Know All About Games & Sports

Know all About

GAMES &

SPORTS

Vijay Asthana

HOLIDAY BOOK STORE PANCHKULA(HR)

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, electronically or otherwise in print, photo print, micro film or by any other means without written pelmission from the publisher. ISBN: 81-903178-1-4 ISBN : 978-81-903178-1-8

Copyright :Publisher First Edition:2009 Published by: Holiday Book Store

S.C.O. 43,First Floor Swastik Vihar MDC Panchkula -(H.R.) Ph.9814015471 Shiva Offset Press, Naveen Shahadra, Delhi

Contents Football

5

Table Tennis

19

Cricket

40

Basketball

63

Badminton

83

Chess

139

Hockey

191

"This page is Intentionally Left Blank"

Football

Introduction

to

Football

A player (wearing the red kit) has penetrated the defence (in the white kit) and is taking a shot at goal. The goalkeeper will attempt to stop the ball from crossing the goal line. Association football, commonly known as football or soccer, is a team sport played between two teams of eleven players, and it is the most popular sport in the world. It is a ball game played on a rectangular grass or artificial turf field, with a goal at each of the short ends. The object of the game is to score by manoeuvring the ball into the opposing goal. In general play, the goalkeeper is the only player allowed to use their hands or arms to propel the ball; the rest of the team usually use their feet to kick the ball into position, occasionally using their torso or head to intercept a ball in mid air. The team that scores the most goals by the end of the match wins. Jfthe score is tied at the end of the game, either a draw is declared or the game goes into extra time and/or a penalty shootout, depending on the format of the competition. The modem game was codified in England following the formation of The Football Association, whose 1863 Laws of the Game created the foundations for the way the sport is played today. Football is governed internationally by the Federation Internationale de Football Association (International Federation of Association Football), commonly known by the acronym FIFA. The most prestigious international football competition is the World Cup, held every four years.

Sport'

This event the most widely viewed in the world. boasts an audience twice that of the Summer Olympics. Football is played in accordance with a set of rules known as the Laws of the Game. The game is played using a single round ball, known as the football. Two teams of eleven players each compete to get the ball into the other team's goal (between the posts and under the bar), thereby scoring a goal. The team that has scored more goals at the end of the game is the winner; if both teams have scored an equal number of goals then the game is a draw. The primary rule is that players (other than goalkeepers) may not deliberately handle the ball with their hands or arms during play (though they do lise their hands during a throw-in restart). Although players usually use their feet to move the ball around. they may lise any part of their bodies other than their hands or arms. In typical game play, players attempt to create goal scoring opportunities through individual control of the ball, such as by dribbling, passing the ball to a team-mate, and by taking shots at the goal, which is guarded by the opposing goalkeeper. Opposing players may try to regain control of the ball by intercepting a pass or through tackling the opponent in possession of the ball; however, physical contact between opponents is restricted. Football is generally a free-flowing game, with play stopping only when the ball has left the field of play or when play is stopped by the referee. After a stoppage, play recommences with a specified restart. At a professional level, most matches produce only a few goals. For example. the 2005-06 season of the English Premier League produced an average of 2.48 goals per match. The Laws of th~ Game do not specifY any player positions other than goalkeeper, but a number of specialised roles have evolved. Broadly, these include three main categories: strikers, or forwards, whose main task is to 'score goals; defenders, who specialise in preventing their opponents from scoring; and midfielders, who dispossess the opposition and keep possession of the ball in order to pass it to the forwards.

Football

7

Players in these positions are referred to as outfield players, in order to discern them from the single goalkeeper. These positlon~ are further subdivided according to the area of the field in which the player spends most time. For example, there are central defenders, and left and right midfielders. The ten outfield playcr~ may be arranged in any combination. The number of players in each position determines the style of the team's play; more forwards and fewer defenders creates a more aggressive and offensive-minded game, while the reverse creates a slower, more defensive style of play. While players typically spend most of the game in a specific position, there are few restrictions on player movement, and players can switch positions at any time. The layout of a team's players is known as a formation. Defining the team's formation and tactics is usually the prerogative of the team's manager. Map showing the popularity of football around the world. Countries where football is the most popular sport are coloured green, while countries where it is not are coloured red. The various shades of green and red indicate the number of players per 1.000 inhabitants. Games revolving around the kicking ofa ball have been played in many countries throughout history. According to FIFA, the "very earliest form of the game for which there is scientific evidence was an exercise of precisely this skilful technique dating back to the 2nd and 3rd centuries BC in China (the game of cuju)." In addition, the Roman game harpastum may be a distant ancestor of football. Various forms of football were played in medieval Europe, though rules varied greatly by both period and location. The modern rules of football are based on the mid-19th century efforts to standardise the widely varying forms offootball played at the public schools of England. The Cambridge Rules, first drawn up at Cambridge University in 1848, were particularly influential in the development of subsequent codes, including Association football.

8

Sports

The Cambridge Rules were written at Trinity College. Cambridge. at a meeting attended by representatives from Eton. Harrow. Rugby. Winchester and Shrewsbury schools. They were not universally adopted. During the 1850s. many clubs unconnected' to schools or universities were formed throughout the Englishspeaking world, to play various fonns of football. Some came up with their own distinct codes of rules, most notably the Sheffield Football Club. formed by former public school pupils in 1857. which led to formation of a Sheffield FA in 1867. In 1862. John Charles Thring of Uppingham School also devised an influential set of ru les. These ongoing efforts contributed to the formation of The Football Association (The FA) in 1863, which first met on the morning of 26 October 1863 at the Freemason's Tavern in Great Queen Street. London. The only school to be represented on this occasion was Charterhouse. The Freemason's Tavern was the setting for five more meetings between October and December. which eventually produced the first comprehensive set of rules. At the final meeting. the first FA treasurer, the representative from Blackheath. withdrew his club from the FA over the removal of two draft rules at the previous meeting. the first which allowed for the running \\-ith the ball in hand and the second. obstructing such a run by hacking (kid.ing an opponent in the shins). tripping and holding. Other English rugby football clubs followed this lead and did not join the FA, or subsequently left the FA and instead in 1871 fonned the Rugby Football Union. The eleven remaining clubs, under the charge of Ebenezer Cobb Morley, went on to ratify the original thirteen laws of the game. These rules included handling of the ball by "marks" and the lack ofa crossbar, rules which made it remarkably similar to Victorian rules football being deve loped at that time in Australia. The Sheffield FA played by its own rules until the 1870s with the FA absorbing some of its rules until there was little difference between the games. The laws of the game are currently determined by the

Football

International Football Association Board (IFAB). The Board was formed in 1886 after a meeting in Manchester of The Football Association, the Scottish Football Association, the Football Association of Wales, and the Irish Football Association. The world's oldest football competition is the FA Cup, which was founded by C. W. Alcock and has been contested by English teams since 1872. The first official international football match took place in 1872 between Scotland and England in Glasgow. again at the instigation of C. W. Alcock. England is home to the world's first football league, which was founded in 1888 by Aston Villa director William McGregor. The original format contained 12 clubs from the Midlands and the North of England. The Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), the international football body, was formed in Paris in 1904 and declared that they would adhere to Laws of the Game of the Football Association. The growing popularity of the international game led to the admittance of FIFA representatives to the International Football Association Board in 1913. The board currently consists of four representatives from FIFA and one representative from each of the four British associations. , Today, football is played at a professional level all over the world. Millions of people regularly go to football stadiums to follow their favourite teams, while billions more watch the game on television. A very large number of people also play football at an amateur level. According to a survey conducted by F1FA published in 200 I. over 240 million people from more than 200 countries regularly play football. Its simple rules and minimal equipment requirements have no doubt aided its spread and growth in popularity. In many parts of the world football evokes great passions and plays an important role in the life of individual fans, local communities, and even nations: it is therefore often claimed to be the most popular sport in the world. ESPN has spread the claim that the Cote d'lvoire national football team helped secure a truce to the

10

Sport!>

nation's civil war in 2005. By contrast, football is widely considered to be the tinal proximate cause in the Football War in June 1969 between EI Salvador and Honduras. The sport also exacerbated tensions at the beginning of the Yugoslav wars of the I 990s, when a match between Dinamo Zagreb and Red Star Belgrade devolved into rioting in March 1990.

Laws of the gal11e There are seventeen laws in the official Laws of the Game. The same Laws are designed to apply to all levels of football, although certain modifications for groups such as juniors, seniors or women are permitted. The laws are often framed in broad terms, which allow flexibility in their application depending on the nature of the game. In addition to the seventeen laws, numerous IFAB decisions and other directives contribute to the regulation of football. The Laws of the Game are published by FIFA, but are maintained by the International Football Association Board, not FIFA itself. Each team consists of a maximum of eleven players (excluding substitutes), one of whom must be the goalkeeper. Competition rules may state a minimum number of players required to constitute a team; this is usually seven. Goalkeepers are the only players allowed to play the ball with their hands or arms, provided they do so within the penalty area in front of their own goal. Though there are a variety of positions in which the outfield (non-goalkeeper) players are strategically placed by a coach, these positions are not defined or required by the Laws. The basic equipment or kit players are required to wear includes a shili, shorts, socks, footwear and adequate shin guards. Players are forbidden to wear or use anything that is dangerous to themselves or another player, such as jewellery or watches. The goalkeeper must wear clothing that is easily distinguishable from that worn by the other players and the match officials.

Foolbali

II

A number of players may be replaced by substitutes during the course of the game. The maximum number of substitutions permitted in most competitive international and domestic league games is three, though the permitted number may vary in other competitions or in friendly matches. Common reasons for a substitution include injury, tiredness, ineffectiveness, a tactical switch, ortimewasting at the end ofa finely poised game. In standard adult matches, a player who has been substituted may not take further part in a match. A game is officiated by a referee, who has "full authority to enforce the Laws of the Game in connection with the match to which he has been appointed" (Law 5), and whose decisions are final. The referee is assisted by two assistant referees. In many high-level games there is also a fourth official who assists the referee and may replace another official should the need arise.

Pitch As the Laws were formulated in England, and were initially administered solely by the four British football associations within IFAB, the standard dimensions of a football pitch were originally expressed in imperial units. The Laws now express dimensions with approximate metric equivalents (followed by traditional units in brackets), though popular use tends to continue to use traditional units in Engl ish-speaking countries with a relatively recent history of metritication, such as Britain. The length of the pitch for international adult matches is in the range 100-110 metres (110-120 yd) and the width is in the range 64-75 metres (70-80 yd). Fields for non-international matches may be 100-130 yards (120 m) length and 50-100 yards (91 m) in width, provided that the pitch does not become square. The longer boundary lines are touchlines or sidelines, while the shorter boundaries (on which the goals are placed) are goal lines. A rectangular goal is positioned at the middle of each goal line. The

12

inner edges of the vertical goal posts must be 8 yards (7.3 m) apart. and the lower edge of the horizontal crossbar supported b) the goal posts must be 8 feet (2.44 m) above the ground. Nets are usually placed behind the goal, but are not required by the Laws. In front of each goal is an area known as the penalty area (colloquially "18-yard (16 m) box" or simply "the box" or "the area"). This area is marked by the goal line. two lines starting on the goal line 18 yards (16.5 m) from the goalposts and extending 18 yards (16.5 m) into the pitch perpendicular to the goal-line, and a line joining them. This area has a number of functions. the most prominent being to mark where the goalkeeper may handle the ball and where a penal foul by a member of the defending team becomes punishable by a penalty kick. Other markings define the position of the ball or players at kick-offs, goal kicks, penalty kicks and corner kicks.

Duration and tie-breaking A standard adult football match consists of two periods of 45 minutes each. known as halves. Each half runs continuously, meaning that the clock is not stopped when the ball is out of play. There is usually a IS-minute "half-time" break between halves. The end of the match is known as full-time. The referee is the official timekeeper for the match, and may make an allowance for time lost through substitutions, injured players requiring attention, or other stoppages. This added time is commonly referred to as stoppage time or injury time, and is at the sole discretion of the referee. The referee alone signals the end of the match. In matches where a fourth official is appointed, toward the end of the half the referee signals how many minutes of stoppage time he intends to add. The fourth official then informs the players and spectators by holding up a board showing this number. The signalled stoppage time may be further extended by the referee. In league competitions, games may end in a draw, but in some knockout competitions if a game is tied at the end of regulation

Football

13

time it may go into extra time. which consists of two further 15minute periods. If the score is still tied after extra time. some competitions allow the use of penalty shootouts (known officially in the Laws of the Game as "kicks from the penalty mark") to determine which team will progress to the next stage of the tournament. Goals scored during extra time periods count toward the final score of the game. but kicks from the penalty mark are only used to decide the team that progresses to the next part of the tournament (with goals scored in a penalty shootout not making up part of the final score). Competitions held over two legs (in which each team plays at home once) may use the away goals rule to determine which team progresses in the event of equal aggregate scores. If the result is still equal, kicks from the penalty mark are usually required, though some competitions may require a tied game to be replayed. In the late I 990s, the IFAB experimented with ways of creating a winner without requiring a penalty shootout. which was often seen as an undesirable way to end a match. These involved rules ending a game in extra time early. either when the first goal in extra time was scored (golden goal). or if one team held a lead at the end of the first period of extra time (silver goal). Golden goal was used at the World Cup in 1998 and 2002. The first World Cup game decided by a golden goal was France's victory over Paraguay in 1998. Germany was the first nation to score a golden goal in a major competition. beating Czech Republic in the final of Euro 1996 .. Silver goal was used in Euro 2004. Both these experiments have been discontinued by IFAB. Under the Laws. the two basic states of play during a game are ball in play and ball out of play. From the beginning of each playing period with a kick-off (a set kick from the centre-spot by one team) until the end of the playing period. the ball is in play at all times, except when either the ball leaves the field of play, or play is stopped by the referee. When the ball becomes out of play, play is restarted by one of eight restart methods depending

14

Sports

on how it went out of play:

•

Kick -off: fo Howing a goal by the opposing team. or to begin each period of play.

•

Throw-in: when the ball has wholly crossed the touchline; awarded to opposing team to that which last touched the ball.

•

Goal kick: when the ball has wholly crossed the goal line without a goal having been scored and having last been touched by an attacker; awarded to defending team.

•

Comer kick: when the ball has wholly crossed the goal line without a goal having been scored and having last been touched by a defender; awarded to attacking team.

•

Indirect free kick: awarded to the opposing team following "non-penal" fouls, certain technical infringements, or when play is stopped to caution or send-off an opponent without a specific foul having occurred. A goal may not be scored directly from an indirect free kick.

•

Direct free kick: awarded to fouled team following certain listed "penal" fouls.

•

Penalty kick: awarded to the fouled team following a foul usually punishable by a direct free kick but that has occurred within their opponent's penalty area.

•

Dropped-ball: occurs when the referee has stopped play for any other reason, such as a serious injury to a player. interference by an external party, or a ball becoming defective. This restart is uncommon in adult games.

Fouls and misconduct A foul occurs when a player commits an offence listed in the Laws of the Game while the ball is in play. The offences that constitute a foul are listed in Law 12. Handling the ball deliberately, tripping an opponent, or pushing an opponent, are examples of

Football

I~

"penal fouls", punishable by a direct free kick or penalty kick depending on where the offence occurred. Other fouls are punishable by an indirect free kick. The referee may punish a player or substitute's misconduct by a caution (yellow card) or sending-off (red card). A second yellow card at the same game leads to a red card, and therefore to a sending-off. If a player has been sent-off. no substitute can be brought on in their place. Misconduct may occur at any time, and while the offences that constitute misconduct are listed, the definitions are broad. In particular, the offence of "un sporting behaviour" may be used to deal with most events that violate the spirit of the game, even if they are not listed as specific offences. A referee can show a yellow or red card to a player, substitute or substituted player. Non-players such as managers and support staff cannot be shown the yellow or red card, but may be expelled from the technical area if they fail to conduct themselves in a responsible manner. Rather than stopping play, the referee may allow play to continue if doing so will benefit the team against which an offence has been committed. This is known as "playing an advantage". The referee may "call back" play and penalise the original offence if the anticipated advantage does not ensue within a short period, typically taken to be four to five seconds. Even if an offence is not penalised due to advantage being played, the offender may still be sanctioned for misconduct at the next stoppage of play. The most complex of the Laws is offside. The offside law limits the ability of attacking players to remain forward (i.e. closer to the opponent's goal-line) of the ball, the second-to-Iast defending player (which can include the goalkeeper), and the half-way line. The recognised international governing body of football (and associated games, such as futsal and beach soccer) is the Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA). The FIFA headquarters are located in Zurich.

16

Sports

Six regional confederations are associated with FIFA; these are: •

Asia: Asian Football Confederation (AFC)

•

Africa: Confederation of African Football (CAF)

•

CentrallNorth America & Caribbean: Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football (CONCACAF; also known as The Football Confederation)

•

Europe: Union of European Football Associations (UEFA)

•

Oceania: Oceania Football Confederation (OFC)

•

South America: Confederaci6n Sudamericana de Futbol (South American Football Confederation: CONMEBOL)

National associations oversee football within individual countries. These are affiliated both with FIFA and with their respective continental confederations. The major international competition in football is the World Cup, organised by FIFA. This competition takes place over a fouryear period. More than 190 national teams compete in qualifying tournaments within the scope of continental confederations for a place in the finals. The finals tournament, which is held every four years, involves 32 national teams competing over a four-week period. The 2006 FIFA World Cup took place in Germany; in 2010 it will be held in South Africa. There has been a football tournament at every Summer Olympic Games since 1900, except at the 1932 games in Los Angeles. Before the inception of the World Cup, the Olympics (especially during the 1920s) had the same status as the World Cup. Originally, the event was for amateurs only, however, since the 1984 Summer Olympics professional players have been permitted, albeit with certain restrictions which prevent countries from fielding their strongest sides. Currently, the Olympic men's tournament is played at Under-23 level. In the past the Olympics have allowed a restricted number of over-age players per team; but that practice will cease in the 2008

IF~II

II""

Olympics. The Olympic oompdittiOn is IIMlJtt ~B~ C«JlIJ1Isiidered 110 amy the same illDtemational sigplificance and prestige as die WmIId Cup. A women"s toummDent was added in D996: in 00II1Jasl to the mm"s event" full international sides without age rresIIridlions play 1be women"s Olympic tourmnneuDL It thus carries in1cnlational prestige aJIlSidered oomparmDe to dut of 1IDue FIFA Women"s Worid Cup. After the W~ Cup., the most imprOlll1t;mt football oompditicmare1heOOll1inelmtall ~ips.. nidi atreClplis1ed by each oontinen1al coofedentioo and COIDteskd between nattiooaI teams..

These are 1be EDropcan Championship (UEFA)., the Copa America (CONMEBOL)., Aftian Cup of Nations (CM)., the Asian Cup (AFC).. the C01NlCACAF Gold Cup (CONCACAF] and the OFC 1NIatiom; CII!p «OFC). 'TlhIe mmt presligiicm; roOJmpetitiiollll-s. in club fOOJlbalI are the resperdtiiwe CIOJII1lIinmtall daampiilOJm;hiips., w1aik.'iI are generally oootestoo betwe:cIllll3tional dwnpiitoos. for eumple the UEFA Champions League in Europe and the Copa Libertadores de America in South America. The winners IOf each cootinenlal oompetition coolest the FIFA Club World Cup. The governing bodies in each 00UIIIlIUJry oper.ate league systems.. normally oomprising several diviisUom" in niidn the teams pin points dImug,OOut the sasoo depending 011 results.. Teams are placed into 1abIes" placingthcm in mkraooordingto pointsaa:rued. Mmt 00IIUII0II1y" each team plays every o1her tfeam in its league at home and away in each SCIISIOII" in a round-robin toomament. At 1be end of a season. the top team are declarm the doampions.. The top few team'S may be promoted to a higher division.. and one 01" more of the teams finisllning at tIDe bott1t
lS

:-'pon!>

The m~jority of countries supplement the league system with one or more cup competitions. These are organised on a knockout basis. the winner of each match proceeding to the next round: the loser takes no further part in the competition. Some countries' top divisions feature highly-paid star players: in smaller countries and lower divisions, players may be part-timers with a second job, or amateurs. The five top European leagues-the Premier League (England), the Bundesliga (Germany), La Liga (Spain), Ligue I (France) and Serie A (ltaly)-attract most of the world's best pla)ers. The rules offootball were codified in England by the Football Association in 1863, and the name association football was coined to distinguish the game from the other forms of football played at the time, specifically rugby football. The term soccer originated in England, first appearing in the 1880s as a slang abbreviation of association football, often credited to former England captain, Charles Wreford-Brown. Today the sport is generally known simply as football in countries where it is the most popular football code. In countries where other codes are more popular. the sport is more commonly referred to as soccer, and indeed is referred to as such in the official names of the governing bodies in the United States and Canada. FIFA, the sport's world governing body, defines the sport they govern as association football in their statutes, but the term most commonly used by FIFA and the International Olympic Committee is football.

Table

Tennis

----------------

Introduction

to

Table

--~------

Tennis

Table tennis is a sport in which l\H) or four players hit a lightweight, hollo\\ ball back and f()rth to each other with paddles 'Jr rackets. The game take~ place on a hard table divided by a net. Players Illust allow a ba II played to\\ ard" them on Iy one bounce on their side of the table and must return it so that it bounces on the opponents' side. I f the ball doesn't land on the opponent side, it i'i a dead ball. unless the receiving pla)er has hit the ball before it ha" clearl~ passed the end line of the table. Pla~

is t~lst and demands quick reactions. A skilled player can impart spin to the ball, \\ hich makes its bounce and reaction on the opponent paddle or racket difficult to predict or return with confidence. 1 able telln i~ i~ vel") popular, espec ia II) in East Asia. It is among the most popular sports in the world in terms of player numbers. as well as one of the newest of the major sports. The game is controlled by the International Table Tennis Federation (lTTF), founded in 1926. Table tennis is a sport where two or four players hit a ball with rackets back and forth to each other on a table. in a manner similar to tennis. The rules are slightly different, but the concept is quite similar. In singles play, the serve is not required to cross from the server's right-hand court to the receiver's right-hand court (or left to left) as it is in tennis. However, serving across is required in doubles play. Ball spin. speed. placement. strategy and tactics play an important part in competitive table tennis matches. The speed of

ttIhre WD ream wry from slow serves with much spiin tto ~ 1dImt1b!D'e1 as fast as 112.5 kilometers per hour. The g;amme Os ~
w* _

'lI1b¥e rul!Jber- may ha,,'e pimples pointing illUJIlw.mdIs 011" iillDwamdi'Sl.. :as; ~un as ;a thin layer of sponge Oetween dae pUyw~ ICfeIIII1lleIr _ ttIhre rulbllbxe:lr SIlDrface. Since spin pla}'S a 13I}gC mile iillD ttIIne modem ~ IOlff tl3bDe tennis. the compositwIII «)ff 1IIIne ruibJlbxetr _ ttIIne
IlIlII1J

aJfiteir-dDlIDIInetr

nssos_ Mummiid.iinng tt!Inre

(llJf 1tmnis in an indoor environment,. every~· ({J)/bJjjern; Wf1re amiigiimlllly mDisted to act as the equipment. A line ()fflbxoxollks 'III.({J)UU1Id

pID!le

::211

be due IIJldt. a I!UlJUIII'lIdcd top of a Champagne cork or- knot of ~ as due moIL aumd a cipr box lid as the racket.

111M: ~lIamrii1L} ({lIf1lltBe game led game manufacturers 1[«» SleDD tdble equaipmmeml1t ~iaDly~ Early rackets were often piieoes (\})Jr JP2Idmommtt s.1brddBed upon a fiame... and the sound ~ iion iPJI~ pve 1tIIne pmme ills fiim: nidmames of "'wbiff-whaW' anrdI '''~ pDIIIBg..m A UD1IIDI1IlIM of soun:es indicate tbat the ~ Wc!l'S, fIiirr3tt ~ 1110> 11k ~ of Hamley~s of Regent Street IIIIIIIIdIceIr 1IIIBe mmme "'Gossu~'" _TIne II13IIle "'ping-pong" was in wide I1IISIe IbleffR E'mlglliisJln lIIIlmlluuffallCll1uUnetr J.. Jaques & Son Ltd trademarked iitt iillD II '9XO) II .. 'The mmme '"pnong-P(()JIIIg.''' then came to be used for the pmrne pll:.1t}'d ~'dne lI31IIla'~eJaquesequipmenL with other-maDII~ aIIDirmg 1Ikfurs lImnDs. A similar situation came t({ll exiislt non 11I1De UJnitall S1ta\te$ 'Where Jaques sold the rights to the "'Piong-~" IIJImle 1/0 P.mttlk.eII' Brothers.

_lie

'The nne11\: ~ innovation was by James Gibb~ ann EmglliiSln emIIuusiiast ofdne pmte.. who discovered novelty celluloiidl WIIs, due us. Dn n90 nand found them to be the idealIlhmIlIIL<s Jr« dte pane. This was folHowed by E.C_ Goode who in n90J iionW'llll11!01ll Uhe IIIIIIIDJdIcm Yel!$D
!luuriinng dne emy 200. century the ~ was banned ion ~m dUDe lID a !beDnef dDt was held by the rulers at the time tIIDatt IP'lba!yiilll~ die pme IIn:ardI ann llIIdveIrsre effect 00 players" eyesighL lID n91 n~ 1IIIBe Tahlle TeonllDiis As.mciatloo was founded in Englall1d.
22

Sports

England by the spol1s goods manufacturers S. W. Hancock Ltd. and the Hancock racket gave Johnny Leach the edge when he became World Champion in 1949. The use of speed glue increased the spin and speed even further, resulting in changes to the equipment to "slow the game down." Toward the end of 2000, the ITTF instituted several rules changes aimed at making table tennis more viable as a televised spectator sport. First, the older 38 mm balls were officially r~placed by 40 mm balls. This increased the ball's air resistance and effectively slowed down the game. By that time, players had begun increasing the thickness of the fast sponge layer on their rackets, which made the game excessively fast, and difficult to watch on television. Secondly, the ITTF changed from a 21 to an 11 point scoring system. This was intended to make games more fast-paced and exciting. The ITTF also changed the rules on service to prevent a player from hiding the ball during service, in order to increase the average length of rallies and to reduce the server's advantage. Variants of the sport have emerged. "Large-ball" table tennis uses a 44 mm ball which slows down the game significantly. This has seen some acceptance by players who have a hard time with the extreme spins and speeds of the 40 mm game. The ball's mass is 2.47 grams. There is a move towards reviving the table tennis game that existed prior to the introduction of sponge rubber. Classic table tennis or "Hardbat" table tennis players reject the speed and spin of reversed sponge rubber, preferring the 1940-60s style of nosponge, short pimpled rubber of play which makes defense less difficult by decreasing the speed and eliminating any meaningful magnus effect of spin. Because hardbat killer shots are almost impossible to hit against a skilled player, hardbat matches focus on the strategic side oftable tennis, requiring skillful maneuvering of the opponent before an attack can be successful. The international rules specify that the game is played with a light 2.7 gram, 40 mm (formerly 38 mm) diameter ball. The ball

Table 1 enn IS

is required to have a coefficient of restitution of 0.94. The 40 mm ball was introduced at the 2003 World Table Tennis Championship. However. this created some controversy as the Chinese National Team argued that this was merely to give non-Chinese players a better chance of winning. A 40 mm table tennis ball is slower and spins less than a 38 mm one. The ball is made of a high-bouncing gas-filled celluloid ball. colored white or orange, with a matte finish. The choice of ball color is made according to the table color and its surroundings. For example .. a white ball is easier to see on a green or blue table than it is on a grey table. A star on the ball indicates the quality of the ball. 3 stars is the highest indicating that it is of the highest quality. The table is 2.74 m (9 ft) long. 1.525 m (5 ft) wide. and 76 cm (30 inch) high with a Masonite or similarly manufactured timber, layered with a smooth, low-friction coating. The table or playing surface is divided into two halves by a 15.25 cm (6 inch) high net.

Racket Players are equipped with a wooden blade covered With rubber on one or two sides depending on the grip of the player. This is called either a paddle, racket or bat depending on where in the world the game is being played. In the USA the term "paddle" is common, in Europe the term is "bat," and the officiallTTF term is "racket." This section will use the ITTF term. Table tennis regulations allow different surfaces on each side of the racket. The different types of surfaces provide various levels of spin or speed, or in some cases. nullify spin. For example. a player may have a rubber that provides much spin 0[1 one side of his racket. and no spin on the other side of the racket. By flipping the racket in play, different types of returns are possible. To help a player distinguish between different types of rubber lIsed by his opposing player, international rules specify that one side mllst be red while the other side must be black. The

pBa}eJr Iina-s; due Irii~lt ltCJ iiJlllsped Iniis ~1l"s; rzik:d before:ll match l1

TIhle rulbJlbxcr OOOIltiinug. ~ be CJf piiJlllllplled mblbrer-~ wii1llll fIIIne piimples K))lIntt,,:aurcdL «."tr iiu 1IlIlIa)' Dr a mlbbar thall iis; 1OOIIIIp,~ of NCJ ma1terials. a ~g.e b,lielr. C(O),alf'fdI 1bJ}' a piiJlllllpllOO rubber. wuth the pimples poinltetil nm.,;;mll-s. «JlIr 1OOII1l"",;aurrdl<s;., SiolmnKe rzkm are 111()( covered with

mbbcr :at1l aDt IbecaIlll!Si<e :at '"_ed!'" rzik:d iis IbeHiie"ed lto be IIKM'e resis.1taDll1l1VJl :at s.piiDlL HIOl" e, cr. iit iis iDBeplIoo UBSe 1lBnese 11)pes of rzlk.et iJlll CIOlJlllllpt."1tiil1iioo
f(»r'

Nq."lrm:atnH}. :at :s.Bneett «J)f ruibllba" iis glued lto :II bBade Miilllg rulbbelr :at1llKdl UJl«())1I reJlllwll"ted UJlJIlI1tHD n11ne mbbetr "<e::IIr'S; ({}lUll! «JlIr beclOlfllllle'S; dam:atglL,"il! nUll ulme 1I«»:S;«)l'S.. :at lme...... ttednJllliia:u1lll<e ,,:at~ ((:' ::n "iJX'lCu:at1i ~1I11lle aUlited ~~ !l.?!BIIII<e tt«Jl :IIWn~ uk ~1I

rubber- nay ttiime he IP'~.. TlhKe gD8IIe ",oolkll help provide more SJIlliin and s;peed by providing a "'alI3fpwIDu:'" effflied.. This 1Iedmique is 1kmt«M1ID as "'reg./lnniitmg'" and h:ms1bJemme a ~ tec:llmmiilQlue froc top pla}US. TIne S1lIIlrlfK:e ({I)f a Ir.1Idd "liRD dn'eilop a ~ g.Ios.s} padDIII2 wiittlln UD.'Se•. T1IBe lblla
Rackd oom.truction and new rubIIa- k:dmology (skilled dite playas 1)pically select and anarch the rubber 10 their mm radrels and glue them before every matdt) oontribute siwaificantly 10 the amount of deviatioo from tine expectted baRB fliightt path. The fai~ n:centt development of speed glue speeds up dte depumre of 1Ihe baDl from die mbber ooosiderably~ though at the ~ of some balD

rooo1mI. Diffaall types of rubber sheets:

•

Inverted «lI11OIIIKlniinese): Thiis is the roost widely used rubbeJr type. The surface is Stm1lOOIItIIn.. wiittBn tthe piimpledl side faciung Dnw.mBs towam the blade. Thiis eunalbBes IlIhIe lP'~eJr tt({)l ~ hig/IB DeveRs
ball •

Inverted (Chiinese): ChiJrnesle rubbers typically hoe stickier (roc "'tadier") ropshe:ds. Spiin is ~ mainly by the topsheet.. as opposed to the sponge.. wbich is relatively more oondensed and fill"lllBeJr. The resuOtt is m;ually a far better short g;une and potential offensive capabilities than normal in~ but also a ~ ooosisknt defensive and.1« 00UIIlII1ter play.

•

Slot pDmplles«OIl" "'pips"'): Slot pimplles-ou1t rublbers are llIISUBIBy UJsedllb) c~-Itab8e Bniittmrs«f« eU/llllpBe.. Liinn GunoBiang).. 'Jhe:y' do not genmBUe as ma spion as nonver1edi rublJers. ba.ut also make the Il'SICI" ~ ~ble 10 the oppoomts spin.

26

Sports

Speed generated from a short pip rubber is generally greater than that of an inverted with the same sponge. Depending on the thickness of the sponge it is also possible to playa chopping game with short pimples by varying the spin of the return. Whilst blocking and attacking a "dead ball" effect is often noticed. Ding Song is an exponent of this style. •

Long pimples (or "pips"): Long pimples-out rubbers carry relatively long and soft pips. They do not have the ability to generate any real spin of their own, but feed off of the opponent's spin instead. This allows the user to confuse the opponent and upset their rhythm. Long pips rely on the opponent's oncoming spin, as they tend to "continue" the opponent's spin, by bending upon impact, rather than reversing or changing the spin, like inverted rubbers. Long pips are usually used by close-to-the-table blockers, or choppers, but, in some cases, they can be used away from the table for long distance chops. They are usually only used on the backhand side, as they offer very limited attacking capabilities. Depending on the grip of the sides of the pimples and the thickness of the sponge it is also possible to play an aggressive game with long pips, although without much spin capability.

•

Anti-spin: Anti-spin rubbers may look similar to inverted ones, but their surfaces are very slick and frictionless. Like long pimples, they cannot generate much spin, but they allow the user to produce a no-spin, or "dead" ball. Anti-spin is also not very susceptible to the opponents oncoming spin, due to the low coefficient of friction of the rubber's surface, as well as the incredibly soft sponge, which is designed to cushion or absorb the speed of the ball upon impact. This is also used to confuse the opponent, and is not widely used at the international level.

Glue In Japan, JTTA changed a policy of the glue which is used to glue rubbers and racket in September, 2006. [Rules about gluing

Table Tennis

27

rubbers] Using glues and rubber cleaner which contains some volatile organic solvents is banned in a game place, except where allowed to use them. A game place means that all of grounds. including a parking area. On the other hand. the glues ITTF or JTTA authorized can be used in a place which is located to use them. From September I st, no one can be allowed to use the glues contain some volatile organic solvents.

Game play In top-flight competition, service is decided by a coin toss. At lower levels it is common for one player (or the umpire/scorer) to hide the ball in one or the other hand (usually hidden under the table), allowing the other player to guess which hand the ball is in. The correc~ or incorrect guess gives the "winner" the option to choose to serve, or to choose which side of the table to use.

Service In game play, the player serving the ball commences a point. Standing behind the end of the table; with the ball in the palm of one hand - over the table's height - and the racket in the other, the server tosses the ball without spin, upward, at least sixteen centimeters (approximately 6 inches). He or she then must hit the ball such that it bounces once on his or her half of the table, and then bounces at least one time on the opponent's half. If the !:.raIl strikes the net but does not strike the opponent's half of the table, then a point is awarded to the opponent. However, if the ball hits the net. but nevertheless goes over and bounces on the other side, it is called a let (or net-in). Play stops, and the ball must be served again with no penalty. Unlike the old service rules, where a player may only commit three lets, now a player may commit any number of lets without penalty. If the service is "good", then the opponent must then make a "good" return - by returning the ball before it bounces all his or her side of the table a second time. Returning the serve is one of the most difficult parts of the game. as the server's first move

is often the least JlRdidable.

HiDing the ball Any hUU1tiung off dne IIro!DD mIllS!: !be dnJIIIIe sudu dW ttlIne baRB IID~Sit'S> amlJIIIIIIId 1JIne net. If 1Ihe ball. j:s. s.1IJr1Id mcln 1llIn:a1l nll 1Irn"(f'IIos. the Did. bu1t s.tiDB Rands 00 1Ihe ~1I"s siide off tdIne 1!a1!:B1Ie. the hit is legal zmd pbiy shouulldl!be amntiunUJIedL Iffthe ~t aJIDOOJtt IdDm it over (!OJIr aunoound) tdIne IIlId: :mel IIII1I3ke itt boonce 00 }'omr siide. them yOtlll -wiiun ,line lJllO>iiunt. over COJr'

uoooo

Scoring PoiiunltS are a\'\alf«lledl lto 1Ihe ~lt ((())If" .:m} «J)f Sia'er.mB

CI"roIr'5;

iill1l

R*.Y-

mn to oouoc:e Olin one"s OWllll siide 1twice

•

Allowing the

•

Double Initl1fuJg tIDe blill Note that the band above 1ihe wrist is considered p3I1 ofthe Iic!lCkd and makmg a gvmd rdum offooe"s hlmd or lfmgeJl'S is aIIDowed bm: 1hti1t1fung one"s IhtaOO or lfmgers amld su1!JseqUJIe!IllttDy hlttmg 1IlIne JraClkett is a dOllllbDe strike and ilUI error.

•

ADoMngtbebmll11omike~cdJrer1hmUhemckd{see

above fonldiniU]on oftIDe rnck.d) •

C3lIlISDng 1IIbte 00II1 lOOt to boomnce 0IIl1ihe ~s; IInaIIf(ii_e..~ Jm01t makiJmg ill ""~"" rettuJnnrn)

•

PIarcimg «JJDe"s fu.>e lIamrlI om k pIIayiJrng S1IJII!'ft3ce rrnrllllllOvimg k pllayIDgsurface

•

Offering and faiDiJmg 110 malke ill goOOl :serve (ii_e_~ making ill service ross aOO failiJrng to sII!rDlk.e 1ihe hallD fairl)' into ph»

•

Making am il!ega! serve: (e.g... one ~ by ill playd's biding the hill or his faiiDiiBDg to 1lM'S 1ihe hanD a1l Ieas1l D6 c:emimeIers (six iind!res) in 1the urJ

•

HiItiugd1em-wilb na:kdor3ll!Y ixdypamt." mllllm'lingk1taille..

Alternation of service Serviioe all1tema1t.es; lbJe1tweenn ~nell1lts eve!!}' 1t.wo JXlliillll1tS (reprd~ off ~illllllllU «»ff aline r:mIID}'» IIlJIIDtiig a pRayer reJIIICIIDes nnpoiiOBlIS with at Ieaastt a mo-poill!1t. IIead.. m UDunbD bodI plla.yers BDam: no points a piece. If bodI p!layerrs ~ n«» ptlliillllts" dam sen'Doe alhtetmattes after eadI po>iiuntt.. UDII1IbD
pms

In ukllulbJlIes. sawjjoe ilIIlI1tenrnaJt1tes feWrei!)' ttw«» points Ihdweeun siides. bwtt ilIIDSiIDI ro1IafIes; ~ pRa,Y'eI!S m the same team.. Att aline etrn«lI off ewre1!)' hro ptlliiuntts. aline l!'i!!Ceir, ijun~ pbyetr ~ ttltoe 'SIeIrVer~ amdI aline gm1IlmeIr off aline s;en. iiun~ pDilllyer Ibxe:aJJmmes ttlIne lItteii"'er" In the «»1Ide1r 2D-po>iiun1!: pmme ~~ s;en,iice ""
Doubles game lOB 3!kIiittiim tt«» pmrnes Ibrt.1.weeun iiundMdual players.. pairs may alI5lOl p1lillly 1tmb1le ttmIIUDs. In dooublles.. ilIIDft ttlIne rules; offsiivn@le pby ilIIppRy except fflOJll" ttBne ffIOJHI\())"ii1l1l~ A Diinne paliinutte«li :alD«»DD~ ttBne dlOlBlllj!!. aXD'S IOJf ttBne talbJDe \blii5leCCtts. ttlIne 1l:a!lb>ne" Tho'S IhilJ1Ke"-S; IOlBlIU~ pwti!pOl'$C is tto ff'xii8ii1lil11tte 1lBne 00uu1bJ1les; ~ Ott 1f1U11Ie~ "lIniidn ii'S ttIInilIItt SlelfViice~ II1I1IUUs!! miigii_e ffiromm ttlIne ri:gJlntt IInanucdI "'ftJxoJx'" iinu SllJlCBn a ""ilII'y' htt 1tBne fiBll boJwim:e off ttBne sen'c lbxolII.nuncres «lJIIlICe nun saii«ll ri~ IInanucdIlLrox md ttBneII1I II1I1IlIIISIt 00umce at Deastt .x ffm setN'er)" IPUillIY ttBneun OOlIIIlbnuunes II1l«lJmJl:alUny wDttllu 1tBne exceptiOO htt pDilII~eI!$ mUlls!! ilIIDtteJmillllte llnii1tttiinu~ 1tBne banD. tfOl creatte rdiIOJunll:»lb 00lUII1l1t.'§.

F(())If" eXilllll1l1lpHe.., ilIIffua ilII pUilII~a sen'es; ttltoe receii,,'iinu~ pDilII}'a lIII1IilIIIke Bniis (())If" linen- rerum.. ttltoe :5lt'.'nerr"s ~ rehtlm5 ttlIne balUU _ ttBneun ttlIne

J(J

Sport"

service receiver's partner would play the ball. The point proceeds this way until one side fails to make a legal return and the point is then awarded to the other team. Also. when the game reaches the final set, the teams must switch side and the team that receives the service must switch receiver when one of the teams reach 5 points. Singles and doubles are both played in international competition, including the Olympic Games since 1988 and the Commonwealth Games since 2002. In 2005. the ITTF announced that doubles table tennis will only be featured as a part of teams events in the 2008 Olympics.

Styles of play Competitive table tennis players grip their rackets in a variety of ways. The manner in which competitive players grip their rackets can be classified into two major families of styles. One is described as penhold. and the other shakehand. The Laws of Table Tennis do not prescribe the manner in which one must grip the racket. and numerous variations on gripping styles exist.

Penhold The penhold grip is so-named because one grips the racket similarly to the way one holds a writing instrument. The style of play among penhold players can vary greatly from player to player. The most popular style, usually referred to as the Chinese penhold style, involves curling the middle. ring. and fourth finger on the back of the blade. The amount of curl in the fingers can vary from clenched. to almost perfectlty straight. The three fingers however. will always remain touching. Chinese penholders favour a round racket head. for a more over-the-table style of play. In contrast. another style. <;ometillle<; referred to as the Japanese penhold grip. involves spla) ing thmc three fing.er<; out across the bach. of the racket. Japanese pcnhlllder~ \\ ill often lI'ie a square-headed rach.et for an a\\a)-froill-the-table style of play. Penhold styles are popular among players originating from Asian regions such as China. Taiwan, .lapan, and South Korea.

Table

Tcnnl~

31

Traditionally. penhold players use ani) one side of the racket to hit the ball during normal pia). The side which is in contact with the last three finger~ is generally not used. However. the Chinese have developed a new technique in which a penholder utilizes both sides of the racket. This is referred to as the Reverse penhold backhand (RPB) where the player produces a stroke (most often topspin) by turning the traditional side of the racket to face him or herself. and swinging. witl~ a backhand motion. using the opposite side of the racket. This stroke has greatly improved and strengthened the penhold style both physically and psychologically. as it eliminates the traditional penhold backhand weakness.

Shakehand The shakehand grip is so-named because one grips the racket similarly to the wa) one performs a handshake. The grip is sometimes colloquially referred to as a "tennis grip" or a "Western grip." although it has no correlation to the Western grip used in Tennis. The shakehand grip is most popular among players originating in Western nations. Today. though, there are many Asian players using the shakehand grip. as it can be viewed as strategically and technically superior.

Types of shots In table tennis, the strokes break down into generally offensive (producing topspin) and defensive (producing backspin). Spin exceptions are the smash, block. and lob. The types of strokes include backhand and forehand.

Offensive strokes Speed drive These strokes differ to ones from other racket sports like tennis. The racket is primari Iy perpendicular to the direction of the stroke. and most of the energy applied to the ball results in speed rather than spin. creating a shot that does not arc Illuch. but is fast

elOOIII~

ttBnal ii1l all1l !he rdI0llficUDII1lkll retlIIlIm. A speed dfn,e is m;ed 11IIl«JJS1I:~, ({)II" Ikreepoll1l)g ttlIne IbalID 01111 pDa)~ appByiog ~ iIJJIII the ~1l ;mrdI potell1llliiaDBy ~illlg IIDp aBIIIl ~111~ ffiJJl" ill! IIJI((l)II1:

p())",mIlDU Z111l1131Cll.. l.ooJp rdIuiil.e es:seunaDZIIUD}' 1lIIne l!1eVeJf'S.Ie IOf tIIne ~ rdIl1ii~e. 11hIe rndkeIt Os mmllDlCBn IIIIII«llIre pBlI!3DDeD ll~ttlInerdl~ of1Bne SilIroJIk.eeelkusodl~'» _ due l!Xkd dum; gr:rm:s ttlIne baDll1eSllJlBtilllg in ill! D:anr<,ge ilIlJIIIDlIIlIDl (()If 1lopspiin. A good DooJp drive wiiBD are quite a biL ilIlIIIlrdI ({J)III)(CC stlJriilkiillDg ttlIne ~1l"s side ofthe tablewiBB jllDllllDP ffDmad.. mmwrdn Diilk.e ill! kiido: serve ill1l tennis.. A loop drive is rdlang,eRJlllDS becmUD5<e (()If ii1ls ~iin - whiile 00Jt as difffiaaDt to retUDm as a ~ rdluiive.. ii1l iisllD1lC!Jllfle DiilkeBy' to rebounnd off doe oppooreuIt"s uxlk.d :m1t: ill! way Bnuglln i.il\lllgIIe.. se1t1l01llg up an easy SIIDilIl'SJo iIJJIII tine foHl«Jlw IIIIIP'. As ttlIne ~ rdIri~e I!TfItJIIIDBIre'S a IkJt of topspin. pBa}"eI!S ~BIy use ttlIneiir maDre Blxody to generate tlIBe III(()vemml reqlllired. Variations mspin _ speedI add ro the effercti\\,~ of dnis sbc»1t..

C'hiiDBeSle pllayetrS a1te<~ D«lX!Jl!IHftrD",es; iill1l J variatii«ms tOO

ban

tJr.ijecIDlriies::

n. The "'Loolp'" The "'Loop'" produnces ilI!lIIOOre pmoounced Ioopy aK. with higJJer- ~ec1kJJIry ami extreme topspin. but is typically slower.

ill!

1. The "'Rush'" ProdIllttS ill! flat1telr I13jedouy than ill! typal "'Loop'" but anies IIDlIUDd. sIIroImga- tops;piin dun ill! regular speed-drive. It C3IlI be as fast as a ~'e.., and iin modem table tennis has rronne to replace it in virtually all cases.. The ball seems to "'rusIIn'" forward and diowflmmi upon hitting the 1ab1e (ccmpared to the "tiding'" or "'jumping'" actions resulkd trom tine lniglHm: "'Loop"').. and henee ttlIne niebame.

3. The "'H«d'"

Similar to ill! rqJ1lInilBJr Loop. bu.ntt amriies a tinted topspin (fiJJI" is referred as 1Ihe "'t«Jp-sirdle'" spill1l).. H1t Ibxoolllla$ siirdleu:a}'s aOO dowJm.,ard

Table Tennis

33

upon hitting the table. Similar but stronger than the defensive "sidedrive" described below.

Counter drive Usually a counter attack against drives (normally high loop drives). You have to close the racket and stay close to the ball (try to predict its path). The racket is held closed and near to the ball, which is hit with a short movement "off the bounce" (before reaching the highest point) so that the ba 11 travels fastcr to the other side. If performed correctly, a well-timed, accurate countcr-drive can be as effective as a smash.

Flip (or Flick in Europe) When a player tries to attack a ball that has not bounced beyond the edge of the table, he/she does not have the room to wind .up in a backswing. The ball may still be attacked, however, and the resulting shot is called flip because the backswing i~ compressed into a quick wrist action. A flip is not a single stroke and can resemble either a drive or a loop in its characteristics. What identifies the stroke is instead whether the backswillg is compressed into a short wrist flick.

Smash The offensive trump card in table tennis. A player will typicall) execute a smash when his or her opponent has returned a ball that bounces too high and/or too close to the net. Smashing is essentially self-explanatory -large backswing and rapid acceleration imparting as much speed on the ball as possible. The goal of a smash is to get the ball to move so quickly that the opponent simply cannot return it. Because the ball speed is the main aim of this shot, often the spin on the ball is something other than topspin. Sidespin can be used effectively with a smash to alter the ball's trajectory significantly, although most intermediate players will smash the ball with little or no spin. An offensive table-tennis player will think ofa rally as a buildup to a winning smash; only a calculated series of smashes can

34

Sports

guarantee a point against a good opponent. However, most players will be able to return at most one or two smashes consistently. Provided that the opponent is not too close to the table or too far away from the ball, a smash can be lobbed, chopped. blocked or even counter-looped, albeit with some difficulty. A player who smashes generally works out a series of smashes (and possibly drop-shots) to rush the opponent out of position. put him off balance, or both. Smashers who fail to do this find it difficult to win a point against an excellent defense.

Defensive strokes Slice The slice is analogous to the speed drive in some respects it is very simple, usually used for keeping the point alive and creating offensive opportunities. A slice resembles a tennis slice: the racket cuts underneath the ball, imparting backspin and causing the ball to float slowly to the other side of the table. While not obvious, a slice can be difficult to attack because the backspin on the ball causes it to drop toward the table upon striking the opponent's racket - in order to attack a slice. a player must lift the ball back over the net. Often. the best option is to simply slice the ball back again, which repeats and results in slicing rallies. Otherwise, another option is to flip or drive the ball, only when it is far enough away from the net. Slicing can have its advantages. but it's a shot worth avoiding. Players should only slice when their opponent makes easy mistakes. Offensive players should only slice for variation and not for general rallies. A slice can easily be counter-looped into the opposite corner, if it doesn't drop short enough on the table. The goal of most player's slice is to make it too short to be attacked upon, rather than attempting to over-spin the opponent.

Chop A chop or cut is the defensive, backspin counterpart to the offensive loop drive. A chop is essentially a bigger. heavier slice,

Table Tennis

35

taken well back from the table. The racket face points primarily horizontally, perhaps a little bit upward, and the direction of the stroke is straight down. The object of a defensive chop is to match the topspin of the opponent's shot with your own racket speed. A good chop will float nearly horizontally back to the table, in some cases having so much backspin that the ball actually rises. A chop such as this can be extremely difficult to return due to the enormolls amollnt of backspin. Sometimes a defensive player can impart no spin on the ball during a chop, or frequently add right- or left-hand spin to the ball. This may further confuse his/her opponent. Chops are difficult to execute, but are devastating when completed properly because it takes a tremendous amount of topspin on a loop drive to return the ball back over the net.

Block The block or short is a simple shot, barely worthy of being called a "stroke," but nonetheless can be devastating against an attacking opponent. A block is executed by simply putting the racket in front of the ball - the ball rebounds back toward the opponent with nearly as much energy as it came in with. This is not as easy as it sounds, because the ball's spin, speed, and location all influence the correct angle of a block. Disregarding the difficulty of a block, it is very possible for an opponent to execute a perfect loop, drive, or smash, only to have the blocked shot come back at himjust as fast. Due to the power involved in offensive strokes, often an opponent simply cannot recover quickly enough, and will be unable to return his own shot blocked back to him/her. Blocks almost always produce the same spin as was received, which is nearly always topspin.

Push-Block High level players may IJse what is called push block or active block, adding speed to the ball (with a small topspin movement). When playing in the Penhold Grip, many players use push blocks when being pressured on the backhand. Chinese pen-hold players

refer it as push-block as they literally "push" their backhand forward, instead of simply blocking it.

Side Drive This spin is alternately used as a defensive and offensive maneuver. The premise of this move is to put a spin on the ball either to the right or the left of the racket. The execution of this move is similar to a slice, but to the right or left instead of down. This spin will result in the ball curving to the side but bouncing in the opposite direction when the opponent returns it. Do not attempt a right-side spin (moving your arm to the right when hitting the ball) when too close to the left side of the table, and visa versa. To return, simply execute the same sided spin as your opponent just gave you.

Lob The defensive lob is possibly the most visually-impressive shot in the sport of table tennis, and it is deceptive in its simplicity. To execute a lob, a defensive player first backs off the table 8-10 feet (2.5 to 3 m, advanced players sometimes go 20 feet or 6 m or more); then, the stroke itself consists of simply lifting the ball to an enormous height before it falls back to the opponent's side of the table. A lob is inherently a creative shot, and can have nearly any kind of spin you can imagine. Talented players use this fact to their advantage in order to control the point. For instance, though the opponent may smash the ball hard and fast, a good defensive lob could quite possibly be even harder to return due to the unpredictability (and heavy amounts) of the spin on the ball. Thus, though backed off the table by tens of feet and apparently running and leaping just to reach the ball, a good defensive player can still win the point using good lobs.

Stop Stop (or drop shot) is a high level stroke, lIsed as another variation for close-to-table strokes (like harai and slice). YOLI have

to position the body close to the ball and just let the ball touch the racket (without any hand movement) in a way that the ball stays close to the net with almost no speed and spin and touches the other side of the table more than twice if the opponent doesn't reach it. This stroke should be used when opponents are far from the table and not prepared to get close to the table. This technique is most usually done by pen-holders and players who use long or short pimples. A very deceiving technique, this could result in the opponent failing to reach the ball after misjudging the distance of the ball. A perfectly executed stroke after a topspin sequence Cfln win a point. Competitive table tennis is popular in Asia and Europe and has been gaining attention in the United States. The most important international competitions are World Cup, World Championship, the Olympics and the ITTF Pro Tour, as well as continental competitions like European Championship, Euro Top-12, Asian Championship and Asian Games. China continues to dominate most world titles, while other strong teams come from EastAsia and Europe including France, Germany, former Yugoslavia, Hong Kong, Japan, South Korea, Singapore, Sweden, and Taiwan. There are also professional competitions at the clubs level. The national league of countries like China, Germany, France, Belgium and Austria are some of the examples being at the highest level. There are also some important international club teams competitions such as the European Champions League and its former competition, the European Champions Cup, which the top club teams from different European countries compete. There are also competitions in table tennis variants: "Hardbat", in which all competitors use a racket with small pips-out rubber (sponge is not allowed): and "Large ball", where a 44 mm ball is uscd to decrease the speed. A Grand Slam is earned by a player who wins an Olympic Games gold :nedal, world championship title, and World Cup of Table Tennis gold medal.

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The International Table Tennis Federation (ITTF): worldwide governing body with national bodies responsible for the sport in each country. There are other local authorities applicable as well.

•

The European Table Tennis Union is the governing body responsible for table tennis in Europe.

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The English Table Tennis Association is the governing body responsible for table tennis in England.

•

The Irish Table Tennis Association is the governing body responsible for table tennis in Ireland.

•

The Scottish Table Tennis Association is the governing body responsible for table tennis in Scotland.

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The Table Tennis Association of Wales is the governing body responsible for table tennis in Wales.

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The Canadian Table Tennis Association is the governing body responsible for table tennis in Canada.

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The USA Table Tennis (USATT): national governing body for table tennis in the United States.

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The National Collegiate Table Tennis Association (NCTTA): official governing body for collegiate table tennis in the United States.

Notes and trivia •

Multi-talented sportsman Maxwell Woosnam, an Olympic and Wimbledon champion at lawn tennis and one-time captain of the England national football team, once defeated actor and film director Charlie Chaplin at table tennis while playing with a butter knife instead of a racket.

•

Tabletennis inspired the first commercially successful video game, Pong. In 2007, Rockstar games made one of the first true simulation by releasing Rockstar Games presents Table Tennis.

•

In the early 1970s the People's Republic of China (PRe)

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invited American table tennis players to a tournament in the PRC. This marked a thawing in relations with the United States that was followed up by a visit by u.s. president Richard Nixon. The popular media therefore dubbed this visit "Ping Pong Diplomacy". •

At the 1936 World Championships contested in Prague, two defensive players took over an hour to contest one point.

•

Soviet rule once banned the sport because it was seen as carrying significant risk of eye damage.

•

Certain world-class players can impart spin approaching 9000 RPM on table tennis balls.

•

More than 30 table tennis companies exist around the world, making a full line of accessories from rackets to warm-up suits.

•

A man in Hawaii has invented a three-player table for table tennis, calling it "TriPong"

Cricket

Introduction

to

Cricket

Bowler Shaun Pollock bowls to batsman Michael Hussey. The paler strip is the cricket pitch. The two sets of three wooden stumps on the pitch are the wickets. The two white lines are the creases. A Test match between South Africa and England in January 2005. The men wearing black trousers on the far right are the umpires. Test cricket, first-class cricket and club cricket are played in traditional white uniforms and with red cricket balls, while professional One-day cricket is usually played in coloured uniforms and with white balls. A One Day International match at The Melbourne Cricket Ground between Australia and India. The Australian batsmen are wearing yellow, while the fielding team, India, is wearing blue. Cricket is a bat-and-ball sport contested by two teams, usua II)' of eleven players each. A cricket match is played on a grass field, roughly oval in shape, in the centre of which is a flat strip of ground 22 yards (20.12 m) long, called a cricket pitch. A wicket, usually made of wood, is placed at each end of the pitch. The bowler, a player from the fielding team, bowls a hard, fist-sized cricket ball from the vicinity of one wicket towards the other. The ball usually bounces once before reaching the batsman, a player from the opposing team. In defence of the wicket, the batsman plays the ball with a wooden cricket bat. Meanwhile, the other members of the bowler's

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team stand in various positions around the field as fielders. players who retrieve the ball in an effort to stop the batsman scoring runs. and if possible to get him or her out. The batsman - if he or she does not get out - may run between the wickets, exchanging ends with a second batsman (the "non-striker"), who has been waiting near the bowler's wicket. Each completed exchange of ends scores one run. Runs are also scored if the batsman hits the ball to the boundary of the playing area. The match is won by the team that scores more runs. Cricket has been an established team sport for hundreds of years and is one of the most popular sports in the world. More than 150 countries are affiliated to ICC. It originated in its modern form in England and is most popular in the present and former members of the Commonwealth. In the countries of Indian Subcontinent, including India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. cricket is the most popular sport. It is also a major sport in England. Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Zimbabwe and the Englishspeaking countries of the Caribbean, which are collectively known in cricketing parlance as the West Indies. There are also wellestablished amateur club competitions in countries such as the Netherlands, Kenya, Nepal and Argentina. The sport is followed with passion in many different parts of the world. It has occasionally given rise to diplomatic outrage; notoriously the Basil D'Oliveira affair (which led to the banning of South Africa from sporting events) and the Bodyline series. played between England and Australia in the early 1930s (which led. to a temporary deterioration in relations between the two countries). A traditional cricket ball. The white stitching is known as the seam. As one-day games are often played under floodlights, a white ball is used to aid visibility. The aim of the batting team is to score as many runs as possible. A run is scored when both batsmen successfully move to their respective opposite ends of the pitch. (The batsmen will usually only attempt to score runs after

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the striker has hit the ball, but this is not required by the rulesthe batsmen can attempt runs at any time after the ball has been bowled.) Runs are also scored if the batsman hits the ball to the boundary of the playing area (this scores six runs if the ball crosses the boundary without having touched the ground, or four runs otherwise), or if the bowler commits some technical infringement like bowling the ball out of reach of the batsman. The aim of the bowler's team is to get each batsman out (this is called a "taking a wicket", or a "dismissal"). Dismissals are achieved in a variety of ways. The most direct way is for the bowler to bowl the ball so that the batsman misses it and it hits the stumps, dislodging a bail. While the batsmen are attempting a run, the fielders may dismiss either batsman by using the ball to knock the bails off the set of stumps to which the batsman is closest before he has grounded himself or his bat in the crease. Other ways for the fielding side to dismiss a batsman include catching the ball off the bat before it touches the ground, or having the batsman adjudged "leg before wicket" (abbreviated "L.B.W." or "Ibw") if the ball strikes the batsman's body and would have gone on to hit the wicket. Once the batsmen are not attempting to score any more runs, the ball is "dead", and is bowled again (each attempt at bowling the ball is referred to as a "ball" or a "delivery"). The game is divided into overs of six (legal) balls. At the end of an over another bowler from the fielding side bowls from the opposite end of the pitch. The two umpires also change positions between overs (the umpire previously at square-leg becomes the bowler's umpire at what is now the bowling end, and vice versa). The fielders also usually change positions between overs. Once out, a batsman is replaced by the next batsman in the team's line-up. (The batting side can reorder their line-up at any time, but no batsman may bat twice in one innings.) The innings (singular) of the batting team ends when the tenth batsman is given

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out, leaving one batsman not out but without a partner. When this happens, the team is said to be "all out". (In limited overs cricket the innings ends either when the batting team is all out or a predetermined number of overs has been bowled.) At the end of an innings, the two teams exchange roles, and the side that has been fielding bats. A team's score is reported in terms of the number of runs scored and the number of batsmen that have been dismissed. For example, iffive batsmen are out and the team has scored 224 runs, they are said to have scored 224 for the loss of 5 wickets (commonly shortened to "224 for five" and written 224/5 or, in Australia, "five for 224" and 5/224). The team that has scored more runs at the end of the completed match wins. Different varieties of the game have different definitions of "completion"; for instance there may be restrictions on the number of overs, the number of innings, and the number of balls in each innings. If the team that bats last is all out having scored fewer runs than their opponents, the team is said to have "lost by n runs" (where n is the difference between the number of runs scored by the teams). If the team that bats last scores enough runs to win, it is said to have "won by n wickets", where n is the number of wickets left to fall. For instance a team that passes its opponents' score having only lost six wickets would have won "by four wickets". In a two-innings-a-side match, one team's combined first and second innings total may be less than the other side's first innings total. The team with the greater score is then said to have won by an innings and n runs, and does not need to bat again: n is the difference between the two teams' aggregate scores. If the team batting last is all out, and both sides have scored the same number of runs, then the match is a tie; this result is quite rare in matches of two innings a side. In the traditional form ofthe game, if the time allotted for the match expires before either

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side can win, then the game is declared a draw. Ifthe match has only a single innings per side, then a maximum number of deliveries for each innings is often imposed. Such a match is called a "limited overs" or "one-day" match. and the side scoring more runs wins regardless of the number of wickets lost, so that a draw cannot occur. If this kind of match is temporarily interrupted by bad weather, then a complex mathematical formula, known as the Duckworth-Lewis method after its developers, is often used to recalculate a new target score. A one-day match can also be declared a "no-result" iffewer than a previously agreed number of overs have been bowled by either team, in circumstances that make normal resumption of play impossible; for example, wet weather.

Laws of cricket The game is played in accordance with 42 laws, which have been developed by the Marylebone Cricket Club in discussion with the main cricketing nations. Teams may agree before a game to introduce other rules or alter some of the existing rules. In particular, there are a number of modifications to rules dictating fielding positions for professional limited overs matches.

Players A team consists of eleven players. Depending on his or her primary skills, a player may be classified as a specialist batsman or bowler. A balanced team usually has five or six specialist batsmen and four or five specialist bowlers. Teams nearly always include a specialist wicket-keeper because of the importance of this fielding position. Each team is headed by a captain, who is responsible for making tactical decisions such as determining the batting order, the placement offielders and the rotation ofbowlers. A player who excels in both batting and bowling is known as an all-rounder. One who excels as a batsman and wicket-keeper is known as a "wicket-keeper/batsman", sometimes regarded as

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45

a typ~ of all-rounder. True all-rounders are rare: most players focus on either batting or bowling skills.

Umpires Two on-field umpires preside over a match. One umpire stands behind the bowler's wicket, and adjudicates.on.most decisions. The other (the "squ,are leg umpire") stands with. a side view of the batsman (usually near the fielding position called square leg), and assists in decisions for which he or she has a better view. In some professional matches the facility exists for them to refer some decisions to a third umpire, who has the assistance of television replays. In international matches a match referee ensures that play is within the laws of cricket and the spirit of the game. The third umpire and referee do not take the field during play.

Scorers Two scorers are appointed; usually, one is provided by each team. The laws of cricket specify that the official scorers are to record all rur,s scored, wickets taken and (where appropriate) overs bowled. They are to acknowledge signals from the umpires, and to check the accuracy of the score regularly both with each other and, at playing intervals, with the umpires. In practice scorers also keep track of other matters, such as bowlers' analyses, the rate at which the teams bowl their overs, and team statistics such as averages and records. In international and national cricket competitions, the media often require notification of records and statistics, so unofficial scorers often keep tally for broadcast commentators and newspaper journalists. The official scorers occasionally make mistakes, but unlike umpires' mistakes these can be corrected after the event.

The playing field The cricket field consists of a large, often circular or ovalshaped, grassy ground. There are no fixed dimensions for the field but its diameter usually varies between 450 feet (137 m) and 500

46

feet (150 m). The perimeter of the field, known as the boundary. is marked, often with a rope or a painted line.

The pitch A wicket consists of three stumps that are hammered into the ground, and topped with two bails. Most of the action takes place in the centre of this ground, on a rectangular clay strip usually 'W ith short grass called the pitch. The pitch measures lOx 66 feet (3.05 x 20.12 m). The longer dimension of the pitch is also a unit of length known as a chain. At each end of the pitch three upright wooden stakes. called the stumps, are hammered into the ground. Two wooden crossplece~. known as the bails, sit in grooves atop the stumps, linking each to its neighbour. Each set of three stumps and two bails is collectively known as a wicket. One end of the pitch is designated the "batting end" where the batsman stands and the other is designated the "bowling end" where the bowler runs in to bowl. The area of the field on the side of the line joining the 'Wid.eh where the batsman holds his bat (the right-hand side for a righthanded batsman, the left for a left-hander) is known as the "ofT side", the other as the "leg side" or "on side". Lines drawn or painted on the pitch are known as creases. Creases are used to adjudicate the dismissals of batsmen and to determine whether a delivery is legal.

A typical cricket field The nature of the pitch Pitches vary in consistency, and thus in the amount of bounce, spin, and seam movement available to the bowler. Hard pitches are usually good to bat on because of high but even bounce. Dry pitches tend to deteriorate for batting as cracks often appear, and when this happens spinners can playa major role. Damp pitches, or pitches covered in grass (termed "green" pitches), allow good fast bowlers to extract extra bounce and seam movement. Such

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pitches tend to offer help to fast bowlers throughout the match, but become better for batting as the game goes on.

Parts of the field For some limited-over matches, there are two additional field markings. A painted oval is made by drawing a semicircle of 30 yards (27.4 m) radius from the centre of each wicket with respect to the breadth of the pitch and joining them with lines parallel, 30 yards (27.4 m) to the length of the pitch. This line, commonly known as the "circle". divides the field into an infield and outfield. Two circles of radius 15 yards (13.7 m). centred on each wicket and often marked by dots. define the "close-infield". The infield, outfield, and the close-infield are used to enforc.e fielding restrictions.

Placements of players Fielding positions in cricket for a right-handed batsman. The named positions are only indicative: the fielders may stand anywhere. The bowler and wicket-keeper are always in roughly the same position, and there are only nine other fielders, so there are always many unprotected areas. The batting team always has two batsmen on the field. One batsman, known as the "striker", faces and plays the balls bowled by the bowler. His or her partner stands at the bowling end and is known as the "non-striker". The fielding team has eleven players on the ground. One of them is the current bowler. The wicket-keeper, who generally acts in that role for the whole innings, stands or crollches behind the wicket at the batting end. The captain of the fielding team spreads his or her remaining nine players - the fielders - around the ground, positioned according to the team's strategy.

Match structure The toss The two opposing captains toss a coin before the match, and the captain who wins chooses either to bat or bowl first. The"

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captain's decision is usually based on whether the team's bowlers are likely to gain immediate advantage from the pitch and weather conditions (these can vary significantly), or whether it is more likely that the pitch will deteriorate and make batting more difficult later in the game.

Overs Each innings is divided into overs, each consisting of six consecutive legal deliveries bowled by the same bowler. For the definition of illegal deliveries, see Extras. No bowler may bowl two consecutive overs, so at the end of the over the bowler takes up a fielding position and another player bowls. Overs are bowled from alternate ends of the pitch; at the end of each over the umpires swap, the umpire at the bowler's end moving to square leg, and the umpire at square leg moving to the new bowler's end. The fielders also usually change positions.

End of an innings An innings is completed if:

•

Ten out of eleven batsmen are out (dismissed); the team are said to be "all out".

•

The team has only one batsman left who can bat, one or more of the remaining players being unavailable owing to injury, illness or absence; again, the team is said to be "all out".

•

The team batting last reaches the score required to win the match.

•

The predetermined number of overs has been bowled (in a one-day match only, most commonly 50 overs).

•

A captain declares his team's innings closed (this does not apply in one-day limited over matches).

Playing time Typically, two-innings matches are played over three to five

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49

days with at least six hours of cricket played each day. One-innings matches are usually played in one day, and often last six hours or more. There are usually formal intervals on each day for lunch and tea, and brief informal breaks for drinks. There is also a short interval between innings. The game is usually only played in dry weather; play is also usually stopped if it becomes too dark for the batsmen to be able to see the ball safely. Some one-day games are now played under floodlights but. apart from a few experimental games in Australia, floodlights are not used in longer games. Professional cricket is usually played outdoors. These requirements mean dlat in England, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Zimbabwe the rame is usually restricted to the summer. In the West Indies, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh games are played in the winter. These countries' hurricane and monsoon seasons coincide with their summer.

Batting The batsman may playa "shot" or "stroke", attempting to hit the bowled ball with the flat surface of the bat. If the ball brushes the side of the bat it is called an "edge". There is no requ irement for the batsman to playa shot. and there is no requirement to run if the pall is struck. The batsman automatically scores runs if he hits the ball to the boundary. Shots are named according to the style of swing and the direction aimed. As part of the team's strategy, the player may bat defensively, blocking the ball downwards. or aggressively, hitting the ball hard to empty spaces in order to score runs. Batsmen come in to bat in a batting order, decided by the team captain. The first two batsmen - the "openers" - usually face the most hostile bowling, from fresh fast bowlers with a new ball. The top batting positions are usually given to the most competent batsmen in the team, and the non-batsmen typically bat last. The

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batting order is not agreed beforehand, and if a wicket falls any plav'.:;· who has not batted yet may bat next.

Run scoring The directions in which a right-handed batsman intends to send the ball when playing various cricketing shots. The diagram for a left-handed batsman is a mirror image of this one. To score a run, a striker must run to the opposite end of the pitch, while his non-striking partner runs to his end. To register a run, both runners must touch the ground behind the crease with either their bats or their bodies (the batsmen carry their bats as they run). If the striker hits the ball well enou/!h, the batsmen may double back to score two or more runs. However. no rule requires the batsman to run upon striking the ball. The decision to attempt a run is ideally made by the batsman who has the better view of the ball's position, and this is communicated by calling: "yes", "no" and "wait" are often heard. The batsmen swap ends every time an odd number of runs are scored. If a fielder knocks the bails off the stumps with the ball while no part of the batsman is grounded behind the popping crease, the batsman nearer the broken wicket is run out. The batsman may ground the bat, provided he or she is holding it. If the ball reaches the boundary, then runs are automatically scored: six if the ball goes over the boundary without touching the ground, four if it touched the ground. These are scored instead of any runs the batsmen may have already run (unless they have run more, which is unlikely), and they return to the ends at which they started.

Extras Every run scored by the batsmen contributes to the team's total. A team's total also includes a number of runs which are u,13ccredited to any batsmen. These runs are known as extras; in Australia they are also called "sundries".

CriCket

Bowling and dismissals Bowling A bowler delivers the ball toward the batsmen: during the bowling action the elbow may be held at any angle and may bend further. but may not straighten out. If the elbow straightens illegally then the square-leg umpire may call no-ball. The current laws allow a bowler to straighten his arm 15 degrees or less. The bowler's primary goal is usually to get the batsman out; the most common modes of dismissal (except run out) are credited to the bowler, who is said to have taken a wicket. Dismissing an accomplished batsman is more difficult than dismissing a nonbatsman. The bowler's secondary task is usually to limit the numbers of runs scored. Occasionally the match situation makes it more important to limit runs than take wickets. There are many types of bowler, and many nuances of bowling techniques. Two categories are pace bowlers. who aim to bowl quicker than the batsman's reaction speed. and spin bowlers who bowl slower deliveries that bounce and curve in unpredictable ways.

Dismissal of a batsman There are ten ways in which a batsman may be dismissed. Once a batsman is dismissed, he leaves the field to be replaced by another batsman. When the tenth batsmen is out, and only one batsman remains undismissed, the side is "all out" and the innings is over. Many modes of dismissal require the wicket to be "put down". The wicket is put down if a bail is dislodged from the top of the stumps; or if a stump is struck out of the ground either by the ball or by a fielder using the hand in which the ball is being held. Of the following ten modes of dismissaL the first six are common; while the last four are technicalities that rarely occur. The ten modes are:

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•

Caught - When a fielder catches the ball before it bounces and after the batsman has struck it with the bat or it has corne into contact with the batsman's glove while it is in contact with the bat handle. The bowler and catcher are both credited with the dismissal. (Law 32)

•

Bowled - When a delivered ball hits the stumps at the batsman's end, and dislodges one or both of the bails. This happens regardless of whether the batsman has edged the ball onto the stumps or not. The bowler is credited with the dismissal. (Law 30)

•

Leg before wicket (lbw) - When a delivered ball strikes the batsman's leg, pad or body, and the umpire judges that the ball would otherwise have struck the stumps. The laws of cricket stipulate certain exceptions. For instance, a delivery pitching outside the line ofleg stump should not result in an lbw dismissal, while a delivery hitting the batsman outside the line ofthe offstump should result in an lbw dismissal only ifthe batsman makes no attempt to play the ball with the bat. The bowler is credited with the dismissal.

•

Run out - When a fielder, bowler or wicket-keeper removes one or both of the bails with the ball by hitting the stumps whilst a batsman is still running between the two ends. The ball can either hit the stumps directly or the fielder's hand with the ball inside it can be used to dislodge the bails. Such a dismissal is not officially credited to any player, although the identities of the fielder or fielders involved are often noted in brackets on the scorecard.

•

Stumped - When the batsman leaves his crease in playing a delivery, voluntmily or involuntarily, but the ball goes to the wicket-keeper who uses it to remove one or both ofthe bails through hitting the bail( s) or the wicket before the batsman

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has remade his ground. The bowler and wicket-keeper are both credited. This generally requires the keeper to be standing within ann's length ofthe wicket. which is done mainly to spin bowling. (Law 39) •

Hit wicket - When the batsman knocks the stumps with either the body or the bat causing one or both of the bails to be dislodged. either in playing a shot or in taking off for the first run. The bowler is credited with the dism issal. (Law

35) •

Handled the ball- When the batsman deliberately handles the ball withoutthe permission ofthe fielding team. No player is credited with the dismissal. (Law 33)

•

Hit the ball twice - When the batsman deliberately strikes the ball a second time, except for the sole purpose of guarding his wicket. No player is credited with the dismissal. (Law

34) •

Obstructing the field - When a batsman deliberately hinders a fielder attempting to field the ball. No player is credited with the dismissal. (Law 37)

•

Timed out - When a new batsman takes more than three minutes to take his position in the field to replace a dismissed batsman. (If the delay is protracted, the umpires may decide that the batting side has forfeited the match). This rule prevents the batting team using up time to unfair advantage. No player is credited with the dismissal. (Law 31)

A batsman may leave the field without being dismissed. If injured or taken ill the batsman may temporarily retire, and be replaced by the next batsman. This is recorded as retired hurt or retired i II. The retiring batsman is not out, and may resume the inn ings later. An unimpaired batsman may retire, and this is treated as being dismissed retired out; no player is credited with the dismissal.

54

Batsmen cannot be out bowled, caught, leg before wicket. stumped or hit wicket off a no ball. They cannot be out bowled, caught, leg before wicket, or hit the ball twice off a wide. Some of these modes of dismissal can occur without the bowler bowling. a delivery. The hats man who is not on strike may be run out by the bowler if he leaves his crease before the bowler bowls. and a batsman can be out obstructing the field or retired Ollt at any time. Timed out is. by its nature, a dismissal without a delivery. With all other modes of dismissal, only one batsman can be dismissed per ball bowled.

Fielding Fielders assist the bowlers either by taking catches to dismiss a batsman, or by saving runs by intercepting the ball and returning it, possibly running out the batsman. The wicket-keeper is the only fielder permitted to wear gloves. A fielder may stop the ball with any part of his body. The wicket-keeper is a specialist fielder who stands behind the batsman's wicket. One player from each side usually acts as the team's wicket-keeper throughout the match. His primary job is to gather deliveries that the batsman does not hit, so that the batsmen cannot run byes. He wears special gloves (he is the only fielder allowed to do so), and pads to cover his lower legs. Owing to his position directly behind the striker, the wicket-keeper has a good chance of getting a batsman Ollt caught off a fine edge from the bat; thicker edges are typically handled by the slip fieldsmen. The wicket-keeper is also the only person who can get a batsman out stumped.

Captain The captain's acumen in deciding the strategy is sometimes crucial to the team's success. The captain makes a number of important decisions, including setting fielding positions, alternating the bowlers and taking the "toss". Before the start of play the captains of the opposing teams meet and toss a coin; the winner

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of the toss decides which team will bat first. This decision, made in consideration of pitch conditions, the weather and the relative bowling and batting abilities of the two sides, can have an enormous impact on the course of play. In One Day Internationals the captain also decides when to make use of some powerplays.

Runners In the event of a batsman being fit to bat but too injured to run, the umpires and the fielding captain may allow another member of the batting side to be a runner. If possible, the runner must already have batted. The runner's only task is to run between the wickets instead of the injured batsman. The runner is required to wear and carry exactly the same equipment as the incapacitated batsman.

Substitutes In all forms of cricket, if a player gets injured or becomes ill during a match, a substitute is allowed to field instead of him, but the substitute cannot bowl, bat, act as a captain or wicket-keeper. The substitute leaves the field ifthe injured player is fit to return. For a period from July 2005, the ICC experimented with Super Subs in One Day International (OD!) cricket and some other limited-overs competitions. A single full substitution was allowed, and the substituted player was not allowed to return to the game. It was discontinued from March 2006.

History A basic form of cricket can be traced back to the 13th century, but it may have existed even earlier than that. The game seems to have originated among children of the farming and metalworking communities in the Weald between Kent and Sussex. Written evidence exists of a game known as creag being played by Prince Edward, the son of Edward I (Longshanks), at Newenden, Kent in 1300.

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In 1598. a court case referred to a sport called kreckett being played at the Royal Grammar SchooL Guildford around 1550. The Oxford English Dictionary gives this as the first recorded instance of cricket in the English language. A number of words are thought to be possible sources for the term "cricket". The name may derive from a term for the cricket bat: old French criquet (meaning a kind of club) or Flemish krick(e) (meaning a stick) or in Old English crycc (meaning a crutch or staff). (The latter is problematic. since Old English 'cc' was palatal in pronunciation in the south and the west midlands, roughly ch, which is how crycc leads to crych and thence crutch; the 'k' sound would be possible in northern dialects. hmve\er.) Alternatively, the French criquet apparently derives from the Flemish word krickstoel. \\-hich is a long lo\\- stool on which one kneels in church and which resembles the long low wicket with two stumps used in early cricket. During the 17th century, numerous references indicate the growth of cricket in the south-east of England. By the end of the century, it had become an organised activity being played for high stakes and it is Iikely that the first professionals appeared in that period. We know that "a great cricket match" with eleven players a side was played for high stakes in Sussex in 1697 and this is the earliest reference we have to cricket of such importance. The game underwent major development in the 18th century and had become the national sport of England by the end of the century. Betting played a major part in that development, and rich patrons began forming their own "select Xis". Cricket was prominent in London as early as 1707 and large crowds flocked to matches on the Artillery Ground in Finsbury. The Hambledon Club was founded in the 1760s but its team was already playing first-class matches in 1756. Forthe next 20 years until the formation ofMCC and the opening of Lord's in 1787. Hambledon was the game's greatest club and its focal point. MCC quickly became the sport's premier club and the custodian of the Laws of Cricket.

Cricket

57

The 19th century saw underarm replaced by first roundarm and then overarm bowling. Both developments were controversial. The concept of a "champion county" arose in the 1820s and then. starting with Sussex CCC in 1839. county clubs were founded and these ultimately formed a County Championship. In 1859, a team of England players went on the first overseas tour (to North America) and 18 years later another England team took part in the first-ever Test match at the Melbourne Cricket Ground against Australia. The legendary W. G. Grace started his long career in 1864. It can fairly be said that he revolutionised the sport and did much to ensure its massive popularity. The last two decades before the First World War have been called the "Golden Age of Cricket". It is a nostalgic name prompted by the collective sense ofloss resulting from the war. but the period did produce some great players and memorable matches, especially as organised competition at county and Test level developed. The inter-war years were dominated by one player: Don Bradman, statistically the greatest batsman of all time. It was the determination of the England team to overcome his skill that brought about the infamous Bodyline series in 1932/33. Cricket entered an epochal era in 1963, when English counties introduced a variant form of cricket match that would be sure to produce a result: games with a restricted number of overs per side. This gained widespread popularity and resulted in the birth of One Day International (OD!) matches in 1971. The governing International Cricket Council quickly adopted the new form and held the first OD! Cricket World Cup in 1975. Since then, OD! matches have gained a large following. As of the early 2000s, however, the longer form of cricket is experiencing a growing resurgence in popularity but a new limited overs phenomenon, Twenty20, has made an immediate impact.

Forms of cricket There are many different types and grades of cricket; those

'iporh

played professionally at an international level are Test cricket. One Day International cricket and Twenty20 cricket.

Test cricket Test cricket is a form of international cricket started during the 1876177 English cricket team's tour of Australia. The very first Test match began on 15 March 1877: Australia won by 45 runs. The Test cricket series between England and Australia is nmv called The Ashes. Since then. over 1.800 Test matches have been played and the number of Test playing nations has increased to ten with Bangladesh, the most recent nation elevated to Test status. making its debut in 2000. Test matches are two innings per side. and are nowadays restricted to a maximum of five days. In the past, Tests have been played over three, four, or six days, and some have been "Timeless" - played to a finish with no maximum duration. Tests that are not finished within the allotted time are drawn.

One-day cricket Limited overs matches, also known as "one-day cricket", were introduced in the English domestic season of 1963 in response to demands for a shorter and more dramatic form of cricket. Oneday. single-innings, matches often took place before this, but the innovation was the limiting of each side's innings to an agreed number of overs (nowadays usually 40 or 50). The idea was taken up in the international arena in 1971, during England's tour of Australia, when a match was played on the scheduled fifth day of the rained-off third Test. The one-day game has since become a crowd-pleaser and TV-audience-generator across the globe, hastened in part by the success of the inaugural World Cup in 1975. The abbreviations "ODl" (One Day International) or sometimes "LOI" (Limited Overs International) are used for international matches of this type. Innovations have;' :Iuded the introduction of coloured clothing, distinct tournaments, and "day-night" matches (where play extends

Cricket

into the night under floodlights); together with frequent nail-biting finishes and the impossibility of either side opting to play for a dra\\. these have seen 001 cricket gain many supporters.

Twenty20 Cricket Twenty20 Cricket was first played in English domestic crid.l:\ in 2003 to popularise first-class cricket and attract more spectator". It has since spread to many other countries. A Twenty20 match consists of20 overs for each side. a "free hit" after an illegal noball is bowled, short boundaries. batting-friendly pitches. and other rules designed to attract spectators who would not attend the slower-paced one-day games or test matches. The first men'
First-class matches A "first-class" match is generally defined as a high-Ie\ el international or domestic match that takes place over at least three days on natural (as opposed to artificial) turf. First-class game.., are two innings per side. Like Test matches. if the game i.., not completed over the allotted time then it is drawn. Games \\ here the teams have only one innings each are not first-class (including one-day internationals). Among cricket statisticians, first class cricket is variollsl~ deemed to have started in 1660, : 772. 1801, 1815 or 1864: the reasons for this are described in the main article. Cricket statisticians have also introduced the concept of 1ist A status, which is not first-class, but includes important limitedover matches.

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Sports

Other forms of cricket Children playing cricket on a makeshift pitch in a park. It is common in many countries for people to play cricket on such pitches and makeshift grounds. At all levels. the rules of cricket are often modified. At international or first-class levels this is usually in order to make the game more commercially attractive. More or less formal domestic club cricket matches are usually played over one to two days, either two innings per side or one innings per side with limited overs. At lower levels the rules are often changed simply to make the game playable with limited resources. or to render it more convenient and enjoyable for the participants. Variants of the sport are played in areas as diverse as sandy beaches and ice floes. Families and teenagers play backyard cricket in suburban yards or driveways, and the teeming cities of India and Pakistan play host to countless games of "Gully Cricket" or "tapeball" on their streets. Tennis balls and homemade bats are often used. and a variety of objects may serve as wickets such as the batters legs, as in "French cricket", which did not in fact originate in France. and is usually played by small children. Sometimes the rules are also improvised: for instance it is sometimes agreed that fielders can catch the ball with one hand after one bounce and claim a wicket. or if only a few people are available then everyone may field wh i Ie the players take it in turns to bat and bowl. In K wik cricket. the bowler does not have to wait for the batsman to be read) before a delivery, leading to a faster, more exhausting game designed to appeal to children, which is often used in Engl ish schools' PE lessons. Another modification to increase the pace of the game is the "Tip and Run", "Tipity" Run, "Tipsy Run" or "Tippy-Go" rule, in which the batter must run when the ball touches the bat, even ifit the contact is unintentional or minor. This rule, seen only in impromptu games, speeds the match lip by disabling the batsman's ability to block the ball. Indoor cricket is

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played in a netted, indoor arena. In Samoa a form of cricket called Kilikiti is played in which hockey stick-shaped bats are used. In Estonia, teams gather over the winter for the annual Ice Cricket tournament. The game juxtaposes the normal summer pursuit with harsh. wintry conditions. Rules are otherwise similar to those for the six-a-side game.

International structure ICC member nations. The (highest level) Test playing nations are shown in orange: the associate member nations are shown In green: the affiliate member nations are shown in purple. More than 120 cricket-playing nations are recognised by the International Cricket Council. In the countries of South Asia. including India. Pakistan, Bangladesh. Afghanistan. Nepal and Sri Lanka. cricket is the most popular sport. Similarly, it is the most popular sport in Australia, United Arab Emirates, Bermuda, Cayman Islands and the English-speaking countries of the Caribbean, which are collectively known in cricketing parlance as the West Indies. Cricket is also the national sport of England and The Bahamas. and a major sport in the countries of Europe (including Wales, Scotland, Ireland and Italy), Africa (containing South Africa. Zimbabwe, Kenya, Namibia, Uganda and Zambia, Asia (including Hong Kong, Fiji and Papua New Guinea). and in New Zealand. etc. Cricket is internationally governed by International Cricket Council (ICC). which is headquartered in Dubai and includes representatives from the ten Test-playing nations and an elected panel representing non-Test-playing nations. On December II, 2007, the International Olympic Committee conferred the status of a recognized sport. on the basis of it's youth promotion and antidoping policies. Each nation has a national cricket board which regulates cricket matchc<; played in its country. The cricket board also selects the national squad and organises home and [1\\ay tours for the national team. Nation" playing cric~et are separated into three

62

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tiers depending on the level of cricket infrastructure in that country. At the highest level are the Test-playing nations: they qualit) automatically forthe quadrennial World Cup matches. Belo~ these are the Associate Member nations. The lowest level consIsts of the Affiliate Member nations.

Basketball

Introduction to Basketball Basketball is a team sport in which two teams offive active players each tr) to score points a!!ainst one another by propelling a ball thmugh a 10 feet (3 m) high hoop (the goal) under organized rules. Baskethall is one of the most popular and ,-"idely viewed sports ill the \vorld. Points are scored by shooting the hall through the basket from above: the team \\ ith more points at the end of the game wins. rhe ball call be advanced on the court b) bouncing it (dribbling) or passing it between teammates. Disruptive physical contact (fouls) is not permitted and there are restrictions on how the ball can be handled (violations). Through time, basketball has developed to involve common techniques of shooting, passing and dribbling, as well as players' positions, and offensive and defensive structures. Whi Ie competitive basketball is carefully regulated, numerous variations ofbasketball have developed for casual play. In some countries, basketball is also a popular spectator sport. While competitive basketball is primarily an indoor sport, played on a basketball court, less regulated variations have become I:\.ceedingl) popular as an outdoor spOl1 among both inner city and rural grnup~.

History In early December 1891, Dr. James Naismith,[ I ] a Canadian

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physical education student and instructor at YMCA Training School[2] (today. Springfield College) in Springfield. Massachusetts. USA sought a vigorous indoor game to keep his students occupied and at proper levels of fitness during the long New England winters. After rejecting other ideas as either to.o rough or poorly suited to walled-in gymnasiums, he wrote the basic rules and nailed a peach basket onto a I O-foot (3.05 m) elevated track. In contrast with modern basketball nets, this peach basket retained its bottom. and balls had to be retrieved manually after each "basket" or point scored, this proved inefficient. however, so a hole was drilled into the bottom of the basket, allowing the balls to be poked out with a long dowel each time. A further change was soon made. so the ball merely passed through. paving the way for the game we know today. A soccer ball was used to shoot goals. Whenever a person got the ball in the basket. they \vould give their team a point. Whichever team got the most points won the game. Naismith's handwritten diaries, discovered by his granddaughter in early 2006, indicate that he was nervous about the new game he had invented, which incorporated rules from a children's game called "Duck on a Rock", as many had failed before it. Naismith called the new game 'Basket Ball'. The first official game was played in the YMCA gymnasium on January 20, 1892 with nine players, on a court just half the size of a present-day Streetball or National Basketball Association (NBA) court. "Basket ball", the name suggested by one of Naismith's students, was popular from the beginning. Women's basketball began in 1892 at Smith College when Senda Berenson. a physical education teacher. modified Naismith's rules for women. Basketball's early adherents were dispatched to YMCAs throughout the United States. and it quickly spread through the USA and Canada. By 1895. it was well established at several women's high schools. While the YMCA was responsible for initially developilig and spreading the game. within a decade it discouraged the new sport. as rough play and rowdy crowds began

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65

to detract from the YMCA's primary mission. However. other amateur sports clubs, colleges. and professional clubs quickl) filled the void. In the years before World War L the Amateur Athletic Union and the Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States (forerunner of the NCAA) vied for control over the rules for the game. Basketball was originally played with an association football ball. The first balls made specifically for basketball were brown, and it was only in the late 1950s that Tony Hinkle. searching for a ball that would be more visible to players and spectators alike, introduced the orange ball that is now in common use. Dribbling was not part of the original game except for the "bounce pass" to teammates. Passing the ball was the primary means of ball movement. Dribbling was eventually introduced but limited by the asymmetric shape of early balls. Dribbling only became a major part of the game around the 1950s as manufacturing improved the ball shape. BasketbalL netbalL dodgebalL volleybalL and lacrosse are the only ball games which have been identified as being invented by North Americans. Other ball games, such as baseball and Canadian football. have Commonwealth of Nations. European. Asian or African connections. Although there is no direct evidence as yet that the idea of basketball came from the ancient Mesoamerican ballgame, knowledge of that game had been available for at least 50 years prior to Naismith's creation in the writings of John Lloyd Stephens and Alexander von Humboldt. Stephen's works especially, which included drawings by Frederick Catherwood, were available at most educational institutions in the 19th century and also had wide popu lar circulation.

College basketball Naismith was instrumental in establishing college basketball. Naismith coached at the University of Kansas for six years before

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handing the reins to renowned coach Forrest "Phog" Allen. Naismith's disciple Amos Alonzo Stagg brought basketball to the University of Chicago. while Adolph Rupp. a student of Naismith's at Kansas. enjoyed great success as coach at the University of Kentucky. [n 1892. University of California and Miss Head's School. played the first women's inter-institutional game. Berenson's freshmen played the sophomore class in the first women's collegiate basketball game at Smith College, March 21. 1893. The same year. Mount Holyoke and Sophie Newcomb College (coached by Clara Gregory Baer) women began playing bask.etball. By 1895. the game had spread to colleges across the country. including Wellesley. Vassar and Bryn Mawr. The first intercollegiate women's game was on April 4. 1896. Stanford women played Berkeley, 9-on-9, ending in a 2-1 Stanford victory. In 1901, colleges. including the University of Chicago, Columbia University. Dartmouth College, University of Minnesota. the U.S. Naval Academy. the University of Utah and Yale University began sponsoring men's games. By 1910. frequent injuries on the men's courts prompted President Roosevelt to suggest that college basketball form a governing body. resulting in the creation of the Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States (IAAUS). In 1910. that body would change its name to the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). Teams abounded throughout the 1920s. There were hundreds of men's professional basketball teams in towns and cities all over the United States and little organization of the professional game. Players jumped from team to team and teams played in armories and smoky dance halls. Leagues came and went. And barnstorming squads such as the Original Celtics and two all African American teams. the New York Renaissance Five ("Rens") and (still in existence as of 2006) the Harlem Globetrotters played up to two hundred games a year on their national tours. Women's basketball was more structured. In 1905. the National Women's Basketball Committee's Executive Committee on Basket Ball Rules was

Basketball

created by the American Physical Education Association. These rules called for six to nine players per team and II officials. The International Women's Sports Federation (1924) included a women's basketball competition. 37 women's high school varsity basketball or state tournaments were held by 1925. And in 1926. the Amateur Athletic Union backed the first national women's basketball championship. complete with men's rules. The first women's AAU All-America team was chosen in 1929. Women's industrial leagues sprang up throughout the nation. producing famolls athletes like Babe Didrikson of the Golden Cyclones and the All American Red Heads Team who competed against men's teams. using men's rules. By 1938. the women's national championship changed from a three-court game to two-court game with six players per team. The first men's national championship tournament the National Association of Intercollegiate Basketball tournament, which still exists as the National Association oflntercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) tournament, was organized in 1937. The first national championship for NCAA teams, the National Invitation Tournament (NIT) in New York. was organized in 1938; the NCAA national tournament would begin one year later. College basketball was rocked by gambl ing scandals from 1948 to 195 I, when dozens of players from top teams were implicated in match fixing and point shaving. Partially spurred by an association with cheating, the NIT lost support to the NC AA tournament.

U.S. high school basketball Before widespread school district consolidation. most United States high schools were far smaller than their present day counterparts. During the first decades of the 20th century. basketball quickly became the ideal interscholastic sport due to its modest equipment and personnel requirements. In the days before widespread television coverage of professional and college sports,

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Sport,

the popularity of high school basketball was unrivaled in many parts of America. Today virtually every high school in the United States fields a basketball team in varsity competition. Basketball's popularity remains high. both in rural areas where they carry the identification of the entire community. as well as at some larger schools known for their basketball teams where many players go on to participate at higher levels of competition after graduation. In the 2003-04 season. 1.002.797 boys and girls represented their schools in interscholastic basketball competition. according to the National Federation of State High School Associations. The states of III inois. Indiana and Kentucky are particularly well known for their residents' devotion to high school basketball, commonly called Hoosier Hysteria in Indiana; the critically acclaimed film Hoosiers shows high school basketball's depth of meaning to these rural communities.

National Basketball Association In 1946, the Basketball Association of America (BAA) was formed, organizing the top professional teams and leading to greater popularity of the professional game. The first game was played in Toronto. Ontario. Canada between the Toronto Huskies and New York Knickerbockers on November L 1946. Three seasons later, in 1949. the BAA became the National Basketb:dl Association (NBA). An upstart organization, the America;, Basketball Association, emerged in 1967 and briefly threatened the NBA's dominance until the rival leagues merged in 1976. Today the NBA is the top professional basketball league in the world in terms of popularity, salaries, talent. and level of competition. The NBA has featured many famoHs players. including George Mikan, the first dominating "big man"; ball-handling wizard Bob Cousy and defensive genius Bill Russell of the Boston Celtics; Wilt Chamberlain, who originally played for the barnstorming Harlem Globetrotters; all-around stars Oscar Robertson and Jerry West;

Basketball

more recent big men Kareem Abdul-Jabbar and Karl Malone; playmaker John Stockton; crowd-pleasing forward Julius Erving; European stars Dirk Nowitzki and Drazen Petrovic and the three players who many credit with ushering the professional game to its highest level of popularity: Larry Bird, Earvin "Magic" Johnson, and Michael Jordan. The NBA-backed Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA) began 1997. Though it had an insecure opening season, several marquee players (Sheryl Swoopes, Lisa Leslie and Sue Bird among others) helped the league's popularity and level of competition. Other professional women's basketball leagues in the United States, such as'the American Basketball League (19961998), have folded in part because of the popularity of the WNBA. In 2001, the N BA formed a developmental league, the N BOL. The league currently has eight teams, but added seven more for the 2006-2007 season.

International basketball The International Basketball Federation was formed in 1932 by eight founding nations: Argentina, Czechoslovakia, Greece, Italy, Latvia, Portugal, Romania and Switzerland. At this time, the organization only oversaw amateur players. Its acronym, in French, was thus FIBA; the "A" standing for amateur. Basketball was first included in the Olympic Games in 1936, although a demonstration tournament was held in 1904. This competition has usually been dominated by the United States, whose team has won all but three titles, the first loss in a controversial tinal game in Munich in 1972 against the Soviet Union. In 1950 the first FIBA World Championship for men was held in Argentina. Three years later, the first FIBA World Championship for Women was held in Chile. Women's basketball was added to the Olympics in 1976, with teams such as Brazil and Australia rivaling the American squads. FIBA dropped the distinction between amateur and professional players in 1989, and in 1992, professional players played for the

70

first time in the Olympic Games. The United States' dominance continued with the introduction of their Dream Team. However, with developing programs elsewhere, other national teams started to beat the United States. A team made entirely ofNBA players finished sixth in the 2002 World Championships in Indianapolis, behind Yugoslavia, Argentina, Germany, New Zealand and Spain. In the 2004 Athens Olympics, the United States suffered its first Olympic loss while using professional players, falling to Puerto Rico (in a 19-point loss) and Lithuania in group games, and being eliminated in the semifinals by Argentina. It eventually won the bronze medal defeating Lithuania, finishing behind Argentina and Italy. Worldwide. basketball tournaments are held for boys and girls of all age levels. The global popularity of the sport is reflected in the nationalities represented in the NBA. Players from all over the globe can be found in NBA teams. Chicago Bulls star forward Luol Deng is a Sudanese refugee who settled in Great Britain: Steve Nash, who won the 2005 and 2006 NBA MvP award, is Canadian; Kobe Bryant is an American who spent much of his childhood in Italy; Dallas Mavericks superstar and 2007 NBA MvP Dirk Nowitzki is German; All-Star Pau Gasol of the Memphis Grizzlies is from Spain; 2005 NBA Draft top overall pick Andrew Bogut of the Milwaukee Bucks is Australian; 2006 NBA Draft top overall pick Andrea Bargnani of the Toronto Raptors is from Italy; Houston Rockets center Yao Ming is from China; Phoenix Suns guard Leandro Barbosa and Denver Nuggets forward Nene are Brazilian; Cleveland Cavaliers big man Zydrunas Ilgauskas is Lithuanian; and the San Antonio Spurs feature Tim Duncan of the U.S. Virgin Islands, Manu Ginobili of Argentina (like Chicago Bulls player Andres Nocioni) and Tony Parker of France. The all-tournament teams at the two most recent FIBA World Championships. held in 2002 in Indianapolis and 2006 in Japan, demonstrate the globalization of the game equally dramatically. Only one member of either team was American, namely Carmela Anthony in 2006. The 2002 team featured Nowitzki, Ginabili, Yao,

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7i

Peja Stojakovic of Yugoslavia (now of Serbia). and Pero Cameron of New Zealand. Ginobili also made the 2006 team: the other members were Anthony. Gasol. his Spanish teammate Jorge Garbajosa and Theodoros Papaloukas of Greece. The only players on either team to never have joined the NBA are Cameron and Papaloukas.

Rules and regulations Measurements and time limits discussed in this section often vary among tournaments and organizations; international and NBA rules are used in this section. The object of the game is to outscore one's opponents by throwing the ball through the opponents' basket from above while preventing the opponents from doing so on their own. An attempt to score in this way is called a shot. A successful shot is worth two points, or three points if it is taken from beyond the three-point arc which is 6.25 meters (20 ft 6 in) from the basket in international games and 23 ft 9 in (7.24 m) in NBA games.

Playing regulations Games are played in four quarters of 10 (international) or 12 minutes (NBA). College games use two 20 minute halves while most high school games use eight minute quarters. Fifteen minutes are allowed for a half-time break, and two minutes are allowed at the other breaks. Overtime periods are five minutes long. Teams exchange baskets for the second half. The time allowed is actual playing time; the clock is stopped while the play is not active. Therefore, games generally take much longer to complete than the allotted game time, typically about two hours. Five players from each team (out of a twelve player roster) may be on the court at one time. Substitutions are unlimited but can only be done when play is stopped. Teams also have a coach, who oversees the development and strategies of the team, and other team personnel such as assistant coaches, managers, statisticians, doctors and trainers.

Sporb

For both men's and women's teams, a standard unilorm consists ofa pair of shorts and ajersey with a clearly visible number, unique within the team, printed on both the front and back. Players wear high-top sneakers that provide extra ankle support. Typically. tealll names, players' names and, outside of North America. sponsors are printed on the uniforms. A limited number of time-outs. clock stoppages requested by a coach for a short meeting with the players, are allowed. They generally last no longer than one minute unless. for televised games, a commercial break is needed. The game is controlled by the officials consisting of the referee ("crew chief' in the NBA), one or two umpires ("referees" In the NBA) and the table officials. For both college and the NBA there are a total of three referees on the court. The table officials arc responsible for keeping track of each teams scoring, timekeeping, individual and team fouls, player substitutions. team possession arrow, and the shot clock.

Equipment The only essential equipment in basketball is the basketball and the court: a flat rectangular surface with baskets at opposite ends. Competitive levels require the use of more equipment such as clocks, scoresheets, scoreboard(s), alternating possession arrows, and whistle-operated stop-clock systems. A regulation basketball court in international games is 28 by 15 meters (approx. 92 by 49 ft) and in the NBA is 94 by 50 feet (29 by IS m). Most courts are made of wood. A steel basket with net and backboard hang over each end of the court. At almost all levels of competition, the top of the rim is exactly 10 feet (3.05 m) above the court and 4 feet (1.2 m) inside the baseline. While variation is possible in the dimensions of the court and backboard. it is considered important for the basket to be of the correct hei,l!ht: a rim that is off by but a fe\\ inches can hm e an adverse effect on shooting.

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Violations The ball may be advanced toward the basket by being shot, passed between players. thrown. tapped. rolled or dribbled (bouncing the ball while running). The ball must stay within the cOllrt: the last team to touch the ball he fore it travels out of bounds forfeits possession. The ball-handler may not move both feet without dribbling. known as traveling, nor may he dribble with both hands or catch the ball in between dribbles, a violation called double dribbling. A player's hand cannot be under the ball while dribbling: doing so is known as carrying the ball. A team. once having established ball control in the front half of the court. may not return the ball to the backcourt. The ball may not be kicked nor struck with the fist. A violation of these rules results in loss of possession. or. if committed by the defense, a reset of the shot clock. There are limits imposed on the time taken before progressing the ball past halfway (8 seconds in international and NBA; 10 seconds in NCAA and high school), before attempting a shot (24 seconds in the NBA: 35 seconds in NCAA), holding the ball while closely guarded (5 seconds). and remaining in the restricted area (the lane. or "key") (3 seconds). These rules are designed to promote more offense. No player may interfere with the basket or ball on its downward flight to the basket. or while it is on the rim (or, in the NBA. while it is directly above the basket), a violation known as goaltending. If a defensive player goaltends, the attempted shot is considered to have been successful. If a teammate of the shooter goaltends, the basket is cancelled and play continues with the defensive team being given possession.

Fouls An attempt to unfairly disadvantage an opponent through physical contact is illegal and is called a foul. These are most commonly committed by defensive players: however, they can be

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committed hy offensive players as well. Players who are fouled either receive the ball to pass inbounds again, or receive one or more free throws if they are fouled in the act of shooting, depending on whether the shot was successful. One point is awarded for making a free throw, which is attempted from a line 15 feet (4.5 m) from the basket. The referee may lise discretion in calling fouls (for example. by considering whether an unfair advantage was gained). sometimes making fouls controversial calls. The calling of fouls can val) between games, leagues and even between referees. A player or coach who shows poor sportsmanship. for instance. by arguing with a referee or by fighting with another player, can be charged with a more serious foul called a technical foul. The penalty involves free throws (which unlike a personal foul, the other team can choose who they want to shoot the free throws) and varies between leagues. Repeated incidents can result in disqualification. Blatant fouls with excessive contact or that are not an attempt to play the ball are called unsportsmanlike fouls (or flagrant fouls in the NBA) and typically will result in ejection. If a team surpasses a preset limit of team fOlils in a given period (quat1er or half) - four for NBA and international games - the opposing team is awarded one or two free throws on all subsequent fouls for that period, the number depending on the league. In the US college game if a team surpasses 7 fouls in the half the opposing team is awarded a onc-and-one free throw (make the first you have a chance at a second). If a team surpasses 10 fouls in the half the opposing team is awarded two free throws on all subsequent fouls for the half. A player who commits five fouls, including technical fouls, in one game (six in some professional leagues, including the NBA) is not allowed to participate for the rest of the game, and is described as having "fouled out". After a team has committed a specified number of fouls, it is said to be "in the penalty".

Bas!..ethall

On scoreboards, this is usually signified with an indicator light reading "Bonus" or "Penalty" with an illuminated directional arrow indicating that team is to receive free throws when fouled by the opposing team. (Some scoreboards also indicate the number of fouls committed.) The number of free throws awarded increases with the number of fouls committed. Initially, one shot is awarded, but after a certain number of additional fouls are committed the opposing team may receive (a) one shot with a chance for a second shot if the first shot is made. called shooting "one-and-one". or (b) t'A-O shots. If a team misses the first shot (or "front end") of a one-and-one situation. the opposing team may reclaim possession of the ball and continue play. If a team misses the first shot of a two-shot situation. the opposing team must wait for the completion of the second shot before attempting to reclaim possession of the balI and continuing play. If a player is fouled while attempting a shot and the shot is unsuccessful. the player is awarded a number of free throws equal to the value of the attempted shot. A player fouled while attempting a regular two-point shot, then, receives two shots. A player fouled while attempting a three-point shot, on the other hand, receives three shots. If a player is fouled while attempting a shot and the shot is successful. typically the player will be awarded one additional free throw for one point. In combination with a regular shot. this is calIed a "three-point play" because of the basket made at the time of the foul (2 points) and the additional free throw (1.point). Fourpoint plays, while rare. can also occur.

Common techniques and practices Positions and structures Although the rules do not specify any positions whatsoever, they have evolved as part of basketball. During the first five

'>porb

decades of basketball's evolution. one guard. two forwards. and l\\() centcr~ or two guards. two forwards. and one center were used. Since the I 980s. more specific positions have evolved. namely:

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point guard: usually the fastest player on the team. organizes the team's offense by controlling the ball and making sure that it gets to the right player at the right time

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shooting guard: creates a high volume of shots on offense: guards the opponent's best perimeter player on defense

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small forward: often primarily responsible for scoring points via cuts to the basket and dribble penetration: on defense seeks rebounds and steals. but sometimes plays more actively

•

power f()rward: plays otTensively often with his back to the basket: on defense. plays under the basket (in a zone defense) or against the opposing power forward (in man-to-man defense)

•

center: uses size to score (on offense), to protect the basket closely ( on defense), or to rebound.

The above descriptions are flexible. On some occasions, teams will choose to use a three guard offense, replacing one of the forwards or the center with a third guard. The most commonly interchanged positions are point guard and shooting guard, especially if both players have good leadcr.,hip and ball handling skills. There are two main dckn"l\c "trategies: zone defense and man-to-man defense. Zone dcknc.;c involves players in defensive positions guarding. whiche\cr opponent is in their zone. In manto-man defense. each defensive player guards a specific opponent and tries to prevent him from taking action. Offensive plays are more varied, normally involving planned passes and movement by players without the ball. A quick movement by an offensive player without the ball to gain an advantageous position is a cut. A legal attempt by an offensive player to stop an opponent from guarding a teammate, by standing in the

defender's way such that the teammate cuts next to him. is a screen or pick. The two plays are comlJined in the pick and roll. in which a player sets a pick and then "rolls" away from the pick towar9s the basket. Screens and cuts are very important in offensive plays: these allow the quick passes and teamwork which can lead to a successful basket. Teams almost always have several offensive plays planned to ensure their movement is not predictable. On court. the point guard is usually responsible for indicating which play will occur. Defensive and offensive structures. and positions. are more emphasized in higher levels in basketball: it i~ the-;e that a coach normally requests a time-out to discliss.

Shooting Shooting is the act of attempting to score points by throwing the ball through the basket. While methods can vary with players and situations. the most common technique can be outlined here. The player should be positioned facing the basket with feet about shoulder-width apart, knees slightly bent. and back straight. The player holds the ball to rest in the dominant hand's fingertips (the shooting arm) slightly above the head, with the other hand on the side of the ball. To aim the ball, the player's elbow should be aligned vertically, with the forearm facing in the direction of the basket. The ball is shot by bending and extending the knees and cxtending the shooting arm to become straight: the ball rolls off the finger tips while the wrist completes a full downward flex motion. When the shooting arm is stationary for a momcnt after the ball released. it is known as a follow-through: it is incorporated to maintain accuracy. Generally. the non-shooting arm is used only to guide the shot. not to power it. Players often try to put a steady backspin on the ball to deaden its impact ,., ith the rim. The ideal trajectory of the shot is somewhat arguable, but generally coaches will profess proper arch. Most

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players shoot directly into the basket but shooters may use the backboard to redirect the ball into the basket. The two most common shots that use the above described set up are the set shot and the jump shot. The set shot is taken from a standing position. with neither foot leaving the floor, typically used for free throws. The jump shot is taken while in mid-air, near the top of the jump. This provides much greater power and range, and it also allows the player to elevate over the defender. Fajl'Jre to release the ball before returning the feet to the ground is a traveling violation. Another common shot is called the layup. This shot requires the player to be in motion toward the basket. and to "lay" the ball "up" and into the basket typically off the backboard (the backboardfree, underhand version is ca lied a finger roll). The most crowdpleasing. and typically highest-percentage accuracy shot is the slam dunk in which the player jumps very high. and thro\\'s the ball dO\\Il\\ard. straight through the hoop. Another ~hot that is becoming cOlllmon is the "circus shot". The circus shot is a low-percentage shot that is tl ipped, heaved. scooped. or 1lung toward the hoop whi Ie the shooter is otT-balance. airborne. falling down, and/or facing away from the basket. A shot that misses both the rim and the backboard completely is referred to as an air ball. A particularly bad shot, or one that only hits the backboard, is jocularly called a brick.

Rebounding The objective of rebounding is to successfully gain possession of the basketball after a missed field goal or free throw. as it rebounds from the hoop or backboard. This plays a major role in the game. as most possessions end when a team misses a shot. There are two categories of rebounds: offensive rebounds, in which the ball is recovered by the offensive side and does not change possession, and defensive rebounds, in which the defending team gains possession of the loose ball. The majority ofrebound'i

Baskethall

7')

are defensive. as the team on defense tends to be in better position to recover missed shots.

Passing A pass is a method of moving the ball between players. Most passes are accompanied by a step forward to increase power and are followed through with the hands to ensure accuracy. A staple pass is the chest pass. The ball is passed directly from the passer's chest to the receiver's chest. A proper chest pass involves an outward snap of the thumbs to add velocity and leaves the defense little time to react. Another type of pass is the bounce pass. Here, the passer bounces the ball crisply about t,-"a-thirds of the way from his own chest to the receiver. The ball strikes the court and bounces up toward the receiver. The bounce pass takes longer to complete than the chest pass, but it is also harder for the opposing team to intercept (kicking the ball deliberately is a violation). Thus. players often use the bounce pass in crowded moments, or to pass around a defender. The overhead pass is used to pass the ball over a defender. The ball is released while over the passer's head. The outlet pass occurs after a team gets a defensive rebound. The next pass after the rebound is the outlet pass. The crucial aspect of any good pass is being impossible to intercept. Good passers can pass the ball with great accuracy and touch and know exactly where each of their teammates like to receive the ball. A special way of doing this is passing the ball without looking at the receiving teammate. This is called a no-look pass. Another advanced style of passing is the behind-the-back pass which, as the description implies. involves throwing the ball behind the passer's back to a teammate. Although "ome players can perform them drecti\'el~. man~ coaches di~c()urage 11l'-look or behind-the-back rasse~. belie\ ing them to he fundamentally ullsound. ditlicu It to control. and more Iikely to result in tUrIlm crs or \ iolat ion~.

80

Dribbling Dribbling i" the act of bouncing the hall continuollsl). and i~ a requirement for a player to take step ... \\ ith the hali I () drihhk. a player pushe ... the hall dm\n t(mard ... the !-'-roulld rather thall patting it: this ensure ... greater control. When dribbling pa ... t an opponent, the dribbler should dribble with the hand farthe~t from the opponent. making it more difficult for the defensive player to get to the ball. It is therefore important for a player to be ahle to dribble competently with both haJl(\-;. Good dri bblcrs (or "ball handlers") tend to bounce 1he hall I(m to the ground. reducing the travel from the floor to the hand. making it more difficult for the defender to "steal" the hall. Additionally. good ball handlers fi'equently dribhle hehind their hacks. between their legs, and change hands and directions of the dribble frequently. making a less predictable dribbling pattern that is more difticult 10 defend. this is called a crossover which is the most effective \\a) to pass defenders while dribbling. A skilled player can dribhle \\ ithout \,atching the ball. using the dribbling motion or peripheral "i ... ion to keep track of the ball's location. By not having to focus on the ball. a player can look for teammates or scoring opportunities. a" well as avoid the danger of someone stealing thc hall from him/hcl.

Blocking A block is performed when. after a shot is attempted. a defender attempts to alter the shot by touching the ball. In almost all variants of play, it is illegal to touch the ball after it is in the downward part of its arc: this is known as goaltending. It is also illegal to block a shot aiter it has touched the backboard, or \,hen any part of the ball is directly above the rim. To block a shot. a player has to be able to reach a point higher than where the shot is released. Thus, height can be an advantage in blocking. Players at the taller power forward or center positions generally record more blocb than players at the shorter guard

Basketball

gI

positions. However, with good timing and sufficient vertical leap. even shorter players can be effective at blocking shots.

Height At the professional level, most male players are above 1.90 meters (6 ft 3 in) and most women above 1.70 meters (5 ft 7 in). Guards. for whom physical coordination and ball-handling skills are crucial. tend to be the smallest players. Almost all forwards in the men's pro leagues are 2 meters (6 ft 6 in) or taller. Most centers are over 2.1 meters (6 ft 10 in) tall. According to a survey given to all NBA teams, the average height of all NBA players is just under 6 ft 7 in (2.01 m), with the average weight being close to 222 Ib (10 I kg). The tallest players ever in the NBA were Manute Bol and Gheorghe Muresan, who were both 2.31 m (7 ft 7 in) tall. The tallest current NBA player is Yao Ming, who stands at 2.29 m (7 ft 6 in). The shortest player ever to play in the NBA is Muggsy Bogues at 1.60 meters (5 ft 3 in). Other short players have thrived at the pro level. Anthony "Spud" Webb was just 5 feet 7 inches ( 1.70 m) tall. but had a 42-inch (1.07 m) vertical leap. giving him significant height when jumping. The shortest player in the NBA today is Earl Boykins at 5 feet 5 inches (1.65 111). Wh i Ie shorter players are often not very good at defending against shooting, their ability to navigate quickly through crowded areas of the court and steal the ball by reaching low are strengths.

Variations and similar games Variations of basketball are activities based on the game of basketball. using common basketball skills and equipment (primarily the ball and basket). Some variations are only superficial rules changes, while others are distinct games with varying degrees of basketball influences. Other variations include children's games. contests or activities meant to help players reinforce skills. Wheelchair basketball is played on specially designed wheelchairs for the physically impaired. The world governing hod y

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of wheelchair basketball is the International Wheelchair Basketball Federation (IWBF). Water basketball, played in a swimming pool. merges basketball and water polo rules. Beach basketball is played in a circular court with no backboard on the goal, no out-of-bounds rule with the ball movement to be done via passes or 2 112 steps, as dribbling is not allowed. There are many variations as well played in informal settings without referees or strict rules. Perhaps the single most common variation is the half court game. Only one basket is used, and the ball must be "cleared" - passed or dribbled outside the half-court or three-point line - each time possession of the ball changes from one team to the other. Half-court games require less cardiovascular stamina, since players need not run back and forth a full court. Half-court games also raise the number of players that can use a court, an important benefit when many players want to play. A popular version of the half-court game is 21. Two-point shots count as two points and shots from behind the three-point line count three. A player who makes a basket is awarded up to three extra free throws (or unlimited if you are playing "all day"), worth the usual one point. When a shot is missed, if one of the other players tips the ball in with two while it is in the air, the score of the player who missed the shot goes back to zero, or if they have surpassed 13, their score goes back to 13. This is called a "tip". If a missed shot is "tipped" in, but the player who tips it in only uses one hand, then the player who shot it is out of the game and has to catch an air ball to get back in. The first player to reach exactly 21 points wins. If they go over, their score goes back to 13. Other variations include streetball, knockout, and one-on-one; a variation in which two players will use only a small section of the court (often no more than a half of a court) and compete to play the ball into a single hoop. Such games tend to emphasize individual dribbling and ball stealing skills over shooting and team play.

Badminton

Introduction

to

Badminton

Badminton may seem the soft alternative to other racket sports like tennis or squash. How hard can it be to swot around a cort.. pronged with bird feathers (goose. in case you are wondering). in short games on a smaller court? The reality is that badminton is officially the fastest of all racket sports. Players can rocket the shuttlecock at speeds of up to 180 mph toward their opponent. But, it is not just all about speed; a player can expect to run up to four miles around the court during a match whilst having the agility to maintain energy-busting rallies. So, whilst stamina and agility are important. certainly at competitive level, the good news is that badminton is open to anyone; all can get involved and this is reflected in the surprisingly high participation rates. Badminton is the second most popular participation sport in the UK. falling short only to football. That is some achievement. considering the amount of press that surrounds football to confirm its profile, attracting attention to the game. Badminton played by experts is one of the fastest and most demanding of the racket games. At the competitive level it demands great agility, superior endurance, lightning-quick reactions. and masterly strategy. Fortunately for the novice and backyard player, however, One of the major values of the sport is that sufficient skill for enjoyment can be acquired quickly. Moreover, the space

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required for badminton is relatively small. (44 X 20 feet). The court can be set up indoors or out, and for informal play no special surface is necessary. Since the pace and complexity of the sport easily can be geared to the abilities of the participants, it is not surprising that the surge in the popularity of badminton has been equalled by few other sports. As a novice comes to master fundamental techniques, she finds that the game presents new challenges at a higher level of performance. The exact origin of badminton is not known, but the appeal of the game has endured for hundreds of years. British royal court records of the 12th century mention a form of the sport, and similar games are believed to have been played in China and in Europe before the 18th century. A game played by British army officers at Poona, India, during the middle 1800's usually is credited with being the immediate ancestor of modern badminton. Under the name, Poona, the sport was brought to England by army officers, who demonstrated it there during a social gathering at the Duke of Beaufort's country estate, "Badminton House," in G loucestersh ire. On that day, "badminton" became the accepted name for the game. The first rules were printed in India in 1876, and these governed the sport until 1887, when the Bath Badminton Association of England was formed. This group standardized the equipment and playing rules. In 1895, the English Badminton Association was established, and it then took over the printing of the official rules. From England, badminton spread to Canada and the United States. Although the Canadian Badminton Association was not founded until 1922, and the American Badminton Association was established even later, in 1937, the sport was played in the two countries long before those dates. In fact, the New York Badminton Club, which was formed in 1879, has the distinction of being the world's oldest club of its kind. Few sports have enjoyed such rapid growth throughout the United States. This growth has been shown by the number of

Badminton

badminton clubs formed. b~' the man) sectional tournaments. and by the increasing. numbers of schools and colleges that oiTer badminton as a curricular and e:-.tracurricular activity in phy<;ical education programs. Instruction in badminton techniques in schools and colleges is doing much to foster the continued popularity of the sport. In badminton, as in any other game, proficiency encourages participation. The primary aims of the instructor in relation to techn ique are to give the learner a clear picture of the necessal) skills and an opportunity for intelligent guided practice and comp~tition with others of appro:-.imately similar ability. The information about playing badminton given in this chapter is grouped by topic for convenience in reading: it is not arranged in a suggested order of presentation to the learner. Clothing and equipment are discussed first. then techniques of play and suggestions for the presentat ion of such tcchn iq ues. Strategy and et iq uette are described for doubles and singles games. General suggcstions, practice formations, and sample lesson plans follow in the section on class instruction. Here sample teaching progressions are outlined. Finally, tournaments and methods of evaluation suitable for badminton classes are discussed and supplementary references and audiovisual materials are suggested. Clothing suitable for tennis is appropriate for badminton. The best choices are a tennis dress or a blouse and tennis skirt or silOits. Comfort and design that permits complete freedom of movement are essential. Well-fitting tennis shoes and wool socks offer good protection for the feet. A wool sweater is recommended for warm-up practice and after pia). Traditionall). all clothing is white, although color is sometimes used as accent or trim. Well-kept equipment is essential for good play. Student cooperation in the care of equipment can best be gained by stressing its illlp0l1ance early in the course and by informing players of the cost of rad,ets, shuttlecocks, and nets. ro be sure

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of good construction. it is important that rackets be purchased from a reliable manufacturer. since badminton rackets are not guaranteed. It is a mistake to invest in the cheapest rackets on the market - or in the most expensive tournament rackets for general class use. A price a little higher than average should buy good, serviceable rackets that can be restrung many times. Most badminton rackets are approximately 26 inches long and are made of ash, beech, or hickory. A few of the most expensive rackets now have stainless steel heads, but as yet these are not widely used. Most of the better frames have steel shafts. which offer less wind resistance than wood. In purchasing a frame, consideration should be given to the weight, handle size. grip, and balance. The weight range of strung rackets ranges fi A to 6 ounces; a weight of approximately 5 ounces is cons ide red best for the majority of players. The variation in handle sizes is from 3 to 4 inches, and the average size, 3112 to 33/4 inches. seems best for class use. The length of an individual's fingers is a factor in the choice of handle size. shorter fingers requiring a smaller circumference. The handle measurement includes the encasing grip. which covers the four flat sides or plates of the handle. The grip is preferably of perforated leather. Usually, the balance of a strung racket is centered to make the weight distrihution even. This is preferred by most players; but, since some like a racket with more weight in the head, a number of rackets with this balance should be purchased for classes. Two types of stringing material are suitable for badminton rackets: lamb's gut and nylon. Different qualities and weights of each type are available, but in general nylon is less expensive and outlasts gut. Nevertheless, skilled players prefer gut for its touch and approximately 20 per cent greater resiliency. Twisted nylon is the best buy for class use, whereas 20-gauge gut is a very satisfactory choice for an individually owned racket·.

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Delicate 21-gauge gut is for top tournament play: 19-9auge is heavy-duty weight. In buying rackets for school use, particularly if orders are placed well in advance of the badminton season, it is desirable to purchase unstrung frames. Stringing immediately before use ensures proper tension of IS to 20 pounds, for, as time passes, strings become slack or "dead." Expert hand stringing is superior to that done by machine. Gut tends to fray in the center of the racket, and nylon often breaks where it is cut by the stringing grooves. Regardless of the type of string used, the edges of the grooves should be filed smooth. The badminton racket is the most fragile of all sports rackets, and consequently it requires good care. When not in use, it should be kept in a press of even tension, hung between pegs in a dry place. Ifa racket is used throughout the day, it should not be placed in a press until the end of the day. If corner screw presses are used, students must be taught to give only a few turns at a time to each screw and to continue the procedure until all screws are tight. Equal pressure at the four corners of the press will then be exerted. Students also should be trained to examine a racket closely, both before play and at frequent intervals during play, in order to discover a broken string as soon as it occurs. If the student puts the racket aside immediately after breaking a string, it is possible to replace the one string without having to restring the racket completely. In general, there are two types of shuttlecocks suitable for class use. The first is the official tournament bird, with a cork base and 14 to 16 even iy matched feathers. These birds weigh 73 to 85 grains; the heaviest ones are used for outdoor play. For indoor play, the average weights are 76 grains for birds with pointed feather tips and 79 grains for those with rounded ends. As room temperature increases, heavier shuttlecocks are required. It takes one goose to provide enough sturdy, well-balanced,

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straight spined feathers for just one first-quality shuttlecock. The expense of feathered shuttlecocks makes proper care of them extremely important. The feathers must be straightened after every rally; the bird should be put in play by bitting it underhand rather than tossing it up and hitting it overhand; it should be picked up by hand from the floor never hit or kicked along the floor. Before the feathered shuttles are used. they should be placed in a container at a temperature of 60 to 65 degrees Fahrenheit and a relative humidity of 70 to 75 per cent for at least one hour. This treatment helps to prevent the feathers from becoming brittle and breaking. Birds of a second type are made of plastic. These are less expensive than good quality feathered shuttles, and they remain in good condition longer. The only care required is to avoid stepping on them. Plastic birds do not simulate exactly the flight offeathered shuttlecocks or sound the same when hit. They may, however, be used for both wall and court practice, which is an important advantage in large classes. If students use plastic birds first and feathered shuttles later, they are likely to be careless in handling the feathered shuttlecocks unless reminded of the great difference in fragility. Floor markings for badminton usually comprise all lines necessary for both singles and doubles play. The game rules state, however, that the alleys are not a part of the singles court. The rules also specify different lengths and widths for the singles and doubles service courts. The singles service court, which is long and narrow, extends from the short service line to the base line and from the center line to the singles side line (the inner alley line). The doubles service court, short and wide, extends back from the short service line only as far as the doubles service line, but its width includes the alley. The rules specify the width and color of the lines that make up a badminton court. Ideally, the floor surface and walls should

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be dark-forest green being the favored color. The ceiling should afford a minimum clearance of 30 feet, and 40 is preferable. Artificial lighting is more satisfactory than sunlight. since nonglare lamps can be used. Nets are standard in size but vary in quality. The higher priced ones wear considerably longer. Students should be instructed not to lean on the nets or to pu II on them. British badminton has little or none of the media attention compared to that offootball. it is unlikely you will be able to name a top level player, let alone know who their wife or husband is! However, badminton manages to pull in the interest with Britain having four million players; that is 8% of the population! So what is the appeal?

•

First and foremost, the basics of badminton are not difficult to master~ even new players with little or no skill can enjoy their first game and progress quickly.

•

You need minimal equipment to get started~ if you choose to start off at the local leisure centre, all the equipment you will need can be borrowed or hired.

•

It's great for conditioning the body! Step out on to the badminton court and you can expect to burn from 600 to 1000 calories per hour as well as testing your stamina, flexibility and coordination.

•

It's social and a great way to meet new people, or if you are a couple looking for an activity to share then badminton is the perfect game to bond with each other as well as meet other couples.

History of Badminton in India The modern game of badminton is possibly a descendant of a popular children's game called Battledores and Shuttlecocks played in medieval England. British Army officers posted in Pune,

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"'p()rh

India. gave badminton its present form in the 19th century when they added a net and played it competitively. As the city of Pune was formerly known as Poona. the game was also known as Poona at that time. Some of the officers went home and introduced the new sport in Britain during the early 1870s. The game owes its name to the Duke of Beaufort's country place. Badminton. where the game was played at a lawn part) hosted by the Duke.ln the 1920s. badminton acquired an organized structure in India and all India tournaments hegan to be hosted in the thirties. The game of badminton in India may lack the glamour of its more illustrious cousins like cricket and tennis. but the game is still being taken up by a healthy number of youngsters across the country. Despite international success being far and few between. the domestic badminton circuit is alive and kicking thanks to the rich pool of talents. But the early promise shown by these kids do not transform into success at the big stage and the Badminton Authority of India needs to something about it. Apart from the legendary Prakash Padukone and Gopichand. Indian badminton stables have churned out quality players like Abhin Syam Gupta, Nikhil Kanetkar and Sachin Ratti who have upset fancied opponents on more occasions than one. But they have not been able to produce the quality and killer instinct that so often separates the champions from the also-rans. The modern history of badminton began in India with a game known as poona. Poona was a competitive sport that British Army officers learned and brought back to England, but more about that part of badminton's history in a moment. First, we must answer the question, "So just where did the game of poona come from?"

Child's Play Poona developed from a children's game called battledore and shuttlecock. The object of this game was to see how long a group

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could volley the shuttlecock by hitting it with the battledore, or paddle. This cooperative, non-competitive game was originally played without a net. The shuttlecock is often called a bird because its made out feathers. Today, some models are made of plastic, but competition shuttlecocks consist of 16 real feathers. Experts claim the very best shuttles are made from feathers taken from the left wing of a goose. Who knew? Even before battledore and shuttlecock evolved. there were similar sports being played throughout the world. In fifth century China, ti jian zi was played by kicking a shuttle into the air. By the 1600s, people in Europe were playing jeu de volant. a game that used a racket rather than feet to volley the shuttle. By the time British officers stationed in India encountered poona the game was a fast-paced competitive sport. These officers took the equipment for poona back to England in the early 1870s. It was the Duke of Beaufort who officially introduced the game to England. In 1873, guests at a lawn party on his country estate, Badminton, played a game of poona. The game was a hit and soon became popular among the British elite. People began calling the new party sport "the Badminton game." The game was played both indoors and outdoors on a court with an hourglass shape. It has been suggested that this unusual shape developed so the game could be played in Victorian salons, large rooms with doors that opened inward on both sides. In 190 I, the official badminton court became rectangular. Badminton clubs were started throughout England. By 1893, badminton had grown to the point where 14 clubs joined to form the Badminton Association. (Later, when more countries started their own federations, the name was changed to the Badminton Association of England.) This group was instrumental in standardizing the laws of the sport and in starting the earliest and most prestigious badminton tournament, the AII-

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England Badminton Championships As badminton spread to more countries. the need for an international governing board became apparent. The International Badminton Federation was created in 1934 and today has its headquarters in Kent, England. These nine countries were the original members of the IBF:

•

Canada

•

Denmark England France Ireland The Netherlands New Zealand

• • • • • •

•

Scotland Wales

Game fundamentals This section includes analyses of techniques, presentation to beginners, and points to emphasize. Ideas for practice are sometimes suggested. The analysis is given in tt;rms of a righthanded player. This grip is used for all strokes taken on the right-hand side of the body, for serves, and for round-the-head shots. The easiest way for the student to assume the correct grip is to hold the shaft of the racket in the left hand, with the strings perpendicular to the floor. Then using the fingers of the right hand. she shakes hands with the handle. The V of the thumb and forefinger is very pronounced and is on the top plate of the handle. The forefinger is diagonally across the back of the handle and hooked under it and ahead of the thumb. The racket is grasped by the fingers, with the butt held by the little finger. The grip is much like the Eastern forehand grip in tennis with two exceptions: (I) the

Badmlll\OIl

93

handle does not rest in the palm of the hand but is grasped by the fingers: (2) the little finger is curled around the butt of the handle. The students are grouped in a semicircle around the instructor. Each student should hold the throat of her racket with her left hand. After demonstrating the correct grip, the instructor has the students place their right hands or) the racket handles in the forehand grip position. After the grip of each player has been checked, the rackets are returned to the left hand. The class then should practice the correct forehand grip several times, and each practice grip shou Id be checked by the teacher. The habitual use of a proper grip should be stressed, for effective wrist action, which is the most important element unique to badminton, depends on the player's holding the racket correctly. The following points should be emphasized:

1.

With the racket held out in front. the student should see the knuckles of the four fingers (three if the hand is very small).

2.

The grip is with the fingers, not the palm.

3.

The forefinger must be wrapped around the handle, not extended up the handle.

4.

The thumb is around, not up, the handle.

Backhand grip The backhand grip is used for all strokes executed on the left side of the body. This grip is similar to the Eastern backhand grip in tennis. With the racket face perpendicular to the floor, the right hand is placed on the handle, with the first knuckle of the forefinger on the top plate. The thumb is extended along the back plate of the handle. at a slight diagonal across it. This position permits the thumb to add force to the wrist action. (Nevertheless, some authorities believe that the extended thumb, because of its hindrance of wrist action, is inadvisable and, because of the lightness of the racket, is not necessary even for women.) The little finger grasps the butt of the racket, and the Y of the

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thumb and forefinger is somewhat more closed than is the case in the forehand grip. The backhand grip, like the forehand grip, is demonstrated and practiced with the students in a semicircle. The instructor assumes the forehand grip with her right hand and holds the racket throat with her left hand. She then raises the racket high where it can be seen easily and turns her back to the class. While holding the racket throat stationary, she demonstrates the shift to the left by the hand and fingers that results in a proper backhand grip. After the students have practiced assuming the grip in this manner several times, and after their hand positions have been checked, they should practice the change back and forth between the forehand and backhand grips without using the left hand to support the racket. The following points should be emphasized:

1.

The thum b is up the racket (for good leverage on the hit).

2.

The forefinger is close to the other fingers.

Shuttlecock flight Although the striking patterns of badminton resemble those of tennis, squash rackets, and other ball games, the timing and point of aim of badminton strokes must be adjusted to the peculiar flight of the shuttlecock. A ball projected upward and forward describes a parabola, but a shuttle, because of its irregular shape and light weight, follows an asymmetrical trajectory. Because of the light weight and great speed of a hard-hit shuttlecock, air resistance overcomes its horizontal velocity much before gravity can pull it to the floor. Consequently, the shuttle starts its flight as does a ball but then decelerates rapidly and falls nearly vertically. Most students are conditioned to react to the flight patterns ofballs and may thus misjudge the contact of racket and shuttlecock without understanding the cause of the difficulty. It is helpful if the instructor explains and diagrams on a chalkboard the flights

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of the underhand and overhead strokes. This procedure is followed by a demonstration on the court with the class at the sidelines, where the flight trajectories can be seen clearly. Students should then practice individually ifpossible, stroking the bird high into the air to discover how slowly it drops and how long they can delay before bitting it again.

Wrist action Wrist action is the term used to describe the movement of the wrist from the backward, cocked position (extension) to the flexed position. The importance of wrist action in badminton cannot be overstressed, for the wrist is involved to some extent in every stroke. In comparison with tennis and squash rackets, the badminton racket is light in weight and so lacks their potential force. It is necessary to compensate for the lesser weight by stroking with a whip-like wrist action. This lengthens the are through which the racket travels and so gives more time for the build-up of momentum before contact with the shuttle. Correct grips are essential for free wrist action. For players with very strong wrists, whip action of the backhand can be increased if the thumb remains wrapped around the handle, much as it is in the forehand. This thumb position is not recommended for most women players. After the forehand grip has been taught on the first day of class, the instructor demonstrates wrist action by hitting the bird toward the ceiling, starting with little taps and continuing to hit the shuttle higher and higher until the full arm and wrist actions are used. She then gives one bird to each couple and stations the students far apart for practice in the manner demonstrated. Attention may be called to the swish of the racket when it is properly whipped through the air. This technique drill is more difficult than it may sound, and it is excellent warm-up practice for any player. If the students' attention is directed to the speed with which the bird drops, this

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practice also can be effective in developing the timing concept peculiar to badminton. If students tend to play with wrists stiff. practice with the racket held by the left hand may help. The fine wrist coordination is absent in the left arm, and a stiff, awkward motion usually results. When changed back to the right hand, the awareness of better wrist control and freer action may cause the student to use a wrist snap. The following points should be emphasized:

1. A tight grip should be avoided (for free wrist action). 2.

The racket head comes through last (for wrist snap).

3.

The racket shouldswish through the air (for gcxx:l acceleration).

The terrifically fast pace of a well played badminton game requires the competitor to cover the entire court and to make numerous stops. starts, and changes of direction. Good footwork patterns must become habitual, for there is no time to think how to move. In general, the footwork in badminton is similarto that in tennis. For forehand strokes the right arm and left leg are forward, with one or two exceptions: drop shots from the right front corner of the court are returned with th~ right foot forward. and some players prefer this stance for the short serve. These strokes do not require a great deal of force, and thus weight transference is not as essential as for the more forceful strokes. The weight is carried on the balls of the feet, and small steps usually are taken. To cover short distances, the slide or hop step is used. For the forehand strokes, the body faces the right sideline: the left foot is toward the net, with the right foot back. The body weight shifts from the rear foot to the forward foot as the stroke is made. The more power desired, the farther the body turns toward the sideline on the backswing to give more time to develop racket speed. For the backhand strokes, the body faces the left sideline. The

Badminton

47

body weight shifts from the rear foot (left) to the front foot (right) as the stroke is made. In returning very deep shots. a longer swing and greater resultant force can be achieved by starting the stroke in a position almost facing the rear of the court rather than the sideline. For forehand and backhand strokes requiring much power. there is considerable knee flexion of both legs on the backswing and of the forward leg on the hit. The ready position (that which the player assumes when receiving the serve and during the rally between strokes) is the stance from which plays are initiated. The position is an alert one. facing the net. with the left foot slightly ahead of the right. The knees are easy, the weight evenly balanced on the toes. with the racket held well up in front of the body, its head pointing toward the opponent. This high position of the racket makes possible quick, overhead returns of the bird, which are preferred to the Slower. defensive underhand strokes. The hub of a player's actions is an imaginary spot on the COlli t known as home base. It is at the center or slightly to the left of center of the area it is the player's responsibility to cover. Home base may shift a little with play. It moves forward after a drop shot and, in singles, it changes to about three feet to the left after a hit to the opponent's forehand. Stance and body position are taught as parts of each stroke. Footwork drills can be practiced, but always with the racket in hand and in conjunction with a stroke. For example. after the forehand drive has been introduced. footwork practice ending with a forehand drive from several parts of the court can be presented and practiced. The following points should be emphasized:

1. The racket is held high while waiting (for a quick return). 2. Foq::x)werful strokes, the side is turned to the net on the backswing.

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Spon~

3.

The player should start to move quickly (to get into stroking position soon enough).

4.

The player should be standing still as she hits (to assure effective stroking position).

Two elementary footwork practice formations are:

1.

Change from forehand to backhand body position. With the left foot forward: (a) step forward with the right, pivoting on the left or (b) step back with the left, pivoting on the right.

2

Change fi'om backhand body position to forehand. With the right foot forward: (a) move the left foot ahead: or (b) pivot on the left foot and place the right foot back.

The serves Four types of serve can be used to put the shuttle into play at the beginning of each rally: the long high. the short low, the flick. and the drive. According to the official rules. only the server may score a point; therefore. these four strokes are very important. and much time must be devoted to mastering them. The serves are defensive strokes because, according to the rules, they must be executed underhand. Specifically, the serving rule states that. at the moment of impact with the bird. the top edge of the racket head must be below the level of the wrist, and contact with the bird must be below the waist level. A wily player disguises her intent to use a particular serve so that her opponent cannot anticipate the best location from which to receive. The backswing and body position, therefore. are the same for the four serves. Differences in execution lie in the movement of the wrist at the time of impact and thus in the force given to the shuttlecock.

Long high serve This is a basic serve for singles play and is used occasionally in doubles as a surprise shot. The long, narrow singles service court encourages the execution of this deep serve. which forces the

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opponent to the rear of the court. On the other hand. the short doubles service court, and the presence of a partner to cover. weakens the effectiveness of the long high serve. The long high serve technique not only is used to start play but also during rallies to return shots that cannot be hit overhead. The technique is known in these instances as the underhand high clear, which is a defensive stroke that forces the opponent to the back boundary line and thus gives the stroker time to return to an advantageous court position. The bird is hit so as to reach a maximum height near the rear of the court and fall sharply to a point within a few inches of the back boundary line. The long. high serve requires perseverance for mastery. The racket head must be accelerated very rapidly by means of a whip-like ann and wrist action. The straight elbow and locked wrist seen in tennis cannot generate sufficient racket speed at the point of impact to force the shuttlecock high and to the baseline. GRIP. The forehand grip is used. STANCE. The player stands one to three feet behind the short service line with the body slightly bent forward and both knees somewhat flexed. The left foot is ahead and pointing toward the net; the right foot is back, with the toe at about a 45-degree angle with the net. This position allows for the forward transfer of body weight just before impact, which is necessary to impart force to the hit. ACTION. With the elbow slightly bent and the wrist cocked, the arm is swung downward and backward until the face of the racket is parallel to the floor and at hip height behind the body. Although more difficult for some beginners to master, a circular backswing that starts upward may be substituted profitably. since it yields greater momentum and disguises more effectively the type of serve to be executed. On the forward swing, the body weight is shifted to the left foot: and the wrist is uncocked and whipped

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into the stroke just before impact with the bird. thus moving the racket through considerable distance very rapidly. The follow through carries the racket above the head and in line with the point of aim. The only essential difference between the techniques of the long high serve and the underhand high clear is that the server controls the bird prior to the hit in the serve. At the start of the serving stroke, the forefinger and thumb of the left hand grasp the base of the shuttlecock. As the backswing ends, the bird is dropped ahead and to the right of the forward foot. Students are on one side of the badminton court in several lines with space for swinging rackets; the instructor stands in front of them. This formation is used throughout this section for the introduction of all new strokes to beginners and is not described agalll. The instructor explains the purpose of the long high serve. indicates the service coul1. and demonstrates the technique. The students practice the stroke mimeticall) and then move to playing positions on the courts. After a few initial attempts to serve are made. the instructor explains the rules governing the execution of the stroke. Verbal analysis ofthe technique, further demonstration, and correction of errors are employed as needed during the practice sessIOn. The following points should be emphasized:

t

The bird is dropped well out in front to make contact despite the length of the striking lever (the arm plus the racket).

2.

The player should lean into the hit. The body weight is used to add force to the stroke.

3.

The player should cock the wrist. then whip the arm for fast racket acceleration.

4.

The point of aim is the ceiling (to obtain good height and a vertical drop).

,". ,

Badminton

!Ol

Two suggested practices are:

1.

One bird per pair of students. The player on one side of the net stands about one yard behind the short service line and serves straight across to her opponent. anempting to make the bird land in the back alley. The opponent lets the bIrd drop. then picks it up. moves to serving position. and serves back. There is no rallying during this practice. Three pairs can practice on one court. One pair can practice between courts.

2.

Two birds per court. One player from the right court and one from the left serve simultaneously to the back alley of the court diagonally opposite. Receivers let the birds fall to the floor, then serve back. There is no rallying. Rear court players move forward, and forward players move back after the first five serves. After the second five serves, players in the right cou11 change places with those in the left. and the entire practice is repeated

Short serve This is the basic serve for doubles play and is intended to force the receiver to use a defensive upward hit for the return. The short serve also is used as a surprise play in singles, particularly when the opponent stands in a deep court position to receive. The bird is stroked so that it barely clears the net in a relatively flat line of flight and lands close to or on the short service line. Usually the best point of aim is the inside front corner of the service court. GRIP. The forehand grip is used. STANCE. This is the same as for the long high serve. (Some players prefer a stance with the right foot forward, believing that this position places the server in an advantageous position to prepare to receive the return.) ACTION. When the stance is with the left foot forward, the

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motion for the stroke is the same as for the long high serve until just before impact with the shuttlecock. At that time. the racket speed is slowed by checking the uncocking of the wrist and by relaxing some of the muscular tension in the arm and shoulder. The bird is stroked gently, with the wrist uncocked just enough to form a straight line with the forearm. The action must indicate a forceful stroke to the opponent so that a short service will not be anticipated. The speed of the racket is dissipated at the last second before contact. There is little follow-through. The bird is held and dropped as for the long high serve.

It is the same as for the long high serve. The following points should be emphasized:

1.

The back and forward swings should disguise the intent to make a short serve.

2.

The player should drop the bird well out in front (to make contact despite the length of the racket and arm).

3.

The player should reach with the wrist and guide the shuttlecock toward the point ofaim (to avoid uncocking wrist too much and so causing a high, shOlt hit).

4.

A serving position close to the net hurries the opponent, but a stance farther back makes it easier to serve low (bird need not rise at as acute an angle to cross net) and to defend against the opponent's return.

Two suggested practice drills are: 1.

One bird per pair of students. The player stands one yard behind the short service line and attempts to serve straight across to her opponent so that the bird falls just beyond the short service line. The opponent lets the bird hit the floor and then serves back.

2.

Two birds per court. The players serve into the service courts diagonally opposite. The receiving players let the birds fall to the floor and then serve back. After each player has

BadmInton

i03

served five times, right and left court positions are exchanged, and the practices are repeated. Driven Serve And Flick Serve These serves are used occasionally as a surprise in doubles play and. for the same purpose. but more infrequently. 111 the singles game. The intention is to send the bird past the opponent before she can react effectively. A driven serve may be angled so that it flies above the wrong service court until the last moment, when it crosses the center line to drop into the proper court. This flight sometimes deceives the opponent into holding her stroke in the belief that the serve will be a fault. Now and then. a flick serve catches a doubles opponent unable to move back quickly enough to receive the shuttlecock. Contrarily, the possibility of a flick serve makes an opponent cautious about playing far forward in order to rush the serve. The server's purpose is to hit the shuttle just high enough to be out of jumping reach of the receiver. Both the driven and the flick serves are difficult to execute well and should be attempted by experienced players only. The driven stroke combines the power of the long high serve with the low height of the short serve and is aimed to fall deep in the service court, usually on the opponent's backhand. The flick serve is actually a flick clear which should rise just above the receiver's reach and fall near the doubles service line, usually on the receiver's forehand. GRIP. The forehand grip is used. STANCE. It is the same as for the other serves. ACTION. The motion is the same as for the other serves until just before impact. The wrist then is uncooked and whipped through forcefully. For the driven serve. the follow-through is rather flat and toward the net at about chest height, rather than high as for the long high serve, or low as for the short serve. For the flick serve, the follow-through is upward, higher than for the

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driven serve but lower than for the long high serve. The server occasionally stands near her alley to use the driven serve. From that point. a flatter stroke still permits the bird to cross the net because of the increased distance of the flight. The dropping of the shuttlecock and the timing of the drop are the same for all serves. These serves should be taught only to students who have mastered the short and long serves and who have had much experience in playing the game: The strokes are presented in the same manner as the other two serves. The following points should be emphasized: I. The racket is swung underhand to avoid a sidearm action, which results in an illegal serve.2. The bird should be hit hard enough to pass the opponent before sheisready. The formations can be employed for practice on the driven or flick serves. This stroke is of the greatest importance; it is the most frequently used technique in the singles game and also is a basic stroke in women's doubles. The fast low clear is an offensive tactic used to put the bird just over the opponent's head. The long, high clear is a defensive tactic used to send the bird to the baseline with tremendous height. This gives the receiver a socalled dead bird to return and the player who made the clear time to recover a good court position. The bird rises sharply over the net, continues an upward flight and, when horizontal momentum is lost, drops almost vertically. GRIP. The forehand grip is used. STANCE. The left foot is forward at about a 45-degree angle to the net; the right foot is in a comfortable position behind the forward foot. ACTION. The stroke is an overhand movement pattern similar to a throw for distance. The preparatory part of the stroke includes a quick backswing with the flexed elbow leading as the knees bend

Badminton

1()5

and the body leans away from the net. The backswing ends with the racket behind the head. the right shoulder dropped and rotated back, the right elbow bent and pointed toward the floor behind the body, and the wrist fully cocked. There is no pause at the completion of the backswing. On the forward swing the weight transfers to the ball of the forward foot as the elbow is moved to point ahead: the racket is lifted rapidly and the arm is extended. While the elbow is still slightly flexed. the wrist snaps and the bird is contacted as high as possible at a point just ahead of the body and in line with the right shoulder. The follow-through carries the arm to a full stretch upward and forward. It is the same as for the long high serve.The following points should be emphasized:

1.

The racket should whistle on the hit (indicating whiplike ann and wrist action).

2.

The player should stretch to hit the bird as soon as possible (for a quick and forceful return).

3.

The elbow should lead as if

4.

The player should asswne the proper stance, pause with the racket up and forward, and then swing-backand-hit in one motion (for strong acceleration of the racket head and to keep the opponent uncertain of the player's intentions until the last moment).

5.

The point of aim is the ceiling (for good height and a vertical drop).

Elementary practices are: 1.

One bird per pair of students. Partners stand directly opposite each other and rally, using high clears. Each attempts to force the other behind the back boundary line. Three pairs per court and a pair between courts can practice simultaneously.

~port'

I 06

2.

Rally in rotation. One bird per court in same formation as for 1. Player 1 starts the bird with a long serve to player 2, who clears to player 3, who clears to player 4, and so on. Player 6 clears to player 1, and the rally continues in rotation. Competition may be set up among the courts by having the players on each court count the number of times the bird is hit consecutively without a miss.

3.

Two birds per court. Rear court players hit overhead clears to each other. Forecourt players stand with their toes on the short service line and attempt to intercept the birds. (The forecourt players may not take more than one step backward.) The players reverse their court positions after five minutes so that all of the players have an opportunity to practice clears

Smash This is the principal offensive stroke in badminton. The smash is used more in doubles play than in singles, and is especially effective in men's doubles. The purposes of the stroke are to make the opponent hit up or to conclude a rally decisively and to the advantage of the smasher. The hit is similar to a tennis serve or smash. The bird travels with great speed in a downward direction, just clearing the net. GRIP. The forehand grip is used. STANCE. It is the same as for the forehand overhead clear. ACTION. The preparatory phase and the transfer of body weight are the same as for the forehand overhead clear. The point of contact with the bird, however, is well ahead of the forward foot and in front of the right shoulder, with the arm at full extension. As the hit is made, all of the power of the wrist, arm, and, indeed, the entire body, is brought into the forward-downward stroke. The follow through continues diagonally past the left leg. A variation of the stroke that may be described as aflick

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smash, sometimes is used to return a poor short serve. Because the receiver who rushes a serve is too hurried and too close to the net to employ a full arm swing, the smash effect in this instance is achieved primarily through strong wrist action. There is little backswing or follow through of the arm. The stroke is introduced to the class in the same fashion as the preceding strokes. The differences in the execution of the overhead clear and smash (position of bird and arm at point of contact and follow-through) are explained and demonstrated.The following points should be emphasized:

1.

The player should reach to hit high and we II in front (for a sharp, downward hit).

2.

The player should hit hard and snap the wrist (for power and good direction).

3.

The stroke is finished with the racket on the left (to avoid the fault of carrying the bird, caused by rolling the wrist inward and following through past the right hip). Suggested practices are:

1.

Two birds per court. The player on one side hits the bird high to the player standing in the center ofthe opposite court. The receiver returns the bird with a smash. There is no rallying. Players change roles after a few hits. In the second practice session, the player attempts to return the smashes, and the rally continues until one opponent is successful in finishing the point.

2.

Same formation. The student practices the smash from a position very close to the net and then from slightly farther back.

Slow or fast overhead drop The overhead drop is used instead of the smash or clear for a sudden change of pace when the opponent is caught in the rear

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court. or when the opponent anticipates a deep shot. The overhead drop is particularly effective in singles play. For a slow drop. used defensively to gain time. the bird is hit so that it floats from the racket, skims the top of the net, and lands in the foremost part of the court. A perfect slow drop is one that teeters on the top of the net then falls gently down the net into the opponent's court. Such a shot is almost impossible to return. The fast drop, much more useful than the slow drop, is an attacking stroke. It resembles an easy smash and travels about the same distance into the court. GRIP. The forehand grip is used. STANCE. The stance is the same as for overhead clear and smash. ACTION. In order to deceive the opponent, the preparatory action is identical to that of the overhead clear and smash. As the shuttlecock is contacted at a point high and well in front of the body, the speed of the swing is checked, and the bird is stroked gently for a slow drop and with moderate force for a fast drop. There is no powerful acceleration as in the other two overhead strokes. The wrist starts to uncock gently just before impact and continues to extend in order to direct and control the flight of the bird. The follow-through is short. Using the same type of organization as for the previous strokes, the instructor introduces the overhead drop shot with an explanation of its uses and its similarity to other overhead strokes.

The following points should be emphasized: 1.

The player should reach as she hits (to avoid dropping the right shoulder on contact and thus causing an upward or flat direction off1ight).

2.

The player should swing as ifshe were about to smash or clear (to disguise the stroke).

Badminton

3.

lOt)

The impact is made as high and as soon as possible (to hurry the opponent and to avoid striking the bird at a point behind the body. which sets up the bird for the opponent to smash)

Several students can practice this stroke simultaneously on one court, since the bird and the racket travel relatively slowly and there is little danger to the students. The players on one side of the net stand close to it and set up high shob to their opponents. who stand in the first third of the court. The opponents return the birds with overhead drop shots. After ten practice shots, the pattern is reversed, and the players who were executing drop shots set up to their opponents. As the students become proficient they should practice slow and fast drops from positions slightly deeper in the court.

Round-the-head stroke This is a particularly useful stroke which can be substituted to advantage for certain backhand shots, especially for those directed to the left side of the head or shoulder. The round-thehead stroke. however. is an intermediate

The stroke is an overhead shot in which the shuttlecod. i~ hit on the backhand side of the body with the forehand face of the racket. GRIP. The forehand grip is used. STANCE. Preferably, the left foot is forward. ACTION. The preliminary swing is like that of any overhead, forehand stroke. The forward swing is a circular motion in a clockwise direction starting behind the head. The circular movement carries the racket to the backhand side of the head as the elbow extends. Until the moment of impact. the opponent should not know whether the return will be a clear. smash. or drop shot. At impact. for a clear. the ann and wrist take the racket up and out to the

II{J

right. For a smash. the arm and wrist forcibly whip the racket downward past the right leg. For a drop. the arm movement is checked. and the wrist controls the flight direction \'lith very little follow-through. This stroke is difficult and should not be presented untii tilt: class has mastered all other stro"-es except the driven and tllCh. shots.

The following points should be emphasized: I.

The shuttlecock should he met ahead of the hody and as high as possible (to huny the opponent and to give a freer choice of the type of shot that can be made).

2.

The player should lean back slightly before stroking (for power).

Each ofthe three types of return (clear. smash. drop) can he practiced in the same formations suggested for the other overhead strokes. The Backhand Overhead Strokes In the game of badminton, a player avoids deep bac"-hand shots whenever possible and, instead, favors the forehand. There are times. however. when a clear, flick. or drop from the deep backhand corner Illust be used as a dcfensive Illcasure. GRIP. The bac"-hand grip is used. STANCE. The body is turned so that the hack is toward the net and the rear foot (left) is parallel to the baseline. ACTION. For the three strokes, the right arm is swung high across the face and backward, with the racket head pointing directly downward and with the wrist cocked. As the stroke is made. the elbo\\ leads. and the weight of the body passes from the rear to the forward (right) foot. CLEAR. As the arm and body weight move toward the net. the stroke is accelerated. and the wrist whips the racket head

Badminton

III

through. The bird is contacted in front of the body, at full extension of the arm, and with the weight on the forward foot at the time of impact. The follow-through is upward and outward. FAST OR SLOW DROP. The acceleration is less than for the clear, and the wrist is used to direct the shot just over the net. For the fast drop, a stronger wrist motioH is required than for the slow drop. but the tlight of the bird as it passes over the net i" much the same for both strokes. The fast drop lands a little deeper in the forecourt and usuall~ is directed down the sidelines. The arm and racket do not follo\\ through as far as for the clear. The swing is checked just before impact with the bird. and the follow-through is a downward motion. Forthe fast drop the follo\\-through is an abrupt. sharp dlml1\\ard arc; for the slow drop, a gentle arc. The backhand strokes can be introduced to the class in the same manner as the forehand overhead strokes. The fa 110\\ ing points should be emphasized:

1.

The back must be to the net (for a free swing).

2.

The elbow is aimed at the target (to avoid merely tlipping the fOreal111 forward with little wrist action).

3.

The thum b pushes the racket (for good leverage).

For practice of the backhand clear and slow and fast drops. the group can be organized in formations similar to those used for the corresponding forehand strokes.

the underhand strokes This categorj of strokes includes the underhand high clear. the underhand drop shot. and the flick or fast clear. Full descriptions seem unnecessary since the strokes closely resemble others analyzed earlier. In this section. the reader i., referred to the relevant parts of the text. and supplementary information is suppl ied where needed. Comments on the forehand underhand clear 1113)

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be found under the long high serve, which is essentially the same technique. The backhand underhand clear is a purely defensive shot to be employed only as a last resort. It requires the same grip and stance used for other backhand strokes. The preparatory action is like that used for the overhead clear, except that the backswing is taken at a lower level and is completed with the knees well bent and the racket face angled upward close to the floor. The point of contact with the bird is in front of the body at about knee height. The forward swing and follow-through are a long upward sweeping action. The flick or fast clear is analyzed with other net strokes and under the flick serve. The underhand drop shot can easily be understood by comparing it with other drop shots and other underhand techniques.

The drives forehand drive This stroke can be used offensively to pass an opponent, or defensively for the return of a smash. The drive should be used sparingly in singles as a surprise shot, usually down a sideline. The technique is seen more often in doubles than in singles, especially in men's doubles; but even in doubles play, badminton, unlike tennis, is not based on drives. The bird skims rapidly over the top of the net in a relatively flat arc. GRIP. The forehand grip is used. STANCE. The left side is toward the net; the right foot is back. ACTION. A circular backs\\
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foot, whereupon tht: ann and racket follow through toward the net at shoulder height. The stroke can be presented in the same manner as the long high serve. The following points should be emphasized:

1.

The racket should swish (indicating strong wrist action).

2.

The player should hit at chest height (to avoid having to reach down, which results in lifting the bird high).

3.

The elbow leads; the wrist comes through last (for the flexible arm movement necessary for power).

The same formations described for practice of the smash can be used for the drive. Each pair attempts to rally with drive strokes (two birds per court). The use, presentation, and points of emphasis are the same for the backhand drive as for the forehand drive. The backhand grip is used, and the stance is reversed; that is, the right side of the body is toward the net and the right foot is nearer to the net than the left. The execution of the stroke is similar to that of the forehand drive.

Net Shots These strokes are executed at the net. They are used to return drop shots that cannot be hit with an overhead stroke because the defender does not reach the bird in time or because the drop shot was an excellent one in which the bird just skimmed the net tape. One type of net stroke is a drop shot, which goes straight or in a crosscourt direction and lands as close to the net as possible. The second type of net stroke is an underhand clear, which can travel in the same two directions but should land deep in the court.

Straight (hairpin) and crosscourt net strokes These are defensive strokes, generally, but can be used effectively when well placed and well timed. GRIP. The grip may be forehand or backhand, depending on

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the side of the body from which the stroke is made. STANCE. For forehand net shots, the right foot is often forward. Since very little force and thus little body action is required for this shot, weight transfer is unimportant. The main concern is reach, and by stepping with the right foot toward the shuttlecock just prior to the shot, the racket side of the body is brought closer to the bird. ACTION. There is practically no backswing and only a slight wrist cock, since time does not permit, and a delicate touch is required. The bird is met near the top of the net in order to be returned as quickly as possible, with the racket face turned up and at arm's length. The stroke is made with wrist motion only, so that the bird topples over the net band. The wrist movement determines the direction of the flight straight or crosscourt. There is no followthrough, but the racket face is pointed toward the spot where the bird is sent. The instructor should introduce the hairpin stroke through demonstration, and the students should practice the technique on the court, in pairs. Very little will be gained by having students practice the stroke mimetically. The touch of the bird on the racket must be experienced. The footwork, however, can be tried with the racket in hand (see preceding section on footwork drills).The following points should be emphasized:

1.

The bird is met as high as possible (to reduce the danger of misjudging the force necessary to clear the net, and to hurry the opponent).

2.

There is no backswing (for speedy return and gentle hit).

Flick clear from net position This stroke is particularly effective when the opponent is near the net. It should be remembered. however. that a really good drop shot, which barely skims over the top of the net and then clings to the side of the net as it falls, cannot be returned by any type

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Badminton

of clear but must be met by another drop shot. The flick clear is a variation of the drop shot return and can be either a forehand or backhand shot. The flick clear is executed with the same technique as is the drop shot, except that the wrist whips into the shot at the last moment and the point of aim is higher. Little arm action is needed, because the shot is executed in the forecourt. The bird has a shorter distance to travel to pass the opponent than does a clear hit from the rearcourt. This stroke is introduced in the same way as the other net strokes. Also, the same practice formations are suitable. One player can start with a drop shot from close to the net; the other can attempt to clear. Rallying is not satisfactory when there are more than two pairs of students per court.

The game The actual game of badminton can be introduced early to novices, and the terms and rules should be presented as they are called for in the play. Official rules can be found in the current edition of the Tennis-Badminton Guide, published by the Division for Girls and Women's Sports of the American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation. Only a few of the game terms are included here: In Side. The side which is serving. Out Side. The side which is receiving the serve. Second Service. The indication that one partner has finished ber turn of serving. Inning. The turn of service for one side. Service Over. The indication that the inning is completed and that an opponent now serves. Fault. A player's error in which the shuttle fails to fall in the proper court, or the shuttle is hit illegally. Point. The unit of scoring. Only the serving

sid~

may score

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points (similar to volleyball). A fault by the serving side does not give the receiving side a point, but causes the server to lose her turn of service. Game. The required number of points to win: in ladies' singles11 points; ladies' mixed, men's doubles, and men's singles-IS or 21 points. Generally, doubles games involving women are IS points in length; men's games are 21. In either case, the number of points to be played is determined before the game begins.

Doubles game In the doubles game there are four players, two on each side of the net. The service rules, the team play, and the strategy distinguish the game from badminton singles.

Service Rules These are introduced on a blackboard or by having four players demonstrate while the instructor explains the service court boundaries and the serving order. The player in the right court of the serving, or "in," side serves first and continues to serve, alternating between the right and left courts, until her side fails to win the point. Her partner serves next until the side again fails to score. The shuttle then goes to the opponents, and both of those partners have turns at serving before their side is "out." For exam ple, X 1 serves from the nght court and makes a point. She then serves from the left court; she or her partner m akesa fault, and she loses hert.lrn

0

fservlce.X 2 then con tillues

to play from the righ t court, although it is not her a rig inal court. In this way, the serve is delivered from alternate courts. When

the serving side next makes a fault, the shuttle is given to the opponents, and so on. In the next inning, the player in the right courtserves first.There isoneexception to thlSorderofservice. During the first innmg

0

f the gam e, only one partner 0 f the side

serving first is perm Itted to take her tum to serve before servIce over is called

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Team Play Partners may choose one of several systems, or methods of sharing the responsibility for covering the court. The ones most frequently seen are the sideby-side (or parallel), the up-and-back, and the combination (or in-and-out). Side by side system Each player is responsible for her own half of the court; divided lengthwise from the center of the net to the center of the back boundary line. All the shots down the center should be taken by the left court player since she can make the return on her forehand. Partners should call to each other before the return of the bird, mine, yours, and out, so that doubtful shots will be covered with minimum confusion. The parallel system is the simplest for beginners to understand, and the actual game and scoring should be introduced to a class of beginners by using this type of team play. This system also requires speedy footwork in moving forward and backward, and these techniques should be developed in novices. A major problem with beginners is to learn to hit the bird away from their opponents. The tendency is to return the bird to midcourt, the very spot where the opponent probably is standing. When sideby-side team play is first tried, the suggestion that each player hit a clear and a drop shot alternately will be helpful in teaching students to vary their shots. The next step is to have them mix these two shots and then, of course, to add the smash when it is an appropriate return. Shots directed down the center of the court sometimes are more effective than sideline shots against sidebyside team play. Any apparent weakness of the opponents should be attacked, however, regardless of general rules.

Up-and-back system The partners cover the court from side to side, with one player standing in the center of the forecourt with her feet near the short

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service line. and the other in the center of the rearcourt about a yard in front of the long service line. The forecourt player covers the first third of the entire court (all net shots and weak returns). Her partner covers the remainder of the court (two-thirds). The mixed doubles game uses the up-and back system almost exclusively, with the woman playing the net. In otder to assume the up-and-back positions in games other than mixed doubles. three plans can be followed.

Elementary The player serving or receiving always moves into the front position. and the partner into the rear. It is wise to introduce the elementary up-and-back system of team play first, since it requires few decisions. Intermediate After the elementary system has been experienced successfully, the intermediate should be presented. This consists of the same court coverage for the serving team (server up and partner back), but the type of serve determines the court positions of the receivers; that is, if the serve is a short one, the receiving player returns the shuttle and then covers the front court; her partner moves to cover the rear. If the serve is long, the receiver moves to the rearcourt, returns the bird. and then takes her position in rear center as her partner moves into the forecourt position, Advanced After players have experienced all types of team play systems, it may be that certain partners should play fixed positions when using the up-and-back method. A combination of a strong and weak player always should play with the strong player in the rearcourt and the weak player in the front. The rearcourt player must have a powerful clear and smash. The forecourt player is responsible for making drop shots and returning net shots and should develop these skills. The majority of the shots should be

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directed down the sidelines. Medium length drives sometimes are difficult to handle in this system. because the rearcourt player is pulled forward or the forecourt player is forced back.

Combination system This plan combines the above methods of court coverage and is preferred by most good players. Very simply. the principle of this system is that partners play up and-back when they are on the offensive and side-by-side when they are on the defensive. When a player smashes or drops; that is. when she makes a shot that results in the shuttle falling below net height so that it must be hit up by her opponent. she and her partner move into an upand-hack formation. If this player is in an advantageous position. she follows her own smash or drop toward the net. If, however, a player strokes from deep in the court. it is her partner who should cover the net immediately. When a player clears or makes a stroke which can be returned with a downward hit, the partner at the net moves back to whichever court is directly behind her, while the clearing player takes a parallel position in the unoccupied court. The serving team maintains the side by-side formation until they can assume the offensive. The in-and-out system is highly sensitive to the demands of the moment. By permitting the partners to move freely. it renders them less vulnerable to the opponents' tactics than do systems that define static boundary Iines of responsihility for court coverage. Nevertheless, the combination system is not recommended for beginners. Skillful anticipation of the play, harmonious coordination of partners' movements, and dependability of strokes are all necessary for mastery of the combination system and are possible only for experienced. performers who play together frequently.

Singles game The singles game, played by two opponents, can be extremely

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strenuous and is almost always more so than doubles. In certain respects, however, singles play is less complicated. because there is neither teamwork with a partner nor the action of two opponepts to consider. Although usually marked on the floor, the alleys are not included in the singles court. The shaded areas indicate the longer service court used in singles.

Service Rules As in doubles, these rules may be introduced on the blackboard or by demonstration. At the beginning of the game. the server delivers from the right court. As long as she wins the rallies, she continues to serve (alternating courts) and to score points. When the server commits a fault, her term of service ends, and her opponent becomes the server. The court from which the serve is made depends on the server's own score: when it is even (0, 2, 4), she serves from the right court; when her score is odd (I, 3. 5), from the left.

The

LAWS

of

Badminton

Court The court shall be a rectangle and laid out (except in the case provided for in Law 1.5) and to the measurements there shown, defined by lines 1 112" (40 mm) wide. The lines shall be easily distinguishable and preferably be colored white or yellow. To show the zone in which a shuttle of correct pace lands when tested (Law 4.4), an additional four marks I 1/2" by I II 2" (40 mm by 40 mm) may be made inside each side line for singles of the right service court, I' 9" (530 mm) to 3' 3" (990 mm) from the back boundary line. In making these marks, their width shall be within the measurement given, i.e., the marks will be from I' 9" (530 mm) to 1'10 1/2" (570 mm) and from 3' 1 112" (950 mm) to 3' 3" (990 mm) from the outside of the back boundary line.

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All lines form part of the area which they define. Where space does not permit the marking out of a court for doubles, a court may be marked out for singles only. The back boundary lines become also the long service lines, and the posts, or the strips or material representing them (Law 2.2), shall be placed on the side lines.

Posts The posts shall be 5' I" (1,55 m) in height from the surface of the court. They shall be sufficiently firm to remain vertical and keep the net strained as provided in Law 3, and shall be placed on the doubles side lines. Where it is not practicable to have posts on the side lines, some method must be used to indicate the position of the side lines where they pass under the net, e.g., by the use of thin posts or strips of material 1 1/2" (40 mm) wide, fixed to the side lines and rising vertically to the net cord. On a court marked for doubles, the posts or strips of material representing the posts shall be placed on the side Iines for doubles, regardless of whether singles or doubles is being played.

NET The net shall be made of fine cord of dark color and even thickness with a mesh not less than 15 mm and not more than 20 mm. The net shall be 2' 6" (760 mm) in depth. The top of the net shall be edged with a 3" (75 mm) white tape doubled over a cord or cable running through the tape. This tape must rest upon the cord or cable. The cord or cable shall be of sufficient size and weight to be firmly stretched flush with the top of the posts. The top of the net from the surface of the court shall be 5' (1,524 m) at the center of the court and 5' 1" (1,55 m) over the side lines for doubles. There shall be no gaps between the ends

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of the net and the posts. If necessary, the full depth of the net should be tied at the ends.

Shuttle Principles - The shuttle may be made from natural andlor synthetic materials. Whatever material the shuttle is made from, the flight characteristics, generally, should be similar to those produced by a natural feathered shuttle with a cork base covered by a thin layer of leather. Having regard to the Principles:

General Design The shuttle shall have 16 feathers fixed in the base. The feathers can have a variable length from 2 1/2" (64 mm) to 2 31 4" (70 mm), but in each shuttle they shall all be the same length when measured from the tip to the top of the base. The tips of the feathers shall form a circle with a diameter from 2 1/4" (58 mm) to 2 "5/8" (68 mm). The feathers shall be fastened firmly with thread or other suitable material.

The base shall be: •

I" (25 mm) to 1 1/8" (28 mm) in diameter

•

round on the bottom.

Weight The shuttle shall weigh from 4.74 to 5.50 grams.

Non-Feathered Shuttle The skirt, or simulation of feathers in synthetic materials, replaces natural feathers. The base is described in Law 4.1.5. Measurements and weight shall be as in Laws 4.1.2, 4.1.3 and 4.2.1. However, because of the difference of the specific gravity and behavior of synthetic materials in comparison with feathers, a vari~tion of up to 10 percent is acceptable.

Shuttle Testing To test a shuttle, use a full underhand stroke which makes

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contact with the shuttle over the back boundary line. The shuttle shall be hit at an upward angle and in a direction parallel to the side lines. A shuttle of correct pace will land not less than I' 9" (530 mm) and not more than 3'-3" (990 mm) short of the other back boundary line.

Modifications Subject to there being no variation in the general design, pace and flight of the shuttle, modifications in the above specifications may be made with the approval of the National Organization concerned: In places where atmospheric conditions due to either altitude or climate make the standard shuttle unsuitable. In special circumstances which make it otherwise necessary in the interests of the game.

Racket The hitting surface of the racket shall be flat and consist of a pattern of crossed strings connected to a frame and either alternately interlaced or bonded where they cross. The stringing pattern shall be generally uniform and, in particular, not less dense in the center than in any other area. The frame of the racket, including the handle, shall not exceed 2'-23/4" (680 mm) in overall length and 9" (230 mm) in overall width. The overall length of the head shall not exceed II 3/8" (290 mm). The strung surface shall not exceed II" (280 mm) in overall length and 8 5/8" (220 mm) in overall width. Shall be free of attached objects and protrusions, other than those utilized solely and specifically to limit wear and tear, or vibration, or to distribute weight, or to secure the handle by cord to the player's hand, and which are reasonable in size and placement for such purposes. Shall be free of any device which makes it possible for a player to change materially the shape of the racket.

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Approved equipment The International Badminton Federation shall rule on any question of whether any racket, shuttle or equipment or any prototype used in the playing of badminton complies with the specifications or is otherwise approved or not approved for pia). Such ruling may be undertaken on the federation's initiative or upon application by any party with a bona fide interest therein including any player, equipment manufacturer or National Organization or member thereof. Players "Player" applies to all those taking part in a match. The game shall be played, in the case of doubles, by two players a side, or in the case of singles, by one player a side. The side having the right to serve shall be called the serving side, and the opposing side shall be called the receiving side. Toss Before commencing play, the opposing sides shall toss and the side winning the toss shall exercise the choice in either Law 8.1.1 or Law 8.1.2. 1 To serve or receive first. 2 To start play at one end of the court or the other. 3 The side losing the toss shall then exercise the remaining choice.

Scoring 1 The opposing sides shall play the best of three games unless otherwise arranged. It is permissible to play one game of21 points by prior arrangement. 2 Only the serving side can add points to its score. 3 In doubles and Men's singles a game is won by the first side to score 15 points (21 points in a match consisting of a single game to 21 points), except as provided in Law 9.6.

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4 In women's singles a game is won by the first side to score II points, except as provided by Law 9.6. 5 If the score becomes 13 or 14 all (9 or 10 all in women's singles)( 19 or 20 in a 21 point game) the side which first scored 13 or 14 (9 or 10) (19 or 20) shall have the choice of "setting" or "not setting" the game (Law 9.6). 6 This choice can on Iy be made when the score is first reached and must be made before the next service is delivered. 7 The relevant side (Law 9.5.1) is given the opportunity to set at 14 all (10 all in Women's singles)(20 all in a 21 point game) despite any previous decision not to set by that side or the opposing side at 13 all (9 all in Women's sing1es)( 19 all in a 21 point game). 8 If the game has been set, the score is called "love all" and the side first scoring the set number of points (Law 9.6.1 to 9.6.4) wins the game. 9 13 all setting to 5 points 10. 14 all setting to 3 points 11. 9 all setting to 3 points 12 10 all setting to 2 points 13. 19 all setting to 5 points 14. 20 all setting to 3 points 15. The side winning a game serves first in the next game.

CHANGE OF ENDS 1 Players shall change ends: 1.1 At the end of the first game; 1.2 Prior to the beginning of the third game (if any); and 1.3 In the third game, or in a one game match, when the leading score reaches:

•

6 in a game of 11 points

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•

8 in a game of 15 points

•

11 in a game of 21 points

10.2 When the players omit to change ends as indicated by Law 10.1, they shall do so immediately the mistake is discovered and the existing score shall stand.

Service I In a correct service: 1.1 Neither side shall cause undue delay to the delivery of the serve. 1.2 The server and receiver shall stand within diagonally opposite service courts without touching the boundary Iines of these service courts; some part of both feet of the server and receiver must remain in contact with the surface of the court in a stationary position until the service is delivered (Law 11.4); 1.3 The server's racket shall initially hit the base of the shuttle while the whole of the shuttle is below the server's waist; 1.4 The shaft of the server's racket at the instant of hitting the shuttle shall be pointing in a downward direction to such an extent that the whole ofthe head of the racket is discernible below the whole of the server's hand holding the racket; 1.5 The movement of the server's racket must continue forwards after the start of the service (Law 11.2) until the service is delivered; and 1.6 The flight of the shuttle shall be upwards from the server's racket to pass over the net, so that, if not intercepted, it falls in the receiver's service court. 2 Once the players have taken their positions, the first forward movement of the server's racket is the start of the service. 3 The server shall not serve before the receiver is ready, but the receiver shall be considered to have been ready if a return of service is attempted.

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4 The service is delivered when. once started (Law 11.2), the shuttle is hit by .he server's racket or the shuttle lands on the

floor. 5 In doubles, the partners may take up any positions which do not unsight the opposing server or receiver. Singles I The players shall serve from, and receive in, their respective right service courts when the server has not scored or has scored an even number of points in that game. 2 The players shall serve from, and receive in, their respective left service courts when the server has scored an odd number of points in that game. 3 If a game is set, the total points scored by the server in that game shall be used to apply Laws 12.1 and 12.2. 4 The shuttle is hit alternately by the server and the receiver until a "fault" is made or the shuttle ceases to be in play. 5.1 If the receiver makes a "fault" or the shuttle ceases to be in play because it touches the surface of the court inside the receiver's court, the server scores a point. The server then serves again from the alternate service court. 5.2 If the server makes a "fault" or the shuttle ceases to be in play because it touches the surface of the court inside the server's court, the server loses the right to continue serving, and the receiver then becomes the server, with no point scored by either player.

Doubles 1 At the start of a game, and each time a side gains the right to serve, the service shall be delivered from the right service court.

•

2 Only the receiver shall return the service: should the shuttle touch or be hit by the receiver's partner, the serving side scores

12X

Sport;

a point. 3.1 After the service is returned, the shuttle is hit by either player of the serving side and then by either player of the receiving side, and so on, until the shuttle ceases to be in play. 3.2 After the service is returned, a player may hit the shuttle from any position on that player's side on the net. 4.1 If the receiving side makes a "fault" or the shuttle ceases to be in play because it touches the surface of the court inside the receiving side's court, the serving side scores a point, and the server serves again. 4.2 I f the serving side makes a "fault" or the shuttle ceases to be in play because it touches the surface of the court inside the serving side's court. the server loses the right to continue serving. with no point scored by either side. 5.1 The player who serves at the start of any game shall serve from, or receive in, the right service court when that player's side has not scored or has scored an even number of points ill that game. and the left service court otherwise. 5.2 The player who receives at the start of any game shall receive in, or serve from, the right service court when that player's side has not scored or has scored an even number of points in that game, and the left service court otherwise. 5.3 The reverse pattern applies to partners. 5.4 If a game is set, the total points scored by a side in that game shall be used to apply Laws 13.5.1 to 13.5.3. 6 Service in any turn of serving shall be delivered from alternate service courts, except as provided in Laws 14 and

16. 7 The right to serve passes consecutively from the initial server in any game to the initial receiver in that game, and then consecutively t.·om that player to that player's partner and thL'n

Badmllllon

12Q

to one of the opponents and then the opponent's partner, and so on. 8 No player shall serve out of turn, receive out of turn, or receive two consecutive services in the same game. except as provided in Laws 14 and 16.

9 Either player of the winning side may serve first in the next game and either player of the losing side may receive. Service COllrt errors I A service court error has been made when a player: 1.1 Has served out of turn; 1.2 Has served from the wrong service court: or 1.3 Standing in the wrong service court. was prepared to receive the 5ervice and it has been delivered.

2 When a service court error has been made. then: 2.1 If the error is discovered before the next service is delivered. it is a "let" unless only one side was at fault and lost the rally, in which case the error shall not be corrected. 2.2 [f the error is not discovered before the next service is delivered, the error shall not be corrected.

3 If there is "let" because ofa service court error, the rally is replayed with the error corrected. 4 If a service court error is not to be corrected, play in that game shall proceed without changing the players' new service courts (nor, when relevant, the new order of serving).

Faults It is a "fault": I I fa ser\' ice is not correct (Law 11.1): 2 If the server. in attempting to serve, misses the shuttle: 3 If after passing over the net on service. the shuttle is call~ht

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in or on the net: 4 If in play. the shuttle: 4. I Lands outside the boundaries of the court: 4.2 Passes through or under the net: 4.3 Fails to pass the net: 4.4 Touches the roof. ceiling, or side walls: 4.5 Touches the person or dress of a player; or 4.6 Touches any other object or person outside the immediate surroundings of the court: (Where necessary. on account of the structure ofthe building. the local badminton authority may, subject to the right of veto of its National Organization. make by-laws dealing with cases in which a shuttle touches on obstruction. ) 5 If, when in play, the initial point of contact with the shuttle is not on the striker's side of the net. (The striker may, however, follow the shuttle over the net with the racket in the course of a stroke). 6 It: when the shuttle is in play. a player: 6. I Touches the net or its supports with racket, person or dress: 6.2 Invades an opponent's court OVER THE NET with racket or person except as permitted in Law 15.5; 6.3 Invades an opponent's court UNDER THE NET with racket or person such that an opponent is obstructed or distracted; or 6.4 Obstructs an opponent, i.e. prevents an opponent from making a legal stroke where the shuttle is followed over the net: 7 If. in play. a player deliberately distracts an opponent by any action such as shouting or making gestures:

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8 1f, in play, the shuttle:

8.1 Be caught and held on the racket and slung during the execution of a stroke;

8.2 Be hit twice in succession by the sallle player with two strokes (A double hit by one player with one stroke is not a ti:llIlt.); or 8.3 Be hit by a player and the player's partner successively; or 8.4 Touches a player's racket and continues toward the back of that player's court. 91 fa player is guilty of flagrant, repeated or persistent offenses under Law 18.

Lets "Let" is called by the Umpire, or by a player (if there is no Umpire) to halt play. I A "let" Illay be given for any unforeseen or accidental occurrence. 2 I f a shuttle. after passing over the net, is caught in or on the net. It is a "let" except during service. 3 If during service, the receiver and server are both faulted at the same time. it shall be a "let". 4 If the server serves before the receiver is ready it shall be a "let". 5 If during play. the shuttle disintegrates and the base completely separates from the rest of the shuttle, it shall be a "let". 6 If a Line Judge is unsighted and the Umpire is unable to make a decision. it shall be a "let". 7 When a "let" occurs, the play since the last service shall not count, and the player who served shall serve again, except when Law 14 is applicable.

Sports

Shuttle not in play A shuttle is not in play when: 1 It strikes the net and remains attached there or suspended on top: 2 It strikes the net or post and starts to fall towards the surface of the court on the striker's side of the net: 3 It hits the surface of the court: or 4 A "fault" or "let" has occurred.

Continuous play, misconduct, penalties I Play shall be continuous from the first service until the match is concluded. except as allowed in Laws IS.2 and IS.3. 2 An interval not exceeding 5 minutes is allowed between the second and third games of all matches in all of the following situations: 2.1 In international competitive events; 2.2 In IBF sanctioned events; and 2.3 In all other matches (unless the National Organization has previously published a decision not to allow such an interval). 3 When necessitated by circumstances not within the control of the players, the Umpire may suspend play for such a period as the Umpire may consider necessary. Ifplay be suspended, the existing score shall stand and play be resumed from that point. 4 Under no circumstances shall play be suspended to enable a player to recover his strength or wind, or to receive instruction or advice. 5.1 Except in the intervals provided in Laws 18.2 and 18.3, no player shall be permitted to receive advice during a match. 5.2 Except at the conclusion ofa match. no player shall leave the court without the Umpire's consent.

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6 The Umpire shall be the sole judge of any suspension of play. 7 A player shall not:

7.1 Deliberately cause suspension of play; 7.2 Deliberately interfere with the speed of the shuttle;

7.3 Behave in an offensive manner; or 7.4 Be guilty of misconduct not otherwise covered by the Laws of Badminton 8 The Umpire shall administer any breach of Law 18.4, 18.5. or 18.7 by: 8.1 Issuing a warning to the offending side: 8.2 Faulting the offending side. if previously warned; or 8.3 In cases of flagrant offense or persisting offenses, faulting the offending side and reporting the offending side immediately to the Referee, who shall have the power to disqualify. 9 Where a referee has not been appointed, the responsible official shall have the power to disqualify.

Official and appeals I The Referee is in overall charge of the tournament or event of wh ich a match forms part. 2 The Umpire. where appointed, is in charge of the match, the court and its immediate surrounds. The Umpire shall report to the Referee. In the absence ofa Referee, the Umpire shall report instead to the responsible official. 3 The Service Judge shall call service faults made by the server should they occur (Law II). 4 A Line Judge shall indicate whether a shuttle is "in" or "out".

An umpire shall 5 Uphold and enforce the Laws of Badminton and, especially call a "fault" or "let" should either occur, without appeal being made by the players;

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6 Give a decision on any appeal regarding a point of dispute, if made before the next service is delivered: 7 Ensure players and spectators are kept informed of the progress of the match; 8 Appoint or remove Line Judges or a Service Judge in consultation with the Referee; 9 Not overrule the decision of Line Judges and the Service Judge on points of fact; 10.1 Where another court official is not appointed, arrange for their duties to be carried out; 10.2 Where an appointed official is unsighted, carry out the official's duties or playa "let": II Decide upon any suspension of play: 12 Record and report to the Referee all matters in relation to Law 18; and 13 Take to the Referee all unsatisfied appeals on questions of law only. (Such appeals must be made before the next service is delivered, or, if at the end of a game, before the side that appeals has left the court.)

Playing court dimensions The court is rectangular and divided into halves by a net. Courts are almost always marked for both singles and doubles play, although the laws permit a court to be marked for singles only. The doubles court is wider than the singles court, but the doubles service court is shorter than the singles service court. The full width of the court is 6.1 metres (20 ft), and in singles this width is reduced to 5.18 metres (17 ft). The full length of the court is 13.4 metres (44 ft). The service courts are marked by a centre line dividing the width of the court, by a short service line at a distance of 1.98 metres (6.5 ft) from the net, and by the outer side and back boundaries. In doubles, the service court is

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also marked by a long service line. which is 0.78 metres (2 ft 6 inch) from the back boundary. The net is 1.55 metres (5 ft 1 inch) high at the edges and J .524 metres (5 ft) high in the centre. The net posts are placed o',er the doubles side lines, even when singles is played. Surprisingly, there is no mention in the Laws of a minimum height for the ceiling above the court. Nonetheless, a badminton court will not be suitable if the ceiling is likely to be hit on a high serve.

Equipment laws The Laws specit); which equipment may be used. In particular. the Laws restrict the design and size of rackets and shuttlecocks. The Laws also provide for testing a shuttlecock for the correct speed: To test a shuttlecock. use a full underhand stroke wh ich makes contact with the shuttlecock over the back boundary line. The shuttlecock shall be hit at an upward angle and in a direction parallel to the side lines. A shuttlecock of the correct speed will land not less than 530 mm and not more than 990 mm short of the other back boundary line ....

Scoring system and service The scoring system changed in May 2006. For more information, see Scoring System Development of Badminton.

The basics Each game is played up to 21 points, with players scoring a point whenever they win a rally (this differs from the old system, where players could only win a point on their serve). A match is the best of three games. At the start of the rally, the server and receiver stand in diagonally opposite service courts (see court dimensions). The server hits the shuttlecock so that it would land in the receiver's

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~porh

service court. This is similar to tennis. except that a badminton serve must be h it from below the waist in underhand form (up" ards J. the shuttlecock is not allowed to bounce. and in tennis the players stand outside their service courts. In singles, the server stands in his right service court when his score is even. and in his left service court when his score is odd. In doubles. if the serving side wins a rally. the same player continues to serve, but he changes service courts so that he serves to each opponent in turn. When the serving side loses a rally, the serve passes to their opponents (unlike the old system. there is no "second serve"). If their new score is even. the player in the right service court serves: if odd. the player in the left service COlili serves. The players' service courts are determined by their positions at the start of the previous rally, not by where they were standing at the end of the rally. A consequence of th is system is that, each time a side regain the service. the server will be the player \\ hl) did not serve last time.

Details When the server serves the shuttlecock must pass over the service line or it will count as a fault. If the score reaches 20all, then the game continues until one side gains a two point lead (such as 24-22), up to a maximum ono points (30-29 is a winning score). At the start of a match a coin is tossed. The winners of the coin toss may choose whether to serve or receive first. or they may choose which end of the court they wish to occupy. Their opponents make the remaining choice. In less formal settings. the coin toss is often replaced by hitting a shuttlecock into the air: whichever side it points to serves first. In subsequent games, the winners of the previous game serve first. For the first rally of any doubles game, the serving pair may

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decide who serves and the receiving pair may decide who receives. The players change ends at the start of the second game; if the match reaches a third game, they change ends both at the start of the game and when the leading pair's score reaches II points. The server and receiver must remain within their service courts. without touching the boundary lines. unti I the server strikes the shuttlecock. The other two players may stand wherever they wish, so long as they do not unsight the opposing server or receiver.

Faults Players win a rally by striking the shuttlecock onto the floor within the boundaries of their opponents' court. Players also win a rally if their opponents commit a fault. The most common fault in badminton is when the players fail to return the shuttlecock so that it passes over the net and lands inside their opponents' court, but there are also other ways that players may be faulted. The following information lists some of the more common faults. Several faults pertain specifically to service. A serving player shall be faulted ifhe strikes the shuttlecock from above his waist (defined as his lowest rib). or ifhis racket is not pointing downwards at the moment of impact. This particular law changed in 2006: previously, the server's racket had to be pointing downwards to the extent that the racket head was below the hand holding the racket; now, any angle below the horizontal is acceptable. Neither the server nor the receiver may lift a foot until the shuttlecock has been struck by the server. The server must also initially hit the base (cork) of the shuttlecock, although he may afterwards also hit the feathers as part of the same stroke. This law was introduced to ban an extremely effective service style known as the S-serve or Sidek serve, which allowed the server to make the shuttlecock spin chaotically in flight. Each side may only strike the shuttlecock once before it passes back over the net; but during a single stroke movement. a player may contact a shuttlecock twice (this happens in some

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sliced shots). A player may not, however. hit the shuttlecock once and then h it it v\ ith a neV\ movement, nor may he carry and sl ing the shuttlecock on h is racket. It is a fault if the shuttlecock hits the ceiling.

Lets If a let is called, the rally is stopped and replayed with no change to the score. Lets may occur due to some unexpected disturbance such as a shuttlecock landing on court (having been hit there by players on an adjacent court), If the receiver is not ready when the service is delivered, a let shall be called; yet if the receiver makes any attempt to return the shuttlecock. he shall be judged to have been ready. There is no let if the shuttlecock hits the tape (even on service).

Chess What

is

Chess

Chess has long been considered the sport of kings and aristocrats. It has only been recently that chess has become popular among all levels of society. And no wonder. Chess is great exercise. No, there are no head smashing, helmet scarring football tackles or exotic tumbles on a gymnastic mat. Rather the players exercise their minds. The mind, like the body, will atrophy if left unused too long. Also like the body. it will get stronger if used in a constructive fashion. A game of logic, Chess exercises the mind by requiring players to think logically. Players are forced to think ahead and to analyze complex individual, yet interdependent factors. It has been said that Chess is a good way to learn about life. A person with the facility to win at Chess is ready to conquer any complex problem on either a personal or business level. Chess was originally invented in India around the 6 th century AD. The game has changed only slightly since then with the advent of the queen in the 15 th century and some minor movement adjustments in the 1800s. So those who play the game today share a link to a long and storied past, a link to men and women who lived and breathed the history of their day.

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This site is dedicated to publishing the official rules of Chess in a graphical fonnat that can be easily understood by the beginning chess player and referred to on occasion by the more experienced player. Each page is linked to the next page in a logical order so you may read straight through all of the rules . I also make available (by ordering through Amazon.com) variolls books on chess . . .just in case you would like more in-depth knowledge on the subject under scrutiny. Some books are for beginners but many are for advanced players. After learning the basic rules, it might be handy to learn a bit of chess notation

General Rules The ultimate aim in the game of chess is to win by trapping your opponent's king. White is always first to move and players take turns alternately moving one piece at a time. Movement is required . Each type of piece has its own method of movement (described in the following sections). A piece may be moved to another position or may capture an opponent's piece. This is done by landing on the appropriate square with the moving piece and removing the defending piece from play. With the exception of the knight, a piece may not move over or through any of the other pieces. In toumament play, once a piece has been tOllched by a player, it must be moved . In sandlot chess this rule is not always strictly 7 6 adhered to.

Rules Chess is a game played by two players, who we ' ll call White and Black. It is played on a board of 64 squares. Each

1 ..

be

d

•

t;I

h

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14 :

square can be empty or occupied by a piece. The initial position of the game consists of 16 white pieces and 16 black pieces, arranged as shown in the following diagram. Players alternate making moves. White always goes first. In a typical move, White selects a white piece and moves it to another square. The destination square is either empty or occupied by an enemy piece. In the latter case the enemy piece is said to be captured. The captured piece is removed from the board, and plays no further role in the game. Looking across the bottom row of white pieces we see a rook (sometimes called a cast/e), a knight, a bishop, a queen, a king, another bishop, another knight, and another rook. The next row of white pieces consists of eight pawns. Each different type of piece moves in a specific way. The goal of the game is to capture the opponent's king. However to actually capture the king would be offensive. So this is not allow~d. This leads to the notion of check. Black's king is said to be in check if (assuming it were White ':, turn to move) White could capture Black's king. To avoid this capture, Black must make a move that takes Black's king out of check, so White cannot capture Black's king on the next move. If it's impossible for Black to get out of check, then Black 's king is said to be checkmated, and White wins the game. Another way to describe checkmate is to say that Black is in check and Black has no legal moves. An alternative outcome is if Black is NOT in check but has no legal moves . This is called a stalemate. When this occurs the game ends in a draw. The remainder of this tutorial explains how all the pieces move, and a few other rules that don't quite fit the pattern described here, such as castling, promotion and en passant. These notes only try to explain the rules. Learning to play well is a different story.

How the King moves Here is a set of diagrams showing the different movements

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of the King, every possible move is indicated with an arrow: : When the King is in the centre of the board, it can move to 8 different squares When the King is in the corner it can only move to 3 different squares. As we can see from these diagrams the King can move to all adjacent squares.

How the Queen moves

Here is a set of diagrams showing the different movements of the Queen, every possible move is indicated with an arrow: When the Queen is in the centre of the board, it can move to 27 different squares

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When the Queen is in on the side it can only move to 21 different squares. The Queen. like all other pieces in chess (except the Knight) cannot jump over its own pieces. or opponent's pieces. so it is restricted in its movements. as we can see from the diagram on the left. As we can see from these diagrams the Queen can move until she meets an obstacle (end of board or other piece), in straight lines, and in diagonals.

How the Rook moves

Here is a set of diagrams showing the different movements of the Rook, every possible move is indicated with an arrow: When the Rook is in the centre of the board, it can move to 14 different squares In this position, the Rook is restricted in its movements by its own pieces, as it cannot jump over pieces. it can only go to 9 different Sl1l1ares. As we can see from these diagrams the Rook can move in horizontal and vertical lines. all the way until it meets an obstacle (end of board or a piece).

How the Bishop moves Here is a set of diagrams showing the di fferent movements of the Bishop, every possible move is indicated with an arrO\v :

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When the Bishop is in the centre of the board, it can move 13 different squares to

In this position, the Bishop is restricted in its movements by its own pieces, as it cannot jump over pieces, it can only go to 5 different squares. As we can see from these diagrams the Bishop can move diagonally, all the way until it meets an obstacle (end of board or a piece).

How the Knight moves Here is a set of diagrams showing the different movements

of the Knight, every possible move is indicated with an arrow: When the Knight is in the centre of the board, it can move to 8 different squares. In the corner, the Knight can only go to 2 squares. The Knight is the only chess piece that can "jump" over other

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pieces. as shown here, the pawns do not restrict his movements. As we can see from these diagrams the Knight can move in an L shape, and is able to "jump" over other pieces .

How the Pawn moves Here is a set of diagrams showing the different movements of the Pawn, every possible move is indicated with an arrow : When the Pawn is on its initial square it can choose to move either one square or two squares. Once it moves from that initial square, it can only move one square at a time. The pawn can capture an enemy piece by moving in diagonal (cannot capture by moving straight). The two pawns on the board have a choice of moving forward one square, or capturing a piece in diagonal. These two pawns cannot move forward vertically, as they are blocked by an enemy piece. The pawn on the left cannot move at all, whereas the pawn on the right can capture the rook diagonally. As we can see from these diagrams the Pawn can move initially move one or two squares, but then once it left it original position, can only move one square. A pawn can capture an enemy piece by moving diagonally. Note, the pawn is the only chess piece that cannot move backwards

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How to capture opponent's pieces A piece can capture another, by moving to the square of the captured pieces, here are some diagrams that show how cap!ljres work:

The Bishop moves to the square of the pawn and takes it. In this position, ifits white's move he can take black's pawn. But if it is black's move he can take white's pawn. (as indicated by the double arrow).

Am I in check? In chess, the most valuable piece in the King, if it is threatened you must get it somewhere safe (not attacked by any enemy piece). If you have no way of getting it out of danger, then it is checkmate and you lost the game. Here are a few examples of the King being in check. The King is threatened by the Rook here, he is in check. There are 3 possible ways to get ()ut of check: Take the piece that is giving the ched .

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In this position, the Knight can simply take the Queen that is giving the check.

You can move your King to get out of the check . In this position, white must move his King to get out of the check from the knight

You can interpose a piece. Here White can block the check by putting his bishop between the Rook and the King.

Checkmate In Chess, the most valuable piece is the King. If you cannot get it out of danger as described in the Check Page, then it is Checkmate and the game is over. To be checkmated the King has to be in check, and have no way of getting out of the check .

Here are a few positions in which ,the black King is checkmated: <

.. The King is threatened by the Rook here, and has no moves. By looking carefully you will see that 3 possible squares are covered by his own pawns, and the Rook covers the other squares. He is therefore checkmated . The white Queen is defended by the King, and covers all escape squares of the Black King, so it is checkmate .

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The black King is in check by the Bishop and all his escape squares are covered (shown by the arrows).

Stalemate A player is stalemated when he has no legal moves that he can make and he is not in check. (If he was in check it would be checkmate). Here are a few diagrams where black is stalemat,ed: The white Queen is controlling the 3 squares the Black King has access to, so ifit is black's move, this is stalemate, and the game is a draw. As shown by the arrows, the white pieces are controlling all the possible escape squares of the King, also the black pawns cannot move. This is therefore stalemate. Stalemate arises when a player's tum comes, he is not in check and he has no legal move. Stalemates results in the game being a draw.

Castling A "special" move was made in order to help the protection of the King. Castling can only be made when: There are no pieces in between the Rook and the King. The King has not yet moved. The Rook that is castling with the King has never moved . The King is not in check The King will NOT be crossing squares that are attacked by opponent's pieces. Here are a few positions in which white can castle. These

Chess

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diagrams will show how castling works:

White can castle by moving his King two squares to the right (as indicated by the arrow).

White can castle by moving his King two squares to the left (as indicated by the arrow). In this position, from a real game. white can castle by moving

his King to the right by two squares.

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Here, white cannot castle to the right (Kingside) because the black queen controls one square in the King's trajectory. However White can castle to the left (Queenside) because the queen covers no square in the King's trajectory. Black on the other hand can castle to the left(Kingside) but not to the right (Queenside) as the white queen controls a square that the King would have to go through. Here, white cannot castle to the right (Kingside) because his rook has already moved. He can however castle to the left (Queenside). Black on the other hand is in check by the Bishop. So he cannot castle at all this move.

En passant En passant is a move where a pawn can take another pawn, under strict condition, not obeying the general rules of pawn captures.

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In this sequence, as shown in the diagrams, the white pawn can take the black one, not taking in diagonal. However th is on Iy works, if the black pawn moves two squares. White has to take the pawn on his next move. or then it doesnt work anymore. This is a position from a real game, where black moves his pawn two squares. and wh ite can take it.

Promotions The pawn is the on Iy chess piece that cannot move backwards, when it gets to the end of the board. it can promote to whatever other' piece it wants (except a King) of its own colour. When the pawn moves to the last rank, it promotes to another piece (most often people will choose a Queen as that is the strongest piece).

Ways of winning a game • •

Checkmating your opponent. If your opponent runs out of time, and you have mating material.

•

Your opponent resigns.

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A draw • • • • • •

If you or your opponent are stalemated. If you run out of time and you opponent doesn't have mating material. If your opponent runs out oftime and you don't have mating material. If both players agree to draw. If the exact same position is repeated 3 times. You need to claim a draw if this arises, by clicking on Draw. Iffor 50 consecutive moves, there are no pawns pushed and no captures. You can claim a draw, by clicking on Draw.

Laws

Of

Chess

The FIDE Laws of Chess The Laws of Chess cannot cover all possible situations that may arise during a game, nor can they regulate all administrative questions. Where cases are not precisely regulated by an Article of the Laws, it should be possible to reach a correct decision by studying analogous situations, which are discussed in the Laws. The Laws assume that arbiters have the necessary competence, sound judgement and absolute objectivity. Too detailed a rule might deprive the arbiter of his freedom of judgement and thus prevent him from finding the solution to a problem dictated by fairness, logic and special factors. The English text is the authentic version ofthe Laws of Chess, which was adopted atthe 75th FIDE Congress at Calvia (Mallorca), October 2004, coming into force on I July 2005. In these Laws the words 'he', 'him' and 'his' include 'she' and 'her'.

Basic Rules Of Play Article 1: The nature and objectives of the game of chess 1.1 The game of chess is played between two opponents who move their pieces alternately on a square board called a 'chessboard'. The player with the white pieces commences the game. A player is said to 'have the move', when his opponent's move has been 'made'.

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1.2 The objective of each player is to place the opponent's king 'under attack' in such a way that the opponent has no legal move. The player who achieves this goal is said to have 'checkmated' the opponent's king and to have won the game. Leaving one's own king under attack, exposing one's own king to attack and also 'capturing' the opponent 's king are not allowed . The opponent whose king has been checkmated has lost the game. 1.3 If the position is such that neither player can possibly checkmate, the game is drawn .

Article 2: The initial position of the pieces on the chessboard 2.1 The chessboard is composed of an 8x8 grid of 64 equal squares alternately light (the ' white' squares) and dark (the 'black' squares). The chessboard is placed between the players in such a way that the near corner square to the right of the player is white. 2.2 At the beginning of the game one player has 16 light-coloured pieces (the 'white' pieces); the other has 16 dark-coloured pieces (the 'black' pieces): These pieces are as follows: A white king, usually indicated by the symbol A white queen; usually indicated by the symbol Two white rooks, usually indicated by the symbol Two white bishops, usually indicated by the symbol Two white knights, usually indicated by the symbol Eight white pawns, usually indicated by the symbol A black king, usually indicated by the symbol A black queen, usually indicated by the symbol Two black rooks, usually indicated by the symbol Two black bishops, usually indicated by the symbol

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Two black knights, usually indicated by the symbol Eight black pawns, usually indicated by the symbol 2.3 The initial position of the pieces on the chessboard is as follows : 2.4 The eight vertical columns of squares are called 'files' . The eight horizontal rows of squares are called ranks '. A straight line of squares of the same colour, touch ing comer to comer, is called a 'diagonal'.

Article 3: The moves of the pieces 3.1 It is not permitted to move a piece to a square occupied by a piece of the same colour. If a piece moves to a square occupied by an opponent's piece the latter is captured and removed from the chessboard as part of the same move. A piece is said to attack an opponent's piece if the piece could make a capture on that square according to Articles 3.2 to 3.8. A piece is considered to attack a square, even if such a piece is constrained from moving to that square because it would then leave or place the king of its own colour under attack. 3.2 The bishop may move to any square along a diagonal on which it stands .

•

•

<

•

• .t •

•

•

• 3.3 The rook may move to any square along the file or the rank on which it stands.

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3.4 The queen may move to any square along the fi Ie, the rank or a diagonal on which it stands. 3.5 When making these moves the bishop, rook or queen may not move over any intervening pieces. 3.6 The knight may move to one of the squares nearest to that on which it stands but not on the same rank, file or diagonal. 3.7 a. The pawn may move forward to the unoccupied square immediately in front of it on the same file, or

• • • • • • ••• •• • • • • ~. • :. • •• • • •-.------• •--

•

•

b. on its first move the pawn may move as in (a); alternatively it may advance two squares along the same file provided both squares are unoccupied, or c. The pawn may move to a square occupied by an opponent's piece, which is diagonally in front of it on an adjacent file, capturing that piece.

d.

Ad. A pawn attacking a square crossed by an opponent's pawn which has advanced two squares in one move from its original square may capture this opponent's pawn as though .the latter had been moved only one square. This capture is only legal

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on the move following this advance and is called an 'en passant' capture. e. When a pawn reaches the rank furthest from its starting position it must be exchanged as part of the same move for a new queen, rook, bishop or knight of the same colour. The player' s choice is not restricted to pieces that have been captured previously. This exchange of a pawn for another piece is called ' promotion ' and the effect of the new piece is immediate. 3.8 a. There are two different ways of moving the king, by: a. moving to any adjoining square not attacked by one or more of the opponent's pieces. b. 'castling'. This is a move of the king and either rook of the same colour on the same rank, counting as a single move of the king and executed as follows: the king is transferred from its original square two squares towards the rook, then that rook is transferred to the square the king has just crossed. (I) The right for cast Iing has been lost: a.

if the king has already moved, or

b. with a rook that has already moved (2) Castling is prevented temporarily c.

if the square on which the king stands, or the square which it must cross, or the square which it is to occupy, is attacked by one or more of the opponent's pieces. d. if there is any piece between the king and the rook with which castling is to be effected.

3.9 The king is said to be 'in check' if it is attacked by one or more of the opponent's pieces, even if such pieces are constrained from moving to that square because they would

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then leave or place their own king in check. No piece can be moved that will either expose the king of the same colour to check or leave that king in check.

Article 4: The act of moving the pieces 4.1 Each move must be made with one hand only. 4.2 Provided that he first expresses his intention (e.g. by saying ''j'adoube'' or "I adjust"), the player having the move may adjust one or more pieces on their squares. 4.3 Except as provided in Article 4.2, ifthe player having the move del iberately touches on the chessboard a.

one or more of his own pieces, he must move the first piece touched that can be moved, or

b.

one or more of his opponent's pieces, he must capture the first piece touched, which can be captured, or

c.

one piece of each colour, he must capture the opponent's piece with his piece or, ifthis is illegal, move or capture the first piece touched which can be moved or captured. If it is unclear, whether the player's own piece or his opponent's was touched first, the player's own piece shall be considered to have been touched before his opponent's.

4.4 a. If a player deliberately touches his king and rook he must castle on that side if it is legal to do so. b.

If a player deliberately touches a rook and then his king he is not allowed to castle on that side on that move and the situation shall be governed by Article 4.3(a).

c.

If a player, intending to castle, touches the king or king and rook at the same time, but castling on that side is illegal, the player must make another legal move with his king which may include castling on the other side. If the king has no legal move, the player is free to make any legal move.

d.

If a player promotes a pawn, the choice of the piece is finalised, when the piece has touched the square of promotion.

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4.5 If none of the pieces touched can be moved or captured. the player may make any legal move. 4.6 When, as a legal move or part of a legal move, a piece has been released on a square, it cannot then be moved to another square. The move is considered to have been made when all the relevant requirements of Article 3 have been fulfilled. a.

in the case of a capture, when the captured piece has been removed from the chessboard and the player, having placed his own piece on its new square, has released this capturing piece from his hand:

b.

in the case of castling, when the player's hand has released the rook on the square previously crossed by the king. When the player has released the king from his hand, the move is not yet made, but the player no longer has the right to make any move other than castling on that side, if this is legal;

c.

in the case of the promotion of a pawn, when the pawn has been removed from the chessboard and the player's hand has released the new piece after placing it on the promotion square. If the player has released from his hand the pawn that has reached the promotion square, the move is not yet made, but the player no longer has the right to play the pawn to another square.

4.7 A player forfeits his right to a claim against his opponent's violation of Article 4.3 or 4.4, once he deliberately touches a piece.

Article 5: The completion of the game 5.1 a. The game is won by the player who has checkmated his opponent's king. This immediately ends the game, provided that the move producing the checkmate position was a legal move. b.

The game is won by the player whose opponent declares he resigns. This immediately ends the game.

5.2 a. The game is drawn when the player to move has no legal

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move and his king is not in check. The game is said to end in 'stalemate'. This immediately ends the game, provided that the move producing the stalemate position was legal. b.

The game is drawn when a position has arisen in which neither player can checkmate lhe opponent's king with any series of legal moves. The game is said to end in a 'dead position'. Th is immediately ends the game, provided that the move producing the position was legal.

c.

The game is drawn upon agreement between the two players during the game. This immediately ends the game. (See Article 9.1)

d.

The game may be drawn if any identical position is about to appear or has appeared on the chessboard at least three times. (See Article 9.2)

e.

The game may be drawn if each player has made at least the last 50 consecutive moves without the movement of any pawn and without any capture. (See Article 9.3) Competition Rules

Article 6: The chess clock 6.1 'Chess clock' means a clock with two time displays, connected to each other in such a way that only one of them can run at one time. 'Clock' in the Laws of Chess means one of the two time displays. 'Flag fa\l' means the expiration of the allotted time for a player. 6.2 a. When using a chess clock, each player must make a minimum number of moves or all moves in an allotted period oftime and/or may be allocated an additional amount oftime with each move. All these must be specified in advance. b. ,The time saved by a player during one period is added to his time available for the next period, except in the 'time delay' mode. In the time delay mode both players receive an allotted 'main

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thinking time'. Each player also receives a 'fixed extra time' with every move. The countdown of the main time only commences after the fixed time has expired. Provided the player stops his clock before the expiration of the fixed time, the main thinking time does not change, irrespective of the proportion of the fixed time used. 6.3

Each time display has a 'flag'. Immediately after a flag falls, the requirements of Article 6.2(a) must be checked.

6.4

Before the start of the game the arbiter decides where the chess clock is placed.

6.5

At the time determined for the start of the game the clock of the player who has the white pieces is started.

6.6

If neither player is present initially, the player who has the white pieces shall lose all the time that elapses until he arrives; unless the rules of the competition specify or the arbiter decides otherwise.

6.7

Any player who arrives at the chessboard more than one hour after the scheduled start of the session shall lose the game unless the rules of the competition specify or the arbiter decides otherwise.

6.8

a. During the game each player, having made his move on the chessboard, shall stop his own clock and start his opponent's clock. A player must always be allowed to stop his clock. His move is not considered to have been completed until he has done so, unless the move that was made ends the game. (See Articles 5.1, and 5.2)

The time between making the move on the chessboard and stopping his own clock and starting his opponent's clock is regarded as part of the time allotted to the player. b.

A player must stop his clock with the same hand as that with which he made his move. It is forbidden for a player to keep his finger on the button or to 'hover' over it.

c.

The players must handle the chess clock properly. It is forbidden to punch it forcibly, to pick it up orto knock it over.

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Improper clock handling shall be penalised in accordance with Article 13.4. d.

If a player is unable to use the clock. an assistant, who is acceptable to the arbiter, may be provided by the player to perform this operation. His clock shall be adjusted by the arbiter in an equitable way.

6.9

A flag is considered to have fallen when the arbiter observes the fact or when either player has made a valid claim to that effect.

6.10 Except where Articles 5.1 or one of the Articles 5.2 ( a), (b) and (c) apply, if a player does not complete the prescribed number of moves in the allotted time, the game is lost by the player. However, the game is drawn. if the position is such that the opponent cannot checkmate the player's king by any possible series of legal moves, even with the most unskilled counterplay. 6.11 Every indication given by the clocks is considered to be conclusive in the absence of any evident defect. A chess clock with an evident defect shall be replaced. The arbiter shall replace the clock and use his best judgement when determining the times to be shown on the replacement chess clock. 6.12 Ifboth flags have fallen and it is impossible to establish which flag fell first, then a.

the game shall continue if it happens in any period of the game except the last period.

b.

the game is drawn in case it happens in the period of a game, in which all remaining moves must be completed.

6.13 a. If the game needs to be interrupted, the arbiter shall stop the clocks. b.

A player may stop the clocks only in order to seek the arbiter's assistance, for instance when promotion has taken place and the piece required is not available.

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c.

The arbiter shall decide when the game is in either case.

d.

If a player stops the clocks in order to seek the arbiter's assistance, the arbiter shall determine if the player had any valid reason for doing so. If it is obvious that the player has no valid reason for stopping the clocks, the player shall be penalised according to article 13.4.

to

be restarted

6.14 If an irregularity occurs and/or the pieces have to be restored to a previous position, the arbiter shall use his best judgement to determine the times to be shown on the clocks. He shall also, if necessary, adjust the clock's move counter. 6.15 Screens, monitors, or demonstration boards showing the current position on the chessboard, the moves and the number of moves made, and clocks which also show the number of moves, are allowed in the playing hall. However, the player may not make a claim relying solely on information shown in this manner.

Article 7: Irregularities 7.1

a. If during a game it is found that the initial position of the pieces was incorrect, the game shall be cancelled and a new game played.

b.

If during a game it is found that the only error is that the chessboard has been placed contrary to Article 2.1, the game continues but the position reached must be transferred to a correctly placed chessboard.

7.2

If a game has begun with colours reversed, then it shall continue, unless the arbiter rules otherwise.

7.3

If a player displaces one or more pieces, he shall re-establish the correct position on his own time. If necessary, either the player or his opponent shall stop the clocks and ask for the arbiter's assistance. The arbiter may penalise the player who displaced the pieces.

7.4

a. If during a game it is found that an illegal move, including

failing to meet the requirements of the promotion of a pawll or capturing the opponent's king, has been completed. the position immediately before the irregularity shall be reinstated. If the position immediately before the irregularity cannot be determined, the game shall continue from the last identifiahle position prior to the irregularity. The clocks shall be adj listed according to Article 6.14. Article 4.3 applies to the move replacing the illegal move. The game shall then continue from this reinstated position. b.

After the action taken under Article 7.4(a). for the first two illegal moves by a player the arbiter shall give two minutes extra time to his opponent in each instance; for a third illegal move by the same player, the arbiter shall declare the game lost by this player.

7.5

If during a game it is found that pieces have been displaced from their squares, the position before the irregularity shall be reinstated. If the position immediately before the irregularity cannot be determined, the game shall continue from the last identifiable position prior to the irregularity. The clocks shall be adjusted according to Article 6.14. The game shall then continue from this reinstated position.

Article 8: The recording of the moves 8.1 In the course of play each player is required to record his own moves and those of his opponent in the correct manner. move after move, as clearly and legibly as possible, in the algebraic notation, on the 'scoreshett' prescribed for the competition. It is forbidden to write the moves in advance, unless the player is claiming a draw according to Article 9.2 or 9.3. A player may reply to his opponent's move before recording it, if he so wishes. He must record his previous move before making another. Both players must record the offer of a dravv on the scoresheet. If a player is unable to keep score. an assistant. who is acceptable to the arbiter, may be provided by the player

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to write the moves. His clock shall be adjusted by the arbiter in an equitable way. 8.2

The scoresheet shall be visible to the arbiter throughout the game.

8.3

The scoresheets are the property of the organisers of the event.

8.4

If a player has less than five minutes left on his clock at some stage in a period and does not have additional time of 30 seconds or more added with each move, then he is not obliged to meet the requirements of Article 8.1. Immediately after one flag has fallen the player must update his scoresheet completely before moving a piece on the chessboard

8.5

a. If neither player is required to keep score under Article 8.4, the arbiter or an assistant should try to be present and keep score. In this case, immediately after one flag has fallen, the arbiter shall stop the clocks. Then both players shall update their scoresheets, using the arbiter's or the opponent's scoresheet.

b.

If only one player is not required to keep score under Article 8.4 he must, as soon as either flag has fallen, update his scoresheet completely before moving a piece on the chessboard. Provided it is the player's move, he may use his opponent's scoresheet, but must return it before making a move

c.

If no complete scoresheet is available, the players must reconstruct the game on a second chessboard under the control of the arbiter or an assistant. He shall first record the actual game position, clock times and the number of moves made, if this information is available, before reconstruction takes place.

8.6

If the scoresheets cannot be brought up-to-date showing that a player has overstepped the allotted time, the next move made shall be considered as the first of the following time

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period, unless there is evidence that more moves have been made. 8.7

At the conclusion of the game both players shall sign both scoresheets, indicating the result of the game. Even if incorrect, this result shall stand, unless the arbiter decides otherwise.

Article 9: The drawn game 9.1

a. A player wishing to offer a draw shall do so after having made a move on the chessboard and before stopping his clock and starting the opponent's clock. An offer at any other time during play is still valid, but Article 12.6 must be considered. No conditions can be attached to the offer. In both cases the offer cannot be withdrawn and remains valid until the opponent accepts it, rejects it orally, rejects it by touching a piece with the intention of moving or capturing it, or the game is concluded in some other way.

b.

The offer of a draw shall be noted by each player on his scoresheet with a symbol.

c.

A claim of a draw under 9.2,9.3 or 10.2 shall be considered to be an offer of a draw.

9.2

The game is drawn, upon a correct claim by the player having the move, when the same position, for at least the third time (not necessarily by a repetition of moves)

a.

is about to appear, ifhe first writes his move on his scoresheet and declares to the arbiter his intention to make this move, or

b.

has just appeared, and the player claiming the draw has the move.

Positions as in (a) and (b) are considered the same, if the same player has the move, pieces of the same kind and colour occupy the same squares, and the possible moves of all the pieces of both players are the same. Positions are not the same if a pawn that could have been captured en passant can no longer in this manner

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be captured or if the right to castle has been changed temporarily or permanently. 9.3

The game is drawn, upon a correct claim by the player having the move, if

a.

he writes his move on his scoresheet and declares to the arbiter his intention to make this move which shall result in the last 50 moves having been made by each player without the movement of any pawn and without any capture, or

b.

the last 50 consecutive moves have been made by each player without the movement of any pawn and without any capture.

9.4

If the player makes a move without having claimed the draw he loses the right to claim, as in Article 9.2 or 9.3. on that move.

9.5

If a player claims a draw as in Article 9.2 or 9.3. he shall immediately stop both clocks. He is not allowed to withdraw his claim.

a.

If the claim is found to be correct the game is immediately drawn.

b.

If the claim is found to be incorrect, the arbiter shall add three minutes to the opponent's remaining time. Additionally, if the claimant has more than two minutes on his clock the arbiter shall deduct half of the claimant's remaining time up to a maximum of three minutes. If the claimant has more than one minute, but less than two minutes. his remaining time shall be one minute. If the claimant has less than one minute, the arbiter shall make no adjustment to the claimant's clock. Then the game shall continue and the intended move must be made.

9.6

The game is drawn when a position is reached from which a checkmate cannot occur by any possible series of legal moves, even with the most unskilled play. This immediately ends the game, provided that the move producing this position

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Article 10: Quickplay Finish 10.1 A 'quickplay finish' is the phase of a game, when all the (remaining) moves must be made in a limited time. 10.2 If the player, having the move, has less than two minutes left on his clock. he may claim a draw before his flag falls. He shall stop the clocks and summon the arbiter. a.

If the arbiter agrees the opponent is making no effort to win the game by normal means, or that it is not possible to win by normal means, then he shall declare the game drawn. Otherwise he shall postpone his decision or reject the claim.

b.

b. If the arbiter postpones his decision. the opponent may be awarded two extra minutes and the game shall continue in the presence of an arbiter, if possible. The arbiter shall declare the final result later in the game or after a flag has fallen. He shall declare the game drawn if he agrees that the final position cannot be won by normal means. or that the opponent was not making sufficient attempts to win by normal means.

c.

If the arbiter has rejected the claim, the opponent shall be awarded two extra minutes time.

d.

The decision of the arbiter shall be final relating to 10.2 a, b, c.

Article 11: Scoring 11.1 Unless announced otherwise in advance. a player who wins his game. or wins by forfeit. scores one point (I), a player who loses his game, or forfeits scores no points (0) and a player who draws his game scores a half point (1/2).

Article 12: The conduct of the players 12.1 The players shall take no action that will bring the game of chess into disrepute. 12.2 a. During play the players are forbidden to make use of any

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notes, sources of information, advice, or analyse on another chessboard. b.

It is strictly forbidden to bring mobile phones or other electronic means of communication. not authorised by the arbiter, into the playing venue. If a player's mobile phone rings in the playing venue during play, that player shall lose the game. The score of the opponent shall be determined by the arbiter.

12.3 The scoresheet shall be used only for recording the moves, the times of the clocks, the offers of a draw. matters relating to a claim and other relevant data. 12.4 Players who have finished their games shall be considered to be spectators. 12.5 Players are not allowed to leave the 'playing venue' without permission from the arbiter. The playing venue is defined as the playing area, rest rooms. refreshment area. area set aside for smoking and other places as designated by the arbiter. The player having the move is not allowed to leave the playing area without permission of the arbiter. 12.6 It is forbidden to distract or annoy the opponent in any manner whatsoever. This includes unreasonable claims or unreasonable offers of a draw. 12.7 Infraction of any part of the Articles 12.1 to 12.6 shall lead to penalties in accordance with Article 13.4. 12.8 Persistent refusal by a player to comply with the Laws of Chess shall be penalised by loss of the game. The arbiter shall decide the score of the opponent. 12.9 Ifboth players are found guilty according to Article 12.8, the game shall be declared lost by both players.

Article 13: The role of the arbiter 13.1 The arbiter shall see that the Laws of Chess are strictly observed. 13.2 The arbiter shall act in the best interest of the competition.

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He should ensure that a good playing environment is maintained and that the players are not disturbed. He shall supervise the progress of the competition. 13.3 The arbiter shall observe the games, especially when the players are short of time, enforce decisions he has made and impose penalties on players where appropriate. 13.4 The arbiter can apply one or more of the following penalties: a.

warnmg,

b.

increasing the remaining time of the opponent,

c.

reducing the remaining time of the offending player,

d.

declaring the game to be lost,

e.

reducing the points scored in a game by the offending party,

f.

increasing the points scored in a game by the opponent to the maximum available for that game,

g.

expulsion from the event.

13.5 The arbiter may award either or both players additional time in the event of external disturbance of the game. 13.6 The arbiter must not intervene in a game except in cases described by the Laws of Chess. He shall not indicate the number of moves made, except in applying Article 8.5 when at least one flag has fallen. The arbiter shall refrain from informing a player that his opponent has completed a move or that the player has not pressed his clock. 13.7 a. Spectators and players in other games are not to speak about or otherwise interfere in a game. If necessary, the arbiter may expel offenders from the playing venue. b.

It is forbidden for anybody to use a mobile phone in the playing venue and any area designated by the arbiter

Article 14: FIDE 14.1 Member federations may ask FI DE to give an official decision about problems relating to the Laws of Chess.

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Beginner's Guide To Chess ChessCentral is where you can learn the rules of chess. The rules for chess are not hard. You will find all the chess rules here so that you can begin to play the game! The game of Chess has a history that at all times has awakened interest but of which very little is known. We know some fables treating of the origin of the game, fables that are true to history only in so far as they lay the place of origin in Asia and the time of origin in a very distant past. Games similar to Chess have been discovered on Egyptian sculptures. Written documents, a thousand years old, referring to Chess, have

be~n

found. The game of Chess of those days was

not, however, the game that we now know. No doubt, Chess has undergone many changes and who knows whether Draughts, or, more precisely, a game related to Draughts, was not a forefather of our Chess. The European career of Chess began a thousand years ago. At that time it was an admired favorite in Spain, the game of the noble and the learned. In feudal castles and at the courts of princes it was cultivated; it was praised in artistic poems. For centuries it remained the aristocratic, noble, royal game, accessible only to a refined taste. Later, it penetrated through Italy and France, and at last it found a home wherever the foot of the white man trod. Chess, as pointed out, has changed, but in its attire, in its forms only, by no means in its essence, its idea. That has remained unchanged all through the many centuries of its life. To discover this idea is therefore not difficult: at all times Chess has had the will, the intent, the meaning of picturing a war between two parties: a war of extinction, conducted according to rules, laws, in a

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cultured manner, yet without clemency. This becomes evident from the rules of the game almost at first sight.

The Chess Board Let's start chess rules by looking at the chess board. The most ancient and most enduring feature of Chess is certainly the board, the table upon which it is played on the field of the Chess struggle. It consists of 64 parts everyone a small square, in their totality composing a large square. In eight rows and, perpendicularly thereto, in eight lines the 64 squares are ordered. Consequently one can draw a Chessboard by halving the side of a big square three times in succession . The technical process of producing a Chessboard is therefore very simple, and the logical conception, • b ed r neither is apprehension of the board complicated. The perception of the 64 squares by the eye is no so easy, but it has been facilitated by the use of colour. The squares are altemately coloured black and white, so that from time immemorial the Chessboard looks as follows: I:'

i:tb

C

d.'

~

h

It is of importance that the student of Chess should know the board very accurately; he should be able to visualize each square in its individual position as well as in its relations to its neighboring squares. For this reason the board has been divided into three regions: the middle and the two wings. The left wing is composed of the first and second Iine to the left, the right wing in the same way by the two extreme lines on the right hand, and the middle is formed by the four remaining lines, the third, fourth, fifth and sixth. In the centre of this middle, four squares are situated , which form the intersection of the fourth and fifth line with the fourth and fifth row. These four squares in the

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centre of the board have, for strategic purposes, the greatest significance. To describe the events on the Chessboard briefly and exactly, a name has been given to every one of the 64 squares; in olden times a descriptive name, in our time, where the science of Nature and of Mathematics has become so prominent. a mathematical name. This mathematical name reminds us of a system of coordinates in the manner as introduced by Descartes. Accordingly, the eight lines, running upwards, are successively designated by the numbers 1,2, 3. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and the eight rows running from left to right, are successively designated by the letters a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h. The "a" line, "b" line, through the "h" line is therefore a certain line; the first row, second row, through the eighth row is a certain row. Since each square belongs to one line and to one row only, its line and row unambiguously designate it. For instance, "b5" is that one square on the b file that belongs to the fifth row. Accord ing to custom the letter precedes the number: one writes b5, never 5b. Thus this notation has the advantage of naming each square without ambiguity. Of the other notation, the descriptive one, which is in use in many countries and also in the Anglo-Saxon world, we shall speak more fully later on. In the mathematical notation; the division of the board described above would read as follows : the left wing "a" and "b" files, the right wing "g" and "h" files, the middle c, d, e, f line, the centre d4, d5, e4, e5. The boundary of the board is formed by the "a" file, the "h" file, the first rank, the eighth rank. The corners are aI, a8, hI, and h8. The student should endeavor to acquire the habit of designating the squares and of visualizing their position. There are many Chess players who fail merely from their incapacity to master this geometrical task, not suspecting its value.

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The Chess Pieces The annies combating each other on the board consist of Black and White pieces. The White pieces form the one side, the Black pieces the antagonistic side. The two sides are briefly called White and Black. The colouring of the piece therefore determines its obedience and fidelity. unconditionally. A piece never deserts to the enemy, nor does it ever rebel; it is faithful unto death . True, if it falls in combat it wanders from the board merely into a box where the captured pieces are kept unti I the next game; then it celebrates a merry and hopeful resurrection. White and Black have equal forces. Each has a King, a Queen. two Rooks (or Castles), two Bishops, two Knights, and eight Pawns. Either party, therefore, counts sixteen pieces. The pieces stand on the board until they are captured, each piece on one square, no two pieces on the game square. At the start of the game the pieces are placed in a determined position shown hereafter, and then they are moved, the players moving alternately. Thus a struggle of the Chess pieces takes place according to determinate rules, until the King ofa party is captured by force or the contestants agree upon a drawn issue. The pieces are usually carved of wood . The King has the appearance of a crowned monarch, the Queen bears a sma Iler crown, the Rooks or Castles suggest sturdy castles, the Bishops have a characteristic headdress, the Knights show a horse's head, and the Pawn is like a man without distinction, a man ofthe crowd. a common soldier. The move consists in transferring a piece from one square to another. White "moves" a white piece, Black a black one. Sometimes two pieces are thus put into motion, namely, when a hostile piece is "captured," i.e., removed from the board, or in "Castling," or in "Queening" a Pawn, terms which \vill be explained later. All of this is executed according to fixed rules which the player is constrained to obey.

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Using Chess Clocks The Chess Clock A chess clock is a pair of timers which are linked so that pressing the button on one clock will stop that clock and simultanollsly start the other one. The buttons can also be pressed half way down, stopping both clocks. The spinner rotates continuously for which ever clock is tUl'lled on. When the minute hand approaches the 12 o'clock position it begins lifting the flag, and when it reaches 12 o'e lock exactly, the flag falls.

Setting up the Clock Regardless of the time controls to be used, the hour hand starts at 6 o'clock on each clock. The minute hand is set so that time will expire when it reaches 12 o'clock. For example, for a 10 minute speed chess game, the minute hands will be set at 10 o'clock, while for a 90 minute game the minute hands would be set at 6 o'clock, expiring the second time the flag falls. Play begins with both clocks stopped when black starts white's clock. Each time a player moves, he will press his button stopping his clock and starting his opponent's clock.

Win, Lose, or Draw by Time If a player's time expires, he loses. The exception to this rule is when a player's time expires after his opponent has been reduced to only a king, in which-case the game is a draw.

Normal Time Controls Time controls can be set to anything the players agree to, but tournaments will have set time controls and there are a few standards which should serve as a guide. Most time controls require that the game be recorded in order to keep accurate track of how many moves have been played. Also, the controls which add a certain number of seconds per move require digital chess

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clocks which have a special function for this . The Laws of Chess cannot cover all possible situations that may arise during a game, nor can they regulate all administrative questions. Where cases are not precisely regulated by an Article of the Laws, it should be possible to reach a correct decision by studying analogous situations which are discussed in the Laws. The Laws assume that arbiters have the necessary competence, soundjudgement and absolute objectivity. Too detailed a rule might deprive the arbiter of his freedom of judgement and thus prevent him from finding the solution to a problem dictated by fairness, logic and special factors.

The nature and objectives of the game of chess The game of chess is played between two opponents who move pieces alternately on a square board called a 'Chessboard' . The player with the white pieces commences the game. A player is said to 'have the move', when his opponent's move has been completed. The objective of each player is to place the opponent's king 'under attack' in such a way that the opponent has no legal move which would avoid the 'capture' of the King on the following move. The player who achieves this is said to have 'checkmated' the opponent and to have won the game. The opponent who has been checkmated has lost the game. If the position is such that neither player can possibly checkmate, the game is drawn .

The initial position of the pieces on the chessboard The chessboard is composed of an 8x8 grid of 64 equal squares alternately light (the 'white' squares) and dark (the 'black' squares). The chessboard is placed between the players in such a way that the near corner square to the right of the player is white. At the beginning of the game one player has 16 light coloured pieces (the 'white' pieces); the other has 16 dark coloured pieces

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(the 'black' pieces): These pieces are as follows:

White: A white King, A wh ite Queen, Two white Rooks, Two white Bishops, Two white Knights, Eight white Pawns. Black:

A black King, A black Queen, Two black Rooks, Two black Bishops, Two black Knights, Eight black Pawns. The initial position of the pieces on the chessboard is as follows: The eight vertical columns of squares ate called 'files'. The eight horizontal rows of squares are called 'ranks'. A straight line of squares of the same colour, touching corner to corner, is called a 'diagonal'.

The moves of the pieces No piece can be 11l0ved to a square occupied by a piece of the same colour. If a piece moves to a square occupied by an opponent's piece the latter is captured and removed from the chessboard as part of the same move. A piece is said to attack a square if the piece could make a capture on that square.

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a.

The Queen moves to any square along the file, the rank or a diagonal on which it stands:

b.

The Rook moves to any square along the file or the rank on which it stands:

c.

The Bishop moves to any square along a diagonal on which it stands:

When making these moves the Queen, Rook or Bishop cannot move over any intervening pieces. The Knight moves to one of the squares nearest to that on which it stands but not on the same rank, file or diagonal. It does not pass directly over any intervening square. a.

The Pawn moves forward to the unoccupied square immediately in front of it on the same fi Ie, or

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b.

on its first move the Pawn may advance two squares along the same file provided both squares are unoccupied. or

c.

the Pawn moves to a square occupied by an opponent's piece whic" is diagonally in front of it on an adjacent fi le("x "), capturing that piece.

d.

A Pawn attacking a square crossed by an opponent's Pawn which has advanced two squares in one move from its original square may capture this opponent's Pawn as though the latter had been moved only one square. This capture can be made only on the move following this advance and is called an 'en passant' capture.

e.

When a Pawn reaches the rank furthest from its starting position it must be exchanged as part of the same move for a Queen, Rook, Bishop or Knight of the same colour. The player's choice is not restricted to pieces that have been captured previously. This exchange of a Pawn for another piece is called 'promotion' and the effect of the new piece is immediate.

(a) The King can move in two different ways, by: a.

moving to any adjoining square that is not attacked by one or more of the opponent's pieces,

b.

'castling'. This is a move of the King and either rook of the same

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colour on the Before white kingside casthng After white kingside casthn~ same rank, counting as a single move of the King and executed as follows : the Before black kings,de castl111~ Atier black kings,de castling King is transferred Before black qlleenside castl111!! Atiel black qlleens,de castling from its original square two squares towards the Rook, then that Rook IS transferred Before white qlleenside castling After whi te qlleenside castling over the King to the square the King has just crossed. (1) Castling is illegal: a. if the King has already been moved, or

b.

with a Rook that has already been moved

(2) Castling is prevented for the time being: c. if the square on which the King stands, or the square which it must cross, or the square which it is to occupy, is attacked " by one or more of the opponent's pieces.

d.

if there is any piece between the King and the Rook with f which castling is to be effected.

e

The King is said to be 'in check', if it is under attack by one or more of the opponent's pieces, even if such pieces cannot themselves move. Declaring a check is not obligatory.

A player must not make a move which places or leaves his own King in check.

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The act of moving the pieces Each move must be made with one hand only. Provided that he first expresses his intention (e.g. by saying tlj'adoube tl ), the player having the move may adjust one or more pieces on their squares . 4.3

Except as provided, if the player having the move deliberately touches on the chessboard:

a.

one or more pieces of the same colour, he must move or capture the first piece touched that can be moved or captured, or

b.

one piece of each colour, he must capture the opponent's piece with his piece or, if this is illegal, move or capture the first piece touched which can be moved or captured. If it is unClear the player's own piece shall be considered to have been touched before his opponent's.

a.

If a player deliberately touches his King and Rook he must castle on that side if it is legal.

b.

If a player deliberately touches a Rook and then his King he is not allowed to castle on that side on that move and the situation shall be governed.

c.

If a player, intending to castle touches the King or King and Rook at the same time, but castling on that side is illegal, the player must choose either to castle on the other side, provided that castling on that side is legal, or to move his king. If the King has no legal move, the player is free to make any legal move.

If none of the pieces touched can be moved or captured, the player may make any legal move. If the opponent violates, the player cannot claim this after he himself deliberately touches a piece. When, as a legal move or part of a legal move, a piece has been released on a square, it cannot then be moved to another square. The move is considered to be made when all the relevant

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requirements have been fulfilled.

The completed game a.

The game is won by the player who has checkmated his opponent's King with a legal move. This immediately ends the game.

h.

The game is won by the player whose opponent declares he resigns. This immediately ends the game.

The game is drawn when the player to move has no legal move and his King is not in check. The game is said to end in 'stalemate'. This immediately ends the game. The game is drawn upon agreement between the two players during the game. This immediately ends the game. The game may be drawn if the identical position is about to appear or has appeared on the chessboard three times. The game may be drawn if the last 50 consecutive moves have been made by each player without the movement of any Pawn and without the capture of any piece.

Tournament Rules The Chess clock 'Chess clock' means a clock with two time displays, connected to each other in such a way that only one of them can run at one time. 'Clock' in the Laws of Chess means one of the two time displays. 'Flag fall' means the expiry of the allotted time for a player. When using a chess clock, each player must make a certain number or all moves in an allotted period of time ane/or may be allocated an additional amount of time after each move. All this must be specified in advance. The time saved by a player during one period is added to his time available for the next period, except in the 'time delay' mode. In the time delay mode both players receive an allotted 'main thinking time'. They also receive a 'fixed extra time' for every

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move. The count down of the main time only commences after the fixed time has expired. Provided the player stops his clock before the expiry of the fixed time, the main thinking time does not change, irrespective of the proportion of the fixed time used. Each time display has a 'flag'. Immediately after a flag falls, the requirements must be checked. The arbiter decides where the Chess clock is placed. At the time determined for the start of the game the clock of the player who has the white pieces is started. The player shall lose the game if he arrives at the chessboard more than one hour after the scheduled start of the session (unless the rules of the competition specify or the arbiter decides otherwise). a.

During the game each player, having made his move on the chessboard, shall stop his own clock and start his opponent's clock. A player must always be allowed to stop his clock. His move is not considered to have been completed until he has done so, unless the made move ends the game.

The time between making the move on the chessboard and stopping his own clock and starting his opponent's clock is regarded as part of the time allotted to the player. b.

A player must stop his clock with the same hand as that with which he made his move. It is forbidden to keep the finger on the button or to 'hover' over it.

c.

The players must handle the chess clock properly. It is forbidden to punch it forcibly, to pick it up or to knock it over. Improper clock handling shall be penalized.

A flag is considered to have fallen when the arbiter observes the fact or when a valid claim to that effect has been made by either player. Except apply, if a player does not complete the prescribed number of moves in the allotted time, the game is lost by the player. However, the game is drawn, if the position is such that the opponent cannot checkmate the player by any possible series of legal moves, even. with the most unskilled counterplay). Every indication given by the clocks is considered to be

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conclusive in the absence of any evident defect. A Chess clock with an evident defect shall be replaced. The arbiter shall use his best judgement when determining the times to be shown on the replacement chess clock. Ifboth flags have fallen and it is impossible to establish which flag fell first, the game shall continue. a.

If the game needs to be interrupted, the arbiter shall stop the clocks.

b.

A player may stop the clocks in order to seek the arbiter's assistance.

c.

The arbiter shall decide when the game is to be restarted.

If an irregularity occurs and/or the pieces have to be restored to a previous position, the arbiter shall use his best judgement to determine the times to be shown on the clocks. Screens, mon itors, or demonstration boards showing the current position on the chessboard, the moves and the number of moves made, and clocks which also show the number of moves, are allowed in the playing hall. However, the player may not make a claim based on anything shown in this manner.

Illegal positions a. If during a game it is found that the initial position of the pieces was incorrect, the game shall be cancelled and a new game played. b.

If during a game it is found that the only error is that the chessboard has been placed, the game continues but the position rea~hed must be transferred to a correctly placed chessboard.

If a game has begun with colours reversed then it shall continue, unless the arbiter rules otherwise. If a player displaces one or more pieces, he shall re-establish the correct position on his own time. If necessary the opponent has the right to restart the player's clock without making a move

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in order to make sure the player re-establishes the correct position on his own time. If during a game it is found that an illegal move has been made. or that pieces have been displaced from their squares, the position before the irregularity shall be re-instated. Ifthe position immediately before the irregularity cannot be identified the game shall continue from the last identifiable position prior to the irregularity. The clocks shall be adjusted and, in the case of an Illegal move, the move replacing the illegal move. The game shall then continue.

The recording of the moves In the course of play each player is required to record his own moves and those of his opponent, move after move, as clearly and legibly as possible. in the algebraic notation, on the score sheet prescribed for the competition. A player may reply to his opponent's move before recording it, if he so wishes. He must record his previous move before making another. The offer of a draw must be recorded on the score sheet by both players. If a player due to physical or religious reasons, is unable to keep score, an amount of time, decided by the arbiter, shall be deducted from his allotted time at the beginning of the game. The score sheet shall be visible to the arbiter at all times. The score sheets are the property of the organisers of the event. If a player has less than five minutes left on his clock and does not have additional time of30 seconds or more added with each move, then he is not obliged to meet the requirements. Immediately after one flag has fallen the player must update his score sheet completely. a.

If neither player is required to keep score, the arbiter or an assistant should try to be present and keep score. In this case, immediately after one flag has fallen, the arbiter shall stop the clocks. Then both players shall update their score sheets, using the arbiter's or the opponent's score sheet.

b.

If only one player is not required to keep score under Article

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8.4, he must update his score sheet completely as soon as a flag has fal1en. Provided it is the player's move, he may use his opponent's score sheet. The player is not permitted to move until after he has completed his own scoresheet and returned his opponent's. c.

If no complete scoresheet is available, the players must reconstruct the game on a second chessboard under the control of the arbiter or an assistant, who shall first record the actual game position before reconstruction takes place.

If the score sheet cannot be brought up to date showing that a player has overstepped the allotted time, the next move made shall be considered as the first of the following time period, unless there is evidence that more moves have been made.

The drawn game A player can propose a draw after making a move on the chessboard. He must do so before stopping his own clock and starting his opponent's clock. An offer at any other time during play is still valid"must be considered. No conditions can be attached to the offer. In both cases the offer cannot be withdrawn and remains valid until the opponent accepts it, rejects it orally, rejects it by making a move, or the game is concluded in some other way. The offer of a draw shall be noted by each player on his scoresheet with the symbol (=). The game is drawn, upon a correct claim by the player having the move, when the same position, for at least the third time (not necessarily by repetition of moves): a.

is about to appear, ifhe first writes his move on his scoresheet and declares to the arbiter his intention to make this move, or

b.

has just appeared.

Positions as in (a) and (b) are considered the same, ifthe same player has the move, pieces of the same kind and colour occupy the same squar~s, and the possible moves of all the pieces of both

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players are the same. Positions are not the same if a Pawn could have been captured en passant or if the right to castle immediately or in the future has been changed. The game is drawn, upon a correct claim by the player having the move. if: a.

he writes on his scoresheet, and declares to the arbiter his intention to make a move which shaIl result in the last 50 moves having been made by each player without the movement of any pawn and without the capture of any piece. or

b.

the last 50 consecutive moves have been made by each player without the movement of any Pawn and without the capture of any piece.

If the player makes a move without having claimed the draw he loses the right to claim, on that move. If a player claims a draw as he shall immediately stop both clocks. He is not allowed to withdraw his claim: a.

If the claim is found to be correct the game is imlJlediately drawn.

b.

If the claim is found to be incorrect, the arbiter shall deduct half of the claimant's remaining time up to a maximum of three minutes and add three minutes to the opponent's remaining time. Then the game shall continue and the intended move must be made.

The game is drawn when a position is reached from which a checkmate cannot occur by any possible series of legal moves, even with the most unskilled play. This immediately ends the game.

Quickplay Finish A 'quickplay finish' is the last phase of a game, when all the remaining moves must be made in a limited time. If the player has less than two minutes left on his clock, he may claim a draw before his flag falls. He shall stop the clocks

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and summon the arbiter. a.

If the arbiter is satisfied the opponent is making no effort to win the game by normal means, or that it is not possible to win by normal means, then he shall declare the game drawn. Otherwise he shall postpone his decision.

b.

If the arbiter postpones his decision, the opponent may be awarded two extra minutes thinking time and the game shall continue in the presence of the arbiter.

c.

Having postponed his decision, the arbiter may subsequently declare the game drawn, even after a flag has fallen.

Illegal moves do not necessarily lose. After the action taken, for a first illegal move by a player the arbiter shall give two minutes extra time to his opponent; for a second illegal move by the same player the arbiter shall give another two minutes extra time to his opponent; for a third illegal move by the same player, the arbiter shall declare the game lost by the player who played incorrectly. Ifboth flags have fallen and it is impossible to establish which flag fell first the game is drawn.

Scoring A player who wins h is game scores one point (1), a player who loses his game scores no points (0) and a player who draws his game scores a half point (1/2).

The conduct of the players High standards of etiquette are expected of the players. During play the players are forbidden to make use of any notes, sources of information, advice, or to analyze on another chessboard. The scoresheet shall be used only for recording the moves, the times of the clocks, the offer of a draw, and matters relating to a clailT'. No analysis is permitted in the playing area when play is in progress, whether by players or spectators. Players who have finished their games shall be considered to be spectators.

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The players are not allowed to leave the 'playing venue' without permission from the arbiter. The playing venue is defined as the playing area, rest rooms, refreshment area, area set aside for smoking and other places as designated by the arbiter. The player having the move is not allowed to leave the playing area without permission of the arbiter. It is forbidden to distract or annoy the opponent in any manner whatsoever; this includes the persistent offer of a draw. Infraction of any part shaIl lead to penalties. The game is lost by a player who persistently refuses to comply with the Laws of Chess. The opponent's score shall be decided by the arbiter. If both players are found guilty, the game shall be declared lost by both players.

The role of the arbiter The arbiter shall see that the Laws of Chess are strictly observed. The arbiter shall act in the best interest of the competition. He should ensure that a good playing environment is maintained and that the players are not disturbed. He shall supervise the progress of the competition. The arbiter shall observe the games, especially when the players are short of time, enforce decisions he has made and impose penalties on players where appropriate. Penalties open to the arbiter include:

a.

a warning,

b.

increasing the remaining time of the opponent,

c.

reducing the remaining time of the offending player,

d.

declaring the game to be lost,

e.

expulsion from the event.

The arbiter may award either or both players additional time in the event of external disturbance of the game. The arbiter must not intervene in a game to indicate the number of moves made, when at least one player has used all his time. The arbiter shall refrain from informing a player that his

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opponent has made a move. or that he has fai led to press his clock. Spectators and players in other games are not to speak about or otherwise interfere in a game. If necessary, the arbiter may expel offenders from the playing venue.

All India Chess Federation The All India Chess Federation CAICF) is the central administrative body for the game of chess in India. The AICF was founded in 1951 with its headquarters in Bombay. The Chess Federation is affiliated to FIDE, the world body for chess. The Federation has now under its fold more than 30 affiliated state associations, 16 special members and 23 recognized academies as its constituents. The AICF deserves accolades for their zealous efforts to promote the game in India. The Federation has played an active role in identifying new talents and ensuring quality competition in the domestic level. Such energetic organizing has paid rich dividends as India has made a name for producing precocious chess prodigies. Besides the thriving national circuit, AICF has also played host to a number of major world events in India like the World Junior Championships, the Commonwealth Championships and Asian Team Championships.

Chess - Relevance to the Visually Impaired Chess is a mind game, which was patronized by rajas and maharajas, has become a part of the Indian tradition. Who can forget the well-etched Premchand's 'Shatranj ke Khiladi', in verse or cinematic form? Right to this day, chess is being played by a large number of Indians across demographic barriers. Grandmasters like Vishwanathan Anand. Sashikiran, Hari Krishnan, Koneru Hampi and Harika have been champions of the game. Given the right exposure to tournaments, the accessibility to study material and computers, visually challenged can outperform the sighted in this game and also produce a World Champion in

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a few years. Chess is particularly relevant for visually challenged person. It is the only game that the visually impaired can play against the sighted on an equal footing. In fact, visually impaired players have pitted their wits and outshined against sighted players in open tournaments. After all, it is the battle of the minds!

Hockey Introduction

to

Hockey

Hockey or Field Hockey as it is known in some parts of the world, is a stick and ball game with origins dating back thousands of years. It is traditionally played on grass, but more often these days - especially at the top levels and in certain countries - hockey is played on synthetic surfaces. In hockey, two teams of II players compete against each other using their 'hooked' sticks to hit, push, pass and dribble a small, hard, usually white, ball, with one aim in mind - to score by getting the ball into the opponents' goa\. To do that, they have to get the ball past the other team's goalkeeper, who protects the goal, and logically, tries to keep the ball out! Field hockey is a popular sport for men and women in many countries around the world. Its official name and the one by which it is usually known is hockey. However in some countries and in some encyclopedic references by way of distinguishing it from other sports with the same name it is formally known as Field hockey. Hockey has several regular and prestigious international tournaments for both men and women. These events include the Olympic Games, the quadrennial Hockey World Cups, the annual Champions Trophies and World Cups for juniors. Indian and Pakistani national teams dominated men's hockey until the early 1980s, winning four of the first five world cups, but have become less prominent recently with The Netherlands,

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Germany, Australia and Spain gaining importance since the late 1980s. Other strong men's hockey playing nations include Argentina, England and South Korea. The Netherlands was the predominant international women's team before hockey was added to Olympic events. In the early 19905. Austral ia emerged as the strongest women's country although retirement of a number of key players has weakened the team. Other important women's teams are India, China, Korea. Argentina and Germany. The International Hockey Federation (FIH) is the global governing body of the sport. It organizes major international field hockey events such as the Hockey World Cup and Women's Hockey World Cup. The Hockey Rules Board under FIH is responsible for producing rules for the sport. Many countries have extensive club competitions for both junior and senior players. Despite the large number of participants. club hockey is not a particularly large spectator sport and few players can afford to play professionally. In North America field hockey is widely regarded as a girls' and women's sport, especially as many schools and universities field teams. However, there are many men's and mixed leagues, especially in Canada. In Argentina, despite the strength of the men's national side. it is widely considered to be a women's sport. In those countries where winter conditions prevent play outdoors field hockey is played indoors during the off-season. This indoor variant, known as indoor field hockey, differs from its outdoor parent in a number of respects. For example, it is 6-a-side rather than 11, the field of play is vastly reduced to approximately 40m x 20m; the shooting circles are 9m not 14.63m: players may not raise the ball outside the circle nor hit it. The sidelines are also replaced with barriers to rebound the ball off. Games played with curved sticks and a ball have been found throughout history and the world. For example. there are 4000-

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year-old drawings in Egypt of the game being played, hurling dates back to before 1272 B.C. and there is a depiction from 500 B.C. in Ancient Greece. There were various hockey-like games throughout Europe during the Middle Ages and the word 'hockey' was recorded in the Galway Statutes of 1527. The modern game of hockey grew from the game played in English public schools in the early 19th century. The first club was created in 1849 at Blackheath in south-east London, but the modern rules grew out ofa version of hockey played by members of Middlesex cricket clubs for winter sport. Teddington Hockey Club, arguably, formed the modern game that we know today by introducing the striking circle and changing the ball to a sphere from a rubber cube. The Hockey Association was founded in 1886. The first international took place in 1895 (Ireland 3. Wales 0) and the International Rules Board was founded in 1900. Hockey was played at the Summer Olympics in 1908 and 1920. It was dropped in 1924, leading to the foundation of the Federation Internationale de Hockey sur Gazon (FIH) as an international governing body by seven continental European nations, and hockey was reinstated in 1928. Men's hockey united under the FIH in 1970. The two oldest trophies in world hockey are the Irish Senior Cup, which I st XI teams compete for, and the Irish Junior Cup, for which only 2nd string sides can compete. The game had been taken to India by British servicemen and the first clubs formed in Calcutta in 1885. The Beighton Cup and the Aga Khan tournament had commenced within ten years. Entering the Olympic Games in 1928, India won all five of its games without conceding a goal and went on to win from 1932 until 1956 and then in 1964 and 1980. Pakistan won in 1960, 1968 and 1984. In the early 1970s artificial turf fields began to be used in competition. The introduction of synthetic pitches, instead of grass, has completely changed most aspects of hockey. The game, as

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weI! as the material used to play, has taken a definitive turn, gaining mainly in speed. In order to take into account the specificities of this surface. new tactics and new techniques (such as the Indian dribble) have been developed, often followed by the establishment of new rules to take account of these techniques. The switch to synthetic surfaces essentially ended Indian and Pakistani domination of the sport because artificial turf was far more expensive than grass, too expensive for the two countries to implement widely-in comparison to the wealthier European countries-and since the 1970s Australia. The Netherlands and Germany have dominated the sport at the Olympics. Women do not seem to have played hockey widely before the modern era. Women's hockey was first played at British Universities and schools, and the first club, Molesey Ladies Hockey Club, was founded in 1887. The first national association was the Irish Ladies Hockey Union in 1894, and though rebuffed by the Hockey Association. women's hockey grew rapidly around the world. This led h) Ihe formation of the International Federation of Women's HOI:'-.cy Ihsociations (IFWHA) in 1927, though this did not include inili,llly many continental European countries where women played as sections of men's associations and were affi liated to the FIH. The IFWHA held conferences every three years. and the tournaments associated with these were the primary IFWHA competitions. These tournaments were non-competitive until 1975. By the early 1970s there were 22 associations with women's sections in the FIH and 36 associations in the IFWHA. Discussions were started about a common rule book. The FIH introduced competitive tournaments in 1974, forcing the acceptance of the principle of competitive hockey by the IFWHA in 1973. It took until 1982 for the two bodies to merge, but this allowed the introduction of women's hockey to the Olympic games from 1980 where, as in the men's game, The Netherlands, Germany. and Australia have been consistently strong. Argentina has also emerged as a team to be reckoned with since 2000. winning medals at the

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last two Olympics. and the World Championship in 2002.

The field Most hockey field dimensions were originally fixed using whole numbers of imperial measures. Nevertheless, metric measurements are now the current official dimensions of the field of play as laid down by the International Hockey Federation (FIH) in the "Rules of Hockey 2007". It is these dimensions that are given in this article, with the imperial units in parentheses. The game is played between two teams of eleven players on a 91.40 m x 55 m (100 x 60 yard) rectangular field. At each end there is a goal 2.14 m (7 feet) high and 3.66m (12 feet) wide, and an approximately semi-circular area 14.63 m (16 yards) from the goal known as the shooting circle (or 0 or arc), bounded by a solid line, with a dotted line 5m (5 yards 5.6 inches - this marking was not established until after metric conversion) from that, as well as lines across the field 22.90 m (25 yards) from each end-line and in the center of the field. A spot, called the penalty spot or stroke mark, is placed 6.40 m (7 yards) from the center of each goal. Traditional grass pitches are far less common in modern hockey with most hockey being played on synthetic sl:"faces. Since the 1970s sand based pitches were favoured as they dnmatically speed up the pace of the game. However, in recent years there has been a massive increase in the number of 'water based' artificial turfs. Water based astro turfs enab ' :! the ball to be transferred more qu ickly than on the original s(l.ld based surfaces and it is this characteristic that has made them the surface of choice for international and national league competitions. Water based surfaces are also less abrasive than the sand based variety and hence reduce the level of injury to players when they come into contact with the surface. The FIH are now proposing that new surfaces being laid should be of a hybrid variety which require less watering. Thi5> is due to the negative ecological effects of the high water n:quirements of water based astros.

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Players are permitted to play the ball with any part of the stick other than the rounded side (back). The flat side is always on the "natural" side for a right-handed person - there are no "Iefthanded" hockey sticks (for actual use in play. some have been made as novelties).

Positions Teams consist of eleven players on the field, and up to five substitutes. Substitutions are not limited but may not be made during a penalty corner. There are no set positions (even a goalkeeper is not required under the 2007 rules), but most teams arrange themselves (in a similar way to football (soccer) teams) into fullbacks (defence), midfielders (halfback) and forwards (front line). Many teams include a single sweeper. The rules do not specify a minimum number of players for a match to take place, but most competitions have some local ruling on this, with seven players being a common minimum. One player from each team may be designated the goalkeeper. Goalkeepers must wear a suitable helmet with full face mask and are also permitted to wear protective padding, including large leg guards. kickers and gloves. Although goalkeepers may block or deflect the ball with any part of their bodies, and propel the ball with their feet (and from 2007 any other part of their equipment in a "goal-saving action"), they must always carry a stick, and normal stick ru les apply. Goalkeepers are permitted to play the ball outside their defensive circle (scoring area or "0"), but must only use the stick in this circumstance. Fully protected goalkeepers are prohibited from passing their side's defensive 23m line during play, unless they are· taking a penalty stroke.

General play For the purposes of the rules, all players on the team in possession of the ball are attackers, and those on the team without the ball are defenders.

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The match is officiated by two field umpires. Traditionally each umpire generally controls half of the field, divided roughly diagonally. These umpires are often assisted by a technical bench including a timekeeper and record keeper. Prior to the start of the game, a coin is tossed and the winning captain can choose a starting end or start with the ball. The game time is divided into two equal halves of35 minutes each, with five minutes for half-time. At the start of each half, as well as after goals are scored, play is started with a pass from the centre of the field. All players must start in their defensive half, but the ball may be played in any direction along the floor. Each team starts with the ball in one half. and the team that conceded the goal has possession for the restart. Field players may only play the ball with the face of the stick. Tackling is permitted as long as the tackler does not make contact with the attacker or his stick before playing the ball (contact after the tackle may also be penalised if the tackle was made from a position where contact was inevitable). Further, the player with the ball may not deliberately use his body to push a defender out of the way. Field players may not play the ball with their feet. but if the ball accidentally hits the feet, and the player gains no benefit from the contact, then the contact is not penalised. Although there has been a change in the wording of this rule from I January 2007, the current FIH umpires' briefing instructs umpires not to change the way they interpret this rule. Obstruction typically occurs in three circumstances - when a defender comes between the player with possession and the ball without first performing a legitimate tackle; when a defender's stick comes between the attacker's stick and the bailor makes contact with the attacker's stick; and also when (usually deliberately) blocking the opposition's passage to the ball (called third party obstruction ).

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When the ball passes over the sidelines, it is returned to play with a sideline hit, taken by a member of the team whose players were not the last to touch the ball before crossing the sideline. If it crosses the backline after last touched by an attacker, a 15 m hit. A 15 m hit is also awarded for offenses committed by the attacking side within 15 m of the end of the pitch they are attacking.

Set plays Free Hits

Free hits are awarded when offences are committed outside the scoring circles. The ball may be hit or pushed once in any direction by the team offended against. However, the ball must not be judged to be intentionally raised by the umpire from a free hit, or the umpire can "reverse" the decision. This means that the team who were defending are now attacking, and can lead to swift counter attacks. Opponents must move 5 m from the ball when a free hit is awarded, and for attacking free hits within 5 m of the circle all attackers other than the one taking the hit must also be 5 m away. As mentioned above, a 15 m hit is awarded if an attacking player commits a foul forward of that line, or if the ball passes over the backline off an attacker. These hits are taken in line with where the foul was committed (taking a line parallel with the sideline between where the offence was committed, or the ball went out of play). If the attack commit a foul in the circle they are attacking, the defence additionally has the option to take the free hit anywhere in that circle. Long Corner

A long corner is awarded if the ball goes over the backline after last being touched by a defender. Long corners are played by the attacking team and involve a free hit on the sideline 5 m from the corner of the field closest to where the ball went out of play. In some areas these are also known as long hits. Penalty Corner

Hockey

The short or penalty corner is a rather complicated set play that is awarded against a defending team when they commit any offence in their defensive circle (that is not penalised by a Penalty Stroke), and may be awarded when a deliberate offence is committed in the defending 23 m area, or when the defending team deliberately plays the ball over the back line. Short corners begin with five defenders (including the keeper) arranged along the backline. All other defenders must return to the centre line until the ball is in play. Attacking players begin the play standing outside the scoring circle, except for one attacker who starts the corner by playing the ball from a mark 10m either side of the goal (the circle has a 14.63 m radius). This player puts the ball into play by pushing or hitting the ball to the other attackers outside the circle; the ball must pass outside the circle before the attackers attempt to get a shot or deflection into the goal. For safety reasons, the first shot of a penalty corner must not exceed 460mm high (the height of the "backboard" of the goal) at the point it crosses the goal line if it is hit. However, if the ball is deemed to below backboard height, the ball can be subsequently deflected above this height by another player (defender or attacker), providing that this deflection does not lead to danger. Note that the "Slap Hit" or "Slap" (a hitting motion, where the stick is kept on or close to the ground when hitting the ball) is classed as a hit for short corners, and so the first shot at goal must be below backboard height for this type of shot also. If the first shot at goal in a short corner situation is a push, flick or scoop, in particular the drag flick (which has become popular at international and national league standards) , the shot is permitted to rise above the height of the backboard, as long as the shot is not deemed dangerous to the defenders on the line. This form of shooting is becoming more and more popular as international level players are able to get nearly as much power through the drag-flick as a full blown hit on goal.

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Penalty Stroke A penalty stroke (often referred to as a PS, a flick, or just as a stroke) is awarded when defenders commit a deliberate foul in the circle which deprives an attacker of possession or the opportunity to play the ball, when any breach prevents a probable goal, or if defenders repeatedly "break" or start to run from the backline before a penalty comer has started. This penalty pits a single attacker against the goalkeeper, and is taken from a spot 6.4 m out and directly in front of the goal. The goalkeeper must stand with heels on the goal line, and cannot move his feet until the ball is played, whilst the striker must start behind the ball and within playing distance of it (in other words he must be able to touch the ball with his stick). On the umpire's whistle, the striker may push or flick the ball at the goal, which the goalkeeper attempts to save. The attacker is not permitted to take more than one shot, to fake or dummy the shot, or to move towards or interfere with the goalkeeper once the shot is taken. Hitting or dragging the ball is also forbidden. If the shot is saved, play is restarted with a 15 m hit to the defenders; if a goal is scored, play is restarted in the normal way. If the goalkeeper commits a foul which prevents a goal being scored, a penalty goal may be awarded, for other fouls by defenders, the result is normally that the stroke is retaken. If the taker commits a foul, it is treated as if the stroke has been saved, and play recommences with a 15 m hit. If another attacker commits a foul, then if a goal is scored it is voided, and the stroke retaken.

Dangerous play and raised balls If the ball is raised off the ground in a manner that is, in the umpire's opinion, dangerous, the ball is turned over to the other team and they receive a free hit. The free hit is taken where the action that caused the danger occurred (that is, not where the danger itself occurs). The definition of a "dangerous ball" is a matter of interpretation by the umpires. Guidance in the rules states "a bal1 is considered dangerous when it causes legitimate evasive

Hockey

2l. ;

------------------------------------------

action by players" - but it also depends on the speed of the ball, the height to which it is raised, and the number of players near its path.

It is, however, legal to raise the ball to make an aerial pass (the ball is flicked or scooped in the air, usually above head height), provided that the ball is both raised safely and brought down safely. The ball may only be lifted if the opposition players are further than Sm from the player raising the ball, and the ball is safely lifted above the players. Balls raised safely, but towards players of either side (usually below or about head height) are deemed dangerous. When receiving an aerial ball, the initial receiver (which ever side this player is on) must be given Sm to bring down the ball safely, before they can be challenged by an opposition player. If there are two or more players attempting to receive the ball (usually from opposite teams), and it is not clear which player was first to be in position to receive the ball, then a free hit is given to the defending team (the team that did not raise the ball). It is, however, legal to raise the ball when making a shot on goal (by hitting, flicking or scooping), but the shot must not be dangerous to any other players (for example, hitting the ball in the air towards goal with only the goalkeeper in the goal is safe-as the goalkeeper has protective padding, whereas hitting the ball in the air towards goal when there are a number of players between the striker and the goal can be classed as dangerous play). In general the ball may only deliberately be raised using a hit if the player is shooting at the goal.

It is not dangerous to I.ift the ball over an opponent's stick (or body), provided that the opponent is not required to take evasive action. For example, a skillful attacker may lift the ball over a defenders stick and run past them, however if the attacker lifts the ball into/at the defender's body, this would be classed dangerous. Dangerous play rules also apply with relation to the usage of the stick. Players may not attempt to play at the ball above their

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shoulders (unless saving a goal). It will generally be considered dangerous play to hit the ball while it is in the air; the ball must be controlled first in th is circumstance.

Warnings and suspensions Hockey uses a three-tier card system of warnings and suspensions: •

A Green card is a warning.

•

A Yellow card is a temporary suspension, just like in rugby football, nonnally for a minimum of5 minutes duration without substitution. (In some modes, including indoor, shorter periods of suspension are applied, dependent on local rules).

•

A Red card, just like in association football, is a permanent exclusion from the rest of the game, without substitution, and in many circumstances will also result in the player being banned for a certain period of time or number of matches (this is governed by local playing conditions, rather than the rules of hockey).

Unlike football, a player may receive more than one green or yellow card. However they cannot receive the same card for the same offence (example two yellows for dangerous play), and the second must always be a more serious card. In the case of a second yellow card for a different breach of the rules, the temporary suspension would be expected to be of considerably longer duration than the first. However, local playing conditions may mandate that cards are awarded only progressively, and not allow any second awards. Umpires may also advance a free-hit by up to 10m for dissent or other misconduct after a penalty has been awarded; or, if the free-hit would have been in the attacking 23m area, upgrade the penalty to a penalty corner.

Scoring The teams' object is to play the ball into their attacking circle and, from there, hit, push or flick the ball into the goal, scoring a

HOCKC~

point. The team with more goals after two 35-minute halves wins the game. The playing time may be shortened, particu larty when younger players are involved, or for some tournament play.

Tie breaker Conditions for breaking ties are not laid down in the rules of hockey, but many associations will follow the procedure laid down in FIH tournament regulations which mandate 7.5 minutes each way of "golden goal" or "sudden death" extra time (i.e. the game ends as soon as one team scores). If scores are still level, then the game will be decided with penalty strokes, in much the same way that association football penalty shoot outs are conducted. Other competitions may use alternative means of breaking a tie, for example, an extended period of golden goal extra time with a progressive reduction in the number of players each team can have on the field (usually termed "drop-offs"); if no goal is scored at the end of such extra time periods, again a result would be achieved using penalty stroke~. Local rules

There are sometimes minor variations in rules from competition to competition; for instance, the duration of matches is often varied for junior competitions, or for carnivals. Different national associations also have slightly differing rules on player equipment. In the United States, NCAA have their own rules for intercollegiate competitions, and high school associations similarly play to different rules. This article assumes FIH rules unless otherwise stated. USA Field Hockey produces an annual summary of the differences.

Equipment Hockey Stick Each player carries a "stick", normally a little over 3 feet (90 centimetres) long and traditionally made of wood but now often made with fibreglass, kevlar and carbon fibre composites, with a

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rounded handle flattened on the left side and with a hook at the bottom. Metal may not be used in hockey sticks. Metal was allowed, but was banned due to excessive injuries. There was traditionally a slight curve (called the bow, or rake) from the top to bottom of the face side of the stick and another on the 'heel' edge to the top of the handle (usually made according to the angle at which the handle part was inserted into the splice of the head part of the stick), which assisted in the positioning of the stick head in relation to the ball and made striking the ball easier and more accurate. The hook at the bottom of the stick was only recently the tight curve that we have nowadays, the older 'English' sticks had a longer bend, making it very hard to use the stick on the reverse. For this reason players now use the tight curved sticks. It was recently discovered that increasing the depth of the face bow made it easier to get high speeds from the dragflick and made the stroke easier to execute. At first, after this feature was introduced, the Hockey Rules Board placed a limit of 50mm on the maximum depth of bow over the length of the stick but experience quickly demonstrated this to be excessive. New rules (2006) now limit this curve of the stick to 25mm so as to limit the power with which the ball can be flicked.

Hockey ball The ball is hard and of plastic (sometimes over a cork core) and is often covered with indentations to reduce hydroplaning that can cause an inconsistent ball speed on wet surfaces.

General player equipment Many players wear mouth guards to protect teeth and gums from impacts from the ball or stick. Some local rules require their use such as US high school competition. In these competitions, from the 2006 season, no clear or white mouth guards will be allowed: they have to be coloured. making it easier for umpires to confirm that the guards are being worn. Many players also wear

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shin guards, and again these may be required equipment in some areas. A few competitions, such as American high school competitions, require goggles (field hockey or lacrosse) to protect the eyes.

Goalkeeping equipment The 2007 rulebook has seen major changes regarding goalkeepers. A "fully-equ:pped goalkeeper" must wear a helmet, leg guards and kickers. Usually they wear extensive additional protective equipment incluJing chest guards, padded shorts, heavily padded hand protectors, groin protectors, neck guards, arm guards, and like all players, must carry a stick. However, such a player may not cross the 23m line (although they may remove their helmet and take a penalty stroke at the other end of the field). However, if the goalkeeper elects to wear only a helmet (and a different coloured shirt), they may cross the 23m line if they have removed their helmet (and placed it safely off the field of play). If play returns to the circle without them having opportunity to replace the helmet, this player stilI has "goalkeeping privileges", that is, they are not limited to using their stick to play the ball whilst it is in the circle. The helmet must be worn whilst defending penalty comers and penalty strokes. It is now also possible for teams to have a full eleven outfield players - and no goalkeeper at all. No player may wear a helmet or other goalkeeping equipment, nor will any player be able to play the ball other than with their stick. This may be used to offer a tactical advantage, or to allow for play to commence if no goalkeeper or kit is available.

Tactics The main methods by which the ball is moved around the field by players are: the "dribble", where the player controls the balI with the stick and runs with the ball, pushing the ball along as they run; The "push", where the player uses their wrists to push at the ball; the "flick" or "scoop", similarto the push but with an additional wrist

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action to force the stick through at an angle and lift the ball off the ground; and the "hit", where a backlift is taken and contact with the ball is made quite forcefully. In order to produce a much stronger hit, usually for travel over long distances. the stick is raised higher and swung at the ball, sometimes known as a "drive". Tackles are made by placing the stick into the path of the ball. To increase the effectiveness of the tackle, players will often place the entire stick close to the ground horizontally, thus representing a wider barrier. To avoid the tackle, the ball carrier will either pass the ball to a teammate using any of the push, flick, or hit, or attempt to maneuver or "drag" the ball around the tackle, trying to deceive the tackler. When passing and maneuvering between players, certain commands are used to ensure understanding of movements and plays among teammates. Although these vary depending on which country the game is in, there are a few standard calls. By calling "through" or "straight" the ball is passed straight ahead to another player. "Flat" or "square" signifies a pass made to the right or left of the player with the ball at a 90 degree angle. Passes made backward are occasionally signified by a call of "drop" . A hit made forward at an angle is recognized as "up" or "through". In recent years, the penalty corner has gained importance as a vital part of the game as a goal scoring opportunity. Particularly with the advent and popularisation of the drag flick, penalty corners are highly sought after. Some tactics or set plays used involve the aforementioned drag flick, the straight hit, deflections towards goal, and various, more complex plays, using passes before shots at goal. At the highest level, hockey is a fast-moving, highly skilled sport, with players using fast moves with the stick, quick accurate passing, and hard hits, in attempts to keep possession and move the ball towards the goal. While physically tackling and otherwise obstructing players is not permitted, coil isions are common, and the speed at which the ball travels along the ground (and sometimes through the air, which is legal if it is not judged dangerous by the

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umpire) requires the use of padded shin guards to prevent injury. Some of the tactics used resemble football (soccer), but with greater speed - the best players maneuver and score almost quicker than the eye can see.

Formations Formations provide structure to a hockey team on the pitch. They help players understand and share the defensive and attacking responsibilities. Although higher level teams may select from a wide range of formations, teams containing inexperienced players or teams which see frequent changes to their players are likely to select from a more limited range of formations such as 4-33, 5-3-2 and 4-4-2. (The numbers refer to the number of players arrayed across the pitch, starting in front of the goalkeeper with the defenders, then midfield and then attack.) The 2-3-5 formation, used predominantly in Australia from relatively lowly interschool to professional interstate competitions, provides common language for many players and helps explain why "centre hair' is often a name used for a player in the centre of a defence with 4 or 5 players. Because hockey teams have \ goalkeeper plus \ 0 outfield players as does association football (soccer). there are many common formations between the two sports. See formation (football ). One important difference in modern hockey is the absence of an offside rule. This allows attackers (often a lone attacker) to play well up the pitch, stretching the opponents' defence and using the large spaces to be found there. To counter this, defences usually keep a matching number of defenders near those attackers. This can frequently lead to formations such as 1-4-4-\ which is an adaptation of 5-4-\ .

Major International Tournaments The biggest two field hockey tournaments are undoubtedly the Olympic Games tournament, and the Hockey World Cup. which

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is also held every 4 years. Apart from this, there is the Champions Trophy held each year for the six top-ranked teams. Field hockey has also played been at the Commonwealth Games since 1998. Amongst the men, India has won 8 Olympic golds and Pakistan have lifted the World Cup 4 times. Amongst the women, Australia has 3 Olympic golds while Netherlands has clinched the World Cup 6 times. Sultan Azlan Shah Hockey Tournament held annually in Malaysia is becoming a prominent Hockey Tournament where teams from around the world participate to win the cup.

History

of

hockey

Field Hockey became popular in India when the British army regiments played the game while stationed within Indian lands. Not long after, Indian regiments also picked up the game and began playing regularly. The first Indian hockey club was formed in Calcutta in 1885-86, followed by Bombay and Punjab. In the Olympic Games, India played hockey for the first time at the 1928 Games held in Amsterdam, when they reached the final. In the final, India defeated Holland by three goals to nil.

The Indians brought a touch of magic to their play and their ball juggling feats were a sheer delight. The golden era of hockey in India was the period from 1928 to 1956 when India won 6 consecutive gold medals in the Olympic Games. During that era, India played 24 Olympic matches, winning all 24, scoring 178 goals and conceding only 7. In 1960 after 28 consecutive victories in the Olympic Games, India lost 0- I to Pakistan in the final at the Rome Olympics. India however won gold medal in 1964 Tokyo Olympics. However another gold medal for India came in the 1980 Moscow Olympics only and none thereafter so far.

Buried deep in Egypt's Nile Valley lies the village of Beni Hasan, known for its ancient cliff tombs dating from 2000 Be. A drawing decorates one tomb, showing two men holding sticks with curved ends and standing over a ball. Add synthetic turf and

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shin guards, and it might pass for hockey at the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games. One of the world's oldest known sports, hockey predates the Ancient Games of Olympia by perhaps 1200 years or more. Indeed, historians believe it existed in many of the world's early civilizations. The Arabs, Greeks, Romans, Persians and Ethiopians all played variations of the game. Several centuries before Christopher Columbus found his New World, the Aztec Indians were playing it in Central America. The Araucano Indians of Argentina invented a game similar to hockey called Cheuca, believing it would make them better warriors. Yet, the term 'hockey' is believed to be of French origin. A 16th century Irish document refers to 'hockie', but the term probably comes from the French hocquet. meaning 'a shepherd's crook.' The modem game we know as hockey - or field hockey, for those distinguishing it from ice hockey - evolved in the British Isles in the 19th century. It was a popular English school game, possibly adapted from the Irish game of hurling. The British army helped spread hockey internationally through the British Empire, its popularity especially booming in India and Pakistan. The London Hockey Association formed in 1886, and rules soon were standardised. The International Hockey Federation (FIH) formed in Paris in 1924, and the International Federation of Women's Hockey followed in 1927. Men's hockey first appeared at the 1908 Olympic Games in London. It reappeared in Antwerp in 1920, then returned to stay at the 1928 Amsterdam Games. Women's hockey waited much longer. finally debuting in 1980. Hockey-like games involving sticks and balls have been played for thousands of years by people such as the Egyptians. the Greeks, the Romans, the Irish. the Scots and the Indians of South America. Historical records show that a crude form of hockey was played in Egypt 4,000 years ago, and in Ethiopia around 1.000 BC

Sports

Various museums otfer evidence that a form of the game was played by Romans and Greeks, and by the Aztec Indians of South America several centuries before Columbus landed in the New World. The National Archaeological Museum in Athens holds a square marble slab measuring 60 cm x 20 cm with four bas-reliefs of ancient sporting events. One of these shows Athenian youths playing field hockey. These bas-reliefs date back to 514 Be and show that a type of hockey was being enjoyed in Greece at that time. This type of hockey, called "Keritizin" in ancient Greece, was very popular. Called such names as "paganica" by the Romans, "hurling" by the Irish and "shinty" by the Scots, the name "hockie" seems to have been first recorded in Ireland in 1527 and probably comes from the French word "hoquet" meaning "shepherds crook". Hockey in England in the 17th and 18th century consisted of whole villages playing the game with the objective of hitting the ball into the opposing villages' common ground. Teams often consisted of 60 to I 00 players and games occasionally lasted several days or so with injuries such as broken arms and legs not uncommon. Umpires could only arbitrate a decision ifcalled upon to do so by a player from one of the teams. (a situation that sounds familiar even in these days!) In 1852 the sports master of Harro\\. an Engl ish Publ ic School, advised his pupils that. among other things. no more than thirty players per team were allowed on the tield at anyone time. In those early days, team formation consisted of having more forwards than defenders, a situation that persisted up unti I the late 1800's. The game that we know today emerged at Eton College in England in the 1860s when the first rules were written down. Further rules werc written in 1875 when the first Hockey Association was formed. The game was played on a tield nearly 200 metres in length and all players chased the ball for the whole of the game. In I S86 the I eddlllgton Cricket Club effectively lead a movement

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which resulted in the British Hockey Association being formed which included amongst its rules a striking circle for hitting goals. Changes in rules and play quickly developed from this beginning and by 1889 the pyramid system - five forwards, three halves. two backs and a goalkeeper - became the accepted method of playing hockey. In 1890 the English, Irish and Welsh hockey associations formed the International Rules Board and umpires were given power to make decisions without waiting for players to appeal for a free hit - something that a large number of players have yet to learn. Hockey, or "Field Hockey" as it is also known, is now played in every continent with many nations competing in the three major competitions - The Olympic Games. The World Cup and The Champion's Trophy. Hockey was first played at the Olympic Games in 1908 when men's teams were included. Women's hockey was not included in the Olympics until 1980. Hockey was played at the Commonwealth Games for the first time in 1998 (unti I 1998. the Commonwealth Games were mainly individual sports - swimming. athletics, boxing, etc.. 1998 saw the introduction of four team sports and hockey was one of the four.) The first Olympic Hockey Competition for men was held in London in 1908 with England, Ireland and Scotland competing separately. After having made its first appearance in the 1908 Games, hockey was subsequently dropped from the 1912 Stockholm Games, and reappeared in 1920 in Antwerp before being omitted again in Paris in 1924. The Paris organisers refused to include hockey on the basis that the sport had no International Federation. Hockey had made its first steps toward an international federation when in 1909 the Hockey Association in England and the Belgium Hockey Association agreed to mutually recognise each other to regulate international hockey relations. The French Association followed soon after, but this was not considered

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sufficient for recognition as an international federation. Mr. Paul Leautey, a Frenchman who would become the first President of the FIH, was motivated to action following hockey's omission from the program of the 1924 Paris Games and hockey took its most important step forward when the International Hockey Federation, the world governing body for the sport, was founded in Paris in 1924 at his initiative. Mr. Leautey called together :-epresentatives from seven national federations to form the sport's international governing: body, the Federation Internationale de Hockey sur Gazon. The six founding members, which represented both men's and women's hod.ey in their countries, were Austria, Belgium, Czechoslovakia, France, Hungary, Spain and Switzerland. The women's game developed quickly in many countries and in 1927, the International Federation of Women's Hockey Associations (IFWHA) was formed. The founding members were Australia, Denmark, England, Ireland, Scotland, South Africa, thc United States and Wales. After celebrating their respective Goldcn Jubilees -- the FIH in 1974 and the IFWHA in 1980 -- the two organisations came together in 1982 to form the FIH. The growth of the International Hockey Federation from its early beginnings has been most impressive. Denmark joined in 1925, the Dutch men in 1926, Turkey in 1927, and in 1928 -- the year of the Amsterdam Olympics -- Germany_ Poland, Portugal and India joined. India's addition marked the mcmbership of the first non-European country. By 1964, there were already fifty countries affiliated with the FIH, as well as three continental associations -- Africa, Pan America and Asia -- and in 1974, there were 71 members. Today, the International Hockey Federation consists of live Continental associations -- f-.urope and Oceania have -.;incc joined -- and 119 member associations, the mo-.;t recent addition being the Bahamas Hockey Association which was admitted during the November 1996 FIH COllgress.

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Today. the work of the International Hockey Federation is accomplished through the efforts of the FIH President. Secretary General and Treasurer, working together with an Executive Board, the FIH Council, a number of instrumental Committees, and the professional staff in its Brussels headquarters. In many ways, the FlH serves as the "guardian" of the sport. It works in co-operation with both the national and continental organisations to ensure consistency and unity in hockey around the world. The FIH not only regulates the sport, but is also responsible for its development and promotion so as to guarantee a secure future for hockey.

How

to

play

Hockey

Player positions As already mentioned. every team must have a goalkeeper. The other 10 players are referred to as 'field players', and are dispersed over the field of play. The field players can be put into three general categories - attackers, defenders and midfielders. While no player (other than the goalkeeper) has an exclusively defined role, the attackers are generally on attack, the defenders are generally on defence, and the midfielders do a bit of both!

Stick handling An essential skill necessary for playing hockey is the ability to control. pass, push, stop and shoot the ball with your hockey stick. This is known as stick work, or stick handling. It is both beautiful and impressive to watch a player with good stick handling skills control the ball while sprinting the length of the field. or weave through the sticks and legs of defenders to create an open shot.

It is important to know that the head of a hockey stick has a rounded side (the right side) and a flat side (the left side). It is only with the flat. left hand side of the stick that you are permitted to play the ball.

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No Feet It may seem like common sense. but it is worth mentioning that in hockey, field players are not allowed to use their feet (or any other parts of their bodies for that matter) to control the ball. Only the goalkeeper is allowed to use stick. hands. feet etc. to stop the ball when defending in his or her own circle.

Scoring Scoring a goal in hockey is very interesting. There are only certain ways it can be done: from a Field Goal, from a Penalty Corner, and from a Penalty Stroke.

Field Goals A field goal is a goal scored from open, continuous play. Field goals may only be taken from the 'shooting circle'. a roughly semicircular area in front of the opponents' goal. If a ball is hit from outside the 'shooting circle' and goes into the goal. it does not count as a score.

Penalty Corners If a defending team breaks certain rules, the other team may be awarded a 'penalty corner.' Often (but not always) penalty corners are awarded because a team breaks a rule while defending in their 'shooting circle'. To take a penalty corner, play is stopped to allow the teams to take their positions in attack and defence. One attacker stands with the ball on a designated spot on the back-line. (It's the line that marks the shorter boundary of the field of play and on which the goal is placed.) This player will 'push out' the ball to other attackers, waiting to take a shot at goal. The other attackers usually wait at the top of the shooting circle to receive the ball. But in any case. all attackers have to be outside the shooting circle until the penalty corner begins. Up to five defenders (including the goalkeeper) position themselves behind the back-line (either inside or outside of the goal) to defend against the penalty corner. The rest of the defenders

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must stay behind the centre line until the 'push out' has been taken. The ball is 'pushed out' to the attacker waiting to receive it. Before a shot on goal can be taken, the ball must first be stopped outside the circle. After it is stopped, the receiver usually pushes it back into the circle for the first shot at goal. If the first shot is a hit (as opposed to other types of shots. like a 'flick' or a 'scoop'), the ball must enter into the goal at a height of no more than 460mm (or about 18 inches). It is usually pretty easy to tell if the ball is at the right height since the board at the back of the goal is the same height. When a goal is successfully scored, there is a familiar sound of the ball hitting the board, usually followed by players celebrating! If the first shot is a 'scoop' or a 'flick' - shots that are lifted into the air and thus usually a little slower than a hit - then the ball can cross the goal-line at any height, as long as it is not dangerous play. Once the attacker on the back-line begins to push the bailout, the defenders on the back line may move into the circle. and do their best to keep the other team from scoring. It's a long explanation, but in practice, it all happens very quickly, and is exciting to watch!

Penalty Strokes A penalty stroke is a shot taken on goal by a chosen player and defended only by the goalkeeper. (All other players must stand outside the circle, about 23 metres/25 yards back.) A penalty stroke may be awarded for a few reasons, the most common being an offence by a defender in the circle to prevent the probable scoring of a goal. The shot is taken from a spot 6.4 meters (7 yards) directly in front of the goal. Match time is stopped when a penalty stroke is being taken.

Duration of a match A regulation length hockey match lasts 70 minutes - which is broken into two halves of35 minutes each. The team with the most

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goals at the end of the 70 minutes is the winner. It is also possible for a match to end in a draw (or a tie). But in some matches - like in a tournament such as the World Cup or Olympics, or in a championship game - you must have a winner. In those cases, a match which is tied at the end of regulation time, then goes into extra time (the first team to score in extra time wins), and if necessary, to a penalty stroke competition.

Underwater Hockey U!1derwater hockey is a "breath-hold" sport. Players wear a mask, snorkel. fins along with a 12 inch hockey stick and padded glove. It is a "real" sport, with regional, national, and international tournaments. In these tournaments there are refs, timers and athletes with serious intent, but during "friendly" games and practice sessions, it is more like any other sport where people just get together and play without the formality and time structure of a tournament. There are quite a few athletes playing underwater hockey. There are a lot more "wish I was an athlete" players. The water is an equalizer so newer players, men and women, young or old can play in the same game with the "jocks". Virtually all of the clubs/teams are coed. Underwater hockey is a great cardiovascu lar workout and a lot offun. Some clubs are more competition oriented and some are more "'recreation" oriented. Even in a competition oriented club a "non-athlete" can still have a good time and stay in tip top shape for diving and other sports.

Strategy The primary objective of underwater hockey is to push, pass, and shoot the puck into the opponents' goal as often as possible while preventing the other team from scoring in your goal. A good way to start is to have three players designated as "forwards" and three as "backs". As in basketball, a goalkeeper is not necessary. The puck is pushed along the pool bottom with the side of the stick and a pass is accomplished by a combined motion of pushing,

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swinging the lower arm from the elbow, and flicking the stick with the wrist. A good pass for beginners is 4 to 6 feet. World class players shoot 10 to 15 feet. Time on the bottom is not long but is repetitive. Timing and pacing can do more than one long burnout on the bottom which leaves you on the surface for longer periods of recovery. A successful offensive play is to dive down, receive a pass from a teammate and complete a pass to another teammate. Passing advances the puck faster than swimming or pushing it. A successful defensive play is to steal the puck from an opponent and complete a pass to a teammate. It is very important to remember that you may take the puck away from an opponent, but you may not take an opponent away from the puck.

Try the "Shot Clinic" page for more detailed video clips and Marcomedia Flash objects that are interactive!

Basic Rules Six players (more or less for informal recreational play) on each team. One team has black sticks, the other team has white. Teams line up at opposite ends of playing area with the puck centered between them on the pool bottom. At an agreed on signal "White-Black ready, Go!", team members race to the puck and try to control it with their sticks, passing to team members or taking it away from opponents. A score or goal is made when the puck passes completely through or into the designated goal area. After a goal, teams line up and restart (within 30 sec. in tournaments). Nothing should contact the puck except the playing area of the stick. No body to body contact (unless your stick is on the puck). Only one hand is allowed on the stick (use hand protection) and the free hand may only be used for swimming, to protect yourself from flying fins, or to push off the bottom. It is illegal to obstruct an opponent in any way while not in possession of the puc\....

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Equipment •

Pool - An ideal pool for underwater hockey would have a flat smooth (tile or fiberglass) 25 yard long playing area 7 to 9 feet deep.

•

Goals - Official goals are 3 meters long. The best are formed metal trays with back walls. Anything as simple as weight belts or weighted PVC pipe will do for practice.

•

Puck - 3 pOllnd lead disk coated with plastic 30mm thick, 80mm diameter.

•

Sticks - Wood or plastic (they must float). White or Black denotes the team.

•

Gloves - See specs. In a pinch any glove covered with duct tape or padded with wet suit material will do, but it is important that new players have good hand protection.

Mask, snorkel and fins A low volume mask, a large barrel snorkel, and a strong pair of full foot pocket fins are probably best, but any will do for starters.

Stick details A typical underwater hockey stick is approximately 12 inches long, made out of 3/4 inch thick wood and painted either black or white for team identification. All underwater hockey sticks must adhere to a basic set of dimensions. Their size and shape may vary over a wide range within those dimensions to fit personal tastes and needs. The primary aim is to have a stick that provides the best puck control and the longest shot. Players make their own sticks or a team makes a set of them. The stick shall not be capable of surrounding, encapsulating or locking the puck to the playing area by the incorporation of holes, cavities and/or deep recesses.

Glove details An underwater hockey glove should protect the stick hand

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~-------------------------------------------

from ~craping on the pool bottom and protect from blows from opposing player's sticks and hard contact with the puck. An inexpensive cotton garden-type glove may be used if covered with hot-melt glue tl·om a glue gun or Shoe Goo or Aquaseal or automotive Goop. Appiy the protective material to cover the backs and tips of the fingers, the tip and side of the thumb, the back of the knuckles, and a little spot at the heel of your hand that somehow seems to always get scraped on the pool bottom. Players design their own gloves by adding neoprene inserts and shaping the glove to conform to a hand holding a stick.

How to get involved Join us to try Underwater Hockey! Bring a mask snorkel and fins. Goggles will do. We have extras of some items in a locker at the pool. We have sticks. gloves and head gear for newcomers. If you just want to watch a game, you can come anytime. Get into the water on the sidelines. Goggles or a mask will allow you to see the action.

Indian hockey India crashing out of the hockey tournament in the 15th Asian games had been in the cards since their loss to China. On Sunday, India finally received the knockout punch as they drew with South Korea. The fortner Olympic champions will not be seen in action in the Asian Games semifinals for the first time in the competition's history. Fathom this fact: hockey is the national game of India. We learned this in school. But the game has slipped to agonizingly low levels. Records in recent years speak of the worst period in IndIan hockey history. India won the gold in the 1998 Asian Games, India crashing out of the hockey tournament in the 15th Asian games had been in the cards since their loss to China. On Sunday, India finally received the knockout punch as they drew with South Korea. The former Olympic champions will not be seen in action

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in the Asian Games semifinals for the first time in the competition's history. Fathom this fact: hockey is the national game of India. We learned this in school. Butthe game has slipped to agonizingly low levels. Records in recent years speak of the worst period in Indian hockey history. India won the gold in the 1998 Asian Games. The former Punjab cop, K. P. S. Gill, has held the top post in the association for the last 12 years. With the current dismal performance of the team, it would be prudent, and in the best interest of hockey in the countrj, for him to step down. The "super cop," as Gill is called, took over the association after retiring form the top police post in Punjab state. He has been ruling with an iron fist and changing coaches at the drop of the hat ever since. He also played a role in several controversies with the players. Even Dhanraj Pillai, the heartthrob of millions of youngsters, was not spared the ignominy of terrible treatment by the association. Gone are the days when India dominated the hockey scene, taming rivals everywhere they went. Indians now can only boast of a rich hockey tradition from a bygone era. Recently, Gill has been quoted as saying that more Astroturf is needed in his home state, which he claims is the home of Indian hockey. But concentrating the games into one state ?t the expense of others has its short comings. We grew used to hearing and seeing the exploits of mercurial, goal-scoring strikers like Zafar Iqbal and Mohd Sahid in the 1980s, and later of Pillai. My good friend Carmo D'Cruz, a former IItian and a former hockey player, discusses the topic of which system of play is convenient for the Indian team while their slide continues. He questions two of his former hockey colleagues, former Olympians Vece Paes and Balbir Singh Sr., whether the traditional 5-3-2-1 Indian system of play and that of a coach dealing with

HOCKe~

22!

the 4-2-3-1 system followed by opponents should be adopted: "What modifications do you both think we should make to deal with the 4-2-3-1 formation teams? Do you favour man-to-man marking or a zone-wise marking system when playing with the with the 5-3-2-1 formation? Please advise." The advice of the two men, and many other former Olympians like them. is certainly needed in this hour of crisis. But for that to happen. the administration and the infrastructure needs a m~ior nverhaul.

Premier Hockey League India The Premier Hockey League (PHL) IS a .I0ll1t project of ESPN-Star Sports, Indian Hockey Federation (IHF) and Leisure Sports Management and is modelled on the u.S. NBA league. The PHL was conceived to give a shot in the arm to the domestic hockey scenario and revive sagging interest in the game of hockey. The inaugural edition of the PHL kicked-off at the Gachibowli Stadium, Hyderabad, on January 13. 2005. The PHL is made up of ten teams divided into two tiers, the Premier Division and the First Division. The league follows a round-robin format with all teams playing each other twice. The PHL incorporates a sle",,· of innovations to make the games more exciting and spectator friendly. The participating teams sport fancy names and boast of foreign players in their ranks. Instead of normal 70-m inute hockey games with two sessions, the PH L games have four sessions each of 17.5 minutes. Teams can take time-outs to chalk out new strategies to deal with emerging situations. The PHL will be telecast live by ESPNSTAR Sports for the next ten years. The company employs twelve television cameras to cover all possible angles and the matches begin at eight in the evening to maximize television viewer ship. The 2005 edition was won by the Hyderabad Sultans while in 2006, Bangalore Lions defeated Chandigarh Dynamos to emerge victorious.

Hockey Stadiums in India The hockey stadiums in India are equipped with synthetic turfs and spectator friendly amenities. Over the years, they have played host to many memorable contests. Here is a list of major hockey grounds in India: Mayor Radhakrishnan Stadium, Egmore, Chennai: Radhakrishnan Stadium is regarded by the International Hockey Federation as one of the best in the world for its state-of-the-art infrastructure. After installation of a synthetic turf surface in 1995, the stadium hosted the hockey event in the SAF Games and the 1996 Champions Trophy In 2004, the stadium was redesigned and upgraded by the Sports Authority of Tamil Nadu to prepare the venue for hosting the 2005 Champions Trophy in December. After the renovation drive, the stadium features a re-Iaid synthetic hockey surface and floodlights of international standards.

Major Dhyan Chand National Stadium, Delhi: The erstwhile National Stadium, known as the "temple of Indian hockey," was dedicated to the memory of Indian hockey legend Major Dhyan Chand in 2002. The Stadium boasts of two brand new synthetic hockey turfs and has a capacity of 25,000. In preparation for the 2010 Delhi Commonwealth Games, the hockey pitches will be equipped with floodlights and electronic and video-matrix scoreboard. Gachibowli Stadium, Hyderabad: The Gachibowli Stadium was built by construction major Larsen & Toubro Ltd. in mere 70 days for the 2003 SAF Games. This state-of-the-art stadium hosted the 2005 Premier Hockey League. K. D. Singh Sabu Stadium, Lucknow: The stadium was named in the memory of famous Indian hockey player Kunwar Digvijay Singh "Sabu." Surjeet Hockey Stadium, lalandhar: This astro-turf stadium was named after Olympian Surjeet Singh.

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Hockey in Olympics Ever since India has been contesting at the Olympics, Hockey is the only sport which has won Gold medals, that too not once or twice, but eight times. with 6 of them coming consecutively. Between 1928-1956, India at the Olympics. won the gold medal consecutively. 6 times. India played 24 Olympic matches, won all 24. scored 178 goals (at an average of 7.43 goals per match) and conceded only 7 goals. The two other gold medals for India came in the 1964 Tokyo Olympics and the 1980 Moscow Olympics. For over 20 years. the only triple gold medallists for India were the 'Hockey Wizard' Dhyan Chand and goalkeeper Richard James Allen (1928-1936). After the 1956 Olympics, Balbir Singh Sr., Randhir Singh Gentle and Ranganathan Francis became the other triple gold medallists for India (1948-1956).

1. Amsterdam Olympics of 1928: The Amsterdam Games became the first stage, for the wizardry of Dhyan Chand. The wizardry was not only meant for the spectators, but also for the opponents, for during several moments, the opponents were like spectators, with sticks and jerseys, as they could only watch Dhyan Chand's magic and could do nothing about it. He was referred as "The Hockey Wizard" after a sensational feat in the final of the Punjab Indian Infantry tournament in the town of Jhelum. Dhyan Chand then scored three goals in the last four minutes for his side to snatch a dramatic victory. Dhyan Chand was the Star attraction during the Amsterdam games. Richard James Allen, the goalkeeper, did not concede a single goal in the 1928 Olympics. Allen. who kept India'sgoal in 3 consecutive Olympics (1928, 1932, 1936), conceded a total of only 3 goals in the 3 Olympics.

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India'srecord in the 1928 Olympics at Amsterdam: Played: 5 Won: 5 Goals For: 29 Goals Against: 0 2. Los Angeles Olympics of 1932: The 1932 Olympics witnessed couple of world rec.ords created by Indians that still stand unbroken. The biggest score in an international hockey match is the 24-1 victory of India over the USA. played on Allgust II. 1932. The record for the most number of goals scored in a single hockey match belongs to Roop Singh, who slammed in ten goals in the 24-1 rout of USA. India scored 24 goals in the 1932 Olympics, of which the brothers popularly known as the "hockey brothers" scored 25 of them. They were, Left- in Roopsingh (10) and Centre Forward Dhyan Chand (14). The hockey brothers went on to represent India in the 1936 Olympics also, winningyet another gold medal for India. In the 24-1 victory against the USA, there is a very amusing tale about the sol itary goal scored by the Americans. The defenders had decided to let the Americans have a run, but when they looked behind, there \\as no ~()alkeeper. The Itidian goalkeeper Richard Allen was signing autographs behind the goal post! India's record in the 1932 Olympics at Los Angeles: Played: 2 Won: 2 Goals For: 35 Goals Against: 2 3. Berlin Olympics of 1936: The Indians, this time led by the wizard Dhyan Chand himself, did not receive an altogether pleasant

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welcome in Germany. Just a day after their arrival in Germany. they lost against a German side. 4-1. India beat Hungary 4-0. United States 7-0 and Japan 9-0. Dara joined the team for the 10-

omassacre of France in the semi-finals. Indians had not conceded a single goal in their march to the finals. India met Germany in the final on August 15. 1936. A crowd of around 40,000 people, the biggest crowd till then to witness an Olympic hockey match, had gathered. Among the audience was the ruler of Baroda. the princess of Bhopal and other Indians who had travelled from the Continent, and of course Hitler, who left the match midway, disgusted at Germany's plight. India was up by 6 goals in the finals. The Germans decided to playa rough game and went after Dhyan Chand. which resulted in a broken tooth for the Indian captain, due to the German goalkeeper. Coming back after receiving first aid, Dhyan Chand, now playing barefoot instructed his team to go easy on goals. As the stunned crowd watched, the Indians repeatedly took the ball up to the German circle and then back passed to mystify their opponents. India vanquished Germany 8-1 in the finals to win its third successive Olympic gold medal. The supreme tribute to Dhyan was by a sports club in Vienna, which built a statue of Dhyan Chand with four hands and four sticks. To the Viennese. no man with two hands and one stick could have played the way Dhyan Chand did. India'srecord in the 1936 Olympics at Berlin: Played: 5 Won: 5 Goals For: 38 Goals Against:

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4. London Olympics of 1948: A lot of events occurred between the Berlin Olympics in 1936 and the London Olympics in 1948. India got its independence. but suffered a devastating partition. where many Anglo-Indians left the country and a number of Muslims migrated to Pakistan. India lost a rich recruiting ground for hockey talent. A brand new Indian team left for London. without a single player who had played in an earlier Olympics. The captain of the Pakistan hockey team in the 1948 Olympics was A. J. S. Dara who had represented India in the 1936 Berlin Olympics. Besides Dara. Paul Peter Fernandes and Bhopal's Akhtar Hussain and Latif-ur-Rehman, have represented both India and Pakistan in the Olympics. India defeated Austria 8-0 in their first match. India followed up this victory by defeating Argentina 9-1. Spain 2-0, and Holland 2-1 to enter the finals. India faced England for the first time in an Olympic hockey match on September 12, 1948, at Wemble) grounds, in the Olympic hockey final. India defeated Britain 4-0 to win its fourth consecutive gold medal. This medal is extremely special for India, as it is the first gold medal won by India under the Indian tricolour. Balbir Singh Sr.excelled as a centre-forward and scored 2 goals for India, while Pat Jansen and Trilochan Singh scored the other two. India'srecord in the 1948 Olympics at London: Played: 5 Won: 5 Goals For: 25 Goals Against: 2 5. Helsinki Olympics of 1952: India defeated Austria 4-0 and Great Britain 3-1 and stormed to the finals. Holland challenged the

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Olympics champions but lost 1-6 and India won the hockey crown for the 5th time in a row, in 1952 Olympics held at Helsinki. Finland. BalbiI' Singh Sr. scored 9 goals of the 13 scored by India. including 5 of the 6 goals in the final. Chinnadorai Desamuthu became the youngest gold medallist for India. He was 19 years and 272 days when India won the Olympic title in the Helsinki Games. India's record in the 1952 Olympics at Helsinki: Played: 3 Won: 3 Goals For: 13 Goals Against: 2 6. Melbourne Olympics of 1956: 12 teams, were divided into 3 groups in the 1956 Olympics. India won all the group mhtches, beating Afghanistan 14-0, USA 16-0 and Singapore 6-0. When they entered the semi finals India had scored 36 goals in 3 games, with no goals against. India then scraped past Germany with a 1o victory in the semi-finals. For the first time, India met Pakistan, in the 1956 Olympic final. Midway through the second half. India was awarded a penalty corner. The ball was pushed out by Udham Singh and stopped by Raghbir Singh Bhola. Randhir Singh Gentle took the shot. A Pakistani defender failed to trap it cleanly and allowed the ball to trickle over the goal line. This goal turned out to be another goldwinner, for the sixth time in a row, until then a record for any country in any team sport in the Olympics. Inside-left lJdham Singh scored 15 goals for India in the 1956 Melbourne Olympics - the highest tally by an Indian at an Olympics till that date. India'srecord in the 1956 Olympics at Melbourne: Played: 5

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Won: 5 Goals For: 38 Goals Against: 0 7. Tokyo Olympics of 1964: The Tokyo Olympics were the first Olympics to be held on Asian ground. The team went on a two-and-a-half month tour to New Zealand and Malaysia before heading to Tokyo. In the pool matches, India finished at the top with 12 points. India beat Belgium 2-0, was held to a draw by Germany and Spain, beat Hong Kong 6-0, Malaysia 3-1, Canada 3-0 and Holland 2-1. In the semi-final, India beat Australia 3-1 to set up their third consecutive clash with Pakistan in the Olympic finals. Pakistan had

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defeated India 1- in the 1960 Rome Olympics, to end India's Consecutive Olympic victory series. The final was played on November 23, 1964, at the Kamazawa Park in Tokyo. The first half was played at a scorching pace but no goal was scored. There was an unruly incident with some of the Pakistanis attacking the Indian players. The match was briefly interrupted for the tempers to cool down. The forward line comprising Harbinder Singh and Joginder Singh was irresistible that day. 5 minutes into the second half, a penalty corner was awarded to India which was taken by India's'Rock of Gibralter' Prithipal Singh. Prithipal had been fantastic in the Tokyo Olympics thus far, and had scored II goals. However, this penalty corner was to be his most important. His stinging shot was deflected off the goalkeeper's pad and stopped by Pakistan's full back Munir Dar with his foot. Centre-half Mohinder Lal converted the resultant penalty stroke in the 41 st minute to give India a 1-0 lead.

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IHF President Ashwini Kumar did the running: commentary for Akashvani in the final at Tokyo. Each move forward by India wa'i a potential goal in his eyes. And when Mohinder Lal converted the penalty stroke. a hysterical Ashwini Kumar cried himself hoarse. Pakistan fought back ferociously in the closing stages of the match and gave India many anxious moments. Shankar Lakshman. the Indian goal Keeper. played superbly and magnificently saved two penalty corner hits. India held on to its slender lead to win its seventh gold medal in eight Olympic games. Shankar Lakshman. one of India'sbest ever goalkeepers, was declared the Man of the Match. 8. Moscow Olympics of 1980: 9 teams from the 1976 Montreal Olympic hockey competition did not compete in the 1980 Moscow Olympic hockey tournament. The boycotting teams included the top 3 teams at Montreal - New Zealand (gold). Australia (silver) and Pakistan (bronze). European hockey powerhouses Germany, Holland and Great Britain also did not compete in this boycott of the 1980 Olympic Games. India had fared very badly in the Montreal Olympics; they had come down to the 7th position. The Moscow Olympics hockey competition was played on Poligras fields laid at the Dynamo and Young Pioneers clubs. In a greatly weakened field of participants, India thrashed last minute entry Tanzania 18-0 in its first match. India scored 5 goals in 5 minutes. This huge victory over Tanzania was the second biggest score in Olympic hockey. after the 24-1 victory by India over USA in the 1932 Los Angeles Olympics.

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India was lucky to get away with a 2-2 draw with Poland in the next game, with Merwyn Fernandes equalizing for India with only 5 seconds to spare. India had another lucky 2-2 draw with Spain, with the equalizer coming in the last 4 minutes. After surviving these hiccups, India beat Cuba 13-0 and hosts USSR 4-

2 to come second in the pool (behind Spain) and qualify for the final. In the final against Spain, India had a rousing start and established a comfortable three goal lead early in the second half. But Spain gamely bounced back into the game with 2 unanswered goals. With Spain raiding the Indian defence, and with only 6 minutes left, Mohammed Shaheed scored a goa\. However, with only 4 minutes remaining, Spain scored yet again with their skipper Juan Amat completing his hattrick. The atmosphere in the last few minutes was electric, and India finally won the thriller 4-3, and thus regained the elusive gold after 16 long years. Spain had to be content with the Fairplay Trophy. The 16 goals scored by centre forward Surinder Singh Sodhi in the 1980 Moscow Olympics is the highest tally by an Indian in an Olympic hockey competition. It beat the earlier record of 15 goals set by the great Udham Singh in the 1956 Melbourne Olympics. India's record in the 1980 Olympics at Moscow: Played: 6 Won: 4 Drawn: 2 Goals For: 43 Goals Against: 9 However, about 26 years have passed and India has never

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got any Olympic medal. after its previous wins. Since the 1970's Australia, The Netherlands, and Germany have dominated the sport at the Olymp;.;s.

Bid to rescue India. arguably the best team in the 1960s and 70s. have not won any major tournament since the 1980 Moscow Olympics and their only World Cup triumph came 30 years back, in 1975. With the next World Cup just a year from now. Olympians, including Ajit Pal Singh and Ashok Kumar, called for measures that could arrest the sliding fortunes of the national team. "Today hockey is getting much more money and med ia attention than what it was years back. Still we have failed to achieve much. The achievements are far away from us," Ajit Pal, captain of the World Cup-winning team, told reporters in Delhi. "We are the fifth-ranked team in the world and I must say we are not in a hopeless situation. What we need is think positive and find out where we are going wrong," he said. Ajit Pal said India must not give astro-turf and rule changes as excuses for their failure to win a major tournament. "These changes were made years back. We should cope up with them instead of making those as excuses for our performance." Ashok Kumar. son of the legendary Dhyan Chand. said since India won their lone World Cup exactly 30 years back. on March 15, they have decided to host a seminar, titled "Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow", on the same date this year. The seminar would be addressed by members of the 1975 World Cup-winning team besides Olympians, internationals and Arjuna awardees, including Mohammad Shahid, Dhanraj Pillay, B P Govinda and lafar Iqbal. Ashok Kumar, chairman of the

Federation of India Games. v.hich will organl"e the :-.cminar. :-.,ud a detailed repol1 on the proceedings would he

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Hockey Federation. Indian Olympic Association and government for proper action. "It's a small effort to take hockey to a level which was there 30-40 years hack. Everyone knows where we "tand today. The game needs a change." Ashok Kumar sa id. "Th is \vi II. hopefully. guide us fonvarci and help in \\ inning. the ne,t \\orld Cup." he added. Former international H.J S Chimni said. "I )tll March 197) was a red-lettered day for Indian hockey. I hope after the seminar we would be able to identify the problems and find a remedy. We want to make this day a red-lettered one as well."