Japan

CULTURES OF THE WORLD

Japan

CULTURES OF THE WORLD

Japan

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PICTURE CREDITS Cover: © Bill Bechman/DanitaDelimont.com Brent Winebrenner/Lonely Planet Images: 73 • Christopher Groenhout/Lonely Planet Images:18 • Dominic Bonuccelli/Lonely Planet Images: 1 • Eric Wheater/Lonely Planet Images: 75 • Frank Carter/Lonely Planet Images: 14, 16, 45, 76, 92, 115, 116 • Greg Elms/Lonely Planet Images: 10, 67, 93 • Inmagine: 21, 28, 49, 54, 57, 62, 72, 81, 84, 86, 88, 89, 95, 100, 102, 103, 110, 113, 114, 117, 124, 125, 131 • John Ashburne/Lonely Planet Images: 80 • Kasahara Katsum/Gamma-Rapho/ Getty Images : 32 • Kazuhiro Nogi/AFP/Getty Images: 36 • Marshall Cavendish International (Asia): 135 • Martin Moos/Lonely Planet Images: 46, 112 • Mason Florence/ Lonely Planet Images: 50 • Oliver Strewe/Lonely Planet Images: 83 • Olivier Cirendini/Lonely Planet Images: 66 • photolibrary: 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 12, 13, 23, 30, 31, 42, 44, 47, 48, 52, 56, 58, 60, 64, 65, 70, 74, 77, 91, 94, 97, 104, 106, 107, 108, 118, 122, 126, 127, 128, 130 • Sankei/Getty Images: 33 • Seong Joon Cho/Lonely Planet Images: 68 • Shayne Hill/Lonely Planet Images: 15 • Staeven Vallak/Lonely Planet Images: 90 • Will Robb/ Lonely Planet Images: 82 PRECEDING PAGE A Japanese girl smiles for the camera. Publisher (U.S.): Michelle Bisson Writers: Rex Shelley, Teo Chuu Yong, Russell Mok, and Jacqueline Ong Editors: Deborah Grahame-Smith, Stephanie Pee Copyreader: Tara Tomczyk Designers: Nancy Sabato, Lynn Chin Cover picture researcher: Tracey Engel Picture researcher: Joshua Ang Marshall Cavendish Benchmark 99 White Plains Road Tarrytown, NY 10591 Website: www.marshallcavendish.us © © © ®

Times Media Private Limited 1990. First Edition. Times Media Private Limited 2002. Second Edition. Marshall Cavendish International (Asia) Private Limited 2012. Third Edition. “Cultures of the World” is a registered trademark of Times Publishing Limited.

Originated and designed by Times Media Private Limited An imprint of Marshall Cavendish International (Asia) Private Limited A member of Times Publishing Limited Marshall Cavendish is a trademark of Times Publishing Limited. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by an information storage retrieval system, without permission from the copyright owner. All Internet sites were correct and accurate at the time of printing. All monetary figures in this publication are in U.S. dollars. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Shelley, Rex, 1930Japan / Rex Shelley ... [et al.]. — 3rd ed. p. cm. — (Cultures of the world) Summary: “Provides comprehensive information on the geography, history, wildlife, governmental structure, economy, cultural diversity, peoples, religion, and culture of Japan”—Provided by publisher. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-60870-784-3 (print) ISBN 978-1-60870-791-1 (ebook) 1. Japan—Juvenile literature. I. Title. II. Series. DS806.S45 2012 952—dc22

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1. GEOGRAPHY

2. HISTORY

3. GOVERNMENT

4. ECONOMY

A land of mountains • Earthquakes • Rivers and lakes • Climate • “Plum rains” and typhoons • Vegetation 11 The early Japanese • Heian, a golden age • Feudal Japan • Unification • Western influence • The 200-year isolation and the Western “invasion” • Transformation • Military might • The war in the Pacific • World War II ends • The occupation 19 Democracy and the government • The legal scene • Defense • The police 31 The Japanese worker • Counting the cost 39

5. ENVIRONMENT

Pollution • Nature conservation • Waste management • Recycling • Environmental programs and initiatives • Fukushima daiichi nuclear crisis 45

6. THE JAPANESE

The Ainu • The Japanese diaspora • The Japanese character • Relationships • A sense of duty • “Saving face” • Body language • Women in Japan 53

7. LIFESTYLE

Homes • Dress • Good manners • Relaxation • Courtship • The family • A typical day 63

8. RELIGION

Shinto • Buddhism • Zen and other Buddhist sects • Christianity 73

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9. LANGUAGE 10. ARTS

11. LEISURE 12. FESTIVALS

13. FOOD

Social tones • Verbs • Pronunciation • “Adopted” English • Japanese examples • Scripts 81 Visual arts • Ikebana and landscape gardening • Painting • Woodcuts • Pottery • Architecture • Poetry • Historical novels • Decline and revival of literature • Modern literature • Japanese theater • Art today • Music 89 Travel, reading, and Pachinko 107 New Year festival • Tanabata • Bon • Hinamatsuri • Toshogu Shrine festival • Daimonji • Gion Matsuri • Boys’ Day • Kurofune Matsuri • Aoi Matsuri • Hamamatsu Matsuri • Hakone Torii Matsuri • Tenjin Matsuri • Shiraoi-no-iomante • The Buddha’s birthday • Izumo-taisha Jinzaisai • Sapporo snow festival • Namahage • Chakkirako • HanagasaOdori • Deer-dance festival 111

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Staples • The Japanese and their fish • Meat • Vegetables • Eggs • Tofu • From shabu-shabu to sake 123 MAP OF JAPAN 132 ABOUT THE ECONOMY 135 ABOUT THE CULTURE 137 TIME LINE 138 GLOSSARY 140 FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 141 BIBLIOGRAPHY 142 INDEX 143

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APAN HAS COME A LONG WAY SINCE ITS IMPERIAL DAYS. TODAY

it is the world’s third-largest economy, having achieved remarkable growth starting in the last quarter of the 19th century and continuing throughout most of the 20th century, after World War II. On top of its affluence Japan has maintained social stability and apparent peace and harmony. Japan also plays a major role in the international community. It was one of the largest major aid donors from 1992 to 2000 and a member of the G8, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Plus Three (APT). On March 11, 2011, a powerful earthquake measuring 9.0 on the richter scale occured off the coast of northeastern Japan. The earthquake triggered a 32-foot (10meter) high giant wave, or tsunami, that swept over 6 miles (10 km) inland. Many people did not have the time to get to higher ground and loss of life and property was devastating. The disasters left thousands of people missing and even more homeless. They also crippled Fukushima Daiichi, one of Japan’s nuclear plants, and engineers and officials had to scramble to prevent the plant from going into a nuclear meltdown. The situation at Fukushima Daiichi caused radiation contamination fears among the

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The bustling and brightly lit district of Shinjuku.

people, and they were advised not to consume food from the area. Residents living near the plant were also evacuated. The efforts to contain the nuclear situation were hampered by numerous aftershocks. However, even in the face of such adversity, the Japanese people banded together and stoically tried to return to normal life. Moved by the tragic events in Japan, donations poured in from all over the world, as Prime Minister Naoto Kan promised that Japan would rise again. Japan is a country that is no stranger to adversity. “The war did not turn in Japan’s favor.” This was the remark made by Emperor Hirohito in his first-ever broadcast to the Japanese people on the August 15, 1945, bringing Japan’s involvement in the World War II to an end. Following Japan’s surrender, the Allied Powers, led by the United States, occupied Japan. During the occupation Japan underwent social and political reforms. The most important outcome of the occupation was disarmament. Japan’s postwar constitution included a “Peace Clause” that renounced war and banned Japan from maintaining any armed forces. The aim of the clause was to prevent Japan from ever becoming an aggressive military power again. In 1951 Japan signed the San Francisco Peace Treaty, which allowed its return to the community of nations as a reformed state. Japan’s primary task during the postwar years was economic rehabilitation. Government-industry cooperation, a strong work ethic, mastery of high technology, and a small defense allocation helped build Japan’s economy. By mid-1960s Japan had become an industrialized nation, able to compete successfully in the open markets of the world. The country’s rapid postwar expansion from the 1960s to the 1980s has been called a “Japanese miracle.” Although its expansion started to lose steam in the 1990s because of factors such as the 1997 Asian financial crisis and bouts of recession, it is still the third-largest economy in the world. Today Japan is home to some of the largest and most technologically advanced producers of cars, electronic equipment, and machinery. Its goods and cultural products, such as animated movies, are consumed around the world.

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Japan is in many ways an icon of the modern world, and yet it continues to puzzle many who see it as a confusing montage of the ancient and modern. This is because traditional and contemporary customs coexist in the country. To a large extent Japan has remained a traditional society with strong social and employment hierarchies. The image of the Japanese work environment and culture is one that is based on lifetime employment where Japanese men work many hours and devote their lives to their company. In return for their hard work, loyalty, and commitment, employees receive job security and benefits such as housing subsidies, insurance, the use of recreation facilities, pensions, and bonuses. Although wages generally begin low, seniority is rewarded. Leadership is based on the ability to create consensus and take into account the needs of one’s subordinates. Wa, or harmony, is encouraged in the workplace and workers are rewarded when they can demonstrate team effort. In the postwar decades Japanese consumers have benefited from the nation’s economic growth. In the 1970s and 1980s living standards improved greatly and people in the lower income group in Japan are better off than those in most industrialized nations. However, despite the fact that Japan is one of the wealthiest countries in the world, disposable personal income has not risen as quickly as the country’s wealth. In addition the cost of living in Japan is very high, and Tokyo remains one of the most expensive cities in the world to live in. Japan is a small, mountainous country. Towns and cities have to fit between the slopes. Thus a number of high-rise buildings dot the Japanese skyline, even in the suburbs. Although Japanese homes, especially in the cities, are generally newer, they are often smaller than homes in most industrialized nations. The cost of Japanese housing differs largely between urban and rural areas, but in the cities, housing is expensive relative to annual income.

High-rise apartments in Kyoto with mountains in the background.

Japan Today 7

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Most Japanese people live in apartments. The interior design is what really sets a Japanese home apart from a European or American home. Rooms in a traditional Japanese home do not serve a distinct purpose. A room can be used as a living area or a bedroom or dining room. Large rooms are partitioned by a fusuma, a sliding door made of wood and thick paper. A fusuma can be removed if a larger space is needed. Even the more modern Japanese homes tend to have one traditional room, called a washitu. This room is usually bare and has tatami mats scattered across the floor. A tatami mat is a thick straw mat that is smooth and firm, yet comfortable to sleep on. Most families use electric or gas heaters for heat and/or cooking. Only very wealthy families have central heating. The Japanese love to eat boiled rice. A traditional breakfast consists of boiled rice, miso soup, and pickled vegetables or tsukemono. Dinner is the main meal of the day, and most people bring bento boxes, or lunch boxes, to work or school during the day. In Western culture a meal consists of a light first course or two, followed by a main course and smaller courses or dessert. In Japan a home-cooked meal is served in one course, but with several different dishes. A typical home-cooked meal would consist of steamed rice, soup, and at least two other dishes. The rice is the central point of the meal and its accompaniments or dishes are collectively called okazu. The main okazu is usually protein-based—a meat dish or fish, while the second okazu can be a vegetable dish or another protein-rich dish. Dessert is not a traditional ending to a meal, and one finishes the meal with a cup of hot tea. Japan is a popular tourist destination because there is a myriad of things to see and do in the country. The cities of Tokyo and Kyoto may grab the headlines, but the country offers so much more, from some of the best snowfields and ski resorts to the clear tropical waters of Okinawa. Japan gets tourists all year-round because different seasons bring different sights and sounds. Spring and autumn are especially popular times with their pleasant and mild temperatures and the abundance of the country’s famous sakura cherry blossom. Various winter sports are played during winter, while summer brings festivals and celebrations.

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There are several things to see in Japan, such as shrines, mountains, castles, and onsens, or hot springs, but five places stand out among the rest. The first is Mount Fuji, Japan’s tallest mountain (which is actually a volcano), and the country’s most iconic natural landmark. More than 250,000 people scaled its near-perfect cone in 2010! The best time to view this majestic mountain is in winter, when visibility is best. Another place to visit is Ginza in Tokyo. Ginza epitomizes Tokyo. It is ground zero for neon lights, shopping, and technology, and it is Tokyo’s “downtown” area. Himeji castle is third on the list. It is Japan’s most famous castle and the only one among the 12 Japanese castles that is still in its original form and condition. Located in Himeji in Hyogo prefecture, not far from Osaka, the castle is surrounded by pine and cherry trees, and it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It was constructed between 1333 and 1346 and was renovated in 1956. Next on the list is Bomb Dome in Hiroshima. The Bomb Dome is the remains of the Prefectural Industrial Promotion Hall, which was directly under the atomic bomb that detonated over Hiroshima on August 6, 1945. Amazingly the structure came out of the explosion reasonably intact. In 1966, Hiroshima City decided to preserve the Dome indefinitely and it was made a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1996. Perhaps Japan’s most iconic monument is the daibatsu of Kamakura. A daibatsu is a large statue of the Buddha or one of his many incarnations. Often called the Great Buddha, this outdoor daibatsu in Kamakura stands 37 feet (11.277 meters) high and weighs 241,551.2 pounds (109,796.354 kilograms) and was cast in 1252. Hordes of tourists visit this large statue, bringing edible offerings with them and leaving them at its feet. Japan is a country of great physical beauty and one that can offer a variety of tantalizing treats to shoppers both young and old.

Himeji Castle is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Japan Today 9

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The lush mountainsides of the Kitayama Mountains near Hanase Valley.

10 Japan

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APAN IS LOCATED BETWEEN THE Sea of Japan and the eastern side of the Korean Peninsula. To its northeast is the North Pacific Ocean. Japan is located on the coordinates of 36° north latitude and 138° east longitude. The Japanese name for the country, Nippon, means “Sun’s origin,” because the Japanese once believed that the Sun first shone on Japan. The country is also known as the Land of the Rising Sun. Japan consists of more than 6,850 mountainous islands in a bowshaped cluster. Some of these islands are inhabited while others are

1 Japan is an island nation in East Asia. It is made up of more than 6,000 inhabited and uninhabited islands extending along the Pacific coast of Asia. About 70 percent of the country is forested and mountainous, and it is one of the most densely populated countries in the world.

Japan’s mountainous terrain, with the snowcapped Mount Fuji in the background. 11

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Mount Daisetsu is part of a group of volcanoes in Hokkaido.

not. The five main islands are Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku, and Okinawa. Of these, Honshu is the central and largest island. In the past imperial and feudal powers were concentrated on Honshu. Today the island is the industrial hub and main economic center of modern Japan. It is home to about 80 percent of the population, and it is lined with the metropolitan areas of Tokyo, Yokohama, Osaka, and Kobe. The highest mountain (Mount Fuji, 12,389 feet/3,776 m), the longest river (Shinano, 228 miles/367 kilometers), and the largest lake (Biwa) are all on Honshu. South of Honshu is Shikoku, the smallest of the five major islands. Although it is close to Honshu, Shikoku has been a rustic appendage to the mainstream of activity and development. At the southwest end of Honshu lies the island of Kyushu. It has a subtropical climate and, in a way, it is the “sunshine state” of Japan. It is the island nearest to Korea and to the cultural influences of China. To the north of Honshu lies the large island of Hokkaido, the “Alaska” of Japan, with bitterly cold winters and harsh volcanic mountains. Japan can also be called the land of volcanoes. Violent eruptions occur frequently, and it is believed that there are 108 active volcanoes in the country. Showa-shinzan on Hokkaido and Myojin-sho off the Bayonnaise Rocks in the Pacific are two of the newest volcanoes, born in the 20th century. Japan’s well-known landmark Mount Fuji is also a volcano. As a result of volcanic activity, especially in the northeast and southwest, craterlike depressions called calderas are prevalent, although most are now filled with water, forming lakes.

A LAND OF MOUNTAINS Japan was once part of the great Asian continent. Sometime during the Ice Age, the Asian landmass broke up and the peaks of the old continent became the islands of Japan. The average elevation of the four main islands

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is 1,000 feet (305 m). The Pacific Ocean to the east and south and the Sea of Japan between Japan and China did not erode the land and change it significantly. Neither did the volcanoes, although Japan lies at the confluence of two volcanic belts that ring a large part of the Pacific. Ten percent of the world’s active volcanoes are located in Japan, and it has more than 60 “live” volcanoes—that is, volcanoes that are either active or potentially active. Mount Fuji, Japan’s highest mountain, is a dormant volcano. The Japanese call it “Fuji-san” (san means “mountain”). Mount Fuji is the spiritual symbol of Japan. About 70 percent of Japan is mountainous and too steep for development. This steep terrain has meant that many Japanese traditionally made their living with ships and fishing. Every major city is located near the sea. As island people do everywhere, the Japanese turned to the sea for their sustenance and dreams. But the mountains are always in the background, helping to shape the Japanese character, teaching stoic resilience. Because of volcanic eruptions, the Japanese had to fashion their buildings to withstand upheavals. Using the products of mountain forests, they built timber and straw houses that kept them cool in hot summers but could not insulate them against the harsh winter cold. These traditional houses have nearly all disappeared.

Japanese defense soldiers search among the rubble for missing people in Rikuzentakata city in the aftermath of the March 11, 2011, earthquake.

EARTHQUAKES Earthquakes are a constant danger in Japan. If they occur near the surface, the damage can be tremendous. If they occur along the ocean floor, they can generate a tsunami, a series of huge waves capable of wiping out coastal areas. Interestingly the word tsunami is a Japanese one, meaning “harbor wave.” Tsunamis are sometimes incorrectly called “tidal waves,” but they are not caused by tides.

Geography 13

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The aftermath of the Kobe earthquake in 1995. More than 6,000 people lost their lives in the disaster.

On March 11, 2011, a massive earthquake measuring 9.0 on the Richter scale struck the northeast coast of Japan. This triggered a huge tsunami measuring about 32 feet (10 meters) that reached about 6 miles (10 km) inland, destroying everything in its path. The force of the tsunami was likened to a jetliner, moving across the Pacific at about 500 mph (800 kmh). The twin disasters badly damaged the nuclear power plant in Fukushima, sending government and energy officials scrambling to bring the situation under control. With energy in Japan stretched, the government had to implement rolling blackouts, impacting train services and other economic activities. In the weeks that followed the earthquake, Japan experienced numerous aftershocks, some recorded at over 7 on the Richter scale. This earthquake was the fifth-largest in the world, killing over 13,000 people, and leaving over 15,000 people missing. Similarly, on September 1, 1923, another powerful earthquake rocked the western part of Honshu around the city of Tokyo. The death toll from the earthquake was more than 140,000. Tokyo was flattened; however, within four years modern Tokyo had risen from the ruins. In 2008, more than 90 people were injured and thousands of homes lost their power when a 6.8 magnitude earthquake struck 67 miles (107.82 km) below the Earth’s surface in Iwate in northeastern Japan.

RIVERS AND LAKES The rain- and snow-fed rivers of Japan are generally short, steep, and swift, many of them hurtling like waterfalls to the sea. Few rivers are suitable for navigation except in their lower reaches. The rapid flow from the mountains generates hydroelectric power, a valuable and renewable source. The longest river is the Shinano River. It is 228 miles (367 km) long, and it winds through the Nagano and Niigata prefectures and flows into the Sea of Japan.

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There are also numerous lakes in Japan. Lakes have always held great fascination for the Japanese. Lake Biwa, formerly known as Omi Lake, is located on Honshu, and it is Japan’s largest and most beautiful lake. It is revered by the Japanese for its historical and cultural significance.

CLIMATE Japan belongs to the temperate zone, and it has four distinct seasons. Its climate varies from cool temperate in the north to subtropical in the south. Although Japan is generally a rainy country with high humidity, it also experiences a variety of climates because of its wide range of latitude. Its range is often compared to the east coast of North America. Three major factors influence Japan’s climate. The first is the large air mass over Siberia, a vast region constituting almost all of north Asia. Siberia makes up some 77 percent of Russia. The second is the warm, moist air blowing in from the Pacific. Cutting across these air currents is the third factor—the mountain ranges that run perpendicular to the direction of the winds. During the winter months, December to February, Siberia’s high-pressure areas periodically cause waves of cold air to flow south, lowering the temperature throughout Japan. As the winds from central Siberia cross the Sea of Japan, they meet warm air currents flowing northward, absorb large amounts of moisture and deposit it as snow in the mountains. As a result Japan has one of the heaviest annual snowfalls in the world. During the summer months, June to August, the weather is influenced by the high-pressure areas in the Pacific Ocean and the low-pressure areas over Siberia. The airstreams flow north and east, bringing heat and moisture. Tokyo and Osaka, in particular, are unbearably hot and humid at this time. The highest temperature ever recorded in Tokyo is 102°F (39°C). The winds change in spring and fall, making them the most pleasant times in Japan.

Cars in a parking lot covered by heavy snowfall. “In 1910 Mount Usu erupted with such violence that a new mountain was formed in the convulsions. In 1944 it erupted again and a second new mountain grew up beside the first. To the Japanese people . . . the island [Hokkaido] must resemble a half-wild animal.” —--Alan Booth, Roads to Sata

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INTERESTING FACTS ABOUT JAPAN’S ANIMAL LIFE About 130 mammal species are believed to exist in Japan. These include deer, rabbits, squirrels, bears, and wild boars. Native primate: Japanese macaque Largest snake: Japanese rat snake, 5 feet (1.50 m) long and harmless Famous amphibian: A species of giant salamander of the Cryptobranchidae family, which lives in Kyushu and western Honshu. It is one of the largest living amphibians, reaching 5 feet (1.5 m) in length. Notorious insect: The Japanese beetle, which was accidentally imported into the Americas in 1916. A swarm of Japanese beetles can strip a peach tree in 15 minutes, leaving only branches and pits.

“PLUM RAINS” AND TYPHOONS In early summer cold currents of air flowing from the north meet moist currents from the South Pacific and produce periods of rainy weather. Rains can be intense at times, causing floods and crop damage, but these early summer rains make it possible to grow rice in Japan. The Japanese call them tsuyu—the direct translation of the Chinese characters is “plum rains”—and write poetry about them. This season is also occasionally called “Samidare,” which literally means “rains of the fifth month,” because of the timing.

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At the end of summer Japan is subjected to typhoons blowing in from the Pacific. These winds can reach speeds of 130 miles (209 km) per hour. Like hurricanes, typhoons cause damage, but they also bring rain.

VEGETATION Japan is home to more than 5,600 plant species. Some of these plants are specific to Japan while others grow in numerous other countries. Because of Japan’s climate, which ranges from subtropical to temperate and cold, a great variety of trees can be found in the country. Mangrove swamps are found in the coastal regions of the southern Ryukyus, while in Kyushu, Shikoku, and southern Honshu, evergreens flourish. Mountain forests in central and northern Honshu are rich with broadleaf deciduous trees such as maple, ash, birch, beech, and poplar. Evergreens there include fir, spruce, larch, hemlock, and Japanese cedar. Pines and the white beech grow in Hokkaido. From spring to fall, Japanese forests are a spectacular sight.

INTERNET LINKS www.japan-guide.com/e/e2122.html Mountains, hills, and forests cover more than two-thirds of Japan. This article gives an overview of the some of the popular and well-known plants found in Japan.

www.japaneselifestyle.com.au/japan/japangeography.htm This site provides facts and figures about Japan’s geography, including its coordinates, main islands, and natural hazards.

http://gojapan.about.com/cs/weather/a/climateinjapan.htm This website has information on the weather and climate in Japan. It includes information on Japan’s four distinct seasons as well as weather forecasts.

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The Genbaku Dome in Peace Memorial Park in Hiroshima. This structure was the closest one to the atomic blast to have withstood the explosion.

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CHOLARS DIFFER IN THEIR OPINIONS about early Japanese history because there are limited data available to study. The first known written reference to Japan is in the brief information given in Twenty-Five Histories, a collection of Chinese historical texts.

The other important sources of information are two chronicles written in the eighth century, the Kojiki (Records of Ancient Matters, A.D. 712) and the Nihon Shoki (Written Chronicle of Japan, A.D. 720). Both describe an elaborate mythology. However, the discovery of stone tool implements suggests that people were already living on the islands of Japan during the Upper Paleolithic Age, a period that dates between 40,000 and 10,000 years ago.

2 Japan is unquestionably a modern country. However, it is also a nation deeply rooted in tradition. Many customs and practices that dictate Japanese culture date back several centuries.

THE EARLY JAPANESE The early Japanese, a Mongoloid race, were migrants from China, Korea, and Manchuria who came across the Tsushima Strait, the eastern channel of the Korea Strait, to southwestern Honshu (some believe at Izumo) and Kyushu. Scholars have suggested that the migrants may also have included people of Malay stock from Oceania, the islands of the Pacific. Japan’s early inhabitants were hunter-gatherers and fishers. Around 200 B.C., a new agricultural society developed. The early settlers found a locus of ethnic groups that included the Yamato, Ainu, and Ryukyuans. The Ainu are a Neolithic people who 19

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looked more Caucasoid than Mongoloid, with hairy skin and round eyes. DNA analysis has found that the Ainu represent the descendants of the first inhabitants of Japan and, in 1997, they were officially recognized as Japan’s original inhabitants. Today the Ainu live mainly in the northern part of Honshu and Hokkaido as migrants from the Asian continent have slowly penetrated the whole country.

HEIAN, A GOLDEN AGE

A woodcut of Minamoto Yoritomo.

Japan enjoyed relative peace during the Heian period from A.D. 794 to 1185. It is the final period of classical Japanese history. During this time the capital was moved from Nara to Heian-kyo, which means “the capital of peace and calm,” hence the Heian period. Heian-kyo was later called Kyoto, meaning “capital.” The Heian period is noted for its art, especially its poetry and literature, and it was during this time that the Japanese kana scripts were created. Lady Murasaki Shikibu wrote Japan’s oldest surviving novel, The Tale of Genji (which is also one of the world’s oldest surviving novels), in A.D. 1000, revealing many details of court life.

FEUDAL JAPAN “The strong manly ones in life are those who understand the meaning of the word patience.” ---Tokugawa Ieyasu

While culture flourished the poverty of the general population provoked uprisings. Out of the battles to suppress these rebellions, Minamoto Yoritomo emerged as the most powerful warrior. He challenged the emperor’s authority and the ultimate power passed from the imperial court and its aristocracy in Kyoto to the military lord, the shogun. Minamoto Yoritomo (the Japanese put their family name before their given name) established his seat of government at Kamakura in 1185. In 1192 he was given the title of shogun. It was during the period of the Kamakura

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THE FIRST JAPANESE EMPEROR Japan’s early history was marked by contact with China. It was a time riddled with struggles for power and territory. In the seventh century one strong man emerged: Jimmu Tenno, leader of the Yamato clan and first emperor of the imperial line. According to mythology Japanese emperors are descendants of the sun goddess. The first emperor was given three sacred treasures: a bronze mirror (now at the Grand Shrine of Ise), a sword, and a bead (in another version, this is a string of precious stones). With these treasures he convinced the warring clans of his divine descent. His empire became a powerful one, centered in Nara.

shogunate (a dynasty of a shogun) that the ethical code of the samurai, or Japanese warrior, was developed. Japan was then a feudal society and the samurai were the armed champions of the leading families. Zen Buddhism was also introduced during the Kamakura shogunate, and it became popular among the samurai class. The Kamakura shogunate managed to repel Mongol invasions in 1274 and 1281 thanks to a storm that the Japanese interpreted as kamikaze or “Divine Wind.” ASHIKAGA SHOGUNATE In 1333 the Kamakura shogunate fell and the Ashikaga family took over the shogunate in 1338. Their regime, which lasted until 1573, was racked with rivalry and other troubles. The mountainous terrain made central control difficult, and the country was split into warring states. Regional self-sufficiency became important, and localized industry, transportation facilities, and public works projects were developed.

UNIFICATION The 16th century was a time of major events. Three great men, Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and Tokugawa Ieyasu, unified the country and set the stage for the dawning of modern Japan.

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Oda Nobunaga (1534–82) overpowered his rivals by the use of crude muskets that were being made in central Japan. By 1568 he was the strongest figure and set himself the task of uniting Japan under the control of a single powerful authority. He succeeded in uniting about half the country in the area around Kyoto. Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536–98), one of Oda Nobunaga’s generals, succeeded him. He was a short, unattractive man, but he had a charisma that was both powerful and dynamic. His leadership was marked by the development of several institutions, including a new system of taxation to fund his invasion of Korea (which failed) and the growth of mercantile centers. Japan enjoyed prosperity and stability under Hideyoshi. Tokugawa Ieyasu (1542–1616), who succeeded Hideyoshi, established his position at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. By 1603 Ieyasu had been given the title of shogun by Emperor Go-Yozei of Japan. This cool, unshakable man of iron spent 40 years fighting and developed into a high-caliber military commander as well as a faultless judge of character. The Tokugawa firmly ruled Japan for more than 250 years, during which the country experienced political stability and isolation from foreign influence.

WESTERN INFLUENCE The success of these three military strategists has to be viewed against the background of Western influence. In mid-16th century the first ships from the West arrived in Japan, bringing Christian missionaries who made rapid progress converting the populace. The Westerners also brought with them the smooth bore musket, which changed the strategies of feudal battles. Along with the flow of the Portuguese and Dutch missionaries and traders into southern Japan came an Englishman named Will Adams. Adams eventually became a trusted advisor to Ieyasu. The town of Ito still holds an annual festival in his honor, and there are several monuments to this Westerner in a number of places in Japan. The Christians brought with them many problems, not the least of which was the rivalry among the different Christian groups. The shogunate

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also suspected that the foreign traders and missionaries were in fact forerunners of a military conquest by European powers. In addition the Christians stirred up new loyalties among the Japanese converts, further fueling the shogunate’s suspicion that the loyalty of Christian peasants toward their daimyos or feudal lords had been compromised; so the shogunate began persecuting them. All these problems led to a revolt in 1637 known as the Shimabara Rebellion. During this siege 30,000 Christians, samurai, and peasants faced a massive samurai army of more than 100,000 sent from Edo. After the Shimabara Rebellion, the shogunate placed foreigners under tighter restrictions, monopolizing foreign policy and expelling traders and missionaries.

THE 200-YEAR ISOLATION AND THE WESTERN “INVASION” In 1637 the Tokugawa shogunate finally threw out all foreigners and closed the country to the world. No Japanese were allowed to travel out of Japan, and to make this edict effective, there was a restriction on the size of boats that could be constructed. For the next 200 years Japan was isolated from the world. Only the Dutch were permitted a small trading station on the man-made island of Dejima in Nagasaki. This allowed for some acquisition of Western knowledge that occurred under the Rangaku system. Rangaku literally means “Dutch learning” and through Japan’s contact with the Dutch on Dejima, Japan was able to keep abreast of Western technology and medicine during the time of isolation. Despite the isolation, domestic trade and agricultural production continued to improve. During the Edo period and the Genroku era (1688– 1703), popular culture flourished. New art forms such as kabuki and ukiyo-e gained popularity among townspeople. A strict four-class social system was

An illustration of a samurai. Samurai lived according to “the way of the warrior,” a code of ethics that was Confucian in nature, stressing loyalty, discipline, and respect.

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also implemented during the Edo period. At the top of the social hierarchy stood the samurai class, followed by the peasants, artisans, and merchants. At the bottom of the hierarchy were the outcasts, made up of people with professions that were considered impure, typically butchers and waste handlers. No one was allowed to change his or her social status. The Tokugawa government remained stable for 200 years, but its position had begun to decline steadily because of the worsening financial situation of the government. This led to higher taxes and resulted in riots among the farming population. Natural disasters and years of famine added to Japan’s growing financial worries. In addition cracks started to show in the social hierarchy as the merchant class grew increasingly powerful and many samurai started to depend on them financially. Meanwhile the Europeans and the American pioneers who were building their trading empires had other ideas. At the end of the 18th century the Russian first tried to establish trade contacts with Japan, without success. They were followed by other European nations, and in the 19th century, the Americans decided to make contact with Japan. On July 8, 1853, Commodore Matthew Perry of the U.S. Navy, backed by four warships, two of them powered by steam, entered a bay in Yokohama. Commodore Perry requested that Japan open diplomatic and trade relations with the United States. The guns on the American warships—later called kurofune (ku-roh-foo-ney), or the Black Ships—were positioned facing the town of Uraga, and they displayed the threatening power of the West’s military and technological might. The Japanese rulers were startled and shaken by the American demands. At the same time, from reports that trickled in through the Dutch, they realized that they were defenseless against the new military technology of the West. Making a painful but realistic decision, they made some concessions. On March 31, 1854, Japan signed the Treaty of Peace and Amity, establishing formal diplomatic relations between the two countries. Over the next five years Japan signed similar treaties with other Western countries. Gunboat diplomacy led Japan to give the West unequivocal control of tariffs on imports.

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TRANSFORMATION Many people soon discovered that there were advantages of Western influence, especially in science and the military, and they began to favor a complete opening to the rest of the world. During this time Japan entered a period of intense learning about all things Western. By the selective absorption of Western ideas and technology over the next 50 years, Japan developed into a modern industrial nation. The Japanese examined and sifted through the new concepts and technologies, not by the process of human contact, but by close study of books and objects. Perhaps this is why the country emerged from the modernizing process with its inner soul still Japanese. Although Japan is arguably the most successful industrial economy today and an icon of the modern world, it remains an enigma to many, and the gaijin, meaning “foreigners,” often find the Japanese so much like themselves, yet so different at their core. MEIJI RESTORATION From 1867 to 1868 the Tokugawa era met its end and the Meiji Restoration began. The emperor Meiji was moved from Kyoto to Tokyo, making it the new capital. The emperor’s imperial power was also restored. During this period there was fierce nationalism and intense socioeconomic restructuring. Japan was determined to close the gap with the Western powers both economically and militarily. Drastic reforms were carried out in almost all areas. Many Western institutions were adopted, including a Western legal system and quasi-parliamentary constitutional government. The samurai were the biggest losers in the social reforms, which aimed to achieve equality among all people, religious freedom, and human rights. The samurai lost all their privileges, and the boundaries between social classes began to break down. The education system also started to change. It first took the shape of the French system and the German system later. Education was made mandatory for all. Many Japanese scholars were also sent abroad to study

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Western science and languages while foreign experts were hired to teach in Japan. The main purpose of Western education was to transform the agrarian economy of the Tokugawa to a developed industrial one. Transportation and communication networks were improved through the help of large government investments and by 1890 more than 1,400 miles (2,250 km) of railroad had been constructed. The government supported many local business and industries, particularly large family-owned businesses called zaibatsus (zye-baht-soos, which literally means “economic group”). There was also a revival of conservative and nationalistic feelings. Principles of Confucianism and Shinto, including emperor worship, were increasingly emphasized and taught in schools. Catching up on the military sector was a high priority for Japan during the era of European and American imperialism. Universal conscription was introduced and a new army was modeled after the Prussian force.

MILITARY MIGHT In the 87 years between 1854, when America forced Japan to end its isolation, and the start of the war in the Pacific in 1941, Japan built up a fighting force. In 1894 Japan fought China over control of Korea. To the world’s surprise Japan defeated China, gaining Taiwan, parts of China, and recognizing Korean independence. Much to Japan’s resentment, Russia, France, and Germany forced Japan to return the Chinese territory. Emperor Meiji met the massive popular indignation with a plea that they should try “to bear the unbearable.” In 1945, when Japan surrendered at the end of World War II, Emperor Hirohito used the same words. Another battle, the Battle of the Sea of Japan against the Russian fleet during the Russo-Japanese War in 1905, had a greater historical impact than the war with China. In two days the Japanese destroyed the Russian Baltic fleet of 40 vessels. It was the first major victory of an Asian nation against a Western one and it established Japan as a world power. It destroyed the myth of Western invulnerability and had an energizing effect on the morale of Asian nationalists in colonized territories.

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KAMIKAZE In 1274 and 1281 the Mongol conqueror Kublai Khan attempted to conquer Japan, but failed because typhoons destroyed his ships. The Japanese regarded the typhoon as a divine intervention and called it kamikaze, or “wind of the gods.” During World War II they applied this name to their force of suicide pilots. In Japan there was a struggle between the militarists, who wanted war, and the moderates, who did not. Charged with confidence from the RussoJapanese War, the militaristic elements in the country gained strength and adopted an expansionist policy. In 1910 Japan annexed Korea, ruling it for the next 35 years, and in 1931 Japan occupied Manchuria, then expanded into Inner Mongolia and parts of China. By 1936 Japanese military leaders controlled the Japanese government.

THE WAR IN THE PACIFIC World War II began in Europe in 1939. Japan continued its expansion in Asia and signed an agreement with Germany and Italy. In July 1941 Japanese troops moved into Vietnam. The United States, Great Britain, and Holland responded with an economic embargo of Japan. Talks between the United States and Japan failed in November 1941, and a Japanese fleet assembled in the Kurile Islands northeast of Hokkaido set sail for the North Pacific. At dawn on December 7, 1941, Japanese planes bombed the U.S. Pacific fleet anchored at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, crippling the U.S. fleet in the surprise attack. The Japanese army swept quickly through Southeast Asia and the Pacific islands. Hong Kong, Burma, Thailand, Malaya, Indonesia, and the Philippines fell to Japanese control.

WORLD WAR II ENDS The Battle of Midway, fought between the Japanese navy and the Allied forces in June 1942, in which the Japanese were beaten, was the turning point of the

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war in the Pacific. Over the next three years Japan lost a series of battles. In February 1945 American forces landed on Iwo Jima. The Japanese fought to the last man. The total area of Iwo Jima is 7.5 square miles (19.42 square km), and capturing it cost 7,000 American lives. The Japanese fought with the same ferocity through April, May, and June on Okinawa. Almost 200,000 soldiers and civilians lost their lives. At 8:15 A.M. on August 6, 1945, an American airplane dropped an atomic bomb on the Japanese city of Hiroshima. Russia declared war on Japan on August 8. A second atomic bomb was dropped on Nagasaki on August 9. On August 13 over 1,500 planes bombarded Tokyo. On August 8 American aircraft had dropped thousands of leaflets over Tokyo, giving the Japanese the details of messages exchanged between the Allies and the Japanese government. Emperor Hirohito announced Japan’s surrender on August 14, 1945.

THE OCCUPATION As a result of its defeat in World War II, the empire of Japan was dissolved. Japan lost all its overseas possessions; its large cities, industries, and

Young women walking under the bomb netting in post-World War II Japan.

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transportation networks were severely damaged. There was a severe food shortage for several years. The remains of Japan’s war machine were destroyed and war-crime trials were held. Postwar Japan was placed under international control of the American-led Allied powers in the Asia Pacific region led by General Douglas MacArthur, the Supreme Commander of the Allied powers. A new constitution went into effect in 1947 that saw the emperor lose all his military and political power. He became a mere symbol of the state. Universal suffrage was introduced and human rights were guaranteed. Japan was forbidden to enter or lead another war and it could never maintain an army again. Japan was rebuilt along the lines of the Western world, but it was not a wholesale enforcement of Western models. There was careful selection of what could be changed. There were misjudgments, too, such as when the occupation administration tried to dissolve the powerful zaibatsu, but altogether the changes helped set the foundations of postwar Japan in areas such as the constitution, the legal system, and language, and the cooperation between the Japanese and the Allied powers worked relatively smoothly.

INTERNET LINKS www.japan-guide.com/e/e641.html To comprehend any contemporary society, a knowledge and understanding of its history are essential. These pages present general and concise facts about Japanese history.

www.japan-101.com/history/history_complete_overview.htm This article presents a complete overview of Japan’s history, from its classical history to post–World War II.

www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/japan_no_surrender_01. shtml This site provides an in-depth look at the end of World War II.

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The Tocho, or Tokyo Metropolitan Government, building in Tokyo.

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APAN IS A constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary government. Sovereignty was previously embodied in the emperor, but as in the United Kingdom, the monarch today has no legal powers although he still commands great respect and is a ceremonial figurehead. Akihito is the current emperor of Japan. Sovereignty is vested in the Japanese people and there is universal adult suffrage with a secret ballot for all elective offices.

3 Power in Japan is held chiefly by the prime minister and other elected members of the Diet. The Diet is composed of a lower house called the House of Representatives and an upper house called the House of Councillors or Chancellors. The Diet is responsible for selecting the prime minister. Despite the Diet’s power, the emperor is still seen as a sovereign symbol

The Japanese parliament, known as the Diet, in session.

of the state. 31

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The Japanese emperor, Akihito, addressing the people on New Year’s Day.

The imperial family of Japan descends from an unbroken lineage of nearly 2,000 years. No other royal family in history has held its position for so long. The origins of the imperial family are obscure and mixed with myth, but historians generally agree that the first emperor ruled around the time of Christ. The family laid claim to divine origin and held a role of religious leadership, but these were renounced on New Year’s Day, 1946. The imperial family survived the power struggles of feudal Japan because the military men who controlled the land always kept the emperor as the symbolic head of their nation. Throughout the centuries the family has been a quiet and stabilizing influence on Japan.

DEMOCRACY AND THE GOVERNMENT Japan’s government is a parliamentary democracy, and it is the first Asian country to introduce a parliamentary system. The first constitution, introduced in 1889, did not give power to the people; the emperor still had ultimate control. However, it did lay the foundation for future democracy.

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Today Japan is administered under a constitution that was completely redrafted by the American administration in 1947. Japan’s second constitution retained the monarchy but subjected it to the will of the people. The Japanese parliament, the Diet, is made up of two chambers. The 480 members of the House of Representatives serve a term of four years. The 242 members of the House of Councillors serve a six-year term. There are three types of elections in the Japanese political system: general elections to the House of Representatives held every four years, elections to the House of Councillors held every three years to choose half of its members, and local elections held every four years for offices in prefectures, cities, and villages. Election committees supervise elections. The minimum voting age is 20 years. Each voter votes twice, once for a candidate in the local constituency and once for a party. For many years Japan was a one-partydominant state, with the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) at the helm of the nation’s government. However, the groundbreaking 2009 elections handed the first non-LDP victory to the Democratic Party of Japan. The Diet designates the prime minister, who is the head of the government and constitution requires that the prime minister commands

Newly elected Nagoya mayor Takashi Kawamura celebrating his win in 2011.

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MAJOR POLITICAL PARTIES Party

Representatives

Councillors

Democratic Party of Japan

308

106

Liberal Democratic Party

119

84

New Komeito Party

21

19

Your Party*

5

11

Japan Communist Party

9

6

Social Democratic Party

7

4

People’s New Party

3

3

Sunrise Party

0

3

New Renaissance Party

0

2

New Party Nippon

1

1

Happiness Realization Party

1

New Party Daichi

1

0

Independents

6

2

TOTAL

480

242

(As of November 2010) * Your Party, or Minna no To, which means “everyone’s party” in Japanese, is led by Yoshimi Watanabe, who split from the Liberal Democratic Party. parliamentary majority. Naoto Kan became prime minister in June 2010, following the resignation of Yukio Hatoyama amid a dispute over a U.S. air base. Mr. Kan is Japan’s fifth prime minister in four years and the first in over a decade not to hail from a political dynasty. The next election for the House of Representatives will be held in July 2013 while the election for the House of Councillors was held in July 2010. In the 2010 elections, the Democratic Party of Japan, the country’s ruling party, won only 44 seats, well short of a majority.

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Japan is divided into 47 districts called prefectures. There are city, town, and village assemblies for local administration.

THE LEGAL SCENE Japan’s court system is divided into four basic tiers. There are 438 Summary Courts scattered across Japan. These courts usually handle small claims and cannot imprison a defendant for more than three years. Summary Courts are presided over by one judge. There is one District Court in each prefecture, except for Hokkaido, which has four because of its large geographic size. These are courts of general jurisdiction and all District Courts have branch locations associated with them. District Courts are presided over by at least one judge and they handle felony, civil, and bankruptcy cases. There are eight High Courts, which serve defined circuits of several prefectures. A High Court usually sits in the same manner as a threejudge District Court and a president who is appointed by the cabinet leads each court. The constitution provides for the democratic foundation for the separation of state powers. What this means is that legislative power is vested in the Diet while executive power is vested in the cabinet. The Diet is empowered to designate the prime minister, who is the head of the cabinet, from among the members of the Diet. Judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court and it is, in principle, a body to counterbalance the powers of the Diet and the cabinet. The chief justice and 14 associate justices of the Supreme Court are, however, appointed by the cabinet for life terms (they retire at age 70). There has never been any major confrontation among these three centers of power. In addition there is a Family Court that is tied to each District Court as well as more than 200 branch offices of the District Courts throughout the country. Family Courts deal with divorce and juvenile delinquency cases. Their power is largely limited to mediation and in the event that a settlement cannot be reached between two parties, the case is transferred to a District Court.

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Japanese law is framed in written codes, introduced in the 19th century, which are referred to but not upheld rigidly. Jury law was first introduced to Japan in 1923 under the leadership of Prime Minister Kato Tomosaburo. The system lapsed by the end of Japan’s mid-century wars. However, in May 2004, as part of a larger judicial reform project, laws were enacted to encourage citizen participation in some criminal trials and a quasi-jury system took effect in May 2009.

DEFENSE The 1947 constitution included a “no-war” clause (Article 9), one of the requirements of the MacArthur administration. The army and navy were abolished. In 1951 Japan and the United States signed a security treaty. Because of these developments, Japan continues to maintain close economic and military relations with the United States, its key ally. Japan has a small defense force that is governed by the Ministry of Defense and consists primarily of the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force set up in 1954, the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force, and the Japan Air Self-Defense Force.

Ground Self-Defense Force soldiers march during an inspection at the Asaka base.

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These forces have been used in peacekeeping missions in recent years. The deployment of Japanese troops to Iraq marked the first overseas use of Japan’s military since World War II. Recent tensions, particularly with North Korea, have reignited the debate over Japan’s Self-Defense Force in relation to Japanese society. Recent developments include the proposition of constitutional revisions in 2005 that would create a cabinet-level Defense Ministry while keeping the old clauses of nonaggression as well as deepening security and military ties with Australia. In 2009 Japan’s military expenditure was 0.9 percent of its gross domestic product (GDP).

THE POLICE Law enforcement is provided by the Prefectural Police under the oversight of the National Police Agency, or NPA. The total strength of its police force stands at about 289,000, of which 97 percent are affiliated with local police forces.

INTERNET LINKS www.courts.go.jp/english/system/system.html#01 This website offers an overview of the judicial system in Japan. It also includes a guide to judicial proceedings.

www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ja.html This site provides facts and figures about Japan’s legislative and executive branches and administrative divisions.

www.mofa.go.jp/j_info/japan/government/index.html This is the official site of the prime minister of Japan and his cabinet. It also provides links to other governmental departments, along with upto-date information on political developments.

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A Japanese farmer harvesting cabbage.

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N THE YEARS FOLLOWING World War II, government-industry cooperation, a strong work ethic, mastery of technology, and low military spending all helped Japan develop a superior economy.

4 Japan’s economic growth is often referred to as a postwar

For three decades starting in the 1960s, Japan experienced rapid economic growth. Average growth rates were 10 percent in the 1960s, 5 percent in the 1970s, and 4 percent in the 1980s. Up until 2010 Japan was able to establish and maintain itself as the world’s second-largest economy until it was supplanted by China.

economic miracle.

There are two notable characteristics of the Japanese economy during its miracle years. The first was the cooperation of manufacturers,

the United States

Today Japan’s economy is the third-largest in the world after

and China.

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suppliers, distributors, and banks in closely knit groups called keiretsu (ka-ret-soo). A keiretsu is a set of companies with interlocking business relationships and shareholdings. During the occupation of Japan, General MacArthur tried to dissolve zaibatsus, the financial and industrial business conglomerates. He was only partially successful because the companies that were targeted for dissolution later reintegrated to share purchases and form horizontally integrated alliances across several industries. Keiretsu companies may supply to each other, making their alliances vertical as well. The major keiretsu were each centered around one bank that lent money to the keiretsu’s member companies and held equity positions in the companies. The bank acted as both a monitoring and emergency bailout entity, possessing great control over the companies within the keiretsu. The second characteristic was the guarantee of lifetime employment for a substantial portion of the labor force. These two features have come under the pressures of global competition and domestic demographic change. As a result these features have begun to erode. In the 1980s Japanese multinational corporations built factories all over the world. Japanese brands such as Mitsubishi, Sanyo, and Aiwa are household

A welding robot at work in an automobile factory.

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ECONOMIC FACTS •

Sixty-eight percent of Japan’s labor force is in the services sector while 4 percent is in agriculture and 28 percent in industry.

•

Zero percent of the Japanese population is below the poverty line.

•

Japan ranks 12th out of 178 countries in the Ease of Doing Business Index 2008, and it has one of the smallest governments in the developed world.

•

Japan is home to 326 companies from the Forbes Global 2000, an annual ranking of the top 2,000 public companies in the world.

•

Japan’s main export goods are cars, electronic devices, computers, transport equipment, motor vehicles, semiconductors, electrical machinery, and chemicals.

•

Japan’s most important trade partners are China and the United States, followed by South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, Thailand, and Germany.

•

Important import goods are machinery and equipment, fuels, foodstuffs, chemicals, textiles, and raw materials.

•

The Japanese currency is the yen.

names across the globe. However, in the early 1990s, the Japanese economy slowed dramatically, when the “bubble economy” collapsed, marked by plummeting stock and real estate prices. Japan eventually recovered from its worst period of economic stagnation since World War II, but real GDP growth never returned to rates of the postwar years. Instead real GDP in Japan grew at an average of only 1 percent a year in the 1990s. After sustaining several consecutive years of growth between 2003 and 2007, the economy once again began to slow in line with global economic conditions. In 2008 the country fell into its first recession in six years. Worldwide demand for its goods plunged, and the Bank of Japan reported real GDP growth of -5.2 percent in 2009. Japan’s huge government debt is estimated to have reached 192 percent of GDP in 2009. The fact that the population is both aging and shrinking has been a major, long-run problem for the economy of the country.

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THE JAPANESE WORKER Japan’s labor force consists of more than 65 million workers, 48 percent of whom are women. Japan has a low unemployment rate of 4 percent, and according to the Big Mac Index, an informal way of measuring the purchasing power parity between two currencies, Japanese workers earn the highest salary per hour in the world.

Office workers at the Tamachi train station waiting to cross the street.

The Japanese business culture has many indigenous concepts such as nemawashi, which literally means “going around the roots.” This is an informal process of quietly laying the foundation of a proposed project by talking to the people concerned. Another concept is the “salaryman.” This term refers to someone whose income is salary-based. It is used to describe a Japanese white-collar businessman. In modern use the term carries associations of long working hours, low prestige in the corporate hierarchy, and the absence of significant sources of income other than salary. Japanese industries have overtaken the world in marketing technologically new products partly because of industrial strategies and partly because of the discipline and full commitment of their workers. Most workers believe that the company is more important than the individual worker, and the common goal of more profits for the company is the base on which disputes are resolved. Given this attitude it is not surprising that there are no major trade union disputes, certainly nothing like the labor-management disputes often seen in the United States and the United Kingdom. Some of the largest enterprises in Japan include Toyota, Nintendo, Canon, Honda, Toshiba, and Mitsubishi.

COUNTING THE COST The double tragedy of the March 11, 2011, earthquake and tsunami has also come at great economic cost to Japan. The World Bank estimates that the

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disasters could cost Japan’s economy over 235 billion (2.8 billion US dollars) and that recovery could take up to five years. This puts greater pressure on Japan’s already flagging economy, which has been plagued by a huge government debt, persistent deflation, and problems such as an aging and shrinking population. It is hoped that rebuilding and reconstruction efforts will eventually bolster the country’s domestic economy. Japan’s agricultural and manufacturing (especially the auto industry) sectors in particular have been affected. Fears that produce and seafood from Japan have been contaminated by radiation as a result of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear crisis have led some countries to temporarily cease importing Japanese food products. Many factories have been shut down as a result of production cuts. Energy cuts have led the government to implement rolling blackouts, which also affect production, manufacturing, and transportation. Many tourists are also putting their trips to Japan on hold amid earthquake, tsunami, and radiation fears.

INTERNET LINKS www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ja.html This site provides facts, figures, and statistics about the Japanese economy taken from the CIA World Factbook.

www.investopedia.com/articles/economics/09/japanese-keiretsu.asp Keiretsu, the Japanese corporate government system, dates back to the 1600s but was propelled to importance during the Meiji Restoration when the world entered an industrial revolution. This article examines the collapse of the zaibatsu and the rise of the keiretsu. www.japan-guide.com/e/e644.html The Japanese economy is the third-largest in the world. This website on the country’s economy looks at the country’s major exports and imports as well as the cost of living in Japan.

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Leaves turning color during fall in Nagano.

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APAN IS A HIGHLY INDUSTRIALIZED nation. Some well-known Japanese products include heavy machinery and factory equipment; metals and metal products for use in construction and manufacturing; electronic equipment such as television sets, radios, cameras, and home appliances; textiles; automobiles; and chemicals. Japan, however, possesses no significant energy or mineral deposits. The country must import most of its energy supplies, primarily from the Middle East, and it is one of the most efficient users of energy among the world’s advanced industrial nations.

5 Japan’s economy experienced rapid growth after World War II. Government and industrial corporations downplayed environmental policies, resulting in significant environmental pollution.

Nevertheless Japan, like other industrial nations, produces pollutants that contribute to the depletion of the ozone layer and global warming. The Japanese government set up the National Environment Agency to restrict pollution of the environment caused by Japan’s industrial growth in the 1950s and 1960s and to preserve the remaining natural environment. To date Japan has some of the strictest environmental regulations of any industrialized nation, and the quality of Japan’s environment has improved in recent Right: A man drives a pedal-powered Velo taxi. 45

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Smoke being released by a factory in Takaoka. Since the 1990s, Japan has tightened its environmental legislation.

decades. It was ranked 20th best in the world in the 2010 Environmental Performance Index. Public interest in the environment in Japan has also increased in recent years, and Japan has become one of the world’s leaders in the development of new environmentally friendly technology. The most important pressures on Japan’s environment today originate from transportation, agriculture, industry, the growth of energy demand, and private final consumption. Environmental issues that take priority include urban air pollution, waste management, nature conversation, and climate change.

POLLUTION Environmental pollution has accompanied industrialization since the Meiji period. One of Japan’s first major encounters with pollution took place at the end of the 19th century, when runoff from the Ashio copper mine in Tochigi prefecture polluted nearby rivers and fields, poisoning not just fish and crops but also the human residents of the area. The local farmers from Tochigi appealed to the prefecture and the government to call a halt to the mining operations. Although the mining company compensated the farmers, no fundamental solution to the problem was achieved. Pollution became widespread during the period of high-paced industrial growth that began in the 1950s. From the mid-1960s onward Japan suffered serious air, water, soil, and noise pollution. People who lived near factories that burned oil or coal, such as chemical plants, steelworks, and electric power plants, developed respiratory ailments. Bronchitis and asthma affected those living near the industrial complex in Yokkaichi, Mie prefecture.

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Another example of factory waste pollution was the mercury poisoning in the city of Minamata in Kumamoto prefecture. At first the source of the poisoning was unknown, and the ailments that people developed were referred to simply as Minamata disease. Scientists eventually discovered that mercury discharged by a factory had been leaking into Minamata Bay. People who ate the contaminated fish and shellfish from the area developed numbness and other disorders of the central nervous system. In the 1990s Japan’s environmental legislation was tightened. The environment law system was reorganized and the government legislated the Basic Environment Law and related laws. The Environment Agency was also promoted to the Ministry of Environment in 2001 and was given the authority to deal with deteriorating international environmental problems.

Trees with cherry blossoms in bloom, with Mount Yyogi in the background in Myogi Arafune Saku National Park.

NATURE CONSERVATION The massive nationwide rebuilding efforts in the aftermath of World War II and the development of the following decades have all contributed to vast and rapid urbanization and construction. There are several government bodies that manage conservation policy. The Environment Agency, through its Nature Conservation Bureau, is responsible for formulating conservation policies. It also manages national parks, wilderness areas, and nature conservation areas. The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries administers forest reserves and forests considered important for soil and water conservation purposes, and for their scenic beauty. The Agency for Cultural Affairs provides protection by designating certain plants, animals, or landscapes as “natural monuments.” The main legislation on conservation is the Nature Conservation Law of 1972. There are currently 29 national parks, which are designated and administered by the Environment Agency, and 56 quasi-national parks,

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Mount Asahidake in Daisetsuzan National Park in Hokkaido.

which are designated and administered by the local government under the supervision of the ministry. The area of each national park is divided into four categories of special zones that determine the degree of protection. Generally less than 50 percent of the area is reserved within the two highest protection zones. Kushiro Marsh in Hokkaido and Lake Biwa in Shiga prefecture, which are famous waterfowl habitats, have been designated as special protection districts. Several locations in the country are on the World Heritage List of natural properties, including the Shirakami mountain range in the Tohoku region and the island of Yakushima in Kagoshima prefecture.

WASTE MANAGEMENT Garbage disposal in Japan is a serious problem. Japan is third on the list of countries that produce the most trash in the world. Households and offices produce approximately 903 pounds (410 kg) of trash per person each year, and the mountain of garbage seems to be growing every year. It is estimated that Japan produces about 52 million tons of trash a year. Waste produced by factories and at construction sites also continues to rise, and there is a shortage of available land for landfill areas where waste can be buried between layers of earth to build up low-lying land. Japan has taken a more proactive approach to waste management in recent years. City and prefectural authorities have begun focusing on the reduction of solid waste that goes to landfills. Their approach relies heavily on several factors, including technological advancement in incineration and plastics recycling, comprehensive labeling for production-side recycling, and wide consumer and household participation in recycling and waste material separation.

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RECYCLING Recycling in Japan is based on the Japanese Container and Packaging Recycling Law. The Ministry of Environment enacted this law in 1997 to reduce the waste of PET bottles, glass containers, and paper cartons. According to the law consumers are required to follow sorting guidelines, which are established by the various municipalities. The sorted waste is then collected by the municipalities and stored to be collected later by the recycling company. Manufacturing and business entities that use containers and packages are required to pay a recycling fee to the Japanese Container and Package Recycling Association (JCPRA), a governmentdesignated organization that conducts the recycling. Although recycling of steel cans is not regulated by the law, in 2006, about 99 percent of the municipalities collected and recycled them. According to statistics produced by the Japan Steel Can Recycling Association, 88.1 percent of steel cans have been recycled since 2006.

Recycling bins at train stations allow people to recycle easily.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROGRAMS AND INITIATIVES Japan has laws to encourage and promote good environmental practices and several select committees to work on environmental issues. It has become one of the world’s leaders in the development of new environmentally friendly technologies. In 2007 Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel economy and lowest emissions. In 2005, as a means to reduce electric consumption by limiting the use of air conditioning, the Ministry of Environment began advocating the Cool Biz Campaign. According to the campaign, central government ministries were to set air-conditioner temperatures at 82.4° F (28°C) during summer.

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A sign indicating an environmental protection area in Yamagata-ken.

The goal was to reduce energy consumption. In addition a Cool Biz dress code was imposed. Workers were told to wear starched collars so they stand up and trousers made from materials that breathe and absorb moisture. They were also encouraged to wear shortsleeved shirts without ties or jackets to help them to stay cool in the office without lowering the air conditioner. The ministry has estimated that CO2 emissions have fallen by 460,000 tons (467,381 metric tons) because of this campaign. Although Cool Biz has spread energy savings to all businesses, one sector has asked the government to end the campaign. According to estimates, the necktie business has suffered, and there are claims that summer sales have dropped by 35 percent since 2005. Japan is also a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol and host of the 1997 conference that created it. Under treaty obligations Japan has to reduce its CO2 emissions and take other steps related to curbing climate change. Japan provides support to environmental protection projects globally through its international aid programs and nongovernmental organizations. Japan also works closely with the United States on a number of environmental issues such as climate change. In November 2010 Japan and the United States reaffirmed their cooperation on the development of technology to create clean energy alternatives to rare natural materials.

FUKUSHIMA DAIICHI NUCLEAR CRISIS In March, 2011, the Fukushima Daiichi power plant was severely damaged by the 9.0 magnitude earthquake and subsequent tsunami. Four of its six nuclear reactors were in danger of a meltdown after power that ran the cooling systems were knocked out. With its cooling systems defunct, pressure

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from radioactive steam from within the reactors began to build and had to be released. The status of the nuclear crisis was rated as Level 7, putting it on par with the Chernobyl nuclear catastrophe in 1986. Efforts to contain the situation were hampered by powerful aftershocks, threats of tsunamis and radiation. The fuel rods were kept cool by pumping water into the reactors. As the situation escalated, residents living in a 12-mile (20-km) radius of the nuclear plant were evacuated and a no-fly zone was implemented. Workers at the plant also had to figure out how to dispose of the radioactive waste water. Some water was discharged into the pacific ocean and there is concern over how marine life will be affected. The government has advised that produce, livestock, and water from the area not be consumed after higher levels of radiation was detected in them. The situation at Fukushima Daiichi has put the safety of nuclear energy under the microscope, with some countries re-evaluating their plans to construct plants or continue with nuclear energy.

INTERNET LINKS www.oecd.org/dataoecd/0/17/2110905.pdf The most important pressures on Japan’s environment today originate from transportation, agriculture, industry and the growth of energy demand, and private final consumption.

www.env.go.jp/en/nature/npr/ncj/index.html Through the Ministry of Environment, Japan has laws and initiatives in place to facilitate nature conservation.

http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=40320 Japan provides support to environmental protection projects around the world, and it uses climate change and environmental issues to promote positive transborder relations with its neighbors.

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The Japanese are very proud of their heritage and culture and wear their traditional dress on special occasions.

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HE MAJORITY OF THE JAPANESE are a Mongoloid subgroup—that is, they generally have the Mongoloid physical features of yellowish skin, epicanthic eyes, prominent cheekbones, and black hair.

6 The Japanese people are an ethnic group originating in

Japan’s population, which stands at about 127 million, has experienced a phenomenal growth rate in the last century due to scientific, industrial, and sociological changes. This, however, has recently slowed because of falling birthrates. In 2005 Japan’s population declined for the first time.

the Japanese

Although the term Japanese people may be used in some contexts to refer to a locus of ethnic groups, including the Yamato people, Ainu people, and Ryukyuans, the origin of the race is controversial. There is one theory that Japanese were living on the Japanese islands from the Stone Age. Another suggests that since the early Stone Age there has been an eastward migration on the Asian continent, the farthest point reached being Japan. When Japan was separated from the mainland, the Japanese race developed out of mixed migrants from China, Manchuria, and Korea. Yet another theory suggests that there could have been migrants to the region from the Oceanic or Malay regions. In 2005 a study by Michael F. Hammer reported genetic similarities between the Japanese and other Asian populations. However, the similar Y-chromosome is not found in Ainu and Ryukyuan people.

people in

THE AINU

archipelago. There are approximately 130 million

the world of Japanese descent, and some 127 million of them reside in Japan. People of Japanese ancestry who live outside of Japan are referred to as nikkeijin (nick-jay-jin).

One thing is clear, however: Before the migrants—whoever they were— arrived, a race called the Ainu lived in Japan. The Ainu are markedly 53

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non-Mongoloid, with the Caucasoid features of fair skin, abundant body hair, rounded eyes, and flatter cheekbones. Studies relate them to the Uralic, Altaic, and Tungusic populations of Russian Siberia. According to official estimates, there are around 30,000 to 50,000 remaining Ainu, although the unofficial number is more than 100,000 people. Over the centuries the Japanese migrants drove the resisting Ainu northward, where many of them live today. The Ainu are distributed in the northern and central islands of Japan, from Sakhalin island in the north to the Kurile islands, Hokkaido, and Honsh. Historically the Ainu people speak the Ainu language. Today, however, most Ainu speak Japanese or Russian. The Ainu religion is animistic, one that believes that all natural objects, such as animals, trees, and stones, possess a spirit. The bear plays a prominent role in many Ainu folktales. Many present-day Shinto rites are derived from Ainu rituals, and a few Ainu place names, including Mount Fuji, form part of the Japanese vocabulary. Traditionally dressed Ainu girls.

THE JAPANESE DIASPORA The term nikkeijin refers to Japanese people who have emigrated from Japan. Emigration was recorded as early as the 12th century. At the time emigrants moved to the Philippines. It was not until the Meiji era that emigration became a mass phenomenon that saw Japanese moving to the United States, Canada, Peru, Brazil, and Argentina. According to the Association of Nikkei and Japanese Abroad, there are about 2.5 million nikkeijin living overseas. The largest of these foreign communities are in the Brazilian states of Sao Paolo and Parana.

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THE JAPANESE CHARACTER The Japanese are a very disciplined people whose society is divided into many compact groups. Being attracted to a group and the desire to be immersed in a group are basic to the Japanese character. The Japanese have to belong to a unit—such as a family—because it gives them a sense of security. To a large extent they surrender their individuality in exchange for the security of belonging to a group. The basic unit is the home, as in most human societies. But although the Japanese retain the bond of the family or extended family all through life, they go further and transfer this bond to almost all other spheres of their lives: school, university, and work. In the legal field Japanese lawyers refer to the groups to which they belong as the mura (moo-rah), meaning “village.” Although strong attachments to groups have many advantages, there are some disadvantages as well. Emotions can be raised to exclude outsiders, even to the extent of forgetting the wider or umbrella group to which one also belongs. Conforming to styles and rituals can also stifle individualism, and the group leader may at times extract blind obedience, exploiting the group for selfish ends. PROS AND CONS OF THE GROUP SYSTEM The disadvantages of group compactness can be seen in several areas of Japanese life. There is poor cooperation among the three different Buddhist organizations. Research teams made up of experts from different universities do not work together successfully in Japan. The merger of two of the largest breweries was prevented by the blind loyalty of employees to their individual company and their total faith in its management style. There is no “all-Japan” intellectual journal because several attempts to get various intellectual groups to work together have failed. Having said that, there are also advantages in group loyalty. The Japanese have learned over the years to extract maximum human effort through the spirit of compact teams. It is one of the most important reasons for their industrial success.

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Group leaders generally do not bully their teams or forcibly push their ideas on the group. They have an almost paternal sense of responsibility for their group members and a constant awareness that everyone must play a part in decision making to ensure that the group stays united.

RELATIONSHIPS Strong, cohesive forces operate within the Japanese group to weld it together. These are the oya-ko (oh-yah-koh) and sempai-kohai (sam-pie koh-high) relationships built up from early childhood.

A Japanese family. The family forms the basic unit in society and notions of hierachy are instilled in the Japanese from a young age.

Oya-ko means “parent-child.” It describes the relationship between parents and children in Japan. The respectful attitude of the child toward the parent is fostered, but the responsibility of the parent is equally emphasized. The sempai-kohai relationship is between a senior and a junior, whether at work, in a voluntary organization, or at the university. It is a powerful force that tempers the enthusiasm and hotheadedness of youth and keeps seniors in close touch with the thoughts and feelings of their juniors. THE HIERARCHICAL SOCIETY The oya-ko and sempai-kohai relationships put everyone on a series of steps: A person is a parent and also a child, a sempai or a kohai under different circumstances. These relationships arrange Japanese people in a series of layers, making it a hierarchical society. Everyone is ranked. The ranking gives every member of the community a particular place. It is a solution to the conflicts of competition, ambition, and envy; if one’s position is fixed and clear, these feelings are defused. How do the Japanese resolve the inequality that is part of a hierarchical system? Quite simply the question of inequality does not arise because the ranking is completely accepted in their hearts. Many other societies are split into layers of levels and ranks. With the Japanese it is a deep-seated

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belief that spills over into other areas. The Japanese have a tendency to rank everything: universities, products, and skills, for example. This behavior comes with the desire to obtain all things ichiryu (i-chi-riyou), or first-class, if it can be afforded. In a way it is a striving for top quality. SOCIAL MOBILITY The groups and preordained levels are almost exclusive, but there are ways out of the system— opportunities to move in and out of groups and up and down the ladder of ranks exist, although these are difficult. Built into the system are complicated ways to cross barriers, which ensures that only the exceptional individual can climb over these hurdles that the ordinary person is not permitted to surmount.

Japanese elementary students with their teacher.

A SENSE OF DUTY All Japanese are conscious of their obligations. The obligation to return favors received and to do the right thing for one’s group is so complex that several words are required to cover all its meanings—gimu (gi-moo) and giri (gi-ri), both of which mean “duty,” and on (ohn), which means “favor.” To the Japanese doing one’s duty is of the utmost importance.

“SAVING FACE” Intertwined with the sense of duty and the sempai-kohai relationship is the concept of personal image or “face” and the emotions and behavior that it inspires. One must treat one’s sempai with reverence and be gentle with one’s kohai, always conscious of their feelings. Disgracing oneself affects them, too, and causes them shame, or loss of “face.” Appearances and “face” have to be maintained at all times.

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This means that the inner self has to be masked most of the time. Thus Japanese avoid giving a clear answer that commits them fully and tend to shrink from any direct confrontation. This is not deceit or shiftiness. It is necessary to use masks to keep interpersonal relationships smooth. The Japanese describe their “split personality” with two words: tatemae (tah-tay-mah-eh) is the facade (what appears in front, the external image), and honne (hohn-nay) is the real root, the true, inner self. A salesperson in a department store bowing to customers as they enter.

BODY LANGUAGE Japanese are extremely observant and send out the most subtle bodylanguage messages. They call this haragei (hah-rah-gay) or the “belly feel,” listening to the subconscious voice that interprets the minutest sign: a twitch of a facial muscle, an eye movement, or a gesture. When two Japanese meet, the process begins with the ritual of bowing. The angle of the bow, the delay before straightening up, the number of bows— all add up to outline the positions they are taking in relation to one another, just as attitudes can be read or shown in body language with the jutting-out chin, folded arms, slight dip of the head from the neck, or firm handclasp. In Japanese novels the reaction of the eyes is described much more often than in Western writing. APPARENT INDISCIPLINE The Japanese are considered to be a highly disciplined, meticulous, and controlled people, yet sometimes their behavior appears to be shockingly wild and uncontrolled. This behavior stems from the Japanese philosophy of life. To the Japanese suppression of a tendency to pleasure is unnatural. Yet every pleasure must be relegated to its proper place, as a temporary distraction from the serious business of life. Seeing from that perspective, the Japanese feel that occasional excesses do not corrupt their soul.

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WOMEN IN JAPAN Gender has always been an important principle of stratification throughout Japanese history. However, the cultural elaboration of gender differences has varied over time and class. For instance, in the 12th century, women could inherit property in their own names and manage it. Later, during the feudal period, the status of women declined. After World War II the legal position of women was redefined and an equal rights clause was included in the 1947 constitution. Both women and men were guaranteed the right to choose their spouses and occupations, to inherit and own property, and retain custody of their children. Women were also given the right to vote in 1946. Gender inequality, however, continues at home and in the workplace. The proverbial phrase “good wife, wise mother” continues to influence beliefs about gender roles. Most women believe that it is in their own, their children’s, and society’s interest that they take on a subservient role, devoting themselves to their children and husband. For many years the authorities have tried to elevate women’s status, but there exists an odd mixture of progress and traditionalism with regard to women in Japanese society. That is not to say that Japanese women have always taken the back seat. Throughout the centuries Japanese women have pushed themselves forward to challenge and match male dominance. There are few countries in the world in which women have played such a major role in the arts as in Japan, including Murasaki Shikibu, author of Tale of Genji in A.D. 1000, a novel studied around the world today. Chinese records of Japanese history describe a queen, Himiko, who brought an end to the wars between the small states and established a unified nation. Her state was called Yamatai, and when she died, 100 slaves were buried with her. There have also been exceptional women in the last two decades who have run large companies, written bestsellers, and led the field in fashion design. The average Japanese woman, however, no matter how steeped in Western lifestyle when single, reverts to a traditional role when she marries.

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THE REVENGE OF THE 47 RONIN The story of the 47 ronin, known as Chusingura, is one of the most popular Samurai tales in Japan. A ronin is a samurai without a master. A ronin becomes masterless after the death or fall of his master or when he loses his master’s favor. The story of the 47 ronin is based on an actual incident that took place at the start of the 18th century. It is a story that illustrates the ultimate expression of the samurai code of honor, Bushido. The story begins on April 21, 1701, when a group of samurai were left leaderless, becoming ronin after their master, Lord Asano, the daimyo (feudal lord) of the Ako region, was forced to commit ritual suicide or seppuku (sep-poo-koo). Lord Asano committed seppuku because he had lost his temper and assaulted a court official named Kira Yoshinaka. Kira was a rude and arrogant court official who was given the task of teaching Lord Asano the necessary court etiquette. However, because Lord Asano had not given Kira a substantial monetary gift, Kira became enraged and constantly insulted Lord Asano, publicly humiliating him and treating him harshly. Although Kira’s wounds were superficial, attacking a shogun official in a government building was considered a grave offense. Thus Lord Asano was ordered to commit ritual suicide while Kira received sympathy and continued his official duties. The ronin refused to allow their master to go unavenged, even though revenge had been prohibited in this case. Out of the 300 ronin who had served Lord Asano, 47 of them, led by Oishi, banded together and swore to avenge their master by killing Kira. However, Kira was well guarded and his residence had been fortified to prevent such an attack. To succeed the ronin had to catch Kira off guard.

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THE REVENGE OF THE 47 RONIN (CONTINUED) They waited and planned for two years to kill Kira. In those two years the 47 ronin dispersed and became tradesmen or monks to quell the suspicions of Kira and the other shogunate authorities. Oishi took up residence in Kyoto and began to frequent brothels and taverns to portray an image of a man who had lost all pride and honor. Oishi even divorced his wife and let his sword rust. One ronin killed his father-in-law, another sold his wife as a prostitute to get funds, while the sister of a third was sent to work in Lord Kira’s household as a maid. Two years later, when Oishi was convinced that Kira was thoroughly off his guard, he fled from Kyoto and met the other ronin. On January 30, 1703, Oishi and the ronin attacked Kira’s mansion in Edo, taking everyone by surprise. After killing Kira they went to their master’s grave and turned themselves in to the authorities. For committing such a vendetta, the 47 ronin were ordered by the shogun to commit seppuku.

INTERNET LINKS http://47ronins.com/ The story of the 47 ronin or masterless samurai is one of the most popular samurai tales in Japan. It tells of the fierce loyalty of a group of samurai who plotted for two years to avenge their master’s death.

www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/4142.htm This site, operated by the U.S. Department of State, provides up-to-date figures and facts on the people of Japan.

www.mapsofworld.com/japan/japanese-people.html Japanese people are an ethnic group originating in the Japanese archipelago. There are close to 130 million people of Japanese descent in the world.

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Japanese dressed in traditional and modern clothes is a common sight on the streets of Japan.

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HE DISCIPLINED LIFESTYLE OF THE Japanese evolved out of their physical environment. The harsh climate of cold winters and heavy snowfalls in the north, hot summers, typhoons, and, above all, the earthquakes and volcanoes, have made them rugged and ready to adapt their living conditions to changing forces.

7 The Japanese lifestyle is very different from the European or American lifestyle.

The Japanese once lived in small houses that could be rebuilt easily after earthquakes and fires. They depended greatly on protein from the sea, but slow transportation to the interior of the islands made it necessary for them resort to eating seafood that was preserved with salt and vinegar and placed on top of rice seasoned with vinegar. In the north they learned to pickle vegetables to last them through the long winters. As the population grew overcrowding became a major problem. In essence Japanese lifestyle has not changed for centuries. Although most Japanese people today wear Western fashion, it is not uncommon for Japanese men and women to dress in traditional fashion to attend weddings or other formal gatherings. If only for short respites, the Japanese enjoy the pleasures they have immensely. They add a glint of beauty to the everyday, mundane life. A good Right: Japanese food is beautifully arranged and served, adding to the experience of the meal.

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example of this is the Japanese way of packaging. There are rules and forms of how to wrap and embellish a present. As important as the choice of the offering is the visual pleasure given when presenting the gift—the symbolic communication of the paper or silk wrapper, its folding, color, pattern, and the added decoration that gives the subtle touch of completeness. Another example of the Japanese love of aesthetics is the way food is arranged and served. The visual experience adds to the enjoyment of a meal and great care is taken in its presentation. The interior of a Japanese room with tatami mats and light bedding.

HOMES Housing is a great problem in the cities, where 86 percent of Japan’s population of 127 million people lives. Yokohama and Tokyo, the largest cities, together house about 16.5 million people. Houses are small, but because they have always been small, the Japanese accept the minimal space standards. With urban sprawl and limited high-rise housing development (because of earthquakes), many are forced to live one to two hours, by train, from the city centers. The traditional Japanese house has no tables or chairs. The Japanese sit on straw mats called tatami, and it is common to measure the size of the house and room in terms of the tatami, each about 3 feet by 6 feet (0.9 m by 1.8 m). Bedding consists of light mattresses and blankets that are put away into cabinets every morning so as not to clutter the small rooms. Since Japanese often sit on the floor, they remove their shoes as soon as they enter the house and put on house slippers. They change their house slippers for bathroom slippers before entering the bathroom. Today tables and chairs are often used, and many houses are built with Western and Japanese sections. The focal point in a Japanese living room is an alcove called the tokonoma where a scroll, painting, or flower arrangement is placed. In the old days little

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stoves covered with blankets were used to warm the feet and legs. These warmers are still used in the country, but in the cities portable electric heaters are the norm at home; commercial buildings are centrally heated. A typical Japanese home in the city has all the electrical conveniences that one takes for granted in a Western home. In the country, where space is not a problem, construction standards and environmental conditions of houses are well below those of houses in the cities. A nation that has led the world in mass-producing articles to allow one to get more out of life at any income level has left its country folk living with the technology of the 1950s and 1960s.

DRESS The Japanese dress with care and forethought. In fact Japanese fashion design is now recognized as belonging to the realm of high fashion. Japanese designs first made a real impression on the fashion world in 1982, when 23 designers showcased their collections in Paris at the prêt-a-porter (ready-to-wear) shows. Today famous names such as Issey Miyake, Kenzo, and Hanae Mori have left a huge mark on contemporary fashion. In fact Hanae Mori (nicknamed “Iron Butterfly” because of the butterfly motif identifying her collections) has received France’s most coveted cultural award, the Croix de Chevalier des Arts et des Lettres. Japanese dress indeed has come a long way from the kimono. The traditional kimono, a one-piece wraparound garment held in place by an obi, or sash, is still preferred for ceremonial occasions. Today one hardly sees the kimono, although the light evening yukata (yoo-kah-tah), which is like a kimono, is worn at home. On the other side of the world, however, the kimono and obi belt have become popular fashion must-haves. Western-style dress has replaced traditional wear to such an extent that in another generation the Japanese will need lessons on how to wear a kimono. Businessmen wear dark suits with white shirts. They use their version of English words for these: sebiro (seh-bee-roh), meaning suits from

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Savile Row, a famous shopping street in central London, and waishatsu (wyshah-tsoo), or white shirt. Men and women who work in factories all wear uniforms. The general rule is that unless the employee has to meet with a customer, he or she wears a company uniform.

GOOD MANNERS

A group of maiko (apprentice geisha) in kimonos.

The Japanese have rules for almost every human activity and even today many of the old rules of correct behavior are faithfully observed. Take bowing, for example—it has a whole series of set forms: the very deep, respectful bow, bowing when seated, how to position the hands while bowing, the need to come to a stop before bowing rather than bowing in mid-stride. Visiting etiquette is similar to that in English Victorian society: whom and when to visit, the proper entrance, refolding the towel offered to the visitor before putting it down, how to drink tea and eat cakes, polite leave-taking, and other niceties. There are also rules for gifts: the times of year when gifts are expected, when fans should be given, when pickles should be given, and above all, the way the gift is wrapped, because, no matter how thoughtful the gift, one could still insult the recipient by not folding the paper correctly. There is also proper etiquette for weddings and funerals. For example, one should never say sayonara or “good-bye” to the bride and groom, because the word is too final. One should also never call on someone on the way home from attending a funeral. Underlying all the forms of etiquette is the principle that nothing should be communicated directly. Symbols, hints, and getting to the point in roundabout fashion are the characteristics of social interaction in Japan. Saying the

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wrong thing directly could embarrass the other party, even if it is praise or flattery, because both demand the correct response; otherwise there is loss of face.

RELAXATION Although Japanese life is strictly channeled into the grooves engraved by social norms, the Japanese have opportunities to break away from the restrictions of their patterned living. Besides condoning drunkenness, Japanese society also provides social escape through festivals. The Japanese let themselves go at festivals. They let the rhythm of the drums get to them; they sing and dance, pushing themselves physically and mixing freely into the small hours of the morning. Another widely practiced cultural activity is karaoke. This is a form of interactive entertainment or video game in which amateur singers sing along to recorded music using a microphone. The music is usually a well-known pop song without the lead vocals.

Two Japanese girls dressed up as anime or manga characters in Harajuku. Cosplay (costume play) is popular among many Japanese youths.

COURTSHIP The influence of Western lifestyle is evident in all Japanese cities, but subtle differences exist that are not obvious at first. Such is the case with social contact between young boys and girls, or between men and women. Arranged introductions with a view to marriage still occur, but today, after the meeting, the young people are left to work it out themselves. Romantic love in the Western sense is strong and will determine the match or mismatch decision. After this an ingrained sense of duty will be the rock on which a marriage will develop and grow.

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This does not mean that the Japanese are not romantic. There is a mixture of a traditional sense of duty and the romantic love of a married couple that their poets sing about. This is a somewhat restrained yielding to personal feelings, which is one of many escapes the Japanese lifestyle allows in the face of the society’s rigid discipline.

THE FAMILY A family in Matsuyama. Men in the family usually work long hours, although there has been a move toward shorter working hours to allow more time for the family.

The Japanese man gives his life to the company he works for; it is his focus, his real world. The woman gives hers to her home and family. Despite the influence of Western ideas, these basics have not changed, although a slow shift from tradition can be seen in the younger Japanese today. PARENTS The businessman father spends hardly any time with his family during the week. He leaves early and returns late, not necessarily because he is wining and dining until the wee hours of the morning (although he may have to entertain clients), but because he has a long distance to travel. In addition an executive who arrives home early loses status in the eyes of the neighbors, who will conclude that he is not important enough to entertain clients. This is changing, however; there is a move toward shorter work hours and more emphasis on the family. The mother controls family expenditure, and thereby exerts her indirect influence on the household, but her role is inferior to the man of the house. Nevertheless the status quo is slowly changing as more and more professional women are battling the odds and making their presence felt in commercial and public life. CHILDREN Children spend their early years struggling with language. Before they begin school, they must learn different verbal languages for addressing

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superiors, equals, and inferiors, in addition to important body languages. In school they must master approximately 100 phonetic characters and 1,945 of the much more complex Chinese characters that the government has classified as the most commonly used kanji, or characters. Appreciation of the arts is emphasized and instilled in students early. They study the aesthetics and beauty of brush strokes in calligraphy and painting. They are taken to scenic and historic places and are taught origami, which is the creation of forms through paper folding. They also either sing or learn to play a musical instrument. For many children the goal is to pass the examinations that will get them into a prestigious university—a difficult ordeal, for the workload is heavy, memories are stretched, and perseverance is severely tested. If they succeed, however, they are set for life, as their future lifestyle will depend on which university they attend. The Japanese classify people by which university they attended, a tendency adopted from the Western world but held to with much greater rigidity in Japan. Parents may enroll their children in expensive juku (joo-koo), private cram schools that give intensive tutoring to help students qualify for a good school; this in turn will help them qualify for a more reputable university. ADOLESCENCE TO ADULTHOOD There is no native Japanese word for “teenager” as there is in English, and the qualities that Americans typically associate with teenagers, such as rebelliousness and independence, are generally lacking in Japanese youths. The most obvious characteristic of Japanese teenagers is that they form a large consumer market. It is because of this trait and spending habit that the word cheenayja was introduced for marketing purposes to describe a group of people who were neither children nor adults. Japanese teenagers enjoy American music, television, movies, and writing. Their parents felt the same in their teens, but as they grew older they were more influenced by traditional Japanese culture. All the signs indicate that the current generation will become more traditional as it ages, too.

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The lifestyles of the young and the middle-aged are as different in Japan as they are all over the world. However, the discipline of their upbringing and the cultural chasm between Japanese and Westerners still exist, holding Japan back from irreversible “internationalism.”

A TYPICAL DAY The working day of a typical Japanese man begins very early. Because housing in the city is very expensive, he usually lives many miles from the city where he works, and probably takes buses and the suburban train to get to work, a journey of about 90 minutes on average. He makes sure to arrive early.

Japanese businessmen typically work long hours.

If he works in a factory, the workday starts with an assembly. He and his colleagues do some limbering-up exercises, sing the company song, and may get a pep talk from the manager before they report to their jobs. He works with great concentration all day, putting his heart and soul into every little operation, as is ingrained in him. He must not fail. He must not let his company down. Although he is only a factory worker, he sees the president of the company quite often because the president walks through the factory regularly. He knows that if something disturbs him badly he can approach the president. Yet he will never do this without much deliberation and discussion with his colleagues, because such an approach will have to be on behalf of the group. When the day ends he will drop into a small bar for a beer or sake, Japanese rice wine, with his coworkers. If he is a company executive, he will have an expense account to use, not only for his customers but also for his staff. The company realizes that drinking together helps bring the team closer.

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He will probably go to an akachochin (ah-kah-choh-chin), a Japanesestyle pub, where he may enjoy karaoke singing. Everyone will have to take a turn, whether it is singing to recorded accompaniment or reciting a poem. They will have great fun, but must be careful not to upset anyone. When the Japanese working man returns home, his wife gives him all her attention. This is changing, but very slowly. The ideal wife in the minds of Japanese men and women is the woman who is completely devoted to her family, who responds to every whim of her husband and very often of her children—her sons in particular. During the weekend he takes his family out, unless he is one of the very few who can afford to play golf. (If he has that privilege, he will spend all the time he can on the golf course and play with intense enthusiasm.) Tennis, skiing, or a short day trip to some historic or scenic place will be on top of the family list of preferences. There may be hundreds of people there, but they will not mind. If there is a festival that weekend, they will participate in it.

INTERNET LINKS http://hubpages.com/hub/Japanese-culture-where-tradition-meetsmodern-lifestyle Japan has what would appear to be a mixed culture—a combination of traditions and modern lifestyle.

www.k.u-tokyo.ac.jp/housingnavi/en/living_in_japan/custom.html This website explores a typical day in the life of a Japanese person. It explains the rules and norms of Japanese culture and lifestyle.

http://library.thinkquest.org/J0112187/japan_way_of_life.htm This site provides an easy-to-read overview of the Japanese way of life, from education to religion.

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A Yamabushi (literally referring to one who hides in the mountains) priest performing a ritual. The Yamabushi were once mighty warriors believed to be endowed with supernatural powers.

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ELIGION IS AN INTEGRAL PART OF Japanese life. Although it is everpresent it does not interfere with everyday life. If asked whether she or he is religious, a Japanese person will reply “no,” yet will be seen to observe all the Shinto rites and visit Buddhist temples without being conscious of participating in anything special. In a country of about 127 million people there are more than 188,000 buildings of worship—one for about an average of every 675 persons. The primary religions are Shinto and Buddhism. It has been said that Shinto takes care of daily living, while Buddhism takes care of

8 Japan grants full religious freedom, and it allows the practice of Christianity, Islam, and Sikhism, to name a few. However, there are two main religions practiced in Japan. These are Shinto and Buddhism. Eighty-four to 96 percent of Japanese people incorporate elements of both religions in a syncretic fashion.

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the afterlife. Most Japanese follow both religions without being concerned about which is right or true. It is an attitude that Westerners find hard to understand. When J. Seward, an American artist known for his painted bronze statues, wrote, “The Japanese have tended to mold their religions to fit their way of life more than the reverse,” he highlighted one aspect of the Japanese attitude toward religion.

SHINTO Shinto literally means “the way of the gods.” It is Japan’s indigenous religion and is practiced by about 84 percent of the population. It originated around 500 B.C. as a religion that worshiped nature. Shinto does not have a clear principle or a definite family of deities. Rather it encompasses a belief that there is a certain spiritual essence in all things, living or nonliving, even in rocks, the wind, the sea, and echoes sounded off in a forest of tall trees or a mountain range. They call this kami (kah-mee). The Japanese character for

The Kanda Myojin temple in Kanto.

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kami signifies “above” or “superior.” Kami is often translated as “God,” but it does not really embody the Western concept of God; rather it is more a sense of superior forces that are at work in the world. SHRINES To the Japanese the emperor is a kami, but he is not God. Spirits of national heroes, famous scholars and officials, rivers, mountains, trees, and cliffs are kami. The Japanese build shrines to show their gratitude for protection, and they pray at these shrines for success. The taboos are primitive and do not affect Japanese lives substantially. There are no rules of self-discipline. The Shinto belief is that humans are born good and should therefore follow their natural impulses. RITES AND SYMBOLS Shinto does not have the paraphernalia of most religions. Sticks, leaves, and strips of paper are used for generally simple rituals. One essential feature of Shinto rites is the symbolic purification

Two Shinto priests perform a traditional ceremony at the Meiji Shrine.

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acts that a Japanese person performs before approaching a Shinto shrine—the washing of hands and mouth, for example. Shinto rituals are part of Japanese birth and wedding ceremonies as well as part of ceremonies for launching ships and laying foundation stones for new buildings.

SHINTO IN JAPANESE HISTORY Shinto has been subject to manipulation in the past. Although the Shinto priests cleared up some of the vagueness of their religion when Buddhism entered the country, it could not compete with the elaborate Buddhist rituals, the well-defined Buddhist moral code, its philosophical approach, and to some extent, the architectural arts and special foods.

The figure of a multi-armed Buddhist figure in Kanazawa city.

In 1700 there was a revival of Shinto, and after the Meiji Restoration, the government used Shinto as a unifying force. Financing was provided, and Shinto became almost, though not quite, a state religion. In the late 1800s the government thought it necessary to separate Shinto into two “sects.” The first sect dealt with all matters concerning the imperial family, while the second sect dealt with religious rituals, such as births and weddings. In December 1945 the American occupation authorities persuaded the Japanese government to stop financing Shinto, breaking the link between the religion and the state. Shinto temples moved into business ventures, selling off part of their land or using it and their funds to invest in temple parking lots, kindergartens, wedding halls, and agricultural enterprises. Shinto survived, and today there are about 25,000 Shinto priests serving in about 80,000 shrines.

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BUDDHISM Buddhism came to Japan between A.D. 552 and 600 from the southern part of the kingdom of Baekje on the Korean peninsula. This religion brought to the people of Japan a philosophy of life that was both simple and intellectually satisfying. Buddhism appealed to the Japanese because it was clear in its principles and in its taboos and yet impressive in its rituals, art, and architecture. Buddhism swept across Japan, filling a vacuum left by Shinto. Buddhism penetrated Japanese society at its highest levels. Prince Regent Shotoku (574–622) convinced his aunt, the empress Suiko, that Buddhism did not conflict with Shinto. Buddhism then became a state religion. Even though it was popular with the nobility, Buddhism only became popular with the masses from about the 13th century. It influenced both the philosophy and food of Japan, but it never managed to replace Shinto. Probably the most important influence Buddhism had in Japan is on the way the Japanese regard death—as an accepted part of the divine scheme of all things. The Buddha’s dying words, “All things are transitory,” have made a deep impression on the character of the Japanese.

ZEN AND OTHER BUDDHIST SECTS

A Zen Buddhist monk raking gravel at a Zen garden in Myoshiniji Temple.

When the Japanese absorb a foreign concept, they add to it or give it a Japanese character. Two monks, Eisai (1141–1215) and Dogen (1200–53), brought Zen Buddhism from China to Japan. Zen Buddhism appealed to the Japanese. The essence of Zen is: “Look within yourself; you yourself are the Buddha.” It is a philosophy of meditation, and its fundamental belief is that in every human being there is something precious and divine.

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RELIGIOUS PRACTICE IN JAPAN Most Japanese participate in rituals and customs that are derived from several different religious traditions. Life-cycle events are usually marked by visits to a Shinto shrine and the birth of a new baby is celebrated with a formal visit to the shrine when the child is one month, three years, five years, and seven years old. Although Shinto priests traditionally perform wedding ceremonies, Christian wedding ceremonies are becoming increasingly popular. Funerals, on the other hand, are usually performed by Buddhist monks. About 90 percent of Japanese funerals take place in accordance with Buddhist traditions.

“Japanese culture

In 1253 another Buddhist sect was founded by a man from the Kanto region—Nichiren (1222–82). He was a colorful and outstanding monk who placed his whole faith in the Lotus Sutra book of Buddhism. He appealed to the common person by linking Buddhism with natural life. His predictions of future events won him fame, particularly when he foretold the Mongol invasion of Japan. He took a clear stand by attacking other religions. The Soka Gakkai is a lay religious group based on the teachings of Nichiren. The organization was established in 1946; today it claims 8 to 10 million adherents in Japan. In the 1950s the Soka Gakkai spread its teachings with almost military zeal with a campaign of shakabuku (shah-kah-bookoo)—literally “to shatter and subdue”—and used psychology to convert the unconvinced. It started a political party, the Komeito (Clean Government Party), but it does not play a major role in the party today.

has no conception of a God existing abstractly, completely separated from the human world.” ---Nakane Chie

CHRISTIANITY Christianity is a minority religion in Japan, with less than 2 percent of the Japanese population claiming to believe in the religion. Like many minority groups, Japanese Christians have developed an instinct for survival. Like the Christians of Roman times, Japanese Christians have a history of faith and perseverance that is quite remarkable.

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Christianity was first introduced into Japan in 1549. By 1635 Francis Xavier and other Christian missionaries had made between 200,000 and 300,000 converts. There were factors that worked in their favor, and the counting of true Christians is questionable, but the fact is that a large and powerful Christian community was established. Christianity reached the highest levels of the shogun administration, but interdenominational rivalry weakened the foundations the pioneers had laid. Christians were eventually persecuted. The struggle reached a climax in the siege and massacre of 37,000 people at Shimabara in 1637. To this day historians argue about the religious and political aspects of the Christian resistance. By 1650 Christianity had been generally eliminated from Japan. Japan isolated itself from the world after 1638, but when missionaries were allowed in after Commodore Perry opened Japan’s doors in 1854, a church was built in Nagasaki and 4,000 Japanese Christians came to the church to rejoice. They had kept their faith alive and secret for over 220 years.

INTERNET LINKS www.japan-guide.com/e/e2059.html Shinto shrines are places of worship and the dwellings of kami, the spirits worshiped in Shinto. People visit these shrines to pay respect to the kami or to pray for good fortune. www.japan-guide.com/e/e629.html Shinto and Buddhism are the two main religions in Japan. Most Japanese incorporate elements of the two religions in a syncretic fashion.

www.japaneselifestyle.com.au/culture/marriage_modern.html Traditional Japanese weddings are based on the Shinto religion. Although Shinto weddings are fast disappearing in modern Japan, they still exist in some parts of the country.

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Two boys reading manga.

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APANESE IS A WELL-DEVELOPED language that is similar to Chinese in script and European languages in grammar. Unlike spoken Chinese, formal Japanese tends to be monotonal, although one syllable in every word is always stressed more than the others.

9 Japanese is a language that is spoken by more than 127 million people in Japan and around the world. It is the

Nouns are not varied; there is no difference between the plural and the singular. As is the case in English, Japanese places the adjective before the noun it qualifies.

first language

However, Japanese people do not always include the subject of a sentence when speaking, because the subject is usually implied by the

by a system

in Japan, and it is distinguished

of honorifics reflecting the hierarchical nature of the society.

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context of the conversation. Ambiguities such as this one make Japanese a challenging language for a foreigner to master.

SOCIAL TONES The need to be continuously conscious of one’s position is carried to the extreme. The pronouns you and I have many variants to reflect deference for age and status. Words are selected to reflect the status difference between speaker and listener at all times. Different verbs, verb endings, and ways of using the same words must be considered. The verb to come, for example, ranges from the crude koi (coy), shouted to children and army privates, to the soft irasshaimase (ee-rasshah-ee-mah-say), meaning “please come in,” that one hears upon entering a Japanese restaurant. The verb to be has a similar range. The most polite form is de gozaimasu (day goh-zah-i-mah-sue), which is generally used in public announcements. Women always use the polite form. Girls eventually

A Japanese girl on her mobile phone. Japanese speech is conscious of status and specific terms must be used to reflect the status differences between parties.

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have to learn to change from rough and simple children’s language to the softer, more polite adult female form. INDIRECTNESS IN SPEECH The Japanese prefer to be indirect. American-style, straight-from-the-shoulder frankness is considered rude. Conversational sentences are thus longer than sentences in English. This indirectness often appears in the written form as well.

VERBS Verbs are often joined to make new verbs. Tachiyomi is such a verb: It comes from the words tachi (tah-chee), meaning “to stand,” and yomi (yoh-mee), meaning “to read.” Tachiyomi means “stand and read.” The word filled a need to describe a common pastime and a common sight in bookshops.

A sign indicating “no parking” at the Sapporo fish market.

PRONUNCIATION Japanese pronunciation is straightforward and clear. It is not a tonal language. There may be two or three meanings for the same sound, but the context in most cases makes the meaning clear. There are no words ending in consonants (except ng), and no diphthongs. There are regional variations in phrasing, accents, and terms and idioms used, as there is in English across the United States, but there are no dialects as there are in China.

“ADOPTED” ENGLISH Many English words adopted by the Japanese have been distorted from the original. A prewar women’s fashion word, two-piece, for example, was

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adapted into one-piece (won-peesue), which describes a dress. The word glass has two forms to reduce its ambiguity: garasu (gah-rah-sue) for “plate glass” and gurasu (goo-rah-sue) for “drinking glass.”

Books in the library in the Hokkaido University of Education.

Often the original word is unrecognizable. Juice becomes juusu (jee-yoo-soo). The Japanese also do not differentiate between l and r because the Japanese do not roll their tongues when they speak, so the word lemon becomes remon. English words are shortened: biru (bee-roo) means “building;” sutando (soo-tahn-doh) means “standard lamp.” Other examples are boonasu (boh-nah-soo), “bonus;” chii-zu (chee-zoo), “cheese;” gorufu (gaw-roo-foo), “golf;” and maikaa (my-kah), “my car.”

JAPANESE EXAMPLES NAMES Most Japanese girls’ names end with ko, which means “little” or “child.” Typical names are Yukiko (yuki means “snow”), Hanako (hana means “flower”), and Sachiko (sachi means “happiness”). The surname is placed first, but almost without exception, Japanese businessmen overseas reverse this order. Thus Takahashi Kintaro becomes Kintaro Takahashi on his overseas business card. MR. The word for “mister” in Japanese is san (sahn). San also means “Mrs.” and “Miss.” A respectful version of “Mr.” is sama (sah-mah). It is hardly ever used today for individuals. It is used for addressing groups much in the same way that one says “ladies and gentlemen” in English, or when referring to a god: kamisama (kah-mi-sah-mah).

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SOUNDS OF WORDS There are a great many examples of onomatopoeia (words with sounds that reflect their meaning) in Japanese. ha-ha

gasp, pant

ki-ki

squeaky

goro-goro

rumbling

pota-pota

water dripping

kusu-kusu

giggle

bechakucha

chatterbox

PRONUNCIATION a as in art ai as in aisle e as in get ei as in veil g (always hard) as in go i as in tin n as in sing o as in pole u as in rude

“BELLY” The Japanese place the seat of emotions in the stomach, as some English expressions, such as “gut-feeling,” do. In Japanese one says “the stomach is hungry.” “Not showing one’s stomach” means concealing one’s real intentions; to “probe the stomach” is to sound out someone’s thoughts; to “cut the stomach and speak” is to be open and frank. Harakiri is ritual suicide committed by cutting the stomach open. The implication is the baring and bleeding of one’s soul. In fact those who commit harakiri seldom die from the disemboweling cut. Death usually

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comes from a sword blow to the neck delivered by the ritual attendant. Although harakiri was an integral aspect of feudal Japan, it is not commonly practiced today. GESTURES To indicate oneself, Japanese people point to their noses, not the heart. When counting on their fingers, they start with the open hand and bring each finger down to the palm in turn.

SCRIPTS The Japanese adapted Chinese for their written language. It is generally believed that Chinese characters first came to Japan through Korea, although some writing found in burial mounds suggests that written Chinese may have come directly from China. Chinese characters are simplified drawings called ideograms.

Young Japanese boys learning and practicing calligraphy.

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KANA The Japanese simplified Chinese characters and devised two phonetic scripts of their own. The sounds are the same for both. These are the hiragana (hee-rah-gah-nah) and the katakana (kah-tah-kah-nah), collectively known as kana. The Chinese characters they use are known as kanji. The Japanese script uses kana interspersed with kanji, which may have one or more syllables. Kanji is complex and has contributed to Japan’s education problems. The Japanese have been trying to reduce the number of kanji for many years. In 1946 the education ministry reduced the number of characters to 1,850 and then revised the number again to 1,945, but one has to know many more than these to read Japanese books today. Novelists do not limit their repertoire to 1,945 characters. The removal of thousands of kanji from the official list gave rise to problems with surnames. It was as though the U.S. government decided that “Smith” was an obsolete word and deleted it from all official lists!

INTERNET LINKS www.japaneselifestyle.com.au/japanese_language/japanese_ language.htm Japanese language or nihongo (nee-hawn-go) is the main written and spoken language in Japan. Although it is distinct from Korean and Chinese, the written form uses Chinese (kanji) characters.

www.japan-guide.com/e/e621.html It is believed that the Japanese language can be linked to the Altaic language family, which includes Mongolian and Turkish.

http://web-japan.org/kidsweb/language/index.html This website teaches you how to speak and write Japanese. Learn basic phrases for everyday use.

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A Noh theater performance.

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APAN IS ONE OF THE VERY FEW countries in the world where the arts are appreciated by both the average citizen and intellectuals. Appreciation of the arts is instilled in Japanese children from the earliest years at home. In high school 12 separate subjects represent the arts: three levels each of music, fine arts, crafts, and calligraphy.

10 Japanese art has a long history. It also covers a wide range of styles, from ancient pottery and

VISUAL ARTS All Japanese derive great pleasure from the visual arts. This includes landscape gardening; ikebana, the art of flower arrangement; bonsai,

sculpture to manga and cartoons.

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the growing of miniature trees; goldfish breeding; painting; pottery; stone carving; the dyeing of silk; textile printing; making swords, paper, lacquerware, kites, drums, musical instruments, dolls, and masks; paper folding; and the design of wooden buildings. In Japan the men and women highly skilled in the arts are called “living national treasures.” A man pruning a bonsai tree.

IKEBANA AND LANDSCAPE GARDENING The emphasis in both ikebana and landscape gardening is on naturalism. Both the flower arranger and garden landscape designer take their inspiration from nature. In ikebana, the Japanese art of flower arrangement, the flowing line is the most important consideration, more important than color or form. It may be a fallen branch picked from the roadside or simply a piece of driftwood discovered along the coast, but if it has a beautiful shape or line, it can be used as the basis of an ikebana arrangement. Groups of flowers, no matter how striking in color or form, take second place. Another interesting feature of ikebana is that the materials used in the arrangements reflect the passage of time: The past is represented by flowers in full bloom, pods, or dried leaves; the present is represented in half-open blossoms or perfect leaves, and the future in buds. As in many other Japanese visual arts, the four seasons play a major role in ikebana, and arrangements are tailored to the season: in fall one would see sparse arrangements, and in summer one would see full, spreading ones. Landscape gardening is represented by two basic forms: hilly and flat. The presence of water is a vital part of both. Water is represented by sandy waves in a dry landscape (made with sand, stones, rocks, and perhaps the occasional piece of driftwood) and by a pool or stream in evergreen landscapes. The

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An ikebana floral arrangement.

colors are stark and severe in dry landscapes—light sand and black or gray rocks and stones. Natural landscapes, on the other hand, may feature a pavilion and stone lanterns and pagodas. Rocks and stones are subtly placed to represent islands and hills. Also present are evergreens, bonsai (usually nonflowering), bridges, and paths.

PAINTING Every house has a kakemono, meaning “hanging thing,” in the main room. Only one picture is hung, and this is changed every season. One is thus reminded by the picture of the passage of time and the rhythms of life. Painting in Japan really started around A.D. 610, when a Korean monk named Doncho introduced paper, the techniques of mixing colors, and other innovations. Paintings were done on silk or paper without models or attention to true perspective. A short description of, or a reference to, the painting

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in the form of a poem was part of the picture; the calligraphy with which this was written was a work of art in itself. Buddhism had a strong influence on painting from the eighth century to the 14th century. In the Heian period large horizontal scroll paintings of the life of the Buddha were produced. By the Kamakura (1185–1333) period, painting had gone beyond landscapes, trees, and flowers; animals, pictures of everyday life, and some caricatures were being painted. A painting on a sliding screen in Ebisu Shrine.

WOODCUTS In the 18th century woodblock printing became popular. Woodblock printing combined two skills: the artist’s and the woodblock craftsman’s. The skill of the woodblock craftsman allowed the reproduction of works of art at an affordable price. One of the best-known artists of that century was Utamaro (1753–1806). A Book of Insects was his first volume of prints. He also produced drawings of courtesans and lovers. Sharaku, another artist, was noted for his pictures of popular noh and kabuki actors. Hokusai (1760–1849) and Hiroshige (1797–1858) were two very prominent woodcut artists in Japan. Hokusai’s best-known works are Thirtysix Views of Mount Fuji, One Hundred Views of Mount Fuji, Scenes of Edo (Tokyo) and the Sumida River, and Famous Bridges and Waterfalls. Hiroshige is known for his Fifty-three Stages of the Tokaido. The Tokaido was the road between Edo, the seat of the shogun, and Kyoto, where the emperor reigned with his court. The Tokaido series included not only scenes along the road but also a great wealth of detail about buildings and people of all classes, often with a bit of humor.

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POTTERY Painting was not the only art that flourished in early Japan. From the early Jomon period (10,000–300 B.C.), pottery with surface patterns produced by pressing rope onto wet clay was being made. The potter’s wheel came to Japan from Korea with Korean kiln technology in the first three centuries A.D. The Koreans also brought knowledge of bronze-making to Japan. Among early Japanese bronzes were swords and bells that had no practical use. They were objects for magic and rituals, and for burying the dead.

ARCHITECTURE Japanese architecture is an architecture of wood, a result of the abundance of mountain timber and the need to have light structures to withstand earthquakes. The basic forms came from China, but the Japanese developed their own styles. Traditional houses were wood-framed structures where no attempt was made to hide the structural elements. Paper and rushes were used to fill spaces between panels. The paper and wood-frame sliding door was developed; it did not need the space a swinging door required. The wood absorbed some of the summer moisture and released moisture into the air during the dry winter. Thatched roofs, 3 feet (1 m) deep, were popular. These materials, however, are all combustible, so repositories for valuables, with mud-packed walls, had to be built. Some of Japan’s finest structures have burned down, and many of the “old” temples are in fact reconstructions of buildings that were razed by fire.

A potter shaping bowls at the potter’s wheel at Kageyama Pottery.

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The Todaiji Temple in Nara.

TEMPLES The oldest structure in Japan is a temple in Nara called Horyuji, the Temple of Noble Law. Construction began in A.D. 601 and was completed in A.D. 607. The temple was rebuilt in 711 after a fire. The Horyuji was the center of arts and scholarship, and its teaching influenced intellectuals throughout Japan. It was founded by Prince Shotoku, who defused the conflict between Shinto and Buddhism; it was from Horyuji that Buddhism spread across Japan. Today the temple houses a huge treasure of priceless objects, including a camphorwood carving of the Buddhist deity Kudara Kannon and the oldest existing embroidery in Japan, called “tapestry of heaven.” The largest wooden structure in the world, also at Nara, is the Great Buddha Hall of the Todaiji or Great Eastern Temple. The reconstruction of the present building—161 feet (49 m) high, 187 feet (57 m) long, and 164 feet (50 m) wide—was completed in 1709 after the original burned down. It houses the largest bronze statue in the world, a figure of the Great Sun Buddha, which is 53 feet (16 m) high. Japanese temples are usually groups of several structures: a pagoda, a large hall, occasionally a lecture hall, and modest quarters for monks and nuns. The pagodas are beautiful structures built to withstand earthquakes. In the Kanto earthquake of 1923, which destroyed 580,000 houses and saw more than 100,000 people killed or missing, the 174-foot (53-m), five-story pagoda at Kaneiji in Ueno Park, Tokyo, survived. CASTLES Many Japanese cities were built as castle towns. Castles were built following universal military considerations: a commanding site on high ground or a site protected by water, and mazelike corridors from the entrance to slow down an attacking enemy.

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Japanese castles have other special features. They were not built to withstand cannon attack as cannons were rarely used in feudal wars. Only the outer walls were designed for defense, and if these were breached the castle fell to the invader. A castle keep (the innermost stronghold, often a tower) was not designed for a last line of defense as in the case of European castles. Walls were built of stone, but the donjon, or keep, was of timber. Most of the castles standing today have been reconstructed at some time or other. Japanese castles were built to impress and to symbolize the power of the daimyo who resided within. The facade was designed to inspire fear or admiration; thus, many of the castles are very beautiful and awe-inspiring. One of the best-known and most beautiful castles in Japan is the Himeji Castle about 20 miles (32 km) east of Osaka. It was acquired in 1603 by Ikeda Terumasa, the trusted son-in-law of Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu, as a defense against the Western lords. Its towers, with their curving roofs and white walls rising above the heavy gray stone walls, are a magnificent sight. The castle gives the impression of impregnable solidity, yet it has elegant and graceful lines. Its other name, White Heron Castle, is apt; it has the appearance of a great white bird, or a flock of white birds, in flight. In contrast, about 15 miles (24 km) east of Himeji Castle, are the ruins of Okayama Castle. Completely black, it is known as the Crow Castle. It was built in 1597, and only two turrets of the original structure remain. Osaka Castle is steeped in history. This large, majestic-looking structure reflects the ambitions and prestige of Shogun Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who built the original castle between 1582 and 1586 by enlisting the labor of tens of thousands of men. Given a strategic position, the castle was 2 miles (3.2 km) long and had double circuits of walls 100 feet (30 m) wide.

The Himeji Castle is one of the most beautiful and famous castles in Japan.

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In 1615 Osaka Castle was besieged and burned by Tokugawa Ieyasu, who seized the shogunate from Hideyoshi’s son. Ieyasu ordered that all traces of the old castle be demolished and a new one built according to a completely new plan. He wanted to eradicate the symbols left by Hideyoshi and build a castle to stand as a symbol of his own power to the lords of the far west. The new castle was smaller and did not include the outermost moats of the original. Fires and a brief civil war in 1868 finally destroyed it. The present structure is a modern 1931 concrete replica, which includes some towers built in 1620. A small, cluttered bookstore in Ginza. Many Japanese appreciate poetry and literature.

POETRY Poetry is not the exclusive preserve of intellectuals of Japan. Poems appear in newspapers regularly, and most Japanese write poems without being embarrassed about it. It is one of the nation’s living arts. Poetry began as the language of the aristocrats. Emperor Meiji is said to have written 100,000 poems. Often poetry was the only communication between secret lovers. Messages were dispatched with some small symbolic token—a leaf or a fan. HAIKU Classical Japanese poetry concentrates on distilling a thought in the briefest and most beautiful way. The poet tends to hint and suggest. Here is such a poem by Matsuo Basho (1644–94):

Kare eda ni karasu no tomarikeri aki no kure.

On a withered dry branch a crow stops and rests; autumn dusk.

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The main forms used were called waka (wah-kah); tanka (tah-n-kah), or short poem; and haiku, or very short poem. The haiku is a very popular form. There are strict rules for writing haiku. A haiku must consist of 17 moras, which are units of sound in three phrases of five, seven, and five moras respectively. The exact definition of a mora varies, but the working definition is one conceived by the American linguist James McCawley in 1968. He said that a mora is “something of which a long syllable consists of two and a short syllable consists of one.” Basho’s poem on the crow is a haiku. It is not easy to write haiku, with its tight line limitations. Nor is haiku easy to understand, because of complex nuances. As in many art forms, constraints bring out some of the finest work. SENRYU AND ACROSTIC The senryu is a special type of haiku. Comic or frivolous, like the limerick, it gives poetry a humorous side. After he’s scolded His wife too much, He cooks the rice.

Now the man has a child He knows all the names Of the local dogs.

The poets themselves sometimes imposed additional constraints. It showed finesse to send one’s lover an acrostic poem, where the first letters of every line spell a word. In the capital is the one I love, like Robes of stuff so precious, yet now threadbare. I have come far on this journey, Sad and tearful are my thoughts. —from the Ise Monogatari RENGA The renga (rehn-gah), or linked poem, was a game, an intellectual challenge. One person wrote two or three lines, the next wrote another two, and so on. Rules controlled not only syllables; there were also patterns to be followed, such as the second verse should mention this or that and the moon

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should come up in the nth verse, but only once, etc. Practice sharpened the minds and sensitivities of the great poets. MODERN POETRY After the Meiji Restoration in the 19th century, the influence of European free verse caused major changes in poetic forms. A nation of highly disciplined poets showed that in spite of the confines of their past, individuality could break through. Here are two examples: My nails are cut My manicure is done My blouse is ironed My shoes are polished And now, I only go to your funeral. —Takata Kyoko Going into the room, You hesitate, standing for a while. It’s lemon. You notice. There’s pain. Eventually you find the wound. This is the frightening thing; that in every part of time, there’s a delay. —Kitamura Taro

HISTORICAL NOVELS Classical Japanese prose began in the Heian period ( A.D. 794–1185), and was mainly the work of women. This period also saw the development of the kana scripts, which opened the way to easier writing. Major works produced then

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included Tosa Diary, Taketori Tales, Tales of Ise, Utsubo Tales, and the two classics, The Tale of Genji and The Pillow Book. The Tale of Genji, written about A.D. 1000 by Lady Murasaki Shikibu, is perhaps the Heian work with the greatest influence on Japanese literature. Generations of Japanese scholars have read and dissected this tale of fiction woven around Lady Murasaki’s realistic and minute observations of court life. It is a unique kind of novel, having nothing dramatic, unnatural, or improbable in it. The style is ornate and indirect. The Pillow Book, or Pillow Sketches, of Sei Shonagon is another outstanding work by a Japanese woman. It introduced an open and easy style and revealed the author’s opinions and feelings. The book’s postscript is typical of her style: It has become too dark for literary work, and my pen is worn out. I will bring these sketches to a close. They are a record of that which I have seen with my eyes and felt with my heart, not written that others might read them, but put together to solace the loneliness of my home life. When I think how I tried to keep them secret, conscious of vulgar and exaggerated remarks which have escaped me, the tears flow uncontrollably. —from The Pillow Book

DECLINE AND REVIVAL OF LITERATURE Toward the end of the Heian period, and in the Kamakura period that followed, several major written works dealt with historical subjects: Eiga Monogatari, O-Kagami, Gempei Seisuiki, Heike Monogatari. Monogatari (moh-noh-gah-tah-ree) means “tale” or “narrative.” Japanese literature declined in the Kamakura period, reaching its lowest point by the end of the Muromachi period (1338–1573). Intellectuals turned to China, as is reflected in the literature and social codes. Women were thrust out of public life in conformity with Chinese thinking. The Tokugawa period (1600–1867) saw great changes in the literary scene. The printing press had been introduced, script and grammar were

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simplified, and vocabulary expanded. Writers began to address both the aristocrats and the common people. There was a new “Japaneseness” developing—a break from Chinese cultural millstones, although a great many Chinese words were absorbed at this time. It was in this period that the great haiku poets, including Basho, wrote their masterpieces. Among the writers of the Tokugawa period are Ihara Saikaku (1642–93) with his style of realism and humor reminiscent of The Tale of Genji and Pillow Book; Kiokutei Bakin (1767–1848), who wrote what is perhaps the most famous novel after The Tale of Genji, the Hakkuden; and Jippensha Ikku (1765–1831), author of a humorous novel Hizakurige, which has been compared to Charles Dickens’s The Pickwick Papers.

MODERN LITERATURE Haruki Murakami is an internationally known Japanese writer, with many of his works being translated into different languages.

After the Meiji Restoration, when Japan set out to catch up with 200 years of Western development, there was an explosion of fiction writing. It was a vigorous growth both in terms of volume and a blossoming of Japan’s finest writers. The Japanese read voraciously, not just for knowledge but mainly for pleasure. Today Japan has the highest ratio of novels printed per capita in the world. There is a large book market for popular romances and thrillers, as well as historical novels. Modern Japanese writers explore styles and themes quite different from those of past novels. They have become greatly absorbed in the psychology of the characters; in this, they resemble Western writers. Yet there is a special Japanese slant always present, reflecting the Japanese mind today, a mixture of tradition and individuality. Women novelists have always held a significant position in Japanese fiction. Enchi Fumiko (1895–1986) is in a class of her own among modern women writers. Her books span the era of major change in Japanese

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literature. Conscious of the suppression of Japanese women over the last 600 years, she has written many stories on that theme. Onnazaka (The Waiting Years) took her eight years to complete and won a top prize in the Japanese literary world. Kawabata Yasunari (1899–1972) was the first Japanese to be awarded the Nobel Prize, in 1968, for his novel Snow Country. In 1994 writer Oe Kenzaburo (born 1935) was also awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature. Mishima Yukio (1925–70), one of the best-known writers in the West today, was an intellectual of very strong opinions. His novels deal with the more sordid aspects of life, but his contribution to world literature is undeniable. He killed himself by committing seppuku in public in 1970.

JAPANESE THEATER Japanese theater, which is always intertwined with dance and music, began in the seventh century A.D. with Shinto ritualistic dances. The traditional Japanese performing arts of Noh, Kyogen, Kabuki and Bunraku have roots that can be traced back to Chinese performing arts, introduced to Japan in the sixth and seventh centuries. These dances are still performed today in essentially the same form. Noh drama, which developed in the 14th century, is one of the main branches of Japanese theater. NOH Noh plays are a mixture of dance and drama based on Shinto dances and Buddhist teachings. The subject matter includes the sin of killing, the afterlife, the transience of the material world, the power of the Buddha, and the evil power of lust. In spite of the seriousness underlying the themes, Noh is a visual delight; the costumes are colorful, made of silver and gold brocade, and elaborately embroidered. The action on stage is in the form of “flashbacks” from the memories of the characters. They are obscure, idyllic, and lyrical, and the script is heavy with allusion and symbolism. The dialogue—archaic phrases in chanted tones—is incomprehensible to present-day audiences, and even educated Japanese need a script to follow the play.

“The art of allusion, or this love of allusion in art, is the root of the noh.” ---Ezra Pound, a scholar and interpreter of Noh

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Noh started as an amusement performed in temple grounds for the people, but the aristocracy adopted it as their private theater, and in the Tokugawa period legally deprived the masses of Noh. Only warriors were allowed to watch Noh performances, although, because of its Buddhist influence, Noh seldom included warrior roles. Noh reached its peak in the 15th century, declined after the end of the shogunate, and was revived in the early 20th century. A traditional Noh theater program would include five Noh plays with three or four kyogen (kee-yoh-gehn) plays in between. A traditional Noh play being performed in a Shinto shrine.

KYOGEN Kyogen is a comic interlude. The word means “mad words,” and as in Noh, the performers are all men. Kyogen reveals many different and significant facets of Japanese character. Kyogen plays were originally performed in temples to relieve the strain of prolonged Buddhist services. They are short, very humorous, and never involve more than three characters. About a third of the themes are of a servant mocking his feudal lord. The lord is made to look ridiculous but is eventually proven right. Another third or so of kyogen themes poke fun at Buddhism, even though Buddhism was then the religion of the aristocracy and it was in Buddhist temples that kyogen was performed. The costumes of kyogen are those of the 15th to 17th centuries, but the language is the language of the 17th century. Kyogen, unlike Noh, was passed down from generation to generation orally and only written down in the 17th century. KABUKI The three kanji that make up the word kabuki mean “song,” “dance,” and “skill.” In its heyday, kabuki attracted thousands to every performance.

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Kabuki flowered in the Genroku era (1688–1704) when great novelists and poets such as Basho were bringing a new impetus to the arts. Japan’s greatest playwright, Chikamatsu Monzaemon (1653–1724), was in his prime, and the first of a dynasty of actors started: the Danjuro line. Kabuki reached its peak in the 18th century. Kabuki is melodramatic and spectacular. Climaxes require a special look called the mie (mee-eh): to the accompaniment of wooden clappers, the actor strikes a grandiose pose, widening his eyes, and crossing one of them. Unlike Noh, which always has the same backdrop of a painting of a pine tree, kabuki has elaborate props such as trapdoors and a revolving stage. A close rapport exists between actors and audience, aided by a walkway that extends into the audience. Actors address some lines to the audience, members of which shout their comments as the play progresses. Kabuki plots revolve around the elevation of a commoner to a higher status, people changing forms, incredible swordfights, lovers’ suicides, and a terrible Japanese insult—slapping someone with a slipper or clog.

A Bunraku puppeteer with a puppet.

BUNRAKU Bunraku, the puppet theater, developed from storytelling into a musical form in the 16th century. Storytelling is still very popular in Japan. Every television station devotes at least an hour a day to the traditional halfrecited, half-sung style of storytelling. Today puppets are mechanically complicated figures about 3 feet (1 m) high. It requires three men to operate one puppet. The puppeteers are not hidden, but as soon as the play begins, the audience ceases to notice the puppeteers.

ART TODAY Modern art takes many forms and expresses a myriad of different ideas. Although there are still many artists who continue to paint in the traditional

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manner, with black or colored ink on silk or paper, others have begun embracing Western oil paints. The same goes for sculpture, with some sticking to traditional modes and others embracing modern techniques. Cartoons imported from America led to anime, animation originating in Japan and derived exclusively from manga stories. Today anime has gained popularity around the world and many artists and studios have risen to fame. Hayao Miyazaki and the artists and animators of Studio Ghibli are said to be among the best the anime industry has to offer. Another well-known Japanese modern artist in the Western world is Takashi Murakami. Inspired by anime, his pieces take a variety of forms, from painting to sculpture.

MUSIC Japanese music, like many aspects of the theatrical arts, has Chinese origins. In fact the word for “music” in Japanese is ongaku (on-ga-koo) and it combines the kanji words on for “sound” and gaku for “fun” and “comfort.” Traditional Japanese music has no specific beat, and it has a very calming effect. The oldest forms of traditional Japanese music are shomyo

A traditional taiko drumming performance.

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or Buddhist chanting, and gagaku, a type of classical music that has been performed at the imperial court since the Heian period. Japanese folk music is also very popular in the country. There are four main categories of folk music. These are work songs, religious songs, music used for gatherings such as weddings, festivals, and funerals, and children’s songs. The Meiji Restoration introduced Western musical instruction and a bureaucrat by the name of Izawa Shuki compiled and commissioned songs such as “Auld Lang Syne” using a pentatonic melody. Soon Western music like the military marches became popular in Japan. Today Japan has the second-largest music market in the world behind the United States. Japanese artists dominate most of its market, and local music often appears at karaoke venues. The most popular genre of music today is J-pop, which is an abbreviation for “Japanese pop.” Modern J-pop has its roots in 1960s music popularized by bands such as the Beatles, Bob Dylan, and the Rolling Stones. Other popular music genres in Japan include hip-hop, punk rock, country rock, and electropop. Japan is also known to have a large following of heavy metal, and many live albums are recorded in the country.

INTERNET LINKS www.musicjapanplus.jp/ This website provides current trends and up-to-date information about the Japanese music scene.

www.japan-guide.com/e/e2113.html This site contains short descriptions of the most important types of traditional Japanese music.

www.japan-zone.com/culture/kabuki.shtml This site provides an introduction to traditional Japanese theater.

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Skiers enjoying the ride up the slope.

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ITH THE INTERNATIONALIZING of leisure via television and recorded music, Japanese styles of leisure have become similar to those in North America and Europe. The Japanese have absorbed pop music and adopted baseball with as widespread and intense an enthusiasm as the United States.

11 According to statistics, the most popular leisure activities in Japan are dining out, domestic travel, and karaoke.

The professional baseball league in Japan was established in 1936 and today, baseball is the most popular spectator sport in the country. One of the most famous Japanese baseball players is Ichiro Suzuki, who won Japan’s Most Valuable Player award in 1994, 1995, and 1996. He now plays for the Seattle Mariners. Other popular sports include soccer; golf, which is the hobby of the upper class; tennis; and skiing. Traditional martial arts such as judo, kendo, and aikido continue to thrive in modern Japan. Judo, which means “the gentle way,” is now popular all over the world, and it has firmly established itself as an Right: Ruddy-faced boys after a kendo (a form of traditional martial art) class. 107

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JAPANESE BATHS Bathing is a very important daily activity to the Japanese. The word for “bath”— O-furo—is given the honorific prefix O. The Japanese have no qualms about showing their naked bodies. Public baths in the country are still places where men and women bathe together. They start by washing every part of the body meticulously, often asking a friend or acquaintance to scrub their backs. Having made sure that they are clean, they get into the bath-pool or bathtub and sit in it, soaking in the heat of very hot water for a long time. official Olympic event since its first inclusion in 1964. Another sport, sumo wrestling, has a history that spans more than 1,500 years. Traditionally a sumo match was held to give thanks for harvests. Today professional tournaments take place six times a year and last 15 days each. It has attracted a lot of attention outside of Japan.

TRAVEL, READING, AND PACHINKO Japanese reading manga in a bookstore. Manga is very popular in Japan.

Japanese travel a lot, but mostly in organized groups. They have a passion for photography; whether abroad or at home, the Japanese photograph almost anything they see. Reading newspapers, magazines, or novels is another passion. Manga (mahn-gah), or comics, have become a national craze in last decade, and range from the pornographic to Shakespeare’s plays, from funny to serious. The Japanese seem to read them everywhere. Restaurants provide stacks of manga for their customers to peruse, and truck drivers keep a manga on the seat beside them for a quick read at breaks along the journey. In the evening, nightspots and bars all over Japan ring with the same guffaws and boisterous behavior as all over the world. Like many Westerners, the Japanese drink regularly.

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One of the more unusual but popular leisure pursuits in Japan is pachinko (pah-chin-koh), the pinball machine. In the cities thousands of businessmen and workers stand side by side, pushing levers to set the balls moving, apparently oblivious to their surroundings. Pachinko is a mindless activity and the prizes are insignificant. Yet it has been reported that 30 million people, mostly men, lose $40 billion a year on this game, which they play daily, in many cases for hours on end. It is a form of escapism, like drinking and reading comics. The reason pachinko is popular is because gambling is illegal in Japan. Balls won cannot be exchanged directly for cash but can be exchanged for token prizes that can then be taken to a business and traded for cash. There are still traditional Japanese facets to their leisure. The appreciation of the ancient is alive and strong in the Japanese. Families travel around Japan to see the old temples, castles, rock gardens, and the famous scenic spots. It is not just aesthetic appreciation; there is a nationalistic pride in all this.

INTERNET LINKS www.japan-zone.com/modern/pachinko.shtml Pachinko is a huge revenue-making business in Japan. It employs a third of a million people and commands 40 percent of Japan’s leisure industry.

http://web-japan.org/kidsweb/explore/sports/ Many different sports are played in Japan, from traditional martial arts to Western sports such as baseball.

www.japan-guide.com/e/e2292.html Japanese onsens or hot spring baths are very popular across the country. Every region has its share of hot springs and resort towns.

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A procession of people, dressed in traditional clothes from the Heian period, traveling from the Shimogamo Shrine to the Kamigamo Shrine during the Aoi festival.

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ESTIVALS, CALLED MATSURI (mahtsoo-ree), are major social events in Japan. Whether religious, superstitious, or rooted in ancient events that are now irrelevant, they give the Japanese an opportunity to relax.

12 At a typical Japanese festival, it is common to find food stalls, entertainment, and carnival games.

NEW YEAR FESTIVAL New Year’s Day, January 1, is celebrated nationwide and New Year observances are the most important and elaborate of Japan’s annual events. Businesses close and family reunions are held. Before the New Year, homes are cleaned and debts are paid off. Three bamboo and pine branches are put up in front of the house and a rope stretched across the gate. Osechi (oh-say-chee), which is food on lacquered trays, is prepared or bought. Osechi foods are traditional foods that are chosen for their lucky colors, shapes, or lucky-sounding names. In the living room, decorative rice cakes, seaweed, dried sardines, persimmons, oranges, and a lobster with evergreens or ferns are placed on a special stand. Zoni (zoh-nee), a soup of pounded rice cakes, vegetables, and fish or chicken, is eaten. Toso (toh-soh), a special spiced sake, is drunk, and a stack of trays called jubako (joo-bah-koh), or “stacked-up boxes,” is packed with tidbits for visitors. It is a day for visiting the local shrine and for calling on one’s friends and relatives; these days, it could be a day to sit in front of the television set because excellent traditional programs are broadcast on New Year’s Day. 111

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January 2 in many ways is regarded as the first day of the year. One does one’s first calligraphy, writes the first poem, plays the first musical piece, sews the first stitches, and gathers sentimental treasures around the pillow to ensure the first dream of the year is happy. Tradesmen used to decorate carts gaily before setting out on the first business day. The festival ends on January 7, when a rice porridge seasoned with seven herbs is eaten. Other events, such as the poetry reading at the emperor’s poetry party on January 18, draw the festivities out a little longer. Crowds of people at the grounds of a temple, waiting to say a prayer on New Year’s Day,

TANABATA The Tanabata festival’s origin is in a Chinese story of two stars. Vega, or the weaver star, fell in love with Altair, the cowherd, and in the whirlwind of their honeymoon, they neglected their duties. Angry with the lovers, the god of the firmament separated them. On the seventh night of the seventh month every year, the legend goes, magpies form a bridge across the celestial river dividing them (the Milky Way), but the lovers can only be reunited if it does not rain, and the river is narrow enough. On July 7 this romance is symbolized by bamboo cuttings set up in each house. They are decorated with poems on strips of different-colored paper that are later dropped into a river. At Sendai thousands of folk dancers in light summer kimono and flower-decorated straw hats dance through the town after dark.

BON The purpose of the Bon, or O-Bon, festival originally was to offer prayers and perform ritual dances in the Buddhist month when ghosts of the dead were

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believed to return to Earth. This seventh-century custom has become a summer festival of dancing and lanterns. Candles and floating lanterns on rivers and lakes (supplemented by fireworks these days) guide the spirits back to the paradise or hell they came from. In temples and graveyards flickering lights bring an air of quiet eeriness and subdued festivity. In village squares towers are set up where drummers, and perhaps a band, pound out an all-night rhythm, pacing the feet and hand movements of hundreds of ordinary folk dancing in concentric circles around the towers, repeating the same simple movements for hours on end, trancelike.

HINAMATSURI This festival is really girls’ day in Japan, a day when girls get to play with beautiful dolls that are works of fine craftsmanship. It is also a time where people pray for the health and happiness of girls. The family’s treasured doll collection is brought out and displayed on tiered shelves for about two weeks. There are usually more than 10 dolls; the emperor and empress dolls are put on the top shelf, their courtiers below them. The doll display is often accompanied by an equally exquisite display of miniature furniture and food.

Dolls like these are usually displayed during Hinamatsuri.

Special sweets are eaten, and the girls of the family play hostess to the friends who visit them to admire the dolls. Hinamatsuri is their day.

TOSHOGU SHRINE FESTIVAL This is a Shinto religious extravaganza. It is said to commemorate the death of Tokugawa Ieyasu, one of the three warlords who molded Japan into a single homogeneous country. Three movable shrines are carried around the Toshogu shrine in Nikko in Tochigi prefecture, where a procession of a thousand people marches dressed in Tokugawa period costumes. They are

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accompanied by a motley crowd of followers dressed as monkeys, lions, samurai, falconers, and fairies. There is something for everyone: religious shrine dances, other special dances performed by Buddhist priests, and even a demonstration of mounted archery.

DAIMONJI

The character “dai” burning on a mountainside during Daimonji.

Every year, as the O-Bon celebrations of the month of ghosts culminate in a night of bonfires and lanterns all over Japan, residents of Kyoto and the surrounding district settle down to watch Mount Nyoigatake. At 8:00 P.M. on August 16 a bonfire starts burning on the mountain slope and slowly spreads out to form the character dai (dahee), meaning “big.” Dai resembles a man with arms and legs stretched out. The bonfires cover an area of about 12,000 square yards (10,000 square m). Daimonji (dah-ee-mon-jee) means a “large-character fire.” Soon fires start burning on other hills, each in the form of the character dai. It is a spectacular finale to the month of festivities for visiting ghosts from other worlds.

GION MATSURI On July 17 the ancient and dignified city of Kyoto, with its beautiful temples and serene parks and gardens of mosses and rocks, erupts into a brilliant spectacle. The Gion Matsuri brings color and music, gaiety, and open friendliness. From 9:00 A.M. to 11:00 A.M., 32 carved or gilded floats decorated with tapestries, gongs, flutes, and drums are carried or drawn through the town in a procession. Old family houses and old stores throw open their doors, displaying their treasures and family heirlooms. Everyone is out to enjoy themselves. There is an almost Latin fiesta atmosphere that contrasts with the festival’s origins in A.D. 869, when the people of Kyoto took to the streets to pray for divine protection against an epidemic that was sweeping across the country.

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BOYS’ DAY On the fifth day of the fifth month, Japanese boys have their special day. Mounted on poles at almost every house, brightly colored, carp-shaped banners of paper or cloth flutter in the wind like flags or runway air-socks. Five hundred years ago these were first put up to frighten away the swarms of May insects. A tiered stand in every house displays the family collection of warrior figures and instruments of war: perhaps an antique family sword, a silk banner of the family crest, or a set of spears. Nowadays May 5 is also celebrated as Children’s Day, but the older tradition lingers, of wishing the boys of the family health and the courage and fortitude of samurai.

KUROFUNE MATSURI The Japanese celebrate Commodore Perry’s landing at Shimada on the Izu Peninsula. Kuro (koo-roh) means “black” and fune (foo-nay) means “ship.” The black, tarred hulls of U.S. naval ships in Perry’s time made a menacing impression on the Japanese, who did not paint the hulls of their boats. In spite of the unwelcome intrusion of the Americans in 1857, the Kurofune festival commemorates the event with a historical pageant every year around May 16–18. There is also a U.S. naval parade.

A giant parade float at the Gion Matsuri festival.

AOI MATSURI The Aoi Matsuri is said to be the oldest festival celebrated in the world. From the sixth century A.D., this pageant of color, costumes, and music from flutes, gongs, and drums, has snaked its way annually through the streets of Kyoto. The Hollyhock festival, as it is sometimes known, is celebrated on May 15, between the last of the cherry blossoms and the first irises.

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The highlight is the imperial procession, reenacted these days in the dress of the Heian period with the imperial oxcart, its lacquer beautifully preserved and its wheels squeaking to attest to its authenticity. Brocaded kimono with huge sleeves, sprays of artificial wisteria, little black hats perched on top of the attendants’ heads, ornate saddles, enormously impractical umbrellas decorated with flowers, and a seemingly endless array of strange and colorful costumes all combine to make the Aoi festival a dazzling spectacle. Carp streamers fluttering in the wind.

HAMAMATSU MATSURI The Suwa shrine festival at Hamamatsu in Shizuoka is not just another shrine festival. It includes the Hamamatsu Odakoage: the big-kite fight at Nakatajima beach. This festival began about 1740, when a feudal lord announced the name of his newborn son by flying a large kite with the child’s name on it. Today more than 160 teams from different districts manipulate giant kites with unbelievable agility, skill, and intense excitement, trying to cut each other’s kite string with the abrasive strings of their own kites. The festival is a tumult of shouting, leaping, jostling, and laughing—a riot of color and splendor with all the tension of a football game and the gaiety of an outdoor springtime party.

HAKONE TORII MATSURI This is the festival for travelers celebrated by the lake of Ashinoko (also known as Lake Ashi and Lake Hakone) in the mountains south of Tokyo. The Torii Matsuri originated from casting little paper replicas of torii (gateway

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structures) into the lake to ensure safety when traveling. It has become a glittering spectacle. A life-size torii, decorated with thousands of lanterns, is set afloat on the lake and burned.

TENJIN MATSURI The Tenjin Matsuri of Osaka is one of the greatest and most dazzling of the festivals of Japan. It began when the people of Osaka brought to Temmangu shrine pieces of paper cut into human form as offerings against the diseases that spread in the summer heat. These paper offerings were then carried down to the river and thrown into the water. Today the festival is centered around a magnificent evening procession that starts on land from Temmangu shrine and moves down to floats drifting on the river. Bonfires are lit on the riverbanks as night falls. The procession is led by six frenzied men beating on a 5-footdiameter (1.5-m-diameter) drum as if possessed. They are followed by a scarlet-robed horseman, dancers with spinning umbrellas, an oxcart bearing books, boxes of rice offerings, palanquins, portable shrines, a lion dance, and, to ensure that dozens of proud parents will share the joy of the day, streams of powdered, rouged, and prettied-up children.

SHIRAOI-NO-IOMANTE This is a solemn hunting festival of the Ainu, the aboriginal people of Japan who now live only in Hokkaido. The Iomante, or bear festival, originated from the sacrificial killing of a baby bear specially raised for the annual event. It was believed that the spirit of the bear went up to heaven.

The Saio dai, reigning festival queen, dressed in a traditional headdress and kimono at Aoi Matsuri celebrations.

The baby bear is no longer sacrificed, but a hideous, grotesque thing, almost like a face from a science-fiction fantasy, represents the bear.

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CALENDAR OF JAPANESE FESTIVALS* New Year Sapporo Snow Festival

Jan. 1–7 Pan-Japan One week in February Iwate Snow festival Feb. 3–12 Tohoku First weekend Hokkaido Shiraoi Dosanko Winter Festival (Shiraoi of Feb. Iomante) Hinamatsuri Mar. 3 Pan-Japan Kasuga Matsuri Mar. 13 Nara The Buddha’s Birthday Apr. 8 Procession Fire-walking Apr. 15 Miyajima

Green Day Hamamatsu festival Boys’ Day Aoi Matsuri (Hollyhock festival)

Apr. 29 May 3–5 May 5 May 15

Ice sculptures

Dolls Lanterns

Includes Bugaku, an ancient dance of Centra Asia, seen only in Japan Pan-Japan Environmental day Shizuoka Big-kite fights Pan-Japan Carp streamers Shimogamo, Imperial procession, flower Kamigamo decorated umbrellas

THE BUDDHA’S BIRTHDAY The Buddha’s birthday is celebrated in Buddhist temples all over Japan with the Kanbutsu (kahn-boot-tsoo) ceremony, the baptizing of the Buddha. It was first performed at the Genkoji temple, Yamato, in A.D. 606. In the temple grounds, an image of the infant Buddha is set up under a roof decorated with flowers; this is the hanamido (ha-nah-mi-doe), or “temple of flowers.” The priests give worshipers a sweet tea made from hydrangea leaves to take home. The Buddha’s birthday has thus come to be associated with flowers, and in Hibiya Park, Tokyo, thousands of flower-bearing Buddhist children march in procession.

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CALENDAR OF JAPANESE FESTIVALS* (CONTINUED) Toshogu Shrine Grand Festival Kurofune Matsuri Takigi-Noh Gion Matsuri Nomaoi Bon Black Ship festival Tenjin Matsuri Tanabata (Star festival) Hanagasa-odori Bonbori Matsuri Daimonji bonfire Kokeshi festival

May 17

Nikko

May 19–21 Jun. 1–2 Jul. 17 Jul. 22–25 Jul. 13–16

Shimoda Kyoto Kyoto Kyoto Pan-Japan

Aug. 12–16 Mid-July Jul. 24–25 Aug. 6–8

Kyoto Kurihama Osaka Sendai

Aug. 5–7 Aug. 7–9 Aug. 16 First weekend of Sept

Yamagata Kamakura Kyoto Miyagi

Tokugawa period pageant, archery

Floats Wild horse chasing Floating lanterns, fireworks Historical pageant Procession—land and river Bamboo branches with colored paper ornaments and love poems Lanterns Bonfires in character “Dai” Costume parade, dances, memorial service for imperfect dolls destroyed the year before

* Dates subject to change

IZUMO-TAISHA JINZAISAI In the 10th month of the lunar calendar, all the gods in Japan are believed to gather at Izumo Taisha Shrine. In Izumo the month is called Kamiarizuki (kah-mee-ah-ree-zoo-kee)—“the month when the gods are present”—and everywhere else it is called Kannazuki (kah-nah-zoo-kee)—“the month when the gods are absent.” The gods are welcomed at the seashore with a rite. The procession then makes its way toward the shrine.

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SAPPORO SNOW FESTIVAL This festival is held in the first week of February in Hokkaido’s capital, Sapporo. The festival was started in 1950 when high school students built a few snow statues in Odori Park. Since then it has become a large, commercialized event that features spectacular snow and ice sculptures. The Sapporo Snow Festival attracts more than 2 million visitors from Japan and across the world.

NAMAHAGE Visitors and locals admiring dinosaurs carved out of snow during the Sapporo Snow Festival in Hokkaido.

Namahage is celebrated at the Akagami shrine of Oga city in Akita prefecture. It is a strange mixture of a harvest festival and an orgy of scaring children into obedience throughout the coming year. After prayers in front of a bonfire, young, unmarried men dressed in frightening masks, straw cloaks, and trousers with bells around their waists, go from house to house. Sometimes they carry a wooden pail and a wooden replica of a kitchen knife, knock on doors, and ask, “Is there any wicked person in this house?” They are invited in and offered rice cakes and sake, and move on, chuckling and getting more and more drunk.

CHAKKIRAKO Held every January 15 in Kanagawa prefecture, Chakkirako is an ancient dance performed by young girls dressed in haregi (ha-ray-gee), meaning “best kimono.” The name of the festival represents the sound of the ayadake (ah-yah-dah-kay), a paper-wrapped bamboo percussion instrument, similar to castanets, that the dancers carry.

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HANAGASA-ODORI This is one of the great festivals of Tohoku, celebrated at Yamagata at the beginning of August. The hanagasa is a hat on which flowers are painted. The hanagasa dance overwhelms one by the sheer numbers—thousands of girls, swinging their hats first in circles in a steady rhythm to the music above their heads, then almost down to their knees, cry out, in unison, “Yassho! Makasho! Yassho! Makasho!”

DEER-DANCE FESTIVAL This is a delightful fall festival of Ehime province. Young boys dressed in tubular armless robes with deer-head masks, complete with antlers, beat small drums as they step and sway in a graceful dance, searching for the “doe” who is hiding from them. At the Awatsuhiko shrine located in the city of Awajima in Ehime, a very special eight-deer dance, the Yatsushishi-odori (yahtzoo-she-she oh-door-ri), is particularly well known. (Odori means “dance.”) Deer dances, Shika-odori, have been performed at fall festivals in Ehime since the 17th century.

INTERNET LINKS www.jnto.go.jp/eng/indepth/history/traditionalevents/index.html This site explores traditional events and festivals held in Japan yearly.

www.mapsofworld.com/japan/culture/japanese-festivals.html Japanese festivals bring people together across the nation. They celebrate and convey well wishes by means of singing and dancing.

www.thejapanfaq.com/celebrations.html This site provides a collection of photos and descriptions of how the Japanese celebrate.

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A man making pastries at a flea market near the Kinatano Shrine.

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N BOTH TASTE AND PRESENTATION, Japanese food reflects the character and culture of the Japanese. Japanese cuisine is based on a combination of staple foods, usually rice or noodles with a soup and dishes made from fish, meat, vegetable, or tofu. These dishes are typically flavored with dashi (da-she), a type of stock, miso, which is traditional seasoning, and soy sauce. Japanese cuisine is a high-protein, low-fat diet. Food is always presented to please the eye and whet the appetite. It has been said that the Japanese “eat with their eyes.” Meals were served on a variety of differently shaped dishes long before the West broke from their rigid limitation of round plates. There are many rules of presentation; for instance, a whole fish is always placed before the guest with its head facing left.

13 As a result of social and political changes as well as Western influence, Japanese cuisine has evolved over the centuries. The term Japanese cuisine means traditional-style Japanese food.

STAPLES Although rice is the main carbohydrate, noodles are often eaten. The range of noodle dishes varies from the thick udon to the very fine soba noodles. Soba is sometimes eaten cold dipped in a sweet soy sauce with finely chopped scallions floating in it. In a unique food-and-fun festival event, noodles in a soup are poured down a bamboo trough. Hungry eaters line the sides of the trough and use chopsticks to gobble and suck in the noodles as they flow past. A popular and unusual carbohydrate is the tuber konnyaku (konnyah-koo). It is believed to have come from Indonesia and now grows in 123

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a limited area in Japan. Konnyaku is eaten raw, boiled, or reconstituted from konnyaku flour. Yam, which the Japanese call “mountain potato,” is another favorite. Fried in batter or steamed, the yam appears frequently in Japanese dishes.

THE JAPANESE AND THEIR FISH

A serving of amberjack sashimi.

Fish is prepared grilled on a steel plate called a teppan (tay-pahn), cooked with soy sauce, or made into fish cakes and fish balls. Dried and fermented fish or bonito (boh-ni-toh), known as katsuo-bushi (kaht-zoo-oh boo-she), is used to make miso shiru (mee-soh shee-roo), or soybean paste soup, and shavings of it are used as a garnish. The Japanese love raw fish, sashimi, an expensive delicacy eaten with wasabi, or Japanese horseradish. Fish is more common in sushi, little pieces of raw fish on one-mouthful lumps of rice seasoned with vinegar. The origin of sushi is interesting. Transportation of fresh sea fish inland was slow, and a sour fermented rice and fish mixture was eaten to mask the decaying fish smell. When fermentation was discontinued, vinegar was added to maintain the essential flavor. Now only the freshest fish is used. FISH BELIEFS Most Japanese observe some form of fish calendar: when to eat salmon, trout, tuna, and so on. The first bonito of the season is highly prized. The Japanese have many “fish” theories: One concerns the sanma (sahn-mah), a fish not widely eaten elsewhere, which is supposed to cure various ills. It is said “when the sanma comes, the masseurs go away.” Fish is also often mentioned in poetry and comic verse. Fish appear in various emblems, such as the carp-shaped banners put up on the boys’ festival day.

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SUSHI Sushi is not restricted to raw fish. Hundreds of variants exist that use different tidbits with the rice, including cucumber, cooked egg, steamed prawns, raw cuttlefish, seaweed, and shellfish. Sushi is presented in bite-sized pieces. One picks up a piece, turns it over and around, dips the top in a saucer of soy sauce with pungent wasabi, and then pops the whole morsel into one’s mouth. This is a little tricky at first.

OTHER SEAFOOD Japanese eat other seafood, including seaweed. Seaweed is a major source of minerals and other trace elements, such as iodine, in their diet. Eels are a specialty. Kabayaki (kah-bah-yah-kee)—grilled eel—is a mouthwatering dish. The eel is steamed first and then grilled dark brown and placed on top of a bowl of rice. An interesting prawn was discovered by accident when a fisherman made a mistake in lowering his nets and drew up a pinkish transparent prawn never before seen. The Japanese call it the sakura ebi (sah-koo-rah eh-bee), or “cherry blossom prawn,” because of its color.

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A meat stall in the Makishi public market in Okinawa.

MEAT Pork came to Kyushu from China via Korea, and the best pork dishes are thus found in the south. A pork chop dish called tonkatsu (tohn-kat-zu) and other specialties exist, but in general pork has not developed into a major food item in Japan. Japanese eat beef only in special dishes. Sukiyaki, thin strips of meat cooked with vegetables at the table, is one such dish. It is delicious made with Kobe beef, a highly marbled beef. Cattle are fattened and massaged so that fat is dispersed evenly throughout the muscle. This gives the beef a tender, melt-in-the-mouth quality. Kobe beef is one of the most expensive types of beef in the world. Venison is one of Japan’s more unusual meats. The best venison is believed to come from Hokkaido, where the deer supposedly eat grasses with medicinal properties. The Japanese also eat horsemeat because they enjoy the uncommon taste and texture. It is sometimes eaten raw as sashimi.

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VEGETABLES Japanese vegetables include those well known in Europe and Asia, such as spinach and eggplant, as well as a variety of flowers, stems, and roots. Vegetables that are unfamiliar in the West are fuki (foo-key), a butterbur (a herbaceous plant with medicinal qualities); gobo (goh-boe), a burdock that is any group of thistles; daikon (dye-con), a kind of radish; and even chrysanthemum leaves. Daikon, especially when thinly sliced or grated, is seen in most Japanese meals as an individual dish, a pickle, or garnish.

EGGS

A tofu seller making tofu in his shop.

The Japanese have their own ways of handling eggs. Chawanmushi (chahone-moo-she)—literally steamed in a cup—are steamed, whipped eggs with tasty additions. In cities the okonomiyakiya (oh-koh-noh-mee-yahkee-yah)—omelette shops—provide the customer with a staggering choice of omelettes.

TOFU When Buddhism discouraged the consumption of meat, it popularized the soybean, a vegetable protein. Making soybean cake became an art. Buddhist temples vied with one another to develop the perfect soybean cake or tofu. Served hot or cold, as food or drink, salted or sweet—Japanese food would not be the same without it. The two most common varieties of tofu are kinudofu (silken tofu), a soft type; and momen-dofu (cotton tofu), a firmer type. One popular dish is the “soybean steak”—a fried tofu cake with a thick sweet soy sauce topped with fried fish shavings.

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FROM SHABU-SHABU TO SAKE

A woman performing a Japanese tea ceremony.

SHABU-SHABU AND SOY-SAUCE STEWS The universal stew, so welcome when one comes in from the winter cold, is also found in Japan. Many Japanese stews are flavored with soy sauce. They call these stews nimono (nee-moh-noh). There are hundreds, all as delicious as Chinese claypots and French coqau-vin. There is also the Japanese version of fondue called shabushabu (shah-boo shah-boo), a word without literal meaning, but one which conveys the sound of bubbling soup in which one dips and cooks a selection of raw meats and vegetables. TEMPURA Tempura is prawns, fish, and eggplant and other vegetables dipped in batter and deep-fried. The Japanese learned it from the Portuguese and incorporated into their food vocabulary the Portuguese word tempora (temporary thing). The Roman Catholic Portuguese could not eat meat on Fridays, so they called the fish-fried-in-batter dish a “temporary thing.” PICKLES Japanese tastes are generally subtle, so sharp stimulants are provided in a variety of pickles called tsukemono (tzoo-kay-moh-noh). Pickled radish and cucumber—crisp, biting, just a little pungent and sour—add the finishing touch to a meal. Even the herbs and spicy tubers are subtle and play an important role in Japanese cuisine. SWEETS Japanese make crystallized fruit and spun sugar sweets as the English do, but not the Chinese range of hot sweets. Soybeans form the base

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of many Japanese sweets. The best flour dumplings are ones with a sweet soybean filling. Presentation is important; sweets are made in unique shapes and forms, and sold in distinctive packaging. It is one more example of how the visual arts permeate Japanese society. TEA AND SAKE Tea is the drink of Japan. It is offered to the visitor and served at all meals. The Japanese use the honorific O in front of the word tea and always refer to tea as O-cha (oh-chah). The living room of a house is called the cha-no-ma (chah-noh-mah), the “tearoom.” Many hundreds of years ago a formal ceremony for the preparation and offering of tea to special guests was developed; today, it is regarded as an art form. Sake is the main alcoholic drink. It is made from rice wine and usually drunk warm, although some rare types of sake are drunk chilled. Today cold sake is a new fad. A sweetened sake, mirin (mee-rin), is used for cooking. Special varieties include amazake (ah-mah-zah-kay), a sweet sake, and another with the fin of the puffer fish (blowfish) in it.

INTERNET LINKS www.japan-guide.com/e/e2035.html Japanese cuisine offers a great variety of dishes.

www.asiarecipe.com/japeathistory.html This site provides Japanese food history, customs, and culture. It also includes recipes from Japan.

w w w.wh e r e t h e l o c a l s e a t . c o m / 1 0 -B e s t -J a p a n e s e - O r - S u s h i Restaurants/Search/ This site explores the 10 best Japanese restaurants in America, including reviews and ratings.

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NIKUJAGA Nikujaga is a stew that means “meat and potatoes.” 1¼ pounds (600 grams) potatoes, cubed 1 cup (250 grams) carrots, peeled and chopped 4 shiitake mushrooms, quartered (stems removed) 1 onion, thinly sliced 7 ounces (200 grams) beef, sliced 2 tablespoons (30 ml) water or sake 2 cups (500 ml) dashi (or other soup stock) 4 tablespoons (60 ml) of sake or water 5 ½ tablespoons (80 ml) soy sauce 3 ½ tablespoons (52 ml) granulated sugar Pour 2 tablespoons of water or sake over the sliced beef and rub it into each slice of meat. Next, pour the dashi (or other stock), water or sake, soy sauce, and granulated sugar into a pot and bring to a boil. Then add the meat one slice at a time. Skim any impurities that surface. Next add the onions and carrots and after 5 minutes, add the shiitake and potatoes. Make sure the liquid covers the potatoes. Let it simmer for 30 minutes without a lid.

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TERIYAKI CHICKEN BOWL ¾ pounds (340 grams) chicken breast ½ cup (125 ml) soy sauce ½ cup (125 ml) brown sugar ½ cup (125 ml) ketchup 3 tablespoons (45 ml) honey 1 teaspoon (5 ml) garlic salt 2 teaspoons (10 ml) grated ginger root Bite-size pieces of broccoli, carrot, cauliflower (steamed, optional)

Boil chicken breast in large covered pot over low heat for 20 minutes. Drain. Combine rest of the ingredients and marinate chicken breast in the mixture overnight. Leave a few tablespoons of the mixture aside. Grill chicken breast over charcoal or under the broiler until nicely browned—be careful, because it browns quickly. Cut chicken breast into 2-inch-long strips. Warm up leftover teriyaki mixture in a frying pan quickly until the mixture starts to thicken. Pour mixture over chicken and serve. Dish can be served with rice and steamed vegetables.

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iii MAP OF JAPAN Aichi, C3 Akita, C2 Aomori, C2 Chiba, C3 China, A1, A2, B1 East China Sea, A4 Ehime, B4 Fukui, B3–C3 Fukuoka, A3 Fukuoka (city), A4 Fukushima, C3 Gifu, C3 Gumma, C3 Hiroshima, B3 Hiroshima (city), C3 Hokkaido, C1–C2, D1– D2 Honshu, B2–C4 Hyogo, B3

Ibaraki, C3 Ishikawa, C3 Iwate, C2 Izu Peninsula, C3 Izumo, B3 Kagawa, B3–B4 Kagoshima, A4–B4 Kanagawa, C3 Kobe, B3 Kochi, B4 Kumamoto, A4–B4 Kurile Islands, D1 Kyoto, B3 Kyushu, A4–B4 Lake Biwa, B3 Mie, B3–C3 Mount Fuji, C3 Miyagi, C2 Miyazaki, B4 Nagano, C3 Nagasaki, A4

Nagasaki (city), A4 Nara, B3–C4 Nara (city), B3 Narita, C3 Niigata, C2–C3 North Korea, A2, A3 Oita, B4 Okayama, B3 Okinawa, A5 Osaka, B3 Osaka (city), B3 Pacific Ocean, B5– D5 Russia, B1 Ryukyu Islands, A5

Shiga, B3 Shikoku, B4 Shimane, B3 Shimoda, C3 Shimabara, A4 Shinano River, C3 Shizuoka, C3 Showa-Shinzan, C1–C2 South Korea, A3 Tochigi, C3 Tokushima, B4 Tottori, B3 Toyama, C3 Tsushima Strait, A3–A4, B3 Wakayama, B4–C4

Saga, A4 Saitama, C3 Sapporo, C1 Sea of Japan, B2 Sea of Okhotsk, D1 Sendai, C2–C3

Yamagata, C2–C3 Yamagata (city), C2 Yamaguchi, B3–B4 Yamanashi, C3 Yokohama, C3

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ECONOMIC JAPAN Agriculture

Natural Resources

Fruit

Fishing

Dairy products

Hydroelectricity

Poultry

Nuclear reactor

Rice Vegetables

Manufacturing Steel

Traditional arts and crafts

Textiles

Vehicles

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iii ABOUT THE ECONOMY OVERVIEW

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS

Japan’s industrialized economy is the thirdlargest in the world, after the United States and China.

Rice, sugar beets, vegetables, fruit, pork, poultry, dairy products, eggs, fish

GDP

Transportation equipment, motor vehicles, electronics, electrical machinery, steel and nonferrous metals, ships, and chemicals

US$4.15 trillion (2009)

GDP SECTORS Agriculture: 1.6 percent (2009) Industry: 21.9 percent (2009) Services: 76.5 percent (2009)

LAND USE

MAJOR EXPORTS

MAJOR IMPORTS Machinery and equipment, fossil fuels, foodstuffs (in particular beef), chemicals, textiles, and raw materials

Arable land: 11.64 percent (2005) Permanent crops: 0.9 percent (2005) Other: 87.46 percent (2005)

MAJOR TRADING PARTNERS

WORKFORCE

UNEMPLOYMENT RATE

66.17 million (2009) Trade and services: 68 percent (2009) Industry: 28 percent (2009) Agriculture, forestry, and fishing: 4 percent (2009)

5.1 percent (2009)

CURRENCY

14,707 miles (23,670 km) (2005)

US$1 =79.86 yen (June 2011) 1 yen = 100 sen

WATERWAYS

N

IME

C SPE

China, United States, South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong (2009)

HIGHWAYS 715,948 miles (1,152,207 km) (2009)

RAILROADS

Approximately 1,100 miles (1,770 km) (2007)

EN CIM SPE

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CULTURAL JAPAN Kinkakuji Temple Famous for its golden exterior. It was built in the 14th century and rebuilt in the 1950s after a fire.

Kushiro Shitsugen National Park Famous for its population of tancho, Japanese cranes.

Kairakuen Garden One of the “three great gardens” of Japan.

Ryoanji Temple Famous for its Zen rock garden built in the 16th century.

Lake Biwa The largest lake in Japan covers an area of 259 square miles (671 square km).

Nikko Toshogu A World Heritage Site, it is the shrine and mausoleum to warlord Tokugawa Ieyasu (1543–1616). Famous for its “see-no-evil, speak-no-evil, hear-no-evil” monkey carvings.

Himeiji Castle One of the finest surviving examples of 16th-century Japanese castle architecture. It was registered as a World Heritage Site in 1993.

Imperial Palace Nearly a square mile (2.5 square km) in area, the palace was used as Edo Castle by the Tokugawa shogunate. It became the Imperial Palace in 1869. Atomic Bomb Dome The Atomic Bomb Dome, one of the few buildings that remained standing after the dropping of the first atomic bomb in Hiroshima during World War II, is now a monument to peace.

Tokyo Disneyland Slightly bigger than the Disneyland in California, Tokyo Disneyland lies just outside of Central Tokyo.

Mount Fuji Japan’s highest mountain at 12,389 feet (3,776 m).

Itsukushima Shrine A sacred place since ancient times, Itsukushima Shrine on Miyajima Island is said to have been built as early as A.D. 593.

Beppu Hot Springs Japan’s largest spa resort, Beppu City has a world record of 2,849 springs. Its hot springs gush out approximately 36 million gallons (136 million liters) of spring water every day.

Shuri Castle Reconstructed castle of the ancient Ryukyu kingdom. The original structure was destroyed during World War II.

Kamakura Daibutsu (“Giant Buddha”) The Daibutsu was cast in 1252. Over 36 feet (11 m) tall and 95 feet (29 m) at the base, the statue is cast in bronze and is estimated to weigh at least 90 tons (82 metric tons).

Horyuji A World Heritage Site, the present Buddhist temple was built between A.D. 670 and 714.

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iii ABOUT THE CULTURE LITERACY RATE 99 percent

NATIONAL HOLIDAYS

OFFICIAL NAME Japan

CAPITAL Tokyo

DESCRIPTION OF FLAG A white background with a red disk in the center

POPULATION 126.8 million (July 2010 estimate)

ETHNIC GROUPS Japanese 98.5 percent, Chinese 0.4 percent, Korean 0.5 percent, others 0.6 percent

(for 2011) New Year’s Day (Jan. 1), Coming of Age Day (Jan. 10), National Foundation Day (Feb. 11), Vernal Equinox (Mar. 20), Showa Day (Apr. 29), Constitution Day (May 3), Greenery Day (May 4), Children’s Day (May 5), Marine Day (Jul. 18), Respect for the Aged Day (Sep. 19), Autumnal Equinox (Sep. 23), Sports Day (Oct. 10), Culture Day (Nov. 3), Labor Thanksgiving Day (Nov. 23), the Emperor’s Birthday (Dec. 23).

SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT Constitutional monarchy parliamentary government

with

a

WORKING LIFE Japanese on average work 40 hours a week (eight hours a day) and enjoy 10 days of vacation a year. Some companies work half a day on Saturday.

LIFE EXPECTANCY Male 79, female 86 (2010 estimate)

NATIONAL ANTHEM Kimigayo (“The Reign of Our Emperor”)

TIME Greenwich Mean Time plus 9 hours (GMT +0900)

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TIME LINE IN THE WORLD

IN JAPAN

• 1206–1368 Genghis Khan unifies the Mongols and starts 1603 • conquest of the world. At its height, the Mongol Tokugawa Ieyasu establishes the Tokugawa Empire under Kublai Khan stretches from China military government in present-day Tokyo. to Persia and parts of Europe and Russia. 1639 • Sakoku policy begins, isolating Japan • 1776 U.S. Declaration of Independence almost completely from the rest of the world. • 1789–99 1853 • The French Revolution Japan opens up for trade with the West. 1868 • The Meiji Restoration takes place.

• 1914 1914–18 • World War I begins.

Japan joins Allied forces in World War I. 1937 • Second Sino-Japanese War begins. • 1939 World War II begins. 1941 • World War II in the Pacific starts. 1945 • • 1945 World War II ends. United Nations is formed. Two atomic bombs are detonated over Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan surrenders. 1952 • Allied occupation of Japan ends. 1995 • Great Hanshin-Awaji earthquake hits the city of Kobe. 1997 • • 1997 Hong Kong is returned to China. The economy enters a severe recession.

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IN JAPAN

IN THE WORLD

2001 • • 2001 Terrorists crash planes into New York, Yoshiro Mori resigns as LDP leader and Washington D.C., and Pennsylvania. prime minister. Junichiro Koizumi takes over both positions. Crown Princess Masako gives • 2003 War in Iraq begins. birth to her first child, a daughter. 2004 • • 2004 Eleven Asia countries hit by giant tsunami, Japan launches an application for a permanent seat on the UN Security Council. killing at least 225,000 people. • 2005 2006 • Hurricane Katrina devastates the Gulf Coast of Shinzo Abe succeeds Junichiro Koizumi the United States. as prime minister. Parliament approves the creation of a fully fledged defense ministry, the first since World War II. 2007 • Prime Minister Shinzo Abe resigns, and is replaced by Yasuo Fukuda. 2008 • • 2008 Prime Minister Yasuo Fukuda resigns. Earthquake in Sichuan, China, kills 67,000 Former foreign minister Taro Aso is people. appointed as new premier. 2009 • • 2009 Outbreak of flu virus H1N1 around the world Economics Minister Kaoru Yosano says Japan is facing worst economic crisis since World War II. Opposition Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ) wins general election by a landslide. DPJ leader Yukio Hatoyama is elected prime minister. 2010 • Prime Minister Hatoyama quits. Finance • 2011 Minister Naoto Kan takes over. Japan’s Twin earthquake and tsunami disasters strike central bank cuts interest rate to almost zero northeast Japan, leaving over 14,000 dead and in an effort to stimulate the thousands more missing. faltering economy. 139

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iii GLOSSARY

i

Ainu

matsuri (maht-soo-ree)

Aboriginal people of Japan, now mainly confined to the northern island of Hokkaido.

Festival.

bonsai

Rich, savory paste of malt, salt, and fermented soy beans used in Japanese cooking.

Japanese traditional art of growing miniature potted trees.

daimyo

miso

sake Japanese rice wine.

Feudal chieftain of old Japan.

samurai

haiku

Japanese warrior of historical times.

Traditional Japanese short poem consisting of 5-7-5 syllables.

sempai-kohai (sam-pie koh-high)

ikebana Japanese traditional arrangement.

art

of

flower

juku (joo-koo) Japanese cram schools.

kabuki

The relationship between a senior and a junior at school, work, and clubs, on sports teams, and in Japanese society in general.

seppuku (sep-poo-koo) Ritual suicide committed by slitting one’s own belly with a sword. The more common (vulgar) term is harakiri.

Japanese traditional theater that combines acting, singing accompaniment, and dancing.

shogun

kana

sushi

Japanese phonetic script.

A small piece of fresh fish on bite-size lumps of rice seasoned with vinegar.

kanji Chinese characters used in the Japanese writing system today.

kimono Japanese one-piece wraparound garment held together by an obi sash.

Military ruler of Japan.

tofu A soft or firm curd made from soybeans that is a rich source of protein.

torii Gateway to a Shinto shrine.

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iii FOR FURTHER INFORMATION BOOKS Jansen, Marius, The Making of Modern Japan, Cambridge, MA: First Harvard University Press, 2000. Mason, R.H.P., A History of Japan, Boston: Tuttle Publishing, 1997. Rowthorn, Chris, Japan, Hawthorn, Australia: Lonely Planet Publications, 2009.

WEBSITES BBC News — Japan Country Profile. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/country_ profiles/1258586.stm CIA — The World Factbook: Japan. www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/ geos/ja.html Japanese Culture. www.japaneselifestyle.com.au/culture/culture.html Japanese Festivals and Celebrations. www.thejapanfaq.com/celebrations.html Japan Travel and Living Guide. www.japan-guide.com/

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iii BIBLIOGRAPHY

i

BBC News – Japan Country Profile. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/country_ profiles/1258586.stm Bix, Herbert, Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan, New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 2001. CIA – The World Factbook: Japan. www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ ja.html Gordon, Andrew, A Modern History of Japan: From Tokugawa Times to the Present, New York: Oxford University Press, 2008. Statistics Bureau, Japan Statistical Yearbook 2010, Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications, Japan.

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iii INDEX agriculture, 41, 46, 51 architecture, 77, 93 army, 23, 26, 27, 29, 36, 82 arts bonsai, 89, 90, 91 calligraphy, 69, 86, 89, 92, 112 carving, 90, 94 crafts, 89 dance, 113, 121 ikebana, 89, 90, 91 origami, 69 packaging, 64, 129 painting, 64, 69, 89, 90, 91, 92, 103, 104 pottery, 89, 90, 93 sculpture, 89, 104 woodcuts, 92 Asia, 5, 11, 15, 27, 29, 118, 127 atomic bomb, 9, 28 baths, 108 onsens (hot springs), 9, 109 behavior, 57, 58, 66, 108 births, 53, 76, 78 body-language, 58 bowing, 58, 66 buildings, 7, 13, 65, 73, 76, 90, 92, 93 business, 26, 50 cartoons, 89 animated movies, 6 animes, 67, 104 mangas, 67, 80, 89, 104, 108 castles, 9, 94, 95, 109 celebrations, 8, 114, 117, 121 ceremonies, 76, 78 children, 56, 59, 69, 71, 82, 83, 89, 105, 117, 118, 120 cities, 7, 8, 9, 28, 33, 64, 65, 67, 94, 109, 127 climate, 12, 15, 17, 46, 50, 51, 63 communications, 26, 64, 96 conservation, 47, 51 constitution, 6, 29, 32, 33, 35, 36, 59 construction, 45, 47, 48, 65 conversations, 46, 82 corporations, 40, 45

courts, 35, 37 crops, 46 cuisine, 123, 128, 129 bento boxes, 8 pickles, 66, 128 sashimi 124, 126 seaweed, 111, 125 sushi, 124 sweets, 113, 128, 129 tofu, 123, 127 wasabi, 124, 125 currency, 41 customs, 7, 19, 78, 129

families, 8, 16, 20, 21, 26, 32, 55, 56, 68, 71, 74, 76, 87, 111, 113, 114, 115 fashion, 13, 59, 63, 65, 66, 73, 79, 83 festivals fish, 8, 13, 46, 47, 83, 111, 123, 124, 125, 127, 128, 129 foreign policy, 23 forests, 13, 17, 47

death, 14, 60, 61, 77, 113 funerals, 66, 78, 105 democracy, 32 diaspora, 54 districts Hokkaido, 12, 15, 17, 20, 27, 35, 48, 54, 84, 117, 118, 120, 126 Kyoto, 7, 8, 20, 22, 25, 50, 61, 92, 114, 115, 119 Okinawa, 8, 12, 28, 126 Shinjuku, 6 Tokyo, 7, 8, 9, 12, 14, 15, 25, 28, 30, 64, 81, 92, 94, 116, 118 dress, 50, 52, 63, 65, 84, 116 drinks, 70, 84, 109 sake, 70, 111, 120, 129, 130 tea, 8, 66, 118, 128, 129 duty, 57, 67, 68

health, 117 hierarchy, 7, 24, 42 housing, 7, 64–65, 70 apartments, 7, 8 houses, 13, 63, 64, 65, 93, 94, 114

education, 25, 26, 71, 87 schools, 8, 55, 68, 69, 89, 120 universities, 55, 57 elections, 33, 34 employment, 7, 40 energy, 14, 45, 46, 50, 51 hydroelectric power, 14 nuclear power, 14 entertainment, 67, 111 etiquette, 60, 66 expansionist policy, 27 exports, 41 factories, 40, 43, 45, 46, 47, 48, 66, 70

games, 111 gardening, 89, 90 gender, 59 gross domestic product (GDP), 37, 41

income, 7, 42, 65 individuality, 55, 98, 100 industries, 26, 28, 40, 42 islands, 11, 12, 17, 19, 27, 53, 54, 63, 91 Hokkaido, 12, 15, 17, 20, 27, 35, 48, 54, 84, 117, 118, 120, 126 Honshu, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20 Kobe, 12, 14, 126 Osaka, 9, 12, 15, 95, 96, 117, 119 Tokyo, 7, 8, 9, 12, 14, 15, 25, 28, 30, 64, 81, 92, 94, 116, 118 Yokohama, 12, 24, 64 Kyushu, 12, 16, 17, 19, 126 Okinawa, 8, 12, 28, 126 Shikoku, 12, 17 isolation, 22, 23, 26 karaoke, 67, 71, 105, 107 labor force, 40, 41, 42 lakes, 12, 14–15, 113 land, 12, 13, 32, 48, 76, 117, 119 landmarks, 9, 12 monuments, 22, 47 landscapes, 47, 90, 91, 92 languages

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iii INDEX English, 81, 83, 84, 85 Japanese, 81–87 tones, 82–83 laws, 36, 47, 49, 51, 61, 95 legal system, 25, 29 literature, 20, 96, 99, 101 poetry, 16, 20, 96–98, 112, 124 prose, 98 living standards, 7 machinery, 6, 41, 45 manufacturing, 43, 45 maps Cultural Japan, 136 Economic Japan, 134 Map of Japan, 133 marriage, 67, 79 weddings, 63, 66, 76, 79, 105 meats, 8, 123, 126, 127, 128, 130 media magazines, 81, 108 newspapers, 96, 108 television, 45, 69, 103, 107, 111 men, 7, 21, 32, 59, 63, 67, 71, 90, 95, 102, 103, 108, 109, 117, 120 military, 6, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 32, 36, 37, 39, 78, 94, 105 mining, 46 monarchy, 31, 33, 70 emperor, 20, 21, 25, 26, 29, 31, 32, 75, 92, 112, 113 mountains, 7, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15, 72, 75, 116 music, 67, 69, 89, 90, 101, 104, 105, 107, 114, 115, 121 names, 41, 54, 59, 65, 84, 97, 111 national parks, 47 natural disasters, 5, 14, 24, 42 earthquakes, 5, 13–14, 42, 43, 50, 63, 64, 93, 94 floods, 16 tsunamis, 5, 13–14, 42, 43, 50 naturalism, 90 Pacific Ocean, 11, 13, 15, 51 parliament, 31, 33

i people Ainu, 19, 20, 53, 54, 117 Ryukyuans, 19, 53 Yamato, 19, 21, 53, 118 philosophy, 58, 77 photography, 108 plants, 5, 17, 46, 47, 51 sakura (cherry blossoms) 8, 125 police, 37 political parties, 33–34 pollution, 45, 46, 47, 49–50 population, 12, 20, 24, 41, 43, 53, 63, 64, 74, 78 power, 6, 14, 20, 21, 24, 25, 26, 29, 31, 32, 35, 42, 46, 50, 95, 96, 101 prefectures (districts), 9, 14, 33, 35, 46, 47, 48, 113, 120 prime ministers, 31, 33, 34, 35, 37 principles Confucianism, 26 Shinto, 26, 54, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 94, 101, 102, 113 race, 19, 53 radiation, 5, 43, 51 recession, 6, 41 recipes teriyaki chicken bowl, 131 nikujaga, 130 recycling, 48, 49 relationships, 40, 56–57, 58 religions Buddhism, 21, 73, 76, 77, 78, 79, 92, 94, 102, 127 Christianity, 73, 78, 79 Zen Buddhism, 21, 77 rice, 8, 16, 63, 70, 97, 111, 112, 117, 120, 123, 124, 125, 129, 131 rights, 25, 29, 59 rituals, 54, 55, 75, 76, 77, 78, 93 rivers, 14–15, 46, 75, 113 samurai, 21, 23, 24, 25, 60, 61, 114, 115 seafood, 43, 63, 125 seasons, 8, 15, 17, 90 shogunates, 20–23, 61, 92, 96, 99, 102, 119

shopping, 9, 66 shrines, 9, 75, 76, 79, 113, 117 singing, 71, 121 society, 7, 19, 21, 29, 37, 55, 56, 59, 66, 67, 68, 77, 81, 129 sports, 8, 71, 84, 107, 108, 109 technology, 6, 9, 23, 24, 25, 39, 46, 50, 65, 93 temperatures, 8, 15, 49 temples, 73, 74, 76, 93, 94, 102, 109, 112, 113, 114, 118, 127 terrain, 11, 13, 21 theater, 88, 101–103, 105 bunraku, 101, 103 kabuki, 23, 92, 101, 102, 103, 105 kyogen, 101, 102 noh, 88, 101, 102, 103, 119 timber, 13, 93, 95 trading, 22, 23, 24, 41, 42 traditions, 19, 68, 71, 100, 115 transportation, 21, 29, 43, 46, 51, 63 cars, 6, 41 ships, 13, 22, 27, 76, 115 train, 14, 42, 49, 64, 70 travel, 23, 68, 107, 108, 109 trees, 9, 17, 54, 74, 75, 90, 92 vegetables, 8, 63, 111, 126, 127, 128, 131 volcanoes, 12, 13, 63 Mount Fuji, 9, 11, 12, 13, 54, 92 waste, 24, 46, 47, 48, 49, 51 water, 12, 46, 47, 51, 85, 90, 94, 108, 117, 130 wealth, 7, 92 weather, 15, 16, 17 women, 28, 42, 59, 63, 66, 67, 68, 71, 83, 90, 98, 100, 101, 108 World War II, 5, 6, 26, 27, 28, 29, 37, 39, 41, 45, 47, 59 writing, 58, 69, 86, 97, 98, 100 kanji, 69, 87, 102, 104 kana, 20, 87, 98 scripts, 86–87

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