s , it w a s

a d v o c a t e d b y K a r l K a u t s k y in 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 , w h e n h e r e j e c t e d the e x c l u s i v e alternative

"either

the

national

a s s e m b l y or

s e e k i n g t h e i r i n t e g r a t i o n , w i t h e a c h of t h e m

the

council

assembly,"

fulfilling different

and

specific t a s k s :

T h e c o u n c i l s , K a u t s k y a r g u e d , o u g h t not to b e c h o s e n a s t h e sole form of e l e c t o r a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n

e v e n if t h e y e n j o y e d t h e s u p p o r t of the

m a j o r i t y of t h e p o p u l a t i o n , for t h e y w e r e d e f i c i e n t b o t h t e c h n i c a l l y a n d politically. To

opt

e x c l u s i v e l y for t h e

c o u n c i l form

would

be

to

i n t r o d u c e a s y s t e m b a s e d on w o r k p l a c e a n d o c c u p a t i o n , t h a t w o u l d e x a c t p a r t i c u l a r i s t a n d c o r p o r a t i s t t e n d e n c i e s . [. . . ] In p a r l i a m e n t a r y e l e c t i o n s to a n a t i o n a l a s s e m b l y , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , social i n t e r e s t s w e r e h o m o g e n i z e d a n d g r e a t p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s c a m e to t h e fore.'^^

T r o t s k y , t h e t a r g e t of K a u t s k y ' s c r i t i q u e , a d v o c a t e s t h e s a m e dualit:}' w h e n h e m a k e s a p l e a for t h e i n t e r p l a y b e t w e e n c l a s s s e l f - o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s h i p of t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y v a n g u a r d party.'^^ T h e m a i n form of d i r e c t d e m o c r a c y of t h e " e x p r e s s i v e " m u l t i t u d e in t h e twentieth century w e r e so-called councils ("soviets") — (almost) everyb o d y in t h e W e s t l o v e d t h e m , i n c l u d i n g l i b e r a l s s u c h a s H a n n a h A r e n d t w h o p e r c e i v e d in t h e m t h e e c h o of t h e a n c i e n t G r e e k life of t h e polit. T h r o u g h o u t t h e e p o c h o l " r e a l l y - e x i s t i n g s o c i a l i s m , " t h e s e c r e t h o p e ol " d e m o c r a t i c s o c i a l i s t s " w a s the d i r e c t d e m o c r a c y of t h e " s o v i e t s , " the l o c a l c o u n c i l s a s t h e form of s e l f - o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e p e o p l e ; a n d it is d e e p l y s y m p t o m a t i c h o w , w i t h t h e d e c l i n e of " r e a l l y - e x i s t i n g s o c i a l i s m , " t h i s e m a n c i p a t o r y s h a d o w w h i c h h a u n t e d it a l l t h e t i m e h a s a l s o d i s appeared^— i s t h i s not t h e u l t i m a t e c o n f i r m a t i o n

of t h e fact t h a t

the

c o n c r l i a r m o d e l of " d e m o c r a t i c s o c i a l i s m " w a s j u s t a s p e c t r a l d o u b l e ot " b u r e a u c r a t i c " " r e a l l y - e x i s t i n g s o c i a l i s m , " its i n h e r e n t t r a n s g r e s s i o n w i t h n o s u b s t a n t i a l p o s i t i v e c o n t e n t of its o w n , t h a t is, u n a b l e to s e r v e a s the p e r m a n e n t b a s i c o r g a n i z i n g p r i n c i p l e of a s o c i e t y ? W h a t b o t h " r e a l l y e x i s t m g s o c i a l i s m " a n d c o n c i l i a r d e m o c r a c y s h a r e d w a s t h e belief in t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a s e l f - t r a n s p a r e n t

organization

of s o c i e t y w h i c h

would

p r e c l u d e political "alienation" (state apparatuses, institutionalized rules of p o l i t i c a l life, l e g a l o r d e r , t h e p o l i c e , a n d so o n ) — a n d i s t h e b a s i c e x p e r i e n c e of t h e e n d of " r e a l l y - e x i s t i n g s o c i a l i s m " not p r e c i s e l y the r e j e c t i o n of t h i s éhareè f e a t u r e , the r e s i g n e d " p o s t m o d e r n " a c c e p t a n c e of 376

THE CRISIS OF D E T E R M I N A T E N E G A T I O N

t h e fact t h a t s o c i e t y i s a c o m p l e x n e t w o r k of " s u b s y s t e m s , " w h i c h is w h y a c e r t a i n l e v e l of " a l i e n a t i o n " is c o n s t i t u t i v e of s o c i a l life, s o t h a t a t o t a l l y self-transparent wonder,

s o c i e t y i s a Utopia w i t h t o t a l i t a r i a n potential?'^^ N o

t h e n , t h a t t h e s a m e h o l d s for t o d a y ' s p r a c t i c e s of " d i r e c t

d e m o c r a c y , " from

the favelas to "postindustrial" digital culture (do

t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h e n e w " t r i b a l " c o m m u n i t i e s of c o m p u t e r - h a c k e r s not often e v o k e t h e l o g i c of c o n c i l i a r d e m o c r a c y ? ) : t h e y a l l h a v e t o r e l y o n a s t a t e a p p a r a t u s , t h a t i s , for s t r u c t u r a l r e a s o n s , t h e y c a n n o t t a k e o v e r t h e e n t i r e field. Negri's motto "no g o v e r n i n g w i t h o u t m o v e m e n t s ' should therefore be c o u n t e r e d w i t h "no m o v e m e n t s w i t h o u t g o v e r n i n g , " w i t h o u t a state p o w e r s u s t a i n i n g t h e s p a c e for m o v e m e n t s . N e g r i d i s m i s s e s t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e - d e m o c r a t i c s y s t e m : " T h e p a r l i a m e n t a r y ' s y s t e m of r e p r e s e n t a tion h a s g o n e b a d — y o u c a n ' t d o a n j ^ h i n g t h e r e . W e n e e d to i n v e n t n e w things."

H o w e v e r , i n s o f a r a s " e x p r e s s i v e " m o v e m e n t s h a v e to r e l y on a

p r e s u p p o s e d G r o u n d , o n e c a n d e f e n d d e m o c r a c y (not the d i r e c t form, but precisely the representative form) a s providing the n e c e s s a r y Ground for t h e m o v e m e n t s ' e x e r c i s e of e x p r e s s i v e f r e e d o m : i t s a b s t r a c t - u n i v e r s a l formal c h a r a c t e r ( o n e p e r s o n o n e v o t e and s o o n ) is t h e o n l y a p p r o p r i a t e one for p r o v i d i n g s u c h a n e u t r a l g r o u n d . It i s t h e t e n s i o n b e t w e e n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e d e m o c r a c y and t h e " m o v e m e n t ' s " d i r e c t e x p r e s s i o n t h a t a l l o w s u s to f o r m u l a t e t h e d i f f e r e n c e between

a n o r d i n a r y democratic political p a r t y and the

"stronger"

( u p p e r - c a s e ) P a r t y ( a s in C o m m u n i s t P a r t y ) : a n o r d i n a r y p o l i t i c a l p a r t y fully a s s u m e s the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e function,

i t s e n t i r e l e g i t i m i z a t i o n is

p r o v i d e d by e l e c t i o n s , w h i l e the P a r t y c o n s i d e r s the f o r m a l

procedure

of d e m o c r a t i c e l e c t i o n s s e c o n d a r y a s r e g a r d s the r e a l p o l i t i c a l d y n a m i c s of m o v e m e n t s " e x p r e s s i n g " t h e i r force. T h i s , of c o u r s e , d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t t h e P a r t y l o o k s for i t s l e g i t i m i z a t i o n in m o v e m e n t s w h i c h a r e e x t e r n a l t o it; the P a r t y r a t h e r p e r c e i v e s / p o s i t s i t s e l f a s the m o v e m e n t s ' Selbàt-Aufhebung ( s e l f - s u b l a t i o n ) : it d o e s not n e g o t i a t e w i t h m o v e m e n t s , it is a m o v e m e n t t r a n s u b s t a n t i a t e d i n t o t h e form of p o l i t i c a l u n i v e r s a l i t y , r e a d y to a s s u m e full s t a t e p o w e r , a n d w h i c h , a s s u c h , ne /autorue

que de

lui-même. W h e r e d e m o c r a c y i s not e n o u g h i s w i t h r e g a r d to w h a t B a d i o u c a l l e d t h e c o n s t i t u t i v e e x c e s s of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o v e r the r e p r e s e n t e d . A t the l e v e l of t h e L a w , s t a t e p o w e r o n l y r e p r e s e n t s the i n t e r e s t s a n d so o n of i t s s u b j e c t s , it s e r v e s t h e m , it i s r e s p o n s i b l e to t h e m a n d is i t s e l f s u b j e c t e d to t h e i r c o n t r o l ; h o w e v e r , a t the level of the s u p e r e g o u n d e r s i d e , t h e p u b l i c 377

IN D E F E N S E OF L O S T C A U S E S

m e s s a g e of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a n d t h e r e s t is s u p p l e m e n t e d b y t h e o b s c e n e m e s s a g e of u n c o n d i t i o n a l e x e r c i s e of P o w e r : l a w s d o not r e a l l y b i n d m e , I c a n d o to y o u whatever I want, I c a n t r e a t y o u a s g u i l t y if I d e c i d e so, 1 c a n d e s t r o y y o u if I s a y so . . . T h i s o b s c e n e e x c e s s i s a necedJary c o n s t i t u e n t of t h e n o t i o n o l s o v e r e i g n t y ( w h o s e s i g n i f i e r i s t h e M a s t e r - S l g n i f i e r ) —the a s y m m e t r y is h e r e s t r u c t u r a l , t h a t is, t h e l a w c a n o n l y s u s t a i n its a u t h o r i t y if s u b j e c t s h e a r in it t h e e c h o of the o b s c e n e u n c o n d i t i o n a l s e l f - a s s e r t i o n . D e m o c r a c y p r e s u p p o s e s a m i n i m u m of a l i e n a t i o n : t h o s e w h o e x e r t p o w e r c a n o n l y b e h e l d r e s p o n s i b l e to t h e p e o p l e if t h e r e is a m i n i m a l d i s t a n c e of r e - p r e s e n t a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e m a n d t h e p e o p l e . In

"totahtar-

i a n i s m , " t h i s d i s t a n c e i s c a n c e l e d , t h e L e a d e r is s u p p o s e d to d i r e c t l y p r e s e n t t h e w i l l of t h e p e o p l e — a n d t h e r e s u l t i s , of c o u r s e , t h a t the ( e m p i r i c a l ) p e o p l e a r e e v e n m o r e r a d i c a l l y a l i e n a t e d in t h e i r L e a d e r : h e d i r e c t l y Lt w h a t t h e y " r e a l l y a r e , " t h e i r t r u e i d e n t i t y , t h e i r t r u e w i s h e s a n d i n t e r e s t s , a s o p p o s e d to t h e i r c o n f u s e d " e m p i r i c a l " w i s h e s a n d i n t e r e s t s . In c o n t r a s t to t h e a u t h o r i t a r i a n p o w e r a l i e n a t e d from its s u b j e c t s , the p e o p l e , h e r e t h e " e m p i r i c a l " p e o p l e , a r e a l i e n a t e d / r o m themMh'ed. T h i s , o l c o u r s e , in n o w a y i m p l i e s a s i m p l e p l e a for d e m o c r a c y a n d r e j e c t i o n of " t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m " : t h e r e w, on t h e c o n t r a r y , a m o m e n t of t r u t h in " t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m . " H e g e l h a d a l r e a d y p o i n t e d o u t h o w p o l i t i c a l r e p r e ­ s e n t a t i o n d o e s not m e a n t h a t p e o p l e a l r e a d y k n o w in a d v a n c e w h a t t h e y w a n t a n d t h e n c h a r g e their representatives w i t h a d v o c a t i n g their inter­ e s t s — t h e y o n l y k n o w t h e m " i n t h e m s e l v e s " ; it i s t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e w h o f o r m u l a t e s t h e i r i n t e r e s t s a n d g o a l s for t h e m , m a k i n g t h e m

"for-them-

selves." The "totalitarian" logic thus m a k e s explicit, posits "as such," a s p l i t w h i c h a l w a y s - a l r e a d y c u t s from w i t h i n the r e p r e s e n t e d " p e o p l e . " O n e s h o u l d not b e a f r a i d h e r e to d r a w t h e r a d i c a l c o n c l u s i o n

con­

c e r n i n g t h e f i g u r e of t h e l e a d e r : d e m o c r a c y a s a r u l e c a n n o t r e a c h b e y o n d p r a g m a t i c u t i l i t a r i a n i n e r t i a , it c a n n o t s u s p e n d t h e l o g i c of t h e " s e r v i c i n g of g o o d s " Çderviee dcd bletu"); c o n s e q u e n t l y , in t h e s a m e w a y t h a t t h e r e is no self-analysis, since the analytic c h a n g e can only occur through

the

t r a n s f e r e n t i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p o n t o t h e e x t e r n a l f i g u r e of t h e a n a l y s t , a l e a d e r IS n e c e s s a r y to t r i g g e r t h e e n t h u s i a s m for a C a u s e , to b r i n g a b o u t t h e r a d i c a l c h a n g e i n t h e s u b j e c t i v e p o s i t i o n of h i s f o l l o w e r s , to " t r a n s u b ­ s t a n t i a t e " t h e i r identity.'^^ W h a t t h i s m e a n s is t h a t t h e u l t i m a t e q u e s t i o n of p o w e r i s not " i s it d e m o c r a t i c a l l y l e g i t i m i z e d o r n o t " b u t : what Li the specific character (the "doc'uil content") of the "totalitarian exceed" that pertaind to dovereign power ad dach, independently of itd democrat^ or non-democratic character? It i s at this 378

T H E C R I S I S OF D E T E R M I N A T E N E G A T I O N

level t h a t t h e c o n c e p t of t h e " d i c t a t o r s h i p of the p r o l e t a r i a t " f u n c t i o n s : in it, t h e " t o t a l i t a r i a n e x c e s s " of p o w e r i s on t h e s i d e of t h e " p a r t of n o - p a r t , " not on

t h e s i d e of t h e

h i e r a r c h i c a l s o c i a l o r d e r —to p u t

it b l u n t l y ,

u l t i m a t e l y , t h e p e o p l e a r e in p o w e r in t h e full s o v e r e i g n s e n s e of t h e t e r m , in o t h e r w o r d s , it is not o n l y t h a t t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s t e m p o r a r i l y o c c u p y t h e e m p t y p l a c e of p o w e r , but, m u c h m o r e r a d i c a l l y , t h e y " t w i s t " t h e v e r y s p a c e of s t a t e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n in t h e i r d i r e c t i o n . O n e c o u l d a r g u e t h a t C h a v e z a n d M o r a l e s a r e c o m i n g c l o s e to w h a t c o u l d b e t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y form of t h e " d i c t a t o r s h i p of t h e p r o l e t a r i a t " : a l t h o u g h i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h m a n y a g e n t s a n d m o v e m e n t s , d r a w i n g on t h e i r support, their governments obviously have privileged links w i t h

the

d i s p o s s e s s e d of t h e f a v e l a s — C h a v e z is u l t i m a t e l y their p r e s i d e n t , they a r e t h e h e g e m o n i c force b e h i n d h i s r u l e , a n d a l t h o u g h

C h a v e z still

r e s p e c t s t h e d e m o c r a t i c e l e c t o r a l p r o c e s s , it is c l e a r t h a t h i s f u n d a m e n t a l c o m m i t m e n t a n d s o u r c e of l e g i t i m i z a t i o n i s not t h e r e , b u t in t h e p r i v i ­ l e g e d r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e p o o r . T h i s i s t h e " d i c t a t o r s h i p of t h e p r o l e ­ t a r i a t " i n t h e form of d e m o c r a c y . A c o n v i n c i n g s t o r y c a n be told a b o u t t h e h y p o c r i s y of the W e s t e r n Left w h i c h to a l a r g e e x t e n t i g n o r e s t h e s t r i k i n g " l i b e r a l r e n a i s s a n c e " t h a t is g o i n g on in I r a n ' s civil s o c i e t y : s i n c e t h e W e s t e r n i n t e l l e c t u a l r e f e r e n c e s of t h i s " r e n a i s s a n c e " a r e figures s u c h a s I T a b e r m a s , A r e n d t , a n d R o r t y — e v e n Giddens—^not t h e u s u a l g a n g of a n t i - i m p e r i a l i s t " r a d i c a l s , " t h e Left m a k e s n o fuss w h e n l e a d i n g figures of t h i s m o v e m e n t l o s e t h e i r j o b s a n d a r e a r r e s t e d , a n d s o on. W i t h t h e i r a d v o c a c y of t h e " b o r i n g " t o p i c s of t h e d i v i s i o n of p o w e r s , of d e m o c r a t i c l e g i t i m i z a t i o n , of t h e l e g a l d e f e n s e of h u m a n r i g h t s , a n d so forth, t h e y a r e v i e w e d w i t h s u s p i c i o n — t h e y d o not a p p e a r as sufficiently "antl-imperalist" a n d

anti-American.However,

one should nonetheless raise the more fundamental question; is b r i n g i n g Western

liberal d e m o c r a c y the

real solution

for g e t t i n g r i d of

the

r e l i g i o u s - f u n d a m e n t a l i s t r e g i m e s , o r a r e t h e s e r e g i m e s r a t h e r a symptom of l i b e r a l d e m o c r a c y i t s e l f ? W h a t to d o in c a s e s l i k e t h o s e of A l g e r i a or t h e P a l e s t i n i a n t e r r i t o r i e s , w h e r e a "free " d e m o c r a t i c e l e c t i o n b r i n g s "fun­ d a m e n t a l i s t s " to p o w e r ? W h e n R o s a L u x e m b u r g w r o t e t h a t " d i c t a t o r s h i p c o n s i s t s in t h e way in which d e m o c r a c y i s uM() a n d not i n i t s ahoiilum," h e r p o i n t w a s not t h a t d e m o c r a c y is a n e m p t y f r a m e w o r k

which can be used by

different

p o l i t i c a l a g e n t s ( H i t l e r a l s o c a m e to p o w e r t h r o u g h — m o r e o r l e s s —free d e m o c r a t i c e l e c t i o n s ) , b u t t h a t t h e r e is a " c l a s s b i a s " i n s c r i b e d i n t o t h i s v e r y e m p t y ( p r o c e d u r a l ) f r a m e . T h i s is w h y , w h e n r a d i c a l leftists c o m e to 379

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

p o w e r t h r o u g h e l e c t i o n s , t h e i r digue de reconnaudcince i s t h a t t h e y m o v e to " c h a n g e t h e r u l e s , " to t r a n s f o r m not o n l y t h e e l e c t o r a l a n d o t h e r state m e c h a n i s m s , b u t a l s o t h e e n t i r e l o g i c of t h e p o l i t i c a l s p a c e ( r e l y i n g d i r e c t l y on t h e p o w e r of m o b i l i z e d m o v e m e n t s ; i m p o s i n g d i f f e r e n t forms of l o c a l s e l f - o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d so o n ) , i n s h o r t , to g u a r a n t e e t h e h e g e m o n y of t h e i r b a s e , t h e y a r e in o r d e r g u i d e d b y a c o r r e c t i n t u i t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e " c l a s s b i a s " of t h e d e m o c r a t i c form.

380

8

Alain Badiou

O r , the Violence of Subtraction

Materialiini,

democratic and dialectical

In h i s Logiques dcö mondes, B a d i o u p r o v i d e s a s u c c i n c t d e f i n i t i o n

of

" d e m o c r a t i c m a t e r i a U s m " a n d its o p p o s i t e , " m a t e r i a l i s t d i a l e c t i c s " : t h e a x i o m w h i c h c o n d e n s e s t h e first i s "There ù nothing hut bodied and languages . . . " to w h i c h m a t e r i a l i s t d i a l e c t i c s a d d s ". . . with the exception of truthd." This opposition

is not so m u c h t h e o p p o s i t i o n

of t w o i d e o l o g i e s o r

philosophies as the opposition between non-reflected

presuppositions/

b e l i e f s i n t o w h i c h w e a r e " t h r o w n " insofar a s w e a r e i m m e r s e d i n t o o u r l i f e - w o r l d , a n d t h e r e f l e x i v e a t t i t u d e of t h o u g h t p r o p e r w h i c h e n a b l e s u s to s u b t r a c t o u r s e l v e s from t h i s i m m e r s i o n ^—to " u n p l u g " o u r s e l v e s , a s M o r p h e u s w o u l d h a v e p u t it in The Matrix,

a film m u c h a p p r e c i a t e d b y

B a d i o u , in w h i c h o n e a l s o finds a p r e c i s e a c c o u n t of the n e e d , e v o k e d b y B a d i o u , to c o n t r o l o n e s e l f ( w h e n M o r p h e u s e x p l a i n s to N e o t h e lot of o r d i n a r y p e o p l e t o t a l l y c a u g h t in [ " p l u g g e d i n t o " ] the M a t r i x , h e s a y s : " E v e r y o n e w h o is not u n p l u g g e d i s a p o t e n t i a l a g e n t . " ) . T h i s i s w h y B a d i o u ' s a x i o m of " d e m o c r a t i c m a t e r i a l i s m " i s h i s a n s w e r to t h e q u e s t i o n of o u r s p o n t a n e o u s ( n o n - r e f l e x i v e ) i d e o l o g i c a l b e l i e f s : " W h a t d o I t h i n k w h e n I a m o u t s i d e m y o w n c o n t r o l ? Or, r a t h e r , " w h a t is o u r ( m y ) s p o n t a n e o u s b e l i e f ? " F u r t h e r m o r e , t h i s o p p o s i t i o n is i m m e d i a t e l y l i n k e d to w h a t o n e ( o n c e ) c a l l e d t h e " c l a s s s t r u g g l e i n p h r l o s o p h y , " t h e o r i e n t a tion m o s t i d e n t i f i e d b y t h e n a m e s of L e n i n , M a o Z e d o n g , a n d A l t h u s s e r — l e t u s r e c a l l M a o ' s s u c c i n c t f o r m u l a t i o n : "It i s o n l y w h e n t h e r e i s class struggle that there can be philosophy." The ruling class (whose ideas a r e those

of t h e

ruling i d e a s ) is r e p r e s e n t e d

by

spontaneous

I d e o l o g y , w h i l e t h e d o m i n a t e d c l a s s h a s to fight its w a y t h r o u g h Intense c o n c e p t u a l w o r k , w h i c h i s w h y , for B a d i o u , t h e k e y r e f e r e n c e is h e r e Plato^—^not

t h e c a r i c a t u r a l P l a t o , the a n t i - d e m o c r a t i c p h i l o s o p h e r

a r i s t o c r a t i c r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t A t h e n i a n d e m o c r a c y , b u t the P l a t o

of

who 381

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

w a s t h e first to c l e a r l y a s s e r t t h e field of r a t i o n a l i t y freed from i n h e r i t e d beliefs. After

all the negative j u d g m e n t s

of t h e

"phono-logocentric"

c h a r a c t e r of P l a t o ' s c r i t i c i s m of w r i t i n g , it i s p e r h a p s t i m e to a s s e r t its p o s i t i v e , e g a l i t a r i a n - d e m o c r a t i c , a s p e c t : in the p r e - d e m o c r a t i c

despotic

state, w r i t i n g w a s t h e m o n o p o l y of t h e r u l i n g elite, its c h a r a c t e r w a s s a c r e d , "so it i s w r i t t e n " w a s t h e u l t i m a t e seal of a u t h o r i t y , t h e p r e ­ s u p p o s e d m y s t e r i o u s m e a n i n g of t h e w r i t t e n t e x t w a s t h e o b j e c t of b e l i e f par excdleiicc. T h e a i m of P l a t o ' s c r i t i q u e of w r i t i n g w a s t h u s d o u b l e : to d e p r i v e w r i t i n g of its s a c r e d c h a r a c t e r , a n d to a s s e r t t h e field of r a t i o n a l i t y freed from beliefs, in o t h e r w o r d s , to d i s t i n g u i s h logoé ( t h e d o m a i n of d i a l e c t i c s , of r a t i o n a l r e a s o n i n g w h i c h a d m i t s no e x t e r n a l a u t h o r i t y ) from mytho,i ( t r a d i t i o n a l b e l i e f s ) :

T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of P l a t o ' s c r i t i c i s m t h u s a p p e a r s : to remove from writing itd docred character. T h e w a y to t r u t h i s not w r i t i n g b u t d i a l e c t i c s , i.e. the s p o k e n w o r d w i t h i t s i m p l i c a t i o n of t w o or r a t h e r t h r e e p a r t i e s : t h e speaker, the listener and the l a n g u a g e t h e y share. W i t h his criticism, P l a t o , for t h e

first

t i m e in m a n ' s h i s t o r y , d i s t i l l e d the n o t i o n

of

r a t i o n a l i t y a s s u c h , free from a l l m i x t u r e w i t h belief.

T h e f u r t h e r p a r a d o x h e r e i s t h a t t h e n o t i o n of t h e p u r e s e l f - p r e s e n t V o i c e r e p r e s e n t e d / c o p i e d b y w r i t i n g , t h i s u l t i m a t e s u p p o r t of t h e " m e t a p h y s i c s of p r e s e n c e " t h a t is t h e o b j e c t of D e r r i d a ' s d e c o n s t r u c t i o n , product

of w r i t i n g : w h e n

philosophers

w e r e a t t a c k i n g the

i s itself a Platonic

p r i m a c y of s p e e c h o v e r w r i t i n g

t h e y w e r e c r i t i c i z i n g a b y - p r o d u c t of p h o n e t i c w r i t i n g . It i s s c a r c e l y p o s s i b l e to i m a g i n e a p h i l o s o p h y s u c h a s P l a t o n i s m e m e r g i n g m a n oral c u l t u r e . It i s e q u a l l y difficult to i m a g i n e it in S u m e r i a . H o w c o u l d a w o r l d of b o d i l e s s F o r m s b e r e p r e s e n t e d in p i c t o g r a m s ? H o w

could

a b s t r a c t e n t i t i e s b e r e p r e s e n t e d a s t h e u l t i m a t e r e a l i t i e s in a m o d e of w r i t i n g t h a t still r e c a l l e d the r e a l m of t h e s e n s e s ?

T h e p o i n t i s not j u s t t h a t s p e e c h i s a l w a y s - a l r e a d y a f f e c t e d / c o n s t i t u t e d

by

w r i t i n g , a n d so on, b u t t h a t s p e e c h b e c o m e s t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l W o r d , t h e e t h e r e a l / p u r e m e d i u m of self-affection, of s p i r i t u a l s e l f - p r e s e n c e , t h r o u g h " a b s t r a c t " p h o n e t i c w r i t i n g : p r i o r to p h o n e t i c w r i t i n g , s p e e c h is p e r c e i v e d a s a p r a c t i c e w h i c h i s p a r t of a c o m p l e x m a t e r i a l l i f e - w o r l d —it i s p h o n e t i c w r i t i n g t h a t " p u r i f i e s " it. ( T h e q u a h f i c a t i o n I a m t e m p t e d to a d d h e r e is 382

THE V I O L E N C E OF S U B T R A C T I O N

that, p e r h a p s , o n e s h o u l d n o n e t h e l e s s s u s p e n d B a d l o u ' s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e reticence apropos "dialectical m a t e r i a l i s m " a n d invert the

subject-pre­

dicate relationship between the two opposites: "materialist d e m o c r a c y " v e r s u s "dialectical m a t e r i a l i s m . " ) T h e r e is a more constrained

anthro­

p o l o g i c a l v e r s i o n of t h i s a x i o m : for d e m o c r a t i c m a t e r i a l i s m , "there u twthinq but individuaU and communities," to w h i c h m a t e r i a l i s t d i a l e c t i c s a d d s : "Iiuofar

cut there id a truth, a dubject dubtractd itdcif from all community

and dedtroyd alt individuation.""^ T h e p a s s a g e from t h e T w o to t h e T h r e e is c r u c i a l h e r e , a n d o n e s h o u l d b e a r in m i n d all of its P l a t o n i c , p r o p e r l y m e t a - p h y s i c a l , t h r u s t in t h e d i r e c t i o n of w h a t , prinui facie, c a n n o t b u t a p p e a r a s a p r o t o - i d e a l i s t g e s t u r e of a s s e r t i n g t h a t m a t e r i a l r e a l i t y is not a l l t h a t t h e r e i s , t h a t t h e r e i s a l s o a n o t h e r l e v e l of i n c o r p o r e a l t r u t h s . A l o n g t h e s e Imes, o n e i s t e m p t e d to s u p p l e m e n t B a d i o u in t w o w a y s . F i r s t , a r e not b o d i e s a n d l a n g u a g e s s y n o n y m o u s w i t h b e i n g , its m u l t i p l i c i t y , a n d w o r l d s ? T h e T h r e e w e a r e d e a l i n g w i t h is t h u s t h e T h r e e of b e i n g , w o r l d s , a n d t r u t h s : for d e m o c r a t i c m a t e r i a l i s m , t h e r e is o n l y t h e m u l t i p l i c i t y of b e i n g ( e n d l e s s l y differen­ tiated r e a l i t y ) and different w o r l d s — linguistic u n i v e r s e s — w i t h i n w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s a n d c o m m u n i t i e s e x p e r i e n c e t h i s r e a l i t y . ' Is t h i s not I n d e e d our spontaneous Ideology? T h e r e is an e n d l e s s l y differentiated, complex reality, w h i c h w e , the individuals and communities e m b e d d e d

in it,

a l w a y s e x p e r i e n c e from a p a r t i c u l a r , finite p e r s p e c t i v e of o u r h i s t o r i c a l w o r l d . W h a t democratic materialism furiously rejects is the notion that t h e r e c a n b e a n infinite u n i v e r s a l T r u t h w h i c h c u t s a c r o s s t h i s m u l t i t u d e of w o r l d s — i n p o l i t i c s , t h i s m e a n s " t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m " w h i c h I m p o s e s its truth a s universal. T h i s is w h y one should reject, say, the J a c o b i n s , w h o i m p o s e d t h e i r u n i v e r s a l n o t i o n s of e q u a l i t y a n d o t h e r t r u t h s on

the

p l u r a l i t y of F r e n c h s o c i e t y , a n d t h u s n e c e s s a r i l y e n d e d in t e r r o r . . . T h i s b r i n g s u s to t h e s e c o n d s u p p l e m e n t : t h e r e i s a n e v e n m o r e n a r r o w p o l i t i c a l v e r s i o n of t h e d e m o c r a t i c - m a t e r i a l i s t a x i o m : " A l l t h a t t a k e s p l a c e m t o d a y ' s s o c i e t y i s t h e d y n a m i c s of p o s t m o d e r n g l o b a l i z a t i o n , a n d t h e ( c o n s e r v a t i v e - n o s t a l g i c , f u n d a m e n t a l i s t , old leftist, n a t i o n a l i s t , r e l i g i o u s • • . ) r e a c t i o n s a n d r e s i s t a n c e s to i t " - t o w h i c h , of c o u r s e , m a t e r i a l i s t d i a l e c t i c s a d d s its p r o v i s o : ". . . w i t h t h e

e x c e p t i o n of t h e r a d i c a l -

e m a n c i p a t o r y ( c o m m u n i s t ) p o l i t i c s of t r u t h . " It i s h e r e t h a t t h e m a t e r i a l i s t - d i a l e c t i c p a s s a g e from t h e T w o to t h e T h r e e g a i n s a l l its w e i g h t : t h e a x i o m of c o m m u n i s t p o l i t i c s i s not s i m p l y t h e d u a l i s t " c l a s s s t r u g g l e , " b u t , m o r e p r e c i s e l y , t h e T h i r d m o m e n t a s the s u b t r a c t i o n from

t h e T w o of h e g e m o n i c p o l i t i c s . T h a t i s to s a y , t h e 383

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

h e g e m o n i c i d e o l o g i c a l field i m p o s e s on u s a field of ( i d e o l o g i c a l ) v i s i b i l i t y w i t h its o w n " p r i n c i p a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n " market-freedom-democracy

and

( t o d a y , it i s t h e o p p o s i t i o n

of

tundamentalist-terrorist-totalitarian-

i s m — " I s l a m o - f a s c i s m " a n d so o n ) , a n d t h e first t h i n g w e m u s t d o is to r e j e c t (to s u b t r a c t o u r s e l v e s f r o m ) t h i s o p p o s i t i o n , to p e r c e i v e it a s a false o p p o s i t i o n d e s t i n e d to o b f u s c a t e t h e t r u e l i n e of d i v i s i o n . L a c a n ' s f o r m u l a for t h i s r e d o u b l i n g is 1 + 1+a: t h e " o f f i c i a l " a n t a g o n i s m ( t h e T w o ) is a l w a y s s u p p l e m e n t e d b y a n " i n d i v i s i b l e r e m a i n d e r " w h i c h i n d i c a t e s its foreclosed

dimension.

In o t h e r t e r m s , t h e true

a n t a g o n i s m is a l w a y s

r e f l e x i v e , it i s the a n t a g o n i s m b e t w e e n t h e " o f f i c i a l " a n t a g o n i s m

and

t h a t w h i c h i s f o r e c l o s e d b y it ( t h i s is w h y , in L a c a n ' s m a t h e m a t i c s , 1 +1 = 3).

T o d a y , for e x a m p l e , t h e t r u e a n t a g o n i s m is n o t b e t w e e n

liberal

m u l t l c u l t u r a l i s m a n d f u n d a m e n t a l i s m , b u t b e t w e e n t h e v e r y field of t h e i r opposition a n d the e x c l u d e d Third (radical emancipatory politics). O n e i s e v e n t e m p t e d t o l i n k t h i s t h r e e s o m e to t h r e e different m e c h a n ­ i s m s of k e e p i n g a s o c i a l b o d y t o g e t h e r :

1. t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m a t r i x of a u t h o r i t y in w h i c h a c o m m u n i t y i s e s t a b ­ l i s h e d t h r o u g h s a c r i f i c e o r i s g r o u n d e d in s o m e p r i m o r d i a l c r i m e , so t h a t it is g u i l t w h i c h k e e p s t h e m e m b e r s t o g e t h e r a n d s u b o r d i n a t e s t h e m to a l e a d e r ; 2. t h e " i n v i s i b l e h a n d " of the m a r k e t , n a m e l y , a s o c i a l field in w h i c h , b y m e a n s of the C u n n i n g of R e a s o n , t h e v e r y c o m p e t i t i o n

among

i n d i v i d u a l s , e a c h f o l l o w i n g h i s or h e r e g o t i s t i c c o n c e r n s , r e s u l t s in a m y s t e r i o u s e q u i l i b r i u m w h i c h w o r k s for t h e g o o d of a\\; 3. t h e o p e n p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s of s o c i a l c o o p e r a t i o n in w h i c h d e c i s i o n s are

neither

outcome

m a d e b y the

supreme

of a b l i n d m e c h a n i s m ,

authority,

but

nor

are reached

are they

the

through

the

c o n s c i o u s i n t e r a c t i o n of I n d i v i d u a l s .

And,

furthermore,

do these three

modes

not

form

a k i n d of L é v i -

Straussian triangle? Both market liberalism a n d the properly democratic s p a c e of c i v i l p u b l i c a c t i o n a n d p l a n n e d s o c i a l c o o p e r a t i o n a r e m o d e s of societal self-organization, as opposed to externally imposed

authority.

H o w d o t h e s e t h r e e m o d e s r e l a t e to t h e t h r e e s o u r c e s of s o c i a l a u t h o r i t y : the authoritarian, the technocratic, the democratic? Technocratic author­ ity r e l i e s on q u a l i f i c a t i o n ( t h o s e w h o k n o w s h o u l d e x e r t a u t h o r i t y ) v e r s u s b o t h a u t h o r i t a r i a n a n d d e m o c r a t i c f o r m s of a u t h o r i t y , w h i c h l a c k q u a l ­ i f i c a t i o n s ( a k i n g r u l e s b e c a u s e h e w a s b o r n a k i n g , not b e c a u s e of h i s 384

T H E V I O L E N C E OF S U B T R A C T I O N

q u a l i t i e s ; in d e m o c r a c y , e v e r y o n e h a s t h e

right

to a s h a r e of p o w e r ,

i n d e p e n d e n t l y of w h a t h e o r s h e is or i s not a b l e to d o ) . O n the o t h e r h a n d , b o t h a u t h o r i t a r i a n a n d e x p e r t forms of a u t h o r i t y a r e s e l e c t i v e ( o n l y t h o s e w h o a r e q u a l i f i e d to r u l e — b y t h e i r position or e x p e r t i s e — s h o u l d r u l e ) , v e r s u s d e m o c r a c y in w h i c h e v e r y o n e s h o u l d r u l e . A n d , l a s t l y , b o t h democracy and technocratic

r u l e a r e in s o m e s e n s e e g a l i t a r i a n , ^ in

c o n t r a s t to t r a d i t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y w h e r e t h e w h o l e p o i n t is t h a t it is i m p o r t a n t who i s c l a i m i n g w h a t . T h e t w o t r i a d s o b v i o u s l y d o not d i r e c t l y overlap, w h i c h is w h y one can a r g u e that the triangle should be e x t e n d e d into a G r e i m a s i a n s e m i o t i c s q u a r e , s i n c e t h e t h i r d m o d e i s itself split b e t w e e n democratic self-organization p r o p e r a n d state p o w e r imposed from a b o v e o n t o s o c i e t y — " s e l f - m a n a g e m e n t v e r s u s b u r e a u c r a c y . " T h e t w o a x e s of t h e s e m i o t i c s q u a r e a r e t h u s c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t y ( t r a d i t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y ; s t a t e p o w e r ) v e r s u s s e l f - o r g a n i z a t i o n from b e l o w ( t h e m a r k e t , self-management), and external organization (symbolic authority,

the

m a r k e t ) v e r s u s d e m o c r a t i c organization ( m o d e r n state p o w e r , self-man­ agement.) T h i s a l l o w s u s a l s o to a p p r o a c h in a n e w w a y B a d i o u ' s c o n c e p t of t h e " p o i n t " a s t h e p o i n t of d e c i s i o n , a s t h e m o m e n t a t w h i c h t h e c o m p l e x i t y of a s i t u a t i o n i s " f i l t e r e d " t h r o u g h a b i n a r y d i s p o s i t i o n a n d t h u s r e d u c e d to a s i m p l e c h o i c e : all t h i n g s c o n s i d e r e d , a r e w e agaiiiat or for

(should w e

a t t a c k o r r e t r e a t ? s u p p o r t t h a t p r o c l a m a t i o n o r o p p o s e i t ? A n d so o n ) . W i t h r e g a r d to t h e T h i r d m o m e n t a s t h e s u b t r a c t i o n from t h e T w o of h e g e m o n i c p o l i t i c s , o n e s h o u l d a l w a y s b e a r in m i n d t h a t o n e of t h e b a s i c o p e r a t i o n s of h e g e m o n i c i d e o l o g y i s to enforce a faUe point, to i m p o s e on u s a false c h o i c e — a s w h e n , i n t h e " W a r on T e r r o r , " a n y o n e w h o d r a w s a t t e n t i o n to t h e c o m p l e x i t y a n d a m b i g u i t y of t h e s i t u a t i o n , i s s o o n e r o r later interrupted

b y a b r u t a l v o i c e t e l l i n g h i m : "OK,

e n o u g h of t h i s

m u d d l e — w e a r e in t h e m i d d l e of a difficult s t r u g g l e in w h i c h t h e fate of o u r free w o r l d i s at s t a k e , so p l e a s e , m a k e it c l e a r w h e r e y o u r e a l l y s t a n d : do y o u support freedom a n d d e m o c r a c y or n o t ? T h e

o b v e r s e of t h i s

i m p o s i t i o n of a false c h o i c e i s , of c o u r s e , t h e b l u r r i n g of t h e t r u e l i n e of d i v i s i o n — h e r e , N a z i s m is still u n s u r p a s s e d w i t h its d e s i g n a t i o n of t h e J e w i s h e n e m y a s t h e a g e n t of t h e " p l u t o c r a t i c - B o l s h e v i k p l o t . " In t h i s designation, the m e c h a n i s m is almost laid bare: the true

opposition

("plutocrats ' v e r s u s " B o l s h e v i k s , " that is, capitalists v e r s u s proletarians) i s h t e r a l l y o b l i t e r a t e d , b l u r r e d i n t o O n e , a n d t h e r e i n r e s i d e s t h e function of t h e n a m e " J e w " —to s e r v e a s t h e o p e r a t o r of t h i s o b l i t e r a t i o n . The

first

t a s k of e m a n c i p a t o r y p o l i t i c s i s t h e r e f o r e

to d i s t i n g u i s h 385

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

b e t w e e n " f a l s e " a n d " t r u e " p o i n t s , " f a l s e " a n d " t r u e " c h o i c e s , t h a t i s , to bring

back

choice —as,

the

third

element

whose

obliteration

sustains the

false

t o d a y , t h e false c h o i c e b e t w e e n " l i b e r a l d e m o c r a c y o r Isla­

m o - f a s c i s m " i s s u s t a i n e d b y t h e o c c l u s i o n of r a d i c a l - s e c u l a r e m a n c i p a t o r y politics. S o one s h o u l d be c l e a r h e r e in rejecting the d a n g e r o u s motto "the e n e m y of m y e n e m y i s m y f r i e n d , " w h i c h l e a d s s o m e to d i s c o v e r a " p r o g r e s s i v e " a n t i - i m p e r i a l i s t p o t e n t i a l in f u n d a m e n t a l i s t I s l a m i s t m o v e ­ m e n t s . T h e i d e o l o g i c a l u n i v e r s e of m o v e m e n t s s u c h a s H e z b o l l a h is b a s e d on t h e b l u r r i n g of d i s t i n c t i o n s b e t w e e n c a p i t a l i s t n e o - l m p e r i a l i s m a n d s e c u l a r p r o g r e s s i v e e m a n c i p a t i o n : w i t h i n t h e i d e o l o g i c a l s p a c e of H e z ­ b o l l a h , w o m e n ' s e m a n c i p a t i o n , g a y r i g h t s , a n d so on, a r e nothing but the " d e c a d e n t " m o r a l a s p e c t of W e s t e r n i m p e r i a l i s m . . . This, then, is w h e r e w e s t a n d today: the a n t a g o n i s m i m p o s e d on u s b y t h e s p a c e of t h e d o m i n a n t i d e o l o g y i s t h e s e c o n d a r y a n t a g o n i s m b e t w e e n (what Badiou calls) "reactive" and

" o b s c u r e " subjects, leading their

s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t t h e b a c k g r o u n d of t h e o b l i t e r a t e d E v e n t . W h a t o t h e r r e s p o n s e s to a n E v e n t a r e p o s s i b l e ? I n s t e a d of w i t h d r a w i n g from p o l i t i c a l e n g a g e m e n t , o n e s h o u l d r e m e m b e r the m o t t o that, b e h i n d e v e r y f a s c i s m , there is a failed revolution — this motto is w o r t h r e m e m b e r i n g especially today,

when

opposition

we

face w h a t

some

call

"Islamo-fascism."

Again,

of l i b e r a l d e m o c r a c y a n d r e l i g i o u s f u n d a m e n t a l i s m

the

is mis­

leading: a third term is missing.

Re-apoiued to the Eçenl In

one

of t h e

Hannibal's

early

novels about

monstrosity

Hannibal

Lecter,

is t h e r e s u l t of u n f o r t u n a t e

rejected: "Nothing happened

the

claim

that

c i r c u m s t a n c e s is

to h i m . He h a p p e n e d . " T h i s i s t h e

most

c o n c i s e f o r m u l a of t h e E v e n t i n B a d i o u ' s s e n s e , a n e m e r g e n c e of t h e N e w w h i c h c a n n o t b e r e d u c e d t o its c a u s e s o r c o n d i t i o n s . O r , to q u o t e t h e w i s e old s a y i n g w i t h w h i c h o n e of t h e G o t h i c D V D g a m e s s t a r t s : " E a c h E v e n t is p r e c e d e d b y P r o p h e c y . B u t w i t h o u t t h e H e r o , t h e r e i s n o E v e n t . " O n e can easily translate this obscure w i s d o m into M a r x i s t terms: "The g e n e r a l o u t l i n e s of e a c h r e v o l u t i o n a r y e v e n t c a n b e foretold b y s o c i a l t h e o r i s t s ; h o w e v e r , t h i s e v e n t c a n o n l y r e a l l y t a k e p l a c e if t h e r e is a r e v o l u t i o n a r y s u b j e c t . " O r , a s B a d i o u m i g h t p u t it: " O n l y if t h e r e i s a s u b j e c t , c a n a n E v e n t o c c u r w i t h i n a n e v e n t a l s i t e . " W h i c h i s w h y , for B a d i o u , different

modes

of s u b j e c t i v i t y a r e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t h e m o d a l i t i e s

the by

w h i c h the s u b j e c t r e l a t e s to t h e E v e n t — e c h o i n g K a n t ' s t h e s i s t h a t t h e 386

T H E V I O L E N C E OF S U B T R A C T I O N

c o n d i t i o n s of o u r e x p e r i e n c e of t h e object a r e s i m u h a n e o u s l y t h e c o n ­ d i t i o n s of t h e o b j e c t itself. B a d i o u e l a b o r a t e s four s u c h r e s p o n s e s : t h e faithful s u b j e c t ; t h e r e a c t i v e s u b j e c t ; t h e o b s c u r e s u b j e c t ;

resurrection.

P e r h a p s , t h i s list s h o u l d b e c o m p l i c a t e d a l i t t l e bit, so t h a t t h e r e a r e actually six responses: T h e r e s p o n s e s to t h e F r e u d - E v e n t

w e r e : (1) fidelity ( L a c a n ) ; ( 2 )

reactive normalization, reintegration into the p r e d o m i n a n t psychology, " d y n a m i c psychotherapy"); (3) outright

field ( e g o

denial (cogniti-

v i s m ) ; ( 4 ) o b s c u r a n t i s t m y s t i f i c a t i o n in a p s e u d o - E v e n t ( J u n g ) ; ( 5 ) t o t a l e n f o r c e m e n t ( R e i c h , F r e u d o - M a r x i s m ) ; ( 6 ) r e s u r r e c t i o n of t h e m e s s a g e of t h e " e t e r n a l " F r e u d in v a r i o u s " r e t u r n s to F r e u d . " T h e r e s p o n s e s to a l o v e - E v e n t a r e : ( 1 ) fidelity; ( 2 ) n o r m a l i z a t i o n , reintegration

( m a r r i a g e ) ; ( 3 ) o u t r i g h t r e j e c t i o n of t h e e v e n t a l

(libertinage, the transformation

status

of t h e E v e n t i n t o s e x u a l a d v e n t u r e ) ;

( 4 ) t h o r o u g h g o i n g r e j e c t i o n of s e x u a l l o v e ( a b s t i n e n c e ) ; ( 5 ) o b s c u r a n t i s t s u i c i d a l m o r t a l p a s s i o n à la T r i s t a n ; ( 6 ) r e s u r r e c t e d l o v e ( r e e n c o u n t e r ) . T h e r e s p o n s e s to t h e M a r x i s m - E v e n t a r e : ( 1 )

fidelity'

(Communism,

" L e n i n i s m " ) ; ( 2 ) reactive reintegration (social d e m o c r a c y ) ; ( 3 ) outright d e n i a l of t h e e v e n t a l s t a t u s ( l i b e r a l i s m . F u r e t ) ; ( 4 ) c a t a s t r o p h i c c o u n t e r a t t a c k m t h e g u i s e of a p s e u d o - E v e n t

total

( f a s c i s m ) ; ( 5 ) total e n ­

f o r c e m e n t of t h e E v e n t , w h i c h e n d s u p in a n " o b s c u r e d i s a s t e r " ( S t a l i n ­ ism, K h m e r R o u g e ) ; ( 6 ) r e n e w a l of M a r x i s m ( L e n i n , M a o . . . ) . S o h o w d o ( 1 ) a n d ( 6 ) c o e x i s t (in figures s u c h a s L e n i n or L a c a n ) ? T h i s b r i n g s u s to a f u r t h e r h y p o t h e s i s : a n E v e n t is n e c e s s a r i l y m i s s e d t h e first t i m e , so t h a t t r u e f i d e l i t y is o n l y p o s s i b l e in t h e form of r e s u r r e c t i o n , a s a d e f e n s e a g a i n s t " r e v i s i o n i s m " : F r e u d d i d not r e c o g n i z e t h e

true

d i m e n s i o n of h i s d i s c o v e r y , it w a s o n l y L a c a n ' s " r e t u r n to F r e u d " t h a t a l l o w e d u s to d i s c e r n t h e c o r e of t h e F r e u d i a n d i s c o v e r y ; or, a s S t a n l e y C a v e l l p u t it a p r o p o s the f i o l l 3 ^ o o d c o m e d i e s of r e m a r r i a g e , t h e o n l y t r u e m a r r i a g e i s t h e s e c o n d m a r r i a g e (to the s a m e p e r s o n ) . T h i s p o i n t w a s recently reiterated b y J a c q u e s - A l a i n Aliller:

O n e m i g h t believe that there is no h e r e s y w i t h o u t orthodoxy, but one often o b s e r v e s t h a t it is w h e n d i s c o u r s e s w h i c h w i l l l a t e r b e h e r e t i c a l e m e r g e t h a t t h e f u t u r e o r t h o d o x i e s c o m e a b o u t , a n d t h a t it i s r a t h e r t h r o u g h a n a f t e r - t h e - f a c t effect t h a t o r t h o d o x y t a k e s hold.^

T h e p o i n t i s not j u s t t h a t o r t h o d o x y i s t h e t r i u m p h a n t h e r e s y , t h e o n e w h i c h s u c c e e d e d in c r u s h i n g a l l o t h e r s , b u t a m o r e c o m p l e x o n e . W h e n a 387

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

n e w t e a c h i n g , from C h r i s t i a n i t y to M a r x i s m or p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , e m e r g e s , t h e r e i s first confusion, b l i n d n e s s a b o u t t h e t r u e s c o p e of its o w n act; h e r e s i e s a r e t h e a t t e m p t s to c l a r i f y t h i s c o n f u s i o n b y r e t r a n s l a t i n g t h e n e w t e a c h i n g i n t o t h e old c o o r d m a t e s , a n d it is o n l y a g a i n s t t h i s b a c k g r o u n d t h a t t h e c o r e of t h e n e w t e a c h i n g c a n b e f o r m u l a t e d . It is a g a i n s t this b a c k g r o u n d of m u l t i p l e r e s p o n s e s to a n E v e n t t h a t A d r i a n J o h n s t o n ^ r e c e n t l y d i s c e r n e d t h e i d e o l o g i c o - c r i t i c a l p o t e n t i a l of t h e B a d i o u i a n t o p i c of e v e n t a l b r e a k s : w h e n the b a l a n c e of a n i d e o l o g i c a l s i t u a t i o n i s d i s t u r b e d b y t h e e m e r g e n c e of " s y m p t o m a l k n o t s , " e l e m e n t s w h i c h , w h i l e f o r m a l l y p a r t of t h e s i t u a t i o n , d o not fit into it, t h e i d e o l o g i c a l d e f e n s e m e c h a n i s m c a n a d o p t t w o m a i n s t r a t e g i e s — false " e v e n t a l i z a t i o n " of the d 3 m a m i c s w h i c h r e m a i n s t h o r o u g h l y i n t e g r a t e d into t h e e x i s t i n g s i t u a t i o n , o r d i s a v o w a l of t h e s i g n s w h i c h d e l i n e a t e t r u e e v e n t a l possibi­ lities, t h e i r r e a d i n g a s m i n o r a c c i d e n t s or e x t e r n a l d i s t u r b a n c e s :

o n e , m a k i n g m e r e m o d i f i c a t i o n s a p p e a r to p r o m i s e e v e n t a l n e w n e s s ( a t a c t i c t h a t c o m e s to t h e fore in t h e i d e o l o g y o l l a t e - c a p i t a l i s m , w h o s e n o i s i l y m a r k e t e d " p e r p e t u a l r e v o l u t i o n " i s r e a l l y j u s t a n i n s t a n c e of the c l i c h é " t h e m o r e t h i n g s c h a n g e , t h e m o r e t h e y s t a y t h e s a m e " —or, a s B a d i o u p u t s it, " c a p i t a l i s m i t s e l f i s t h e o b s e s s i o n of n o v e l t y a n d the perpetual

renovation

of f o r m s " ) ; t w o , m a k i n g t h e

sites sheltering

p o t e n t i a l l y e x p l o s i v e e v e n t a l u p h e a v a l s a p p e a r to be, at a m i n i m u m , u n r e m a r k a b l e f e a t u r e s of t h e b a n a l , e v e r y d a y l a n d s c a p e , a n d , a t most, n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n t e m p o r a r y , c o r r e c t a b l e g l i t c h e s in t h e

functioning

of t h e e s t a b l i s h e d s y s t e m .

P e r h a p s , t h i s l i n e of t h o u g h t n e e d s j u s t o n e q u a l i f i c a t i o n : J o h n s t o n w r i t e s that t h e i d e o l o g y of t h e w o r l d l y s t a t e , t h r o u g h a sort of b l u f f or m a s q u e r ­ a d e , d i s g u i s e s i t s n o n - i n t e g r a t e d w e a k e s t p o i n t s , its A c h i l l e s ' h e e l s , a s fully integrated cogs a n d components functioning—rather

of i t s a l l e g e d l y

harmonious

t h a n a s loci c o n t a i n i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l to t h r o w

m o n k e y w r e n c h e s in i t s g e a r s a n d t h e r e b y g e n e r a t e e v e n t a l d y s f u n c ­ tions of t h i s r e g i m e , a r e g i m e t h a t i s n e v e r so d e e p l y e n t r e n c h e d a s it w o u l d l i k e to a p p e a r to b e in the e y e s of its s u b j e c t s .

Is it not r a t h e r t h a t o n e of t h e i d e o l o g i c a l s t r a t e g i e s i s to fully a d m i t t h e t h r e a t e n i n g c h a r a c t e r of a d y s f u n c t i o n , a n d to t r e a t it a s a n e x t e r n a l 388

THE V I O L E N C E OF S U B T R A C T I O N

i n t r u s i o n , not a s t h e n e c e s s a r y r e s u l t of t h e s y s t e m ' s i n n e r d y n a m i c ? T h e m o d e l i s h e r e , of c o u r s e , t h e fascist notion of s o c i a l a n t a g o n i s m s a s t h e r e s u l t of a f o r e i g n i n t r u d e r — J e w s — d i s t u r b i n g t h e o r g a n i c t o t a l i t y of t h e social edifice. R e c a l l the difference b e t w e e n the s t a n d a r d c a p i t a l i s t a n d the M a r x i s t notion of e c o n o m i c crisis: for t h e s t a n d a r d c a p i t a l i s t v i e w , c r i s e s a r e " t e m p o r a r y , c o r r e c t a b l e g l i t c h e s " in the f u n c t i o n i n g of the s y s t e m , w h i l e from t h e M a r x i s t p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e y a r e its m o m e n t of t r u t h , t h e " e x c e p t i o n " w h i c h only a l l o w s u s to g r a s p t h e f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e s y s t e m (in t h e s a m e w a y that, for F r e u d , d r e a m s a n d s y m p t o m s a r e not s e c o n d a r y m a l f u n c t i o n i n g s of o u r p s y c h i c a p p a r a t u s , b u t m o m e n t s t h r o u g h w h i c h one c a n d i s c e r n t h e r e p r e s s e d b a s i c f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e p s y c h i c a p p a r a t u s ) . wonder that Johnston

No

u s e s h e r e t h e D e l e u z i a n t e r m " m i n i m a l differ­

e n c e " — " a m i n i m a l / m i n u s c u l e difference ( h e r e c o n s t r u e d a s t h e difference b e t w e e n t h e c h a n g e - c a t e g o r y s t a t u s e s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a s s i g n e d to a s i n g l e i n t r a - s i t u a t i o n a l m u l t i p l e both b y t h e i d e o l o g y of t h e s t a t e a n d , in opposi­ tion, b y a n o t h e r , non-statist f r a m e w o r k ) ": w h e n w e p a s s from the notion of crisis a s o c c a s i o n a l c o n t i n g e n t m a l f u n c t i o n i n g of the s y s t e m to t h e notion of crisis a s t h e s y m p t o m a l p o i n t at w h i c h t h e " t r u t h " of t h e s y s t e m b e c o m e s visible, w e a r e t a l k i n g a b o u t o n e a n d t h e s a m e a c t u a l e v e n t — t h e difference i s p u r e l y v i r t u a l , it d o e s not c o n c e r n a n y of its a c t u a l p r o p e r t i e s , b u t o n l y the w a y this e v e n t i s s u p p l e m e n t e d b y t h e v i r t u a l t a p e s t r y of its i d e o l o g i c a l a n d n o t i o n a l b a c k g r o u n d ( l i k e S c h u m a n n ' s m e l o d y for p i a n o first p l a y e d w i t h a n d t h e n w i t h o u t t h e third l i n e of n o t e s w r i t t e n o n l y for t h e e y e s ) . J o h n s t o n i s r i g h t h e r e in c r i t i c a l l y n o t i n g

B a d i o u ' s q u i c k d i s m i s s a l of a p p a r e n t l y g r a d u a l i s t m e a s u r e s of s e e m ­ i n g l y m i n o r p o l i t i c a l a d j u s t m e n t s a n d r e f o r m s (i.e., n o t - q u i t e - e v e n t a l g e s t u r e s ) i n t h e s p h e r e s of l e g i s l a t i o n a n d s o c i o - e c o n o m i c s w h i l e a w a i t i n g t h e q u a s i - d i v i n e i n t e r v e n t i o n of t h e s y s t e m - s h a t t e r i n g e v e n t a l r u p t u r e u s h e r i n g in a n u n c o m p r o m i s i n g l y " p e r f e c t " r e v o l u t i o n . B u t , t h e p r e c e d i n g a n a l y s e s c a l l i n t o q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r h e c a n be e n t i r e l y c o n f i d e n t a n d s u r e t h a t w h a t a p p e a r s to b e g r a d u a l or m i n o r r e a l l y i s so, or, r a t h e r , s i m p l y s e e m s t h i s w a y s o l e l y u n d e r t h e s h a d o w of statist i d e o l o g y ' s a s s i g n a t i o n of c h a n g e - c a t e g o r y s t a t u s e s .

O n e c a n n o t e v e r b e s u r e in a d v a n c e if w h a t a p p e a r s ( w i t h i n t h e r e g i s t e r a n d t h e s p a c e of v i s i b i l i t y of t h e r u l i n g i d e o l o g y ) a s " m i n o r " m e a s u r e s w i l l not

s e t in m o t i o n

a p r o c e s s t h a t w i l l l e a d to t h e

radical (evental) 389

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of t h e w h o l e field. T h e r e a r e s i t u a t i o n s in w h i c h a m i n i m a l m e a s u r e of s o c i a l reform

can have m u c h stronger large-scale conse-

q u e n c e s than self-professed " r a d i c a l " c h a n g e s , a n d this "inherent incalc u l a b i l i t y to t h e f a c t o r s I n v o l v e d in s e t t i n g t h e p a c e of t h e c a d e n c e of s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l c h a n g e " p o i n t s t o w a r d s t h e d i m e n s i o n of w h a t t r i e d to c a p t u r e u n d e r t h e title of t h e " m a t e r i a l i s t n o t i o n

Badiou

of g r a c e . "

J o h n s t o n r a i s e s t h e f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n : w h a t if t h e p r e - e v e n t a l a c t o r s

don't r e a l l y k n o w e x a c t l y w h a t t h e y ' r e doing or quite w h e r e they're g o i n g ? W h a t if, u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e of s t a t i s t i d e o l o g y , t h e y a n t i c i p a t e that a p a r t i c u l a r gesture will effectuate a s y s t e m - p r e s e r v i n g modification o n l y to find out, after-the-fact

of t h i s g e s t u r e , t h a t t h e i r inter-

v e n t i o n u n e x p e c t e d l y h a s t e n e d ( r a t h e r t h a n d e l a y e d ) t h e d e m i s e of this v e r y system?

Is not t h e first a s s o c i a t i o n t h a t c o m e s to m i n d h e r e t h a t of M i k h a i l Gorbachev's perestroïka w h i c h , while a i m i n g at minor

improvements

t h a t w o u l d m a k e t h e s y s t e m m o r e efficient, t r i g g e r e d t h e p r o c e s s of its total d i s i n t e g r a t i o n ? T h e s e , t h e n , a r e t h e t w o e x t r e m e s b e t w e e n w h i c h p o l i t i c a l i n t e r v e n t i o n s h a v e to

find

t h e i r w a y : t h e S c y l l a of

"minor"

r e f o r m s w h i c h e v e n t u a l l y l e a d to total c o l l a p s e ( r e c a l l a l s o t h e f e a r — justified, w e

can

s a y t o d a y —of M a o

Zedong that even a

minimal

compromise w i t h m a r k e t economy w o u l d open u p the path that ends in total s u r r e n d e r to c a p i t a l i s m ) , a n d t h e C h a r y b d i s of " r a d i c a l " c h a n g e s w h i c h in t h e l o n g r u n m e r e l y fortify t h e s y s t e m ( R o o s e v e l t ' s N e w D e a l , a n d so f o r t h ) . A m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , t h i s a l s o o p e n s u p t h e q u e s t i o n of h o w " r a d i c a l " different f o r m s of r e s i s t a n c e a r e : w h a t m a y a p p e a r a s a " r a d i c a l c r i t i c a l s t a n c e " o r a s s u b v e r s i v e a c t i v i t y c a n i n fact f u n c t i o n "inherent

t r a n s g r e s s i o n , " so that, often,

as the system's

a minor legal reform

which

m e r e l y a i m s at b r i n g i n g the s y s t e m in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h its p r o f e s s e d i d e o l o g i c a l g o a l s c a n be m o r e s u b v e r s i v e t h a n o p e n q u e s t i o n i n g of the s y s t e m ' s b a s i c p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s . T h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s e n a b l e u s to d e f i n e t h e a r t of a " p o l i t i c s of m i n i m a l d i f f e r e n c e s " : to b e a b l e to i d e n t i f y a n d t h e n focus on a m i n i m a l ( i d e o l o g i c a l , l e g i s l a t i v e , a n d so o n )

measure

w h i c h , prima facie, not o n l y d o e s not q u e s t i o n t h e s y s t e m ' s p r e m i s e s , but e v e n s e e m s to m e r e l y a p p l y its o w n p r i n c i p l e s to its a c t u a l and

thus

render

it m o r e

consistent

with

itself;

however,

functioning a critico-

i d e o l o g i c a l " p a r a l l a x v i e w " l e a d s u s to s u r m i s e t h a t t h i s m i n i m a l m e a s u r e , 390

T H E V I O L E N C E OF S U B T R A C T I O N

w h i l e in no w a y d i s t u r b i n g t h e s y s t e m ' s e x p l i c i t m o d e of

functioning,

e f f e c t i v e l y " m o v e s u n d e r g r o u n d , " i n t r o d u c e s a c r a c k in its f o u n d a t i o n s . Today, more than ever, w e effectively need w h a t J o h n s t o n calls a "pree v e n t a l d i s c i p l i n e of t i m e " :

T h i s o t h e r sort of t e m p o r a l d i s c i p l i n e w o u l d be n e i t h e r t h e u n d i s c i ­ p l i n e d i m p a t i e n c e of h u r r i e d l y d o i n g a n y t h i n g a n d e v e r y t h i n g to e n a c t s o m e i l l - d e f i n e d , p o o r l y c o n c e i v e d n o t i o n of m a k i n g t h i n g s different n o r t h e q u i e t i s t p a t i e n c e of e i t h e r r e s i g n i n g o n e s e l f to t h e c u r r e n t s t a t e of affairs d r i f t i n g a l o n g i n t e r m m a b l y a n d / o r a w a i t i n g t h e u n p r e d i c t a b l e arrival

of

a

not-to-be-actively-precipitated

" x " sparking

genuine

c h a n g e ( B a d i o u ' s p h i l o s o p h y s o m e t i m e s s e e m s to b e in d a n g e r of l i c e n s i n g a v e r s i o n of t h i s l a t t e r m o d e of q u i e t i s m ) . T h o s e s u b j e c t e d to t o d a y ' s f r e n e t i c s o c i o - e c o n o m i c f o r m s of l a t e - c a p i t a l i s m a r e c o n s t a n t l y at risk of s u c c u m b i n g to v a r i o u s f o r m s of w h a t o n e c o u l d r e f e r to l o o s e l y a s " a t t e n t i o n d e f i c i t d i s o r d e r , " t h a t is, a f r a n t i c ,

thoughtless

j u m p i n g from p r e s e n t to e v e r - n e w p r e s e n t . A t t h e p o l i t i c a l l e v e l , s u c h c a p i t a l i s t i m p a t i e n c e m u s t b e c o u n t e r e d w i t h t h e d i s c i p l i n e of w h a t could be d e s i g n a t e d a s a specifically c o m m u n i s t p a t i e n c e ( d e s i g n a t e d t h u s in l i n e w i t h B a d i o u ' s a s s e r t i o n t h a t a l l a u t h e n t i c f o r m s of p o l i t i c s a r e " c o m m u n i s t " in t h e b r o a d s e n s e of b e i n g b o t h e m a n c i p a t o r y a s w e l l a s " g e n e r i c " qua r a d i c a l l y e g a l i t a r i a n a n d n o n - i d e n t i t a r i a n ) —not t h e q u i e t i s t p a t i e n c e c o n d e m n e d a b o v e , but, i n s t e a d , t h e c a l m c o n t e m p l a ­ tion of t h e d e t a i l s of s i t u a t i o n s , s t a t e s , a n d w o r l d s w i t h a n e y e to t h e d i s c e r n i n g of i d e o l o g i c a l l y v e i l e d w e a k p o i n t s in t h e s t r u c t u r a l a r c h i ­ t e c t u r e of t h e statist s y s t e m . G i v e n t h e t h e o r e t i c a l v a l i d i t y of a s s u m i n g that these camouflaged Achilles' heels (as hidden evental sites) can and d o e x i s t in o n e ' s w o r l d l y c o n t e x t , o n e s h o u l d b e p a t i e n t l y h o p e f u l t h a t o n e ' s a p p a r e n t l y m i n o r g e s t u r e s , c a r r i e d o u t u n d e r t h e g u i d a n c e of a p r e - e v e n t a l s u r v e i l l a n c e of t h e s i t u a t i o n in s e a r c h of i t s c o n c e a l e d k e r n e l s of r e a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , m i g h t c o m e to e n t a i l m a j o r r e p e r c u s ­ s i o n s for t h e s t a t e - o f - t h e - s i t u a t i o n a n d / o r t r a n s c e n d e n t a l r e g i m e of t h e world.

T h e r e i s , h o w e v e r , a l i m i t to t h i s s t r a t e g y : if f o l l o w e d t h o r o u g h l y , it e n d s u p i n a k i n d of " a c t i v e q u i e t i s m ": w h i l e f o r e v e r p o s t p o n i n g t h e B i g A c t , a l l o n e d o e s is to e n g a g e in s m a l l i n t e r v e n t i o n s w i t h t h e s e c r e t h o p e t h a t s o m e h o w , i n e x p l i c a b l y , b y m e a n s of a m a g i c " l e a p from q u a n t i t y to q u a l i t y , " t h e y w i l l l e a d to g l o b a l r a d i c a l c h a n g e . T h i s s t r a t e g y h a s to b e 391

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

s u p p l e m e n t e d b y t h e r e a d i n e s s a n d a b i l i t y to d i s c e r n t h e m o m e n t

when

t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of t h e B i g C h a n g e is a p p r o a c h i n g , a n d , a t t h a t point, to q u i c k l y a l t e r t h e s t r a t e g y , t a k e t h e r i s k a n d engaige in total s t r u g g l e . In o t h e r w o r d s , o n e s h o u l d not forget t h a t , in p o l i t i c s , " m a j o r r e p e r c u s s i o n s " d o not c o m e b y t h e m s e l v e s : t r u e , o n e h a s to l a y t h e g r o u n d w o r k for t h e m b y m e a n s of p a t i e n t w o r k , b u t o n e s h o u l d a l s o k n o w to s e i z e t h e m o m e n t w h e n it a r r i v e s . The

"specifically communist

form

of p a t i e n c e " i s not j u s t

patient

w a i t i n g for t h e m o m e n t w h e n r a d i c a l c h a n g e w i l l e x p l o d e in a m a n n e r r e m i n i s c e n t of w h a t s y s t e m s t h e o r y c a l l s a n " e m e r g e n t p r o p e r t y " ; it i s a l s o t h e p a t i e n c e of l o s i n g t h e b a t t l e s in o r d e r to w i n t h e final fight ( r e c a l l a g a i n M a o ' s s l o g a n : "from d e f e a t to d e f e a t , to t h e final v i c t o r y " ) . Or, to put

it in m o r e

functions

B a d i o u i a n t e r m s : t h e fact t h a t t h e e v e n t a l

irruption

a s a b r e a k in t i m e , i n t r o d u c i n g a t o t a l l y different

o r d e r of

t e m p o r a l i t y ( t h e t e m p o r a l i t y of t h e " w o r k of l o v e , " fidelity to the e v e n t ) , means

that, from

the

perspective

of n o n - e v e n t a l

time

of

historical

e v o l u t i o n , t h e r e i s never a " r i g h t m o m e n t " for t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y e v e n t , t h e s i t u a t i o n i s n e v e r " m a t u r e e n o u g h " for a r e v o l u t i o n a r y a c t — t h e a c t is a l w a y s , b y definition, " p r e m a t u r e . " R e c a l l w h a t t r u l y d e s e r v e s t h e t i t l e of t h e répétition of t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n : t h e H a i t i a n R e v o l u t i o n l e d b y T o u s s a i n t L ' O u v e r t u r e — it w a s c l e a r l y " a h e a d of its t i m e , " " p r e m a t u r e , " a n d a s s u c h d o o m e d to fail, y e t , p r e c i s e l y a s s u c h . It w a s p e r h a p s e v e n m o r e of a n E v e n t t h a n t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n Itself. T h e s e p a s t d e f e a t s a c c u m u l a t e t h e Utopian e n e r g y w h i c h w i l l e x p l o d e in t h e "maturation"

Is n o t

w a i t i n g for

final

" o b j e c t i v e " c i r c u m s t a n c e s to

battle: reach

m a t u r i t y , b u t t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n of d e f e a t s . P r o g r e s s i v e l i b e r a l s t o d a y often c o m p l a i n t h a t t h e y w o u l d l i k e to j o i n a "revolution " ( a more radical e m a n c i p a t o r y political m o v e m e n t ) , but no m a t t e r h o w d e s p e r a t e l y t h e y s e a r c h for It, t h e y j u s t " d o not see i t " ( t h e y d o not s e e a n y w h e r e In t h e social s p a c e a p o l i t i c a l a g e n t w i t h t h e w i l l a n d s t r e n g t h to s e r i o u s l y e n g a g e in s u c h a c t i v i t y ) . W h i l e t h e r e i s a m o m e n t of t r u t h h e r e , o n e s h o u l d n o n e t h e l e s s a l s o a d d t h a t t h e v e r y a t t i t u d e of t h e s e l i b e r a l s i s in itself p a r t of the p r o b l e m : if o n e j u s t w a i t s to " s e e " a r e v o l u t i o n ä r m o v e m e n t , it w i l l , of c o u r s e , n e v e r a r i s e , a n d o n e w i l l n e v e r see it. W h a t H e g e l s a y s a b o u t t h e c u r t a i n t h a t s e p a r a t e s a p p e a r a n c e s from t r u e r e a l i t y ( b e h i n d t h e veil of a p p e a r a n c e t h e r e Is n o t h i n g , o n l y w h a t t h e s u b j e c t w h o i s s e a r c h i n g h a s p u t t h e r e ) , h o l d s a l s o for a r e v o l u t i o n a r y p r o c e s s : " s e e i n g " a n d " d e s i r e ' a r e h e r e i n e x t r i c a b l y l i n k e d , in words, 392

revolutionary

potential

i s not

there

to

be d i s c o v e r e d

other as an

THE V I O L E N C E OF S U B T R A C T I O N

o b j e c t i v e social fact, o n e " s e e s i t " o n l y i n s o f a r a s o n e " d e s i r e s " it ( e n g a g e s o n e s e l f in t h e m o v e m e n t ) . N o w o n d e r t h e M e n s h e v i k s a n d t h o s e w h o o p p o s e d L e n i n ' s c a l l for a r e v o l u t i o n a r y t a k e o v e r in t h e s u m m e r of 1 9 1 7 " d i d n o t s e e " t h e c o n d i t i o n s for it a s " r i p e " a n d o p p o s e d

it a s " p r e ­

m a t u r e " — t h e y s i m p l y d i d n o t want t h e r e v o l u t i o n . A n o t h e r v e r s i o n of t h i s skeptical argument about "seeing" is that liberals claim that capitalism is t o d a y so g l o b a l a n d a l l - e n c o m p a s s i n g t h a t t h e y c a n n o t " s e e " a n y s e r i o u s a l t e r n a t i v e to it, t h a t t h e y c a n n o t i m a g i n e a feasible " o u t s i d e " to it. T h e r e p l y t o t h i s i s t h a t , i n s o f a r a s t h i s is t r u e , t h e y d o not s e e tout court: t h e t a s k i s n o t to s e e t h e o u t s i d e , b u t to s e e i n t h e first p l a c e (to g r a s p t h e n a t u r e of c o n t e m p o r a r y c a p i t a l i s m ) —the M a r x i s t w a g e r i s t h a t , w h e n w e " s e e " t h i s , w e s e e e n o u g h . I n c l u d i n g h o w to g o b e y o n d i t . . . S o o u r r e p l y to t h e w o r r i e d p r o g r e s s i v e l i b e r a l s , e a g e r t o j o i n t h e r e v o l u t i o n , a n d j u s t not s e e i n g it h a v i n g a c h a n c e a n y w h e r e , s h o u l d b e l i k e t h e a n s w e r to t h e p r o v e r b i a l e c o l o g l s t w o r r i e d a b o u t t h e p r o s p e c t of c a t a s t r o p h e : d o n o t w o r r y , the catastrophe will arrive . . . To c o m p l i c a t e t h e i m a g e further,

w e often

have an Event which

s u c c e e d s t h r o u g h t h e s e l f - e r a s u r e of its e v e n t a l d i m e n s i o n , a s w a s t h e c a s e w i t h t h e J a c o b i n s in t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n ; o n c e t h e i r ( n e c e s s a r y ) j o b w a s d o n e , t h e y w e r e not o n l y o v e r t h r o w n a n d l i q u i d a t e d , t h e y w e r e e v e n r e t r o a c t i v e l y d e p r i v e d of t h e i r e v e n t a l s t a t u s , r e d u c e d to a h i s t o r i c a l a c c i d e n t , to a f r e a k i s h a b o m i n a t i o n , to a n ( a v o i d a b l e ) e x c e s s of h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t . " ' T h i s t h e m e w a s often e v o k e d b y M a r x a n d E n g e l s —^how, o n c e " n o r m a l " p r a g m a t i c - u t i l i t a r i a n b o u r g e o i s d a l l y life w a s c o n s o l i ­ dated,

its o w n violent heroic origins w e r e disavowed. This

lity— not

only

the

(obvious)

possibility

of

an

evental

possibi­ sequence

r e a c h i n g i t s e n d , b u t a m u c h m o r e u n s e t t l i n g p o s s i b i l i t y of a n E v e n t d i s a v o w i n g itself, e r a s i n g i t s o w n t r a c e s , a s t h e u l t i m a t e I n d i c a t i o n of i t s t r i u m p h , i s n o t t a k e n into a c c o u n t b y B a d i o u :

t h e p o s s i b i l i t y a n d r a m i f i c a t i o n s of t h e r e b e i n g r a d i c a l b r e a k s a n d d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s t h a t m i g h t , i n pari: d u e t o t h e i r o w n r e v e r b e r a t i o n s unfolding

off i n t o t h e f u t u r e ,

become

invisible to those living in

r e a l i t i e s f o u n d e d on s u c h e c l i p s e d p o i n t s of o r i g i n .

S u c h a s e l f - e r a s u r e of t h e E v e n t o p e n s u p t h e s p a c e for w h a t , in t h e B e n j a m l n l a n m o d e , o n e is t e m p t e d to c a l l t h e leftist p o l i t i c s of m e l a n ­ c h o l y . In a first a p p r o a c h , t h i s t e r m c a n n o t b u t a p p e a r a s a n o x y m o i ' o n : i s n o t a r e v o l u t i o n a r y o r i e n t a t i o n t o w a r d s t h e future t h e v e r y o p p o s i t e of 393

IN D E F E N S E OF L O S T C A U S E S

m e l a n c h o l i c a t t a c h m e n t to t h e p a s t ? W h a t if, h o w e v e r , t h e f u t u r e o n e s h o u l d b e faithful to i s the future

of the pch*t ildelf, i n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e

e m a n c i p a t o r y p o t e n t i a l t h a t w a s n o t r e a H z e d d u e to t h e f a i l u r e of t h e p a s t a t t e m p t s a n d t h a t for t h i s r e a s o n c o n t i n u e s to h a u n t u s ? In h i s i r o n i c c o m m e n t s on t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n , M a r x o p p o s e s t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y e n t h u s i a s m to t h e s o b e r i n g effect of t h e " m o r n i n g after": t h e a c t u a l r e s u l t o l t h e s u b l i m e r e v o l u t i o n a r y e x p l o s i o n , of t h e E v e n t of f r e e d o m , e q u a l i t y , a n d b r o t h e r h o o d , is t h e m i s e r a b l e u t i l i t a r i a n / e g o t i s t i c u n i v e r s e of m a r k e t c a l c u l a t i o n . ( A n d , i n c i d e n t a l l y , is n o t t h i s g a p e v e n w i d e r in t h e c a s e of the O c t o b e r R e v o l u t i o n ? ) H o w e v e r , o n e s h o u l d n o t s i m p l l l y M a r x : h i s point is not the rather commonsensical insight into h o w the v u l g a r reality of c o m m e r c e i s t h e " t r u t h " of t h e t h e a t e r of r e v o l u t i o n a r y e n t h u s i a s m , " w h a t it a l l r e a l l y c a m e d o w n t o . " I n t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y e x p l o s i o n a s a n Event, another

Utopian dimension

shines through,

t h e d i m e n s i o n of

u n i v e r s a l e m a n c i p a t i o n w h i c h , p r e c i s e l y , is t h e e x c e s s b e t r a y e d b y t h e m a r k e t reality w h i c h t a k e s over "the d a y after" — a s such, this excess is not s i m p l y a b o l i s h e d , d i s m i s s e d a s i r r e l e v a n t , b u t , a s it w e r e , tranépoMc) into a virtual Jlate,

c o n t i n u i n g to h a u n t t h e e m a n c i p a t o r y i m a g i n a r y l i k e a

d r e a m w a r t i n g to b e r e a l i z e d . T h e e x c e s s of r e v o l u t i o n a r y e n t h u s i a s m o v e r i t s o w n " a c t u a l s o c i a l b a s e " o r s u b s t a n c e is t h u s l i t e r a l l y t h a t of the f u t u r e ol7in t h e p a s t , a s p e c t r a l E v e n t w a i t i n g for its p r o p e r

embodiment.

M o s t of t h e R o m a n t i c l i b e r a l e n t h u s i a s t s w h o first w e l c o m e d t h e French

Revolution w e r e appalled b y the Terror,

the

"monstrosity"

u n l e a s h e d b y t h e r e v o l u t i o n , a n d s t a r t e d to d o u b t i t s v e r y r a t i o n a l e . T h e n o t a b l e e x c e p t i o n h e r e is S h e l l e y w h o r e m a i n e d faithful

to t h e

r e v o l u t i o n t o t h e e n d , w i t h o u t i d e a l i z i n g it, w i t h o u t b r u s h i n g

terror

u n d e r t h e c a r p e t ; i n h i s p o e m The Revolt of hUim, h e f o r m u l a t e d a r e j e c t i o n of t h e r e a c t i o n a r y c l a i m t h a t t h e t r a g i c a n d v i o l e n t o u t c o m e w a s in s o m e w a y t h e " t r u t h " of t h e b r i g h t r e v o l u t i o n a r y h o p e s a n d i d e a l s of u n i v e r s a l f r e e d o m . F o r S h e l l e y , h i s t o r y is a s e r i e s of p o s s i b l e o u t c o m e s , p o s s i b i l i t y h a s p r i o r i t y o v e r a c t u a l i t y , t h e r e i s a s u r p l u s in it b e y o n d its a c t u a l i z a t i o n , t h e s p a r k t h a t p e r s i s t s u n d e r g r o u n d , s o t h a t t h e v e r y i m m e d i a t e f a i l u r e of e m a n c i p a t o r y a t t e m p t s s i g n a l s to t h o s e w h o h a r b o r f u t u r e r e v o l u t i o n a r y a s p i r a t i o n s t h a t t h e y s h o u l d b e r e p e a t e d more r a d i c a l l y , more c o m p r e h e n ­ sively. P e r h a p s t h e r e a s o n B a d i o u n e g l e c t s t h i s d i m e n s i o n is h i s a l l t o o c r u d e o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n r e p e t i t i o n a n d t h e c u t of t h e E v e n t , h i s d i s m i s s a l ot r e p e t i t i o n a s a n o b s t a c l e to t h e r i s e of t h e N e w , u l t i m a t e l y a s t h e d e a t h d r i v e Itself t h e m o r b i d a t t a c h m e n t 394

to s o m e o b s c u r e jouiMance

which

THE V I O L E N C E OF S U B T R A C T I O N

e n t r a p s t h e s u b j e c t in t h e s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e v i c i o u s c i r c l e . In t h i s s e n s e , " l i f e " a s t h e s u b j e c t i v e c a t e g o r y of f i d e l i t y to a n E v e n t " k e e p s a t a d i s t a n c e t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n d r i v e ( t h e m i s n a m e d 'life i n s t i n c t ' ) , a s w e l l a s t h e m o r t i f y i n g d r i v e ( t h e d e a t h i n s t i n c t ) . Life is w h a t b r e a k s w i t h t h e d r i v e s . " " W h a t B a d i o u m i s s e s h e r e is t h e fact t h a t the " d e a t h d r i v e " i s , p a r a d o x i c a l l y , t h e F r e u d i a n n a m e for i t s v e r y o p p o s i t e ,

for t h e

way

i m m o r t a l i t y a p p e a r s w i t h i n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s : for a n u n c a n n y e x c e s s of life, for a n " u n d e a d " u r g e w h i c h p e r s i s t s b e y o n d t h e ( b i o l o g i c a l ) c y c l e of life a n d d e a t h , of g e n e r a t i o n a n d c o r r u p t i o n . A s s u c h , t h e d e a t h d r i v e s t a n d s for t h e v e r y a n t i p o d e of t h e o b s c u r e t e n d e n c y to s e l f - a n n i h i l a t i o n o r selfd e s t r u c t i o n — a s i s r e n d e r e d c l e a r l y in t h e w o r k of W a g n e r w h o m B a d i o u a d m i r e s so m u c h . It i s p r e c i s e l y t h e r e f e r e n c e to W a g n e r w h i c h e n a b l e s u s to s e e h o w t h e F r e u d i a n d e a t h d r i v e h a s n o t h i n g w h a t s o e v e r to d o w i t h t h e c r a v i n g for s e l f - e x t e r m i n a t i o n , for a r e t u r n to t h e i n o r g a n i c a b s e n c e of a n y l i f e - t e n s i o n . T h e d e a t h d r i v e d o e s rwt r e s i d e in W a g n e r ' s h e r o e s ' l o n g i n g to d i e , to find p e a c e in d e a t h : it i s , on t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e v e r y o b v e r s e of d y i n g — a n a m e for t h e " u n d e a d " e t e r n a l life itself, for

the

h o r r i b l e fate of b e i n g c a u g h t in t h e e n d l e s s r e p e t i t i v e c y c l e of w a n d e r i n g a r o u n d in g u i l t a n d p a i n . T h e final p a s s i n g - a w a y of t h e W a g n e r i a n h e r o ( t h e d e a t h of t h e D u t c h m a n , W o t a n , T r i s t a n , A m f o r t a s ) i s t h e r e f o r e

the

m o m e n t of t h e i r l i b e r a t i o n from t h e c l u t c h e s of t h e d e a t h d r i v e . T r i s t a n in A c t III i s not d e s p e r a t e b e c a u s e of h i s f e a r of d y i n g : w h a t m a k e s h i m d e s p e r a t e i s that, w i t h o u t I s o l d e , h e c a n n o t d i e a n d i s c o n d e m n e d

to

e t e r n a l l o n g i n g — h e a n x i o u s l y a w a i t s h e r a r r i v a l so a s to b e a b l e to d i e . T h e p r o s p e c t h e d r e a d s i s not t h a t of d y i n g w i t h o u t I s o l d e ( t h e s t a n d a r d c o m p l a i n t of a l o v e r ) , b u t r a t h e r t h a t of e n d l e s s life w i t h o u t h e r . T h e u l t i m a t e l e s s o n of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s i s t h a t h u m a n life i s n e v e r " j u s t life": h u m a n s a r e not s i m p l y a l i v e , t h e y a r e p o s s e s s e d b y t h e s t r a n g e d r i v e to e n j o y life to e x c e s s , p a s s i o n a t e l y a t t a c h e d to a s u r p l u s w h i c h s t i c k s o u t a n d d e r a i l s t h e o r d i n a r y r u n of t h i n g s . T h i s e x c e s s i n s c r i b e s i t s e l f i n t o t h e h u m a n b o d y m t h e g u i s e of a w o u n d w h i c h m a k e s t h e s u b j e c t " u n d e a d , " d e p r i v i n g h i m of t h e c a p a c i t y to d i e ( a p a r t from T r i s t a n ' s a n d A m f o r t a s ' s w o u n d , t h e r e i s , of c o u r s e , the w o u n d , t h e o n e from K a f k a ' s " A C o u n t r y D o c t o r " ) : w h e n this w o u n d is healed, the hero can die in p e a c e . This n o t i o n of t h e d r i v e e m b o d i e d in a n o r g a n a l s o a l l o w s u s to p r o p o s e a c o r r e c t i o n to B a d i o u ' s n o t i o n of t h e b o d y of a t r u t h p r o c e d u r e ; t h e r e a r e n o b o d i e s of t r u t h , t r u t h h a s i t s o r g a n s ( w i t h o u t b o d i e s ) , in o t h e r w o r d s , a t r u t h i n s c r i b e s i t s e l f into a b o d y t h r o u g h its a u t o n o m i z e d o r g a n ( s ) . T h e c h i l d ' s w o u n d in t h e l o w e r c h e s t in K a f k a ' s " C o u n t r y D o c t o r " i s s u c h an 395

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

o r g a n , p a r t of t h e b o d y y e t s t i c k i n g o u t

of it, l e a d i n g a n

immortal

( u n d e a d ) life of its o w n , s e c r e t i n g b l o o d a l l t h e t i m e y e t , for t h a t v e r y r e a s o n , p r e v e n t i n g t h e c h i l d from

finding

p e a c e in d e a t h .

It i s at t h i s p o i n t t h a t o n e s h o u l d t u r n to D e l e u z e a g a i n s t B a d i o u , to D e l e u z e s p r e c i s e e l a b o r a t i o n s o n r e p e t i t i o n a s t h e v e r y form

of t h e

e m e r g e n c e of t h e N e w . O f c o u r s e , B a d i o u i s too r e f i n e d a t h i n k e r not to p e r c e r v e t h e e v e n t a l d i m e n s i o n of r e p e t i t r o n : w h e n , i n Logujued ded inonàcd, he deploys the three

" s u b j e c t i v e d e s t i n a t i o n s " of a n e v e n t

(faithful,

r e a c t i v e , o b s c u r e ) , h e a d d s a fourth, t h a t of " r e s u r r e c t i o n , " t h e s u b j e c t i v e r e a c t i v a t i o n of a n e v e n t w h o s e t r a c e s w e r e o b l i t e r a t e d , " r e p r e s s e d " into t h e h i s t o r i c o - i d e o l o g i c a l u n c o n s c i o u s : " e v e r y faithful s u b j e c t c a n

thus

r e i n c o r p o r a t e into its e v e n t a l p r e s e n t a t r u t h f r a g m e n t w h i c h in the old p r e s e n t w a s p u s h e d b e n e a t h t h e b a r of o c c u l t a t i o n . T h i s r e i n c o r p o r a t i o n is w h a t w e c a l l r e s u r r e c t i o n . " ' ^ H i s b e a u t i f u l l y d e v e l o p e d e x a m p l e i s t h a t of S p a r t a c u s : e r a s e d from official h i s t o r y , h i s n a m e w a s r e s u r r e c t e d

first

b y t h e b l a c k s l a v e s ' r e b e l l i o n in H a i t i ( t h e p r o g r e s s i v e g o v e r n o r L a v e a u x called Toussaint L ' O u v e r t u r e "black S p a r t a c u s " ) , and, a c e n t u r y later, by t h e t w o G e r m a n " S p a r t a k i s t s , " R o s a L u x e m b u r g a n d Karl L i e b k n e c h t . W h a t m a t t e r s h e r e , h o w e v e r , is t h a t B a d i o u s h i r k s from

calling this

r e s u r r e c t i o n repetition . . .

Do we need a new world? B a d i o u ' s a m b i g u i t y w i t h r e g a r d to t h i s c r u c i a l p o i n t h i n g e s on h i s t r i a d Being—World—Event, w h i c h f u n c t i o n s i n t h e s a m e w a y a s K i e r k e g a a r d ' s t r i a d of t h e A e s t h e t i c — E t h i c a l - R e l i g i o u s : t h e c h o i c e is a l w a y s b e t w e e n t w o terms, an either/or, that is, the three t e r m s do not operate at the s a m e o n t o l o g i c a l l e v e l . It is t h e s a m e w i t h L a c a n ' s I m a g i n a r y ( I ) / S y m b o l l c ( S ) / R e a l ( R ) o r w i t h F r e u d ' s E g o / S u p e r e g o / I d : w h e n w e focus o n o n e t e r m , t h e o t h e r t w o g e t c o n d e n s e d i n t o o n e ( u n d e r t h e h e g e m o n y of o n e of t h e m ) . If w e focus on t h e I m a g i n a r y , t h e R e a l a n d t h e S y m b o l i c g e t c o n t r a c t e d i n t o t h e I m a g i n a r y s o p p o s i t e u n d e r t h e d o m i n a t i o n of the S y m b o l i c ; if w e focus o n R , I a n d S a r e c o n t r a c t e d u n d e r t h e d o m i n a t i o n of S . ( T h e r e i n r e s i d e s t h e shift in L a c a n ' s w o r k a n n o u n c e d b y h i s Seminar VII on t h e e t h i c s of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s : t h e shift from t h e a x i s I—S to t h e a x i s S—R.)

O r , i n F r e u d ' s c a s e , if w e f o c u s on t h e E g o , i t s o p p o s i t e i s t h e Id

( w h i c h e n c o m p a s s e s t h e s u p e r e g o ) ; a n d so on a n d so forth. Logixfiied ded monded e n a c t s t h e shift i s from t h e a x i s B e i n g - E v e n t t o t h e a x i s W o r l d - E v e n t . W h a t this m e a n s is that Being, W o r l d , a n d Event do 396

T H E V I O L E N C E OF S U B T R A C T I O N

not form a t r i a d : w e h a v e e i t h e r t h e o p p o s i t i o n of B e i n g a n d W o r l d (appearance),

or t h e

opposition

of W o r l d

and

Event. There

is an

u n e x p e c t e d c o n c l u s i o n to b e d r a w n from t h i s : i n s o f a r a s ( B a d i o u e m ­ p h a s i z e s t h i s p o i n t a g a i n a n d a g a i n ) a t r u e E v e n t i s not m e r e l y a n e g a t i v e g e s t u r e , b u t o p e n s u p a p o s i t i v e d i m e n s i o n of t h e N e w , a n E v e n t b t h e i m p o s i t i o n of a n e w w o r l d , of a n e w M a s t e r - S i g n i f i e r ( a n e w N a m i n g , a s B a d i o u p u t s it, or, w h a t L a c a n c a l l e d '\>erd un nouveau signifiant"). T h e t r u e e v e n t a l c h a n g e i s t h e p a s s a g e from t h e old to t h e n e w w o r l d . O n e s h o u l d e v e n g o a s t e p f u r t h e r a n d m t r o d u c e t h e d i m e n s i o n of d i a l e c t i c s h e r e : a n E v e n t can b e a c c o u n t e d for b y t h e t e n s i o n b e t w e e n t h e m u l t i p l i c i t y of B e i n g a n d t h e W o r l d , i t s site i s t h e s y m p t o m a l t o r s i o n of a W o r l d , it i s g e n e r a t e d b y t h e e x c e s s of B e i n g o v e r W o r l d (of p r e s e n c e o v e r r e - p r e s e n t a t i o n ) . T h e p r o p e r l y H e g e l i a n e n i g m a is h e r e not " h o w i s a n E v e n t , t h e r i s e of s o m e t h i n g t r u l y N e w , p o s s i b l e ? " , b u t , r a t h e r , h o w d o w e p a s s from B e i n g to W o r l d , to ( f i n i t e ) a p p e a r a n c e , t h a t i s , h o w c a n B e i n g , i t s flat i n f i n i t e m u l t i p l i c i t y , appear (to i t s e l f ) ? Is it not t h a t t h i s p r e s u p p o s e s a k i n d of " n e g a t i v i t y " t h a t h a s to b e s o m e h o w o p e r a t i v e in t h e m i d s t of B e i n g Itself, s o m e force of ( n o t infinity, b u t , on t h e c o n t r a r y ) finltization,

w h a t H e g e l c a l l e d t h e " a b s o l u t e p o w e r " of t e a r i n g a p a r t w h a t

in r e a l i t y b e l o n g s t o g e t h e r , of g i v i n g a u t o n o m y to a p p e a r a n c e . P r i o r to cmy " s y n t h e s i s , " S p i r i t i s w h a t K a n t c a l l e d " t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i m a g i n a t i o n , " t h e p o w e r to a b s t r a c t , to s i m p l i f y / m o r t i f y , to r e d u c e a t h i n g to its " u n a r y f e a t u r e " (U train unaire; der euizige Zug),

to e r a s e its e m p i r i c a l r i c h n e s s .

S p i r i t i s t h e p o w e r to s a y , w h e n it i s c o n f r o n t e d w i t h t h e c o n f u s i n g w e a l t h of e m p i r i c a l f e a t u r e s : " A l l t h i s d o e s n ' t r e a l l y m a t t e r ! J u s t tell m e if t h e f e a t u r e X l s t h e r e o r n o t ! " A n d , Insofar a s w o r l d a s s u c h i s s u s t a i n e d b y a " p o i n t , " b y s u c h a v i o l e n t i m p o s i t i o n of a " u n a r y f e a t u r e , " i s a p o i n t - l e s s , a t o n a l w o r l d n o t a n a m e for w o r l d l e s s n e s s ? B a d i o u h i m s e l f r e c e n t l y c l a i m e d t h a t o u r t i m e i s devout of woridtineM, r e f e r r i n g to M a r x ' s w e l l k n o w n p a s s a g e from t h e Communist Manifesto a b o u t t h e " d e t e r r l t o r i a l i z i n g " force of c a p i t a l i s m w h i c h d i s s o l v e s a l l f i x e d s o c i a l forms:

T h e p a s s a g e w h e r e M a r x s p e a k s of t h e d e s a c r a l i z a t i o n of all s a c r e d b o n d s in t h e i c y w a t e r s of c a p i t a l i s m h a s a n e n t h u s i a s t i c tone; it is M a r x ' s e n t h u s i a s m for t h e d i s s o l v i n g p o w e r of C a p i t a l . T h e fact t h a t C a p i t a l r e v e a l e d i t s e l f to b e t h e m a t e r i a l p o w e r c a p a b l e of d i s e n c u m ­ b e r i n g u s of t h e " s u p e r e g o " figures of the O n e a n d t h e s a c r e d b o n d s t h a t a c c o m p a n y it e f f e c t i v e l y r e p r e s e n t s its p o s i t i v e l y p r o g r e s s i v e c h a r a c t e r , a n d it i s s o m e t h i n g t h a t c o n t i n u e s to u n f o l d to t h e p r e s e n t 397

IN D E F E N S E OF L O S T C A U S E S

d a y . H a v i n g s a i d that, t h e g e n e r a h z e d a t o m i s m , t h e r e c u r r e n t i n d i v i d u a h s m a n d , finally, t h e a b a s e m e n t of t h o u g h t i n t o m e r e p r a c t i c e s of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , of t h e g o v e r n m e n t of t h i n g s o r of t e c h n i c a l m a n i p u l a ­ tion, c o u l d n e v e r satisfy m e a s a p h i l o s o p h e r . I s i m p l y t h i n k t h a t it i s in t h e v e r y e l e m e n t of d e s a c r a l l z a t i o n t h a t w e m u s t r e c o n n e c t to t h e v o c a t i o n of t h i n k i n g .

B a d i o u t h u s r e c o g n i z e s t h e e x c e p t i o n a l ontoL>giml s t a t u s of c a p i t a l i s m w h o s e d y n a m i c u n d e r m i n e s e v e r y s t a b l e f r a m e w o r k of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n : the task that should normally be performed b y critico-political activity ( n a m e l y , t h e t a s k of u n d e r m i n i n g t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l f r a m e of t h e s t a t e ) , is a l r e a d y p e r f o r m e d b y c a p i t a l i s m i t s e l f — a n d , t h i s p o s e s a p r o b l e m for B a d i o u ' s n o t i o n of " e v e n t a l " p o l i t i c s . In p r e - c a p i t a l i s t f o r m a t i o n s , e v e r y state, e v e r y representational totalization, Implies a foundational exclu­ sion, a p o i n t of " s j m i p t o m a l t o r s i o n , " a " p a r t of n o - p a r t , " a n e l e m e n t w h i c h , a l t h o u g h p a r t of t h e s y s t e m , d o e s n o t h a v e a p r o p e r p l a c e w i t h i n it — a n d

emancipatory

p o l i t i c s h a s to i n t e r v e n e

from

this excessive

( " s u p e r n u m e r a r y " ) e l e m e n t w h i c h , a l t h o u g h p a r t of t h e s i t u a t i o n , c a n n o t b e accounted for in t e r m s of t h e s i t u a t i o n . H o w e v e r , w h a t h a p p e n s w h e n t h e s y s t e m n o l o n g e r e x c l u d e s t h e e x c e s s , b u t d i r e c t l y p o s i t s it a s its d r i v i n g force —^as i s t h e c a s e i n c a p i t a l i s m w h i c h c a n o n l y r e p r o d u c e itself through its constant self-revolutionizing, through the constant overcom­ i n g of its o w n l i m i t s ? T o p u t it i n a s i m p l i f i e d w a y : if a p o l i t i c a l e v e n t , a r e v o l u t i o n a r y e m a n c i p a t o r y intervention into a determinate historical w o r l d , i s a l w a y s l i n k e d to t h e e x c e s s i v e p o i n t of i t s " s y m p t o m a l t o r s i o n , " if it b y definition u n d e r m i n e s t h e c o n t o u r s of t h i s w o r l d , h o w , t h e n , a r e w e to d e f i n e t h e e m a n c i p a t o r y p o l i t i c a l i n t e r v e n t i o n i n t o a u n i v e r s e w h i c h is a l r e a d y i n itself w o r l d - l e s s , w h i c h , for i t s r e p r o d u c t i o n , n o l o n g e r n e e d s to b e c o n t a i n e d b y t h e c o n s t r a i n t s of a " w o r l d " ? A s A l b e r t o

Toscano

n o t e d i n hrs p e r s p i c u o u s a n a l y s i s , B a d i o u g e t s c a u g h t h e r e i n a n i n c o n ­ s i s t e n c y : h e d r a w s t h e " l o g i c a l " c o n c l u s i o n that, i n a " w o r l d l e s s " u n i v e r s e ( w h i c h i s t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y u n i v e r s e of g l o b a l c a p i t a l i s m ) , t h e a i m o l e m a n c i p a t o r y p o l i t i c s s h o u l d b e t h e p r e c i s e o p p o s i t e of i t s " t r a d i t i o n a l " inodiu operandi~t\ie:

t a s k t o d a y is to form a n e w w o r l d , to p r o p o s e n e w

M a s t e r - S i g n i f i e r s that w o u l d provide "cognitive mapping":

[. . . ] w h i l s t in B a d i o u ' s t h e o r e t i c a l w r i t i n g s on t h e a p p e a r a n c e of w o r l d s h e c o g e n t l y a r g u e s t h a t e v e n t s e n g e n d e r t h e dydfunction o l worlds and their transcendental 398

r e g i m e s , i n h i s " o n t o l o g y of t h e

THE VIOLENCE OF SUBTRACTION

p r e s e n t " B a d i o u a d v o c a t e s t h e n e c e s s i t y , in o u r " m t e r v a l h c ' o r w o r l d l e s s t i m e s , of coiutructing a w o r l d , s u c h t h a t t h o s e n o w e x c l u d e d c a n c o m e to i n v e n t n e w n a m e s , n a m e s c a p a b l e of s u s t a i n i n g n e w t r u t h p r o c e d u r e s . A s h e w r i t e s , "I h o l d t h a t w e a r e a t a v e r y s p e c i a l m o m e n t , a m o m e n t at which there Li not any world" [. . . ] A s a r e s u l t : " P h i l o s o p h y h a s n o o t h e r l e g i t i m a t e a i m e x c e p t to h e l p find t h e n e w n a m e s t h a t w i l l b r i n g i n t o e x i s t e n c e t h e u n k n o w n w o r l d t h a t is o n l y w a i t i n g for u s b e c a u s e w e a r e w a i t i n g for i t . " In a p e c u l i a r i n v e r s i o n of s o m e of t h e k e y t r a i t s of h i s d o c t r i n e , it s e e m s t h a t B a d i o u is h e r e a d v o c a t i n g , to s o m e e x t e n t , a n " o r d e r i n g " t a s k , o n e t h a t w i l l i n e v i t a b l y , if p e r h a p s m i s t a k e n l y , r e s o n a t e for s o m e w i t h t h e n o w u b i q u r t o u s s l o g a n " A n ­ other W o r l d is Possible".''^

T h i s i n c o n s r s t e n c y b r r n g s u s b a c k to t h e t o p i c of " d e t e r m i n a t e n e g a t i o n " : t h e " o r d e r i n g " t a s k of b u i l d i n g a n e w w o r l d i s a k i n d of " r e t u r n of t h e r e p r e s s e d , " not o n l y t h e r e p r e s s e d

of B a d i o u ' s t h e o r y , b u t

also

the

r e p r e s s e d of t h e p o l i t i c a l e v e n t itself w h i c h s e r v e s B a d i o u a s t h e m a i n c o n t e m p o r a r y p o i n t of r e f e r e n c e , a n d w h i c h , a s w e h a v e s e e n , failed p r e c i s e l y in t h i s t a s k of " o r d e r i n g , " t h e M a o i s t C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n .

The leMoru of the Cultural Revolution W h a t , t h e n , for B a d i o u is the h i s t o r i c a l r e s u l t ( l e s s o n ) of t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n ? It i s difficult to m i s s t h e i r o n y of t h e fact t h a t B a d i o u , w h o a d a m a n t l y o p p o s e s t h e n o t i o n of t h e a c t a s n e g a t i v e , l o c a t e s t h e h i s t o r i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e of the M a o i s t C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n p r e c i s e l y in s i g n a l i n g

t h e e n d of t h e p a r t y - s t a t e a s t h e c e n t r a l p r o d u c t i o n of r e v o l u t i o n a r y political activity. M o r e generally, the Cultural Revolution showed that it w a s no l o n g e r p o s s i b l e to a s s i g n e i t h e r t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y m a s s a c t i o n s or the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p h e n o m e n a to t h e s t r i c t l o g i c of c l a s s r e p r e s e n t a ­ tion. T h a t is w h y it r e m a i n s a p o l i t i c a l e p i s o d e of t h e h i g h e s t i m ­ portance.

T h e s e l i n e s a r e from Revolution?",

Badiou's "The

Cultural Revolution: The

a t e x t w h o s e v e r y title p o i n t s t o w a r d s a n

Last

unexpected

p a r a l l e l w i t h f i e l d e g g e r : t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n h o l d s for B a d i o u t h e s a m e s t r u c t u r a l p l a c e a s t h e N a z i R e v o l u t i o n d i d for H e i d e g g e r , t h a t of t h e m o s t r a d i c a l p o l i t i c a l e n g a g e m e n t w h o s e f a i l u r e s i g n a l s t h e e n d of ( t h e 399

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e o t ) p o l i t i c a l e n g a g e m e n t a s s u c h . T h e c o n c l u s i o n of B a d i o u ' s text e m p h a t i c a l l y reiterates this point: In t h e e n d , t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n , e v e n in its v e r y i m p a s s e , b e a r s w i t n e s s to t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y t r u l y a n d g l o b a l l y to free p o l i t i c s from t h e f r a m e w o r k of t h e p a r t y - s t a t e t h a t i m p r i s o n s it. It m a r k s a n i r r e p l a c e a b l e e x p e r i e n c e of s a t u r a t i o n , b e c a u s e a v i o l e n t w i l l t o find a n e w p o l i t i c a l p a t h , to r e - l a u n c h t h e r e v o l u t i o n , a n d to find n e w f o r m s of t h e w o r k e r s ' s t r u g g l e u n d e r t h e f o r m a l c o n d i t i o n s of s o c i a l i s m , e n d e d u p In f a i l u r e w h e n c o n f r o n t e d w i t h t h e n e c e s s a r y m a i n t e n a n c e , for r e a s o n s of p u b l i c o r d e r a n d t h e r e f u s a l of civil w a r , of t h e g e n e r a l f r a m e of t h e party-state.

T h e k e y I m p o r t a n c e of t h e l a s t t r u l y g r e a t r e v o l u t i o n a r y e x p l o s i o n of t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y i s t h u s négative, it r e s i d e s in i t s v e r y f a i l u r e w h i c h s i g n a l s t h e e x h a u s t i o n of t h e p a r t y / s t a t i s t l o g i c of t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y p r o c e s s . H o w e v e r , w h a t if o n e s h o u l d h e r e t a k e a s t e p f u r t h e r

and

conceive both poles, presentation ("direct" extra-statist self-organization of t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y m a s s e s ) a n d r e - p r e s e n t a t i o n , a s t w o i n t e r d e p e n d e n t p o l e s , s o that, in a t r u l y H e g e l i a n p a r a d o x , t h e e n d of t h e p a r t y - s t a t e form of r e v o l u t i o n a r y a c t i v i t y g u i d e d b y t h e t e l o s of " t a k i n g o v e r t h e s t a t e p o w e r " i s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a l s o t h e e n d of a l l f o r m s of " d i r e c t " ( n o n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l ) s e l f - o r g a n i z a t i o n ( w o r k e r s ' c o u n c i l s a n d o t h e r f o r m s of "direct d e m o c r a c y " ) ? W h e n , i n h i s m o r e r e c e n t Log'u]ue
Cultural Revolution

in effect

tested,

for a l l o f t h e w o r l d ' s

r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s , t h e l i m i t s of L e n i n i s m . It t a u g h t u s t h a t t h e p o l i t i c s of e m a n c i p a t i o n

can no longer

be subject

to t h e p a r a d i g m

of

r e v o l u t i o n , o r r e m a i n c a p t i v e to t h e p a r t y - f o r m . S y m m e t r i c a l l y , it cannot be i n s c r i b e d in the p a r l i a m e n t a r y a n d electoral a p p a r a t u s . E v e r y t h i n g b e g i n s —and this is the s o m b r e g e n i u s of t h e C u l t u r a l Revolution—when, real,

the

by saturating the previous h y p o t h e s e s in the

high-school

Red Guards

w o r k e r s of S h a n g h a i , b e t w e e n

a n d students,

a n d then

the

1 9 6 6 a n d 1 9 6 8 , p r e s c r i b e d for t h e

d e c a d e s to c o m e t h e affirniatwe reaiuatwn

of t h i s b e g i n n i n g . B u t t h e i r

f u r y w a s still so c a u g h t u p in t h a t a g a i n s t w h i c h t h e y w e r e r i s i n g u p 400

T H E V I O L E N C E OF S U B T R A C T I O N

t h a t t h e y o n l y e x p l o r e d t h i s b e g i n n i n g from t h e s t a n d p o i n t of p u r e negation. There is a tension between these t w o interpretations. According to " T h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n : T h e L a s t R e v o l u t i o n ? " , t h e f a i l u r e of t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n " b e a r s w i t n e s s to t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y t r u l y a n d g l o b a l l y to free p o l i t i c s from t h e f r a m e w o r k of t h e p a r t y - s t a t e t h a t i m p r i s o n s i t , " a n d t h e c a u s e of t h i s f a i l u r e is s p e c i f i e d a t a r a t h e r c o m m o n s e n s i c a l l e v e l ( " t h e n e c e s s a r y m a i n t e n a n c e , for r e a s o n s of p u b l i c o r d e r a n d t h e r e f u s a l of civil w a r , of t h e g e n e r a l f r a m e of t h e p a r t y - s t a t e " — i n s h o r t , t h e e x i g e n c i e s of t h e " s e r v i c i n g of t h e g o o d s " : w h a t e v e r t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y p e r t u r b a t i o n s , life m u s t g o on, p e o p l e h a v e to w o r k , to c o n s u m e , a n d so on, a n d t h e o n l y a g e n c y to d o t h i s w a s t h e p a r t y - s t a t e . . . i n p e r s o n a l terms, no M a o Z e d o n g w i t h o u t Zhou Enlai m a k i n g sure that the state f u n c t i o n e d s o m e h o w d u r i n g t h e t u r b u l e n c e of t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n ) . C o n t r a r y to t h i s c l a i m a b o u t t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y of f r e e i n g politics frû/n t h e framework

of t h e p a r t y - s t a t e , t h e p a s s a g e from

Logiques des mondes

p e r c e i v e s a s t h e l e s s o n of t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n 13'ing i n t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y of p u r s u i n g r a d i c a l p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y within t h e f r a m e w o r k of t h e p a r t y - s t a t e ( " t h e p o l i t i c s of e m a n c i p a t i o n c a n n o l o n g e r b e s u b j e c t to t h e p a r a d i g m of r e v o l u t i o n , o r r e m a i n c a p t i v e to t h e p a r t y - f o r m " ) . S o neither can w e practice revolutionary politics outside the party-state f r a m e w o r k , n o r c a n w e d o it w i t h i n t h i s f r a m e w o r k . N o w o n d e r that, w h e n , i n Logitjue^t de
compo-

n e n t s ( e q u a l i t y , t e r r o r , v o l u n t a r i s m , t r u s t i n t h e p e o p l e ) r o o t e d in t h e s t a t i s t - p a r t y m o d e l , r e l y i n g o n a r e v o l u t i o n a r y state, w h r c h e x h a u s t e d i t s p o t e n t i a l in t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n , w i t h t h e c o n s e q u e n c e t h a t w e h a v e to a b a n d o n

it, o r i s it t r u l y ' e t e r n a l ' a n d , a s s u c h , w a i t i n g to b e

reinvented in our post-revolutionary e p o c h ?

h e offers

an a n s w e r

w h i c h is not convincing:

In effect, w h a t c o n s t i t u t e s t h e t r a n s - w o r l d l y s u b j e c t i v i t y of t h e

figure

of t h e s t a t e r e v o l u t i o n a r y i s p r e c i s e l y t h e fact t h a t it t r i e s to m a k e t h e separation b e t w e e n state a n d r e v o l u t i o n a r y politics prevail, but w i t h t h e t w i s t t h a t it tries to do so from within state power. C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e figure

in q u e s t i o n o n l y e x i s t s if w e p r e s u p p o s e t h i s s e p a r a t i o n . T h a t is

a l s o w h y it i s o n l y p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y c o n s t r u c t i b l e t o d a y , after a n e w t h i n k r n g of p o l i t i c s h a s m a d e it t h i n k a b l e a n d p r a c t i c a b l e to s i t u a t e 401

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

oneself, in o r d e r to t h i n k a c t i o n , from w i t h i n a p o l i t i c s for w h i c h state p o w e r IS n e i t h e r a n o b j e c t i v e n o r a n o r m . B a d i o u ' s r e s o l u t i o n of t h i s d e a d l o c k ( n e i t h e r w i t h i n nor o u t s i d e t h e state f o r m ) i s t h u s : at a àiitance from t h e s t a t e form — o u t s i d e , but not a n o u t s i d e t h a t is d e s t r u c t i v e of t h e s t a t e form; r a t h e r , a g e s t u r e of " s u b t r a c t i n g " o n e s e l f from t h e state form w i t h o u t d e s t r o y i n g it. T h e t r u e q u e s t i o n h e r e is: how i s t h i s e x t e r n a l i t y w i t h r e g a r d to t h e s t a t e to b e o p e r a t i o n a l i z e d ? S i n c e t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n s i g n a l s t h e f a i l u r e of t h e a t t e m p t to d e s t r o y t h e state from w i t h i n , to a b o l i s h t h e s t a t e , is t h e n t h e a l t e r n a t i v e to s i m p l y a c c e p t t h e s t a t e a s a fact, a s t h e a p p a r a t u s that t a k e s c a r e of " s e r v i c i n g the g o o d s , " and

to o p e r a t e a t a d i s t a n c e t o w a r d s it ( b o m b a r d i n g it w i t h

p r e s c r i p t i v e p r o c l a m a t i o n s and d e m a n d s ) ? B u t d o e s not s u c h a position c o m e c l o s e to t h a t of S i m o n C r i t c h l e y , who, a s w e h a v e seen, a r g u e s that e m a n c i p a t o r y p o l i t i c s is

e n a c t e d or even s i m p l y a c t e d — p r a c t i c a l l y , locally, situationally — at a d i s t a n c e from t h e s t a t e . [. . . ] It c a l l s t h e state i n t o q u e s t i o n , it c a l l s the e s t a b l i s h e d o r d e r to a c c o u n t , not in o r d e r to d o away w i t h t h e state, d e s i r a b l e t h o u g h that m i g h t w e l l b e in s o m e Utopian s e n s e , b u t in o r d e r to b e t t e r it or a t t e n u a t e its m a l i c i o u s effect.

T h e m a i n a m b i g u i t y of this position r e s i d e s in a s t r a n g e non jeqidtur: if the s t a t e is h e r e to s t a y , if it is i m p o s s i b l e to a b o l i s h t h e s t a t e (and c a p i t a l i s m ) , why act w i t h a d i s t a n c e t o w a r d s s t a t e ? W h y not act with{in) the étate'l Why

not a c c e p t t h e b a s i c p r e m i s e of t h e T h i r d W a y ?

In o t h e r w o r d s , i s C r i t c h l e y ' s (and

B a d i o u ' s ) p o s i t i o n not that ol

r e l y i n g on t h e fact t h a t jomeone eUe w i l l a s s u m e the t a s k of

running

t h e s t a t e m a c h i n e r y , e n a b l i n g u s to e n g a g e in t a k i n g t h e c r i t i c a l d i s t a n c e t o w a r d s i t ? F u r t h e r m o r e , if t h e s p a c e of e m a n c i p a t o r y p o l i t i c s i s d e f i n e d b y a d i s t a n c e t o w a r d s t h e state, a r e w e not a b a n d o n i n g t h e field (of the s t a t e ) a l l too e a s i l y to t h e e n e m y ? Is it not c r u c i a l what form s t a t e p o w e r t a k e s ? D o e s t h i s p o s i t i o n not l e a d to t h e r e d u c t i o n of t h i s c r u c i a l q u e s t i o n to a s e c o n d a r y s t a t u s : u l t i m a t e l y , it d o e s not r e a l l y m a t t e r w h a t k i n d of State w e r i a v e ' S o w h e n B a d i o u c l a i m s t h a t t h e R e d G u a r d i s t s " p r e s c r i b e d for t h e d e c a d e s to come t h e affirnuitwe realization of t h i s b e g i n n i n g , o l w h i c h t h e y t h e m s e l v e s , s i n c e t h e i r f u r y r e m a i n e d c a u g h t u p in w h a t t h e y w e r e r i s i n g a g a i n s t , e x p l o r e d o n l y the face of p u r e n e g a t i o n , " will t h i s " a f f i r m a t i v e

401

T H E V I O L E N C E OF S U B T R A C T I O N

r e a l i z a t i o n " b e t h e o n e of i n v e n t i n g a n e w w a y of d i s p e n s i n g w i t h t h e state, of " a b o l i s h i n g " it, or a m e r e d i s t a n c e t o w a r d s t h e s t a t e , or — m u c h m o r e r a d i c a l l y — a n e w appropriation of s t a t e a p p a r a t u s e s ? T h e r e i s , h o w e v e r , a n o t h e r , e v e n m o r e i m p o r t a n t , a s p e c t of t h e f a i l u r e of t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n . B a d i o u r e a d s t h i s f a i l u r e — a n d , m o r e g e n ­ e r a l l y , t h e d e m i s e of C o m m u n i s m — a s s i g n a l i n g t h e e n d of t h e epoch i n w h i c h , in p o l i t i c s , it w a s p o s s i b l e to g e n e r a t e t r u t h a t t h e u n i v e r s a l level, as a global

( r e v o l u t i o n a r y ) project:

today,

in t h e

aftermath

of t h i s

h i s t o r i c a l defeat, a p o l i t i c a l t r u t h c a n o n l y b e g e n e r a t e d a s (the fidelity t o ) a l o c a l e v e n t , a l o c a l s t r u g g l e , a n i n t e r v e n t i o n i n t o a specific c o n ­ s t e l l a t i o n . T l o w e v e r , d o e s he not t h e r e b y s u b s c r i b e to h i s o w n v e r s i o n of postmodernism,

of t h e notion t h a t , t o d a y , o n l y l o c a l a c t s of " r e s i s t a n c e "

a r e p o s s i b l e ? W h a t B a d i o u ( l i k e L a c l a u a n d B u t l e r ) s e e m s to l a c k i s a m e t a - t h e o r y of h i s t o r y t h a t w o u l d p r o v i d e a c l e a r a n s w e r to the a l t e r ­ native that haunts "postmodern" theorizations p a s s a g e from

of t h e p o l i t i c a l : is the

" l a r g e " to " s m a l l " ( h i ) s t o r i e s , from e s s e n t i a l i s m to c o n ­

t i n g e n c y , from g l o b a l to l o c a l p o l i t i c s , a n d so forth, i t s e l f a h i s t o r i c a l shift, so that, p r i o r to it, u n i v e r s a l p o l i t i c s wa^ p o s s i b l e , or i s t h e i n s i g h t into t h e l o c a l c h a r a c t e r of p o l i t i c a l i n t e r v e n t i o n s a n i n s i g h t i n t o t h e v e r y e s s e n c e of p o l i t i c s , so t h a t t h e p r e v i o u s b e l i e f in t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of u n i v e r s a l p o l i t i c a l intervention w a s an ideological illusion? A l o n g t h e s e l i n e s , B a d i o u r e c e n t l y r e l e g a t e d c a p i t a l i s m to the n a t u r ­ a l i z e d " b a c k g r o u n d " of o u r h i s t o r i c a l c o n s t e l l a t i o n : c a p i t a l i s m a s " w o r l d l e s s " i s not

p a r t of a specific

situation,

it i s t h e

all-encompassing

b a c k g r o u n d a g a i n s t w h i c h p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n s e m e r g e . T h i s is w h y it is s e n s e l e s s to p u r s u e

"anti-capitalist politics": politics is a l w a y s

an

i n t e r v e n t i o n i n t o a p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n , a g a i n s t specific a g e n t s ; o n e c a n n o t d i r e c t l y " f i g h t " t h e n e u t r a l b a c k g r o u n d itself. O n e d o e s not fight " c a p ­ i t a l i s m , " o n e f i g h t s t h e U S g o v e r n m e n t , its d e c i s i o n s a n d m e a s u r e s a n d so on. B u t d o e s not this g l o b a l b a c k g r o u n d n o n e t h e l e s s let itself b e felt, from t i m e to t i m e , a s a v e r y p a l p a b l e a n d b r u t a l l i m i t a t i o n ? T h e r e c u r r e n t s t o r y of t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y Left i s t h a t of a l e a d e r or p a r t y e l e c t e d w i t h u n i v e r s a l enthusiasm,

promising

a "new

world"

(Mandela,

Lula)—but,

then,

s o o n e r or l a t e r , u s u a l l y after a c o u p l e of y e a r s , t h e y s t u m b l e u p o n t h e k e y d i l e m m a : d o e s o n e d a r e t o u c h t h e c a p i t a l i s t m e c h a n i s m s , or d o e s o n e d e c i d e to " p l a y t h e g a m e " ? If o n e d i s t u r b s the m e c h a n i s m s , o n e i s v e r y swiftly " p u n i s h e d " b y m a r k e t perturbations,

economic chaos, and

the

rest. S o a l t h o u g h it i s t r u e t h a t a n t i - c a p i t a l i s m c a n n o t b e d i r e c t l y the g o a l 403

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

oi p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n — in p o l i t i c s , o n e o p p o s e s c o n c r e t e p o l i t i c a l a g e n t s a n d t h e i r a c t i o n s , not a n a n o n y m o u s " s y s t e m " — o n e s h o u l d a p p l y h e r e t h e L a c a n i a n d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n g o a l a n d a i m : if not t h e i m m e d i a t e g o a l of t h e e m a n c i p a t o r y p o l i t i c s , a n t i - c a p i t a l i s m s h o u l d b e its u l t i m a t e a i m , the h o r i z o n of a l l i t s a c t i v i t y . Is thrs not t h e l e s s o n of M a r x ' s notion of the " c r i t i q u e o(pûlitical

e c o n o m y " ( t o t a l l y a b s e n t in B a d i o u ) ? A l t h o u g h the

s p h e r e of t h e e c o n o m y a p p e a r s " a p o l i t i c a l , " it i s t h e s e c r e t p o i n t

of

r e f e r e n c e a n d s t r u c t u r i n g p n n c i p l e of p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e s . A f e w d a y s before

t h e C z e c h m u n i c i p a l a n d S e n a t e e l e c t i o n s , on

O c t o b e r 16, 2 0 0 6 , t h e M i n i s t r y of t h e I n t e r i o r of t h e C z e c h R e p u b l i c banned the organization the Communist Youth L e a g u e ( K S M ) . W h a t w a s i t s " c r i m i n a l i d e a " on a c c o u n t of w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g to t h e M i n i s t r y of t h e Interior, t h e K S M d e s e r v e d to b e b a n n e d ? T h e fact t h a t its p r o g r a m a d v o c a t e s the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y of t h e m e a n s of p r o d u c tion into s o c i a l p r o p e r l y , t h e r e b y c o n t r a d i c t i n g t h e C z e c h ...

constitution

T o c l a i m t h a t t h e d e m a n d for s o c i a l o w n e r s h i p of t h e m e a n s of

p r o d u c t i o n i s a c r i m e i s to s a y t h a t m o d e r n l e f t - w i n g t h o u g h t h a s c r i m i n a l ^

21

roots. T h e a c t p r o p e r is p r e c i s e l y a n i n t e r v e n t i o n w h i c h d o e s n o t m e r e l y o p e r a t e within a g i v e n b a c k g r o u n d , b u t d i s t u r b s its c o o r d i n a t e s a n d t h u s r e n d e r s it v i s i b l e M a b a c k g r o u n d . S o , i n c o n t e m p o r a r y p o l i t i c s , adine qua non of an a c t i s t h a t it d i s t u r b s t h e b a c k g r o u n d s t a t u s of t h e e c o n o m y b y r e n d e r i n g p a l p a b l e i t s p o l i t i c a l d i m e n s i o n ( w h i c h i s w h y M a r x w r o t e on political e c o n o m y ) . R e c a l l W e n d y B r o w n ' s t r e n c h a n t o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t "if M a r x i s m h a d a n y a n a l y t i c a l v a l u e for p o l i t i c a l t h e o r y , w a s it not in the insistence that the problem

of f r e e d o m w a s c o n t a i n e d in t h e s o c i a l

relations implicitly d e c l a r e d 'unpolitical'—that is, n a t u r a l i z e d — i n liberal discourse?"^^

This is w h y

"the

political purchase

of

contemporary

A m e r i c a n i d e n t i t y p o l i t i c s w o u l d s e e m to b e a c h i e v e d in p a r t a c e r t a i n r e n a t u r a l i z a t i o n of c a p i t a l i s m . "

through

T h e c r u c i a l q u e s t i o n to b e

a s k e d is t h u s : [. . . ] to w h a t e x t e n t a c r i t i q u e of c a p i t a l i s m i s f o r e c l o s e d b y t h e c u r r e n t c o n f i g u r a t i o n of o p p o s i t i o n a l p o l i t i c s , a n d n o t s i m p l y b y t h e " l o s s of t h e s o c i a l i s t a l t e r n a t i v e " o r the o s t e n s i b l e " t r i u m p h of l i b e r a l ism"

in t h e g l o b a l o r d e r . In c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e M a r x i s t c r i t i q u e of a

s o c i a l w h o l e a n d t h e M a r x i s t v i s i o n of total t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , to w h a t extent do identity politics require a standard

i n t e r n a l to e x i s t i n g

s o c i e t y a g a i n s t w h i c h to p i t c h t h e i r c l a i m s , a s t a n d a r d t h a t not o n l y 404

T H E V I O L E N C E OF S U B T R A C T I O N

p r e s e r v e s c a p i t a l i s m from c r i t i q u e , b u t s u s t a i n s t h e i n v i s i b i h t y a n d i n a r t i c u l a t e n e s s of c l a s s —not i n c i d e n t a l l y , b u t e n d e m i c a l l y ? C o u l d w e h a v e s t u m b l e d u p o n o n e r e a s o n w h y c l a s s is i n v a r i a b l y n a m e d

but

r a r e l y t h e o r i z e d o r d e v e l o p e d in t h e m u l t i c u l t u r a l i s t m a n t r a , " r a c e , class, gender, s e x u a l i t y " ? Although

B a d i o u ' s u n i v e r s a l i s m i s , of c o u r s e ,

i d e n t i t y p o l i t i c s , d o e s it not

radically opposed

to

s h a r e w i t h it t h i s " r e n a t u r a l i z a t i o n " of

c a p i t a l i s m in t h e g u i s e of t h e r e d u c t i o n of c a p i t a l i s m to a n

omnipresent

b a c k g r o u n d of p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e s ? F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e i r o n y h e r e i s t h a t t h i s " r e n a t u r a l i z a t i o n " of c a p i t a l i s m i n t o a p r e s u p p o s e d b a c k g r o u n d i s t h e k e y i d e o l o g i c a l c o n s t i t u e n t of w h a t F u k u y a m a c a l l e d t h e E n d of f i i s t o r y . T h e o b v i o u s c h o i c e a p r o p o s F u k u y a m a s e e m s to b e : e i t h e r o n e a c c e p t s h i s p s e u d o - H e g e l i a n t h e s i s on t h e E n d of H i s t o r y , on t h e f i n a l l y

found

r a t i o n a l form of s o c i a l life, o r o n e e m p h a s i z e s t h a t s t r u g g l e s a n d h i s t o r i c a l c o n t i n g e n c y g o on, t h a t w e a r e f a r from a n y E n d of H i s t o r y . M y p o i n t i s t h a t n e i t h e r of t h e t w o o p t i o n s i s t r u l y H e g e l i a n . O n e s h o u l d , of c o u r s e , r e j e c t t h e n a i v e n o t i o n of t h e E n d of H i s t o r y in t h e s e n s e of a c h i e v e d r e c o n c i l i a t i o n , of t h e b a t t l e in p r i n c i p l e a l r e a d y w o n ; h o w e v e r ,

with

t o d a y ' s g l o b a l c a p i t a l i s t l i b e r a l - d e m o c r a t i c o r d e r , w i t h t h i s r e g i m e of " g l o b a l r e f l e x i v i t y , " w e did r e a c h a q u a l i t a t i v e b r e a k w i t h a l l h i s t o r y h i t h e r t o , h i s t o r y did i n a w a y r e a c h its e n d , w e do in fact l i v e in a p o s t historical society. Globalized historicism a n d c o n t i n g e n c y are definitive i n d e x e s of t h i s " e n d of h i s t o r y . " S o , o n e c a n s a y t h a t w e s h o u l d i n d e e d a s s e r t that, t o d a y , a l t h o u g h h i s t o r y i s not a t a n e n d , t h e v e r y notion of " h i s t o r i c i t y " f u n c t i o n s in a different w a y t h a n b e f o r e . W h a t t h i s m e a n s i s that, p a r a d o x i c a l l y , t h e " r e n a t u r a l i z a t i o n " of c a p i t a l i s m a n d t h e e x p e r i ­ e n c e of o u r s o c i e t y a s a r e f l e x i v e r i s k s o c i e t y in w h i c h p h e n o m e n a experienced as contingent,

a s t h e r e s u l t of a h i s t o r i c a l l y

are

contingent

c o n s t r u c t i o n , a r e t w o s i d e s of t h e s a m e c o i n . T h e p r e d o m i n a n t n o t i o n of i d e o l o g y i s t h a t it fixates on o r " n a t u r a l i z e s " w h a t i s in fact t h e c o n t i n g e n t r e s u l t of a h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s ; t h e a n t i d o t e i s t h u s to s e e t h i n g s a s d y n a m i c , p a r t of a h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s .

Today,

h o w e v e r , w h e n t h e notion of u n i v e r s a l h i s t o r i c i t y a n d c o n t i n g e n c y is p a r t of t h e h e g e m o n i c i d e o l o g y , o n e s h o u l d

rather turn the critico-

i d e o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e u p s i d e d o w n a n d a s k : w h a t i s it t h a t the same in t h e m u c h c e l e b r a t e d n o m a d i c d y n a m i s m of

reniaiiu

contemporary

s o c i e t y ? T h e a n s w e r i s , of c o u r s e , c a p i t a l i s m , c a p i t a l i s t r e l a t i o n s . A n d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e S a m e a n d w h a t h a s c h a n g e d is h e r e p r o p e r l y 405

IN D E F E N S E O F L O S T C A U S E S

dialectical: that w h i c h remains the same — capitalist relations — i s the very constellation w h i c h instigates the incessant c h a n g e , since the

deepest

f e a t u r e of c a p i t a l i s m is i t s d y n a m i c of p e r m a n e n t s e l f - r e v o l u t i o n i z i n g . If w e w e r e to e n a c t a t r u l y r a d i c a l c h a n g e — a c h a n g e of c a p i t a l i s t r e l a t i o n s t h e m s e l v e s — t h a t w o u l d p r e c i s e l y c u t t h e r o o t s from u n d e r t h e i n c e s s a n t s o c i a l d y n a m i c of c a p i t a l i s t life.

Which duhtractiim? O n e s h o u l d a l w a y s b e a t t e n t i v e w h e n o p p o n e n t s s t a r t to t a l k t h e s a m e l a n g u a g e , to s h a r e a p r e m i s e — t h i s s h a r e d p o i n t i s , a s a r u l e , symptomal

point.

Let

us take three

contemporary

their

philosophers

as

different a s B a d i o u , C r i t c h l e y , a n d N e g r i : a s w e h a v e s e e n , t h e y s h a r e t h e p r e m i s e t h a t t h e e r a of p a r t y - s t a t e p o l i t i c s in w h i c h t h e u l t i m a t e a i m is to t a k e c o n t r o l of t h e s t a t e a p p a r a t u s is o v e r —from should

subtract

i t s e l f from

the domain

n o w on, p o l i t i c s

of t h e s t a t e , c r e a t i n g

spaces

o u t s i d e , " s i t e s of r e s i s t a n c e . " T h e o b v e r s e of t h i s shift i s t h e a c c e p t a n c e of c a p i t a l i s m a s t h e " b a c k g r o u n d " of o u r l i v e s : t h e l e s s o n of t h e fall of C o m m u n i s t s t a t e s i s t h a t it i s m e a n i n g l e s s to " f i g h t c a p i t a l i s m " . . . It is from t h i s s h a r e d s p a c e t h a t o n e s h o u l d " s u b t r a c t " oneself: " r e s i s t a n c e presents itself a s an e x o d u s , as a d e p a r t u r e outside the w o r l d . " In a r e c e n t i n t e r v i e w , A l a i n B a d i o u e x p o s e d t h e c o r e of h i s political d i a g n o s i s of o u r p r e d i c a m e n t . H e s t a r t s b y d r a w i n g a Hne of d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n c o m m u n i s m a n d M a r x i s m : h e still c o n s i d e r s h i m s e l f a c o m m u ­ nist ( " C o m m u n i s m in t h e ' g e n e r i c s e n s e ' s i m p l y m e a n s t h a t e v e r y o n e is e q u a l to e v e r y o n e e l s e w i t h i n the m u l t i p l i c i t y a n d d i v e r s i t y of social f u n c t i o n s " ) . " M a r x i s m , h o w e v e r , i s s o m e t h i n g e l s e . " T h e c o r e of M a r x ­ ism

is w h a t L e n i n c a l l e d t h e " A B C of c o m m u n i s m " : " t h e m a s s e s a r e

divided into classes, the classes are represented b y parties a n d the parties directed b y l e a d e r s " — t h i s is w h a t no longer holds today: the disorganized m a s s e s of g l o b a l c a p i t a l i s m a r e no l o n g e r d i v i d e d i n t o c l a s s e s in t h e c l a s s i c a l M a r x i s t fashion, so w h i l e t h e t a s k still i s to o r g a n i z e t h e m a s s e s p o l i t i c a l l y , it c a n no l o n g e r be d o n e i n t h e o l d c l a s s - p a r t y m a n n e r .

T h e m o d e l of t h e c e n t r a l i z e d p a r t y m a d e p o s s i b l e a n e w form of p o w e r t h a t w a s n o t h i n g l e s s t h a n t h e p o w e r of t h e p a r t y itself. W e a r e n o w at w h a t I call a " d i s t a n c e from t h e S t a t e . " T h i s i s first of a l l b e c a u s e the q u e s t i o n of p o w e r i s n o l o n g e r " i m m e d i a t e " : n o w h e r e d o e s a " t a k i n g p o w e r " in t h e i n s u r r e c t i o n a l s e n s e s e e m p o s s i b l e t o d a y . 406

T H E V I O L E N C E OF S U B T R A C T I O N

T h r e e p o i n t s a r e t o be n o t e d h e r e . First, t h e a m b i g u o u s d e f i n i t i o n of c o m m u n i s m : e q u a h t y " w i t h i n t h e m u h i p U c l t y a n d d i v e r s i t y of s o c i a l functions"—what this definition avoids is the i n e q u a l i t y g e n e r a t e d b y t h i s v e r y " m u l t i p l i c i t y a n d d i v e r s i t y of s o c i a l f u n c t i o n s . " S e c o n d , t h e n o t i o n of c l a s s a n t a g o n i s m a s s i m p l y " t h e m a s s e s d i v i d e d i n t o c l a s s e s " r e d u c e s it to a s u b d i v i s i o n w i t h i n t h e s o c i a l b o d y , i g n o r i n g its s t a t u s a s a c u t t h a t r u n s a c r o s s t h e e n t i r e s o c i a l b o d y . T h i r d , w h a t is t h e e x a c t s t a t u s of t h e I m p o s s i b i l i t y of a r e v o l u t i o n a r y s e i z u r e of p o w e r ? Is t h i s a m e r e t e m p o r a r y s e t b a c k , a s i g n t h a t w e l i v e in a n o n - r e v o l u t i o n a r y s i t u a t i o n , o r d o e s it i n d i c a t e t h e l i m i t a t i o n of t h e p a r t y - s t a t e m o d e l of r e v o l u t i o n ? B a d i o u o p t s for the s e c o n d v e r s i o n . In t h i s n e w s i t u a t i o n , w e n e e d a n e w l o r m of p o l i t i c s , t h e " p o l i t i c s of subtraction," political processes that are "independent

of—'subtracted'

f r o m — t h e p o w e r of t h e S t a t e . U n l i k e t h e i n s u r r e c t i o n a l form of t h e p a r t y , t h i s p o l i t i c s of s u b t r a c t i o n is n o l o n g e r i m m e d i a t e l y d e s t r u c t i v e , a n t a g ­ o n i s t i c o r m i l i t a r i z e d . " T h i s p o l i t i c s is at a d i s t a n c e from t h e s t a t e , n o l o n g e r " s t r u c t u r e d o r p o l a r i z e d a l o n g t h e a g e n d a a n d t i m e l i n e s fixed b y t h e S t a t e . " ITow a r e w e to t h i n k t h i s e x t e r n a l i t y w i t h r e g a r d to s t a t e ? Badiou proposes

here his k e y conceptual

distinction, that

between

destruction and subtraction:

[ a s u b t r a c t i o n ] i s no l o n g e r d e p e n d e n t on t h e d o m i n a n t l a w s of t h e p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t y of a s i t u a t i o n . It i s i r r e d u c i b l e , h o w e v e r , t o

the

d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e s e l a w s a s w e l l . A s u b t r a c t i o n m i g h t l e a v e t h e l a w s of t h e s i t u a t i o n still b e i n g in p l a c e . W h a t s u b t r a c t i o n d o e s i s b r i n g a b o u t a p o i n t of a u t o n o m y . It's a n e g a t i o n , b u t it c a n n o t b e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e p r o p e r l y d e s t r u c t i v e p a r t of n e g a t i o n . [. . . ] W e n e e d a n " o r i g i n a r y s u b t r a c t i o n " c a p a b l e of c r e a t i n g a n e w s p a c e of i n d e p e n ­ d e n c e a n d a u t o n o m y from t h e d o m i n a n t l a w s of t h e s i t u a t i o n .

The u n d e r l y i n g philosophical c a t e g o r y that B a d i o u p r o b l e m a t i z e s here is t h e H e g e l i a n n o t i o n of " d e t e r m i n a t e n e g a t i o n , " of a n e g a t i o n / d e s t r u c t i o n w h o s e r e s u l t i s not z e r o :

C o n t r a r y t o H e g e l , for w h o m t h e n e g a t i o n of the n e g a t i o n p r o d u c e s a n e w affirmation, I think w e must assert that t o d a y negativity, p r o p e r l y s p e a k i n g , d o e s not c r e a t e a n y t h i n g n e w . It d e s t r o y s t h e old, of c o u r s e , b u t d o e s not g i v e r i s e to a n e w c r e a t i o n .

407

m

D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

C r u c i a l is this link b e t w e e n revolutionary politics a n d H e g e l i a n dialectics: " J u s t a s t h e p a r t y , w h i c h w a s o n c e the v i c t o r i o u s form of i n s u r r e c t i o n , i s t o d a y o u t d a t e d , so too i s t h e d i a l e c t i c a l t h e o r y of n e g a t i o n . "

Unfortu­

n a t e l y , t h i s l e a d s B a d i o u t o a p s e u d o - p r o b l e m of " a d j u s t m e n t o r c a l i b r a ­ t i o n b e t w e e n t h e p r o p e r l y n e g a t i v e p a r t of n e g a t i o n a n d t h e p a r t I c a l l e d ' s u b t r a c t i v e ' ":

W h a t I call a " w e a k n e g a t i o n , " t h e r e d u c t i o n of p o l i t i c s to d e m o c r a t i c o p p o s i t i o n , c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d a s a s u b t r a c t i o n t h a t h a s b e c o m e so d e t a c h e d from d e s t r u c t i v e n e g a t i o n t h a t it c a n n o l o n g e r b e d i s t i n ­ g u i s h e d from w h a t H a b e r m a s c a l l s " c o n s e n s u s . " O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , w e a r e a l s o w i t n e s s i n g a d e s p e r a t e a t t e m p t to m a i n t a i n d e s t r u c t i o n a s a pure figure of c r e a t i o n a n d t h e n e w . T h i s s y m p t o m often h a s a r e l i g i o u s a n d nihilistic dimension.

In short, the t a s k is to find a p r o p e r m e a s u r e b e t w e e n d e m o c r a t i c p u r e s u b t r a c t i o n , d e p r i v e d of i t s d e s t r u c t i v e p o t e n t i a l , a n d a p u r e l y d e s t r u c t i v e ("terrorist") n e g a t i o n — t h e p r o b l e m here is that this "internal disjunction of n e g a t i o n " i n t o its d e s t r u c t i v e a n d s u b t r a c t i v e a s p e c t s e x a c t l y r e p r o ­ d u c e s t h e d i s j u n c t i o n to w h i c h t h e H e g e l i a n notion

of

"determinate

n e g a t i o n " t r i e d to p r o v i d e a s o l u t i o n . ( B a d i o u i s w e l l a w a r e t h a t one s h o u l d not r e n o u n c e v i o l e n c e ; o n e s h o u l d r a t h e r r e c o n c e p t u a l i z e it a s defensive violence, a defense subtraction,

like the

of t h e

Zapatistas

autonomous

defending

space created

by

their liberated territory.)

T h e e x a m p l e of t h i s " p r o p e r m e a s u r e " p r o v i d e d b y B a d i o u r a i s e s m o r e q u e s t i o n s t h a n it a n s w e r s : t h a t of t h e S o l i d a r i t y m o v e m e n t in P o l a n d which practiced

a n e w d i a l e c t i c b e t w e e n t h e m e a n s of a c t i o n s t h a t w e r e c l a s s i c a l l y u n d e r s t o o d to b e n e g a t i v e —the s t r i k e , d e m o n s t r a t i o n s a n d so o n — a n d s o m e t h i n g l i k e t h e c r e a t i o n of a s p a c e of a u t o n o m y in t h e f a c t o r i e s . T h e o b j e c t i v e w a s not to t a k e p o w e r , to r e p l a c e a n e x i s t i n g p o w e r , b u t to force t h e S t a t e to i n v e n t a n e w r e l a t i o n w i t h t h e w o r k e r s .

H o w e v e r , t h e r e a s o n w h y t h i s e x p e r i m e n t w a s so brief, a s B a d i o u h i m s e l f n o t e s , i s t h a t it c l e a r l y f u n c t i o n e d a s t h e s e c o n d p h a s e in t h e t h r e e p h a s e s of d i s s i d e n c e : ( 1 ) c r i t i c i z i n g t h e r e g i m e on its o w n t e r m s ( " W e w a n t t r u e s o c i a l i s m ! " — t h a t i s , t h e r e p r o a c h to t h e r u l i n g p a r t y i s : " y o u b e t r a y e d y o u r o w n s o c i a l i s t r o o t s " ) ; ( 2 ) to t h e c o u n t e r - r e p r o a c h of the r u l i n g p a r t y 408

THE V I O L E N C E OF S U B T R A C T I O N

t h a t t h i s a d h e r e n c e to s o c i a h s m i s h y p o c r i t i c a l , f o l l o w s t h e o p e n a d m i s ­ s i o n : y e s , w e are o u t s i d e t h e s c o p e of t h e r u l i n g s o c i a l i s t i d e o l o g y , but w e d o not w a n t p o w e r , j u s t o u r a u t o n o m y , p l u s o u r d e m a n d i s t h a t t h o s e in p o w e r r e s p e c t c e r t a i n e l e m e n t a r y e t h i c a l r u l e s ( h u m a n r i g h t s , e t c . ) ; ( 3 ) to t h e r e p r o a c h of t h e r u l i n g p a r t y t h a t this l a c k of i n t e r e s t in t a k i n g p o w e r i s hypocritical, that the dissidents really w a n t power, follows the

open

a d m i s s i o n : y e s , w h y not, w e want p o w e r . . . Badiou's other

e x a m p l e , t h a t of H e z b o l l a h

in

Lebanon

with

its

a m b i g u o u s r e l a t i o n to state p o w e r ( p a r t i c i p a t i n g in it w h i l e r e t a i n i n g a d i s t a n c e t o w a r d s it, r e s u s c i t a t i n g s o m e t h i n g l i k e the o l d L e n i n i s t notion of " d u a l p o w e r " — w h i c h w a s for L e n i n a l s o a t e m p o r a r y

t a c t i c , lajHng

g r o u n d for t h e l a t e r full t a k e o v e r ) , g i v e s r i s e to a f u r t h e r p r o b l e m : t h e religious foundation

of t h e s e m o v e m e n t s . B a d i o u m a k e s t h e p o i n t t h a t

" t h e r e i s a n i n t e r n a l l i m i t a t i o n to t h e s e m o v e m e n t s , b o u n d a s t h e y a r e to r e l i g i o u s p a r t i c u l a r i t y . " Is, h o w e v e r , t h i s l i m i t a t i o n o n l y a s h o r t - t e r m o n e , a s B a d i o u s e e m s to i m p l y , s o m e t h i n g t h a t t h e s e m o v e m e n t s w i l l ( h a v e t o ) o v e r c o m e in t h e p r o v e r b i a l " s e c o n d , h i g h e r " s t a g e of t h e i r d e v e l o p m e n t , w h e n t h e y w i l l ( h a v e t o ) u n i v e r s a l i z e t h e m s e l v e s ? B a d r o u rs r i g h t to n o t e t h a t t h e p r o b l e m h e r e is not r e l i g i o n a s s u c h , b u t its p a r t i c u l a r i t y — a n d is t h i s p a r t i c u l a r i t y not now a fatal l i m i t a t i o n of t h e s e m o v e m e n t s , ideology takes a directly counter-Enlightenment

whose

form?

T h e a d e q u a t e r e p l y to B a d i o u ' s v e r s i o n of B a r t l e b y p o l i t i c s s h o u l d b e t h e H e g e l i a n o n e : the w h o l e p r o b l e m of " p r o p e r m e a s u r e " i s a false o n e . S u b t r a c t i o n u t h e " n e g a t i o n of n e g a t i o n " (or " d e t e r m i n a t e n e g a t i o n " ) , in O t h e r w o r d s , i n s t e a d of d i r e c t l y n e g a t i n g — d e s t r o y i n g t h e r u l i n g p o w e r , r e m a i n i n g w i t h i n i t s field, it u n d e r m i n e s t h i s v e r y field, o p e n i n g u p a n e w p o s i t i v e s p a c e . T h e p o i n t rs t h a t t h e r e a r e s u b t r a c t i o n s a n d s u b t r a c t i o n s — Badiou himself commits a symptomatic conceptual regression when he qualities the social-democratic position as a p u r e subtraction; the demo­ cratic subtraction

i s no s u b t r a c t i o n

a t a l l . It i s , r a t h e r , t h e " n i h i l i s t "

t e r r o r i s t s w h o s u b t r a c t , c r e a t i n g t h e i r s p a c e of f u n d a m e n t a l i s t r e l i g i o u s i d e n t i t y : in t h e m , r a d i c a l d e s t r u c t i o n overlaps with r a d i c a l

subtraction.

A n o t h e r " p u r e " s u b t r a c t i o n is N e w A g e m e d i t a t i v e w i t h d r a w a l , w h i c h c r e a t e s a s p a c e of its o w n w h i l e l e a v i n g t h e s p h e r e of social r e a l i t y t h e w a y It i s . ( T h e r e is a l s o pure d e s t r u c t i o n :

the outbursts

of " m e a n i n g l e s s "

v i o l e n c e l i k e t h e b u r n i n g of t h e c a r s in t h e F r e n c h banlieues of 2 0 0 5 . ) S o w h e n is s u b t r a c t i o n r e a l l y c r e a t i v e of a n e w s p a c e ? T h e o n l y a p p r o ­ p r i a t e a n s w e r : when it undermines the coordinates of the veiy system from whL-h It subtracts itself, s t r i k i n g at the p o i n t of its " s y m p t o m a l t o r s i o n . " I m a g i n e t h e 409

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

p r o v e r b i a l h o u s e of c a r d s or a p i l e of w o o d e n p i e c e s w h i c h r e l y on one a n o t h e r in s u c h a c o m p l e x w a y t h a t , if o n e s i n g l e c a r d o r p i e c e of w o o d is p u l l e d out—subtracted—the w h o l e edifice c o l l a p s e s : thuf i s t h e t r u e a r t of subtraction. R e c a l l t h e p l o t of S a r a m a g o ' s Seeing, in w h i c h v o t e r s m a s s i v e l y refuse to v o t e a n d c a s t i n v a l i d b a l l o t s , t h r o w i n g t h e e n t i r e p o l i t i c a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t ( t h e r u l i n g b l o c and t h e o p p o s i t i o n ) i n t o p a n i c : t h i s a c t p u t t h e m in a s i t u a t i o n of r a d i c a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o w a r d s t h e i r s u b j e c t . S u c h a n a c t is s u b t r a c t i o n a t its p u r e s t : a m e r e g e s t u r e of w i t h d r a w i n g from p a r t i c i p a ­ tion in a l e g i t i m i z i n g r i t u a l m a k e s s t a t e p o w e r a p p e a r a s if s u s p e n d e d in the air a b o v e the precipice. Their acts no l o n g e r c o v e r e d b y democratic l e g i t i m i z a t i o n , t h o s e in p o w e r a r e all of a s u d d e n d e p r i v e d of t h e option of r e p l y i n g to the p r o t e s t o r s " W h o a r e y o u to c r i t i c i z e u s ? W e a r e a n e l e c t e d g o v e r n m e n t , w e c a n d o w h a t w e w a n t ! " L a c k i n g l e g i t i m a c y , t h e y h a v e to e a r n it t h e h a r d w a y , b y t h e i r d e e d s . I r e m e m b e r

the l a s t y e a r s of

C o m m u n i s t r u l e in S l o v e n i a : t h e r e w a s n o g o v e r n m e n t so e a g e r to e a r n its l e g i t i m a c y a n d d o s o m e t h i n g for t h e p e o p l e , t r y i n g to p l e a s e e v e r y o n e , precisely because the

Communists held power w h i c h — a s everyone.

I n c l u d i n g t h e m s e l v e s , k n e w — w a s not d e m o c r a t i c a l l y l e g i t i m i z e d . S i n c e the Communists k n e w that their end w a s approaching, they k n e w they would be harshly judged . . . T h e r e i s a n o b v i o u s r e p r o a c h t h a t a r i s e s h e r e : i s t h i s not t h e c a s e a l r e a d y t o d a y , w i t h t h e g r o w i n g i n d i f f e r e n c e a n d a b s t e n t i o n of v o t e r s ? T h o s e in p o w e r feel n o t h r e a t i n t h e s e p h e n o m e n a ,

so w h e r e is t h e

s u b v e r s i v e e d g e h e r e ? T h e a n s w e r is t h a t o n e s h o u l d focus on t h e b i g O t h e r : t h e m a j o r i t y of t h o s e w h o d o n o t v o t e d o it not a s a n a c t i v e g e s t u r e of protest, b u t In t h e m o d e of r e l y i n g on o t h e r s — "I d o not v o t e , b u t I c o u n t on o t h e r s to v o t e in m y p l a c e . . . " N o n - v o t i n g b e c o m e s a n act w h e n it affects t h e b i g O t h e r . In t h i s p r e c i s e s e n s e , s u b t r a c t i o n already Li t h e H e g e l i a n " n e g a t i o n of the negation": the

first

n e g a t i o n Is a d i r e c t d e s t r u c t i o n .

It v i o l e n t l y

" n e g a t e s " / d e s t r o y s t h e p o s i t i v e c o n t e n t t h a t it o p p o s e s w i t h i n t h e s a m e s h a r e d field of r e a l i t y ; a s u b t r a c t i o n p r o p e r , on t h e c o n t r a r y , c h a n g e s t h e c o o r d i n a t e s of t h e field i t s e l f w i t h i n w h i c h t h e s t r u g g l e i s t a k i n g p l a c e . In s o m e of B a d i o u ' s f o r m u l a t i o n s , t h i s c r u c i a l point g e t s lost. P e t e r H a l l w a r d h a s d r a w n a t t e n t i o n to t h e m u l t i p l i c i t y of m e a n i n g s of B a d i o u i a n " s u b ­ t r a c t i o n " — a s if t h i s n o t i o n c o v e r s a W i t t g e n s t e i n i a n " f a m i l y " of m e a n ­ ings.

The m a i n axis is b e t w e e n subtraction a s " w i t h d r a w i n g

from

(from t h e d o m a i n of s t a t e , c r e a t i n g a s p a c e of o n e ' s o w n ) a n d s u b t r a c t i o n 410

T H E V I O L E N C E OF S U B T R A C T I O N

a s " r e d u c t i o n to m i n i m a l d i f f e r e n c e " ( m o v i n g from m u l t i p l i c i t y to b a s i c a n t a g o n i s m , a n d t h u s d r a w i n g t h e r e a l l i n e of s e p a r a t i o n ) . T h e difficult t a s k i s to m a k e a m o v e in w h i c h t h e s e t w o d i m e n s i o n s o v e r l a p . T h e s u b t r a c t i o n to b e m a d e i s o n e from t h e h e g e m o n i c field w h i c h , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , f o r c e f u l l y i n t e r v e n e s into t h i s

field,

r e d u c i n g it to its

occluded m i n i m a l difference. S u c h a subtraction is e x t r e m e l y violent, even m o r e v i o l e n t t h a n d e s t r u c t i o n / p u r i f i c a t i o n :

it i s a r e d u c t i o n

m i n i m a l d i f f e r e n c e , to a d i f f e r e n c e of p a r t ( s ) / n o - p a r t ,

to

1 a n d 0, g r o u p s

a n d t h e p r o l e t a r i a t . It i s not o n l y a s u b t r a c t i o n of t h e s u b j e c t from t h e h e g e m o n i c field, b u t a s u b t r a c t i o n w h i c h v i o l e n t l y affects t h i s field itself, l a y i n g b a r e its t r u e c o o r d i n a t e s . S u c h a s u b t r a c t i o n d o e s n o t a d d a t h i r d p o s i t i o n to t h e t w o p o s i t i o n s w h o s e t e n s i o n c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e h e g e m o n i c field ( s o t h a t w e h a v e n o w , on t h e top of l i b e r a l i s m a n d f u n d a m e n t a l i s m , a l s o r a d i c a l leftist e m a n c i p a t o r y p o l i t i c s ) ; t h i s t h i r d t e r m r a t h e r

"dena­

t u r a l i z e s " t h e w h o l e h e g e m o n i c field, b r i n g i n g o u t t h e u n d e r l y i n g c o m ­ p l i c i t y of t h e o p p o s e d p o l e s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e it. T a k e S h a k e s p e a r e ' s Romeo and Juliet: t h e h e g e m o n i c o p p o s i t i o n i s t h e r e t h e o n e b e t w e e n C a p u l e t s a n d M o n t a g u e s — i t is t h e o p p o s i t i o n in t h e p o s i t i v e o r d e r of B e i n g , a s t u p i d i s s u e of b e l o n g i n g to a p a r t i c u l a r , t h i s o r that, f a m i l y c l a n . T o m a k e t h i s i s s u e i n t o a " m i n i m a l d i f f e r e n c e , " to s u b o r d i n a t e all o t h e r c h o i c e s to t h i s o n e a s t h e o n l y c h o i c e t h a t r e a l l y m a t t e r s , is t h e w r o n g m o v e . R o m e o a n d J u l i e t ' s g e s t u r e w i t h r e g a r d to this h e g e m o n i c opposition

i s p r e c i s e l y t h a t of s u b t r a c t i o n : t h e i r l o v e

s i n g u l a r i z e s t h e m , t h e y s u b t r a c t t h e m s e l v e s from its h o l d ,

constituting

t h e i r o w n s p a c e of l o v e w h i c h , t h e m o m e n t it i s p r a c t i c e d a s m a r r i a g e , not m e r e l y a s a t r a n s g r e s s i v e s e c r e t affair, p e r t u r b s t h e h e g e m o n i c

opposi­

tion. T h e c r u c i a l t h i n g to t a k e n o t e of h e r e i s t h a t s u c h a s u b t r a c t i v e g e s t u r e on b e h a l f of l o v e " w o r k s " o n l y w i t h r e g a r d to t h e " s u b s t a n t i v e " d i f f e r e n c e s of p a r t i c u l a r ( e t h n i c , r e l i g i o u s ) d o m a i n s , not w i t h r e g a r d to class differences: class differences are "non-subtractlve,"

one

cannot

s u b t r a c t from t h e m b e c a u s e t h e y a r e not d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n p a r t i c u l a r r e g i o n s of s o c i a l b e i n g , b u t c u t s a c r o s s t h e e n t i r e s o c i a l s p a c e . W h e n c o n f r o n t e d w i t h a c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e , t h e r e a r e o n l y t w o s o l u t i o n s to t h e l o v e b o n d , n a m e l y , t h e c o u p l e had to t a k e s i d e s : e i t h e r the l o w e r - c l a s s p a r t n e r IS g r a c i o u s l y a c c e p t e d into the h i g h e r class, or the h i g h e r - c l a s s p a r t n e r r e n o u n c e s h i s o r h e r c l a s s in a p o l i t i c a l g e s t u r e of s o l i d a r i t y w i t h t h e subaltern class. T h e r e i n r e s i d e s t h e d i l e m m a of s u b t r a c t i o n : is it a s u b t r a c t i o n / w i t h ­ d r a w a l w h i c h l e a v e s t h e field from w h i c h it w i t h d r a w s Intact (or e v e n 411

IN D E F E N S E OF L O S T C A U S E S

f u n c t i o n s a s its i n h e r e n t s u p p l e m e n t , l i k e t h e " s u b t r a c t i o n " from social r e a l i t y to o n e ' s t r u e S e l f p r o p o s e d b y N e w A g e m e d i t a t i o n ) ; o r d o e s it v i o l e n t l y s h a k e u p the field from w h i c h it w i t h d r a w s ? T h e first s u b t r a c ­ tion fits p o s t - p o l i t i c a l b i o p o l i t i c s p e r f e c t l y ; w h a t , t h e n , w o u l d b e

the

o p p o s i t e of b i o p o l i t i c s ?

Give the dictatorship of the prolétariat a chance! W h a t if w e t a k e t h e r i s k of r e s u s c i t a t i n g t h e g o o d o l d " d i c t a t o r s h i p of the p r o l e t a r i a t " a s t h e o n l y w a y to b r e a k w i t h b i o p o l i t i c s ? T h i s c a n n o t b u t s o u n d r i d i c u l o u s t o d a y ; it c a n n o t b u t a p p e a r t h a t t h e s e a r e t w o i n c o m ­ p a t i b l e t e r m s from

different

fields,

with no shared space; the

a n a l y s i s of p o l i t i c a l p o w e r v e r s u s a r c h a i c a n d d i s c r e d i t e d

latest

Communist

m y t h o l o g y . . . A n d y e t : this is the only true choice today. The

term

" p r o l e t a r i a n d i c t a t o r s h i p " c o n t i n u e s to p o i n t t o w a r d s t h e k e y p r o b l e m . A c o m m o n s e n s i c a l r e p r o a c h a r i s e s h e r e : w h y d i c t a t o r s h i p ? W h y not true

d e m o c r a c y or s i m p l y the p o w e r

of t h e

proletariat? The

term

" p r o l e t a r i a n d i c t a t o r s h i p " c o n t i n u e s to p o i n t t o w a r d s t h e c r u c i a l i s s u e . " D i c t a t o r s h i p " d o e s not m e a n t h e o p p o s i t e of d e m o c r a c y , b u t d e m o c ­ r a c y ' s o w n u n d e r l y i n g m o d e of f u n c t i o n i n g —from t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g , t h e t h e s i s on t h e " d i c t a t o r s h i p of t h e p r o l e t a r i a t " i n v o l v e d t h e p r e s u p ­ p o s i t i o n t h a t it i s t h e o p p o s i t e of o t h e r f o r m ( s ) of d i c t a t o r s h i p , s i n c e the e n t i r e field of s t a t e p o w e r i s t h a t of d i c t a t o r s h i p . W h e n L e n i n d e s i g n a t e d l i b e r a l d e m o c r a c y a s a form of b o u r g e o i s d i c t a t o r s h i p , h e d i d not i m p l y a simplistic notion that d e m o c r a c y is really m a n i p u l a t e d , a mere façade, t h a t s o m e s e c r e t c l i q u e is r e a l l y in p o w e r a n d c o n t r o l s t h i n g s , a n d that, il t h r e a t e n e d wnth l o s i n g i t s p o w e r in d e m o c r a t i c e l e c t i o n s , it w i l l s h o w its t r u e face a n d a s s u m e d i r e c t p o w e r . W h a t h e m e a n t is t h a t t h e v e r y form of the

bourgeois-democratic

state, the

s o v e r e i g n t y of its p o w e r

in its

ideologico-political presuppositions, embodies a "bourgeois" logic. O n e s h o u l d t h u s u s e t h e t e r m " d i c t a t o r s h i p " in t h e p r e c i s e s e n s e in w h i c h d e m o c r a c y i s a l s o a form of d i c t a t o r s h i p , t h a t i s , a s a p u r e l y / J A - W / ; / d e t e r m i n a t i o n . It i s often p o i n t e d o u t t h a t s e l f - q u e s t i o n i n g i s c o n s t i t u t i v e of d e m o c r a c y , t h a t d e m o c r a c y a l w a y s a l l o w s , s o l i c i t s e v e n , c o n s t a n t selfi n t e r r o g a t i o n of i t s f e a t u r e s . H o w e v e r , t h i s s e l f - r e f e r e n t i a l i t y h a s to stop at s o m e point: e v e n t h e m o s t " f r e e " e l e c t i o n s c a n n o t p u t in q u e s t i o n t h e legal p r o c e d u r e s that legitimize a n d o r g a n i z e them, the state a p p a r a t u s e s t h a t g u a r a n t e e ( b y force, if n e c e s s a r y ) t h e e l e c t o r a l p r o c e s s , a n d so on. T h e s t a t e in i t s i n s t i t u t i o n a l a s p e c t is a m a s s i v e p r e s e n c e w h i c h c a n n o t be 412

T H E V I O L E N C E OF S U B T R A C T I O N

a c c o u n t e d for in t e r m s of t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of i n t e r e s t s — t h e d e m o c r a t i c i l l u s i o n i s t h a t it c a n . B a d i o u h a s c o n c e p t u a l i z e d t h i s e x c e s s a s t h e e x c e s s of s t a t e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o v e r w h a t it r e p r e s e n t s . O n e c a n a l s o p u t it in B e n j a m i n i a n terms: w h i l e d e m o c r a c y can more or less eliminate con­ s t i t u t e d v i o l e n c e , it still h a s to r e l y c o n t i n u o u s l y on c o n s t i t u t i v e v i o lence. L e t u s r e c a l l t h e l e s s o n of H e g e l i a n " c o n c r e t e u n i v e r s a l i t y " — i m a g i n e a philosophical debate between a hermeneuticist, a deconstructionist, and an a n a l j ^ c philosopher. W h a t t h e y sooner or later discover is that t h e y do not

simply occupy positions within a shared common

space

called

" p h i l o s o p h y " : w h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h e m i s t h e v e r y n o t i o n of w h a t p h i ­ losophy is a s such; that is, an a n a l y t i c philosopher p e r c e i v e s the global field of p h i l o s o p h y a n d t h e r e s p e c t i v e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e p a r t i c i ­ p a n t s d i f f e r e n t l y t h a n a h e r m e n e u t i c i s t : w h a t i s different b e t w e e n t h e m a r e t h e d i f f e r e n c e s t h e m s e l v e s , w h i c h a r e w h a t r e n d e r t h e i r t r u e differ­ e n c e s , in a first a p p r o a c h , i n v i s i b l e — t h e g r a d u a l c l a s s i f i c a t o r y l o g i c of "this is w h a t w e share, a n d here our differences b e g i n " b r e a k s d o w n . For the contemporary cognitivist analytic philosopher, w i t h the cognitivist t u r n , p h i l o s o p h y h a s f i n a l l y r e a c h e d t h e m a t u r i t y of s e r i o u s r e a s o n i n g , leaving behind metaphysical speculation. For a hermeneuticist, analytic p h i l o s o p h y i s , on t h e c o n t r a r y , the e n d of p h i l o s o p h y , t h e final l o s s of a t r u l y p h i l o s o p h i c a l s t a n c e , t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of p h i l o s o p h y i n t o a n o t h e r p o s i t i v e s c i e n c e . S o w h e n t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s in t h e d e b a t e a r e s t r u c k b y t h i s more

fundamental

g a p that separates them,

they stumble upon

the

m o m e n t of " d i c t a t o r s h i p . " A n d , in a h o m o l o g o u s f a s h i o n , t h e s a m e g o e s for p o l i t i c a l d e m o c r a c y : its d i c t a t o r i a l d i m e n s i o n b e c o m e s p a l p a b l e w h e n t h e s t r u g g l e t u r n s into t h e s t r u g g l e a b o u t t h e field of s t r u g g l e Itself. S o w h a t a b o u t t h e p r o l e t a r i a t ? Insofar a s t h e p r o l e t a r i a t d e s i g n a t e s t h e " p a r t of n o - p a r t " w h i c h s t a n d s for u n i v e r s a l i t y , t h e " d i c t a t o r s h i p of t h e p r o l e t a r i a t " i s t h e p o w e r of u n i v e r s a l i t y w h e r e t h o s e w h o a r e t h e " p a r t of n o - p a r t " s e t the t o n e . W h y a r e t h e y e g a l i t a r l a n - u n i v e r s a l l s t ? A g a i n , for p u r e l y f o r m a l r e a s o n s : b e c a u s e , a s t h e p a r t of n o - p a r t , t h e y l a c k

the

p a r t i c u l a r features that w o u l d legitimate their place w i t h i n the social b o d y — t h e y b e l o n g to t h e s e t of s o c i e t y w i t h o u t b e l o n g i n g to a n y of its s u b s e t s . A s s u c h , t h e i r b e l o n g i n g i s d i r e c t l y u n i v e r s a l . H e r e , t h e l o g i c of t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of m u l t i p l e p a r t i c u l a r I n t e r e s t s a n d t h e i r m e d i a t i o n through compromises r e a c h e s its limit. E v e r y dictatorship b r e a k s w i t h t h i s l o g i c of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , w h i c h i s w h y t h e s i m p l i s t i c definition f a s c i s m a s t h e d i c t a t o r s h i p of

finance

of

capital is w r o n g : M a r x a l r e a d y 413

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

r e c o g n i z e d t h a t N a p o l e o n III, t h a t proto-fascist, b r o k e w i t h t h e l o g i c of representation. T h e t e r m " d i c t a t o r s h i p " d e s i g n a t e s t h e h e g e m o n i c r o l e in t h e p o l i t i c a l s p a c e , a n d t h e t e r m " p r o l e t a r i a t " t h o s e " o u t of j o i n t " in t h e s o c i a l s p a c e , t h e " p a r t of n o - p a r t " l a c k i n g t h e i r p r o p e r p l a c e w i t h i n it. T h i s is w h y t h e all too q u i c k d i s m i s s a l of t h e p r o l e t a r i a t a s t h e " u n i v e r s a l c l a s s " m i s s e s t h e point; t h e p r o l e t a r i a t i s n o t t h e " u n i v e r s a l c l a s s " i n t h e s a m e s e n s e in w h i c h , for H e g e l , t h e s t a t e b u r e a u c r a c y w a s t h e " u n i v e r s a l c l a s s , " d i r e c t l y s t a n d i n g for the u n i v e r s a l i n t e r e s t of s o c i e t y (in c o n t r a s t to o t h e r " e s t a t e s " w h i c h s t a n d for t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t s ) . W h a t q u a l i f i e s t h e p r o l e t a r i a t for t h i s p o s i t i o n i s u l t i m a t e l y a negative f e a t u r e : a l l o t h e r c l a s s e s a r e ( p o t e n t i a l l y ) c a p a b l e of r e a c h i n g t h e s t a t u s of t h e " r u l i n g c l a s s , " w h i l e the proletariat cannot a c h i e v e this w i t h o u t abolishing itself a s a class:

w h a t m a k e s t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s i n t o a n a g e n c y a n d p r o v i d e s it w i t h a m i s s i o n i s n e i t h e r i t s p o v e r t y , n o r its m i l i t a n t a n d p s e u d o - m i l i t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n , n o r its p r o x i m i t y to t h e ( c h i e f l y i n d u s t r i a l ) m e a n s of p r o d u c t i o n . It i s o n l y its s t r u c t u r a l i n a b i l i t y to o r g a n i z e itself i n t o y e t another

ruling class that provides the w o r k i n g class with such

a

m i s s i o n . T h e p r o l e t a r i a t i s t h e o n l y ( r e v o l u t i o n a r y ) c l a s s in h i s t o r y t h a t a b o l i s h e s itself in t h e a c t of a b o l i s h i n g its o p p o s i t e . " T h e p e o p l e , " on t h e o t h e r h a n d , m a d e u p of a m y r i a d of c l a s s e s a n d s u b - c l a s s e s , social a n d mission.

economic

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on

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cannot

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such

a

t a s k " is

a s s i g n e d to " t h e p e o p l e " a s s u c h , t h e o u t c o m e h a s a l w a y s b e e n t h a t e i t h e r a fetal b o u r g e o i s i e i m m e d i a t e l y t o o k p r e c e d e n c e a n d , t h r o u g h a n a c c e l e r a t e d g r o w t h p r o c e s s , o r g a n i z e d itself into a r u l i n g c l a s s ( a s in the c a s e of " n a t i o n a l l i b e r a t i o n m o v e m e n t s " ) , o r a p o l i t i c o - i d e o l o g i c a l n u c l e u s d e s i g n a t e d i t s e l f a s a " c a r e t a k e r " g o v e r n m e n t for a n i n d e t e r ­ m i n a t e p e r i o d (for the p e o p l e or, m o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s ) , w h i c h u n e r r i n g l y e n d e d u p in e m p i r e ( a s it w a s in t h e c a s e of J a c o b i n s and Bolsheviks).

T h e r e i s t h u s m o r e t h a n h y p o c r i s y in t h e fact t h a t , at t h e h i g h e s t p o i n t of S t a l i n i s m , w h e n the e n t i r e social e d i f i c e w a s s h a t t e r e d b y p u r g e s , t h e n e w c o n s t i t u t i o n p r o c l a i m e d t h e e n d of t h e " c l a s s " c h a r a c t e r of S o v i e t p o w e r ( v o t i n g r i g h t s w e r e r e s t o r e d to m e m b e r s of c l a s s e s p r e v i o u s l y e x c l u d e d ) , a n d that the Socialist r e g i m e s w e r e called "people's d e m o c r a c i e s . " The o p p o s i t i o n of t h e p r o l e t a r i a t a n d t h e " p e o p l e " is c r u c i a l h e r e : in H e g e l e s e , 4M

T H E V I O L E N C E OF S U B T R A C T I O N

t h e i r o p p o s i t i o n i s t h e v e r y o p p o s i t i o n of " t r u e " a n d " f a l s e " u n i v e r s a l i t y . The people u Inclusive, the proletariat

u excUwlve; the people fights Intruders,

parasites, those who obstruct Its full self-aésertwn, the proletariat fights a struggle which divides the people in its very core. The people wants to ajsert itself, the proletariat wants to abolLth Itself. O n e s h o u l d t h u s t h o r o u g h l y d e m y s t i f y t h e s c a r e c r o w of t h e " d i c t a t o r ­ s h i p of t h e p r o l e t a r i a t " : a t its m o s t b a s i c , it s t a n d s for t h e

tremulous

m o m e n t w h e n t h e c o m p l e x w e b of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s is s u s p e n d e d d u e to t h e d i r e c t i n t r u s i o n of u n i v e r s a l i t y into t h e p o l i t i c a l field. W i t h r e g a r d to t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n , it w a s , s i g n i f i c a n t l y , D a n t o n , n o t R o b e s p i e r r e , w h o p r o v i d e d t h e m o s t c o n c i s e f o r m u l a of t h e i m p e r c e p t i b l e shift from t h e " d i c t a t o r s h i p of t h e p r o l e t a r i a t " to statist v i o l e n c e , or, in B e n j a m i n ' s t e r m s , from d i v i n e to m y t h i c v i o l e n c e : "I^et u s b e t e r r i b l e so t h a t t h e p e o p l e w i l l not h a v e to be."^'^ F o r D a n t o n , J a c o b i n r e v o l u t i o n a r y s t a t e t e r r o r w a s a k i n d of p r e e m p t i v e a c t i o n w h o s e t r u e a i m w a s not to t a k e r e v e n g e on its e n e m i e s b u t to p r e v e n t t h e d i r e c t " d i v i n e " v i o l e n c e of t h e sane-culottes, of t h e p e o p l e t h e m s e l v e s . In o t h e r w o r d s , l e t u s d o w h a t t h e p e o p l e d e m a n d u s to d o so that they will not do It themselves . . . F r o m a n c i e n t G r e e c e , w e h a v e a n a m e for t h i s i n t r u s i o n : d e m o c r a c y . T h a t i s to s a y , w h a t is d e m o c r a c y , a t its m o s t e l e m e n t a r y ? A p h e n o m e n o n w h i c h , for t h e first t i m e , a p p e a r e d in a n c i e n t G r e e c e w h e n t h e m e m b e r s of t h e demos ( t h o s e w i t h no firmly d e t e r m i n e d p l a c e in t h e h i e r a r c h i c a l social s t r u c t u r e ) not o n l y d e m a n d e d that their voice be h e a r d a g a i n s t t h o s e in p o w e r . T h e y not o n l y p r o t e s t e d t h e w r o n g t h e y s u f f e r e d a n d w a n t e d t h e i r v o i c e b e r e c o g n i z e d a n d i n c l u d e d in t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e , on a n e q u a l footing w i t h t h e r u l i n g o l i g a r c h y a n d a r i s t o c r a c y ; e v e n m o r e , t h e y , t h e e x c l u d e d , p r e s e n t e d t h e m s e l v e s a s t h e e m b o d i m e n t of t h e W h o l e of S o c i e t y , of t r u e U n i v e r s a l i t y : " w e — t h e ' n o t h i n g ' , not c o u n t e d in t h e o r d e r — a r e t h e p e o p l e , w e a r e All a g a i n s t o t h e r s w h o s t a n d o n l y for t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r p r i v i l e g e d i n t e r e s t . " P o l i t i c a l conflict p r o p e r d e s i g n a t e s t h e t e n s i o n b e t w e e n t h e s t r u c t u r e d s o c i a l b o d y in w h i c h e a c h p a r t h a s i t s p l a c e , a n d " t h e p a r t of n o - p a r t " w h i c h u n s e t t l e s t h i s o r d e r on a c c o u n t of t h e e m p t y p r i n c i p l e of u n i v e r s a l i t y , of w h a t E t i e n n e B a l i b a r c a l l s égallberte', t h e p r i n c i p l e d e q u a l i t y of a l l m e n qua s p e a k i n g b e i n g s — u p to a n d i n c l u d i n g t h e lliimang, " h o o d l u m s , " m t h e C h i n a of t o d a y , t h o s e w h o a r e d i s p l a c e d a n d float f r e e l y h i t h e r a n d t h i t h e r , w i t h o u t w o r k or h o m e , b u t a l s o w i t h o u t c u l t u r a l or s e x u a l i d e n t i t i e s a n d u n r e g i s t e r e d b y t h e s t a t e . T h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of t h e p a r t of s o c i e t y w i t h no p r o p e r l y d e f i n e d p l a c e w i t h i n it ( o r w h i c h r e j e c t s t h e a l l o c a t e d s u b o r d i n a t e d p l a c e w i t h i n i t ) w i t h 415

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

t h e W h o l e is t h e e l e m e n t a r y g e s t u r e of p o l i t i c i z a t i o n , d i s c e r n i b l e in all g r e a t d e m o c r a t i c e v e n t s from t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n (in w h r c h le troLiièine état p r o c l a i m e d itself i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e N a t i o n

as such, against

a r i s t o c r a c y a n d c l e r g y ) to t h e d e m i s e of E a s t E u r o p e a n which

dissident

"fora"

proclaimed

themselves representative

e n t i r e t y of s o c i e t y a g a i n s t t h e p a r t y nomenklatura).

the

s o c i a l i s m (in of

the

In t h i s p r e c i s e s e n s e ,

pohtrcs a n d d e m o c r a c y a r e s y n o n y m o u s : t h e b a s i c a i m of a n t i - d e m o c r a t i c p o l i t i c s a l w a y s a n d b y d e f i n i t i o n is a n d w a s d e p o l i t i c l z a t i o n , t h e d e m a n d t h a t " t h i n g s s h o u l d r e t u r n to n o r m a l , " w i t h e a c h i n d i v i d u a l s t i c k i n g to h i s o r h e r p a r t i c u l a r j o b . A n d t h i s b r i n g s u s to t h e i n e v i t a b l e p a r a d o x i c a l c o n c l u s i o n : the "d'œlatoréhip of the proletariat "id another name for the violence of the democratic explodion itdelf. T h e " d i c t a t o r s h i p of t h e p r o l e t a r i a t " is t h u s the zero-level at w h i c h the difference between legitimate and Illegitimate s t a t e p o w e r i s s u s p e n d e d , in o t h e r w o r d s , w h e n s t a t e p o w e r a s s u c h is i l l e g i t i m a t e . S a i n t - J u s t s a i d in N o v e m b e r 1 7 9 2 : " E v e r y k i n g i s a r e b e l a n d a n u s u r p e r . " T h i s p h r a s e i s a c o r n e r s t o n e of e m a n c i p a t o r y p o l i t i c s : t h e r e is n o " l e g i t i m a t e " k i n g a s o p p o s e d to t h e u s u r p e r , s i n c e being a king Li in itdelf an udurpation, i n t h e s a m e s e n s e t h a t , for P r o u d h o n , p r o p e r t y a s s u c h is theft. W h a t w e h a v e h e r e i s the H e g e l i a n " n e g a t i o n of t h e n e g a t i o n , " t h e p a s s a g e from

the s i m p l e a n d d i r e c t n e g a t i o n

( " t h i s k i n g i s not

l e g i t i m a t e , h e is a n u s u r p e r " ) , to t h e I n h e r e n t s e l f - n e g a t i o n ( a n " a u t h e n t i c k i n g " is an o x y m o r o n ,

b e i n g a k i n g Li u s u r p a t i o n ) . T h i s i s w h y ,

for

R o b e s p i e r r e , t h e t r i a l of t h e k i n g w a s not a t r i a l at all:

T h e r e i s n o t r i a l to b e h e l d h e r e . L o u i s i s not a d e f e n d a n t . Y o u a r e not j u d g e s . Y o u a r e not, y o u c a n n o t

be anything but

statesmen

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the n a t i o n . Y o u h a v e n o s e n t e n c e to

and

pronounce

for o r a g a i n s t a m a n , b u t a m e a s u r e of p u b l i c s a l v a t i o n to i m p l e m e n t , an a c t of n a t i o n a l p r o v i d e n c e to p e r f o r m . [. . . ] L o u i s w a s k i n g , a n d t h e R e p u b l i c is founded: the famous question y o u are considering is settled b y those w o r d s alone. Louis w a s dethroned

b y his crimes; Louis

d e n o u n c e d the F r e n c h p e o p l e a s r e b e l l i o u s ; to c h a s t i s e it, h e c a l l e d on t h e a r m s of h i s f e l l o w t y r a n t s ; v i c t o r y a n d t h e p e o p l e d e c i d e d t h a t he w a s the rebellious one: therefore L o u i s cannot be j u d g e d ; either he is a l r e a d y c o n d e m n e d o r t h e R e p u b l i c is n o t a c q u i t t e d . P r o p o s i n g to p u t L o u i s on t r i a l , in w h a t e v e r w a y t h a t c o u l d b e d o n e , w o u l d b e to r e g r e s s t o w a r d s r o y a l a n d c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d e s p o t i s m ; it i s a

counter-

r e v o l u t i o n a r y ' i d e a , for it m e a n s p u t t i n g t h e r e v o l u t i o n i t s e l f in c o n t e n t i o n . In fact, if L o u i s c a n still b e p u t on t r i a l , t h e n h e c a n b e 416

THE V I O L E N C E O F S U B T R A C T I O N

a c q u i t t e d ; h e may b e i n n o c e n t ; w h a t a m I s a y i n g ! h e is p r e s u m e d to b e so u n t i l h e h a s been t r i e d . B u t if Lxjuis is a c q u i t t e d , if L o u i s c a n b e p r e s u m e d i n n o c e n t , w h a t b e c o m e s of t h e revolutionT^"^ T h i s s t r a n g e c o u p l i n g of d e m o c r a c y a n d d i c t a t o r s h i p i s g r o u n d e d i n t h e t e n s i o n t h a t p e r t a i n s to t h e v e r y n o t i o n of d e m o c r a c y . T h e r e a r e t w o e l e m e n t a r y a n d i r r e d u c i b l e s i d e s to d e m o c r a c y : v i o l e n t e g a h t a r r a n i m ­ position b y those w h o a r e " s u p e r n u m e r a r y " ; a n d the r e g u l a t e d (more or l e s s ) u n i v e r s a l p r o c e d u r e of c h o o s i n g t h o s e w h o w i l l e x e r t p o w e r , f i o w d o t h e s e t w o s i d e s r e l a t e to e a c h o t h e r ? W h a t if d e m o c r a c y in t h e s e c o n d s e n s e ( t h e r e g u l a t e d p r o c e d u r e of r e g i s t e r i n g t h e " p e o p l e ' s v o i c e " ) i s u l t i m a t e l y a defense against itself, a g a i n s t d e m o c r a c y rn t h e s e n s e of t h e v i o l e n t i n t r u s i o n of the e g a l i t a r i a n l o g i c t h a t d i s t u r b s t h e h i e r a r c h i c a l functioning

of t h e s o c i a l s y s t e m , a n a t t e m p t to r e - f u n c t i o n a l i z e

this

e x c e s s , to m a k e it a p a r t of t h e n o r m a l r u n n i n g of t h i n g s ? The problem is thus: h o w to regulate/institutionalize the v e r y violent eg2ditarian d e m o c r a t i c i m p u l s e , h o w to p r e v e n t it from b e i n g d r o w n e d in d e m o c r a c y in t h e s e c o n d s e n s e of t h e t e r m ( r e g u l a t e d p r o c e d u r e ) ? If t h e r e i s n o w a y to d o it, t h e n " a u t h e n t i c " d e m o c r a c y r e m a i n s a m o m e n ­ t a r y Utopian o u t b u r s t w h i c h , t h e p r o v e r b i a l m o r n i n g after, h a s to b e normalized. The Orwellian proposition "democracy is terror" is thus democracy's "infinite j u d g m e n t , " its highest speculative identity. T h i s dimension g e t s lost in C l a u d e L e f o r t ' s n o t i o n of d e m o c r a c y a s i n v o l v i n g t h e e m p t y p l a c e of p o w e r , t h e c o n s t i t u t i v e g a p b e t w e e n t h e p l a c e of p o w e r a n d t h e c o n t i n g e n t a g e n t s w h o , for a l i m i t e d p e r i o d , c a n o c c u p y t h a t p l a c e . P a r a d o x i c a l l y , t h e u n d e r l y i n g p r e m i s e of d e m o c r a c y i s t h u s n o t o n l y t h a t t h e r e i s n o p o l i t i c a l a g e n t w h i c h h a s a " n a t u r a l " r i g h t to p o w e r , b u t , m u c h m o r e r a d i c a l l y , t h a t t h e " p e o p l e " itself, t h e u l t i m a t e s o u r c e of t h e s o v e r e i g n p o w e r in d e m o c r a c y , d o e s n o t e x i s t a s a s u b s t a n t i a l e n t i t y . In the Kantian conception,

t h e d e m o c r a t i c notion

n e g a t i v e concept, a concept w h o s e function

of t h e " p e o p l e " is a

is m e r e l y to d e s i g n a t e a

c e r t a i n l i m i t : it p r o h i b i t s a n y d e t e r m i n a t e a g e n t from r u l i n g w i t h total sovereignty.

T h e c l a i m t h a t t h e p e o p l e does e x i s t is t h e b a s i c a x i o m of

" t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m , " a n d its m i s t a k e is s t r i c t l y h o m o l o g o u s to t h e K a n t i a n m i s u s e ( " p a r a l o g i s m " ) of p o l i t i c a l r e a s o n : " t h e P e o p l e e x i s t s " t h r o u g h a d e t e r m i n a t e p o l i t i c a l a g e n t w h i c h a c t s a s if it d i r e c t l y e m b o d i e s (not o n l y re-presents) the People, its true Will

(the totalitarian Party a n d its

L e a d e r ) , t h a t i s , in t h e t e r m s of t r a n s c e n d e n t a l c r i t i q u e , a s a d i r e c t 417

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

p h e n o m e n a l e m b o d i m e n t of t h e n o u m e n a l P e o p l e . . . L e t u s c i t e o n c e a g a i n J a c q u e s - A l a i n M i l l e r ' s f o r m u l a t i o n of t h e l i n k b e t w e e n t h i s notion of d e m o c r a c y a n d L a c a n ' s n o t i o n of t h e i n c o n s i s t e n c y of t h e b i g O t h e r : Is " d e m o c r a c y " a m a s t e r - s i g n i f i e r ? W i t h o u t

a n y d o u b t . It i s the

master-signifier w h i c h s a y s that there is no master-signifier, at least not a m a s t e r - s i g n i f i e r w h i c h w o u l d s t a n d a l o n e , t h a t e v e r y m a s t e r s i g n i f i e r h a s to Insert i t s e l f w i s e l y a m o n g o t h e r s . D e m o c r a c y i s L a c a n ' s b i g S of t h e b a r r e d A , w h i c h s a y s : I a m t h e s i g n i f i e r of t h e fact t h a t the O t h e r h a s a hole, o r t h a t it d o e s n ' t e x i s t .

O f c o u r s e . M i l l e r i s a w a r e t h a t e v e r y M a s t e r - S i g n i f i e r b e a r s w i t n e s s to t h e fact t h a t t h e r e is n o M a s t e r - S l g n i f i e r , n o O t h e r of t h e O t h e r , t h a t t h e r e i s a l a c k in t h e O t h e r , a n d so o n — t h e v e r y g a p b e t w e e n S j a n d S 2 o c c u r s b e c a u s e of t h i s l a c k ( a s w i t h G o d m S p i n o z a , t h e M a s t e r - S l g n i f i e r b y d e f i n i t i o n fills in t h e g a p in t h e s e r i e s of " o r d i n a r y " s i g n i f i e r s ) . T h e d i f f e r e n c e i s that, w i t h d e m o c r a c y , t h i s l a c k i s d i r e c t l y i n s c r i b e d i n t o t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e , it is i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d in a s e t of p r o c e d u r e s a n d r e g u l a tions^—no w o n d e r , t h e n , t h a t M i l l e r a p p r o v i n g l y q u o t e s M a r c e l G a u c h e t r e g a r d i n g h o w , in d e m o c r a c y , t r u t h o n l y offers i t s e l f " i n d i v i s i o n a n d decomposition" (and one cannot but note with irony how Stalin and M a o m a d e t h e s a m e c l a i m , a l t h o u g h w i t h a " t o t a l i t a r i a n " t w i s t : in p o l i t i c s , t r u t h o n l y e m e r g e s t h r o u g h t h e r u t h l e s s d i v i s i o n s of t h e c l a s s s t r u g g l e . . . ) . It i s e a s y to n o t e h o w , from w i t h i n t h i s K a n t i a n h o r i z o n of d e m o c r a c y , t h e " t e r r o r i s t i c " a s p e c t of d e m o c r a c y c a n o n l y a p p e a r a s its " t o t a l i t a r i a n " distortion,

in o t h e r

words,

how,

separates the authentic democratic

within this horizon,

the

line

e x p l o s i o n of r e v o l u t i o n a r y

that terror

from t h e " t o t a l i t a r i a n " p a r t y - s t a t e r e g i m e (or, to p u t it in r e a c t i o n a r y t e r m s , t h e l i n e t h a t s e p a r a t e s t h e " m o b r u l e of the d i s p o s s e s s e d " from t h e p a r t y - s t a t e ' s b r u t a l o p p r e s s i o n of t h e " m o b " ) i s obliterated,''*' It is a g a i n s t t h i s b a c k g r o u n d t h a t o n e c a n f o r m u l a t e a c r i t i q u e of Jacques

R a n c i è r e ' s p o l i t i c a l a e s t h e t i c s , of h i s i d e a of t h e

aesthetic

d i m e n s i o n of t h e p r o p e r l y p o l i t i c a l a c t : a d e m o c r a t i c e x p l o s i o n

reconfi-

g u r e s t h e e s t a b l i s h e d h i e r a r c h i c a l " p o l i c e " o r d e r of social s p a c e , it s t a g e s a s p e c t a c l e of a different o r d e r , of a d i f f e r e n t partage of t h e p u b l i c s p a c e . Peter H a l l w a r d is spectacle" such

an

right

to p o i n t o u t that, in t o d a y ' s " s o c i e t y of t h e

aesthetic reconfiguration

h a s lost its

subversive

d i m e n s i o n : it c a n e a s i l y b e a p p r o p r i a t e d i n t o t h e e x i s t i n g o r d e r . ' '

The

t r u e t a s k l i e s not in m o m e n t a r y d e m o c r a t i c e x p l o s i o n s w h i c h u n d e r m i n e 418

THE V I O L E N C E OF S U B T R A C T I O N

t h e e s t a b h s h e d "poHce" o r d e r , b u t in t h e d i m e n s i o n d e s i g n a t e d b y B a d i o u a s t h a t of " f i d e l i t y " to t h e E v e n t : t r a n s l a t i n g / i n s c r i b m g t h e d e m o c r a t i c e x p l o s i o n i n t o t h e p o s i t i v e " p o l i c e " o r d e r , i m p o s i n g on s o c i a l r e a l i t y a rt^«' lasting order.

Thu

is t h e p r o p e r l y

"terroristic" dimension

of e v e r y

a u t h e n t i c d e m o c r a t i c e x p l o s i o n : t h e b r u t a l i m p o s i t i o n of a n e w o r d e r . A n d t h i s is w h y , w h i l e e v e r y b o d y l o v e s d e m o c r a t i c

rebellions,

the

s p e c t a c u l a r / c a r n i v a l e s q u e e x p l o s i o n s of t h e p o p u l a r w i l l , a n x i e t y a r i s e s w h e n t h i s w i l l w a n t s to p e r s i s t , to i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e i t s e l f — a n d the m o r e "authentic" the rebellion, the more "terroristic" is this institutionaliza­ tion. T h e s t a n d a r d l i b e r a l c o u n t e r - a r g u m e n t to t h o s e w h o w a r n a b o u t t h e " i n v i s i b l e h a n d " of t h e m a r k e t t h a t c o n t r o l s o u r d e s t i n i e s i s : if t h e p r i c e of b e i n g freed from t h e Invuilble h a n d of t h e m a r k e t i s to b e c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e viàible h a n d of n e w r u l e r s , a r e w e still r e a d y to p a y i t ? T h e a n s w e r s h o u l d b e : yeé —'\it h i s v i s i b l e h a n d i s v i s i b l e to a n d c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e " p a r t of n o part."

419

9

Unbehagen in der Natur

Beyond Fukuyama W h e r e , thei\, d o w e s t a n d t o d a y ? H o w c a n w e b r e a k o u t of t h e c r i s i s of d e t e r m i n a t e n e g a t i o n a n d e n a c t a s u b t r a c t i o n in a l l its a u t h e n t i c v i o l e n c e ? Gerald

A. Cohen

has enumerated

t h e four

f e a t u r e s of t h e

classical

M a r x i s t n o t i o n of the w o r k i n g c l a s s : ( 1 ) it c o n s t i t u t e s t h e m a j o r i t y of s o c i e t y ; ( 2 ) it p r o d u c e s t h e w e a l t h of s o c i e t y ; ( 3 ) it c o n s i s t s of t h e e x p l o i t e d m e m b e r s of s o c i e t y ; ( 4 ) i t s m e m b e r s a r e t h e n e e d y p e o p l e in society. W h e n

t h e s e four

features are combined,

they generate

two

f u r t h e r f e a t u r e s : ( 5 ) t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s h a s n o t h i n g to lose from r e v o l u ­ tion; ( 6 ) it c a n a n d w i l l e n g a g e in a r e v o l u t i o n a r y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n society.

N o n e of the

first

four f e a t u r e s a p p l i e s to t h e

of

contemporary

w o r k i n g c l a s s , w h i c h is w h y f e a t u r e s ( 5 ) a n d ( 6 ) c a n n o t b e g e n e r a t e d . K v e n if s o m e of t h e f e a t u r e s c o n t i n u e to a p p l y to p a r t s of t o d a y ' s s o c i e t y , t h e y a r e n o l o n g e r u n i t e d in s i n g l e a g e n t : t h e n e e d y p e o p l e in s o c i e t y a r e n o l o n g e r t h e w o r k e r s , a n d so on a n d so forth. C o r r e c t a s it i s , t h i s enumeration should be supplemented b y a systematic theoretical deduc­ tion: for M a r x , t h e y a l l follow from t h e b a s i c p o s i t i o n of a w o r k e r w h o h a s n o t h i n g b u t h e r l a b o r - p o w e r to sell. A s s u c h , w o r k e r s a r e b y d e f i n i t i o n e x p l o i t e d ; w i t h t h e p r o g r e s s i v e e x p a n s i o n of c a p i t a l i s m , t h e y c o n s t i t u t e t h e m a j o r i t y w h i c h a l s o p r o d u c e s the w e a l t h ; a n d so on. H o w , t h e n , a r e w e to r e d e f i n e a r e v o l u t i o n a r y p e r s p e c t i v e in t o d a y ' s c o n d i t i o n s ? Is t h e w a y out of t h i s p r e d i c a m e n t , t h e comminatoire of m u l t i p l e a n t a g o n i s m s , their potential overlappings? T h e u n d e r l y i n g p r o b l e m is: h o w a r e w e to t h i n k t h e s i n g u l a r u n i ­ v e r s a l i t y of t h e e m a n c i p a t o r y s u b j e c t a s not p u r e l y formal, t h a t i s , a s o b j e c t i v e l y - m a t e r i a l l y d e t e r m i n e d , b u t w i t h o u t t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s a s its s u b s t a n t i a l b a s e ? T h e s o l u t i o n Is a n e g a t i v e one: it is c a p i t a l i s m itself w h i c h offers a n e g a t i v e s u b s t a n t i a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n , for t h e g l o b a l c a p i t a l i s t s y s t e m Is t h e 420

substantial

"base" which

mediates and

generates

the

U N B E H A G E N IN D E R N A T U R

e x c e s s e s ( s l u m s , e c o l o g i c a l t h r e a t s , a n d so o n ) t h a t o p e n u p s i t e s of resistance. It i s e a s y to m a k e fun of F u k u y a m a ' s n o t i o n of t h e E n d of H i s t o r y , b u t the dominant ethos t o d a y ù " F u k u y a m a i a n " : liberal-democratic capitali s m i s a c c e p t e d a s t h e f i n a l l y f o u n d f o r m u l a of t h e b e s t p o s s i b l e s o c i e t y , all t h a t o n e c a n d o i s r e n d e r it m o r e just, t o l e r a n t , a n d so forth. T h e o n l y true q u e s t i o n t o d a y i s : d o w e e n d o r s e t h i s " n a t u r a l i z a t i o n " of c a p i t a l i s m , o r does contemporary

global capitalism contain

antagonisms which

s u f f i c i e n t l y s t r o n g to p r e v e n t its i n d e f i n i t e r e p r o d u c t i o n ?

are

L^et u s c i t e

four s u c h a n t a g o n i s m s : \. Ecology: in s p i t e of t h e i n f i n i t e a d a p t a b i l i t y of c a p i t a l i s m w h i c h , in t h e c a s e of a n a c u t e e c o l o g i c a l c a t a s t r o p h e or c r i s i s , c a n e a s i l y t u r n e c o l o g y i n t o a n e w field of c a p i t a l i s t i n v e s t m e n t a n d c o m p e t i t i o n , t h e v e r y n a t u r e of t h e r i s k i n v o l v e d f u n d a m e n t a l l y p r e c l u d e s a m a r k e t s o l u t i o n — w h y ? C a p i t a l i s m o n l y w o r k s in p r e c i s e s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s : it i m p l i e s t r u s t in the o b j e c t i v l z e d / " r e i f i e d " m e c h a n i s m of t h e m a r k e t ' s " i n v i s i b l e h a n d " w h i c h , a s a k i n d of C u n n i n g of R e a s o n , g u a r a n t e e s t h a t t h e c o m p e t i t i o n i n d i v i d u a l e g o t i s m s w o r k s for t h e c o m m o n g o o d .

However,

we

of are

c u r r e n t l y e x p e r i e n c i n g a r a d i c a l c h a n g e . U p until n o w , h i s t o r i c a l S u b s t a n c e — h i s t o r y as an objective process o b e y i n g certain l a w s — p l a y e d out its r o l e a s t h e m e d i u m a n d f o u n d a t i o n

of all s u b j e c t i v e

interventions:

w h a t e v e r s o c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l s u b j e c t s d i d , it w a s m e d i a t e d a n d u l t i m a t e l y d o m i n a t e d , o v e r d e t e r m l n e d , b y t h e h i s t o r i c a l S u b s t a n c e . W h a t l o o m s on the horizon t o d a y is the u n p r e c e n d e n t e d

possibility that a subjective

I n t e r v e n t i o n w i l l i n t e r v e n e d i r e c t l y into t h e h i s t o r i c a l S u b s t a n c e , c a t a s t r o p h l c a l l y d i s t u r b i n g its c o u r s e b y t r i g g e r i n g a n e c o l o g i c a l c a t a s t r o p h e , a fateful b i o g e n e t i c m u t a t i o n , a n u c l e a r o r s i m i l a r military—social c a t a s t r o p h e , a n d so on. N o l o n g e r c a n w e r e l y on t h e s a f e g u a r d i n g r o l e of t h e l i m i t e d s c o p e of o u r a c t s : it n o l o n g e r h o l d s t h a t , w h a t e v e r w e do, h i s t o r y w i l l c a r r y on. F o r t h e first t i m e in h u m a n h i s t o r y , t h e a c t of a s i n g l e s o c i o political a g e n t can really alter a n d even interrupt the global historical p r o c e s s , so that, i r o n i c a l l y , it is o n l y t o d a y t h a t w e c a n s a y t h a t t h e h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s s h o u l d e f f e c t i v e l y b e c o n c e i v e d "not o n l y a s S u b s t a n c e , but

also as Subject." This is w h y , w h e n

catastrophic prospects

confronted

with

singular

( s a y , a p o l i t i c a l g r o u p w h i c h i n t e n d s to a t t a c k

its e n e m y w i t h n u c l e a r o r b i o l o g i c a l w e a p o n s ) , w e c a n n o l o n g e r r e l y on t h e s t a n d a r d l o g i c of the " C u n n i n g of R e a s o n " w h i c h , p r e c i s e l y , p r e s u p p o s e s t h e p r i m a c y of t h e h i s t o r i c a l S u b s t a n c e o v e r a c t i n g s u b j e c t s : w e c a n n o l o n g e r a d o p t t h e s t a n c e of " l e t u s c a l l t h e bluff of t h e e n e m y w h o 421

IN D E F E N S E OF L O S T C A U S E S

t h r e a t e n s u s for h e w i l l t h e r e b y s e l f - d e s t r u c t " —the p r i c e for l e t t i n g h i s t o r i c a l R e a s o n d o its w o r k is too h i g h s i n c e , in t h e m e a n t i m e , w e m a y a l l p e r i s h t o g e t h e r w i t h the e n e m y . R e c a l l a f r i g h t e n i n g d e t a i l from t h e C u b a n m i s s i l e c r i s i s : o n l y l a t e r d i d we

l e a r n h o w c l o s e to n u c l e a r w a r w e w e r e d u r i n g a n a v a l s k i r m i s h

b e t w e e n a n A m e r i c a n d e s t r o y e r a n d a S o v i e t B—59 s u b m a r i n e off C u b a on O c t o b e r 2 7 , 1 9 6 2 . T h e d e s t r o y e r d r o p p e d d e p t h c h a r g e s n e a r t h e s u b m a r i n e to t r y to force it to t h e s u r f a c e , not k n o w i n g it h a d a n u c l e a r t i p p e d t o r p e d o . V a d i m O r l o v , a m e m b e r of t h e s u b m a r i n e c r e w , t o l d t h e c o n f e r e n c e in H a v a n a t h a t t h e s u b m a r i n e h a d b e e n a u t h o r i z e d to fire it if t h r e e officers a g r e e d . T h e officers b e g a n a fierce s h o u t i n g m a t c h o v e r w h e t h e r to s i n k t h e s h i p . T w o of t h e m s a i d y e s a n d t h e o t h e r s a i d n o . " A guy

n a m e d A r k h i p o v s a v e d t h e w o r l d , " w a s t h e b i t t e r c o m m e n t of a

h i s t o r i a n on t h i s i n c i d e n t . " 2. T h e i n a d e q u a c y of private property for s o - c a l l e d " i n t e l l e c t u a l p r o p ­ e r t y . " T h e k e y a n t a g o n i s m of t h e n e w ( d i g i t a l ) i n d u s t r i e s i s t h u s : h o w to m a i n t a i n t h e form of ( p r i v a t e ) p r o p e r t y , w i t h i n w h i c h t h e l o g i c of profit c a n b e m a i n t a i n e d ( s e e a l s o t h e N a p s t e r p r o b l e m , t h e free c i r c u l a t i o n of m u s i c ) ? A n d d o t h e l e g a l c o m p l i c a t i o n s in b i o g e n e t i c s not p o i n t in t h e s a m e d i r e c t i o n ? A k e y e l e m e n t of t h e n e w i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e a g r e e m e n t s is t h e " p r o t e c t i o n of i n t e l l e c t u a l p r o p e r t y " : w h e n e v e r , in a m e r g e r , a b i g F i r s t W o r l d c o m p a n y t a k e s o v e r a T h i r d W o r l d c o m p a n y , t h e first t h i n g t h e y d o Is c l o s e d o w n t h e r e s e a r c h d e p a r t m e n t . P h e n o m e n a e m e r g e h e r e w h i c h p u s h t h e n o t i o n of p r o p e r t y t o w a r d s e x t r a o r d i n a r y d i a l e c t i c a l p a r a d o x e s : in I n d i a , t h e l o c a l c o m m u n i t i e s s u d d e n l y d i s c o v e r t h a t m e d ­ i c a l p r a c t i c e s a n d m a t e r i a l s t h e y h a v e b e e n u s i n g for c e n t u r i e s a r e n o w o w n e d b y A m e r i c a n c o m p a n i e s , so t h e y s h o u l d b e b o u g h t from t h e l a t t e r ; with the biogenetic companies patenting genes, w e are all discovering t h a t p a r t s of o u r s e l v e s , o u r g e n e t i c c o m p o n e n t s , a r e a l r e a d y c o p y r i g h t e d , owned b y others . . . T h e c r u c i a l d a t e in t h e h i s t o r y of c y b e r s p a c e w a s F e b r u a r y 3, 1 9 7 6 , t h e d a y w h e n B i l l G a t e s p u b l i s h e d h i s ( i n ) f a m o u s " O p e n L e t t e r to H o b b y ­ i s t s , " t h e a s s e r t i o n of p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y in t h e s o f t w a r e d o m a i n : " A s t h e m a j o r i t y of h o b b y i s t s m u s t b e a w a r e , m o s t of y o u s t e a l y o u r s o f t w a r e . [. . . ] M o s t d i r e c t l y , t h e t h i n g y o u d o is theft." B i l l G a t e s h a s b u i l t h i s entire empire and reputation

on h i s e x t r e m e v i e w s a b o u t k n o w l e d g e

b e i n g t r e a t e d a s if it w e r e t a n g i b l e p r o p e r t y . T h i s w a s a d e c i s i v e s i g n a l w h i c h t r i g g e r e d t h e b a t t l e for t h e " e n c l o s u r e " of t h e c o m m o n d o m a i n of software. 422

U N B E H A G E N IN D E R N A T U R

3. T h e

s o c i o - e t h i c a l i m p U c a t i o n s of new techno-scienUfk developmenU

( e s p e c i a l l y in b i o g e n e t i c s ) — F u k u y a m a h i m s e l f w a s c o m p e l l e d to a d m i t that biogenetic interventions into h u m a n nature are the most

serious

t h r e a t to h i s v i s i o n of the E n d of H i s t o r y . W h a t i s false a b o u t t o d a y ' s d i s c u s s i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e " e t h i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s of b i o g e n e t i c s " ( a l o n g w i t h s i m i l a r m a t t e r s ) is t h a t it i s r a p i d l y turning

into w h a t

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e t h i c s of

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h 3 ^ h e n — t e c h n o l o g y - e t h i c s , e n v i r o n m e n t - e t h i c s , a n d so on. T h i s e t h i c s d o e s h a v e a r o l e to p l a y , a r o l e h o m o l o g o u s to t h a t of t h e " p r o v i s i o n a l e t h i c " D e s c a r t e s m e n t i o n s a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of h i s Dùcûiiive on Methaà: w h e n w e e n g a g e on a n e w p a t h , full of d a n g e r s a n d s h a t t e r i n g

new

Insights, w e n e e d to s t i c k to old e s t a b l i s h e d r u l e s a s a p r a c t i c a l g u i d e for our dally lives, although w e are well a w a r e that the n e w insights will c o m p e l u s to p r o v i d e a fresh f o u n d a t i o n for o u r e n t i r e e t h i c a l e d i f i c e (in D e s c a r t e s ' s c a s e , t h i s n e w f o u n d a t i o n w a s p r o v i d e d b y K a n t , in h i s e t h i c s of s u b j e c t i v e

autonomy).

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In t h e

same

predicament:

" p r o v i s i o n a l e t h i c s " c a n n o t r e p l a c e t h e n e e d for a p r o f o u n d

reflection

regarding the e m e r g i n g N e w . In short, w h a t g e t s lost h e r e , in t h i s h y p h e n - e t h i c s , is s i m p l y e t h i c s a s such.

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problem

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p a r t i c u l a r topics, but, q u i t e the contrary, that p a r t i c u l a r scientific b r e a k t h r o u g h s a r e d i r e c t l y c o n f r o n t e d w i t h old h u m a n i s t " v a l u e s " ( s a y , t h a t b i o g e n e t i c s affects o u r s e n s e of d i g n i t y a n d a u t o n o m y ) . T h i s , then, i s t h e choice w e confront today: either w e choose the tj'pically

postmodern

s t a n c e of r e t i c e n c e ( l e t ' s not g o to t h e e n d — l e t ' s k e e p a p r o p e r d i s t a n c e t o w a r d s t h e scientific T h i n g so t h a t t h i s T h i n g w i l l not d r a w u s i n t o i t s b l a c k hole, d e s t r o y i n g a l l o u r m o r a l a n d h u m a n n o t i o n s ) , or w e d a r e to " t a r r y w i t h t h e n e g a t i v e Qad Verweilen helm Negativen)," t h a t i s , w e d a r e to f u l l y a s s u m e t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of scientific m o d e r n i t y , w i t h t h e w a g e r t h a t " o u r M i n d i s a g e n o m e " w i l l a l s o function a s a n infinite j u d g m e n t . 4 . A n d , l a s t b u t not l e a s t , new forms of apartheid, n e w w a l l s a n d s l u m s . O n S e p t e m b e r 1 1 , 2 0 0 1 , t h e T w i n T o w e r s w e r e hit; t w e l v e y e a r s e a r l i e r , on N o v e m b e r 9, 1 9 8 9 , t h e B e r l i n W a l l fell. N o v e m b e r 9 a n n o u n c e d

the

" h a p p y nineties," the F u k u y a m a dream that liberal d e m o c r a c y had won, t h a t t h e s e a r c h w a s o v e r , t h a t t h e a d v e n t of a g l o b a l , l i b e r a l w o r l d community? w a s l u r k i n g j u s t a r o u n d t h e c o r n e r , t h a t t h e o b s t a c l e s to t h i s ultra-Hollywoodesque happy ending were merely empirical and

con-

t i n g e n t ( l o c a l p o c k e t s of r e s i s t a n c e w h e r e the l e a d e r s h a d not y e t g r a s p e d t h a t t h e i r t i m e w a s o v e r ) . In c o n t r a s t , 9 / 1 1 is t h e k e y s y m b o l of t h e e n d of 423

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

the C h n t o n i t e h a p p y n i n e t i e s , of t h e e r a in w h i c h n e w w a l l s a r e e m e r g i n g e v e r y w h e r e , b e t w e e n Israel and the W e s t B a n k , a r o u n d the E u r o p e a n Union, along the US—Mexico border. S o w h a t if t h e n e w p r o l e t a r i a n p o s i t i o n i s t h a t of t h e i n h a b i t a n t s of s l u m s in t h e n e w m e g a l o p o l i s e s ? T h e e x p l o s i v e g r o w t h of s l u m s o v e r t h e l a s t d e c a d e s , e s p e c i a l l y in t h e T h i r d W o r l d m e g a - c i t i e s from M e x i c o C i t y a n d o t h e r L a t i n A m e r i c a n c a p i t a l s t h r o u g h A f r i c a ( L a g o s , C h a d ) to I n d i a , China, the Philippines, and Indonesia, is perhaps the crucial geopolitical e v e n t of o u r t i m e s .

T h e c a s e of L a g o s , t h e b i g g e s t n o d e in t h e s h a n t y -

t o w n c o r r i d o r of 7 0 m i l l i o n p e o p l e t h a t s t r e t c h e s from A b i d j a n to I b a d a n , is e x e m p l a r y h e r e : a c c o r d i n g to t h e official s o u r c e s t h e m s e l v e s , a b o u t t w o - t h i r d s of L a g o s S t a t e ' s total l a n d m a s s of 3 , 5 7 7 s q u a r e k i l o m e t e r s c o u l d b e c l a s s i f i e d a s s h a n t i e s or s l u m s ; n o o n e e v e n k n o w s the s i z e of its p o p u l a t i o n — officially it i s 6 m i l l i o n , b u t m o s t e x p e r t s e s t i m a t e it at 10 m i l l i o n . S i n c e , s o m e t i m e v e r y soon ( o r m a y b e , g i v e n t h e i m p r e c i s i o n of t h e T h i r d W o r l d c e n s u s e s , it h a s a l r e a d y h a p p e n e d ) , t h e u r b a n p o p u l a ­ tion of t h e e a r t h w i l l o u t n u m b e r t h e r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n , a n d s i n c e s l u m i n h a b i t a n t s w i l l c o m p o s e t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n , w e a r e in n o w a y d e a l i n g w i t h a m a r g i n a l p h e n o m e n o n . W e a r e t h u s w i t n e s s i n g the fast g r o w t h of a p o p u l a t i o n l i v i n g o u t s i d e s t a t e c o n t r o l , i n c o n d i t i o n s h a l f o u t s i d e t h e l a w , in t e r r i b l e n e e d of t h e m i n i m a l f o r m s of s e l f - o r g a n i z a t i o n . A l t h o u g h t h i s p o p u l a t i o n i s c o m p o s e d of m a r g i n a l i z e d l a b o r e r s , s a c k e d c i v i l s e r v a n t s a n d e x - p e a s a n t s , t h e y a r e not s i m p l y a r e d u n d a n t s u r p l u s : they are incorporated into the global economy in numerous w a y s , m a n y of t h e m w o r k i n g a s i n f o r m a l w a g e w o r k e r s o r s e l f - e m p l o y e d e n t r e p r e ­ neurs, w i t h no a d e q u a t e health or social-security c o v e r a g e . (The m a i n s o u r c e of t h e i r e m e r g e n c e i s t h e i n c l u s i o n of T h i r d W o r l d c o u n t r i e s in t h e g l o b a l e c o n o m y , w i t h c h e a p food i m p o r t s from t h e F i r s t W o r l d c o u n t r i e s r u i n i n g l o c a l a g r i c u l t u r e . ) T h e y a r e t h e t r u e " s y m p t o m " of s l o g a n s s u c h a s "Development," unfortunate

"Modernization," and the

"World

M a r k e t " : not

an

a c c i d e n t , b u t a n e c e s s a r y p r o d u c t of t h e i n n e r m o s t l o g i c

of g l o b a l capitalism.'* N o w o n d e r t h a t t h e h e g e m o n i c form of i d e o l o g y in s l u m s i s P e n t e c o s t a l C h r i s t i a n i t y , w i t h its m i x t u r e of c h a r i s m a t i c m i r a c l e s - a n d - s p e c t a c l e s oriented fundamentalism

a n d of s o c i a l p r o g r a m s s u c h a s

community

k i t c h e n s a n d c a r e of c h i l d r e n a n d t h e o l d . W h i l e , of c o u r s e , o n e s h o u l d r e s i s t t h e e a s y t e m p t a t i o n of e l e v a t i n g a n d i d e a l i z i n g t h e s l u m - d w e l l e r s i n t o a n e w r e v o l u t i o n a r y c l a s s , o n e s h o u l d n o n e t h e l e s s , in B a d i o u ' s t e r m s , p e r c e i v e s l u m s a s o n e of t h e f e w a u t h e n t i c " e v e n t a l s i t e s " in c o n t e m 424

U N B E H A G E N IN D E R N A T U R

p o r a i y s o c i e t y — t h e s l u m - d w e l l e r s a r e l i t e r a l l y a c o l l e c t i o n of t h o s e w h o a r e the

"part

of n o - p a r t , " t h e " s u p e r n u m e r a r y "

e l e m e n t of s o c i e t y ,

e x c l u d e d from t h e b e n e f i t s of c i t i z e n s h i p , t h e u p r o o t e d a n d d i s p o s s e s s e d , t h o s e w h o r e a l l y " h a v e n o t h i n g to lose b u t t h e i r c h a i n s . " It i s i n d e e d s u r p r i s i n g h o w m a n y f e a t u r e s of s l u m - d w e l l e r s fit t h e g o o d old M a r x i s t d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e p r o l e t a r i a n r e v o l u t i o n a r y s u b j e c t : t h e y a r e " f r e e " in t h e d o u b l e m e a n i n g of t h e w o r d e v e n m o r e t h a n t h e c l a s s i c p r o l e t a r i a t ( " f r e e d " from a l l s u b s t a n t i a l t i e s ; d w e l l i n g in a free s p a c e , b e y o n d t h e p o l i c e r e g u l a t i o n s of t h e s t a t e ) ; t h e y a r e a l a r g e c o l l e c t i v e , f o r c i b l y t h r o w n t o g e t h e r , " t h r o w n " i n t o a s i t u a t i o n w h e r e t h e y h a v e to i n v e n t s o m e m o d e of b e i n g - t o g e t h e r , a n d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y d e p r i v e d of a n y s u p p o r t in t r a d i ­ t i o n a l w a y s of life, in i n h e r i t e d r e l i g i o u s o r e t h n i c life-forms. Of course, there is a crucial difference b e t w e e n the s l u m - d w e l l e r s a n d t h e c l a s s i c a l M a i t x i s t w o r k i n g c l a s s : w h i l e t h e l a t t e r i s d e f i n e d in t h e p r e c i s e t e r m s of e c o n o m i c " e x p l o i t a t i o n " ( t h e a p p r o p r i a t i o n of s u r p l u s v a l u e g e n e r a t e d b y t h e s i t u a t i o n of h a v i n g to sell o n e ' s o w n l a b o r - p o w e r a s a c o m m o d i t y on t h e m a r k e t ) , t h e d e f i n i n g f e a t u r e of t h e s l u m - d w e l l e r s is s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l , it c o n c e r n s t h e i r ( n o n - ) I n t e g r a t i o n i n t o t h e l e g a l s p a c e of c i t i z e n s h i p w i t h ( m o s t of) its I n c u m b e n t r i g h t s —to p u t it in s o m e w h a t s i m p l i f i e d t e r m s , m u c h m o r e t h a n a r e f u g e e , a s l u m - d w e l l e r i s a hoiru) docer, t h e s y s t e m i c a l l y g e n e r a t e d " l i v i n g d e a d " of g l o b a l c a p i t a l i s m . T h e s l u m - d w e l l e r i s a k i n d of n e g a t i v e of t h e r e f u g e e : a r e f u g e e from h i s o w n c o m m u n i t y , t h e f i g u r e t h a t s t a t e p o w e r i s not t r y i n g to c o n t r o l concentration—where

(to r e p e a t t h e

unforgettable

pun

from

through Ernst

L u b l t c h ' s To Be or Not to Be) t h o s e in p o w e r d o t h e c o n c e n t r a t i n g w h i l e t h e r e f u g e e s d o t h e c a m p i n g — b u t p u s h e d i n t o a s p a c e b e y o n d control; in c o n t r a s t to t h e F o u c a u l d i a n m i c r o - p r a c t i c e s of d i s c i p l i n e , w i t h r e g a r d to s l u m - d w e l l e r s , s t a t e p o w e r r e n o u n c e s its r i g h t to e x e r t full c o n t r o l a n d d i s c i p l i n e , f i n d i n g it m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e to let t h e m v e g e t a t e in t h e t w i l i g h t zone.'' W h a t o n e finds in t h e " r e a l l y - e x i s t i n g s l u m s " i s , of c o u r s e , a m i x t u r e of improvised modes

of s o c i a l life,

from

criminal gangs and religious

" f u n d a m e n t a l i s t " g r o u p s h e l d t o g e t h e r b y a c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r u p to a n d i n c l u d i n g s e e d s of n e w f o r m s of " s o c i a l i s t " s o l i d a r i t y . T h e s l u m d w e l l e r s a r e t h e c o u n t e r - c l a s s to t h e o t h e r n e w l y e m e r g i n g c l a s s , t h e socalled "symbolic class" (managers, journalists, and P R people, academics, a r t i s t s , a n d so o n ) w h i c h i s a l s o u p r o o t e d a n d p e r c e i v e s Itself a s d i r e c t l y u n i v e r s a l ( a N e w Y o r k a c a d e m i c h a s m o r e in c o m m o n w i t h a S l o v e n e a c a d e m i c t h a n w i t h b l a c k s in H a r l e m h a l f a m i l e from h i s c a m p u s ) . Is t h i s 425

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

the n e w a x i s of c l a s s s t r u g g l e , o r is t h e " s y m b o l i c c l a s s " i n h e r e n t l y split, so t h a t o n e c a n m a k e t h e e m a n c i p a t o r y w a g e r on a c o a l i t i o n b e t w e e n the s l u m - d w e l l e r s a n d t h e " p r o g r e s s i v e " p a r t of t h e s y m b o l i c c l a s s ?

We

s h o u l d b e l o o k i n g for s i g n s of t h e n e w f o r m s of s o c i a l a w a r e n e s s t h a t w i l l e m e r g e from t h e s l u m c o l l e c t i v e s : t h e y w i l l b e t h e g e r m s of t h e f u t u r e . P e t e r f i a l l w a r d w a s r i g h t to p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e p o e t i c s of " r e s i s t a n c e , " of d e t e r r i t o r i a l i z e d n o m a d i c m o b i l i t y , of c r e a t i n g lignes de fuite, of n e v e r b e i n g w h e r e o n e is e x p e c t e d to d w e l l , i s not e n o u g h ; t h e t i m e h a s c o m e to s t a r t c r e a t i n g w h a t o n e i s t e m p t e d to c a l l l i b e r a t e d t e r r i t o r i e s , t h e w e l l d e f i n e d a n d d e l i n e a t e d s o c i a l s p a c e s in w h i c h t h e r e i g n of t h e S y s t e m is suspended: a religious or artistic c o m m u n i t y , a political organization, and o t h e r forms of " a p l a c e of o n e ' s o w n . " T h i s i s w h a t m a k e s s l u m s so interesting: their territorial character. W h i l e contemporary

s o c i e t y is

often c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s t h e s o c i e t y of total control, s l u m s a r e t h e t e r r i t o r i e s w i t h i n a s t a t e ' s f r o n t i e r s from w h i c h t h e s t a t e h a s ( p a r t i a l l y , a t l e a s t ) w i t h d r a w n its control, t e r r i t o r i e s w h i c h function a s w h i t e spots, b l a n k s , in t h e official m a p of a s t a t e t e r r i t o r y . A l t h o u g h t h e y a r e de facto i n c l u d e d m a s t a t e hy t h e l i n k s ot t h e b l a c k e c o n o m y , o r g a n i z e d c r i m e , r e l i g i o u s g r o u p s , a n d so forth, t h e s t a t e ' s c o n t r o l is n o n e t h e l e s s s u s p e n d e d , t h e y a r e d o m a i n s o u t s i d e t h e r u l e of l a w . Tn t h e m a p of B e r l i n t h a t o n e c o u l d b u y in t h e n o w d e f u n c t G D R , t h e a r e a of W e s t B e r l i n w a s left b l a n k , a w e i r d h o l e in t h e d e t a i l e d s t r u c t u r e of t h e b i g c i t y ; w h e n C h r i s t a Wolf, t h e w e l l k n o w n Kast G e r m a n h a l f - d i s s i d e n t w r i t e r , t o o k h e r s m a l l d a u g h t e r to E a s t B e r l i n ' s T V t o w e r , from w h i c h o n e h a d a n i c e v i e w o v e r p r o h i b i t e d W e s t B e r l i n , t h e s m a l l g i r l s h o u t e d h a p p i l y : " L o o k , m o t h e r , it is n o t w h i t e o v e r t h e r e , t h e r e a r e h o u s e s w i t h p e o p l e l i k e h e r e ! " — a s if d i s c o v e r i n g a hidden slum zone . . . T h i s i s w h y t h e " d e s t r u c t u r e d " m a s s e s , p o o r a n d d e p r i v e d of e v e r y ­ t h i n g , s i t u a t e d in a n o n - p r o l e t a r l a n i z e d u r b a n e n v i r o n m e n t ,

constitute

o n e of t h e p r i n c i p a l h o r i z o n s of t h e p o l i t i c s to c o m e . T h e s e m a s s e s , t h e r e f o r e , a r e a n i m p o r t a n t factor in t h e p h e n o m e n o n of g l o b a l i z a t i o n . A g e n u i n e form of g l o b a l i z a t i o n , t o d a y , w o u l d b e f o u n d in t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e s e m a s s e s — on a w o r l d w i d e s c a l e , if possible—^whose c o n d i t i o n s of e x i s t e n c e a r e e s s e n t i a l l y t h e s a m e . W h o e v e r l i v e s in t h e banlieues of B a m a k o or S h a n g h a i i s not e s s e n t i a l l y different from s o m e o n e w h o l i v e s in t h e banlieue of P a r i s o r t h e g h e t t o s of C h i c a g o . I n d e e d , if t h e p r i n c i p a l t a s k of t h e e m a n c i p a t o r y p o l i t i c s of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y w a s to b r e a k t h e m o n o p o l y of t h e b o u r g e o i s l i b e r a l s b y p o l i t i c i z i n g t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s , a n d if t h e t a s k of t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y w a s to p o l i t i c a l l y a w a k e n t h e 426

U N B E H A G E N IN D E R N A T U R

i m m e n s e r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s of A s i a a n d A f r i c a , t h e p r i n c i p a l t a s k of t h e t w e n t y - f i r s t c e n t u r y is to p o l i t i c i z e — o r g a n i z e a n d d i s c i p l i n e — t h e " d e s t r u c t u r e d m a s s e s " of s l u m - d w e l l e r s . H u g o C h a v e z ' s g r e a t e s t a c h i e v e m e n t in t h e first y e a r s of h i s r u l e w a s p r e c i s e l y t h e p o l i t i c i z a t i o n ( i n c l u s i o n i n t o p o l i t i c a l life, s o c i a l m o b i l i z a ­ t i o n ) of s l u m - d w e l l e r s ; in o t h e r c o u n t r i e s , t h e y m o s t l y p e r s i s t in a p o l i t i c a l i n e r t i a . It w a s t h i s p o l i t i c a l m o b i l i z a t i o n of t h e s l u m - d w e l l e r s w h i c h s a v e d h i m from a U S - s p o n s o r e d

c o u p : to t h e s u r p r i s e of e v e r y o n e , C h a v e z

i n c l u d e d , t h e s l u m - d w e l l e r s d e s c e n d e d e n m a s s e to t h e affluent

city

c e n t e r , t i p p i n g t h e b a l a n c e of p o w e r to h i s a d v a n t a g e . T h e c o u r s e on w h i c h C h a v e z e m b a r k e d from 2 0 0 6 i s t h e e x a c t o p p o s i t e of t h e p o s t m o d e r n Left's m a n t r a r e g a r d i n g d e - t e r r i t o r i a l i z a t i o n , r e j e c t i o n of statist p o l i t i c s , a n d so on: far from " r e s i s t i n g s t a t e p o w e r , " h e grabbed p o w e r (first b y a n a t t e m p t e d c o u p , t h e n d e m o c r a t i c a l l y ) , r u t h l e s s l y u s i n g t h e s t a t e a p p a r a t u s e s a n d i n t e r v e n t i o n s to p r o m o t e h i s g o a l s ; f u r t h e r m o r e , h e i s m i l i t a r i z i n g t h e f a v e l a s , o r g a n i z i n g t h e t r a i n i n g of a r m e d u n i t s . A n d , t h e u l t i m a t e t a b o o : n o w t h a t h e i s f e e l i n g t h e e c o n o m i c effects of t h e " r e s i s t a n c e " to h i s r u l e b y c a p i t a l ( t e m p o r a r y s h o r t a g e s of s o m e g o o d s in t h e s t a t e - s u b s i d i z e d s u p e r m a r k e t s ) , h e h a s a n o u n c e d t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n of h i s o w n p o l i t i c a l p a r t y ! E v e n s o m e of h i s a l l i e s a r e s k e p t i c a l a b o u t t h i s m o v e : d o e s it s i g n a l a r e t u r n to t h e p o l i t i c s of t h e p a r t y - s t a t e ? H o w e v e r , o n e s h o u l d fully e n d o r s e t h i s r i s k y c h o i c e : t h e t a s k is to m a k e t h i s p a r t y function not l i k e t h e u s u a l ( p o p u l i s t or l i b e r a l - p a r l i a m e n t a r y ) p a r t y , b u t a s a focus for t h e p o l i t i c a l m o b i l i z a t i o n of n e w f o r m s of p o l i t i c s ( l i k e t h e g r a s s r o o t s c o m m u n a l c o m m i t t e e s ) . S o w h a t s h o u l d w e s a y to s o m e o n e l i k e C h a v e z ? " N o , d o n o t g r a b state p o w e r , j u s t s u b t r a c t y o u r s e l f , l e a v e t h e l a w s of t h e ( s t a t e ) s i t u a t i o n in p l a c e " ? C h a v e z i s often d i s m i s s e d a s a c l o w n i s h c o m e d i a n — b u t w o u l d s u c h a s u b t r a c t i o n not r e a l l y r e d u c e h i m to a n e w v e r s i o n of S u b c o m a n d a n t e M a r c o s of t h e Z a p a t i s t a m o v e m e n t in M e x i c o , to w h o m m a n y leftists n o w r i g h t l y r e f e r a s

"Subcomediante

M a r c o s " ? T o d a y , it i s t h e b i g c a p i t a l i s t s , from B i l l G a t e s to t h e e c o l o g i c a l polluters, w h o "resist" the state . . .

T h e four f e a t u r e s p r e s u p p o s e d in t h e M a r x i s t n o t i o n of t h e p r o l e t a r i a t a r e , of c o u r s e , g r o u n d e d in t h e s i n g u l a r l y c a p i t a l i s t m e c h a n i s m , t h e y a r e four effects of the s a m e s t r u c t u r a l c a u s e . Is it p o s s i b l e to d o t h e s a m e w i t h t h e four a n t a g o n i s m s t h a t t h r e a t e n t h e i n d e f i n i t e s e l f - r e p r o d u c t i o n

of

g l o b a l c a p i t a l , to " d e d u c e " t h e m from t h e s a m e c a u s e ? T h e t a s k m a y a p p e a r a l m o s t a s difficult a s t h e g r e a t t a s k of c o n t e m p o r a r y p h y s i c s , t h e 427

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

d e v e l o p m e n t of a " u n i f i e d t h e o r y " w h i c h w o u l d d e d u c e t h e four

funda­

m e n t a l f o r c e s ( g r a v i t y , e l e c t r i c i t y / m a g n e t i s m , w e a k a t o m i c force, s t r o n g a t o m i c f o r c e ) from o n e a n d t h e s a m e u n d e r l y i n g f e a t u r e or l a w . P e r h a p s o n e c o u l d e v e n m a p C o h e n ' s four f e a t u r e s o n t o t h e s e c o n d t e t r a d : t h e " m a j o r i t y " p r i n c i p l e a p p e a r s a s e c o l o g y , a t o p i c w h i c h con­ c e r n s u s a l l ; " p o v e r t y " c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h o s e w h o a r e e x c l u d e d a n d live in slums; " w e a l t h p r o d u c t i o n " is more a n d more something w h i c h d e p e n d s on s c i e n t i f i c a n d t e c h n o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s l i k e b i o g e n e t i c s ; a n d , fi­ n a l l y , " e x p l o i t a t i o n " r e a p p e a r s in t h e i m p a s s e s of i n t e l l e c t u a l p r o p e r t y , w h e r e the o w n e r e x p l o i t s t h e r e s u l t s of c o l l e c t i v e l a b o r . T h e four f e a t u r e s form a k i n d of s e m i o t i c s q u a r e , t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of t w o o p p o s i t i o n s a l o n g t h e l i n e s of s o c i e t y / n a t u r e a n d i n s i d e / o u t s i d e t h e s o c i a l w a l l of a n e w a p a r t h e i d : e c o l o g y d e s i g n a t e s t h e o u t s i d e of n a t u r e , s l u m s t h e social o u t s i d e , b i o g e n e t i c s t h e n a t u r a l i n s i d e a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l p r o p e r t y t h e social inside. Why

i s t h i s o v e r l a p p i n g of t h e four a n t a g o n i s m s not t h e L a c l a u i a n

e m p t y signifier (the "people"),

filled

in t h r o u g h

t h e p r o c e s s of

the

s t r u g g l e for h e g e m o n y ? W h y is it not y e t a n o t h e r a t t e m p t in t h e s e r i e s of t h e " r a i n b o w c o a l i t i o n s " of o p p r e s s e d s e x u a l m i n o r i t i e s , e t h n i c a n d r e l i g i o u s g r o u p s , a n d so f o r t h ? B e c a u s e w e still need a proletarian position, t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e " p a r t of n o - p a r t . " In o t h e r w o r d s , if o n e w a n t s a n o l d e r m o d e l , it i s r a t h e r t h e t r u s t y C o m m u n i s t

f o r m u l a of t h e a l l i a n c e of

"workers, poor farmers, patriotic petty bourgeoisie, a n d honest intellec­ t u a l s " : n o t e h o w t h e four t e r m s a r e not a t the s a m e l e v e l — o n l y w o r k e r s a r e l i s t e d a s s u c h , w h i l e t h e o t h e r t h r e e a r e q u a l i f i e d ("poor f a r m e r s , patriotic p e t t y b o u r g e o i s i e , honest i n t e l l e c t u a l s " ) . E x a c t l y t h e s a m e g o e s for t o d a y ' s four a n t a g o n i s m s : it i s t h e a n t a g o n i s m b e t w e e n t h e E x c l u d e d a n d t h e I n c l u d e d w h i c h i s the z e r o - l e v e l a n t a g o n i s m , c o l o r i n g t h e e n t i r e t e r r a i n of s t r u g g l e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , o n l y t h o s e e c o l o g i s t s a r e I n c l u d e d w h o d o not u s e e c o l o g y to l e g i t i m i z e t h e o p p r e s s i o n of t h e " p o l l u t i n g " poor, t r y i n g to d i s c i p l i n e t h e T h i r d W o r l d c o u n t r i e s ; o n l y t h o s e c r i t i c s of biogenetic p r a c t i c e s w h o resist the conservative

(religious-humanist)

i d e o l o g y w h i c h a l l too often s u s t a i n s t h i s c r i t i q u e ; o n l y t h o s e c r i t i c s of i n t e l l e c t u a l p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y w h o d o not r e d u c e t h e p r o b l e m to a l e g a l i s t i c issue. T h e r e is t h u s a q u a l i t a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e g a p t h a t s e p a r a t e s t h e E x c l u d e d from t h e I n c l u d e d a n d t h e o t h e r t h r e e a n t a g o n i s m s , w h i c h d e s i g n a t e t h r e e d o m a i n s of w h a t H a r d t a n d N e g r i c a l l t h e

"commons,"

t h e s h a r e d s u b s t a n c e of o u r s o c i a l b e i n g w h o s e p r i v a t i z a t i o n i s a v i o l e n t 428

U N B E H A G E N IN D E R N A T U R

a c t w h i c h s h o u l d a l s o b e r e s i s t e d w i t h v i o l e n c e , if n e c e s s a r y : ihe

comnwnd

fff culture, t h e i m m e d i a t e l y s o c i a l i z e d f o r m s of " c o g n i t i v e " c a p i t a l , p r i ­ m a r i l y l a n g u a g e , o u r m e a n s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n

and education

(if Bill

G a t e s w e r e a l l o w e d a m o n o p o l y , w e w o u l d r e a c h t h e a b s u r d s i t u a t i o n in w h i c h a p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l w o u l d l i t e r a l l y o w n t h e s o f t w a r e t e x t u r e of o u r b a s i c n e t w o r k of c o m m u n i c a t i o n ) , b u t a l s o t h e s h a r e d i n f r a s t r u c t u r e public transport,

e l e c t r i c i t y , post, etc.; the

coimnorw

of

external

t h r e a t e n e d b y p o l l u t i o n a n d e x p l o i t a t i o n (from oil to forests a n d natural

habitat

itself); the comnwiu of internal nature

(the

of

nature the

biogenetic

i n h e r i t a n c e of h u m a n i t y ) . W h a t a l l t h e s e s t r u g g l e s s h a r e i s t h e a w a r e n e s s of t h e d e s t r u c t i v e p o t e n t i a l , u p to a n d i n c l u d i n g t h e s e l f - a n n i h i l a t i o n of h u m a n i t y itself, if t h e c a p i t a l i s t l o g i c of e n c l o s i n g t h e s e c o m m o n s

is

a l l o w e d a free r u n . It i s t h i s r e f e r e n c e to " c o m m o n s " — t h i s s u b s t a n c e of productivity w h i c h is neither private nor p u b l i c — w h i c h justifies the r e s u s c i t a t i o n of t h e n o t i o n of c o m m u n i s m . T h e c o m m o n s c a n t h u s b e l i n k e d to w h a t H e g e l , in h i s Phenomenology, d e p l o y e d a s c)le Sache, t h e s h a r e d s o c i a l t h i n g - c a u s e , " t h e w o r k of a l l a n d e v e r y o n e , " t h e s u b s t a n c e kept alive b y incessant subjective productivity.

From fear to trembling A f u r t h e r q u a l i f i c a t i o n s h o u l d b e a d d e d h e r e : the s o l u t i o n i s not to l i m i t the m a r k e t a n d p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y b y d i r e c t i n t e r v e n t i o n s of t h e s t a t e a n d state o w n e r s h i p . T h e d o m a i n of t h e s t a t e itself i s a l s o i n its o w n w a y " p r i v a t e " : p r i v a t e in t h e p r e c i s e K a n t i a n s e n s e of t h e " p r i v a t e u s e of R e a s o n " in s t a t e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a n d i d e o l o g i c a l a p p a r a t u s e s :

T h e p u b l i c u s e of o n e ' s r e a s o n m u s t a l w a y s b e free, a n d it a l o n e c a n bring about

enlightenment

among

men. The

r e a s o n , on the o t h e r h a n d , m a y often without

p r i v a t e u s e of

one's

be v e r y n a r r o w l y restricted

p a r t i c u l a r l y h i n d e r i n g t h e p r o g r e s s of e n l i g h t e n m e n t .

By

p u b l i c u s e of o n e ' s r e a s o n I u n d e r s t a n d t h e u s e w h i c h a p e r s o n m a k e s of it a s a s c h o l a r before the r e a d i n g p u b l i c . P r i v a t e u s e I c a l l t h a t w h i c h o n e m a y m a k e of it i n a p a r t i c u l a r civil p o s t or office w h i c h i s e n t r u s t e d to h i m .

W h a t one should a d d here, moving b e y o n d

Kant, is that there is a

p r i v i l e g e d social g r o u p w h i c h , on a c c o u n t of its l a c k of a d e t e r m i n a t e p l a c e in t h e " p r i v a t e " o r d e r of t h e s o c i a l h i e r a r c h y , in o t h e r w o r d s , a s a 429

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

" p a r t of n o - p a r t " of the s o c i a l b o d y , d i r e c t l y s t a n d s for u n i v e r s a l i t y : it is o n l y t h e r e f e r e n c e to t h o s e E x c l u d e d , to t h o s e w h o d w e l l in t h e b l a n k s of the s p a c e of t h e s t a t e , t h a t e n a b l e s t r u e u n i v e r s a l i t y . T h e r e i s n o t h i n g more " p r i v a t e " than a state c o m m u n i t y w h i c h p e r c e i v e s the E x c l u d e d as a t h r e a t a n d w o r r i e s h o w to k e e p t h e E x c l u d e d a t a p r o p e r d i s t a n c e . In o t h e r w o r d s , a s w e h a v e a l r e a d y s e e n , in t h e s e r i e s of t h e four a n t a g o n ­ i s m s , t h e o n e b e t w e e n t h e I n c l u d e d a n d t h e E x c l u d e d is t h e c r u c i a l one, t h e p o i n t of r e f e r e n c e for t h e o t h e r s ; w i t h o u t it, a l l o t h e r s lose t h e i r s u b v e r s i v e e d g e : e c o l o g y t u r n s i n t o a " p r o b l e m of s u s t a i n a b l e d e v e l o p ­ ment," intellectual p r o p e r t y into a " c o m p l e x legal c h a l l e n g e , " biogenetics into a n " e t h i c a l " i s s u e . O n e c a n s i n c e r e l y fight for e c o l o g y , d e f e n d

a

b r o a d e r n o t i o n of i n t e l l e c t u a l p r o p e r t y , o p p o s e t h e c o p y r i g h t i n g of g e n e s , w h i l e not q u e s t i o n i n g the a n t a g o n i s m b e t w e e n t h e I n c l u d e d a n d

the

E x c l u d e d — w h a t i s m o r e , o n e c a n e v e n f o r m u l a t e s o m e of t h e s e s t r u g g l e s in t e r m s of t h e I n c l u d e d t h r e a t e n e d b y t h e p o l l u t i n g E x c l u d e d . In t h i s w a y , w e g e t no t r u e u n i v e r s a l i t y , o n l y " p r i v a t e " c o n c e r n s i n t h e K a n t i a n s e n s e of t h e t e r m . C o r p o r a t i o n s s u c h a s W h o l e F o o d s a n d

Starbucks

c o n t i n u e to e n j o y f a v o r a m o n g l i b e r a l s e v e n t h o u g h t h e y b o t h e n g a g e in a n t i - u n i o n a c t i v i t i e s ; t h e t r i c k i s t h a t t h e y sell p r o d u c t s t h a t c l a i m to b e p o l i t i c a l l y p r o g r e s s i v e a c t s i n a n d of t h e m s e l v e s . O n e b u y s coffee m a d e w i t h b e a n s b o u g h t from t h e g r o w e r s a t fair p r i c e s , o n e d r i v e s a h y b r i d v e h i c l e , o n e b u y s from c o m p a n i e s t h a t p r o v i d e g o o d b e n e f i t s for t h e i r e m p l o y e e s ( a c c o r d i n g to t h e c o r p o r a t i o n ' s o w n s t a n d a r d s ) , a n d so on. P o l i t i c a l a c t i o n a n d c o n s u m p t i o n b e c o m e fully m e r g e d . In short, w i t h o u t the antagonism between the Included a n d the Excluded, w e m a y well find o u r s e l v e s in a w o r l d i n w h i c h B i l l G a t e s is t h e g r e a t e s t h u m a n i t a r i a n fighting against poverty and diseases, a n d R u p e r t M u r d o c h the greatest environmentalist •

mobilizing hundreds

of m i l l i o n s t h r o u g h

his

media

9

empire. A n d , o n e s h o u l d b e c l e a r a t t h i s p o i n t , t h e p o l i t i c a l e x p r e s s i o n of t h i s r a d i c a l a n t a g o n i s m , t h e w a y t h e p r e s s u r e of t h e E x c l u d e d i s e x p e r i e n c e d w i t h i n t h e e s t a b l i s h e d p o l i t i c a l s p a c e , a l w a y s h a s a f l a v o r of t e r r o r . T h e l e s s o n is t h u s t h e o n e r e n d e r e d l o n g a g o b y A t h e n a t o w a r d s t h e e n d of Aeschylus's

Euinenides:

A s for t e r r o r , d o n ' t b a n i s h it c o m p l e t e l y from the c i t y . W h a t mortal m a n is t r u l y righteous w i t h o u t b e i n g afraid? Those w h o sense the fear 430

U N B E H A G E N IN D E R N A T U R

r e v e r e vi'hat's r i g h t . W i t h c i t i z e n s h k e t h e s e y o u r c o u n t r y a n d y o u r c i t y w i l l b e safe, stronger than anything possessed by men.'" H o w a r e w e to r e a d t h e s e f a m o u s U n e s ? D o t h e y r e a l l y p o i n t t o w a r d s the manipulation

of t h e p o l i t i c s of f e a r w e k n o w t o d a y ? " T h e

first

o b s t a c l e to s u c h a r e a d i n g i s t h e o b v i o u s fact t h a t A t h e n a d o e s

not

e v o k e t h e f e a r of a n e x t e r n a l e n e m y w h o s e t h r e a t j u s t i f i e s t h e

dis­

c i p l i n e d u n i t y a n d p o s s i b l e " d e f e n s i v e m e a s u r e s " of t h e c i t y - s t a t e : t h e f e a r i s h e r e t h e f e a r of d i v i n e J u s t i c e itself, of i t s b l i n d i n g a u t h o r i t y ; from t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of m o d e r n s u b j e c t i v i t y ( w h i c h i s o u r p e r s p e c t i v e h e r e ) , the object

of t h i s f e a r i s t h e a b y s s of s u b j e c t i v i t y itself,

t e r r i f y i n g p o w e r of s e l f - r e l a t i n g n e g a t i v i t y ; it i s t h e t e r r i f y i n g

its

encoun­

t e r of t h i s t r a u m a t i c c o r e t h a t H e i d e g g e r h a d in m i n d w h e n h e c l a i m e d that terror awakened

{Schrecken) w a s n e c e s s a r y if " m o d e r n from

his metaphysico-technological

m a n " w a s to

slumber

into

a

be new

beginning;

w e m u s t p r i n c i p a l l y c o n c e r n o u r s e l v e s w i t h p r e p a r i n g for m a n t h e v e r y basis and dimension upon w h i c h and within w h i c h something like a m y s t e r y of h i s Deuteln c o u l d o n c e a g a i n b e e n c o u n t e r e d . W e s h o u l d not b e at all s u r p r i s e d if t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y m a n in t h e s t r e e t feels d i s t u r b e d or p e r h a p s sometimes d a z e d a n d c l u t c h e s all the more s t u b b o r n l y at his i d o l s w h e n c o n f r o n t e d w i t h this c h a l l e n g e a n d w i t h t h e effort r e q u i r e d to a p p r o a c h t h i s m y s t e r y . It w o u l d b e a m i s t a k e to e x p e c t a n y t h i n g e l s e . W e m u s t first call for s o m e o n e c a p a b l e of i n s t i l l i n g t e r r o r i n t o o u r Ucuem a g a i n .

H e i d e g g e r thus opposes w o n d e r a s the basic disposition

of t h e

first

( G r e e k ) b e g i n n i n g to t e r r o r a s t h e b a s i c d i s p o s i t i o n of t h e s e c o n d n e w b e g i n n i n g : "In w o n d e r , t h e b a s i c d i s p o s i t i o n of t h e first b e g i n n i n g , b e i n g s first c o m e to s t a n d in t h e i r form. T e r r o r , t h e b a s i c d i s p o s i t i o n of t h e o t h e r b e g i n n i n g , r e v e a l s b e h i n d all p r o g r e s s a n d a l l d o m i n a t i o n o v e r b e i n g s a d a r k e m p t i n e s s of i r r e l e v a n c e . "

( T h e t h i n g to n o t e h e r e i s t h a t H e i d e g g e r

u s e s t h e w o r d " t e r r o r " a n d not " a n x i e t y . " ) H e g e l s a i d s o m e t h i n g s i m i l a r in h i s a n a l y s i s of t h e m a s t e r a n d s e r v a n t ( b o n d a g e ) , w h e n h e e m p h a s i z e d that, s i n c e t h e b o n d s m a n is a l s o a selfconsciousness.

431

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

t h e m a s t e r is t a k e n to b e t h e e s s e n t i a l r e a l i t y for t h e s t a t e of b o n d a g e ; h e n c e , for it, t h e t r u t h i s t h e i n d e p e n d e n t c o n s c i o u s n e s s e x i s t i n g for itself, a l t h o u g h t h i s t r u t h i s not t a k e n y e t a s i n h e r e n t in b o n d a g e i t s e l f S t i l l , it d o e s in fact c o n t a i n w i t h i n i t s e l f t h i s t r u t h of p u r e n e g a t i v i t y a n d s e l f - e x i s t e n c e , b e c a u s e it h a s e x p e r i e n c e d t h i s reality' w i t h i n it. F o r t h i s c o n s c i o u s n e s s w a s not in p e r i l a n d fear for t h i s e l e m e n t o r that, n o r for t h i s o r t h a t m o m e n t of t i m e , it w a s a f r a i d for its e n t i r e b e i n g ; it felt t h e fear of d e a t h , t h e s o v e r e i g n m a s t e r . It h a s b e e n in t h a t e x p e r i e n c e m e l t e d to its i n m o s t soul, h a s t r e m b l e d t h r o u g h o u t i t s e v e r y fibre, a n d all t h a t w a s fixed a n d s t e a d f a s t h a s q u a k e d w i t h i n it. T h i s c o m p l e t e p e r t u r b a t i o n of i t s e n t i r e s u b s t a n c e , t h i s a b s o l u t e d i s s o l u t i o n of all its s t a b i l i t y i n t o fluent c o n t i n u i t y , i s , h o w e v e r , t h e s i m p l e , u l t i m a t e n a t u r e of s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s , a b s o l u t e n e g a t i v i t y , p u r e

self-referrent

exis­

t e n c e , w h i c h c o n s e q u e n t l y is i n v o l v e d in t h i s t y p e of c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h i s m o m e n t of p u r e s e l f - e x i s t e n c e i s m o r e o v e r a fact for it; for in the m a s t e r it finds t h i s a s its object. F u r t h e r , t h i s b o n d s m a n ' s c o n s c i o u s ­ n e s s is not o n l y t h i s total d i s s o l u t i o n in a g e n e r a l w a y ; in s e r v i n g a n d t o i l i n g t h e b o n d s m a n a c t u a l l y c a r r i e s t h i s out. B y s e r v i n g h e c a n c e l s in e v e r y p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t h i s d e p e n d e n c e on a n d a t t a c h m e n t to n a t u r a l existence, a n d b y his w o r k r e m o v e s this existence away.''*

T h e s e r v a n t i s t h u s i n - h i m s e l f a l r e a d y free, h i s f r e e d o m b e i n g e m b o d i e d o u t s i d e h i m s e l f in h i s m a s t e r . It i s in t h i s s e n s e t h a t C h r i s t i s o u r m a s t e r a n d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t h e s o u r c e of o u r f r e e d o m . C h r i s t ' s s a c r i f i c e set u s free — h o w ? N e i t h e r a s t h e p a y m e n t for o u r s i n s n o r a s l e g a l i s t i c r a n s o m , b u t a s w h e n w e a r e a f r a i d of s o m e t h i n g ( a n d f e a r of d e a t h i s t h e u l t i m a t e f e a r t h a t m a k e s u s s l a v e s ) , a n d a t r u e f r i e n d s a y s : " D o n ' t b e a f r a i d , look, I w i l l d o it. W h a t a r e y o u so a l r a i d of? I w i l l d o it, not b e c a u s e I h a v e to b u t o u t of m y l o v e for y o u . I a m not a f r a i d ! " H e d o e s it a n d in t h i s w a y sets u s free, d e m o n s t r a t i n g in acta t h a t it can he done, t h a t w e too c a n d o it, t h a t w e are

not

slaves

description

Rand's

Tl^e Fountainhead,

the

of t h e m o m e n t a r y i m p a c t H o w a r d

. . . Recall,

from

Ayn

R o a r k m a k e s on

the

m e m b e r s of t h e a u d i e n c e in t h e c o u r t r o o m w h e r e h e i s s t a n d i n g t r i a l :

R o a r k stood b e f o r e t h e m a s e a c h m a n s t a n d s in t h e i n n o c e n c e of h i s o w n m i n d . B u t R o a r k s t o o d l i k e t h a t before a h o s t i l e c r o w d — a n d t h e y k n e w s u d d e n l y t h a t no h a t r e d w a s p o s s i b l e to h i m . F o r t h e flash of a n i n s t a n t , t h e y g r a s p e d t h e m a n n e r of his c o n s c i o u s n e s s . E a c h a s k e d himself: d o I n e e d a n y o n e ' s a p p r o v a l ? — d o e s it m a t t e r ? — a m I t i e d ? — 432

U N B E H A G E N IN DER N A T U R

A n d for t h a t i n s t a n t , e a c h m a n w a s free —free e n o u g h to feel b e n e ­ v o l e n c e for e v e r y o t h e r m a n in t h e r o o m . It w a s o n l y a m o m e n t ;

the

m o m e n t of s i l e n c e w h e n R o a r k w a s a b o u t to s p e a k . ' ' ^ This is the w a y Christ b r i n g s freedom: w h e n confronting him, w e become a w a r e of o u r o w n f r e e d o m . A n d d o e s not, rnutatu mutandLi, t h e s a m e h o l d for C h e G u e v a r a ? T h e p h o t o s s h o w i n g h i m u n d e r a r r e s t in B o l i v i a , surrounded b y government soldiers, have a weird Christological aura, as if w e s e e a t i r e d b u t d e f i a n t C h r i s t on h i s w a y to c r u c i f i x i o n — no w o n d e r that, w h e n , m o m e n t s p r i o r to h i s d e a t h , t h e e x e c u t i o n e r ' s p i s t o l a l r e a d y a i m e d a t h i m , t h e h a n d h o l d i n g it t r e m b l i n g , G u e v a r a l o o k e d a t h i m a n d s a i d : " A i m w e l l . Y o u a r e a b o u t to k i l l a m a n "

— h i s v e r s i o n of ecce

homo . . . A n d , I n d e e d , i s t h e b a s i c m e s s a g e of G u e v a r a n o t p r e c i s e l y t h i s : t h e m e s s a g e of h o w , in a n d t h r o u g h a l l h i s f a i l u r e s , h e p e r s i s t e d , h e w e n t o n ? O n e c a n i m a g i n e h i m t h i n k i n g in t h e d e s p e r a t e l a s t d a y s in B o l i v i a a v e r s i o n of t h e l a s t w o r d s of S a m u e l B e c k e t t ' s The VnnameahU: " i n t h e s i l e n c e y o u d o n ' t k n o w , y o u m u s t g o on, I c a n ' t g o on, I'll g o o n . " ' ^ In a n u n s u r p a s s a b l e i r o n y of h i s t o r y , after t h e t r i u m p h of t h e C u b a n r e v o l u t i o n , e v e r y t h i n g h e d i d w a s a f a i l u r e ^—the d i s m a l f a i l u r e of h i s e c o n o m i c p o l i c i e s a s t h e C u b a n m i n i s t e r of e c o n o m y (after a y e a r , food h a d to b e r a t i o n e d . . . ) , t h e f a i l u r e of h i s C o n g o a d v e n t u r e , t h e f a i l u r e of h i s l a s t m i s s i o n in B o l i v i a ; h o w e v e r , all t h e s e " h u m a n , a l l too h u m a n " f a i l u r e s s o m e h o w fade i n t o t h e - b a c k g r o u n d , t h e b a c k d r o p a g a i n s t w h i c h contours

of h i s p r o p e r l y o v e r - h u m a n

(or, w h y not, inhuman)

the

figure

a p p e a r , c o n f i r m i n g B a d i o u ' s m o t t o t h a t t h e o n l y w a y to b e t r u l y h u m a n i s to e x c e e d o r d i n a r y h u m a n i t y , t e n d i n g t o w a r d s t h e d i m e n s i o n of t h e inhuman.

Ecobgy against nature D o w e not, t o d a y , o n c e a g a i n n e e d s u c h a s h a t t e r i n g e x p e r i e n c e of n e g a t i v i t y ? T h a t i s to s a y , w h a t if t h e t r u e c h o i c e t o d a y w e r e between f e a r a n d t e r r o r ? T h e e x p r e s s i o n " f e a r a n d t r e m b l i n g " a s s u m e s t h e I d e n t i t y of t h e t w o t e r m s , a s if t h e y p o i n t t o w a r d s t h e t w o a s p e c t s of t h e s a m e p h e n o m e n o n — w h a t if, h o w e v e r , o n e h a s to I n t r o d u c e a g a p b e t w e e n t h e t w o , so t h a t t r e m b l i n g ( b e i n g - t e r r o r i z e d ) i s , a t its m o s t r a d i c a l , t h e o n l y t r u e o p p o s i t i o n to f e a r ? In o t h e r w o r d s , o n e c a n b r e a k o u t of t h i s fear not t h r o u g h a d e s p e r a t e s e a r c h for safety, but, on t h e c o n t r a r y , b y p u s h i n g on to t h e e n d , b y a c c e p t i n g t h e n u l l i t y of t h a t w h i c h w e a r e a f r a i d to lose. 433

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

I s a a c A s i m o v s a i d s o m e w h e r e t h a t t h e r e a r e t w o possibiUties: e i t h e r w e a r e a l o n e in the u n i v e r s e , t h e r e is n o b o d y o u t t h e r e w a t c h i n g u s , o r t h e r e is s o m e b o d y out t h e r e — a n d b o t h p o s s i b i l i t i e s a r e e q u a l l y u n b e a r a b l e . S o , from t h e f e a r of l o s i n g o u r a n c h o r a g e in t h e b i g O t h e r , w e s h o u l d p a s s to the t e r r o r of t h e r e b e i n g no b i g O t h e r . T h e old f o r m u l a " t h e r e i s n o t h i n g to fear b u t fear itself" a c q u i r e s t h u s a n e w a n d u n e x p e c t e d m e a n i n g : the fact t h a t t h e r e is n o t h i n g to f e a r is t h e m o s t t e r r i f y i n g fact i m a g i n a b l e . T e r r o r i s t h i s " s e l f - r e l a t e d " o r " s e l f - n e g a t e d " fear: it is w h a t fear c h a n g e s i n t o o n c e w e a c c e p t t h a t t h e r e is no w a y b a c k , t h a t w h a t w e a r e a f r a i d to l o s e , w h a t is t h r e a t e n e d b y w h a t w e a r e a f r a i d of ( n a t u r e , t h e l i f e - w o r l d , t h e s y m b o l i c s u b s t a n c e of o u r c o m m u n i t y . . . ) h a s a l w a y s - a l r e a d y b e e n lost. T h i s t e r r o r w h o s e c o n t o u r s H e g e l o u t l i n e d in h i s d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e s e r v a n t ' s s u b j e c t i v e e x p e r i e n c e of e n c o u n t e r i n g t h e t h r e a t of d e a t h s h o u l d serve u s a s the b a c k g r o u n d against w h i c h one should read M a r x and E n g e l s ' s f a m o u s d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e c a p i t a l i s t d y n a m i c in t h e

ConiniunLtl

Manifesto:

C o n s t a n t r e v o l u t i o n i z i n g of p r o d u c t i o n , u n i n t e r r u p t e d d i s t u r b a n c e of all s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s , e v e r l a s t i n g u n c e r t a i n t y a n d a g i t a t i o n d i s t i n g u i s h the

bourgeois

epoch

from

all e a r l i e r o n e s . A l l fixed,

fast-frozen

r e l a t i o n s , w i t h t h e i r t r a i n of a n c i e n t a n d v e n e r a b l e p r e j u d i c e s a n d opinions are swept a w a y , all new-formed

ones become

antiquated

b e f o r e t h e y c a n ossify. A l l t h a t is s o l i d m e l t s i n t o a i r , a l l t h a t i s h o l y i s p r o f a n e d , a n d m a n i s a t last c o m p e l l e d to face w i t h s o b e r s e n s e s h i s r e a l c o n d i t i o n s of life, a n d h i s r e l a t i o n s w i t h h i s k i n d . [. . . ] In p l a c e of t h e old l o c a l a n d n a t i o n a l s e c l u s i o n a n d s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y , w e h a v e i n t e r ­ c o u r s e m e v e r y d i r e c t i o n , u n i v e r s a l m t e r - d e p e n d e n c e of n a t i o n s . A n d as

in m a t e r i a l , so a l s o in i n t e l l e c t u a l p r o d u c t i o n .

c r e a t i o n s of i n d i v i d u a l n a t i o n s b e c o m e c o m m o n

The

intellectual

property.

National

one-sidedness and narrow-mindedness become more and more im­ p o s s i b l e , a n d from t h e n u m e r o u s n a t i o n a l a n d l o c a l l i t e r a t u r e s , t h e r e arises a world literature.

Is t h i s not, m o r e t h a n e v e r , o u r r e a l i t y t o d a y ? E r i c s s o n p h o n e s a r e no l o n g e r S w e d i s h , T o y o t a c a r s a r e m a n u f a c t u r e d 6 0 p e r c e n t in t h e U S A , H o l l y w o o d c u l t u r e p e r v a d e s the r e m o t e s t p a r t s of t h e g l o b e . . . F u r t h e r ­ m o r e , d o e s t h e s a m e not g o a l s o for a l l f o r m s of e t h n i c a n d

sexual

i d e n t i t y ? S h o u l d w e not s u p p l e m e n t M a r x ' s d e s c r i p t i o n in t h i s s e n s e , a d d i n g that also s e x u a l "one-sidedness and n a r r o w - m i n d e d n e s s 434

become

U N B E H A G E N IN D E R N A T U R

m o r e a n d m o r e i m p o s s i b l e , " t h a t c o n c e r n i n g s e x u a l p r a c t i c e s , it a l s o t r u e t h a t " a l l t h a t is s o l i d m e l t s i n t o a i r , a l l t h a t i s h o l y i s p r o f a n e d , " so t h a t c a p i t a l i s m t e n d s to r e p l a c e s t a n d a r d n o r m a t i v e h e t e r o s e x u a l i t y w i t h a prohferation

of u n s t a b l e shifting i d e n t i t i e s a n d / o r o r i e n t a t i o n s ?

And

today, with the latest biogenetic developments, w e are entering a n e w p h a s e in w h i c h it i s s i m p l y nature itself w h i c h m e l t s i n t o a i r : t h e m a i n c o n s e q u e n c e of t h e s c i e n t i f i c b r e a k t h r o u g h s in b i o g e n e t i c s is t h e e n d of n a t u r e . O n c e w e k n o w t h e r u l e s of its c o n s t r u c t i o n , n a t u r a l o r g a n i s m s a r e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o o b j e c t s a m e n a b l e to m a n i p u l a t i o n . N a t u r e , h u m a n a n d i n h u m a n , is t h u s " d e s u b s t a n t i a l i z e d , " d e p r i v e d of its i m p e n e t r a b l e d e n ­ sity, of w h a t H e i d e g g e r c a l l e d " e a r t h . " T h i s c o m p e l s u s to g i v e a n e w t w i s t to F r e u d ' s title Unbehagen in Jer Kultur ^discontent, culture. to n a t u r e

u n e a s i n e s s , in

W i t h t h e l a t e s t d e v e l o p m e n t s , t h e d i s c o n t e n t shifts from c u l t u r e itself: n a t u r e

is n o l o n g e r " n a t u r a l , " t h e r e l i a b l e " d e n s e "

b a c k g r o u n d of o u r l i v e s ; it n o w a p p e a r s a s a fragile m e c h a n i s m w h i c h , a t a n y point, c a n e x p l o d e in a c a t a s t r o p h i c m a n n e r . B i o g e n e t i c s , w i t h its r e d u c t i o n of t h e h u m a n p s y c h e i t s e l f to a n o b j e c t of t e c h n o l o g i c a l m a n i p u l a t i o n , i s t h e r e f o r e e f f e c t i v e l y a k i n d of e m p i r i c a l i n s t a n t i a t i o n of w h a t H e i d e g g e r p e r c e i v e d a s t h e " d a n g e r " i n h e r e n t m m o d e r n t e c h n o l o g y . C r u c i a l h e r e i s t h e i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e of m a n

and

n a t u r e : b y r e d u c i n g m a n to j u s t a n o t h e r n a t u r a l o b j e c t w h o s e p r o p e r t i e s c a n b e m a n i p u l a t e d , w h a t w e l o s e i s not ( o n l y ) h u m a n i t y b u t nature Itself. In t h i s s e n s e , F r a n c i s F u k u y a m a is r i g h t : h u m a n i t y r e l i e s on s o m e n o t i o n of " h u m a n n a t u r e " a s w h a t w e h a v e i n h e r i t e d , a s s o m e t h i n g t h a t h a s s i m p l y b e e n g i v e n to u s , t h e i m p e n e t r a b l e d i m e n s i o n i n / o f o u r s e l v e s i n t o w h i c h w e are born/thrown. The p a r a d o x is thus that that there is m a n only insofar as there

is i m p e n e t r a b l e

inhuman

nature

(Heidegger's

" e a r t h " ) : w i t h t h e p r o s p e c t of b i o g e n e t i c i n t e r v e n t i o n s o p e n e d u p

by

t h e a c c e s s to t h e g e n o m e , t h e s p e c i e s f r e e l y c h a n g e s / r e d e f i n e s Itself, its o w n c o o r d i n a t e s ; t h i s p r o s p e c t e f f e c t i v e l y e m a n c i p a t e s h u m a n k i n d from t h e c o n s t r a i n t s of a finite s p e c i e s , from i t s e n s l a v e m e n t to "selfish g e n e s . " T h i s e m a n c i p a t i o n , h o w e v e r , c o m e s at a p r i c e :

W i t h interventions into m a n ' s genetic inheritance, the domination over nature

reverts

into

an

act

of

taklng-control-over-oneself,

which

changes our generic-ethical self-understanding a n d can disturb the n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n s for a n a u t o n o m o u s w a y of life a n d u n i v e r s a l i s t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g of m o r a l s .

435

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

H o w , t h e n , s h o u l d w e r e a c t to t h i s t h r e a t ? H a b e r m a s ' s l o g i c is h e r e : s i n c e t h e r e s u l t s of s c i e n c e p o s e a t h r e a t to o u r

(predominant

notion

of)

a u t o n o m y a n d freedom, one should curtail science. The price w e p a y for t h i s s o l u t i o n is t h e f e t i s h i s t i c s p l i t b e t w e e n s c i e n c e a n d

ethics~"I

k n o w v e r y w e l l w h a t s c i e n c e c l a i m s , b u t , n o n e t h e l e s s , in o r d e r to r e t a i n ( t h e a p p e a r a n c e of) m y a u t o n o m y , I c h o o s e to I g n o r e it a n d a c t a s if I d o n ' t k n o w i t . " T h i s p r e v e n t s u s from c o n f r o n t i n g t h e t r u e q u e s t i o n : h(W do these new conàitiotu compel tie to transform freedom, autonomy,

ana ethical

anè reinvent the very noliotu of

responsihility?

S c i e n c e a n d t e c h n o l o g y t o d a y n o l o n g e r a i m o n l y at u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d r e p r o d u c i n g n a t u r a l p r o c e s s e s , b u t at g e n e r a t i n g n e w f o r m s of life t h a t w i l l s u r p r i s e u s ; t h e g o a l is n o l o n g e r j u s t t o d o m i n a t e n a t u r e ( t h e w a y it i s ) , b u t to g e n e r a t e s o m e t h i n g

new, greater, stronger

than

ordinaiy

n a t u r e , i n c l u d i n g o u r s e l v e s — e x e m p l a r y h e r e is t h e o b s e s s i o n w i t h a r t i ficial

intelligence, w h i c h a i m s at p r o d u c i n g a brain more powerful than

the h u m a n brain. The d r e a m that sustains the scientific-technological e n d e a v o r i s to t r i g g e r a p r o c e s s w i t h n o r e t u r n , a p r o c e s s t h a t w o u l d exponentially reproduce

i t s e l f a n d g o on a n d on a u t o n o m o u s l y .

The

n o t i o n of " s e c o n d n a t u r e " i s t h e r e f o r e t o d a y m o r e p e r t i n e n t t h a n e v e r , in b o t h its m a i n m e a n i n g s . First, l i t e r a l l y , a s t h e a r t i f i c i a l l y g e n e r a t e d n e w n a t u r e : m o n s t e r s of n a t u r e , d e f o r m e d c o w s a n d t r e e s , o r — a m o r e p o s i t i v e d r e a m — g e n e t i c a l l y manipulated organisms, " e n h a n c e d " in the

manner

t h a t s u i t s u s . T h e n , " s e c o n d n a t u r e " in t h e m o r e s t a n d a r d s e n s e of t h e a u t o n o m i z a t i o n of the r e s u l t s of o u r o w n a c t i v i t y : t h e w a y o u r a c t s e l u d e u s i n t h e i r c o n s e q u e n c e s , t h e w a y t h e y g e n e r a t e a m o n s t e r w i t h a life of i t s o w n . It i s thù h o r r o r at t h e u n f o r e s e e n r e s u l t s of o u r o w n a c t s t h a t c a u s e s s h o c k a n d a w e , not t h e p o w e r of n a t u r e o v e r w h i c h w e h a v e n o c o n t r o l ; it is thu h o r r o r t h a t r e l i g i o n t r i e s t o d o m e s t i c a t e . W h a t i s n e w t o d a y i s t h e short-circuit between

t h e s e t w o s e n s e s of " s e c o n d

nature":

"second

n a t u r e " i n t h e s e n s e of o b j e c t i v e F a t e , of a u t o n o m l z e d s o c i a l p r o c e s s , is g e n e r a t i n g " s e c o n d n a t u r e " i n t h e s e n s e of a r t i f i c i a l l y c r e a t e d n a t u r e , of n a t u r a l m o n s t e r s , n a m e l y , t h e p r o c e s s w h i c h t h r e a t e n s to r u n o u t of c o n t r o l is n o l o n g e r j u s t t h e s o c i a l p r o c e s s of e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l development,

but

n e w forms

of n a t u r a l

processes themselves,

from

u n p r e d i c t a b l e n u c l e a r c a t a s t r o p h e s to g l o b a l w a r m i n g a n d t h e u n i m a g i n a b l e c o n s e q u e n c e s of b i o g e n e t i c m a n i p u l a t i o n . C a n o n e e v e n i m a g i n e w h a t w o u l d b e t h e u n p r e c e d e n t e d r e s u l t of n a n o t e c h n o l o g i c a l e x p e r i m e n t s : n e w life-forms r e p r o d u c i n g t h e m s e l v e s o u t of c o n t r o l i n a c a n c e r l i k e w a y , for e x a m p l e ? ^ ' H e r e is a s t a n d a r d d e s c r i p t i o n of t h i s fear: 436

U N B E H A G E N IN D E R N A T U R

W i t h i n fifty to a h u n d r e d y e a r s , a n e w c l a s s of o r g a n i s m s i s U k e l y to e m e r g e . T h e s e o r g a n i s m s w i l l b e a r t i f i c i a l in t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e y w i l l originally be designed by humans, t i o w e v e r , they will reproduce, and w i l l " e v o l v e " i n t o s o m e t h i n g o t h e r t h a n t h e i r o r i g i n a l form; t h e y w i l l b e " a l i v e " u n d e r a n y r e a s o n a b l e definition of t h e w o r d . [. . . ] [ T ] h e p a c e of e v o l u t i o n a r y c h a n g e w i l l b e e x t r e m e l y r a p i d . [. . . ] T h e i m p a c t on h u m a n i t y and the biosphere

could be enormous,

larger than

the

industrial revolution, n u c l e a r w e a p o n s , or e n v i r o n m e n t a l pollution. T h i s f e a r a l s o h a s its c l e a r l i b i d i n a l d i m e n s i o n : it i s t h e f e a r of t h e a s e x u a l r e p r o d u c t i o n of Life, t h e f e a r of a n " u n d e a d " life t h a t is i n d e s t r u c t i b l e , constantly e x p a n d i n g , r e p r o d u c i n g itself t h r o u g h self-division.

And, as

a l w a y s in t h e h i s t o r y of t h e l a s t t w o m i l l e n n i a , t h e g r e a t e s t m a s t e r of e x p l o i t i n g t h i s f e a r i s t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h . Its p r e d o m i n a n t

strategy

t o d a y is t h a t of t r y i n g to c o n t a r n t h e scientific r e a l w i t h i n t h e c o n f i n e s of m e a n i n g —it is a s a n a n s w e r to t h e

scientific r e a l

( m a t e r i a l i z e d in

b i o g e n e t i c t h r e a t s ) t h a t r e l i g i o n i s finding i t s n e w ra'umi d'etre:

F a r from b e i n g effaced b y s c i e n c e , r e l i g i o n , a n d e v e n t h e s y n d i c a t e of r e l i g i o n s , in t h e p r o c e s s of formation, is p r o g r e s s i n g e v e r y d a y . L a c a n s a i d t h a t e c u m e n i s m w a s for t h e p o o r of s p i r i t . T h e r e i s a m a r v e l o u s a g r e e m e n t on t h e s e q u e s t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e s e c u l a r a n d all t h e r e l i g i o u s a u t h o r i t i e s , in w h i c h t h e y tell t h e m s e l v e s t h e y s h o u l d a g r e e s o m e w h e r e in o r d e r to m a k e e c h o e s e q u a l l y m a r v e l o u s , e v e n s a y i n g t h a t finally t h e s e c u l a r i s a r e l i g i o n l i k e t h e o t h e r s . W e see t h i s b e c a u s e it is r e v e a l e d in effect t h a t t h e d i s c o u r s e of s c i e n c e h a s p a r t l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e d e a t h d r i v e . R e l i g i o n is p l a n t e d in t h e p o s i t i o n of u n c o n d i t i o n a l d e f e n s e of t h e l i v i n g , of life in m a n k i n d , a s g u a r d i a n of life, m a k i n g life a n absolute. A n d

that

extends

to t h e

protection

of h u m a n

[. . . ] T h i s i s [. . . ] w h a t g i v e s a f u t u r e to r e l i g i o n t h r o u g h

nature. meaning,

n a m e l y b y e r e c t i n g b a r r i e r s — t o c l o n i n g , to t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n of h u m a n c e l l s — a n d to I n s c r i b e s c i e n c e in a t e m p e r e d

progress. W e see a

m a r v e l o u s effort, a n e w y o u t h f u l v i g o r of r e l i g i o n in its effort to

flood

the real w i t h meanlng.^^

T h e C h u r c h ' s m e s s a g e of h o p e t h u s r e l i e s on a p r e e x i s t i n g fear: it e v o k e s a n d f o r m u l a t e s t h e f e a r to w h i c h it t h e n offers a s o l u t i o n of h o p e a n d falth.^-^ T h e Life t h a t it p r o m i s e s in i t s d e f e n s e of t h e " c u l t u r e of l i f e " i s not a p o s i t i v e life, b u t a r e a c t i v e life, a d e f e n s e a g a i n s t d e a t h . W e a r e d e a l i n g 437

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

h e r e w i t h t h e l a t e s t v e r s i o n of t h e fear first f o r m u l a t e d in M a r y S h e l l e y ' s Frankeruitein.

T h e d i l e m m a f a c e d b y m a n y i n t e r p r e t e r s of Frankeiwtein

c o n c e r n s t h e o b v i o u s p a r a l l e l b e t w e e n V i c t o r a n d God, on t h e o n e side, a n d t h e m o n s t e r a n d A d a m , on t h e o t h e r : in b o t h c a s e s , w e a r e deaHng w i t h a s i n g l e p a r e n t c r e a t i n g a m a l e p r o g e n y in a n o n - s e x u a l w a y ; in b o t h c a s e s , t h i s i s f o l l o w e d b y t h e c r e a t i o n of a b r i d e , a f e m a l e p a r t n e r . T h i s p a r a l l e l i s c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e d in t h e n o v e l ' s e p i g r a p h , A d a m ' s c o m p l a i n t to God:

D i d I r e q u e s t t h e e . M a k e r , from m y c l a y To m o u l d M e m a n ? D i d I solicit thee F r o m d a r k n e s s to p r o m o t e m e ? {FaradLie Lost, X, 7 4 3 - 5 ) It i s e a s y to n o t e the p r o b l e m a t i c n a t u r e of t h i s p a r a l l e l : 11 V i c t o r is associated w i t h God, h o w can he also be the P r o m e t h e a n rebel against G o d ( r e c a l l t h e n o v e l ' s s u b t i t l e : ". . . or T h e M o d e r n P r o m e t h e u s " ) ? T h e a n s w e r s e e m s t o b e a s i m p l e o n e , s p e l l e d o u t b y S h e l l e y herself: V i c t o r ' s sin is p r e c i s e l y t h a t of p r e s u m p t i o n , o l " a c t i n g l i k e G o d , " e n g a g i n g in a n a c t of c r e a t i o n (of h u m a n life, t h e c r o w n of t h e d i v i n e c r e a t i o n ) w h i c h i s a n d s h o u l d r e m a i n t h e e x c l u s i v e p r e r o g a t i v e of G o d ; if m a n t r i e s to Imitate G o d a n d d o s o m e t h i n g for w h i c h h e l a c k s q u a l i f i c a t i o n s , t h e r e s u l t can only be monstrous . . . T h e r e i s , h o w e v e r , a l s o a d i f f e r e n t ( C h e s t e r t o n i a n ) r e a d i n g : t h e r e is n o problem

here, Victor is "like G o d "

precisely when

he commits

the

u l t i m a t e c r i m i n a l t r a n s g r e s s i o n a n d c o n f r o n t s t h e h o r r o r of i t s c o n s e ­ q u e n c e s , s i n c e God ut aLw the greatest Rebel—against

himself, u l t i m a t e l y .

T h e K i n g of t h e u n i v e r s e i s t h e s u p r e m e c r i m i n a l A n a r c h i s t . L i k e V i c t o r , in c r e a t i n g m a n , G o d c o m m i t t e d t h e s u p r e m e c r i m e of a i m i n g too h i g h — of c r e a t i n g a c r e a t u r e " i n h i s o w n i m a g e , " n e w s p i r i t i a l life, p r e c i s e l y l i k e t o d a y ' s s c i e n t i s t s w h o d r e a m of c r e a t i n g a n a r t i f i c i a l l y i n t e l l i g e n t l i v i n g b e i n g ; no w o n d e r t h a t h i s o w n c r e a t u r e e s c a p e d h i s c o n t r o l a n d t u r n e d a g a i n s t h i m . S o w h a t if t h e d e a t h of C h r i s t (of h i m s e l f ) i s t h e p r i c e God h a s to p a y for h i s c r i m e ? It i s p r e c i s e l y w i t h i n t h e d o m a i n of e c o l o g y t h a t o n e c a n d r a w t h e l i n e t h a t s e p a r a t e s t h e p o l i t i c s of e m a n c i p a t o r y t e r r o r from t h e p o l i t i c s of fear at its p u r e s t . B y far t h e p r e d o m i n a n t v e r s i o n of e c o l o g y i s t h e e c o l o g y of fear, fear of a c a t a s t r o p h e — h u m a n - m a d e o r n a t u r a l — t h a t m a y d e e p l y p e r t u r b , d e s t r o y e v e n , h u m a n c i v i l i z a t i o n , f e a r t h a t p u s h e s u s to p l a n 438

U N B E H A G E N IN D E R N A T U R

m e a s u r e s to p r o t e c t o u r s a f e t y . T h i s t e a r a n d p e s s i m i s m a r e a s a r u l e f a k e , a s p o i n t e d o u t b y H a n s - G e o r g G a d a m e r : " T h e p e s s i m i s t is d i s i n g e n u o u s b e c a u s e h e i s t r y i n g to t r i c k h i m s e l f w i t h h i s o w n g r u m b h n g . P r e c i s e l y w h i l e a c t i n g the p e s s i m i s t , h e s e c r e t l y h o p e s t h a t e v e r y t h i n g w i l l not t u r n out as b a d as he fears." and

the

position

Does the same tension b e t w e e n the enunciated

of e n u n c i a t i o n

not

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today's

pessimism; the more those w h o predict a catastrophe

ecological

i n s i s t o n it, t h e

m o r e t h e y s e c r e t l y h o p e t h e c a t a s t r o p h e w i l l not o c c u r ? The

first

t h i n g t h a t s t r i k e s t h e e y e a p r o p o s t h i s f e a r i s t h e w a y it

remains conditioned by ideological trends. T w o decades ago, everyone, e s p e c i a l l y in E u r o p e , w a s t a l k i n g a b o u t

Waßdterben,

t h e d y i n g of t h e

forests; t h e t o p i c w a s p r e s e n t on t h e c o v e r s of all p o p u l a r w e e k l i e s — n o w it h a s a l m o s t d i s a p p e a r e d . A l t h o u g h e x p l o d e from

concerns about

global

warming

t i m e to t i m e a n d a r e g a i n i n g m o r e a n d m o r e

scientific

credibility, e c p l o g y a s an o r g a n i z e d socio-political m o v e m e n t h a s to a large degree disappeared.

Furthermore,

ideological mystifications; as a pretext

e c o l o g y often for

New

Age

l e n d s i t s e l f to obscurantisms

( p r a i s i n g p r e - m o d e r n " p a r a d i g m s , " a n d so f o r t h ) , or for n e o - c o l o n i a l i s m (First W o r l d complaints

t h a t t h e fast d e v e l o p m e n t

countries like B r a z i l or C h i n a threatens

of T h i r d

World

u s all — " b y d e s t r o y i n g

the

A m a z o n r a i n f o r e s t s , t h e B r a z i l i a n s a r e k i l l i n g t h e l u n g s of o u r E a r t h " ) , o r a s a n h o n o r a b l e c a u s e for " l i b e r a l c o m m u n i s t s " ( b u y g r e e n , r e c y c l e . . . a s if t a k i n g e c o l o g y i n t o a c c o u n t j u s t i f i e s c a p i t a l i s t e x p l o i t a t i o n ) . T h i s e c o l o g y of f e a r h a s e v e r y c h a n c e of d e v e l o p i n g i n t o t h e d o m i n a n t form of i d e o l o g y of g l o b a l c a p i t a l i s m , a n e w o p i u m for masses replacing declining religion;

pre­ the

it t a k e s o v e r t h e o l d r e l i g i o n ' s

f u n d a m e n t a l f u n c t i o n , t h a t of h a v i n g a n u n q u e s t i o n a b l e a u t h o r i t y w h i c h c a n impose limits. The lesson this ecology is constantly h a m m e r i n g a w a y a t i s o u r finitude: w e a r e n o t C a r t e s i a n s u b j e c t s e x t r a c t e d from r e a l i t y , w e a r e finite b e m g s e m b e d d e d i n a b i o s p h e r e w h i c h v a s t l y t r a n s c e n d s h o r i z o n . In o u r e x p l o i t a t i o n of n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , w e a r e b o r r o w i n g

our from

t h e f u t u r e , so w e s h o u l d s t a r t t r e a t i n g o u r E a r t h w i t h r e s p e c t , a s s o m e ­ thing that is u l t i m a t e l y S a c r e d , something that should

not b e

totally

unveiled, that should a n d will forever r e m a i n a M y s t e r y , a p o w e r w e s h o u l d trust, not d o m i n a t e . W h i l e w e c a n n o t g a i n full m a s t e r y o v e r o u r b i o s p h e r e , it is u n f o r t u n a t e l y i n o u r p o w e r to d e r a i l it, to d i s t u r b its b a l a n c e so t h a t it w i l l r u n a m o k , w i p i n g u s a w a y i n t h e p r o c e s s . T h i s is w h y , although ecologists are all the time d e m a n d i n g that w e r a d i c a l l y c h a n g e o u r w a y of life, u n d e r l y i n g t h i s d e m a n d i s its o p p o s i t e , a d e e p 439

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

d i s t r u s t of c h a n g e , of d e v e l o p m e n t , of p r o g r e s s : e v e r y r a d i c a l c h a n g e can h a v e t h e u n i n t e n d e d c o n s e q u e n c e of t r i g g e r i n g a c a t a s t r o p h e . It i s t h i s d i s t r u s t w h i c h m a k e s e c o l o g y t h e i d e a l c a n d i d a t e for h e g e m o n i c i d e o l o g y , s i n c e it e c h o e s t h e a n t i - t o t a l i t a r i a n distrust

of l a r g e c o l l e c t i v e a c t s . O n e

v e r s i o n s of t h i s d i s t r u s t i s S t e p h e n

the

post-political

of t h e m o s t effective

fictional

F r y ' s Making Hutory,

about

a

s c i e n t i s t t r a u m a t i z e d b y H i t l e r a n d t h e N a z i c r i m e s w h o , in the 1 9 5 0 s , d i s c o v e r s a w a y to c r o s s t h e t i m e b a r r i e r a n d i n t e r v e n e in t h e p a s t in a l i m i t e d w a y . H e d e c i d e s to c h a n g e t h e c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e s t r e a m from w h i c h t h e v i l l a g e of H i t l e r ' s p a r e n t s w a s g e t t i n g w a t e r , so t h a t it r e n d e r s w o m e n infertile; t h e e x p e r i m e n t s u c c e e d s a n d H i t l e r i s not b o r n . H o w e v e r , w h e n w e switch into the alternate reality, the scientist dis­ covers with horror what

h e h a s c a u s e d : i n s t e a d of H i t l e r ,

a

more

i n t e l l i g e n t u p p e r - c l a s s h i g h - r a n k i n g officer l e d t h e N a z i s to v i c t o r y , t h e N a z i s w i n t h e w a r a n d k i l l m a n y m o r e J e w s t h a n p e r i s h e d in t h e H o l o c a u s t , e v e n o b l i t e r a t i n g t h e m e m o r y of t h e i r a c t . T h e s c i e n t i s t s p e n d s t h e r e s t ol h i s life t r y i n g to i n t e r v e n e a g a i n in t h e p a s t in o r d e r to u n d o the r e s u l t s of h i s first i n t e r v e n t i o n a n d to r e t u r n u s to t h e g o o d o l d w o r l d w i t h Hitler

...

S u c h d i s t r u s t w a s g i v e n a n e w i m p e t u s b y b i o g e n e t i c s , w h i c h i s on the v e r g e of a c r u c i a l b r e a k t h r o u g h . confined

Up

until

now,

geneticists

were

to

tinkering and t w e a k i n g w h a t nature has a l r e a d y produced—taking a g e n e from a b a c t e r i u m , s a y , a n d i n s e r t i n g it i n t o t h e c h r o m o s o m e

of

c o r n o r p i g s . W h a t w e ' r e t a l k i n g a b o u t i s p r o d u c i n g life t h a t i s w h o l l y n e w — not in a n y w a y a g e n e t i c d e s c e n d a n t of t h e p r i m o r d i a l M o t h e r C e l l . T h e i n i t i a l m e m b e r s of e a c h n e w l y c r e a t e d b r e e d w i l l h a v e no ancestors at all.

T h e g e n o m e i t s e l f of the o r g a n i s m w i l l b e a r t i f i c i a l l y p u t t o g e t h e r :

first,

i n d i v i d u a l b i o l o g i c a l b u i l d i n g b l o c k s a r e to b e f a b r i c a t e d ; t h e n , t h e y a r e to be combined

in an e n t i r e l y n e w s y n t h e t i c s e l f - r e p l i c a t i n g

S c i e n t i s t s d e s i g n a t e t h i s n e w life-form

organism.

a s " L i f e 2 . 0 , " a n d w h a t i s so

u n s e t t l i n g a b o u t it i s t h a t " n a t u r a l " life itself b e c o m e s t h e r e b y 1.0" —it r e t r o a c t i v e l y l o s e s i t s s p o n t a n e o u s - n a t u r a l

character,

"Life

becoming

o n e in t h e s e r i e s of s y n t h e t i c p r o j e c t s . T h i s i s w h a t t h e " e n d of n a t u r e " m e a n s : s y n t h e t i c life is not j u s t s u p p l e m e n t i n g n a t u r a l life, it t u r n s n a t u r a l life i t s e l f into a ( c o n f u s e d , i m p e r f e c t ) s p e c i e s of s y n t h e t i c life. 440

U N B E H A G E N IN D E R N A T U R

The

prospects

a r e , of c o u r s e , b r e a t h t a k i n g :

from

microorganisms

w h i c h d e t e c t c a n c e r c e l l s a n d e l i m i n a t e t h e m , to w h o l e " f a c t o r i e s " w h i c h t r a n s f o r m s o l a r e n e r g y i n t o u s a b l e fuel, f i o w e v e r , t h e m a i n l i m i t a t i o n of t h i s e n d e a v o r i s no l e s s o b v i o u s : t h e D N A of e x i s t i n g n a t u r a l o r g a n i s m s i s " a m e s s of o v e r l a p p i n g s e g m e n t s a n d j u n k t h a t h a s n o p u r p o s e s c i e n t i s t s c a n f a t h o m , " so w h e n g e n e t i c i s t s t i n k e r w i t h t h i s m e s s , t h e y c a n n o t e v e r b e s u r e not o n l y of t h e o u t c o m e , b u t a l s o of h o w , e x a c t l y , t h i s o u t c o m e was generated—the

l o g i c a l c o n c l u s i o n i s t h u s to t r y to " b u i l d

b i o l o g i c a l s y s t e m s ; s y s t e m s t h a t a r e e a s i e r to u n d e r s t a n d

new

because we

m a d e t h e m t h a t w a y . " f i o w e v e r , t h i s p r o j e c t w i l l w o r k o n l y if w e fully a c c e p t t h e t h e s i s t h a t " a t l e a s t 9 0 p e r c e n t of t h e h u m a n g e n o m e i s ' j u n k D N A ' that has no clear function."

( T h e m a i n function

envisaged by

s c i e n t i s t s i s t h a t t h e j u n k s e r v e s a s a g u a r a n t e e a g a i n s t t h e d a n g e r of c o p y i n g m i s t a k e s , a k i n d of b a c k - u p c o p y . ) O n l y in t h i s c a s e w e c a n e x p e c t a p r o j e c t of g e t t i n g r i d of t h e r e p e t i t i o u s " j u n k " a n d g e n e r a t i n g t h e o r g a n i s m o n l y from its " p u r e " g e n e t i c f o r m u l a to w o r k . W h a t if, h o w e v e r , t h e " j u n k " d o e s p l a y a c r u c i a l r o l e , u n k n o w n to u s b e c a u s e w e a r e u n a b l e to g r a s p a l l t h e h i g h e r - l e v e l c o m p l e x i t y of t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of g e n e s w h i c h c a n o n l y a c c o u n t for h o w , o u t of a l i m i t e d ( f i n i t e ) s e t of e l e m e n t s , a n " i n f i n i t e " ( s e l f - r e l a t i n g ) o r g a n i c s t r u c t u r e a r i s e s a s an " e m e r g e n t p r o p ­ erty"? T h o s e w h o a r e o p p o s e d most f e r o c i o u s l y to t h i s p r o s p e c t a r e r e l i g i o u s l e a d e r s a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s t s — for b o t h , t h e r e is s o m e t h i n g of a t r a n s ­ g r e s s i o n , of e n t e r i n g a p r o h i b i t e d d o m a i n , in t h i s i d e a of c r e a t i n g a n e w form of life from s c r a t c h , from t h e z e r o - p o i n t . A n d t h i s b r i n g s u s b a c k to t h e notion of e c o l o g y a s t h e n e w o p i u m of t h e m a s s e s ; t h e u n d e r l y i n g m e s s a g e is a g a i n a d e e p l y conservative one — a n y c h a n g e can only be a c h a n g e for t h e w o r s e :

B e h i n d m u c h of t h e r e s i s t a n c e to t h e n o t i o n of s y n t h e t i c life i s t h e i n t u i t i o n t h a t n a t u r e ( o r G o d ) c r e a t e d t h e b e s t of p o s s i b l e w o r l d s . C h a r l e s D a r w i n b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e m y r i a d d e s i g n s of n a t u r e ' s c r e a t i o n s a r e p e r f e c t l y h o n e d to d o w h a t e v e r t h e y a r e m e a n t to d o —^be it a n i m a l s t h a t s e e , h e a r , sing, s w i m or fly, or p l a n t s t h a t feed on t h e s u n ' s r a y s , e x u d i n g b r i g h t floral c o l o u r s to a t t r a c t p o l l i n a t o r s . '

T h i s r e f e r e n c e to D a r w i n Is d e e p l y m i s l e a d i n g : t h e u l t i m a t e l e s s o n of D a r w i n i s m is the e x a c t o p p o s i t e , n a m e l y t h a t n a t u r e t i n k e r s a n d i m ­ provises, with great losses and catastrophes a c c o m p a n y i n g ever)' limited 441

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

s u c c e s s — is t h e fact t h a t 9 0 p e r c e n t of t h e h u m a n g e n o m e is " j u n k D N A " w i t h n o c l e a r function not t h e u l t i m a t e p r o o f ? C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e

first

l e s s o n to b e d r a w n i s t h e o n e r e p e a t e d l y m a d e b y S t e p h e n J a y G o u l d : t h e u t t e r c o n t i n g e n c y of o u r e x i s t e n c e . T h e r e i s n o E v o l u t i o n : c a t a s t r o p h e s , b r o k e n e q u i l i b r i a , a r e p a r t of n a t u r a l h i s t o r y ; a t n u m e r o u s p o i n t s in the p a s t , life c o u l d h a v e t a k e n a t u r n in a n e n t i r e l y different d i r e c t i o n . T h e m a i n s o u r c e of o u r e n e r g y ( o i l ) is t h e r e s u l t of a p a s t c a t a c l y s m of unimaginable dimensions. A l o n g t h e s e l i n e s , " t e r r o r " m e a n s a c c e p t i n g t h e fact of t h e

utter

g r o u n d l e s s n e s s of o u r e x i s t e n c e : t h e r e i s no firm f o u n d a t i o n , p l a c e of r e t r e a t , on w h i c h o n e c a n s a f e l y c o u n t . It m e a n s f u l l y a c c e p t i n g t h a t " n a t u r e d o e s not e x i s t , " in o t h e r w o r d s , f u l l y c o n s u m m a t i n g t h e g a p t h a t s e p a r a t e s t h e l i f e - w o r l d n o t i o n of n a t u r e a n d t h e s c i e n t i f i c n o t i o n of n a t u r a l r e a l i t y : " n a t u r e " ijua t h e d o m a i n of b a l a n c e d r e p r o d u c t i o n , of o r g a n i c d e p l o y m e n t i n t o w h i c h h u m a n i t y ' i n t e r v e n e s w i t h its h u b r i s , b r u t a l l y t h r o w i n g its c i r c u l a r m o t i o n nature

i s a l r e a d y in

secondary, an attempt

itself "second

off t h e r a i l s , i s m a n ' s nature,"

its b a l a n c e

is

fantasy; always

to b r i n g i n t o e x i s t e n c e a " h a b i t " t h a t w o u l d

r e s t o r e s o m e o r d e r after c a t a s t r o p h i c i n t e r r u p t i o n s . '

T h e l e s s o n to b e

f u l l y e n d o r s e d i s t h u s that of a n e n v i r o n m e n t a l s c i e n t i s t w h o c o m e s to t h e c o n c l u s i o n that, w h i l e o n e c a n n o t b e s u r e w h a t t h e u l t i m a t e r e s u l t of h u m a n i t y ' s i n t e r v e n t i o n s in t h e g e o s p h e r e w i l l b e , o n e t h i n g i s s u r e : if h u m a n i t y w e r e to a b r u p t l y s t o p its i m m e n s e i n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t y a n d let n a t u r e on E a r t h t a k e its b a l a n c e d c o u r s e , t h e r e s u l t w o u l d b e a total b r e a k d o w n , a n u n i m a g i n a b l e c a t a s t r o p h e . " N a t u r e " on E a r t h i s a l r e a d y so " a d a p t e d " to h u m a n i n t e r v e n t i o n s , h u m a n " p o l l u t i o n " i s a l r e a d y so c o m p l e t e l y i n c l u d e d in the reproduction imbalance.

shaky and

fragile

b a l a n c e of " n a t u r a l "

on E a r t h , t h a t its c e s s a t i o n w o u l d c a u s e a c a t a s t r o p h i c T h i s is w h a t it m e a n s to s a y t h a t h u m a n i t y h a s n o w h e r e to

r e t r e a t to; not o n l y i s t h e r e n o " b i g O t h e r " ( s e l f - c o n t a i n e d s y m b o l i c o r d e r a s t h e u l t i m a t e g u a r a n t e e of M e a n i n g ) ; t h e r e i s a l s o n o Nature qua b a l a n c e d o r d e r of s e l f - r e p r o d u c t i o n

w h o s e h o m e o s t a s i s is d i s t u r b e d ,

n u d g e d off c o u r s e , b y u n b a l a n c e d h u m a n i n t e r v e n t i o n s . N o t o n l y is t h e b i g O t h e r " b a r r e d , " b u t N a t u r e too i s b a r r e d . O n e s h o u l d t h u s b e c o m e a w a r e not o n l y of t h e l i m i t a t i o n of t h e i d e o l o g y of p r o g r e s s , b u t a l s o of t h e l i m i t a t i o n of t h e B e n j a m i n i a n n o t i o n of t h e r e v o l u t i o n a s a p p l y i n g t h e e m e r g e n c y b r a k e on t h e r u n a w a y t r a i n of p r o g r e s s : it i s too l a t e for t h a t too. In h i s Reflectwnj at the Edge of Afkja, 442

Pall Skulason reports how he w a s

U N B E H A G E N IN DER N A T U R

a f f e c t e d b y A s k j a , a v o l c a n i c l a k e a n d v a l l e y in t h e m i d d l e of I c e l a n d , surrounded by snow-covered

mountains:

A s k j a is t h e s y m b o l of o b j e c t i v e r e a l i t y , i n d e p e n d e n t of all t h o u g h t , b e l i e f a n d e x p r e s s i o n , i n d e p e n d e n t of h u m a n e x i s t e n c e . It is a u n i q u e n a t u r a l s y s t e m , w i t h i n w h i c h m o u n t a i n s , l a k e s a n d s k y c o n v e r g e in a v o l c a n i c c r a t e r . A s k j a , in s h o r t , s y m b o l i z e s t h e e a r t h itself; it i s t h e e a r t h a s it w a s , i s , a n d w i l l b e , tor a s l o n g a s this p l a n e t c o n t i n u e s to o r b i t in s p a c e , w h a t e v e r w e d o a n d w h e t h e r or not w e a r e h e r e on t h i s e a r t h . [. . . ] C o m i n g to A s k j a i s l i k e c o m i n g to t h e e a r t h itself for t h e first t i m e ; f i n d i n g o n e ' s e a r t h l y g r o u n d i n g . ^ ^

G i l l e s D e l e u z e often p l a y e d w i t h t h e m o t i f of h o w , in b e c o m i n g p o s t h u m a n , w e s h o u l d l e a r n to p r a c t i c e " a p e r c e p t i o n a s it w a s b e f o r e m e n ( o r a f t e r ) [. . . ] r e l e a s e d from t h e i r h u m a n c o o r d i n a t e s " ; ^ ^ S k u l a s o n s e e m s to b e d e s c r i b i n g j u s t s u c h a n e x p e r i e n c e , t h e e x p e r i e n c e of

subtracting

o n e s e l f from t h e i m m e d i a t e i m m e r s i o n i n t o t h e s u r r o u n d i n g w o r l d of o b j e c t s w h i c h a r e " r e a d y - a t - h a n d , " m o m e n t s of o u r e n g a g e d r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h r e a l i t y — o r is h e ?

L e t u s t a k e a c l o s e r l o o k a t w h a t k i n d of

e x p e r i e n c e he is rendering:

t h e w o r l d s u d d e n l y s t r i k e s u s in s u c h a w a y t h a t r e a l i t y p r e s e n t s i t s e l f as a seamless w h o l e . The question that then arises concerns the w o r l d itself a n d t h e r e a l i t y t h a t it o r d e r s i n t o a t o t a l i t y . Is t h e w o r l d r e a l l y a u n i f i e d t o t a l i t y ? Isn't r e a l i t y j u s t a n i n f i n i t e l y v a r i e g a t e d m a n i f o l d of particular phenomena?

O n e s h o u l d b e H e g e l i a n h e r e : w h a t if t h i s v e r y e x p e r i e n c e of r e a l i t y a s a s e a m l e s s W h o l e i s a v i o l e n t i m p o s i t i o n of o u r s , s o m e t h i n g w e " p r o j e c t o n t o i t " (to u s e t h i s o l d i n a p p r o p r i a t e t e r m ) in o r d e r to a v o i d d i r e c t l y confronting

t h e t o t a l l y m e a n i n g l e s s " i n f i n i t e l y v a r i e g a t e d m a n i f o l d of

particular p h e n o m e n a " (what Alain Badiou calls the primordial multi­ p l i c i t y of B e i n g ) ? S h o u l d w e n o t a p p l y h e r e t h e f u n d a m e n t a l l e s s o n of K a n t ' s t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i d e a l i s m : t h e w o r l d a s a W h o l e i s not a T h i n g - i n i t s e l f it i s m e r e l y a r e g u l a t i v e I d e a of o u r m i n d , s o m e t h i n g o u r m i n d i m p o s e s on t h e r a w m u l t i t u d e of s e n s a t i o n s in o r d e r to b e a b l e

to

e x p e r i e n c e it a s a w e l l - o r d e r e d m e a n i n g f u l W h o l e ? T h e p a r a d o x i s t h a t t h e v e r y In-itself of N a t u r e a s a W h o l e i n d e p e n d e n t of u s i s t h e r e s u l t of o u r ( s u b j e c t i v e ) " s y n t h e t i c a c t i v i t y " — d o S k u l a s o n ' s o w n w o r d s , if w e 443

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

r e a d tKem c l o s e l y (i.e., l i t e r a l l y ) , not a l r e a d y p o i n t in t h i s d i r e c t i o n ? " A s k j a is u s e d in t h i s t e x t a s t h e s y m b o l of a u n i q u e a n d

important

e x p e r i e n c e of t h e w o r l d a n d its i n h a b i t a n t s . T h e r e a r e n u m e r o u s o t h e r s y m b o l s w h i c h m e n u s e to t a l k a b o u t t h e t h i n g s t h a t m a t t e r most."^*" S o , e x a c t l y a s is the

c a s e w i t h the

Kantian

S u b l i m e , the

unfathomable

p r e s e n c e of r a w N a t u r e - i n - i t s e l f i s r e d u c e d to a m a t e r i a l p r e t e x t ( r e p l a c a b l e w i t h o t h e r s ) for " a u n i q u e a n d i m p o r t a n t e x p e r i e n c e , " W h y is t h i s experience necessary?

To l i v e , to b e a b l e to e x i s t , t h e m i n d m u s t c o n n e c t itself w i t h s o m e k i n d of o r d e r . It m u s t a p p r e h e n d r e a l i t y a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t w h o l e [. . . ] a n d m u s t b i n d i t s e l f in a s t a b l e fashion to c e r t a i n f e a t u r e s of w h a t w e call reality.

It c a n n o t

bind

i t s e l f to t h e

o r d i n a r y w o r l d of e v e r y d a y

e x p e r i e n c e , e x c e p t b y t a k i n g it on faith t h a t r e a l i t y f o r m s a n o b j e c t i v e w h o l e , a w h o l e w h i c h e x i s t s i n d e p e n d e n t l y of t h e m i n d . T h e

mind

l i v e s , a n d w e l i v e , in a r e l a t i o n s h i p of faith w i t h r e a l i t y itself. T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p i s l i k e w i s e o n e of c o n f i d e n c e in a d e t a c h e d r e a l i t y , a r e a l i t y w h i c h is different a n d o t h e r t h a n t h e m i n d . W e live a n d e x i s t in t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p of c o n f i d e n c e , w h i c h i s a l w a y s b y i t s n a t u r e u n c e r t a i n a n d i n s e c u r e . [. . . ] [ T ] h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of c o n f i d e n c e [. . . ] i s o r i g i n a l l y , a n d truly, a l w a y s a relationship with

r e a l i t y as a n a t u r a l totality: as

Nature.^^

O n e s h o u l d n o t e h e r e t h e r e f i n e d a n a l y s i s of t h e t e n s i o n b e t w e e n the i n h a b i t a b l e a n d t h e u n i n h a b i t a b l e : in o r d e r to i n h a b i t a s m a l l p a r t of r e a l i t y t h a t a p p e a r s w i t h i n o u r h o r i z o n of m e a n i n g , w e h a v e to p r e ­ suppose that Realily-in-itself, "different and other than the m i n d , " w h i c h s u s t a i n s o u r w o r l d i s p a r t of r e a l i t y a s a n o r d e r e d a n d s e a m l e s s W h o l e . In short, w e h a v e to h a v e faith a n d c o n f i d e n c e in R e a l i t y : n a t u r e - i n - i t s e l f is not m e r e l y a m e a n i n g l e s s c o m p o s i t e of m u l t i p l e s , it i s N a t u r e .

What,

h o w e v e r , if t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p of faith in N a t u r e , in t h e p r i m o r d i a l h a r m o n y b e t w e e n m i n d a n d r e a l i t y , i s t h e m o s t e l e m e n t a r y form of i d e a l i s m , of r e l i a n c e on t h e b i g O t h e r ? W h a t if t h e t r u e m a t e r i a l i s t p o s i t i o n s t a r t s ( a n d , in a w a y , e n d s ) w i t h t h e a c c e p t a n c e of t h e I n - i t s e l f a s a m e a n i n g l e s s c h a o t i c m a n i f o l d ? O n e is t e m p t e d h e r e to t u r n a g a i n to I c e l a n d ' s u n i q u e n a t u r a l l a n d s c a p e : t h e m a g n i f i c e n t m i s t y - g r e e n c o a s t a l p l a i n in t h e south, scattered with large rocks covered w i t h wet green-brown moss, cannot b u t a p p e a r a s n a t u r e r u n a m o k , full of p a t h o l o g i c a l c a n c e r o u s p r o t u b e r ­ a n c e s — w h a t if t h i s is m u c h c l o s e r to " n a t u r e - i n - i t s e l f " t h a n t h e s u b l i m e 444

U N B E H A G E N IN D E R N A T U R

i m a g e s of s e a m l e s s W h o l e s ? I n d e e d , w h a t w e n e e d is a n ecology without nature: t h e u l t i m a t e o b s t a c l e to p r o t e c t i n g n a t u r e i s t h e v e r y notion of n a t u r e w e r e l y on.' T h e t r u e s o u r c e of o u r p r o b l e m s i s not " t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t e v e n t to affect W e s t e r n c u l t u r e d u r i n g r e c e n t c e n t u r i e s , " n a m e l y t h e " b r e a k d o w n of t h e

relationship

between

man

and

nature,"'^'^ t h e

retreat

of

the

r e l a t i o n s h i p of t r u s t . O n t h e c o n t r a r y : t h i s v e r y " r e l a t i o n s h i p of faith w i t h r e a l i t y itself" i s t h e m a i n o b s t a c l e t h a t p r e v e n t s u s from

confronting

t h e e c o l o g i c a l c r i s i s a t its m o s t r a d i c a l . T h a t i s to s a y , w i t h r e g a r d to t h e p r o s p e c t s of a n e c o l o g i c a l c a t a s t r o p h e ,

it i s too e a s y to a t t r i b u t e

our

d i s b e l i e f in it to t h e i m p r e g n a t i o n of o u r m i n d s b y scientific I d e o l o g y , w h i c h l e a d s u s to d i s m i s s t h e s a n e c o n c e r n s of o u r c o m m o n

reason,

n a m e l y , t h e g u t s e n s e w h i c h t e l l s u s t h a t s o m e t h i n g is f u n d a m e n t a l l y w r o n g w i t h t h e s c i e n t i f i c - t e c h n o l o g i c a l a t t i t u d e . T h e p r o b l e m is m u c h d e e p e r . It r e s i d e s in t h e u n r e l i a b i l i t y of o u r c o m m o n s e n s e rtself w h i c h , h a b i t u a t e d a s it is to o u r o r d i n a r y l i f e - w o r l d , finds it difficult to r e a l l y a c c e p t t h a t t h e flow of e v e r y d a y r e a l i t y c a n b e p e r t u r b e d . O u r

attitude

h e r e i s t h a t of t h e fetishistic split: "I k n o w v e r y w e l l ( t h a t g l o b a l w a r m i n g is a t h r e a t to t h e e n t i r e h u m a n i t y ) , b u t n o n e t h e l e s s . . . (I c a n n o t r e a l l y b e l i e v e i t ) . It i s e n o u g h to s e e t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d to w h i c h m y m i n d i s c o n n e c t e d : g r e e n g r a s s a n d t r e e s , t h e s i g h i n g of t h e b r e e z e , t h e r i s i n g of the sun . . . c a n one r e a l l y i m a g i n e that all this will be d i s t u r b e d ? Y o u talk a b o u t t h e o z o n e h o l e — b u t n o m a t t e r h o w m u c h I l o o k rnto t h e s k y , I d o n ' t s e e it — a l l I s e e i s t h e s k y , b l u e o r g r e y ! " T h e p r o b l e m i s t h u s t h a t w e c a n r e l y n e i t h e r on t h e s c i e n t i f i c m i n d n o r on o u r c o m m o n s e n s e — t h e y b o t h m u t u a l l y r e i n f o r c e e a c h o t h e r ' s b l i n d ­ n e s s . T h e s c i e n t i f i c m i n d a d v o c a t e s a c o l d o b j e c t i v e a p p r a i s a l of d a n g e r s a n d r i s k s i n v o l v e d w h e r e n o s u c h a p p r a i s a l is r e a l l y possrble, w h i l e c o m m o n s e n s e finds it h a r d to a c c e p t t h a t a c a t a s t r o p h e c a n r e a l l y o c c u r . T h e difficult e t h i c a l t a s k is t h u s to " u n - l e a r n " t h e m o s t b a s i c c o o r d i n a t e s of o u r i m m e r s i o n i n t o o u r l i f e - w o r l d : w h a t u s u a l l y sein^ed a s t h e r e c o u r s e to W i s d o m ( b a s i c t r u s t in t h e b a c k g r o u n d c o o r d i n a t e s of o u r w o r l d ) i s n o w the s o u r c e of d a n g e r . W e s h o u l d r e a l l y " g r o w u p " a n d l e a r n to c u t t h i s u l t i m a t e u m b i l i c a l c o r d to o u r l i f e - s p h e r e . T h e p r o b l e m w i t h t h e s c i e n c e - a n d - t e c h n o l o g y a t t i t u d e is not its d e t a c h m e n t from o u r l i f e - w o r l d , b u t t h e a b s t r a c t c h a r a c t e r of t h i s d e t a c h m e n t w h i c h c o m p e l s t h e s c i e n c e a n d - t e c h n o l o g y a t t i t u d e to c o m b i n e i t s e l f w i t h t h e w o r s t e l e m e n t s of o u r l i f e - w o r l d i m m e r s i o n . S c i e n t i s t s p e r c e i v e t h e m s e l v e s a s r a t i o n a l , a b l e to a p p r a i s e p o t e n t i a l r i s k s o b j e c t i v e l y ; for t h e m , t h e o n l y u n p r e d i c t a b l e 445

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

i r r a t i o n a l e l e m e n t s a r e the p a n i c r e a c t i o n s of t h e u n e d u c a t e d m a s s e s ; w i t h o r d m a i y people, a small and controllable risk can spread and trigger global panic, since t h e y project onto the situation their d i s a v o w e d fears a n d f a n t a s i e s . W h a t s c i e n t i s t s a r e u n a b l e to p e r c e i v e i s t h e " i r r a t i o n a l , " i n a d e q u a t e , n a t u r e of t h e i r o w n " c o l d a n d d i s t a n c e d " a p p r a i s a l . C o n ­ t e m p o r a r y s c i e n c e s e r v e s t w o p r o p e r l y ideological n e e d s , "for h o p e a n d c e n s o r s h i p , " w h i c h w e r e t r a d i t i o n a l l y t a k e n c a r e of b y r e l i g i o n :

s c i e n c e a l o n e h a s t h e p o w e r to s i l e n c e h e r e t i c s . T o d a y it is t h e o n l y i n s t i t u t i o n t h a t c a n c l a i m a u t h o r i t y . L i k e t h e C h u r c h in t h e past, it h a s t h e p o w e r to d e s t r o y , o r m a r g i n a l i z e , i n d e p e n d e n t

t h i n k e r s . [. . . ]

F r o m t h e s t a n d p o i n t of a n y o n e w h o v a l u e s f r e e d o m of t h o u g h t , t h i s m a y b e u n f o r t u n a t e , b u t it is u n d o u b t e d l y t h e c h i e f s o u r c e of s c i e n c e ' s a p p e a l . F o r u s , s c i e n c e i s a r e f u g e from u n c e r t a i n t i e s , p r o m i s i n g — a n d in s o m e m e a s u r e d e l i v e r i n g — - t h e m i r a c l e of f r e e d o m from

thought,

w h i l e c h u r c h e s h a v e b e c o m e s a n c t u a r i e s for d o u b t .

I n d e e d , a s N i e t z s c h e p u t it m o r e t h a n a c e n t u r y a g o : " O h , h o w m u c h is t o d a y hidden b y science! Oh,

h o w m u c h it i s e x p e c t e d to hide!'"^'

H o w e v e r , w e a r e not t a l k i n g h e r e a b o u t s c i e n c e a s s u c h , so t h e i d e a of s c i e n c e s u s t a i n i n g " f r e e d o m

from

thought"

is not a variation

on

H e i d e g g e r ' s notion that "science doesn't think." W e a r e talking about t h e w a y s c i e n c e f u n c t i o n s a s a s o c i a l force, a s a n i d e o l o g i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n : at t h i s l e v e l , its f u n c t i o n i s to p r o v i d e c e r t a i n t y , to b e a p o i n t of r e f e r e n c e on w h i c h o n e c a n r e l y , a n d to p r o v i d e h o p e ( n e w t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n v e n t i o n s w i l l h e l p u s a g a i n s t d i s e a s e s , a n d so o n ) . In t h i s d i m e n s i o n , s c i e n c e is — in L a c a n i a n t e r m s — u n i v e r s i t y d i s c o u r s e a t its p u r e s t ,

S 2 (knowledge)

w h o s e " t r u t h " is S i ( M a s t e r - S l g n i f i e r , p o w e r ) . T h e p a r a d o x e f f e c t i v e l y is t h a t , t o d a y , s c i e n c e p r o v i d e s t h e s e c u r i t y w h i c h w a s o n c e g u a r a n t e e d b y r e l i g i o n , a n d , in a c u r i o u s i n v e r s i o n , r e l i g i o n i s o n e of t h e p o s s i b l e p l a c e s from w h i c h o n e c a n d e v e l o p c r i t i c a l d o u b t s a b o u t

contemporary

s o c i e t y ( o n e of t h e " s i t e s of r e s i s t a n c e , " a s it w e r e ) . L o u i s Dumont'*^ n o t e d t h e p a r a d o x of c o g n i t i v i s t r e d u c t i o n - n a t u r a l i ­ zation: m a n

finally

m a s t e r of himself, r e c r e a t i n g h i s o w n g e n o m e — b u t

who is t h e a g e n t h e r e ? T h e b l i n d c i r c u i t of n e u r o n s ? H e r e t h e t e n s i o n b e t w e e n t h e e n u n c i a t e d c o n t e n t a n d t h e p o s i t i o n of e n u n c i a t i o n ( w h a t F o u c a u l t r e f e r r e d to a s the " t r a n s c e n d e n t a l - e m p i r i c a l d o u b l e t " ) i s p u s h e d to a n e x t r e m e point: t h e m o r e t h e e n u n c i a t e d c o n t e n t is l i m i t e d to a n objective material process, the 446

more

the

position

of e n u n c i a t i o n

is

U N B E H A G E N IN D E R N A T U R

r e d u c e d to a pure cogita, t h e v o i d of a n e m p t y s u b j e c t . T h i s b r i n g s u s to t h e p r o b l e m of free w i l l . C o m p a t i b i l i s t s s u c h a s D a n i e l Dennett"*^ h a v e a n e l e g a n t s o l u t i o n to t h e i n c o m p a t i b i l i s t s ' c o m p l a i n t s a b o u t d e t e r m i n i s m : w h e n incompatibilists complain that our freedom cannot be c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e fact t h a t a l l o u r a c t s a r e p a r t of the g r e a t c h a i n of n a t u r a l determinism, t h e y secretly m a k e an u n w a r r a n t e d ontological assumption. First, t h e y a s s u m e t h a t w e ( t h e Self, t h e free a g e n t ) s o m e h o w s t a n d outoide r e a l i t y , a n d t h e n g o on to c o m p l a i n h o w t h e y feel o p p r e s s e d b y t h e n o t i o n t h a t r e a l i t y w i t h its d e t e r m i n i s m c o n t r o l s t h e m t o t a l l y . T h i s i s w h a t i s w r o n g w i t h t h e n o t i o n of u s b e i n g " i m p r i s o n e d " b y the c h a i n s of n a t u r a l d e t e r m i n i s m : w e t h e r e b y o b f u s c a t e t h e fact t h a t w e a r e o f

reality, that

t h e ( p o s s i b l e , l o c a l ) conflict b e t w e e n o u r " f r e e " s t r i v i n g a n d e x t e r n a l r e a l i t y r e s i s t i n g it i s a conflict i n h e r e n t to r e a l i t y itself. T h a t i s to s a y , t h e r e is n o t h i n g " o p p r e s s i v e " or " c o n s t r a i n i n g " a b o u t t h e fact t h a t o u r i n n e r ­ m o s t s t r i v i n g s a r e ( p r e ) d e t e r m i n e d : w h e n w e feel t h w a r t e d in o u r free­ d o m b y t h e c o n s t r a i n i n g p r e s s u r e of e x t e r n a l r e a l i t y , t h e r e m u s t

be

s o m e t h i n g in u s , s o m e d e s i r e s , s t r i v i n g s , w h i c h a r e t h u s t h w a r t e d , a n d w h e r e s h o u l d t h e s e s t r i v i n g s c o m e from if not from t h i s s a m e r e a l i t y ? O u r "free w i l l " d o e s not in s o m e m y s t e r i o u s w a y " d i s t u r b t h e n a t u r a l c o u r s e of t h i n g s , " it IS p a r t a n d p a r c e l of t h i s c o u r s e . F o r u s t o b e " t r u l y " a n d " r a d i c a l l y " free, t h i s w o u l d e n t a i l t h e r e b e i n g n o p o s i t i v e c o n t e n t t h a t w e w a n t to i m p o s e a s o u r free a c t — i f w e w a n t n o t h i n g " e x t e r n a l " a n d p a r t i c u l a r / g i v e n to d e t e r m i n e o u r b e h a v i o r , then " t h i s w o u l d i n v o l v e b e i n g free of e v e r y p a r t of o u r s e l v e s . " ' ' ' ' W h e n a d e t e r m i n i s t c l a i m s t h a t o u r free c h o i c e is " d e t e r m i n e d , " t h i s d o e s not m e a n t h a t o u r free w i l l i s s o m e h o w c o n s t r a i n e d , t h a t w e a r e f o r c e d to a c t agaitut o u r free will^— w h a t is " d e t e r m i n e d " i s t h e v e r y t h i n g t h a t w e w a n t to d o " f r e e l y , " t h a t i s , without being thwarted b y external obstacles.

The ujes and miéiuteé of Heidegger W h a t t h e e c o l o g y of fear o b f u s c a t e s i s t h u s a far m o r e r a d i c a l d i m e n s i o n of t e r r o r . T o d a y , w i t h t h e p r o s p e c t of t h e b i o g e n e t i c m a n i p u l a t i o n of h u m a n p h y s i c a l a n d p s y c h i c f e a t u r e s , the notion of " d a n g e r " i n s c r i b e d into m o d e r n technology, e l a b o r a t e d b y H e i d e g g e r , b e c o m e s a common­ p l a c e . H e i d e g g e r e m p h a s i z e s h o w t h e t r u e d a n g e r i s not t h e p h y s i c a l selfd e s t r u c t i o n of h u m a n i t y , t h e t h r e a t t h a t s o m e t h i n g w i l l g o t e r r i b l y w r o n g w i t h b i o g e n e t i c i n t e r v e n t i o n s , b u t , p r e c i s e l y , t h a t nothing w i l l g o w r o n g , t h a t g e n e t i c m a n i p u l a t i o n w i l l f u n c t i o n s m o o t h l y — a t t h i s point, t h e c i r c l e 447

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

w i l l , in a c e r t a i n

manner,

be closed a n d

the specific openness

that

c h a r a c t e r i z e s b e i n g - h u m a n a b o l i s h e d . T h a t i s to s a y , i s t h e H e i d e g g e r i a n d a n g e r (Gefahr) not p r e c i s e l y t h e d a n g e r t h a t t h e o n t i c w i l l " s w a l l o w " the o n t o l o g i c a l ( w i t h t h e r e d u c t i o n of m a n , t h e da [ h e r e ] of B e i n g , to j u s t a n o t h e r o b j e c t of s c i e n c e ) ? D o w e not e n c o u n t e r h e r e a g a i n t h e f o r m u l a of t h e f e a r of t h e i m p o s s i b l e : w h a t w e fear is t h a t t h a t w h i c h

cannot

h a p p e n ( s i n c e t h e o n t o l o g i c a l d i m e n s i o n is i r r e d u c i b l e to t h e o n t i c ) w i l l nonetheless happen . . . T h e s a m e p o i n t is m a d e in a c r u d e r fashion b y c u l t u r a l c r i t i c s from F u k u y a m a a n d H a b e r m a s to B i l l M c K i b b e n , w o r r i e d a b o u t h o w

the

latest techno-scientlfic developments (which potentially give the h u m a n s p e c i e s t h e c a p a c i t y to r e d e s i g n a n d r e d e f i n e i t s e l f ) w i l l affect o u r b e i n g h u m a n — t h e c a l l w e h e a r i s b e s t e n c a p s u l a t e d b y t h e title of M c K i b b e n ' s b o o k : " E n o u g h . " H u m a n i t y a s a c o l l e c t i v e s u b j e c t h a s to set d o w n l i m i t s and

freely renounce

further

" p r o g r e s s " in t h i s d i r e c t i o n .

McKibben

e n d e a v o r s to s p e c i f y s u c h l i m i t s e m p i r i c a l l y : s o m a t i c g e n e t i c

therapy

is still t h i s s i d e of t h e t i p p i n g p o i n t , o n e c a n p r a c t i c e it w i t h o u t l e a v i n g b e h i n d t h e w o r l d a s w e k n o w it, s i n c e it s i m p l y i n v o l v e s i n t e r v e n t i o n in a b o d y formed in the old " n a t u r a l " w a y ; g e r m l i n e manipulations lie on the o t h e r s i d e , in t h e w o r l d b e y o n d m e a n i n g .

W h e n w e manipulate psychic

a n d b o d i l y p r o p e r t i e s of i n d i v i d u a l s b e f o r e t h e y a r e e v e n c o n c e i v e d , w e p a s s t h e t h r e s h o l d i n t o f u l l - f l e d g e d p l a n n i n g , t u r n i n g i n d i v i d u a l s into p r o d u c t s , p r e v e n t i n g t h e m from e x p e r i e n c i n g t h e m s e l v e s a s r e s p o n s i b l e a g e n t s w h o h a v e to e d u c a t e / f o r m t h e m s e l v e s b y t h e effort of f o c u s i n g t h e i r w i l l , t h u s o b t a i n i n g t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n of a c h i e v e m e n t — s u c h i n d i v i ­ d u a l s no l o n g e r r e l a t e to t h e m s e l v e s a s r e s p o n s i b l e a g e n t s . . . T h e i n s u f f i c i e n c y of t h i s r e a s o n i n g i s d o u b l e . Fairst, a s H e i d e g g e r w o u l d h a v e p u t It, t h e s u r v i v a l of t h e b e i n g - h u m a n of h u m a n s c a n n o t d e p e n d on a n o n t i c d e c i s i o n of h u m a n s . E v e n if w e t r y to d e f i n e t h e l i m i t of t h e p e r m i s s i b l e in t h i s w a y , the true catMtrophe

hoj already

taken place:

we

a l r e a d y e x p e r i e n c e o u r s e l v e s a s in p r i n c i p l e m a n i p u l a b l e ; w e j u s t freely r e n o u n c e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of fully d e p l o y i n g t h i s p o t e n t i a l . " I n t h e t e c h ­ n o l o g i c a l a g e , w h a t m a t t e r s to u s m o s t i s g e t t i n g t h e g r e a t e s t p o s s i b l e u s e ' o u t of e v e r y t h i n g , "^^ D o e s t h i s not t h r o w a n e w l i g h t o n h o w e c o l o g i c a l c o n c e r n s , a t l e a s t in t h e i r p r e d o m i n a n t m o d e , r e m a i n w i t h i n t h e h o r i z o n of t e c h n o l o g y ? Is t h e p o i n t of u s i n g t h e r e s o u r c e s s p a r i n g l y , of r e c y c l i n g , a n d so forth, not p r e c i s e l y to m a x i m i z e t h e u s e of e v e r y t h i n g ? B u t t h e c r u c i a l p o i n t i s t h a t , w i t h b i o g e n e t i c p l a n n i n g , not o n l y w i l l o u r u n i v e r s e of m e a n i n g d i s a p p e a r — in o t h e r w o r d s , not o n l y a r e t h e Utopian 448

U N B E H A G E N IN DER N A T U R

d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h e d i g i t a l p a r a d i s e w r o n g , s i n c e t h e y i m p l y t h a t m e a n i n g will persist —but

the

opposite,

negative, critical descriptions

of

the

" m e a n i n g l e s s " u n i v e r s e of t e c h n o l o g i c a l s e l f - m a n i p u l a t i o n a l s o fall v i c t i m to a p e r s p e c t i v a l f a l l a c y , for t h e y too m e a s u r e t h e f u t u r e b y i n a d e q u a t e p r e s e n t - d a y s t a n d a r d s . T h a t is to s a y , t h e future of t e c h n o l o g i c a l selfm a n i p u l a t i o n o n l y a p p e a r s a s " d e p r i v e d of m e a n i n g " if m e a s u r e d b y (or, r a t h e r , from w i t h i n t h e h o r i z o n

of) t h e t r a d i t i o n a l n o t i o n of w h a t

a

meaningful universe is. W h o k n o w s w h a t this "post-human" universe will r e v e a l itself to b e " i n i t s e l f " ? W h a t if t h e r e i s no s i n g u l a r a n d s i m p l e a n s w e r ; w h a t if t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y t r e n d s ( d i g i t a l i z a t i o n , b i o g e n e t i c selfm a n i p u l a t i o n ) o p e n t h e m s e l v e s u p to a m u l t i t u d e of p o s s i b l e s y m b o l i z a t i o n s ? W h a t if t h e Utopia—the p e r v e r t e d d r e a m of t h e p a s s a g e from h a r d w a r e to s o f t w a r e of a s u b j e c t i v i t y f r e e l y

floating

between

different

e m b o d i m e n t s — ^ a n d t h e d y s t o p i a — t h e n i g h t m a r e of h u m a n s v o l u n t a r i l y transforming themselves into p r o g r a m m e d b e i n g s — a r e just the positive a n d t h e n e g a t i v e s i d e s of t h e s a m e i d e o l o g i c a l f a n t a s y ? W h a t if it i s o n l y a n d p r e c i s e l y t h i s t e c h n o l o g i c a l p r o s p e c t t h a t fully c o n f r o n t s u s viath t h e m o s t r a d i c a l d i m e n s i o n of o u r

finitude?

H e i d e g g e r h i m s e l f r e m a i n s a m b i g u o u s h e r e . It is t r u e t h a t H e i d e g g e r ' s a n s w e r to t e c h n o l o g y

is not n o s t a l g i c l o n g i n g for " f o r m e r o b j e c t s w h i c h p e r h a p s w e r e o n c e on t h e w a y to b e c o m i n g t h i n g s a n d e v e n to a c t u a l l y p r e s e n c i n g a s t h i n g s " ( " T h e T h i n g " ) , b u t r a t h e r a l l o w i n g o u r s e l v e s to b e c o n d i t i o n e d b y o u r w o r l d , a n d t h e n l e a r n i n g to " k e e p the fourfold in t h i n g s " b y b u i l d i n g a n d n u r t u r i n g t h i n g s p e c u l i a r l y s u i t e d to o u r fourfold. W h e n o u r p r a c t i c e s i n c o r p o r a t e t h e fourfold, o u r l i v e s a n d e v e r y t h i n g a r o u n d u s w i l l h a v e i m p o r t a n c e far e x c e e d i n g t h a t of r e s o u r c e s , b e c a u s e t h e y a n d o n l y t h e y w i l l b e g e a r e d to o u r w a y of i n h a b i t i n g t h e world.''**

H o w e v e r , all t h e e x a m p l e s H e i d e g g e r p r o v i d e s of " k e e p i n g t h e i n t h i n g s " —from

the

Greek

temples

and

van

Gogh's

fourfold

shoes

up

to

n u m e r o u s e x a m p l e s from h i s S c h w a r z w a l d m o u n t a i n s a r e n o s t a l g i c , t h a t is, t h e y b e l o n g to a w o r l d w h i c h h a s p a s s e d , w h i c h i s n o l o n g e r ours^—for e x a m p l e , h e o p p o s e s t r a d i t i o n a l f a r m i n g p r a c t i c e s to m o d e r n

technolo-

g i z e d a g r i c u l t u r e , t h e B l a c k F o r e s t f a r m e r ' s h o u s e to a m o d e r n a p a r t m e n t b l o c k . S o w h a t w o u l d b e e x a m p l e s t h a t a r e a p p r o p r i a t e to o u r t e c h n o ­ logical times? Perhaps one should take v e r y seriously Fredrlc J a m e s o n ' s i d e a of r e a d i n g

Raymond

Chandler's

California as a

Heideggerian 449

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

" w o r l d , " w i t h P h i l h p M a r l o w e c a u g h t in a t e n s i o n b e t w e e n h e a v e n a n d earth, between his mortality and the " d i v i n e " shining through

in t h e

p a t h e t i c l o n g i n g of h i s c h a r a c t e r s , a n d so on. A n d d i d R u t h R e n d e l l not a c c o m p l i s h t h e s a m e for B r i t i s h s u b u r b i a w i t h its forlorn b a c k g a r d e n s , g r e y s h o p p i n g m a l l s , a n d so f o r t h ? T h i s i s a l s o w h y f i u b e r t

Dreyfus's

n o t i o n t h a t t h e w a y to b e p r e p a r e d for t h e u p c o m i n g Kehre, for t h e a r r i v a l of n e w g o d s , is t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n p r a c t i c e s w h i c h function

a s s i t e s of

r e s i s t a n c e to t e c h n o l o g i c a l total m o b i l i z a t i o n , i s a l l too facile:

H e i d e g g e r e x p l o r e s a k i n d of g a t h e r i n g t h a t w o u l d e n a b l e u s to r e s i s t p o s t m o d e r n t e c h n o l o g i c a l p r a c t i c e s . [. . . ] [ H ] e t u r n s from t h e c u l t u r a l g a t h e r i n g h e e x p l o r e d in " T h e O r i g i n of t h e W o r k of A r t " ( t h a t s e t s u p s h a r e d m e a n i n g f u l d i f f e r e n c e s a n d t h e r e b y u n i f i e s a n e n t i r e c u l t u r e ) to l o c a l g a t h e r i n g s t h a t set u p l o c a l w o r l d s . S u c h l o c a l w o r l d s

occur

a r o u n d some e v e r y d a y thing that t e m p o r a r i l y b r i n g s into their o w n b o t h t h e t h i n g itself a n d t h o s e i n v o l v e d in t h e t y p i c a l a c t i v i t y c o n ­ c e r n i n g t h e u s e of t h e t h i n g . H e i d e g g e r c a l l s t h i s e v e n t a thing thinging a n d t h e t e n d e n c y i n t h e p r a c t i c e s to b r i n g t h i n g s a n d p e o p l e i n t o t h e i r o w n , appropriation.

[. . . ] H e i d e g g e r ' s e x a m p l e s of t h i n g s t h a t f o c u s

s u c h loc^J g a t h e r i n g a r e a w i n e j u g a n d a n old s t o n e b r i d g e . S u c h t h i n g s g a t h e r B l a c k F o r e s t p e a s a n t p r a c t i c e s [. . . ] t h e f a m i l y meaX a c t s a s a focal t h i n g w h e n it d r a w s on t h e c u l i n a r y a n d s o c i a l s k i l l s o l f a m i l y members

a n d solicits fathers, mothers,

husbands, wives,

children,

f a m i l i a r w a r m t h , g o o d h u m o r , a n d l o y a l t y to c o m e to t h e fore in t h e i r e x c e l l e n c e , or in, a s H e i d e g g e r w o u l d s a y , t h e i r

ownmost.

F r o m a strict H e i d e g g e r i a n p o s i t i o n , s u c h p r a c t i c e s can—^and a s a r u l e —function a s t h e v e r y o p p o s i t e of r e s i s t a n c e , a s s o m e t h i n g t h a t i s in a d v a n c e i n c l u d e d in t h e s m o o t h f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l m o b i ­ l i z a t i o n ( l i k e t h e c o u r s e s in t r a n s c e n d e n t a l m e d i t a t i o n w h i c h m a k e y o u m o r e efficient in y o u r j o b ) , w h i c h is w h y t h e p a t h to s a l v a t i o n o n l y l e a d s t h r o u g h to full e n g a g e m e n t in t e c h n o l o g i c a l m o b i l i z a t i o n . T h e flipside of c o n s t a n t c a p i t a l i s t i n n o v a t i o n i s , o l c o u r s e , t h e p e r m a ­ n e n t p r o d u c t i o n of p i l e s of leftover w a s t e : The main production

of t h e m o d e r n a n d p o s t m o d e r n

d u s t r y is p r e c i s e l y w a s t e . W e are postmodern

capitalist in­

beings because

we

realize that all our a e s t h e t i c a l l y a p p e a l i n g consumption artifacts will e v e n t u a l l y ' e n d u p a s l e f t o v e r s , to t h e p o i n t t h a t it w i l l t r a n s f o r m 450

the

U N B E H A G E N IN D E R N A T U R

e a r t h i n t o a v a s t w a s t e l a n d . Y o u l o s e t h e s e n s e of t r a g e d y , y o u J

•

•

50

perceive progress as derisive. In t h e s e e v e r - g r o w i n g p i l e s of inert, d y s f u n c t i o n a l " s t u f f " — t h e

growing

p i l e s of u s e l e s s w a s t e , t h e m o u n t a i n s of u s e d c a r s , c o m p u t e r s , a n d so on, l i k e t h e f a m o u s a e r o p l a n e "final r e s t i n g p l a c e " in t h e M o j a v e d e s e r t . . . — w h i c h c a n n o t b u t s t r i k e u s w i t h t h e i r p o i n t l e s s p r e s e n c e , o n e c a n , a s it w e r e , p e r c e i v e t h e c a p i t a l i s t d r i v e a t rest. T h e r e i n r e s i d e s t h e i n t e r e s t of A n d r e i T a r k o v s k y ' s films, s u c h a s h i s m a s t e r p i e c e . Stalker, w i t h its posti n d u s t r i a l w a s t e l a n d of w i l d v e g e t a t i o n g r o w i n g in a b a n d o n e d

factories,

c o n c r e t e t u n n e l s a n d r a i l r o a d s , p o o l s of s t a l e w a t e r , a n d s t r a y c a t s a n d dogs w a n d e r i n g hither a n d thither. N a t u r e a n d industrial civilization o v e r l a p h e r e a g a i n , b u t t h r o u g h a p r o c e s s of c o m m o n d e c a y — c i v i l i z a t i o n in d e c a y is in t h e p r o c e s s of a g a i n b e i n g r e c l a i m e d ( n o t b y a n i d e a l i z e d h a r m o n i o u s N a t u r e , b u t ) b y n a t u r e in a s t a t e of d e c o m p o s i t i o n .

The

u l t i m a t e T a r k o v s k i a n l a n d s c a p e i s a r i v e r o r pool on t h e e d g e of a forest, filled

w i t h t h e d e b r i s of h u m a n

e n d e a v o r , p i e c e s of r u s t y m e t a l

and

d e c a y i n g c o n c r e t e b l o c k s . T h e p o s t - i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e l a n d of t h e Second W o r l d i s i n d e e d t h e p r i v i l e g e d " e v e n t a l s i t e , " t h e s y m p t o m a l p o i n t o u t of w h i c h o n e c a n u n d e r m i n e t h e t o t a l i t y of c o n t e m p o r a r y g l o b a l c a p i t a l i s m . O n e s h o u l d love t h i s w o r l d , i n c l u d i n g its g r e y d e c a y i n g b u i l d i n g s a n d s u l p h u r e o u s s m e l l s — a l l t h i s s t a n d s for huitory, t h r e a t e n e d w i t h e r a s u r e b y the post-historical First W o r l d and pre-historlcal Third W o r l d . B e n j a m i n d e v e l o p e d a n o t i o n of " n a t u r a l h i s t o r y " a s r e n a t u r a l l z e d h i s t o r y : it t a k e s p l a c e w h e n h i s t o r i c a l a r t i f a c t s l o o s e t h e i r

meaningful

v i t a l i t y a n d a r e p e r c e i v e d a s d e a d o b j e c t s r e c l a i m e d b y n a t u r e or, in t h e b e s t c a s e , a s m o n u m e n t s of a p a s t d e a d c u l t u r e . ( F o r B e n j a m i n , it w a s w h e n w e confront such such d e a d m o n u m e n t s

of h u m a n h i s t o r y r e ­

claimed b y n a t u r e that w e e x p e r i e n c e history at its p u r e s t . ) The p a r a d o x h e r e i s t h a t t h i s r e - n a t u r a l i z a t i o n o v e r l a p s w i t h its o p p o s i t e , w i t h d e ­ n a t u r a l i z a t i o n : s i n c e for u s h u m a n c u l t u r e i s o u r " s e c o n d n a t u r e , " w e e x p e r i e n c e it a s o u r n a t u r a l h a b i t a t . D e p r i v e d of t h e i r function w i t h i n a l i v i n g t o t a l i t y of m e a n i n g ,

cultural artifacts dwell m

an

inter-space

b e t w e e n n a t u r e a n d c u l t u r e , b e t w e e n life a n d d e a t h , l e a d i n g a g h o s t l y existence, belonging neither

to n a t u r e

n o r to c u l t u r e , a p p e a r i n g

as

s o m e t h i n g a k i n to t h e m o n s t r o s i t y of n a t u r a l f r e a k s , l i k e a c o w w i t h two heads and three legs. A n o t h e r l e s s p a t h e t i c , but, p e r h a p s , n o l e s s efficient s t r a t e g y i s t h a t of jhuiàogu, t h e J a p a n e s e m o v e m e n t p o p u l a r a d e c a d e o r m o r e a g o , w h i c h 4SI

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

m a n u f a c t u r e d o b j e c t s w h i c h w e r e viseless i n t h e i r v e r y o v e r - t u n c t i o n a H t y ( h k e g l a s s e s w i t h s m a l l " w i n d s c r e e n w i p e r s " for b e t t e r v i s i b i l i t y w h e n y o u g o for a w a l k in t h e r a i n ; or a " b u t t e r - s t i c k / ' l i k e a l i p s t i c k , for w h e n y o u w a n t t o b u t t e r a s l i c e of b r e a d b u t d o n ' t h a v e a k n i f e ; or a n u p w a r d l y i n v e r t e d u m b r e l l a w i t h a w a t e r - c o l l e c t o r w h i c h not o n l y p r o t e c t s y o u from t h e r a i n b u t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y p r o v i d e s y o u w i t h fresh w a t e r . . . ) — t h r o u g h t h i s p r o c e d u r e , a k i n d of t e c h n o l o g i c a l c o u n t e r p a r t to i d e o l o g i c a l o v e r i d e n t i l i c a t i o n , o u r e n g a g e m e n t w i t h t e c h n o l o g y i t s e l f is t u r n e d i n t o a m e a n s of d i s t a n c i n g a n d r e l e a s i n g o u r s e l v e s from its g r i p . T h e c h a l l e n g e of t e c h n o l o g y i s t h u s not t h a t w e s h o u l d ( r e ) d i s c o v e r h o w a l l o u r a c t i v i t y h a s to r e l y on o u r i r r e d u c i b l e

(iinhintergehbare)

e m b e d d e d n e s s in o u r l i f e - w o r l d , b u t , on t h e c o n t r a r y , t h a t of c u t t i n g onself off from t h i s e m b e d d e d n e s s a n d a c c e p t i n g t h e r a d i c a l a b y s s of o n e ' s e x i s t e n c e . T h i s is t h e t e r r o r w h i c h e v e n H e i d e g g e r d i d not d a r e confront. T o p u t it in t h e t e r m s of a p r o b l e m a t i c c o m p a r i s o n , a r e w e , insofar a s w e r e m a i n h u m a n s e m b e d d e d in a p r e - r e f l e x i v e s y m b o l i c lifew o r l d , not s o m e t h i n g l i k e " s y m b o l i c p l a n t s " ? H e g e l s a y s s o m e w h e r e in his Philosophy of Nature t h a t a p l a n t ' s r o o t s a r e its e n t r a i l s w h i c h , in c o n t r a s t to a n a n i m a l , t h e p l a n t h a s e x t e r n a l i z e d , p l u n g i n g t h e m i n t o t h e e a r t h to p r e v e n t it from c u t t i n g i t s e l f free from its r o o t s a n d

roaming

w h e r e it w i l l —for it, s u c h a r u p t u r e w o u l d e q u a l d e a t h . Is t h e n s y m b o l i c l i f e - w o r l d in w h i c h embedded

not s o m e t h i n g

we

like our

our

are always-already pre-reflexively symbolic entrails w h i c h w e

have

e x t e r n a l i z e d ? A n d i s not t h e t r u e c h a l l e n g e of t e c h n o l o g y t h a t w e r e p e a t t h e p a s s a g e from p l a n t to a n i m a l , s y m b o l i c a l l y s e v e r i n g o u r r o o t s a n d a c c e p t i n g t h e a b y s s of f r e e d o m ? In this v e r y p r e c i s e s e n s e o n e c a n a c c e p t the f o r m u l a t h a t h u m a n i t y w i l l / s h o u l d p a s s i n t o

post-humanity—being

e m b e d d e d in a s y m b o l i c w o r l d is a d e f i n i t i o n of b e i n g - h u m a n . A n d in t h i s s e n s e too, t e c h n o l o g y i s a p r o m i s e of l i b e r a t i o n t h r o u g h s u b j e c t w h i c h e m e r g e s in a n d t h r o u g h

terror.

The

t h i s e x p e r i e n c e of t e r r o r

is

u l t i m a t e l y t h e cogilo Itself, t h e a b y s s of s e l f - r e l a t i n g n e g a t i v i t y t h a t forms t h e c o r e of t r a n s c e n d e n t a l s u b j e c t i v i t y , t h e a c e p h a l o u s s u b j e c t of ( t h e d e a t h ) d r i v e . It i s t h e p r o p e r l y i n - h u m a n

subject.

What ui to be done? W h a t t r i g g e r s t h i s t e r r o r is t h e a w a r e n e s s of h o w w e a r e in t h e m i d s t of a r a d i c a l c h a n g e . A l t h o u g h i n d i v i d u a l a c t s c a n , in a d i r e c t s h o r t - c i r c u i t of l e v e l s , affect t h e " h i g h e r " - l e v e l social c o n s t e l l a t i o n , t h e w a y t h e y affect it 452

U N B E H A G E N IN D E R N A T U R

Is u n p r e d i c t a b l e . T h e c o n s t e l l a t i o n is p r o p e r l y f r u s t r a t i n g : a l t h o u g h w e ( i n d i v i d u a l o r c o l l e c t i v e a g e n t s ) k n o w t h a t it all d e p e n d s on u s , w e c a n n o t e v e r p r e d i c t t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of o u r a c t s — we are not impotent, hut, quite the contrary, omnipotent, without being able to determine the scope of our powers. T h e g a p b e t w e e n c a u s e s a n d effects i s i r r e d u c i b l e , a n d t h e r e i s n o " b i g O t h e r " to g u a r a n t e e t h e h a r m o n y b e t w e e n t h e l e v e l s , to g u a r a n t e e t h a t

the

o v e r a l l o u t c o m e of o u r i n t e r a c t i o n s w i l l b e s a t i s f a c t o r y . T h e d e a d l o c k i s h e r e d e e p e r t h a n it m a y a p p e a r ( a s h a s b e e n r e p e a t e d l y d e v e l o p e d b y D u p u y ^ ' ) : t h e p r o b l e m is t h a t t h e b i g O t h e r c o n t i n u e s to function, in t h e g u i s e of " s e c o n d n a t u r e , " of t h e m i n i m a l l y " r e i f i e d " s o c i a l s y s t e m w h i c h i s p e r c e i v e d a s a n In-itself. E a c h i n d i v i d u a l p e r c e i v e s t h e m a r k e t as a n objective system confronting

her, a l t h o u g h t h e r e i s n o

" o b j e c t i v e " m a r k e t , j u s t t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of t h e m u l t i t u d e of individuals^— so that, a l t h o u g h e a c h i n d i v i d u a l k n o w s t h i s v e r y w e l l , the s p e c t e r of t h e " o b j e c t i v e " m a r k e t is t h i s s a m e i n d i v i d u a l ' s f a c t - o f - e x p e r i e n c e , d e t e r m i n ­ i n g h e r b e l i e f s a n d a c t s . N o t o n l y t h e m a r k e t , b u t o u r e n t i r e s o c i a l life i s d e t e r m i n e d b y s u c h reified m e c h a n i s m s . S c i e n t i s t s a n d t e c h n o l o g i s t s w h o keep scientific-technological progress alive with their incessant activity, nonetheless

experience this Progress as an objective constraint

that

d e t e r m i n e s a n d r u n s their lives: this constraint is p e r c e i v e d a s " s y s t e m i c , " n o o n e i s p e r s o n a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e for it, e v e r y o n e j u s t feels t h e n e e d to a d a p t t h e m s e l v e s to it. A n d t h e s a m e g o e s for c a p i t a l i s m a s s u c h : n o o n e i s r e s p o n s i b l e , all a r e c a u g h t in t h e o b j e c t i v i z e d u r g e to c o m p e t e a n d profit, to k e e p t h e c i r c u l a t i o n of c a p i t a l f l o w i n g . P r o s o p o p o e i a i s u s u a l l y p e r c e i v e d a s a m y s t i f i c a t i o n to w h i c h n a i v e c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s p r o n e , t h a t i s , a s s o m e t h i n g to b e " d e m y s t i f i e d . " A t t h e b e g i n n i n g of M o n t e v e r d i ' s Orfeo, t h e g o d d e s s of m u s i c i n t r o d u c e s h e r s e l f w i t h t h e w o r d s " l o s o n o l a m u s i c a . . . " — i s t h i s not s o m e t h i n g w h i c h soon afterwards, w h e n " p s y c h o l o g i c a l " subjects h a d i n v a d e d the stage, b e c a m e u n t h i n k a b l e , or, r a t h e r , u n r e p r e s e n t a b l e ?

It i s t h e r e f o r e

all the

more

s u r p r i s i n g to s e e " o b j e c t i v e " s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s p r a c t i c i n g t h e " p r i m i t i v e " a r t of p r o s o p o p o e i a — D u p u y

underlines h o w sociologists Interpret electoral

r e s u l t s ; s a y , w h e n t h e g o v e r n m e n t r e t a i n s i t s m a j o r i t y , b u t o n l y b a r e l y so, the result is r e a d a s "the voters p r o l o n g e d their trust into the government, b u t w i t h a w a r n i n g t h a t it s h o u l d d o its w o r k b e t t e r , " a s if t h e e l e c t o r a l r e s u l t w a s t h e o u t c o m e of t h e d e c i s i o n of a s i n g l e m e t a - S u b j e c t

("the

v o t e r s " ) w h o w a n t e d to d e l i v e r a " m e s s a g e " to t h o s e i n p o w e r .

And

a l t h o u g h H e g e l is often d i s m i s s e d a s t h e v e r y m o d e l of i d e a l i s t p r o s o ­ p o p o e i a ( t h e S p i r i t t a l k s t h r o u g h u s , finite m o r t a l s , or, in t h e i n v e r s i o n of 453

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

t h e " m a t e r i a U s t c r i t i q u e " of H e g e l , w e , m o r t a l h u m a n s ,

project/transpose

t h e r e s u l t s of o u r a c t i v i t y i n t o a u t o n o m o u s S p i r i t . . . ) , H e g e l ' s notion of " o b j e c t i v e S p i r i t " p r e c i s e l y undermined s u c h p r o s o p o p o e l a n

mystification:

" o b j e c t i v e S p i r i t " is not a m e t a - s u b j e c t w h o r u n s h i s t o r y . It i s c r u c i a l not to confuse H e g e l ' s " o b j e c t i v e s p i r i t " w i t h t h e D i l t h e y a n n o t i o n of a life-form, a c o n c r e t e h i s t o r i c a l w o r l d , a s t h e " o b j e c t i v i z e d s p i r i t , " t h e p r o d u c t of a p e o p l e , its c o l l e c t i v e g e n i u s . T h e m o m e n t w e d o t h i s , w e m i s s t h e p o i n t of H e g e l ' s " o b j e c t i v e s p i r i t , " w h i c h i s p r e c i s e l y t h a t it i s s p i r i t in its o b j e c t i v e form, e x p e r i e n c e d b y I n d i v i d u a l s a s a n e x t e r n a l i m p o s i t i o n , a c o n s t r a i n t e v e n — t h e r e is n o c o l l e c t i v e o r s p i r i t u a l s u p e r S u b j e c t t h a t w o u l d b e t h e a u t h o r of " o b j e c t i v e spirit, " w h o s e " o b j e c t i v l z a t i o n " t h i s s p i r i t w o u l d b e . T h e r e i s , for H e g e l , n o c o l l e c t i v e S u b j e c t , no S u b j e c t - S p i r i t beyond a n d above individual h u m a n s . Therein resides the

paradox

of " o b j e c t i v e

s p i r i t ": it i s i n d e p e n d e n t

encountered b y them as given, preexisting them, as the

of i n d i v i d u a l s , presupposition

of t h e i r a c t i v i t y , y e t it i s n o n e t h e l e s s spirit, t h a t i s , s o m e t h i n g t h a t e x i s t s o n l y i n s o f a r a s i n d i v i d u a l s r e l a t e t h e i r a c t i v i t y to it, o n l y a s their ( p r e ) 55

supposition. S o w h a t i s t h e p r o b l e m t o d a y ? T h e p r o b l e m is t h a t , a l t h o u g h

our

( s o m e t i m e s e v e n I n d i v i d u a l ) a c t s c a n h a v e c a t a s t r o p h i c ( e c o l o g i c a l a n d so forth)

consequences, w e continue

to p e r c e i v e s u c h c o n s e q u e n c e s

a n o n y m o u s / s y s t e m i c , a s s o m e t h i n g for w h i c h w e a r e not

as

responsible,

for w h i c h t h e r e i s n o c l e a r a g e n t . M o r e p r e c i s e l y — a n d h e r e w e a r e b a c k to t h e l o g i c of t h e m a d m a n w h o k n o w s t h a t h e is n o t a g r a i n of c o r n , b u t i s w o r r i e d that the c h i c k e n s h a v e not r e a l i z e d this f a c t — w e k n o w w e are r e s p o n s i b l e , b u t t h e c h i c k e n ( t h e b i g O t h e r ) h a s not c a u g h t on.

Or,

i n s o f a r a s k n o w l e d g e i s t h e function of the I, a n d b e l i e f the function of t h e O t h e r , w e k n o w t h e r e a l s t a t e of affairs v e r y w e l l , b u t w e d o not b e l i e v e it — t h e b i g O t h e r p r e v e n t s u s from b e l i e v i n g in it, from a s s u m i n g t h i s k n o w l e d g e a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y : " C o n t r a r y to w h a t t h e p r o m o t e r s of t h e p r i n c i p l e of p r e c a u t i o n t h i n k , t h e c a u s e of o u r n o n - a c t i o n is n o t scientific u n c e r t a i n t y . W e k n o w it, b u t w e c a n n o t m a k e o u r s e l v e s b e l i e v e in w h a t w e know.""

T a k e global w a r m i n g , a s a l r e a d y noted: w i t h all the d a t a

r e g a r d i n g its n a t u r e , t h e p r o b l e m i s n o t t h e u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t facts ( a s t h o s e w h o c a u t i o n u s a g a i n s t p a n i c c l a i m ) , b u t o u r i n a b i l i t y to b e l i e v e t h a t it c a n r e a l l y h a p p e n : l o o k t h r o u g h t h e w i n d o w , t h e g r e e n g r a s s a n d b l u e sky

a r e still t h e r e , life c a r r i e s on, n a t u r e f o l l o w s i t s r h y t h m . . . A n d

t h e r e i n r e s i d e s t h e h o r r o r of t h e C h e r n o b y l a c c i d e n t : w h e n o n e v i s i t s t h e site, w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of t h e s a r c o p h a g u s , t h i n g s l o o k e x a c t l y t h e s a m e 454

U N B E H A G E N IN DER N A T U R

a s b e f o r e , life s e e m s to h a v e d e s e r t e d t h e site, l e a v i n g e v e r y t h i n g t h e w a y it w a s , a n d n o n e t h e l e s s w e a r e a w a r e t h a t s o m e t h i n g is t e r r i b l y w r o n g . T h e c h a n g e is not a t t h e l e v e l of t h e v i s i b l e r e a l i t y itself; it i s m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l , it affects t h e very

t e x t u r e of r e a l i t y . N o w o n d e r t h a t t h e r e

a r e s o m e l o n e f a r m e r s a r o u n d t h e C h e r n o b y l site w h o c o n t i n u e to l e a d their lives a s before —they s i m p l y i g n o r e all the i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e t a l k about radiation. This situation confronts

u s w i t h t h e d e a d l o c k of t h e

contemporary

" c h o i c e s o c i e t y " in i t s m o s t r a d i c a l form. In t h e s t a n d a r d s i t u a t i o n of t h e f o r c e d c h o i c e I a m free to c h o o s e on c o n d i t i o n t h a t I m a k e t h e r i g h t c h o i c e , so t h a t t h e o n l y t h i n g left for m e to d o i s t h e e m p t y g e s t u r e of p r e t e n d i n g to a c c o m p l i s h f r e e l y w h a t is in a n y c a s e I m p o s e d o n m e . H e r e , on t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e c h o i c e r e a l l y i,i free a n d i s , for t h i s v e r y r e a s o n , e x p e r i e n c e d a s e v e n m o r e f r u s t r a t i n g : w e find o u r s e l v e s c o n s t a n t l y i n t h e p o s i t i o n of h a v i n g to d e c i d e a b o u t m a t t e r s t h a t w i l l f u n d a m e n t a l l y affect o u r l i v e s , b u t w i t h o u t a p r o p e r f o u n d a t i o n in k n o w l e d g e :

w e h a v e been t h r o w n into a time in w h i c h e v e r y t h i n g is provisional. N e w t e c h n o l o g i e s a l t e r o u r l i v e s d a i l y . T h e t r a d i t i o n s of t h e p a s t c a n n o t b e r e t r i e v e d . A t t h e s a m e t i m e w e h a v e little i d e a of w h a t t h e future w i l l b r i n g . We are forced to live a,i if we were free^

It i s t h u s n o t e n o u g h to v a r y t h e s t a n d a r d m o t i f of t h e M a r x i s t c r i t i q u e : " a l t h o u g h w e a l l e g e d l y l i v e i n a s o c i e t y of c h o i c e s , t h e c h o i c e s e f f e c t i v e l y left to u s a r e t r i v i a l , a n d t h e i r p r o l i f e r a t i o n m a s k s t h e a b s e n c e of t r u e c h o i c e s , c h o i c e s t h a t w o u l d affect t h e b a s i c f e a t u r e s of o u r l i v e s . . . " W h i l e t h i s is t r u e , t h e p r o b l e m i s r a t h e r t h a t w e a r e f o r c e d t o c h o o s e without having at our disposal the k n o w l e d g e that w o u l d permit an informed choice. H e r e , p e r h a p s , D u p u y i s too q u i c k w h e n h e a t t r i b u t e s o u r d i s b e l i e f in c a t a s t r o p h e to t h e i m p r e g n a t i o n of o u r m i n d s b y s c i e n t i f i c I d e o l o g y , w h i c h l e a d s u s to d i s m i s s t h e s a n e c o n c e r n s of o u r c o m m o n

sense,

namely, the g u t sense w h i c h tells u s that something is fundamentally amiss with the scientlstic attitude. The problem, a s w e have underlined, is m u c h d e e p e r , it r e s i d e s i n t h e u n r e l i a b i l i t y of o u r c o m m o n s e n s e itself w h i c h , h a b i t u a t e d a s it i s t o o u r o r d i n a r y l i f e - w o r l d , b a l k s a t a c c e p t i n g t h a t t h e flow of e v e r y d a y r e a l i t y c a n b e u p s e t . T h e p r o b l e m i s t h u s t h a t w e c a n r e l y n e i t h e r on t h e screntrfic m m d n o r on o u r c o m m o n s e n s e — t h e y b o t h r e c i p r o c a l l y s t r e n g t h e n t h e m y o p i a of t h e o t h e r . T h e s c i e n t i f i c m i n d 455

IN D E F E N S E OF LOST C A U S E S

a d v o c a t e s a cold o b j e c t i v e a p p r a i s a l of d a n g e r s a n d r i s k s i n v o l v e d w h e r e n o s u c h a p p r a i s a l is a c t u a l l y p o s s i b l e , w h i l e c o m m o n s e n s e c a n n o t a c c e p t that a catastrophe c a n really occur. D u p u y r e f e r s to t h e t h e o r y of c o m p l e x s y s t e m s w h i c h a c c o u n t s for t h e t w o o p p o s i t e f e a t u r e s of s u c h s y s t e m s : t h e i r r o b u s t a n d s t a b l e c h a r a c t e r a n d their extreme vulnerability. These systems can accommodate them­ s e l v e s to g r e a t d i s t u r b a n c e s , i n t e g r a t e t h e m a n d find a n e w b a l a n c e a n d s t a b i l i t y — u p to a c e r t a i n t h r e s h o l d ( a " t i p p i n g p o i n t " ) , b e y o n d w h i c h a s m a l l d i s t u r b a n c e c a n c a u s e a total d i s a s t e r a n d l e a d to t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a t o t a l l y different o r d e r . F o r m a n y c e n t u r i e s , h u m a n i t y d i d n o t h a v e to w o r r y a b o u t t h e i m p a c t on t h e e n v i r o n m e n t of i t s p r o d u c t i v e a c t i v i t y — n a t u r e w a s a b l e t o a c c o m m o d a t e i t s e l f to d e f o r e s t a t i o n , to t h e u s e of coal a n d oil, a n d s o on. H o w e v e r , o n e c a n n o t b e s u r e w h e t h e r t o d a y w e a r e not a p p r o a c h i n g a t i p p i n g p o i n t — o n e r e a l l y c a n n o t b e s u r e , s i n c e t h e p o i n t a t w h i c h c e r t a i n t y w o u l d b e p o s s i b l e i s w h e n it i s a l r e a d y t o o l a t e . W e t o u c h h e r e t h e p a r a d o x i c a l n e r v e of m o r a l i t y c h r i s t e n e d " m o r a l l u c k " b y B e r n a r d Williams.^*' W i l l i a m s e v o k e s t h e c a s e of a p a i n t e r i r o n i c a l l y n a m e d " G a u g u i n " w h o left h i s w i f e a n d c h i l d r e n a n d m o v e d to T a h i t i in o r d e r to f u l l y d e v e l o p h i s a r t i s t i c g e n i u s ^ — w a s h e m o r a l l y j u s t i f i e d in d o i n g t h i s or n o t ? W i l l i a m s ' s a n s w e r i s t h a t w e c a n o n l y a n s w e r t h i s q u e s t i o n In retrospect, after w e l e a r n t h e final o u t c o m e of h i s r i s k y d e c i s i o n : d i d h e d e v e l o p i n t o a n a r t i s t i c g e n i u s o r n o t ? A s D u p u y h a s p o i n t e d out, w e e n c o u n t e r t h e s a m e d i l e m m a a p r o p o s t h e u r g e n c y of d o i n g s o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y t h r e a t of v a r i o u s e c o l o g i c a l c a t a s t r o p h e s : e i t h e r w e t a k e t h i s t h r e a t s e r i o u s l y a n d d e c i d e t o d a y t o d o t h i n g s w h i c h , if t h e c a t a s t r o p h e d o e s n o t o c c u r , w i l l a p p e a r r i d i c u l o u s , or w e d o n o t h i n g a n d l o s e e v e r y t h i n g i n t h e c a s e of a c a t a s t r o p h e , t h e w o r s t c h o i c e b e i n g t h a t of a m i d d l e p o s i t i o n , t a k i n g a l i m i t e d n u m b e r of m e a s u r e s — i n w h i c h c a s e , w e fail w h a t e v e r s h o u l d h a p p e n ( t h a t is to s a y , t h e r e i s n o m i d d l e g r o u n d w h e n it c o m e s to a n e c o l o g i c a l c a t a s t r o p h e : e i t h e r It w i l l o c c u r or it w o n ' t ) . In s u c h a s i t u a t i o n , t h e t a l k a b o u t a n t i c i p a t i o n , p r e c a u t i o n , a n d risk control tends to become m e a n i n g l e s s , since w e a r e d e a l i n g w i t h w h a t , in t h e t e r m s of R u m s f e l d i a n e p i s t e m o l o g y , o n e s h o u l d call t h e " u n k n o w n u n k n o w n s " : w e n o t o n l y d o n o t k n o w w h e r e t h e t i p p i n g p o i n t Is, w e d o n o t e v e n k n o w e x a c t l y what w e d o n o t k n o w . T h e m o s t u n s e t t l i n g a s p e c t of t h e e c o l o g i c a l c r i s i s c o n c e r n s t h e s o - c a l l e d " k n o w l e d g e i n t h e r e a l " w h i c h c a n r u n amok; w h e n the w i n t e r is too w a r m , plants a n d a n i m a l s m i s r e a d t h e h o t w e a t h e r In F e b r u a r y a s t h e s i g n a l t h a t s p r i n g h a s a l r e a d y b e g u n a n d s t a r t to b e h a v e a c c o r d i n g l y , t h u s n o t o n l y r e n d e r i n g t h e m 456

U N B E H A G E N IN DER N A T U R

s e l v e s v u l n e r a b l e to l a t e o n s l a u g h t s of c o l d w e a t h e r , b u t a l s o p e r t u r b i n g t h e e n t i r e r h j i r h m of n a t u r a l r e p r o d u c t i o n . In M a y 2 0 0 7 , it w a s r e p o r t e d that a m y s t e r i o u s disease, w h i c h is w i p i n g out A m e r i c a ' s bees, could h a v e a d e v a s t a t i n g effect on t h e c o u n t r y ' s food s u p p l y : a b o u t o n e - t h i r d of the h u m a n d i e t c o m e s from i n s e c t - p o l l i n a t e d p l a n t s , a n d t h e b e e i s r e s p o n ­ s i b l e for 8 0 p e r c e n t o f t h a t p o l l i n a t i o n ; e v e n c a t t l e , w h i c h f e e d on alfalfa, d e p e n d on b e e s . W h i l e not a l l s c i e n t i s t s foresee a food c r i s i s , n o t i n g t h a t l a r g e - s c a l e b e e d e a t h s h a v e h a p p e n e d before, t h i s o n e s e e m s p a r t i c u l a r l y baffling

and

a l a r m i n g . This is h o w

one

should

imagine a possible

catastrophe: a small-level interruption with devastating global conse­ quences. O n e c a n l e a r n e v e n m o r e from R u m s f e l d i a n e p i s t e m o l o g y — t h e e x ­ p r e s s i o n , of c o u r s e , r e f e r s to t h e w e l l - k n o w n m c i d e n t m M a r c h 2 0 0 3 , w h e n D o n a l d R u m s f e l d e n g a g e d in a little a m a t e u r p h i l o s o p h i z i n g a b o u t the relationship b e t w e e n the k n o w n a n d the u n k n o w n : " T h e r e are k n o w n knowns. These are things w e k n o w that w e know. There are k n o w n u n k n o w n s . T h a t is to s a y , t h e r e a r e t h i n g s t h a t w e k n o w w e d o n ' t k n o w . But there are also u n k n o w n u n k n o w n s . There are things w e don't k n o w w e d o n ' t k n o w . " W h a t h e forgot to a d d w a s t h e c r u c i a l f o u r t h t e r m : " u n k n o w n k n o w n s , " t h i n g s w e d o not k n o w t h a t w e k n o w — ^ w h i c h i s precisely the Freudian unconscious, the "knowledge which does

not

k n o w Itself," a s L a c a n u s e d to s a y . If R u m s f e l d t h o u g h t t h a t t h e m a i n d a n g e r s in t h e c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h I r a q w e r e t h e " u n k n o w n

unknowns,"

t h e t h r e a t s from S a d d a m t h e n a t u r e of w h i c h w e d i d not e v e n s u s p e c t , w h a t w e s h o u l d r e p l y is t h a t t h e m a i n d a n g e r s a r e , on t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e " u n k n o w n k n o w n s , " t h e d i s a v o w e d b e l i e f s a n d s u p p o s i t i o n s w e a r e not e v e n a w a r e of a d h e r i n g to o u r s e l v e s . In t h e c a s e of e c o l o g y , t h e s e d i s a v o w e d b e l i e f s a n d s u p p o s i t i o n s a r e t h e o n e s w h i c h p r e v e n t u s from r e a l l y b e l i e v i n g in t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a d i s a s t e r , a n d t h e y c o m b i n e w i t h t h e " u n k n o w n u n k n o w n s . " T h e s i t u a t i o n i s l i k e t h a t of t h e b l i n d s p o t in o u r v i s u a l field: w e d o n o t s e e t h e g a p , t h e p i c t u r e a p p e a r s c o n t i n u o u s . O u r b l i n d n e s s to t h e r e s u l t s of " s y s t e m i c e v i l " i s p e r h a p s m o s t c l e a r l y perceptible apropos debates about Communist crimes: there, responsi­ b i l i t y is e a s y to a l l o c a t e , w e a r e d e a l i n g w i t h s u b j e c t i v e evil, w i t h a g e n t s w h o committed them, a n d w e can even identify the ideological sources ( t o t a l i t a r i a n I d e o l o g y , t h e Commimiit Manifeöto, R o u s s e a u . . . ) . W h e n o n e d r a w s attention

to t h e m i l l i o n s w h o d i e d a s t h e r e s u l t of c a p i t a l i s t

g l o b a l i z a t i o n , from

t h e t r a g e d y of M e x i c o in t h e

sixteenth

century

t h r o u g h the B e l g i a n C o n g o holocaust a c e n t u r y ago, responsibility is 457

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

d e n i e d : t h i s j u s t h a p p e n e d a s t h e r e s u h of a n " o b j e c t i v e " p r o c e s s , n o b o d y p l a n n e d a n d e x e c u t e d it, t h e r e w a s no CapitaluitManifejto

. . . (Ayn Rand

c a m e c l o s e s t to w r i t m g i t ) . A n d t h e r e i n a l s o r e s i d e s t h e l i m i t a t i o n of t h e " e t h i c a l c o m m i t t e e s " w h i c h p o p u p e v e r w h e r e to c o u n t e r a c t t h e d a n g e r s of u n b r i d l e d s c i e n t i f i c - t e c h n o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t : w i t h all t h e i r

good

i n t e n t i o n s , e t h i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , a n d so forth, t h e y i g n o r e the m o r e b a s i c "systemic" violence. T h e fact t h a t the B e l g i a n k i n g L e o p o l d w h o p r e s i d e d o v e r t h e

Con­

golese g e n o c i d e w a s a g r e a t h u m a n i t a r i a n , proclaimed a saint b y the pope, c a n n o t be d i s m i s s e d a s a m e r e c a s e of i d e o l o g i c a l h y p o c r i s y a n d c y n i c i s m : one

can a r g u e that,

humanitarian,

even

subjectively, he modestly

probably

counteracting

the

really was a

sincere

catastrophic

conse­

q u e n c e s of t h e v a s t e c o n o m i c p r o j e c t of r u t h l e s s e x p l o i t a t i o n of n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s of C o n g o o v e r w h i c h h e p r e s i d e d

the

( C o n g o w a s his

p e r s o n a l f i e f d o m ! ) — t h e u l t i m a t e i r o n y i s t h a t m o s t of t h e p r o f i t s t h i s e n d e a v o r w e r e d i r e c t e d for t h e b e n e f i t of t h e B e l g i a n p e o p l e ,

from for

p u b l i c w o r k s , m u s e u m s , a n d so on. In t h e e a r l y s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u t y , after t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e s h o g u n r e g i m e , J a p a n m a d e a u n i q u e c o l l e c t i v e d e c i s i o n to i s o l a t e i t s e l f from f o r e i g n c u l t u r e a n d to p u r s u e i t s o w n p a t h of a c o n t a i n e d life of b a l a n c e d reproduction,

f o c u s e d on c u l t u r a l r e f i n e m e n t , a v o i d i n g a n y t e n d e n c i e s

t o w a r d s w i l d e x p a n s i o n . W a s t h e e n s u i n g p e r i o d w h i c h l a s t e d till the m i d d l e of t h e n i n t e e n t h c e n t u r y r e a l l y j u s t a n i s o l a t i o n i s t d r e a m which

Japan

w a s cruelly

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by

Commodore

Perry

on

from the

A m e r i c a n w a r s h i p ? W h a t if t h e d r e a m i s t h a t w e c a n g o on i n d e f i n i t e l y in o u r e x p a n s i o n i s m ? W h a t if w e all n e e d to r e p e a t , miitatu mutandu, t h e J a p a n e s e d e c i s i o n , a n d c o l l e c t i v e l y d e c i d e to i n t e r v e n e in o u r

pseudo-

n a t u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t , to c h a n g e its d i r e c t i o n ? T h e t r a g e d y i s t h a t the v e r y i d e a of s u c h a c o l l e c t i v e d e c i s i o n is d i s c r e d i t e d t o d a y . A p r o p o s

the

d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of s t a t e s o c i a l i s m t w o d e c a d e s a g o , o n e s h o u l d not forget t h a t , at a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e i d e o l o g y ol t h e W e s t e r n s o c i a l d e m o c r a t i c w e l f a r e s t a t e w a s a l s o d e a l t a c r u c i a l b l o w , it a l s o c e a s e d to f u n c t i o n a s t h e i m a g i n a r y a b l e to a r o u s e a c o l l e c t i v e p a s s i o n a t e c o m m i t ­ m e n t . T h e n o t i o n t h a t " t h e t i m e of t h e w e l f a r e s t a t e h a s p a s t " is t o d a y a p i e c e of c o m m o n l y a c c e p t e d w i s d o m . W h a t t h e s e t w o d e f e a t e d I d e o l o g i e s s h a r e d is the notion that h u m a n i t y a s a collective subject h a s the c a p a c i t y to s o m e h o w l i m i t i m p e r s o n a l a n d a n o n y m o u s s o c l o - h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p ­ m e n t , to s t e e r it in a d e s i r e d d i r e c t i o n . T o d a y , s u c h a n o t i o n is q u i c k l y dismissed a s " i d e o l o g i c a l " and/or "totalitarian": the social process is once 458

U N B E H A G E N IN D E R N A T U R

again perceived as dominated

by an anonymous

Fate beyond

social

c o n t r o l . T h e r i s e of g l o b a l c a p i t a l i s m i s p r e s e n t e d to u s a s s u c h a F a t e , a g a i n s t w h i c h o n e c a n n o t fight — o n e e i t h e r a d a p t s o n e s e l f to it, o r o n e falls o u t of s t e p w i t h h i s t o r y a n d i s c r u s h e d . T h e o n l y t h i n g o n e c a n d o is to m a k e g l o b a l c a p i t a l i s m a s h u m a n

a s p o s s i b l e , to fight for

"global

capitalism w i t h a h u m a n face" (this is w h a t , ultimately, the T h i r d W a y is^—or, r a t h e r , woj—about).

T h e s o u n d b a r r i e r w i l l h a v e to b e

broken

h e r e , t h e r i s k w i l l h a v e t o b e t a k e n to e n d o r s e o n c e m o r e l a r g e c o l l e c t i v e decisions. If w e a r e e f f e c t i v e l y to r e c o n c e p t u a l i z e t h e n o t i o n of r e v o l u t i o n in t h e B e n j a m i n i a n s e n s e of s t o p p i n g t h e " t r a i n of h i s t o r y " w h i c h r u n s t o w a r d s a c a t a s t r o p h e , it i s n o t e n o u g h j u s t t o s u b m i t t h e s t a n d a r d n o t i o n h i s t o r i c a l p r o g r e s s to c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s ; o n e s h o u l d a l s o focus on l i m i t a t i o n of t h e o r d i n a r y " h i s t o r i c a l " n o t i o n of t i m e : a t e a c h

of the

moment

of t i m e , t h e r e a r e m u l t i p l e p o s s i b i l i t i e s w a i t i n g to b e r e a l i z e d ; o n c e o n e of t h e m a c t u a l i z e s itself, o t h e r s a r e c a n c e l e d . T h e s u p r e m e c a s e of s u c h a n a g e n t of h i s t o r i c a l t i m e i s t h e L e i b n i z e a n G o d

w h o created the

best

p o s s i b l e of w o r l d s : b e f o r e c r e a t i o n . H e h a d i n h i s m i n d t h e e n t i r e p a n o p l y of p o s s i b l e w o r l d s , a n d H i s d e c i s i o n c o n s i s t e d in c h o o s i n g t h e b e s t o n e a m o n g these options. Here, the possibility p r e c e d e s choice: the choice is a c h o i c e a m o n g p o s s i b i l i t i e s . W h a t is u n t h i n k a b l e w i t h i n t h i s h o r i z o n of l i n e a r h i s t o r i c a l e v o l u t i o n i s t h e n o t i o n of a c h o i c e / a c t w h i c h r e t r o a c t i v e l y o p e n s u p i t s o w n p o s s i b i l i t y : t h e i d e a t h a t t h e e m e r g e n c e of s o m e t h i n g r a d i c a l l y N e w r e t r o a c t i v e l y c h a n g e s t h e p a s t —of c o u r s e , n o t t h e a c t u a l p a s t ( w e a r e n o t in s c i e n c e f i c t i o n ) , b u t t h e p a s t p o s s i b i l i t i e s , or, t o p u t it i n m o r e f o r m a l t e r m s , t h e v a l u e of t h e m o d a l p r o p o s i t i o n s a b o u t t h e p a s t . D u p u y ' s p o i n t i s t h a t , if w e a r e t o c o n f r o n t p r o p e r l y t h e t h r e a t of a ( c o s m i c o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l ) d i s a s t e r , w e n e e d to b r e a k o u t of t h i s " h i s t o r ­ i c a l " n o t i o n of t e m p o r a l i t y : w e h a v e to i n t r o d u c e a n e w n o t i o n of t i m e . D u p u y c a l l s t h i s t i m e t h e " t i m e of a p r o j e c t , " of a c l o s e d c i r c u i t b e t w e e n t h e p a s t a n d t h e f u t u r e : t h e f u t u r e i s c a u s a l l y p r o d u c e d b y o u r a c t s in t h e p a s t , w h i l e t h e w a y w e a c t i s d e t e r m i n e d b y o u r a n t i c i p a t i o n of t h e f u t u r e a n d o u r r e a c t i o n to t h i s a n t i c i p a t i o n . T h i s , t h e n , i s h o w D u p u y

proposes

t o c o n f r o n t t h e f o r t h c o m i n g c a t a s t r o p h e : w e s h o u l d first p e r c e i v e it a s o u r fate, a s u n a v o i d a b l e , a n d t h e n , p r o j e c t i n g o u r s e l f into it, a d o p t i n g

its

s t a n d p o i n t , w e s h o u l d r e t r o a c t i v e l y i n s e r t i n t o its p a s t ( t h e p a s t of t h e f u t u r e ) c o u n t e r f a c t u a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s ("If w e h a d d o n e t h i s a n d t h a t ,

the

catastrophe w e a r e m n o w w o u l d not h a v e o c c u r r e d ! " ) u p o n w h i c h w e then act today.^^ Therein r e s i d e s D u p u y ' s p a r a d o x i c a l formula: w e h a v e 459

IN D E F E N S E O F LOST C A U S E S

to a c c e p t that, at t h e l e v e l o l p o s s i b i l i t i e s , o u r future is d o o m e d , t h a t t h e c a t a s t r o p h e w i l l t a k e p l a c e , it i s o u r destiny—^and, t h e n , a g a i n s t t h e b a c k g r o u n d of t h i s a c c e p t a n c e , w e s h o u l d m o b i l i z e o u r s e l v e s to p e r f o r m t h e a c t w h i c h w i l l c h a n g e d e s t i n y itself a n d

thereby insert a

new

p o s s i b i l i t y i n t o t h e p a s t . F o r B a d i o u , t h e t i m e of t h e f i d e l i t y to a n e v e n t is t h e futur antérieur: o v e r t a k i n g o n e s e l f t o w a r d s t h e future, o n e a c t s n o w a s if t h e future o n e w a n t s to b r i n g a b o u t is a l r e a d y h e r e . T h e

same

c i r c u l a r s t r a t e g y of t h e futur antérieur is a l s o t h e o n l y t r u l y effective o n e in t h e face of a c a l a m i t y ( s a y , o i a n e c o l o g i c a l d i s a s t e r ) : i n s t e a d of s a y i n g " t h e f u t u r e is still o p e n , w e still h a v e t h e t i m e to a c t a n d p r e v e n t t h e w o r s t , " o n e s h o u l d a c c e p t t h e c a t a s t r o p h e a s i n e v i t a b l e , a n d t h e n a c t to r e t r o a c t i v e l y u n d o w h a t i s a l r e a d y " w r i t t e n in t h e s t a r s " a s o u r d e s t i n y . A n d i s not a s u p r e m e c a s e of the r e v e r s a l of p o s i t i v e i n t o n e g a t i v e d e s t i n y t h e shift from c l a s s i c a l h i s t o r i c a l m a t e r i a l i s m into t h e a t t i t u d e of A d o r n o ' s a n d H o r k h e i m e r ' s " d i a l e c t i c of E n l i g h t e n m e n t " ? W h i l e t r a d i ­ t i o n a l M a r x i s m e n j o i n e d u s to e n g a g e a n d a c t in o r d e r to b r i n g a b o u t the n e c e s s i t y (of c o m m u n i s m ) , A d o r n o a n d f i o r k h e i m e r p r o j e c t e d

them­

s e l v e s i n t o t h e final c a t a s t r o p h i c o u t c o m e p e r c e i v e d a s fixed ( t h e a d v e n t of t h e

and the end

of

s u b j e c t i v i t y ) in o r d e r to s t i m u l a t e u s to a c t a g a i n s t t h i s o u t c o m e

" a d m i n i s t e r e d s o c i e t y " of t o t a l m a n i p u l a t i o n

in

o u r p r e s e n t . A n d , i r o n i c a l l y , d o e s t h e s a m e n o t h o l d for the v e r y d e f e a t of C o m m u n i s m in 1 9 9 0 ? It i s e a s y , from t o d a y ' s p e r s p e c t i v e , to m o c k t h e " p e s s i m i s t s , " from t h e R i g h t to t h e Left, from S o l z h e n i t s y n to C a s t o r i a d i s , w h o d e p l o r e d t h e b l i n d n e s s a n d c o m p r o m i s e s of t h e d e m o c r a t i c W e s t , its l a c k of e t h l c o - p o l i t i c a l s t r e n g t h a n d c o u r a g e in d e a l i n g w i t h t h e C o m ­ m u n i s t t h r e a t , a n d w h o p r e d i c t e d t h a t t h e C o l d W a r h a d a l r e a d y b e e n lost b y the W e s t , that the C o m m u n i s t bloc h a d a l r e a d y w o n , that the collapse of t h e W e s t w a s i m m i n e n t — b u t it i s p r e c i s e l y t h e i r a t t i t u d e w h i c h w a s t h e m o s t effective in b r i n g i n g a b o u t t h e c o l l a p s e of C o m m u n i s m . In D u p u y s t e r m s , t h e i r v e r y " p e s s i m i s t i c " p r e d i c t i o n at t h e l e v e l of p o s s i b i l i t i e s , of l i n e a r h i s t o r i c a l e v o l u t i o n , m o b i l i z e d t h e m to c o u n t e r a c t it. W e s h o u l d t h u s r u t h l e s s l y a b a n d o n t h e p r e j u d i c e t h a t t h e l i n e a r t i m e of e v o l u t i o n i s "on o u r s i d e , " t h a t H i s t o r y i s " w o r k i n g for u s " in t h e g u i s e o l t h e f a m o u s mole digging under Reason.But

the

earth,

doing the w o r k

of t h e

Cunning

of

h o w , t h e n , a r e w e to c o u n t e r t h e t h r e a t of e c o l o g i c a l

c a t a s t r o p h e ? It i s h e r e t h a t w e s h o u l d r e t u r n to t h e four m o m e n t s of w h a t B a d i o u c a l l s t h e " e t e r n a l I d e a " of r e v o l u t i o n a r y - e g a l i t a r i a n J u s t i c e . W h a t is d e m a n d e d i s :

460

U N B E H A G E N IN D E R N A T U R

1. Strict egaiitar'uin justice (all p e o p l e s h o u l d p a y t h e s a m e p r i c e in eventual renunciations, namely, one should impose the same w o r l d ­ w i d e n o r m s of p e r c a p i t a e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n ,

carbon

dioxide

e m i s s i o n s , a n d so on; the d e v e l o p e d n a t i o n s s h o u l d not b e a l l o w e d to p o i s o n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a t t h e p r e s e n t r a t e , b l a m i n g t h e d e v e l ­ o p i n g T h i r d W o r l d c o u n t r i e s , from B r a z i l to C h i n a , for r u i n i n g o u r shared environment with their rapid development); 2. terror ( r u t h l e s s p u n i s h m e n t of a l l w h o v i o l a t e t h e i m p o s e d p r o t e c t i v e m e a s u r e s , I n c l u s i v e of s e v e r e l i m i t a t i o n s on l i b e r a l

"freedoms,"

t e c h n o l o g i c a l control of p r o s p e c t i v e l a w - b r e a k e r s ) ; 3. wiuntarbm

( t h e o n l y w a y to c o n f r o n t t h e t h r e a t

of e c o l o g i c a l

c a t a s t r o p h e i s b y m e a n s of l a r g e - s c a l e c o l l e c t i v e d e c i s i o n s w h i c h run

counter

to t h e

"spontaneous"

immanent

l o g i c of c a p i t a l i s t

development); 4 . a n d , l a s t b u t not l e a s t , a l l t h i s c o m b i n e d w i t h triut in the people ( t h e w a g e r t h a t a l a r g e m a j o r i t y of t h e p e o p l e s u p p o r t s t h e s e s e v e r e m e a s u r e s , s e e s t h e m a s its o w n , a n d is r e a d y to p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e i r e n f o r c e m e n t ) . O n e s h o u l d not b e a f r a i d to a s s e r t , a s a c o m b i n a t i o n of t e r r o r a n d t r u s t in t h e p e o p l e , t h e r e a c t i v a t i o n of o n e of t h e figures

of a l l e g a l i t a r i a n - r e v o l u t i o n a r y t e r r o r s , t h e " I n f o r m e r "

who

d e n o u n c e s t h e c u l p r i t s to t h e a u t h o r i t i e s . ( I n t h e c a s e of t h e E n r o n s c a n d a l . Tune m a g a z i n e r i g h t l y c e l e b r a t e d t h e I n s i d e r s w h o t i p p e d off t h e

financial

authorities as true public heroes.)^''

D o e s , t h e n , t h e e c o l o g i c a l c h a l l e n g e not offer a u n i q u e c h a n c e to r e i n v e n t t h e " e t e r n a l I d e a " of e g a l i t a r i a n t e r r o r ?

461

Notes

All translations a r e m i n e e x c e p t w h e r e o t h e r w i s e indicated.

Introduction 1 This reversal obeys the same logic as the correct leftist-enlightenetl reply to Joseph Goebbels's Infamous dictum "When I hear the word culture, 1 reach for my gun": "When I hear guns, I reach for my culture." 2 See his interview "Demokratie befordert Bullshit," Cicero, March 2007, pp. 3 8 - 4 1 . 3 From the sermon "Jesus Entered," translated in Reiner Schuermann, Wandering Joy, Great Barrington, MA: Lindisfarne Books 2 0 0 1 , p. 7. A So what does this Leap of Faith mean with regard to taking sides on particular political issues? Is one not reduced to supporting the usual left-liberal postures, with the proviso that "they are not yet the Real Thing," that the Big Step still lies ahead? Therein resides a key point: no, this is not the case. Even if there seems to be no space, within the existing constellation, for radical emancipatory acts, the Leap of Faith sets us free for a thoroughly ruthless and open attitude towards all possible strategic alliances: it allows us to break the vicious cycle of left-liberal blackmail ("if you do not vote for us, the Right will limit abortion, implement racist legislation . . ."), and to profit from old Marx's insight into how intelligent conservatives often see more (and are more aware of the antagonisms of the existing order) than liberal progressives. 5 See Todd Dufresne, Killing Freud: 20lh Ceiitaiy Culture e3 the Death of Psychoanaly^ui, London; Continuum 2004. 6 Le Livre noir au eoninjunuime, Paris: Robert Laffont 2000. 7 Le Livre noir de la psychanalyse: vivre, pen^ier et aller mieux ,iaiu Freud, Paris: Éditions I^s Arènes 2005. 8 Quoted from Eric Aeschimann, "Mao en chair," Libération, J a n u a r y 10, 2007. 9 François Regnault, Notre objet a, Paris: Verdier 2003, p. 17.

/ Happiness and Torttur in the Atonal World 1 There is nonetheless an ingenious detail in the film, a detail which provides a perfect example of the "subject supposed to know"; when the Mossad agents want to learn the whereabouts of those who organized the Munich killings (in order to execute them), they turn to a mysterious French group, a kind of extended family leading an ordinaiy rustic life in a large country house, with chickens and children running around in the garden, but whose male members, in a manner never accounted for, seem to know everything about the whereabouts of the entire terrorist and spy underground.

463

NOTES 2 Epigraph of "Living Room Dialogues on the Middle East," quoted from Wendy Brown, Regulating Ai'erjion, Princeton, N J : Princeton University Press 2006. ?> Von Tr'ur on von Trier, London: Faber and Faber 2003, p. '15,2. 4 As is (almost) always the case, I owe this point to Eric Santner. 5 To clarify these distinctions further, lot us compare two politico-ideological examples. First, I am a Communist functionary who follows the ideological ritual with inner distance, convinced that I am just playing a superficial game which docs not concern my true Self ("life is elsewhere," as Milan Kundera put it); or, as in an Eric Ambler novel, I am married to a rich woman and, in order to annoy her conservative relatives and friends, I start reading Ckjmmunist literature and provocatively pretending to believe in it—gradually, however, I get caught up in my own game and really become a Communist . . . 6 Immanuel Kant, "The Conflict of Faculties," in Political Writingo, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1 9 9 1 , p. 182. 7 Even the solution offered by the obvious exception, the Buddhist ethics of solidarity with every living being, is more a kind of universahzed indifference —learning how to withdraw from too much empathy (which is why it can easily turn into the very opposite of universal compassion, into the advocacy of a ruthless military attitude, as the fate of Zen Buddhism aptly demonstrates). 8 This Benjaminian lesson is missed by Habermas who does precisely what one should not do: he posits ideal "language in general" —pragmatic universals — directly as the norm of the actually-existing language. 9 See Theodor W . Adorno, Minima Moralia, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp 1997, pp. 3 8 ^ 1 . 10 Michael Baigent and Richai-d Leigh, Secret Germany, Lxindon: Arrow Books 2006, p. 14. Is this polite reluctance not the obverse of the memorable scene from the Ingmar Bergman film The Serpent'.i Egg (in other respects a failure), in which a group of Nazi thugs approaches a Jewish nightclub owner and politely asks him: "Couldyou please remove your glasses, so that they will not break?" After he does so, they brutally grab his hair and thereby beat his head on the table till it is smashed into bloody pulp. 11 See Robert Pippin, "The Ethical Status of Civility," in The Pcrjiitence of Siihjectivity, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2006, pp. 2 2 3 - 3 8 . 12 The politically correct vision enacts a weird reversal of racist hatred of Otherness— it stages a kind of mockingly Hegelian negation/sublation of openly racist dismissal and hatred of the Other, of the perception of the Other as the Enemy which poses a threat to our w a y of life. In the PC vision, the Other's violence against us, deplorable and cruel as it may be, is always a reaction against the "original sin" of our (white man's imperialist, colonialist, etc.) rejection and oppression of Otherness. We, white men, are responsible and guilty, the Other just reacts as a victim; we are to be condemned, the Other is to be understood; ours is a domain of morals (moral condemnation), whilst that of others involves sociology (social explanation). It is, of course, easy to discern how, beneath the mask of extreme self-humiliation and selfblame, such a stance of true ethical masochism repeats racism in its very form: although negative, the proverbial "white man's burden" is still here—we, white men, are the subjects of History, whilst others ultimately react to our (mis)deeds. In other words, it is as if the true message of the PC moralistic self-blame is: if we can no longer be the model of democracy and civilization for the rest of the world, we can at least be the model of Evil. 13 14 1,5 16

See Claude Lefort, FMULI our le politigue, Paris: Editions du Seuil 1986. See Slavoj Zizek, Looking Awi-y, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press 1 9 9 1 . See Marcel Mauss, "Essai sur le don," in Sociologie et anthropologie, Paris: PUF 1973. See Claude Lévi-Strauss, "Introduction a l'œuvre de Marcel Mauss," in Mauss, "Essai .sur le don." 17 Jean-Pierre Dupuy, Aviiinj-nouo oublié le mal? Penoer la politique après le 11 jeptenihre, Paris; Bayard 2002.

464

18 See Pierre Bourdieu, EjquuiM d'une thé orie de la pratujue, Geneva: Droz 1972. 19 Karl Marx, Capital, Volume One, Harmondsworth: Penguin 1990, p. 167. 20 See Marshall Sahlins, Stone Age Economics, Berlin and New York: Walter De Gruyter 1972. 21 A.C. Bradley, Shakespearean Tragedy, London: Macmillan 1978, p. 160. 22 Along these lines, one is tempted to claim that, oF Shakespeare's great tragedies, only Macbeth and Othello are really tragedies: HamL'l is already a half-comical melodrama, while King Lear passes the threshold and is fully a comedy (comparable to Titiu Andronicué, another superb comedy). 23 Alain Badiou, Logiijues des mandes, Paris: Editions du Seuil 2006, p. 443. 24 Jacques Lacan, On Feminine Sexuality (The Seminar, Rook XX), New York: Norton 1998, p. 3. 2 5 Badiou, Log'ujiœs des mondes, p. 533. 26 Ibid., pp. 4 4 2 - 5 . 2 7 See Fethi Benslama, I^a Psychanalyse à lépreuse de HsLim, Paris: Aubier 2002, pp. 7 7 85. 28 One of the ridiculous excesses of this joint venture of religious fundamentalism and scientific approaches is taking place today in Israel where a religious group convinced of the literal truth of the Old Testament prophecy that the Messiah will come when a totally red calf is born is spending enormous amounts of energj' to produce, through genetic manipulations, such a calf. 29 W e can also see how wrong are those who reproach Lacan with fetishizing the Symbolic in a quasi-transcendental Order: as was clear to Lacan back in 1938, when he wrote his Complexes familiaux, the very birth of psychoanalysis is linked to the crisis and disintegration of what he then called the "paternal image" —or, as he put it decades later, the subject of psychoanalysis is none other than the Cartesian subject of modern science. And to those who misread this diagnosis as implying a call for—or at least a hankering after—the good old days when paternal authority was still uncontested and fully functional, let us recall that, for Lacan, the crisis of paternal authority which gave birth to psychoanalysis (i.e., which is the main historical condition of its rise) is stricto sensu symptomal: the unique point of exception which allows us to formulate the underlying universal law. 30 31 32 33

I owe this idea to Alenka Zupancic, Ljubljana. I owe this idea to Glyn Daly, University of Northampton. Janusz Bardach and Kathleen Gleeson, /Man Is Wolf to Man, London: Scribner 2003. This is also w h y it is not enough to make the point that, if the priests' sexual urges do not find a legitimate outlet, they have to explode in a pathological way: allowing the Catholic priests to marry would not solve anything; it would not result in priests doing their job without harrassing young boys, since pedophilia is generated by the Catholic institution of the priesthood as its "inherent transgresion," as its obscene secret supplement.

34 The case of contemporary Turkey is crucial for the proper understanding of capitalist globalization: the political proponent of globalization is the ruling "moderate " Islamist party of the Prime Minister Erdogan. 3 5 Bill O'Reilly, Culture Warrior, New York: Broadway Books 2006, pp. 1 7 5 - 6 . 36 Quoted from Antoine de Baecque, Andrei Tarkovski, Cahiers du Cinema 1989, p. 1 1 0 . 3 7 In other words, what if Tarkovsky is doing the same thing as Nemanja (Emir) Kusturica, at a different level? Kusturica plays for the West the perfect Balkan, caught in authentic cycle of passionate violence, while Tarkovsky plays the role of authentically naive Russian spirituality. 38 J o h n Gray, Straw Dogs, London: Granta 2003, p. 18. 39 Ibid., pp. 1 6 5 - 6 . 40 This reversal is homologous to the one that characterizes the Hegelian dialectics of necessity and contingency. In a first approach, it appears that their encompassing

465

NOTES unity is necessity, i.e., that necessity itself posits and mediates contingency as the external field in which it expresses-actualizes itself—contingency itself is necessary, the result ot the self-externalization and self-mediation of the notional necessity/. Fiowever, it is crucial to supplement this unitj' with the opposite one, with contingency as the encompassing unity of itself and necessity: the very elevation of a necessity into the structuring principle of the contingent ttcld of multiplicity is a contingent act, one can almost say: the outcome of a contingent ("open") struggle for hegemony. This shift corresponds to the shift from S to S, from Substance to Subject. The starting point is a contingent multitude; through its self-mediation ("sponta­ neous self-organization"), contingency engenders-posits its immanent necessity, in the same way that Essence is the result of the self-mediation of Being. Once Essence emerges, it retroactively "posits its own presuppositions," i.e., it sublates its pre­ suppositions into subordinated moments of its self-reproduction (Being is transub­ stantiated into Appearance); this positing, however, is retroactive. 41 See Michael Bond, "The Pursuit of Happiness," New ScieiitLit, October 4, 2003. 42 "Foreword by the Dalai Lama," in Mark Epstein, ThouqhUi Without a Thinker, New York: Basic Books 1996, p. xiii. 4 3 The "pursuit of happiness" is such a key element o( the "American (ideological) dream" that one tends to forget the contingent origin of this phrase: "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness." Where did the somewhat awkward "pursuit of happiness" come from in this famous opening passage of the US Declaration of Independence? The origin of it is J o h n Locke, who claimed that all men had the natural rights of life, liberty, and property' —the latter was replaced by "the pursuit of happiness" during negotiations of the drafting of the Declaration, ao a way to negate the black olaveo' right to property. A4 Thomas Metzinger, Deine/ No One. The Setf-Mot)et Theory of Suhjectivity, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press 2004, p. 620. 4 5 Ibid. 46 Ibid., p. 6 2 1 . 4 7 Sam Harris, The End of Faith. New York: Norton 2005, p. 199. 48 Ibid., pp. 1 9 2 - 3 . 49 Ibid., p. 197. 50 A more vulgar example: if an adolescent were to declare publicly in his class "I masturbate regularly," the shocked reaction of the class would be: "We all do it and we know it, so why are you saying it publicly?"

2 The Family Myth of Tdeohgy 1 To this series, one should add Leon Uris's Kxoduo as an exercise in "Zionist realism." 2 He has already resorted to a similar reversal in DLielooure, the sexual-harassment novel, in which a woman harasses a man. 3 Michael Crichton, Prey, New York; Avon Books 2003. (All page references in brackets within the text refer to this edition.) 4 In a vulgar-Marxist reading, one is tempted to see in this fear of the collective of nanopartlcles organizing itself free from the control of its human creators a displacement of the fear of class-consciousness of workers (or of other oppressed groups). 5 .Jacques Lacan, The Four Funclaniental Coneepto of Poycho-Analy.iio, Harmondsworth: Penguin 1979, p. 198. 6 No wonder that the first climax of the novel is when a group of battling scientists destroy the swarm, entering a hidden cave in the desert, the site of Evil where the

466

NOTES swarm regenerates itself. Similarly, in Eatem of the Dead, a group of Viking warriors penetrates the cave of a Neanderthal tribe of cannibals in order to kill their matriarchal chief. 7 In fact they are not so surprising when one remembers the Stalinist fascination with the Hollywood-style dream-factory organization of cinema production. Boris Shumyatsky, the boss of Soviet cinema production in the 1930s, visited Hollywood and, impressed by it, planned to build a Soviet Hollywood on the Crimean Sea; unfortunately, a discover^' in the late 1930s that he was an imperialist agent prevented this noble plan from being executed — instead, Shumyatsky himself was executed. 8 In a supreme twist of irony, the exception is provided by the verj? actor who played the film's hero, Gerd Wiesler, a Stasi agent whose duty is to plant the microphones and listen to everything the couple does: he discovered that, under the GDR, his wife had informed on him. 9 Roger Boyes, "Final Forgiveness for Spy W h o Betrayed his Wife to the Stasi," The Times, J a n u a r y 6, 2007. There is one mystery about Vera's arrest in the G D R which is today easily explained: "When we were fingerprinted, we had to sit on a piece ol fabric. This was later placed in an airless jar because they wanted to capture our smell. Can you tell me w h y ? " Now we know: in order to track the movement of dissidents who tried to evade them, the Stasi used dogs, giving them the fabric to smell, so they could follow the scent. 10 Hegel's reading of Antigone is often reproached for ignoring the potential incestuous dimension of Antigone's attachment to her brother as the hidden reason she elevates him into the exception (recall the scandalous lines, so embarrassing that commen­ tators, starting with Goethe, often dismiss them as a later interpolation, about how she would do what she is doing — putting at risk her life itself to ensure his proper funeral —only for her brother, never for her parents or children). While such a suspicion of incestuous attachment may be out of place in an ordinary family, Hegel should have remembered that we are dealing here with the family of Oedipus himself, the very site of paradigmatic incest. However, what should make us suspicious of this criticism is that the same ignorance is shared by Lacan in his detailed reading oi Antigone: although he insists on the crucial role of Antigone's "fraternal exception," he never ventures into speculations about its incestuous dimension. So what is going on here? Lévi-Strauss mentions somewhere a tribe whose members believe that all dreams have sexual meaning — except dreams with explicit sexual content. Exactly the same goes for Antigone: for a true Freudian, such a strong sisterly attachment to a brother would signal an incestuous desire —except, of course, in Antigone's case since the family already is marked by incest. 11 Tom Holland, Persian Fire, London: Little, Brown 2005. 12 Filippo Del Lucchese and Jason Smith, "We Need a Popular Discipline: Con­ temporary Politics and the Crisis of the Negative", interview with Alain Badiou, Los Angeles, J u l y 2, 2007, (unpublished). 13 Sigmund Freud, Introductory Lectures on Poychoanalysui, Harmondsworth: Penguin 1973, pp. 2 6 1 - 2 . H A similar procedure is at work in the metaphoric dimension of everyday language. Let us say I am an editor who wants to criticize a submitted manuscript; instead of brutally saying "the text needs to be rewritten so that at least its most stupid parts will disappear," I ironically hint that "the text will probably need some fumigat­ ing"—does this metaphoric substitution not introduce a much more ominous reference to germs and insects, to killing, and so on? 15 Edmund Burke, f^tter.t on the Proposai) for Peace with the Regicide Directory of France, Letter I (1796), in The Works and Csrrespondence of the Right Honorahle Edmund Burke, new edition (London 1852), vol. V, p. 256. 16 In 1 9 3 7 - 3 8 , while awaiting execution in the Lubyanka prison in Moscow, Nikolai

467

NOTES Bukharin wrote prolifically, finishing tour substantial manuscripts (books on Marx­ ist philosophy and on socialism and culture, a novel and a book of poems —the manuscripts miraculously survived and the first three are now available in English). The key to this extraordinary work is the constellation tn which it was written and its addressee: Bukharin knew that he would be executed soon and that the books would not be published, and he was giving the manuscripts to his prison guards to be delivered to Stahn (who preserved them). Although written as books meant for the anonymous general public, their true addressee was thus only one person, Stalin himself whom Bukharin, in this last desperate gesture, tried to fascinate with his intellectual brilliance. 17 1 owe the Instigation for this reading of Kafka to Avital Ronell's talk, delivered in Sass Fee on August 10, 2006. Kafka's letter to his father is available online at www.kalli-a-franz.com/KAFKA-letter.htm. 18 Jacques Lacan, The Ethics of P.iychoanalyjii, I^ndon; Routledge 1992, p. 3 1 0 . 19 So what about figures like "odradek," a partial object along the lines of Beckett's later "unnameable," who is also defined as "father's shame "? In a parenthesis in his letter to his father, Kalka identifies himself with Josef K. from The Trial: "I had lost my self-confidence where you were concerned, and in its place had developed a boundless sense of guilt. (In recollection of this boundlessness I once wrote of someone, accurately: 'He is afraid the shame will outlive him.')" However, in "Odradek," the shame is the father's, and it is odradek itself which outlives the father as the latter's shame objectivized.

5 Radical IntellecUiald, or, Why Heidegger Took the Right Step (Albeit in the Wrong Direclion) in 1953 1 2 3 4

Available online at . G. W.F. Hegel, Phenomenology of Spirit, Oxford: Oxford University Press 1977, p. 404. Peter Sloterdijk, Zorn und Zeil, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp 2006, p. 260. G.K. Chesterton, The Alan Who Was Thursday, Harmondsworth: Penguin 1986, pp. 44-6. 6 The same insight was already formulated by Heinrich Heine in his HLitory of Religian and Philosophy in Gennany from 1834, although as a positive, admirable fact: "Mark you this, you proud men of action, you are nothing but the unconscious henchmen of intellectuals, who, often in the humblest seclusion, have meticulously plotted y o u r every deed" (quoted from Dan Hind, The Threat to Reason, London: "Verso 2007, p. 1).

6 Terry Eagleton, Holy Terror, Oxford: Oxford University Press 2005, pp. 5 0 - 1 . 7 Jacques-Alain Miller, Lc Neseaa de Lacan, Paris: Verdier 2003, pp. 1 4 6 - 7 . 8 Wendy Brown, Politics out of HLitory, Princeton, N J ; Princeton University Press 2001, pp. 2 2 - 3 . 9 Ibid. p. 28. 10 Ibid., p. 122. 11 Ibid., p. 128. 12 Ibid., pp. 1 2 2 - 3 . 13 Ibid., p. 128. 14 Ibid., p. 137. 15 Nietzsche is as a rule strangely decontextualized/dehistoricized, by the same authors who are otherwise so eager to contextualize/historicize Lacan and others to demon­ strate their metaphysical and repressive bias; in Deleuze's paradigmatic reading ol Nietzsche, this dimension totally disappears. (While, tj^jically, often the same authors go into great detail about Wagner's—Nietzsche's great opponent —antiSemitism, locating it in its historical context. . .) 16 This parallel, of course, has its limits, the most obvious being that Foucault's Iranian

468

NOTES

17 18 19 20 21

engagement was perceived as a lone idiosyncratic gesture, out of step with the hegemonic liberal-democratic consensus, while fleidegger's Nazi engagement followed the dominant trend among German radical-conservative intellectuals. Janet Afary and Kevin B. hnàersan, Foucault anà the Iraninn Reoolutùtn, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press 2005, pp. 3 - 4 . Quoted in ibid., p. 263. Gilles I3eleuze, Negotiationo, New York: Columbia University Press 1995, p. 1 7 1 . Quoted in Afary and Anderson, Foucault anà the Iranian Revolution, p. 265. Is, however, this magic moment of enthusiastic unity of a collective will not an exemplary case of what Lacan refers to as imaginary identification? It is here, apropos this case, that one can observe at its purest the shift in Lacan's teaching: while the Lacan of the 1950s would undoubtedly have dismissed this enthusiastic unity as the imaginary misrecognition of symbolic overdetermination, the late Lacan would discern in it the eruption of the Real.

22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

Quoted in Afary and Anderson, Foucault anà the Iranian Revolution, p. 256. Ibid., p. 2 5 3 . Ibid., p. 264. Ibid., p. 265. Ibid., p. 260. Fethi Benslama, La Poychanalyoe à l'épreuve Je I'ldlam, Paris: Aubier 2002, p. 320. Ibid. Ernst Nolte, Martin Heidegger—Politik und GeM-hichte im Lehen unci Denken, Berlin: Propyläen 1992, p. 296. Incidentally, the same line of defense of Heidegger's Nazi engagement had already been proposed by J e a n Beaufret in a letter published in 1963 (see Emmanuel Faye, Heidegger. L'introduction du nazLirru dano la philosophie, Paris: Albin Michel 2005, p. 502).

30 31 32 33 34 35

Mark Wrathall, How to Read Heidegger, Lx>ndon, Cranta 2005, p. 87. Ibid., p. 86. Steve Fuller, Kuhn vo. Popper, Cambridge: Icon Books 2006, p. 1 9 1 . Miguel de Beistegui, The New Heidegger, London: Continuum 2005, p. 7. Ibid., pp. 1 7 5 - 6 . Hannah Arendt, The Origiiu of Totalitarianiom, New York: Harcourt Brace J o v a novich 1973, p. 328. Hannah Arendt, On Revolution, London: Penguin 1990, p. 2 0 5 . Robert Pippin, The Peroùitence of Subjectivity, Cambridge: Cambridge University' Press 2005, p. 165. Ibid., p. 22. De Beistegui, The New Heidegger, p. 182. Ibid. "Wrathall, How To Read Heidegger, p. 82. Ibid., pp. 7 9 - 8 0 . Ibid., pp. 8 1 - 2 . Martin Heidegger, Introduction to Metaphy/u-o, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press 2000, p. 27. Faye, Heidegger. L'Introduction du naziome daiui la philosophie, p. 358 Ibid., p. 333. Ibid., p. 247. Ibid., p. 2 1 7 . Ibid., p. 382. Ibid., p. 367. Jean-François Kervégan, "La vie éthique perdue dans ses extrêmes . . .," in Lecturej de Hegel, sous la direction de Olivier Tinland, Paris: Livre de Poche 2005, p. 283. Ibid.; p. 2 9 1 . The problem is here, of course, whether the market dynamic really provides what it

36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53

469

NOTES

54 56 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63

64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72

promises. Does it not generate permanent destabilization of the social body, especially by w a y of increasing class distinctions and giving rise to a "mob" deprived of the basic conditions of life? Hegel's solution was here very pragmatic —he opted for secondary palliative measures such as colonial expansion and, especially, the mediating role of estates [Stande^. Hegel's dilemma is still ours today, two hundred years later. The clearest indication of this historical limit of Hegel is his double use of the same term Sitten (customs, social ethical order): it stands for the immediate organic unity that has to be left behind (the ancient Greek ideal), and for the higher organic unity which should be actualized in a modern state. Faye, Hcideqger, p. 376. Ibid., p. 2 2 i . Ibid., p. 247. Ibid., p. 240. Ibid., p. 238. G.W.F. Hegel, Elements of the PhiLvophy of Right, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1 9 9 1 , para. 279. Ibid. Ibid., para. 280. Ibid. Did the Marxists who mocked Hegel here not pay the price for this negligence in the guise of the leader who, once again, not only directly embodied the rational totality, but embodied it fully, as a figure of full I^owledge, not only as the idiotic point of dotting the "l"s. In other words, a Stalinist Leader is ni7t a monarch, which makes him much worse . . . Hegel, Elements of the PhiLioophy of Right, para. 280, Addition. Faye, Heidegger, p. 239. Heidegger, Introduction to Aietaphysics, p. 102. Faye, Heidegger, p. 4 5 7 . Ibid., p. 467. Martin Heidegger, Gesamtausgahe, vol. 43, Nietzsche: Der Wille zur Macht als Kunst, Frankfurt: Klostermann 1 9 8 5 , p. 193. Available online at www.slate.com/id/2107100. Martin Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 45, Grundprobleme der Philosophie, Frankfurt: Klostermann 1984, p. 4 1 . Authentic fidelity is the fidelity to the void itself—to the very act of loss, of abandoning/erasing the object. W h y should the dead be the object of attachment in the first place? The name for this fidelity is the death drive. In the terms of dealing with the dead, one should, perhaps—against the work of mourning as well as against the melancholic attachment to the dead who return as ghosts—assert the Christian motto "let the dead bury their dead." The obvious reproach to this motto is: what are we to do when, precisely, the dead refuse to stay dead, but continue to live in us, haunting us with their spectral presence? Here, one is tempted to claim that the most radical dimension of the Freudian death drive provides the key to how are we to read the Christian "let the dead bury their dead": what the death drive tries to obliterate is not biological life, but the afterlife —it endeavors to kill the lost object the second time, not in the sense of mourning (accepting the loss through symbolizatlon), but in a more radical sense of obliterating the very symbolic texture, the letter in which the spirit of the dead survives,

73 G.K. Chesterton, Orthodoxy, San Francisco: Ignatius Press 1995, p. 16. 74 So what about Heidegger's insistence on his ethnic roots? Although he always emphasized his Germanness as well as the unique role of the German language, he in a w a y had to betray his roots: his entire thought is marked by the tension between the Greeks and the Germans. The German roots had to be referred to the Greek origins;

470

NOTES

75 76 77 78 79

the two could not simply be united into a linear story of the development of Western metaphysics. German roots have their own content, irreducible to Greek origins (see, for example, in Unterwegj zur Sprache, his analysis of Geiit (spirit) as "a flame that ignites itself," paving the way for the German Idealist notion of the self-positing subjectivity — Heidegger points out that we do not find this notion of Spirit in Greek); and Greek nonetheless remains a. foreign language to be deciphered. Personal information from Professor Wolfgang Schirmacher, New York/Saas Fee. See Jacques Derrida, Of Spiril: Heidegger ani) the Queotion, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press 1 9 9 1 . See Bret W . Davis, Heidegger and the ]ViU, Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press 2007. See Slavoj Zizek, The TicklLé Subject, London: Verso 1999, ch. 1. In order to avoid the impression that we neglect the way the notion of the Will sustains not only the technological thrust to control and domination, but also the mihtaristic spirit of struggle and sacrifice, let us recall how GeLwenheä in no way protects us from the most devastating technological and militarj' engagement — the fate of Zen Buddhism in J a p a n speaks volumes here.

80 Davis, Heidegger and the Will, p. 503. 81 Martin Heidegger, Geoamtauoqabe, vol. 5, Holzwege, Frankfurt: Klostermann 1977, p. 355. 82 Hannah Arendt, The Life of the Mind, San Diego: Harcourt Brace 1978, p. 194. 83 Davis, Heidegger and the WiU, p. 282. 84 Ibid., pp. 2 9 7 - 8 . 8 5 Ibid., p. 297. 86 Ibid., p. 299. 8 7 Ibid., p. 289. 88 Ibid., p. 294. 89 Ibid. 90 Wrathall, How to Read Heidegger, p. 87. 91 See Gregory Fried, Heidegger'o Po/emoo: From Being to Politico, New Haven, CT; Yale University Press 2000. 92 Incidentally, the very beginning of the fragment, in Greek, with the verb at the end (in Greek fashion), strangely recalls what every lover of popular culture today knows as the Yoda way, after the Heraclltean gnome in the Star Ward films, who pronounces profound sentences with the verb at the end —so the beginning (polemoj panton men paler eofi) should be translated in Yoda-ese "War father of all is . . .". 93 Heidegger, Inlroduelion to Metaphyoico, p. 47. 94 Joseph Stalin, "Dialectical and Historical Materialism (September 1938)," available online at http://www.marxists.0rg/reference/archive/stalin/works/l 938/09.htm. 95 Heidegger, Introduction to Metaphyoico, pp. 1 1 5 - 2 8 . 96 In a standard move, Heidegger, of course, hastens to add how the first victim of this violence is the Creator himself who has to be erased with the advent of the new Order that he grounded; this erasure can take different forms, from physical destruction — from Moses and Julius Caesar onwards, we know that the founding figure has to be killed —to the relap.se into madness, as in the case of Hölderlin.

4 Rei'ûliitlonaiy Terror from Rsbeopierre to Mao 1 See Alain Badiou, Logiqueo deo mondeo, Paris: Editions du Seuil 2006, "Introduction." 2 The catch, of course, resides in the ambiguitj' of the term "the people": is the people that is to be trusted that composed of "empirical" individuals or are we referring to the People, on behalf of whom one can turn the terror of the people against the people's enemies into the terror against individual people themselves?

471

NOTES 3 Its elements were, of course, already discernible in the earlier "millenarian" revolutionaries (from the Czech Hussites to Thomas Münzer) and in Cromwell's Commonwealth. 4 For a balanced historical description of the Terror, see David Andress, The Terror. CU'il War in the French Revolution, London: Little, Brown 2006. 5 See "De quoi Mai est-il coupable?", Libéralion, May 3, 2007. 6 Maximilien Robespierre, Virtue ant) Terror, London: Verso 2007, p. 1 1 5 . 7 Ibid., p. 1 1 7 . 8 Ruth Scurr, Fatal Purity, London: Chatto and Windus 2006. 9 Antonia Fraser, "Head of the Revolution," The Timed, April 22, 2006, Books, p. 9. 10 Badiou, Lotjiqiud He.) niondej, p. 98. 11 Louis-Antoine-Leon Saint-Just, Œuvres choüies, Paris: Gallimard 1968, p. 330. 12 And he was right: as we know today, during the last days of his freedom, King Louis XVI was plotting with foreign forces to start a major war between France and the European powers, where the king would pose as a patriot, leading the French army, and then negotiate an honourable peace for France, thus regaining his full authority—in short, the "gentle" Louis XVI was ready to plunge Europe into war to save his throne . . . 13 Robespierre, Virtue and Terror, p. 94. 14 See Walter Benjamin, "Critique of Violence," in Selected Writings, Volume I, 19131926, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 1996. 15 Friedrich Engels, "Introduction" (1891) to Karl Marx, The Civil War in France, in Marx/Engeld/Lenin On Historical MaterialLim, New York: International Publishers 1974, p. 242. 16 Robespierre, Virtue and Terror, p. 59. 17 Ibid., p. 130. 18 Ibid., p. 43. 19 Ibid., p. 47. 20 See Alain Badiou, The Century, Cambridge: Polity 2007. 21 See the detailed analysis in Claude Lefort, "The Revolutionary Terror," in Democracy and PoUticai Theory, Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press 1988, pp. 5 0 88. 22 Quoted from ibid., p. 63. 23 Quoted from ibid., p. 65. 24 Quoted from ibid., p. 64. 25 Mao Tse-Tung, On Practice and Contradiction, London: Verso 2007, p. 109. 26 Ibid., p. 87. 2 7 Quoted from Brian Daizen Victoria, Zen War Stories, London: Routledge 2003, p. 132. 28 Ibid., pp. 1 0 6 - 7 . 29 In Latin: "quaeratur via qua nec sepultis mixtus et vivis tamen exemptus erres " (Seneca, Oedipus, 9 4 9 - 5 1 ) . 30 Robespierre, Virtue and Terror, p. 103. 31 Margaret Washington, on http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/brown/filmmore/reference/mterview/washmgt on05.html. 32 Ibid. 33 See Henry David Thoreau, Civil Disohedience and Other Eisays, New York: Dover 1993. 34 Wendy Brown, States of Inj'uiy. Princeton, N J : Princeton University Press 1995, p. 14. " 35 So what about Robespierre's rather ridiculous attempt to impose a new civic religion celebrating a Supreme Being? Robespierre himself formulated succinctly the mam reason for his opposition to atheism: "Atheism is aristocratic " (Maximilien Robespierre, Œuvres Complètes, Paris: Ernest Leroux 1 9 1 0 - 6 7 , vol. 10, p. 195). Atheism

472

NOTES

36

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48

49 50 51 52 53

was For him the ideology of the cynical-hedonistic aristocrats who had lost all sense of historical mission. Along these lines, some Western Marxists attributed Stalinism to the "Asiatic mode of production," seeing the former as a new form of "Oriental despotism'—the irony being that, for traditional Russians, the exact opposite held: "It was always a Western fancy to see Lenin and Stalin as 'Oriental' despots. The great Russian tyrants in the eighteenth and the twentieth century were Westernizers" (Lesley Chamberlain, The PhiltMophy Steamer, London: Atlantic Books 2006, p. 2 7 0 ) . Emmanuel Levlnas, Le,i Imprévue de ThLttoire, Paris: Fata Morgana 1994, p. 172. Martin Heidegger, Schelling'ö Treatuie on Human Freedom, Athens, OH; Ohio Uni­ versity Press 1985, p. 146. G . W . F . Hegel, PhenomenoLigy of Spirit, Oxford; Oxford University Press 1977, p. 288. F . W . J . Schelling, Die Wellaller. Fragmente. In den Urfaooungen mn 1811 und 1813, ed. Manfred Schroeter, Munich: Biederstein 1979, p. 13. Georgi M. Derluguian, Bourdieu'o Secret Admirer in the Caucaouo, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press 2005. Luc Boltanski and Eve Chiapello, The New Spirit of Capitaliom, London: Verso 2005, p. ix. Ibid., p. xvii. Mao Zedong, On Practice and Conlradiction, p. 87. Ibid., p. 92. Ibid., pp. 1 1 7 - 1 8 . Alain Badiou, "Prefazione all'edizione italiana," in Metapolitica, Naples: Cronopio 2002, p. 14. And are the latest statements of Toni Negri and Michael Hardt not a kind of unexpected confirmation of this insight of Badiou'.' Following a paradoxical neces­ sity, their very (focus on) anti-capitalism led them to acknowledge the revolutionaryforce of capitalism, so that, as they put it recently, one no longer needs to fight capitalism, because capitalism is already in itself generating communist potential — the "becoming-communist of capitalism," to put it in Deleuzian terms . . . Mao Zedong, On Practice and Contradiction, pp. 1 3 1 , 137. Ibid., p. 183. Ibid., p. 182. Ibid., p. 176. J u n g Chang and J o n Halliday, Mao: The Unknown Story, New York: Knopf 2005. Of course, this work is highly tendentious and has been subject to harsh criticism: see, in particular, Andrew Nathan, "Jade and Plastic," London Review of Rook.t, November 17, 2005.

54 Heidegger is also wrong in his letter to Marcuse, comparing the Holocaust to the 1 9 4 6 4 7 deportation of Germans from lîastern Europe — Herbert Marcuse was correct in his reply: the difference befiveen the fate of J e w s and the Eastern European Germans was, at that moment, the thin line that separated barbarism from civilization. 65 Mao Zedong, On Practice and Contradiction, p. 1 8 1 . 66 Ibid., pp. 1 7 9 - 8 0 . 6 7 Samuel Beckett, Trilogy, London: Calder 2003, p. 4 1 8 . 68 No wonder, then, that, when he describes the "democratic method of resolving contradictions among the people," Mao is obliged to evoke his own version of, precisely, the "negation of the negation," in the guise of the formula "unitycritlcism-unity": "starting from the desire for unity, resolving contradictions through criticism or struggle, and arriving at a new unity on a new basis. In our experience this is the correct method of resolving contradictions among the people." 69 Mao Zedong, On Practice and Contradiction, pp. 1 7 2 - 3 . 60 There is a brief hint in this direction in the middle ol the film; however, it remains unexploited.

473

NOTES 61 62 63 64

Jonathan Spence, MOU, London: Weidenfeld and Nicoison 1999, pp. xli-xiv. Badiou, Logujius des mondes, pp. 6 2 - 7 0 . Ibid., pp. 5 4 3 ^ . G.W.F. Hegel, Enzyklopädie derphilosophLichen WLiéenschaften, Hamburg; Franz Hei­ ner 1959, p. 436. 65 Fredric Jameson, The Seeds of Time, New York; Columbia University Press 1994, p 89. 66 Ibid., p. 90. 6 7 Was Che Guevara's withdrawal from all official functions, even from Cuban citizenship. In 1965, in order to dedicate himself to world revolution — this suicidal gesture of cutting the links with the institutional universe —really an acll Or, was it an escape from the Impossible task of the positive construction of socialism, from remaining faithful to the consequences of the revolution, namely, an implicit admission of failure? 68 Brian Massumi, "Navigating Movements," in Mary Zournazi, ed., Hope, New York: Routledge 2002, p. 224. 69 See the report "Renewed Faith," Tinu, May 8, 2006, pp. 3 4 - 5 . 70 Immanuel Kant, "What Is Enlightenment?," in Isaac Kramnick, ed.. The Portahle Enlightenment Reader, New York: Penguin 1995, p. 5. 71 See "Even What's Secret Is a Secret in China," The .Japan Tiines, J u n e 16, 2007, p. 17. 72 Eyal Weizman, "Israeli Military Using Post-Structuralism as 'Operational Theory'," available online at www.frleze.com. See also. Hollow Land, London: Verso, 2007, ch. 7. 73 Gordon G. Chang, "China in Revolt," Commentary, December 2006, available online at http://www.commentaiymagazine.com/cm/mam/printArticle.html?article=com.commentarymagazine.content.Article:: 10798 74 Robespierre, Virtue and Terror, p. 129. 75 G.W.F. Hegel, Lectures on the Philosophy of World History, Cambridge; Cambridge University Press 1980, p. 263. 76 Samuel Beckett, Nohow On, London: Calder 1992, p. 1 0 1 .

5 StaliriLtm RevLiited, or, How Stalin Saved the Humanity of Man 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

See above. Chapter 4. Quoted from Orlando Figes, Natasha's Dance, London: Allen Lane 2 0 0 1 , p. 4 4 7 . Ibid., p. 464. Ibid., pp. 4 8 0 - 1 . Ibid,, p. 4 8 2 . Ian MacDonald, The New Shostakwieh, London; Pimlico 2006, p. 299. James G. Blight and Philip Brenner, Sad and Luminous Days: Cuba's Secret Struggles with the Superpowers after the Cuban MLisile Crisis, New York: Rowman and Littlefield 2002. 8 Quoted in ibid., p. 23. 9 The letters are available online at http;//www.cubanet.org/ref/dis/l 0110201.htm. 10 Castro's premise, according to which "the destructive power of this [nuclear] weaponry is so great and the speed of its dellveiy so great that the aggressor would have a considerable initial advantage," is very problematic: it is a safe bet—and the presupposition of the logic of Mutually Assured Destruction—that the surprise nuclear attack of one of the nuclear superpowers would fall to destroy all the opponent's nuclear arms, and that the opponent would have preserved a sulficently large stockpile to strike back. There is, nonetheless, a way to read Castro's demand as a case of "rational" strategic reasoning—what if it was sustained by a ruthless and

474

NOTES

11 12 13 14 15

cynical calculation with the following scenario in view: the U S army will invade Cuba with conventional forces; then, the US and the U S S R will destroy each other (and, perhaps, Europe with it) with nuclear arms, making the US occupation of Cuba meaningless, so that Cuba (with most of the Third World) would survive and triumph? Stephen Kotkin, "A Conspiracy So Immense", The New Republic Online, February 13, 2006. Simon Montefiore, Stalm. The Court of the Reà Toar, Ixmdon: Weidenfeld and Nicolson 2003, p. 168. See Alexei Yurchak's wonderful Everything Weu Forever, Unt'd It Wao No More, Princeton, N J ; Princeton University Press 2006, p. 52. Quoted from Victor Sebestyen, Twelve Dayo, New York; Pantheon 2006. Till recently, traces of such a totally semantically saturated space survived in Chinese official discourse; in philosophy, it is sometimes comically combined with other features which bear witness to the "organized" and planned character of philoso­ phical research. I was told by a friend who visited the philosophy institute in one of the (for us, Europeans) anonymous 2-4-million-strong Chinese cities, that he had been surprised to discover in the entrance hall a large display board reporting on the achievements of the last five-year plan of philosophical research — which ontological, epistemological, aesthetic, etc., topics had been clarified. In conversation with a member of this institute, he asked him about the existence independent of his mind of the table in front of him; the researcher glibly answered; "Sorry, I cannot yet give you the definitive answer: according to our five-year plan, this topic will be dealt with only in 2008!"

16 This, incidentally, is not quite true: The Mecuureo Taken was performed many times in front of large working-class crowds, with a large orchestra and chorus plajang and singing the music composed by Hanns Eisler, in the early thirties, as part of the German Communist Party's propaganda and cultural activity. What is true is that the play provoked many critical responses in the official party press: careful not to repel Brecht, a very popular and prestigious author who had recently thrown his support behind the Communists, they nonetheless articulated their uneasiness about the play's "wrong political line." And, furthermore, the play then effectively disappeared from the stage for more than half a century: apart from a short revival by the Berliner Ensemble in the early fifties, its first public performance (again by the Berliner Ensemble) was in the late 1990s. Brecht himself and his literary executors (his wife, Helene Weigel, and daughter Barbara) rejected all requests to stage it. 17 David Caute, The Dancer Defects, Oxford: Oxford University Press 2003, p. 295. 18 One can argue that Brecht only pretends to subscribe to the mechanism that requires a politically justified murder, and that the underljàng dialectical strategy is to make the spectators think autonomously and bring them to reject the explicit thesis of the play and to fully empathize with the victim; however, such a reading, if pursued to the end, leads to the absurd conclusion that, for decades, Brecht was pretending to be a Stalinist in order to generate in his public a revulsion against Stalinism . . . 19 Which is why the best psychoanalytic reply to this moral maxim is to imagine what it would mean for a tmuochut to promise us that he will abide by it in his relationship to us. 20 First published in Russian in Pravda, December 2 1 , 1994. Beneath this note, Stalin appended in blue pencil: "Alas, what do we see, what do we see?" The translation is quoted from Donald Rayfield, Stalin andHij Hangmen, London: Penguin 2004, p. 22. 21 The same goes for such a radical hedonist atheist as the Marquis de Sade: perspicuous readers of his work (such as Pierre Klossowski) pinpointed long ago that the compulsion to enjoy which drives the Sadean libertine implies a hidden

475

NOTES

22 23 24 25 26

reference to a hidden divinity, to what L^can called the "Supreme-Being-of-Evil," an obscure God demanding to be fed with the suffering of innocents. See Lars T. Lih's outstanding "Introduction" to Staliti'o Letters to MoLotov, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press 1995, pp. 6 0 ^ . Ibid., p. 48. Ibid. Available online at http://www.marxists.org/archlve/lenin/works/I913/. Leon Trotsky, Diary in Exde 1935, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 1976 pp. 1 4 5 - 6 .

2 7 Available online at www.mandsts.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1924/0l/ 30.htm. 28 See Jonathan Brent and Vladimir P. Naumov, Stalin'o Ladt Crime, New York: HarperCollins 2003. 29 Ian Buchanan, DeUuzLmi, Durham, NC: Duke University Press 2000, p. 5. 30 The reference is to George Leggett, The Cheka:Lenin'o PoliticalPoljee, Oxford: Oxford University Press 1 9 8 1 . 31 Lesley Chamberlain, The Philosophy Steamer, London: Atlantic Books 2006, pp. 3 1 5 16. 32 As is well known, after Stalin's death, Trotsky's Terrorism and Communism was found in his library, full of notes signaling Stalin's approval. 33 See Igal Halfm, "The Bolsheviks' Gallows Laughter," Journal of Political Ideologie,!, October 2006, pp. 2 4 7 - 6 8 . 34 Ibid., p. 2 4 7 . 36 J . Arch Getty and Oleg V. Naumov, The Road to Terror. Stalin and the Self-Destruction of the BoLheviko, 1932-39, New Haven and London: Yale University Press 1999, p. 370. 36 Ibid., p. 394. 3 7 Franz Kafka, The Trial, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books 1985, p. 48. 38 Getty and Naumov, The Road to Terror, p. 322. 39 Theodor W . Adorno and Waiter Benjamin, The Complete Correspondence 1928-1940, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 1999, p. 262. 40 Stephen Johnson, "The Eighth Wonder," The Gramophone, J u l y 2006, p. 28. 41 Quoted from Ian McDonald, The New Shostakovich, London: Pimlico 2006, p. 1. 42 At the opposite end, the lack of such a distance accounts for the tragic fate of Evald Ilyenkov, arguably the most talented of the Soviet Marxist philosophers: he took his Marxism seriously, as a deep personal engagement, and the price he paid for it was that, in 1979, he committed suicide in despair. Incidentally, Ilyenkov was also a passionate Wagnerian for whom "The Ring of the Nkhelungs is Karl Marx's Das Kapital set to music." 4 3 MacDonald, The New Shostakovich, p. 300. Note the weird category of "non-verbal dissidence" —say, dissidence implied in the mood of the music, which can be verbally denied, so that the same work which officially celebrates socialism, like Shostako­ vich's Fifth or Seventh Symphony, is "really" its dissident rejection! 44 Ibid., p. 304. 4 5 Ronald Woodley, accompanying text to the recording by Martha Argerich and Gidon Kremer (Deutsche Grammophon 4 3 1 8 0 3 - 2 ) . 4 6 Shostakovich is here more traditional than Prokofiev; the exemplary "explosion of the Thing" in his work is undoubtedly the second movement of his Tenth Symphony, a short but violently energetic scherzo with slashing chords that is usually referred to as the "Stalin portrait" (although one cannot but ask oneself w h y — w h y not simply an explosion of excessive vitality'/). It is interesting to note how this shortest movement of them all (a little bit over four minutes, compared with twenty-three minutes of the first, and twelve of the third and fourth) nonetheless functions as the energetic focus of the entire symphony, its wild motif echoed and reverberating in other movements, its excessive energy spilling

476

NOTES over into others—as if it is here, in the second movement, that we court the danger of getting "burned by the sun" . . . A7 Ian MacDonald, "Prokofiev, Prisoner of the State," available online at http;// www.siue.edu/~aho/musov/proko/prokofiev2.html. 4 8 Michael Tanner, "A Dissenting View," The Gramophone, J u l y 2006, p. 23. 49 See Richard Maltby, "'A Brief Romantic Interlude': Dick and J a n e Go to 3 1/2 Seconds of the Classic Hollywood Cinema," in David Bordwell and Noel Carroll, eds, Podt-Theory, Madison, W l ; University of Wisconsin Press 1996, pp. 4 3 4 - 5 9 . 50 61 52 53 64 66 56 57 68 59 60 61 62 63 64

65 66 67

Ibid., p. 443. Ibid., p. 4 4 1 . See Ibid., p. 4 4 5 . Figes, Natasha's Dance, pp. 4 9 2 - 3 . Ibid., p. 57. See Karl Marx, "Class Struggles in France," Collected Works, vol. 10, Lx)ndon: Lawrence and Wlshart 1978, p. 95. See Bernd Feuchtner, Dimitrl Schostakou'itsch, Kassel, Stuttgart, and Weimar: Barenreiter/Metzler 2002, pp. 1 2 5 - 6 . Primo Levi, If This Is a Man and The Truce, I^ndon: Abacus 1987, pp. 1 3 3 - 4 . Available online at http;//www.siue.edu/~aho/musov/basner/basner.html. See Boris Groys, "Totalitarizm karnavala," Bakhtinsk'd zbornik vol. Ill, Moscow; Labirlnth 1997. Richard Overy, The Dictators, London: Penguin 2004, pp. lOO-I. Getty and Naumov, The Road to Terror, p. 14. Ibid. Andrzej Walicki, Marxism and the Leap to the Kingdom of Freedom, Stanford, CA; Stanford University Press 1995, p. 522. The other breathtaking irony Is that, when the first version of the film was rejected for not depicting Soviet village life in a truly optimistic Socialist Realist revolutionary spirit, the studio called in Isaac Babel to rewrite the script. See Sergei Eisenstein, Ivan the Terrible, London: Faber and Faber 1989, pp. 2 2 5 - 6 4 . G.W.F. Hegel, Phenomenology of Spirit, Oxford: Oxford University Press 1977, p. 288. The fluidity and Interchangeability of sexual identity in Ivan has often been noted: Fyodor Basmanov takes the place of the poisoned Anastasia as Ivan's new partner; Vladimir is effeminate and his mother, Euphrosyna, masculinized; the Polish court is ridiculously feminized; and so on. This effemlnlzation culminates in the scene at the English court in Part III, in which Elisabeth is played by a man (the director Mikhail Romm).

68 69 70 71 72

Eisenstein, Ivan the Terrible, pp. 2 4 0 - 1 . Ibid., p. 237. Available online at http://revolutionarydemocracy.org/rdv3n2/ivant.htm. Elsenstein, Ivan the Terrible, pp. 2 4 9 - 6 3 . See Choe Sang-Hun, "Born and Raised in a North Korean Gulag," Internaticmal Herald TrUmne, J u l y 9, 2007, available on line at http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/07/ 09/news/korea.php. 73 Do we not find the opposite of the refusal to think of Nazism as a political project in the crucial theoretical scandal of Adorno (and the Frankfurt School in general) : the total absence of an analysis of Stalinism in his work (not to speak of that of Habermas and others)? 74 Ernst Nolte, Martin Heidegger—Politik imd Geschichte im Lehen und Denken, Berlin: Propyläen 1992, p. 2 7 7 . 76 Incidentally, Karl Kautsky, the main theorist of the Second International, already in the early 1920s, in his opposition to the Bolshevik dictatorship, perceived fascists as "copycat" terrorists, the Bolsheviks' "fraternal adversaries," claiming that Bolshe­ vism had served as a school of repressive techniques for fascism: "Fascism is nothing

477

NOTES other than the counterpart of Bolshevism; MussoHni is simply aping Lenin" quoted from Massimo Salvadori, Karl KauUky and the Soclalut Remlution, London: Verso 1979, p. 290. 76 Anti-Communist writers such as Nolte who insist on the parallel between Nazism and Communism like to point out that Nazism also perceived (and designated) itself as a species of socialism ("National Socialism"), replacing class with nation. How­ ever, it is here that one should put all the weight on the difference between socialism and communism: one can well imagine a "national socialism," but (notwithstanding historical freaks like C^eausescu's Romania and the Khmer Rouge in I^mpuchea) there never was a "national communism." 77 Quoted in Berel I^ng, Heidegger',! Silence, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press 1996 p. 2 1 .

6 Why Populuitn Li (Sotmtimes)

Good Enough in Praclke, but Not in

Theoty 1 Jacques-Alain Miller, Le Neuen de Lacan, Paris: Verdier 2003, p. 270. 2 Many pro-European commentators favorably opposed the new Eastern European members of the Union's readiness to bear financial sacrifices to the egotistic intransigent behavior of the UK, France, Germany, and some other old mem­ bers—however, one should also bear in mind the hypocrisy of Slovenia and other new Eastern members: they behaved like the latest members of an exclusive club, wanting to be the last allowed to enter. While accusing France of racism, they themselves opposed the entry of Turkey . . . 3 The tragedy, of course, is that, so far at least, the Linkspartei ui in fact purely a protest party with no viable global program of change. 4 The limltarion of post-politics Is best exemplified not only by the success of rightist populism, but by the UK elections of 2005: in spite of the growing unpopularity of Tony Blair (he was regularly voted the most unpopular person in the UK), there is no way for this discontent with Blair to find a politically effective expression; such frustration can only foment dangerous extra-parllamentaiy explosions. 5 See Nicholas Cook, Beethoven: Symphony No. 9, Cambridge: (Cambridge University Press 2003. 6 Some critics even compare the "absurd grunts" of the bassoons and bass drum that accompany the beginning of the marcia Turca to farts —see Cook, Beethoven, p. 103. The history of recognizing echoes of common obscenities in a musical piece is long and interesting. See what, in 1 8 8 1 , Exluard Hanslick wrote about Tchaikovsky's Violin Concerto: "The finale transports us to the brutal and wretched jollity of a Russian festival. W e see the savage, vulgar faces, hear obscene curses and smell the vodka . . . Tchaikovsky's Violin Concerto brings us face to face with a hideous notion; that there may be music whose stmk we can hear" (quoted from Ciciooic fin, October 2005, p. 68). The spontaneous analytical answer to this is, obviously, that Hanslick Is here brought face to face with hio own repressed hideous fantasies . . . 7 Lines attributed to Gottfried Frank; quoted from (3ook, Beethoven, p. 93. Of course, these lines are not meant as a criticism of Beethoven—on the contrary, in an Adornian mode, one should discern in this failure of the fourth movement Beetho­ ven's artistic integrity: the truthful index of the failure of the verj' Enlightenment project of universal brotherhood. 8 Cook, Beethoven, p. 103. 9 Maynard Solomon, quoted In Cook, Beethoven, p. 93. 10 See Cihan Tugal, "NATO's \Aa.m:\5t&:' New Left RcvUw, II, 44 (March-April 2007). 11 Anybody who is minimally acquainted with Heidegger's thought will easily recog­ nize in this paragraph an ironic paraphrase of the well-known passage from Martin

478

NOTES Heidegger, Introduction to Aietaphysics, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press 2000, pp. 2 8 - 9 . 12 In March 2005, the Pentagon released the summary of a top-secret document, which sketches America's agenda for global military domination. It calls for a more "proactive" approach to warfare, beyond the weaker notion of "preemptive" and defensive actions. It focuses on four core tasks; to build partnerships with failing states to defeat internal terrorist threats; to defend the homeland. Including offensive strikes against terrorist groups planning attacks; to influence the choices of countries at a strategic crossroads, such as China and Russia; and to prevent the acquisition of weapons of mass destruction by hostile states and terrorist groups. Will Europe accept this, satisfied with the role of anemic Greece under the domination of the powerful Roman Empire? 13 See Ernesto Laclau, On Populist Reason, London; Verso 2005. 14 This distinction is homologous to that deployed by Michael Walzer between "thin" and "thick" morality (see Michael Walzer, Thick and Thin, Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press 1994). He gives the example of the great demon­ stration in the streets of Prague in 1989 that toppled the Communist regime: most of the banners read simply "Truth," "Justice," or "Freedom," general slogans even the ruling Communists had to agree with —the catch was, of course, in the underlying web of "thick" (specific, determinate) demands (freedom of the press, multi-party elections . . .) that Indicated what the people meant by the simple general slogans. In short, the struggle was not simply for freedom and justice, but for the meaning of these words. 15 16 17 18

Laclau, On Populist Reason, p. 88. Ibid., p. 90. Ibid., pp. 9 8 - 9 . Many people sympathetic to the Hugo Chavez regime in Venezuela like to oppose Chavez's flamboyant and sometimes clownish caudUlo style to the vast popular movement of the self-organization of the poor and dispossessed that surprisingly brought him back to power after he was deposed in a US-backed coup; the error of this view is to think that one can have the second without the first; the popular movement needs the identiticatory figure of a charismatic leader. The limitation of Chavez lies elsewhere, in the very factor which enables him to play his role: oil money. It is as if oil is always a mixed blessing, if not an outright curse. Because of this supply, he can go on making populist gestures without "paying the full price for them," without really Inventing something new at the socio-economic level. Money makes it possible to practice inconsistent politics (populist anti-capitalist measures that leave the capitalist edifice basically untouched), not acting but postponing the act, the radical change. (In spite of his anti-US rhetoric, Chavez takes great care that Venezuelan contracts with the U S are regularly met—he is indeed a "Fidel with oil")

19 One can easily imagine a situation determined by a tension between an institutio­ nalized democratic power bloc and an oppositional populist bloc, in which one would definitely opt for the institutionalized democratic bloc —say, a situation in which a liberal-democratic regime in power is threatened by a large-scale racist-populist movement. 20 In Edith Wharton's The Age of Innocence, the young Newland's wife herself is his fetish; he can pursue his affair with the Countess Olenska only Insofar as the wife is supposed not to know about it—the moment Newland learns that the wife knew about his affair all along, he is no longer able to pursue his love interest with the (Countess, although his wife is now dead and there is no obstacle to his marrying the Countess. 21 See, especially. Chantai Mouffe, The Democratic Paradox, London: Verso 2000. 22 Laclau, On Populut Reason, p. 166.

479

NOTES 23 The best anecdotal example of what is wrong with the first mode of universality is the story, from World W a r I, about a working-class English soldier on leave from the front, enraged by encountering an upper-class youth calmly leading a life of exquisite "Britishness" (tea rituals, and so on), not perturbed by the w a r at all. Wlien he explodes against the youth: "How can you just sit here and enjoy it, while we are sacrificing our blood to defend our way of life?', the youth calmly responds: "But 1 am the way of life you are defending there in the trenches!" 24 See Laclau, On Populist Reason, p. 183. 25 Oliver Marchart, "Acting and the Act: On Slavoj Zizek's Political Ontology," in Paul Bowman and Richard Stamp, eds, Truth of Zizek, Ixindon: Continuum 2007, p 174. 26 Claude Lévi-Strauss, "Do Dual Organizations Exist?" in Structural Anthropology (New York: Basic Books 1963), pp. 1 3 1 - 6 3 ; the drawings are on pp. 1 3 3 - 4 . 2 7 Gilles Deleuze, Difference and Repetition, New York: Columbia University Press 1995, 186. 28 See Chapter 1 of Jacques Lacan, The Four Fundamental Concepts of Poycho-AnalyoLi, Harmondsworth: Penguin 1979. 29 And the same reversal goes on today, when the opposition of liberal-left feminists and conservative populists is also perceived as the opposition of upper-middle-class feminists and multiculturalists against lower-class rednecks. 30 Can we say, then, that politics is All, a series of totalizations, of imposing MasterSlgnifiers which totalize a field through exceptions? But what about the Non-All as politics? "Everything is political" is misleading, the true formula is "there is nothing which is not political"—for it was Stalin who totalized politics, and had to pay the price for it in asserting the exception (technology, language, and so on) as apolitical, class-neutral. In other words. Is It not politics which is the impassive pseudo-cause — a theater of shadows In which, nonetheless, everything is decided? 31 Karl Marx, "Preface,"/I Contriiution to the Critique of Political Fxonomy, Moscow: Progress Publishers 1977, pp. 7 - 8 . 32 Ernesto Laclau, "Why Constructing a People Is the Main Task of Radical Politics," Critical Inquiry 32 (Summer 2006), pp. 657, 680. Furthermore, Laclau only develops hegemony as the particular elevated into the embodiment/representation of the impossible Thing; what is missing is how the particular element which represents All can only do it through negating the unifying feature of the All. Two worn-out examples should suffice here: for Marx, the only way to be a "royalist in general" is to be a republican; for Hegel, man (who creates himself) in general is a king (who is what he is by nature). This tension precedes the tension friend/enemy as reflected in hegemonic struggle. 33 Which is why, for example, when someone plays the game of postponing the revelation of the content to which he is referring, repeatedly giving hints and then withdrawing, we can accuse him of playing a sexualized game even if the content whose revelation is endlessly postponed is quite commonplace and asexual. 34 See Anna Funder, Stasiland, London: Granta Books 2003, pp. 177—82. 35 Karl Marx, Capital, Volume One, Harmondsworth: Penguin 1990, p. 1 6 3 . 36 Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, The Communist Manifesto, Harmondsworth: Pen­ guin 1985, p. 82. 3 7 Yannis Stavrakakis, The Ijocanian Left, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press 2007. 38 Ibid., p. 30. 39 Ibid., p. 1 1 5 . 4 0 Ibid., pp. 1 1 6 - 1 9 . 4 1 Ibid., p. 122. 42 Ibid., p. 126. 43 Ibid., p. 154.

480

NOTES 44 In more logical terms, Stalinism confused external and internal negation: the fact that the majority of the population did not share the revolutionary will to build a new society, that it was simply indifferent, was read as active negative willing, i n other words, not-willing was turned into willing the no, the active negation of the Soviet order. 46 Of course, not every resistance to a truth-procedure is a sign of its falsity: Mao was right when he said that it is good —a sign of the correctness of our position —to be attacked by the enemy. The problem with the resistance to the Stalinist imposition of "Truth" was that it was the resistance of the people, the very source of the regime's legitimacy. 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53

Stavrakakis, The Tjacaninn Left, p . 143. Ibid., p . 1 4 1 . Ibid., p . 142. Ibid., p . 130. Ibid., p. 144. Ibid., p . 133. Ibid. Alain Badiou, "Fifteen Theses on Contemporary Art, " available online at http:// www.lacan.com/frameXXlII7.htm. 54 Stavrakakis, The Lacanian Left, p p . 1 3 3 - 4 . 55 Ibid., p . 142. 66 Similarly, when I claim that Stavrakakis does not take into account the c a p i t a l i s t U t o p i a , he furiously replies that he elaborated in detail the c a p i t a l i s t c o n s u m e r i s t U t o p i a —as i f it is not clear from the context that I am referring to the U t o p i a n nature of the market mechanism, discernible in the advocates of capitalism.

67 Ibid., p . 135. 58 J o r g e Luis Borges, Other Inquisition,!: 1937-52, New York: Washington Square Press 1966, p . 1 1 3 . 59 Gilles Deleuze, Difference and Repetition, New York: Columbia University Press 1994, p . 183. 60 Ibid., p . 8 1 . 61 James Williams, GiUes Deieuze'j "Difference and Repetition": A Critical Introduction and Guide, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press 2003, p . 26. 62 T.S. Eliot, "Tradition and the Individual Talent," originally published in The Sacred Wood: Essays on Poetry and Criticism (1922). 63 Peter Hallward, Out of thii World, Ixmdon: Verso 2006, p . 135. 64 Ibid., p . 139. 65 Ibid., p . 54. 66 Williams, Gilles Deleuze's 'Difference and Repetition", p . 109. 67 Jean-Pierre Dupuy, Petite métaphysique des tsunami, Paris: Editions du Seuil 2005, p . 19. 68 For Stavrakakis, m^' excessive assertion o f posltivity is contrasted to Laclau's excessive assertion ol discursive negativity— and, as expected, whereas my thought regresses, Laclau's progresses: in his latest work, he is already filling i n this lack, so that only I remain the "bad guy" 69 Stavrakakis, The Ijucanian Ijcft, p . 8. 70 Ibid., p . 8. 71 Ibid., p p . 9 - 1 0 . 72 To anyone minimally acquainted with Hegel, Stavrakakis's implicit equation of positivity with infinity (immortality) and of negativity with linitude (mortality) is truly breathtaking: if there is something to be learned from Hegel above a l l , it is that negativity (negation o f every finite positive/determinate being) is the only infinite power there is. 73 Stavrakakis, The iMcanian Ijcft, p . 12.

481

NOTES 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84

85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97

98 99 100 101 102 103

Deleuze, Difference and Repetition, p. 105. Williams, GiUe
7 The Crùtùi of Deteriniiiale Negation 1 For a critique of this notion from a traditional Marxist standpoint see Wolfgang Fritz Haug, "Das Ganze und das ganz Andere: Zur Kritik der reinen revolutionären Transzendenz," in Antworten auf Herbert Marcuse, edited by Jürgen Habermas, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp 1968, pp. 5 0 - 7 2 , and also Haug, Bestimmte Negation, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp 1973. 2 3 4 5 6 7

482

See Chapter 4. See Simon Critchley, Infinitely Demanding, London: Verso 2007. Ibid, p. 139. See Simon Critchley, "Di and Dodl Die," Theory S Event, vol. 1, issue 4, 1997. Critchley, Infinitely Demanding, p. 10. Ibid., p. 1 1 .

NOTES 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Ibid., p. 55. Ibid., pp. 6 0 - 1 . Ibid., p. 69. Ibid, p. 7 1 . Ibid., p. 74. Ibid., p. 82. Jacques Lacan, The Ethicj of PsychoaimlysL), I.x)ndon: Routledge 1992, p. 3 1 0 . Jacques I^acan, On Fcminme Sexuality (The Seminar, Book XX), New York: Norton

1998, p. 3. 16 C-TiichXey, Infinäely Denmnding, p. 10. 17 Ibid., p. 1. ' 18 This is w h y it would be interesting to imagine Antigone rewritten in the style oF Brecht's Jasager and Neinsager, from Creon's standpoint, presenting her as an obstinate girl not ready to listen to his reasonable arguments (a bloody civil war has just finished; if Polyneikos, the traitor who attacked the city, is properly buried, killing might explode again with hundreds of dead); or to imagine an alternate reality to Antigoiu'&, beginning in a city in ruins, devastated by fratricidal warfare, with people cursing a spoiled and obstinate girl of the court responsible for the destruc­ tion; we gradually learn that this girl is Antigone — she persuaded Creon to allow her to bury her brother properly, as a result of which w a r erupted once more . . . 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

37

38 39

Critchley, Infindeiy Demanding, pp. 1 1 5 - 1 8 . Ibid., p. 1 1 7 . Ibid., p. 122. Ibid., p. 129. Ibid., p. 129. Ibid., p. 1 5 1 . Ibid., p. 124. Ibid., pp. 5 - 6 . Ibid., p. 146. Ibid., pp. 1 0 0 - 1 Antonio Negri, Goodbye Muter SocialLim, trans. Peter Thomas, New York: Seven Stories Press, forthcoming, p. 137. Ibid., p. 185. Ibid., p. 180. Ibid., pp. 1 6 9 - 7 0 . Karl Marx, Grundrisse, Harmondsworth: Penguin 1973, p. 694. Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, Anti-Oedipus, New York; Viking Press 1977, p. 35. Negri, Goodbye Milter Socialism, p. 170. There is a rare, but interesting. Inversion of this rule: when ferocious anti-Hegelians attack "Hegel" (the textbook simplified figure of Hegel), they unknowingly assert as their own anti-Hegelian position a central feature of Hegel's thought —Deleuze is perhaps the key example here. Negri's version of the struggle between idealism and materialism is the struggle between the radically-democratic materialism of Machiavelli-Spinoza-Marx and the idealist supporters of capitalism from Descartes to Hegel. Ibid., p. 22. Ibid., p. 168. The same holds for Deleuze himself, their philosophical mentor. Fredric Jameson has drawn attention to the fact that the central reference of Anti-Oedipus, the underlying scheme of its larger historical framework, is "The Pre-Capitalist Modes of Production," the long fragment from the Grundrisse manuscripts in which we encounter Marx at his most Hegelian (its entire scheme ol global historical move­ ment relies on the Hegelian process from substance to subject).

40 Marx, GrundrLise, pp. 6 9 4 - 7 1 2 . 41 Negri, Goodbye Mister Socialism, p. 2 1 5 .

483

NOTES 42 Ibid., p. 178. The first thing to draw attention to here is the oscillation of "biopower" between the more general feature that, according to Foucault, characterizes mod­ ernity as such (where the goal of power is no longer prohibitive legal rule, but the productive regulation of life), to the very specific field opened up by biogenetic discoveries: the prospect of direct generation of (new) forms of life. 43 Ibid., p. 189. 44 Ibid., p. 164, translation modified. 46 Ibid., pp. 1 8 9 - 9 0 . 46 This duality also has the general form of the persistence of the gap between the "kingdom of necessity" and the "kingdom of freedom": in contrast to Negri who perceives the productive process of the general intellect as the direct enactment of freedom, Marx insists that freedom and necessity will remain separated, that work cannot turn into play. 4 7 Ibid., pp. 2 1 6 - 1 7 . 4 8 V . l . Lenin, "Our Revolution", in Collected Works, Moscow: Progress Pubhshers 1965, vol. 33, p. 4 7 9 . 49 The same Is true today of Chavez in Venezuela: of course, one can say that Venezuela is an anomaly, that he can afford his opposition to the Empire precisely because he gets billions of dollars from it (for the oil); however, through this anomaly, Venezuela can nonetheless mobilize not only social movements within its own borders, but also Introduce a new emancipatory dynamic in other, less "anomalous," Latin American countries. 50 Are recent trends in world cinema not an indicator of this gradual shift towards pluricentrlcity? Is the hegemony of Hollywood not gradually breaking down with global successes from Western Europe, from Latin America, even from China which, with films like The Hero, surpassed Hollywood in its home territory of grand historical spectacles and special-effects fights? 51 See Emmanuel Todd, After the Empire, London: Constable 2004. 52 Do the actual results of the U S policy in the Middle East (the ultimate result of the US occupation of Iraq being the predominance of pro-Iranian political forces there—the intervention basically delivered Iraq to Iranian influence) not support the notion that Bush Is "objectively" an Iranian agent? 63 Negri, Goodbye Muter SocialUm, p. 154. 64 Ibid. Another of Negri's weirdly Inadequate readings is his note on the postYugoslav war, where he fully endorses the disintegration of Yugoslavia as the result of a dark plot by Germany, Austria, and the Vatican, which sustained financially and ideologically murderous nationalisms; plus, as expected, he insists on the equally distributed guilt: "Milosevic wasn't worse than Tudjman and the Kosovars weren't better than the Serbs . . . Things got to the point of a cannibalistic struggle between factions." The inadequacy of this reading, as well as its pro-Serb bias, cannot but strike the eye: if the agents of the disintegration of Yugoslavia were the separatist Croats and Slovenes, then the Serbs are las guilty . . . Plus it is not clear how to account in these terms for the original moment of the crisis, the Kosovan problem and the rise to power of Milosevic. In this context, even I deserve a brief mention; "I remember Kusturica, the great director, an old friend of mine. W e had organized a discussion on the history of Yugoslavia. Also there was Professor Grmek, very much hnked to the rlght-winjg Croat regime. Well, sometimes Kusturica slapped him . . . And then there was Zizek, the Slovenian, who has now become more or less a Trotskyist, who didn't know what to say. Kusturica was accused of being Philo­ Milosevic, even if all his work has always been libertarian, right from his splendid beginnings." (pp. 5 0 - 5 1 ) . I must admit that this passage leaves me a little bit perplexed. What my designation as "more or less a Trotskylte" refers to lies beyond my comprehension. I well remember the occasion; a small circle were assembled in a private apartment.

484

NOTES When Kusturica arrived (very late, as befits a star), he stayed for a long time in front of the entrance to the apartment, while the organizer of the debate (a Serb from Vojvodina, neither Negri nor Kusturica), tried to calm him down and dissuade him from starting a physical fight (Kusturica had threatened to punch some of us on the nose). When Kusturica finally sat down at the table, he engaged in a long hysterically poetic ramble to which most of us indeed "didn't know what to say," since it contained no clear line of argumentation. As to Kusturica and Milosevic, throughout the war years, Kusturica traveled around on a Serb—Yugoslav diplomatic passport; his Underground was financed by Serbia, and so on and so forth, not to mention the fact that a person called Emir Kusturica literally no longer exists: since he recently underwent an Orthodox baptism and changed his name from the Muslim "Emir" to the resolutely Serb "Nemanja" (the name of some of Serbia's ancient saints and kings, among other things). Incidentally, when, a couple of years ago, a Montenegrin director put together a documentary consisting of numerous video-clips proving Kusturica's pro-Milosevic and Serb nationalist bias (with many hair-raising mo­ ments), the director took him to court, and signatures in defense were collected all over ex-Yugoslavia. 55 Negri, Goodbj/e Mister SocialLim, p. 245. 56 See Slavoj Zizek, Organs Without Bodds, New York: Routledge 2003. 5 7 I follow here Alain Badiou, on whose reading of Deleuze I rely extensively; see Badiou, Deleuze: The Clamour of Being, Minneapolis, MN: University of Alinnesota Press 2000. 58 .Manuel DeLanda, Intensive Science and Virtual Philosophy, New York: Continuum 2002, pp. 1 0 7 - 8 . 59 Ibid., p. 102. 60 Quoted from Roderick MacFarquhar and Michael Schoenhals, Mao's Last Resolution, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 2006, p. 168. 61 Quoted from ibid., pp. 1 6 8 - 9 . 62 See J o h n Holloway, Change the World Without Taking Power: The Meaning of Revolut'wn Today, London: Pluto 2002. 63 Ibid., p. 3 1 . 64 Aud, incidentally, did not the planned economy of state socialism pay a terrible price for privileging production at the expense of consumption, failing to provide con­ sumers with goods they needed and wanted? W h e n post-Marxist leftists speak of a "consumtariat" as the new form of proletariat (see Alexander Bard and J a n Soderqvist, Netrocracy: The Nets Power Elite and Life after Capitalum, London: Reuters 2002) what they indicate is the ultimate Identity of worker and consumer—it is for thii reason that, in capitalism, a worker has to be formally free. 65 Marx, GrundrLise, pp. 4 2 0 - 1 . 66 Kojin Karatani, Transcrit'ujue. On Kant and Marx, Cambridge, MA; MIT Press 2003, p. 20. 6 7 Ibid., p. 290. 68 Peter Sloterdijk, Zorn und Zeit, Frankfurt: Suhrkamp 2006, p. 55. 69 G.W.F. Hegel, Piienomenoloçy of Spirit, Oxford: Oxford University Press 1977, p. 332. 70 Ibid. 71 When, say, the reactionary counter-EnUghtenment argumentation Itself secretly relies on the ideological premises of the Enlightenment premises—as is the case from Robert Filmer's polemics against J o h n Locke up to today's televangelists whose very delivering of their message undermines the message—in their performance, they display the very features they criticize so ferociously in their liberal opponents, from narcissistic self-indulgence to commercialized mediatic spectacles. 72 Negri, Goodbye Mutter Socialism, pp. ) 3 9 ^ 0 . 73 Quoted from Massimo Salvador!, Karl Kautsky and the Socialist Revolution, London: Verso 1979, p. 237.

485

NOTES 74 Especially interesting is one of Trotsky's arguments on the need for a vanguard party: the self-organization in councils cannot replace the role of the party also for a politico-psychological reason — people "cannot live for years in an uninterrupted state of high tension and intense activity." See Ernest Mandel, Troldky lU Alternative, London: Verso 1995, p. 8 1 . 75 For a clear articulation of this stance, see Martin J a y , "No Power to the Soviets," in Cultural Semantic), Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press 1998. 76 Negri, Goodbye Muter Socialiom, p. 143. 7 7 The figure of the Leader in no way guarantees the consistency of the political program; quite the contrary. As fascism demonstrates, the Leader's charismatic presence can also function as a fetish whose function is to ohfuocate the incon­ sistency, the self-contradictoiy character, of the politics he stands for: the actual politics of fascism oscillated between concessions to different pressure groups, and this inconsistency and lack of a clear program was masked by the Leader's charisma. 78 One should, of course, refrain from U t o p i a n expectations: within the present global constellation, the probability is that the Chavez experiment will end in failure; nonetheless, as Beckett would have put it, this will be a "better failure." 79 See Danny Postel, Reading "Legitimation Crii'ui"in Tehran, Chicago: Prickly Paradigm Press 2006.

8 Alain Badiou, or, the Violence of Snblractlon 1 Alain Badiou, Logiques deo mondeo, Paris: Editions du Seuil 2006, p. 9. 2 Moustapha Safouan, "Why Are the Arabs Not Free: The Politics of Writing" (unpublished essay). 3 J o h n Gray, Straw Dogo, London: Granta 2003, p. 57. 4 Badiou, Logiqueo deo mondeo, pp. 9 - 1 7 . In one of his old songs. Wolf Biermann asked the question: "Is there life before death?" —an appropriate materialist reversal of the standard idealist question; "Is there life after death?" What bothers a materialist is: Am I really alive here and now, or am I just vegetating, as a mere human animal bent on survival? 5 One should then, against Badiou, insist on the strict equality between world and language: every world is sustained by language, and every "spoken" language sustains a world—this is what Heidegger was suggesting with his thesis on language as a "house of being." 6 Knowledge is also, in itself, accessible to all, no one Is a priori excluded—as Plato demonstrated, a slave can learn mathematics in the same way that a noble can — logical reasoning and demonstrations exclude authority, their subject of enunciation is by definition universal, it does not matter who is reasoning 7 One can also imagine a humanitarian version of such a pseudo-ethical form of blackmail: "OK, enough of this muddle about neo-colonialism, the responsibility of the West, and so on—do you want to do something to really help the milhons suffering in Africa, or do you just want to use them to score points in your ideologicopolitical struggle?" 8 Jacques-Alain Miller, "A Reading of the Seminar From an Other to the other," laeanian ink. 29 (2007), p. 40. 9 See Adrian Johnston, "The Quick and the Dead: Alain Badiou and the Split Speeds of Transformation " (unpublished essay). 10 It was none other than Hegel who, in his very "critique" of Jacobin "abstract freedom," perceived the necessity of this moment, dispelling the liberal dream of bypassing 1794, that is, of passing directly from 1789 to the established bourgeois quotidian reality. The dream denounced by Robespierre as the dream of those who

486

NOTES

11 12 ]3

14 15 16 17 18

want "revolution without a revolution" is the dream oF having 1789 without 1793, oF having one's cake and eating it . . . Badiou, Logiques des monies, p. 5 3 1 . Ibid., p. 75. The irony is thus that the title of Badiou's first great book to which Logiques des mondes is part two. Being and Event, should be read in the same way as Freud's The Ego and the Id: as an implicit reference to the missing third term, World, or, in Freud's case. Superego. Alain Badiou, "L'entretien de Bruxelles," Z^j Temps Modernes, 526 (1990), p. 6. Alberto Toscano, "From the State to the World? Badiou and Anti-Capitalism," Communication S Cognition, vol. 3 6 (2003), pp. 1 - 2 . A conference paper from 2002 translated by Bruno Bosteels. Badiou, Logiques des mondes, pp. 5 4 3 ^ 4 . When Badiou talks about "eternal truths," transhistorical truths whose universality cuts across specific historical worlds, horizons of sense, this universality is not a mythical universality of a Jungian archetype (even if his description of the Idea of the horse from prehistoric cave paintings to Picasso sometimes comes dangerously close to it), but the sense-less universality of the Real, or what Lacan calls the "matheme."

19 Badiou, Logicjues des mondes, p. 547. 20 With the temptation to go a step even further and say that it is better to have a "bad" state, because, in this way, the lines of demarcation are clearly drawn —the same logic that pushed German Communists in 1933 to claim that Hitler was better than Weimar democracy—with Hitler, we know where we stand, the fight is clear-cut. . . 21 This move is part of the curious but symptomatic phenomenon of "belated antiCommunism" which developed after 2 0 0 0 in most of the Eastern European postCommunist countries (Lithuania, Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovenia . . .): the attempt to directly criminalize Communism, to put it on the same level as fascism and Nazism (prohibiting the public display of its symbols, including the Red Star). It is easy to demonstrate that this "equality" is a fake, namely, that, implicitly. Communism is elevated into the primary Crime, with fascism reduced to a kind of political copycat-murder, a reaction to and imitation of Communism. 22 Wendy Brown, Slates of Injury, Princeton, N J : Princeton University Press 1995, p. 14. 23 Ibid., p. 60. 24 Ibid., p. 6 1 . 25 I am grateful to Saroi Giri (New Delhi), who has developed in detail this link between the assertion of socio-political contingency and the elevation of capitalism into a natural (ized) necessity. 26 Toni Negri, Goodbye Muter Socialism, Paris: Editions du Seuil 2006, p. 125. 27 Filippo Del Lucchese and Jason Smith, " 'We Need a Popular Discipline': Con­ temporary Politics and the Crisis ol the Negative, " interview with Alain Badiou, Los Angeles, J u l y 2, 2007. 28 See Peter Hallward, Badiou: A Subject to Truth, Minneapolis, MN: iVlinnesota University Press 2003. 29 This limitation of democracy has nothing to do with the standard worry of the liberal exporters of democracy: what if the result is the victory of those who oppose democracy, and thus its self-cancellation? "This is a terrible truth that we have to face; the only thing that currently stands between us and the rolling ocean of Muslim unreason is a wall of tyranny and human rights abuses that we have helped to erect" (Sam Harris, The End of Faith, New York: Norton 2005, p . l 3 2 ) . Here, then, is Harris's motto: "when y o u r enemy has no scruples, your own scruples become another weapon in his hand" (ibid., p. 202). And, from here, predictably, he proceeds to justify torture . . . While this line of reasoning may appear convincing, it is not

487

NOTES pursued to the end; it remains stuck in the terms of the tiresome liberal debate: "Are the Muslim masses mature enough (culturally fit) for democracy, or should we support enlightened despotism amongst their rulers?" Both terms of the underlying choice (either w e impose our democracy on them or w e exploit their backwardness) are false. The true question is: what if the "mill of tyranny and human righto abiucj that we have helped to erect" if precioely what oiiotaino and gencrateo the "rollitig ocean of Mtidlim unreaoon "? 30 Or: "dictatorship" in a free debate is the element of the "final statements" whose evocation is considered conclusive. Today, in postmodern deconstructionism, it is the evocation of the nomadic versus the fixed identity, of change versus stasis, of the multitude versus the One, etc.—thii is the moment of dictatorship. 31 Bulent Somay, personal letter, J a n u a r y 28, 2007. I am all the more content to quote this passage since Somay's letter is deeply critical of me. 32 Quoted in Simon Schama, Ciiizcno, New York; Viking Penguin 1989, pp. 7 0 6 - 7 . 33 Maximilien Robespierre, Virtue and Terror, Ixindon: Verso 2 0 0 7 p. 42. 34 The only moment when the "people exists ' is during an election, which is precisely the moment of the disintegration of the entire social structure —in elections, the "people" is reduced to a mechanical collection of individuals. 35 Jacques-Alain Miller, Le Neveu de Lacan, Paris: Verdier 2003, p. 270. 36 One can, of course, argue that direct "mob rule" is inherently unstable and that it turns necessarily into its opposite, a tyranny over the mob Itself; however, this shift in no w a y changes the fact that, precisely, we are dealing with a shift, a radical inversion. 3 7 See Peter Hallward, "Staging \Lq\is\ity," New Left Review, II, 3 7 (January-February 2006).

9 Unbehagen in der Natur 1 G.A. Cohen, If You're an Egalitarian, How Come You're So Rich?, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 2 0 0 1 . 2 David Rennie, "How Soviet Sub officer Saved World from Nuclear Conflict, " i^rtZ/y Telegraph, October 14, 2002. 3 See the excellent report by Mike Davis, "Planet of Slums. Urban Revolution and the Informal Proletariat," New Left Review, II, 26 (March-April 2004). 4 A r e then slum-dwellers not to be classified as those whom Marx, with barely concealed contempt, dismissed as the "lumpenproletariat," the degenerate "refuse" of all classes which, when politicized, as a rule serves as the support of proto-f ascist and fascist regimes (in Marx's case, of Napoleon III)? A closer analysis should focus on the changed structural role of these "lumpen" elements in the conditions of global capitalism (especially with large-scale migration). 5 The precise Marxian definition of the proletarian position is: substanceless sub­ jectivity which emerges when a certain structural short-circuit occurs — not only do producers exchange their products on the market, but there are producers who are forced to sell on the market not the product of their labor, but directly their laborpower as such. It is here, through this redoubled/reflected alienation, that the surplus-object emerges: surplus-value is literally correlative to the emptied subject, it is the objectai counterpart of S. This redoubled alienation means not only that "social relations appear as relations between things," as in every market economy, but that the very core of subjectivity itself is posited as equivalent to a thing. One should be attentive here to the paradox of universalization: the market economy can only become universal when labor-power itself is also sold on the market as a commodity, that is, there can be no universal market economy with the majority of producers selling their own products.

488

NOTES 6 The semiotic that sustains these qualifications obeys a very precise logic and deserves an analysis of its own: one cannot just mix the terms and propose, say, an alliance of "workers, patriotic farmers, honest petty bourgeoisie, and poor intellectuals." Each time, the line of separation is clear: only/löür farmers, not the rich who belong to or form pacts with the ruling class; only the patriotic petty bourgeoisie, not those bourgeois who serve capitalist imperialism; only honest intellectuals, not those who have sold themselves to the ruling class and legitimize its domination. Should w e then say that what we need today is an alliance between the Excluded, poor ecologists, patriotic intellectual workers, and honest biogeneticists? 7 The question is, how to distinguish this commons from the pre-modern commons of collective property? 8 Immanuel Kant, "What Is Enlightenment?," in Isaac Kramnick, ed.. The Portante Enlightenment Reader, New York: Penguin 1995, p. 5. 9 See "Murdoch: I'm proud to be green. News Corp boss orders his entire empire to convert and become a worldwide enthusiast for the environment," Independent on Sunday, M a y 13, 2007, p. 3. 10 Aeschylus, Eumenideo, Ian Johnston's translation (2003), available online at www.mala.bc.ca/~Johnstoi/aeschylus/aeschylus_eumenides.htm. 11 It is strange that Simon Critchley, who quotes these lines in his Infinitely Demanding (London: Verso 2007), reads them as prefiguring the politics of fear, although they fit much better the main motif of his book, the pressure of the "infinitely demanding" superego. 12 Martin Heidegger, Gesamtausgabe, vol. 29/30, Die Grundbegriffe der Metaphysik. Welt— Endlichkeit—Einsamked, Frankfurt: Klostermann 2004, p. 255. 13 Heidegger, Gesamtausgahe, vol. 4 5 , Grundprobleme der Philosophie, Frankfurt. Kloster­ mann 1984, p. 197. 14 G.W.F. Hegel, Phenomenology of Spirit, Oxford: Oxford University Press 1977, p. 189. 15 A y n Rand, The Fountainhead, New York: Signet 1992, p. 677. ' 16 There are many further variants of Che Guevara's alleged "last words " — here are some of them: "I know you've come to kill me. Shoot, you are only going to kill a man." / "Shoot, coward, you are only going to kill a man." / "Know this now, you are killing a man." / "I knew you were going to shoot me; I should never have been taken alive." / "Tell Fidel that this failure does not mean the end of the revolution, that it will triumph elsewhere. Tell Aleida to forget this, remarry and be happy, and keep the children studying. Ask the soldiers to aim well." / "Don't shoot, I am Che Guevara and I am worth more to you alive than dead." 17 Samuel Beckett, Trilogy, London: Calder 2003, p. 4 1 8 . 18 Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, The Communist Manifesto, Harmondsworth; Pen­ guin 1985, pp. 8 3 - 4 . 19 This title is usually translated as "Civilization and Its Discontents," thus missing the opportunity to bring Into play the opposition of culture and civilization; the discontent is in culture, its violent break with nature, while civilization can be conceived as precisely the secondary attempt to patch things up, to "civilize " the cut, to reintroduce the lost balance and an appearance of harmony. 20 Quoted from Thorsten Jantschek, "Ein ausgezehrter Hase," Die Zed, J u l y 5, 2 0 0 1 , Feuilleton, p. 26. 21 Similarly, while scientists in the CERN particle collider are preparing the conditions to recreate the Big Bang explosion, some skeptics are warning about the possibihty that the experiment will succeed all too well, effectively setting in motion a new Big Bang which wUI wipe out the world we know. 22 Doyne Farmer and Aletta Belin, "Artificial Life; The Coming Evolution," in C.G. Langten, C. Taylor, J . D . Farmer, and S. Rasmussen, eds. Artificial Life, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley 1992, p. 8 1 5 .

489

NOTES 23 In the last decade, this topic has often been exploited in sci-fi thrillers —see, among others, Michael Crichton's Prey (New York: Avon Books 2002). 24 Jacques-Alain Miller, "Religion, Psychoanalysis," laeanian ink, 23 (2004), pp. 1 8 - 1 9 . 25 Throughout modernity, the Church presented itself as the guardian against the danger of knowing-too-much. When, today, it presents itself as a beacon of the respect for freedom and human dignity, it is advisable to carry out a simple mental experiment. Till the early 1960s, the Church maintained the (in)famous Index of works whose reading was prohibited to (ordinary) Catholics; one can only imagine how the artistic and intellectual history of modern Europe would look if we erased from it all works that, at one time or another, found themselves on this Index —a modern Europe without Descartes, Spinoza, l^ibniz, Hume, Kant, Hegel, Marx, Nietzsche, Sartre, not to mention a large majority of modern literary classics. 26 J e a n Grondin, Harui-Georq Gadamer, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press 2003, p. 329. 2 7 I take this expression from Alain Badiou. 28 See Stephen Fry, Âlakinq History, New York: Arrow Books 2005. 29 See the report "Life 2.0" in Newsweek, J u n e 4, 2007, pp. 37--43. 30 Ibid., p. 4 1 . 31 In "Environmentalism as a Religion," a speech given to the Commonwealth Club of California, Michael Crichton described the similarities between the structure of various religious views (particularly Judeo-Christian dogma) and the beliefs of many modern urban atheists who he asserts have romantic ideas about Nature and our past, who he thinks believe in the garden of Eden, original sin, and Judgment Day. It is the tendency of today's environmentalists to cling stubbornly to elements of their faith In spite of scientific evidence to the contrary (Crichton cites the misconceptions about DDT, the dangers of passive smoking, and global warming as examples). Dubious as Crichton is —his bestsellers are one of the perfect embodi­ ments of late capitalism's predominant ideology —he has a point here. 32 Another example: in order to counteract the policy of the ruthless destruction of forests, ecologists often succeeded in imposing strict measures of fire suppression — with the unexpected result that the virgin forests were altered even more irrevocably (since occasional fires played a key role in their self-reproduction). Or, at a more anecdotal level, there is the story about a valley in the U K which was heavily polluted by coal smoke. Once the coal-burning stopped, the immediate results were cata­ strophic: the birds and other organisms were already so used to coal pollution that they could not survive in new conditions, so they left, disturbing the fragile ecological balance in the valley . . . And what about animals like pigs reared on Industrial farms, who are not able to survive on their own even for a couple of days (they are half blind, cannot stand on their own legs . . .)? 33 Pall Skulason, Reflectiaiu at the Edge of Askja, Reykjavik: The University of Iceland Press 2005, p. 2 1 . 34 Gilles Deleuze, Cinema 1: The Mooement-Image, Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press 1986, p. 122. 35 Skulason, Reflections at the Edge of A,ikja, p. 1 1 . 36 Ibid., p. 19. 3 7 Ibid., pp. 3 1 - 3 . 38 See Timothy Morton's outstanding Ecology Without Nature, Cambridge, MA: Har­ vard University Press 2007. 39 Ibid., p. 35. 4 0 J o h n Gray, Straw Dogs, London: Granta 2003 p. 19. 41 Friedrich Nietzsche, On the Genealogy of Moral), Oxford: Oxford University Press 1998, p. 97. 42 See Louis Diimont, Homo Aegualii, Paris: Gallimard 1977, and Ktsaii sur l'individua­ lisme, Paris; Editions du Seuil 1983.

490

NOTES 45 See Daniel Dennett, Freedom Ei'obej, Harmondsworth: Penguin 2003. 44 Nicholas Fearn, Philojophy. The Latest Answers to the Oldest Qtustwiu, Lx)ndon: Atlantic Books 2005, p. 24. 4 5 Bill McKibben, Enough. Staying Human in an Engineered Age, New York: Henry Holt 2004, p. 127. 4 6 Mark Wrathall, How to Read Heidegger, London: Granta 2006, p. 102. 4 7 Giorgio Agamben refuses to enter the US: he does not want his fingerprints taken — for him, fingerprinting makes "the most private and Incommunicable aspect of subjectivily" part of the system of state control. But, one is entitled to ask, why is the accidental shape of the ridges on the tip of my fingers "the most private and incommunicable aspect of subjectivity"? 48 Wrathall, How to Read Heidegger, p. 1 1 7 . 49 See Hubert L. Dreyfus, "Highway Bridges and Feasts," available online at http:// www.focusing.org/apm_papers/dreyfus.html. 50 Jacques-Alain Miller, "The Desire of Lacan," m lacanian ink, 14, (1999), p. 19. 51 Jean-Pierre Dupuy, Retour de Tchernobyl, Paris: Éditions du Seuil 2006. 52 Of course, the experience of Communist countries demonstrates that the central role of the state is no guarantee of better treatment of the interests of the "commons": ecological catastrophies were much worse in Communist countries. The opposition between state and commons regains all its significance here. 63 See Myriam Bienen.stock, "Qu'est-ce que 'l'esprit objectif selon Hegel?," in Ohvier Tinland, ed., Ijcctureà de Hegel, Paris: Livre de Poche 2005. 54 Dupuy, Retour de Tchernobyl, p. 147. 55 Gray, Straw Dogs, p. 1 1 0 . 56 See Bernard Wi]\iia.ms, Aloral Luck, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1 9 8 1 . 67 See Jean-Pierre Dupuy, Pour un calastrophLime éclairé, Paris: Éditions du Seuil 2002, pp. 1 2 4 - 6 . 58 Ibid. 59 However, this image should nonetheless be supplemented by its apparent opposite. Let us return to the last decade of the Cold War: the radical anti-Communists were nonetheless wrong when they dismissed human rights and other agreements between the West and the East (like the Helsinki Declaration on human rights, etc.) as a deception by the Communists who in reality conceded nothing. Although they, of course, perceived it as a deception, the dissident movement in the Com­ munist countries used the Helsinki Declaration, which was adopted as a legally binding document, as a tool for a vast pro-democratic mobilization. As is often the case, the ruling Communists fatefully underestimated the power of appearances: they got caught up in the game of what they perceived as a mere appearance. 60 However, the temptation we must resist unconditionally here is to perceive ecolo­ gical catastrophes themselves as a kind of "divine violence" of nature, the justice/ vengeance of nature—such a conclusion would be an unacceptable obscurantist projection of meaning onto nature.

491

Index

"absoiute tJemocracy"

356—7, 365

377-8;

responses to the Event

386;

6 m e as devoid o f

"absolute p o w e r " (Hegel) 5 9 7

wordliness 3 9 7 - 8 ; true humanity 4 5 3 ; true ideas 4; universal

tbe act 3 0 4 - 5 , 3 0 5 - 6 , 3 0 7 . 3 0 9 - 1 0 . 3 1 6 - 1 8 ; non-voting 4 1 0 ;

ethics 1 6

retroactive creation of conditions 3 1 1 - 1 2 , 5 1 3 . 5 1 5

Balâzs. Bêla 1 3 7

the actual and the virtual HO. M l , 3 1 2 . 3 1 4 - 1 5 , 3 6 5 - 6 . 3 7 4

Balibar. Etienne 4 1 5

A d o r n o , Theoiinr 83, 9 7 , 9 8 . 1 2 7 . 1 6 6 , 3 3 8 ; critique of Lukacs

Balladur, Edouard 3 1 6

188; dialectic of Enlightenment 4 6 0 ; letter to Benjajnin 2 3 5 - 6 :

Baltic countries 2 7 5

Äfifiima Mûnilia 18

Bardach. J a m e s :

Aeschylus:

Eumenu>t,i

430-1

Man

aesthetic sublimation (Lacan) 3 4 1

base (Marxism) 1 9 - 2 0

Afghanistan 6 9

Bataille, Georges 3 7 3

Agambcn. Giorgio 4 9 . 9 7 . 1 6 5 , 3 3 8 , 3 6 6

Beattv, W a r r e n 5 8 , 71

Algeria 3 7 9

the Beautiful 3 4 1 . 3 4 5

Alice in Wonàerlam) 3 1 5 ,

IJ

Wolf to Aî^n

38-9

Bardeby 3 5 3 . 4 0 9

36&-9

alien j « cyborg

Becker, Ulrich 6 2 Beckett, Samuel 7, 3 6 1 ;

alienation 1 8 1 . 3 7 7 , 3 7 8

The Unnameahle

189, 4 3 3 :

Womtward Ho

210

Althusser, Louis 1 1 3 - 1 4 , 1 6 6 , 3 4 4 , 3 8 1 altruism 3 4 5 - 6

Becoming: Deleuze's notion of revolutionary event 1 0 9 - 1 0 , 3 6 7 - 8 ; v e r s u s Being 3 6 4 - 5 , 3 6 6

Ambler. Eric 4 6 4 n

bees: disease threatening survival of 4 5 7

Anaximander 1 4 4 , 1 4 8

Beethoven, Ludwig van 1 2 . 2 3 8 : "Ode to J o y " from Ninth

animals: Mao's cosmic perspective 1 8 6 , 1 8 7 ; slaughtered for our

Symphony 2 7 0 ^ Being: Evil and ontological essence 1 4 7 ; Heidegger's notion of

consumption 15 anti-capitalism 1 8 3 - ^ . 1 8 4 , 4 0 5 - 4 ami-democracy: W e n d y Brown's thesis 1 0 2 - 7

historical destiny 1 2 8 , 1 4 1 ; "lightness of being" 3 7 0 - 1 ; multiplicities (Badiou) 3 8 3 , 4 4 3 ; v e r s u s Becoming 3 6 4 - 5 , 3 6 6

anti-globalization movement 1 8 1 - 2 , 1 8 4 . 3 4 7

Being-World-Event (Badiou) 3 9 6 - 9

anti-Semitism: construction of "us" and "them" 277; figure of

Beistegui, ^-Uguel de 1 2 0 , 1 2 4

the J e w in 5, 8 7 . 3 1 8 ; logic of 1 7 6 ; Mel Gibson 37, 3 8

Antiifone (Sophocles) 1 3 1 , AnliJacûhin Review 76

160-1, 304-5, 346

anxiely 36, 3 2 7

Belarus 181 Belgian Congo 4 5 8 behef: capitalism's reliance on 3 0 3 ; fetishism 3 0 0 ; loss of 3 1 : true victory of science o v e r ] 8 9

apartheid: new forms 4 2 3 - 4

Bell, Daniel 2

Arendt, Hannah 3 7 6 , 3 7 9 ; and Heidegger 1 2 1 - 3 . 1 4 4 - 5

Benjamin. W a l t e r 1 3 9 . 4 4 2 : "divine \'iolence" 1 5 1 , 1 6 1 , 1 6 2 . 4 1 5 ;

Armngedthn

(film) 6 1

aj-iificial intelligence 4 5 - 6 , 7 9 , 4 3 6 - 7

letter from A d o r n o to 2 3 5 - 6 ; notion of natural history 4 5 1 ; On

Language in General 17 Ingmar A6An

"Asiatic" threat 177, 178, 2 6 1

Bergman,

Asimov. Isaac 433—4

Bergson, Henri 3 2 2 - 3

atom bombs: Mao's dismissal of threat 1 6 9 , 187

Beria, Lavrenti Pavlovich 2 2 2 - 3 , 2 2 6 - 7

atonv/atonal w o r l d s 3 0 . 36, 4 0

Berlin 1 5 2 , 4 2 6

Auschwitz 97, 1 6 6 . 3 4 1 - 2

Berlin Wall, fall 4 2 3

Australia 3 4 7

Herman, Paul 1 3 6

authority 1; sources 3 8 4 - 5 ; transcendental source in traditional societies 23, jee nUo paternal aulhoritj-autonomy: and Kafka's desire for paternal authority 8 7 - 8 , 9 0 - 1 ; Kantian ethics 2 2 5 - 6 , 4 2 3

Bernstein, E
iiezbiit Meaàow

(film) 2 5 3 , 2 5 3 ^

big Other: discourse of the unconscious 2 2 5 ; effect of non-voting on 4 1 0 ; electoral rules of democracy 2 6 4 ; fear of losing, o r terror o f nothingness 434; Lacanian 5 4 , 8 9 , 1 0 0 , 1 1 5 , I i 3 - l 4 ,

Babel, Isaac 4 7 7 n

2 2 4 - 5 . 2 4 2 . 3 1 1 . 4 1 8 : lack of 4 4 2 , 4 5 3 ; Muslim terrorists'

Badiou, Alain: analysis of Maoist Cultural Revolution 194, 1 9 6 -

perception of 1 5 2 ; need for small O t h e r to replace 3 5 - 6 ; the

7, 3 9 9 - ^ 0 3 ; atonal w o r l d s 30; Being-World-Event 3 9 6 - 9 ; body of a truth procedure 3 9 5 - 6 ; courage 1 5 2 ; Critchley "s

•people' 2 2 7 - 8 , 266; Rorty's philosophy 3 4 - 5 ; Stalinism's reliance on 2 2 4 , 2 2 6 - 7 ; as symbolic institution 8 6 - 7

references to 3 4 0 , .343, 3 4 8 : definition of struggle for

Billy Bathgate

emancipation 1 8 3 ^ ; democratic materialism and materialist

biocapitalism 3 5 7

dialectics 1 6 0 . 3 8 1 , 3 8 3 - 4 , 3 8 5 ; dismissal ofgraduaJist politics

biocosmism

3 8 9 - 9 0 ; dismissal of repetition 3 9 4 - 5 , 3 9 6 : "eternal Idea"/

biogenetics 1 1 7 ; China's ruthless tendencies and question of

(film) 322, 3 2 5 , 5 2 4

1 8 6 - 7 ; and egalitarian is m 2 1 1 - 1 2

polirics of revolutionary justice 1 5 7 , 1 6 5 , 5 4 8 , 4 0 1 . 4 6 1 ; the

1 9 1 ; and end of nature 4 3 5 - 6 , 4 4 0 - 1 , 4 4 7 - 8 , 4 4 8 - 9 ; problem

Event 1 1 4 . 1 1 6 , 1 2 2 . 1 2 8 . 1 9 4 . 3 8 6 - 7 , 3 9 3 , 3 9 4 - 6 , 4 1 8 - 1 9 ,

of legal and ethical issues 4 2 2 . 4 3 0 ; threat of intervention

460; fall of Communist regimes 7; fidelity to the One/Event 5,

causing catastrophe 4 2 1 , 4 2 5 ; wealth production b y 4 2 8

460; Finkelhraut's view 4; "humanism or terror" 154; ideas on

biomechanics 2 1 2

the act 5 0 6 . 3 0 9 ; multiplicity of Being 3 8 3 . 4 4 3 ; "passion of the

biomorality 4 5 . 4 6

Real" 1 5 8 : "point' of decision 3 8 5 - 6 , 3 9 3 ; politics of

biopohtics 2 1 2 . .W>-7. 3 6 8

subtraction 4 0 6 , 4 0 7 - 9 ; popular discipline 70; representation

The RLick Book of CommunL^m 5^

493

INDEX Blackburn. Robin 3 3 0

ELuh Kimntr

(r,!m> 77, 1 6 6

Blair. Tony 2. 1 8 9 - 9 0 bodies; mass clinreography/pertormances 138; New Age obsession with 139; working-class itJeologv of training 1 3 8 - 9 Böhme, J a k o b M 5 Dohr. Nils 3 0 0 Bolivia 1 0 8 Bolshevik movement: cadre 2 2 9 - 5 0 ; humor in d e l a t e s 233; relationship with medicine and illness 2 2 7 - 9 ; terror 2 3 1 - 2 ; victory in context of October Revolution 3 1 6 bondage" (Hegel) 4 3 1 - 2 Boothby. Richard 3 2 9

B.>nü (Rim) 1 8 - 1 9 Borges. J o r g e Luis 1 8 0 , 3 1 1 - 1 2 , 3 1 3 Bosnians: Top LiAa Naàrmli'la 5 2 9 - 3 0 Bourdieu. Pierre 2 5 , 1 7 8 bourgeois culture: A r e n d t s stance against 1 2 1 - 2 . 1 2 2 - 3 ; Hitler's failure to disturb 152; problems for today's critique 1 2 3 Bradley, A . C . 2 6 Branagh, Kenneth 7 7 Brazil 3 3 0 RrcL^U (film) 5 6 Break Up (lilm) 1 8 Brecht. Bertolt 62, H 7 , 1 9 7 - 8 . 2 0 9 , 483n; The Mea.nir€.i 1Tl-'5: remark about Moscow show trials 8 8 - 9 ; Stalinism 1 0 7 ; Tbf Threepenny opera 9 4 Breen, J o s e p h 2 4 3 Brezhnev, Leonid Ilyich 2ô2 Brown. Dan 6 6 Brown, J o h n 1 7 2 , 1 7 2 - 3 Brown. W e n d y 1 0 2 - 7 , 4 0 4 - 5 Browning, Robert 3 1 1 Buchanan, Ian 2 3 1 Buddhism 32, 4 5 . 3 3 2 , 4 6 4 n . aUo J a p a n e s e Zen Buddhism Bukharin. Nikolai Ivanovich 2 3 5 - 6 . 4 6 8 n bullshit 1 - 2 bureaucracy 2 5 Burke. Fxlmund 7 5 . 7 6 , 7 8 . 9 9 Bush. George W . 2 6 7 , 3 1 6 , 3 6 2 , 3 6 3 Caesar, J u l i u s 1 8 9 . 1 9 0 , 5 1 5 Cameron. J a m e s (film director) 5 7 capitalism: Badiou's view as naturalized "background" 4 0 3 , 4 0 5 ; China 1 9 0 - 1 . 1 9 4 , 1 9 7 - 8 . 2 0 4 , 2 1 0 ; "concrete universality'" 1 8 1 ; "deterritorializing" effect 5, 3 5 2 . 5 9 7 - 8 ; dialectic of fetishism 3 0 0 - 2 ; disappearance of v e r y term 1 8 1 , 3 3 7 ; dynamics 2, 1 0 5 , 5 0 1 , 3 5 4 , 40.5-6. 4 5 5 ; and hegemony of science in modernit;,- 3 3 ; indestructability 3 3 9 , 5 4 8 ; informational society 354; loss of productive function 3 5 0 - 1 ; Marxism's premise of 1 7 9 , 1 9 8 , .301. 5 0 2 ; Marx's description 5 5 1 - 2 , 3 5 4 - 6 , 4 5 4 - 5 ; multiple dislocations 3 4 8 - 9 ; nattiraiization of 4 0 4 - 5 , 4 2 1 : N a z i s m s failure to disturb 1 5 1 ; Negri's analysis 5 5 0 - 1 , 3 5 2 - 9 , 3 6 0 , 3 6 2 ; notion of economic crisis 3 8 9 : production of waste 4 5 0 - 1 ; psychoanalysis in context of 24; reappropriation of revolutionary dynamics 2 0 4 ; self-negating gestures 375—4; spectrality 301—2; use of sweatshops on behalf of "cognitive w o r k " 3 5 9 . . w aUo anticapitalism; global capitalism "capitahst reahsm": family narratives 5 2 - 6 Carnegie, A n d r e w 373—4 carnival/carnivalcsque; in Elsenstein's films 2 5 3 , 254; explosions of popular will 4 1 9 ; M a o as Lord of Misrule 2 5 2 ; in Shostakovich 2 4 6 : in Stalinist terror 2 4 8 - 9 , 2 5 2 . 2 5 4 , 2 5 9 ; totalitarianism .342

Chirac, J a c q u e s 2 6 6 Christ: elevated as fetish 3 0 0 ; God's humanity in 17; incarnation 1 3 3 , 3 1 4 - 1 6 ; Paul's betrayal of 1 7 6 ; as source of our freedom 432. 453 TakenChristianity: abstract in dividual! t\' 1 3 1 ; anti-modern values in Poland 4 1 ; anti-wisdom 9 9 ; fundamentalism 5 8 . 4 2 , 2 7 5 , 3 5 2 ; .lohn Brown's radical abolitionism 1 7 3 ; reinterpreted in The Da VincL Ci>êt 6 6 Christie, Agatha 5 0 3 - ^ Churchill. Winston 1 0 6 CIA (O^ntral Intelligence Agency) 7 0 , 1 1 6 . 1 1 6 - 1 7 cinema: Deleuze 3 6 6 , 3 6 7 ; Eisenstein's shift away from modernism 2 1 1 , éce aLo 1 loliywood films; under titl&s of films and directors civil disobedience: Gandhi 5 7 2 ci\'il public actum .384-6 civil society: China's official negative view 2 0 0 ; Hegel's ideas 1 2 9 - 5 1 ; Kant's idea of public space 1 9 9 civility 1 8 - 2 2 , 2 6 class: in Communism 4 0 6 - 7 ; neglected in multicultural politics 405; slum-dwellers as counter lo em erging" symbolic classO 425-6 class struggle 1 6 0 , 2 9 4 - 5 , 524; Laclau's perception 277; Marxist economic 2 9 1 - 2 ; in philosophy 3 8 1 - 2 ; politics of the economy 293: and racist populism 2 6 7 ; reformulated In Mao's model 176, 179; versus populism 2 8 5 - 9 5 Clinton, Bill 2 6 4 , 2 6 6 Cobbett, William 2 7 9 cognitive science: approach to happiness 4 5 cognitive work 3 5 0 - 1 . 5 5 2 , 5 5 8 , 3 5 9 Cohen, Gerald A. 4 2 0 , 4 2 8 Cold W a r 1 4 , 4 6 0 , 4 9 1 n Coleridge. Samuel Taylor 74 collective will; diflerenl revolutionary enthusiasms 1 1 5 - 1 6 : Foucault's engagement In Iranian i^cvolution 1 10—1 1, 1 1 2 Commentary (journal) 2 0 6 - 7 commodity fetishism 2 0 3 , 2 9 5 - 6 . 2 9 9 - 3 0 0 , 3 0 2 . dee aUo fetish/ fetishism common sense; limits in postmodern e r a 1, 2; versus scientifu: mind 4 4 5 . 4 5 6 - 6 the commons 4 2 8 - 9 communication: the commons 4 2 9

Castoriadis, Cornelius 4 6 0 - 1 Castro, Fidel 2 1 5 , 2 1 6 - 1 9 calaslrophe: Dupuy's proposai for confronting -460; our perception of 4 5 4 - 7 ; threat of suhjeclive intervention causing 42Î cauye/causaliry: I..««can's thesis 1, 288—9 Causes: in postmodern e r a 1, aiio lost Causes

Communism: Badiou 4 0 3 . 4 0 6 - 7 ; comparison with fascism/ Nazism 2 6 0 , 2 6 i - 2 , 2 6 3 ; e m a n c i p a t o r y potential 6 4 - 5 , 1 2 2 ; fall of regimes 7. 1 1 6 - 1 7 , 1 5 7 . 1 7 6 . ^ 6 0 - 1 ; formula for proletarian position 4 2 8 : and Heidegger's political choice of Nazism 1 1 8 ; Mao's dialectical t h o u g h t 1 8 5 - 6 ; responsibility allocated for crimes of -458; resuscitation via notion of the commons 4 2 9 : self-destructive dynamic of S o v i e t nomenklatura 2 4 9 - 5 1 ; in Slovenia 4 1 0 ; Stalinist regime's nominal commitment to 2 5 2 ; "synthesis" with capitalism In China 1 9 0 - 1 , 2 1 0 ; Western leftists during Cold W a r 14

C^veil. Stanley 3 8 7 CERN 489n Chamberlain, T^sley 231 Chandler. Raymond 4 4 9

Comniunijt Alanifejta 4 5 4 - 5 , 4 5 8 Communist Youth U a g u e ( K S M ) , Czech RepubHc 4 0 4 computers: pseudo-concretencss of icons 280; virtual exchanges 34, jee aho cyberspace; internet

CeuKihUinca

494

Chang. G o r d o n 2 0 6 - 7 of c talism 3 7 4 charity; donations by major figur Chartism 2 7 9 Chavez, Hugo 3 2 5 , 4 7 9 n , 4 8 4 n ; "dictatorship of the proletariat" 579: Negri's evaluation 5 6 5 : poiitici^allon of slum-dwellers 4 2 7 ; populist regime 2 6 5 Cheney, Dick 4 8 - 9 Chernobyl accident 4 6 4 - 5 Chesterton, G-K. 3 1 , 4 4 ; conversion to Christianity 140; ironic proposal Ibr philosopher-policemen 9 8 ; The Alan Who If-(i.. Thursday 192; The Napoleon of Nothing Hdl \ 7; "The Sign of the Broken S w o r d " 9 5 - 7 . 1 3 6 ' Chiaureh. Mikhail 5 9 China: campaign to resuscitate Marxism 1 9 8 - 9 , 2 0 U - 1 , 2 0 4 ; deaths from starvation and slavciy caused by M a o 1 8 7 ; development of capitalism 1 9 0 - 1 . 1 9 4 , 1 9 7 - 8 . 2 0 4 . 2 1 0 , .%"2, 563; explosive growth of slums in mega-cities 4 2 4 ; maintaining of traditional ideologies 1 9 8 ; as metaphysically Identical to America 2 7 4 : state secrecy 2 0 1 ; translation of ending of Ciuahlnnca in P R C 8; under J a p a n e s e occupation 183, ,)ee aUo Maoist Cultural Revolution

(Him) 8, 6 3 . 2 4 0 - 2

INDEX concentrarioii camps 1 6 5 - 6 . 2 4 7 - 8 , 2 6 1 , ,iee UIM A u s c W i r z ;

Dershowitz. Alan 4 7 Descartes, René 4 2 3

Kolyma "concrète universality" (Hegel) 1 8 0 - 1 , 4 1 3 Confucianism 1 9 8 , 2 0 0

desire: in Freudian logic of dreams 2 9 , 7 2 - 5 , 2 8 8 . 2 9 4 , 2 9 5 ; I r a n i a n law of 4 5 , 8 9 - 9 0

Conrad, J o s e p h 6 5

"destructured masses" 4 2 6 - 7

C o n s u m e r self-organization 3 7 2 - 3

determinate negation (Hegel) 5 3 7 , 3 3 8 , 4 0 7 - 8 . 4 0 9

consumerism; in post-dem o c racy 3 2 5 ; sustained by liberal

determinism: incompatibility with free will 4 4 6 - 7

democratic institutions 3 4 0 consumption: i n capitalism 3 7 3 ; merged with political action 4 3 0 contingency: and ideology 4 0 5 ; a n d necessity (Hegelian dialectic) 3 1 6 , 4 6 6 n

"deterritorialization" 5, 3 5 2 , 3 9 7 - 8 dialectical materialism; Badiou 3 8 1 , 5 8 5 ; Lenin's propagation of iheon- of 3 1 1 : W o r l d W a r II Soviet textbook 2 2 1 - 2 Diana. Princess of W a l e s 3 4 0 , ZAS-Sf}

contradiction: Mao's text 1 8 2 ^ , 1 8 4 - 5 . 2 9 5

Dick Tracy (film) 71

Cook, Nicholas 272

dictatorship: break with logic of representation 413—14; in

Copjec. J o a n 2 9 4 . 3 2 8 , 3 3 1

functioning of democracy 3 7 9 , 4 1 2 - 1 3 . 4 1 7 ; Luxemburg's

courage (Badiou) 1 5 2

description 5 7 9 dictatorship of the proletai'iat 4 1 2 - 1 9 ; divine violence 162: Paris

Creation 1 5 3 Crichton, Michael: capitalist realism 5 2 - 3 ; Prey 52. 5 3 - 6 ; speech "Environmentalism as a Religion ' 4 9 0 n

Commune 1 6 1 ; Stalinist attempts to enforce 7; totalitarian excess ol p o w e r 5 7 9

criminals àee "legal" and "illegal" criminals

Diderot, Denis 5 7 4 - 5

C r i t c h l e y Simon 3 3 7 , 3 3 9 - ^ 2 . 3 4 3 - 5 , 3 4 6 - 5 0 . 4 0 2 , 4 0 6

digital capitalism 4 2 , 3 5 2

Cromwell, Oliver 1 0 9 . 1 6 1 , 4 7 2 n

digital hackers 3 1 , 5 7 7

Cuba 1 0 8 . 4 3 3

Dimitrov, Georgi 2 2 0

Cuban missile crisis 1 7 0 . 2 1 5 - 1 9 , 4 2 2

discipline: Badiou 70; corporeal 1 3 8 - 9

cultural artefacts: in Benjamin's natural histoiy 4 5 1

disidentification 2 0 3

cultural criticism/studies 9 7 , .538

diipihutif:

cultural revolution (Hegel) J 95

dissidence: debate about Shostakovich 2 3 6 ,

culture: the commons o f 429; Freud's perception o f discontent in 4 3 6 ; Heidegger's local w o r l d s 4 5 0 cyber-technologies 3 5 7 cyberspace: as big O t h e r .34; Gates's assertion of ownership o f software 4 2 2 ; multiple identities 2 0 3 ^ cyborg ! 6 6

distance: and Fall from divine goodness (Heidegger) 1 4 5 : psychoanalysts 2 4 "divine violence" 1 6 1 - 2 , 4 1 5 Doctorow, Fxlgar 5 2 2

Czech Repubhc 4 0 4

Donnersmarck, Henckel von 6 1 - 2

doxa The Da Vma Coàc ( B r o w n ) 6 6 - 8 Dalai Lama 4 5 , 7 0 , 3 3 2

UfMtair^

239-4^^, 2ACy.

G D R 2 6 0 ; Solidarity's brief experiment 4 0 8 - 9

D N A : analysis 5 2 . 33, 68; "junk" 4 4 1

cynicism 3 4 0

Dancer

Foucault 1 1 3 ; populism 2 7 6

leading Soviet w r i t e r s 2 5 8 ; resistance to Communist regime in

(film) 64. 6 5 - 6

(accidental/empirical opinion) 2, 3 4

dreams: Freudiai^ logic of 7 2 - 3 . 74. 2 8 8 , 2 9 4 . 2 9 5 , 3 8 9 ; Freudian notion of responsibilil^' 225; sexual content 2 9 5 , 2 9 5 Dreyfuss, Hubert 4 6 0

Danton, Georges J a c q u e s 1 6 8 . 4 1 5

Dr>'den, J o h n 81

Darwinism 4 4 1 - 2

Duck Soup (film) 3 4 2

Davis, Bret ] 4 3 - 7

Ducrot. Oswald 2 4 2

D a v o s Forum 3 5 9 - 6 0

Dufresne, Todd 5

De Quincey. Thomas 4 6 , 5 4 9 - 5 0

Dumont. T-ouis 4 4 6

de Satîe, M a r q u i s i!ee Sade. M a r q u i s de

Dupuy, J e a n - P i e r r e 3 1 5 - 1 6 , 4 5 3 , 4 5 5 - 8 . 4 5 9 - 6 0

death drive 197. 516. 345; Freudian 5 4 , 3 4 2 . 3 4 4 . 3 9 5 ; Lacanian 319

Dürkheim. Emile 1 2 7 Dzerzhinsky, Felix 2 3 1

Debord. G u y 2 8 0 deconstruction 1 0 3 ; D e r r i d a 2 2 5 , 3 8 2 ; Foucault 1 0 9

Eagleton, Terry: Holy Terror 99—100

Deep Impact (film) 6 0 - 1

Eastern European countries: demise of socialism 4 1 6 ; music as

deforestation 4 9 0 n

expression of popular-cultural struggle 2 8 9 ; post-Communist

Deleuze. Gilles 2 0 4 . 3 3 9 , 3 6 6 - 7 , 468n: actual out of the virtual

attempt to criminalize Communism 4 8 7 , dee aUo Hungary;

3 1 2 , 3 1 3 , 3 1 4 - 1 5 ; AnU-OeàipiM 3 5 2 . 3 6 7 ; becoming post-

Poland

human 44,3; the economy as social "pseudo-cause" 2 8 8 ;

ecological catastrophe 4 5 4 - 7 . 4 5 7 - 8 , 4 6 1

"minimal difference" 3 8 9 ; ontologies 3 6 5 - 6 . 3 6 7 - 8 ; "pure

ecology: as antagonism to global capitalism 4 2 1 - 2 . 4 2 8 . 4 3 0 ; of

d l f t e r e n c e a 3 2 1 ; repetition 3 2 0 . 3 2 2 , 3 2 4 . 3 9 6 : revolutionary becoming 1 0 9 - 1 0 . 3 1 3 ; The Tune-lmagt 3 6 9 democracy: ancient Greece 4 1 5 ; Batliou o n stmggle against 1 8 4 .

fear 4 5 8 - 4 0 , 4 4 7 - 8 economic crisis 3 8 9 economic development: M a r x ' s notion 2 9 2 - 3 . 501

4 1 8 - 1 9 ; Brown's idea o f anti-democratic content needed 1 0 2 -

economic liberalism 2

7: class bias 3 7 9 - 8 0 ; conditions created by cognitive w o r k

the economy: homology' with psychoanalysis 2 9 5 ; Alarxist

3 5 0 - 1 ; Critchley's "true democracy" 3 4 6 - 7 ; defense of 1 0 6 ;

"determining role" 2 8 9 , 2 9 0 , 2 9 1 , 2 9 5 ; ' m politics of class

and dictatorship 3 7 9 , 4 1 2 - 1 3 , 4 1 7 ; electoral process 2 3 ;

struggle 2 9 5 ; as social "pseudo-cause" (Deleuze) 2 8 8

formal legalism 2 6 4 ; Heidegger's distrust of 1 3 5 - 6 ;

é^aiiberté

integration o f antagonistic struggle into institutional space

egalitarianism: in democracy 2 6 5 , 2 6 6 . 4 1 7 ; ideological vision of

2 8 1 , 2fi.'î, 2 8 4 ; a s kernel of g l o b a l capitalism 1 8 4 ; Lacanian

biocosmism 2H—J2; institutionalization as revolurionaiy-

(Balibar) 4 1 5

ideas 1 0 0 - 2 ; Laclau's populism 2 8 0 - 1 , 2 8 3 - 4 ; legitimization

democratic terror 1 7 5 , 2 6 6 ; hmitation of J a c o b i n polhics 1 7 3 -

of o u r acts 3 1 1 ; tinkeil by Miller with Lacan's b i g O t h e r 4 1 8 ;

4; and renunciation 3 3 3 ; revolutionary politics (Badiou) 4 0 1 ,

political antagonisms 3 2 5 ; in "soviets" 3 7 6 - 7 ; Stavrakakis's

461 ; in revolutions 2 0 8 ; StaHnist regime's nominal commiment

w a g e r 3 2 4 , 5 2 5 . 3 3 ] ; terrorist/'totalitarian aspect 4 1 S ; and "the

to 2 5 2

people's voice" 2 6 5 - 6 ; today's practices of "direct democracy" 377

ego ideal; Freudian 8 9 ; Lacanian 8 7 , 89, 8 9 - 9 0 ; symbolic Law 242

democratic- materialism (Badiou) 5 8 1 , 3 8 3 - 4

Ego-Superego-Id (Freud) 5 9 6

"democratic paradox" 102, 1 0 6 . 2 8 1

egoism: and altruism 5 4 5 - 6

Deng Xiaoping 1 9 4

Eichmann, A d o l f 2 2 6

Dennett. Daniel 4 4 6 - 7

Eickhart, Meister 3, 1 4 5 , 1 4 7

Derluguian, Georgi M . 1 7 8

Eisenhower, Dwight 2

Derrida, J a c q u e s 1 0 1 , 143, 302, 382; condition of impossibility

Eisenstein, Sergei 2 1 1 ; Bezhin Afe^idon' 2 5 3 , 2 5 3 - 4 ; h'a» the

561 ; "deconstruction as justice" 2 2 5 : "madness" o f the a c t o f decision 3 0 9 , 3 1 0

Terrible 2 5 3 , 2 6 4 - 9 Eisler. Hanns 2 3 5 - 6

495

INDEX elections 2 5 ; and com modification of polifics 2 8 3 - 4 ; Icgal/atare apparatuses 4 1 2 ; sociological interpretation nf resnlts 4 5 3 ; 'the people's voice" in democracy 2 6 5 , . w

iiL'i'' voting

Eliot, T.S. mh. 2 7 5 , 3 1 2 - 1 5

feminine principle: in The Da Vinci Code 6 6 feminism: reading of Shelley's ¥rani:en.>leiii 79 Ferry, Luc 1 4 0 , 1 6 5 Ibtish/fctishism 296; case of Stasi officer Koch 2 9 7 - 8 ; dimension

emancipatory politics; antagonism with multiculturalismfundamentalism opposition 3 8 4 - 6 ; anh-capitalism as ultimate aim 4 0 4 : attitude of progressive liberals 3 9 2 , 3 9 3 ; Critchley's v i e w 4 0 2 ; "false" and "true" points 3 8 6 - 6 ; outside democratic mstitutmns 5 4 7 ; principal tasks over last three centuries 4 2 6 - 7 emancipatory terror 174

of populism 282; in Highsniith short story 297; relfication of king 1 3 5 ^ ; in virtual capitalism 3 0 0 - 2 .

abo

commoillty

fetishism fefishisHc disavowal 1 5 - 1 6 , 2 9 6 , 3 0 9 - 1 0 Figes, O r l a n d o 2 4 4 film ,<ee cinema; Hollywood films; under fitles of films and

Empire of the Sim (film) 5 6

directors

Engels, Friedrich 1 7 5 , 1 7 6 , 3 9 3 ; descriptiim of capitalist dynamic 4.54-6; example of dictatorship of the proletariat 1 6 1 ; Mao's polemic against 1 8 7 - 8

Finkelkraut, Alain 4 Fischer, J o s c h k a 1 3 9 , 2 6 7 Fitzgerald, Gerald 2 6 4

"English" democratic liberalism (Heidegger) 1 3 5

Florida: U S presidenfial elecfions of 2 0 0 0 264, 3 1 6

Enlightenment: dialectic of 5 3 7 . 5 6 7 , 4 6 0 ; M a t y Shelley's

Fonda, J a n e 1 3 9

dialectic of 7 9

The Forhid()en Planet (film) 61

Enron scandal 461

Ford, J o h n 9 6

enthusiasm; dill'ctrcnt coilectivities 1 1 5 - 1 6 ; following fall of

Fordism 3 5 1 , 5 5 9

Communist regimes 1 1 6 ; Foucault's engagement in Iranian

Fort Apache (film) 9 6

Revolution 1 0 8 - 9

Foucault, Michel 6; analyses of modem p o w e r 105; du<po,Htif \ \7\\

enunciation and the enunciated: cognitivist reductionnaturalization 4 4 6 ; ecological pessimism 4 3 9 ; Lacan 2 8 1 envy 45, 346

engagement with Iranian revolution 1 0 7 - 1 3 , 1 1 4 - 1 5 , 1 1 7 ; liberal-humanitarian concerns 1 1 3 : "transcendental-empirical couplet" 1 7 0 , 4 4 6

Erdogan. Recep Tavyip 2 7 3

Foxman, A b r a h a m 3 7 - 8 , 3 9 - 4 0

A T (film) 5 6

France: desire to retain'old LuropeanD welfare state 2 7 4 ;

eternal Absolute (Hegel) 3 2 4

eighteenth-century egalitarian radicals 7 1 ; Mav' 6 8 events

ethical agency: Freudian and l a c a n i a n terms 8 9 - 9 0 ; State's

168; "no" to P:uropean Constitution 2 6 6 , 2 6 9 - 7 0 , 2 7 2 , 2 7 6 ; Partv- of O r d e r after 1 8 4 8 revolution 2 4 4 - 5 ; presidenfial

externalization of 3 4 9

elecfions of M a y 1 9 9 6 3 1 6 ; voters' shift to rightist populism

"ethical committees" 4 5 8 ethics: accepting monstrosit\' ol being-human

166; biogenetics

4 2 5 : conviction of suppoiters of Soviet socialism 14;

278, 2 8 2 Fran.:n. Francisco 2 2

Critchley's ethical Call 3 4 0 - 1 , .344-6; difference with morality

Frank. A n n e 3 1

223; fefishistic disavowal 1 5 - 1 6 . 1 6 - 1 7 ; high Stalinism of '

Frankeihitein (Shelley) 7 3 - 7 , 7 7 - 8 1 , 4 3 8 ; cinematic versions 7 7

1 9 3 0 s 2 1 2 - 1 3 ; U c a n i a n 2 2 4 - 5 . 3 4 5 ; Uvinas'i, notion of the

Frankfurt, Harrj,- 1. 2

neighbor 165; split with ethics 4 3 6 ; urilitarian 3 4 6

Frankfurt School 5, 3 3 7

ethnic minonties; "living libraries" in Iceland 1 1 - 1 2

Ftaser, Antonia 1 6 0

ethnicity: shifting identifies today 4 3 4 - 5

freedom: and causality 2 8 9 . 3 1 4 ; Christ as source of 4 5 2 . 4 3 3 ;

F^uropean Constitution: French and Dutch nosD Lo 2 6 6 - 7 , 2 6 9 70. 2 7 2 . 2 7 6

dislocation under capitalism 3 4 8 - 9 ; Eaglelon's percepfion 99; l l a l l w a r d ' s conception 5 1 3 - 1 4 ; Hegel's ideas 2 0 - 1 . 1 2 9 - 3 0 ;

European idenfit\': predicament tndav 2 7 4 - 6 ; recent debates 324-5

incompatibility of free will with determinism 4 4 6 - 7 ; inherent retroactivity 3 1 4 ; and Kalka's desire for paternal authority

Eur(i|)ean project: failure to inspire passions 101

9 0 - 1 ; Marcuse 1 9 6 , 3 4 2 ; and necessity 7 0 - 1 , 3 1 4 ; production

European Union: problem of ' l u r k e y 2 7 5 - 4 ; walls around 4 2 4

ofcognitive w o r k e r s 3 5 0 ; Spinozan definition 20; sustained by the "base" 1 9 - 2 0

euthanasia 22 Event: Badiou 1 1 4 , 1 1 6 . 1 2 2 . 1 2 8 , 1 9 4 , 5 8 6 - 7 , 5 9 3 . 3 9 4 - 6 , 4 1 8 -

freedom of speech 22. 7 8

19, 4 6 0 ; Foucauh's engagement with Iranian Revolution 1 1 0 .

Freiburg University 1 4 2

1 1 2 - 1 3 , 1 1 4 , IKi; Heidegger's ontological difference 1 2 5 ;

French a>mmunist Part^' 2 7 8

revolution 1 4 0 - 1 , 3 9 4 ; scli-erasure 3 9 3 - 4

French Revolufion: Burke's criti(]ue 76, 76, 99; Danton and shift

F.vil: in Heidegger's thought 1 4 3 . ) 4 5 - 7 ; ignored by utilitarian

to statist violence 4 1 5 ; Haitian Revolution as repetition of 392;

ethics 346; fvacanian "Thing" 3 4 5 ; spirit of sacrifice 53;

Hegel's sublime w o r d s on 2 0 8 - 9 ; historical significance 1 5 7 -

systemic 4 5 8

8; humanism and terror 164; identification cfi le tro'unhne état

Evil iMagician/Cenius 86, 8 7

with the Nafion 4 1 6 ; Kant's enthusiasm apropos 15. 108; link

evolution: and suffering 4 5 - 6 . 4 7

with Maoist Cultural Revolution 1 5 7 , 1 7 5 ; Marx's comments

exchange: potlatch 2 4 - 6

on 1 4 0 - 1 . 2 0 7 , 5 9 3 . 3 9 4 ; O c t o b e r Revolution as repefition of

the Excluded 4 5 0 - 1

139; in Shelley's FrankciuUcin 7 6 - 6 , 76, 7 7 - 8 Freud. Sigmund 5; agency of ego 89; death drive 5 4 , 3 4 2 , .344,

failure: Beckett's maxim 7, 2 1 0 . 3 6 1

3 9 5 ; on disctmtent in culture 4 3 5 ; dream and dream-text 7 2 - 5 .

faith: opposition with knowledge 2, .32; in Tarkovskv's iVrt/,t^/-43

74, 2 8 8 . 2 9 4 , 3 8 9 ; drives 148; Rgn-Superego-ld 3 9 6 ; feminine

The Fall of Berlin (film) 5 9

sexuality 2 7 0 ; fetish object 2 8 2 ; gift and exchange 2 5 - 4 ;

Falun C o n g 198

JJeheMtörer (obstacle

family: in flcgcS's uothm of womankind 1 7 7

immersion in cixm-d 35; Oedipal myth 76; "Other Scene" 2 8 9 ,

family narrative: in "capitalist realism" 52-(i; as ideological myth

2 9 0 , 2 9 6 ; paranoia of madness 2 4 9 ; problem with Islam 1 1 5 ;

5 2 . 72; in Shelley's Frankaulein

7 3 - 4 . 76, 7 9 - 8 1 ; in Spielberg

films 5 6 - 7 fantasy: juxtaposed with reality in Pify 56; traversing 3 2 5 , 5 2 9 fascism: Arendt's v i e w as inherent in bourgeois sofier\' 1 2 2 - 3 ;

reluctance to endorse "Love thy Neighbor" 1 6 , 165; repetition 3 2 1 ; responses to F r e u d - L v e n t 3 8 7 ; responsibility In dreams 2 2 5 ; sexual essentialism 296; sublimation 3 4 1 ; on theory as failed practice 3. 3 2 0 ; the uncanny

break with logic of representation 4 1 3 - 1 4 ; comparison wldi

Fried. Gregor;\' 149

Qimmunism 2 6 0 , 2 6 1 - 2 ; as created by "the letter" K38; failed

From HeiY lo Eternily (film) 61

revolufion behind 3 8 6 ; IJeniifving Heidegger as 136;

Front National 2 7 8 , 2 8 2

{Unheatdiehf)

80

imprisoned Communists fighting against 166-(); modernist

Fry. Stephen 4 4 0

poets leaning towards 1 5 9 ; notion of social disturbances 389;

Fukuyama, Francis 2, 3 4 9 , 4 3 5 , 4 4 8 ; FZnd of History 4 0 5 . 4 2 1 .

opposition between antagonistic logic and polifical goal 2 8 1 ; populism 2 7 9 , ,ie£ ain' Nazism father . w Name-ol'-the-Father; paternal authority

423 Fuller. Steve I 19 fundamentalism: anti-modernist 3 4 8 ; false passion of 3 3 3 , .340;

favelas 3 7 7 , 3 7 9

field of opposltum with liberal mulficulturalism 5 8 4 . 5 8 6 :

fear: choice between t e r r o r and 4 3 3 - 4 ; ecology 4 3 8 ^ 0 , 4 4 7 - 8 ;

Islamist movements '5^6; fonusance 3 2 6 , .•er alio religious

of nanotechnologi.' 4 3 6 - 8 . .ur al.'O politics of fear

496

to Love relationship) 90; narcissism and

fundamentalism

INDEX Funder. Anna 2 9 7 - 8 Furet, François 1 5 8 Furtwängler, Wilhelm 214 Gadamer. Hans-Georg 4 3 9 Gandhi, M a h a t m a 3 7 2 Gardner, Erle Stanley .w Perry Aîa.Mvi novels Garthoff, Raymond 2 1 6 Gastev. Alexei 2 1 2 Gates, Bill 3 5 2 , 3 5 7 , 3 6 2 , 3 7 4 , 4 2 2 , 4 2 9 . 4 3 0 Gauchet, Marcel 4 1 8 Gauguin, Paul 4 5 6 Gautier, Théophile 142 Gay, J o h n 4 5 Gaza 5 8 gaze: Deleuze 3 6 9 Creneral Intellect: in capitalism today 3 5 1 , 5 6 0 , 3 6 2 , 3 6 4 ; A U r x 354, 554-5, 358 genome 4 3 5 . 4 4 0 - 1 . 4 4 2 . 4 4 6 German Democratic Republic ( G D R ) : anti-Soviet revoH ( 1 9 5 3 ) 117; case of Stasi officer Koch 2 9 7 - 8 ; Gooàbyc Lenin 64-5; map of Berlin 4 2 6 : police control 2 6 0 German Idealists 3 4 2 Germany: Beethoven's "Ode to J o y " as Olympic anthem 2 7 1 ; debate about Li-itkullur 2 1 : desire to retain "old European ' welfare state 274; formation of Linkspartei 2 6 7 - 8 ; lead role in industri,' and manufacturing today 3 6 3 ; significance of October Revolution 1 7 9 Gibson. Me! 3 7 - 8 , 3 9 - 4 0 Giddens, A n t h o n y 3 7 9 Gide. A n d r é 142^ gifts: potlatch 2 4 - 6 ; received by Master 2 5 - 4 . 2 6 Gilliam, Terry 5 5 Cladknv, F y o d o r 5 2 global capitalism I, 2; antagonisms within 4 2 1 ^ . 4 2 7 - 8 ; base generating excesses and sites of resistance 4 2 0 - 1 ; denial of responsibility lor crimes 4 5 8 : ecology of fear 4 3 9 ; and end of class-party politics 4 0 6 ; end of history in order of 4 0 5 ; generation of slum-dwellers 4 2 5 ; Left's modes of reaction to 5 3 7 - 9 ; multiple centers 3 6 2 - 3 : need for political intervention 184: as reign of Lord of A-üsrule 1 9 8 global economy: marginalized laborers 4 2 4 global warming 4 5 4 globahzation: importance of "destructured masses" 4 2 6 - 7 ; postmodern 3 8 3 ; and problem of European Union 2 7 5 God: incarnation in Christ 153; Leibnixean 4 5 9 ; Promethean rebel against 4 5 8 ; as signifier 5 1 8 Godwin, William 7 5 - 6 Goebbels, J o s e p h 4 6 3 n Goering, Hermann 6 9 , 1 5 6 Gogol. NIkolae; The No^c 247 Gone Wah the Winà (film) 7-Ä The Good 3 4 5 - 6 Gooèbye Lenm (film) 62, 6 3 - 5 Gorbachev, Mikhail 3 9 0 G o r k y , Maxim 1 8 7 , 2 2 8 Gould. Stephen J a y 1 3 8 , 4 4 2 governance: Negri's formula 3 7 1 . 3 7 5 - 6 , 3 7 7 G r e e k islands: deportation of J e w s ( 1 9 4 4 ) 1 8 7 Guattari. Pierre-Félix 2 0 4 , 3 5 2 , 3 6 6 . 3 6 7 G u e v a r a . Che 1 7 0 . 2 1 9 , 4 3 5 ; in The AlotorcycU DiarU^ (film) 1 3 6 guilt: I^^canian superego 9 0 , 5 4 2 - 5 , ^ee abo "objective guilt" Gulag Archipelago 261 Guzman, Abimael 2 7 1 Habermas, J ü r g e n 1 0 1 , 122, 2 8 5 , 3 2 4 . 3 6 7 , 5 7 9 , 4 0 8 ; critique of science 4 5 5 - 6 , 4 4 8 ; neo-Kantianism 140 Hailey, A r t h u r 5 2 Haitian Revolution 2 0 8 . 3 9 2 , 3 9 6 Hall. S t u a r t 1 0 5 Hallward, Peter 3 1 3 - 1 4 . 3 1 6 , 4 1 0 , 4 1 8 , 4 2 6 Han-Pira, Eric 2 2 0 - 1 happiness 44—5 Hardt, Michael 3 5 8 , 3 5 2 . 3 5 5 , 4 2 8 Harris, S a m : The Ett^ of Faith 4 6 - 8 Hayek, Friedrich August von 2 hedonism 3 4 0 . 3 4 6 Hegel. G e o r g Wilhelm Friedrich: "absolute power" 5 9 7 ;

appearance and reality 3 9 2 - 3 ; civil society 1 2 9 - 3 1 ; "concrete universality" 1 8 0 - 1 . 4 1 3 ; critique of J a c o b i n "abstract freedom" 4 S 6 n ; cultural revolution 196: defense of the monarchy 23. 1 3 2 - 5 , 31 1; determinate negation 3 5 7 . 3 3 8 . 4 0 7 8 . 4 0 9 : dialectic of contingency and necessity 3 1 6 , 3 4 5 , 4 6 5 - 6 n : freedom and necessity'20-1, 129-.30: gaze of the Beautiful Soul 9 6 - 7 ; hegemonic role of science 33; and Heidegger's notion of the state 1 2 9 . 1 5 1 - 2 ; Lenin's return t o 5 6 9 ; Marx'scritique 1 6 0 . 350; master and servant 4 3 1 - 2 . 4 3 4 ; negation of the negation 189, 409, 4 1 0 , 4 1 6 ; Negri's references to 5 5 3 ; notion of womankind 1 7 7 , 2 5 4 - 5 ; "objective spirit" 34. 5 0 . 4 5 5 - 4 ; oppositional determinism 2 7 6 - 7 ; fÄMiifm^/w^yi^/^f&fi/ffW/341, 3 7 4 - 6 . 4 2 9 ; PMvt>/7Ay£./A^fl/Hr<'452; spurious infinity 3 1 8 ; state as negativity institutionalized 3 0 7 ; subhme w o r d s on French Revolution 2 0 8 - 9 ; temporal reality and the eternal Absolute 324; w o r d as murder of thing it designates 3 1 9 hegemony: Laclau's "Martian value"/empty signifier 294, 4 2 8 ; political struggle for 277—8; scientific discourse 5 3 Heidegger, Martin: allergy against morality 1 4 2 - 3 ; anecdote about his preparation for Soviet-style society 150; as antid e m o c r a r i c 9 8 , J 0 2 , 104. 2 8 5 ; Arendt's relationship with I 2 J 3; "Asiatic" threat to the West 1 7 7 ; on dangers inherent in modern lechnologj- 4 3 5 . 4 4 7 - 8 . 4 4 8 . 4 4 9 , 4 5 0 ; Daéein 1 4 1 ; Davis's analysis 1 4 3 - 7 ; defense of Hegel 1 2 9 : engagement with Nazism 1 0 7 - 8 , 1 1 5 , 1 1 7 - - 2 1 , 1 2 3 - 4 , 1 2 8 - 9 , 139, 1 4 1 - 2 , 149, 1 5 1 . 1 6 2 - 3 ; extreme politics 6; identified as fascist 9 7 . 136; interpretive confrontation 274; letter to Marcuse 2 6 2 , 473n; local w o r l d s 4 5 0 ; on necessity of terror 4 5 1 ; Nolte's study 2 6 1 - 2 ; "only God can still save us" perspective 3 3 8 ; ontological difference 1 2 4 - 8 . 4 4 8 . 4 4 9 ; ontological violence 1 5 0 - 1 , 1 5 2 - 3 ; opposition to Hegel's insights into the state 1 5 1 - 5 ; as rector of University of Freiburg 142; structurai place of Nazi Revolution for 3 9 9 - 4 0 0 ; view of democracy 1 3 6 - 6 , 2 7 5 : view of science 4 4 6 Heine, Heinrich 4 6 8 n Helsinki Declaration 4 9 1 n Heraclltus 1 4 9 . 1 5 0 heroic legend 9 6 - 7 Herrmann. Bernard 2 4 6 Heslod 1 4 9 Heydrich. Reinhard 12, 143 Hezbollah 3 8 6 . 4 0 9 Highsmith, Patricia 2 9 7 historical sense (Eliot) 3 1 2 - 1 3 history: dialectic with nature 1 4 9 - 5 0 : "end o f 4 0 6 . 4 2 1 , 4 2 3 : family drama In Shelley's Frankenstein 7 3 - 4 ; Heidegger's notion of destiny 1 2 8 ; and ideology 40Ö; Lenin's proposal of "alternate h i s t o r y ' 3 6 1 ; limitation of linear notion of time 4 5 9 60. 4 6 1 ; Shelley's conception 3 9 4 : significance of French ftevoiution 1 5 7 - 8 ; threat of inten-'ention triggering ecological catastrophe 4 2 1 Hitchcock. Alfred Me Psycho Hitler. Adolf 12, 6 9 , 1 0 8 , 2 7 0 . 5 7 9 ; defenses of 1 5 1 . 1 5 1 - 2 ; failure to change order of things 1 5 2 . 1 5 2 - 3 ; use of mother's family name 8 3 ; von Kluge's plot to kilt 1 8 Hoens.'Dommlek 3 0 6 Hoffmann. E.T.A. 9 0 Hölderlin, J . C . Friedrich 1 1 9 . 1 4 2 . 4 7 1 n Holland. Tom 6 9 Holloway J o h n 372 Hollywood films: comedies of remarriage 3 8 7 ; endings translated into non-E.nglish languages 7 - 8 : family ideology 52; motif of the couple 5 7 - 9 ; motif of lost and regained paternal authority 5 6 - 7 ; socio-critical conspiracy movies 1 8 4 Hollywood Production Code 2 4 5 Holocaust ( J e w s ) 1 2 . 187; Elchmann's attempt to justify role in 226; films about 26; guilt of s u r v i v o r s 542; Heidegger's indifïerence t o w a r d s 1 2 8 . 1 4 6 homo dacer 4 9 Hopper, Edward 71 Horkheimer, Max 5. 9 7 . 4 6 0 human nature: Fukuyama 4 3 5 human rights: defenders against totalitarian terror 1 6 5 ; Foucault's support of initiatives 1 ! 3 : Helsinki Declaration 4 9 I n ; in postmodern politics of identity J 0 2 ; "universal" 31 humanism: Althusser 1 6 6 ; and/or terror 1 6 4 - 5 : high Stalinism 2 1 4 - 1 5 , 2 1 9 . 2 4 7 ; M e r i e a u - P o n l y on terrorism and 164, ,w aLw secular humanism

497

INDEX humor: superego 3 4 1 - 2 , 3 4 2 - 3 Hungary 1 1 7 , 2 2 1 , 2 4 0 , 2 7 5 Husserl, Edmund 1 6 9 - 7 0 hybrid bioroboncs 4 5 - 6 Iceland: subjectivization of the O t h e r in "living libraries" 1 1 - 1 2 ideal ego (Lacan) 8 9 idealism: versus materialism 3 6 8 identities see multiple identities; social-symbolic identity identity politics: postmodern 102; renaturalization of capitalism 404-5 "Ideological State Apparatuses" (Althusser) I 1 3 - 1 4 ideoiogj'i Althuaaerian subject 344; disturbance of balance 3 8 8 9 1 ; family myth 52, 72; fetishistic mode 296; naturalizahon of result of historical process 4 0 5 ; and non-ideological commonsense norms 2 1 ; as regulation of non-closure 29; "softer" version replacing original 6 liyenhov, Evald 4 7 6 n Imaginaiy-Symboîic-Real (Lacan) 14, 8 7 , 89, 3 9 6 Imagination: Romantic notion of monstrosity 74—5 immigrant w o r k e r s 2 6 6 , 2 6 7 immortaliU' 3 9 5 imperialism: anti-globalization critique 1 8 1 - 2 ; Mao's attitude towards 1 6 8 - 9 ; and secular progressive emancipation 3 8 6 incarnation 133 incest 8 0 India: anti-British resistance 372; explosive growth of slums in megapolises 4 2 4 indigenous-rights movements 3 4 7 , 3 4 9 individualism: ethics 346; in modernity 131; role of civility in rise of 1 9 Indonesia 4 2 4 informational revolution 3 5 4 . 3 5 7 Ingolstadt 7 5 "instrumental rcas<m" 174, 3 3 8 , 3 5 9 intellectual property 4 2 2 . 4 2 8 , 4 3 0 interactive media 5 5 7 - ^ internet 1 3 - 1 4 intolerance 1 Iran: allusions in w o r k s about Thermopylae 6 8 , 69; "liberal renaissance" 3 7 9 Iranian revolution: Foucault's engagement with 1 0 7 - 1 3 , 1 1 4 - 1 5 Iraq W a r : allusions to In Snyder's J(?f^ 68; Rumsfeld's "unknown unknowns" 4 5 7 Ireland .39 Islam: and Foucault's engagement with Iranian Revolution 1 12, 1 1 4 - 1 5 ; response of Western Tä-dkulhir to elements of 2 1 ; and science 32 "Islamo-fasc.sm" 42, 3 8 4 , 3 9 6 Israel. State ol: atheism of citizens 2 2 7 ; building of security wall 424; Christian fundamentalists' support for 38; conceptualization of urban w a r f a r e against Palestinians 2 0 4 5. 2 0 4 - 5 5 ; J e w s refusing to be identified with 6; perspective of Aiunich 11 Ivan the Terrible 2 1 4 , 2 5 7 han Tcrräyle (fiim) 2 5 5 , 2 5 4 - 9 lz^'e,itiya 2 2 0 J a c o b i n s 7 1 , 167; creative proposals 196; egalitarian ism \73-A: failure 1 7 5 , 2 0 9 , 3 9 5 ; revolutionary terror 1 5 8 - 9 , 1 6 0 - 1 , 164, 585, 4 1 5 J a m e s , Henry 1 8 J a m e s , William .523 J a m e s o n . Fredric 1 9 5 - 6 , 4 4 9 J a p a n : issues regarding modernization 125—6; lead role in industry and manufacturing today 5 6 5 ; occupaHon of China 183; self-isolanon from early seventeenth century 4 5 8 - 9 ; .jbindogu 4 5 1 - 2 ; status of Beethoven's "Ode to J o y " 270; translation of ending of Gone Wdh ihe Wind 7 - 8 J a p a n e s e Zen Buddhism 144, 1 7 0 J e w s ; atheistic 5, 2 2 7 ; depicted in Schindler'^ Lù>t 56-7; lascisin's populist figure of 279, 2 8 0 . 389; Hitler's murder of 152; identity struggle 5 - 6 ; "Jew-" as empty signifier 3 1 8 ; Nazi designation 2 6 1 , 3 8 5 ; Nazi policy of annihilation of 263; privileged ones protected b y German figures 1 3 6 ; recent intellectual debates on status of 4 - 5 , ,'cc n/jo and-Semirism; Holocaust J o h n Paul n. Pope 3 4 0

498

J o h n s o n . Paul 1 0 7 J o h n s t o n . Adrian 3 8 S - 9 1 Josefowicz, U i l a 2 4 0 joui.Mim-e Tin. 67, 101, 3 2 5 - 6 , 5 2 6 - 7 , 3 4 3 . 3 9 5 ; fâmnirie 3 0 8 , 3 3 0 - 1 Joiirmil of Happino,' Studied 44 Jura.<..ic Park (film) 6 6 justice dee politics of revolufionary jusfice Kafka. Franz: creafion of predecessors 1 8 0 . 31 1 - 1 2 , 3 1 3 ; J o s e f K s first interrogation in The Trial 234; letter to his father 8 1 . 8 2 - 8 , 9 0 - 4 ; parable of the Door of the Law 8 4 . 9 3 - 4 ; story 'A C o u n t r y Doctor' 5 9 5 - 6 Kahio, Frida 2.35 Kant, Immanuel: antimonies 1 2 6 - 7 , 573; causal determinafion 3 1 4 ; conditions of experience of the object 586—7; Conflict of Factdtie.' 1 4 - 1 6 , 108; definition of beauty 2 8 1 ; disfincfion between the noumenal and the phenomenal 1 1 5 ; elhlcs of autonomy 225—6. 4 2 3 ; ethics and the pursuit of happiness 45; Foucault's interest in 1 0 8 ; modes of repeafing 1 4 0 ; notion of Evil 3 4 5 ; public and private idenfifications 1 9 9 - 2 0 0 . 429; rejecfion ol ontological proof of God's existence 3 0 2 ; and Sade 2 0 9 ; transcendental imagination/Idealism 3 6 6 . 397, 4 4 3 4 Karatani. Kojin 3 7 3 K a u t s k y Karl 3 1 0 , 31 1. 376, 4 7 7 - 8 n Kennedy. J o h n F. 5 0 - 1 , 290; and Cuban missile crisis 2 1 5 , 2 1 7 K G B 2 4 8 - 9 , dee aLo S e r b s k y Institute, Moscow Khalul Sheikh Mohammed dee Mohammed, Khalid Sheikh [•Krushchev, Nikita: and Cuban missile crisis 2 1 5 , 2 1 6 - 1 9 ; enthusiasm about Soviet mission 2 5 5 Kierkegaard, Soren 102, 1 3 9 - 4 0 , 140; Aesthetic-EthicalReligious 396; Derrida's reading oi' 3 0 9 Kim Yong II 2 6 0 - 1 King. Martin Luther 2 8 4 King. Stephen: The Shining 16, 1 6 5 Klnnock, Nell 2 1 7 Kipling, Rudvard 6 Klee, Paul 3 0 7 Kluge, Field Marshall G ü n t h e r von 1 8 knowledge: exploitation of 5 3 9 ; and ietish 300; opposition with faith 2. 32; and reproduction in today's capitalism 3 5 0 - 1 ; unconscious 4 5 7 Koch, Hägen 2 9 7 - 8 Kolyma (Stalinist camp) 3 8 - 9 Koran 32 Krupskaya. Nadhezda 2 5 5 Kundera, Milan 4 6 4 - 5 n Kung Fu films 158 Kusturica, Nemanja 4 6 5 n , 4 8 4 n La Boétie, Etienne 3 7 2 Lacan, J a c q u e s : agencies of the ego 8 9 - 9 0 ; aim and goal of the drive 3 2 7 , 4 0 4 ; "big Other" 3 4 , 1 0 0 , 1 1 5 , 1 1 5 - 1 4 , 4 1 8 ; cause and causality 2 8 8 - 9 ; commentary onf Antigone 306; concept of revolution 3 1 0 - 1 1 ; Critchley's references to 3 4 0 , 3 4 1 ; desire 4 5 ; on ecumenism 4 3 7 ; "empty speech" 2 1 9 ; ethics 2 2 4 - 5 , 3 4 5 ; Imaginary-Symbolic-Real 14, 87, 8 9 . 396; on inhumanity in the neighbor \66; jouidMnce 3 3 1 , 3 4 3 ; "Kant avec Sade" 209; lamella 5.3-i; "le père ou pire" 214: "litturaterre" 94; lost Causes 7; Master-Signifier 2 2 - 3 , 134; notion of anxiety 36; objet petit a 5 2 6 - 9 ; l + l=a formula 3 8 4 ; psychoanalysis 24, 2 5 ; Real 36, 100, 1 2 7 . 2 8 8 . 2 9 1 . 3 1 9 , 5 2 0 - 1 . 5 4 5 ; return to Freud 3 8 7 ; status of science 32. 446; Stavrakakls's study 1 0 0 , 3 0 4 - 6 . 3 0 7 - 1 0 , 3 1 8 - 2 0 , 3 2 6 - 7 . 3 2 9 . 3 3 1 ; the subject 4 8 , 3 4 1 . 3 4 3 , 544; subject of enunciation and of the enunciated 2 8 1 ; superego 8 9 . 90, 5 4 1 . 5 4 2 ^ ; t h e o i y / critique of democracy 1 0 0 . 1 0 1 - 2 . 1 0 6 ; the Thing 16, 1 6 5 ; truth 1, 15; unconscious knowledge 4 6 7 lack 5 2 7 ; In the O t h e r 5 0 6 - 6 . 324, 3 2 7 . 4 1 8 Laclau. Ernesto 3 0 9 , 3 1 0 , 3 2 8 , 3 3 8 ; determination of antagonism 126, 2 8 7 , 290, 3 1 9 ; "Martianizarion'Vemply signifier 294, 4 2 8 ; populism 2 7 6 - 8 5 , 2 8 5 - 6 . 3 2 5 Lafontaine, O s k a r 2 6 7 Lagos 4 2 4 I^Haye. Tim 42 lamella ( U c a n ) 5.3-4 language: Benjamin on language general and particular 1 7 T^tin America 3 6 2 , 3 6 3 . 4 2 4

INDEX Laut ream unt, Comic de (Isidore Ducasse) 4 5 U w : inherent transgression 2 9 . 4 4 . 9.3. 1 9 3 ; J e w i s h 5; Kafkaen 87; superego 3 6 , 2 4 3 ,

symbolic

l^w

Lukâcs, G e o r g 1 8 8 Lukashenko, Alexander 181 Lula da Silva, Luiz Inacio 3 6 2 , 3 6 3 ^ , 4 0 3 Luther. Martin 9 7

Carré, J o h n 63 Le Pen, J e a n - M a r i e 2 6 9 . 2 8 2

Luxemburg. Rosa 2 5 2 , 3 6 1 , 3 7 9 , 5 9 6

Leader: In Heidegger's Idea of the state 1 3 2 . 134-^5; in

Lynch. David 8 7

totalitarian ism 3 7 8 Lebanon 4 0 9

McCain. J o h n 2

U d e r , Mimi 5 9 - 6 0

M c K i b b e n . Bill 4 4 8

U f o r i . Claude 23, 1 0 0 , 1 6 8 , 2 8 4 . 4 1 7

Major, J o h n 1 8 9 . 2 8 3

the Left: attitude t o w a r d s J e w s 5; criminalization of W e s t e r n civilization 97; engagement in administraiion 1 0 1 ; Heidegger's rejection of radical engagement with 1 2 1 ;

Malevich, Kazimir 2 2 9 - 3 0 Malibu 36, 5 7 Malkovitch. J o h n 56, 6 4

ignorance o f ' l i b e r a l renaissance' in Iran 3 7 9 ; liberal

Mallarmé, Stéphane 7, 94

modernization versus anli-modemism 4 1 ; need to propose

Maltby, Richard 2 4 1 - 2

what-if histories 2 3 2 ; nostalgia for old politics of reoccupation

Mandela. Nelson 4 0 3

1526; oflicial stance towards European Constitution 2 6 9 , 2 7 0 ;

M a o Zedong: cosmic perspective 186—7; critique of Slalin 1 5 7 , 1 7 8 - 9 . 183; dismissal of "dialectical synthesis" of opposites

politics of melancholy 3 9 3 - 4 ; politics versus economics 1 8 4 : problem of capitalist mechanisms 4 0 3 - 4 ; problem of J a c o b i n

1 8 8 - 9 2 ; fear of s u r r e n d e r to market capitalism 5 9 0 ; as "Lord

legacy 1 5 8 - 9 . 1 6 0 ; reactions to global capitalism and liberal

of Misrule" 1 9 3 - 4 , 2 5 2 ; Marxism's transposition from Lenin lo 1 7 6 - 7 . 1 7 9 - 8 1 ; message to the downtrodden

democracy 3 3 7 - 9 ; refusal to recognize postmodern social

168-9;

development 3 3 9 ; reproach to M a o 3 7 1 - 2 ; significance of

mobilization of "Asiatic" threat 1 7 7 ; 'On Contradiction" 1 8 2 -

May 1968 158

4, 1 8 4 - 5 , 2 9 5 ; philosophy of class struggle 5 8 1 ; reaction to Shanghai commune's threat 5 7 1 ; reflection on possible

leftism 1 9 9 ; ambiguity of poHtics countering capitalist

annihilation of human race 1 8 7 , 2 1 9 ; rejection of the

modernization 3 3 "legal" and "illegal" criminals 4 9

"negation of the negaXiort"

U i b n i z . Gottfried Wilhelm 3 0 2 , 4 5 9

under 6. 175; slogan "from defeat to defeat" 5 6 1 , 392;

U-UkuUur (dominant culture) 2 1 , 22

triggering of Cultural Revolution 2 0 5 - 6 ; on truth through

terror

class struggle 4 1 8

Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich: A D C of communism 4 0 6 ; awareness of anomaly of revolution 1 7 9 , 5 6 0 - 1 , 5 6 1 - 2 ; concept of

1 8 7 - 8 . 1 9 1 ; revolutionary

Maoist Cultural Revolution

108, 1 4 2 , 1 7 4 , 2 5 0 . 2 7 0 ; Badiou's

revolution 3 1 0 - 1 1 : consciousness oi objective meaningD 230—

analysis 1 9 4 , 1 9 6 - 7 , 3 9 9 - 4 0 3 : historical process and ultimate

1; designation of liberal democracy 4 1 2 ; dial ectical-m ate rial ist

failure 2 0 5 - 7 . 3 7 5 , 4 0 2 - 3 ; link with French Revolution 175;

theory' of knowledge 5 1 1 ; letters to G o r k y 228; Marxism 1 7 6 ,

necessity of 196; negative result 1 9 4 - 5 , 1 9 5 - 6 . 1 9 6 - 7 2 0 5 ,

178; AfiiU-rmlLim anà Empii-UKriticù'm TlTt; nolion of dual p o w e r

2 0 6 - 7 , 3 5 9 , 4 0 0 , 4 0 2 ; relationship with today's Chinese

4 0 9 ; opposition to call for revolution by 3 9 3 ; philosophy of

capitalism 2 1 0 ; undermining of traditional ideologies 1 9 8

class struggle 3 8 1 ; repealing/retrieving 1 4 1 , 1 8 4 , 189, 3 2 6 ; return to Hegel 5 6 9 : Stalin's speech at funeral of 2 2 9 : theory

Marchart. O l i v e r 2 8 6 Marcuse. Herbert 1 4 7 ; formula for freedom 1 9 6 . 3 4 3 ;

of "weakest link in the chain" 179, 5 6 1 - 2 ; Trotsky's dream about 2 2 8 - 9 ; vision incompatihlt: with Stalinism 2 3 2

Heidegger's letter to 2 6 2 . 4 7 5 n the market: big O t h e r functioning as 4 5 5 ; Hegel's v i e w 131 ; and

Leninism: passage to Maoism 180; shift to Stalinism from 2 5 1 - 2 . 2 5 5 ^ . 254, 5 2 3 - 4 , 560

result of revolulionary Event 1 4 0 - 1 market liberalism 5 8 4 - 5 , 4 1 9

Lennon, J o h n : ' W o r k i n g Class Hero' 1 7 - 1 8

marriage 2 9

Uopold

martyrdom: revolutionary pohtics and Catholic cult of 1 3 6 - 7

II. King of Belgium 4 5 8

the Letter: and the Spiril 1 4 0 Levi, Primo; guilt regarding sun-ival of a Man

M a r x , Karl 3, 5; on "bourgeois" limitation of logic of equality

HiAacaiUst 5 4 2 ; IfThU Li

247-8

Lé\-i-Strauss, Claude 2 5 , 76, 2 8 7 Levinas, Emmanuel 1 6 , 9 8 ; Critchley's reference lo 3 4 0 , 3 4 1 ; notion o f the neighbor 165, 5 4 1 ; on Sovicl-Chinese conflict 1 7 7 liberal democracy: aim of "defense of lost causes" to expose problems of 6 - 7 ; Arendt's politics in relation to 1 2 2 - 5 ;

17,^-4; comments on French Revolution 140-^], 2 0 7 . 5 9 5 , 3 9 4 ; commodity' fetishism 2 0 3 . 2 9 9 - 5 0 0 , 5 0 2 ; critique of Hegel 546; critique of political economy 2 5 , 2 9 2 - 3 . 3 0 1 , 4 0 4 ; distinction between w o r k i n g class and proletariat 285—6; dynamics of capitalism 105, 190, 3 0 1 , 5 0 2 . 5 3 9 , 5S4-6,

597-8,

4 3 4 - 5 ; economic essentlalism 295; evocation of reflexive determination 135; Grunàrijje

351—2, ,554—<>; judgment on

conteniporaiy struggle against 184; critique of Heidegger 1 17;

Hegel's dialectics 1 6 0 ; labor relations of production 2 5 , 3 5 1 - 2 ;

end of history in order of 4 0 5 ; Heidegger's opposition lo 1 2 1 ,

Marxists' defense of 9 8 ; Negri's proximity and differences

1 2 9 , 1 3 5 - 6 ; human rights and polirics of identity 1 0 2 ; Left's modes of reaction to 3 5 7 - 9 ; I-enin's designation of 4 1 2 ;

with 3 5 8 - 9 ; reading of French Party of O n l e r 2 4 4 - 5 ; Stalinism's distortion of 1 0 4 - 5 ; view of Napoleon II 4 1 3 - 1 4

molivafional deficit 3 4 0 , 3 4 6 , 5 4 7 : Negri's proposal for r e -

M a r x Brothers 3 4 2

presentation 37.5-fi: opposition w i t h religious fundamentahsm

Marxism: Badiou 4 0 6 - 7 ; in contemporary China 1 9 8 - 9 , 2 0 0 - 1 ,

4 2 . 5 3 2 , 5 7 9 . 3 8 4 . 3 8 6 ; threat of "the will of the people" 265;

204; critique of society of choices 4 5 5 ; "détermination in the

view of philosophers w h o meddle in pohtics 9 7 - 8

last instance" 2 8 9 ; and development of Stalinism and Maoism

liberalism: conser\'ative 2; English democratic 135; negative passion of resentment 3 3 3 Liebknecht. Kari 5 9 6

180; distinction with leftism 199; Heidegger's books on 150; Hollywood's superficial version 5 8 ; Mao's central contribution to 1 8 2 ; Negri's adherence to 3 5 0 . 352, 3 5 4 ;

Lift- !.• Bcauliful (film) 6 5

notion of economic crisis 3 8 9 ; notion of w o r k i n g class 4 2 0 ;

"lightness o f being" 3 7 0 - 1

[>assage from JVlarx to Lenin and from Lenin to M a o

Lih, U r s T. 2 2 6

1 7 8 - 9 ; political struggle in social relations 174-;'"), 2 9 1 - 3 ;

Thf

Ui-ö,i

of Others (film) 6 1 - 2 , 6 2 - 3

176-7,

responses to Event 3 8 7 ; search for momeni of w r o n g turn

local Event/struggle 4 0 3

17.5-6; theory and failure of practice 3 - 4 ; W e n d y Brown's

local narratives .33

obseivations 404—5

Locke, J o h n 4 6 6 n

mass choreography/performance 1.58

r^mdon Stock Exchange 3 0 1 - 2

Massumi, Brian 1 9 7

Lory-, Hillis 1 7 0

Master-figures: replaced by "big O t h e r " 3 6 ; symbohc and secret

lost Causes 2, 6—7 Louis X V I , King of France 4 1 Ô - 1 6 L'Ouverture see 'I'oussainl L ' O u v e r t u r e Love; and "answer of the Real" 23

modes 8 6 - 7 Master-Slgnifier ( U c a n ) 2 2 - 4 , 1 5 4 , 4 4 6 ; In Dadlou's idea of Event 5 9 7 . 3 9 8 ; dccfine of 5 0 ; democracy as 1 8 4 , 4 1 8 ; of populism 2 7 9 - 8 0 ; sovereignry 3 7 8

Love-event 3 8 7

"masturbate-a-thon" 5 5

Lubitsch, Ernst 4 2 5

material productivity: and Deleuze's virtual flow of sense 3 6 5 - 6 ,

Luddites 7 9

368-9

499

INDEX materiaiism: versus idealism 3 6 8

Napoleon [ 1 3 3

materialist dialectics (Badiou) 1 6 0 . 3 8 1 . 3 8 3 - 4 , 3 8 5 The Matrix

(film) 3 8 1

Napoleon III 4 1 3 - 1 4 Napster 4 2 2

Mauss. iMarcel 2 4 , 2 5

narcissism 3 5 , 3 6

May 1968 158. 265

Nato 9 7

meaning: disintegrafion of link with truth 33, 3 4 0 ; threat of biogenefic planning 4 4 8 - 9 , see iy^OT'objective meaning" media: virtual reality 5 7 0 - 1 . see aLni interactive media

natural history: (Benjamin's) 4 5 1 natural resources 4 3 9 ^ 0 , 4 4 8 nature: biogenetics effecfing end of 435--6. 4 4 0 - 1 ; b r e a k d o w n of

Meir, Oolda 2 2 6

man's relationship with 4 4 5 ; the commons of 4 2 9 ; In-itself of

Mensheviks 3 9 5

4 4 3 ^ ; and terror 4 4 2

Merleau-Ponty, Maurice 164, 2 2 4

Nazism: Arendt's v i e w 123; comparison with Communism 2 6 0 .

Metzinger, Thomas 4 5 - 6

2 6 1 - 2 . 263; "courage " of 1 5 2 ; de-Judaizalion 2 6 3 ;

Mexico: border with U S 4 2 4 ; crime of sixteenth-century

designation of J e w i s h enemy 3 8 5 ; failure to disturb capitalist

giobahzafion of 4 5 8 ; indigenous-rights movements 5 4 7 . 3 4 9 . jee ai'o Zapatista movement

structure 1 5 1 - 2 ; final solution 158; Heidegger 1 0 7 - 8 . 1 1 6 , 1 1 7 - 2 1 , 1 2 5 - 4 , 1 2 8 - 9 . 139, 1 4 1 - 2 , 149, 151, 1 5 2 - 3 , 5 9 9 - 1 0 0 ;

Mexico Citv 4 2 4

motto at gates of Auschwitz 5 4 1 - 2 ; and Nietzschean theory

Microsoft 3"58

104, 1 0 6 ; Nolte's analysis 2 6 1 - 2 ; "revolution" 1 1 3 , 1 1 4 , 1 1 5 -

Middle Ages: Lx>rds of Misrule 1 9 3 ; torture as public spectacle 50

16; Riefenstahl's documentaries 1 3 7 : W e s t e r n obsei~vers' fascination for 108, jee aldo fascism necessity: and contingency (Hegelian dialectic) 5 1 6 , 4 6 6 n ; and

middle class; relationship with polifics 2 8 1 - 2 Mikoyan. Anastas 221

freedom 7 0 - 1 , 3 1 4 ; in Spinozan definition of freedom 2 0

military discipline 7 0 - 1

"negation of the negation" 1 8 9 . 4 0 7 , 4 0 9 , 4 1 0 , 4 1 6 ; capitalism's

Miller, Frank 7 1

subsuming of production 3 5 2 ; Mao's rejection of 1 8 7 - 8 . 1 9 1 ;

Miller, J a c q u e s - A l a i n 4 , 264 . 3 2 7 - 8 . 3 8 7 , 4 1 8

in Soviet textbook on dialectical materialism 2 2 2

Mllner, J e a n - C l a u d e 4

negativity: and the act 3 1 6 ; Freudian death drive 342, 3 4 4 ;

Milosevié. Slobodan 12, 1 1 6 , 4 8 4 n . 4 8 5 n

German Idealists's concept of inhuman core 5 4 2 ;

Milton. J o h n : VaraèUe Lodt 3 4 5 , 4 3 8

inatitutionaUzation of 3 0 7 ; Lacanian 3 1 9 ; multicultural

"minimal difference" (Deleuze) 3 8 9 . 3 9 0 - 1 , 4 1 0 - 1 1 , 4 1 ] modernism: music composers 2 4 6 , 2 4 7 ; in Russia 2 1 4 ; Soviet break away from 2 ! 1

liberalism 3 3 3 Negri, Antonio 1 9 2 , 2 0 4 , 5 3 0 . 3 3 8 , 4 0 6 , 4 2 8 ; Gooàhye Muster Socialism 5 3 9 . 3 5 0 - 6 0 . 3 6 2 . 5 6 5 - 4 . 3 6 5 , 5 7 1 . 3 7 5 - 6 . 3 7 7

modernity: "alternative" 1 8 2 ; in Hegel's Ideas on civil society 1 2 9 - 3 1 ; hegemony of capitalism and scientific discourse 33; and nihilism 1 2 3

Neighbor 1 6 - 1 7 , 1 6 5 ; emergence of subject as result of encounter with 3 4 1 ; Lacan on inhumanity of 166; proximit\' of tortured subject 4 7 - 8

modernization: European project 5 5 , 2 6 6 . 274, 2 7 6 ; impact on Muslim societies 53—4

Neill, S a m 5 6 Netherlands: "no" to European Constitution 2 6 6 - 7 0 , 2 7 2 , 2 7 6

Mohammed, Khalid Sheikh 4 9 , 4 9 - 5 0 . 5 0

New Age: and cognitive scientific concerns 4 5 ; ecologv' 4 3 9 ;

Molotov. Vyacheslav 2 2 0

meditative withdrawal 4 0 9 ; myth of self-realization 1 3 9 ;

monarchy: Hegel's defense of 23, 1 5 2 - 5 , 3 1 1

reinterpretation of Christianity in Tiv Da Vinci Code 6 6

Mondrian, Piet 3 0 7

New Deal 3 9 0

money: fetishism 302; K a n t on concept of 302—3; mediation of

Nicaragua 6 9 . 108

intersuhjectlve relations 2 4

Nietzsche, Friedrich 4, 4 3 , 1 6 6 . 2 6 3 , 2 8 3 . 4 4 6 ; Heidegger's

monstrosity: Burkean notion of F'rench Revolution 7 5 . 7 6 , 7 8 ; and family narrative of Shelley's Frankenjlein

73-A, 7 9 ; as

lectures on 1 3 5 , 143; philosophy of immoral ethics 2 2 3 , 2 2 4 ; W e n d y B r o w n theory of anti-democracy of 1 0 4 . 1 0 6 - 7

French Revolufion in Frankenstein 7 5 - 6 , 7 7 - ^ ; of the neighbor

Nigeria àee [>agos

165; Romanfic notion of 7 4 - 5 ; Wollstonecraft's idea of 78

nihilism: anarchic political resistance 3 4 7 - 8 ; Arendt's views on

Monteverdi. Claudio: Orfeo 4 5 3

label of 1 2 1 ; in European modernity 123; Heidegger's

Monty Python 2 4 7

thoughts on Evil 1 4 5 ; of modern technolog>' 143; Nazism

Morales. J u a n Evo 5 7 9

1 1 8 - 1 9 ; religious fundamentalism 43; sustained by liberal

morality: difl'erence with ethics 2 2 5 ; Heidegger's allergy against

democratic institutions 5 4 0 ; terrorists with religious identity

1 4 2 - 3 , 1 5 1 ; moral luck 4 5 6 ; and moralism in politics of

409

identity 102; and "objective spirit" 50; Stalinism 2 2 4 ; and

Nixon. Richard Milhous 2 9 0

transgression 4 3 - 4

Nolte, Ernst 1 1 8 . 2 6 1 - 2 . 2 6 3

Mossad

nomadic resistance 3 3 9

U

The Motorcycle Diariej (film) 1 3 6 - 7

North K o r e a 2 6 0 - 1

Moulfe, Chanta! 102. 2 8 1 , 2 8 3 , 3 0 4

Ncvtalgia (film) 3 6 5

Mozart, W o l f g a n g Ama
the noumenal

111-12

Muller, Heiner 6 2 mulficulturalism: attitude t o w a r d s J e w s 5; field of opposifion

"objective guilt" 2 2 3 - 4

with fundamentalism 3 8 4 ; and LeUkultur 2 1 , 22; "fiving

"objective meaning" 2 3 0 - 1 , 2 5 5

libraries" in Iceland 1 1 - 1 2 ; neglect of class t h e o r y 4 0 5 ;

"objective spirit" (Hegel) 3 4 . 5 0 , 453-=f

opposing populist racism 2 6 7 ; perverse passion o f resentment

October (film) 2 6 3

3 3 3 ; rejection of by "old Europe"

October Revolution: decisive moment of revolutionary process

266-7

multiple identities 2 0 3 - 4

1 1 4 , 1 7 5 ; depicted in Read 6 8 - 9 ; and emergence of Stahnism

Mimich (film) 11

232; gap between Event and resulting situation 1 4 1 , 3 9 4 ;

Murdoch, Rupert 4 3 0

historical necessity' 3 1 6 ; repetition o f French Revolution 139;

Aîujelmann

166, 1 6 6

music: debate about Shostakovich's w o r k 2 3 6 ; free circulation of 4 2 2 ; melodic lines of Schumann's'Humore&queO 5 2 1 - 2 , 3 2 4 ; popular-cultural struggle 2 8 9 - 9 0 , 2 9 0 ; Russian shift a w a y from modernism 2 1 1

"weakest link in chain" 1 7 9 Oedipal narrative: lost and regained paternal authority 57; in Shelley's Frankenstein

7^7

Olesky, J o s e f 4 0 "One": recent philosophical struggles concerning 4 - 5

M u s h m countries: impact of modernizafion 3 5 - 4

O n e and the T w o ( 1 9 5 0 s debate) 1 8 8 - 9

Muslim fundamentalists 1 6 0 , 3 3 2

the ontic and the ontological: A r e n d t 1 2 2 ; global capitalism 338;

Muslim terrorism 3 5 2 ; in LaHaye's novel 42; Sam Harris's views 4 8 7 - 8 n ; suicide bombers 1 5 2

Heidegger's Nazism 1 1 9 , I 2 0 - I , 1 2 3 - 4 , 1 4 6 - 7 . 1 5 0 - 1 , 155; and survival of human beings 4 4 8 ontological difference (Heidegger) 1 2 4 - 8

Nablus 2 0 5 Name-of-the-Father 3 2 - 3 , 8 3 - 4 . 8 7 , 8 8 nanotechnology 4 3 6 - 7 ; in Crichton's Prey 52. 5 3 - 6

500

oppositional determinism (Hegel) 2 7 7 The Orchid Gardener (film) 1 3 Orwell, G e o r g e 4 1 7

INDEX L'O-wn-atore Ronuino (newspaper) 2 1 - 2 , 2 2 0.'lalffU 6 2 . 6 4 - 5 Otiien lack in 305^. 324, 327, 418: notion of 337; subjectivization of 11—12; subordination ol 2 0 3 , . w ÛLU> big Other "Other Place" 1 0 8

new social development of 5 3 9 ; mulriple forms of politicoideological struggle 3 3 8 ; underlying consensus 1; view of J a c o b i n paradigm in context o f 1 5 9 post-politics: consumerism 3 2 5 ; culturalization of the polirical 349; liberarion from ideologies 296; and populist polirics 2 6 8 9: vision of new European elite 2 7 0

Otherness; Levinas 1 6 5 ; in SolarL' 3 6 5 outsourcing 3 5 9

potlatch 2 4 - 6 , 3 0 Pound, Ezra 1 3 9 power: democracies as empty of 2 8 4 . 4 1 7 ; Foucault's analyses

paganism 9 9

105; M a o Zedong 3 7 1 ; and paternal authority 86; "power-to"

Paleolithic communities: Sahlins's thesis 3 3 0

broken by " p o w e r - o v e r " 572; "totalitarian excess" 3 7 8 - 9

Palestinian territories 3 7 9

Pra^'èa 2 2 0 , 2 4 6

Palestinian terrorists: IDF's concepttialization of urban w a r f a r e against 2(M-5; perspective o f Munich II paranoia: and dissolution of Stalinism 249—50, 2 5 9 Paris: Commune 106, 1 6 1 ; events around French Revolution 1 5 ,

predestination 5 1 4 - 1 6 , 5 1 5 - 1 6 Premiere magazine 7 - 8 producrion process: differences between M a r x and Negri 3 5 9 ; Marx's description of capitalist relations 3 5 1 - 2 ; and value in consumption 5 7 2 - 3

108 Pascal, Blaise 3. 1 6 4 , 2 2 4

Prokofiev, Sergei 2 5 7 - 9 , 2 4 4 , 2 4 5

paternal authoritv 32—3; crisis articulated in Kaika's letter to his

proletarianizarion: peasantry in Soviet Union 1 7 8 - 8 0

father 8 2 - S . 9 0 ^ : Oedipal narrative in The War of ihe Wortö,' 57

proletariat: Marx's distincrion between w o r k i n g class and 2 8 5 ; need for position/model for 4 2 8 ; .slum-dwellers in n e w megalopolises 4 2 4 - 7

Paul. S t 1 7 6 peasantry: attitude of Lenin and Stalin towards 1 7 8 ; in Mao's revolution 1 7 9 ; threat of revolts in China 1 9 9

prosopopoeia 4 5 3 proto-fascism: mass choreography/performance 1 3 8 ; populism 276; Riefenstahl's films 1 3 7

pedophilia 3 9 . 4 0 the people: big O t h e r 2 2 7 - 8 , 2 6 5 ; Kant's conception 4 1 7 ;

Proudhon, Pierre J o s e p h 4 1 6

opposition with proletariat 4 1 4 - 1 5 ; trust in 4 6 1 ; voice in

Proust, Marcel 3 1 4

democracy 2 6 5 - 6

Pöycho (film) 2 4 6 psychoanalysis: death drive and immortality 396; disclosure of

perestroïka 3 9 0 permissiveness/permissivity 70; postmodern social relations 202; solidarity with fundamentalism 34. 3 6 Perry

Majori

novels ( G a r d n e r ) 8 2

2 4 - 5 ; ferishism 2 9 6 ; homology with the economy 2 9 5 ; Reich 3 5 1 : sexual content of dreams 2 9 5 . 295; Stavrakakis's idea 3 2 6 - 7 , 3 2 9 ; theory and failure of pracrice 5 - 4 , 5 2 0 , dee aUo

Per,>uin Fire (film) 69 pbarmakw

impact of modernity 3 5 ; ethics of 16, 2 2 5 ; and exchange 2 4 ,

Freud, Sigmund; Lacan, J a c q u e s

99

Philippines 4 2 4

Pushkin. A l e x a n d e r 2 1 1 , 2 1 3

philosophical policemen 9 8 - 9 philosophy: class struggle 3 8 1 - 2 ; different perceptions of field

al-Qaeda 3 4 8 "quality of life" 4 4

413 Pinochet Lfgarte, Auguste 2 2 Pippin. Robert 1 9 , 1 2 2

racism: and defense of w o r k e r s ' rights 2 6 6 , 2 6 7 ; and

Plato 3, 9 8 , 1 0 2 . 104, 1 0 7 ; Badiou's reference to 3 8 1 - 2 ;

fundamentalism .532; populist construcrions 2 6 7 , 277; spontaneous disposition 3 8 - 9 ; W e s t e r n claims regarding

Heidegger's reading of 1 4 2 - 3

Thermopylae 6 9

Platonov. A n d r e y 1 9 5 Pluth, F^l 3 0 6

Rakosi. M â t y â s 2 2 1

Poland 4 0 - 1 , 2 6 6 . 2 7 5 , ,>ec aLo Solidarnoffi

Rancière, J a c q u e s 1 1 6 , 2 8 5 , 4 1 8 - 1 9

polÙK Hegel 1 2 9 - 3 0 ; Heidegger 1 5 5 ; "soviets" 3 7 6

RaJid, Ayn 4 3 2 ^ , 458

politeness 17—18

rape 5 0

political correctness 19, 1 0 2 , 174, 5 3 3 . 4 6 4 n

Reagan, Ronald 6 9

political economy 2 5 , 4 0 4

the Real: family narrative ideology 52; U c a n l a n 3 6 , 1 0 0 . 1 2 7 ,

poiiticat parties: communist model o f insurrection 4 0 6 . 4 0 8 ; representation and expression 3 7 7 political struggle: different topics 2 9 1 ; expressed in music 2 8 9 90; futilitj' 3 5 7 - 8 ; Ibr hegemony 2 7 7 - 8 ; sphere of the economy 174-5, 291

2 8 8 , 2 9 1 . 3 1 9 . 3 2 0 - 1 . 5 4 5 ; in Le'vi-Strauss's analysis of social space 2 8 7 - 8 ; pharmako.' dialectic 99; spectrality of capitalist reality 3 0 1 - 2 ; Stavrakakis's conception 3 1 8 - 1 9 ; superego's function of screening 342; and the Symbolic 3 1 7 - 1 8 , 3 2 0 Reason: K a n t 1 9 9 - 2 0 0 , 4 2 9 ; rejection of tradirional myths 1 0 0 ;

politics: Deleuzian 3 6 9 - 7 0 : as expression of class struggle 2 9 3 ;

W e n d y Brown's critique 1 0 3 - 4 ; in W e s t e r n metaphysics 9 7

of minimal difference 5 9 0 - 1 ; opposifion with populism 2 7 6 - 7 ,

Red Guardists 3 7 1 , 4 0 0 - 1 . 4 0 2 - 3

2 8 1 ,• as proceeding through distortion 2 8 6 , 2 9 4 ; significance of

Rcdj

demise of Communism 4 0 3 ; tension with theory 1 0 3 - 4 , 1 0 4 - 5

Regnault, François 4. 5

polirics of fear 6, 52; populism 3 0 4 politics of resistance: Critchley's proposal 3 4 0 ; postmodern view 4 0 3 ; to the state 5 4 6 - S

(film) 5 8 - 9

Reich. Wilhelm 3 3 1 relativism 4 1 - 2 religion: as a n s w e r to scientific Real 4 3 7 ; celebrated in China to

politics of revolutionary'jusrioe (Badiou) 1 5 7 , 1 6 5 , 3 4 8 , 4 0 1 . 4 6 1

sustain stability 198; Eliot on the only w a y to save 2 7 5 ;

polirics of subtract.nn'402. 4 0 6 , 4 0 7 - 1 2

political movements founded on 4 0 9 ; in postmodern era 1;

Popper, Karl 9 8

replacement with ecology of fear 4 5 9 ; .science's p o w e r to

popular culture 43; figure of alien/cyburg 1 6 6 populism 2 6 4 - 5 ; Laclau 2 7 6 - S 5 , 2 8 5 - 6 , 3 2 5 ; polirics of fear .304; post-polirica! 26B-9; versus class struggle 2 8 5 - 9 3

replace/destroy 4 4 6 . oee aho Buddhism; Christianity; Islam religious fundamentalism: anti-Semitic Christians 3 8 ; in Christian post-Cx)mmunist countries 2 7 5 ; complicity with

"post-deconstructionist" thought 1 6 5

postmodernism 5 1 , 54, 56; interest in science 5 1 - 2 ; and liberal

post-ideulogy 2 9 5 - 6 . 3 4 0

democracy 4 2 , 379; nihilism 4 3 . 4 0 9 ; opposition with secular

"posthuman" universe 4 4 9 , 4 5 2

humanism 32; as reaction to modernity 34; in social life of

postmodern theory: bullshit 1 - 2 ; on pnnciple of "instrumental

slums 4 2 4 , 4 2 5 ; terrorism 3 3 2 - 3 . dec aim fundamentalism Renaut. Alain 1 6 5

reason" 174, 3 5 9 postmodernism: Eagleton 99; politics of identity 1 0 2

Rendell, Ruth 4 4 9 - 5 0

postmodernity: awareness of waste 4 5 0 - 1 ; capitalism 3 6 0 , 3 5 2 ,

repetition: Badiou's dismissal of 5 9 4 - 5 ; Deleuze's concept 3 2 0 .

354; Critchley's ideas in conte^it

o f 3 3 9 - 4 0 ; decline of M a s t e r -

Signifier 30; dynamics of globalization 3 8 3 ; as end of grand narratives 5 5 ; fundamentalism's hidden complicity with 3 1 : L a w and its inherent transgression 29; Left's refusal to accept

3 2 2 . 3 2 4 . 3 9 6 ; Heidegger's Dadcin 141 ; Klerkegaani's idea J 4 0 ; retrieval of European identity through 2 7 5 ; revolutions 1 3 9 representation: Badiou's view of state p o w e r 3 7 7 - 8 ; Negri's proposal 5 7 6 - 6 , 5 7 7 ; versus expression 3 6 4 . 5 7 0

501

INDEX resistance see politics of resistance

Scurr, Ruth 1 6 0

"resurrection" (Badiou) 3 9 6

secular humanism; opposition with religious fundamentalism 3 2 ,

revolt (Foucault) 109, i l l

.lee ahn humanism

revolution: appearance and reality in process of 3 9 2 - 3 ; in Eisensteins films 253—4; as Event 3 9 4 ; factual and virtual aspects 3 7 4 ; Foucault's designation 1 1 1 ; Kautsky's concept 5 1 0 ; level of monstrosity 7 5 ; moment of 122; "morning after"

secularism; as main enemy in l^Haye's novel 42; and relativism 41-2 secularization; In virtual capitalism 3 0 0 - 1 S e n d e r o Luminoso movement 64, 65—6. 271

140, 1 9 6 , 3 9 4 ; "premature" attempts 3 6 1 , 5 9 3 ; Robespierre's

Seneca 1 7 0

reproach to those wanting a "revolution without a revolution"

sense; v-irtual How of (Deleuze) 3 6 5 - 6 . 3 6 7 - 8

1 6 5 - 4 , 1 8 9 , 1 9 5 . . w al'o French Revolution: Haitian

September 1 1 , 2 0 0 1 4 2 5 - 4

Revolution; Maoist Cultural Revolution; October Revolution

Serbia: anecdote about Milosvic before arrest 12; toppling of

revolutionary becoming (Deleuze) 1 0 9 - 1 0 revolutionary justice dee politics of revolutionary justice revolutionary politics: and Catholic cult of martj-rdom 1 5 6 - 7 ; link with Hegelian dialectics 4 0 7 - 8 ; and state p o w e r 4 0 1 - 2 revolutionary' terror: in author's "defense of lost causes" 6, 7, 8; excess egalitarianism leading to 1 7 5 , 266; historical span 175; Intellectuals'enthusiasm for 108; J a c o b i n s 1 5 8 - 9 . 1 6 0 - 1 , 1 6 2 . 1 6 4 , 1 7 4 , 3 8 3 . 4 1 5 ; Merleau-Ponty's justification of Stalinism 224; S e n d e r o Luminoso movement 64; shift from revolutionär;^' purity to 2 5 2

Miiosvic regime 1 16 S e r b s k y Institute. Moscow .36-7. 4 0 , 4 7 The Serpent's Egg (film) 4 6 4 n sex: "masturbate-a-thon" 55; psychoanalysis of dreams 2 9 3 , 2 9 5 sexual minorities: "hvlng libraries" in Iceland 1 1 - 1 2 sexuality: metaphoric scope 2 9 3 ; narrative of in Shelley's Frankenstein 73—4, 76; shifting identities toilay 4 5 4 - 5 Shakespeare, William: Hamlet 2 9 , 5 0 5 ; Romeo and Juliet 4 1 1 ; The Tempcjt 26, 2 7 ; Troilu.i anà Crejjida 2 6 - 9 , 8 1 - 2 Shanghai commune 3 7 1 , 4 0 0 - 1

Rhodesia 2 7 1 '

Shanib, M u s a 1 7 8

Riefenstahl, Lenl 1 3 7 , 1 3 8 , 1 5 9

Sharon, Ariel 3 8

the Right; official stance of "no" to European Constitution 2 6 9 ;

Shelley, Mai>-: FrankenMein 73-7.

passion 1 0 1 ; populism mobilized by middle class 2 8 2 Rio de J a n e i r o 1 6 2

"The Mask of Identity" 1 9 2 ; poem "The Revoft of Islam" 3 9 4

Rivera, A n d r e a 2 2

Shin Dong Hyok 2 6 0

Robertson. Pat 3 8

,,hindogu 4 5 1 - 2

Robespierre. iMaximilien Marie Isidore de 6, 175; conjuncfion of virtue and terror 164, 1 7 1 - 2 ; pacifism

77-81, 438

Shelley, Percy Bysshe 75; poem "England in 1 8 1 9 " 80; poem,

161; politics of truth

The Sbinmg (King) 16, 1 6 5 Shostakovich, Dmiln: debate about true message of w o r k s 236—

1 5 7 . 1 5 9 - 6 0 , 1 6 2 - 3 ; reproach to those wanting a "revolution

7, 2 3 8 , 2 3 9 - 4 0 . 2 4 3 - 6 ; interrogation by K G B 2 4 8 - 9 ; late

without a revolution" 1 6 1 . 1 6 3 - 4 , 1 8 9 , 1 9 5 . 4 8 6 - 7 n : speech on

return to more traditional forms 2 1 1 ; private, melancholic

day before his arrest and execution 2 0 7 ; speech in Nafional

w o r k s 2 1 4 , 2 4 4 ; and Prokofiev 2 3 7 , 2 4 5 ; reading along lines of

Assembly (March 1 7 9 4 ) 1 6 6 - 8 ; speech on trial of the king 416-17 '

Ca^'ohlanca 2 4 0 - 2 ; short opera, The Noje 247; Stalinist condemnation of 246—7

Rolland. Romain 2 7 0 Roman Catholicism: Church's involvement in Solidarity 1 1 6 - 1 7 ; cult of martyrdom adopted by revolutionary- politics 1 5 6 - 7 ;

Simonides 2 2 9 Singer, Bryan 171 singie-issue popular movements 284—5

message of Life In defense against biogenetics 4 5 7 ; pedophilia

Skulason, Pall 4 4 2 - 4

of priests 39; proverbial advice to promiscuous husband 2 9

slavery: J o h n Brown's radical abolitionism 1 7 2 - 3

Romania 2 7 5

Sloterdijk, Peter 9 7 . 3 7 3 - 4

Romanticism 1 0 9 : enthusiasm for French Revolufion 3 9 4 ; notion of monstrosity- 7 4 - 5 Roosevelt. Franklin D. 3 9 0 Rorty, Richard 3 4 - 5 , 3 7 9

Slovenia 4 1 0 slum-dwellers: Chavez's politicization of 4 2 7 ; in new megalopolises 4 2 4 - 7 , 4 2 8 Snyder, J a c k 6 8

Rousseau. J e a n J a c q u e s 7 1 . 98, 1 0 7 , 3 3 3 , 3 4 5 - 6 , 4 5 8

social democracy see Third W a y social democracy

Rozental, Mark 2 2 1 - 2

social movements 3 4 7 , 3 5 8 . 3 6 4

Rumsfeld. Donald 2 7 5 , 4 5 7

social relations: Alarxism 174—5. 4 0 4 ; In postmodern capitalism

Rushdie, Salman 21 Russia: chaotic empire 2 1 4 ; impossible conditions for socialism .361

of today 3 5 7 ; shift with rise of capitalism 2 0 3 , 2 0 4 social revolution 7 5 , 1 9 5 the social-symbolic: identity 12; in paternal authority 3 2 - 3 , 86;

Russian Language Institute (Soviet A c a d e m y of Sciences) 2 2 1

violence 21 socialism: direct democracy of "soviets" 5 7 6 - 7 ; disintegration of

sacrifice, spirit of 7 0

impossible conditions in Russia 3 6 1 ; Kautsky's idea of victory

SaKlins, Marshall 2 5 , 3 3 0

of 5 1 0 ; mass choreogr-aphy/performance 1 3 8 ; Polish joke

S a i n t - J u s t , Louis 1 6 0 . 4 1 6

about 3 1 8 ; seeds of solidarity In slum collectives 4 2 5 - 6

Santner, Eric 8 5

Socialist Realism 2 1 3 , 2 4 6

Sarajevo 3 2 9 - 3 0

society; alienation 3 7 7 ; of choices 4 5 5 ; individualistic and

Saramago. J o s é : Seeing 3 0 3 , 4 1 0 S a r U o z y Nicolas 1 5 8

organicist notions 1 2 7 ; slum-dwellers' place in 4 2 5 ; today's "society of the spectacle" 4 1 8 ; universality 4 1 5 - 1 6

Sartre, J e a n - P a u l 1 0 7 , 3 6 4

Socrates 1 0 2

Saudia A r a b i a 21

SolarL. (film) 3 6 5

Schelling. Friedrich Wilhelm J o s e p h von 143. 1 4 5 , 1 7 7 . 2 5 5 , 367 Sebinèlrr'.., U,t

Solidarnoae 1 1 6 - 1 7 , 2 7 8 . 4 0 8 Solzhenitsyn, A l e x a n d e r 62, 2 1 4 . 2 3 7 , 4 6 0 - 1

(film) 5 6 - 7

S c h n u u . Carl 1 2 9 , 1 5 1 . 2 8 3

Sontag, Susan 1 3 7 Sophists 1 2 5

Schoenberg. Arnold 157-4i, 2 4 6

Sophocles ,<ee Antigone

Schumann, Robert: "Humoresque" 3 2 1 - 2 , 3 2 4 . 3 8 9

Sorensen. Ted 2 1 5

Schwarzenegger. Arnold 1 6 6

Soros, George 374

scrence: establishment of truth 5 5 ; feminist critique 79;

Soviet Union: defended by Western leftists 14, 15; during "war

Habermas's crifique 4 5 5 - 6 . 4 4 8 ; hegemony' 33; ideology 4 4 5 -

communism" era 7 1 , 2 3 5 ; as "empire of signs" 2 2 0 - 1 ;

6, 4 5 5 - 6 ; p o w e r to replace/destroy religion 4 4 6 : religious

Heidegger's preparation for new, postwar society 1 5 0 ;

lundamentalists' interest in 31—2; t n j e victory o v e r Church

inventive Ideas regarding e v e r y d a y existence 196; Merleau-

189 scientific development: as antagonism to global capitalism 4 2 3 ; ineffectiveness of "ethical committees" 4 5 8 Scott, Ridley 7 7

502

459; Fast European 4 1 6 ; European governments today 4 2 ;

Sade, Marqu.s de 209, 3 4 5 , 4 7 5 - 6 n

Ponty-'s defense of Communism in 164; Stalin's act of forced collectivization 1 5 2 . .lee ai
INDEX Spartacus 3 9 6 spectrality: revolutionary Event 3 9 4 ; self-engendering capitalism 3 0 1 - 2

suspension by scientific discourse 3 3 , dee al>o the socialsymbolic symboHc Law: ego ideal 242; father/Master as agency of 8 6 - 7

speech: effect of writing 3 8 2 Der Spiegd XZb-S

Taliban 6 9

Spielberg, Steven 5 6 - 7

Tanner, Michael 2 4 0

Spinoza, Baruch 5. 6, 5 1 4 , 3 1 8 , 5 6 6 , 4 1 8 : definition of freedom

Tarkovsky, Andrei; No^talfjia 3 6 5 ; SoLri' 3 6 5 ; Stalker 4 2 - 3 . 4 5 1 Taylorism 2 1 2

20; view of democracies 102, 1 0 3 the Spirit: Derrida's reading of Heidegger's Geist

1 4 5 ; Hegel's

"silent weaving o f 3 7 4 - 5 ; Kant's "transcendental

Tchaikovsky, Pyotr Ilyich 2 1 1 technology; and global capitalism 5.38, 4 2 3 ; Heidegger's

imagination" 3 9 7 ; and the Letter 1 4 0 . dee aUo "objective spirit"

perception of danger In 4 3 5 . 4 4 7 - 8 , 4 4 8 . 4 4 9 , 4 5 0 ;

(Hegel)

ineffectiveness of "ethical committees" 4 5 8 : nihilism 14.3, 1 4 6 ;

Stalin, J o s e f 1 0 9 . 1 7 6 , 4 6 8 n ; act of forced collectivization 1 5 2 . 306; consciousness of "objective meaning" 2 3 0 - 1 ; formulation o f immoral ethics 2 2 3 - ^ ; and Ivan the Terrible 2 1 4 . 2.57;

progress as determining our lives 4 5 3 . 4 5 5 ; and terror 4 5 2 ; unchained frenzj' of 2 7 4 . dee aldo artificial Intelligence; biogenetics;

cyber-technologies

Mao's critique of 1 5 7 , 1 7 8 - 9 , 1 8 3 ; nature of his belief 2 2 6 - 7 ;

television; "live coverage" 2 7 4

"On Dialectical and Historical Materialism" 1 4 9 - 5 0 , 1 8 7 ,

temporality: dialectic with eternal Absolute 3 2 4 ; limitation of

222; speech at Lenin's funeral 2 2 9 ; on truth through class

historical notion of 4 5 9 - 6 0 Terminator (film) 1 6 6

struggle 4 1 8 Stalingrad; German defeat ( 1 9 4 3 ) 6 9

terror: acceptance of nature 4 4 2 , 4 5 2 ; in Badiou's "eternal Idea"

Stalinism 6, 7, 1 4 ; brutality of dekulakization 2 6 3 ;

of revolutionary justice 4 6 1 ; choice between fear and 433—4;

bureaucratism rather than bureaucracy 2 5 9 - 6 0 ; camps 3 8 - 9 ,

of the Excluded 4 5 0 - 1 : Heidegger on necessity of 4 3 1 ;

1 6 5 - 6 : carnivaiesque dimension 2 4 8 - 9 , 2 5 2 , 2 5 4 , 259; classic

humanism and/or 1 6 4 - 5 ; justification of 164, 2 2 4 ; and

novels of 52; cultural counter-revolution 2 1 1 - 1 4 , 2 1 9 , 2 4 6 , 247; debate about origins of 180; destructiveness and totaiitarian nature 152; D u t y t o w a r d s Humanity 2 2 7 - 8 ; humanism and terror 1 6 4 - 5 , 2 1 4 - 1 . 5 , 2 1 9 ; immoral ethics/ morality 224; importance of inainlaining appearances 2Ü2; industrial nature of murders 1 8 7 ; intellectuals duped by 1 0 7 , 108; Kremlinology 2 1 9 - 2 2 ; and Marxism 9 8 , I 04; narrative of anti-fascist fight in concentration camps 1 6 5 - 6 ; paranoia and

technology 4 5 2 , dee atdo emancipatory terror: revolutionary terror terrorism: aspect of democracy 4 1 8 ; fundamentalism 3 3 2 - 5 . 4 0 9 ; U S torture of suspects 4 8 - 9 ; Vatican's accusations against A n d r e a Rivera 2 2 . dee aido Mushm terrorism; Palestinian terrorists Thatcherism: institutionalization by New Labour government 189-90

dissolution of 2 4 9 - 5 0 , 2 5 9 ; policy towards leading dissidents

"theoretical anti-humanism" (Athusser) 166

237; proclamation of end of "class" 4 1 4 - 1 5 ; purges 2 0 1 , 224,

theory: and failure of practice 5. 73, 104—5, 5 2 0 ; and practice of

232, 2 4 9 . 2 5 0 - 1 . 2 5 2 , 269; rejection of Prokofiev's music 259, 2 4 4 , 2 4 5 ; shift from Leninism to 2 5 U 2 , 2 3 5 ^ . 2 5 4 , 3 2 3 - 1 .

populist pohtics 264; radical iransubstantiation" 1 8 0 - 1 ; tension with politics 1 0 5 - 4 . 1 0 4 - 5 ; universal scope of 1 7 8

360; and Shostakovich 's music 2 3 6 - 7 , 2 4 3 - 6 ; in The Fall of

Thermopylae, battle of 6 8 - 7 0

Berlin 59; vision of planned economy 5 0 6 , 3 0 7

the Thing (Lacan) 16, 4 7 . 127, 16.5, 2 8 7 - 8 . 3 2 8 , 3 4 5

Stalinist show trials ( 1 9 3 0 s ) 8 8 - 9 , 2 1 2 . 2 2 0 , 2.59. 3 4 2 - 3 ; and Brecht's TIK Measured Taken 2 2 2 - 5 ; Bukharin 2 3 3 - 6 Stalker (film) 4 2 - 3 . 4 5 1

Third W a y social democracy 2. 1 8 9 . 1 9 0 , 3 3 7 . 5 3 9 , 4 0 2 . 4 5 9 Third W o r l d : explosive g r o w t h of slums 4 2 4 ; and Mao's achievement 1 7 6 - 7 , 1 7 9

Starbucks 4 3 0

Thoreau. H e n r y David 1 7 3

Stasi: case of Hägen Koch 2 9 7 - 8 ; terror in Goodbye Lenin 6 2

300 (film) 6 8 - 7 2

the state: acting within 4 0 2 ; and the Excluded 4 3 0 ; ideas of

Tibet 7 0

Heidegger and Hegel 1 2 9 , 1 3 1 - 2 ; policy on slum-dwellers

Tibetan Buddhism 3 3 2

4 2 5 , 4 2 6 ; politics of resistance to 346—8; private use of reason

time dee temporality

4 2 9 ; relationship with people in democracy 1 0 4 , 1 0 5 ;

Tiim

"representation" 5 6 4 , 4 1 2 - 1 3 : subtracting politics from 4 0 2 ,

Tdani£ (film) 5 7 - 8

4 0 6 , 4 0 7 , 4 1 0 - 1 1 ; true democracy's relation to 3 4 6 - 7 state power: Badiou's view

577S;

Chavez's taking of 4 2 7 ;

magazine 4 6 1

To Be or Not to Be (film) 4 2 5 Tocqueville. Alexis
dictatorship as entire field of 4 1 2 : interaction with councils

Todd. Emmaimel 3 6 2

376; I-eft's aim to undermine 3 3 8 , .359, 5 7 1 - 2 ; movements

tolerance I. 3 0

NadrealiHa

with ambiguous relation to 4 0 8 - 9 ; politics of resistance to

Top Luta

(Critchley) 3 4 0 - i ; and revolutionary politics 4 0 1 - 2 ;

torture: Harris's defense of 4 6 - 8 ; of Kbalid Sheikh Mohammed

revolutianary taking of 3 7 4 , 4 0 0 ; tension/dialogue with selforganized multitude 371

4 9 , 49-50,

(rock group) 5 2 9 - 3 0

50; and o u r avoidance 15; seen a.s legitimate topic

of debate 50; of suspected terrorists by U S 4 8 - 9 ; in i''^ 5 1

Stavrakakis. Yannis 100, 3 0 4 - 6 , 3 0 7 - 1 0 . 5 1 6 - 1 8 , 3 1 8 - 2 0 . 3 2 4 7, 3 2 8 - 9 , 3 5 0 . 3 3 1

Toscano, Alberto 3 9 8 totalitarianism: carnival in Duck Soap 342; in Communism and

Sternberg, .Josef von 2 4 5

Nazism 2 6 1 , 2 6 2 , 4.58; and dangers of radical emancipatory

Stoppard, Tom: Rodencraniz anà Gidlàendtern are Deaà 27

movements 5; and democracy lOI, 1 0 6 . 4 1 8 ; jouiddance 5 2 5 ;

Strauss, Leo 6 5

Leader 3 7 8 ; and mass performance 1 5 8 ; and philosophical

Stravinsky, Igor 2 1 4

notion of totality 9 8 ; postmodern leftist Idea of I 74; potential

subjectivity: Althusserian 3 4 4 ; Critchley's account 3 4 0 . 5 4 5 - 5 ;

in self-transparent society 5 7 7 ; reading of Robespierre's

fear of abyss of 4 3 1 ; Foucault 1 1 5 ; freedom and civifity 2 0 - 1 ; Heidegger's analysis 1 4 3 , 1 4 4 - 5 ; Inner life 1 2 - M . 5 4 3 ; Lacanlsn 4 8 , .341, 3 4 3 , 5 4 4 ; multiple subjectivities u n d e r capitalism 5 4 9 : non-historical 1 4 8 ; and political practice .346 sublimation dee aesthetic subHmation

(Ucan)

National Assembly speech 1 6 6 - 8 ; return of philosophies of 4; Stalinism 1 5 2 . 252; truth as universal 5 8 5 totality: antagonism with the individual 1 2 7 ; Heidegger's notion of state 1 5 1 - 2 ; and totalitarianism 9 8 Toussaint L'Ouverture 3 9 2 , 3 9 6

the Subhme ( K a n t ) 4 4 4

trade unions 3 3 9

subtraction dee politics of subtraction

traditional ideologies: China ( 9 8

superego 3 4 2 - 3 ; Critchley 34 !, 3 4 9 - 5 0 : figure of Evil Genius 8 7 ;

traditional myths 9 9 - 1 0 0

Jonùdance 30: Kafiia's father as figure of 8 7 - 8 , 90; Lacanian 8 9 , 9 0 , 3 4 1 , 3 4 2 - 5 ; of the Law 56, 242; opposition with ego ideal

traditions: FJiot on link with change 5 1 2 - 1 3 ; sustaining revolutions 1 1 2 . 1 1 5

2 4 2 - 3 ; in postmodern permissiveness and fundamentalism 34;

"transcendental empiricism" (Deleuze) 3 6 6

Stalinist 2 3 8 - 9 : stor\' of Brecht's alleged remark about show

transcendental imaginatlon/ideaÜsm ( K a n t ) 3 9 7 . 4 4 3

trials 8 8 - 9

transgression: Inherent in L a w 29, 4 4 , 9 2 - 3 , 1 9 3 ; and morality

sweatshops 3 5 9 the symbolic: and the act 3 0 6 ; paternal authority 3 2 - 5 ; and the Real 5 1 7 - 1 8 , 3 2 0 : signifier 3 1 8 : Stavrakakis's oniologj- 3 2 4 ;

43--1; in Titanic 5 7 trauma 1 4 6 "tribal" communities 3 7 7

S03

INDEX Trier. Lf,rs von

von Trier. I ^ r s

virtual capitalism 3 0 0 - 3

Troisky. Leon 7 1 ; arlvocation of duality in governance 5 7 6 ; differences with Stalinism 2 3 2 - 3 ; dream about the dead Lenin 2 2 8 - 9 ; on need to improve Man 2 1 1 - 1 2 ; on Soviet regime's

Virtue-Terror conjuncfion (Robespierre) 1 6 4 . 1 7 1 - 2 Voice: re-presented by wrifing 3 8 2

Truman. Harry 2

voluntarism: in Badiou's "eternal Idea" of revolutionary- justice 461 von Trier. I ^ r s 1 2 - 1 3

truth: and actualization o f theory 1 0 4 - 6 ; disintegration o f iink

voting: in Saramago's Seeuig 4IÖ, sec aUo elections

creation of a majority 51 i

with meaning 3 3 , 3 4 0 ; Lacan 1, 2 - 3 ; as never enforced 3 0 6 - 7 ; Robespierre's politics of 157, 159; in scientific universe 33; totalitarian 3 8 3

W a g n e r , Richard 2 4 0 . 2 5 5 . 3 9 5 , 4 6 8 n Walicki. Andrzcj 2 5 2

Turgençv, Ivan 2 1 3 , 2 5 3

Walpole, Horace 7 6

Turin shroud 3 2

war: Heidegger's description 1 4 9 ; as miiitary policing today 362;

Turkey 2 7 3 - 4 , 2 7 5 . 4 6 5 n

Riibcspierre's speech on 1 6 1 ; U S need for permanent state of

2^' (film) 51

362, 3 6 3 w a r on terror 4 9 - 5 0 , 3 6 5 , .386

Ukraine 2 6 3

The Wiiroftk

unconscious: and avoidance of responsihilily 2 2 5 ; desire in

waste: produced by capitalist industry 4 5 0 - 1

Wor/À- (film) 5 7

dreams 7 2 - 3 , 2 8 8 , 2 9 4 . 295; knowledge 4 5 7 ; in Lacan's theoi>-

water-boarding 4 9 . 50, 51

of cause 2 8 8 - 9

Wayne, John 96 W e b e r n , Anton 2 4 6

Unger, Roberto 5 3 0 United States ( U S ) : anti-capitalist struggle against 4 0 3 ; antisegregation movemem

W e i m a r Republic 1 5 1 W e l b y , Pier^iorgio 22

284; border with M e x i c o 4 2 4 ;

decline of empire 3 6 2 - 3 ; Democrats' opposition

to

welfare state ideology: attempt to dfifend vestiges of 338; Europe

Republicans 3 4 7 ; disease threatening survival of bees 4 5 7 ; ideology of pursuit of happiness 4 6 6 n ; Khrushchev's

2 7 4 . 562; today's dismissal of 4 5 9 Welles, Orson 2 5 3

defiant message to 2 5 3 ; legalizafion of status of Mexican

VVester-n civilizarion: leftist global problematizafion of 9 7 - 8

illegal immigrants 267; as metaphysically identical to China

Western intellectuals; enthusiasm for revolutions in the "Other

274; music and popular-cu!rural struggle 2 8 9 - 9 0 ; Negri's proposal to break hegemony of 3 6 0 , 362; neoconservatives 42," and Nicaragua" Sandinlsta governmenl

69;

Pentagon's

agenda for global military domination 4 7 9 n ; populism and post-political admiiiistrafion 2 6 8 ; practice of

torturing

suspected terrorists 4 8 , 4 9 , 50; presidenfial elecfions

Place" 1 0 8 , 1 1 5 \VTiale, J a m e s 7 7 W h o l e Foods 4 3 0 the Will: in Heidegger's thought 1 4 3 - 7 Williams. Bernard 164, 4 5 6

of

W i n n e b a g o ( G r e a t Lake tribe) 2 8 7

2 0 0 0 2^»4. 5 1 6 ; soldiers attacking from wale distance of

Wisdom 2, 99. 4 5 6

Persian Gulf 6 8 - 9 ; struggle against slavery 1 7 2 - 3 ; tax

Wolf, Christa 62, 4 2 6

i-cvolts 2 8 4 - 5 . ..ee

CiA

Universal émancipation: betrayed by market r e a l u y ' t h e day after" 1 4 ) ; "Messianic" standpoint of str'uggle for 6

WoUslonecralt, M a r y 76. 7H women: Freud's perplexity with sexuality of 2 7 0 ; private and public p o w e r of 177-8." 2 5 4 - 5

universal ethics 1 6 - 1 7

the W o r d : and the Act 163; speech and writing 3 8 2

universal politics 4 0 5

w o r k e r s ' movements: exploited fiir revolutionary,- potential 1 1 6 -

universality: and Its distorted representation 2 9 4 - 5 ; and J e w i s h struggle 5 - 6 : "part of nü-part" o f 4 3 0 ; society 4 1 5 - 1 6 ; "the people" 2 7 8 . 4 1 4 - 1 5 ; theory 1 7 8 ; topic of populism versus class struggle 2 8 5 , see til'i' "concrete universality" (Hegel) Uris. Leon 4 6 6 n (J.'uaf SusfKctd (fiim) 171 utoplanlsm: "care of the w o r l d " as political practice 1 2 2 ;

17; Nazism's appropriation of mass performances from 1 3 8 ; in today's China I 9 [ , 199. 2 0 0 - 1 working class: classical Marxist notion 4 2 0 ; creation of majority in Soviet revolution 5 1 1 ; difference with today's slumdwellers 4 2 5 ; Laclau and M a r x 2 8 5 - 6 Wor-l
elements contained in Cultural Revolution 2 0 6 ; Gastev's

Wrathall, Mark 1 1 8 - 1 9

biomechanics 2 1 2 ; J a m e s o n on process of realizing desires

wrifing: Brecht's motto from Tk' Thref~/!cnny opera 94; Kafita's

195-6

"almost nothing" of 9 1 ; Plato's critique 382

Utopias 3 0 9 - 1 0 •The X'FiUv 67 Vffr

V,nMta (film) 1 9 2 - 3

value: production and consumption 3 7 2 - 3

Yamamoto J o c h o 170

Varela, Francisco 4 6

Y e Xiaowcn 1 9 8

Vatican: attack on A n d r e a Rivera 2 1 - 2 ; condemnation of Tha Da Vinci Code 6 6

Veals, William Butier 1 3 9 . 3 3 1 - 2 Y e l l o w River dam 2 0 0

Vcenhoen, Ruut 44

Yezhov, Nikolai 2 5 0

Venezuela 2 6 5 . 3 6 5

Yugoslavia: Negri's view on disintegration of 4 8 4 n ; prosecution

Ver'aßtttu] (renunciation) 2 5 - 4

of w r i t e r s and journalists 2 0 2 , mc aL>o Sarajevo; S e r b i a

violence: act of privatizing the ci>nimons 4 2 8 - 9 ; fascism 2 8 1 ; meaningless 4 0 9 ; populist 3 0 4 ; social-symbolic 2 1 . oee alw

Zapatista movement 3 3 8 , 4 0 8 . 4 2 7

d i v i n e violence"

Zhdanov. Andrei 2 4 6

the virtuak and the actual 1 4 0 , 1 4 1 , 3 1 2 , 3 1 4 - 1 5 , 5 6 5 - 6 . 3 7 4 ;

Zhou Enlai 167, 2 0 5 , 4 0 1

Deleuze's conception 3 1 2 , 3 2 1 , 5 6 5 . 367—8; dream of humans

Zinneman, Fred 61

as softw-ar-e 5. 570; expressive productivity 5 7 0 ; Reality w c

Zionism 5, 6, 5 8

live in 3 7 0 - 1

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