Indian culture in the days of the Buddha,

INDIAN CULTURE IN THE DAYS OF THE BUDDHA BY

A. P. de ZOYSA,

B.A., Ph.]). (l.ond.)

ofGray'8 Inn Ba.r·at·Jaw l"d. F.:I;Q/Hi".. I,. Q,i.nt~1 LIJ"g"uV'" to Ih. U .. i...T4iUu

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CONTENTS Chapter

Page

III

1'~;ItSONAI,

1\'

\\'OMKN"

1 3 1l 16

MARRIAGE

24

SOCIAl, OIlDERS

29

MEETINGS AND GATHERINGS

3<

nOMES

40

DAILY IIAUITS AND CUSTOMS ..

45

AMUSEMENTS BELIEFS AKO FAITHS

53 58

EDUCATION

64

XIII

LITERATURE

72

XIV

FINE ARTS AND ARCHITECTURE

81

ISTRODUGTIOK lE

" VI "11

YIIf IX X XI XII

XY XVI XVII XVIII XIX XX XXI XXII

CULTURE OF TilE MINlJ YRE.:OOM

ART AND SCIENCE

sa

PHILOSOI'IIY

91

SOCIAL SERVICE

98

TOWNS AKD VILLAGES

101

KINGS AND RULERS

109

GOVERNMENT AND LAWS

117

ARMY AND WAR

125

ECONOMiC CONDITIONS

130

CHAPTER

ONE

INTRODUCTION civilisation and culture have undergono so many changea and modifications that it ia no eaBy task to trace the state of society in India during the daya of the Buddha. Gotama, the Buddha, lived about two thousand five-hundred years ago. There is no recorded history of that period. Tbe edicts of Emperor Asoka and other monuments, together with the archaeological disooveries, corrohorate the evidence of references to ancicnt India by the hiBtorillns of other countrieB. Histories of CeyIon, Burma, Siam, Tibet, China, Japan and other countries into which Buddhism Wtll!l introduced at different periods, leave records and references to B\lddhist India. The traditional teaching of the Buddha and the mode of life, customs, art and literature of the Buddhist countries keep up the early Buddhist traditioIl8 even up to this day. In Ceylon, Burma and Siam, Buddhism is well established. In traoing tb.!, history of ancient customs and institutions in most nations in Asia, it is not difficult to discover the influenoe which Buddhism had on them. Anoient Indians had a civil dreM similar to the Roman toga. The Buddha a.nd his disciples evidently wore that dr6l!s. The Buddhist monks oontinued to wear it. In all Buddhist countries ",e fmd the form of the anoient dreM still kept up with very little modification or altoration, while the dreM of the ordinary people in those countries has undergone changes and traIl8(ormations. Buddhist [ndian traditions arc oonfirmed by the seripturel!. Theae scriptures which are called the Tripitako, though written after the death of the Buddha, are regarded by the Buddhists as the words of the toacher as handed down by his chief disciples. Tho subject matter of these scriptures contains many references and allul!ions to the mode of life of the people, their ways of thinking and their activities. Hence the I!cripturcs form the most reliable source of information rolating to the days oftho Buddha. To see that ancient aociety in its proper perspeotive it is'necE:sll8ry not merely to I!ift and Relect the relevant facts from the vaat amount of information embodied in the soripturcs, but also to apply the critical method of inquiry before attempting to generalise. In the literature of a country the poets and other writers have recorded, though not consciously, the aaoial history of their times. ANCIENT INDIAN

Sometimes a word or a phrase will be a sufficient clue to reveal subject matter uf importance to the hiHtorisll or to the anthropologist. When we deal with ancient literature'8pecial interpretation of certain pa88ages beoomes necessary. since the writers of differont agos had tlloir IlecuJiIl.rities of expre88iofl. Some of their allusiolls and references are not clsar. Their humour and their sUbtlety of t.hought and expre811ion are SOlllctinHlslost to thc mouern reader of anci(lJlt text.rl. Another danger to be avoided in rosearch work of tlds nature ill the tendency to attach etymological meaning~ to words which in their usage had different meanings. The word" deva" originally connoted the idea of a god. In the Buddhist scriptures the word is used in several senses so as to include the ruler of the people and also enlightened persons. 'rhe word .. aryan " was used to indicate l\ cultured or enlightened person and not a race. The ·Buddha speaks of his disciples a8 "Arya-putta" meaning thereby "cultured" 80n8. Similarly the word8 "Ariyo a.ttangiko maggo" mea.n the eight-fold method of the oultured. The diffioulties ofinterpreting a.noient 8criptures oan be overcome to alatgeextent by referenee to oommentaries3nd traditiunal explanatiolls The unwritten laws Ilnd the obscrvallce of oertain customary practices a.re halided down from generation to generation. Such customs alld usages oOllsiderably help in the proper understanding of the scriptures. 'The tro.dltiollo.l mode oC life foll~wed by the Buddhist monks shows with what caro very allcient customs are ~ept alive. The precepts laid down by the Buddha for the membors of his Order define in detail the mode of life whioh embodied many a oustom of the Buddha's own day. Also the 8ame precepts give all insight into the life of thoM times. Scanty records of pre-Buddhist India and thoso of the. period after the Buddha throw light upon the India ofthe Buddha'sday. The influence of the Veuas 011 the life and oustoma of that time is evident. So is the influence of Buddhism 011 the sub8equent period. ~Ieg88thene8 and the Chinese writers such 8sFaHien oonfirm the faOM which are disclosed in the Buddhist soriptures regarding the life and customs of BU(ldhist India. To judge India ncconling to the Buddhist scriptures is to come to the oonclusion that the Buddha lived in the Golden Age of India. In culture of the mind, in the freedom of both men a.nd women, alld in 8O~ial progress and prosperity, India at that time had attained a high 8tandard. That was the perilld when India ~ave to the world a philosophy which subsequently influenced the life and thought of most of the civilised I)eoples of the age. 2

CHArTER

TWO

CULTURB OF THE MIND

FREEDOM, TOLERANOE and intellectual movements in the days of the Buddha were essentially favourable for religious, social and philosophical speculations. People in all conditions of life took part in public matters. Women were not kept aloof. Differences in points of view were accepted and tolerated. Various schools of thought on religion and philosophy contended with one another with enthullissnt. The religious teachers looked for adherents to their precepts or dogmas. The philosopherll put forward their theories on cosmology, world Cl systems: and the soul. The social reformers preached against the existing aocial evils. Some teachers had established centres for their teachingll, while othenl travelled throughout the eountry to propagate their doctrines. 1 Their aim was not to convert a select few, but to teach the general publiC",' It is significant to remember that the method of most of the tcachet1l was persuasion by appeal to reason. Hence there was no bloodshed, riots or rebellion amollg the adherents to different schoolS of thought: Those early disputants and theorists served the useful purpose, 80 far as they were able, of sharpening the intellect and deepening the thought of the people. The inevitable result of such early training was that whcn the Buddha began to teach, he found an audienoe advanced enough to understand him. From the clouded atmosphere of speoulation on vain dogmllll, the Buddha directed the attention of the people to matt.on which explained the mode of life that t.ondcd to real happineSll. It was the material comfortB that were generally considered to be the ohief source ef pleasure. With such an ideal before them t,he ancient Indians had accumulated wealth. In the days of the Buddha. while the rich lived in luxury; the poor groaned under the struggle for exilltehce. Side by sMa"with the great prosperity of the country there was much suffering and disoollwnt. Those who lived in luxury discovered that the very plcaaurcll they indulged in were a cause of boredom and dill8atillf&ctioni They tried in vain to find the purpose and the meaning oflife. Old age, I.

Pll.ribijakM

deoay and death were Iloted all the undellirable and ulilLvoidabltt obstacles to the enjoyment of the ple88urea of life. Por liCe'slufIerings no teacher had so far found a rational remedy. Led by the cORljlalJllioll for humanity, the noble Prince Sidbartba, the heir to the throne oC the SakyslI8, left his royal comforbJ and went in Rarch of the caUll6 oC human euffering. Although he visited t.he reputed teachers and philO8Ollhenl, they were not sble to satiRfy him "ith their theori08. They explained suffering as the work of God, taught him to ]Iay ponallce and torture the body to expunge s.in. The sellro!ler after kllowlooge, like other honest belic\'ers of his day Itudiously followed the etrcnUOUll practiCil until he was nearly etarved and tortured to death. With the realisation of the futility of such practices, he began to think independently. He attnined enlightenment and disoovered the cauee oflufJering. Then he was known RI the Buddha, tlie enlightened tCBcher, who wall able to ehow the people the path to perfection aull enlightenment. The Buddha tnugh tthlltthe olLn/loof suffering Ilhould be looked forill the sufferer. lIe taught that people lluffer"or enjoy according to the rellulta of their actions in their past and prescnt livcs. The sum total of the reactive effect of the activiticll of the past and the present deter· mine the future. The only way to remove lIuffering and to attain to perfection and enlightenment is by one's own effort. SACrifices and prayers to gods "ere pointed, out to be in no way u86ful to remove human lIuflering. The lIiriver after the true happineu of perfection and enlightenwent.ehould first of all remove the caUIIe which produces suffering. The condit.ioDll of this cause are selfieh cravings, pa&!ions luch aa anger, hatred, iII-"iII, jealousy, IUllt and ignorance. Selfish oravingaare to be destroyed by rulising the truth of lluffering, pa88iODS by loathsomeneM of t.i1e Impurities of one's o"n form; Ignorance by invelltigation of the real aSJlecte of so called exist-cnce and the universe. Man's happiness or unbappinMll is a subjective lltaf,e of mind. Hence the attainmentofhappinell8 is poB8ible only by the culture of the mind. The obstacles to mental development are the attachments to scDllual pleasures, based on, greed, hatred, wrong vicw, delusion, pride, conceit, envy, shamelessnesll, recklesllness, eloth, torpor, eelfiehncflll, doubt, perplexity and distraction wJlich keep the mind in bondage. TJle mind freed by breaking the fetters call be cultivated by the Buddha'll method which ill termed hy him" the eight-featured method of the cultured". I

I

I

This inetbod, which only the Buddha teaches to the world, is not a theo~y but a practice. It is also described as the" middle path" wruch teaches the avoidance of extremes of sensuality and aSl<6ticism. The method demands that the striver after enlightenment should have the right view l so llS not to be led asuay by delusiolls and deceptions through wrong views a~d opinions. 'fhen he should have the right Rspiration,2 which eOllsists in aspiring for the path and fruition of deliverance. The right view enables him to discard the wrollg ideas of salvation. Such views being untainted with greed, hatred and delusion, give risl.' to feelings of liberality, amity and higher knowledge. The right sJ>66cll B is to avoid falsehood, slander, abusi\'e language and frivolous talk and to U86 true, kind and correct words. The right action' is to refrain from killing, stealing, dcfilement through sensual pleasures, and from the use ofintoxicant8. Acte ofservice and charity, learning the truth or teaching it to others are examples of right action. Tho right mode of lifo 6 is a lifo of avoiding ten kinds of wrong livelihoods. The right effortS consists in the avoiding of the pain of the body by changing the four postures and in the four-fold right efforts of the mind leading to milldfulness of mind and body. Suoh efforts consist in the attempt to prevent evil thougll.ts, words and deeds, to remove t~e ills that havc already arisen in the mind, to develop right t.hought.s, deep insight, energy, keen interest, tranquility, deep concentration amI equanimity, and to maintain and brillg to perfection the developed qualities. The right mindfulne8ll 7 ill c~nt,emplation on the visible form, feeling, conllcjoullne88 and lIlen!.a1 fadors, continually like the ticking of 11. watch for the acquirement of right concentration. The right concentrat.ion s is to make a deep examination into the nature of existence and to remove lIolfiIJI,\ orl\ving, pall8iOlllJ Rnd ignorance. to be free from lust, anger, indolence and doubt, alld to acquire. the cultured mental serenity whieh cOllsitll in concentrated IJcrfeotion, equanimity and freedom from sensual pleASure or p8!n. According to another analysis of the method, perfection IUld enliglltenment are to be attainod by leading a virtuous life, It by the control and purification of the mind,l 0 Rnd by the development of true kn?wledge and wisdom. ~ 1 A teaching based on mental culture of this nature can I. 8(J111nta.Dilllli 3. Bamma· Vaca 5. 8lJmma.Ajiva 7.

8"mma-811111i

9.

Sila

11.

P"ib1..

2. 4. 6. 8. 10.

8"rnlfla,SI"'wppa Saml7l(l.Kllmll\lJmM 8"mlna· Yiyoygma Snmma·Samad1li Snmiidhi

'C.

I, :I,

Dltammapllda AllglllillUJla SNlla

2. 4,

A "9'"Uara NilWy(J 11. XIX, AbhinYllnu

revealing the hidden powers of the mind was a startling d.i6COyery and thollO who achieved such mental powers were ready to teach others how to attain them. A detailed account oC the method of acquiring special psychic powere is given in the Buddhistscriptureadealing with iLcquirement of supemormalstate8. By thus reducing what. the people held to be superstition to natural, and by showing wbat. were considered inspirations and revelations to be acquisitions, the popular faith in gods W&.ll shaken. The Buddha's method and its practice proved that goda are not necessary to attain to the highest achievemenu. lie denied the immortality oC the god. since they are themselves liable to impermanence and suffering. With the spread of Buddhist thought people became iconoclasts and dispensed with temples, priests, rituals, vows, sacrifices and prayers. The Buddha pointed out to Amagandha, a reputed Brahmin teacher, thll.t" neither the aMh, or fish, nor fasting, nor Ilakedness, nor tonsure nor matted bair, nor dirt, Jlor wllaring skins, nor wo~shippillg firell, nor the many continual penances, nor sacred hymns, nor oblations, nor eacrifices, nor observanoe oC llnored days, purify a person who has not oonquered his' doubt'." 1 Hitual, vows and sacrifices to gods was an important part of religious worship during the B\tddha's life in India. Buddha preached against the existing practioos to enable I>cople to dispense with futile pract.icell which lead the mind astray. It was easential that such religious rites ehould cease before the mind could be free to be properly trained. The Buddha's teaching was t.hat. the individual bae to get enlightenment wit.h determined effort, and enlightened men beeome peraolla of veneration and honour even by the gods (devas). The chief feat.uree of t.hi. enlightenment are: It. wu a teaching intended to make man greater than his gods. The novelty of the teaching itself was sufficient. to attract public attention. The Buddhists openly l,Ieclared themselves in no way inferior to gode for they had realised that they had the potentialities to make themselves evcn eUI>crior to gods. Hence the popular fear of the gods was,removed. This removal of fear and tlle servility of mind is essential to the culture of the mind. The mind tainted with fear and servility cannot break the fettcrs tllat keep the mind in bondage. . Prior to this teaching; and even during the days of the Buddha, there were di fJerent secll! who worshipped gods and hoped to propitiate them I. S"UfI Nipafltfl

AmagandhaSutta

7

and avert their anger by sacrificing animals. When the King of KOIUI.ltl. had an tl.wful dream, according to the advice of the Braoomin priests he: began to sacrifice a large number of animals. I ., "Lcf4tbere be slain fOI sacrifice so many bulls, so many steers, heifers, goats and rams. Let there be felled so many treedor sacrificial posts. Let su much kusa grass be cut to strew round the place of sacrifice".! Such WI!.S the order of the Brahmin priesb. This sacrifice was avoided by the timely visit of the Buddha who persuaded t.he King to become one of his followers . . With the spread of Buddhism the kings used to penalise the killing of animals. The Emperor Asoka, the Great, through his edicts prohibitocl the slaughter of animals. Olle edict says: .. This Dharroa-lipi has been caused to be written by King Priyadarsin, Beloved of the Gods. No life should hence be immolated and offered as a sacrifice.'" The sacrificcs to the gods by the priests and other practices in the name of gods had.at thnt time cnslaved thc minds of Borne people with superstition. Removal of supcrstitions from the mind was a preliminary step to real mental culture. When the futility of sacrificcs wae realised by the people a new humane movement was introduced by extending kindness and comJlassion even to the dumb and helpless animals. Prevention of cruelty to animals became a social institution nearly two thousand five-bundred y~ars ago. By discarding the worsllip of gods, thc Buddhist Indiane do not seem to have lost anything either morally or mentally. It was considered a greater service and a more important duty to help and bonour their fellow-men and women than to worship gods. The Duddhists directed their energy to uplift the fallen and the less fortunato. The daily meditations of univeflltt.l love,' compBMion,1 approeitt.tion l Bud indilIerenoe 7 towards pleasure Bnd pain took the plfl.CIl of prayer. . A' general idea of the culture of the time call be gathered from tbe account ot what Wt1.8 accepted as things worthy of rejoicing. When t~ere were difierences of opinion as to what wcre the true blc88ings of life, the Buddha, being questioned, summed them up thus :. : ., , '~. To avoid the compallY of the fuol and the wicked, To associate with the wise and the virtuous, l. Ma1uJ8upiMBwtla 3. AAoka Ik>ek Edie~ I. Il. Karuna 1.

Uppthha

2. KandarakaBulla
,,'"

i'

'1

I.

2.

Suffering, the ')!'''!I(l of ufforing, dClltruetion of e"fI"oring IInd the way to dClllroy eufl"oring Malio MOIlga}.o S""o

9

character. It-ia only in an enlightened age alld in RIl equally enlightened aociet.y t.hat. t.he people will have courage t.oent.ert.ain the view that man ill greater t.han his god. Aceording to Buddha, t.he perfectly enlightened peffJOn is the higheat. being. To him even the greatest. of goda pay homage. The enlightened men are themselvea devB8. a claM of god8. The 8upematural beings who are k.nown as gods are not superior to the enlightened men. To a people who had faith in goda thia teaching muat havo boon ahooking. But when people understood the Buddha's teaching they feared neit.her god nor devil and yet. lived lL life of aervice and virtue. The pract.ice of t.his teaohing enabled people to develop unselfiah charBct.ers. Their mental achievements, their love of liberty and freedom, aneI t.heir uprightne68 created a diatinct culture which subsequently inl1uenoed practically the whole of Asia, until other in8uencca polluted or removed that culture.

10

CHAPTRll.

TRitER

PERSONAL FREEDOM

I.

Doot.rinll of Kamma

JI

wrong lIiews and wicked actions t.o ignornnoo. Hence the thoughts and deeds of tho ignorant were regarded with Ility and compfl88ion. The method of reducing ignornlloo WI\S to educate the people IUI(\ train their minds. In order to do thi8 the nud
:I.

12

2. 4.

XX V. I'Mala Sidfa

Frllgm.

Strabo XV.

I. 3. .6.

A6l1dMaJiital:a Cll1dlalra-BdlhiJataKa Malla Vogga-Vin.aya

2. Gmlil«Jiifu/m oi. C'aMkaJ
13

him n. Beribe wOllld be to mll.kn his lillgcrs sore, t.o make him all account· Rnt would be to make hill heart achc, and to Illn.kc him fl. money-chSJlger would bc to spoil his uye-siglJt.& In Ilncient India it appl1ll.rS that opportlluitieFl were givel! for people to follow what.e\'er profession they liked. There were iJlst:mces of some following more Mwn ono profeSllioll al\(\ of otllers changing from one profession to lUl0ther. .1 ivaka. was a fumous surgeon and phYBician and was afw a minister to King Aj:i.sll.tthu. Individual freedom was heighulIled by the freetlom of thought and of action proclaimed hy the Buddlm.. As for freedom of thought, the Buddhn's words might he construed aB the great.est charter of freedom given to lIIankind, whell he said: " Do not believe anything beeau86 it is believcd by parents, teachers, feamed men, men of high rauk or by the public, or because it is thought to be giveJl by divine inspiration, or by l\n oraclc, or becll.u8e it is handed down by tradition, or because it is {oulld in books, or because someone proclaims it to Le true, but believe anything if it agrees with reason, iU\lel!tigation and experienced knowledge."! Freedom of action was taught by the doctrino that each individual is responsible for 11;S own nction!" without ally fear of punishment from godll. '1'he natural consequence Was to free the milld from pricstcraft, to make the prl1.ctice of religion Il. private alld persollalmatter. TIle recognition of this fact created no religious discussions. Members of the same family belonged to various religioll/! faiths. Followers of onc teo.clIer went to discuss with and learn from other tea'chers. Ministers of the K;ng hold ditTeront te'ligiotl/! creeds, yet along with the rest of the king's flU bje'cte th",. ',.. eM ~vcrned by tIlC Bamc lawB and rights. No maD or woman "'as punished by the state for his or her religious views. Relj.gion was no bar to' hold office or perfonn publin duties. Tolei'lll:i.c~q;,-eligioll was practised in Buddha's day and Buddha's philosophy emphasised tIle need of sbch tolerance. l'ersonal freedom was brought to its higllCst developmcnt during tllO days of the Buddha, thereby dirccUy building up individual character and indirectly influencing natiollal character and culture. .Emperor Asoka m-stated the Buddhist COJlCellf.ioll of tolerance in his rock edicte. 1.

14

An.g«/ta,rll Nihy" I[ XX.

Prinoo Kii.lii.ma SllttA

EDICT XlI. " King Priyadarsin, BeJo\'cd of the Gods, honourll 81l1lCd-8, allcetics and hOUllcholdcra and honours with gift and manifold honour . . . . For one who hononrs one's own sect and COndelJUl8 another's sect, all through attachment to onc's own scct.-why l-in order that one may iUuminate onc's own sect, in reality by so doing injures, more s88uredly, one's own sect. Concourse is therefore oommendable--why l-in order that they may hear and desire to bear one another's Dhammc. For this is the desire of the Beloved of the Gods-what l-that all seotll shall be well-informed and conducive of good. And those who are favourably disposed towards this or that sect should be informed: "The Beloved of the Gods does not so mile!) think of gift or honour 8S -what 1-AB that there mlLy be a growth of the c88ential among all sects and also mutua! appreciation." . . . . EDICT XIII. .. And this edict of Dhamma has been engraved for this purpose-why I-in order that whosocver may be, my sons and greatgrandsons, lllay not think of a new conquest 8S worth acllicvillg, that in regard to aeonquest. possible only through (the use) of arrows, they may prefer forbearance and lightness of punishment, and that they may regard that to be the conquest which is a conquest through Dhamma. That is good for here and hereafter. May attachment to Dhamma develop into attachment to all kingdoms. That ill (good) for here and hereafter."

16

(IBI..i'TER

YOUR

WOMEN

Tn ... (KIN IHTION of WOlllOII ;n 0. country is to a grcat extent 1Il1 index to the social progrcss oHhe country. Enlightened society rebels against tyranny nnd bondage whether thlly arc applicable to women or to nny class of people. It;5 an admitted fact that intellcctllalllnd cultural development of women is CS8elltinl to social progress. 1'hc freedom elljoyed by the women of Uuddhist India shows the IHlvalleeu state of society at the time and tlu,t progress lUny be attribllted to " certain extent to the work of women. The activities of Indian mothers then wero not confined to their llousehold duties and to tho bringing up of childrell. '1'hey took nil active part in the JlUblie affairs of the cOllntry. Tlleir freedom nnd their publicospiritedness wore the outcome of a liberal educntion. The object of ancient fema le education seems to be cultural. In the Ther(J-Gafa there are references to learned womeu. Mutta, a student was the child of nn eminent BmlUlmill at. Savnuhi j l'UJUl:l., 0. studl'nt. was the daughter uf a lending burgess of the same city, and Thissa, 1\ student, was frolll the Snkyall race. Rhetoric and elocution wcre practised tileD as fin accomplishment Dhnmllta-dinnii was tll6 foremost teacher among the sisters of the Buddhist order. Sukkii, wllo uecame well versed iu the teachings of the Buddha, wne a ready speaker. She becamo a famous preacher of the day. Nnlldlltt.nrii, (rom the Kingdom of Kurus, wasleaTllcd in arts Ilnd fJOillnce8. She WllII 1\ renowned orator and toured I\bout India. debating. Bhnddii. KIllldalnkesa wont wherever there were learned teachers and carefully learnt tho methods of their knowledge. She W8S a keen debater who challenged and defeawd most of the well-known oratol'1l. Extemporised versification was considered a ma.rk of oulture a.nd learning. Tracos of this custom still exist in India. On specia.l occas;ons "orso was Hsed 0.5 the effectivo mode of giving expresgion to emotion or sontiment. The songs sung by womcn on the attainment of enlightenment arc spontaneous eXJlresgiolls of joy. I At the dodica-

16

tion of Pubiiorama, " well-known residence of the Buddha and hill disciples, the rioh lady Visiikii sallg a sOllg of her own composition, expressing her joy.' From the many iillltances which are casually mentioned in the Buddhist scriptures it is clear that education was not denied to women of ancient India. Thero wero women who had sJleciali.sed in certain branches of knowledge. The chief method of Illost teaohers was to pay individual attention to each pupil. Bhadda Kundo.lakesa, in her thirst for learning, went wherever there Wf1.8 a teacher famous {or his learning or wisdom. With fa.mous teachers to teach her, she became well known as one of the most leo.rned women of her day. Sometimes the parents themselves attended to the educo.tion of their children. " A man skilled in five-hundred theses married 11. woman skilled in five-hundred theses. Their son, Saehchaka and their {our daughters were taught 0. thousand theses by toe parents.2 Although learning at the feet of the teacher was 11. well·established oustom in ancient India, yet other avenues of learning were not ignored. Men and women went to hear great teachers or philosophers addreseing public meetings in parks or halls. They met renowned people whom they invit.ed into their homes, where they were listened to by entllUsiaatic audienoes after meals. Talented a.nd learned women went about the country RS teachers. Without the general education of women it would not have been possible in Buddha's day and later to send out women missionaries from India to other parts of the world. Princess Sangamitta, the daughter of Emporor Asoka, left the sbores of India as a missionary. She was" learned and well versed in Buddhist philosophy ".s Even up to thi,s day she is remembered with venoration hnd g!.lLtitude by thil Buddhists of Ceylon. With such varied and public activities women could not have been confmed to purely domestic werk, therefore the" purdah" system of caging women must be of later origin and growth. Nor is there any reference to rmch practices in the Buddhist scriptures.. Women in Buddhist India went into "homeless life" just as their husbands, bore great hardships,4 and with determination ami effort succeeded in attaining enlightenment. 6 l.

Dhammapod.1 AUa.rot"'a

:J. 5.

1'hl.lpavtl'MtJ Ilnd MtJMmm$a

2. Culla KalingaJiilak" 4. Vu,altlaraJ
Tkra Oii/ha

iT

They did not he~itnte to fl./lnpt themselves to ndverse circumstanccs. Whon lIece!lsary they workell nnd eawed their livelihood without any feeling of degrnllntion. Uttama, the daughter of a wealthy landowner becamo poor and began to work 88 a domestic servallt.! A husband who wildH~d to renollnce family life in oruer to become a reel use said to his wife: " Wife, yOIl will hll.ve to earn your living ".2 The wurds of the hushand Sllggll~t that it w!\B customary for women to work for wages. Women used. to he employed as maids or llurses in rich families. Vaddhesi Wf\8 n lIurse to Maha-Prajiipati. Other popular occupatiolls for women werc selliJlg fruit and flowers, dancing, playing muaic, nursing, spilUling, wenvillg cloth, dreM-making, gathering firewood and vnrious kinds of light work portaining to agriculture. 'fhe amusements and Ilnstimes of the ladies differed according to their rank nnd means. Parks and pleasances used to be visited by royalty and the ladies of the court for recreation or water-sports.! A special day WA,S observed 3S the ladies' day for water-sporls when the river banks wore crowded with women of 0.11 ranks. 4 The parks and pleasure gardeIUI saw men and women in their best attire 011 public holidays.• On certain {estive occasions some women used to enjoy themselves by indulging in strong drinks. There is the record oCsome ladies under the influence of intoxicating liquor disturbing a meeting at Savatthi, by singing and dancing Bo as to disturb the speaker.' Music and dancing undoubtedly must have been popular aMusements, for the Buddha had to warn hiB disciples not to indulge in danoing and singing for" men and women used to dance and sing and play mU8ic together, and they used to take and semI garlands and n08ego.ysto each other.'" It wa9 not unusual for ladiea to go for ploasure drives on elepllfmts or in chariotll. There is the instance of womellllot only driving their own chariots, but evell racing with men. "Ambflpnli drove lip BgBinst the young I.ichchavi princes, pole to pole, yoke to yoke, wheel to wheel, axle to Bxle."8 The established fonns of etiquette and propriety were generally observed alllong womell. It was custolllary to Bend a bevy of yOUJlg girls to greet a great perSOIl visiting It city i so ViSiikn, the daughter of a rich nobleman was sent with a large number of other young girls in 1. 3. 5.

7.

18

TIt~ra aalltd Mcllltan!1« J 'llac" I'UppMrlJUlI JlIIlJCo VinBYlJ-ChuU"\·,,gglll 1

2.

BlInd.halUlgor" Jiila/rn

4.

I'i8a/rn-DTkI"''''''pOOatta Kallta

6.

Kltmbflll Jatll/rn

8.

I'inaya-Ma.hangga. VI

order to welcome the B\I(ldha to the city. Visiika, though she W8S only seven years old at the time, was selected for thill as IIhe was reputed to have eourf.eollsllilumers. 1 The dignity of a lad y did 1101. permit her to trudge along the streets. A man in straightelwl circllmstances once snid to his wife: "It is not becoming for you to trudge along the streetll with me. Wait here for" short time until I sC/lll for ll. carriage with 11. servant to bring you into the city in a proper manner".! II. w:as considered ungraceful for a young lady to rUIl. A party of young girls were going to the river when a. sudden shower of rain came 011. Visii.ka walked in the rain while her companions ran for Rhelter, for she knew that it was not dignified for a king, or a royal elephant or a lady to rUll. Paying visits at unusual hours or bathing without suitable costumes were deemed improper. S It was also a well-established custom for the lady of the house to serve her guests. 4 Amollg other rights of women, the right to own and dispose of property was acknowledged. Villiika got 0. large storied residence built at great expense I\nd presented it to the Bmldha and his disciples. 5 Ambapali was allother who caused 11 similar gift of a residence to be built in the beautiful gardens attached to her house. She is also described as the owner of a number of magnificent chariots and horses. 5 Jivaka, the famous surgeon and physician was given 4,000 khavanus 7 by a rich lady for curing a chronio disease in her head. Her husband, son all(l daughter-ill-law each gave him a gift of 4,000 khav8nus. s Life of women generally in all ages seem!! to be closely associated with vanity, remonal decorations and a{lornmenta. The prosperity of a country often encouraged this feminine love of ornament and decoration. Enormous sums of money had been spent in ancient India 011 dress and jewellery. Women were described as" decked with jewels and garlands". They wore a robe or elollk when they travelled.' The cloak of a rich lady was described thus: "This garment was finished in four months. Its thread was made of silver. It extended from head to foot. Around the hem were dccoratiolls of gold and silver. On the top of the head, by the sides of the ears, at the neck, at the knees, at the elbows and at the sides of the waist there were gold ornaments. A part of the cloak consisted of a pCl\cock and tllore were a hundred feathers of gold 011 1.

3. 5. 7. 9.

Dlwmmapada AU,o,atalna J'illaya-Mlllhtl.vagga VIII Vi""ya-ChuUaVIIgga VI An allcicnt gol,l coin TAu.. GalM-Bhfultlll Klmd..l....

2. 4. 6. 8.

A&ad"'''aJotaka l'i"aya-MlIhangga VIII T"'er, Gillh,; J"'laYII-Mah.......gga VIII

elloh lIille. ItoR !Jenk wl\lIlJ111de of coral, tile eycs were gems, and so were the neck and tail-feathers. The ribs of the feathers were of silver, and 110 wero pnrtB of the legs. Whcn it is placed in position on ViSiiko.'s head it I\ppeared like 1\ peacock dancing 011 the top of a hill, and the sound which came from the mid ribs was heard like heavenly music. This oloak wall worth ninety milliong and a hundred thousand were spent on making it" I Thie was the type of cloak which noble ladies wore on ceremonial ocolllliollS. It was also used as a bride's dregs. The bead-dreM seemll to have been attached to the cloak as a part of it. There is all instnnce where a sen-ant girl of the rich nobleman, Anatha-pindika, 86ked her mistress for an ornaDlent to wear on a festive occasion when she had to go with the other servants to the public park. The lady gave her an ornament worth a thousand " pieces" of gold." Of the numerOU8 kinds of jewellery, the most oommonly worn were bangles of ivory, llilvct and gold and jewelled bracelets,' ear-dropll, strings of beads, gir
Dfw,"mapad~A!!Ilakat<>

3. 5.

Kfl3l!VeJii/alw,lI11U Ku.mba KarabaJiilom

20

Vi8l)k",

Aruhariy" Abbhtd" lH" .....".8,,1I"

2.

Std/UQ-S"Ua

4. 6.

Afaylluka.Jijlda

I'illllyn-Chulla.vaggll, V

taced boots, boots lined with cotton, or those made like the wings of pl~rtridges, pointed with rams' or goats' horns, or ornamented with ~corpiolls' tails or sewn round with peacocks' feathers, or shoes adorned with different kinds of skins, or ornamented with gold, silver, pearls, beryls, crystals, copper, glass, tin, lead or bronze. I The use of perfumes, scents and Bweet-sccnted oils Wall common among women and mOll. 2 The demand for gnrlands Rnd flowers must have been great in cities. TIlC nobles and kings had their special garland-makers. Garland-making had been a remunerative art.' Hair-dressers used to be employed by both men and women. A barber at Vesalj was described as "a man who used to do shaving, hair-dressing and eross-plaiting for the royal housellOlds of kings, queens, princes and princesses."~ Each age has ita own conception, not only of fashions in dress Rnd onlnment, but also of typical beauty. It will be interesting to note tbe accepted conception of beauty according to the writers in Buddhist ilndia. "The perfect beauty is graoeful in figure, beautiful in face, charming in manner, of tbe most fine complexion, neither very tall nor very short, neither very stout nor very slim, and neither very dark nor very fair."r. Also the five characteristic features of beauty in women were known to be the beauty of lwir, of flesh, of bone, of skin and of youth. To possess beautiful hair was to have hair like the peacock's tail ill grace, and when loosened the locks should readl tIle lady's ankles with the cnds of the hair curled up. Smooth lips of bright colour signified the beauty of flesh. White teeth with even interstices resembling a row of pearls WIlo8 the beauty of bone. 1'he beauty of skin WRe the skin naturally glossy like the blue lot\1s flower. 'rho possessor ofthe beauty Qf youth wRslively and fresh in youthfulness in spite of age.8 The Buddhist scriptures describe the well-known beauties of those days BS the possessors of the five characteristic features of feminine beanty. 1'he fame of tho women of those ancient days was not confined to such feminine charms alone. They were not barred from attaining to the hignest mental culture and enlightenment. i'he conditions favourable to the progress of women as existing tllen were justified by L 3. 5.

V'lWya-MRlu,vllggll. V K1f.mJiila/ca

MaAo. SKda8&aM Bulla

2L

the achievcmclIU! of women in the different, spheres of life. The long list of examples given in l'heri Catha is but n. slllall number of women who had r~tt.'1.inecJ to that high state of merltal culture which demands ullllflunl cffort, ill conl>entrn.tion and strength of l>harl\cter. The lives of remarkable wumf'n of Buddhist India dcscrvc special stmly nnd attention. There W:lS Queen l'ajapathi Gothami, wbo renounced the pleflsllres of the royal court llnd bel>ame the leader of women who sought perfection nnd enlightenment. She W8S a renowned preacher of the doctrine. She had attained enlightenment or the highcst mental culture ill the practice of Buddhism.l Her example was followed by Princess Ya80dharii. who was noted for her devotion and love to hcr husband who became tIle Buddha. She was well known as olle who haclattaincd to the highest psychic powcrfl. 1 Dbamma-dilllla Wag the foremost of the Buddha's lady disciples who could preach. She w!l.8 known RS a lleep thinker and philosopher who was able to teach her husband to develop his mind. 1 Nanduttarii, the orator and debater, W88 "learned in arts and Ilcionccll ". She toured in lndia carrying" the rOBe-apple hranch of vi.ctory". She was invincible in argument and debate until she met Maim Moggalliina, who defeated her, thereby shuwing the new mode of life taught by the Buddha. Bhadda KUlldnlakesii. was another debater and dialectitian reputed for her great IMTllillg. 1 Prescnting a person with a rose-apple hTl\llCh waB analogous to the granl,ing of a laurel wreath among the Greeks and tho Romans. The rose-apple branch was given to a champion orator, who carried it with him and stuck it in the Illllrket place as a challenge to a dcbate. Sihii, the sister of a great warrior, was reputed for her strong willll.nd determinatioll. She was known to have practiiWd her meditation with sltch determined effort tbat she kept herself awakc by tying a rope round her lleck to prevent her from nodding. I Addhakiisi, Vimalii. and Ambapiili were well known actresses of the day, who being converted to the mode of Buddhist life, IIttained to perfection nlld enlightenment. Among otherB who developed tllCir minds and were enlightenod were domestic IIcn·ants, daughters of kings, noblcs, brahamill8, 1Il0rdllmts, goldsmiths and others of humbler rank. Bandllln Mallika, the wife of a commander-in-chief showed her selfcontrol in looking after her guests at It feast without showing any signs of emotion, although she had heard the !lews of the death of her husband and sons. 2 2.

l1hatMcHiUa S..Ua

Ano!'her Mallika, the daughLer of a garland-maker wall exalted to the pOllition of the Queen to King Kosala. 1 Queen Mallika, and Visak& were very popular figures in Indian society in the Kingdom of Kosala. Lady Visflka, the daughter of one of the richest noblemen, was well· known for her kindness and generosity She was !'he friend of the poor, and ono of the most publio·spirit.ed ladies of !,hat time. The Buddha once described her as" learned, able and sensible."! The spirit of service to the poor snd ignorant was the outcome of Buddhist culture in India. Even during the lifobme of the Buddha lady Buddhist teachers traveiled about the country teaching tbe new mode of life as taught by the Buddha. The spirit wss kept up even to a later date. Princess Sangamitta, the daughter of Emperor A80ka, left her na.tive land and the pleasures of a royal palace to spend her life AS a missionary to serve the cause Qf humanity.

1.

Kuml7l
2.

Vi"aya-Mahvagga VIII

23

OHAPTER

"lVE

MARRIAGE MAltRIAGE AS a social institution e\'0Ive8 from the CUStOIllS of a country. Conceptiolls of marriage vary with the progrc8.!I of society. Marriage customs, while revealing the past history of a race, indicate tbc Ilature of its family life. During the days of the Buddha, marriage was a social contract with obligatiolLs re(:ogni81ll! by law. There were lIO religious ritcs pcrformed by priests. Tile marriage ceremony took place in tile presence of relations and friClld8 wllO becallll"J witllesses to the marriage. The pllblil:it,y J.:iv{,ll tn the cl~relllollY wa~ the ackllowlellgment of tile llIArriaJ.:e hy th<.' l'articll to it. In Blldf!lli.~t and pre-Bllddhi~t Ill\lia, 1l\011ogamy WitS the Ilstablillhed lIystem of l11arril1ge. The wCllterJI COlllmcntators OH UUlldhist scriptures 111\ vc fallen into the conlHWII error about Buddhist marriage whcll t.he)' t.r)' to reprcllcllt marriagc in Blldllhillt India as polygallloull. They have mislluderlltood tlte l'ali words for" girl", " maid", " woman", "house·keeper"," quecn ", as inelllting wife. The result is that they give in sOllle illlltanecs five hundred, or even sixteen thOU8Illid, wiv(,1l to a king. In Pali scriptures" mehellika" ill the word used for the wife of n king, for Ilhe is the head of the household women, and" bhojini " is l\ woman attenuant or a lady of the COllrt. Apart from etymological mellnings of word~, examination into the mode of life a tTords sufficiellt evidence to cOllie to a defillite conclusion about the form of marrillge tllllt existed in Buddhist India. Ln the" birtll stories"l of the Buddha, the striver aftcr Buddhahood is representellas going through life after life with Prince811 Yasodarii as hi8 wife, thereby illustrating the continuation of a love by an ideal oouple lllltil the attainment of Nibbuna. .Following this example it is the pious wish of married couples in Buddhist cOUlltrics, even up to this day, to be wife and husband birth after birth, until the attainment of Nibbiina. According to the teachings of the Bllddllll, complct.o chastity IS tho principle in life for those who renounce the household life in order to attain enlightenment. The pr!,ctice of strict monogamy was believed to produce special super-normal powers in men and lV0Il1!ln. 2 Que of the ftve precepts to be observed by a by Buddhist was to ahst.'lin from

2.

21

Pou,~tS

of 1',Jlh'valh Dhamma

sensual depravity. Committing adultery is a meaJiS of violating this precept. The early commentators on t1lis precellt speak of a" lawful wife" Bnd not" wives ". In Signlovada Suttn, ""Idch is cOllsidered to be the moral code for the laity, the BuddlJa, spenking of the duties of wife and husband, pointed out that it was one of tbc duties of a husband ll,nd wife to be faithful to each other. In another sermOIl, tbe Buddha taught that it was l~ blessiJlg to be able to flUpport oue's children and wife. l

rn ellumerating things that degrade man, the following are Illentionec\ as examples :-" '1'0 be given to women, drink amI gambling, IImlnot being sntisfied wit.h one's own loife, to l!Cl'k llll.rJol,/l Illld tile wives of htherll ". z 'I'h('n there arc f1(1vl~ml caflell wll{H'c a /llan IUIlI rellouneed his family life, his wife (1llHlnoL his wives) Lri"d to Will him back. III the .JlltllkRil there fHe instances whero married couplflll who had no children Ulwd to make prayers and vows to Gods, but there is 110 mention of a mall marrying a second wife for the sake of i9..'lue wbile the rust wife wos alive. 'fhe following paSBage from Mllha-Paduma Jataka will sbow that it was not customary to lJlarTy another while the first wife was living. " Once \I pon a time when Brahmadatta wns King of Denares, the Bodhigatta was born as the son of bis queen. Because Ilis fRee hRd the splendour of a lotus flower he was llamed l'aduma-Kumara. When he grew, he was educated in all the arts and accomplishments. Then his mother died. The king took another consort aJld appoint-od his . " son viceroy. In addition to the internal evidence of the scriptures, the countries into which Buddhism was introduced ndopte{l the monogamous form of marriage. In Ce},lon, monogamy was the form of marriage under Buddhist influcnce. The idca of a harem was unknowJ} in CeylOll. 'In other lluddhist cO\llltries also the same influcnce on marriage can Ire detect.ed. Polygamy can exist only in communitics where the women are kept in bondage. With the development of their conditions they begin to lli~8ert their rights. Evcn today 1101}'gBmy cxists BS a recognised social Institution only among races in which women's characters are depraved 'for wanb of education or culture. In Buddhist India the freedom enjoyed by women, coupled with their progress, could not have possibly given room for polygamy as the 25

recognised form of marriflge. The Buddhist rwriptures abound ill instances which /lhow the independent spirit of women. Pabiivathi, the Queen of Kusa, went bflck with hrr retinue to her parents when she did not like to live with her ugly-faced husband. 1 Visika, the daughter of a rich nubleman, Wl\8 prepared t.o go back to her parents when her father-in-law tried to impose his views of religion on her. Ultimately he gave in to his Ill\uJ::hter-in-law. 2 According to the evidcnce of Buddhist scriptures, there had been cases of both e;oto,laIllO\1I1 and indogalllous marriagcs. Tt was not I1liCOl1l1ll01l for a citi7.cn of onc kingdom to lllarry that of anotller. Although tile geneml principle 8CCIIIS to Illwc bCCUllniOJ\ between those of equal rank or of the same clas.'l, yet there were no social barriers to IJ1l\rringcs between people of di ffercnt classcs. For instance, King Kosola married a flower-girl without any dillll.pproval from his people, and th.ere were marriages between the Kastriyas, the Brahamins and the Vaishyas. 'nlC minimum age for marriage was sixteen. Child-marriages were unknown to Buddhist and pre-Buddhist Jndia. The consent of the parents was takenl\8 a duty which the parties to marriage owed to their Ilatcnts, yet the a.bsence of such consent had no legsl effect to dissolve llIarriage. Before the parents gave their conscnt they Illl.tisfied them_ selves as to the youllg man's character and ability. A father said, commenting on 11. marriage proposal to his daughter, "] will test the virtue of these youths and will give her in marriage to him that most e;otcels in virtue.'" III the moml code for the laity, gambling was disapproved of, and the gambler was described as " one not sought after by those who give or take in ffifLrriage."· A yOUllg man had to show that he was proficient ill the arts and learning which are expected from his Bocialsta.tus. Prince Siddhnrtha, the son of King SuddhfidhanD, had to display his skill in princely arts before obtaining the conscnt of Princess Yasodhara'fl parents. The bride was also expected to possess certain accomplishments. The parents of Eraka, the son of a prominent citi1.en of Siivatthi, wedded him to "a Illaiden noted for her beauty, virtuc, years Ilnd accomplishments." 5 l. 3. 6.

26

KlI~a

JiiIoJ",

SilaDimammna Jiilah T1tfr
2. 4.

Dhamrnapada ArthakalM-ViflikhJl. Siadlo.ada Sldla

••

Depending on the importance of tlleir COlIsent. the !larents often arranged the marriagcs for their dutiful and obedient children. 'nOTe are also instances of yOlmg men who arranged their own marriages when they met young women llnd fell in lo\'e with them. King Kosalll.'s meeting of l\Ialika, the Hower-scller, in a pleasure-garden is well·known in Buddhist history. It was a cOllversation between Mnhaausadha and AIllBrii that led them to admire each other.' A young JloblClIlRn of Savstthi was inducefl hy hislncly-lo,'c to make friclllls with the prominrllt Jleople of the city.2 Tuc marriage proposal cRme as a rule from the uridegroolll or Ilia parents either by cOIllDlullicntiug the matter directly to the bride or her parents. A girl ""'88 not forced into marriage against. her wish. When girls did not like to be married they became bhikkul}is, thereby tnking the vows of celi bacy, even against the wislles of their parents. s The proposed marriaKe used to be IUlllOU1loed by garlanding the future bride in a ceremonious 1Il1lJUler. "1t is 1Iot proper for maidens to return home 011 foot when decorated with a betrothal wreath or garland. The daughters of inflnelltia.1 families return home in chariots. Others cither go by ordinary carriages, or walk under 1I. IJlllm-leaf Jlarasol, or if that is lacking they cover tlleir shoulders with n. garment."· The marrige cercmony, which was not religious, consisted of celtain customnry rites. The bride wore a /lpecial dre88 011 tile occasion. The wedding dross of Vis:1kii, a rich noblclllll.ll's daughter, was worth )Iinety millions. The ceremony cOlIsisted in making the bride stand 011 a heap of gellls and jewels, and in ll.nnointing her,S Rnd pouring water 0)1 the claSltCd hands of the couple ill the preSOllCO of friOIl(11I and relatiOIllI. Pouring water was the ancient, formal symbolical procedure used in parting with the pOSilession of 311ythiJlg. I I, was customary to invite friends to attend the ceremony. Such guests usell to spend weeks or even months in feastiJlg and merriment at t.he residence of the bride before the marriage ceremony took place. If !'he private houllC was not large enough temporary paviliolls or halls \lsed to be built for the purpose. Sometimes puhlic halls were used. .Prince Nanda's wedding was to be celebrated at the coronation hall at Knpilnvasthu. B l.

Ummaggfl Jatab

2.

lIfaha UUlUll Ja/.l:rlca

3.

Thai GaIM-S"lJliidhii.

5.

KumIMMpillr!a.J"'ll.l:a

4. U.

Dllamnwpoda A!!halcalhii-Vip,ikhi. Thtrll Giilhd-N8ndll

27

III most IlIlltters of sigllificallce, including marriages, importance attachetl to the auspicioll!l 1ll0lllPlIt for the ceremony. for which the astrologer's nid WllS sought.1 Tlmt faith in astrology was dillnppro\'ed by the Buddha. The married couple oocame the recipients of nIany presents on the occasion of the marriage. The wealthy partmts used to give their daughters property which was called" the perfume·money ". King K08ll.Ia. gave a district to King llimbis3.m as the" perfume-money" of his daugMer at her marriage. Lt was this eustom which evidcntly Ilegcnerated into the prespnt dowry llystelll. The presents received by Visiika at hcr marriage were distributed by her among the poor folk of the city of Sii,vusti. There are other references to wedding preflCllts. "Mitta-Gandhaka. made friendship with the four gaw-keepers, town-wardens, astrologers, 1l0blll8 of the court. cOlllmander.in-chief, viceroy find the king. The king dowllwards sent Idm gifl.s. Mitta also received prescnts Bent by the king, viceroy, etc."2 TakiJlg the bride in procc'lSion to the bridegroom's residence was an event of great mirth alld splendour. The llLusic, the s01lgs of joy, the dancers alld the linc of elephants and carri'ages and the streets crowded with spectators made tho oCCllsion sensationa!. Tbe dissolution of the marriage depended upon the consent. of t.he parties to it. There were no obstacles preventing a man or womall llIarrying again if the marriage WIlS dissolved or if one of the sponses Wll.l! dealt. Buruing of widows on the funeral pyres of their husbands or restrictions on widows who wished to marry again were not heard of in Buddhist India. A Chinese travcllcr, writing about marriages in Ta-Tang-Si-Yu-Ki (the Buddhist Ucconls of the Western World, llk. 11) Mid: .. When they marry they rise or fall in position according to their new rela.tionship. They do not allow promiscudus marriages between relations. A woman once married can never take another husband. Besides these, there are othcr clallBCS of many kinds that inter-ma.rry according 1.0 their several cllllingll." Wllll

I.

28

/l'd""'l(l-J"I,,!,,,

CJtAPTER

SIX

SOCIAL

ORDERS

Wrl'lJ TIrE growth of a community its members begin to group themselves into classes or social orders. This takes pll\ce imperCeIJtibly in the beginning. TIle proccss is slow. It is volunt-nry when peollle attach them.<wlvcs to certain trades or occullatioJis and form tbemllClvcs into groups. It is a selective prOOOS8 when people chosen for special work become a class by themselves. With the eillux of time the class distinctiOllS in a community become prominent and when the distinctions begin to be observed with rigidity tendencies to claim special rightB and privileges become noticeable. When religion recognises the superiority or the inferiority of a cl3ss tile evil is done "ud the class sysl;em turus into a caste system. In the days of tile Buddha, Illost Indian kingdoms pOBllCssed four cla98es of people. The roynlty /'Illd the nobility formed the order known 0.8 KBhatr)'a. Kings, governors, vicero)'s and conunanders of armies were generally chosen from this class. 1'he Brahamins have become the cla98 that was engagcd in pursuit of knowledge. They were reputed to be the intellectual class, 80 most of them followed the learned professions. The merchant class was knowll as Vaishya, aml the fourth class of Sudras consisted of manual labourers. The four social orders, therefore, were those of the rulers, of the learned, of the mercllants and of the labourers. In some other countries at that time there were only two social orders. " [n Yona, Kn.mboja, and other adjacent countries there were only two classes~the masters and the servants. There masters could bl)come servallts and the servants could become masters."1 '1'a.Tang-Si-Yu-Ki (the Buddhist records of the Western world) speaks of the four classes as mentioned in the Buddhist scriptures: "With respect to the division of families, there are four c1assificatiOllS. The first is called the Brahman, Illell of pure conduct. They guard themselves in religion, live purely and observe the most correct principles. '1'ho second is called the Kshattriya, the royal caste. For ages they have been the governing class; they apply themselves to 1.

Aualavuna-Sultll

29

virtue nnt! kindlle~~. Tllll third i~ callell tile Vaisya~, the merchant. dll.8R. The fourt.h is called the Sudrn, tho ngricult,urnl c1aSll; they lahour ill ploughing alld tillage." Bk. II. Mege~thelle~' c1a~sificatiOIl was according to tho occupation of the people. "Tho wholo population of India if! divided into sevcn CRstes of whicll 1.1111 lirllt ill fonnell hy the cnllcc!.i\·e "udy of tlllll'hilOflOphers, which ill point of llulllhcr ill inferior to tllo other c1allfl("~' hut in point of dignity pre-emincnt over nil. •, The second ca~to cOIIsist8 of the husbandmen who appear to bo far moro IIllmcrous tllllll the others. Being, moreover, exempted from fighting nnd other public 8ervices they devote tho whole of thoir time t.o tillagfl. "The third cll.st.e consists of tho nell.therdll nllll shephonlll. The fourt.h, Il.rtisnlls, 1111(1 the fifth military. The sixth consists of the ovcrseers and seventh councillors and aSSCMors. "-Fragment 1. Strabo. In early [lldian society the classes were based on oceupatiolls, while thero wns 110 rigid social influence to prevent a person of one cla88 doing the work of another class, for" one of the labour c1aflS could have as a servant a noble or a llralmmill."1 A killg once worketll\8/\ gllrlllI\U-llI11ker, n. cook nud n. mcnialscrvn.nt without being disgraced for doing SO.2 There were instances of BrahamillS who had 1.H~en lIlerchnnts and manual labourers. Also descrving persons had been raiscd to positionll of high honour, irrespective oftbo clMs to which they belonge{L Jivaka, the 80n of an actrell8, became the royal physician and was subsequently made the prime-minister to the killg. 3 A mall from the labouring class WRS raised to be tho lord protoetor of the city. 4 In certain kingdoDls wllen the king died without an heir, the method of selecting the sovereign from the common people shows that there had becn no class barriers, even ill the choice of a person for the throne. When the Buddha appcnred in India, there was a strong feeling of clasS'COllscioIlSIlCSll, for in the Kingdom of l\1adhura. the l3rahamins hall asked for special privileges. The king went to Mahii. Kllccanll, a disciple of the Bmhlha, nud inquired of him about the Brahamin claims to superiority. 'I'he king, being questioned by the sage, confessed that a person of onc class could cmploy one of nnother as servant. Also the king admitted that law ""nsno reslweter of Rny class, for he said: I.

3.

o

Nadura 8ldJa 'l'Aml Olilha. & Somllllllptila Sldla

2. K"nJlilda 4. Chat'<1}" Jotat"

" 1f a lIoble is l\ burglar, tide£, house-brt'll.kt'r, robht'r or adulterer and ifl1ly people cntch him and bring him hefon' llW, J ",hould put him to d('l\th, or confiscate his goods, or banish him, or otherwise denl with him as circulllstances required, for the noble is 1I0W turnei.1 i1ltO a lIlalefactor. 'fhe Sll.lne princ; plc I\pplics to utltl'r c1aRllf'll. "1 '1'1if'1I the king admittefl thllt he would sulut.c, hOllour I\llfl defcnd a person who has renoullced temporal life to become enlightened, irrespective of the class to which such a person IJelonged bdore renouncing the life of a householder. 2 The Buddha saw the weakness of the claims of superiority of the Brahllmins Ma c1fl88, and pointed out tl18t a true intellectual or cultured Jlersoll should be "onc who has removed frum himself all unrighteousness, who is free from pride Bud impurity, who isself-restrained, who is accomplished in knowledge, and who has f utfilled the duties of holiness. Such a person may justly call himself a Brahamin."3 The Buddha, with Ilis characteristic humour, taught that the BrahamillS of his da,}' who called themselves the intellectual, the cultured a!ld the wiw were not 80; but the Ilame could be applied to those who had acquired those qualitieg by their own effort sueh liS his followers. The Buddha gave a special meaning to the term' Brllhamin '. "1 do nol; call him a Brahamin who is merely the off-spriJlg ora llrahnmin mother. Neither through matted hair, nor through clan, lIor through birth is one a Brahamin. In whom Ilrc truth and right and purity-he, he is the Brahamin. " Whosoe\'er has severed all bonds, who tremhles no more, who ia done with all ties-him I call Brahamin. " Who has cCflsed from all hurt to any living beiug, who neither slays lIor cnuses to slay-him do J call Brahamin. " Friendly among the hostile, tmnquil among the turbulent, amid the grMJling, ungrasping-sllch a person I call Brahamin. " lfrorn whom lust alld hatred llnd pride and envy have fallen away like the mustard seed from the point of the awl-him I call Brahamin. "Whose even voice gives utterance to words kindly, instructive, and true, words that give pain to nOlle whatsoever-him do [call llrahamill. "Whosoevertakcs naught that is lIotgiven, be it small or great, be il; good or bad. 00 it bill or little, him I call Brfl.hfl.miJl. l. 3.

Madura Sulla Vinaya-Mahl\ VIIggll., Ch. I

2.

Madura SuI/a and Samuihla 1'lIala Bulla

31

"Wise with deep wisdom, wllll kll\lwillg the' right way' :md' wruJlg way', attairlOd to tho 'Suprome oLJjeet', such 11. person do 1 call Uralmmin. " In whom is found 1\0 desire, through 110rfect knowledge ceased from all doubt.q, nttained to the seat of deathleS8 Nibbfma.-Ilim do J call Braharnin."1 By such ten.ching the lluddhn and his cliseiples removed tho provailing notion of claM Illlperiority as a birthright. J uto a new order esta.blishell by tile Buddha, were admitted Illt'!\ ami women from 11.11 ela8BCS. There were kiugs and queens, prillcos and princessC!~, Ilobles, Brahamins, merchant,s, actors and actresses, courtesans, lIcnvengers, fnrmcrs, carpenters, servants nntl others. 'l'hill coslJlopolitan group that gathcred roHml Llle Buddhn Weftl hOllourell by the rich and the poor for the pu rity of thci r li ve.q ami for the service they reudered ill teaching tIle peopln. They created the public opinion that peoplc arc not hig-h or low acconling tu their wealth, parentage or muk, hut according to thcir deeus. 2 People were Illude to realise tlult it was oue's deeds that lIlade n personlloblc or ignoLJle.! People began to honour Olle another for the nobility of their character 11.11\1 the purity of their lives. 'I'his brought nbOllt:l rc\'olut;ion in thn 1l10ml /ltnlldanl of the people and led them to respect cHch other Hlld be I'Nlpccted by others. Thi" l1:111 a ullifying effect on suci('ty. Indill, thu'I united by Buddhist culture, enabled Emperor A.'1oka to build his great fHnpirc based 011 righteousness. As the iUIlIlClllill(.e reMllt of the lIew culture, wherever the BlJddhists wont thc.v wcrc honoured. Other nations welcomed Buddhist leneller!:! from India. With tho fall of Dharma-Asoka's l3uudllist F~llIlJirc and the ri.qe of Bralmmin influence and priestcraft, the noble character and honour intrQ(luced by Buddhist culture began to W1I.1Ie. In J)lace of the e1ass system which WllS broken down by Buddhillt influence, the Brnlmlllin pricst!! introduced the caste system which has cver since di\·illell India ami m:Hle moral imbeciles of most of her cllildren. Religiorl and nationalism, while trying to unite their adherents, IllLYC nxcluded and alieuated othcrs from them. lluddhil'lm was free frolll both these influcnees. There was no god taught ill Buddhism, hence there wa!! no llarrownnss of I,he theilltie mind in it. The Buddha, discurding ritual, emphasised the imporl.nucc of Illllmm actions llnd their reactioJUl. So the people were directed to pay attentiOll to their I.

Dham....apoda

3.

VQ~(IIQ-.svlt
32

2. (.',ila-Ka ...ma viMml9n-811l1a

t.Iwughta, words anti deeds. As to lIationalism alSQ, the I3mldha gave a wider interpretation. During his time /WlIle Indians lIllCd to call themselves Aryans, and the rest.. not.. being cultured were the nODAryaIlll. This was similar to the Roman couception of the OO,OOr'. Buddha conceived the word" ArJan " as above geogra)Jhirsl, racial or political limitations. J le interpreted the word liS " cultured or enlip:htened" aud called his followers irrespective of race or e1R38, the .. Arya+putta ", tho cultured or enlightened SOilS. Also, the mode of life for pcrfoction and enlightcnlllcnt. Il8 taught lIy him wall callcd .. the eight.featured method or the cullured or the enlightened." I Whon that view was currcnt in India, to become an Aryall was not to be bom or particular pA.rent.
I.

Ariyo-Allflangihr"'oggo

33

\

OHAI'TF.1l

SEVEN

MEETINGS

AND

GATHERINGS

TIIF. NATURP: of cerelllonies andlllllusemellts at social gatherings give!< an insigllt illto the cultural progress of a eommuJlity. At such assemblies 110t only the group psychology, bllt the individual mentality Cllll be studied. As in every progressi\'e society, in ancient India people gathered t.ogether for religious, political anti social 11Ilrposes. Such gatherings multiply and their acti\'it.ies and procNlure become refincfl with tlte progress of tlte cOlllmunity, In all COIllI1l11nitif1S at births, marriages and deaths people gather together. On such occasiolls customary ceremonies are observed. ])1 the days of the Buddlla it was a current practice to predict the future of the child by observillg its fentures aJld the marks of its body. When Prillce Sidhllrthn. was born, se\'en " wise men" wcre consulted. Six of them were of opinion that the baby would grow up to be either ~t world emperor I or the BuddlHI. The seventh had no doubt that he would be the Buddha. The future of a new-born baby wllS also predicted by consulting the stars.: The birtll of a child lIsed tu be celebrated by in\'itillg the holy men or a \'ellcrable teacher for a b:tllquct, lInd from theRC thfl c!liltl reccived blessing~, A child received its name on a speci81 day amidst fCllsting lIm! rejoiring of friends and relations who brought presents for the child, The nnllle w,,~ often selected by COl1SUltiJlg a respected elder member of the falllily. Oil the day of naming a certain prince" the king /lent ll. mes~l\ge tu the chilrl's grand·llIother asking for a lIalJle for the child. "S Somc childrell were mUlled after their relations. Visakr,'1l son recei \'ed his grand-father's name, Migiira. Some 1111.111eS were associated with memorable events that occurred at the t.ime. A ehild wa~ named Mnha-ILus.'Hlha (the great remedy) for at. its birth its grand·father was cured of his chronic headache, When the father of a SakYllll prince was informed that a SOil was born to bring joy, the fat.her /lamed bim AJIl\lulll (joy). I.

Oloakhl-VlIllhi

3.

Bl",dda J(;II1I((1

31

Z,

'J'hlra UiiI....,i---Angu]irniil..

At. the weddings of the rich, the guests used to be entertained with feasting for weeks or months. Musie, dancing and singing were the principal methods of cntertainlllcnt. Special halls and pavilions were built and decorated for tile occasion. Different in temperament were UlOse who gathered to pay tlle laat respects to a. dying or a dead man. At the death bed of a person his friends would visit him. -Before the pussing awny of the Buddha, " Mallas of Kusilliirii. were presented ill groups. Each family in a group was presented saying; , Lord, A Malla-so and so by name-with his children, his wife, retinue and friends, humbly bows down at the feet of the Buddha'. '" Also the IUalla!{ of Kusil\:i ru. thought that tlley should not give roolll for self-reproaeh in thinking that" in our own kingdom did the death ofthc Buddha take place, we did 1101. take the 0ll]lortunity of visiting the 13mhllm in hil:! la.'lt IIO\lrll."2 The custom of honouring the dead with flowers, wreaths and perf\lmes existed at the time of the Buddha. The mourners l'Iolllctimes gnve expression to their grief by composing verscs in praise of the deceased which were sung at the crematioll. This WIIS done at the Ilassillg away of the Buddha by AnllT1Hldha and Anallda. The following passage which describes the rites obseryed at the pasSillg away of the Buddha ilJustrll.u,s the prcvaleJlt CU8t01l18 at cremations. "The Mallns of Kusiniirfl order('d their attcndnllts, saying, , Gather together perfu me!t nlid garlullIls and all till' lllw~ieal instruments ill Kusillarii. '. The !\I11lla.q Look pcrflllllell and gal'lands llnd musical iUlltruments, awl IllUIl}" gllrments /lnd WCllt to the Siilu gr{l\'e, where tllc body of the Buddhn lay. They passed six days in paying honour, reverCIlCO, respec,t Rllll hOlllage, with dnncing, hylllll", 1Jlu"ic, gllrllllldll, perfullIcs IlJld in IlHl k i IIJ!" cllnopies of p:llrmenb llnd pre).1l rillg ornamcntal wrenth!! to hand thereOIl . . .. Flowers were strewn kl1ce.deep."3 In the fUlleral of kiJlgs and distillguishell men, tlle corpse was wrapt illllCW cloth, theu in carded wool, and uglliJl illllCW cloth ill WlIlly such layers. Then :lfter placing it in an oil vessel it .....as crCllllltcd 011 Il pyre with all kinds of pcrfumcs. Before tile crclIllltioll peoplc wcnt thrice round the pyre ill reverence. Thcn the Ilshes were sprinkled over with scented watcr. A memorial was erected ill a public place enshrining the ashes, after whicll a feast W:IS held ill honour of the dead.' L 3.

Ala..w-pari!'libb<"ina Sulla Mahii-pari..ibbUna Stut"

2. 4.

Ibid lbW.

35

Irea~t.~ and 11l111
-~------2. lbid I. 8odIti.JI(jja K'H1\(j~a SUUa

3.

Um'""ygaJiilata

6, T"ui 7,

36

(hilfl,i-SiYllttll

Suima-Jatllka

4.

YiMy-a-Sixth Kandll.kll

6. 8.

V""mmapad.. A!/hakaIM-VilIiilr.hl Kwmblla-J(jlah.

At eel'taiIl festi vllls tile significance or the meaning of the observances canllot easily be tnl(;ed. There wall a feast l where cows were yoked to vehicles with a bull between t.lleJll. 2 At a fcast held in the village of Pilidngama the children celebratillg it wore ornnmeJltal Uref.\8eB and garlands. S Some of these merry-makings took plnce at night. In Benarl'S n festival known 88 the night fe6tival of Kattika was held. The city W!\8 decoratl'd and all the people kept holiday. They put on their best attire on tlte occasion. 4 At these various festivities there was dallcinK, singing and reciting fi and even dramatic performances. t Just as 011 festive days, large crowds assembled together jn ple!Uluregardens and parks of the cities, when peO}l!e listened to oratiolls, debates, sermons, musical contests, or witnessed wrestling and sports. It WIIS a popular intellectunl entertainment to listen to an addreR8 by an able speaker or to a debnw between two well-knowJl sages. "Five l11l11dred Lichavis wern in their Hsscmbly 111111, mct 011 some hU/liness, when tiley wcre illvil.cu to the debate wJlich SacllChnkn. was to llfJ,ve with the Bluhlha ".7 A hriJIiCLnt spt'cch on such an occMion Wn8 termed n 'lion rOllr' alltl the speaker CL" lioll roarer."R 'file procedure ut public mcetings of those days deserves attention. The speaker, being scawd, addre88Cd hig audience. He also acted as the elmirm/l.lI of the meeting. TIle Ilcopll', as t.hey assembled, took their seats by greeting t.he speaker and president. A mceting is thus described in the scripturel!: "The king, Juwing approached and respectfully saluted the fluddha, sat down Ileal' !Iim. Of tile rest, some respectfully !lfIluted him and sat down near him. Some excJlanged greetings amI pleasant words with him and sat down near him. Some bent their clasped hands towards }lim and I!at down near him. Some .I!houted their Ilame and family nune and sat down llelU him. Some silently sat down neM him.'" The speaker did not begin until one of the audience invited llim to speak. Clapping of hanus and shouts of joy were the usual forms of applause at the end of tlle specc1J. The title of a sermon or speech used to he given by the speaker himself at the conclusion of hig speech. Some of the audience expre88Cd their appreciation witb words of praise addre88Cd to the speaker. If the speaker were a t.cacller of a doctrine 1. The feast of Gallga.malli-KilikoYfI 3. /bid 5. 7. 9,

7'/ura·G';I1Id-Vajji-l'uH" CMilll-S"cfld.d:a-8ultl, l'i""ya-1oIah.. V"ggll

2. 4. 6.

8.

I';noya-Mll.b&ngga V Pnpp-krn .Mlab Tllt.lJ_Oa/hli----Ti\laplJtII. 7'htro-Giilh i-Pin'lol" Bhll.tlll! ...ja

'7

cxplniuillg the rigllt Illode of li f(', •. 11(' cum-iur,'.1 hell. rl'r~ (Ieclnred t Ill'm8el\"l.'s his follo\\'en'l. 'I'he following p!lBSage from IJrohmo-J fila Sui/« illustrates this: " When he hnd thus !I'pokeJI, the VellernlJle Amlllda !laid to the Jllesseu One: 'Strn.ngc, Lord, is I.his and wunderful! Ami whnt nRllle IHls this exposition of the truth l' 'Anallda, you may remember I.his exposition as the Net of AdvantnJ!:c, ami ns the Net of'I'ruth, nnd as the Supremo Net, Imu M the Net of Theories; remember it eV6111H1lhe Glorious Victor}' iJl the day of bnttle!' "1 " And when they hau thus sJloken, Ajiita-Sattll, the King, said to thc Blc~~d One: ' Most excellent, Lord, mOllt cxeellent! Just as if a Illllll wcre to set up that which has been thrown dOWll, or were to re\"eRI that which is hidden away, or were to point out tile right rond to hi III who has gOlle !Istray, or were to brillg IL hUll pinto the l!arkneBR 80 that thoSl' who have e}'es could see ext.ernal forms, just even so, Lord, hns thc truth been made knowll to me, ill Inany a figure, by tllC Blessed Ono. And now I betake myself, Lord, to tho Blcssed One as my l"Cfuge, to the Truth, nnd to the Order, May the Blessed One accept me as lL rlisciple, I\S one who, from this day forUI, liS 1001g as lifc cndures, hall Lllkl'l\ hill refuge in them '."2 Megcf'lthenes gives /\11 interesting: reference to meetings in India: "The philosopher~ have tlll'ir bode iu It grove in front of the eity withill/\ moderate-siwd enclosure. They live ill IL simple style, and lie on bells of rushes, or skins. They l\hst.ain from animal food amI sexual plcal\url'lI, IlIllI spend their time in Ii!lt<.'nillg: to seriou!I d iscoll rse, "nd ill imparting kllowl('{lg~ to I'luch :I!I will lil<""1I to t1HlIll. The hearer is lint. 1l1loweJ to speak, or evel' to eougll, and lHudl lel'lI to spit, Ilml if hI' nffelldl'l in ally flf the.qe ways Im if'l CA.st out from their society t.hllt n'ry day, as being IL Wllll who is wanting ill selfrestrllint.'" There were pnulie aud Inivate gatherings to perform SA.crifices to the godl'l, Just all illallcient Rome. Before the custom disappeared through Buddhist illflucllce, tIle Brahamin priests used to tleclare: " fAlt there be slain for sacrifice, so many bulls, so many steers, heifers, goats l\ud rams. LP.t there he felled so mallY trees for sacrificial posts. Let so much "kusa " grass be cut to strew round the sacrificial spot."4 I.

Bmlll'llaj6.ltJ Sldll!

3. Slr,.oo u

38

I 68-60

2.

8,.I1ItJiilltJ l'!ww SId/a

4.

Ka'lldamka811lla

Various slIujed.s for cOllverllatioll used to ue taken up at 8ocia.1 gatherillgll. Low alld vulgar cOllversntiOlls from which the disciples of the Buddha were asked to refrain from were: Tales of kings, ofrobbers, of ministers of St.ate j tales of war, of terror, of battles, talk about food and drink, clothes, beds, garlallll8, perfumes; talk about equipages, villages, towllS, cities, J1fl.tiOIlS; stories about women and ller06s ~os8ip at J11urket places Rud at tanks and wells; ghost ",tories, boastful talk; speculations about the creation of the world or about existence Slid non-existence. The sbove c\·jtlently comprised the list of fri"olou8 talk among the common folk.

39

OnAl'TIl:R

I.:IGII1'

HOltlES ATTEMPTS 1'0 get an accurate conceptiun uf nn Indian home of 2,500 years ago woulo. ueccs.~urily he llLet with o.ifJicnlties. Descriptive reforeneos in scriptures Alld other writings can give \18 Ollly a PIHt of the picturo. llow far these parts will enable a reader to form the whole lJicture is a matter to be left to the individual imagination. Archaeological discoveries of the ruins of allcient buildings will 110 doubt be helpful in this respect. Aeconling to Buddllillt scripturell, stone, bricks and wood were used for buildings. There are constant references to seven-storeyed buildings. A hall was lIameo. " lhick Hall" because bricks were used for its construction. t In houses of ~everal storeys t.he pilla rs were carved out of stOllC. % The roofing in comTllon use wOl'l brick, stone, cement, straw and leaves.! Also plastered roofs and walls were llOt uncollunon.• The doors, wit.h their decorated door-posts rind lintels, 4 8Jld the windows with railings, network, curtains and shutwrs,' cnhallced the external nppeatnnco of those IllHlicnt mansions. Some houses were deeorated with la.ttice-work. 8 Thc bnf>crnents of the housdl werc surrounded with fencing of brick, stone or wood. 7 lIore are 1I. few descriptions of the exterior pnrts of houses: •• Now this houso enclosed by 1I. wnll ill colour like vermilion, furnished with gntell and tower WRs a beautiful ann charming place."s This was a minister's house. A nobleman's mansion in Siivutthi W8sseven storeys high and· had lIoven portals. g Also the residellflc of Ilo councillor in the country of the Kurus had seven gateways. 10 From tho poctill description of the Palace of HighteoliRlieas all idea of a royal pR lace can be deduced:

"The PalaCfl of HighLeollsuess is surrounded with a double railing with cross-hars and figureheads of silver. It was built of bricks of four kinds. There are 84,000 pillars with fixed seats, twenty-four I.

MaAii I'ari NiMJ,ina $ulla

z.

l"il'la!/lI-Kullllvnggll VI

3.

l'iMya-K"UAv""8gll. V Vinaya-K,,1l31'llggn VI Yi""ya-Kulltlovaggll V K hadirlltllJ
4.

Ibid

5. 7. 9.

6. 8. 10.

'l'kri-G,;IM Ummadanli JiitaJ:a T"'~ra-GiiIM-RA~lhApii.l

..

stll.ircnllCi'I witl! bll.llli'ltl·auci'I with cruMB-ban and figureheadll. The Ilumber of cluunbera iB 81,000. At the door of every chamber is 8. palm tree, and Do grovc of palm trces stood at every entrance. The palace was hung round with a nctwork of silver bells. The divans are made of gold, silver, ivory and s8lld8hvood. 'nley are spread with long-haired rugs, cloths embroidered with Rowers and antelope skins. Each divan had lofty canopies and purple cushions."t Att.a.ched to each palatial building or mansion were parks or plel\suregardcns, and at the severo.l cntrances to the houses of distinguished Or wealthy pcople there were towers and ornamental gates with gatekeeJ1era to guard them. 2 'I'he grandeu:r of some gate-towers may be judged from the following passage: "On seeing the gate-towers of Jeta\'ana. which Prince Jeta had built at a cost of ninety millions, one asked whether that was the place where the G'otama lived. They said: 'It i8 only the gateway toit'."8 Some hom~e8 had a portico over thc outer door. 4 The balconies of 80me buildings afforded a good view of the atreeh or country around. From sl1ch balconies the inmates greeted the distinguished people that passed by with " sbowers of fiowers ".6 BefOre entering a house it was 01lstomar.r to wash ono's fect, so there stood outside the threshold of the house 0. vesscl oC water and a stool with a matlloud cloth for wiping the foet. 6 On entering, one found the floor8 inlaid with brick, stone or wood, 7 and generally covered with rugs and mats of silk, wool or 8kill. 8 Rich mallsions had their st.aircascs docorated with jewelled slabs. t The stairs of the hOMes were generally made of brick, st.one or wood. 1 0 The complexity of life in ndvnnced society demands all equally oomplex arrangement of accommodation and apartment.s in a housc. The rcsidence built by Aniithapindika. for the Buddha and his disciples consisted of "dwclliug rooms, retiring-rooms, stOre rOoms, service halls, halls with fireplaces ill them, storehouses, closets, cloisters and halls fOr exercise, wells and sheds for wells, bathrooms and halls attached t6 bathrooms, and ponds and open-roofed sheds". 1 1 1. "laM SlulaumM .')"'la 3. I'alflyi J;;/f1!«J 6. U"'lnlidallli )ii/ak,. 7. Vinaya-Kulln'l'sgga 9. SulmraJiilah 11. Vinaytl_Kullll'l'lIgg.... VI

l

.---,,--,-----

j'1Icra Ga/M Ds8llk.... Vinaya-Bodhi's mansion 6. Sangit; suu,~ 8. ViMya l'irakll Rulu 10. VifWya-KulllL'I'IlGGIl V , 2. 4.

III the scriptures there are instances where the various parts of a house "ro onurnernLod. We read of storeyed houses with "attic, basement, cellar, sture-room, refectory, lire-room, warehouse, privy, an opcn IJlaco leds were stuffed with cott-on. 7 The bedsteads, which were eovcred with mosquito curtains, s contained mattresses, pillo"'s, ma~ and sheets. g It was a common luxury to sleep 011 beds strewn witb sweet-seented flowers. lOIn sOllle houses there were long IJf'nches on thc vernndnh. I 1 J~!lch hOIlIl(' hlvl its scpamtc apartl11('II1.'l. There were the rooms sot. apart for womell. '('hon there w~r~ t.he dilling.roornll, the sitting rOODUI, the halls known as asselUbly-room~, the sorvant..s quarteI8, and c'·en apn.rtlllents or halls with firephces. I I In palaC1ls and huge mansions, underground cellars constructed within the hom~clI were the depositories of gold and silver and other articles of value. The walls were usuall,r plastered, with "imagillative drawings and figures of melt and womell and with wreaths {Uld creepers". I 2 The ceilings wero covered with a 'ceiliug cloth. '1 S The construction o( bathroollls was elaborate. The floors wete laid with brick, stone or wood. 'J'he walls were allY} lined with brick, stone or wood. In bat.hrOOIllS with firopll1oOtlS, thero were chimlLcys, for ill small bathrooms the fireplace was at one side of t.he rOOIll, whereas in larger onos it was in the middle. The water was kept in RIl ante-chamber to tho bathroom unless there was a well with fencing round it. Most baturoOllls had troughs or basins. There were stools, scented clay, stands and vessels for I.

,. ,. 3.

7.

11.

13.

l"illllyu-l\ll.havAgga (HesidcllCll during 4. l'inlJYI,-Kullangga VI O. l"inaYlI l'it"ktJ-Rules 8. riMyu-Mll.h"vllgga 1 10. rillllYIl~KulJavllggll VI 12. l'inu.YIl-Kul1a\"llgga V

Olllldllll KldiYll

railly season) 2. 1'humi GatAii-All11Uda lbid. rifl
lbid

water, Pots of brass, wood or clay Vo'erc used to draw water. Some mansioll8 had swimming baths where the tanks had fencing, lltairs and baIlustrades. Pipes were used to lay on or to drain otT the water. 1 Bud{lbist Indian houses were richly furnished with various kinds of chairs, tables, stands, couches and divans. There were rectangular chairs, armchairs, sofas, sofas with arms, state chairs, cushioned chairs, chairs raised on a pedestal, ohairs with many legs, canebottomed chairs, straw-bottomed chairs lLnd chairs with upholstered cushioJls to fit them.! The divan.s and couches were covered with cushions, coverlets with long fleece, counterpanes of many colours, white woollen coverlets or coverlets with designs of flowers, cotton coverlets with figures of animals ami rugs with hair in one or both sides. 3 Also, skins o£JioJls, tigers and panthers were cut and laid out to fit couches and chairs. S Some conches ~md chui rs were covered with callopies. 8 III nrahmaJ(ilaSuttc~ the following tYill's of luxurious IICI~ts "IIII rug8 were disuppro\'etl for the 11se of the Buddha'l! diseiples; 1\Iovuble and high settees six feet long, divans with supports carved with animal figures, sofas with cm~hiOlls for the Ilead and feet; coverlets made of fleecy goats hair or coverlets embroidered with flowers or with figures of lioll8 or tigers, or those ornalJlented with gems, or those made of silk, many-coloured cou IlterpuIle8, wllite blankets, quilts 8tutTed with cottonwool, rugg wi th fllr on buth sides or on Ol1e side, rugs of antelope skins, rugs used ill elephant or horse chariots, carpets with Il.wnillgs about them and carpets large enough for sixteell dancers. A Chinese record gives the following account of seats and thrones: " When they sit or rest they all use mats; the royal family and the great personages and aSllistant officers use mat:! variously ornamented, hut ill sir.e they are ti,e llllTlle. The throJle of the reiglling sovereign ig large and high, and much adorned with precious gelllB; it is called the lion throne (sillhiisatw). It is covered with extremely fine drapery. The nobility use painted and enriched seat-s according to their tl\8te." ~ Wooden and wickerwork stands were used as OfJllImellts. Sometimes they held a howl or a vose of clever workmallBhip, or a lamp on Q jar, or an oil lamp which burnt all night. 5 There were also cases ma.de of ivory, bone, horn allll hoxes of gold and si Iver and howls of slllldalwOOII, 1. 3. 5.

J'i"llya-Kulla. Vnggll. V Ibid J'iftaya_Maha \'lIgga I

2. 4.

rilWya-KuUn Vagg& VI .7'a·1'ang-Si.]·a,K i-fill. IJ.

'3

V"lu"ble bowlll ur cnskct~ of gold or Ilih'cr WflrO sct wilh jcwels. Somo of thern WNIl llHlode of heryl, eryMal, copper, gln!l~, clay nr of Illeln 18 8uch Ill! tin, INlll, hmmw allll irOll. 1 There were nlRo flower VIlBCB of cliffercnt design lInd workmallllltip. It Wll~ a COlllll\On custom nmong both mell llnd women to greet one another with f1owerl:!. 'rho floors of some of the rOOIll!! wero covered wit.h earpetl> inwrought with gold or with silk, or with woollen carpet.s or skiml 8udl afI those of the panthcr or of the untelnpe. I "Cnvo Canem" was a warning not 1lI11;tlIl1mon in ancient India. Hence the clog was a flLVourite pet.! III a palaco ll. fierce anu savage tiger was kcpt fllstrlled hY:l RIfling dHlirL' AlJwngother auimalll kept as pets, tho most popular werc parrots,4 Jmrtridgc8,/; pigeons, tl alld monkeys. 7 It was cllstomary to nallle houlJell. The resiuellces built for I.he Buddha had names. 8 VrillCc Bodhi's palace W1I8 called" The 1~otu8".' A Brahomin built an aAAcmhly hall at I'iltaliputta wllich wall named after him,l 0 The rich people in those days had as a rule three residences built in different parts of the cOllntry to suit different sens01ls of the yeaL ll The grRmleur of the rich mal\SiOllfl eould not destroy the charms of the poor cottage8. '['he following quotation frolll tbe IJCripturcs illustrates this: "There was a hut beside a hamlet. It wawa pretty, charming cottage with floor and walls well made, surroumled by a llllrk nnd tank, and enclosed by tl path of smooth pearly sund."12 In tOWJlR and villages t.he hOllOOR of the poor were generally COll8tructed with wood. Except in citicR, howe\'er small till,} hOlloo he there was n garden and a compound attaohed to it. Sometimes a wall or usually a fence separated a house and its premises from other houses. In poor homes the g'arden WflIl lltilised to plant fruit, vegetables and flowers. 'fhe compound in front of a house was a bare patch of ground strewn with 8l111d. To allow grass to grow on the compound WIlS a lllark of llcRleot and untitlinell8,

1. 3. li.

7.

9. 11.

"'Mya

KulllL VlIgga V [(ull/a"i Jiitaka Til/imJ6taka UpiiliSutta B6d1li-R6jah"'iira Slllla T1IeraOiiIM-Valla"n
2.

SllfWka J (ifaka

4. 6. 8.

KaludilJw hitaka Lala.lalaka

IQ. 12.

Jtlam1t/1riimaya, elt. Gola",u.l:ht1 S ..fla

T/ttra OntM-HIIIDlluiya Kutika

CUAI''fER

NINJ!:

---------------DAILY HABITS AND CUSTOMS

CUSTOMS CIIANGE Rnd MC liablc to change wiLh c1uLllges in the mentality of the people. In matter!l relatiJlg to private life the tendency is for tho individual to be guided by his vRnity and comfort. 1n cOllformillg to the ostablished standard of 1J10wls he shows 1,110 ildlllence of society upon him. 'fhe morning bath, which WRB a daily Illtbit in ancient India, was often taken bcfore sunrise. Therc wcre bnthiJlg costumcs. 1 "Red bath-balls "2 and bath powders,3 took the place of 80lLp.' Also the body IIsed to be rubbed with fine lime, ointments, chunam and red arsonic. 3 Small wooden slabs or strings of beadll were also IIsed for rubbing the body. 4 The hair was combod with combs or lIJ1loothing instrumente lIhaped like the hood of a suake. There was a pumade made of bees-wax. Applying oil to the head and touclling up the face with paint ""as a .common usage. 4 III Brahmaj(jla Bulla the Dllddha declared the following methods of adorning and beautifying oneself to be vulgar viz. :

"Shampooing, rubbing in lIcented powders, patt.ing the limbs with clubs, use of eye ointments, rougc, eosmct.ics, bracelets, necklaeell, garlallds, head,dresses, diadems, whisks of t.he yak's t.ail white robcs wit.h long fringes al'd ornamented slippers; or carrying about walking sticks, reed eases for drugs, rapiers and sunshades," 'fhe barbers usually did the hairdressing. 6 They ullCd mirrors, but a common substitute for mirrors was a bowl of water. (I We r/lad of the 1IS6 of nail-cutters, nail-polishers, razors and pincers. (I Many kinds of perfumcs, ointments, and scents, which were kept. in boxes of gold, silver, bone, ivory, horn, bamboo, wood and lIhell, were popular toilet requisites. 1 A lIccnted powder was used also to polish bowls and lIucb vessels. 11 Vi....ya-Mahavagga VIIl

I. 3.

BaHlula Bulla

6. 7.

Thua G
2. 4. 6. 8.

A&&alay<>RII But/a

I'inaya-Kulluagga V Villay,.-KuUBvagga V Th~r; G,itM-DhaddhA

45

I. 3.

6, 7.

46

Up(ili Sulla 1(MaroJtilaka & Villuyu_Kulhu'agga Kiili,;ga Bodki Jii/aka TlurB G,il.\ti-V.ddha

2, 4, 6,

Vinnya Kulhwaggll. V Tltua Gii/Aii-80na Kutibnna VinuyB_Kull"".gg,, V

sandals ". I The expen~ive robes were lluHle of cloth of gold. Z Tile different colours and patterns of robes in use arc suggested by the followilllZ passage: "They wore robes of bluo, light yellow, crimson, brown, black, brownish-yellow, or dllrk-yellow colour. They wore rohes with skirts to them which were long and had flowers Oll thcm".' The kinds of cloth commonly used for garments wore linen, cotton, silk, wool, eoarse cloth and hempen eloth. 3 KflSi cloth and Benares muslin were expen~i\"e. Special dyes were used to give colour to cloth "lid garments. 4 To clean clothes the" w(UlherWOlllall rubs the soiled cloth smooth with salt, earth or lye or eowdry, find rinses it in pure clean water. Then the owners lay it lip in a sweet-scented coffer",5 Garments were also perfullled with incense. 1I There was elaborate footwear. The slloes had one or more linings. 'fhe edges and tile heels of shoes were of different colours. The slilJIlCrs and moccasins were blue, yellow, red, brown, black, oraJlge or yellow in colour. Thc boots were also of different colours. Tlley were laced or lined with cotton and were oTlllunented with horns and feathers, Both boots ami shoes were adorned with skins. The ornaments for shoes were of gold, silver, pearl, beryl, crystal, cOJlper, glass, tin, lend or broll1:e. Among otller kinds of shoes were those made of wool, talipot leaves and different kinds of grass. 7 The lndika of ArriCfln gives the following account of ancient Indill.n dress : " The dress worn by the Indiuns is made of cotton as Nearehos tells us. They wore an undergarment of cotton which renches below the knee, halfway down to the ankles, and also all upper garment which they throw partly over their shoulders alld partly twist in folds round their head, 'I'he IndiallS wear also cnr.rings of ivory, but only such of them do this as are very wealthy for all ]ll(lians do not wear them. Their beards, Nearchos tells liS, they dye of one hue and another according to taste .. ,. Such Indians, he also says, as are thought anything of, use parasols as a screen from the heat. They wear shoes made of white leather and these are elabo· rately trimmed, while the soles are varigated and made of great thickness to make the wearer so much the taller."-Ch. XVI. I.

P(ltaliya StltlQ.

3. Vi"'lIya-Maha Vag«", VU) 6. Sanyul/a Nikoya XXIl 7. Vinaya-Mahavagga V

2. 4. 6.

ldahopa,;nibboi_Sul/a l'ill(l'ytJ-Mnha Vagga V May1lflka Jdlam

The description of dress in the Chinese recordll shows that dreB8e1l in the days of tile Buddha IlUd not lIIfl.terially Ch[lIlgcd : " The Kshattryiyll.s and the ]jralnnans are cleanly and wholesome in their dress, Il.lld they live in fL homely fLnd frugal way. ']'he king of the country and the great ministers wear garments and ornaments different in their character. They use flowers for decoratillg their hair, with gcm-decked CllpS; they omament themselves with bracelcts and necklaces. There are rich merchant8 wJlO dt'al exclusively in gold trinket.8 and so OIl. They mostly go barefooted; few wear sandals. They stain their teeth red or black; they bind up thcir hair 'Hid pierce their ears; they ornament their noses. " Their clothing ill Jlut cut or fashiolled ; they mostly affect fresh white garments. They esteem little those ornamcnted or of mixed culour. 'L'he /lien wind their garmenu round their middle, then gll.thcr them Hllder f.he arml'il..'4, allll let them fnll down aero8ll the hody hanging to the right. The robes of the women fall down to the ground; they completely cover their llhouldofll. They wear a little knot of hair 011 their crOWllS and let the rest of their hair fall loose. Some of the lHell cut off their moustaches ami have other odd custOI1lS. On their heads people wear caps (crOWDS) with flower wreaths and jewelled necklets. Their garments are made of Kiaushe-ye and of cotton. Kiau-she-ye is the product of the wild silkworm. They hrwe garments also of Tso'-mo which is a sort of hemp ; garments also made of Kielq)o-lu which i.'4 woven from line goat hair; garments also llLade from llo·la-li. 'fllis stuff is made frolll the fme hair of a wild animal; it is seldolH this can be woven, and therefore the stuff is very valuable, and it is regarded as fine clothing." I The vn.riety, reiinOlllent and even luxury of food arise out of a oountry's prollJ>erity. Copious examples of slleh marks of prosperity Rrc fOllnd in the scriptures. A refinement in diet WRa brollght about by Buddhist culture. Uefore and after a meal everyone wl\8hed their mouths and cleanod their teeth. This habit ill kept Ill' to this day by Duddllisls. A Cllinese traveller has recorded this fact: " They IIrc "er)' particular in their personal cleanline8ll and allow no remissness ill this particular. All wasll themselves before eating; they never use that which has been left over; they do not pa8!l the dishes. Wooden and sLone ,·essels when used must be destroyed; l.

Ta-Tall'J-Bi- )",., Yi (Blld,lhiJIt UellOrda of tho WCBtern World) Bit. Il

veBBCls gf gold, silver, copper or iron after each meal must be rubbed and polished. After eatillg they cleanse their teeth with a willow stick and wash their hands and mouth. Until these ablutions are finished they do not touch one another. Every time they perform the functions of nature tlley wash their bodies and use perfumes of sandalwood and turmeric. When (,he king wRshes they strike the drums and sing hymns to the sound of 11l1lsical instruments. Before offering their religious services aJld petitions they wash and bathe themselves." 1 In the days of the Buddha there were three ehiefmeals a day. People had meals in the morning, in the evening and in tile afternoon. "The dainty dishes all came ill the evening". 2 'l'hoBe of the .!3mMha's order took only the lllorniJig and the mid-clay meals. They were prevented from over-indulgence in food. Jt was a habit among sOllle Indians to eat their fooU lying Oil decoraled divans, S just 11.II the ancient Romans. Even tlmt habit was disapproved of for the followers of the Buddha. Anoient Indians were great Illeat eaten. Large Jlumoore of animals used to be slaughtered as sacrifices to gods by the Brahamin priests. That custom reminds us of the Roman sacrifices to the gods. At a banquet given by an Indian minister of the king two-hundred and fifty different dishes of meat were served. 4 also, a prince of Kapilaviistbu wall able to enjoy food of [l hundred fi[lvours at every meal. 6 It was Buddhist inflUCll6e that made vegetable diet popular in India. The Buddha preached agaulst killing animals even for feod and subsequentl.r I~mperor Asoka made it illegal to kill animals. Apart from special dclicacil's, some popular dishes cOll.llisted of rice snd junkets, & rice porridge prepared with honey or sugar, 7 rice cakes' and honey, 7 soup aJlcl hoiled rice, and rice boiled in milk. Ghee, butter, oil, sugar and honey were \Ised for food in many ways.8 Food was served in howls and dishes of gold, silver, copper, iron or clay, according to tllO nmk and wealth of the person. As fingers were used instead of forks, washing of hands before and after meals was a habit. It was also a long standing custom to wash the mouth beforo and after every meal. o The water used for drinking was strained. 1 0 Taking meals together was a sign of equality slld friendship. 11 As a '1'a-Tang-Si_]·u_Ki_Dk.1l 3.. Vinal/a-Kullavsgg", V 6. TM~IJ Galhii-Paripunnaka 7. TAn-IJ Ga/Aa-Gogala 9. V;t1mla-Rule~ 11. Jllwida&,i/a J ,ilai:a L

2, 4. 6. 8.

10.

/,ldulci Kopama SUlla Vill<'lya-Mal"w~~ga VI Malta SIJa<JA-aSul/a TM:ra Giith..i-Dh"teya Vinaya-lIlllhavagg" VIII

IlIRrk of regpect the hu~t or ho.~\,e!l!l lIen'e(1 the f!:llests, t anti" nothillg would he uskell frOIll lL strnnger R\'01lt himself before he finillhell his meal." 2 Vinaya rules contain the bible IlHlIlIlerS of Uudtlllist India.! Though the rules were meant for members of the order, they could be counted as the generally acccptcd forms of propriety at meals. The prohibition of the uso of intoxicants WAS another social reform brought about by the Buddha. He made abstinence from intoxicants one of the I;\'e precepts to be observed dRily by RlIllllddhists. The habit of taking intoxicating liquors was so popular at that time Rmong certRin classes that a 8pecial day was observed as a {lrinking festival. Many kinds ofswcet find un-intox icating drinks Wl're lIsed daily. 'rJiere were drinks made from the juice of fruits such lIll mangoes, bUllflllllS, grnpes, from syrups and honey, Rml from roots, com, leaves llnd 8ugar Cillle. { Various kill{l!l of drinks were made of milk. "Milk with lL pungent drug wall (IrUIl k to avoid get,ting lL cll i11 after water-sports. "6 Book I I of 'I'a-TaJlg-Si- Y11- Ki gi \'NI till' followillg aCCIJllII 1. of bldi:ul food: "Among the product., of tllO groulItl, rice and com Me IIIOS!; plentiful. With respect to edible herbs and plants, we may Ilame ginj::er find Illustnnl, melOJlS and plllllllkins, the helln-lo Illant and others. Onions Rnd garlic are little grown and few persons eat them. If UllY one uses them for food, they are expelled beyond the walls of the tOWI1. The most usual foud is milk, hutter, cream, soft sugar, sugllr-candy, the oil of the Illustard-seed, llnd all80rt.tl of cakes Ilulde of corn ate used Il.S food. Fisll' muttoll, gazelle and deer they eat gellerally fresh, somelilJle8 salted; they nre forbidden to eat the flesh of the ox, the llSS, the elephant, the horse, the pig, the dog, the fox, the wolf, the lion, the monkey, llnd all the hairy kind. Those who eat them are despised and seomed, and are tlJliverslLlly reprimanded; they live outside the walls, and are seldom seell among mell.

With respect to the different kinds of wine and liquors, there arc vllrious sorts. The juice of tile ~TIlpe and the sngar cane, these are used b)' the KshattriYlls 38 driJlk ; the Sramans and llrahamans drink II sort of syrup made from the grape or sugar-cane, but 1I0t of the nnture of fermented wine." I. 3.

o.

l'iflaya-MalllH"llgga I Vinya-&kkiyll Uhamm" KaIundaka Jiilaka

~

4.

TaUa Jiitaka r".y«-Mnha Vllggll V

I

The ancicnt. mdhodll of COllvt)"RIICfl ami trallllport. tilled were dependent. Oil the IlilltaJlc:e to be travelled and on the wealth and rank of the traveller. l'alanquiJls, sedan c:hail1l, and lit.ters bome by servantll or attendant.'! were ill gelleral use for informal and short. ,·isitA. I Lollg journeys were u811ally undertaken 011 horseback.! On state occasions and important functions, kings and wealthy nobles rode on elephantll.' In riding elephants it wsa the master or the chief who had to alight. first. from the elephant.' Caravan partics COil veyed mcrchalllJi6f! from olle kingdom to anot.her by carts drawn hy bulls. (i There were also carringes, II chariots find state carril~ge6 which were draWll by horA6s. 7 People of di8tinction went. about. in carriages drawn by four horaea aa ahown by the following quotations: .. Killg Videha happened to be ill a magnificent carriage drawn b)' fOllr milk-white horse8."8 "The Bmhamin JanuS80lli, was coming out. of the cit.y early in the day in a carriage which was all white and wns drawn by four white IIIRrCII."· A chariot WA!l JescrilJed in the scriptures all "adOrlloo with jewels alld gold RIllI drawn by high-bred horses." I 0 llere ill a grnphic de!ICri'pt.ioll ofa king's e\'cning villit lo the Buddha: " King Ajatas8ttu had five hundred she·elephants made ready and I1lso thoStute elephant which the killg was wont to ride. Then the king had five hundred of the ladies of the court. mounted 011 t.he sheelephants, olle on eRch, and he himllelf mounting 011 the state-elephant went forth, with the attendants bearing torches, ill royal proce88ion from HajagaIJa to the pleasure·garden known 83 ' Oivaka's Mango Grove '."11 Large numben of attendant4l and retainers often accompanied the men of distinction 011 their journeyll, so it was cUlltomary for lIuch persons to have many carriages or chariots. For instance, .. Biha, t.he commander-in-chiefwentout of the city ofVesiili with 500 chariots". I! A young lady, Villiikii, went. with a large number of maidCllIl in their chariots to welcome the Buddha to their city. 13 There were also 1. Vi"aya-A1l1h.. VllgglI V 3. Ju.,,1Ia JatQl:a 6. Vinay_MahllvlIgglI V 7. M amipariflibbdl\(l ,sill/a 9.

Cula.Aa/li.padoparll(l Sldla

I L Sa"IGnM-P1lal/t Sill/a 13. DIia_pada JI,'labIM-VitJikhi

G~t1la-MBhi Kappinll

2.

7'km

4.

KllJla J,itaka CiUa·UalfipadQpama .sulla Yi"ilaA:/lJiil/lka MayAaka Jiilab Yillaya-lIJahangga VI

6.

8. 10. 12.

6'

exnlllples of WOIllt'1I tlri villg t.heir own chariot-s, or even rncing wit.h men. Ambnpiili made 11 IWlnuer of lIIagnificent chariets to bc prepared Il.nd mounted 011 olle of t.hem and went out of Vesiili to visit tbe Buddha. She drove 111' against the young LicLlChavis, pole to pole, yoke to yoke, wheel to wheel, axle to lude." I rn some \'ehicles musicians wero takcn so that t.hey miglJt play their music 011 tho journey. !fthe chariot containcd the owncr or the chief rider, tho Hluflicinns flat in tho front. part of the carriage, ot.llllrw;sc t1H~ musicians snt IJcllind MIC cllrrillge. Whon gnosts were cxpected the host weut to meet Rnd accompany them home. If 116 wont in a chariot he would stop it and walk It short distance to greet his gllellls.! gxpressions of greeting nnd complimcntoll of civility were usual at mcctings and partings. S Wben visiting, a person's presence WRS announced through II servant or porter. 4 Alllo n person would knock at a door before entering a privato room. 5 The guests often took flowers to tho host. lt was a common custom to greet with flowers or send wreaths and nosegays to one anothcr,tl or throw flowers from the balcony to honour a distingllisuod passer-by.7 lt was a mark of civility to rise to meot Il. person. tl Towards guosts or. strangers the people were particularly civil, " for all recluscs and BrahnllliJls who Cl\Jn6 within the precincts of a village were eonsidered guests, to be treated witu honour Slid reverence, with devotion and worship.'" Whcn taking leave of one's bctters, after bowing down, one would pass rOtOld them with one's rightside towards them. 10 In a stranger's house it was thought to be decorous to be properly clad, the body to be under proper control without swaying the botly, arms or head, not to walk. on heels or tocs, nnd not to laugh 10ud."1 1

I. Vina!fll-Mll.h",vagga VI 3. JIT!Ui"ra S"lla 6. I'in.aya-M"hav"gga VI 7. Vmmadant; Jdf4lra 9. OanH S"lla 11. r,,,aya_&kbiy,, Db"mlDa

62

2. 4. 6. 8. 10.

AlaA.. Jallalra Jdlaka Upiili Sulla l'i1\(lya-Kulla1'llgga 1 ..'hampadiina Jii1ab Villllya-Mahaval'ga I

OnAI'TF.lt

TF.N

AMUSEMENTS

---THE N ATIONA L sports and amUSCmeJlt.8 evolve from cXllCriellce. Games aud pastimes reveal t.l1C c1laraet.cr, not only of thosc who partake in them, lout also of thosc who witness them. Different games appeal differently to different minds. While the undeveloped mind CRn be nasily satisfied, the cultured mind demands a higller standard of skill Imd effort in sport and amusement. Also, some games arc maintained by the interest whioh the public hare in tllClJ\. Such games die out with the loss of that interest. Music, dancing and singing, Ilfl in all COIlUllllJlitics, were in ancient India popular forms of entertainment. ".l\Ien and WOJIicn used to dance and sing and play music together". 1 Dancing wns evidently done on special kinds of carpet which were described aa "large woollen carpets slIch as the dancing girls dance IIpon."2 Another type was a carpet large enough for sixteen dancers. S Although the rich nobles had in their houscs fcmale musicians and danccrs to cntcrtain them, yet the nrtists of reputation dis/played their talent ill thcir own hou8Cs to Lllc IHldience that came to t,hcm. Such all artist was Ambapiili, who was" beautiful, graccful, pleasant, gifted with thc highest beauty of complexion, wcll-....erned in dancing, singing and lute-playing". 4 An cqually clever artist was Siilii.vathi of Riijagaha, who charged enormous sums from those who wished to be entertained by her music and dancing. 5 Tii.1aputta. of lliijagalm was thc famous actor of his day. He toured through India with his company of actorn. "With 500 actresses and with spectacular grandelH he attended fcstivals in villagcs, towns and palaces and won great fame". S Also festive occasions attracted another class of strolling pla.yers. 7 Just as the actors, dancers and musicians strolled about the country, there were the jugglers, 8 sllakecharmers and acrobats who showed their feats of danchlg through four or five javelins. I) 1. 3.

Vinay,,-Chullll.vlI.gga I Braltmajiila Stttta

5.

if/id

7. 9.

Ka7\(l'Mra Jatalw Dubbt.U:6 Jalalw

2. 4. 6. 8.

Vinaya_MlI.hll....aggll. V Vinaya-M,.h,.vaggll. VTIl TltfflJ l1iila-Til a putta

S"nyuUa Niiiiya XXII

TIle populnr elll.('rLninlllcntll of tllOse dRY~ ('on~i~ted of dancing, sillging, il\J'ltrurm.H1tal lIlusic, showlI, at fairs, recitations, Illnying on cymbals, chanting of bards, combats of elcplmIlt8, 1lOrscs, buffaloes, bulls, goat.~, rllIJ1S, cocb and quails, bonts at quarter-staff, boxing, WrcSUiIlg, sham figh~, forces urawn up in hnttlc array, manoeuvres, anu reviews Ilf the army. I Thcllc amll~ement~ attrnctclllargl' cro\\'II.'l to the parks and pleasuregardens, especially Oil holidays.! On sllecinl uCCllsions IJfOCell8iolls rOl\lld the city wefe arrangcd, 8 when numhers of gaily decorated elephants joined the procession. 4 'The visits of kings or nobles to the plcnsure-gardens with the ladics of the court was a graud spectacle. 5 The pleasure-garden~ were also places (If all\usement for children and anilllallovers, for Birds and animals kept there uscd to be fed by the visito~s. Feeding UIC peacocks in the ., Wanderers •• PlellSannce, \I and the sq uirrels ill the Bamboo Grove, 1 was an amusement of the visitofs to th08e IJll.fks. Out-door sports had their champiolls, Vira won fame tllrough his athletic aceompli8hmcnts Rnd became a warrior. s A favourite sport of athletes was wrestling which created much public ellthusill.8l1l. The following pas8age shows the excitemellt of the people over 'Hestling matches: "So they scnt for two wrestlers, Canura and Mutthika, and I)roclaimed through the city by beat of drum that 011 the seventh da)' there would be a wrestling match. 1'he wrestling fing was prepared in front of the king's palace. There was all enclosure for the sport. The ring was decorated gaily. The flags of \'ictory were mised. The whole eit}' WllS in a whirl. The seatll rose line over line, tier above tieL'" Boxing as a sport seems to IHll'e been of Illlcient origin for mention was Illade of boxillg with fists. 1 0 Some out-door sports aimed at different IllCthods of physical training. There were the water·sports when COI!test-ants vied with oun another in feat.~ of swimming and divingY YOUllg IIldie8 also appearetl to have enjo}'e{l water.sports. 12 Brahrnaj'ila Su//a D"",rnrdda J'il"hJ. MiilaRl}aJala/w, 7. CJw/a·S"kullldayi Sulta 9. Ghata J,ilaka 11. Kallllld!lkaJ,;lak.. l.

3. 5.

2.

Sul
'('he abUlldance of indoor and outdoor games and sports shows an uspect. of social activities. Some of the popular games or sports were " wssi/lg up eight. or ten objects, hopping over diagrams 011 the ground, removing objects from a heap without moving the rest, games at. dice t.rap-ball, skelchillg figures, tossing balls, blowing trumpets, mock ploughing, matches with mimic ploughs, tumbling, guessiJlg at measures, chariot. races, contests in nrchery, shooting marbles with fingers, gucssing other people's thoughts, lIlilllickiJlg other people's acts, clephant. riding, horse-riding, carriage driving, archery, 8wordsmanship, runlling to and fro in front of elephants, horses and carriages." 1 A game is {leseribed us played on boards with eight or ten rows of squares. This might be an early form of chess, for ROmo of the pieces used in the game are called kings and men. The same game W88 played 2 Oil imaginary boards. Throwing dice and marking the score8 on a board wss another popular game. 2 There were children's games, Il.S ploughing with toy ploughs, playing with toy windmills, toy carts, ~oy bow8 or toy measures. Playing on pipes was a common amusement. 2 Of the outdoor games, the common ones were games with balls, hopping over diagrams drawn on the ground, hitting Il short stick wit.h a long one and turning somersaults. 2 In ancient. India, chariot races and horse racing attracted crowds to the race courses near the principal cit.ies, for driving chariots and riding horses were pmctised both as an art as well as an accomplishment, chiefly by the warriors, for whom archery and swordamauship were considered essential arts. There had beeu contests to display feats in archery.3 Of the many kinds of contests, the most popular were the musical contests. I t was customary for those in the audience to shower presents 011 the winner. A well-known musical corltest. between a teacher and his pupil was thus described: " The kinf( sent a proclamation by the beat of drum that on the seventh day Guttila, the teacher and Miisila, the pupil, willmcet before the palllce to show t.heir skill, and aske{1 the people ofthe city to assemble to wit.ness the contest .... At the gate of the palace a pavilion wall erected with a throne set apart. for the king. The king I. 3.

VillaYll-ChuUavagga 1 A,,<Jd"'a }citak!l

66

came down (rom the palnce And took his scat in the gorgeously dccora'tcd pavilion. All around llim wcrc thousanus of attendants, beautifully drf'fl9CU women, courtiers, Brahflmins alld citizens. The whole city had come togethcr. The Reats were fixed, circlc 011 circle and t.ier above ticr." I To ~llOse with any 1I.\'ersion W the gay amusements, there wcre the intellectual ones. Thcy crowdcd to list.en to learned men and philo8ophers. Thcy touk keen interest in able debat.es. "Once five hundred o( the Lichchavis were lllet in their assembly JlOuse on some business. They werc invited to thc debat.e which Saccaka was to have witlt the lluddha".2 'fhe men and women dialectitians who went about the eountry also were listclled to by the cit)' or village crowds. Gamei'! which in course of time came under taboo were duc to social or religiolll~ iuflucnces. Gambling of all kinds was conde/lUled so that the gRmbler (u1llltl it dinicult to contract ll. good marriage. Thruugh the influence of the Buddlm's teaching the rights of alliIJmls (or kilHl treatment was recognised. All games nnd IIports involviug the wOIlIll!ing or killing of animals were considered wiekcu and cruel. Thus hunting as a sport becamo unpopular. Games give an insight into the minds of not only tllOse who take part in them, but also th080 who witness them. Among children's games were such as rUllning against tIle wind objeet-s that turn with the wind, S or removing healJCd up pebbles or objects onc b}' OlLe so that tile other" do not tumble down, or team games where n. small stump thrown hy onc party is hit with" stick by those of tlLO other party in tUnt and scoring according to the distance the}· llit the stulllp.4 A game of guessing for children was to place tiny sticks in shapes of animals or objects and covoring them with the hands, asking those taking part in the game to guess what the sticks represented. 1'hose who guessed correctly won. 5 There was a game similar to blind man's buff where a child played 8S blind or lame by hopping on oue foot. 8 Some children amused themsolves by asking others to guess the letters they traced with their finger8 in the air or on the backs of other ehildren. 7 The gnllle of gucssing numbcrs or the thoughtll of other children was Jlopular with the bigger children. s

----------------

J. G"tli/(lJiild·a 3. C"ing"kJktJ 6. Salaka Ral/ha 7. A.l:.l:"n.l:(I

'0

2.

4.

6. 8.

Cilia S=.l:a S"Ua Gali.l:a ralhaMgga JlI<11n~~;.l:a

Whon ollt-door play-grounds could not be used owing to bad weather, halls for play wore arranged for c1lildren. 'fho following passage from the seriptures is noteworthy: " A hall for play ought to be built hero, we willllot play in this way", and he said to tho boys: " Lflt U8 build a hall here where we can stand, sit or lie in t.ime of wind, hot sunshino or raill."l

OIJAPTER

EI,EVEN

BELIEFS

AND

FAITHS

TJlF. LESS enlightened members of n. COllUll1111ity 1I0t only cherish lLlHI cling to the superstitions of their forefathers, but they even hand down their own adllitions and modificatiolls. Throughout the ages, the beliefs and faiths of people do not remain the Rllmc, but arc modified or e\'011 rejected according to the changes in religion or advaneemcllt of knowledge. Scientific kllowledgc and reason ore the enemics of superstition and blind faith, The rational stundpoint of Buddhism tended to destroy superstitions. With the decay of Buddhist culture in India lIew faiths and superstitiolls began to grow and with the aid of the priesLs they even received religious Slllletioll, Most superstitious IIlId bcliefg which existed alllOllg ancient people were not reeorded but hUILded down from generation to gelleratioll, There arc incidental records of some superstitions in tile scriptu res, Dreams have puzzled people of all timeB, In the days of the Buddha the [ndians cOJlsidered dreams to have a significance as indications of impending good or bad fortune. The BtTILllge dreams of King KOBala were interpreted a~ premonitions of t.he coming dangers to his kingdom, and the nugurers ad\'ised the king to prepare a great BlI.crifice of various killdB of animals to avert the danger by appeasing the gods. The BllLught.er of animals WIIS stopped by the Buddha's advice to the killg. I The mot.her of Prince Siddhiirtha dreamt. of 1I. 8ma]] white elephallt 01L a lotus prior to her conception. Princess Miiddi dreamt about the loss of ller C)'CS alld her husband knew that this meant parting from her children, yet consoled her by sayiug; "Your mind InnBt have been disturbed by ulleasy Bleep or by indigestion; fear nothing,"! Here is a dream that clisturbed the mind of a king: "Four columns of fire blar.ed up ill the rour corners of the royal court as high as the great wall, fUld in the midst oflhclll rOlle a flame of the size of a firefly, aud in a momcnt it smllleuly exceeded the four columns of lire and rose up RS high as the Brahma world and illumined the whole world; even a grain of mustard seed lying on the ground is distinctly seen. Gods 'Unl men worshipped it with flowers ami illCCI1!IC. A vast multitude passed through this flame but not even a hlli r of thei r Bkin was singed, "3 3,

Atall,; UmlNawa Jiilalm

The four wille men of the king came in the moming to interpret the dream. They 8aid: •• 0, king, a firth sage will be born who willllUrpa8ll liB four, we four are like the four coluJIIlls of fire, hut i'l the midst of these there will arise AS it were a fifth co1Ullln of fire, one who is unparalleled and film a P08t which is unequalled in the whole world ofgodll and men." QUei:n Khemii of Bl'nares saw in n dream A deer of golden colour and Mhe thought: ,. If there were no sllch creature AA this, J should not ha\'e lIeen him in my drealll. Surely tltere must be 8uch JI ol1e." 1 Akin to prophetic dreams were omeJlA. 'l'hey were clt18sified as omens of sight, Ol1lellS of 1l01lJ1l1 and omells of touch. "The sight of anything with a. hnppy look is a good omell ; suppose n man rises betimes alld sees a perfectly white bull, or a WOIllAn with child, or a red fish, or a jIlT filled to the brim, or new melted ghee of cow's milk, there is no omell bet~r tha.n these."! .. What you hear is the omen. A lIlall heartl people saying" full ", then he hears" full-f{rown "or" growing" or he hean them MY" eat" or " chew" there is 110 omell better than these." J .. WhAt you touch is the ameli. If a Illan gets up eArly Rnd touches the earth, or toudll'1I green graM, fresh cow dung, R c1eRIl robe, a red fish, gold or silver or food, there ill 110 better omcn thalll.helle."· Such diverse opiniu/ls II'd to 11 controversy when the Buddhist expla> IUI-tion of things to be considered fortUllRte was given ns the 110SSessiJlg of a kind flnd eomp1\SSiOJ11\te henrt towlInls all beillgS, heiJlg cheerful nnd modest, not despising otherll Rmlllot being 11roud of birth, wisdom. wcalth or c1IU18, ha.vinp: true ami good friends, IIll.ving a wife of e
3.

2. 4.

Jbitl

MaM;.Ma,i!i'ala J!ila/ca

6.

Aliilaftl/a J,if,,/ca

.. The spade fell froUl 1ler Ilfllltl, the bMkct fell from ller sbouldell!, her right eye went a-tiJrobhing, fruit t.rees appeared 38 barren oml bnrren trccs as fruitful and she could not detect the right direction."l Many supersl itioJl8 also arose from the notion that certain things were lucky or unlucky. Good or ill-lul' k wns even attached to n'/unes, 2 for a person became pros)lerolls or ot herwise according to the Ilame given to him, There is an instance where it wns believed unlucky for the residents of a certain IlOuse to use nil inmate's name as " Kalaknulli" (the miserable). 3 A king employed 11. 13rahnmin who profeslled to know the lucky and unlucky sounds, When the sllliths forg:('(!swords, he by smelling them, would declare those swords lucky wllich were made by smiths who bribed him. A smith put pepper in tile sheatll of Il. sword whicb a Hrahamin put nCRr his lIose and Hlleezcd, thereby inj llI'illg his nose. 4 Some nnillmls wcre n.lsu IJelievcd tu PUSflCSS special powerR of luck. Prince Vessiintarn. had l~ pure white elephant IUHl in wlll~tever country it lived ~Ilere was lIO (Irought. 6 People uscd to blnlne the king if their hll.rvests fatled or other misfortlUt('s fell upon the country. 'fhey believed that if l\ killg wns unright.eous thl'l gods either .sent no rain or sent it out of season. 6 There were professors of the knowledge of signs in tho following things, denoting health or luck to their owners: gtllllS, car-rings, staves, dresses. swnrds, arrows, bows, dangerous weapons. women, men, boys, girls, servants, elephants, horses, buffaloes, bulls, o~ell, goats, sheep, fowls, iguanas, tortoises and other animals.' A per80n'sluck they sometimes attributed to I\ll object possessed by that persoll. This notion was developed into a transference of luok from one object or person to another. So a Brahamin went to the lDansion of Aniithapilldika, who from pO"crty had risen to be very rich. He thought the rich man'sluok Wllll. in his wllite oock, and when he took the fOlvl, tlte luck went to a jewel, and when thnt WIlS stolen the luck went iuto a club and with the removnl of 1.he club it went into the rich man's wife's head, so that the good luek could not be stolen. When the Buddha heard about it he said: "Nowadays the good luck of Olie mall does not go to another. Formerly, the luck belonging to those of small wit went to the ..... ise."s L 3. 5. 'I,

60

I'UM"tam Jiil"k" K,jla.h",,,j Jr'il"l:,. l'luanl,..rIlJ,jlok" BraJunrJ-Jala 8.dl,..

2. 4. G.

Niitha"iddhi Jiitam ..hil"k/cllat](l Jut"k" .M ainror" J,it"ka 8. Sir; Jiitak(l

There were different methods of prognostication. A llmhamin ""ho saw doLhes gnawed uya mouse thought: " Jf thesll clothes remain in the hOllse they will bring ill-luck, and such SI\ ilI-owelled thing is sure to bring a curse. 1 Two young men afwr their education were travelJil,g when they came to Bennres. 1'hat day sOllle mOll thought of offerinl,! food to Brahnmills aud seoing the YOlln~ lHen they brought them into the house where seat., were prepared. On one lleat a white cloth was spread, on the other a red woollen rug. On seeing the omen, the friend who sat on the red rug understood that Ilis friend who sat 011 the Beat with the white cloth would be king, and that he would be thc cOlnmauder-in-chief. 2 PrognosticatioJls were also dono by reading the lineaments of the body.3 :From the persollalappeanuJOe of a prince of Donares it was known that he was to undergo groat danger. Physiogllollly was the hasis fur rcading chnracter ami luck. 4 Guttila, the royal musieill.ll, at the first sight of Mftsila knew him to be of ungrateful disposition. 'felling fortwles with the aid of stars wns popu Inr. At the birth of a child a certain Brahaminlooked up to the sky to divine his son's destiny. Because tllC child was born under 0. certain conjullction of stll.rS the father knolV that the boy would be the chief archer in all Jndia.' A marriage was once prevented by Rn ascetic who was asked to name an auspicious day. He answered that the stars were not favourable and that the nuptials oug:ht not to be celebrated Oll that day, ll.nd that, if they were, great misfortune would come of it. The Buddha taught that it was the fools who wawhed for" lucky days". e Fortune telling was a vulgnr prlletice. There were maJly women fortune.tellers. 7 SceinK the futility of the practice the Buddha COIIdeDUled the following as low and vulgar: "Palmistry. divining by means of omens and signs, auguries drawn from thunderbolts and celestial potents, prognostication by int-crpretb'g dreams, fortnne-telling from Illll.rks on the body, auguries from cloth gnawed by mice, sacrifices to the god of Fire, oblations from special spoons, making offerings of husks, grain, ghee ami oil to gods, throwing mustard seed into the fire out of one's mouth RS a sacrifice, drawing blood as a sacrifice, muttering charms and divining people to be lucky l.

M",igala.fo/am

3. G.

Umflt{ldanJlti Sat~,bJw"g(, .!ii/aka

7.

Sa".","l" Ni1:riya

2. 4.

SOl1tlka .fatl7ka G"Uifa Jii/ak,.

6.

NaUhatla J olalr,.

61

Hr tint, lldrrmining till' Ai/l' fur n 1101ISf' to he luc'ky or not, ndvisill~ on t:ustmnBry riw.s, layill~ IlrllLOI1.'t in c!"metcrirs, laying: ~hoSt8, clmnns used whcn lodgiuj! in n houllt', sllllk!" charminl!, poison emU, 8OOrpioll cmrt, mouse-crdt, birtl-cm.ft, crow-craft, i.c" curing their bites or undcrstanding their langlln~e or divining from their sounds, foretelling the len~th of 1\ rmr8OI\'R lifl', Jl:i\'ing charms tu wnrd off arrO"·R and IllldcrstnmlillfZ l!1(" lanp:lInp:e of nil crf'ature"","1 There werc also 1)C0llle who profcSllCd to foretell ecliJ'!'l("IJ of the SUII, llloon or Iltars, fnll of IlIrlt'ors, rllrlhqllakcs lIm1 thunder, 8nd ahm IlrctlietinJ{ more nr Irss rain, ~()od Iwrvcst or hnd II:ln'efl!, Iwslilellec or hrnlth)' 8l.'nSOIlIl nlllltimrs uf pence or of distllrbnllce. 1: Chnrms were used to mnke prol)Ie prosperous or "oor, nnd to make them dcaf or dumb. III the Ilrnctice of magic it is sRid that magieinlls were Bble to SpOilt forth flRmes from thrir 1ll0utlll'l, OmClllar BI\SWrrS were obt.ained through magic mirrors or from p:odtl Ill' from girltl in trances, Auspicio1l6 or lucky daYII were selected fm' Vo.riOll/l pUl'pose8 such us rtlnrriBge, cOlLchHlillK pence treut.ies, or 6t[lrtillg wars, cnllillg in of debls ur i1\vestil1~ mOIll'y. Siri, tllC God of Lllck, tllletl often to be invokcd. 3 Sacrifices Rnd VOW8 to p:ods were made before going on ;\ journcy or 6tartiJlp: nlly importllnt unl!rrt;\kin/!. Tra.dition says that in thos(' days people, when ~oill~ on II journey 011 busineM, llsed to slay livin,l( crcatul"Cll nnd offer t hcm as sacrifices to god8, IInd set out with this vow: .. If we come bllck lIafely with success "'I" shall make another sacrifice ", I Sacrifi('("s of Ilnimllls used to be macle at II feast called the feast for tll(' deat!. The disciples askrd the Buddha; "Just IIOW, Sir, the I~ople lire kil1illJlIIIRnJ li,·ing erc.'lturr.'llllld are offering them RI, what is CAlled a fCA.!It for the
3.

I.

8rt1hmajcila Sll/la Brohmajiila Bulla

6.

MolcdcabAatla J,jfoia

62

2, 4,

IJrahmajtjla BUlla Ayt,eilub1lollo Jiilaka

used as posts, no ' dabbho. ' lo!raS8eS wo\"en to strew Rround the sacrificial spot. And the mental servllnt.s and mesS('lIgers antt workmen there employed were driven neither by goads nor fear, nor carried on their work weeping with tears upon their faces. Who so cho&e to help, he worked, who SO chose not to bell', worked not; what each chose to do, he did, what they choM! not to do, that was left undone. With p;hee, and oil, alllt but.ter, and milk, and honey, and sugar only WlUJ that SAcrifice accompli,hcd. Then he explained what a real sacrifice is. When a wan with trusting heart takes "lK1n himself the precepts-abstinence from destro)'ing life; abstincncc from taking what has not beell given; abstinence from evil conduct i/\ resped of unl8wful sensual plessureR ; abstinence from intoxicants; that is " sacrifice better thall alms, gifts, ele. The Buddhists had no fliith in divination, spells, omcns, natrology, s80rifices to gods, witch-craft and
JlilVlytl-Cullav&gl!'a V

3.

KfJJImpa Sihuatk

8.110

2. 4.

KO.'~tlpa.

Sih""fid" Sldla KnaddhaBul/CI

63

OIlAPTIo:It

TWF.J.VE

EDUCATION

TUE STANDARDS and methods of education adopted at various epoch8 in a nation's history depend partly Oil the requirements of the times and partly 011 the culture of the people. The system of education in Buddhist nud pre-lluddllist India is sumeient to prove the high culture of the time. The Buddhist influence brought free education withill the rcaeh of all. Wberever there was n residence of the monks or nuns (Bikkus Bikkunees), there wns Ilrovision made for education of thOS6 who lived near them. In tlte Buddhist Unler two patlJs arc open to lllemheNl. Some undertook to teach while leading the life of disciplille, wllile others devoted most of tll(~ir time to IHcditation and /I1ellt~\f development. Free schools began to be 0IKJlLed in almost e\'f'~y village, and for higher or sJleeinfiscll education culture centres us resid~lltil1l1Jlliversitie8 wero opcned, of wlli~h Niifrmdii wns the most famulIll, In pre·Buddhist IIHJia a learned man's qualification was his knowledgo of the three Vedas. I\10st tenchers were described as masters ill the Vedas. Pilldoln Bhiiruu\"aja wns learned in the three VedM amI was a 8uceesaful teadll,r of tlte llralU\ll\in yOJJthR, also Tissa of HajngallR, an expert in Vedll.s. taught hYllU\S to five hundred boys.' The knowledge of the Vedns was an edlleational <Junlificatioll in pre-Buddhist India. After the spread of Buddhism, scholarship began to be gauged hy the knowledge of the 'l'hree "Pij;aka.s" (Buddhist teachings). Hence people came to be known as the master of one or more of the three" pit.akas". 'l'ripi~aka

consists of : I,-SUTTA P1TAKA

I. Digha Nikiiya 2. Majjhima Nikiiya 3. Saltyutla Nika.ya 4, Anguttara Nikiiya 5. Kuddaka Nikiiya 1.

Thera G,ithii-Pindolll & TillSll

Long DiscoursclJ Middle Discourses Kindred Sayings Qualitative (claS!lificd) DiscoutsCs Smaller Collections

Tbe 5th illllltb-divided into: Kuddaka pli{a Dhamma paJa Udiina Itivultaka, Bulla Nipiita Vimatw. Valthu Pet(llIllUhu Them Giitha Theri Ga/ha Jiitaka Niddesa Parisambhi,himagga A p(l(lana BuddhawlIf.nsa (I) (b) (c) (d)

6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

14.

Hi. IG.

Ch(/riyii-pi~aka

Short Texts Words of'fruth l~xclamatioJ1H of Joy " Thus Said" Discoursos Collected Discourses Treatise on Abodes Treatiso 011 Spirits Psalms of Brethren l'Sllhns of the Sist.ers Birth Stories nX'lOsitiolls .Path of Analytical Knowledge L;vos of ArnhantfJ The 11 istory of the Buddhas ~Iodes of Conduct

II.-V1NAYA PI1'AKA

I. PiiTiijik(i Piili 2. Pa.ciaiY(l Piili 3. Mahiivagga Piili 4. Cullavagga Pali 5. Pariviim Pii!i

Major Offences Minor OffeJlces Greater Sections Smaller Sections gpit,omn of the Vinayll.

r I L-AIlI1I1JIIAMMA 1. 2.

3.

4.. 5. 6. 7.

IJhalllma Sluigmtl Vibhlulga DlIiitukathii Puggalapaffffatti

KatMoot/hu Yamaka P(ll~hiina

P11'AKA

Clallsificu.tion of Concepts The Book of Divisions Diflcuss;oJl with Heference to Elements Types of Individuals Points of Controversy The Book of the Pairs The Book of Relative Condition

'fhe principalmothod of instruction was by I'llying personal attention to each pupil so that a teacher witb a great reputation attracted pupils from even remote kingdoms. 'fakkasilii and Biir;i,llesi (Bcnares) were cities noted for clevor teachers who trained their JlUllilllsucccssfully. 65

ACter the period of study under the supervision of the tcncher, as a. part of thei r etlucatioll the students tra \'elled to gain experience. Here is a typical descrip'tioll of n student: " lie studied under a teacher of world-wide fame at Takkasilii. He learned the three Vedas and the ei~hteell uranclles of knowledge. After completing his eduCll.tion he came to AndhfHn country in search of practicnl cxperience."! Some keen students completed their studies under one teacher and then went to others to fiud out whether they had anything more to teach them. So Ufladdha Kumlalakesa in her thirst for knowledge went wherever there were learned peolJle and learnt from them. 2 Children received their early education usually at home or in schools near their hOlllcs. The rich werc aule to employ special private tutors for their childrert. Heference to t.he custom is made in t.he following passage: "When thc rich llIan's SOlt wall being taught to write, the child of a servtmt llsed to go with his young llI38ter's table!.'!, and he himself learned to write at the same time."3 In large cities the Leachera of children had their schools Ilear the city gates; for instance, StLbbuya had bis school by the city gaLe where he gave lesaons to the children of noblemen and others. ( The following extracts from the Uecords of the Western World by a Chinese traveller shows the state of cducation since the days of the Buddha: " To educate Dnd encourage the young they are first taught to study the book of twelve challters. " Afte( arriving at the age of Beven years and upwards, the young are instructed in tho five Vidyns, Sastras of great importl1nce. The first is called the elucidation of sounds (Sabdavidya). This treatise explains and illustrates the agreement of words and it provides an index for derivatives. "The second is called Kiau-ming (Sitpasthiina-vidyii) ; it treats of the arts, mechanics, explains the principles of the Yin and Yang and the calendar. "The third is called the medical treatise; it embraces formulae for protection, accret charms, medical stones, acupuncture, and mugwort. 1. 3.

BlIr"""~~1IQ: Jiilda KaJaMlm JiilQca

2. 4.

TJtera Oatha-Bha
G,ilJui

"The fom:th Vidyii is cntlcd the science of causes; its name is derived from the charncter of the work, which relates to the determination of the true and the false, and reduced to their last terms the definition of right and wrong. " The fifth Vidyii. is called the science of" the interior" (Adhyiitmavidyii); it relates to the five vehicles, their causes and consequences, and the subtle influences of these. " ']'he teachers must thenuwlves have closely studied the deep and secret principles they contain, and penetrated to their remotest meaning. They then explain their general sense, and guide their pupils in understandilJg the words which are difficult. They urge them on f\nd Bkilfully conduct t.!1f'1lL. 'rhey f\dd lustre to their IJoor knowledge and stimulat.e the dell/wlJ(lillg. " For higher education youths wcnt to reside with a teacher of , great fame', 1 or of 'world-witle fame'. 2 They had to take the teaOhlll"S' fees with them, which were given as ' the first offering to the guru·. Of sueh resident pupils some were free scholars' who . attended 01\ their teacher by day, and at night they learn of him, but those who brought a fee are treated as his sons in his house.'" The poor students had at times to depend on public charity, for" in those days the people of Benares used to give day by day food and clothing to the poor lads and had them taught freo."( Althougb pupils from different classes of society resided with their teacher as comrados and friends, k. was not uncommon for them to be rivals for the hand of tho teacher's daughter, who often became the much coveted prize for schofarship and virtue of the pupil. 5 The teachers with n great reputation were able t.o charge higher fees, for the rich paronts tried to get their children taught by them. .. A brahamin after perfecting his education at Takkasilii. became a teacher of world-wide fame in Benares. To him flocked, as PUIJils, young nobles, and brahmins from all the rOYlll and wealthy families."Cl The question that wa8 asked from a learned perwn was not what his university was, but who his teacher was. . Specialists in various bmnches of knowledge and in art8 where practical skill was necessary took pupils as apprentices. In some cases knowledge was handed down secretly from teacher to pupil. This 1.

3. 11.

Ko.tiya Jatai:tJ. Ti/a MmthiJataka 8ilavirnaMana Jiitoi:tJ.

2. 4. 6.

BMma-le"",Jatoka LO$aN Jiitalm l;rMiya Jataka

67

prncticf', tllollgh it m:vle /WlIle type of knowletlge tlJe exclusive right of n chO,~t'll few, yet createtl an emotional reverellCf' for the tf'lldlCr by his pupir~. Hence the tCllcheJ1! wcre helll in gre1lt csteem and were honoured :t.s one's OWll parellt.s. The duties of thc pupils t.owards t.hcil' teachel's were, rising frolll their seats in salutation, waiting UI'011 thew being el\g1't to learn, paying :ltklltion when they were taught lU1I1 rcnd/·ring pcrsonal service. The duties of the teacher... were to love their pupils, to find out what pupils did not how, to perfect the knowlege wnich they already posses.'>Cd, not to hide knowledge frorn IHlpils. to praise thcir good qualities !lolld to provide for their snfety. I Under strict diseipline and personal guidrl.l1ce of a teacher, some pupils eompletcd their education quicker than otbers. As Il. rule the preliminary edUclltioll before a student began to specialise, had to be completed before sixteen years of nge. Prince Siddhilrtlm had received his education before he was sixteen. Another prince completed his education at the age of sixken. 2 A brahsmin of sixteen WRS well verood in the vetlRR. 3 When n youth uf sixteen, versed in the vedas, was rebuked for interrullting the elderR in n conversation witbout wnitiJlg for his turn, one of the elders remarked: "Do not rebuke him. lie comes from good parents, is well-informed, a good 8penkcr Rnd a scholar who is quite able to hold his own in the discussion. ". The return ofa child after his education was looked forward to witlJ delight by his pnrents. "When Janasandha, the SOil of the King of lknares, eame of age and returned from TRkkasila where he had been educated in nil accomplishments, tile Ring gave n general pardoll to all I'risoners."6 The subjects for IItudy val'ied nceorJing to the course followed by Mch pupil. Ancient Indian classics refer to wcll·edueated persons as posscssors or the eighteen accolllplishments. & Also the epithet " master of the sixty-four arts and seiences " is not uncommon. (See AppendiJ(). The general subjects fur study can be gathered from the description of learned Illell of I.hose du)'s : " Brahmaya was versed ill all vedas, he was perfect in the ritual with the glo,.~cs thcr(,ull, in phonology 1l.Ild in etymology, with lJistory as a fifth branch; he knew cJ(egesis and was I.

3. 5.

SifJii/Ovrida 8hlla Aualiiyan" SlI1la J"nawnda J(jlnfw

2. 4. 6.

MaM 81Iat~' J,;tn.b. Canki81lU{I "'aM Vllalftntapiil" .ljj/"iLl

I. }Jr"hm(;yu 8"11,, 3. G"N,,1-,. Af"'J'J"lla"" 8ul/(l 6. C"nH Sull,. 7. 7'lIt'raGatltd-Pind6Ia Ilhiira(hiij", 9. TMri Olilltd-DhlLmma J)illnA J I. 7'lkri G6tM-Nllnduttarii.

2. 4.

6. 8. IQ

12.

O""ak" Mog'J"IIii"" S,lIla Udiill",-~,,"rl... An!lwUartJ !l'it!iy" II-XIV TA!ra GiiJhd-Itahllo T""ri GiilM-SukkA Tlkri Golllo-BhAdd" Kun41111lkClm

69

enjoy a good delJat.e. 1 The intf'rest tnkell by thel'e0l'le in debll(,cs and public llpf'lIking hll.t1ll.lrCll.\1 y made rlwtOl'ic nut! d iale<:tics pOpUhlf. 2 The wRud"ring toncher!'! know" as the Prauiijikl\ll were in sOllle wayg like the Greck ~Illlist.s. 'I'he ncquisition of kno ..... ledge and .qkill ill arts cea!'led to UP. the objects of cd llcation .....ith the introduct,iOll of new modell of life originated hy t.he IlifTllrcnt tenf'llerll. The _Buddha taught the imJlortance of the culture of the mind. I-le amI his fol!ow('rll Illld Il followiJlg in I}\'cry part of f.lle cuuntry wlliclt tlt\\y viAitcd. 'the resi· dences built fllr them in different IJlll.ces became gcats of learning. Unlike the teachers who used to charge fees for instfuctioll, 1.110 Buddhist cultural institutions were opened free for all willing students. BuddhislJl introduced a free general educatiOllal system to India. The succells of tho system WM ll.lJsured by the fnct thnt the t.enchers did their work for the love of it and Jlot for gRill. Side by side rose lip the n\Ona8teries or residences for women Buddhists who devoted themselves cutirely to the lieW oulture. Female education became as popular and equally general as the eduoation of the males. Not only in India, but e\'en in o~ber cowltries where Buddhism was introduced, male Rnd female education developed. The method of the Buddhist teacher was the direct tfaiJling of the pupil's mind and the de\'elopmen~ of his character. Correct thinking and right understanding were highly valued, it being the object of the teacher to bring out the llighest Jlowers latent in the individual so that he might attain to perfection and enlightenment. This system of training was known as the" eight-featured method of the cultured."3 Cultivation of the memory wl\.8 an eS!Wlltill.! part of the education for it was considered the safe1lt mode of carrying knowledge. Although there were books in form of malluscripts, yet the students preferred to trust to their memories Rnd they were able to recite the very words of their teachers 011 any subject of importance. There were students who were able to recite nil the teachirlgs of t.he Buddllll.. 4 .With the IIllre[l{1 of Lhuhlhist culture, the tendenoy was to bring learning within the reach of all, irresJlecti\'e of c1a8ll or creed. J~very resilience of 1.11\\ BUlldhist mOll ks became not only a cu1tuml centre, but s school, for in each residence there was 11. lecture hall for Ilreaching to the public. The disciples of the Bmhlhll. readily instructcd thO/1e who came to them lInd cleared their doubt,'i and difficultiell. I. 0"1,, S=1:" Stlll" 3. A,iyo AI/"ng;ko Moggo

70

2. 4.

Them Gall\(i-l'unnllo 7'h~r" GiilM-Suhem/lnta

'fhe women disciples followed the 8IIme COUfsc I\.S the men and made female education popular. The Kprcad ofeducation led to the establishment of Buddhist uJlin~rsities in countries int-o which Buddhism waa introduced. The allcient university of Nilandi, with itsleetu~ halls and large buildings, had ten thousand students residing there. new~lIl1ell of hundredll of villAges were used to endow the uni,'ersity. Nillmdi became the home of atudentll, logici3Jls, philosophers, poet-a anti artistll. A Chinese pilgrim gives an account of a great statue of the Buddha. at Nilandi. He also mentions that he found an artist painting a picture of MetteY:rl\. Buddhn (the Ilext Buddha). Like Nilandli, many universities sprang up in different part.fl of India. The Univel1lity ofVikramasilli on the Ganges was one of them. Other countries got tenchers frOIll the univer8itie8 of great reputation. Into those /!Cats of learning aud cu llure, IItudents flocked from China, Japan, Cambodia, Greece, Tibet, CoylOll, Burma, SiaDl and many other parts of t110 world. The universitiell gradually lost their influence due to Hindu persooutions to disestablish Buddhism, And the ruthless intolerance of the invaders destroyed the institlltiolls that once moulded character and regulated life in India.

71

QUA"TP'lt

·1'1I1ItTP.~:N

LITERATURE

Tu'" KXISTfl:NCP. of literature in a COl1lllUlIllty is the mark of the tYlle of culturnllJrogrells in thut community. TllC standard of literature ill a reflection of the standard of culture. Before any klnd of literature can 00 produced the 8rt nfexprellsioll has to be developed. In the Buddha's day, although great !!cholurs dopcnded on thrir memories, wl'iting had "IRO been IIsetllls a means of recording thought. T.&tter-writillg WIl8 well·kllowJl ill anriellt. Imlia. 'J'here are IJIAIlY references to the practice ill the Buddllist scriptures. For instance. " Isidll.tta and Citta bocame friend!! through corre!!jlondenee, although they had not metcach othcr ". Oitta wrote to himabout the excellence of tho Buddha. and sellt. t.o him RIL account or tho Bll{hlha's tOllohillg. 1 The noblemun, AnnUm Pil.ll;likli, had a lHerrhunt fricnd whom hc knew through correRpundcncr. 2 Letters used to be carried frolU onc person to another by I1If'ssellgcl"l!. Bin18 wrro 1I0mctimes employed to carry letters. s The use of writing in daily lire lIluSt ha\'e !>cen a recognised fact, for children IIsOlI to be taught t.o write. "A 1l0hlemalL's son and Il. sernl1\t-girl's lion weT(} born on the same day in the nobleman's house. When tho nobleman's son \\'118 boing taught to write. the llerv/l,nt'ssoll used to go with his master's tablets and so learned at the s,'\lI1e time to write. When he grew up he was employed flII ll. private secretary. He wrote Il. letter to a merchant friond of the noblolllaJl, rooomllvmJing hilllllfllf. 'l.'116 lottor was 8Cfl.led with hiSllllI.tcr's private SCll.I."4 The cmployment. of secrotn ries, scri bes and clerks, shows the common lIse of writillg. Owing to the pressure of work in the residence of the Buddha's disciples lit Jetawma, ll. clerk Wll.S appointed to allot tu oitil,eJlII the various days for accepted invitntiolllJ. 6 The work Hf scribes or clerks was rol1owcd as a profession. The )lBrcnUJ or 8 child in ehoo:>illg all occupation for thoir Ron dirlnot wish to train hilllas "a writer for writing 1','011111 make Ilis lingers sore ".8 I. 3. !i.

72

T!I~"fl

(l!iJ!li-S"hcrn:lnh. Kmtlami .I,ital",. K'Ud,d;.I' f\urr!li Sin1mI'R ."ilak".

2.

Abll"nnt<.!ii1Ilko.

4. 6.

I«(JfI/"haka .},il"h•. Vi""'yll-M"llii. \'1I~gn.

A clerk must. 1Ia\'e had" p;rcllt. deal to do if it wall generally believed that their fingers Rchcd through work. There is al80 a reference to " yOIUlg mell who eamed their living all clorks of the signet, of account compute", and as e8tate agt'nt8."! The writing was generall)' done on ola leaves, which, like p"pyrus, lasted for centuries, or on tablet3 or on meLaI plates. Hoyal procla. mations and publio edict8 were inscribed on metal plal.ell or on rocks, or on stone slab8 or stone columllll.! The 8Criptutes give clear evidence of the materials usOO. for writing. III ono plaoo it is writWn, .. J will compo86 a vel'llC of poetry ami write it. on all ola leaf".' In another place we read, "The king IlCnt him the liff' of the Buddha on a painted pnnel, and thc conditioncd gCJlcsis on a gold plate especially in8Cribed.'·4 Writing must have boen 101lg in lIse Ilrior to the Buddhist ero., for during the days of the Duddha there WIl8 literature. The Buddhist soripturos mnko roforollOO to liternturo Ilrodllcod nt 80ntl of 10fl.rlling' Iluch 8S Takkasila. 5 Not only do thc J3uddhistscriptureslllake mention of bookB, but the scripturos tholllselves were writton in thc form of bookB, divided into ehapteltl. Tho following quotation from the Records of the Western World hy Cl Chinese traveller shows that writing was popular ?o·hen he visited lndia : " The letters of their alphllbetwere arranged by Drahmadevll and their forms have been handed down from the 61t1t till no"",. They are forty.seven in number. . .. ftliddlo India Ilreserve8 the original character of the language in its integrity. Hem the Jlronunciation ill &oft and agreeable and like the language of the Deva.s. The prolllUlciation of the words ill clea r and pure and fit as a model for all men. With respect to the record of e\'entll, each province has its own ollicial for preserving them in writing. The rceonl of thclIe events in their full character is called Ni-lo-yi-cha. III these records aro mentioned good alltl evil eventll wit,h calamities II.nd fortunate occurrenccs." U

I.

Malta /)1l1tAJ:" K"'mdh SuJllI.

2.

A~vka f.'did~.

3.

NfldiJiilak". 8flkk" SHIl
4.

1'Atm OiitM-Til58ll.

6.

l'HflRlI

P,,,.,,,.

73

To written or memorised doctrines Wl're g-Ioslles illld eOlJlITl<'lllllril'S. " Bralmu\ ", for instllllce, " was well versed ill all tbree \'cdas. He was aecompli;,hed ill the ritUll1 wit.h glosses thereoJl in phonology and in etymolog-y, with history liS n fifth hmndl."l It. seems that even the ancicnt lawyers could Hot do without their books of referCIICC, as suggested by the following passage: "lie causell a book of jl1dgmentfl to he written and said: ' By observing this hook you should settle flllits '."2 The de\'elopmellt as wellns the decay of a language takes place by certain marked stages. The language of the Buddha was M,agadhi now known as Pali. J\Iagllllhi was often spoken of ill the Bucldl.ist writings as the first or the originallnnguage. At that time the lallguage of tlle vcdas had already oocome classical. Judging from the resemblance of wordB, there is good reason to believe Magadhi to be tho language of the people of Magadha, i.e., " Magadesha Basha, Pali Basha. " or the language of the Brahmas. Pali language is the original language. And "S311skrit" is derived from it.S The development of the ISllguage can also be judged from the rules and set forms of composition both in prose and verse. In the study of the l'angusge it was considered essential to learn rhythm and metr!.', grammar, style, philology, analysis of words and the figurcs of speech. 4 The various forms of composition used in the Buddhist scriptures are classified as " sermons in prose, sermons i 11 prose and verse, expositioll8, hymns, solemn sayings, maxims, stories of re-births, accounts of the super-normal and long or short discourses. s Poetry was much appreciated ill those days. Vcrsification had become pOl'utar and even fashionable. Its free ose Wl\8 the mark of culture and learning. On formal occasion.'J questioJl.'J used to be asked in verse to which a ready answer should also he given ill verse. Distingu;shell persons were greeled and prailled in songs often sungtomusic. Also, OIl festive occasions, or for the celehration of great eVl\nt.'J, sl}Ccinl versesllsPl! to he composed. 'flw high estecm in whieh poetry was held 'Can be gathered from the controversy which arose as to which was the greatest of the art.'l, when some maintained that there was no art greater thul1 IlOetry." I. 3.


6.

BrI;Jhmoya Sulla. 2. 'l'un4il/. Jiitako. Oldenberg's Poli Didio'1lary 1'1llroom:1ion. (,'Iu"uw. l"ya1arI;J'1l/I ••hJlhi~. SikkJ. Nindhi and Auuihira. A tlgultarl;J 11, XIX Navli,gallofthe Uruid/i{, R""Q"I1. Ud/i"a-Nallda.

Composit.iolls offamOllS poets used to be learnt and sung or recited in public. It was not uncommon for a person to burst forth into songs of jo)" after:J, great achie\·ement. For instance, there are the songs of the disciples or the Huud ha, sung at the attainment or enliglltenmeJlt. 1 The lady Visnka expressed her joy in song, to the surprise of her children llnd grand-children, at the opening ceremony of Pubba Rama, the magnificcnt residence which she caused to be built for the Buddha aud his disciples.! Such songs, often in the form of ballads, were attempts atexprell6ions Qf joy. They were used also to exp"fess the lbeling of love, fpith and sorrow. They serve as a mirror to life, wherein the sufTerings involved ill life and the deliverance from 8uch 8ufferings, are shown. These songs are remarkable for thei'r simplicity of style, spontaneity in diction and directness of appeal to the emotions. The metre was often selected to suit the theme. In most ballads there are refrains which are oft-en repeated with variations. In the .Buddhist scriptures themselves there Me various types of metre which the poets have adopted to suit their themes. 'l'he ease with which the philosophic thong}lt in Buddhism was versified was remarkable. The didact.ic element ill poetry is prominent in the ethical part or the doctrine. Indian didactic poetry was brought to perfection in the choice of words and thoughts in the telling coulllets which are found scattered in the Buddhist scriptures. Dhammapada (the words of Truth) is a book of Buddha's maxims in verse. The tragic element in the renunciation or in tbe emphasis given to the sorrows ofHfe is relieved by the joy oC enlightenment and the perfection of life which is free frolllall suffering. The poct's imnginRtion was not restricted to religion alld philosophy alone. For the boauty of nature, or of the human form, or tender affections and emotions have not escapl'd his notice. Once IL king ad"ertised the beauty of his dRughter by invit.ing the poets to sing of her beauty.' The heights of l)octic imagination can be j mlged from the accounts of the four who visited heaven and returned ill their human form. Of these, three were kings, namely, Mapamnndathu, Nimi and SAdhina. '1'ho befit account of heaven is that givell hy the mnsician Guttiln, after his perrormance amongllt the gods and goddesses. I. 3.

Tltc-aGiilluillml Th~iGt1lM. ..llah,; Umagga Jii.l«J,:u.

2.

Dhmnmapaoo Af{ft.akathd-Visiki.

75

The intelleetualislll and rationalism of the Buddhists pervaded their liternturl'. The poets who Sllllg of the beauty of the human figure or of tho plr-asures of life rarely forgot to conclude their songs by showing the impermanl\lley and tile ficklenr.ss of human plensurcs, thereby suggesting that what one should strive to enjoy is beauty and hll.ppineS6 of mind. III the lll't of ComlJTc8sin~ their thonght8 into 11 minimum of words, the Bllddlii~t poets will hllve few rivals. This is OIl!Y possible when a language is developetlllntl wllell writillg IIlIS become nn art. The best examlllcs of compressed style Me evident ill the lllaxims and couplet8. 1 The lllasterl.y mllllller in which the" bleB8illgs or things worthy of being rejoiced at" are summarised ill Mahamangala Suffa, calUlOt fail to rouse the admirat,ion of allY lover of the compre88Cd style. The art of story-telling, both ill prolie and in verse, were well known in India during the days of Ule Buddha. The Buddhist writers developed that art llml the standard to which it IHIS been fIIise(l by them can be judged frolU the Jii.takn stories. Ah~o, both ill poetry alld ill prose, writ.ers have Il0t neglected Iloetic justice. 'rhe IlUnishment of the \'il1ain and the triumph of the hero were looked upon liS u part of a writer'l\ duty. In this way, hn}lpy endings arc given to stories, for oven the innocent who suffers from the tyrallny of the villllin is born llgtlill in better conditions, while the villain is showll to sulTer for his WfOllg deeds. Hcnce in Buddhist literal,ure there arc no tragic ends to fltories. An ;mportsl\t evidence of the dcvclollmcnt of the language is the use of myths as such. During the days of the Buddha there were the traditional myths which the Buddhist writ.ers made use of just as the modem writers in European literature mak!"! use of the allcient Greek or Reman myths. The mytlls about gods and i1upernatuml beings were used by the Buddhist writf'rs for oTllament or other poetical devices, or e\'ell for Innnour. Bright and cheerful are the characters lIud incidents COllnected with gods (devIlS) in Buddhist literature. Sakka was the King of the Gods. He could in a moment thillk of or sce 1I thousand matters, hence he was called the" Thousand·eyed ". By his marriage with the Asura maiden SUjll, he carlLf'd tho nllllle of SlIjallljlathi. It \\'llll after the war hetwceJl the Gods and the ASllrlll\ (a type ofTitfillS) tlHlt Sakka CRme into power. 'fo prevent the Asuras from coming back to hellven, Sa kka set 1\ five-folll I.

76

Dltammopada.

guard with serpents (nagas), vultures (gurulas), spirita (kumbhandas), goblins and the four great guardian gods of the fo-ur comera of the world. On his triumphant. return from that war, he built Vijayanta, the palaoe of Victory, .. which hlUl a hundred towers, each with seven hundred high storeys, and in each storey there am Be,'cn hundred godd68llC8, each with 86ven attf'ndantll ".1 The palaces in heaven were built by Visvakamma, the architect of the godB, who at Sakka's bidding came down to earth to ('rect BI)f!(lial buildings.! Sakka presidcll at the aMembly of tbe gods, which consisl.Jl of thirty-three other gods. As the King ofOods sits on his throne in all his glory, the throne begins to get warm and uncomfortable whenever II good IllAn is in trouble. So SakkR, taking the human form, COlllell down to earth in order to help the good or to save them from danger. When a roynllllllsieian, a good old !nan, was challenged by hill pupil to 0. contest, tllereby trying to doprive him of his sCfvice with I,he king, tIle old mall in despair went into the wilderness; Sakka appeared to him IInd promised help. At the contest Sakka, with n host of ~ods and goddesses was IJrCsent and nine hundred of the gOtldCKBes dancc(l to the music of the old musician .and helped him to win the contest.At the request of thf' J[Olltlf'II8C8, the musician wallllllbklJlIl'ntly tDkCll alive to hea\'en by Matsli,thc divine chariotier, who drove the chariot to which WI\3 yoked a thousand milk-white horses. 4 Them he played the' vena' better than the celC8bial musician, Panchasika.' The clever treatment of the mythA about Sakka ifl evident. from the manner in which tl,e Buddhists represented the King ofthe Godfl. lie was considered inferior to the perfectly enlightened man. So we fmd Sakka worshipping the Buddha in the ea"e of Indra'f1 pi-tree.· J\lso 011 the Buddha's visit to King Bimbisara Ilt Rajagflha, Snkka all8umed the "PI)C3rallce of " handsome young mall and went in front of the proce88ion singing the praise of the Buddha. 7 Tb is clearly show8 that at the time there was the custom of impersollllting tho Rnciellt gods by people in fancy costume oJlsuch oceasiollll 3S processioll8. By the time of the Buddha, the" thrico eleven " gods, of whom olovcrl were of cartll, sky ami wntor, hud hccollle mythical or symbolical I.

3. 5. 7.

Cula '1'/luh/l 8/1nklu1ya S'1l1p. Gttllikl Jiilafw. IJi/cri KCHiytl Jilld/l. Vi"lI",V(II(13).

17

chnrnct.ers. Yet at t.ho.t time ~ome people hao fait.h in Indra, Agni, Varuml. nnd t.he SUlI Deity, so tl1nt offerings t.o t.h('Ul were not uncommOll. Buddha tnught tlHl.t. the gods were mort.al and subject to sulTcring. When ilnkn, the Brnhma god, had erroneous notions of permanency and immortality, the BlIIJdha helped the godll to cllRnge their views. 1 Also, the Buddha pointetl out that according to the very teachings about gods, they wore represented as not ouly having IHIJl\RJ\ frailties, but evel1 as being debauched by pleasure, or illlTlind, or as ullcollscious boings. 2 To lIlallY premiling ideas at the time the Buddha gave lIew and original meanings. One of these was the extension of the conception of god (deva) to human beings of noble character ami enlightenlllent. So, according to the Buddha, a "superman" is a. god.' J1Ist llll the good and the virtuous were called gods, so the devil and the wicked were termed devils (yakkas). Bven Rome beings of other worlds arc spoken of as gods, for instance, ill onc place we relit! " the gods of tell thousand IIpheres were gathered togcther,·'· AUlOng the mythical df'ities were the gods of fire, water, earth, air and clouds, lino the Hrahmas, the IJhulldharvss and the Miirss. 5 The poets IlIHI the creators of mythll had givenllllllies for the celestial abodes, of which tJlere were six,8 besides the Bruhllla worlds. Corresponding to the worldfl of enjoyment there were the places of torture fl.llllsuffcring of which there were eight ~reat 011es. 7 In the heavens there w,'re fi\'e trr'~1l of wOllderfull'0wrrs. Oue nftllf'lli named KlIlpavurkshaYll yields whatever Olle wishes. Thc descriptiolls of the worltls of torture ure full of horrors. As in most myths, A\,jchi, hell was gUllrded by dogs. "'1'wo dogs, Sabals and S£l.Illll, of enormous 8i:>;o, mighty lIllO strong, bite with their iron teet,h those who arc driven hf'l1ce. s The devils were 1I0t confined to t.heir own worlds. Some of them inhabited the eart.h. I\lrl ra, the E\·i lOne, wafl rf'prescnted 3S the mighty l. SPllyNlfo YI_Brahma Suttll 3. AmM'1I' 6. Alpha SIMlliidfl Sulla. 7. (p) Sr>ttjir:aya. (b) K(Jlp~llIlhray". (cl S'"'!lha1h(ly''' (") 'l'rn'p
f'ml1wJI(lya.

(J)

R(Ju,,"aWy(J.

(gl ,I[(JMm't:raraya. (h) Avichiya.

78

8.

r king and leader of the devils. He had his host of followers who could take monstrous forms and shapes to frighten folk from their good undertakings. They occasio.\alty created showers of dreadful and noxious things to harm those who did not give in to them. Mara came with his ten-fold army to prevent the Buddha from attaining to enlightenment. Among Ilia army were those who had taken the form of Gods of Death, of devils, of great devils, l?f vultures, or serpoll~, of quadrupeds, of goblins, of human beings and of Titans. Tbe Buddha ronted Rlld overcame them with the aid of his ono of the ten Sublime Virtues; The ten Virtues are: Virtue of Benevolence; Right Conduct; UellUllciatioll; Virtue of Truth; Wisdom; Virtue of Strenuous Effort; !latience ; Determination; Univeraal Love; and Virtue of Impartiality. The defeated Miira returned home dejected and disappointed, when his three beautiful daughters, the embodiment of sensual pleasure, tried in vain to conquer where their mighty father failed. The story of Mara is all excellent example of Buddhist allegory. ']'his blending of myths with personifications of abstract ideas has given a special charm to the ancient Indian literature. The use of other figures of speech as similies and metaphors, Iluns, allegories, parables and proverbs was cnrrent in Bllddllist literature. The figure of the chariot in the following passage is a typical example of a literary dovice : "Thy body is called 1I. chariot, swift and provided with the mind as a charioteer, ImviJlg the abstinence from all iIljury as its axle, liberality as its covering, a careful walk with tJle feet as tbe circumference of the wheel, a careful handling with tllO hands RS the sMe of the carriage, watchfulness over the helly is tIle name of the wheel, watchfulness over the tong1le is the l'rcvelltioJI of the wheel's mttliJlg. Its llllrts are all complete through truthful speech, it is well fastened together by the absence ofslander, its frame is allSffiooth with friendly words and joined well with well·measured speech; well constructed with faith Itud the absence of coveteousDess, with tlle respectful salutation of humility as tbe earriltge-pole, witb the shaft of gentleness and meekness, with the rope of self-re8traint, according to the five moral prece}Jts, and the key of absence of anger . . . . having humble speech as the thong, and with absence of vainglory as the yoke, with the cushion of unattachcd thoughts, following wisdom and free from lust,-Iet memory be thy goad, and the ready application:

79

of firnlllll88 thy rein" ; 11lillJ I'unmcs the path uf IIelf-contrul with it,., Bteod!!, all equally trnincd, desire and lust arc all c\'ill'ath, lHlt sclfcontrol is tho straight ['oad. As the RtI:cd r.l"hclI along after forms

amI sounch and smells, intellect IlseS the 8CO\lrgc al\t\ the mind the c\llniotecr." \ Umldhist writings MO remarkable for the careful arrangement of thought, for tlte application of the logicnl methods, and the cOIDJJrcssion of Lhought. '1'110 repetition8 that occur are for li(;(-rnry rfract. l~ na-m~ pbules ~jICY arc used as refrains to songs while ill other plnccs it is done for cl1lphn.~i8. '1'110 atlnptillll of the language to exprClIS philo8o])hy in verso is clever and is only pos.~iblc where the philosoph<'r bad become

the literary artist. 'rile charm or the dl:scriplivp, 1'1l.'t'mges in the scriptnres is the vivid imageT)' cTeated by thelll. The IIpirit that pervades the J3udllhist lIeriptuTe8 makeR tlte lit",rntuTe (lUTe and in.~pirillg.

I

I

80

OUAI'TER

FOUUTF:EN

FINE ARTS AND ARCHITECTURE A high standard ill line arts signifies a high standard of eulturc. It is not p088ible to eonceive of the existence of clever arti8ts among people who are mentally not evolved enough to produce works of merit. The moro uncultured a nation is the more crude is the mode of life of the people. ']'ho mode of life and the experiences gradually develop the aesthetic SOllse which ultimately finds its l'Xprc88ioJl in art. Hence it eall be concluded that the more cultured a natiOll iM the more refined is its art. This conclusion is supported by facts which can be shown by a comparillon of the nr't of different JHltiolls. Also ill the Ramc nation at different periods Itll literature and art have 111'11 !l1lt1 dowJls according to the riso or fall of the culture of l.he people. The history of Indian art alTord!l an excellent eXllmple to illustrate thi!l fact. India in the days of the Buddha had talented artists, but with the dcterioration of the people her beautiful art disappeared as in the case of ancient Greecc. MUSIC

MU!lic hall boen very pOllular in Buddhi!lt Jndia. It was practised both IlS llU accomplishment and a8 a profession. The uudue devotion tu it engrossed the millds of most pocple that the Buddha had to make IT. precept for the members of his order to refrain from it. '1.'0 the rich musie was a fashionable IUltury. They were sent to bed with music anti were awakened by it. At their lIleals. or even when they travelled about they took their musicians to entertain them on the way. l\hlsie wa.s rarely misscd at festivo occasions, at proees!liolls, at marriages and at fuueral!l. It was also customary for the strangers who sought entertainment to inquire (or the musicians and to pay to hear them.! AI!lo, the public musical contesta show the interest people had in mU!lie. Certain pllssages ill the scriptures show that the people's ears were trailled to appreciate good lUu!lic. III speaking o( the music of the lyre it was said, " the sound of your strings so harmonise with thllt of your song, and the sound of your voice with that of the string!l that your I.

Gllllj{1I .Tafaka.

SI

lyre (Ioe~ lIot ton l1luch cnlnur your WlIlg, nor your SOIIg: too IlIllch colour your llhly"} '1'0 tuue nn iustrnllwut hefore playi1lg WIlS the usual thing, for" when the lItrings were too mucll stretched or when they were loose, R strillgell instrument waSJlot to be Jllayed upon".2 The high technical skill of thosc ancicnt musicians cnn Vc judged from the fact that in a musical contest the two contcstant.'" werc ablc to produce thc nccessary tOIlCS from one strill/! after hreaking the otber strings onc by 011C.' The Jlo(lulnr instruments were vClla (a stringed infltnnnent), lute, I\ule, tabor, drum ami COl\c\\. 11\ OtcheBtral am\ band. U\U'i>\C w\\ic\\ \1'::\8 ~h)'cl.\

QI\ ~cBt\\'C OCCaB\O\\B \\\\1\ \ltQceBBiO\\B, \'\\ete mu'i\\' \,w\'e been o\:'\:iet instruments. Both mell (Lnt! women had then taken up music as a profession. Therc wore professional conchblowers 4 lInd drummers.5 Music had been a chief 1I0urce of pleasure to the riclt 80 they employed well trained girls to play the vena, lnte, tabor, drum and such instruments at their residellces. e Singing was even OlQrc popular titan thc music of the instruments. Expression of cmotion was not its only use. Songs of praise Illld been sung on spccial occasions 8S coronations and weddiugs, fUllerals and important meetings.

DANCING.

Throughout the ages dancing wall a pOl)ular al·t ill India. '1'rained artists danccd, sang or rccited at pu blic festivals. 7 Javclin dancers and acrobats amuscd the crowds.8 Dancing for private entertailllnent was usually done on sJ1ecinl carpets then known as "carpets for dancing".1I Jt was customary for melL and women to dance together. In the prindpal citio8 at that time there w{:re girls noted for their dancing, singing ami playing Oil the vena. They gavc perforwllllccs for whieh they oharged exorbitant prices. Public attelltion attracted b}' those young womell was somewhat silllilar to that of modern film stars and actrcsses. Ambapali of Vesali was the IIIOSt well known. She was "gifted with the highest heauty of complexion, well versed in dancing, singing and playing 011 the vena ".10 Through her the city of Vcsali is supposed to have become more and more fiourislling. At Rajago.l18 the famous danccr a.nd musicillll was Siilavati, who rivalled Ambapali both in bca.uty and in the practice of her art. Among the actors l. 3.

5. 7. 9.

8.

Sa/rka Paillla Sulla. Gut/ita JiHalm. Bheri~-ada Jatah!. TheTa GatAii-Vfl.jji PlIU.a. Vinaya-Mahii. Vagga. V.

2.

Vina.'1a-Mahli. Vagga. V. Sam1:lwohanwllaJiita1:a. 6. l'inaya-llIahA. Vagga I 8. Dubbaca JiiJ.al;a. 10. I'inaya-Mahi V"gga VIll. 4.

TiiJaputa had 1'0'011 grent renown. He came from an l~ctor'8 family of Rajagahll.. 'I'hrough IliB early trninillg he became very proficient in theatrical jlCrfOflrLnllccs. "His famc WCJlt tllrollghollt the lengtb and brell.Jth of India. I-le wns the leader of fL comllllJlY of actors which cOJlsisted (If 50u women. Wit,h great splendour he tlisplayed his dramatio skill."] The absence of dramatic compo!litions makes it difficult to conceive the nature of tile drunH~ of the times. 'l'IJC few facts blown about it are that at the theatrical performances there were dallcing, music, singing and recitations, that the actors had special costumes and the stage which WRS oarpeted and gorgeously deoorated was ill the centre of the audience. PAINTING AND

SCULPTURF.

In Buddhist India painting and sculpture were developed arts. The refcreneeB to them in the Buddhist soriptures indicate tllat a high standard was reaehed by the ancient artists. Buddhist ruins and archaeological discoveries add lllore evidence to the references in scriptures. Thcre had been a class of artists who copied the hunian figure with care and exactness. Tile art.ist.s' imagination had not failed to conceive and represent the perfect forms of beauty which when generally accepted became the standard of beauty. So we fmd in the scriptures illStnnces wllCre the figures of mcn and women wero compared to stl~tues of perfect form and figure. A young man was described to be "like a golden statuo of exquisite workmansllip".2 King KII8a mado n. draped imnge of a princess wllich resembled her so much that her llurse mistook it to be the very princess.' Also, a Brahamin named Pippali l\lanawaka who later was known as Maha Kassapa, a disciple of the .Buddha, made a gold statue wJlich was the exact image of a lxmutiful maidon} These refcrences suggest that the artists' conceptions of beautiful figures Jmd thcir living counterparts. The Gandhara School of l~rt shows that the ancient Indian sculptors like the Greeks lmd attempted to copy the hUUJan form closely. The resemblance between the two schools is so marked that some art critics believe that one school had influenced the other. 1f in language and philosophy tlte Greeks were influenced by the ancient lnuians it is most probable that the ancient Indian art influenced the ancient Greek art. I. 3.

TMra Giitha-Tilllputtll. KWluJiitaka.

2. Samidd!liJiilaka. 4. Th~ra GiiJhii-Mnhll. KlI&'!apa.

83

Under BlId(lhi~l. Gult,ure !mlir\ll pailltillg, sculpture I\nd architectnre had n.t.tn.il\Cd to 1\ height of excellence which Indian nrtist8 have not 80 fllr beon able tu snfllnSll. Tho remains of BlItldhist art at AjaJ\tn and other ruins roveal tu 801110 extent the progress Illade by tllo artists.

Their work ~holVS !,hem to have been talented mOll with a special train. mg. Art was lIut tlte monopoly of the professional artis!', for it was followed as rH\ accomplishmellt in which even kings delighted t.o excel. King KtIlm '/I statuo of (I princess was admired even by professional

artists. I Some of the 11 rtish had I,heir trnining in the lluddhist centres of learning or in the universities. A ChillCSIl pilgrim recorded that whon he vil!ited the University of NiilmH.la Iif' fouIHl1l. Areat statue of Avolo-kitt:Hvara nrul llll nrtiHt WlIf! paintillA il picl.ure of MetWYII, Blltltlhll. 2

I I

Although lHtists wu!"k fur cellturies it is I'lIl'dy that a mnsterpiecn attracting universal admiration is produced. The accumulated effort of gcneratiolls of progressive work give to the world a great work of exceptional merit. Thon the following generations, 10llt in their admiration of it, keep on imitating the masterpiece. The Greeks, comuinillg ucaut)' and love, produced Venus Rud evcr since the idea has not heen better depicted by tlte subse
s,

K~IJJril/l/rI1.

l'i'/l
2.

Tho next Uud,lhll..

of art but even as objects for enjoyment llnd inspiration. In the day! of the Buddha. King BimbisA.ra sent tu his friend, King Tissa at Roguvll, "the life of the .Buddha Oll a painted panel."l Very little information is available about the technique of the painters. Scriptures allude to a "show piece" of the painters.! Jt was evidently a drawillg to show the design Rnd composition of R proposcd pllinting. In a Sinhalese epics the beautiful movement.'i of tile dancers are compared to the movcmcnts of tIle painter's llRnds, thereby suggcsting the freedom and grace with which artists llsed to ,draw The Iligh standard of their drawings ean eMily be dewcted in tho powerful yet. charming-lines of l,he fresno pailltillgS. By the timc of the HlHlllha snme art.~ nlld crafts were pursued fur earning: a li\'ing lInd eertain CIIlIlB Ill" fHlnilirs Ilfld spcciali8cd in thcm. There were the ffunilicB nf I'Htters,4 garhmd makers, goldsmiLhs, eto. Such oraftsmen turned decorntiOll inLo an arL. DiITercnt household utensils and vases were decorated wiLh designs and figures. 5 "There werc painted circular linings to the bottoms of the bowl.~ with painted figures llCll.Lterod over Lhem or painted with patches of colollr. ft Bowls used to be carved ollL of s3ndal wuotl. ft There were uowls of gold and of silver, set with jewels, besidell those made of heryl or of orysLal or of copper. ft Jewellery and especially the elaborate dresses of women show the developed state of llpplied arts Md crafts. Glimpse.'1 irlto the archiLecture of ll11cient India as given in the Buddhist scriptures display Lhe same high stalldnnl reached by otJlOr allied arL..,. Palaces and mnnsioJ18 wcre builL in pleasure gardens with, shady trees. In tholle gnrdens there were stone benches round the tanks which IHld steps leading to them and which were surrounded by balustrades and rllilillgS. 7 Some palaces Imd seven storeys. Fivestoreyed buildings hnd been commOll in tIIO rich cities sUell as S:1vathi and Riijagaha. Large buildings had turrets alld towers. Somet.imes towers used to be built for ornament over gates or entrances to a palllce or manSiOll, The gllte towers of Jet.avn.l1/l. (n rl'sidence of the Buddha) were built by Prince Jctn at n cost of ninety milliollS.s It was not IIllUSlHtl to hear of buildings noted for Lhcir towers. There wore the Ambala tower,g the Hound tower10 Illld the peaked-roof l. 3. 5. 7.

Thera Glilhii--1.'iSM. Gut/ila Ktivya.

11.

SlIooka Jrifak".

KUlfaJriu,b,.

IndalllMa1\;'r---Guttn .Iii.t"kll.

2.

4. 6.

8. 10.

Sanyulla XII. Kumb(lkrira JiU{lb. FifMya~KulJlI

Vaggll. V.

"al//!li.Jalal;a. aha(aJii1ah.

85

builllillgs. 1 Puubiiori'ima (the galll('rll M:\llsion) uuilt by the ~ellerOllR Lndy Villf,kii ((IT t1lC Buddha ant! his dilll:ipll'.'<, wa... "a lar~c storeyed lJuiltliJlg wit.11 a \'cT:llltlah to it, lUll] it waR supported 011 pillars with capitals 0 (elcphant."I' Ilelulll".1 Tlte I'a \'ilioJUI nttachcd to some houses had been gorgeouslr IIl'corated l'\'en with jewels, am] the jewlllled paviliolls often cOlltained thrones or stately seats.! Here arc two ilJustratin: passages from the scriptures: "It is just as jf there were ~~ palace, and in it a galJled pavilion, plnstered within and without, sheltered from winds, complete with well barred doors and windows that fasten."·

"Just as in a gabled palace the gable is the roof-lie on high which kllit-s the structure together."4 COllstruction of hou~8 with projectiJlg balconies was knowll to al\uient architecls. 6 Also porticoes wcre held IUI valued decorations to houses. The architects must Ila\'e had a special training to be able to erect buildings to suit different purposes. There were asscmbly halls for meetings. Preaching hall8111HI be(!J1 erected for tllo iluddllllo nnd. his disciple... ut groat e.'fpcnse. To ju\lgc f{Qm the accounts of large aut!iellGCll lit. special meetings some halls must have been enormous in si7.e. Large halls had also heell huilt for judiciale or for legislative purpo8('~. The Ma(Jas Imd nSllembll·\1 in their hall when Anallda. went t.o announce t.o them the pas."Iing aWI~)' of the Buddha. Also, the J,iclu:wi princes were assembled ill their hall to transact business of the Stato when Sachaka wellt to inform them of a debate to be held with the Bmldlw.. In Kapilavll.8tu t.he people were assembled to celebrate the wedding of l'ril1ee Nanda in the Coronation I:I all where the Buddha. met Nanda who forsook his bride to follow tbe Buddha. 7 The monumental buildiugs formed a. special tJ pc of architecture, It has been the custom to build huge ca.irns entombing the ashes of sages, kings :md other people of importance. TheJ were usually built in a }lUblic Illace. In all Buddhist countries the ancient structure was copied witb little local alterations, Tlleso monuments arc as a rule very high with a dome and a. pinnacle tapering to the skies. It is undoubtedly an artistic development of the Illound (t,uDlulus) built as the tomb of the ancient Ilf'rocs. Arollnd the bl\8e of the monument were the drcorativ(' panels depicting the Illemomble incidents in the life .. 3. 5.

UmffladaNti Jii1al:a.

7.

JifUlriija Va,!""",

86

I

Vinay« Ch"lll\ \'l\llg" VI. MalK; SfAaNiida Slllt".

of the deceased. l Then the whole monument was surrounded by railings cnr~·ed out of Btonos. At the fOUl entrnnces to it tbere were onllulIental porchcfI of beautiful dosign and clover workmanship.\! The skill and the architectural def!.ign of ancient artist!! can be detected in the monasteries'und the Buddhist art g'J,lIcries curved out of rocks. The following description of a tunnel may also show the talent of the ancient architect!! : "'rho entrance to the greater tUllnel was in the city. It was provided with a door eighteen cubits high, fitted with machinery, 80 that onc button being pressed nil were closed up. On either side, the tunnel was built up with bricks and worked with stucco. It was roofed over with planks and smeared witll cement and whitened. In ull there wore eighty great doors and sixty-four small doors, which by the pressure of olle button closed, and by the pressure of one button opened. Ott either side there were sOlUe llllndreds of lalllpcells also fitted with machinery, so that when one was opened all opened, and when onc was shut all wcre shut. .. The great tUJUlC1 and the littlo tunnel Rml tho city were finisholl in four months. . .. They opeMd the door of the tunnel and all the tunnel shone in a blaze of light; like the decorated hall of the gods".( This pUflRage haB given rise to a theory tlw.t electricity was known and used ill ancient India.

1

A_lioolfl'Dagoba.

2.

Sliiici Sliipa.

3.

Villii,a.

4.

AlaM. Utnllgga

Jiita~.

81

CIIIlI'TI':.R

FI.''I'K¥.N

----~---

ART AND SCIENCE IN Till': dars of t.hl! Hudlllm lIlathematics "\'lIS Ull uJllllicd scicncc. Its de"'eloprnellt can be inferred from the o.rcbitecturul remaius whOlle coustructioll lle"ew;itntCll 11 knowledge of mathematics. The evidence fWIll tlu) IIcriptuI'I'S illllot I('.~l< (,(lllvinciug. JJlI~ llisputo wllich arose all to which il< tile ~rcatellt uf applied llCicllccs, "sumc &lid it wus thu kllOwlcrJge of Iw~thema!ics, uf rno.kulg estimates, of engraving, of writillg puetry, etc ",1 A few rXllllll'les will be sufficiellt to get an idea. of thc dC"'clolllllent of uumoors. For instancc, Visaka'lI dress was estimated Ill. Ilinct,y million gold COil\s.2 'rIle gate towers of JetaVfl.llU were built at a cost of nil1etr milliollS. 3 The world periods consist of the 1110 haknlpa six InkiJs forty-thollsand billions, the AS811kya Kalpa sixty-four thouSllnd billiollS and the AJlthrnkknlpn hundred billi':lJl8. ~ Alsu tile conception of infinity was pOJlularly kllown. 'rhe Buddha described the d ilTerellt world systems allll also the IlilTerent forms of life as illfinitl.'ly large. In those ancient days knowledge WIlS sought not for its OWII sake but for its prnelical USll or applicatioll. Hence, there were more nrh than SCIences, Agriculture with an elaborute system of irriga~ion had been Cflrried Oil na IIIl art. Nuviglltioll WIIS studied with care. A master mnrillN WIlS ,ICllcribetl as having:" a completn /Illl.ster)' over tho 3rt uf seamanship. With him abroad llO ship e"'er Cllme to harm."!> Archery find tire l11HnagelTlcllt of horses and of elephallts were the occupations of experts. Of such llrts thero were eigllteell, Ilud Illso there w('ro eighteell SciOllCf'S or brunches of knowledge. The mental culture tauJ!ht in Buddhist psychology was 1l1\ art or practice rather tha.n a. mere theory. The special Jlsychic Jlowers to be achieved were clairvoyance, c1air-lHldilll1ce, performance of supernormal acts, knowledgo of utJlers' mindll, Illcmories of )lllst lives Ilud frredom from illusiolls,' I. 3.

U,Mtw_N'uUl.l.

7'!IeTll G,;/!Iri_l'il"yi.

2. 4.

U.

88

V!lOII"""]"'!U' A!I!la!rol!lii-Vi8Jikii. "It is nut CMy tQ reckun how 10llg nu I\oon is by snyiug so many ye.'H8, 80 mnllY cClIturiCll, so Illany th"".'!llr"l cClll"riCfl."- Sanytdfa Niki;ya~Nida"a Vawa. /d,lhi Hula.

Medical science had t,hroughout the figes a practical bUllis. Along with it had developed surgery. Royal Physiciall Jivaka was the be8t of the Surgeon8, who oporaws the brains ami the heart and intestines. '.rhe common types of disease, in the days of the Buddha, llad been leprosy, boils, tlry leprosy, cOllsumption and fita. I There were nursing homes! and as a result of Buddhist innuellce hospitals were built evcn for animals. s S\1rg~(llls, oculists and doctors for children were not uncommoll. ( ,Iivl~kn., a rontellll'urar)' of t1w BUlldlla, has Leen known as the cleverest surgeon and phpicinll. lie llad to cOl1\lllnin of his heavy work in attending to a large number of paticlltB. 6 He was the pupil 'Of a "world renowned phpicill.ll". When he had s}lent seven years with the teacher, Jivaka thought, "1 learn much and leam easily, and 1 understand well and do not forget what 1 have leamt. J have studied 1I0W seven years, and 1 do not see the end of this art. When shall r see tile end oftllisMt 1"6 This doctor cnred a chronic headache of 1\ noble lady at Saketa by administering some medicine through the nose. At Hiijngllha he performed an operation 011 the head of a patient who was given up a~ ;lleuTl~ble. "Jivaka ordered him to lie down on his bed, tied llim fust to his bed, cut through the skin of the head, drew apart the flesh on each side of the incision, pulled two gcrms out. He closed up the sides of the wound. Stitched up tile skin on the head and anointed it with sah·e. He was cured within twenty-olle days".' Another of his surgical feats wall the operation on the son of a nobleman at Benares, "who used to amuse hilll~elf by' turning over and o·ver' ". That brought upon himself an entanglement of his intcstilles, in consequence of whicll he could not lligest his footL lie grew lean, disfigured and discoloured. Having examined him Ji\'Rka cut through the skin of the belly, drew the twisted intestines out, tlisentangled and put them back. Then he stitched the skin together, Hnd aUllointed it with slll\'e. Before long the patient gained Ilis health.' MIUty are the recorded surgical operations and cures done by J'ivakn.

The use of remedies for animals had fouml work for \"tltcrinary 'Surgeolls and physicialls. There were doctorll who treated elephanta. 7 The uso of herbs for medicine was COllllllon. A fllll\otlll physician wishing to test his pupil's skill once llsked Ilim to find out about 'l'nkkal. !i.

Villaya-Mahii V/lgg:L I. In!ll,ription$ IIrHl M,d";'·(I,!I.$(I. I'inaya-Mah... VlIgga I.

7.

K"ta .Jiitata.

':J.

A~ok ...

2. ·1.

7"11_ ... (Jiitll,i. lI...h"'flj,illl 8,,11<1.

6.

Vi.. ay,,~Mah'" VlIgglI VIII.

. 89

!!ila I\ny plAnt or hcrb which il'l not u~ed for ~OJJ1C mediCAl 11Ilrflm~e.' '('he pupil fnunt! cV(lry plnllt he CAllle :lCr()s~ 1.0 he uMfnl. Of Illlldionl value were fats (If LCfHll, of fislt, of Il.lligators, of I'IWiJle and of aAAell. 2 Also, various oils, ointments ami perfumes bad been used. Oil wns a. common purgative. 3 Of salts the most useful for medicine were "80a-salt, black-salt, rock-salt. kitchen salt amI red-salt".4 Administering emetiell or purgatives was known. Some ancient medicines ordinarily used nrc worth mentioning. Hot baths, use of steam baths and baths in which medicinal herbs had been sweped were prescribed for rheumatism. tJl~tting of blood WHIl ll. cure for intermittent ague. For constipation a decoction was made of llshes of roasted rice. The remedy for wind in the stomach or forsiekness W1lS sour gruel with salt. l~or fever a drink was made of edible stalks of tho lotus. To relieve lleadache medicino was given to make people sneeze. Anointing with perfumes walla remedy for skin diseases. Cow's urine wns used for jaundice. For 8nakes bites dung urine ashes and clay were applied. Drugs Rnd decoctions made of herhs [llHl toots were given for many ailments. They were ndmiJlistered for caulling ...·irility or impotency. Drugs Rnd oils used to be auministered through the nose. Oiling ears or droJlping medical oils or RPl'lyillg collyrium or medical ointment to the eres was COllllllon. There were medical practitioners ss oculists, surgeoll8 811d doctors for children. 6

I. 3.

Viooya-Mll.hii. Vll.ggll. VIII. MI1m&a Jiilah.

5.

Bralumwjiill1 SuILa.

P.O

2. 4.

Viooya-Mll.!Jl Vagga Vl. Viooya_Mahi Vagga VI.

<JnAPTER

SIXTEF.N

PHILOSOPHY iN lNDlA before tbe Buddha the chief philosophical thought was embodied in the Vedas which were interpreted and preserved by men of learning. The scholar or tIle teacher in those days was often described as " learned ill the VedflS ". The philosophical speculators had already begun to form various theories on diverse matters. Hence different schools of thought, each with a teacher aud his followers, had sprung up, among whom there was a class of philosophers known as" the wandering teachers." 1 Once during the millY season wben the Buddha was at Riijagaha the well-known philOfwphers of the time Imtl met in the discussion hall at "Wanderers' Pleasaunce". Among them were: Purana KJi.saapa, Makkhali Gosrda, Ajita Kesa Kambll.li, Pakudha Kll.CCI\)'Rnn, Sanjaya the 80n of Belll.ttji, Niitllputtll. and Nigll.lltha. Each of them was a propounder of a doctrine. PurJi.na Kiissapn, was the head of nn Order well known ami of repute as a Sophist, revered by the people, n man of experience and well advanccd in years. He taught that to him who kjlls, commits dncoity, or robbery, or lldultery, there is no guilt. In generosity, in self· masicry, in control of the selllles, ill IIpenking truth there is neither merit lIor increase of merit. 2 Mnkkllali ofthe Cowpen, declared there wus no cause either ultimate or remote for people becoming depraved or virtuous. They become 80 without reason and without cause.! Agita of the garment of hll.ir, taught that there was no use ill giving alms or making offerings nlld sacrifice for there was no result of good or evil deeds. A human heing was composed of four elellumts and when he died the earthly parts retumed to earth, the lIuid to water, the beat to the fire, the wind to the air, and his faculties pass into spnce. 2 pakudha Kaccayalla said that the four elements, earth, water, fire a.nd air-ease pain and soul, were neither created lIor caused to be created. They do not move and do not vary. No onc could depri\'e I.

l'rabajikru.

2.

SllmlllW·phlltll Srdlll.

91

nf liff'. Wlll'J\ f\ 11I'atl ill tmt "n' with a shnrJl Rwonl, 1.111' swonl has only IlI'llcLrnl.t·tl inion !,Iw illtt'T\'1'l1 bcLwet'Jl Revell OlcltlClI£nry Ilub!ltnnces. I Nigalltha uf the Nfltha dUll Ilad 11 doctrillc of a four-fold restraint I1S regards all evil. I-Lc t'aught his llilll:ip!C8 to live cOlltcnted with the 8ensc of having restraincd M'i1.2 Bodily nction taken to 00 the princilJle action and that. of t,he mind allllspeech to Le secondnry. Snnjaya of 1.he Jklntt,ha "ll1n f<Jlitlthat t.ILCrtl I\rither WIIS 110r wall lwt allotlwr world.! The t!worirll 1'111. fnrwlIrd Ly thl' allci('llt philosollllers about the ROU! nnd the world arc that the soul allll the world IU'e eterllol, that they arc 1101. eternal, they are buth ewrnal and not eternal, they }mve a special purpose, tlHly have 110 sl~cial purpose, they arc purposeless, they have OlUl form of cOlllleiousllcSS, they ha ve lIlally forms of eOIlIlCioUllllC8Il, they have limiwd cOllsciollsness, their eOllllciuusncsR is not limitcd, they are Jllea,~l\llt, they Are not pl(,OSllllt, they nre hoth pleasflllt and unpleasant, and they Arc neiUUlr pleRe.nllt nor IInplol\Sllllt. 2 Of theRe theorillh 80JIl6 were ewtllalist,q. Eternalists nnirmed that the lIolll is ewmaland the world creatiug nothi/lg new is firm liS the mountain or the pillar firmly fixed. Thongh the li ving creatures tl"lHlsmigraw antI die, au,l tllOugh t.hey change from one existenre to allother yet they arc etcrwd. Tlwre werc other ctcrnnlists who thought thai there were !lreviolls existences extendillg through 101l~ periods of tell or more world aeon!;. Another elll.SIl of cternalist.~ held that ollly some things are ewrnal. According to thelll worlll systellls pnSll aWlIy. When that happened beings IUlll mostly heen hom in the World of Light. 'L'llere they lil'ed feeding on joy, radialinJ:: light, moving through the Rir continuing ill glory. Whcn this worltl-sJ8t.cm hegins 1.0 CI"olvo ngn.in. tho palnce of Brahma appears. Thell those in tile World of Light. come to life in tho PAlace of Bl'ahma. They form the beginning of n fr('sh world-SYRtem. 3 Semi-et.crnn.lists maint,nillf'd that the Boulllllll the world are JlIlrtly etemalll.lld partly not. 3 Extensionillts (A1!/Ollf1lltihf) W(,I"I' tli\·illcd ill their views about the world. It was Ill.:ld to I~ fiJlite by Rome, or illfinite by some. Some (Ieclured tIle world to be limited lIpwanla and downwards but infiniw across, whilc otheTll tllll~ht. Ill{' world to be neither finite nor infinite. 3 i~nyone

I. 3.

•2

SlImmllla.phaia SnUIl. Bmhmaj6i1l Silt/a .

Equivocatorllllaill tJlfl.t thcy IIcither knew the good nor the evil as it really is, and that there was neither Rnother world nor ill not. 1 OriginalistslTlaintainud that the Boul and the world originated witllOut a cause. According to them the BOIII and the world arc fortitollB in origin. 1 Another set of thinkers held that the soul after death is unconscious and 1L0tllubjeet to decay. They said that the soul had form, is formless, has alld has 1I0t forlll, neither lull'! nor has not form, is finite, is infinite, ill hoth rlllite nwl infiniLe and illneithcl' finite nor infillite. 1 More conflicting viewll had arisen about the soul, 80 that it was held to be eternal, not eternal, neither eternal )Ior nOli-eternal, both eternal and non-eternal, self-made, made by another, and not self-made and not made by another. 2 These soul theories were exploded by the Buddha. eU
Ilmnmajiim SKUa.

2,

Pa~adilta

8",lIa.

93

Speculators 011 t.l11) future existence asscrted that the soul after death was cOll8cious or that tll(' SOil I after death is neither cOllscious nor ullconsciousllCSR ur that there was ncither COllscious or ulIconscious exisLenoo aftN fleath. Opposed to the IlJl"ihilisls were the Leachers of material IHl.IJpiness in this life. There were al50 theorisLs concerning the future and those who reCOll.'ltruct the past and arrange the fllturc. 1 The realists decla reu that everything is, whilc thc dclusionists contended that everything was (Ielusion and that nothing is. The Buddlll~ ~~lJght both to 1m extrcme \·iews and therefore untrue.! The mctaphysician attempted tn cxplllin the Jlature of lire, water, earth IInd air, while thc ps)'chists attempted to explairl perceptions, feelings, SCll&'\tiolls find consciousness. There were theorist-s about realms of illfwite space, of infinite mind, of infinite naught, llnd roolms of neither perccIltioll lIor non-perception. 'I'he "mathematiciaIL'l" had their philosophy of unity, plurality and univcr!!n.lity.3 'rhe Buddha appearing in the midst of this turmoil of speculations and theories, critioised thcm and was ablc to correct and direct them in the right view by 0. IJIctllOd of analysis and reason. Buddhist philosophy may roughly be divided into logic, ethics, psychology ofthe mind and matter, of tile pllilosopl,y of causn.tio/l and relati\,c conditiolls. Seeing the attachment people )JRi(l to authority of the tradition and teacher, the Buddha introduced the scientific method by insisting on the examination of cause and effect in explanations of phenomena. Rcnsoning was based Oil subjective expericnce rather than Oil objective authority. Hence he ad vocated the freedom of thought as the basis of ratiollll.l thinking when he taught: "Accept not on hearsay, 110r by tradition, nor by what people say; accept not because it is in the scriptures by lIlerc rhetoric, nor by inference, nor by consideration of appearances, 1I0r because it accords with your view, nor because you think it might bc right out of respect for a teacher; but accept if at any tillle you know of yourself". • 'rhe methods of reasoning are dealt with in detail in l3uddhist logic. Reasoning in terms of cause and effect is 0. fundamental feature of Buddhist philo60Jlhy. There is th3 well known chain of Causation: Ignorance of lIot knowing and discerning the Four Noble Truths is the cause of formation of arising and passing away phenomena; formation is the cause of consciousness; Conseiousnes., at hirth is the cause of miJld IIlld body; mind ant! body are the cause!! of six senses; six senses are the causc of contact; contact is I. 3.

94

Brllltnwjiilo 8"11,,. Brll/llnnjiiitl 8,,110.

2. BmiyutJo /l'ift;(iYfl Ch. XII. KtiI(i>NO 8uUo-A,iguttam Nikiiya 11, XX.

4.

the cause of fccliJlg ; feeling the cause of cravillg ; craving is the cause of grasping; grasping is Ule cause of becoming; becoming is the cause of birth; birth is the cause of old age, death, misery, lamentation, pain, displeasure and despair. TJle Buddha discllrdillg theological explanatioJls oflife gave a rational one. The life of the individual wasl1nalysed into body and mind, the mind being taken liS consisting of perceptions, feelings, volition and consciousness. Life is characterised by impermllnency, suffering and sOllllessness. 'ne force IJchinu life is its OWllactivities which react on tho individual then'by makhlg him suITer or eJljoy according to his own actions. Hellce cOllle the differences in people. WlLllt one Ims done in II previous life monifest.s itself togeUlCr with what he does in 0. subsequent life. So the sulTerings or joy!'. in hUllllln beings are not due to gods or de\'ils, but to their own activities both ill the past and in this life. People I1re naturally influenced by their cravings, passions and ignorance. These ills cause suffering. To avoid suffering and to perfect oneselt become8 the purpose of life. Buddhist ethics are based upon these data. Since the sufTerillgs Ilre caused by craviJlgs, passions and ignorance, the way to remove suffering is by dest,roying the cravings, passions and ignorance by the practice of benevolence, right conduct and right concentration on things-as-they-are. There are thirty-seven constituents of enlightenment, when morality is purified and viewed straight, thellsuIlportcd by right action, right mode of life, right effort, right meditation, and rigllt concentration. Tho standard of right and wrong in Buddhist ethics depends upon the ideal of life as perfection and enlightenment. All aotions which help the individual towards tha.t ideal are considered meritorious and good, whilc all actions which obstruct mental perfection and enlighten_ ment are demerits and therefore wrong. The Buddhist community is divided into two groupsll.ccording to the mode of life people prefer to lead. Those who prefer to lead the higher life renouncing the Cllres and mjserics of the home life thercby becoming homeless and dcvoting their time and attention to the practice and the teaching of the method to perfection and enljghtenment. The rest are the laymen or the worldly minded. Each group is to some extent dependent Oil the other, and each has its own obligations and duties, and a. moral code of its own. l J.

I'inaya l'i!"ka and Gilt. Vinay....

95

Admi~i(lll to the ordn takes place in the open R8Bembl}' of monks (Bikkhus). Persons seekiJlA admission must be free from tUlnour, white 'el'ros~-. IJhthi"ill. epilel'l'I}". lie must be a freemRn and not a fflJRIll('r\·Rnt. lie 1Il1l11t RI'«) he free froUl debt. His 1'0."'111-3' lM'rmissioll is IlceesSllr}'. lie must be RUo\'e tWeJJty years of age. The No\-ices owrve ten precellUl, "iz:. : To refrain from takiJl~ life, from tRking whRt is not giYf'n, from incontinellre, fRlsehood, stroll~ drink Rnd intoJticantll, from lmtimely, food, from dallcing, singing, Illusic Rnd seeing 8ho\o\'s, the U!le of garlands llCCnUlall{! ungucllUl, high or IRrge luxurious beds, Rnd to refrain from accepting gold or silver. I The precepts for the laity ore th'e, viz:.: To refrn.in from taking life, from stealillg, from unlawful plelUlure8 from falsehood and from intoxicants. Thc four Jt:Ta\'C nets of dOlllcrit for a Blllldhist are t.o cause !I. wOUJld anl! bleed tho Buddha, to kill Ull cnlightelled pCTSOIl (Arahat), to kill fnt\u.'r or mother, or tu bring aoout IL I>chisIU of the Order. Ueganljng this last demerit thcre is 1111 inscription on the Snnchi Pillar Ily Emperor Asokn:

.. Tllc SaJlgIH\ of monks alld of IIUlIS has been mAde whole and l'lItire, Ill)" sonll and ,lZrand~onll (continuing ns Ion,!\: as the sun and moon endurt'). Whosocvcr breaks the Sangha, be lIe a. monk or \I Ilunshall he ('(all in white raiment Rnd compelled to live in "'hat is not R residence (of the monks). for my desire is--wllat. is it 1-that the SSlIfl:hn mal' remain whole Rnd entire and IIUloy 00 of lon~ duration." Religious dogmas and superstitious rites and practices werc dispensed willl. According to the Uuddhs's teaching, .. neitller the flesh nor fish, nor f~tinR:, nor Jll'kedn~s,. 1I0r WIISUTl'J, Dor ml'tter hair, nor dirt, nor rouJl:llt skins, lIor worshipping of the fire, nor the mony penances, 1I0r !,ra}"f'rs, nor oblntions, lIor sn.crificcs, no{' obsernUlce of 8el'l.8OIlS, purify a mortal who has 1I0t cOllqu(.'refl his doubt."!. The Uuddhist ratioIllllism begl\n to influence Lhe social institutiolls, educaLion, art, literaturo, /oI0VCTlllllcnt and the customs of IlIdin. bt n.ddition a lleep rooted hUlIlanitaril\n movement arose throll~h the Buddhist practice of "univcrsl\l-lovfl, compassion, Ilpprecilltioll lInd oqlll\lIimity"8 towards all boings. Thc outcome of this WIIS the love of pel\ce and the ullwillingllellll to hRTm others. -c---I.

3.

96

ri'I<.yn-Mahii V"SS'" ,II,tlp. K"T1110'i. Mo"fi/'>, U,,,b1r{J.

In Buddhist ethics, liS mentioned above, tIle root cause of humlln ills ill due to ignOrltJ1Ce lllltlnllvillg. 'I'he rell.llmppiness is to be achieved through the dfi\·l'lopmcnt. of tile mind. Then·fore mcntal culture is of parall\ount importallcc. l'hill produced a practical psychology which ill remarkable not only for its minute exumillntion of the working of the mind and of the nature of con~ciousneS8 but for rfn·enling the RuperIHltlllll1 powerl< of the mind such all clairvoYH IICC, clllirnudielice, pcrforlJIanCH of llup('tnorlllal IIctll, knowlellge of other milHh, memories of pallt e.',,:i.~tfinces, and freedom from illusiol1s.1 Two of the references to ancient Indian phi losopllers in Greek writings arc noteworthy. " Megusthencs, the a uthor of a work Oll llHlia, wlIQ li ved with ~leukos Nikll.t.or, writes most dearly 011 this point, and his words are these :" All that has been said regarding nature by the fllICiCllt.s is asserted also by philosophers out of Greecr, 'm the one pnrt in India by tile llrachnlanes and on the other ill Syria. by the prople called the ,Jews." There are two sects of these rndian philosophers: onc ca.lIed the Sarmalli llnd the other thc llrachmanai. COJlnccted with the Sarmanll.i are the philosopher~ called the Hylobioi who neither live in cities nor even in houses. They clothc themselves with the bark of trees and sulosist upon acorns and drink water by lifting it to their mouth with their hands. 'I'hry neither marry nor beget children.

I.

Abhinltd.'l.

91

CIIAI'1'~~1t

SF.VENTE~;N

SOCIAL SERVICE JL~;r.I'IN{l TilE

Ifour llJHltlle wl'ak is n hlllllHlt i'lSlillok Under lluudhist. influellCo it becume IL fundamcntal principle ill social life to look after the pour; fllr according to Buddhism helpiug tile poor ami the needy was con.qidered not llU'rel.... It Rocial dllt..... hut allllct of merit. lluddlJiRL8' act.s of Ch:lrit .... rllnge from tlll' lllightesl Hct of kindness to the !!;iving uf the grt'ntl'st gifl.-" the gift of truth ". 1 "H
3.

•8

JJham"lIlpada. Rook Edict VI.

2.

Jlina.'1a-M"hii Vllggf<.

•.

J!amh"".'l&a .

The spirit of generosity Rnd charity of the Buddha's times CRn be judged frolll a few Imecdot.ell. Yasa, olle of the richest young men of Si1.vll.~ti, gave lip nil his wCll!th and joined tJlC BuddhA.'s onler. Aniithapinclikn, a lllulli-miltionnire, became IlOOr by sJlcudill,Q; all his wcalth for t.Il(~ cause he espoused. Lady Visiikii'lI gcnerollity has become dall8it'al. Once [l poor old woman of Siivasti W:l.l! allll:ious to iuvite a discipl(' of thc Buddha for a Illeal. 111 her enthusiasm she made the invitation whil)h wall accepted by Sariputta, olle of the chief disciples of thc Buddhn. When the guellt Cl\llI(' till' poor WOlllall found that she had not I)('cll aull' to p:ct anything for him. The news soon spread throl1g:hout, the cit,y. Amollg.~t those who heard it was King }'asenadi. ]-lc at once sent her food of all sort.s together with a garment and a purse of 1,000 "Jlieces of gold". Others sent her JOO or 200 according to their meaus. On that day the woman got 100,000 gold coins.! What young Visiika did with her wedding prcsents is also noteworthy. She, being the daughter of one of the richest noblemen, was the recipient of presents from people of all ranks of lifc, including the king. She gave away those presents to the poor families of the city,\!: Marriages, births and deaths were some of the special occa.sions for giving allllS. A nobleman's son, inheritillg the estate at }lis father's death, ordered to hold a ceremonial alms-giving nnd a great assemhly gathered together.' In some cities special halls had been built to provide food ami other necell8n.ries of life to the poor. At Bennres all onc occasion a rich man "built six halls of BOWlty, one at each of tile four gates, olle in the middle of the city and olle before the palace. In thcm every day he distributed ill gift,,, 600,000 gold coins ".4 Other towns bnd set up similar institutions. "There stood at that time three~fourth8 of a league from JetaVlulll a Illarket town where a great deal of rice was distributed by ticket and special meals were gi\"en free",5 Some families had established almonril's and had kept them 011 for generations.' There were nlso "rest houses" huilt Ilenr great cities where travellers or strangerll to till' cit,Y could take their IOllgi11bTll," for instance at Bennnll1 "t1HJr(' Wll!l I\. resilience Olltside till' city in which !,he WR}'farers todgell when they came late t,o the cit'j",8 Among the social services can be reckoned the establishment of infirmaries ami hos(.litals. In describing a visit of Sariputta, the great I.

Kunda,l;Il-Kucehi Silld"a~'fJ Sulta.

2.

::I.

ThuIJ GdO"i-l'lI.ooll.ya. Glllful J'1I1«! Jiil!JL'(l. SU1!
of. 6.

5.

7.

8.

Vi&iki-Dhamm
99

dillt'iple of the BudtllHl, 1.0 l\ hospital, the scriptuTI'S Slly: "When ho WIl..'1 ill the Iwspitnr, Sfaril'lltto. WI'1It nil his roulld of illquiry, l\sking aftCl' this nnd that "irk Bhikkhu ".1 J~lllltl'rOr A~ka in QIlC nf hill cdiet-s der;llarcd tlmt IIORpit.alll wrrr l'stabli:-;Iu'd in nllpllrt..'l of hill kinJ!:llom. "I';nlrywlil'rc in the dominiolls of J
I. 3. 15.

100

'1'AeTa Gdlhd-8amitigutl... MaAfhYl'TflJ6. Rock Edict VII.

Z.

4.

Hock J~di<:t It Hock Edi"t J.

CHAJ'T"'!

Jo:IG IITJo:F.N

TOWNS AND VILLAGES IN tll(' dn}"llof Ih" HlIIldlm a /-tl"l'nl pnrt of India ('xwndillj.( from the Villl"y Wll~ a IlI'twflrk (lf (lititl~ llllll vil11l1{1'1'I cm1Jwcl"d will. nne 11llf,tllf'r hy roadf'. Takinl{ t1lfl Bodlti-tr("e, tho III'<)t wllen' tile Bll,!dhl\. lItl3in('fl enliglll('nll1("JII, liS Ihe oel1lr(', the great cities I>f 111\Iin were described 38 ai.x 011 the Mat, I'il-:ht Oil the north, !>,well 0/1 tile sollth ami 1\0\'('11 011 till) W('l'It.1 There W(ire tllo Illlluller tOWJlII 1I1U.l villaJ,J:('1I which nros!' with growing populatioll. i\lost of the ancient citi("1I di,1 1I0t origiuate with a llllmber of people forced by circmnstmlC("s to li\'e ill pnrticular sjlot',!, bill, they were methouically planned Dnd built. So the lIite selected depended 011 the purpose for wlJich the city was built, eithcr MI the C'~11it.1\1 of 1\ kingdom or liS 1\ centre for cOlllmerce. The cities derived their I\Il.mC8 eitller from tlleir foumlers or frOlJl8ome otber incident. Each city lmd its rampHrt.~ wiLlI four gates. At the gaLes wore large I'illars surroulllled by rows of palm treos. 1 The gaLes thelllIIClvcs bore JUllHes ei~her according to tho direction ill which they lie or commemorating Il memorable event COllll('cted wilh tIle cit}'. We hear of tILe" Southern (lnte" or the "f<~RStern Gn.Le" of Sii"ll-sti. ]n 1\ nowly built city, the ~ate through which the Ihlllllha went out. was 11lultcd the" Gotnmn (late."2 Thero w..ro t,,,vern S o\'cr the city gates which usell to 00 locked nt night. 4 WIIl.'n the ~a1.es were closed there was outside the city a buildillg for the use of the strangers who CRlIle late.' To Il.voill the noiReS And the disturhl\nCf'fl of the city, sehool" a"d sents for cOllc('ntmtf'([ thol1Jtltt Rnd m.. ditalion uscu to he built in the suhurbs. 'I'he flChools in some cities WI'rl' nenr tllo city gl\1.es e and the rosidollces for the .Buddha 1\1Id his disciplcfl \\'("ro built not fllr from Siivasti. 7 The race-courf'(', tho parlule Et:rollllds for soldiers, find the l;rllleLery w,'re ouMidc tho {'ity. Within t,],r ('it)' arc t,he pril10il'nl rOIlUB loading t" the gatefl; aml the llli1lor rOlltl,~ Ill:lrk out Ihe ""rioIlR sectiolls sueh liS 1he palllcl', IIn(1 tllO reflidont.inl quartcrs of the nobles, the" Hall of Justice" aml the IUIII for le~il!lature, which were mmfllly (lrmj.((l~

I. :I. 5. 7.

JJtalrii. 811da-ufJIIIl 8~"a.

2.

Paltry; JiiJabJ. (,'aYfJ" J(UilIro.

-t. (I.

I'i,l(lyn-Mllhil. V"g8" VI. Aliwl Gill" Jrilafw. 7'1«:ra Ooil"'I'-_S",bhiy".

J
101

llf'llr tho palflcl\, 1,111' qllflrl.\·r nftllf' IJIltlker~ IInd 1,lw Gent,re of f;Oll\ll1C1"C<', the homes uf tl,c WOlrkll1\'JI nl1d till' burrllcks nf thc sohlierl!. The towon,\IIIIHI f'.toried IHlildillgs, the I'aviliollll, tho pllblic i'l\.rkll, flqUflt/'S, grovcs Hmi tllnks, Illl\dn thollC atlcirllt eili08 picture,~lpll', I'ark!! ami l,kasure gnnlPll11 had 1'('l'll attadwd lu I he Jll\lacm~ of !.Ill! ,..,)'alt)', or tI,.. mHllsi"llll of tIll' 1wbi]it)' r\lld t.lu' ri"h, Some of the park!! or ['1(,illluro g:lnlcllll w('1l kllnwn in the BllIl,lhillt Ilcripl.ures Me the" Old I'lcaea\lIlCe", I the Mango Gro\·c,2 the Oro\'(' of TrfllIquirity, 3 thc BIIIlYflll Pnrk,· thc Bamboo Urove whero s'luirrdll are flld, l\ the W1LlIdercrll' L'II'llIIlIlltlCII. where pClwocks Ilre fcd,e Anathllpindika'B PICIiSllllIlCC,7 (nIl! Ambnpii\i's Urnve. B "'hese pnrks, though situated in or about cities, pos.o,csllerl places for solitude IImi rost, In a park a king OIl!J(l" ohsen·(',1 ddi~l1lful nl1l1 flttrlictil'(l nookR llt the foot of the trees, pcuceful 111lll quiet, sheltercd from wind.~, the very hn.unts of solitude nnd lIeatJ! for 1lU'{litation,"lI The I'll hlic pnrks and pleasllunees wero the scenes of natioJ\ld festi vals, the haunts fur pleasure-scf'kers alld tire places for Jluhlic glltherings. The pllrks Bnd cities nlfl(l had thcir tlinks with lilies und lotuscs growing ill them. There was fI tank in the city of Vesali Ollt of whioh tire royal fami lies got water for ceremonilll sprinkling.ll) Like the parks the tlinks had their caretuhrll. The LotufI tank ill Benares was looked after by 11. watcher. t1 From the following description 11. general idea of the ci ty tUllks Illay be ~Hther('d : "The Lotus tanks hetwef'11 1.11(' plllm treell were lit distallces of lOO l>ow-Iengthll. J<~liC h had four nights of stepll wiMI balustrades of silver, with double Tailing with cross-bars and capitals. In the ponds were plauted blue wllter-lilies, white wllter-lilies and lotuses. People Ilsed to bathe in those pondB."'2 As for the huirrlillgs of the city, the priVAte houses where the lIohles m the rich ,Iwelt had five or sewm store)'fI. The flcriptllres even make mention ofnill(,-llwreyed buildingll. '1'110 hOUl\(J1l wit.11 their Iligh pillam ami portieoc.~ llIld tUl'l'ets with deeomtt',1 tuplllJlllflt have b"oll the pride of citicll. AlI,aehl'll to the builrlillJ(f1 or in plirks highly ol'llllll1cnt1l1 I. 3.

5. 7. 9. 11.

102

}Jahilil'(18,#/". Gltola .... ~lJta 8ull(•.

Cilia SflhllffUlyi StJlta. Angulimiiw Sl'lIa. Haiti/ita SI,lIa. Pmiuma Jiit"ko.

2. 4. 6. 8. 10. 12.

7'heri G
I)avilioll~

IIsell to he built. Thoy were described n/l. "the jewelled pavilions ".1 801110 such pn\'ilions wcrc made of sandnl wood. 2 Each city Imd it~ llB8cmbly houso/l. for legislativc alld administrative purposo~.S Thcre were nlao the ~uild houses,· Some hnlls were used for social ~ntllerings nud otherll [IfI lecture hnllll. "Tho ILnll IJIlt tlJl jn ... Queen Mallikn'/I. ]'ark fur Ihe discuB8ion of IIY/l.tCIJl..~ of philoS01Jhy-t.JH~ halll;et rouml with la row of" timluka tree/l. "_was knOW}1 hy the name of" the Hall". ~ 'l'here were also the Mote Hall of the Mnlll1l'l,lI the Buck .I-Iall,7 the CorUJlntion HlIlI of Knpllo.vltsthu,8 /lIld the Gabled Hall at Vl:lsiili. 1I Some rcst-houtWs of citie8 were termed" the Royal He/lting HOUllCS", 10 evidently because they were established and IllRintRilled b}' kiJlgS for the llse of the public. Some tllfge buildings were built, t.o Ilerye a number of purposes. A buildiJlg was 80 llftRJIJ/:ed tlmt there was ill oue pnrt accommodation for ordinary stranger8, in anothor a lodging for the destitute. One sootion of it was for the lying-in of destitute women, another part had lodgings for strSJlger nhikkl1Usll}l(1 Brubamills. Also there 101'1\8 lodging for other sorts of men. A 8pecial section wa~ sot apart for foreign mercllllntR to Btow their goods. A part of the same huilding waR uACd fur Rport.'l. Also, 80me sections of the building were used as a Court of Justice and as a hall for religiou8 assemblie~,JI

This paS8age BUggflsts the nature Rnd UI\CS of some lnrge buildings in those days. There were occasions when spacious buildings had to be erected for public shows, "A wrest.lin~ ring was erected in front of a palace gat.e ". 12 Similarly a large paviliol1 was cnused to be made for 11. public musical conte8t,11 A prominent place of the city such as the jUllctioll of chief roads contained the memorials built enshrining the remains of great kings or tcachera. u The Ill.aill roads cOlmected olle city with another. The COllstruction of bridges was knowJl at that time. Tbe principal streets of cit'eB must havo been Bufllci('.lItly wide 111111 atrollAly mlu!6 for the trallic of clll\riots, carriages, elephants RIllI horses. It wall through the lJlain Iltrl'ct.'llhllt large pl'OccsBionB and triumphal marches of kings or grcat Leachers paB8Cd. 2. 7'hwl Galoo-Isidinna. 4. Jatam IV, 27, 6, Smigiti SuUa. 8. Thml GlitM-Nnmla. 10. Jf6hii Jlfaligula Jlilafca. 12. Gha{a JiiI6/ta,

14,

M6ha l'arinibOOna Sttlla.

103

On Il. feHLi\'al dny Llto killJ;! wuuld ClltlSfl I,he city to Le dccotllt.ed like "the city of I;od~". LLe 1V0uld mount OH the IIleplmllt in all itiJ trappings anti make sololl\n procession rouml tho oity a tt'\/ltled by 1\ weal, retinue} Though on State OCCll.SiOllf> killgS rode 011 ol(lphants, at otlll'r times thcy uscd othor IIwdof> of I\Oll\'l\)'alLoo to I
For C0111I1U'I"fl(\ ll\f"rdllmts 1IIust IIII.\,II Il('eded good roads, for the)' used to takl' n large number of ClIrt IOal!,~ of goods for trade from one city to Illll/tlll'r. 1{('ferl'llces likl' tll(' folll/wing fire fouw!;n the 8Crjp~ Lures: "He !HHk [;00 GuLs of IIlOfchnndisfl to Hiijngaha ".s 1\larket tnwns hntll)O'crt huilt. 11('ur 1J:f!·at "ili"s. 'I'h,'r(' was a IlInrk('t. 111'01')1 1\('l\r .Iijt,avana.~ Mitllitll '"1H.'l'\i'I.~,'d f'lIll" llIark"j. jo, each city had its city-wlI rdells lo and tax-gatherers. II I. 3.

/Ju""lI,dIi
2. 4.

U,

(J!uJ.H/w.m SIt'IU,

{j.

7.

Prince Silhlh/trllul. T~ra UiU/IC;Anurud,lhn. YIlAA. LlhutlL, ~~rn.

8.

9. J I.

104

l"cror A&\lk". K"""",,m .";1"1,,,,. GII!/'JI/ J"l"ka,

111.

!"illil"bt Jal"k<1. U"lha PtnUl Jiil"k". Moh" "arinibb"1la S,IUO. Gh'I~I/"" Jlila/ca.

•

'J'uwnlifc in India '1'0'1\8 not new ill the days of the Buddha. It had been known for centuries before the Uudllha; thcrerore cities had ample op(lOrtunitic8 to impro\'c through experiment and experience. The Buddha 81>okc of cities known as '-cry ancient in his day. He yid: .. J)and"kR, Kalinga, lIlejjllll, and Malunga were cities turned into wildcrnCM in days gone b)'.'" Some suburbs of large tOWIlS contained reserved (oreat.8 and ~arden8. The Corest.8 provided fire';'OeMllnt8 Lllemll('h'es. Ancient. \'illagcs were celcbrated (or their hospitality; for it was colIsidered that all teacher'll of religion Dnd learned IIlOIl who cnm(' within the p~inct.s of a village are guests who were to be treated with hOllour and re\·erence. r; Thl.' administration of villages and minor towns were left in the hands of responsible men usually sent (rom the capital city. So we find AnitB-Pindika. ab8enting himself from the eit), in onlor to administer the village entrusUd to his care. A few extracts from the SCri!ltuT08 wiJlseT\'e as brief de8Criptive notes o( 80me prominent towns of Buddbist hJ(ua. VtMli.-" At that time Vcsiili was an opulent, proR~rous town, populoml, crowded with pcople, nhundant with food. There were 7,777 st.oroyed buildings, 7,777 pinnnrled buildingl'l, 7,777 pll'A8urc gardens n1\11 7,777 8 lo~ug ponds. Thero wero niso lh~ dancer allt! musicilln, AmbnpUli, who W1\S beau~ifll', graceful, pkasant, gifted with tile IligJlellt Uci~lIty of complexion, well veTl'm£! in dnJ1Cing, sillging, nnd vena (a lute) I. Ull(ili Sulla. 3. 11 iMCilla J
:?

'~lIvannaL:a.l:katBJiiJ
4. J. IV., 257. 6. 7777 Wll!I a form of cl(!lrlllJllion_ denoting a largo number.

105

playing. .

Through her, Veliiili I)l'Clllll<' lIIore and more prospcrous. from ltiijngaha w!'nt to Ves:ili ".1 In Mllltavana gardens wns a wcll-known park ill V<'Billi whf'rf' t!lcre was 11 large building called the Gabled Ual1. 2 AllOther hall thel'c was known at tho Hull of Truth. 8 This city also vosse~'led l~ tank frOIll whidl the royal families got water for ceremonin I sprinkling. ~ "I n those days Vestlli enjoyed marvellous prosperit}·. A t.riple wnll encompassed the city, oach wall a. league distant frOIlL tho ncxt, nnd there were t.hree gates with watch towers. In that city there werc nlwnys 7,777 Hiijas (rulers) to goVeTJI tIle kingdom, amI a liko number of viceroys, genernls and treasurcNl."5 f(apilut'tls/hu wns the c(~pital of the Snkyan kingdolll. By this eit.y 6 WIUI n wooll known as the Great Wood. The city hatl sevcral pnrks. Tile HllllY111I Grove,7 and tlte Fig Tree PllTk,8 were two of tho wellknown parks. It WllS also 1Iowd for its palatial buildings. Thc Coronation Ilall of the Kings in the city was also used for thc oelelJration of royal wetMings. 1I When till} Sakyans built their New Assembly Hall it WIlS opened by tho Buddllll. The ancient method of opening a bllilllillg wall gf'ttil1g 1\ wort!ly person to \I~e it for thc fiTllt time. 10 It WM the AfI1:lel1\hly Hall that W3!l used to wf'lcome foreign princes or !'('rsollll of re}I"W n. lI Kll.!i,liim WII.8 the c3J!itnl of tile l\Iallas. Riijuga!w wus one of the most lJl:autiful towns of lIncient lndia, "with all it..~ b!'nutiful pl!'asa\lIlces and woods, and open spaces and lovely lako~."12 Rajagaha Wall surrounded by hills. Thero was the Hlack Rock Oil Rishis' 1Iill,13 the Vulture Peak,l( 11l\d OimggaslllJlajja where hill-top fniTS usell to be held. l (; Snknrakhnta. Cave was Oil ono oftho hi!\s.t 6 It WflS H. well fortified city. We read of its dcfellces which were being repaired. 17 The well-known pleasure gardens at Rajagaha were Veluvllna (Bamboo Park), Satti,'ana,18 and thc !\lango Grove. 11l A tree planted by Anllnda, the disciple of the Buddha, stood at the end of Sisters' Morchnnt~

1. 3. 5.

7. 9. 11.

13. Hi. 17.

106

YiMya-MII!Ii VlIgga VIII. Ekapan1lll JiiJ.aka El:apanItaJalaka. VaH:hina Vibflan9aSNlla. Thera GdlNi-Nandll.. Bhadda-Siila Jiilal:a. Thera Gdlhii-VIII'gisa. Themaiilh.ii~..>ii.rillUtta.

I'inaya-Mllbi VlIgglI.I.

Terrace. 1 In the city there were squares at which I>wple preached or addressed the crowds. I In a I'romillent part of the city WlUlo the Royal resf...-housc. t There were f"ightecJl monlUlotf"ries round Rijllgaha.· AJeo, the Brahamin villa&>e called SalimUya WlUlo towards the north-east of it." Sal'l.luhi, the capital of the Kingdom of Kosala, was noted for ita prosl)Crity and wealth.. Jt bad been one of the busiest cities. .. BrahaminI' from diverse countries clime to the city on huaincss ",' There were !,owel'll 011 the city gates. s One towcr Wall known as Ambala. Tower. 7 It W/l.8 a city noted for ita palatial building" of five or seven ,storcys. She surpnssed other eities in her grandeur of large halls, residcl\ccs and public buildings, The famous Jetl~wRnn Park Wall in its suburbs. There WMS a market town lIear Jetawana. ll $avatthi had four gates, three of which were named as the Eastern, Northern ami Southern Gatea. The great residence built by Lady Visaki for the Buddha was near the Eastern GaUl.' The nobleman Anathapindika's house in the city had seven storeys and seven gates.' The Ring's palace alld Lady Visiki', mansion were equally magnificent buildillgfl ill thl' city.Benare& ill one of the most. ancient cities of India. It WIl8 the cal,ital of the Kingdom. It WIV! reputed as a scat of leaming from \'ery early timcs. Just I1S the other great cities, BenllrefJ had lll.rge buildings. tanks and pleasure gardens. There were bll.lls of J~o\llll,y at each of tho four gates lllld 0110 in the middlo of the city.1O The lotus tank was looked after by n caretaker,ll The decr park at l"ijlllthnnB was lIoar the city.l! Bonnres was famous for its muslin. ls She had clever craft.slUen in ivory work. u 1t W8.8 customary for lllcrchllllt8 of other towns to bring their merchandise to BCllarc8. u "JII J3enarea when the night-fe8tival of Kattika Will! held the cil}' W88 decorated and all people kept holida}'. They put on their best attire on the OOOIl8ion. l I Ta1:1ro&ila WIl8 the moat famous scat of learning in ancient India. Jh'o.ka wellt to learn under a .. world renowned physician who at that time li\·ed at Takkasila. 17 Rich I'arenill Bellt their children to TakkWlila to be taugllt by the fAmous teaehol'll. T~ri OeifM-Sulr:kIt.. Ctd/ahaJn4C. J(iI.o.ka.

13. Hi.

2. AfaAa Mangolo Jeil(lI«.. •• Soli1w.b:ua JiiWka. A88(lIayana Sul/a, 6. Palayi JiiW!«J. SUlUd:uJ
17.

VilKlya-ltIt.hl V.gg.. Vlll.

I. 3. 5. 7. 9.

11.

107

Nalrmda UPt'lIme tile ]Iollle of !,hilol101'hf'r~ allll ~cholnr8. The of Nalflll(ln witl! it,q IN·ture llltllfl and lodgillg~ for 10,000 residC/lt ~tltdelltfl, was the seat for iltlulelll,ri. The Ullillersity was cndowml with the reVC/lues of 100 \'illages, Thc thick pOl'ulntioll of the alH;icllt (;itiCf~ of IllIlia eall he gatherel! {roil I tllo al1w,joJHI to thmn ill the scriptures. J~orl'igll writers wllO had visited :lnciCIIL Ilulia mnkfl rl'{cn'I1Cl'fl to the brgl'IlCAA of population, Megcsthcrll'1I dl'~cribcs I'ntnlipurn afl a fort,ress witll a gnrriwn of a milliun rLrllll'tllllcn, Fn Hicn IlefICribr8 l'urUflR!JUfa, the cnpit.'ll of Gandhara, a~ (Iotted with It thousand lltOllastcri\'s. "According to l\Jl'~nstllelles the mean breadth (of the Uallgcs) is 100 stndil~ and. it, Icast depth 20 fathoms, At t.l11l mceting of this ri\'cr and allother is ~ituated Palibothm. a city eighty stadia in length alld si~teeJl in breadth. It i.~ of the sllape of a parallelogram and is girded with a wooden wall, pierced with loollholefl for the discharge of arrows. It has a ditch in front for defence ami for roceiving tllo sewnge of Lilo city . . . , Tho wall (of the city) was crowned with 570 towers, and had foor and sixty gates ". (8trnbo XV. 1-35-36). Ta-TlIollg·8i-Yll-Kin (Uuddllist Records of Western World) gives tile fnllowing account: U/liIlCl'~it}"

"The t.own~ awl villages 11ave inncr gates; tIle wl~l1s Me wide and high; the strcets lInd lanes tortuous and the roads winding. The thoroughfares are dirty and the st311s arranged on both sides of the road with a ppropriat.c sigus. Butchers, fishcrs, dancers. executioners. scavellgers and so 011, hnve tlu·ir abodes witllOut the city, In coming allll going tlJese persons lIrc bound to kee p 011 the left side of tho road till thcy arri\·c at their homes. Their Ilousell arc surrounded by low walls ami form tho suburbs, The earth being soft and muddy, the walls of tho town are mostly built of brick or tiles, 'rho towers on the walls are constructed of wood or bamboo; tho houses ha.ve halconies and ulllvedercs, which arc Illade of wood, with a coating of lime or lHort·M and covered with tilcs."

108

CnAPTElt

NINETEEN

KINGS AND RULERS IN TIn: sixth century B.C. Inuia was divided iuto n Jlumber ufkil\gdullls and republics. Some of the minor kingdoms wero semi-dopemlent on the powerful ones, while the othorl'l were independent. Kosala, Magadlm, Udeni. Snkya, Vathsa, Rasi nlH!. Avanthi were the most powerful kingdoms. The republic of the Vajjinlls, and the federation of the Mallavas were eqnally powerful. Some of the less important kingdoms were Alvl~i, Kuru, Sivi, Kampila, Oandhnra, Kalinga, Candahar, VamAll and Dnmila. Aocording to Dig(ra Nikaya I,he central region of the North wall divided illto seven states. TllCre were the oUler lltatcs as the kingdoms:of Videh38 of Sllkiyas of Bulis of Koliyas of Mal1as of Kusinflrn of llImggas of Mallns of Pava of Moriyas of Kiilrunas of Lieeha\'is

According to finol.her verSion the following sixteen are classed as great, States :l.

Angii.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Magadha Kiisi Kusala Vajji Alalia Ceti Vamsa

9. 10. 1 L. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

Kuru I'ancala Maeoha 8urascna Assaka A\'anti Gandhara Kamboja

Thoro had existed friendly inter-course between kings. They exchanged lotters and presents. 1 The extent of territory varied, land bciJlg added on or lost through conquests or kingdums being united by succossion, throngll marriage.! After a war the defeated kingdom genorally undertook to pay 0. tribute I.

2.

There were inler·marriage6 between the royal falDiUllII of different kingdOJll6. Them GUih
109

to it,s CUIHjllcror llllll t1lemhy nchowlellgell its alll'Sinllce. Yet the conqueror did lIO!. interfere wit,h the guverlUllell!. of the cOlHluered kingdom. King BimlJisnrn of Mag:uJlmlleld rule and sovereign!.y over 80,000 villages. :From time to !.imc he held a conference of 80,000 governors of thuse villuloll1S. 1 '!'he kingship was Il herediLary right in most kingdums. 1f fl killg died without an heir then tlte choice of the suveroign fell 011 tile peuple. Qnc uftheir methods WIlS to delegate tile royal ekl'hnllt wllich WItS "liken in IJrocl'sllioJl to do the selccf.ioll. The person IJcforc whom the elel'hnnt knelt duwn wns chosen king. Tllis method is analll~ous to fasting lots, or the people thought that tlU) instinct of the elcplulJlt WM nbol'e corruption. Anot.her method was to entrust the !relection to physiognomists who foulld out the person worthy of the crown by t,he royal signs Oil his hody. "The King of BClHlfCfI hnd been dead !revcn clays. The family priest had performed funeral rites, and IIcnt out the festal Cllr for seven days as there wall no heir to the thrOlle. 'l'llis car rcached the gate of the pleltsurc garden. Alollg with it went the army of the four divisions, accompanied by the music of Olle hundred instruments. By ob8erving the special marks on the feet of a person he WitS elected king."\! The corOllll.tion of a killg was performed with grent ceremouy for which there WI\fla Rpe(linl hall in the kingdom of the Sakylts known BS the Coronation Hall. 3 Here is a brief descrilltioll of It. coronatioll. " When the kinwlom luul beell orre,r(,ll to the J30dhisnttl~ hy till' people, and when he hull accepted it lIIul heell alloilltcd kiug, the peoplc decornled the town like a cit,y of the gods Itlltl the royul pnlnce like the palace of Illdm. 1~llteriJtg 1.11(1 city, the BOllhisatt.a IlURRcd into I,he spaciolls hall of the palace nmllhere seatcd hilTL!relf it! nil his god.like beauty Oil hiR jewelled thrOllc henell.th a white utlthrella of kingship. Hound him ill glittering slllpllJour stood his ministers nnd brnhnmins and nolJles, whilllt sb:teell t.IlOUSfltHl girls, fair as goddesses, 8allg and danced IInd gave music till the palnce WIlS filled with sOllnds liko the ocean, when the storm bursts in thunder on ita waters."4 The above paS8age 11180 suggpsts that the killgsllip dep('wled on tile Wi8h of the people; before electing their king the people sometime8 tested him. Aft('r a king's death, "his 80n was very young, so the peollle thought he could not be made king. Before they made him king they would test him."s 1. 3.

ViOluya-Mo.hii Vagg'" V. Them Giilhii-Nnncln. 5. Ganlall; GUllda Jiilaka.

HO

2.

4.

lJarimllkl:a Jlilaka. Panclw GamJ<1taka.

Depemling 011 the choice of the people a king owed certain duties. For example :"A king ought to rule vigilant in all kingly duties to his suhjecta, like mother or father, forsaking all e\'il courses, lIever omiUing the ten precepts of a king. When a killg is righteous, those who surround him are righteous al.&o".1 The ancient idea that a king is the father of his IKlOIJle was relKlated by Emperor Asoka in his Kalinga Ellict I. : " All my IKl<:Jple are Illy chilflrcn, ,Just as for my ofTslJrillg I desire that they may be united with all welfare and happiness of this world !\lld the next, so do I desire it for n.U mell, 110 thn.t they might uJlderstand, ' the kill/{ is to \IS even 8S n father, he loves us evell 38 he loves himself. We are to tlle king even us his children '." Several plL8Bages in the scriptures speak of the duties of kiJlgs. "A king should remember the maxim that kings should not.. walk aooording to lust and otber evil Jlassiolls in ruling their kingdoms. Kings should ne\'er act without examining and Irno""ing the whole matter."! The following is

IlIl

advice to a king:

"Learning, honouring, respecting and revering the (Dnummu) Truth, with truth and righteousllc88 as thy guide, protect thy people, army, Ilohlcs, RN\'antll, brllhnmills, houscholders and animals. Let no wrong-doill~ pre\'ail. Whosocver is poor in thy kingdom, lot wcalth be ~iven to him. You should llcar spiritual teachcrs and bid them take lip wlllltc\·cr is good. Obt3erve the fi\'e precepts of ablltain· ing from killing, stcaling, unlawful scnsual pleasures, falsehood and intoxicants. "a King's power wall restricted. Once a king said: .. In no way do all the subjects of my kingdom belong to me, nor am I their lord, only o\'er those who rise against the sovereign. and do wrong 1 am lord. Therefore, 1 callnot give you unrestricted power over the whole kingdom.'" The rulers were expected to protect their subjects with the four kinds of beneficence, IIlI.mely, liberality, affability, impartiality and good. rule.' In Buddhistlmlia the ideal king is characterised by ten royal precodents, whioh cOllsisted in ohll.rity, well disciplincd righteous life, gonerosity, uprightness, compassion, reservcd Ilaturc, IInrcvengefulno8s, I. Ja_lldfraJrilolw. 3. ClwUooolti S'fraMda SuUa. 5. JalW.fa'l&dlw JIJloks..

2. 4.

K,ih Jiilako. Jaliika I, 398.

III

harmle!lSlIess, patience ll.lld impartiAI;t},. I The ri\"(, emlJlenls of reynlty were sword, whito canop}·, crowlI, "lipllel'll and fan. 1 There were also cert.ain treMures known 88 roysltreasurcs.' Ancient kings of India took nn acti\'e )lart in the go,·rrnm{'nt of the countr}", fQr whidl they were often eardull}· trained. '!'heir time WRs well occupied with t.he dut.ies of thC' Sf1lte. Palrelladi, .King of Kosala, oneo !'laid: "No"', Sir, 1 lIlust 00 goillg, for 1 havo mllch to do nlld attend kJ"'~ Enq'llror A.~oku proelnirn{'d thlB fact: " Thlts Bllit h Kiug l'l'iyndnrsiu, Bt\lol'etl of thl1 ~odll-l('or a long time past previously thero WIHJ IIfI dis)lateh of businoss and 110 roportin/( At all hours. '!'hil'l, thNefore, I have dOlLe, namely, t.hat at all hours Rnd in 11.11 plr1ct'8--whether I am eating or am in tho eloscfl apartmentll, ill the ;Illl<'t chamber. in t1u" ro}'al rancho 011 hOt!!elmck, or ill pleasure ordulrds, the reportt'l'lllllny report people's business to 11I('. Pooplc·s business I do 3t all plac(,,1l . . .. J am ne\·er s,'Jti!'lried with exertiolls or with dispatch of business. For the welfare of the ",holl' world is 811 es~med dul.y with me. And the root of that, llj:tlliu, is this" nRl1Il'ly, exert iOIl aJ,d dii'lpstch of lJus.incS8. There il'l 110 hiJ[;hcr duty than thc welfllre of the whole world. AJ,d whllt little elTort I lIlakQ-what;s it. for ?-that J mllY be free from debt to the creatures, that 11110y rf'}HIf'r s.ome Imppy here RmI that they II1l1y gain lmppiness ill thc ncxt world."-[Hock I~dict \'1.] It was a common eus.tom in Ihose daYK for kings to send their SOilS to be educated under well-known lenl'!Lers. So when in tum the SOilS succeeded their fnthcrs" the kinEtIl had the uccessary training and educatiOIl. "Whell the SOil of tile King of .lknare8" retuOled from his studies, the kjllg granted l\ gCllcral)lordol\ to all pri80ncl'll 8Jld g8\"e him the vioo-ro}'alty ".' Another king entrUl~ted to a sepArAte courticr to teach his childf("1I wbat the}' ought to IrAtIl. AfU"rwRrda he made each son the gO\'crnor of l\ pro\'iIlCC,ll The appointment. of prilwt'!'I tQ rc"pHllllihle ol1il.,"'/I ~a \'0 thcllI opportu< nitics of geLI.; Ill-: early cxpcri(,llce in the lIrt of ~UWtllllll'l1t. " Pussa, tllo SOil Off~ ruler of a provincp., WRS trllillet! in 1111 nccom!llishmallts of II youth."7 I.

DaM.r
3.

IJiilap(H.I1jla Sltlla.

5. 7.

JOIla¥lNlha Jtilaka. ThUII Giifha-)lulllltl.

112

2. DaJarathu Jiilaka. 4. Arigullllllila S"lIa. 6. Salflrc.ra Jiilaka.

The example of King Rusa RllOWS that a royal prince was taught lIot ollly the art of government allll military 8cience, but he was a good mURician, clever sculpt.or and a mallaccolllplished in tIle Bixty-four arts and Rcicnccs.t C(lrtnin members of the royal family specialised in some brunch of knowledge. The adopted son of l'rince AbhaYI~ thought thus: " lJI these royal families, it is not easy to find one's livelihood without knowing all art ".2 So ba became a studmlt of medicine under a" world famed physician in Takkasila". "Vajjiputta, the son of a. Licchavi Raja at Vesali, was a yOUllg man who became un expert ill ttltining elephll.llts."3 . Some kings bad been very kCell to impro\'c their knowledge. "MahaKappilllt succeeded to the crown at Ilis fat/lee'a death. He, to extend hifl. knowledge, would send men in the mowing out of the four gates 1.0 cross roads, orderillg them to stop scholars Jlassing that way and to tell Ilim. 4 When a great, teacher or philosopher visited a kingdom the kiuj2: .....ould extend his hospitality to him. On occaaiolls in which famous speakers addressed meetings the king with Ilis courtiers would go to hear them. Even at the meetiugs Qf kings, their convereation was of an intellectual nature. "Once five killgfl, Pascnlldi being one of tJlem, were discussing which of the pleasures of sonse was the highest." 5 Five wishes of King Seniya Billlbillara wore well-known: The King Mid : "Formerly, Lord, when! wns a boy, J had five wishes they arc now fulfilled: to be consecrated killg, Jnay a Buddha, all enlightened teacher, come to my kingdom; to do homage to him; to be taught by him Doctrine; and to understand his teaching."~ WhelL a king wisued to retire from his duties as a ruler, either OWillg to old age or because he wished to renounce worldly cares,7 then lIe abdicated the throne in favour of his heir. S Ancient kings did not despise their su bjeottl. The people had a right to appeal to the king individually to get private wrongs redressed, or colIeoti vely in times of public danger or calamity. " Thc Jlortals of the king's inner plllace WitS beset by 1\ huge crowtlloudly shouting that there was a robher in tile realm. . .. "SuJlpress llim, Sire ", they cried. ~ Jnstances of private llppeals to the killg were not uncommon. Visiikii, the mother of Migiira, desirous of obtaininR a favour, importuned I. KU3t1 Jdlo.ka. 3. 'l'htra Gutlt
2. 4. 6. 8.

Vi'l
113

King Pasenadi IIf Kosala. Tho king did not accede to her re(pl!.. ~t.1 Whellcver tile king Ilsed hill prerogative, it was for tlte publie good, otherwi~e tho IlCt of the ruler would be eOlldenUled as unrighteous Ilnd the peoplo made a collectivo appeal. 2 The rulers of Uuddhist India were not despot.~. They rCllpectcd the wishes of the peollle and made the basis of their govrrJImellts the welfare of the people. Rings diu not depend elltirely on their ministers for the good administration of tlte kingdom. When the king nppcnred before his people on formal occasiolls, he ll~l.'d t.o l\fIk whether they had any complaints to make flgflinst thu governnll'llt. Not satisficll with this inquiry, the king hill\80lf informally or in disguise llsell to visit different parts of his kingdom to find out whuther the people had allY grievll.llces. Once a "kin!{ hlll\(lill!{ over tho J(overlllHcnt to hill ministers HIlll tnking a Ilhaplaill with him truvI'rl>Cu the kin,glloln of Rasi, in disguise. y('t he fnlllld no-"Im with a Ilnmplailll.l!gnitlst tile gOVCrlllllOllt ", Tlw kill/{ 111111 rule I;"I1.~IlIt",d hislIlillifltl'rfl and Imd cO/llidf'IJ('c ill tlu'llI " Mflgntlha Killg Soniya Him!Jil\ll.ra said to his minister ill chnrge of general affllirs; • Go, good sir, and find out about this. W11611 you have seen it, it shall be the same as if I myself llad seen it '. ~ On important matters tile killg acted on the advice of his counsellors. " King Brnhl1lfu.lattll. of Kasi, Imving entered .Il('Jlares, COJ1\'okell his minist.crs allll (,01ln~l'lIor~ and IItlllr!'~~ed them.'·5 The vl\riO\l~ !l('f\·iccl'l (If the Sta te demanded lItlllly ministers. HCllce we rOfld of tlte Kill/{'s Trcll8urcr, 0 Chnplaill,7 Administer of Justice,'" a Chief Counsellor or Pri me MinistN, 9 fllld a "Price (Issessor", lO alllollg other officcr's of tIle f3IUtl1. The" Price lI.sses.~or·s" dlll.y WfiS to make cstinu~te8 of the values of things bOIlAht for the kill~ or his household, so that t.hey may be paid for without enusing 108s to the sellers of I.holle flrt.ieles. Pillar Ellict 1 V. of A~oka IIhows the confidence he had in GO\'CTIllllent servants. "'J'llIls saith King Priyndarsill, lleloved of the gods: This .IJhammalipi Wall caused to be writl.cll by me wJ161\ .I had been cons6crated twenty.six years. The Hajukas have been set by me over people (consisting of) many hundred thousRndll of soul8. AllY 2.

4. Ii. fl. 10.

114

l't.Wltltara Jiilaka. ri.lOya-MlIhi Vagga VI. Theri Giitha-Bhnrldn KlllHjalnkeAA SelWka f'at0ilcl Jalaka. Them Gatfld-JIIalunkll.ya'8 lIOn ami Ajita.

rownnl or I'lIl1i~IIIl](,l\t by thrill has been Illaccd by me under their sole control-why 1-in ordcr that the llajukas may perform their duties with confidencc and without fear, cause welfare I\nd halJpiness to the people of the provinces and confer benefits (UPQll them) .. " The Kalinga edict sllOws tlll1t the Emperor sent high govomment officers every five years to inquire into the work of the judiciaries. For this purpose Jlas this document been here writtell : ill onler that the l\Iahamatras who are the City Judiciaries may be devoted to the etcrnal rule of conduct, and that causeless imprisonment or causeless hnrnssment of the toWIlS people may not take place. AJ1d for this purpose, I shall cause a Mnhamatra to go forth on tour ever}' five years, who will be neitJler htlrsh lIor fiery, hut gentle in actioll. ~o that being al'.'are of this objret !,he city judicinrics will act ~weortlill~ t.o my ill~t,tIlC!i()Il,q. . ... WIWH l.huNl} 1\h\hnmat,tIJ8 ~u fHrlll UII tuur, withnut lll'glccting t.heir UWll fundiull, th!'y willlllinc( this nl~o. 111~1Jtely, whethcr judiciaries are acting according to the instructions of the king." 'I'he kings of old li ved in great splcndour. They lmd three palaces to suit the different seasons. They had their golden thrones beneath the royal whit.e (parasol) canopy decked with gem!!.l "The King of Benares caused n pavilion adorned with jewels to be !let lip at the door, Hnt! at the time of entiJlg he had this Ilecol'ated, and there sut UpOIl a ro}'al dais made 11./1 of gold, uuder a white parasol. There were princcsses all around him. He ate the food of hlllldred delicate flavours froUl a dish which cost n hundred thousand gold coin.s."2 'J'he)' rode on elephants or in carriages drawn by horses. 3 Witll the ladies of the court they visited pleasure gardens or parh Oil sunny afternoons. 4 They took Ilart in the different festivals. "1'lle festival of the elephant-s was prepared. A hundred elephants were set in array, with golden ttll.llpillgS, golden flags, all covered with a network of fine gold; and all the palace court-yard was decked out."~ The kings were keen in attending to socisl services. " Thus saith Priyadarsin, Beloved of the gods: On the roads I have planted banyan trees. They will ofTer shade to man and beast. I have grown mango-orchards. I have caused wells to 1. 3. fi.

1'JmpanaJulvka. l'ill'laktlJiiluktl. SU8u"",Jlilam.

2. 4.

l)ula JrUd,a. .Ma/mifl" J,ilalta.

115

pe dug at every cight-koscs ; ll.llIl 1 have had rest-houses. I have llIade lllfU1Y wi~tering IIbclls Ill. difTcrcnt placcs for the cnjoyment of man and Uell.'1t. 'l'his Cl1 jOJlllent is, however, indeed, a trifle, hecause mankind has hecll blessed with many sueh blcssiJlgS by the previous kings liS by me. But llll)se done this with this intent, namely, tllat they may practise Jlraeticcs of the Dhamnm."-[Pillar Edict VH.] There was 1L popular cOlLeeptioll of a "universal monarch" wllo appenred ill. \'er.v long intern~ls in 1.]10 world's history. He possessed super-nl't"IlHI] 110II'el'lI. A1. the birth ofl'rinee Sidtlhartha some wise men predieled that he woulll he tl "u/liv('rsa] monarch" or a Buddha.

11G

ClIA1'TER

TWENTY

GOVERNMENT AND LAWS

I.

GOV~;RN1>U;NT

LAWS and governmelltB of the different killgdolUS in hldia were tlOt aliko. Yet there WllS the gellel'31 tendonc}' among t.he los8 developl:1d statos to copy the leading ones in important matters. When the Buddha taught in India there wcre rOllUblics alld confcdcTflcielllike that of the Mallas, tllere were llemocracies with elected 1ll0narr,hll and UU:'re were kingllollu:I with hereditary kings. Jnlarge kingdoms there WM a central gOVl1l1lmellt find local goverllments. The killg and his ministera and coulIselJlIT8 formed the centrlll government. The appointments of tlew millisters and counsellors were dOlle by the king on the advice of the old coulIsellors and millisteT8. A clear instance of this is whore a killg, hearing the fame of the wisdom of a young man, was anxious to appoint him as 11 counsellor, }'et the king's four olfl eounllcllors kept him off time after time, sug-gp-still,!!: to the king that tile young man'!; ahility lJiust be tested fllrthcr. l '1'he 3(lministmtivo work was done by the king with the aid of his ministeIII. A king Imd coullsellors apart from his ministers. In the Them Giila many persons in the city of Sii,vatti were desoribed lIB couJLsellors who evidently formed the legislative or consultative bodies. There arc also instances where those described as counsellors had done admuustrative work. 1 From this it can be inferred that either the ministers were selected from the counsellors or in some kingdoms the counsellors did the work of the ministeIII. The existence of the different ll.IIsemblies is suggested by a passage in the scriptures which enumerates them. They are the assemblies (I) of nobles, (11) of Braltamins, (ill) of heads of houses, (JV) of religious teachers and their followers, (V) of the four great regents, (VI) of the thirty-three gods, (VU) of 1llarns (Vll1) and of Brahmas.2 The last four are tlte assemblies of gods and" snper-llIItural beings". There is also 0. reference to eighteen guilds of n city.s

L :I.

Maha UmmDugIJJtitda. Al"'!1IJ FokJ,/la Jiilaka.

2.

Anallgtl'M 8u1la.

117

Before matte.'s of importance to the pul>lic were ,lone, they wero disc1HlS<'ll in their 1'I"Ilper assemhlies. l\S for examples, it is recorded that five hundred Lieeh:lvi princes used to meet in th('ir Il.Sl!embly hall to tranllllet bllsilles.~ of the state.· Also, wllen Ananda went to UJmOllllce the passing away of tlw Uuddha., Malliis of Kusiniira were assembled in thei.' Council IInll to diBCU8S about the same matter.! Thero are other references, "'I'he J\Iullii.s of KusilHlra were assembled in the Council Hall Oil some public utTair."z When K illg Kosllla sent II marriage proposal to the Sakyalls, "OIl rcceipt of the message the Sakyans gathered together and deliberated." S When the I3ralmlllin IlO1liJo-holders were a88embled in their meeting place to transact some matters, the Buddha with llis disciples went to the Hall. 'fhe Brahamin8 thought" who were those recluses and what can they know about council rules ".' The quotlltion suggests the existence of rules to regulate the proceedings at specitl1111eetings. Somo rules from the Vinaya Pittlka might be q lIoted to illustrate the proceduro at the meetill.ll;s of the Buddhist monks: "To an assembly they do not come uninvited."6 At lllflctill.'!:!t tIle speak<'Ts stund up and address tile audience.' " A ll10tiull hruught before nil ll!I~(>mhly hnd t.o be :ulllressecl to that a!'..~emhly, 7

"Certaill

prul.{\.~h

were held inem'dual,s

If il formal aet is performed unlawfully by a complete or an incomplete congreglll,ioll, it is 1101. valid, but the lawful acts performed by complete cOllgreglltiollS were valid. II

The fOl'lllll1 words Qrdillaril}' used ill the c1ectiQll of /Ill oflice bearer were ns follows :"Let the venerable members of the assembly hear moo This assembly aplJOints the Venerable Dabba the MalJu. liS regufator of lodgings IInd npportioner of rations. 'Vhosoe\'er of the venerable ones agrees that Dabba. should be appointed, let him remain silellt. Whosoever does !lOt. agree let him speak."IO This wns repentet! thrice IImI if the members were silent then the Venerable DaLba WllS declared appointed by UIO n88embly. I.

Cilia Sr,,:ca.w Su.fla.

3.

Blwdda SMa J6taht.

5.

Udu.llib
7. lJ.

118

2. J/llh
Whtm the hOIlRe was divided in opinion, the matter was settled by the votes of the majority.\ The three methods of takiJlg votes were: the" secret method ", the" whispering method ", and the" Opoll method". In the secret method the teller of votes made voting tickets of different colours, and as each voter came he said to him: "This is the ticket for the man of such all opinion. Take whichever you like. Do not show it to anybody". In thc whispering tnetllOd, the teller is to whisper to the voter. "This is the ticket for wch an opinion. Take whichever you like". The tnker of votes shall possess five qualities. He must be impartial, wise, without malice, without fear and able to perform his duty.1 'l'he meetings were conducted by 0. presidellt. When olle speaker addressed a special meetillg he became the president, i.e., the chief of the assembly. The GoverlUnent of the early Indian kingdoms involved many respollsible duties. There was division of labour, and division of responsibility. Each king had IJUU1Y ministers and other officers of the state. Their JH\mes themslves would suggest the Jlature of their duties. The prime minillterof the kingdom of Magadha was Vassakara 3 and .Iivakll was the chief miJlister to King Kosnla. 4 Theh there wero a trcllsurer,L 1\ chaplllin,e and a steward. "Jotipllla, the Lord High Rteward, divillcfl the land ami appointed govcrnonl who were given A SI)(lcill.l minister WllS in charge of general instruction/J by him". 7 s afTairs. There were the commandcr·in-ehief of the army and other militllry ofliocrs. 9 Some uit-ies had a "lord-protector" n.ppointed by the king,IO guards, wardens, and viceroys." '1'he finllnces of kingdoms were in the hands ofsper.illl finallcial officers. I! " As the administration of tIle Govctlllllent is founded on benign llrinciples the executive is simple. TIle families are not entered on registers, and the people are not subject to forced IlIbour. The private demesnes of the Crown arc divided into four principlll part-a ; the first is for carrying out tllc affairs of the State and providing sacrificial offeril'gs; the second is for providing subsidies for the ministers and cllief officers of Stllte ; the third is for rewarding men of distinguislled

11. Ibid. 3. G. 7. 9. ,11.

jfahii Pari Nibb(j..a. Bulla. .Mahii BKdMtouna 8m/a. MahiiGoflillda8u/la. AfiUa Gandf"d;a JiiWk4. Nilla-GaJldfJam Jci/am.

2. 4. 6. 8. 10. 12.

Ibid. Elrol!(lIUUI Jiilaka and BamoWl PMla Bulla. Tlura GiilM--PiQ<Jol. and Bhirad\"ija. V'naya-Mahl Vagga I. CMml:a Jiilaka. Chal:mvalli Bulla.

119

ability; Ilnd the fOI1l'th is for ell/I.!'i"y to religiouR hOtlieR, whereby the field of nterit is eultivated."-(1Juddlllst Recordso!t'lC Western World Book I!.] The government of the pt'ovinces was carried Oll by Lhe governors llppeinted by the kin,!!:. Thoso gon:rlloTl; cvitlelltly followed the central government in matters of general policy. The noblemllll, Aniithapindika, had Lhe gO\'cflllHfint of a Jlrovincn under him" COIIRulhl.l,ioJls and eonferellces of I,he goveruors uf the provillcell took place frolll time to time. 2 In the following ext.ract the dutics of the IUllgistrates are described: " (The City Mngistnltes) who IHlVe chnrge of the city nre divided into six bodics of jivc each. The lTlcmbers of the first look afwr e\'crything rclllting to the industrial art-8. TllOse of the Becond attend to the cutel·l.a.inlJlent of foreigllcrs . 'I'he third body cOllsists oftl10oo wllo inquire w!.ten lInd how births lllld deaths occur, with a view 1I0t Ollly of levy ill,'! a tax, but nlso in order that births and deaths fllllOllg both high !lmllow may not escape the cognizance of gO\-cTIJlIlI.mt. The fourth class sUJlcrintemls trade and eOlllmerce. The fifth clsss supcrvioos manufactured Articles. The sixth and Inst das:'! COllsists of thoRe who collect tile tenths of the prices of the article sold. . Next tv the city magistrates there is A. third gO\'emillg body wllich directs military IlITairs."-(Strabo XV., 2. 50-52.)

11.

LAWS

The Inw6 of Buddhist Illtlin were nol, the COlJllllllllds of despot.s. Tlley were lIOt imposed by kin.ll:s Oll II11Willillg Ileo]Jlc. 1'110 princill!o undcr l.rillg the lllws WllS that thry were for the good ofthc people and not for the bOllelit of /lll imlividllnl. 13ll8od Oil the adl"iee of the cOllllllel1ers and othor IlssClnblic8 the king lInd the mir\i!!tcrs frllmed the lnw8. To judge frolll the manlier in which the Buddha gave out his rules of conduct to his disciplr!!, the Ilncient laws were lIot theoretical codes which Ilnticilll\te crimes, but they were Jlfllcticnl ill 80 far liS they werQ paS3ed aeconlinR: to tho cirClllllstnnee8 which gave rise to the law. The lnw!! wcre llOt kept secrct by allY religious or political sect, but were made public. The prillcipalmet.hod of lUaking the laws knowll to tho public wt\!! to illl!cribe them ou IHetnlslahs, lltonrs or rock IlilhlrB erected in publi(J plaer8.~ In atlditinn to this the lIOW ll~w8 ulled to be I.

Kiilo/ronni .Tiilal.:a.

3.

A!tQk..'e Edict8.

120

1. 3. U. 7.

JII~"

Jiilaka. Yiowya-Mllhll. Vllggll I.

.Madum Std/a. Ibid.

2. 4. 6.

YiMy~-Mllhll. Vaggo. VI. Rul1wlalhi Ja/aka. Alaha Umtll(l!l!l'"J(llaka o.nd StnakaJalaka.

121

the accllse~1 pcr;:nn has becl1llenrd ".1 This awl otlu}r pnAAflgcssuggest. that all accused person is gi \'cn 11 fai r chllnce to defcJld himself. ., Headillg the Charge " wa~ a preJimiJlIlry 8lol1 of t11(' tl'illl. l Once a person of illfluencc Illot.ting t.o kill allot,her snid : ".TIow can wc put him to death wit.huut h(\\"ing foulld him guilt,J' of !lome great. crime 1"2 Attrials counter-charges had boen Illlol\'rd. 3 Getting evidence WAS Illl import.alll. pnrt of a trial. I{illg .Kosnla OlH::e said: "1 have been sitting ill I,ho Judl!lneut lIall ami saw how eminent lloblcs and Bralmmills (llId uurgcsses and me/I of ll.ut.hol'ity OWJlillg great treasure, greatwcalth, imluellsc aids to enjoyment, immcnso supplies of J!:oods and corn, ~lclihernt.eJy told lies through their worldly desirell."~ Those who .'(I\\'O fahle cyillcllCe were trrrnCtl ignoble,6 and often punished." As all inr-taJlce of unrighteo1l8 speedl, it is explained that persons r-oll\eti!Urs uttered flllsehoods. "When cited to give l,estinLOny before an asscllluly or viJlnge meeting, or family eOllneil, or rOYlIl household, or his guihl, he /IUIY say that he knows, whell he tloes /lot know, or that he dnes not know when he knowfl, or that III~ saw when he did not sce, or that he (lid not see when he did 8('f'."t\ The prllfe8flional lawyers 7 evidl'JlUy advisl'll their c1ic/lts Illld helpetl them in the conduct of IIlW-Sllit,q. Unllcccsslny illterrupl.iOlHI during the course ofa trilll were disco\lnl~ed. l'llsenlldi, King of Kosala, said: " While J alllllcllrillJ.( H t:asc, pcoJllt~ interrupt the proceedings. J have to forbitl intl'rruptillll whilc the I·MC is OH, ami to tell them to wait till it is settled."8 The judges were Ill'l'0illtetll,y I lie killg-. 'I'here were tillles when the killg himself ncted as II judge. The tlut.y of It judge was explaineu nil "to judge a cause with justice and impnrtiality."9 A judge wss once bribed to de(rautl the rightful OW/lers. A minister of the king who heard of it went t.o the t:ollrt-hollse IlJltl reversed tIle Bentenee in that case. IQ 'rile judge decided car-es without the nid of a jury. In the administration of justice rigid ndherellce to law did not exclude equitable or mornl consideratiolls. The Killg of Kosnla was described as hn\'ing passetlscntc/lce ill a Ycry tliflicult case im'oIviJlg Illoml Wrllllg. 11 Also, the judges had often rcsrll'eted precedent" all the followiJlg lluotation I.

1';nayll-enll:1.

3.

l'in"y
5. 7.

I'
9. 11.

122

G"{J~I

VlIgg~.1.

VlIgga IV.

J,j/
Rajovad" .hi/d". Rajol'lidt, Jiilako.

flhowfl: "He causeu. a book of judgments to be written and said, 'by observing this book you should settle suits' ".1 The different kinds of verdicts lHul been-a summary \'erdict with parties present, a venliut ofinllocence or of insanity U1HI a verdict of ~uilt, or verdict OIl confeAAioll of guilt.! There were appeals from jllllgments, the filial appeal being to the king. In exceptional cases requiring special rlHnedies or redress there was a public aplleal hy t he citizens nppearillg before the king's palace. Punishments depended on the nature of the cri lIles. The chief cri 1ll6S were murder, burglary, robbery. and adult.er}·.3 PO!l8ellllion of st.oJell goods was a erime. 4 The punishments. had been capital punishment, banishment, imprisonment, whipping, confiscation of goods and fines. A person was outlawed by shaving him and pouring" ashes over his bead./; When the punishments were meant to be deterrent, they were carried ont in public. "Ollce a robber was plundering the cit},. Wben he was captured and eondemned, the governor of the city !lad his Mms tightly bound behind him, and having tied a wreath of red kanavera flowera about his neck, and sprinkled brick dust on his head, had him scourged with whips ill every square, and led to the place of execution to the music of harsh-sounding drmns."6 Punishment for slander was 1\ fine. 1 Arres'tillg eriminll.ls and 8upprr..~si.. ~ crimes lmd hcen cOllsidered 11 public duty. So the robbers and other criminals arrcstcd by ordinary citizcns used to be brough.t before the proper authorities. 8 In laws relating to property, transfer of immovable property required formal acts or ceremonial rites. Thcre was also" distinction between comllllllllt.1 property, public property and private property. Communal property I,lllongl'rl to a class of persons slleh as the property givcn to the Bllddhist Order. Any member of the Order had common rights in such prollerty. Public property such as parks, cemeteries and woods were for the general uso of the public. Diffcrcnt individuals including the king had private property. 'I'he landlords granted their Jall'ds to tellllntll who held them, ill some Cll.8es, in hereditary IIllccession. o The tenants held the land in payment of 11. rent to the land owners. The property went to the descendants aR. heirs at the death of the owner. 1D If there were 110 heirs, it went to the Crown. "At Savatti a mIser I. 3. 5. 7. !I.

'1'undila.Jlilah>. Maim Dd"'" Klw1ld1l<. Snlla.. AmbtllI1'fJ,Sul1a. UbliawblulW", Jlilaka.

Thtra

Gath,i~lIcrannnk"'lti.

123

millionaire (licll without Hll lwir, lIi~ wea]l;h, I\lnountiug to eight. mill ions ill guld, went to tile killg. "I The ferclllonia! riw ill alienatioll of prnpert.,)' call he nntiC('11 in t1w giyillg away of Vc]nvanll plea..m re garden" 'I'lu'. king t,ook a gnl
1.8a.iyllltalll. 3. a"h"p',li Jiilak".

124

t. 4.

Villaya-Mllhii. VlIgglI. J'i'llIya-C"Ull Vllgga VI.

CIIA!'TJl:R

TW~;NTY-ONF,

ARMY AND WAR

A COMPLETE army in ancient IJl(lia eomisted of four sections. There were the squadron of elllphants, tll{l eavlllry, infalltry Ilnd the war· ehariots. l Elephants had special armour with shields for their t.runks. 2 Fighting from chariot.s or frurn elephantll' back wns wiLh miS.':li le weaponS Buotl liS javelins and arrows. 'l'hese fllct.~ Ilre corrohoratetl by the Greek lint! Chille~ writers. " There are royal stables for the horses Ilnd l'lcphantB, and also a royal magaziJle for the arlllS, because the soldier has to retllrn J)is arms to the magazine, and his horse and his elephant to the stables. They use the elephants without bridles. The chariots Ilre drllwn on the IlIllrch by oxen, but the horses are led along by a halter, that their legs may not be galled and inflamed, nor their spirits damped by drawing chariots. In addition to thc chariotecr, there are two fighting men who sit up in the chariot beside him. The Will' clephant carries four men-three who shoot arrows Slnd the driver."-Strabo XV. 2.50-52. "'l'herll arll four divisions of the army viz., (1) the infantry; (2) thc cavIIlry; (3) the chariots; (4) t,he delJhants. The elephants are con:rod with strong armour, 0.11(1 their tusks are provided with flharp spearfl. A leader in a Cllr gives the commllnd, whilst two attcndaJlts on the right Imd left drive his chariot, which is drawn by four horscs abreast. The genom I of tlm soldiers remains in his chariot; he ifl surrounded hy n filt' of guards who keep close to his chariot w heds." " 'rIm cavlllry spread themselves ill frollt to resist an at.tack. and in oases of defeat they carry ordersll ither and thither. The illfalltry by their quick movements contribute to the defence. The8e men are chosen for their courngo and strength. They carry n.loJlg speRr ami a greRt shield; sometimes they hold II sword or a AAbre, and advllllce to the spot with impetlloflity. All tlwir weapons of war lire sharp and pointed. Some of them are these: spears, shields, bows, 2.

Don/a BltumiRuUa.

125

arrows, ~\Vords, ~ahre~, hattle-axes, lances, haluerds, long javelins, and vArious kiwis of s1il1g.~. All these they have used for ages."Hecords of the We8tern World Bk. 1 L. Ihery fHlll)' has its hand to produce martial music from tom-toms, kettle drullls, conches Anll drums.! Each section of tile army had its COlllllllmdel' lllHl it~ ~lIhonlillnte officers. 'I'he whole army was under its cOlHmauder-iu-chief. Wllel1 the kinK leel the forces he acted as the commalHler-ilHJhiof. 'rhe COlll1lIHIH!CrS \lnd other oflieors were well trained or eXlll'.riollcell II\l'n j for they hall to learll tile different methods of (ightill~ IInder fUlIlons tCllehor.~. The truiuinl'( of the army was llone by the cOllunanders, who " drilled the soldiers at Jlight explaining them tile art of wlIrfnre ".2 I)rI\Willj.( 111' of armies ill battle array 011 special occasions W!\S It public speetnGic. Jt was Ilsnally done for numbering the forces or for review. 3 In Buddhist kingdollls there was 110 compulsory military service, and even those who had joined the nrmy wel'e free to leave the service. When the sohlierll of the army hegan to leave their service and join the jjuddhillt Order, Ht the rCfluellt of the kinj.(, the Buddha uth'ised IllS disciples not t.o ordain a di8Ci!lle under the l:Ienice of the king without. the king's permi8llion. 4 Some kingdoms employed mercenary soldiers. When King KO.'lala favourell the foreign soldiers, his wnrriorsllegJected a fight. 5 Athletic accomplillllllleJ!ts had been fl qllalifiention to join the army. VIra, the son of:~ minister of Killg I'nsclLadi, aC(lllireu athlet.ic accomp1islllll('nt.'l und hecame a warrior. s J'iynlljaha, n. Liechnvi priJlee who 7 WI\S l1Iall for \VII r, Was un unconquered fighter. PersOllal merit counted for jlrolllotiollll ill the nrmy. Sona, tIle son of 0. landed proprietor, worked lIJl hIll way to become the commander-in-chief of the forces. s There had l~eJl Il1Hny wnrriors of fame such 1\11 Si ha, It llalldhuln,lo and Upal\!\Iula. l1 Whl"JI 1\ wlHl'ior had earned fame he had opport.unit.iell of getting grl'Ht snlllrics in roynl service. Also skilled archers had been employed by kill.':S at great expensc. 12 Each army hnd " leech e}[J!ert.'l" to denl with arrow wounds, for it had not been uuusuul to U80 poisoned llrrOWIl. I. 3. 5. 7.

9. 11.

126

Van/a IJlI.ii,,,,i Sulla. l'inaya-PlIkittiyll. RulCll. flAIIIIl(lwri Jii/alm.

2. 4. 6. 8.

Th~ra

Giilhii-Pi.l'nnjah.

1'A~m

Gtil!Vi-8n",.

10.

Go/ml:tc Moggfllliina SIlUa.

12.

Vadd/laJ:;iSilk"rll Jiilaka. IlinaYII-MlIhiVllg811. 'l'A~ra

1'A~r(1

Giil!Vi-Vlrn.

GiilAa-8onn PotiriYllputta. IJAadda·S,l/"Jiila!
l I r

The chief weapons lIsed ill allcient warfare werc sword find buckler, bow find o.rrows,l shield, lance, long-shaft.ed f1pCllt, and jllvelin.2 Two kinds of bows, known 3S ,. long-bows" and" croSll-bows" were in use. The shaft of the arrow was made of wild reed or plant shoot feathered with plumes. The gut used for bindilll( the shaft was taken from ox, buffalo, hart or monkey. The arrow W!l.S plaill Ut barbed with horn or iron or calr's tooth or with an Olcllllder thon1. a The nature of some of the wcapons call be inferred frOIll the descriptions of weapOllS attributed to mythical persoJlS. Sakka, the King of the gods, had 1\ circular wcapon (Chakra·iiudha). Ya1ll8, the King of the Worlds of Torture, bad a weapon in the shape of" cobra, find ?If am, the Evil Onc, had a huge ring of mighty force for destructive pnrposes. Those mythical weapolls could not have been purely imaginary. The ideas llIust have been uased Oil solTle forllls of weapons in reRI existence. The I ndika ofA rrion (Chapter XV J.) contains a description of ancient weapoDs: " The foot·soldicrs carry a bow llIade of e(llIRllcngth with the JIIRn who beRrs it. 'I'his they rest upon the ground, anti !lressillg against it with their left foot thus discharge the arrow, haviJlg drawn the striJlg far backward; for, the shaft they usc is little short of being three yards long, and there is nothing which can resist Rll Indian archer's ahot-neither shield nor brell8tplate, nor any stronger dcfence ifsuch there be. In their left hand they carry bucklers made of undressed ox-hide, which are not 80 broad as those who carry them, but are about ll8 long:. Some are eqlliplted with javelins instead of bows, but all wear ll. sword, which is broad in the blade but liot longer than three cubits, and this when they engage in close fight (which they do with reluctance) tJley wield with both hands, to fetch down a lustier blow. The horsemen are equipped with two lances called' 8almia ' and with a shorter buckler than that carried by the foot soldiers. Rut they do not put saddles on their horses, nor do they curb them with bitB like the bitB illllse among the Greeks or the Kelt.s, but they fit on round the extremity of the horses mouth R circular piece of stitched raw ox hide studded with pricks of iron or brass pointing inwards but not vcr)' sharp." The three methods of drawill~ up an army in battle array were known as 'the lotus army', the' wheel army' and the' wagon army'. I. :'I.

A otgtllillUiw SWla. C.d,/.Malu.llky(l Sull".

121

'I'lle 'loldls IIrm,\" eOll.~illlt'd in ananging I,he forccs, so that the eOllllllll.ndC'r1l hc iu the eClltre of the army aruJ tho 1I0ldierll wore arran.c;ed !Ill petnlll of a lotllll, projecting olltwards. Whcn the forccs were arranged in a circle with some lined as Ilpokes of a wheel, the COllHllH1Hlers rellla;ned in the I:('utrc. Thil'l was called the' whcel Ilrmy Thc arrangllllleut in 1\ redungular fonll with two wings on eithcr side WlIll kuowlI us the' wagOll army '.1 The flll10wing dCitl'tiption of II light;1I 1I0tewol'll,y :

" It. ;s heClmse of selfish cravings, that nU~ll, girdiJ,g on swonlllnd buckler, bow nml sheaf of arrOWll. c1ll1rge in battle arm.y, while llrrowll find javelins ll\lrtle tbrough the air, 1I1l11 swords flash and hack. With arrows Rnd Ill,cnr they denl woulIds, wilh tiJeir swords they hew off heads, so that Illell may cOllie by their deatbs or deadly hurt. Mell clult,l!e up Illippery ballf,ionll whill' llrrOW8 and javelirul hurtle through the lLir. The hesil'W'd pour dtJwn hlal\ing emhers on the besiegerl'land crush t11em with the fall;Jlg portcullis."\! When the battle WlIS fought and won, those imlll\llle from any punishment were those who hlld renounced the household life, i.e., the pricst!! and recluscs, tllO~fl t'lItirely devoted to intellectual pursuits, i.e., Brahminll. pal,iellts, aged parents, women amI cllildren. According to ti,e following JlRs~l1ge hllllbaJldll\Cllllll~o come limier the privileged l'!11Sf\ell : " .For wherl'M among othcr nations it is usual, in the contests of war, to taVlIge the lIoi I. fBIII thus f,o reduce it to an llllullltivated WlIste, Rrrwng the Indinn.~. on tll(l eOlltrary, by whom husuuml.mcn arc reganlel! as a ulllss tlwt il'l sacred and inviolahle, the tillerll of ti,e soil, evcn whon hllt.tle ill m~in[t: ill their lIeighbourhood, IIrll unJillturbod by UlIY Ilenf\e of dan~er, for tile combatants OIL either side in waging tile connict lllllke cllrnll~e of nRch other, but allow those ong0!led in husbandry tu rfll11ain (Iuij,e ulIlllolested. Besides, l.hey Jlcither fflVtlgfl UlI elH'llLy'll land with fire, nor eut uown its trecll."-Fragmeut r (Diod 11. 35--42). The Jndika of .Megesthenc8. After cOllquest, the allne~atiOI1 of a Gountry was of rare occurrence. Tbe conquered country often untlertook to pay n. yearly tribute to the conquerors. With the payment of that trihute the kingdom WIHI left to ~overn itself.

128

The Buddhist inAllelloe had been to 8UpprC$Il militarism and hi propagate peace and fricndship among nations. The Buddhist monarclls are expected to act ll.()cording to the Buddha's teaching that " hatred ClllllIOt bo overcome by hatred hut by lovo ".1 The Buddhists; if they fight at all, fight for d(lfonsive purposes only.

I.

Dftam11Wpada.

129

(lIlAI'TF.R TWF.NTY-TWO

ECONOMIC CONDITIONS wnslJy 110 IlLcan~ 11 purely HgrieulLural eOllllky, She had many industrieH allt! manufacturers. Sume villagcs hud cumcd the llalllC uf carpcllt.crs' villagc or n 11Illlt.cI"S' village owiJlg to tbe occupation of Llle people. There w('re cl'rla;lI tlistricts noted fur ngriculLufe, In the sul.mrbs flf ciLics there W('I"C t:unt fieJ!ls; urt.:hHl'lls and reserved woods. Nellr each eiLy Lhere were market tUWIlS beclluse the city itself W!lH !lot eOllvcuienL fur tile IIIlIlly lllercllHnts whu \' isited from other killgdoms to come to the city it:;clf ill their cnmw\lIs. Commerce, manufacture Mul ugricultul'e wore tile t'hicf lIt"lnrc('1'. of India'lI wealth at that time. '''hem Ilad li'lJt111 I"l'glllar trade 011 a largo IIcalo uotweoll the /{rtJut citit·s uf the kingt!ollLs. Mercho.uh took GOO cart loads of merchandise to their trading celltres or cities. 1 A leader of 0. cam \":tn was :~ Illf\ll of special talent 1l1ll0Ul:\ llIerchants. 2 Tho horse dealerg hrought their hor8Cg from the nor~iI. B Thc merchlluts from KiBi brought their e1uth 4 Ulld BOIUlrCll Bcnt her fUInoUS lJluslil\5 Ilnd other mallufactlll'Cll. B There were also pedlaz's aut! lmwkers of ncedles, trinkets and other articles.1! Commerce was I\(,t muro illllividulll effort. fur thol'(' IUIII h('cll till' f10llecti l'O cntcrprisc of not less t hall t'i~hteell !!lIi1d" ill onc city, Skilled workcrll gllch as mtlriJ1CrS, gllrlandl1lllkNl>, (,lIl'UI'Ull tmdcrfl, IllHllIltroopers, maSOllS, hlack!:al1ithg, oarpenterll, Jluintcl's, etc., belonged to thosc eighteen guildll.~ At tlnother cit)' a rich lIlall WHs described a:'l hlwing done "~ood scn'ice both to the King and to the Merchautll' guild,"8 Rich IHcrehant.ll of cities had already formed th61.Melvefl into a class that they were designated as "members of merchant families.'·P llUDDIIlST JN1VlA

Althougll the o\'erhmd trnllf1 Wag chiefly confined to distributitlll: goods by cnravans, thero had heen a considern.ble amount of over-sca trade. There arc references to \'oyageflllnd sea. faring ve880[8.'0 l. Thm. GiiIM-Mahik1illl.. 3, SUWIII1I Jii/(lh. 5. ViMya-Mn.hi VRggll. VIII. 7. 9.

130

MUg
2,

7'hrra Gii/M-PonD[!"

... Smiyulla XV. 6. SangulltI XV andSuciJ!itahJ 8. 10,

1I;llaya-MIIhil, \'8gga VIII. SariyuUa XXII.

"Ordain Illerdlltllt!l voyage."1

fir

Kasi got an eXjlrrirJ\(:cu. crew and st,firted n.

"Then it came into his mind to pro\'ide a ship and do business with it."! "A certain man from Kasi country wbo had been turned out of doors by his parents 8S an incorrigible had made his waytoasea-port, where he embarked on the ship-board 8S a. sailor's drudge."s "1'hcre was It sea-port town lIamed Bhnrnkaeclln. At that time, the 130llhisut.tll wus born into the family of n mnster mariner there. He grew up with great distinction; Rlld even wllen ho was 110 more than sixt.een yeaTfl old, hc had gailled a complete mastery over the art of seamanship. Aft.erwllrds, when his father died, he became the head of the IHnr;ners, HIl(1 plied the mariners' calling: lIe WIIS wise and fu 11 of intelligence. With Ii im lluroad no shi Jl cver CllJtle to ha rill. ,,4 Some of the voyages might have heell long, for" l\ disciple of the Buddha took passage on board the ship; and 1I. week later tlle ship WM wrecked in mid-ocean ".b Again," oue shil) sailed for four months with 700 people on board the sllip."a The In.rge number of occupations in which people }lad heen engaged suggests the various kinds of lllilJlufaet.ure. 'fhere were workers ill metal. smiths,7 cOJlper-smitlls, silver·smiths and gold-smiths,a stOne enttcrs,D WOOl!·cuttus,IO wOl·kers in ivory," basket makers,u rushplaitMs13 ll.lUl. garland makerll. u Some families had followed r.ertain trades. "There was a village of carpenters not far from the city in which 500 carpenters lived. They would go up the river in a ves.se!ll.nd erlter the forest where they would shape beams and planks for house-huilding and put together the framework of olle storey or two storey houses, numbering all the pieces from the mllin post onwards: 'rhese thell they brought down to the river ballk, and put them all aboard, then rowing down stream they would huild houses to onlrr as it was required of them."'5 The I. Dhammaddhaja Jiila/w. 3. Dadhi· I"ahalla J{j/(l/w. 5. Siluni-!a",.,a J(ilaka. 7. SuciJiiksh. 9. Babbu Jrit'lka. 11.

Ka~a"aJiilak{l.

13. 15.

Theri Gathii-Bumllllllal11·8Illothcr. Alioo-Oitla Jiilalro. .

~.

Olllu·dvnfa J,italw.

4.

8Uppafaka Jiilaka.

6. 8.

Ibid. 'l'heri Giilh~i~Subba. 10. 'l'hera aalhii-Chakkhupila. 12. Gamani Canda Jiilaka. 14. Upali SuI/a.

131

carpenter, the washcr-mall, the hair-dres!:lCr, the tailor and the shoemaker were then known as "tIle five WOrkmf'1l ". Men and women ofter\ worked for wages. I AIso sOllle people earned their living as clerks of tho signet, clerk of accompt, computer, estate agent, purvey of herd-manager, archer, member of the royal household.! The ordinary crnft.s as mentioned in Satlla1lJUI-phala S1/tfa are: mahouts, hor.~emen, chariot.eers, archers, stalldanl-bearers, camp marshals, camp followers, high militnry officcNl, military scouts, brave warriors, champiulls, warriors in buck-string, homc-born servants, cooks, bllrbeTll. bath nttclldllllts. COllfcctiollCrs. g-arland-makcrs, wm~her11\ell, weavcrs, bnskct-makcrs, pottcrs, mathematicians amI aCCOllntrlllts. I~vi(ler\tly these were occuptations connected with the Ki ng's Court. Besides these there were 11l1l1l}' otller occupations and industries. Undcr Blludhist influence certain trodes began to be considered ill1morllJ. Selling anilJllIls for slallgllter, IInd the sale of harmful weapons, flesh, illtoxicants Ilnd poison were known aB thc "forbidtlell trades ".3 There were also twenty-ono unl!l.wful ways of earning:\ living. 'fhe fel'l;ility of tile Roil of the GUJlges and Indus valleys was well known. InS/mbo (xv.i.13.p. 690) it is written: " As l~rosthel1es states, Itldia is watered hy the SUIJIIller raius, and the plains al'e overflowed. During these mins, accordingly, flax is sown 1I1HlllIillet, also seSllmum, rice. amI bosmorlllll and ill the winter time wllcnt, barley, pulse nud other esculent fruits unknown to us." l\Iegesthenes also had Jlointed out the prosperit}, of lmlia : " rndia has many IUlge llIo11llhlins which abound in fruit trees of every kind and many vast plai/ls of grcat ferti1itY~l1Iore or less beautiful, hut 1111 alike int<'rseeted by 11 multitude of rivers. The grellter part of the Roil, mOfl'OV(,I", is tinder irrigl1tio/l, and conse_ quently bears two crops in th(' cours(' uf the year. It teems nt tile Sllme time with animals of nil Rort~. The inltahit.allts, in like IIwrlller, having alJlllldant means of subsistance, exceed in consequence the ordinary st.ature and are distinguished hy their proud bearing. 'fhey are also fOllnd to be well skilled iu the arts, as might be expected of Illen who inhale a pure air I.

Kllmm(VI(lhilld"Jlil"l;nllnd B"ndho·",i(/(Iro JUI"ko.

2.

Alaka Dui:kk(l Kh'lJ1dh(l 8rlll".

13~

3.

8igiiloviido SII/la

and drink the very finc!lt water. And while the soil bear8 on its surfaoe all kinds of fruits whioh arc known to oultivation, it has also underground lIumerous veins of all sorta of metals, for it contains much gold and silver, and copper and iron in no small quantity, and even tin and other metals whioh are employed in making artioles of use and ornament, a8 well 0.8 the implement! and accoutrement! of war. In addition to cereals, thrre grows throughout Iudia. much millet ... alld much pulse of different sorts nJld rice ... as well RS Illany other plall'.'! useful for fooll. of which Illust grow spontalleously .... It is accurtlingly affirmed that. famine IIlUI nC\'er \'isited lndin, and that there has nc\'er OcCII a general scarcit}, in thc supply of nourishing fuod."-Frnglllcnt I (Diad 11. 35-42) froUl the fragmcnts of the Itlllika of Meges.t.henc8 collected by Dr. Schwanbcck. Agricultural products formed important articles of merchandise. Some lands had been allottcd by thcir owners to tcnants for cultivation " Kosiyagotta Ileld an estate of 1000 acrcs where he grew rice. He gave the land in charge of his men, to one fifty, to another sixty, and thus distributed lllllong them 500 acres. 1 The crops from some fields had Ocen large," Olle land owner had" a thousand waggon loads of the hest rice thrllshed out and storcd up in his overflowiJlg granaries."! It is very difficult. to get all accurate idea of t.he wages and salaries paid in Buddhist India. It is evident that money was not scarce, It may Oc irlferrcd that 1.110 people were wert paid for their services. An archer under the 8Crvico of 1\ king reeci\'cd 100,000 gold coins 1\ yoar. 3 A hundred gold coins were paid tlaily for reciting to a king at dinner. ~ Another king g'wc a Brahamin a dairy allowance of 500 gold coins. 6 A doctor got his fee as a prcsent after he cured his IJatient. The renowned Jivaka reccivcd 16,000 from a rich family for curing a lady's chronic t1iseaFe ill MIC head. ll The generosit.y of some people had cost 600,000 gold COill1l daily.? Jetll.\'anll. was bought Il. price of'juivalf'Jlt to t.he amount of gold coins which would covcr its area. s The gate towerll of the fCllidcncc Ilt Jetavana bad cost 90,000,000 gold COiIlS. ll Lady ViSllka's wedding dress II.I~ cost lakhs. 1O A pair of sandals prcsented to the Buddha was worth I.

3. 5.

7. 9.

Salilwla'a J,UlIl"(l. AMldi,fII Jtltalra. Gfwtamukh> Su.lla. CUlalJaduma Jiitaka. I'ala!!i Jiilaka.

2. 4.

6. 8. 10.

AMmpadallll Jiilaka. Smogltlla Ill. Villa!lll-MahA Vagg& VB!. I'illllga-Culla VlIgga. VI. DlwmmQpada A!(Iw.l:a.l4li-Vi8iild..

133

n. thnllS.1ntl 111H1 Ih.)~(' l'r(,~"'lIl('<1 In two {li.~ril'l"H wrrr wortu (i\'o hundred.\ TIIII ral' jl'\\·plIr-ry nf It l'('rlaiu lalld OW1\rr was worth n

ororc 2 through which hI': Mrtled the nam(' of" the croro cared." The fortune of the Ron uf a councillor waR estimated at 800,000,000.' Thore had been mallY millionaires. Fivc noblemen of the kingdom of Kosala had ulllimiteC f1Ylllbols IIlI.\'e 1\ significl\nce among Buddhists. The shape of thc coins were mostly square, or oblong. The ancit'llt met.hod of snfegllarllillg money and treasures was to fill them in iroll pots nnd keep them in cellars or to bury them.~ :t.

SIllIHtIlJalal:{I. rJ,tr'l fl'illt'i-Bhalldaji.

.j.

6.

GltalumMu 8ullll.

6.

I.

134

2.

'1'111'1"11 Glillui-80n", Kotikll.nl111. 1J1I1I"''''(11/0(/(1 A!!1IuI:a11l,i-Villiikl1.. tJrahurhullll Ja/alro.

or

The luxury in whidl thl' pcople li\'c(lllr,~o ~hOWB the l'I'ealth the timCII, The rieh I'cupll' had three rcsillellCCII to suit the SCII80118 of the ycar. l SuIllC of t1l" lWlllMiollS were scven IItorcy~ high ami had IlUrks or plca.'lurc gnnlctts heside them. 'rhurc were hou8cM with stairCn$Cs dccurnt<.'d with ~('ms,2 tlnll amollg" Ornam('Ht~ of 11 lWlIlIU wcrc golden Rtntucll. 3 The nharillt.~ wnrc allurnrd with jewcls and guld. 4 The rich had large elltahlishll1cllt.~ of rdainers. (i

1.

Tlu:ra aaUIIT

3. 5.

Them Gciiha-Mnha. K'U\8II.plI. Thera. Giil!ld-Rllnhl'pila.

YAlIll. l'nd Sona.

2. Sii.!:"r" Jii/aJ:a. 4.

Afaylw.i:a Jiilo/m.

135