Learner English SECOND EDITION
A teacher's guide to interference and other problems
) ! +
published by the press syndicate of the university of cambridge The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom cambridge university press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011±4211, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia Ruiz de AlarcoÂn 13, 28014 Madrid, Spain Dock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa http://www.cambridge.org # Cambridge University Press 2001 This book is in copyright, which normally means that no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. The copying of certain parts of it by individual teachers for use within their classrooms, however, is permitted without such formality. To aid identi®cation, pages which are copiable by the teacher without further permission are identi®ed by a separate copyright notice: # Cambridge University Press 2001. First published 1987 Second edition 2001 Fourth printing 2002 Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge Typeset in Sabon 10.5/12pt
[CE]
& + '
'
, , --* Learner English: a teacher's guide to interference and other problems / [edited by] Michael Swan and Bernard Smith. ± 2nd ed. p. cm. ± (Cambridge handbooks for language teachers) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-521-77939-1 (pb) ± ISBN 0-521-00024-6 (audio cd) ± ISBN 0-521-77497-7 (cassette) 1. English language ± Study and teaching ± Foreign speakers. 2. Interference (Linguistics) I. Swan, Michael. II. Smith, Bernard, 1937± . III. Series. PE1128.A2 L36 2001 428'.0071±dc21 ISBN: 0 521 77939 1 paperback ISBN: 0 521 77497 7 cassette ISBN: 0 521 00024 6 CD (audio)
00-046785
Contents
Notes on contributors vii Introduction ix Note for teachers of American English List of phonetic symbols xiv Acknowledgements xvi
xii
Dutch speakers 1 Speakers of Scandinavian languages 21 German speakers 37 French speakers 52 Italian speakers 73 Speakers of Spanish and Catalan 90 Portuguese speakers 113 Greek speakers 129 Russian speakers 145 Polish speakers 162 Farsi speakers 179 Arabic speakers 195 Turkish speakers 214 Speakers of South Asian languages 227 Speakers of Dravidian languages 244 Speakers of West African languages 251 Swahili speakers 260 Malay/Indonesian speakers 279 Japanese speakers 296 Chinese speakers 310 Korean speakers 325 Thai speakers 343 The cassette and CD
357
v
Dutch speakers
Distribution ! "# $$ % & '( !$$ $ ) ! $$ $$*&$ " +
& & , !$$ & & -. !$$ $ # +" !& / +0" $$ " $ * *1
Introduction "# !!& + # )2 1 ! " & "# + 3
"# "$ $ $ 4 *$ # ! # " $ * * # $ * * # #$
4$ # # + $*! /# + & +0" $$ " $$ 54$! #6 # + # $ * * # 0 $ * * + ! / # #$ # 4$ # ! $ # & $$ + # ! $" $ $" 7! + # $ * * # #*# ! #* $$ * # $ * * 3
$! /# & $" & ! $$ $$*&$ &# # #$ 4$ "# *$ # &* "$ $ $ # # ! !3 $ $$ + # * !! "# * *$ # $ $ $$ /# # ! *
Phonology General # "# *$ # #$*" $ ! & $ !$ # + "# ! $$ # +0"$ "* * "* ! *$ #
$ ! * * $ "" # "# -
# &$! /# *$ # ""*$
$ +
+ "# ** "# "" *$ # 8 9 "* + 0 $ " " * #* # $*# + "* /$ 8 + + " 9 !"# / * "#* #
! $/ "#
*$ # 9 :" + /# "" # $$*
Vowels
i:
I
e
{
eK aI OI
A: ¡
O: U
aU @U I@
u: Ã
z8 @
e@ U@
aI@ aU@
# #! # ; $ ; $ "#
#$ #+ & " "$ /# +0"$
$#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/ - * # $ 6 * + *
$ "+ + # $ / ) $
1 " $$ " "# # /$ " * <{< =
$ " *$ #
!$ <¡< and <Ã< ! & * # $ * "+
$ ! $ ! $ " <Ã< # $ <@< . "# 0 *$ #
Consonants
p
b
f
v
T
D
t
d
s
z
S
Z
tS dZ k
g
m n
ê
l
r
j
w h
# #! # ; $ ; $ "#
#$ #+ & " "$ /# +0"$
$#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/ - # $ )5"61 "
"
+ % + .
$$ "
+ ? # "# ! ! <s< # $ <S<8
+ @ ! ! <w< /# # $ $ * "+ /#
=
--
Consonant clusters *$ # "$ * $ +0"$ + "#
! <@< &/
Influence of spelling on pronunciation - # "# ! + $$* /$ ##* + $ ! $
" # * +0"$ #+
3 " * /6 $$* +! " ' " # $ /# "" $ * ! + # !* # *$ # = "# $ "* " $ /$$ " # $ / $ <¡< + <Ã< . # $ / $ $ !
<@U<3$ +
Stress "# *$ #
/ " ;
!$ # ! &$! #*# - "# "! *$ $ #
# 0 $! " $ * &$!
/#
*$ # "!
" " " + )"# appeltaart1 ' "#
" &$ * " " * !! " $ " * )&1 )1 #
$ $ " & #
+ ! / = "# # ! / +! *$ # #! " $ /$$
/ $ " * * +! #*# >
Intonation "# ! /# !"# / * # *$ # # "# * # /#$ $ $ #*# "# #
! $/ "# *$ # * / # " * ! / # # //
Juncture and assimilation - "# # 0 $ " +" " /# # "; 0 $
$$ " 8 " "
Punctuation "# "!! + " $ "$ % #" !
$8 C " # $ B!! ! & &/ $ "$ 8 C "
" $ D ! / $ # 8 C % " $ && $ $/ " * $/ " ! $$ +$$/ & 8 #" & & 7 # / # *$ # + $ $ ! & + "+ * 2# ! 7" "# "! / / ! #/ $* # /# # &/ +! & *$ # )*
1 # $
$$* $ $ .
Grammar General $*" $$ * # "# $ * * "" !/ &/ *$ # ! 2 $$ #
! ! % "# $$ # * !! " $ * #*# " * + " &$ & ! " * / "# + ! +! + !& + $ * *3 "0" ++" ! #$* "! "$ # *$ # ! # E" $ ! $ $ ! $% # & * 5" 6% # $ +/ $" + # $ &F"
Interrogative and negative structures - "# # 3 * +! & ! $ % * & $ "* niet )G 1 + # & &+ # 0 30 & $ $!8 C' ( C " % $ C%
$ ' : 3 * ; / "# ) #/ " = 5 $ 6 " .1 # & *# 7 $"$ /#$ &+ "# /$$ 3 $$ " ' ( + ( $ " " # $ &$ # "# = "# * & $ &** /# # ; $ + ; & #* ) $ 5 $ 61 # &$ # !*# 3 * & # & + + # $ *8 C' ( )+ ' (1 C'
( > D /# " # + $$* "# #
!! + *$ # /#"# " ! ! $ " ; $ ) * (
$! &$$*
Tags, short answers and reply questions "# # " " "! &$ /# # *$ # ; *% "$ & 8 ,
C+ " ( , ( )+ + " (1 $ "# *$ # # ; !& + 07 &F"3 $ 3 7$ /#"# +; "
$ 7"# * # 3 #
/ + "# ! !! * !
+
&
**
) ( - $ )+ - " % $1 - $ ." $ )+ + $1 $ / $ )+ / " $ / " " (1 - $ - 0 )+ - " % $ % $1
Auxiliaries # * $ +" "3! "# *$ # hebben )G 1 / zijn )G 1 +! # +" + zijn + blijven )G 1 + "!! "# *3+3 & 8 C1
" $ C1 $ # "# ! + #
" worden )G 1 #
! $ % #/ # +" "# # ! $ +! + zijn )G 1 + "# $ # zijn $$ # /#$ #* # # *$ # & * +" # # /$$ &
# *
# &$! "!3 & # 7 " *$ # + " " $ /#"# ! !$ + 2 # + ! # *$ # + + $ " $
Time, tense and aspect + "# " &# +" /# !"# ++" ! * # $ # ! $ +! B $ "# " /# *$ # /$ +"8 C%
$ C)
$ ?
C+ %
" $
7
#/ $* + ++ # & ** "# ! $$ +"8 C% $ C% ) % $
- #*# "# # + +! /# 7$ )*#$ ; $ # , + + *$ #1 +
# + # +8 C% % $ ' 7
#/ $* + + ++ /$$ # $ "# + ! $ + ! $ 8 C% 3456 % 57 $ C % $ = "# " +$ # + &"$ + !8 C1 $
"# # *
& +! 8 C% * $ C% 2 $ 5:*
6 ! * " #/ & 7
+ "
& # + " F" & 8 C' ( )+ ' (1 C-
" ( ! &* * $ # *$ # *
8 C $
Conditionals - # "# # " &/ # + & $ +!
# "# &"$ ! "$ # *$ #% +! # ; $ + # ! $ *$ # +! "# $$/
# + , , # &"$ + +$$ $7" $ & # ! "$ " ! $8 @
C% %
" % $ C% " ) 1 $ C%
"
$ ' "!! "# # & dan )G 1 # ! "$ + " $ " "8 H C%
" % #
( H C1 % " % $
Modal verbs I # /#$ # "# *$ # ! + ! $ &
!$ 8 - *$ # " $ $ "# moeten )G 1% #" # +; + /# # # ! $8 C' ( )+ ' $ $ $(1 C% 8 )+ $ $ $ $ $ $1 # * moest niet ! 8 C- " % ' "0" $$ $ ! & # ; $ + # "# moest )G 1 C% * $ C
" $ = # "# moet niet !
#+ "! $$ ++ +! 8 C9
> "# kan )0 kunnen1 $$ +
&$% #
; $ + *$ # , # 8 C% : $ C% . # + "# kunnen kon ) *1 < konden ) $1 /# * &$ $$ ! $ ! # ! &$8 $! &$ ** # # " 7
& # ! & /
" $$ " " "# ! & ! $ & # 8 C- 7 )+ $ $ $ 1 , :!
! $ *# * "# & ! + # A
! $ mag )0 mogen1 +! $ * $ *
*$ # $ $ # + mag /#"# mocht ) G 18 C+ #
? "# zou # $ ++ ! * $ +/ + /#"# " & 7
& ' = 8 C
)+ $ $ $
$ $ $ $ $ $
$ $ $: 1 C1 + " )+ $ $ $ $ $ $8 +$0$$ 1 C) )+ ) 8 !1
Non-finite forms "# " &$ +/ 30 +! # *$ # #
" &$! " $$ # + & $ "! $! 3 # +! / / &# *$ # "#
"# ! " $ $ # *$ # "! $! + / + ++ +! "# ; $ - "# /$$ & "$ F" $ & $ " " + 0 * + & 8 C1 % $ C% C%
)+ % 1 C ' "# # ; $ + # *$ # * /$$ +
& 0 + +/ " $ 7 ! $ 8 C% $ C% " C% $ C% $ C% $ C% $ " $$ # & " + * ; $ /$$ $ $ # """ + 0 + 8 C% " = # ; $ + # " 5& J &F" J " $6 /# ! * 7
!& + ++
" 8 C% $ C% ; $ C
-(
4 $$ " $ "$ "# "# $
$ &$ $ " !+* " $ " $ & $ "$ ) 1 $ /#$ * #! & $ " $ "$ $ < "
* #! / +" " $ "$ $ 1 "
)/#"# # "# ; $ $$1 /$$ $*
Word order 2 "# $
! $ # *$ # ! + # !
* ++" /$$ $ + $! $$ & # "# ! ! & $ # # /$$ $ &$! ! ! " $$
- "# # &F" # 0 +! + # &
&$8 C1 + ' # "# 0 & * & +! # + # & $ * )0 " $ 18 C%
C = " *$ # "# " # & ) ! $1 &F"
"! $! & & $ 8 C% C C+ > $/ "" "# + # " /# " # # # &F" "F"8 C %
C% 0 C # . # $ + & $ $ ++ ! & $
* " # + $ "8 C+
* , # & "$ "! # + # "$ 8 C1 ; ? "# # "$ " & +! & "! $7 " $ "$ & F" "! $!8 --
C + C1 @ 4 / * "$ # " 5 *
* " 6 A "# + &* " /# # ; $ + 8 C' +$ ) )+ 1 C) 5==3 %
& & $ * "! # + & "$ 8 C1 2
) $ $ $
1
Constructions with it and there - B$ +* $ #* &* /# het # "# ; $ + het +$$/ & $ $ & +! /# $ $ +$$/ " /$$ 3 "* " $8 C% 2 $ C% $ ' "# $ het $ + " " +! & ! $ % < ( / " $ = "# er + ! " " # *$ # ; $
/ #* $8 C $ C
) !!
1 C
$ C $
Articles # "# ! + 0 0 "$ & " $$ #
!
*$ # +! !& + ++" + ! " # ! 8 - "# !! 0 "$ /# " &$ $ $ +* !#*<#* < $ * $8 -'
'
=
>
.
C
C
"# # 0 "$ &F" "! $! /# " &$ * +
"" $* $% + # ; $ + : C+ "
+
$ + $ C) >
C+ # ! / *$ # )$ " " 1 /#"#
" & # "$ /# # /# ! & # ! ! * $ " & /#"# $ " # "$ /# #
" # & # " + /#"# # $ " " $$ #*# "# # ! $$$ # /# # "$ $ naar bed/school gaan )G , 1 # + +/% #" ! $8 C )+ 1 C ! + ! $ ! $$ " & "$ # $ $" " # # ) 1 $ ! $8 C* # ! $ -(( - ((( # "$ "#% #" C C
Adjectives and adverbs & " $ /# # E" +! + # " *
F" # + ! & $ +! $ # "# 6 "! " # " $ ! ! $8 C+ $ C- ? # 8 C
Quantifiers and determiners - "# ++ ; 0 /# " &$ "3
&$ % #" ! $ $
+ )+ 1 ' # " &/ /$$ # & *# -=
7 $"$ # #* # "! "$ # ; 0 "# #
! #$ + , , ! " $ ! 8 C% )&* $1 C$ $ $ # C@ % ( C $
Interrogative pronouns # $ &$! # + # &* 7 " ; $ + # "#% #"8 C' " ? A (
Relative pronouns - "# # ++ $ + $ #* # + /# $ " ) ) $ $ $1 +0"$ " ' # &* " &/ " 3 " "$ + # "#" + "" &* + /# " $ & " A & " ) * !! " $ = Wat # !"# / " * # *$ # 8 /# "$ " /# ; 0 " "
* $ /# # 7 $ # + !& + " /# *$ # ; 8 C2 " # $ C % $ I"" $$ $ 8 C % $ $ $ > B " "$ )"$ /# $ 1 3 * $$ / "# 7% #+ &* ! 7"
+ " $8 % B 2 . + $ J "# + "! $ & $ + # / * $$ & $ *$ # K J +! $ "# # + #! " # $$
&$ /#"# /$ & * #$ "#*
* 7" # $ + )K1 $ 8 ->
C $ C % $ , 4 "!! /# $ "$ 5:" 6
Reflexive pronouns "# E" # " # $+ + E7 + !& #" ! $ )+ % $ ""1 # "!& /# /# ! $$ !$ & ) ! $ & +* #* # $ #! $ 1 *$ # /#"# # "# ; $8 C1
The indefinite pronoun one Men $ +! $ *$ # ; $ "#
#$ & $ # # * + $ " ; $ 8 C% &
) )+ $ $ $ 1 . $ $ $ )+ $
+! $ - 1 C. )+ $ $ $1
Gender # $ * ! + *$ # # ! "# "#8 # "# # ! $ # ! " ! )F $ # ! 1 /#$ + # "# / & ! )! "$ 1 /# $! #* !& + +! 2#"# ! # $* "# + "$ " !
# ! "$ +! *! /# # "# ;3 $ 8 C ? $ $ $ $ $ $ C $ $ $ $ $ $
-.
Countability and number - "# "$$" $/ +$$/ & *$ & /#$ &+ /$$* $ *$ # & +$$/ & $ $ /# % # /$$ * +
# #
"$$" # ; $ $ & /$$ * $8 C $ ' : 3 $ $ /% # & 3 *$ # &/* "
$ * 8 C' ( % ) % 561 ! "!! + $ # $ $ +! 8 + $ = "# $ * # " &$ " &$ &
$$ ; $ &$* #
! " *% #" ! $ C " " " > + # 0 $! + J "! $ $
! $ *$ *$ # "# # !& " $ * ! $ $ . & $ # ++" &/ + 7 ! $ + "# # *$ # /$ & &# " " ! $ C
Conjunctions # $ $ &$! # # "!! "+ &/ 8 C' $
Prepositions #*#
&$ " *# ; $" &/ "# *$ # # ! " /# # ! "# # /$$ # $ ! # "$$" +/ "!! ! & / + 7 ! $8 C C1 =$ C , )+ 1 C -,
C C C $ C $ C )+ 1 # $ $
/ +/ ! " ! " & ! 8 - Sinds $ # % $8 C% ' Achter $ # % "+ #!8 C1 = In $ # % $8 CB $
Vocabulary "# *$ # # #
! & " ! " " &$ )* voet G groet G zien G
mij G in G 1 /#"# * $ + "$ $ * + # ! + $ + * # ! " + # " &$ + "$ & # + " # "# #
&/ + $ 7 $ +! ! " # ! " $ / 4"# ) " $$ $*!1 !
False friends # "$ *" $ # # ** #" $ 7! &/ "# *$ # $ # + " # &# # &/ 7 $ +! ! " "
$ $ # 7 " + ! + $ + + # ! # "# $ $ * *
4"# $ "# /$$ # +$$/*8
;
bekomen merk brengen camping parking smoking chance techniek
dramatisch solliciteren
*"
$ )+ F&1 * F&3#* * "; & ! " ! *3 " * $ F " 7 $" "#$* -?
concurrentie controleren neef nicht actueel actueel defect rijden zich amuseren eventueel leren missen fout novelle stage achterkant
"! "#" ) 1 " " "
"$ +" ) " 1 F $+
&$ "# /#
# # & "
Some typical mistakes with high-frequency words CD =
% $ 1 ( + $ @ % ( )# * 81 9 $ 1 ( )+ 1 (1 " $ CD %
$ % )+ % 1
Compounding *$ # "! $
+;$ # "# /$$ !
"# "!
Multi-word verbs # 7 "# & # + $
# *$ # /$$ + & "
7 $"$ / # 6 -@
$ & # # /$$ #/ + $ " 8
+
&
zoeken beschouwen verdragen
"
) !$3/ & + $ &$! # ! "# & !$ "! & &$ & "#1
A sample of written Dutch with a word-for-word translation Vele
malen heb ik al
meegemaakt, als
in een gezelschap
! # $ 7 " /#<+
iemand
zo onhandig
is te verklappen dat ik taalkundige
! # L"$! M & ben, dat men reageert met:
! # "
"!
`Oei,
# $*
dan mag ik wel
op
/#8 5I # ! /$$ L 6 &M
mijn woorden letten!'. Misschien dat een politiecommissaris
! / / "#N6 wel herkent,
&
#
maar de wijnkoper,
de hondenfokker of de
/$$ "* & # / & # * leraar
wiskunde heeft zoiets
"# )+1 ! #
toch
dat
$" "!!
#
niet. Hoe
#
komt het
# !#* / "!
dat de taalkundige of de leraar
L #M # # $* hetzelfde schuitje
Nederlands in
# "# )+1 "#
zit als de politiecommissaris?
Ik weet
#
! & L!M # $" "!!
H / het niet, maar Nederlandstaligen, aan beide zijden van de grens, zijn
& "# # als
het om
hun taal
&# + # &
gaat, voÂoÂr
alles onzeker, voorzichtig
/# & # $ * * * &+ L &M $$ " +$ bang.
Bang gemaÂaÂkt, lijkt
" " !
me. Terwijl
de meesten
)1 ! )1 ! 2# # ! L! $M -A
toch minder reden tot schrik
$
hebben dan in de
+ E F #
nabijheid van de politiecommissaris.
# #
Vreemd
genoeg zijn het
+ # $" "!!
*)$1 *# juist de leraren
Nederlands en
F # "# )+1 "# in taalkwesties
veelal
de taalkundigen die
# $*
/#
het meest tolerant zijn. Veel
$ * * ; ! $ # ! $ toleranter
dan vele
anderen buiten
"#
hun kring. Niet
! $ # ! # # ""$ vreemd wegens
hun opleiding,
maar wel
vreemd
* /* # " & /$$ LM * omdat
het ijzeren schrikbewind
dus uit
andere
&" # + *! L M # )+1 # bron
moet voorkomen. Lag het aan
de doorsnee-
" ! +#"! L2 M # * taalgebruiker,
men zou
onze taal
onmiddellijk
tot kerntaak
$ * * /$ $ * * !! $ " uitroepen van een minister tot
"$ ! +
deugdzaamheid en Preventie
Bevordering van de
! L+M )#1 4#* + # van het kwaad
: + # $
)5 "$!6 & . =? )-AA@1 ,'1
'(
Speakers of Scandinavian languages: Danish, Norwegian, Swedish $ 3$ :
Distribution O I 2P 2 4 )/ #1 ! ) #1
Introduction # " $ * * 3 $ * * &$** $ *$ # # ! " & "# B &$ " " &/ # *$ # " $ * * /$$
"!! E" # +" # "$ $ # &/ # $ * * *$ # #+ $ $ + " $ 4 #
+ ! $" # +$$/* " "" # ! F &$! /#"# # /* / # $ + *$ # # "!!
# &
/#"# ; "
3" "! )#*# # & "
$ /# ! + # # " #$*1 + + " # &
&$ "$ # +0"$ + "$ " 4 $
Phonology General $$ # " $ * * #$*" $$ & $ !$ *$ # ! + + *$ # "
+0"$ + # $ * * # #$*" $
! + # /* / # "# " & " &$ !$ &# /# " *! )+ 7 ! $ # + /$ 1 /$$ &$/ # ! "!! " *$ # 3 #$
$ " + 7 /#"# # " $ * * +! "# # #+ $ +! '-
+ +
&6 3 / # ! & *$ # " /# 5" ""6 # /$ " "# &$/ 3" ++" # & ! & ! ++3 " + # "& # 7
Vowels
i:
I
e
{
eI aI OI
A:
¡ O: U
aU @U I@
u:
à z: @
e@ U@
aI@ aU@
# #! # ; $ ; $ $$ # " $ * * " "$ /#
+0"$ $#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! + # / # < /* 4 $ "!! &$/ -
" $
"$ $ /$ >
" ;$ 0 +0"$ +! " +! " ?
61 A /* ! " <eI< ) D 8 <{I< -( <@U< + " & /
''
+ +
" $$ 0 +0"$ * # &/ *$ # <@U<
Consonants
p
b
f
v
T
t
d
s
z
S
Z
tS dZ k
g
m
n
ê
l
r
D j
w h
# #! # ; $ ; $ $$ # " $ * * " "$ /#
+0"$ $#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! + # / # < /* 4 $ "!! &$/ -
<s<8 + %
+
'
+ %
+ % $ " /# !"# ! $ $ "$
?
+ +
-( $ " /30 $
+ % + -- / # /* " " $*
+ # /$ % # ! & " *$ # / $
Influence of spelling on pronunciation $$* " ! "$ $ $ # " $ * * ) " $$ / # /* 1 # *$ # # +/ !&* ! & ! " /# $ # ++ $ *$ # # !# *% /# *$ # #* # $ # $ / + # # # / # & " $ + " " &/ $ *$ # "$ $8 - * ! " # $
)4 7 ! $ # &* !! 3 " " " $ < ri:D@<
# $ *$ # ! " /$ "* + 7 ! $ <¡< <{<
> + " # $ " *$ #
$ * ! # *$ #
Rhythm and stress : + / "
; !$ *$ # # " $ * * # $ $ +/ &$! #
#/8 '>
+ +
- " "! $$
# 0 $! "!! *$ # "! /#"# +$$/ # 8 " " C ! ! )"+ ! 1 " C / # $$ B $ "! ! + 5& J &6 "!& 3 " &
# " $!8 C " C " C " C ' # " $ * * # +/ 5/ +! 6 # *$ #
+ /*$ #
+! + / $ " " CD" " " " " ** #! # 5 *6 " ! " # $ +!
";* $ " ##! * ! # +0"$ "* / +!
Intonation -
$$ &$ # ) + /* / #1 " #*# "# # "*
$$ &$ # + + *$ # *# /# " " # 0
$$ &$ + $/ "#8
. .
*
.
.
*
.
.
* .
) #1
% & + $
. .
*
.
.
*
.
.
* .
)/* 1
' "$ "# * /#"# / $
7 # $ $ / ! /* = # + $$3 +0"$ + " $ > /* ) ! / 1 ! * ! # *$ $* #*#
'.
+ +
Orthography and punctuation Spelling # /# # &"! / + # " &/
! & # ! 5*$ #6 E" +! ! ! ! ! / + ) " 1 # $ !"# ! +;$ # # " $ * * # ! $ $ " $
Punctuation - ! " "! / / # + # # # / $ )brandalarm1 + "* / $ )ytterdùr1 " +0"$ ' " !! "!! + !3 "$ &/ ! "$ /#"# & "3 * "F" & +$ & "$ $ $ 8 C " $ = "!! &+ &F" "$ " $ "$ 8 C% "
$ C' " ( > # #
! / *$ # # $
"+ " $$ /# # !! $ " ) , % ,1
Grammar Order of constituents # " $ * * &* " /#
!#* # # # &F" 9 /#"# # $ " + # & *$ # $ & $ *$ $ 5+6 # * $$ " &F"9& * !" &F" "! $! " *$ # " $ ! 8 C %
$
',
+ +
Position of adverbs # " $ * * !3 " & * $$ $ " + # 0 & # $ ! *$ # "
/# 3/ & 8 C@ $ / & "$ & $ " 0 &
" $ * * # $ ! *$ # "
/# "! $7 & # 8 C$ $ $ $ # " # /# ; $* & $ 8 1 2
$
Constructions with it and there - /* / # # ; $ + # " "3 # det /#"# $ ! * " ;"8 C% $ ' $$ # $ * * # " " /# / * + & )/# *$ # $ "!! /#
! &1 # $ ! $8 C%, $ C%, ; $ C%,
$ = " $ * * ! + # *$ # # * 0 # &F" # ! $ + 3"$+ " $ $$ + # $
"!& ! + $ $ $
Nouns: countability and number - # " &$<" &$ " + " $ * * & # ! ++" + & /#"# * &$! 8 C )+ 1 ' # " " + $ $8 C1 ( = B$$" " $ * 7 # " $ * * :! $ +" $ $ $ $ $ $ $ "" & +$ & "$$; $ '?
+ +
> ! " /# *$ # # $ $ *$
# " $ * * :
&$ ! 8 C )+ 1 C &
) )+ &
) 1 C $ . ! " # # / $ * $8 C9 # $ C
$ , ++" +
* ! !" $ 7
" !
$8 C 3 H C
Articles - # 0 "$ "" " $ * * &+ "3
&$ $ $ * $ *$ # ! $ "$ # " # $ $8 C+ $ C ) + $ ' &F" &F" "! $! +" !$ $ + # " $ * * # 0 "$ /# +" 3 "0" /#"# $ $8 C1
$ C) $ = $ * !& + ! $
! " " #
! " + "$ $ /# # &F" " &
+!* ! " /#$ *# /# # & #
# $ " " /$ #
"$ # " $ * * "$ $ "!!$ $+ + # / + : C C
Premodification - # * )/# #1 + # " $ * * &F" # " # $! *$ # # ! $ 8 C ' " & !+ # *$ # / # " $ * * # / +! "! / /
# 0 $! ) $
"
" 1 '@
+ +
= +0" $ $ & F" " $ " # 3 " $! "# #! #8 den i de gamle regler beskrevne maÊde )G
) ! "" $$ + # + " " *$ # > # $ + * F" /# # # " 3
$ * * " &$ $
" # *$ # /#"# $ $8 C) $
Postmodification - # " $ * * + +$$ $ "$ )* 1 " /# *$ # + $
"!& ! " $ " " )* 1 ' ! " *$ # $ # /# 3 !0 /# # " $ * * #
$ "!! ! # + # / 8 C
Adjective or adverb? - " & + ! & !$ +!
F" /#"# $ +; ! 8 C+ ; $ C- $ ' # ! " "" " /# # & " " " "
/#"# ! " &
F" " $ * * 8 C%
$
Pronouns and determiners - # , " # " " $ * * 8 C % '$ + # *$ ; $8 C+ " % $ 'A
+ +
= + + +$$/ & $ "$ " $ * * + ! !8 C # $ > # " $ * * # "! $$ "0" $ man /#"# " # *$ # 5* $6 + ! & /# *$ # #
"
$ % $ ; $
$$ " . ! " /# #
! &$* *$ # & /# "$ +! # "7 /# #
# " $ * * # 0 "$8 1
Verb forms # E" + !& " $ * * B ;$ $ # #3 %
" $ # "# # "" $$8 C1 I @
$ ) )# +! + ! !$ # *$ " & +! er/aÈr1 & + " 8 C% $
Do " # #
! &$! /# # " "
# + $ "" * # +! + ; * * " $$ +0"$ & "$ 8 C $ # "!! + 5&$6 < +! 8 C1 $ C+ C D $
-ing forms - # " " $ $ $! $
"! /# *$ # &* ! $ & F" )
1 /# " & ) D B ;$ $ # &$! /# # " $ !& + " + 7 ! $ & $ "$ )
=(
+ +
B " %
1$ ' # & " + # * # / $ * * ! " # 0 " $8 C% ) * 5 61 C% C D $
Progressive aspect " $ * * # *
& +! $!
+ * $ # *$ # 5 ! $6 +! 8 C $ ! ! / *
+! # $ + "" # 8 C% + $
Tense - # +" "!!$ +! $ /# #
7$ & $ /# # ; $ + + + # 3 +" /#"# 7
"# * +!
# "!! !* $! # $ 8 C $ C $ ' # " +" " & /# 0 +" $ * ! $8 C $ C1 5=J3$ = / # # + " " " /# sedan )G , 18 C% $ > # " $ * * + /# #
+ # & ""! * & $ ! "$ # # +" # + # $ #
! $ + # + ) # +" + # + +"18 C+ $ C% $ - $ C' #
$ C % $ =-
+ +
# ! $ $ /# + +" + # *
+!8 C2 + $ C% % $
Voice # " $ * * #
" 7
# + / / 8 /# # +07 -s /# # 7$ blive/bli )/#"# "
$ ! 1 # + # " $ "" $ + ! 8 C% )+ % 1 C1 $ #
! $ & 3 + + # ! $
" /# ) # " 5: 61
Modal verbs $#*# !& + # *$ # ! $ # *# " ; $ # ++" # + ! $ /# " ; $ * &$! ! + # ! !
+$$/ 8 - Kan $ +0! " $ & /## #* # " ! # # +8 C9 * $ C # $ ' Skal 7
"! $ "!! )$ *$ # 1 # !$ /# $ "+ 8 C- ; $ = Skal " $ 7
# + ! )$ *$ # 18 C1 $ > # + skal $ & *! )*$ # 18 C& )$ C2 $ . / # /* # +! skulle "
!& + *$ # & & # ; $ # $ ! 8 C+ )+ + 1 C+ )+ 1 ='
+ +
Complementation - :&$! /# " & ++ +! *$ # ; $ " &F" !!
++$ &8 C+ $ C1 # $ ' Q& /# &$* E7 !"# ! "!! # " $ * * # *$ #8 C1 0 = # 5&F" J 06 " " $ * *
/$$ 8 C1
)+ 1
$ $ $ 1 C%
$
Prepositions - # " $ * * " & +$$/ & att/at-"$ )# ; $ + *$ # 3"$ 1 # ! $ $8 C1 $ C $ ' ! $ & +$$/ & 0 " " :
&$ ! 8 C $ C% ,
$ =
" # * " & # af/at $* $8 C $ > # #*#$ +; i + /# *$ #
# # # $ $8 C I
Vocabulary # "$ $ # &/ # " $ * * *$ # ! $ * + *$ # " &$ $ ""
&$ " 2 $ " " " $$ 5#
!6% !& + " # $$* /#"# E" $ *
+ # $ * * #$ &$ # + !$ /# # " ++ ! $ * " $
! + # !$ + ==
+ +
" " % &$/ /$$ & + $ + *$ # 5+ $ + 6 # &$! " + + $$ # $ * *
False friends # +$$/* $ "!! ! * + " "* /
#/ & " 4 " 5 ) G 16 !
# # " / # $ $ & /#"#
" $$ ! )# / # " # annoncere /* annonsere / # annonsera1 ! " " 3
/ $ ! # $ # 5+ $ +6 ! * &
$ ! "7 #
! ! * # *$ # "* 4 " komme/komma " /$$ ) 1 $ ) G " 1 ) G 1 ) G " 1 ) G 1 ) G
" 1 ) G " C D /$$ 1 ) G 1 ) G 1 ) G 1
) G
1
CD ) G " " 1 ) G 1 ) " ! # Han kom fùrst kl. 10 G 1 541 ) G 1 ) G 1 ) G 1 ) G 1 ) G 1 ) G 1 ) G " 1 ) G 1 ) G # 1 ) G 1 ) G " 1 ) G 1 ) G " " ; " 1 ) G " 1 ) G C D 1 =>
+ +
) G 1 ) G 1 ) G 1 ) G 1 " ) G 1
Some problems involving grammatical words - ) ! + # # " ; $ # ! " &$! /# # " &/ + " * ) /$$
! "# % &$! + $ 1 $ ' " # / "* " ) +0!3
" 1
, # ! " ! + # ! 5 !$ 6 / = # / ogsaÊ/ocksaÊ " # + *$ # " " # ! /$$ ! + +! &$! + "#" # $ " &$ +0"$ + / + 7 ! $8 C% , > # ! & " # / # / /#"# " $ & $ # "" $$ $ # + $ " + $ & $ +" )+ 1% / & $ +" % E"* #
* # " $ * * . # / om +" &# "F" )G 1 )G " 1 4$$/* & /# &# + /
&$ ! $ ( " & +
A sample of written Danish with a word-for-word translation Der
holdt
mindst hundrede taxaer med dùrene
# $$ $ og
han havde aldrig set
# #
staÊet til ham,
paÊ klem
# 7 /# # F
saÊ mange biler paÊ en gang. Havde det
! " ! var han styrtet
#! LG + # & $+ #!M / # # =.
+ + fra
den ene vogn til den anden, indtil han havde fundet en
+! # " # # $ # #
+
chauffùr med et ansigt, han kunne lide.
Men hans
/# + " # "$ ++ L G # $M #
far
lùftede blot en ®nger, en mand med kasket paÊ hovedet saÊ
+ # $+ F 0* ! /# " det, stùdte ùjeblikkelig
i
en ¯ùjte
# #
/
og straks
blev der
&$/ !! $ /# $ " / # bevñgelse i den yderste bilrñkke !! # ! " 3/ )4! 5#6 & 2$$ ! !
2 & &
1
Acknowledgements # # 6 # * #
! R3$ # * $ * SF I#$
$
T* $ # + "
=,
German speakers "# $ /
Distribution P 2 U B I 4 " $ ! $*! $$ :$ BK"# &$" $ * !
Introduction ! 3 $ * * "$ $ $ "# *$ # # " $ * * 7 / + $" ! ++ +! "# # & ! $
! $$ $$*&$ # $ * * + ! )Hochdeutsch 5*# ! 61 + / "!!" #*#3 # ! 3 * /# +/ ! $$ * $ ++" & ! ! ! 3/
# # 0 $ * * " $" )+ /# * * $ "$*1 " + # "$ + !$ $ # &/ *$ # ! # ! !$ &/ # / $ * *
* #$* " &$ 7 ! #+ 0 *$ # $ $$ ! $ $ *
Phonology General # ! *$ # #$*" $ ! & $ !$ ! # +0"$ "* 3 "* ! *$ # !* # + + ! /#"# " * 5! ""6 *$ # 8 9
*" "$ # *$ # + /# /$ ! 7 $ " )
* =?
B
9 ++ 9 4; + *$ $ &+ $ /$ ** "" ++" 9 " + ! * $$ $/ #*# "# # ! # $
Vowels
i:
I
e
{
eI aI OI
A: ¡
O: U
aU @U K@
u: Ã
z: @
e@ U@
aI@ aU@
# #! # ; $ ; $ !
#$ #+ & " "$ /# * +0"$
$#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/ - <e< <{< + "+ 8 ' <eI< !! " "$ ! ##* <e:< .
/$ ! & " 3$* &+ " " ) 1 , /
!
$ " /$
Consonants
p
b
f
v
T
D
t
d
s
z
S
Z
tS dZ k
g
m n
ê
l
r
j
w h
# #! # ; $ ; $ !
#$ #+ & " "$ /# * +0"$ =@
B
$#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/ -
<S<
# $ ! #! # +
+1 + .
E )$ *$ #
! $ " & 5"$ 6
Stress : + / "
; !$ *$ # ! # +/ &$! # #/8 - ! "! 7
* $$
# 0 $!% # *$ # "! /#"# ! & ! 3 " " " )* % 1 ' ! # +/ 5/ +! 6 ! !
/ $ ** #! # * )/1 " $$ "7 * ! # +03 "$ "* / +!
Intonation # /$ # ! 3 * # ! ; $ *$ # # ! + # $* * *$ !3 "8 ' % % & $ /
! " /# +$$/ & $*# + $$ )% D8 # *$ # =A
B
B + + ! + *$ # )3 *# /# # ! *" "$ /#"# "!!1 " !
! /# ** " $ "" 3; )/#"# ! ! " /# * /#"# " #"* # *$ # 1 ;
Juncture ! / $$ &$ &** /# /$ + +! /# "! &+ & *$ $ ) + &* $
$ *$ #1 # " " +*3 * "" ++"8 ? ? ? )! ? ? ?1
Orthography and punctuation Spelling ! # ! &$ # # $ /# *$ # $$* * ! *$ # & #
! $ ! * ! $ # ! / /# $ " $ $ $ * ! $ % @ A $
Punctuation :" " *#$ #
! ! *$ # # ! ++" # "!! &+ $$ & "$ /$$ 0 "! $! + & F" C% "
$ C+ # " $ C% "
$ C1
" # $ C+ # " $ !3"$ $
# *$ # D ! / ++$8 C""1 % ( $
>(
B
Grammar # ! *$ # * !! " $ ! !$ ! / # #
! 5 + "#6 " * ! # + " *$ $ $ +! 0 0 "$ *$ *$ & 7$ ! $ & "
& $ " ! $ * $$ & # & # !"# *$ # #*# # +! /#"# !&$ # *$ # +" #
! / % # *
+! ! #*#$ E" $ * * /#"# / "# * # +! ) " $$ # * 1 ""* # * !! " $ +" 9 "$ F" + 7 ! $ # ++ +!
)5" 61 ""* /## # # &F" " &F" " &F"
# ! # / !/# + # *$ # /# # * !! " $ +" + /
" $$ " & ! # * !! " $ *8 ! "$ +! )# $$ $ # &/ * ! *1 # $ " + ! " E" $ ! *$ # + $ ! 3 * +$ # *$ # # 5 * !! 6
Questions and negatives; auxiliaries - # 7$ # ; $ ! % * ! & ! $ 3/ & ! * & * nicht ) G 1 + # &8 C' ( C " % $ ' :+" * $$ +! /# haben ) G 1 J " $ *$ # / ! & )! $ "!! & +* "# * + 1 +! # +"
/# sein ) G 18 C+ = " + # !$ + +! *$ # + ! ; $ + ! hat ) G 1 haÈtte )/#"# " !
9 &$/18 C ) ( > ! # #* " * # "! $" *$ #
! + ; * 8 *! ! $$ $" & *$ &$ / # "# nicht wahr? )G (1
! *$ # ( ( ; $8 C% " ( >-
B
Time, tense and aspect - ! # +! !$ # *$ # ! $ ! $ +" ! $ +" & # *
+! 8 C% $ C% % $ 1 ( ' # ! +! /#"# !&$ # +" 7 "$ #
! / 8 + +" F "
$ 8 C%
& = B $ # ! ! & /# / /$ +"8 C B > " "# ! &F" /# *$ # + * & 8 C%
- # ! $ " + *
" ! 8 C' ( '
#/ $* + ++ # & ** ! + /# *$ # +"8 C1 B ( )! * 1
$ $ $(1 C%
! # ; $ + # + # + +! /# 7$ )*#$ ; $ # , +1 # 7 $ + # +8 C% %
Conditionals ! " $ " # 7$ wuÈrde )/#"# " *#$ 1 ! & &# "$ 8 C% " % (Wenn er mich fragen wuÈrde, wuÈrde ich ihm nichts sagen.)
# " $ # 2# " "!! & ! >'
B
! # &F" ) 3/ +!1 + # "3 $ )"! $ *$ # % 1 " !
&F" + !&$ # $ *$ # )* kaÈme< waÈre< haÈtte< 1 "+ " $$ $$8 C% " $ C% % " % $ C
B $ ! * 7
& ! +$ ! # *$ #8 C' % " % $ ! so + &+ # ! "$ 8 C% #" $
Modal verbs # *$ # ! $ " # *# ! ; 3 $ &$ # ++" + /#"# $ ! ! 7 ! $ + "!! &$! 8 - Ich kann )G % 1 " & /# # ! + $ * * ! % 8 C% < ' *$ # $ $ # ! musste )G 18 C- % * $ & ! & +
8 C ( = Muss nicht G
% #
! 8 C%
> ! will ! CD 8 C+ # " $ "+ &/ )! wollte)8 C% %
. ! soll )G 1 !! ! 3 $ sollte )G 1 8 C1 )+ 1 1 C% , ! ! $ +! ; * #
! /
# & # " $ *$ # ! $ &* #
! / 8 C ( C- >=
B
Passivisation ! + " " /# # &F" man )G 1 /# *$ # +
C. ? $ C.
There is . . . "!! ! ; $ + es ist )$ $$ 18 C%
$ ! " $ es &+ $ $ & # " % #
" "!! /# & # # sein )G 18 C% $ C $ ! $ es gibt )$ $$ 1 ; $ + , C%
Non-finite forms ! # ; $ + # *$ # 3$ + # +! )5*61 Lachen + " " " *$ # ! " # & 0 ""* # "7 " # $$ #+ + "+ C% , "
, $ C% , $ C% $ C% $ ! # $ ! # +0"$ /# # *$ # 5&F" J 06 " "8 C% "
Word order - 0 " $ "! # + "$ ! # *$ # / ;"$ $ & &*
!! ! ! 8 C% C1
>>
B
' =
> .
, ? @ A
& * $$ "! # + ! & "$ $ * &* ! ! 8 C % " ? ( ! # & " 5& "6 / + # &F" + ! "$ " & #* # # "F" #
&F" & 8 C. " ! &* /# # " &F" "! $!8 C % CA 0 & ! & +! &F" "! $!% #
$ *$ #8 C- B $ C1 9
& "$ "! # + "$ 8 C1 ; ! #/ # + "$ # &$ /# " $ % ' ( ! "$ ! & +! & ; "! $7 " $ # 8 C # Vor ) G 1 " 7
+ ! Entlang )G 1 +$$/
8 C%
C% , # $ C+ $
Articles - ! # 0 "$ + ""! /#"# * $ 8 C $ C' ' # 0 "$ /# 0* $6 +
8 C& = # 0 "$ + ! + # ; $ + 8 C- $ C% "
>.
B
Gender ! "$ +! /# 5!6 * : ""*$8 C& $ @ ( C )das MaÈdchen 9 !1 $ %
Number and countability - ! +! # $ $ / B!! $ $ * -en -er% &* !! # +! # $ $ + *$ # # # $ 8 C%
$ ' ! *$ # " &$ # " &$ ! ; $
9 + " ? C) C1
?$ C@ ( = ! *$ # $ $ # *$ ! ; $ 8 + 7 ! $ &
) C@ ( C
Possessive `s ! # ; $ + # *$ #
" &
! $ /# ! # " von ) G 1 * $$ 8 C%
Adjectives and adverbs - ! & + ! $$ " $ +! /# # E" F" 4 7 ! $ gut G , % schrecklich G , 8 C+ $ C1 $ C% ' ! !! & + " & 5 6 +
F"8 C " >,
B
Relative pronouns - ! was " $ & $ ) " " 1 /# # " "$ #
$ ! + 8 C $ $ $ C) $ $ $ C1 " ' ! * # $ 8 C%
= " # * !! " $ " ! &/ 3
" 3 " $ "$ &* ! /# " $ 1 " 9 & " * !! " $ > ! " &F" $ " $8 %
Conjunctions - ! # #
! / + )+* !$ 18 C- ' # ! / falls )$ $$ 1 ! " "7 # " $ + /#"# "" # *$ #8 C9
Prepositions ! # *# *$ # ; $ :&$!
" ) ! $ 1 /# 07 *$ # 7
"$$" " " /# # 5
!6 ! " $ ! # 8 C C- , $ C $ C I# &$! ) "1 "" /# ! # ! # *$ *$ # ; $ ! "!! +03 "$ 8 - Nach ) G 1 " $ ! 8 C) " >?
B
' Seit " ! 8 C%
= Von G % $ /# $* & # # 8 C@ % ( C C
> Zu G 8 C ? 1
1
. An G 8 C & , Vor G % $ 8 C $ C% , C% ) * % 1 ? Mit ) G 1 /# * 8 C' 5K
@ WaÈhrend G 8 C+ A Bei " $ * !& + *$ # * # "7 9 & $ : C% 2 ) )+ $ $ $ 2
) 1 C I
Vocabulary Q ! ! *$ # / +! #
!
)* Haus G % Schuh G % jung 9 % singen G 1 #
+ "$ $ * # /#$ #*# # " !& + 5+ $ + 6 ) &$/1 ! 3 * /
* $$ / ! 4"# /#"# #$ #! /# # + *$ # " &$ /#"#
+ 4"# * )#*# ! $ $ #! ! " $$ 4"# ! + $$* " &$ 1
False friends $ * !& + ! / # ! * /#"#
$*#$ "! $$ ++ +! # + # *$ # "* ! ! # +$$/* / ) !* # 18 >@
)! kommen G ""* "71 )! gehen G ""* "71
B
CD
CD
)! bringen G ""* "71 )! meinen $$ G 1 )! aktuell G " 1 )! eventuell G , , 1 )! sympathisch G 1 )! danke " ! / " 1 )! wenn G 1 )! bekommen G 1 )! kontrollieren G 1 )! weil G 1 )! kochen G 1 )! gluÈcklich G 1 )! rentabel G 1
$ # )! wer1 )! wo1 $ "+ & &*
Other confusions +! +0"$ " & ! $ * "* &$! ! * $$ /# ! / # ! # *$ # ; $ /# + " * / & ; #
! / # *$ # ; $ +/ 7 ! $ 8 :#" $$ ! "+ 8 # ! / + )bitte) /# ++* !#*
$ +!$ " $ # ) # $ & !"# ! /$1 # $ ! 9 *$ # >A
B
/
!! ' ( $ /# $ ;8 '
& * @ ( ' (
Word formation B! $7 "!! ! )Dorfschullehrer G 1 ! ! !$ 3/ "! *$ #
A sample of written German with a word-for-word translation Eines Abends
saû ich im
I * L*M
Dorfwirtshaus
# $$ * &
vor
(genauer
gesagt, hinter)
Bier, als
ein Mann gewoÈhnlichen Aussehens
+ + )! 7 "$
einem Glas

*$
& /# ! L+M " L*M sich
neben mich setzte und mich mit
vertraulicher
#! $+ & ! $ " ! /# "0 $ ich eine Lokomotive kaufen wolle
Stimme fragte, ob
" /## L &F"M Nun ist es zwar
$"! & /
ziemlich leicht, mir
etwas
zu verkaufen
/ # ! !#* $$ denn ich kann schlecht nein sagen,
+
" & $
groÈûeren Anschaffung dieser Art
&**
"#
aber bei
schien mir
doch
+ # ! ! #/
Vorsicht am Platze " # $ " L" ! ! & " M Obgleich ich wenig von Lokomotiven verstehe,
$#*# ich mich
.(
einer
L 0 +0"$
M & /#
erkundigte
$$ + $"! +! nach Typ und Bauart,
um
bei
! $+ L ;M + " "
B dem Mann den Anschein
zu erwecken, als
# ! # !
/ mit
einem Experten zu tun, der nicht gewillt sei, die Katz'
/# im
habe er es hier
L+M # # #
7
/# /$$* & # " sagt
& +$)$1
Sack zu kaufen, wie man so schoÈn
#
" &
)5 *VW "# ++*6 & 2$+* * $ #! +! * *
1
.-
French speakers B # 2 $
Distribution 4 B )"$* 4"# 2 1 2 U B % ! + #/ $ 7!&*% +0" $ / " $ * * ! +! 4"# $* "$ # / " $ +" # : "0" # !"
Introduction 4"# &$* # ! " * + 3 $ * * "$ $ $ $ # :* ! # ! " * # ! ++" &/ $* B 4"# + 7 ! $ # 4"# + 4 " & # ++" * # # &/ # !" *$ #% # ++ 4"# $" " $ ! $$ "! # &$ " 4"# 3 $ * * &" # ! "& *$ # / * # ! !$ 3 &/ 4"# *$ # &# 7 " &$ # #$*" $ ! 7#& ! ! ++" #/ # $$ 4"# /# &$! *
"* *$ # ! * $ &/ $$*
"
Phonology General 4"# # ! #$*" $ "# " " /# *$ # 4"#
# * +0"$ "* "* ! *$ # " & ! + # /$ &$! :# ! ! $ # 4"# *$ # ! + /
##! ++ # " $
.'
A
+0"$ &# * "* *$ # !* # + + 4"# /#"# $ 54"# ""6 *$ #
8 9 $$ 4"# / + / $$ &$ !
*$ / ) &$/1 $ # *$ # ! /# #
+ "# / /3 ! & $ # " $ &$!
+ "! # "! # &$ 9
* $$ &$ 4"# $ "* # ! * " *$ # #
$$ + # /$ " # ""
*$ #
$$ &$ # / + " ! ! 4"# # *$ # 5 / $$/6 # / " ! # *$ #
& 4"# ! "" 9 4"# ! $ ! +; F / *% # + # * # ! + # &$ )# &# # 1 + # * ** 5 +6
! "
Vowels
i:
I
e
{
eI aI OI
A: ¡
O: U
aU @U I@
u: Ã
z: @
e@ U@
aI@ aU@
# #! # ; $ ; $ 4"#
#$ #+ & " "$ /# +0"$
$#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/ - 4"# # $ # + ,i:< ,I< $ * "+ &/ $ ' <Ã< !! " $! $ ,@< # &"!
= 4"# # $ # + ,U< ,u:< $ * "+ &/ $ > <¡< + # + " $ !#* $ . # ,O:< ,@U< ! / # 4"# ,o< $ * "+ &/ $ .=
A
, <{< + " +0"$ * #/ " & # 4"# ! & $ 8 9 $ *$ # ,Ã< # / $ "+ % 9 # $ ,A:< # + " $ % 9 ,e< " * "+ &/ $ $ ? <eI< !! &"! ,e< # + 7 ! $ $ " ,{< " $ & $ ,e< # " $ "+ $
@ I# ##* $$ &$! " & # ! & " /# ; $ +" $*# # / $! 8 %
&"! )
Consonants
p
b
f
v
T
D
t
d
s
z
S
Z
tS dZ k
g
m n
ê
l
r
j
w h
# #! # ; $ ; $ 4"#
#$ #+ & " "$ /# +0"$
$#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/ -
+ # #! ! & $ " %
" '
F &"! =
>
$$ & " #
! / *$ # . 5 6 ,l< "" 4"# ! $ " & 5"$ 6 ,l< , *$ # $*# /$
$$ &$ &+ 0 $ " " + " # ! / *$ # # # .>
A
++" &/ / $ & # * # $* /$ &+ # + # " / )# "<" " &/ !"# $
! + " 1 4"#
" $$ $*# # /$ $ * "+ &/ + / $
Consonant clusters - / * " J # 4"# ! 3 # 5 6 ,l< ,@l< B!& /# # "
!$ $$ &" / # $ $$ &$ # * "
$ ' '$ ' # + / $ 4"# ! " ,s< $ " ,m< *$ # ! # $ = I ! $$ 0 " +$$/ & ,z< # +
4"# / "* *$ # $ $ 4"#
# + " " ! * ! $
Stress - 4"# / + ! # $$ &$ # /
)/#"# !/# / # *$ #1 # $ "
$$ &$ 2# # 7" + <@< /#"# !! $ /$
/#"#
# " # # &*
# / <@< ,I< *$ # 4"#
# * +0"$ "* # / $$ &$
/# *$ # " #! # #* / * $ " &$! + 4"#
* " *$ # !* +! # *$ 4"# ! + /
*$ # /# #
+ "# / /3 ! & $ +
" ' 2# *$ #
! " 4"# + * !! " $ " " B! 4"# *$ # / 5 (68 *$ #8 / " % baker's 4"#8 Non, c'est aÁ la boulangerie que je suis alleÂe. )G / " % $1
..
A
Intonation # 4"# *$ # ! !$ ! " !! 4"# & $ *$ /#"# " ! * !
+ #!" /#
Influence of spelling on pronunciation $#*# 4"# $$* "! $7 4"# " $$ #/ " / )/# 7" 1 +! # / $ 4"# $ ! #+ 7 " & &$ #
! *$ # $$ ! ! & ! " $$ & &* " /# $ "!& + $ # ++ $ *$ # 4"# "$ $8 - $$ &$ * /# # $ # $ " 4"#% +" # ! " &$! + + # *$ # /# / $ " "
$ / $ 4"# ! " # 0 $ ,e<8 56 ' ! & " ,u:< ! & " ,o<8 = *$ * ! " 0 $ ,Id< ,ed<
+ $$ " + $$ " " 8 L L > 4 $ / " 4"# )* $ $ 1 + " # & " *$ # $ ! $ + $ . # $ * !& + "* *$ # 4"#
"!! + 4"# + 4"#
# /
Orthography and punctuation 4"# # ! &$ # # $ /# *$ # $$* # + # / !# $ * * $ F" " $ 4"# ! $ ! $ % :" " *#$ #
! 4"# *$ # B!! " & 4"# ! " /# # /$ & *$ # ! $ ! $ @
" $ .,
A
D ! / $*#$ ++$ 4"#8 X Y # # 5 6 55 66
Grammar General # 4"# *$ # * !! " $ ! !$ ! / 8 # #
! 5 + "#6 " * % /
& $ !$ % 4"# # *$ $ $ & +! 0 0 "$ *$ *$ & 7$ & "
+! + # +" & +! )#*# # /#"# " " $ # *$ # +" #
! / 1 # ! ! ++" #*# 4"# & E" # # * + & " &# # !& + # &F" + # "$ )#*# ! + # E" #
+! "#1 4"# # ; $ + # *$ # *
+! # & 4"# /#"# 7
! $ E" +! ; * #
! / # & # #* " * #
$< 3 $ & 4"# # E" ; * 4"# #
* !! " $ *8 F" "$ ! ! ! "$ +! )#*# $ +/ #/ $ # &/ * ! *1% #
! / $ E" + $ $ ) $ /*1 5 6 + # " $$ "! &+ # !0 4"#8 + 7 ! $ " $$ "! &+ & F" & &+ &
Verbs 4"# # &$ $ * " # 3 * # *$ & # ! + # *$ # " 3E" $ * * "! 4"# # * + E" & +* 4 $ / 3 4"# / $$ "
$#*# # ++" # $$* + 0 " # *$ * + *$ & 4"# $$ # +! " #
!
.?
A
Questions and negatives; auxiliaries - # 7$ # ; $ 4"# 4"# " &$! *$ # * +! * # 4"#8 9 ! $ & * ; ! & * ; 8 C- ( 9 8 C' ? ( ' * 4"# +! & * ne . . . pas 3 / & # 7$ + $* & # " $ !
+ , < "" $ "! + 8 C+ 9 # ne $ " # & /# # * +$$/ 8 C% = 4"# # /#"# +! $ # *$ # +" * $$ /# # & avoir )G 1 / ! & )3 "$* ! "!! & + !!1 +! # /# eÃtre )G 18 C@
> BF* ; * 7 4"#% /# *$ # # ; * * /# # ! & 4"# n'est-ce pas? )G ( (1 ! " $$ non? + $$ & 8 C- ) " ( C? + " (
Time, tense and aspect - # 4"# # +! !"# $ # *$ # +" & +" ! $ "# +! $ /*8 C%
2 $ ' 4"# # $ & " # &* # "* # 8 C% 9 ) , # $ C+ & #
= /* !! "# ) " $$ /# * "
1 # ! & $ & # 4"# # * ++" + + 3!* " 8 C. 3M 2 57K=" B .< * + .@
A
C% ? $ ' % ) (" > 4"# # /#"# #
! / # *$ # *
$ & " *
* # #
! 4"# $ $ & # &
" # 4"# ! # *
$ " + ! $ ) # + , 18 C'
% $ C% % %& C? @ A @" # $ " /# # +" *
/$ & *$ # /# 8 C' % " $ # $$ & "$* 5 6 & " & # 4"#8 C% . # 4"# /#"# +! $ # *$ # +"
* " * $$ # *$ # " $ & /# # " & +! # & + " # "!! /$* # 9 #*# # ! & !8 1 $ < 3H3$ % 0
- 4"# # *
+!8 C2 $ + , ' 4"# # + 7
$ 8 C % * $
4"# # #
! # / + 7
* + ! *$ #8 " + * $ 4"#
*$ #
* + # !$ & # ! ++" - " 4"# # *
# ! $ ! & ""$ + # +8 C% @ ' 4"# # 7
" # !! 8 .A
A
)# &$$ * 1 % 0 # $ 7
! 8 C% ,% $ = 4"# # + + + ! + # ; $ + 8 C% $ C' (
Modal verbs # *$ # ! $ " " " # 4"# ; $ # & 4"# +! "$
8 $ # *$ # " # &# ++$ +! # E" &
# " $ $ & ; * +$$/* 0 # $ ! " $$ + &* $ 1 $ $ $ $ $ $ $ # # ++" + /#"# $ ! ! "!! &$! 8 - " 4"# *# # # 0 +! " 3 # *$ # 30 "!! + #! # 30 /# *$ # ! $ 8 C% $ C- $ C- ' 4"# +! + # *$ & devoir " # + &$* " 7
*$ # & $ # " $
* /# # ! "
8 C- C D ?
$ C- C D ) $ = # " 4"# " * # *$ # + + ! * * + ** # "
8 # # 5! +"6 /# 8 C% ( C' ( C% % ( > 4"# " $ #
! /
# *$ # ; $ / " $ $ )+ 7 ! $ / "$ / & " 1 " # # +! * & $$ " 8 C # $ ) + , $ $ $1 ,(
A
C) .
"
$ ) +
$1 . # 4"# ; $ + ! $ +" " " ++$8 # ; $ + % + 7 ! $ j'aurais duà aller 9 $ $$ % # " $ 4"#
*$ # 0 + " $8 C% $
Imperatives - 4"# # + + + " " $ * ! *$ #8 C- " $ $ $ ' / 4"# # 0 + ! +!8 C
" $ C
Clause structure and complementation - 4"# + + $ "$ /# *$ # +!
F" $$8 C%
' 4"# 0 * /# & +!
0$$ # $ " + 8 C $ C $ C% $ C% + $ C1 = " /# *$ # 0 + & 7
4"# # ; $ + $ " $ # ""8 C1 * $ C$ $ $ $ C$ $ $ $ > 2#$ *$ # # &# 5& 6 5 36 0 4"# # $ # $ ! $8 C% $ % $ . 4"# $$/ 57 6 &F" &F" "8 C- $ C ( ,-
A
C+ " ( , $ ! 4"# 4"#
" # &$ * ! "* "
$8
Complementation with certain verbs 4"# & # # "$ ; $ *$ # + # ++ "! $! ! + # ! "!! " 8 - 4"# ) &F"1 "$ # # 0 "
+ # ; $ + 8 C+ $ ' # ; $ + 4"# " & +$$/ & 08 C% $ = 2# 7
+ $"! ) " " " "1 4"# "+ # + !! & " $ # & # "#" + ! & # *$ #8 C+ $ )+ + $1
$ )+
$1 > &# *$ # 4"# " & " & !! $ +$$/ & " &F" /#"#
/# ++" & # &6
" & # $ ; #
! # / $ * * 8 C% # C1
It and there # 4"# 7
" * ! " # &** /# # ; $ + # " $ ! 8 C%
$ # 4"# ; $ + C$ $ $ D " $ & /# ! 7
! % $ $ $ 8 C% $ C #
$
Passivisation - 4"# # E7 # ; $ + ! " /# *$ # #
8 ,'
A
C $ )+ $1 . ? $ ' 4"# # &0" + & )" &F"
" " "1 " & # &F" +
" 48 '
4"# /$$
8 C. C D = # $ 4"# # &$ /# "! $7
8 C $ )+ $ $ $ $1 ) $
Word order: influence of French 4"# # + # " $$ "! &+ !0 # # + /# # *$ # # "
! # - & F" 4"# $ " + # ! &$! *$ # ! +! # 8 C
C C ; ; C+ % $ ' 9 "! 4"# $
+; # *$ #% /# # "" # ! 0 # !+* +$$/ 8 C C = # " " * # * " 4"# # 4"# # 30 / " $ !
$8 C C
> 4"# & + "! &/ # & # " &F"8 C% $ C% $ C+ ?$ C1 $ # $ # "!! + ! /#"# " 4"# / ,=
A
- 4"# " &F" "$ $ "$ + #
&F" + # "$ 8 C% $ C 2 ( C $ $ $ C $ $ $ ' + # &F" + # & "$ ! $ " 4"# *$ #% & * $
+! *$ # ; +! ! $$ $ ! "#8 C $ C%
= 4"# +
" " " 8 C% $ C% $ C& 1 $ C9 # ) "1 0 # ; $ 4"# " " #
"
! * $ * *$ # " $ %
> 4"# 7
+ ; " &F" "! &+ # " $ + /3 &8 C% $ C+ " $ C% $ C1 .
7
/# 0 4"# " & de aÁ /#"# 4"# !! $ $ # # ++" # $
+ * 0 8 C% $ , 7"$ ! /# # 4"# ; $ + J F"< & 8 C1 0 ? I# " $ ! * +! 4"# / 8 C C C%
( C
" C )+ 1 C
# C1
A (
,>
A
Word order: particles and prepositions # & " * " * #
$< $ &
4"# 4"# # +0"$ $ * #/ # & *$ #% / /# &F" "$ &$! C2 $ @ ( 4"# " 5 6 # + "$ 2# # ; / # &F" + 4"# #
$/ "! &+ # ; / # " *$ #8 CA ( # # $ # ! "
*8 C D ) $ $ $( $ ! # +0"$ * $
" $8 % $ 1
$
Articles - 4"# # 0 "$ ""! /#"# * $ 8 C% ; $ C ' 4"# "$ &+ # ! + +
"! $! 8 C+ = 4"# 0 "$ &+
! ! 8 C $ C > 4"# # 0 "$ " !! & ! + # ; $ + 8 C% $ C ( . I# " $ ! * +! 4"# + "$ 8 C & C' ( C ? $ C1 #
$ C @ N C 9 @ ,.
A
C% $ C' 0
Gender - ! "$ +! : ""*$8 C% O $ C ' #
! " * 3 " $% # * * /# # # !+8 C% 2 $ C2
Number - !& + " &$ 4"# " &$ )!
1 *$ # B!! ! 8 C C C ' ! #* # * & $ $ *$ # * & *$ 4"# :
&$ ! 8 C C
)+ &
) 1 C )+ 1 C = D + ! ! + $; $ "
" $$ $ $ & +$$/ & $ $ 4"#8 C%
" % $ CA
% $ C+# > 2# $ $
#
! + #* 4"# + # +* # #* # *$ 8 C' $ . *$ # 9 "! ! $ &$! /# + # # $ $ ! * *$ +!8 C
,,
A
Adjectives and adverbs ) $ # " 52 61 - + / ! F" 4"# $$ et )G 1 &+ # $ # " $ ! /# *$ # &
F" 8 C ' # !& + F" # " & *$
4"#8 C 0 )! * , 01 C
F" " & #" $$ /# # ; $ + *$ # +! 8 ' ( $ = : " $ F" )$ 1 + "+ 8 C% $ > B! $ $/ +! /# # ; $3 + 8 C% $ C% $ , . 2# "! F" & 4"# # / que )/# ! "!! *$ # ; $ 1 8 C% $ C+
Reflexive pronouns 4"# 7
" # 0 "
&/ E7 &F"
4"# # " &/ # 5 $+6 5 "# #68 C% $ C'
Relative pronouns - 4"# # &F" $ )qui /#"# * ! 1% &F" $ )que /#"# * ! 1 # " $ &$! *$ #8 ,?
A
C
$ $ $ C % $ $ $ ' # "$ ! + # 4"# # "
8 C $ $ $ = 4"# # / " * $ + ! ! 7
8 C
Conjunctions - 4"# # #
! / )comme1 + )+*
!$ 18 C' " ' 4"# + $$ + 8 1 ( % B ) $ $ $
Prepositions 4"# # *# *$ # ; $ :&$!
" ) ! $ 1 /# *$ # 7
" " /# # 5
!6 4"#% /# + # $ * * # # " $ ! # 8 C C
C C
C I# &$! ) "1 "" /# 4"# #
! # *$ *$ # ; $ ! "!! +0"$ 8 - Depuis " ! 8 C% ' De " ! $ /# $* &
# # 8 C1 @ $ C P = *$ # $ " /## * + !! )* ,, 1 4"# $ "
! 7 # / "$
+ # &F" + # ,@
A
" + 7 ! $ /$$ & " & aÁ /## #
! " *$ #8 C+ * $ C 9$ C% B > 4"# "$ "!! & $ + ! +* + 8 C% ; C% C%
/ $
Vocabulary Q ! 4"# *$ # / +! #
! # ! $$" $ "#" $ / # ! # $$ "" # + "$ $ * # /#$ " $$ # 3 ! * & / + ! # 4"# $
"$ $
"!! ! 3 * "* ! " ! + ! "!! ! " /#"# !
8 +
# # # # # # + ! " ! !! " " " * * # +0"$ + * #
$< $ & # !& + 5+ $ + 6 /#"# # ++ ! * # / $ * * % 9 # / 9 5$ &$ + 68 / # ! $! #
! # / $ * * ! #
! "7 #
`Bleached verbs' + !$3 5&$ "# & 6 7 &# *$ # 4"# & # * " ++$ "# $ * *8 -
+ # "" 7
*$ # /# # & 7
4"# /# # & " * # " $ ! $8 C% C+ $ C- $ )+ - 1 B $ 4"# # ; $ + Je suis d'accord )G %
$ $$ %
1 $ * # "!! ! %
,A
A
' 4"# # ; $ + 7
/# *$ #
/$ $ * ! $ *
=
" # 7
/# # & *$ # 7
/# E7 & 4"#8 C%
False and unreliable friends !! !& + 4"# / # ! * /#"# $*#$ "! $$ ++ +! # *$ # "*
! $$
! $ + # / # 4"# ! ! *$ #8 " )4"# actuel G " > actuellement G 1 )4"# avis G 1 )4"# chance G L M 1 )4"# commander G
L " "M1 )4"# corps G 1 )4"# crier G 1
)4"# demander G 1
)4"# eÂducation G 1
)4"# engage G 1
)4"# essence G 1
)4"# eÂventuel G " 1
)4"# eÂvident G 1
# )4"# expeÂrience Q # # 1 )4"# faute G 1 )4"# gentil G " 1 )4"# ignorer G 1 )4"# important G " # 1 )4"# inteÂressant G " " 1 )4"# large G
1 )4"# librairie G 1 )4"# occasion G " 1 C #D )4"# passer un examen G " #1 )4"# politique G 1 )4"# professeur G 1 )4"# sauvage G 1 )4"# sensible G 1 )4"# sympathique G " 1
?(
A
A sample of written French with a word-for-word translation Le printemps eÂtait venu. Un
dimanche, apreÁs avoir
# * / "! I sa boutique aÁ grande eau,
# #
&*
Lecouvreur, sentant les chaleurs
/ " +$* # #
proches, deÂcide de sortir
nettoyeÂ
+ 3# "$
la
terrasse
: quatre
" # ! " +Z 8 +
tables rondes et
huit
chaises de jardin,
qu'on
aligne
sur
&$ *# "# + * # $ 3 le
trottoir,
ouÁ
sous un grand store
on
lit
en lettres
# ! &* /* /# $
rouges: HOTEL- VINS-
8
LIQUEURS.
I 32 3:
Lecouvreur aime musarder dans le quartier,
" $ 3 $$ au
coin
des
la
cigarette
# *#&# # "*
leÁvres . . . Toujours la meÃme
3# " +3# $ $/ #
! promenade, tranquille, apaisante. Il
longe
/ $
;
" $!* / $ 3 $*3#3 3+
l'hoÃpital
Saint-Louis, puis il regagne le
quai
# # $ 3 # # * # !& ! de Jemmapes. Des
peÃcheurs sont installeÂs sur le
bord du
+ !! ! 0 #! $$ # & +3# canal, au
bon endroit. [. . .] Lecouvreur s'arreÃte.
Il
" $ 3# * $ " L M " #! $+ fait
beau . . .
! 0 Partout
les marronniers
¯eurissent,
/# # # 3"# 3 &$
! de
grands arbres qui semblent planteÂs laÁ
L0 !& +M &* pour saluer
# !
les peÂniches. Des
+ 3* # & *
$ #
bateliers
L 0 !& +M & !
?-
A se
deÂmeÁnent . . .
Un peu plus
haut,
L#! $ M / /# + " * $$ ! #*# des
montagnes de sable ou de pierre,
des
tas
L0 !& +M ! +
+ de charbon, des
L0 !& +M $ + " $
L0 !& +M
sacs de ciment, encombrent le quai.
& * + "! "!& # !& ! Des
voitures traversent le
L0 !& +M "
&*M
"
pont
tournant.
# &* * LG # /*
)4! 1 R / & *[ & # Z V$1
?'
Italian speakers $ *
Distribution P : B I4
$ ! $
I Q B 2 U
Introduction $ 3 $ * * "$ " +!
"$ $ $ # :* 4"# # / + * $ $" ! + /#"# ! $$ $$*&$
! + /#"# # $ + # / $ " " + # * $ * ;" # # $ "
/$$ $ " $$ # $ # ! " $ # $ * * /#"# $ +! + " % & ! " # $" $ $" /# * $" "$ $ #
# $" ! & # 0 $ * * + ! $ $ * * "! $ &F" #*# !
" "#$ # $$ # ++" # / *$ # /$$ & $ $ # !
" $ * *$ # #*# # /
+ # * + !"# *$ # $7 7 # *$3 7 $! *$ # #/ " " +0"$ & " "$$; $ *$ #
* + "
! &$ # ! +! $ " !" * $ $ + / & * !! " $ "" "% # ! E" # " 5"" $ 6 # "!! !#3* "#* # $$ # #*# $$ + * !! " $
/
/#"# " & 7 $ +* $ * * $ *
?=
%
Phonology General $#*# # ++" &/ *$ # $ # & + $ # ! +0"$ + $ $ $ # +
##! # # $ # ! &$! * ! * #!3
$ # $ $ *$ ! "# &/
$$* " $ # " $ + /
!! " $ &"! ; * & # "3
" + *$ #
Vowels
i:
I
e
{ eI aI OI
A:
¡ O:
U
aU @U I@
u:
à z:
@
e@ U@
aI@ aU@
# #! # ; $ ; $ $
#$ #+ & " "$ /# * +0"$
$#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/
! * ; $ /*# # / $! $ # #
* # 0 $! , ! *$ # ##* ! & "" $ " B3 + "!! &/ <@U<
?>
%
&/ <e< <eI< &# &* $ # $ <e<. ? # " + $ /$ ++" &
/ $ /$ $* +! *$ #
3 !* " &$! "$ $ # "! # 3 " + ! $ "$$; $ "#
/$ + " # / # # &* / " " " )* < fotogr{fer< +
/ +! + + !$ / "# ! & "*
Consonants
p
b
f
v T
t
d
s
z
S
Z tS dZ k
g
m
n
ê
l
h
r
D j
w
# #! # ; $ ; $ $
#$ #+ & " "$ /# * +0"$
$#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/ - $
+ " I3! # * # " $ 7"
++ # $ 6 /#"# " & ! &$! " # # * $ = # &$! $ "* "$ $ /# # " &/ <s< # "* + $ $ #3 " /# *$ # ; "* !! # +0"$ "" $ "* $ " " ) / $ 1 " &" + # $ + "* *$ # > # ; $ $ + # #!
%
. <ê< $ +
8 1 $ ? $ 0 $ " $$ + $ +* $ / * " " 0 $ " *$ # ! & * +$$/* /$ $$ "#/ 8 % @ @ @ @ @ +! ! * ! " 0 $ " " 8
Consonant clusters $#*# $ # ! + # !
&$ " "$ + *$ # ) ! ! & 1 # $ * * $
" 3# # *$ # 2 /# ! # "$ )$
1 "$ $ +0"$ 4 $ "$ + " &$! " $$ # " *
Influence of spelling on pronunciation ! * $ $ "# $ &" + # "$ $ # &/ $$* " $ 7 " "# $ & " )*
1 "$ $8 - # $ $/ " $ # " *$ # $ * ! / $ ' &$ " " "# $ % # " ++" $ 6 " + / "# = # $ # " $ ""* /# +$$/ 8 "
+ $ " $ / +! *$ # # $ * * + ?,
%
"
/# "# $ $ " $
Rhythm and stress $ $ + "$ ! # *$ # $ 5 # / 6 #
3! + *$ # " * +0"$ $ $ "$ $ ! + " "! # # "# "3 " +
3!* & " $ & # " + / +! " $
/$$ 7 " +$$ $ & * $$ $$ &$ ! + " +
!$ # "# * + ! * /# /
# * un poco ) <"umpoko<1% # " ; $ $ " an cora C" D ancora C D% capi tano C D
" capitano C D #
! +
"# * &/ + "# /#"# $$$ *$ # * " " / +/ / + /# # # / $ * * ! " "# #! *$ # & &K 4 $$ #$ & # # / + $ accento
# ! & "+ /# $
Intonation ! $ ! & # * *$ # # * #! * ++" ! $ # +0"$ "* * 8 ++" # *$ # &/ , ; ) * 1 ;
)+ $$* 1 " "$ &$! B $ $$ * $$ & * # "! + # " # # $! +" "! # /#"# "" /# # !
8 Il treno arriva alle nove ) at nine1 Alle nove il treno arriva ) arrives $1 *$ # + " ++ ! # " & " & "# * # !
# /# "
$ "# ** # + # $! $ $ # " & $ # &$! "* * # $ +
* $$* ++" ! *% +! ! * !
* **
/# ! * ; * ; ??
%
Orthography and punctuation +! $* +! # $ # &/ $$* " /# $ 6 7 " + $ #"
$$* # &$! + "" " "! +! # $ $$* + "* $ psichiatra psicologia " ** $$* "#
$ $ " # + $/ " ++ $*#$ +! *$ # ! $$ $ $$ # ! + #
!# F" + $ # ! + $ * *
Style 7 " &$! &" + ++ " # + $* " " ++ & /# "
5* $6 ! $* "! $7 " /# !
& # *$ # /$ ! $$ + $ & # * #
! / : " $ " "
! & & " ! & /# & $ " " /$ & ! ! $ *$ #
Grammar General # ! +0"$ + $ $ * *$ # $ # + " # *$ # $ * 7 / # " " * !! " $ +" /# $ $#*# # 3 $ $* / +! # + * + / + * $ #$
!"# ! ! #$*" $ E" # + "" " *$ # # $ $ " + ! #$*" $
* $ /$$ + " "! $ # *$ # # $ # $$ * !! " &$
Statements, questions and negatives; auxiliaries # 7$ # ; $ $ " "" $ +0"$ * +! & * # +" $ $ 8 ?@
%
C' ( C' ( * +! & # + # * "$ non C% $ C% ?$ # $ + * "$ /#"# /# non 7
" " " ** # + &$ * *$ #8 C%
$ B+ "" /# # * + 0 8 C% $
Time, tense and aspect: forms - $ # 0 # # # E" +! + + " $ ! $ ! +" I#
+! & # + 7$ ' # # *$ * # +;$ ! & $ $ ) $ / $
+ $ " # * &" $
" & $+ /* /$$1 # "$ $ +0"$ " $#*# $ ! "!!" C = $ # +! !$ # *$ # +" )" " /# # 7$ & " $ /#"# ! & *$ *$ 1 * + & ! $ "!! 3 & + ! "# * + +! # /# )essere1 # * 8 C1 $ E7 $ +! # +" /# essere: C% > 5B $6 + $ " ! #$*" $$ * $$ & +! # # " " # +" 50 6 5 "6 5#6 " $ 5" $ " 6 " " ! + $7 $ # &F" # 3"$ + /# / /$ " $$ " # "3 $ ! ; $ *$ #8 C% " $ C% %
?A
%
Time, tense and aspect: use - :*
& 7 $ & # ! $! # *$ #8 C' ( )+ ' (1 ' $ # +" +" " # " # 0! $ / ! # $! + /# " ! & " & +0"$ # / # + # ! $ 5# "6 +# "! $" & # + " # # ++"
* &/ # # $
&/ / $ # " ! *$ # + #/ # " / /# " # # $ ! * + $ + +0"$ + #! * + # +" + # ! $ +;8 C%
= $ & #/ $* + ++ # & ** $
# ! $ )+ ! * + * % " " & $* /# $ 18 C% $ C% 5=JH$ C%
% ? > + " & # $ ; $ + "$ # & "$ /# /$ & *$ #8 C' " % . $ # ; $ # + # + # *
/# + ! *% & #
! $ +" /# + ! +" $ 8 C' ( )+ '
(1 C%
To be, to have and to do # ; $ + $ $ & "!! # " $
8 C% $ C1 ,( 7$ +$$3& +! + + "+ 8 C% # ; $ + , + " *$ # +$$3& 8 @(
%
C% , $ C' $ C% ,
# $ ; $ +
" /# 8 C%
$
Auxiliaries and modals " $ & & $! $ 8 C% + # 0 ! $ 7$ $ /#"# # $$ # ! #3 $*" $ "" + # & $ # *$ # ; $ # " $ "# " " + *$ # ! $ #+ " &$! 8 C% $ C% $ C+ $ C ( % + $ + vorrei )G D8 C% $ # # + ! * # +
&$ " &$* " 7
& # *$ # ! $ +0"$ + $
5+$6 # + " " $ ++ +! + dovere # ! * # # ++ ! $ 8 C- )+ - , $1 I# " /#"# ! " +0"$ # &/
% % "
%
$ C- %$ C@
$ B! # &$! ! & " & # + " # # /
+! + ! $ $ ! & " & $
Non-finite forms $#*# # 5*6 $ # +! #
! / +;$ *$ # # 0 & & $ + & + # * + F" + J *8 @-
%
C' $ $ $ C% * $ C% $ C% $
$ + $ $ # * + 8 C " $ $ $ C%
$ ! & &+ 0 /# # " * / $ 8 C% $ C%
# 5&F" J 06 " " &$! " $ "$ 8 C % " ( # $ 0 + " per )G 18 C+ $ $ $ , $ $ $ , $ $ $
Clause structure: subjects and objects $ "!!$ 7
# + 5$*6 /# # ; $ + 5 $ 6 )piacere) # ! # # $ &F" " # *$ # &F" "
/#"# " " ! 8 C- $ !$ &$! /# # & 8 # $ + % Tu mi manchi 9 $ $$ - # " " $
# *$ # & # /* / 8 C& $ + # &F" &$* ! $ "$$; $ "#8 C' " $ C% $ # + &F" " + # *$ # " & ! " + ! # $ "8 CC%D $ C% B $ &F" "!!8 C& % $ $ $ I&F" ! & !8 C- " % $ # ; $ + # " # / &F" $ 8 C9 # $ C@ ( C+ $ @'
%
Reported speech +0"$ * * # *$ # 53 6 #+ $ + " & " $ " + * ! " $$ " $ " " $
"# "$ 8 C1 # )+ 1 2 * 3; " & &$!8 C ( $ # / $ " # +" + 8 C1 $ $ $
Relatives ! # +0"$ * "* "$
/# K $ $ % $ ! & 8 C %
The passive voice $ #
" !"# $
# *$ # ! # +0"$ +!* *$ #
"$ $ +" *
+! C/ $ C. ! ! # & *# #
# !"# " $ / 8 C D &
$ $ " ! " &F" # &F" +
& "$ $ B " ! "$ $ " $ 1
"! $ $
Reflexive verbs E7 & ! "!! $ # *$ # # ; $ + + 7 ! $ $$ E7 $ @=
% C D
% K$44 $ $ E7 ++ +! +! $ 8 C $ $ E7 " $ & " &F" "
/# *$ # /$
8 C% $ # " 7
# + 5 "# #6 C'
$ # $ $ ! $ E7 " "% + $ 0 # "" *$ #
; $ $ "# 8 C% , , $
Articles $#*# ! + "$ $ ! "!!" # $
+ # * &$! + $ $ $ # &# 0 0 "$ /#"# E" + !& * & # ++ +! *$ # # " &/ "0" *" " &$! " $ *" # 0 "$8 C $ C% $ $ # 0 "$ /# +* $6
+
8 C% $ C' % $ $ $ 0 "$ + + # ; $ + : C% $ C- $ C% ? # $ ! "!! 7
+* $" 8 C+ , / "$ " & $ !& + " /# #
*$ # 9 + " /# +* " "$ * ! $ 8 C% %$ C& C) " $ I# +0"$ "$8 @>
%
, , , #
, #
C D " " " "
Quantifiers $ $$ $ #
+0! "$ 8 C+ & + /*$ /# "$8 C * $ # + " " &$! 8 C' $ + $ $ $ , $ ! $ $ $ : C1 $ / " $$ & nessuno $ 8 C/ $
Possessive structures " /#
! & # /* / 8 C
! & $8 C $
! E" + !& * # # # #3/ " &/ " 8 # "#" + / $ # * )! "$ +!1 + /#
+ #
8 C* O & 0 C1 I $ I# "!! "$ # + + % !
$ " $
+;$ "3"" /#
"$ B+ +
! $ "" +3 ;$ # # #
! +! $ 8 C 4! $ +0"$
@.
%
Number and countability # " &$<" &$ " $
"$ 3" $ # *$ # ! " &$ *$ # / # " &$ ;3 $ $ 7 ! $ 8 " " " " " " ) # # 1 $ C% 0 C%
$ B $ # $ $ /# *$ # 8 C) $ # $ / + )gente1 *$ 8 C9 $ $ + !$ ! " & * $ $ E"8 C + )+ +D
Pronouns ' ! & /# " # + 5 /#68 C'
$ $ + # di )G 1 + # ; $ + " * 8 C C 1 "" $$ + E"* # * + # ; $ $ 8 C' " $
Adjectives and adverbs F" $ $$ +$$/ # E" + !& /#"# ! $ &* ! ! 8 C
C
" $ ! ! ! /# 7
$ " "8 C' $ $ # "! $ E" 8 C+ ! 7
$ F" /# *$ # /$
&8 C C ; @,
%
$ & ! & +! &F" "! $!8 C% ?$ C% < $
Prepositions # " ! * + ! $$ $ &# $ * * *$ # + $ & " $ " & $ + "$8 C C C ?
C # $ / + $ "!!$
& 8 C' / B > " & $ # +0"$ /# 5 3 *6 ; $3
! $ /$ 0 # +$$/* "
# "8 ' ( % $ +
Vocabulary : $ * 7 " + $ $ / + / $ # # $ &$! + + $ + ! + # ! +;$ " + # 8 !
! " ! " ! !
C D !
! ! ! ! !
! !
@?
%
!
! I# "!! + "+ $* +! ++ 3 $ * " * # / $ * * "$8 " " " " ) $$ $ & come1 " " " ) $$ $ & che1 " " ) $$ $ & troppo1 " " " ) $$ $ & molto1 " )&# $ & percheÁ1 " "
" )&# $ & morto1 " )&# $ & anche1 " 2 ! & &/ +! 4"#8 C + 5" 6 5/ 7 "6 C
+ 5&"#6 +07 + /*$ " " & $* /# # *$ # 4"# / 8 C *$ # $ 3/ ! & 37 /# "# * ! *
# + gadget ! 5+&6 5 ! $ !6
A sample of written Italian with a word-for-word translation L'
altra notte ho
fatto un incubo
tremendo.
# # *# L M # ! *#! !
nella stazione di una cittadina a me sconosciuta
trovavo
L M + # + Ero
Mi
appena scesa
/
dal
! /
treno, quando fui
L M / & $ " +! # /# L M /
avvicinata
da due poliziotti
che mi chiesero i
"# & / $"! # ! con aria intimidatoria. Presa alla
sprovvista,
documenti
# "!
cominciai
/# ! * 3# L M &* a cercarli
prima nella borsa, poi nelle tasche ed
"# #! 0 # & * # # " in®ne nella valigia,
da
cui
estraevo ogni
0 $$ # " +! /#"# L M 7 " "# @@
% indumento ed ogni oggetto, uno per uno, prima con calma * ! "# &F" & 0 /# " $! poi
affanosamente anche percheÁ mi
stavo
rendendo
# & #$
$
$ &" ! L M / *
conto
che quella non era mia valigia.
Cominciai
"" LG $ *M # # / ! " L M &* allora a farmi
prendere dal
panico, a guardare in giro
# ! ! & # " $ a destra e
a sinistra per cercare
*# $+ la
una via
+ "#
stazione era circondata da un ®lo
di scampo ma
/ + " &
spinato ed
a poco
# / & / & & $$ a poco
mi
apparve
non piuÁ
come una
$$ LG $$ & $$M ! LM !
stazione ma come un campo di concentramento. Ed
&
piuÁ e
io non ero
" ! + "" /
una viaggiatrice
!
qualsiasi
ma una deportata
$$ L+!M + /# &
quelli non erano poliziotti
ma soldati.
L+!M
Presa dall'
# / $"! & $ & # angoscia e
dal
panico mi
sveglai di soprassalto
7 & # " ! L M / + LG /# M e
il
cuore mi
batteva
cosi forte
che ci
# # ! / & * * # # vollero alcuni minuti
prima che mi
/ ! ! &+ conto
rendessi
! L M L &F"M che
"" LG +/ ! $ $ M # era tutto un sogno LM / $$ ! )& I$ 1
@A
Speakers of Spanish and Catalan ! B-
Distribution 8 : "$* # B % # /#$ + I B 7" K$ # % B B% BI% B % : I BI I B 3 : B% 2 # % ! & " # ""% ; $ % ! + #
8 B I I # B
+ Q $" $" 4 " ) : 1 / #
+/ $ /# B $ 7"$ $% ! B $
$ # 4"# ) * /# # $1
Introduction # B $ ! " $ * * "$ $ $ $
:* % # &$* # 3 + !$ Q # " &$ /# $+ $ &/ !3 $ # # !" / # ++" $ *$ "0 " " &$ ! #$* 7 &* + $ /# 2# $$ 7 " $$ ! $$ $$*&$ $! ** #" $ B $ " &$ +! # #*# # $ *$ /# " " &$ # $ * * + ! $ $$*&$ #*# # # $ " *0" $ ++ +! ! $ B $
Phonology General 2#$ # # *$ # " ! #/ ! !$ 3 # /$ ! "
++ # -
$ +! !"
* $ & # # # "#
A(
+ + @
" " * +0"$ + #3 * $ + *$ # # "$ 0 *$ # " # # + ! # $ * * + B $ /# & * + /$
! !
!$ # + *$ # * $ # $
+0"$ ! "!! + + # " " $ + # B $ + *$ # 8 9 +0"$ "* * * *$ # /$ 9 * "* + 0 $ " " 9 " ##! /# # " $ !" + *$ # ! * * +0"$ + *$ # $ 9 / * + "# ) 1 "* & ++"
Vowels # # 0 /$ 0 ##* % B $ # *# /$ *# 5+ $$*6 ##* # $ * * $*#
" + B ;$ $ 0 +0"$ ++3 * &/ *$ # /$ " $$ /# $*# + # ++" " $$ $ / *$ # /$ # # 5 #"
"6 "" & #
&$ -
" "+ '
"+ " #*# " & #
"+ >
! $$ $ " & # * " + # / /$
$$ &$
" * # $ % *$ # <@< #+ "# &$! + B $ , + ##* # + # !$ *$ # A-
+ + @
# )7" # # " $! # &
* # *$ #18
+0"$ + #3 * $ *$ # <@U< #/ + * # +!
1 "+ + 7 ! $ B $ # / * + ##* # *$ #% # #*# # 7 " $ "" B $ $ # $$ +0"$ "* "" &$
Consonants
p
b
f
v
T
D
t
d
s
z
S
Z
tS dZ k
g
m n
ê
l
r
j
w h
# #! # ; $ ; $ # B $ " "$ /# +0"$ #*# # # ! "! $" # #!
" &$! - $ "$
$ )
# + $
! #
$ #!
*$ # <m<
!$ # 3 * #" "7 ++ +! *$ # + 7 ! $
$/ " ! & & &
$ /$
< " ! $ <ê< # B $ #
!$ *$ # $$ & &/ /$ # + " 8
+ + @
.
,
?
@ A
-( --
7 "$ $ *$ # # " ! $ 6 " + / $
!/# +0"$ + #
B $ # # # #
+ &# " # ! + B $ $ # #
+
I+ # *$ # #! <S<
"!! &/ / "#
% ! & " 5 6 5 6 5 6 # !"
# # !" # # + " *$ # <j< ) 1 # $
" # B $ ! " <w< # $
Consonant clusters B "$ * $ $
+; # B $ # *$ # # $ # +0"$ "* "* *$ # "$ " $ ! $0" 8 A=
+ + @
+ # + + + # +
+ &# + &# + " " + % +
! $ " 0 $ " $$ +# "* * 5+ +
$ 6 + # <s< $ # " +" " "" # &** + / # B $ ?" " "
Influence of spelling on pronunciation - $$* " "$ $ 9 ! $ 9 $ # &** $ " *$ # /
$ & $ B $ # $ # &/ "
$$* & "! $" *$ # # *$ # #* # ! $
+ &$! / /# / / B $ $ " $ & $ ! 7 ! $ 8 " 8 " $ 8 " 8 " $ )& 1 8 " 0 $ " ' 4$
&+ " ) 1 + # $
# + / ) 1 4#! # B $ &$ $$ ) B $ $ /$$1 # # & " = <@< 7 #
$$ &$ " /# # / /$8 # B $ &$ * $$ " # $ # 33 5!$$6% !" "
"$ <j<
*$ # . # # $ " "$
$ +" #
A>
+ + @
!! $ " * / #
! $ *$ #
Rhythm and stress # $$ &$3! $ * * * $ $$ $$ &$ & #
! $*# + ! " \#*# 7 $*# ! & + ! # 1% *$ # # #+ * ++" !" &/
$$ &$ *$ # # # #
$$ &$ " "# "# * & " ! "$ /#$
$$ &$ " + " /# $ /$ <@<
\ & F" & 1
*$ # # #+ $ $ ! "! /# #
* !3 ! " $ / \ "$ 7$ & 1 #
##! + *$ # " * $ + " " "$
" ! * 2# # " *$ #
" /#
##! # "$ !
* *$ # $ 0 +0"$ &" # " $ " # " \4 7 ! $ )
2 "
! & ! $1 B $ #/ ! ! ++" &/
$$ &$ "$* $ /$ $ <@<
B $ $ !
3! \/# !$ !3 $
$ * &/
*$ # # # &/
$$ &$ $$ &$1 & # + $$ ! *$ # # /#$ B $ $ " $$ 7! ! "$ $ *$ # " ##! # $$ ! * ! * + ++" & "! # B $ $ 0 &$
" &$ \ $ # " 5 6 &$/1 # " $$ # "* " # ++" *$ # 7
$8
B
$ &$! &$! + "* " * 8 C' sugar( C& 2 " yes$ # $ / ! # $
# # " * /
A.
+ + @
Intonation # B $ / "# * # *$ # ! # "
7
7 $*# # # 7 "# # ! ! # " & *$ # *$ # # "$ " + $$
$$ &$ # " * /# &* ! # " # ) $ * 7 B $ 1 # "$ + $$ # $
$$ &$ # " ) + $! &
# + / $$/ ! # 1 # $ "
7! 2 painted the walls ) / # ; ' 2 (1 / # 0 * +0"$ "* ) "* *1 # John ) / # ; ' (1
Orthography and punctuation Spelling # # #*# 9 $$* " " & $ #
$$* + *$ # "! $% B $ # " " !"# ! "! $" ! * # $$* + *$ # $
+
#" 4 &# * "!! " &$ $ *$ 8 C # &$! + $$* 7 "& &" $ 3 * # *$ # #! " # " 7 $ #
9 $$* *$ # 7 4 7 ! $8 "+ /# "+ /# $ # # +0"$ * * & " *$ $ # *$ # " / # / /$ $ " /$ $ / " 8 C
Contractions # B $ # " " & +! $
0 #! &$! $ * *$ # # 0 +0"$ "* + 7 ! $ 8 % $ A,
+ + @
" #! % " " * $ $ $" " " +3 *8 % % " & ;$ /# # # * # # " #! *8 ) +( - " %
Punctuation # B $ " " !$ *$ # # $ $ +/ &$! B!! + /# *$ # /$ + !3"$ !3"$ /# *$ # /$ + +$$ * ! " # # + ; 7"$ ! ! # &** + "8 CS'
( CT% 0 # B $ "!! * "# & !! 9 # 8 O ¿CoÂmo te llamas? )2# 6 !H1 O Me llamo Sara. ) !6 1 !! # " " " "# ) # 7 " * ---1 # B $ &# "!! "! $
#
8 H$444 )# #
1 H"36 )# / 0% " $$ " +$$/* # # C
1
Capital letters # B $ " $ 0 $ + + # / !# $ F" 8 C C C "
Grammar General !! " $ !$ &/ # B $ *$ # "$8
*$ $ $ +! + % 0 0 "$ % A?
+ + @
*$ *$ & % + % +" *
& +! % "$ + F" )!$ + +! + " * !$ + 8
&$/1 / "! /# *$ # &# # B $ 8 9 9 9 9 9 9
# #*#$ E" & ! % # + / %
#/ * !& F" % # ! $ 7$ % #
!"# $
% # &F" !
# $$ + 7 ) " "1 # B $ #/ $$ *" # &$! $ /# &$/ $$
$/ "!! &# # $$ + ! #$* &# # B $ #*#$ E" # & # *$ $ $ +! + F" I+ # $ # $ $ + # F"
"$ # " &$ ++" # $ * + *$ #%
" 5!&6 &$/ ) " $$ * # + $ * * /# " + & * #$ 0 # + # # *$ + # *$ # ! $ " $"
" $ + ! ! # 1
Word order # !"# + # B $ # *$ # - 5&F"9&6 5&9 &F"6 *$ $ "
! ; "$8 ) !1 C) ) !1 )4 ; 7 "1 ' # + / $$/ / # ! # & $ " $ 8 C- $ C9
/$$ 8 - = 4;" & # $
&$ & # " $ !3 + *$ #8 C. C+ A@
+ + @
> F" " $$ !+ # 8 C C@ ( # ! # $ @ N @ "$ $ +0"$ + # B $ $ &" + #! # $! + # # /$ ! $$ & 7
# 8 C @ N @ * # #
+ " los Rolling + < + un Christmas + @ # " # 0 / # *$ # # # # . # B $ " &F" ! # )a1 # / &F" " * # 8 C + $ + # *$ # /3&F" " + +0"$ + $ # , & $ &F" "! $! *$ $ $ " &+ " &F"8 C $ C& + ?$ C!
$
Questions - # / + ; 7$ $ #!8 2 ( C1 2 ( & ( C' & ( C@ &( C&" ( $$ &F" &F" ; " +0"$ &# "* "8 ' . ( ' . ( ' ! ( ' ! ( )4 # + /# " &F" # " 5: 6 &$/1 ' # +0"$ /# , , 8 C ( C ( AA
+ + @
C ( C ( ) $ 5 " "#6 &$/1
Question tags # # / * *! ! ! /# +! * no # # "! $" )+ 1 + ; * *$ #
* # # ! $ $ " *8 C " ( C- " ( B $ # " *
$ ; * oi & B $ $$ *$ #
Negatives - 7$ $ +!* * " # B $ % # * / * &+ # & # 8 C9 $ C9 $ # * "$ no &* ! $ " &
""*$8 C%
$ # / # * * + # F"
& "8 $ B
$ 1 $ ' # &$ * 8 C% %
$ C $ # ! +0"$ + $ " # # *$ # " * +8
8 , " 3
8
" * 8 , " "$ 3
+! " * 8 C% ) $ 5B$ " "! $! 6 > &$/1
-((
+ + @
Verbs - # B $ $$ & #/ # ! $ * +
) + " $1 "! +! ) *
+"1 # # " * + ! $ 7$ *$ # $ 0 # "" # ! $" + # +!
# +0"$ * " $ ! "$8 C& $ C ( C& ( C+ )! * $ $ $ $ $ $1 C+ )! * $ $ $1 C #
$ ' ! " /# *$ # # / ++ / / /# / ++ " # B $ # & /# &#
&$ 8 + $ C+ )! * $1 $ $ & $ ' ( = # * $ &$! /# /3 #3 & ! " &" # ! * + # *$ # "! "&$ +! # ! * + # $ &" $ +$ ! "!+ &$ /# ! +! ) 5Q" &$ 6 - &$/1 ! " #*# #
&# # ! * + # *$ # & $ $ # ! * + #
$ & * tirar/llencËar G gastar G > : "$ &$! + & $ " "$ # + " # ! *$ # # " * + J F"6 7
# B $ & J 68 C CQ D C C "
#
$ * "+ "# 8 CA
Ellipsis 2# " & +! $ * * # 2# *$ # " + "! $! # " & -(-
+ + @
+! # "7 # % $ ) ( / " % 6
Time, tense and aspect +! # B $ ! ! $< *
"8 Maria visita )G & 1 < Maria esta visitando )G & $1 # B $ $ # +" "8 Maria ha visitado )G & $1 / $#*# # +! " *$ # +! # "
$ !$ " + ! * - # ! $ + + " * $ " /8 C* 0 % 0 ' # ! $ + + + !8 C % ( )+ $ $ $ + % (1 C% )+ % 1 C%
)+ %
1 = # + * !
"* # )/# *$ # +"18 C1 ( C% % $ > B $ # # + ! + # +" " & /# !3/# & $ ! *
! $ /# +* " $ #
! 8 C' ( C % % $ # + !" # # # #
! $ " & ) ! # # + # # $ !1 /# # *$ # ; # +"8 Ya lo leõÂ G % $ . # B $ # ! # +! " * # *
*$ # + /#"# ! #
! C D # " "+ 8 C' " $ -('
+ + @
* $ # +! ! +; # *$ #
"" $$ + # + & )# ; $ + " "18 C' %
" % $ C+ $ , # ! + # 7
&F"8 C@ 0 ? # B $ # & "$ + ! "
+* + ! # # &F" $ $" # ! $8 C' & " @ # B $ # +; & )soler1 /#"# $$/
$$ +! + 5 6 7
+;" ! *8 C% # $
Passives - # B $ #
+! " " #
! / # *$ #
8 /# J " $6% & # " /# *$ # #
/# * # # B $ +! ! " + # *$ # E78 C $ ' # B $ " +!
# $$$8 @$ 9 $ # " )/# # " &F" # &"! # &F" +
&1 +0"$ + $ = # #
! * "$ /# " ; "+ *$ #8 C $ C% 9 $
Infinitives - # B $ + # 0 & " )" * # *$ # 3 +!18 C D $ " ;" $ ! # +0"$ *
" /#"# # 3 +! &F" -(=
+ + @
' # B $ # 0 ! )a1 & 3 & ; +$$ /# *$ # 8 C% ?$ C*
$ ) $ # " 5B$ " "! $! 6 5 " "#6 &$/1
Articles ! + # ! ++" # + # "$ # B $ "! /# *$ #8 - # 0 "$ * /# !
$ $ "
# /# * $ ! *8 C $ C ( )! * 1 ' # B $ # 0 "$ /#
3 8 C " $ = # B $ ! " &/ # 0
"$ # !& : C' I> > ! 7
/# # " &/ !
" $ *$ " "$8 C ( C1
$ . # 0 "$ # $ $ +! )" * *#$ D # " " &* ! ! 8 C% ) $
Gender # B $ # * !! " $ *8 $$ /$$
$ "$ F" ! "$ +! +"
! /# # " * 8 $ @ " $
Number - # B $ # +! + # $ $ !$ *$ # ) *1 & # * /# "$ F"
/$$ 8 I -(>
+ + @
' # $ / # " $ $ +! #< B $ /# *$ # # !
** + 7 ! $8 C
C% $ = # 5 !!" $6 #* # $ $ +! *$ # ) " "1 $$ *$ # B $ 8 # *$ $ $ # B $ % $ $ &$ " *$ ! ! $ " " $
Adjectives - F" " /# # +! : C
" % $ ' B! $ 7
& * # ; $ + 8 C% $ # $ / )maÂs/meÂs1 + &# 8 C @
Pronouns - &F" $ $ *$ "
#< B $ &" # & * " !&8 < A $ % +$ C1 $ C' $ I3"" ! $ $ 8 C # $ ' # B $ ! $ # #
! +! + &F" &F" 8 % $ $ = $#*# #
!! # & $$ " 0 8 1 ,1 ( > # ; $ + # " U 6 + $+8 ' ( ) %$ )+ % $1 -(.
+ + @
. E7 !! " ! " E7 &* #
$ * 8 + /# # & &# #
! # $ 8 C% , #
" " 3 *
Possessives - # B $ # 0 "$
" $8 C& + ! "+ # ++" # "# *
E78 C ' # B $ # #
! / + )+! $1 "
/# " ; "+ *$ #8 C+ 2 $ = B $ # 0 "$ /#
8 C 9 $
Possession :
$ "" # *$ # 7
&
" + )* 2 " & 1 7
# B $ /# 3 # 8 <
# &$! * #* &/ " &" una botella de vino / una ampolla de vi " 7
&# ! * # /# / 7
9/#$ $ # $ /$$ & 7
8 C
-(,
+ + @
Relative pronouns and clauses - # * # &/ $ 3 $ $ 8 C ' # $ " & $ # B $ $ # +0"$ * *$ # "$ /# K $ 8 ; $ ( )7 ! $ $ # $ /#"# $ "$ 0 # /# /# &F" # & $ "$ $ +0"$ + 1
Clause structure and complementation - : "$ 7
/# )para/per a1 # 08 C C D $ '$ # B $
+ 7 ! $ ' * $
+ /# " $$ ** # * # 0 &$! /# "# " 8 ' + "
#
# + " & #
" + + *$ # 8 C' C D $ =$ $#*# # B $ # / 30 +! )$ 0 +!1 # & ++8 C $ C%
> #
# 5 ++"6 !!3
$ +$$/* # & /# *$ # # ; ++ "8 C+ # C D C 2
Indirect speech "# + " "# #
++ #
+ + @
#+ 0 &1 # "$ $
!$ " *$ #8 C% C
C D , 7 "! $" /# # "$ * /#"# *$ # /$ + " & 7
& " 8 C% , C
' *$ " ; " &$! + ! " $ 2# # # 0 $$ "! * /# *$ # ; / # " ;
$ * # 8 C% & C %
Prepositions - # # 5 $ 6 )a1 "
/# # " &F" #! 8 C $ ' # B $ ! $/ * /# # # " * # + "$ 8 CA ( 0 +0"$ * " $8 % $ ' A # ( = # B $ " & +$$/ & 08 C)
" $ > 2#$ ! " # 5" $6 ! * + $ * * " # # # $/ ! 7" # ! $ " " + "$ +0"$ 8 9 , , 8 C & 2 C $ 9 ,,8 C C' $ 9 , 8 C+ $ C
$ 9 ,8 -(@
+ + @
C
@ B VW$ 9 , 8 C
$ # ! # &$!
Vocabulary - # B $ $ ! + % # " &$
#+ " # 3 + *$ #8 estructura G derivar G
difõÂcil G confusioÂ(n) G
2#$ # + " ++ # $ ""
$ *
" &$ $ ! # $ * * +! $8 # # # + # + " "$ $ # +0"$ /# # +! !$ $ ! * + /3 #3 & "# ' # B $ + &# # !!& + ! $9+! $ ) + !$ * 1 & * # $ $ + # ! $ +!8 rey/rei G reina G ;
reyes/reis G hijo/®ll G hija/®lla G hijos/®lls G $ + + +
+ " = ! $ &$! + $ 8 9 # + $ $ " C 9 # B $ $ *$ $ C 2 9 " + !& ) # " 5:" 6 &1 9 # !& ( /#"# + cero/zero $$ $$ "3 7 % #" &$! /# # 56 + $3 # !& > # " + $$ $ * * # ! ! + " &$ /#"# # ! * $ # + 33! 4 $ # * +0"$ " $$ /# ! # !# *
7
/ # * $ * * # &$! /# cero # F & ! I# "!! 7 ! $ 8 casa G % coÂmo/com G % conocer/coneÁixer G
% decir/dir G % dejar/deixar G % esperar G % hacer/fer G % historia/histoÁria G % mucho(s)/molt(s) G % nervioso/nervioÂs G
# % romper/trencar G % llevar/portar G % perder/perdre G % pista G C D % porque, perqueÁ G % receta/ recepta G % tiempo/temps G % uÂltimo/uÂltim G -(A
+ + @
. ! "!! 5+ $ + 68 #
--(
"
C D
C D C D C #D
C D "
+ + @
A sample of written Spanish with a word-for-word translation Sentado en el
suelo se
calzaba
# E #! $+ # / #* LG * M
las aÂsperas botas de racionamiento
de suela clavateada
# *# & + * L G ! & M + $ y
puntera de metal: ellos se
las
" + ! $8 # L+M #! $ #! LG # & M con envidia
miraban
# / $* L M /# ¿Un regalito
de
GalaÂn? dijo
la viuda
Sarnita, y
$$ + LG +!M # // $ H #
levantoÂ
Java se
y
una senÄa
le hizo
#! $+ # LG * M LM #! # ! Ven,
dijo,
y
Sarnita le
seguioÂ:
*
bastaba
la
B! #
#! # +$$/8 / *# # luz
que se
a traveÂs de la
®ltraba
$*# # $+ / 0$* #*# para ver
el
escenario de tables, desierto, la diminuta
+ # * concha del
#$$
arpillera
#
"*
+ & #
apuntador, forrada con
+ # ! $
candilejas de cinc abollado,
y
una tela
/#
maÂs allaÂ,
roja, las
"$# # la
+$*# + K" !&
! # LG &M # oscura sala con los bancos de missa en formacioÂn # $$ /# # &"# + !
LG / M +! sin
pasillo central
/# $ " $
)4! + ; VW &
Z1
---
+ + @
A sample of written Catalan with a word-for-word translation Tenia
prop de divuit
anys
quan vaig
/ # * $! *# /# * L 7$ M coneÁixer
en RauÈl, a l'estacioÂ
de
/ LG /# !M # $ # + LG M Manresa. El
meu pare
havia mort, inesperadament i
encara
# ! + # # 7 "$ $$
jove,
un parell
d'anys
abans, i
d'aquells temps
* " $ + &+ + # !
conservo un record
de punyent soledat.
!! + "
Les meves relacions
$$
# !
$
millorat, tot el contrari
$$ ! $$ # "
amb la
mare
no havien pas
potser
®ns i tot empitjoraven
/# # !# # #
a mesura que
# / / *
# LG M
em feia gran ! $+ / ! * &* LG / */* M no existõÂ
No existia,
mai
nosaltres
entre
/ 7 * 7 &/ d'interessos, d'afeccions "!! + + ++"
una comunitat
Cal
creure
que cercava . . .
una persona
"
&$ # / * en qui
centrar
la
meva vida afectiva
/#! " # !
$+ ++" )4! N &
--'
$ :$1
Portuguese speakers # #
Distribution U :I I IU D 3 B: Q I : B : ! ] ! "
Introduction :* ! " $ * * "$ $ $ # "
+ :* )#"+# :1 # $$ &$ * "# #% # $ # !$ + # + " # +! +" "$ # * $" :* $ # + # " "$
+! # B!& 3 & * :* $ # $ * * +
7! $ A?^ + K$ K K$ #/ +/ ! F $" "! /# ! "3 # * + K$ :* )#"+# :1 # + # " &/ K$ :* !"# * # # &/ # !" $ + *$ # # " + # / ++% # ! *" + " &$ )+ 7 ! $ : # ! / + &" * # : /#"# #
&/ " *$ $ * !& + / +! $ * *
!" *$ #1% # ! * !! " $ ++" # + " # / ! $$ "! 3 # &$
Phonology General # *$ # :* /$ ! ; ++ 2#$ *$ # # /$ /$ : # ): *# $ "#/ <@<1 $$ + /#"# " &
$ --=
9
!* # + + :* /#"# * :*
"" *$ # 8 9 4;
$ /$ 9 # + /$ &/ " ) " $$ :1 9 4 : " $$ $$ &$3! # #
3! $ /# 3! # " " + !
$3 $ &$
Vowels
i:
I
e
{
eI aI OI
A:
¡ O: U
aU @U I@
u:
à z: @
e@ U @
aI@ aU@
# #! # ; $ ; $ :*
#$ #+ & " "$ /# * +03 "$ $#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #!
! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/ - <¡< "+ /#
/$ + * # +$$ $ " $$ & :
8 ) + %
+ I # # #
/$ # + / ! &"! /# $! &$8 + % +
% +
-->
9
Diphthongs # +/ ##* :* # *$ # # * &$! /#
Consonants
p
b
f
v
T
t
d
s
z
S
Z
tS dZ k
g
m
n
ê
l
r
h
D j
w
# #! # ; $ ; $ :*
#$ #+ & " "$ /# * +03 "$ $#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #!
! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/ - # 5 6
+
'
= $ ! $
! & "+ 8 %
/# +$$/ &
$! $
> # $ "+ &/
$ + # /# # 0 $ " &$ , $
+ --.
9
A
&/ + " -( $
$ &" + 3 "!
8 1
+ %
-- 4/ " " "" 0 $$ :* /$
+ 8 + % + B$ &/ / ! & ! $08 +
Consonant clusters # * + " "$ !"# / *$ # # :* + " * # + 7 /$ & :*
5
6 " + *$ # ) + 1 :
0 "$ $ +0"$ $ "$ /# ) 1 /#$ : ! $+ 0 $ "$
Influence of spelling on pronunciation $$* " "$ $ $ :* /$$ & ! $$ $$ + "! " "!! " # $ )&+ 1
Rhythm and stress : # $
3! $ * * + : 0 &$ " "
""$ *$ # & # " +
$$ &$ ! & 7"
$ " :
$$ &$3! $ # # $ +0"$ + # +$$/* + : 8 " 9
$* "/ ""! * "
#% 9
7$ & "$ "F" 3 " ** * ! # 8 C% them C were # C% his & his & * / 9 :"*
/ $$ &$ --,
9
Intonation "$ " * ! $/ + $$ + ! * # $ / &$ $$ *$ # ; * & " /# * " + ! *
Juncture # " /# # &$ " " &# /$ + 7 ! $
Orthography and punctuation :* # " &$ +0"$ /# *$ # $$* $$ $$ # " *$ # )$ $$1 /# # :* $$* +! # +$$/*
+ " $8 - $$ / * " )7" 1 & * 0 $ /$ # /$ + "$ /# /* *$ # C+ ' 2# # #!
C% = 2# # ##* 2# # #! <S<8 C +
C + . 2# / !$ &# $ * * &* /$$ # :* $$*% # + $ / &* / /# *$ + &$ " )* 1 , F" + $ # " $ $ :* 8 C
--?
9
Grammar General # :* * !! " $ ! # !"# "!! /# *$ #
! # / $ * * # !$ 5 +
"#6% :* $ $ # 0 0 "$ *$ *$ & 7$ ! $ & "
+! + # +" & +! $#*# # +" # ! $! $" :* +! $ : # +" *
:* E" !"# #
! /
4"# $ # /#"# ! # # / " &
!/# + # *$ #
Questions and negatives; auxiliaries - :* ; +! ! & & # + 7$ )# ; $ + 7$ 1 ) , ; 1 & "# * + / 8 - 2 ( 1 ( ' I* $
+ " ! " ; 8 C9 $ C+ # $ = # * +! :* ! & $ "* # / naÄo &+ # ! 7$ & + 8 C1 $ > # &$ * :* 8 C1 $ C%
$ . # / ; :* +! & * # & + # ; 8 ( - " % $ * $ , # $ ; * :* !$ naÄo e (verdade)? )$ $$ % (1 # ; $ ( 3 "! $ *$ # C " (
There is : # & haver ter )# +! $ "$$; $ ; $ + 1 7
, " : $ haver
$/ # *$ --@
9
C , + # $ C1 $ C1
< C?#
Time, tense and aspect :* # ! $ +" +" +! - *$ # :* # +" + " "
$* #
C D %
' /# # ; $ + " &
"!!8 C% # = 2# # ; $ + " & # ! $ 8 C C D * ( )+ 1 C D
* (1 > 7
# + # ! $ /# ha )G 18 C% %
. # " + & $ +* 0 # 0 # !3 # $ " "#" :* 8 C%
< $ C%
, # +" *
:* #
! $ *
! ; $
8 C% $ C% ? C+ & 5=J5
- : # / "!!$3 +! 8 *#$ ;3 $ # *$ # ! $ )* Ele percebe 9 1
1 # # ; $ # *$ # *
)* Ele esta trabalhando 9 1 1 :&$! #/ /# & )! $ & 1 /#"# # $ " " :* & *$ # C+
--A
9
' : +! *
+! /# estar a J 0 )$ $$ 5 & !#*61 C' ( % $ " # " /# &# " & :
! "+ ! $ *
+! *$ # = :* " $ # ; $ + *
7$ $ * ! ' ( 1 $ )+ 1 $1
! + & +! + "F" + !8 C%
$ # + :* ! + # *$ # 7
*
$ ' 9 ( C1 ( )+ 1 (1
Modal verbs 2# *$ # $ & $$ :* $ # ! &8 C1 )+ 1 1 # *$ # + " $ +! )/# 1 + # 0 + ! $ # :* ; $8 C1 $ # "! $7 " &/ +0"$ + :* + # $
Conditionals " + $ ! ! :* * !! " $$ # $ * * ! $$$ & +! # / # $ + " $ " C% %
" % $ C% % * " % & $ C% $
-'(
9
Relatives :* # / que " * $ C%
$ C% # +0"$ * * *$ # "$ /# K $ )$
1
The passive voice * $ #
+" !$ / :* *$ # $! # # $ &$! " "* # +! ""$ "! $7 " ! " +0"$8 C-
)+ $ $ $
1 C
)+ $ $ $
1 :* !! E7 & /# *$ #
8 C? :* # " &F" + " & " *$ # +" # &F" +
& #+ # +0"$ /# " $ % B
+ # :* ; $ 8 1 )+ 1 , $1
Non-finite forms - # ; $ :* + # & $ + # +! )*1 # 0 8 C ( C% C+ $ ' :* 0 + " & "# de a " /# :* 0 #
! &+ # *$ # ; $ C% $ C+ $ = # *$ # 5&F" J 06 " # :* ; $8 C+ )+ + 1
-'-
9
Word order - :* / * $$ + # *$ #
"!! ! 3 &F" " $! # + + #
"8 C D @ % 0 ' # & +$$/ # ; / " "# :3 * 8 C%
C% = & & $ # " & +! &F"8 C% $ C1 ? $ C% + > "$ / 7"$ ! /# como ) G 18 C1 0 . : $ ! & $ " &+ + &/ $!
+ # & * !/# # + :* 8 C1 # ):1 C1 # ):1 C% )+ % 1 , : " 3"$+ " " & Quem (= ' 1 C' 2 ? F" +$$/ :* 8 C% @ # ++" # / " $ ! 3
* 8 ! & % " & A :#
$ & "" :* % # / /# &F" " &$! 8 $ @ ( -( : " & "# +! # &F" :* # ! $ $ 3+! $ $ ;
" 8 ' ( $
" $ # +$$/* $ + +0"$8 % % $ 1 $
-''
9
Articles and countability - :* # 0 "$ /# # +$$/*8 9 * $ 8 C
$ C $ 9 8 C 9 & $ 9 ! + ! $ 8 C1 " $ 9 # ; $ + # 8 C%
# + $ C%
$ 9 # ! +
C% .# +
$ 9 / + 5 6 * $ /# *$ # +
"$8 C , , ' ! " $ ! E"* :* 7
/#
"$ 8 C1 &$ C C
C C- )! * - 1 = ! " &$ *$ # # " &$ ; $ :* 8 C% $ > + # ; $ + :* " # *$ +! + " &$ + /
" &$ C' $ C%
$
Determiners - # ; $ + # 8 C $ C' ' :* # ; $ + " & /# *$ " &$ # ; $ + + "! "# 8 -'=
9
C'
)+ $ $ $ 1 C1
= "$ # ! "!!$ &+ 3
" $$ :8 C+ $ C. $ C (
Adjectives and adverbs & F" ! $$ +$$/ :* * /# $ $ 8 C # $ C' 0 C $ " & + F" + # ! * "$ +! # "7 C $
Pronouns - &F" +;$ % &F" ! $ & $+ + # " & +! # "7 C $ C% $ C8
$ C%
' # ! $ &F" 7 :* 8 C% " " C%
= B $ 0" + e /# " $ # + 8 C > ! :* & " & +$$/ & &$3&F" " "3 /#$ # *$ # ; $ " 8 C?# C< . . # ; $ :*
! $$ 7
& a gente )$ $$ 1 C )+ . 1 , :* # *$
! + -'>
9
/#"# * * /# # #*
2# " *$ # # " " &$! 8 C1 ? +! $ + $ $ :* # "
teu(s), tua(s) $ " & # #3 +! seu(s), sua(s). # " " "+ # *$ # ; $ 8 C+ )+ + 1 @ E7 /# ! :* & /# *$ # ; $ # #!8 C%
% $
Prepositions and particles # * !& + *$ # /#"# #3 + ! " 0 + ! $" !! :&$! "" /# :* # ! # *$ # ; $ - Ate + &# ! ) G 1 " ) G 18 C1 ' Durante " ! 8 C% *
= Para ! 8 C+ $ C1 ? #
$ C $ C1 )+ $ $ $ 1 > Para $ /# 0 ! *
8 2 . Em ! )+ !1 $ 8 C+ @$ C% $ C1 C%
)+ $ $ $ 1 C )+ $ $ $ 1 , # ; $ + # /# &
"# " C 9 ? I# "!! ! E"* :* $
*8 C )+ 1 , C C , C )+ 1 )+ 1 -'.
9
C C
Vocabulary " :* 3& $ * * : : 0 * " !" "0" !"# $
+0"$ # 3
* "$$; $ *$ #
Some common problems - # ; $ + # $*#$ ++ ! " $ # :* B ! & + !! +! $ 8 ) ( . % " $ !$ ! /# 8 C 2 $ 1 # ' # & ®car /$ :* " ! & " $ + "# * + + * 8 C1 )+ 1 1 = :* # #
! / + 8 C1 $ > :* # #
! / + 8 C1 . #
! & ! # ; $ + # :* 8 C C )+ 1 , # :* / obrigado ) G 1 " & 7
$ +
$ 2# # / *$ # * #
!
) #
# $! $$ &$
obrigado1 *
!
+ ! $
" ! ? # ; $ + /# 0
1 $ $ $(% 1 @ B+ * &" # :* / + / ! / *$ #8 O O O O -',
9
O O O O
O O O O O
False friends ! $$ $"8 CD
#
#
)abusar G ; 1 )actual(mente) G " " 1 )cigarro = 1 )cobra = 1 )constipacËaÄo = 1 )discutir G
1 )desgracËa =
" 1 )desgaste G 1 )distraõÂdo G
1 )educado G 1 )esperar G $ 1 )esperto G " 1 )facilidades G 1 )familiar G
" 1 )entender G
1 )livraria G 1 )licencËa G 1 )local G 1 )lanche G 1 )ordinaÂrio = 1 )parentes G 1 )presentemente G 1 )pretender G " 1 )primeiramente G 1 ): privada G " 1 )puxe G 1 (rato = 1 )real G > > #1 )usar G 1 )vulgar G 1 -'?
9
Paralinguistic elements :* & $/ "# # # *$ # &
#*# $! # * $$ &$
$ " + ! + ; +! ) $ ; ! # ! 1 + " # ) 1 !
# # * ! $$ "" 3! $ " " $*# !* K$ # /# ! : $ "$ *# /# # $ # " $ "#* ! /$ "" &$ # " " & !
A sample of written Portuguese with a word-for-word translation Ao acordar
disse
para a
I / #
hoje
e dia de pagar a
mulher:
Escuta, minha ®lha:
# /! L/+M8 !
prestacËaÄo de televisaÄo, vem
*$8
aõÂ
o
+ # $! + $ "! # # sujeito com a
conta, na certa.
&F" /# # &$$ trouxe
dinheiro da
cidade, estou a nenhum.
&*# ! +! # " ao
homem ± repondeu a
DaÂ
um ar de vigarice,
# !
Mas acontece que ontem
eu naÄo
" # #
!
± Explique isso
L $ *M 9 7 $ #
mulher. ± NaÄo gosto dessas coisas.
9 / # /! 9 $ + # #* gosto de cumprir rigorosamente as
+ /$* $ + +$0$ * $
#
minhas obrigacËoÄes ! L $ $M &$* ). 1 / & 4 &1
Acknowledgement # # /$ $ # # # /# #$ $$ * + # + # "# & $!/ B# # ! /# ** + # :* 7 ! $
-'@
Greek speakers # B : +#!3
Distribution B BP:
Introduction 3 $ * * & "$ $ $
# $ * * # + !$ *$ # #$* 7
" &$ ++ *$ # #+
$ * * +
Phonology General # *$ # #$*" $ ! & $
!$ # +0"$ "* < "* ""$ ! *$ # # *$ # /$ ! /#"# !
+ ! " # # ! " &$!
$ ++ !* # + + /#"# * 5 ""6 *$ # 8 9
*" "$ # *$ # /# $ 7 /$ $
$ 3 * $
* 9 " + " &/ / * +! $ "#
"! /# *$ # 9 " + $
!$ % # ! # *$ # +
$/ /$* # +! $ 9 " #*# $! ! +! "# $$ # ! *$ # $ 9 ++
-'A
B
Vowels
i:
I
e
{
eI aI OI
A: ¡
O: U
aU @U I@
u: Ã
z: @
e@ U@
aI@ aU@
# #! # ; $ ; $
#$ #+ & " /# +0"$ 3 * $ #/ # +0"$ "$ * #
""$ ##* & "$ / /$
" / $$ &$ # /$ ! " ! &$! -
!$ ' <{< $$ $ " & <e< #
, , " , ,
" , " , " , ? <@< ##* "# <e@<
-=(
B
Consonants
p
b
f
v
T
D
t
d
s
z
S
Z
tS dZ k
g
m n
ê
l
r
j
w h
+ # # #! 7! $ *#$ *$ #
% $#*# $ /$$ " #! $ "" "3 $ ! +0"$ # #! /$$ ! # #! " ! ! " &$! - <S< + " <s< + 7 ! $ ! & " '
<7< )$ 1 4 " ! & " <7Im< ? # letter " /# / $ * !
# *$ # /# " " "! # + / ) " 1 @
Influence of spelling on pronunciation $$* #"8 # $! 33 " " &/ * #" !&$ /# +/ !&* $ $ " $$ &* # " " $$ # $ # / + ** #! # $ 8 -=-
B
,kUld< +
,me< + ,water< + ,eleven< + ,eIgt< + ,sekretari< +
Stress # ! !$ + / "
*$ # #/ # #
$$ &$ "# / $ *$ # / /#"# ! $ # $$ &$ /# "
$ $ " !
*$ # / * $$ #
$$ &$ /
8 " " ,sÃbstI tju:S@n< + <"sÃbstI tju:S@n<
Rhythm - # $$ &$3! ##! "# $$ &$ # 7! $ #
! * $
+ # !& +
" *$ # #/ #
$$ &$ " $ " * $
+ # !& +
$$ &$ # $ + # $$ &$3 ! ##! *$ # ' * ! $ # +0"$ "* "$ *
" /
" Q + # "
$
5/ +! 6 "# " " " "* #! # $ # ! 0 +0"$ # "# / /# # " $
Intonation ++ *$ # ! + + " *$ # ) "# # + #*# + $$ /# *$ # /$ $/ 1 ! ! & ! $ " $ "" # + $ ;
** "!! ++ ; * # + "# &" - " %
" /# -='
B
Orthography and punctuation Spelling -
$ # &" !&$ ++ +! # *$ # $ &* "" # /* ' * ! $ " $ + "#
$ * ! $8 C % )+ 1 )+ 1 = ! $ $ $ 8 C )+ 1 C )+ 1
Punctuation :" " * $$ !$ # *$ # & # +/ " $ ++" /#"# ! " &$! # ! ++" # !"$ ; !
; ! / ++$ /#"# " " &$! + &* 8 !"$8 ; ! 8 % ; ! 8 X Y
Grammar General # *$ # * !! " $ ! !$ ! / # #
! 5 + "#6 " * # + " *$ $ $ +! 0 0 "$ *$ *$ & "
& +! + # +" & +! & # +" + " #
! / *$ # # ; $ + # *$ # *
+" *
+! )#*# # ! * 7
& # +! " & 7
# / 1 # #/ *# ; $ + # *
+! #*#$ E" $ * * 9 "$ F" # + " + 7 ! $ 2 " ;$ + # *$ # /# # * !! " $ +" + / ! $ " & # " $
# +0"$ /# / *$ # -==
B
# * !! " $ * 9 ! "$ +! 9 & # ! " $ # &/ * ! * F" $/ "+! # * + # /#"# # + # $ " + ! " E" $ ! *$ # $ $ +$ # *$ # # 5 * !! 6 / / # "#" " + & +!
#! /# &$!
Questions and negatives # 7$ # ; $ ! ; % , ; ++ +! +0! & $8 - ( C' ( C1 ( * +! & * den )G 1 &+ # ! & !* # 7$ 8 C
$ C' ( C1
$
Time, tense and aspect - # +" +" )+! /# exv # ; $ + J 01 /$$ ! 3 +" # *
+! #*# ! "
# ! +" +" $ # *
*$ # ' # +" !"# % # "!!$ 8 C1 $ % % $ ( C% $ =
#/ $* # & ** ! 8 C% % $ C1 $ > I* $
+ # *$ # +" ! $ ! $8 C+ $ -=>
B
. "" # # # + * & #/ # /# *$ # + * &8 C1 $ , + # ! +" + 8 C1 " $
- # # *$ * + !8 C1 $ ' # $ " + *
" ! 8 ' ( 1 I $ C* 0 0 C% % $ = # *
# & + !8 C $ C+ $ I # # # !! "
$ # ! $ 8 C' $ C+ ?$
- *$ # + " " ; ++$ # ; $ + # +8 C%
$ C $ ' $ ! ! $ + + 8 C% $ = I # # # &$! " & # *$ # + # & "$ +* # +8 C%
$
Conditionals and `unreal' forms - " $ " ! # #
! & $ " &# "$ # + &* 6 *$ #8 C% %
$ C% $ -=.
B
' : " $ +0"$8 C% #
$ = # +0"$ /# " + % 8 C& $ % , % $
The passive voice - # + #
*#$ ; $ *$ # "!! ! ! +! # " $ # 7$ 8 C $ C ' ! # +0"$ /# "! $7
! ! $8 C $
Modal verbs # *$ # ! $ !3! $ " # 33 ; $ &$ # ++" /#"# $ ! ! "!! &$! 8 - * J 0 + ! $ 8 C%
$ ' : ! $ " " &$! + ! * # ! $ & ! ! $ /# ! &8 C% $ C'
$ = # ++" &/ " ! !
Complementation - *$ # +! + " 0 9 + 7 ! $ + 8 C
$ ' 0 + + +! "! $! + & F" 8 C% $ % $ C9 # $ C+ $ -=,
B
= $ + J 0 " /# *$ #
# 0 /# 9 + 7 ! $ + # &
" " "
" " " 8 C+ $ C%
$
Infinitive of purpose - *$ # * 0 + * $$ " &
# ! & 8 C1
$ ' ! $ " # 0 + & +! ) * $
+ +! 18 C% B $ = 0 + ! & $ " & ! "$ 8 C% % $ > 0 + ! & " & 8 CB * ?$
The causative structure # 7 $ " /# # ; $ +! /#"# *$ # $ "+ & /# /# + /#!8 C+ $
Word order 2 + /#"# " $ ! +; ! - " ! &* /# # " # " &F" "! $!8 C & % + $ C'
$ ' & ! & $ +! &F" &F" "! $!8 C% $ C ? $ C $ = & + $ " ! " & + ! " /# *$ # /$ # 8 -=?
B
C $ > # ; $ + ! " 7
+ !8 C%
$
Articles - # 0 "$ ! ""! /#"# * $ # $ ! ! /# " &$ $ $ *$ #8 C # $ C $ C' $ C $ ' 0 "$ /# ! 8 C+ A $ C 9 $ = # 0 "$ &+ &F" "! $3 !8 C+ $ C) # $ C1 9 $
Gender ! "$ +! :
""*$ * + /
"# #* 8 C& $ @ ( C $ 1 $
Number - ! " &$ *$ # # " &$ ; $ 8 C@ ( C% $ C% $ ' *$ $ $ $ &$!8 C
$
-=@
B
Adjectives and adverbs - F" E" # "+! # !& )
/$$ # * " 1 + # /#"# # + # $ " + ! + &* 8 C
$ ' & + ! + !&$ F" +! 8 C) $ = Q + F" "# & 8 C+ $
Pronouns and determiners - : $ + !8 C% $ C' " $ C' $ C% $ ' I # # # &F" + &F" ! & " & 8 C&
$ C& # #
$ C % $ + 0 "! $! &F" ! & "
$8 C $ "
! $ & $ "$ 8 # " &$/ = % ! & + " 0 &F" 8 C% # $ > I# ! $ "+ & $ 8 O O O O O O O O
-=A
B
Reflexive pronouns - # + "+ &/ &F" E7< ! # " 8 C% C2 $ ' E7 !! + & $ /#"# ; !3
C $
Relative clauses - $ $ "$ /#"# !+ # ! "$ +! $ "$ /#"# !+ # * $
+ ! * C $ ' ! # +0"$ * "* $ "$ /# K $ $8
= $ &F" &F" ! & " 3
$ C 9 $ C % $ C 2 " % $
Conjunctions $ " " ; 8 C% $
Comparisons - * + + +! + "! *$ #8 C& 2 $ C& 2 $ ' #
! / ! " &# " "7 # $ " + "+ 8 C+ $ C%" " $ ->(
B
Prepositions - $ # " &$ +0"$ /# *$ # 3 # *# *$ # ; $ & &$! " ) ! $ 1 /# *$ # 7 3
; # 5
!6 8 C+ $ C1 $ C $ ' :&$! $ "" /# # ! # *$ # ; $ * # "7 ! 7 ! $ 8 9 meÂxri G C' $ C # $ 9 se G 8 C1 $ C+ $ 9 se G + !8 C'
+ $ C% $ 9 apo G 8 C+
+ $ C1
$ = : ! & ""$ ! + " & # E" + 8 C1 $ C1 # $ C $ > # " + &
* # E" + 8 C ? A )+ ? 1 C1 $ . # +0"$ /# 5 3 *6 "
/# $ " # + "$ "!! ! # 8 C' ( C % $ , + $ " /# /# 8 C& $ C%
5==M$
->-
B
Phrasal verbs - # $7" $ ! ; $ *$ # #
$ & $ # +0"$ /# #! * #! +* 3/ & /#"# " * # +! $ & # !
8 1 + )+ 1 + 1 % )+ % 1
)+
1 ' )+ ' 1 ' 2# /3 #
$ & # &F" + $ " + # "$ + &+ C% $
Vocabulary - ! *$ # / $ +! )* 1 I# # & &/ )* 1 # + "$ $ * " " & # $ ! 5+ $ + 6 /#"# ! $ "+ 4 7 ! $ ! ! 8 ! ! " ! !
! ! ! ; ! ! " ! ! ' ! # +0"$ " /# / #
$ *$ # ; $ /# $ + *$ # /
# 7 " " 7 ! $ 8 , ,, , , , , ,
,
,
->'
B
, , ,
,
, , ?# , + , , , , = :#" $$ ! "+ $
&$ " + ! 8 , , ,
A sample of written Greek with a transliteration and a word-for-word translation " Htane toÂso dynato to xtyÂphma, poy den brhÂke Itane
2
toso dinato to htipima,
#
O O
to koyraÂgio na to kourajio
na
# &$/
# + # # " *
noÂhma
Wa eiÂxe mia opoiadhÂpote diamartyriÂa;
diamartyrhWeiÂ. Ti diamartirithi.
pou den vrike
Ti
noima
tha ihe mia opiadipote
2# ! * /$$ #
aÂlloq
/#
diamartiria?
H
th doyleia toy: eÂkobe syneÂxeia
allos,
ti
doulia
# # L"M # /
to kreÂaq. to kreas # 8 " # " $ # !
tou: ekove sinehia
Kai to maxaiÂri, ayto to katakaiÂnoyrio, to astraftero maxaiÂri, Ke to maheri, afto to katakenourjio, to astraftero maheri # + # # $$ / # # + eiÂxe giÂnei ihe
jini
agnwristo. agnoristo.
PagvmeÂno liÂpoq eiÂxe kollhÂsei sthn Pagomeno lipos ihe
# &"! "*
&$ B$ lepiÂda toy kai sthn
+
kolisi
stin
# " #
labhÂ, mikra kommaÂtia kreÂaq. mikra komatia kreas &$ # # $ ! $$ " L+M ! L*M lepida tou ke stin
lavi,
Den mporoyÂse na dei kalaÂ, to fvq Den borouse
"$ #
na di kala, to
fos
ligostoÂ, h
ligosto,
/$$ # $*# L/ M $$
i
#
kardia kardia
#
->=
B
toy tou
anastatvmeÂnh. Pwq na to piaÂsei sta xeÂria toy to anastatomeni.
# L/ M
Pos na to pjiasi
sta herjia tou to
/ # # # #
ejaWlivmeÂno maxaiÂri, pwq na to karfwsei sto sthÂWoq exathliomeno maheri, pos na to karfosi
! &$
+
#/ $3#
thq . . .
tis # & #
sto stithos
)4! 9 & ! 1
An example of the written English of an elementary Greek learner ! # + / # $ /# #* # + ! # ! ! # /#"# ! !
# $ # 6$$ * $$/ /# ! * !#N + ! * + #6 # $ # / ! /# #N 0 # *! /# ! + # & # #
N 6! # & ** $$/ 6$$ 6$$ * + ! $ " N I+ " 6! $$ # &" 6$$ ! + ! + !$ + $* ! 6! # # # 6$$ EN 2# $ 4
->>
Russian speakers "
$7
Distribution 4 I ! K& F $ * O K # O*K # $ F ! K&
Introduction
&$* # $ " & "# + # 3 + !$ + $ * * "$ $ $ $
% # # $ " $ * * :$ # BK"# $ $ & B $* " # ! # ! F + # ->@ !$$ $
# $ * * ! @( !$$ $ # +! &$" + # $ #
# 0 $ * * /# # >( !$$ $ # /$ " *
" $ * *
Phonology General # / ! F + /#"# * # #
! +! *$ # # & " + # #9$* /$ ++
# & " + ##* *$ # ##!
$ # +
!
->.
<
Vowels
i:
I
e
{
eI aI OI
A: ¡
O: U
aU @U I@
u: Ã
z: @ e@ U@
aI@
aU@
# #! # ; $ ; $
# +! # + $ + "!& +
" "$ /# +0"$ $#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/ - #
"
$ + *$ # # * +0"$ # + & #
'
# " + ##* # " # + ##* & 5 "6 . #
" ! *$ # /$ *$ * <¡< + " $! $ <w¡<
<@U<
# /# ++ * # " &/ $* ) 1
# )$ 71 *$ # # &** + )$*1
& " $ 7 / /#
* / # !$ + # "$ % #
& ##* # $*# $*#*
->,
<
Consonants
p
b
f
v
T
D
t
d
s
z
S
Z
tS dZ k
g
m n
ê
l
r
j
w h
# #! # ; $ ; $
" "$ /# +0"$ $#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/ I+ # '> *$ # " #
+
+0"$ -
#
" * $ " "# / + " , #
/#"# " $ ! " #! # &** + / *$ # + 7 ! $ ! # $ $ $ ? ! $ "
"$ @
$ 5 +6 ) $ $ 1 ! *$ # "3
&+ + /$ "#
$ )/# #
)/# #
1 " A 5 6
->?
<
-- -'
-= ->
$ + *$ # ! <S< &+ /$ # + / # )5 61 # # "" *$ # /#"#
$*#$ $ $ #
$ $ " # # )5 6 $ $ 1 *$ #
#
&/ /
+! *$ # * 2 " ! # $ * * $
$ + *$ # " # *$ #
"! #
" + # *$ # <j< " /# $ ! +" # $ / $ !! "
/# 0 $ * *$ # $ + #
!* # "
Consonant clusters - # "!&
" "
(" " " /#
$ + *$ # * # #" #! + ""!! <
!$ + F " = "!& + / $ " ) "#
#
" # " + "# / " " " >
# $ <@< # "!&
,m¡d@n< . # $ "$
$ + *$ # " # "! $ # "$ $ !! * $ /$ &/ # / + + * #! *# " &$
$
/# # $ *$ # "$
!$ # $ @
<
Rhythm and stress
&$ *$ # /
$ "
$* *$ # / 8 "
Intonation #
$/ + $$ *# # $/ &* $/ *# 5 #6 / & $ I# &$! 8 -
0 # # , ; /# + $$ /#"# " ! #! ! $8 ( ' * ; ! $ " "+ 8 % " ( = $ ; + /# 8
(
Influence of spelling on pronunciation +0"$ + +
+ # $ +! # $ " + " " &/ /# / # / #
" " $ ! 8
Writing and punctuation Writing $#*#
# B$$" $ # & ! *$ # $
!$ +!
$ 8 " " " " " " " " " #" " &" " 1 ->A
<
)" + #! " ++$1
! 7 " +0"$ /* " " " " " " " " " %" B" X" / /#"# "" B$$"
Punctuation
" ! # $ + # & " $$
!$ *$ # # ! ++" # + "!! ! ++ $ $$ & "$
# $ & +" # +$$/* " $ ! 8 C% " $ C% " $ "!! $$ / $ # 8 66
Grammar General # * !! " $ ! +
*$ # + ! $$ ++ *$ # $" $ * * /#"# * !! " $ ! * $ *$ 7
#*# # + $ / & "# * /
# # # #" $ * * /#"# # ! F + * !! " $ +! " #*# "# * # " + / & ! + $
! + 07 +07 E" $ * /#"# " "$ "F* !& *
#+ # + $ "! $" ! + F" "$3
& "F* & #
" # $ 07 / #
*$ # & ! 7
# ++
+ ! *
# $ # 8 + # & ! ! $ &$ # + " # # " &/ " /#"# "! $ )! +" "1 # /#"# "! $ ) +" "1 # " " #*# +07 :+" *
+! + & 3
*$ # 7 "$ * # 7$ & $ "
$#*# # & bit' ) 1 + 7 ! $ - &$ + +! !
" +! "$ & " + 7$ & * V dva chasa ya budu rabotat' doma )I'll be working 1 Rabota bila -
" +! B$$" # + $ ) bit'1 " # # $ $
-.(
< zdelana v srok ) was done , 1 #
! #
& $ "$ pust ) !$ ! * # *$ # 1 &$ ! ! ! +! "$ $ & "" + 7$ * Pust on pridyot zavtra )Let come 1 5:#
$6 & 7
# +
+ ! $! # *$ # # * !! " $ * # "$
2# "# & " ++" &/ # * !! " $ ! + # / $ * * &$ # # /$$ & " ! F +0"$
+
$ * *$ #
Questions and negatives; auxiliaries - # 7$ # ; $
" $ ! ! ; 8 C% $ C' ( C1 ( (6 C5- " % 6 ' + "+ /# "
8 C+ = * ; +! ! & /*$ 8 C ( )+ H1 > # * 7$ &
$ " ; *
# * +0"$ +!* # + ! ! /# * #! # $ ! $ #! + $
+;$ # 8 C- " ( C% " ( C
" ( C- " ( .
$ 0 # + # / $ ;
+0"$8 @ ( C D - $ )+ - " $1 ) ( C/ " $ )+ 5/ " % $1 $ C D/ 6 )+ % $1 % $ C D- $ )+ - " $,- " (1 %
$ C/ ( % # $ )+ ( %
# $1 ,
# +0"$ /# # + * ! 8 -.-
<
C* $ C* $
Time, tense and aspect
# +" *
I ! $ +! + " & +" *
*$ # " $ ! 8 C% $ C1 $ C% $
-
# +" *
+! # $ ! $ # $ ! $8 C' ( C- $ 9 C1 , ( )+
(1 ' "#
+ & #
;" + $8 C1 $ C% CD $ = # # *$
+ ! # +07 3) 18 C1 )+ 1 1
- ! $ ! & + # +8 C% % ' # + +" + *
8 C+ C % = & "$ + ! # +
/# /$ & *$ #8 C' " % > ! /# ;" + 8 C+ C C1 C $ -.'
<
!! ! * *$ # * $$ "" &" #
& ! # $ / " ) +" ! +"3 1 7
! $ #*# +07 /# # *$ # &
/ +! # " /#"# " & "!& 7
3 * 5 ! $6 " +" "
& " $$ # # " & " * /# *$ # # -, + "
+33#3 +! " # +0"$ $ 7 "
* #!
The passive voice
$ $$ 0 # & " +! + #
&$! " # "! $7 +! # " +"
" " # ! +0"$8 C C D $ C $
Conditionals - & "$ + " # +
/# # /$ & *$ #8 C% " % ' &$! &$ "! $7 " $ +! 8 C% C D % $
Modal verbs - # ! + ! $ &
! $ # *$ #
+" ! #+ " ! "# # +$$/* # " " "$ " 8 C% $ C- $ C- $ C% $ C+ $ ' / ; /# " +0"$8 & % (6 C5/ " , 6 )! * 59
61 & % ( / " 6 )! * 5/ "
$1 -.=
<
To be - # $ & $ #
8 C1 C $ ' $$
7 " +0"$ # + # " "8 C% ( C& " ( = 2# # " " # & $
! $$ "+ /# # + !! &F"8 C " ( C% $
To have -
$ " 7 " +0"$ ! * #
" &/ # *$ # &
; $ # `u menya est' " " )$ $$ 5 ! 61 ' &* $$ ! !! ! # + , $ C1 $
Non-finite forms - # ! "! $7 3 +! 0 ) *
+"
1 " +0"$8 C% )+ %
1 C% )+ % 1 C+ $ C+ $ ' # 50 + 6 +0"$ ! 8 C% $ C% $
Verbal complements - 5I&F" J 06 " " &$! +
$ C%
$ -.>
<
C%
C
$ ' B
" $ +0"$8 C%
)+ %
1 C% )+ % 1
Word order - "
7
& " * !! " $ $ #*# E"3 / #
" # ! + # *$ # "!! +
" &* /#
& $ # + ! $ " # $ " " $ ! 8 C- ' B$ 30 $ " &$! + $8 C) ( C' % (
Articles
# "$ # !
$ + *$ # ! # + # *$ # "$ ! $ # # * $ "+ # * + # & " ++" &/ , # K "$ - I + # $ &$! +
$ $ * #/ # "$ * $8 C/ $ C1 ( ' # # # &$! + "#" &/ # 0 0 "$ 8 C1 ( C% (
Quantifiers 2 + $* & ; ! $$ " " 3
&$ +0"$ # "!!$ ! "+ ; 0 ) 1 ) 1 ) 1 C 1 ) 1 ) 1 ) 1
! # 8 C% $ -..
<
C% % ) # 8 % % 1
$ +0!3
" 8 C D % )+ % 1 C D % )+ % 1 C D % )+ % 1
Gender
! "$ +! # $ $
! ! /# $ 8 ' (6 C5+ 6 ' ( C51 6
Number - # " * + !& 7
/ # " &$< " &$ " " &$! " ! *$ # 3 " &$ # " &$
; $ 8 C1 C% C% C' (6 5 6 ' " $ " $ /# , , 8 C% $
Noun compounds "! + # 2 &$! &* $$ 3 # )* C 1 /# ! <
# !
Numerals # $ $ * + # E" + #
$ * *8 C C -.,
<
Adjectives and adverbs - # * +0"$ +
# +! + # * + "! + # F" 8 C1 % C
C% ' F" " $ & "+ /# & + " , , 8 C1 ? C+
Relative pronouns - $$ "+ /# &" #
!
/ " & +  C % $ ' "+ /# 8 C%
Interrogative pronouns "" # + 8 C' , ?( C' (
Indefinite pronouns ? +
" /# # $ $ !& &" # " * $ $
8 C? ,?
Negative pronouns / , + + # ; 0 3 " $8 C/ ,
-.?
<
Prepositions and adverb particles - # !
+ $ 8 C% C% # C%
)+
1 C1 C@ ( C' ( '
# ; $ + *$ # & "$ % 3 7 :#
$ & #+ " +0"$ " $$ /# # "$ +$$/ # &F" % $
Vocabulary False friends # ; +/ / # !$ *$ #
& # # ++ ! * # + ! * 7 ! $ 8 aktual'niy )G 1 simpatichniy )G 1 biskvit )G 1 manifestatsiya )G
1 salyut )G 1 perspektiva )G 1 perspektivniy )G 1 dekada )G
1 miting )G
1 kharakteristika )G C D 1 pretendovat6 )G 1 operativniy )G ; 1 moment )G 1 ekonomniy )G 1 ! "! $ $ +
3*$ # + $ + & + # " & Q Q $ *$3
3*$ $ 6 5 K## K :"# 6 )*$ #3
3*$ # " + 5 $ 6 4 $ 4 61 "/8 ""$ :&$ #* -A,A
-.@
<
Other confusions !& + /$3 / # ++ $ +
* +! # "$
; $ - < 8 C1
( )! * 1
(1
/$ 0 +0"$ &* $$ ++ &/ 1
( /# * $ $*! ; 1
( # '( + ( 1 ( ' < 8 C1 C% = < 8 C1 C > 9 8 1 6 5 6 C59 $ 8 B " 6 C59 $ ) + 1 1 . #
8 ' (6 C5 " 6 C' "
" % @ " , 4 $ 5"
$ 0$$ 6 # ! !
! $ /# + " # ! & 8 ' (6 C5/ " % 6 )+ 5' " % % 61 C )+ ?# "
" H1 ? # 7
& $ ! 8 @ A (6 C5- " 6 )+ 5- " % 61
Attitudes to language learning $$ "#$
" "#$ $ +* $ * * # ! F + $ $ *$ # ) # *$ # &* # ! /# !" *$ # $/$ * * *1 $#*# 4"# ! # !& + # $ * * $ *# B!!" !# /$ /# ! # $
$$
"K #+ &$ 7 " $ * * $ # * $$ # " & $ * * $
& &" # $ !$"$ $ !$$* $ " -.A
<
+ / * "3"!" "# * # $$/ " * " " " /# # *$ #3 * /$
Samples of written Russian with transliterations and word-for-word idiomatic translations Pyftnt kb
ds^ xnj dpzd
Znayete li
vi,
shto . . . vzyav
j,sryjdtyysq heccrbq obiknovenniy
O/ L* M # * fkafdbn b alfavit
i
hfcgjkj;bd ,erds jghtltk/yysv j,hfpjv^ raspolozhiv
$ # & *
bukvi opredelyonnim obrazom,
$ 0
/
vj;yj gjkexbnm yt njkmrj rfylblfncre.^ yj b mozhno poluchit' ne tol'ko
"
russkiy
"
kandidatskuyu, no i
$
"
ljrnjhcre.
doktorskuyu
& "
lbccthnfwb.? dissertatsiyu?
H
/ # & * #
$ # & $ "* # $ " / " & $ # & " $ H )4! * B ? !& -A@>1
Gjckt ltcznbvtczxyjuj
jncencndbz dthyekcz r ;tyt b
+ !#
& "
Posle desyatimesyachnovo* otsutstviya vernulsa k zhene i
ltnzv
exfcnybr
detyam uchastnik
/+
ghjikjujlyb[ cjhtdyjdfybq gj proshlogodnikh sorevnovaniy
"#$ " $
cgjhnbdyjve jhbtynbhjdfyb. A& Erkjyztd& sportivnomu
orientirovaniyu
*
po
"!
F. Uklonyaev.
Chfpe ;t
Srazu zhe
4 $ "
gjckt djpdhfotybz
cgjhncvty yfxfk ecbktyye.
+
! &* *#
posle vozvrashcheniya sportsmen nachal usilennuyu
gjlujnjdre r
podgotovku k
yjdsv dtctyybv cnfhnfv&
novim vesennim startam.
+ /
*
C # * / 3* & " 3 -,(
<
4 $ )G # *1 /# " $ 6
* "# ! # # # /+ "#$ + 3!# & " !! $ # # #$ * # +#"!* * )4! * B -' [email protected]
-,-
Polish speakers K*K Z / ) #$*1 " _`&/ Distribution :I % :$ # "!! # ! K$ B
$ /#
Introduction :$ # 3 $ * * !!& + # )2 1 $ " & "# "# ! "$ $ $ BK"# $ ! $
$
$*
" &3B $ " # "# * + $" $ ! -A@A /# :$ &* *# $ /# # 2 # $ + *$ # $/ $ $ * * # ! " $$ " *$ # / "
$ + * " /$ *# +
"#$ ! $ * 3 " 4 " " *$ # $ :$ # 3 $ * * &" 3 !
"$ F #*# * :$ # " $$ # * 0 "$ $ +0"$
Phonology General :$ # $ + *$ # + + # $ " + " 3 " &/ $$* " $! $$
7 " "# $ & " * :$ # $ "# $ # !$ +
*$ # $ $
:$ * # *$ $! 3 $$ &$
+ # !# * # $ !
+ *$ # " # 5#* *#6 # # *$ # 5 # / 6 4 + # :$ # " + *$ # # "& :$ # "" *$ # "$8 # + +$$ + " /$
$$ &$ ** # !
+ 5 "* -,'
9
!"#6% " " % ! $$
Rhythm and stress :$ # # ! F &$! ! * #
3! ##! + *$ # # + " "* / +! ! " $$ # / /# $ ; $ !" /#"# ++"
# ##! "$ 8 - 4$$ /$ " $ " + <@< / $ ' !! " $ ! "# " " " * # 5 *6 " $$ "7 = !& + / ! 3
# E" + # $! 3 $$ &$
:$ # $ $ + #$ "/# # " " " + / + !$ /#
3 #+ )* " " 1 $ /# / $ " " /# # /*$ " <eI<
)
&$ & $* /# 1 ! * "# /
+0"$ > :$ # $ + + $" " " " "
$* / * " "
Juncture - :$ # # $* <j< <w< ;" $ " " $ ' / :$ # $ $ " /$
;" $8 " = 2# / $ +$$/ "# # ) " @ "
1 :$ " $$ " &# $ " $$ 3 "* # 0 + " > ;" +
/#
!$ )* <wUdju:< + <wUdZ@<1
-,=
9
Vowels Q/$ + * +0"$ $ "+ # + # # :$ # # @ /$ $ ), $ '
$1 "! # '' /$ + *$ # :$ # # $*# "
##* ##* $ *$ # /$ " ! F &$! :$ &# * " "$ # &$ &$/ $$ ! + # &$! 8
i: I U u:
i 3i u
e @ z: O:
Eo
{ Ã A: ¡
a
# !&$ " + # *$ # /$ # 7 " ; $ :$ # 2# ! :$ # # $ /$ "! ! + *$ # B ;$ /$ # *$ ! +0"$ + :$ # &# * # * # ++" &/ #! "* "" /$
# +$$/* /# * - # / /$ :$ #8 "#/
&$! /# $ 9 " O " O $ =
O
O >
$ " " # "#" &/ # !" + / $ .
" <j< <w< "$ )! * :$ # 3 ;" $8
1 +0"$ !
-,>
9
Consonants
p
b
f
v
T
D
t
d
s
z
S
Z
tS dZ k
g
m n
ê
l
r
j
w h
*$ # " " ! F "! # &$! + :$ # $ # ! +0"$ $ # "" " "* # $ +! $$* # #! # ;3 $ ; $ :$ # "$ /#
+0"$ $#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #!
! " " &$ " &$! 4 $ "!!
&$/ -
< 6 6
/$ & +" !$ # 0 $ ! $
" *$ # #
-,.
9
? @
A -( --
$ " " " ""$ " /# +$$ "* #
$ " " +$ )/# $ $
1 &+ + /$ * 8
" "
Q +/ $ / # # $ " + "$ +
Intonation # ! F + :$ # *$ # 7 **3
++" /#"# " " &$ " ! * *$ # " + + + * + :$ " $$ ! " 3; "* + $$3 + + $$* I # # # # ! + $$* +0"$
! ** # !
+ * E
Influence of spelling on pronunciation +! # "+ * +! # " " &/
$$* " :$ # # +0"$ /# /
# / /# $ $ $$ &$ 8 * " "
Orthography and punctuation Spelling $$ :$ # $ 7 " ! +0"$ /# *$ # $$* # $ +! # + " # :$ # $$* $ *$ #" 2# ! #/ # # / ! # + # / !# " $ :$ # -,,
9
# $ & " $ * F" # $ ! $8 C I # # # $ * + " $$ :$ # ; $
+ " $ % #" ! $8 C% - $ $ $
Punctuation :" " *#$ #
! :$ # *$ # # ! ++" # "!! ! ++ & "$ 8 C% " .!$ C% " , $ "!! / ++$8 66
Grammar General :$ # $ *$ # #*#$ E" $ * * #+ # !"# + / + 7 ! $ # * !! " $ !& * )! "$ +! 1 " #/ & "# *
+! F" "+! # * !& " + # /#"# # + "# & )/# /# 1 * "$ " # * !! " $ +" + / " & # ! # # & # " *$ # Q& $$ # ! +" +"% # ! +"
+! # ) +1 # +" / )
+1 ! * $$ " + " &# ! # #
! :$ # ; $8 czas :$ # #
!"# $
# *$ # # #
$ & ! ! $ 7$ ) *$ #1 +" *
& +! # "$ :$ # $$ $$ # ++" "+ :$ # $ + *$ #
Questions and negatives :$ # * ! $ ! & * $ ; / ! $ & * ; * ! & -,?
9
"* # & /# nie )G 1 # /#$ + 7$
#+ $ " " &$ &$! " $ !
) " $$ &* 6 $$1 "$8 C+ CD C D $ C , ( C% $ C' ( CC'D - ( C1 " ( $ 8 C ( C1 C D $ I* $
# # # + $ "# 8 C ( :$ # , ; ; ; / )czy1 $ $ +;$ " &" # # # " !!&
*$ # ; $ #
#* $$ " + 7 ! $8 C% ( )+ (1 I ! "" :$ # ; !$ $ * /#"# $
! $8 C/
$ C+ $ $ 8 C+ )+ + 1
Question tags, short answers and reply questions :$ # # / ! $ - / $ ; ; * ; $ - ( < ( +/ # # $ # $ 3 & "# 8 @ ( C D/ $ )+ / " 1 ( C D- $ )+ - " % 1 C C D " , ( /# * # ; * # / $ ;
+; :$ # # *$ # :$
#! $*# # ! ! ! $ /# + " # ! & $ 8 1 $ - $ )+ / $1
-,@
9
It and there as subjects - 2# *$ # " # ! $ &F" :$ # + # &F" # $ ! $8 C $ C1 ; $ C) )+ % 1 C%
$ $ 8 <,+ ) +" % , 1 C , )+ % , 1 ' * !! " $ &F" "* 0 # & " $$ +0"$ + :$ # $ 8 C% , )+ 1 C% ( C , , $ C )+ & 1
Time, tense and aspect # " &$ "+ # + $$ *$ # ! +
$$ +" *
# # :$ # ; $
- :$ # /# *$ # ; +"8 C+ $ C' @( )+ 1
@(1 C% )+ %
1 C+ % $ ( C+ )+ +
$1 I # # # :$ # $ /$$
8 C%
$ C'
( ' " + *
:$ # $ ! $8 C% 8 $ = B $ # *
!! 8 C& 5J C' $ C1 $ > # +" !! + ;" + 8 -,A
9
C% % $
+ # " 8 C $
- *$ :$ # 7
/#"# *$ # ; +" # $ 8 C $ C' 8 $ C% $ C1 , ?( )+ 1
$ $ $1 ' # ! $ # *$ * + !8 C+ $ = I# " $ ! "$8 C% $ C) ( )+ @ $ $ $(1
- # "#" &/ $$ ! !8 C )+ $ $ $ 1 ' # ! $ # # # *
! & + # + " $8 C' ( = #*# # + + ! :$ # & !&$ # *
" :$ # $ ! $ # 8 C% ? + $ > $$ +" &$! ! + $$ # + +"8 C1 & )+ 1 & 1 . 4 + ! +" :$ # # + & "$ + !8 C' % " % $ C% $
Sequence of tenses "# + * & :$ # # + # * $ "# #"8 C1 $ -?(
9
$ 8 C% $ C1 $ C% $ I* $
$ ! $8 C% , )+ % , 1
The passive voice B! /# *$ # :$ # #
!"# $
#*# ! " # 7 " ; $ /# # # $$ 0 # *
" $$ +0"$8 C% , )+ % 1 " $ ! "$8 C+ & $ C $ $ 8 C% $
Conditionals 4 + ! +" :$ # # + & "$ + "8 C% % " % )+ % % " % 1 # & "$ # 5 "6 5#6 " $ " $ :$ # # *# /# # $! !& + :$ # $ * "+ $$ "!& + *$ #
&$ " $$8 C% " % )+ % " % 1 C% " , % "
% ) $$ + % " 1
Modal auxiliaries *$ # ! $ 7$ # *# :$ # ; $ # :$ # & #/ +$$/ " $ $ + ; * 4#! :$ # # $ + 0 -?-
9
# "#" &/ 0 /# /# $ "
&$! ! +" *
0 +! $$ # $ * $ + "+ - I* $
+ $ ""* # +! + *
* $ 8 C , " " C D ( $ 8 C1 )+ 1
1 ' # + " &$! 8 C% C D C $ = # ++" &/ - - + $
# &/ - $ $ $ - $ $ $ > # / + ""$8 & % ( - " $ )+ 9 1 . + % $ $ $( ++ +
" * $$ ** / @,& % ( $ $ $( % $ $ $( , @ # # $ & "
&$8 C+ $ ? :+" *
0 & $$8 C+
)+ +
1 C1 )+ 1 $1 " $ # & ! $ /$$
& $ $ $ % $ $ $ * ! $ $*#
Infinitives and - ing forms - *$ # +! $$ " :$ # 0 8 C% $ C- $ ' :$ # & "$ /# *$ # 5&F" J 06 " #"8 C1 % )+ 1 1 C' % ( = :$ # $ & "$ /# *$ # 5&F" J " $6 "8 C% , )+ % 1
-?'
9
Reflexive verbs E7 & ! "!! :$ # # *$ # " $$ $
8 C% " % " % %
$ C )+ 1 C )+ 1
Word order 2 $ $ + :$ # #*# # "
! &$! !*# 7 " - I + +0"$ # + & 8 C% ?$ C% ?$ C% $ C% $ C% , $ C. % $ ' 4 $ :$ # $ # $$
8 C) ( CA ( C' ( C $ = # & + !! $ +$$/ # $ :$ # #"8 C C ,D $ CC ,)D X C D $ > 2 :$ # " ; #
! " ; )# 1% , ; ; ; / /## # " /# # ! *$ # " ; ! #+
8 C $ C $ C+ $ $ 8 C1 ) 5;" + 61 C%
-?=
9
Articles # "$ :$ # $ ! $ #! $$ ! #! ! $$ # #! # ! & " " &/ 506 506 " * "+ 8 C% C D $ C1 C D $ C% , $ CC)D A % )+ % 1
Possessive determiners and pronouns, personal pronouns - :
! #
! :$ # #"8 C $ ' :
! + :$ # /# "$ +! # "7 /# #
8 C% $ C? )+ ? 1 = * $ # " &$ &$! /# &F" &F" $ /$$
! 8 C%
)+ %
1
Other determiners :$ # $ # &$! "! * &/ , , " " #"8 C1 ( C%
$ # + ) " + # $1 $ " "+ 8 C% C D )+ % 1
Relative pronouns " #
! $ ktoÂry )G 1 + #!
! $ ! &F" # +$$/* + !
&$8 CC ,)D +
C D C D $ $ 8 C % $ -?>
9
Countability, number and concord - # " &$ :$ #8 C% $ ' # :$ # / + )drzwi1 7 $ # $ $% $+ )zÇycie1 7 $ # *$ 8 C CD )+ 1 C9 $ $ $ = :$ # "$$" # !&* $ *$ $ $ ) & ! & ""*$1 #+
" $ $ $ $ :$ # $
# !"# ! $$
$ $ $ " $ ! "$8 CC D 9 $ $ # wszyscy )G &<1 ; $ $ &8 C? $ > # :$ # ; $ + ; *$ & # ; $ + /# # + $ $ " &$ 8 C1 ( C1 $
Gender :$ # *$ ! "$ +! : ""*$ #" ! $8 * , $ + $ ' ( 1 $
Adjectives and adverbs - & !! :$ # /# *$ # ; F"3 #"8 C% , $ C%
$ ' :$ # & F" " & $ + # ) # /#"# # :$ # ; $18 CB C, D )+ B 1 C $ -?.
9
Prepositions - :$ # $ # " &$ +0"$ /# *$ #
$#*# ! # *# :$ # ; $ # #/ ++"
* #"8 C , )+ , 1 C C C @ C , C )+ 1 C 8, C C )+ 1 C C , " C C C C )+ 1 C # C , C
)+
1 C
)+
1 ' :&$! $ /# :$ # ; 8 C , C # , $ $ $ C , $ $ $ = : + ""$ # E" + :$ #8 C C C C )+ 1 C
C
C C #,
Phrasal verbs # #
$ & :$ # :$ # $ ! $$
# # # -?,
9
# # # "
Vocabulary - # " &$ !& + / # " $ :$ #
*$ # ) 9 radio1 !$ ) 9 alfabet1 + # # + * # $ !
$ +! *$ # ) 9 sweter1 $$ # + "$
$ * $ $ ! "# # " + ):$ # parking G 1 )camping kemping G 1
)sleeping sliping G
1 4 $ + ! 5+ $ + 6 # @ % ? ' $ "" # + " # / ! :$ # / # *$ # ; $ *$
+ 7 ! $ # szklanka ! $ + * kieliszek + $"#$ )" # " &$ ++" K &/ # / "6 "!3 ! / *$
+ / $ " & ! &$ # "& !1 = # # " ! "+ #/ # +$$/* + / $$
" /# :$ # ; $8 , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ) 7 !1 ?# ,+ > # *$ # / + & # 7 " ; $ + # :$ # proszeÎ + " proszeÎ # !"# / * +
*8 $ / )*#$ / 1 " ! 1 9 @ " A " C& % ( )+ @ ,A 1 . # 7
& ! 8 ( - " $ , # :$ # ; $ + $ & * 8 C1 )+ 1 1
Forms of address :$ # ! " * + +! $ #+ $ $ 0 +0"$
# "# & # # 0 ! -??
9
9 ! +0"$ + ! :$ $
$ /$$
"; #
# * pan )&1 pani )&1
!! panna )&1 # $ !& + ! 8 C& ) " % ( C9 ,&$ )+ ?# 1 $ 8 C) ,& $
A sample of written Polish with a word-for-word translation Nie ma pisarza, ktoÂry
nie mysÂlaø
by
# / /#"# L" $ "$M #*# L! "$M o
tylko w sÂredniowieczu spotyka
søawie. MozÇe
& + !
& $ !$ * ! L! $M bezimienne ksiaÎzÇki, ktoÂrych
sieÎ
autorzy, ukrywajaÎc
LE7 "$M ! & )+1 /#"# # #* swoje
nazwisko, zwracajaÎ sieÎ
przy
!<<# <#<<# !
LE7 "$M
konÂcu dzieøa z
prosÂbaÎ do czytelnika, by
modlitwaÎ do Boga albo z
/ /#
o
nich pamieÎtaø
/# ;
w kosÂciele
& #! !!& L! "$M "#"#
An idiomatic translation # / /# /$ # & + ! $ # $ * # # "! "
! & /#
# # # ! $ # + # / # /# )1 # /# $ !!& #! "#"# )+! ) Y & : / 1
-?@
Farsi speakers $
2$
Distribution +*# : #
Introduction 4 3 $ * * /#"# # & * $ E" & &" # $ # & + ! 4 " + =' "# "
/ &" " +! *# $+ # / + # & "; # # " /#"# ! * $ + &" " &$ / $ " ! * 4 $ &$ + / ++ * E" 4 # +0"$ $ * *$ # " $$ * # $ * $ *$ &" + # + !$ "
Phonology General # 4 *$ # #$*" $ ! ++ # * +
/$$ #
4 # $ $ /$ ##* =' " /#$ *$ # # '' /$ ##* '> " 4 #+ # * +0"$ "* "$ * # +$$ * + *$ # /$ ##* # 0 *$ # " #! # # ; $ 4
-?A
A
Vowels
i:
I
e
{
eI aI OI
A: ¡
O: U
aU @U I@
u: Ã
z: @
e@ U@
aI@ aU@
# #! # ; $ ; $ 4
#$ #+ & " "$ /# * +0"$
$#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/ # ! "!! /$ $$ &8 -
+ ' <Ã< + "
/$ $ #3 * #" +! ,
Consonants
p
b
f
v
T
t
d
s
z
S
Z
tS dZ k
g
m n
ê
l
r
-@(
D j
w h
A
# #! # ; $ ; $ 4
#$ #+ & " "$ /# * +0"$
$#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/ -
1 $ $$ # &$! /# #
Consonant clusters B "$ "" /# *$ $$ &$ 4 4 #+ # /$ # &+ # !$ + # *$ # "$ 7 ! $ + $ /3
*! "$ # " +0"$ " I" " " " " " " " 6 + 6 + 6 +
6 + # /$ $ $$ 7! # #! <e< &"! 5 6 2# $ #3 *! "$ # &$! &"! * # <e< "$ $ "!! &+ "$ &** /# <s< B$ "# " " " $ " "3
"# 8 + + + 4 $ " "$ $ $$ " &$! /# $
* * <e<8 + +
-@-
A
Influence of spelling on pronunciation # " $ &/ 4 *$ # $$* ) +! +/ $ "#
1 # 4 #
$ / #* #" /#"# $$ + /# # # " / $$* 4 ! $
#" 7" + # !
+ # /$ $ 4
" "$ $ /# "$ #
" " &$! /# * $ /# / $$ " $ # / +! "$ 4 $$ # +0"$ /# #! /#"# # / + #* #" 4 7 ! $ # #!
*$ #* #" +! 4 " # + # +$$/* +!
*$ #8
" " " " " " ) ;1 "$ $ # + 4 "* # # 3 " $" " # *$ # & $$ " $*#* + # /$
Stress 4
#*#$ " &$ * $$ + $$ # 0 $
$$ &$ + / # $ # * +0"$ ! * # " &$
+ *$ # : "$ &$! "" /#
$ ! * ' ' 2 +! $ " " &$ &$! # ; $ + / +! 4 /$
$$ &$ $ # ; ; $ $ $$ # +$$ $ +
#
+$$/ # # /$$ $ # &$! "* / +! "#
Intonation 4 " + * /# "# * " * !
$$ &$ /#"# ! "# * + " * " & 5 6 )/# ! +$$/1 50 $6 # & " 0 $ !$ # *$ # /# + $$ " $ + "! $ ! + , ; + $$ /# * / 4 # * # #*# #
$$ &$ /#"# ! # + # * 2# " *$ # ! + # " " $ #*#3 "# 5/#*6 ++" /#"# ""* -@'
A
* $ 4 3 * # ! F +0"$ /# # ! $#*# ! + # ! $ /#"# ! $ " ! * +03 "$ ! /$$ "# * /# *
$ /# $ " + "$ $ "
$$ $
Juncture 4 + # !$ &$! /# *$ # F" # # # /# " "$ #+ /# / & "# #
# /$$ + 7 <e<
$ $ " " !#* $
4 / /#
!$ ) #" "# *1 F" /# # "" *$ # ' <wUdZ@< $$ " +0"$
Orthography and punctuation & 4 / &" " # "! $$ ++ +! # " + *$ # / +! *# $+ /# # $ F* "# # ""* 0 $ 4
+ *$ # $$ # $ "! $$ / $ # & / / + /* ! # /$ $+ ! $ 4 #* # # " $ ! *$ # # " $ $ 4 # *$ # +0"$ + $ ! * $ $$ # &$! # +$$/*
8 - /# ! ! * * ; ' B!& + $ # "$ & "+ + +! *# $+ * % % $$* &$ #" 4 6 / *$ # & #
! 4 !& $#*# &" ++ +! # *$ # # #/ / +! $+ *# ! $$ " $ $ +/ &$!
Punctuation $ # $ # " " / $$ 4 & * # $ # ! !$ # -@=
A
*$ # # & # #/ * * + +! # + "!! ; ! # ; ! ù # "!! 5 4$$
7! $ *$ # & ; ! $ # / $$ # $
" 4 4 / # " F " *# ! /# "F" "#
: * #* " " $$ $ "" /
Grammar General 4 3 $ * * !$ ! / *$ # # #/ ! # ++ +! *$ # # " " " &$ +" + # 4
$ * *$ # 2 4 + ! $$ ++ +! *$ # /$$ " +0"$ # $ * F" $/ +$$/ # % & $$ $ " # + " C- C%D
Questions # 7$ # ; $ 4 - , ; +! $ 4 * $$ & " $ ; / aya & + * 4 #+ ; ! $ & ! $ ! # 7$ /#
&$* 8 C' ? (
Negatives 4 &# *$ *$ & "F* "# / # # 0 < "<# & * &"! + # & #+
&$ ! ! * !$ & 07* # & )&# 1 /# na / ! /$$ & #
! / 8 C+ )+ + + 1 -@>
A
Auxiliaries 4 # ; $ + # 7$ !! +07 + &* +$$ +! #+ 4
/$$ !! ! *$ #8 C+ CD )+ + 1 $#*# 7 7$ & 4 $
" ; $ # *$ # *
/# # *$ # +" ! ; *
! " ! +0"$ % $ $ $$ 4 ! %
Special confusion ^ Chera (= Why not?) 4 # " $ * ; # " $ $ & $ ' ( 2# # *$ # + & 4 $$ **
8 ) ( ' (
$ 7 $ # # "" &$ $ *$ #
Question tags 4
/ * + ; * Na )G / 1 #
$ $$ #+ 0 $$ ; *
7!$ "! $78 C1 " ( )+ 1 " (1 C- " ( )+ -
" (1
Time, tense, and aspect - + 4 # ! $ ; $ &# +"
! $ *$ # #+ 4 ! !!
# /* 8 C% )+ % 1 C% + ' )+ %
+ '1 C% $
( -@.
A
' 9 # *
4 +! /# # ; $ + # $ 4 "8 C' % " )+ ' % " 1
4 "# $$ "$ # +! /#"# /
# "! $7 $ + "# ** *$ # " #+ " "+ # ! $ # 4 "8 C1 %
)+ 1
1 D ; $ "$ # 4
!*# "8 C1 )+ 1 % 1 ; ! $ 4 /# * "
"# *$ # # 4 $ !*# "8 C1 % )+ 1 : % $1
# 4 + + +" 8 - #
! / # *$ # *
+
" * $ " # # !*# $ # 4 "8 C1 )+ 1 1 ' + " &** # $$ "* /#"# !*# $ # 4 "8 C% )+ % 1 = + # + /#"# ! " "+ + # +
! $ *$ # $ # 4 3 "*8 C1 #
)+ 1 #
1 # +" + # 4 # $
/* *$ # "+ # + # *
+" ! 7 + # $ *
+! /# # ; $ + /#"# # ! * !$ # *$ # *
% # !*# $ # 4 "8 C1 )+ 1 1 # * $ /#"# !$ # *$ # ! $ -@,
A
"& * $ # % # #+ $$ $ "+ # $ + 4 +! /# 7$ ; $ # +! $ 9 "#
$ $ ! /* 9 & ! $ # 4 $ "8 C% )+ % 1
Modal verbs $ & / #
! / 4 *$ # 4 &# # ; $ + #
" ! & E" # ! & " *$ # C% $#*# # ; $ + 4 E" /
&# + # ! $ # 4 /* *$ # "8 - % )+ - % 1 #/ # + ! $ # # $ +0"$ 4 # # * + ! * 7
#*# ! $ *$ # ! + #! /$$ " &$! 4 7 ! $ # * + ++ ! * 7
& " " "
*$ # 7
& ! $ & 4 /# # ++" # ! * &* " & $ # # & 4 ! # &$! /# # ++"
&/ # *$ # ! $ "$ $ &/
Non-finite forms # * +! 4 # 0 +! ! $$ $ " 2# " ; *$ # 4
0 +0"$ 8 C% "
Word order 4 / " $$ +$$/ # 8 &F" &F" & # ! $ "+ F" ! $$ +$$/ # # !+ /#"# ! $ 4 "8 C% )+ % 1 -@?
A
4#! 4 & + ! $$ $ " &/
&F" &F" /#"# "$ $ "+ /# /* *$ #8 C% )+ - % 1
The active and passive voices 4 #
+! + $$ & #
/$ # *$ # :
" 4 ! $ +! & # !* # $ # # $ $ ) 4 & E" " # *1 & * # 4 ; $ + # " $ + #
& #
4 ! "8 C% )+ % 1
Articles # 0 0 "$ # ; $ 4 +07
" /## # 0 0 # ! ; ++ +! *$ # 4 # " &$ +0"$ /# $$ + "$ I # # 4 ! "$ &+ /# "
8 C1 $ C1 $ C $ C? $ C% $ C+ ( C% C1 )+ 1 1 I # # # 4 ! "$ /# #
#$ & !8 C% )+ % 1 C& $ $ $ )+ & $ $ $1 C I $ C@ $ C%
Adjectives and adverbs F" & $$ !$ / 4 # + +!* & +! F" ! -@@
A
" #
! / &# F" & 2# / " $ & F" )$ # 4 / +
1 # "
# ) 1
& $ ; $ #+ 4 $$ "+
F" & &# +! ! * #
// & $ #
Comparatives and superlatives B! $ $/ +! & # +
+07 # / ++ !# *$ # "+ * # 4 # 4 $ /# /* *$ # ! "8 C1 )+ 1 1 C # /# "! 4 # ; $ + # 4 ! "8 C1
)+ 1
1 # 0 "$ &+ # $ ! $ & ! $ * 4 "8 C. )+ . $ $ $1
Gender and number 4 # , * " *$ &* + &# # $$ $ *$ ;
" $$ 8 C&
$ 1 * :$ $ * $ " 4 ! F +0"$ / 4 $ $ +! /# /# !& # $$ " *$ #8 C% C
Prepositions 4 +;$ + & & + # ++ +! # *$ # 4 $ # "$ *$ #8 C1 )+ 1 1 -@A
A
C+ C%
Phrasal verbs :#
$ & 7 4 $ 0 #! "+ * / +0"$ 8 - # +0"$ + "" * # # + "$ " $$ "# * # ! * + & run up ) ! ;"$1 ' # + " # # & " & +! # "$ &
&F" I # +;$ $ # !
+ # "$8 C1 C%
Subordinate clauses # $ $ 4 # + #!
! $ ! &F" $ /# # #
&F" # &F" + # & /#
; #
$" + # "" $ *$ # #+ "
&$! C $ $ $ # &F" $ "$ /#"# ! *$ #
"$ 4 8 C " % $ $ $ C " % $ $ $ 4 # 0 +07 /# # # "! &+ # $ /#"# !*# $ 4 "8 C) % $ $ $ )+ % $ $ $1 4 $/ # &** + # $ "$ # ! * " $ ' ( +0"$ +
/# +! $ " # ! +! $ "8 A (
B $ " +* # + +!
$$ #
! / 4 *$ # # 7
+ # -A(
A
) =1 " $ ++ 4 # # ! "$ ** 8 C% % " % )+ % %
" % 1
4 # ; $ + " & #
!
" # +;$ " *$ #8 C) " )
! BF" !"# ! +;$ 4 # *$ # "$ $ # &** + " # ! "!!$ "F" 4 # " F ! "$ *# $$ /# * +
Vocabulary $#*# 4 3 $ * * # +/ !$
&/ *$ # 4 " &$ /# $ +/ #*#3+;" / "# # ; $ + #/* # "!! 3 * I # # # 4 "
! " &$ ! /# &" # $ $$ # $ : : #$ # + ! "#$* # &*# !& +
"0" "#" $ / + * "# ! + /#"# $$% & # " # & 4 # " # / + +" &$! * " # -A?( # / ! & # *! 5: 6 $$ +* "#" $ / & # ! /# $ $!
""
+ # $ !" $ #/ ! ""
+$
! / ! $ $$ # 2 ! 4 ";* *$ # " &$ #+ !"# ! +0"$ + 4 # + 7 ! $ "# ! 7 " #
! + *
" &
! # # $ * ! + " &$ /$$ & & & $$ #*# * "
"$ 4 $ $ * ; + " &$ & # #*# $ + ! & 0 # ! # + " + #
$ * * "" $ -A-
A
B! 4 +;$ $ "$ *$ # ** * 8 C )kar khane 9 $ 1 G C )ketab khane 9 $ 1 G
False friends # +/ !$ &/ 4 *$ # " &$ # $ $ +/ + $ + &$! +! /
/#"# # & &/ & 4 / # ++ ! * 2# "# / " *$ # #
! # #
! ! * 4 8 lastik G machin G nylon G chips G ) *$ #1 estanless G
Culture $! $$ 4 3 * $ + *$ # /$$ & # " ! 7!$ +! $ $ * ! #
# $ + +! $ $ $ * * $ * $ + +0"$ "" # ! " + ! * "$$; $ +! + /* ! $ "$
$ 7 " # "# & # 0* # 7 " & 5;KK6 *$ $ 7 ! $ # * ! " " /# * " #/ $ "!!"
" $ " * ! " # + "
" /# " "!!" !#$* /$$ $ $ 3 ! + $< $ $$ "$ $ /# * $ #$
* + 6 /$$*
"" +! $ !# "# "# $ $$* $ * *$ * # # $$ "!!" "# 7"$ $ "!!" !#$* ! " +$ #
" $$ 5 6 ! $ "$ $ /$$ " $ #" &*# 3 $ !" $ ! /$$ 0 # "# * +0"$ "" # ! /$$ "! /# 3 2 + /# * + $ !" + ! $ ! -A'
A
# "* * 2 ! ! #/ * + # $ ! 4 ! $ /# # ! # &<*$ $ # + # # " ! + $"#$" & * $ /! "# #/ $$
A sample of written Farsi
A direct transliteration #
$ ! ! 4 K &
# !
+K
!#
K
$KK !&
*
*
& *#
$
$*#&
KK *
! ! #!
5
+K6
# $ *
# *
$& & &
!# *#*#
*
&
#!
# ! $
*## $& * # !*
# ! #
A word-for-word translation # $ 4 $ * * $/ #$* +K +! # F # # * " + $$ $
" 5 +K6 # # $ # #
! ! * &* + + $ / $ "" " # $ $ * $ &$" $
-A=
A
An idiomatic translation 4 # + 4 # F * +K6
#$* "* $* # " # * + # 5+ $$6 +K # # $ # #
! ! # *
+ $ / $ "" " # $ /# $ & # * $ &$" )4! 1 ) & *#1
Handwriting difficulties: a sample written by a Farsi-speaking student
-A>
Arabic speakers !#
Distribution P: D I O 2 I P I IBBI I : D P P : B &" " ! F $ * * B# $
F& *$ #% $ K& F K& ! F O K # O*K B#"# &" &* # $ * * + # O # #$ / + $ ! $$ $! + /# $ ! 7 + !$ /# &" " " 7 $ #+ E" & # + #/ $ * * / $ ! # *0" +$$/* * $ $ * * ! $ &$" O +*# :
$ # :#$ # B# *$ 7! $ >(( ((( ((( $ $$ " *
Introduction &" !" $ * * # * * !! " $ ! !$
! " &/ # #
$ 5 3 &"6 $ * * /#"# *# "#$ & # !
!
$$ & " + $$ "!!" + +0" $ 2# "# " + ; ! $$ / + "$$; $ $" # $ ++* +! # $ " & $ "!! $7" $ ! ! 7 " # ++" +! " " ! ! #
++" &/ O $ *$ #
Phonology General # &" *$ # #$*" $ ! ++ $ # * + & # ! # $ " /$
-A.
)
" 7
* ! * 2#$ *$ # # '' /$
##* '> " &" # $ *# /$ ##* )# # # $* / ##* 1 =' "3
# # # /$ &" # $$ *0" "8 #
$! $$ #" # / # " # " $* /$ ##* /#"# * ! * &" #+ *$
"+ *$ # # /$ /#$ $ ! # * " * $
# +! !* # + + &" /#"# * 5 &" ""6 *$ # 8 9 *" "$ # *$ # /# !
$3 $ &$ & +/ "$ $ "$ /$ ** $$ "" 5F &&6 ++" 9 # + *$ $ &+ $ /$ "!! + + &" # & * # $ " + *$ # 9 * $ $" " ! " " # / +!
/ *
Vowels
i:
I
e
{
eI aI OI
A: ¡
O: U
aU @U I@
u: Ã
z: @
e@ U@
aI@ aU@
# #! # ; $ ; $ &"
#$ #+ & " "$ /# * +0"$
$#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/ 2#$ $$ $$ /$ ! " &$! # +$$/* # ! "!! "+ 8 -
"+ /# <e< <¡<8 + % +
-A,
)
Consonants
p
b
f
v
T
D
t
d
s
z
S
Z
tS dZ k
g
m n
ê
l
r
j
w h
# #! # ; $ ; $ &"
#$ #+ & " "$ /# * +0"$
$#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/ - &" # $ $ #
#+ " *$ # !!
$$ ""* # $" $ $" '
#+ " *$ #
! #
6 *$ # %
$ A # #! <ê< $$ "
Consonant clusters # * + " "$ ""* *$ # !"# / # &" $ /3 *! "$ ""* &" "$8 -A?
)
" " " " " " $ #3 *! "$ "" &" $$ *8 " " " $$ + # & " # " !* &" # /$ 5
6 " 8 + + # * + 0 $ "$ $ !"# ! $$ &" I+ # ?@ #3 *! "$ + +3 *! "$ ""* 0 $$ *$ # "" &" &" * # /$ +
+ + # "# /$$ ! ! &$ 7 ! $ + "# " /#"# $ " # $$* + "# / & 6 / *$ # / : 4 $ "! $ + *$ # &" " "$ ) !"# # +$ +! 1
? ) +
& F ) *! -A,=1
Influence of English spelling on pronunciation 2#$ # !$ &/ # &" *$ # /*
! &" $$* /# / ! ! $ $$ #" &" #+ ! " *$ # / #" $$ # # " + "
* " &$! " & # E" + # / +!8 +
+
Rhythm and stress &"
3! $ * * /
"$
" &$ *$ &" #+ # &$!
* * # " &$ + *$ # /
# #
" $ ! * ' ' ' )&1 ' )1 "! $$ * :# " ##! !$ # / $ * *
#$ " +/ &$! :!
"" ! +;$ &"
$$ &$ " ! "$ $ /# $ /$ & 5 / $$/6 *$ # & * *$ # -A@
)
$ /$$ + " " +! $ /# # # "" ##!
Intonation &" !$ # + *$ # "
! * D ** ++ ! !"# ! +;$ & * # & " $ ! #
" *$ # 2# * $ #/ " * # &"
"# "* $/ + $$ # + # "
Juncture # *$ $ "!! #! &" +/ /
&* /# /$ # " * *$ # $* 0 $ " /# +$$/* $ /$ " "* " "$ /$$ " &$!
"& # " 5B "$ 6 F" "#
# " !& + 7 /$ # ! " + #" "# * *$ # #*# # F" + " #! *
<w¡tSu: ni:d<
(
*$ & &" /# $
+ "# * " " # "!!"
Orthography and punctuation &" #* # " ! * +! *# $+ I$ " $* /$ / # $/ " " " # $ +! + $ ! $$ & F7 +! / &" ! #+ $ $ / $ # & + *$ # "$* " $ $ !% # ! # " $ $$* $$ " + /* *$ # " ! F &$! + &" # #$ & 7 " " /# * /* #
! $$ "
/# !$ $$ + 0"" $ *$ # " $ &$! 8 9 * $ /# 5!6 # * ;% -AA
)
9
* $ /# / & *# $+ !! * + % 5 6 + # "" # /* + & + " 9
$+! + $ $ /* +0" $ * # $ ! + " " /* ! #
! $$ /# " $ $ )+ !1 /# # $ " " " " # " $* + $! $
$ & " *$ # # # ! "
" # ! $ & " ++ +! # 5 &"6 ! $ #*# # / +! $+ *# * "* !& ! F &$!
Punctuation &" " / !$ / $ " #*#
! + # !&$ * ù + H 5 + # + +$$ "!! !"# + # *$ # "!! &* "# / " /# # ; $ + ) + B" /* *$ # #+ " $* $
" $ & "!!
Grammar General &" !" $ * * * !! " $ " ++ +! # + 3 $ * * # #+ + +/ + + "$ + * + +" #
! & & ! /# &" !7 /#
# & + # &" $ * * # #3" "# & # " "$ $$ & +! F" " $ " # +! & * # # "
07 !0 !! & ! $ 07 +07 /#
# + $* :
" $ : '((
"# writing$
kattaab maktoob yaktubuh
)G 1 )G 1 )G 1
)
/#
# + $* :
" $
/dZ/ /r/ /h/
%# wounding cutting$ \G 1
majrooh
:
yajruhuh
\G
1 \G , 1
djarraah
# .( & ! $$ +! + + "# & # # " $ & + # $ * * +$$/ # &" # * +0"$ * * # "+ * * + + $$ / *$ #8 # &
F" +$$/ *$ * # +! #
! # #
! #* #" +! "# *$ + ! #$* *$ # # "$ $ # + +07 /$$ & $ * & &" * " " "
Word order " $ # &" " $ " # & 0 +$$/ & #
&F" # " +$$/ ! /* # "# " $$ # & $ + /* ! " *$ # /*8 C
$
Questions and negatives; auxiliaries # 7$ # ; $ &" 2# "0" ; / ; ! $ & * 8 C' * ( -
( # # &" + ( wayn? /#"# &$ "+ /# ( * +! & * "$ \laa maa1 &+ # &8 C1 $
To be # & &" # # " $ \" " 1 7
#+ "!!$ ! *$ # & &" "$ $ # *
& +! 8 '(-
)
C1 $ C $ C1 $
Pronouns &" & +! " # $ &F" &F" 07 +07 "!! # #! *$ # + # &8 C2 $
Time, tense, and aspect - &" # +" /#"# *0 " "! $ # ! + * # #+ "$$; $ &" " / &/ /# *$ # /$ &
! $ +" &8 C% $
( ' # +" 7! $ *$ # +! & # + # & +$$/ & # & ) G 18 C1 % )+ 1 % 1 = # *
+! & # + # & +$$/ & # & ) Q
1 C1 % )+ 1
% 1 > "# &" # + # * $
"# # " + *$ # C1 CD * $ # + " "# ! "!! ** "#
8 C1 % C+ D * $ C1
$
- &" # ! $ +! /#"# *0 " 0 # # ! + * " # + # *$ # '('
)
! $ *
"$* # + + ! # $ " + + # & " $ /# # *$ " / * + *$ #8 C1 , $ C1 , $ C1 , $ C' ( C' , ( ' # $ + + ! # ! +
* 7
*$ # & # +"8 C% , % ? $ = # $ &F" + +
& "$ "!! &" /#"# $ "" $$ $ /# *$ #
*8 C1 $ C% $ C D % > 2# +/ & + !! " $ )$ $$ " "1 )/# " $ 1 7
!! # * # ! + * # + #
7! $! / *
&" $ #*# !* # " $ C' ( C% * $
- # + +! &" + # *$ #
+! + # + ' Q +3" * "$ "$$; $ 3 &" " +" # + # $ " &+ # & # 7! # *$ # +
Modal verbs # ! $ & &" # +" +! & ! $ & + ! $ +$$/ & &3 F" ) 1 8 % : % % $ A % $ % : A % $ '(=
)
. % $ % : A % $ &" #+ # &$! * * * # +! +" + ! $ & /$$ *$ & * #! 7$ /# #! C ( - " $ # $ * " "$ &# /# ! $
# & * &F" J 0 " " *$ # ) 530 +! 6 &$/1 C% CD % ( C% % $ C1 $
Non-finite forms # * 7 &" +" +! & & $ + & *$ & +! + # &" ; $ + # & $ + ; +! + # & # &" ; $ + % /$ & % % $ % # &" ; $ " " /$ & % CD % CD % $ !$ $ # 0 +! &"% * # 0
7
" ! $ & /# /# C% CD % $ C D % % $ +$$/ # & $ /$$ # $ # $ &$! + ! * # "" "#" &/ * 0 & $ & " &$! + +! "" + &#
The active and passive voices # "
+! + $$ &" & # $$ " $ # " +! ++* $ # " + # )/1 # /$$*
& 7 #+ $ "*
&$ "# +! "7 + $
+;$ &" /* # *$ # # $ $$ "# # /#$ # "" + "
#$ $ & 3
# +! + #
/$$ " &$! # + # * &" bi /#"# + "$ # + *$ # '(>
)
# + ** 8 C1 $ C $ B!! +! # + " & +! +
8 C1 $ C $ # "!! ""!$" ! $ ! #
&
"8 C " $
Articles # 0 "$ &" # 0 "$ # * + ++ +! *$ # # 0 "$ " # ! & &$! "!!$ ! /# *$ $ $ " &$ 8 C I )+ 1 C1 $ 2# # *$ # 0 "$ # & & /# # 0 "$ 8 C $ C% $ # 0 "$ +! &" #*# # +! + 07 )al-1 *$ # + & " 0
$ ! $ + ; +" ) " I "1 # ! "!! &$! /# # 0 "$ +! +" +! # &" * " "8 2 ) 2 1 2 ) ) $1 ' $ ) $1 @ $ + / + "$ * " "
+" + # 8 C $ C $ +$$/ # &" # * +0"$ /# # *$ # * " " # " /#"# *$ # ! # "$ * " " " " $$ # 0 "$ &"8 C)
$ C' + ( $$ + # / ! !# # $! " $ ! '(.
)
! + / " " "$ # 0 "$ &" /#"# + $ $ 8 C' % $ C' I ! $ ' - $
Adjectives and adverbs F" +$$/ # &" * * !& # ! " &* ! ! 8 C1 CD )+ 1 1 & $
"!!$ &" # *$ # 7" + & + ! # 07 & + ! + 7
# 8 ; 7
# +; "+ &/ # F" & +! *$ # # F" +!
$$ 8 C1 $
Gender and number &" # / * ! "$ +! /#"# $$ +! / * / ! * :$ $ + +* #! &* " +! *$ 8 ' ( + $ % $ :$ $ + &" + +! & $ "# * ) /# O *$ #1 # + +07 + # $ $ ! $! + &" + !8 C% $ 4 +$$/* !& & # $ &" +! # + +8 C% #
$
Prepositions and particles &" # / $# + 07 "$ /# &# & F" + # "" /# # " *$ # $ 8 '(,
)
)+ 1
)+ 1 #
! # & $ +" 9 # ; $ + " 7
&$* 8 C% % $ 9 # ; $ + " 7
8 C , )+ 1 9 # ; $ + " 7
8 C' )+ % , 1 9 # ; $ + " 7
8 C% C%D )+ % 1 # #
$ & &" # /#$ + * +0"$ + &" +" !"# ! ! $ 3 $"* $ & *$ & * #
$ &
$*# # ! !
+ # "$ C% $ C% $ C% $ C% C D$ &" $/ +$$/ & $ 3 * *$ # )' ( % $1 /$$ $$ & + + # &" /#"# + !$ ! +! $ *$ # 4 7 ! $8 A ( A ( % I ! + % )# + # "
&" 7 9 $ 5& "$ 6 &$/1
Confusion of it and there # 7
, 7
! "$$; $ &" $" & # fee )1 & # "!!$ " *$ # ! +! $ &" # "" 7
&
+ # & ! * #8 C% # $ C) $ " # & # / $ $ # $$ $ " & # & 8 '(?
)
C% $ # / /# " $$ 3 $ ! /$ & !
. C D $ +$$/ # # " &/ # + "# 7
" +$ **
Question tags # ; * "!! $$ &" $" $$
! "# ** +! $* # $ + 5% (6 # &$! #+ /# ; * "" $ &
"" & $ $ ! # &/$ & # !$ + "# ** +! *$ # ; *
Subordinate clauses B$ " &
" &" & "F" $ $ $ +$$/ & # &F" ) 1 8 C% C%D $
# $ ) " " 1 ! " &"
""* * & #! 3#! # #3 + "+ # "#" + &" "$ # &F" + & $ "$ /#"# *$ # ! & !8 C % $ C " % " $
&" # / / + /#"# " # * + $$# + # " " $ " /#"# *$ # " $ & +! &" # ! $ &# ! " $ "$ 8 C% +" + )+ % +" + % +"
+1 '(@
)
Vocabulary # "; + " &$ "$ $ +0"$ + & $ # # $$ +8 $ !! $ !& + / *$ # &/ +! &" ! $$ * + ! $ "#" $ / "# " # & &" & # "!! ! $ * * &"
# +/ * $ * "! # & + # 0 $ * * # #$ & 7 " "; *$ # #* $ #
! " $ # +$$/* *$ # / !$ $* / &" "# #$ #! +
&$8 " " " " " " " ;
Culture " #*#$ * # & /$ # "# $$
" 0* # "# $ * * $ &/ " & * $ "$ &
# "#* !"# ! $ $ * # "* + +! # # / /$ ! + "#* /#"# / $" "
! & F" " + # "# / ! $$ /$* 7 ! +;$ ; $ # " + 3$ ;* * $ #*# # 7
+ $
! & " + # / $ * * * / ! B$$3 ; $ $ * * # $$ $ *$ # $
""3 * 5 "$$; $ *$ #6 ! & $ # # +0"$ /#"# $ & $ # " * /# +! $ "#* "# /#"# # "# 0 ! " ; $ # # )#*# 4 !#$* & "#$ &* 3 $1 #
/#"# $
" !#$* "# ! & F" $
+ & "# #$ # + +! $ $/ & 7 $ /# # "+ "# ! $ +! $ #$ $/
" +$$
! $* &$ " 2# # 7 # # & "# # ! 8 # "# #
! #$ & !!& # ! & "
"#$ "$ ** $$ $$ ! /! ! !7 " $$ $$ # !! + !$ ""$ # " $ !7* + # 7 " $ O $ * * "#$ " " '(A
)
! $ !$ & $$ "# )+ # 71 #$ ! 0!$ +
$ $ # /# & $ I" +! $ "# # "# * /#"# & / # # ! 5!#6 ! * # # # 5 6 ! * # /$$ # +/ &$! # "$ $ "# * ! & " &*# & & " " /# # / ) * "# ! # $ + /!
! * " ! 1 ! & /** & " ! " / $ !" #7 # * E" + $ ! ! & "" # ! + # & /$ / $ $" E" $ # $* # + ! & + # # "$ "# #$ &
/ + # $ !" "$ ! ++ ++ /*$
Written samples of Arabic Type-written Arabic
A direct transliteration fee qalbi lundun taqa' saaHa waasi'a tusummee traafulghaar skweer aw, idha aradnaa an nasta'mil lahaa ismhaa al-'arabee al-aSlee, saaHat aT-Taraf alagharr. haadhi-s-saaHa al-maqSood minhaa iHyaa' dhikra tilka l-ma'raka intaSar feehaa al-loord nilsoon 'ala naabulyoon gharbee shibh jazeerat eebeeryaa. wa-yatawassaT haadhi-s-saaHa 'amood murta®' ya'taleeh timthaal il-loord nilsoon. wa-bijaanib haadhi-s-saaHa al-ma'raD al-waTanee li-S-Suwar az-zeeteeya al-mashhoora wa-kaneesat il-qadees maartin.
'-(
)
A word-for-word translation # #3 ; & #3 3" $$ + $* ; + /3/ # /3 3# !3# #3 &" #3* $
; #3# $ #3& +$ # #3 ; #3 +!3# "!!! !! # #3& $ /#"# #3/ 3" 3# #3$ $ $ / / !&$ " $ & 3 #3" # #3 ; "$! #*# #3 ! 3 #3$ $ 3& # #3 ; #3* $$ #3 $ +3#3 " #3$ #3+ ! "#"# #3
An idiomatic translation # # + # & ; " $$ + $* ; + / / * $ &" ! # ; + + $3*# )# +$ $ 1 # ; / * 3 # !! + # & $ /#"# $ / " $ / + # & : $ * # " + # ; $$ "$! + /#"# + $ # ; # $ $$ + + ! $ * 6 B#"#
Printed Arabic )# 7 " +! # " $* + # D $ *$ # $ +! #
! " & 1
! #
& ' # $ + # D $ / !* # 0 & !& " $ ! # # + # * " # "$ # */# + # $ /#"# D $ "$ $ ! $ # " + # ! $ "& # !*" * # -A# " + # $3# + !$6 $ # + #
# ! &$ ! /# #
# $ '--
)
A direct transliteration qatar fee-l-'ahd il-islaamee kaan sukkaan shibh jazeerat qatar min awwal il-aqwaam allatee a'tanaqat ad-deen al-islaamee. wa-taareekh il-minTaqa mundhu dhaalik al-Heen yashmal numoow w-izdihaar tijaarat il-lu'lu' allatee la'ibat qatar feehaa dawran 'ala ghaaya min al-ahamiyya. wa-yaSif haadha al-qism min al-matHaf aiDan DHuhoor usrat Al-Thaanee fee-l-qarn at-taasi' 'ashar li-tatabbu' za'aamat ad-dawla wa-rijaalhaa al-afdhaadh alladheen khadamoo al-bilaad ka-Hukkaam li-d-dawla.
A word-for-word translation 3/ # & !&$ " $ ; +! 0 #3 $ /#"#
#3!& " #3$* #3 $ !" 3# #3 " # #3! #3"$ */# 3E #* #3 $ /#"# #3 $ ; 3# $ 7! #3! " 3#3 "&
# #3 +! #3! ! $ " + !$ $ # #3 " #3# +3 #3"" $ # #3 3!3# #3; /# #3 #3" 3$ +3#3
Handwriting difficulties: samples written by two Arabic-speaking beginners
'-'
)
'-=
Turkish speakers #!
Distribution OP I BP: $* # K $ * * + #/ $ *$ "3$$*&$ /# #
Introduction # " $ * * " / +! / #/ B# & # * #!* /# # + !$ /#"# $ # # 3 * # !" # #+ + ! $$ ++ +! &# 4 &" #*# # # &/ # $ +! &# /$$ +! 4"# " -A'@ # # & / !0 + # ! " # + " & 7 ! $ + # **$ + $ * * /# ! * " ! $ 4 " kuÈcËuÈmsenmemeliydiler )G
1 " & $ +$$/ 8 kuÈcËuÈk G )0 $
#1 mse- G n- G
<E7 me- G * meli- G
ydi- G ler G # # /# O / & / " $ 8 ) 1 !0 &+ !0 F" &+ & &+ &% )&1 # 0 & # + #
" 7 ! $ +! $ "" ! * K8 Yeraltl
suyundan
duÈsËuÈk dereceli
B
cËlkartan
lsl
pompalarlndan
lsl
banliyoÈlerdeki
'->
bahcËelerde kaÃrll
bir bicËimde yararlanllabilir.
$ ! +$8 1 #
$ $ "# #/ / /$ + ##! ! # * " E/% # "
+07
/ ! "$ /# /# /#! * $
+ / # #+ 0 *$ # / $
$ #
*$ " #
* !*# ** & #$
! F
!&$* &$" $* "! $7 "
Phonology Vowels -
# # / giy " * 7! *$ #
&/ # <e< <{< # + & <e<8 + >
"# # " "
3 +$$ + # $*# #
&$ " # ""
+$$ + <j< , <@< 0 # ; $ # l /#"# #/ #*#
# E" + $$* # + *
/$ #
$8
? 2# # ##* <eI<
* $$ ! "" &$ *$ # # # 5 #6 + <@U<
-( / "
$*#8 <stI@< + % +
Consonants -
# + 7 ! $ &"!
$ # & 6 " # $ $ / " *
/ /# #+ 0 # / "+ *8 + % + > <ê< $ "" &+
#
! *$ # ! " & 7 " &+ /$ )5 6
Consonant clusters # # " ! $$/ $ "$ / "$ + ! # # " $ $#*# ! $ / # $ * /$ )* istasyon G 1 # " /# * *$ # # /$ + # 0 " 8 + % + I
Rhythm, stress and intonation # ##!" + *$ # /# "#3
$$ &$
#
$$ &$ /# # " /$ $ '-,
+0"$ + # " $
/# $ +$$
!"# "" 2
7 # /
# 0 $
$$ &$ & ! &3+! 9 "$ $ * 9 # $
& ! $ & 0 $$
$ ' , ' , ' ; " &$ &$ ! ! &$ + *$ # # * /#"# / " # !
" & ; / ) "# kim G ne G nicËin G 1 $$
# /#
# $
*$ # + " $ ! # /# *
$ # #+
'Where ( + ' 'going? "$
7
+ $$ "# #
$$ &$ *# /# $*# $*#* " $
9 !"# *$ # *$ # "# " " + # # * "# +#*# #/
" ! $ # !
8
$ . O %
$ +0 1 $ $ + !$ # + $$9 /# " + / * "! $
$ "*" + +! 8 @ ( ' " % $ $ $
# 9 "$ $ ! 9 0 # !&
3 * 4 $$*9 * "" # & ! $ *
# * + "$ # 0 $ "$ * + $$ #
+ " *$ # # $ " + "F" 8 %Z " %Z " %Z
" %Z $
Punctuation # ! + ! + # " ! $ &$ 3
" $ * * & / / 8 - "!! $$ / + # " + " /#"# + # & # &F"8 C& " ' & "$ $$ ! ++ /# "!! 8 ' '-?
= >
. ,
" * /# # ; $ + 1 % % !$ 7
"!! # "$ ki )G 1 /#"# * 8 C1 " "!! + / "3 "$ 8 + " " * /# CËuÈnkuÈ )G 7 $ * /# # * &+1 ! $$ + +$$ + $ I#/ # + # +$$ * #* " !"# *$ # B$ *$ # & $$ +$$/ & " $ $ !3"$ $$ D "# + &/ *$ #3 $ "!! &/ X Y ! I+ ; *$ / # "$ # ) 1% #" ! $ ! & + &/ X Y ! # 9 /# *$ # !*# 3 $ &$ 9 #/ & " $ $ "!!
Grammar Word order # 5 &F"9&F"9&6 $ * * /# ; $0 "
; $0 " " "!! & " ! & +! # $ "!! "# $$ /* $$
F" $ #/ $* " # & # ; $ + *$ # +$$/ # # ; $ + & 3 * "F" +$$/ # "$ $ & +$$/ $7" $ & ;"$ $ # + ! $ + *$ # /
$ ! $ " & " # +0"$ ! "! $7 " # + &F" /# #
$ &
&$!8 C% " % $ " /# 5 3 *6 $ " &$8 $ # &$ * "* " $8 1 ( %
'-@
Verbs: general # # & #/ !& " " ! ! $ $ /$$ #+ & + # "" & 7
#*# "# * & +! #*# # *$ # +! #! $ " * +0"$ # &F" 7
/# # &% *
To be # & # # ! $ " $ $$ * 7
C& $ # # ; $ + " & )$ # *$ #
"1 /# 0 &F" 8 C )+ 1 C- % " )+ - % " 1
To have # " # ; $ )4 " # # + % $ $ $$ @ 1 # & &* /# ! $ * &$!
Questions and negatives - , * * " " # & * "$ "$ # & 0 &#
# + +0"$8 C- ( C% # # ; $ + *$ # ; * ! $ &$ 7
8 C- " (
Time, tense and aspect ++" # " * + # *$ # & +! $ # +$$/* +0"$ 8 '-A
- ! # *
$ /# & "# + # & $ " 8 C% $ %
' #
#/ $* #* # & ** # # ; $ +
8 C% ?
= # " &$ +0"$ /# # !$ $" + "
# 7 *$ # + +* # + 4 " #
! $ ! & + # + " $$ ; ++ ! /# +* " &$ "! 8 ' ( - " % $ C O 0 C) BG> > # *
# " " ! & "+ 8 C% % . # +" & * + #
! $ " /# &* +! # & $* ! $ $ * 8 C
K44 $ C% " %
Modal verbs # # "! # + ! $ & /#"# 7
!$ ! * # *$ # ! $ "$* +! " * " "# % , % '
, ' #+ & $ + !$ /# # ! * 7
& # *$ # ! $ )#*# # ++3 " &/ " +0"$1 # # !"# " + # *$ # +! #/ /# # " "3 $ /$ " * $ + &$
Conditionals $$ # & + " $ /# # "! $" # # # $ +! + $ + # $$
+$0$$ &$8 C% %
? % )+ % % ? % 1 ''(
The passive voice :
"" $ +0"$ & " $$ # *$ #
# "$! # $ $ +
*
7$
+! ! $ " + +0"$ $ * "+ "# " C& 5=34$ B! $7 +! $ # *
+"
" "$ +0"$8 C/ $ C& # + ! "0" # *$ #
"8 C $ C% I$ * # "9
# + *$ # # !& + & /#"# " & &# $ )/# #
* &F"1 $ )/# # &F"1 % , % + ,
% % , "
$ # # & % ! #+ 0 "+ * #
! & &# " "!! ! 8 C' (
Participles and subordinate clauses *$ # " $ "$ " * ++$ +! # # ; $ $ * &$! "# + # +$$/* 7
" *$ "! $7 " $ & +! #8 $ $ $ , , , ,
, " # # +! #/ ! # +0"$ ** *# *$ # & "$ )* " "# " " 1 ''-
C% % % %
Relative clauses # ! "!! # ; $ + *$ # $ "$ " $ " " $ " &+ # # $ $ * "F" CËalõsËtõgÏõmõz guÈnler . . . $ $ $ CËalõsËtõgÏõmõz mesele . . . $ $ $ CËalõsËtõgÏõmõz yer . . . $ $ $ *$ # $ " #+ +0"$ + # $ # ! * #! $*# ! + ! 8 C % ( C% 9
Nominalised clauses *$ # # + / + ! $ * "$ #!
&F" &F" "! $! # 0 # +
" "# # +$$/* +0"$ " &$% # #
" "# " 8 % to go$ % she went$ Her going $ % she went$ The fact that she went $ % for her to go$ % her going$
Nouns # *$
& # #/ !&
" # $ $ $
# *$ # 9 "$ $ /# 0 *" + !&3/ $* +! # $* ! " 8 C% " $ C% $ C' $ C
'''
4! + +! # + "# #*#$ *$ # # " &$ &$ /# *$ # / +!
Pronouns : $ !"# $
# *$ #8 # &F" 7
$ + ! # " " #
&F" " /#"# ! $$ * # *$ # & "# *
I&F" $
:
$ ! $$ "
" # 5
6 +! + # ! # $ # "$ 8 C' " $ C " % $ C2 $ # # $ #3 "!!$ "+ #
8 C& $
Articles # # 0 "$ /#"#
/"# &/ F"
! $ * * + +
* 7 $ 8 C%
$ C $ # "#" &/ , +0"$ + #
" # $ &/ " &$ " &$ $
# $ / # *$ # 8 C% "
$ # # 0 "$ & " &F" ++ +!
""* /## # 0 ! * #
" * $ /# $$ 0 " &F" $ * ! "# 8 C* $ C% @ $
Adjectives B! $/ ! #8 C+ $ ''=
Quantifiers # 5* < 6 " , ,
& # /# # " &$<" &$ " , C% # ++" &/ % %
+0"$ + #3 *
+ # $ "!!$ "+ 8 C " $
Adverbs & # !+ & $$ " $ +! F" #8 C1 $ 1 " & #8 C1 $ C ( 0 &$! 8 cËok sogÏuk ""* "7
" * "+ # *$ # +!
Conjunctions !* # "F" # " " $ +0"$ + #
$ $ $ I+ #
! # / " &# "F" *$ # $ * "+ &/ + "
% % % # $ $ $ I# * + / /#"# ! # *$ # ; $
)" * "+ " "7 *$ #1 8 % %
B3 "$ + F7 /# "F"
# $ * $ 8 C D ' " $ C D % " % $
''>
Prepositions : # " "+ "$ ,, % , % ,% , % , , , , % , , C + ? C% & $ C% $ !! $ # $*# #/ * ! $$ C1 $ C+ / $
Vocabulary # $ $7" $ "!! * &/ *$ # # & + &/* +! 4"# "# en¯asyon )G I 1 kalite )G ;1 ! + # / + $ + 9 + " sempatik )G "1 kontrol )G 1 $ &$ " * +! &! &$ * # $ " ; $ + ! *$ # & " * + 3;3 ! *$ # / "#
+ # # " ! " $$ "!! "+ 8 ,
, , ,
, # , , , , , , , , , , , , , , C #D # &$ #* # % " % )+ $1 7 !% /$ "! %
" / % ) ! 1 ! # % $$
F"
''.
The language classroom " # $$ & + $ # ! "#* ! /# # 7& # "#
7 " & *# $ 7 " "#* & " # # " # + * $ + $ * !! /# +0" ! * $$ ! # ! & $ " # $ * $ & ! !
#*# # # *
/
+ $ * * $$ # + "+$ 7
* $ /# $$ $ * * B!!" "#
$ * * "#* ! "! & $$ # " $$ /# # &"! #
" # $ "# $$ ! " "! ! I"" $$ # ! "" " + # #!3 $ $" & # "# #$ F # "" ! + # # ! $ #*#$ # /$6 + #! # / ! !! $ /# #/
# $ * * # * ++" &/ # / $ * * !
$ *$ # *$ # ! &$ /$$ * ! $ /# !"# & " " &$ +03 "$ 2 "! + " # ! "! $7 " " # " & +$ "# &" "! ! # & 5 6 #!
'',
Speakers of South Asian languagesB# # # "$
Distribution :O : Q & : $ +"
O
Introduction ! 7 ! F $ * * # " + #
&" # + $ * * + # ) !$ $ $ ! O $*1 !!& + # + !$ # # $$ 3 $ * * !!& + # & "# + # 3 + !$ /#"# +! # "$ # $ $ * * + )1 : ) 1 *$ # )* $1 $ ) $1 )# $ 1 #
$
)#1 & ! ! * $ $ * * + : )F
# I
! O #! # : F &1 $ + # $ * * # & & !* # + # /$ # O*! / # $ * "!! + + * $ F : F & )! + #
$ E 1 !$ $ + # $* + # $ *$ # # &"! 0!$ &$ # # # /# " "!! + *$ # /$$ # & 7 " E" #*# # ! $ / /#"# # $$ # $ * * # # + # "! *$ # " & $ !! + 7
& # /# # #*# $$ + " + /#! # ! * + # $ * * ! # *$ # /# 5" " 6 &/ # / * $ # /# # * * + "!! 5 *$ #6 B#E * # & # " + + / +! # $ * * # # *$ # " /# ! &$ * + +! #*# # &" -
# +" # "# # 3 $ * * + # # +$$/* "# + # &$! + + $ * *
''?
+ + )
!* !!* )#*# &$ /# ! * $ " $$ + ""1 " +! # "# # + /# !" $ *$ # + # " + + # *$ # "!! ! $$ + # 3 $ * * ! $ + # ! "$ "& & +* # " $ 7 ! $ + /#"# # "$ # "$$; $ # # ! /$ + #
&" & +0" $$ + $ # *# + # + : # $*3 &$ # + *$ # # "#$ + #
&" # &$! " & $ $$ & ! $ ! & # " $ # # # "$ $ * * & "* # "# $ " $$ /# # * $ &$! # + # $ * * )/## #
&" 1 ! " + # "#
# *$ # * !$ )# $
*0" +
/#"# ! " &$! + + $ "$ # $ * * "#* # + *$ # " $ & $ /# "# + # $! K1 +" " $ $ 6 ! #$ & # + !/ ! $ # # *$ # ! / # *$ #8 ! " +! # "" ! & +"$ "" # # +! # # : $ * * /#"# / + # &" " $! # $ * * #
/ " / +! $+ *# " &# " /$ $#*# # ! $ # & ! $$ / ! F # $ * * # *$ # /* ! * $ &$! + ! # $
Phonology General # #$*" $ ! + # $ * * *$ # ++ ! " &$ # ++ !" * " &/ /$ " &/ " 2#$ *$ # # '' /$ ##* '> " # $ /$ #! & * # =( "
+ " " +$$ * # $ " + # *$ # $$
+ $ " /# # &$ + # * &# # # ''@
+ + )
+ ! " &/ ++ /$ 9 # " + # "$
"
$$ 9 # " + # *$ # $$ "
# # E7 " <`< <¦< 9 ++ ! +! *$ # ) &$/1
Vowels
i:
I
e
{
eI aI OI
A: ¡
O: U
aU @U I@
u: Ã
z: @
e@ U@
aI@ aU@
# #! # ; $ 3; $ ! # $ * * #$ #+ & " "$ /# +0"$ $#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/ - <e< <{< + "+ 8 ' <¡<
! /$
# ##* # ##* <@U< $$ " # "$ ! ##*
''A
+ + )
Consonants
p
b
f
v
T
D
t
d
s
z
S
Z
tS dZ k
g
m n
ê
l
r
j
w h
# #! # ; $ 3; $ ! # $ * * #$ #+ & " "$ /# +0"$ $#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/ - # "$
"
$$ % #
! $ # ' # +" "
+ $ " & #
<dem< + ) &1 > # $ # #! # +
# " &/ # / ! F +0"$ + $ 8 . ! # $ * *
$ ! & *3/ + ! $ , # $ * * $ " # #!
/ ) &$/1 /# ++"* # ; $ + # "* /$ A ! # $ * * # $ #! # + <s< <S< ! + + 7 ! $ * $ F 0 +0"$ * # &/ # / "+ * + / $
'=(
+ + )
Influence of spelling on pronunciation # " + # ! #" # $$*
$ *$ "" * " 6 " + *$ # / " ;$ 3+ #+$ # / +! 8 -
# ; $ + # "* /$ ++" : ! "!! + $ #! " &$
/ + ! * "$
" <¦evel@pe¦< +
# / + # $ $ ! & " <s< + " " $* /$
/#
#$ & "
Consonant clusters # * + " "$ ""* # &** + *$ # / !"# / # # $ * * "# "$ ! $08 - $ /3 *! "$ &** /# <s< ! & 07 &
+
" ' $ "$ + ! $ &$ & & & # + # # /$ <@<
# " 8
+
+ " = 4 $ "$ ! & !$ $ & ! $0 & # !
+ " 8 + + " > 0 $
" "! $ $$ &$ /# "$ /$ <@< &+ #
Rhythm and stress " +! *$ # /#"#
3! $ * * /#"# /
&# # $ ! $/ " &$ # $ * * $$ &$3!
" # '=-
+ + )
##! /#"# & ! $ # *! + $*
# $$ &$ 2
#! ""*$ & / $ $ $/ " &$ #
* + $$ &$ *$ # / "!3 #+ + * +0"$ + + # $ * * - #
+ $ " / ! & $ " $ "* + 7 ! $ +$$/* ""
* + # $ $$ &$ "$ $ "!! " "
' # * !! " $ " &/ /#
# 0
$$ &$ & /# " $$ &$
$ + + /
" " # " $$ &$ + /$$ & # !$ "+ &/ 9 "!&
+ "!& + F" /# # " "
* # +! = 4$$ /$ &
$$ &$ # &# # + "" # " + .# # $
"!! / ! $$ " " 5/ +! 6 *$ # $
!$ $ # +$$ 5 * +!6 $ $$ " $ $ *
Intonation # $$ * $ $ # "# " & # # $ * * # ! &$ ++" +! *$ # $ # + & $$ "# /# # "$ " ! # # ! " /# # ! $ *$ # "& +# # 5 *3 *6 !
+ # *$ # # ! $ +! # $$ &$3! "# " + # $ * * + # * # " $ * + ; *$ # + 7
+ ! # $ * * # "# "3 " * /#"# # + ; ! & 3+ $$ # ; $ # *$ # ! " $ " ! * : "$ $ $ ; 3 + !
+ !
$ &$ & " ##!
$$ "$ $ $$ " &$! + + # $ * * " $$ # " + / +! # " "* + "
! # "$ $! /# " '='
+ + )
Juncture # +" + * # + $ / +! # * $
+
# " ! $+ "! $7 " # + + *$ # $$ $+ "
" $ &$!
Orthography and punctuation # " E" $ + *$ # +! # # ++ $ # &" $ ! " # $ * * !3 #" $$* " /# # $ +;" # !! ! " # + " $ $ /#"#
* # # " # "
$ # ; $ + # +$$ &+ # " + *$ # * # # /#$ & + "!! "$ ; ! # $ / +$ /* # " $#*# $/ ! " $$ !$ " + " ! & " # $ + *$ # /# # "$ &$! # + "!! " "# " " "# " " + ! # $ * * ; "!! 0 " + #
8 C+ <
$
Grammar General # +$$/* " # & "! $ # & + # "
&/ *$ # # ! ! + # 3 $ * * 4 # "" /# + # # $ * * ! !$ # O*! ! & & # /#
& $ ; $$ # $$ " $ $! /# 7" # "$ $ $ : F & "# /$$ $ #$ + F #*# # $
+ * $ /#"# # $ !
#$ & # # $ * * + # #
; ++ * !! ) # +$$/* "# 1 # 5 + "#6 + *$ # & $ !$ #/ !"# ! #*#$ E" $ * * /#"# ! ! & "! /# # # *$ $ $ '==
+ + )
+! % F" $ " &+ % * $$ *$ ! + & "F* /#"# "$ ! $ *
"
+! % 7$ ! $ & % + )! $ " *$ # & # " "!
$* # + 7$ & 1 $ *$ # * # ! "$ +! # "!! )*3 $1 +! + $$ $ " ! + # "! $ +! + F" # / "$
" * # *$ # "$ + $ " +
# ! $ / /#"# # & $ " 0 $$ " ! + # ++" /$$ ! + # !$ +;$ " &$! + # $ + *$ #
Questions and negatives; auxiliaries - # ; $ + # 7$ 2# "0" * / ; ! $ & 3 9 + ++ +! *$ # 9 /
$8 C' % ( - % ( ' * +! & * * ! )/#"# " 3 &# 1 &+ # &8 C- CD ( # ! / , ; & * $$*
* * ; # +0! " " "+ 8 - ( - $ )G % 1 = # "!! ; * +" + $$ ; " + # &F" $ ! nicht wahr?8 C- & " ( # $ "! # *$ # ( > # " $ 7$ & # ; $ + #
& " * + & $ + *$ #8 C- )+ 1 1
'=>
+ + )
Time, tense and aspect ! $ $ * # # # & $ *
+" #*#
* "! $$ " $ *$ # - 2# # ! $$ * + "!! & "$*
/#"# $ *
+! # *$ # *
! & $ &
$* /# # # & $ +! /# # " $ 7$ 8 C' ? ' # ! $ ! & /# *$ # /$ + # +"8 C+ )+ + 1 = # +" + ! *
+! # /# # +" & " +! + ! # ! $ *$ #8 C )+ $ $ $1 > # "# /#"# $$
# * $ + * & 8 C1 )+ 1
1
! $ $ * # # *
+" / "!! + "+ "" # /* + # *
*$ # - 2# & $ *
+! # *
! & $ & $* /# #
! $ +! /# # " $
7$ 8 C'
)+ '
1 ' # *
#/ $*
+ ++ # & ** 8 C1 ? ( C+ ? #
'=.
+ + )
# +$$ + + # !"# ! +$ # *$ # 7
# + & &$8 C- )+ - 1
Conditionals " $$ + + # # " $ "$ & + $ $* /# # +
&F"8 C% " )+ % $ $ $1 ! " ! & + # ! $ # " $ "$ /$$ # ! "$ 8 C% " )+ % $ $ $1
Modal verbs # # " ; $ ! *$ # ! $ & ; "$ $ $* " " & # +; ! ! "# # *$ # "$ #*# 7 #
* + # " !8 C'
)+ '
1 # +; "#" + +" * & $* + * $
# # +! $*
# + &F"8 C*
)+
$ $ $1 !$ $ + 8 C' )+ ' 1 B $ +;$ ! & # + $ " + 8 C1 )+ 1 $ $ $1 + " 7
+ & ;
! & "3 /# + ; ! & * / 8 C- )+ ' (1 B! 8 C% )+ & % (1 '=,
+ + )
Q& + / #* &$ &$! ! # $ /# + # *$ # 0 + & # + & "$ " # &F" & + 8 C% % )+ % $1 C% )+ % $1
Non-finite forms *$ # # &# 7
# + & $ /# # $ *$ 0 B+ &/ # / *$ # +! "$ $ "!! 7
* # + /# # !$ 9 + # 0 +$$/ & ; $ 9 ! & ! 8 C1 ? )+ $ $ $ ?1 B $ # *$ # 0 +;$ $ " + +!8 C+ )+ $ $ $ 1 C' )+ $ $ $ 1
Reflexive verbs ! E7 " /# # #
!#3* " 8 C9 $ ." " $
Word order $#*# ! # $ * * ++ +! *$ # # * # # $ " # & # + # " # + " $$ "+ 7" " ; ) &1
Articles # + # *$ # "$ + # ! +0"$ + $ * # # $ * * # ; $ + # 0 "$ $ # !& 56 " '=?
+ + )
! + # 0 B+ " ;$ +; *$ # /# $ + ! # "$ " $$
& + # 0 "$
Gender, number and case * !! " $$ # ! "$ +!% 7" /# $ 7 "" # "$
0" # $$ $ ! * # +! + + #/ * F" & ! $ ++ +! )5 *!61 ""* # * + # ** # # * +!
$! & #/ # "" $ ) &F" &F" "1 " : * # + *
# # 9 # ; $ + 9 & ! $ ! * $$ * # * " &$! *$ # + # $ +0"$ * #* * # # *$ ! & $ & "! + # ! "$8 C% )+ $ $ $ 1 # *$ #
" "$ $ $* # + &$; " +$$/ &
# ! &$! + # $ $ * * $ #
" /# *$ # + /# + "! $7 $! 8 C )+ 1 :$ $ + +! & # $ + # 0 $ /$ & # + * $ * * + ! "$ ! "# * # ! $ +! + # $ $ # ! "" + # "" $ * + +! *$ # $ $ # $ ! ++" &/ *$ # # + /# " $ $ # ! " "+
*$ # 2 $ *$ /# ! # " &$ *$ #
$ $8 C $ C1 $ :$ $ + + *$ 2# " $ $ $ # ; $ + + #!8 C' )+ ' 1
'=@
+ + )
Adjectives and adverbs F" " # # ; $+ *$ # # / $ * * # "! &$ + ! $ & +/ "!! + "+ #/ 8 - # " $ +! + # "! $ +
& * ! $ " " + # 8 C # " ;$ ! "+ # + # *$ # "! $ +! &$ +! "!!8 C1 ' ! #
! " &/ +*
& / & # *$ # 8 C% )+ $ $ $ 1 = # F" & +;$ * + & ! #  C1 " )+ $ $ $ 1 C9 " )+ $ $ $ $ $ $ 1
Prepositions and particles B &$ +0"$ " + ! + # $ * * & $$ +! + * "$* #
3 " /#
$ ) % 1 /#
#
$ & C1
1 + # ! "!! "" # ! $ $$ + * # /* & $* /# # # /$ & $ * * $ "! &$ 7
I$ +/ + # ! "!! "+ " & " #8 C% )+ $ $ $ 1 C )+ $ $ $ 1 C+ ? # )+ $ $ $ # 1
& # * " &F" *$ # $ /# 8 C' $ C $ C% $ # 0 $ $! + #
$ & $ $ &$ "+ 8 C1 )+ 1 $ $ $1 '=A
+ + )
C1 )+ 1 1
Subordinate clauses # $ * * * $$ $
+ + "! $7 & "$ # *$ # +* ! $ $$$ " " +03 "$ #+ $$ 7 " & $ + *$ # # $* # ! "! $7 + & "$* $ " "# # # " " $$ & & $ $ "$ /# + # " "8 C' " )+ 1 C) " )+ ' 1
Vocabulary *$ # $ / $ * !& $$ # $ * * " $$ "" /# ! "#$* # $$ * #$ $ + *$ # /# /$$ &$ / * $ + " &$ /# $$ "# $ / #/ !! $ + &$ & " *$ # # &" # " # & *0" $ "# * &" # / & $ # *$ # &" # "$ $" $ 7 + ! * + # " * +/ 7 ! $ /$$ ! # + +0"$ /#"# ! # ! + # !# $$ &/ +! *$ # & # " # + & *0" $ $8 ' + A % ' + )% ' + )% ' + . " !$ $ hotal # ! $ ; $ + # *$ # &
$ "$ " +Z furlong / " # " " ! & " # " /# + " / # # 7 crossing # roof +
! # & " * + # /#
* & 6 # /# # / 5/ /$$ #/ ! & " 6N
'>(
+ + )
Culture + "# * " ! # E" + # "$ + # * " "!! + + # $ * * $ # &" # $ " + # "# + # / / $$ ! "# " " + $ +! # *#&* " ! # +! $ " $ / / # & " $"$ ! "" /#"# ! 0 # " /# # "
! # "$$; $
* "# ! 0 # $" +! +! $ $ $
# $$3+! $ "$
Samples of Hindi and Urdu A passage of Hindi printed in the Nagari script
A direct transliteration and word-for-word translation ek
din begam saÅhabaÅ ke sir
menÇ dard hone lagaÅ
I * ! #& 36 # unhonÇne launÇdõÅ se Ç
kahaÅ ± jaÅ-kar
3& ! +!
bulaÅ laÅ.
kisõÅ
3& &*
5# *3*
hakõÅm ke yahaÅnÇ se
mirzaÅ saÅhib ko
K #&
davaÅ
" $$ &* ! " 36 # +! !" laÅenÇ.
daur , jaldõÅ kar.
Ç )#1 ! 3&* # ! 6 mirzaÅjõÅ
ne kahaÅ ± cal
K F &
abhõÅ
launÇdõÅ gayõÅ to Ç
/ #
aÅte hainÇ.
begam
5 F 3/ )/1 "!6 * !
'>-
+ + ) saÅhabaÅ kaÅ mizaÅj
garm thaÅ. itnõÅ
taÅb
kahaÅnÇ
#& 36 ! # / 3!"# " /# ki
unke sir
menÇ dard ho aur pati
# # # kheltaÅ
rahe.
shatranj
& # & "#
cehraÅ surkh ho gayaÅ. launÇdõÅ se Ç
$ * ! 4 " &" ! kahaÅ ± jaÅ-kar
kah, abhõÅ
+!
calie,
nahõÅnÇ to
5 *3*
55 3/ $3#!3* vah ap hõÅ
#
hakõÅm ke yahaÅnÇ jaÅenÇgõÅ.
# # " 36 # /$$ *666
An idiomatic translation I * ! #& # # "# 5 " $$ K #& 6 # $ # ! 5 #! * ! ! !" +! "6 $* #N6 2# # ! / #! K F
5I++ * 6! F "!*6 * ! #& / + / "$
# /# # * # "# /#$ # # & / $ * "#
H + " E # # $ # ! * $$ #! $
*# / #/ #6 * # "6 # $+ )4! @ 9 & :! B# 1
A passage of Urdu in Perso-Arabic calligraphy
A direct transliteration and word-for-word translation ab
savaÅl
ye uthtaÅ
hai ki
agar vo
Ç / ; # * # + urduÅ vaÅle
hindõÅ ke muta'alliq aur hindõÅ vaÅle
/ $$ # 36 & socte
hainÇ, aur agar in
#* + '>'
sab kuch
thõÅk hai jo
Ç # $$ !#* *# /#"# urduÅ ke muta'alliq
/ $$ # 36 &
dononÇ zubaÅnonÇ
kõÅ bunyaÅd
masnuÅ õÅ
# &# $ * * 36 + 0" $
+ + ) aur ghair-®trõÅ
hai, to
phir is
kaÅ kyaÅ
sabab hai ki
in
dononÇ
$ # # 36 /# # # &# zubaÅnonÇ
kõÅ din ba-din taraqqõÅ
ho
rahõÅ hai aur in
kõÅ
$ * * 36 &3 $ ! # 3* # 36
maqbuÅliyat avaÅm men barh rahõÅ hai? Ç Ç
$ $
*/ 3* H
An idiomatic translation # ; / # + $$ # # # & # & "" # & + &# # $ * * 0" $ $ # /# # # &# $ * * $ * & # # $
!* $ */*H )4! 1 N 5J44 B # "$ $$1
'>=
Speakers of Dravidian languages: Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada, Telugu !#
Distribution I O :I $
# +" ! Q ! # B && % # !$3 * "!! ! # + # /$
Introduction
+ # &$! + " & + $ * * /# # $ *$ # # /# + # # $ * * 4 $ + # * ''?9'>= / $ * * **$ $ * * $ #% # ++ " $$ # #$* ! #$* 7 +! # 3 $ * * + # &" # " *$ $
"!! /# *$ # # # $ * * + $ * * #+ " !& + $ &$! /# $ * *$ # # "# $ /# # *$ # + !$3 * $ & # ! * $$ $ + + # $ * *
Phonology Vowels # !$ /$ ! " + 0 + # $* /$ 8 <Ã< >
+
B!! &$! 8 - *$ # ##* & "" $ " ! $ " / # /$ /# $ *$
Consonants - !$ " " $$ & " /# E7 9 #
/# # + + # * "$ & " "# # + # # $ # +3! + + 5
""6 & "$ $ * !$ ' $ * * # " # !
# *$ # $
= # + ! $ *$ # " &/ " "
)*
" !$ /# $$ " " & " " # $ " &$ "+ > !$ " 5*! 6 &$ " # 5 *$6 " ! & +$$ " /" ) + / " $
1 B *$ # # " #$ ! $ # .
7! !$ ; $ $ # # $ 6 " ! "! "$
A 4 $
$ " # $ " 4 $ <ê< *! <êg<8 56 '>.
+
-( # ! " *$ # " &/ $ 5"$ 6
Syllable structure; consonant clusters !$ # + ! " "$ # + " !$3 * $ # &$ /# #
" + *$ # / !$ / $$ " $ ! /
Stress and rhythm # &$! $ *$ !$ # + + # # $ * * #/8 - !$ # "
/#"# * $ $$ &$
/# $* /$ "$ $$ &$ * *! " 3
& #
' /# # $ *$ # $ *$ +! * / 7
! " "# / #
" ##! !*
Morphology and syntax General !$ ! #$* 5 **$ *6 5"" *6 #
* !! " $ ! " $! 5 " 6 ;"
+07 / !8 [azhitta:rgal.]
9 +07 9 $ $ +07 Q
$ # + 5/6 #+ # #
! !$
*$ #8 !$ / ! " $! # *$ # /$ & 7
& $ ++ / &$** ++ +
"# # & &/ + "# #! $
!/# E !$ ! # " &$ +0"$ '>,
+
* * "" " # "!! $ " # * !! + 3 $ * * "# " ! $ 73 $ F" & % * # / /#"# *$ # / " "$ "
Word order and sentence structure 0 " !0 $! )& 5 $ 6 &$/1 Q&
"! # + !$ " ! & " 7$ /#"# " $ &* ! ! !$ " " & +! /# 0 & /# 7
&F" &F" # ! "$ $ +" + ! $ " + * "+* *" /# 3 * " ) # 7 # + # "# + 7 ! $ 1 $$ + # + ! & E" $ 6 *$ #
Complex sentences B! $! "$ " ! "$ !$ $ # "#
"3 " " /#"# & 7
& "F" *$ # ! & " # / !$
7 ! #+ $/ ! # $ #
7 $" B $ " " "$ &$! " &/ 0 30 +! $/ "$ 3 " !$ " #/ "! $7 $ # 0 & ! % $$ # & /$$ " $3$ +! ! " # *$ # * +! + 0 &
& "$
Indirect speech *$ # " "# " ++ +! # !$ ; $ $ ! 0 #! +0"$ *
Relatives !$ # $ # !$ ; $ + *$ # $ " $ * "$ &+ # ) # $ + 5 # 6 5 6 + 5 # 6 5 61 '>?
+
#+ 0 *$ # $ " +0"$ !
* #!
Interrogatives and negatives 0 # *$ # + 7$ + ; *
/ + ; # $ )D ! !$ & * "$1 D * ! & $ " & *$ * ! 8 - " (
Tenses !$ # "! $7 ! + /# ! * #
$/ " "$ $ # + # *$ # ; $ 4 7 ! $ # 5+ 6 " 7
# & $ "F" / # !* # #* C% % $ )+ ' % % 1 C/ # $ )+ / # $1 C % $ )+ % % 1
Articles !$ $ " /# / " $$ "$ #*# ! / " * ! + # + *$ # "$ :" &$ $ 0 # "$ ! +0"$ " $ ! $ * + , $ * 7" ! ! # " "7
Emphatic and reflexive pronouns !$ # ! # " E7 ! $ * $ # *$ # ; $ C' $ C % $ C% $ C $ C+ " $ '>@
+
Adjectives and adverbs # ! & "+ /# "# # /# & ) ! & + "#1 !$ 7
"! $ ! * & " $ "$ & "# * # F" F" & " $$ + ! #
Hierarchy and honorifics !$ # $* " " + " * # $ +
# ! +$ /* #/ # *$ # !
! # # !
* !#*
Speech and writing # * &/ # / * $$ $ * * # ! $ $ + 3$ & 3+! $ $ / *$ #
A literal translation of a Tamil text, with a normal English gloss This one man-of one day-of (adj.) living.
# + ! 6 $*
You (hon.) having-dared-being-if having-done-being-able small-nesses,
#
# !*# # "!! + # compel-being-forced-being-if having-shown-being-able daring,
# * !*# # $ + # & +" having-wished-being-if having-received-being-able diseases,
# !*# # * + #
having-touched/taken-being-if attained-being-possible disrepute/shame,
# # ! !*# # "# + # $$/ $+ & "# these-indeed that-man life.
# # ! 6 $+ '>A
+ That-man-that next day (acc.) about we knowing taking need-not.
# + 0 & # 7
Why-asked-if that-man-to-also ± us-among many-to like-indeed ±
" + # ! 9 + ! !* 9 tomorrow different-one day-indeed!
!/ #
) * F 1
Reference #! #! ) B &
:"# -A@A
'.(
Speakers of West African languages :#$ **
Introduction # $ * * + 2 +" ! + $ * $ $ * 2# "# ! ++ !# *
+ $ # ! $$ ; $$3 *&$ # /#"# # "# ! /# * # ! # $" / $ /$$ & + " * $ * * $ /# ! $$ ! # & / / $$ 4! *$ # $ * * "#* + / ! +$ "$
+ # + 2 +" ""* # +0" $ " $ * * )*$ # 4"#1 # " $ * * # $ * * + *! $ * 7 + " &F" $" $ $" $ # !! + */* +" $ " 4"# "$ $ *$ # "!! * * + / ! # + # !# * 4 # # "#" + *$ # 4"# +0" $ " $ * * # * E" *$ # "#* ! $ !# # # !# * + $ "# $ * + # $ + $! " $ +/ / + *$ # $$ # /# # # $! " ! *$ # $ "" $$ /# $ $! "! " # #*#$ " $ "
$ # #! ! $! 7" #
/ # + * *$ # " $ "# *$ # " # / $" + * ! 7 $ * * $ "* " *
" !" $$ * *$ # *$ & ! 2 +" $$" $ # $$ +0" $ "* /$$ & " # #*# /$$ & E" ! + # + + " * !! & + ) # !"# + #
*
+ / * +! $$* /#"# # " 1 # *$ # + 2 +" "$ * # !& ) $$ +! # "$ 1 $ & '.-
+ ' )
/#"# # # " $ $ / /# # B ! *$ # # # ; $ /# 4"# & "" $ / + 0 " ) & '. " + # $ 1
*$ # # + " # ) +! B !1 "!
$ * B# * $ # B 4 * # " ! #/ * 4"# E" *$ # $ & ! # $ * * &
/# 4"# "" # *$ # + " # " " # /#$ + 2 +" 7" + 3
&" $ 7" ! 7 + $* !* $ !" $ "#E # &3 # # ! ! + # !# * *$ # 2 +" ) +! *$ # & 1 +$$/ 8 . / 8
4$ # # P& # #/ & # #
& &$ # ! ! #*#$ $ + $$ 2 +" $ * * # & *$ E3 " & &" # $* $ & #/ /# # "& ! ! * $ *$ # . B8 # * + $ * * )! $ / 4 1 # # # # + "" / ) $$ " 1 # # *& # # # . + * 8 $$ *$ # 4/ & ! $ O # / ! # # # )G
*1 # # . B8 2$+ # . * 8 $$ *$ # & ! $ + # $ * * $#*# # E" + # ! 0 " $ * *
&$ $ & " $ 2 +" &$!
+ $ /# # *$ # * !$ # &$! ! & $ # +" + " & +
# "!! ! 2 +" $ * * "# $
"! $ ! $ /$ ! $ $ # $ ! +
+" + *$ # $ "!! "$ $ + # * $ $ "$ $ *
# /#"# ) " $$ # +!1 ! # # "$ + 2 +" *$ # "#*
'.'
+ ' )
Phonology General 2 +" $ * * # +/ /$ # *$ # +/ 0 $ " " "$ # ! *$ # /$ ++ & 2 +" ! ! 0 $ " " ! 2 +" $ * *
&# $ $$ &$3! # + * 2 +" *$ # F
&# !* )/# $$ *$
$$ &$ !"# + ! # 1 )/# / & !"# $$ 1
Vowels -
!! +# "+ /# <eI<8 +
!!
' <e< and
$$ &$ $ # " *$ # / # $ ! * "$ ++" + 7 ! $ &/ " # 0 0 "$ " 7! $
"
Consonants -
+
" ' <ê< "!!$ "
+ ' )
& / "+ &/ + 7 ! $ %
" > Q" 0 $ " & " # "* /$
#8 +
% + % + % + " . B "$ " +0"$ " $$ /# 0 $ /#
! " & !8 + #%
+
% + " , 4 $ "$ "# " " " $ &$! #
! + +0"$ "" F" 4 # # + * $ "3
# " + " "# /#"# # "! 3 # ! # "" /$ "
Influence of spelling on pronunciation # $ & ! /$ # #$ & " / "!!$ * # +$$ +! ! $ & # $$* ! $ & # E" + $$* # " "# / & " /# <¡<
+$ + " !# "#* ! "#$ 8
% % "
Rhythm and stress 2 +" $ * * " $$ $$ &$3! /#"# *$
++" # ##! + 2 +" *$ #
3! "#
$$ + !$ B
% did I green red ( $ " $
Intonation 2 +" $ * * " $$ $ "# $7" $ ! +
*$ $$ &$ /$$ # 07 ;" + " + "7 # # "" + "$ $* /#$ " &* " &$ + + #
+ ! #
; * # + 2 +" *$ #
$ *$ $! + , ; + /# #
" 0 $ + $$ + ! 3; I# '.>
+ ' )
$ # 7" !* # #*#$ " +# +0"$ /# +" ! /# 07 # & 0 *$ # " " $! !
&$ * # # *$ # # " + # !
Punctuation # # # # # /$$ + "+ ! "!! + ""$ &+ "#8 C1 " I# "!! ! * + " $ "!! &/ "! $ " )+ ""$ $ /# "1
+ " "0 2 +"
Grammar General /$ & +0"$ + " $ ! $ +$ * $
& # * !! + 2 +" $ * * & "# + *$ # 2 +" ;"$ " # "" + " + ! # +$$/* $" / #*# # $ & !# * +" $/
"$ * $ " $ +
Verbs - # *$ * # + 7$ # ! $
" +; &$! 8 C+ ?" $ C1 $ C1 ' "!! /# & # " + "F"3 8 C%
$ C1
$ ? , ; " !$ 8 C " ( = # 0 +! +
" &$! 8 '..
+ ' )
>
. ,
?
C1 $ C1 $ C% B#" + +! " ! &$! :3 *
+! ! & /*$ $" /# " + *
8 C% $ C% $ C%
# +" +;$ ! 8 C%
$ C% 5=J4 # +" * $$ & $ " + 8 C% $ N $+ + # + # & $ "8 C )+ 1 % % ) * % * % 1 & /# # " " +! % /$ & !
Modal verbs $ & $ +! + $ /$$ # /#$ #*# !" )* ,, 1 /$$ 8 & & # 7 + 8 C% % #$ C/ $ /
+ +$$/ & 8 C-
Nouns, articles and determiners - # ++" &/ " &$ " &$ /$$ ! " &$ /*$ "$
08 C' $ C1 !$ ! "" /# # 8 * ; ' I# ! /# "$ ! ! & $ "3
&$8 '.,
+ ' )
= >
.
,
C ) ! + ! $ "$ &
1 C $ C1 + + "" + * 8 C% # 0 "$ + /*$ ! /# ! $ 8 C & ( C1 < @ $ C + ) 1 7
+ ; + ! * 8 C $ C- " % $ C% * $ "+ # * ++" + !* 8 C $ CB $ C ; "
Intensification and comparison -
! & "+ /# 8 C 0 C1 ' ? + 8 C "
= + + $ +! $ 3! # " $ ! 8 C% > B! ! & + +! 8 C )+ ; 1
Pronouns - 1 + + #! +! $ + ! $ 8 C%
' E7 + + 8 C
= " /* # " ) '.?
+ ' )
# #" " 1 ++ / "! $
"$ # $ + /
Subordinate clauses +! " $ " " &$! 8 C% % " C% " $
( # # !$ +! &$! "!!$ ""$ + +* # +8 C%
' ;" + $ " "# /$$ 8 C2 $ C% $ C% " ; * # +! " 8 C% $ C1 "
"$ & +$$/ & # ! "$ % "$ " / +0"$ 8 C) " % $ C1 " % $
$ "$ "!!$ " &$! " $$ # + 8 C % $
'.@
+ ' )
Vocabulary and culture 2# *$ # " $ * * +* $ * * &"! ! 7 # + # 3 %
# # / E" # # / "$ +" #! $ # + # " $$ # " + # "# "$ ! / $ # *$ # # + " ! # 2 +" " *$ # #
$ & " "# " " / % " " &$ * $ 7
" ! * $ + * !! % ! "# /$$ 0 +0"$ "* #/ + * 5""*6 " + ! #! "+! # # ! #$ + 7 ! $ "" % 1 )+ 1 1% ' % " $$ + /#"# "!!$ 2 +" *$ #H #$ " # * + +! $ $ /* ** /#"# * 2 +" "$H "# ;
! #*#$ & &$ 2 +" $ * * "# & "$+$
* +" " ;" & $ " *$ # &
* ! #! + ! & +
&$ # * + 0" &* # + $ "! $ * + " $ $+3! ! 3 $/ " /# 7"
+ # " "# & "" B#" + &$ 0" +" + $$ + !$ /# &F" / " +! #
+ / /# " 0" + $
&$ #
" # 7 " # -A.( + *$ +" $ *$ # **
&$ $ & # $ * * + !"# + +0"$ F " $$ # "
!! " $
'.A
Swahili speakers $$
Distribution U OP IU D B! ! $ / I! U !&
U
Introduction / #$ # ! ! $ * * +" /# $ ,( !$$ I$ ! / #$ # !# *8 ! " # +# $ * * / #$ # $ $ * * + K + # + +" $ $ * * + U # +0" $ $ * * + O $ ! $ ! 7 B $ +" /# /$ &# $" $ $ & " * !& + / # */* $ " "# " # / #$ / !** $ * * $ # # " # & &$ * +! # O $ # $ * * &# / # +" " # # ! / #$ "! +! # &" / sawaÅh il ! * # $ * * " !& + / + &" * / # $ * *
$$ +" / #$ &$* # + !$ + $ * * /#"# & ! +" # + $ / *#$ +! $ B ! # / / # # + Q" % +! # + Q" "
! $ / #$ "! $$ " $ + $ * * ) &$/1 & # ! /$ $ * * &$ " +" # /# # # $ * * $$ # ! * " $ ! #$3 *" $ "# " " " + # ! + ! + # & 3 ! & / #$ # "# ! & $ # $ * * $ * * # # +$$/* "# " " 8 ',(
+
- / $ * * $! $$ +!
" + 07 $ ! # 07 /$$ " ! " * /# "$
# 8 mtu G watu G kiko G viko G # !& + "$
$*#$ +! $ * * # / #$ # ! 0+ "$
# +/ # ! # $ * * ' @ $ * * # ! # " # # / # " &*# "" $ $ # /# # & ! + +07 " $$ / 7 ! $ + / #$ /$$ +0"8 Kisu kile kikubwa kimevunjika )$ O O O 1 G $ Visu vile vikubwa vimevunjika )$ O O O 1 G $ = ) $$ $ * * # **$ * ! #3 $*" $ " )/ ! " * !! " $ "$ 1 / #$ 7 ! $8 wameshindwa wa G me G < " ! shinda G ! + # & kushinda ; w G
!
)! *
; 1 > + $ * * # !$ !8 9 $ * * $8 #/ $ $$
& +! ! $" + / #$ 9 :#!" $$ # $ * * $ ! &$ !$ + #! # #
! 0 /$ #! ) &$/1 ##* # " ! $ !$ 7" # ! + # # $ * * # &/
! O#
5"$"6 / #$ # &/ ! &" + / + &" * # # ! + #
$ 0* "# " " + $ * * /$$ & # # ! ++" &/ / #$ # # $ * * $ # +/ / + &" * #
&/ *# /# ! " $ " + $ # ! $$ !& + "$
# " $$ # " / #$ ! & * " $ $ * * # "!!
# +$$/ & / #$ 6 +0"$ $ * *$ # /$$ #+ & $" &$ $ * 7 + # $ * * /$$ ',-
+
Phonology General # ! ++" &/ / #$ *$ # +$$/ 8 9 / #$ # $ 0 /$ " # '' + *$ # 9 *$ # # '> " % / #$ # '@ 9 / #$ "# $ /$ /# " "
$$ " "$ 9 / #$ $$ " $$ &$ /$ 9 # / $ * * # ++ ! + /
9 # !/# ++
Vowels # /$ # &** *$ &$! + / #$
$ * *$ # # 0 /$ + / #$ +$$/ 8 ) ,i< # $*#$ #*# # # ; $ ,e< *$ #
*$ # ; $ ,o< # !/# &/ # *$ # <¡< <@U< Q $$ $$ *$ # /$ ##* ! #+ " &$! # " + / #$ $ # / #$
# # " &* # * *$ #
# &$! "! & # $ ! $ * #3 * # + *$ # # &$! ! & !! "$ & # * !8
','
+
/ #$ #!
<e<
*$ # #! ) :1
O /
# # & 4 + + # * ! & # )+ * $ !" 1 :$!Z )-A,?1
# *$ # #! <@< ! +! # * ! # ; $ / #$ ; " $ "" / #$
* # $ ! *$ ! $ & # #* #" !&$ # * !*# & 3 " <{geIn< "0" " " * +0"$ "$8 ,i:<
,{< <e< ,{< <Ã< ,{<
,z:< <Ã< ,e<
,¡<
,e< <eI< ,U<
,{<
+
Consonants $$ # *$ # " # # *# ; $ / #$ 7"
+ " > # +$$/* " ! ! $" + / #$ # $ * * "+ " 8 ,g<
,b<
,dZ<
!
Syllabic intrusion and addition B "$ !"# / #$ # *$ # / #$ #+ # " "$ /# 5 6 /$ / #$ 7 /$ " * " 8 ,ekIsplaneISon< + # ,sItIrenITI< +
Influence of spelling on pronunciation " # *$ " " &/ #* #"
!&$ / #$ # / $ $ ! $ & # *3 $ + *$ # $$* # &$! + $ " &$8 ',>
+
- $ $ ! & " * $ ' "" $ /$$ &
* / # $ $ * + + "
Rhythm and stress / #$ $$ &$3! $ * * /# *$ #
3! $ * * " ;" / #$ * $$ &$ *$ # $! ; $
2 +! *$ # &
! & * # * " / #$ "!! /# $$ # $ * *
# $! $$ &$ + / B *$ # # " $ / $ '" '" ' "
Intonation / #$ # " $ $/ + $$ /#"# " *$ # /# *$ # $
$/ "$ + / #$ + 7 ! $ * ; *$ #
Grammar General 4! # " + $ * * & /$$ $ &
# # " $ ++" &/ # * !! " $
! + *$ # / #$ # "$
! !3 " **$ # $ & + / #$ $ # !& + 7!$ "!" $ E" $ " + * $$*
* + * !! " $ ! * Aliweka kalamu mezani. )G 1 C D 1 A
#
* !
li
weka
kalamu
meza
ni
! $ &8 8 8 $" ! !
',.
+
/ #$ # #* ; $ # *$ # 7$ &
! + * ; " * ! $ " / #$ # "$ # * ! * *$ # # 7 " ; $ / #$ /#"# $" +! "# # # 7 ! $ & )mezani1
"$
"" + !$3 $ E"
"$ 2 9 3Q3I 3Q3 I3I 9 ! $
#
! )
! & ; 1 & / #$ $$ $ * * " $ ! # $ / + "+ * & *$ #
Questions and negatives; auxiliaries - # 7$ # ; $ / #$ #+ & ! !8 C1 $ C1 ( C'
( ' !! "
$8 C? % % $ = - , ; ! $ & "# * + #* #" $$ & # ; ! 8 C ( > D /# ; / +$$/ # # 5 ! J * 6 # 5* J !68 C1 ( C' ( . / & "# * &$8 C1 ; $ C $ ) $ # " 5"$ ! 61
Time and tense ! " & # +$$/* ! )07 18 - 3na38 : !
Watoto wanasoma )G
$ , 1 / #$ & $ ++ &/ *
! $ # / # "+ *$ #8 C $
',,
+
$ ++" & + " 3""$ & "#
" "
8 C%
$ C% $ # "!! # !
+ # 3 # # *$ +! + # ! $ 8 C $ & "$ -na- " $ & ! " # ! # "7 2# " *$ # #
$ ! " "#8 C
$ C. $ ' -li-8 : !
Nilikwenda mjini jana )G % 1 /$$ & & # # ! + # & 9 # " kwenda 9 ! "# * # $ /# " *$ #8 C% $ !! # 7$ ; $ # ! -li- "
7$ 8 C% $ I# &$! * # ! $ *$ # "$8 9 + # *$ +07 + *$ & 8 C + C
+ " 9 E"* ; * +! 8 C ( C $ 9 * # ! $ + # +"8 C' # )+ ' # 1 9 * # ! $ + # +" /#"# 7 / #$8 C D 1 / $ 9 * # + # + # 5 $ 68 C- $ C% $ :&$! $ +! # + & " -ka-8 Nilikwenda mjini nikamwona Moyo )G % " %
& 1 # 07 -ka- " # " +$$/ # +
;" + " ! + # " *$ # $ +# /$$ # # !
+ # "F" $ $ # + $ "!!" /
',?
+
" 2# ! & " " + ! $ # ! & # / ! / #$ 7 *$ #8 C% % $ = -ta38 4 ) $ # ! + +"1 Nitakwenda mjini kesho )G % 1 # , + +! & *$ # " ; $ + # 07 -ta- "$* "" /# # + +! *$ #8 C $ CN " $ # -ta- 07 $ / #$ "7 # *$ # ; 8 C% $ C& # $ # # # ! #
! "#
#$ & # / #$ " * "# $ # *$ # 8 C1 " % )+ 1 # 1 # # "!! /$$ # "# * +! $$ $ + " $ +! / #$
Aspect * &$ " $ ! & +! !
# " $ !& + &$! # $ * * / #$ ++ ! " # / " 3 $ !* # ! 8 - -me- # 07 " " # # & "! $ # $ + /#"# $$ $ # ! & $$$ + # +" *$ #8 Wanangu wame®ka )G & 1 / " 7 "$ /# # *$ #
*8 Chumba kimechafuka )G 1 Tumesikia )G '
$ , ' 1 # ! "" + / #$ "" $$ * # +" + # ! $ "# "7 B $ / #$ +;$ + $ # +" " $ 1 5=J4 # / #$ " # -na- 078 C1 5=J4$ ',@
+
# "!! # "+ + 8 C1 # 1 # $ ' -ki- " /# # -me- 07 # -ki- 07 " " # * !$ $ /# # " & "! $8 Tuliwaona watoto wakisoma )$ ' 1 ! ! $$$ " " *$ # $
"# 8 C
$ C1 $ C1 )/# ! & ! " # + # -ki- 071 -ki- $ " $ ! 8 Mungu akipenda )G % B 1 " # ; $ *$ # / #$ ! + ++ " $ "$ " $ !
"$8 C% % %
& $ C% % " %
& $ C% % " %
& $
Modal verbs $ $$ 7
& ! + & E" !& + ! "$*8 9 # + + 8 C)
$ 9 4 $ " "8 C% $
Other verb forms - # & $ +! / #$ #
! # 0 +! # $ ! &$! 8 C
$ C )+ 1 C
$ ' Q& # *$ # ! & / #$8 C) $ C+
" $ ',A
+
= Q& + #& $ / #$ ! & +$$/ & & /# * E"8 C1 $ C1
$ > / #$ & ! & + #
& ! + E"8 kupiga G kupigwa G # / #$ " ++ +! *$ # # ! &$! 8 C) $ C. $ C $ . D * "!!$ ! / #$ # ! $ * sivyo? )G (18 C-
" ( , / * ; " $ $ "! $ & 3 / "!!" # / #$ / ndiyo siyo + *#$ $ "" $ # * $
8 % C D # / * ; !*# & ! $ *8 + ( - $ )G - " % 1
Non-verb sentences # "!! / #$ * $" ! ! & ! $ " 8 Kikapu kiko jikoni )$ O O O O ,1 Q $ I+ # /# J 0 " $
" 8 C $ $ C
$ ?
$
Miscellaneous $$ # +$$/* & &$ / #$ +"8 C% $ C%
% $ C@ )+ 1 C% $ ' $ '?(
+
Articles and determiners # 0 0 "$ $ * * #
! &$! $8 - # !
+ "$ 8 C' % ( ' # + # /* "$8 C9 $ = B+ + 8 C $ > + # 0 "$ /# 8 C 9
/ C< $ B!! /# # ! "$8 - B+ + , , 8 C " $ ' + + 8 C) & $ = B+ + , , 8 C+ $ C $ > B+ + 8 C , $ . B+ + 8 C1 ( 1 $
Nouns $ * * "$
! ++ +! *$ # # ! &$! "$*8 9 + " &$ 8 C " ; " " " " 9 * $ $ & +! /# *$ 8 C $ 9 * $ $ # *$ 8 C " " 9 4 $ ! + # 3 * /#"# 7 / #$8 C
9 B+ + F" )+ #*# + $ #$*18 , " , "
'?-
+
Pronouns # &** *$ &$! # + $ * # &/ ! "3 $ +! +! /#"# ! / #$ # $ * * 8 C+ $ # ! F &$! # + + + / #$8 C! $ C1 ( # $ # ; !! ! # &F" 07 $ * "# 8 C% $ ! # " +! !! $8 C& % $ C& & $
Adjectives and adverbs F" " +$$/ # / #$ # +
F" *$ # " " &$! # ! &$!
"! $7 F" $ $* "! 8 Mtoto wangu ni mrefu sawa na wako )G & 1 # E" + "! $ +! /#"#
* $$ & / $ kuliko kupita # $ ! 8 C )# 0 sana
# ; $ + 1 C $ C1 % $ C $ +! # +0"$ /# & "$ &$/ # &$! /# & "$8 - I!
+ & 8 ) ( % $ ) !1 C% % $ ' 4 $ "! " " /# F" 8 C $ C% = 4 $ & +! 8 C $ I# !$ "$ " )+ 1 ; )+ ; 1 &* "# * &$ '?'
+
Prepositions and particles # ! / #$ ++ +! *$ # #3 + " * &$! - I!
8 C+ # # $ C1 $ C+ ' + "
8 C ; $ C' ( = + "" I ! F &$! # / #$ #
$" +07 )ni1 # ! * + /#"# ""* # "7 $ *$ # + $" $$ & "+ 8 mezani )G " " " " 1 nyumbani )G " " " " 1 mwituni )G " " " "
" " 1 # # &$! + # ! *0" &* # !$3 katika /#"# " ! " " " " " $ # # ! " # !$3 kwa /#"# " ! " " " " " 8 kwa miguu )G 1 kwa kisu )G 1 !* # ! "!! 8 C C C C
* C
C C C C $$ *$ # #
$ & $$ " &$! # ; $ $ * * # 5 $ & 6 /#"# & E" 7
/ &$ + $ # #
! / "! &$ & "" /# # $
& $ "$ *$ # $8 C $ I# & * "
"$ 8 C $ C' $ '?=
+
Subordinate clauses # ; $ + # *$ # $ / #$ # "" amba /#"# E" #/ "" $ *!8 Hiki ni kikapu ambacho nilikinunua )G 1 % 1 I + + # " # # & "$ "$ # &F" 07 -ki- # # $ $ $ + # "
% # "$ + # &F" &F" " ;$ "!! 8 C % $ C * P$ C % $
) # ! "F" / #$ na )G 1 /#"# ! $ "" # $ "!! "3 * "F"
"# juu ya hayo )G
1 kwa hivyo )G 1 # ; $ *$ # " "" # # "F"
# $ " $8 C+ $ C # $ C+ # $ ? $ C1
$ : + & " $ " &$! # $$3 0 sana $ "$ *$ # " "
$8 C % $ C % $ # ; $ + )ingawa1 )lakini1 &# ""
"8 C) $ C " $
Vocabulary # +$$/* & "+ ! # &" # "# # $ ; $ / #$ &" + ! " $ + # 8 '?>
+
,
, ,
,
, , ,
, ,
, C D , ,
, ,
, , ,
, , , , , , , , , , , ,
, , , , , ,
, ,
, ,
, ,
, , , , , , # +$$/* 7 ! $ + +" ! " *$ # "!! #*# ! + * &$ "" &$8
$ $ $ )G 1
$ $ $ )G $ $ $1 )G 1 )&1 * % & )G 1 )G 1 )G 1 )G 1 )G 1 )G 1 )G 1
Culture /# # *# +" /$$ * # # $ "# # / $ + # "# ! ! ! $ # # 0 # ! ! # "# +" "! $$ /* +" & $* 8 # ! /$$ # / $ +" $ * * ) $$ + #! 1 &+ # $ *$ # # ""
$ * *$ # '?.
+
* # ! +0"$ ; ! &$ # * "# /# # "# +" /$ /$$ !!& # +$$/* 8 - # * "# $ * $ + &# # "$ + # # " + $ * * + +$$/ !!& + ++ +! # !
# 7 $ # /$$ & # !"# ! /$"!* + * $+
$* $ /# # ! $" $ $ * * F &$ #$ "# ! ++"$ &
$$ #$ +! /#/#$ $ # /# $ +! # # " ' 4 ;"$
&$ & $" $ ; "3 $ $ #/ $ * "# # $ + "# # " !$ / /$ +$ # & + "" /# # F& # &# & & " $ + " 4 7 ! $ # /$ & " $ "
8 5$$ & # ! &$ 2# H6 "# # ! +" + # ! &$ # &*
! + # /$ "$* +" # $ "# & "# /$ & ! ++ "# "
/# ; & # 6 # $# + !$ " ! # #/ $$ =
* ! ! "" &$ " " ! +" " 4 7 ! $ ! +" " ** /# * # #
* K ! & #*# ++ I # # # # * # !"# ! "!! # /# ! /#! + $ + 0* * #$ & "$ $ # " $ 5"! #6 &"* /# # +0* > /# / #/* ! $ " + !$ 7 " #$ $/ & /$"! ! #/
* 6 * *! # ! $ 7 $ /# * + $ $#*# #$ &
# ! +" " * 7 "
! . 4 & $" $
I # " $!
* " #$ & " * ++" 4 7 ! $ /! #$
" +$$ ! $* #$ & &$ " 7" ! " # "!! &$+ !* * ! $ # " $
" +! $ #+ +$
I+ #/ # # ++" 7" +! $ "" # $$ " +$ & # # 0$ '?,
+
"" &$ +/ " &$ K #
" $$ +&
A sample of written Swahili with a word-for-word translation Hapo kale
paka hakukaa
katika nyumba za watu; alikaa
+!$ " $ " # + !% # mwituni au maguguni tu.
+ & # wakatembea
Paka mmoja alikuwa ra®ki
$ B
pamoja, na
ya sungura
# / + + #
paka akastaajabia
werevu
wa
# / *# " # ! "$
+ ra®ki
yake; lakini siku moja funo
akagombana
na
+ # % & # * *# /# sungura akamwua
#
kwa pembe zake. Sasa kwa kuwa ra®ki
# #! $$ /# # # # +
& +
yake amekufa paka akafuatana na yule funo # # " # ""! /# # )#1
An idiomatic translation $* ! * # " $ !6 # 8 # $ $ # + # & # " " / # + + # / & /# #!% # " ! # "$
+ # + & ; $$ /# # # $$ #! /# # + # # " # + / # " &* * "! /# # )4! ) % * * ) & : $7 1
Acknowledgement # # /$ $ # $3## + # B + +" * * * + # "!! $ + + #
'??
+
Bibliography $7 : )-A?'1 ) % * * ) $ & 4 #/ :
! " $ # I )-A>> -=# !
-A,,1 + B 8 *! &* )-A,, ' 1 * ) # *8 "# )-A@-1 + * $ & B ! &$$ 8 $* O* : $
$$ Q : )-AA,1 - + 8 *# 2#$ 2$+ )-A,A1 + C D 8 #
'?@
Malay/Indonesian speakers P P*
Distribution : B I4 I 4 I I4 P : B I4 :I I4 % # / " +
#! " + # $ * "# $ * + !
$ 3& "$ + $ !* # * $$ B# 3
* # & + # $ $! + +! #
$ & $ + B# !
$ # B" $ # I"
Introduction # $ $ < ) < 1 $ * * &$* # / * + $ * * +
$ +0" $ $ * * + # " 8 $ * 3 ! + +! $ $ 7
&* $ & +0" $ & # " $
$ ! + "!!" +
! $" $ * ! + $ # / " % + " !" #$ #" $
+
$ "!!" /$$ $ /* "!!$ $ < " " # *$ $ * * $ / "$ $ $ $ * * ! ! ++" &/ # / $7" " * !! " $ "#" + + " *
# 3 +! ! $$ $$*&$
$
"#$ $ &# " # $* " &$! # ! " $ * * # *$ # $ * *
; !$
'?A
&,%
Phonology General #
$ < *$ # #$*" $ ! ++ *$ # # '' /$ ##* '> " # $ 7 /$
$ # $ # /$ <E O z< + "
< # -A " ) &" *$ # $
!$ #
! + ! < * * !$ 7 *
# $ * *1 ! + # + + < /#"# *
5 $ < ""6 *$ # " &$/
Vowels
i:
I
e
{
eI aI OI
A: ¡
O: U
aU @U I@
u: Ã
z: @
e@ U@
aI@ aU@
$$ /$ ! " &$! ! 7 / # #! # ; $ ; $ < #$ #+ & " "$ /# * +0"$ 3
# #! ! " ! &$! # +$$/* # ! "!! "+ 8 - $$ /$ /# # 7" + <@< " /# ! $
"! &$ $*#8 , " , " , " , $ ' BE + <{< <e< <e<8 ! ,het<% ! ,enk@l<% ! ,grem@)r1<. = :" + <¡< ) 1 /# " &$ $ 3 * > *$ # ##* ! & $ /$ !3 ! $* !! # /# " &$ *$
'@(
&,%
Consonants
p
b
f
v
T
D
t
d
s
z
S
Z
tS dZ k
g
m n
ê
l
r
j
w h
# #! # ; $ ; $ <
#$ & " "$ /# * +0"$ $#*#
! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " !
&$! 4 $ "!! &$/ - # *$ $
" #! < ! "" $
6 " ' #
! + # $ $
$ <á< )$ # 1 *$ #
*$ $ # + "$ $$ &$ > < / " "
0"
8 5 6 ) 1 5 6<5 6 ) 1 5@6 )1 ,
+ / ? * $$ "
6 + @ # ++"
&,%
$ * $$
Spelling and pronunciation
$ < / $$ $ # / # "% # *$ # / /# # $$* ! "# # " " " &$! *$ # / " * $ / <
+;$ !
$8 ) 1 ) 1 ) 1 ) 1 "
Rhythm and stress 2
+ $! /#$ # +
$ 0 $% < + # # " + *$ # / + < # $$ &$3 ! ##! # ++" &/ * +
& ! $$% /# " *$ # # " !
+ ! E
4" / $! " # * *$ # 7$ & 3 " # +$$ 5/6 " < $ * *$ # $ /$$ + " " +! $ /# $/ "" ##!
Intonation D ** ++ ! & * $ * /#$ # ! #/ $$ #*# $ $/ 0 $ "# # ; $ + *$ # #$ &$!
'@'
&,%
Orthography and punctuation
$ < / # )! 1 " # 3 /* &$! + + *$ # < / + *$ # $* "! $7 " " " % /# # #! " " & 37 "
Grammar Word order
$ < / !$ # + *$ #8 &F"9 &9&F" " $ "# #/ # &F" ! & # / # ! & E" 6 ! *$ #
Number < E" + !& # " & ! $ $ & $" )kucing-kucing = 1 #*# # # + ! $ < # &$! &# /# *$ # $ $ *
/# #3 & *!% $ $ * "$ $ $$ & + !& $ $ ; 0 8 C+
$ C C C $" & " "8 C1 $ *$ $ $ +! + ; 0 !
$/ ""$ 8 C $ C C C
Countability
0" $ ! $ $ *$ # !
8 C
I C '@=
&,%
& " /#"# " & !
" " $8 C # C
Gender 7
* !! " $$ < I / dia ) , , 1 + #3 *$ &F" &F" !!
8 C2 # $ +
$ 1 $
Personal pronouns < + # /# *$ # /$ $! #" 8 C&
$ & $ %
? $
Genitive and possessive pronouns :
$ < " & #/ & & 3nya & # + $ dia ) , ,1 mereka ) , , 1 # +0"$ /# # ++ *$ # ! " $ 8 C
C 2 . C C C C
Relative pronouns
$ < # $ $ / yang /#"# "
# *$ # 3 K "# # "!!8 C9 $ C I '@>
&,%
$ ! & $" & $ 8 C %
Reflexive pronouns # $ $ $ + # E7 diri *$ # ! "! $" " $ ! 8 C) $ C $ C' $ C& " $
< % $ 0 #
Topicalisation structures < + *$ # +;$ ! # )5 " $ 61 " " & $ "* #! # &** + " " $$ # < 8 $
$ @ % ; $ CA % ?$ & % $ $ + " * /# # &F" &F" + #
" # # " ! $ +!8 + ? " $ & " $ & " $
It and there *$ # " /# # !! &F" +0"$ + $ # ; $ < " # / ada ) ,, 18 Ada
sebatang
pen di atas meja.
B ,1,% )"$
01 $ "# # "!!8 C' #
$ C) $ C% $ '@.
&,%
Articles/determiners # "! $7 + # *$ # "$ ! / ! + $ $ - < # "$ $#*# # ! ini )1 itu )1 " $ +"
! # ! * + 5#6 # + $ $ " ;$ # 0 "$ *$ #8 C1 #( ' ! /# < $" $ $ /#"# ! $ $ "$ /# *$ # $ $8 C% $ = # 0 "$ "$ $ &+
$ * "" + !
; # & " 8 C C > $ $ $ ! # 0 "$8 C&
% . # 0 "$ ! & + # 0 "
8
)! * 1 C
$
Verbs < & ! + !&% 7$ $! " " # ! 0"
$ # +0"$ ! * # "!3 $7 + # *$ # & #
Time, tense and aspect Sudah/telah/pernah " " "! $ # ! +
* & < # #* " * # *$ # " &/ ! $ +" # " &$ +0"$ /# *$ # +" & +! " $ 8 C% $ C% $ C% $
'@,
&,%
C*
% $ C% $ C%
< # ! $ & sekarang ) " 1 &+
+ & *+ " 0 # # ! + *8 C/ $ C1 $ C1
# " $ "$ akan < " + ! # &$! * * #* # *$ # +! 8 C $ C $ C + $
*
$ < 7
" )53#3 "
3+61 & * sedang<semasa/sewaktu/sementara /# & "& 3 ** " # *$ # +! ; $ & # 7$ 8 C $ C $ C 3 $ C $
To be Berada adalah ialah " # *$ # " $ % # +;$ $ Adiknya (berada) di rumah - , , , Fatimah (adalah/ialah) guru sekolah A , # " $ " # 7
" + 7 "8 Yusoff sangat gembira - $ )- , $1
'@?
&,%
#3* +" "+ /#"# +! "" $ +;$ # !
+ +! + # 8 C1 $ , 1 $ C $ , $ C $ , $
Non-finite forms 0 7 < # +! + "+ & $ 8 C $ C& $ C' " % $ C& $ C% $
Modal auxiliary verbs
$ < # &$! * # " $ +! ) "1 # "! $7 ! $
7$ ! + *$ # " $$ " < / ! ! $ /# "$ * / * + ! + /#"# ! & * $ < *$ # ! " $ " 8 - $ 9 !
- " ( 9 &$ @ ( 9 /$$*
+ $ 9 *! 1 ( @ $ 9 !$ $ - " ( 9 +0! 1
$ 9 ! & &$ @ $ 9 !
&$ & $ 9 " - $ 9 " -
$ 9 &$* <"! $ ! $ ! $ $*# * & & 7
# ! $ ! * 8 C& ) $ , % ) $ $ $ ) ) $1 C% + $ , & + $ ) + $1 '@@
&,%
C+ A$ , C%D A$ ) A$1 C& # $ , % $ ) % # $1 C& $ , % $ ) & $1
Active and passive I$ $ $ /*
+! ! +;$ # # ! $ * * /#"# # * +" +
" +!
$ #
+!
* $$ 4 # &"
+! ++$ # / $ * * < 0 *$ #
+0"$8 C )$ C $ CA +
$
Question forms and question tags ! $ 3; < $$/ # ++ + " 8 ; +$$3! ; +" ; B!! $ " $ +! < *$ #8 C) ( C' ) ( C' ( C' ( C' ) ( D * *$ # & " $ / +! (
(8 C+ " ( C " (
Negatives
$ < # * "$ " " " "! $8 C% $ C+
$ C $ '@A
&,%
C% % $ C1 $
Complex sentences
$ < / "! $7 " 2# $ #! # ! " #! /$$ ! + $ ++ &/ "$ BF"
$* 7
! & $" ! " $ 8 C? # $ C% # % $ C%
% ; %
$ " /# ! & & $ "8 C' % % 8 $
Prepositions "" # + # "" + & F" 7
$
" " " " " $ $ # +0"$ "# * # *# 07 7
$ " " " " $ *$ # # ; $ $ # +" +! & # + / ! " $ ! 8 C1 & $ %
$ C1 $ C1 $ !$ &$! ! /# & $ "$ 8 C9 $
Adjectives and adverbs ! & & + F" "
+ # E" + # !# *8 C- ; $ C) $ C% $
$ 'A(
&,%
B+ /# # + "# $ "" 8 1 $ # $ $ $
B!! /# F" "&* * + "! " $ +! $ < 8 C& $ C1 $ C1 $ C% " 9
Vocabulary and style Range and choice of vocabulary " < $ ! $ $ " * + " &$ * ! " $
"!! 7
+ + ! & " +! + 7
8 )+ 1% , )+ I 1% )+
, # 1 " # "& " $*3/
8 % )+ % 1% % )+ % 1% )+ 1 $* "!!$ #/ ! # < # ! & E" 6 + *$ #8 - $ C
Transfer 7" $ + &/* " $$ + "#" $ ! $ " +! *$ # < * * $* $ / &$
& ! & ! $ & # < $$* + /
$ talipon, bankrup, ekonomi, industri, psikologia
'A-
&,%
Confusions < $ # " &$ &$! * #* + *$ # / # # *$ < ; $ 7 ! $ 8 , % % $ , , C D
$ C $ , & $ , , + C D $ C+ $ ,
' $ ,
' % ( , ' $ ,
$ , % $ , % $ , - (
Culture and language $ *$ # ! &" /3 $* + *$ # * * /$$ ! + $
"! # +
$ " !" 0$ # # *$ # "# " 0* # "$
! "# 7 " ! 0!$ +
$ +! $ $ # /# $ 4! $ "# #$ $/
" +$$ !
$* &$ " 4* "# /$$ 0 # $ $ * * ! 8
#$*" $ ! ! $ # * !! # E7 ! " * !& # $" + /$
$; # / # +;" + # # "!& + " " # / "#! $" !
$ !# /3 * $ * * 4* ! * $ 7"
$ *$ 3
# #*# " * + $ <*$ # &$* $ $
$ *$ # # / ! $ * * "#$
+ 3#" "!!" / /#$ $ <
"#$ "; 7&
$ *$ # # $ * ! $" $ + *$ # #!3 $ 4*3" +*3 "# /# *$ # 3$ " ++" / 'A'
&,%
" $ # &"! # $ $ * * + "
$ # " ! /$$ "! /# #
"$* " $ /$$ & !$ # + /# $ # $ $ * * # ! ! + "!3 !" # +0" $ $ * * $" + &# " $
$ $$/ & !* *! +" / *$ # $ $$/ $ "+3 " /"#* &/ *$ # < "!! $"
/"#* /# <
A sample of Malay with a word-for-word translation # "$ +! $" $ / $ *$ # $ +! #
! " * &$/ Internet telah mengubah wajah
# "# * $&
/
perpustakaan dan bagaimana
" $&
pustakawan bertugas hari ini.
$ #
#/
Perpustakaan tidaklagi
# &
terbendung
! "0
oleh empat dinding. Ia telah berkembang ke ruang siber
& +
/ $$
# 7
" "&
Ramai pustakawan telahpun masuk ke dalam ruang siber untuk
$&
#
*
mendapatkan sumber dalam talian.
*
"
Sesetengah pustakawan
$ $+ +
pula telah membantu menyusun sumber
$ # #$
" "& + $&
melalui home page
* " #*# #! *
masing-masing. Pengguna perpustakaan kini dapat melawat
! !
$&
/ "
terkenal di seluruh dunia /#"# + ! /#$ /$
ke perpustakaan yang
$&
Mereka boleh membuat carian pengarang, tajuk ataupun
#
"
"# #
subjek dalam internet. Semuanya ini
&F" $$ dari
$
dapat dibuat dengan selesa
# " & ! /#
"!+
rumah atau pejabat dengan mengklik butang tetikus
+! #
+0" /#
"$" & ! 'A=
&,% ataupun menaip pada papan kekunci komputer
&
"!
Apakah antara perpustakaan dalam talian?
2# !* $& yang
Apakah antara buku
$H 2# !* &
terdapat di dalam Internet? Apakah pustakawan akan menjadi
/#"# 0 H 2# $& pustakawan siber? Ini
$&
/$$ &"!
adalah antara perbincangan artikel di bawah
"&H #
!* "
"$ &$/
# # "# * # " + $& #/ $&
/ # $& $* "0 # + / $$ + &$* # 7 "& "
$&
# * "& " $" 3$ " ! $&
# $ #$ * # ! $ # #! * & / + $ &$ + ! $& # /$ # " $ ! # "# $ "# &F"
"# # $$ # " & # "!+ + # #! +0" # "$" + ! * # & 2#
! + # 3$ $& H 2# ! + # & $ &$ # H $& &"!* "& H # !* # #*#$*# + # "$ &$/
'A>
&,%
A sample of student's writing
'A.
Japanese speakers #!
Distribution : O /
Introduction & &$ $ O
&$ "# *$ # $ B# ! & " 7! #
$ * * #*# / $" $ 7 *$ # 0 "# #6 $ * * # $ I + # # # & " + "
" ++$ # / $ * * # +$$/* + *! +! ! * K $ / + / *$ # $$ # $ 6 &$!8 * "
# C D $ $
7" $$8 % $ # +0"$ & * * !! " $ $7" $ #" 6 $ * * * $
# $ "$ & " + # / $ * * 4 $ 5 " $ * *6 0$ * # 3+3"7 + *! + $* " $$ # * $ & # * 7 $ #
$ + &# 8 " &+ + "# " $ "$ " ; $ "$ $ "#" + " &$ * !! # " + *$ # #3 + 7 & /## # &* +0"$ ) 7"
$1 $ ! " &* #! $
* " $$ # "# & ! "$ # ! !& + / /#"# " #
! & / ++$ 9 !3 ! / * 9 # # &+ /# * $ # $; E "# #*#$ 'A,
2
% +
+
# " !!! & /# 50 #6 " # #
! K* &$ # # / "# *
! # #! $ # # * ++" &/ *$ # 3 $ * * # * /#$ & #
" /# $ * * $ * 9 #*# /! 0 $ 7 # $ * * "$
# !
Phonology General # # $! #" &# !& +
# & # $ 0 /$ #*# # ! & "$ $* # $$ &$ " ! $ )* $$ /$ J " /$ $1 # +/ " "$ $ #+ 0 # ! "! $7 "
"!& + *$ # # " # ! # * +0"$ "* "" $ /#
I+
"
; "! $" " /# + $$
* !!
"#" + / /$ & &$ #
!
" + /
#! # !&
#
$ +
*$ /# #
" "$ / "# $ F / !! & !! ! " $ ! + "#
07 " /# / #
* + ! # +
! & " *$ #
Vowels ! + # ! " &$ &$! + $ 8 -
$ = <@< &"!
2
. ##* * <@< " /#
Consonants ! + # ! " &$ &$! 8 -
#
'
)/#
$
+ # /$1 ! &"! <m< <ê< * "78 + @
+
,s< &"! <S<8 +
,z< &"!
Syllable structure and word-linking *$ # " "$ +0"$ + $ # + & #! & * # /$ /#"# $ 5 ++6 0 $ " + " ! & "
"$ $ " &$ /# # 0 $ "
2
Rhythm, stress and intonation # * # * *
3 & # $ $! $$$ &/ # "
! + # / $ * * # # ; $ + 5/ 6
+! + / $ $ ! + $ " # #
$$ &$ : " 3
$ "!! &# $ * * "$8 9 * # /#$ "#3 * + # " /# !& * / " + "
$/* * $ "!* % 9 & * # "#3 * #/ $! ; &# , $$ # # "30 $ ; "$ ka% # ; 3 * "$ ne #/ " + $$ #/ "0! *!
+ # $ "$ & *$ # 0 7
& & $ "$ # # *$ # + #*#$*# +! " )+ " * # +! /#"#
$ # +! +! /#"# / # $ 1 *$ # "3
#+ # & " " $ $ " & "$ $ " "$ 7 $ + #/ # + / # ;"$ $ /
#*# &$! ! "" /# "! /# / &/ /# "" " # "E" /# # *$ #
"# rekoodo ) 1
Summary # +$$/* " /$$ * ! + # E + # /$ " $$ &$ " /3$* + +
""8 $ $ L<
Orthography and writing $ * $$ # * +0"$ /# *$ #
$$* # /* # &" + # * $ ! * # /* ! )/#"# "!& B# 3 'AA
2
* ! /# $$ &" "# " 1 2 "
+ !$ ! # /# # $ *$ # +! +; 5roÅmaji' $ /#"# "!! + " ! # *
Grammar Word order 5 &F"9&F"9&6 $ * * D $0 " ; $3 0 " " "!! & " ! 2# " *$ # +$$/ # "$
! * & * "F" +$$/ # "$ % " "$ #/* * +0!
+$$/ # " $ & +$$/ $7" $ & $$ F" $ #/ $* " # & ! $$ 8 kore wa
nan
desu ka?
L " "$M )G ' (1 watashi wa
;
kakimashita1
kore o
% )G % 1 ano hito
wa
se
ga
takai desu
)G 1 Tookyoo wa
Nippon no
shuto
desu
2 )G 21
$ ;"$ * # & " / + *$ #
" : /#"# " " +0"$ "$ &F" /# #
$ & 8 C+ " $
" /# 5 3 *68 $ # &$ 3
* "* " $8 ' ( % -
# # / +$$/* 7 ! $ ; +! * B ! &$$6 @ ) $* -AA-1
=((
2
Topicalisation "!! + # " + " )/#"# ! & # &F"1 & " $ # &** 9 #
# *$ # " $ O
# " $ ! " $$ / *$ # " $$ + &F"
/$$8 C
) * %
1 ! " $ & " $ + "3 8 C% $
Verbs # & $+3" 8 7" + # " $ da )G 1 & " " / ;* # &F" &F" & 7
Wasureta. )G % 1 # " $ $ &F" &F" *$ # ( - $ '
$ # " $ + ) 5F" & 6 &$/18 C% ? *$ # 7
" # ! *
#*# "# * # +! + # & / # 3 / & +! /# 7$ & # 0 *$ # & # +0"$ " " B+ # + "
$ 7$ $8 C% $ C' ? # & "# * + !&
$ +* # *$ # #3 *$ C+
# + ; * " &$! ) ; + $$ ! & "$ 30 $ ka /# "# * + / % * #/ & "# * # & +!1 C- ( C $ 0 ; * "! $" ! $ + 3
&$ +!8 =(-
2
C- " ( C " ( : $ & + "! $" # + 8 C% $ / % ! # " $ +0"$ /# !& ; "# %
$ $ $ % ; $ $ $
Tenses $ * # #
! +0"$ # $ /# # "! $7 *$ # < " ! "3
* & * !! "$ # + # + # +8 C%
$
"" $ "+ &/ *
+" +! " "# ! # + # * $ $ * !
*$ #8 C+
Conditionals $ " $ )* % % $ $ $1 +! $$ " +! $ " $ # $ ! F &$! +
+ /# # # ! # !"# " + +!* $ " $ / # $$ # "! $7 # &$! + "" ! 8 # * # * $
/$$ " +$ 7 $ + # ! * $ "
"# # " $ ! 8 C% % " % $ C'
Passives # +07
& * + ++ +! *$ # +0"$ " "* *$ #
$ "# 8 CN 2 C% % $ C% 5=
$ C& $ C # =('
2
! &F"
& $
$
! 0 +0"$ " " " $ . 344
I # # #
" & ! " /#
&$ *$ # )+ " #
&F" " + /# ++" & # " & /# /$ & # " " &F" + # ; $ " "1 C1 )+ 1 1 C+ )+ 1 1 + # +! #
+ *$ # $ &8 C% ++" # / $* " 7
*$ # $ ! /# # 7
8 C% $ C $ #
$ /#$$ " #/ " 8 C' 2(
Complementation Q& "$ ! $ ! $ / & $ "* + #! + # "$ koto no # $
# # $ 0 "+ * # "#" 7! $0 8 % you to go$ % your going % the fact that you're going. %
for you to go$
Relatives $ 7 ) 1 ! & !0 & "! $7 # /#"# "! &+ # # # +$$/* $ 8 )G
1 )G % D % )G %" " $ $ $1 # ! # $ # +0"$ * *$ # $ " "* $ "$ # + ! $ =(=
2
* #! * + $ $ $ &* * $3 ""8 C %
$ C/
%
$
Nouns $ * "$
+ + B# * " $ +"
F" & ) * # +$$/* "$1 # " $ ! *$ #8 C $ C' "! +$ $ "* # $! !"# #
!
*$ #8 # " + ! "3$ * * $ $ )
1 # & # # *$ # $ " & * * #$ 8 C& $
Number and the use of articles
+* $ ! + !& + $ $
+07 ) * * + "1 & + # "7 !
$ $ "$ # * ! $$ $$ +* $ #+ $! # " *$ $ #/ $ $ " # " &/ " !
)" &$ " &$1 "* !& " &$ ! F &$!
$ "# $$ " &$ 0"" $$ " + / *$ # 7" +
"$ # !&3" &$ &$!8 C% 2" $
$ # $ 2 $ *$ $$ ! $ 7 + "#* $ $ "$ +0"$ # & ! +$ #& * &" # # & ! " "#" + "$ !& " $ "$ $! $$ 8 =(>
2
C' A $ ) $ C% + >
#
$
Pronouns *$ # $ # ; $ 4 " anata kimi omae kisama #
6 ! $ # ! !* # +! +
"# / "
" ! $" + * $ # # $ " + "#" *$ # + !&
# " $ + "#" *$ # "$ *
& + # !
* !& & # ! $ #3 & 7 ! $ + # &$! 8 1 ( - " % $ C " % $ $ $ ( - " % $ :
$
! # " " * 73
8 C+
$ *$ # 0 $ #
! +0"$ ) "$ # "#" &/ 1 + # $ C' $
Adjectives and adverbs # "$
+ 5 F" 6 /#"# &# $ *$ $ & 8 # " & E" #/ "8 yokatta )G 1 yokattara )G > 1 # " $ *$ # F" $ & $ # 7 + !* # " $ 8 C C'
+ # F" 5 &F"6 +* #
6 # 6 +$* $ ! % 2
( ! * 2
(
# 7 ! $ # F" kowai ! %, , - % /# #3 &F" /$$ ! , & %, , , # $$ $ "+ 6 + $$$ *$ # F" =(.
2
# * !! + " $ # ! + *$ # F" ! &8 C
$ !& + *$ # & " & +$$/ & F" $ "! $!
)+ " 1 # ; $ # 3 & $ "! $! 8 C% $ C% $ C% $ * # &/ * &$ 3* &$
F" ! & + * ! #
$8 C% $ C% $ B! $ E" 7 "!! ! 8 C% $ 2 /* # ; ' ( ' ( % #
! /% mae ! 8 C% $ C+ $ # !
+ " + F"* *
" /#"# * +
Determiners &$ ! + ; 0 "$ , , , , , , , , ; , +$" "$$" " $ 8 C% ; ? $ & , , " & " 8 C& $ + $
Conjunctions and complex sentences *$ # "F" $/ # ! $ 33 ; $ ) + " " $ $ ++ +! * /## # ""
F" & "$ * "!! ; $ !$ to * & " *$ # / 0 =(,
2
; ! #
" $ / mo " $ $ $ $ CD $ $ $ CD $ $ $ " ! # " #+ & 7 " # ! &$ # ! * # ! * + *$ # "F" "$ 3"F" + &$ 3 "$ :# &" + # $/
" # "$ 3"!&* $ + *$ # "F" # * " #! /# 3"$ " 8 C% $ %
#$ % %
$ + % $
Vocabulary # + " # $ * # " &$ + *$ # - $+ # ! $7" !"# + #" $$ ; # # ! * + "7 $ / &"!
"$ $ /# # / 9
!* # # $ /
# B# "# " # " # #+
"" ! $$ $ * " &$ ' # +/ & 9*$ # < *$ #9 "3
# ! 7"$$ = * !& + *$ # / 9 #*# + & $ "*
&$ +! 9 "# " $$ # &$ #! + $ "!!" $ $ ! * K I # ! #$ $ # " # $$ 9 sake "# " miso 9 # ! 52 6 * " ; 3*$ # ! 8 Lion # Pocari Sweat +37" # +/ + $ + $ konsento )G 1 $ " * $ ensuto )G 1 masukomi )G 1 /#"#
# "
! # # " I+ # $7" $ + $$ # / &+ # ! $ # & &/ " &$ * !! * # ++3 $ +! *$ # &/ " & # + " okiru ! kiru ! # ; $ + "3"" /# ! & /# *$ # F" 8 C% 2" % $ #*# # ; $ + I + CD /# "#* 6 =(?
2
# ! @ $/ +! # / ) ( - " % $ #
! $ /#"# # # "! $" + " * # +! ""* /## !
; 9 + # & + < " & "+ + # # + $ # & yameru " ! $ $ $
% #" "# & ! 8 C9 $ C% $ Itadakimasu 9
&+ * 9 $ * !& + " $$ 7
# *$ # ; $ /#"# # " + !"# !&
! $7 &$ + % $ $ $ # $ # *$ # !&
& ** "* "! $! Hiroi semai ! $
& $ ?
)! * # *$ + $ E " $* / 1 $ &$! ! $ "+
# $ * !& + *$ # / % #/ # " # + & !0 # # $* "*
&$ *$ # 7 ! $ 8
C D> C D> C D> C D> C D ! + # 5*$ #6 / 7
#!3 */ / 8
C D> C D
Style &$! /# # / / + # #*#
$$* *
* !! ! & + $$
3 +
& " # * + + !$ ! * ! $ "! # &$ # *$ # & " " # * + # ! $ "" " &$ $+ #* " + & " $ *$ "! + /3 #3"# " "! ! + # =(@
2
# "! &* * # $ # ; $ / " 2 $ * * % ! + #! / & + "$
$ ! +! # + # 2
The language classroom $$ / # A(^ 7 & .(^ $ *# + *$ # "#$ "$$* &
$ * !& * "#$ # * + 9 # *$ 9 & # &F" # /$$ &* #! ""
# " 7 ! /# *$ # $! $ * :
+ # # "#$ #$ " *$ # $$ &
+$$/ # ! "#$ # $ * " $ $
$ * * * !
$ # $ " *$ #3$ * * & " / & /$ $ &$ # 3 +$ " ++ +! " " /# *$ # & ** & #$ 0 3 $ * * *$ #3 * " 7 9 * # # $ #$ 9 ! "" &$ + ! $ # $ * + # +! $ /# "#3! $
/# !"# # # 5""6
/ $ * + * !! $ !3&3! ) # # "7 $ 1 " &$ # + +! " $$
+$$/ 8 /* * * $ *% /# $ * #
& * /# # " ++ # / !$ $3"#" Chokuyaku )/3+3/ $ + $ *$ # &K 1 !"# + $ !$ #*# "#$ "* # *3 * /$ *# # +**
$$ $ % & ! $ * * "#$ / !# *$ 9 #*# ! " $ ! ! # " & 5 # 6 &$"% ** /* " & " + $ # ! " $$ + + "$
!
/# * " $$ + ) # 1 3 / % $* #*# "$ /# "+" /# "! $$ " # 6 # # &$" /#"# ! # 52# # + H6 " + "
" & +$$ + $* +$
$" # 3 "# $ ! !&
!
&$ # #& **
" !$3 $ "
& ! ! ++ #
+ # /$$ + &$ # + / ** / # + =(A
Chinese speakers * B# *
Distribution :I: 6 : B I4 B 2 :I $ % # $ $ * "!! + B# #*# #3 I" # # !" & 0+# + # /$6 $ + B#
Introduction # B# $ * * # Han $ * * # B# " $$ "$$" + ! $" /#"# ! & "$
0 *# $" * ) !! + ++ $ * * 18 # B# ) $ / 1 2 * O # # P# ) B 1 2#$ # $ + $" # !# * + ! B# B# # B# # $" + ?( " + # B# $ $ * # & + ! B# /#"# # "" / $ * * + $$ B# # & !
# $ $ * * # B# $" # $ / $ * * & $ ! & " + $$ " $ $$ # &$! "
# "# & $ * "!! + $$ $" B# *$ # &$* / ++ $ * * + !$ )3 & 3 1 # ! " $ ++" +0"$ $$ * + *$ # $ * * $ * ! & 7 "
Phonology General # #$*" $ ! + B# ++ +! # + *$ # ! *$ # #! # B# "
# $ I# !&$ B# #! & =-(
@
" $ #! " # " "+
F" $$ + +0"$ * $ B#
0 *$ # # " # &$ $ * # $ * *
Vowels - # ! /$ " *$ # # B# *$ # /$ "$ "# # ! + +
"$ # B# /$ # ! # ! ++
; * # #! ' # " &/
! $ <{< "" B#
$ !
$ & "+ /#
! $$ * $ !! # # *$ # " #+ ! # # /# *# " &/ # / "! /$
Consonants - # # +
B# B# $ # " + * *$ # '
$ <w<
@
.
" # 1 /#"# 7! B# " , B# $" #
& <s<8 ! & " ?
Consonant clusters - $ " "$ $ "* B# " &$! # "!! $*# /$ &/ # " "* + " ' 4 $ "$ ! &$ ! $$ ! $ $$ &$ ! $+ # "$ )+ " & * # $ " 1 ! & "
Rhythm and stress " $$ &$ + $
+; B# # *$ # # $$ &$ B# $$ " ! !$ # *$ # * +/ #" "# * #
$
! *$ # $$ &$ * # /
$$ &$ +$$ # # " " 8 ' ' ' )/#
" <{nd<1 ' ' ' '? ' '* )/# &# ! # 1 2# " # "" # *$ # / +! #
!! 0 #! # " # # ! #!8 ' ' =-'
@
Intonation :"# "# * B# )# 5 61 ! $ * # / /# " #/ #
!% "
#/ $$ # *$ # + ++" # ! * + /#$ " #+ +0"$ + B# * + !$ /# # B# $ 0 #! * + ! " $ )+ #*# + $$* 1 $ $$ &$ # # "# ! E F 5 *3 *6 *$ #
Juncture # ! $$ &" + & " B# $ $ 6 * *$ # / # # F* #! !#$ 5 ! +
"#6 # "& # "" ++" + B# "" " &$ "" #
Orthography; reading and writing Spelling # /* ! + B# 3 $ # &" B# $
#+ # * +0"$ $ * *$ # $$*
$$ + B!! ! "$8 - 4 $ $ $$* " 8
$
$ ' :&$! * +! # $ " + # + $$* $ *$ #8 C ' = * +! $ 6 "" " 8 $ $ $
$ > I!
+ $$ &$ 8 C
Reading and writing $ # &" " B# $ /# ; / &$! + $ "* # / # +! 5 6 "# /
! "!& ! + # "! " * ! + =-=
@
B# $ / ! $ $ $* ! +
) " / ! " # B# 1 # " !"# 7 ! B# $ #+ $$ # $/ * *$ # $ # $$ $$ + 0"" $ # &" # /* # # #
&$! + B# $
Grammar General # " !$ &/ # "" " + *$ #
B# # *"
&$ *
#* 5& "6 /#"# 5*# /6
Parts of speech : + "# B# $/ +! $$ * # # &$ # "! # * !! " $ "$
0" #
! / ! + ++ " $ +" $ $ # # !!& # "$
+ *$ # /
# +" " # ! + $ * # $ / "# ! + # + "# " # + " # " +" " " $ & +$0$$ & / +! " "$
8 C+ $ C% $ C1 $ C% $
Sentence structure B# " + /# 5 " $ 6 &F" &F" /#"# * !! " $$ "# +! # + # " ) *$ # O % 1 #
$/ + ""
+$$ *$ # " " "+ " $$ + " $ &F" +$$/ & &F" )/#"# ! # " $ $ +"
1 C. )! * . O 1 =->
@
Verb forms B# 3E" $ * * 2# *$ # "# & "# ** & +! B# 7
& ! + & $ / "7 *$ # E" ! * $$ "+ * " +3 ; 8 - &F"9& ""8 C? $ C $ ' *$ & +! 8 C
I = " + "! $7 & +! 8 C $
Time, tense and aspect - B# 7
# "" + ! ++$ +! *$ # "F* # & 7
! $
# +0"$ # $* *$ # "
$ # "!!8 C%
$ C% $ C& $ C+ $ ' ! # # + $ !
# # ! + #
" ! 4 7 ! $ # # # # 5 6 " 5 !6 # #+ 0 KK$* " $8 $ $ = :*
" " +0"$8 C' ( )+ ' (1 C% $ > B " * " & 7 $ ! 3 " $$ /#"# " &$! & $ "$ " * + ! + 7 ! $ $ "
$ " /# # 5 6 ;8 C' $ C+ $
=-.
@
Verb complementation - I+ & "
8 C1 $ C+ $ ' : + "! $! " +0"$ + " $ 8 C% $ C
$ C&
$ C+ $ = "$ $ +0"$ + # B# ++ &/ # + 0 )/# /# 1 " $ " $ * I +;$ # ! $8 C% # )+ # 1 C% % $ C- $ C+ $ > F" & +;$ " $ B# # # & & /# +$$/ & " F" C% $ C+ $
Auxiliaries; questions and negatives B# 7$ +! ; * # + , " &$! 8 C1 ( C% $ D * ! * % ( % ( "!!$ B# # + " $$3 (, ( *$ #8 C1 " ( C- " (
Modals B ! * + *$ # ! $ # " ; $ B# ! $ " & $ # ! * /#"# # B# " &$! " 4 " % " B# ! $ yõnggai. ! +0"$ # " &$/ " # *#+/ B# $ 8 =-,
@
% $ ' $ I # /#$ *$ # ! $ " / * + ! * +$* # # B# " B# $ #+ #! +;$ # #$ ! + $ 7
# " # *$ # ! $ "% # /$ + 7 ! $ & $$
+" % # # % I "$ ! # B!!" *$ # ; $ +! + " ;
** /#"# ! $ $ " $ $ &* &$ ! $ )
" 1 ; $ B# + + $ "! $ /# # *$ # " ! & 4 7 ! $ # !
"# #* 8 - 9 $ ' - " $ = @ ( /# /$ ! $$ & ! $
8 - - $ ' ' " ( = @ (
Subjunctives B# ++ &F" +! " ! #+ $$ $ " *$ # &F" 5 $ 6 & ! $ 8 C% % " % $ C%
#
$ C% $ C% $
Relatives *$ # $ " +0"$ + B# $ /# +
! $ * #! " /# K )* # 1 " " "! # &$! " $ ! /# $ " "$ # !
+ +0"$ * 8 C
$ C % $ C% =-?
@
Passives B# $ + # &$ ! * *$ #
" 8 C $ C' $ :*
+"
"$ $ +0"$8 C) $ C
Articles # "$ B# 0 # #! " $ ""$ # ! ! "
"$ 8 C* $ C% $ "
8 C1 $ C1 $ "+ # + 0 0 "$ 8 C[ - $ C1 $
Gender # * " # +! + # B# 8 + 7 ! $ # #
! B# $ + + $ ++ #! *$ #8 C% " $ C $ 1 ( C2 $ 1 $
Number :$ $ $ 7
B# & 8 C% - $ C%
$ # "$ $ "# /# # $ &$! /# # " + 0 $ " "$
=-@
@
The countable/uncountable distinction B# !! 0 # *$ # "" + " &$ # * 4 7 ! $ ; " " $$ & " # B# ! " "# 8 C* $ C+ $
Pronouns *$ # !"# ! # B# /#"# #! /# # ! & C% $ C $ 2# $ B# ! " &/ # &F" " )* %1 # &F" " )* 1 2#
* # ! )* 1 +! 3 ! )* 1 !! "# # /* " * + *$ #8 C% $ C $
Word order & B# / " $ &# ! ; *$ # * " ! & * ! &
$ /*$8 C- ( C' ( C' ( C' (
' + B# !& " ; " ; #
!! $ "# 8 C1 $ C+
=-A
@
' $ * & $ # " /# / 3 8 C.
$ C1 " % $
Postmodifiers !0 B# ! /## # / #
"$ "! &+ # # !+ *$ # !0
+ # "! # " $ # !*8 C $ C $ C
$
Position of adverbials B# & $ $$ "! &+ & F"
" $ $$
+ "8 C D % )+ % 1 C D
)+ '
$1
Conjunctions and compound sentences "!! ! $" "F" + ""
" # B# ; $ $$ 8 C) " $ C % " % $
Prepositions # + *$ # #*#$ ! " +0"$ + $ + $$ "!!8 C' ( C% - &$ C1 $ C # $ ='(
@
Vocabulary False equivalents *$ # B# / $ * $ ! * /
+! ! # $ " 7 " ; $ # *# B# " * $ #+ $ * 7 + $ ; $ /#"# + $ 5B#*$ #6 " $ 4 7 ! $ # + $ ; $ + zhidao $ # "8 C1 $ /# # " 8 1 $
Phrasal and prepositional verbs # & # ; $ B# +0"$ # $ * #! 4 " B# $ $$
8 9 # # 9 $ 1
# # 1 $ " + "!! + "# ! $ 8 C )+ 1 C )+ 1
Idiomatic expressions ! +0"$ + # B# + # $ * * $ I # " $ # + " $ " /# B# *$ # " $$ ! $ ++ 7
+$0$ #
! +" 4 " # "!! B# ** $ "$ 8 1 ( ' ( - $ ) B# +;$ # # 7 3
** *$ # $N1 I# 7 ! $ "$8 C ( )+ (1 C )+ & 1 C9 )+ ' (1 ='-
@
Culture $ B# "$ $ " #*# $ $ * *$ # $ * * "# " 7 " 0 # # $ ! &$ + +
+! /* # $ / ! B# 6 ! # $ *
* ++ " /#"# 5 $ &$6 5+6 # " &* "" $ * "# /# # "# $* 5$ * /#$ # * +6 #$ & #/ $ "# #*#$ " B# "$ " $$ * &* /$* &$ # I + " B# $$ * "
"$
* * !# + $ *
$ + + B# " !!
I + # # $$ # & " / + B# # "# " # & $ & # 3
$$ # !# $ *0" # / *$ # $ B# ! ! B# " 3
&$ ! !!
# 7 + ""
Sample of written Chinese Transliteration of Chinese text with a word-for-word translation
lirong:
$*8 lai
xin
shou dao le, xiexie ni de wen hou. meiyou zaoxie
hui
xin,
qing
"! $ "
# *
$
yuanliang!
$ $ +*N ni
jinlai
shenti zenmeyang? xuexi shunli
"$ & #/H yiding
xiang wangchang yiyang guo de hen yukuai
" $
=''
ma?
!# L* MH
$
! $
#
@ ba?
L "$ * "0! MH wo hen hao, zuijin
you le
/$$ "$ # L "$ " * "# * + M
nuÈpengyou, jiao shizhu, hen mei *$3+ " $$ #K# & +$ zuotian
shi chuxi,
jia li * # #!
wo qu ta
& / 6 he
ta quanjia
yikuair
guo
nian.
ta
jia
/# # /#$ + !$ *# / # #! keting
de tianhuaban, jiaju
*3! + "$* daochu
gua zhe
zhihua,
lipin,
he qiang shang
+ / $$3
ge zhong
/# # * L "$ " * M $$ hai
zhuang shang le
E/ $ $$3
M
L "$ " * "# * +
caise dengpao. shizhu jianyi zuo youxi "$ &$& #K# ** $ * ! ba
yanjing meng qilai
L "$ "* + &F"M mo liwu.
wo mo dao de hen hao,
+$
+$3*
"
shizhu didi de
* #K# &#
ye
bucuo.
wo wanr de hen kaixin, zhidao tian kuai liang
cai
zou. lin
zou
$ &
$
shi
# $ $*#
dajia yue hao xinnian
$ * $ ! $$ * wo jia.
zhen xiwang ni
xiexie ni
qing
! # $$ / #
wo he
ye
/ ye
lai.
neng lai!
didi
xiatian
dao
ni
jia
zuoke
#!
wo zai guowai xuexi de jiejie neishihou
0$ "! ! &
huilai le,
lai
$ " "!N
# ! &# !! women yiding
diertian
/ " "!
# ! wo xiang
$ L "$ " * "# * + M
# ='=
@ wenwen, ta nengbuneng gen women yikuair
# " 33" /#
bu duo
xie le, qing
daiwen
lai?
*# "!H quanjia
! / $ ! &# $+ $$ + !$ hao. pan
zaori huixin!
/$$ $ +/ $ $N zhu ni
xinnian
kuaile!
/ # / # N cimin
"!
yijiubasi nian yuandan
-A@>
/ 6
An idiomatic translation / P 6 -A@> * # + $ # + # * 6! # 6 / $ :$ +* !N / # & "$H #* ** /$$ /#
H F* $+ $H 6! /$$ 6 * *$3+ / ! #K# #6
& +$ P / / P 6 / # $ "
# * /# # + !$ # *3! + # # /
" /# $$ + E/ "$ $*# # ** +! # "$* # + # / $$ #K# ** # / $ * ! 2 / / /#
" # 0 / * # * / *
/ # #K#6 &# * # $$ ! 6 $ $ $ / + $+ / $$ * ! ! # #
" + # / P $$ / # "$ & #N # + * ! &# ! /# #
!! 2 /$ $ "! /# * & /$$ & & " & # / /## # "$ "! /# H 6$$ # + / :$ * ! * + !$ 6! $* +/ !"# # * +! / P B!
='>
Korean speakers *3
Distribution OI B# O K # K& % *0" !*3 * # O # )"$* / 1 B $ / U $
Introduction # O $ * * * & ! "#$ &$** $ # # $3$ " $ * * + !$ # $ !
!$ &/ O # # 7 !$
&# O $$ ! B# "# "
$#*# # " B# /
! ! # # # O $ * * $* /# ! O " ! / + 7 "* # /$ ; $ # $ $ * * O / & $ ?' !$$ $ ,A !$$ $* # O $ $ # ! * # !$$
& # +0" $ $ * * + &# # O )!" " : $6 &$" + O 1 # O ) &$" + O 1 & # + # / " # $ ! ++"
$$* " &$ "#" # O # $" "$* # # " $ $ /#"# +
O # ++" + " +! $" # /#"# " ! #! ! $$ "! # &$ # $ ! # + $" ! # * +03 "$ * *$ # # + # # ! $" # # ! "$ $ 7! # + *$ # # # + O 9 # " "& #
"# 9 # $*# * + # $"
='.
!
Phonology General # O $ # & " + '> $ 8 /$ -> "3
*$ "!& # # >( " & " + # O $ * * 9 *# ! $ /$ -= ##* -A " Q/$ "" $$ O $#*# ! O / &* /# /$ $ ) $ " ! "# "#
$
+ 7 ! $1 &* /# /$ "# /
" $$ " O /# "* "
!$ # *$ # <ê< # # *## " # O / # 5! 6 5K6 " # $*< # /$ " Q" " " " ++
Vowels O $ " $$ 7 " # +$$/* &$! 8 -
!$ # O
!$ <e< > # O ; $ +
!$
# +0"$ * #* &/ I# " +
#* #" " )"+ " " " " 1 . + $*< # /$ " O * + $$* # # $ "+ /# /$3 $*# " *$ # + 7 ! $ # &/
Consonants # +$$/* " $$ " &$! 8 - " ! & " " * #
# "! &+ + " " #+ " *$ # ++ +! " =',
!
; $ " $ # &/ ! & +0"$ + $ * '
! "# " O 9 /# /$$3/ " ;" + O + $ *$ # :" +
= "
!$
!$
& # I &"! .
!$
+
!$ <s< 2# + # + / O " $$ $ /$ # &"!
&"! "# * &$ # &"! <mIkst@< @
!$ & # " + ! A <s<
+ " 9 & +
/#"# # /# O * !! # # &" #
7 O L 5 6 &$/M & <mÃnTs<
+ # & 7#& # +! + *$ # /
# # & O + $* ! " $$ # # &" ! + # $ * * * # + ""
Speech style, stress and intonation 7!$ ! # # *$ # "# #$ / # O ! $ # $$ &$
/
$! $$ $ $$ &" *$ # / $$ &$ ! # /# O / E *$ 4#! "$ / O "
$ # / #
" )! # "# & * ! # 3! * +07
& "# ** # + # / # " 5"
"6 &$/1 # ++" #
* / " ! ='?
!
# ! * + " "! $$ +* # O $
; "" & " " # O # *$ # * # # / $ * * # " B $ # O $ * *$ # + ! & #+ &* # *$ # # " ! O *$ # +0"$ O # ! "# " " /# *$ # #/ # " & * !! /# + $$* &* "# " " $$ + ! ;
# # , ; * + , ;
; " $ ! $ ! 9 #*#
+ $
+ # *$ #
Orthography and writing O $ #" !&$ * ! # $ $ # +! #" $ /#"# /
" /# # $ /## &$ / ! $ / *# $$ &$ & +!* "$ # # / # * O $ # $ # & & ! + # 3 " $$ "B3 "# ! # O &$" 3 )7" # / + +* 1 & $$ # O * * &$$& # $ # &
+ !$ O # # $$ +0"$ &"!*
"" ! *$ # I& $ "#$ & *# *$ # # /* & # "! $ $ $ #! #*# # $ # $$ # O *# !*# $$ "! # +0"$ 9 + /#"# "# #$ &
/
Punctuation # O "# " " & " $ # + ; ! 7"$ ! ! +$$ ; ! ! $
#
! *$ # # + # "!! !3"$ "$ " +0"$ #/8
$#*# # "!! 7 O $ $$ #
" &/ / +$0$ $$ + # +" O #
# O # ; $ &* +07 + /* # O / " * # ! # / " " $ + "# " # / + ='@
!
& * 7 ! & ! + * #* /#"# $ +! $ "! " $ O
Grammar Sentence structure $ # &F"9&9&F" / + ! $ * * "$* *$ # O / ) $* /# # : # 1 &F"9&F"9& / # #$ & "$ " + # **$ " + # $ * * #
! 0* * !! " $ " + "$ "! # + O # " / O
Verbs # 7$ & O # O & $/
7
& / ) 5D / 6 &$/1 4#3 ! # & ! # *$ # &" + # "! $7 ! + +07 & 7" + # & # " & " $+ O & /#"# $$ # ; $ *$ # & ! " $ /#"# "& # "# " " + #* !! #
6 $ 6 +$* # *$ # ; $ 4 7 ! $8
, " ) ) $
"#$ % *$ #
"#$ $ *$ #
!
,
# E/ # # $ O H
E/ # $ O 3 H
='A
!
/$$ & & # O $ + ! # & /# * F" *$ # # &" # " $ +" + # & 7 O # F" $ & ++"
F" /# # + " 4 #
!
&$ +! & +! F" O # +! 3 + # *$ # & + 7 ! $ * + O ) 5+07 61
To be; there is and it is # # + *$ # 9 # 9 + O & # +! " * , # ! &F"
% # # O $ /$$ "
" "#
C& # + $ C $ # #* " * # " # *$ # % # O ; $ + # " !#* $ ' # # ; $ + * !" & &* $ " /# ! # 3! * +07 # #
# + # " *$ # # & " * # *$ # & # $ +! # +" + 8 C% # )+ % 1
Complex verbs B! $7 & +! & "!&* / & # 5 ! 3 6 & /#"# ! & " F" $ !! 7
! * /#"# *$ # /$ ; $ / + 7 ! $ % $ $ $ *$ # 7
"# & O
$
Conjugation of verbs O & $ *$ *$ # & " + 5& !6 5& *6 # ! #
! /#$ # * "F* # / $$ + +! $ $
O * # $ & ++ +! +
)"! &$ ==(
!
4"# + ! 1 & $ & ++ $7" $ &
++ & * O ! & $
$ & # "! ! $" + # *$ # & ! # +07 ! $ # + *$ # & " "
#/ /## # &F" *$ $ $ & "F* ""* $* +; O !
*$ # + # # " #/ ! $ # & +$0$$* "! &$ +" & ! J " " *$ #
Tense and aspect # # *
" " & ! + +07
# +" " O O $ # # +0"$ # $ 7 " $ * # +! # /#$ # + # ! $ *$ # " $$ /# ! " ) " 5==71 &$!
+ O +0"$ * #* &/ # + # +" +" &/ # +"
! $ +! # *
" " O & "!& + # *
+07 )/#"# ++ # + 1 /# # / + # " $ & /# " )
F" $1 & ) &1 O # +! $ # " " # & 9 /# #
! $ *$ # " # + # *
+! *$ # " + 7 ! $ # " ! # # ! ) "!& /# + ! +"1 + # $ + $ O
,
%
$
A $
( O # # 7 < " +! 8 + ! $ *
! $ *
! $ *
& #
"
$ #
! / *$ # + /# &
" /# + ! +" # ==-
!
+! O + " + ) $#*# # + +! ! $ & 1 % 9 $ $
, E%F 9 $ #$
# &# + # & " $ /# $$ $ *$ # # + "$ * O $ 6 * + # + & +! + # $$ # # +! + # + *$ # 7
O & # + #
! +
+07 # "# /$$ 0 # O $ # $ # +0"$ * #* # + # " # *$ # $ + # + #! "! $
Conditionals # $ / " $ +! O 7
* $
&$ "$ O # # " ! &$! "! * !* # *$ # " $$ / + # ! " + # +" +! ) %
1 /#"#
37 O
Direct and indirect speech 23+3/ * + /# !&
" O & ; ! & +
* ) " " "1 " "# * " + # * $
&$ *$ #% & ** # * + " # " +! " # * $
&$ $ *$ # " "# # &F" + # ; " ! $ " +" "# * +! # * $ # " 6 + / # "# * + #/ + 7 ! $ ' % " $$ $ $ $ & O $
Modal verbs O # $ # ! $ 7$ & 8 # ; $ + /#"# $ # /#$ * + *$ # =='
!
! $ & ! &
!$ O $ # # /# ! # $ # &$! + * #* !* # +$$ * + *$ # ! $ &
Passives #
O 7
& +07 # # &
7$ & J " $ *$ # * * #
" $ O $ # $$ +0"$ /# ! $
$#*# # "$ # # + 7 ! $ C% # +$$/* " &$! #/ - # +! 7 O $ * "# 8 C1 ( )+ 1 (1 ' & J "! /# & + +0"$ ! * "* "# 8 C $ = $ " # +" " 7 O
* #
! $* # +! *
+0"$ # " /# #
$ &$ * !! " $ +! "! &$ # * # #
! +! /$$ & #
! "7 O /$$ # +0"$ $ * # " $ " % )/# ++
" # 1 ! $ &"
$#*# #
! # *
" O ! $ # " > 4 $$ & /# / &F" $ " $$ &$! " #
/$$ & +
&$
Questions and answers # 7$ & O ; +!
*$ # # #/ ; / " * # *$ # " " " " # * & +07 I" # & " ; +! *$ # ! "# !& ; +! %
2 % , &$
$$ + +0"$ # $ # $ + *$ # O / * ; /# 5- 6 /# # * /# # 5/ 6 /# #
* $ * "# 8 ===
!
(6 C- $ 9 /# # 6 $ ! #! C/ $ 9 /# # $ ! #! #
&$ + ! * !! $ N
Tag questions and reply questions O # / &$
+! /#"# ! *! /# +0! * ! "$ &# # * ; $ ; "7 # ( &# % " ( % 0 % 0 /$ & $ & #
! / O /$ ( (" ( !$ $ # O 7
" * (" (" ( # $ O #+ &/$ & # * ; *$ # * !! " $ +! # $$
! & "* /#
&$ $ &" + +! $ "! $7 & $ &" # O ; $ ** $ " + "0" #
) + & "# "#"* # ! $$ "#$ !#* + 7 ! $N1
Short answers # $ + +0"$ # $! * + &$
&$ O )B! % 0 ! & 0 4"# 2 \0 / # watasimo
$ + # *$ # 7
+ %0 + %0 + % + % "1
Phrasal verbs :#
$ & 7 O " $ +0"$ + O $ /# $ # + # $ 0 # * # &/ $ & $ 1 N #
$ & $ 1 # $ "# + !$ 8 % % " % $ / # O + !$ /# $ * ! & 7 $ ! $ &$ $ *! # /$$ ! #
$ & ! "" &$8 "#8 52# + 6 / /H6 : $ 8 5 N6 ==>
!
"#8 52# + ! F $*H6 : $ 8 5 #! N6
Relative clauses # *$ #3 * $ + O /$$ $ O * !! + # # * # +$$/* $ $ $ /$$ *
! + #/ # +" +$0$$ O # # !0 " /# !0
,
# * /#"# / "# & /# # $&
/$$ "$
&
B# 3 * & & 33 3 J $ $ +07 "$
33 J $ $ +07 &
/
+ # ! F ++" /$$ #$ # "# * #
F ! # O $ # ! &"!* "" ! # 5*#3& "#*6 " + *$ # 2#$ O $ !
! # +! # "7 + "$ $ +" * !! 3 " $ 7" # + !$ " $$ #& # + #! &# "# /*
Nouns O " & "$ # * !! " $ *
! $$ # $ $ +! $#*# " & ! $ $ & * # +07 duÆl # ! & ! /# # ! * + $ $ & # # / yunpil + 7 ! $ ! ! # + # 5$ "6 + # $ $ * $ * # O $ + *$ # $ ! # $ $ 3 # / "# /* & $ +;$ + $ " /# * $ ! "#
/#"# # & " O /# # 3 & O O # /# ! # $ +0"$ /# # *$ # " + # "" + " &$ * " " " / ! +;$ "!& O +!
"! 8 a-chim-bab G !* J ! $ G % chaek-sang G & J &$ G
% mul-gae G / J * G O ! & " * " # "# "! ==.
!
$ + *$ # ) $+ &* 7 ! $
$& + & J "!& 1 # *$ # " &/ $$ &$! O/* /# # # # "! # * # "# C + # + # ) $$ & $$ *$ 1 "!!
Suffixes after nouns O # 07 9 $ +07 # ! + # & # +" $$ ++ +! # + *$ # +07 # $ +" # *$ # O +07 # "!!
# + ! * # *$ $ $ + " * !" $
7! )+ 7 ! $ 1 ( % # : 61 # $ +" +! $ &# "# /* O #/ # &$! /# *$ # +07 /#"# # ; $ O 8 &$ # + * ) , + 7 ! $1 + +!* F" & # "" + # 5/ + !$6 ; $ O & " * + #$ +$ / + * * # "; + *$ # " &$
Pronouns : O + 8 $
)+! & # + +07 # $ 1 !3
* : $ O # # ++ $$ + #0" +! 9 $+3++ "* $ #0" # E" # + # $ $ # * + " & #/ # !"# ! $ *$ # !
+/ +0"$ O $ $#*# # /$$ !* #! "7 /#"# # & $ /$ & +0" O # *$ # / )
0 + 7 ! $ # & " ! O "! $ /# +07 7
*! 9 &
/# &F" #
O /# # &F" + # " ! "$ /#! !#* &$* # $ *$ # " "# 8 C% C1 $ ==,
!
4 #
+ ! # )!!&* # O ! $
*$ # 1 ! #/ & O /#"# *$ # $* " "# 8 C8 " # ! $ " * 8 !3
O ! ! " $ & $ # & " + " $ # *$ # & $ # "# #$ $ & / # *$ # $ +;$ O 4 7 ! $ "# ! 0 #! $ &*
# # 8 C1 (
Adjectives O F" # " # F" *$ # # +$$/ # &F" &# $ & ) 5Q& 6
&1 # " # # " &/ * &$ 3 * &$ F" # & *$ # # O $$ & + * ! # $ + 7 ! $8 C% # $ C% $
Adverbials # ++" &/ O *$ # & $ /#"# " # O $ ! +0"$ # + " # O & )$ ! *$ # 1 +! # & + F" I#/ O & $ #/ ! !$ /# *$ # # # O "#$"#$ $ "$
+ # & $ O
& + ! +;" ! $ " * & $ $$ !! $ &+ # / )/# # + "#1 "$ " # !0 $
+! O *$ # " #+ $ "" * + & $ *$ # + 7 ! $8 C% ? #$ & #/ # O # !#* !$ # *$ # & J F" " 9 7" # /# !0 # " + O ! & $ F" 8 ?# I
$ & $ F" $ & + 7 ! $8 CA # C D$ ==?
!
# O & " * " " "
&$ +$$/ & & F" $ * "# 8 C + $ C
$ C
$
Vocabulary O # $ * " &$ ! + /#"# 0 ; $ *$ # $#*# + /# + "# *$ # /$$ &
# O )4 7 ! $ # * + / "&* #/ / " I " 7
& & J # F" $ & O 1 # + ! " &$ $ * +0"$ + O /# #$ & $ +! # # ! " + "* / " &$ /# 7 ! $ #/* #/ +" * !! 3 " $$ )"#$ " &$ $ * "$ O $ # + ! # " # "73+ O <*$ # / $ 1 O 9*$ # " !! $ &$
#$ & " * $! #! /# *$ # $ 6 " # $$ O # & " + ! " 7"$ ! /
! O $ "* "! &$ / *$ # # "# &** $ /$$ & $
$ 0 # # $ * !& + *$ # / O ! + /#"# /# "*
&$ *$ # " $$/* + # & " + $$ &"
# " + # / &"!* ! 3 3$ /# "# *
! O $ *$ # ! 7 7 *$ # $ * * ! / + # ! * !! " $ #3 $*" $ ++" &/ # / $ * * O $ 0
* & ! #/ !"# *$ # # $ / / /$$ *$ # / # # & ! O #
! / # # # " + $ + 8 # /# ++ ! * O &
$$ " "*
&$ *$ # / # +$$/*
# $ @ % ?: )7"$$1 ) O 1 )+ # "3++ &$/ /#"# "
"" + !#*1 ==@
!
)+ 1
) $ ! 1 )+ $ 1 ) ++" ! 1 CD ) + "! 1 )+ 1 ) + # $# + ! 0
"1 )#
O 1 ) + # $* + " & + # * !1 )+ $*3$** #3$** 1 ) + $$ + "# " "/ " 3 1 )!1 )+ $" 1 )+ # " 1 ) "#1 ) + * 1 )+ $
$1 )+ + /!!* E 1
Honorific vocabulary O "# " &$ " " # #
$+3++ "! # # O $ /$$ 0 & !&
"+ # 0 ; $ +! *$ # # " $$ +" $ "#
" $ " ; + * *$ # # "# $$ O ! & # $ # &/ #
# $ # &F" &* "
& # * !! " $ " ;" O + 7" # *$ # # *$ # $ + O # $ ! "# / +07 "# " " + 7
# O $ + *$ # # &"! / + #
&$ + " " + * *$ #
Body language and gesture ! # * "$ $
O
# / /# + " $ !&$ * ) "# + O " !" &
$ /$$ 0 #! 7!$ $" * + /# ** 3 * &$"1 O ! ! !
!$ #* ! 7
* "" &$ 2# ! ==A
!
& /
!
& + *$ #
* " + "! & O !$
/#"# $ ! + " 7
*! !&
! #
"$ * 9 & ! $ & +$
" "+$ ) O !$ ! & !&* ! & ; 1 " + #
$ " + " $ "!
" $!
+ ! *$ # "#6 "" $$ 7 **3
7
! $$ & ! *
$" 9 #*# " /$$ "! " # ! * 7
*$ # & # / " ! $ 7
O & + " &/ # $ + !#* $ %
* * * $ $$ $ % C D !$ $ * O & ! / # " & 7 $" *$ # # "7 ) $ 5 "# $6 & 5# $ * * "$
!61
The language classroom O $ *$ # /# * ! # * !! # * + # ! " #*# #*# "#$ # " $ "$
K ,( $ # * "$
+ " "#$ # $ * * $ &
# +* $ * *
# $ 6 " $$ # + 3+* +$$/ & $ * & # # $$ $$ $ ! + # /
*! # /* +
$ +! + $ * * " 9 + # &F" 9 " # "# /$ # ! "" #! " ;" O # $$ 7 " + "# 7" !! * " 3
* $ *! ) $ "$ # * $*" $ *! "0" &F" # & " # "#$ ""$! ! "!
+ "$ $ " * ! $ # # $ $ 1 # ! $! !
&$ $ +* $ * *
/$$ ! * ! +! + " *$ # + # "#$ * &$ $ + $$ &0 +! # " # "#; & ! # + # $ "#$! # ! "! $ &F" # # & + # "! * $ " * $ +
$ $ # # ! &
# # # 7& F +* $ * * $ # $ " "$ $ & "* # ++" # =>(
!
"! # + *$ # 7 + + # &$ 0 # ! +* 0$! /$$ & && # &$! /$$ / & # /
+ # + "# * $ #" $
# & $ " $ ! ! O "#$ # "#6 # & $ + "#
#$ ! ! $ /$$ / # # # 4 # O $ + /# * 7!$ $" /# &* " # /# #
/$$ & ""
" ! $ & &# 7 $
/# " & $+
# "! $ "
$ # $ &$ ++" # O 6 " "$
+! + 7" # " * * /$$ ! ** & # "# $$ 0 # ) " $$ &* 1 ! "!+ &$ /# $3 $ 7" ) "* /# 1 # /# $+3$ " $$ # $* " /# # "# $ & "" & "# + + 6 O +$$/ #!$ * / ! $ ! + /#"# "#* /# +" # /# ! # ! 7 " $ ) ! $" "" + "1 $ /#"# # O +$ # # # "! /# +$$/ # $$
$#*# $ 7 " $$ "" #
7 " #/ # # * & $* # "# I # " 8 " " * )B! 5 * * 6 /#"# !# $ " & &** * "#$ 2 " 1 # "# ! +$ # O #$ # !
+ *$ #3 * " 9 & # "
# " & # # E" + # $ * * "# + ! 3 + *$ # /$$ & + 3 /#$!* 0 O $ # " 9 &# &" * #! ! ! "
/# # # # &" # ! #" # / "$ /#"# !
$ + "# /# ! * + #*#+$
+ " + # $" 2# ! *$ #
7
"$
" ++
& # O "$ $ "7 /#$ #
! & * # * +
**
$ # "# ! 0 #$ +$ ! "# " 7 $" "$ $$ #* "$
# $ /# "E"* "# $ ! ! / +
+ $ + # ++" # ++" # * =>-
!
!" + # $ * * "$
$ E" " # "$
! # "!!" $ /$ # $ &"! / + # ! " + 3"$ $ * /$ /#"# *$ # + ! "!!" /$$ & !"# ! ++" + $" ! 9 # !
" + # $ + 9 #6 "# $
A sample of written Korean
Transliteration and word-for-word translation se-jong dae wangi namgin upjuk
3* *
$+
gutun
hunminjongum
jung
tukhi jungyohan
"#! !* ! ! ida. kuttae kkaji hanguk enun hanguk
""! $ #! #!F*! $ # malun
ttaro
itsut jiman guljaga
upsutgi ttaemune
$ * * $ # & /* ! oledongan hanja
bilusu
&"
ssutta.
$* ! "# "# " &/
An idiomatic translation !* # "#! $+ &# & # O* F* & + # ! ! # !F*! # $#*# # O # # / $ * * # &/ B# "# " &" # # /* ! + # /
=>'
Thai speakers !#
Distribution
Introduction # )+!$ " $$ 5 ! 61 !!& + # + !$ + $ * * /#"# / + +! # Q ! # # # $ $ * * + # $
"# & 0+ !$$ $ " * $ $" + # # # # # + # " & # $ * * + # B $ * * #
&# "#$ + +0" $
#*# # " # $ B# $ $ * * /# # ! * + "#
$$ &$ &* ! & # "# /#"# " # # 0 9 ! $/ #*# * + $$* 3E" $ * * !"# + * $ $7" ! $$ &"%
#*# " * + $ $$ &" / +* &/* "3 $ $ +! # "$
" $ $ * * : $ # / $ # &" " # / * $$ +! " / "
# * +! $+ *#% / ! $ * * /#
" "" # + " ! +! + "3
*$ # "# +$$ "!!
Phonology General # *0" ++" &/ # #$*" $ ! + # *$ # # # '- " #! '/$ #! # # " ! # "$
=>=
) 1 +
& " " ! &/ $* # /$ # *$ # /# 5# ""6 &" # 0 *$ # / # # #$*" $ ! 2#$ # ! 7 + +* "" # & "$ $" " !* ! # # # "" # $ # " & 7 $ # & *
/ * #/ ++ & ++ # "$
! !
! *$ # $ / )"$* & ! + # + " ! * 1 #
# # $ &"! +"$ ! $ $*! * " *$ # /
# / % " #! # / &* 3
* # "
+" & "#
*$ #9# " * $ + *$ # / # " ! "$ + " $ *$ # " /$ /$ " # # ; $ ! + # ! "!! + + 5# ""6 *$ # 8 9
# 0 $ $$ &$ + / 9 :&$! "$ * " 0 $ " " "$ 9 "" ++" * +!8
1 "
* $$ &$ % &1 " * ; $ /*# !* "# $$ &$% "1 *$ $ &+ $ /$ % 1 + # /$ <@< &/ " $ " "$ % 1 " + " "$ # + / *$ "
Vowels
i:
e
{
A: ¡
O:
U aU @U I@
u: Ã
z: @
=>>
I
eI aI OI e@ U@
aU@ aU@
# #! # ; $ ; $ #
#$ #+ & " "$ /# * +0"$
$#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/ - <{< +;$ " $* /$ <{:< ' ##* <eI< <@U< <e@< +;$ " $* /$ <e:<
$ " # 0 $ $$ &$
Consonants
p
b
f
v
T
t
d
s
z
S
Z
tS dZ k
g
m n
ê
l
r
D j
w h
# #! # ; $ ; $ #
#$ #+ & " "$ /# * +0"$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/
'
*$ #8
g
g
- "* *$ # $ " + /#"# # *# ; $ # # $$ ! # +$$/* & 8
< S< < z <
# 7! 8
<w<
+ # # " /$$ " * &$! +
"$ + # /# # "" # # $ *# 0 $ " #! 0 $ "$ $ *$ # 0 $ " " "$ $ &$ * " $ "# * " "# 3 +! ! #/% ! " $ "# * 3 * & *$ 0 $ " 8
*$ #8
g
g
# 7! 8
=>.
=
/# # "" # &** + / > $#*#
# / $ * * /# # ! + &
Consonant clusters *$ # # !"# / * + " "$ # # % " "$ "" # + / # !* # $ /3 *! "$ /#"# "" # 8
!! " * # +$$3
$$ &$8 &"! &"! !$ "
/# *$ # #3 *! $ "$ 8 &"! &"! # #/ # ; $ $
# / $ * * ! " # "
*$ #
5 6 + 5
6 +
% 5 6 + " 5
6 *$ # 0 $ "$ # # /# &$! $$ ! / + 5"*6 #! *$ ! * &$ 0 $ " *# $$ # 0 *! + # "$
# &"! 56 &"! 5 6
=>,
Rhythm and stress $$ &$ # " " 07 # * ; $ /*# !* "# $$ &$ # *# /# # + " # $ "# $" *$ $$ &$ ) + * +
$$ &$ *$ #1 " # "" ++" /# + *$ # # *$ ! "!! ! + #
# 0 $ $$ &$ + $ $$ &" *$ # / ' '
' "! $7 +
+ 7 ! $ $ ! * " $ ! * $$ &$! " $
Intonation # ++ +! # + *$ # * & " $$ ! $$ &" $ * * # # # 3 3/ "# " $#*# ; # +;$ ! & 5; / 6 # + " /#"# # # * # ! " $$ + "$ # " + *$ # ; " : "$ #$ & # + $ ; % # /#$ + $ &$ / 5 "$ 6 # + " +! ! + # +"
+$0$$ & *$ # 2# $ * +! # *$ # # $ "$ ;
$ * # & ; ! + # # & $ $
Juncture # !
&$ " / " "$ +! # F" + 0 $ $ " % # *$ $ &+ $ /$ $ "$ $ &/ 0 $ " $ /$ # $$ & / + # #" "# *
# $ " *$ # #*# F" )* <wUdZ@<%
# "0" $$
Influence of spelling on pronunciation # $ * *$ # & $ ! ! ! 3 "* / / &" + # " &$ ! ! "# &/ $$*
" *$ # " $ &$! /#"#
!* + $ " $ 8 =>?
- " /# "
!* + " # # " "$ ++ &/ # / 1 ' " /# " <s< /#
/$ / "# " > # $ " / "# /# # * 5/6 " + * / +! . # # $$* + "!! *$ # $ / +" 3 *$ # " /#"# #
! $*! " /#"# $ !! 0 # + /# $* /# # /
*$ # "7
Orthography and punctuation Spelling and writing # / /# $ # &" ! /#"# "
# * +! $+ *# # " &/ $/ " # + # /$ !&$ /# ! / & # " ! &$/ ! # $+ ! +$$/* # *# 9 ! * # " # # /
& " % # " # "" "" $$ # /* * $$ " " ! *$ # # 7 # ! $ # & $ *
" &$ ! + ! # $ * " * $ / % # /# $$ /$* + *$ # ! & +0"$ + !$ /# # ! $ # & " # / $
Punctuation
$$ # " ! # $#*# "
&/ * + / " # # # & ! 7 ! /# / " ! ; ! 7"$ ! ! "!! " + & + $ & % # #/ $
"!! / :" ; &$! # $ % + !
+; /#$ # "" + /# "
" ! & "$
=>@
Grammar General # * !! " $ " + # ++ +! # + *$ # :$ $ + & ! $$ ! % /#
"
* # &/ *$ $ $ # !
" $ " # & # + " $ /
# # & E" # F" & " $ +"
& /#$ # # ! $ ! ! "! $7 /# ++ + E"* ++ * + ! " # "# I + # +/ & + !$ # + /
" !$ 5 &F" J & J &F"6% #/ # &F"
"!!$ ! # /# "$ $ /# /#
+
Auxiliaries; questions and negatives # 7$ & # - # " +! ; & # +
; / /#"# $ " # + # " " # ; / # ; $ *$ # # /$$ +
! $ & * #/ $ $ $ 3 8 C1 ( ) $ # E" &1 ' * ; 9 / 9 +;$ " "+ # " $$ /* 5 6 /# *$ # ; 56 - " ( - C% D6 = "0" ; "# ' ( '( 1 ( # " ; $ # & " # 0 / " "" # # &** # + # " # $ ! "
" $8 C' ( C1 ( 1 ( +;$ # 7"$ + 1 ( # & + ! $ 8 C1 ( > * # +! & * # * / maÃy + + # & B+ !! /## #
/ #$ & $ $* " $8 C1 $ C1 $ =>A
Time, tense and aspect # # & # E" +! % *$ / pay )G 1 "
! $ & $ $$ "7 "$
!&* & /# #
&$ + ! * *
" $ / $$ !! $ + + # & "$ + # !3+" ! $ $$ ; *# # & /# 3& !0 Q& E" "! $7 & # +! &$ & "$ # $ ! + # ! & +! + # *$ # & # # ! ! +0"$ +! /#"# # +$ /$$ ! # $$ & "" C- * $ C+ $ C% $ #/ # # /# & * # & +! + & "# ! " $$ & # * &$! /# " # # * !! # ! & *
+ " & + $* " # # + # "$ # & $ ! F /#"# #
* "! /# $ + *$ # #
#$ & & ! /# "#* "$
+ !7 $
Articles # "$ # + "+ &/ 0
0 "$ /$$ /# ! "$ "" +;$8 C1 $ C' ( C $
Adjectives and adverbs F" & # "" + # & /#"# # !+ # $ +" & ! * )# # ; $ + " $ /# F" 1 # # 7
roÂt dii )G 1 " & " # # ) 1
" ) 1 $ # & + ! *$ # " 8 C $ C $ =.(
# # " &/ F"< & #
*$ # )* , , 1 # $ # F" $ +! *$ #8 C- $ # "! $ * + F" & # +! & # + # ; $ + C D "$ !! $ + # & / $ # *$ # +07 +;$ * & # $ 8 C $ C% $
Nouns # # # * " # " &/ *$ $ $ +! B7 * $$ +0" " /## # *$ $ $ +" & " /# ! & ! " # ! $
5 $ $ / 6 /#"# "" 07 $ # 7 " !" $ " # $ ! +; * # *$ +! + *$ # )# ! +!1 /#
$ $ #$ & 8 C% $ * #/ ! & & ! # # # ! # 0 $ 0 $ " "$ % ! $ ! # &$! $ " " "" / +! !" $ 7
# ! "! $7 # *$ #
$ # + " $ 5 "$
06 /$ & 7
# 8 )1 J )!&1 J )"$
01 # # $! " +" & + $ $ $ + !& "!!8 C% $
Pronouns # ! + # " &$ ! "! $7 # # + ! $ * * /# / * + / " $ # + &# # "# ! " O ! $ ! /$ 0 " * $ ! " *$ # &$! + # # $ =.-
&" # / $ * * ! ++ " &# *
!& # # ! "$ +! 0 3 # /#$ # ! "!!$ #3 ! " &/ * /# # $ # # $
+;$ "# * &$ *$ #8 C& " $ C $ ) $ # $" + /#"# "" "!3 !$ # 1 #
! #3 $ ++ * 9 * # !& # $* "+ *
! $8 C& ) $ 1 $ C& $ 1 $ # # +! " &F" &F" +" % #
# :
# 7
# ! 5 J J < 6 $#*# # # / + $ +;$ ! # " $ ! $8 C "!! # ! # &F" +! " +
+"$ "$ /# /# &* $ & # ! # +;$ " # " !3 ! " *$ #8 C& $
Prepositions *$ # # # ; $ $ $ + # $ * +0"$ *$ # 5& J 6 5 F" J 6 "!& /#"# #
*$3/ # & ; $ # $ "# 8 C% $ C' , $ C1 , $
Subordinate clauses # $ &$ 7 " +0"$ "* # "" & "! $7 " /# & "$ % * # ! "!! * + # ! +! $ "$
=.'
+# &$! # # # $ $
"$ +;$ "+ 8 C& % $ $ $ B $ "$ # +;$ ! # / + #
!! " *$ # I# " $ " " "3 * +! $ $ $ +! # "$8 C) $ $ $ $ $ $ C $ $ $ $ $ $
Vocabulary $$ : $ # & + "* / /
# % #/ # E7 + / "#$* " ! *
# $ " &$ !& + *$ # $ / &*
# # $7" "# &/* * # " /#"# ! # $ 0 +0"$ # /# * # / *$ # + 7 ! $8 paÂt-tãÁk sa3taa sa3traZ fuZ t3bOOn paZ m ?En3kO3hOO +! # $ / # !$ &/ # # *$ # $7" # # $ # + # * + # 2 $ /# " / ! + !$ /#
! " *
" &$ # + " # ! # /# $! "!!" "! " *$ # #$
! #
7 *$ # " &$ $ *$ $ !# + " /#"# * ! # $ * # 7 + $ * "!!" $$
Culture $$ * # # / $ * *$ # B! " # $ * * &# ! +
# "
! $+ F&
; /$* + # $ * * + #
+ ! " &$ 0 " $
"0" "# # # ++ * " ! +! # " # &* " +! # &* " * & + "$ # $ * * # & " " $ * "# ! $ * =.=
*$ # "$
+ ! $ /# $$ + *$ # $$ $ & /$$* /# " &$ ! + ! * + " +! /#"# # /$$ * $$ &0 /#"# # +$ $
"!!! *$ # # & *
$ + $ $ ! # #+ & "! $ $! # " "#$ ""$! + ! / # ; $ + $ * * " ! $% * 7 "#$
+ *$ # # ! $$ /# "! "# !! # ++ # $ " & E & # ! # $ "#$ B#$ +! $ & "* + " # " & "! + # & "# # $$ * / # " $ /# # " &% # # ! + # +* / * "# *$ # # $
& + # "# $$ #*#$ " " &$ 0*
"$
# $ $$ # 0 & /# /# 5 "# &# 6 #* ! + "!! $#*# # # $ 3& "# /$ & /$$3
0 !#* & "$ $ # +! # ! "$ ; * / $ &$ I /# 2 !! ++ # ! +
8 "
! # " + $ # ) # "$ $ $ 1 " $ ! # ++"
+ # "#
" $ # $ 2# "! " $ "#* * ** $ 6 " " " & &$! "* /$*
$ # ! +$ # & !
" "!!" 3 "#% $ $ # ! +$ # # $ * #* " # &$ "& 7 ! $ + * !! $ * / $ "# " "
"$
# 2 "# #$ $ & ! # # " # "#" $ % $ $ #$ & /# " $$ ! 54 "6 $ ! ! #!$ )* & $ * $* + ; /#"# # $ "
/ & #* " ; ;"$ "1 ! & # "# /# # "$
/# /* "
! # /# # "! !$ $ #/* * ! " ! #/ F 0 ! ! "$ $$ "3 " # "$
! /# # $ /$$ &$ $ "$
=.>
A sample of written Thai Type-written Thai
A direct transliteration prachaakOOn thaaê phaà ak taà ay mii la ksanaÁ tEÁ EktaÁ aê caÁ ak prachaakOOn Á õn baà aê nay thaaê phãÆwphan lE ? ruÃupraà aê naà ataa kaÁ p thaaê phaà ak õ Á an khwaam pen yu Á u lE ? aachãÂip na n su Á an yaÁ y kOà khõõ saÆmniaê phaasaÆa su kaan kasikam tEÁ E mii khaà aw nO Oy kwaÁ a phaà ak klaaê mii phoÏnlama ay maà ak sõà ê phOO ca pen raaydaà ay dii thaà a kaan khoÆn soÁê saduÁak haÆa talaÁ at daà ay klay klay phalãÁtphoÆn thãÁi pen raaydaà ay khõà n naà a khõà n taa kwaÁ a à ê pluÁuk kan maà ak nay caêwaÁ t tOOn phoÆnlama ay khõõ yaaê phaaraa sõ taà ay lE ? muÆaêrEà E diibuÁk nay baaê thO OêthKÃi
A word-for-word translation / * # # "# " " ++ +! / * # !/# / + "! $7 # + " /#
$ * * + $* +
&* *"$ & # " +/ # * !$ # + !"# /#"# +0" /$$ & "! * + " " 0 ! " + + " /#"# "! + " ! # + && /#"# */ *# !"# " # ! !
An idiomatic translation # $ + # # ++ !/# +! # $ + # * # "! $7 # " $ " # $ * * + # / + $* "" "" # ! $ $ *"$ # $
" # # =..
B $ * # $ + + +0" &* * "! + " ! " & + / " /#"# &* ! " &$ "! # + # && /#"# */ # # "
# ! !
=.,
The cassette and CD
I # ""! * "
B + #
$ * * + # & / "8 - * # " # #/ # " &$/% ' "* # # / / % = * $ # # * $ /#"# +$$/ % > ** &+ $ + # $ $ " + &# 0 $ * * # / # "
! $ + "$$ !3"$$
"# /#"# "!! "# " " #$*" $ "" +0"$ ! & 7! $0 # * 7 &E " + +0"$ ! ! # # / # + # "# & + # &0 + # /# F "# $$* # $ 0 $ * * + # $ $ # "$ * !
The introduction to the picture story & " 2 +" $ 1 " " $ " $ % ; # $ * " # " * "
$ % # $ % " "
$ ) " # "
" * 9 . $ A " #
$ 1 $ ; $ # * $ ##! # * + # * # " $ ! $$ "0" &$!
=.?
@
$ $ $ $ /# <j< ) $ "
" 9 . 1 2 $ $ $ $
" "
" * 9 " 1 $ $ $ " +
# $ $ $ " $ "$
$ $ $ " + $ "$
$ $ $ " + 0 $ "$ ) $ " " " " " 1 $ $ $ " + ! $ <ê*<
$ $ $ " +
$ $ $ ##! F" / +! + $ $ $ $ /# <w< $ $ $
0 $ $ $ $ " +
#
$ $ $ "$ + 7 " " " #! " /# $ $ $ /#$ #
=.@
@
The conclusion of the story to be told in the speaker's own words At the Lost Property Office
-
'
=
>
.
/ & #
"/
=.A
@
The Shopping List reading passage # $ " 7 ! $ + # >> *$ # #! % # $$ ##! # / # #! F" $ ! " "!! - +" # / " " " /$ ! $$ # # /
"
)<s@m< <@v<
% " 2 " " (
" # " " "
"
" " " " "
" " " I " "
"
" " #
" " 2 $
<j<
"$ F"
êS êdZ d3j )
/ 8 # "!
" #$ # / ; $
/#$
" "
#$ # # !
# 0 $!
=,(
@
Contents of the cassette +
5:
- ' = > . , ? @ A -( -- -' -= -> -.
"# / # /* ! +! ! ! +! /K$ 4"# +! 4 " 4"# +! /K$ $ # +! # +! 7" B $ :* +! :* $ :* +! K$
+
3:
-, -? -@ -A '( '- '' '= '> '. ', '? '@
:$ # 4 &" # !$ P& +! * / #$ +! K B# O #
=,-
@
Learner English -8 "#
>> ! 7 '8 :$ # # >( ! 7
Contents of the CD
- ' = > . , ? @ A -( -- -' -= -> -. -, -? -@ -A '( '- '' '= '> '. ', '?
" "# / # /* ! +! ! 4"# +! 4 " $ # +! # +! 7" B $ :* +! :* $ :* +! K$
:$ # 4 &" # !$ P& +! * / #$ +! K B# O #
?- ! =( " 7
=,'
