Introducing Environment

/∼,事i

･,7( -

冊rodu⊂LngEn∨し｢Onment

一コtrOdun･t BEつく･LrOnTl eコI PeaSgO dan Go d∼Lコ

レオ へン 91m o監 ′｢U

.n

H石 嶋  にr

十し EnvLrOnmentahopl｡S are an Ln〔reaSLngly lmPO｢ta｡t Part Of ou｢ d叫E

Thern2dLaarefu=ofstorLeSaboutenvlrOnme[taEp｢obLemSandthell

｢㊨

dUU

∩∨

㊨nmeni

50Lut10n5.POLLtにaLpartLeSattemPttO⊂OnVHl⊂eUSthatthel｢POlllEES l addr255theChaile[gesthatfa⊂eUS仰dweas L[dLVldualsfa⊂equeS･L. l ヨbouttLeeffe〔tofourILfeStyL250nthewo｢Ldarou[dus

ToengagewlththeSe〔OmPlexL55Ue5-aS⊂0[SUme｢5pVOte｢SandC帖L _weneedtob2日bletounderstandwhatELeSb2hl∩dthPnPWSStO｢Le三m poLltL〔aLarguments TheaLn10fthLSSho｢tbooklStOgNeYOUthet0015､･ needto LdentLfythelmPOrtantqUeStLOnS aSSeSSth2 2Vlden〔eandCEErl I your own ⊂on⊂EusLOnS

lntrodu〔ing Envl｢Onment ･ lntrOd]〔esyouto50meOfthekeyS〔LentlfL〔andte〔hnologLCalaspP〔l三 of the study of the enVLrOnment･ from e〔05YStem5 and ag｢L〔ULtu｢e to e⊂oLoglCaE SUStaLnabLLLty and e⊂ofootp｢=→t5 ･ e[⊂o]ragesyou to thlnk aboutwhat EtmeanStOtake a 5⊂LentlfLCaPP←0日〔h toenvLrDnmentat LSSUe5.8｡dtoa⊂qulretheabllltytOeVaEuateandu5rJ s⊂LentLfl⊂ eVLden⊂e I

gLVeSyOUSOmeOfthestudySkllLsne⊂eSSa｢ytOdeveLopandexp｢2,,5

your underStandHlg OftheSe COmPh｡ated topH:ら s⊂LenCeLe∂dsuStOadeep2raPPre〔latEOnOfthPbeaUtyandmystelyCr the llVLngWOrld･ and t2⊂hnoLogy provldeS USWLth powerfuLto0-5 Vnth､′/l=Cll to pre52rVe Lt for future g2neratH〕nS Entrodu⊂Lng EnvLrOnment Lnt｢Ddu.:ワ5 you to some 0fthe most E[tereStLng･ LmPO｢tant and 〔haLLenglng qUeSllD｢lS vve fa[巳Ln the twenty-first 〔entU｢y The a〔〔ompanylng DVD 〔ontaln5 OVE卜 two hours 0f audLO and vLdeo provldlng r2aLLLfe examples and LnterVleWS Wlth experts ThL5 book an･:】

DVDarepartofthemater.alsfortheOpenUnlVe｢SLty(OU｢Se Y161 LntrDduCEng EnvL｢Onment

The Onhne ResDUr⊂e Centre tD a亡COmPany lrltrOdu〔･ng Envl｢Onnent featurPSmanyflgUreSfrornthebook =1 2LP〔trOnにformat fo｢U52

byr2gL5teredaoopter∼ofthebook(tea⊂herS Le⊂tu｢e｢50rOther edu｡at10naL staff) ww oxfordtPXtbooks ｡o uk/or⊂/peasgDOd

oxfOZW [Q)

Ahce Peas呂00d and MarkGoodwLn

■■

'L' publlShed by Oxford UnlVerSltyP,ess, Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX2 6DP ln a5SOClatlOn Wlth The Open UnlVerSlty, Walton Hall, Mllton Keynes MK7 6AA

丁  目u川川 Oxford UnlVerSlty Press IS a department of the UnlVerSlty OfOxford Ttfurthers the unlVeTSlty's obJ eCtlVe Of excellence ln research, scholarship, and education by publlShlng worldwlde ln

Oxford New York Auckland Bangkok Buenos AlreS Cape Town Chennal

Dar es Salaam Delhl Hong Kong Istanbul Karachl Kolkata Kuala Lumpur Madmd Melboume Mexico CltyNalrObl S豆O Paulo Shanghal TalPel Tokyo Toronto

Oxford lS a reglStered trade mark ofOxford UnlVerSltyPress ln the UK and ln Certaln Other countrleS

Contents Preface

1 OurenvlrOnment l ntrod uctl0 n

ActlVe lea｢nlng What's Fn th‡s bookつ

SclenCe and technolo9y Looklng back and movlng On

PubllShed lnthe Unlted States by Oxford UnlVerSltyPress Inc , New York 2 Eco】ogy and ecosystems FlrSt PubllShed 2007 Copyrlght ㊨ 2007 The Operl UnlVerSlty

All rlghts reserved No part ofthZs publlCatlOn may be reproduced, sLoTed ln a retneVal system, transmltted or utlllSed ln any forTn Or by any means, electronlC, meChanlCal, photocopying, reCOrdJng

htrod u ctEOn The sclenCe Of ecology [cosystems

Maklng notes

o'otherwISe, Wlthou【 wntten permlSS10m from the publlSher or a licence f,om the Copyright LICenSlng

Agency Ltd DetaJIs of such llCenCeS (for TeprOgraPhlC reprOductlOn) may be obtalned from the CopyTlght LICenSlng Agency Ltd, Saffron HollSe, 6-I 0 Ktrby Street, London EC 1 N 8TS, webslte http //wwwch co uk Open Un■versltycourse mateTlals may also be made avaLlable ln e1ectronlC fomats for use by students

of the UrLIVerSlty All nghts, InCludlng COPyrlght and related nghts and database rLghts, 1rL electronic

ldenllflCatlOn and namlng

lnterrelat10nShlPS

Mapplng mterrelatH)nShlps EcologlCaL health

course matemls arld their COntentS are Owned by or llCenSed to The Open UnlVerSlty, Or OtherwISe used by The Open UnlVerSIty aS permltted by applJCable law ln uslng electronlC COtlrSe materlals aTld thelr contents you agree that your use wlll be solely for the

puIpOSeS Of fo110wlng an Open UnlVerSLty COtme Crf study or otherwISe aS ilCenSed by The Open UnlVeTSlty Or Its aSSlgnS

Except as pemltted above you undertake rLOt tO COPY, Store ln any medlum(lrLCludlrlg electronlC storage or tlSe ln a Webs.te), dlStrlbute. transmlt OHe加nsmlt, broadcast, modlち･ Or show lri PubllC Such

electronlC materials ln Whole or ln part WlthouHhe prlOT Written COrLSent OfThe Open UnlVerSl(y oHn

accofdaJICe Wlth the Copyflght. DeslgrLS and Patents Act I 988 Edl【ed, deslgnedand typeset by The Open UrHVerSlty

3 Energyflows and agr事Culture

htrod u ctEOn Producers maklng yOU｢ Own food

Consumers uslng Other o｢gamSmS aS food Food chalnS reVISlted

Food pyramds numbers, bzomass and erLergy AgrlCulture altered ecosystems

Pnnted and bound ln the ULllted Kingdom by the Alden Group, Oxford ThlS book forms part of the Open UnlVerSlty Course Y161 1ntroduclng Envlronment Detal1s ofthlS

and other Open UnlVe,SILy courses can be obtalned fromthe Student ReglStrat10n and Erlqulry Service, The Open UTuVerSlty, PO Box 197, Mllton Keynes MK7 6BJ, Unlted Kmgdorn tel +舶(0)870 333 4340, cmalL general-enqulneS@open ac uk

http //wwwopen ac uk

BrltlSh LlbTary Catalc.gulng -n PublLCatlOn Data avallable on request

Llbrary of Congress CataloglnS ln Publ-eat.on Data avallable on request

lSBN9780 1992 1713 7

‖  1  391 3 7  .9 467 92 5   94 50 6  80  25 3  

4 Changlng land, changlng eCOSyStemS )ntroduct10n

What lS the natural vegetat10n Of the UK? The changlng 〕K landscape

Wntlng - SOme basIC ground rules How does a local ecosystem respond to alterat10nS?

RabbltS - holdlng back success10n ln a Wlld ecosystem

10987654321 5 Populatl0nS and b10dlVerSlty 5 1 lntroduct10∩

52 Pop〕lall0ngrOWth

1   1  1 2   2 3  3  3 4 5  5  6  7   8  0U

■ 【t

FnterreLatJOnShJPS between populatlOnS

I

Managed popu!atl0nS

Preface

Uslng your SClerLtlflC JLrdgement

ThlS book lSfor anyone with an Interest ln the envlrOnment, but no prevlOuS

Human populat10n growth

experience Of studylng SClenCe It does not clalm tO be comprehensIVe･ but provides

an Introductory guided tour of some slgnlfLCant SClentlfic and teclmologlCal

B 10dlVe｢Sl ly

ldeasーThere lS hardlyany mathematical content -the emphasis LS On lnterPretlng

charts and graphs rather than calculatlOnS New concepts and speclallSt WOfds are

6 Resources and envlrOnmental rmpact

explained wlth examplesand lllustratlOnS Study skllls, such as plannlng your tlme

l ntrod uctl0n

and making notes, are developed along the way Numerous actlVlties, and study

Ecolog暮Cal footprlnt

checklists at the end of each chapter, give you a Chance to learn actively, trylng

out your understandlng aS you Progress Chapter 1 explalnS how the actlVltleS･

ContTlbutzons to the ecofootprlnt ChemlCaF recycIJng and the carbon cycle

Informat10n boxes and other features of the text can sllPpOrt your learning By the end of the book, you should be better equipped to make sense ofenvlrOnmental

Addlng foss‖ fueJs lo the ecofootpTlnt model

Issues, and to wrlte about them

〕slng numbers and u【ltS

The accompanymg DVD* contains Over two hours ofaud10 and video, lnCludlng

Ecofootp｢lnt aS a model

reaHlfe examples and Interviews Wlth experts ln the UK, all you need lS a DVD

Current resource use ln the 〕K

player wlththe standard menu controls ActlVltleS ln the text will refer you to the DVD at approprlate pOlntS

7 SustarnablZztyand ourenvlrOnment

Although wrltten Wlth Open UnlVerSltyStudents ln mlnd, thlS book LS Sultablefor

lntroduct10n

beginners ln eCOlogy'envlrOnmental sclenCe Or related subjects, Or general readers

How much useful land and water area rs actually avalEable?

who want to go Into more depththanlS available from news reports Secondary school teachers and other staff supporting the new 'Educat10n for Sustalnable

GIobaZ resources - uslng lnformatLOn from charts and graphs

Development'approach lnthe National Curriculum should find the content

Suslalnablllty llrends ln ne UK and Europe

relevant as background readlng In such a wlde-ranglng Subject, We have had to be

Reduclng the ecofootpr】nt

selectlVe, althoughwe have Included different aspects of the environment biology,

Sustalnable housng - maklng a dlfFerence

technology, built envIIOnment, SuStalnable developmentand ecologlCalfootprlnt The contents list Shows the range oftopICS cowered Our Intention lS tO bring the

Why does waste matter- and what can be done abou=tつ

novICe reader lntO the subgect, develop confidence through actlVltleS and advICe, and

provlde a stepping Stone Into Rlrther study

8 Whatnext?

Authors'acknowledgements

lntroductl0n

Asever ln The Open UnlVerSlty,thlS book combines the efforts of many people wlth speclallSt Skllls andknowledge ln dlfFerent dlSCIPllneS It would be lmpOSSlble to

Brlnglng the themes together A case study - sustalnabZe deve一opment

thank everyone personally, but we wollld llke to acknowledge the help and support

WTltln9 - Plannlng and maklng an argunlent

of colleagues who have contrlbuted to the production OfthlS book

Next steps

This COuld not have happened wlthoutthe course team who planned the content, discussed drafts, contributed lnfomatlOn and generally ensured that all the dlVerSe

References

169

Issues Were thoroughly consldered･ Penny ParklnSOn (CemtEefor Wldenlng

Answers to actlvltleS

170

AppendJX i The geologlCal tlmeSCale

176

partlCIPat10n), Carlton Wood (SclenCe Faculty), James McLannal,an (Technology Faculty), Sauy O'Bnen (Course Team Secretary), George Marsh (OpenlngS

AppendEX 2 ConverslOn Charts for fractIOnS, declmals and percentages, and measurements of dlStanCe and area

Acknowled gements lndex

178

programme Manager) Throughout, Jlm Bailey, as Course Manager, provlded all the patience, humour and project management skllls requlred to keep the book and

180

DVD on track Wlthln the Centre for WldenLng PartlCIPatlOn, We WOuld also llke to tharik ChrlStlne Wise (DlreCtOr), Kate Levers and Pat Spoors (Assistant Directors)

181

flOr their Valuable help at crltlCal moments 辛 The DVD IS an audlo/vldeo multl-r呼On DVD ln PAL forrna( whleh LS not COmpatlble wLth

NTSC10nly DVD players. although lt Can be played ln many Computer DVD drlVeS

∫

we are very grateful to crltlCal readers from elsewhere ln the OU, whose expertise has slgnlficantly shaped the content of the book JefFThomas (SclenCe), Maggle Klng (Technology), PhII Sarre (Soclal SclenCeS) In addlt10n, We reCeIVed helpful comments from student testers ln Various Parts Ofthe UK We have benefLted considerably from

the InSlghts of our ExternalAssessor, Edgar JenklnS, EmerlhlS Prof.BSSOr, School of Educat10n, UnlVerS]ty OfLeeds HIS COntrlbut10nS from the perspectJVe Ofthe public understandlng OfsclenCe have set the content wlthln a Wlder context

1 0urenvironmenモ 1 1 】ntroduction

on 14 February 1990 the space probe Voyager 1 reached the outer edge of the solar system Before lt Was lost to deep space, the astronomer Carl Sagan asked the englneefS tO him the cameras around for one last Image Ofhome

Special thanks are due to all those ITrVOIved ln the OU production Process, Including

sagan described the Earth ln the resultlng Photograph, viewed from a distance

Helen StufgeSS (Media ProJ ect Manager), Debbie Crouch (Graphic Designer),

of almost four bllllOn mlles, as a 'pale blue dot'

VICky Eves (GraphlC ArtlSt), KIrSten Brown (MedlaAssIStant), Kathy Eason (Production EdltOT), Bob Heasman (Head of Production Support), Slggy

Marhn (Assistant Pflnt Buyer) Our edltOr, Clare Butler, has applied thoughtful profleSSIOnallsm that has balanced the challenglng Issues ln the text

That ･pale blue dot'lS home to us and to all of the rest of the lrvlng things that we know about There may be llfe elsewhere ln Our SOlar system, or ln Our galaxy, or ln theunlVerSe aS aWhole butwehaven't found lt

This book has bullt on best practlCe from previous OU courses, and we would llke

Llfe LS eVelyWhere on the Earth, from the poles to the equator, and from the

to acknowledge some recycllng Oftext and lllustrat10nSfrom other OU pubIICatlOnS,

atmosphere above Mount Everest to the bottom of the deepest ocean trench

lnCllldlng

This llfe-supportlng layer lS SO thln that lt Cannot be seen viewed edge on

Our LEVlng Environment (1 999) Jeff Thomas, The Open UnlVerSLty(K507/6)

The Sc'ences GoodStudy GuLde (1997)Andrew Northedge, Jeff Thomas, Andrew Lane and Alice Peasgood, The Open UnlVerSlty For the new DVD vldeo materlal･ we would llke tothank Chris Chappell and

colleagues at Autonomy Multlmedlafor thelr dedlCated work, and The C0-0peratlVe Group for generously allowlng reCOrdlng atthelr Suppliers and lnthelr Supermarkets

Wlthln the OU, special thanks to NICholas Watson (Head of Sound and VIS10n) and Llaket All (Med)a Product10n Techmclan) We would like to achowledge ,e-use.f OU audIO and vldeo rnaterlal oTlglnally produced for K507 Our LIVlng EnvLnDnment

from space -and lfthe Earth were the sIZe Of a football, this iraglle layer of life would be as thlCk as a slngle coat ofpalnt But thlSthln fLlm ofllfe lS aStOnlShlngly beautiful, diverse and complex The lnterrelatlOnShlPS between plants, animals, oceans, land and atmosphere have

developed over bl1110nS Ofyears Many, perhaps most･ of these connections are notfully understood, andthe features we do understand are amazlngly compIICated and lntnCate It lSn't posslble to cover Such a huge topic ln a short book, but the aim lS tO PrOVIde an overview Ofsome of the main PleCeS

of the puzzle ThlS book lS Intended for non-speclallSt readers, so the sclentlflC

and T172 morkLng WEth our Envtronment TechnoloByfor a Susialnable FuLu柁

Ideas wlu be lntrOdllCed as you go along There are hardly any calculatlOnS - and the ones that are needed are kept slmPle - so the focus IS On COmPanng

For the copubllcatlOn Process, We WOuld especially llke tothank Jonathan Crowe

nurnbersand amounts, rather thancompllCated mathematLCS

ofOxford UnLVerSlty Press and, from wlthln The Open UnlVerSlty, Glles Clark (CopubllShlng AdvISOr) and ChrlStlanne Bailey (Med,a Developer, Copubllshlng)

AslS the custom, any errors remaln the responslblllty Ofthe authors Please send any constmctlVe COmmentS tO AllCe Peasgood at the address below

Alice Peasgood (Y16l Course Team Chair) and Mark Goodwln,

Centre for Widenlng PartlCIPat10n, The Open UnlVerSlty, Walton Hall, Mllton Keynes MK7 6AA, Unlted Klngdom

Environmental statement Paper and board used ln thlS PtlbllCatlOn lS FSC certlfled

Forestry StewardshlP Council (FSC).s an Independent cert'fLCat10n, Which cert.fles

that the vlrgm pulp used to makethe paperhoard comes from t,aceable and sustalnable sources from well managed forests

F7gUre 1 The Earth f｢om space

Chapter l Our envlrOnrnen[

Allowabou15mrnutes What does LenvlrOnment'mean to you?

you a chance to tache some speclallSt reading aboutthe age ofllfqe on Earht

The purpose of the text boxes and checkllStS Wlll be explalned, andthere wlll be a brleftour of the contents of the rest of the book Finally, you wlll have a

Wrlte a few words or phrases that descrEbe what you understand by `envl rOnment■

chance to revleW your Study ofthlS Chapter, and plan for Chapter 2, where the main environmental story continues

Comment `EnvlrOnment■ means dlffe｢ent lhlngS tO dlfferent people Here are some

posslbJlltleS. you may have thought of others

1,2 Active learmng

. wl【dllfe and vegetatH)∩

ThlS book lS deslgned for actlVe leamlng, SOthere are places ln the text where

' COnSerVatZOn and recycEng

you are asked to stop readlnB and do an actlVlty, Write down your thoughts or

. beIng ■g｢een'

usethe audlO and video material on the DVD This Section descnbes how to tackle these actLVltleS

' aplacetolNe

' globalwarmlngandcllmate

The flrSt Step IS tO get OrganlSed - flnd somewhere comfortable to study where you can set out your mateflals to work on, and then gather together the

extra thmgs yoll need - pens, penclls, eraser, paper, DVD player, and so on Eyen lfyou are studylngthlS book more casually, you w上ll fmd lt uSehl to

The term enVironnlent means `surroundlngS, However, dlfFerentthlngS have dlfFerent surroundlngS, SO When we talk about `the envlrOnment, we need to

have at least a pen or pencil and some extra paper for notes A small notebook

be clear what we mean For example, where does my envlrOnment end? My

quenes as you go along Or you may prefler tO Wnte your notes On Paper and

lmmedlate environment lS qulte Smau, Perhaps my home ltSelfand a few

square mlles around lt. But I am famlllar Wlth a much wlder area I travel

wlthln the UK to vISit famlly and frlends, and occasionally take holldays abroad The food and other resources I use come from even Rlrthef afield On

the largest scale, I am one ofall llVlng thlngSthat sharethe same envlrOnment

lS Particularly usehl, as you can keep yollrJOttlngS ln Order, and note any store血em ln a folder All your notes are then kept together and you can look

back over your work as a whole

OccaslOnally, there are lnfomatlOn boxes, such as the one below These summarlSe SpeClfic advice Or Info-atlOn abollt a tOplC

the blOSPhere Itself The biosphere Includes all llfe on Earth, as well as the parts of the plaJlet that support life - rocks, Bolls, watersand atmosphere The

study of the blOSPhere lS therefore the study of life on Earth The blOSPhere

W｢itingonthebook

forms a thln but seamless layer around the surface of the Earth

The envlrOnment Ofany llVlngthlng COnSIStS Ofother llVlng thlngS and a collection Ofnon-lLVlng resources (all, Water, SOIL and so on) lt lS necessary tO

tt■d

conslder both the llVlng andthe non-llVlng COmPOnentS aSthe two are closely

yOU0 0highlightdiffe｢ent

免fgH

related and Interdependent Llfe evolved on Earth somewhere between 3 5 and 4 5 bllllOn years agO工t has been shaped by - and has shaped -the land,

water and atmosphere ever slnCe LIVlng thlngS Shape thelr enYlrOnmentS, and

tdTh1

are shaped by the environments ln Which they llVe This IS an Important POlnt

免ﾆｷF

ﾂ

eOy

because changes to an eTIYlrOnment Can have dlfferent consequences for the

dlfferent IIVlng thlngSthat share the llVlng Space Dralnlng a dltCh lS bad news for mosquitoes, WhlCh need water ln WhlCh to laythelr eggs, but good news

for the human belngS and other anlmals that would otherwISe be bitten by the next generatlOn Or adult Insects

For some people, the actlVltleS and Instructions Can Seem lmtatlng - Why

ln thlS Chapter, you'u be Introduced to three overarchlng ideas that relate

Interrupt my reading?一butthe aim lS tO help you tothlnk about the subject,

to everythlng ln this book environment, SClenCe and technologyAsyou

and to engage more deeply wltll the content of the book lt lS assumed that

have seen, the first tlme a key word lS eXplalned ln the main text,the word

you wュll do each actlVltyat the relevant polnt ln the text You'll findthat

IS hlghllghted ln green You have already encountered the first actIVlty, and

the dlSCuSSIOn COntlnueS a洗er the comment For some actlVltleS, Where the

there are many more th∫oughoutthe text ThlS book lS Wrltten tO encourage

response would be too obvlOuS printed dlreCtly below the questlOn, the

active leamlng･ SO the next section Wlll explain What thlS means, and glVe

comment lS at血e back of the book - you wュll be refe汀ed to these at血e

relevant places

Chapter 1 OurenⅥronment

For each task, there lS a Suggested time, flOr example, `AIIow 10 mlnuteS･ These es【.mates are mtended to give you a Sense Ofthe amount of efFort

Tequlred lf the subject lS unfamlllar, you may find that you spend longer on

each actrvlty That's fine･ So long as you feel you are leamlng lfyou come

across Ideas that you have encountered before, you may workthroughthe actrvltleS more qtllCkly Effective Ieamlng does not have to take hours at a stretch, In fact, trying tO COnCentrate for too long can be less efficlent aS you

become tired You are the only one who can tell what works best for you At nlrSt, lt may be worth notlng the actual tlme SPent On each task, so you can

GeologFStS Can trace the hlstory of the Earth back about4 6 b■llFOn

years. to ltS formatlOn from a rlng Of gas and dust around the young sun They dNlde this Vast Span lntO Intervals that form the baslC yardst■cks of geolog■cal time Ear】y geo】OgEStS named these Intervals

on the basIS Of the rocks formed wlthtn them butwthout knowlng how long they lasted SucceedEng generatIOnS have changed the names of some and callbrated them ln years tO Produce a geologlCal tlme scale - a means of measu｢lng the h‡story of the Earth

(Hecht. 1995)

declde whether to change the way you study

some tasks Introduce new lnformatlOn･ tO glVe you Practice ln deaIJng with

Example 2

unfamIIlar words or Ideas Others may refer back to earlier SeCtIOnS Ofthe

0ne of the most lrTIPOrtant events ln the hIStO｢y OHFfe began about

book, So you can conslder how new Ideas IIrk with ones discussed prev10uSly

545 mllllOn years ago. l e SOme four blll10n yea｢S afte｢the ongJn Of

The next actlVlty Introduces you to three dlfFerent wrltlng Styles lt assumes

the Earth The term Cambr旧n eXPlosl0n ref一ects a sudden burst of

that the words and Ideas are new to you Although new terms appear ln green

evolutFOn. When a wlde vaElety Of orgamsms, especlaHy those with

ln the maln teXt･ thlS IS nO=he case for quoted text, so l=s up to you to

hard, mEneraHSed parts, flrSt appear rn the fossll record Thus began

underline Or hlghllght any wolds that you thlnk are Important What matters

the PhanerozoIC Eon - Lthe tlme Of vISIble IIfe■ Very sma" (1-2 mm)

IS how you tackle thlS task - even lfyou 6md lt a Challenge You may want to

she"y fossltS appeared ln the earllest part of the Cambnan Penod

make notes or draw a dlagram aS you read, and you wlH probably need to read

- assorted shapes such as tubes and cones (that p｢esumably

the examples more than once - thlS IS normal for thls type of text, even for the

enclosed soft t】ssue). as we" as sp】nes, scales and knobs Et's often

most eXPerlenCed reader

dlfflCUrt tO tell, however, whether a fossll lS the complete skeleton of a s】ngEe organlSm Or amSOlated pa｢t of some Farge｢ creatu｢e

甲-『-』一一■■■-■-■申 Allowabout30mlnUteS Readlng text - the age oflZfe on Earth

(Open U川VerSIty 1998, p 18)

Example 3

The three examples of text Jn thlS aCtlVlty come from three dlfferent sources

Throughout Its 1 5 blHl0n years, the pace of the unlVerSe's

Example 1 lS from a popularsclenCe magaz】ne, Example 2 lS from a student

development has been acceleratlng, each new wave of lnnOVat10n

textbook for a hlgher level than rntroduclng EnvlrOnnlent, and Example 3 lS

bulldlng UP tO tnggerthe next, ln a SeneS Of `leaps'to further levels

from a book Intended for the general reade"ote thata bmlOn lS a thousand

of change and dlVerSlflCat10n Compress thlS Unlmaglnable tlmescale

mi‖Kjn･ and a ml"ron lS a thousand thousand These three texts are probab一y

mto a slngLe 241hour day, and the Blg Bang lS OVer ln Less than a ten-

more compIJCated than anythlng else -n thlS book, So the comment aReEWards

bHtronth of a second Stable atoms form ln aboutfourseconds. but

wllI gNe you some advlCe about how to tackle complex and unfamlllaT text

not for several hours. untll early dawn. do stars and galax】es form

ARerthlS aCtJVlty･ the rest of the book should be less dauntlng You don,tneed

our own solar system mustwaLt forearly evenlng. around 6 p m LIfe

to ｢emembe｢ the -nformat一〇n ln these examples - what TTLatterS more lS how

on Earth beglnS around 8 pm , the flrStVertebrates crawl on to land

you approach the readlng

at about 10 30 at nlght DlnOSaUrS roam from ll 35 p m untll four

Read each of the examp一es, then note

mlnUteS before mldnFght Our ancestors flrst walk uprlght wlth 1 0 seconds to go The lndustrlal Revo【ut10∩. tOgethe｢ wlth ou｢ mode｢n

･ how they compare -whlCh lS the hardest to understand, whlCh lS the most `sclentlflC■

● ho-elf you can make sense Df therm -whether partICUlarwords are

age. OccupleS less than the Fast thousandth of a second Yet, rn lhlS

fractlDn Of tme. the face of thlS Planet has changed almostas much as at any but the most tumultuous tmes ln the prehlStOnC Past

dlffrcuLt1 0r Whether the numbers are a cha"enge

(Myers and Kent, 2005, pl12)

･ b｢leny, What the examples are about-Jot down a fewwords orphrases

Comment

Examplel From arl that they can flnd recorded worldwide ln the rocks. geoFogIStS have bullt up a tlmeSCaJel Settlng ln Sequence arr the maJOrevents that have happened to our planet lt lS the keystone lo lhe Earth'S 4 6 bl川on years of evoEutlon

Here are some comments from student readers ll haven't studled sclenCe before, so some of the words had me puzz】ed - t'm not sure I could even pronounce PhanerozoIC AH the

examples taH{ about the age of the Earth, and how long ago llfe

started Overa", l thlnk Example 2 FS the most d.fRcult･ butthenl

lnLroduclng EnⅥronlllenl

chapter 1 Our envlrOnment

i: Ftdld saythatthFS Was from a hlgher-Jevel textbook l had to read thatone several tJmeS- l hope the rest of the book zs easlerl l thrnk Example 2 was the most screntlnC･ then Example 1, then Example 3 l underllned some of the v/ords, so r could work outwhat made sense' 'Some of the words were newto meョ but the confuslng PartWaS sortlng Out amhe numbers - blILIOnS Of thLS and m‖IOnS Of that l

drew a sort of clock for the last example, so I could see how all the

numbe｢s fltted together'

000  500

l've done some sclenCe before, so I wanted to check that the three exampres made sense together They arl refer to the age of the Earth as4 6 blMon years, butyou need to thnk about the drfferentways the numbe｢s a｢e p｢esented J dldn･t thJnk Example 3 was very scFentlfJC

lalthough lt lnCluded terms such as uBlg Bang" ･

umqEtmldS…1p呂239-I(1t昌10JuTOStd

`l bund the language qulte hard to follow-therewere Jots of long

NO山(山Jt uOt)pTq)UIOZOLd^tZU

and confus-ng words wlthln VltaJ brts of rnformatlOn that you needed

oB｡sTBaAuOtttT害 つ】 o｡  25｡  珊 3

F found rttook up a Lot of tlme Howeverthe extracts of texts from books were very usefu- and helpfUl , Your ｢espons引S IJkeJy to dlffer from a" of these･ although there may be

some slmlJantleS The next lnformatJOn box suggests some ways to deal wlth unfamlIJar language

Maklng Sense of unfamlrlarWOrds and Jdeas rn sclenCe and technology. words have very plecrse mean-ngs, So you wIFl encounter terms that may be unfamlllar at i"st ln partlCular, blOlogy uses a certaEn Style of namlng lNrng thlngS There lS more

advFCe and guldance aboutthlS later ln the book Fornow. thefrst step IS tO Unde｢‖ne or note any Unfamlllar lan9日age

Another posslb一日ty IS tO make your own glossary. by vmtlng new words

and dehJtIOnS ln a notebook as you work through the chapter W-g thLngS down ln yOurOWn words wlJJ help your undeTStandlng You wlU have a handy revrew of the maln Ideas that you can Teferto later FlgUre 2 A slmpllfled

Formation Of EaJth

vers10n Of the geolog】cal

ln sclenCe and technology, text lS nOtthe only way to present Information

Dlagrams"hlCh can be quite COmPllCated, are often used, and lt Can take tlme tO Interpret them Even so, for some toplCS, an ll】ustratLOn Can Clarifythe

meanl鳩eSpeClally lfused alongslde the text The next few rlgureS relate to

the three examples ln ActlVlty 2 Aner each ngure, I,ll descrlbe the content, to

glVe you a gulde to lnterpretlngthe lllustratLOn

tlmeSCale

The geologlCal tlmeSCale lS dlVlded Into Eons, w九lch ln tum are dlVlded

Into Eras and then Periods To slmpllfythe dlagram ln Figure 2, most of the technical names forthe tlme mterVals have been ornltted from this VerS10n, whlChJust shows where the Cambrian Period RltS lntOthe overall scheme AppendlX I shows a more detailed verslOn Of the geologlCal tlmeSCale, whlCh you w上ll need to refer to later ln the book The youngest (latest) events are at

the top of the dlagram, and the oldest (earlleSt) at the bottom The oldest eTent on this dlagram lS the formatlOn Ofthe Earth Itself Note that the tlmeS are ln

mllllOnS Ofyears This relates to Example I ln ActlVity2

Chapter 1 OurenvITOnnlent

∫

a

U詩

-キ

: +･

響

Allowabout20 m･nlJteS UsEng lnformatl0n from dFagramS Read Examples 1, 2 and 3 】n ActNlty 2 agaln, refe｢｢lng tO the rIIustratl0nS

ln FlgureS 2. 3 and 4 How much effect do the llhJStratHjnS have on your

understandlng? Would you make more sense of the lnformatlOn lf Ft Were OnIb In an lJIustrat10n. Or Only ln WOrds?WhlCh do you prefer?

FEgUre 3 FossIIs from the early Cambrlan PenOd

Comment

Flgure 3 shows magnlfled photographs oftypICal fosslls There lS a range

Some peop一e have a preference for words o｢川ust｢atl0nS. although sclenCe

and technology use both together One of the chaHenges IS tO lnterP｢et the

ofsIZeS but T10ne Ofthem lS longer than a few ml111me(res It lS not always

dlagramS alongslde the texトand there wm be opportunEtleS tO PraCttSe thlS

posslble to tell whether each flOSSll lS a COmPlete creamre, or)ust part of one

asyou progress through the book YoIJ may aJso flnd that sketchlng your own

ThlS relates to Example 2 1n ActlVlty 2

slmPle dEagramS Wlll help-they do not need to be works of art

Imaginary {tlme Of day'on 24 hour clock

When you have worked through an actlVltyand readthe comment, lt lS worth thlnklng back on how you got on Could you have tackled the actlVlty m a dlfFerent way? How does this flt ln Wlth what you have learned from earllef lT

12Noon      6pm 8pm

the courseワYou mlght also want to make a few notes on techniques you Can

貞≡≡亡≡5

Solar FlrSt First

B上g Bang Stars and

system life 'verlebrates: formed- on onland :

Universe galaxlelj. galaxies

fomed

fomed

;J Earth

15 bllllOn

use ln the future, either flOr SOIvLng Problems or for Improving your leamlng For example, you may decide to try out one of the dlfferent ways oftaklng

notes or remlnd yourselfofthe Importance Ofuslng a diagram An Important part of study)ng lS the time Spent thlnl(1ng abollL what you have done aTld how

years ago

effectlVe your methods have been, So that you can Improve your york The

Mldnlght

llpm

next actlVlty helps you to do this

⊆=⊇宅≡ヨI DLnOSatlrS

AIEovJaboutlOm.nukes Thlnklng about your studylng Thlnk about how you felt about ActlVltleS 2 and 3 and the comments 1主.5:epcTn芸d Mldn.ght

afterwards Next tLme you meet some text Wlth technlCaりargon, wllI you

approach lt dlffe｢entlyつWhat have you learned from tackllng the actNlty abou

dfagramS? Jot down a few notes summarISlng your thoughts

First human ances(ors

Comment People learn ln dlfferent ways and it lS 】mPO｢tant for you to try dlfferent

app｢oaches, to flnd outwhJCh methods work bestfo｢you Some of the Ideas tn thlS book are compllCated. although we have expLalned them n some

detaLl, So you may need to spend some more tme on some sect10nS

FlgUre4 The age of the The tlmellne ln FlgUre 4 shows the oldest events onthe left, and theyoungest

unlVerSe aS a tmelFne ones on the rlght The oldest event ln thlS dlagram lS the BIB Bang, the

fomlatlOn Ofthe llnlVerSe ThlS tlmellne lS labelled wlth the actual tlme per10ds ln m11110nS Ofyears (below the llne), and the lrnaglnary equWalent lf

1 3 What's Ln thJS book?

the whole sequence were fltted mto 24 hours (above the llTle) The most recent

The environment lS a Vast Subject, wlth many dtfferent strands and

segment of the tlmellne (the last `hour') lS repeated below at a larger scale, to

lnterCOnneCt10nS ThlS book covers two main areas the first halfdescnbes

show more detall, and then the latest segment of that llne (the last.mmute,) IS

some of the connectlOnS from a bLOloglCal point OfvleW, and the second

agaln enlarged belowthat This relates to Example 3 1n ActrvIty2

halfconslders some of the technological lmPllCatlOnS front a human polnt Of

Chapter 1 OurewlrOnnlent

-   1

vleW The sclenCe and technology are woven together, as are local and global

examples We do not claim tO be comprehensIVe, nor tO PrOVlde any neat answers･ but thlS book should raise awareness, andperhaps form the basIS for further debate or study･

There are four themesthatrun throughthe book, and are hlghIlghted at

1L4 Science and technology ThlS book lS based on science and teclmology, which provide a speclfic perspectlYe Onthe world This Section Introduces these subjects, Whlle later chapters wlll feVISlHhese topICS Wlthother examples･

VarlOuS POZntS ｡ tlmeSCales

● chainsandcycles ● localandglobal

' dlVerSlty and sustalnablllty chapter 1 has Introduced tlmeSCales Chapters 2 and 3 1ntrOducethe b10logy ofllfe and Its lnterrelat10nShlPS This branch ofb10logy, ecology, descnbes

lnterrelatlOnShlPS between punts, anlmals and the wider environment Short

case studleS and examples, Tnalnly fromthe UK, 111ustrate these concepts, lnCludlng Chains and cycles Chap(er 4 dlSCuSSeSthe unlque role ofhumans,

and some ways ln WhlCh we have changed the em0nment to sult Our needs, for example, thloughfarmlng HIStOrlCal and contemporary case studleS Show

Al】ovvabout5mnutes What do sclenCe and technology mean to youワ

W｢lte a few words or phrases that desc｢Ibe vvhat you understand by 'sclenCe and `technology' Comment Although LsclenCe■ has a mo｢e speclflC meanlng, rt lS nOteaSytO deflne ln

a few words ln contrast. 'technology'can mean many dlfferenHhlngS tO dlfferent people Here are some poss】btlltleS - you may have thought of

others

the lmpact of human actlVltleS On land use, bothlocal and global Chapter 5

Sc=∋nce

then dlSCuSSeS SOme Ofthe factors that affect populatlOnS Ofplants, anlmals

･ expenmentsandtheones

and humans- Chapters 6 and 7 move on to a more technological approach,

● l abo｢ato｢leS

100klng at how we can assess the envlrOnmental Impact Ofcurrent llfestyles

The ecologlCal rootpnnt (oT eCOfootprlnt) 'S eXPlalned ln detall w.th ,eallStIC

･ flndlngOutabouttheworld ･ testlngldeas

examples ThlS Shows whyfuel use lS Such a crucial Issue, 】n partlCular fossII

fuels such as oll･ Coal and gas (The orlgln Offossllfuels IS eXplalned m

Chapter 6 ) SustalnabllLty.s Introduced with examples of schemes to ,educe envlrOnmentaI Impact Three maln areas are COnSldered transport, waste dlSpOSal and domestic energy use Chapter 8 ends the book, 1fnot the debate,

wlth the questlOn `what next?, ThlS brlngS together some Ofthe factorsthat are Involved ln the complexlty Ofaddresslng enVlrOnmental problems

･ chemlStry. b]ology, physFCS

Technolo9y ･ computers and mob】le phones

･ tooLsandgadgets ｡ applledsclenCe ● engH1ee｢lng

Flndlng lnformat10n ln thlS book ln comrl10n WJth many other technrca】 books･ Jntroduclng Env汀Onment

Tn general terms, S血-lee lS about a particular type ofknOwledge about

has several devlCeS tO help you nld specl月c lnformatIOn The contents

the world SclentlflCknowledge has been testedthrough experiments and

IJSt LnC】udes subhead-ngs Jn each chapter. So you should be ab一e to

observations SclenCe Involves the lnVeStlgat10n, analysts and study of nature

pzck out the maln topics The Index FISTS the maln OCCurrenCeS Of key

wo｢ds Where a word IS defmed -n the text, lt lS hlghllghted ln green

Tt has Its OWn methods and technlqueS flOr find)ng out things BeflOre a new observatlOn Or theory can be accepted as a sclentlfic factJt has to be tested

ln both the textand the lndex The study checkllSt atthe end of each

by sclentlStS WOrk】ng 】ndependently Some sclenCeS, Such as chemlStry and

chapter IJStS the study skHs and maln ldeas forthat chapter The

physics, tend tc･ be based wlthLn laboratorleS In these subjects, experlmentS

reference EJStatthe end of the book glVeS enough detall foryou to

are Often set up under controlled condltlOnS, Such as a specific temperahre or

trace the sou｢ces of the text quotatlOnS used ln each chapter, lf you

comblnat10n OfchemlCals ln other sclenCeS, Such as astronomy or blOlogy,

wJSh to･ although you are not expected to read the orlglnal sources

experlmentS more Often start from observing the world outslde the laboratory,

The appendlCeS COntaln general reference lnformatlOn that should help you atvarJOuS Stages 】n the book ln add舶∩. the DVD presents

JnformatJOn ln audlo and video format, and there -s a DVD Icon ln the ma｢gln Wheneveryou need to use lt

and then testlng Ideas or theorleS agalnSt those observatlOnS The alm lS tO

understandthe world around us, toknow howthlngS WOrk

∫

rfthe Elm OfsclenCe lS tO COmprehendthe world, the alm Ofteehnology lS to change ,t Technology uses knowledge to achleVe a Practical purpose,

1･5 Looking backand movlngOn

to solve a problem, say, or to satlSfya need Technology lS the appIICatlOn ofknowledge, lnCludlng SClentlficknowledge, to changethlngS Often,

ThlS Chapter has Introduced you to the main leamlng components Ofthe

a technologlSt has developed a practlCal solution tO a Problem before the

have you leaned? What do you now know, Or can you do, that you dldn't know, or couldn't do, at the start of the chapter? When you reach the end ofa

technology 15 thought of as applled sclenCe, buHhere are many cases Where sclentlflC PTlnCJPles have beenfully understood For Instance, People were b1111dlng boats ions beflOre the physICaltheory of buoyancy (noatlng) had been worked out Technology often Involves devICeS Or tools, such as power statlOnS Or COmPuterS･ but lt also Includes social Innovations For example,

course and also outllned some study skllis However, the key question lS, What

chapter lt lS a good Idea to revleW the work you have completed

Although most people feel fatrly confident readlng Steadlly through a chapter from start to finlSh,there wlll be sltuatlOnS Where lt lS more Important to read

a book can be thought of as a technology for sharlng Ideas, Or a meeting

throughqulCkly to Identify a key b上t Of lnformatLOn Or tO lookthrough several

between people as a technology for sharlng experience tO Solve a problem

sectlOnS tO get an OVerall vleW Ofthe maln ideas In these cases, reading every

Later ln thlS book,払rmlng lS used as an example ofa technology that

sentence carefully would not be approprlate and would waste qulte a lot

lrrVOIves tools, knowledge and effleCtrVe OrganlSatlOn Ofpeople ln Order to

ortlme

work ln practice, SClenCeand teclmology tend to be closely l】nked Human be)ngs

Suppose you wanted to find one bit OflnformatlOn qulCkly, for example some fact that you knew you had read about ln the cu汀ent Chapter What

flnd lt dlffLCult to know something Wlthout uslngthatknowledgefor some

would you do? One way would be to check ln the Index - thlS would glVe

purpose or another The more we know aboutthe world, the more we are able to change lt･ But the more we change it,the more we lean about the way

youthe page reflerenCe and allow you to home ln On the lnflOrmat10n falrly qulCkly AltematlVely, lfthe topic Was not ln the index, you could look at the

thlngS WOrk OurumderstandlnB Ofour surroundlngS progresses hand ln hand

contents page orfl1Ck quickly throughthe chapters, readlng the headlngS and

wlth our ablllty tO Change and manipulate them Understanding the world

subheadlngS The flrSt Sentence ln each paragraph often Introduces the main

allows us to change things ln new Ways, Or tO Change (bern more e庁ectlVely

ldea too Or lfyou have a good Idea where you read the Information Initially,

and efFIClently Slmllarly, the process ofchanglng thmgs Improves Our

you can qulCklyglance over each page Just looking for that one pleCe Of

understandlng Ofhow仏e world works - and thus our ablllty tO lnVeStlgate lt

lnfomatlOn

ln new Ways SO aS tO Improve Our understandlng StllIfurther An example should make thlngS Clearer People were using yeast tO make

bread for thousands of years before yeast was Identified as a llVlng thing, made of many mlCrOSCOPIC Cells The teclmology ofbreadmaklng had

Usmg a spray dlagram tO SummarlSe lnformat10n

To qulCkly summarLSe a lot oflnfomatlOn, SOmepeOple flnd lt helpRll to draw a Lspray dlagraml which shows how the different topics are COnneCted

toknow the detailed sclenCe Once the b1010gy of yeast was understood,

Start by wrltlng dowrl the centraltheme ln a Lbubble'ln the centre of the page, thenfor each maln Idea relating tO lt, draw a llne Outwards from the central

however･ people could apply that knowledge to Improve the breadmaklng

bubble, and wrlte the Idea alongthat llne Where there are related Ideas,

process So, technology can find solutlOnS before the science lS understood,

draw branches ofrthe maln llne ln thlS Way you Should bulld up a serleS Of

One consequence of thIS dlStlnCtlOn lS that we tend to Judge scLenCe and

to sort out Ideas and how they fit together- These dlagramS are Very Personal

gradually developed as a practICal process that worked, wlthout having

but canalso benefit from applied sclentlficknowledge

technology ln dlfFerent ways SclenCe tends to be evaluated ln terms Of 'nght, or `wrong', `yes'or `no'Does the Earth rotate around the sun? Yes ls the Earthsupported on the back ofa glant turtleワNo ln contrast, when we look

at teclmology we ask about whether lt works lsth1S PartlCular teclmology efFectlVe and approprlate ln thIS particular sltuatlOn? Does lt aChleVe the deslred result?

branches showing related ideas The process ofcreatlng the dlagram Can he一p

and can be as elaborate or as slmple as you wISh一there lS nO rlght or wrong

way to do lt Some students like to add a lot of detalI, flOr example Including colour, pictures, Page references and examples, while others prefler a SlmPle plan, concentratlng On the key polntS - lWmlErL           _-

AHowabout15mnutes Looklng back Summa｢lSe Whatyou have studEed ln thlS Chapter ustng a spraydlagrarn Even lf you have never used one of these before. have a go. then compare yours wlth the one ln Flgure 5 (ove｢】eaf) ln thlS Case the cent｢al theme lS 'Chapter 1■.

So put that ln your Central bubble then go back through the chapterpICklng Out the maln ldeas and polntS that relate to them

1

4             1ntroduclng

Chapter

EnvlrDnrllent

1

OurenvlrOTlmellt                               15

1   1

Comment

the less, lt lS SurPnSlng how much can be achieved ln Short five- or ten一mlmlte

Don'two｢ry lf yoLJr d】agram looks dlffe｢entfrom thlS One lt ls your personal

slots, such as recapplng On PreVIOuS WOrk, sorting Out Paperwork or plannlng

record of the content of the chapter and how the dlfferent sect10nS relate

hture work Havlngfound some time, lt lS also worth thlnklng about whether this IS the best tlmefor you to study arid, 1flt lSn't, Changing lt

You mayflnd connectH⊃ns that others do not spot You mayflnd Et helpful to

create you｢ own spray dlag｢am for each chapter and use lt tO reVleW your wo｢k at a late｢ date

Al】Owaboul lOm･nutes P】annlng your Study of Chapter2 Now (]UICkly read through the maln head】∩9S ln Chapter2 Uslng yOU｢

expenence of studylng Chapter 1, wnte a rough plan of the tlmeS foryour study sessrons for Chapter 2 Remember to HIClude some emergency tlme

ln Case yOU｢tlmetable does notwork outas planned oryou wantto lnClude fu｢the｢ work on th】s chapter

Comment A student made the followlng COmment

LHooked through Chapter 2 - there are lots of technlCat WOrds, lrke spec】es, that mlght stow down my readlng Plenty of actlVItteS too

l thlnk Hl studythlS ln SeVeral chunks lll have tlrne On Wednesday afte｢noon to do a coup一e of hours - mlght gel as far as the part

about black smokers I

ち＼

＼てノ旦弊Y

篭＼憲で空毎 ＼

＼tP

､＼峯 lも

lt lS WOrth conslderlng the tlmeS Ofday and the lengths ofsesslOnS ln WhICh you work most productlVely For example, Ifyou know you are golng tO lose

concentratlOn after halfan hour or so and alsothat you are Just too tired to study ln the evenlngS, lt lS probably better to schedule your study tlme flOr new

topics ln half-hour slots ln the momlng and use the evenlngSfor other Chores If you tlCk off the actlVltleS you Can do, you wlu be able to see clearly which

areas to ask for extra help on or practlSe flurther You wlll then be able to bulld sessIOnS for these aspects Into your tlmetable for f.uture study sess10nS, ensuring a firm basis for your later work

lgUre 5 Splay dlagram for the contents of Chapter 1

Study checkllSt You should now understand that Plannlng your Study t】me

One of the most difficult aspects ofbelng a Student lS fitting ln your Smdylng

wlth everyth1ng else ln your llfe So lt lS Important both to find enoughtlme

･ The term 'envlrOnment7 has dlfrerent meanlngS ln dlfferent contexts,

and this book takes a sclentlfLC and technologlCaL view Ofthe envlrOnment

to study and then to try to make the most effectlVe use Ofyour tlme FlndLng

･ The blOSphere encompasses all llfe on Ea血

enough tlme Canbe qulte a Challengel lt oRen means glVlng up SOme aCtlVltleS

o SclenCe lS abouthow the world works

you currently enjoy or perhaps negotlatlng With your faTnlly and frlends to

･ Technology lS about solvlng PrOblems･

pass on Borne of the dally chores or to auow you some time tO yourself None

lntroduclng EnvlrOnTTlenl

′ you should now be able to

2 Eco一ogy and ecosystems

+ tackle actlVltleS With more confldence

･ begln tO read actlVely

2 1 lntroduction

t start revleWlng your leamlngand plannlng fltuther shdy

Chapter 1 introduced you to the biosphere Human belngS - you and 1 - are

I use a spray dlagram tO SummarlSe lnformatlOn

a unique Part Of lt Nothlng else has our ablllty tOanalyse and understand

the natural world, of Our CaPaClty tO Changeand manlpulate lt We alone can ask quest10nS about how the biosphere came to be the way lt lS We alone can lnVeStlgate the processesthat malntaln lt. And, wlthaneveTILnCreaSlng sense ofufgenCy, We alone canlnVeStlgate the effects of our actions and make

predlCt10nS about the long-te- consequences But wlthknowledge comes power. and wl也power comes respollSlblllty

To study the biosphere,and the Importance Ofour role wlthln lt, We must first break lt down Into Smaller, more manageable chunks These smaller parts -

called eeosystems - can then be lnVeStlgated to ldentlfySome of the processes that are common to the bl0SPhere as a whole- That lS the task for thlS Chapter

We will start by looklng at eCOSyStemSand at some of the llVIng and non-llVlng COmPOnentS they contaln We will then move on to look at the Importance Ofbelng able to ldentlfyand name the llVlng thlngS ln an ecosystem, and examlne SOme Ofthe ways ln WhlCh we can start to record some of the Interactions between them But we must never forget that we ourselves are members of- and manlPulators of- the ecosystems we Inhablt･

We are a part of the biosphere We were prodllCed by lt, We llVe Wlthln lt, and we are beglnnlng tO Change lt ln Ways We don't yet RIuy understand The chapter wュll end by lntrOduclng the concept of 'ecologlCal health',the Idea

that our growlng eXPloltat10n Of the resources of ecosystems IS endangering their ablllty tO Support themselves and us But let us start by looklng at SOme Ofthe yocabulary Involved To study or understand anythmg We have to be clear about what the words we use mean

We wlll need these words to record what we have dlSCOVered, and to share Our understandlng with otherpeople

2 2 The science of ecology ThlS Chapter lS prlmarlly concemed wlth a branch orthe study of the natural world known as ecology

Ecology lS the sclentlfic study of the lnterrelatlOnShLPS between llVlng organlSrnS and the environments ln WhlCh they live

lntTOd ucng EnvErOnment

-

-vhl

Chapter2 Ecology and ecosystens

ヽ

Ph                       -

2.3 Ecosystems

AIZow about5 mJnuteS Words

There lS a problem wlth any attempt to take an ecological approach to the

LDOk a=he de加It.On Of ecology above As you】re already aware. it lS

blOSphere a5 a Whole lt lS 50 Incredibly compllCated and dlVerSe that lt

cuStOma｢y ln SClenCe Wrltln∈=0 use wo′ds ln a PreCISe and careful way So 】t

lS difficult to know where to begln The number of llVlng and nonlllVlng

iS JmPOrtant tO be able to recognlSe and understand lmPOrtant terms When

components defies descrlptlOn, and the nllmber of posslble lnteraCtlOnS

yOU COme across them

boggles the mlnd There lSalsothe problem of scale Do we start wlthweather

Note any terms ln the de帥ItrOn that you feel are especlal【y lmPOrtant tO EtS

pattemsthat cover the wholeglobe, examlne the Impact Ofhuman settlements

meanlng

on the wlldllfe of the Gobl desert, Or start by lnVeStlgatlng the behavlOur Of ladyblrds feedlng On greenfly on a rose bush?

Comment

One approach to the lnVeStlgat10n Ofanythlng blg and compllCated lS tO break

J noted four terms that seemed to be partlCUlarEy JmPOrtant ･sclentlrLC,,

lt down Into Smaller, more manageable parts We can then study these smaller

-o｢ganlSmS■,.lnterrelat旧nShlPS'and EenvlrOnmentS'

chunks at a scale and level ofdetall that sultS Our Purposes ThlS approach

to complexltylS Called reduetionism, because lt Involves reducing complex

things tO a COueCtlOn OfslmPler parts We can then take what we lean about

FlrSt and foremost, ecology lS a SC.er,tifie way ofthlnklng about the world

how thmgs work lnthe smaller parts and use lt tO try tO understand the systeTTl

This means that lt Involves a certain Way OflnVeStlgatlng, Studying and

as a whole

wrltlng about a toplC

Anecosystem (from 'ecologlCal system') lS a COIlect10n Of llVlng thlngS and

lnthlS COnteXt, an Organism lS a llVlng thlng一〇urSelves and otheran1mals, as

the envlrOnment ln WhlCh they live The sIZe and boundarleS Ofan ecosystem,

well as plantsjungl, bacterla and so on

the bits tO be studled, and the Interactions tO be lnVeStlgated, are all determlned

by what we want toknow So an ecosystem can be large (a ralnforest) or

These llVLng thlngS Interact with each other ln VarmuS Ways and wlth the non-llVlng COmPOnentS that make up the envirorLment ln WhICh they lIVe

small (a pond) - and large ecosystems can often be broken down Into a

These non-llVLng COmPOnentS Include rocks, soils and water, as well as the

number ofsmaller ones The Important thlng lS tha( ecosystems are produced

atmosphere (The physical locallty, the place, 'n which an organism llVeS IS

by llVlng OrganlSmS LnteraCtlng With each other and the physICalenvlrOnment

known as Its hEtbitat )

Remember, all ecosystems Involve

All these lnteraCtlOnS Produce a compllCated set ofinterreJatioJ)Ships And these lnterrelatl0nShlPS Can take many forms, as we shall see

∴∴

' llVlngOrganlSmS ' a physical environment (land, water, air)

' a source of energy to make the whole thing work

For almost all of the Earth's ecosystems the ultimate Source Ofenergy lS light A"Owabout5mlnuteS and meanrngs

fromthe sun

and contlnue aS you read 】t･s not enough topt spot lmPOrtantWOrds. although that.s a useful skl‖ The

the restofthlS Chapter vJta州ng lS tO make sure thatyou understand whatthey mean

Look back al the terms ldentLfLed m Act.vlty 8 Wlthout rookmg at the book, can you explan what each one means?

As you work th｢ough the remalnder of thIS Chapter. you wl" deveJop

A"owabout 15 m･nutes Constructlng a g】ossary

Thls sectl0n has lntrOduced a number of terms and defmltEOnS for example, ecology, ecosystem, o｢gan】sm. envI｢Onment, habllat Some, perhaps alF】 of

your unde｢standlng Of the terms 'organlSm'. ■envlrOnment', ■habltat'and ■lnte｢｢elat∫onsh】p■ When you come across one of these terms. stop and thmk

these wor⊂】s may be newto you Onewayto record them for future use lS tO

about how仙as been used Does the way the term has been used change,

the【r meanlngS

o｢ add anythlng tO･ yOU｢ Understandln97 Comment

When you reach the end of the chapter. see the response at the back of the book

construct a glossary, In WhlCh you jot down Important terms and notes about

Use a notebook or a separate page ln your StudyfoJder W｢lte down the term and some notes that expbln What lt means What you wrJte must mean somethlng tOyOU T｢ylng tO W｢lte yOUrOWn deflnltl0∩. ln your Own words. W州

help you to check your understandlng Remember to a=ow some space s｡

lntroduclng EnvけOnrTlenL

Chapter2 Ecolo9y and eccLSyStemS

thatyou can add to･ orchange, yourdehJtEOnS aS you WOrkyourwaythrough

Almostall of the energy that supports the llfe lnthe pool arrrves ln the

the course Thlnk of the gPossary as a worklng document, and don,tworry

formof llght from the sun Some of thlS energy lS Captured by seaweeds

about maklng lttOO neat and tldy

attached to the rocks and mlCrOSCOPIC plants (types of plankton) These

Comment Here a｢e a few glossa｢y entrleS Produced by one of the student testers who

plants are eaten by anlmais, whlCh are eaten by other animals, and so on But the sun lS not the only source of energy Involved ln the worklngS Of

read early drafts of Chapters 1 and 2 Theyare｣ust exarTIPles, and yours may

thlS Particular ecosystem the tldes that sweep across the pool twICe

be qulte dlfferent The Important lhrng rs to thlnk about what the terms mean.

a day are drlVen uP and down the beach by the gravltatlOnal pull of the

and to p｢oduce deflnlt10nS thatvvrrl remlnd you of the main POlntS When you

moon

｢etu‖1 tO them ● BIOSPhere the portlOn Of the Earth and ltS atmosphere thatsupports llfe

I Ecosystem llVng thngs/physICal envrronment/source of energy (e g

bacteria

｢alnfo｢est, pond)

o ReductJOnrSm reduc-ng complex thlngS lntO a nUmberof smarler parts

An example ecosystem the rockpool Let's examlne the concept of an ecosystem ln more detail uslng an example

that lS famLllar tO manypeOPle a rockpool on a Brlt]Sh beach (see Figure 6) Llke all ecosystems, a rockpool lS llnked to the wider wo,ld and to other ecosystems ThlS Ilnk lS most apparent ln the shape of two tldes every day, whlCh change the sea water ln the pool and brlng ln new OrganlSmS from the open ocean (as well as allowlng Others to escape back Into the sea) The tides also change the physICal characterlStlCS Of the pool and Its SurTOundlngS

When the tlde lS Out･ the rockpool lS a COllectlOn OforganlSmS IIVlng tOge(her lTl a falrly clearly deflned place When the tlde lS ln, the pool may become no more than a small depressl0n On the rocky sea bed

Now let's look at the components of our rockpool ecosystem ln more detail Remember, any ecosystem contains llVlng things, a PhysICalenvlrOnment and a sol∬Ce Ofenergy

The most obvlOuS lrvlng things Will tend to be the largest ones seaweeds, sea

anemones, whelks, shrlmPS, fish and so on But thIS Shouldn,I bllnd us tothe

importance of the organisms We Can,t see For example, the water ltSelflSfutl oftlny Plants and animals - called `plankton, - that are food for many of the

larger creatures And the water and rocks con(aln huge numbers of the slmPle slngle-cel上ed organlSmS Called bacterla, and other mlCrOSCOPIC forms of l】fe,

that play an Important Part m the worklng Ofthe ecosystem

The most obvious COmPOnentS OFthe physICal envlrOnment Ofthe pool are the

rock that surrounds lt,the sea water ln lt, and the alr above lt (when the ttde lS Out) But these physICal factors are far from I)lXed The tldes, and the effect

ofsunllght onthe exposed pooh mean that the organlSmS that LIVE ln lt must be able to withstand changes and extremes of, for example, temperature Or salt content Some small Pools dry up altogether ln the summer or lee Over ln wlnter When the tide lS Out

FlgU｢e 6 A ｢ockpool

Plank(on

Chapter2 EcoEogy

alld

ecosysterTIS                          2:

ヽ    ヽ

lnt｢Oduclng energy Energy lS a COnCePtthat -s used ln many branches of scJenCe ln ltS everyday meanlng･ you may reCOgn■Se Ft aS the ･ablrlty･ to do

somethmg, whether that 】s movement･ heatlng･ llghtlng Or PrOV】dmg food or fuel These correspond to dlfferent forrTIS Of energy - klnet】C

(motron). thermal (heat), l･ght. and chem'cal (food or fuel) Energy can be converted from one form to another For example, a plant converts sunllght JntO CherTllCal energy The energy from the food we eat (chermcar energy) LS used to keep us warm (heat energy), to enable us to move (k･netlC energy) and to enable us to grow or put on

Black smokers

I started with an ecosystem that lS famlllar and easy to vISuallSe Mostpeople have seen a rockpool, lfonly on televISIOn But many ecosystems rernaln

undlSCOVered, and some of the ones weknOw about arefu1l of mystery The purpose of this Section lS tO Introduce one that was discovered falrly recently.

Don't worry about the detalls lt's here as another example of how llVlng thlngS, a physICal envlrOnment and a source of energy can comblne tO Create an ecosystem It lS Probably true to say that we know less about the bottom of the deep sea

than we do about the surface of the moon However, weknOw that there are

weJght (chem■cal energy ･n muscle and fat)

ecosystems down therethat demonstrate the lnteraCtlOn between llVlng thlngS and extremes of the physICal environment They are unusual ln that the maln

Although energy can go through many converslOnS, there Is one rule

source of energy lS not light fTrom the sun but the heat from molten rock

that appears to apply everywhere ln the unlVerSe That lS, energy Cannot be created o｢ destroyed - ln any Process. the tota一 amount of energy lS a加ays constant You wlll learn more aboutenergy later ln

thlS book

At certaln POlntS, Sea Water Penetrates Cracks ln the ocean noorand comes into COntaCt Wlth the lava produced by actlVe VOIcanoes_ The heated water, Rill ofmlnerals from the rock, rises rapidly to create plumes of hot water called

hydrothermal vents (`hydrothermal'lS Just SClenCe-Speak flOr `hot water') The minerals ln the super-heated water glVe lt a Cloudy appearance, whlCh lS Why

the vents are also known as 'black smokers'(Flgure 7) The pressures aHhese depths mean that water temperatures Of 300 0c canbe flOund A‡lowabout15mnutes Maklng notes

ThlS SeCtlOn COntalnS a rot Of lnformat10n Dld you do anythlng as you read -t? D]d you slmPly read the text. or dLd you make notes? Read the descnpt10n Of the rockpooJ ag訓n Try to pzckout one ortwo of the

maln ldeas Ln each paragraph

Comment He｢e's my attempt Rockpool ecosystem - l.nks to other ecosystems訓1d wlder world

Ecosystem - lNlng OrganJSmS, PhysICal envlrOnment. energy

LNlng thlngS - Plants, anlmals, plankton, bacterla PhysICal envlrOnment - rock, sea water, all, t]des Energy - sunflght (also t･des caused by pu一l of the n100n) Dld you note many of the same poFntS? Fs there anythlng else yould lnCludeつ Is the｢e anythlng yOU'd leave outつHow dld you setyour notes out7 Fs there ｢oom for you to add extra 】nformat-on later on In your StudleS?

Remernber that lt lS the observer - you or I I Who deflneS an ecosystem, and

selects which organisms Or aspects Ofthe environment tO Study In muchthe same way, you have to decide what lS Important When you make notes

However blg Or Small our ecosystem･ and whichever aspect Ofthe system we choose to study, 1t lS ecology that allows us to lnVeStlgate how lt WOrks - and to wonder at the bea叫and strangeness or lt all

FlgU｢e 7 AblacksmDker

lnLroduclng EnvlrOnmenE

Chapter2 EcoLogy

and

ecosysterTIS                           ∠〇

Desplte the extremes of temperature and pressurethere lS life here Bacteria

read Second, your notes will serve as a reminder of the main POlntS long after

live around the black smokers at temperatures of up to 1 10 oC, sumvlng

you have moyed on

∫

on mlnerals and the heat energy lnthe hot water Other anlmals feed on the bacteria and each other blood-red glant tube worms up to three metreS long,

llmpetS, bamacles, prawns, crabs and fish Most of these organlSmS are found nowhere else on Earth

The fLrSt Step IS tO read the mater.al Don't worry too much about maklng notes onthe first read through The Important thing lS tO COnCentrate On followlngthe lJne Ofthe argument and making Sure that you understand the key polntS

Then revleW the materlal Locate the main Ideas as well aS Important POlntS

that relate to them lfthe book ts yours, you can underline Or hIghllght important WOrds or deflnlt10nS, Put a box around Important Passages, Or Wrlte notes ln血e margin

AlternatlVely, you can make notes on a separate pleCe Ofpaper Remember to

leave lots of space so that you canadd extra thoughts later on Leamlng lS a process ofchanglng and developing your understanding Your notes may take the form of paragraphs, short phrases, bullet points Or dtagrams (flOr example, spray dlagramS)

The form your notes take wlll depend on a number offactors

･ the teclmlqueS thatworkbestforyou ･ the nature ofwhatyouare reading ｡ thepurpose oryour notes ･ howmucil time you have

Remember that the notes you produce areyour notes Expenment to fmd out what works best for you

over tlme, you WILL probably develop a range of approaches So, for example, FlgU｢e 8 A colony of tube worms ctose to a black smoker

I tend to use sentences or short paragraphs for materlalthat I find fairly stTalghtforward (see ActlVLty 1 1) For textsthat are more compllCated or more dlfflCult to follow I mlght use a spray diagram VISual representations Often

take longer to prepare, but I flndthe extra Investment Oftlme and thought can 2.4 Making notes This SeCt10n develops a useful study sk111･ maklng notes The maln SCIentlfic

story then contlnueS lnthe next sect10n Notes can be used for a number of

reauy help to deepen my understanding Again, this IS a Personal preference some people fhd lt easier tO york with, and to understand, dlagramS and pictures Other people prefer words and llStS

th】ngs

At some point yOu'll have to give some thought to housekeeping Where wlll

● to develop your own understanding Ofwhat you are reading

you keep your notes? ln a notebook or a rlng blnder7 I prefer looseleafnotes

' to prepare for a speclflC task, say, a wfltten aSSlgr)ment ' to act as a record forrevISIOn

The first purpose lS Probably the most Important One A鮎r all, 1t lS much

easier tO Write about or revise SOmethlng that you already understand Maklng notes flOrCeS you tO think about what you are reading and to make sense oflt

You have to engage wlth the text, ldentlfythe main POlntS and record them ln some way Good notes pay off ln two Ways First, the very Process Ofmaklng and organlSmg your notes Improves your understandlng Ofwhat you have

ln a rlng binder, as I can add extra pages as necessary, but the choICe lS up tO

you The man thlng lS tO make surethat you can find your notes agaln When you need them

FLnally, a healthwamingl Don't put too much time and effort into maklng notes - and try to avold wrltlng Out the entire text ln note flOrm The trlCk lS tO

develop an approach that provides the most benefit for the least effolt-Always remember that maklng notes Should be a pleasure not a chore Maklng notes

IS an eSSentlal part ofstudymg, and lfyou enjoy the process you'll fll-d you lean a lot more

`ヽ

2･5 IdentiflCation and namFng

and that these robins Wlll, ln their tum, breed with other robins But ln SOme

Before we can start to Investigate howthe organlSmS ln an ecosystem Interact wlththe envlrOnment We have to be able to g"e them names The namlng Of

llVlng things has always had an Important PraCtlCalfunctlOn, allowing uS tO

circumstances, members ofclosely related specleS Canand do breed with each other For example, the horse andthe donkey can breed with each other,

althoughthe ofFsprlng - a mule - IS lmable to reproduce

understand the natural environment and exploit lt more effectlVelyAsSoon

The concept of the specleS IS Important tO blOloglStS and to our understanding

as something has a name, all sorts of useful lTlflOmatlOn Can be attached I. the

of the working Ofecosystems and the blOSPhere That's why rye spent some tlme On lt here The number ofspecleS ln an ecosystem, Orthe b10Sphere as

label ls this Plant good to eat or poisonous? Is this animal rare ol plentiful?

The lnformatlOn Canthen be passed from one member ofa group to another, and from one generatlOn tO the next

SclentlStS face a slmllar need To understand an ecosystem we need to be

able to name and llStthe orgamSmS lnVOIyed ln a PreCISe and accurate way Namlng I like reductlOnlSm - 1S a Strategy that allows us to Impose SOme order on the complexity Ofthe natural world

a whole, lS an Important lndlCatOr OfltS healthPerhaps lt lS best tothlnk of specleS aS more Or less permanent vanetleS OfllVLng thlngS Many b10loglStS fleelthat although the deflnlt10n Ofa specleS has Its dlfficultleS, 1n most Cases they know one when they see one The exceptlOnS tO theru1es are a useful

remlnder that the complexltyofthe Tlatural world does not always conform to the categones we attempt to Impose On lt, and that as a consequencethe use of sclentlfic terminology requires Judgement and common sense

The sclenCe Writer RIChard Fortey explalnS the Importance OfthlS ln hlS book

LEfe An UnazLthoyISed Bzography DISCnmlnatlOn and ldetltlfLCatlOn have value beyond the obvious separatIOn Ofedlblefrom poISOnOuS, Valuable from worthless, Or

safe from dangerous ThlS IS a means tO gain an aPPreClatlOn Ofthe

thatpeoplef｢omdiffe｢entcou∩tnescanbesu｢ethattheyaretalking

rlChness or仙e envlrOmment and our human place wlthln It. The

aboutthesamething.Youwillcomeac｢ossthesescientiflCnameS

varletyofthe world lS the product of hundreds ofmllllOnS Ofyears of evolut10n･ Of catastrophes survived, and of ecological expansl0n To

begln tO grasp any OfthlS COmPlexltythe flrSt task lS tO ldentlfyand recognlSe Its COmpOnent partS for blOloglStS,th1S meanSthe specleS ofanlmals and plants, both llVlng and extinct

DogsandwolVessha｢ealotoffeatUresincommOn,sotheyare puttogethe｢inagenus-agroupingofrelatedspecies-calLed Canis_Theydo∩●tnormaItyinte｢breed,sotheyaredifferentspecies:

foreXample,Canisfamilian'S(thedomesticdog)andCanislupL/S Fortey, 1998, p 14)

(thegreywolf).TheLatirlnameSOfspeciesaregiVeninitatics】o｢

AsRIChard Fortey notes･ the speeJeS ISthefundamental umt ofb1010glCal dlVerSlty But what lS a `specleS'? And how do we dlStlngulSh one specleS

Fetter_A‖humanbeingsaremembersofthesamespecies:Homo

from another?

sapiens-

In the field, scLentlStS use two approaches to ldentlB, a specleS Nelther lS

Asfaraslknow.OnlyoneanlmalhasacommonnarTlethatlSthesame

wlthotユt Its problems

asitsscientiflCname:theboaconstrictor(BDaCOnStrlrClOr)-

｡ Members orthe same specleS nOmally resemble each other

' Male and flemale members of the same species Can breed wlth each othe, to produce offsprlngthat alealso able to reproduce

2.6 lnterrelatjonships

The first approach, appearance, 1S the most obvlOuS Onefor most of us most of the tlme We know thatarobln lS arObln because lt looks Llke a robln-and

lt lS lntereStlng tO COntemPlateanentangled bank, clothed wlthmany

the word LspecleS'.s derived fTOmthe Latln Verb specere (Lto look at,). But

lrlSeCtSfllttlng about, and wlth woms crawllng throughthe damp

appearances Can be deceptlVe Males and females ofa glVen Species may look different, and many organlSmS Change thelr appearance aS they mature (say,

from tadpole to frog or hm caterp.llar to butterfly) The second approach lS also fairly stra'ghtforward ln most Cases We take lt for granted that our robln Can breed wlthother roblnS tO Produce more robins,

plants of many kinds, with blrds slnglng On the bushes, with varlOuS

earth, and to reflect thatthese elaborately constructed fo-S, so dlfferent from each other, and dependent on each other ln SO COmPlex a manner, have all been produced by laws actlng around us (DaJWm, 1859/1985, p 459)

■ 貞一 ′

Chapte｢ 2 Ecoiogy and ecosysten5

so shrb he hal puagraph ofChades D-ln,s famous book The OrLgLn Of speclむnave Included " here b∝ause Da-ln Seb out beautJfully, In One

sentence, the complexity of the natural world

FIrSt, he Introduces us to an ecosystem 1 lan enbngled bankWIke to thlrk

王:::ご潤芯'元夏空三瓶冨器監:≡:重量ヨ監王墓二≡王墓忘忘㌍遠雷謹墓ヨ Do th■s aCtNltyaS you Looklng for lnterreFatlOnShlPS r∈∋ad the rest oflhIS

ofthlS - hedgerow ln my home countyofWllbhln ln my mュnd,s eye, I

chapter Look out forexamples of lnterrelatFOnShlPS ln the remalnderof th-s chapter,

see lt On a warm summer,s day. aJumbled mIX Ofplants - nowers and bees

especlaHy organESmS that re一y on others for food Note anyexamples ln your

- W仙lnSeCtS Cmwllng through the undergrowth and b"ds feeding lm he

studyfolde｢

branches) C()mment Darwln notes that thzs ecosystem consISb oldl庁erent populatlOnS Of

When you reach the end of thIS Chapter. see the response at the back of the

organJSmS that llVe togetheHn a parhcdar locatzon or hab∫tat - pl叫worms,

book

lnSeCb and blrds He also suggests that these orgamsmS are dependent on each other 】n a mmber ofcompllCated ways, that lS, that they are ln(e-Zated And nnauy, he wmtes that也ese lnte-latJOnShJps are the r悶ult of Jaws IPrOCeSSeS

Some lnterrelatlOnShlPS, llkethe ones discussed ln this SeCt10m, are retatlVely

- that operate throughout the natural world

stralghtforⅣard and easy to spot Others are far harder to see, and the vast

maJOrltyremam unknown to science YeHhe answers to so many of our

ThlS notIOn of these mteuelahonshlPS IS SO lmpo汁ant to仇e study of the

envlronment that lt lS worth pausing to examlne lt m a llttle more de(all

questions about the naturalwoTld depend on ldentLfylng and analyslng these lnteraCtIOnSAsWe shall see, they explaln Why some ammals are common ln

lfa bJTd ln Da-ln,s hedgerow - sa洪a TObln - Cab an eanhwo-, that,s an

a glVen locatlOn and others are rare, why some plants are large and others are

lnteracflOn between也e blrd and也e wo- ThlS 】ntemctlOn has consequences

small, and why some orgamsms are found ln SOme habitats but not ln Others

for the blrd (a good meal) and rather drastlC COnSequences fwthe won

They also explaln many Ofthe dlStlnCtlVe CharacterlStlCS Ofthe phySlCal

(the end oflh J脆) If he w0- lS fo live and play Its parhn pTOduclng

environments ln WhLCh organlsms live Out their lives

ano仏er genemtlOn ofwo-S, lt must avold belng eaten by the robln But the relationsh∫p has lmPllC抽ons ln both dlreCtlOnS rfrhe blrd JS tO llVe and help

lnthe next sectlOn, We Shall look at how sclentlStS gO about ldentlち′1mg,

lo produce the next geneTatIOn Ofrobms, lt muS( hd and eat a cenaln number

studying and recordlng some Of these lnterrelat10nShlPS

ofwo-S (and other thlngS) ThIS Set OflnteractlOnS Produces a Ilnk, an lnterrelatIOnShlp, between roblnS and worms ofcourseJhe robin andthe earhwo- wl一日nteract wlth mmy other J】vlng

■._ :-.･ご醐 _■ _ l≠-I ･.  ,           -㌔_.軒もてこ三軍闇

A=oIN abouHO mFnuies RevJeWLng your notes

things ln many oher ways a=九e same time The robln WllJ use plant malerlaJ

from the hedgerow to constmct lb nest-ll compete wlthOther robmsfor temtory and mates, and may lbelfend up as a mea"or a spa汀OWhawk or a

Cat

lt ls lrnPOrtant tO gO back and revrew the notes you have made from tlme tO

time Can you Improve them ln the llght of your new understandlng and skltls? ls there anythlng thatyourd lIke to addつ(This IS Why It lS lmPOrtant tO 一eave

some space ln yOU｢nOteS )

The blrd and the wo- also depend on, and change, the physICal envlrOnment of the hedgerow For e-e, the blrd needs oxygen fmm仇e atmosphere

and Its droppings add chemlCals b the SOIJ The wo- exkacts nutrlents fmm the sol上, and alters lb consIStency by passlng lt through its body as lt

feeds ThlS makes lt e胡ler Bor也e roots of the hedgerow･S phnrs to hd the

water and the nutments they needy and so on lt lS already easy to see that the Jnte汀elat10nshlpS )n our `entangled bank･ a柁mole COmplICated仏an we

mJght have thought･ and that hey mvolve both me IIVIng and the non-TJVlng

Look back atthe notes you made ln response tOActNlty ll Wou一d you make any changes? Wl川they meet your needs when you return tO therTl later ln the

bookつThlnk about what your notes are for

Conlnlent

Maklng notes IS eaSlerLf you have a partlCulargoal ln mlnd, forexample, an asslgnment Or a question that you want to answer

components of the ecosystem

2 7 Mapplng lnterrelationships Now we have started to ldentlfythe components of an ecosystem, llVlng and non-1LVlng, We Can Start tO look at ways ofdescrlbmg SOme Ofthe

lnterrelat10nShlPS between themAsWe have seen, One very dlreCt form of mterTelatlOnShlP lnVOIves llVlng thlngS eatlng Other llVlng thl｡gS Everywhere we look, We see an anlmal makltlg a meal out of a plant or arlOther anlmal

Chapter 2 Ecology and ecosystens

1ntroducng EnvlrOnment

｢ The second thing tO note lらthe presence of human belngS, Ourselves, ln

so, having reduced the b10SPhere to a manageable ecosystem, and n-ed the岬nlSmS Involved, we c抑mOVe On tO another pluW Ofthe sclentlnC

approach to the natural world observatlOn

lf we retum tO Our hedgerow and look closely at an Oak uee･ We might observe CaterPlllars eating the leaves These caterPlllars wlll, 1n tum, be eaten

bythe robln, and the robln may find lbelfunlucky enoughto -re On the menu of a sparrowhawk

we could descnbethese feeding lnterrelatlOnShlpS ln Words, as 1 have done

some of the chains We eat a wide range ofplantsandan1malsand occur at the top ofa large number offlOOd chains These chains may involve wild

or domesticated plants and animals, but almost allthe food m your local supermarket lS part Ofa chain that starts with a plant and ends wlthyou The third polnt tO note lS that several of our food chalnS have orgamsms ln

common So,for example, grass and snails are common to Iists (a) and (a) ln ActlVlty14 ThlS IS not SurPnSlng, aS most anlmals eat a number ofdlfferent plants or other anlmals. lfsome of the flood chains ln an ecosystem are

comblned they flOrma food ,Ieb, ln Which each species appears Only once

lnthe pa岬Ph above, but his IS a raher cumbersome Way Ofrecordlngthe

Food webs make lt eaSler tO See how the various Organisms depend on each

lnfomtatlOn

other for food We can comblne allthefoOd chalnS We have produced for

we could wnte lt Out ln notes llkethlS

Darwln's hedgerow to createthe food web shown ln Flgure 9

an oak leaf lS eaten by a caterpillar lS eaten by a rObln lS eaten by a sparrowhawk

or we could make lt even Shorter･ like thts

human belng

oak leaf- caterpillar - robin - SparrOWhawk when we use a Symbol llke - lt lS Very lmPOぬnt that we areぬr about

what lt means lnthlS CaSethe symbol - shnds for the words ･1S eaten by' lt lnmPOrhnt tO note the dlreCtlOn Ofthe a汀OW and toth1nk about what me

arrow means

hedgehog

ladyblrd

A dtagram like thlS IS Called a food chain lt lS a Very useful way Ofcapturlng one Important aspect Of the lnterrelatlOnShlpS ln an ecosystem

Ldwde{ー -ゝS Oak.eZedy Auov/aboutlOmlnUteS Food chalnS

Rearrange the followlng OrganlSmS from Da-n.S hedgerow LntO food chalnS (a) thrush grass Cat Snall

(b"arrOWhawk oakleaf rObLn tadyblrd greenfly

FlgU｢e9 Afood web

(C) rabblt humanbelng dandel10n (d) grass fox Snall hedgehog

comment see the comment at the back of the book

監≡細評琵琶軍票驚霞讃琵粟琵繋琵芸芽 A紬1ノabouHrJmLnuieS Food webs

Can you add an organlSm and llnks to FlgU｢e 9 that are not lnCluded Ln Our food chalnS7 You may flnd some Ideas on page 28

There are SOrne thlngS tO remember about food chalnS･ F郎Imost all stan Wltha plant that lS eaten by an ammalThe chal°s then

vaq ln length, usually from three to five SpeCleS･ The shomest hod chains

have Ju5-0 SpeCleS･ for example, blackberry - human belng We'u look at some of the factors that llmltthe size Of food chalnS ln Chapter 3

Coml¶enl

My attempt lS Shown ln FlgUre 10 You maywell have come Up wlth a number of dlfferent organlSmS Food webs can quLCkly become very comPrlCated l have added only one o｢gan】sm

l ntroduclng EnvlrOrlrnent

Chapter 2 【cology and ecosystems

The ways ln Which we have alteredthe ecosystems of the world Include ･ the use ofb1010glCal resources, from hunting and flShlng tO Cutting down

forests

I the use ofphysICal resources, such as quarrymg for rock and dlVertmg water for lmgat10n Systems . the use of energy resources, lnCludtng the burmng of wood and fossll

fuels (coal, oil and gas) ･ the creat10n Ofartlficlal ecosystems, such as agricultural land for food

productlOn, and towns and cltleS aS places for us to llVe

The humanpopulatlOn COntlnueS tO grow and thlS, COmblned wlththe pressure for economic growth and development, will tend to ITICreaSe Our demands on other llVlng things and the physical environment To marlage I 0r Protect - an ecosystem we need to know how the llV】ng things lt COntalnS depend on each

other, and how they depend on the all, SOIL and water ln Which they llVe ln

large part,this means understanding the lnterrelatlOnShlPS Involved, and so recognISlngthe consequences of our actions for the ecosystem as a whole lt lS tlme tO Introduce a new term Into Our eXamlnatlOn Ofecosystems FlgUre 10 A more compllCated food web

eで0】oglCal hen]th ThlS term has become lnCreaSlngly popular ln dlSCuSS10nS

aboutthe environment, althoughlt lS dlfflCult to deflne Or measure Wlthany accuracy It lS possible to ldentlfySpeclfTIC Changes to an ecosystem, but any evaluation Of Its health lS a matter OfJudgement not fact Who decides whether an ecosystem lS healthyつAnd on what grounds? Is a desert as healthy

2.8 EcofoglCanealth

as a ramforest? Or does ecologlCal health simply depend on a lack of human

Does all thlS matter? Why lS It important tO dlVlde the blOSphere Into

lnterferenceつ

ecosystems and study the lnterrelatlOnShlpS they cont且1n?

The fact that we find lt hard to deflne eCOloglCal healthdoesn't mean that

My flrSt answer would have something tO do wlth the wonder and fasclnatlOn

lt has no value as a concept We fLnd lt hard to deflne human health, but we recognlSe that lt lS Important none the tess We know that some lndlVlduals

of nature Itself For me, and for many other people I suspect, what sclenCe Can tell us about how the blOSPhere works - about the lnterreiat10nShlPS Involved

- sen'es to make lt more lntereStlng and more beautlfu1 There lS, however, another presslng reason tO Study ecosystems Preserving

the ecosystems of the Earth, and their atnlltyto sustaln uS, lS now Our responslblllty lt lS tlrne tO Put Ourselves back lntOthe plCture If asked, we deflne Ourselves ln terms Of natlOnallty Or employment or soclal class But we belong to ecosystems as well, and the adaptablllty Ofhuman belngS means that we can be found ln all sorts ofenvlrOnmentS from the poles to the equator

As we have seen, au llVlngthlngS Shape - and are shaped by - the physICal environments that they lnhablt But no other spec∫es has our capaclty tO alter

the world around lt, tO maXlmlSe the exploltatlOn Of Its resources And our

are healthier than others and that certaln thlngS - a POOF dletjor example

- can have a negative effect Ltke human health, ecologlCal health lS best

thought of as a comblnatLOn Ofmany different thlngSthe dLVerSlty, numbers

and condltlOn Of the llVlng Organisms ln an ecosystem; the complexltyOfthe food webs Involved, and the quatltyofthe all, SOIL and water that make upthe physICat enVlrOnment

we need to study the health ofecosystems to flnd out how to protect them How much change has already taken place? What wlll be the long-term consequences of our act10nS? How can we Increase an eCOSyStem's ablllty both to resist Change (ettolo等icnl resi5ffLr)｡e) and to recover from the changes

that have already happened (eeologiCi一日-eSlllL17CO?

lnfluence lS now global modern pattems ofbuslneSS, food dlStrlbutton and

we are the most powerful actc.rs ln most eCOSyStemS, yet untll recently we

the use ofnattlral resources mean that most of us have art tndlreCt Influence on

have been largely uTlaWare Ofthe ecologlCal consequences of the way we live

ecosystems across the world

our lives A qulCk glance through the newspapers, howevel, Indicates that we are now becomlng tTICreaSlngly concemed about our coltectlVe Impact On ecologlCal health, ln terrnS OfpouutlOn, Cllmate Change and the use offlnlte blOloglCal and physICal resources

lTTlTDduc】ng EnvlrOJlment

34

｣1

Don't forLget tO

3 Energy flows and agriculture

Study checkIISt

compare your notes

fur AGtIVltp85 9 ayTd 12 wJth the COrnmL;nt5 at the back of the t?ook

Yoll Should now understand也at + Ecology lS a SClentlfic approach tothe study of the biosphere

3 1 Introduction

● Ecosystems are created by the lnterrelanonshlPS between llVmg

organlSmSand the physical envlrOnments they lnhablt (land, water, alr) Ecosystems requre a source of energy to make them work and

for most, althoughnot all,this IS Izght iromthe sun 9 To study ecosystems we have to start to ldentlfythe components

mvolved andthe lnterrelat10nShlPS between them_ We can l]st the llVlng Organisms by ldentlfylng the specleS Involved. . FoodchalnS and food webs are away ofmapplngOnetype of lnterrelatlOnShlP between the oTganlSmS ln an ecosystem

. Hl-an belngS are part ofecosystems, as well as manlPulators of

ecosystemsAssuch we are dependent on, as well as respomslble for･ the ecologlCal health of the ecosystems we lnhablt

You should now be able to. o construct a glossary ofsclentlfic terms e makenotes on whatyou read and revleWyOurnotes

Ecosystems need energy to work7 and au llVlng OrganlSmS need energy to survive

ln this Chapter we will revISltthefood chalnS from Chapter 2 to Investigate how lrvlng thlngS Process that energy ln the formoffood･ and what this Can ten

us about the lnterrelat10nShlPS betweenthe llVlng and non-1rvlng components

we shall also examlne the lmPllCatlOnSfor our own use ofecosystems to produce the food we need to support a growing human population

Energy enters an ecosystem from outslde･ usually ln the form of sunlight, and lS eventually lost from lt ln One Way Or another The chemlCals necessary for llfe - for example, oxygen, carbon dlOXlde and water - are aVallable ln flXed

amounts lnthe physical envlrOnment and have to be used over and over again

(carbon d10Xlde lS SOmetlmeS fefeTTed to by the abbrevlatlOn 'CO2'lnthlS book, 1 will write Out ･carbon d10Xlde･ ln words, as chemlCal notation lS not covered here )

監芯癖三二二m Allol{J abouH5 mlnuteS Turnlng your notes Into Sentences

one reason for maklng notes is to prepare forwntlng an aSSlgnmentOr an essay The Important thlng here lS that you understand what you have

･･･[･‥ - ∴･.I/

mcluded ln your notes, and can transform them back LntO W｢ltten text ln response to a spectflC queStLOn

もfocL

To explore thlS, take a shortsectton Of your notes and tryto w｢lte ltOUt ln the form of a few sentences Try to make each sentence COnVey a Slngle po帆o｢

Cb-A-､V､一一-匹叫,A

十･･･j･･

-･ I ･

･･･:/

perhaps two related polntS Avoid sentences that are too long or comPllCated CDmmenl

After you･ve wrltten your Sentences - but not before - look back at the relevant sect10n Of thlS book and compare what you have wr-tten Nth what 】s

ln the book lswhatyoU havewrltten ClearウDoes lt COnVey the ma机 PO-ntSつ

Dld you flnd lteaSy tO Selectthe maLn POlntS from your noteSnf not･ how could you change the way you make your notes tO make lt eaSler Ln future?

3 2 Producers･ makingyourownfood plants arethe essentlal foundatlOn for almost all llfe on Earth･ andthey dominate th巳Iand andthe sea

The plants of the land range from tlny rnOSSeS tO large trees A-st Sight the oceans seem to contaln little plant llfe apart itom the seaweedsthat grow ln shallow water where the sea meets the shore But, again, appearances Can be

Jntroduclng EJWIrOnnleTlt

Chapter 3 Ener9y flows and agrlcuFLure

deceptlVe The oceans arefull ofmlCrOSCOPIC PIants that float ln the surface

PhotosynthesIS

】ayeTS Of the water These plants are green, llke most ofthelr relatJVeS On land,

Plants have an advantage over the anlmals, a trick of thelT OWn They can

but they are too small to change the colour of the water

`produce'thelr OWn food

Plants construct thelr food out ofslmPle bulldlng blocks ln a Process Called photo5叩-heslS They take carbon dlOXlde from the air and water from the 5011 and comblne them to make sugars, releaslng OXygen lntO也e alr aS a

by-product The whole process IS dflVen by energy ln the form ofsunllght, whlCh lS Why plants need light to grow CThlS eXPlalns whythe plants of the

open ocean are so small Only tlny Plants are llght enoughto float ln the sunLlt upper waters where they canget the llghHhey need to photosynthesISe )

A帖ノabout 10 mnutes Aword dlagram for photosynthesIS

we can use dlagramS tO SUmrnarlSe the p｢ocess of photosyntheslS ln much the same way that we used dEagramS tO represent food chalnS ln Chapter 2 F【ll ln the blanks ln the followl咽OUt】lne tO Produce a wo｢d dlagram t｢旧t shows how plants comblne TaVV mate｢laFs to produce the products (】f

photosynthesIS

I

l

･

l

l-｢ ｢  ･

l

l

Words sugars. water, carbon d10XTde, oxygen What do you thlnklhe a｢｢ow means ln thlS dLagram7 Comment The word dlagram for photosynthesFS lS

Ic叫 + l w- l-- ら岬らl + 付 FFgUre 1 1 The vanety of plant "fe (a) cactus (b) -rees (C) sunnowers (d) rmcroscopIC plankton

ThlS Process requ/res ene｢gy ln the fo｢m of sunllght The arrow ln th】s dlagram means SOmethlng llke LresuJt ln■. Lproduce'or Eare

t｢ansformed lntO`

AIFcv, aDOut 5 -utes RevletNlng yOLH- grossary ThlS Chapte｢ wH also lntrOduce a number of terms and deflmt10nS

Plants convert some of the energy ln Sunllght Into SugarS uSlng a ChemlCal called ChIoroph､ 1J bronounced Lclora-f111'), a green plgment found mainly

Look backat lhe glossary you started ln Chapter2 ls the meanlng Of each

lnthe leaves lt lS Chlorophyll that makesthe world of plants a green one, and

te｢m stllF clear? ls there any lnformatJOn yOU･d llke to add?

explalnS Why we describe a good gardener as someone with 'green fingers'Or

Remember to record any new or unfamrllar termS･ and some notes about thelr meanrng･ In yOU｢ glossary as you work your way through thlS Chapter

someone who campalgnS On enVlrOnmerLtal ISSUES aS a `green'actlVISt

Chlorophyu lS usually concentrated ln leaves that act llke solar panels and are shaped and arranged to catch as much precious Sunlight as posslble･ Some plants, trees for example, put a lot of effort mto growlng tauer than

ChapLer3 Energy flows and agnculture

lntroduclng EnvITDnment

thelr nelghbours to galn more llght Butthe tree has to build other structures, such as a woody trunk, to support the canopy of leaves Other Plants, such as grasses, use a dlfilerent taCtlC These plants try to cover as much of the surface of the ground as they can, expanding honzontally rather than vertlCally

Words sugars, water. Ca｢bDn dJOX】de, oxygen

Compa｢e thJS word dlagram WZth the one for photosynthesES What do you not】ceワ

Commerlt The word dlag｢am for ｢esp川 at】On lS

Aしけumn colour

Some of the trees Fn Darwln's hedgerow wl" be deciduous - that lS. they wllHose thelr leaves ln the autumn and produce new ones ln the sp｢lng These plants glVe UP PhotosynthesIS ln the co-d and darkness of wlnter and survlVe On the food they have manufactured durlng the long, llght days of summer DecEduous trees take the preclOUS green Chlorophyll out of the】r leaves before they fall

⊂三重=]･l - 1-lc叫+E waur I

ln the autumn The brown･ red oryeHow chemICaEs that remaln ln the 一eaves arewhat glVethese trees thelr autumn COlou｢ (As thel← name Suggests, trees that are evergreen keep the fr leaves, thelr

ThlS Process re/eases the energy stored ln the sugars

chlorophy" and thel｢ co一our aH year round )

The Word dlagramS for photosynthests and resplratlOn mlrrOr each other The substances that remain n the leaves of deciduous trees to glVe them thelr autumn COlour lnClude chemlCals called -carotenotds■. whlCh are yellow】 orange. brown or red By a strange

colnCldence, carotenolds a｢e also Important for the colour vlSEOn ln Our own eyes So there IS a dlreCt Ink between the colour of our hedgerow ln autumn and our abrllty tO See. and appreclate, lt

We can summarlSe photosynthesIS and resplrat10n uSlng the followlng wo一d

dlagram

OrganlSmS Such as plants that can make thelr OWn food are called produeerS,

because they can 'produce'new llVlng materlalfrom nonllwlng raw materlals

ln the all, Soil and water (We have already come across another producer

Jca加-可･ l Ⅳ- ｣-E 5u4a- い い-n i

Remember the heat-loving bacterla that l∫ve next tO the black smokers ln

Chapter 2? They are also producers, uslng the chemicals and energy of the hot water to man11fachlre瓜elr food )

Resplratl0n

h photosynthesIS, light energy absorbed by the plant drlVeS the process from lefl to rlght making sugars requires energy h resplratlOn, the process goes缶om right to left breaking down sugars

Some of the stlgarS produced by photosynthesis are COnVerted Into prOtelnS

reIeases energy

to bulld tlSSueSthat the plant needs flOr growth and reproductlOn Some are converted Into Other carbohydrates, sllCh as starch,that the plant can store flOr

Plants produce more oxygen thIOughphotosynthesISthan they use ln

futtlre use But a lot of the sugars produced are used to provlde the plant Itself with energy Having Produced Its food by photosynthesis, the plant breaks

- depend on thlS extra Oxygen for their OWn reSPlratlOn All anlmals depend

lt down agaln tO releasethe energy lt needs to fuel the processesthat keep lt allVe and growlng The process ofbreaklng down foods to release the stored energy they contain lS Called respH i]tiorl

resplratlOn. Thls ISJuSt aS Well, asanlmals - 1nCludlng hllman belngS

on producers, usually plants, for the tTood they eat and the oxygen they need to break down that food to release some of the energy lt COntalnS Putting lt

slmPly, almostal1 116e depends on plants

All 1lVlng things reSpLre all the tlme tO keep themselves allVe Resplrat10n requlreS oxygen and produces carbon dlOXlde and water as by-prodllCtS

3 3 Consume｢S● us】ngothe｢o｢ganlSmSaS food

Unllke plants, animals cannot make their OWnfood They have to obtalnthe energy and the raw matenalsthey need by eating Plants or otheranlmals

and releaslng SOme Of the energy stored ln What they eat throughresplratlOn

AHowabouHOmlnUteS Aword dJag｢am for respErat10n Produce a word dlagram for respLratlOn･ Slm-lar to the one for photosyntheslS

ln ActlVlty 18, uslng the same words

OrganlSmS that use other llVlng thlngS aS food are called Cot-surrlビl-i

In any ecosystem, the organlSmS that can make thelr OWn food - producers are almost always plants ThlS IS Why plants represent the flOundatlOn Ofmost

H

･

i

1-[==コ･

｢ ｢

ecosystems Some of the energy trapped by photosynthesis and stored lnthe plants IS tranSflemd tothe animals that eat them So the p】 Jl7111l.I LIO･]Sllllle1 5

Chapter3 Energy

mows

and

agrlCulture                         41

[TLtrOduclng EnvETDnment

Fungi - Such as mushrooms, mildews and moulds - are not plants They don't are herblVOreS, animals that eat plants The secondal y COnSl】nle】･S and

possess chlorophyll so they are tlnable to make thelr OWn food Some bacterla

tel･iiarv (thil tl-le叫eonsun】e暮S Will be camlVOreS, animals that eat other

can photosynthesISe and make thelr OWn food, but many specleS, llkefungl･

anlmals Food chalnsalso contain OmnlVOreS, anrmals that eat both plantsand

act as decomposers

animals, as we human belngS do

The role ofdetrltIVOreS and decomposers IS Vital as they complete the cycle of growth, death and decomposlt"n They break down the bodies Of dead plants

DetntlVOreS and decomposers

and anlmals to release simple nutrlentS COntalnlng Carbon, nitrogen and other

There are two parhcular types of consumer that are Important to any

chemlCal elements These nutnents then go back Into the soil, a汀and water

ecosystem A tlett Lti､ Ore lS a SCaVenger that eats dead or苦anlSmS (for

to be used lnfuture plant growthWlthout these nutrient CyCles･ ecosystems

example, a vulture Or a Carrion beetle) A deeo叩OSel breaks down dead

would qulCklyrun out of the basIC ChemlCals necessary for life If there

oTganlSmS Outside Its OWn body and then absorbs the resultlng nutnentS,

were no carbon dlOXlde ln the atmosphere, for example,there would be no

before breakmg them down even further to releasethe stored energy The decomposers are malnly bacterla and fungl, and they are responsible forthe

photosynthesIS, nO plants and no food for the anlmals that eat the plants

rotttng of dead plar)ts and animals

Bacteria are eSPeClally Important ln the recycllng OfnltrOgen Plants

depend on nitrogen tO make protelnS, Which are essential for healthand

growth Unfortunately, however, plants are unable to use the nitrogen ln the atmosphere But some bacterla Car. The main Way ln Which nltrOgen becomes avallable to plants IS through nitrogen belng `flXed'by these bacterla, that lS, Incorporated Into a range OfnltfOgen COmPOunds Some of these nltrOgenfixlng bacteria llVe free ln the soil, but others lrve wlthln the tissues Ofcertaln

plants (ilOr example, onthe roots of beans, peas and clover) When these bacteria and the plants thatthey live ln dle and decompose, the nitrogen

compounds leak out Into the soll and can be taken up throughthe roots of omer plants

FlgUre13 Someof

the lnterrelat10nSh Lps 1

between p｢oduce｢S. consumers. detntlVOreS and decompose｢S

Bac[e｢la Bacterla eXISt n huge numbers ln almost a" envlrOnmentS and thel｢ actNltEeS are Vltal to the worklng Of ecosystems They were among the first lEVlng lhlngS tO evolve on the Earth. some 3 5 blTl10n yea｢S ago, and they remaln the most abundant form of Elfe The amount of l汁e that exIStS 】n the forrTI Of bactena lS far greater than a一l the othe｢ lIVtng

thlngS COmblned. whether measured ln number of specleS･ number of

lndlVlduais or sheer comblned vvelght We tend to concentrate on the larger organlSmS - the blgger PLants and anmals - because they exISt at a scalewe can see and appreclate But EEfe on Ea｢th remalnsl aS lt F■gure 12 DetT■t■VOreS and decomposers (a) vulture (b) dung beetle (C) mould on tomato

(d) bracket fungus

always has been. predomlnantly bacterlal

lntlOdlJCIng EnvLTOnment

Chapter 3 ETleTgy flows and agrICUlture

ヽ A teaspoon of so】l contalns ove｢ a bltlEOn bacte｢ra. and dlfferent specleS

can be found from the tops of the hlghest mountalnS tO tile bottom of

the deepest seas As vve saw ln Chapter 2. heat-lovlng bactena can llVe 】n WaterattemPe｢atUreS Of over 100 oC whlle other specleS EIVe ln

the frozen rocks and Ice Of Antarctlca One specleS - SClentlflC name DelnOCOCCUS radl0dL/rams -Can even SUrVIVe a radlat】On blast a

thousand tlmeS greate｢ than the lethat dose for a human belng We (〕urselves p｢ovlde a home-an ecosystem -for hundreds of

Bone-eatmg zomble Worms As with black smokers, an examplethat lS less famlllar than the humble compost heap may help to make the role of detritlVOreS and decomposers ln eCOSyStemS a little clearer Let's go back to the bottom of the sea For a long tlme Lt Was assumed that the mudilats that form the floor of

parts of the deep ocean must be lifeless deserts Away from the black

smokers the water lS too COld and too dark for photosynthesis, SO there LS

dlfferent specleS Of bactena The number of bactena we carry

little ln the way of producers to form the starting POlnt Of convent10nal

around wlth us IS far greate｢than the number of cells ln OUT bodleSt

flood chalnS Wlthout producers there can be no consumers, althougha few

and there are thousands of bacte｢la On a Square Cenllmet｢e Of the skln Of your hand The vast maJO｢lty are harmless, and manya｢e posltlVely beneflCLal ln fact. we cou一d not exISt W】thout them Bacterla

organlSmS Were known tO eke out a ltvlng On a fine mlSt Ofdead and llVlng

mlCrOSCOplC Organisms that drlfts down from the warmer, llghter waters above

rn our lnteStlneS help us to dlgeSt Ourfood, and some of the ■f｢lendly'

bactena we provlde a home for protect us agalnSt Other, harmful,

Every so often, however, the sltuat】On lS Changed for a small reglOn Or

bacterla that can cause dlSeaSe

the sea f一oor bythe arrival of a more substantlal glft from above The

body of a dead whale, perhaps kllled by starvatlOn Or eXhaustlOn On One of Its long mlgrat10nS, Slnks down through the water and settles gently on the mud The amVal ofthLS huge package of energy十rlCh material Into

Allow about 20 mLnuteS Compost heaps

such a nutrient-POOF enVlrOTlment lS enOughto attract a rich and varled community of opportunlStlC COnSumerS'detrltlVOreS and decomposers

LISten nOWtO Track 1 on the DVD. whlCh ｢evea】sJuSt how much sclenllflC

-慧

lnformatIOn Can be obtaH1ed from the worklngS Of a 9a｢den compost heap

The flrSt Creatures tO find the body are usually general scavengers

The detntlVOreS and decomposers ln a Compost heap break down dead plant

- detrltlVOreS - that travel the ocean looklng for flnds llke thlS One These `vultures'ofthe deep sea, Including lobsters and hagfllSh, home ln On the

Garden 90ld mate｢lal to ｢elease nut｢lentS that can be added to the garden, 1n the fo｢m of compost, to help the growth of new plants These pLants may, ln turn, flnd themselves on the compost heap ln the future ln thES Way a compost heap

derT10nStrateS the cycles of growth, death and decomposltLOn that recycle lmPO｢tant nUt｢lentS ln all ecosystems

As wlth reading thlS book. the lmPO｢tant thlng lS tO thlnk about the process

of learnlng from the matenal on the DVD Whatwlll you do to ensu｢e that your mlnd doesn▲twander as you llSten. and how w川you checkthatyou

corpse and start to strip Offthe soft parts･ Even so, lt Can take up to 10 years to remove all the meat from the bones or a large whale

When the general scavengers have finished the speclallStS move ln These anlmals feed on the bones and blubber of the whale. The skeleton qt)lCkly becomes covered wlth a wrlthlng mass Ofhundreds of dlffereTlt species Of

anlmal, 1nCludlng WOrmS, Snails, clams and llmPetS Mats of bacterla form

understand what you are hea｢lng7 〉州maklng notes help, and what notes o｢

on the mud surroundlngthe body and hoover up the nutrtents that leak out

dlagramS could you make that wIll be useful to you ln the futu｢e')

Into tlle Water

You mayflnd lt helps to llSten tO the trackstralghtth｢ough to get some rdea

Some of the orgarLISmS SClentlStS have discovered appear to speclallSe

of the maln POlntS You can then thlnkabout howyou w‖ approach maklng

ln feedmg on wha一e carcasses and are found nowhere else For example,

notes, before llStenlng tO the t｢ackagalnVnth a pen ln your hand

bone-eatlng lzomb】e worms'- a Few centlmetreS long - end ln long

As with maklng notes from texts, there lS nO One rlght way to approach this

rooトllke structures that can penetrate lntO the bones themselves to Suck

task The lmPOrtantthlng lS tO flnd an approach thatworks foryou

out nutrlentS The worm'S `roots'contam bacterla 1 decomposers - that

Comment

You may not have gwen compost heaps much thought before. but nope the lntervleW On the DVD has prompted you totake a `f｢esh lookl Think about how some of what has already been dlSCuSSed appIleS tO thlS neWtOPIC - lnterrelat10nShlPS and the actNltleS Of decomposers, for examp一e

A new thought may have occurred to you. one that HE come backto later ln lhlS Chapter Ecosystems. such as compost heaps, can be alte｢ed.

manlPulaled or managed for a partlCUbr purpose

dlSSOIve the bone structure, auowlngthe worm to dlgeSt the results When the worms have fLnlShed, the last useful chemicals are extracted by other, free-llVlng bacterla that Invade the lnter10r Ofthe bones エーlS thoughtthat the whole process can take up to 100 years

ChapLer3 Energy flows and agrICUELure

EnlrDduclng EnvlrOnrTlenL

[垂∃  [二重コ  [垂可producer primary COnSumer Secondary COnSurller

i spa汀OWha-k l ter【lary COmSumer

Flgure 15 Food chaln Show-ng lroph■c leve】S

Ifwe go back to Darwln's hedgerow and thlnk aboutthe numbers of oTganlSmS at each trophlC level we notlCe SOmethlng revealing

The first thmgs we see are the producers - plants Plants are everywhere, from grasses and small flowering Plants to the trees that grow at Intervals along the hedgerow If we look closely, We may start to spot the large

numbers Of snails, lnSeCtSand other animals that feed on the plants - the prlmary COnSumerS From tlme tO tlme We'll see blrds such as thrushes that feed on the snails and Insects - (he secondary corLSumerS Ifwe're very

lucky, and spend a Ions tlme looklng, We rmght see a slngle sparrowhawk - a tertlary COnSumer - huntlng for some of the smaller blrds

At each trophlC level after the producers, the number of organlSmS tends to go down lots oflnSeCtS and other plant feeders, a few snall- and

Insect-eatlng blrds and the occasional sparrowhawk The average size of the organlSmS tends to lnCreaSe thrushes are ら.gger than snalls, and

sparrowhawks are blgger than thrushes There are exceptions tO thlS number and sIZe ObservatlOn, but lt Seems tO hold true for a lot offood chains

Why lS thlS? Why aren't there lots ofsparrowhawks? To start to answerthlS question - and to start to understand our own Flgure 14 A bone-eatlng ZOmbLe WOrm (The sclentiflC name Of one partlCUlar specles s osedax muconor'S. Wh■ch translates as ■bone-eat･ng SnOト佃wer')

manlPulatlOn Of ecosystems as sources offlOOd - we have to thlnk about the

amount of energy avallable at each trophLC level We have to move from observation tO analysts

3.4 Food chains revisited

3.5 Food pyramids: numbers, biomass and

Now we,Ve leaned about producers and consumers we Can reVISlt the food

energy

chains and food webs from Chapter 2 and add some useful Information tO Our

To understand more about energy tn our feeding relatLOnShIPS, We need to

1 nterrelat10mSlllpS

know how much flood lS aVallabLe at each step ln a food chaln

The Beedlng relatlOnShlPS ln Otlr food chalnS represent the way ln Which

we could start by looklng at the numbers at each trophLC level ln Flgure I 5 we have our grass plants and, above them, a nl.mbe.･s p) mmid shOWlng the

nutrlentS and energy ale trallSferred frol1- One OrganlSm tO another The stages ln the Food chain - fron岬Oducer to consumer and so on - are called trophie leヽels The arrows ln Figure 1 5 now also represent the flow ofnutrlentS and

energy along the food chan

drop ln the number oforganlSmS at each trophlC level (F･gure t6 overleaf)

lntroduclng ErlVlrOnment

Chapter3 Energy

flows

and

agrlCUttuTe                     47

ヽ

best to discount the water Forth1S reason, the collected organisms are usually grass

snalls

h

dned before they are welghed so that, strlCtly, b10rnaSS IS the drled welght )

一一 __ ､､

Jtl 心'

i,l山一 心l 心･ E野∃

ternary COnSumer

∴二･

.Lb

ムIt

匪空 間

囲 空き∃ :匡至!

secondary consumer

Primary COnSumer

ヽ′

producer

竃@@@

心Jy㌔

FlgUre 17 A pyramld of bEOmaSS The wldth of the bar at each trophlC level represents the amount of ‖vlng rnatenal

塾l 盛妙.盛沙

t4㌔'心 But why do we get thlS Pyramid shape? Why doesthe amount offood

血･也ふtii}

available go down at each level?

(a)

The pyramld ofblOmaSS rePreSentSthe total amount of lrvlng materlal at each trophlC leveL It also representsthe total amount ofchemlCal energy stored ln spamwhawk tertiary COnSumer † 山7sh

s∝Ondaryconsumer

the plant material oran1mal flesh at each level at a partlCular polnt ln tlme lt lS a pyramld because only a fractlOn Ofthe blOmaSS, and hence a fractlOn Of the energy, passes from one trophic level to the next

snall pnmary consumer † grass

producer

AHcwaboutlOmlnuteS Energy and trophlC levels Why do you thlnkthatthe amount of energy avatlabEe as food 】s reduced at

(b)

each trophlC levelフ

FEgure 16 (a) Numbers ln afood chaln (b) A numbers pyramld ThevJ】dth of the bara-eachtrophIC EeveF represents

the number of organlSmS

Comment There are a number of reasons

ln some circumstances, however, looklng at numbers can be mlSleadlng For exarnple, a slngle oak tree can support many caterplllars tfwe want to kJIOW how much food lS aVallable at each level, We have to analyse the amount or llVlng mater]at lnVOIyed

' Onlya propo｢tlOn Of the food at each level ]s gathered by the next level up planteate｢s nevereatall the p;ants. and meat eaters never catch all theH prey ● Consumers rarely eat arl of the organrsms they feed on, ordlgeSt aH of

what they eat One way ofshowlng th･s lnformatIOn lS tO measure the welghトor b■olmSS

1 0fthe organlSmS at each trophlC level ThlS IS the llVlng material that lS

' LIVlng thlngS use energy COntlnUOUSly to stayallVe. and rose energy ln the form of he;it and waste products

potentlally avalhble as food to the consumers at the next level BIOmaSS IS measured ln grams Or kllograms, like any other mass So lfwe were to collect together the organlSmS at each trophlC level and measure the mass we would get a bJOn一･､∼S P)rnrlud llke the one shown ln

Flgure 1 7･ (LIVlng thlngS COntaln a lot of water, whlCh they can･t use as a source of energy ln dlSCuSSlng the flow of energy through a food chaln, lt lS

So our pyramld ofb10maSS Can be used to produce a pyramld showlng the amount of energy passing from one trophlC level to the next (Flgure i 8 overleaf)

Chapler3 Erlergy flows and agrlCuEture

Why blg, fle｢Ce anlma】s a｢e rare ln 1978. the ecologlSt Paul CollnVaUX PUb】lShed a collect10n Of essays

enlltled Why BIg, FIerCe Anlma/S Are Rare He sta｢ted the essay that gave the book -ts tltEe wlth the observat-On thai tAnlmals come tn dlfferent sIZeS, and the 】lttFe ones are much more common than the bEg

The flrSt POlnt, that predators are often blgger than the anrmals they eat, lS eXPlalned.n many cases by the slmPle necessltleS Of catchlng and eatlng, Often m One SWalLow, another llvlng thlng The second F■gure 18 Energy Pyramld, show.ng energy Lost from the food chaln The wldth of the

polnt. that large predators are rare, ls explalned by the energy pyramFd The organ]sms at each Eevel have to survlVe On the food

bar at each trophlC level represents the amount of energy at that Level

(energy) that they can obtaln from the level below hl CollnVauX's words

There lS a large loss of energy at each stage along the food chaln At each trophlC level, Only about one-tenth of the energy recelVed lS COnVerted Into

the chemlCal energy ln blOmaSS aVallable as flOOdfor the next level up The energy lost from the food chaln lS not destroyed - accordlng tO the law of consen,at10n Of energy, energy cannot be created or destroyed (remember

SectlOn 2 3) The b1111et polntS m the comment for ActlVlty 21 show what happens to the other nine-tenths of the energy

For flesh eaters, the ta｢gest posslble supply of food calones that they can obtaIn ES a fract10n Of the bodles of thelr PEanトeatrng prey, and they must use thLS fract】On both to make bodleS and as a fue一 supp一y Moreover thelr bodleS must be blg aCtlVe bodleS

that Letthem hunt for a lEVlng lf one lS hlgher stlrl on the food chaln, an eaterOf a flesh-eater's flesh, one has yet a smaHer

fractlon to support even blgger and flerCer bodles WhlCh lS Why

ThlS eXplaLnS Why food chalnS rarely have morethan four trophlC levels lf

large flerCe anlmals are so astonEShlng】y (0｢ PleasJngly) ｢a｢e

we start wlth 1000 units Ofenergy at the level of the producers, only one unlt

(CollnVaUX, 1978. pp 22-23)

of energy will be available to a tertiary COnSumer (the sparrowhawk ln Our The energy pyramld has the su｢p｢lSlng consequence that the nunlbers

example)

of prey play a role ln deteTmnlng the nurTlbe｢s of p｢edato｢s The survlVal of the organlSrnS at each trophiC level lS dependent on the

ぎ.ユ与三･ ､

1000 unltS

ゝnalL ■

100 unltS

rhr"5hJ 10 unltS

amount of food avaErable from the trophlc layer below lt ln the ene｢gy

l spa--ha-k I

py｢amld

l unlt

FEgure lg Energytransfer ln a food chaln

Energy pyramlds allow us to look at ecosystems In a new and revealing

Aハow about 5 m■nutes Tlme management

way By looklng ln detall atJuSt One aspect Ofthe lnterrelatlOnShlPS ln Our

Now mlght be a good t∫me tO Sta｢ttO thlnk about howyou are managlng yOU｢

hedgerow - food chalnS - We Can now Seethat the amount of energy avallable

tlme We al‖ead busy Ewes, and studylng Can aPPeartO be lust One more

goes down from one trophlC level to the next DlagramS Often work llke this

They take somethmg COmPllCated and represent lt ln a Way that lS easy tO understand In part, they do lt by puulng OutluStthe Lnformat10n requ]red to make the point from a more complex - aTld complete - picture (Spray dlagramS Can be used to make sense of complicated texts for much the same reason)

thIng to flt Into an already overcrowded day Yoursuccess as a student wlll depend, m part, on how you Juggle the demands on you to ensu｢e that you havethe tlrTle -and energy- you need to study Thlnk about how you have studled thlS bookso faにDld you read contlnUOuSlyfora long tlme. 0｢dLd you

studya fevJ Pages at a llme? Comment

By hlghllghtlng energy now, energy Pyramlds show us that the number of

There are a number of tlme management teChnlqueS, and sonle

plant eaters brlrnary COnSurnerS) ln an ecosystem Will be determlned ln Part

exper一mentatlOn may be necessary to flnd out what works best fo｢ you Your

by how many plants (producers) there are for them to i.eed upon The number

sltUatl0n Wlll be unlqUe, SO there lS nO approach thatwl1】 sulteVeryOne The

ofsecondary consumers wlu be detemLned ln Part by the number ofprlmary

followlng PrlnCIPles may help

consumers, and so on up the pyramld

lntroduclng EnvlrOnmenl

Chapter

3 Energy

fEovIS

and

agrlCu】ture                        5

ヽ Note tasks ln a Planner訓1d -nc】Udethe date bywhlCh they haveto be

AgrlCulture, by whlCh I mean the cultlVat10n Ofplants for food by human

completed Ptan the week ahead lf posslble Do thlS at the same tnle each

beings, Was a CrltlCal stage ln the development ofhumancrvlllSatlOn Humans

week

have always depended on plants and animals flOr food, but for most of our

plan enough tlme tO COmPlete tasks Be reallStIC, and be flexLble enough to allow for unexpected events Try not to plan rea"y long study sess10nS, they may be counter-productlVe lf your attent】on beglnS tO Wander

evolut10mary hlStOry We have been hunter-gatherers, collectlng Wlld plants

and huntlng aS We moved from place to place Hunter-gatherers are nomadlC, as they qulCkly deplete the potentlal or local energy pyramlds and have to

move on to new terrltOry AgrlCulture allowed llS tO hamess the food potentlaI set c一ear alms Ask yourse一f what you want to complete/resea｢chノ｢evISe

ofplants and animals more efflClently ln effect, lt allowed us to broaden the

prl0ntlSe What needs domg What must be done and whatcould be done

base of the energypyramld so that lt would support more opus butthlS

has had consequences for our way of llfeand for otlr Interactions Wlth the Shorter. regular sessl0nS are far more llkely to be effectNe than one 一ong one

Make use of lnformat10n techno一ogy (lT) 1f you have access to lt and c訓1 use lt efflclently For examp一e. word processlng a W｢ltten account allows you to

draft and redraft lt Wtthout havlng tO Wnte lt out agaln each tlme You coulcZ

also use a word-processlng Package for your glossa｢y, addtn;Ho or revISlng your def】nltl0nS aS you Work you｢ way through the course

RevleW What you've accompIJShed at the end of each study sess10n HlghH9ht anyth】ng that you were unable to flnlSh

ecosystems Involved

AgrlCulture Involves creatlng a managed ecosystem ln WhlCh some of the factors we have been explorLng ln thlS Chapter - trophlC levels and energy

pyramlds - are manlpulated to produce lots of energy-rich foods for human

consumptlOn To doth1Sjarmers have bred specleS Ofplantsand anlmalsthat

grow qulCkly and are resistant tO dlSeaSe, they also control the condlt10nS under whlCh the plants and anlmals llVe ln Order to maxlmlSe food productlOn

Successful agnculture depends on convertlng aS much of the potential blOmaSS Ofplants or animals as posslble Into aPPrOPrlate foodstuffs, Ideally without reducing the long-term ablllty Ofthe ecosystem to produce food ln the

future Fa-ers, unllke hunter-gatherers, tend to stay put of course, We human belngS are members ofecosystems and the energy

pyramld has Implications for our Interactions Wlththe natural world

3.6 Agriculture: altered ecosystems

Allow about 10 m･nutes Food p｢oduct10n What factors w川affect the food product10n Of a plant crop?

Asln Chapter 2, 1日S now time tO look at ourselves as members ofecosystems

we change and dlreCtthe properties Ofecosystems for our ownends, and nowhere lS thlS Clearer than ln Our use Ofanlmals and plantsfor food

Aswlth any consumer, our ablllty tO feed ourselves IS dependent on the food (energy) we can obtain from the trophlC levels below l娼The dl斤erence

lS that we can change the propertleS Ofecosystems -.fnot theru1es - to

Comment You wJll probably have come up wlth some of the ltemS ln the foIEowlng llSt ' the amount of energy recelVed by the plants ln the form of sunllght

. thesupplyof water

maxlmlSe Our eXPIoltat10n Ofthe energy pymid The numbers are unclear

' the supply of atmosphe｢lC Carbon dLO〉(lde

and controverslal, but of the 6 bllllOn People currently llVlng ln the biosphere,

. the avallabJJlty Of nutnents ln the soll

lt appears that the lives Ofapproxlmately 1 bLll10n are Cut Short by not having enoughto eat andthe lives OfanotherbllllOn Or SO are Shortened by having

too much to eat (or too mllCh of the wrong things)

｡ the amountof the plantthat can be harvested and used as food ｡ the amount of the crop lostto pests or dlSeaSe ' temperature vJ川atso be a factor for some plants

In ecologlCal terms, the earlleSt humans were much llke any other species They were part Of a number of food chalnS and energy pyfamlds, Consumlng plants and other anlmals and being consumed ln turn by a number of

predators However, thlngS began to change The development of language

allowed us to collaborate wlth each other ThlS, along wlththe use oftools and fire, allowed us to collect and prepare a wider range offoods

Arable agnculture, growlng plantsfor flood, can be seen as a process ln WhlCh ecosystems are manlPulated to take account ofall these factors The Idea lS tO make sure that as much of the blOmaSS Ofthe crop as posslble passes up to the next trophlC level - human belngS

lntroducLng EnylrOnITTeT7t

Chapter 3 Energy flows and agrICulture

' ■

Seeds are sown wlth enough space for the plants to grow, and trees and

hedgerows may be removed to ensure that the crop recelVeS aS much llght as posslble Extra water lS made avallable, 】frequlred, through.mgatlOn

systems･ and ln some lntenSIVe agrlCultural practices Carbon dlOXlde zs

pumped Into greenhouses The fact that so little of the crop IS available to decomposers means that chemlCal nutrlentS - artlnlClal fertlJISerS - have to be added to the solュ to replacethe nutnents removed every tlme a Crop ZS

harvested ln some cases･ selective breedlng has been used to ensure that a

large proportIOn Ofthe plant lS devoted tothe seeds, frult, Ieaves or roots that we use as food

･･∴

AHowabouHOmlnUteS RevleWlng yOurtlme Plannlng Look back at the tJme PEannlng you eStabHShed n Chapter 1 ls ltWOrkmg? Have you experlenCed any p｢oblems7 lf so, how dld you deal wlth themつ

Comment He｢e lS What one of our student testers wrote

-ln Chapter 2 1 prepared a studytlme Plan. to try to ensure that

Herbicldes (chemicals that klll plants) are used to ensure that weeds do not

l had enough tlme tO COmPlete the work l also planned to work

compete with the crop for nutrlentS, llght or water, and pestickles (chemICals

somewhere that l wouldn't be dlStU｢bed

that klll ammals) are used to control other consumers that would eat the

l found that the study plan never worked out exactly as I expected as

crop before lt ]S harvested for our use MachLnery IS used to make the whole

there were always lnte｢｢UPtlOnS and unexpected events But the p一an

process, lnCludlng harvestlng, more efrlClent - and large areas may be devoted to a slngle crop or monoculturc for much the same reason slml】ar methods are used to rnaxlmlSe the food - meaトproduced by the 弧mals we farm h Intensive meat produc- anlmals may be kept ln heated sheds and鵬r movement may be restrlCted to prevent them from us】ng up too

much energy keeplng themselves wa- Or chaslng each other around a held Dietary Supplements and homlOneS may be used to increase the accumulatlOn of body mass･ and antlbJOtlCS may be admlnJStered to prevent disease

was stlH useful as rt aHDWed me to aHocate extra studytlme tO make up fo｢ any missed sessrons I Many people flnd thatthey need to combme a plan wzth some flexlb‖Ety ln

thlS Way However weH we plan ou｢ llVeS, the unexpected and unforeseen wlH aEways come along The lmPO｢tant thmg lS tO Use the p一an to help us to get

back on track when llfe makes lt dlff)cuEtto stlCk to the letterof ourcarefully thoughtlQut schedules

AgrlCulture and ecologlCar health

The maln aim Ofmost agricultural practices IS tO maXlmise the amouTlt Of

There a｢e those who feel that lntenSJVe agr-culture may be unsustarnabZe ln the Long term, because of (ts lmPllCatIOnS for the

energy - or blOmaSS - that ls made avallable lnthe form offood for us Less energy lS Wasted lfthefood chain lS Short, wlthf.ewer Steps So human beings

ecologICa=1ealth of the ecosystems rnvolved Chemical fert‖lSerS

can get more energy Lrom cereals by eatlng them directly than they can by

can damage the sold and prevent the natural recycrlng Of nutnents

feedlng the cereals to cattle and eatlng the meat (see Figure 20) Remember

pestICides k‖l harmless organlSmS aS Welr as harmfuJ ones, and read

that only about one-tenth of the energy passes to the next step ln the血od chalnー

to the deaths of otheranJmals ln the food chaln by k"Ing the anlmarS and p一ants they feed on

Lhumanbeing I

one approachl labe"ed organFC falmJng. tnes to reconcJle our growlng demand for food wlth a concern forthe health of ecosystems organlC

100

unl(S

10

units

farme｢S ｢ecycle nutrlentS natura‖y uslng manure and crop rotatFOn

(descnbed ln Chapter4). and tryto control pests usFng natural means ('ncrudng natura一 predators)

Another ｢ecenl development has been the use of genetlC mOdfflCatrOn

回-E頭重]- ｢前1 100

units

10

units

1

unit

(GM) to create p】ants and anlmals that are more productlVe AItenng the genetFC make-up of organrsm引n thlS Way remalnS COntrOVerSEar.

FlgUre 20 Energy transfer ln two agrlCUltural food chans

and the advantages and dHSadvantages remaln UnClear Over 80 per cent of the malZe grown ln the USA has been genetlCally modl紬d

rn some way, to Improve yleJds or rntroduce a resIStance to pests of VanOUS SO｢tS

So, far more flood can be produced from a glVen area Of land lfplants are

fled to people, not to anlmals The energy ln the beef has passedthTOugh two trophlC levels by the tlme lt gets tO humans, and at each level the amount

of energy avalhble to us has been reduced When we eat plants (cereals, vegetables or fruit) the energy has passed through only one trophlC leyel

lTltrOdLLCng EnylrOLlment

ln reallty, thlngS are a llttle bit more COmPlex, as we donTt eat aJl the blOmass of the wheat plant (leaves, stalks) or the anlmal (sk]n, bones, hooves and so

on) And some parts of the world are only suited to growlng g,ass for Cattle

and llVeStOCk･ not crops forpeople to eat It depends onthe pLant crop and and the condlhons under WhlCh both are produced, buhn general

千._

CTlaPter 3 EneTgy flows and agrlCUlture

Asalways, the Important thing lS tO Set uP a SyStemthat wュll work for you

You are the one who wlu be consulting your files, and you arethe one who needs to be able to fLnd, and understand, the relevant notes lfyou thlnkthat your System lSn't working, especially once you have qulte a COllectlOn, don't be a丘ald to go back and change lt

lng lS 20 times more efrlClentthan llYeStOCk pTOductlOn, and a dlet requires apprOXlmately seyen bmes mo托Land than a plant-

based dlet

Asthe world populatlOn grows, larger and larger amounts offood wlll be needed One way oflnCreaSlng the food supply would be to keep food chal°s as short as possible by decrea5Lng the quant'叶ofrneat consumed But as

developlng SOCletleS progress they tend to more towards eatlng more meat,

not less, wltha consequent more up the trophlC leyels and mote demands on ecosystems The challenge faclng uS IS tO develop agncullural technlqueS

that allow us to produce the food wc need fora growEng POPulatlOn Wlthout

damaglng the abllltyofecosystems to contmue to fled LW ul the A.tu.｡

Study checklFSt You should now understand that

･ The energythat supports ecosystems IS SuPPlled by light from the sun This energy lS used by green plants (producers) to make food

Anlmals (consumers) obtalnthe energy they need by eatlng Plan(s atld other alllmals

･ Decomposers break down dead plants and anlmalsand release lmpOrtant nutnentS that are recycled ln eCOSyStemS Energy flows

thTOughecosystems, but the basIC Chemicals ofllt.e are used over and over agaln ･ Energy lS lost alongthe fbod chaln, from producer to primary

A"ow about 15 m.mutes RememberJng and forgettlng YoullF come across a dot of new Ideas-andalotol newterms-asyouwork your way through a book rlke thlS One You mlght be wondenng how much youlre expected to remember You■re bound to mrss some thlngS On a nrSt read through That･s nothlng tO worry about From t一me lo tfmel look back through a ch叩Ier and see how

much you remember Read a paragraph or two at random Can you stlll

remember the maln points? Can you remember what a.producer, IS? What

a `consumer'lS? Why lS the energy pyramld IITIPOrtant. and what does ft teFl us about our role n ecosystems? RevEeWng the bl9 ideas wl" help to consolldate your unde｢standEng Look at your notes･ and at the terms ln your glossary Do they help? lf not, what ext｢a lnformat-on wou一d make them more rneanlngful next tlrTle?

Comment lt■s at thJS POEnt that you】= fTnd out how effectNe your housekeeplng has been

Can you flnd the notes you're lookmg for, and can you Old the lnformatl0n you need m those notes? Renlemberthat notes are a way of extendlng your memory They help you to remember for longer and to remrnd yourself of

what you have forgotten

Over tme the number of pleCeS Of paper contanEng notes and dlagrams v/Ill start to mount up DevlSlng a System for stonng your notes early on wl" help to Prevent P｢Oblems later Your" waste a rot of the tlnle you,ve spent ln maklng you｢ notes Lf you don't also Invest SOrne帥e n thlnklng about how you,El

make sure that you can f-nd what you need when you need Ft

corlSumer tO Secondary consllmer and so on, creating an `energy pyramld'

･ Hllman belngS llSe a range OfagrlCltltural practlCeS tO maXlmlSe

the amount of energy, lTl the fom offood, that we can obtaln from the ecosystems we manage There are, however, Womes about how

sustalnable some ofmese approaches may be ln the long ten_ You should now be able to

･ add terms and defLnlt10nS tO yOurglossary as you meet new Ideas ･ plan your study tlme more efFectlVely ･ revleWyOuT use Oftlme

･ organlSe your notes, SO that you can flrld what you need when you

needlt

Chapter4 ChangTng land, changlng eCOSyStemS

4 Changmg land, changlng ecosystems 4.1 1ntroduction In Chapter 3, you met the Idea ofa managed ecosystem, ln Which,for example, aねrmer alters the balance between species tO favour thefoOd crop

Humanlty has been managing eCOSyStemS flOr a long time, Whether by felling trees or plantlng Crops Even modern clty dwellers often have thelr own ecosystems to manage at home - their gardens lt co111d be Bald that altenng

the envlfOnment ln Which we llVe lS a basic humanactlVltyOver thousands of years, all this ecosystem alteration has added up to more than a flew local flelds oT gardens - the oyerall scenery, the landscape, has changed

Only three tenths of the Earth's surface lS land - the rest lS OCean Ofthe land area, only about a quarter lS useful for human actlVltleS, aS the rest lS desert, high mountain, frozen laTld or othermSe lnhospltable Although thlS Chapter focuses on the UK (a relatlVely small group oflSlands ln Northem Europe), 1t Illustrates many of the factors that affect land use elsewhere, particularly as

lnCreaSlng POPulatlOnS Put more Pressure On restricted areas ofusefuHand Most of the landscape lnthe UK has been affected by human alterations

- there lS Very llttle left that lS truly wlldernessAsan example, Flgure 21 shows a photograph taken ln the English Lake DIStrlCt At flrSt glance, thlS may appear 'natura17, but take a closer look Here, the mountalnS are natural,

butthe hedges have been planted to mark fleld bollndarleS Wlthln the fields, there are pastures for gra2:lng and some crops, So most of the land Ln this

photograph lS belng managed, rather than left wlld Even some of the nearby lakes are arttflClal, flOrmed by malClng dams across rlVerS

FlgUre 21 Ascene ln the Lake DISlrlCt

E≡芦･---ト一一一       二一- -===三≡≡≡≡∃=蝉些事芦 All｡､ソ∂bouH0 m■nutes A‡te｢ed 一andscapes

Look at the two photographs ln FlgU｢e 22. showlng landscapes that have been altered by people ln VanOUS Ways How much of the land In each

photograph has been alte｢ed7 Make a note of any evldence you can fFnd m each pICture

lntroducng EnvITOnlTlent

Chapter4 Changlng

land,

changlrtg

eCOSyStenS                      59

Comment

Dlfflerent Plants have dlfFerent needs Some grow well ln Wan, mOISt, rlCh

(a) AcltyPark

sol1 Others can survIVe ln barren rocky areas, covered by snow for part of the

ヽ

Almost all the 一andscape ln thlS Photograph has been altered The ｢lVe｢lS

natural, but the b｢ldge ts clearly the resuLt of human actlVlty Perhaps less obvlOuSly. the trees were planted when the parkwas buLlt The grass IS rnOWn regula｢】Y. keeplng lt tldy. and also p｢eventlng the g｢owth of other plants

(b) Afo｢est Atfl｢St glance. th】s may appearto be natu｢al, butthe open path lS a hlnt

that people have been atwork here ThlS IS a managed woodland -the falrly regular spaclng Of the trees also suggests that, although Et lS Well

estabIIShed. lt lS llkely to have been pbnted deFlberately

year Few plants grow ln hot, dry deserts, but thosethat do have adapted to those cor)dltlOnS, Wlth bulbous stems or leaves that store moISture ln contfaSt⊃

trees adapted to cooler, drier areas have thln, needle-shaped leaves･ to reduce the amount of evaporatlOn The overall weather condlttOnS ln a ParllCular area are known as the el"一･lte

forthat area For Instance, a tropical crLmate lS Warm and wet,typlCally close to the equator ln areas Wlth high ralnfall By mapplng Out the malれ Cllmate

zones, 1t lS pOSSlble to categorlSe the typlCal vegetatlOn for large areas of the

world These categones are called biomesAsalhhe other specleS depend on plants, each b10me will have typical msects, anlmalSand other specleS For

Instance, trOPleal rainforesf lS a blOme that contains PartlCular specleS Of

monkeys, parrots and butterflies None of these species would be flOund ln a ThlS Chapter wlll consider how land use has changed, parhcularlyinthe UK,

and some of the reasons for those changesAsever, this IS a COmpllCated sltuat10n, SO I wlll only cover some of the main factors at WOrk here You have seen how the rest of the food chaln depends on the vegetation ln a Particular

area, So lt makes sense to focus oTl the plants, Including trees and forests

desert blOme, Whtch lS hot and dry, wlth relatively llttle plant or animal llfe

Globally, there lS an OVerall pattem ofabollt half-a-dozen broad types of vegetation, Which drvlde the b10SPhere Into that number of b10meS Each b10me Can be classified Into more detalled subcategones, which need not concem us m thlS book Some examples ofglobal blOmeS are Shown ln

Along the way, you will see how sclentiflC and teclmologlCaldevelopments have affected the landscape Before I descrlbe those changes, there lS an

Tablet

Important question tO answer- What was the BrltlSh landscape before people

ThlS table requlleS SOme new VOCabulary, which you mlght llke to note

altered lt? In other words, what lS 'natural'vegetat10n ln thlS Part Ofthe

Declduous trees, such as oak, have broader leaves, whlCh they tend to shed

world? That question Starts a hlStOnCal dlSCuSS10n that brleny describes some

ln Wlnter They are more predominant ln temperate flOreSt regions Bore･lJ

stages ln SeVeralthousand years of human hlStOry

hrest (also called `talga') lS flOund ln the regions below the ArctlC, and Its

After that, the story will take a break, So you can practise an Important Study

characterlStlC Veget且tlOn lS COniferol)∼ forest Coniferous trees, such as plne,

sklll - wrltlng The environmental storythen resumes wLththe answer to another Important queSttOn how does an ecosystem recover iron alterations,

1f left alone? Hare you ever wondered what would happen to our parks,

gardens and motorways lf people stopped using and malntainlrlgthem? Once you have consldered that quetγ,仇e chapter ends wl仏an example ofatl

are evergreen, with needle-shaped leaves, and produce cones whlCh contaln

thelr Seeds Tundra lS found near the poles, and at very hlghaltltudes ln mountalnS - 1n these areas,the ground lS almost permanently frozen, So there lS Very little plant life Reading across each row of the table shows whlCh blOme COrreSPOnds wlth whlCh cllmate COndlttOnS

ecosystem that has changed over decades dlle tO the nse and fall of a slngle specleS, the wlld rabbit ThlS example shows how lnterrelat10nShlPS Can have

effleCtS WhlCh mlght not be obvlOuS at first. It also Illustrates how ecosystem management can requlre SOme dlfrlCult decISLOnS tO balance the needs of

dlfBerent specleS, 1nCludlng humans For now, let's go back tothe questlOn I posed earller

Bl0me type Cllmate COndlt10nS Desert

Hot

and

dry

Grassland Cool/warm/hot, wllh more water avallable nan desert. but 王ess than forest

TropICal forest Hot and wet

4.2 What is the natural vegetation of the UK? To answer thlS question, 1et's change perspectlVe tO a global view, tO See how

the UK fits Wlthln a Wlder pattem Plants, Including trees, are Very SenSltlVe

to temperature and water avallabllltyThlS may be fam111ar lfyou have ever forgotten to water a houseplant, or lefHt too Close to a heater Eventhe most vlgOrOuS houseplant won't last long lf lt lS kept lrL the wrong condltlOnS

Temperate forest Warm. wlth more waterthan grassland･ manlydeclduous trees. Some conlfe｢S Boreal forest Cooler than temperate forest, wlth a slmllar avallabHlLy of water. although can extend to dner areas wlth a hlgher proport】on of conlfe｢S

Tundra Very cold (below freezlng), faLrly dry

Chapter4 Changlng

60 ♂

7and･

chang.ng

ecosyslems                 6

Early farmers SIXthousand years ago, ryeolifh]C (N帥Stone Age) farmers were the flrSt tO

systematlCally clear large areas of the wlldwood, to make space for cropsAs the populatlOn grew over the next few thousand years, Iarge areas of flOreSt

were removed for fuel and bulldzng and to Increase the area offlelds By 4000 years ago, more than halfthe orlglnal wlldwood had already been removed

ThlS may Seem remarkable, but lt happened over a perlOd or2000 years There were probably two malれ teChn】ques for clearance feulng trees Wlth

stone axes (surprlSIngly efFectlVe), and llSlng fire Forest clearance COntlnued

through the Bronze and Iron Ages Bythe end of the Iron Age, ln the southern parts of Bntaln most Ofthe femalnlnB woodland was no longer truly wlld Tt was managed by coppleJng, WhLCh lS a Way tO haⅣest wood from a tree year

after year wlthout kllllng lt The coppICed tree lS Cut tO a llVlmg Stump, With enough left to allow the tree to grow new branches These smaller branches can be harvested contlnually, glVlng a regular supply of new wood

(a)

FlgUre 23 Typ■cal trees from d･fferent types of forest (a) temperate (b) boreal (C) trop■cal

The UK falls wlthln a forest blOme (temperate towards the south, boreal

towards the north) So, the natural UK yegetatlOn would be mainly declduous forest ln the southem areas with more conlflerOuSforestfurther north Into scotland There would be some local varlat10n, aS trees tend not to grow above a certain altltude ln mountainous areas (too cold), or ln marshes (too

wet) Even so, trees currently only cover about a tenth of the total UK land area, far less than you would expect for natural vegetation About 900O years ago, the UK was almost entlrely covered by forest So what happened to the tTeeSワTo understand this, you need to take Into account past Climate Changes,

and the hlStOtY Ofthe UK populat10n The next sectlOn descrlbes some of the major Changes ln Our landscape, and a few of the factors dr.vlng them ThlS

IS not the whole story, of course ltJuSt hlghllghts some of the developrnents, malnly ln foleStry arLd arable farming

43 Thechangmg UKlandscape In the UK, removal of the forests and the progress ofagrlCulture have profoundly affected the landscape Currently, about three ftfths of the Land area LS used forねrmlng, 1nCludlrlg both grazlng (pasture) and arable land to

grow Crops

Nine thousand years ago, most oftbe UK landscape was densely covered m woodland, referred to as ､､lld､､ ood The hLlman pOPulatlOn Was low, probably

about 40 000 people m total, less thanthe populat.on of a small modem town

FlgLrre 24 A copplCed tree. Showmg new branches growlng from an old slump

lntroducFng EnvlrOElrTLenl

Chapter4 ChangLng land, changlng eCOSyStemS

I

Forany famler,there are some major Chauenges ･ breaklnguP the sollforplantlng

To plant seeds, people needed to break up the soil For the first farmers, the only tool avallable for cultlVatlng the soll was the dlgglng StlCk (see F)gore 25(a)) The stlCk lS used to break the turf and expose the 写oll Uslng

･ keeping the soil fertlle, as each crop removes nutnents

one lS Slow and very hard work, so productlVltylS Low At some polnt farmers

I protectmg the crop from pests, and removlng Weeds that would compete

started to use animals (oxen and, much later, horses) to pull a simple plough

for resources a provldlng Sufficlent Water forthe crop These challenges have led tothe development of new technologleS･ Which

throllghthe soil ThlS Substantlally lTICreaSed the area that could be farmed and made lt POSSlble to produce a surplus of food over and above the amount requlred for the血rmer-S own needs Increased leisure became posslble and

some people could be released from farmlng tO do other things

have Improved as people have found better solutLOnS

Roman Influences Jumplngforward ln hlStOry tO about 2000 years ago･ after the Roman Invasion Doth'sactlVtlyasyou ldentlfylng Changes m land use read the rest oHhlS sect10n

As you contlnUe tO read SectlOn 4 3, make a note of

ofBrltaln, We find a very different sltuat10n The RomarlS issued Brltaln's earliest natlOnWlde colnS, and the RomanEmplre's demand for food and

trade goods producedthe firstfu1l market economy Ownership Of land

(a) the reasons forchanges to forests and hedges

became more Important, aS did marklng Its borders wlthnew hedges New

(b) Other changes ln Iand use

materlals and Ideas were brought ln from other parts of the Roman Empire,

Comment

once you have reached the end of SectlOn 4 3, see the commentatthe back of the book

So technology advanced rapldly The Romans were excellent englneerS,

constructing Well dralned stralght roads to span the country Trees were cleared to ensure a good vleWfrom the road, and a reduced chance of ambush on aJOumey Local clay was fired ln kllns to make brlCks for bulldlng

Quarrymgfor clay and gravel for bulldlng matenals altered the shape of the land Wood was stlll the maJOrfuel, but by the time Ofthe Romans, only 1 1

per cent (about one nlnth) of the countryslde was forest, and very llttle of that was wlldwood

Boats were the easleSt and cheapest means to transport goods throughout the

Medlterranean, and wlthln Bntaln Sea ports and settlements on the larger rlVerS became major areas OfpopulatlOn Townsand cltleS grew Wlth the Increasing trade, and the need for crafts as well as food productlOn lt lS nO

accldent that London (a large Roman city) lS Situated on a rLYer that leads tc･ a

coast relahvely close to contlnental Europe.Aspeople moved lntOthe cltleS, more land was used flOr bulldlng

Asthe population Increased, so dld the demand for food for the locals as well as for trade There lS a major problem ln farming lfvlrgln SOll lS planted for food, ylelds start to fall a洗er a few years asthe nutrlentS ln the 写oll are

removed by the crops Althoughplants receive erLergy i.ron Sunllght, and only requlre Water and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, Other nutrlentS are needed for the plant to grow well NltrOgen and phosphorous compounds are partlCulaTly Important In some parts of the world thlS drop ln yleld lS overcome by moving On and clearlng rnOre land, but clearly lt lS not PraCtlCal to do thlS ln a Small and crowded country like Brltatn (b)

one solut10n lS tO rest the land every two Or three years by lettlng lt lle faHow or unused TyplCally, in Roman tlmeS, a two-field system would be used･ so half the land would be le氏fallow whlle the other halfwas ]n use Durlng

FlgUre 25 Prepanng the ground - modern examples of t｢adllEOnal technlqUeS (a) uslng a VerS10n Of a dlgglng Sモtck (b) uslng a SlmPle plough drawn by oxen

this fallow perlOd the nutrlentS ln the soll are slowly replaced by the natural

lntroduclngヒnVIrt〉nrTlenl

processes ofWeatherjng ofsoll mlnerals, whlCh releases nutrlentS Stones

Seven hundred years after the Normanconquest, lnthe early 18th century,

and small particles of rock are gradually dlSSOIved or broken down by water

a new farming teClmology was developed -the four-fLeld system of

and frost Bacterla also take nitrogen from the atmosphere Into the soll ThlS

rotation ThlS lnnOVatlOn depended uponthe natural tendency for some

works reasonably well but yields are stlu modest, especlally as only half the

plants to mCreaSe the nutrlentS ln the soil The slgnlflCant dISCOVery was

avallable land lS COVered by crops each year

that clover lmPrOVedthe concentratlOn OfnltrOgen-based nutrlentS ln a four-fLeld system, each field was used for a cycle offour dlfferent crops, 1n a Specific order

wheat, clover, tumlpS, barley, wheat, clover, turnlPS, barley

wheat

(a)

fallow

fallow

wheat

clover tumlPS tuTnlPS barley barley wheat

whea( fallow

(b)         (C)         (d)

F】gure 26 Two-f■eld system of crop rotat10n (a) year 1 (b) yeal2 (C)year3 (d) year4

YIelds can be lmPrOVed且lrther by spreadlng manure On the land while lt lS

barley

Iylng fallow, and aliowlng anlmals to graze on the stubble of the prevlOuS crop The manure contalnS many Of the nutrlentS Which were removed from

(a)

turn1PS

Wheat

barley

clover

wheat

tumlPS

Clover

(b)         (C)         (d)

the land ln the prey10uS Crop By spreadmg manure on the land, these nutrlentS are retumed to the soil where they can be used agaln by the next crop ThlS

FlgU｢e 27 FouT-fleld systemof crop rotatlO∩ (a) year 1 (b) year2 (C) year3 (d) year4

IS Slm.tar to the natura一 processes ofnutrlent CyCllng WhlCh take place ln less

lntenSIVe ly managed ecosystems

Growlng Plants contalnlng nitrogen-fIXlng bacteria ln thelr roots, Such as

From the Norman conquest to the year 1750 Taklng another leap flOrWard, about another 1000 years, by the tlme Ofthe

Noman conquest ln 1 066, about 15 per cent of the land was forest The Normans kept some ofthlS aS a habitat for (he rLeWly Introduced fallow deer, whlCh they valued ilOr flood and the sport ofhuntlng, and thus protected some

ofthe older flOreSt areas The Normans also brought rabbltS tO Brltaln, flOr use as food, and as a source of f.urAsthe economy flour-shed, and the populatlOn lnCreaSed･ So dld the demand for tLmber for butldlng and wood for fuel, so by 1400, the land had only 1 0 per cent woodland ThlS level of tree cover was malntalned for the next few centurleS

At flrSt, most People who worked on the land dld not own lt, but worked for thelr `lord of the manor'under what lS broadly termed the `feudal system' Eacll Vlllage would have three Iarge open flelds, cropped ln rOtatlOn with wheat, another cereal or left払llow Thts three-fLeld system was lnOre productlVe than the two-fLeld a汀angement descrtbed above, slnCe less of

the land was lymg fallow at any one tlme Vlltagers were allocated strlpS ofground ln each field, and also had access to common land flOr keeplng l-vestockl COllectlng flreWOOd and so on But these open areas gradually

dlSaPpeared as landowners flOtnd lt mole eCOnOmlCal to consolidate thelr land holdlngS, enclose the1-- with hedges and rent them out to tenant farmers

clover, enabled fans to become much more efficient The clover restored

the nitrogen-based nutnents removed by the wheat and barley crops Cattle and sheep could be grazed onthe clover, provldlng extra SuStenanCe for the anlmals, and manure to fert111Se the field ln the next year a鮎r that, tumlpS,

a root crop, did not depend on the same nutrients aS the cereal crops, so a hlgh yleld oftumlpS dld not deplete the followlng two years Ofbarley and

wheat The turnips provided winter feed for the llVeStOCk, so that for the

flrSt tlme, a SlgnlfLCant number ofanlmals could be keptthroughout the year Beforeth1S, most llVeStOCk was slaughtered ln alltumn, aS there was lnSufflClent food for the anlmals ln the lean wlnteT months ExperlmentS were made ln Selective breedlng Of llVeStOCk to create larger anlrnals

produclng more meat Crop productlOn Was also made more efflClent ln the

early 1700s by the Invention Ofthe mechanlCalseed drill ThlS meant that seed could be dlStributed払r more evenly and accuratelythanthe age-old system ofsca亡terlng lt by hand More effectlVe Ploughs were also developed

The resulting Increased food supply led to further Increases ln pOPulatl0n

lntroduc=1g EnⅥTOnmCnt

ChapleT4 Changlng

一and,

changEng

eCOSySternS                   67

ヽ

】■■■田■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■『■ A日｡wabout 20 mlnUteS ldentlfylng teChnologleS before the year 1750 Fronl Chapter 1 , you may recall that techno】OgleS are not lust about gadgets

m history,people had found a way to add extra nutnents to plant crops, from non-blOloglCal sources It also meant that nutnents were belng added from outsldethe免m】 rather than recycled wlthln ln lt This has two lmpllCat10nS

extra energy (from coal or other sources) 1S needed to power the chemical

or machLneS. they also Involve appLylng knowledge to solve problerTIS,

process to make the fertlllSer, and the amount offlert111Ser aPPlled to the land

and requlre People to work together effectlVery Technology lnCIudes the

has to be measured carefully - too much can have harmRII consequences, as

appHCatl0n Of skllls, knowledge and tools through good o｢ganlSatLOn Of people

you'H see later

Horses were used stlll used to pull ploughs until well Into the 20th century

Go back overwhatyoulve read sofar事n Sectlon 4 3. and make a JIStOf aH the

It was not untllthe 1950Sthat tractors mostly replaced horses for farm work

technologleS you Can ldentl∼

Over the last 50 years, tractors have become larger and more sophlStlCated and

Comment

thelr PrOductLVltyhas Increased correspondlngly Many hedges were removed between 1950 and 1970, to make larger, more economic flelds More recently,

See the comment atlhe back of the book

since 1990, more hedgerows and trees have been planted, sothat the current land area covered by forest lS about the same as ln Roman tlmeS

TechnologleS after the year 1750 By aboutthe year 1750, sclentlfLC dlSCOVeneS ln ChemlStry and physics Were

Since 1950, new varletleS Ofthe major cereal crops hare been developed by systematlC Selective breedlng These are able to absorband use very large quantltleS OrnltrOgen from the sol上 The result has been enomous Increases

beglnnlng tO lnflOrm new teClmologleS,and over the next 100 years or so

ln Crop ylelds - a field of wheat ln the 1990s produced more than flVe times

there were many changes So many new technologies and Industries sprang

as much graln aS the same sized fleld ln the 1940s These ]ncreased crop

up ln the late 18th and early 19thcenturleS thatth1S tlme lS Often called the

ylelds have come at a pnce. The hlghrates of use ofnltrOgen mean that large

Industrial Revolution By 1850, whlCh lS Into the VICtOrlan PenOd, changing

amounts ofartlflClal flertltlSer have to be applied In the rotat10nal system of

demands meant thatthe exIStlng forests were no longer useful The shift to

famllng Insect Pests Were kept ln Check bythe change ln Crop each year One

coal as a major Rュel source, for steam engines and steelfumaces, meant that

benefit ofartlflClal fertlllSer WaSthat lt ireed血rmers fromthe need to rotate

charcoal (made from coppICed wood) was no longer required Coal mines

crops to malntaln SOIL fertillty lt became possible to grow the same crop on

domlnated many areas of the landscapeTlmber was Imported from abroad,

the same land for Several years at a tlme, aSthe lost nutnents were replaced

partlCularly mahogany for RImltureAsa result, anclent Brltish woodlands

by artlficlal fertlllSerS- The dlSadvantage lSthat weeds, dlSeaSeS and Insect

that had survIVed slnCe aboutthe 1400s were no longer needed Many of

pests speclfic to the type of crop are able to bulld up ln the soll asthe same

these forests were i.51led, to be replaced wlth fast-growing plantations Ofplne

crop lS grown year ln year Out, Wl仇a break crop every four or five years This

trees, or wlthagncuttural land to feed the rapidly growlng population At the

problem is kept ln Check by uslng Weedklllers (herblCldes) and pestlCldes to

same time,the VictorlanS Planted hllndreds of thousands ofmlles ofhaw仙om

protect血e crop

hedges, to mark new pattems ofland ownershlP aS the enclosure of open flelds was stepped up Many people foundthey could Ilo longer find work on the land and drifted to the cltleS

These new technologies have made lt pOSSLble to feed the Increased

poplllatlOn lnthe world However, the Impact On the land, and Its eCOSyStemS, has been hlgh The landscape of lowland Brltaln has changed as hedges

Watenvays were st111 a major mearlS Oftransporトthe VICtOnanS built

have been removed to make flull use ofmodem fan machlnery Herblcldes

hundreds ofmles of canals to transpor( goods tromthe lndustrlal centres to

and pestlCldes have substantlally reduced the populatlOnS Ofwlld plants and

the ports and cltleS Roads were Improved, althoughhorse-drawn camages

anlmals ln Parts OfBrltaln, althoughsteps are now belng taken to remedy thlS,

were the main means Ofpassenger transport Once the teclmOlogleS Ofsteam

as you will see later ln thlS Chapter

power and steel productlOn had developed, the first railways were bullt, wlth

Excess f.ertlllSer Can be washed Into rlVerS by the raln, gradualまy bulldlng

thousands ofmlles of new track, brldges and tunnels

up lnthe water supply ThlS Can have negative effects,for example some water plants can grow more vIBOrOuSly, Out ofbalance wlth the rest of the

The 20th century

rlVer ecosystem This Can lead to algalblooms I Vast floatmg mats of dense

ln the early 20th century a method offixlng nltrOgen from the atmosphere was

green plant llfle that can poISOn and even kill other species ThlS Shows that

developed ArtlflCial nltfOgen ferllllSerS Were the result ThlS Was Probably the

teclmOlogy can have both beneficlal and damaglng e斤eets dependlng On how

most Important farming development lnthe past 100 years, as lt allowed crop

lt lS Used EconomlC and polltlCal conslderatlOnS have a strong Influence on

ylelds to Increase dramatlCally ThlS Was a huge change - for the first tlme

Chapter4 Changlng Land, chan9Ing eCOSyStenlS

lrttroduclng EnvlrOnrnent

r′

the way technology lS aPPlled ln a Particular region ln developed countrleS

巧言二-

ln Europeand North AmerlCa, government SubsldleS tO fa-ers can have a

 .

㌔

■               上 -

AI]owabout20 m.ロutes The challenges of sclentlflC Wntmg

profound e任ect on essential food productlOn, and Its environmental Impact

こ ▲冊---        

盟

        --

AFl.wabout20mnutes ldentlfylng teChnoioglCal changes slnCe the year 1750

Track 2 0f the DVD ts an aud10 1nterVleW Wlth RIChard Fo｢tey, who has w｢ltten many popular sclenCe books He dlSCUSSeS the challenges of sclentlnC

wrltmg Wlth Barbara Allen, an OU academlC LISten lo the audl0･ and make a

wntln8 9kI脂 nOte Of the key polntSyOu nnd useful, part】cularly as RIChard dISCUSSeS

varl0US COmmOn lSSUeS Wlth wrltlng thlS SO｢t Of text

Go back overwhat you've read ln Sect10n 4 3. 5lnCe Actwlty 27, and make a llSt Of all the technologleS you Can Edentlfythat have changed slnCe the year

Comment

1750

Your notes wlll depend on your own expe｢lenCe Somethlng that struck me

Now wnte a paragraph, uslng full sentences. not notes. descnblng how

was that RIChard does not expect to wrlte more than about 500 words ln

farmlng teChnologleS before 1 750 compare wlth mo｢e recent ones W｢lte aS

a slngle sess10n -WOrth beanng ln mlnd lf you are plannlng yOU｢ tlme for

though you are expla川1lng thlS tO a fnend who has not read thlS book Even

wrltlng, eSPeClally as he IS an eXPe｢lenCed w｢】te｢

Ff you flnd thlS a ChaHenge, save yourefforts -you wlH need them forthe nexl sectl0n Note the recommended tIrne fo｢ thlS aCtIVlty - you Only need to p｢oduce a fr｢st draft at this Stage H】nt No 1 wrlte ln P｢OPe｢SentenCeS

Comment

It lS Important tO Wrlte Proper Sentences, nOtJuSt the short phrases you mlght

See the comment atthe back of the book

use ln notes. The abbrevlated 'ⅥctoflanS more hedges - boundanes'1S an

acceptable way to make notes on what you have read, but lt lSn't a proper

sentence It would be better to write 'The VICtOflanS Planted hedges to create boundaries between fields 'The verb `planted'makes all the dlfference - you

Technology has advanced at an ewer-1nCreaSlng rate SlnCe the Ⅵctorlanera

Remember tO Check your notes from

Actwlty 27 wlth the comment at, the back of the book

may know thatthe verb lS the Ldolng'Word Get Into the habit Of readmg

There have been profound changes ln land use, food product10rL, transport and

throughyour work to make sure lt sounds nght Readlrlg aloud to yourself, or

llVlng Standards ln developed countnes slnCe them The lndustrlal RevolutlOn

perhaps to a frlend】 may help

was also the start of a trend that has continued ever slnCe - nO longer

dependent on (or able to be supported by) the land, moreand more people are llVlng ln CltleS, SllPPOrted by food and other goods that are transported over

Hlnt No 2 makeeach sentence covera smgle polnt

long distances

You'll need to be nexlble here, two polntS Can be conveyed ln a Slngle sentence, but they need to be related ln SOme Way The key part of the advICe

lS not tO Wrlte Sentences that are too longand complex - they are no guarantee that what you are writlng lS `good sclenCe', Or good communlCatIOn- Slmple, short sentences are usually easier tO understand

ln the example below, too much lS belng Sald ln One Sentence You can tell

thatthe sentence lS too long lfyou read lt Out loudAswe tend to pause for breath atthe end ofa sentence, you wlll flnd that readlng a long sentence can become dlfficult

The VICtOrLanS took advantage ofteclmologleSthat llSed coal, and used steam trains SO that many miles ofrallway needed to be built,

and opportunltyto practlSe, Which should help you gradually bulld up your

wLth bridges and tunnels, whlChaltered the use of the land

skllls and confldence Good wntlng takes time tO develop, So do not expect to

Better to say

produce a pollShed pleCe Ofwork at the first attempt ThlS partlCUlar chapter

has been rewmtten severaHlmeS, and then been enhanced by the work ofa

profleSSIOnal edltOrAsan author, I know how long lt takes to produce good wrltten teXtl

The VICtOrlanS developed technologies that used coal Steam tralnS .) .■. Iq､4JI.∵.h

needed many mlles ofrallway RaIIs, brldges and tunnels were bult･ whICh altered the use orthe lalld

Ent｢oducEng EnvErOnTnent

Chapter4 Chang■ng

land,

changlng

eCOSyStemS                 71

I

of course,thereTs an Important balance to strike here A stnng of very short

Another Important Wrltlng Sklll is to make lt Clear by your choice Ofwords

sentences can be 'bltty'and awkward to read

whether what you say lS COnJeCttlre - how thlngS might be - or fact - how

The VICtOrlanS developed many technologleS They used coal Steam tralnS are an example These needed many mlles of railway Ralls, brldges and tunnels were bullL This altered the use of the land

thlngS are For example, a student wrote 'The VICtOnanS Invented artlflClal

fertlllSerS becausethey wanted more flood 'ThlS IS a Very Intelligent suggestion (and, as lt happens, quite Close to the truth) but the tutc'r wrote next

to lt `How do yoll blow?'What was needed was a clear lndlCat10m that this

Asa generalrule, however, wntmg ln Sentences that are too short lS less ofa

was only a posslb111tySo don't be afrald to speculate lfthe occas10rl lS right,

problem It lS dlfflCult to understand sentences that are too long, and you can always Joln two Very Short sentences together lfthe wrltlng Seems too Jerky

that', `lt may be'or 'thlS Suggests that'are so frequently used ln SClentlfic

but choose your words care丘llly This lS Why phrases such as llt lS pOSSlble

accounts

HlntN0 3 wrlteSentenCeS thatare concISeand clear

lmpllClt ln the need for short sentences IS tlle need to say thlngS ln few words

So, dlStlngulShlng between facts and posslbll.tleS and reporting Information correctly are both Important for good wntlng lnthe sclenCeS They help give

ln everyday wrltlng and speech, uslng more WOrds than we need to IS almost

authorltyto what lS Wrltten Some forms ofwntmg requlre authors to go one

second nature, but ln SClenCe Wrltlng lt Should be avolded

Look out flOr phrases that can be abbreviated to one word

stepfurtherand glVe references whenthey draw on lnflOrmatlOn from other published sources You can see examples of references ln this book lfyou are studying aS Part Ofa course, your tutor should be able to advise you Orl this

Along the llneS Of Llke ltbelng thecase that Because/slnCe

At somefuturepolnt Later Due to tlle fact that Because ln the first lI】StanCe First

Uslng too many words, or too many awkward long words, tends to clutter the text and to reduce the Impact Ofwhat you wrlte

Which of the followlng, 1n general, Would you prefer to wrlte Enollgh or sllfficlentワ

Shown or manLfleSted? Flnd out or ascer(aln?

Why you need to be your own text edltOr Readlng through what you wnte lS Important lt goes beyond the need for good grammar lt's a way ofcheckmg the academlC COrreetneSS Of what you

say Not only should you ask yourselrqueSt10mS about what you've said, you should also re判ect on the way ln WhlCh yotl7ve saLd lt Try to be gently self-

cntlCal - thlS Wlll prompt you to `edlt'your own text Does that polnt cone

across? ts that the rlght word? Can I say that more concISely? How is that different from WhaH've said beflOre? Should I say this here or ln an earller paragraphりAsklng queStlOnS OfthlS typeShows you're extendlng theth1nklng

aspects ofwntlng Well beyond the phase ofslmPly puttlng your first words on paper Remember your overall al血 - tO Improve the clarlty'flOw and Impact of what you wflte Gettlng rュd ofall the compllCatlng and unnecessary bits

Began or commenced?

aTld pleCeS that clutter your first efflOrtS Wlll ldentlfymore clearly the essentlal

Use or ut111Se?

message you want to convey Knowing that you can go back and change what

Need or necessltate?

you haye wn(ten wlu also reduce the stress ofwrltlng lt lS far easter tO `have

a go'and then change ltthan to write Precisely at the first attempt

I hope you feel more comfortable with the short words, they are easier tO

wrlte, read andumderstand Keeping your Sentences Short lS One Way tO Improve your Wrltlng At the same tlme, thlnk about whether the meamng lS clear This means aVOldlng amblgulty and saying What you mean

Hlnt No 4. report facts accurately h science, lt lS Important tO Check the lnfomlatlOn you use, and avoid

Allowabout45 rnnutes EdltEng your own WrFtlng Now that you have read thJS SeCt】0∩, nnd your wr■t■ng from Act■V】ty 29 and

｢ew｢lte lt, beanng ln mmd the advlCe glVen above Then compare your flrSt verston wlth the second one

mlSleadlng the reader For example, you need to make sure that you report

dates accurately, and that causes and effects are clear This Can be partlCularly

Comment

dlffLCult ln Subjects Such as ecology and technology, where there could be

ThLS V/州depend on your own expenence You probably found that you could

multiple causes for a partlCular effect For instance, there have been Increases

lmP｢OVe yOU｢ work by rew｢ltlng lt after a break

ln the human population at Various tlmeS ln the UK ln this Chapter, these have been llnked to Improved food production, but there are other causes as well

Er)tTOqUC[rlg E:l lYH UI MlロI EL

4 5 How does a 】ocal ecosystem respond to alterat10nS? Earllef lm thIS Chapter, yo†l have seen how we have altered the land flOr Our

own use, but what would happen lfanarea ofgrassland were left alone?

An ecosystem that lS altered or damaged ln SOme Way Wlll be otlt Ofbalance wLththe blOme flOr that area For example, lfthe local b10me lS forest, but the trees have been removed from one area, then the ecosystem lS Out Ofbalance

The naturaltendency lS for plant specleS tO move Into that area, brlnglng the ecosystem back towards the blOme State The spread of a specleS Into a new area lS Called coloⅠ-isatlOn lt can happen naturally only lfthere are

ecologically healthy ecosystems nearby to provide plant seeds (flOr example, sycamore trees produce seeds with a dLStlnCtlVe winged shape - they can be

camed by the wlnd) Oncethe vegetation has started to recover, 1nSeCtS, birds and other animals will travel Into the newly regenerated area

These processes of ecological colonlSatlOm Can be supported by envlrOnmental management For example, We are currently seeing Important Changes ln

the way agrlCulture lS Camed ollt ln Brltaln Rather thanJuSt maXlmlSlng

food productlOn, farming lS becomlng more enVlrOnmentally frlendly, with the support offlnanClal subsldleS ThlS new approach Increases b10loglCal

dlVerSltyby conserving hedges and the wlldfLowers, Insects, birds and o也er anlmals that llVe On the land A proport10m OragrlCultural land lS

left completely llnCultlVated so that specleS Cam gradually colonlSe lt ThlS

provldes a habltat for a wlder range ofspecleSLeavlng SOme farmland as setaside lS also a way to decrease overall productlOn Whenthat lS eCOnOmlCally deslrable Note that set-aslde land lS more Permanent than fallow land, whlCh

lS usually left for only a year･ ColonlSat10n lS a Slow process, taklng Place over years or even decades

Bare ground, devoid of all plant and anlma1 llfe, lS a rare Slght. A newly erupted volcanlC island lS One example, a more血nlllar One might be an

abandoned quarry slte In the UK 13 000 years ago, retreatlng Tee Age glaclerS

left bare ground Suppose such land were slmPly left alone Wlth tlme, small organlSmS Such as llChens (a comblnatlOn OfRlnguS and algae) start to

FlgUre 28 Agncultural

colonlSe the land These even grow on bare rock, from spores blown ln bythe

eCOSyStemS (a) a sIngle

wind Gradually plant species galn a foothold as seeds and frultS are brought

ln by wind or waterAsplants decomposeand rocks are gradually weathered, a soll base develops, which ln turn allows new plant specleS tO be established

FlrSt Insects and then larger animals gradually move -n The Important point

SPeCFeS (monocuFtu re) Jn hlgh-y.eld vvheat crop (b) many wl1d specleS Jn an area of.set-asEde'at the edge of a wheat held

to remember lS that the mlXture OfspecleS Present Changes over tlme ln a

predictable sequence The gradual change ln the balance ofspecleS from a `standlng Start'ofbare rock lS a process Called primary sueceSSion

Seco)l也ar)I sueeessioJl beglnS On SOll cleared of the orlglnal vegetation

a varletyofspecleS Ofgrasses become establlShed, LnCludlng SOme PerMl"I plants, which have a life cycle of more than a year Then, small trees and shrubs (hawthorn, for example) Come to dominate the landscape The number

Clearance can come about by natural flOreSt flreS Or deliberate removal of

ofdlfFerent species present Changes gradually, and lnCreaSeS･ Eventually,

vegetation At flrSt, a few shorトllVed (I e a)lnual) plants become establlShed,

the area wlll be covered by forest Your garden Iawn would provlde a good

completmg their llfe cycle from Seed to flowerlng plant ln a Slngle year Later,

examp一e of these processes, assumlng you Were WIlllng and able to abandon

Its Care and watch nature reclaim lt Over apeTIOd of50 to 1 00 years

しnapler4 LnangLng land. Changlng eCOSyS【ernS

ヽ

In bullt-up areas, you can sometimes See COlonlSat10n Or Succession beglnnlng to happen at the edges ofpavlng Or tarmac Flgure 29 shows photographs of

a paved area that has been leRfor a few years wlthout attention DandellOnS and grasses are already established,and larger plarltS are Starting tO grow Ln

Bolt that has blown ln from nelghbounng gardens Nearby, a sycamore tree seedllng has begun to grow among some grasses - Flgure 29(C) If le氏 undisturbed over many years, a woodland contalnmg mature trees

develops to the point Where few new species Ofplant appear - the communlty ･settles, and the balance ofspecleS W上ll remaln more Or less the same once

thlS has happened ThlS State lS Called the climax communit) or cllmaTL ､′egetation, mainly represented by oak woodland ln Bntaln The dornlnant

tree specleS may dlffer dependlng Onthe type ofsoll Woodland lS not lneVltable - accidental fires, Or Severe CllrnatlC COndlt10nS, may Slow or prevent Its Onset, even lfpeople do not lnteⅣene

Human actlVltycan eff.BCtlVely halt succession ln many areaS･ by preventlng colonlSat10n by specleS We do not conslder useful For example, to a gardener any unwanted plant lS labelled a weed, even lf lt lS Of a specleS that would

naturally grow lnthat area (buttercups,for Instance, are natlVe BrltlSh plants) Also, 1ntenSIVe agrlCultureand unlform forest plantatlOnS favour a paEtlCular specleSand alter the habitat Clearlng an area Of forest may have other

consequences - removlngthe trees wlll auow more llght to reach the ground, So any dormant seeds may sprout In dlfrerent clrCumStanCeS, the sequence of

succession may nOtalways follow the standard pattem - tree seeds may blow ln from nearby woodland, So new trees may nounsh before smaller plants have a chance to get establlShed

Because many UKforests were cleared thousands of years ago, what we now recognlSe aS 'natural, or 'wl1d, grassland must have been malntalned ln SOme

way The next sectlOn Shows how one species -the rabbit - has effectively held back successlOn ln areas Of southern England

(定義蒜∋｡1d.ng back successl0n in a w‖d ecosystem lfareas such asthe North and SouthDowns ln the UK were to be left undlSturbed, what lS Currently a chalk grassland area would change lTltO

mature woodland ThlS Was the onglnal vegetation uP tO about 3 00O years

ago, when our NeollthlC ancestors Cleared the ground for farmlng Nowadays, these chalklands are very rich habitats for many plant specleS For example, a number orrare orchids are found there, as well as the early

gentlan, a plant not found ln malnland Europe The unlque Plants and animals are partly the r占sult of the presence ofrabbltS (and Increasingly, sheep) that

graze the area

Asgrazlng herblVOreS, rabbltS have preferences for feedlng On lndlVldttal FlgUre 29 Colon】satlOn OI

a paved area (a) anlOSt bare pavlng (b) grasses

plant specleS, eSpeClally grass, Junlper and hawthom Other plant specleS are unpalatable (elder bushes, For Instance) and tend to be Ignored, such species

and small plants

are llkely to Increase Ln number when rabblt numbers Increase, because

(C) sycamore seedllng

rabbltS tend to eat the competlng Plants

growlng nearby

ChapteT4 Changlng land. changIng eCOSyStemS lntroduc■ng EnvlrDnmenL

In general, gra∑ers such as rabbltS tend to reduce the helght ofvegetatlOn

Thlnk what mlght happen to many tree seedlings among grass ln the company ofgrazers Unllke grasses,the growing POlntS Ofsuch seedlings are Often some way off the grollnd - grass tends to gfOWfrom the base up, whereas young trees grow丘om their tlPS This meanSthat young trees are especially

likely to be killed by grazing rabbits, SO areas Where rabbits are Plentlful tend to have few trees The actlVlty OfrabbltS also creates gaps ln the vegetation

- _::.宣ここ

where the soll lS disturbed by scratchlng ThlS bare chalky ground helps

bare ground

don't provide bare Patches ofthlS sort, Other competlng plants move ln

the grovrth ofragwort, whlCh lS a COmmOn SouthDowns plant lfrabbltS

FThL

and monopollSe the area, and the ragwort seeds flnd lt dlfflCult to establish themselves

-:_/

RabbltS and myxomatosIS The lntrOductlOn LntOthe UK of the rabblt dlSeaSe m)′XOmatOS】5 Occurred ln

OVer一graZlng

agrlCulture

the early 1950s lt was caused by the myTtOma VlrllS, SPreadlng from France

burnlng

where lt Was deliberately Introduced to help reducethe damage rabbltS Caused to危- crops h some rabblt SpeCleS, notably Sylvllagus brasllLenSES, the

Braz111an rabblt, the my7'Oma virus IS Wldespread ln the population but has FlgUre 30 ColonlSatlOn Of chalkdowns ln BntaLn

llttle effleCt Onthe rabbl上 `host'But when the European rabblt OfyCtOlagus

cunLCulus IS exposed to the Identical vlruS, lt has dramatlC and usually fatal

effects The vlnlS IS SPread by the rabbltflea, Which can readily hop from One lndlVidual to another

By 1954the virus Was lnfectlng rabbltS throughout the UK OfflClally, the government of the day did Its best to eradicate the dlSeaSe Its e放)rts were

thwarted by farmers who deliberately spread the vlruS - many famlerS transported rabbits WhlCh had recently dled of the disease tO thelr Own lands The effect on the rabbit POPulatlOn Was devastating Eventually the epldemlCS

ofmyxomatosIS Petered out as rabbits developed a natural lmmunlty In the mid-1950S, the nllmbers ofrabbltS On the Sollth Downs fell because of

myxomatosIS The vegetatlOn (and therefore the anlmai populat10n) changed as a result Table 2 recordsthe vegetatlOn ln 1954 (before myxomatosIS) and :. ...1

1967 (after myxomatosIS) at a hypothetical site

1954                  1967

Ragwo｢t

plentEfuE

Ragwort

scarce

Elder bushes plerltlfuE Fewer elde｢S

JunlPer

rare

Jumper

flourLShlng

40 plant specEeS            15 p一ant spec】es

FlgUre 31 Some downlandspec】es

I-.  ･ ､t  ■ ▲.r.I.3 I A SI J事T

Chapter4 Changlng land, changing eCOSySternS

Lntroducm9 EwlrOnrTlent

whatthlS Suggests ISthat the tradlhonal South Downs vegetation reneCtS

NaturafseLection

a partlCular form of planトanlmal lnterrelat10nShlP - that of grazing When

the,e are few rabbltS (Or Sheep) around,the plant community Changes Just as

tlylarge｢

anlmals compete for food, so plants compete for llght Taller plants wlth larger leaves wLu OVerShadow smaller plants Thus, previously unfamlllar SPeCleS

start to dominate the landscape What the grazers are doing lS llmltLngthe

ind】vidUalswiHsurvivelonge

SeaSe,SOme

shasaVery

growth of some species - for example, tree seedllngS are not able to nounsh

The community lS held ln a State Of suspense, preventing Its development Into

offsp｢lng-lf offsp｢lngWilr

woodland The added advantage lS that a greater dlVerSlty Ofplant types IS

achleVed - the rather surprlSlng lmPllCatlOn lS that unfamlllarand rather rare plants are preserved by grazlngl

Asthere were fewer rabbits by 1967, other anlmals were affected, reflectlng the complex lnterrelatlOnShlPS at WOrkAnlmalsthat preyed on rabbltS

P

fth eOemaln

- foxes, badgersand buzzards,如example - fen ln numbers The mlnOtal∬

beetle has larvae that feed Just onthe dung peuets ofrabbltS,thelr numbers were sharply depleted Bird populatlOnS too Were influenced; the stone curlew population Suffered because lt Prefers to lrve on ground that lS Closely

cropped by rabbit grazing The wheatear declined too, Its favoured nestlng

place lS abandoned rabblt holes On the other hand, animals which compete

wlthrabbltS (notablythe brown hare) thrlVed ln the lmmedlate aftermath of myxomatosIS, OWlng tO the abundance offood

ln certaln tOCat10nS, rabbits are now thnvlng tO Such an extent that they are

damaglng the envlrOnmentthroughextensIVe Soil eros10n ThlS has prompted some authorltleS tO lnStlgate COntrOVerSlal plans for the extensive gaSSlng Of rabblt Warrens, with the alm Ofconservmg the unlque Chalkland envlrOnment

But overall, rabble numbers on the Downs are probably stlll not back to pre-myxomatosIS levels, so the tradlt10mal plants of the downland are stlll

threatened To conserve the dowrLIand, grazing has to be supplled by human Interference Flocks of sheep are moved舟om slte tO Slte tO graze Humans are

A=Ow about 15 mlnuteS SummarLSlng Lnterreはt10nShlPS

Involved more dlreCtly too - hawthorn trees have had to be acttvely removed `byhand'

Go back overwhatyou･ve read sofar ln thlS Chapter. and d｢avv a spray dEagram WhlCh summarlSeS the lnterrelatlOnShlPS between rabbltS and the

other downland wtdllfe A】Eow about40 mlnuteS The drfference that rabbJtS make

one wayto do thlS IS tO Put LrabbltS･ atthe centre Of the dlag{am･ and llnk them to other organ-smS around the edge･ wlth ar｢ows showlng the lnterrelat旧nShlPS, for examptel rabblt holes are 】nhablted by vJheateaTS

Now, you can practlSe Wntlng for a speclflc task Use the data m Table 2 and the lnformatlon you noted n the lastactMtytO Wnte an aCCOuntln not more than 300 words. to answer thlS qUeSt10n

Comment

CorTIPanng the sltuatlQn On the South Downs ln 1954 wlth 1967, what

see the comment and dtagram atthe end of the book

changed. and why. for the followlng SPeCleS? (a) Elde｢ bushes (b) Buzzards

Nowadays the rabbit POpulatlOn Ofthe UK has largely recovered, although myxomatosIS St111 flares up sporadlCally For reasons that aren'tfully understood, some rabbltS lnltlally proved resIStant tO myXOmatOSIS･ they had what I earlier termed.natural lmmLmlty, Such mdlVlduals nourlShed and produced o庁sprlng that were themselves resistant, Whereas rabbltSthat

weren,t resIStant produced much fewer offsprlng The result was that resIStant rabbltS became lnCreaSlngly common ln an eXpandlng rabblt pOpulatlOn

(C) Brown hares Comment Wrlt】ng tasks of thlS type are far from easy Of course. you need to make

what you wnte lntereStlng lt mustn't be over the head of the average leader, remember you have knowledge that casual readers w‖ not have SpeclaLISt

terrnswLH have to be expEalned You need to thlnk about the audlence

Thlnk how dlfferentthlS task lS f｢om w｢ltlng for a professl0nal audience-an asslgnmentthat your tutor may mark. of the type mentlOned ln the 一ast actlVlty

LrldPLer

Ll

Ltはltglllg

l即ILJ,

t}FtZjrlglH5J

tfGU:〉yj化HI>                               亡‖

hltrOducLng EnvlrOnrTlent

This JS an example ofa slmllar piece Ofwrltlng from a student

･wrltlng an accurate account Ofthe changes ln pOpulat10mS aS the result ofmyxomatosIS with vanous factors Farmers spread the

dlSeaSe myXOmatOSIS by carTymg dead rabbltS On tOthelr farms, to reduce their numbersand prevent damage to the crops, andthe dlSeaSe Was Camed from one rabbit tOanOther by the rabblt flea

This COnfusIOn may not be what the writer Intended, but what lS Written here lS not Clear A better version would be LBuzzards need rabbltS for food, So fewer rabbltS IS likely to mean fewer buzzards ' HLnt 4 (report免cts accurately) also applleS There are a flew Places where

errors have crept ln `There were the same number ofelder bushes ln 1967

as ln 1954 due tothe fact that fabbltS do not eat elder so that specleS Was unaだected 'ThIS contains a factual error and a mlSunderstandlng Ofthe

The rabbl上s decreased ln 1967 so many speCleS Were affected,

ecology Table 2 clearly shows thatthere were fleWer elder bushes Ln 1967

especlally the vegetahon and animals that depended on the rabbits

The rewritten account (See below) gives the correct ecological explanation

for food As myxomatosIS SPread, the buzzards were affected as they

There LS also a guess lnthlS Sentence that doesn't relate to any of the facts

ate the rabbltS, SO there were fewer buzzards There were the same

presented `There were very fewbrown hares before 1954 'We are not

number ofelder bushes ln 1967 as ln 1954 due tothe factthat rabbltS

told anythlng about the actual numbers of hares Allthat can be Bald lSthat the

do not eat elder so that specleS Was unaffected There were very few

numbers will probably be greater ln 1967 than ln 1954jor the reasons stated

brown hares before 1954, but their numbers would have Increased as

ln the rewntten accollnt below

the rabbltS decllned Fewer rabbits means more food for the brown hares So, as a result OfthlS Change･ there were more hares ThlS shows some lnterrelat10nSh'ps ln the ecosystem 7

Using the four hlntS for good wrltlng (SectlOm 4 4), let's look at whatthlS

AHowabout30 mlnUteS Rewrltlng a draft

student has written and see how lt Could be lmPrOVed･

Use the comments about the four hlntS tO ｢eW｢】te thlS StUdent■s account

The student example comblneS SOmetyPICal problems Tal(lng each of the

Comment

hlntS ln tllm

Here lS One POSSlble alternatlVe account Note that lt lS fa｢sho｢ter than the

Hlnt 1 (wrlte ln Proper Sentences) applleS tO the nrst phrase, `Wntlng an accurate account of the changes ln POPulat10nS aS the result ofmyxomatosIS

wlfh vanous factors , ThlS doesn,t sound rlght, does lt9 One possible rewrite would be ･Anaccurate account Ofthe changes ln pOPulatlOnS aS the result of

maxlmum of 300 words ThlS ES acceptable for many sltUatlOnS Where the lnStrUCtl0n lS ■no nl0｢e than XX wo｢ds'. although you should check the detalls

wlth your tutoHf you are studymg a SPeCl¶c course ■Between 1954 and 1967, the rabblt POPulat10n ln the South Downs

myxomatosIS has to conslder varlOuS factors , The verb Lto conslder'makes all

decreased sha｢ply because of myxomatosIS As ｢abb】ts are g｢azers,

the dlfference Although thlS IS now a Sentence, lt Still lSn't clear or conCISe lt

thelr absence altered the balance of vegetatLOn ln the area Grazers

might be better to remove lt altogether and start with something that leads Into

tend to reduce the numbers of trees and shrubs ThlS IS because

the rest of the answer

t｢ee seedHngs put on new growth from thelr tZPS. SO graZlng destroys

hint 2 (make each sentence cover a Slngle point) applleS tO much ofthlS example The wnter has comblned many ideas ln SOme long, complicated

newgrowth h contrast. grasses growf｢om the base up, so are tess affected by g｢azln9 RabbltS also form the food source for other

sentences- `Farmers spread the dlSeaSe myXOmatOSIS by carrymg dead rabbltS

anlma‡S, SO anlmal populatJOnS Were also affected

on to their farms, to reduce thelr numbers and prevent damage to the crops,

The｢e we｢e fewe｢ e】der bushes afte｢ myxorTlatOSIS, aS Shown 】n Table 2

and the dlSeaSe Was CarTled from one rabbit tO another by the rabblt flea '

RabbltS do not eat e一der. but they do consume other plants that

ThlS Sentence would be better split Into Several smaller ones There lS another

compete wlth elder So, once the myxoma vlrUS had reduced the

polnt tO make here lt lS easy tO get dlStraCted by Ideas, and lose track of the

onglnal question. The actlVlty does not ask about how myxomatOSIS SPread

number of rabbltS. COmPetlng Plants could flou｢lSh The elder then had to compete for 【lght and other ｢esou｢ces. and became more scarce

- the focus IS On the changes ln numbers ofplants and animals So, to Improve

Buzza｢ds need ｢abbltS fo｢ food. so fewe｢ rabbltS IS llkeZy to mean

the account, all of that sentence could be deleted, and replaced with someth1ng

fewer buzza｢ds There are other species aVallable that mlght provLde

more relevant to tlle queSttOn

a substJMe food source, for example. b｢own hares. So the numbers

Hlnt 3 (write SentenCeSthat are concISeand clear) There are several places where the language lS muddled ThlS Sentence lS unClear, because lt Seems

to Imply that the buzzards caught myxomatOSIS from the rabbits `As rnyxomatosIS SPread･ the buzzards were affected as they ate the rabbits, SO

there were fewer buzzards , Buzzards are not affected by the myxoma Virus

of buzzards mlght not decrease so sharply ln contrast. brown hares

compete with rabbltS fo｢ food Wlth fewe｢ ｢abbltS, the brown ha｢es are llkelyto thrNe and Increase En numbers. because more food lS avaEiable for them ■

lntroduclrLg EnvLrOnment

we,ve now seen yet more evidence that lnterrelat10nShlPS are atthe heart of ecosystems change one component and a great deal else lS Influenced We've

5 Populations and bjodiversity

also seen that change lS the norm, notthe exceptlOn The examples of lnterrelat10nShlPS yOu've come across show Just how

susceptlble ecosystems are to change SometlmeSthe teJTn Lthe balance of nature'lS used to Imply that natural systems have a natural robustness

5.1 Introduction ln this Chapter we'1日ook at some of the factors that lnflllenCethe number of

and stabllltyThlS IS far from tnleany alteratlOnS (such as dlSeaSe, newly

lndlVlduals ln a particular populat10n OforganISmS, PICklng uP On the notion

Introduced specleS, loss of resources) are likely to alter the balance rather than

of the energy pyramid from Chapter 3 These factors are appllCable to all

preserve lt Ofcourse, change LSn't undeslrable ln Itself valueJlldgements have to be brought Into Play when the ments of change are debated

populatIOnS, 1nCludLng Our Own - the growlng population OfhumanbelngS

Ecosystem management, Including farming, requires decISIOnS based on

finance, pOlltlCS, technology, and the needs ofhumans and wlldllfle

In addltlOn tO havlng domesticated animals and plants for food product10n we also harvest w上ld populatlOnS (for example, fish from the sea) Some

understandlng Ofhow and whythese populatlOnS rlSeand fall will allow us to

manage men ln a more SuStalnable manner

Study check!lSt You should now understand that

Flnally, we'1Hook at the nse of the hlman POPulatlOn and Its effects on blOdlVerSlty - the number and varlety OFthe llVlng thlngS ln SPeClflC ecosystems and the b10Sphere as a whole

･ Humans have altered血e landscape over也ousands of years

･ Each area of the world has a natural vegetation type (b10me) dependlng On local climate (temperature and rainfall), and Its

5.2 Popu】at10n growth

ecosystem depends on that vegetat10n

･ An ecologlCally healthy ecosystem can recover from damage through a process of success10m

･ Teclmology Includes the appllCatLOn Of sklllS, knowledge and tools

throughthe orgamsatlOn Of people ･ Environmental management supports the naturalprocesses of

ecologlCal recovery throughcolonlSat10n and succession, by encouraglng COndlt10nS that are appropnatefoE the target species You should now be able to ･ note thekeypolntS from a sectlOnOftext

･ tom a list OfkeypolntS Into a Short pleCe Ofwrltlng

･ 1dentlfywrltlng that lS inaccurate Or unClear ･ use the flour hlntS for good wntlng tO Improve What you have wrltten

Populat10nS and commumtleS In Chapter 2 we noted that ecosystems contaln a range OfdlfFerent llVlng

organlSmS - animals, plants, fungLand so on We also noted the Importance of belng able to recognlSe and name the specleS tO be found ln an ecosystem

Ecosystems contaln llVl ng and non-llVlng COmpOnentS, and to understand

howthey work we must galn SOme understanding Ofthe lnterTelat10nShlpS lnYOIved

Aswel1 asknowlng What sorts of llVlng things are tO be found ln an ecosystem, lt lS useful to know how many of them there are and the way ln WhlCh the numbers change over tlme ThlS IS partlClllarly tnle for the blOloglCal resources that we harvest for food - flOr example, fLSh stocks lfwe are to manage these resources ln a SuStalnable way we must understand the

rulesthat govem the nse and fall ofpopulat10nS

Population SClenCe Starts WLthknowlng What specleS are COntalned ln a given ecosystem and how many lndlVlduals of each specleS there are lfwe had the

time - and lt might take a long tlme - We could try to ldentlfyall the species ofplants, Insects, blrdsand so on to be found ln a glVen lengthofDaIWln's

hedgerow We could also try to llOte how many of each speeleS We had flOund (To do the same for the mlCrOSCOplC forms of llfle Would be a truly dauntlng taskl)

A number of llVlng OrgamSmS Ofthe same spectes that llVe ln a given P/ace at a glVen tTme lS known as a popuLaIiorl Note血at we have to lnClude three things 帆 descrlblng a pOpltlatlOn the

specleS, the place, and the tlme So, flOr example, we mlght talk of the

Chapter5 PopulatlOnS and bl0dFVeTSILy

lnlroduclng EnvlrOnment

population Ofhawthom bushes ln a SpeClflC 100 metres of our hedgerow ln

the autumn of2005 1JuSt aS We could talk about the populatlOn Ofthree-

Tlme

Splned sticklebacks Ln a given POnd at a glVen tlme, Or the population of

human belngS ln Chlna ln the year 2007 We have to be clear about the species

ln

Number

lnヽ′OIved to make sure that we don't con魚ユSe Organisms that look slmllar ThlS

of

Weeks

O  5 10 15  20  25  30  35  40

mlCe    2  3   8 18  33  46  49  50  50

If we plotthese numbers as a graph we getthe curve Shown ln Figure 32 The tlme lS Shown along the bottom of the graph,the number ofmlCe at the side

IS One Ofthe reasons that precise ldentlflCat10n and naming are Crucial We have to be clear aboutthe location tO make sure that we understandthe llmltS

The line Shows the growth ln the number ofmlCe

of the population The population Ofhawthom bushes ln Our PartlCular section

of hedgerow might not renect the populatlOn ln the hedgerow as a whole, orthe population ln Slmllar hedgerows ln Other parts of the country And we have to be clear about the tlme, because the numbers ofa certaln SpeCleS may

change from week to week, month to monthor year to year lt lS Important to know exactly what we are talklng about contains POpulatlOnS Ofother sorts of trees and other sorts of plants, as well as

隼t〆山50

pop111atlOnS Ofall the other llVlng things that can be found ln that locatlOn

ト仙払f e(砿751-Gr/ 40

But, of course, ollr hedgerow contalnS more than Just hawthom bushes lt also

A number ofpopulatlOnS OfdlUerent species that live ln a glVenPlace at a given lime lSknown as a community The commumtyofan ecosystem lS all the llVlng thlngSthat llVe ln that particular ecosystem

time.

ommUnity

..::r･':I.- -J'.'･ : -

G)DlulJOJ山qEr)N

i OLLL OtLAu

nSgrOWOVe｢ 0     10     20     30     40

Tlme/weeks

The numbers game CommunltleS involve competltlOn because of the potentlal flOr growth ln the

Flgure 32 A graph showlng the popuiat旧n Of mlCe OVer tune

numbers oforgamsms ln a glVen POPulat10n Let lユS examine a pOpulatlOn OfmlCe aS an example ln condlt10nS that sult

them, a population OfmlCe Candouble every four or fLVe Weeks or so In the real world, however, populatlOnS don 't grow Indefinitely Somethlng - for

AllowaboutlOmlnuteS MarkLng a POlnt On a graph

example, a lack offlOOd or some other resource - eventually starts to llmlt the

ls lt Ciea｢to you how the numbers ln Table 3 are used to construct the graph

growth or the populat10n

n FlgUre 32つTo checkyou｢ understandmg, mark the polnt On the graph that

So, lftwo mlCe found their Way tO a Section OfDarwln's hedgerow - and there

represents the sltUatl0n a1 2D weeks. V/hen the popuJat10n lS 33 rnlCe

were no mlCe there to begln with - the population mlght increase aS Shown ln

Comment

Table3

See the comment atthe back of the book

Chapter5 Popurall0nS

lnLTOduclng EnvlrOnment

and

blDdlVerSlty                        81

In practlCe, the sIZe Ofa poplllatlOn lS llmlted by a number of llVlng and non-

we can dlVldethe curve shown ln Flgure 32 Into a number ofdlStlnCt Phases

llVlng factors ln the ecosystem One of the maln llmltlng factors IS COmpetlt10n

phase I The population Increases Slowly at fLrSt, ln Part because of the

for resources Animals compete flOr food, water and shelter Plants compete for

tlme taken flDr the first few generatlOnS tO mature tO adulthood and start

light, water and nutrients There are fimte supplleS Ofall these factorsAsthe

breedlng themselves

population rises,the resources start to run out CompetltlOn for food, space and

phase 2 The populatlOn grows rapidly

so on becomes more Intense Death and/or emlgratIOn nSe tO match the blrlh

phase 3･ The growth rate beglnS tO Slow down asthe populatlOn Starts tO

rate and the population StablllSeS (Slmllarrules apply to plant populat10nS,

be llmlted by fLnlte SupplleS Offood, water, shelter and other resources

althoughthe dlSPerSal of seeds and the success ofseedl】ngs ln SOme pIaces and

the fallure ofseedllngS ln Others replace lmmlgratlOn and emlgratlOn )

phase 4 The population leyets offal a constant number

The maxlmum pOpulatlOn SIZe that c弧be malntalned ln a given ecosystem lS

Most establlSbed ecosystems have relatlVely stable populatlOnS, Or POpulatlOnS

called Its Carrylng CaPaCi吋

that vaヮ ln predlCtable ways So there must be physICal or blOloglCal aspects

of the ecosystem that regulate the sIZe Ofthe populatlOn These are what start

CompetltlOnfor resources IS not the only factor that can Influence the sIZe Ofa

to slow the growth of the populatlOn ln phase 3 and bring lt tO a more Or less

population As a population OforganlSmS grows Other factors come Into Play,

constant level ln Phase 4 But what are these llmitlng factorsりWhy doesn't the

and some of these are associated wlth other populatlOnS ln the communltyfor

population Just COntlnue tO grow and grow?

example, Increases In lnfectlOuS d】Seases caused by mlCrOSCOPIC OrganlSmS,

MICe Can enter the populatlOn Ofthe hedgerow ln two Ways blrth, Or

1nCreaSeS lnthe numbers ofparaslteS, and Increases ln the numbers of

lrnmlgratlOn Into the hedgerow from another populatlOn SOmeWhere else

predators ln most cases,the populatlOn Ofany glVen SPeCleS ln an eCOSyStern IS regulated by a whole network orlnte汀elatlOnShlpS between the specleS and

lmmigration lS the movement of part or all ofa populatlOn from somewhere

other llVingand non-llVlng COmPOnentS Ofthe ecosystem

else into an area Slmllarly, there are only two ways ln Which mice Can leave the populatlOn death, or emlgratlOn from the hedgerow Emigration lS the

movement of part or all ofa populatlOn Out Ofan area

513 lnterrelationships between populations PopulatlOnS don't exist lrHSOlatton The growth, or decllne, Ofa given population

lS determlned by Its Interactions Wlth other populatlOnS ln the ecosystem, as

well a5 bythe llmltatlOnS Imposed by the physICal resources available

.mmgrabtll: …[二重∃三ed:tghratl｡｡

Some populat10nS gO thTOughrepeated aJld regular periods of population Peaks followed by population falls One of the bestlkmown examples of these 'boom and bust'populatlOnS LS prOVlded by the Canadlan lynx (sclentlfic name I,ynx

Flgure 33 The factors that nfluence populatFOn g｢OWth

canadensIS) andthe snowshoe hare (sclentlflC name LepILS amerTCanuS) sothe change ln the populatIOn OfmlCe ln an ecosystem at any POlnt ln tlme

equals the dlfFerence between the number ofmlCe being bom and the number

dymg, plus the dlfFerence between the number movlng Into the ecosystem and the number moving Out Oflt We can express thlS aS a Word equat"n, whlCh says exactly the samethLng uSlng words and the mathematlCal syrnbols for mュnus (-), plus (+) and equals (=)

change ln the population - (blrth - death) I(lmmlgratlOn - emlgratlOn)

Carrying CaPaClty lf our populatlOn lS Steady (phase 4), we know that the number ofmlCe

coming Into the ecosystem (throughblrthandJor lmmlgratlOn) must equal the number leavITlgthe ecosystem (through death and/or emlgrat10n) So, as the population levels offal a constant number

blrth+ 1mmlgrat10n - death + emlgratlOn

Why does thlS happen?

FlgUre 34 Thef∞d chaln

l actFOn a CanadJan lynx hases a snowshoe hare

88  で

lntlOduclrlg EnvlrOnrTlent

ChapLer5 P()ptllatlDnS and b10dlVerSIty

The Hudson's Bay Company controlled the fur trade ln NorthAmerlCa for several centurleS, andananalysIS Of lt岩 records for a period of more than

100 years proved what the Canadlanfur trappers had claimed all along the numbers of lynxand hare fluctuated over tlme ln a regular series Ofcycles

Figure 35 showsthe changes ln the populat10m SIZeS Of lynx and hare over a sample perlOd or90 years

The hare population WaS found to rise aTld fall lnanapPrOXlmately 10-year cycle, wLththat of the lynx followlng about two years behlnd The hare lS aTl Important source Offood for the lynx, which lS Why there lS Such a clear llnk - a clear lnterrelatlOnShlp - between the two populatlOnS･

When food lS plentlful more of the hares'offsprlng SurVIVe andthe population Increases rapidly But as the populatlOn gets larger and largefthe hares eat moreand more ofthelr food supply and start to approach the carrylng Capacity of the ecosystem as far as hares are concerned Eventually, shortage offood means that the hare population beglnS tO fall

The cycle ln the hare population lS matched by a cycle ln the lynx population

When the hare population lS growing, the size Of the lynx population Increases

Spu空nOq]PaquJrLN

ln response (Remember the energy pyramld from Chapter 3 The numbers oflynx depend ln part On the numbers of hares avallable as food ) The lynx

population responds to the Increase ln thelrfood supply by ralSlng more kittens But the more lynx there are,the more hares will be eaten - especially as the hungry hares arefoTCed out lntOthe open lnthelr Search for food The

populatlOn Ofhares begins tO falljollowed by the population Of lynx as thelr flood becomes more dlfficult to find The plants that form the flood of the hare

4   つん0   0

recover and the cycle begins agaln, aS Shown ln Flgure 36

1845  1855  1865  1875  1885  1895  1905  1915  1925  1935

Time/years

Frgu｢e 35 A graph showlng the populat10nS Of Lynx and hare over tlme Source MacLullCh, 1937

wlth of

♂ク慧anr':od:ubC:yet:y ctttb

Increasing

prey,

the

populat10n

Allowabout 10 mlnuteS Readlng lnformatFOn from a graph

numbers

predator

Increases

with

less

predators

and

their

go

prey, hllngTy

numbers

drop

qttG teh:a;re-PhidhPae;;S ･影クク

Note the posJt10nS Of the peaks of both populat10nS What lS the apprOXlmate gap between the peaks of the lynx populat10∩つ What ls the app｢Oxlmate gap between the peaks of the ha｢e populat10nつ

survIVal rates

andthe populatLOn grows

Do the peaks of the lynx populat10n OCCuratthe same tlrTle aS the peaks of the hare popuEatzon? rf they don't, are the lynx peaks before o｢ afte｢ the hare

FlgUre 36 How popuEatl0nS may CyCk over tlme

peaksつ

Comment The peaks of both popuiatl0nS are roughly 10 years apart, butthe peaks of the lynx populatlOn tend to occur sltght;y later than the peaks of the hare populat10n

This predator-prey relat10nShlP IS unusual ln that the hares form a large part of the dlet Ofthe lynx, so the fates of the two populatlOnS are lntlmately related

But even so, there are lots ofcompllCatlng factors･ The populatlOnS Ofother partlCLPantS ln the drama - grouse, squlrrels, ravens and so on - rlSe and fall alongslde the populat10nS Oflynx and hare In most communltleS, POPulatlOnS are regulated by a number of lnterrelat10mShlpS lnVOIvlng Other lLVlng OrganLSmS

(as food, predators, paraslteS and so on) as well as non-1lYlng COmPOnentS Ofthe

ecosystem (for example, climate, Shelter, avallable water and so on)･

Chapters

PopulaLIOnS

and

b】OdlVerSlty                91

lntrcduc‖1g 【nvlrOrmenL

ヽ

5,4 Managed populat-Ions The blOlogy ofpopulatlOnS has a number ofpractlCal consequences for human

belngSAswell as farming plants and anlmals for food, we also harvest wlld populatlOnS Of plantsand reduce anlmal populat10mS through hhlng and huntmg

Anunderstandlng Of how populat10nS grow Should allow us to dete-lne the

had collapsed and the Canadlan gOVemment Closedthe flShefLeS Over 40000 people lost their llVellhoods

To hy to prevent this happenlng agam, POlltlClanSand sclentlStS have been worklng together to flnd new ways of managlng and harvesting fish populatlOnS

ln a Sustalnable manner.Anexample ofthlS new trend lS PrOVlded by the Ecosystem-Based Management PBF) approach. ThlS approach ;ecognlSeS that healthy ecosystems are necessary for healthy populatlOnS Of flSh, so lt Involves

mat.mL)m SuStainnble yield (MSY) for a g.Yen specleSina glVen eCOSyStem･

restorlngthOse ecosystems as well as other measures to皿PrOVe the populatlOn

that lS, how many lndlVlduals we can remove ln a glVen tlme Period without damaging the populatlOn,s abllltytO replenish itself If we take more than

theLr POPulat10nS tO recover, Closing Certain areas tO flShlng tO Protect VITAL

the maxlmum SuStalnable yteld一more than the population lS able to replace

levels of the hanrested species It includes 'restlng'endangered species tO allow feedlng, breedlng Of nursery areas, and changlng Bshlng PraCtlCeS tO Protect the

throughblrth or lmmlgratmn - We nlnthe nsk of the numbers falling ln

manne env汀OTunent ln general

some cases, this Can eventually lead to the collapse of the populat"nand, 1n

hthlS Way･ lt lS hopedthat cod and other commerclally fished specleS will breed

extreme cases, the loss of the specleSfrom the ecosystemaltogether Anexample may make allthlS a bit Cle∬er

successfully and the young rlSh w111 be able to flnd the food and shelter they need to mature The populatlOnS Canthen Increase - and be managed - to support

controlled human harvestlng at, Or below,the maxlmumSuStalnable yleld

The seas ofFthe east coast ofNewfoundland ln Canada were once sofu1l of cod (sclentlfic name GadhtLS mOrhua) that huge shoals offish almost preventedthe progress ofthe叩lorer John Cabot's ship When he salted tothe

The Devlr's gardens

reglOn ln 1497･ The sallors could catchthe fish for food by slmply scooplng

Human belngS are not the only specleS tO manage POpulatlOnS and

them up ln baskets

communltleS flOr their own Purposes

The notion Of exceedlng the maxlmum SuStalnable yield must have seemed

The Amazonlan ralnforest lS Probably the most diverse ecosystem On the

laughable when the first nSherleS Were Set uP Several hundred years ago･ After

planet lt lSthought to contaln Over half the world'Sknown specleS Ofplantsand

all, a female cod can lay up to nine mllllOn eggs a year and llVe for 20 years

The French writer Alexandre Dumas, wntlng m the 19th century, calculated that lfall these eggs hatched and grew Into mature fish, and these fish ln tum

raisedall thelr Offspring tO adulthood, lt would take only a few years to fTILl

the sea sofull of cod that lt would be posslble to walk acrossthe Atlantic On theュ, backs fr.m North Amenca to Europe (In reallty, Ofcourse,this could

never happen Most of the eggs and small nlSh are eaten by other flSh, and the growlng God themselves compete wlth each o也er for food and o血er

anlmals, and lt lS anyOne's guess bow many specleS remaln tO be dlSCOVered

Most of the ralnforest lS made up ofcomplex commumtleSthat contaln many specleS Oftrees and other plants But deep wlthln the forest are large areas domlnated by a single specleS Oftree sclentlfLC nameエbyDla hl'･SZLta These

areas appear to occur at random, and for many years sclentlStS Were at a loss to

explam how they were created The local mhabltantS belleVed that these gardens

were tended by evil forest splntS, hencethe name `the Devll's gardens'

resou℃es Remember the mlCe ln Our hedgerow a populat10n's potential to

Recent research has Shown thatthe trees are home to a specleS Ofant,

grow ISalways llmlted by the carrymg capaclty Ofthe ecosystem )

sclentlflC name AかrmelachESta SChumqn17l, WhlCh nests ln the hollow stems of

some 500 years after Cabot,s vISlいn the early 1990S, decades of over-ntshlng

resulted ln a collapse of the cod stocks and the devastation Ofthe marlne ecosystem More efncLent鮎hlng teClmologleS,and Increased demands for

fish from a growlng human popuLatlOn On both sldes of the AtlantlC, had

the twigs The ants poison Other plants by ln)eCtlng them wlthformlC aCld to ensure that there are plenty ofDurola trees tO hold their nests The 'gardens' may last forup to 800 years and atany one tlme Can be the home of up to

threemi1110n WOrker ants and 15 0OO queens

reducedthe populatlOn tO a tlny血ctlOn OfltS Onglnal size

There were warnlngS SclentlStS had long polnted out that catches exceeded

the maxlmum SuStalnable yleldand that the populatlOn Ofcod was ln decllne But pollCy makers had to balance their advice agamSt the needs of the RIShlng

Industry andthe communlbes lt SuPPOrted･.Draggers', huge nets as long aS a football pitch, continued to be pulled along the sea floor, catching mature,

breeding cod as well as removing eVerythlng elsethat acted as food and shelter for young Ssh In 1992 1t Was Bnally reallSed that the cod populatlOn

5･5 Uslng your SCientificjudgement You'll appreclate by now山at leamlng SClenCe is not simply a process or

passIVely taklng ln facts and figures You are faced wlthdecISIOnS - ChoICeS and dllemmas, such as how long to study, which topICS tO gO Over agaln, and

whICh topics are the most Important And mcreaslngly the science you learn

will ralSe a dlfZTerent, thoughequally taxing, Set OfquestlOnS These are a

Chapter 5 Populatl0nS and bEQdlVerSlty

Lnlroduclng EnvlrOnrnenl

mixture Of moral and practical problems how the sclenCe you lean should be

thought about, how lt Should be applled,and how lt affects other people wltha topic Such asthe envlrOnment, WreStllng Wlth these 'blgger'quest10nS forms part Of the learnlng Process You have to lean to thlnk about sclenCe

m ways that help you to come tO Personal decISIOnS What shidy techmques can you use when ･blg queStlOnS･ arlSe7 -Sthe evidence for thlS Particular

argument strong or weak7 1s that approach to conservahon juStlfied? What follows IS One example ofpersonal decIS10n-maklng, rooted ln SClenCe, and based on a genuine contemporary enVlrOnmental problem

You'u hear a varletyofpolntS OfvleW Onthe DVD To help you make sense orthem】 you'll lleed some background to tlle Issues

A dllemma for conse｢vat】OnlStS 1 A grouse moorlS an artlflClal ecosystem, and lt has a dlStlnCt】Ve

mlXtUre Of plants and anFmals The domlnant Plant lS heather, whECh proVldes cover for grouse and lS the rllaJOr source Of thelr foocZ

2 1f the habltatWere SlrTIPly left alone, ltWOUld g｢aduaHy change grasses would take ho一d and shrubs and smaEl trees would becorTle

more of a feature Such a habltatWOuld no (onger be ableto

The conservat10n Of red grouse This SeCtlOn Involves llStenlng tO Track 3 0m the DVD lt lS about the shootlng

suppo｢t la｢ge numbers of grouse 3 The grouse moo｢】and habltat lS managed by gamekeepers to

of red grouse, a game bird about the sIZe Ofa small chicken which lS found

maxlmlSe the numbers of ｢ed 9｢OUSe fo｢ shoollng An】mals that

exclusively lnthe upland moors ofnorthem and westem Br血n In recent

feed on red grouse o｢the川

years, about 400 000 grouse have been shot each year, geTleratlng a gross

fo｢ examp一e

eggs are Often shot- foxes and crows,

Income Ofabout ￡10 mllllOn 4 Patches of heather a｢e occas10nally bu｢ned to encourage the

growth of new heather shoots. whlCh are an Important food source for young grouse 5 Managed moorland of thls type att｢acts a w【de varlety Of anlmals and plants that th｢lVe ln thlS PartlCUla｢ habltat For examp一e,

meadow pIPltS a｢e COmmOn blrds on heather moor一and 6 Red grouse moorland has attracted lnCTeaSEng numbers of rare blrds of prey Such blrds are caHed raptors and th馴 dletlnCIudes

grouse, especlaHy the young and the eggs h partlCUlar, numbers of hen harr∫ers had Increased slgnZflCantly m such moorland ln the

yea｢s before thlS aUdl0 track was ｢eco｢ded 7 Atone tlme, the hen hamerwas a relatNe;y common bud

throughout the UK. but Its numbers decllned sha｢ply. largely becalJSe they were persecuted Hen harrlerS are now Protected by law, lt lS lllegal to shoot the blrds orto lnterfere wlth thelrbreedlng.

for example by dlStUrblng thelr nests 8 The nurTlbers of grouse ln managed moorland habltat have been

Fn OVeraH decllne for the past 30 years or more The ecologlCal reasons for thlS long-te｢m dec｢ease a｢e complex, and moorland has not always been we" managed For example. lnCreaSed

grazlng by sheep dISCOU｢ageS the g｢owth of heather Grouse numbers are also adverse一y affected by dlSeaSe 9 Apart from the long-term declIne, the numbers of red grouse

va｢y ln the sho｢Herm There are cycles of populatl0n lnCreaSe FlgUre 37 Red g｢ouse

(sclentLf-c name Lagopus lagopus) and other moorland spec】es

and decrease (rather llke the lynx and hare pattem ln FlgUre 35). and the tlme from peak to peak lS tyPICa"y around flVe years The causes of these populat10n Cycles are not known, but they are not belleVed to be related to shootlng

94            !ntroduclng

ChapteT5 PopulatLOnS

EnylrOnrnent

and

blOdIVerSIty                       95

Soon you will be asked to llSten tO Track 3 of the DVD, but first SOme

10 Because the numbers of raptors (especlaHy hen hamers) were

guldance Early on you wlll hear a vanetyofvleWS Presented, Some ofwhlCh

lnCreaSlng at a tlme When grouse numbers were decreaslng.

represent Interested organlSatlOnS It's not Important that you remember

those who managed grouse moors became convlnCed that the

exactly who says what, Or the detalls of the organlSatlOnS they represent, but

hen ha｢｢le｢S Were Pa｢tlCUla｢ly to blame for poo｢ Lbagsl of grouse ln

lt might be llSeRll to list the partlClpantS andthelr OrganLSatlOnS before you

｢ecent shoots

llSten

1 1 Gamekeepers were prevented from lnterferlng wlth hen harners

PIPPa Greenwood, hortlCuhlrallSt and broadcaster

because of European Unl0n COnSerVatIOn 一aws Some felt that the

lan Newton, the BrltlSh Ecological Society

numbers of hen ha｢ne｢s shou一d be llmlted to a set ■quota■ and that

excess bJrds should be removed to other slteS Conservatl0mStS

laln Balnbndge, the Royal Soclety for the ProtectlOn OrBlrds

opposed such moves, on the 9rOUnds that they would be lneffect】ve

DICk Potts, DlreCtOr General of the Game Conservancy Trust

and Hleg81

Des Thompson, Scottish Natural Hentage

12 A number of concerned organlSatlOnS agreed to support a fNe-

Gareth Lewis, Factor (manager) of the Buccleuch Estate, whlCh includes

Langholm Moor

year study on the relatl0nShIp between hen ha｢ners and g｢Ouse numbe｢s at Langholm Moor in SOUth-west Scot一and The ｢epo｢t

These lnltlal contrlbutlOnS fromthe experts last for about 10 mlnuteSI Later,

concluded that the la｢ge numbers of ｢apto｢s p｢esent cont｢lbuted

Joan Solomon, an OU academic, PlayedthlS reCOrdlng tO three prospectlVe

to the Iou numbers of grouse. though habltat mismanagement Was

students and recorded their Subsequent dlSCuSStOn None of these brave

very lmPOrtant too Shortly after the report was publ∫shed m 1 998,

student volunteers had any speclal knowledge of the subject, althoughthey

LanghohT) ended grouse shooting, aS the fo‖owlng extract from The

were supplled wlth the background lnformatlOnthat you've Just read She was

TJmeS reveals

Interested ln thelr reactions What sense could they make ofwhaHhey heard? When you listen tO the students'dlSCuSSIOn On the DVD, you can compare

thelr reaCtlOnS tO the `experts'wlth your own thoughts･ What she wanted to find out was howthe students responded to controversy, and the sometlmeS bewllderlng VarletyOf confllCtlng Opln10nS

An inglorious ending for Churchill's grouse moor the goverllment eIIVlrOnmental

bag when, 1n 1911, 2,523

advisers, Into the conflict between

ONE of the country's bes(-

brace lpalrS] Were shot ln a

protectmg raptors and sustamlng

day Now there are Just I,000

known red grouse moors, and a

vlable grouse populatlOnS

By Shlrley EngllSh

favounte of Churchlll'S, will no longer Play host (o guns because there are not enough birds

The decIS10n (0 end grouse

grouse left on the whole estate

Shocked landowners,

ln 1990 the esta(e boeLSted grouse

conservat10nlStS, SClentlStS and

bags of more than 4,000 ]n the

govemmen( advisers Were told

season Last year lt fell to 51 bags

of the clostJre yesterday durlng a

A"ow about60 m■nutes LIStenlng and dlSagree事ng

田

Now llSten tO Track 3 0n the DVD As you llSten tO the expe｢t contributl0nS.

make notes to help you make some sense oHhem LISten agaln tO any Parts that you are unsure about Then wnte down yourown vleWS aboutwhethe｢

The red grou58 debate Shootlng g｢OuSe ■Sjustlned

Moorland Summlt ln Per【hslllre On

To break even (he estate needed

Now llSten tO the sludents'dlSCUSSIOn Note how thelr reaCtl0nS COmPare VVlth

the cnsIS faclng many Of Brltaln】S

to bag 1,loo brace (two grouse

yourown Do you thlnk theytookthe experts'vleWS On boardつFlnally. tlSten

the Borders, whlCh lS Part Ofthe

400 groLESe moors, 1n WhlCh they

worth about ￡70) a year

Duke of BucclellCh's estate, was

were to the told the successful

shooting lndeflnltely a( the

12,0001aCre lJangh01m Moor ln attTlbuted to the hlghconcentratlOn

results of tests camed out on the

of protected blrds of prey,

es(ate, lnVOIvlng the feedlng Of

whlCh hunt the grollSe for food

dead rats and mice tO faptOrS IIl

Langholm Moor yolunteered ln

an effort to wean them off grouse

1992 to be the slte Of a FIVE-year

Langholm still holds the ScottlStl

study by ScottlSh NattJral Heritage ,

record for the largest grouse

Maklng the aTlnOunCement, Gareth

LewIS, the factor for BtlCCleuch

to DrJeff Thomas's thoughts at the end of the track. where he ｢eflects on what he fee一s can be learned from the exercISe Wr【le down whatyou fee一 you

learned frorTl HStemng

Estates, sald the moor, whlCh costs

Comment

￡100,000 a year to malntaユIl, Was

ThlS aUd】otrackwas recorded ln 1998 Ten years later. Langholm Moor lS StlH

Ilo longer economically viable

the subject of controversy - and the local ecosystem does not support grouse or hen harrlerS ln any S】gnlflCant numbers Other grouse moo｢s ln Scotland are

source TheTlmeS. 1998. p3

fanng better ln a controverslal case such as this. SCEentlflC lnfo｢matl0n Can act

as a gulde to yourthlnklng ButyourvleWS On Other lSSUeS are Vltal too10n anlnlal nghts. for example. or the lmPOrtanCe Of commerclaE EntereStS. On how convlnClng you f】nd the arguments for conservat10n, and so on

ChapteTS PopulallOE7S and btodlVerSlty

lntroducng EnvLrOrlrnenl

whatever decISIOn you cone tO, yOll Ought to be able to offer reasons to

energy available to us as flood, and the spread of human populat10nS across the

can feel more confldent about yollr POlnt OfvleW Becomlng COnfldent about

biosphere demonstrates our abllltytO migrate from one ecosystem to another ln Search of new resources SlnCe the 19th century ln the lndustrlallSed West,

the science you know and of how lt Should or shouldn't be applied lS an

improved hyglene andthe development ofmedlClne have also led to缶wer

support lt That way, decISIOnS are more Informed and considered - and you

Integral part ofbelng a successful student The fact that there lS SO much more

to f･lnd ollt lSn't a cause for anxlety- lt's a reason for sustained Interest With luck, 1t's an Interest that can,and shollld, last a llfetlme

Infants dylng, and people llVlng longer

But populatlOn grOWthand lndustrlallSat10n Increase Our demands on the b10loglCal and physical resources of the biosphere, and we are stlu dependent

on the cazTymg Capacity Ofthe ecosystems we lnhablt h some parts of the 5 6 Human populatFOn growth There lS One SPECIES Whose populatlOn has seen a remarkable growth Flgure 38

shows the growth ln the population Ofhllman beings `(B)CE'stands flOr

'CBefore) Common Era', which lS tendlng tO replace 'BC7 and 'AD'

world, the brutal reallty Ofthe energy pyramid meansthat human populatlOnS

remain level, Or even fall, as people die because they do not have enoughto eat

lt lS WOrthrememberlng thatthere lS a llmlt for all of us the carrying Capacity

of the biosphere as a whole The energy pyramid operates at a global level, and plants remaln essential forthe food we eat (and the oxygen we breathe) And at present, a lot of our other energy needs, apart from food, are provided from finlte sources Offossll魚lelsAsthe human population nears the carrylng

capacity Ofthe biosphere, the competition for resources (water,food, 011) and suDtlT ∈POTlqndo

the consequences of overcrowdlng (pollutlOn, dlSeaSe) wl1日end to mcfeaSe 43つム 0 0 0 0 0 0

0   (U 0

There lS SOme good news, however, 1n that flgureS fromthe Unlted NatlOnS Population Fund have Indicated that the rate of the rise ln the human

populatlOn may be levelllng Off(see the dashed llne On Figure 39) One reason

may bethat Improved health care,.ncludlng reproductive health, has led to

people choosing tO have smaller famllleS (1n many parts of the world, hlgh mortalltyrates, 1nCludlng hIghlnfant mortal1ty, mean that people have large famllleS tO ensure that enoughchlldren survive tO Care forthelr Parents ln thelr Old age ) A far less posltlVe reason may be the Increasing mOrtallty rates 14000 12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000

ln Sub-Saharan Africa and parts of the IndlanSubcontlnent, ln part due to HIV/ AIDS

Tlme/years

FlgUre 38 The populat10n Of humaJl belngS over tlme

stlOTt uPOT]dtn od

A"ow about5 m･nutes ComparFng graphs Look at the graph ln FlgUre 38 WhlCh of the four stages from FlgUre 32 does the present populat10n grOV^h represent?

Comment Human populatzon growth lS Stlll ln Phase 2 rapld lnCreaSe

The population Ofhuman belngS COntlnueS tO Increase because of our abllity to

increase the efflClenCy With which we explolt the ecosystems we manage for food and other resources Our agriculture allows us to Increase the amount of

431∠l ㈹ o  伽 o

lntroducng EnvlrOnment

Chapter 5 Populat10nS and blOdlVerSlty

could be亡commltted to extlnCt10n'by the year 2050 I WhlCh lS 44 years away

P一ague lnfect10nS are able to pass from host to host more easlly as the

populatLOn denslty Of the host lnCreaSeS For thts reason, wldesp｢ead outbreaks of lnfect=〕us diseases (epldemcs) among human beLngS

are partlCularly severe ln Clt)eS Ln fact･ for most of the penod slnCe humans began LIVng ln CltleS, Clty POPulatLOnS have been malntalned

as I wnte this Sentence Crhomas el al , 2004) It lS hard to be certaln about

the numbers We don't know how many species there are, and we don7tknow how qulCklythey are belng lost, especially as most estlmateS COnCentrate On the larger animals and plants and Ignore the small and the mLCrOSCOPIC But whatever the exact丘gures,there seems to be little doubtthat the world lS

experlenClng a CrlSIS ln terms OfspecleS loss Plants and animals are being lost

only through contnual lrTlmyat10n from the count｢ySlde Not untll the

fromthe biosphere at such a ratethat many sclentlStS are talklng Ofa 'mass

development of commumty sanltatlOn･ lmmUntSat;On and other public

extlnCtlOn', Slmllar ln SCale to仇e one that ended me relgn Ofthe dlnOSaurS

health measures dld cltleS aVO【d perlOdlC Sharp d｢ops ln POPUlatlOn aS

BIOloglStS and conservatlOnlStS use the acronym HTPPO to surrunanse the

a ｢esult of epldemlCS

maln threats to blOdlVerSltyYou'll probably recognlSe many Ofthese threats

The recurrent epldernlCS Of the ･BLack Deathl ln Europe that began Ln

as consequences of the way human belngS mOdlfyecosystems to obtaln

the 14th century caused a sharp decILne.n the populat-on tnjustnve

bLOloglCal and physical resources

years (1347-1351) at least a quarter Of the population of Europe dled

rHS for habitat change･ We have already examlnedthe close llnks between

from the dlSeaSe (Probably bubonlC Plague) More recently, the great Influenza (仙) ep.dem■c of 1918-1 91 9 ls

thought to have klued somewhere between 20 and 40 mL"ion People

populat10nS and communltleS and the physical enylrOnmentS they Lnhablt

Change the habltat - by cuttlng down trees, say, or dra)nlng the water - and

some specleS will disappear from that location And surely no species has ever

worldwlde More people dled of Influenza ln a Smg】e yearthan ln the

changed the face of the world ln the way that we have

flVe-year PenOd of the Black Death･ and the entl｢e ePldemtc kl"ed

∫ is for iJIYaSive species.Ashuman belngS travel the globe they take plants

more people than Wor一d War I (wh･ch ended ln 1918)

and anlmals with them These organlSmS flnd themselves ln new eCOSyStemS,

wlthout the lnterrelatlOnShlPSand llmltlng factors -for example, predators - that wollld otherwISe tend to restrlCt thelr pOPulattons The results can be devastating, aS We Shall see later ln thlS Chapter

5.7 Biodiversity

P is for pollution･ This IS a form ofhabltat Change, but the by-products of

h Chapter 2 I started wlth the biosphere as a whole (the 'pale blue dot'of

human actlVlty are Such a threat tO eCOSyStemS and the llVLng OrganlSmSthey

chapter 1) I then worked my way down, through ecosystem, to look at the

contaln that they merlt a Category all ofthelr own Po1111tlOn affects land, sea

lnterrelatlOnShlPS between organisms, and the lnterrelatlOnShlPS between

and atmosphere, as you will see later ln thlS book

organisms and the envlrO一皿entS ln WhlCh they llVe In this SeChon l'd like

to reverse that process, and move Bom populatlOnSand communltleS at

the ecosystem level to examlnethe numbers ofspecleS atthe leyel of the biosphere as a whole This IS because the growth of the human popular"n lS

P is for (ht]maTl) population growth, The more of us there are, the more we demand from the ecosystems around us ln terms OfflOOd, water and other resources

resultlng lnthe loss ofspecleS from ecosystems The problem lS not the loss

0 is for over-harvesting･ We harvest plants and animals for food, and other

of the odd specleS here or there ln lndrvldual ecosystems, butthe loss oflarge

uses such as timber, but lfwe take more thanthelr POPulatlOnS Can replace,

numbers ofspecleS from ecosystems across the world This makes specleS

loss a global, as weu as a local, Issue

we damagethe ecosystem'Sfuture ablllty tO Sustain uS and the other IIVlng oTgarllSmS that depend on those plantsand animals

A term often used ln COnneCtlOn With the complexity OflLfe on EarthlS

In looking throughthlS list, you may have noted that human populatlOn

biodiversity (short for LblOloglCal dlVerSlty,) The word `blOdlVefSlty'can be

growth makes authe other factors worse The World CoIISerVatlOn UnlOn

used to refer tothe amount and vanety ofllfe on Earth as a whole･ or tothe

(lUCN) produces the Red L上st OfThreatened SpecleS, WhlCh llStS the

amount and va,lety Ofllfe to be found ln a Particular ecosystem (for example,

organlSmSknown to be threatened by extlnCt10n Ofmorethan 16 000 at-risk

the ` b10dlVerSlty Of the Amazonlan ralnforest')

specleS ln the 2006 llSt, Over 99 per cent were threatened as a consequence of human actlVltyThe maln problems were habltat loss arLd habltat degradation,

lt makes sense to look at bLOdlVerSlty after human populatlOn growth because

as we shall see, the two are closely llnkedAsthe human populatlOn grOWS･ as human socletleS become ever rlCher ln eCOnOmlC terms, blOdlVerSlty - the

･wealth, of the natural world - lS decreaslng The sclenCe magazine NallLre

has published estlmateS that up to 40 per cent of known land-based species

whlCh threatened over 80 per cent of the endangered mammals, bLrds and

amphlblanS The other HIPPO factors I Invasive SpeCleS, POIIutlOn and overharvestlng - also played an Important role ln some Cases

lntroducFng EnvlrOnment

Is b】odlVe｢Slty lmPOrtantつ As human belngS use more and more Ofthe Ea血,S resources, We血d

ourselves ln a llfe-and-death stnlggle wlthtbe rest of the llVlng WOrld ln the shod term, DW numbers and technology meanthat we prevall ln most Ofthe

local sklrmlShes, but ln the long term this IS a COnteSt Wlth no wlnnerS We, and all other llVlng things, remaln dependent onthe ecological healthofthe ecosystems we lnhablt

The loss ofllVlng OrganlSmS from the biosphere worries and dismays many

b10loglStS, naturalists and envlrOnmentallStS But should lt matter tO the rest

of us? The death ofTurgle lS bad mews for Turgle, flOr the specleS PartuZlna turgLda, and for the keepers at London Zoo who worked so hard to save lt But

lS lt SOmethlng We Should worry about? After ail, rd be yery surpnsed lfyou'd

ever heard ofTurgle, Or Partullna tuYgLda, before you started thlS Chapter

Goodbye ■Turgle

There were seven species OfPariullna Snail, now there are SIX So whatワ

conservatlOn lS dlfncult A simple, low-key example should make some of the HIPPO issues a ll"le clearer I could have picked any one Ofa number of more

Rather llke the lSSIJe Ofgrouse management, the answers to questlOnS OfthlS

famous, hlgh-prone eXtlnCtlOnS Or large-scale collapses ln b10dlVerSlty丘om

valueJudgements about the klnd ofworld we want to create for ourselvesand

ecosystems acrossthe world- But this example shows how easy lt lS tO OVerlook the complexlhes Ofthe lnterrelatlOnShlpS that are RLndamentalto ecologlCal health

our children

sort depend on a mlXture Of obJeCtlVe SClentlfic observat10nS and subJeCtlVe

Hawall could, with some JuStlnCatlOn, be called the.extlnCt10n Capital of the

world, Many of the islands, plants and animals evolved ln lSOlat10n from other ecosystemS, 1n a number ofdlVerSe habltatSfrom upland forests to the coral reefsthat丘1ngethe Is一ands

AEIow about5 mnutes What does Eb10dlVerSlty'mean to you7 Before readlng On, Stop and ask you｢se】f what bIOdlVerSEty means tO you Do

Habltat Change started with the bst Polyneslan Sealers to arrive ln the

you thlnk lt FS lmPOrtant? Why? T｢y to Jot down two or three pomts

Islands Now somethree-quarters Ofthe orlglnal forests and grasslands have been cleared for agrlCulture and development The Increase lnthe human

Comment

population has caused a number ofproblems ln addlt10n tO habitat Change, lnCludlng POllutlOn and over-haJVeStlng

depend on yourown values and pTlOrJtleS No one can tell you whatyou｢

The first PolyneslanSeafarersalso brought a number of mvasrve species with

There IS nO One rLght answerto a questIOn llke thlS ln part. your answerwlH

attltude should be. a托hough I hope thatyou'll find some of your oplnIOnS

mrrored ln What fo"ows

them, 1nCludlng PISS and rats Later sealers added cats･ goats and caRle Other

specleS have been introduced by later waves Of lmmlgrantS, tourists and, to 也elr Shame, even some SClentlStS In the early 1900s some HawallanS Introduced the A丘ICan 告lant land snail

(sclentlhc name AchatznofullCa) tothe lSlands as a petand a garden omament･ The snails soon escaped and their numbers expanded, causlng havoc asthey

chompedthelr Way throughnatlVe Plants ln what must have seemed like a

good Idea at the tlme, SClentlSb decided to introduce yet another specleS Of snall to controlthe numbers of the African giant land snail the predatory rosy wolfsnall from the south-eastern USA (sclentlnlC name Euglandlna YDSea) The Idea was that the wolfsnall would reduce the numbers of the African 告lant tO

manageable proport10nS bythe slmple tactlC Ofeatlngthem unfortunately, the rosy wolfsnall Ignored lb intended target and staded to eat the already endangered natlVe Hawallan Snalls To make things Worse, at SOme

point it found lb way tO the nelghbourlng lSland ofMoona and devastated the localsnalI populat10nS there as welt Ofseven Moorea speCleS OfParlzEllna snall, SIX have been saved丘om extlnCtlOn Only by breedlng them ln CaPtrVlty

At 5 30 pm on 1 January 1996･ the last survIVlng member of the seventh specleS, SClenhflC name ParEulma hTTgZda･ dled of an lnfectlOn at London Zoo - some 10 years a鮎r the specleS had become extinct ln the wild

First, there are good pragmatic reasons flOr Valulng blOdlVerSlty･ A lot of the medlClneS We use Were discovered ln, and are produced from, plants and other lIVlng OrganlSmS Loslng Species at Such a rate means that we are loslng medlClneS and treatments we don't yet know exISt, aS Well as potential crops

and other resources LIVlng things also provide us wltha range ofservICeS that we take flOr granted bllt WOllld flnd lt dlfficult, lfnot lrnPOSSlble, to

repllCate by other means (for example, many of the crops we grow depend on polllnatlOn by insects) It also seems that blOdlVerSlty lS Important foトaS Well aS belng a measure

of- the health ofecosystemsAswe have already seen, llVlng Organisms createthe rich soils that plants grow ln aS Well as the all that we and other

anlmals breathe We depend on ecosystems,and ecosystems depend on the lnterrelat10nShlPS between green plants, bacteria and innumerable other organlSmS ln Ways that we don't yet fully understand

AsspecleS are lost, some of these lnterrelat10nShlPS are lost, and some of the network ofllnks that corlneCt the llVlng COmPOnentS tO each other and to thelr

environment are Severed Ecosystems vary ln their abllltyto reStSt Change (ecological resistance),and ln their ablllty tO recover from change (ecologlCal

partuIlna Eurg/da 1 5 m[LLIOn years BC to Janua｢y 1996

zntroducmg EwlrOnment

resLllenCe),and lt appears that bIOdlVerSlty Plays an Important role ln both

ln general, the more complexthe.meshwork'lS -the more species and lnterrelatlOnShlpS there are - the betterthe ecosystem can cope Wlththe loss of lndlVldual llnks However, Observations Of how change affects ecosystems

ln Practice have Indicated that all specleS may not be equallnthlS respect

The loss of some specleS -- SOmetlmeS Called keystone species - can have a drastic effect on the health of an ecosystem. The reasons are not always clear･

andthey seem to vary aom case to case, but lt Seems that the loss ofcertam species hasthe capacity tO Cause drastic Changes to the ecosystem as a whole

The message of ecology lS that we are part ofa network ofllnks, of

lnterrelat10nShlPS, between llVlng things andthe environment, aHhe local,

ecosystem level and at the global, b10SPhere level We may be able to stretch some of the llnks to suit our short-te- needs,and survIYe the breaking Of links as habltatS are Changed and specleS are lost, but we cannot escapethe fundamental免cts of our blOloglCal existence for example, our reliance

on photosynthesIS, the energy pyramid,andthe qualltyofour physICal envl∫Onment

The poet John DoTme Wrote

Any man's death dlmlnlShes me, because I am Involved ln manklnd Successful conservatIOn

And therefore never send to know for whom the bell tolls lt tolls for

tt,S sometimes temptlng tO become a llttle despondent ln the face of

thee

all thlS gloom, so ltls reassunng to be able to reportthat there lS good news out there as wel【

The complexlty Of the lnterrelatlOnShlPS Involved ln ecosystems means that a specleS needs other llVlng thLngS and a speclnC PhysICal envlrOnrTlent tO SUrVIVe To protect a specleSl you have to protect an

ecosystem And thlS IS PreCISely what rTlany Of the most successful attempts at conseTVatlOn have set out to do

We are Involved wlththe natural world, and we are dlmlmShed as the natural world lS dlmlnlShed It lS lrOnlC that our lngenulty, Our abllltytO Investigate and manlPulate the world around us, means that we are destroylng SOme Of

the beautyoflt atthe polnt at WhlCh we are beglnnlng tO aPPreClate the true extent of that beauty for the first tlme We are a part ofDarwln'S 'entangled bank', One llnk ln a meShwork oflivlng thlngS, Lso different from each other, and dependent on each other ln SO COmPlex a manner'･

The flrSt nature reserve, Yellowstone Nat10nal Park ln the USA･ opened ln 1872 There are now over40000wlldlEfe reserves across the world, Coverlng an area eqUIValentto lndla and Chlna COmblned TheworLd■s

Largest reserve. Tumucumaque Nat10nal Park Ln Brazll. covers an area

Study checkFISt

the sIZe Of SwltZe佃nd and lS Just One Of a number of Lmega-reserves'

You should now understandthat

that brm part of the Amazon Reg.on Protected Areas p｢og｢amme

･ Populat10nS Ofplants andanlmals are controlled by competlt10n for

(ARPA) Preserv■ng habltatS On th.s scale wlll save thousands of

spec】eswe know about and m川lOnS that rema=1 unknown to

SClenCe

other parts of the world are lntrOduclng Slmllar lnltlatlVeS ln 2002 the chlneSe government announced an ambltlOuS Plan to cover 5 per cent of the country wEth new forests. lnCIudlng reserves for the gTant Panda

and other endan9e｢ed wlldllfe

resources, and these resotlrCeS determ1nethe carrylng CapaCltyof an ecosystem for a partlCular specleS ･ The population Ofhuman beings COntlnueS tO grow raPldly, as our ablllty tO manage eCOSyStemS allows us to explolt their resources more effectively

･ Human populatLOn growth,and our use of ecosystem resources,

has had consequences for the blOdlVerSltyOfecosystems and the blOSPhere

These practlCal, resource-based arguments for conservatlOn are COmPelllng For me, however, there are other, subtler, more personal reasons for mournlng

the decline ln blOdlVerSltyThe world lS a COmplex and beautlful place, and I think lt lS a PnVllege to be part oflt The loss ofa species - llke the loss of

a human language, or a human culture - dlmlnlShes the beauty of the world

simply by removing a little of that complexlty The world 1 wュll leave for my children will be poorer for the loss ofPorfultna

turgzda,)ust as lt WOuld be poorer for the loss of more glamorous and threatened specleS Such as the tlger Or the orang-utan

You should now be able lo ' read lnformatlOn from graphs

･ appreciatethe mixture Ofsclentific evldeIICe and value Judgements lnYOlved ln maklng decISIOnS about controversial lSSueS･

Chapter6 Resources and e爪VlrOnmental lrnPaCt

glVlng a total area of 6 000 000 square metres ofland, which lS 200 000 square

6 Resources and environmenta一

metres per person (W1111amS, 2001)

That prc.bably seems IIke a large area, but the wheat would not have been very

impact

productive COmPared with today 's varletleS (ancient types Of wheat were more llke grass), and a large area offorest would be needed to provide a constant

supply ofwoodforfuel

6.1 htroduction

How does this COmPare with the land area per person ln mOdem tlmeS? ThlS IS

chapter 4 showed how we have altered the landscape for our own Purposes

a complicated quest10n tO answer, because most of us no longer grow our own

people need to cultⅣate the land, and use lb resources, ln Order to provide food

food. We live ln CltleS,and rely on others to provlde a steady supply offood,

and shelter ln dolng SO, We havealtered the landscape･ changing eCOSyStemS

often highly processed, or even pre-cooked for us to reheat･ We have other

to favourthe specleS that are use免ll to us, such as wheat, cows and chickens

needs_ Our houses are built from a range of advanced matenals - bricks, metal,

we have usedthe land ln Other ways - tO bulld cltleS, roads and railways,for

plastlCS and glass, as well as tlmber ln the UK, we expect to have a constant

Instance That canaffect populatlOnS Ofother plants and animals, as you saw ln

supply ofdrlnklng Water, electrlClty and probablyalso gas to our homes Our

chapter 5AshumancrvlllSahon has developed, technology has advancedand

homes, shopsand workplaces are heated and cooled to our requlrementS We

so has our abllltytO alter our envlrOnment For now, Ⅰ,1りust consider the local

travel by car, tfaln and aeroplane,and many of the goods weuse have also

effects wldlln the UK Later, 1n Chapter 7, I,ll put this together wlththe global

travelled many miles_ Figure 41 Illustrates this

populat10n缶gures from Chapter 5, to 各IVE a much wlder view In thlS Chapter, I w上ll revISlt the Idea of ecologlCal healththat you encountered ln Chapter 2 I wュll consldcr this Ln more detail, to explore some Ofthe

envlrOnmentallmPllCatlOnS Ofcurrent llfestyles The main question lS What

impact are We havlng On the environment･ and how can we measure lt? suppose that we go back to NeollthLC tlmeS (6000 years ago)I When people ln

what LS now Brltaln Started farmlng A typICal NeollthlC Settlement might have had sⅨ famllleS (a total of30 people) How much land wouldthese people need

to supponthemselves? Food would be a major COnCern - malnly from wheat, cattle, sheepand goats They needed timber forfuel, and for bulldlng WOOdenkamed houses Figure 40 shows the overall land use for this Settlement

Figure 41 Land use bya clty-dtrecland lndlreCt

30 people needed wheat

cattle Sheep/goats wood for fuel and bulldlng

Addlngall thlS together lS a tflCky taskAsever, the approach lS tO break the complicated problem down into Simpler sections Before I explain how thlS

works,there lS One OVerall polnt tO make. the area used dlreCtly (or Indirectly) Flgure 40 Land use of a NeollthlC Settlement

AtypICal settlement of30 people would have needed 130 square metreS Ofwheat field 40cattle

40 sheep/goats f.orest area for tlmber

per person for all the actlVltleS Ofdally life lS a measure Ofthe Impact Ofthat

llfestyle on the envlrOnment one way tothlnk ofthlS IS tO lmaglne a dome coyerlng the settlement (or

city) Suppose this dome wereJuSt large enoughto cover the area needed to support the lnhabltantS Ofthat settlement For the NeollthlC familleS･ the dome would cover an area of 6 m11110n Square metreS The question I posed earlier

ChapteT6 Resources and enyLrOnmE,ntal rmpacl

Introduclng EnylrOnmeTlt

The ecological footprlnt Can be worked out for a whole city, Orfor each

n.w becomes how big an area lS needed for atypical UK city? We would expect the dome for modem clty tO be far blgger than for a Stone Age vlllage

person lnthat clty, WhlCh lS What l'll cover ln thlS Chapter Slmllarly, lt Can

of30 people, but how much bigger?

be applled to a whole country'or the whole world - the subject Ofthe next chapter

'Prevalllng teClmOlogy and resource management schemes, may seem rather a dry phrase, but lt lS Important ln Chapter 4, you were shown how

technologies have changed overthe centurleS, SO that,for lnStaTICe,the amount of wheat produced by a given area today wlll be血l more than that fromthe

same area loo years agoAshuman socletleS have developed, we have found ways to work more efriclently, but we have also found more lngen10uS Ways tO use up resources

`The land and water can be anywhere ln the world 'ThlS IS One Ofthe subtle

aspects of the ecological footpnnt, andthe reason why an actual dome around

LJt:ち

a real cltyWould not be able to cover all of the area used for resources Looklng around my house, 1 can丘nd Items from many countries a Pen made

Neoll血lC

for

30

people

Modem

for

populat10n

Of

ln Japan, clothes made ln China, books pnnted ln Gennany and the USA, not

York

to ment10n frult and vegetables that have travelled hundreds, lfnot thousands,

(Nottoscale)

ofmlles These Items use land and resources far from where I llVe, yet they

need to be added to the total Impact my llfestyle lS havlng Onthe envIrOnment FJgUre 42 Emaglnary domes for a NeoElthlC Settlement and a modern clty

Fo血nately, the ecofootpnnt model has been developed to take account ofthlS

complexltyThe next sectlOn explains how thlS WOrks

6.2 EcologlCal footprint

6･3 Contrlbutions to the ecofootpnnt

The Idea of the area needed to support each person has developed Into a conceptknownas the ecological footprint, Or ecofootprint ThlS IS an

The essentlal Idea behlnd the ecofootpnnt lS actually qulte Simple The area

lmpOrtant Idea in dlSCuSSlngthe Impact a particular llfestyle has oTl the

requlredfor each product or process IS added up to gIVe the total area, much as you mIght add up a shopplng lュst The compllCated aspect IS that accourltlng

envlrOnment, SO 1 shall be coI娼Iderlng lt ln more detail ln this Chapter andthe

for each Item requlreS detailed research, because lt depends on where the Item has

next. There lS a great dealof lnformatlOn ln the short deflnltlOn below Read lt

come from and how it was produced Each area assumes sustalnable production

for yourself,and then I,ll explaln SOme Ofthe lmpllCat10nS ln more detail

..-L ､cpCノ 十<■t′1'､し■1-二､t ∴ ･L /hI::･J.C

Asan example ofa product,th1nk of one kllogram of potatoes From the

The ecological footprmt lS a measure Ofhow much b1010glCally

results ofresearch仲arrett et al , 2002), Ⅰ've looked up how much land lS

productlVe land and water area an lndlVldual, a city, a COuntry, ≡

needed to grow this quantltyofpotatoes see Figure 43 Dlfferent researche,s may glVe Sllghtly dlfFerent results, but this IS typical for the UK

resource management schemes The land and water can be anywhere 琵買､-泌｢三三gibOsno;i hthuemw::Te ;ts?enei;eosTucselnthgeprreesvouulriCnegStl:ccinosluomweS-mdd lntheworld

(WWF, 2005)

.】ま･済射

The first POlnt lS that the ecological footpnnt IS an area - WhlCh lS Whythe

Flgure 43 Land area for 1 krlogram of potatoes (each whole square represents 1

ngures ln the previous SeCt10m Were quoted ln Square metreS I wlll use other

squa｢e metre)

unltS Of area later on, whlCh wlll be explalned as you encounter them

Source derlVed from BarrettetaI , 2002. Table 5 3

The phrase `biol喝tCally FrrOdtlett､ e'may not be famlllar, but you have

lea,ned about producers and consumers ln Chapter 3, so you mlght guess that th1S relates to the amount ofplant or animal matenal produced wlthln an area ofland or water, for exarnple wheat or flSh  ー^,I H′Gd.uJ;転べ札l

This may Seem a Very basIC example - that growlng 1 kllogram of potatoes

requlreS 2 2 square metres ofland - but lt Serves aS a useful companson. For Instance, 1 kilogram offish requlreS On average 40 square metres of fLShlng

area (sea, lake or flyer) That's a far larger area - lflt Was a SuT'rlSe tO you,

Chaptet6 Resources and envlrOnnental lnlpaCt

lntroduclrLg EnvlrOmlen[

So far, you have encountered threetypes of area wlthlJl the ecofootprlnt thlnk back to Chapter 3, which showed that the hrther upthefoOd pyrarnld, the smauer the total amount OfblOmaSS Produced A potato plant lS at the lowest level of the pyramid (as a plant･ 1t lS a Producer), so there's more

pobto per unlt area Fish are consumers, hlgher up the food pyramid, So there will be fewer nsh per unit area, and thus a larger area Per fish (see Figure 44)

model

Arable land (sometlmeS Called eropland) lS used to grow plant crops, such

as potatoes and wheat Orchards would also be included ln this Category This

IS the most productlYe land type, because plants are atthe lowest level mthe food pyramld Plant products are notjuSt used flOr human food - some are used flOr anlmal feed (Even lfthe cows produclng mllk are kept Indoors on

an LntenSIVe fan,the i.eed would stlll need to be grown ) Plants also provide blOloglCal olls, such as sunflower oil, and some oils and alcohols that can be used as fuel for cars (bioftJe】) Plants supply important nOn-food fibres, such

as cotton and llnen, that can be used for making Cloth Grazing 一and (sometlmeSknown as pasture) supports anlmals whlCh provlde meat, mllk, wool, leather and other products Thls land IS less prod-ユCtlVe than arable land, because, as corlSumeTS, anlmals are血rther up the food pyramld

FlgUre 44 Water area for 1 kllogram of flSh (each square represents 1 square metre) source Denvedfrom Barrettetal ･ 20021 Table 5 3

what about processed foods"o keep thlS Simple, l'll use butter as an example, because that lS made directly from mllk･ sothe maln area

Fishing area Includes freshwater lakes, nvers and saltwater sea fLShlngAs two-thirds of the Earth's surface lS cowered by oceans, you might expect an almost unllmlted supply of fish Actually, only a small fraction Ofocean area lS useful Most of the fish we eat come fromthe relatlVely shallow waters wlthln a few mlles oflmd (the contlnental shelf), where the広sh can find food

contrlbut10n W上ll bethe gfaZlng land for the cows TyplCally, 1 kllogram of

There lSan0ther type of land that you came across lnthe descnpt10n Ofthe

butter will requlre 1 15 square metreS Ofgrazlng land lt takes a large amount

NeollthlC Settlementforest This IS the fourthcontrlbtltlOn tOthe ecofootprlnt

ofmllk to produce a kilogram ofbu"er, and each kllogram ofmllk (which would be about a lltfe) requires 12 square metreS Ofgrazlng land to feed the cows (see Figure 45)

Forest, whlCh lS any area ln Which trees domlnate, Can Provide timber for constructlOn,fumltureand other uses Wood lS Stlll used as a丘lel ln皿any

parts of the world･ Wood pulp, used for mak]ng paper, lS another Important product丘om forests

There lS One more dlreCt COntrLbutLOn tOthe ecofootprLnt, Which has become Increasingly Important OVer the last 200 years as more people llVe ln CltleS and urbanareas Bui]トup land lnCllldes houslng, roads, rallways, LndtlStrlal areas

andany other land where construction WOrk has effleCtlVely covered the land, (a)

dlmlnlShlng the growth of any plant oran1ma1 llfe This IS the least productive

typeofarea ln the ecofootprlnt rnOdel

(b)

A】lowabout5m･nutes Types of Land ln the ecofootprlnt

What types of land would need to be lnCIuded ln the ecofootprLnt COntrlbLJtiOn FlgUTe45 Land areasfoT (a) 1 k"ogram of mllk (b) 1 kllogram Of buner(each squa帽

for each of these Items?

represents 1 squa帽metre) source derlVed from Barrettetal ･ 2002･ Table 53

(a) Carrots

(b) Wool potatoes, nsh and buuer are example offood products To glVe another

example, 1 kilogram ofchDCOlak has a contrlbutlOnfrom bothgrazlng land (22 6 square mehes) and arable land (41 8 square metreS) lt contains Cocoa and sugar, which both come from p血t crops, SO these are Included as arable

land Most chocolate also contalnS mllk, so grazing land for cows IS added

(C) Paper

(d) A new road over grassland

Comment

See the commentatthe back of the book

lnLroducng EnvLrOnnent

To complete the picture, there lS One Other Important factor to Include, but one

that lS less obvIOuS energy fromfuels ThlS COntrlbutlOn lS more COmPllCated to explain, and to understand lt, you need to know more about a naturalprocess

called the carbon cycle Once I･ve explained that, rll retum tothe ecofootprlnt model, and explain how to add ln the contnbut10mS from energy use

LhaPterb Liesources and envlrOnmentaF lnlPaCt

Look at Flgure 46(b)･ You can see that lt's a reworklng OfFlgure 46(a)⊃ W.th

more detall and clantyNotethat each box represents a store, or reservoir, of afo- of carbon, and the alTOWS represent processes WhlCh transfer carbon betweenthe reservoJIS ln the atmosphere, carbon exIStS aS Carbon dlOXlde gas,

which lS Involved ln Photosynthesis and resplrat10n What also links the.plant, and LanlmaI'boxes IS Carbon mtheform of complex chemlCals, eaten as food by the consumers (an,mats) Although 1 won't do so here, lt WOuld be possible

6.4 Chemical recycllng and the carbon cycle chapter 3 looked at ecosystems ln terms Of some obvlOuS features (looking at

the dlfferent plants and anlmals found ln a hedgerow), but more especially at

to estlmatethe amount of carbon wlthln any Ofthe boxes or the rate at which carbon lS added to or removed from a partlCular box ThlS COuld be either on a local scale r wlthln a parflCular ecosystem I 0r On a grander, global scale

what underplnS events On the surface - the transfer ofenergy丘om organlSTn

to organlSm and Bom one trophlC level to another You've leaned aboutthe

movement of energy but also about transformation - for example, Solar energy being COnVerted to chernLCal energy ln the form of sugar

This ChemlCal energy lS Passed up from one trophlC level tothe next, as

r ･ - ｣

photosynthesis

flDOdfo, the consumers ln the next leyel At each level, some of the chemical energy lS transformed Into afo- that animals can't use, so lt lS efFectlVely lost from the food chain ln this type Ofenergy tfanSformatlOn, SOme Ofthe energy lS COnVerted to heat, whlCh lS less useful than stored chemlCal energy

llVlng OrganlSmS

lt･s just as well therefore that energy ln the form of sunllght lS aVallable ln a (vlrtually) lneXhaustlble supply, whlCh constantly replenlShes the lowest trophic level - the plants

t ･l-

"い  _

ln contrast, the chemlCals that are essentlal to llfe on Earth - carbon, nitrogen

and oxygen, for example - are avallable ln fixed amounts ThlS means that

the chemlCals such as thesethat are needed to bulld and support plants and animals have to be re-used overand over again

lt,s an lntngulngthought that a tiny amount Ofthe oxygen you are cuI'ently breathing ln may have been released by photosynthesIS Bom an oak treein a medlaeVal flOreSt a few hundred years ago Perhaps one of the countless carbon atoms wlthlnthe carbon dlOXide that you'veJuSt t,feathed out was many mLlllOnS Ofyears ago deep Inside the body ofa long-extlnCt dlnOSaur Even more ,ema,kable lS the llkellhood tllat the very same carbon atom was orlglnally created ln What LS now a distant Star Soon a洗er the orlgln Ofthe

unlVerSe (And lnthlS Sense human≦ are no dlfrerent, we consISt Ofre-usable

chemlCals ofthlS type )

Let's now add to this Simple picture Step by step

' You'll appreclate from Flgure 46(b) that agood deal of carbon lS.ln

ThlS IS reCyCllng Ofmaterlals on such a mlnd-boggling SCale that lt lS worth

translt'between varlOuS Storage SlteS r that,s what the arrows represent

looklng at ln more detal1 Once we bring the Issues down to earth, so to speak,

But at any one tlme, far more carbon lS locked up ln Such stores than lS ln

lt Wlll provlde another way ofexpresslngthe lnterrelatlOnShlPS betweenthe organlSmS Wlthln an ecosystem Let,ら start with a 'mlnl, carbon eyCIe -the organlC Carbonthat flows between

anlmals and plants You encountered thlS ln Chapter 3, when producers and c.nsumers were discussed Flgure 46(a) shows the movements of gas between

anlmals and plants

clrCulat10nAnd there are more stores than are shown ln Flgure 46 I InpartlCular･ agreat deal of carbon lS lockedup ln rocks -much oflt

wlthln the calclum Carbonate that lSthe maLn constituent OfllmeStOne

and chalk Exposed rocks ofthlStypeare perpetually broken down (or weatheled), and thlS releases carbon dlOXlde Into the atmosphere.

I Roughly the same amount of carbon lS deposlted as chemicals ln sedlmentS )n the oceans一much ofthlS cones from marlne anlmalS'

sheus Gradually, over many years, this Sedlrnent lS transformed Into

ChaPter6 Resources and envlrOnmental lmPaCt

lnlroducLrlg EnylrOnment

rocks, such as chalk A great deal of carbon d10Xlde lS held ln Storage ln the oceanwhere the gas dlSSOIves ln Sea Water Some ofthlS Carbon slowly returns tO the atmosphere

You｢dlagram nO doubt dJffers f｢om FLgu｢e 47, but rm more concerned about

whether you found the exercISe useful What these dJagramS emPhasISe a｢e the lnte｢｢elatlOnShlPS between the va｢10US COmPOnentS Of the syslen - some帥ng of speclal re一evance here

J Volcanoes release some Carbon from rocks lntOthe atmosphere . once llVlng Organisms dle, much of thelr Carbon retums to the soil Vast amounts of carbon of anlmaland plant ongln are COntaLned ln Soil Some

Compare the descrlPtIOn Of the carbon cycle ln WOrdswlth FlgUre 47 WhlCh do you fFnd easler tO remember?

ofthlS Carbon canbe released Into the atmosphere as carbon d10Xlde,

althoughmuch of lt remains ln the soil Soil can also be gradually tEansformed Into rOCkAsa result ofthlS, SOme rOCksalso contalnthe remalnS OforganlSmS from the geological past,and these have produced

Wlthflow dlagramS that foml a Cycle, 1t's posslble to start atany one box (say that for atmospheric Carbon d10Xlde) and then remind yourselfofall the maln

fossll Rlels - coal, olland natural gas

points by working round step-by-S(ep ln One dlreCt10n, untll you're back at

The whole cycle LS more Or less ln balance･ with the total amount of carbon

golng Into each carbon store roughly equal tothe total amount leaving This

applleS tO all the components of the cycle ｣lVlng things, the atmosphere, the oceans and the land (rocks and soils) The naturalcarbon cycle lS balanced

the beglnnlng Try th)Sfor the carbon cycle, without reference to the previous text How much can you remember? Agaln, the Important pOlnt lSthat dlagramS are uSe丘Il tools to help you lean

For example, working your WaythroughFlgure 47, referrlng tO the text where necessary, Should help to reinforce your understandlng Of the key Ideas covered m thlS SeCtlOn

■一四■←■一一一一一一■一■一一■1-■■ A"ov/ about 15 m-nutes Produclng a more detalied carbon cycle

Upsettlng the ba一ance - foss‖ fuels

copy out Flgure 46(b) and adapt lt tO Show the flow of carbon Involved wlth

If, as I've Implied already, the carbon cycle lS balanced, the amount of any

the processes ln the llSt above For slmpllCltyl Include plants and anlmals

one component lS llkely to be roughly constant So, flOr example, you'd expect

wlthln a Single box. labelled LllVlng OrganlSmS･･ tO the -eft of your dlagram

the amount of carbon dlOXlde mthe atmosphere to be constant, at least over a

lnclude another Labelled Foceansl on the nght LRocks. fossll fuels and

short penod oftlme Ofcourse】 lt lSn't the same carbonthat lS always present

sedlmentS･ can al一 go -nto the same box･ a=he base of the dLagram Youw川

as atmospheric Carbon dlOXlde, 1t's more a case that if the rates ofarrlVal

also need a box labe"ed lsoll

of 'new'carbon dlOXlde (from resplrat10n, Weatherlng and release from the

Comment

ocean) are equal to the amounts ofleavlnE for other sites (VIA Photosynthesis and dlSSOIved lnthe ocean)then, OVer tlme, the amount ofatmospherlC Carbon dlOXlde should remain about the same

FosslHuets ■l

photosyn血esIS腔puahon

･

∴-･

ca｢bon dl0Xlde gas whenever these fuels are burned CoaHS almost

⊂悪

血sfoEt壷±] 団封三三三日= FlgUTe47 Amore

detalled model of the carbon cyc一e

Fossll fuels contan a large amount of carbon that lS released as

1

solld carbon, although lt COntaEnS Other elements, such as sulphur.

that can form POISOnOuS gases Petroleum oll and gas (Lnaturar gasp) a｢e cleaner than coaトthey p｢oduce fewer poltLrtlng reSrdues such as

sulphur when burned - and they are easter tO PUrlfy because they are fiulds (llqULds and gases)

Most fossll fuels were formed from plants that lNed at a partlCUlal stage ln the Ea｢th■s h】story - the Carbonlfe｢ous per10d (290-354 m"IOn years ago) At that t】me, there Was ｢lCh vegetatron ove｢ laTge

areas. whFCh then became covered ln mud and other deposltS These deposltS buned the decayLng PIants. preventTng them from decomposlng COmP【etely Over mlll10nS Of years. the p一ant deposltS

Chapter 6 Resou｢ces and envlrDnnlenlal lrTIPaCt

htroducmg EnvlrDnrllent

Were burled deep underground and then subjected to heal and

pressure. formng coal1 01l and gas Etcould be sald thatfossEl fuels are

･stored sunlLght', as the chemECal energy they contaln Was Ongmally

converted from sunllght by the plant llfe of the Ca｢bDnlferoUs pe｢10d (see AppendlX 1 for a geo】oglCal ttme scale ) Fosslt fuels are no めnger belng aCtlVely fo｢med on a large scale

- the natural processes that made them depend on pa｢tlCUla｢

C=mate condltl0nS, and take mll110nS Of years Although there ale

AZlowabout40 rmnutes Carbon d10Xlde emlSSl0nS Track 4 of the DVD -s an lnteraCtNe Vldeo actJVlty about carbon dTOXFde Ks+

emlSSIOnS Uslng a trlP tO the supermarket as an example, you are asked to make a senes of three dectsEOnS thatw!" affect the use of fuer. ancl the

EnvtronmBntal 5hoppmg emISS旧nS･ forthe tnp

l the type of transportto the supermarket car, bus orwalk

dlSagreementS about the amount of fossll fuel left･ lt lS Clear that lt IS

2 buylng local o｢ lmPOrted food

a unlqUe SUPPLY of fueHorthe planet1 Once used up. ltWl" not be

3 carrylng the food home ln a a.sposable bag, a reusab一e plast■c bag ora

replaced Hence. fossll fuels are often refer｢ed to as non-renewab一e

resources A fuel reserve LS the amount of that resource that lS economlCally recoverable Even lf there.s a large amount of oll ln

croth bag

FoHow the FnStruCtlOnS On SCreen, uSlng the DVD menu controls to make your choICe at each stage Atthe end, the DVD w川autornatlCaIEy select a

a glVen area, It may not be technoLogICally posslble to recove｢ lt, Or

sumrna｢y, dependlng On Whethe｢ your choLCeS lead to hlgh. medlUm Or low

do】ng SO may SlmPly be too expensIVe

emISS10nS There a｢e many factors that can affect emlSSlOnS - the examples

oll IS Part■CUlarly useful because.I conta.ns a large amount of energy

per lltre. and lt lS eaS.Iy transported and processed (to make pet｢ol･ for Instance) h a carps engine, the chemlca】 ene｢gy stored ■n thefueE ■s

converted to motl0∩ (mechanlCal energy) and heat lmaglne Ca｢｢ylng

shown a｢e lntended to IJIustrate the types of Issues that are lnVOEved, and to show you some of the wlder lnlPIJCatl0nS The EnforrnatlOn lnCluded ln the

vldeo IS from a va｢lety Of sources, and lS lntended to be lndlCatlVe forthe UK

You may llke to slmPly pLaywlth the optlOnS. tO See What happens Make a

one tonne of metal overa dlStanCe Of 15 mlles ln 20 minutes Now

note of yoU｢ cholCeS･ and the lnfo｢matlOn Presented ln the vldeo cllPS. aS you

cons■derthata typlCal carwelghs about a tonne･ and can do exactly

go through What other factors affect people's choICeS?

that. uslng the energy from Less than 1 ‖tre of petrol

olHS also used as the raw matenal for plastlCS and many other carbon-based chemlCals, such as medlCLneS, POEyeste｢ flb｢e for clothlng, PaLntS】 P-astlCS. glues and prlntlng lnks ThlS book cou一d not

have been made wlthout oll

A事so. flnd a pathway (there are several posslbllltleS) that 一eads to

(a) †ow emlSSlOnS

(b) hlgh emISS10nS Comment There lS nO Lnght'answer for thlS aCtNlty. although there are suggestlOnS -or

ways ln WhlCh ca｢bon d10Xlde emlSSIOnS CDUFd be reduced As you have The lmpllCatlOnS Ofbuming fosslはlels for the levels ofatmospherlC Carbon

dLSCOVered･ our eve｢yday deczslOnS are affected by many factors other than

dlOXlde are now well known pollutants are belng released lntOthe atmosphere

smply reducEng the amount of fuel used There are also scalIng factors- tf

and carbon d10Xlde lS a greenhouse gas that may be lnCreaSlng global

many people use a bus ｢athe｢than FndlVJdual cars, lt adds up to an overall

warmlng (dlSCuSSed later ln this Chapter) Less well known are the efFects of

savlng ln contrast, lf many people choose to use dlSPOSab】e packaglng】

clearlng tropical forests The bumlng Of the cleared vegetat-On converts most

even though the amount pe｢person rs small lt adds up to a barge lnCreaSe ln

of the blOmaSS tO Carbon dlOXlde lfthe cleared area lS Subsequently ploughed

emISSIOnS Note that the ｢esurts of the vldeo actlVrty are Just lndlCatHつnS - they

for agricultural use, carbon dlOXlde loss LS much more substantial because the

a｢e not based on detalled calculatl0nS

decomposlt10n that results releases much of the carbon that was prevlOuSly locked up ln the soll The amount of carbon Involved makes a slgnlfLCant

dlfference tOthe carbon cycle Each year, the bumlng Of flOSSllfuels releases about 20 times aS much carbon Into the atmosphere as the natural processes

ofweatherlng and volcanlC aCtrVlty COmblned The clearing and bumlng Of

forests releases up to half as much again, althoughthlS figure lS dlfficult to detemlne accurately The actual amounts ofcarboninvolved are huge each year, volcanoes release about 50 mllllOn tOTlneS Ofcarbon Into the atmosphere, weathermg releases another 200 m111.0n tonnes and bumlng fossll丘lels

releases about 5400 mlu10n tOnneS

What happens to all the extra carbon dlOXlde ln the atmosphereつAbout one-

flfth of lt dissolves ln the oceans, which form a reservolr, a Store Ofcarbon

Another two-flfths leaves the atmosphere ln Other ways, Probably taken up

by extra tree growthBul so much carbon dlOXlde lS Currently being released as a result of human actlVItythat lt appears that the capacltyOfthe oceans and trees to mop up excess carbon dlOXlde has been exceeded - the gas now

accumulates ln the atmosphere Figure 48 (overleaf) shows what lS happenlng

Chapter6 Resources and ewlrOnrnenlal mlPaCl

aunTO^J(qItlU12dsmptxoTPuOqJCU

Measurlng very small dllutIOnS one part per mrIJJOn by volume of carbon dIOX-de means that for every mrrILOn unJtS Of gas, Just One FS Carbon dJOXlde ･Parts per m川lOn･ lS SOmetlmeS Wntten lpp ∩ I

ThlS iS dlfflCUlt to lnagFne･ but one way to get a sense of lt LS tO conslde｢ a slmP】er example Jmaglne a dornestFC bathtub fuII to the bnm w■th water (that's about 200 lures, orone一冊h of a.T.lll.on

miHllltreS) A drop of Ink added to thrs would be dlJuted to one part ln a mFHon (assurnlng the Ink drop had a volume of one f柵of a mlllrHre)

So one part pe｢mImon IS eqUrVaFent to a drop of lnk ln a full bathtub

-a tlny amount

ne seasonal `ups'and `downs, ln Flgure 48 are due to changes ln Plant growth Remember the descrIPtlOnS Of photosynthesIS and resplratlOn from

chapter 3 - photosynthesIS uses uP Carbon dlOXlde ln the summer,the greater amount of carbon tal(en up by plants reduces the carbon dlOXlde concentration

F-gure 48 Levels oE atmosphenc carbon dIOXlde showng seasonal vana如n, recorded

ln the atmosphere ln wlnter･there lS less plant growth,this, together wlth

ln the atmosphere of Hawa=

contlnued release of carbon d10XIde from resplratlOn, leads to Increased Source Keellng and VVhorf. 2005

atmospheric Carbon dzoxlde But what of the overall trend? In 1958, carbon d10Xlde concentratlOn Was

about 3 15 parts per rnllllOn by volume (see the box above) This means that

AIZowabout 15mnutes DeaHng wFth graphs

ln each mllllOn Cubic metres ofalr, there were 3 15 cublC metreS Ofcarbon dlOXlde ln 1990, the concentratlOn Was Close to 350 p p m , and back then

What lsense'can you make of Frgure 487 When you need to make sense of

the predlCtlOn Was SOmeWheTe beとween 375 and 400 p p m for the end of the

an unfamlJEar graPhl you Shou-d start by readng the tltle and the labeFs on

century (the year 2000) Wlth the benefit of up-to-date lnfomat10n, We Can

the two axes Always rook for the slmPlest message the graph conveys - the

see whether this SClentlfic predlCt10n Was COrreCt Figure 49 shows the latest

overaFI shape of the llne OrCurVe ls lt lnCreaSng Ordecreaslng? Does that

results from the same measuring Observatory Ln Hawall

IJne Stay flat, o｢事S there some varlatl0∩?

wrrte down ln WOrds what you can about the relatronshFP Shown ln the graph 心umTO^Lqo=TulJads].邑ptyo.uq旨U

Comment ThlS graph shows the varlatlOn ln Carbon dlOXlde Jevels ln the atmosphere overtlme･ between the years 1958 and 1980 The overalJ shape slopes

uPWards to the rzght, showJng that carbon dlOXlde levels ln the atmosphere have gone UP Between the years 1958 and 1980. the amountof carbon

333,78805205.㌦.7

droxlde lnCreaSed from about 31 5 to about 340 parts per mlrlLOn by vorurTle That's an lnCreaSe Of 25 parts per mllllOn byvoFume

FlgUre 4g Current TeSLllts from Hawa‖

Source Keellng and

Whorf. 2005

lntTOducEllg EnyLrOnment

Oceans and cHmate A一low about 5 mlnuteS Testng a PredJCtlCn

Over two-thlrds of the Ea｢th■s surface lS covered by oceans, whlCh play an lmPOTtant

From Flgure 49, what lS the current level of carbon dLOXLde ln the

part ln the world's cllmate Carbon dl0×lde and other gases dissolve ln Water. SO the

atmosphe｢eつ

oceans are a vltal part of the carbon cycle Water has some dlstlnCt PrOPertleS that

was the predlCtlOn made ln 1 990 co｢｢ect? Comment see the response at the back of the book

are essentla】 fo｢ =fe on Earth U州ke many rTlate｢lals. Solld water (ice) floats above the LlqUId, so the frozen pola｢ ｢egl0nS have vast whlte Sheets of floatlng lCe and 】cebergs These help to reflect the sunls heat, keeplng those regl0EIS COO‡er ln ｢egtons where bkes freeze over En Wlnter, E】fe can contlnue ln the water beneath

Water also acts as a very effectlVe heat store - a compa｢a臼vely large amount

of therma一 (heat) energy IS needed to lnCreaSe the tempe｢atu｢e So. the oceans

effectNeFy even out the tempe｢ature varlat10nS between the seasons ln COaStal areas

The greenhouse effect and cllmate

Further lnland, the tenpe｢ature varlatl0nS a｢e far more ma｢ked On a global scale.

Asyou,ve seen, these are, overall, very dilute amounts of carbon d10Xlde ln a

ocean currents cl｢CUlate warm wate｢ f｢om the equator to the coole｢ a｢eas near the

large volume of atmosphere So, do these changes makeany dlfFerenceウ

poles For examp】e】 the Gulf Stream that runs northwards ac｢oss the AtlantlC. UP the west coast of Brlta‡n. lS reSPOnSlbIe for keeplng the UK's cllmate relatlVely mlld One of

You may know that carbon dlOXlde and other gases ln the atmosphere trap

the concerns. and debates. among cllmate SClentlStS, lS Whethe｢ thIS 'thermal currellt

the sun's energy and keep the Earth'S surface warm thlS IS known as the

conyeyor belt'CouLd be affected by human actlVltleS, POSSlbly caus】ng cllrnate

greel1housc effect Were lt not for these `greenhouse gaSeS', heat would

d‡sruptl0n

escape back Into SpaCeand the Earth would be 33 0c cooler thanlt actually lS, 60oW

which wollld meanthat much of the Earth'S surface would be deeply frozen

Oo    60oE   120oE   1800   120oW

what lS less certain lS Whether the hlgher carbon dlOXlde levels have resulted

蜜--.ち

ln an extra Wa-lng Ofthe Earth,s surface - so-called globflhvarmtng Releaslng Carbon that has been stored away ln COal, oll and gas IS bound to affect the carbon cycle in some way'especlally asth1S has happened over the

60oN

relatlYely short tlme scale ofa couple of hundred years The questlOn lS - how

-.."_芝ノ磨司鮎rl-i

much dltference lSthlS maklngワSome cntlCS argue that other factors explain

why we,ye had so many `warm years･ ln the past decade or so For example, changes ln the amount of solar energy hlttlng the Earth'S surface may be

lnCreaSlng the temperature These cntlCS don't denythe evidence that carbon d10Xlde levels have changed, butthey believe that such changes have little to do wl血global temperature

20oN

し､YV働_ー崩蒜豊』乱 し上琶

Od zoos

つ､

ｘ

5ﾘﾛxｽSｨ

ｧ蹠"ﾖ､ﾈﾇ渥H竧

But these reservatlOnS are the exceptlOn Although the extra carbon dlOXlde

has been dlluted by the atmosphere, these changes do appear to be making a dlfFerence to the world's climate There lS a Strong COnSenSuS among SClentlStS

that desplte a number ofuncertalntleS, global warming lS a Present-day realltyand will be an envlrOnmental threat of Increasing Severity tOthe next

_I,_i,:気_一一lJーl ､ し豆<:_T三感;p蓋e:rs.

6005

ナJ敵真二_='i/l字,,-澱一一でlddd

bottomwatefS

generations, unless action lS taken to reduce the rates ofrelease of carbon dlOXlde and other greenhollSe gases Into the atmosphere

輿-." FlgUre 50 The thermal current conveyor belt - ocean currents that c=･cutate warm and cold water around the gEDbe

lntroduclng EnvErOnmerlt

Chapter6 Resculces and eny7rOnmental Impact

6.5 Adding fossir fuels to the ecofootprint model

ecofootpnnt Figure 51 shows Figures 43, 44 and 45 redrawn to lnCludethlS theoretlCal energy land (shown as pale grey squares)-

Ally process that uses fossil R1els will add carbon dlOXlde to the atmosphere

So,the Impact OfthlS COntrlbutlOn needs to be added tothe ecoflOOtPrlnt model SectlOn 6.3 Introduced five types of area that are used lnthlS model

てーJtf3

arable land, grazlng land, forest, fLShlng area and bullトup land The fossll負lel

contrlblltlOn lS added as an amount of carbon dlOXlde released, but that lS then

(a)

converted to an eqtllValent area orland

What matters IS that accordlng tOthlS model the more carbon dlOXlde released Into the atmosphere,the worse the envlrOnmen(al Impact The energy contrlbutlOn tO the ecoflOOtpnnt dlffers丘om the other areatypes, because it

adds upthe carbon d10Xlde emlSS10nS fromfossllfuels The model assumes thatthe oceans absorb a slgnlflCant amount Ofcarbon dlOXlde, so the `energy contnbutlOrl'lS the amount requlred to make up the difference This Can make

a slgnlficant contrlbut10n tOthe overall ecoflOOtPnnt, PartlCularly ln COuntnes

where there lS a hlghllSe Offossllfuels

Although the physical effect lS the release of carbon dlOXlde lntOthe

atmosphere, the model needs to Include this aS a 'land'type. sothat lt Can be added on to the other contnbutlOTIS for grazlng landand so on This may seem odd, but lt lS )uSt a Way tO Include the eff.BCtS Of carbon release. So, you will sometlmeS encounter the fossll免Iel energy contnbutlOn aS `tonnes ofcarboTl dlOXlde', or as an area of `el-ergy hll{】', dependlng On how the

model has been applled To convert h)m one to the other, the model assumes a theoretlCal area ofvegetatlOn that lS needed to absorbthat much carbon dlOXlde (Remember the lower carbon d10Xlde levels durlng the summer, 1n the graphs from Hawall ) `Energy land'does not actually exist - lt lS a

(C)

theoretlCal area, showing how mllCh new iTorest would need to be planted to neutrallSe the effects of the extra carboTl dlOXlde released For example, 1 kllogram of butter is processed from 12 lltreS Ofmllk,

FIgu｢e 51 Total ecofootprlnt. lnC】udlng `energy Eand'fo｢ 1 kllogram of (a) potatoes (b)触h (C) butter (each small

square ｢ep｢esents 1 square metre)

uslng SOmefuelAsmost Industrial processes lathe UX are based on fossil

Sou｢ce BarrettetaE. 2002. Table 5 3

fueLs (much of our electrlCltylS generated from oil, coal or gas ln Power

stations), this use Offuel will release some carbon d10XldeAsfor the other contrlbut10nS tOthe ecofootpnnt, there are tables of results available, showing how much carbon dlOXlde lS released flOr each process For 1 kilogram of blltter, the extra `energy land'to absorb the carbon dlOXlde produced by the

use offuel adds another 59 square metres to the ecofootprlnt, ln addltlOn tO

Altowabout15mlnuteS Energy land F｢om FlgU｢e 51 , compare the ｢e】atlVe amDUntS Of energy rand for the d】fferent

the I 15 square metres ofland requlred to produce the milk (BarTett etal,

p｢oducts, and suggest why these values dlffer Thlnk about what lS lnVOIved n

2002, Table 5 3)

growlng. harvestlng. StOrEng and p｢(⊃cesslng the products, and how much fueF

mlght be needed

Any process that uses energy丘om burnlng Or uSlng Carbon-based materlal wュll

add a component of 'energy land'to the ecofoOtpnnt ThlS Includes fossil Rlels

Comment

as well as wood, cardboard orpaper lt also takes account ofmalnS electnclty, lf

Potatoes these need the Least processlng. and are stored at room

lt has been generated from bu-ng coal or gas Nuclear, wlnd, hydroelectric and

tempe｢atu｢e, but inCIude some fue=o｢ farm machlnery

other altemative sources do not contnbute to carbon d10XLde emlSSIOnS Desplte

thlS, In SOme eCOfootprlnt models, lnCludlng the one from the WWF quoted ln thIS book, nuclear power lS added ln aS a COntrlbut10n tOthe ecofootpnnt because of the envlfOnmental effects of rad10aCtlVe Waste dlSPOSal

So, the carbon d10Xlde amounts canbe shown asthelr (theoretical) land equivalents This 'energy land'can then be added onto the overall

FISh not hlghly processed. but needs to be chr"ed or frozen, and also

requl｢eS fueHo｢ flShlng boats Butte｢ hlgher use of fuel. because there lS more PTOCeSSEng from mlJk, and

must be chllTed

Chapte｢6 Resources aTld envlrOnTnentaHmpact l仙oducln9 EnvlrOnment

･Energy land, LS ratheranabstract concept, but lt lS uSehll for comparing dlfFerent processes, aS you Wlu See ln Chapter 7

6.6 Using numbersand umts we all use units Ofmeasurement ln Our everyday lives - kilograms, lltreS, seconds and so on There are hundreds of different measures, but sclentlStS and technologlStS Ofall nations have agreed to use a standard system of

utlltS Everything you COuld ever want to measure Canbe measured using a

few basICumtS, Or COmblnatlOnS Of them These Internationally agreed unltS, andtherules for thei, use, fo,mthe Syst如e lnternationale (lntematlOnal

system), known as SI ThlS Section eXplalnS SOme Ofthe essentlals of SI, whlCh lS SOmetlmeS reBefred to as the metnc system tfyou continue your

studies, PartlCulafly ln SClenCe Or technology, will encounter more examples of the use ofSl units h some sttuatlOnS, however, you may also encounter Don-slumts, for example, ln the UK, mlles are often l岱ed to measure longer

dlStanCeS To show you how the SI system works, let,ら look at the units Oflength The Sl

base unit for length is the metre, symbol ･m, It lS uSebl to have a rough1dea of the sIZe Ofa typlCalmeasurement ln any glVen lmlt･ SO,for example,the

helght ofa standard domesbc door lS about two metreS lfyou are not famlllar with the SI system, get some PraCtlCalexperlenCe Of the size Ofdlfferent units by noting Where they are used ln your life For longer lengths･ such as the

dlStanCe between two towns,the SI system uses a -ltlPle of the base unlt･

a kllometre (Symbol Lkm,) The.kllo, m kilometre lS an example ofa Fret-lX - a letter or word placed ln front of another word or symbol Prefixes show the scale of the measurement, and are standard for all S- units, `kllo'means `a

thollSand, So one kilometl･e lS a thousand metres

There are other prenlXeS for smaller unltS So, the length ofthlS page mlght

(1 m2 enlw去e? ,lf(y tlmeS)   Scale on dlagram 0 1 mm represents I m

be measured ln CentunetreS (cm), Where ･centL'means `a hundredth'A centimetre lS One-hundredth ofa metre, so there are 100 centlmetreS ln

metre A UK one penny coin measures about 2 cm across For even smaller

FlgUre 52 Compallng UmtS Of area

dlStanCeS, We use mll"metrcs (mm) The prenx Lmllll, means `a thousandth'

so a mlll.metre lS One-thousandth ofa metre (or a tenth ofa centlmetre)

Units Of area are partlCularly useful ln this book These are illustrated ln

Flgure 52 The Sl unlt Of area lS the sqllare metre (Symbol `m2'), although multlples of thlS are O鮎n used for larger areas A Squnre kllornetre (1 km2)

lS an area One kilometre by one kilometre, I-e 1000 metres by 1000 metreS

There are 1 000 000 square metreS ln One Square kilometre The ecofootprlnt and other land areas are o鮎n measured ln hectares (Symbol Lha7) One

hectare lS an area 100 metres by 100 metres, so there are 10000 square metreS

ln a hectare and loo hectares ln a Square kilometre Append" 2 shows the

equlValentsfor various unltS

  --･                ______ ___

Allow about 20 mHluteS Convertlng un)tS Uslng the Fnformatl0n ln thFS SeCt【On and AppendlX 2. convert the followlng

umts (a) W｢】te I,ve hectares as square metres

(b) W｢lte eトght square k日omelres as hectares (C) W｢lte 230 square k日omet｢es as square met｢es

Comment See the response atthe back of the book

FntrodtJCmg EllVTTOrLm即t

ChapteT6 Resources and envlrOnrnental ErTIPaCl

so如ln thlS Section, 1 have only consldered measurements oflengthand

area･ Thefull SI system has base units for many other quantltleS･ Such as mass

鮎⊂ⅧC.血r, 仙血=:p恥..b蕊hE戚≡叫L塩基芯

and tlme The common unit for mass ISthe k]logram (kg), althoughgrams (g) aTe Often tlSed The prefix `kllo'has the same meanlng, SO One kilogram lS 1000 grams Sugar lS Often packed ln i kg bags For larger masses, such as

pd叫芸恕■rw-h≒RetcfZt州.Sq"-LFdnEd=tふ空

the rnass ofa car, the metric tonrle (Symbol 't') lS used, where one tonne lS 1000 kllograms Note the spelllng I lfyou see `tonneコwrltten by Itself, that

I-

means metrlC tonne lfyou see `ton', that lmPIleS the older, non-metrlC ton StrJCtly, tonnes are metrlC but not SI, althoughthey are o鮎n used alongslde

G○df.SqtLZEre HmN-nzLJ㌫㌢BENCzrd5-OuLMr-伽qE:

刹ｩ

ShW

凵宦yⅧy伽l■

刹ｩー1

the SI units for convenience SometlmeS you may hear people talking about

伽 L芯 僞JdzJl叫 RdSt肌 SqLJJr書 蕃'

thelr `welght'ln k∫lograms This IS another Instance Wherethe everyday use ｡f

ｨ6､

豫BﾒﾗH

ｨ

8

a word dlffers from the teclmlCal or sclentlflC definlt10n There is a dlfFen=nce

Bﾄ

ﾕDﾗ"

Q叫丸鞄こ 壁凌.汰-蒜

between mass and weight - your mass IS the amount of matter ln you, but

your weJght depends on the gravltatlOnal pull on you as well When you see a

measurement called Lwelght'and quoted ln grams, kllog,ams or slmllar umts,

sdY仙 C○qrt軸1=事

lt Should stTICtly be called 'mass'

-叢書重賞LGq_en=n_叫富監:-.

6･7 Ecofootprint as a model The ecofootprlnt lS an example of a seientifje mo｡cl A model represents

some aspects of the world, whlle omlttlng Others It ls a useful way to slmpllfy sltuat10nS SO that predtct10nS Can be made For example, the schematic map

of the London Underground traln routes Shown ln Flgure 53(a) lS uSehl, because lt Shows the cormectlOnS betweenthe dlfFeTent llneS, and the order of the statlOnS lfyou look at another model for thlS area OfLondon - the street map shown ln Flgure 53(b) - you see different Information llere, the exact location Ofeach station lS Shown, but lt lS hard to tell whlCh waythe traln llneS gO So these two models each have advantages and disadvantages, but

they are both useful･ depending On the circumstances, and neither lS Lwrong, Summanslng the relevant feahres ofa sltuatlOn Creates a mOdeトa slmpllnled

version Ofthe system - that we can use to look at the problems or questions

ln that sltuatlOn Some models are physical (a toy traln, for example), others may use dlagramS (a map), while others use numbers or Ideas to represent the world

Whenever you conslder a model, remember that lt lS a representation Of reality, not the actual world There are three maln Issues tO COT)Slder ｡ whattbe model lS tlSed for

･the ways m wh.ch the model matches reallty + the llmltatlOnS Ofthe model

A sclentlflC model should be a good match to the actual sltuatlOn, because lt will have been tested uslng rlgOrOuS methods The ecofootprlnt lS generally

regarded as a useful model, because lt accounts for many of the effects of human actrvltleS On the enylrOnment, 1n a Way that can be checked and

(b)

measured There are dlfFerent verslOnS Ofthe model, and there lS ￡ome debate

about the detalls･Asmore research lS Camed out, the ecofootprlnt model wlll

Flgure 53 Two maps of central London (a) London Underground t'a■n map (b) street map showlng Underground

change, to take Into account new dlSCOVerleS

sta110nS

ln[TOduclng EnvLTOnment

Chapter6 Resoulces and ewlrOnmentar lmPaCt

What lS not lnC山ded ln the ecologlCaHootprlnt mOdelつ

The ecologlCalfootpnnt lS based on measures ofsustalnabllltytt does not cu汀ently Include ● actlVltleSfor whlCh there lS nO rellable Info-atlOn, Such as acid raln,

even lfthese are known to have an Impact On the envlrOnment (although such actlVltleS COuld be Included ln the future lfdata became avallable)

･ the use ofmaterLalsthat are not part ofnatural cyclesjor example the plutonlum Produced by some nuclear power statlOnS

･ processes that cause Irreversible damage tothe biosphere, for example, specleS eXtlnCtIOn Or flOSSll Rlel depletion

' any space for wlldemess, 1n Other words, the assumption lS that au

avallable land area lS used flOr human actlVltleS,with no nature rese.veg or wlld areas other than `useless'1and, sllCh as deserts ThlS WOuld not be envlrOnmentally desirable, so some ecofootpnnt models do allow a certaln PrOPOrtlOn Of wlldemess_

This meanSthat overall, the ecologlCalfoOtprlnt underestlmateS the

envlrOnmental lmPaCt Of humanactlVlty

6.8 Current resource use in the UK

Golng back to the Idea ofa dome covenng a clty that you met earlier lnthlS

chapter, how b.g wouldthe dome be for an acttnl city, Such as York? The council of the cltyofYork carrled out a detalled analysis Ofthe ecofootprlnt ln the year 2000 (Barrett et aL, 2002) ThlS SeCtlOn uses lnfonnatlOn from that

survey, so lt lS about an actual UK city, not an Imaginary location Inthe year 2000, York had about 179 000 resldents, and the total ecofootprlnt

per resldent was 6 98 hectares (698 000 square netres). MultlPlymg the

ecofoOtpnnt per person by the number of people gives a total ecofootpnnt area forthe c,tyof 1 249420 hectares (124 942 000 000 square metreS) This IS far larger thanthe actual area orthe city,the bullt-up land. The actual area

covered by York is 27 200 hectares, so the ecofooq)nnt lS much blgger than the area covered by the bulldlngS ThlS IS What you,d expect, because the clty wlll Import goods h,m elsewhere ln the UK, Europe and丘Irther afleld

Flgure 54(a) shows the area contnbutlOnS tOthe ecofootprlnt OfYork, wlth built-up land atthe centre The bullt-up land lS the actual area occupied by the bulldlngS and roads of the clty Flgure 54(也) adds an extra nng of area,

to representthe theoretlCal 'energy land'due to fossllfuel use ln the clty - notice how much this adds to the overall ecofootpnnt ThlS Shows the total

envlrOnmental impact (and resource use)for York tflt Were POSSlble to put a sealed glass dome over the clty'lt WOuld need to encompass the area shown ln Flgtlre 54(也) ThlS lmaglnary dome lS Shown ln Flgure 54(C), Over a map of

Flgure 54 Ecofootprlnl of York (a) shovv】ng Rve man area types (b) lnCludlng Eenelgy land･

rntroduclng EnvIronment

Chapter 6 Resources and enylrOmlental Impact

rL.)-ン

Ⅵ)rk ecofootprlnt

UK ecofootpnnt

nleCtareS Per Person

/hectares per person

Energy land  4 68

379

Graz】ng land 0 49

069

Arable

100

0

51

L'了.

･-三.I_3･ [1LrJjJlて三 i

All仇Vabout5m･nules ls York typrcal of the UK?

CorTIPa｢e the frgures for York wEth those for the whole UK What slmllar.t,es

lニL-   Ll

and dlfferences can you fnd? 2:i崇

竃V.ノヂ

Ii'J-- ｣ノ

･iJ ー

-:

I

-

Comment Compar-ng each row ln the tab】el the flgUreS are falrly slmZlar, although the

overall vaJue forYork lS hlgher than forthe UK as a whole Per resldent, York uses more energy land and forest. and less arable land, than the UK ove｢a1-

｣

.  .1･･-

;･'t/'.､

S3JetUOutJOS9dJa)uTldo30日

22110 50 0  50 0  50 0

FlgU｢e 54(C) Ecofootpnnt of York shown as訓1 Jmag'nary dome over no,the,n ∈ngland

Brltaln tO the same scale Ofcourse, this dome lS Just tO Illustrate how much

resourcethe clty needs Because foOd and other resources are Imported from

all over the world, the actual contrlbut10nS tO the ecofootpnnt are scattered ln different countries For Instance, 1fvegetables are Imported Into York丘･om

SouthAfrlCa, thelr arable land contrlbutlOn lS Part Ofthe York ecofootprlnt, even though the land lS actually thousands ofmlles away You have already seen how the ecofootprlnt lS made up加m contrlbutlOnS Of

dlfFerenttypes of area Table 4 shows how thlS WOrks forYork, and for the UK as a whole, so we can compare them This Shows the ecofootprlnt per Person-

FlgUre 55 Ecofootpnnt of York ln the year 2001. dlVFded lntO the maln COntnbutlng factors

Source Ba｢rettet al. 2002. p85

The ecoflOOtPnnt flOr a City Canbe examlned ln VarlOuS different ways In thlS SeCtlOn, We'lHook at some of the contrlbutlOnS tO thlS eCOflOOtPrlnt.

Later, In Chapter 7, yotl Will see how changes might be made to reduce the environmental Impact Of some of these contrlbut10nS

hLroduclng EnyLrOnment

Chapter6 Resources and enylrOnmenta日rTIPaCL

Most of the ecofootprlnt OfYork was due to food products -ln One year,the cltyused 92 500 tonnes of foodand drink As you saw on DVD Track 4, there are COntrlbutlOnS beyond the actual land needed to produceth1S food Out of

the 2 3 hectaresper person for the food supply, only 0 9 hectares represents

the actualland area required to grow or rearthe foodAnother 0_99 hectares of energy land lS requlred to accotlnt for thefuel used lnぬm machinery, food

processing and transportlngthe flood Food packagmg accounts for another

0 35 hectares out of the total 2 3 hectares

The detalled lnformatlOnfor `energy land'provldes some more Clues about how the residents of York are llSlng resources Remember that `energy land' represents the amount of carbon-basedfuel used The total `energy landコflOr

the city lS roughly 864000 hectares The complete list Ofal1 contrLbut10nS toth1S total contalnS Over 150 separate Items, from alr travel to yoghurt production (Barrett et al , 2002). The Interesting point lS that out of all of these, Just SlズentrleS aCCOtmt for over halfofthe total carbon dlOXlde

emlSS10nS These 'energy land'entnes are (to the nearest 1000 hectares) DomestlC

Car

gas

uSe         109

000

trave1               97

000

hectares

hectares

DomestlC electrlClty uSe       79 000 hectares Bnck production           7 1 000 hectares

Commerclal paper and card productlOn 48 000 hectares Commerclal electnclty uSe      48 000 hectares So, next tlme SOmeOne SllggeStSthat you モum the centralheatlng thermostat

down a lTew degrees, swltCh ofFa few lights at home, and use the car less, you'll know why Even a small proportional reduction ln each of these wollId make a large dlfFerence to the overall envlrOnmental Impact Ofthe clty

The ecofootprlnt due to travel and transport saJtZ)じ山雪HOSJgda)urJd】053

Flgure 56(也) showsthe contrlbutlOnS Ofdlfrerent b,pes oftravel by the

residents of York Note that thlS means any travel by people llVlng ln the city, notJust movement wlthln the clty boundaries Also, lt Only Includes people trayelllng Commerclal transport of goods IS not Included here

Cars havethe most Impact On the ecoflOOtPnnt, Owing tO a COmblnat10n Ofa

relatively hlghcarbon dIOXlde emlSS10n Per Passenger mile (whlCh has to be balanced by energy land) and frequent usage Planes have a slightly hlgher

ecofootprlnt Per passenger mlle than cars, and are -lSedfor lollger JOumeyS, but less frequently than cars So, One planeJOumey Can make a relatlVely

large contnbutlOn, but when averaged out oyerthe year over all Inhabitants Of York, thlS IS less slgnlfLCant than car use The car ecofootprlnt also Includes

Flgure 56(a) The clty

of York (b) Ecofootprlnt

a contrlbutlOn from bullt-up land, to account forthe areas of roads requlred I 0Verthree-quarters Of road vehicles are cars. so that proportion Of road area

Ⅶ｢k res】dents 】n the ye那

lS added to the car ecofootprlnt The ecofootpnnt also takes Into account the

2001

resources used to make new vehicles and dlSPOSe Of old ones

COntrlbut10nS from travel by

Source derNed from Barretteta1 2002

aeroplane bicycle blJS Car Type of travel

lntroduclng EnⅥronlTlenf Chapter6 Resources and envlrOnmental lrnPaCt

Amount of carbon dloxJde

rEnergy Jand'equlValent

ThlS Chapter has looked7 1n SOme detall, at the ecofootprlnt model

produced per passenger for the Journey/kg

Per Passenger for the Joumey/m2

You have seen how the dlfferent contrlbutlOnS Can be added up for a

kilogram offood･ a slngleJOumey, or a whole city Althoughthere are some compllCated detalls, the basIC Idea LS Simple - thlS model allows

us to add up the use of resources, and thus estlmatethe envlrOnmental Impact The more resource we use,the greater the demands on the

HIgh-speed electrlC tTaln

envlrOnment･ SO We Should try to make the ecofootprlnt aS Small as SoLlrCe GuardJan, 2005

posslble All models have thelr benents and llmltatlOnS - the advantage

ofthlS One lSthat lt glVeS uS a basISfor comparlng dlfferent actlVltleS, It lS also posslble to compare dlfFerent means of transport, for example, Just

so useful decISIOnS Can be made h the next chapter, thlS idea wュll be

ln terms ofthelr emlSS10nS Somebmes thlS IS expressed directly ln terms Of

extended to whole countnes, So you can compare resource use wlth the

mass of carbon dlOXlde released permile･ but lt Can also be expressed )n tens

resources available, on a global scale

of 'energy land'requlred･ so that lt Can be added directly tothe ecofootpnnt ln the ecofootprlnt model, 0 33 hectares of ･energy land, are needed per 1000 kllograms of carbon dlOXlde eml托ed The morefuel used, the皿Ore Carbon

Study checkllSt

dlOXlde emitted Table 5 shows sometypICal valuesfor aJOumey of about

You should now understand that.

400 miles, So you can see the dlLference between some common modes of

. The ecofootprlnt lS a SClentlflC model - a represen触on of the

transpor【

恥コ■』一一一一■一一一一一■-■■l■-ll Allow about 15 m-ロutes Transport and carbon droxlde emFSSH⊃nS

As Table 5 shows･ nylng Produces far more carbon droxlde per passenger

than the other types of transport planes requlTe more fue=han other vehLCles because of thelrSIZe and speed andJust to stayalrborne Compare the

values for a carand a coach Whydo you thlnk the coach FS more efncJent?

world

. Elements, such as carbon, are recycled ln nature, wlth a delicate balance between different stages of the cycle + Human actlVlhes, such as deforestatlOn and bumlng fossll Alels,

have altered the balance of the carbon cycle The detalled results of thlS are dlfricult to predlCちbut global warmlng lS a SenOuS COnCem

I The contrlbut10nS tOthe ecofootpnnt ofa communlty (such as a clty) can be calculated, to see which actlVltleS make the most dlfference

Comment The amountof fue一 Used per mlle for a car and a coach maydlffer butthe

marn factor IS that the coach carrleS far more passengers. So the emJSSrOnS

Per Person are lower Smzlarly. four peopJe traverllng ln One Car rS about four tlmeS aS efRclent aS fourcars each w】thJustone person Thts lS Why some

You should now be able to ● relatea diagram tO adescrlptlOn ln WOrdS

J redlaW a d.agram to Include extra.nfomlatlOn . descrlbe and Interpret the shape ofa llne graph

organlSat10nS Promote Ca｢ Shanng as a means to reduce erTl'SS■OnS (and save fuel and money) of course･ the coach JOUrney W= take far longer than ¶ylng

. read lnfomatlOn丘om atable

from London to Edlnburgh rf the tlme taken to check ln (and walt for luggage)

f compare numbers uslng Slmllar units Ofmeasurement

at the alrPOrt lS lnCIuded･ the traln journey takes about the same overa仙me

J revleW Ideas you hare encountered previously, and relate them to

asflylng

new Ideas presented here

rL"..･｣｡t■!キュー

Chapter7 SusLarnablllty and our enVlrOnrTlent

135

7 SustainabHity and our environment

anlmals･ lS Self-sustaLnlng･and can produce the surplus needed for f叫tlmber

and other human requlrements Chapter 3 Introduced the Ideas ofb1010glCal productlOn and biomass At that stage, you Saw how丘)od chalnS depend on the

7.1 lntroductl0n

prlmary producers -ilants that produce sugars vla PhotosynthesIS BIOmaSS IS the mass of new blOloglCal matenal produced ln a given area ln a given tlme

The prevIOllS Chapter Introduced the Idea of an ecologlCal footpnnt, and showed

An area wlth a hlgh yleld ofblOmaSS IS Very PrOductlVe Before I can explaln

how lt WOrksfor the clty OfYork EcofootprlntS Can be determined at dlfFerent

blOCapaClty, I need to define biologically produetil a arCn

levels, for a single household, city, reglOn Or Whole country ln thlS Chapter, the ecofootprlnt Will be extended tothe whole of the UK, and compared wlth

B1010glCally produchve area lS land and sea with slgnはcan(

other countries ln Europeand the rest of the world The ecoflOOtPrlnt Shows

photosynthetlC aChvltyand production Of blOmaSS Marglnal areas wlth patchy vegetation and non-productrve areas are not Included

how we use resources, and lt lS Important tO COmPare this Wlththe amount of resollrCe aChlally available Are we llVlng Wlthln Our meanSつ

(WWF, 2005)

ThlS Chapter addresses this question by lntrOduclng two new Ideas blOCaPaClty

Less than a quarter of the Earth,S surface lS blOloglCally productlVe ln a

and sustalnab111ty. B10eaPaCity tells us what resources are available ThlS

way that lS useful to humans The remalnlng three-quarters includes deserb, lee Caps and deep oceans, which have low levels ofb10PrOductrvlty that lS

IS about the realltyofactual land and water area - we cannot create extra

dlfrlCult to harvest

か終-卜- elk csounst.laniennab蒜Yocce.a:sp･霊Owuhgaht ww… ::yu:.en;bLe.LoELaan:.Tao:三lfaoE;estsY.u have ･tiAも′′    already encountered `maxlmum SuStalnable yield, 04SY) in Chapter 5, where

lt Was applied to cod stocks lfwe use fewer resources than are available, then

WoTld area avarlable

we are `ln Credlt'- 1lVlng at a level where, overall, the envlrOnmental Impact

lS low enough for us not to cause permaneTlt damage ThlS IS SuStalnable llVlng If, however, we use more resourcesthan are ayallable,then we are Lln debt', so thatthe damage to the envlrOnment Wlll Increase, W-thout recovery

ln hectares

ATabJe land 義竜等;e…言' food･ an'mal feed. nbre (eg conon) and oH (eg sunnowero,･)

ナ▲ ■′ 丁･1

､

∼

∩

-thlS IS nOn-SuStalnable IIVlng To work out what's sustalnable, and what lSn't, l'1l show you how to compare the ecofootprlnt (What we're uslng) wlth

the blOCaPaClty(what's avallable) This approach can be applied more widely than MSY, because lt relates to more than a single specleS Such as cod

Feather and other products

Then, nHook at some ways to redllCe the ecofootprlTlt, tO make llfestyles more sustalnable ln the prevl0uS Chapter, you saw how dlfferent flOrmS

of traJISPOrt have different envlrOnmental Impacts, SOthe ecofootprlnt Can be reduced lfpeople choose to use transport dlff.erently･ This Chapter wlll

consldeT tWOfurther examples The first of these is houslnB - Chapter 6

FIShlng area

嘘 Doesnot'ncludedeepbcean

showed that domestlC heating and electncLty use are a major COntnbut10n

to the ecofootprlnt Ofa typICal cltyLater lnthlS Chapter, wlththe help ofa vldeo documentary, you can look ln more detail at ways ln Which housing and

ra'nforest (3 6 b.JIEOn ha), wh,ch 's nearly nne-tenths of alr the forest on the p一anet

llfestyles affect the envlrOnment The second example lS Waste dlSpOSal1t may seem dull at fLrSt, but lt Can have widespread envlrOnmental lmPllCatlOnS

Earller Chapters have shownhow natural cycles of growth, decay and decomposltlOn allow nutrlentS tO be recycled, for Instance ln a COmpOSt heap

or on a farm Our socletydoes not necessarlly recycle waste ln a Way that

Where constructlOn work has made substantlal alteratlOnS (e g

allows rnaterlal to be re-used

lakes and dams for hydroelectnclty)

7,2 Howmuch usefuHand andwaterarea is actua‖y availab一e?

Just a5 Chapter 6 descrlbed a measure ofenvlrOnmental Impact (ecofootpnnt), thlS Section descnbes a measule Ofusef.ul blOloglCal resource (bzocapaclty) By

usefulJ mean land or water that supportsanactlVe COrnmunltyofplants and

surface area), assum.ng that all avaLlable area ,s used f., human actJVrtFeS (■ e no product.ve 一and or wateHs put as.de f.r wltdrlfe

or wlldemess)

lntroducl∩g Env】ro叩1ent

Chapter7 SustalnabJJIty and our envlrOnment

ThlS lnflOrmatlOn lS presented as a pie chart ln Flgure 57 1n this type Of dlagram, the total area of血e clrCle lS dlVlded mto sectors TIle larger也e

sector, the bigger the contrlbutlOn fromthat particular ltemjor example forest ThlS Chart showsthe entlre area Ofthe Earth, lnCludlng the useRll areas shown ln Table 6

(a) About a quarter- as you can see from the pJe Chart (b) F｢om the plc Chart･ forests and grazJng rand appearto make up about the same area From the table, the numbers showthat the total forest aTea IS greatez(C) ■Other forest'accounts for the least of the Earth.s forest area

0ther forest

Global b10PrOductNe Land per person lfwe dlVlde the total productrye land by the world populat10m, We Can WOrk ollt the area available per person

Total world area ofb10PrOductrve land 1 1 4 bllllOn hecta,es Total

world

populatlOn       6

2

b11110n

People

So, productrve area ofblOSPhere per person 1 8 hectares

This Info-at･on from WWF (2005) refers tothe year 2001

AnaTea loo metres by 180 metres has an areaof1 8 hectares, so we can 皿aglne an average Plot of land, equlYalent to the average area per person,

and dlVlde lt uP aCCOrdlng tO the man types, as shown ln Figure 58

- ､

FlgUre 57 Actual areas of b10PrOductNe land and water avallabEe gEobaHy

Source dewed from WWF, 2005

月■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■l■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ Allow about 15 mlnUteS lnte｢pretlng ;] Ple Chart Compare FlgUre 57 wlth Table 6 Which do you flnd easleSt tO lnterPretつ

Flnd the answers to the followlng queSt10nS

bullt-up land

(a) Roughlywhat proport10n Of the Earthls sudace lS Useful for human actlVltleSウ

FlgUre 58 Global broproduct.ve area per person

(b) Of aH the usefuHand types, whCch makes the largest contnbutlon? (C) Of aH the fo｢esttypes shown ln FlgUre 57. whrch type covers the smallest area?

Comment

When companng amounts that add up to a whole, a pTe Chart lS Often easler to Interpret than a llSt Of numbe｢S, because you can see the relatNe amounts veryquICkly Ff you need to knowthe actual numbers, lt lS eaSlertO USe the

values from the table, because small dlffeTenCeS are dlfflCUlt to lndlCate clearZy on a pEe Chart

ThIS area lS notional - an average over the entire WOrld population - andtheTe

are many dlfFerent landtypes gathered under these headlngSfor slmPllCity Tt does provide a useful measure against WhlCh to compare the use of resource ln dlfFerent contlnentS and countrleS Ideally'we should all be llVlng Wlthlnthese llmltS･ but what lS actually happenmg?

Entroduc】ng EnyErOnment

Chapter7 Susta一日ablliLy and our envJrOnment

side of the chart shows the meaning Ofeach shaded area Where the chart

Biocapaclty

shows a varlatlOn OVer a PerlOd oftlme･ the tlme lS usually marked along the

Bl0loglCal capaclty lS a measure Of how much resource lS aClua"y

honzontal a光ls, Wlth the most recent times On the right

avarlable to us 】n a glVen year Although the a｢ea of useful b10PrOductNe 一and ls a good JndlCat10∩, VVe need to take Into account

the dlfferent p｢OductlVttleS Of vanous dlfferent land types ln dlfferent

4  つん  ∩U oO

suotHTqnud70JOU心1°qOT叫tz)01

･- bullトup land

areas Forexample, a wheat fleld ln the UK may produce more graln zn a yearthan the same area of vvheat ln Zambla Bl0CaPaClty lS calculated by applymg a conversion factor to each area of land, So a more productNe Wheat fleld effecttvely counts as a blgger area The

- food, fibre

SOTtZ)OG)qJO

and umber

overaH ldea of addng up the cont｢lbut10nS remalnS the same- lt'S｣uSt that each cont｢lbutl0n matches the actual resou｢ces mo｢e ｢eallStlCally when bLOCaPaClty lS used Remember that blocapaclty lS a measure

- energy land

of what's avallable - so a blgger area lS better (unllke ecofootprlnt】

whlCh lS a meaSu｢e Of lmPaCt. SO a Smaller ecofootpnnt lS better) BiOCaPaC!ty IS What■s avallable - the more the merrler - Whlle ecofootp｢lnt lS What we use - less 】s best

Bl0CaPaClty (bl0loglCal capaclly) lS the tota一 usable bIOloglCa】

1965

1970

1975

pTOductl0n CaPaCltyれa gLVen year Of a bl0loglCaHy productNe

1980

1985

1990

1995 2000

Tlme/years

area. for example. a country 】t can be expressed ln global hectares

CWFi 2005)

FEgure 59 Changes ln total global ecofDOtPnnt･ Showng the maln COntnbutFng factors

Source adapted from WF 2005. FIgUre4 7.3 Globa】 resources - us】ng information from

charts and graphs The total ecofoOtprlnt forthe world lS afBected bythe sIZe Ofthe populatlOn as weu asthe resource usage per person Both of these are Increasing In the past, 1ndustnallSatlOn and urbanlSatlOn have led to shaft) 1nCreaSeS ln resource use per person, and that pattem lS likely to contlnue unless alternatlVe

･tI由れ                  _

-

Allow about 10 m-nutes How has the ecofootprmt changed? Use FlgU｢e 59 and 'nformatEOn from earrder.n th's chapter (espec■ally Table 6) to answe｢the followrng questions Bearfn mlnd thatthe vertICa‡ scare lS ln b川lOnS Of hectares, so thlS IS about drfferent types of area contrlbutlng tO the

ecofootprJnt

strategies are used lnthlS Section, graphs and charts wュll be llSed to show the

overall trends for varlOllS reglOnS Ofthe world, so you can Improve your Study

skllls as you work throughit Flgure 59 shows the total ecologlCal Bootprlnt for the whole world (notper person) at specific tlmeS OVerthe last 40 years, as a bar chart In a bar chalt, the lengthofeach bar represents the number ln that category Each bar has

the same wldth, and since the bars represent speclfic amounts at a glVen tlme,

(a) What 's the maJO佃ctor contr･but･ng to the ■ncrease 'n ecofootpm､tフ (b) Us■ng the categor･es defrned ln Table 6. whattypes of useful

blOP｢OductJVe area are lnCIuded ln ･food, fTbre and ttmber,, glVen that the entlre eCOfootpnnt 】s represented here?

Comment (a) The contrlbut･on marked `energy 】and■ ■n FlgUre 59 shows the greatest

the bars do not touch so there are gaps between them For any bar chart, you

lnCreaSe ThlS FS the ■energy land'd】scussed earller ln the book.

can Interpret the lnflOmation only for the values where there are bars - ln

Indlcatlng that the use of fossil fueis has been a rTlaJOr factor

thlS Case, you do not know anythlng about the varlatlOn ln between the dates

(b) There a｢e机′e area types descrlbed ln Table 6 One of these. buJlt-up

glVen Bar charts can be vertical, as ln Figure 59, 0r horlZOntal Some bar

land, lS marked separately ln FlgUre 59, so the other four (arab一e land.

charts have dlVIS10nS Wlthln each bar, showlng how the different contrlbut10nS

g｢azlng land, fLShlng area and forest) must be lnCIuded m Lfood. flbTe and

add up to the total flOr that partlCular category ln this Case, the key at the

llrnber'ThlS SeerTIS tO flt the descrlPtIOn

I ntroduclng EnvlrOnment

140 ↑

ChapLer7 Sustamab】Flly and our envlrOnrnent

The ecofootpnnt for vanous Teg10nS

The resource useper person varies from one reglOn tO another Generally, developed reglOnSthat have lollg-eStabllShed lndustTleS, Such as Westem

NorthAmenca

Europe and North AmerlCa, use more resources Per Person than deve]opmg

European unlOn

regions, Such as Afr1Ca Figure 60 shows the general pattem of resource use

rest of Europe

per person Remember thaHhlS Includes the 'energy land'contrlbutlOn aS Well

asthe achlal lartd types for food, timber and bulldlngAssume that the global

Latin Amemca and Canbbean

avallable b10CaPaCltyper person lS 1.8 hectares In FlgureS 60, 61 and 62, LEuropeanUnlOn'refers to the 25 member nations ln 2005

Mlddle East arLd CentralAsla Asla-Pacific A血lCa

sa]d】UQW OSJad 一uUd)o J o凹

0  05 1 1.5  2  2

5  3  3ー5

PopulatlOnA)llllQnS

FlgUre 61 Populatton Df >anous regLOnS Source adapted from VVWE 2805. FLgure 5

lndlCales llmlt Of sllStalnablllty (average 1 8 hectares Per person)

Ecofootprlnt per personAleCtareS

lndlCateS llmt Of sustalnablllty (averagE: 1 8 hec(ares per person)

Flgure 60 Ecofootpnnt per person for varlous reg]ons Source adapted from WWF 2005. FEgUre 5

PopulahollルLlllOnS

The resourceuse per person lS not the whole story lfa region has a large

populat10n, then the overall ecofootpflnt will be higher Figure 61 showsthe pattem of population ln these reglOnS MultLPlying the ecofootprlnt perperSOn by the nlユmber of people glYeS the

overall ecofootpnnt for each region Flgure 62 shows the ecofootprlnt aS an

area -the larger the area, the largerthe ecofootprlnt To make sense ofthlS,

NorthAmenca European Union

rest of Europe LatlnAmerlCa and Canbbean

you need to know that each area lS drawn to the same scale - the key at the top shows this The dashed line Shows the sustaユnable ecofootprlnt for each

reglOn

FiL_L_i Mlddle East and Central Asia

義屍芦 AfrlCa

FtgUre 62 0vera" ecofootprJnl of var10US reglOnS Source adapted from WWE 2005. Fzgure 5

lntroduclng EnvITOnr71ent

Chapte｢7 Sustalnab‖lty and our env】ronment

Figure 63 1S typical ofa graph that shows a varlat10n Over tlme The year IS

Allow about 15 n..mutes Comparing eCOfootprlntS for dlfferent reg10nS

ploKed on the honzontal axIS, Wlth more recent tlmeS On the rlght So, we say that the ecofootprlnt lS Plo"ed agalnSt tlme (the vertical a光ls IS always ploKed

F｢orn FlgureS 60, 61 and 62, answer the followlng queSt10nS

against the horlZOntal)Always check to see where each axis beglnS ln thlS

(a) Whlch three regLOnS have the hlghest ecofootpnnt per person?

case, zero IS Clearly shown for the vertlCal a託ls

(b) WhJCh regl0nS have the 】owest ecofootpnnt per person, below the avaflable b】ocapaclty Per PerSOrl (l e SUStalnable)つ

(C) Whlch regl0n has the hlghest popuFat【onウ

S31tZ)U LNOS】adJ ludOJ02凹

(d) Whlch reg10n has the Lowest populatlDn? (e) Whlch two regIOnS have the hzghest ove｢afL ecofootp｢lnt? Comment

(a) North Ame｢lCa. the European Unl0n and the rest of Europe a｢ethe three regIOnS With the hlghest ecofootpnnt per person (b) As∫a-PaclfEC and Afnca have the lowest ecofootpnnt per person. below

the avallable b10CaPaClty Of 1 8 hectares perperson. so theyare cu｢｢ently w【th】n sustalnable llm】tS

(C) AsEa-PaclfIC has the highest populat10n (d) The `｢est of Europel regl0n has the lowest poputatIOn (e) North Ame｢lCa and Asla-Pacl¶c are the two ｢egl0nS Wlth the htghesl

overaH ecofootprlnt, but for dlfferent reasons North AmerlCa has a hlgh ｢esource use per person, wlth a relatlVely smalt populatl0n. but AslaPacLflC has a very large populatl0n (this ｢egl0n lnCIudes ChLna), Wlth a

Flgure 63 The UK ecofootpnnt per person

far lower ｢esou｢ce use per person, at present Addtng together the two

Source adapted from WWF 2005, FlgUre 16

｢egl0nS Of Eu｢ope (wlthln the European UnlOn and outsld引t) makes

a total ecofootpnnt that lS Slmlla｢ to the ｢esou｢ce use by elther North Amenca o｢ As】a-PaclflC

Once you have checked the basic features of the graph, you can look

atthe overall shape, the (rend See whether the llne Slopes upwards or downwards Look for any peaks (鳩h polntS) or troughs (low polntS)

The UK ecofootpnnt per person zs slmllar tothe value for other European 7.4 Sustalnablllty- trends in the UK and Europe

countries, about 5 hectares per person from the graph ln Figure 63, there

Figure 63 shows the varlatlOn ln the UK ecofootpTLnt OVerthe last 40 years

was a steady nse ln eCOfootprlnt durlng the 1960s and 1970S Possible causes

ThlS ISaneXamPle ofa line graph - a single llne Showing how one amount

varies agalnStan0therAswlthany graph or chart, you should look for some standard lnfomatlOn ･一The title of the graph descrlbes what the graph lS about ･ The horizonlal axis and vcrtieaL aTLIS blural axes) should be clearly

labelled, so you can tell what measurements or amounts are belng used ･ Where measllrementS are Involved,the unltS Should be stated I lnth1S

caSe, the ecofootprlnt lS measured ln hectares,and the tlme lS ldentlfled byyear ･ The souleC Of the data shouldbe glVen Always conslderwhether lt lS a

rellable source - lS lt likely to be ialr, Or does lt represent Only one polnt ofvleW?

Include Increased car ownershlp alongslde the greater use of consumer goods

slnCethen, the ecofootpnnt has remained steady'but at a relatrvely hlghleveI compared wlth 1961

Whenever you are Interpreting a trend from a graph. lt lS vital to read the scales careRllly, so you know how big the varlatlOnS are Some graphs start at

a value otherthan zero FIBure 64 (a, b, c and d) shows the same lnfomation as Flgure 63, presented ln four dlfFerent ways

Chapter7 SuStalnablllty and our envlronment

lntroducLn9 EnylrOnrllent

sUJt3)0心qruOSJ?d a 一tZTld o J o凹 saJY)DaLUtJOSIadJadlu dlO J0品

レ+

(a)

s 一〇atUuOS邑J心dUu dlO JOぷ

巨巨草

(U 0ノ F<

/lU

9 5

0ノ

70

75

Oノ

cC (U

0ノ

5

qノ 0ノ 0

0ノ 0ノ

5

つん

000

(d)              Year

Flgure 64 The UK

FlgU｢e 64 ContlnUed

ecofootpTlnt PEotted ln d汗†EBrelltWayS (a) (b) (C) (d)

(C) The scale starts atzero, but goes up to 10 hectares, So the llne has been squeezed lntO a narrower SPaCe Thls makes the ecobotprlnt 一ook

smaHer. but also makes the varlat10nS look Less lmPOrtant

ALlow about 15 mnuteS ComparLng graphs wLth dLfferent scales Look at Flgure 64 and wrLte down how each graph dlffers from FlgUre 63

(d) There ls no scale on the vertlCal axIS, although the Test Of the graph lS the same as FlgUre 63 - So thtS graph lS dlfflCult to EnterP｢et aCCU｢ately

what LS the effect of thlS On the way you Interpret each graph? Comment

(a) The scale starts at 3 hectares Instead of zero - thIS makes the ovemll ecofootprlnt took smatlerr because Lt lS further dovJn the scale

(b) The scale starts at 4 hectares･ and has been stretChed･ So ne Vanatdn ln ecofootprLnt have been enphasISed - thlS makes the ups and downS the graph 一ook much more slgnlflCant

AllovJ about 15 mlnuteS Ecofootp｢lnt trends n Europe Uslng FlgU｢e 65. W｢lte brlef notes desc｢lblng the va｢lat10n ln eCOfootp｢lnt Per

person overtlme ln each of these countnes WhlCh country appearslo be the most successful ln terms Of use of resources?

lntroduclng EnvlrOnment Chapter7 SusLalnab11Fty and our envlrOnment

Comment sartz)uawLosJgda)uTld)oJo凹

(a)

samlOtUuS19dJalt7UIOJH 仲SaJV-02tUS,ad-ltrTd105山

Greece The ecofootprrnt per person IS rlSLng SteadlJy

享レ レナ 巨㌻

(C)          Ye打

po一and The ecofootprJnt Per Person has rISen･ then, from 1985, the trend

has been reversed and the ecofootprlnt has fa‖en There lS now a Steady

sltuatlOn, aS the ecofootprlnt ,lne lS now more Or less horlZOntal. although still hlgherthan the sustaJnable llmJt ThlS Shows the most effectIVe use Of reSO U｢CeS

Germany The ecofootpnnt perperson has nsen, then stablIISed The rlne has flattened off. and fallen sIJghtFy

The graphs only show the changes 1 they do not mdlCate any reasons for

the vanatlOn Polmd and Germany wlll be dlSCuSSed later ln thlS Chapter. In the UKI POSSlble reasons for the Increase ln eCOfootprlnt Include more car ownershlP･ greater use of consumer goods, Increased alr travel and Increased

Imports Offood by all For Greece･ mcreased tourlSm (and all travel) and new bu11dlngS may have contnbuted

7･5 Reducing the ecofootprint According tO the Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF), there are four ways to reduce the overall ecofootprlnt

' 1nCreaSe, Or at least maintaln, biocapaclty I lowerthe globalpopulatlOn . Improve the resource efrlClenCy Wlth whlch goods and services are produced

･ reduce the consumpt"n of goods and servICeS Per Person The 一ast two strategies are the least dlfnlCult to Implement ln PraCtlCe, although

any reductIOn ln the ecologlCal footpnnt requlreS effort and Investment

From the graph ln Figure 65@), you can see tht Poland has undergone a remarkable change slnCe 1987 Polandls transformation lS unusual, and makes an Interesting Story Accordlng to Cole (1995), the radlCal changes ln PollSh government a鮎r the end of the communlSt era, ln the 一ate 1980S, led to m那r Shlfts ln

environmental pollCy Essentlally･ the economy couapSed, so fhancial reform was a major COnCern There was widespread unemployment as factories closed down There were also public Protests about the severe alr and water

pollutlOn lea as a legacy oflntenSIVe Industry, which was (and stlll is) causing Wldespread healthproblems The exploslOn at the Chemobyl nuc一ear

power plant lnthe ne.ghbounng Sovlet Union ln 1986fu,the, ra.sed the prone orlhe envlrOnment Onthe polltlCal agenda ln 1988, large areas of

FEgU｢e 65 Ecofootpnnt per person for some other European countnes (a) Greece

the PollSh countryside were protected as newly formed nat10nal or reg10nal

(b) Poland (C) Germany

parks･ coverlng 14 per cent of the country public awareness Campaigns were

Source adapted from WWF, 2005. pp8, g

rntroducLng EnvlrOnrTlent

started to encourage resource savlngS ln 1991, the govemment ldentlfLed

five ecologlCal disaster areas, the result oflnefficlent and hlghly pollutlng lndustrleS FlnanClal penaltles were establlShed forany company exceeding

the new pollution llmltS Some Industrial enterpnses werethreatened with

closure lfthey dld not comply lt was cheaper flOr PollSh Elms tO reduce emlSS10nSthan to pay envlrOnmental flneS State-Owned electric Power Plants cut their emlSSIOnS by 20 per cent ln Just two years, between 1989 and 1991

When the new Warsaw alrPOrt Was COmpleted ln 1992, 1t Was dlSCOVered to have ayolded some of the legally reqtllred envlrOnmental protection measures

BythlS Stage,the publlC Outcry made headllneS lnthe national press, andthe new airport Was Closed untllthe necessary equlPment Was Installed

Chapler7 SustalnabllFty and our envlrOrment

Let's see how this might apply to housing Chapter 6 showed tha.I a great deal of energy llSe (gas and electrlClty) lS ln

people's homes h the UK, domestlC heatlng uses a large proportion OfthlS energy- Cooking, heating Waterandrunnlng domestic appliances, Such as

refHgerators and televIS10nS, also require fuel Although, so far, I havefocused on energy use, there are other envlrOnmental Issues ln the home, such as the

use of water, particularly ln the bathroom The ecofootprlnt model does not lnClllde water supply, but, as you wュll see from the next track of the DVD,thlS IS an Important factor Bulldlng new homes wュll also have an environmental

Impact from the materlals used,and the energy to tEanSPOrtthem and construct the houses So, what can be done to make houslng more SuStalnable?

Poland's recent hlStOry lS eXCeptlOnal, andthat country's envlrOnmental problems will take tlme tO resolve, despltethe progress made so far Elsewhere ln Europe, slmllar strategies have been tried ln the next sectlOn, rlHook at sustalnable housing, then ln Section 7 7,日1 consider waste

management, to show how Germany has succeeded ln making SOme POSltlVe

changes We'll also see whattype of scheme would be needed to make a dlfference ln the UK

7.6 Sustalnable housFn9 - making a difference 'sustalnablllty'tS a COnCePt that can be understood ln many dlfferent ways, dependlng On血e clrCumStanCeS ln也lS book, Ⅰ'11 take a relatlYely slmple

approach, although you may come across other deflmtlOnS and lnterpretatl0nS

lfyou read about sustalnabllltyelsewhere For our pllrPOSeS, a SuStainnb)e llfestyle or process IS Onethat uses (Or re-uses) the avallable resources, so that ･ overau, the resources used are wlthln the llmltS Ofwhat lS aVallable (for

example, 1ftrees are used for wood, only part of the forest lS Cut down) ･ there are other processes that balancethe resource use (1n Our example, every time a tree lS felled for timber,another one lS Planted) ･ resource use can continue at that level over a long period oftlme, Without depletlng Or remOVlng the overall supply (wood lS used slowly enough for thefe tO be tlme flOr the new trees to grow)

･the use of resources IS ln Proportion tO thelr aVallablllty, SO there lS

enoughcapacltyto cope with tmforeseen changes (enoughofthe flOreSt has been left standlng SO that lfthere lS a forest fire, the forest can recover through natural processes) ･ the use of resources IS efFect]ve (trees are cut down only when tlmber lS

actually needed, and wood lS not Wasted)

ThlS may Seem rather a long and compllCated llSt, but lt lS, ln effect, Saying ･ take only whatyouneed ｡ don't take more than lS available

･ leave enoughto copewLthunexpected events ･ replacewhatyouuse

Fzgure 66 The Hockerton Houslng Pro｣ect featLlred on TTack 5 0日he DVD

lnlroducErlg EnvlrOnment

Chapter 7 SustalnablTlty and our envlrOnment

The four lnltlatlVeS featlned on Track 5 0fthe DVD are. Soclal housing in Newark, showlng how practlCalchanges to exIStlng homes can make a difference

The Autonomous House, Southwell, a one-Offhouse designed to have as low an envlrOnmentallmPaCt aS POSSlble.

MlllennlumGreen, Colllngham, a group of new homes designed to mnlmlSe enylrOnmental Impact Whlle appeallng tO more COnVent10nal tastes

The IIockerton Houslng Pro)ect, a low envlrOnmental Impact COmmunlty This video uses some speclallSed terms, So you may find the following

definltlOnS useful Super-jnsulatjon extremely efrlClent Insulation for roof, Walls and floors,

AHowabout 60 mlnutes Maklng notes from vldeo ThIS VLdeo lasts forabout 45 mlnuteS, SO make sure you alEowenough tJme tO

義-

watch aJt of lt Of course, you can go back and have another look at sectl0nS

tf you hd thatwatchlng LtOnCe FS not enough ThlS IS a documentaryvJhlCh

GreenerhorTle5 PreSentS a Jarge amount of lnfoTmatlOn Just as wLth technlCa- wrltlng. lt Can

take more tlme tO Understand the detalls

As you watch the vldeoI Wrlte down three thEngS for each example that make these homes more eco-fr'endry (part,cularly for energy or water use) You may

wantto pause the DVD whlle you make notes

ustully accompanled by double or tnple glazing for the windows

Comnlent

Passive solar gain heat energy direct丘om the sun, absorbed by south-

See the comment atthe back of the book

faclng windows and walls ofa bulldlng

Envelope ofa bulldlng･the grolmd noor, walls and roof

IndlVldual households not only use energy and water, but also produce large

Zero heating standards a bulldlng built to zero heatlng Standards does

amounts ofwasteAlthougheach house may make only a small contnbut10n

not need any heatlng fromfossllfuels - solar heatlngand good lnSulatlOn

tothe overall amount of refuse, 1n atypical cltythere are so many households

are sufrlClent

that the waste soon adds up hdustnal and commerclal processes also produce

AtJtOnOmOuS Standards slmllar to zero heating Standards, but Include

waste ThlS IS the sll叫ect of the next sectlOn

collect10n and re-use of water,and compostlng Ofall b10loglCal waste, sothe bulldlng lS aS Self-COntalned as posslble ln terms Ofresources and waste dlSPOSal

SoIar paJlels there are twotypes= some use the sun to heat water, others produce electricity(photovoltalC panels) Photoyoltaie ceHs (sometlmeS Called PV Cells) solar panelsthat convert

7･7 Whydoeswastematter-andwhatcan be done about it? ForYork･ which I will assume lS atypical UK clty, domestic Waste accounted for 16per cent (about one sIXth) of the total ecologlCal footprlnt ln the year 2000 ThlS

sunlLght dlreCtly Into electnclty

IS a Slgnlficant proporlIOn, SO any scheme that reduces waste can make a useRll

Composting toilet a toilet that does not use water orthe usual plumblng

dlfFerence Recycllng lS O触I Seen aS a SOlutlOn, but lS thlSthe best optlOn?

The waste lS mlXed with Boll or other addltlVeS, and naturally decomposes

In thlS SeCtlOn I'll Conslder the avallable optlOnS, andthe lmpllCatlOnS for

lntO Compost

energy use, consllmPtLOn Ofraw matenals and demand flOr landfill slteS

Low-E glassglass that has been coated so that less heat lS lost through wlndows (low emlSSIVltyglass) Argon-filled double glazing super-efficlent double glazlng, filled with the gas argon rather than all

Earth shelter house built Into a bank of earth, often wlth ear(h as the roof, Covered with grass

Heat recovery urlit ln a VentllatIOn System,thlS unlt exchanges heat between the lnCOmlng alr and the outgomg alr, SO that as llttle heat as posslble lS lost (assummg that the aim lS tO keep the house waml)

Heat pump a device that wams one place while coollng another,

To understand the choices aVallable, We need to conslder how a product IS

made, used and then dlSPOSed of ThlS IS Called the product life Cycle

Figure 68 Illustrates this For Instance, the main raw Ingredient Ofaglass bottle lS SlllCa (sand)- Once the sand has been extracted from a quarry, lt lS

purifLed and processed Into glass by melting lt at a hlgh temperature, which

requlreS a COrreSPOndlngly hlghenergy Input Bottles are then manufactured from the glass In thlS example, assembly mlght mean fLlllng the bottle wlth

frult Squash, then dlStrlbutlng lt tO the supe-arket Once the drlnk has been used, there are three options for the bottle

efFectlVely movlng heat丘om one area to another (a refngerator has a heat

I re-uSethe bottle, by retumlng lt tO the dlStrlbutor to be refLlled

pump that removes heat from the lnSlde).

I recycle the glass, by retumlng lt tO be melted down and manufactured

Thermnl maSS･ an object Or bulldlng Wlth a largethemal mass wlll heat up and cool down slowly, evening Out the efFects of temperatUre VanatlOnS outslde_

lntO glass products

I dispose of the bottle lntheUK, this means burymg lt ln landfLllAsglass does not decay'lt Would slmPly remaln there･ Roman glassware has been found Intact after nearly 2000 years ofbunal.

I

52             1nLrDducmg

Chaptel7 SustaEnabIllty and our envITOnnent

EnvlrOTlrTlent

1シpe of waste

A‖ow about 5 mlnuteS Waste cholCeS

newspapers/magazines

Of the th｢ee opt10nS (re-use, reCyCllng. dlSPOSal)

o血er paper

(a) WhlCh ｢equlreS the most energyつ

carlons for llqulds

(b) WhlCh has the least envlrOnmental mpactつ

cafd

(C) WhlCh ｢equl｢eS the least effort on the part of the producerand

refuse sacks

consumerつ

plastlC film Comment

plastlC bottles

See the comment8日he back of the book

food packaging dense plastic

These are the three options for post-consumer waste (1 e Waste after the

textLles

product has been used)Asyou mlBht guess, there may well be waste materlal

dlSPOSable nappleS

atld lnefrlClent energy use at any Stage ln the product llfe cycle,from extTaCtlOn

glass botues

onwards, So there are many posslbllltleS for mlnlmlS】ng enVlrOnmental Impact

orgamc garden Waste

In partlCular, there lS a fourth optlOn that lS more efFectlVe thanthe other

other compostable matenal

three･ ThlS IS Waste reduction - slmPly uslng less materlal, or less energy, at

steel cans

each stage For the example of the glass bottle,thlS may mean Increasing the efficlenCy Ofthe glass klIns, Or uslng more efficlent transport ln dlStrlbutlOn

other Iron/steel

Dlfferent products requlre dlfFerent strategleS For glass bottles, refllllng lS the

battenes

most effectrve, because ltuseS less eneTgythan re-meltlngthe glass to recycle

alllmlnlum foll/cans o

1

0  20  30  40  50  60  70  80  90

Amount of waste此ilograms

lt- For alumLnlum, a large amount of energy lS needed to extract the metalfrom Its Ore, SO reCyCllngalumlnlum lS WOrthwhlle lt lS also more dlfFIClllt to make a refLllable alumlnlumCanthan a refillable glass bottle For many plastlCS, and cardboard･ particularly when used in packa即1g'1t WOuld probably be best to

FlgUre 67 One year･s worth of waste. averaged per person. for the clty Of York Sou｢ce Barrett et al ･ 2002

reduce the amount used ln the first place･ Collectlng'SOrtlng and recycllngthese matenals takes a lot ofefFoft, because there are so many varlatlOnS ln the

product Even so, lt lS better to recycle them than dispose Ofthem ln landfLll

Flgure 69 shows the prlOntleSfor waste management, wlththe most effectlYe methods at the top Note that recovery can Involve recycllng'COmPOStlng Or

lnClnerat10nfor energy generation, dependlng On the speclfic product

FlgUre 68 Tlle Product llfe cycle. showlng the three optIOnS for post-consumer waste re-use･ recycllng Or disposal

Frgure 69 The waste management hlerarChy, Nth the most effectlVe methods at the top

lntroduclng EnvITOnment

Chapter7 SustalnabFllty and our envlrOnment

ThlS list OfpnontleS applies tO any Product,from a bottle to a book to a car.

The longer the Item lS uSedthe better, because that makes best use of the energy that has gone lntO manufacrLnng lt Rememberthe dlSCuSSIOn abollt ca-er bags on Track 4 of the DVD -the shopplng tnP? Generally, disposable Items have a larger environmental Impact thanltemSthat are llSed for a long time Re-use can mean, for example, taklngumWanted clothesand shoes to

a charltyShop, or selling Second-handfumlture, ratherthandumplngthem ln Waste For other Items, fe-use Can mean mending Or repair, rather than dlSpOSal at the fTlrSt Slgn Ofa problem Re-use lS betterthan recycllng, because lt requires less energy, but recycling lS ln tum better than throwing Items away

Waste management rn Germany Asyou saw Bom the graph ln Flgure 65(C), Germany's ecofootprlnt has reduced slnCe 1990 ThlS IS for various reasons_ InthlS Section, I wlll look at waste management, to show how government, cozT･Orate and indlVldual action

are all needed to make a difference This Section explains the history behlnd

an eco-fHendly ldeathat lS now effective ln Europe, and spreading tO Other reglOnS

(a)

By about 1991, Germany was produclng Surplus waste -there was no more space for landfLll or other waste disposal, and the only opt10n aVallable

Was tO export Waste, an eXPeIISLVe Process In response, the Gemlan

FlgUTe 70 (a) Pavement recycllng blnS m a German town - the labels are Papler (Paper)I RestmulHother rubbrsh). Glas (glass) (b) the -green dot■ logo

govemment, backed by a strong Green Party, put ln placethe `ordnance on the avoldance ofpackaglng WaSte'ThlS WaSthe world's first extellded producer responsibility (EPR) law. It made the manufacttu:ers legally and fLnanClal1y responslble丘)rthe waste from thelr products This law established

Extended producer respons■b■Hy (EPR)

the prlnCIPle of 'producer pays 'flOr the environmental consequences of a

The maln P｢ln叫e lS that ･the producer pays,, so that anyone

product or servICe- At the same tlme, Waste recovery targets Were Set, for

resPOnSlbhe fo｢maklng OrOWnrng an ltem also has to dJSPOSe Of lt Hl

example 72 per cent of drinks contalnerS tO be refilled Implementlng this

an ecolfnendly way

law req111red compllCated and expensive Changes for the vanous companleS,

and govemment systems such as waste collection and recycllng Plants New natlOnal organlSatlOnS Were eStabllShed I One tO COllect Bees from busILeSSeS

broducts couldthen dlSplay the `green dot'logo, showlng thatthe prodllCer had pald recycling fees ln advance), another to recycle and process the waste

Public CamPalgnS gave lnflOrmat10n about the 'green dot'logo, aJld recycling ねcllltleS Were eStabllShed (see Flgure 70)

+ EPR extends the manufacturers responslbJllty tO the post-

Consumer Stage of the product lJfe cycle

･ producers eRhe｢take back or recycJe theFrOWn PrOductsp pay a thl｢d party to do so ● JndlVldual governments set targets for recyclng. denne what lS

to be recycled･ and what lS hazardous to use, and set targets for

From 1991 to 1995, oyerall packaging decreased by 7 per cent ln Germany (compared wlth a 13 per cent nse lnthe USA over the same period) In 1994, EPR was extended to other European countnes γIA an EU dlreCtlVe, although

each country was given Scope tO mterPret the law differently

each stage of the process EPR has now been extended to larger, Longer-term products such as

electronlC goods and cars ThlS Can mean amncreased cost. so the PTICe Of the JterTl may lnCreaSe･ Or there may be a charge for dlSPOSal (for refngerators. for example)

lnEroducEng EnvlrOllrTle-lt

ChapleT 7 SustaEnablny and our envlrOnTnent

Waste management ln York

Several waste scenarlOS Were COnSldered, to see what effleCt these wollld have

The prlnCIPle of 'producer pays'has now become part of European law, so

on the ecofootprlnt Ofhousehold waste by the year 2010 A scenario IS a Plan

that many countries are taking Steps tO reduce waste This IS nO easy task The

forthefuture that conslders the e庁ects ofdecISIOnS.

extra charges are not necessarily popular and new recycling facllltleS need

The first scenarlO･ -business aS uSual', would glYe a Waste eCOfootpnnt of 1 47

to be bullt For thlS tO WOrk,people and organlSatlOnS need to support the schemes and recyclethelr Waste - a Change ofculture

h response to the 1994 EU dLreCtlVe, the UK govemment has set targets for the recovery of packaging Waste and domestic Waste recycling, among Others These targets were mtended to be met over a penod oftlme For Instance, 1n the year 2000, the latest targets were set

･ 25 per cent of household waste recycled or composted bythe year 2005

hectares per person by the year 2010, a slgnlfLCant rise ThlS assumed 1 1 per cent recycllng, 15 per Cent COmPOStlng and a 3 per cent rise ln the volume of

waste each year, with the same population and the same types of waste The next scenarlO assumed that two-thirds ofall York households recycled thelr Waste, lfa recycling SCheme were Introduced that couected from people】s housesAll other assumptions remalned the same ThlS gave an

ecofootprlnt Of 1 12 hectares per person by the year 2010, slgnlficantly lower

･ 30 per cent of household waste recycled or composted bythe year 2010

than'buslneSS aS uSual', but higher than the current value, so not reachlng the

･ 33 per cent ofhousehold waste recycled or composted by血e year 2015

sustalnabllltytarget ln the long run

This SeCtlOn will examlne the Impact Ofthese targets on domestlC Waste

A more e斤ectrve scenario Included compostlng Ofall green waste (lawn

disposal flOr York What action would need to be taken to meet these targets,

mowlngS, kltChen waste and so on) by all households, as well as recycllng

and how much would have to be done?

other material with thlS, the waste ecofootpnnt flOr 2010 Could be reduced to

lnthe year 2000, ln York, household waste made up roughly one-sIXthof

1 10 hectares per person, keeping lt Stable

the overall ecofootpnnt - a large proportion There were many components

What would have to be done to actually reduce the ecofootpTLnt?

ltemlSed as waste lnthe survey, b11日he largest contrlbutlOnS tOthe waste ecofootprlnt (1nCludlng energy used 帆 productlOn) Were dlle tO DISPOSable nappleS    12 per cent

The fourth, 'efficlenCy and sufficiency ''SCeTlaTIO Included recycling and

compostlng, aS Well as slgnlficant waste reductlOn Strategies Wlth all ofthlS ln place, the projected ecofootpnnt was reduced to 0 99 hectares per person,

Newspapers andmagazlneS 19 percent

a genuine reduction So what would have to be done to achieve this? ThlS llSt

Otherpaper andcardboard 29 percent

glVeS SOme SuggeStlOnS - tO make the dlfFerence descrlbed here, many of them

Plashcs          9

per

cent

Textlles          9

per

cent

Glass bottles        8 per cent

would need to be LmPlemented by most of the residents of York (Barrett et al , 2002) ● Don't use dlSPOSable earner bags - take a re-usable bag to the shops

' Purchase reflllable contalnerS Wherever posslble

. Avoid using dlSPOSable products such as nappleS, tissues, Paper atld

Allowabout 10 mlnuteS Companng numbers

plastlC Cups, razors

The numbers ln the UK waste dlSPOSal targets are presented as percentages.

･ Avold over-packaged goods and try to buy them unpackaged

effectNelyan amount.outof a hundred'So. 30 percent lS 30 Out of

･ Use rechargeable batterleS ratherthan disposable ones.

a hundred, whlCh lS the same as 3 outof 10. orthree-tenths Use the

｡ Use a milk dellVery Service (ln glass bottles)

conversl0n table ln AppendlX 2 to k)ok up the foHowlng PerCentageS, and wnte them as fract10nS (a) 25 per cent (b) 33 per cent

' Pass on llnWanted clothes to f.mends or charltyshops ･ Use and refill your own durable dnnks bottle, rather than uslng thTOWaway plastlC bottles I DISCO-ユrage unWantedJunk mall

Use the conversLOn table ln Appendl× 2汀necessary to answer the followlng

(C) LIStthe SIX ltemS f｢om the York waste survey ln O｢de｢of thel｢COntnbutl0n to waste, la｢gest flrSt

(d) WhlCh rtem contnbuted mo｢e than a quarter of the total waste ecofootp｢lnt?

･ Use spare parts for large electrical Items, Where posslble, and get Items repalred rather than dlSPOSlng Ofthem lmmedlately when they break

This Chapter has covered a wlde range oflSSueS, eXtendlngthe dlSCuSSIOn to a global scale You have seen that the overall ecofootprlnt for a feg10n

Comment

depends on the number of people bopulatlOn) as well as the resource use per

See the commentatthe back of the book

person According tO the ecofootprlnt model, our Increasing use Ofresources,

lrltrOduclng EnvlrOnment

partlCularly energy, 1S taking uS beyond sustalnable llmltS Sustalnable llVlng

requires aCtlOn at different levels natlOnal(envlrOnmentaHeglSlatlOn, taxes),

8 What next?

corl"rate (Changes ln buslneSS POllCy, Such as ln SuPe-arkets and bulldlng

companies), local (recycling Wlthln a City) and personal (consumer choice). Even small personal changes canmake a dlfference, lfmany people choose

8.1 lntroduction

to makethem Althoughrecyclmg and other schemes can help,the clearest way forward lS tO reduce our use of resources, althoughthat lS not always

Asthe physICISt Nlels BohT Once Said

as simple as lt may Seem In the next chapter you'll see how one partlCular

PredlCtlOnS Can be very dlfrlCult r especlally about the Rlture

commumtyhas brought about radlCalchanges, and you'll have a chance to

AsI wrote ln Chapter 1, the envlrOnment lS a Vast Subject, Wlth many dlfFerent

brlng together the themes fromthe rest ofthlS book

strandsand lnterCOnneCt10nS Beyond th]s book, the debates w上ll contlnue,

and the Issues may Change as new lnfomlatlOn becomes available The maln prlnCIPles wlu Still apply - science and technology are constantly advanclng,

Study checklist You should now understandthat:

･ B10PrOductlVlty and biocapacltyare measures of the resources avallable

･ Less than one quarter of the Earth'S surface lS blOloglCally productlVe

I SustalnabllitylS about using resources without depletlngthe overau

but each new Idea or Innovation lS based on prevlOuSknowledge That knowledge may ltSelfbe questioned and challenged, as part of the process oflearnlng about the world There wlllalways be dlfFerlng OPLnlOnS, and dlfferent perspectrves onthe world･ Science does not clalm tO answer every

question - but sclentlficknOwledge hasthe benefit ofhavLng been thoroughly tested ln PraCtlCal sltuatlOnS by many dlffefentpeOple･ BothsclenCeand

technology can solve practical problems, but can also cause them, depending on how they are applled Teclmology Includes skllls, soclal knowledge and

supply, and cancontlnue ln the same way over a long tlme, allowing

ways oforganlSlng People, and as our awareness Increases, these lnnOVatlOnS

flOr unexpected clrCumStanCeS

can be applied ln dlfferent ways

･ Comparing the totalecofootpnnt wlththe total blOCaPaCltytells us whether cumnt actlVlty lS SllStalnable.

･ Housmg can be made more sustalnable by reducing energy and water use

8･2 Brlnglng the themes together ThlS Chapter lS not a COnClusIOn, becausethe envlrOnmental story will contlnue･ ln newspapers, On televIS10n, 1n Other books and study courses

･ Waste management (and waste reductlOn) carl make a significant dlfference tothe ecologlCal footpnnt

It does ofFer you a chance to return to the themes of the course, and see

You sho111d now be able to

book Introduced you to ecology,the branch ofblOlogy that coversthe

' summanse Information

･ develop an lnformatlOn-based argument ･ Interpret trends ln graphs ･ read lnformatlOn丘om tables, 1nCludlng unltS ･ compare numbers ln dlfFerentformS, such asfractlOnS and

percentages, usmg a converslOn table ' make notes &omvldeo

how they apply ln a praCtlCal sltuatlOn The first LllW Chapters of the lnterrelatlOnShlPS between llVlng thlngS and thelr enVlrOnment This PrOYlded

background lnfomatlOn tO explore the effects of human technologlCal development, and some of the Issues that raises

Chapter 1 Introduced the four themesthatrun throughthe book ● tlmeSCales

･ chalnSandcycles

･ localandglobal ･ dlYerSlty and sustalnablllty

Taklng tlme tO thlnk about what you have leaned lS Important - looklng back,

to reflect on your experlenCeS At thlS POlnt, lt LS WOrthpauslng tO doJuSt that

lntrducJZTg EnvlrOnment

ChapLer8 Whal nexlつ

AIr.wab.ut20 mlnuteS ReflectJng On the themes For each of the fourthemes, wnte a few notes (Ordraw a spray dlagram lf you prefer) to record what you can remember. o｢ what seemed lmPO｢tanl. from the book so far You do not need io go backthrough the book ln detaFi. lf ata" - this IS about your overall lmPreSSl0n lf you have dlfflCUlty remerTlbe｢lng the lSSUeS. look back through the contents llSt Or the maln chapter headlngS tO

｢emlndyou Comment

Whatever you have wrltten. thIS ES a USeful technlqUe tO help you make sense of the overa" pattern of Ideas Llnks between Ideas, so lo｢唱aS theyare not

mlSIeadlng. Can be a very helpful way to remember what you have Learned For example. ln the ■chalnS and cycles'theme. you may have llnked the natu｢al ｢ecycl】ng of the carbon cycle wlth the need for people to recycle

thel｢WaSte You can use thlS teChnlqUetO make sense of large amounts of mformatLOn, SO you aVOld gettmg stuck ln the detalls - and lt doesn't have to

Flgule 71 lvory Park ecovlZIage

take long SometlmeS Just SPendlng fNe mmUteS 10ttlng down your thoughts can be helpful

An `eco-town'takes root ln South Africa

ThroughoutthlS book, the text has been presented ln relatively short sectlOnS, wlth actlvitleS and diagrams tO help break lt up Into eaSlly readable chllnl(ら

EIsewhere, lnformatlOn may not be presented lnthat way, SO the next section glVeS you SOme PraCtlCe ln reading a longer account

A poor corrmunlty on the outsklrtS Of Johannesburg palntS FtS future green By the year 2007･ forthe flrSt trme川1 hrstory. humanltyWIJl be prlmanly an

urban specleS - homo saplenS UrbanlS Ove｢75 pe｢ cent of all No｢th Amencans and Europeans a】ready ‡lVe 】n cJt】eS･ and ln a few years roost Southern cltlZenS W川haveJolned them

8 3 Acase study- sustamable development A ease study lS an extended example, Intended to give a more ln-depth

Each week another mH旧n People e-ther rnoveto orare born Into a Clty By

2015･ therewlll be at least 23 ■mega-C-lleSl -n the developlng WOrld, each w∫th mo｢e than 10 mIIilOn People

account ofa par(LCular sltuation Earlier ln the book, the accounts of grouse

Can the planet carry the welght of thlS urban sprawl? The Workrs cltleS

management on Langholm Moor, and the lnflOmatlOn about the clty OfYork,

take up Just two Per Cent Of the Earth's surface. yet account for 78 per cent

would both be classed as case studleS InthlS SeCtIOn, the case study takes

of the carbon emlSSlOnS from human actlVlt】eS - the blggeSt Source Of the

thefom ofa falrly long article, written by aJOurnallSt, about a sustalnable

greenhouse gases that contnbute to global warm一ng, Says the Woridwatch

development ln Sollth A丘lCa The alm lS tO llnk vanous themes and Ideas

lnstltute. a WashlngtOn. DC-based research lnStltUte

fromth1S book to a real-world example

Many cltteS also faEr tO PrOVlde decent llvlng COndltrOnS for all their ｢esldents Some 600 m‖lOn tO One blHlOn UrbanlteS lack adequate shelter

llllll.空軍聖L Allowabout40 ET"notes Relatlng ldeas and themes to new znformat10n

and lNe WJthoul easy access to clean water, tollets or electnc】ty

The dlEemma. however. lS that for everyone to ZNe at the same Eevel of mate｢lal wealth as North Ame｢lCan Clty-dwellers, we一d need another three

Read the a｢tlCle An eco-town takes ｢oot'As you read. make a brLef note of

or four planets SInCe good planets are hard toflnd, cltleS and towns

any ldeas or themes that you have encountered elsewhe｢e ln thlS book, o｢ ln

have to better balance the demands of peopLewlth nature They must

the DVD audLO OrVldeo When you have flnlShed, bokupthe comment at the

leave smaner EecologlCaH00tPnntS'by using less water and generatH1g

back of the book

less waste, boostlng Self-rellanCe ln food and energy, and promotng sustalnable transportat10n Perhaps the most unllkely place for such a green town to take rootlS ln the b｢own dH-I of a s一um caHed Ivory Park ln South AfrlCa

lnrroduclng Enylrt)nment Chapter8 Whal nexLつ

Ivory Park･ home to 200,OOO people =vlng Jn Shacks topped wlth

co｢rugated tln ｢00fs･ lleS WFthln the town of Mrdrand on the outsklrtS Of

For lnStanCe･ tO COPE Wlth the endless smoke from cookng flreS･ an energy

Johannesburg lt -s also home to g｢lndlng poverty As many as 50 per cent

cent｢e encourages people to buy cleaner llqUld propane ln CanlSters

of the adults are unemployed Chlldren play on potholed streets, dodglng

and alternatlVe energy equlPment SUCh as solar cooklng Ovens One vltal

streams of polluted water A permanent cloud of hazy smoke from tln-

development has been the so-ca‖ed ･smokeless umbhawu】a,, an …ovatルe

d｢um coa川｢es used for cook】ng hangs heavy RespJratOry lllnesses are

tln-drum coal cookerthat uses far less fuel than normal, and radFCally

Common

｢educes the amount of unhealthy smoke

Eme｢glng from the ruddy soll lS hope一一日theform of bnghtly coloured

Trash lS another maJO｢P｢Oblem ln South Afrrca, but a successful lvoly Park

bulld】ngs that make up the fvory Park EcoClty V=age Here, poverty

waste recyc=ng C0-0PeratNe has offered an optHjn Now empzoyng more

eradlCat】On and sustalnable deve一opment meet ln a fuslon of AfrlCan and

VVestern Ideas to Improve lJfe for people and the planet

At the edge of town IS a market where farmers from slX C0-OPS Se" theJr organJC P｢Oduce WIthEn the vr脂ge, several types of envlrOnmentaJJy

than 40 people･ bottles･ glass･ paper plastlCS and tln are brought by waste coJlectors to a buy-back centre･ wh】ch then sorts the waste and se‖s Ll to

recycIEng COmPanleS

A recycIJng Project Of a dlfferent kJnd IS housed ln a blg rnetal shIPPJng

fnendly houses are beLng Showcased The communlty Centre. used for

contaJne｢ The Shova Lula (easy pedaJ) cycle c0-operat-ve mPOrtS

workshops and tralnlngl IS a good example of the ecologlCal constructIOn

second-hand blkes and parts from England, Germany and Sw】tzer】and,

common ln lvory Park The centre lS a round bulldlng Of clay and

then blCyCle mechamcs repalr and se-J the worklng Wheels to commumty

concTete･ Wlth used polysty｢ene bJocks as lnSulatlOn and doors salvaged

members

from a condemned bulrdlng lt has a solけoof･ wlth grass grovJlng On the top and slopng sldes so thatchlldren can p一ay on lt The temperature

rnsrde lS always comfortabie･ no matter what the season. because soll has rnsulatlng P｢OPe｢tleS･ keeplng the centre warm ln wlnter and cool Jn

Summer:

lnvoLvlng youth has been key to the accompJIShments of Fvory Park

Youth wo｢k at the b-cycle c0-op, serve as EcoCIty gUldes and concluct envrronmental educatFOn workshops lTI schools and the communlly A nevJ Project Wl[1 traEn One hundred youth ln eCO-bulldlng teChnlqueS USng earth

bncks and passlVe therrTlal deslgnS Others wlll learn organlC -andscaplng

.lt's Just llke havlng al｢ COndltPOnJng: says Annle Sugrue. an EcoCrty

and farmlng teChnlqUeS･ and how to buIEd blOgaS dJgeSterS that convert

manag∫ng trustee

food and anlma】 wastes lntO a Clean fUe】 for cooklng

The Ubuhle Bemvelo Eco-ConstructlOn C0-0p lS burldlng 30 of the ecohouses The 14 vvomen worklng n the c0-0p use JndlgenOuS matenals

■Thefocus of the project lS On Se-f rellanCe., saysAnnle Sugrue ･South

Afnca has serJOUS eCOnOmC Problems and at present cannot provlde all

and env"OnmentaF bulJdrng technlqUeS adapted to loca】 condlt10nS For

the soclar SerVrCeS People need事Ike electnclty. clean water and sanltatJOn

example】 thick earthen walls absorb heat durrng the day and radlate lt

The poor feel they have rlttle power to change thlngS SO they slt around

du｢lnSHhe cool nlghts of wlnterS The houses are purchased through a houslng SUbsldy process, wJth

preference gJVen tO those lnVOIved -n the EcoCIty Ewe want peopre to rlVe and work -n the same place･ as lt Cuts down on transport and poIIutEOn,I

explalnS Sugrue The EcoClty Was bom as an expenment Jn aIJevJatlng poverty - and dolng

lt Wlthout Jeopa｢dtzlng long-term ecologlcal health A non-governmental organzzatl0n Ca脂d Earthllfe Af｢.ca ¶rst obta.ned a US$1 7-mllI10n grant

from the DanlSh government ln 1999 SlnCe then･ there has been fundl咽

from Canada, SwJtZerland and Sweden, and partnershlPS have been st｢uck wlth the Wo｢ld WIFdllfe Fund and the Unlted Nat=⊃ns Development

p｢ogramme The project lS now Lowned, by the Johannesburg clty COunCIL and local and forergn bus一日esses have come to the table, as have dlfferent

South Af｢lCan government agencleS

and hope sorneonewlH come along and save them 】

rThars notgozng to happen I 且ut communlty members do rea-lZe that a vzJFage needs to be sustalnable and selfィel]ant 1 these are tradltlOnal AfrFCan VaPues ･The EcoClty concept

has been very weJl rece,ved叫ocal people,･ Sugrue says However. the

Project lS Stlll heavJly dependent on outslde support

Desplte thlS･ Jvory Park･s ecov=age JS eXPandlng More hornes are belng bullt. and lnFtFatlVeS SUCh as large-scale b】ofuel product10n are On the honzon Just as lmPOrtant, tens of thousands of peop一e have vISlted the

vrllage, partFCUIarly dullng the World Su-】t on sustalnabJe Deve一opment

ln 2002. held zn Johannesburg And good ldeas tTaVeJ ecov‖ages are growEng m South AfrFCa and

elsewhere

The p｢OJect zs both a showcase demonstratlOn and a traJnlng Centre, but

ln SenegaF･ for FnStanCe･ 12 V-llages are beEng transformed lntO greener

above all JrS home for ltS reSldents Mundane but presslng facets of Jrfe

comrnunltleS Governed through corTlmUnrty-based declSIOn-maklng, the

must be tackled

hearts of these v‖ages beat wlth organlC agnCuEture, sorer energy and

mICr0-ente｢pnse economlC development

chapters WTlat next? I ntroduclng EnvLrOnnlent

lnternat10nally. an lnformaF collectlOn Called the GLobal Ecovlllage Network enconlPaSSeS hundreds of smaH corTlmUn1tleS ln Europe･ North AmerlCa

and Asla Some of these started ln the 1960s as communes, and a" are pursulng the obJectlVe Of creatlng a bette｢ qualFty Of llfe whl]e llV)ng llghter on the planet

8.4 Writing - plannlng and makng an argument when you do your own wrltmg, you Wlu Often have a task or a tlde ln mind, such as the questions ln Chapter 4 about rabbits and ecosystems For longer

pieces Ofwntlng'plannlng and structurlng the text makes a big dlfference to

the quality Ofthe flnlShed account

At the larger end of the scale, manyclt-eS are Seeklng a g｢eenerfuture as ､〟ell The lnternat事Onal Councll for Local EnvlrOnmental lnltlatlVeS, Wlth

over 2,000 member munlCIPalltleS, lS aCtlVe ln helplng CltleS become more

sustalnable

planning your Wrltlng lS Important, SO that you Can Present your POlntS ln an order that makes sense to the reader Thlnk about the structure - what's the

most Important POlnt? Do you need to describe some background lnformatlOn before you discuss the quest10n? What order wュll make your polntS Clearワ

one member, Melbourne. AustlalEa. home to 3 4 mE"Ion Peop一e. IS On

There are o紬I different ways tO explain the same lSSue, SO thlS IS about

largeHo ellmlnate ltS COntnbutトOn Of ョreenhouse gases by 2020 Wlth

personal preference What matters IS that what you write has to make sense to

comprehensJVe energy reductlOnS Of 50 per cent, the use of ｢enewable energy and the absorptlOn Of local emlSSlOnS 】n Wlde】y sowed natlVe

vegetatIOn, Melbourne wlll lLkely be the flrSt lndustrlaL clty tO aChleVe ZerOnet enlSS10nS

someone who does not know aboutthe topic A common fault lS tO rnlSS Out

the basIC.nformatl.n, because you,ve thought about the subject SO much that lt Seems Obvious by the time you Start Wrltlng This may not be the case for whoeveHS readlng your Work

And who knows what on earth Ivory Park v/I" have accompILShed by then

A paragraph lS a group Ofsentencesthat cover related points -anlrnPOrtant

The ecologzcal footprint

way to organlSe What you wnte The pause between paragraphs Elves the

Lmaglne lf a g■ant glass bowl was Inverted overthe top of a clty l■ke

reader a chance tothlnk about the meaning Ofeach sectlOn Textthat lS

Montreal, Canada Nothlng butsunl1ght could get ln ObvlOUSLy most of

presented ln One long page wlthout paragraphs IS Very dlfnlCult to read･

the people lnSIde wouldnlt survNe long because the clty needs food, alr,

Equally, very short paragraphs canbe dlSJ01ntedand glVethe lmpreSSIOn that

places to put waste and ways to obtaLn Other resources from outsLde the

the text lS Simply a long llSt OfltemS Two tips Should help

clty lrrTlltS Io sustan ltSelf

. paragraphs should group sentences that relate to the same subject The

so how much blggerWOUld the glass bowl have to be ln Orde｢fo｢eve｢yone ln the clty to survIVe at thelr Present Standard of I.V.ng? ln other words, how blg lS Montreal's EcologlCal Footp｢lntワ

start ofa new paragraph should colnClde wlth a change ofemphasIS + You should revealLn your first Sentence What a particular paragraph lS

golng tO be about tt provides a sense OfdlreCtlOn and order to what you

wllllam Rees at the UnlVerSlty Of BntlSh Columbla has calcuJated

wrlte

ecologlCal footpr'nts for a number of hot spots around the wor一d and

The nrst paragraph of your account should set out the overallthemes or

determlned that the average North Ame｢lCan CltlZen uses the natural

Issues, 0, at least hlghllght the main topic, SOthe reader knows what subject

resources from 7 7 hectares (1 9 acres) oHand And so Montreal wlth a populatLOn Of 3 5 mIlHon has a whopplng footpnnt

you are dlSCuSSlng The followlng Paragraphs can then set out each of your maln POlntS ln tLlrn The last paragraph often wraps up the whole account Wlth

of 270.000 sq km. about half the sIZe Of France, and conslderably more

some S｡rt ｡f｡V｡rall conclusion Or Closing thought So, most accounts have a

than the 462 sq km the clty aCtua"y occupleS SlmlEa｢sIZed cEtleS m the

beglnnlng'a mlddle and an end

Us and Australla have even blgger, more unSUStalnable footprints

To organlSe your WOrk, wrlte a bflefplanbefore you start ThlS Can be as

Because materlal resource use lS lower Ln the Developlng Wo｢ld - hdla

slmPle as a ltst oftoptcs (one main One Per Paragraph) Then look at your plan

averages just 0 5 hectare per person - those clt.eS have much smalter

- does lt address the quest10nりHave you covered all the polntS you Want tO

ecologlCal lmPaCt

make? Does the order make sense? At thts stage, you Can also check that you source Leahy, 2004

have allthe lnfomat10n you need, and changethe plan to f111 any gaps

Aswlth any other sklll, good wrltlng takes tlme tO develop, and even those of us who hve been dolng lt for years stlu Struggle at times I nnd that lfmy plan doesn,t make sense, OT I keep changlng the order of what I'm dolng aS I

wrlte, lt Can mean that I haven･t had enough time tO think aboutthe sutuect

what I･m dolng lS maklng Sense Ofmy thoughts as I wrltethem down ThlS IS he - m fact, lt lS a Very good way to learn It does become streSS丘11 at tlmeS,

lfl haveTl,t allowed enoughtlme before a deadllne for thlS PrOCeSS･ So, lt lS wo血wrltlng SOme notes, and formlng a plan, Well beforethe scheduled tlme

Chapter8 What next? 66         lntroducFng

Env■ronT¶ent

flOr the flnlShed work This Elves you SOme thlnklng time tfyou are flndlng

This IS a fairly roughplan In fact, every chapter ln this book has been through

lt dLffLClllt to plan,therl)uSt Start Wrltlng - SOmetlmeS gettlng a paragraph,

at least three drafts, So the content changed at some stages Even so, you can

or even one sentence, on to paper can start your thoughtsflowmg You can

see where 1 have used abbrevlatlOnS, Such as `blO Prod area', and added

always change lt later

querleS - do I need an extra actlVlty? Do I want to repeat an earller pOlnt Wltll

Asan example, here lS a Version Ofmy plan for the flrSt few sections Of Chapter 7 0fthlS book, which lS about 8000 words long ln total. ThlS IS more

compllCated than atypical account, because lt also mcludes the actlVltleS, but lt Shows the maln POlntS

a different example? Often, a plan lS a PrlVate note, SO you CanWrite what sultS you SometlmeS, you may need to show血e plan or outllne tO SOmeOne

else, for example lfyoll are working On an aSSlgnment Or a report Planmng matters - find a way that works for you

One way tothink about the structure ofa piece Ofwrltlng lS tO make notes from a publlShed account Ofcourse, lfyou use or quote thlS Information ln

Chapt6r7 5u5taina♭ilftyand our6nVironnlent

your own work, you must Include a proper reference Even lfyou don't use

the lnfomatlOn, lt lS WOrth lookmg at publlShed wntlng ln more detall, to 7.1 lntroductiorl Ref back to p｢eVIOu5 Chapt6｢ - BCOfootprlnt NBW ldBa5 -blOCaPaCIty,らu5talna♭日lty

Exampte5 - reLAuce eCOfootpnnt

Improve your Own Style Reputable newspaper articles are written tO make

the maln points aS Clearly as posslble Althoughnot a sclentlflC account, the Leahy article ln thlS Chapter provides an example The teclmlque ln the next actlVltycan be applied to any piece Ofwntlng, SO you Could use lt tO analyse

the structure ofa more formal sclentlflC account from elsewhere ThlS task

should glVe you SOme Insight Into how another writer Structures an account 7.2 Howmuch u56fuHand and wat6rar8a i5aCtuaHyavaHa♭I87 06flne ♭lOEoglCaHy p｢oductlVe貞｢ea

Howmuch area2Glo♭al?

Compare types - ref back to eCOfootprpnt Actrvlty - Pl6 Charts βox on ♭事OCaPaCIty-nOtth8 game a5 bhD Prod area

7･2 Global reeiOurC85- u91ng MformatJOn from chaJt5and 8raPhe･

AHowaboLlt40 mlnuteS The structure of a wntten account Read the LeahyartlCle agaln ThlStlme. aS you gO through. make a note of one man polnt from each paragraph There are some very sho｢t paragraphs. as thlS IS a JOUrnallstlC artlCle, so make a polnt for each maln Paragraph o｢ change of

topIC Wnte each note on a separate Elne, tO Produce a EISt llke the example for my structure of Chapter 7 When you have紬IShed, read y(っur l】st of notes - does thlS

gNe a falr lmPreSS10n Of the structure of the artlC)e? What do you notICe?

lnt･ro-resource U56- howmuch perperらOn? Howmanyp60PEe (PopulatJOn)?

Ref to Chapter5 Graph5, Charts - 5t･Udyらk川ら

Th6 eCOfootprint for various re￠ion5 (5U♭h8adin匂) Compare40♭al reg旧n516XPlaln ｡6Velop6d,developlng COUntn65

Commenl These are my notes on the a｢tlCle I comblned some of the veryshort paragraphs. because they covered slmllar topICS Your notes wlH be dlfferent - but see whether we have pH=ked out slmllar polntS By2007 most people wl‖ LIVe ln CltleS Clt】eS - hlgh carbon emrssl0nS, SOmetlnleS low llVlng Standards

Re50UrC6 PerPBrerOn. and popuEat･on? (repeat-cut from prevlou5 5eCt■On?) Need sm;】rle｢ ecofootp｢lnt

ActlVlty - COmPanng re50urC85 used ♭y different rBglDn5 r h18he5t. low65t

7･5 5U5taLnability-tr6ndらIn the UKand Europe ChBng65 ･n 6COfootpr】nレu5eWWF graPh5for Europe-8×arTIPle PIu5 aCt■∨】ty

-trends

Example Jvo｢y Park, Johannesburg EcoClty - COmblned Ideas from d】fferenl count｢leS

Communlty Centre - SOll roof Ec0-const｢uct】on一local matenals Reduce p(⊃ve｢ty - lnternatトOnal fundlng

DBfln6日nB graph, eXPlaln ParrtらOfgraPh

Energy centre - new type of cooker

(ml5leadln8 5Cate5 - extra aCtlVlty?)

Recycllng - t｢aSh. blCyCles

Lookm匂for trends - aCl州ty

EnvITOnmental educatLOn, Self-rellanCe

Graph5 don'tらhowwhythere have been Chan485-5ugge5tfactor5

other ecovl"ages start【ng elsewhere - Senegal, North Amenca･ Europe, Aust｢al【a (Ecolog【cal footprlnトexplanatLOn)

htTOduclng EnvlrOTlnlent 169

From the structure, you can see how the author starts wlth a slmPle pleCe Of

Information - that most people now llVe ln Cities - and then dlSCuSSeS the

envlrOnmental Issues Once he has glVen us thlS background Information, he then focuses on ivory Park, whlCh lS hlS maln example He descrlbesthe maln feahres oflvory Park, and the envlrOnmental decISIOnSthat have been made Towards the end of the artlCle, he moves back to more general Issues, tO Show how thIS example lS belng applied elsewhere There lS an extra SeCtlOn at the end that explains the ecofootprlnt, because the wrlter has assumed that the

reader would not know how this Works lfthlS Were a more formal account, thlS extra eXplanatlOn WOuld need to be lnCIuded ln the maln Part Ofthe text

References BaIT叫J , Vallack, H , Jones A and Haq, G (2002) A MaEerlalFIowA〃alysES

and Ecofootprlnl Of York Tech711Cal Report, Stockholm, Stockholm EnvlfOnment Institute

Cole, D H (1995) `An1nVISlble hand for Poiand's envlrOnment', Wall Stf･eeT Journal - Europe, 27 September Available hm www publlClntemat10nallaw org/p-1bllCatlOnS/edltOrlals/ InvISlble%20Hand h上m [accessed 22 September 2006] CollnVauX, P (1978)耶7yBEg, FlefでeAnlma血AyeRafe, London, Auen 皮 Unwln

8･5 Nextsteps

Darwin, C一(1985, first publlShed 1859) The OrEgZn OfSpeczes, London,

T'd llke to flnlSh the book with a quote from Marshall McLuhan Thele lS absolutely no lneVltabIIItyprovlded there lS a WllllngneSS tO contemplate what lS happening

Penguln Books

Fortey, R (199B) LTfe An UnazJthorlSedBzograpky, London, FlamlngO Guard'an (2005) `The real cost ofa ￡50 ticket from London to Edlnburgh',

7 July Available from (McLuhan aLld FIOre, 1 967)

http //travel guardian CO uk/ecotounsm/story/0"1523 1 i 8,00 html

laccessed 12 August 2006]

Now that you have hlShed thlS book, I hopeyou feel more conrldent ln uSlng the Ideas and lnformatIOn Presented ln ltAsyou have seen. 'envlrOnment, lS a fasclnatlng and compllCated s叫ect The sclenCe and technology a,e

woven together, as are local and global Issues This book does not claim tO be comprehensIVe, nor tO PrOVlde any neat answers, but lt Should have ralSed

your awareness･ and may perhaps form the basISforfurther debate oT Study

You have also developed many skllls, which will be useful whether you

declde to contlnue Studymg, Follow your Interests through further readlng, Or

make some practical changes to your own llfesty1e Good luck ln Whatever you decide to dor

Hecht, J (1995) LThe geological tlmeSCale'(lnslde SclenCe, No. 81), New ScEentL!(, Vol･ 1978, 20 May

Keellng, C D and Whorf, TP･ (2005) `Atmospher.c CO, records from slteS lnthe SIO alr Sampling netWOrk'ln Trendy A Compendium OfData on

Global Change, Carbon DIOXlde Info-atlOnAnalysIS Center, Oak Rldge NatlOnal Lat)oratory, US Department of Energy, Oak RIdge, TN

Leahy, S (2004) `An eco-town takes root', www sustalnablet.mes ca/artlCles侶coClty htm [accessed 1 5 August 2006]

MacLullCh, D A (1937) Fluctuat10nS ln the Numbe,"fthe Varylng HafY (Lepus amerzcanuS) , Toronto, Universltyof Toronto Press

Study checkllSt You should now understand that ･ Sustalnable llYlng and development depend on a complicated range offactors

. EnvlrOnmer)tat awareness and posltlVe Steps Can WOrk at dlfferent

levels lndlVldual, communlty, Organisat10n, gOVemment, lntemat10nal

You sho111d now be able to ･ reflecton the maln ideas ln Whatyou have leaned ･ make sense ofa longerwrluen account ･ plan and structure a written account

McLuhan, M and FIOre, Q (1967) The MedEum lS lhe Massage An Jnvento77

ofEHecls, New York, Bantam Myers, N and Kent, J (eds) (2005) The New Gala Atlas ofPIanet Managemenl, London, Gala Books Open UnlVerSlty(1998) SIO3 DISCOVerLng SCIENCE, Block 10 IEarth and llfe through ttme', Mllton Keynes, The Open UnlVerSLty The TlmeS (1998) `An lnglorlOuS endlng flOr Churchlll's grouse moor', The Tlme∫, 27 October, p 3

Thomas, C D et al (2004) 'ExtlnCt.On risk from cllmate Change', Notu'e, Vo1 427, 8 January, pp 145-8

WtlllamS, M (2001) `The hlStOry OfdeforestatlOn', HLTlo'y Todqv, Vo1 5 1, No 7,pp30-7 WWF (2005) Eul'OPe 2005 T77e Ecologtcal FoolprLZ7(, BlllSSels, WWF European PollCy OWICe Avallable from http //assets panda org/downloads/europe20D5 ecologlCalflOOtPrlnt pdf

laccessed 12 Attgust 2006]

tI】一.-1.j17 T.-書Il､-一.Jl1.-一Jl.I司.｡川■Jl.∃司､-I"  - 一-, tI.▼

Answers to activities

Norman and lale｢ - pTOteCted some forests forfaHow deer (food and sport) - demands fortlmber and fuel reduced forests

Chapter 2

- hedges planted when flelds enclosed

VECtOnan Act】vlty9

- no 一onger needed wood for charcoal so cut down o一d forest and

0rganlSmS ● W■de range of organisms (lN･ng th･ngs) ･ncludmg an･mals, plants. fungJ,

bacterla and so on J SClentlflC names - undeTIIned lf handwntten, Latln, genus and specleS EnvH･On me nt ● physICal envl｢Onment (no川vlng) ● can be seen 】n terms of ecosystems

replaced lt Wlth fasトgrowng pme trees or farmland - new hedges resu】tlng from changed patterns of land ownershlP

1950S - mechanlSed fa｢mlng -tractors

- hedges removed to make JargerfLelds

1990S - mo｢ehedgesplanted

HabJtat

(b) Other changes ln band use

● whe｢esomethlng l【ves

Roman

lnterrelatronshlP

-  new roads

● many COnneCtl0nS even ln Sma日rockpool

- quarrylng for clay and gravel

･ for example▲ food chaln】 food web

- growth of cltleS (bullt-up land)

ActlVlty 12 Some of the other lnterrelat10nSh-ps are

VICtOrlan -  coal mlneS

- newcanals

. caterpHars eat oak leaves

- more/lmP｢OVed roads ● ｢oblnS eat Cate｢P‖ars

o spa｢rowhawks eat roblnS ･ humans eat a wlde range of plants and anlmals

- fwstra‖ways

Act州ty 28

TechnologleS before 1 750

ActlVIty 14 (a) g｢assーSnal【 → thrushーCat (b) oak leaf一g｢eenfLy - ladyblrd - robln - SParrOWhawk

(C) dandel10n - rabblt- human belng (d) grass - snaLF - hedgehog - fox

CuLtlVatlng SOLl/fa rmlng - dlgglngStlCk

- ox-/horse-drawn plough

- lettEng land lle fa"owto ｢eplace nutrlentS - applynganlmat manuretotheland - two一, three- and four-fleld rotatH⊃n

Chapter 4 ActlVlty 27 (a) The reasons for changes to forests and hedges

Roman - new hedges to mark ownershlP boundarleS

- wood usedforfuel - trees clea｢ed to 9lVe V【eWfrom roads

- seedd｢lll - uslng Cloverto lnCreaSe nlt｢Ogen ln the soll - selectlVe llVeStOCk breedlng

Economy - colnS(Roman)

lntroducJng EnvErDnnlent

Chapter 5

lTavel - Roman roads (stralght. we" dralned) - boats

ActMty 35

Bulldlng

FlgUre 73 shows the polnt at20 weeks when the popuratFOn lS 33 mace

- b｢lCks

ActJvlty 29

50

TechnologleS SFnCe 1 750 1 Uslng coal forfueZ (steam engLneS, Steel furnaces) - CanaJs fortransport

40

- Rallways - A｢tlflClal nltrOgen fe州ISe｢S - Tractors

33 - New cerea】 Crops more effectIVe use Of nltrOgen

賀30 Don't fo｢get to wrEte a Paragraph companng farmlng before 1 750 wlth fa｢mlng afte｢ 1750-you can use your notes from ActlVltEeS 28 and 29事■m not provldlng a Sample paragraph. because lt■s lmPOrtant that you try thlS for

≡ ⊂)

D

≡ you｢self. and save whatyou w｢lte aS yOU■ll need lt 一ater

音20

ActrvlbI 32 Your dlag｢am mayWell dlffer f｢om the one shown here, butthlS Shows some of the nterrelatIOnShlPS descnbed ln the text

10

⑧ MdqflPJ@

0

;/J

0     1

0     20     30     40

(垂〕cDb 嘉

Tlme/weeks

FlgUre 73 The populatlOn Of mECe over tlme･ Wlth a speclflC POLnt marked

Chapter 6 Actlvlly 40

(a) A｢able land -the ca｢｢ots are ;i plant c｢op (b) G｢azlng 一an(] fo｢the sheep

t至⊃

㊨

ure 72 Ente｢｢e】atEOnShlPS between rabbltS and other organlSmS On downland

(C) Fo｢est- pape｢ lS made from wood pulp

(d) Bullt-up land ActlVlty 44 The current leve】 of carbon dlOXlde ln the atmosphere lS about 382 ppm , so

the predlCtlOn made ln 1 990 was cor｢ect

lntroduclng EnvlrOnment

(

AcilVlty 46 (a) 5 hectares '5 5 x 10000 square metres, wh'ch -S 50000 square met,es

Chapter 8

(b) 8 square kllometres IS 8 × 100 hectares. whlCh lS 800 hectares

ActlVlly 58

(C) 230 square k-lometres ･S 230 × 1 000000 square metres. whlCh.S

As ever, your response wl" be a personal one. so事tWi" dlfferfrom mlne What

230 000 000 square metres

Chapter 7 ActlVlty 54

matters IS thatwheneveryou learn new ldeas, you are then able to apply them m a new sltUat10n ThIS may not happen easIIy. so be p｢epared to go back and thlnk aboutwhatyou have learned. and how lt m唱ht apply Once

you have flnlShed thlS book, you could corltlnue tO look out for news artlCles or other lnformatZon, and see how the themes and Ideas apply

The flrStt】me l watched thlS Vrdeo, l was Leftwlth one overa-l pomt we can make changes lo exlstlng houses･ or buE】d more eco-frlendly houses, but

sorTletmeS lt lS rnOre about how we nve･ rather than the desJgF1 0f the house

Here are some of the features =10ted -there are many more on thevldeo

Here are a few of the thoughts Hotted down CltleS - Chapter 4 - the lndustnal revolut10n - PeOPle ln the UK started movlng lntO CltleS. SOWhars happenHlg now IS SImllarto that

Example 1 soclal hoUslng ln Newark

Ecofootprlnt - Chapter 6 covered thJS

1 Use the heatlng tlmerand temperature controls more carefu"y

Commumty centre - bullt wlth an earth roof and other lnSulatJOn. f｢om local

2 1nstalldoubleglazlng 3 Heateach room separate一y. and turn off heaters not ln use

Examp一e 2 The AutonomoUs House. Southwell

1 Deslgn housesw-thw-ndows faclng the sun･ to absorb heatandallowln llght 2 Use solarceIJs to generate electnclty 3 Use a compostFng tOllet to savewater

Example 3 MllEennzum Green. Co-llngham 1 DesJgn the house wlth extra lnSuLatl0n 2 Use so】arpaners to provlde hotvJater 3 Use local matenals. to leducethe Impact Of transport

Example 4 The Hockerton Hous■ng Project

1 Bulld the house Into the earth. forJnSUlatIOn 2 FnstaH awlndturbLne 3 Usea ｢eed bedtoprocesssewage

ActMty55 (a) Recycllng, because the glass has to be transported and re-melted (b) RefH【ng. because, although the bottle has to be transported and cleaned,

thlS takes less energy than melting glass (C) probably d■sposal (throw.ng.t ,n the b.n). unless there ■s a local recyczlng

scheme ActlVJty56

(a) One quarter (i) lS the same as 25 percent (b) One th'rd (圭).s the same as 33 percent- ornear enough. (C) The s■X Items.∩ order of the.ド contr.bUt■On to waste, largestflrSt. are

PaPer and cardboardl newspapers and magaz'nes, nappleS, PlastlC and textlles, glass bottles (d) Paper and cardboard contnbuted over a quarter of the totaf waste ecofootpnnt one quarter lS 25 perc叫whICh ls lessthan the 29 per

Cent quoted

materlak, - Elke the Hockerton houslng Project ln the DVD v‡deo

Trash recycLlng - the same problem as事n Germanyand the UK (Chapter 7) OrgamC 一andscape and farmlng teChnlqueS - these can shape the local

envlrOnment, because they change the use of the land (Chapter 4)

AppendlX 1 -   ･I ･→1 - J-一･1-･I!･‥･■-. 一 1 一1

This geOloglCal tlmeSCale lS Provided for lnformatlOn Only - you are not

Appendix 1 The geologlCal timescale

expected to remember any of lt, althoughyou may hd lt uSeRll for reference The ea,lleSt (Oldest) events are at the bottom of the diagram, Wlth the latest

b'oungest) atthe top The rlght-hand side of the diagram lS an eXpaJlded v｡.ら.｡n of the PhanerozoIC Eon (pronounced 'fan-era-zoh-1C ee-On') ThlS

covers events smce 545 mllllOn years ago, When vISlble llfe first appeared

Bef｡,e that was the CryptozoIC Eon ('krlP-tOh-zoh-1C ee-On'),the eon of hldden life. All the tlmeSCales are ln ml1110nS Ofyears

wlthln the PhanerozoIC Eon, standard Greekand Latin names are used by

geologists tO ldentLBr the eras and perlOdsAlthoughmany of these may be new to you, you may recognlSethe JurassIC Period, a time When dlnOSaurS

were actlVe The Carboniferous Per"d (meaning 'carbon-carTylng') was a time When large areas of the Earth were covered by rich vegetat10m, Which eyentually fomled much of the coal avallable today

AppendIX 2

1

Appendix 2 Conversion charts for fractions, decjmals and

percentages, and measu｢ements of distance and area FractlOn one

hundredth

Declmar

1/100       0

Percentage

square rnetres Hectares Square kllornetres UK old English unltSt 0

0

02           2%

0

05           5%

flVe hundredths 5/100

1/10           0

1         10%

15/100              0

10       0

000001

15        15%

T/150     0

1/4          0

or   108squarefeet

001

or

0

00001

o｢   108

square

feet

one thousandth 1/1 00 000 100      (〕01

one

0r

00001

orl/10000

hundredth

0

108Dsquarefeet=

0247

acres

1000       0 1 oTOne tenth 0 OOI Dr 1/1000  0 247 acres

2     20%

25         25%

01

or

1ノ100    2

47

acres

=

0

00386

square mlles

1

000

DOG

or

1

or

lノ10    0

lOO        1         0

0386

386

square

square

mlles

rnlles

1 m川【on 1000000O

quarter

0

100000    10        0

0｢ one twentleth 1/20

one

0r

10000      1          0

0｢ one flftleth 1/5D

訂ooteen.t.TlSh

0001

one ten-thousandth 1/1 000000

01        1%

two hundredths 2ノ1 00

onetenth

Conversion chart for measurements of area

or

lOOO       10        3

86square

mlles

lOm川lDn 10DOOOOOO

or

10000

IOO         386

squa｢e

mlles

square

mlles

100 m‖【on three

tenths

3/10         0

3          30%

1

one th汀d 1/3

0 33 approx     33% appTOX

two flfths 2/5

0

4            40%

0

5           50%

三l,XtLe,:th岩t6h/三0,/5    0

tenths

7/10         0

three

quarters

3/4        0

66% approx

7          70% 75         75%

≡LgfhotutreRTthh… ≡//と0    0 8     80% nlne

tenths

9/1

0         0

One

1

9          90%

1

OO%

Conversion chart for measurements of distance UK old Englrsh unJtS'

0 000621 mlles = 3 28feet

;LT.i 1

000621 mlles=328feet

100

01

0 0621 mlles = 328 feet

1000

1

0 621 ml】es

10

10 000

100 0DO 1 000 ODO I to 3 slgnlflCant Rgures

蛋 1000

0r

100000

IOOO        386

1 b川lo∩ ★ to 3 slgnifLCant flgUreS

6     60%

two thlrds 2/3          0 66 approx Seven

000000000

lODO mHI10n Or

621 mlles

62 1 mles 621 mlles

souTce for conversl0n factors Nal10nal Wetghts and Measures Labo｢ato｢y (2005) vwnwml govuk/faqs aspx7FD=B laccessed 1 October 2006】

Acknovvledgements

index

Grate氏ll acknowledgement lS made to the following sources flOr PermlSSion to

reprodllCe materlal ln thlS book.

A

and meat production 52, 54

actlVe learnlng 3-9

populatlOnS 83, 87

AfrlCa

lma9eS

Cover Image Copyrlght @ RubberbalL/Gettylmages, Flgure 1 Copyright @ European Space Agency/Science Photo Library, Figure 3 Plates 1-3,

ecofootprlnt for 140, 141, 142

1n rOCkpools 20, 21

See also SouthAfnca

and trophlC levels 45

Matthews, S and MISSarZhevsky, V (1975) Joumal of the Geological Society,

A丘tCan glint land snails 100

Vol 13 1, GeologlCal SocletyPubllShlng House, Figure 7 0ARノNatlOnal

agrlCultuTe 50--I, 56, 60

Undersea Research Program (mRP)/NOAA, Flgure 8 Photo by Woods Hole OceanographlC lnstltutlOn, Flgure 1 laTC Copyright ㊨ PhotodlSC #44/Getty

Images, Flgure 1 ld Photos by Josje Snoek and Petra VISSer (UnlVerSlty of Amsterdam), compllatlOn by Ellen SpanJaard, Flgur巳12a ㊨ Natllral

VLSIOnS/Alamy, Flgure 12b Copyrlght ㊨ HAWKEYE/Alamy, figure 12c

copynght @Ann and Steve Toon/Alamy, Figure 12d Copyright @ Dr P Marazzi/SclenCe Photo LlbTary, Figure 14 Copyright ㊨ Natural HIStOry

Museum,Lendon, Flgure 21 Photo byAllCe Peasgood, Figure 22 Photos by AllCe Peasgood, Figure 24 Copynght ㊨ woodlandpIChlreSrrlm Dent, Flgure

and ecologlCal health 52

ARPA (Amazon Region Protected Areas

ecosystems 50-4, 56, 67, 72, 73

programme) 102

fallow land 63-4

set-aside 72 technologleS 66-8 all travel, ecofootprlnt due to 130, 131, 132

B bacteria 38, 40, 4l-2, 43 and black smokers 24, 38 1n rOCkpools 20, 21

(ARPA) 102

Text

Amazonlan ralnforest, DllrOla trees 9 1

Pages 160-164 Leahy, S (2004) `An Eco-Town Takes Root', presented by

8nlmals 10

CIDA

ilutOnOmOl】S St.1】一(lar°s ln house bulldlng 150

autumn coloLlr 38

aluTnmlum reCyCIlng 153

Amazon Region Protected Areas programme

the trLtematLOnal Development & Environment Article Service, Supported by

grouse moors 9216

Asia-PaclflC, eCOfootprlntfor 140, 141, 142

altered ecosystems 56-8, 72-5, 104

Copymght ㊨ Der Grune Punkt - Duales System Deutschland GmbH, Flgure

71 Copyrlght ㊨ Alex Webb/Magnum Photos

artlflClal ecosystems 3 3

and humanpopulat10n gZ10Wth 9617

Roman Influences on 63-4

Ilouslng Project, Figure 70a Photo by AllCe Peasgood, Flgure 70b

ofYork 127, 129 argol】-filled double吾]tlZing 150

53a Copymght ㊨ Transport for London; Flgure 53b Reproduced wlththe

Copyright @ Michael Jenner/Alamy, Figure 66 Copyrlght @ Hockerton

andthe ecofootprJnt 109, 120, 139

and ecological colonlSatlOn 72

1mprOVlng ylelds 64

LICenCe No 100018362, Figure 56a Copyright ㊨ V K Guy Ltd, Figure 56b

and b10CaPaCIty135, 136

early fmers 6113, 10415

Flgure 29 Photos by AllCe Peasgood, Flgure 34 DemblnSkl/FLPA, Flgure

Stationery OfflCe @ Crown copymght The Open UnlVerSlty, Mllton Keynes,

arilble land 6f)

crop TOtahon 63--叫, 6415

28a Photo by Alice Peasgood, Flgure 28b Copymght ◎ Wlldscape/Alamy,

permlSSIOn Of OrdnaTICe Survey on behalf of The Controller of Her Maj esty's

1nterTelat10nShlpS betweeI1 87-9

1n SOl1 42,64

Balnbfldge, lan 95 bar charts 138-9 beaches, rockpools on 20-1

and black smokers 24 and the carbon cycle i 10112 as consllmerS 39-44

Big Bang (Bomatton of the unlVerSe) 5, 6, 8 blOeaT)tlClh lI.1 138

avallabllltyof land and water area 134-8

and food chams 30, 31 reduclng山e ecofootprlnt 1 47

0n grouse moorland 93 l)10(Il一 erSlh i)Lq-1 OI'

1nterrelatlOnShlPS between 28, 29 and ecologlCal colonlSat10n 72

1arge predators and the energy pyramld 49 and extlnCtlOrL 98-9, 100, 10 I

11VeStOCk 65

HIPPO Issues m 99, 100

lndex

1    lntroduclng EnⅥronrTlent

f

and human populatlOnS 98

canals 66

rea50nS forvallllng 101-3

carbon CyCle 110, 110-19, 160

DrueH09

of growth, death and decomposltlOn 4 1

cltleS

)loglCalpolnt OfvleW 9, 10 )logical resources 33

and chemlCalrecycllng 110, 111, 112, 113

)loglCnZly productlVe I06

andthe ecofootprlnt 12012

1and llSe by 105-6

)LoglCZlll)r productive areas 135

emlSSIOnS 1 15118

1n Roman Brltaln 63

and the ecofootprlnt OfYork 130

York 106, 126-32, 133, 157

cl1mate 59

andfossllRlels 113, 114

and the ecofootprlnt 108

and greenhouse gases 1 18

cllmate Change 33

measurlng Very Small dllutlOnS 117

elim王IX eOmml川ity 75

)mes 59-60, 72

0ceans and cllmate 119

climax vegetation 75

)sphere 2, 83

and photosynthesIS 37, 39, 41

coach travel, and carbon dlOXlde emlSSIOnS 132

and the greenhouse effect 1 18119

andb10dlVerSlty98, 103

CarbonlferollS penOd 1 1 3

Cod fishing, maXLmllm SuStalnable yleld (MSY)

and ecologlCal health32

Carlbbean, ecofootpmtfor 140, 141

90-I

andecosystems 17, 19, 20

carotenolds 3 8

and human populat10nS 97

carl-ylng Cal)fLCity ofa population 86-7, 97

mumber ofspecleS ln 27

Cars

ds of prey, raptors 93, 94

CollnVauX, Paul, W7zy BLg, FleTTe AnEmOLT Are Rare 49 coloJllSation 72-5

community 84 and the ecofootpnnt 143

1Ck Death98

ofYork 130, 131, 132

composl heaps 42

eompostlng toilets 150 compostlng Waste 1 57

LCk smokers 23-4, 38

and energy use 114

ne-eatlng ZOmble WOITnS 43-4

and extended producer responslblllty (EPR) law

coniferous forests 59

155

conservation

I eal forests 59, 60

azll, Tumucumaque National Park I 02

LtlSh Ecological Soclety95 〇nze Age Brltaln 61

ccleuch Estate 95 ll(-up land and b10CaPaClty 135, 136 and也e ecofootpnnt 109, 120, 139

ofYork 126, 127, 129

bo†, Jean 90

mbrlan PerlOd 5, 8 nadlan lynx, and the snowshoe hare 87-9

case Study 1(■O

sustalnable development 1 60-4 centimetres 122 chalnS and cycles 10, 159 See al.!o food (:haiJI

chalk downs ln Brltaln, rabbltS and succession 75-9

and blOdlVerSlty 102

and rabblt5 0n Chalk downs 79 0fred grouse 92-6 consumer goods, and the ecofootprlnt 143, 147 consll merS 3㌢一一44

detntlVOreS and decomposers 40-2 and food pyramlds 47, 48

change, Process oil 12

eopplelng 6 1

charts

crop rotatlOn ()3--4, 64-5

bar charts 138-9

eropLand 109

ple Charts 136-7

cycles 10, 159

chemlCalrecycllng, and the carbon cycle 110119 Chlorophyll 37-8

1nte汀elatlOnShlpS between 88-9

ecologlCal footprlntS 107コ161, 164

and agrlCulture 53-4

)mass pyramltls 4617

on grouse moorland 93

Ivory Park EcoCltyVlllage 16ひ-4, 167-8

and agnculture 52

)mass 46, 136

of poplllatlOnS

ln the developlng WOrld 161

carbon d10XIde 35

carboncycle 110-19, 134, 160

prodllCt LIFE cycle 15 1, 152 3ee also recycJing

D

Darwin, Charles 103 and natural selection 79

0rlgZn OfSpeczes 28 death and decomposltlOn 40, 4 1 and human populat10nS 96, 97 deciduous trees 38, 59

decomposers 40-2, 43 desert 59 detrltlYOreS 40-2, 43 deyeloped reglOnS, eCOfootprlnt for 140

developing reglOnS, eCOfootpElntfor 1 40 dlagramS 6, 9 and energy pyramlds 48 food chalnS 3011 spray dla訂amS 13-14, 25, 48

uslng lnformatlOnfrom 9 word dlagramS 37, 38-づ

disposal of waste 151, 153, 154 dlVerSlty 10, 159 domestlC ellergy 10 double glazlng 150

DVD matenal carbon dlOXlde emlSSIOnS 1 15 compost heaps 42 grouse shoot]ng 95 sclentlfic wrltlng 69 sustalnable holユSmg 149-5 1

】ndex

頂賀貢ぎ書き-i-i-

34    lntTOduclng EnvLrOnrnent

J' - r ■

arth

ageofllfeon4-6 geologlCaltlmeSCale 7-8

canylng CaPaClty 86-7, 97

e]lVeJope ofa bulldlng 150

compost heaps 42

envirol1merlt 2

creatlOn Of artlficla1 33 , 92---d

EPR see extended producer responsiblllq'

ln Dam･ln 28

and the ecofootprlnt 106

York 128, 129. 130 and land llSe 105

foodwebs 31-2, 33, 44

EllrOPe

fo】 estS

CarbonlferousperlOd 113

and ecologlCaユhealth3 2-3

ecofoo申rlnt for 140, 141, 142

fTOmSPaCel

and energy flows 35

ecofootprlnt trends 1 45-7

and agricultural technologleS 66, 67

landareaof56

food chal°s ln 31

sustalnablllty trends 1 42-7

as altered landscapes 57, 58

llfe-supportlng layer 1

holdlng back successlOn ln a Wlld ecosystem

waste managementand EU hw 154

areas of the UK covered by 60

arth 5llelEers 150

cologlCal colonlSatlOn 72-5

75-9 management 56, 82

eyergreer) trees 38

and b10CapaCLty135, 136

eTLtended producer respo暮ISibillt) (EPR) law 151,

b10me types 59-60

number ofspecleS ln 27

155

cleanngand burning Of 1 14

andb]ocapaclty134, 138

populat10nS and communltleS 83-4

extlnCtlOn, and blOdlVerSlty 98-9, 100, 101

and the ecofootprlnt 1 09, 120, 139

chazlgeS m tOtalglobalecofootprlnt 138-9

and reductlOnlSm 19

eologica1 foot)))うnt (ecofootprlnt) 10, 10617, 133

cltleS 107, 161, 164

Montreal 164

emlgrafion 86

York 106, 126-32, 157

energy 22

contnbutlOnS tOthe 107-10

andfossllfuels 12012 reduclng 14718

reg10nalvanat10nS 14012 as a sclentlflC model 124-6

and sustalnablllty134, 157-8 trends lnEurope145-7 UK ecofootprlntPefPerSOn 143 eologiea‖lealth 17, 33, 104

and agncutture 52 cologlCal resi]icnce 33, 101-2 [ologlCill resist･lnee 33, 101 eologヽ 10, 17-18

cosysteTn-Based Management (EBM) 9 1 亡05)Stems 17, 19-24

agrlCultural50-4, 56, 67, 72, 73 altered5618, 7215, 104

andbacterla41 andb10dlVerSlty 101-3

ofYork 127, 129

ド

rockpools 201l

fromfuels Ilo and rockpools 20, 21 and sustalnable houslng I 49 (ransformatlOn 1 10 and trophlC levels 47-8 energy flows 3 5-44

and consllmerS 39-44

andfood chains 44-5

food pyramids 45-9 and photosynthesIS 37-8 and resp皿tlOn 3 8-9

elIe] gl li)nd and the ecofootprlnt 120-2, 132, 139 for vinous regions 140

ofYork 127, 129, 130 energy pyramld 47-9, 50, 83, 103 and agncultule 51 and human populat10nS 97 energy resources 33 and land use 105

and ecologlCal colonlSatlOn 72, 73, 75

facts, report】ng accurately 7011

and NeollthlC famers 105

faHow agncultura1 land 63--A

sustalnable 1 48

famlly size, and hllman POPlllatlOnS 97

technlqlieS Offorest clearance 6 1

farming 10, 12

wlldwood 60, 61

fertlllSerS 66-7

5ee also trees

I.5udal system 64 fishing areas

Fortey, RLChard 69

Llfe An UnaulhorLSedBl0graPhy 26

and b10CaPaClty135, 136 andthe ecofootpTlnt 109, 120, 139

fossltfuels and the carbon cycle 112, 1 13-14

orYork 127

and the ecofootpnnt 12012, 139

maxlmumSllStalnable yield (MSY) 90-1

and human populat10nS 97

food chnIll 30ll, 50

and chemlCalrecycImg 1 10 and energy Bows 44-5, 53-4

four-field system of crop rotation 65

fuel energy from 110

food production 35, 51--4 83

see also fossllfuels

and agrlCultural techT10logy 65 , 68

contnbutlOnS tOthe ecofootprlnt lO718, log,

bng1 40, 41

120, 121 flood pyramLd 45-9, 50 and the ecofootprlnt 108, 109

food shor(ages,and poplllatlOn Cycles 89 food supplleS

G Game ConservaIICy Trust 95 gelltlt)…-0tllrleaf10n (G＼l) 52

genllS 27 geologlCal tlmeSCale 7-8

lndex     187

86    lnlrodut:lng EnvlrOnrnent

L

ョermany

ecofootpTIntperPerSOn 146, 147 wastemanagement 154-5 :1aclerS 72

grouse moorland 93 and lnterrelatlOnShlPS 28 hares, snowshoe 87-9

Hawall

.lass bottles, and waste management 15 I, 153

carbon dlOXIde emlSSIOnS 1 16, 1 17

主lobal Ecovlllage Network 1 64

extlnCt SpeCleS ln 100

10bal warmlJlg 118

andfossllfuels ll lossarleS

constructlng 19120 revleWlng36

raphs

health care, and human populat10nS 97

heatptlmps 150 heat recovery units 150

hedgerows

wlth dlfferent scales 14415 llTle graphs 142-5

Lake DIStrlCt 56

Ideas, making Sense Ofunfamll.ar 6

land ownershlP, ln Roman Brltaln 63

1dentlち′lng OrganlSmS 26-7

land use

1mm)gration 86

and blDCaPaClty 134-8

1ndexto the book 10, 13

and the ecofootprlnt 107-9

Industrial Revolutiol1 66, 68

1n the UK 56182 natural vegetat10n 5 8150

1n血-t mortality, and human populatlOrLS 97

NeollthlC (Stone Age) tanners 61-3, 104-5

Infectious dlSeaSeS

Romans 63-4

arld agriculture 52, 67

and human populat10nS 98

landscapes, altered 56-8, 104

and population SIZe 87

Langholm Moor 94-5

populatlOnS IT1 83--I, 8416

1nfhenza epldemlC (191811919) 98

Latm AmerlCa, eCOfootprlnt for 140, 141

trees ln 38

1nfomat10m

Lewis, Gareth 95

trop】11C levels 45

findlng lnthlS book 10, 13

llChens 72

uslng a Spray dlagram tO SllrnmarlSe 13-14

1Jne graphs 142-5

hen harrlerS, On grouse moorland 93, 94, 95

maklng Sense OfunfamllIar 116

herbic]des 52, 67

1nfomatlOm boxes 3

readlng lnfomlat10n from 88

herbzvores 40

1nfomat10n teCllnOlogy (lT) 50

local andglobal 10, 159, 168

1nSeCtS, and polllnatlOn 101

London Underground traln routes 124, 125

jnterrelat10nShips 18, 27-30, 32, 98

low E-glass 150

aZlng land 60, 64, 65 and b10CaPaClty 135, 136 and the ecofootprlnt log, log, 120, 139

orYork 127, 129 grouse moorland 93

rabbltS On Chalk downs 7517, 77-B

eece, ecofootpf.ntper Person 146, 147 eenhotISe effect 118-19

mPPO Issues ln blOdlVerSlty 99, 100 HⅣ/AIDS 97

Hockerton Houslng Project 149, 150

and blOdlVerSlty lOl12, 103

hor】zontal ax上s On a graph ]42, 143

and energy flows 35, 41

hollSJng 134

1Ooklng for 29

sustalnable 148-51

Ivory Park EcoClty Vlllage 162 human polnt OfvleW 9110

lmman populatlOnS

mapplng lnterrelatlOnShlPS 29-32

rabbltS and other downland wlldllfe 78, 82

nlaSS 124

1nVaSIVe Species, and blOdlVerSlty 99, 100

maximum sustainELble yleld (MSY) 90-1, 134 measllrementS

Iron Age Brltaln 61

and blOdlVerSlty 98, 99, 100

IUCN see World ConservatlOn Union

bltat Change, and b10dwerslty99, loo l)itats lS

conservat10n Of 102

lvory Park EcoCltyVlllage 16か一･4, 167-8

andfood production 35 growth of 9618 and land use 56 hunter-gatherers 5 1

bydrothemal vents 23

magazines, readlng text ln popular sclenCe

pop111atlOnS 83--4, 87--9

℃enwood, Plppa 95

llfStream 1 19

M

McLuhan, Marshal1 168 magazlneS 415

and agnculture 50-4

and ecologlCal health 32-3

local ecosystems, responses to altefat10nS 72-5

mapplng 29-32

諾nhouse gases 114, 118

)use conservatlOn 92-石

I

1ndustnallSat10n, and human population growth 97

maklngPOlntS On 85<

3SSland 59, 75

I

L

IceAge glaciers 72

1nterrelat10nShlpS ln 28

comparlng96

I

K keystone species 102 kilograms 12J kiloITIetleS 122

measunng very small dllutlOnS 1 17

uslng numbersand unltS 122-A meat productlOn 52, 54

Melboume, AllStralla, energy reduct10n targets 1 64 metl eS l22 nlefri(: torLlle5 12-I

mlCe, POPulatlOn ln a hedgerow 84-6

188    InLroducITlg Envm)Tlment

>   r

1)

ecofootprlnt for varlOuS reglOnS i 40-2

rL1】】l】metres 】22

andthe carboncycle l11112, 115

physical resources 33

m0110CLlltllreS 52

and cllmate 119

pie Charfs 136-7

and global b10PrOductlVe land per person 137

Montreal, Canada, ecofootprlnt 1 64

detrltlVOreS and decomposers 4314

plaglle, and human populat10nS 9g

1nterrehtlOnShlpS betweell 83-4, 87-9

moftallb'rateS, and human populat10nS 97

and the ecofootpTlnt 120

plankton, 1n rOCkpools 20, 21

managed 9011

MSY see maxlmum SuStalnable yleld

plants ln 35--6

plants 10

numbers 84-6

rnyxoma ヽ'lrtJS 77

m.vxomatosis 77-9

oll as fuel 114 0rgLlnle rarmLng 52

organlsms 18, 19, 98

N

and bacterla 41, 42

namlng Organisms 26-7

and black smokers 24

natural selection 79

and the carbon cycle 1 12

NeoIIthlC (New Stone Age) farmers 6ト3, 104-5,

1n Darwln 28

106

andthe carbon cycle 110-12

posトcol1Sumel- ､lLISte 153

and也e ecofootprlnt 109

Potts, DICk 95

and ecological colonlSatlOn 7213

predator-Prey relatlOrlShlpS 89

and food chalnS 30, 31

prefixes 122

and food productlOn 51-2, 53-4

pllJllar) CO115umerS 39-40, 47, 48

and fossllfuels 1 13114

pl lmal-y SllCCeSSioI1 72

0n grouse moorland 93

producers 38, 39

and ecologlCa1 health 33

gTOWlng COndltlOnS and cllmate 58-9

and food pyramds 47

Newton, Ian 95

and energy lransfonnatlOn 1 10

1ntemlatlOnShlPS between 28, 29

and trophlC levels 45

nitrogen

ldentLfLCatlOn and naming 2617

Newfolmdland, cod fishenes 9011

1n the ocean 35-6

I)rOduct llTe cycJe 151, 152

and photosynthesIS 3 7-8

PV ccHs 150

artlflClal fer(111SerS 66-7

populatlOnS 83-4

and bacterla 41

prc･ducers 3 8

and crop rotation 65

1n rOCkpools 20, 21

populat10TIS 83, 87

)ton-renew,lble resollrCeS l 14

trophlC leyels 44-5, 45-50

as prodtlCerS 38, 39

Noman conquest 64

5ee also inte]-1-e]ationshlPS

North America, eCOfootprmt for 140, 141, 142

overilaⅣeStlng, and b10dlVerSlty 99, 1 00

motes

oxygen 35

polllnatlOn 101

rabbltS graZlng On Chalk downs 75-7, 7718, 79 1n rOCkpools 20, 21

and troph)c levels 45 ploughs 62, 63, 67

and photosynthesis 37, 39

maklng 24-5, 29, 167

Poland, ecofootprlnt per Person 146, 147-8

0rganlSITlg 25, 54

P revleWlng 29

tumlng Into Sentences 35 nucle訂POWer, and the ecofootprlnt 120

polllltlOn 33

paragraphs, wrltlng ln i65

and b10dlVerSlty 99, loo

parks, as altered landscapes 57, 58

pop111ar science magaZlneS, readlng text ln 4-5

ParEuJLnLZ tuTgTda snalls 100, 101, 102

numbers, and unltS Of measurement 1 22-4

nllmbelS pyl.lmld5 45-i

pop-1latlOn grOW也83-7

pi15Si､ e sol{11 g.1111 150 pasfLLJ-e 109

0

paved areas, colonlSatlOn OF74, 75

oak trees 59

pe一ellllln) plants 73

Observation, mapping lnterrelatlOnShlPS 3 0 0CeanS black smokersユn 23---4

pesticides 52, 67 ph0tOSⅥltlleSIS 37-8, 39, 41, 103

andthe carbon cycle 110. Ill, 117

Lト

tram travel and carbon d10Xlde emlSS10nS 132 ralnforests

Amazonlan 91 tropICa1 59 rLlptOrS 93t 9｣-

1e-tJSe 151, 153

TeadLng text, On the age ofllfe on Earth 415 1cc)CIJJlg 134, 151, 153, 154, 157, 158

chemlCalrecycllng and the carbon cycle 110-19

and the ecofootprlnt 147

red grouse, conservatlOn Of 92--■

human 96-8

l edlletion of waste 153, 158

ledtlet10nism 19, 20

and altered landscapes 104

J I,SenO】rS Ofcarbon 1 1 I

carrylng Capacity 8617, 97

resources

conservatlOn Of red grouse 92-6

photo､ oltilic lens l5O

rallways 66

and agrlCultural technology 65

POl)uliI(lon≦ S3, 83-づ

woodland ln Brltaln 75

R rabbltS, and stlCCeSSIOn ln SOuthem England 75-や

current resource use ln the UX 126-33

1gU

lntTUuUL･Hlg

⊂'FYILU川■■G■■■

l

nde】(     1

し1

amd land use 104-5

set-asldeたlrmland 72

rememberlngand forgettlng 54-5

Thompson, Des 95

non-renewable 1 1 4

sheep, on grouse moorland 93

tlme management 49-5 0

three-fLeld system of crop rotatlOn 64

stLStalnable 134, 148

SI see Syst占me htematlOnale

tlme planning 14-15, 53

tlme management 49-5 0

see abo ecologicaHootp rhlt (ecofootprint)

snalls

see also charts, dlagramS, graphs, notes, wntlng

andthecarbon cycle 110, 111, 113, 117

rosy wolfsnalls 100

roads

snowshoe hares 87-9

In VICtOrlan Brltaln 66

solュ

break,ng llp for plaTltlng 62, 63

rocks, ar)a the carbon cycle I I l112

development ofa soil base 72

Roman Brltaln, 1anduse ln 63-4

flallow land 63-4

rosy wolfsnalls 100

soil erosion, and rabbltS 79

Royal Soclety for the ProtectlOn OfBH･ds 95

solar energy, and climate 1 18 solar panels 150

scellarlOS Ofwaste management 157 science 10, 1ト12, 159, 168 sclentlflC judgement, us】ng 9 1 --j

sclentlflC knowledge 1 69 scienti九c models 124

ecofootpTlnt i 24-6 sclenIific flames 27, 84 sclentlflC predlCt10n, Carbon dlOXlde emlSSIOnS

117-18 seientlflLC Study, and ecology 18

sclentlflC Wrltlng, Challenges of 69

Scotland, LangholmMoor 94-5 Scottish Natural Herltage 95 secondary consumers 40, 47, 48 seco■ldary successior) 72-3

seed drltl, mechanlCa1 65 sentences

tumlng JIOteS Into 35 wrltlng Skllls 69-70, 80-1

holdlng back ln a Wlld ecosystem 75-9

sunllght and chemlCat reCyCllng 1 10

rockpools 20-1, 23

Sagan, Carl 1

succession 72-5

Turgle (Parfull,7a tZLPglda) 100, 101, 102

ln Roman Brltaln 63

S

skllls

AfrlCan glant land snalls loo

resplratlOJ1 3か-9

alld energy flows 35 and fossll alels I 14

and photosynthesIS 37-8

tlme Planning 1411 5, 53

tlmeSCales 10, 159

towns m Roman Brltalrt 63 transport 10

andthe ecofoolprlnt OfYork 130-2 and land llSe 105

1n Roman Brltaln 63 1n VICtOfLan Bntaln 66 travel, and the ecofootprlnt OfYork 129, 13012

and rockpools 20, 2l trees

stJPer-insulatLOr1 150 and agnc111ture 52 sl15はlnEIbility 10, 83, 134, 159

and the carbon cycle 1 15

and the ecofootprlnt model 126

Solomon, Joan 95

maxlmum SuStalnable yleld (MSY) 9011, 134

South Afr.ca, Ivory Park EcoClty Vlllage 160-4,

trends ln the UKand Europe142-7

1 6718 species 26-7

A

sustalnable development case study 1 60-A

and altered landscapes 104

sustalnable houslng 148-51

and blOdlVerSZty98- 1 03

sustaiJlab]e llfestyles 148

colonlSat10n by 7215

Sysf卓me lnterrlat10nale (Sl) 122-4

copplClng 61

and dlfferent flOreSttypeS 60 Durola trees ln the Amazonlan ralnfofeSt 91 and ecologlCal colonlSatlOn 73, 75

oak59, 75 and photosynthesIS 3 7-8 see also forests

keystone 102

maxlmum SuStalnable yleld (MSY) 9011

(rerlds on a graph 143-5

T teぐhl10logy 10, 12, 159, 168

and population 83-4, 87 spray dlagramS 13-14. 25, 48

trophie levels 44-5

agrlCtlltura1 63 , 65-8

and agrlCulture 5 1, 53-4

andthe ecoflOOtPnnt 107

and chemlCal recycllng 1 10

sqtJaL-e kiloJTletres 122 temperate forests 59, 60

and food pyramlds 45-50, 50

square lTIetreS 122 Iertial-y (third-level) consllnlerSこ10, 47, 48

tropleal cllmELteS 59

te九( edltlng 71

troplCal forests 59, 60

textbooks 4, 5一七

1ropleal rain forests 59

themes of the book 10, 159-60

Tumucumaque National f■ark, Brazl H 02

thernnl ellrrent COnVeyOr belt 119

ttJndra 59

fherma) m.155 150

Turgle (PartlLhna tu曙Lda snal]) 100, 101, 102

thtnklng about your studylng 9

twentleth-century agncultural techno一ogy 66-S

Thomas, Dr Jeff95

two-fleld system of agrlCulture 63-4

study sklIIs l3-16

DVD materlal on 42 flndlng lnformatlOn ln thlS book 10, 13 glossarleS constructLng 1 9-20 revleWlng 36

maklng Sense Ofunfamlllar WOrds and Ideas 6 readlng text 4-6

<

91

1 92    Jntroduclng EnvlrOnment

}■ ･■■■ tTanSPOrl by 66

] unfamlllaT WOrds and Ideas, making Sense Of6

weatherJng OrSOjlmineraJs 64

Unlted NatlOnS Populat10n Fllnd 97

1Yelght 124

Umted States, Yellowstone National Park 102

WildlYOOd 60, 61

llnLtS Of measurement 1 22-4

word dlagrarrLS

Convertlng 123

photosynthesIS 37, 3 9 resplratlOn 38--9

V ヽ′eJIICal axIS On agraph lこ12, 143

volcanoes

and black smokers 23

World Consen,at10n Union (IUCN), RedList of Threatened SpecleS 99

Worldwlde Fund forNatwe (WWF) 147 WOrmS

and the carbon cycle I 12

bone-eating ZOmble WOrmS 43-4

Voyager space probe 1

tube worms and buck smokers 24 wntlng Skllls 68-7 I

W waste dlSPOSaH0, 134

challengcs of sclentlGc wntlng 69

waste management 151-7

paragraphs 1 65

choICeS 151, 153

plannlng and m血g all argument 165-8

extended producer responslblllty (EPR) law

Tq)Ortlng facts accurately 70-1

154, 155

sentences 69-70

1n Germany 154-5

text edltlng 71

hleTuChy 1 53-4

wrltlng for a speclfLC task 79-81

lvory Park EcoCltyVllhge 163 and the prodllCt llL15 Cycle 151, 152 scenarlOS 157

see aLw notes wntlng Styles, readlng text Wlth dlfferent 4---6 ⅥrWF see Worldwlde Fund for Nature

UK goverTlment targets 1 56 InYork 151, 152, 15仁一-7

water

and blDCaPaClty 134-5, 136 fertlllSerS and water supplies 67 and sus(alnable houslrlg 149

Y

Yellowstone NatlOnal Park I 02 York ecofootprlnt Of 106, 126132, 157 waste management ln 151, 152, 156-7