Island Sustainability (Wit Transactions on Ecology and the Environment)

Island Sustainability

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WITeLibrary Home of the Transactions of the Wessex Institute. Papers presented at ISLANDS 2010 are archived in the WIT eLibrary in volume 130 of WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment (ISSN 1743-3541). The WIT eLibrary provides the international scientific community with immediate and permanent access to individual papers presented at WIT conferences. http://library.witpress.com

FIRST INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ISLAND SUSTAINABILITY

Islands 2010

CONFERENCE CHAIRMEN

S. Favro Hydographic Institute of the Republic of Croatia, Croatia

C.A. Brebbia Wessex Institute of Technology, UK

G. Querini University of Rome ‘La Sapienza’, Italy

INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC ADVISORY COMMITTEE A. Aktas E. Cohen L. Dwyer Z. Grzetic N. Leder L. Petric F. Pineda A.A. Zorpas

Organised by Wessex Institute of Technology, UK Hydrographic Institute of the Republic of Croatia, Croatia

Sponsored by WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment

WIT Transactions Transactions Editor Carlos Brebbia Wessex Institute of Technology Ashurst Lodge, Ashurst Southampton SO40 7AA, UK Email: [email protected]

Editorial Board B Abersek University of Maribor, Slovenia Y N Abousleiman University of Oklahoma,

G Belingardi Politecnico di Torino, Italy R Belmans Katholieke Universiteit Leuven,

P L Aguilar University of Extremadura, Spain K S Al Jabri Sultan Qaboos University, Oman E Alarcon Universidad Politecnica de Madrid,

C D Bertram The University of New South

USA

Spain

A Aldama IMTA, Mexico C Alessandri Universita di Ferrara, Italy D Almorza Gomar University of Cadiz, Spain

B Alzahabi Kettering University, USA J A C Ambrosio IDMEC, Portugal A M Amer Cairo University, Egypt S A Anagnostopoulos University of Patras, Greece

M Andretta Montecatini, Italy E Angelino A.R.P.A. Lombardia, Italy H Antes Technische Universitat Braunschweig, Germany

M A Atherton South Bank University, UK A G Atkins University of Reading, UK D Aubry Ecole Centrale de Paris, France H Azegami Toyohashi University of Technology, Japan

A F M Azevedo University of Porto, Portugal J Baish Bucknell University, USA J M Baldasano Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, Spain J G Bartzis Institute of Nuclear Technology, Greece A Bejan Duke University, USA M P Bekakos Democritus University of Thrace, Greece

Belgium

Wales, Australia

D E Beskos University of Patras, Greece S K Bhattacharyya Indian Institute of Technology, India

E Blums Latvian Academy of Sciences, Latvia J Boarder Cartref Consulting Systems, UK B Bobee Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique, Canada

H Boileau ESIGEC, France J J Bommer Imperial College London, UK M Bonnet Ecole Polytechnique, France C A Borrego University of Aveiro, Portugal A R Bretones University of Granada, Spain J A Bryant University of Exeter, UK F-G Buchholz Universitat Gesanthochschule Paderborn, Germany

M B Bush The University of Western Australia, Australia

F Butera Politecnico di Milano, Italy J Byrne University of Portsmouth, UK W Cantwell Liverpool University, UK D J Cartwright Bucknell University, USA P G Carydis National Technical University of Athens, Greece

J J Casares Long Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Spain

M A Celia Princeton University, USA A Chakrabarti Indian Institute of Science, India

A H-D Cheng University of Mississippi, USA

J Chilton University of Lincoln, UK C-L Chiu University of Pittsburgh, USA H Choi Kangnung National University, Korea A Cieslak Technical University of Lodz, Poland

S Clement Transport System Centre, Australia M W Collins Brunel University, UK J J Connor Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA

M C Constantinou State University of New York at Buffalo, USA

D E Cormack University of Toronto, Canada M Costantino Royal Bank of Scotland, UK D F Cutler Royal Botanic Gardens, UK W Czyczula Krakow University of Technology, Poland

M da Conceicao Cunha University of Coimbra, Portugal

A Davies University of Hertfordshire, UK M Davis Temple University, USA A B de Almeida Instituto Superior Tecnico, Portugal

E R de Arantes e Oliveira Instituto Superior Tecnico, Portugal L De Biase University of Milan, Italy R de Borst Delft University of Technology, Netherlands G De Mey University of Ghent, Belgium A De Montis Universita di Cagliari, Italy A De Naeyer Universiteit Ghent, Belgium W P De Wilde Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium L Debnath University of Texas-Pan American, USA N J Dedios Mimbela Universidad de Cordoba, Spain G Degrande Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium S del Giudice University of Udine, Italy G Deplano Universita di Cagliari, Italy I Doltsinis University of Stuttgart, Germany M Domaszewski Universite de Technologie de Belfort-Montbeliard, France J Dominguez University of Seville, Spain K Dorow Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, USA W Dover University College London, UK C Dowlen South Bank University, UK

J P du Plessis University of Stellenbosch, South Africa

R Duffell University of Hertfordshire, UK A Ebel University of Cologne, Germany E E Edoutos Democritus University of Thrace, Greece

G K Egan Monash University, Australia K M Elawadly Alexandria University, Egypt K-H Elmer Universitat Hannover, Germany D Elms University of Canterbury, New Zealand M E M El-Sayed Kettering University, USA D M Elsom Oxford Brookes University, UK A El-Zafrany Cranfield University, UK F Erdogan Lehigh University, USA F P Escrig University of Seville, Spain D J Evans Nottingham Trent University, UK J W Everett Rowan University, USA M Faghri University of Rhode Island, USA R A Falconer Cardiff University, UK M N Fardis University of Patras, Greece P Fedelinski Silesian Technical University, Poland

H J S Fernando Arizona State University, USA

S Finger Carnegie Mellon University, USA J I Frankel University of Tennessee, USA D M Fraser University of Cape Town, South Africa

M J Fritzler University of Calgary, Canada U Gabbert Otto-von-Guericke Universitat Magdeburg, Germany

G Gambolati Universita di Padova, Italy C J Gantes National Technical University of Athens, Greece

L Gaul Universitat Stuttgart, Germany A Genco University of Palermo, Italy N Georgantzis Universitat Jaume I, Spain P Giudici Universita di Pavia, Italy F Gomez Universidad Politecnica de Valencia, Spain

R Gomez Martin University of Granada, Spain

D Goulias University of Maryland, USA K G Goulias Pennsylvania State University, USA

F Grandori Politecnico di Milano, Italy W E Grant Texas A & M University, USA S Grilli University of Rhode Island, USA

R H J Grimshaw Loughborough University, D Gross Technische Hochschule Darmstadt,

M Karlsson Linkoping University, Sweden T Katayama Doshisha University, Japan K L Katsifarakis Aristotle University of

R Grundmann Technische Universitat

J T Katsikadelis National Technical

A Gualtierotti IDHEAP, Switzerland R C Gupta National University of Singapore,

E Kausel Massachusetts Institute of

UK

Germany

Dresden, Germany

Singapore J M Hale University of Newcastle, UK K Hameyer Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium C Hanke Danish Technical University, Denmark K Hayami National Institute of Informatics, Japan Y Hayashi Nagoya University, Japan L Haydock Newage International Limited, UK A H Hendrickx Free University of Brussels, Belgium C Herman John Hopkins University, USA S Heslop University of Bristol, UK I Hideaki Nagoya University, Japan D A Hills University of Oxford, UK W F Huebner Southwest Research Institute, USA J A C Humphrey Bucknell University, USA M Y Hussaini Florida State University, USA W Hutchinson Edith Cowan University, Australia T H Hyde University of Nottingham, UK M Iguchi Science University of Tokyo, Japan D B Ingham University of Leeds, UK L Int Panis VITO Expertisecentrum IMS, Belgium N Ishikawa National Defence Academy, Japan J Jaafar UiTm, Malaysia W Jager Technical University of Dresden, Germany Y Jaluria Rutgers University, USA C M Jefferson University of the West of England, UK P R Johnston Griffith University, Australia D R H Jones University of Cambridge, UK N Jones University of Liverpool, UK D Kaliampakos National Technical University of Athens, Greece N Kamiya Nagoya University, Japan D L Karabalis University of Patras, Greece

Thessaloniki, Greece

University of Athens, Greece

Technology, USA

H Kawashima The University of Tokyo, Japan

B A Kazimee Washington State University, USA

S Kim University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA D Kirkland Nicholas Grimshaw & Partners Ltd, UK

E Kita Nagoya University, Japan A S Kobayashi University of Washington, USA

T Kobayashi University of Tokyo, Japan D Koga Saga University, Japan S Kotake University of Tokyo, Japan A N Kounadis National Technical University of Athens, Greece

W B Kratzig Ruhr Universitat Bochum, Germany

T Krauthammer Penn State University, USA C-H Lai University of Greenwich, UK M Langseth Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Norway

B S Larsen Technical University of Denmark, Denmark

F Lattarulo Politecnico di Bari, Italy A Lebedev Moscow State University, Russia L J Leon University of Montreal, Canada D Lewis Mississippi State University, USA S lghobashi University of California Irvine, USA

K-C Lin University of New Brunswick, Canada

A A Liolios Democritus University of Thrace, Greece

S Lomov Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium

J W S Longhurst University of the West of England, UK

G Loo The University of Auckland, New Zealand

D Lóránt Károly Róbert College, Hungary J Lourenco Universidade do Minho, Portugal

J E Luco University of California at San

Diego, USA H Lui State Seismological Bureau Harbin, China C J Lumsden University of Toronto, Canada L Lundqvist Division of Transport and Location Analysis, Sweden T Lyons Murdoch University, Australia Y-W Mai University of Sydney, Australia M Majowiecki University of Bologna, Italy D Malerba Università degli Studi di Bari, Italy G Manara University of Pisa, Italy B N Mandal Indian Statistical Institute, India Ü Mander University of Tartu, Estonia H A Mang Technische Universitat Wien, Austria G D Manolis Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece W J Mansur COPPE/UFRJ, Brazil N Marchettini University of Siena, Italy J D M Marsh Griffith University, Australia J F Martin-Duque Universidad Complutense, Spain T Matsui Nagoya University, Japan G Mattrisch DaimlerChrysler AG, Germany F M Mazzolani University of Naples “Federico II”, Italy K McManis University of New Orleans, USA A C Mendes Universidade de Beira Interior, Portugal R A Meric Research Institute for Basic Sciences, Turkey J Mikielewicz Polish Academy of Sciences, Poland N Milic-Frayling Microsoft Research Ltd, UK R A W Mines University of Liverpool, UK C A Mitchell University of Sydney, Australia K Miura Kajima Corporation, Japan A Miyamoto Yamaguchi University, Japan T Miyoshi Kobe University, Japan G Molinari University of Genoa, Italy T B Moodie University of Alberta, Canada D B Murray Trinity College Dublin, Ireland G Nakhaeizadeh DaimlerChrysler AG, Germany M B Neace Mercer University, USA D Necsulescu University of Ottawa, Canada

F Neumann University of Vienna, Austria S-I Nishida Saga University, Japan H Nisitani Kyushu Sangyo University, Japan B Notaros University of Massachusetts, USA P O’Donoghue University College Dublin, Ireland

R O O’Neill Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA

M Ohkusu Kyushu University, Japan G Oliveto Universitá di Catania, Italy R Olsen Camp Dresser & McKee Inc., USA E Oñate Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, Spain

K Onishi Ibaraki University, Japan P H Oosthuizen Queens University, Canada E L Ortiz Imperial College London, UK E Outa Waseda University, Japan A S Papageorgiou Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, USA

J Park Seoul National University, Korea G Passerini Universita delle Marche, Italy B C Patten University of Georgia, USA G Pelosi University of Florence, Italy G G Penelis Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece

W Perrie Bedford Institute of Oceanography, Canada

R Pietrabissa Politecnico di Milano, Italy H Pina Instituto Superior Tecnico, Portugal M F Platzer Naval Postgraduate School, USA D Poljak University of Split, Croatia V Popov Wessex Institute of Technology, UK H Power University of Nottingham, UK D Prandle Proudman Oceanographic Laboratory, UK

M Predeleanu University Paris VI, France M R I Purvis University of Portsmouth, UK I S Putra Institute of Technology Bandung, Indonesia

Y A Pykh Russian Academy of Sciences, Russia

F Rachidi EMC Group, Switzerland M Rahman Dalhousie University, Canada K R Rajagopal Texas A & M University, USA T Rang Tallinn Technical University, Estonia J Rao Case Western Reserve University, USA A M Reinhorn State University of New York at Buffalo, USA

A D Rey McGill University, Canada D N Riahi University of Illinois at UrbanaB Ribas Spanish National Centre for

L C Simoes University of Coimbra, Portugal A C Singhal Arizona State University, USA P Skerget University of Maribor, Slovenia J Sladek Slovak Academy of Sciences,

K Richter Graz University of Technology,

V Sladek Slovak Academy of Sciences,

S Rinaldi Politecnico di Milano, Italy F Robuste Universitat Politecnica de

A C M Sousa University of New Brunswick,

Champaign, USA

Environmental Health, Spain Austria

Catalunya, Spain J Roddick Flinders University, Australia A C Rodrigues Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Portugal F Rodrigues Poly Institute of Porto, Portugal C W Roeder University of Washington, USA J M Roesset Texas A & M University, USA W Roetzel Universitaet der Bundeswehr Hamburg, Germany V Roje University of Split, Croatia R Rosset Laboratoire d’Aerologie, France J L Rubio Centro de Investigaciones sobre Desertificacion, Spain T J Rudolphi Iowa State University, USA S Russenchuck Magnet Group, Switzerland H Ryssel Fraunhofer Institut Integrierte Schaltungen, Germany S G Saad American University in Cairo, Egypt M Saiidi University of Nevada-Reno, USA R San Jose Technical University of Madrid, Spain F J Sanchez-Sesma Instituto Mexicano del Petroleo, Mexico B Sarler Nova Gorica Polytechnic, Slovenia S A Savidis Technische Universitat Berlin, Germany A Savini Universita de Pavia, Italy G Schmid Ruhr-Universitat Bochum, Germany R Schmidt RWTH Aachen, Germany B Scholtes Universitaet of Kassel, Germany W Schreiber University of Alabama, USA A P S Selvadurai McGill University, Canada J J Sendra University of Seville, Spain J J Sharp Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canada Q Shen Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA X Shixiong Fudan University, China G C Sih Lehigh University, USA

Slovakia

Slovakia Canada

H Sozer Illinois Institute of Technology, USA D B Spalding CHAM, UK P D Spanos Rice University, USA T Speck Albert-Ludwigs-Universitaet Freiburg, Germany

C C Spyrakos National Technical University of Athens, Greece

I V Stangeeva St Petersburg University, Russia

J Stasiek Technical University of Gdansk, Poland

G E Swaters University of Alberta, Canada S Syngellakis University of Southampton, UK J Szmyd University of Mining and Metallurgy, Poland

S T Tadano Hokkaido University, Japan H Takemiya Okayama University, Japan I Takewaki Kyoto University, Japan C-L Tan Carleton University, Canada M Tanaka Shinshu University, Japan E Taniguchi Kyoto University, Japan S Tanimura Aichi University of Technology, Japan

J L Tassoulas University of Texas at Austin, USA

M A P Taylor University of South Australia, Australia

A Terranova Politecnico di Milano, Italy E Tiezzi University of Siena, Italy A G Tijhuis Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, Netherlands

T Tirabassi Institute FISBAT-CNR, Italy S Tkachenko Otto-von-Guericke-University, Germany

N Tosaka Nihon University, Japan T Tran-Cong University of Southern Queensland, Australia

R Tremblay Ecole Polytechnique, Canada I Tsukrov University of New Hampshire, USA

R Turra CINECA Interuniversity Computing

H Westphal University of Magdeburg,

S G Tushinski Moscow State University,

J R Whiteman Brunel University, UK Z-Y Yan Peking University, China S Yanniotis Agricultural University of Athens,

Centre, Italy

Russia

J-L Uso Universitat Jaume I, Spain E Van den Bulck Katholieke Universiteit

Leuven, Belgium D Van den Poel Ghent University, Belgium R van der Heijden Radboud University, Netherlands R van Duin Delft University of Technology, Netherlands P Vas University of Aberdeen, UK W S Venturini University of Sao Paulo, Brazil R Verhoeven Ghent University, Belgium A Viguri Universitat Jaume I, Spain Y Villacampa Esteve Universidad de Alicante, Spain F F V Vincent University of Bath, UK S Walker Imperial College, UK G Walters University of Exeter, UK B Weiss University of Vienna, Austria

Germany

Greece

A Yeh University of Hong Kong, China J Yoon Old Dominion University, USA K Yoshizato Hiroshima University, Japan T X Yu Hong Kong University of Science & Technology, Hong Kong

M Zador Technical University of Budapest, Hungary

K Zakrzewski Politechnika Lodzka, Poland M Zamir University of Western Ontario, Canada

R Zarnic University of Ljubljana, Slovenia G Zharkova Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, Russia

N Zhong Maebashi Institute of Technology, Japan

H G Zimmermann Siemens AG, Germany

Island Sustainability

Editors

S. Favro Hydographic Institute of the Republic of Croatia, Croatia

& C.A. Brebbia Wessex Institute of Technology, UK

S. Favro Hydographic Institute of the Republic of Croatia, Croatia C.A. Brebbia Wessex Institute of Technology, UK

Published by WIT Press Ashurst Lodge, Ashurst, Southampton, SO40 7AA, UK Tel: 44 (0) 238 029 3223; Fax: 44 (0) 238 029 2853 E-Mail: [email protected] http://www.witpress.com For USA, Canada and Mexico Computational Mechanics Inc 25 Bridge Street, Billerica, MA 01821, USA Tel: 978 667 5841; Fax: 978 667 7582 E-Mail: [email protected] http://www.witpress.com British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A Catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-1-84564-434-5 ISSN: 1746-448X (print) ISSN: 1743-3541 (online) The texts of the papers in this volume were set individually by the authors or under their supervision. Only minor corrections to the text may have been carried out by the publisher. No responsibility is assumed by the Publisher, the Editors and Authors for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein. The Publisher does not necessarily endorse the ideas held, or views expressed by the Editors or Authors of the material contained in its publications. © WIT Press 2010 Printed in Great Britain by MPG Books Group, Bodmin and King’s Lynn. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the Publisher.

Preface

This book contains papers presented at the 1st International Conference on Island Sustainability organised on the Island of Brac by both the Wessex Institute of Technology of the UK and the Hydrographic Institute of the Republic of Croatia. Croatia, having a rich sea area with over a thousand islands was an ideal location for the event which attracted delegates from many different countries. The Croatian Hydrographic Institute, host of the meeting, is in charge of the most significant projects related to the development of those islands. Current global socio-economic trends call attention to the endangered conditions of relatively confined environments all over the world. Many of these regions face problems of depopulation and lack of adequate infrastructures. The problems are aggravated for the case of islands which have limited resources and few possibilities of developing different types of supporting infrastructures. Many islands depend on tourism for their economic survival. Most of them however, cannot provide all the resources required to maintain a large seasonal population and in many cases basic requirements such as water and energy, as well as agricultural produce, need to be imported. The impact of large seasonal population increases in the community and the resulting socio-economic factors need to be carefully evaluated, as well as issues related to transportation and communication, all of which should be part of an overall strategy. Of primary importance in many cases is to ensure all year round economic activities in order to achieve a permanent and completely sustainable use of the islands’ potential. This book contains papers dealing with projects, initiatives and experiences related to different island issues. By using the experience of well developed island

environments, it is possible to learn how to ensure the development of other island communities, not only to prevent depopulation but to encourage new settlement. Those projects will serve as guidelines for other initiatives in less developed islands, adapting those experiences to specific regional, cultural and socio-economic characteristics. The objective is to encourage the sustainable development of islands taking into consideration all their specific qualities, aiming to sustain life, to encourage demographic revival through economic development, in a manner harmonious with their natural environment and their cultural and historic traditions. Different islands present a variety of diverse problems but much can be learned by sharing their experiences. This book demonstrates how this can be done. The Editors are grateful to all authors for their contributions and to the members of the International Scientific Advisory Committee who by reviewing the papers were able to ensure the high quality of the book. The Editors Brac, Croatia, 2010

Contents Section 1: Tourism impact and strategies Possibilities and limitations in the development of selective forms of tourism in the Croatian archipelago: case study of the Istrian islands Z. Gržetić, M. Kovačić & S. Favro ...................................................................... 3 Selection, design and dissemination of Fuerteventura’s projected tourism image (Canary Isles) A. J. Rodríguez, P. Díaz, D. Ruiz-Labourdette, F. D. Pineda, M. F. Schmitz & A. Santana .............................................................................. 13 How far does tourism stress coral reef environment in island states: case studies of Indian Ocean and Caribbean islands V. Duvat............................................................................................................. 25 Tourism valorisation of lighthouses on Croatian islands and along the coast V. T. Opačić, S. Favro & M. Perišić.................................................................. 37 Section 2: Community issues Scales and scenarios of change in the anthropology-landscape relationship: models of cultural tourism in Fuerteventura (Canary Isles) D. Ruiz-Labourdette, P. Díaz, A. J. Rodríguez, A. Santana, M. F. Schmitz & F. D. Pineda ........................................................................... 51 Development of sustainability indices for the wider area of Troodos in Cyprus A. Zorpas, S. Malamis, G. Lambrou, E. Katsou, M. Loizidou & I. Voukkali...................................................................................................... 65

The attitudes of the island local community towards sustainable tourism development – the case of Stari Grad, island Hvar L. Petrić & L. Pranić ......................................................................................... 77 The socio-cultural impacts of visiting friends and relatives on hosts: a Samoan study R. G. Taufatofua & S. Craig-Smith.................................................................... 89 Traditional medicinal knowledge in Cuba I. M. Madaleno ................................................................................................ 101 Section 3: Changing climate and environment Is it really happening here? A study of climate change perception in the Azores R. T. Cunha, B. Rangel, O. Vieira & I. E. Rego .............................................. 113 Future sea level rise implications on development of Lazarus Island, Singapore Southern Islands T. S. Teh, D. K. Raju, K. Santosh & J. Chandrasekar ..................................... 121 Rising sea level and long term sustainability of near-shore islands of the United Arab Emirates: an approach to establishing setback lines for Abu Dhabi G. G. Garland.................................................................................................. 135 Coastal erosion in the archaeological area of Selinunte V. Liguori & A. Porcaro .................................................................................. 147 Coastal monitoring with high resolution synthetic aperture radar P. Trivero, W. Biamino, M. Borasi & M. Cavagnero ...................................... 161 3-D process modelling of ancient storm-dominated deposits by an event-based approach L. Laigle, P. Joseph, G. de Marsily & S. Violette ............................................ 171 Section 4: Infrastructures Infrastructure maintenance and disaster prevention measures on isolated Islands: the case of the Izu Islands near Tokyo H. Gotoh, Y. Maeno, M. Takezawa, T. Murata & N. Takahashi..........................185 Responsive demand in isolated energy systems D. Livengood, F. C. Sim-Sim, C. S. Ioakimidis & R. Larson ........................... 197

Innovative shore protection for island communities S. J. Boc & E. C. Burg ..................................................................................... 209 Designing of protective seaside wall composite elements for protection of roads along the seashore A. E. Ushakov, Y. G. Klenin, A. V. Pankov & S. N. Ozerov............................. 221 Application of composite materials for the protection of sea shores and engineering structures against the impact of waves E. S. Ashpiz, A. O. Egorov & A. E. Ushakov ................................................... 231 A new approach to estimate armourstone abrasion: modified slake durability test Ö. Acır & R. Kılıç ............................................................................................ 239 Section 5: Transport issues Travelling towards and from minor islands through non-conventional air transport: demand and cost analysis L. La Franca, M. Catalano, F. Castelluccio & F. Montano............................ 251 Development of nautical tourism: islands development motivator N. Jolić, N. Perko & Z. Kavran ....................................................................... 267 Fast charging stations for electric vehicles infrastructure J. Borges, C. S. Ioakimidis & P. Ferrão .......................................................... 275 Author Index .................................................................................................. 285

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Section 1 Tourism impact and strategies

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Island Sustainability

3

Possibilities and limitations in the development of selective forms of tourism in the Croatian archipelago: case study of the Istrian islands Z. Gržetić1, M. Kovačić2 & S. Favro1 1

Hydrographic Institute of the Republic of Croatia, Croatia Primorsko-goranska County, Department of Maritime Affairs, Transportation and Communication, Croatia

2

Abstract In this paper, the authors point to the importance of the research and analysis for the purpose of development and valorisation of islands. The directions of the future development have been defined as the main support to planning and decision-making. The analytical approach is of particular importance for the long-term development of Istrian tourism. The approach and methodology applied in the research are based on the analysis of data from primary and secondary sources. Such data indicate the current situation in the unique and distinct area of special importance. Primary sources data have been collected and processed in the Programme of sustainable development of the islands in the Istrian County. The authors have observed the data through their causal connection in the space, especially among selective forms of tourism and preservation of the environment, and socio-economic processes caused by the development of tourism. The secondary sources of data are various data obtained from the Croatian Bureau of Statistics (demographic and economic), marine and topographic charts, and results of multi-criteria site researches of the Croatian archipelago. The methodological approach to the processing of various data (geographic, economic, ecological and sociological), through which the main characteristics of the effects of tourism in the area of the Croatian littoral are observed, is based on multi-criteria analysis. The aim of the research was to identify possibilities and limitations of further development and improvement of selective forms of tourism in the Istrian archipelago. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line) doi:10.2495/ISLANDS100011

4 Island Sustainability On the basis of the researches and analyses and by applying theoretical knowledge, the authors have defined measures for qualitative development of selective forms of tourism. Keywords: Croatian islands, Istrian archipelago, selective forms of tourism, sustainable development.

1 Introduction Any multi-criteria problem includes several different, usually conflicting criteria, which may be of different importance to the decision maker. Most methods for choosing the best alternative, or generally the methods for multi-criteria decision making, require information on the relative importance of each criterion (Roubens [3]). There are a number of methods for assessing the level of importance of a criterion, completely dependent on the human judgement. Techniques in that category may apply to an individual or to a group. In that process, the importance of criteria may be assessed by the decision maker himself or the relevant opinion is sought from a group of experts (judges). A systematic approach in solving such multi-criteria problems requires a multicriteria analysis in order to define recommendations to the local government in the planning of future development.

2 Defining the problem The research [8] has revealed that the south-western coast of Istria is surrounded by 81 islands and rocks, contrary to the conventional perception that Istrian islands embrace the archipelago of Brijuni, the islands of Sv. Nikola, Katarina and Crveni Otok (hotels), the island of Veruda (campsite) as well as a few minor islands, neglected by users. It comes to an estimated number of 30 islands at the most, which is approximately one third of the real number of islands. 2.1 Description of the area As for their geographic position, the Istrian islands belong to the Croatian part of the Adriatic Sea, specifically its northernmost portion. Such geographic position is responsible for some specific characteristics unique in the Adriatic. The most northern part of the Adriatic Sea is a shallow area with maximum average depths of about 30-35 metres. The Istrian littoral is distinguished not only by a large number of islets, but also by many rocks and different types of seabed sediments. Morphological diversity of the seabed provides for many different living conditions and a great variety of habitats. Therefore, in this relatively small area one can find almost all original elements of the marine ecosystems in the Adriatic. In the southern part of Istria around Cape Kamenjak, the island area borders on the deep open sea, so that constant and strong current flow allows the exchange of water masses and continuous inflow of the sea water. Like other enclosed and shallow areas worldwide, this sea area is subject to a significant

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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hydrological and meteorological variability. It is the coldest part of the Adriatic, its ecological factors being highly variable [7]. These generally small islands are in fact isolated unities with specific endemic communities of flora and fauna, much influenced by the sea. Scarce resources of arable land surrounded by the sea and traditionally unsafe position of small island settlements by the sea, as compared to substantial resources of arable land and vicinity of the position of mainland settlements with safe hinterland, are the main reason why Istrian islands are traditionally uninhabited. Coastal area is the area of islands much defined by the influence of the sea (about 3 km), and with Istrian islands, because of their size, it embraces the whole surface area of islands. Sensitivity of ecosystems on both coasts of an island is even greater with an archipelago - a group of islands lying relatively close to one another. In this case, the belts of direct ecological exchange in the seabed join together in a shallow coastal belt of the internal coastal waters. The system of local ports and small harbours and marinas (nautical tourism ports and small harbours) on the Istrian coast, together with waterways in the internal coastal waters, make these islands easily accessible. In 300 m area off the most prominent parts of the coast, special regime of navigation is established to ensure safe conditions for leisure activities in this sea area. 2.2 Defining the problem As to their size and lack of population, the islands in the Istrian County are quite untypical of average Croatian islands which set the standards for special regulations on islands. According to such criteria, these islands, with some exceptions in national parks, are economically insignificant, which should be redefined in Istria. However, it is a potential unique and particular area of special significance. This could be very important for a long-term development of Istrian tourism, even if it is just a promotion. As a rule, Istrian islands are usually presented and analysed within a formal administrative-territorial division, as belonging to a city or district (Poreč, Vrsar, Rovinj, Bale, Pula, Medulin, and Ližnjan), which take little or no interest in them. Their analytical division should be based on a functional classification of their attractiveness as tourist destinations, as a result of their present status and use (national park, wild islands, specific agricultural production, islands with lighthouses, organised day-trip tourism, hotel complexes, and urban purpose). Being uninhabited, and having no other alternative, except two islands off Pula, intended for urban purposes, Istrian islands are appropriate for day-trip tourism. However, due to their particular characteristics and position, they need to be further investigated, taking into account evaluation methods and presentation of current situation, especially of their present use.

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3 Assessment of the current situation Istrian islands are constitutive parts of the Istrian tourism basis, the basis for creating an optimal Istrian tourist product, but they are also parts of tourism bases of particular tourist destinations for creating their respective tourist products. 3.1 Economic and social use The islands with hotel complexes (Sv. Nikola, Katarina, and Crveni Otok) and an organised campsite (Veruda) have reduced possibilities for day-trip tourism. The island of Veliki Brijun, with hotels, is in the same position, as it represents a joint attraction together with other islands of the Brijuni archipelago (within the Brijuni National Park), which should be evaluated separately. Each island has its area of the seabed, attractive for tourism. In some places, Istrian islands are grouped into archipelagos incorporating parts of sea areas into a visually attractive whole, protected from winds and waves, and therefore suitable for sports and recreation. Besides the Brijuni islands, there are three more such groups of islands, near Poreč and Vrsar, near Rovinj, and near Medulin and Premantura. Most of Istrian islands and their surrounding areas are protected by environmental protection regulations on different levels:  national park,  protected landscape or  ornithological reserve, and  special marine reserve. Those that remained unprotected by any such regulations are the islands of Sv. Andrija, Katarina, Uljanik, and Veruda in the port of Pula, as well as Premanturski Školjić and Pomerski Školjić in the port of Medulin. In this way, most of Istrian islands have been protected from any construction, even of tourist facilities, requiring an integral approach to their use for tourism purposes. It should be emphasized that the marketing name of Crveni Otok (Red island) in fact includes two connected islands: Sv. Andrija and Maškin. Each island and particular groups of Istrian islands, have an authentic or transformed organic connection with some places on shore. These islands were originally used by local inhabitants living on shore for agriculture and cattle breeding, which later has become neglected. In the meantime, an uncontrolled tourism conversion occurs in the relation between islands and mainland. 3.2 Assessment of the current situation In the first stage of the research, assessment of island situation in the Istrian County required a complete identification and functional classification of all Istrian islands, especially in order to be perceived as a unity in respect of tourism. This unity is evaluated in terms of a total number of islands and rocks, their size, and their use according to tourist standards [8]. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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Although being relatively small as compared to other Croatian islands, except Veliki Brijun, Istrian islands differ as follows:  Big islands  Medium islands  Small islands  Very small islands and rocks. On the basis of the current tourism situation and tourism potentials on these islands, seven modalities were defined for their tourist use or counter reasons for such use:  National park  Wild islands  Specific agriculture  Islands with lighthouses  Organised day-trip tourism  Hotel complexes Among eighty-one Istrian islands, just one can be regarded to be relatively big (Veliki Brijun), two of relatively medium size (Mali Brijun and Veruda), seventeen small ones, and even sixty-one very small ones. Fourteen islands have been designated as national park, forty-eight as wild islands, one of them with specific agriculture, five islands with lighthouses, seven islands with organised day-trip tourism, four islands with tourist complexes, not including Veliki Brijun which is mainly regarded as national park, while two islands are intended for urban purposes. In terms of tourism, Istrian islands should be evaluated from the following points of view:  as island unities, and  within their manner of use. 3.2.1 Istrian islands as a whole (“Istrian island necklace”) In the valid plans of Istrian County (regional plans, development plans, and marketing tourism plans), Istrian islands are not singled out as essential component of Istria [7]. Representation of Istrian islands entitled the Istrian island necklace, reveals a specific tourist area, to be evaluated in functional, development and marketing terms both as a whole and individually. Brijuni National Park In spite of the fact that Brijuni National Park has a specific inner structure, due to its legal status, it is the most valuable pearl on the Istrian necklace. Its inner structure is not in contrast with the overall structure of Istrian islands. Veliki Brijun offers accommodation (456 beds in 238 facilities), sightseeing attractions, and day-trip facilities. Some facilities untypical of tourism are also situated there (military ones), as well as some exceptional facilities (government protocol). Mali Brijun has an attractive but inactive fortification system, Vanga memorial objects, while other islands can be regarded as wild. Many studies and plans have been made to define the purpose of the area of National Park, especially regarding its accommodation facilities, implying WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

8 Island Sustainability permanent facilities and marinas. Analyses of accommodation facilities on the Brijuni islands, within the national park standards, show that if the hotel tradition is continued, accommodation for 800 guests at the most can be provided, while marinas are not recommended. Wild islands Wild islands include all islands and rocks covered with underbrush or stone rocks, without a landing for vessels. As an ecological outpost, they contribute to the island landscape, and attract tourists who take interest in sailing around and sightseeing from the vessel, swimming ashore, and staying there on an ecotourist day basis. On some of these islands there are valuable archaeological and paleontological finds. Specific agriculture To the present day, specific agriculture has been preserved just on the island of Fenera, where herds are a special attraction for tourists. Islands with lighthouses When sailing around, special visual attractions for tourists are lighthouses on some of the islands, belonging to a specific building heritage. There is a possibility of visiting them, taking care not to obstruct their basic function. 3.2.2 Manner of use of Istrian islands Certain islands offer organised day-trip tourism of different types: from the vaguely differentiated campsite of stationary-visiting type, through excursion facilities with all modern comforts, to modest landings for vessels. These islands are intensively visited. Hotel complexes Some islands have hotel complexes which by their size (Sv. Nikola – 460 beds, Katarina - 320 beds in 120 accommodation facilities, and Crveni Otok /connected islands of Sv. Andrija and Maškin/ 969 beds in 411 accommodation facilities) absorb entire accommodation of these islands on mass tourism level, leaving little space for recreational day-trip tourism. Urban purpose Two islands in the port of Pula are intended for special economic purposes, and could be just theoretically used for tourist purposes, for leisured education on the modern production (living and working culture). Maritime traffic Maritime traffic in the Istrian County, as to its strategic position, the number of urban settlements on shore, and morphological features of the coastal area, does not meet the criteria for a more intensive development. This is particularly true of the public, international, and regional traffic of passengers and goods, and in some degree of leisure sailing.

4 Development possibilities and limitations – tourism Indented coastline with a number of islands, islets, and rocks, crystal clear sea, and preserved cultivated landscape, and a large part of the natural seaside, are

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considered to be special values not only of Istria, but of Croatia as well [6]. Development plans include particularly the following elements [9, 10]:  tourist component of the area as a major strategic development guideline,  criteria for the use of coastal area, and  measures to improve the quality of the environment. Management of Istrian islands, and of the Croatian Adriatic as a whole, should be based on the integral management of the coastal area [4]. Such area includes the coast, the continental shelf – national territorial waters, and the maritime border of Croatia, involving the plan for the purpose of the sea (surface and seabed) with important economic function of fisheries and mariculture. Possibilities which are under consideration for future development of Istrian islands are mostly aesthetic-ecological, and just for some islets touristrecreational, or economic. Special issues are related to the islands of Brijuni, managed by the Brijuni National Park, under the Ministry of Culture, Directorate for Nature Protection. The islands have many development needs, whose realisation is slow. The islands of Brijuni are also used for the government protocol, hence the presence of the Croatian Army. These islands attract different development-investment interests some of which may be characterized even as outward threats to sustainable and ecological development. In the context of regional development of Croatia, coasts and marinas have been designated as areas of special concern because of increased interest and value, or areas of rising interest in investments. For this reason, nautical centres should be distributed regularly throughout the area. In other words, it is necessary to have few large marinas and a large number of smaller ones, to meet an increased need for berths and other services provided to leisure mariners during the season. Special emphasis within regional development and planning orientation of tourism is placed upon the development of tourism according to possibilities (capacities) and limitations of a particular area. Regional plan of the Istrian County specifies the following limitations and standards for the ports of nautical tourism: Dry marinas  available area in the costal part should meet the need for storage of at least 500 vessels on land,  berths in the sea area should be constructed as transit berths only,  dry marina may include a shipyard for the construction or repair of vessels less than 25 m in length, and preferably of larger vessels,  dry marina should be directly connected with the surrounding area by an urban road at least. Marinas  if the area for storage of vessels on land is insufficient, in terms of special regulations, it shall be provided on other suitable locations in the construction area of that city within 5 km of the harbour, provided that all approach roads to the harbour are urban roads at least, and that they are permitted for the transport of special cargo,

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as a rule, marinas are constructed in the close vicinity of areas with major tourist accommodation or recreational facilities, or within port areas near major urban centres,  marinas should have possibilities of expanding into the surrounding area, but not to the disadvantage of swimming and bathing and other recreational facilities, nor threatening the protected parts of the environment,  number of vessels per hectare of the sea area is not recommended less than 50 and greater than 120. When determining the coverage of particular ports, in order to set the standard, berth is understood to be the berth for a vessel of about 12 m in length, where such vessel is taken as equivalent to an accommodation unit of apartment type, or 3 beds. Maximum volume of ports of nautical tourism, covering the construction area plus the sea area, is given as: number of berths x equivalent number of beds x unit-surface per bed All ports of nautical tourism, defined by the Plan as new ports (except dry marinas), can be initially built as landing places or yacht harbours, and for such purposes concessions can be granted at county level. Categorization of marinas sets high standards, especially to the existing ones. Therefore, when they have fulfilled minimum categorization conditions, they must invest in services to obtain the required quality level.

5 Recommendations for protection of the sea and coastal area To protect efficiently the sea and coastal area, the local government must take the following actions:  define the limits of maritime domain for each local government unit through regional plans,  establish and develop a register of sea polluters, identify the methods to eliminate pollution, and the points of permanent quality control of the sea water – especially for internal waters and the territorial sea,  designate organisations and companies to conduct the sea monitoring according to international standards,  cities and municipalities, both coastal and insular ones, alongside with the existing or planned sewage systems, should fit mechanical or biological purification systems, before discharging the waste water into the sea,  set standards for the equipment of ports of nautical tourism, especially for technological systems, and fit out the existing and planned ports to be capable of collecting wastewater from any vessel [2],  through intensified control and fitting out of ports, prevent the discharge into the sea (fuel, oil, bilge, solid waste, human waste), in the internal waters and the territorial sea in order to protect the maritime domain and maintain the quality of the sea,  through the development of small tourist harbours, provide adequate accommodation to leisure mariners, who presently use available bays and unorganised small local harbours. The concession holder shall be WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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responsible for ecological maintenance of the maritime domain, i.e. for collecting garbage and other waste. Concession provider shall be responsible for the control of adherence to environmental protection regulations, for an appropriate charge, providing funds for job vacancies, especially on islands.

6 Conclusion Istrian archipelago with almost 80 islands and islets is a very valuable area in ecological and environmental terms. As far as management system is concerned, Brijuni islands deserve special attention. The concern about islands becomes prominent when they are in the limelight for investments or other purposes. This leads to deliberations on their efficient protection, improvement and development. Local government and inhabitants of Istria have not recognized yet the possibilities and importance of their islands. Responsible institutions are usually passive or even unconcerned about the development of islands and islets on its territory. The exception is Brijuni archipelago, consisting of three islands with tourist facilities in the area of Rovinj and Poreč, three islands port for economic purposes in the port of Pula, bringing revenue for local government, and two or three islets with an improvised catering activity in the sea area of Medulin. Insufficient involvement is the main weakness of the above mentioned institutions. Strength of these islands is their ecological and environmental value. They render Istrian coast richer and more beautiful. Yet, the information on strengths and weaknesses of island communities and their social activities is not available. Intentions and investments, especially from abroad, bring along threats and opportunities for the development of these islands. Local institutions responsible for development projects should become involved this process. It is a logical conclusion that the islands in the Istrian County, both separately and as a whole, are a major potential tourist attraction, to be evaluated accordingly and protected from devastation and unreasonable use. This is possible through the promotion of selective forms of tourism, especially ecological, medical, and nautical tourism.

References [1] Domagoj Đ. et al., Ekološki leksikon, Ministarstvo zaštite okoliša i prostornog uređenja RH, Zagreb, 2001. [2] Kovačić, M., Gržetić, Z., Dundović, Č., Planning and Selection of Location for the Nautical Tourism Port for Sustainable Development, Naše More 53(3-4), Dubrovnik, 118-124, 2006. [3] Roubens, M., Preference relations on actions and criteria in multi-criteria decision making, European Journal of Operational Research, 10, 1982. pp. 51-55. [4] Favro, S., Kovačić, M., Physical Plans in Managing Sea and Coastal Area, 25th International Conference on Organizational science development: “Change management”, Portorož, p. 1049-1058, 2005. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

12 Island Sustainability [5] Državna uprava za zaštitu prirode i okoliša, Upravljanje hrvatskim obalnim područjem, Split, 1998. [6] Institut za turizam, Turizam i razvoj Hrvatske – Strategija razvoja Hrvatske u 21st, Zagreb, 2001. [7] Istarska županija, Prostorni plan i smjernice razvoja Istarske županije, Službene novine br. 2/2002. [8] Ministarstvo mora, turizma, prometa i razvitka RH, Program održivog razvitka otoka na području istarske županije, 2004. [9] PAP/RAC, Smjernice za integralno upravljanje obalnim i morskim područjima s posebnim osvrtom na Mediteranski bazen, Izvještaji i studije UNEP-ova Programa za regionalna mora No. 161, Split, 1995. [10] PAP/RAC, Smjernice za procjenu prihvatnog kapaciteta sredozemnih obalnih područja za turizam, Program prioritetnih akcija, Centar regionalnih aktivnosti, Split, 1997.

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Selection, design and dissemination of Fuerteventura’s projected tourism image (Canary Isles) A. J. Rodríguez1, P. Díaz2, D. Ruiz-Labourdette2, F. D. Pineda2, M. F. Schmitz2 & A. Santana1 1 2

La Laguna University, Spain Complutense University of Madrid, Spain

Abstract Tourism constitutes an important factor among those influencing sociocultural change in populations, particularly when these inhabit tourist destinations. Among the multiple components of the tourism system, the processes of selection, design and implementation of the ‘constructed image’ are highly valuable with regard to studying the significance and resignificance of the territory. The present study analyses these processes through images presented in brochures and websites relating to the tourism offer of the island of Fuerteventura (Canary Isles). It can currently be observed that the local administrations of this island are attempting to project Fuerteventura’s image through its re-adaptation and differentiation as a tourist destination. The process gives rise to contradictions in the selection strategies and significance of the tourism resources between the different administrations and the other actors responsible for ‘generating an image’. Keywords: brochures, projected image, symbolic transfiguration, tourism, tourist destinations, websites.

1

Introduction

Tourism clearly constitutes a leading activity in international, national and domestic economies. Consensus exists regarding the importance of the tourism image as a motor thereof. Only one other topic, the impacts of tourism, competes with this activity with regard to analysis by researchers. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line) doi:10.2495/ISLANDS100021

14 Island Sustainability Baloglu and McCleary [1] have developed numerous studies on the impact of visits, familiarity of the image, the relationship between the geographic location of the tourist and the perceived image, measurement of the image of the destination, components and factors influencing this, difference between the tourist’s image (impression) and the image projected by the destination, or variations in the image depending on the purpose of the visit, among other objects studied. Gallarza et al. [2] or Frías et al. [3] have reviewed this theme. Through the creation and dissemination of images, the tourism system fulfils its role as an agent of significance and resignificance of a determined territory, and this system therefore becomes an active agent in the reconstruction of the image of the landscape. Generation of a high percentage of tourist destinations depends more upon images than on the ‘real characteristics’ of the space visited, the tourism industry thus creating a reinvented landscape, both for investors and for tourists. On the occasion of the Fuerteventura natural resources management plan for the creation of a National Park on the island, the present paper shows a part of the processes of territorial resignificance being studied by our team. The task focuses on the projected image of Fuerteventura as a tourist destination, appraising the strategies by enterprises and administrations in the creation of brochures and websites.

2

Theoretical framework

Tourist destinations require strategies for communicating their ‘values’ as elements of tourist attraction. These values are incorporated into a projectable image and are subjected to a symbolic and aesthetic transfiguration. It is highly likely that an image can condition the decision to travel to one destination or another. Not to mention the possible effects of these actions on resident populations, the process of design and communication of an image is an extremely delicate task. Study of these circumstances has been addressed by means of static and dynamic approaches, depending on how one examines the relationships between image and tourist behaviour or whether one is dealing specifically with the character of the territory and its inhabitants, respectively. Um and Crompton [4], Gartner [5] and Gallarza et al. [2] consider image as a complex and subjective conceptual construction (Bigne et al. [6]) that combines the consumer’s emotions and reasoning with his experience and knowledge of the destination; that is, a ‘cognitive component’ deriving from mental representations and beliefs regarding the physical attributes of the destination combined with the appraisals and feelings this arouses (‘emotional component’; Baloglu and Brinberg [7]). This way of studying tourism is based upon a changing conception of image, focussing on the above mentioned attributes of the destination and on the perception of the consumer-tourist, who is considered to create from all of this a photogram charged with sensibilities, emotions and evaluations (San Martín Gutiérrez et al. [8]). This is, then, an individualised image (Hunt [9]), determined

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by the activeness-passiveness of all tourists (Mercille [10]). In practice, the dynamics generated by the consumer-tourist are used in marketing strategies. Analysis of the image can also adopt a perspective that includes the actors involved in the design, shaping and transmission of the destination’s imaginary – such as the local and resident population, institutions, politicians, entrepreneurs and investors, tour operators and retailers– who project a unique image of their area in the construction of the destination’s identity. Thus, some elements participating in the tourism system are culture, the personality and character of the territory, traditions, history, beliefs, language, etc., all of which characterise the destination as something unique (‘uniqueness’), or making it stand out above others. Indeed, in the tourism system, this image is what culturally shapes the destination and determines to a great extent the visitor’s degree of satisfaction and his memory of the visit. Furthermore, the sociocultural effects on local populations of images that are alien to themselves appear in the medium term, modifying patterns, behavioural features and values and reconstructing local identities (Franklin and Crang [11]; Rodríguez Darias [12]). The systemic approach requires global consideration of the image, and differentiation between the conception, design and implementation of an image constructed for commercial purposes, and the processes of perception an interiorisation. The former deals with the habitual marketing campaigns in areas of demand and destination –actions aimed at promoting coincidence between what has been advertised and what is available, improvement of the profiles presented for each consumer typology, etc. The latter corresponds to individual ‘creation’ and comparison. Development of tourism currently calls for outlines and models of research in the double aspect of processes subjected to feedback and interconnected ones, albeit operatively divisible with regard to analysis and implementation. These processes differentiate the ‘people´s own image’ –ways in which the local population perceives itself and its environment–, the ‘projected’ one – constructed, promoted and recreated by tour operators–, the ‘perceived’ one and the ‘remembered’ one (Santana Talavera [13]). Focused on real image and on the projected one, the above mentioned image reconfiguration processes aimed at commercialisation are usually determined by the interests of the institutions and entrepreneurs of the area and, to a certain degree, of the residents. One can usually find three strategies, limited in varying degrees, for construction of this image: i) a joint policy, participatory and collaborative, involving all or some of those involved in the design of the image (direct actors at the destination) and in the selection of attributes and conjunction of products and their physical and emotional references to the destination’s identity; ii) a more or less interested selection, created around products and activities available in the area, grouped according to thematic blocks or subterritorial areas and iii) a conglomerate of more or less compatible initiatives that tend to value attributes of the destination as resources, imagining the demand. Based upon the people´s own (‘real’) image, in the present paper we refer to two elements of the projected image of Fuerteventura: attracting the client and providing information by means of brochures and websites. By analysing these, WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

16 Island Sustainability we attempt to establish which of the aforementioned strategies is most relevant on this island, considering the possible problems involved in their implementation.

3

Method

i) We conducted 341 questionnaires in Fuerteventura airport (July to October, 2008); among other themes, they contained items on the reasons for visiting the island and on the use and importance of the technology available in the places of accommodation. The data were completed with information from ISTAC 20002006, 2008 [14]. ii) We systematically reviewed 38 websites on tourism selected according to their public Google rank. Among those mentioning ‘Fuerteventura tourism’, in April 2009 we selected those with a rank equal to or higher than 2 over a maximum rank of 10 (a total of 31 links); the seven remaining ones corresponded to web pages of the municipalities and Council of the island, very much involved in the image creating processes. iii) We randomly collected (Glasser and Strauss [15]) 146 commercial brochures relating to Fuerteventura. We compiled all those existing in November 2008 and February 2009 into different spaces selected for their representativeness as information zones and due to the amount of users. The Fuerteventura tourism fair stand (FITUR’S 2009) along with the tourism nuclei of Costa Calma and Caleta de Fuste on this island, provided a great deal of information. Data analysis involved coding of the brochures and websites by means of contents analysis files. The data were standardised with criteria of repeatability, measurability and comparativeness and were tabulated (Díaz et al. [16]; SPSS 17 software). Moreover, together with participant observation as a basic technique we also conducted (June and November, 2008) 21 detailed interviews with whom we considered to be key informing subjects (locals, residents and visitors), who subsequently helped us to understand and interpret data and results.

4

Results and discussion

The item of the questionnaire ‘how did you get to know Fuerteventura as a tourist destination?’ shows that the brochures still work (22.87% of the interviewees were thus informed), although Internet (45.16%), recommendations by family and friends and travel agencies scored far higher. The reasons of the tourists for their visit (1,029,502 visitors in 2008, ISTAC 2000-2006, 2008 [14]) highlight the most noteworthy items as ‘climate’ and ‘the beach’, ‘nature and landscape’, ‘price’ and ‘local culture’ (folklore and traditions; Table 1) falling far behind. The interviews also showed a high degree of coincidence in the importance given to sun and the natural quality (not of services) of the beaches, and we found that residents, as opposed to nationals or people from the peninsula, show greater appreciation of tranquility and landscape than the locals, rather than customs and traditions, with the exception of some folklore. Locals and residents from other islands particularly value local

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Table 1:

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Reasons expressed by the visitors in the survey for visiting the island of Fuerteventura.

Reason for the visit Climate Beaches Nature and landscape Folklore and traditions Price Business Visiting family or friends Safety Cultural offer Nightlife Shopping Other

N (341) 325 296 111 6 99 9 23 24 4 4 14 31

% 95.3 86.8 32.6 1.8 29 2.6 6.7 7 1.2 1.2 4.1 9.1

cultural elements associated with practices considered to be ‘ancestral’ and which are beginning to represent serious environmental impacts (camping by the seaside, seafood collection, fishing, etc.); but they reject the idea of regulating these activities linked to natural services. The data presented in Table 1 contrast with those from the 2000-2006 series of ISTAC 2000-2006, 2008 [14] in its section on ‘reasons for the visit’. Furthermore, a gradual increase has been noted in tourist’s interest for cultural heritage and landscapes. With regard to the websites and brochures analysed, the communication provided by Internet appears to be modifying the contact between people interested in travelling (pre-tourists) and the offer made from the destinations. Figure 1 presents the percentage of websites analysed presenting

Figure 1:

Percentage of websites analysed presenting materials and utilities, which are indicated. 1. contact; 2. links; 3. suggestions; 4. useful tips; 5. search engine; 6. climatology; 7. maps, 8. downloadable catalogues; 9. interactivity; 10. design a la carte; 11. travel log; 12. virtual graphic materials; 13. online-video/audio; 14. downloadable video/audio.

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18 Island Sustainability determined materials and utilities. The graph shows that Fuerteventura’s websites do not respond to the ‘2.0 tourism’ tendency. Aspects such as interactivity, design a la carte, online travel log and downloadable materials are as yet beyond their possibilities. The 2.0 tourism model is a novel form of interaction based upon information technologies facilitating relationships in virtual social networks and interactivity among pre-tourists, tourists and ex tourists, and among entrepreneurs, destinations, populations and other creators of contents. Circumstance can constitute a new conditioning factor of the projected image as, on one hand, it can be adapted to each consumer profile (according to characteristics and demands) and, on the other, it can force the destination as a whole (and the entrepreneurs competing therein) to renovate their techniques more rapidly that they have done to date. Molina and Agueda [17] have shown that the visitor perceives how the image informing him of the destination’s potential values or products presents a high level of heterogeneity, as well as errors in the design of brochures (promoters tend to pay more attention to the amount of brochures printed and distributed than to the quality of their design and contents). On the contrary, in the case of images projected over the web, the demand for quality is greater: what is valued here are access times, design and ease of interaction, capacity to combine contents, intervals of updates of the website, etc., as well as the software the user avails of. The general perception of this format is very favourable and users demand not only information but also downloads of the product or destination (graphic material, videos, screensavers, sound, etc.) that are unavailable in brochure format. Table 2 shows that one single support of the projected image, whether this be website or brochure, can simultaneously communicate several references, that each support offers many different multiproduct possibilities and collaborative actions among enterprises that are directly or indirectly involved in tourism, and Table 2:

Contents of the analysed set of brochures and websites aimed at tourism on the island of Fuerteventura (N is the number of elements analysed. It does not represent the sum of values in each column, as one same brochure or website can simultaneously present several contents; moreover, a brochure and a website can both refer to the same content). References

Administration Accommodation Restaurants Complementary activities Vehicle rental Other types of businesses Real estate

Brochures N (146) % 27 18.49 29 19.86 31 21.23 23 15.75 3 2.05 30 20.55 3 2.05

Websites N (38) % 9 23.68 26 68.42 12 31.58 27 71.05 15 39.47 2 5.26 5 13.16

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Table 3:

19

Classification of data provided by brochures and websites on Fuerteventura according to the type of tourism classification based upon the image projected by the Administration and other promoters (N represents in an undifferentiated manner the total of websites or brochures falling in the categories indicated according to their promoter; see Table 2). Type

Sun and sand Cultural Nature Sports Health Rural Gastronomy Undifferentiated T. S.

Administration N (32) % 3 9.38 21 65.63 5 15.63 4 12.50 1 3.13 2 6.25 2 6.25 1 3.13

Others N (152) 86 20 12 21 12 8 5 33

% 56.58 13.16 7.89 13.82 7.89 5.26 3.29 21.71

that those working in accommodation, the restaurant business or complementary activities constitute recurring and similar references in both supports (brochures: 56.84%; websites: 67.7%). There is a more noteworthy difference in the reference to the Administration in both formats (23.68% on the web and 18.49% in brochures) and a high percentage of brochures (20.55%) related to other types of tourism businesses that hardly appear on the Internet (5.26%). Without a basic established typology apparently guided by the interests of the promoters, the brochures and websites studied can be framed within a wide range of tourism macro-products (Table 3): sun and sand tourism (climatic), cultural, nature, sports, health, rural, gastronomy and a broad range of tourism services, The data obtained show a clear difference between the brochures and websites produced by the administrations and the other entities generating image. It seems that the administrations show a different kind of social compromise, on promoting cultural tourism, whereas the remaining actors exhibit a more pragmatic consumerism, dealing with sun and sand tourism (sports tourism has been considered separately from cultural tourism). Also standing out is the item ‘undifferentiated tourism services’, which is mostly associated with what is termed ‘other types of tourism business’. Many brochures referring to this type of business fall within this category. This appears to indicate the importance of small and large business initiatives arising in relation to destinations and which cover determined basic needs of visitors (health clinics, shopping centres, gymnasiums, laundries, etc.), filling the gaps sometimes left by the administrations in the planning and management of destinations. With regard to the objective market, there is clearly little differentiation between the brochures and websites generated by the administrations and by the other promoters. No notable percentage refers to one specific segment (Table 4).

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20 Island Sustainability Table 4:

Classification of data provided by brochures and websites on Fuerteventura according to the segment of potential users to whom the image is directed by the Administration and other promoters (N represents in an undifferentiated manner the total of websites or brochures falling in the categories indicated according to their promoter; see the previous tables). Administration N* (32) %

Families Young people The elderly Resident families Elderly residents Undifferentiated

5 5 0 0 0 22

15.63 15.63 0.00 0.00 0.00 68.75

Others N (152) 33 31 5 4 1 81

% 21.71 20.39 3.29 2.63 0.66 53.29

The brochures relating to ‘other types of businesses’ are the ones that mostly present this characteristic (68.75% of the materials produced by this type of promoters does not refer to a specific segment). Establishing a generic model of the public, real or symbolic, appears to seen as very difficult in the design of these materials, as it is considered that there will be different perception of the messages issued according to the interests and capacities of each group. Furthermore, this would define the type of iconography, the text contained in the messages referring to the image and their correlation with the slogan chosen. A total of 47.26% of the brochures and 81.58% of the website refer specifically in their contents (texts or photographs and illustrations) to elements of heritage, reaching 100% in the specific case of the images the administrations attempt to project. The type of heritage referred to by the different promoters are notoriously different (Table 5). Local administrations present the image of this island as a space defined by its culture –handicrafts, museums, rural heritage such as mills, terraces (gavias), etc.–, its natural spaces presenting a wild appearance and its beaches, whereas the others pay attention mainly to the latter, which are adapted for tourism, and the attractive landscape of the natural spaces. From the results commented upon, we can deduce three converging strategies in one destination image: i) joint and participatory policy. ii) economically interested selection and iii) a conglomerate of initiatives. Tourism policies based upon sustainability and which attempt to meet the needs of present-day tourists without compromising the future, are increasingly and insistently recommending the first of these options. This one is more likely to provide the destination area with tools for responding to changes on the market without seriously altering the social and economic structures. Furthermore, it effectively prevents day-do-day goods and spaces from being changed into representation products, and attempts to adjust the attraction of an area’s attributes and resources (decision-making effect) while avoiding cultural losses (Santana Talavera [13]). We found no valid references of this strategy in Fuerteventura in the creation of the image. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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Table 5:

21

Elements of Fuerteventura’s heritage employed by the Administration and other promoters to project the island’s tourism image (N represents in an undifferentiated manner the total of brochures or websites falling in the categories indicated according to the promoter (see previous tables). Elements

Mills, agric. traditional Handicrafts Gastronomy Festivities Livestock Fishing Natural spaces Unique structures Tourist beaches Sculptures Archaeological localities None

Administration N (32) % 11 9 7 3 4 1 19 7 10 6 3 0

34.38 28.13 21.88 9.38 12.50 3.13 59.38 21.88 31.25 18.75 9.38 0.00

Rest N (152)

%

12 4 12 2 7 5 29 13 42 0 0 7

7.89 2.63 7.89 1.32 4.61 3.29 19.08 8.55 27.63 0.00 0.00 4.61

In the interviews conducted, local officials do comment on the need for the local population to participate in these and other aspects, but this is not backed by the attitude of these populations. This may contribute to giving rise to a nonneutral selection of products related with the natural environment or culture (beaches, landscapes in unique arid areas on the island, museums, mills, etc.). This involves extracting them from their sociocultural context and presenting them as ‘authentic’, in an anachronic manner (very few mills are still used), attempting to instil the idea of an unforgettable and unique experience (Markwell [18]) for the consumer while promoting its repeatable and standardized use for all tourists. The second strategy for constructing image directly involves the business world. This is more evident in the case analysed. It is normally determined by specialists and applied to destinations in an intermediate phase of its life cycle (Agarwal [19]; Baum [20]; Butler [21]). The island of Fuerteventura is in this situation at present. It is not a case of important innovations, but rather alterations and additions to previous campaigns. In general terms, an attempt is made to maintain competitive advantages while modifying the attributes of resources and products, combining activities and introducing specific services and structures. It is a continuist attitude, that attempts to avoid risks and drastic changes in the destination’s image and which is very coherent with the main motivation of the current tourists (Table 1, Figures 2 and 3). It corresponds to the expectations of potential visitors because determined essential desires and fantasies in their motivations tend to be symbolized (Markwich [22]). Schouten [23] states that a good interpretation is based on connections made with ideas WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

22 Island Sustainability and experiences that are already familiar, and on visitors’ increased curiosity. This form of diversification of the constructed image can easily be redirected towards participatory strategies when applied to small destinations or territorially coherent tourist areas, but it meets with serious operative problems and conflicts of interests when large, heterogeneous consolidated areas are involved. The third strategy lies in the adaptation of the projected image to the ‘territorial realities’ according to their target groups (residents and tourists), offering an aesthetic ‘acquisition’ and an emotional experience in an extremely short space of time. This, combined or not with participation, occurs with the attempt to strategically redirect the island as a destination by the island’s Administration (Cabildo) and some town councils. This type of constructed image allows the entry of multiple individualized products with or without cover of the brand or identity of the destination and, furthermore, responds to national and international compromises by the Administration to preserve and disseminate nature and cultural heritage. This strategy, however, might suffer from the so-called ‘indifference factor’ or disinterest that a potential client could show in relation to the ‘quality’ attributed to nature and culture as opposed to determined products considered to be basic to the offer. Thus, although planners at the destination trust in their own series of amenities, the potential of these as a resource and their capacity to differentiate the destination, the client might clearly be pre-directed towards consumption of other products or resources and not appreciate any of this at all. The image of Fuerteventura has been stereotyped through insistence on climate and beaches, supported both by the promotional campaigns of the 90s and the start of the new century, and by indirect marketing (non-tourist documentaries, sports news, intentional weather reports, word of mouth among tourists, etc.) Consequently, the directionality of the offer by the administrations and the interest by some conservationists in the sought-after cultural tourism (Pineda et al. [24]), based on efforts to give priority to the ethnographic-ethnic values present (‘living culture’), relevant monumental or archaeological natural spaces, may prove to be unfruitful.

5

Conclusion

The island of Fuerteventura's tourism image is seen to be made up of a set of initiatives that are more or less compatible and which tend to values the destination's attributes as resources, imagining the demand for them. The decision by Fuerteventura's local administrations to opt for an image adapted to cultural and nature tourism stereotypes can be seen as a strategy aimed at restructuring and differentiating the destination. This i) obviates current demand as this is considered to be guaranteed or even undesirable. ii) it is aimed at hypothesised market segments and iii) it has not been preceded by collaborative processes with other agents entrusted with promoting image, who focus their projection on a classical demand for the destination. In practice, the above mentioned circumstances can constitute serious confusion. At present on the international tourism market, a destination WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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accommodating tourists motivated mainly by climate, beaches and price, as in Fuerteventura, can run into problems relating to competition. Other emerging destinations are in better conditions to provide excellent beaches and a good climate at competitive prices. Lin order to address this reality, there is a need to renovate the image, working to differentiate it, focusing on specific segments of demand. A joint strategy and a wide and range of combined resources-products would compensate for the indifference of some visitors. Tourists would be attracted towards the destination by any of these resources-products and might end up consuming the same goods and services, although they present differences in their motivation and understanding of meanings. This diversification, presenting the heritage-culture-territory promoted as authentic and distinctive and facilitating rediscovery of the imagination, should make possible the mediumterm differentiation of the destination on the tourism market. This process involves maintaining the projected image of Fuerteventura by means of a specific stereotype and brand. The possibilities provided by Internet 2.0 –until recently merely an added value– can constitute a principal tool and the destination can be placed within this space. Production of contents presenting real references, a well-informed and lucid presentation of the environmental and cultural values of the island, as well as actual tourism services, can easily be provided to the pre-tourists (before the trip) and the tourists (at the destination).

References [1] Baloglu, S. & McCleary, K.W., A model of destination image formation. Annals of Tourism Research, 26(4), pp. 868-897, 1999. [2] Gallarza, M.G., Gil Saura, I. & Calderón García, H., Destination image. Towards a conceptual framework. Annals of Tourism Research, 29(1), pp. 56-78, 2002. [3] Frías, D.M., Rodríguez, M.A. & Castañera, J. A., Internet vs. travel agencies on pre-visit destination image formation: An information processing view. Tourism Management, 2007. In press. [4] Um, S. & Crompton, J.L., Attitude determinants in tourism destination choice. Annals of Tourism Research, 17, pp. 432-448, 1990. [5] Gartner, W.C., Image Formation Process, Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 2(2-3), pp. 191-215, 1993. [6] Bigne, J.E., Sanchez, M.I. & Sanchez, J., Tourism Images: Evaluation Variables and After Parchase Behaviour: Inter-Relationship, Tourism Management, 22, pp. 607-616, 2001. [7] Baloglu, S. & Brinberg, D., Affective Images of Tourism Destinations, Journal of Travel Research, 35(4), pp. 11-15, 1997. [8] San Martín Gutiérrez, H., Rodríguez del Bosque, I. & Vázquez Casilles, R, Análisis de la imagen en turismo mediante técnicas estructuradas y no estructuradas: implicaciones competitivas para destinos turísticos, Revista Asturiana de Economía, RAE, 35, pp.69-91, 2006.

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24 Island Sustainability [9] Hunt, J.D., Images as Factor in Tourism Development, Journal of Travel Research, 13(3), pp. 1-7, 1975. [10] Mercille, J., Media Effects on Image: The Case of Tibet, Annals of Tourism Research, 32(4), pp. 1039-1055, 2005. [11] Franklin, A. & Crang, M., The trouble with tourism and travel theory?, Tourist Studies, 1(1), pp. 5-22, 2001. [12] Rodríguez Darias, A.J. Turismo en espacios naturales protegidos: imagen e impactos. El caso de Masca (Tenerife. Islas Canarias). In: Espina Barrio. A. (ed). Turismo. cultura y desarrollo, Ediciones de la Diputación de Salamanaca: Salamanca, España, pp. 235-247, 2008. [13] Santana Talavera, A. Antropología do turismo. Analogías, encontros e relaçoes, Aleph: Sao Paulo, 2009. [14] ISTAC, Encuesta de Alojamiento Turístico en Establecimientos Hoteleros y Apartamentos y Encuesta de Gasto Turístico, Instituto Canario de Estadística (ISTAC): Tenerife, Spain, 2000-2006, 2008. [15] Glasser, B.G. & Strauss, A.L. The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for qualitative research, Aldine: New York, 1967. [16] Díaz, P., Rodríguez Darias, A.J & Santana Talavera, A., El análisis de la imagen proyectada: una propuesta para normalizar folletos y web turísticos, Pasos. Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural, 2009. In press. [17] Molina, A. & Agueda, E., Tourism brouchures. Usefulness and image, Annals of Tourism Research en español, 8(2), PP. 315-338, 2006. [18] Markwell, K., An intimate rendezvous with nature? Mediating the touristnature experience at three tourist sites in Borneo, Tourist Studies, 1(1), pp. 39-58, 2001. [19] Agarwal, S., Restructuring seaside tourism. The Resort Lifecycle, Annals of Tourism Research, 29(1), pp. 25-55, 2002. [20] Baum, T., Revisiting the Tourism Area Life Cycle Model - Is there an offramp?, In: Butler. R.W. (ed). The tourism area life cycle: conceptual and theoretical issues, Channel View Publications: Clevedon, UK, pp. 219-230, 2005. [21] Butler, R.W., The concept of a tourism area cycle of evolution: implications for management resources, Canadian Geographer, 24(1)pp, 5-12, 1980. [22] Markwich, M., Postales de Malta. Imagen, consumo, contexto. Annals of Tourism Research, 3(1), pp. 22-46, 2001. [23] Schouten, F.F.J., Heritage as historical reality. In: Herbert. David T. (ed). Heritage. tourism and society. Tourism Leisure and Recreation, Mansell Publishing: London, pp. 21-31, 1995. [24] Pineda, F.D., Hernández, S. & De Nicolás, J.P., El reto de la conservación en Fuerteventura, Quercus, 232, pp. 80-81, 2005.

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How far does tourism stress coral reef environment in island states: case studies of Indian Ocean and Caribbean islands V. Duvat Department of Geography, Institute of Littoral and Environment, La Rochelle University, France

Abstract This contribution will expose and discuss the environmental impacts of tourism on the coral reef environment through the analysis of case studies of Indian Ocean and Caribbean Island Developing States. The objective is to demonstrate that the situation of islands and archipelagos is complex and diverse as numerous factors influence both the nature and extent of tourism environmental impacts and as tourism development produces contradictory impacts on the coastal environment. As a consequence, diagnosis must be moderate and gross generalization avoided. The first part of this paper will expose the major physical constraints that such countries have to face in order to achieve economic growth, as the reduction of these constraints largely determines the adverse environmental impacts of coastal development. Secondly, we will present the most common negative impacts of tourism-related projects and tourism activities on the coral reef environment. Then, we will demonstrate that tourism development has often played a major role in the setting up of coastal planning and environment preservation in various ways. Finally, we will sum up the main drivers of tourism environmental impacts. Keywords: tourism environmental impacts, coral reef environment, Small Island Developing States, environmental degradation.

1

Introduction

The sustainability of tourist island states both depends, on the one hand, on their physical and human development capacities, and on the other hand, on the ability of human societies to maintain the viability of development projects through a WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line) doi:10.2495/ISLANDS100031

26 Island Sustainability subtle equilibrium between economic development and environment preservation. In Small Island Developing States (SIDS) of the intertropical zone, the negative impacts of tourism on the coral reef environment are generally significant, due to low national capacities and high ecosystem vulnerability. The question of tourism environmental impacts is important for comprehending the sustainability of such countries because tourism, which is the main economic sector, highly depends on environmental assets that are threatened by the impacts of coastal development projects and by those of climate change, like coral bleaching and beach erosion. Among all ecosystems, the coral reef environment is at the same time the most attractive and the most vulnerable to all kinds of pressures. As it also provides food to human communities, it plays a central role in SIDS sustainability and in island viability. In this paper, we will firstly present the specific constraints that island states have to face for achieving economic development as we argue that the environmental impacts of tourism are largely determined by island states’ capacities. The second part of this contribution will expose and discuss the common adverse environmental impacts of tourism development. The objectives will be to draw up a review of these impacts and to analyse whether they are specifically due to tourism development or not. Then, we will demonstrate that tourism development and tourism-related projects can support environmental preservation in various ways. Thus, regarding tourism environmental impacts, diagnosis must be moderate as positive effects of tourism development can counterbalance its negative impacts, and even, in certain circumstances, support the implementation of sustainable development policies. As a conclusion, we will emphasize the drivers of tourism environmental impacts in SIDS.

2

Development constraints in Small Island Developing States

SIDS have to face diverse physical and human constraints which constitute limiting factors for economic growth and produce specific difficulties for controlling the impacts of both coastal engineering works and tourism-related projects. As island states present a high diversity of situations, the level of constraints varies a lot. Here, we will expose the major constraints and their variations from one island type to another. 2.1 Physical constraints The physical constraints that SIDS have to address have already been listed in previous works 1–4. They are mainly due to the remoteness of such territories, to limited flat land or island area, to the scarcity of terrestrial resources and to the dissemination of islands in the case of archipelagos. 2.1.1 Remoteness In remote oceanic areas, islands have become more accessible since runways and international airports were built, which occurred either during World War II when foreign countries exploited their strategic location as for Saint-Marteen and Saint-Thomas in the Lesser Antilles, or at the time of their political WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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independence for those that were colonies of northern countries like Mauritius, Maldives and Seychelles. Moreover, most island states of the intertropical zone are distant from the most developed areas of the world. Their peripheral location limits economic opportunities. On the contrary, island states that are under the influence of the most developed countries do benefit both financial and commercial opportunities that support their economic growth. This situation is that of many Caribbean islands, favoured by their location between America and Western Europe. 2.1.2 Territorial fragmentation of archipelagos Archipelagos are generally composed of scattered islands separated by hundreds of kilometres of ocean surface. As a consequence, they have to face, on the one hand, the “outer” distance separating them from neighbouring countries, and on the other hand, the “inner” distance between islands. For example, the 25 Maldivian atolls and patch reefs stretch out on 820 km from North to South and 130 km from East to West. This physical distance is reinforced by the fact that strong currents circulate in the deep channels separating reef structures. 2.1.3 Limited land area The smallest countries (covering less than 300 square kilometres) are all the most constrained by limited land area as it is scattered between many islands. In Maldives (1169 islands), the average island size is only 0,2 square kilometres. So small surface areas question the viability of development projects. Moreover, many islands can hardly be reached by sea as they have formed in the inner part of extended reef flats. As a consequence, each island is difficult to reach and connections between islands are uneasy. In addition, some islands are not suitable for human settlement because of their morphological instability due to sediment movement and severe impacts of storms. Mountainous islands, such as those of Seychelles, British and US Virgin Islands, have limited flat land areas, which is a serious limit to infrastructure building and economic development. In most cases, the flat land area is scattered between numerous small coastal plains, which reduces even more development opportunities. 2.1.4 Limited resources The diversity and amount of natural resources is proportional with the land area and higher in mountainous islands than in coral ones. Whereas marine resources are quite abundant in small island states, terrestrial resources are very limited, in particular in low-lying islands where fresh water, wood for construction and cooking, and building material are scarce. Underground aquifers are small and exposed to salinity and pollution. Building material is limited to coral and sand that can only be exploited where they are easily accessible to human communities. 2.2 Limited human capacities Various human factors limit the capacities of SIDS and threaten their sustainability. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

28 Island Sustainability 2.2.1 Weakness of legislation As a result of various colonial heritages and of economic backwardness, many island states still have a limited and inconsistent legislative framework regarding environmental protection. Moreover, the enforcement of the law is often limited by the lack of human capacities. In addition, as the national priority is given to economic growth, which is generally based upon foreign investments, international tourism companies are very powerful, which limits national initiatives aiming at strengthening environment protection and enforcing law and regulations. For example, setback distances are generally much lower than in developed countries (5 metres in Maldives, 15 m in Seychelles and Mauritius until their recent increase) and environmental impact assessment procedures are both recent and still badly implemented. In some cases, corruption also reduces the enforcement of the law 5. 2.2.2 Issues concerning land property The question of land property is important as it determines the applicability and therefore the level of enforcement of the law. Over the past decades, whereas public actors of developed countries have strengthened their control on coastal development through land acquisition (see actions of Conservatoire du Littoral in France and of National Trust in United Kingdom), coastal land is still widely controlled by private actors in SIDS. Long-term leases and private property do limit the enforcement of law and regulations as well as the implementation of environmental policies. In Mauritius, for instance, speculation is important to a point that the Government can hardly determine who are the tenants of coastal leases. 2.2.3 Limited scientific and technical capacities Scientific capacities and more globally national skills in environment management are generally limited by the absence of universities and training centres. Where universities exist, like in Mauritius and US Virgin Islands, they were recently created and they still don’t offer training in all fields. On another hand, technical capacities of many SIDS are limited as a result of reduced financial means and remoteness that limits the benefits of regional cooperation. As a consequence, external dependence is high in financial, technical and scientific terms. So, progress is generally chaotic.

3

Adverse impacts of tourism development on the coral reef environment

The main objective of this section is to distinguish the impacts that are directly due to the tourism sector from those that are more globally due to the development process and to the reduction of physical constraints. 3.1 Impacts of reclamation works In many mountainous islands, shallow reef flats were reclaimed for increasing flat land area 6, 7. Thus, over the past four decades, on the north-eastern coast WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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of Mahe (Seychelles), more than 700 hectares of fringing reefs were reclaimed for the needs of infrastructure development (international airport of Pointe Larue, four-lane road, rubbish dump), industry and housing 8. In some places, massive reclamation works destroyed swamps and lagoons, like at Saint-Martin in the Lesser Antilles where the international airports of Juliana and Grand Case were built on ponds 9. Such works are very destructive for coral reefs both in dredged and reclaimed areas that are directly affected by mechanical destruction and in peripheral areas that are degraded by high turbidity and fine particles deposition. As a result, coral mortality affects large areas. In low-lying islands, dredging and reclamation works are operated so as to increase island size and accessibility 4, 10. Dredging of reef flats is generally operated on the leeward side of islands so as to create sheltered harbours. Dredging material is also used for nourishing artificial sand beaches. In addition, navigation channels are dug into reef flats. These works modify current patterns and, as a consequence, they disrupt sediment transport and have an influence on shoreline evolution. Coastal erosion issues are often due to or aggravated by such morphological changes and hydrological disturbances. Massive reclamation works are necessary for extending flat areas and they are neither specifically due to tourism development, nor limited to tourist areas. Indeed, many islands where equipped with runways during WWII or the cold war, and airports were also built for national needs in islands states that are not economically oriented towards tourism. In Maldives, reef reclamation was operated both in the inhabited islands, as a result of population growth, and in the resort islands. It can be estimated that about 40% of the 87 island resorts were extended by reef reclamation 4. In both cases, such works have reduced wave refraction and thus aggravated both marine submersion and coastal erosion. In the Caribbean, the development of cruise ship and boating tourism has led to the construction of harbours and marinas in many bays, such as in the Virgin Islands. Such dredging works have affected marine fauna and current patterns, and fragile ecosystems such as mangrove swamps and coral reefs were partly destroyed. But on the whole, harbour construction is mainly due to the fact that islands have to import most goods because of their limited resources and reduced production capacity. Tourism has generally led to the increase of imports as a result of high tourist consumption, agriculture recession, increase of life standards and generalization of the northern hemisphere’s consumption model 11. 3.2 Impacts of hotel construction The main impacts of tourism development on coastal ecosystems are due to the construction of tourism facilities. The coastal topography has been significantly modified where hotels and tourist residences were built. The increase of building material needs resulting from population growth, upgrading of local habitat and tourism development, often led to sand and/or coral mining. Some dunes and beaches have been severely affected by sand extraction, as in Mauritius and Seychelles 8, 12. But WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

30 Island Sustainability such practices are not limited to tourist islands. In Comoros, many beaches have disappeared as a result of sand extraction for local habitat construction. Thus, tourism development has to be considered not as a cause, but as an aggravating factor of sand and coral mining. In the Maldives, it was estimated in the 1980’s that about one third of extraction was due to tourism development 13. Sand and coral mining operated in coastal dunes and shallow waters modify coastal topography and bathymetry. Sand dune extraction has lowered coastal areas and therefore aggravated the risk of marine submersion. In foreshore areas, coral extraction has augmented the depth of coastal waters and reduced wave refraction, which has aggravated both marine submersion and erosion risks. As setback distances are low, coastal dunes and berms have often been planned off for hotel construction and ponds filled in. Consequently, inundation risks were aggravated. In some places, reef flats were dredged in front of hotels for creating bathing areas, such as at Bel Ombre on the southern coast of Mauritius. Because they have affected current patterns, sediment transport and deposition, and thus aggravated beach erosion and coastal plain submersion, the modifications of topography and bathymetry have often led to coastal protection works. Engineering structures such as seawalls, groins, concrete revetments, breakwaters and ripraps were built for protecting both land and buildings. Massive coastal defences have often destabilized sediment cells, accelerated beach loss and spoilt the landscape. Some hotels were built on eroding and highenergy coasts, which were rapidly affected by shoreline receding after their construction. In Maldives, massive environmental degradation has led to the closing of some resort islands that were no longer attractive for tourists, which shows that non-sustainable development projects can finally be counterproductive. 3.3 Aggravation of pollution Pollution is one of the main environmental problems of developing island states. As tourism has led to a significant increase of wastewater and waste production, it contributes significantly to an aggravation of the previous situation. The frequent accumulation of waste in uncontrolled rubbish dumps aggravates the pollution and degradation of ponds and coastal waters. Cruise ship tourism and boating also contribute to ocean and coastal pollution because wastewater and waste are generally unloaded in the open sea, as in the US Virgin Islands 14. In some countries like Barbados, beach cleaning has become an important issue as waves bring waste back on coasts 15. Desalination plants are often necessary for providing hotels with fresh water. Such equipments that often use fuel oil are an additional source of pollution. 3.4 Impacts of tourism activities Various activities have had adverse impacts on coral reef environment. Boat anchoring has devastated large surfaces of corals on the outer slopes of fringing reefs and on patch reefs. Diving has also led to the breaking of fragile corals WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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where divers are numerous, unskilled and unaware of the ecosystem vulnerability, as in various Caribbean islands as emphasized by marine biologists in the 1980’s 16, 17. At Vihamanaafushi Island in Maldives, coral destruction due to diving represents 7% of the total reef value 18. The collection of living marine organisms such as shells and corals by tourists has led to a significant rarefaction of some species and to the diminution of biodiversity in tourist areas. Moreover, the growing demand of tourists from the northern hemisphere for turtle shells and aquarium fish has considerably aggravated the state of reefs in the most accessible areas. For instance, in Maldives fish collection started in 1979 and rapidly developed until the 1990’s. Although it has decreased with the adoption of conservation measures, it still affects 120 species and 175 800 fish per year 19.

4

Positive effects of tourism development on the coral reef environment

Tourism development has also had positive effects on environmental conservation and even more globally on national development policies through various ways. 4.1 Land use planning and creation of nature reserves In SIDS, tourism development has played a major role in the setting up of national planning and conservation policies 5. Since their political independence, most small island states have elaborated development plans defining guidelines for achieving economic growth and social progress. In most cases, land use plans were set up in a second period as a result of tourism take off in a renewed context of competition for coastal land. In parallel, the elaboration of tourism master plans and site development schemes has completed this operation. Planning has significantly improved coastal management and ecosystems protection. On another hand, tourism development has favoured the creation of nature reserves that have promoted the environmental assets of island states on the international market, and thus supported the establishment of current conservation policies. In Seychelles, the conservation policy of the Government has played a major role in the elaboration and consolidation of the country’s environment-friendly image 20. The national ordinance on national parks was adopted in 1969 as the reef flat of Pointe Larue was reclaimed for the construction of the international airport, which opened in 1971, and Sainte-Anne national park was created in 1973 in front of this reclaimed area. In the 1980’s, the designation of the Vallée de Mai in Praslin (1981) and atoll of Aldabra (1982) as World Heritage Areas (UNESCO) has reinforced the nature image of the country. Nature reserves and biodiversity are major elements of tourism promotion policies in island states of the intertropical zone. The increase of human pressure on coastal environments has often led to the carrying out of biodiversity inventories and vulnerability assessments. Tourism WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

32 Island Sustainability has played a significant role in the launching of such studies both because its rapid development has had adverse impacts on coral reefs and beaches, and because natural assets play a major role in the attractiveness of such tourism destinations. 4.2 Nature-based tourism Some tourism projects are based upon the promotion of biodiversity, as those that are developed on most of peripheral islets in Seychelles and Mauritius. Whereas some islets offer accommodation facilities, others are only open to visitors coming within the framework of guided tours organized by tour operators or conservation NGOs. The main points of interest of these islets are fauna (seabirds at Aride, Cousin and North islands, Seychelles; tortoises at Curieuse island, Seychelles), flora (Aigrettes islands, Mauritius) as well as cultural heritage (old settlements, fortresses, lighthouses...). Fees paid by visitors often support scientific research programmes contributing to environmental preservation. Some sand-cays are also destined for high standard ecotourism based upon marine biodiversity. Here, the main attractions are seabirds, turtles and coral reefs. As an example, the private coral island of Bird (Seychelles) was pioneer in ecotourism development in the early 1970’s. Sooty terns (Sterna fuscata) and turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata and Chelonia mydas) are its main attractions. The restoration of the sooty terns habitat has supported the reconstitution of the bird colony which increased from 67 000 couples in 1967 to more than 700 000 couples in 2004. Here, ecological tours and turtle monitoring programmes play a major role in the development of environmental awareness. The sustainability of Bird island tourism is based on a wise balance between economic goals (limited bed capacity), environmental conservation and promotion of socio-cultural values 21. 4.3 Ecological islands Resort islands offering environment-friendly facilities (regarding energy production, wastewater and solid waste treatment, in particular) and conducting ecosystem restoration projects with the support of scientific expertise belong to the category of “ecological” or “green” islands, such as Ihuru in North Male atoll in Maldives 4. Such islands play a major role in the experimentation of environment-friendly techniques for solving environmental issues. At Ihuru, an innovative restoration project aims at strengthening the resilience of corals that were severely degraded by the increase of ocean surface temperature during the ENSO event 1997-1998. Moreover, diving is strictly supervised and it contributes to environmental preservation through education and training programmes designed for tourists. Over the past years, Ihuru obtained several awards as a result of its ecological performances. The high level of fragmentation of archipelagos is favourable to the carrying out of innovative conservation projects and to field experimentations as resort managers have an important room to manoeuvre in island management.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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4.4 Role of hotel beaches for progress in beach erosion management Due to limited financial, technical and scientific capacities, islands states often have significant difficulties for identifying and implementing sustainable practices for controlling beach erosion. As a consequence, public policies are largely based on hard engineering structures (breakwaters, groins, ripraps, seawalls, gabion baskets...) installed for fixing the coastline and protecting buildings and infrastructures. As exposed in previous works dealing with the same island states 10, 22, 23, these structures have spoiled the scenery, aggravated environmental degradation and accelerated beach loss. In such a context, tourism companies may play a major role in the introduction and experimentation of soft techniques. The high economic value of hotel beaches and the high financial capacity of tourism companies support the development of consultancy firms and of innovative environment-friendly experimentations. As a consequence, new techniques are, set up locally, or imported from abroad, experimented on hotel beaches and then replicated on other eroded beaches if they give good results. Where environment impact assessment procedures are obligatory for any project developed in the coastal zone (hotel construction, defence works, building of jetties...) and rigorously conducted by consultants, both knowledge and technical skills make significant progress. As few scientific studies are available in most SIDS, the studies that are carried out by consultants provide basic and valuable data in various fields (marine hydrology, topography, bathymetry...), as in Mauritius. These data present a main interest for all institutions and stakeholders as they are produced at the scale of sediment cells. Thus, site studies made by consultancy firms and experimentations implemented on hotel beaches strengthen the capacities of institutions and support the development of wise practices contributing to progress in beach management.

5

Conclusion

The environmental impacts of tourism development projects are highly variable both at national and local scales due to the high level of physical fragmentation of archipelagos, to the diversity of stakeholders who are involved in ecosystem management in a context of backwardness of law passing and enforcement. The level of physical constraints is a major driver of tourism impacts on coral reef environment as they make massive coastal works necessary for the development of tourism projects and for protecting buildings and infrastructures from wave destruction. The principal constraints are limited flat land area and accessibility and high exposure to natural hazards. As physical constraints are exacerbated in low-lying islands, they are much more vulnerable to environmental degradation than mountainous islands. The environmental impacts of coastal tourism are also variable according to the level of economic development as it determines the financial, technical and scientific capacities of SIDS. Local expertise and technical skills strengthening and coastal planning and legislation setting up have allowed recent progress in environment management. Foreign aid and regional cooperation have often WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

34 Island Sustainability played a positive role in the strengthening of island states capacities by providing financial support, external expertise and training programmes. Tourism revenues have also financially supported the strengthening of island states capacities. The setting up and increase of the setback distance (from 15 to 35 metres in Seychelles and from 15 to 30 metres in Mauritius) and the adoption and enforcement of environmental impact assessment procedures have played a major role in reducing the adverse environmental impacts of tourism both on coral reefs and sandy beaches. The strengthening of the legislative framework has also played a major role in pollution and mining control. Due to their small size, vulnerable coral reefs and sandy beaches, and rapid coastal changes related to the high influence of extreme events such as storms, low-lying islands and coastal plains of mountainous islands have limited environmental carrying capacities. The construction of massive hotels often leads to serious environmental degradation and to the destabilisation of ecosystems as the buffer zones that are necessary for their protection and resilience are not included in hotel plans. The density and dimensions of buildings are important parameters for preserving the dynamic and equilibrium of ecosystems. Thus, big hotels with high bed capacities and numerous facilities are very destructive. Small tourism establishments with limited bed capacities are much more adapted to ecosystems vulnerability than big resorts. Both the setback distance, conception of buildings, facilities provided to visitors play a major role in the degradation of coral reef environment. Strategies of tourism operators are another main driver of tourism environmental impacts. They are largely determined by internal factors (legislative framework and regulations) as well as external factors such as financial opportunities and evolutions of the international market. The nationality of investors is also important as local actors develop long-term investment strategies whereas international groups are more subject to capital relocation. Generally, long-term strategies are most sustainable than short-term investments, and as local groups are more aware of physical constraints, they are more qualified than international companies to integrate them into their development strategies.

Acknowledgements I am grateful to the Indian Ocean Commission, Ministry of Environment and Quality of Life of Mauritius, and Divisions of Environment of Seychelles for financial and technical support.

References [1] Huetz de Lemps, A., Le monde des atolls et des îles basses. Nature et Hommes dans les îles tropicales: réflexions et exemples, CEGETSEPANRIT, Îles et Archipels, 3, pp. 93-106, 1984. [2] Liew, J., Sustainable development and environment management of atolls, UNDP, New York, 1986. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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[3] Doumenge, F., Quelques contraintes du milieu insulaire. Îles tropicales: insularité, insularisme. CRET-CEGET, Îles et Archipels, 8, pp. 67-86, 1987. [4] Cazes-Duvat, V., Le poids des contraintes physiques dans le développement des atolls: l’exemple de l’archipel des Maldives. Les Cahiers d’Outre-Mer, 213, pp. 3-25, 2001. [5] Duvat, V., Mondialisation touristique et environnement dans les petites îles tropicales. Les Cahiers d’Outre-Mer, 236, pp. 513-539, 2006. [6] Salvat, B., Dredging in coral reefs. In: Salvat, B., Ed. – Human impacts on coral reefs: facts and recommendations, Antenne EPHE, Polynésie Française, Papeete, pp. 165-184, 1987. [7] Solomon S.M. & Forbes, D.L., Coastal hazards and associated management issues on South Pacific islands. Ocean and Coastal Management, 11, pp. 231-248, 1999. [8] Cazes-Duvat, V., Les littoraux des Îles Seychelles, L’Harmattan: Paris, 1999. [9] Cazes-Duvat, V., Le système du risque dans l’île de Saint-Martin (Petites Antilles). Développement Durable et Territoire, Dossier 11, Catastrophes et territoires, 2008, mis en ligne le 6 November 2008 URL: http://developpementdurable.revues.org/sommaire6753.html [10] Duvat, V., Les littoraux coralliens des petites îles de l’ouest de l’océan Indien. Aménagement et gestion, 2ème Partie, Oceanis, 31 (3-4), Institut Océanographique: Paris, 2007. [11] Giacottino, J.-Cl., Problématiques et perspectives du développement des petits pays insulaires tropicaux. Îles tropicales: insularité, insularisme. CRET-CEGET, Îles et Archipels, 8, pp. 167-191, 1987. [12] Cazes-Duvat, V. & Paskoff, R., Les littoraux des Mascareignes entre nature et aménagement, L’Harmattan: Paris, 2004. [13] Brown, B.E. & Dunne R.B., The impacts of coral mining on coral reefs in the Maldives. An assessment and recommendations. Technical report, 1986. [14] Pesme, J.-O., Tourisme et développement durable à Saint-Thomas (Îles Vierges Américaines). Îles et Archipels, 24, CRET: Talence, 1995. [15] Government of Barbados, National Strategic Plan of Barbados, 2005. [16] Marion, J.L. & Rogers, C.S., The applicability of terrestrial visitor impact management strategies to the protection of coral reefs. Ocean and Coastal Management, 22, pp. 153-163, 1994. [17] Rogers, C.S., McLain, L., Zullo., E., Damage to coral reefs in Virgin islands national park and biosphere reserve from recreational activities. Proc. of the 6th International Coral Reef Symposium, 2, pp. 405-410, 1988. [18] Allison, W.R., Snorkeler damage to reef corals in the Maldives. Coral Reefs, 15, pp. 215-218, 1998. [19] Saleem, M.R. & Waheed, Z., A review of the Maldivian aquarium fishery. Proc. of the 10th International Coral Reef Symposium, 2004. [20] Gay, J.-Ch., Tourisme, politique et environnement aux Seychelles. TiersMonde, t. XLV, 178, pp. 319-339, 2004.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

36 Island Sustainability [21] Cazes-Duvat, V. & Magnan, A., L’île de Bird aux Seychelles: un exemple de développement durable? L’Harmattan: Paris, 2004. [22] Cazes-Duvat, V., Les archipels de l’océan Indien face à l’érosion côtière, Annales de Géographie, 644, pp. 6-25, 2005. [23] Duvat, V., Beach erosion management in Small Island Developing States: Indian Ocean case studies. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Physical Coastal Processes, Management and Engineering, 16-18 September 2009, Malta, WIT Press, Southampton, pp. 149-160, 2009.

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Tourism valorisation of lighthouses on Croatian islands and along the coast V. T. Opačić1, S. Favro2 & M. Perišić3 1

University of Zagreb, Faculty of Science, Department of Geography, Zagreb 2 Hydrographic Institute of the Republic of Croatia, Croatia 3 Split Plovput Ltd, Croatia

Abstract In the nowadays demanding tourism market Croatia wants to present itself not just as a country of classical “3S (sea, sun and sand)” tourism offer but also as a destination with great potential for the development of a more complex tourism product that would carry a development of high-quality sustainable tourism intended for an individual, more demanding, more educated, well-off and ecologically conscious tourist. “Robinson tourism”, in which tourists search isolation and peace in an intact environment, is becoming a very popular type of tourism in the world. Considering stressful living conditions in ecologically more polluted cities with a low life quality, the above mentioned is not a surprise. In order to enrich island and coastal tourism offers in the early 2000s a process of tourism valorisation of lighthouses began mostly on secluded locations of Croatian islands and along the coast. Due to the automation of light-mechanisms on numerous Croatian lighthouses there are less and less lighthouse keepers which opened the possibility to renovate apartments for tourists where once a lighthouse keeper and his family lived. For lighthouse maintenance and its tourism conversion Plovput Ltd. from Split is in charge. The company started this rent a lighthouse project that not only just brings profit but it also provides funds for reconstruction of these cultural heritage monuments built in the 19th century and the first part of the 20th century. Today, due to this project 14 lighthouses have been integrated into this tourism offer. The main aim of this research is to define the characteristics of a Croatian lighthouse accommodation offer as well as the main features of the structure and volume of a tourism flow in 2008. Keywords: lighthouses, heritage, “Robinson tourism”, tourism offer, tourism demand, sustainable tourism, Croatian islands. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line) doi:10.2495/ISLANDS100041

38 Island Sustainability

1 The need for the creation of new products in Croatian maritime tourism The structural problems related to the tourism of the Croatian littoral had emerged even before the break-up of the former Yugoslavia, i.e. already in the late 1980s, when the formerly predominant concept of the development of the maritime tourism for the masses, with the concomitant over-reliance on the simple and (in common opinion) “spent” tourism product based on natural attractions (“the sun and the sea”) became outdated and largely debunked. The implementation was long overdue of the new ideas resulting from the need for the segmentation of the tourism market and for the corresponding redefinition of the concept of tourism development founded on the implementation of the alternative tourism offer aimed at a better-quality tourism product which can satisfy the ever more demanding tourist [11]. The reconstruction of former accommodation capacities in the post-war renewal of Croatian tourism was not sufficient. The whole Croatian coast with islands had to be “discovered anew” as a tourism destination. While the first post-war tourist seasons were dominated by tourists from the Central European post-socialist countries (Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, with the traditionally significant representation of Germans, Italians, Slovenians and Austrians), the beginning of the new century inaugurated marked changes in the structure of tourists by country of origin: on the increase in the number of tourists from the European West (e.g. the British, French, Dutch, Scandinavians) and even from countries outside of Europe (USA, Israel, Japan), while the proportion of tourists from somewhat lesser-developed Central and Eastern European countries stagnated or slightly decreased, with the exception of Russia whose tourists visit Croatia in greater numbers. The comparison between the structures of foreign tourists in Croatia in 1998 and in 2008 also reveals a greater degree of diversification of emissive tourism markets in Croatian tourism. While in 1998 the tourists from the 15 leading emissive countries realised 97.12% of all international tourist nights, in 2008 they represented “only” 90.21% of all international tourist nights in Croatia (Tab. 1). In the record-breaking 2008 Croatia recorded 11.3 million tourist arrivals (out of which there were 9.4 million international arrivals) and 57.1 million tourist nights (out of which there were 50.6 million international tourist nights). The majority of tourist flow was realised in coastal and island tourism destinations, which confirms the predominance of that part of Croatia in Croatian tourism. “The sun and sea tourism”, which is still the dominant form of tourism in Croatia, binds to itself an increasingly complex tourism offer which presupposes the integration of a variegated range of attractions which support the offer of new tourism products. This is precisely why in the past fifteen years Croatia has tried to re-position the coastal part of Croatia as a tourism destination with a new tourism product, to prolong the season, to open new, smaller family hotels with a higher level of service with the simultaneous arrival of international, reputable hotel chains on the Croatian market, and in this way to achieve a qualitative step forward which will guarantee higher income generated by tourism. An increasing WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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Table 1:

39

Foreign tourist nights in Croatia by country of origin in 1998 and 2008. 1998 TOURIST NIGHTS 5933641 4035713 3669780 3527934

%

COUNTRY

22,82 15,52 14,11 13,57

Austria Slovakia Poland Hungary Netherlands Bosnia and Herzegovina United Kingdom

2871271 1142600 899876 805238 696097

11,04 4,39 3,46 3,10 2,68

Germany Slovenia Italy Austria Czech Republic Poland Netherlands Hungary Slovakia

651346

2,50

410053

1,58

Belgium Russian Federation France Switzerland Other countries TOTAL

188274

0,72

150510 144867 126588

0,58 0,56 0,49

748148 26001936

2,88 100

COUNTRY Germany Slovenia Italy Czech Rep.

France Russian Federation United Kingdom Bosnia and Herzegovina Sweden Denmark Other countries TOTAL

2008 TOURIST NIGHTS 10982654 5802277 5069287 4164793

21,69 11,46 10,01 8,23

4122460 2511568 2334993 1933978 1927093

8,14 4,96 4,61 3,82 3,81

1635494

3,23

1446776

2,86

1223226

2,42

1198560 722392 594785

2,37 1,43 1,17

4955186 50625522

9,79 100

%

Sources: Tourism, 1998, Statistical Reports 1078, Central Bureau of Statistics, Zagreb [9]. Tourism, 2008, Statistical Reports 1380, Central Bureau of Statistics, Zagreb [10].

number of elements which make the basis of the Croatian tourism attraction, so far not properly evaluated, contribute to the formation of the image of Croatia as a lifestyle destination with the significant coastal and island tourism product. In order to enrich the tourism offer of the Croatian littoral with marketable and globally innovative products, the first years of the 21st century witnessed the beginning of the evaluation of the tourism significance of lighthouses, predominantly those located in more isolated locations on Croatian islands and along the coast [1].

2 Lighthouses as a segment of the attraction basis of the new Croatian tourism product In order to retain a competitive edge in an increasingly demanding market, the tourism product increasingly emphasises local identity. As a result, the tourism WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

40 Island Sustainability product seeks to integrate elements of natural and cultural heritage. The totality of preserved and protected cultural and natural historical elements is precisely this heritage which needs to be kept for future generations; it is an important element in the protection of local identity, and more and more often is also one of significant pillars of the quality tourism product. The need for escape from (the working) everyday life manifests itself in the modern tourist also in his or her wish for spending time resting in a peaceful environment of preserved nature in complete contrast to the stressful life of everyday work in the city. Therefore, the point of any tourist trip is found in a temporary change of lifestyle. This increases the attractiveness of destinations which can offer psycho-physical rest to the (over)stressed individual who has an above-average paying capacity, a higher level of education, who is more sensitive to ecological considerations, and who senses a more acute need for isolation in a family setting. Thus, “isolation” and “exclusivity” are notions which are increasingly mentioned in any competitive tourism offer of most forms of tourism, and so also in maritime “sun and sea tourism”. Croatia is one of the rare countries in the world which has, through the integration of lighthouses as objects of accommodation into the tourism offer, succeeded in satisfying these two previously highlighted elements of demand in a contemporary tourism: the search for a local identity and the need for peaceful rest in an ecologically clean, natural environment in exclusive, isolated island and coastal locations. The lighthouses scattered on Croatian islands and along the coast meet the need for the most sought after activity of all tourist travel – the enjoyment in sea water, which, in addition to the above mentioned chief elements of demand, represents a comparative advantage of this Croatian product over that of its competition. Although a “system of navigation” had existed in the Antique even before the emergence of modern lighthouses, the system which included torches on the tops of the turrets at harbour entrances, lighthouses understood in the modern sense of the word started to be built in the Adriatic only from the beginning of the 19th century when the Austro-Hungarian empire, in an attempt to develop a mighty navy, erected a basic network of lighthouses [4]. In the period between the two World wars, during the time of a Socialist Yugoslavia and in the period of an independent Croatia, the system was supplemented with new lighting objects and technologically modernised. In the time of the Austro-Hungarian empire, a total of 65 lighthouse buildings were built on islands and peninsulas of the Croatian part of the Adriatic for the purposes of navigational orientation – the oldest was built in 1818 on the cape of Savudrija in Istria, and the most recent in 1899. Unfortunately, during the Second World War most of them were damaged or destroyed and many lighthouse keepers were killed or went missing [2]. During the 19th and 20th centuries the lighthouses were inhabited and maintained by generations of lighthouse families. Lighthouses with conspicuous towers and massive stone constructions are located along the whole Adriatic coast on the protruding capes of the Croatian islands and along the coastline [4]. From the time of their erection in the 19th century the lighthouses were maintained by generations of lighthouse families. The automation of the WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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lighthouses in the 1990s, the constant link with fast ships, powerboats, and the introduction of satellite navigation in maritime traffic significantly diminished the need for lighthouse families. As a result the lighthouse buildings have lost their former function of navigational orientation points and accommodation units [5]. Although lighthouses are considered cultural-historical monuments, the modest budgets of the respective Croatian ministries did not provide sufficient funds for the maintenance of these objects which were severely eroded through the influence of the sea and climactic factors.

3 The “Stone Lights” project Since the state of Croatia failed to procure funds needed for the maintenance of the lighthouses after their automation, the burden of their maintenance fell on the firm Plovput Ltd. from Split. “Plovput Ltd. Split” is a company owned by the Republic of Croatia which is responsible for the upkeep of waterways in the inner sea waters and the territorial sea of the Republic of Croatia. It is also responsible for the construction and maintenance of objects pertaining to sea travel security which includes, among others, maritime lighthouses. Towards the end of the 1990s Plovput Ltd. initiated the project called “Stone Lights” which is based on the adoption of positive experiences in the lighthouse preservation and the integration of history, ecology and tourism. The purpose of the project was to commercialise lighthouse buildings through their conversion into apartment buildings, which would secure the means for their preservation as culturalhistorical monuments and their revitalisation through this new activity. The integration of the lighthouses into the wider tourism offer would not present an obstacle to their primary purpose, that is, provision of security and protection of maritime travel, nor would it have a negative impact on the life of the existing lighthouse keepers (e.g. on Palagruža Island) [2, 3]. The main goal was to determine the potential for commercial (for-profit) exploitation of lighthouses based on market-related arguments in relation to their size, overall condition, bedding capacity, location, attractiveness of the building, necessary investments, cost-effectiveness and such like. Thus Plovput Ltd. started with the gradual integration of relevant objects into the overall tourist activity. Between 2001 and 2009 the total of 14 lighthouses were included into the tourism offer, with a further 28 lighthouses which will still be converted to accommodation units. The first among them is Korčulanske sestrice on an islet in the Pelješac channel, and Grebeni on the rock of the same name just in front of Dubrovnik (2010) as well as Zaglav on the rock of the same name before the west coast of the island of Cres and Stražica on the island of Prvić south of the island of Krk (2011) (Fig. 1). All 48 lighthouse objects in Croatia cover the total area of 10 398 m2. Out of this 83% represents space designated as accommodation, and 17% represents ancillary objects. This confirms the claim that lighthouses represent significant tourism potential on very attractive locations [3]. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

42 Island Sustainability

Figure 1:

Lighthouses in the Croatian tourism offer.

Although the lighthouses included in the tourism offer differ from each other with respect to their attractiveness, size, the number of apartments, the vicinity of tourism destinations and transportation infrastructure, one of the most significant presuppositions of the success of their tourism valorisation is certainly their location. Lighthouse objects can be classified in three groups according to the characteristics of their location [2]. a) Lighthouses on isolated, uninhabited open sea islands b) Lighthouses on inhabited islands outside of island settlements c) Lighthouses on the mainland in the vicinity of coastal settlements The lighthouses on isolated, mostly uninhabited open sea islands are located on distant islets and rocks and for the most part offer isolation to the fans of “Robinson tourism”. They make dreams of one’s own island come true. The tourists can savour the rich offer of the sea; they can go fishing or diving to explore the undersea world. These islands are visited by those tourists who appreciate the magic of the unbridled open sea wilderness. This group of lighthouses which have been converted for tourism purposes includes the following lighthouses: Sveti Ivan na pučini and Porer on an islet in front of the west coast of Istria, Rivanjske sestrice on an islet near the island of Rivanj, Prišnjak on an islet near the island of Murter, Pločica on the island of the same name in the channel of Korčula, between the islands of Korčula and Hvar, Host on the islet of the same name at the entrance to the Vis harbour, Sušac on the WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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island of the same name west of Lastovo, Palagruža on the island of the same name in the most distant Croatian group of islands in the Adriatic, and Sveti Andrija on the islet of the same name west of Dubrovnik (Fig. 1). Lighthouses on inhabited islands outside of island settlements suit those tourists who in addition to isolation, swimming, fishing and diving wish to have the opportunity to visit inhabited locations. In that way they can obtain their food daily, and they also have the opportunity to become acquainted with the life and customs of the local population. These lighthouses support the development of the nautical tourism offer and quickly become favourite destinations of the growing number of nautical tourists. Two such lighthouses are integrated into the tourism offer: Veli rat in the offer of Dugi otok and Struga in the offer of the island of Lastovo (Fig. 1). Lighthouses on the mainland in the vicinity of coastal settlements are old attractive buildings which offer comfortable stay in the lighthouses to their guests, i.e. a in somewhat more isolated locations in the relatively turistificated coast, pleasant beaches, but also in the amenities of the tourism offer and other services of the neighbouring larger urbanised settlements on the coast. Since these lighthouses are located on the mainland, the tourists can use of their own cars to arrive there, as well as for sightseeing and visits to natural and anthropological attractions in the nearer and farther surroundings. The lighthouses located in the vicinity of coastal settlements which are used for tourist purposes are: Savudrija on the cape of the same name on the west coast of Istria, Rt Zub between Novigrad and Poreč on the west coast of Istria and Sveti Petar on the cape of the same name in Makarska (Fig. 1).

4 The tourism offer and tourism flow in Croatian lighthouses Croatian lighthouses converted for the purposes of tourist accommodation offer a total of 23 apartments with 97 rooms. In 2009 the apartments in lighthouses were categorised with three stars, two stars and one star, which leads to the conclusion that this kind of accommodation is primarily aimed at “Robinson tourists” who seek, above all, peaceful rest in the isolation of secluded locations, while the quality of accommodation is only of secondary consideration (Tab. 2). All apartments in lighthouses have similar outfitting in keeping with the postulates of sustainable tourism in the sensitive island surroundings [7, 8]. Larger electricity users of electric energy (fridges, stoves and deep freezers) work on the propane-butane cylinders which does away with the need for the use of energy units running on liquid fuel. Other electricity users in apartments include TV sets and special lighting devices which use energy-saving light bulbs. The device shared by all apartments is a pump which draws water from the reservoir and brings it to the loft level of the building whence it is distributed further by the use of natural gravitational pull. All electricity users which cannot be connected to the public electricity network draw energy from the independent system of solar panels and batteries with the possibility of subsequent additional energy supply from the generators using ecologically clean wind energy [2].

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

44 Island Sustainability Table 2:

Croatian lighthouses in tourism offer – the number of apartments (APT), number of beds, categorisation, the year of construction, the year of the inclusion in tourism offer of accommodation.

NUMBER OF APT

NUMBER OF BEDS

CAT.

Host

1

3

**

1873

2006

2

8

***

1875

2001

2

14

***

1887

2002

2

8

***

1833

2001

1

4

***

1886

2001

1

3

**

1899

2007

1

6

***

1872

2001

1

4

***

1818

2001

4

14

***

1839

2002

2

8

***

1878

2001

1

6

*

1873

2001

2

8

***

1853

2001

1

4

**

1884

2001

2

7

**

1849

2001

23

97

Palagruža Pločica Porer Prišnjak Rivanjske sestrice Rt Zub Savudrija Struga Sušac Sveti Andrija Sveti Ivan na Pučini Sveti Petar Veli Rat

TOTAL

YEAR OF CONSTRUCTION

FIRST YEAR OF USE FOR TOURISM PURPOSES

LIGHTHOUSE

The tourism activity of the lighthouses is organised in four time-periods in four corresponding price-classes. In 2009 the pre-season lasted from 30th May to 4th July, full season from 5th July to 30th August, post-season from 30th August to 20th September, while the rest of the year was defined as the out-of-season period, but also with organised tourism activities in the lighthouses. The minimal duration of rent in the season, pre-season and post-season is one week, while outof-season it is possible to make a booking for a minimum of three days (except in the most distant lighthouses on Palagruža and Sušac Islands). Out of season it is possible to make a booking for shorter periods of a minimum three days. An additional (fourth) day is charged by the price-list, and the stay of 5 to 7 days is charged at the price of one week. Due to the strong demand for weekend tourists WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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also in the out-of-season period the Istrian lighthouses Sveti Ivan na pučini and Porer allow short stays of a duration of at least two days [2]. The price of renting a lighthouse includes accommodation in the corresponding apartment and alternative accommodation in case of an inability to access the island lighthouse on account of prohibitive weather conditions. Victuals are responsible for their own supplies. Most lighthouses offer the possibility of renting a boat and organising excursions in co-ordination with the lighthouse keepers (Sv. Ivan na Pučini, Veli rat, Sušac, Palagruža, Struga) or with persons in charge of transportation (Porer, Pločica, Prišnjak). The transportation to the lighthouse on the island of Palagruža is provided by Plovput Ltd. while the transportation to other lighthouses is organised by third persons. The lighthouses provide strong signal for the operation of mobile telephones [2]. Information about the tourist booking of lighthouses leads to the conclusion that the proximity to and the accessibility of the coast are still among the most important determinative factors of their tourism utilisation. It is evident, namely, that the apartments located on the mainland (Savudrija, Rt Zub, Sveti Petar) or on inhabited islands (Veli rat on Dugi otok, and to some degree also Struga on Lastovo) record higher utilisation than the lighthouses on the distant open-sea uninhabited islands, particularly those farthest from the mainland, for example the lighthouse on the island of Palagruža. The different utilisation rates with respect to the categorisation of apartments in lighthouses have not been observed, which yet again confirms the thesis that location and not the interior outfitting is the decisive factor of the tourism flow in the lighthouses (Tab. 3). The demand for tourist stay in Croatian lighthouses is strongest among Italian tourists (about 50% of tourists in lighthouses), as well as among tourists from the German-speaking countries (Germans, Austrians, Swiss – about 20% of tourists in lighthouses) and from the former Central and Eastern European Socialist countries (about 20% of tourists in lighthouses), while domestic tourists represent slightly less than 10% of tourists in lighthouses. The interest in renting apartments in lighthouses is increasing. It is also worth mentioning that there is significant interest in lighthouse tourism also outside the “bathing season”, which confirms the proposition that many tourists are motivated by the wish to experience life on a “desolate island”, i.e. to feel as lighthouse keepers, and not only by the search for isolation during the “bathing season”. The costs related to the renting of apartments in lighthouses are relatively high because their distance from the mainland considerably increases all expenses. The objects located on the mainland are connected to the municipal water supply which keeps the cost of water supply lower. In some lighthouses the utility-related expenses reach 50% of the overall income, while on objects located on the mainland these expenses can be as low as 15–20% of the overall income. Objects offered for rent are burdened with the cost of outfitting, investment and regular maintenance, transportation costs and staffing costs. The cost of maintenance is particularly high because the sea foam causes rapid deterioration of inventory. This increases the depreciation rate which in turn decreases profit. After eight years of involvement in tourism business which Plovput Ltd. has had so far, and on the basis of the completed analysis of income and outcome, it is WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

46 Island Sustainability Table 3:

APT

The tourism flow in apartments (APT) of Croatian lighthouses in 2008. TOTAL POTENTIAL OCCUNUMBER OF NUMBER OF PANCY REALISED TOURIST (%) TOURIST NIGHTS NIGHTS LIGHTHOUSES ON ISOLATED, UNINHABITED OPEN SEA ISLANDS TOTAL NUMBER OF OCCUPANCY (NUMBER OF BEDS DAYS)

Palagruža A1

4

97

388

732

Palagruža A2

4

56

224

732

53% 31%

PločicaA1

6

102

612

1098

56%

Pločica A2

8

73

584

1464

40%

Porer A1

4

63

252

732

34%

Porer A2

4

86

344

732

47%

Prišnjak

4

150

600

732

82%

Sušac A1

4

194

506

732

69%

Sušac A2

4

92

368

732

50%

Sveti Andrija Sveti Ivan na pučini A1 Sveti Ivan na pučini A2 TOTAL

6

40

240

1098

22%

4

81

324

732

44%

4

79

316

732

43%

56

1113

4758

10248

46%

LIGHTHOUSES ON INHABITED ISLANDS OUTSIDE OF ISLAND SETTLEMENTS StrugaA1

2

106

212

366

Struga A2

3

122

366

549

58% 67%

Struga A3

4

73

292

732

40%

Struga A4

5

46

230

915

25%

Veli rat A1

4

182

728

732

99%

Veli rat A2

3

148

444

549

81%

TOTAL

21

677

2272

3843

59%

ISLANDS ON THE MAINLAND IN THE VICINITY OF COASTAL SETTLEMENTS Rt Zub

6

139

834

1098

76%

Savudrija

4

158

632

732

86%

Sveti Petar

4

109

436

732

60%

TOTAL

14

406

1902

2562

74%

GRAND TOTAL

91

2196

8932

16653

54%

possible to assess the economic effects of the tourism valorisation of Croatian lighthouses. The income realised in 2007 was about 222 000 Euro and the outcome about 185 000 Euro, which gives a profit of about 37 000 Euro. Considering the value of investment into the outfitting of tourist apartments, the period needed for the return of funds invested is very long and cost-effectiveness low. The reason for this is because Plovput Ltd. needs this profit for covering part of the costs related to the maintenance of maritime lighthouses [2, 6]. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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5 Conclusion In 2001 the firm Plovput Ltd. from Split initiated the conversion of lighthouse buildings on more remote Croatian islands and along the coast into objects suitable for tourist accommodation. One of the underlying reasons was the fact that the automation of lighthouses resulted in the shrinking of the crews which manned lighthouses, which in turn caused lighthouses to be abandoned and left to decay. Through the “Stone Lights” project lighthouses have been incorporated into the tourism offer. This ancillary activity brings Plovput Ltd., the firm in charge of the maintenance of lighthouses, necessary funds for the maintenance and revitalisation of the lighthouse buildings which are invaluable also as monuments of cultural heritage which had been built in the 19th century in the period of the Austro-Hungarian empire, as well as lighthouses in their own right in their primary function of providing safety for the shipping traffic. So far 14 lighthouses have been converted on Croatian islands and the coast. They offer 23 apartments categorised with one, two or three stars, with a total of 97 beds. In the conversion and process of the lighthouses great attention was paid to the sustainable development within the sensitive island environment. The lighthouses are found in three different groups of locations in relation to their distance from the mainland: lighthouses on isolated, uninhabited open sea islands; lighthouses on inhabited islands outside island settlements, and lighthouses on the mainland in the vicinity of coastal settlements. Each group of locations offers a different tourism product and possibilities. Although the bulk of the tourist activity is concentrated in the summer months when the chief purpose for the stay in the lighthouses is bathing on “one’s own” island or on the isolated parts of the mainland, tourists have also shown interest outside of the main tourist season which supports the thesis that the isolation which lighthouses offer is a key motive irrespective of the time of the year. The analysis of the tourist activity in the lighthouses has concluded that the proximity and the accessibility of the coast are still among the key determining factors of their tourism utilisation. It has been determined that the lighthouse utilisation rate diminishes in proportion to the distance between the lighthouse and the mainland or larger, inhabited islands. This is also corroborated by the fact that the closer and more accessible islands enjoy a longer tourist season, and that these lighthouses are more fully booked out of season than are those lighthouses located on smaller and uninhabited islands of the open sea. There is no difference in relation to the categorisation of the lighthouse apartments, which supports the claim that location and not the level of outfitting is a key factor for the tourism activity in the lighthouses. Tourists interested in this tourism product mostly come from Italy, Germanspeaking countries (Germany, Austria, Switzerland), former Central and Eastern European Socialist countries, while domestic demand is much more modest. Although the cost-effectiveness of the project of the integration of lighthouses into the tourism accommodation offer is relatively small, and the period of the return of the invested funds long and uncertain, it is already manifest that the tourism evaluation enabled the preservation of the Croatian lighthouses as WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

48 Island Sustainability heritage monuments, which is, in addition to the maintenance of the objects which provide security for shipping traffic, in the long term the most important positive outcome of this project.

References [1] Opačić, V. T. (2005): Svjetionici hrvatskoga turizma http://www.geografija.hr/clanci/693/svjetionici-hrvatskoga-turizma [2] Perišić, M. (2009): Lighthouses as a part of tourist offer being specific tourist destination, Interdisciplinary Management Research V, editor Dražen Barković, University of Osijek, Croatia, 381-395 [3] Šerić, N. (2003): Ekološki turistički projekt Kamena Svjetla – čuvari lanterni povijesnih vrijednosti, Jadranska meteorologija, No 48, 74-80 [4] Šerić, N. (2004): Kamena svjetla – priče i legende o jadranskim svjetionicima, o mjestima na kojima su izgrađeni i o njihovom podmorju, Marjan tisak, Split [5] Šerić, N. (2005): Objekti pomorske signalizacije i svjetioničarska služba u Republici Hrvatskoj, Jadranska meteorologija, No 50, 48-57 [6] Šerić, N. (2008): Realizacija II faze složenog investicijskog projekta Kamena svjetla – sanacija i revitalizacija svjetioničarskih zgrada bez ljudske posade, Gospodarstvo i okoliš, No 16, 3-9 [7] Šerić, N. (2008): Upravljanje otpadnim higijenskim vodama na jadranskim svjetionicima, Hrvatska vodoprivreda, No 17, 59-63 [8] Šerić, N., Ikač, M., Vidović, Z. (2002): Disposal of waste water in ecologically sensitive environment of lighthouses, Zbornik radova ELMAR – editor Tomislav Kos, Zadar, 135-140 [9] Tourism, 1998, Statistical Reports 1078, Central Bureau of Statistics, Zagreb, 1999 [10] Tourism, 2008, Statistical Reports 1380, Central Bureau of Statistics, Zagreb, 2009 [11] Vlahović, D. (2003): Maritimna turistička Hrvatska, Ogranak Matice hrvatske Split, Matica hrvatska, Split-Zagreb

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Section 2 Community issues

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Scales and scenarios of change in the anthropology-landscape relationship: models of cultural tourism in Fuerteventura (Canary Isles) D. Ruiz-Labourdette1, P. Díaz1, A. J. Rodríguez2, A. Santana2, M. F. Schmitz1 & F. D. Pineda1 1 2

Complutense University of Madrid, Spain La Laguna University, Spain

Abstract Tourism is a crucial part of the economy of the Canary Isles (Spain) and its potential with regard to its ‘ecological’ and ‘cultural’ facets has not yet been well addressed. These perspectives could lead the industry towards a model of sustainability that is as yet lacking in Spain’s usual tourism: the way in which this industry has been managed has been successful in the financial sense, but erroneous in relation to socio-economy and sustainability. In the Canary Isles, the tourism continues to have a serious environmental cost. In this archipelago, a National Park has been planned for the near future on Fuerteventura. This reference enables the creation of scenarios based on new perspectives. We have developed a model of the interdependence between the island’s anthropological structure and that of its natural and cultural landscape. The model is based upon multiple regression. The procedure is tested at different spatial scales. The results establish i) the parameters with which this interdependence becomes more or less strong, ii) the way in which the degree of interdependence varies in counties of different sizes, and iii) the interest of these parameters to be used as indicators of change, considering scenarios deriving from the new perspectives. Keywords: protected area, socioeconomy-landscape relationship, tourism.

1

Introduction

A National Park has been planned for the Canary island Fuerteventura. This category of protection of nature would guarantee the maintenance of the natural WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line) doi:10.2495/ISLANDS100051

52 Island Sustainability resources of a territory that to date has not been given sufficient protection, despite its naturalistic, aesthetic and cultural uniqueness. At the same time it constitutes a reference to lead the way for cultural tourism and nature. The declaration of natural spaces, however, quite often involves the disadvantage that the natural values to be protected refer exclusively to the wild character of the territory, as vegetation, fauna or landscape, without sufficiently considering the local population, its culture, lifestyle or cultural landscape deriving therefrom (Sayer [1]). These features have rarely been included among the objectives of ‘nature’ conservation. Neither has sufficient attention been paid to the participation of this population in decisions relating to the boundaries, and area, of the protected space or to the type of future management of the natural resources (Bruner et al. [2], Sayer and Campbell [3], Ruíz-Pérez et al. [4]). At present, Fuerteventura, to some extent is still an ‘empty’ island, compared to other tourist areas on the archipelago but, as has occurred with other islands, it is in danger of being taken over by big hotels and apartment complexes and of losing much of its natural landscape. To attenuate this, and to better conserve natural and cultural values, the ‘man and biosphere’ program (MaB, Unesco) has also recently declared Fuerteventura as a Biosphere Reserve. The environmental values to be found on this island are as important as anywhere else on the Canaries, where economic development has focussed particularly upon mass tourism, ignoring the island’s natural areas and rural cultural landscape. In Fuerteventura, however, there is still relatively little tourism, and this reserve could in fact constitute a good reference for an alternative and more sustainable form of tourism, based on landscape, nature and culture. The very definition of these reserves includes the local population and the cultural landscapes traditionally associated with these. National Park status in Spain involves strict legal protection of the natural values therein, which has been lacking to date in the Biosphere Reserves (Lope de Toledo [5]). A National Park can also constitute the maximum-protection, ‘nucleus sector’, of the Reserve, around which the future development model of the whole island would be designed. In this chapter we analyse the ‘landscape-socioeconomy’ interdependence relationship in Fuerteventura, as we believe that this knowledge should be the basis of any demarcation of the island’s best-known natural values, which justify its declaration as a National Park. The analysis was performed through the application of a multivariate model of ordination and multiple regression formalising this relationship. The procedure was tested in previous studies (Schmitz et al. [6], De Aranzabal et al. [7]), and different spatial scales have now been updated and incorporated into the analysis in order to express the relationship. The results can be used as a reference for a scenario of socioeconomic change which perhaps is not very drastic, but which has likely been promoted to a certain degree by the new National Park status.

2

Materials and methods

Fuerteventura is one of the Canary Isles’ largest islands (1731 km2). It is a desert island –110 mm of rainfall, hardly reaching 200 mm at the highest elevations–, WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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flat, compared with other islands of the archipelago, with unique and attractive volcanic landscapes, with notably broad visual basins; most of the land is ochrecoloured, with outcrops of black basaltic rocks in many places inland and on some coastal cliffs. The colouring of the substrate and the geomorphology make the coasts in particular quite varied in all their orientations, with spectacular beaches that are highly appreciated by the tourists (Criado [8], RodríguezDelgado [9], Paredes and Rodríguez [10], Pineda [11]). Extensive goat herding and artisanal fishing close to the coast (‘pesca de bajura’) have historically characterised the relevant rural activities. Agriculture has been concentrated in some valley bottoms, with legumes and vegetables (almost exclusively potatoes, onions, chick peas and lentils), and some flat areas and slope zones with characteristic terraces (‘gavias’), where some varieties of early cereals have been successfully grown. Agriculture on this island has been historically considered as very important, with products being exported to other islands, but one can now observe evident soil exhaustion and rural abandonment. In the last decade, this has run parallel to the development of mass ‘sun and sand’ tourism. Livestock farming is prospering, especially with the stabling of goats for the production of the excellent ‘majorero’ cheese, which is in great demand –Santana Talavera [12], Burriel [13], García and Zapata [14] (the goat is a popular symbol in Fuerteventura)–. The island is administratively organised into six town councils, within whose municipalities we have considered a total of 51 population nuclei for our study. Although these are dispersed throughout the territory, the island still presents a relatively ‘empty’ character. 2.1 Characterisation and zoning of the landscape We delimited the spatial units of landscape, adopting for this concept (Pineda et al. [15], Bernáldez [16]) a Cartesian view (Forman [17], Forman and Godron [18]). The units were (Fig. 1): 1. Warm/dry plains. Steppic vegetation, ‘gavias’ and abandoned croplands. 2. Warm/dry slopes and valley bottoms. Different types of shrubland, ‘gavias’ on slopes and gardening. 3. Sandy terrain, dunes, coastal dunes on warm/dry flat terrain. Psamophyllous vegetation. 4. Active aeolic sandy deposits and carbonate crusts (‘caliche’), steppic vegetation and croplands. 5. Piedmonts and ravines with scrubland and abandoned ‘gavias’ in warm zones. 6. Warm/wet mountaintops and slopes. Summer rainfall. Scrubland (‘jorados’, ‘cardonales’, sweet ‘tabaibales’). 7. Warm/wet mountaintops and slopes. ‘Tabaibales’ and ‘cardales’ of wild artichoke. 8. Warm/wet mountaintops and slopes. Scrubland of ‘algoaera’ and ‘mato’. Abandoned ‘gavias’. To obtain these units, we used information from Pineda [11], Del Arco [19], Wildprett and Martin-Osorio [20], Tejedor et al. [21]. Thus, we present the data on the physical environment on a grid with 100 x 100 m cells: climate, lithology and topographysurface hydric dynamics (Table 1(a)). With each of these three datasets, we designed different matrices whose observations were the cells of the grid and the variables the previously described ones. Each of the matrices was treated by means of multivariate ordination analyses. The coordinates of the cells on the first two axes calculated for each of these three datasets enabled us to use these WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

54 Island Sustainability axes as new physical variables (‘environmental synthesis variables’ or ‘conditioning factors’). The axes were classified into several geotic zones by means of a random divisive procedure. Upon these zones, we placed the units from the island’s vegetation and land uses map, finally obtaining the ‘landscape units’ map (Table 1(b) and Fig. 1).

Figure 1: Table 1:

Map of the types of landscape differentiated on Fuerteventura. List of physical and biological (geobotanical) characteristics and of land used to design the data matrix for the creation of landscape units. (a) Physical characteristics Climatic

Rainfall (in each season and annual), temperature (average of summer maximums, inverse of the average of winter minimums, continentality index, annual radiation). Lithologic 47 lithologic classes. Topographic Altitude, slope, roughness, orientation, hydric convergence-divergence. (b) Geobotanic characteristics and land uses 31 geobotanic classes and 49 types of land use. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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2.2 Socioeconomic structure The 51 population nuclei differentiated were taken as observations of a new data matrix with 114 socioeconomic variables (Table 2). We used the matrix to characterise the socioeconomic structure of the island, synthesising it into the variation tendencies shown by the first two axes of a multivariate ordination analysis of this matrix. The reference to these 51 entities was obliged by the assignation thereto of socioeconomic data available in the statistical tables of the Canary Isles and Spanish Administrations. Table 2:

Types of socioeconomic features recorded by the Canary Isles Administration and assigned to the population nuclei of Fuerteventura.

1. Number of goods of cultural interest –1 variable (museums, monuments, archaeological localities, etc.)–. 2. Type of housing -15 variables (housing and storey buildings)–. 3. Type of houses –10 variables (net usable area)–. 4. Year of house construction –9 variables (before 1900/after 2001)–. 5. Condition of the building –4 variables (dilapidated, bad, deficient and good condition)–. 6. House services –23 variables (communications, green spaces, cleanliness, delinquency, noise, smell, running water, sewer and drainage system, toilet, cooling and telephone installation)–. 7. Number of vehicles. 8. Number of persons living in a household –8 variables (1 person/ more than 8)–. 9. Number of families living in a household –2 variables (1 family and 2 or more)–. 10. Number of generations living in a household –3 variables (1, 2 and 3 or more generations)–. 11. Maximum age in the house –5 variables (From 0 to more than 80)–. 12. Type of property owner –3 variables (personal, community and of a company)–. 13. Number of residents with a second housing –3 variables (2nd residence in an other canary island, in Spain and abroad)–. 14. Activity –14 variables (agriculture, fishing, construction, trading, catering, etc.)–. 15. Population per age class –5 variables (from 0 to 19, to more than 80)–. 16. Place of birth –4 variables (Fuerteventura, other canary island, rest of Spain and abroad)–. 17. Population –1 variable (total population)–.

2.3 Socioeconomy-landscape relationship and scales of dependence The two variation tendencies of the socioeconomic structure were considered to be dependent on landscape, described by means of the set of physical, geobotanic and cultural variables mentioned in section 2.1. To formalise this dependence, WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

56 Island Sustainability we took separately the coordinates of the population nuclei on each of the previous axes and each was used as a dependent variable of different regression equations calculated with the landscape data (section 2.1). These data were considered as the independent variables of the equations. The data had to be assigned to the area surrounding each population nucleus. To this end, we took as observations the cells containing the 51 nuclei. We calculated the regressions at successively smaller scales of detail (progressively bigger areas), grouping those neighboring cells that coincided with each nucleus in progressively larger areas. To this end, we grouped the cells by means of a buffer procedure that adds strips of land 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 3 and 6 km wide around each population nucleus. In each case we calculated the dependence with the socioeconomic data corresponding to the same 51 population nuclei, with which we calculated the regressions. The increasing size of the respective areas appears to indicate the variation in dependence between the population structure and the environmental variables that best explain it at each scale.

3

Results

The tendencies of variation in the socioeconomic structure are shown in Table 3. The biggest socioeconomic differences found in Fuerteventura are due to variation in the size of the island’s populations and the services available therein. These differences affect the inhabitants of the population nuclei presenting an aged society –with small houses, little access to services and inhabitants working in extractive industries (lower part of the first axis calculated) – compared with that of population nuclei where most people live, better access to services and based on trade, construction and real estate (upper part). Another way of differentiating Fuertetentura’s population corresponds to the rhythm of development of the population nuclei (second axis). This development is characteristic of the growth of tourism on the island. A rapid growth is associated with nuclei characterised by modern housing as rent, hotels (satellite cities), a low concentration of people per home and a non-native resident population; here, people are characteristically employed in restaurants and hotels and other tourism related industries (positive part of this axis; Table 3). The other extreme deals with moderate growth (a low concentration of people per home, traditional buildings belonging to their owners, an aging population, inhabitants working in agriculture and fishing, three or more generations per household, administrative centres with goods of cultural interest). These results tally with the typology of tourism development (Peck and Lepie [22]) as a model of ‘rapid growth’. The relationship found between this variability and the landscape characteristics at scales of different details (landscape characterising the space around the entities in progressively broader strips), is shown in Table 4.

4

Discussion

Fuerteventura’s population nuclei are arranged from a type of society with a low level of services, associated or not with the rural environment, to another with a WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Island Sustainability

Table 3:

57

Loadings of the socioeconomic variables (first two axes of the ordination analysis performed with the set of 51 population nuclei). 114 variables were considered; the table shows those presenting higher positive or negative loading. F1: 71% abs. variance; F2: 8%. Variable

F1

Variable

F2

Assets of Cultural Interest

0.32

Ages >80 yrs old

-0.63

Houses without running water

0.38

Ages 60-80 yrs old

-0.57

8 storey-houses

0.46

People born in Fuerteventura

-0.55

Houses dated 1900-1920

0.49

Houses dated ≤1900

-0.51

Houses dated ≤1900

0.52

Households >3 generations

-0.49

Houses without sewer system

0.53

Assets of Cultural Interest

-0.44

Houses with private water

0.57

2 housing per building

-0.41

Occupation in extractive industries ––– Houses without noise

0.58

Houses 120-150m2 ––– People born abroad

-0.37

Household with one vehicle

0.96

0.42 0.45

0.96

0.38

Household with one family

0.97

Canary residents with 2nd h i 4-7 storey-houses

Houses without smell

0.97

Houses 30-45m2

Houses 76-90m2

0.97

Houses property of a company

0.47

Ages 40-50 years old

0.98

0.52

0.45

Houses with toilets

0.98

More than 10 housing per b 8ildi More than storey-houses

Principal familiar housings

0.99

Houses ≤30m2

0.63

Total population

0.99

Hotels

0.64

0.54

high level, which tends to be located in the nuclei with bigger populations. The first ordination axis shows this as a continuous variation, without polarity and an extremely high absorption of variance (Table 3). The opposition between the traditional rural society and one characterised by the development of tourism is shown on the second axis, presenting a clear polarity and a low level of absorbed variance, indicating a model of rapid growth. This corresponds to the current type of tourism on Fuerteventura which generates, at least, curious situations. Thus, promoters, workers and owners are exogenous and the financial profits do not go to the local population. This situation, however, affects the local culture and the territory –Peck and Lepie [22] (according to these authors, ‘slow growth’ provides greater local control of development and integration of the external agents into the traditional social structures)–. The regression coefficients calculated highlight the relative importance of the different environmental factors conditioning this socioeconomic variability. Of the large set of variables used to describe the landscape, 15 explain this structure (Table 4). The variation exhibited by the first axis is the one that shows the highest and most positive regression coefficients, associated with quarrying and mining landscapes,

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Coefficients of the regressions calculated between the set of variables describing Fuerteventura’s landscape (variables of the global matrix with all the data on landscape, considered as independent variables, xi) and the tendencies of Socioeconomic variation detected on the Island (dependent variable, yi, according to the coordinates on the first two axes, F1 and F2). The coefficients of the independent variables of greatest weight and the coefficient thereof for the 6 scales of the analysis are shown. P always below 0.009; Durbin-Watson test (DW) applied to each regression.

Landscape variables of greatest weight, xi

Quarries and mines ‘Cardonal’ Abandoned croplands Nitrophylous ‘Herbazal’ Market gardens ‘Algorera-mato’ scrub Degraded scrubland Halophylous scrub ‘Piterales’ and ‘tunerales’ Forest plantations Beaches, dunes Brine basins Sweet ‘tabaibal’ Mountain vegetation Rubbish/rubble dumps Adjusted R² DW

Tendencies of socioeconomic variation, yi 0.5km F1 0.53

1km F2

F1 0.53 -0.13

-0.25 0.12 -0.07

1.5km F2 F1 0.09 0.50

2km F2 0.05

3km F1 0.43

F2

F2 0.30

-0.33

-0.18 0.11

-0.15 0.12

-0.28

0.13

-0.07 -0.30 0.10

-0.19 -0.18 0.11 -0.16

0.43

0.37

0.44

0.16 -0.10 -0.18

F1 0.25

-0.02

F2

-0.25 -0.02

0.13

6km F1 0.28 0.19

0.19 -0.14 -0.08 -0.13

-0.10

-0.28 -0.05 0.07

-0.04

-0.04 -0.06 0.34 1.48

-0.06 -0.05 0.53 1.63

0.36 1.49

0.54 1.73

-0.08 0.26 0.33 1.49

0.56 1.77

0.26

-0.07 0.28 0.40 1.55

0.47

0.65 1.77

-0.10 0.38 0.18 1.56

0.02 0.48

0.17

0.44 1.37

0.21 1.96

0.34

0.60 1.32

58 Island Sustainability

Table 4:

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rubbish and rubble dumps and abandoned agricultural spaces (nitrophylous ‘herbazales’). The opposite of this (places in which less people live) is the cultural rural landscape of market gardens and the natural landscape of the few mountains in the island (Table 4, F1). Abandoned croplands, landscapes with degraded vegetation and scrublands of ‘algorera and mato’ is what remains in landscapes typical of rural nuclei presenting a slow growth rate, whereas coastal zones with beaches and halophylous vegetation characterise the populations associated with the development of tourism (Table 4, F2). The distribution of the population on the island is very clear and synthesised by a low number of landscape variables. As the landscape-socioeconomy scale of interdependence changes, so do some regression coefficients. The degraded urban and periurban landscape – presenting hardly any components of the rural environment and occupied by a more numerous population– becomes less associated with the population as the area of analysis increases. In Table 4 the coefficients of quarries and mines decrease with scale and rubbish and rubble dumps are maintained; there is an increase in abandoned agricultural areas at the whole island scale and the landscapes moves away from a model typical of mountain areas –F1 from 0.5 to 6 km; moreover the values of fit (R2) diminish with scale–. As for the development of tourism (F2), with a change of scale, no regularity is appreciated in the dependence of the population structure on landscape so that, although it is more associated with the coast, this development appears to be quite independent from the landscape. The budding National Park presents an absence of population nuclei in the land it will encompass, in accordance with the laws on these protected spaces (Lope de Toledo [5]), but proximity to, or distance from, its boundaries can influence the degree, territorial scale and socioeconomic variables affected by the protected space. Maintenance of the natural landscape conserved within the park’s boundaries is incompatible with human activities, which have modified this type of landscape on much of the island (Santana Talavera [12], Ruiz-Pérez et al. [4]). Even outside these limits, but near, it seems inappropriate to permit, for instance, a mine or mass tourism. On the contrary, promoting human activities compatible with the kind of landscape of the park can involve a change in socioeconomic structure, at least in the vicinity of the park (Sayer et al. [23], Garnett et al. [24], Wittenmeyer et al. [25]). The uses permitted in the park involve activities directly or indirectly associated with nature conservation and careful management of natural resources (Lope de Toledo [5], Bruner et al. [2], Sayer and Campbell [3]), so that a foreseeable result of declaring the park could involve a socioeconomic change in which conservation activities take on a level of importance heretofore unknown in Fuerteventura’s society (transport cooperatives for park visitors, reception centres, monitors, merchandising, rural accommodation, etc.). It is unlikely that the park will cause a drastic change in the island’s current model of tourism, but it would attenuate the aging of the population in the traditional rural areas, as well as other typical effects of the current rural exodus.

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60 Island Sustainability Fig. 2 shows an ordination analysis of the landscape data measured in 2 km spaces around Fuerteventura’s population nuclei. At this scale we found the best fit in the landscape-socioeconomy dependence (R2, Table 4). The figure reflects the socioeconomic dynamics estimated for the population of Fuerteventura for one of the change scenarios that might be promoted by the declaration of the National Park. This involves the promotion of landscape characteristics that do not involve any alteration, that is, non-intensive activities (such as quarries and mines, abandonment of croplands; Table 4, F1, F2), but rather associated with the island’s best-conserved landscapes (maintenance and promotion of valuable vegetation such as ‘cardonales’ and mountain landscapes; Table 4, F1, F2).

(a) Figure 2:

(b)

Ordination analysis of the socioeconomic data measured referring to Fuerteventura’s population nuclei. The arrows indicate movement along the analysis axes from the original position of the nuclei to the one simulated by means of a scenario of change towards more natural landscape models. The characteristics of the original landscape and of the simulated scenario refer to spaces of 2 km around the population nuclei. The dots with no arrow indicate that the nucleus retains the same characteristics before and after the scenario is simulated.

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In the scenario simulated (De Aranzabal et al. [7]) there has been a 30% increase in the area of these two characteristics in a 2 km area around each nucleus, and a similar percentage decrease in the previous ones. A large amount of nuclei shows no change along the first axis (Fig. 2(a)), presenting a society that is quite oblivious to the change (simulated) in the characteristics of the environment. The second axis, typical of change from the traditional landscape to the ‘touristic’ one –characterised by hotels and similar features, Table 3–, presents noteworthy change dynamics in this scenario, which is more obvious in some nuclei than in others. Creating the park can indeed constitute a key element for encouraging participatory actions and awareness campaigns aimed at promoting the heritage and self-esteem of the population. Appropriate management thereof can orientate local identity beyond the values induced by the current type of tourism. A revaluation of traditional uses would not only be beneficial in itself, with regard to conserving nature and culture. Provided populations feel involved, it would provide a process of economic diversification without so much financial and structural dependence on tourism. This dependence now has a vital effect on the environmental and socio-cultural aspects that influence the tourism system itself.

References [1] Sayer, J. The People's Forest: Balancing local and global values. Doctoral Thesis (Sciences). Autónoma University, Madrid, 2007. [2] Bruner, A.G., Gullison, R. E., Rice, R.E. and da Fonseca, G.A.B. Effectiveness of Parks in Protecting Tropical Biodiversity. Science, 291, pp. 125-128, 2001. [3] Sayer, J.A. and B. Campbell. Research to Integrate Productivity Enhancement, Environmental Protection and Human Development. Conservation Ecology, 5(2), p. 32 [online] URL: www.consecol.org /vol5 /iss2/art32, 2001. [4] Ruiz Pérez, M., Ezzine de Blas, D., Nasi, R. et al. Socioeconomic constraints, environmental impacts and drivers of changes in the Congo basins as perceived by logging companies. Environmental Conservation, 33(4), pp. 316-324, 2006. [5] Lope de Toledo, J.M. Plan Director de la Red de Parques Nacionales. Organismo Autónomo Parques Nacionales, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Madrid [Real Decreto 1803/99, de 26 de noviembre, por el que se aprueba el Plan Director de La Red de Parques Nacionales], 1999. [6] Schmitz, M.F., Aranzabal, I., Aguilera, P., Rescia, A. and Pineda, F.D. Relationship between landscape typology and socioeconomic structure. Scenarios of change in Spanish cultural landscapes. Ecological. Modelling, 168, pp. 343-356, 2003. [7] De Aranzabal, I., Schmitz, M.F., Aguilera, P. and Pineda, F.D. Modelling of landscape changes derived from the dynamics of socio-ecological systems. A case of study in a semiarid Mediterranean landscape. Ecological Indicators, 8, pp. 672-685, 2008. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

62 Island Sustainability [8] Criado, C. La evolución del relieve de Fuerteventura. Cabildo Insular de Fuerteventura, Puerto del Rosario, 1992. [9] Rodríguez-Delgado, O. (coord.). Patrimonio Natural de la isla de Fuerteventura. Cabildo de Fuerteventura-Gobierno de Canarias-Centro de la Cultura Popular Canaria, Santa Cruz de Tenerife. 2005. [10] Paredes, R. and Rodríguez, R. (coords.). Fuerteventura. RAI Ediciones, Antigua, 2002. [11] Pineda, F.D. (dir.). Estudio para el Plan de Ordenación de los Recursos Naturales (PORN) de la propuesta de Parque Nacional de Fuerteventura en su Primera Fase. Cabildo de Fuerteventura, Universities Complutense of Madrid and La Laguna. Preliminary report, 245 pp., 2009. [12] Santana Talavera, A. Antropología y turismo. ¿Nuevas Hordas, viejas culturas? Ariel, Barcelona, 1997. [13] Burriel, E. Canarias: población y agricultura en una sociedad dependiente. Oikos-tau, Barcelona, 1981. [14] García, J.L. and Zapata, V.M. Los cambios recientes en la población de Canarias. In: Geografía de Canarias. Vol. VII. Interinsular Canaria, Sta. Cruz de Tenerife, pp. 23-54, 1992. [15] Pineda, F.D. et al. (Environmental analysis group, Ecology Dept. Sevilla University). Terrestrial eco-systems adjacent to large reservoirs. Ecological survey and impact diagnosis. Internat. Comm. on Large Dams, Icold. Madrid. Monogr. Dirección General Obras Hidráulicas, Madrid, 1974. [16] Bernáldez, F.G. Ecología y paisaje. Blume, Madrid, 1981. [17] Forman, R.T.T. Landscape Ecology. John Wiley, New York, 1986. [18] Forman, R.T.T. and Godron, M. Patches and structural components for a landscape ecology. BioScience, 31, pp. 733-740, 1981. [19] Del Arco, M. (ed.). Mapa de Vegetación de Canarias. Grafcan Eds., Santa Cruz, Tenerife, 2006. [20] Wildprett, W. and Martin-Osorio, V.E. Vegetación y usos del suelo. In: Estudio para el Plan de Ordenación de los Recursos Naturales (Porn) de la propuesta de Parque Nacional de Fuerteventura en su Primera Fase. Cabildo de Fuerteventura, Universities Complutense of Madrid and La Laguna. Preliminary report, 245 pp, 2009. [21] Tejedor, M., Jiménez, C., Rodríguez, A. and Neris, J. Edafología. In: Estudio para el Plan de Ordenación de los Recursos Naturales (Porn) de la propuesta de Parque Nacional de Fuerteventura en su Primera Fase. Cabildo de Fuerteventura, Universities Complutense of Madrid and La Laguna. Preliminary report, 245 pp., 2009. [22] Peck, J.G. and Lepie, A.S. Turismo y desarrollo en tres enclaves costeros de Carolina del Norte. In: Anfitriones e invitados, ed. Smith, V.L. Endymión, Madrid, pp. 303-333, 1992. [23] Sayer, J.A., Campbell, B. Petheram, L. et al. Assessing environmental and Development outcomes in conservation landscapes. Biodiversity and Conservation, 16(9), 2677-2694. 2006.

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[24] Garnett, S.T., Sayer, J.A. and du Toit, J. Improving the effectiveness of Interventions to Balance Conservation and Development: a Conceptual Framework. Ecology and Society, 12(1), p. 2 [online] URL: www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss1/art2, 2007. [25] Wittemeyer, G., Elsen, P., Bean, W.T., Burton, C.O. and Brashares, J.S. Accelerated Human Population Growth at Protected Area Edges. Science, 321, pp. 123-126, 2008.

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Development of sustainability indices for the wider area of Troodos in Cyprus A. Zorpas1, S. Malamis2, G. Lambrou2, E. Katsou2, M. Loizidou2 & I. Voukkali1 1

Institute of Environmental Technology and Sustainable Development, Cyprus 2 National Technical University of Athens, Department of Chemical Engineering, Laboratory of Environmental Science, Greece

Abstract The concept of sustainability gathers together the various elements contributing to a human life support system on Earth and follows the seminal approach established by the Brundtl and report on sustainable development. Traditionally, sustainability is associated with criteria such as efficiency or equity from an economic, social and environmental viewpoint and deals with intra-generational and intergenerational issues. Indicators are considered of crucial importance for the measurement of “sustainability” in local contexts as well as for national and international policies, as they allow communicating, discussing and taking decisions on complex facts and trends, using relatively few data. The paper describes the development of sustainable indices for the wider area of Troodos in Cyprus which include 100 villages (that belong to two districts: Nicosia and Limassol), according to five criteria, which are considered as essential components of sustainable indices for the Troodos’ Mountains management. These criteria are: (i) society, (ii) cultural, (iii) economical and tourist (iv) geologic and hydrology (v) natural environment. The questionnaire’s main targets are to investigate the five criteria in relation with the data present in Table 1 and in case anyone chooses to stay permanent in any community of the Troodos’ region. Keywords: Cyprus, Troodos mountains, sustainable indices and development.

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66 Island Sustainability

1

Introduction

Sustainable development and therefore sustainability are linked not only to the three-way relationship between the environmental, economic, and social pillars but also to the institutional dimension of sustainable development. Prominent interactions exist respectively between the environmental and economical dimensions regarding viability and between the economic and social dimensions denoting equity. Furthermore, the distinction is conventionally made between weak sustainability as opposed to strong sustainability, allowing for a description of different types of capital and a total stock perspective. These types are natural capital, manufactured capital, human capital, social capital, and their substitutability determines the position held between weak sustainability and strong sustainability. Traditionally, sustainability is associated with criteria such as efficiency or equity from an economical, social and environmental viewpoint and deals with intergenerational and intergenerational issues. Nevertheless, this concept is difficult to seize and ambiguities arise [1]. Indicators are crucial instruments for understanding, communicating, and evaluating environmental processes and policies. They consist of data or parameters easy to understand, which are able to represent a more complex reality. If available for different years, the data can be aggregated to time series, creating indicators able to show trends. Indicators may consist either of single data which can be assumed to be a “key data”, representing the state or a trend of environmental, economic or social conditions. For instance, in the field of pollution, the state of organisms particularly sensible to environmental changes can be used for indicating environmental changes. Within the set of indicators for the implementation of integrated coastal zone management, the surface of protected areas is used as an indicator for the state of protection of natural diversity. Indicators may also consist of more complex, constructed data as for instance the ratio between the population living in a coastal area and the value of residential properties, which may be used as an indicator for the demand of property on the coast. Many works have been conducted by international organizations as well as by national agencies and governments in order to elaborate national sustainable development strategies. The aim has been to elaborate incentive tools for considering the multidimensional nature of sustainable development and for assessing related progress [2]. The United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development [3] led the way by implementing a work programme in April 1995 resulting in a first list of 134 indicators in 1996. After being tested in 22 countries in 2000, this list was reduced down to 59 so-called basic indicators for which a methodological guide was published in September 2001. From 1998, the OECD adopted the same approach based on an initial extensive list and several meetings among scientific experts until 2003, when a list of 69 reference indicators was published. EUROSTAT has employed a similar approach: a first test concerning the 134 United Nations indicators was carried out in 1997, and was then followed by the publication of list of 69 indicators derived from the basic United Nations indicators. After the Göteborg summit held in June 2001, a WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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specific task-force resulted in a prioritized system consisting of 155 indicators which were validated in 2005: 12 so-called main indicators were to be used by high-ranking decision makers and a large public, 45 strategic indicators were related to sub-subjects, and finally, 98 so-called analytic indicators represented the various processes [4, 5]. Even though indicators were initially elaborated from the sustainable development pillars (environmental, economic, social, and institutional issues), the interactions between these pillars are mostly favored by issues, thus enabling the introduction of values and priorities of relevant populations. EU has thus recently drawn up guidelines and indicators concerning sustainable development whilst taking into account issues at stake [5]. The aim is to integrate knowledge and create transversal bridges in order to link pillars and to encourage the commitment of people. After their initial development at an international level, where sustainable development indicators essentially ensure a normative and educational function, these approaches were progressively implemented at other levels. They were then employed at national and local levels, where they were used for implementing sustainable management and decision support principles for managers. It is verified that interactions existing between the different pillars of sustainable development are best taken into account at a local scale where positive synergies between these dimensions are expressed most accurately. Cyprus is situated in the north-eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea, 338 east and 358 north of the Equator. It is situated 75 km south of Turkey, 105 km west of Syria, 380 km north of Egypt, and 380 km east of Rhodes (Greece). The third largest Mediterranean island after Sicily and Sardinia, it has an area of 9251 km2, of which 1733 are forested. Cyprus has a record of successful economic performance, reflected in rapid growth, full employment conditions and external and internal stability, almost throughout the post-Independence period. The underdeveloped economy, inherited from colonial rule until 1960, has been transformed into a viable economy with dynamic services, industrial and agricultural sectors and advanced physical and social infrastructure. In terms of per capita income, is currently estimated at US $13000 during 2000 and at US $ 20000 during 2008, it is classified as the highest income country of all the entering new EU members. The research deals with the development of the sustainable indicators in relation with the scenario that anyone chooses to stay permanent in any Community of the Troodos’ region in Cyprus according to several criteria as followed, because most young people have left from the villages in the mountains.

2

Description of the selected area: methodology

Troodos is the biggest mountain range of Cyprus, located in the centre of the Island. Troodos’ highest peak is Mount Olympus at 1952 metres (Figures 1 and 2). Troodos’ mountain range stretches across most of the western side of Cyprus. There are many famous mountain resorts, Byzantine monasteries and churches on mountain peaks, and nestling in its valleys and picturesque WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

68 Island Sustainability

Figure 1:

Map of Cyprus.

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Figure 2:

Panoramic view of Troodos Mountains.

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69

70 Island Sustainability mountain villages clinging to terraced hill slopes. There are nine churches and one monastery in Troodos that are counted among UNESCOs Word Heritage Sites and several other monasteries, of which the Kykkos monastery is the richest and most famous. The nine Byzantine churches are: Stavros tou Ayiasmati, Panayia tou Araka, Timiou Stavrou at Pelendri, Ayios Nikolaos tis Stegis, Panayia Podithou, Assinou, Ayios loannis Lampadistis, Panayia tou Moutoula, Archangel Michael at Pedhoulas. The area has been known since the ancient times for its copper mines, and in the Byzantine period became a great centre of Byzantine art, as churches and monasteries were built in the mountains, away from the threatened coastline. During the second half of the 20th century most young people have left the villages in the mountains, but efforts have been made to establish the region as a tourist resort. The paper describes the development of sustainable indices for the wider area of Troodos in Cyprus, which include 100 villages (that belong in two districts: Nicosias and Limassol), according to five criteria, which are considered as essential components of sustainable indices for the Troodos Mountains management. These criteria are: (A) society, (B) cultural, (C) economical and tourist (D) geologic and hydrology (E) natural environment. Those criteria are divided into several categories as indicated in table 1 and the Troodos area has been divided into 7 regions as follows: R1: North Pitsilia (20 villages Nicosia), R2: South Pitsilia (10 villages Limassol), R3: Marathasa (8 villages Nicosia, 6 villages Limassol), R4: Solea (13 villages Nicosia), R5: Wineries (23 villages Limassol), R6: villages producing Koumantaria (12 villages Nicosia) and R7: Troodos (8 villages Limassol). According to the Statistic Services in Cyprus (2004) the total population of the 100 villages in the Troodos area is 23,768 inhabitants with the biggest village to be Kyperounta with 1497 inhabitants (belonging to the South Pitsilia Area), followed by Kakopetria with 1198 inhabitants (belonging to the Solea Area), while the smaller villages are Fikardou with 3 inhabitants (belonging to North Pitsilia) followed by Kissousa and Koukka with 4 inhabitants (belonging to Wineries Village) and Kourdas with 10 inhabitants (belonging to the Solea area). In order to estimate the stress coefficient of the above 5 criteria a questionnaire has been developed in order to examine the significant of each criteria according to the above data presented in Table 1. Questionnaire credits were from 0 to 10 with zero to be the worst and 10 the best credit. The questionnaire’s main targets are to investigate those five criteria in relation with the data presented in Table 1 and with the scenario that anyone chooses to stay permanent in any Community of the Troodos’ region. The questionnaire has been completed by several people and aged 17-50 and from several cultural levels. In order to estimate the indices, the Performance Ordering Method (PROMETHEE) has been applied using the Decision Lab 2000. Decision Lab is a multi-criteria analysis and decision-making software. Its advanced features will provide evidence of strengths against weaknesses, of conflicts and consensus.

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Table 1: Indicators 1 2

3 4 5

6 7 8

9

Society (A) Population

71

Investigated indicators per each criterion. Cultural (B)

Economical Geologic and and tourist (C) hydrology (D) Jobs Rivers

Natural environment (E) Forest areas Parks Tour areas

Community structural Ages (ever ages) Entertainment, Quarries Dam traditional festivals, music, etc Community per Unesco Hotels and Biotope Natura 2000 area area memorial hostels Education level Archaeological Agro tourist Geomorphology Natural footpath areas facilities School, nursing Other Camps areas Falls Cycling home, memorials community clinic, etc Distance from Museum Congress rooms Natural Spring Essence of town Landfill sites --Athletic place Restaurants Natural Spa Waste water plants --Churches not Tourist Services Area elevation --included in (information, UNESCO guides) --Internet -------

With the several “What if?” scenarios, will really improve the quality and the reliability of the decision-making processes.

3

Result and discussions

Table 2 presents the stress coefficient of the above 5 criteria and the stress coefficient per Indicator according to the results given by the Decision Lab. Table 3 presents the inhabitants’ repartition per age and region. This criterion (population ages) is very important as young people abandon the countryside. Table 4 presents the calibration of Criteria A–E in relation to the regions R1–R7. For the A4 criterion (Education Level) 60% of the total population seems to be also an important issue as, according to the questionnaire analysis, and the Statistical Services in Cyprus, they have finished the gymnasium, 30% has graduated high school while 10% has a University degree. According to the same source the R1 has 9, R2 has 11, R3 has 10, R4 has 12, R5 has 9, R6 has 4 while R7 has 7 utility services (including schools, nursing home, community clinic). Distances are not so important as the major distance from the centre of the closer Town (Nicosia or Limassol) is from 18 – 50 Km in proportion of the village. Each community presented with significant structure in order to solve their own problems. All communities presented with voluntary teams (B2). Universal memorial as described by UNESCO there are a lot in the Troodos Area and this indicator is examined in order to find out if is useful for the development of the area. This indicator (B3) seems to be useful for the region R1, R3, and R4. As

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72 Island Sustainability Table 2: Cri ter 1 ion A 0.033 B 0.025 C 0.027 D 0.025 E 0.045

Percentage of stress coefficient per each criterion and stress coefficient per indicator. 2

3

4

0.033 0.021 0.014 0.021 0.037

0.029 0.016 0.023 0.021 0.032

0.033 0.016 0.021 0.021 0.037

Table 3:

Indicators 5 6 0.042 0.016 0.021 0.021 0.032

North Pitsilia South Pitsilia Marathasa Solea Wineries Koumantaria Troodos

8

9

--0.021 0.027 0.019 0.032

--0.018 0.023 0.021 ---

--0.028 -------

21 18 18 18 25

Inhabitants repartition per age and region.

Region 0-14 628 875 223 773 695 354 188

0.037 0.016 0.021 0.027 0.032

% 7

15-29 701 782 281 994 695 330 168

Ages (years) 30-44 579 711 224 724 613 350 196

45-64 858 1113 515 1336 118 561 382

+65 985 1163 902 1186 1335 502 439

the Tourist Activities are the mainly heavy product for Cyprus is also influencing the impact of those Regions. However, in order to be a destination attractive to tourism, it must first promote the beauty, the priorities and the facilities of the area. Criterion C aims to investigate the relation between economic activities and tourism. The most important issues of this were that R3, R5, and R7 presented with excellent tourist facilities including restaurants, conference rooms, events, which help the economics of the area. Even though Cyprus has been known worldwide for cooper mining, those are producing either jobs positions and also significant environmental problems. This indices C2 shows the impact of the queries and mining on the environment. R7 is the region with the most queries and mining consisting of negative environmental impacts. A significant indicator is also the geological and hydrological characteristics of the area as Cyprus is presented with scarcity of water. All the examined Regions (R1–R7) are developed close to the watershed. Water is a very important resource for success in developing an area. However, Cyprus presents with four small waterfalls and all of them are found in the R7 region. R4 and R7 are the only regions without any dam. Hence, R7 is the most inaccessible area due to its natural geological characteristics but all regions from R1 to R7 presented with natural sources while the R3 is the region with the most natural spa (four). The elevation of each region seems not to present negative impact due to the very organized road net. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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Table 4: Criterion as described above A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B9 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 D8 E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6 E7

73

Calibration of Criteria A–E for regions R1–R7.

R1

R2

6 7 8 6 8 6 6 7 10 9 7 3 2 7 10 6 5 1 4 2 2 2 1 8 5 3 8 1 10 1 8 10 3 6 10 10 3 8

8 8 6 8 10 2 3 6 5 4 10 7 9 5 1 5 1 2 1 3 7 3 2 6 5 2 8 1 10 5 8 1 4 1 5 1 6 10

Regions as described above R3 R4 R5 4 4 8 4 8 8 4 6 10 4 4 4 4 10 1 10 1 8 5 5 2 5 1 10 10 6 7 1 10 10 9 9 10 4 4 10 4 1

10 10 8 10 10 7 5 5 10 10 8 3 10 9 10 4 5 7 4 3 4 10 2 4 1 2 8 1 10 1 8 8 2 2 4 10 8 4

8 8 10 8 8 2 7 8 1 6 4 10 3 9 1 5 1 1 10 1 2 7 1 6 5 3 6 1 9 1 7 4 1 6 2 1 10 4

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R6

R7

4 5 6 4 2 1 3 1 1 4 2 3 1 5 10 9 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 4 5 3 6 1 9 1 6 2 1 6 1 1 3 1

2 3 4 2 4 10 2 2 1 6 7 2 5 6 1 10 10 10 1 10 10 10 1 10 1 6 10 10 10 3 10 10 7 10 10 10 1 1

74 Island Sustainability Environmental Indicators showed that Cyprus forest presented with important fauna and flora. Tours space and Natura 2000 areas according to the 92/43/EC and 79/409/EC directives retain the ecological landscape and also the fauna and flora of the selected regions. Regions with Natura 2000 decrease any development in any area. A negative environmental indicator is the illegal landfill side with R5 to be in the top of the list. Wastewater treatment plants are a positive issue and R2 is presented in the top of the list with 3 treatment plants.

4

Conclusions

Figure 3 presents the Indicators Profile according to the results of Decision Lab per Indicator (A,B,C,D,E) and per Region (R1-R7). R1 presented with a good

R1

R2

R3

R4

R5

R6

R7 Figure 3:

Indicators Profile according to the results of Decision Lab per Indicator (A,B,C,D,E) in relation with Region (R1-R7).

profile for the Cultural and Environmental Indices and less for economics and tourism. R3 presented with good economical and tourist indices and with less for geological and hydrological. R4 presented with good social and cultures indices and were inferior in the geologic and hydrologic indices. R3, R1 and R4 presented as the most developed areas, with R4 having all the schools that one area needs to be developed. The less developed area is region R6 which has been deserted From the sensitive analysis of each indicator in relation with which indicator is more significant per region we have several results. Regardless of which

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indicators are more significant, the result remains the same for R1, R3 and R4 but with reverse order per examined indicator. The most significant result from the sensitive analysis is that the region R7 must be protected from any environmental issue. Concluding, it can be said that the development of all the examined areas is feasible and region R4 can be a model. The answer to our questions is that any one can stay permanently in any community and this has to do with what standards are implemented.

References [1] Roussel, S.; Crinquant, N. and Bourdat, E. (2007), “In search of coastal zone sustainability by means of social carrying capacity indicators construction: lessons learned from the Thau lagoon case study (Région LanguedocRoussillon, France)”, International Journal of Sustainable Development, 10 (1/2): 175-194. [2] Rey-Valette, H.; Damart, S. and Roussel, S., “A multicriteria participationbased methodology for selecting sustainable development indicators: an incentive tool for concerted decision making beyond the diagnosis framework”, International Journal of Sustainable Development, 10 (1/2): 122-138 [3] UNCSD United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development [4] Zuintnen, N. (2004), “Indicateurs pour un développement durable : aspects méthodologiques et développements en cours”, Working Paper No. 4-04 of the Bureau Fédéral du Plan, Brussels, Belgium. [5] EUROSTAT (2005), “Measuring progress towards a more sustainable Europe, sustainable development indicators for the European Union”, Luxembourg: Office for official publications of the European Communities.

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The attitudes of the island local community towards sustainable tourism development – the case of Stari Grad, island Hvar L. Petrić & L. Pranić Faculty of Economics Split, University of Split, Croatia

Abstract Islands, as an outstanding nature’s work of art, have traditionally been popular tourist destinations. Considering their fragile environment and pressure that tourism development poses upon their economy, environment, and people in general, achieving sustainable tourism development is a major challenge they face. Yet, little research focusing on understanding small islands’ residents’ attitudes towards tourism and its effects have been conducted in the literature so far. This is especially the case with Croatian islands’ communities where tourism has been developed almost spontaneously and as such is taken for granted. To fill this gap, this study examines the residents’ attitudes towards tourism development in the town of Stari Grad on the island of Hvar. Keyword: island destinations, sustainable tourism development, community attitudes, Stari Grad-Hvar.

1

Introduction

Most of the islands are small and uninhabited; many of them consist of several small communities counting in average not more than several hundred to several thousand inhabitants. Finally there are islands representing independent microstates of less than a million people (Mauritius, Malta, Bahamas etc.). However, regardless of the islands’ size, their economies share following characteristics: they are small scaled, isolated and weak, oriented traditionally to agriculture and fishing with a very few ones making exemptions, e.g. having more diversified economies. Hence, it is not surprising that most of the islands have embraced tourism as a rare and unique development opportunity. Tourism is generally more important in an economic sense to an island destination than is usually the WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line) doi:10.2495/ISLANDS100071

78 Island Sustainability case with mainland destinations because it is invariably a larger and a more significant part of the island destination’s economy. However it is also more pervasive in its impacts on the small island communities than is on larger mainland resort destinations. Considering their fragile ecological and sociocultural environment and pressure that tourism development poses upon their economy, environment, and people in general, achieving sustainable tourism development is a major challenge they face. The concept of sustainable development has attracted debate and analysis from virtually all academic standpoints. In parallel with the evolution of sustainable development discourse, concerns about the environmental and social impacts of tourism have escalated in recent years. Many authors [7, 9, 25, 48] have recommended a number of principles that ought to be followed for sustainable tourism development. These include preservation of ecological processes and the protection of biodiversity in the natural realm and, in human terms, preservation of cultural integrity, holistic planning, balance, harmony, efficiency, equity and participation. Obviously, sustainability refers to the capacity for continuance of any destination and is, therefore, a function of complex relationships between society and natural resources, of socioeconomic and political structures and local-scale management decisions. Above all, sustainability in development of a tourist destination depends on recognition and utilization of local social and institutional capital [44]. Although locals appreciate tourism and most often recognize both its positive and negative impacts, implementation of the principles of sustainability in the process of tourism development in the small island communities is a special challenge since each island community exhibits unique characteristics. Although there has been quite an amount of literature dealing with the issues of local communities’ attitudes towards tourism development, such researches in small island communities seem to be lacking, especially in Croatia, whose island portfolio is one of the richest in the world, with more than thousand of different sized islands, 66 of which are inhabited. Therefore, by drawing from current literature on small communities’ economies, tourism dependency, and theoretical frameworks that have been applied to the study of host attitudes toward tourism, this study proposes a model for analyzing community attitudes toward tourism in small island communities with a special regard to the community of Stari Grad on the Croatian island of Hvar. Specifically, this research sought to accomplish these goals: • • •

Theoretically explore the concept of sustainable development and its application on the small island economies; Empirically investigate residents’ attitudes towards costs and benefits arising from tourism development in the town of Stari Grad on the island of Hvar; Empirically examine the relationships between residents’ attitudes and their socio-demographic characteristics.

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Present state of tourism development in Stari Grad

Before discussing the research methodology and results gained from the empirical research, a brief review of the current state of tourism development in the town of Stari Grad is presented. This overview sets the background for the opinions of the local residents towards the impacts of tourism on their community. Stari Grad (ancient Pharos) is one of the oldest European towns and the oldest town on the island of Hvar, founded by the Ancient Greeks in 385/384 BC. It features beautiful nature and extraordinary cultural monuments. Following the demise of the former Yugoslavia and its command economy, a few small factories that did operate in Stari Grad up to that point, were closed. Today, with the exception of fishing and wine and olive growing, tourism is the only activity available to 1,906 local residents [13]. However, apart from its cultural and natural resources, the town has no financial and human potential to develop tourism according to the market requirements. Namely, between 1970s and 1990s, the prevailing concept of tourism development on the entire island of Hvar was sun-sea-sand tourism. However, after 1990s, not only because of the war consequences (hosting of the refugees in hotels and loss of markets), but also because of the shift of the demand due to the change of tourists’ needs and preferences, the popularity of Stari Grad as a tourist destination has dwindled. Croatia’s national hotel privatization process, instead of rejuvenating the hotel sector, only worsened this situation. Thus all the hotels are in a poor condition and able to cater only to the low-budget guest. Overall, no investments into the existing or new accommodation capacity have taken place during the past 20 years. Compared to the town of Hvar which recorded almost half a million of tourist overnights, the town of Stari Grad registered (for the first nine months) only 189,000 overnights [16]. Local tourist board and the local authorities do not know how to cope with this situation. Local residents feel hopeless and helpless with no means and no knowledge as to how to help resolve this development crisis, although they feel that tourism has great importance for their community! A number of studies in recent years have examined host residents’ perceptions of the impact of tourism development on their community. According to Gursoy and Rutherford [23], a number of these studies have used the Social Exchange Theory (SET), as a theoretical framework in assessing residents’ attitudes toward tourism. It is “a general sociological theory concerned with understanding the exchange of resources between individuals and groups in an interaction situation” [4, as seen in 45]. Tourism has been most usually seen as a positive agent of change for many communities because of its potential for job creation, income generation, and enhanced community infrastructure [3, 5, 22]. However, while tourism development is usually justified on the basis of these positive benefits, it is often challenged on the grounds of socio-cultural and environmental devastation. Many researchers who investigate host community’s attitudes toward tourism and support for tourism, study the perceived impacts of tourism (e.g., [6, 8]).

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80 Island Sustainability Residents’ perceptions have been shown to be influenced by a number of factors, including: personal economic reliance on the tourism industry, the importance of the industry to the locality, the type and extent of resident-visitor interaction, and the overall level of tourism development in the community [38]. More specifically, research has shown that greater length of residency in the community [33, 34], and native-born status [18, 50] have been linked to greater negative perceptions of tourism. A few studies have focused on the relationship between the so-called community attachment and attitudes toward tourism [26]. Community attachment is defined as the “extent and pattern of social participation and integration into community life, and sentiment or affect toward the community” [35]. Community attachment has often been measured as length of stay and /or having been born or grown up there [36], sentiment about the community and involvement in the community. Economic reliance has been linked to more positive perceptions of the tourism industry [34, 37]. On the other side, some researchers showed that socioeconomic variables appear to have little relationship to residents’ perceptions of development [33, 34]. Just opposite to this, there are some researchers suggesting that gender [14, 37], occupation/education [1, 28] and age [14, 47] can explain attitudes toward tourism. It is most often presumed that those residents who believe that they benefit from tourism are likely to view it positively while those who perceive costs will view it negatively. Residents who view tourism as personally valuable and believe that the costs do not exceed the benefits will favor tourism as a local development strategy [32]. Such residents have been found to display positive attitudes to tourism and be supportive of future tourism development in their community [4, 24]. Many small island communities have been going through substantial changes in their economy and the primary industries on which their economy depended have departed, leaving behind economic difficulties and the search for alternative development strategies. For instance, in a depressed island economy, residents might need to struggle for a living and might not be in favor of tourism but may still engage in its development due to the lack of other opportunities. Kayat [30] notes that such residents tend to be more positive toward the industry which might not always be attributed to the increased dependence on tourism, but on the fact that these dependent residents have no alternative, other than tourism to sustain themselves. Similarly, residents depending on tourism who display negative attitudes toward the industry might believe that their local economy is strong enough not to depend on tourism and to enable them earn a living from industries other than tourism. Consequently, such residents, though dependent on tourism, might not support the industry. This might be an explanation for the negative attitudes held by those residents who are dependent on tourism. This suggests that there are other factors such as the perceived state of the local economy which might be moderating the effect of tourism dependence on perceived tourism impacts. In line with our study’s goals, and based on the previous discussion, this study’s main research hypothesis and a number of sub-hypotheses are as follows:

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H1: The residents of Stari Grad perceive economic impacts of tourism on their community to be positive. H1a: A direct positive relationship exists between residents’ community attachment and their attitudes towards economic impacts of tourism on Stari Grad H1b: A direct relationship exists between residents’ age and their attitudes towards economic impacts of tourism on Stari Grad H1c: A direct relationship exists between residents’ gender and their attitudes towards economic impacts of tourism on Stari Grad H1d: A direct positive relationship exists between residents’ employment in tourism and their attitudes towards economic impacts of tourism on Stari Grad H1e: A direct positive relationship exists between the importance of tourism to residents’ occupation and their attitudes towards economic impacts of tourism on Stari Grad H1f: A direct positive relationship exists between seasonality of employment and residents’ attitudes towards economic impacts of tourism on Stari Grad H2: The residents of Stari Grad perceive social impacts of tourism on their community to be negative. This hypothesis has been divided into a number of sub-hypotheses in much the same way as H1. However, instead of economic impacts, these sub-hypotheses span the relationship between socio-demographic and economic characteristics of the residents and selected social impacts. They range from H2a to H2f. H3: The residents of Stari Grad perceive environmental impacts of tourism on their community to be negative. This hypothesis has been divided into a number of sub-hypotheses, ranging from H3a to H3f, investigating the relationship between socio-demographic and economic characteristics of the residents and selected environmental issues.

3 Research methodology The sampling frame for this study comprises 1,906 residents of the town of Stari Grad on the Island of Hvar in Croatia (2001 Population Census). This study’s convenience sample totaled 200 residents and achieved a 66% response rate (n=132). This figure allows for 95% confidence within ±10% margin of error [27]. The survey instrument used in this study was comprised of a subset of items adopted and adapted from previous research [43, 45] and several new items, followed with a review by two social science research experts. Questionnaire design followed the established guidelines for mail surveys [20]. A resident of Stari Grad hand distributed 200 envelopes to an equal number of households throughout Stari Grad during October of 2009. Each envelope comprised a 2-page self-completed questionnaire written in Croatian, accompanied by a pre-stamped and pre-addressed return envelope. The questionnaire consisted of two sections. The first section included 7 socioeconomic and demographic items (predictor variables), such as gender, age, education, length of residence in Stari Grad on an annual basis, member (other than the respondent) of household employed in the tourism industry, seasonality WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

82 Island Sustainability of employment for the other household member employed in tourism, and the importance of tourism to the respondent’s occupation. Section two of the survey required respondents to rate their level of agreement with 22 tourism impact statements (response variables), with 8 items (V8-V15) representing economic impacts, 6 items (V16-V21) for social impacts, and 8 items (V22-V29) for environmental impacts. All respondents were required to rate their level of agreement with the selected statements on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Once collected, all data were entered into SPSS for further analyses.

4

Findings

Due to restrictions in the number of pages allowed, this section has been summarized for brevity. For detailed findings, please contact the authors. 4.1 The study sample The majority of respondents were between the ages of 30 and 59 (73%) and women (61%). An overwhelming majority of survey participants (90%) reside between 9 and 12 months on an annual basis in Stari Grad. Conversely, very few respondents live elsewhere (not in Stari Grad) during the year. Just over half of the sample (52%) had earned an elementary and/or high school degree, while 48% held an associate’s degree or higher. Fifty three percent of the sample indicated that a member of their household was currently employed in the tourism industry. Moreover, 27% of respondents claimed year-round employment in tourism, whereas 18% were seasonally employed. In addition, 60% felt that the tourism industry was either important or very important to their occupation. Overall, there are some differences between the profile of the respondents and the actual socio-demographics of Stari Grad’s population, as per the last population census in 2001. For instance, women are overrepresented in this study’s sample – i.e., 61% vs. 51% reported in census. On the other hand, in terms of age breakdown, the ‘29 and under’ and ‘60 and over’ groups are underrepresented in this study (17% sample vs. 35% census and 10% sample vs. 25% census, respectively). Other than for age and gender, attempts to test the representativeness of the sample for other socio-demographic variables (education, length of residence, tourism employment, employment seasonality, and importance of tourism to occupation) were unsuccessful because of lack of official data for Stari Grad. 4.2 Resident perceptions From residents’ responses to 22 tourism impact statements, respondents generally perceive that tourism for the most part favorably impacts community’s economy and the environment, whereas social impacts are viewed as mostly negative. Specifically, items V11, V13 and V14 are considered tourism’s negative economic impacts. As an example, residents feel that tourism had little success in incorporating agriculture into tourism supply (V14). In regards to WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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tourism’s impacts on the environment, V23, and V25 are deemed unfavorable. For instance, respondents believe that tourism did not contribute much in increasing environmental awareness among local residents. For social impacts, only V19, and V20 are judged positive. Thus, tourism resulted in broader appreciation for other people and cultures. Based on these findings, H1 and H2 appear as mostly supported, while H3 mainly lacks support. 4.3 Residents’ attitudes to tourism impacts and respondent characteristics Due to violation of the normality of distribution assumption, to test if there were any relationships between respondents’ characteristics and the attitudes towards tourism impacts, the nonparametric Mann-Whitney U (M-W U) and KruskalWallis (K-W) tests were employed because they do not assume data normality. In the results of the M-W U and K-W tests, not many statistically significant differences were evident as residents displayed quite a high degree of similarity in their attitudes. However, some groups exhibited some differences. Annual length of residence was a discriminator for four of the statements. For instance, those living more than 9 months per year (year-round) in Stari Grad showed stronger agreement with the statement that tourism has helped incorporate agriculture into tourism, as compared to those who live 3 or more months per year (part-time) elsewhere (not in Stari Grad). Gender was significant as an explanatory variable of attitude for only four statements. Education was significant for only one statement. Concerning reliance on tourism employment, four variables exhibited significant relationships. Age was not a significant discriminator with the exception of two statements. The greatest contrast in views was found between residents employed seasonally in tourism vs. those employed year-round. Of the total 12 statistically significant statements, significance was evident in 6 out of 8 statements representing economic impacts, 3 out of 6 social impacts, and 3 out of 8 environmental impacts. For all but one of the 12 significant statements, yearround employees expressed a stronger agreement than seasonally employed residents. Specifically, year-round employees subscribed less frequently to the idea that tourism caused a loss of cultural identity. Overall, while year-round employees were more likely to perceive favorable economic and social impacts of tourism, they also suggested more frequently that tourism exhibited negative impacts on the environment. Thus, year-round employees agreed more strongly that presence of same-day visitors and tourist overcrowding endanger the town’s environment. In addition to seasonality of employment, importance of tourism to occupation was significant as an explanatory variable for seven statements, with 4 out of 8 statements representing economic impacts having significance. Overall, in terms of this study’s sub-hypotheses, H1a-H1d, H2a-H2e, and H3aH3f appear mostly unsupported. On the other hand, H1e-H1f and H2f seem mostly supported.

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84 Island Sustainability 4.4 Reliability and validity Since the concept of measurement is crucial to scientific inquiry, reliability and validity are important aspects of survey research that must be addressed [11, 17]. Cronbach’s Coefficient Alpha is by far the most popular way to assess scale reliability [11] and is commonly used to establish convergent (construct) validity [23]. The results of reliability analysis indicate that the Coefficient Alpha [11] for the overall 22-item scale is .87. In terms of subscales, Alpha equals .82, .48. and .78 for economic, social, and environmental impacts, respectively. Thus, Alpha value for the social impacts scale is the only scale that appears below the minimum acceptable guideline of .70 for new scales [19, 40]. Since low Cronbach’s Alpha indicates data multi-dimensionality, running a factor analysis was necessary in order to see which items load highest on which dimensions, and then the alpha of each subset of items was taken separately. Results confirmed that the data indeed were not unidimensional. The Cattell scree test [12] and the “Eigenvalue > 1” criterion [30] suggested a 2 factor solution accounting for 65.4% of the variance. Using a factor loading cutoff of .50, items V16, V18, and V19 did not seemingly measure the same latent construct as V17, V20, and V21. The separate estimation of reliability for these two subsets of items produced an acceptable Cronbach’s Alpha .71 for the first subset and .68 for the second subset. Since both estimates of reliability were higher than when using all 6 items for measuring the same construct, V16, V18, and V19 should be combined to create one scale, while V17, V20, and V21 should be combined to create a second scale. To assess (divergent) validity, all 22 items were factor analyzed in an attempt to discover underlying patterns in data without sacrificing the data’s original integrity. During the analysis, item V24 showed a relatively low anti-image correlation (.565) with other items [29]. Thus, it was dropped from the factor analysis. This item was: ‘The construction of hotels and other tourism facilities resulted in destruction of the natural environment’. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy was .834, and the Bartlett’s test of sphericity was significant (X2=1421.600, df=210, p<.001). Both of these measures indicated that the data were appropriate for factor analysis [39, 42]. Moreover, the Cattell scree test and the “Eigenvalue > 1” criterion suggested a 4-factor solution accounting for 65.4% of the variance. Factor 1 accounts for the most of the variance (34.7%), whereas the second accounts for 13.5% and the third for 11.7%. The fourth factor accounts for only 5.3% of variance in the data. Moreover, the communality estimates (h2) for this solution are acceptable, although the somewhat lower value of V15 (.551) shows that it does not fit as well as the others. Using a factor loading cutoff of .50, the factor loadings indicate that, for the most part, the scale representing economic impacts (V8-V12 and V14-V15) loads on a separate factor. Within the economic impacts scale, one item (V9) loads on more than one factor, while another item (V13) loads on a different factor. Environmental impacts (V23-V29) may actually be two subscales, with V24/V25/V28 and V23/V26/V27/V29 loading on different factors. Moreover, one item (V22) belonging to the environmental WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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impacts scale loads on a separate factor. Items V18/V21 load on a factor representing ‘social impacts’, while V16, V19, and V20 – although items belonging to the social impacts scale – load on the other three factors. Overall, only one observed variable loaded on more than one factor and no observed variable loaded on all four factors.

5 Conclusions and policy implications Overall, this study’s findings highlight the complexity of tourism impacts on Stari Grad. On one hand, residents perceive that tourism for the most part favorably impacts community’s economy and the environment. Social impacts, on the other hand, are viewed as mostly negative. Furthermore, while sociodemographic characteristics generally did not explain variations in residents’ attitudes to any significant degree, there were few significant exceptions. Specifically, residents employed year-round in tourism were more likely to perceive favorable economic and social impacts of tourism. Yet, at the same time they also expressed concern about the negative environmental impacts of tourism. Is this possible because year-round employees in tourism are more aware and informed about tourism costs and benefits, in contrast to their seasonally employed counterparts? Also, residents who rated tourism as important to their occupation, perceived positive economic impacts from tourism. In order for the appropriate policy implications to be elicited in the future, further research is necessary to address this issue. In contrast to the majority of past research (e.g., [1, 14, 28, 33, 34, 37, 47]), this research found that age, gender, education, length of residence, and employment in tourism did not significantly affect residents’ perceptions within the sample. From a methodological perspective, a limitation of this study is that the addition of other indicators may have changed the results of the study, as well as the outcome of the factor analysis. While the economic impacts scale used in this study appears robust in this and other studies (e.g., [1]), the environmental impacts scale and – especially, the social impacts scale – may need further calibrating. Indeed, the factor analysis revealed that there was not a distinct factor extracted for the social impacts. Thus, future research should develop improved scales to acknowledge fully the whole range of issues for host communities. In terms of future research direction, since tourism development and its effects are a dynamic process, a research of Stari Grad residents’ perceptions in ten years time seems warranted to measure change over time. Such longitudinal monitoring would likely provide invaluable insights for developers and planners into the community’s perceptions of tourism impacts. They would then be able to take action aimed at increasing the community’s welfare and anticipate any resentment towards incoming tourists. In conclusion, residents’ affirmative perceptions of tourism and its impacts are critical drivers of destination’s long-term success. Therefore, it is pivotal that local population is involved in the community’s development and planning process. This will however, require stronger commitment on the part of governments (on all the levels), developers, interest groups and community WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

86 Island Sustainability members themselves. With an increase in political, social, economic and psychological empowerment along these lines among residents and other stakeholders, tourism will have the potential to help meet local needs for development, bringing to fruition many of the goals of sustainability, including harmony, equity, balance, cultural integrity, and ecological conservation [49].

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[15] Cook, T. D. and Campbell, D. T. (1979). Quasi Experimentation: Design and Analytical Issues for Field Settings. Chicago, IL: Rand McNally. [16] Croatian Bureau of Statistics. (2009). Tourism – Cumulative Data: January–September 2009. Retreived December 19th, 2009, from http://www.dzs.hr/Eng/Publication/2009/4-4-2_8e2009.htm. [17] Davis, D., Allen, J. and Cosenza. R. M. (1988). Segmenting local residents by their attitudes, interests and opinions toward tourism. Journal of Travel Research, 28(2). pp. 2-8 [18] DeVellis, R. F. (2003). Scale Development (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. [19] Dillman, D. A. (2000). Mail and Internet Surveys: The Tailored Design Method (2nd ed.). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. [20] Dong-Wan, K. and Stewart, W.P. (2002). A structural equation model of residents’ attitudes for tourism development. Tourism Management 23(5), pp. 521-530 [21] Eraqi, M. (2008). Local communities’ attitudes towards impacts of tourism development in Egypt. Tourism Analysis, 12, pp. 191–200 [22] Garson, D. G. (2008). Validity. Retrieved May 8th, 2008, from http://www2.chass.ncsu.edu/garson/PA765/validity.htm. [23] Gursoy, D. and Rutherford, D. (2004). Host attitudes toward tourism: An improved structural modeling approach. Annals of Tourism Research, 31(3), pp. 495-516 [24] Hall, C. M. and Lew, A. A. (1998). The geography of sustainable development; An introduction, In Hall C.M. and Lew A.A. (eds) Sustainable Tourism: A Geographical Perspective (pp. 1-12). Harlow: Longman [25] Haywood, K.M. (1988). Responsible and responsive tourism planning in the community. Tourism Management 9(2), pp. 105-118 [26] Israel, G.D. (1992). Determining sample size. Program Evaluation and Organizational Development, IFAS, University of Florida, PEOD-5 (November), 1-7. [27] Jones, D.L., Jurowski, C. and Uysal, M. (2000). Host community residents’ attitudes: A comparison of environmental viewpoints. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 2(2), pp. 129-155. [28] Kaiser, H.F. (1974). An index of factorial simplicity. Psychometrika, 39(1), pp. 31-36. [29] Kaiser, H.F. (1960). The application of electronic computers to factor analysis. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 20, pp. 141-151. [30] Kayat, K. (2002). Power, social exchanges and tourism in Langkawi: Rethinking residents’ perceptions. International Journal of Tourism Research, 4, pp. 171-191. [31] King B., Pizam, A. and Milman, A. (1993). Social impacts of tourism: Host perceptions. Annals of Tourism Research, 20, pp. 650-665. [32] Liu. J. and Var, T. (1986). Resident attitudes toward tourism impacts in Havaii. Annals of Tourism Research, 13, pp. 193-214.

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88 Island Sustainability [33] Madrigal, R. (1993). A tale of two cities. Annals of Tourism Research, 20(2), pp. 336-353. [34] McCool, S. F. and Martin, S. R. (1994). Community attachment and attitudes toward tourism development. Journal of Travel Research, 32(3), pp. 29-34. [35] McGehee, N. and. Andereck, K. (2004). Factors predicting rural residents support of tourism. Journal of Travel Research, 43, pp. 131-140. [36] Milman, A. and Pizam, A. (1988). Social impacts of tourism on Central Florida. Annals of Tourism Research, 15(2), pp. 191-204. [37] Murphy, P. (1985). Tourism: A Community Approach. London, Methuen. [38] Norman, G. and Streiner, D. (1994). Biostatistics: The Bare Essentials. St Louis, Mo: Mosby. [39] Nunnally, J. C. (1978). Psychometric Theory (2nd Ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. [40] Nunkoo, R., Ramkissoon, H., Gursoy, D. and Chi, C.G., (2009). A model for understanding residents’ support for tourism in small islands. Proc. of the International CHRIE Conference-Refereed Track, Event 18, Scholar Works at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, pp. 1-8. [41] Pedhazur, E. and Schmelkin, L. (1991). Measurement, Design and Analysis: An Integrated Approach. Hiltsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [42] Perdue, R., Long, P. and Allen, L. (1991). Resident support for tourism development. Annals of Tourism Research, 17, pp. 586-599. [43] Petrić, L. and Mrnjavac Ž. (2004). Turistička destinacija kao lokalno ukorijenjeni sustav: analogija između modela turističke destinacije i industrijskog distrikta. Turizam, 51(4), pp. 375-387. [44] Snaith, T. and Haley, A. (1999). Residents’ opinions of tourism development in the historic city of York, England. Tourism Management, 20, pp. 595-603. [45] Southgate, C. and Sharpley, R. (2002). Tourism, Development and the Environment. In Sharpley, R., Telfer, D.J. (Ed.), Tourism and Development - Concepts and Issues (pp. 231-264). Channel View Publications. [46] Teye, V., Somez, S. F. and Sirakaya, E. (2002). Residents’ attitudes toward tourism development. Annals of Tourism Research, 29(3), pp. 668-88 [47] Timothy, D.J. (1998). Cooperative tourism planning in a developing destination. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 6(1), pp. 52-68 [48] Timothy, D.J. (2002). Tourism and Community Development Issues. In Sharpley R., Telfer, D.J., (Ed.), Tourism and Development. Channel View Publications, pp. 149-164. [49] Um, S. and Crompton, J. L.(1987). Measuring resident’s attachment levels in a host community. Journal of Travel Research, 25(3), pp. 27-29.

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The socio-cultural impacts of visiting friends and relatives on hosts: a Samoan study R. G. Taufatofua1 & S. Craig-Smith2 1

Centre for Social Responsibility in Mining (CSRM), Sustainable Minerals Institute, Australia 2 School of Tourism, University of Queensland, Australia

Abstract This paper considers and compares the key impacts of the visiting friends and relatives (VFR) traveller and the holiday tourist on the socio-cultural fabric of Pacific Island community’s. Research was undertaken in the islands of Samoa. A socio-cultural capital approach provided recognition of the dynamic natures of the communities considered. The VFR traveller is a particularly important yet largely under-estimated visitor segment in many Pacific islands where VFR travellers comprise a considerable percentage of visitors. Socio-cultural and economic impacts can be significant on host communities, particularly as the VFR traveller can slip beneath the cultural barrier separating the local resident from the tourist/traveller. The current research suggested that VFR travellers impact the socio-cultural fabric in similar ways to holiday tourists. However, host respondents accorded less concern to VFR traveller impacts than to holiday tourists. Impacts were largely considered positive, enhanced by the importance of this traveller segment through overseas remittances. Elements impacted varied in strength of impact by traveller type. For example, reciprocity was considered impacted more so by VFR travellers, changing the nature of reciprocity from an intrinsic value to extrinsic value based on monetary exchanges. This research glimpses how the socio-cultural fabric operates particular resilience mechanisms to protect its integrity from undesirable external influences, yet embraces the more favourable influences. The research identifies that holiday and VFR tourism in Samoa does impact the socio-cultural fabric in a myriad of ways, some positive and others negative. Keywords: socio-cultural resilience, social and cultural capital, visiting friends and relatives. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line) doi:10.2495/ISLANDS100081

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1

Introduction

This report considers the impacts of the Visiting Friends and Relatives (VFR) travel market on four host communities in the Pacific Island nation of Samoa, The socio-cultural and economic impacts from tourism can be significant on host communities, often more pronounced in those countries where there are high levels of visitation. Tourism impacts have received widespread consideration; however, impacts have not been differentiated by traveller typologies. In particular VFR travellers have been largely overlooked with respect to impacts, planning and management strategies. Research is criticized as failing to adequately explore socio-cultural and socio-demographic variables and behaviours of hosts and VFRs in host countries (Husbands [2], Young et al [3], McKercher [4]). Some studies even indicated that this relationship is not discernible (Belisle and Hoy [5], Liu et al [6], Lankford and Howard [7], Milman and Pizam [8], Ryan and Montgomery [9]). Jackson [10] filled some of the void studying resident characteristics and behaviours to understand the social and economic implications of entertaining VFR travellers. This consideration fell short of acknowledging that Pacific VFR travellers may contribute to socio-cultural change in respective communities. This research specifically considered key impacts of the VFR traveller on the socio-cultural fabric of the Pacific Island communities in Samoa and where relevant compares them to impacts of the mainstream holiday tourist market.

2

Methodology

The VFR traveller was considered as part of a larger study which researched the impacts of tourism on local communities of Samoa. This research looked at two traveller types, holiday tourists and VFR travellers. Three distinctly different touristic locations were considered:  Larger tourism operations in the capital of Apia;  Medium Tourism operations. These consisted of family operations, beach fales / bungalows, in Lalomanu (Upolu) and in Manase (Savaii);  Community with no tourism development in close proximity, the community of Aopo (Savaii) which acted as the control for the research. It was assumed at the onset of the research that a non-touristic area should show a different level of cultural change than touristic areas if tourism did affect cultural change and erosion. Forty nine community members were interviewed individually and in focus group discussions. Perceived impacts (as identified by host residents) by holiday tourists and VFR travellers were identified and compared. 2.1 A socio-cultural capital approach to the research A social and cultural capital approach was used to understand the complexity of communities, their networks and relationships in a dynamic and comprehensive way. This includes many dimensions of community norms, values and WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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way. This includes many dimensions of community norms, values and behaviours, addressed to understand processes of change and what constitutes resilience to change in communities. This provided a means to measure multidimensional aspects of communities in contrast to singular dimensions of traditional measurement tools. With the wide recognition that economic growth is not enough to attain quality of life, the importance of social and cultural capital in terms of connecting the past, present and future is highlighted (Mercer [11]). Put simply, a ‘Social Capital’ approach looks at the patterns and qualities of relationships within a community or society, and considers capacity to address and resolve issues and change, which they collectively experience (Saunders [12], Black and Hughes [13], ABS [14]). Cultural capital identifies individual’s varying ability to learn and carry out culturally favoured behaviour and attitudes, differentiating their relative worth to a cultural group (Bourdieu [15]). Those with higher levels of cultural capital are more likely to dominate and influence a cultural group. The elements of social and cultural capital explored in this research included: reciprocity; trust and trustworthiness; self efficacy; land ownership, family, shame, face and respect, the chiefly system, oratory, religion and spirituality, social cohesiveness, craftsmanship, building styles, tattoos, sense of belonging, sense of support, sense of inner peace and contentment; and values and beliefs. A combination of participatory action research techniques and critical ethnographic methodologies guided the research interaction with respondents. Analysis and interpretation of results used both quantitative and qualitative analytical methods. Significant cross-relationships between nominal and ordinal variables were analysed and strongly significant interrelationships investigated in line with multidisciplinary literature discussions.

3

Discussion of research findings

The study clearly identified that VFR travellers impacted several key elements of the socio-cultural fabric of those communities considered. The outcomes of the research showed similarities and differences between impacts of VFR travellers and holiday tourists. The critical aspects will be discussed in line with community resilience aligning discussion to the enhancement of sustainable community growth. The following aspects will be considered:  VFR traveller typology to understand relevant characteristics  Links between the Pacific VFR and a remittance culture  Impacts on the socio-cultural capital of the communities.  Links to socio-cultural resilience. 3.1 Typology of travellers Tourism impacts can vary considerably by traveller type. What is clear from research and literature is that the VFR traveller segment is not a homogenous segment. Characteristics of these travellers may vary between countries, cultures and in response to other influences. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

92 Island Sustainability Little research has been undertaken in the area of VFR travellers, let alone clear definitions of the typologies of the market segment, yet some researchers recognise the value of the VFR traveller market (Lehto et al [16], Moscardo et al [17] Lee et al [18], Duval [19]). This is in contrast to other authors who considered that the value of VFR travel is small compared with other forms of tourism (Seaton and Palmer [20]). Literature has largely addressed VFR travellers from a western context in UK, Canada, US, Australia and Europe. Recent studies in Australia considered the VFR definitional typology, essentially separating the traveller into two main groups, defined “by purpose” or “by accommodation” (Backer [21]). Yet this typology may have limited use in providing a comparative understanding of the Samoa VFR travel scenario, as ‘purpose’ is the predominant instigator of travel, ‘accommodation’ is generally secondary. What can differentiate the Samoan VFR traveller from those from many other countries is that the social ties of the overseas Samoan remain strong and return visits remain an essential part of maintaining their Samoan identity (McGrath [22]). Many overseas Samoans consider themselves “Samoan first and foremost” and remain keenly interested in Samoan life and politics. Furthermore, most Samoan leaders have lived and studied overseas and hence been termed VFR travellers at some stage of their overseas lives. These people have introduced and guided Samoa in its integration of both fa’asamoa (Samoan) and fa’apalagi (Western) ways (UNESCO [23]). The VFR traveller is a particularly important visitor segment in many small Pacific Islands where they comprise a considerable percentage of visitors. Indeed, in Samoa the VFR traveller segment makes up approximately 29 percent of total visitors, slightly behind the holiday sector (around 33 percent) (Central Bank of Samoa [1]). Despite recent declines in the market, earnings from VFR travellers (US$7.7 million) are higher than holiday tourists (US$5.7 million) (Central Bank of Samoa [1]). Central Bank assessments consider formal market earnings, whereas informal sector contributions (household goods, food and other assistance) have largely not been assessed and may provide a greater influence on households and the economy than formal sector earnings. This highlights the importance of this market segment and the need for socioeconomic planners to better understand the impacts and needs of this valuable segment in order to manage and sustain the segment more effectively. 3.2 The Pacific VFR and links to a remittance culture Links between VFR travellers and out migration from the Pacific have been explored by several authors (Jackson [10], Springer [24], Duval [19]) directly linking migration and remittances to the VFR traveller. What is ironic is that although the Pacific Islands attract tourists who seek the Pacific paradise, many inhabitants of these paradise locations leave to seek employment and educational opportunities. Significant migration has occurred from some workforces, including approximately 50,000 Cook Islanders and 8,000 Niue Islanders. By 1993, one third of Samoans lived overseas, mainly in American Samoa, United States, Australia and New Zealand (Shankman [25]). WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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A parallel remittance culture has developed. These VFR travellers remit money and goods while resident overseas to help provide for family needs (Samoan VFR traveller [26], NZ Ministry of Women Report [27]). Remittances have continued to rise over recent years to Samoa (an increase of 8 percent in 2005 worth approximately US $248m), remaining a key source of family income a positive impact on the Samoan economy (Joint Samoa Program Strategy [28]). Many VFR travellers grew up with the same norms and values as hosts, yet have also adopted certain traits of their new homes. Upon migration people adopt characteristics of their new home, adjusting to both ‘identity and speed’ (McCall [29]). The very speed of the adjustment provides the greatest impact. With these visitors come the potential to significantly impact the culture with new ideas from their adopted country, particularly as there is a parallel reliance on the same relatives for daily subsistence in their home community through remittances. This traveller can go deep into the traditional culture, past any superficial barrier imposed by hosts. These migrants return to ‘home’ on a remarkably regular basis as the home journey remains a resilient socio-cultural attribute. The cost of travel has become very competitive with low cost airlines decreasing travel seasonality. However a degree of price insensitivity occurs despite traveller income, largely due to: social motives for travel; a sense of obligation and even fulfilment (Bull [30]). Returning ‘home’ for a visit is important, maintaining ties, duties and obligations reaffirming the Samoan identity. A study of Samoan residents in Seattle found journeying to Samoa was a defining element of Samoan identity (McGrath [22]). Barker [31] studied Samoan migrants in the US and identified that 25 per cent lived below the level of poverty; comprising the largest immigrant group living in poverty. Yet remittances and travel to Samoa is important for nearly all immigrants (Barker [31], NZ Ministry of Women Report [27]). With low incomes, the cost of the air ticket is a significant part of the total cost of the trip and bringing gifts and money more important than expensive holidays. Paci [32] suggested that a deeper understanding is required regarding migration, mobility, ethnic differentials and motivation surrounding VFR travel to understand the holiday/obligation incongruities. Yet little further understanding has been gleaned regarding the characteristics of this market segment since Paci’s study in 1994.

4

Impacts

Only one respondent (of 49 respondents) indicated they did not have an overseas relative visiting them periodically. Furthermore, 94 percent of respondents considered that VFR travellers impacted the Samoan socio-cultural fabric in a myriad of ways, some positive and others negative. Perceived impacts varied across socio-cultural elements and inter related variables indicating the level of complexity in understanding community dynamics. Level of impact is cited by respondents as dependent upon:  Frequency of visits;  Commodities and services that hosts must provide; WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

94 Island Sustainability  Frequency of provision of these commodities and services;  The level that VFR travellers participate in community activities. The VFR traveller did not provide significantly different impacts to the socio-cultural fabric than holiday tourists. The main areas whereby VFR travellers were perceived to impact the socio-cultural fabric more than holiday tourists included: chiefly system; reciprocity; building styles; the family; and emotions of shame, face and respect. Impact was considered positive in many instances, probably enhanced by the importance of this traveller to the economy through remittances. This may also be partly due to the local response, whereby visitors were expected by the hosts to remain involved in cultural activities. Host respondents accorded less concern to VFR travellers impacting the culture than to holiday tourists, despite similar key elements impacted by both visitors. 4.1 Chiefly system The migration of relatives overseas has encouraged greater individualism (UNESCO [23]), which can undermine the traditional dependency underlying the matai system. Through remittances, community members have access to money and other resources, decreasing dependency on family and chiefs, whom had traditionally provided support and decisions. Individuals now have opportunities to live outside the community using personal resources to cater for immediate families, leading to a more individualistic and self reliant lifestyle. Furthermore, remittances are generally sent to parents, siblings and close relatives rather than to a matai who traditionally managed family affairs, strengthening individual power and weakening matai control (UNESCO [23]). Another issue which has arisen is that some visiting relatives have challenged the authority of the matai and the village fono, in different ways, bringing new ways of thinking and social organising skills. On behalf of their relatives, they challenge the rights of the village to constrain individual rights as stated in the Samoan Constitution (UNESCO [23]). What this discussion indicates is that the way VFR travellers impact the chiefly system is strongly influenced by money; including providing community individuals access to money resources that they previously had little access to, resulting in less dependency on the chiefly system, offering opportunities that may not have been accessible in the past. This greater financial self reliance is largely augmented through both remittances and visits home. Financial independence can also enable community members to contribute more to their community and towards obligations to their chiefs. To what extent this may occur is unclear as it can impinge on the non-formal economy. Various scenarios can emerge from these outcomes.  Ideally the chiefly system can strengthen its leadership and decision making role. This would strengthen the contemporary Samoan culture, based on traditional social ties and elements of social and cultural capital, yet become more responsive to contemporary economic needs. In a spin off this would maintain the cultural product that tourism currently so heavily relies upon. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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On the other hand change can diminish the role of the chiefly system, whereby the culture will also become more western and individualistic. This can be challenging for the tourism product, as Samoa would then have to compete for tourist dollars with other island destinations which are more competitive in mainstream tourism. This is the scenario occurring to a degree in some communities studied, spurred on by the lack of understanding of the relevance of culture to the tourism product.

4.2 Reciprocity The current research supports the assumption that reciprocity remains strong within the Samoan culture despite the cash economy contributing to a growing imbalance of wealth within the communities. Yet the nature of reciprocity has evolved whereby ceremonial exchange has integrated a monetary value (Young et al [3]) shifting from mutual benefit towards more individual benefit. Consequently the current research has contributed to recognising the importance of maintaining the intrinsic basis of reciprocal exchange process, controlling levels of monetary exchange. This in turn supports a greater equality in communities, based on culture rather than wealth. This is supported by Putnam [33] who recognised the importance of social networks and rules which dictate how these networks are conducted, involving mutual obligations and sturdy norms of reciprocity. Furthermore, different forms of reciprocity can include: “I will do this for you if you do this for me” and also “a norm of generalized reciprocity: I’ll do this for you without expecting anything specific back from you, in the confident expectation that someone else will do something for me down the road” (Putnam [33]). Communities based around the latter type of reciprocity are more effective and efficient than distrustful communities with weak social networks (Putnam [33]). Within the context of the VFR traveller, the cash economy and consequent social inequalities have made it more difficult to practice this generalised traditional reciprocity. The VFR traveller influences the nature of reciprocity from an intrinsic value to a more extrinsic value based on monetary exchanges. The current research suggested more respondents (42 percent) considered that VFR travellers impacted reciprocity, more so than holiday tourists (35 percent). Relatives have visited family, bringing gifts for generations and although this continues, there can be some resentment on the part of the host and shame on the part of the guest especially amongst hosts who cannot provide much to guests (Hezel [34]). The VFR traveller must also conform to appropriate community behaviours, whereas those who reside in liberal societies are reluctant to follow traditional ways as rigidly. Moreover, many VFR travellers lead busy working lifestyles, seeking a more relaxed holiday than what is expected of them by hosts. What this suggests is that hosts and guests may have differing ideas of what hospitality and reciprocity means and place ‘unreal’ expectations on each other. These expectations and the recognition of the associated obligations has led to many VFR travellers ashamed to ask for hospitality from their relatives as they recognize that ‘everything costs money these days’ (Hezel [34]). WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

96 Island Sustainability Consequently VFR travellers who can afford it tend to stay in hotels and guesthouses, offsetting obligations underlying reciprocity. It can also allay feelings of shame on the part of the host, who may not be able to provide a high level of hospitality and with respect to the guest recognizing that they are putting hosts at a disadvantage. This is reflected in considerable numbers budget accommodation available across Samoa, many catering to VFR travellers, enabling them to relax and not conform as rigidly to cultural expectations. In this respect Samoa manages both VFR travellers and cultural preservation within its tourism product, indicating a degree of socio-cultural resilience. 4.3 Building styles and VFR travellers Literature has recognized that many tourists seek to experience a westernized and comfortable view of island cultures (Douglas [35]). This indicates an incongruity between tourists’ wealth and understanding local conditions, whereby although tourists want to see different things, they want to experience them from a place of comfort, not from the reality (Urry [36], Muzaini [37], Kaplan [38]). Tourists seek unique cultural attributes, yet also want comfortable and air conditioned accommodation. This supports the assertion that ‘tourists and hosts mutually shape the social realities they share’ (Hunter [39]). This impacts building styles, although they may have a traditional flavour, they are adapted to meet tourist comfort demands. How this affects the VFR/host relationship is interesting as it indicates that VFR travellers have changed since migration. For example, as Samoa is very hot, many travellers find it difficult to acclimatise when visiting from a cool place and seek air conditioning, as well as hot showers, which are often unavailable in the communities. 4.4 Impacts on host families VFR travellers affect family differently than holiday tourists. Firstly, they bring gifts of household and personal items to their families as well as money. Secondly, these travellers can provide financial support which can influence community decisions including nominations for specific family members to become a matai. Yet, on the other hand the host also face extra costs as they accompany their relatives to various cultural activities, spending larger amounts of money than normal. This influence on host activities by their guests can encourage them to “act like tourists in their own backyards” (Johns and Gyimothy [40]). This can put considerable financial and cultural pressure on host families as they feel compelled to undertake activities they cannot afford. A report from the UK indicated that VFR travellers can stimulate additional spending by their hosts, Beioley [41] and Paci [32] suggested, an unseen multiplier effect, whereby additional expenditures are incurred by hosts entertaining guests. It can also place hosts in a difficult position when they must ensure their overseas relatives uphold appropriate and sensitive behaviours to maintain family ‘face’. These studies supported the findings of the current research. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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4.5 Shame face and respect Shame, face and respect constitute very different emotions and meanings for Samoans than for mainstream western society. Mesquita [42] strengthens this statement by suggesting that virtually every aspect of emotion is under indigenous cultural influence (such as Samoa) and Western cultures should not be set as the norm of human psychological functioning, measuring other peoples against this norm. These self-conscious emotions may be ‘appraised, displayed, and regulated’ differently in Westerners and Samoans based around their very different cultural models. When people show respect, their attitude and feelings also arise from their cultural model which recognizes people’s dignity, deservingness, acknowledgement, and entitlement (Barreto and Ellemers [43], Heuer et al [44]). Yet while respondents’ considered these emotions are impacted by both VFR travellers and holiday tourists, hosts are more willing to endure impacts from relatives as they are ‘family’ and these relatives also remit.

5

Links to socio-cultural resilience

This research offers a glimpse into ways the socio-cultural fabric inherently operates resilience mechanisms to protect its integrity from undesirable external influences, yet embraces more favoured influences. It confirms that VFR travellers to Samoa do impact the socio-cultural fabric in a myriad of ways, some positive and others negative. Putnam [33] suggested, it is important to strategise how positive social capital consequences can be strengthened and negative consequences minimised. To understand which aspects of social and cultural capital need to be strengthened there is a need to: recognise which elements and inter-relationships are impacted by VFR travel; measure the impact on these elements and inter-relationships; identify which elements and inter-relationships remain strong; recognise and acknowledge where VFR travel contributes to socio-cultural resilience. Taking from literature, ‘resilience’ is seen as a useful concept to understand human adaptation (Holling and Goldberg [45], Holling [46], Vayda and McCay [47], Dutra [48]). A key concept of resilience is based on the idea that culture is the force whereby people confront nature and mould it to meet their purpose, constraining behaviours to fit in certain moulds which sustain societies at an ecological and societal equilibrium (Anderson [49], Moran [50]). Dutra [48] suggested it is the lack of awareness of these social and ecological systems which contributes to socio-cultural erosion. Dutra [48] further suggests ‘…the concept of resilience shifts policies from those that aspire to control change in systems assumed to be stable, towards managing the capacity of socialecological systems to cope with, adapt to, and shape change’. This links the current discussion to that of Putnam [33] regarding strengthening resilience of socio-cultural elements and relationships in communities to strengthen the community health and capabilities.

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Conclusion

The report has investigated the interrelationships between VFR travellers and hosts previously only assumed and alluded to. More specifically the current research recognized the complexity and multifaceted nature of interrelationships between VFR travel and the socio-cultural fabric. Moreover those socio-cultural systems which have a greater level of resilience can absorb and respond better to shocks and change, having an inherent ability to ‘cope with, adapt to, or reorganise’ social and economic opportunities without losing an original identity. The information gained through this research has offered a glimpse into critical aspects of the VFR travel product which can offer planners some control over socio-cultural adaptation.

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[14] Australian Bureau of Statistics. Measuring Social Capital: An Australian Framework and Indicators. Commonwealth of Australia. 2004, http://www.abs.gov.au [15] Bourdieu, P., The Forms of Capital, in Richardson (Ed), Handbook of theory and research for the sociology of education. Greenwood Press, pp. 241-258, New York, 1986. [16] Lehto, X. Morrison, A. & O’Leary, J., Does the Visiting Friends and Relatives’ Typology Make a Difference? A Study of the International VFR Market to the United States. Journal of Travel Research, 40 (2), pp. 201212, 2001. [17] Moscardo, G. Pearce, P. Morrison, A. Green, D. & O’Leary, J.T., Developing a typology for understanding visiting friends and relatives markets’. Journal of Travel Research, 38 (3), pp. 251–59, 2000. [18] Lee, G. Morrison, A. Lheto, X. Webb, J. & Reid, R., VFR: Is it really marginal? A financial consideration of French overseas travellers. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 11 (4), pp. 340-356, 2005. [19] Duval, T., When Hosts become Guests: Return Visits and Diasporic Identities in a Commonwealth Eastern Caribbean Community. Current Issues in Tourism, 6 (4), pp. 267–271, 2003. [20] Seaton, A. & Palmer, C., Understanding VFR tourism behaviour: The first five years of the United Kingdom tourism survey. Tourism Management, 18 (6), pp. 345–55, 1997. [21] Backer, E., VFR Travellers – Visiting the destination or visiting the hosts? Asian Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research, 2 (2), pp. 60-70, 2008. [22] McGrath, B., Seattle Fa’a Samoa. The Contemporary Pacific, 14 (2), pp. 307-340, 2002. [23] UNESCO, Exploring Global Movement Using Local Realities. Department of Sociology, University of Auckland. New Zealand, 2000. [24] Springer, B., Caribbean: Courting the Diaspora. Latin American News Agency. 2008. http://www.trulycaribbean.net [25] Shankman, P. The Samoan Exodus. Contemporary Pacific Societies in Development and Change. Lockwood, V. Harding, T. and Wallace, B. (Eds) Englewood Cliffs. NJ, Prentice Hall, pp. 156-170, 1993. [26] Samoan VFR Traveller, per communication, 2005. [27] New Zealand Ministry of Women Report. Pacific Women's Economic WellBeing Project Summary Report. Ministry of Women’s Affairs. 2006. http://www.mwa.govt.nz [28] Joint Samoa Program Strategy (2006-2010) Government of Samoa, Government of Australia, Government of New Zealand. November 2006. [29] McCall, G., Nissology: The study of islands. Journal of the Pacific Society, pp. 1-14, October 1994. [30] Bull, A., The Economics of Travel and Tourism. Pitman, Sydney, 1991. [31] Barker, J., Pacific Island Migrants in the United States: Some Implications for Aging Services. Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology, 6(2), pp. 173192, 1991.

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100 Island Sustainability [32] Paci, E., The major international VFR markets. EIU Travel and Tourism Analyst, 6, pp. 36–50, 1994. [33] Putnam, R., Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. New York, Simon and Schuster, 2000. [34] Hezel, F., The Cruel Dilemma: Money Economies in the Pacific. Journal of Pacific Theology, Series II, (8), pp. 11-22, 1992. [35] Douglas, N., They Came for Savages: 100 Years of Tourism in Melanesia. Southern Cross University Press, Alstonville, Australia, 1997. [36] Urry, J., The Tourist Gaze: Leisure and Travel in Contemporary Societies. London, Sage Publications, 1990. [37] Muzaini, H., Backpacking South East Asia: Strategies of ‘Looking Local. Annals of Tourism Research, 33 (1), pp. 144–161, Pergamon, 2005. [38] Kaplan, C., Questions of Travel: Postmodern Discourses of Displacement. London, Duke University Press, 1996. [39] Hunter, W., Trust between Culture: The Tourist. Current Issues in Tourism. 4 (1). Department of Leisure and Sport Management, and Foreign Languages. Tajen Institute of Technology, Republic of China. 2001. [40] Johns, N. & Gyimothy, S., Market Segmentation and the Prediction of Tourist Behavior: The Case of Bornholm, Denmark, Journal of Travel Research, 40 (3), pp. 316-327, 2002. [41] Beioley, S., Four weddings, a funeral and a holiday: The visiting friends and relatives market. Insights, 8, 1997. [42] Mesquita, B., Emotions as dynamic cultural phenomena, in Davidson, R. & Goldsmith, H. & K. R. Scherer (eds.) The handbook of the affective sciences. Oxford University Press, New York, pp. 871-890, 2003. [43] Barreto, M. & Ellemers, N., The impact of respect vs. neglect of selfidentities on identification and group loyalty. Personal Social. Psychology Bulletin. In press, 2001. [44] Heuer, L. Blumenthal, E. Douglas, A. & Weinblatt, T., A deservingness approach to respect as a relationally based fairness judgment. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25 (10), pp. 1279–1292, 1999. [45] Holling, C. & Goldberg, M., Ecology and Planning. Journal of the American Institute of Planners. 37, pp. 221-230, 1971. [46] Holling, C., Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 4, pp. 1-23, 1973. [47] Vayda, A.P. & McCay, B.J., New directions in ecology and ecological Anthropology. Annual Review of Anthropology, 4, pp. 293-306, 1975. [48] Dutra, L., Sustainability and Resilience. Trans-disciplinary Journeys. PhD candidate, Centre for Ecological Economics and Water Policy Research. University of New England, Australia, 2006. [49] Anderson, W., Caribbean Immigrants: A Socio-demographic Profile. Toronto: Canadian Scholars, 1993. [50] Moran, E., Human Adaptability: An Introduction to Ecological Anthropology. Boulder, Colorado, Westview Press, 1979.

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Traditional medicinal knowledge in Cuba I. M. Madaleno Department of Natural Sciences, Portuguese Tropical Research Institute, Lisbon, Portugal

Abstract For about a decade the Portuguese Tropical Research Institute has been investigating traditional medicinal knowledge in Latin American metropolises. In 2009 a survey was extracted from Havana, Cuba. Data sources were a sample of fifty interviews extracted from forty-seven households possessing front and backyards with medicinal species, which Cubans use to mitigate aches and pains, in two La Habana municipalities, Playa and Plaza de la Revolución, plus three extensive interviews with La Habana Vieja herb traders. The main objective was to recover ancient domestic prescriptions among urban gardeners and believers in plant therapy in order to create a database on ancestral medicinal practices able to help the less wealthy Latin American populations deal with health problems. Keywords: medicinal plant species, Cuba, traditional non-conventional therapies.

1

Introduction

Traditional knowledge of medicinal and aromatic plant species is essential for the development of ecologically, culturally and economically sustainable urban and periurban systems. For approximately eleven years the Portuguese Tropical Research Institute (IICT) has been interviewing traditional healers, urban gardeners, periurban farmers, medicinal herb traders and plant therapists in Latin America, in order to assess usage of local resources and have built-up databases of local knowledge that might provide future generations with alternative ways to deal with health problems. Research also focuses on the socio-economic conditions required for the sustainable management of natural resources, in particular the native vegetable species. In relation to the usefulness of urban gardens, it is important to stress that soil cover reduces erosion and diminishes WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line) doi:10.2495/ISLANDS100091

102 Island Sustainability air pollution whilst the utility of some species as food or medicine is beneficial for the households. In this paper, the term “medicinal plants” will be used to refer to those that have been chemically analysed having known pharmacological activity. It is hoped that such research will promote life quality and adequate medicinal herb management among urban gardeners and believers in plant therapy worldwide.

2

Methods

The sources of data were a sample of fifty interviews conducted in forty-seven households in two La Habana municipalities, Playa and Plaza de la Revolución, possessing front and backyards with the medicinal species which Cubans use to mitigate aches and pains, or even to cure more serious ailments. Additionally three herb traders have been observed extensively, and questioned using a semistructured questionnaire, in order to access the healing species preferences among the residents of the Cuban capital city, for public health care institutions lack funding and conventional medicine treatments such as pharmaceutical drugs are often unavailable, resulting in the need for alternative herbal remedies. The sample was obtained during April 2009, consisting of random interviews to household gardeners who used the plant species for a wide range of ailments. Table 1:

The top ranking medicinal plant species cultivated in front and backyards.

Common name

Scientific name

Species characterisation

Plant part used

Medicinal application

Tilo or Tila

Herb

Leaves

Manzanilla Cubana

Justicia pectoralis Jacq. Isocarpha atriplicifolia R. Br.

Herb

Leaves

Aloe or Sábila

Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f.

Herb

Leaf juice

Oregano de la Tierra Menta

Hyptis Americana (Aubl.) Urb. Mentha spicata L.

Herb

Leaves

Herb

Leaves

Romerillo

Bidens pilosa L.

Herb

Leaves, flowers, roots

Tranquiliser, cough, flu, haemostatic Stomach aches, diarrhoea, eye infections Skin infections, stomach ulcers, antiviral, anticancer Flu, cough, ear infections Digestive, stomach aches Tooth aches, flu, cough

Salvia

Salvia officinalis L.

Herb

Leaves

Caisimón

Pothomorphe peltata L

Herb

Leaves

Source: Fieldwork data obtained in Havana, Cuba (2009).

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Flu, stomach aches, tranquilizer, fever, diabetes Diuretic, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumour

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Local knowledge of plant biology has been sought together with the domestic prescriptions and other data related to its handling. In order to classify the medicinal plants (60 species) the scientific denomination was obtained in publications of Roig and Mesa [1, 2] and Fuentes and Grandas [3]. A summary of taxonomic and medicinal knowledge is provided in Table 1, which incorporates the eight top ranking species of those that have been researched in the field. Common names are in Spanish, exactly as they have been collected during the interviewing process, followed by the binomial that makes up the scientific name together with the abbreviation of those botanists who identified and classified the plant species.

3

Results

Cuban families use both cultivated and wild species, the rarest ones being purchased. Medicinal herbs are carefully planted in the gardens, kept in small window vases, taken from street shading trees and bushes. The collection of wild herbs in vacant neighbouring urban plots requires a certain amount of traditional knowledge that is usually confined to the elderly. The majority of the households interviewed (62%) in Havana, Cuba, contained at least one person over 60 years old, normally female, who was very keen to engage in detailed explanations of domestic prescriptions, sometimes transmitted from generation to generation. Tilo (Justicia pectoralis) was the most consumed and cultivated herb, an anti-flu and anti-stress species that grows to half a metre and is dispersed throughout the Caribbean islands. It has been given the common name of similarly utilized old world tree (Tilia europaea), even though it designates a local herb (see Fig. 1). Traditional Cuban domestic prescriptions recommend a concoction of the leaves, boiled for two to three minutes, and taken orally as a tranquilizer. A conventional medicine doctor interviewed in her home garden, Playa municipality, confided that she would rather have this relaxing tea than a chemical pill, for pharmacological tests have proved it does not provoke addiction nor has side effects. Smashed Tilo leaves mixed with honey also constitute widely consumed anti-cough syrup, in Cuba. The second most abundant herb in front and backyards was Cuban Chamomile (Isocarpha atriplicifolia) a highly effective analgesic. Its single use is recommended to wash out the eyes in the case of conjunctivitis, or combined with Quita Dolor (Lippia alba), (curiously the most abundant herb in Belem, Brazil) and ingested to counteract stomach aches, indigestion and diarrhoea (see the photo in Fig. 2). Because Cuban families lack financial resources to buy cosmetics, several young mothers declared that they applied a concoction of Cuban Chamomile (Isocarpha atriplicifolia) in the case of baby rashes. Aloe vera followed, providing the most ingenious prescriptions collected so far. Cuban women freeze small portions of the Aloe’s juice and administer it intravaginally. They also take the refrigerated preparations orally as domestic capsules against tumours and stomach ulcers, or use the fresh leaf stem juice to heal scars and skin infections.

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104 Island Sustainability

Figure 1:

Flourishing Tilo.

Figure 2:

Manzanilla Cubana.

Mixed medicine and miracle herb, Oregano de la Tierra (Hyptis Americana) is fried in olive oil, smashed and filtered, then dripped into the ear, in case of pain. This traditional Cuban prescription has been obtained in a local kindergarten, gently made public by the 39-year-old director, who has shown the school “medicinal garden” (as she called it), and it has also been recommended by several grandmas interviewed in Havana (Fig. 3). One of those over 60-yearold ladies declared having tended medicinal species in her home garden since 1962, in a military personnel neighbourhood located in Playa municipality; she provided a series of ancient domestic prescriptions she and her family regularly used: Mint (Mentha piperita and spicata) concoctions consisting of a handful of leaves boiled for three to four minutes and taken orally with sugar cane against stomach aches and indigestion, particularly on Sundays, when the menu is incremented. Caisimón (Pothomorphe peltata) was tended in her backyard, and

Figure 3:

80-year-old Havana gardener. The container is full with water because the liquid is scarce in apartment buildings (Playa municipality).

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Figure 4:

105

Romerillo photographed in a backyard (Plaza de la Revolución, Havana).

it is a powerful anti-tumour and anti-inflammatory herb. Her husband consumed daily a cup of Caisimón concoction of three leaves boiled in water against prostate cancer, whereas she used the leaves of the same species, freshly applied in a towel on her kneecap to mitigate her aches. Romerillo (Bidens pilosa) was the sixth herb found in Havana front and backyards, and it has been recommended mostly as an anti-flu. However, one quite original prescription provided by a 67-year-old male gardener consisted of the simple chewing of washed Romerillo leaves (see photo in Fig. 4) against throat pains and inflammation. Salvia (Salvia officinalis), introduced by Spanish colonisers, presented original domestic prescriptions based on tradition and superstition: two Salvia leaves should be placed at the bottom of a cup of tea, on the crucifix position, meaning one on top of the other in a perpendicular position, then boiled water was poured inside the cup and the infusion ingested very hot against fever, preferably outdoors for it is said to provoke spasms. Results proved to be quite similar to those from other cities and metropolitan areas that have been investigated, starting with Belem (Brazil) in 1998 and 2005, followed by Santiago (Chile) from 2002 to 2005, Mexican Central Metropolitan Region in 2004 and 2006 and Lima (Peru) in 2006. In July 2009 another scientific mission to San Jose (Costa Rica) further enriched the Portuguese Tropical Research Institute’s (IICT) Latin American database of traditional medicinal knowledge [4, 5]. Table 2 displays information about IICT’s ongoing comparative investigation. A fundamental part of the work has consisted of research into ethno-botanic medicinal species, and the dissemination of those ancestral traditions that are still used by indigenous communities. Native medicinal flora is widely cultivated in six Latin American metropolis’ front and backyards, American species follow but biodiversity in the urban WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

106 Island Sustainability gardens is rich and universal. One European healing species introduced by the Spanish colonisers is surprisingly the most consumed herb in half the investigated cities, frequently considered native for it has been used for several generations. That is the case with Manzanilla or chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.) in Lima, Peru and San José, Costa Rica, and Melisa (Melissa officinalis L.) in Santiago, Chile. Surveys obtained during the 1998-2009 research period included interviews with traditional healers, medicinal herb traders and plant therapists. Table 2: Metropolitan Areas Central Mexican Region Lima

Medicinal herb preferences obtained in six Latin American metropolitan areas. Sample (Nº of interviews or inquiries) 155

Common name

Scientific name

Origin

Toronjil

Agastache mexicana kunth

Native

38

Manzanilla

Matricaria chamomilla L. Santiago 136 Melisa Melissa Metropolis officinalis L. Metropolitan 570 Erva-cidreira Lippia alba area of Belem (Miller) HBK. Havana 50 Tilo Justicia pectoralis Jacq. San José 43 Manzanilla Matricaria chamomilla L. Source: Fieldwork data obtained during the 1998-2009 scientific missions.

European European Native Native European

Several widespread species are displayed in Table 3. Basil, Albahaca in Spanish, is as much appreciated in Cuban cuisine as it is in Mediterranean Europe. The fresh leaves are frequently sold on the streets in small trolleys, especially on Sundays, for it is usually necessary to cook the family lunch. It is a recognized antiseptic and blood pressure regulator though, and used as such both in Mexico and Cuba. Almácigo (Bursera simaruba) is a tropical American tree, about 20 metres tall, whose bark, leaves and roots are used in anti-flu concoctions and cataplasms. In Chile small wooden sticks extracted from the trunk are recommended for sahumerios, which are anti-disease and good luck house fumigations. Known as Jiñocuave or Indio Desnudo in Costa Rica, one small bark chunk per cup of tea is consumed after meals, a miraculous concoction taken to control diabetes in that Central American country. Anis is recommended in digestive infusions, taken orally both before and after meals. The European herb can be found in front-yards, even in street vases located along apartment blocks, particularly in the municipality of Plaza de la Revolución, in Havana. In the beautiful Mexican city of Puebla, an assorted herbs tea has been collected, an old Aztec family prescription: one small handful of Anis leaves (Pimpinela anisum), mixed with a similar proportion of Chilean Boldo (Peumus boldus), Damiana (Turneria difusa), European Alcachofra (Cynara scolymus), Mint and Manzanilla leaves (Matricaria chamomilla). The WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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concoction has been recommended for hepatic problems and it is an ideal example of the mixed European and Native American domestic remedies, obtained during the field research in Latin America. In Lima, Peru, the whole Anis herb is used in a tranquiliser infusion. Bejuco Ubi (Cissus sicyoides) is a tropical American vine. Ingested concoctions of the leaves are recommended as anti-flu in Cuba, because of their anti-catarrh properties. In Belem, Brazilian Amazon, anti-hypertension leaves infusions are taken orally or then the leaves are externally applied as antiinflammatory. Caña Mexicana (Costus spicatus) is a recognized diuretic plant species. One third of a leave is enough to provide a good concoction in Havana. In Amazonia the peasants use cataplasms of heated leaves of Canarana, the common name for the herb in Brazil, together with endemic Andiroba tree oil (Carapa guianensis) in order to mature kidney and bladder tumours. Table 3: Common name

Medicinal species commonly found in the investigated Latin American countries. Scientific name

Species characterisation

Plant part used

Medicinal application per country

Indigestion, hypertension (Cuba), fever, antibacterial (Mexico) Flu, fever, indigestion, cataplasms (Cuba), Almácigo Bursera simaruba Tree Roots, house disinfectant, Sarg. bark, favours luck (Chile), leaves diabetes (Costa Rica) Indigestion, carminative (Cuba), Anis Pimpinela anisum L. Herb Whole stomach aches herb (Mexico), mild tranquiliser (Peru) Cough, catarrh (Cuba), Bejuco Ubí Cissus sicyoides L. Climbing vine Leaves high blood pressure, anti-inflammatory (Brazil) Caña Costus spicatus Herb Leaves Diuretic (Cuba, Brazil, Mejicana Roscoe Mexico) Hepatic problems (Cuba), parasites Epazote Chenopodium Herb Leaves (Mexico), stomach ambrosioides L. and aches (Chile), anti-flu, Flowers tuberculosis (Brazil). Mentha citrata Stomach aches (Cuba), Hierbabuena Ehrh., Mentha viridi Herb Leaves tranquiliser (Costa L. Rica), carminative, analgesic (Mexico) Diuretic, fever, strong narcotic, cataplasms Tree Whole Paraíso Melia azederach (Cuba), scabies, plant Rauch gonorrhoea (Chile). Source: Fieldwork data obtained in Havana, Cuba (2009) and in the other five countries investigated. Albahaca

Ocimum basilicum L.

Herb

Leaves

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108 Island Sustainability Epazote or Apazote (Chenopodium ambrosioides) is common to all the researched metropolitan areas, grown wild in Cuba. It is taken orally in digestive infusions and concoctions. The herb provides the best anti-parasites tea in Mexico, particularly recommended for young kids, but the leaves are frequently added to tortillas and other Mexican dishes used for their digestive properties. European Hierbabuena designates several Mentha genus species, and is again considered a good digestive. Aromatic, the herb is required to produce any mojito, traditional alcoholic Cuban drink with Caribbean rum. The leaves are also used to supply a tranquilizer concoction in Costa Rica, taken in case of insomnia before going to bed. Last but not least, Paraíso (Melia azederach) was the most traded specimen in the La Habana Vieja trading posts that were studied, which is used in Cuba for cataplasms and septic baths and is recommended for a series of skin diseases, including ancestral conditions such as leprosy. Previous research undertaken on Easter Island [6] has revealed that Miro Tahiti (the common name for Melia azederach in the Pacific setting) was used in leaf infusions together with parsley, and is traditionally employed to cure gonorrhoea and scabies.

4

Discussion

MacArthur and Wilson’s [7] theory of island biogeography claimed that the number of species found in an isolated ecosystem was the function of the local species plus those gained through immigration and speciation minus those species that have gone extinct. Of course the immigration rate declines as a function of distance to other islands and continental masses, whilst diversification is greater on larger islands [8]. Cuba is the widest Caribbean island and it stands relatively close to both the other island systems and to the main North American continent, particularly the peninsula of Florida. Additionally, Cuba’s northern coastline faces the Atlantic Ocean and the southern shores face the blue and green waters of the Caribbean Sea. Consequently taxa are quite rich and diverse within the whole Cuban island area, and in most instances the medicinal vegetable species that have been field researched are dispersed throughout the other Caribbean islands, which are chained at close range by sea currents, together with tropical and subtropical species also present in Florida and the Bahamas, that are spread by the tradewinds. The complexity of Cuba island biotas was enhanced with European, mostly Mediterranean, healing species introduced by the Spanish colonisers. Endemic therapeutic herbs are rare but native species are rather numerous, their common name being at times similar to completely different Mediterranean trees and bushes. Common names date from the early years of colonisation and have persisted because the given name was that of a European species that possessed matching medicinal applications. This fact constitutes a comparable result to research undertaken in Chile, Peru, Brazil, Costa Rica and Mexico, within the framework of local species and healing practises observed in Latin American metropolitan regions.

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109

Conclusions

Cuban medicinal flora is dominated by a mixture of herbs and bushes, taxa being frequently Labiatae and Compositae. The plant parts used in infusions, decoctions and macerated preparations are chiefly the leaves. External applications vary more widely from concoctions of flowers and leaves to barks, latex and stem juices frictions (or pastes) and cataplasms. Comparing these results with published data from other investigations into Latin American front and backyard biodiversity, there is some variation in the ethno-botanic index, for the local species are abundant. Over 20 different families have been registered in the Cuban database. There is a good proportion of tropical American genus, including the dominant species from Brazilian and Peruvian Amazon Regions. Following the Caribbean varieties, Mexican medicinal flora constitutes the second most popular presence in Havana front and backyards. Contrary to initial expectations, African taxa proved to be of lesser importance, even though outlawed and highly repressed ‘santería’ practices have managed to survive. Improvements to the database could result from additional Caribbean island scientific missions, aimed at establishing comparisons of the applications of the same plant species through the island group. Ongoing research on traditional non-conventional therapies is within the scope of the Geography of Heritage. The ancestral practices as the history of colonization are ways by which the past is evoked in and by contemporary society. The expectation is that more field research might be conducted by geographers, botanists, pharmacists and anthropologists so as to permit the full recovery of domestic prescriptions in Latin America, because health is a universal right.

References [1] Roig and Mesa, J. T. Plantas Medicinales Aromáticas o Venenosas de Cuba. Ciencia y Técnica, Habana, Cuba, 1974. [2] Roig and Mesa, J.T. Diccionario Botánico de Nombres Vulgares Cubanos. Ministerio de Cultura: Habana, Cuba, 1988 (vol. 1 and 2). [3] Fuentes, V. & Grandas, M. Conozca las Plantas Medicinales. Ed. Científico-Técnica: Habana, Cuba, 2007. [4] Madaleno, I.M. What happens when one cannot afford the Pharmacy bills? Comparative study of medicinal plant consumption in Latin America. Pharmacologyonline, 1, Salerno: University of Salerno, Italy, 2006, 6-14. http://www.unisa.it/download/1966_145_1162986346_4MadalenoNewslette r.pdf [5] Madaleno, I. M. Etno-farmacología en Ibero América, una alternativa a la globalización de prácticas de cura. Cuadernos Geográficos, 41 (2), Granada: Universidad de Granada, Spain, 2007, 61-95. [6] Madaleno, I. M. Sustainable Livelihood Examples from Water Deficient Easter Island and the Lower Amazon River Floodplains. Deutsher Tropentag 2007 Witzenhausen: University of Kassel-Witzenhausen and

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110 Island Sustainability University of Göttingen, Germany, 2007.http://www.tropentag.de/2007 /abstracts/full/135.pdf [7] MacArthur, R.H. & Wilson, E.O. An equilibrium theory of insular zoogeography. Evolution, 17, 1963, 373-387. [8] Whittaker, R.J., Triantis K.A. and Laddle, R.J. A general dynamic theory of oceanic island biogeography. Journal of Biogeography, 35 (6), 2008, 977994.

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Section 3 Changing climate and environment

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Is it really happening here? A study of climate change perception in the Azores R. T. Cunha1, B. Rangel2, O. Vieira2 & I. E. Rego1 1

CIBIO Azores – Research Center for Biodiversity and Genetic Resources, University of the Azores, Portugal 2 Geography Section, Department of Biology, University of the Azores, Portugal

Abstract In EC countries, energy production and transport are responsible for the major production of GHG emissions. The last report of IPCC on climate change and water suggests that changes in lifestyle, behavior patterns and management practices can contribute to climate change mitigation across all sectors. The present study aims at understanding how Azoreans perceive climate change as well as their responsibility in both the production and the reduction of GHG emissions through a survey conducted in the island of São Miguel. A questionnaire was used to capture people’s conceptions, affect, sense of trust, and responsibility regarding climate change and the results were analyzed according to environmental and socio-demographic variables. The findings indicate that even though participants report being most concerned with poverty and food and water shortage in the world, they are afraid of Global Climate Change (GCC). Their perceptions indicate that the vast majority (1) has a very good understanding of GCC processes; (2) believe GCC is a serious threat very much linked to human activities, affects most other distant parts of the world and dangerous impacts are already happening; and (3) think they are reasonably well informed, get information mainly through the media and trust the media more than any other source of environmental information. Most participants report having taken action to fight GCC but that tendency is not expressed in daily domestic behavior. Responsibility for acting against GCC is mainly attributed to external powerful agents rather than to citizens and their communities. Keywords: perceptions, climate change, mitigation, islands, Azores, Portugal.

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114 Island Sustainability

1 Introduction Global Climate Change (GCC) is a problem whose consequences may be less severe if mitigation and adaptation measures are planned and applied in accordance to local or regional specificities. …..In the last decades, the debate over GCC has spread, intensified and become public, with the prevailing objective and correct assessment of situations done by scientists being challenged by lay people’s inaccurate and subjective notions. Regardless of differences in perspectives, they all agree that future impacts of GCC may be much more destructive if people do not learn how to change their behavior (IPCC [1]). Extensive research has addressed the human/social dimension of GCC and pointed out the need to better understand people’s environmental perceptions, feelings and behavior (e.g. Böhm and Pfister [2]; Leiserowitz [3]; Lowe [4]). Proenvironmental behavior is guided by worries about future consequences of global environmental change and, particularly negative consequences for humans more than knowledge about the probability of occurrence of unwanted events or behaviors leading to these events (e.g. Böhm and Pfister [2]; Sjöberg [5]). When a threat is perceived as being greater than the capacity to deal with it, feelings of fear and anxiety may activate defensive reactions and the denial/minimization of threat (Lowe [4]). On the other hand, when the importance of a topic is high but confidence in knowledge supporting attitudes is low, there is a tendency to restore balance by engaging in systematic seeking and processing of information (Chaiken et al [6]; Sundblad et al [7]). Knowledge and confidence in one’s knowledge regarding environmental risks and coping with risk situations are key factors to behave more proenvironmentally (Sundblad [7]). Also, trust has been shown to be a crucial factor influencing the perception of environmental risk, effective risk communication and attitudes regarding risk management policy (e.g. Renn and Levine [8]; Kasperson [9]; Slovic [10]; Breakwell [11]). However, studies have not yet sufficiently examined public confidence in climate scientists, and the role of personal efficacy in affecting global warming outcomes (Kellstedt et al [12]). The effects of climate change are global but islands and archipelagos are more prone to suffer adverse impacts, mainly related to water scarcity, because, in addition to their geographic position, many are already constrained by other variables, such as small size, remoteness, tourist pressure or biotic invasions. Located in the North Atlantic, 1400 km away from mainland Europe (Lisboa) and 1900 km from North America (Newfoundland), the Portuguese archipelago of the Azores is located between the latitudes of 36º 55´ e 39º 45’N and the longitudes of 24º 45’ W and 31º 17’W, and comprises nine islands of oceanic volcanic origin, distributed by three groups, the Western group (Flores and Corvo), the Central group (Pico, Faial, Terceira, São Jorge and Graciosa) and the Eastern group (São Miguel and Santa Maria). The emerged area of the archipelago is 2344 km2, with the islands varying in size from 17 km2 (Corvo) to 747 km2 (São Miguel), with Pico holding the highest mountain of Portugal (2351m) (Instituto Hidrográfico [13]). Due to the influence of the warm Gulf WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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stream and the Azores Anticyclone, the climate of the archipelago is temperate, mainly during late spring and summer (Santos et al [14]). The Azores were populated from Portugal mainland after the XV century and today have a population of approximately 242.000, distributed by the nine islands, being Corvo the least populated - 300 inhabitants, and São Miguel, the most populated, with 54,6% of the total inhabitants of the archipelago (SREA [15]). In 2007, the Azores was considered the second best archipelago in the world for sustainable tourism, by the National Geographic Traveller. This evaluation was based on the islands’ scenic attributes and light tourist pressure, a consequence of their remoteness and temperate weather that does not encourage mass flux of beach tourism. The archipelago belongs to the biogeographical region of Macaronesia, along with Madeira, the Canary Islands and Cape Vert, and is the most important biodiversity hotspot of the top 25 world biodiversity hotspots (Myers et al [16]). Concerning climate change scenarios for the Azores, the major estimated impact of global warming is expected to affect annual precipitation distribution, with wetter winters and drier remaining seasons, a situation that will have an effect on water resources. Severe precipitation events in winter and water deficit in summer will aggravate landslides events, already frequent in the islands. The impacts of climate change on the temperature are thought to be less severe since the archipelago will benefit from the protection of the sea (Santos et al [14]). In this view, climate change studies in the Azores are considered to be very relevant because the islands depend greatly on their natural resources, namely on fresh water, and its economy is based on agriculture, fisheries, services, and on the recent and expanding industry of tourism. The majority of energy production and consumption (79%) are of thermoelectric (fuel) origin and the remaining energy demand is satisfied by diversified renewable sources, which are expected to increase in the future. A recent report by Regional Secretary of the Environment and the Sea (SRAM [17]) highlighted the importance of fuel derived energy production and consumption for the generation of Greenhouse Gases (GHG) emissions in the Azores, mainly trough transports and energy industry (47% and 39%, respectively). Concerning transports and as a consequence of the dominant pattern of mobility in most of the islands (e.g. low active mobility, high individual car acquisition, incipient public transport services), road traffic is responsible for 74% of GHG emissions and, together with the increase of individual car acquisition, represents a major stressing factor in the sector. GHG emissions from ‘other activities’ - domestic, services, agriculture and fisheries also tend to increase, with domestic and services representing over 85% of total emissions between 1998 and 2004. The island of São Miguel represents over 50% of the Azores’ GHG and CO2 emissions. In order to slow those emissions, an increase in energy efficiency and renewable sources, and a decrease in energy consumption are considered relevant measures. According to the last report of IPCC on climate change and water there is “high agreement and medium evidence that changes in lifestyle, WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

116 Island Sustainability behaviour patterns and management practices can contribute to climate change mitigation across all sectors” (Bates et al [18]). The main aims of this study are: i) to understand how the inhabitants of the São Miguel island (Azores) perceive climate change as well as their responsibility in both the production and the reduction of GHG emissions; and ii) to contribute to the promotion of new attitudes and behaviors towards climate change mitigation and adaptation in the island, thus contributing for a better environment in the Azores. Four main study questions were addressed in the study: 1) How is GCC perceived? (Knowledge about the causes, effects, and ways of fighting the phenomenon; Perception of the seriousness of the phenomenon); 2) What feelings are associated to GCC? (Concern / Fear) 3) What action is being/should be carried out regarding GCC? (What should be done? Who is responsible for taking action?) 4) Who are trustful sources of information regarding GCC?

2 Method A survey was conducted in São Miguel, mainly through a person to person distribution of questionnaires, from December 2008 to March 2009, in four of the six municipalities of the island (Ponta Delgada, Ribeira Grande, Lagoa and Vila Franca), representing approximately 80% of the island’s population (SREA, 2007). The questionnaire (N=140; return ratio of 93,3%) consisted of 18 questions (varying from Likert scale to multiple-choice items), with four questions dedicated to the socio-demographic characterization of the sample (sex, age, educational level and place of residence) and the remaining 16 focusing on relevant behavioral dimensions based on research and findings from the literature in the field (Lowe [4]; Figueiredo [19]; Special Eurobarometer 300 [20]). The majority of survey participants were female (68,57%), belonging to the age group 26 – 64yrs (60,14% vs. 38,41% in 15 - 25 yrs and 1,45% ≥65 yrs), had a superior degree (47,10% vs. 3,62% at the 1st level; 2,17% at the 2nd level; 13,77% at the 3rd level and 33,33% at the Secondary level) and lived in Ponta Delgada (79,29% vs. 13,57% in Ribeira Grande; 2,86% in Vila Franca do Campo and 4,29% in Lagoa).

3 Findings and discussion In order to address the first study question “How is GCC perceived?” several dimensions were investigated: the causes of GCC; the seriousness of the threat; the consequences of GCC; how much is being done to fight GCC by different entities and aspects related to knowledge/information about GCC. Asked about the nature of causes promoting GCC, the respondents elected a combination of natural and human causes (55%) and choose greenhouse gas emissions (95,7%) as the most important factor directly contributing to GCC, followed by burning of fossil fuels (87,9%) and deforestation (87,1%). These WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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results are not in line with others reporting on low level of understanding of GCC causes (Futerra [21]). Most of the respondents believed GCC is a very serious threat (60,0% against 75% in UE27 and Portugal mainland), disagreed that GCC has been overemphasized (42,9% against 34% in UE27 and 38% in Portugal mainland) but did not consider GCC as the most serious problem the world is facing, electing poverty, food and water shortage in first place (67,1%), which is consistent with data from UE27 (68%) and Portugal mainland (73%) (Special Eurobarometer 300 [20]). For the majority of the respondents, the consequences of GCC will affect ‘a lot‘ the world population (67,9%), non-human nature (75,0%) and situations ranging from ‘oneself and family‘ to the ‘Europeans‘ (47,9% to 52,9%) and believed dangerous impacts of GCC have already started (85,0%), disagreeing with Futerra’s [21] finding that the majority believes GCC will mainly affect future generations. The chance that more intense storms, hurricanes and tornadoes will occur during the next 50 years was considered ‘very high’ by 66,4% of the respondents, but an increase in the sea rise level (58,6%) and flooding of major cities (51,4%) were seen as having a high probability of occurring. Respondents also reported that, for the same period, there was a ‘high chance’ that standards of living would decrease (59,3%) and a food shortage could occur (58,6%). When asked about ‘how much‘ is being done by different entities to fight GCC, the majority of respondents ranked the following entities as ‘not doing enough’: corporations and industry (90,7%) (76% in EU27 and 74% in Portugal mainland); the government (89,3%) (64% in EU27 and 68% in Portugal mainland) and citizens (86,4%) (58% in EU27 and 60% in Portugal mainland). Questioned about their knowledge/information concerning GCC, the majority of respondents was ‘fairly well informed’ about causes (70,7%), consequences (69,3%) and forms of fighting (61,4%) GCC, evidencing a slightly higher confidence in their knowledge than lay persons in other research (Sundblad et al [7]). The majority also listed as main sources of information TV (23,6%), which agrees with findings in US, Europe and South America, followed by Internet (16,8%), newspapers and magazines (16,0%) and school (10,7%). To address the second study question ‘What feelings are associated to GCC?’, fear and problems regarding GCC one worries about most were investigated. Asked if they were afraid of GCC, the majority of respondents agreed (61,4%) but they choose poverty, food and water shortage (85,2%) as their first and second choices for problems one worries about most. The third study question ‘What should be done regarding GCC?’ aimed at evaluating if Azoreans are taking action to help fighting GCC, what prevent them from acting against GCC and their responsibility for doing something. The majority believed they have taken action to help fighting GCC (64,3% vs. 47% in EU27 and Portugal mainland) and elected as main actions reducing water consumption at home (22,5%, vs. 55% in EU27 and 52% in Portugal mainland), followed by recycling most of the domestic waste (20,5% vs.76% in EU27 and 60% in Portugal mainland) and reducing energy consumption at home (17,4vs. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

118 Island Sustainability 64% in EU27 and 50% in Portugal mainland). These findings suggest that practices dedicated to reduce water consumption, recycling most of the domestic waste and reducing energy consumption at home do not play yet an important role in São Miguel because they were much lower than those found in similar studies in EU 27 and Portugal mainland (Special Eurobarometer 300 [20]). Questioned about what prevents one from acting against GCC, the majority considered that they would like to take action but ‘do not know what to do‘ (24,9% vs. 34% in EU27 and 29% in Portugal mainland), followed by those who think that ‘governments, corporations and industries should change their behavior rather than the citizens‘ (20,1% vs. 42% in EU27 and 40% Portugal mainland, in both situations choose preventing one from ‘acting against GCC‘ in the first place). Finally, some participants thought that ‘changing their behavior does not affect climate change‘(18,7% vs. 26% in EU27 and 21% in Portugal mainland). Considering the degree of responsibility for doing something about GCC, respondents identified as ‘very much’ responsible more polluting countries (83,6%), oil companies (73,6%) and developed countries (69,3%). For the last study question ‘Who are trustful sources of information regarding GCC?’ respondents were asked to classify their trust or distrust on distinct groups and entities and the majority somewhat trust most radio (85,0%), followed by TV (82,1%) and newspapers/magazines (80,7%); these findings do not agree with data provided by Haynes et al [22]) and Ronan et al. [23], who found friends and relatives as the most reliable source of trust; scientists, local/ national government and world press were also considered reliable sources of information (Haynes et al [22]). Some distrust was associated mainly to political parties (64,3%), corporations (55,0%) and the Government of the Azores/Religious leaders (51,4%).

4 Conclusion In spite of participants being most concerned with poverty, food and water shortage in the world, our data suggest that they are afraid of GCC. Their perceptions indicate that the vast majority has a very good understanding of GCC processes (causes and consequences) and believes GCC is a serious threat very much linked to human activities, that most affects other (distant) parts of the world. They also believe that dangerous impacts are already happening. They perceive themselves as being reasonably well informed, get information mainly through the media and trust media more than any other source of environmental information. Most participants reported having taken action to fight GCC, but that tendency was not expressed in daily domestic behavior. Also, responsibility for acting against GCC was mainly attributed to external powerful agents rather than to citizens and their communities. In face of our findings, we believe that much work should be done concerning a broader approach to Azorean perceptions and attitudes regarding climate change, specially focused on changes in lifestyle, behavior patterns and WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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management practices that can contribute to climate change mitigation in the archipelago.

References [1] IPCC. Climate Change 2007 – Mitigation of Climate Change. Working Group III contribution to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: Cambridge, 2007. [2] Böhm, G. & Pfister, H.-R., Mental representation of global environmental risks. Research in Social Problems and Public Policy, 9, pp. 1-30, 2001. [3] Leiserowitz, A., American opinions on global warming, 2003. Retrieved in February 2005, from Decision Research web site: http://www.decision research.org/pdf/554.pdf [4] Lowe, T., Vicarious experience vs. scientific information in climate change risk perception and behaviour: a case study of undergraduate students in Norwich, UK. Technical Report 43. Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research: Norwich, 2006. [5] Sjöberg, L., Factors in risk perception. Risk Analysis, 20(1), pp. 1- 11, 2000. [6] Chaiken, S., Liberman, A. & Eagly, A.H., Heuristic and systematic information processing within and behind the persuasion context. Unintended though, eds. J.S. Uleman & J. A. Bargh., Guilford Press: New York, 1989. [7] Sundblad, E., Biel, A. & Gärling, T., Knowledge and Confidence in Knowledge About Climate Change Among Experts, Journalists, Politicians, and Laypersons. Environment and Behavior, 41, pp. 281-302, 2008. [8] Renn, O. & Levine, D., Trust and credibility in risk communication. Risk Communication, eds. H. Jungennann, R.E. Kasperson & P.M. Wiedemann, Forschungszentrum Jülich, pp.405-413, 1991. [9] Kasperson, R.E., The socia1 amplification of risk: progress in developing an integrative framework in social theories of risk. Social Theories of Risk, eds. S. Krimsky & D. Golding, Praeger: Westport, CT, USA, pp.53178,992; [10] Slovic, P., Perceived risk, trust, and democracy. Risk Analysis, 13, pp.675682, 1993. [11] Breakwell, G.M., Social representational constrains upon identity processes. Representations of the social bridging theoretical traditions, eds. K. Deaux & G. Philogene, pp. 271-284, Blackwell: Oxford, 2000. [12] Kellstedt, P.M., Zahran, S., & Vedlitz, A., Personal efficacy, the information environment, and attitudes toward global warming and climate change in the United States. Risk Analysis, 28(1), pp. 113-126, 2008. [13] Instituto Hidrográfico, Roteiro do Arquipélago dos Açores, PUB (N) - IH128-SN, 237 pp., Lisboa, 1981. [14] Santos, F. D., Valente, M. A., Miranda, P. M. A., Aguiar, A., Azevedo, E. B., Tomé, A. R., & Coelho, F., Climate Change scenarios for the Açores and Madeira. World Resource Review, 16 (4), pp. 473-491, 2004. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

120 Island Sustainability [15] SREA, Estimativas da População Residente, Serviço Regional de Estatística, Angra do Heroísmo, 2007. [16] Myers, N., Mittermeier, R.A., Mittermeier, C.G., Fonseca, G.A.B. & Kent, J., Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature, 403, pp. 853858, 2000. [17] SRAM, Desafios do protocolo de Quioto na Região Autónoma dos Açores – Diagnóstico e perspectivas. SRAM, Secretaria Regional do Ambiente e do Mar, DROTRH: Ponta Delgada, 2007. [18] Bates, B. C., Kundzewicz, Z.D., Wu, S. & Palutikof, J.P. (Eds.), Climate change and water. Technical paper of the Intergovernmental panel on Climate Change. IPCC Secretariat: Genéve 2008. [19] Figueiredo, M.M.M., Percepção de risco sobre alterações climáticas: estudo exploratório na ilha Terceira, Açores. Master’s Thesis, Universidade dos Açores, Angra do Heroísmo, 2007. [20] Special Barometer 300, European’s attitudes towards climate change, European Commission and European Parliament, 2008 [21] Futerra, Sustainability Communications Ltd, The rules of the game: evidence base for the climate change communications strategy. Unpublished Report for the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs: London, UK, 2004. [22] Haynes, K., Barclay, J., Pidgeon, N., The issue of trust and its influence on risk communication during a volcanic crisis. Bulletin of Volcanology, 70, pp.605-621, 2008. [23] Ronan, K.R, Johnston, D.M., Daly, M. & Fairley, R., School Children's Risk Perceptions and Preparedness: A Hazards Education Survey, The Australasian Journal of Disaster and Trauma Studies, 1, 2000.

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Future sea level rise implications on development of Lazarus Island, Singapore Southern Islands T. S. Teh, D. K. Raju, K. Santosh & J. Chandrasekar Tropical Marine Science Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore

Abstract The Southern Islands compose an urban planning area in the Central Region of Singapore and is made up of the islands of Kusu, Lazarus, Seringat, Tekukor, St. John, Sentosa and the Sister Islands. The islands had largely been expanded by land reclamation in the 1970s to create beaches and swimming lagoons. The new coastlines are armoured by large quarry stones. Other than Sentosa, the rest of the islands are undeveloped and remain as mainly weekend destinations. As part of the Singapore Tourism Board’s plan to develop the Southern Islands beyond Sentosa, a second phase of land reclamation with sands imported from Indonesia was started in 2000 to link Seringat, Lazarus and Sentosa. The land reclamation took six years to complete and water, electricity, gas and telecommunication infrastructure were brought to the island from Sentosa. The entire project costs nearly S$300 million. The strengths and opportunities identified are the unspoilt natural environment, island ambience free from vehicular traffic and proximity to the mainland’s central area. The` waters of the southern islands have attractive corals and marine life and are popular diving spots. Beaches are of reasonable quality and topographic highs on some islands offer trekking possibilities. The main constraints to developing the islands are absence of road and poor navigational access to the islands. Over the years, there have been various suggestions on how Lazarus Island should be developed. Recent suggestions include turning the island into a getaway for the super rich or housing a casino. However, whatever development is planned for Lazarus must take into consideration its sustainability in the face of a future rising sea. Reclamation that took place in the 1970s was before concern about global warming. Consequently, WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line) doi:10.2495/ISLANDS100111

122 Island Sustainability the crest of sea walls and platform levels of reclaimed land are low and vulnerable to wave overtopping and inundation during extreme high tides. Inundation analyses using Geographic Information System carried out under A2 sea level rise scenario for Lazarus suggest that extra care must be taken in developing these islands to avoid future problems. Keywords: Lazarus Island, island development, land reclamation, vulnerability, sea level rise, A2 emission scenario, RTK, DEM, GIS, inundation.

1

Introduction

Planning without considering a possible rising sea may render some of the best conceived land use plan to fail. Global warming and a rising sea is a recent concern and the early plans did not have to address this issue. However, newer plans for coastal areas and islands are expected to accommodate a rising sea. Unfortunately, there is much uncertainty regarding the quantum of rise and there are questions whether designs of coastal structures and platform levels of reclaimed land are adequate to protect existing coastal settlements, and whether any proposed plan to encourage settlement along the coast and on islands is wise.

2

Objectives

This paper examines the sustainability of proposed plans to develop Lazarus Island under the threat of a rising sea. A2 emission scenario for various time frames are examined, areas vulnerable to inundation identified using GIS analyses and recommendations made to mitigate or avoid future problems ensuing from a rising sea.

3

Planning system in Singapore

Careful planning is carried out in Singapore in order to achieve sustainable economic growth and ensure a high quality of life. This is done through the Concept Plan and Master Plan, which provide a comprehensive forward looking and integrated planning framework for sustainable development [1]. The Master Plan which was first formulated during 1952-1955 and approved in 1958 has since undergone eight reviews. The Concept Plan, reviewed every 10 years, is a strategic land use and transportation plan to guide development in the next 40-50 years. This integrated plan attempts to provide sufficient land to meet anticipated population and economic growth and to provide a good living environment. It takes into account all major current land use needs, balances future needs and considers all tradeoffs, thus ensuring economic growth with environmental stewardship and social progress. The Master Plan, reviewed every 5 years, is a statutory land use plan which guides Singapore’s development in the medium term over the next 10-15 years. The plan, one of the most important tools in shaping Singapore’s physical WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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development, translates the Concept Plan into detailed plans. In the Master Plan, Singapore is divided into five planning regions, consisting of 55 planning areas, one of which is the Southern Islands which are in the Central Region. Each planning area, divided into sub-zones, is envisaged to have a population of around 150,000 people (fig. 1). The Southern Islands consist of Sentosa, Tekukor, Sister Islands, Kusu and the now merged St John-Lazarus-Seringat.

Figure 1:

Planning regions and areas of Singapore.

In the last population census of 2000, about 3.6 million people were recorded on the 704 km2 of land on the island, giving a population density of about 5,115 people per km2. Within the Central Planning Region, the population density is higher at 6,805 people per km2. However, the Southern Islands planning area of the Central Region has a very low resident population, with some islands being uninhabited. A mid term review of the Concept Plan in 2006 concluded that there is sufficient land in Singapore for future needs. The broad strategies arising from the revision included: (i) A need to make more creative use of land to meet future demands; (ii) Enhancing quality of life and sense of identity by providing a greater variety of leisure options; and to selectively retain Singapore’s built and natural environment to foster a sense of belonging. 3.1 Vision and planning strategies for the Southern Islands The vision for the Southern Islands is to create a tropical island destination on the doorstep of a world-class city. The planning strategies as stated in the 1996 Report included using the unique island environment for a diverse range of WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

124 Island Sustainability recreational activities, encouraging better utilization of the terrain and unspoilt natural areas of open space, ensuring land use compatible to the natural character of the existing environment, appreciating the island ambience by maintaining public access along the foreshore [2]. There was also a plan to provide alternative lifestyle by establishing high quality waterfront housing communities in Sentosa and Lazarus by using strategic land reclamation. 3.2 Planning proposals of the Southern Islands This planning proposals covered land use, residential plan, commercial plan, green and blue plan, transportation plan, and a special and detailed control plan. In the land use plan, of the 688.8 ha of land, 79.3% are reserved for open space and recreation, which includes beaches and parks, and open areas. The most significant proposed land use is that of residential development on reclaimed land at Sentosa Cove and Lazarus Island which accounts for 10.2% of the planning area. The introduction of residential development will provide a permanent population base. This also means that transportation will have to be upgraded or introduced so that residents can move more freely to the main island. This would pose a serious problem for Lazarus Island which is not accessible by road link compared to Sentosa which is linked to the main island by a causeway. The proposed residential plan for Sentosa Cove has been partially implemented (fig. 2). The entire Sentosa Cove site will have a total of 2,140 units comprising 1,720 condominium units, and 420 landed units and be home to about 8,000 residents, about 60% of which are foreigners. Bungalow land parcels were first sold for S$300 psf in 2003 but climbed to S$1820 psf by 2008. In 2009, Seven Palms condominium started selling units at S$3,300 psf or S$8.5 million per unit. Sentosa Cove has become the most sought after address in Singapore, and this is the only area in Singapore where foreigners are allowed to own landed property. With the great success of Sentosa Cove, there is much anticipation towards the proposed development of Lazarus and whether it will be another Sentosa Cove or take on a new development concept.

High rise condominiums Figure 2:

Sea-front bungalows

Mixed residential development on Sentosa Cove, Sentosa Island.

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In the 1996 planning report on the Southern islands, the proposed residential plan for Lazarus consisted of low density and landed housing as well as two hotels. Unlike Sentosa Cove, the proposed plan had yet to be implemented although Lazarus had been enlarged and linked to St John, and the basic utilities requirements had been put in place. Surprisingly, the 2008 Master Plan did not mention any detailed plan for developing the island. In the Green and Blue Plan, other than the proposed commercial and residential areas, the rest of Lazarus Island is reserved for beach area, and sports & recreation. In the Special and Detailed Control Plan, the waters around Lazarus, St John and Kusu are zoned as marine nature area, and there is a restriction on development within 15 m of the foreshore fronting the open sea.

4

Lazarus Island

4.1 History of St John-Lazarus-Kusu Islands Before the land reclamation of the 1960s, the area occupied by the present St John-Lazarus was a group of discrete islands dominated by St John and Lazarus, with islets of Kusu and Seringat and patchy reefs. The two larger islands, each with a school, were occupied by a decent sized population. Kusu Island was a burial site for immigrants who died in quarantine on St John and Lazarus. As part of the Singapore Tourism Board’s plan to develop the Southern Islands beyond Sentosa, a second phase of land reclamation with sands imported from Indonesia was started in 2000 to link Seringat and Lazarus and create a wide sandy bay. The new island is linked to St John by a causeway. The land reclamation took six years to complete and water, electricity, gas and telecommunication infrastructure were brought to the island from Sentosa. The entire project costs nearly S$300 million. Lazarus is accessed by passenger ferry which calls at St. John Island. 4.2 Lazarus Island after reclamation Lazarus Island at the end of the reclamation is dominated by the old hill towards the south and low-lying reclaimed land to the north targeted for residential and commercial development (fig. 3). The coastline at the edge of reclaimed land is protected by high seawalls and a short causeway and bridge connect the main Lazarus Island to two small artificial islands. A longer causeway connects Lazarus to St John. To provide for recreation, a lagoon with narrow beaches has been created along the northern coast and a broad swimming bay with wide beaches backed by a sand terrace has been created along the eastern coast. Small beaches have also developed along the west coast near the main causeway and shoreline retreat behind the southern breakwaters has resulted in narrow beaches along the southern coast. One of the breakwaters formerly attached to Lazarus has become detached. The old narrow beaches below the bluff opposite Kusu island still remains. It is obviously that Lazarus is vulnerable to wave intrusion from the east, with waves approaching into the unprotected bay. Some of the natural and man-made coasts of Lazarus are shown in fig. 4. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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Figure 3:

Lazarus Island at the end of reclamation.

Arcuate artificial beach Figure 4:

5

High sloping sea walls Artificial coast of Lazarus.

Sea level rise implications on Lazarus

Only the SRES scenarios of A2 (high) for different time frames (2020, 2030, 2050 and 2100) were used to assess inundation of future sea level rise on Lazarus Island. SRES refers to the scenarios described in the IPCC Special Report on Emissions Scenarios [3]. The SRES scenarios are grouped into four scenario families (A1, A2, B1 and B2) that explore alternative development pathways, covering a wide range of demographic, economic and technological driving forces and resulting GHG emissions. The A1 storyline assumes a world WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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of very rapid economic growth, a global population that peaks in mid-century and rapid introduction of new and more efficient technologies. A1 is divided into three groups that describe alternative directions of technological change: fossil intensive (A1FI), non-fossil energy resources (A1T) and a balance across all sources (A1B). B1 describes a convergent world, with the same global population as A1, but with more rapid changes in economic structures toward a service and information economy. B2 describes a world with intermediate population and economic growth, emphasizing local solutions to economic, social, and environmental sustainability. A2 describes a very heterogeneous world with high population growth, slow economic development and slow technological change. No likelihood has been attached to any of the SRES scenarios. Under the A2 emission scenario, the projected global mean sea level rise by IPCC at the end of the 21st century varies from 23 to 51cm [4]. For the Lazarus study, the projected sea level rise of the regional sea for different time frames is used to establish inundation levels. These levels are higher than the IPCC projected levels. The projected sea levels, shown in table 1, follow that of Tkalich and Gulev [5]. This assumes a contribution of 20 cm by ice melt in 100 years and an unchanged highest astronomical tide of 1.7 m. Table 1: Time scale 2020 2030 2050 2100

Projected sea level of regional seas for 2020, 2030, 2050 and 2100. Regional msl projection 0.27 0.30 0.38 0.65

Ice melt (m) 0.04 0.06 0.10 0.20

HAT (m)

Inundation level (m )

Storm surge

1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70

2.01 2.06 2.18 2.55

1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Extreme sea level with storm surge (A2 extreme) 3.01 3.06 3.18 3.55

In order to assess extent of inundation, a DEM of the island was created by collecting a network of elevation point data using different survey techniques, as described by Santosh et al [6]. This data set was supplemented by digital elevation information provided by Sentosa Development Corporation (SDC). 5.1 Collecting elevation data in the field Over several day-visits to the island in March and April 2008 to collect elevation data, we did the following: 1. 2. 3.

Set up a baseline consisting of two temporary bench marks (TBMs) using Trimble-R8 Real Time Kinematic (RTK) GPS. Collected a network of elevation data using Nikon Total Station DTM-332 and two prisms-we selected points randomly or where changes in slope occurred. Collected elevation data using mobile mapping with the RTK mounted on a truck.

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128 Island Sustainability 5.2 Generating Digital Elevation Model (DEM) The elevation data collected was combined with data provided by SDC in a Microstation CAD platform (fig. 5). We imported the merged dataset in ArcGIS as elevation layer and then using the 3-D analyst tools in ArcGIS, generated a Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN). We further processed the TIN in ArcGIS to generate a DEM for Lazarus. The DEM is imported into 3-D modelling software (Global Mapper) and processed to generate a 3-D perspective view and contour map (fig. 6).

Figure 5:

Lazarus: combined point and line elevation data

DEM – St. John-Lazarus

3-D perspective view

Figure 6: DEM and 3-D perspective view.

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The 3-D view toolbar in Global Mapper further allows inundation modelling for various tidal and sea level rise scenarios. The output is taken into ArcGIS for inundation area calculation. 5.3 Present sea level and areas inundated during HAT and during HAT with storm surge of 1 m To calculate the areas inundated and lost under various scenarios of sea level rise, a GIS analysis was carried out to calculate the total area of the island (75.1096 ha) and areas inundated from the coastline to highest astronomical tide (HAT) and additional areas inundated above HAT during a 1 m storm surge. For calculating land loss caused by a rising sea, the area above the legally defined coastline of 0.863 m reduced level is considered land. The result shows that during HAT, a total area of 3.089 ha will be inundated and an additional area of 5.669 ha inundated during HAT with a storm surge of 1 m. Hence storm surge during HAT would inundate a total land area of 8.758 ha (table 2) or 11.66 % of the island. The major threat of inundation comes from storm surge coinciding with HAT. A rising sea will increase this threat. Table 2:

Inundation statistics of Lazarus during HAT and HAT plus 1 m storm surge under present sea level.

Tide level 0-0.863m

Upper limit coastline

0.863m to 1.7m

HAT

1.7 to 2.7m

Storm surge of 1m during HAT Same as above

0.863 to 2.7m

Area inundated Upper inter tidal, beach face, sea area Upper beach face, berm and lower scarp, land area Berm, scarp and frontal dune/sand terrace, land area From coastline to 2.7m

Hectare inundated 2.866 3.089 5.669 8.758

5.4 Sea level rise implications of A2 and A2 extreme emission scenarios Two scenarios were examined, one under A2 and the other under A2 combined with a storm surge of 1 m. A 100-year storm surge event of 1 m is applied for all time frames as this event may happen in any year. 5.4.1 A2 scenario The inundation statistics for A2 scenario is shown in table 3. In the absence of storm surge, inundation for all time frames can be considered minor. For example, even for the year 2100, only 4.212 ha or 5.607 % of the island will be inundated during HAT. In addition, most of the inundation will be temporary, lasting for only a few hours, with the wave overwash quickly draining away as the tide recedes. Area inundated includes the unprotected bay the proposed residential and commercial areas protected by high sea walls are not affected. The pattern and slight spread of inundation for various time frames are shown in fig. 7. Inundation is mainly confined to the unprotected bay and the eroding southern coast. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

130 Island Sustainability Table 3:

A2-inundation levels and inundated areas of various time scales.

Time Scale

Inundation Level (m)

Land inundated1 in ha

2020

2.01

1.444

2030

2.06

1.665

2050

2.18

2.426

2100 1

2.55

% land inundated 1.922 2.217 3.23 5.607

4.212

permanent and temporary loss

Lazarus 2020

Lazarus 2030

Lazarus 2050

Lazarus 2100

Figure 7:

A2: areas inundated during HAT for various time scales.

5.4.2 A2 scenario (extreme) The inundation statistics for A2 (extreme) are shown in table 4. Combined with a 1 m storm surge during HAT, inundation, especially for the longer time frames, is severe and widespread. By 2020 an inundation level of 3.01 m will flood 9.76 ha and by 2030 an inundation level of 3.06 m will flood 12.6 ha of land. Areas of land flooded will increase to 21.749 ha by 2050 and to 42.144 ha or 56.11% of land by the end of the century. Inundation is mainly temporary, with wave overwash draining away as high tide recedes and storm surge abates. The extent and spread of inundation with increasing time frames are illustrated in fig. 8. By 2020, there will be minor flooding on depressions of reclaimed land. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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Table 4:

A2 (extreme)-inundation levels and inundated areas for different time scales.

Time Scale

Inundation Level (m)

Land inundated1 in ha

2020

3.01

9.76

2030

3.06

12.598

2050

3.18

21.749

2100

3.55

42.144

1

131

% land inundated 12.994 16.773 28.956 56.11

permanent and temporary loss

Lazarus 2020, inundation level 3.01 m

Lazarus 2030, inundation level 3.06 m

Lazarus 2050, inundation level 3.18 m

Lazarus 2100, inundation level 3.55 m

Figure 8:

A2 (extreme): areas inundated for various time frames during HAT plus storm surge of 1 m.

On the proposed residential areas, flooding becomes more pronounced by 2030 and widespread by 2050, during which the linked islets and northern coast are still inundation-free. This suggests that waves enter the lagoon to flood the land through the unprotected landward side of the lagoon coast. The sea wall and sand ridge still protects the coast from flooding at 3.18 m inundation level. By WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

132 Island Sustainability the end of the century, the sea wall set at about 3.4 m will be overtopped when the inundation level reaches 3.55 m. Waves overtopping the sea wall will virtually inundate all the reclaimed areas, including the linked islets.

6

Discussion and conclusion

Reclaimed land along the coast or on islands is sensitive to a rising sea and storm surges. Properly-designed sea walls and a high platform level on reclaimed land will help to protect the land from erosion, wave overtopping and inundation. In land-starved Singapore, coastal land reclamation is seen as the favoured option to create land for living and development space, and land is reclaimed under stringent conditions to ensure sustainability. Fortunately, the stringent conditions are strictly adhered to as only selected government agencies can reclaim coastal land. In response to concerns about a rising sea, sea wall heights and platform levels have recently been raised in Singapore. For example the platform level for reclaimed land is now 3.0 m for the north coast and 3.5 m for the south coast. Despite these efforts by policy makers, there is always the nagging question whether a rapidly warming world may render current standards inadequate. Once platform levels are set and buildings constructed, it will be very difficult to raise the ground level. There is always risk in turning small islands expanded by land reclamation into expensive residential properties. People that choose to live in exclusive and small, isolated islands must bear the bulk of the risks. Small islands are more fragile and do not enjoy the resilience of most mainland ecosystems. Here nature allows little room for error. Hence, understanding island processes, vulnerabilities and choosing proper implementing strategies for sustainable development become critical for island development [7]. Similar to other low-lying small islands, Lazarus is highly vulnerable to extreme events. Although a future rising sea up to the end of the 21st century does not pose a problem to the well protected island, a storm surge of 1 m coinciding with HAT will overtop the seawalls and inundate most of the reclaimed land. For Lazarus Island to be sustainable, developers must address future sea level rise by ensuring that sea walls and platform levels are above inundation, building designs can accommodate the occasional inundation and infrastructures, especially the drainage system can collect and quickly drain away the overwash, and lastly dwellers must accept the risks that come with living beside the sea. There must also be an early warning system of extreme storm events and emergency plans for evacuation to the hill at the southern end of the island.

Acknowledgements The help of Sentosa Development Corporation, Singapore in providing elevation data on Lazarus Island and that of Tropical Marine Science Institute, National University of Singapore in providing field assistance is gratefully acknowledged.

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References [1] Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA), Singapore, Singapore Master Plan 2008. URA: Singapore, 2008. [2] Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA) Singapore, Southern Islands Planning Area. URA: Singapore, 1996 [3] Nakicenovic, N. & R. Stewart (Eds), Special Report on Emission Scenarios. A Special Report of Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 599, 2000 [4] Pachauri, R.K. & Reisinger, A. (Eds.) Climate Change, 2007. Synthesis Report. IPCC: Geneva, Switzerland, pp. 104, 2007. [5] Tkalich, P. & Gulev, S., Vol. III-Coastal Hydrodynamic Studies, Singapore Climate Change, progress report 2009. [6] Santosh, K., Raju D.K., Chandrasekhar, J. & Teh, T.S., Field-based data collection techniques and remote sensing for developing a high resolution digital elevation model for coastal studies. Proc. of the 5th Int. Conf. on Asian and Pacific Coasts, Vol. II, pp. 304-312, 2009. [7] Teh, T.S., Sustainable development and environmental management of Malaysian islands (Chapter 18). Islands of Malaysia: Issues and Challenges, ed. T.S. Teh, R&D 0237: Kuala Lumpur, pp. 319-340, 2000.

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Rising sea level and long term sustainability of near-shore islands of the United Arab Emirates: an approach to establishing setback lines for Abu Dhabi G. G. Garland Geography and Urban Planning, University of United Arab Emirates, Al Ain, UAE

Abstract In recent years an important infrastructural and human development focus for the United Arab Emirates has been along the shoreline of its northern coast fronting the Arabian Gulf. The Gulf itself is a large, warm, shallow semi-enclosed body of water with complex oceanography and geomorphological history. Its southern shores, including that of the northern UAE, are predominantly sandy. The value of present infrastructure, especially in the capital city Abu Dhabi, constructed on a number of natural and man-made islands, is enormous, but is already dwarfed by future plans for the next twenty years. It is obvious that for the plans to be both implementable and sustainable, the impacts of future sea level changes must be taken into account. Restricting sea level impact analysis to plotting the slow creep of steadily rising sea level up the shore over several decades is naive and ignores other significant changes in flood risks that accompany rising sea level. These include enhanced coastal erosion, higher extreme tides and waves, elevated low pressure surges and greater wave runup, all of which increase the likelihood of flood occurrence and the degree and intensity of damage. This paper reviews past and future sea level changes in the Arabian Gulf, and demonstrates that, notwithstanding its separation from world oceans, the Gulf sea level tends to respond to global forcing in the same way and within approximately the same time frames as the global oceanic system. The study concludes that from present evidence, the most likely sea level rise scenarios for the Gulf by 2099 lie between 0.21 and 2m. Then, after review of many of the WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line) doi:10.2495/ISLANDS100121

136 Island Sustainability relevant variables, it proposes an 8-step procedure for developing safe development setback lines for the islands and shoreline of Abu Dhabi city. The approach should be applicable for the islands and shorelines anywhere in the southern Gulf. Keywords: Arabian Gulf islands, Abu Dhabi, sea level rise, tide and storm surges, Shamal wind, setback lines.

1 Introduction It is now well established that global sea level will increase significantly over the next few centuries, irrespective of whether greenhouse gas emissions can be reduced or not. This will have notable effects on small islands around the world, since for various reasons many are exceptionally vulnerable [1]. In general the Arabian Gulf region is not well researched with respect to past or future sea level changes, although Desgupta et al. [2] demonstrated that in the Middle East and North Africa, the UAE would be one of the most impacted countries, together with Egypt and Qatar. The UAE abuts the southern Arabian Gulf (Fig 1) and has sovereignty over almost 200 small Gulf Islands, and an increasing number of near-shore manmade structures such as Lulu Island, just seaward of Abu Dhabi Island. Many of the natural islands are or have been inhabited for hundreds of years and are

Figure 1:

The UAE, Abu Dhabi and some of the main Gulf islands.

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becoming important destinations for cultural tourism. Most of the artificial structures as well as some natural islands have maximum elevations only a few metres above sea level. The city of Abu Dhabi (Fig 1), itself located on a low lying natural island, is by far the most developed of the all the Emirates islands, and boasts an impressive and growing infrastructure. Its future plans are spectacular and costly, construction on a number of elements has already begun, and one, the Formula One circuit on Ras Island is already complete. Abu Dhabi island itself is linked to the mainland by three bridges. It has an area of 95km2, with a maximum elevation some 20m above present sea level. Its vulnerability to changing sea level and associated marine impacts is thus-far not clear. The physical impacts of sea level change on all shorelines, including those of islands, is not limited to gradual inundation as sea encroaches on low lying land. A second probable result is enhanced shoreline erosion [3]. A third is increased coastal flooding during unusual tidal and meteorological events, especially if these occur together [4]. For construction and development purposes these should ultimately be used to establish safe setback lines based on permanent inundation, extreme tides and weather conditions, and vulnerability to coastal erosion, such that risk of damage to infrastructure and human life is minimised landward of the line. Seaward areas of setback lines present additional risk, and building and construction will require more protection. The objectives of this paper are formulated with the Abu Dhabi city island in mind, although results should be valid for most Gulf islands. Thus the paper will: Determine the most likely sea level rise scenarios for the Abu Dhabi city shoreline for the year 2100 o Review and assess the likelihood and magnitude of storm surges, high significant waves and extreme tides occurring in this part of the southern Gulf o Outline the research requirements for coastal erosion predictions for new shoreline positions Lack of measured data for the southern Gulf in most physical marine disciplines, means that methods are based on review, analysis and final synthesis of existing information. The precise calculation of maximum impact lines for selected sea level scenarios – remains the topic of future work, although an eightstep procedure and requirements for necessary prior research are developed. The best possible sea level rise scenarios, as well as maximum storm surge, highest significant wave, and Highest Astronomical Tide will all be obtained from existing data. Mapping of coastal landforms to assess vulnerability to erosion is a research project on its own and will not be undertaken here. o

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2 Variables controlling sea level change and its impacts at Abu Dhabi 2.1 Sea level change in the southern Arabian Gulf 2.1.1 Historic and present sea level changes No data or reports were found that deal specifically with Abu Dhabi and its islands, although there are assessments for the Arabian Gulf. Given the confined and coherent nature of the Gulf, it is reasonable to assume that they have at least some validity for Abu Dhabi. However the data suffer from very short measurement runs, and restricted spatial extent. Work on Holocene shorelines at Umm Al Quwayn Lagoon by Bernier et al. [5] makes it clear that since it was filled approximately 11 500 years ago, Gulf sea level has fluctuated significantly in the last 10 000 years, and will probably continue to do so. They found geomorphological and archaeological evidence of sea level higher than at present 6000, 4500, 3500, 2600 and 1470 years ago, each separated by regression. Similar fluctuations have been observed at Bahrain [6], and Failak Island (Kuwait) [7]. Although these changes pre-date any sea level change precipitated by anthropogenic global warming, they broadly agree with eustatic changes over the same periods, and show that notwithstanding its separation from world oceans, Gulf sea level tends to respond in the same way and within the same time frames as the global ocean system to eustatic changes. This means that eustatic predictions must have some validity for the Arabian Gulf. Recent sea level change is difficult to establish due to a number of factors, the most important being paucity of long runs of local measured data. To be truly valid, continuous tidal gauge measurements of at least 50 years are necessary to determine trends of sea level, and nowhere does such data exist for the Gulf. Further, Sultan et al. [8] demonstrate that large seasonal temperature, pressure and water density fluctuations, together with high evaporation rates and significant fresh water inflow lead to a notable seasonal sea level fluctuation, whereby summer levels are up to 260mm higher than in winter. This is far greater that any possible annual change. Nevertheless the same authors, using an 11 year data set from two Saudi Arabian (south western Gulf) stations were able to identify a positive sea level trend of some 2.1mm per year. Later Hosseinibalam et al. [9], using 10 years (1999-2000) of data from northern Gulf stations came to similar annual and seasonal conclusions, proposing a sea level rise of for the northern Gulf of 2.34mm per year. 2.1.2 Future sea level rise The IPCC [10] point out that “Anthropogenic warming and sea level rise would continue for centuries due to the time scales associated with climate processes and feedbacks, even if greenhouse gas concentrations were to be stabilized” (p26) There is little doubt that future increase of sea level in the Gulf is predicated, the question is how much? In the absence of local data specific to the southern WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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Gulf, and with the assumption that sea level in the Gulf mirrors global oceanic sea level behaviour, best future sea level predictions (Table 1) are adopted directly from Sultan et al. [8], IPCC [10], Rhamsdorf et al. [12] and Pfeffer et al. [13]. Sultan et al.’s [8] measurements are for an 11 year period only and are now 14 years out of date. They do not take account of any future global warming effects, and, if computed through to 2099 they may be considered as the minimum likely sea level change. The IPCC report predicts a minimum global increase of 0.18m, and a maximum of 0.59m by 2099. These values are contested by Rahmsdorf et al. [12], who make a strong case to suggest that they are an underestimate, and eustatic rise could be as much as 0.81m by 2099. However, since there is still much uncertainty over global warming, errors could cause additional infrastructure damage and even loss of life. It therefore makes sense to invoke the precautionary principle. Thus, based on best current understanding of the present global warming cycle and all other influential factors, the highest possible rise – a value which cannot be exceeded by 2099 – is, according to Pfeffer et al. [13], 2m. They base their conclusion on an analysis of the kinematics of ice melt and oceanic heat distribution. Taking all these estimates into account, Table 1 proposes low, medium, high and extreme scenarios for the shorelines of Abu Dhabi City and its associated islands for the year 2099. Table 1:

Most probable sea level rise scenarios for Abu Dhabi for the year 2099.

Low Scenario (Sultan et al. [8]) 1

2

+2.1mm

+0.21m

Medium Scenario (IPCC [10]) 1 2 +6.6mm

1 mean annual rise in mm;

+0.59m

High Scenario (Rhamsdorf et al. [12]) 1 2

Extreme Scenario (Pfeffer et al. [13]) 1 2

+9.0mm

+20.2mm

+0.81m

+2.0m

2 total increase in sea level by 2099 in m.

2.1.3 Gulf sea surface elevations due to tides and storms. Lack of appropriate measured data, means that modelling based on expected tide, wind and storm information has been used in most existing analyses of southern Gulf conditions. Most models also integrate both tide and storm surges to produce a single value, an approach used to good effect for Dubai by Mangor et al. [14]. Tides are predictable, and Highest Astronomical Tides tend to occur every 18 years or so, and can be up to 20cm above normal spring highs. Arabian Gulf climate is dominated by extra-tropical weather systems which in the main travel from north west to south east [15]. By far the most dominant and intense of these is the Shamal storm system which moves offshore from Iraq and Kuwait into Gulf waters and, although it can occur in summer, is most common and powerful between the months of November and March. Because of its nature, its effect on sea surface elevation is two-fold. First, It creates an extensive, and largely uni-directional wind field which tends to force Gulf WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

140 Island Sustainability surface waters towards the south and east, causing a significant build up in the south eastern regions of the Gulf. Second, atmospheric pressure differentials can create both negative and positive surges [16]. The consequences to storm sea levels from the former are best demonstrated by Delft Hydraulics [17]. They noted that variations in Gulf surface level elevation are most strongly determined by a complex tidal regime, with wind and water density also playing significant roles. Using the Delft3D-FLOW model, calibrated with readings form 130 coastal and offshore stations, they demonstrated that extreme Shamal events, such as that in 1964, resulted in an increase in sea surface elevation off Abu Dhabi of about 1m. Whether this figure includes an element due to pressure variation is unclear. However, surges due to atmospheric pressure variation were investigated by El Sabh and Murty [15]. Absence of measured data resulted in the use of a modelling approach from which they concluded that positive surges – most important for flood assessment potential – for a long duration Shamal with winds blowing consistently from the north west can result in a positive surge of up to 4 m at Jazirat Ghagha, a near-shore recording station some 200 km west of Abu Dhabi city. In conclusion, there is clearly conflict between modelling results. Using the precautionary principle, information currently available suggests that a maximum sea surface elevation along the Abu Dhabi shoreline due to both driving wind and atmospheric pressure differentials is about 4 m. The return period of such an event is unknown but could certainly happen a number of times by 2099. Unless more precise data becomes available, this should be used in the calculation of impact lines for Abu Dhabi. 2.1.4 Highest significant waves Like most oceanographic variables needed for analysis in the Arabian Gulf, assessment of wave climate suffers from lack of long runs of reliable measured data. This has led to modelling of wave height, period and length based on the transfer of wind energy to the water surface. It is unfortunate that two of the most accepted analyses for the region using this approach give contradictory results. Delft hydraulics [17] used the wavefocussed SWAN module of the Delft3D-Flow model to predict wave fields and significant wave heights for the whole of the Gulf during an extreme Shamal event, with wind direction predominantly from the northwest, and including a sub-set from the north. The results showed the Abu Dhabi coastline to be largely sheltered from its effects by the Qatar peninsula, such that significant wave heights rarely exceeded 1m. In contrast, Neelamani et al. [18], employed a WAM model using data from 39 widely distributed stations in the Arabian Gulf to hindcast significant wave heights and probabilities based on a Weibull distribution, for 12 years between 1993 and 2004. They found that for their station 14, only a few km from Abu Dhabi, significant wave height varied from 4m with a 12 Year return period to 5m for a 100 year return. The differences between the two modelling results are significant, and if anything points to the conclusion that modelling may be a poor substitute for WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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measured data. Nevertheless, since for this study it wise to employ the precautionary principle, it is prudent to employ the highest modelling estimate available for assessment of maximum impact lines for 2099 for the Abu Dhabi islands. Here we may note that Neelamini et al’s higher results [18] find support from a detailed assessment of wave and tide characteristics for Dubai, some 120 km to the north east [14]. In a study to assess the effects of offshore developments on the present coastline, they employed the PERGOS model to hindcast highest significant waves for the same 12 year period. They caution that the results are best estimates only, but concluded that the 50 year highest significant wave height in the Dubai area is between 3-4m. On this basis it is reasonable to assume that a 5m significant wave height will occur at least once along the Abu Dhabi shoreline before 2099, with approximately 8 occurrences of 4m waves during the same period. 2.1.5 Vulnerability to shoreline retreat Predicting the likelihood and amount of shoreline retreat on sandy coasts without barriers under increasing sea levels is a complex and controversial business. Since the 1950’s the Bruun Rule [19–21] has been used to estimate retreat on hundreds of shorelines around the world. It is a 2-dimensional model which proposes that on otherwise stable beaches unaffected by longshore drift or other influences, then the amount of shoreline retreat is directly proportional to rise in sea level: R=-S

w (1) h+B Where R is shoreline retreat; S is rise in sea level; w is width of the shoreface; h is water depth of the shore face; and B is the height above water level of the exposed beach. Under such a scenario shoreline retreat can be as much as 100 times the increase in sea level, and although a few researchers, for example Rosen [22] have found the model to be effective, it is strongly contested by many, most notably by Cooper and Pilkey [23], but also by others. They contend that the assumptions demanded by Bruun’s model are so stringent that they are rarely met on natural beaches, and out of the hundreds of times the rule has been used around the world, there are few applications which support it. Amongst its problems are that it fails to take account of on-or off-shore sediment sources, longshore drift and variations in wave climate and energy. Bird [24] suggests that the model could only be correct after sea level has stabilised at a new equilibrium level. Our present understanding of the shoreline geomorphology of the Abu Dhabi is poor. There have been few if any prior studies of recent coastal erosion or of the nature and effect of the near shore current system on sediment transport. Longshore drift at Dubai is in a north easterly direction [14], and Maddrell et al. [25] claim that Dubai’s gross drift rate is in the order of some 100 000 m3 per year. However given the differences in coastal and nearshore landforms between the two city shorelines this information may well not hold for Abu Dhabi. Howari and El-Saiy [26] studied characteristics of sediments between Abu Dhabi WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

142 Island Sustainability and Dubai. They concluded that supratidal sediments became finer towards Abu Dhabi, but that all sediments along the coastal reach between the two cities were of marine origin. The marine origin suggests that onshore sediment transport may be the dominant beach sediment source. The fining out towards Abu Dhabi may indicate that longshore drift mechanisms may be less powerful as one moves south eastward from Dubai. However, without a thorough study of the nature of the coastal sediment transport regime of Abu Dhabi, and since the Bruun Rule may not be appropriate for particular coastal configuration, neither the location of sites vulnerable to erosion nor the expected rates of shoreline retreat for the city can be assessed at this time.

3 Conclusions It is clear from the IPCC’s warning [10], that irrespective of any global reductions in greenhouse gas emissions, sea level will continue to rise for at least a few centuries. This being the case, and since Arabian Gulf sea levels as far as we know mirror world-wide eustatic changes, it is fair to conclude that sea level rise estimates for the year 2099 in Table 1 are the best assessments possible. The additional affects of tides, low pressure surges and high significant waves is less clear. Modelling of these has, in the main produced equivocal results. Not only this, but the shoreline impact of waves in particular, and any enhanced potential for coastal erosion, depends on the degree of exposure to the open sea. In narrow channels such as those separating the islands of Abu Dhabi, or protected sites, such as Abu Dhabi Corniche, sheltered by Lulu Island, storm and tidal surges will have an effect, but wave impact could be reduced significantly. Conversely Marina Mall Island and Emirates Palace Beach will be subject to greater impact, with correspondingly greater dependence on engineered protection. Thus at this stage, the best possible estimates for sea level rise impacts on the Abu Dhabi city islands must be general rather than site specific (Table 2). They Table 2:

Maximum sea heights above present datum accompanied by extreme tide, storm surge and wave events, by sea level rise scenario for the Abu Dhabi city area for 2099. 1 SEA LEVEL RISE SCENARIO

+21 cm (Sultan et al. [8]) +59cm (IPCC [10]) +81 cm (Rhamsdorf [12]) +2m Pfeffer et al. [13])

2 SHELTERED SITES (including storm and tide surges (4m) , but excluding wave and erosion effects)

+4.21m +4.59m +4.81m +6.00m

3 SITES EXPOSED TO OPEN SEA (including storm and tide surges (4m) , and expected highest significant waves(4m)) +8.21m +8.59m +8.81m +10.00m

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should be based on the precautionary principle, and exclude coastal erosion effects until better data become available. Within these restrictions, Table 2 uses the sea level rise scenarios, together with the highest storm and tide surges, to assess the worst case scenarios of maximum water height above present datum that are likely to occur by 2099. Note that in addition to the incremental increases in sea level, the values in columns 2 and 3 represent long return period events which may occur only a few times by 2099.

4 Recommendations In the absence of more precise data, future planning should proceed with the values from Table 2 in mind. In order to obtain more accurate data for calculation of setback lines for Abu Dhabi and associated islands, the flow diagram in Figure 2, which shows an eight-step procedure for calculating set back line location should be used as guideline

Figure 2:

Procedure for establishing coastal set back line positions for infrastructural development and construction in the coastal zone.

To provide the basic data for this, a number of enabling steps need to be taken: i. Establishment of a wave climate and sea-level monitoring system using a judiciously sited tidal and wave gauge network WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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A detailed survey of the current systems of the shoreline and channel system iii. Mapping and assessment of the shoreline and channel landforms and processes iv. A thorough and detailed assessment of past and present shoreline and channel erosion and sedimentation v. Mapping and assessment of the variation in vulnerability to sea level impacts of the complete Abu Dhabi City shoreline and channel system Although some of these, such as i) have medium to long term value only, all are essential to developing accurate impact lines for Abu Dhabi City.

References [1] Mimura, N., L., Nurse, R.,F., McLean, J., Agard, L., Briguglio, P., Lefale, R., Payet, A., & Sem, G. Small islands.(Chapter 16) Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, eds, M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 687-716, 2007. [2] Dasgupta, S., Laplante, B., Meisner, C., Wheeler, D., & Yan, J. The Impact of Sea Level Rise on Developing Countries: A Comparative Analysis. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 4136, pp. 16-22, 2007. [3] Masselink, G., & Hughes, M. Introduction to Coastal Processes and Geomorphology Arnold, London, pp. 39-44, 2003. [4] Mather, A., & Vella, G. Report on the March 2007 coastal erosion event for the KwaZulu-Natal Minister of Agricultural and Environmental Affairs. Unpublished Report, eThekwini Municipality. Durban, South Africa, 9pp. 2007. [5] Bernier, P., Dalongville, R., Dupuis, B., & de Medwecki, V. Holocene shoreline variations in the Persian Gulf: an example of the Umm Al Qowayn Lagoon (UAE). Quaternary International, 29/30 pp. 95-103, 1995. [6] Sanlaville, P., & Paskoff, R. Shoreline changes in Bahrain since the beginning of Human occupation, Manema (Bahrain), eds, Shaika Haya Ali Al Khlaifa and M Rice, Bahrain Through the Ages Conference 3-9 Dec 1983 Proceedings, KPI Lid, Manama, Bahrain, London, pp. 15-24, 1996. [7] Dalongville, R. Presentation physique generale de l’ile de Falaika (Koxeit). Eds, Y. Calvet Y & J. Gachet, Falaika, Fouille Francaise 1986-1988, TMO no 18, Maison de Lorient, Lyon, pp. 23-40, 1990. [8] Sultan. S., A., R., Ahmad, F., El Ghribi, N., M., & Al Subhi, A., M. An analysis of Gulf monthly mean sea level, Continental Shelf Research 15, No 11/12, pp. 1471-1482, 1995. [9] Hosseinibalam, F., Hassanzadeh, S., & Kiasatpour. A. Interannual variability and seasonal contribution of thermal expansion to sea level in the Persian Gulf, Deep Sea Research Part 1: Oceanographic Research Papers 54 (9) pp. 1474-1485, 2007. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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[10] IPCC, Synthesis Report adopted by IPCC Plenary XXVII (Valencia, Spain, November 27-30, pp. 34-76, 2007. [11] Nicholls, R.J., Wong, P. P., Burkett, V. R., Codignotto, J. O., Hay, J. E., McClean, R.F., Ragoonaden, S. & Woodroffe C., D. Coastal systems in low-lying areas (Chapter 6). Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution to Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, eds M. L. Parry, O.F Canzinai, J. P. Palutikof, P. J. Van der Linden & C. E. Hanson. Cambridge University Press, UK, pp. 315-356, 2007. [12] Rahmsdorf, S., Cazenave, A., Church, J., Hansen, J., Keeling, R., Larker, D. & Somerville, R. Recent climate observations compared to future projections. Science 316, p709, 2007. [13] Pfeffer, W., T., Harper, J., T., & O’Neel, S. Kinematic constraints on Glacier contributions to 21st century sea Level rise. Science 5, Vol 321, no 5894, pp. 1304-1343, 2008. [14] Mangor, K., Mocke, G., Giarusso, C., Smit, F., Bloch, R., Fuchs, J., Lumborg, U. & Neimann, S. Shoreline management of the Dubai coast. COPEDEC VII, Dubai 24-28 Feb, Paper M-15, pp 134-145, 2008. [15] El Sabh, M., I., & Murty, T., S. Storm surges in the Arabian Gulf. Natural Hazards 1, 371-385, 1989. [16] Murty, T., S., & El Sabh, M., I. Storm tracks, storm surges and sea state in the Arabian Gulf, Straits of Hormuz and Gulf of Oman, ed, M. I. El Sabh, Oceanographic modelling of the Kuwait Action Plan (KPA) region. UNESCO Reports in Marine Sciences No 28, pp. 12-22. 1984. [17] Delft Hydraulics Hydrodynamic modelling of the Arabian Gulf. Delft Hydraulics, Delf, Netherlands, www.wldelft.nl. (Undated). [18] Neelamani, S., Al-Salem, K., & Rakha, K. Extreme waves in the Arabian Gulf. Journal of Coastal Research, SI 50 (Proceedings of the 9th International Coastal Symposium), 322 – 328. Gold Coast, Australia, 2007. [19] Bruun. P. Coastal erosion and the development of beach profiles. US Army Beach Erosion Board, Technical Memorandum 44, pp 1037-1042, 1954. [20] Bruun, P. Sea level rise as a cause of shore erosion. Journal of Waterway, Port Coastal and Ocean Engineering, ASCE 88, pp. 117-130, 1962. [21] Bruun, P. The Bruun Rule of erosion. A discussion on large-scale two and three dimensional usage. Journal of Coastal Research 4, pp. 626-648, 1988. [22] Rosen, P. A regional test of the Bruun Rule on shoreline erosion. Marine Geology 26, pp. M7-M16, 1977. [23] Cooper, J., A., G & Pilkey, O., H. Sea-level rise and shoreline retreat: time to abandon the Bruun Rule. Global and Planetary Change 43, pp. 157-171, 2004. [24] Bird, E. Coastal Geomorphology- an Introduction. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, pp.280-282. 2000. [25] Maddrell, R., Burgess, K., & Hamer, B. Short and long term impacts of the construction of coast defences on coastal erosion. Coasts & Ports Australasian Conference, Auckland, 9-12 Sept, 2003.

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146 Island Sustainability [26] Howari, F., M & El-Saiy, A., K. Characterization of Recent Sediments between Abu Dhabi and Dubai Coasts, United Arab Emirates, with Multiple Analytical Techniques. Journal of Coastal Research 24 (2B) pp.74-82, 2008.

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Coastal erosion in the archaeological area of Selinunte V. Liguori & A. Porcaro Department of Structural, Aerospace and Geo-technical Engineering, Palermo University, Italy

Abstract Coast erosion is a widespread phenomenon and is a considerable issue for the dwellers of coastal areas today. Our study is based on the archaeological area of Selinunte in which we have noticed a process of erosion in progress. In this area we have considered a particular portion of the coast, around 8 km long, since our purpose is the individuation of anthropic elements such as ports, and natural elements, such as rivers. In this area we have set some point of reference using historical and recent cartography in a 1:25.000 scale dating back to 1971, a regional technical paper in a 1: 10.000 scale from 1994, and aerial pictures from 2000 and 2008, all of which we have geo-related starting from previous geo-related papers, locating some Ground Control Points apparent in all of the considered papers. We have used GIS support and the software program ARCVIEW. We have done a comparison between the actual shoreline and its trend in the previous years. In fact, we have measured the distance between the points considered stable on the shoreline that are changing all the time. In this way we have noticed the course of the coastline, appraising its advancement or withdrawal. The obtained data show that considering 24 stable points, in 70% of cases there has been coast withdrawal between 1994 and 2000; in 60% there has been erosion between 2000 and 2008. From an administrative point of view, the studied area includes the territory of Castelvetrano (TP) and involves a coastline extending to around 8 km, from the beach of Triscina-Selinunte, a fraction of Castelvetrano, to east of the mouth of River Belice. This extension has been defined as thoroughly as possible, in order to include River Belice, which is east of the archaeological park. The two analyzed rivers are Belice and Modione, both belonging to the hydrographic basin River Modione and in the area between River Modione and River Belice. From the geo-morphological point of view two WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line) doi:10.2495/ISLANDS100131

148 Island Sustainability typologies of prevailing landscapes can be considered: a hilly one in the basin, in the most northern area and another one, characterizing the coastal band. The nature of the ground is predominantly clay or clayey-marl with sand breakthroughs covered by calcarenites. In this area some marine terraces are present, for example the marine terrace beneath the Acropolis of Selinunte, situated at +50 m u.s.l. Another helpful element for the study of coast erosion is the discovery of an ancient port in around 1951, now buried under the sand. Keywords: coastal erosion, sea-level change, geomorphology.

1 Introduction From the administrative point of view, the studied area is in the territory of Castelvetrano (TP). The analyzed extension has been defined according to a study as precise as possible, comprehending a portion of coast from the Belice River to the Modione River, respectively in the east and west side of the Archaeological Park. The choice of this zone is referred to as the historical-cultural and landscape interest of the archaeological area of Selinunte, whose park, founded in 1993, extends to around 270 hectares.

2 Geology The lithology that characterizes this area is made of marine terrigenous deposits since the Quaternary and Calcarenite datable inferior Pleistocene and middlesuperior and middle-inferior Pliocene. These are made of sands and calcareous bioclastic gravels (Vernuccio, D’Angelo 1992 1994). These grounds cover the marly-sandy formation of the Belice Valley (Vitale 1990), constituted by a sequence of sandstones and calcarenitis intercalated by clays. Under this formation the pelagic marnosis deposits of the inferior Pliocene are tracked, denominated “Trubi” and the grounds of the evaporitic Messinian succession, evaporitic limestones and chalks, leaning on conglomerated and/or sandy and clayey-marly deposits of the Formation Cozzo Terravecchia. These grounds are affected by the presence of sea terraces since the Quaternary, characterized by sands, gravels and clays, disposed in various orders up to around 170 ms s.l.m. quotas (Vernuccio and D’Angelo [15]), originated in the inferior Pleistocene (Emiliano-Siciliano).

3 Geomorphology The studied site is in the physiographic unity number 12 of the PAI (plain of hydro-geologic asset). This area is located on the south-western coast of Sicily. The two studied rivers are the Belice and Modione, belonging both to the hydrographic basin, River Modione, and the area between River Modione and River Belice.

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According to the technical cards of identification of the Basin Plan for the Hydro-Geological Planning, the River Modione, being the principal auction, originates near Finestrelle Mountain and its length is around 25 km, flowing into the Mediterranean Sea. The maximum altitude is 663 ms s.l.m., the minimum is 0 and the average 248 ms s.l.m. The total surface of the hydrographic basin is 129 km²s and the tributaries are Staglio, Formica, Feudo, Squadrato, Riviera, Calandra and Scaldato, while the municipal territories involved are Castelvetrano, Gibellina, Partanna and Santa Ninfa. The examined sector mainly develops in the SW direction and the bordering basins are advancing in an hourly sense from west toward east: West northwest of the Arena River’s basin, north of San Bartolomeo River’s basin and east of the Belice River’s basin. From the geomorphologic point of view two typologies of prevailing landscapes can be tracked: hilly, in the most northern area of the basin and plane, characterizing the coastal side. The nature of the ground is predominantly clayey or marly-clayey with sand emergences. Because of the easy erosion of this lithologic type, no acclivity is noticed. The southern portion of the Basin, which is Piana di Mazara del Vallo, is characterized by a calcarenitis roll. The clayey nature of the grounds leads to a strong erodibility that, together with acclivity features and exogenous agents, causes a physical degradation of the ground, especially where the vegetation is sparse. Zones of fondovalle often correspond to these, functioning as accumulation of eroded material. The western area of Sicily, involving the territory of Selinunte, is constituted by a series of Quaternary terraces; in particular the acropolis is situated on a terrace placed to +50 m o.s.l. The whole coastal area between Marsala and Trapani, because of the sedimentary, tectonic, paleo-geographic and geomorphologic aspects, shows the bond between a tectonics of vertical lifting and the ice-eustatic oscillations. The prevailing geomorphologic aspect depends on the Quaternary terraces and the sandy coastal bands.

4 Climate According to the data obtained from the study conducted at the PAI Sicilia (hydro geologic asset plan), the thermal course of the examined territory results with regular temperature average values always attested below 30°C and an average Basin value of 17,1 °C. Generally, the highest are recorded between July and August and in the inferior altitude areas, the lowest in February. As far as regards the rains, anterior data obtained in thirty years (1965-1994) show an annual average precipitation of 570 mm. The climate being primarily temperate-Mediterranean, the rainy season lasts since October to April, according to the pluviometric course typical of the Sicilian climate. The minimum heights are generally recorded in July, while the maximum in December. As regards the wind characterization, the prevailing winds blow from SW [5].

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5 Use of the ground As regards the use of the soil, from the study conducted by the P.A.I. a variegated enough distribution of the Mediterranean vegetation emerges. In fact the areas destined for agricultural use are primarily characterized by olivegroves, vineyards, almonds and prickly pear, as well as citruses. The latter ones are mostly present in the irrigated areas of Castelvetrano and Campobello di Mazara. Wheat and various fodder, are not very diffused and they are usually present in more clayey grounds. Inside the sciare, portions of never or previously cultivated ground, there is the uncultivated productive. In the whole area of such a basin only 5,26% is urbanized; in fact the agrarian landscape occupies the greatest percentage of territory.

6 The coast of Selinunte The site of Selinunte has been analyzed on the basis of both geologic and archaeological markers, thanks to which we have tried to reconstruct the paleogeographic evolution of the coast, and by the use of the aerophotogrammetry managed with GIS support, that has allowed us to carry out an evaluation of the course of the coastline in the space of time of thirty years. We have considered as geologic indicators the Sea terraces of Western Sicily, of which we own reliable data, related to the geomorphology and their date. In fact, the coast plain is characterized by the presence of a series of sea terraces found

+ 50 m

Figure 1:

The acropolis of Selinunte rises on one Quaternary terrace situated at +50 m o.s.l. with the mouth of the Gorgo Cottone covered by sand.

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up to altitude +170 ms o.s.l. From geologic studies, the same are dated as Quaternary and particularly to medium and superior Pleistocene (120.000-10.000 years ago). The long phase of emersion during the last ice age, after the sea invasion of the interglacial phase in the superior Pleistocene, determines a wide peneplain in Western Sicily. In the area of Campobello di Mazara, in correspondence to a broad band with course NW-SE, where the Calcarenite of Marsala appears, wide areas flattened by the Pleistocene sea can be observed, clear evidence of its abrasive action. Fossils, the most representative of which is the Strombus Bubonius, testify a warm moderate climate, typical of the interglacial periods. These terraces appear on the surface in a wide part of the examined area, along a portion that, from a NW-SE course sub-parallel to the cliff from the Arena mouth to Torretta Granitola, extends to NE. This shows that the sea was at more elevated altitudes, compared to the current ones, equivalent to some meters beyond the level of the various terraces. Today the acropolis of Selinunte (Fig. 2), set on the western hill, is on a terrace of the Quaternary to +50 ms o.s.l.

7 Paleo-geographic reconstruction Through geologic and archaeological markers, the reconstruction allows us to affirm that around 800.000 years ago (Pleistocene Inferior, interglacial phase of

Figure 2:

An example of software used to study the movement of coast line: ARCVIEW.

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152 Island Sustainability the Günz-Mindel) the sea reached the maximum level and, since that moment the phase of progressive tectonic emersion of the earth started, lasting up to the Tirrenian (superior Pleistocene 120.000 years ago, Rïss-Würm). This phenomenon and the following eustatic cycles led to the formation of a stair of sea terraces. Actually, during an interglacial phase the increase of the temperature determines a rise of the sea level. At the same time the sea abrades and flattens the territory on which such transgression is in progress. When the glacial phase takes over, in correspondence of which both the eustatic lowering of the sea level and the isostatic coast raising happen, then the emersion of the terraced surface occur. Actually, this testifies the previous presence of the sea. Then, every new formation of terrace can be associated to the transition from an interglacial phase to a glacial one. In the western area of Sicily, to which Selinunte belongs, eight orders of marine terraces have been individualized, placed at different altitudes: +170 ms, +100 ms, +75 ms, +50 ms, +30 ms, +20 ms, +10 ms, +3 ms. During the middle Pleistocene the phenomenon of transgression determined a covering of vast areas of the island by the sea. This event, strongly connected with the eustatic oscillations, can be considered at the base of the formation of a weak inclination sea terrace (around 5°), that goes up to altitudes of 500 ms in the western Sicily. This terrace has been denominated “Great Superior Terrace” (Grande Terrazzo Superiore -Ruggeri & Greasy 1974). In this zone the G.T.S. is between 130 ms and 150 ms. The terrace on which there is the acropolis of Selinunte is set to +50 ms and it is datable as Tirrenian (superior Pleistocene -120.000 years ago, interage phase of the Rïss-Würm). From this we deduce that in the following glacial phase of the Superior Pleistocene (Würm) the sea starts again to lower because of eustasy and the coast starts to rise because of isostasy, up to the Olocene phase (10.000 years ago-today), when the sea starts rising again, considered the interglacial period [1–3, 6, 15]. Around 2500 years ago (Olocene) the presence of a port is certainly attested in Selinunte. In fact, the archaeological marker that we are studying can be connected to this period, characterized by the Greek colonization, allowing us to formulate a reconstruction of the sea course in coincidence to the Selinunte coast. This port is not visible today, being covered by around 2 ms of sand, situated along the mouth of the Gorgo Cottone River with a reduced course that used to flow in the eastern side of the acropolis. Its age is difficult to attest, because of unfinished and unpublished excavations, even if its presence is noticed since the VII century B.C. The archaeological studies underline the existence of another port that probably was on the mouth of the Sèlinos River (current Modione). The first excavations showing this dock go back up to the end of the 19th century and were performed by Cavallari. Subsequently the structure was covered by sand, to be recovered again in 1902. Once again, the structure was covered by sand and only in 1950-1951 some excavations were performed by Bovio Marconi. Also at this time the work was kept unpublished and the dock was covered again by the sand, resulting in it being practically nonexistent today. Some photos, taken during the periodical and alternate excavations, show the port location that can be placed in WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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F

PORT Area di scavo 1950

Figure 3:

Ancient Greek port of Selinunte situated on Gorgo Cottone; the black line connects graphically the old bound of shore and the temple F.

Figure 4:

Gorgo Cottone, ancient Greek port of Selinunte, excavation of 1950-1951.

correspondence of the mouth of the dried Gorgo Cottone river, actually on the sea. This would lead us to believe that two factors caused the disappearance of the structure: on the one hand the withdrawal of the sea, phenomenon to be placed during the Olocene, even if as a sporadic event, considered the typical inter-age phase, however documented by the curve of Siddal and from the other, the sanding by the dune system. Besides, the tectonic lifting of the area must be WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

154 Island Sustainability considered. Particularly, on the basis of graphic reconstructions, it is possible to observe that the most internal border of the invasion area of the sea, that is the port structures, in terms of length arrived in correspondence to the left colonnade of the temple F (looking at the Acropoli), the most ancient of the oriental hill temples, whose construction goes back to middle VI century B.C. The zone, from a morphological point of view, is made of three areas: the first is on the oriental hill, where three temples are placed (among which the temple F); the second on the western hill encircled by walls, on which the acropolis is situated, at 50 ms o.s.l.; finally the third one, west of the acropolis, represented another sacred area with temples and sanctuaries. Between the oriental hill and the acropolis hill, a vast level land extends that was crossed by the Gorgo Cottone, and coincidently is where the old port was placed (Fig. 4). Today this whole area is dried up; an operation of reforestation has been effected in the beach, with trees of eucalyptus and typical Mediterranean plantations.

8 Coastline surveys In the case of Selinunte, being a sandy coast in which the moves of the coast are more appreciated in planimetry than altimetry, we have developed a study with GIS support. To conduct a detailed study of the erosive phenomenon, we have individualized some temporal arcs as reference to make a comparison in the various periods of time. We have focused in particular on a period since the Seventies to 2008. The first phase has been focused on the retrieval of the cartographic and photographic material. We have used historical and recent cartography as CTR (Regional Technical chart) in scale 1:10000, and aerial photos. The years of reference are 1994, 2000 and 2008. Such paper support has been scanned and acquired in

Figure 5:

Here it is possible to observe that the shorelines of 2000 and 2008 are in withdrawal, in comparison with the shoreline of 1994.

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digital format to be managed by GIS, with the programs ARCVIEW 3.2 and ARCMAP. Before the graphic job we have geo-referred both the cartography and the aerial photos, transferring them in a system of geographical reference where to each sector and represented object corresponded the correct geographical coordinates. Such procedure has been developed using as base a geo-referred cartography and introducing some GCP (ground control point), that are checkpoints visible on both supports, numerous enough to cover the area to be geo-referred homogeneously. Then, the whole cartographic and photographic material has been treated with ARCVIEW, through the creation of different themes and particularly the coastline referred to the graphic support of the considered period has been traced. The studied coastlines extend in length for around 8 km. This choice can be connected to the intention to individualize time after time the anthropic elements as harbours and the natural ones as rivers, in order to connect all the different components. Subsequently, some traceable strongholds have been singled out in each examined paper or photo. From these points the distances from the coastline have been measured, being able to appraise, this way, the withdrawal or the advancement of the same between a period and another. In every line, seeing underlined different strongholds, a representative average value has been got, drawn as prevailing behaviour. From the study conducted with the aid of the graphic-digital support, once individualized 24 strongholds, it has been noticed that in around 70% of them, a withdrawal coastline occurred in the years since 1994 to 2000 and around 60% since 2000 to 2008. Graphic analysis has been conducted on a CTR paper in scale 1:10.000 developed in 1994, on a photogram referred to a flight of 2000 and finally on an aerial photo taken in 2008. The studied coastline has been divided in 7 transects, comprising respectively a number of strongholds varying between 3 and 4 of which a withdrawal and an advancement of the coastline has been noticed as follows: From the obtained data, results show that in strongholds number 9 and 10 an advancement of the coastline is recorded, both in 2000 in comparison to 1994, and in 2008 in comparison to 2000. Considering that the strongholds are immediately west from the port of Marinella di Selinunte and that the prevailing direction of the winds in this area is S-W and also observing the presence of the Belice river on the west side of the port, the results show that the port construction constitutes a real barrier to the natural solid transport, causing an accumulation behind it. Another element that must be considered to confirm this thesis is the consequent withdrawal of the coastline in correspondence of the strongholds 12 and 13, situated immediately to east of the port area [4, 7–12, 16, 17].

9 Sea level change During the geological eras the level of the sea has always suffered some oscillations, whose incidence changes in the time and from a zone to the other.

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a

Figure 6:

c b

Sight of the Gorgo Cottone from the terrace to +50 ms on which the acropolis of Selinunte (hill to the west) rises. It is possible to identify the valley’s weak inclination, in which prior to 2500 years ago the sea had entry (a), which entered the hinterland to reach the colonnade of the temple F (b). Set behind is the temple (c).

Such changes, manifesting as raisings and lowering of the sea level, are identified with the term eustasy. For 9000 years, since the beginning of the last interglacial phase, the geologic data record an increase of the volume of the oceans, but it remains to clarify if this continued in the recent past (Lambeck et al 2004). This is important to establish if the cause of the current increase of the sea level is the global warming or if it forms part of natural events not connected with human activity. Authoritative studies claim that the beginning of the new lifting of the sea is to place around 100-150 years ago (Lambeck et al 2004). On the basis of literature data and studies developed by authoritative scientists, today it can be affirmed that the relative lifting of the sea is caused by the following natural movements [6, 13, 14]: VLM = Eustas y+ tectonic + isostasy (glacial and hydro) • Eustasy (or eustatism): Increase or lowering of the sea level due to a variation of volume or water mass. The current ascent in the oceans, due to the only contribution of the eustasy, is valued at 1,8 mm/year and in the Mediterranean at 1,2 mm/year. • Tectonics: Lifting or lowering of the continental plates, causing as a repercussion the movement of the coastal band locally: bradisism (positive and WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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negative) and subsidence. The causes can be attributed to tectonic (theory of the plates tectonics), geophysical (volcanic eruptions) and anthropic (drainage of water, oil and gas) phenomena. The tectonic contribution in the Mediterranean oscillates between -1 mm/year and +2.4 mm/year. • Isostasy: lifting or lowering of the terrestrial crust as a mechanical response to load or unload of a weight causing a pressure. The phenomenon distinguishes itself in glacial-isostasy and hydro-isostasy: the first one is connected to the weight of the ice masses; the second is connected to the weight of waters that alternatively are released or stoked in the glaciers. In the Mediterranean the rate of isostatic variation is 0,2-1 mm/year (for the Mediterranean they are negative values). In the glaciers, 30 Km3of water are stoked today. Table 1:

Distance ground control point-coast in CTR (technical regional chart) in 1994.

Table 2:

Distance ground control point-coast in the orto-picture of 2000; (+) advancing coast; (-) coast in withdrawal in comparison with the situation of 1994.

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158 Island Sustainability Table 3:

Distance ground control point-coast in the orto-picture of 2008; (+) advancing coast; (-) coast in withdrawal; (---) stable condition. The first symbol is related to the comparison with 1994; the second symbol is related to the situation of 2000.

Table 4:

Obtained data.

References [1] Antonioli F., Variazioni del livello del mare nell’ultimo semiciclo glaciale ottenute da speleotemi in grotte sommerse di aree costiere italiane, ISNN 0392-0534, Studi Trent. Sci. Nat., Acta Geol., 80 (2003), pp. 49-53, 2005 [2] Antonioli F, Utilizzo del mare come livello di base per calcoli sulla mobilità verticale. Atti del congresso AIQUA CNR, Il sollevamento Quaternario nella penisola italiana e nelle aree limitrofe, Roma, 6-8 February 2006, volume degli abstract, (2006). [3] Antonioli F., K. Lambeck, A. Purcell, S. Silenzi 2004, Sea-Level change along the Italian coast for the past 10.000 yr, Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004), “Elsevier”, pp. 1567-1598 WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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[4] Benassai E., P. Cataldo, A. Ragone - Modificazione della fisiografia delle spiaggie sottili per effetto di insediamenti portuali. Atti del Seminario “La Difesa delle Coste nella Gestione del Territorio Regionale”, Pescara, 1978. Quaderni Formez, n. 18, Roma, 1979. [5] Ferrara V., A. Farruggia, Clima: istruzioni per l’uso- I fenomeni, gli effetti, le strategie, 2007 [6] Gehrels, W. R. Sea-level changes since the Last Glacial Maximum: An appraisal of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report. J. Quat. Sci. (in press) (2008). [7] Liguori V., Vulnerability assessment of a coastal sector in south Sicily (Italy). Atti del 5° European Congress on Regional Geoscientific Cartography and information systems (“ECONGEO”); vol. 1, pp. 510-513, Barcelona, 13-16 June 2006. [8] Liguori V., Integrated Management of the Marsala coast (Sicily): application of a new evaluation method. Atti del 5° “European Congress on Regional Geoscientific Cartography and Information system” (“ECONGEO”); vol. 1, pp. 514-516; Barcelona 13-16 June 2006. [9] Liguori V., Assessment of coastal vulnerability in South Sicily (Italy). 2nd International Conference on the Management of Coastal Recreational Resources-Beaches, Yachting and Coastal Ecotourism, Gozo, Malta 2006. [10] Liguori V., The San Leone dunes: geomorphological environment and management. Workshop on integration of the geomorphological environment and cultural heritage, Malta 2007. [11] Liguori V., The San Leone (Agrigento) dunes: coastal geomorphology. IV Reunion de geomorfologia litoral, Territoris, Universitat de les Illes Balears, 2007 [12] Liguori V., F. Cigna, G. Manno, Tecniche di monitoraggio delle spiagge, Un’esperienza nel Mediterraneo, METIC (Mediterranean Trading and Innovation Centre), pp. 97-121, 2008. [13] Pirazzoli P.A., Cambiamenti globali e variazioni del livello del mare: meccanismi e tendenze evolutive, Mare e cambiamenti globali- pp. 15-27, 2000 ICRAM, 2000. [14] Pirazzoli P.A.1986, Secular Trends of relative sea-level (RSL) changes indicated by tide-gauge records, Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue, Vol. I, 1986, pp. 1-26 [15] Vernuccio S., U. D’Angelo, I terrazzi quaternari della estremità occidentale della Sicilia, Mem. Soc. Geol. It., 51 (1996), 585-594, 8ff, 1996. [16] Wöppelmann, G., Miguez, B. M., Bouin, M. & Altamimi, Z. Geocentric sea-level trend estimates from GPS analyses at relevant tide gauges worldwide Glob. Planet. Change 57, 396-406 (2007). [17] Wunsch, C., Ponte, R. M. & Heimbach, P. Decadal trends in sea level patterns: 1993-2004. J. Climate 20, 5889-5911 doi: 10.1175/2007JCLI1840.1 (2007).

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Coastal monitoring with high resolution synthetic aperture radar P. Trivero, W. Biamino, M. Borasi & M. Cavagnero DISAV – Università del Piemonte Orientale, Italy

Abstract Coastal areas are dynamic zones affected by natural change and human use: they contain rich resources to produce goods and services and are home to most commercial and industrial activities, as well as fragile and valuable ecosystems. A continuous monitoring activity is essential to prevent environmental threats that can be very dangerous for such a sensitive ecosystem. Satellite-borne sensors are valuable tools for this purpose, particularly the Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), which is able to operate by day and night in any weather conditions. In the past, the limited revisit time was the main drawback of SARs, because of the small number of operating sensors. In the past year several new satellites have been launched, with acquisition modes characterised by large swaths; now a daily revisit is possible for high and mid-latitude areas included between the tropic and the Arctic Circle. Moreover, spatial resolutions available from new sensors are so high (up to 1 meter per pixel) that it is now possible to observe details in close proximity of coastal zones. We present a monitoring system under development, based on multi-sensor SAR from which we extract marine features such as high resolution wind and wave fields and sea surface pollution. Methodologies and operational exempla are described. The system is primarily designed for monitoring activities at regional and local scales. Focusing on a particular area, it is possible to gather and integrate all available data for a comprehensive observation and management of both routine and emergency events. Keywords: sea surface slicks, coastal wind, SAR remote sensing.

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1

Introduction

Countries with extended coastlines are often threatened by sea pollution: a continuous monitoring activity is therefore important to set up prevention actions and to detect early any risky events. High resolution SAR images offer a good opportunity for this purpose. The SAR is a powerful instrument to detect the presence of surfactants and is able to operate regardless of sunlight and weather conditions. The SAR sends microwave pulses and collects the echoes from sea; by processing the backscattered signals, a high spatial resolution image is produced. Radio pulses are sent with incidence angles between 20 and 60 degrees and are backscattered by sea surface roughness. Sea surface roughness is produced by wind and it is composed of short waves (~1-10 cm wavelength). The detected signal is due to constructive interference coming from these short wavelengths. The basic mechanism involved is the normalised radar cross-section (NRCS) which, for incidence angles higher than 20°, is proportional to the spectral energy density of the sea waves having wavelength  that obey the Bragg resonance condition (1): Λ

λ 2sin

(1)

where  is the radar wavelength and  the incidence angle of radar beam. For low incidence angles the backscatter is due to specular reflection. The presence of a surface film causes a damping of these waves; an area covered by slick appears “flatter” than the surrounding sea. The sea waves, which are Bragg resonant with microwaves employed by the SAR systems, fall in the short gravity wave region where the damping, due to a presence of a slick, is maximum [1, 2]. However, dark areas can be also due to atmospheric effects such as low wind [3, 4]. A methodology to detect sea surface slicks is described, able to discriminate among low wind, oil spills, biogenic and anthropogenic slicks.

2

Data availability

Over the last decades, satellite–borne SARs are used for earth observation. However, up to the turn of the century in 2000 the limited number of satellites made it impossible to have an elevated frequency of passages over the same area. Today, instead, many satellites or even constellations are available. Among them all, the European ERS-2 and Envisat offer spatial resolution up to 30 meters per pixel at various polarisations and acquisition modes; similar performances are reached by the Japanese ALOS. Higher resolutions are available from new sensors such as the Canadian Radarsat-2 (3 m/pixel) or the German Terrasar-X (1 m). The Italian Space Agency manages a constellation named COSMO Sky-Med of three satellites with spatial resolution up to 1m, and the fourth satellite is planned for launch in 2010 [5]. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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The revisit time, for every satellite, depends on devices characteristics, acquisition geometry, as well as on geographic coordinates of the observed point (at higher latitudes acquisitions are more frequent). Using the method proposed by Smith [6], a mean revisit time of about 4 – 5 days is expected when using a single satellite at mid – high latitudes. Combining two satellites this value can drop to a couple of days; with today’s satellite availability is expected to be a daily revisit on most regions, allowing the use of SAR as a tool for routinely observations.

3

Wind and pollutant extraction technique

The proposed methodology under development is based on rationale on which we have developed in the last few years an oil spill detection algorithm. This algorithm is described in detail in [7, 8]. The new procedure extends the capabilities of the previous method: a preliminary classification is carried out based on wind field evaluated in two independent ways; further it discriminate not only oil spills but also the look-alikes into two different sub-categories: biogenic and anthropogenic slicks. The procedure expects the systematic acquisition of SAR data from available satellite imagery of the coastal area to be monitored. There are two operating modes: the first consists in a statistical study of winds and pollution in the area by means of historical data and the other one includes the monitoring of the area in quasi real time. The steps of the detection procedure are summarised in the following. 3.1 Wind field evaluation A high resolution meteorological model is used to evaluate the direction and the intensity of the wind. We utilised the Weather Research and Forecast (WRF) model, version 3.1 [9]. WRF is developed by the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR), the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) and the Forecast Systems Laboratory (FSL), the Air Force Weather Agency (AFWA), the Naval Research Laboratory, the University of Oklahoma, and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). In parallel, SAR images are, as a first step, calibrated [10] to retrieve the radar backscattering. The second step consists in the compensation of the attenuation due to the incidence angle [11], because the sea scattering is dominated by the Bragg mechanism which produces a stronger signal in the near range than in the far range. Finally the land, vessels and platforms are masked. From the pre-processed images, the structures containing wind direction information are extracted [12–14]. The wind direction, deduced by means of Continuous Wavelet Transform (CWT2) allows the wind intensity from the SAR NRCS to be obtained by applying the CMOD5 model [15]. The wind vector direction ambiguity is solved by the process of dealiasing, described in [14] or by using wind direction from the meteorological model. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

164 Island Sustainability At present the wind field is obtainable from the SAR images in C band, but similar models are in preparations for X and L band. The application of CMOD5 can improve the meteorological model datum and the information about the high resolution wind field near the coast is provided. The wind field allows the evaluation of the intensity of the coastal waves, the induced surface current and therefore the transport of the aerosols on the coast. 3.2 Detection procedure The comparison between the wind intensities, obtained by the meteorological model and by analysis of the SAR image, should generally show comparable values; such values can be however very different in presence of a dark area in the SAR images when the roughness is damped by the presence of a surfaceactive film. CMOD computes wind speed from the NRCS, assuming a given relationship between wind and sea surface roughness; therefore, where damping is due to an oil spill, or to a slick of biogenic or anthropogenic origin, the result has no physical meaning. At medium and high resolution, a similar problem is due to ships present in the scene, noticeable by the high reflection. As an example, figure 1(a) shows an oil spill. Wind speed, evaluated from SAR image, is 4.1 m/s outside the slick and 0.4 m/s inside. The WRF model predicts a 4.5 m/s wind on the whole area. In the case shown on figure 1(b), ship is visible throughout the image as bright spot; the computed wind is about 20 m/s, another value with no physical significance. For this reason a “ship removal” procedure has been added by discarding pixels having reflectance higher than those contiguous.

(a) Figure 1:

(b)

Examples of oil spill and ships in SAR images.

The first steps of the procedure are the land masking, the ship masking and the identification of dark areas as “candidate slicks”; then the wind intensity value is evaluated in the barycentre of every dark area (by averaging values of the nearest cells) using both systems: meteorological model and SAR analysis. These values are compared and if the meteorological model provides a value higher than 20% with respect to the intensity obtained by SAR we establish that WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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dark area is due to a film of a substance that damps the surface roughness; otherwise, if the values are both low and comparable the area is classified as “low wind area”. On the remaining candidates, the oil spill detection algorithm is applied allowing the discrimination between “oil slicks” and “look-alikes”. This detection system is based up on a probabilistic method that distinguishes oil spills from other similar sea surface features in SAR images by evaluating the radiometric and the geometric characteristics of the areas under test. In order to minimize the operator intervention, it adopts automatic selection criteria to extract the potentially polluted areas from the images. The method, based on a simple classifying algorithm applied to SAR image processing [7, 16], is able to discriminate oil spills among all dark areas containing look-alike surface phenomena and has an a priori percentage of correct classification higher than 90% on a different dataset of verified slicks. Figure 2 shows examples of oil spills (left) and look-alikes (right). Before the operational use, the algorithm has been tuned with a training dataset, composed by about 400 selected images containing both oil spills and look-alikes, confirmed by an expert photo interpreter. On the dark areas several measurements are performed and results are compared values with typical values, computed on oil spills and look-alikes from the training dataset, in order to compute the probability, for every candidate, to be an oil slick. The lookalikes are then analysed in a similar way. A training dataset has been built, containing both “biogenic” and “anthropogenic” as classified by an expert photo-interpreter who is able to classify dark areas using the following criterion: biogenic slicks have dark areas with smooth turnings often in a shape of a spiral while anthropogenic slicks have higher viscosity and tend to change their shape. For every look-alike a number of parameters are computed:  surface and perimeter of dark area  average backscattering and standard deviations inside the area  average backscattering and standard deviations outside the area  gradient of backscattering across the dark area

Figure 2:

Examples of dark areas in SAR images.

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form factor ratio between perimeter and area ratio between average backscattering inside and outside the area ratio between standard deviation inside and outside the dark area ratio between average backscattering and standard deviation inside the dark area  ratio between average backscattering and standard deviation outside the area  ratio between the two last operations The same approach to discriminate oil spills from look-alikes described in [16] is here applied to separate the look-alikes into the two sub-categories “biogenic” and “anthropogenic” using the compound probability.

4

Case study

As an example, we show results from the application of the developed methodology on an Envisat Wide Swath image acquired on June 2008 (figure 3(a)); this image contains almost all detectable features. By elaborating the image itself (figure 3(a)), wind direction has been extracted applying the CWT method and wind speed (figure 3(b)) with CMOD-5 algorithm. Brighter areas indicate higher wind. In order to have an independent estimation of wind field, results from WRF 3.1 meteorological model have been taken into account. Figure 4 summarizes the situation at regional scale, while values are available at 1 km resolution. After land masking and ship removal, dark areas have been identified and wind fields comparison carried out. Figure 5 shows an example of a low wind area as detected by SAR. Here, as expected, the average wind speed evaluated from SAR image is 0.7 m/s. The WRF model predicts a comparable value (0.5 m/s).

(a) Figure 3:

(b) SAR image (a) and wind intensity (b).

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Figure 4:

167

Wind field obtained applying the WRF 3.1 meteorological model.

Figure 5:

Example of a low wind area as detected by SAR.

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Figure 6:

Figure 7:

Example of a biogenic slick in a SAR image.

Example of an anthropogenic slick in a SAR image.

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On the “slick candidates” the second step is then applied in order to detect the oil spills; an example has been previously shown on figure 1. The remaining look-alikes are subsequently analysed allowing the further discrimination. By zooming the SAR image on the observed zone, with an enhanced contrast (figure 6), the structures of a typical biogenic slick can be seen, as classified by the detection algorithm. Average wind speed, evaluated from SAR image on the slicks, is 2.3 m/s. The WRF model predicts a 2.9 m/s wind on the whole area. An anthropogenic slick shows similar features; in figure 7 the average wind speed, evaluated from SAR image on the slicks, is 1.1 m/s, while the WRF model predicts a 4.9 m/s wind on the whole area. The analysed cases show how the difference, between the two wind evaluation, can be used as a method to characterise dark areas by discriminating between low wind and slicks; among the slicks, a more refined classification (oil slicks, biogenic slicks, anthropogenic slicks) with the algorithm based on geometric and radiometric characteristics.

5

Conclusions

The developed methodology is able to monitor a coastal area supplying wind field and the presence of sea surface pollutants. A comparison between wind computed from SAR image (with CMOD5) and wind from the WRF meteorological model, can lead to an identification of slicked areas and low wind areas in SAR image. A previously established technique, used for oil spill detection in SAR images, has been extended to classify all slicks detected in the SAR image applying a probabilistic approach to discriminate between biogenic and anthropogenic (non oil) slicks.

Acknowledgements This work has been carried out on the framework of the Announcement of Opportunity for Envisat AO 464 and of the Project Start Up C1P.5404 of the European Space Agency.

References [1] Trivero P., Fiscella, B., Gomez, F. & Pavese, P., SAR detection and characterization of sea surface slicks, International Journal of Remote Sensing, 19, pp. 543-548, 1998. [2] Brekke, C. & Solberg, A. H. S., Oil spill detection by satellite remote sensing, Remote Sensing of Environment, 95, pp. 11-13, 2005. [3] Alpers, W., Measurement of mesoscale oceanic and atmospheric phenomena by ERS-1 SAR, URSI Radio Sci. Bull, 275, pp. 14-22, 1995.

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170 Island Sustainability [4] Melsheimer, C.; Alpers, W &. Gade, M., Investigation of multifrequency multipolarization radar signatures of rain cells over the ocean using SIRC/X-SAR data, J. Geophys. Res., 103(C9), pp. 18,867-18,884, 1998. [5] Trivero, P. & Biamino, W., Observing marine pollution with Synthetic Aperture Radar. Geoscience and remote sensing (in press), InTech, 2009. [6] Smith, A. J. E., A practical method for computing SAR satellite revisit times: application to RADARSAT-1 and ENVISAT, International Journal of Remote Sensing, 28(6), pp. 1123-1135, 2007. [7] Fiscella, B., Giancaspro, A., Nirchio, F., Pavese, P. & Trivero P., Oil spill detection using marine SAR images, International Journal of Remote Sensing, 21(18), pp. 3561-3566, 2000. [8] Nirchio, F., Sorgente, M., Giancaspro, A., Biamino, W., Parisato, E., Ravera, R. & Trivero, P., Automatic detection of oil spills from SAR images, International Journal of Remote Sensing, 26(6), pp. 1157-1174, 2005. [9] WRF – the Weather Research & Forecasting Model http://www.wrfmodel.org/ [10] Laur, H., Derivation of the Backscattering coefficient o in ERS-1.SAR PRI Products, ESA doc No: ES-TN-RS-PM-HL09, 1992. [11] Rosenthal, W., Lehner, S., Hortsmann, J. & Koch, W., Wind measurements using ERS-1 SAR, Proc. of the 2nd ERS Application Workshop, London, UK, 6-8 December 1996. [12] Zecchetto S., De Biasio, F., Pierdicca, N. & Trivero, P., Small scale properties of the radar backscattering from the sea surface at off nadir angles, Proc. IGARSS 2001, Sydney, Australia, 2001. [13] Zecchetto, S., De Biasio, F. & Trivero, P., Computation of wind direction from SAR images without external a priori information. Proc. IGARSS 2007, Barcelona, Spain, 2007. [14] Zecchetto S. & Trivero P. An automatic procedure to retrieve the windfield from SAR Images, Rivista Italiana di Telerilevamento, 41(3), pp. 123-131, 2009. [15] Hersbach, H., Stoffelen, A. & de Haan, S. An Improved C-band scatterometer ocean geophysical model function: CMOD5, J. Geophys. Res., 112, 2007 [16] Nirchio, F., Sorgente, M., Giancaspro, A., Pavese, P., Ravera, R. & Trivero, P., A method to detect oil spill based on SAR images, Proc. Oil and Hydrocarbon spills, Rhodes, 2002.

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3-D process modelling of ancient storm-dominated deposits by an event-based approach L. Laigle1, P. Joseph1, G. de Marsily2 & S. Violette2 1 2

Institut Français du Pétrole, France Université Pierre & Marie Curie, France and CNRS, France

Abstract The characterization of porosity and permeability heterogeneities in sedimentary rocks is of primary importance for the understanding of fluid flows. These heterogeneities are directly linked to the nature and geometry of the sediment deposits which were created during a time span ranging from tens to hundreds of thousands of years. An ability to model numerically the physical processes that explain the present-day distribution and architecture of reservoir rocks is a major advantage. A numerical model was developed to simulate erosion, transport and deposition of sediments along marine clastic coasts, from the foreshore to the offshore environment. It is based on the assumption that the preserved heterogeneities are mainly the result of the succession of fair-weather periods and exceptional events (storms and/or fluvial floods). This model is designed for 3-D characterisation of deposits generated by storms. The transport module accounts for the impact of two unidirectional currents: 1/ a strong return current originated by the coastal surge due to water pushed by the wind and 2/ a littoral drift current caused by an energy transfer during wave surfing near the shore. These currents interact at the sea bottom with wave-induced oscillatory currents and are responsible for sea floor erosion and particle matter mobilisation. Between storm events, fair-weather deposits are modelled through an average deposition process. After a synthetic case, the storm modelling module is calibrated to a present-day environment in the Gulf of Lions (France). By allowing us to focus on heterogeneity distribution, this innovative approach gives promising prospects to help in assigning to geological models realistic petrophysical properties. Keywords: coastal environment, event-and-process-based modelling, downwelling, littoral current, sediment transport, heterogeneities, reservoir, Gulf of Lions. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line) doi:10.2495/ISLANDS100051

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1

Introduction

Geological reservoirs are of economic importance since they may contain raw fluids (water, hydrocarbons), or be used for CO2 storage. Made of porous and permeable sedimentary deposits, their constitutive rocks have been formed during a long period of time, ranging from tens to hundreds of thousands of years. The numerical simulation of fluid flow inside reservoirs has been attracting increasing attention for many years. It requires that petrophysical properties be assigned to the spatially discretized geological model, i.e. porosity and permeability values in each mesh. Heterogeneities of these properties have a major impact on the fluid flow direction and are directly linked to the nature and geometry of the sediment deposits. We present a new 3-D numerical model whose aim is to simulate deterministically the facies distribution in clasticdominated coastal environments. The approach, physical concepts and first results are detailed below.

2

General approach of the numerical model

2.1 Direct modelling of sedimentary processes... Commonly subsurface fluid flow simulations are performed on 3-D grids constructed from a geological model to which facies properties such as porosity and permeability have been assigned. The methods used to inform these grids can be divided into two categories, probabilistic and genetic. The direct information available on the physical properties is generally deduced from sparse raw data, such as cores and well measurements. While the probabilistic approach is able to respect the well data with a weak to medium constraint on the properties between control points, the genetic approach has the great advantage of providing a more physically based representation of the nature and spatial distribution of these heterogeneities, although the calibration may remain a problem. The latter approach was explored here through the modelling of processes that actively participate in erosion, transport and deposition of sediments within a time-frame representative of the deposition of reservoir sedimentary bodies. 2.2 ... only during exceptional events As of today, the relationship between time and sedimentary recording is not well established and the scientific community is currently still discussing this issue. Two contradictory hypotheses are currently used (Dott [8] and Dott [9]): (i) on the one hand, some authors assume that sedimentary rocks are the result of a continuous and homogenous process through time; (ii) on the other hand, others maintain that only a few events, exceptional in intensity and duration, have a significant impact on the formation and preservation of sedimentary deposits (Bourrouilh-Le Jan et al [5]).

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The second hypothesis is based on the assumption that the preserved heterogeneities in observed reservoirs are mainly the result of the succession of fair-weather periods and high-energy exceptional events, i.e. low frequency storms (one every hundred years or more) and/or fluvial floods, characterized by a great intensity or sediment supply. Our numerical model is based on this assumption and therefore focuses mainly on a process-based modelling of exceptional events. Consequently, since the number of events to simulate is smaller, the simulation results can be obtained over much longer time periods.

3

Detailed concepts

3.1 Summary of modelling sedimentary processes during storms Marine coastal environments are characterized by complex processes and their interaction. These processes differ by nature, spatial scale and duration. As a consequence, they do not affect sedimentary deposits in the same way. In the storm-dominated systems considered here, two types of currents are distinguished: oscillatory currents generated near the sea bottom by surface waves, and unidirectional currents such as littoral or downwelling currents. Both types of currents erode the sea bottom but the transport of suspension suspended particles is due mainly to unidirectional currents (Soulsby [19], Le Roux [13], Van Rijn [21]). The transport can be directed alongshore (littoral current generated by surface waves with an oblique direction with respect to the coast), offshore (downwelling current or storm current) or towards the shore (upwelling current or storm surge) (Grant and Madsen [10], Myrow and Southard [14], Hequette et al [11]). An example of a downwelling system is illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1:

Physical processes during storm downwelling in a marine coastal environment.

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Figure 2:

Idealized vertical facies sequence resulting from progradation (modified from Aigner and Reineck [1]).

coastal

The resulting deposits in storm-dominated environments are composed of coarse storm beds (in dotted white on the schematic cross-section in Figure 2) alternating with finer beds formed during fair-weather periods (in black, Figure 2): these facies changes are responsible for heterogeneities in petrophysical properties and have a major impact on fluid flow in sedimentary reservoirs. Their rigorous modelling is thus of primary importance. 3.2 Details of the numerical model 3.2.1 The modelling of storm periods The numerical modelling of storm periods is composed of two mutually interactive modules: a transport module, that computes sediment transport over the domain according to a velocity field, and a sedimentary module that computes current interactions with the sea bottom through the modelling of deposition and/or erosion processes. 3.2.1.1 The transport module The velocity fields of downwelling and littoral currents are averaged on their water column height. They are computed over the whole domain and the empirical velocity formulation is deduced from energetic concepts. A simple approach was chosen in this model (i) in order to avoid the use of a full hydrodynamic model and (ii) for computational time reasons. However it is possible to couple the model with any hydrodynamic code providing velocity fields of littoral and downwelling currents, or to improve the current solution since more complex velocity formulations are known and could be implemented. Littoral currents are generated by the energy losses of oblique waves when they surf near the shore. The selected formulation for the velocity Vlittoral is expressed as follows (Thornton and Guza [20]) where velocity is function of wave energy density flux directed towards shoreline (Ew.Cg, based only on wave characteristics) and incidence angle of waves on shoreline θ: WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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Vlittoral = −

175

πC ∂ ( EwC g cos θ ) sin θ 0 C0 ρf w gH ∂x

During storm events, a surface current is originated by the wind and supplies to the shoreline sea water that generates a coastal surge (also called coastal setup). We assume that this surge is the main cause of the downwelling currents, and their velocities are function of the local setup. All unidirectional current velocities are then combined at each cell location: the resulting velocity field represents the transport of suspended sediments over the simulation domain. Other types of currents can be added, density current for instance or storm washover. The time steps, computed at each iteration from the velocity field, range from several seconds to several minutes during storm periods. 3.2.1.2 The sedimentary module The sedimentary module takes into account several lithologies characterized by their sediment granulometry and by their density. The total shear-stress τ is defined as the non-linear combination of unidirectional shear stress (computed from Jonsson [12]) and oscillatory current shear stress (computed from Soulsby [19]) which depends on the angle between these two different currents. For each lithology, the total shear stress is compared to the shear-stress threshold for this lithology τcri (Soulsby [19]). The excess shear stress is then used to compute erosion or deposition rate. Erosion occurs when the total shear-stress exceeds the critical shear stress. The erosion rate Ei is the product of the shear-stress excess and an empirical erosion factor M (Partheniades [17]):

Ei = M .

τ − τ cr ,i τ cr ,i

On the contrary, if the total shear-stress is lower than the critical shear-stress, deposition of suspended sediments occurs. The deposition rate Di is function of the settling velocity vsi, of the near-bed concentration Cbi and of the shear-stress (Smith and Mc Lean [18]): τ −τ Di = vsi .Cbi . cr , i τ cr , i 3.2.2 The modelling of fair-weather periods Fair-weather periods are currently simulated through two ways: (i) a mean aggradation of fine sediments under the wave action limit which represents decantation in deep marine domain, and (ii) a mean aggradation of coarse sediments in the shoreface which simulates input of sediment through the littoral drift. The time steps during fair-weather periods are fixed by the user: it ranges from several years to a hundred years, according to the storm frequency. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

176 Island Sustainability

4

First results

4.1 Synthetic test of the model The numerical model was applied first to a synthetic case. The example presented below is a uniformly inclined bathymetry (slope of 0.17°). The simulation domain is 32 km long (from onshore to offshore) and 24 km wide (along the coast). Each cell is 200 m x 200 m. The simulated storm is moderate (wind velocity of 70 km/h). It lasts 27 h with an increasing intensity in the first phase (6 h), a stable phase of 6 h at maximum intensity and a relaxation phase of 15h. The maximum values of wave height and period are respectively about 5 m and 12 s. These simulation conditions are representative of classical winter storms on the US west coast, and modelled currents are realistic in comparison with actual measurements (Figure 3) (Cacchione et al [6], Ogston and Sternberg [15], Wright et al [22]). In addition, the wind blows towards the coast and a coastal set-up is modelled generating a downwelling current. The wave trains are defined parallel to the coast so that no littoral current is generated.

Figure 3:

Evolution from shore to offshore (in cross section) of downwelling current velocity (on the left) and of oscillatory current velocity (on the right).

As expected, the more energetic the environment, i.e. when the interaction between wave-induced oscillatory currents and downwelling current is maximised, the stronger the sediment erosion. As a consequence, modelling results show (i) sea bottom erosion near the shoreface, where the conditions are the most energetic at the beginning of the simulation, (ii) suspended sediment transport towards the offshore and, (iii) deposition in the deeper domain where the energy of the environment decreases. The model shows a total erosion thickness (cumulative value) of 3 mm for bathymetry values lower than 20 m, whereas deposits (less than 1 mm thick) are simulated in the deeper domain (bathymetries deeper than 20 m) (Figure 4). These orders of magnitude are consistent with observations made on the California shelf (Cacchione et al [6], Ogston and Sternberg [15], Wright et al [22]).

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Figure 4:

Elevation difference (at the end of the modelling lasting 27 h) compared to the initial topography.

Figure 5:

Cross-section through the 3-D model illustrating the modelled sequence of sedimentary deposits. Simulated time: 1000 years, Environment: shallow marine clastic. Event: moderate storms (1 per 100 years). Vertical exaggeration factor: 250.

In order to simulate deposits within a time frame representative of the formation of real sedimentary reservoir bodies, a series of storms strongest than to the one presented above were simulated. The frequency of storms is one per hundred years. Between the storms, continuous sedimentation is simulated by pure aggradation. Figure 5 shows a cross-section of the result highlighting the stack of storm deposits. Grain size-dependent sorting of deposits is well reproduced. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

178 Island Sustainability 4.2 Application to a case study: present-day storms in the Gulf of Lions (France) A model validation was performed on a modern environment in the Gulf of Lions (South of France) (Figure 6). The modelled area has been chosen where downwelling currents take place, and away from the fluvial current at the Rhone mouth and from the cascading currents present in the South of the shelf. Preliminary results are presented here below.

Figure 6:

On the left: Morphobathymetric map of the Gulf of Lions (France) (modified from Berné and Gorini [3]). On the right: Initial bathymetry map used in the numerical modelling.

Figure 7:

Evolution through time of observed orbital velocity at 28 m depth (near the sea bottom) during a 50 years-recurrence storm (December 12th, 2003) (modified from Palanques et al. [16]). The 12 hours time range corresponds to the duration of the modelled storm.

The simulated storm is representative of classical storms that are observed on average every fifty years (Bourrin et al. [4], Palanques et al. [16]). Its main characteristics are the following: average wind velocity of 108 km/h perpendicular to the shoreline, surface waves defined by a period of 10 s and a height of 7.5 m coming from East. The modelled wave-induced oscillatory currents are in the range of observed velocities at 28 m (Figure 7). WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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For this simulation, the wind has generated a maximal coastal set-up of 51 cm and a return current, offshore-directed, with velocity values spatially ranging from 8 to 64 cm/s. It combines near the shore with the wave-induced littoral current (velocity values spatially ranging from 1 to 210 cm/s) in a resulting unidirectional current consistent with observations: it gives a value of 34 cm/s at 28 m (Figure 8). The modelled total (wave- and current-induced) shear-stresses range from 0.1 to 23.3 N/m² and give a value at 28 m of 4 N/m² which is consistent with observations (Figure 9)

(a) Figure 8:

(a) Modelled velocities of unidirectional current resulting from combination of littoral and return currents. (b) Evolution through time of observed current velocity at 28 m depth (near the sea bottom) during a 50 years-recurrence storm (December 12th, 2003) (modified from Palanques et al. [16]). 12 hours time range corresponds to the duration of the modelled storm.

(a) Figure 9:

(b)

(b)

(a) Modelled total shear-stresses resulting from the combination of unidirectional and oscillatory currents. (b) Evolution through time of observed total shear-stress at 28 m depth (near the sea bottom) during a 50 years-recurrence storm (December 12th, 2003) (modified from Palanques et al. [16]). 12 hours time range corresponds to the duration of the modelled storm.

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180 Island Sustainability These preliminary results on hydrodynamic processes modelling are consistent with observations available on the Gulf of Lions (Palanques et al. [16], Bourrin et al. [4]) even if more work must be done on the calibration of the wind-induced coastal set-up that controls the return current velocity.

5

Conclusions

Many reservoir rocks are made of coastal deposits and the modelling of petrophysical properties, controlled by facies distribution, is a key to the understanding of fluid migration pathways at the recovery stage. In this context, a new 3-D numerical model designed to simulate deposit formation over tens to hundreds of thousands of years was developed. It aims at modelling in a deterministic manner the erosion, transport and deposition of sediments in clastic-dominated coastal environments. Based on the hypothesis that the preserved sediments are mainly the results of high-energy low-frequency events, it combines a transport module and an erosion/deposition module that are coupled to obtain sedimentation and erosion rates and to respect the mass balance. The transport module focuses on the modelling of a velocity field resulting from the interaction of different unidirectional currents (downwelling and littoral currents) and the resulting transport of sediments. The approach is flexible, it proposes a simple approximation for the modelling of these velocities, but it could also accept velocity fields computed by a different code. The erosion/deposition module solves the sedimentation rate problem by computing the total shear-stress at the sea bottom. A synthetic case illustrating the main features of the model in a simplistic environment is presented. First results of its application to a realistic case study in the Gulf of Lions are also shown. The simulated wave-induced orbital and unidirectional current velocities and resulting bed shear-stress are consistent with observations. This deterministic approach and its original implementation give encouraging prospects for helping to assign facies properties to subsurface geological grids.

Acknowledgements We would like to acknowledge Grégoire Piquet for the tests he performed on the numerical prototype, Vanessa Teles for our collaboration on the computing developments and Didier Granjeon for his helpful comments on an earlier version of the manuscript.

References [1] Aigner, T. & Reineck, H. E., Proximality trends in modern storm sands from the Helegoland Bight (North Sea) and their implications for basin analysis. Senckenbergiana Marit., 14, pp. 183-215, 1982. [2] Airy, G.B., Tides and waves. Encyc. Metrop., 192, pp. 241–396, 1845. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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[3] Berné, S. & Gorini, C., The Gulf of Lions: An overview of recent studies within the French 'Margins' Programme. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 22(6-7), pp. 691-693, 2005. [4] Bourrin, F., Monaco, A., Aloïsi, J.-C., Sanchez-Cabeza, J.-A., Lofi, J., Heussner, S., Durrieu de Madron, X., Jeanty, G., Buscail, R. & Saragni, G., Last millennia sedimentary record on a micro-tidal, low-accumulation prodelta (Têt NW Mediterranean). Marine Geology, 243, pp. 77-96, 2007. [5] Bourrouilh-Le Jan, F. G., Beck, C. & Gorsline, D. S., Catastrophic events (hurricanes, tsunami and others) and their sedimentary records: Introductory notes and new concepts for shallow water deposits. Sedimentary Geology 199[1], pp. 1-11, 2007. [6] Cacchione, D., Wiberg, P., Lynch, J., Irish, J. & Traykovski, P., Estimated suspended-sediment fluxe and bedform activity on the inner portion of the Eel continental shelf, Marine Geology, 154, pp. 83-97, 1999. [7] Dean, R.G. & Dalrymple, R.A., Coastal Processes with Engineering Applications, Cambridge University Press, pp. 80-84. [8] Dott, R. H., Episodic sedimentation - how normal is average? How rare is rare? Does it matter?, Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 53, pp. 5-23, 1983. [9] Dott, R. H., Episodic event deposits versus stratigraphic sequences - Shall the twain never meet? Sedimentary Geology, 104, pp. 243-247, 1996. [10] Grant, W. D. & Madsen, O. S., The continental-shelf bottom boundary layer. Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, 18, pp. 265-305, 1986. [11] Hequette, A., Desrosiers, M., Hill, P. R. & Forbes, D. L., The influence of coastal morphology on shoreface sediment transport under storm-combined flows, Canadian Beaufort Sea. Journal of Coastal Research, 17(3), pp. 507516, 2001. [12] Jonsson, I.G., Wave Boundary layers and friction factors. In: Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Coastal Engineering. American Society of Civil Engineers, Tokyo, pp. 127-148, 1966. [13] Le Roux, J. P., Grains in motion: a review. Sedimentary Geology, 178, pp. 285-313, 2005. [14] Myrow, P. M. & Southard, J. B., Tempestite deposition. Journal of Sedimentary Research, 66(5), pp. 875-887,1996. [15] Ogston, A. & Sternberg, R., Sediment transport events on the northern California shelf. Marine Geology, 154, pp. 69-82, 1999. [16] Palanques, A., Guillén, J., Puig, P. & Durrieu de Madron, X., Storm-driven shelf-to-canyon suspended sediment transport at the southwestern Gulf of Lions. Continental Shelf Research, 28, pp. 1947-1956, 2008. [17] Partheniades, E., Erosion and deposition of cohesive soils. Journal of the Hydraulic Division, 91, pp. 105-139; 1965 [18] Smith, J. D. & McLean, S. R., Spatially averaged flow over a wavy surface. Journal of Geophysical Research, 82(12), pp. 1735-1746, 1977. [19] Soulsby, R. L., Dynamics of Marine Sands. Thomas Telford Publications, London, UK, 249 pp., 1997.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

182 Island Sustainability [20] Thornton, E. B. & Guza, R. T., Surf zone longshore currents and random waves : field data and models. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 16(7), pp.165-178,1986. [21] Van Rijn, L. C., Unified view of sediment transport by currents and waves. II: Suspended Transport. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 133(6), pp. 668-689, 2007. [22] Wright, L., Kim, S. & Friedrichs, C., Across shelf variations in bed roughness, bed stress and sediment suspension on the northern California shelf. Marine Geology, 154, pp. 99-115, 1999.

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Section 4 Infrastructures

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Infrastructure maintenance and disaster prevention measures on isolated Islands: the case of the Izu Islands near Tokyo H. Gotoh1, Y. Maeno1, M. Takezawa1, T. Murata2 & N. Takahashi3 1

Nihon University, Japan Tokyo Metropolitan Government, Japan 3 Japan Organization of Legend, Culture & Art, Japan 2

Abstract Of the 6,852 islands that make up the Japanese archipelago, 261 are inhabited but there are isolated islands with a total population of approximately 434,000 people scattered over an area of 5,255 km2. In the five years from 2001 to 2005, the population of these islands decreased by 8.3% compared to a 0.7% increase in the national population. The Tokyo Metropolitan Government administers some of these, including the Izu Islands. The Izu group consists of nine separate islands with a total population of 24,645 people spread over 296.56 km2 (2009). The largest island is Izu Oshima (population: 8,346, area: 91.06 km2) while the smallest is Toshima (population: 292, area: 4.12 km2). The primary industries in the Izu Islands are fisheries, agriculture, and tourism, although the mix varies between islands. Communication between the various islands is by cargopassenger boat, jetfoil and aircraft. While each island has at least one harbor, only five have airports: Izu Oshima, Niijima, Kozujima, Miyakejima and Hachijojima. The smaller islands can be reached by helicopter. Several types of natural disasters, including tsunamis, storm and flood damage, and volcanic eruptions threaten the region. Because of the potential losses that could be suffered in such disasters, the Tokyo metropolitan government has developed disaster prevention and response measures for the Izu Islands. These include supplying residents with hazard maps and evacuation guidance, radios, and simple signs, as well as developing a transport system for emergency supplies. This paper discusses present conditions, and future issues with regard to disaster prevention and response in the Izu island group. Keywords: isolated island, population, living standard, disaster prevention measures. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line) doi:10.2495/ISLANDS100161

186 Island Sustainability

1

Introduction

The Japanese Archipelago which forms the country of Japan, runs roughly northeast to southwest along the coast of the Eurasian mainland on the northwestern shores of the Pacific Ocean. The archipelago consists of 6,852 islands, but the vast majority of the population lives on the four largest islands (Honshu, Hokkaido, Shikoku and Kyushu). Of the remainder, 261 have been designated as isolated, inhabited islands under the Law for Development of Isolated Islands in Japan [1]. These designated islands cover an area of about 5,255 km2 (1.39% of the area of Japan) and are home to 434,000 persons (0.34% of the national population). They are generally distant from the main islands and much different from the more densely populated areas with large cities, tall buildings, and suburban towns. The islands are surrounded by natural beauty and blessed with sightseeing and marine resources. They play an important role in land and environmental preservation. Many have potential for development as well as great value because of their pristine condition. Politically, these islands are in an ongoing struggle to balance economic power, stability, and public happiness. The large gaps in income and living standards that exist between the main islands and these isolated areas are a continuing reality affecting that struggle. This paper discusses infrastructure maintenance and disaster prevention and response measures on isolated islands as illustrated in the case of the Izu island region administrated by the Tokyo Metropolitan Government in Japan.

2

Overview of the Izu Islands

The Izu Islands are a chain of volcanic ocean islands scattered over several hundred kilometers south of Tokyo, Japan as shown in Fig.1.

Japan sea

Pacific Ocean

㩷㩷㩷㩷㩷㩷㩷㩷㩷㩷㩷㩷㩷㩷㩷㩷㩷㩷㩷㩷㩷㩷㩷㩷㩷㩷㩷㩷㩷㩷㩷㩷㩷

Figure 1:

Map of the Izu islands.

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They stretch south and east from the Izu Peninsula of Honshu, Japan, covering an area of about 301.56 km2, which is divided into two towns and six villages. The total population of the group was 24,242 people in 2005. The largest island is Izu Oshima, usually called simply Oshima. Although traditionally referred to as the “Izu Seven”, there are in fact more than a dozen of these islands and islets that lie within the Fuji - Hakone - Izu National Park. Nine are currently inhabited. Of the inhabited islands, Izu Oshima, Toshima, Niijima, Kozujima, Miyakejima, Hachijojima, and Mikurajima are generally thought to comprise the “Izu Seven”, but the other two, Shikinejima and Aogashima, are sometimes included. Izu Oshima and Hachijojima each make up one of the towns. Niijima and Shikinejima are joined into one village, and each of the remaining inhabited islands has an individual village. Three subprefectures (Oshima, Miyake and Hachijo), oversee the municipalities as branch offices of the Tokyo metropolitan government. The island closest to Tokyo, Izu Oshima, is 108 km from the city, while the most distant, Aogashima, is 354 km away from the Tokyo Metropolitan Office. Marine sports such as swimming, scuba diving, surfing, and fishing are enjoyed on the islands. Bird watching and trekking are also popular [2]. There are many scenic spots that are crowded with tourists during the summer. Their marine resorts offer fishing, diving and other outdoor activities. Each island has its own unique character and features. Izu Oshima is famous for Mt. Mihara, an active volcano, and its Izu Oshima camellias. Hachijojima has a colorful history as a penal colony, while dolphin watching is offered on Mikurajima. Niijima is known for its many beautiful beaches, Kozujima has amazing white sandy shores, and tourists are gradually returning to Miyakejima since the evacuation orders imposed after a volcanic eruption in 2001 have been lifted. Hachijojima showcases the preservation of its one-of-a-kind culture featuring textiles and traditional performing arts. Because of their isolation, the islands’ flora and fauna and have evolved in their own distinctive ways, producing rare and unique ecosystems. Dolphins and whales can be seen nearby, attracting many tourists, particularly to those islands that lie closer to Honshu. Volcanic activity is frequent in the area. The Eruption of Myojin-sho in 1953 killed 31 people when it destroyed the research vessel Kaiyo Maru No. 5, taking the lives of all those aboard. More recent volcanic activity, including the release of harmful gases, forced the evacuation of Miyakejima in 2000. Five years later, residents were finally allowed to return to the island permanently but were required to carry gas masks in case of future volcanic emissions. The waters surrounding the Izu Islands and the Ogasawara Islands comprise about 45% of Japan’s marine Exclusive Economic Zone, making the islands vital to the nation’s maritime interests. In 2003, the Tokyo Metropolitan Government proposed a 10-year plan (Isolated Island Promotion Plan) to promote these isolated islands [3]. Its basic policy is the independent development of the Izu Islands, based on the idea that such development will bring about recovery and enhancement of valuable property that is held in common by the entire nation. Under the promotion plan, WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

188 Island Sustainability the establishment of island economies based on tourism (sightseeing, in cooperation with agriculture and fisheries) is a high priority. Other important thrusts of the plan are building a synthetic network of communication focusing on visitors, intensive reform of information and communication bases, and establishment of a crisis management system. Plans for facilities needed to support and maintain residents’ living environment such as medical institutions, welfare facilities, educational institutions, and cultural properties, are being implemented. The Public Corporation for Promotion of the Izu and Ogasawara Islands was established under the auspices of the Tokyo Metropolitan Government and the communities of islands in 1998 [4]. Its main business is sales promotion of each island’s special products and support of heli-commuter services to all of the islands. Under the 10-year plan, each island’s development follows an individualized scheme. Izu Oshima is focusing on promoting sustainable tourism, a cooperative effort among the agriculture, fishery and tourism industries. Toshima is working toward stability and production improvements achieved through attempts at more systematically managing its farming and fisheries. Niijima and Shikinejima hope to attract tourism by offering visitors experiences that showcase the island’s natural resources through the cooperation of agriculture, fishery and tourism. They envision a healing program exploiting undersea hot springs to entice visitors throughout the year. Kozujima will promote the image of a natural, healthy island lifestyle that brings visitors relaxation and healing through the cooperation of their tourism and fishing industries. Miyakejima positioned itself with the overall area plan of promoting tourism while actively conserving nature and sensibly managing its fisheries, agriculture, and forestry, etc. Mikurajima planned to activate its economy by drawing visitors to its favorable natural environment. Hachijojima’s plan draws tourism by openly sharing its unique history, actively exploiting area resources and synthesizing its agriculture, fisheries, and tourism. Aogashima has activated its economy by strengthening its ability to produce a steady supply of seafood and brand-name marine goods and specialty products.

3

Population, aging and industrial profiles of the Izu Islands

The population of the Izu Islands has been dropping steadily, although not as dramatically as the overall drop in Japan’s isolated islands. Table.1 shows the population trends for the Izu Islands, the isolated islands as a whole, and the overall Japanese population [5]. Table 2 shows population changes in towns and villages of the Izu Islands between 2000 and 2005. It should be noted that the population of Miyakejima in 2000 was counted before the eruption of Mt. Oyama, and the population and area of Shikinejima are reported together with Niijima [5]. Table 3 shows the age distribution of the population of the Izu Islands in 2005. Again, Shikinejima’s data is combined with Niijima’s [5]. Primary industries accounted for an average of 12%, secondary industries for 22% and the tertiary industry for 66% of the Izu chain’s economy in 2005. Agriculture and fisheries, the most prominent primary industries (as of 2005) and WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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Table 1: Year 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2005

Population changes over time (persons). Izu islands 38,707 32,539 31,902 30,032 28,756 26,242

Table 2: Town, Village Izu-Oshima Toshima Niijima Kozujima Miyakejima Hachijojima Mikurajima Aogashima

Town or Village Izu-Oshima Toshima Niijima Kozujima Miyakejima Mikurajima Hachijojima Aogashima

Isolated islands 923,062 736,712 630,536 546,505 472,312 433,712

Japan 94,301,623 104,665,171 117,060,396 123,611,167 126,925,843 127,767,994

Population changes in the Izu islands. 2000 (persons) 9,549 297 3,180 2,263 3,783 9,305 258 193

Table 3:

189

Area (km2) 91.06 4.12 27.83 18.87 55.50 77.62 20.58 5.98

2005 (persons) 8,702 308 3,161 2,068 2,439 8,837 292 214

Age distribution of Izu island population.

0 ~ 14 years (%) 12.0 10.6 11./9 14.9 5.7 16.5 12.7 20.2

15 ~ 64 years (%) 59.9 66.7 56.8 60.7 56.4 69.2 58.3 65.2

Above 65 years (%) 28.1 22.8 31.3 24.4 37.9 14.3 29.0 14.6

construction, manufacturing and mining, the largest secondary industries, are declining. On the other hand, tertiary industries, particularly information, transportation, accommodations, real estate and other lifestyle-related work have been increasing every year. Although the levels vary between islands, the main industries of the Izu Islands are fisheries, agriculture, and sightseeing. For example, sightseeing supports Izu Oshima, Niijima, Miyakejima and Mikurajima, agriculture and camellia production are prosperous businesses on Toshima, Kozujima is well known for fishing, and dairies are the basic industry on Aogashima. Hachijojima, a strikingly beautiful island, is popular with surfers, and has many varied scuba diving spots. It is also known for its natural hot springs, hiking, and waterfalls. Table 4 shows the industrial structure of each island in 2005 [5]. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

190 Island Sustainability Table 4:

Industrial structure of the Izu islands.

Island Izu Oshima Toshima Niijima (and Shikinejima) Kozujima Miyakejima Mikurajima Hachijojima Aogashima

4

Primary industries (%) 8 21 7 19 6 2 19 10

Secondary industries (%) 16 19 23 14 25 25 17 36

Tertiary industries (%) 76 60 68 67 69 73 64 54

Land uses, infrastructure and tourism

Undeveloped land covers about 86% of the islands’ area, urban districts cover about 8%, half of which is residential use, and farmland constitutes 6% of the total area. Residential areas are increasing while forested areas are decreasing. In the residential areas, the numbers of individual houses and educational and cultural facilities are increasing. Conversely, agricultural, forestry and fishery facilities, accommodations, playgrounds, and apartments are decreasing every year. The land use percentages for each island are shown in Table 5 [6].

Other

Fields

Forest

Water Surface

Farmland

Roads

Land use percentages.

Unused

Parks

Other Outdoor

Residential

Table 5:

(1) 5.3 0.6 0.9 0.2 2.9 4.7 0.1 64.3 21.1 14.7 (2) 3.2 0.5 0.5 0.1 3.4 2.2 0.1 67.8 22.3 9.9 (3) 4.6 3.2 1.1 0.3 3.2 2.7 0.1 72.0 12.8 15.2 (4) 2.5 0.7 0.2 0.3 4.0 10.7 0.2 54.6 26.8 18.6 (5) 2.8 0.4 0.1 0.2 2.4 4.5 0.3 77.5 11.8 10.7 (6) 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.7 1.4 0.0 84.2 13.0 2.8 (7) 5.2 0.5 0.6 0.8 4.5 12.8 0.2 71.4 4.1 24.4 (8) 2.0 0.9 0.2 0.9 2.0 10.3 0.0 57.1 26.7 16.2 (9) 3.8 0.8 0.6 0.3 2.9 6.0 0.1 71.5 14.1 14.5 (1) Izu Oshima (2) Toshima (3) Niijima (4) Kozujima (5) Miyakejima (6) Mikurajima (7) Hachijojima (8) Aogashima (9) Isu Islands. A breakdown of residential land use for each island is shown in Table 6 [6]. Homes occupy about 40% to 60% of the residential areas except on Aogashima, where the percentage is less than 30%. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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Table 6:

191

Residential land use (%).

Public Commercial Housing Industrial Farming (1) 19.1 10.8 63.7 4.1 2.3 (2) 30.1 9.9 43.5 12.7 3.8 (3) 20.5 16.3 44.3 12.2 6.6 (4) 23.1 20.2 38.2 14.8 3.7 (5) 15.6 15.5 54.5 8.6 5.8 (6) 26.2 9.2 46.8 11.5 6.2 (7) 13.5 16.2 58.2 7.1 5.1 (8) 45.0 7.5 28.2 11.4 7.8 (9) 19.9 12.4 57.9 6.5 3.3 (1) Izu Oshima (2) Toshima (3) Niijima (4) Kozujima (5) Miyakejima (6) Mikurajima (7) Hachijojima (8) Aogashima (9) Isu Islands. There are 5 airports, 15 harbors and 19 fishing ports in the Izu Islands. Three commuter airlines fly between Haneda (Tokyo International Airport) and Izu Oshima, Miyakejima, Hachijojima, and three fly from Chofu airport to Izu Oshima, Niijima, Kozujima. These flights take between 30 minutes and an hour. Heli-commuter services fly between Aogashima, Hachijojima, Mikurajima, Miyakejima, Izu Oshima and Toshima. There are ships that sail between Honshu (Tokyo, Yokohama, Atami, and Shimoda) and the Izu Islands. Sailing from Tokyo to the Izu Islands takes from 7 to 10 hours. High-speed jet foils reduce the time between Tokyo and Izu Oshima to about two hours. In 1980, about 1,000,000 visitors went to the Izu Islands each year, but this number had decreased to about 450,000 visitors by 2008 [7–9]. Transportation on the Izu Islands is by bus, car, motorbike, bicycle, etc. Therefore, roads are important to promoting and cultivating various industries and the to the quality of life of island inhabitants. About 215 km of paved main roads serve the approximately 300 km2 area of the islands [7–9]. Most of the Izu islands did not modernize quickly because there was no electricity before 1953, but by 1962, electricity was available to 98% of the Izu Island area [7–9]. The following social welfare facilities have been established in the Izu Islands: special homes for the aged (750 residents), home care service centers for the aged of each town and village, comprehensive community support centers for each town and village, nursing homes for the aged, private care and rehabilitation facilities for the physically and mentally challenged, homes for the mentally challenged, home support centers for children, and community welfare centers. There are 18 clinics and 1 hospita1, with 30 doctors in residence on the islands. There are 14 dental offices in the Izu Islands. There are 18 nursery schools serving about 1000 children. There are 15 elementary schools with 1150 schoolchildren, 13 junior high schools with 600 students and 8 high schools serving 750 students [10].

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192 Island Sustainability

5 Living standards and environmental hygiene Standard of living means the level of comfort and wealth that people enjoy. The Asahi Newspaper Company investigated a standard of living measure termed “human energy” (Minryoku [11]). “Human energy” is a composite index constructed using 10 indices of activities and characteristics that correlate with the standard of living. These indices are: Population IP, number of households IH, income subjected to taxation II, number of employees IE, value of agriculture products IA, annual value of shipped industrial products IS, annual retail sales volume IR, deposit accounts ID, number of automobiles IC, number of television contractors IT. Table 7 shows this composite index of human energy for each of the Izu islands from 2000–2005. (Shikinejima’s data is once again combined with Niijima.) Table 7: Oshima Toshima Niijima Kozujima Miyake Mikura Hachijojima Aogashima

2000 7.6 0.3 2.6 1.6 3.2 0.2 7.5 0.2

Index of human energy.

2001 7.6 0.3 2.5 1.6 3.2 0.2 7.5 0.2

2002 7.6 0.3 2.4 1.5 2.5 0.2 7.8 0.2

2003 7.9 0.3 2.5 1.6 2.5 0.2 7.8 0.2

2004 7.5 0.3 2.7 1.6 2.2 0.2 7.5 0.2

2005 7.2 0.3 2.7 1.7 3.3 0.2 7.3 0.2

Table 8 shows changes of IB over the six-year period ending in 2005 for each island. The national average is IB = 100. Table 8: Oshima Toshima Niijima Kozujima Miyakejima Mikurajima Hachijojima Aogashima

2000 100.0 150.0 104.0 88.9 106.7 100.0 101.4 100.0

Changes of IB over time by island. 2001 101.3 150.0 100.0 88.9 106.7 100.0 101.4 100.0

2002 102.0 129.3 97.1 85.3 84.6 90.7 106.5 126.3

2003 107.7 109.3 102.5 90.5 87.6 95.0 107.2 113.1

2004 103.5 124.6 108.4 94.8 81.1 91.7 104.8 116.7

2005 100.4 124.4 109.3 99.3 126.9 101.0 102.4 115.7

Individual indices are calculated by scaling parameters to the national average. For example, the population index IP is calculated as follows: IP = {(area population )/(national population)} x 100000 where 100000 is the national index. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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The annual value of shipped industrial products IS and the annual selling cost of retailer IR are given weights of 22 and 47 respectively compared to the value of agricultural production. The index of human energy I, is calculated as I = {IP + IH + II + IE + (IA + 22IS + 47IR)/70 + ID + IC + IT}/8 A per capita index IB of human energy is then calculated. IB = I / IP Each island except for Kozujima has indices of 100 or over in 2000 ~ 2005. For comparison, the per capita index for the center of Tokyo is about 300, while values for other isolated islands range from 80 to 95. There are 40 barbershops, 49 beauty salons, 13 laundries, and 31 public bathhouses on the islands. Water is in short supply on each island. Island inhabitants were long dependent on stored rainwater, but since 1953, small-scale water works have been built and expanded. Over 99% of the islands’ area has water service as of 2008. However, the water rates in the Izu islands are higher than those on the mainland because of construction costs and public loans taken out to build these small-scale water works. Until the late 1960s garbage was collected then dumped at streams or on the coast, or incinerated in individual gardens and yards. Refuse incinerators were set up in each town and village in the period from 1961 to 1975. Garbage is now separated by type and collected by designated carriers. Human waste is pumped out then treated at sewage disposal facilities [7–9].

6

Disaster prevention and response measures

In order to respond promptly and consistently to emergencies, the Tokyo Metropolitan Government created a special association to develop a crisis management system to gather and analyze information and create strategies for dealing with disasters. The Tokyo Metropolitan Government established a disaster prevention system, centered at its Disaster Countermeasure Headquarters. The system coordinates with the national government, municipalities, and other agencies based on information from the Disaster Prevention Center. During a catastrophic disaster, effective initial responses will minimize the damage incurred. The Tokyo Metropolitan Government has established several measures to insure appropriate initial response to disasters. At night and during holidays, the center has an after-hours communication office and accommodations for disaster management staff. An emergency government wireless system has also been installed to secure means of collecting and delivering information from seismometer networks, supervisory video cameras, and a disaster information system. In the event of a catastrophic disaster, the Tokyo Metropolitan Government will set up a “Tokyo Metropolitan Government Disaster Countermeasure Headquarters” (headed by the governor of Tokyo) to

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194 Island Sustainability discuss various measures including information gathering, fire fighting, firstaid/rescue, etc. and implement necessary responses [12]. The Izu Islands are in the path of typhoons every year. Therefore, each one experiences strong winds or heavy rain every year. They also experience frequent earthquakes. The islands are part of an area that the Japanese government has determined that disaster measures for earthquakes are a high priority. The Tokyo Metropolitan Government issued a report predicting the level of inundation due to tsunamis in the Izu Islands as estimated by current research in 2004 [3] and published its planned disaster prevention and response measures for the Izu Islands for flood damage and earthquakes in 2006 [12]. Each of the Izu Islands endeavors to stockpile the necessary preserved foods, clothing, carpets, and other goods called for by the Tokyo Metropolitan Government’s disaster ordinances. Plans for emergency operation of helicopters are in place and emergency services have been improved for the safety of island inhabitants. An emergency radio broadcast system was established in 1970, and the Tokyo Metropolitan Government disaster information system was instituted in 1991. Consequently, it is possible to transmit disaster information between the Tokyo Metropolitan Government disaster center and each of Izu Islands. The communication equipment necessary for these services was refurbished in 2008. Other disaster prevention measures deal with volcanic eruptions. Izu Oshima is famous for Mt. Mihara, which last erupted in 1986. Mt. Oyama on Miyakejima has also erupted several times in recent history. A lava flow in 1940 killed 11 people, and other eruptions occurred in 1962 and 1983. On July 14, 2000, Mt. Oyama began another series of eruptions, and by September, the island was completely evacuated. After a four-year period of volcanic emissions, residents were allowed to return permanently on February 1, 2005. Since the eruption, there has been a constant flow of sulfuric gas coming from Mt. Oyama. After the eruption in 2000 disaster information numbers were supplied to residents, and the 6mG radio system serving the Izu Islands was serviced in 2009 to insure its proper operation in emergencies [7–9]. Harbors in the Izu Islands play a major role as evacuation sites, transportation bases for evacuation of the injured, and staging areas for incoming relief efforts. Airports and heli-ports serve similar roles in information gathering and dissemination, transportation of injured earthquake victims, and transport of relief supplies and workers. As each island is different, it is necessary to pay particular attention to the individual needs of each island as disaster prevention training is conducted. In the future, harbors must be maintained so as to allow ferryboats to berth in emergencies [13].

7

Conclusions

First, there is a practical limit to the population of each island in the Izu chain. The population of Izu islands is well known, and even though the standard of living on the islands has been increasing yearly as measured by the human energy index, the islands’ population is declining as shown in Tables 1, 7 and 8. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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Thus there is a limit to the number of people who may need to be evacuated from the Izu Islands in an emergency such as a volcanic eruption or a Tsunami. Second, maintaining the infrastructure necessary in times of emergency is important. This requires a long-term investment to protect the Izu Islands. To address the needs of the islands, the Tokyo Metropolitan Government has formulated various courses of action such as the 10-year Plan for the Promotion of Isolated islands in Tokyo (2003–2012). These plans stress cooperation between agriculture, fisheries, and tourism, development of a total transportation network, institution of information dispatch systems and disaster prevention. Finally, disaster prevention measures need to be communicated to all island inhabitants. The improvement of the following facilities and equipment is being promoted so that disaster management activities can be conducted quickly and smoothly: observation equipment such as meteorological satellites, weather observation radar and seismometers; materials and machinery required for emergency response such as firefighting equipment, water tanks and power generators; systems for liaising and communicating emergency information such as telecommunications or broadcasting facilities; transportation vehicles such as helicopters, ships and automobiles; facilities for evacuation and headquarters for disaster countermeasures. In addition, projects such as fireproofing buildings, providing evacuation routes, designating areas and facilities as disaster preparation bases have been carried out.

References [1] http://law.e-gov.go.jp/htm|data//s28/s28HO072.html, Law for Development of Isolated Islands, Japanese Government, 2002 [2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izu-islands, Izu islands, Wikipedia. [3] Tokyo Metropolitan Government, The Promotion Plan for Isolated Islands in Tokyo, 2004 [4] Tokyo Metropolitan Government and Island Communications Foundation, Public Cooperation for Promotion of Izu and Ogasawara Islands, 1998. [5] Japanese Government, Population Census, 2006 [6] Tokyo Metropolitan Government, Land use in Tokyo, 2009 [7] Tokyo Metropolitan Government, Outline of Oshima subprefecture, 2009 [8] Tokyo Metropolitan Government, Outline of Miyake subprefecture, 2009 [9] Tokyo Metropolitan Government, Outline of Hachijo subprefecture, 2009 [10] Health Centers on Tokyo’s Isolated Islands, Outline of Social Works, Tokyo Metropolitan Government, 2008 [11] Asahi newspaper, Minryoku (2000 ~ 2005), Asahi Newspaper Office, 2000 ~ 2005 [12] Tokyo Metropolitan Government, TMG’s Disaster Prevention Information, http://www.bousai.metro.tpkyo.jp/english/e-tmg/system.htr [13] Tokyo Metropolitan Government, Business Plan for The Tokyo Metropolitan Government’s Earthquake Disaster Measures, 2004.

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Responsive demand in isolated energy systems D. Livengood1, F. C. Sim-Sim2, C. S. Ioakimidis2 & R. Larson1 1

Engineering Systems Division, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA 2 Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade Técnica de Lisboa, Portugal

Abstract To make islands more economically and environmentally sustainable, there is interest in expanding local renewable sources of electricity generation to displace portions of electric energy generated by fossil fuels. Integrating these inherently weather-dependent and variable sources is a challenge for grid stability. Responsive demand has long been used as a resource for peak management in both island and mainland systems. We discuss potential benefits of expanding responsive demand to help displace electric energy generated by fossil fuel power plants by adjusting the shape of the demand curve to increase use of electricity generated by renewable sources. Our methods also apply to renewable generation capacity expansion decisions. Keywords: responsive demand, integrating renewables, island electricity systems.

1

Introduction

Due to the obvious hardships of being an isolated electrical system, it is a challenge to provide stable and quality electricity service to a small island, or group of islands. Because of their small size, these systems often rely on fossil fuel power plants, most commonly diesel units, as these units are easily dispatched and reliable. However, the reliance on externally processed fuels for geographically isolated systems results in a higher cost for each energy unit produced when compared with mainland systems. The absence of self-reliance in such systems is an impoverishing factor that adds to the costs of insularity and diminishes the attractiveness of the island economically Zhang et al [1]. While there are a number of strategies that could all play a role in reducing reliance on imported fossil fuel, the focus of this paper is on the approach of expanding or WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line) doi:10.2495/ISLANDS100171

198 Island Sustainability developing the island’s local and renewable energy resources, such as wind, hydro, solar and geothermal power, and to increase this sector’s percentage of the island’s energy generation. Renewable energy sources, with the notable exception of geothermal, can suffer from variable and intermittent output, limiting the extent of their use as discussed by Weisser and Garcia [2] and Peças Lopes et al [3]. One of the typical solutions to these challenges has been the use of storage devices [4, 5], for example using naturally occurring reservoirs as pumping stations [6]. However, some island geographies may not possess naturally occurring geological structures, such as some of the dry islands in Cape Verde [2]. For islands where large storage systems are either infeasible or impractical, other strategies for balancing the variability of renewable generation sources would be necessary. The alternative strategy we will be discussing here is responsive demand, where some subset of electricity demand is shifted during the course of a day to help balance uncontrollable changes in the supply of electricity from renewable sources. Such a strategy would allow an island to support a greater integration of renewable energy resources, reducing generation costs and providing a more sustainable system (Hamidi et al [7]). As a proof of concept, we performed a study of the 2008 electricity supply and demand on the island of Flores in the Azores Archipelago in order to compare the benefits that could have been achieved if some fraction of demand was responsive to real-time signals reporting the availability of electricity generation from renewable sources.

2

Case study: the island of Flores in the Azores Archipelago

The Azores Archipelago is located in the North Atlantic Ocean, approximately 1500 km from the European mainland and 3900 km from North America. The archipelago is a Portuguese Autonomous Region and is constituted by nine populated islands divided into three geographical groups, West, Central, and East, with a total population of approximately 244,000 persons as of the year 2007 [8]. The fragmentation of the population among the nine islands coupled with the physical distance separating the islands means that nine independent electrical systems of different dimensions must be maintained, without the potential for use of more efficient fossil fuels such as natural gas and without adequate energy production players to create an efficient competitive market. The Program from the current Regional Government [9] recognizes the elevated cost from energy on each unit of added value produced in the region and recognizes that this compromises the Azores’ competitiveness in a global market. The Program also correctly states that the richness and variety of local renewable energy resources are a key factor in reducing the region’s energy handicap. In fact, the investment in equipment for renewable energy production made in the last few years allowed a savings of 11% in fuel-oil and 5% in diesel in 2007. In addition, the current Governmental Goals state that the region is to obtain, in less than six WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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years, 50% of the electricity supply from renewable and local resources for the aggregated consumption of the Archipelago. Hence, each island is interested in expanding the use of renewable generation on their island. The island of Flores is part of the West Azores Group (comprised of Flores and Corvo) and has a population of 4099 persons in an area of ~141 km2. The Flores Electrical grid has 3 power plants: a Diesel Thermal plant with a capacity of 2.3 MW, a Hydro Power Plant unit with a capacity of 1.5 MW, and a Wind Farm with a capacity of 0.6 MW. With the power output data from each generator available in half-hour increments throughout the year of 2008, we will compare various scenarios of scaled levels of electricity generation from the wind farm and hydro power plant to the actual demand required over the course of 2008 to see how much diesel-generated electricity would be displaced by the increased electricity generation of these hypothetical scenarios. From an annual perspective, increasing the generation of electricity from a scaled-up wind farm and hydro power plant soon surpasses the 11,745 MWh energy demand on the island [10]. For instance, scaling up the wind farm to five times the original size and keeping the hydro power plant at its original size would in theory produce 12,810 MWh, which would be adequate to meet the island’s energy needs for 2008 and thus would displace 100% of the dieselgenerated electricity. Unfortunately, without a long-term and large-scale storage system, the additional generation of electricity from the wind farm does not always occur at times when the electricity is needed. In fact, the actual displacement of diesel-generated electricity for this scenario is only 51%, assuming that no energy storage systems are available and thus all excess generation from the renewable sources in any given hour is simply unused. Table 1 emphasizes the stark discrepancy between “in theory” and “in actuality” when comparing the annual theoretical maximum displacement of diesel-generated electricity and the annual actual displacement of dieselgenerated electricity generated for a range of scenarios that scale up the electricity generated by the wind farm and hydro power plant. Even when scaling up the wind and hydro power plants to absurdly large levels, the actual displacement of diesel-generated electricity never reaches 100%. Considering the grid stability requirements as mentioned in the introduction, the goal of 100% displacement is at best a thought experiment. However, if 100% displacement Table 1:

Comparison of theoretical maximum annual displacement and actual annual displacement of diesel-generated electricity by increasing renewable electricity generation.

Wind farm scaling factor Hydro power plant scaling factor Theoretical maximum annual displacement Actual annual displacement

2

3

5

40

1

2

10

1

1

1

1

2

2

10

29%

59%

100%

100%

60%

90%

100%

26%

39%

51%

77%

43%

57%

95%

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200 Island Sustainability were the ultimate goal, Table 1 illustrates that this goal would be very difficult to reach under the weather conditions of 2008 utilizing only a scaled-up wind farm and hydro power plant. Although the theoretical maximum annual displacement of diesel-generated electricity is difficult to obtain, the actual annual displacement of dieselgenerated electricity could be improved if the timing of electricity demand aligned more favorably with hours when there was an excess of electricity generation from the combined outputs of the wind farm and hydro power plant. Determining how much improvement may be attainable via responsive demand programs is the focus of the next section.

3

Integrating increased renewable generation with responsive demand

As the level of renewable generation sources increases on an island, the possibility develops that these sources might generate more electricity than is demanded over short time intervals. Focusing on intervals of one hour, our interest is to determine the balancing potential of responsive demand by shifting demand from one hour to another within a given day.

Figure 1:

Electricity demand and renewable generation on an example day in May 2008.

To illustrate this situation, consider the demand pattern in fig. 1 over 24 hours in early May and the scenario where we have tripled the wind farm’s capacity and kept the hydro power plant at its original capacity. On that day, as shown in fig. 1 with the hypothetical renewable generation as the dashed line and the electricity demand level as the solid line, there are some hours where the renewable electricity generation exceeds the electricity demand and there are also some hours where the electricity demand exceeds the renewable electricity generation. It is on days like these where responsive demand could clearly play a role in increasing the utilization of renewable electricity generation and further displacing electricity generated by the diesel power plant.

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3.1 Frequency of days that could benefit from responsive demand Before considering the potential benefit of implementing a responsive demand program for improving the utilization of expanded renewable generation, it is important to first determine for our case study of Flores the number of days in 2008 for which a responsive demand program would prove useful. Looking at the same scenarios illustrated in Table 1, we calculated the number of days in our sample year of 2008 where some hours had excess hypothetical renewable electricity generation and some hours had insufficient hypothetical renewable electricity generation. The results are shown in Table 2 and show that a significant number of days in 2008 are similar to the day analyzed in fig. 1. This justified the next step of the research, which was to calculate how much additional displacement of diesel-generated electricity could be attained with responsive demand. Table 2:

Number of days in 2008 where responsive demand could provide additional displacement of diesel-generated electricity.

Wind farm scaling factor Hydro power plant scaling factor Number of days similar to fig. 1 (out of 366)

2

3

5

40

1

2

10

1

1

1

1

2

2

10

172

228

246

187

163

193

78

3.2 Modelling assumptions for responsive demand Calculating the effect of responsive demand required a few modelling decisions to be made for this analysis. First and foremost, we assumed that only a subset of the total demand would be available to participate in a responsive demand program. In Flores, for instance, 9% of the annual electricity demand is for public lighting, which is going to be inflexible with regards to its time of usage [10]. However, other services requiring electricity, such as appliance loads in residences or HVAC systems in commercial buildings, may have flexibility with regards to when that service is provided. In addition, small-scale storage systems (potentially including plug-in electric vehicles) could also be included as an option for responsive demand. For this model, we made a simplifying assumption not to differentiate between controllable demand and small-scale storage systems. Hence, we decided to model the amount of responsive demand available on a given day as a certain percentage of the total demand for that day. Clearly the details of when responsive demand is available and the times to which it could be shifted will affect the realized benefits of a responsive demand program. A more intricate model of how end users, especially residents, would participate in responsive demand programs of this nature is being developed through related research by two of the authors and their colleagues [11]. Once these dynamics are better WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

202 Island Sustainability modelled, an agent-based simulation could provide a more accurate model of the achievable benefits of responsive demand. However, that work is beyond the scope of this paper. 3.3 Estimating the benefits of responsive demand With the assumptions discussed in section 3.2 in place, the analysis for estimating the potential benefits of responsive demand was completed in the following way. For each hour, the scaled renewable generation was compared to the demand for that hour. Two outcomes are possible for each hour: either the electricity generated by the renewable sources would meet and exceed the necessary demand, or it would be insufficient to meet the demand that hour. The baseline scenario of displaced diesel-generated electricity, equivalent to the row of ‘actual annual displacement’ included in Table 1, was calculated assuming that demand was fixed for each hour. Then, under constraints discussed in more detail in sections 3.3.1 and 3.3.2, demand was allowed to shift from hours of insufficient renewable generation to hours of excess renewable generation in order to determine the additional displacement of diesel-generated electricity that exceeded the Table 1 baseline and was due to responsive demand. One note is that with the assumption that there is no large-scale energy storage available, any excess electricity generated by the renewables above the demand level in a given hour is assumed to be ‘lost’. As mentioned in the introduction, this excess generation clearly poses a challenge for grid operators to maintain grid stability. However, for the analysis at hand, we are simply assuming that operational details of excess generation of renewables will be dealt with via other operational systems. Whether or not the operational challenges of excess generation significantly affect the results of this analysis will be left for future work on this model. 3.3.1 Benefits of intra-day responsive demand For the initial implementation of responsive demand in our model, we assumed that demand would only shift between hours of a given day. To calculate the additional displacement of diesel-generated electricity, we first identified all hours in the day with excess generation from the scaled-up renewables and all hours in the day where the generation from the scaled-up renewables was insufficient to meet the demand in that hour. As long as the day had one or more hours that met each situation described here, then the responsive demand could shift from hours with insufficient renewable generation to hours with excess renewable generation. Ultimately, there were three constraints on the attainable amount of additional displacement of diesel-generated electricity for any given day: the percentage of total demand that was available as responsive demand, the total excess renewable generation from the hours with excess, and the total amount of displaceable diesel-generated electricity from the hours with insufficient renewable generation. The percentage of total demand available as responsive demand was varied from 1% to 20%, as illustrated in fig. 2. The total excess renewable generation and the amount of displaceable diesel-generated electricity for any WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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given day varied based on the original demand pattern for that day, the original level of electricity generated by the wind farm and the hydro power plant, and on the scaling factors for the wind farm and hydro power plant used in the current scenario. Given all of these inputs, the output of the model calculates how much additional displacement of diesel-generated electricity is attainable for each day, and then the daily additional displacements were all summed to determine the annual additional displacement. This additional displacement is then added on to the baseline displacement of the scenario used to scale-up the renewables for that run of the model. The additional annual displacement of diesel-generated electricity was calculated for all of the scenarios included in Table 1, and all scenarios showed similar trends in the gains over their respective Table 1 baselines. To illustrate an example of the additional displacement trends, the results of the scenario with a 3x scaling factor for the wind farm and 1x scaling factor for the hydro power plant combination are illustrated in fig. 2.

Figure 2:

Additional displacement of diesel-generated electricity for scenario of 3x wind and 1x hydro due to intra-day responsive demand.

To review, in Table 1 the 3x wind and 1x hydro scenario had a theoretical maximum displacement of diesel-generated electricity of 59% and an actual annual displacement of diesel-generated electricity of 39%. As fig. 2 shows, the inclusion of responsive demand can narrow the gap between the theoretical and actual annual displacement of diesel-generated electricity by over six percentage points to a potential annual displacement of diesel-generated electricity of 45%. However, fig. 2 also shows that there are diminishing returns to increasing the percent of demand available for participation in an intra-day responsive demand program. This trend is caused by the fact that as the amount of responsive demand increases, more and more days have either exhausted all excess generation from the renewable sources for that day or have displaced all of the diesel-generated electricity for that day. This motivated our next extension to the model, which analyzes the additional benefits of delaying responsive demand by one day once the intra-day benefits have been exhausted.

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204 Island Sustainability 3.3.2 Benefits of intra-day and one-day delay responsive demand In section 3.3.1, responsive demand was limited to shift between hours within a single day. However, if the weather forecast calls for low wind today and high wind tomorrow, some electricity consumers might be willing to delay their demand until tomorrow. To get a sense of the additional benefits of including a one-day delay of demand, we adjusted our model to include inter-day shifting of responsive demand if there was an increase in the additional displacement of diesel-generated electricity. To focus on the additional benefits from one-day demand delays, fig. 3 like fig. 2 models the scenario of the 3x scaling factor for the wind farm and 1x scaling factor for the hydro power plant and shows the resulting increase in diesel-generated electricity displacement as a result of allowing one-day demand delays. Fig. 3 illustrates that incorporating one-day delays in responsive demand provides even closer attainment of the theoretical displacement maximum (59%) in Table 1. The data for all of the scenarios was modeled and all showed similar trends here as well.

Figure 3:

Additional displacement of diesel-generated electricity for a scenario of 3x wind and 1x hydro with intra-day and one-day delay responsive demand.

3.4 Application of responsive demand analysis: investment decisions Returning to our opening discussion about the Azores Archipelago, recall that the current Governmental Goals state that the region is to obtain, in less than six years, 50% of the electricity supply from renewable and local resources for the aggregated consumption of the Archipelago. Hence, each island must make an investment decision on how to meet this goal. One application of the method illustrated here is to inform the decision makers about the tradeoffs between costs and benefits of different investment decisions. Consider this hypothetical situation: the island of Flores would like to expand their wind farm or their hydro power plant but only has the funding to do one or the other. The decision is between tripling the capacity of the wind farm and doubling the capacity of the hydro power plant. From the analysis we performed WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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here and displayed in Table 1, the baseline reduction of diesel-generated electricity is expected to be 39% for tripling the wind farm and 43% for doubling the hydro power plant. However, if the investment cost for tripling the wind farm were less than that of doubling the hydro power plant, the decision makers could consider an additional option of whether to invest in a responsive demand program along with the wind farm expansion. Depending on the expected participation in the responsive demand program, a comparison between the benefits of investing in wind farm expansion and responsive demand program could be compared with the benefits of the investment in the hydro power plant. Fig. 4 illustrates this hypothetical situation and would quickly inform decision makers of the potential benefits of each investment decision.

Figure 4:

Comparison of displacement from tripling wind capacity and using various levels of responsive demand versus doubling hydro power plant capacity.

From the results displayed in fig. 4, if 4% or more of the total demand on the island would be expected to participate in a responsive demand program, then the estimated total displacement of diesel-generated electricity from the tripling of the wind farm and developing a responsive demand program would exceed the estimated total displacement of diesel-generated electricity from the doubling of the hydro power plant. This side-by-side comparison of the expected benefits from various renewable expansion and responsive demand scenarios would provide a useful tool to quickly inform decision-makers of the tradeoffs between the expected costs and benefits of different investment options for meeting the goal of decreasing the island’s fossil fuel usage.

4

Conclusions and future work

In this paper, we have shown that responsive demand can help increase the displacement of fossil fuel usage on an island by better utilizing the electricity generated by local and renewable generation sources, especially when large-scale WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

206 Island Sustainability and long-term storage systems are infeasible or impractical. In the example scenario illustrated in the paper, an additional 5 to 10% of the annual dieselgenerated electricity was shown to be displaceable via responsive demand adjusting the aggregate demand curve to hours of excess renewable generation. The method proposed here calculates an initial estimate of these fossil fuel displacement benefits under various scenarios of hypothetical renewable generation, which could in turn influence investment decisions regarding which local renewable sources of electricity should be expanded or developed. While the results presented in this paper are unique to the island of Flores, the method is easily transferable to other island settings with different options for local renewable sources of electricity generation. Although this particular model focused on wind power and hydro power, any combination of renewable generation sources could be included to reflect the unique generation potential for an island. For the model illustrated in this paper, we assumed perfect information of electricity demand and generation levels from the wind farm and hydro power plant. In reality, this information will be at best a forecast of future demand and generation levels. Not including this stochastic nature means that the total fossil fuel displacement calculated here is simply an upper bound on the potential benefits of increasing renewable generation and of supporting the integration of those renewables with responsive demand. Clearly, decisions made regarding the implementation of a responsive demand program will affect the actual amount of fossil fuel that is displaced. In particular, one key implementation question is: What real-time signals are required to elicit the necessary responsive demand? Will a time-varying pricing system be implemented? Will the grid operator directly control the end-users’ demand? For an island, perhaps it would be sufficient to design a system that merely informs consumers of the future hours likely to have excess renewable generation. Whatever information is ultimately sent to consumers, the stochastic nature of both electricity demand and renewable generation means that these forecasts will change regularly. A likely critical piece of any successful responsive demand program would be to encourage adoption of energy management systems that could automate end-users’ consumption. In particular, research by the authors into how stochastic dynamic programming would likely increase the realized benefits of a responsive demand program is being pursued via development of their Energy Box model [11]. With this more detailed model of how end-users would adjust their consumption in response to real-time conditions on the grid, more accurate estimates of the potential benefits of responsive demand programs could be attained. However, in some situations, a simple method such as the one presented in this paper may provide a sufficient estimate of the benefits of a responsive demand program in a much shorter period of time.

Acknowledgement The authors would like to thank the Fundação para Ciência e Tecnologia / MITPortugal Program for the financial support for the work reported in this paper WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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and performed under the project “Power demand estimation and power system impacts resulting of fleet penetration of electric/plug-in vehicles” (FCT MITPt/SES- GI/ 008/ 2008).

References [1] Zhang, K.M., Thomas, R.J., Bohm, M. & Miller, M, An integrated Design approach for sustainable community development. Proceedings of the 42nd Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, 2009. [2] Weisser, D. & Garcia, R.S., Instantaneous wind energy penetration in isolated electricity grids: concepts and review. Renewable Energy 30, pp. 1299-1308, 2005 [3] Peças Lopes, J.A., Hatziargyriou, N., Mutale, J., Djapic, P. & Jenkins, N. Integrating distributed generation into electric power systems: A review of drivers, challenges and opportunities. Electric Power Systems Research, 77, pp. 1189-1203, 2007 [4] Estanqueiro, A.I., Jesus J.M.F., Santos, Ricardo, J., Santos, A. & Peças Lopes, J.A., Barriers (and solutions…) to very high wind penetration in power systems. IEEE, 2007. [5] Kaldellis, J.K., Zafirakis, D. & Kavadias, K., Techno-economic comparison of energy storage systems for islands autonomous electrical networks. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 13, pp. 378-392, 2007. [6] Bueno, C. & Carta, J.A., Wind powered pump hydro storage systems, a mean of increasing the penetration of renewable energy in the Canary Islands. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 10, pp 312-340, 2006. [7] Hamidi, V., Li, F. & Robinson, F., The effect of responsive demand in domestic sector on power system operation in the networks with high penetration of renewables. Power and Energy Society General Meeting Conversion and Delivery of Electrical Energy in the 21st Century - IEEE, pp. 1-8, 2008. [8] Statistical Yearbook of the Azores Region - 2007, Azores Statistical Regional Service. http://estatistica.azores.gov.pt [9] Program of the X Regional Government of Azores, pp 45-48. http://www.azores.gov.pt/ [10] Electricity consumption by region – data for 2008, Direcção Geral de Energia e Geologia. http://www.dgge.pt/ [11] Livengood, D. and Larson, R., The Energy Box: Locally Automated Optimal Control of Residential Electricity Usage. Service Science, 1(1), pp. 1-16, 2009.

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Innovative shore protection for island communities S. J. Boc & E. C. Burg US Army Corps of Engineers, Engineer Research and Development Center, Coastal and Hydraulics Laboratory, USA

Abstract The National Erosion Control Development and Demonstration Program (Section 227) was authorized by the Water Resource and Development Act of 1996 (Public Law 104-303, 110 stat. 3658, dated October 12, 1996) with the goal of fostering development of innovative and non-traditional methods of shoreline erosion control. Sacred Falls State Park on the island of Oahu, Hawaii, was selected as one of the demonstration sites to combat erosion along a section of shoreline that is threatening to encroach upon the state highway. The innovation in shore protection at the Sacred Falls site was chosen to be an offshore reef structure that could be constructed at a remote site with manpower utilizing off the shelf materials and without the use of heavy equipment. Various artificial reef shapes and materials, such as vertical lengths of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) 0.6 m (24 in) pipe, traffic barriers, and large storage units, were considered and tested in an undistorted linear scale of 1:16 (model:prototype) physical model. Modeling efforts focused on determining barrier arrangements best suited to reduce wave heights leeward of the structure. As a result of this 3-D physical model study, and due to their off the shelf nature, the YODOCK traffic barrier in a three pack was found to be a viable option for the conditions at the site. This low cost and effective erosion reduction technology has applicability in emergency and short term situations in shallow water island environments to protect infrastructure. Keywords: reefs, artificial reefs, shore protection, innovative shore protection, plastic traffic barriers.

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210 Island Sustainability

1 Introduction The National Erosion Control Development and Demonstration Program (Section 227) was authorized by the Water Resource and Development Act of 1996 (Public Law 104-303, 110 stat. 3658, dated October 12, 1996). The goal of the program is to foster development of innovative and non-traditional methods of shoreline erosion control through a series of demonstration projects. Sacred Falls State Park, on the island of Oahu, Hawaii, was selected as one of the demonstration sites to combat erosion along a section of shoreline that is threatening to encroach upon the state highway. Sacred Falls Beach Park, Hauula, (Figure 1) is located at the south end of Makao Beach on the northeast side of the island of Oahu, Hawaii. The project site (Figures 2 and 3) is an approximate 113-m (370-ft) reach of undeveloped shoreline. Seawall-protected private residences bound the small publicly accessible beach at both ends. The beach is very narrow and becomes inundated at high tide. The low-elevation coastal road that services the area is poorly protected with randomly placed boulders and waste concrete piles. Inland of the beach is a narrow coastal plain of alluvium and sand. Kaliuwaá and Kaluanui Stream drains the Sacred Falls area just south of the project site. In the nearshore, a wide fringing coral reef extends along the coast, with 3.7-m (12-ft) water depth located approximately 750 m (2,500 ft) offshore. The shallow reef

Figure 1:

Geographic location.

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has a mean depth of approximately 1 m (3-4 ft) at mean low water (mlw), and is composed of a mixture of coral rubble, sand, and scattered reef blocks over a seabed of hard limestone substrate. Coral cover is minimal on the shallow reef seaward of the site. The sand, rubble, and boulder bottom has approximately 50 percent algal cover. While fish are sparse in the area, sea urchins and brittle star are common. Both coral and fish density increases on the deep and steep side of Kaluanui Channel, which bisects the reef south of the project. The Sacred Falls project site is directly exposed to the prevailing trade winds that predominate from April to September. The large winter north swell refracts and diffracts around the island and impacts the project site. Coupled with high winter tides, the shoreline and adjacent coastal highway are occasionally inundated. Tropical storms and hurricanes periodically impact the Hawaiian shores. While these storms produce large surf, the extensive fringing reef at the project site produces a depth limited breaking wave condition that expends most of the wave energy before impacting the shoreline. However numerous shore

Figure 2:

Ikonos satellite photograph of sacred falls site.

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212 Island Sustainability protection structures, of which many show signs of deterioration, both north and south of the project site attest to pervasive yet manageable rates of erosion. The tides are semidiurnal with a mean tide range of 0.6 m (2 ft). Continual, yet manageable, erosion of the beach at Sacred Falls Beach Park has reduced beach width to a point that it is almost totally submerged during high tide. Some deterioration of the coast highway is evident. Recreation use of this tourist destination is minimal due to lack of beach width. Shoreline recession must be abated. The innovation in shore protection at the Sacred Falls site was chosen to be an offshore reef structure that could be constructed at a remote site with manpower utilizing off the shelf materials and without the use of heavy equipment. Various artificial reef shapes and materials such as, vertical lengths of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) 0.6 m (24 in) pipe, traffic barriers, and large storage units were considered and tested in an undistorted linear scale of 1:16 (model:prototype) physical model. As a result of this 3-D physical model by

Figure 3:

Blow-up of Ikonos image of Sacred Falls site.

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Ward [1] and due to the off the shelf nature, the YODOCK traffic barrier (Figure 4) in a three pack was found to be stable. Further testing in a 1:16 scale flume tank at various water levels, wave heights and period were completed to determine the wave energy reduction effects. Tests were also run in a 0.9 m (3 ft) flume to determine wave dissipation over one to four rows of the YODOCK three packs in +1.2 m (+4.0 ft) and +1.8 m (+6.0 ft) water depths with various deep water wave inputs. Because the YODOCK traffic barrier is a popular traffic control technology many highway departments already have these in their inventories, it can be made available for emergency shore protection needs very quickly. This low cost and effective erosion reduction technology has applicability in emergency and short term situations in shallow water island environments to protect infrastructure.

2 Physical model testing Physical model testing was conducted at the US Army Engineer Research and Development Center’s Coastal and Hydraulics Laboratory in Vicksburg, MS.

Figure 4:

YODOCK traffic barrier.

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214 Island Sustainability All tests were conducted in a glass-walled flume, 45.7 m by 0.9 m by 0.6 m (150 ft by 3 ft by 2 ft), (LxWxH), equipped with a computer controlled, electrohydraulic piston type wave generator. Model testing was conducted at an undistorted linear scale of 1:16 (model:prototype) based on Froude similitude. Model data was collected in English units, but was converted to SI units for the purpose of this paper. 2.1 Bathymetry Bathymetry was installed in the flume to simulate a reef structure with a 1:10 slope preceding 7.6 m (25 ft) of flat reef in front of the structure, which allowed for natural wave transformation. See Figure 5 for the flume layout. 2.2 Waves and water levels Two water levels were tested, +1.2 m and +1.8 m to simulate low and high tide conditions, respectively. Three deep water wave height and peak period combinations were tested at both water levels to cover a wide range of possible conditions, see Table 1. Capacitance-type wave gages were placed seaward and leeward of the structure, with still water elevations being sampled near the toe of the structure. The seaward gage was placed approximately 0.6 m (2 ft) in front of the structure and the leeward gage was placed 0.2 m (0.75 ft) behind the structure.

Wave Gauge Wave Generator 9.8 m (32 ft) Flat

Figure 5:

1:10 Slope

7.6 m (25 ft) Flat

Bathymetry and flume set up (NTS). Table 1:

Deep Water Wave Height Hm0, m 1.1 1.8 3.0

Wave conditions. Peak Wave Period Tp, sec 3.6 14.0 9.0

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2.3 Testing sequence The barriers were grouped in sets of three and tested in both parallel and perpendicular configurations (Figure 6), 1-4 rows deep. An alternate 1-2-1 configuration (front and back rows in parallel set up, two middle rows in perpendicular set up) was also tested for 4 rows. A side channel was constructed in the flume to allow the free flow of water and to prevent water from piling up leeward of the structure, keeping a constant water level seaward of the structure.

3 Results Wave heights were measured seaward and leeward of the structure to determine the reduction in wave height as the wave passed over the barriers. Comparisons were made between the different barrier configurations for corresponding numbers of rows. It was found that the parallel configurations resulted in a greater reduction in wave height than the perpendicular configurations for all wave conditions at both water levels. The 1-2-1 configuration also showed a greater reduction in wave height than the perpendicular set up, but the resulting wave height leeward of the structure was still slightly higher than that of the parallel configuration in all cases. Results from the testing are shown in Table 2 as well as Figures 7-12.

Three pack of YODOCK barriers

Sea side Parallel Lee side Sea side Perpendicular Lee side Figure 6:

Single row of parallel and perpendicular configurations for three-pack of YODOCK barriers.

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216 Island Sustainability Table 2: Water Level, m

+1.2

Physical model results of leeward wave height for all conditions. Deep Water Wave Height Hm0, m 1.1

1.8

3.0

+1.8

1.2

1.8

3.0

Peak Period Tp, sec

3.6

14.0

9.0

3.6

14.0

9.0

Seaward Wave Height, m

0.5

0.6

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.8

Configuration

Leeward Wave Height, m

1 Row

2 Rows

3 Rows

4 Rows

Parallel

0.19

0.15

0.13

0.11

Perpendicular

0.27

0.22

0.18

0.16

1-2-1

-

-

-

0.12

Parallel

0.31

0.28

0.25

0.24

Perpendicular

0.39

0.33

0.30

0.27

1-2-1

-

-

-

0.25

Parallel

0.30

0.27

0.25

0.24

Perpendicular

0.37

0.32

0.29

0.27

1-2-1

-

-

-

0.25

Parallel

0.55

0.53

0.50

0.48

Perpendicular

0.59

0.59

0.55

0.51

1-2-1

-

-

-

0.49

Parallel

0.62

0.60

0.57

0.54

Perpendicular

0.64

0.61

0.59

0.56

1-2-1

-

-

-

0.57

Parallel

0.60

0.59

0.56

0.54

Perpendicular

0.65

0.62

0.59

0.56

1-2-1

-

-

-

0.56

4 Conclusion Traditional shore protection utilizes heavy equipment and heavy units to defend against wave attack. The idea of utilizing an “off the shelf” product for shore protection, such as the YODOCK Wall Barrier, and only man power for the installation is a new concept. The YODOCK Wall Barrier was developed for traffic control and protection. Because it is common for these types of barriers to already exist in the inventories of a local communities Department of Transportation or Highway Department, it provides local communities with a low cost and a rapidly emplaced form of shore protection. Our testing has shown that these types of barriers with ballast may be used successfully for shore protection in emergency or short term situations. Long term uses of these units have not been studied but may be possible. Additional studies must be done to test the life expectancy of these plastic barriers in a wave environment.

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Island Sustainability

WL = +1.2 m

Hm0 = 1.1 m

T = 4.0 s

1.00

0.90

Leeward Wave Height, m

0.80

0.70

0.60

Seaward Wave Height = 0.49 m 0.50

0.40

0.30

0.27 0.22 0.19

0.20

0.18 0.15

0.16 0.13

0.12

0.11

0.10

0.00 1

2

3

4

Number of Rows Parallel

Figure 7:

Perpendicular

1-2-1

Leeward wave heights for 1.1 m, 4.0 sec wave at +1.2 m.

WL = +1.2 m

Hm0 = 1.8 m

T = 14.0 s

1.00

0.90

Leeward Wave Height, m

0.80

0.70

Seaward Wave Height = 0.61 m 0.60

0.50

0.40

0.39 0.31

0.33 0.30

0.28

0.30

0.25

0.25

0.27 0.24

0.20

0.10

0.00 1

2

3

4

Number of Rows Parallel

Figure 8:

Perpendicular

1-2-1

Leeward wave heights for 1.8 m, 14.0 sec wave at +1.2 m.

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218 Island Sustainability WL = +1.2 m

Hm0 = 3.0 m

T = 9.0 s

1.00

0.90

Leeward Wave Height, m

0.80

0.70

Seaward Wave Height = 0.61 m 0.60

0.50

0.40

0.37 0.30

0.32

0.30

0.29

0.27

0.25

0.25

0.27 0.24

0.20

0.10

0.00 1

2

3

4

Number of Rows Parallel

Figure 9:

Perpendicular

1-2-1

Leeward wave heights for 3.0 m, 9.0 sec wave at +1.2 m.

WL = +1.8 m

Hm0 = 1.1 m

T = 4.0 s

1.00

0.90

Leeward Wave Height, m

0.80

Seaward Wave Height = 0.73 m

0.70

0.60

0.59

0.59 0.55

0.55

0.53

0.50 0.50

0.49

0.51 0.48

0.40

0.30

0.20

0.10

0.00 1

2

3

4

Number of Rows Parallel

Figure 10:

Perpendicular

1-2-1

Leeward wave heights for 1.1 m, 4.0 sec wave at +1.8 m.

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Island Sustainability

WL = +1.8 m

Hm0 = 1.8 m

T = 14.0 s

1.00

0.90

Seaward Wave Height = 0.76 m

Leeward Wave Height, m

0.80

0.70 0.64 0.62

0.61

0.60

0.59

0.60

0.57

0.57

0.56

0.54

0.50

0.40

0.30

0.20

0.10

0.00 1

2

3

4

Number of Rows Parallel

Figure 11:

Perpendicular

1-2-1

Leeward wave heights for 1.8 m, 14.0 sec wave at +1.8 m.

WL = +1.8 m

Hm0 = 3.0 m

T = 9.0 s

1.00

0.90

Seaward Wave Height = 0.79 m

Leeward Wave Height, m

0.80

0.70

0.65 0.60

0.62

0.59

0.59

0.60

0.56

0.56

0.56

0.54

0.50

0.40

0.30

0.20

0.10

0.00 1

2

3

4

Number of Rows Parallel

Figure 12:

Perpendicular

1-2-1

Leeward wave heights for 3.0 m, 9.0 sec wave at +1.8 m.

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220 Island Sustainability Wave testing was completed in a 3-foot flume. As expected wave height reductions were achieved in the lee of the structure. For the 4-foot water depth, the wave heights were reduced by 40% to 77%. For the 6-foot water depth, the wave heights were reduced by 16.5% to 37%. The majority of the variance in the percent of wave height reductions is attributed to the wave period and the water depth over the structure crest. For the longer the wave periods, it was observed that the amount of wave height reduction was reduced. The number of rows of three packs had a minimal impact on the reduction of the wave heights. A full scale demo of this type of structure is presently being designed and planned for the island of Oahu in the State of Hawaii. The present schedule for the structure installation is early 2010 due to environmental documentation and permits.

Reference [1] Ward, D. L., Physical Model Study of an Experimental Breakwater for Sacred Falls, Hawaii, unpublished manuscript, US Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, MS, 2008.

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Designing of protective seaside wall composite elements for protection of roads along the seashore A. E. Ushakov, Y. G. Klenin, A. V. Pankov & S. N. Ozerov Science and Technology Testing Center, ApATeCh-Dubna, Russia

Abstract Preparation for the Sochi Olympic Games in 2014 requires new solutions in the building of seashore infrastructures. The building of a second track was organised along the seashore in order to expand and improve transport capacity. In order to protect the railway’s embankment from the wash-out it was necessary to build protective walls along the seashore. For this purpose it was proposed by ApATeCh to use a new structure of protective seaside wall using FRP. “ApATeCh” has developed a conceptually new structure of sub-grade support combined with a protective seaside structure. The traditional materials used for this type of structure, such as concrete and stone, have been fully replaced by composite materials. Within the wall’s designing process the complete cycle of calculation and experimental research has been executed for the confirmation of the wall’s bearing capacity. In order to determine the actual loads of different elements of the protective wall, the system of strain-measuring monitoring was integrated inside the wall. In order to determine the possible deformation of the composite panels and of the whole structure, the method of engineering and geodesic monitoring was developed. The application of composite materials for the protective seaside wall enabled a substantial decrease in the installation period and expenses whilst increasing the service life of the structure by threefour times. Keywords: emission sources, trace and heavy metal, anthropogenic activity, dust composition, elemental concentrations.

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222 Island Sustainability

1

Introduction

The large volumes of cargo that needed to be transported to Sochi for preparation for the Olympic Games in 2014 required a considerable increase of surface transport capacity. Landscape peculiarities of the Black Sea coast dictated that the problem could only be solved by building closely to the coast, which is why development of marine infrastructure is very important as well as sea coast protection from destructive wave and current impact, and improvement of the recreation properties of coasts. The existing concrete and natural stone structures are resource-intensive, and their service life is 20-30 years (fig. 1).

Figure 1:

Typical destruction of the wall in operation.

The main task during erection of the seawalls, designated for building additional railroads, was the minimizing of materials and of the labor force which are presently in short supply. The following structure was used as a solution: the main part of the wall was made of reinforced soil (crushed stone), forming the manufactured solid monolith of wrapped non-woven geo-textile layers (geo-gratings) with crushed stone filling, protected from the impact of the sea by a composite side wall (covering). The covering is fastened to the reinforced soil by several rows of anchors. We will call this side wall (covering) ‘composite wall’, or just ‘wall’. In fig. 2 you can see the external appearance of the wall.

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Island Sustainability

Figure 2:

2

223

External appearance of the protective seaside wall.

Technical requirements and load cases

Due to the innovative nature of the structure’s technical requirements to the side wall, load cases, necessary for the structure design, were absent. During operation the composite wall is exposed to: •

from the seaside – wave and wind loads;

•

from the side of reinforced soil – theoretically the load is absent, as the slope angle of the covering is smaller than the angle of the internal friction of soil, but we cannot totally exclude the presence of irregular distortions of the soil along the length of the wall during operation and the presence of installation strength in the anchor bars.

Calculation of loads from the wave impact is executed in accordance with the requirements of building norms and rules 2.06.04-82* “Loads and impacts on

Figure 3:

Diagram of wave pressure on the wall.

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224 Island Sustainability the hydro technical buildings (wave, ice and from ships)” (in Russian). A diagram of wave pressure is given in fig. 3. For the estimation of wave impact on the protective sea structures the parameters of maximum waves were used, received on the basis of monitoring in the zone of wall installation (seashore section on the track side Tuapse-Schepsi: cape Kodosh–river Ashe) within 70,000 hours. The maximum pressure at the designated gravel and sand beach for the storm, forming in the Tuapse district one time in 25 years (8 numbers), is pl = 6.2 kN/m2, and the wave height on the protective sea wall – η = 0.63 m. At the washout of the beach during the storm to the height of up to 1.23m, the affected parameters of load diagrams from the wind load are pl = 21.4 kN/m2 and η = 2.12 m. Maximum wind load for the wall installation zone is generally 400 N/m2. In an expert way, the following pressure diagrams of soil filling for different structure elements, has been fixed: •

for the wall elements which have minus angle in relation to vertical line (soil lays on the wall structure), maximal pressure 40 kN/m2;

•

for the wall elements which have positive angle in relation to vertical line, there is no pressure from the soil; In designing the composite wall, the following requirements were used:

•

The wall is designed for the building of the second railway track without traffic interruption. The wall structure should provide the reduction of installation time of up to 8-10 times in comparison with concrete structures, and increase of service life of up to 70-100 years.

•

The wall structure should be mobile in order to provide delivery of its elements to the assembly site. Structure of separate elements of the wall should enable them to be securely joined to each other after assembly and allow for the possibility of joints encapsulation of the panels. Fastening of the wall elements should prevent the possibility of unauthorized disassembly of the structure.

•

Structure of protective sea wall should secure integrity of geometrical parameters and strength properties after influence of atmospheric fallout, solar radiation, waves, sea water, gravel and sand during the whole service life.

•

Sea walls should be calculated to mechanical strength taking into consideration the above mentioned loads. The calculation is conducted excluding contact of wall with reinforcement soil. The bending of the wall on the section between attachment fitting of the anchors in accordance with the condition of providing the strength of the geotechnical grating should not exceed 6 mm.

•

It is necessary to cover the surface of the wall with a wear-resistant coating for prevention of erosion which arises due to the influence processes of sand and gravel.

•

The coating should be applied in facility conditions on the separate panels. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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•

For changing the wall direction, corner panels should be made and the temperature seams have to be generated for compensation of expansion joint.

•

The protective wall should be made with a maximum application of fiberglass. It is assumed to apply the separate elements made of corrosionresistant steels, supposing operation in water.

•

The material of the walls and structure should provide all functional requirements in the temperature range from –30º to +70ºC at operation in regions with moderate and tropical climate and also at direct contact with soil and seawater.

2.1 Engineering On the basis of the mentioned requirements a structure of the wall panels, anchors and attachment fittings has been designed. The panels, with integrated attachment fittings, are produced from fiberglass by vacuum infusion technology, anchors bars – from pultrusion fiberglass profiles of plan section. The panels are connected between each other by flange joints with the use of stainless steel bolts. These bolts and plates in anchors are the only metal elements of a wall. Geometric parameters of the wall elements are determined by taking into consideration different combinations of the following load cases: •

Wind load and weight during the assembly of the wall at its incomplete fastening;

•

Foot loading with the intensity 4.0 kN/m² on the top surface of a wall;

•

Local soil shrinkage;

•

Wave impact.

In accordance with the calculation results, it is shown that there is necessity in three levels of wall fastening on the altitude and the pitch of anchor to be determined. The production of panels is realized by the vacuum infusion technology, that is why for the optimization of location of the resin injection spots, calculation of impregnation speed has been carried out. 2.2 Testing For confirmation of the structure stiffness extensive experimental tests, which include definitions of strength parameters, deformability and crack resistance of used materials, has been carried out by taking into account climatic effects, trials of the main units and joints, and also the nature test of anchors pulled out of reinforced soil. In fig. 4 the destruction of the anchors’ attachment fittings under tension and compression are shown. The weakest element in fitting was a rod designated for connection of an anchor bar and panel fitting. For increase of the fitting’s carrying ability the diameter of the rod was increased and strength requirements to its material were also increased. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

226 Island Sustainability

Figure 4:

Destruction of the fitting under tension.

Checking of the carrying ability of fittings of anchor bars embedment at the protective sea side wall in reinforced soil was carried out on a natural sample that was assembled on the site of the wall installation from the materials designated for its manufacturing. In fig. 5(a) the procedure of the sample manufacturing is shown. The strength of the sample has three times exceeded the necessary value. Destruction has occurred not along the reinforced soil, but due to exhaustion of the carrying ability of anchors bars (fig. 5(b)).

(a) Figure 5:

(b)

Assembly of the sample for testing (a) and view of breaking of anchor bars (b).

2.3 Assembly The assembly of the protective wall section with a length about 80m was realized within a month at the end of 2008 (fig. 6). On request of the customer the external surface was additionally covered with fire-retarding composition, as the wall is situated in a recreation area and there is a possibility of fire development near it. The assembly of composite panels was realized by six people (fig. 7). The wall was assembled with the help of an erecting crane with low lifting ability for installation of wall panels, as the weight of the structure elements does not WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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S e a s id e W a ll B each

S p u r D ik e

Figure 6:

Figure 7:

Scheme of protective seaside wall.

Assembly of protective seaside wall.

exceed 1 ton. An automotive lift truck was also used for heaping and surfacing of the embankment and beach. A vibroroller was used for the compression of the material. All the works were made without traffic interruption and speed limitation of the trains.

3

Monitoring

Due to the novelty of the protective wall, lack of the specific data concerning its loading and for the behavior control of the testing part of the wall during its operation has been worked out, the monitoring program which consists of 2 levels: •

Visual-geodesic – for the control of changes in the wall position

•

Instrumental – for the examination of the anchors loading WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

228 Island Sustainability Within the first 6 months after putting the wall into operation, monitoring was realized monthly. For the realization of instrumental monitoring all the anchor bars of joint panels were implemented by strain sensors (fig. 8). The expansion joint was in the control zone. Before the sensors’ installation, a calibration at all anchors’ bars was made. The sensors are protected from mechanical effects, encapsulated and designated for the work within not less than 5 years.

Figure 8:

The scheme of the sensors gluing to the anchor bars.

After the 6 months testing the following conclusions have been made: •

All anchors of the top level work in compression (anchors thrust against the wall), the forces vary from –1 kN up to –14 kN, on average the absolute force value is approximate 6 kN. We can observe a tendency of the loading diminution for all anchor bars of the level and a tendency to the forces balancing between the anchors. The maximum change in the anchor bars forces – is 4.8 kN in a month.

•

The middle level anchors work in a multidirectional way from –14 kN up to 28 kN. We should take into consideration that not only readings from different anchors are multidirectional but also within the time. The maximum increment within the month is 7.5 kN.

•

The biggest part of the low level anchors (excluding 2 or 3 anchors) work in compression, the forces vary from –8 kN up to 4 kN. The maximum increment within the month is 1.7 kN.

•

The maximum bending stress for the top level is 40 MPa, for the middle level is 68 MPa and for the bottom level is 83 MPa. The stress differences in the measuring time intervals are not considerable and are in the limits of the device accuracy. That is why the appearance of bending stress is due to the assembly process and is of random nature. Taking into consideration the high level of bending stress (calculated stress of the bars material is 120 MPa) in future it is necessary to take into consideration its value at designing and to examine the technology of the wall assembly in order to decrease the bending stress.

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In general, it was observed that the maximum loading of axial force had a middle level of anchors, the loading of the top level is a little bit less and the lowest loading had the bottom level of anchor flange. It contradicts the main calculated positions – the loading of the level is inversely related to the height of the flange height. Loading by the bending stress corresponds to the calculated positions, but probably its level is of random nature as, for example, for the bottom level in one anchor bar the bending stresses were 83 MPa, and in others did not exceed 36 MPa. The differences between calculations and experiments are related to the following: in calculations it was considered beach destruction before the wall for the depth about 1,5 meters, but at the moment of operation the beach is at the projected level. In fig. 9 the comparison of the anchors loading in operation and the bearing capacity of the anchors is shown, which was estimated and which we got with the help of experiments. You can see in the diagram that the experimental values exceed the calculated values at designing, but they are considerably lower than the real stiffness of the anchors. Due to this and to small loading differences of the anchors of different levels, in future during designing it is necessary to put the calculated stiffness not less than 30 kN for all three levels of anchoring.

. Figure 9:

4

Diagram of the anchors bearing capacity and of measuring results in operation.

Conclusion

The complete cycle of works regarding the creation of a new structure of seaside wall with the application of composite materials, including the processes of designing, calculation and experimental researches, technology development, production, installation of a trial section and monitoring in operation has been executed. In accordance with the monitoring results the conditions of the wall loading has been precise. In general the experience of composite materials application for the protective seaside wall is quite successful and application of the structure allows: •

to substantially reduce the assembly time and labor intensity;

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230 Island Sustainability •

to eliminate from the works concrete and heavy-weight construction machinery;

•

to decrease requirements to the materials from which the reinforced soil is formed;

•

to make the assembly in almost any temperature conditions;

•

to ameliorate the appearance of the structure.

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Application of composite materials for the protection of sea shores and engineering structures against the impact of waves E. S. Ashpiz1, A. O. Egorov1 & A. E. Ushakov2 1 2

Moscow State University of Railway Engineering, Russia ApATeСh – Company Applied Advanced Technologies, Russia

Abstract The impact of sea waves creates considerable problems for the operation of the Tuapse–Adler railway which runs along the Russian Black Sea coast. The traditional means of protecting the railway against the impact of waves include pebble beaches, concrete seawalls, piers and shaped blocks. The disadvantages of today’s concrete seawalls are high costs and long construction periods. To address these disadvantages a high-tech structure was developed made of composite materials which is lighter and more durable compared with traditional means. Keywords: coastal erosion, calculation, railway embankment, seawalls, geogrid.

1

Introduction

Protecting sea shores against destruction by sea waves is still an issue of topical importance for many countries. In Russia, the most important area related to this issue is the Black Sea coast. The adverse effect of the sea creates problems for the Tuapse–Adler railway which stretches about 90 kilometers along the coast line [1], is subject to abrasion and has alongshore flows of pebble sediment [2]. In order to protect the railway, numerous engineering structures were erected, many of which have become defective over the years and need to be repaired. Moreover, at present a second rail track is under construction and its major part runs along the sea which creates the need to build new protective structures. It must be noted that the safety of railway traffic on this line strongly depends on WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line) doi:10.2495/ISLANDS100201

232 Island Sustainability natural factors, especially storms which in this region may reach a level of 8 points. Thus, reliable operation of coast protection structures will significantly reduce the risks that the city of Sochi, one of the country’s major resorts and the capital of the 2014 Winter Olympic Games, will be cut off in terms of transportation.

2

The existing system of coast protection structures

The existing system of coast protection structures for this line includes pebble beaches, concrete seawalls, piers (made of stone or concrete blocks) as well as shaped blocks. An examination [3, 4] of the condition of the bank protection constructions showed that many of the systems elements need to be overhauled and reinforced, fig 1.

Figure 1:

The condition of the coast protection structures at the Tuapse– Adler line. Dents in the bottom part of a seawall.

The existing concrete seawalls are one of the basic elements and they stretch along the railway line for about 70 kilometers. Up to 10% of these walls are in an unsatisfactory condition. At some points the bank protection constructions are completely destroyed, fig.2. Investigation into the reasons for the collapse of the seawalls showed [5] that due to the underwashing of the concrete wall’s foundation, individual concrete blocks shrank and some of them collapsed toward the sea. If there is sediment, which moves along the wall and no piers, the traditional concrete seawalls require additional protection with lining. Without lining, the sediment may cut a slot in the wall (fig. 3) throughout its width, normally 35-40 cm high and as a result the soil under the wall gets washed out and the wall topples toward the shore [6]. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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Figure 2:

233

Seawall collapsed toward the sea. Yakornaya Schel Station.

Figure 3:

Reach-through slots in a concrete seawall.

Another disadvantage of replacing the existing concrete seawalls with similar structures is their high costs and long construction periods.

3

Creating a new seawall structure

In order to eliminate the drawbacks of the concrete seawalls, in 2008 Moscow State University of Railway Engineering and ApATeСh company developed a new design of a seawall made of composite materials which consists of 2 basic elements – a reinforced body of soil and fiberglass plastic panels joined together with the help of anchors. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

234 Island Sustainability

Figure 4:

The structure of a seawall made of composite materials.

The structure was divided into two parts for accommodation of a combination of loads. The reinforced body of soil (on the side of the shore) accommodates the load from the railway vehicles and the weight of the soil and the fiberglass panel (on the side of the sea) accommodates the load from the sea waves and pebble suspension impact, protecting the reinforced body from being washed out. 3.1 Fiberglass panels The fiberglass panels are installed on a beach with the embedding below sea level and have an inverted, wave resistant shape on the front side and flange joints on the back side, and the top parts of the panels bent toward the body of water are filled with porous material and encased in fiberglass covers fig. 5. Apart from that, in order to reduce sand and pebble erosion, the front surface of the seawall panels is covered with erosion-preventive coating. There are drain

Figure 5:

Fiberglass panels. The left-hand part shows installation of the fiberglass panels and the right-hand part shows the flange joints.

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holes in the bottom part of the fiberglass panels for derivation of ground water. To reduce the pressure of the body on the wall, the fiberglass covers are bent toward the shore at an angle, which is more than the fill soil internal friction angle. Thanks to the physical properties of fiberglass panels their weight has been reduced and, consequently, the number of equipment for their delivery and installation has been decreased. For example, the weight of one running meter of a panel 4.0 meters high is 269 kg, whereas the weight of a similar lightweight design concrete seawall is ≈8000 kg. 3.2 Reinforced body of soil In order to ensure secure attachment of the fiberglass panels to the reinforced body of soil some calculations were performed to test their strength against the dynamic load of waves’ impact. As a result, the optimal interval at which the anchors connecting the wall with the soil at two levels 0.7 m and 1.6 m from the bottom of the wall was established. Reliability of the panels depends on the appropriate interaction of the panels with the reinforced body of soil which accommodates not only the load from the panels but also the loads transferred from railway vehicles and the embankment prepared for the second track The reinforced body of soil is a backfilling reinforced by geogrids, fig.6. According to the technological requirement, the filling material for the body is pebble with a fraction of 20-40 mm.

Figure 6:

The layout of the Tensar SS-30 geogrid on the left, filling and grading of pebble with a fraction of 20-40 mm on the right.

The reinforced body of soil was designed with consideration of the results obtained by Tensar International Limited using Winwall 8.101 software. The calculation and design of the basic parameters of backfilling included the conditions of external and internal destruction of the body taking 8-point seismic activity into account according to the MSK-64 scale. Calculations were made for the following types of destruction: WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

236 Island Sustainability – external destruction: • full collapse (circle slide of the structure and part of the escarpment with rotation); • loss of foundation bearing resistance; • shear of the construction relative to the soil (in-plane shear of the structure at the foundation); • toppling of the structure; – internal destruction: • •

loss of reinforcement tensile strength; pulling reinforcement.

The following initial data was used for calculations: – – –

loading from a railway vehicle – 120 kPa and from the weight of the upper construction – 17 kPa; operating temperature 10оС; designed tensile strength of geogrids after 120 years of service life.

The following were approved for backfilling reinforcement on the basis of calculations: –

for the foundation below the composite panel - Tensar RE 80 uniaxial geogrid with an embedding length up to the existing wall and vertical interval of 0.5 m;

–

to ensure the local stability of pebble in the areas where the composite panel is attached to it as secondary reinforcement between the basic carcass use the Tensar SS 30 one-meter long biaxial geogrid. In the composite panel anchorage areas the length of the Tensar SS 30 geogrid shall be 2 meters.

The pebble backfilling shall be made layer by layer between the levels of the reinforcing geogrid. The primary filling layer between the Tensar 80RE geogrids shall be 50 cm thick. The technology of building seawalls made of composite materials allows construction to be carried out in cramped spaces and with very short deadlines, which is, without any doubt, an important advantage compared with the traditional structures.

4

Monitoring the composite material seawalls

In 2008, an experimental seawall was designed and built at one of the Tuapse– Adler second track construction sites, fig. 7. For the purposes of monitoring the condition of the composite material seawall, tensometric sensors were installed into the fiberglass panels, and ApATeСh employees read and analyzed their data a few times a month [7]. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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Figure 7:

5

237

General overview of a composite material seawall.

The main advantages of seawalls made of composite materials

Thanks to modern technologies and materials, a high-tech seawall was created. Its basic elements are made of fiberglass plastic and polymers which are not affected by sea corrosion and decay.

6

Conclusions

1) A principally new design of sea wall made from a reinforced soil backing which absorbs stress from railway vehicles and the weight of the ground, and fibreglass panels which absorb stress from sea waves was developed. 2) The sea wall design is high-tech and can be constructed without the use of heavy construction equipment. This reduces the construction period by approximately 5 times. 3) The operational life of the sea wall is significantly increased thanks to the use of an erosion-preventative covering on the front part of the fibreglass panel. 4) In 2008, an experimental sea wall was designed and built at one of the construction sites for the second track of the Tuapse–Adler Line which is being constructed for the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi. It is currently being monitored.

References [1] A.I. Panchenko, Shore-Protecting, Landslide-Protecting and RockfallProtecting Actions at the Site Tuapse-Adler of the North-Caucasus Railway. Proc. of the 2nd Int. Conf. on Modern Issues of Design, Construction and Operation of Subgrade and Man-Made Structures. Elsevier: Moscow, pp.170-173, 2005

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

238 Island Sustainability [2] On-Site Research and Modeling of the Coastal Processes of the Black Sea Shore within the Krasnodar Territory of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. Research Institute of Road Construction (ЦНИИС), Final Report GS-XI-85, book 2, pp. 12, 1985. [3] V.V. Rudomsky. Personal communication, 25 February 2009, Head of railway department, Sochi, Russia. [4] Examination of Defective Wave Resisting Structures at the site 1,913 km. PK1+00–1,951 km PK 8+00 of the Tuapse-Adler line of the North-Caucasus Railway. Moscow State University of Railway Engineering (MIIT), Report, book 2, pp. 6-30, 2009. [5] Seawall, www.coastalwiki.org/coastalwiki/seawalls [6] T.G. Smirnova, U.P. Pravdivets, G.N. Smirnov, Shore-Protecting Structures: Мoscow, pp.132-133, 2002. [7] ApATeСh, http://www.apatech.ru/seawall.html

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A new approach to estimate armourstone abrasion: modified slake durability test Ö. Acır & R. Kılıç Ankara University, Department of Geological Engineering, Turkey

Abstract Since armourstones are located in the outer shelter layer of breakwaters which absorb the first impact of hydraulic wave energy, they are prone to the highest degree of abrasion. Sea and atmospheric conditions damage the armourstone integrity so they lose their engineering functions in time. Existing classification systems to investigate the potential armourstone durability are performed on the intact rocks obtained from stone quarries; hence they do not explain the abrasion mechanism of armourstones actually used in the breakwater. For this reason, the standard slake durability test method was modified based on physical modelling techniques so that armourstone abrasion was simulated in realistic conditions. Eastern Black sea water and basaltic armourstones of the Giresun port were used in model tests. The model tests reveal that abrasion is inversely proportional to the mass and dimension of the armourstone. Keywords: Eastern Black sea, armourstone, modelling, modified slake durability.

1

Introduction

The term “modelling” is simply used for describing the investigation of events and processes under a certain scale. Meanwhile, modelling in engineering geology is generally referred to the studies performed to investigate either strong ground motion (Krawnikler [15], Harris and Sabnis [9]) or mechanical behaviour of geomaterials (Wood [20]). Physical models, re-sized prototypes of engineering structures scaled by Froude’s Law, are the basic elements of modelling approach (Hughes [11]). Physical models are widely used to simulate the realistic effects of coastal processes on the structure to perform damage analysis in a hydraulic laboratory WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line) doi:10.2495/ISLANDS100211

240 Island Sustainability environment (Hudson [10] and Van der Meer [21]), such as storms, ebbs and tides, and tsunamis (Yüksel et al. [22]). On the other hand, there exist various case studies about damaged coastal structures due to the absence or insufficient modelling analysis during the design period (Kapdaşlı [13]). Current modelling applications in coastal engineering merely deal with the overall structural damage, not with the single element, like armourstones (Melby [17]). Standard rock mechanic tests are used to estimate the potential durability of armourstones (CIRIA/CUR [2]) such as Los Angeles abrasion, methylene blue, magnesium sulphate soundness, wet-dry loss and free-thaw loss etc. However, they do not represent the actual degradation degree of rocks used in marine environments, since the test specimen is never reacted with sea water in any of those tests. Inservice durability of armourstones is a still matter of discussion in geological and coastal engineering research (Latham et al. [16]).

2

Slake durability test

The slake durability test (Gamble [6], Franklin and Chandra [5] and ISRM [12]) was originally developed to determine the durability of weak rocks such as shale and mudstones. The test is performed in a steel drum which is submerged below 20 mm of water with rock samples, total 450 – 550 g. The drum is rotated for 10 minutes and dried for 12 hours in the oven, where the rocks are degraded by hitting each other or the inner wall of the steel drum (Figure 1). The percent ratio of dry weight of the samples after second rotation to the original weight is known as the “Slake Durability Index, SDI”. This test was developed in several

Figure 1:

Slake durability test apparatus.

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ways by various researches as increasing the rotation period (Ulusay et al. [19] and Gökçeoğlu et al. [7]), using sea water (Dhakal et al. [4]), water with different pH degrees (Gupta and Ahmed [8]) or with specimens in various shapes (Kolay and Kayabalı [14]). None of these studies were performed to investigate armourstone durability specifically, although the slake durability test is designed to measure the rock abrasion in water.

3

Modified slake durability test

In rubblemound breakwaters, armourstones are selected from several weight classes, such as 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 tons (CERC [3]). Those stones are exposed to coastal processes during their entire service life where sea water is the major abrasive agent. In coastal engineering models, port and breakwater structures are re-sized in a selected scale and exposed to 1000 and 5000 numbers of wave attacks accordingly, which are assumed to be the worst case scenarios in terms of structural damage (Thompson and Shutler [18], CERC [3], Van der Meer [21]). The modified slake durability test is a developed form of the standard test method, based on above physical modelling techniques to estimate the abrasion degree of armourstones. During the modified test, 2 types of armourstones were used from the Giresun port’s main breakwater (produced from “Kalearkası” and “Kovanlık” basalt quarries, Figure 2), representing 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 tons each

Figure 2:

General view of the Giresun port’s main breakwater and location of armourstones produced from Kovanlık and Kalearkası stone quarries.

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242 Island Sustainability (Table 1). These materials were selected for model tests since they are good examples of armourstone abrasion along the Black Sea coastline (Acır and Kılıç [1]). Samples were fixed in polymer nets having 25 mm spacing, to prevent either hitting each other or being smashed by the inner walls of the drum (Figure 3) and the only contact was with water. The duration of the test was also set up as Table 1:

Physical model weights of the armourstones by 1/30 scale, which were used in the modified slake durability test.

Armourstone weight (tons) 2 4 6 8 10

Figure 3:

Prototype physical models (g) Kalearkası samples Kovanlık samples 71,11 72,81 155,20 144,06 222,43 218,16 286,42 296,57 361,14 349,95

Modified slake durability test apparatus: Physical model is fixed by fishing line along the center of the drum and covered by a 25 mm hollowed polymer net.

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Figure 4:

243

Relationship between the Modified Slake Durability Index (SDImod) versus armourstone weight (W) for Kovanlık (a) and Kalearkası (b) armourstones.

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244 Island Sustainability 50 minutes (for 1000 ea waves) and 250 minutes (for 5000 ea waves) since standard rotation speed of the slake durability test is 20 rev/min. In the modified slake durability test, it is assumed that each 360º rotation of the drums create 1 ea sea wave which hits the armourstone’s face. After each test, samples were dried in an oven at 105±5ºC during 24 hours and the dry weight of the samples after the second rotation to the original weight was calculated, which is called the “Modified Slake Durability Index, SDImod”. The salt concentration of sea water taken from the offshore side of Giresun port is 0.18 % and the pH is 8,4. Accordingly, the pH of the normal water used in standard tests is 7,35. The modified slake durability test was performed with both sea and normal water to compare the armourstone reaction with water type and time.

4

Test results

Tests were conducted with 2 armourstone sources (Kalearkası and Kovanlık quarry basalts) and 5 sets of samples, 2 types of water (normal and sea water), 5 representing armourstone classes (2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 tons) and 2 time periods (50 and 250 minutes). Therefore 200 ea test results were derived from the model experiments, which are shown in Figure 5 and Table 2.

Figure 5:

Prototoype armourstone models used in the experiments prepared by 1/30 scale.

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Table 2:

Equations derived from the experimental results. Kalearkası Armourstones Equation

Model experiments Sea water, 5000 cycle Normal water, 5000 cycle Sea water, 1000 cycle Normal water, 1000 cycle

5

245

R2

Kovanlık Armourstones Equation

R2

SDImod = 97,386e0,0014W

0,95 SDImod = 99,054e0,0006W

0,91

SDImod= 97,818e0,0011W

0,98 SDImod = 99,242e0,0005W

0,95

SDImod= 98,194e0,0008W

0,99 SDImod = 99,443e0,0003W

0,99

SDImod = 98,465e0,0006W

0,99 SDImod = 99,544e0,0002W

0,99

Conclusions

Test results reveal that 

In both Kalearkası and Kovanlık armourstones, the highest abrasion occurs at 5000 rotation with sea water whereas the lowest abrasion occurs at 1000 rotation with normal water. This result indicates that sea water has a relatively higher effect on degradation of rocks with regards to the salinity and pH degree through time.



Abrasion mechanism is inversely proportional to the armourstone weight. In other words, abrasion increases where the mass of armourstone decreases, vice versa. This result can be explained by the specific area of the rocks, which is the ratio of surface area to the mass. As the mass increases, specific area and the exposed area of rocks, which is prone to the sea water, decreases, relatively. Therefore, abrasion occurs at most in smaller masses.



This test is developed by using basaltic rocks used in the same breakwater, therefore results can not be generalised. However, the methodology of this model is suitable to test various case studies with armourstones from different lithology and water chemistry from different seas.

References [1]

[2]

Acır, Ö. and Kılıç R., 2008, Investigation of the Quality and Durability of Armourstones Used in Giresun Port’s Main Breakwater, XIIth Regional Rock Mechanics Symposium, İzmir, Turkey CIRIA/CUR 1991. “Manual on the use of rock in coastal and shoreline engineering” CIRIA special publication 83, CUR report 154, 607 pp. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

246 Island Sustainability [3] [4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9] [10]

[11] [12]

[13] [14]

[15]

[16] [17] [18] [19]

CERC (Coastal Engineering Research Center) 1977, Shore Protection Manual, US Army Coastal Engineers Research Center, Fort Belvoir, VA. Dhakal G, Kodama J; Yoneda T, Neaupane M and Goto T, 2004, “Durability Characteristics of Some Assorted Rocks” Journal of Cold Regions Engineering, Vol. 18, No. 3, 110-122 Franklin, J. A. and Chandra R., 1972, "The slake-durability test" International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Science & Geomechanics Abstracts, Volume 9, Issue 3, May 1972, pp 325-328 Gamble, J.C, 1971, “Durability-plasticity Classification of Shales and Other Argillaceous Rocks”, PhD Thesis, University of Illinois (unpublished) Gökçeoğlu, C., Ulusay, R., and Sönmez, H.,2000, “Factors affecting the durability of selected weak and clay-bearing rocks from Turkey with particular emphasis on the influence of the number of drying and wetting cycles” Engineering Geology, 57 Gupta V. and Ahmed I., 2007 "The effect of pH of water and mineralogical properties on the slake durability (degradability) of different rocks from the Lesser Himalaya, India" Engineering Geology, Volume 95, Issues 3-4, 7, pp 79-87 Harris, H.G., Sabnis, G.M., 1999, Structural modeling and experimental techniques (2nd Edition), CRC Press, Boca Raton. Hudson, R.Y., 1959, “Laboratory Investigation of Rubble Mound Breakwaters” Journal of Waterway and Harbor Division ASCE, 85, 93121 Hughes, S.A, 1993, “Physical Models and Laboratory Techniques in Coastal Engineering” World Scientific, Volume 7 ISRM (International Society for Rock Mechanics), 1981, “Rock Characterization, Testing and Monitoring: ISRM Suggested Methods”, E.T. Brown (ed), Pergamon Pres, 211 p. Kapdaşlı D., 1992, “Kıyı Mühendisliği” İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi Rektörlüğü, Yayın No:1504, s277 (In Turkish) Kolay, E. and Kayabalı. K., 2006, Investigation of the effect of aggregate shape and surface roughness on the slake durability index using the fractal dimension approach. Engineering Geology, (86) 4, 271-284 Krawnikler, H., 1979, Possibilities and limitations of scale-model testing in earthquake engineering. Proc. 2nd US National Conf. on Earthquakes Engineering, Stanford University 283-292. Latham, J.P, Lienhart, D., Dupray S, 2006, “Rock quality, durability and service life prediction of armourstone”, Engineering Geology 87, 122–140 Melby J., 1999, Damage progression on rubble mound breakwaters, Technical report CHL-99-17, US Army Corps of Engineers Thompson, D.M., and Shutler R.M., 1976, Design of rip rap slope protection against wind waves, Report No: 61, CIRIA, London Ulusay, R, Arıkan F., Yoleri, M.F., and Çağlan, D., 1995, Engineering geological characterization of coal mine waste material and evaluation in

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[20] [21] [22]

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the context of back-analysis of spoil pile instabilities in a strip mine, SW Turkey, Engineering Geology, 40, 77-101 Wood. D, 2006, Geotechnical Modeling, ISBN: 0419237305, 488 p Van der Meer, 1988, Rock slopes and gravel beaches under wave attack, Delft Hydraulics Communication No:396, The Netherlands. Yüksel Y., Çecik E., Çelikoğlu Y., 1998, Kıyı ve Liman Mühendisliği, TMOBB İnşat Mühendisleri Odası Ankara Şubesi yayınları, Ankara, s 401 (In Turkish)

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Section 5 Transport issues

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Travelling towards and from minor islands through non-conventional air transport: demand and cost analysis L. La Franca, M. Catalano, F. Castelluccio & F. Montano Department of Transportation Engineering, Palermo University, Italy

Abstract This research addresses the role of innovative forms of passenger air transport in favouring the mobility of tourists visiting minor islands. In particular, we studied the feasibility of scheduled transport services using a helicopter and a seaplane for rapidly connecting Sicily in the south of Italy to the near and very attractive Eolie Islands. In order to estimate the potential service demand, we allowed for the number of tourists arriving in the Eolie Archipelago during the period 1999-2008. In detail, we considered only the market of visitors with a high willingness-to-pay for time savings (individuals choosing superior hotels) coming from origins at least 300 km away from the Eolie Islands. Furthermore, we excluded a quota of travellers not disposed to flying, determined on the basis of a previous study about air transport demand. We also considered as potential users of the proposed transport services a percentage of the Eolie Isles’ population that was set according to a recent study about the use of air transport by Sicilian residents. The resulting observations were employed to estimate forecasts through an ARIMA model. After a technical analysis to identify the types of helicopter and seaplane suited to implementing regular transport services, we performed a cost analysis concerning the proposed non-conventional air transport services (taking into account fixed, variable, trading and financial costs). In particular, based on the ARIMA model demand forecasts, we determined the service supply (daily frequency and number of aircrafts) in the different cases and evaluated the related total cost per passenger. At the final step, we compared the helicopter and seaplane options with the various existing transport alternatives that can be used to get to the Eolie Islands WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line) doi:10.2495/ISLANDS100221

252 Island Sustainability from the major regional airport, according to generalized transport cost (calculated by adding the value of transit time, external costs and service fare). We found out that according to the generalized cost criterion, the helicopter is the best solution to connect the main Sicilian airport to the Eolie Isles. Keywords: helicopter transport, seaplane transport, tourist trips, minor islands, scheduled transport service.

1

Introduction

This paper describes a research to study the role of innovative forms of passenger air transport in favouring mobility of tourists visiting minor islands. In particular, our work focuses on the Sicilian region, in the south of Italy: our aim is to investigate the feasibility of regular transport services for connecting Sicily to the near and very attractive Eolie Islands by helicopter and seaplane. At present, most tourists going to one of the Eolie Islands have to reach Sicily by air and then use a combination of various modes of transport to get to their final destination. As an alternative, the two major regional airports of Catania and Palermo provide non-conventional air transport services on demand. In detail, some private companies (Icarus and Air Panarea), which obtained the certification for passenger transport by the National Civil Aviation Agency (ENAC), supply on demand helicopter transport services connecting the airport of Catania, on the eastern side of Sicily, to the Eolie Islands. Moreover, other private companies (AquaAirlines and Ermes) also provided with the certification by ENAC, operate transport services by charter seaplanes to connect the airport of Palermo, in the north of Sicily, to the Eolie Islands. The air transport services illustrated above are characterized by low travel times but also by high operational costs and consequently fares. On one hand, as regards the helicopter-based transport, the employed types of aircraft employed can transfer only 4 passengers per trip, with the consequence of a high transport cost per user. On the other hand, though a seaplane can carry even 14 passengers per trip, the possibility of travelling by a seaplane depends upon the conditions of the sea which could make landing operations risky. Considering the above, we investigated the feasibility of innovative nonconventional air transport line services as an alternative to the current transport system linking Sicily to the Eolie Islands. In particular, we compared the existing combinations of transport modes for reaching the Eolie Isles from the airport of Catania with the following options: regular transport services based on helicopters with high capacity (10-15 seats) and scheduled services based on seaplanes. This paper in section 2 presents statistical data on tourism at the Eolie Islands followed by a description in section 3 of the method used to estimate the travel demand for the proposed non-conventional air transport services; section 4 deals with the technical characteristics of the types of helicopter and seaplane selected for the analysis; section 5 provides a cost analysis on the proposed nonconventional air transport services; section 6 illustrates the estimation of the generalized transport cost to reach the Eolie Islands from the airport of Catania, WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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in relation to the existing and proposed modes of transport; finally in section 7 conclusions are drawn.

2 Tourist demand and supply in the Eolie Islands The Eolie Archipelago is in the north-east of Sicily. It is composed of seven volcanic islands: Lipari, Salina, Vulcano, Alicudi, Filicudi, Stromboli and Panarea. Each of these has a different type of coastline; there are many beaches, caves and small islands. Most of the population live within the municipality of Lipari, which has 10,544 inhabitants. According to data from the Department for Transport and Tourism of the Sicilian Region, the yearly flow of tourists arriving at the Eolie archipelago is about 9% of total tourist arrivals in the province of Messina and 2% of tourists visiting Sicily. In 2008 arrivals of tourists in the province of Messina were 1,013,549 versus 4,349,201 tourists visiting Sicily. Moreover the supply of accommodations at the Eolie archipelago consisted of 5,105 beds. About 67% of these were in hotels and the remaining 33% were in other facilities. The ratio of available beds in all accommodation facilities to the population is 38.95, which reveals the high degree of development of the Eolie Islands as tourist destination. Data from the Local Agency for the Development of Tourism (2008) reveal that arrivals of visitors in the Eolie Archipelago increased from 90,000 to 116,000 in the period 1999-2008 (fig. 1). Arrivals showed a 4.3% decrease in 2008 with respect to the previous year, which means about 5,000 units less (Figs. 1 and 2). According to data from the Local Agency for the Development of Tourism (2008), presences of visitors in the Eolie Archipelago increased from 390,000 to 470,000 in the period 1999-2008 (Fig. 3). Presences showed a 3.4% decrease in 2008 with respect to the previous year, which means about 16,000 presences less (Figs. 3 and 4). Moreover, the seasonal pattern characterizing the time series of tourist flows changes depending on the journey origin (Fig. 5). So, in the case of foreign Italians

Foreigners

Total

120000 100000 80000 60000 40000 20000 0 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Figure 1:

Time series of tourist arrivals in the Eolie Islands (1999-2008).

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254 Island Sustainability Italians 2000

2001

2002

2003

Foreigners 2004

Total

2005

2006

2007

2008

15 10 5 0 -5 -10

Figure 2:

Percent variation of tourist annual arrivals with respect to the previous year (2000-2008). Italians

Foreigners

Total

500000 450000 400000 350000 300000 250000 200000 150000 100000 50000 0 1999

Figure 3:

2000

2001

2002

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

Time series of tourist presences in the Eolie Islands (1999-2008). Italians

2000

2003

2001

2002

2003

Foreigners 2004

Total

2005

2006

2007

2008

20 15 10 5 0 -5 -10 -15

Figure 4:

Percentage variation of tourist annual presence with respect to the previous year (2000-2008).

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visitors, both arrivals and presences are almost uniformly distributed in the April-October period. On the contrary, in the case of Italian tourists, flows fluctuate a lot over the year with a peak in the month of August. In particular, the seasonal pattern characterizing the time series of tourist flows changes depending on the journey origin (Fig. 5). So, in the case of foreign visitors, both arrivals and presences are almost uniformly distributed in the April-October period. On the contrary, in the case of Italian tourists, flows fluctuate a lot over the year with a peak in the month of August. Data regarding the selected category of accommodation show that about 85% of Italians stay in hotels and that about 38% of these prefer 3 and 4-star hotels. Furthermore, about 88% of foreigners prefer hotels and approximately 42% of these stay in 3 and 4-star hotels. Data concerning arrivals and presences of Italians and foreigners in the Eolie Archipelago demonstrate that the most visited island is Lipari, followed by Volcano, Stromboli and Panarea. The small islands of Alicudi and Filicudi attract a very low amount of tourists. 25.000 20.000 15.000

Italians Foreigners

10.000 5.000 0 Jan

Feb

Mar

Figure 5:

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Seasonal pattern of tourist arrivals in 2008.

140.000 120.000 100.000 80.000

Italians Foreigners

60.000 40.000 20.000 0 Jan

Feb

Mar

Figure 6:

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Seasonal pattern of tourist presence in 2008.

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256 Island Sustainability

3 Forecasting the travel demand for non-conventional air transport The estimation of the potential travel demand for helicopter and seaplane transport services linking Sicily to the Eolie Islands was based on the time series of tourist arrivals (Italians and foreigners) in the period 1999-2008. In particular, we didn’t consider arrivals of Italian tourists from Calabria, Campania and Basilicata, since these regions are connected with the Eolie Islands by competitive maritime transport services. So, to get to one of the Eolie Islands, people coming from there don’t have to reach Sicily by air and then use a combination of various modes of transport. Furthermore, we considered only visitors with a high willingness-to-pay for time savings (individuals choosing 3 and 4 star hotels) and we excluded a quota (20%) of tourists not disposed to flying, determined on the basis of a previous study about air transport demand (Dean and Whitaker, [2]). We also considered as potential users of the proposed transport services a percentage of the Eolie Isles’ population that was set according to data on the use of air transport by the Sicilian inhabitants (source: National Institute of Statistics and National Association of Airports). As in the case of other Sicilian minor islands, the use of air transport by the Eolie Islands’ inhabitants could be favoured by a public financial support. The resulting observations were employed to estimate an ARIMA model. In detail, we employed a monthly time series of tourist arrivals (Figure 7) that required first order non seasonal (lag = 1) differencing to achieve stationary in mean, first order seasonal (lag = 12) differencing to consider its seasonal pattern and natural log transformation to stabilize the amplitude of the seasonal changes.

9000 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000

Figure 7:

January 2008

January 2007

January 2006

January 2005

January 2004

January 2003

January 2002

January 2001

January 2000

January 1999

0

The monthly time series of tourist arrivals in the Eolie Islands for the 1999-2008 period.

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Based on the analysis of time series’ correlograms of autocorrelation and a great deal of experimentation with alternative models, we estimated an ARIMA model (Box and Jenkins, [1]) with one regular moving average parameter and one seasonal moving average parameter and these parameters were computed for the series after it was differenced once with lag 1, and once seasonally differenced. As can be observed in Table 1, the estimation of this ARIMA model led to highly statistically significant parameters; moreover, since these parameters are less than one, the model invertibility requirement is met. To evaluate the goodness of fit, we can check how the two-parameter ARIMA predicts the observed cases and how its forecasts extend the observed series: Figure 8 shows that the estimated ARIMA model fits the time series very well and the observed values are within the confidence band of predicted values. Figure 9 displays the original series, forecasts for two full seasonal cycles following the last observed value and the related confidence limits. Besides providing accurate forecasts, a reliable model should generate statistically independent and normally distributed residuals (difference between observations and predictions) that contain only noise and no systematic component (no autocorrelation), which means that the model is capable of “capturing” the underlying process producing the time series. Figure 10 reveals that the normal distribution fits the actual distribution of residuals well enough. Table 1: Parameter q(1)a Qs(1)b a b

0.632 0.769

Estimates of ARIMA parameters.

Asymptotic standard error 0.072 0.064

Asymptotic t( 105)

Pvalue

8.745 11.962

0.000 0.000

Confidence Limit Lower Upper 95% 95% 0.489 0.775 0.641 0.896

regular moving average parameter. seasonal moving average parameter.

Observed

Figure 8:

Forecast

January 2009

January 2008

January 2007

January 2006

January 2005

January 2004

January 2003

January 2002

January 2001

January 2000

January 1999

14000 13000 12000 11000 10000 9000 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0

Confidence band (95%)

Comparison of ARIMA forecasts with observations.

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258 Island Sustainability 14000 13000 12000 11000 10000 9000 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0

January 1999 January 2001 January 2003 January 2005 January 2007 January 2009 January 2011 January 2000 January 2002 January 2004 January 2006 January 2008 January 2010 Observed

Figure 9:

Forecast

Conf idence band (95%)

ARIMA forecasts for two full seasonal cycles.

Expected Normal

30

Number of observations

25

20

15

10

5

0 -0,9 -0,8 -0,7 -0,6 -0,5 -0,4 -0,3 -0,2 -0,1

Figure 10:

Lag 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

0,1

0,2

0,3

0,4

0,5

0,6

0,7

0,8

0,9

1,0

1,1

The actual distribution of residuals against the normal distribution.

Corr. S.E. -.055 .0953 -.095 .0949 +.162 .0944 -.046 .0940 -.064 .0935 -.060 .0931 -.012 .0926 -.053 .0921 +.025 .0917 +.143 .0912 +.131 .0907 -.141 .0903 +.063 .0898 +.079 .0893 -.115 .0888 +.052 .0883 +.021 .0878 -.018 .0874 +.049 .0869 +.068 .0864 +.001 .0859 -.022 .0854 -.012 .0849 +.035 .0844 -.004 .0838 0 -1,0

Figure 11:

0,0

-0,5

0,0

0,5

1,0

Conf idence band (95%)

Correlogram graph displaying the autocorrelation function for the residuals.

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Corr. S.E. -.055 .0967 -.099 .0967 +.153 .0967 -.040 .0967 -.039 .0967 -.101 .0967 -.016 .0967 -.058 .0967 +.041 .0967 +.137 .0967 +.170 .0967 -.135 .0967 +.025 .0967 +.017 .0967 -.032 .0967 +.067 .0967 +.032 .0967 +.025 .0967 +.040 .0967 +.030 .0967 -.016 .0967 -.006 .0967 -.009 .0967 +.019 .0967 +.027 .0967 0 -1,0

Figure 12:

-0,5

0,0

0,5

1,0

259

Conf idence band (95%)

Correlogram graph displaying the partial autocorrelation function for the residuals.

To test whether the residuals are independent of each other, we can analyse their autocorrelation functions plotted in Figures 11 and 12. All the values of autocorrelation and partial autocorrelation estimated for lags of 1 to 15 are less than two times their standard errors (as indicated by the dotted line in the autocorrelation plots), which means that the residuals does not present any serial dependency.

4 Selection of aircraft type for non-conventional regular air transport services As stated above, the objective of the research is to analyse the feasibility of scheduled transport services to connect the Sicilian airport of Catania to the Eolie Islands by helicopters with high capacity (12-14 seats) and seaplanes. This section details the selection of helicopter and seaplane types. Based on a comparison among the most important producers of helicopters, we found out that the Agusta Westland AW139 and the Eurocopter AS365N3 are suitable for the proposed transport service. The AW-139 is a medium sized helicopter constructed by Agusta Westland company that meets the rigorous safety standards required by civil and military aviation. Despite the reduced size (16.63 meters in length with rotors in motion), it can carry up to 15 passengers and it has a large baggage compartment compared to other helicopters of the same category. It is provided with the certification by the National Civil Aviation Agency (ENAC) for flying over towns in the day and night-time (Cat.A, Cl.1). It is equipped with two PRATT & WHITNEY PT6C-67C motors; such an engine system along with the FADEC (Full Authority Digital Engine Control System) technology for the electronic engine control permit one to fly even in critical conditions (e.g. strong wind gusts, damages of one of the motors). Static flight is also possible with side winds of 45 Kts (about 83 km/h).

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260 Island Sustainability The AS365N3 is one of the first helicopters constructed by Eurocopter, a division of the European Aeronautical Defence and Space Company (EADS). It is a medium sized helicopter which can carry up to 12 passengers. Its fuselage and rotors are made of composite materials. Moreover, the AS365N3 is equipped with two Turbomeca Arriel 2C FADEC controlled engines and can operate with a ground wind of 55 Kts (about 101 km/h). It is also provided with the Cat.A, Cl.1 certification by ENAC. Based on a worldwide analysis of producers of seaplanes, we identified the Viking Air (D)VHC6 and the Dornier Seawings Sea Star CD-2 as the most suitable seaplanes for the proposed transport service. The (D)VHC-6 Twin Otter has been developed by Canadian (de Havilland) Viking Air. It is a fixed wing aircraft which can carry up to 20 passengers and is used in various fields: freight, passenger regional transport, skydiving and medevac (medical evacuation). The Twin Otter is equipped with two Pratt & Whitney PT6A-27 turbo-propeller engines. The Dornier Seawings Seastar is a novel turboprop-powered STOL aircraft developed by Canadian Claudius Dornier Seastar GmbH & German Co KG Dornier GmbH. It is a “parasol” wing flying boat, with two Pratt & Whitney PT6A-135A engines, which is largely made of composite materials and can carry up to 12 passengers. Table 2:

Technical features of the selected aircrafts.

Helicopter/Seaplane Empty Weight [kg] Maximum take-off weight [kg] Maximum useful load [kg] Payload [kg] Maximum number of passengers Fuel consumption per km [kg] Cruise speed [Kts]

AW139 4,310 6,400 2,500 1,350 15 2.39 140

AS365N3 (D)VhC 6 400 2,820 3,628 3,800 5,670 2,301 2,450 1,080 1,710 12 20 2.29 2.93 140 143

Seastar 2,800 4,594 1,320 1,080 12 4.02 150

5 Analysis of non-conventional air transport services’ costs This section focuses on the estimation of operational costs for the proposed nonconventional air transport services linking the Sicilian airport of Catania to Lipari, the most visited island of the Eolie Archipelago. The cost analysis referred to the types of helicopter and seaplane described above and based on the following data and assumptions: the distance between the main regional airport and Lipari is about 151 km; the aircraft would fly with Visual Flight Rules (VFR) at a height of 2000 feet, with ISA+20 atmospheric conditions and in the day-time; each passenger weighs 75 kg while the weight of his baggage is 15 kg. Based on the data showed in Table 2, we calculated the travel time to go from the airport of Catania to the Island of Lipari with respect to the different nonconventional air transport alternatives, including additional times such as the time spent to buy the ticket, the time to get to the terminal, etc. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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Table 3:

261

Total and average costs (Euros) of non-conventional air transport services to connect Sicily to the Eolie Islands.

Helicopter/Seaplane AW 139 AS 365 N3 (D)VhC 6 400 Seastar Variable costs 4,017,289 4,178,296 1,946,504 1,863,743 Fixed costs. 2,087,493 2,169,184 1,731,864 1,514,240 Marketing costs a 295,724 293,786 303,586 186,838 Annual instalment of the loan taken out 1,758,458 1,484,920 1,641,227 996,459 to purchase two aircrafts b Total costs 8,158,964 8,126,186 5,623,181 4,561,280 Average cost per trip 1,422.4 1,119.3 1,316.9 712 Average cost per passenger-trip 101.6 93.3 69.3 593 a b

Marketing costs are proportional to revenues. We assumed a constant instalment loan with a fixed annual interest rate of 4.5%.

Table 4:

Hourly variable costs (Euros/hour) of non-conventional air transport services to connect Sicily to the Eolie Islands.

Helicopter/seaplane Fuel a Lubricants Maintenance b Supplies and catering Total variable costs per hour a

AW 139 AS 365 N3 (D)VhC 6 400 448 328 450 13 10 14 560 460 151 6 5 42 1,027 803 657

Seastar 616 19 95 42 772

We considered a fuel cost of 0.92 €/litre. Maintenance includes the following cost-drivers: labour, airframe, spare components, engine restoration, major periodic maintenance interventions.

b

Table 5:

Annual fixed costs (Euros) of non-conventional air transport services to connect Sicily to the Eolie Islands.

Helicopter/Seaplane AW 139 AS 365 N3 (D)VhC 6 400 Crew salaries (captain and co-pilot) b 394,137 394,137 499,828 Land-side personnel 98,534 98,534 124,957 Hangar (typical) 1,000,000 1,200,000 500,000 Insurance (hull) c 526,000 420,800 526,000 Admitted liability 1,089 778 2,100 Legal liability 16,533 16,533 8,500 Recurrent training 18,206 8,480 13,400 Aircraft Modernization d 18,153 18,153 20,000 Navigation chart service 299 299 2,059 Refurbishing 12,286 9,214 31,920 Computer maintenance program 1,712 1,712 2,400 Weather services 545 545 700 Total fixed costs 2,087,493 2,169,184 1,731,864 a

Seastar 499,828 124,957 500,000 315,600 1,260 8,500 13,400 20,000 2,059 25,536 2,400 700 1,514,240

Including airport charges and hangar costs. Crew salaries were estimated considering 2.5 crews per aircraft (each crew consisting of at least two pilots) and the Collective Agreement for helicopter and airline pilots in Italy. c Insurance cost was estimated taking into account that one aircraft and an average of 5/12 of the second machine. d Aircraft modernization cost was appraised based on an average service life of 10 years. b

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262 Island Sustainability For the selected aircraft types, Table 3 shows the total and average costs of a scheduled service linking Sicily to the Eolie Islands. To calculate these, we considered variable and fixed costs based on the annual travel demand of 66,800 passengers, as forecasted by the ARIMA model in relation to the year 2010; the seasonal pattern characterizing such a demand led us to plan the use of one aircraft during the low season and two during the high season (5 months). Furthermore, we assumed a uniform distribution of trips during day-time. To perform a complete analysis, we also took into account marketing costs, namely those costs deriving from relations with advertising agencies and tour operators. Tables 4 and 5 details the estimation of service variables and fixed costs, which were evaluated on the basis of a dataset from Concklin and de Decker [15].

6 Estimation of the generalized transport cost to travel to the Eolie Islands when non-conventional air transport services are available This section deals with the computation of the generalized transport cost to travel from the Sicilian airport of Catania to Lipari, the most popular island of the Eolie Archipelago. In particular, we compared the multi-modal alternatives which are available at present with the helicopter and seaplane options. For the considered o-d pairs and the selected types of aircraft, the generalized transport cost per traveller was determined as the sum of three components: the monetary value of travel time, the external costs (namely social costs for air pollution, accidents, etc) and the service transport price. The monetary value of travel time was estimated adopting the willingness-topay parameter (about 30 Euros/hour) provided by a previous study which developed a demand model for simulating the choice of tourists moving from Sicily to the Isle of Lipari between two modes of transport, hydrofoil and helicopter (Amoroso et al [14]). The second component relating to external costs of transport was determined using the data form INFRAS/IWW [6] Table 6 presents the related estimates of external costs for the involved modes of transport in Euros per passenger-km. As concerns the service transport price in the helicopter and seaplane case, on the basis of data in Table 3 we simulated two scenarios:  the determination of fares so that revenues will balance costs;  the determination of fares in order to make a profit equal to the annual instalment of the loan taken out to purchase the aircrafts. Table 6:

External costs (Euros/passenger- km) per transport mode. Taxi

Bus Train Ferry Helicopter/Seaplane

0.087 0.038 0.02 0.02

0.05

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Table 7:

Aircraft AW139 AS365N3 (D)VhC 6 Seastar

Table 8:

263

Fares of non-conventional air transport services to link Sicily to the Eolie Islands. Revenues balance costs High season € 95.85 € 91.44 € 54.40 € 36.05

Profit equal to the annual loan instalment

Low season € 71.89 € 68.58 € 40.80 € 27.03

High season € 147.17 € 133.00 € 103.74 € 64.53

Low season € 110.38 € 99.75 € 77.80 €48.39

Annual budget* of non-conventional air transport services to link Sicily to the Eolie Islands. AW-139 As365n3 (D)VhC 6 400 Seastar balance profit balance profit balance profit balance profit

Revenues Low season rev. High season rev. Total Rev. Costs Variable annual Fixed annual Commercial Total Costs OPERATIVE FINANCIAL Profit before taxes Taxes NET INCOME *

1,687 259 897 1,305 1,249 2,382 496 887 4,152 6,374 4,909 7,141 1,967 3,752 1,746 3,125 8,088 11,214 8,057 10,696 5,466 8,383 4,492 6,263 4,017 2,087 225 6,329 1,759 1,759 0 0 0

4,017 2,087 319 6,423 4,791 1,759 3,032 1,273 1,759

4,178 2,169 224 6,572 1,485 1,485 0 0 0

4,178 2,169 303 6,650 4,046 1,485 2,561 1,075 1,486

1,947 1,732 146 3,825 1,641 1,641 0 0 0

1,947 1,864 1,864 1,732 1,544 1,544 234 117 170 3,912 3,495 3,548 4,471 997 2,715 1,641 997 997 2,830 0 1,718 1,188 0 722 1,642 0 996

in thousands of Euros

For each of the selected aircrafts, Table 7 exhibits the low season and high season service fares under the two scenarios illustrated above, while Table 8 highlights the annual budget of the company providing the transport service. We made a comparison between the proposed non-conventional air transport services and the following 4 combinations of transport modes that can be used at the present time to go from the airport of Catania to the Isle of Lipari: 1. Taxi (from the airport to Catania), Train (from Catania to Messina), Ferry (from Messina to Lipari); 2. Bus (from the airport to Catania), Train (from Catania to Messina), Ferry (from Messina to Lipari); 3. Bus (from the airport to Milazzo), Ferry (from Milazzo to Lipari); 4. Taxi or rental car (from the airport to Milazzo), Ferry (from Milazzo to Lipari). Figures 10 and 11 show the results of the comparison mentioned above. We found out that according to the generalized cost criterion, the helicopter is the best solution to connect the main Sicilian airport to the Eolie Isles. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

264 Island Sustainability

Figure 10:

Estimation of the generalized transport cost to travel from Sicily to Lipari. Comparison between the current multimodal alternatives and the helicopter during high season.

Figure 11:

Estimation of the generalized transport cost to travel from Sicily to Lipari. Comparison between the current multimodal alternatives and the seaplane during high season.

7 Conclusions This paper has demonstrated the feasibility of scheduled transport services using helicopter and seaplane for connecting Sicily, in the south of Italy, to the near and very attractive Eolie Islands. To estimate the potential demand for such services, we referred to data on the arrivals of tourists in the Eolie Archipelago during the period 1999-2008. In detail, we considered only the market of visitors with a high willingness-to-pay for time savings (individuals choosing 3 and 4 star hotels) coming from origins at least 300 km away from the Eolie Islands; furthermore, we excluded 20% of WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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these visitors to take into account the fear of flying. We also considered as potential users of the proposed transport services a percentage of the Eolie Isles’ population. The resulting observations were employed to estimate forecasts through an ARIMA model. After a technical analysis to identify the types of helicopter and seaplane suitable for regular transport services, based on the ARIMA model demand forecasts, we determined the service supply (daily frequency and number of aircrafts) in the different cases and evaluated the related total cost per passenger. Next, we compared the helicopter and seaplane options with the various existing transport alternatives that can be used to reach the Eolie Islands from the major regional airport of Catania, according to the criterion of generalized transport cost (calculated by adding value of transit time, external costs and service fare). We found out that the helicopter is the best solution (in terms of generalized transport cost) to connect the main Sicilian airport to the Eolie Isles. What is more, it is important to underline that currently areas for helicopter takeoff and landing are available at the Eolie Isles and helicopter is less dependent on the weather conditions than seaplane which can’t land with safety when the sea is stormy.

References [1] Box, G. E. P. and Jenkins, G. M. (1976) “Time series analysis: Forecasting and control” San Francisco: Holden-Day [2] Dean R.D. and Whitaker K.M. (1980) Fear of Flying, Impact on the U.S. Air Travel Industry, Boeing Company. [3] Ortùzar, J. de D. and Willumsen, L. G. (1994) Modelling Transport. Chichester, England: Wiley. [4] Mercury s.r.l., (2001) “Primo rapporto sul turismo in Sicilia” [5] Assessorato del turismo delle Comunicazioni e dei Trasporti della Regione Sicilia (2001), “Piano Regionale dei Trasporti e della Mobilità”. [6] INFRAS/IWW (2004) External costs of transport: update study. [7] Lupi, M. (2004) Metodi e modelli per la simulazione e verifica di un sistema di trasporto aereo: uno stato dell’arte, Edizioni Franco Angeli. [8] Mercury s.r.l., (2005) “Rapporti sul turismo in Sicilia 2002-2003, 20032004” [9] Parroco A.M., Vaccina F.M. (2005) “Isole Eolie quanto turismo?! Analisi dei mercati turistici regionali e sub-regionali”, Edizioni CLEUP [10] Ministero delle Infrastrutture e dei Trasporti - Quaderni del PON Trasporti N. 02. 2000-2006. [11] Correnti V., Ignaccolo M., Inturri G. (2006) “Regional air transport in Europe: the potential role of the civil tiltrotor in reducing airside congestion”, Journal of Air Transportation [12] Correnti V., Santoro G., Inturri G. (2008) Il ruolo del tilt-rotor per lo sviluppo del trasporto aereo nell’area di libero scambio euromediterranea, Edizioni Offset Studio, Palermo, Italy

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266 Island Sustainability [13] La Franca L., Castelluccio F. and Montano F. (2008) “Helicopter lines: demand & cost analysis”, Transportation decision making: issues, tools, models and case studies (International Conference - November 13th -14th), Venice, Italy [14] Amoroso S., Migliore M., Catalano M. and Lo Casto B. (2009) “The demand of tourists for helicopter transport in areas with poor accessibility”, 3rd IRT International Scientific Conference (“Integrated Relational Tourism-Territories and Development in the Mediterranean Area”), Il Cairo. [15] Conklin & de Decker (2009), Release Latest THE AIRCRAFT COST EVALUATOR Software Version 4.8.0.

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Development of nautical tourism: islands development motivator N. Jolić1, N. Perko2 & Z. Kavran1 1 2

Faculty of Transport and Traffic Sciences, University of Zagreb, Croatia Ministry of the Sea, Transport and Infrastructure, Croatia

Abstract The Republic of Croatia, as a Mediterranean country with an indented coast has an archipelago with more than a thousand islands, which is a recognizable market potential of Croatian tourism. Because of the natural values, a particularly valuable and successful part of Croatian tourism and the potential of islands development is the development of nautical tourism. The indicators of the quality of nautical tourism and the nautical tourism quality management system have not been sufficiently studied yet. The basic principle of nautical tourism development management is the principle of sustainable development, which in a compromised and balanced manner is a pre-condition for analyses of the need to preserve the natural environment and the need for economic development. Strategic documents of the Republic of Croatia define “nautical tourism as a special type of tourism which apart from navigation in private organization – cruising by one’s own or leased vessel with onboard accommodation and/or sleeping of tourists, includes also cruises in the organization of vessel owners and travel agencies with accommodation and/or sleeping of tourists onboard these vessels, and navigation of tourists onboard vessels for the purpose of other forms of holidays and recreation (fishing, diving).” The paper will implement the multi-criteria decision-making methodology in selecting the criteria and sub-criteria of the nautical tourism development model. The influence of criteria, sub-criteria and alternatives on the function of objectives, i.e. the development function of islands, and the assessment of influence of factors will be determined. The research results are based on the expert assessment and input data on the system (elements, characteristics) of nautical tourism of the Republic of Croatia. Keywords: nautical tourism, islands development. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line) doi:10.2495/ISLANDS100231

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1 Introduction A nautical tourism port is a tourist object, which, from the business, spatial, construction and functional aspects, makes an entirety for satisfying the requirements of nautical tourism and nautical tourists – boaters. In countries with a developed nautical tourism economy, an increased number of nautical tourism ports have been observed. It is therefore reasonable to expect the increase of their impact to the environment (Kasum et al. [1]). Nautical tourism is exceptionally suitable for expanding Croatia’s tourism offer. Although its share in the country’s tourism industry is still low with regard to its potentials, the development of nautical tourism would automatically change the way future tourists perceive Croatia; no longer would it be a country for mass tourism, but rather a tourist country geared to the needs of modern tourists (Gračan [2]). Croatian Tourism Industry Law defines nautical tourism as navigation and stay of nautical tourists on their vessels and in nautical ports for the purpose of relaxation and recreation (Bartoluci and Čavlek [3]). Nautical tourism can also be defined as the total of relationships and services resulting from navigation and stationed sojourn of domestic and foreign tourists on the sea and on the water organised by the tourists themselves or by somebody else as well as navigation for the purpose of relaxation, leisure and fun (Jadrešić [4]). Tourist services available at marinas catering to nautical tourists include [5]: • Leasing of berths for sailing vessels and nautical tourists who live on board. • Leasing of sailing vessels for holiday and recreational use (charter, cruising and similar), • Reception, safe-guarding and maintenance of sailing vessels. • Provision of stock (water, fuel, supplies, spare parts, equipment and similar). • Preparation and keeping sailing vessels in order. • Providing information to nautical enthusiasts (weather forecasts, nautical guides etc.) • Leasing of water scooters, jet skis, and other water equipment. Although at first glance nautical tourism can seem to have a highly mobile nature tied to a single form of sports and recreational activities on a vessel, due notice should be given to the significance of its stationary component, as one of the most important factors in developing and improving this form of tourism. This stationary component consists of primary receiving facilities and supplementary facilities (Bartoluci and Čavlek [3]). Having in mind Croatian littoral zone with its attractive coast and islands, it can be said that nautical tourism is absolutely authentic and distinctly recognizable Croatian “tourist product”. Croatia has ideal conditions for nautical tourism development, and it has a great number of advantages such as good coastline indebtedness’, great number of well arranged and sheltered harbours, better geographical position in relation to countries that nautical tourists come from, preserved nature, and clean sea (Favro and Saganić [6]).

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The main middle-term goals of tourism development in Croatia are to increase the revenue from tourism, to create employment and raise the standard of living, to increase the positive effects of tourism and tourist spending on the Croatian economy, to raise the quality of service, to offer new attractions, to extend the tourist season and create. In this paper application proposal of new concept of security levels in nautical ports is defined for future development and modernization of nautical ports. Based on predefined criteria, multi-criteria modelling of security levels for all groups of nautical ports will be explained and security levels defined.

2 Sociological-economic effects of the development of nautical tourism Special importance, in increasing overall economic effects of nautical tourism, is given to the improvement of social and economic living conditions for local inhabitants of coastal and islands areas. According to Robinson [7], interdependence between the development of nautical tourism and the development of local community becomes an increasingly important link in the development of nautical economy. By defining development strategy for nautical tourism in Croatia, to be based upon the principles of sustainable development, necessary conditions will be established for achieving the following goals (Favro and Saganić [6]): • Tourism as economic sector has benefited most from the development of one its segment – nautical tourism. All positive effects to be attached to nautical tourism can also be attached to tourism in general. • Catering industry through the development of nautical tourism has been given a chance of expansion and specialization. If it had not been for the growth of nautical tourism, it is unlikely that small island restaurants with famous delicacies would have ever developed in the most attractive nautical destinations. Many individuals have not only expanded their existing catering capacities, but also invested into new ones. Small, almost abandoned island localities have been restored to life and reconstructed. The number of those who reconstruct the neglected heritage – buildings and crops – grows every day as a result of increasing visits of tourists, especially on islands. • Accommodation capacities – Nautical tourism has had an indirect influence on increased accommodation capacities in the coastal zone and on islands. Some leisure mariners, predominantly higher spending ones, wishing to experience the stunning beauty of the Croatian archipelago, prefer luxury hotels in picturesque environment rather than sleeping onboard their vessels. In this way, nautical tourism has influenced an increase in accommodation capacities in the seaside places and on islands. • Service activities – It has already been mentioned that nautical tourism encouraged the development of many service activities which are either directly or indirectly associated with the need to provide different services to leisure mariners. This particularly refers to fisheries whose development is WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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•

•

•

•

indirectly influenced by an increased demand for fish and consumption of seafood in restaurants, for different nautical services, etc. provided. Greater opportunities – for the employment of local labour (occasional, parttime, seasonal or permanent), consequently influencing increase in the living standard, and prosperity of families in general, providing opportunity for the development and revival of different activities specific for particular regions. Direct and indirect effects on different activities - Direct effects of nautical tourism are first of all connected with employment of local labour, encouragement of different service activities linked with the need to provide services to leisure mariners (servicing vessels and engines, equipment, catering, supply, etc.), while indirect effects are many. Interest for cultural events and sightseeing tours of coastal and island places should also be emphasized. Short-term consequences and influences – It may be said that the development of nautical tourism has had a short-term influence and specific economic and social consequences on the local and wider environment. First of all, it encouraged the development of many accompanying activities, whose development started soon after the beginnings of nautical tourism (first services, initial employment of local labour, expanding the existing catering facilities and opening new ones, etc.). Long-term consequences and influences – Most important long-term consequences and influences of the development of nautical tourism are as follows: - restructuring and evaluating new development options in a particular county, community or place, as well as at the state level, starting from some traditional aspects (industry, manufacturing industry, shipbuilding) to the development based upon nautical tourism - development – of economic activities directly or indirectly connected with nautical tourism as chief development potential – nautical economy (Favro [8]).

3 AHP modelling In planning of security of nautical ports there are numerous alternatives for the system changes and improvement. The larger number of alternatives, the more complex the issue is, because it is necessary to take into account all alternatives and select the best one or the one being the closest to the set goal. In examining of alternatives it is necessary to define criteria leading to the set goal and potential impacts on the system changes. Each alternative has its own specificities that create additional difficulties in decision making. A good planning expert, i.e. decision maker on development of the marina system must have vision of the future, must select the alternative being sufficiently flexible to enable potential modifications to be performed. Analytical hierarchy process, as a part of operational research, represents a structured approach that enables integration of logic and intuition in the process of decision making in the way adjusted to human perception and computer logic. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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The process is performed in three basic steps: 1. Decomposition of complex problem/decision into hierarchical structure 2. Determination of elements priorities at each level 3. Synthesis of results Defining alternatives made in the system and criteria for their selection to attain the main goal of research represent security levels for nautical ports (Jolić et al. [9]). Mathematical model of the problem analysis is based on the individual comparison at each hierarchy level and impact of alternatives on the lowest level of hierarchy. It gives pair wise - comparison matrix. In the process of comparison, elements on the same hierarchy level must have the same significance and if such a requirement is not met, they have to be allocated into different hierarchy levels. By the process of pair wise comparison of the elements on the same hierarchy level, it is determined whether the elements are of equal significance or one of them is of higher significance compared with any other element. Such a process gives the priority values for all elements on each level in relation to a criterion on the first higher level. If among values obtained in such manner there are elements having no considerable significance in relation to the objective, they can be eliminated from further consideration in order to simplify the model. Total priority for each of managing measures, i.e. alternative is determined by combining of priorities of each hierarchy level. The alternative having the highest total will be selected.

4 Multi-criteria security level modelling for nautical ports Multi-criteria modelling process defines security levels in marine as follows: Security Level I, Security Level II and Security Level III (Jolić et al. [9]). Each

Figure 1: AHP model of marina security levels. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

272 Island Sustainability level is presented by recognized technical characteristics and defined technological activities; this determination serves as a platform for ICT implementation procedures. Research results are vital benefit for port managers dealing with port capacities planning activities and port market definition. Model for security level definition is presented on figure 1. Port properties criteria includes sub criteria’s as number and the position of emergency boxes with extinguishers, throw lines, first aid kits, thermal blankets, lifebelts and emergency ladders, smoke detectors, carbon monoxide detectors, condition of electrical wiring, storm emergency alarming systems, fuel and pipelines, maintaining areas, spaces for children to play etc. Customers’ criteria include elements as yearly number of visitors but also safety and security customers’ requirements with regular feedback information from users. Table 1 shows basic checklist of things users look for in marinas regarding security. Security levels include different organization characteristics including security regulations, guide lines and equipment. So that based on defined criteria security levels can be defined for every marina.

5 Conclusion Nautical tourism is one of the most attractive and prosperous forms of Croatian tourism. Because of the natural values an especially valuable and successful part of the Croatian tourism and potential of islands development is the development Table 1:

Users’ security and safety checklist.

Is the marina attractive and well maintained? Is someone checking your boat on a regular basis? Is the pump-out facility in working order and easily accessible? Are the docks, piers, and pilings in good condition? Are the dock cleats large enough for your boat, and securely attached? Is the electrical system up to date? Are there life rings, with lines attached, at 200-foot intervals on the docks? Are emergency phone numbers (fire, ambulance, police, coastguard) clearly posted? Are there fire extinguishers where needed? Are "NO SMOKING" signs posted on the fuel dock? Is there sufficient parking? Are the restrooms, laundry facilities, and pool (if the marina has one) kept locked and only available to marina residents and guests? Is the marina in a dangerous or safe neighbourhood? If dogs are allowed, is there a designated Dog Walk? WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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of nautical tourism. The quality of service of a marine represents a criterion which is essential in the selection of a port and islands development process. According to defined main middle-term goals of tourism development in Croatia high level of port service is to be developed, i.e. high level of safety. According to the carried out research, single requirements have been identified, set by the users of the ports of nautical tourism, expecting their fulfilment. Consequently, three levels of port security have been defined, i.e. three security levels, and the multi-criteria modelling procedure has been presented. Special emphasis is on the application of new technologies in order to increase safety and security of the yachtsmen, ships, and the port infrastructure.

References [1] Kasum, J, Božić-Fredotović, K. & Vidan, P., How nautical tourism ports affect the environment, Management of Natural Resources, Sustainable Development and Ecological Hazards, C.A. Brebbia, N. Jovanovic. & E. Tiezzi, Wessex, Cape Town, pp. 123-133, 2009. [2] Gračan, D., Doprinos nautičkog turizma strategiji razvoja hrvatskog turizma, Fakultet za turistički i hotelski menadžment, Opatija, 2002. [3] Bartoluci, M., Čavlek, N., Turizam i sport, Fakultet za fizičku kulturu Sveučilišta u Zagrebu, Zagreb, 1998. [4] Jadrešić, V., Nautički turizam, Pedagoška akademija Zadar, Institut za turizam, Zadar, 1978. [5] Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nautical_tourism [6] Favro S., Saganić I.: Sustainable development of nautical tourism in Croatia, New Perspectives and Values in World Tourism & Tourism Management in the Future, Book 1, Turk-Kazakh International Tourism Conference, Alanya, pp. 602-620, 2006., [7] Robinson, P. J., Marinas and Social Demands, Australia, 2002. Online. http://www.icomia.com/library/introduction.asp (20.03.2008.), [8] Favro, S., Joining of Croatia in the Development of the European Nautical Tourism, First European Yacht Tourism Congress, Rogoznica, 2002. [9] Jolić N., Kavran Z., Ćavar I., ITS security levels multicriteria modelling for nautical ports, 4th International Conference on Ports and Waterways – POWA 2009, Zagreb, 2009. [10] Gračan D., Uran M.: The role of nautical tourism in the process of creating a Croatian competitive product, Proceedings of the 6th International Conference of the Faculty of Management Koper, Congress Centre Bernardin, Slovenia, 2005. [11] Bošković, D., Favro S., Kovačić M., Evaluating the Significance of Nautical Tourism for Tourism and Economy, 25th International Conference on Organizational Science Development, Portorož, 2006.

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Fast charging stations for electric vehicles infrastructure J. Borges1, 3, C. S. Ioakimidis1, 2 & P. Ferrão1, 2 1

MIT|Portugal Program, Sustainable Energy Systems, Portugal IN+, Instituto Superior Técnico, Lisbon, Portugal 3 noLimits Consulting, Lisbon, Portugal 2

Abstract The growing problem of climate change associated with high oil prices is increasing the interest and research on electric vehicles (EVs). EVs due to the storage capacity provided by the batteries can supply or store electricity when parked. At the same time the electric power grid and light vehicle fleet can be exceptionally complementary as systems for managing energy and power. In the case of isolated systems, such as the islands, the introduction of EVs could be very beneficial not only environmentally since they are competing directly with the internal combustion engine vehicles but also economically and in the energy mixture of the local system. But to drive these vehicles, it is necessary to have a charged battery. To assure this, an infrastructure system is needed, connected to the grid, that can provide a parking charge (so that EVs can charge at homes, offices, public parks, etc) and an ongoing charge (so that travellers can refill their EV power in a fast process, like a fast charging station or a switching battery facility). Fast charging is mainly for commercial and public applications and is intended to perform similarly to a commercial gasoline service station, aiming to achieve a 50% charge in an EV’s battery in 10 to 15 minutes. This work studies and evaluates the fast charging infrastructure and the developed methodology that can optimize the station profit and still provide a charging price lower than the fuel price at the gas stations. The model simulates the fast charging price for drivers at the station and compares with the house night charging and with the internal combustion engine (ICE) fuel (diesel and gasoline) at the gas stations, for the Portuguese case. Keywords: electric vehicles, fast charging, EV infrastructure, charging price.

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1 Introduction The growing problem of climate change associated with high oil prices is increasing the interest and research on electric vehicles (EVs). Different kinds of EVs are being developed and promoted, such as the battery EV, fuel cell vehicle or plug-in hybrid (electric motor with onboard battery and a traditional internal combustion engine) [1]. EVs of today are evolving into a reliable and marketable product. The evolution of vehicle technology is ever going forward and the latest developments make electric traction technology suitable for virtually any application in meeting the most critical of today’s transportation challenges. The technological maturation of EVs will lead to a progressive substitution of internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles in the medium-long term, due to the environmental benefits that can be achieved as a consequence of lower overall CO2 emissions and greater overall energy efficiency. In this way, EVs may also contribute to the optimization of the electric power systems, if they can play a role not only as electric power consumers, when recharging batteries, but also as small distributed energy storage, under pre-defined conditions when they are grid connected. EVs, due to the storage capacity provided by the batteries, can generate or store electricity when parked. So if the car can be used, during the time it is parked, for some value generating activity, it could make EVs much more economically attractive. But to drive an EV, it is necessary to have a charged battery. To ensure this, an infrastructure system is needed, connected to the grid, that can provide charging points when the vehicle is parked (so that EVs can charge at homes, offices, public parks, etc) and when it needs a quick charge (so that long distance travellers can refill their EV power in a fast process, like a fast charging station or a switching battery facility). Apart from the pollution advantages, the EVs and their infrastructure implementation are expected to generate new business opportunities, from the new possibility of car owners to sell stored energy and the increase of market players in a more competitive market to the creation of changing batteries facilities or fast charging stations. It is commonly assumed that EVs will charge at homes at night, but what will happen for those who do not have a garage? What if a driver intends to travel a longer distance than the one charge range of his EV? Are fast charging stations viable infrastructures and is the fast charging price competitive when compared to fuel prices at gas stations? This work studies and evaluates the fast charging infrastructure and the developed methodology that can optimize the Station Profit and still provide a charging price lower that the fuel price at the gas stations. The model simulates the fast charging price for drivers at the station and compare with the house night charging and with the internal combustion engine (ICE) fuel (diesel and gasoline) at the gas stations, for the Portuguese case.

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2 Charging infrastructure EVs do not have the backup of a gasoline engine and an infrastructure of petrol stations for longer distances. If we can only charge them at night, the range of our vehicles would be limited to nearly 160km (100 miles) per day (on a typical EV, e.g. Nissan Leaf ), or only half of that when the cars are driven at high speed [2]. For EVs to succeed, it is important to implement a charging infrastructure that responds to the needs of EV driver’s and allow everyone the so essential mobility. The charging infrastructure can be seen as the energy and economic transaction needed to support the viability of EVs (Fig 1). Energy Transactions [Wh]

Consumer

Economic Transactions [€]

Infrastructure Parking charge Houses

Parking zones Supplier

GRID Ongoing charge Fast Charging stations Battery Switch stations

Production

Figure 1:

Electricity Market

Tariff

Electric vehicle’s infrastructure diagram.

The infrastructure can be divided into parking charge and ongoing charge. The focus of this study is mainly on fast charging station as a part of the ongoing charge process. 2.1 Parking charge Parking charge can be defined as the charging process that happens when the EV is parked for some time, like at houses, offices, parking lots, shopping centers, etc. In these types of places, it is expected to be used a normal outlet (ex: 230 VAC in Europe or 110 VAC in the USA). It is expected that a big part of EVs will be charged at homes and mainly at night. But not everybody has a garage or a dedicated place to charge an EV. This means probably that an infrastructure of outlets is also necessary along the curbs of cities and towns, parking lots, shopping centers, offices, etc, to give the possibility for everybody to charge their EV while parked. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

278 Island Sustainability 2.2 Ongoing charge An ongoing charge can be defined as the fast process to charge EVs that intend to support charging on long distances journeys and provides a similar function as the gas stations. There are, for now, two main possible infrastructures that can perform this objective: battery switch stations and fast charging stations. 2.2.1 Fast charging stations Fast charging stations are one possible way to charge an EV in a fast process and when the driver is not at home and has not arrived to the destination.

@ HOME

Process Ownership Places example

Slow

ON ROUTE

Fast

@ DESTINATION

Slow

Slow

(parking charge)

(ongoing charge)

(parking charge)

(parking charge)

Driver

Station Owner

Company

Company

Residential

Fast charging stations, Switching battery stations

Hotel

Offices, Parking lots, Shopping centers

Study

Figure 2:

Electric vehicle’s charging processes.

Fast charging is for commercial and public applications and is intended to perform similar to a commercial gasoline service station. It typically uses an offboard charge system serviced by a 480-VAC, three-phase circuit. In practice, equipment sizes can vary from 50 to 150 kW, and if battery EVs achieved a 50% charge in 10 to 15 minutes, this is considered to meet the intent of fast charging [3]. But still 15 minutes is a while to wait compared to filling up at a gas station in less than five. There are some ideas suggesting that companies like coffee shops or shopping centers should get into fast charging, creating charge stations in their parking lots so that people can charge up while using their services [4]. So it appears that the opportunity exists for somebody to enter the fast-charging business, or partner with a fast-charging provider. But what kind of important service would be offered that could take anywhere from 10 to 30 minutes? And what about fast charging at gas stations? The infrastructure is there but safety has to be assured regarding the proximity of highly combustible fuel and highvoltage. It is also unclear whether fast charging stations would need to be WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

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carefully attended during the charging process, to prevent vehicles from staying hooked up to the chargers once they are fully recharged. So placing some fast chargers along freeways accompanied with conventional fuelling station services such as restrooms and food services would greatly improve the utility of limited range EVs, with minimal impact to the driver when compared to using a petroleum fuelled car for those long trips.

3 Methodology For fast charging stations to succeed in the market they must be able to be a profitable business for investors and to offer a competitive charging price to clients. The model uses the tools MatLab and Excel and analyses the economic viability of a fast charging station over a period of 20 years, simulating a fast charging price for drivers that optimizes the station’s profits and can still be competitive when compared to fuel prices at gas stations. On an annual basis, the profit of the fast charging station can be calculated as the annual revenues minus the annual costs (eqn (1))

Profitannual = Revenuesannual − Costsannual

(1)

where Costs are composed by CAPEX (Capital Expenditures = Investments) and OPEX (Operational Expenditures = Operational Costs). The most significant cost of OPEX is the energy cost. Starting at an hourly basis, the hourly energy cost of fast charging is (eqn 2):

EnergyCost ( h ) = Energy required ( h ) ⋅ price electricit y ( h )

(2)

where the Energy required can be written as eqn (3):

Energyrequired ( h) = D( h) ⋅ being: • • • •

ntimech

∑ ( perctime i =1

ch

(i) ⋅ timech (i) ) ⋅ Potch

(3)

D(h) – EV’s demand function of hour timech – charging time (considered: 5, 10, 15 minutes) perctimech – percentage of EVs per hour for each charging time Potch – Charger Power

The most significant revenue of the fast charging station is the charging revenue. The hourly charging revenue can be calculated as (eqn (4)):

ChRevenue ( h ) = Energy supplied ( h ) ⋅ price charging ( h )

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(4)

280 Island Sustainability where:

Energy supplied = Energy required ⋅η

(5)

being: • η – fast charger efficiency Having the annual cash flows of the fast charging station, an NPV (Net Present Value) approach will be used to determine the economic viability and the consequent fast charging price for drivers, over a 20-year period. The NPV is the difference between the present value of cash inflows and the present value of cash outflows and can be calculated with the eqn (6): T

NPV = ∑ t =1

where: • Ct – • C0 – • r– • t–

Ct − C0 (1 + r ) t

(6)

Cash Flow in the year t Investment Discount rate Year

3.1 Investment (CAPEX) To build a fast charging station from the start, the first investments to be made are the place and the station infrastructures. The land can be bought, rented or loaned as well as the infrastructure itself and it is a cost that should be considered. But in the beginning, these kinds of stations are more likely to appear where there are already some infrastructures, like fuel stations or integrated with some businesses that can provide services during the fast charging time, like coffee shops, drive in restaurants, etc. The fast chargers’ cost is another important investment. This cost depends on the equipment power which was assumed to be 50 kW. Another investment necessary is the electric grid connection. As fast chargers power were assumed to be 50 kW and assuming that the station will have at least two chargers (at the beginning), the power required to the grid easily exceeds 100kVA. Over this amount of power needed, the supplier usually suggests a medium voltage connection to the grid, which leaves the low voltage transformation costs to the client. These costs include a secondary substation and the necessary electrical equipment. 3.2 Operational costs (OPEX) The main operation cost of a fast Charging Station is the cost of electricity. As a business with a relatively high consumption, a fast charging station is expected

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to be a medium voltage client, and may buy electricity in the regulated market, through the tariff, or in the electricity market. The Portuguese regulated medium voltage tariff has three options: short, medium or long usages and the monthly cost is the sum of the power charges (contracted power and peak hours charge), active and reactive energy price and a fixed monthly term. In the liberalized market, a client in Portugal may buy electricity in the MIBEL (Iberian Electricity Market), directly if it is a qualified agent or through an electricity supplier which acts as an intermediary. The final client price is the sum of the MIBEL electricity price, the network access price and the supplier margin. For this study it is considered that the station will buy electricity at the medium voltage Portuguese tariff. The maintenance costs of the station are also included in the OPEX. 3.3 Revenues The main revenues of a fast charging station come from the charging price. To establish a price that can make the business profitable and at the same time be competitive is in fact the main focus of this study.

4 Results Over the 20-year period of analysis, the economic model returned with a 219 thousand € of profits (17% of revenues) (Fig 3). k€

CAPEX

OPEX

1.315

219

Revenues

Profits (NPV)

339

757

Figure 3:

Fast charging station net present value.

To achieve this NPV result, the model simulated the fast charging price at the station, resulting in 0,171 €/kWh. Since the night charging at home is expected to be the main charging process of EVs, it is important to compare prices with the fast charging at the station (table 1). For this comparison, it is assumed that the home infrastructure relies on a 230 VAC single phase outlet with a 3,45 kVA of maximum power and the charging period will occur at night, during the off peak hours, at a price of 0,066 €/kWh corresponding to the bi-hourly low voltage Portuguese tariff [5]. The WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

282 Island Sustainability EV chosen for this comparison is the Nissan Leaf which has a lithium-ion battery with a total capacity of 24 kWh and a driving range of 160 km [6]. Since the Renault-Nissan alliance has established a partnership with the Portuguese government, it is expected that the Nissan Leaf will be one of the first EVs entering the Portuguese market. Table 1:

Fast charging and home charging comparison. Units

EV consumption Charging Price Price per km Charging time Cost per charge

kWh/km €/kWh €/km hours €

Charging Infrastructure Home Fast Charging (at night) Station (FCS) 0,150 0,066 0,176 0,010 0,026 6,96 (~7h) 0,48 (~30min) 1,59 4,24

Table 1 shows that the fast charging price is 2,7 times higher than charging at home during the night. To fully charge the EV, the driver can spend 1,59 € over 7 hours at home during the night or spend 4,24 € in less than 30 minutes at a fast charging station. As fast charging station appear to be an alternative when drivers need an extra driving range, a 10 minute charge allows this EV driver to travel more than 56 km spending less than 1,5 €. The comparison between the charging price of an EV at the two previous EV infrastructures and the refuelling of diesel and gasoline of two similar ICE vehicles at gas stations is presented in table 2. The ICE vehicles used for comparison were chosen for the similarities with the Nissan Leaf and are Renault Mégane Berlina Dynamique TCe 130cv (1400 cm3) gasoline with an average mix consumption of 6,6 liters/100km and the Renault Mégane Berlina 1.5 dCi 85cv ECO2 diesel with an average mix consumption of 4,4 liters/100km [7]. Table 2:

Price comparison between EV charging and ICE vehicle refuel.

Vehicle consumption

EV charging Home FCS (at night) 0,150 0,150

ICE fuel at Gas Station Diesel Gasoline 0,044

kWh/km

Charging/Fuel Price

0,066

0,176

1,060

€/kWh

Price per km

0,010

0,066 l/km

1,305 €/l

0,026

0,047

0,086

1,87 €

3,45 €

€/km

40 km travel cost

0,40 €

1,06 €

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With the table 2 results it is possible to show that fast charging an EV is 43% cheaper than refuelling a diesel ICE vehicle and 70% less expensive than refuelling a gasoline ICE vehicle. Assuming an average driving range per day of 40 km, a driver would be able to fast charge his EV with just over 1€.

5 Conclusions This work studies and evaluates the fast charging infrastructure and the developed methodology that can optimize the station profit while still providing a charging price lower that the fuel price at gas stations. The model simulates the fast charging price for drivers at the station and compares with the house night charging and with the ICE fuel (diesel and gasoline) at gas stations, for the Portuguese case. Fast charging stations are one possible way to charge an EV in a fast process and when the driver is not at home and has not arrived at the destination. These stations are part of the EV ongoing charge process and intend to perform similarly to a commercial gasoline service station. If EVs achieved a 50% charge in 10 to 15 minutes, this is considered to meet the intent of fast charging. The model simulated a fast charging price at the station of 0,176 €/kWh, which provides 17% profits (NPV over a 20 year period) for station stakeholders. This price is almost 3 times higher than charging the EV at home during the night (off peak hours) but it is 43% lower than refuelling a diesel ICE vehicle and 70% lower than a gasoline ICE vehicle. Fast charging stations appear to be an opportunity for new profitable businesses that can play an important role in the EV’s infrastructure, supporting mainly long distance travellers and supplying a fast alternative to the several hours’ charging at home.

Acknowledgement The authors would like to thank the FCT MIT-Portugal program for the financial support for the work reported in this paper and performed under the project ‘Power demand estimation and power system impacts resulting of fleet penetration of electric/plug-in vehicles’ (FCT MIT-Pt/SES- GI/ 008/ 2008).

References [1] C.S. Ioakimidis, C.Camus, P.C.Ferrão, “The Introduction and use of Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles in the energy and fleet mixture in the island of São Miguel”, paper in submission General of Power Sources. [2] “Who killed the electric grid? Fast-charging electric cars”, March 10, 2009. [3] “Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure Review”, U.S. Department of Energy Vehicle Technologies Program, K.Morrow, D.Karner, J.Francfort, November 2008.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130, © 2010 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

284 Island Sustainability [4] “Electric Car Charge Stations: The Next Third Space?”, The big money, August 7 2009; http://www.thebigmoney.com/blogs/shifting-gears/2009/08 /07/electric-car-charge-stations-next-third-space [5] ERSE – Entidade Reguladores dos Serviços Energéticos, www.erse.pt [6] “2010 Nissan Leaf electric car: In person, in depth - and U.S. bound”, Aug 1st 2009, http://www.autoblog.com/2009/08/01/2010-nissan-leaf-electriccar-in-person-in-depth-and-u-s-b/ [7] Renault Portugal, www.renault.pt

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Author Index Acır Ö. ..................................... 239 Ashpiz E. S. ............................. 231

Livengood D............................ 197 Loizidou M. ............................... 65

Biamino W............................... 161 Boc S. J. ................................... 209 Borasi M. ................................. 161 Borges J. .................................. 275 Burg E. C. ................................ 209

Madaleno I. M. ........................ 101 Maeno Y. ................................. 185 Malamis S.................................. 65 Montano F. .............................. 251 Murata T. ................................. 185

Castelluccio F. ......................... 251 Catalano M. ............................. 251 Cavagnero M. .......................... 161 Chandrasekar J......................... 121 Craig-Smith S. ........................... 89 Cunha R. T............................... 113

Opačić V. T. .............................. 37 Ozerov S. N. ............................ 221

de Marsily G. ........................... 171 Díaz P. ................................. 13, 51 Duvat V...................................... 25 Egorov A. O............................. 231 Favro S................................... 3, 37 Ferrão P.................................... 275 Garland G. G............................ 135 Gotoh H. .................................. 185 Gržetić Z. ..................................... 3 Ioakimidis C. S. ............... 197, 275 Jolić N...................................... 267 Joseph P. .................................. 171 Katsou E. ................................... 65 Kavran Z. ................................. 267 Kılıç R...................................... 239 Klenin Y. G.............................. 221 Kovačić M. .................................. 3 La Franca L.............................. 251 Laigle L.................................... 171 Lambrou G................................. 65 Larson R. ................................. 197 Liguori V. ................................ 147

Pankov A. V. ........................... 221 Perišić M.................................... 37 Perko N.................................... 267 Petrić L. ..................................... 77 Pineda F. D. ......................... 13, 51 Porcaro A................................. 147 Pranić L. .................................... 77 Raju D. K................................. 121 Rangel B. ................................. 113 Rego I. E.................................. 113 Rodríguez A. J. .................... 13, 51 Ruiz-Labourdette D. ............ 13, 51 Santana A............................. 13, 51 Santosh K................................. 121 Schmitz M. F. ...................... 13, 51 Sim-Sim F. C. .......................... 197 Takahashi N............................. 185 Takezawa M. ........................... 185 Taufatofua R. G. ........................ 89 Teh T. S. .................................. 121 Trivero P.................................. 161 Ushakov A. E................... 221, 231 Vieira O. .................................. 113 Violette S. ................................ 171 Voukkali I.................................. 65 Zorpas A. ................................... 65

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