Languages of Asia and Africa: The Panjabi Language

Printed in Great Britain (TY). For copyright reasons, this book may not be sold, issued on loan, or otherwise disposed of, except in its original paper cover.

The Panjabi language

Languages of Asia and A frica

�anguages of Asia and Africa Volume 2

The Panjabi language A descriptive grammar

N. I. T olstaya Translated by G. L. Campbell

Routledge London,

&

Kegan Paul

Boston and Henley

This translation first published in 19 81 & Kegan Paul Ltd 39 Store Street, London welE 700, 9 Park Street, Boston, Mass. 0 2 108, USA and Broadway House, Newtown Road, Henley- on-Thames, Oxon RG9 lEN Printed in Great Britain by Thetford Press Ltd, Thetford, Norfolk First p ublished as Yazyk Pandjhabi by Oriental Literaturp Publishing lIou�e, MOScow 1960

b y Routledge

English translation @ Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd 19 81 No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without p ermission from the publisher, except for the quotation of brief passages in criticism ISBN 0 7100 0939 9

Contents

1

INTRODUCTION

1

PHONOLOGY AND SCRIPT

6

Va.re1s Consonants

Stress Tones Script

2

VOCABULARY

16

Word Formation Compounds The main pret'ixes used in word formation

The main suf f ixes used in forming nouns Suf f ixes forming adjectives 3

MORPHOLOGY The noun

Gender NUIlber Case

v

24

vi

contents

The adjective Degrees of comparison Th e numerals Pronouns Personal pronouns Possessive pronouns Reflexive pronouns Demonstrative pronouns Interrogative pronouns Relative pronouns Indefinite pronouns Emph asising pronouns Th e verb Non-conjugated forms Th e conjugated forms of the indicative mood Simple forms Conjugation of the auxiliary verb ho�a Forms made from the participles Indicative lI100d Hypothetical mood Subjunctive mood Conditional mood Th e passive Formation of transitive and causative verbs Compound verbs Compound verbal formations A dverbs Classification of adverbs by meaning Morph ological classification of adverbs Postpositions Primary postpositions and their basic meaning Composite ( derived) postpositions

vii

contents

Conjunctions A ssociative conjunctions Subordinating conjunctions Particles A ffirmative particles Negative particles Interrogative particles Emphatic particles Interjections

4

SYNTA X

66

The simple sentence The subject The predicate Secondary components Word order in the sentence The composite sentence The complex sentence The compound sentence 5

SPECIMEN TEXT

73

Transcription Translation

Vocabulary

Bibliography

78

Map

79

Introduction

Panjabi is one of the New Indo-A ryan languages, which form a branch of the Indo-European family.

It is widely spoken in

the Panjab, the western part of which is Pakistani territory, while the eastern part forms the Indian state of the Panjab. The total nWTber of Panjabi speakers in both areas is about 30 million.

The most important dialects are:

Majhi ( in the

territory between the rivers Ravi and Bias, with two major cities, Lahore and Amritsar) ;

Doabi (between the Bias and the

Sutlej, with two main tow ns, Jalandhar and Hoshiarpur) ; Malwai ( the Ludhiana region) ; Sangur region) ;

Patialwi ( the Patiala and

Dogri ( the Jammu region) ;

Chamba and Mandi r�gion) ;

Pahari ( the

Laialpuri ( the Laialpur region) ;

Multani ( the Multani region);

Hindko (the Hazara region);

Pothohari ( in the territory between the Jelam and the Indus, with main town Rawalpindi) .

If this classification is lack-

ing in precision, this is due to the fact that hardly any of the se dialects have been studied in detail. When Europeans began to study Panjabi in the first half of the nineteenth century they turned their attention to the Malwai dialect.

The first Panjabi books - a translation of

the Bible, prayer books, grammars, dictionaries - were pub­ lished by the Ludhiana Mission Press in Ludhiana. 1

Modern

2

Introduction

literary Panjabi, however, is based on the Majhi Cialect, which is largely due to the presence in the Majhi-speaking territory of such great political, commercial and cultural centres as Lahore and Amritsar. Dialects spoken in the western parts of the Panjab Multani, Pothohari and Hindko - differ considerably from the literary language, and for this reason some scholars, follow­ ing Sir George Grierson, are inclined to regard them as off­ shoots of a separate language, to which they have given the name Lahnda (

=

'western') .

The western Panjabi dialects

display certain phonological and morphological traits linking them to the languages of north-west India and Pakistan ( Sindhi and, partly , Kashmiri) , while the eastern Panjabi dialects, along with the literary language based on them, te�d more towards Hindi.

Grierson's explanation for this state of

affairs is that the development ( evolution) of the eastern Panjabi dialects has been greatly influenced by the neighbour­ ing dialects of Hindi, while characteristic features of NIA languages belonging to the north- western sub-group have been retained much more clearly in the western Panjabi dialects ( 'Lahnda') .

In practice, there is no evidence for Grierson's

proposed contrast between eastern and western Panjabi dialects. specialists.

The very word 'Lahnda' is known only to a few Speakers of western an d of eastern dialects

alike use the same literary Panjabi as literary language, and many Panjabi scholars are inclined to regard the eastern and western dialects as forms of one single Panjabi language. * Panjabi is written in the Gurmukhi script, whict. is related to Devanagari and shares common traits with the Kashmiri *

c. Shackle points to the emergence over the last few

decades of Siraiki (western Panjabi) as a literary language.

3

Introduction

alphabet, Sharada, and with Mahajani (used in Rajasthan)

•

Gurmukhi was first used by Sikh religious teachers - by 'gurus ' that is to say - and the word means literally 'proceeding from the mouth of the guru'.

The cursive form known

as Lahnda is us ed specifically in commercial documents.

In

addition, the A rabo-Persian script is used in the western Panjab (Pakistan) , and eastern Panjabi ( in India) can also be written in Devanagari. Panjabi scholars date the beginnings of Panjabi literature in the ninth century AD, when remnants of the Yoga and Natha sects of Buddhism were active in the Panjab.

The hymns pro­

duced by members of these sects are regarded as the first literary works in Panjabi. The oldest literary monument written in the Gurmukhi script is the 'A di Granth', the holy book of the Sikhs.

It was com-

posed in 16 04 in Amritsar by order of the fifth Sikh guru, A rjuna ( 1 56 3-16 06 ) , whose sermons it contains along with hymns written by various religious teachers of the twelfth to the fifteenth centuries, both Hindu an d Moslem - Namdev, Kabir, Farid, etc. For a variety of historical reasons, however, literature in Panjabi was denied an y chance of free development until late in the nineteenth century .

The invasion of India by Turkic

troops and A fghan and Mongol rulers, and the establishment of their alien rule in the Panjab formed a serious obstacle to the emergence of a Panjabi literary language.

Throughout the

Middle Ages literature in the Panjab was written in Persian and in Persianised Urdu.

In the sixteenth century, under the

influence of Arabic and Persian models, a new genre made its appearance in the Panjab - the kissa-kawi, or romantic love poem.

The poets Damodar and Varis Shah had much to do with

the growth of this genre.

The most important representatives

4

Introduction

of the later Sufi poetry were Shah Hussein and Bullhe Shah, whose works were well kncwn, not only in India, but also in Iran and in Egypt. By the middle of the nineteenth century Urdu had made itself pre-eminent in the Panjab;

it was the language of

primary education, of legal proceedings and of the press. A part from a rich folklore nothing was written in Panjabi except Sikh religious works. In the last quarter of the nineteenth century a movement made itself felt among Panjabi intellectuals in favour of the development of a literature in Pan jabi, and of naking Panjabi the main medium for the social and cultural life of the province.

There ensued a struggle for the introduction of

Panjabi into the educational system and for the general use of the Gurmukhi script. At the same time, new literary genres began to evolve - the novel, the short story and the play. forms were also imbued with new ideas.

These new literary The writers of the

first half of the twentieth century such as Bhai Vir Singh, Dhaniram Chatrik, Nanda, Charan Singh Shahid and Puran Singh took up the burning issues of their time - education for women, remarriage of widows, social injustice.

They ridi­

culed Indian s who tried to be more English than thP English, the stupidity and the conceit of the rich, the venality of judges.

The question of freedom for India was taken up with

particular enthusiasm.

In 19 26 the leading writers united to

form the Panjab Literary Society. The birth of the Republic of India in 19 50 gave a new impetus to the development of Panjabi, as it is Indian govern­ ment policy to encourage the grow th of local languages. Panjabi is now recognised as the official language of the State of Panjab;

it is the language of educatiol1 both for

5

Introduction

primary schools and for higher education, and many newspapers and periodicals are published in it.

The best known periodi-

cals such as 'Prit Lari', 'A rsi' and 'Bal Sandesh' act as a forum for writers of both the older and younger generations. In the last twenty years, Panjabi literature has produced poets ( such as Mohan Singh, Shiv Kumar, Santokh Singh Dh ir, Amrita Pritam, Prabhjot Kaur and Pritam Singh Safir), prose writers ( Nanak Singh, Gurbaksh Singh, Kartar Singh Duggal, Sujan Singh , Kulvant Singh Virk, Navtej Singh and Ajit Kaur) and playwrights ( Balvant Gargi, Harcharan Singh and others)

•

By publishing and distributing books in Panjabi, the Panjabi Writers' Cooperative founded in Delhi in 19 59 has made a major contribution to the growth of modern Panjabi literature.

In

addition to writers of tile older generation, the Cooperative also includes younger writers such as Mahip Singh, Rajindar Kaur and Bachint Kaur. Panjabi speakers living in Pakistan where the official language is Urdu are campaigning for the use of their mother tongue in the educational system, in legal proceedings and in various other spheres of cultural life and in public affairs. A large group of writers in western Panjab are at present publish ing their works in Panjabi written in the Urdu script.

Chapter 1

Phonology and script

VCJ4ELS In Panjabi th ere are three short vowels: u, a, i, and " ,.. ao. Th e long vowels ae, u, a, i, e, 0, seven long: are h eld longer and pronounced more tensely than the sh ort vowels ( see Table 1) . pinda

i : a h igh front vowel, unrounded, as in ' beat' : drinking i

h igh front vowel, unrounded, as in 'sit': =

e

student

high middle vowel, unrounded, as in French 'ete': vises a�

�

(E)

=

adjective

: h igh middle vowel, unrounded, very long, corners of the mouth are drawn sharply back like

b�!-h l}a

' mad' : a

vidia rthi

in

d

to sit

=

low front vowel, unrounded, as in ' about'. a stressed, it is as in German 'h at': kar m

When business

affair. Sh ort

a

ch anges somewhat in ch aracter before

followed by sh ort e. g. pah ila

tending then towards open

kah il}a

speak

rah il}a

live ( in these words

pronounced) 6

i

at first

•

h

is not

h e,

7

Chapter 1 - a akh I'}a

low middle vowel, unrounded, as in 'father':

a

=

to speak

high back vowel, rounded, as in 'food':

u u

high back vowel, rounded, as in 'put':

0

middle back vowel, rounded, as

0

duja kUfi

second

=

=

in 'hate':

girl lo�

necessity

ao

(�)

: middle back vowel, rounded, as in 'wall':

faoj

army These are all pure vow els, non-nasalised. - To each there corresponds a nasalised counterpart: ii,

u,

,...

0,

i,

i,

e,

ie,

a,

a,

Nasalisation of final long vowels is

ao.

extremely common, especially in dialects. TABLE I Front High

Middle

Back

i

u i

Middle

u e

,....

Low

a

Reduction of short

,...

ae (E)

ao (-;»

0

a

a short -!- is p ronounced

Depending on its position in the word,

either fully or is reduced almost to the point of inaudibility. * It is pronounced fully:

1

In the initial syllable of the word:

aluc a

parsiddh *

Reduced

a

cherry-p lum famous

is indicated as a sup erscrip t only in the

phonological part of this book. is not specially marked.

In the other sections it

8

Chapter 1

2

In the penultimate syllable, if it ends on a consonant p lus a lamp dipak a reduced short vowel: a jihlam Jelam (river) Short -5- is reduced:

1

2

3

4

a hatth a sanbandh

hand

In final position:

union

In the penultimate syllable of a four-syllable word ending a to go out, to app ear on a long vow el: nikal � a a samajh �a to understand In the middle syllable of a t hree-syllable word ending on a a to do kar na long vowel:

In the second syllable of a four-syllable word, if the first a bah laUl}a to amuse, entertain syllable is not a prefix: a ghab raUl}a be disturbed -

CONSONANTS In Table 2 the consonants of Panjabi are classified according to point and manner of articulation. P, t,

k,

are pronounced as in the French 'Paris', 'tout',

'calme', i. e. without aspiration; corresponding aspirates; ch

corresponding aspirate

The cerebrals

�,

c

�,

�,

ph,

th,

kh

are the

is close to the English is like the

!

ch

ty;

the

ill English 'child'.

are formed by curling the

tongue upwards so that the tip touches the front part of the hard p alate.

T

and

d

differ from the English

t

and

d

in that the tip of the tongue is higher and articulation is instantaneous, unaccompanied, that is, by the affricate quality present in English.

pendent phoneme in Panjabi. the lateral cerebral Cerebral

f

1

Cerebral nasal

�

is usually replaced by

is not rolled.

is an inde­

In the literary pronunciation,

1.

To form it, the t ip of the

\Q

T ABLE 2

n :r I» 'C rt /D .,

Place of

Manner of articulation occlusive III

� �

e

� III

labial

dental

cerebral

voiceless

p ph

t th

voiced

b

d

� �l;t �

unvoiced

affricate

unvoiced

c ch

voiced

j

fricative

unvoiced

III

f

*

k kh

k

s S

x

z

9

nasal

m

n

�

(ii)

fricative

v

1

(1)

y

*

(�)

lateral trill

uvular

pharyngeal

r

voiced

6

velar

9

flap

-8

III � � 1\1

palatal

r

The sounds ft and � are p ositional variants of the phoneme

n.

h

....

10

Chapter 1

tongue is bent backwards and then quickly thr'Jst forwards in sort of flick on the front of the hard palate.

a

In the flick-

ing action, the tongue is in the same position as it occupies in the formation of the other cerebral consonants. The sounds

ph,

th,

chi

kh,

are aspira�ed.

Each is

formed in the same way as the corresponding stop but is accompanied by an expulsion of breath.

In the case of

sonants the aspiration is voiced, in the case of surds it is Sonant aspirates in the middle and at the end of a

unvoiced.

word generally lose their aspiration; e. g. a a sambhal �a (= to support) sounds like sambal Qa panjhi ( =twenty-five)

sounds like panji

In initial position in a sy llable with rising tone, the sonant aspirates not only lose the aspiration but are also devoiced. The sibilant

s

is pronounced as in English 'shut'.

native Panjabi words this sound has been replaced by

In

S;

s

is now found only in Sanskrit words and in borrowings from Arabic, Persian and English. The sound 'loch';

f

h

and

is as in English; v

kh

is as in Scottish

are as in English but weaker.

In words borrowed from Persian, Arabic and T urkish the following uvular sounds are found: x

(unvoiced fricative) ,

�

k

(unvoiced occlusive) , In normal

( voiced fricative).

pronunciation they are realised as the Panjabi velars g.

T he sounds

replaced by

f

( may be replaced by

ph) and

z

k,

kh,

( may be

j) are also found in borrowings.

STRESS Stress in Panjabi is dynamic, an d may fall either on a short or on a long vow el.

Unstressed sy llables are pronounced as

clearly and precisely as stressed sy llables. The position of the stress in a word is determined by the

11

Chapter 1

number and distribution of long and short syllables in it. Reduced

a

is syllabic (syllable-forming) and hence a final

consonant or group of consonants is traditionally regarded as forming a sep arate syllable: a hatth hand - a door kiva�

e. g.

In disyllables, the stress normally falls on the first syllable: 'gho�a 'vii�I

horse grove

In trisy llables, the stress falls on the second syllable if this is long:

e. g.

sa'vere ra'sol ma 'hIna

in the morning kitchen month

If the seccnd a '�angar a 'ratan a 'p ich lI

syllable is short, the stress moves to the first: cattle Ratan ( p roper name) the last ( fern. )

In four-syllable words, the stress falls on the first if the second and third are short:

a

a 'av sar a a 'mat lab a 'nikal lJa 'samasia

e. g.

case, event meaning to go out, to ap p ear problem

If the p enultimate syllable of a four-syllable word is long, the stress falls on it: e. g. a i ii cam \ l glittering kala 'karl

art, skill

An exception is p rovided by the p articiples and imperative forms:

e. g.

sama 'jha ka'ro

having suggested do!

12

Chapter 1

Each component of a compound word retains its ow n stress p attem: e. g. a 'bad , calan 'mata'p ita

badly behaved =

p arents

Sometimes, however, a compound word has a strong stress on its last component and a weaker stress on the others:

e.g.

p usta'ka la = library Phonetically, words with the following suffixes are akin to compounds with the stress on the last component -har, -hara, -dir, -kar, -van: a - likh� 'vala writer a a artist cittar 'k r a creator of the world sirjan 'ha r

-vala,

e.g.

TONES 'J'here are three p honemic tones in Panjabi, which affect the stressed syllables of words - the low, the high and the even. The low tone is indicated in writing by the presence of

h

or a voiced asp irate p receding the syllable bearing this tone, the

h

is not p ronounced, and the voiced asp irates are de­

voiced and pronounced as the equivalent surds: gho�a / kora / baha rI / b� ri / ,

e.g.

horse broom

The high tone is indicated by the same letters p laced after

the vowel.

Again,

h

is not pronounced, and the asp irates

lose their aspiration but retain voicing: koh�a or ko!ha / kora / cih / c; /

e.g .

..

leprous tea

The even tone is not indicated graphically, that is, it is used in stressed syllables which have neither asp irate:

bari

e.g. / ba ri I

ca / c;. I

door wish

h

nor a voiced

13

Chapter 1

In a final open sy llable ending on

-a

or

-au,

this tone

takes on a low contour, remaining, however, in contrast with the low tone proper.

SCRIPT The Gurmukhi alphabet used for Panjabi consists of 35 letters, and is for this reason also known as 'peinti'

( paeti

=

35 ) .

AS explained before, the word 'gurmukhi' means 'proceeding At the time of Nanak, the first ' guru of the Sikh community ( 1469-1538 ) , three alphabe ts were

from the mouth of a guru'.

in use in the Panjab.

One of these - bhatakshari - was used

by Nanak for his religious works, an d it was on the basis of this alphabet, as amended and extended by the guru Angad ( 15 38-5 2 ) , that Gurmukhi developed. The Gurmukhi alphabet is as follows: Ura .

'J.H

aifi

'e

ifi

.R

sa

"J

ha

6- ka

t:t

kha

.n

ga

"'1

gha

"'19

'1a

:0

ca

a;

cha

;;r

ja

6

t:ha

'5

"3

ta

dha

A

na

4

pa

" 2;

da

� �

iia

ta

pha

bha

�

ma

� ya

d

ra

� (; q � �

jha

l

va

�

�a

(3

tha

r: '3 (f')

da ba la

dha

na

The Gurmukhi script. like Devanaqari and its other vari­ ants, is sy llabic:

�,� vowel

apart from the first three letters «(!,

) , all the signs represent consonants plus the short a.

The order of the letters in Gurmukhi differs some-

what from the normal order found in Devanagari and other Indian scripts;

thus, there are only three independent vowel

signs, and the consonants

sa

and

ha

precede the other

consonants . Vowels other than short

a

are indicated by means of

additional signs written above, below , before or after conso-

14

Chapter 1

These are:

nants. , e.

.... u,

�

- ....... u,

......

a, .,\ ae,

T

For ex�ple, added to the consonant

the following row:

;(

0,

ka, �

ka,

t:.. ...:l 10. ki, 6.,1 kI ,

�

ku,

-

,

� k u, d-

--<'

ka,

�

�

,....

ao,

1

., r

i,

they give -

--..-

ke, d: kae, d: ko, .;J; kao

The first three letters of the alphabet: �

�a, � a i�a,

and

i i;1 are used as bearers for free-standing vowels, i. e. In point of fact, only one of

vow els without a consonant.

these can be used alone, � aira (= a) . the relevant vowel sign as follows: 10 �_

I!; u, .a� u, \:) 0::

-'I ,... � ,... ae, L..! ao, � a, Jof -a, lA.i

0,

The other two take

�- ' t:.. I� i, 't.1 i, � e.

The superscripts · 'bindi' an d " 'tippi' indicate nasalisa-

tion of the vowel ( usually the first) and, in medial position, the presence of nasal consonant before other consonants e. g.

(usually the second) : asi

we

mae

I

�. .:>.

';).t

3"1l �";1'�

narrow

ta�g panjib

Panjab

c;lalJc;la

stick

.

i5'

;f�

moon

cand tamb a ku

�)rd.. "$

tobacco

The superscript sign ..., 'adhak' indicates gemination of the following consonant: satt

seven

sacc

truth

e. g.

Ligatures, i. e. composite characters formed from two consonantal signs, are not numerous in Panjabi.

T�ey are made by

taking the first consonant in its complete form and adding either below or beside it the characteristic outline of the second:

e. g. :R sva, -t,

�u

rha, a rha, and so on. ·

wi

When

ra

is

the second consonant in the ligature, a special form is used:

I.. thus,

�

pra,

�

tra,

dJ.

gra, and so on.

15

Chapter 1 Non-Panjabi sounds found in words borrowed from other

languages are rendered by means of the nearest Panjabi equiva­ lents;

and a dot is placed under the letter:

e. g.

�

8 � x = 4;t g � f � z= ? k

European punctuation is used in Panjabi, with the sole difference that instead of the full-stop the sign

I

is used.

Chapter 2

Vocabulary

The Panjabi vocabulary can be divided into several groups according to origin.

The largest of these comprises words

deriving from A ncient Indo-Aryan stock which have developed naturally through the Middle and Modern IA stages to their present shape and meaning in Panjabi.

A bout 60 per cent of

Panjabi vocabulary is accounted for by this group. Secondly, there is a group of words drawn directly from Sanskrit.

The number of Sanskrit borrowings in literary

Panjabi is already very large, and there is a tendency for this group to grow as the language of belles :ettres, of public and social affairs and of science and industry con­ tinues to draw on Sanskrit. Thirdly, there are the borrowings from Iranian (mainly Persian) , Turkish and Arabic;

these form a very important

component in the Panjabi press. Lastly, we have borrowings from European languages, especially English. fie terms.

These are mainly political and scienti-

At presellt there is a tendency to replace these

borrowings by words of Indian origin, principally from Sanskrit.

16

17

Chapter 2

WORD FORMATION Word building in Panjabi is basically by means of compounds or In both cases

with the help of affixes - mainly prefixes.

the components are as a rule genetically homogeneous, though the formation of a compound from genetically heterogeneous components is not excluded.

Compounds Three types are distinguished.

In the first type, the co-

ordinative ( Sk. dvandva) , the two components are syntactically independent of each other:

e.g.

mata-pit a

=

parents ( 'mother (and) father')

din-rat

=

24 hours ( 'day ( and) night')

The second ty pe is the determinative compound ( Sk. karmadharaya) . the second;

The first element depends grammatically on

this first element may be an attribute ( with or

without concord) , the object or an adverbial modifier: pustak-ala

library ( 'dwelling-place of books')

janam-�ta

God ( 'giving life')

de�-nikal a

exile ( 'expulsion from country')

e. g.

The third type is the bahuvrihi or exocentric compound. This type is derived from the previous C�o.

Words of this

type define other words and thus play the part of adjectives. The last element in them is alway s a noun: kam-zor

bad-calan

e.g.

weak ( 'he who has little strength')

=

=

badly behaved ( 'distinguishing oneself by bad conduct')

The main prefixes used in word formation Formation of words by prefix is not ty pical of modern Panjabi. Such prefixes as are used are nearly all applied to borrow ed

18

Chapter 2

words, and most of them are non-productive.

The following

may be mentioned: upa- (indicates proximity, help, subordination) upa-kar a- ,

help, kindness

=

an- ,

a�-

(indicates negative, absence of something)

unprecedented

adikkh ar:jan

unknown

anjo�

disconnected

adh- = half adhmoia ap- ,

half-dead

=

ava-

(indicates removal, negative qualities)

apjass

infamy

avagUl)

defect, flaw

sa- ,

su-

(indicates positive qualities) a good son

saputtar sukarm sva- ,

svae-

=

one's own, belonging to one

self-respect

svaeman "

=

independence (self-rule)

svaraj san-

good work, business

=

with

sanman

esteem

sanjog

union

ham-

=

with

hamdard I ka- ,

ku- ,

sympathy dur-

(indicates negative, unfavourable qualities)

kar;p kumatt durghap;a ni- ,

nis- ,

ugliness bad opinion misfortune nir- = without

nitaJ}.a

powerless

nisphal

fruitless

nirdo!;

not guilty

19

Chapter 2

par- ,

(indicates superiority, being ahead or

pra -

beyond) parde!;

abroad (foreign countries)

prabal

powerful

pa:r-

fore-

=

pa:rdada man-

great-grandfather

=

not, un-

=

mankhattu

not earning not floating

mantaru maha-

=

big, large

mah � I r la -

great hero un- , without

not,

=

lapravah

careless

l a varas vi-

=

childless

without, un- , from within unfounded, vain unfolding

vijog be-

ba -

=

$epardtioll

without,

U"l-

be�l

unreasonable

beant

endless

=

with

b a x3.:>ar

knowin;r

The main suffixes used in forming nouns Morphemes forming feminine nouns:

-I is used to form feminine nouns, adjectives and par­ ticiples from nouns which end in la rka

boy

lafk I

girl

canga

good

cangi

good (fern.)

written

1 i1th I

(fern. form)

likhi a -an,

-a in the masculine:

-a�,

-ni ,

-�i,

-ani,

-aJ}i,

-:ri:

these are used

20

Chapter 2 to form feminine nouns from masculine nouns not ending in -a : anj��

Panj abi woman

p��iti�I nagnI

pandit ' s wife

Panjabi man

panj �i

pandit

pandit

snake

nag

s ervant

naukar

naukrani

fema le snake =

fema le s ervant

Morphemes us e d to des ignate people with reference to their occ upa tions or to obj ects us e d or possessed by them: -vala ,

- va l ,

-hara ,

gharvala

-har

man ( ' owner of a hous e ' ) shareholder

sanjhi va l

wri ter

likhanhara

creator o f the world

s i r j anhar -ia

s i s te r ' s husband

bhanwia -u

worker ( ' He who works ' )

kamau daru -ik,

coward

=

-aka tarik

swimmer

laraka

warrior

-i pan j �i = a Panjabi -ari likh ar i -ava kh i - kar ,

wri te r

� va

tutor , educator

-gar ,

c i trakar

-gar artis t

yadgar

monument

sudagar

me rchan t

-ta neta

leader

21

Chapte r 2 -k inves tigator

j acak -dar

land-owner , landlord

zindndar -ban

gardene r

bagban -van dhanvan

rich man

=

The fol lowing morphemes are used to make diminutives or nouns of endearment : -e l ,

- ica ,

- ci ,

- fa ,

gal i ca sandUkcI,sandUkfi mukhfa

(-fI) : smal l s treet sma l l box li ttle face

Th e following morphemes ( among others ) make abs tract nouns : -ai pafha i

learning , teaching

-va t tiredness

thakava� -ha� ghabraha �

anxiety

-ap wisdom

s ia.r:ap -pan bacpan

ch i ldhood

=

-pal} bholapal}

kindness

-gi narazgi

=

dissatis faction

22

Chapte r 2 -ti mi�ti = quantity , measure

Morphemes used to make name s of countries , place-names : - s tan,

-is tan

h indus tan p;tkis tan

India Pakis tan

S uffi xes forming adj ectives -a bhukha

hungry

-akal 9-ar;tkal

appalling

-ael � usae l -a l u k i rpalu

angry gracious , kind bringing sorrow

-ik i tihas ik

h i s tori cal

-it dukh i t

pained , afflicted

muglaI

mogul

-I -Ila rangIl;t

colourful

-sar mi lar:sar

friendly

-dar samajhdar

reasonab l e , intel ligent

-man saktimiin

powerful

23

Chapter 2 -mand a l!- lmand

reasonable

-vant sukhvant

happy, lucky

-var tal!-atvar

strong

-van dhanvan

rich

-val san jhi va l

collective

Chapter 3

Morphology

THE NOUN Gender Panjabi distinguishes two grammatical genders - masculine and feminine.

Nouns ending in

-a,

-a,

-p�

are masculine:

ma

mother, which is feminine

e.g. gho�a

horse

hIa

heart

bacpal}

childhood

An exception is provided by

in spite of its ending (there are a few other similar cases). A few nouns ending in

-i

are also masculine.

nouns denoting nationality or profession: nai

These are

e.g.

barber

panjabI

Panjabi

bangall

Bengali

The majority of nouns ending in istri

woman

kurI

girl

-i

are feminine:

e.g.

There are no formal rules for identifying the gender of nouns wi th other than the above endings.

In the case of animate

nouns, grammatical gender corresponds to natural gender;

24

in

Chap te r 3

25

the cas e of inanimate nouns/ one mus t cons ult the dicti onary : e.g. b ul l

balad (m . ) j a �� ( m . )

peasant ( ' j a t ' )

j ama ( f. )

class

panj�aQ ( f . )

Pan j abi woman

viakaraQ ( m . )

grammar

The grammatical gender of certain inanimate nouns is e .g.

uns tab le :

th a ( m . and f. )

p lace

lam ( m . an d f. )

a rmy grass

ghatt ( m . and f . )

Feminine nouns can be formed from many masculine nouns e i the r by changing th e final ghora ( m . )

horse

gho;:- i ( f . )

mare

or by adding

-it

on a consonan t :

-fi ,

-Qi ,

-a

to

-ni

-i :

e.g.

to mascul ine nouns ending

e.g. pe asant

jaHI ( f . )

peasant woman

bal ( m . )

boy

balf! ( f . )

girl

gum ( m . )

mus ician

��! ( f . )

female mus i cian

landowner

zimIndarnI ( f. ) = female

j a�� ( m . )

z imin&r (m . )

=.

landowner Numbe r TWo numbers are dis tinguished - singular and plura l . Masculine nouns ending on a consonant or on any vowe l excep t

-a

do not change to form the plural direct cas e :

e.g.

vi llage/vi l lages crow/crows nai

barber/barbers

Mas culine nouns ending in form the di rect p l ura l :

-a

change this vowel into

-e

to

26

Chapter 3 horse

horse s

dog

dogs

Nouns of re lationship form an exception to this rul e , as do nouns of Sanskri t origin and a few of Iranian origin : bhra

brothers

leader

neta

leaders

p i ta

father

p i ta

fathers

dada

rive r

daria

brother

bhra neta

-=

rivers

Femi n ine nouns , apart from those ending in thei r direc t plural by adding the ending b hae� b i l lI

dhI gal l

s i s te r

bhael}a

cat

b i l lIa

=

ma

daughters

gal la

words

katha

Mati!

=

s tory

:.

- va

to the singular :

- :. mava

mothers

kathava

s tories

mother

form

e.g.

The direc t plural of feminine nouns ending in made by adding the ending

-a,

cats

dhIa

word

:.

-a ,

s is ters

�

daugh ter ;

=

-a :

e.g.

mother excep tiona l ly has p lura l mata

=

=

-a ,

-a

is

e.g.

mothers .

I n some cases , where a s i ngular feminine noun ends in

-ah

or in a consonant the plural direct cas e is made by adding -i :

e .g . s a lilh rat

counci l nigh t

salilhI

counci ls

ratI

nights

A smal l number of feminine nouns ending in consonants make

the direct form of the plural by adding the ending han j khumbh vas t

tear mushroom thing

�

han j � khumbhu �

vas tu

tears mushrooms things

Certain nouns are us ed only in the plura l : peke , dadke (m. pl . ) 10k ( m . p l . )

paren tal home people

e .g.

:.

-u :

e.g.

27

Chapter 3

Case TO express syntactical relations between nouns in a sentence, I synthetic, which adds case

Panjabi uses two methods:

endings to nouns, and 2 analytic, which combines nouns in the oblique case with auxiliary postpositions. In addition to the three cases common to most New IndoAryan languages - direct, oblique and vocative - Panjabi retains synthetic forms of three other cases - instrumental, dative and locative.

These can be formed from only a limited

number of nouns, however, and are used comparatively seldom, being replaced more and more by analytic formations. The direct case is the case in which the noun stands as subject, as the nominal part of the predicate, or as the direct object.

It is also the dictionary entry form for

nouns. The oblique case is not used independently.

In order to

express case relations (corresponding to the indirect rela­ tions of other inflected languages) it must be accompanied by postpositions, which are always understood as being present even when omitted in practice. case are as follows: Masculine nouns in -e

.::

-e

or

and

.::

-a

change these endings to

to form the singular oblique case:

mUl}�a (m. ) .::

-a

The forms of the oblique

sarna (m. )

boy; time;

.::

mur: � e nu =

same to

e. g.

to the boy, boy (acc. ) in time

An exception is formed by nouns of relationship and also by a few words of Sanskrit origin which do not change the final vowel:

e. g.

da di (m. )

grandfather

da da kol

grandfather's

neta (m. )

leader

neta na l

with the leader

A ll other masculine nouns and all feminine nouns remain unchanged in the singular oblique case:

e. g.

28

Chapter 3 l Umb a� ( m . )

.::

l Umba � nu

fox

fox ( acc . ), to the fox

gho � I ( f . )

gho �I ute

mare

sabbh a ( f . )

sabbh a wal �

mee ting

on the mare from the meeting

The p lura l ob lique form of masculine nouns ending in .:

-a

.:

i s formed by adding -i a mw;t�a (m . )

=

m�9i a nu = boys ( acc . l , to the boys

boy

=

.::

in ti me s

sami a to

time

sarna ( m . )

e .g .

to the base of the word : .

or

-a

.::

Feminine nouns which have a p lura l direct case ending in or

.::

-wa ,

remain unchanged in the p l ural obl ique :

gal l a

ga ll a n a l

words

mawa

mothers

.::

e.g.

w i th , by words

=

.:

-a

in the plura l ob lique

.::

table

me za ute

on tab les

kurs I (L) = chai r

k ursI a ute

on cha i rs

me z ( m . )

e .g.

mawa nu = to, of mothers

A l l other nouns take the ending case :

-a

In

The vocative case is the form use d to address someone .

th e s ingular maSCUl ine, nouns ending in a consonant take the ending

-a

to form the vocative :

h e puttr a

Oh son !

he rabb a

Oh God !

e.g.

Feminine nouns in the s ingula r make a vocative by adding -e

to the direct case form : ni dh Ie ! sika rane !

e.g .

Oh daughter ! Oh huntsman's wi fe!

In the p l ura l , all nouns make a vocative in

dhIo! putt ro !

0-:

e.g.

daugh ters ! sons!

The p l ural ins trumental form is made w i th the ending

-i .

(Old Pan j ab i had several ways of forming the instrumental case , including forms ending in hatth I akkhI

wi th hands with the eyes

-i

and

-hi ):

e .g.

29

Chap ter 3

In the s ingula r , an ablative form can be made with the ending -0

-i u :

or

e.g.

gharo = from ( out of) th e house

ko�iu = from out of the room, hut Loca tive forms are found in both s i ngular and plural numbers . For the singula r ,

-e

-hi) or the form may coinci de with the di rect case :

e.g.

by nigh t and in the morning

hanere s avere

he went into the house

uh ghar gia

The p lura l locative can be formed by adding

-I) :

-e ,

in the mind

ce te

Pan j abi,

-i ,

may be added ( i n Old Pan j abi ,

-i

( Old

e .g.

thai

in places

cah uvI pas I

e verywhere ( ' on four s i des ' ) on nights

rad 'mE ADJECTIVE

The two characte ris ti c endings of adj ectives in Panj abi are -a ,

::

-a (mas culine ) and

-i

( feminine ) .

The adj ective

normal ly precedes the subs tantive i t quali fies and agrees w i th it in gender , number and cas e ( d i rect or ob lique) Masculine adj ectives in -e

or

-e

-a ,

-a ,

•

change th i s vowel into

in the s ingular ob lique and the plural direct

A l l other masc uline adj e cti ves remain unchanged in

cases.

both cases :

e.g.

canga 9hofa = fine horse ; horse ;

or

.:

cange ghofe da

of the fine

cange 9hofe = fine horses

nava ghar = new hous e ;

nave ghar da

of a new hous e ;

nave ghar = new hous es

saphal ka mm = s ucces s fu l work ;

cessful work;

saphal kamm da

of s uc-

saphal kamm = s uccess ful works

Mas culine nouns ending in

-a ,

.:

-a

add the ending

-ia

to

Chap ter 3

30

Othe r adj ecti ves

the base to form the p lural ob l ique . remain unchange d , excep t ending

=

s abbh = a l l , wh ich takes the

-na :

s abbhna mi la � malik

the owner of all the fac tories

Th us : cange gho�e horses nawe ghar = new houses; sapha l kamm

.::

cangi a gho�ia �

fine horses;

of fine

.::

nawia ghara da = of �ew hous es

s ucces s ful works;

saphal kamma da = of

s ucce s s ful works Feminine adj ectives ending in

-i

do not change for the :

ob lique cas e of the singular , but take

in the plural in

e.g.

both dire c t and obl ique cas es : ca �gI gho !I = good mare ; cangIa gho�I a = good mares ;

-a

cangI ghO�I �a of a good mare ; _ cangii 9hofIa da of good mares

An adj ective qua l i fying a noun in one of the other ob lique cases i s p ut in the ob l ique cas e:

mae ap�e

e .g. I

hat thI kamm karda ha

do the work wi th my own

hands DEGREES OF COMPARISON The re is more than one way of expressing the comparative degree of adjectives in Panj ab i .

Adj ec tives in

form a simp le comparative by adding

-era

long

lammera

longer

big

vaddera

b igger - f a,

this

in the compara tive , and the affix

-era

If the adj ective ends in

-a

a lone

to the base :

e.g.

� of the base becomes r becomes e �a ; i . e .

th e cerebralisation i s trans ferred from the base to the a f f i x : e.g. tagfa = s trong

tagre!a = s tronger

A compos i te form of the comparative is made by means of the words

vaddh ( = bigger) and

gha�� ( =smaller) :

e.g.

Chapter 3

31

uh vaddh tagfa hae = he i s s tronger Compari son is express ed by placing the adj ective ( in i ts pos i ti ve or i ts comparative form) after the obj ec t with which the comparison is made, and to whi ch the pos tposi tions

(=

-

than ) and

-

tho

to , uh

(=

from) are added :

mae tho tagfa hae

nalo

e.g.

he is s tronger than me your daughter is bigger

meri k UfI nalo ted wac;1c;1I hae

than mine On ly the composite form is us ed in making the s uperlative degree ;

the pos tposi ti on

to

is added to the adj ective in

the oblique case p lus the simple form of the comparative degree of the same adj ective : cange to cangera -

man de to mandera

e.g.

the bes t the wor s t

Mos t frequently , however , the s uperlative is expres s e d analytica l ly with the help o f the syntacti c cons tructions s abbh to

(=

(=

of a l l ) ,

of a l l ) and

s abbhna nalo (= than a l l ) , s abbhn � th �

saria nal o

ih s abbhna t� n ikkI h£e uh saria nal � mara hae

(

=

than a l l ) :

e.g.

she is the smallest of a l l h e is the weake s t o f a l l

'mE NUMERALS

vih

20

tih

30

cali

40

1

10

ikk

yara

11

ikkI

21

ikti

31

iktalI

41

do

2

bara

12

bai

22

battI

32

bata l I

42

tera

13

teI

23

teti

33

tarta lI

43

caoda

14

caovi

24

cacti

34

caota l i

44

35

panjtalI 4 5

tinn 3 car

4

das -

-

pan j 5

pandara 15

pan j hI 25

paeti

che

sola

16

chabbI 26

cha tti 36

chatal I

46

17

sataI

27

saeti

37

santa l I

47

18

a�aI

28

atthti 38

a th talI

48

unnti

29

untalI 39

unan j a

49

6

.:

satt 7

s a tara

B

a�hara

a��

,.....

nao

9

unni

19

32

Chapte r 3 50

sattar

70

navve

ikvan j a

51

ikhattar

71

ikanve

bavanj a

52

bahattar

72

banve

pan j ah

-

90 �

91 92 �

tarvan j a 53

tihattar

73

taranve

93

curanj a

cuhattar

74

curanve

94

pacvanj a 5 5

panj hattar 7 5

pacanve

95

chivan j a 5 6

chihattar

76

chi anv�

96

satvanj a 5 7

sathattar

77

satanve

97

a�vanj a 58

at:hhattar

78

a�anve

98

unahat:h

59

unas i

79

narinve

99

s a1;t:h

60

assi

80

sao

54

100

ik�a1;h

61

ikasi

81

hazar , haj ar

baha1;h

62

b iasi

82

lakkh

trehat:h

63

tirasi

83

kavo�

10000000

kharb

100000000

caoha�h

64

c urasi

84

paehat:h

65

pacasi

85

chiahat:h 6 6

chias!

86

satahat:h 67

satas I

87

ath�ath 68

at:has i

88

unhat tar 69

unanve

89

.

.

1000 100000

The cardinals are not decl ined un less they re fe r to nouns in the obl ique case .

They then take the ending

-a:

e g. .

das a gho��a de milik the owners of ten horses p an j a baccI a nu = to five girls =

The ordinals are formed from cardinals by the addi tion of the s uffix

-va :

s attva dasva

seventh tenth

There are a few exc eptions : pahila

fi rs t

d�ja ( dUsra )

second

ti j a ( ti s ra )

thi rd

-

caotha ,...,

fourth

33

Chapter 3

If a cardinal ends in

-a

or

-a,

these vowels are dropped

be fore addi tion of th e ordina l s uffi x : at=hvanj va

fi fty-eight

fi fty-e igh th

s a tarva

s eventeen

satara

I f a cardinal ends in

e.g.

-ve ,

e.g. ; pacanv = nine ty - five

seventeenth

th i s becomes

-va in the

ordinal :

pacanva

=

ninety- fi fth

Forma l ly , the ordinals are declinable adj e c tives ;

thus

the thi rd boy

tIj a m�9a tIj e m��e ne k iha

the th i rd boy said

Fractional numbers :

there are special terms for the

followi ng : s ava paoQa

+

sac?he

+

,...

1 or 11 (with weights and measure s ) or ' a quarter to '

tihaI ge rh

11

addha

I

dha i

21

The numera ls addha and paoQa are formal ly declinable adj ective s (not to be con fus ed with sava and sa�e whi ch are indeclinab l e ) . Col lective numerals are formed from the cardinals ('-10 inclus i ve ) by adding the s uffixes dove

threesome

care

foursome

dase

-e :

e.g.

coup le

tinne pan j e

-e ,

five of

• • •

ten of

Another way o f forming col lectives is analy tica l ly by means of the pos tposi tion doha de do

=

�

couple

in i ts various forms :

e.g.

Chapter 3

34

h undred of

=

panja dii panj k U{Ia

five gi rls

Multip l i cative numeral s are cons tructed by means of the word -g �a (= times ) : do-gW]a or d� i

tinn-gW]a or ti�i

e .g. two times

three times

caoqUQa or caoQa

four times as big

panj- gW]a

five time s as big

s ao-gW]a

a hundred time s as big

Certain adj ectives and adverbs may appear in the rol e of inde fini te numerals : many

anek hor bahute s abbh sare

stil l more many all wholly , a ltogether

The particle (=

koI

k u (= about , approximately ) and the pronoun

someone ) are also used to form indefini te numerals :

e.g. panj ku

about five

s ao ku

about a hundred

koi das rupae

about 10 rupees

PRONOUNS Pan j ab i di s tinguishes pe rsonal , possessive , reflexive , demon­ s trative , in terrogative , indefini te , re lative and e�phatic pronouns .

A l l pronouns have special oblique forms , but no

vocative forms . Personal pronouns The firs t and second p ersonal pronouns are display ed in the fol lowing tabl e :

Chapter 3

35

2nd person

1st person

case

s ing .

pl .

tu

tusi

as a , s a

tae , tae ,

tusa , tus a ,

asa

tu

t uh;

sing .

pl .

direct

mae

asi

ob lique

mae , mae me

,..,

=

=

�

The demons tra tive pronoun

uh ( = this , th a t , he , she , i t )

se rves as third personal pronoun The pronoun

tu

(

=

thou) is us e d famil i arly to younger

members of the family , or impolite ly to pe rsons lower in social s tanding than the speaker ;

tus I ( = you) is used as a

singula r pronoun of addres s to relatives , friends

and people

who are younger than the speake r . The pronoun

ap ( = you) ( often accompanied b y the particle

j I ) is us e d as both a s ingular and a pl ural form o f address to people of higher social s tanding , or s imply as a ma rk o f res pe c t and pol i teness .

Occas ionally ,

ap

may refer to a third

pe rs on , of whom on e is speaking with respect . Pos s e s s i ve pronouns The personal possessive pronouns

me ra ( = my ) ,

tera ( = thy) ,

s a �; ( = our) and tuh ; �; ( = your ) are formal ly adj e ctives and are declined as such .

They also s tand for the corresponding

pe rs onal pronouns in cons tructions with the compound pos tpos i tions .

In these ci rcums tances the firs t part o f the

compound pos tposi ti on ( de ,

tuha �e la I

for you

s age bare

about us

d I ) is omi tte d :

e.g.

36

Chapter 3

Re flexive pronouns The pronoun

ap

the reflexive -possess ive pronoun repl aces

ap

e.g.

apJ} e nal

wi th oneself

apJ} e laI

for onese l f

=

ap�e ap nu (

Cons truc tions of the type : (=

ap�a ( = one ' s own) , whi ch

in cons tructions wi th pos tpos i tions , like the

pos sess ive pronouns :

tho

From i t is formed

is us e d as a reflexive .

of ones e l f ) ap�e ap

=

from ones e l f ) , etc . are common.

Demons trative pronouns These include nominal and adj ecti val pronouns and , associated with the la tte r , adverbial pronouns . imi ty are dis tingui she d :

Two degrees of prox-

' thi s ' and ' that ' , i . e . near a t

h an d and further away . ( a)

person , obj e c t : ih , aeh

this , these

uh , aoh

that, those

S ingular

P l ura l

Dire c t case

Ob lique case

Direct case

Oblique cas e

ih

i s , ih

ih

aeh

aes , aeh

aeh

ihn a , inha ,.... aena , ahina

......

us , uh

uh

,.. aos , aoh

aoh (b)

indi cators : a j eha

( c)

such

iho j eha

such as this

uhoj eha

such as that

quan tity : inna , unna = so much

uh aoh

uhna , unha aohn a , aona

37

Chapte r 3 ( d)

mass , degree , meas ure : e99a , u9�a

=

so big

I n terrogative pronouns (a)

person : k ao,:

=

who?

ob j ect : ki

=

what? P l ural

S ingular Obl ique case

Dire ct case

Dire ct case

kis , kih

(b)

Ob lique case kinha

indica tors : kihra kihojeha

( c)

what sort of?

=

like what? , how?

=

quanti ty : kinna

( d)

=

how much?

mas s , degree , meas ure : how big? , how much?

Relative pronouns (a) o f person or ob j ect : jo

=

who , whi ch , that (oblique case : s ingular plural

(b)

=

as

quan tity : j inna

(d)

j inh a )

indi cators : j ih fa

( c)

j ihna ,

=

as much as

mas s , degree , meas ure : j e��a

=

as b i g as , as much as

j is , j ih ,

Chapte r 3

38

Inde finite pronouns koI = someone , somebody , someone or other ( s ingular ob lique case :

kise ;

k ujh

�

�

kinha , kihna)

p l ural obl ique :

some thing

ka i

some

Emphasising pronouns xud ,

=

ap

self

s abbh

sabbhn a)

all ( ob lique :

sara

a l l , the whole of ( declinable adjective )

sabbh kujh

a l l ( indeclinab l e )

har ik

each , every ( inde clinab l e )

s arba t = a l l ( indeclin ab le )

anek = ( ob lique case aneka)

THE VE RB

Non-conj uga te d forms The infini tive is taken as the bas i c form of the verb ;

as

nomen actionis i t is mas culine in gender . The infini tive is formed by adding the morpheme the verbal base ; morpheme

-na

i f the bas e ends in

is adde d :

j aI} a

to go

kam a

to do

la fIla

to figh t

s unna

to lis ten

pa;-hna

r,

�,

�,

-�a �h ,

to the

e.g.

to read

The ob l ique case of the infini tive is formed by dropping -a :

e .g. i tthe mae pa;-han laI aI

I ( fern . ) came here in order to learn

39

Chapter 3

The verbal base is distinguished from the infini tive by the absence �f the morpheme

-Qa

( -n a ) .

Any verbal base may be

used as a noun ( us ua l ly feminine ) , bearing the abs tract mean­ e.g.

ing of the root :

to p lay

khe �Qa

play ing , p lay , game

khel} ( f . )

The nomen agentis is formed from the ob lique case of the infinitive by addi tion of the suffixes

-a l a ,

-va la ,

-har .

Th e res ultan t form may b e us ed e i ther as a noun or a s an adj ective :

e.g.

vekhaz:!va la bhaj j aQa la karanhar

looking a t , observer runner doing , doer , agent

The nomen agentis is a lso used to indicate readiness to perform an ac tion , i . e . as the particip l e of intention : uh

e.g.

auz:!va la h ae = he ' s getting ready to come ( ' here he comes ' )

The simple imperfective particip le is formed by adding the formant s uffix verb .

-d-

and the ending

-a

to the bas e of the

For the simple perfective particip le the ending

is added to the bas e : pa;'hda mUz:!l}a rangia dupaHa

-ia

e .g.

the boy who is reading ..

painted ( dyed) veil (shaw l , cover)

I f the base of the verb ends on a vowel or on orthographic ( a fter a vowe l ) ,

- n-

is inserted be fore the

-da

h

ending of

the imperfective participle : khaQ a roz:!a aUQa l aehl}a

to eat

J-.h anda

eating

to weep

ronda

weeping

to approach

a unda

approaching

to descend

l aehnda

des cending

Idiosyncratic forms of the imperfective parti ciple are found , ending in -na (m. ) , -ni ( f . ) in the singular and in -ne ( m. ) ,

and

- nia ( f . ) i n the plura l .

Chapte r 3

40

Some perfecti ve parti cip les are formed i rregularly .

The mos t

important are : kama j a�a marna

kIta ( m . ) , kid ( f . )

to do

gia , gai

having gone

moia , moi

having died

to go to die

done

to drink

p i ta , p i ti

drunk

to s ay

kiha , kah i

said

de�a

to give

di ta , did

given

laeI}a

to take

lia , lai

taken

pina kahi!)a

As a rule , the perfective particip les of transitive verbs are Other participles have an active

pas s i ve in meaning . meaning .

The compound participle is formed by combining the s i mple parti ciple of any verb wi th the perfecti ve participle of the verb

ho!)a ( = to be) .

The compound participle is perfective

or impe rfective , depending on the simple participle used ; thus, impe rfective pafhda hoia

=

reading (pres . part . ) , engaged in reading (present or pas t) looking at (pres . part . ) , engaged in looking at (present or pas t)

perfective vekhia hoia

seen

kI ta hoia

done

The compound participle agrees w i th the word it de te rmines in gender and number . The absolute form of the participles , both simple and compound , may be used in an abso lute sense . participles take the ending �

-

=

�

-ia,

mae munde hoi a s �ia . . nu parhdia -mae ram nu aundia vekhia �

In this case , the

and are not declined :

e.g.

I heard the boy reading I s aw Ram approaching

Th e adverbial parti cip le is formed from the verbal base by adding the s uffi x

-ke :

e .g .

Chapter 3

41

kah i -ke = having s a i d

to speak

kar- ke = having done

to do I f the base ends in -ke :

-au ,

the

u

is dropped be fore adding

e.g.

ph ae la�a

to s traighten , let out ;

=

,.... phae la-ke

having let

out , s traigh tened The conj ugated forms of the indica tive mood Simpl e forms

The simple forms , made by adding the pers onal endings to the verbal base , include the impe rative mood , the s imple s ub j unc­ tive forms and the forms of the simple future which are deri ved from the latter . The only forms us ed of the imperative mood are those of the second pe rson , s ingular and p lura l .

The second person s i ngu-

lar is i dentical wi th the verbal base : kar

do !

b ae �

sit!

The morpheme

-0

is added to these forms to make the plural

impe rative : k aro b ae �o

do ! sit!

The singular forms are us e d i n addressing menbers o f family or intimate friends ;

in other contexts it is us ed s ligh tingly .

A long s i de these imperative forms there are also the socalled polite or respectful forms , made by adding

.

-i

to the ve rba l base for the second person singula r , a�d ( -vio) for the second person plural : .

-

tu b ae � I

tu pivi t us i bae�io tus i pi vio

please s i t p lease drink please s i t please drink

e.g.

( -vi ) - io

Chapter 3

42

The infini tive may also be us ed in an imperative s ense for both singular and plural of the s e cond pe rson : .: tus i na bae��a = don ' t s i t down ! ,,

The s ubj unc ti ve mood expresses pos s ib i l i ty , doub t , s upposition , uncertainty , des i re and so on .

The s i mple s ub j un ctive

forms are i dentical for both genders : I

mae pa;-ha

( m . o r f . l may read

S ingular

P l ural

mae kara

asi karie

tii. kar;

tusi karo

uh kare

uh karan

The s i mple future is made by adding the forma tive parti cle -ga

( fern .

gi ;

p l . mas c .

- ge ,

p l . fern .

-gial to th e

pres ent s ub j unctive forms (wi th the exception of the firs t person plura l , where

a

form ending in

-a

is usedl .

S ingular

P l ural

mae karaga ( fern . karagi l

asi karage ( fern . karagial

tu karega ( fern . karegi l

tus i karoge ( fern . karogia l

uh k arega ( fern . karegi l

uh karange ( fern . karangIa )

Con j ugation of the a uxi l i ary verb ho�a The auxi liary verb ho�a - whi ch is also the copula - enters into the composi tion of mos t of the remain i ng inflected forms made from the parti ciples - the indi cative simple pas t and present , the s ub j unc tive , the hypoth e tical and the condi tiona l moods . The simple present indi cati ve of hOQa : Singular

P lura l

mae ha

asi ha

tii. hae

tus I ho

uh hae

uh han

-

The simple pas t :

Chapter 3

43

S i ngular

P lural

mae s a tu s ae

asi sa '"' tus i sao ( sao )

uh si

uh s an

.::

,..,

-.J

=

The s ub j unctive : mae hova

P lura l as i hoi e

tu hove

tus i hovo

uh

uh hor:' (hovan )

S ingular -

---

hove

Hypothe tical mood and future indicative : Singular

P l ural

mae hova g a ( f . hova g i ) tu hov; ga ( f . hove g i )

as I hovage ( f . hova g Ia )

uh

uh

hovega ( f . hoveg i )

.

.

tus i hovoge ( f . h ovogI a ) hOr:'ge ( f . hOr:'g ia )

Condi tional mood : P lura l

S ingular mae , tii , uh hunda

.

.

asI , tus i , uh hunde ( f . f . hundi a )

( f . hundi )

Forms made from the participles Indi cati ve mood

The present tense of any verb is made by comb ining i ts imper­ fe ctive participle with the present tense ot the auxi liary : e.g. P l ura l

S i ngular

�e

b ae �da ( f . b � � dI ) h a

tii b ae �da ( f .

bae�di )

h ae

uh b ae� da ( f . b ae �di ) hae

.

.

i ) ha as i ...b ae thde ( f . b ae thdI . . ....

tusI b � 1:hde ( f . bae� � ia) ho uh b ae 1:hde ( f . b ae �hd ia ) han

The present tense expresses cus tomary action , the mos t immine n t future a n d also the his tor i cal presen t .

I t also

indicates action taking p lace a t a given moment in time :

e.g.

44

Chapter 3 ;:

bhI f vi co avaza aunde han = voices rise from the crowd For th i s meaning , howe ver , another cons truction is normally pre fe rred - a combination of the s imple participle of the main verb w i th the perfective participle of the verb rahiQa ( = to live , dwel l , s tay ) plus the present tense o f the auxi liary :

e.g.

�

�

we are going ( a t present)

asI j a rahe ha

A second form of the present tense - less often us ed serves to indicate the continuance of action at

given

a

momen t , and is made from the impe rfective participle in

-na .

I t is used only in the firs t and s econd persons singular and in the firs t person p l ura l : e . g . tu pauna hae you are putting , placing ( a t the present moment ) asi nhan I a ha

we ' re washing ourse lves ( now)

The pre s ent perfective tense of a verb is formed by combining i ts pe rfective parti cip le with the present tense of the auxi liary : S ingular

-

-

,...

mae baet:bia ( f . b ae � I ) ha ,... tu bae�ia ( f . bae � I ) h ae �

uh

b ae � ia ( f . b ae !=h I ) hae

P l ural as I b � t:he ( f . b ae � I a ) h a _ tus I b ae �e ( f . b ae �I a ) ho uh b ae �e ( f . b ae !=h I a ) han

A transi tive verb us ed in thi s tense or in any other tense incorporating the perfective parti ciple agrees not w i th th e s ub j ect ( ob l ique cas e ) which i s marked b y th e pos tpos i tion � but with the di rect obj e c t whi ch is not marked;

where no

direct obj ect is expressed, the verb is always in the th i rd person masculine s ingula r : e . g . mae us n u akkh I te kadi nahI velthia h � �

�

I ' ve never seen him wi th my own eyes

The pres ent perfecti ve tense expresses an action whi ch has

45

Chapte r 3

been completed at the moment of speaking , but whose results are s ti l l making themselves fe lt . The pas t continuous is formed by combining the imperfective participle w i th the pas t tense of the auxi liary :

e . g . from

likhQ a = to wri te Sinqular

;;

P lural

=

mae likhda ( f . likhdI ) s a

asi likhde ( f . likhdi a ) s a

tu likhda ( f . HkhdI ) s ae

tus i likhde ( f . Hkhdi a ) s ao ( sao)

uh l ikhda ( f . H kh di ) s i

uh likhde ( f . likhdi a ) san

,...

Thi s tense is us e d to indicate action taking place at some time in the pas t , w i thout reference to i ts completion : �

-

=

; rna ;

par tu hi te ik din kahindi sae t� aorat We ll you see tha t ' s j us t wha t you said to

me :

e.g.

you ' re a

woman , you ' re a mother In order to express the pas s age of time a t a given moment in the pas t a combination of the simple pa rticiple o f the re levant verb p lus the pe rfective participle of the verb rahiQa and the pas t tense of the auxiliary is use d : uh ja riha s i

e .g.

he was going ( a t a given moment i n the pas t )

=

The p luperfect tense is formed by combining the perfective participle of the re levant verb wi th the pas t tense of the auxi liary :

u��Qa

e.g. =

to rise

Sinqular

;;

mae u��ia ( f . u��hI ) sa tu

u��ia

( f . u��i ) s ae

uh u��ia ( f . u�� I ) s i

P lura l :

T=

=

asi u��he ( f . utth1a � sa � tusI u��e ( f . u�� i a ) s a'o ( s ao ) uh u��e ( f .

�

u��ia)

san

The p luperfect indi cates an action whi ch has finished by a given moment in the pas t ( or b e fore the commencement of another action ) :

e.g.

a j e tak us ne mUQ�e da hath mazb�tI nal pha� rakhia s i up to tha t point h e had been ho lding the child firmly by the hand

Chapte r 3

46

The pas t perfec tive is formal ly identica l with the perfective particip le ;

i t expresses a completed ac tion wi thout reference

to the moment of i ts completion :

e .g.

i k bU9he ne amma nu puchia = s ome old man turned to mother w i th the ques tion The forms of the pas t perfec tive change only for gender and null'ber : S ingular

P lural

mae , tu , uh u��ia

asi , tus i , uh u��e

( f . u�� i )

( f . u��Ia )

�

�

Hypothetical mood

The imperfective form i s made by combining the impe rfective participle wi th the hypothetical mood of the auxiliary verb : e.g.

uh pa;hda hovega

=

h e mus t b e ( i s very probably ) reading

This tense indicates an action whi ch is held to be very probable . The perfective form uses the perfective participle in this formation wi th the hypothetical tense of the auxiliary ;

it

expresses a n ac tion whose completion is held t o be , o r have been , ve ry probab le . uh pafhia hovega

=

he very prob ab ly read i t through , finished reading i t

Subj uncti ve

moo d

The i!perfecti ve form i s formed by the imperfecti ve parti cipl e plus auxi liary verb i n S ub j unctive .

I t indicates the pos s i -

bi l i ty of comp le tion of a n action or i ts incomp l e te s tate : e.g. perhaps the hoy i s not s leeping

Chapte r 3

47

The �erfective form is forme d from the perfective participle plux auxil ia ry verb in s ub j unctive .

I t is used to indicate

the possibi l i ty that an action has been complete d :

e.g.

munda j agia hove = p robably the boy has woken up Condi tiona l mood

Thi s mood i s used to indicate that an action could have taken p lace but did not do so because of certain ci rcums tances , i . e . i t imp l i es the impos s ib i l i ty of such and s uch an action taking p lace .

There are three pos s ib le forms :

The genera l form is expressed by the impe rfec tive parti ciple : e.g. j e mae j agda ta bah ut cangia hunda

i f I could have kept awake i t would have been very good

The imperfective form is made from the imperfective parti cip le plus the auxi liary verb in i ts condi tional form :

e.g.

j e mUQqa j agda hunda = i f the boy had kept awake ( then

•

•

•

)

The perfecti ve form is made from the perfective participle p lus the a uxil i ary verb in i ts conditional form :

e.g.

j e m�ga j agia hunda = i f th e boy had woken up ( then

• • .

)

The pass i ve There are two ways of making the pas s i ve i n Panj ab i : (a)

by combining the perfective participle of a trans i ti ve

verb with forms of the verb

j a�a ( = to go ) :

e.g.

pa�I gurcharan t� pita j an da hae = Gurcha ran drinks water ( li te ra l ly , ' water is b eing drunk by Gurcharan ' ) (b)

by combining a specia l parti ciple in

the auxi liary ve rb

ho'}a :

- ida

w i th forms of

e.g.

pah i la ro�I pakaidI hae , phi r khaIdI hae

=

f i rs t of a l l , bread mus t be baked , and then eaten

48

Chapter 3 mere kolo nahi j aida hae = I ought not to go This second form is us ed on ly in the th i rd person singular ;

over and above the pas s i ve me aning , the form implies obl i ga­ tion .

I t can be made from transi ti ve and intransi ti ve verbs

alike :

when the verb is trans i ti ve , the parti ciple agrees

with the direct ob j ect if th e re is one ;

i f the dire ct ob j ec t

is marked b y a pos tpos i tion , the parti ciple is in the mas c uIn the ca�e of an intrans itive verb , the

line s ingular .

participle s tands likewise in the masculine s ingular . In addition to the usual perfective parti c iples ( s imple and compound ) of transitive ve rbs , whi ch have a pas s ive meaning , there is another compound participle in Panj abi made wi th the help of the verb

j a�a :

e.g.

parhi a gi a = read (pas t pt . ) Thi s form is not much us e d . Formation of transi tive and caus ative ve rb s Transi ti ve verbs can b e formed from certain intransitives b y changing the root vowel and , where neces s ary , the fol lowing consonan t : vikl)a

to be for sale

vec�a '" to sell

gull}a

to be move d

doll}a

phissl}a

to be fi l led

phehW1a

to move ( trans . ) to fi l l

t:-u!J:a

to break , be b roken

ton:a

to break ( trans . )

marna

to die

marna

to ki l l

There are two categories of causati ves ( causal verbs ) made by changing the verbal base .

Causatives of the firs : category

are made by adding the morphemes ve rbal bas e ; -lva u .

-au,

-aI ,

- la u

those o f th e se cond category by adding

I n b o th cas es , th e root vowel ma y change .

to the -vau

or

1s t category

2nd ca tegory

causative

caus ative

"'" \0

u�t:h!)a

to rise

u�aUl)a

to rais e

ut:hvaUl)a

to cause to be rais e d

hilni .

to move

hi launa .

to move

hilva Ul) a

to caus e to be moved

,....

-

( intrans . )

daofna

to run

dekhl}a

to look , see

dUfaUl)a dikhall}a

s ikh!)a

to learn

de!)a

to give

to chase

=

=

d llt' va UQ a

to caus e to b e shown

sikhvaUIJa

to cause to be taught

to teach

du;iUl)a , diva Ul)a ,

di lvaUIJa

di laUl)a = to hand ove r ro!)a

to weep

ruaUlJa , ruvaUl)a , ruall}a

to caus e to be chased

dikhvaUl)a to show

s i khaUl)a , s ikhlaUl)a , s i khalna

IN

( trans . )

dikh a Ul)a , dikhl;iUl)a ,

weep

to cause to be handed ove r

rUlvaUl)a to caus e to

n ::r III '0 � 11) .,

to caus e someone to be made to weep

50

Chapte r 3

The

causative form of an in transi ti ve verb means ' to induce

someone or some thing to carry out the action denoted by this intrans itive verb ' :

e .g . he made me his friend

us ne mae nu ap�a dos t ba�aia

( i . e . 'made to become ' ) us ne saj j e hatth vic thae la lamkai she hung her bag on her righ t hand ( i . e . ' caused to h ang ' ) The causative form of a tran s i ti ve verb means ' to cause some­ thing to be done by s omeone ' :

e.g.

dikhlaUQa = to show ( i . e . ' cause to b e seen ) or ' to induce someone to do s ome thing ' :

e.g.

khi laUQa = to feed ( i . e . ' to caus e to eat ' ) A second ca tegory caus a tive indi cates that two agents

ins tead of one are impli cated in the action :

e.g.

us n e cupas I vekhi a k i koI aesa hae j ihra is s anka� paso us di khalasi karvae

=

he looked around him - was there no one

who could free him from thi s difficult pos i tion? ( i . e . ' someone who coul d cause s omeone to

•

•

•

')

I t is not possib l e to · form causatives from a l l verbs . paUQa ( = to receive ) ,

Such ve rbs as (=

to come ) and

j a�a (= to go) ,

aUQa

laUQa (= to bring) do not form caus a tives .

Compound verbs Denominatives are formed by combining a noun or adj ective with any of th e following verbs : kama

to do

ho� a

to be

rakhi�a

to put , hold

along w i th a few others whi ch are less frequently us e d : tiar kama ti ar ho�a s imran karna

to prepare to prepare ones e l f for ( tiar to remind , recall

ready )

e .g.

Chapter 3

51

s imran ho�a

to rememb e r , reca l l ( s imran

memory )

bharosa rakhi�a

to hope ( bharosa = hope )

n i grani rakhina

to watch , to s upervise ( nigranI s upervi sion)

taras auna

to feel sympathy ( taras

sympa thy ,

compass ion ) I n the las t three e xamples , the noun retains a certain degree of independence .

This is s een when there is a direct

ob j e c t whi ch is in these circums tances governed by the pos tpos i ti ons

ute ,

nu,

na l , e tc . and a l s o b y the fact tha t

th e ve rb then agrees n o t with the ob j e c t but wi th th e noun component of the denominative compoun d : us nu me re ute taras aunda hae mae masko cal� da bharos a rakhdi sa

e.g. he sympathises wi th me I

hoped to go to

Moscow pan j ah s ipahI ne � i l e dI nigrani rakhI

fi fty soldiers guarded the fort

Compound verbal forma ti ons

In compound verbal formations the main seman tic weigh t is borne by the main sense verb whi le th e s e cond formant los es to some degree its own origi nal meaning and modi fies in various ways th e meaning of th e main verb . 1

Formations wi th the truncated particip le of the main

verb (

=

base )

Forman t ve rbs give a parti cular s lant to the action expre s sed by the main verb and indi cate in various ways more precise ly in wha t manner the action proce e ds or the s tate contin ues . The mos t wi dely used of these formant verb s are : ( 1)

j � a ( = to go , go away ) , in combinati on w i th a verb of

motion , gives the latter an added meaning of departure , of

�2

Chapter 3

motion away from the pe rcipient s ub j e ct , or away from th e phy s i cal point in ques tion : utar j aQa

=

e .g.

to go out , descen d , leave ( utarn a = to des cend)

In combinati on with other verbs - mos tly verbs of s tate - j a�a indicates a s teady progress from one s ta te to another , or from one p rocess to another :

e .g.

bae� j anda h ae = i s i n th e process o f s i tting down

a�a (= to come , to arrive , approach ) indi cates motion

(2)

towards the s cene of the action , or towards th e percipient s ub j e c t :

e.g.

utar a�a = to des cend towards

cal l�a ( = to go , move ) , and (4 ) turna ( = to go , move )

( 3)

have very li ttle diffe rence in meaning .

The former , cal l�a ,

is not often comb ined with verbs o f motion ;

as a rule , i t

indi cates s teady progress from one s tate to another ;

turna ,

on the oth e r h an d , is frequently combined wi th ver�s o f motion , t o whi ch i t gives the meaning of departure from the scene of action . j a�a . (5)

Both of these verbs can take the p lace o f

laeQa ( = to take , take away ) , and ( 6 ) deQa (

=

to give ,

deliver , dis tribute) identify the action expressed by the main verb as being directed towards the speake r or th e percipient s ub j e ct ( lae�a) or , away from them ( de�a ) .

In mos t cases ,

lae�a gi ves the me an ing of inte res tedness , of action in one ' s own inte res ts , for ones e l f ;

wh ile de�a s ugges ts action on

beha l f of someone else , or the agen t ' s dis interes t in the outcome :

e .g.

bhe j de�a

to send away ( from ones e l f ) ( bhej�a

lu� l ae� a

to rob ( lu�a = to rob )

( 7)

u���a (

=

=

to send)

to get up , s tand up ) serves as an inchoative ,

often also s ugges ting an element of surprise or of unexpecte d­ ness :

e.g. to s tart speaking ( dass�a

to speak)

53

Chapter 3

( 8)

b6e��� (= to s i t , settle ) conveys the idea of total

comple tion of an action , some times also i ts particularly ene rge tic comple tion :

e.g. to b urn )

(9)

rakhi�a (

=

to place , hold) also gives the idea of a more

ene rge tic completion of the action of the main verb : to bind s trongly (ban� a

bannh rakhil}a

e.g.

to b ind ,

combin e ) ma rna (

10 )

=

to beat, s trike , ki l l ) is usual ly combined with

verbs s emantica l ly close to i t , so that the resultan t com­ pound e xpresses an intensi fication of the action of the main verb :

e .g .

vagih marna = to hurl ( violen t ly ) ( vagah�a = to throw ) ( 11 )

s u���a ( = t o throw , bea t , s t rike) intensi fies action of

main verb , often wi th the additional notion of alien a tion , dispersal , remova l .

s U��l}a is clos e in meaning to marna but

s u��a is us ed over a much wi der s emantic field :

e .g.

to squeeze out to the las t drop (napi rna

nap i r sU!:FJa

to pres s , squeeze ) ( 12 )

cukk�a ( = to finish) is not us e d independently .

When

i t is us e d w i th the adverbial participle of another verb it is in th e presen t perfective tense or the pluperfect .

It

then emphasi ses the full range o f th e action expressed b y the ma in verb , its total comple tion - whi ch is in any case indica­ ted by th e tense form used:

e.g.

mae j ive agge kah i cukki ha = as I ( f . ) h ave already made plain b e fore this ( 1 3)

cha99Qa (

=

leave , abandon ) introduces into the action

the notion of liberation from some th ing or other, the achievement of a desi rable res ult ;

and also th e i dea o f a

s tab l e s tate res ul ting from completion of the action :

e.g.

i s maj h nu vec cha99 = s e l l th i s buffalo ! ( ge t rid o f it ! )

Chapte r 3

54

( 14 )

pae�a (= to fa l l , lie , to happen ) gives the idea of the

s urp rise or unexpected nature of the conc lusion of the ac tion :

e .g.

uh kah inda hoia uth paenda

with these words he leaps to his feet

( 15)

s akk�a (= to be in a s tate , to be able ) .

This ve rb is

combined w i th the adverbial par-

not us e d independen tly .

ticiple of another verb it s uggests the like lihood or poss i ­ bil ity th a t the action e xp ressed i n th i s verb wi ll be conc lu­ ded :

e .g.

s anu i j azat mil s akdI h ae = we can get permiss i on 2

Forma tions w i th the perfe ctive participle of the main

verb Duratives :

the verb rah i�a ( = to l i ve , dwel l , s tay) empha­

sises the dura tion o f the action : uh su�de rahinde han

sari rat mae usnu u9ikdI rahi

e .g. they go on and on lis tening I ( f . ) wai ted all n i gh t for him

Dura tive-progressives : growth of an action :

j a�a and a�a emphasise th e unbroken e.g.

admIa dI bhi r. pale pal ghatdi j andI s i . the crowds thinne d out wi th eve ry minute that pas s ed uh s ada n uk tacInI hi k arde ae san

all they ever di d was cri ticise Comb inations wi th the verb a�a indicate that an action s tarte d in the pas t is continuing into the present . 3

Forma tions wi th the perfective participle of pae � a The perfective parti ciple of pae �a can combine wi th the pe r­ sonal forms of any ve rb to indi cate dura tion and s ome times growth of ac tion ;

the particip le then agrees wi th the s ub j ec t

in gender an d number :

e.g.

; a i d bhe ru p ia aunda hae

perhaps this is Bhe ru drawing near

Chapter 3

55

is da dil dharakda pia s i = his heart con tinued to beat Combination with the verbal noun

4

I terati ve verbs are formed by combining the formant karna wi th the ve rbal noun in

-ia ,

whi ch coin cides formally with th e

perfecti ve participle ( e xcept in th e case o f the verb j a�a whi ch makes its ve rbal noun j aia) . indecl inab le :

This verbal noun is

e .g .

uh s ah i r j aia karda s1 tu gaudrej saba� vartia kar

he went habi tua l ly to town wash a lways wi th Gaudre j soap !

Combination wi th infin i ti ve in ob lique case

5

Th e combination of the verb laggQa (= to be attached to) and the in fini tive of another verb in the ob lique case has an i te rative meaning : uh

e.g.

kamm karan lagga = h e began to work

The combination of pae�a w i th an infin i t i ve in the ob lique cas e indicates the pos s ib i l i ty of completing the action expressed in the main ve rb : uh

dekhaz:! pia

e .g.

he was able to look at it

The combination of de�a with an infinitive in the obl ique case carries the notion of permission , l eave to do some thing : e.g. mae nu bae\:h� de�a = a l low me to s i t down ADVERBS

Clas s i fi cation of adve rbs by meaning Quali tative adverbs or adverbs of manne r modi fy verbs , e tc . in vari ous ways : canga th1k tez

well righ t sharp ly

sahi j e = ligh t ly , eas i ly

56

Chapter 3 A specia l group is formed by the quanti tative adve rbs which

denote degree of qua l i ty and intens i ty of action .

Adj ectives

in the direct case of the masculine s ingular o ften fulfi l this func tion :

e.g. very , much

bahut thofa

li ttle once

ik

twice , again

dubara

some

kai vari

Adve rbs of time include : h un .

savere

now tomorrow

ajj

today

kal

yes terday , tomorrow

-

kado -

j ado tad

when when ( re l ative) then

Adve rbs of place or di rection : dUr

far away

nefe

near

upar

above

het=ha

be low

saj j e

on the ri gh t

khcWl.J�

un

the lett

� adve rbs include : kiuki = b ecause is laId= because k arke = th anks to MOrphologi cal clas s i fication of adverbs Morphologica l ly , adverbs can be divided into primary and derived .

57

Chapter 3 P rimary adve rbs comprise the simple pronominal adverbs

which coincide formal ly with the pronominal adj ectives : -

inn a , unna u��a , e��a , je
so much , so many so much how much , how many

ke��a

how much , how many

j inna

how much , how many ( relative )

Adverbs of th e type aj j ( = today ) , h� ( = n ow ) and kal (=

yes terday ) also belong here , as do a few borrowe d words

such as hamesa (Persi an )

(= always )

•

Derived adverbs incl ude : Adverbs whi ch are the corre latives of adjectives .

(1)

Indeclinable adjecti ves are us ed as adverbs without change of form :

e .g. big (adj . ) , more ( adv . ) correct/correctly te z = sharp/sha rp ly

Decl inable adjectives us e d as adverbs may e i th e r retain the form of the direct case of the mas culine singular : good/well

canga b ura

e.g.

=

bad/badly

or take the oblique case form : saj j e

(2)

o n the righ t

khabb e

on the left

s ah i j e

e as i ly

Adve rbs formed from nouns in their ob lique form ;

forma­

tion from the direct form is rare r : save re dine che t!

in the moming by day quickly

Nouns wi th pos tpos i tions may also appear as adverb s : saver nu = in th e morning

e.g.

58

( 3)

Chapte r 3 Adverbs forme d by reduplication of nouns : che tI-che tI

qui ckly

galat- ga lat

probably

bhI-bhI

pers i s tently (bhi

=

e.g.

buzzing of a wasp)

Some time s the components are connected by the linking vowel -0-

or by a pos tpo s i ti on : dino-din

from day to day

rato-rat

eve ry night

gha�-to-gha� che ti-t� -chetI ( 4)

=

very little ve ry quickly

Pos tpo s i tions may also appear as adverbs : sihml}e

ahead

upar

above

kol (5)

e.g.

e.g.

alongside

Some adverbs are forma l ly iden tical to adverbia l par­

ti ciples , and some are made with the h e lp of the adverbial particip l e :

e.g.

soc-vic;r-ke citt l;-ke mi l-ke dil lag; -ke

conscious ly , inte l ligently a tten tively together di ligently

POSTPOS I TIONS The pos tposi tions s erve to identify the grammatical re lations between words in the propo s i tion .

Pan j abi pos tpos i tions are

eith er primary or derive d . Pri ma ry pos tpos i tions and their bas i c meanings da - serves as the affix of the gen i tive cas e , and is decl ined according to the gender and number o f the noun fo l lowing i t :

Chapter 3

59

da

be fore s ingular mas culine noun in di rect case

de

be fore s ingular masculine noun in ob lique case

de

be fore plural mas culine noun in direct cas e be for� p l ura l masculine noun in ob lique case

dia ( de )

before s i ngular feminine no� in direct

dI

ob lique before plural feminine noun in di rect

dIa

ob lique e.g. mohan da ghO�

�

.:

Mohan ' s horses

mohan dI bhae

Mohan ' s s i s ter

of ( to ) Mohan ' s horses

-

nohan ' s s i s ters

mohan d1a bhae � a _ mahan dra bhaena nu

to Mohan ' s s i s ters

nu serves as an accus ative and dative marke r ; us nu de�a

.:

us nu vekhna .j anvarI nu

cas e

of ( to ) Mohan ' s horse

moh � de g�o � : mohan dia gho�ia nu

as a locative marker :

case

Mohan ' s horse

mohan de gho�e nu

-

}

}

some time s also

e .g.

to give to him to see him in January

nu is also us ed to indicate obligation in the cons truction -

male nu udIkna hae to ( and i ts variants ghar to te

and

' on ' :

=

ute

=

I

have to (ough t to) wait

tho ,

thI ) is the ab lative marker :

from th e house bas i ca l ly correspond to the English preposi tion

e .g . -

manje ute

inha te is gal da asar pia

on the bed this made an impression on them

vi c corresponds to the English ' in ' , ' among ' , ' between ' : apl]e pil)9 vic m\ll} d ia vi c

in one ' s own vi l lage among bcys

Chapter 3

60

tak ,

tIk

corresponds to English ' b e fore ' :

ne :

e .g.

be fore th i s event

is qha Ma tak rat tI k

be fore the night

this pos tpos i tion acts as a s ub j ect marker where th e

predi cate contains the perfective participle of a transi tive verb :

e.g.

us ne kiha

he said

Compos i te ( derived) pos tpos i tions Compos i te pos tpos i tions are derived from meaningful parts of speech - mos tly from nouns - where the original meaning of the source word is more or less clearly discernib l e in the resultant o

They are compos i te in that they are j oined to the word

they gove rn by means of the primary pos tpos i tions form

de

or

di) and

to :

because of this

ghar dI tha

instead of the house

is to b ini bini s ikhae de dupahi r t� baad

( in the

e.g.

i s de karan mere putt di xati r

da

for the sake of my son wi thout this w i thout ins truction a f ter mi dday

In modern Pan j ab i there is a tendency to drop the connec­ ti ve parti cle , i . e . the primary pos tpos i tions

dii

in these compos i te formations .

kol ,

upar

Thus ,

and some others are used wi thout

vall ,

and

to ,

nal ,

dii .

A comb ination of the adverLi a l parti ciple wi th the primary

pos tpos i tions may also be used as a pos tpos i tion , as may the absolute parti cip le : .:

us nu chac;IcJ ke

e.g

•

e xcluding him

is to vadh ke

apart from this , over and above this

kujh din a hoe

a few days ago

61

Chapte r 3

Thp.re follows a list of the mos t important derived pos tpos i­ tions in Pan j abi . ute , te upar andar agge a le-duale sadka sahllll) e

on on , above inside b e fore , in front of around , on all sides becaus e of , as a res ul t of be fore , in front of

sIdha

b e fore , up to

s ehad

to , towards

kol , kole xatir chufere , car c ufere

a t , in the possession o f , belonging to for , on b ehalf of around , on a l l s i des

taI , tIkar , tI k , tilkar , ta�i , takk thalle na l

to , up to , as far as under , below with , togeth e r with

ne re

near , a longs i de , about

pare

beyond, outs i de

pas

to , at, towards

picche bilhi r bajh � , bijh baad bina , bin bhItar magar rilhI laI val l vas te

b ehind, beyond outs i de , out of wi thout , exc luding a fter w ithout in , ins i de b ehind by means o f , with the help of for , for the sake of to , towards for , for the s ake of

62

Chapter 3 ::.

vag vi ckar , viskar

like in , among

The adj e ctive yoga (or j oga ) ( = proper , s ui table) is used as a pos tpos i tion agreeing with the noun governed by the whole pos tpos i tional ph rase :

e.g.

me re yogi ro�i l i a = bring me bread s ui tab le for me

The pos tpos i tion mara (= becaus e o f , as a res ult o f ) agrees

with the s ub j e c t :

e.g.

uh bhar da mara nahi aia

he di d not co�e because of fear

.::

sarm dIa maria kuria nahI aia

the girls did not come because of embarrassment ( confusion )

CONJUNCTIONS Associative conj unctions Associ ative con j unctions are s ubdivi ded into : (a)

connective conj unctions : ate , te

(b )

and

sago

not only , b ut also

nale

and , and also

adversative conj unctions : aepar , par "

but , however

sago , tad vi , ta bhI , phi r bhI

neve rtheless

p rantii , lekin (c)

but

hattho

but , on the other hand

dis j unctive conj unctions : athava , ki , j a

or

ja

e i ther . . - , or

=

::

cahe

•

•

•

, ja

• • •

ei ther

.

..

, or

in the opposi te case

•

•

.

, no , but

• . •

63

Chapter 3

Subordinating con j unctions These include conj unctions of : (al

caus e , result: i s karke , is vas te = the re fore , for th i s reason ki �ki -

k i uj u cunki --

-

tahio -

ta j o (hI

res ult :

:: i::�� ki

ju (cl

I

and s o , there fore

,I ·

ki

ta ki -

ta j o -

mata mate i s lai k i

· . .

ki te

, ta

· . . ,

jad j ekar

· . .

· . .

�

ta ..

, ta

· . . ,

je

that

in order that , s o that

con d i tion .

kadI

(el

beca�e

in tention , aim -

(d)

I

-

ta

, ta

I

_hen

.

comparison : -

�

k i , mano = as i f , like ( fl

explanation : ki , j u , pai = that

.

.

,

then , i f

.

.

.

, then

64

Chapte r 3

(g)

place : j 1 tthe

(h)

• • .

, utthe

=

whe re

•

.

•

, there

re lation : j o = who , whi ch , that

(1)

concess ion : -

. .

bhave -

. .

bhave c att e

.

. , par

, phi r v i

. . . ,

phi r vi

cahe . . . , ta k i , par c att e • • •

}

1

although

even i f .

. .

, none the less

ti me :

(j)

ki jad ki j ad

.

j ad

• •

•

, ta �

. •

, U

a l l at once

}

when when

. • •

,

then

j ad to = s ince when

j ad takk ( k i )

j is same

•

.

•

unti l when

, ta

.

.

•

, then

PARTICLES Aff i rmative particles

ha ,

ji,

ha j i (= yes ) are placed at the beginning of the

affirmative answer ; ha is us e d in neutral s ty le , whi le ji h ; j I are more pol i te . The adverbs zarur and �hIk are

and

also used as affirmative particles . Negative particles na nab !

not no , not

The particle forms .

ma t

is us e d only w i th negative i mperative

65

Chapter 3

Inte rrogative parti cles ki

is the i n te rrogative marker used if the s entence does not

contain the interrogative

kiu (= what? )

Emphatic particles hi

is a rein forc j ng and de l imiting particle , corresponding

to ' name ly ' , ' alone ' . j iha

i s a comparat ive particle :

p i ta j iha = l i ke father ji,

sri

are added to p roper names in ve ry pol i te addres s . tak ta

e ven the English e xpre ssions ' well , you see ' , ' yo u know '

bhar bhi , vi

a ll even ( then) , too , as we l l

INTERJECTIONS Some of the interjections used in addres s are : hi

is used on ly when address ing a woman .

oe ,

he , ve ;

As a rul e , th ey

are placed be fore a noun in the vocative cas e . The following interj ections express emotions o f various kinds : vill , vah! h� h�, kas hae , ui , uph , ha ha , sok

sorrow good !

bhala

good , fine ! (approval )

dure , dur dur behaya , bes arm • • •

s urpris e , disbelief

canga cup

oe

j oy

h us iar , xabardar

s ilence ! away wi th

• • •

!

off w i th

shame ! look out !

be careful !

• • •

!

Chap te r 4

Syntax

THE

SIMPLE SENTENCE

The s ub j ect The s ub j ect in a Pan j ab i sentence is us ual ly in the direct cas e .

Howeve r , i f the verba l predi cate contains th e pe rfec-

tive parti ciple o f a t rans i tive verb then the s ub j ect is in the oblique case and followed by the pos tposi tion �.

If

th e s ub j ect i s a first o r second personal pronoun , � is omi t ted but the pronominal s ub j ect s ti l l appears i n the

ob lique case :

e . g.

mae kake de j anm-din dI xabar s un i t5e mae nu p us taka di tIa han us

ne mihnat '"

=

kItI

::

asa tinn m��ia nu vekhi a s 1 �

�

heard the news of

the birth cf the chi l d

�

�

I

tusa ih ki tiba pa �h I a han

y o u gave m e books h� tried

( rrado

an

effort) we saw three boys you have read th e s e books

loka ne zor la ke ph i r dukana usar la I a = the peop le made renewed efforts and bui l t up the shops

66

Chap te r 4

67

The predi cate I f the s ub j e c t is in the direct case , the predicate agrees w i th i t in person , gender and number : mae patrika pafh da h

�

e.g.

I read ( am rea ding ) the newspaper the girls s a t down

larkia b � th gia

This is known as the s ub j ective cons truc tion . The ob j ecti ve construc tion is us e d when the predi cate con­ tains the perfective participle of a transi tive verb , in whi ch cas e the s ub j ect is in the oblique cas e , and the predicate agrees in gender and numb e r wi th the di rect ob j ect :

e.g.

kheti varI de k amm vic unha ne h ae ran karanvalI trakkI kIti hae

=

in the fie l d of agri cul ture they have made s triking progress

I f the predicate con tains both a perfective parti ciple and a di rect ob j e c t in th e ob lique cas e ma rked by the

a

pos tpos i tion ,

ve rb is in the form of the masculine s ingula r : .::.

tae nu kis ne bulaia mae teri bhae nu viah t � pahi la vekhia .::.

e.g

•

who cal led you?

I s aw your s i s te r before the marriage

Thi s is known as the neutral cons truc tion . I f several s ub j e c ts of the s ame gr amma tical gender govern a single pre dicate , the latter is in the form o f the singular or p l ural of th e gender to which the s ub j e cts be long .

I f the

s ub j e cts are of differing genders , the predicate takes the gender of the s ub j ect clos e s t to i t in the s entence , or less frequently - is put in the form of the masculine plural . The same rules apply for the agreement of th e predica te wi th multiple ob j e c ts in the ob jective cons truction :

e.g.

i s gha r vi c do mard te tinn m��e ika�the hoe s an two men and th ree boys as s emb led in this house .::.

asa do mUQ�e te tinn k Ufra vekhI a we saw two boys and three girls

68

Chapte r 4 is kamre vic tinn mUQ�e te do kUfia ae han = three boys and two gi rls came in to th i s room

The case may arise where one s ub j ect governs two or more predicates containing perfective parti ciples of both trans i tive and in trans i ti ve verbs .

I n this case , th e s ub j ect wi ll

appear ei ther in th e direct or the oblique case according to wh i ch type of participle is contained in the predica te c loses t to i t ( the s ub j ect) ;

and each of the ve rbs wi l l take i ts own

due form irrespecti ve of the form of the s ub j ect :

e.g.

h e came down and drank

a

cup of tea

unha ne patrika pafhi te gharo niklia he fin i shed reading the pape r and wen t out of the hous e Secondary componen ts 1

The ob ject of a transi tive verb is ei ther in

The ob j ect .

the dire c t case or - if i t denotes a speci fic ob j ect - in th e ob l ique case w i th the pos tposi tion

=

nu:

e.g.

uh citthi pa �h da h�

he reads a le tter

uh mae nu vekhcta h�

he sees me

I t is cus tomary for anima te nouns to be marked with 2

Th e attribute . -

a n ume r a l

in

This may be an adj ective , and

-a ,

it

agrees

w i th the

a

word

gende r , n umb e r and case ( direct or obl ique ) :

=

nu.

parti cip le or

qua l i fi e d

in

e .g.

cangi pus tak = good book va��a ghar va9�e gharo

=

=

big house from ( o ut of) the big house )

Where one attribute re lates to several nouns whi ch di ffer in gr amma tical gende r , the attribute agrees in gender w i th th e noun nea res t to i t : mere putt te dhi

e.g. =

my son and daughter

69

Chapter 4

Word order in the sentence In the s imple sen tence the s ub j ect s tands at the beginning and th e predicate at the end :

e .g.

harI ne gurmIt n u vekhia = Hari s aw Gurmi t The obj ect usually pre cedes the predicate ; obj e c t fol lows the indi re c t :

the direct

e.g.

s a� j amat ne i k munde n u k a l ap�a mani �ar c� lia yes terday our class pi cked a boy to be class monitor ( pre fe ct) The attribute precedes the word qua l i fi e d : uh

kurup , patla la�ka s 1

=

e.g.

he was a n ugly , thin boy

A predicative adj unct follows the word quali fied and pre cedes the predicate :

e.g.

ku�1 rondi hoI gha r a vafi

weeping , the gi rl ran into the hous e

Spatial and temporal modifi ers are placed be tween the s ub j ect Temporal modi fiers us ual ly precede

and the predicate . spatial ones :

e.g.

ik vidiarth1 savere skul a i a

in the morning one pupil came to s chool

These modifiers may also s tand at the beginning of the sentence :

e.g.

�

a j j us ne mi ttr nu vekhia = today he saw his friend Adverb i a l phrases of manne r are p laced between th e predi ca te and the ob j e c t : -

e.g.

-

mae us nu cangI tarha maria

I ( f . ) gave him a proper beating

The order of words a s here des cribed is norma lly re tained in i n te rrogative and exclamatory sentences , but may be ch anged for express i ve reasons .

I f a word is to be particularly

emphas i s e d , it can move to the beginning of the s entence . Some times syntactic components may exchange thei r norma l orde r :

e.g.

Chap te r 4

70

uh nab I s i j ;u:di = he knew absolutely nothing about it

In some cases , the predicate may pre cede the s ub j ect :

e.g.

the queen was very beauti ful

bahut s undar s I uh ranI COMPOSI TE SENTENCE The complex s entence

TWo simp le sentences can be united to form a comp lex sentence by means of con j unctions and connective words :

e.g.

s i n ama xatm ho gia te asi ghar mur pae = the film ended and we wen t home The conne ctive may not always be expressed . The compound sen tence Word orde r i n p rincipal and s ubordinate clauses is the s ame as in simple sentences .

I t is us ual for the subordinate

claus e wi th re la tive conj unctions to precede the principal claus e . An attributive s ubordinate c lause i s in troduce d by the pronoun tive

jo ( = whi ch , that , who ) , or by the pronominal adj ec-

j ih ra ( = whi ch )

•

The corresponding component in the

principal claus e is the relative pronoun e.g. j is

duk�n

vi c mae

bae �;

;: sa

uh

uh ( = that , s uch a ) :

s i tal s ingh III hd..

�

the sh op in whi ch I was si tting be longs to S ital S ingh

mae j ih �a nava l kharIdia uh chetI gumm ho gia the nove l I bought soon got los t

=

I f the word to which the s ubordinate claus e re fers is at th e e n d of the principal c lause , th e s ubordinate claus e may fol low the latter :

e.g.

gh ar vi c ik is tr1 a1 j i s da putt lapata ho gia i n to the hous e came the woman whose son -..,as missing

71

Chapter 4

sometimes the attrib utive s ub ordinate c lause is ins erted into th e principal clause immediately after the word governed by it:

e.g. uh

gi anI j ih ra mae nu kal mi lia s a�e skul avega

the s cienti s t who met me yes terday wi ll come to our s chool A

completive s ubordinate c lause fol low s the principal clause

and is int roduced by the con j unction

ki :

e.g.

us ne s amjhia k i mae nu ih ciz cangI na lag1 he unders tood that this thing did not p lease me ( that I did not like this thing) Some times the word

ki

introduces direct speech , that i s

t o s ay , it p lays the part of inverted commas :

e.g.

us ne kiha k i mae chetI ghar vapas avaga = he said : A

' I ' l l go home quickly '

s ubordinate clause of ti me or place is in troduced by a

rel ative adve rb and is normally p laced be fore the principal claus e :

e .g.

j ado mae kake de j anm din d1 xabar s w:1 ta mae n u bahut when I heard tha t the chi l d was born , I felt a gre a t j oy

j i tthe gal l karo utthe ap�i i zzat p�eda karo = whe re you de live r a speech you make yours e l f respected A

s ub ordinate clause of cause follows the principal claus e ,

and i s in troduced b y CClUl:i Cl l c.;onne c tives ,

e.g.

mae i s la1 nahi j a sakia k i me re p i ta j I b imar s an I COUldn ' t go for the reason that my father was i ll uh pas ho gia kitiki us ne mihna t k1 t1 s1

=

=

he pas sed the e xamination be cause he s tudied very hard A

s ubordinate clause of purpos e us ual ly fol lows the principal

clause and is introduced by s uch conj unctions as ta jo (= so that) :

e .g.

cit de ke pa�ho ta j o s aphalata prapt kar s ako s tudy diligently so as to be s ucces s ful

ki

and

Chapte r 4

72

A condi tional s ubordinate cla us e is int roduced by the conj unc­

tions

je (= i f ) ,

agar (

ted .

Th e link word in the main claus e is

also be omi tte d :

=

if) , whi ch may , howeve r , be ommi t-

e.g.

-

-

ta ,

whi ch may

=

tu saphalata prap t kar l aw� ga j e ci t nu tika ke pa fhega you w i l l be succes s ful i f you (wi ll ) s tudy di ligently �

�

is tara karo ta �Ik hove

i f you do so ( l ike th i s ) , i t w i l l b e right

Indi cative , s ub j unctive and condi tional forms may be used in condi tional s ubordinate claus es , depending on the degree to whi ch the condi tions are rea l or unreal A conces s i ve s ubordinate clause is in troduced by the con j unc­

tion

bhav� (= a l though ) :

e.g.

phi r vI uh dhokhebaz nahi bhav� uh � arib h� a lthough he i s poor , he is not a cheat S ubordinate claus es o f manne r , comparison , degree and res u l t follow the principal clause and a r e in troduced by s uch con­ j unct ions as i,

e tc . :

j is tarh a (

=

as ) ,

j inna (

=

( i n ) as much as ) ,

e.g. I have done as you sai d

j inna cangiai karoge unni i zzat paoge

in so far as you

do goo d , in so far wi l l you acquire fame ( glor/ )

Specimen text ( From Nanak S i n gh , Adam-khor , Amri tsa r , 19 5 3 )

'H11.f� i=ll � (Ii ]:Il'Efl i Ul o �;3f�lHi 'ill �� � 'R�:ai"iT ' � ac �la 'lITEl l I.IQ R7fe;:! ftt;' nl� '01 €'R �� H e') (lli u1' ]:11 s falW I �u �� 50 �1 l! ;IT �1J ;rui!:�Tl'51 1'11, �;:! fif 1.131 r{ @R � ]:I�-a , UJa' fn Ol i'Se 3' IIfill'51 �u"T f3u'Gl � f'2iit l'5�1 f8R'G fOleT'i!l 'R1 ;a1;;1i fl'S'I\Il�e ��I �v lW" RIQl fi!'il131 �3 � 3 � �v(lii ;a1i;ll �l f
=

TRANSCRIPTION

-

-

apQe j I van- s athI nu gha r va�d ia hI vekh-ke s ulocana ne

par said inne nal hI us da man nahI sI bharia ,

phat:kar paL

uh a j e hor vi b a �a kujh kahi� �a 1I s I , j ad ki patI n u us nc save re gha r� n ik a 1 an t� pah i 1 a duh ra tihra ke ik lammI l i s t.

�

.

...

uh aj � a rI � iha�

�

...

m � -mu � -ke wlna � c I za dI gIn tI g i n dI rah I sI j ehrIa k aI; dina to ghar vi c .

g i � I s I cI za l i a� laI . -

�

mukkIa: hoIa

s an ,

.

-

t e na 10-na 1 pa tI ute kacIcIa: va � �dI rah I sI .

us de xi � l vi c ma rd da zan anI ute s abbh t� bharI an iau h ae k i 73

74 un

Spe cimen text zananI n � ta har ve le us dI : zimmevaria c itta-ci tta-ke

kos d� rahin� hae , par ap�i a zimmev�rIa t� hamesa akkha-mI�I rakh� hile . TRANS LATION

At the sigh t of her life-companion ente ring the house , S ulochana fe l t shocked .

Evidently , even this (his re turn)

did no t bring satis faction to her min d ;

now s h e me a n t t o say

far more to her husband than she had in the morn ing , when , be fore he l e f t the hous e , she had given him a long lis t of all the things th a t had to be bough t .

Today , she had spent the

whole day reckoning up , over and over again , all the things that h ad been lacking for s ome time now in the house , and at the s ame time ge tting angrier w i th her "husband .

I t was her

opinion that ( as she s aw it) the chie f i n j us ti ce in the re la­ tionship be tween man and woman lay in the fact that the man is continua l ly abus ing the woman , reminding her of her ob li­ gations wh i le shutting his eyes to his own ob ligations . VOCABULARY ap� a

one ' s own (his , hers ) :

reflexive ­

pos ses sive pronoun l i fe companion ( m . l :

de terminative

compound nu ghar vardi a hI

pos tpos i tion for acc . and dat . case in to the house : (=

vekh-ke sUlocana ne

loca tive cas e

adverb i al participle from verb var�a to go)

participle of vekhQa (= to see , to look ) proper name ( f . )

pos tpos i tion in di ca ting agent

75

Specimen te xt pha �kar pai

blow ( f . ) thi rd person singular feminine pas t p e rfective of paUIJa (= to receive)

par

b ut :

adve rsative conj unc tion

., -

s aid

possibly , pe rhaps :

inna

such a :

nal

adve rb

pronomina l adj ective

wi th , wi th the he lp of:

pos tpos i tion

hi

only , n ame ly :

emphatic particle

us

ob lique case of th i rd personal pronoun uh (= he , i t )

da man nah i bharia s i

pos tposi tion of genitive cas e mind , spirit (m . ) not :

negative

thi rd person singular mas culine of p l u­ perfect of verb bharna ( = to be fil led up with , s a ted w i th , content wi th )

uh

di re c t case of thi rd personal pronoun he , she , i t

aje hor

up to now , s ti l l : s ti l l , more :

adverb of manner

e ven :

parti c le

bara

big :

adj ective

kujh

some :

vi

kahilJvalI

adverb o f time

inde fini te p ronoun

about to speak :

participle of i nten tion

from kahilJa (= to speak ) j a d ki

when :

s ave re

in the morning :

adve rb of time

from the house :

abla ti ve case

gharo nikalan

ob lique cas e of in fini tive of nikal�a (=

to pahi la duhra - tihra-ke

conj unction

appear , be revealed)

before :

compound pos tpos ition

compound formed from the parti ciples of

76

Specimen te xt two verbs c los e to each other in meaning : duhraur: a (= repeat) ( speak for the second time ) and tihrauI}a (

=

repea t) ( s ay for the

third time ) plus one participial marke r , ke ik lanuna l i s !­ gi�ai s i

one :

cardinal number

long :

adj ective

list ( f . ) third person singular feminine pluperfec t of qiI}aUI}a (= cause to be counted , enumerate) ob lique case of in fini tive of liaUI}a (

laI diha�-I mur-mur-ke ihna

=

bring)

for , on behalf o f :

postpos i tion

day ( f . ) again and again :

adverb

ob l ique case plural of pronoun

uh

( = th a t , thes e )

ciza gir:tI giI}di rahI s i

ob lique case p lural of c i z (

=

thing ( f . »

amoun t , quanti ty ( f . ) verbal compound , pas t durati ve ( con tin­ uous ) of gi�n a ( = count , reckon ) which :

rela tive adj ectiva l pronoun ,

feminine p lural kaIa

ob liq ue case plural of indefinite pronoun ' some '

dina to vic

ob lique cas e plura l of din (

=

day ( f . »

pos tp os i tion of ab lative case in:

pos tposi tion

compound perfective particip le of mukkr:a (=

s an

be finished) in feminine p l '.1ra l form

third person p lural , s imp le pas t of auxi liary hor:a

77

Specimen te xt and :

conj unction

toge ther wi th , along with : ute kac I c Ia va ��d I rah I sf

on :

adverb

pos tpos i tion

p l ural of kac I c I (

=

gnashing o f teeth )

ve rbal compound of durat i ve ( conti n uous ) aspe ct of va�� a (

=

to twis t , rol l , bind) ,

p l us auxiliary , in s i ngular feminine though t , opinion ( f. ) zanani

woman ( f . ) variant of adj ective bh a ra

bh a ri

heavy , b i g :

aniau

inj us ti ce ( f . )

hie

third person s ingular of presen t tens e of auxi l i ary verb ho�a

ki har vele

that :

subordinating con j unction

continuous ly , all � I e time :

adverb of

time zimmevaria

plural of zimmevari (

=

responsib i l i ty ,

ob ligation ( f . » redup l i ca ted particip le of ci t ta UQa (=

to remind) ,

express es uninte rrupted

or repeated ac tion kosda rahinda hae

verbal compound of durative ( continuous ) aspect of kos� a (

=

to s cold , reprove ) in

th i rd person mas culine singula r , present tense harnes a akkh a - mI tI

always :

adverb

covering the eyes ( f . ) :

dete rminative

compound th i rd person s i ngular mas culine of present tense of rakhi� a ( = to place , put , hold)

Bibliography

Bai ley , T . G . , ' Panj ab i Phonetic Reader ' , London , 19 1 4 . Cummi ngs , T . F . , Ba i ley , T . G . , ' Panjabi Manua l and Gramma r , A Gui de to the Col loquial Panjab i of the Northern Panj ab ' , Calcutta , 19 25 . Grierson , G . , ' Lingui s tic S urvey of India ' , vol . I X , p ar t 1 , Indo-Aryan Fami ly , Centra l Group , Calcutta , 1 9 1 6 . New ton , E . P . , ' Panj ab i Grammar ' , Lodhiana , 189 8 . Shackle , C . , 'Panj ab i ' (Teach Yourse l f S . ) , London , 19 72 . S i ngh , Karam , ' Navin pan j � I viakara� ' , bhag 2 , Amri ts a r , 19 31 -

Singh J.lan , Mohan , ' Pa n j � I viakaraJ} , , Jalandhar , 19 5 7 . S ingh Sodhi , Surindar , ' Saphal pan j � r viakara� "

Jalandhar ,

19 56 .

S ingh , Bhai May a , ' The Panj�I Dictionary ' , Lahore , 189 5 . S i ngh , Gurcaran and S ingh , Saran , Amri tsar , 19 5 4 .

78

'

pan j � I - Eng lish Dictionary ' ,

ji \

Kabul _ � '->' r-... - rr--- ------

r-

" (. -.

J

.-"

. _-

I!

-

-�-

•

�

. ..

.'

:

i

)

1

. '

�

' : , :

( 't��

, I

r ,

'�'l-

...J

(- :�� � • • ••� . )

. . ... . .

:

,

... ..

� ! . \ "" 'r .... �� • •••• . ' /I "�'f�<:)'t

,,'r � ,.: "' i

.

( -� 'hawa, :. ifQ !

.. . ... . j )

•

._

� '��\. /:

. '"

r' ,, . ,._, \. ' ,

'

,

,r'

/

\'

-'

.:t"

"

. : J1 S".au .. CJ. • . • . '':> . � . I � . .':

/�

,

- -f

� , ./

•

\

,",I"

"I

5·'

.

.

.

. .I

'._ . •

/.

"" ",'

.....

I

j

79

' , . . J. . . . : p.� . . , . . . . . .., Vol''' ..... . (

,�

�

.. ..

' ./ · · · · ·· "l

', _. _ ' _ ' .

.: .... ,

0

'

� :I" )

A" . ... �

't

.., �� I!.'" j !i - � 't l , p.\.\' .
\

.. . . .. . . .

..

':

l....

\.

\

9;-.;1 -- ,""" , , :'-.) � " " " ' : I ... . �

( .,) '�j ! 'Am"IS 0 I' '' " . . O� \� ( DOAB I(�_�r--1I""" ' .

'I.� p.\,

'-

't :':!,�""\,

- , �,

L' h"

) JJl 1: � / /(/

- � .IL'

\

c�# '

J'\"'"

'_

. . ..

O"'�:ol'Ip.�\ .

/'

"

'

' . ..

-

. .

41)

:'

POWADH I !

MJlL WJlI

:...

Pa" .I. 0 :

. . . . .... :'1\-1\ .. . .. ... ..,.

I ND

I

(

• #?' �.? ,_/ r

I

I

\

I

l

,� ,

IA

/"

I)

Oelh,

.�

!

\>9...... �.

LAN G UAG ES OF AS IA AND AFR ICA

1

The Swah i l i Language

2

The Panjabi Language

3

The Languages of South Asia

4

The Polynesian Languages

5

The Hausa Language

The

Panjabi Language

Panjabi (or Punjab i ) is spoken by about 35 mil lion people in the Panjab region of Pakistan and India. and is the vehicle for recording the teachings of the gurus of the Sikh religion. In the last thirty years its use for official documents. education and literature has grown considerably. This is the second volume i n the Languages of Asia and Africa series. The book was originally publ ished in a very limited edition in the Soviet U n ion and has now been fully revised by the author for this new translation into English . The Panjabi Language covers phonology and script . vocabulary. morphology. syntax and a specimen tex t . I t provides a useful summary of g rammar both for begin ners and for those a l ready familiar w ith the language. Natalya Tolstaya was educated at Len ingrad U niversity and obtained her doctorate in 1 956. Si nce then she has worked as an editor and freelance writer and translator

ISBN 0-7 1 00-0939-9