Lesson Plans to Train Like You Fly: A Flight Instructor's Reference for Scenario-Based Training

LESSON PLANS TO TRAIN LIKE YOU FLY A FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR’S REFERENCE FOR SCENARIO-BASED TRAINING

Arlynn McMahon

TO TRAIN LIKE YOU FLY A FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR’S REFERENCE FOR SCENARIO-BASED TRAINING Arlynn McMahon

Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. Newcastle, Washington

Lesson Plans to Train Like You Fly: A flight instructor’s reference for scenario-based training by Arlynn McMahon © 2011 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. All rights reserved. The purpose of this book is to provide information on aviation training. The user of this information assumes all risk and liability arising from such use. Neither the publisher nor the author can take responsibility for the actual operation of an aircraft or the safety of its occupants. Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. 7005 132nd Place SE • Newcastle, WA 98059 Website: www.asa2fly.com • Email: [email protected] Visit the ASA website (www.asa2fly.com) for updates posted for this book. See also www.asa2fly.com/reader/lessonplans, the “Reader Resources” webpage with additional material for free download. Photo credits: Cover (front), © Sean Justice/Corbis; beginning of Section I, © istockphoto spx Chrome; Section III, © istockphoto Jacob Wackerhausen. Illustrations are based on author’s original whiteboard drawings. ASA-LESS-PLAN-PD PDF ISBN 978-1-56027-874-0

Arlynn McMahon began her love of aviation as a youngster. She soloed on her 16th birthday; since that time her feet have rarely been on the ground. Arlynn is a graduate of Aero-Tech of Lexington, Kentucky, and also a graduate of Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University. Arlynn has helped more than 1,000 students and CFIs fulfill their dreams of flight since she joined Aero-Tech as an instructor in 1984. A career flight instructor, she recently completed a MBA in Strategic Leadership from Amberton University. Today she serves as Aero-Tech’s Vice President and Training Centers Manager, responsible for all pilot training and flight activities. She is an active FAA Accident Prevention Counselor and was the 1991 FAA Regional Flight Instructor of the Year and the 2009 FAA National Flight Instructor of the Year. Arlynn specializes in teaching Aeronautical Decision-Making and Cockpit-Risk Management to the aircraft owner/nonprofessional pilot. She is a guest speaker at many aviation safety seminars and functions. Arlynn possesses an Airline Transport Pilot certificate with multi-engine privileges and a Commercial Pilot Certificate for single engine privileges. She is a FAA Gold Seal and Master Instructor, with CFI, CFII, MEI, AGI, and over 10,000 accident-free hours, including 7,000 hours dual given. She is a Designated Sport Pilot Examiner and a FAAST Representative. In 2006 Arlynn married her flight instructor and best friend, Charlie Monette. When not in a cockpit, they share sailing, scuba diving and all types of fun in the sun.

Contents Foreword, by Frank Ayers, Ed.D. ........................................................................vii

SECTION I EFFECTIVE LESSON PLANS FOR FLIGHT INSTRUCTORS CHAPTER 1 • Effective Flight Training 3 Lesson Plans versus Maneuver Briefings ............................................................4 Holistic Flight Training.........................................................................................4 What’s In Store .....................................................................................................5 CHAPTER 2 • Common Elements of the Maneuver Briefings 7 Whiteboard Drawing ............................................................................................7 Suggested Materials .............................................................................................7 Lesson Introduction..............................................................................................7 Components of the Maneuver..............................................................................8 Common Errors versus Keys to Success ..............................................................8 The 10-20-30 Rule ................................................................................................8 Minimum Acceptable Tolerances During FAA Practical Exams .........................9 Special Emphasis Areas.........................................................................................9 Additional Teaching Tips and/or Scenarios .......................................................10 Fill-in-the-Blanks Template for Your Airplane ..................................................10 CHAPTER 3 • How to Use the Maneuver Briefings 11 Main Points .........................................................................................................11 Further Notes on Briefings.................................................................................11

SECTION II MANEUVER BRIEFINGS WITH A SCENARIO FOCUS CHAPTER 4 • Airport Operations 15 Traffic Patterns ...................................................................................................16

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CHAPTER 5 • Takeoffs, Landings and Go-Arounds 23 Normal and Crosswind Takeoff and Climb ........................................................24 Normal and Crosswind Approach and Landing.................................................32 Soft-Field Takeoff and Climb..............................................................................40 Soft-Field Landing ..............................................................................................46 Short-Field Takeoff and Maximum Performance Climb ...................................52 Short-Field Approach and Landing ....................................................................58 Forward Slips to Landing....................................................................................64 Go-Around or Rejected Landing.........................................................................70 Power-Off 180° Accuracy Approach and Landing .............................................76 CHAPTER 6 • Performance Maneuvers 83 Steep Turns .........................................................................................................84 Steep Spiral ..........................................................................................................90 Chandelles ...........................................................................................................96 Lazy Eights ........................................................................................................102 CHAPTER 7 • Ground Reference Maneuvers 109 Rectangular Course ...........................................................................................110 Turns Around a Point........................................................................................116 S-Turns Across a Road ......................................................................................122 Eights on Pylons ...............................................................................................128 CHAPTER 8 • Slow Flight and Stalls 135 Maneuvering During Slow Flight .....................................................................136 Power-Off Stalls ................................................................................................142 Power-On Stalls .................................................................................................148 CHAPTER 9 • Emergency Operations 153 Emergency Approach and Landing ..................................................................154

SECTION III HOW TO USE ANY GENERIC, COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE SYLLABUS FOR SCENARIO-BASED TRAINING CHAPTER 10 • The Generic Syllabus With Extras 163 Adding a Scenario..............................................................................................163 Using SRM .........................................................................................................165 The Plan of Action ............................................................................................165 CHAPTER 11 • SRM Templates

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APPENDIX Risk Management Preflight Checklist

181

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Foreword Those of us from the FAA, Embry Riddle Aeronautical University, and the University of North Dakota who began the journey toward Scenario Based Training (SBT), Single-Pilot Resource Management (SRM), and Learner Centered Grading (LCG) back in the fall of 2003 knew that others would need to carry the work forward. Arlynn McMahon, 2009 FAA Flight Instructor of the Year, is one of those people. She was with the FAA Industry Training Standards (FITS) program from the early days and has continued to be a strong voice for realistic flight training. To your immediate benefit, Arlynn is also a delightful writer who makes the difficult easy to understand, and takes joy in the art and science of flight instruction. As with her earlier book, Train Like You Fly, Arlynn has taken the fairly complex subject of maneuvers training within the Scenario Based Training methodology, and made it clear and understandable for the working flight instructor. Scenarios add context to the learning of a series of maneuvers. When the student understands meaning before tackling detail, they learn more quickly and more completely. Arlynn seamlessly combines the “why” with the “how” of learning maneuvers. A soft-field takeoff, S-turns across a road, steep turns, and slow flight can simply be mindless maneuvers learned by rote — or part of a realistic mountain search-and-rescue scenario. The latter provides a vivid context within which the student can understand why it is important to be good at these tasks beyond basic stick-and-rudder skills. Additionally, the instructor can continually help the student make real-time safety and operational decisions during the scenario. I would especially draw your attention to Section III of Lesson Plans to Train Like You Fly, where Arlynn tells us how to apply the principles of Scenario Based Training and Single-Pilot Resource Management to generic flight syllabi. Giving the student a realistic mission, and then guiding them through the detailed preparation and in-flight decisionmaking associated with the mission, builds repeatable problem solving skills and teaches sound judgment. The subject of “teaching judgment” often causes some disagreement among flight instructors. However, if learning can be defined as the change of behavior in response to stimuli over time, then following the scenario guidance Arlynn details in this text

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can surely have a positive impact on student decision-making behavior. Accident statistics consistently remind all of us who flight instruct that this is a critically important goal. In Lesson Plans, Arlynn successfully bridges the gap between the theoretical and the practical. In the “real world” most instructors spend more time in front of a whiteboard than at a computer monitor. Making instruction simple, clear, and easy to repeat provides the instructor with more tools for their teaching bag-of-tricks. This excellent text adds a very valuable tool to that bag. I plan to add it to my flight bag, and I hope you will as well. Frank Ayers, Ed.D. Executive Vice President Embry Riddle Aeronautical University, Prescott CFI, ATP, B757-767

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SECTION I EFFECTIVE LESSON PLANS FOR FLIGHT INSTRUCTORS

EFFECTIVE FLIGHT TRAINING CHAPTER 1

Congratulations on your decision to become an effective aviation instructor! As an effective instructor you will be expected to teach specific maneuvers and you will be asked to teach people who have never left the bounds of Mother Earth to make decisions while being totally outside of their natural environment. It’s a big job. Watch an Olympic ice skater perform on television and you know they had to learn specific jumps and spins to demonstrate the mastery of their sport. The same is true of pilots. A handful of maneuvers and skills are required to demonstrate proficiency and to pass the test. Just as that Olympic ice skater blends the required jumps into a pleasing routine that flows with grace and elegance, a pilot must combine maneuvers on every routine flight. But whereas an ice skater performs in a confined area and in a controlled environment, pilots are free to fly anywhere, in an endless variety of environments. Most flights are not routine. Some contain the unexpected and pilots often find the need for something never before practiced. Flying is a thinking sport. It doesn’t require great physical strength as other sports do. More like a game of chess, flying requires a pilot to understand how each decision and each move affects the successful outcome. Most pilot training courses place little or no emphasis on attaining thinking skills. As a result, when a newly trained pilot flies into a new environment or experiences a flight outside of their normal routine, that pilot is sometimes unprepared to make smart decisions. When all is said and done, flying and teaching flying have more to do with people than they have to do with airplanes.

Chapter 1 • Effective Flight Training

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Lesson Plans versus Maneuver Briefings This book presents lesson plans for flight instructors in the form of scenario-based “maneuver briefings.” A lesson plan is an organized outline for a single instructional period. It tells the instructor which teaching method is to be used for the lesson, what is to be taught, and in what sequence to present information. However, often the syllabus calls for a lesson plan to include more than one maneuver. A maneuver briefing, then, is a kind of lesson plan for presenting an individual maneuver. Multiple maneuver briefings can be covered in a single syllabus lesson. Every CFI practical exam requires the applicant to demonstrate his or her ability to teach a “preflight lesson on a selected maneuver as the lesson would be taught to a student.” Many times the examiner will ask for more than one maneuver briefing. The term “lesson plan” is the traditional term used in industry; however, in this book I use the term “Maneuver Briefing” to convey the presentation of an individual maneuver as outlined in a Task in the Flight Instructor Practical Test Standards (PTS).

Holistic Flight Training Does any student pilot dream of endless hours of touch and go’s? Does any new pilot expect to be corralled into a practice area to master steep turns? I don’t think so. Many student pilots transferring from other schools report how their excitement for flying was beaten out of them with boring, routine, and mindless training. What they expect and what they dream about is going someplace and spending fun and interesting hours as a pilot. This is what scenario-based training brings back to the industry. Think of it as “holistic flight training.” It is holistic because it encourages students to use all of their senses and to think. It persuades a student to remain excited about this marvelous sport through the completion of training and beyond. By presenting maneuvers in a scenario format, the student is propelled into the understanding and application levels of learning while still in the classroom during the maneuver briefing. The use of scenario training fosters safe habits that a student will use long after he has become certificated. Students learn not only what to do but also how to think in the endless variety of situations that maneuvers may be used while flying in the real world. Scenario-based training is not boring. It is not routine and it is not mindless.

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Lesson Plans

What’s In Store Scenario-based training (SBT) has proven itself as a valuable aviation training methodology. But until now it hasn’t been described with clarity and in simple terms that a new instructor can feel comfortable using. In Section II you’ll find simple to use, scenario-based, maneuver briefings described in such a way that the student will “get it” because you used fun flying stories and scenarios to illustrate important concepts. You may have to role-play a bit…it will be worth it. Then later in the book, scenario-based training is added to your favorite syllabus (Section III). There is no need to change syllabi in order to add scenario-based training to your current training methodologies. In addition to being effective tools for active instructors, these lesson plans are helpful to CFI applicants as learning tools and templates for preparing their own materials. Nearly all CFI applicants must provide at least 2 complete lesson plans as part of the initial CFI practical exam.

Chapter 1 • Effective Flight Training

Scenario-based

MANEUVER  BRIEFINGS

5

6

Lesson Plans

COMMON ELEMENTS OF THE MANEUVER BRIEFINGS CHAPTER 2

The maneuver briefings in this book are appropriate for a new instructor-applicant to use during an FAA initial flight instructor practical exam. They are also appropriate for any instructor looking for tools to refresh his teaching technique or to incorporate scenarios into teaching. Each maneuver briefing includes the following elements.

Whiteboard Drawing According to the Aviation Instructor’s Handbook (FAA-H-8083-9), students remember only 13% of what they hear, such as in an instructor’s lecture. Students remember 88% of what they hear and see. Therefore, it is important to draw concepts and to illustrate elements of the maneuver, as well as the relationships of those elements. For that reason, this book provides a whiteboard, or chalkboard drawing for each maneuver as an example of how an effective instructor might draw for the student the important elements to be remembered. Another suggestion would be to make the drawing on paper, and after the postflight briefing, present the drawing as a handout to the student. For a student who may have several days between flight lessons, a drawing can help to recall the lesson during “couch flying sessions” and promote review before meeting with the instructor. With the instructor’s name and phone number noted in the corner of the handout, the student will never forget his favorite instructor.

Suggested Materials The well-equipped flight instructor uses training aids to conduct effective training. This section suggests materials and resources that should be organized before the presentation begins.

Lesson Introduction A student pilot snaps to attention when the instructor shares a personal story; it’s a powerful way to start a lesson. Each introduction includes a “motivation” section that features a story or a scenario to illustrate how the maneuver might be used in real life, and an “objective” section that briefly describes the goal for learning the maneuver. Chapter 2 • Common Elements of the Maneuver Briefings

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Components of the Maneuver Each maneuver is presented with elements that flow seamlessly from one to the next so the presentation is organized. This allows the student to understand the relationships between elements. The material is organized in its most logical sequence for a coherent presentation that students (as well as examiners/inspectors) will appreciate. Understanding the components of a maneuver is fundamental to a scenario-based lesson plan. It is only after the student understands the individual elements of the maneuver that he is able to make smart decisions that are safe and within the limitations of his aircraft and his qualifications. According to the Flight Instructor PTS, flight instructor applicants are required to demonstrate “instructional knowledge.” This refers to the applicant’s ability to show the application or correlative level of knowledge of a maneuver. Maneuver briefings contained in this book support instructional knowledge by providing the “what to do,” “how to do it” and “why it’s important” for each maneuver.

Common Errors versus Keys to Success The Flight Instructor PTS requires that a flight instructor applicant present and discuss “common errors.” The purpose is to assist the examiner/inspector in determining whether the applicant can recognize, analyze, and correct errors. This is a case where the method of testing is contrary to the method of instructing. Experienced instructors know that it can be detrimental to introduce a laundry list of “what not to do” to a student. Simply introducing the idea of something not-to-do can manifest it. Therefore in this book, the negative not-to-do list of common errors is presented in the positive as “Keys to Success.” Presenting these as Keys to Success allows the examiner/inspector to determine that an applicant is knowledgeable in common errors. Yet at the same time, the instructor is able to present the material in a positive manner that reinforces desired student habits.

SUCCESS =    Positive     aspects

The 10-20-30 Rule The “10-20-30 rule” is a teaching device used in the lesson plan to remind students how to properly divide their attention. It helps them to maintain their situational awareness inside and outside of the cockpit. According to the 10-20-30 rule, ten seconds of every minute should be focused inside the cockpit, performing tasks such as scanning flight instruments to verify airspeed, heading and altitude, scanning the engine gauges and updating the GPS map with airspace considerations, as appropriate. Twenty seconds of every minute should focus on outside ground references—use this time to survey terrain features, update your position near obstacles or to help keep the runway parallel to your flight path. Remain aware of what you are flying over… or near. Thirty seconds of every minute is focused on scanning for traffic — in front of the plane, to each side, above, below, and all around. This is not to say that 10 consecutive seconds must be spent focusing on things in the cockpit followed by 20 consecutive seconds strictly 8

Lesson Plans

looking at ground references. Instead, this is simply a way to communicate what proportion of every minute should be used to achieve these tasks.

Minimum Acceptable Tolerances During FAA Practical Exams In this book, PTS tolerances in altitude, heading or airspeed are not introduced to the student. While the instructor is required to know what the tolerances are, the PTS tolerances might not be the completion standard for the lesson. Experienced instructors encourage students to do their best with words such as, “the goal is to hold altitude.” PTS tolerances are provided for the instructor’s reference in sections called “Minimum Acceptable Tolerances During FAA Practical Exams.” This solidifies the notion that the requirements to pass the exam represent the minimum requirements rather than those desirable in a good pilot. Each instructor must decide if training students to meet the minimum acceptable standard is his or her objective. Therefore, rather than being introduced during training, it is recommended that PTS tolerances be introduced to a student during the hours designated as preparation for the practical exam. References to FAA Practical Test Standards in this book use the editions that were current at the time of publication. Use the most current PTS when creating your own briefings and lesson plans. FAA-S-8081-6, Flight Instructor PTS for Airplane FAA-S-8081-14, Private Pilot PTS for Airplane FAA-S-8081-12, Commercial Pilot PTS for Airplane

Special Emphasis Areas Examiners/inspectors place special emphasis upon areas of aircraft operation considered critical to flight safety. In this book, “Special Emphasis Areas” are built into maneuver briefings as appropriate to the maneuver. According to the Flight Instructor PTS, an instructor applicant should “develop and use scenario-based teaching methods particularly on special emphasis areas”; therefore, when presenting maneuver briefings, it is important to stress the following areas of special significance: 1. Positive aircraft control 2. Positive exchange of the flight controls procedure 3. Stall/spin awareness 4. Collision avoidance 5. Wake turbulence avoidance 6. Land and hold short operations (LAHSO) 7. Runway incursion avoidance 8. Controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) 9. Aeronautical decision making (ADM) and risk management 10. Wire strike avoidance 11. Checklist usage Chapter 2 • Common Elements of the Maneuver Briefings

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12. Temporary flight restrictions (TFRs) 13. Special use airspace (SUA) 14. Aviation security, and 15. Single-pilot resource management (SRM)

Additional Teaching Tips and/or Scenarios This section includes information that may make the maneuver easier for the instructor to teach or easier for the student to understand. Additional scenarios provide variety during review lessons of the same maneuver.

Fill-in-the-Blanks Template for Your Airplane This section is designed to encourage instructors to research the aircraft configuration, V-speeds, and specific procedures needed for the training airplane and your local area. Use this section to customize the maneuver briefing you’ve prepared for your aircraft. Present the maneuver to your student with information relative to your training aircraft, your airport and flight school, and local airspace.

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Lesson Plans

HOW TO USE THE MANEUVER BRIEFINGS CHAPTER 3

Main Points In order to get the most out of this book, use the following methods and tips to help you incorporate the ideas presented here into your own lesson plans. 1. Quickly read through the maneuver briefing to familiarize yourself with its overall flow. Study each step of the presentation and be thoroughly familiar with as much information related to the elements as possible. 2. Study the photo of the whiteboard drawing and notice how the drawn presentation supports the discussion. 3. Using the Fill-in-the-Blanks Template, refer to the Pilot’s Operating Handbook for the airplane used during flight training, your school standard operating procedures, and local charts to research the specific procedures and limitations that are appropriate. 4. Using the maneuver briefing as a script, rehearse presenting the maneuver, incorporating procedures for your specific airplane, while simultaneously reproducing the whiteboard drawing. Rehearse until you don’t need the complete script anymore, and you are using only your own illustration.

Further Notes on Briefings Using a digital recorder to rehearse is more effective than practicing your teaching on another person. The recorder will allow you to playback and listen to your own presentation. You are more likely to pick up on opportunities for improvements than would another person who doesn’t understand what your intentions are for the presentation. The maneuver briefing is a script that assumes the reader is an instructor, teaching a student. Thus scripts use “we” to define when the student and instructor will perform a task together. “I” is used to define when the instructor will perform a task and “you” defines the student as performing the task. Adapt the maneuver briefing to the student. Flight instructors are often called upon to teach students with varying backgrounds and experience. Maneuver briefings in this book have been written to present Chapter 3 • How to Use the Maneuver Briefings

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material to a student without prior knowledge of the maneuver. During the Flight Instructor FAA practical exam, the examiner/inspector will act as a student during portions of the exam and will indicate if the student’s background warrants revision. Don’t use the same scenario every time the maneuver is reviewed. Pilot error or improper decisions made by the pilot are still the primary cause of accidents. Presenting a different scenario in later review lessons of the maneuver challenges the student to think about a variety of different real-life situations. This allows supervised practice in developing decision-making skills. In this book, a scenario is included in the motivation portion of the maneuver briefing and ideas for additional scenarios follow at the end of the maneuver briefing. The Fill-in-the-Blanks Template encourages you to think of a scenario that is appropriate for your individual student and training environment. Revise the maneuver briefing periodically. With experience, you will find opportunities to tweak the presentation, finding ways to make it more concise or clear. In addition to experience, this is also the case due to availability of new instructional aids, changes in regulations, or revisions to textbooks.

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Lesson Plans

SECTION II MANEUVER BRIEFINGS WITH A SCENARIO FOCUS

AIRPORT OPERATIONS CHAPTER 4

This chapter contains maneuver briefings on the subject of traffic patterns. AREA OF OPERATION: Preflight Lesson on a Maneuver to be Performed in Flight Note: Examiner shall select at least one maneuver and ask the applicant to present a preflight lesson on the selected maneuver as the lesson would be taught to a student. OBJECTIVE: To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the selected maneuver by: 1. Stating the purpose. 2. Giving an accurate, comprehensive oral description, including the elements and common errors. 3. Using instructional aids, as appropriate. 4. Describing the recognition, analysis, and correction of common errors.

Chapter 4 • Airport Operations

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Traffic Patterns Suggested Materials: Whiteboard and markers, POH, A/FD, and AC 90-66.

INTRODUCTION Spend at least three minutes introducing the maneuver to the student. Describe the situations that are motivation for learning it, as well as the objectives to strive for.

Motivation The traffic pattern is a standardized rectangle around the runway. It provides an orderly flow of traffic for aircraft arriving, departing and operating in the vicinity of an airport. At the same time, the traffic pattern provides a flow of cockpit tasks the pilot must complete in preparation for takeoff and/or landing.

Objective In this lesson you learn the correct procedures to arrive at, depart from, or operate around an airport.

TRAFFIC PATTERNS

RESEARCH (A/FD)

• Procedures • Traffic pattern altitude (TPA) • Communications - ATIS/AWOS/ASOS - ATC/CTAF/blind • Active runway • Turns - normally left

Delay turn

Delay turn

Anticipate turn

ENTRY STRATEGIES

1 2

5 4

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3

Base

• Glidepath • Descent

ENTRY

• @ TPA • 45° downwind • <200 KIAS

• Airspeed • Parallel

1⁄2 – 1

Final

• Stabilized • Possible go-around

WIND WIND

When you are ready

°

Anticipate turn

• ATIS/AWOS • Checklist • ATC/CTAF Downwind

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WIND CORRECTIONS

SET UP

COLLISION AVOIDANCE

• ATC clearances/phraseology • Right-of-way rules 91.113 • Maintain spacing— don’t follow behind • Cockpit management • Heads up, eyes out

mile

45° Exit

Crosswind Upwind

300’ TPA

Exit

WAKE TURBULENCE

• Delay rotation

• Stay high • Touchdown after

• Lift off before • Early turn upwind

• Land before

Lesson Plans

CHALKBOARD TALK Elements of the Maneuver First, a look at the universal elements of the maneuver — those elements that are not aircraft-specific. Pattern leg names:

• downwind • base • final • crosswind

Downwind Base

Xwind Final

Takeoff begins before leaving the dispatch area.The first thing a pilot does in preparation for takeoff is research:

□ Research in A/FD,  Some airports have special procedures including noise abatement or

obstacle clearance.  Traffic pattern altitude — what it is, why it’s important; in the A/FD, or 1,000 ft AGL.  Who will you communicate with — AWOS/ATIS/ASOS (for the latest information about the airport). ATC/CTAF/into the blind (who you might talk to, around the airport). □ The active runway should be the one most aligned with wind. □ Turns are normally to the left. Add the cockpit tasks and aircraft configuration changes to complete along each leg:

□ Set up — about 10 miles outside a nontowered field. At controlled fields it

°

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SET UP depends on the airspace. ATIS/AWOS  Listen to ATIS/AWOS. Checklist  Aircraft pre-landing checklists. ATC/CTAF  Communicate with ATC/CTAF. □ Downwind — primary objective on downwind is to stabilize the airspeed. Starting abeam of the touchdown point,  Slow to approach speed and stabilize.  Maintain wind corrections to fly and remain parallel to runway.  Maintain traffic pattern altitude, don't begin a descent while flying away from the runway.  Turn base only when you are ready. If you begin abeam the touchdown Entry point, you should be about 45° (however, this may change). When you are ready Downwind  Continue to scan for traffic. □ On base — the objective on base is to stabilize the glide path: 1⁄2 –1 mile Base  Reduce power to achieve a speed of about 1.4 VS0.  Begin stabilized descent.  Continue to scan for traffic. Final □ Final — the objective on final approach is to make only small corrections as necessary:  Reduce power to achieve a speed of about 1.3 VS0.  Maintain a stabilized approach speed and glide path.  Continue to scan for traffic.  Mentally prepare for possible go-around. Chapter 4 • Airport Operations

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Anticipate turn

Wind corrections:

• Describe how to correct for wind drift to maintain the proper ground track on each leg.

• Anticipate the turn to final.

WIND

Proper entry:

• Be at traffic pattern altitude before entering traffic pattern. • On downwind leg, at a 45° angle abeam the midpoint of the runway. • Less than 200 KIAS.

1

Discuss entry strategies from different areas around the airport:

• Aircraft/runway diagram showing numbers 1 – 5 • Diagram is not meant to indicate proximity to runway; rather, the general direction they are coming from (due to limited board space).

2

5 3

4

Departing the traffic pattern:

45° Exit

• Straight out. • 45° left turn off runway heading after reaching traffic pattern altitude. Collision avoidance:

• Controlled fields — ATC clearances,  If you accept it, you must comply with it — or have it amended.  You don’t have to accept it; you are the pilot-in-command.  Use proper phraseology. • Right of Way Rules (14 CFR §91.113) apply — but, if needed for safety, be

willing to give up your right of way. • Maintain proper spacing from other traffic —  Slow to approach speed or slower.  Widen traffic pattern.  Don’t follow directly behind another plane. Fly 30° to 45° outside of the other aircraft’s traffic pattern.  S-turns are not recommended on short/low final.  Go-around.  Good cockpit management needed to keep your head up and looking around. • Operations differ at airports without an operating control tower. • An organized cockpit means less time with your head buried down. Note: Many different types of flying machines use an airport. They affect which method you might need to use to maintain safety around them. Keep your head up and your eyes outside.

Exit

COLLISION AVOIDANCE ATC clearances Phraseology Right-of-way rules Maintain spacing Cockpit management

Heads up Eyes out

Wake turbulence avoidance is an emphasis area for operations in the traffic pattern:

• Explain avoidance in  Taking off after larger plane landing.  Taking off after larger plane taking off.  Landing after larger plane landing.  Landing after larger plane taking off. 18

Caution

Lesson Plans

Performance Now that the key elements are covered, discuss what will happen in the airplane today. You'll takeoff, fly to a nearby airport, enter the traffic pattern, and land, before returning home. One airport is a pilot-controlled airport (that is, a nontowered one), located in Class G airspace; the other is controlled by ATC in C airspace. At the pilot-controlled airport:

• About 10 miles out — listen to AWOS; determine the active runway. • Announce intentions “into the blind” on CTAF at nontowered fields, and

listen for other pilots in the area before turning each leg of the traffic pattern. • Inbound aircraft observe other aircraft already in the traffic pattern and conform to the traffic pattern in use. • Generally, entry into the traffic pattern will be at a 45° ground track angle to the downwind leg, abeam the mid-point of the landing runway. At the ATC (tower) controlled airport:

• About 10 miles before entering airspace — listen to ATIS. • Contact approach control prior to entering terminal airspace, with your

intentions. Give them time to work you into the traffic flow. • Generally, entry into the traffic pattern will be at a 45° ground track angle to the downwind leg, abeam the mid-point of the landing runway (unless otherwise directed by ATC). Then:

• Arrive at the appropriate traffic pattern altitude a minimum of two miles

from the airport.  Traffic pattern altitude — 1,000 feet AGL. Maintain a safe altitude in the traffic pattern considering the possibility of an engine failure; be able to glide to the runway. (Note: The Arrow does not glide well.)  Traffic pattern airspeed — reduce speed to about 100 KIAS unless conditions dictate otherwise or until abeam the point of intended landing. • About 5 miles from runway, complete the first pre-landing checklist. • Correct for wind drift for a tight, close, rectangular pattern, using about ½ to 1 mile distance from runway along downwind, ½ to 1 mile base and ½ to 1 mile final legs. • Visually check both left and right before turning to next leg. • Avoid traffic collisions, wake turbulence, and wind shear. Keys for success:

✔ Comply with local traffic pattern procedures and Federal Aviation Regulations. ✔ Correct for the wind and remain oriented to where you are in relation to the landing area. ✔ Maintain adequate spacing for traffic. ✔ Maintain a stabilized airspeed and descent path to the runway.

Chapter 4 • Airport Operations

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EVALUATION Minimum Tolerances During FAA Practical Exams Completion standards for the lesson may vary with the phase of training. The minimum standards required to be successful on the practical test are: 1. Exhibit knowledge of the elements related to traffic patterns. This shall include procedures at airports with and without operating control towers, prevention of runway incursions, collision avoidance, wake turbulence avoidance, and wind shear. 2. Comply with proper traffic pattern procedures. 3. Maintain proper spacing from other aircraft. 4. Correct for wind drift to maintain the proper ground track. 5. Maintain orientation with the runway/landing area in use. 6. Maintain traffic pattern altitude, ±100 feet, and the appropriate airspeed, ±10 knots.

Recommended Training Scenarios: 1. Draw a traffic pattern, labeling the legs and providing a mini-list of cockpit tasks to be completed on different legs. 2. Present a short cross-country using an airport with an operating control tower and an airport without. Compare the differences in traffic patterns at the two airports.

Planning Your Practice Fill in the blanks for your airplane in the following handy checklist.

Your Traffic Patterns scenario (Make notes here.)

Arriving at _____________________ Airport 1. Noise abatement procedure ______________________. 2. Operating at this airport: LSA, gliders, transport, cargo, military, other __________. 3. About ______ miles out: a. Obtain ___________ (ATIS/SWOS). b. Determine the active runway. 4. Contact _____________ (approach/CTAF). 5. Inbound: a. Observe traffic pattern in use b. Conform to pattern

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Lesson Plans

6. Enter a 45° ground track angle to downwind leg abeam midpoint of landing runway (unless otherwise directed by ATC). 7. Arrive at traffic pattern altitude minimum of ______ miles from the airport: a. TPA ______ AGL or _____ MSL b. Airspeed, reduce to ≈_____ KIAS (unless conditions dictate otherwise) 8. About ______ miles from runway, complete the first pre-landing checklist. 9. Correct for wind drift for close, rectangular pattern: a. Use ≈_____mile distance from runway along downwind b. ______ miles on base c. ______ mile final legs 10. Visually check left and right before turning to next leg. 11. Announce intentions “into the blind” CTAF on nontowered fields, before turning each leg of the traffic pattern. 12. Avoid traffic collisions, wake turbulence and wind shear. Downwind Objective abeam touchdown point — stabilize airspeed. 1. Complete prelanding checklist: a. Below ______ KIAS, select gear down b. Fuel pump ____ (On, Off, N/A, etc.) c. Slowing into white arc _____ flaps d. Cowl flaps ______ e. Other ________ f . Slow to ______ KIAS, trim, stabilize 2. Scan for traffic. 3. Turn base leg. On Base Objective — stabilize the glide path. 1. Reduce power to achieve a speed of about 1.4 VS0 _____ KIAS. 2. Begin stabilized descent. 3. Continue to scan for traffic. Final Objective — make only small corrections as necessary. 1. Reduce power to achieve a speed of about 1.3 VS0 _____ KIAS. 2. Maintain a stabilized approach speed and glide path. 3. Continue to scan for traffic. 4. Mentally prepare for possible go-around.

Chapter 4 • Airport Operations

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22

Lesson Plans

TAKEOFFS, LANDINGS AND GO-AROUNDS CHAPTER 5

This chapter contains the following maneuver briefings:

• Normal and crosswind takeoff and climb • Normal and crosswind approach and landing • Soft-field takeoff and climb • Soft-field approach and landing • Short-field takeoff and maximum performance climb • Short-field approach and landing • Forward slip to a landing • Go-around or rejected landing • Power-off 180° accuracy approach and landing AREA OF OPERATION: Preflight Lesson on a Maneuver to be Performed in Flight Note: Examiner shall select at least one maneuver and ask the applicant to present a preflight lesson on the selected maneuver as the lesson would be taught to a student. OBJECTIVE: To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the selected maneuver by: 1. Stating the purpose. 2. Giving an accurate, comprehensive oral description, including the elements and common errors. 3. Using instructional aids, as appropriate. 4. Describing the recognition, analysis, and correction of common errors.

Chapter 5 • Takeoffs, Landings and Go-Arounds

23

Normal and Crosswind Takeoff and Climb Suggested Materials: Whiteboard and markers, POH, A/FD, and model airplane.

INTRODUCTION Spend at least three minutes introducing the maneuver to the student. Describe the situations that are motivation for learning it, as well as the objectives to strive for.

Motivation Every flight begins with a takeoff. Sometimes you may take off from a large runway, other times from a small one. Sometimes it will be into the wind and some days there will be no wind. A takeoff in an antique Piper Cub tailwheel aircraft will be different than one in a new, high-performance Cirrus. Yet certain rules and procedures apply to all takeoffs.

Objective Takeoff and climb are critical phases of flight because the airplane is low to the ground, at a high angle of attack, a high power setting, and low airspeed. In this lesson you learn the correct procedures to begin a safe and enjoyable flight. A normal takeoff is one in which the airplane departs directly into the wind. We’ll talk about that type first, then discuss the differences for the takeoff procedure when the airplane is not headed directly into the wind — such as in a crosswind takeoff.

NORMAL TAKEOFF

RESEARCH • • • • •

Runway - length/condition Wind - into Obstructions Plane - POH Airport - A/FD

HOLD SHORT • • • • • • • •

Confirm runway Checklist Configure Cockpit organized Passenger brief Clearance Prepare for unexpected Avoid runway incursions

LOOK

• Both ends of active runway • Inside & out — divide attention

Full power

• On centerline • Ailerons for wind • Elevator neutral

24

• Heels on floor • Hand on throttle

Break ground Possible crab Nose on horizon Trim

VR Back pressure Centerline Right rudder

SUCCESS =

22

IN POSITION - Pilot

Scan

Controls more effective

Centerline Feet Look down runway

WAKE TURBULENCE

IN POSITION - Plane

You’re ready Plane’s ready Centerline discipline Wind corrections

Centerline Climb Gear up Trim

Checklist Fuel pump off Climb power setting

Willing to abort Sterile cockpit No chit chat, music, fidgeting with radio, ATC, nothing until 500 AGL

Lesson Plans

CHALKBOARD TALK Elements of the Maneuver First, a look at the universal elements of the maneuver — those elements that are not aircraft-specific. Takeoff begins before leaving the dispatch area.The first thing a pilot does to prepare for takeoff is research:

□ Runway length and condition. As a new pilot, a good rule of thumb is to use runways that provide twice the POH recommended takeoff distance.  Is it flat? Look at the A/FD and NOTAMs. □ Wind. Check the METAR or ASOS to find your wind direction and velocity. Takeoff into the wind when possible; if not, consider the crosswind component. □ Obstructions. Are there trees around the takeoff environment? Is airport construction in progress? Look at the A/FD and NOTAMs. □ Your airplane. Study the aircraft takeoff performance in consideration of atmospheric and weight conditions. Know the density altitude and how it will affect this takeoff; a hot and humid day can require much more runway length.  Refer to the POH. Use manufacturer recommended configuration and power settings. □ The airport — is it open? Is there standing water after a rain? Published takeoff procedure? Noise abatement procedures?  The POH, A/FD and NOTAMs are packed with information you need.

With the research complete, it’s time to preflight, start, and taxi to the runway.The next important point is at the hold short line. (Note: At some airports, the runup is done in a specific runup area. Change the sequence as appropriate for your airport or school before starting takeoff procedures.) • Position aircraft perpendicular to the runway so you can view both left and right base legs and the final approach to each end of the runway. • Confirm you are at the correct runway — use runway signs, check the alignment with your compass. • Use the manufacturer’s written pre-takeoff checklist. To avoid the possibility of engine problems, do not change fuel tanks after the pretakeoff runup. Take off on the tank on which you did the runup. • Verify the appropriate configuration — the aircraft typically uses 2 notches or 20° of flaps for a normal takeoff. • Cockpit organized:  Pre-select transponder on code and ALT.  Pre-select communication frequencies in STBY.  Pre-select and program NAVs/GPS.  Put your stuff away — don’t let it fall on the floor. • Last-minute passenger briefing to reconfirm your sterile cockpit. • Mentally prepare to handle engine abnormalities or emergency; be prepared to abort (land straight ahead if below 600 ft AGL). • If at a tower-controlled field, contact ATC only after cockpit duties are complete and you are ready for takeoff. Even if there is another aircraft in front of you, the controller should know you are ready so he can establish your sequence.

Chapter 5 • Takeoffs, Landings and Go-Arounds

HOLD SHORT

Confirm runway Checklist Configure Cockpit organized Passenger brief Clearance Prepare for unexpected Avoid runway incursions

25

WAKE TURBULENCE

While at the hold short line, let’s quickly review wake turbulence avoidance procedures:

• How to takeoff following a landing aircraft. • How to takeoff following an aircraft taking-off. We’ve spent a lot of time inside the cockpit — divide attention outside to avoid runway incursions:

• Obtain takeoff clearance before crossing the hold short line. • Once on the runway, verify compass heading with runway heading. • Glance all the way down the runway for possible opposite-direction traffic

LOOK

and foreign objects or debris (FOD).

In position:

• The plane —  on centerline. Do not stop on runway unless specifically directed by

IN POSITION - Plane

tower to do so.  controls (ailerons and elevator) positioned for wind…they may change after liftoff, so be prepared for changes. • The pilot —  sit correctly, heels on the floor (don’t ride the brakes during the takeoff roll).  hand on the throttle.

On centerline Ailerons for wind Elevator neutral

IN POSITION - Pilot Heels on floor Hand on throttle

Notice that we have been talking about takeoff for several minutes, yet are only just now at the runway and actually doing it. This shows how planning and preparation is required — but it will be worth it in having a safe and fun takeoff.

Performance So now that you understand the elements, let’s discuss what will happen in the PA28RT-201 today. Normal takeoff:

• Add full power, smoothly, and cross-check engine instruments.

Full power

Maintain centerline. (Note: some aircraft use a takeoff power setting that is less than full power; revise as necessary.) • Look down the runway to the far end — don’t drive the plane looking close to the nose. This will help you maintain centerline. • As speed increases, wind increases over the controls making them more effective. Be prepared for the controls to feel differently, and to respond more quickly. • At rotation speed of 70 KIAS, apply back pressure for liftoff but keep the ailerons level. • After powering up, torque, P-factor and left-turning tendencies increase; you might need more right rudder to maintain centerline.

26

Controls more effective

Centerline Feet Look down runway

VR Back pressure Centerline Right rudder

Lesson Plans

Scan

• After breaking ground, you may find a little wind above the tree

tops. Be prepared for a possible crab in order to maintain the Break ground extended centerline over the runway. Possible crab Nose on horizon • There are several options for climb attitudes. Later, we’ll Trim talk about VY, VX, and enroute climbs, the differences in performance and when to use each. But for our first takeoff, Checklist maintain your nose in a climb attitude, just above the horizon. Fuel pump off That will give us about 75 KIAS. Climb power  Centerline • Trim. setting Climb • After a positive rate-of-climb has been established and a safe Gear up landing can no longer be accomplished on the remaining Trim runway, retract landing gear. • After gear-in-transient light is extinguished, retract flaps one notch at a time. • Climb straight out until 300 feet below traffic pattern altitude, then turn crosswind. Comply with obstruction departure procedures, noise abatement procedures, and ATC clearances. (Some airport DP or ATC require a turn to base before 300 feet below traffic pattern altitude; revise as necessary for your airport operations.) • Complete the manufacturer’s After Takeoff Checklist, if appropriate. Now, let’s talk about how things are different when the wind is not directly down the runway. Although it’s called a “normal takeoff,” it’s not what we normally do. In other words, the winds will not be aligned with the runway for probably 80% of your takeoffs. Crosswind takeoff:

• During research, we will calculate the crosswind takeoff component in

the POH. • The maximum demonstrated crosswind component is not a limitation, but gives you an indication of where most new pilots should consider it too-much wind. Perhaps your airport has a second runway? • Once in position for takeoff on the runway, position the ailerons fully into the wind and hold the elevator neutral. • As speed increases, wind increases over the controls making them more effective. Be prepared to reduce the controls slightly. • In strong crosswinds (delay takeoff until VR+2 to 5 KIAS). You want to make a clean takeoff and make certain the aircraft is ready to fly and will remain in the air — don’t rush a crosswind takeoff. • After breaking ground, you will need to crab to maintain the extended centerline over the runway. Don’t allow the aircraft to drift off of the protected runway area.

Chapter 5 • Takeoffs, Landings and Go-Arounds

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27

Consider possible situations for rejected takeoff:

• Don’t try to fix a problem during the takeoff roll. Abort – reduce power – brake – stop. Taxi clear and diagnose the situation off runway.

• Engine gauges — showing faulty? • Engine sounds — sputtering? • Engine not developing full power? • Pilot distracted? • Passengers excited (do they see something that you don’t?) • Door or window open? • Not able to control centerline (flat tire?) • Takeoff roll in slow motion (parking brake on?) During this maneuver, special emphasis is placed on:

□ Positive aircraft control □ Stall/spin awareness □ Collision avoidance □ Wake turbulence avoidance □ Runway incursion avoidance □ CFIT □ ADM and risk management □ Checklist usage Keys for success:

✔ Take the runway only when you are ready.  Clear the area all around, in the air and on the ground.  Keep your hand on the throttle. Advance smoothly. ✔ Take the runway only when you are sure the plane is ready.  Engine gauges indicate normal.  Establish proper lift-off attitude.  Establish and maintain proper climb attitude and airspeed (VY). Don’t chase the airspeed indicator. ✔ Centerline discipline — maintain directional control. Anticipate the leftturning tendencies during initial power-up without over-correcting. ✔ Correct for wind —  Position flight controls for wind.  Make smooth control inputs for wind corrections.  Correct for wind drift during climb. ✔ Be willing to abort. ✔ Sterile cockpit — this is a critical phase of flight; focus on the job. There should be no chit-chat, no music, no distractions. Don’t fidget with frequency changes during takeoff or initial climb-out, unless it’s an emergency delay responding to any ATC calls during the takeoff roll or within 100 feet. Try not to do anything until 500 feet AGL.

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LOOK

SUCCESS =

  You’re ready   Plane’s ready   Centerline discipline   Wind corrections   Willing to abort   Sterile cockpit 

NO: chit chat 

until   500’ AGL

Lesson Plans

EVALUATION Minimum Tolerances During FAA Practical Exams Completion standards for the lesson may vary with the phase of training. The minimum standards required to be successful on the practical test are: 1. Exhibit knowledge of the elements related to a normal and crosswind takeoff, climb operations, and rejected takeoff procedures. 2. Position the flight controls for the existing wind conditions. 3. Clear the area; taxi into the takeoff position and align the airplane on the runway center/takeoff path. 4. Retract the water rudders, as appropriate, (ASES) and advance the throttle smoothly to takeoff power. 5. Establish and maintain the most efficient planning/lift-off attitude and correct for porpoising. 6. Lift off at the recommended airspeed and accelerate to VY. 7. Establish a pitch attitude that will maintain VY +10/-5 knots. 8. Retract the landing gear, if appropriate, and flaps after a positive rate-ofclimb is established. 9. Maintain takeoff power and VY +10/-5 knots to a safe maneuvering altitude. 10. Maintain directional control and proper wind-drift correction throughout the takeoff and climb. Comply with noise abatement procedures; complete the appropriate checklist.

Chapter 5 • Takeoffs, Landings and Go-Arounds

29

Planning Your Practice Fill in the blanks for your airplane in the following handy checklist.

Your Normal and Crosswind Takeoff and Climb scenario (Make notes here.)

Normal Takeoff 1. Consider: a. wind conditions b. crosswind component c. takeoff hazards d. runway condition e. wind shear f. wake turbulence 2. Passenger briefing complete. 3. Appropriate checklist and takeoff configuration. 4. Cockpit management: a. Preset transponder to ALT, and b. COM to Tower, c. with Departure in STBY. 5. In Position: a. perpendicular to takeoff runway (to see traffic on final approach). b. practice effective traffic avoidance. c. check final for traffic prior to pulling onto runway. 6. Contact tower control: a. only after cockpit duties are complete, and b. you are READY for takeoff. 7. Do not stop on runway (unless directed by the tower to do so). 8. Align the aircraft: a. with runway centerline. b. ailerons deflected into the wind. c. with elevator neutral. ____ increase power slowly, smoothly until full power. ____ cross-check engine instruments. ____ maintain runway centerline! 9. As aircraft reaches VR ( _____ KIAS), apply back pressure on control wheel until takeoff attitude (nose on the horizon). 10. Establish VY: a. _____ KIAS while gear is down, b. then VY _____ once gear is up.

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Lesson Plans

11. Retract landing gear: a. after a positive rate-of-climb has been established, and b. safe landing can no longer be accomplished on remaining runway. 12. After gear-in-transient light is extinguished, retract flaps one notch at a time. 13. Continue straight track over extended runway centerline until departure turn is initiated. 14. Consider a safe emergency landing area. 15. Maintain directional control, coordination and proper wind drift. 16. Scan for traffic, then initiate coordinated turn. 17. Comply with noise abatement procedures. 18. Initial turn to crosswind 300' below TPA unless ATC requiests or obstacle clearance dictates otherwise. If ATC requests an early turn-out, new student pilots are urged to deny the request until reaching a safe altitude. 19. Fuel pump _______. 20. Complete cruise checklist. Crosswind Takeoff 1. Perform items 1 through 10 the same as “Normal Takeoff,” then… a. apply full aileron. b. use rudder as necessary to maintain directional control. 2. As airspeed builds, reduce aileron input to maintain a wings-level attitude. 3. As aircraft reaches VR ( _____ KIAS), apply back pressure on the control wheel until the takeoff attitude (nose on the horizon). 4. …the rest is same as “Normal Takeoff.”

Chapter 5 • Takeoffs, Landings and Go-Arounds

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Normal and Crosswind Approach and Landing Suggested Materials: Whiteboard and markers, POH, A/FD, and model airplane.

INTRODUCTION Spend at least three minutes introducing the maneuver to the student. Describe the situations that are motivation for learning it, as well as the objectives to strive for.

Motivation No matter how well you prepare for a flight, how smooth you fly en route, communicate with ATC, or use your cockpit technology, passengers tend to determine the overall quality of any flight by a great landing. A good landing requires planning and task management to transition the airplane from cruise or descent into a landing configuration.

Objective Your goal in this lesson is to learn how to manage the tasks required for returning you and your passengers to Mother Earth. It’s time to learn how to make landings that both your plane and passengers will appreciate. The normal landing is defined as a landing into the wind. We’ll start with the normal landing, then discuss the differences for landing when the wind is not directly down the runway, as in a crosswind.

RESEARCH • • • •

Airport/runway Wind Obstructions Possible alternatives

• In the air • On the ground • Everywhere 10-20-30

STABILIZED APPROACH • • • •

Configured Airspeed Glidepath On centerline

NORMAL LANDING

LOOK

300’ AGL Abort

2⁄ 3

1⁄3

touchdown

roll

GOOD LANDING • • • •

3⁄3

emergency

Downwind

On centerline First 1/3 runway Stall warning No side load

Turn only when YOU are ready

• Checklist/configure • Clearance • Stabilize speed

Base

• Descend • Stabilize glidepath • Traffic avoidance

WAKE TURBULENCE

Final

• Everything stabilized • Ready for abort • Traffic avoidance

1 Fly

SUCCESS =

Start downwind Divide cockpit tasks Think ahead, reevaluate Sterile cockpit - no music, pax awake, poss. abort

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2 Float

• Stabilized approach • Look @ #’s • • • • •

Roundout Look Use horizon Be patient Power off

4 Finesse

3 Flare • Ground effect • Be patient • Stall attitude • Right rudder • Touchdown

• • • • •

Rollout Eyes out Centerline Stop Checklist

Lesson Plans

CHALKBOARD TALK Elements of the Maneuver First, a look at the universal elements of the maneuver — those elements that are not aircraft-specific. To start, let’s talk about runway lengths. For new pilots, a good rule of thumb is to take any runway and divide it into thirds:

• Plan to use the first ⅓ for touchdown, the next third for rollout and the

1⁄3

2⁄3

3⁄3

final third for emergency. • If you can’t land in the first ½, the runway may be too short for a new pilot. As with most things in flying, we don’t just rush into a landing. Before takeoff is the time to starting researching for the landing: □ Airport and runway — is it open? Is it appropriate for you? Is it flat? Look at the A/FD and NOTAMs. □ Wind — check it before takeoff, update it en route, and verify it with AWOS, ATIS or visual references. Maximum demonstrated crosswind component, although not a limitation, is a good personal limitation for new pilots. □ Obstructions — look for anything surrounding the airport, on final, and surrounding the runway. Is airport construction in progress? Look at the A/FD and NOTAMs. □ Possible alternatives — don’t put yourself into a mindset that you have to land. That’s usually not the case. Consider other options for another runway, another airport, another aircraft configuration. Always have a Plan-B in mind so you don’t feel you must land in a situation you’re not comfortable with.

Let’s draw it. The perfect landing begins with a good traffic pattern and having tasks managed by dividing a small set of objectives on each leg. That way, we avoid getting task-saturated or behind the airplane. We’ve previously discussed the traffic pattern. On downwind, abeam the landing area is the place to:

• Complete the manufacturer’s written pre-landing checklist and reconfigure as necessary. In retractable gear aircraft, confirm landing gear is down visually or “3-green.” Maintain traffic pattern altitude while doing this — don’t descend while flying away from the runway. • If at a tower-controlled airport, communicate with ATC and obtain your landing clearance. If at a pilot-controlled airport, then make radio calls “into the blind.” And as always, scan for other traffic in the traffic pattern. • Stabilize airspeed — usually about 1.3 VS0 (refer to POH).

Chapter 5 • Takeoffs, Landings and Go-Arounds

Downwind Base Final

DOWNWIND: Checklist/configure Clearance Stabilize speed

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Base — turn from downwind to base only after the downwind objectives are met. If you start the downwind tasks abeam the landing area, you should be about 45° to runway when stabilized. But don’t rush it, turn only when you are ready. On base leg, your objectives are:

• Reduce power, begin descent. Now that you can see the runway, you are

in the best position to make decisions about power reductions for a safe glidepath to the runway and for altering your pattern if necessary to avoid traffic. • Add additional flaps as necessary. • Stabilize the glide path. • Scan for and avoid traffic. Traffic avoidance — in addition to your normal scan above and below you on base leg, also scan in these areas:

• Turn your head right and look on an extended final leg all the way to the

BASE: Descend Stabilize glidepath Traffic avoidance

LOOK

10-20-30

runway (imagine the Lear jet on 5-mile final). • Down along the runway, is an airplane sitting on the runway? Is there an airplane at an intersection that may pull out in front of you unexpectedly? fuel trucks? wildlife? • Back up in the sky, on the final leg of the opposite runway (what if someone else decided to use the opposite runway?) • Directly in front of you (on opposite base leg). • Everywhere. • Even though landing is a busy time, safe pilots divide attention:  10 seconds inside your cockpit, verifying instruments  20 seconds outside re-evaluating glidepath  30 seconds scanning for traffic On final, airspeed and glidepath are stabilized so that now we can fully stabilize the approach:

• Final leg is a good place to mentally allow yourself permission to abort and review your go-around procedures so they are fresh in your mind. Never think you have no choice but to land. • Continue to scan for traffic in the air and on the ground.

Let’s define what we mean by “stabilized approach”…to be stabilized:

□ The pre-landing checklist is complete and aircraft configured correctly. □ The power setting is appropriate for the aircraft configuration. □ The approach airspeed is correct and steady. □ The angle and rate of descent is between 300 – 700 fpm. Over 700 fpm

might be more than a new pilot can handle safely. Established at or above glideslope (VASI or visually) to land in the first 1/3 of runway. □ Tracking on runway centerline (proper wind correction and crab). □ Only minor corrections are required to correct deviations. □ If not able to have it all stabilized by 300 feet AGL, abort — go around. □ If the unexpected happens below 300 feet AGL, abort — go around. □ Mindset — always ready for go-around.

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FINAL: Everything stabilized Ready for abort Traffic avoidance

STABILIZED APPROACH Configured Airspeed Glidepath On centerline

300’ AGL Abort

Lesson Plans

Performance Now we are finally ready for touchdown. Four different phases in landing:

1 Fly 2 Float

1. Fly: Descent 2. Float: Roundout 3. Flare: Touchdown 4. Finesse: Rollout

3 Flare

4 Finesse

In the descent attitude phase:

• The aircraft is not yet over the runway, focus on the runway numbers or

landing area. • Consistent, small power reductions — don’t reduce power unless you sense that you are too high. Don’t get low. If you have to add power, you didn’t plan the descent very well. • Continue to reevaluate everything and scan for traffic.

    DESCENT 1     Stabilized approach     Look @ #’s

In the round-out phase:

• The aircraft is over the runway (on centerline). • Change to more of a level-flight attitude. • Look to the far end of the runway. • Reduce power to idle (refer to the POH). • The horizon is a better indicator of how fast to flare, than is attempting

    ROUNDOUT 2     Look     Use horizon     Be patient     Power off

to estimate your height above the runway. Use the horizon as your guide. If you see the horizon is moving up quickly, then you should change attitude quickly; if the horizon is moving up slowly, then you should change attitude slowly. • Be patient, don’t rush it. Allow all excess airspeed to bleed off before allowing plane to come in contact with pavement. In the touchdown phase:

• Focus straight ahead — be aware of peripheral vision but don’t turn your

head. • Coming into ground effect now (as discussed in previous lessons) — beware of a change in handling characteristics. • Be patient — allow all excessive airspeed to bleed off. • Aircraft is nearing the stall attitude — the stall warning horn should be coming on. • May need slight right rudder during flare. • Maintain longitudinal axis straight down the runway. • Heels on the floor — don’t land with feet on the brakes. In the rollout phase:

• Your head should be up and your eyes outside. • Steer with your feet to remain on centerline. • Do nothing while on the runway — don’t change COM frequencies, don’t

adjust flaps, don’t start chit-chatting, and don’t fidget with equipment. Do nothing separate from operating the aircraft. • To slow, apply brakes tenderly at first then firmly — don’t use excessive braking. • Taxi clear of the runway, stop, and complete after-landing checklist. Chapter 5 • Takeoffs, Landings and Go-Arounds

    TOUCHDOWN 3     Ground effect     Be patient     Stall attitude     Right rudder

4     ROLLOUT     Eyes out     Centerline     Stop     Checklist

35

Most new pilots grade themselves too harshly on early landings. What is a good landing for our current stage of training?

• Plane must be on centerline — this demonstrates you have discipline to put

the airplane where you want it. It shows your positive aircraft control. • Must touchdown in the first ⅓ of the runway — this demonstrates you have proper glidepath control and you understand the relationship between pitch/power/descent rate. In advanced landing lessons, you’ll be landing close to a specific point on the runway. • Touch down in a full stall — touchdown as slow as possible (stall speed). Most bad things that happen during a blotched landing are the result of having too much airspeed at touchdown. This shows that you can sense when the airplane is finished flying. • No side load — the longitudinal axis must be aligned with the direction the airplane is flying; otherwise, you risk structural damage. This demonstrates your ability to compensate for wind. • Aerodynamically-correct landing, to transition the airplane from being a flying machine to a ground machine. The wings should not be producing lift when you arrive on the pavement. If they are, your steering/braking authority on the ground is in jeopardy.

GOOD LANDING

On centerline First 1/3 runway Stall warning No side load

Be prepared to adjust your approach to avoid wake turbulence:

• Landing after a large-airplane landing • Landing after a large-airplane taking off During this maneuver, special emphasis is placed on:

□ Positive aircraft control □ Stall/spin awareness □ Collision avoidance □ Wake turbulence avoidance □ LAHSO □ Runway incursion avoidance □ CFIT □ ADM and risk management □ Wire strike avoidance, if appropriate □ Checklist usage Keys for success:

✔ Correct for wind and anticipate corrections on base leg. ✔ Anticipate the turn to final — don’t overshoot or undershoot. Plan to roll out on centerline. ✔ Maintain coordination especially during turn from base to final approach. ✔ Establish a stabilized approach. ✔ Anticipate need for attitude changes during flap extension.

36

SUCCESS =

  Start downwind   Divide cockpit tasks   Think ahead, reevaluate   Sterile cockpit

Lesson Plans

✔ Look down the runway. Don’t focus off the airplane nose. ✔ Don’t rush the touchdown, attain the proper landing attitude. ✔ Hold sufficient back-elevator pressure after touchdown. ✔ Use appropriate braking after touchdown. Squeeze on the brakes smoothly at first. ✔ Be willing to abort. Good landings are a challenge; if something doesn’t seem right, abort. ✔ Sterile cockpit. Again, in addition to being a critical phase of flight, this landing requires the best of you and your plane, so focus on the job. No chit-chat, no music or distractions, don’t fidget with frequency changes during landing or roll-out unless it’s an emergency; delay responding to any ATC calls during the rollout or until you’ve cleared the runway. ✔ The landing is complete only after the aircraft is off the runway and stopped beyond the hold short line. Additional keys for success during the performance of crosswind approaches and landings are:

• Anticipate and compensate for wind drift. • Correct for drifting before touchdown. • Hold flight control inputs and directional control during rollout. EVALUATION Minimum Tolerances During FAA Practical Exams Completion standards for the lesson may vary with the phase of training. The minimum standards required to be successful on the practical test are: 1. Exhibit knowledge of the elements related to a normal and crosswind approach and landing. 2. Consider the wind conditions, landing surface, obstructions, and select a suitable touchdown point. 3. Establish the recommended approach and landing configuration and airspeed, and adjust pitch attitude and power as required. 4. Maintain a stabilized approach and recommended airspeed, or in its absence, not more than 1.3 VS0, +10/-5 knots, with wind gust factor applied. 5. Make smooth, timely, and correct control application during the roundout and touchdown. 6. Touch down smoothly at approximate stalling speed. 7. Touch down at or within 400 feet beyond a specified point, with no drift, and with the airplane’s longitudinal axis aligned with and over the runway center/landing path. 8. Maintain crosswind correction and directional control throughout the approach and landing sequence. 9. Complete appropriate checklist(s).

Chapter 5 • Takeoffs, Landings and Go-Arounds

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Planning Your Practice Fill in the blanks for your airplane in the following handy checklist.

Your Normal and Crosswind Approach and Landing scenario (Make notes here.)

Downwind Leg 1. Maintain altitude, stabilize approach speed. 2. Mid-field downwind: a. advise tower of position; b. request STOP and GO; c. receive your sequence. 3. Abeam touchdown point: a. prelanding checklist (use the printed checklist, not GUMPS); b. landing gear down — verify “3 green”; c. within white arc — 1 notch flaps; d. fuel pump ON; e. slow and trim for _______ KIAS; f. verify — say out loud “3 green.” Base Leg 1. Maintain stabilized airspeed; stabilize glide path. 2. Begin descent (add second notch of flaps, as necessary). 3. Descend as necessary 500 – 800 fpm to runway (with airplane always in position to glide, should the engine fail). 4. Maintain airspeed ( _____ KIAS). 5. Power as required (about _______ MP/RPM). 6. Perform second pre-landing checklist. 7. After glide path, rate of descent and airspeed are stabilized: a. scan for traffic; b. turn final. Final 1. Everything is stabilized; only small corrections to maintain centerline. 2. Airspeed ( _____ KIAS) stabilized. 3. Glide path: a. stabilized with constant rate-of-descent; b. trim.

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Lesson Plans

4. Glide path becomes too high, add 3rd notch flaps before reducing throttle. 5. Prop full forward. 6. Third pre-landing checklist; say out loud, “Prelanding checklist is complete.” 7. Heels on the floor. 8. Touch down: a. at or within 200 feet of the desired point; b. in first 1/3 of runway unless conditions dictate otherwise; c. full stall touchdown (stall warning should be on); d. on centerline; e. no side-load. 9. If not stabilized by 500' AGL, then consider go-around. Flare 1. Look to a point at far end of runway for proper perspective during roundout. 2. Touch down: a. smooth, no power; b. full stall, full flaps; c. not on the brakes. 3. After main wheels touch down, continue holding back pressure and crosswind directional control until aircraft speed slows. 4. Tenderly apply brakes, remaining on centerline. 5. Maintain crosswind control inputs. 6. Do not attempt to adjust trim, flaps, frequencies, etc. while aircraft is moving. 7. Exit runway and clear the hold-short line before stopping. Finesse 1. Maintain full attention outside cockpit until the aircraft comes to complete stop on taxiway. 2. Complete after landing checklist. 3. Contact ground for taxi clearance.

Chapter 5 • Takeoffs, Landings and Go-Arounds

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Soft-Field Takeoff and Climb Suggested Materials: Whiteboard and markers, POH, A/FD, and model airplane.

INTRODUCTION Spend at least three minutes introducing the maneuver to the student. Describe the situations that are motivation for learning it, as well as the objectives to strive for.

Motivation Imagine departing from a rustic back-country, dirt-field dude ranch, or possibly a remote Caribbean island airstrip of sand and coral. Perhaps you arrive at your home airport to find the runway covered in a heavy blanket of snow. Would you be comfortable taking off? The aircraft manufacturer has already tested a variety of conditions and has established a specific procedure to allow you to get the best possible performance from your plane when departing from a runway without a hard surface.

Objective Your goal in this lesson is to learn the technique to be used to get the airplane airborne safely and as soon as possible from the unpaved surface. This is a maximum performance maneuver. It requires knowledge of the POH recommended procedures, planning and judgment.

SOFT-FIELD TAKEOFF

WHAT IS SOFT-FIELD?

• Non-asphalt/concrete • Covered with snow/mud HOW IT’S DIFFERENT • • • • •

Don’t stop More power needed Protect nose gear Flaps - extra lift Use ground effect

RESEARCH WX • A/FD • • • POH • • • LOOK

wind, baro, temp runway length, condition obstructions DP procedures configuration performance choose climb speed

No centerline - stay aware

HOLD SHORT

• Runup checklist • Configure: 25° flaps, trim aft • Cockpit organized • Pax briefing • Mindset for possible abort • Clear area

• Both ends of active runway • Check for debris/critters on runway

2 Controls more effective Relax back pressure 1 Heels on floor Hand on throttle Control wheel back * Don’t stop * Stay in center

SUCCESS =

  You’re ready Plane’s ready

40

50’

3 Lift off slow Possible crab * Lower nose * Don’t settle

4 Gear up Checklist Fuel pump off Retract flap Scan for traffic

  Willing to abort Sterile cockpit

Lesson Plans

CHALKBOARD TALK Elements of the Maneuver First, a look at the universal elements of the maneuver — those elements that are not aircraft-specific. What is a “soft field”?

• A runway not constructed of asphalt or concrete, for instance a grass, mud, coral, or gravel landing area. • A hard-surface runway covered with snow, mud, or standing water.

WHAT IS SOFT-FIELD?

Non-asphalt/concrete Covered with snow/mud

Let’s draw what we’re talking about:

• No centerline — either because there isn’t one, or you can’t see it. Remain aware of your position in the center of the takeoff area. • Practice with and without a 50-foot obstacle at the end.

No centerline

How is a soft-field takeoff different from a normal takeoff?

• Once you’ve applied power and are moving, don’t stop. Imagine trying to

taxi through 4 inches of mud, you don’t want to get bogged down — keep moving. • More power than normal is necessary. You know how much more effort it is to walk in deep snow; it takes more power to taxi through snow or mud. • Protect your nose gear. Apply back pressure to keep the nose wheel strut extended. Don’t allow it to bog down. Maintain the nose high attitude during the takeoff roll to transfer the aircraft’s weight as soon as practical. • Most manufacturers’ configurations will recommend flaps to increase lift. • Ground effect — explain the phenomena that occurs within one wingspan of the ground, in which induced drag is decreased and allows you to fly before you have achieved lift-off speed. • Quickly after liftoff, you will level off to remain within ground effect. If you climb out of ground effect before the aircraft has achieved flight speed, you risk stalling and settling back down to earth.

HOW IT’S DIFFERENT Don’t stop More power needed Protect nose gear Flaps - extra lift Use ground effect

Just as with normal takeoff, a soft-field takeoff begins with research:

□ Weather. In this case, wind direction and velocity, barometric pressure and

temperature might be critical to know, as they point to the atmospheric conditions that adversely affect takeoff performance. If METAR and/or ASOS are not available at your takeoff location, check 2 or 3 different nearby airports. Get a cross-section of conditions around to get an idea of possibilities. □ The A/FD. Find out the exact length, width and condition of the runway area. Is it flat? Are there trees around the takeoff environment? What is their height? Are there recommended departure procedures? Remember to get the latest information with updated NOTAMs. □ POH. Be familiar with the manufacturer’s recommended configuration. □ Calculate the takeoff performance, being careful to interpolate where necessary. Get a good idea of current density altitude and how it will affect this takeoff. Be sure to apply any POH “notes” for soft-field performance. □ Choose your climb speed. Use VX when obstacles are present; otherwise, VY is OK.

Chapter 5 • Takeoffs, Landings and Go-Arounds

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With research complete, we preflight, start, and taxi to the runway. There’s probably no hold short line on a soft field, so use extra care to remain clear of the landing area.

No centerline

• Position aircraft perpendicular to the takeoff area so you can see both left

and right base legs and the final for both ends of the takeoff area. • Use the manufacturer’s written pre-takeoff checklist. To avoid the possibility of engine problems, do not change fuel tanks after the pretakeoff runup. Take off on the tank on which you did the runup. • Verify the appropriate configuration — the aircraft normally uses 2 notches or 25° of flaps. Position the trim slightly aft to pull the aircraft into the air and into ground effect. • Cockpit organized:  Pre-select transponder on code and ALT.  Pre-select communication frequencies in STBY.  Pre-select and program NAVs/GPS.  Put your stuff away — don’t let it fall on the floor. • Last-minute passenger briefing to reconfirm your sterile cockpit. • Mentally prepare to handle engine abnormalities or emergency; be prepared to abort (land straight ahead if below 600 ft AGL). • Clear the area. We’ve spent a lot of time inside the cockpit — divide attention outside to avoid runway incursions:

• Obtain takeoff clearance before crossing the hold short line.

(Tower-controlled fields) • Once on the runway, verify compass heading with runway heading. • Glance all the way down the runway for possible opposite-direction traffic and foreign objects or debris (FOD).

HOLD SHORT

Runup checklist Configure:    25° flaps, trim aft Cockpit organized Pax briefing Mindset for possible abort Clear area

LOOK

Both ends of active runway Check for debris/critters    on runway

After talking about takeoff for several minutes, we’re finally at the runway and actually taking off. Much planning and preparation is required, yet it’s worth it for a safe and fun takeoff.

Performance With the key elements covered, let’s look at how to perform the maneuver in our airplane.

• The pilot: sit correctly, heels on the floor (don’t ride

brakes during the takeoff roll), and hand on the throttle.

• Taxi into takeoff position while maintaining full aft

1

2

stabilator. (Note: Your aircraft may be equipped with an elevator rather than a stabilator — revise as necessary.) • Taxi onto the takeoff area quickly without stopping, but at a speed consistent with safety. • Smoothly and rapidly apply full power; check engine instruments. • Remain in the center of the takeoff area (there is no centerline). • Position the controls for wind corrections. • As speed increases, the controls become more effective. Relax the control wheel backpressure just a little.

42

3

4

1 Heels on floor Hand on throttle Control wheel back * Don’t stop * Stay in center 2 Controls more effective Relax back pressure

Lesson Plans

• Lift off at the lowest possible airspeed (55-65 KIAS) and remain in ground

effect while accelerating (even if stall warning is on). • Prepare for possible crab if crosswind. • After liftoff, attitude is decreased to straight and level attitude to remain within ground effect and accelerate to VY (87 KIAS). • Don’t allow the aircraft to settle back to the ground. • Retract landing gear only after a positive rate of climb has been established and a safe landing can no longer be accomplished on the remaining takeoff area. • Complete the appropriate checklist. • Retract flaps, one notch at a time, after gear in transient light is extinguished. • Scan for traffic. • Initial turn to crosswind should be accomplished 300 feet below traffic pattern altitude unless conditions, obstacles, or a procedure dictates otherwise. • Comply with noise abatement procedures if applicable. • Maintain directional control and proper wind-drift correction throughout the takeoff and climb.

3 Lift off slow Possible crab * Lower nose * Don’t settle

4 Gear up Checklist Fuel pump off Retract flap Scan for traffic

During this maneuver, special emphasis is placed on:

□ Positive aircraft control □ Stall/spin awareness □ Collision avoidance □ Wake turbulence avoidance □ Runway incursion avoidance □ CFIT □ ADM and risk management □ Wire strike avoidance, if appropriate □ Checklist usage Keys for success:

✔ Enter the runway only when YOU are ready.  Clear the area before moving.  Keep moving! No brakes. Don’t stop!  Keep your hand on the throttle. ✔ Enter the runway only when you are sure the PLANE is ready.  Establish takeoff configuration (flaps and trim).  Maintain situational awareness in middle of takeoff area and maintain directional control on what may be a slippery surface. Lift  off at the minimum possible speed and remain in ground effect.  Establish and maintain proper climb attitude and airspeed.  Correct for wind.  Remain in the air after takeoff. ✔ Be willing to abort. Taking off from an unimproved area is a challenge; if something doesn’t seem right, abort. ✔ Sterile cockpit — this is a critical phase of flight that requires the best of you and your airplane; focus on the job. No chit-chat, no music, no distractions. Don’t fidget with frequency changes during takeoff or initial climb-out, unless it’s an emergency delay responding to any ATC calls during the takeoff roll or within 100 feet. Try not to do anything until 500 feet AGL.

Chapter 5 • Takeoffs, Landings and Go-Arounds

SUCCESS =

  You’re ready   Plane’s ready   Willing to abort   Sterile cockpit

500’ AGL

43

EVALUATION Minimum Tolerances During FAA Practical Exams Completion standards for the lesson may vary with the phase of training. The minimum standards required to be successful on the practical test are: 1. Exhibit knowledge of the elements related to a soft-field takeoff and climb. 2. Position the flight controls for existing wind conditions and to maximize lift as quickly as possible. 3. Clear the area; taxi onto the takeoff surface at a speed consistent with safety without stopping while advancing the throttle smoothly to takeoff power. 4. Establish and maintain a pitch attitude that will transfer the weight of the airplane from the wheels to the wings as rapidly as possible. 5. Lift off at the lowest possible airspeed and remain in ground effect while accelerating to VX or VY, as appropriate. 6. Establish a pitch attitude for VX or VY, as appropriate, and maintain selected airspeed +10/-5 knots, during the climb. 7. Retract the landing gear, if appropriate, and flaps after clear of any obstacles or as recommended by the manufacturer. 8. Maintain takeoff power and VX or VY +10/-5 knots to a safe maneuvering altitude. 9. Maintain directional control and proper wind-drift correction throughout the takeoff and climb. 10. Complete the appropriate checklist.

Planning Your Practice Fill in the blanks for your airplane in the following handy checklist.

Your Soft-Field Takeoff and Climb scenario (Make notes here.) Note: Soft-field takeoffs may be done with or without a 50-foot obstacle at the end of the runway.

Set Up 1. Review: a. wind conditions; b. soft field conditions; c. takeoff hazards (windshear, wake turbulence). 2. Position perpendicular to takeoff runway to see traffic on final approach. 3. Configure (per manufacturer recommendations): a. ______________ flaps b. trim tab set ________ c. other _____________

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Lesson Plans

4. Prepare and pre-takeoff brief for possible engine failure. 5. Contact control tower for takeoff clearance, if appropriate. 6. Position the flight controls for existing wind conditions. 7. Check final for traffic prior to pulling onto runway. Takeoff ____ Taxi onto the takeoff area at a safe speed without stopping. ____ Taxi into takeoff position while maintaining full aft stabilator. ____ Smoothly and rapidly apply full power — check engine instruments. ____ Maintain runway centerline. ____ Lift off: • lowest possible airspeed ( _______ KIAS) even if stall warning is on; • remain in ground effect while accelerating. ____ After liftoff: • pitch attitude decreased to remain within ground effect; • accelerate to VY _____ KIAS. ____ Retract landing gear only after a positive rate of climb has been established and a safe landing can no longer be accomplished on the remaining runway. ____ Retract flaps: • one notch at a time; • after gear-in-transient light is extinguished. ____ At 500' AGL, fuel pump off. Climb ____ Maintain directional control and proper wind-drift correction throughout the takeoff and climb. ____ Scan for traffic. ____ Initial turn to crosswind should be accomplished 300' below traffic pattern altitude unless ATC requests or obstacle clearance dictates otherwise. ____ Comply with noise abatement procedures if applicable. ____ Complete the appropriate checklist.

Chapter 5 • Takeoffs, Landings and Go-Arounds

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Soft-Field Landing Suggested Materials: Whiteboard and markers, POH, A/FD, and model airplane.

INTRODUCTION Spend at least three minutes introducing the maneuver to the student. Describe the situations that are motivation for learning it, as well as the objectives to strive for.

Motivation Imagine landing on a dirt field at a rustic back-country dude ranch, or a remote Caribbean island airstrip of sand and coral. Or maybe one day you’ll return to your home airport to find it covered in a heavy blanket of snow. In any of these situations, a special soft-field landing technique is needed to arrive safely on unpaved surfaces.

Objective In this lesson you will learn the technique necessary to safely execute a soft-field landing. Planning and judgment are required to control the airplane in a rate of descent that allows you to touch down as softly as possible.

SOFT-FIELD LANDING

WHAT IS SOFT-FIELD?

• Non-asphalt/concrete • Covered with snow/mud HOW IT’S DIFFERENT • • • •

No centerline - stay alert

Ground effect Burst of power Protect nose NO brakes

RESEARCH WX • A/FD • • • POH • •

wind, baro, NOTAMs runway length, condition hazards, obstructions DP procedures procedure, configuration performance

SUCCESS =

  POH Normal glidepath and airspeed Stabilized Manage power Touchdown gently Keep nose up No brakes Willing to go around

46

50’

• Set up early • Stabilized Base • Prep for go around 1 Fly

Downwind

Final

Small burst of power Carefully feel your way to runway

50’

Stabilized approach Normal glidepath

2 Float

3 Flare

Touchdown gentle Nose up Full aft elevator NO brakes

LOOK

Divide attention 10-20-30

Watch for wildlife Taxi clear After-landing checklist

Lesson Plans

CHALKBOARD TALK Elements of the Maneuver First, a look at the universal elements of the maneuver — those elements that are not aircraft-specific. What is a “soft field”?

• A landing area not constructed of asphalt or concrete, for instance a grass, mud, coral, gravel landing area. • A hard-surface runway covered with snow, mud or standing water.

WHAT IS SOFT-FIELD?

Non-asphalt/concrete Covered with snow/mud

This is what it might look like:

• No centerline — either because there isn’t one, or you can’t see it.

Remain aware of your position in the center of the takeoff area. 50’ • Practice with and without a 50-foot obstacle at the end. • Divide the landing area into thirds, with the first ⅓ available for landing, the second ⅓ for roll out and the last ⅓ for emergencies. • Are there ruts and holes in the grass? How deep is that snow? Consider a low fly-by to look things over.

no centerline 1⁄3

2⁄3

3⁄3

How is a soft-field landing different from a normal landing?

• Use ground effect to your advantage. Ground effect allows for the extra

float so you can step-down slowly. • During the flare, use a small (2–3" of MP) burst of power to provide forward momentum and to keep from sinking down into the muck (check your manufacturer’s recomendation). • After touchdown, protect your nose gear. Apply back pressure to keep the nose wheel strut extended. Don’t allow it to bog down. Maintain the nose high attitude during the landing roll. • After touchdown, don’t use brakes. • If landing in a remote wilderness area, you might be on the lookout for wildlife. A moose or elk strolling onto your landing area would not be unusual.

HOW IT’S DIFFERENT Ground effect Burst of power Protect nose NO brakes

How is it the same as a normal landing? You do the same research:

□ Weather. Check wind, density altitude, barometric pressure and NOTAMs

(might not be any for this landing area — check surrounding airports). □ A/FD. Check for runway length and condition, any hazards or obstructions, and in case a landing on this runway is not to our liking, alternatives. Again, always consider options for another runway, another airport, another aircraft configuration — have a “plan B” in mind so you do not feel you must land in a situation you’re not comfortable with. □ POH. As always the manufacturer has established a procedures and a configuration for this maneuver.

Chapter 5 • Takeoffs, Landings and Go-Arounds

47

Performance Let’s look at the maneuver now and establish the performance that we can expect... We’ll divide our tasks into a small set of objectives on each leg.That way we don’t get task-saturated or behind the airplane:

□ You’ll set up a near-normal pattern. □ Complete all normal tasks on downwind. □ Base — turn from downwind to base only after the downwind objectives are

Downwind Base

met. If you start the downwind tasks abeam the landing area, you should be about 45° to runway when stabilized, but don’t rush it. Turn to base only when you are ready.

Final Set up early Stabilized Prep for go around

On base leg, our objectives are:

• You will be fully configured on base leg with gear down and full flaps.

Set up early. • Reduce power enough to begin a descent — now that you can see the runway, you are in the best position to make decisions about power reductions for a safe glidepath to the runway and for altering your pattern as may be necessary to avoid traffic. • Stabilize the glidepath. • Scan for and avoid traffic. On final — everything is stabilized; only small corrections:

• You should have a normal glidepath with a stabilized descent rate. • Final leg is a good place to mentally allow yourself permission to abort and

review your go-around procedures so they are fresh in your mind. Never put yourself in a position where you have to land. • Continue to scan for traffic in the air and on the ground. On short final:

• During practice, we will pretend

1

Small burst of power

there’s a 50-foot obstacle at the end Fly Carefully feel your  of the runway. This is our worstway to runway case scenario. 50 feet is standard — 3 Flare 2 Float airport construction guidelines 50’ limit trees and obstacles to about 50 feet. Stabilized approach Touchdown gentle • Come over the obstacle in a Normal glidepath Nose up stabilized approach at about 75 Full aft elevator KIAS (check your POH). NO brakes • Don’t get low and don’t get slow. You need the speed for a nice roundout during the flare. Becoming too slow allows the aircraft momentum to be downward. Maintain your forward momentum. • Make consistent, small power reductions to touch down in the first ⅓ of the landing area. • Continue to reevaluate everything and scan for traffic. • Beginning the flare, add a small burst (2–3" MP) then retard the throttle. You want a forward momentum so you slide (a little) on top of the field before sinking into it. • Consider right rudder and wind corrections as necessary. 48

Watch for wildlife Taxi clear After-landing checklist

Lesson Plans

• Touch down gently, with no sideload and with elevator well back to protect the nose gear. • Use no brakes after landing. • After main wheels have touched down, hold elevator full aft to protect the nosewheel. • Maintain full attention outside cockpit until the aircraft slows; but keep moving — don’t stop on the landing area. • Add power and taxi clear. • Complete the after-landing checklist. Of course, we still have to divide attention inside and outside of the plane:

• 10 seconds inside to verify airspeed, altitude and other flight and engine instruments. • 20 seconds outside to re-evaluate the landing approach and area. • 30 seconds outside to scann for traffic in the air and (wildlife) on the ground.

LOOK

Divide attention 10-20-30

During this maneuver, special emphasis is placed on:

□ Positive aircraft control □ Stall/spin awareness □ Collision avoidance □ Wake turbulence avoidance □ LAHSO □ Runway incursion avoidance □ CFIT □ ADM and risk management □ Wire strike avoidance, if appropriate □ Checklist usage Keys for success:

✔ Know the recommended techniques and limitations for your airplane. ✔ Normal traffic pattern, normal glidepath and normal airspeed. Constantly re-evaluate the need for corrections but maintain a stabilized approach. ✔ Begin the roundout at the normal place. ✔ After adding a burst of power, retard the throttle. Manage your power; don’t land with power on. ✔ Touch down gently. ✔ Hold full back-elevator pressure after touchdown. Keep the nose well up. Allow the weight of the aircraft to transfer from the wings to the wheels slowly and as speed is decreased. ✔ No brakes after touchdown. ✔ Don’t sacrifice safety for the maneuver. Be willing to go around. ✔ Sterile cockpit — critical phase of flight — requires the best of you and your plane. Focus on the job.

Chapter 5 • Takeoffs, Landings and Go-Arounds

49

EVALUATION Minimum Tolerances During FAA Practical Exams Completion standards for the lesson may vary with the phase of training. The minimum standards required to be successful on the practical test are: 1. Exhibit knowledge of the elements related to a soft-field approach and landing. 2. Consider the wind conditions, landing surface and obstructions, and select the most suitable touchdown area. 3. Establish the recommended approach and landing configuration, and airspeed; adjust pitch attitude and power as required. 4. Maintain a stabilized approach and recommended airspeed, or in its absence not more than 1.3 VS0, +10/-5 knots, with wind gust factor applied. 5. Make smooth, timely, and correct control application during the roundout and touchdown. 6. Touch down softly with no drift, and with the airplane’s longitudinal axis aligned with the runway/landing path. 7. Maintain crosswind correction and directional control throughout the approach and landing sequence. 8. Maintain proper position of the flight controls and sufficient speed to taxi on the soft surface. 9. Complete the appropriate checklist.

50

Lesson Plans

Planning Your Practice Fill in the blanks for your airplane in the following handy checklist.

Your Soft-Field Approach and Landing scenario (Make notes here.)

Set Up 1. Establish a normal traffic pattern, approach and glide path, until final. 2. Select a suitable touchdown point. 3. See “Normal Approach and Landing” for downwind and base legs. Final 1. Plan to turn final about 400 to 500 feet AGL. 2. Everything is stabilized; only small corrections are made to maintain centerline. a. Airspeed ________ KIAS — stabilized, with full flaps. b. Normal glide path — stabilized with constant rate of descent, __________ FPM. c. Trim. d. Power: ____ During landing flare, apply small burst of power (about _____" MP) and pitch control to achieve minimum speed and slight forward momentum. ____ Then retard throttle before touchdown; do not touch down with power. Touchdown ____ In first 1/3 of runway unless conditions dictate otherwise, nose high attitude, with no wind drift. ____ After main wheels have touched down, continue holding back pressure to keep weight off nosewheel, and crosswind direction control, until aircraft stops. ____ Keep rolling. Do not use brakes. ____ Maintain full attention outside cockpit until the aircraft comes to complete stop. ____ Taxi clear before stopping.

Chapter 5 • Takeoffs, Landings and Go-Arounds

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Short-Field Takeoff and Maximum Performance Climb Suggested Materials: Whiteboard and markers, POH, and model airplane.

INTRODUCTION Spend at least three minutes introducing the maneuver to the student. Describe the situations that are motivation for learning it, as well as the objectives to strive for.

Motivation It is 100°F in the searing sun. The humidity is so high, you sweat during preflight. Atmospheric conditions affect aircraft performance, so this requires a longer-than-usual takeoff. Will your normal takeoff procedure clear the trees at the end of your normal runway? Or, what if a heavy rain over the last week flooded the river out of its banks and over a small portion of the runway — would you be comfortable taking off in this confined area? The aircraft manufacturer has already tested a variety of conditions and established a specific procedure for getting the best possible performance from your plane when conditions warrant maximum performance.

Objective Your goal in this lesson is to learn the technique that provides the maximum takeoff performance with the smallest ground roll and best rate-of-climb speed, and to make sure you’re comfortable in using it. Don’t leave this to chance — it’s important.

WHAT IS SHORT-FIELD?

SHORT-FIELD TAKEOFF River flooding over runway!

22

• Runway length = double the takeoff distance • Hot, humid and heavy HOLD SHORT HOW IT’S DIFFERENT • Runup checklist • Flaps - extra lift • Configure: • Use ALL runway 25° flaps, trim aft • Brakes - hold/release • Cockpit organized • VX @ liftoff • Pax briefing @ climb • Mindset for possible abort w/wo obstacles • Clear area RESEARCH WX • A/FD • • • POH • • •

wind, baro, temp runway length, condition obstructions DP procedures configuration performance choose climb speed

SUCCESS =

You’re ready Plane’s ready Willing to abort Sterile cockpit Centerline discipline

52

Use every inch of runway available! Align plane on centerline and STOP

Hold brakes Controls for wind Full power Check gauges Release brakes

VY

Stay on centerline

VX Lift VX = 70 Rotate positively Climb at VX = 70 * Gear up * VX gear up = 77

Checklist Retract flaps Scan for traffic 300 TPA turn X/W

Lesson Plans

CHALKBOARD TALK Elements of the Maneuver First, a look at the universal elements of the maneuver — those elements that are not aircraft-specific. What is a “short field”?

• The pavement is short. Perhaps the runway was constructed on a small-

scale. Perhaps the city plowed snow from a portion of a runway that is normally long but you want to use only the plowed portion. Maybe a construction project leaves only a part of the pavement usable. • Atmospheric conditions that are hot, humid and heavy makes any field a short field because of the adverse effect a hot and humid day has on aircraft performance. • For a new pilot, any runway-length that is less than 2 times the calculated takeoff ground roll should be treated as a short field.

WHAT IS SHORT-FIELD?

Runway length =    double the takeoff distance Hot, humid and heavy

How is a short-field takeoff different from a normal takeoff?

• Read the POH for your airplane. The manufacturer has outlined procedures in it that are specific to your airplane.

• Most POHs recommend the use of flaps during the short-field takeoff.

Flaps provide extra lift, which we will need during this takeoff. • You use the entire runway. You might even position our wheels on the edge of the runway, allowing the tail to hang out beyond the runway (over the grass). • Most POHs recommend holding the brakes. During a normal takeoff, a lot of runway is used while the engine produces full power. During a shortfield takeoff, you hold the brakes to allow the engine to develop full power without using up valuable runway. Once the engine is at full power, you release the brakes for a robust takeoff ground roll. • VX — best angle of climb, gives us the most altitude for the least distance (VX is normally prescribed by the manufacturer) and it’s a higher climb attitude than you’re used to. • Hold the airplane on the ground; don’t allow rotation until achieving VX; climb at VX. • During practice, pretend there’s a 50-foot obstacle at the end of the runway (a worst-case scenario). Standard airport construction guidelines limit trees and obstacles to about 50 feet; however, not all short fields have obstacles. • The manufacturer normally recommends an early gear retraction. Normally we delay retraction until all usable runway is behind us. But to achieve maximum performance climb, select the gear up as soon as you have a positive rate-of-climb.

HOW IT’S DIFFERENT Flaps Runway use Brakes VX

Just as the normal takeoff, a short-field takeoff begins with research:

□ Weather. In this case, wind direction and velocity, barometric pressure and

temperature might be critical as they indicate any atmospheric conditions that adversely affect takeoff performance. Check METAR and/or ASOS and know your conditions. □ A/FD. This is time to research the exact length, width and condition of the runway. Is it flat? Are there trees around the takeoff environment? What is their height? Are there departure procedures? Airports with shorter runways often have procedures. Remember to get the latest information with updated NOTAMs.

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□ POH. Be familiar with the manufacturer-recommended configuration for

the plane you are flying. □ Calculate the takeoff performance being careful to interpolate where necessary. Have a good idea of current density altitude and how it will affect this takeoff. □ Choose your climb speed. We’ll begin with VX, but then probably transition to VY after clearing obstacles.

Wind, baro, temp Runway length, condition Obstructions DP procedures Configuration Performance Choose climb speed

22

Now with the research complete, you preflight, start, and taxi to the runway.Your next important point is at the hold short line. (Note: At some airports, the runup is done in a specific runup area; change the sequence to be appropriate for your airport or school.) • Establish a position perpendicular to the takeoff runway so you can see the runway and possible traffic. • Confirm you are at the correct runway — use runway signs, check the alignment with your compass. • Use the manufacturer’s written pre-takeoff checklist. To avoid the possibility of engine problems, do not change fuel tanks after the pretakeoff runup. Take off on the tank on which you did the runup. • Verify the appropriate configuration — the aircraft normally uses 2 notches or 25° of flaps for a normal takeoff. • Have your cockpit organized —  Pre-select transponder on code and ALT.  Pre-select communication frequencies in STBY.  Pre-select and program NAVs/GPS.  Put your stuff away — don’t let it fall on the floor. • Last-minute passenger briefing to reconfirm your sterile cockpit. • Mentally prepare for engine abnormalities or emergency — be prepared to abort (land straight ahead if below 600 ft AGL). • Clear the area.

RESEARCH

We’ve spent a lot of time inside the cockpit — divide attention outside to avoid runway incursions:

• Position aircraft perpendicular to the runway so you can see both left and right base legs and the final for both ends of the takeoff area.

• Obtain takeoff clearance before crossing the hold short line. • Once on the runway, verify compass heading with runway heading. • Glance all the way down the runway for possible opposite-direction traffic

LOOK

and foreign objects or debris (FOD).

In position:

• The plane —  on centerline…stop.  controls (ailerons and elevator) positioned for wind…they may change

STOP

after liftoff, so be prepared for changes. • The pilot —  sit correctly, heels on the floor (don’t ride the brakes during the takeoff roll).  hand on the throttle.

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Lesson Plans

Notice that we have been talking about takeoff for several minutes, yet are only just now at the runway and actually doing it. This shows how planning and preparation is required — but it will be worth it in having a safe and fun takeoff.

Performance So now that you understand the elements, let’s discuss what will happen in the airplane today:

• After cleared for takeoff, taxi onto the runway, using all of the available

runway — allow tail to overhand grass beyond runway pavement. Use every inch. • Align the aircraft with the centerline, straighten the nose wheel and stop. Hold brakes so aircraft cannot roll. • Position flight controls for wind. • Hold brakes and apply power smoothly until full power is achieved; check engine instruments. • After full power is reached, release brakes and begin takeoff roll, maintain runway centerline. • Allow all wheels to remain on the ground until VX (70 KIAS). • Rotate positively. • Climb at VX (70 KIAS while gear is down). • With a positive rate-of-climb, immediately select gear up (yes, even if usable runway remains! this is earlier than normal). Transition to our new VX (77 KIAS with gear up). Note: Refer to your POH for recommended technique and at what point gear retraction should occur. • After obstacle is clear complete the manufacturer’s after takeoff checklist, if appropriate. • Once the gear-in-transient light is extinguished, accelerate to VY (87 KIAS) and carefully retract flaps one notch at a time. Prepare for a little sink with the loss of lift. • Scan for traffic. Use every inch of runway available! • Initial turn to crosswind should be accomplished 300 ft below Align plane Stay on traffic pattern altitude unless ATC and STOP centerline requests or obstacle clearance dictates otherwise. • Comply with noise abatement Hold brakes Lift VX = 70 procedures, if applicable. Controls for wind Rotate positively Full power • As always, be prepared to make Check gauges corrections for crosswind during Release brakes takeoff and for climb.

300  TPA turn X/W VY VX Checklist Retract flaps Scan for traffic

During this maneuver, special emphasis is placed on:

□ Positive aircraft control □ Stall/spin awareness □ Collision avoidance □ Wake turbulence avoidance □ Runway incursion avoidance □ CFIT □ ADM and risk management □ Wire strike avoidance, if appropriate □ Checklist usage

Chapter 5 • Takeoffs, Landings and Go-Arounds

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Keys for success:

✔ Take the runway only when you are ready. ✔ Keep your hand on the throttle. ✔ Take the runway only when you are sure the plane is ready. ✔ Establish takeoff configuration. ✔ Recall VX attitude and airspeed. ✔ Establish and maintain proper climb attitude and airspeed. ✔ Be willing to abort. This is a maximum performance maneuver; if something doesn’t seem right, abort. ✔ Sterile cockpit — this is a critical phase of flight that requires the best of you and your airplane; focus on the job. No chit-chat, no music, no distractions. Don’t fidget with frequency changes during takeoff or initial climb-out, unless it’s an emergency delay responding to any ATC calls during the takeoff roll or within 100 feet. Try not to do anything until 500 feet AGL. ✔ Centerline discipline — maintain directional control.

SUCCESS =

  You’re ready   Plane’s ready   Willing to abort   Sterile cockpit   Centerline discipline

EVALUATION Minimum Tolerances During FAA Practical Exams Completion standards for the lesson may vary with the phase of training. The minimum standards required to be successful on the practical test are: 1. Exhibit knowledge of the elements related to a short-field takeoff and maximum performance climb. 2. Position the flight controls for the existing wind conditions; set the flaps as recommended. 3. Clear the area; taxi into takeoff position utilizing maximum available takeoff area and align the airplane on the runway center/takeoff path. 4. Apply brakes (if appropriate), while advancing the throttle smoothly to takeoff power. 5. Establish and maintain the most efficient planning/lift-off attitude. 6. Lift off at the recommended airspeed, and accelerate to the recommended obstacle clearance airspeed or VX. 7. Establish a pitch attitude that will maintain the recommended obstacle clearance airspeed, or VX, +10/-5 knots, until the obstacle is cleared, or until the airplane is 50 feet above the surface. 8. After clearing the obstacle, establish the pitch attitude for VY, accelerate to VY, and maintain VY, +10/-5 knots, during the climb. 9. Retract the landing gear, if appropriate, and flaps after clear of any obstacles or as recommended by manufacturer. 10. Maintain takeoff power and VY +10/-5 to a safe maneuvering altitude. 11. Maintain directional control and proper wind-drift correction throughout the takeoff and climb. 12. Complete the appropriate checklist.

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Lesson Plans

Planning Your Practice Fill in the blanks for your airplane in the following handy checklist.

Your Short-Field Takeoff and Climb scenario (Make notes here.) Note: Short-field takeoffs may be done with or without a 50-foot obstacle at the end of the runway.

Set Up 1. Review: a. wind conditions. b. soft field conditions. c. takeoff hazards (windshear, wake turbulence). 2. Position perpendicular to takeoff runway to see traffic on final approach. 3. Configure (per manufacturer recommendations): a. ______________ flaps. b. trim tab set ________. c. other _____________. d. VX speed _____________. 4. Prepare and pre-takeoff brief for possible engine failure. 5. Contact control tower for takeoff clearance, if appropriate. 6. Position the flight controls for existing wind conditions. 7. Check final for traffic prior to pulling onto runway. Takeoff ____ Taxi onto the takeoff area at a safe speed without stopping. ____ Taxi into takeoff position while maintaining full aft stabilator. ____ Smoothly and rapidly apply full power — check engine instruments. ____ Maintain runway centerline. ____ Lift off: _______ KIAS. ____ Climb: _______ KIAS. ____ Retract landing gear only after a positive rate of climb has been established and a safe landing can no longer be accomplished on the remaining runway. ____ Retract flaps: • one notch at a time. • after gear-in-transient light is extinguished. Climb At 500' AGL: ____ Maintain directional control and proper wind-drift correction throughout the takeoff and climb. ____ Scan for traffic. ____ Initial turn to crosswind should be accomplished 300' below traffic pattern altitude unless ATC requests or obstacle clearance dictates otherwise. ____ Comply with noise abatement procedures if applicable. ____ Complete the appropriate checklist.

Chapter 5 • Takeoffs, Landings and Go-Arounds

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Short-Field Approach and Landing Suggested Materials: Whiteboard and markers, POH, A/FD, and model airplane.

INTRODUCTION Spend at least three minutes introducing the maneuver to the student. Describe the situations that are motivation for learning it, as well as the objectives to strive for.

Motivation After a 2-hour flight, you arrive at your destination airport to find that heavy rains over the last several days have flooded a portion of your runway. Now, instead of having the anticipated full-length, you decide to land only on that portion that is dry.

Objective In this lesson you will learn the technique necessary to safely and accurately execute a shortfield approach followed by a precise landing on your chosen spot on the runway.

WHEN TO USE SHORT-FIELD? • • • •

Runway length Hot, humid, high, heavy LAHSO To make a taxiway (spot landing)

In the air On the ground 10-20-30

Set up earlier Wider pattern Lower and slower Aiming point vs. touchdown Touchdown solid Heavy braking wind, DA, baro, NOTAMs runway length, condition hazards, obstructions alternatives configuration, procedure performance

• same as normal except pattern a little larger

Base

Config complete Gear down Flaps down Slowed down (70) Stabilized Scan for traffic

Float 1 stabilized approach

RESEARCH WX = A/FD = = = POH = =

Downwind • • • • • •

HOW IT’S DIFFERENT • • • • • •

SHORT-FIELD LANDING

LOOK

50’

2 Flare

A

lit t

le

wi

de

r

Final • • • •

Slightly low, power dependent Stabilized descent rate Focus on aim point Prepared for possible go-around

3 Touchdown

4 Finesse - stop

Smoothly Right rudder On the point Hard braking retard Wind correction 200’ after Wheel back power No side load not before Eyes outside Think ahead, reevaluate On centerline Brakes Stabilized *Flare at aim point *Full stall touchdown Steering on ground Wind *Stop quickly Taxi clear Don’t sacrifice safety Coordination After-landing checklist Sterile cockpit Flare properly

SUCCESS =

58

Lesson Plans

CHALKBOARD TALK Elements of the Maneuver First, a look at the universal elements of the maneuver — those elements that are not aircraft-specific. What is a “short field” and when do we use this technique?

• The pavement is short. Perhaps the runway was constructed on a small-

scale. Perhaps the city plowed snow from a portion of a runway that is normally long but you want to use only the plowed portion. Maybe a construction project leaves only a part of the pavement usable. • Atmospheric conditions that are hot, humid and heavy makes any field a short field because of the adverse effect a hot and humid day has on aircraft performance. • ATC issued Land and Hold Short Operation (LAHSO). • When it’s most efficient to land and turn off at a desired taxiway. • When you want to win a spot-landing contest. • Landing to avoid wake turbulence.

WHEN TO USE SHORT-FIELD? Runway length Hot, humid, high, heavy LAHSO To make a taxiway    (spot landing)

The purpose of a short-field approach and landing is not simply to utilize the minimum runway, but to control the aircraft for a landing on a specified point. Think of it as a spot landing. How is a short-field landing different from a normal landing?

• Read the POH for your airplane. The manufacturer has outlined procedures in it that are specific to your airplane.

• You’ll use a slightly enlarged traffic pattern to allow extra time for planning and earlier set up. • The speed used is usually lower than normal. You don’t want excess speed that would result in the aircraft floating during flare. • The glidepath is usually slightly steeper than normal; plan it to be slightly low and power dependent. You don’t want to be too high. • Because you normally float a little during flare, aim at a point on the runway that is (in this airplane) about 100 feet before where we want to touch down, to compensate. • Our goal is to set down solid; this is not a greaser-landing. We want to stick it on the pavement and have it stay on the pavement. • You’ll use heavy braking after touchdown to stop in a short distance.

HOW IT’S DIFFERENT

Set up earlier Wider pattern Lower and slower Aiming point vs. touchdown Touchdown solid Heavy braking

How is the short-field landing similar to a normal landing? The research:

□ Weather. Wind, density altitude, barometric pressure and and temperature

might be critical. Check the METAR and/or ASOS and know your conditions. □ A/FD. Check for runway length and condition, any hazards or obstructions, and in case a landing on this runway is not to our liking, alternatives. Again, always consider options for another runway, another airport, another aircraft configuration — have a “plan B” in mind so you do not feel you must land in a situation you’re not comfortable with. □ POH. As always the manufacturer has established a procedures and a configuration for this maneuver. Let’s look at it now and establish the performance we can expect...

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Performance Divide the tasks into a small set of objectives on each leg to avoid getting task-saturated or behind the airplane:

• Downwind — about the same as downwind on a normal landing except that we may make the traffic pattern a little larger, a little wider to allow plenty of time to set up. • Base — turn from downwind to base only after the downwind objectives are met. If you start abeam the landing area, you should be about 45° to runway when stabilized. But don’t rush it, turn only when you are ready.

• Be fully configured with gear down and full flaps. Set up early. This is

normally a powered approach. • Reduce power enough to begin a descent. Now that you can see the runway, you are in the best position to make decisions about power reductions for a safe glidepath to the runway and for altering your pattern as necessary to avoid traffic. • Stabilize the glide path. • Scan for and avoid traffic. On final : Everything is stabilized; only small corrections are made to maintain centerline. • You should be slightly low and power-dependent with a stabilized descent rate. • Focus on an aiming point that allows you to land at the touchdown point. • Final leg is a good place to mentally permit yourself to abort and review your go-around procedures so they are fresh in your mind. Never put yourself in a position where you have to land (even just mentally). • Continue to scan for traffic in the air and on the ground.

• During practice, pretend a 50-foot obstacle is at the

lit t

le 

wi

de

r

Downwind

  same as normal except   pattern a little larger

On base leg, our objectives are :

On short final :

A 

Base

  Config complete   Gear down   Flaps down   Slowed down (70)   Stabilized   Scan for traffic

Final

  Slightly low, power dependent   Stabilized descent rate   Focus on aim point   Prepared for possible go-around

Float - 

1 stabilized  end of the runway (a worst-case scenario). Standard approach airport construction guidelines limit trees and 4 obstacles to about 50 feet. 3 2 Finesse • Come over the obstacle in a stabilized approach at Touchdown (rollout)  Flare - stop 50’ about 70 KIAS (in your airplane), but adjust this airspeed during the flare to an airspeed that will result in little or no float upon landing. Aiming Touchdown • Focus on the aiming point. point point • Power—very slowly retard throttle once aiming point on the runway is assured. • Consistent, small power reductions. Don’t be high. Should be power-dependent. • Continue to re-evaluate everything and scan for traffic.

Begin flare over the aiming point :

• Consider right rudder (to correct for left-turning tendencies as the nose is

2 Flare Aiming point

raised during the flare).

• Consider wind corrections as necessary. 60

Lesson Plans

Touchdown positively, full stall, at the specified point, with no wind drift. It’s OK to go slightly beyond the point (200 feet) but never land before the point. • Squeeze brakes to stop in the shortest distance consistent with safety. Don’t burn up the brakes. Don’t skid. Remain on centerline. • After main wheels have touched down, retract flaps to allow weight to shift to main landing gear. Hold controls full aft to force aircraft weight to main gear. • Maintain full attention outside cockpit until the aircraft comes quickly to complete stop. • Add power and taxi clear. • Complete the after landing checklist. Of course, we still have to divide attention inside and outside:

• 10 seconds inside to verify airspeed, altitude flight and engine instruments. • 20 seconds outside to re-evaluate landing approach. • 30 seconds outside to scan for traffic in the air and on the ground.

3 Touchdown

Finesse 4 Rollout/Stop

LOOK

In the air On the ground 10-20-30

During this maneuver, special emphasis is placed on:

□ Positive aircraft control □ Stall/spin awareness □ Collision avoidance □ Wake turbulence avoidance □ LAHSO □ Runway incursion avoidance □ CFIT □ ADM and risk management □ Wire strike avoidance, if appropriate □ Checklist usage Keys for success:

✔ Know your airplane, the recommended technique and limitations. ✔ Allow extra room to set up the approach. Don’t rush. Think ahead. Constantly re-evaluate the need for glidepath corrections. ✔ Establish a stabilized approach. ✔ Correct for wind and anticipate corrections on base leg. ✔ Maintain coordination, especially during turn from base to final approach. ✔ Maintain a stable approach speed to flare properly without floating or landing too hard. ✔ Hold sufficient back-elevator pressure after touchdown. ✔ Use appropriate braking after touchdown. Don’t stomp hard on the brakes, but squeeze them on for effective braking. ✔ Maintain directional control on the ground. ✔ Don’t sacrifice safety for the maneuver. Be willing to abort. ✔ Sterile cockpit — it’s a critical phase of flight that requires the best of you and your plane. Focus on the job.

Chapter 5 • Takeoffs, Landings and Go-Arounds

SUCCESS =

  Think ahead, reevaluate   Stabilized   Wind   Coordination   Flare properly   Brakes   Steering on ground   Don’t sacrifice safety   Sterile cockpit

61

EVALUATION Minimum Tolerances During FAA Practical Exams Completion standards for the lesson may vary with the phase of training. The minimum standards required to be successful on the practical test are: 1. Exhibit knowledge of the elements related to a short-field approach and landing. 2. Consider the wind conditions, landing surface, obstructions, and select the most suitable touchdown point. 3. Establish the recommended approach and landing configuration and airspeed; adjust pitch attitude and power as required. 4. Maintain a stabilized approach and recommended approach airspeed, or in its absence not more than 1.3 VS0, +10/-5 knots, with wind gust factor applied. 5. Make smooth, timely, and correct control application during the roundout and touchdown. 6. Touch down smoothly at minimum control airspeed. 7. Touch down at or within 200 feet beyond a specified point, with no side drift, minimum float and with the airplane’s longitudinal axis aligned with and over the runway center/landing path. 8. Maintain crosswind correction and directional control throughout the approach and landing sequence. 9. Apply brakes, as necessary, to stop in the shortest distance consistent with safety. 10. Complete the appropriate checklist.

Planning Your Practice Fill in the blanks for your airplane in the following handy checklist.

Your Short-Field Approach and Landing scenario (Make notes here.)

Set Up 1. Determine: a. landing performance. b. wind. c. calculate crosswind component. 2. Consider: a. landing area. b. obstructions. c. hazards.

62

Lesson Plans

Base 1. Aircraft manufacturer recommendation configuration: ______ flaps. ______ airspeed. ______ other. 2. Normally a powered approach: flaps down ______ degrees. Final 1. Everything is stabilized; only small corrections are made to maintain centerline. 2. Airspeed ________ KIAS; stabilized. (Note: airspeed must be adjusted during transition to what will result in little or no float — will vary due to conditions.) 3. Glide path: a. slightly low, b. power dependent, c. stabilized with constant rate of descent. 4. Power: a. ensure specified point on runway; then, b. slowly retard throttle. Touchdown ____ At or within 200 feet of specified point, full stall, smoothly with no wind drift. ____ After main wheels have touched down, retract flaps to allow weight to shift to main landing gear; hold controls full aft to force aircraft weight to main gear. ____ Tap brakes and release, to stop in shortest safe distance: a. don’t burn up brakes, b. don’t skid, c. remain on centerline. ____ Maintain full attention outside cockpit until the aircraft comes to complete stop. ____ Taxi beyond hold-short line and stop.

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Forward Slips to Landing Suggested Materials: Whiteboard and markers, POH, A/FD, and model airplane.

INTRODUCTION Spend at least three minutes introducing the maneuver to the student. Describe the situations that are motivation for learning it, as well as the objectives to strive for.

Motivation You’re on final approach during an emergency engine-out descent. You’re too high but you don’t want to commit to flaps. How will you dissipate altitude? Or, while on final, ATC clears a large aircraft to take off in front of you. Suddenly a closer landing is necessary and a steeper descent is needed to accomplish that. What options do you have? A forward slip is a good procedure for losing altitude in a hurry.

Objective In this lesson you will learn how to perform a slip to landing. If your flaps ever fail, you’ll be happy to know how to perform this maneuver. Let’s learn how to do it.

WHAT IT IS

WHY IT WORKS Direction

TIMING

Delay descent

Judgment

Normal glide path

Slip glide path

CONTROL • Crossed controls • Without flaps - VS Slip a lot

Relative wind

LOOK

Divide attention • Power to idle 10-20-30 • Slip into wind • Control direction/descent

Delay descent SET UP

• At traffic pattern   altitude • Prelanding checklist   done • No flaps • Normal approach speed • Choose touchdown spot • Plan slip entry

Slip a little

SUCCESS =

  Keep it in close   Slip into wind   Flare, no excessive    speed on touchdown  

64

FORWARD SLIP TO LANDING

Drag

Aim spot FLARE

Touchdown spot

• Keep nose up • Bleed off speed • Longitudinal axis • Landing w/o flaps   looks different

AFTER  LANDING

• Centerline • Taxi clear • Checklist

  Hand on throttle   Ready for possible go-around   Don’t get low. Don’t stretch glide   Sterile cockpit

Lesson Plans

CHALKBOARD TALK Elements of the Maneuver First, a look at the universal elements of the maneuver — those elements that are not aircraft-specific. What it is:

• The plane is not flying straight through the air. • Together, the relative wind and the direction of flight induce drag. • There are primarily two kinds of slips — a side slip, and a forward slip. Here you will learn a forward slip, and hold it all the way to landing.

Why it works:

• The longitudinal axis of the aircraft placed into the relative wind maximizes drag. • Attitude allows you to increase the descent rate without increasing indicated airspeed.

Direction

Relative wind

Drag

Timing:

• Because of the high rate of descent, a normal glide path will not work. • The glidepath during a slip looks more like this — • Delay your descent from traffic pattern altitude. The slip is successful only when you plan the entry so that the slip can continue all the way to the point of touchdown. If you discontinue the slip before touchdown or you need to add power, it is not considered a successful maneuver. • Developing a sense of when to begin the slip requires judgment. • Better to be too high on glidepath — no options once you’re too low.

Judgment

Normal glide path

Delay descent

Slip glide path

Read your POH for any limitations on slipping with flaps extended. We will practice today without extending flaps so that you can learn the new attitude involved. But if the POH doesn’t prohibit using them, there is no reason why you can’t slip with flaps extended. Control:

• As usual, the ailerons will be used to keep the aircraft aligned with

centerline —  Maintain a precise ground track.  It’s best to slip into a crosswind (apply aileron into the wind) so that you don’t have to reposition controls in a crosswind touchdown. • The rudder will control glidepath —  By applying more rudder, you exaggerate the slip and increase the rate of descent (could be 1,000 fpm).  By slightly reducing the rudder input, we reduce slip and the rate of descent (could be about 500 fpm). • You can slip a little or you can slip a lot! You control it. However, any change in rudder input will require a change in aileron inputs, and vice versa. • The aircraft is crossed-controlled, slow, and close to the ground. Additionally, without flaps, the aircraft is closer to its stall speed than it normally is during approach. Be aware of the crossed-control stall. Maintain your stabilized descent attitude.

Slip a lot

Slip a little

Let’s draw it, dividing our tasks into a small set of objectives along the way, to avoid getting task-saturated or behind the airplane. Chapter 5 • Takeoffs, Landings and Go-Arounds

65

Performance Set up:

• Maintain traffic pattern altitude until ready to begin slip. • Pre-landing checklist complete, including gear down, but NO FLAPS. • Slow to normal approach speed of 80–85 KIAS (in the Arrow). • Consider obstructions and select the most suitable touchdown point. • Chose an aiming spot about 400–500 feet before your touchdown spot.

You will begin the flare over the aiming spot to avoid overshooting your touchdown spot in the flare. • Like all other landings, this will be a stabilized approach. • Plan the slip entry — begin from a position where the slip can be continued to a landing on the predetermined point. On short final (very short final):

• Reduce power to idle. • Slip into the wind (ailerons deflected into the wind). • Maintain directional control. Gently apply rudder first, applying opposite aileron to maintain a straight path to the centerline.

• Control descent rate with rudder — more rudder will increase the rate of

descent (could be 1,000 fpm, or more); less rudder will reduce the rate of descent (could be about 500 fpm). • Think carefully about the risks with a 1,000 fpm descent. If you need that much descent, then maybe the slip entry was not planned properly and a go-around might be necessary. Maintain positive aircraft control. During descent:

• Control ground track using ailerons. • Use ailerons to maintain centerline. • Make corrections for wind. • Indicated airspeed may not be accurate. Possible airspeed indication errors

Aim spot

Touchdown spot

SET UP

At traffic pattern altitude Prelanding checklist done No flaps Normal approach speed Choose touchdown spot Plan slip entry

Power to idle Slip into wind Control direction/descent

Power to idle Slip into wind Control direction/descent

are due to the pitot tube not being directly aligned with relative wind. Maintain a proper attitude. • Don’t sacrifice safety for the completion of the maneuver. If the glidepath becomes low, abort the slip, add power and/or go around as necessary. Maintain positive aircraft control. Flare:

• Speed control. During the flare the pilot must align the longitudinal axis

straight along the runway centerline. During the recovery, as drag is removed the indicated airspeed increases.  Keep your nose up.  Don’t allow excessive increases in airspeed.  Don’t land with excessive airspeed.  Delay touchdown — keep the aircraft airborne and allow the time necessary for the airspeed to bleed off. • Landing without flaps will be a new attitude with nose much higher than normal landings. Be prepared for a different landing attitude. • During the flare, smoothly and gently remove all rudder pressure that is not required for crosswind correction. • Keep the nose up to maintain airspeed, which results in minimum float during roundout. 66

FLARE

Keep nose up Bleed off speed Longitudinal axis Landing w/o flaps    looks different

Lesson Plans

• Make sure that the longitudinal axis is aligned with the runway to

prevent the aircraft from touching down with side loads. Maintain proper coordination during flare. • Touch down smoothly at the approximate stalling speed, at or within 400 feet beyond the predetermined touchdown spot. After landing:

• After touchdown, maintain centerline during roll out. • Add power and taxi clear. • Maintain full attention outside cockpit until the aircraft comes to complete stop on taxiway. • Complete the after landing checklist

AFTER LANDING Centerline Taxi clear Checklist

Of course, you still have to divide attention inside and outside:

• 10 seconds inside verifying airspeed, altitude and other instruments, but

remember that our indicated airspeed may not be accurate. • 20 seconds outside re-evaluating the glidepath, control input changes and aiming spot. • 30 seconds outside scanning for traffic in the air and on the ground (an airplane sitting at an intersection that might unexpectedly pull out or a fuel truck crossing the runway) and obstacles.

Divide attention

During this maneuver, special emphasis is placed on:

□ Positive aircraft control □ Stall/spin awareness □ Collision avoidance □ Runway incursion avoidance □ CFIT □ ADM and risk management □ Wire strike avoidance, if appropriate □ Checklist usage Keys for success:

✔ Keep the pattern in close. You must make the runway. ✔ Slip into the wind. In a crosswind situation, you won’t have to change the controls for landing. ✔ Flare properly, with the airplane going straight down the runway. Delay touchdown until all excess speed is bled off. ✔ Keep your hand on the throttle — just in case. ✔ Be primed for go-around. If anything unusual occurs to distract you, go around. You are low and outside your normal operating procedures — this is not the time to diagnose a situation — go around. ✔ Maintain your airspeed. Don’t get low. Don’t “stretch” the glide. ✔ Sterile cockpit — again, in addition to being a critical phase of flight, this landing requires the best of you and your airplane. Focus on the job.

Chapter 5 • Takeoffs, Landings and Go-Arounds

SUCCESS =

  Keep it in close   Slip into wind   Flare, no excessive    speed on touchdown   Hand on throttle   Ready for possible go-around   Don’t get low   Sterile cockpit  

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EVALUATION Minimum Tolerances During FAA Practical Exams Completion standards for the lesson may vary with the phase of training. The minimum standards required to be successful on the practical test are: 1. Exhibit knowledge of the elements related to forward slip to a landing. 2. Consider the wind conditions, landing surface and obstructions, and select the most suitable touchdown point. 3. Establish the slipping attitude at the point from which a landing can be made using the recommended approach and landing configuration and airspeed; adjust pitch attitude and power as required. 4. Maintain a ground track aligned with the runway center/landing path and an airspeed, which results in minimum float during the roundout. 5. Make smooth, timely, and correct control application during the recovery from the slip, the roundout, and the touchdown. 6. Touch down smoothly at the approximate stalling speed, at or within 400 feet beyond a specified point, with no side drift, and with the airplane’s longitudinal axis aligned with and over the runway center/landing path. 7. Maintain crosswind correction and directional control throughout the approach and landing sequence. 8. Complete the appropriate checklist.

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Lesson Plans

Planning Your Practice Fill in the blanks for your airplane in the following handy checklist.

Your Forward Slips to Landing scenario (Make notes here.)

Set Up 1. Normal traffic pattern, slightly high on final. 2. Prelanding checklist complete: a. normal approach speed of _______ KIAS. b. consider wind conditions. c. consider obstructions. d. select most suitable touchdown point. 3. Plan the slip entry: a. in first 1/3 of runway, position from where slip can continue to landing (conditions allowing). b. adjust pitch attitude and reduce power to idle. Short Final 1. Apply: ____ rudder first. ____ opposite aileron (maintain straight path to the centerline). 2. Control: ____ glide path with rudder (exaggerate or lessen degree of slip, normally 500 to 1,000 fpm). ____ ground track aligned with runway centerline using ailerons. 3. Maintain: ____ normal approach speed until flare (angle to the relative wind is high drag situation). ____ safe pitch attitude. 4. During flare: ____ remove excess rudder pressure, for ____ smooth recovery from slip; ____ keep nose up (maintain airspeed for minimum float in roundout); ____ ensure longitudinal axis is aligned with runway (prevent aircraft from touching down with side loads). Touch down ____ At or within 400 feet beyond specified point, smoothly, at approximate stalling speed. ____ After touchdown — maintain centerline during roll out. ____ Maintain full attention outside cockpit until the aircraft comes to complete stop. ____ Taxi clear of hold-short line before stopping. ____ Complete after landing checklist.

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Go-Around or Rejected Landing Suggested Materials: Whiteboard and markers, POH, and model airplane.

INTRODUCTION Spend at least three minutes introducing the maneuver to the student. Describe the situations that are motivation for learning it, as well as the objectives to strive for.

Motivation On short final, you suddenly become aware that your glidepath is too high, even to be fixed with a slip. Or maybe at the last minute another airplane suddenly pulls out onto the runway in front of you while you’re landing. What will you do? Perhaps instead of another plane, it’s a fuel truck that suddenly drives out into your landing path, or a cow wanders across. What will you do? For an infinite number of possibilities, you might need to discontinue the approach — pilots call it a “go-around.” When your safety is in jeopardy during the landing phase, you must have a plan to terminate the landing and return to a safe altitude.

Objective The objective during the go-around is to (1) make a timely decision to abandon the approach, (2) transition the aircraft from the landing configuration to the climb configuration, and (3) maintain positive control while doing so. Let’s see how we do that...

WHY? • • • • •

Pilot Plane Weather Environment Unexpected

GO-AROUND

COMMUNICATIONS

• Radio calls not required • ATC might assign “Go around” “Low approach” “Missed approach” “Rejected landing”

CLIMB

Means: landing clearance is cancelled

• Checklist • Enter traffic pattern • Traffic pattern altitude 4

Mentally prepare: • POH procedure • Retractable gear - flaps to takeoff - gear - remaining flaps • Directional control

SUCCESS =

1 • Make timely decision • Add full power

Be alert for the possibility Don’t change your mind Remember ground effect Power/attitude/configure/climb in control Directional control - rudder and wind Don’t rush Sterile cockpit

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2

• Level attitude • Stop descent • Centerline • Flaps to takeoff • Climb attitude • Trim

3

Configure: • Positive rate of climb • Gear up • Climb at VY • Retract remaining flaps • Scan for traffic LOOK

FUTURE GO-AROUNDS

Divide attention 10-20-30

• Combine steps direct to VY • To side of runway wake turbulence traffic

Lesson Plans

CHALKBOARD TALK Elements of the Maneuver First, a look at the universal elements of the maneuver — those elements that are not aircraft-specific. In the big picture, what you’re doing is aborting the landing.This will require you to (1) add full power, (2) change from the landing attitude to the climb attitude, (3) reconfigure, (4) climb; and:

• Doing all of this while maintaining control of the airplane. • During the go-around, the aircraft will be slow and low to the ground — but don’t rush.

• Configuration and attitude changes will require right rudder to remain coordinated.

4 Climb Mentally prepare

1 Power

2 Attitude

3 Configure

Why go around? Examples of situations where a go-around may be desirable include:

• The pilot becomes distracted by passengers or something in the cabin. • The plane is not configured properly, is not stabilized, or the prelanding

checklist is not done. • The weather —winds change drastically as you get closer to the ground causing a crab upset or an unexpected wind gust picks up one wing and gets you caddywhompus. • The environment causes a situation with unexpected traffic or obstacles; or, ATC assigns a go-around. • The unexpected happens—anytime, anywhere you don’t feel in control and comfortable with the situation.

WHY?

Pilot Plane Weather Environment Unexpected

This is a normal and routine procedure:

• Some pilots equate a go-around with “messing up” or making a mistake;

they see the need for a go-around as a failure to make the landing. It does not mean failure — it merely means more flight time and more fun! • It requires your priorities to change as the maneuver develops.

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Therefore, let’s discuss the go-around, step-by-step:

• Before you arrive at the runway environment, mentally prepare — a good

pilot is prepared for the possibility of a go-around on every approach. Quickly review items to make them fresh in your mind, then you’ll be set, just in case you need them —  The manufacture recommended procedures for your aircraft, found in the POH.  In retractable gear aircraft, normal clean-up is: flaps retracted to takeoff setting, then gear up, then remaining flaps reduced…one notch at a time. • Be prepared for good directional control —  know the wind direction;  remember that good coordination is needed.

Mentally prepare:

POH procedure Retractable gear   - flaps to takeoff   - gear   - remaining flaps Directional control

Performance So here we are on short final, and the unexpected happens — this is where you begin the maneuver. Make a timely decision to go-around — the earlier the decision, the easier it will be, and once the decision is made, don’t change your mind. Step 1. Add full power, smoothly but immediately. Step 2. Change attitude to straight-and-level flight — stop the descent — don’t touch down, but don’t try to climb with full flaps and gear hanging out:

• Remain over runway centerline; maintain directional control and proper

wind-drift correction. The runway is your protected area — don’t drift into trees or obstacles to the side of the runway. • Before the airspeed accelerates above the white arc, retract flaps to takeoffflap setting (in the Arrow, that’s 25°). • Establish a climb attitude. • You might choose to trim a bit — enough to remove the worst of the control pressure. Step 3. Reconfigure — quickly glance at the VSI to verify a positive rate-of-climb, then:

• Gear up. Select landing gear up before airspeed exceeds VLO. • Establish a VY climb attitude (in the Arrow, that’s 87 KIAS). • Trim as necessary. • Retract remaining flaps — carefully retract flaps one notch at a time;

prepare for a slight sinking with the loss of lift. • Scan for traffic and use collision avoidance (maybe this is why you went around). Step 4. Climb and exit the go-around:

• Establish a safe altitude (500 AGL). • Complete the checklist, if appropriate. • Continue climbing to traffic pattern altitude. • Re-enter the normal traffic pattern (if remaining in the pattern); otherwise,

1 Make timely decision Add full power

2 Level attitude Stop descent Centerline Flaps to takeoff Climb attitude Trim

    Configure: 3 Positive rate of climb Gear up Climb at VY Retract remaining flaps Scan for traffic

4     Climb: Checklist Enter traffic pattern Traffic pattern altitude

continue with an enroute climb to an enroute altitude.

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Lesson Plans

As mentioned earlier, one reason to go around may be that ATC assigns it. The go-around is always an option for the pilot, but it can be directed by ATC for traffic sequencing. About radio communications during go-arounds:

• Don’t feel that you have to acknowledge the clearance immediately while

initiating the go around. Focus on aircraft control. You are busy, slow and close to the ground. ATC can see what you are doing — no radio call is required. • ATC may use different terminology: “Execute a missed approach” or “Cleared for a low approach only”… rejected landing, rejected approach — they all mean the same thing: “Don’t land — your landing clearance is cancelled. Go around.” • After the go-around is initiated and after you’re under control (i.e., after Step 3 is complete), then at a controlled field you may acknowledge any given clearance.

COMMUNICATIONS

Radio calls not required ATC might assign:   “Go around”   “Low approach”   “Missed approach”   “Rejected landing”

As always, dividing our attention is important, especially when maneuvering around the airport.Your priorities are:

• 10 seconds verifying flight and engine instruments. • 20 seconds looking outside maintaining your situational awareness with

Divide attention 10-20-30

the ground. • 30 seconds looking outside scanning for traffic or obstacles in the air and on the ground so that you are aware of what’s going on around you. Traffic may be the reason you went around and you want to keep him in sight. Notice the special emphasis on positive aircraft control. This step-by-step procedure is designed to allow you to manage tasks without becoming distracted from the job of aircraft control as your first priority. Perform a few go-arounds to get comfortable with each step. Then on future go-around lessons, we will:

• Combine Steps 1, 2, and 3 so that after adding full

1

2

3

power you transition directly into the VY climb, while simultaneously reconfiguring. • Also practice maneuvering to the upwind side of the runway, rather than remaining over the centerline because this may be necessary to avoid wake turbulence or traffic. But for now, take it one step at a time so that you learn to control the airplane with precision. During this maneuver, special emphasis is placed on:

□ Positive Aircraft control □ Stall/spin awareness □ Collision avoidance □ Wake turbulence avoidance □ Runway incursion avoidance □ CFIT □ ADM and risk management □ Wire strike avoidance, if appropriate □ Checklist usage

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Keys for success:

✔ When turning final — every final — be alert to possible situations that warrant a rejected landing. ✔ Be mentally prepared. A go-around should not be a surprise. ✔ Make the decision at the earliest possible moment and stick with it — this is not the time to be indecisive. It’s easier to go-around at 300 ft AGL than at 50 ft AGL. It’s very difficult for any pilot to maintain control of the airplane while being indecisive about what maneuver to perform. Don’t change your mind after deciding to go around. ✔ If you delay the go-around, you might end up in ground effect during the go-around. Once in ground effect, remain in ground effect until speed is as necessary to safely climb. ✔ Add full power smoothly but immediately. Don’t jam it in, but don’t delay. Power is needed to safely stop the descent. ✔ Maintain directional control. Remember to add right rudder if needed to compensate for left-turning tendencies. May need to compensate for wind. ✔ Don’t rush. Stay in control. Remain within flap and gear airspeed limitations. ✔ Sterile cockpit — since this is a critical phase of flight, focus on the job. No chit-chat, don’t fidget with frequency changes unless it’s an emergency; try not to do anything until 500 feet AGL.

SUCCESS =

  Be alert for the possibility   Don’t change your mind   Remember ground effect   Power/attitude/   configure/climb in control   Directional control    - rudder and wind   Don’t rush   Sterile cockpit

Note: Emphasize being alert to the “possibilities”…remind students of and point to “the unexpected.”

EVALUATION Minimum Tolerances During FAA Practical Exams Completion standards for the lesson may vary with the phase of training. The minimum standards required to be successful on the practical test are: 1. Exhibit knowledge of the elements related to a go-around/rejected landing. 2. Make a timely decision to discontinue the approach to landing. 3. Apply takeoff power immediately and transition to climb pitch attitude for VY, and maintain VY+10/-5 knots. 4. Retract the flaps as appropriate. 5. Retract the landing gear, if appropriate, after a positive rate of climb is established. 6. Maneuver to the side of the runway/landing area to clear and avoid conflicting traffic. 7. Maintain takeoff power VY +10/-5 to a safe maneuvering altitude. 8. Maintain directional control and proper wind-drift correction throughout the climb. 9. Complete the appropriate checklist.

Scenarios for Testing Decision Making: • You are on left base, approximately 500 feet AGL, when you suddenly see

traffic on final, coming in fast...what will you do? How will you do it? • On short final, just above the tree-line a strong gust of wind suddenly pops one wing up, causing the airplane to rock and roll. What will you do? • You are on final when the plane landing in front of you blows a tire on landing and is disabled on the runway. What will you do?

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Lesson Plans

Planning Your Practice Fill in the blanks for your airplane in the following handy checklist.

Your Go-Around scenario (Make notes here.)

1. Smoothly apply ____________________ power (full or takeoff power). 2. Simultaneously increase the pitch to straight and level attitude. 3. Remain: ____ coordinated. ____ over centerline. 4. Reduce flaps to ___________ degrees, before airspeed accelerates above ____ KIAS (above white arc). 5. Select gear up before airspeed accelerates above limitation: _____ KIAS. 6. Increase pitch to VY climb. 7. Retract remaining flaps, one notch at a time. 8. Complete checklist, if appropriate. 9. Climb to traffic pattern altitude. 10. Turn to crosswind should be made 300' below traffic pattern altitude.

Chapter 5 • Takeoffs, Landings and Go-Arounds

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Power-Off 180° Accuracy Approach and Landing Suggested Materials: Whiteboard and markers, POH, and model airplane.

INTRODUCTION Spend at least three minutes introducing the maneuver to the student. Describe the situations that are motivation for learning it, as well as the objectives to strive for.

Motivation Your engine has failed while in the traffic pattern. From downwind, could you make a 180° turn to final and land on the runway? The power-off 180° approach is executed by gliding, without power, from a given point on the downwind leg to a pre-selected landing spot on the runway.

Objective In this lesson you will develop judgment for estimating gliding distances and flying the airplane with no power to a safe landing. Perfecting these approaches builds skills, confidence and judgment. It teaches precise control in landing on a predetermined spot.

REMEMBER: • • • • • • • •

Divide attention Planning 10-20-30 Best glide speed Constant airspeed Constant attitude VASI not used Load factor Slips/coordination Constantly reevaluate

SUCCESS =

Keep it close Wind - crab on base Coordination Don’t forget gear down Clear engine -  not too much Willing to go around Sterile cockpit

Touchdown point Too low Too high

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180° POWER OFF

LOOK

Normal

ACCURACY APPROACH/LANDING • • • • •

Retard throttle Immediate turn Maintain attitude until best glide speed Maintain constant airspeed Clear engine (burst of power)

Find “spot that doesn’t move” Clear engine before into wind IF LANDING?

• Gear down • Possibly 1 notch flaps • Extend base if needed Delay if too high

SET UP

ABEAM TOUCHDOWN

• • • * *

ATC clearance Fuel pump on Rich... Delay flaps Delay gear down

Keep hand on gear handle Crab

Crosswind Into wind

Flare Touchdown

HERE

Best to go around now if you’re not happy

WIND

Over #’s Verify green Gear down

Aim Touchdown point point 300’–400’

Lesson Plans

CHALKBOARD TALK Elements of the Maneuver First, a look at the universal elements of the maneuver — those elements that are not aircraft-specific. The name is self-explanatory, but as a big picture:

• From downwind leg, identify a landing point. • Close the throttle. • Glide to a landing on your landing point.

landing point

Requires planning — this is a maneuver where things happen fast:

• Set up properly on a close downwind. • Know your airport elevation and use the current altimeter setting for the

most accurate altitude above ground. • Plan to stay close to the runway and high. Better to be too high, as there are no options once you’re too low. Done properly, this maneuver does not allow the pilot to add power. • Wind — no real definite separate base leg and final leg, so think about being crosswind and being into the wind when making decisions on glidepath:  Crab. Compensate for wind during crosswind — if high, delay the turn, and then square the turn to final.  Plan for the headwind on final. Winds straight down the runway of more than 10 kts will drastically slow ground speed. Constantly re-evaluate, react quickly without rushing. • Use best glide speed to preserve altitude loss. Refer to POH. • A constant attitude gives you a constant glide speed. Without a constant attitude the pilot does not have a stabile platform for judging gliding distance and the landing spot. Use pitch to control indicated airspeed. • Don’t try to use VASI. It won’t help you. The spot you choose may not be in the VASI touchdown zone. Your descent rate is not the standard rate for a VASI glidepath. • Use the “spot that doesn’t move” visual aid — this is used in estimating glidepath.  If items in your field of view are moving up, you are too low to land in this area.  If items in your field of view are moving down, you are too high to land in the area.  The spot that doesn’t move up or down is your touchdown point. • An aiming point about 300–400 feet ahead of the touchdown point assures the distance used in the flare to carry you beyond the touchdown point. • Remember load factor — steeper turns result in added load factor, which causes a higher rate of descent. Use to your advantage if too high, but normally you should try to avoid making steep turns during this maneuver. Medium turns are better. • Remember slips — a tool to use if you are too high. Check your POH for limitations against slips with flaps extended. • Remain coordinated — don’t try to push your nose around with the rudder. Unintentional slips will dissipate altitude quickly. • Constantly re-evaluate.

Chapter 5 • Takeoffs, Landings and Go-Arounds

REMEMBER:

Planning Best glide speed Constant airspeed Constant attitude VASI not used Load factor Slips/coordination Constantly reevaluate

Normal

Delay if too high

Too low Too high

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A good touchdown spot is:

□ Large enough to see throughout the approach, but small enough to demonstrate your accuracy.

□ To start, something at least 1,000 feet down the runway. Give yourself

ample room. □ Not the runway numbers — no room for error. □ Perhaps the close end of the 1,000 markers, a large oil spot, a change in concrete coloring, a sign to the side of the runway.

Performance Divide the tasks into a small set of objectives on each leg to avoid getting tasksaturated or behind the airplane. Set up:

• Position aircraft on a close, parallel downwind leg, at traffic pattern

altitude,  Receive ATC clearance, if appropriate.  Fuel pump ON, tanks to FULLEST, mixture RICH (delay flaps/gear). • Scan for traffic. Notice any obstacles between you and runway. • Choose a touchdown point. Abeam the specified touchdown spot:

• Retard throttle. • Immediately start a medium-bank turn to base and maintain altitude while decelerating to glide speed (79 KIAS). • Maintain best glide speed throughout. • Keep your hand on the landing gear handle (gear is still up). This will help ensure you don’t forget to select gear down. Crosswind (base):

• Maintain best glide speed. • Crab to compensate for wind drift. Use a uniform medium or slightly

steeper bank. Steeper bank increases load factor, which causes higher rates of descent. • Use base to conserve or dissipate altitude. Find the “spot that doesn’t move” (VASI won’t help you). • Mentally allow yourself permission to abort and review your go-around procedures so they ABEAM TOUCHDOWN are fresh in your mind. Never put yourself in a Retard throttle position where you have to land — even just a Immediate turn “mental situation.” Maintain attitude until best glide speed • Continue to scan for traffic in the air and on Maintain constant airspeed the ground...and for obstacles. Clear engine (burst of power) • Clear engine (add a short burst of power) before you get into the wind. Keep hand Find “spot that doesn’t move”

Clear engine before into wind

SET UP

ATC clearance Fuel pump on Rich... Delay flaps Delay gear down

on gear handle Crab

Crosswind Into wind

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Lesson Plans

Landing assured (coming onto final):

• Gear down when the landing spot is assured. • Add 1 notch of flaps only after glidepath becomes obviously too high. • Plan the turn so that you roll out aligned with the runway centerline. • On close final: gear down — check 3 green lights. You may need to delay

gear down until close final. • Add additional flaps only after aircraft is too high; or, if preferred, a slip may be used instead of flaps (but don’t use both); trim. • Focus on an aiming point that will allow you to touch down on the touchdown point. • Continue to scan for traffic and obstacles. Just after turning final:

• If you are not confident in success, this is the best place to go around —  about 200–300 feet AGL.  before ground effect.  don’t try to salvage a poor approach at the last minute. Over the numbers:

• Final gear check, 3 green lights. This

is important — you are outside your normal operating procedures — don’t forget the gear! • Concentrate on a safe touchdown, full stall, corrected for wind drift, on centerline and within 200 feet after the specified touchdown point. After landing:

• Maintain full attention outside cockpit. • Add power and taxi clear. • Complete the after landing checklist.

Crosswind

IF LANDING?

Into wind

Gear down Possibly 1 notch flaps Extend base if needed

Flare Touchdown

HERE

Best to go around now if you’re not happy

WIND

Over #’s Verify green Gear down

Aim Touchdown point point

Of course, we still have to divide attention inside and outside:

• 10 seconds inside verifying airspeed, altitude and other instruments. • 20 seconds outside re-evaluating the glidepath, configuration changes and

10-20-30

touchdown spot. • 30 seconds outside scanning for traffic in the air and on the ground. Tools to use, in order of preference: When you are too high, 1. Add flaps. 2. Decrease crab on base to move further away from landing area. 3. Slip.

When you are too low, 1. Anything you can to get closer without adding load factor or being uncoordinated. 2. Go around — don’t stretch the glide, don’t sacrifice airspeed. Note: Some airplanes have a limitation against slips with flaps — check your POH.

Chapter 5 • Takeoffs, Landings and Go-Arounds

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During this maneuver, special emphasis is placed on:

□ Positive aircraft control □ Stall/spin awareness □ Collision avoidance □ Runway incursion avoidance □ CFIT □ ADM and risk management □ Wire strike avoidance, if appropriate □ Checklist usage

One last note: You may be landing with or without flaps. Be prepared for a different landing attitude without flaps. Your stall speed is increased without flaps and your flare will be longer without flaps — especially once you are in ground effect. Keys for success:

✔ Keep the pattern in close. You must make the runway. ✔ Remember the wind and its affects on your pattern. Turn to base quickly having enough crab to keep you close, because you’ll have a headwind back to the runway. ✔ Remain coordinated during turns. ✔ Delay gear — but don’t forget! ✔ It’s OK to use the throttle to clear the engine, but don’t try to extend the glide with power. ✔ Be primed for go-around. If anything unusual occurs to distract you — go around. You are low and outside your normal operating procedures — this is not the time to diagnose a situation — go around. ✔ Don’t sacrifice safety for the maneuver. ✔ Maintain your airspeed. Don’t “stretch” the glide. ✔ Flare properly. Don’t force the airplane onto the runway in an attempt to make the designated landing spot. ✔ Sterile cockpit — again, in addition to being a critical phase of flight, this landing requires the best of you and your airplane. Focus on the job.

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SUCCESS =

  Keep it close   Wind - crab on base   Coordination   Don’t forget gear down   Clear engine -    not too much   Willing to go around   Sterile cockpit

Lesson Plans

EVALUATION Minimum Tolerances During FAA Practical Exams Completion standards for the lesson may vary with the phase of training. The minimum standards required to be successful on the practical test are: 1. Exhibit knowledge of the elements related to a power-off 180° accuracy approach and landing. 2. Consider the wind conditions, landing surface, obstructions, and select an appropriate touchdown point. 3. Position airplane on downwind leg, parallel to landing runway, and not more than 1,000 feet AGL. 4. Abeam the specified touchdown point, close throttle and establish appropriate glide speed. 5. Complete final airplane configuration. 6. Touch down in a normal landing attitude, at or within 200 feet beyond the specified touchdown point. 7. Complete the appropriate checklist.

Planning Your Practice Fill in the blanks for your airplane in the following handy checklist.

Your Power-Off 180° Accuracy Approach/Landing scenario (Make notes here.)

Downwind 1. Position aircraft: _____ on a close, parallel downwind leg. _____ at traffic pattern altitude. 2. Configure: fuel pump__________. mixture ____________. 3. Receive clearance from ATC. 4. Look: _____ for obstacles between you and the landing spot; _____ scan for traffic. 5. Choose a touchdown point (____________________). 6. Abeam specified touchdown spot, retard the throttle. 7. Fly a close traffic pattern: _____ without extending gear or flaps on downwind; _____ keep your hand on landing gear handle (gear is still up). 8. Maintain altitude while decelerating to glide speed ( ______ KIAS).

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Base Leg 1. Compensate for wind drift. 2. Plan the turn to base leg: a. uniform medium or slight steeper bank. b. steeper bank turns realize higher rates of descent. 2. Use base to conserve/dissipate altitude; find the spot that doesn’t move. 3. Maintain best glide speed; delay gear down. Final 1. Plan the turn from base to final to rollout aligned with runway centerline. 2. Add _________ notch/degrees of flaps (if glide path is too high). 3. On close final: a. gear down-check _____ (3 or 1) green light(s). b. may need to delay gear down until close final. 5. Additional flaps: a. only after aircraft is too high; b. a slip may be used instead of flaps; c. do not use both flaps and a slip. d. trim. Over the numbers 1. Final gear check: _____ Verify green light(s). _____ Important — this is outside normal procedures…don’t forget the gear! 2. Concentrate on a safe touchdown: _____ Full stall. _____ Corrected for wind drift. _____ On centerline, within 200 feet of specified touchdown point. 3. Taxi clear of the hold short line.

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Lesson Plans

PERFORMANCE MANEUVERS CHAPTER 6

This chapter contains the following maneuver briefings:

• Steep turns • Steep spirals • Chandelles • Lazy Eights AREA OF OPERATION: Preflight Lesson on a Maneuver to be Performed in Flight Note: Examiner shall select at least one maneuver and ask the applicant to present a preflight lesson on the selected maneuver as the lesson would be taught to a student. OBJECTIVE: To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the selected maneuver by: 1. Stating the purpose. 2. Giving an accurate, comprehensive oral description, including the elements and common errors. 3. Using instructional aids, as appropriate. 4. Describing the recognition, analysis, and correction of common errors.

Chapter 6 • Performance Maneuvers

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Steep Turns Suggested Materials: Whiteboard, markers, POH, and model airplane.

INTRODUCTION Spend at least three minutes introducing the maneuver to the student. Describe the situations that are motivation for learning it, as well as the objectives to strive for.

Motivation You have decided to fly down the Hudson River to sightsee along the New York City skyline. The airspace surrounding the river is confining. After awhile you have seen enough and you wish to turn around. It’s a tight space along the Hudson and there are high-rise buildings along both shores. You will need to make a steep bank for this sharp turn.

Objective The objective is to make a level, 360° turn, using a steep bank, maintaining a constant altitude and rolling-out on a predetermined heading. You’ll gain a better understanding of lift and how the wings are affected with the aircraft in this attitude. Practicing steep turns helps you identify the forces acting on the plane and develop the control inputs needed to maintain aircraft control.

BANKED TURN

Overbanking tendency High wing • faster • more lift

Shallow - returns Medium - remains Steep - steepens

PILOT • • • •

Lift during turns

Look outside G’s - lightheaded Outside reference Left vs. right

STEEP TURNS

RELATIONSHIPS Weight during turns

Increase stall speed 60°=2Gs 70°=3Gs 80°=6Gs

SETUP • • • • • •

84

Airspace 1,500 AGL Clearing turns VA Choose visual ref. Note Hdg/Alt

Gs

ENTRY • • • • • •

SUCCESS =

1. When bank  , G’s 2. When G’s  , stall speed 3. When bank  , lift   , back pressure 4. Don’t pull back Add power or Reduce bank

45°–55° Maintain altitude Maintain airspeed Add power if needed Full 360° Trim Reference road

Clear well   Use horizon  not instruments   Rollout early (20°)  with precision Coordination Power Level, constant   bank attitude Left vs. right   turns different

DURING

• Level • Coordinated • Constant bank

• Look outside • Look ahead

EXIT

ENTRY

EXIT

If gaining altitude - increase bank If losing altitude - decrease bank

Use load factor to help you

• • • • • •

Plan rollout 20° ahead Coordination Reduce back pressure Reduce power, if nec. Trim

Lesson Plans

CHALKBOARD TALK Elements of the Maneuver First, a look at the universal elements of the maneuver — those elements that are not aircraft-specific. Definition: what is a steep turn?

• Explain the steep turn by its aerodynamic definition:  A shallow bank turn returns to straight and level.  A medium bank turn will remain in that turn.  A steep bank turn continues to steepen. • The angle of bank needed for a steep turn is relative to the aircraft speed — slower airspeeds require less bank to see the aerodynamic affects of a steep turn. • Practice steep turns at 45° as a private pilot (or 55° for commercial pilots). The steep bank turn continues to steepen because of over-banking tendency — the tendency for an airplane to roll farther into the banked turn.

• During the steep turn, a significant difference develops between the speed of the top wing, and the bottom wing.

• The wing on the top of the turn travels a farther distance in the same

amount of time as the low wing. • The wing on the top is traveling faster. • The faster, high wing generates more lift, thus rolls the airplane into a steeper turn. • Use aileron, maybe opposite aileron, to counteract overbanking. Remember adverse yaw (explained in earlier lesson):

• Counteract adverse yaw with rudder, when initiating a turn and when

rolling out. • Turns to the right display more adverse yaw than turns to the left, due to left-turning tendencies. • Use the rudder during steep turns. Lift during turns:

• During level flight, the force of lift is up. • In a turn, lift divides into vertical and horizontal components. • In a steep turn, the horizontal component is very strong; that’s why you need a lot of back pressure to compensate. • Use elevator and possibly add power, in order to have positive aircraft control. Weight during turns:

• During level flight, the force of weight is in a downward direction. • In a turn, centrifugal force is introduced. • As the bank steepens, centrifugal force increases; this is load factor. • Define load factor. Weight + centrifugal force = load factor • In straight-and-level cruise flight, load factor is one (1G). In a level turn, with a bank angle greater than 60°, load factor increases dramatically 60° = 2G; 70° = 3G, 80° = 6G

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Load factor is important because aircraft have load limits. Most general aviation aircraft in normal category have load limit of +3.8G or –1.5G. Above load limits, the aircraft is subject to structural damage. Define VA, the speed at which an abrupt full control-deflection would result in a stall before exceeding the load limits of the aircraft. □ Check POH for a manufacturer recommended entry speed for the steep turn. If none is given, then use (not more than) VA as an entry speed. □ Load factor increases stall speed.

Check

Load limits Structural damage VA speed

Use elevator, aileron and rudder together.There are important relationships to understand:

• As angle of bank increases, load factor (Gs) increase. • As Gs increase, stall speed increases. • When bank is increased, lift is redirected, requiring additional back pressure. • But don’t pull back on the elevator — remember, stall speed has increased. Stall awareness is important.

• Instead, add power, or if necessary, reduce the bank angle. • Torque affects left turns differently than right turns. Explain the use of

Add power or Reduce bank

controls that will be different in left and right turns.

The rollout: With this much bank on the wings, it will take extra time to roll back to straight and level. □ Plan rollout so the wings reach level flight when the airplane is on exactly the same heading you started the maneuver. □ Rollout can be achieved by using ½ the number of degrees angle of bank. (If your angle of bank is 45 degrees, start rolling out about 22 degrees prior to your desired heading.)

You probably applied back pressure during the roll-in. Therefore, during rollout, □ Reduce back pressure. □ Don’t gain altitude. We’ve been talking about the effects of steep turns on the plane, but let’s also consider the pilot:

• Look outside during the turn — it’s impossible to do this maneuver

correctly on instruments. • Gs affect the pilot, too! You might feel lightheaded at first. • Use an outside reference to help maintain orientation — perhaps a road. • Pilot’s perspective on horizon during left turns versus right is different. • Situational awareness is important.

 

• outside • lightheaded?

below

above

There is a lot going on with the steep turn maneuver. It teaches you to identify the different forces acting on the plane and in developing a fine control-touch, needed for precise control of the airplane. • Requires orientation, division of attention and planning. • Special emphasis is on: 1. positive aircraft control 2. stall/spin awareness 3. collision avoidance 4. aeronautical decision making (ADM)

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Lesson Plans

Performance Now that you understand the elements, we’ll examine how to perform the maneuver in the airplane. The example given is for the PA28RT-201. Let’s take it step-by-step. During practice, begin with a set-up before actually starting the steep turn. Set up:

1. Choose an area to avoid airspace incursion. 2. Choose an altitude no lower than 1,500 AGL. 3. Clear the area of traffic and/or obstacles. 4. Configure: Fuel fullest tank, fuel pump off, mixture rich. Flaps up, gear up. 5. Slow to VA (110 KIAS, about 18” MP). 6. Begin over a prominent road or straight reference for better orientation during the turn. 7. Note heading and altitude.

SET UP

Airspace 1,500’ AGL Clear VA Reference (road) Note starting:   heading   altitude

Entry:

8. Roll into 45° coordinated bank turn (55° for commercial). 9. Increase back pressure to maintain altitude. If airspeed reduces more than 5 KIAS, add power to maintain airspeed. Avoid any indication of a stall or tendency to exceed the structural limits of the airplane. 10. Divide attention, maintaining airplane control, orientation and traffic/ obstacle avoidance. Look outside; look ahead of the turn, in the direction you’re turning. Remember the 10-20-30 rule. 11. Maintain altitude, using outside references: the relative position of the nose on the horizon, the wing and the amount of turn. If altitude begins to increase, increase the bank with coordinated use of aileron and rudder. If the altitude begins to decrease, decrease the bank with coordinated use of aileron and rudder. Use load factor to help control your altitude. 12. Trim just enough to relieve the majority of pressure; you still want to “feel” the plane. Exit:

13. Plan the rollout. 14. Remember, you added back pressure in the entry during recovery; back elevator pressure must be released to maintain the altitude and airspeed. 15. Same with power — you added power during the recovery, so reduce power to cruise and maintain altitude and airspeed. 16. Trim as appropriate. Later, during the advanced stages of training, you’ll execute the steep turn first in one direction, then roll immediately into a turn in the opposite direction. Keys for success:

✔ Clear the area before the maneuver and scan throughout the maneuver. Look ahead of the turn. ✔ Use the horizon as a reference for level flight to maintain pitch during entry and recovery as well as throughout the maneuver. ✔ Use an outside reference to maintain orientation and a constant bank angle. Don’t try to do this maneuver with reference to instruments — it’s a visual maneuver.

Chapter 6 • Performance Maneuvers

ENTRY

45°–55° Maintain altitude Maintain airspeed Add power if nec. Full 360° Trim

EXIT

Plan rollout 20° ahead Coordination Reduce back pressure Reduce power, if nec. Trim

SUCCESS =

  Clear well   Use horizon    not instruments   Rollout early (20°)    with precision   Coordination   Power   Level, constant    bank attitude   Left vs. right    turns different 87

Additional tips:

□ Start recovery about 20 degrees before rollout, but not prematurely. Stop the turn precisely on your starting heading.

□ Maintain coordination, rolling in, rolling out and also during the turn. □ Some aircraft, especially on a hot day and a heavy load may need to add power to maintain airspeed. Manage power accurately.

□ Maintain a level pitch with a constant bank and anticipate control changes

during entry or recovery for level flight. This will control your airspeed as well as your altitude. □ Remember, it looks different when turning to the left and right. The tendency is to gain altitude in the right turn and/or lose altitude in the left turn because of your perspective.

EVALUATION Minimum Tolerances During FAA Practical Exams Completion standards for the lesson may vary with the phase of training. The minimum standards required to be successful on the practical test are: 1. Exhibit knowledge of the elements related to steep turns: definition, overbanking, load factor/stall speed, and proper control inputs. 2. Establish the manufacturer’s recommended airspeed or if one is not stated, a safe airspeed not to exceed VA. 3. Private: Roll into a coordinated 360° turn; maintain a 45° bank. 4. Commercial: Roll into a coordinated 360° steep turn with at least a 50° bank, followed by a 360° steep turn in the opposite direction. 5. Perform the task in the opposite direction, as specified by the examiner. 6. Divide attention between airplane control and orientation. 7. Maintain the entry altitude, ±100', airspeed, ±10 knots, bank, ±5°; and roll out on the entry heading, ±10°.

Additional Scenarios that Make Steep Turns Real 1. The scenario included in the introduction was a flight down the Hudson River, so use a New York sectional to add realism and situational awareness. Or, customize it for your local flight area by replacing the Hudson River flight with a similar flight in a local confined area. 2. Once established at altitude and heading in the general direction towards our destination airport, you see something out of the corner of your eye and know it is another aircraft. No time…it’s closing fast. What to do? A sharp turn to give right-of-way? That will require a steep turn. a. Embellish the above scenario with a specific location and perhaps company-traffic or another aircraft from the same flight school. b. Embellish the above scenario with sighting traffic while flying to a pancake breakfast or other fly-in event.

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Lesson Plans

Planning Your Practice Fill in the blanks for your airplane in the following handy checklist.

Your Steep Turn scenario (Make notes here.)

Set Up 1. Choose an area to avoid airspace incursion: ________________________. 2. Choose an altitude no lower than 1,500 AGL: _________ MSL. 3. Clear the area of traffic/obstacles. 4. Configure: Fuel _______________ (on fullest tank, etc.) Fuel pump __________ (on, N/A, doesn’t matter, etc.) Mixture ____________ (leaned, rich, etc.) Flaps _______ (up) Gear _______ (up, N/A, etc.) Slow to entry speed (VA?) ________ (110 KIAS, etc.) Reduce power to ________ (18" MP, 18 00 RPM, etc.) 5. Begin over a prominent road or straight reference for better orientation during the turn. 6. Note heading and altitude: a. full 360° turn. b. while maintaining altitude. Entry 1. Roll into ________ (45 or 55 degrees) bank. ____ Increase back pressure to maintain altitude. ____ If airspeed reduces more than 5 KIAS, add power to maintain airspeed. ____ Avoid any indication of a stall or tendency to exceed the structural limits of the airplane during turn. 2. Divide attention: a. maintaining airplane control, orientation and traffic/obstacle avoidance; b. look outside; and c. look ahead of the turn, in the direction you’re turning. 3. Maintain altitude, using outside references: a. relative position of nose, horizon, wing and the amount of turn. b. if altitude begins to increase, increase bank with coordinated use of aileron and rudder. c. if the altitude begins to decrease, decrease bank with coordinated use of aileron and rudder. d. use load factor to help control your altitude. 4. Trim, just enough to relieve most of the pressure. Recovery ____ Plan to rollout about 22 degrees before the desired heading. ____ Remember you added back pressure in the entry; during recovery, back elevator pressure must be released to maintain the altitude and airspeed. Note: Later, during the advanced stages ____ Remember you added power during the recovery; of training, you’ll execute the steep turn reduce power to cruise and maintain altitude and airspeed. first in one direction, then roll immediately ____ Trim as appropriate. into a turn in the opposite direction.

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Steep Spiral Suggested Materials: Whiteboard, markers, POH, and model airplane.

INTRODUCTION Spend at least three minutes introducing the maneuver to the student. Describe the situations that are motivation for learning it, as well as the objectives to strive for.

Motivation You are flying at cruise altitude when the engine starts to shutter and then suddenly fails. Luckily you spy the perfect emergency landing area right below your aircraft. Can you remain over your selected landing area during descent? A steep spiral is a gliding turn, maintaining a constant airspeed and a constant radius around a point on the ground. It has many practical applications, the most important being a procedure for losing altitude while remaining over a selected spot in preparation for emergency forced landings.

Objective You will complete 3 full 360° turns, remaining in a constant radius, descending turn, and rolling out on a predetermined heading, maintaining a constant airspeed throughout. You’ll improve your proficiency in planning, handling the aircraft and division of attention while correcting for wind drift.

A STEEP SPIRAL INVOLVES:

STEEP SPIRALS

SET UP

• Airspace clear • 3 gliding, 360° turns • Altitude (5,000 AGL) • Best glide speed (POH) • Fuel tank/pump/rich • Constant radius • Gear/flaps up • Wind corrections • Turn downwind • Enter downwind • Choose reference point • Changes with altitude • Constantly reevaluate • Wind affects ground speed... WIND   ground speed affects radius

ABEAM THE POINT

• Retard throttle • 30° bank (<45°) • Best glide speed (79)

clear engine

60 70 80

• Compensate with bank • High speed (downwind)— steeper • Slow speed (upwind)— shallower

DURING

Downwind • Steeper bank • Pitch down for best glide speed Upwind • Shallower bank • Pitch up for best glide speed

clear engine

clear engine

SUCCESS =

  Divide attention 10-20-30   Start high, 1,000’ @ turn   Coordination   Anticipate wind and effects   Engine maintenance

90

EXIT

Recover before 1,000 AGL Rollout on initial heading

Transition: • Go around • Simulated emergency landing

Lesson Plans

CHALKBOARD TALK Elements of the Maneuver First, a look at the universal elements of the maneuver — those elements that are not aircraft-specific. It looks like this:

• The maneuver is complete after 3 gliding turns. Make 3 full turns over a

point. • At the completion of the maneuver, you can execute a go-around, or elect to practice a simulated emergency landing — but that’s another maneuver (covered in Chapter 9). The key elements are:

□ A gliding turn…all power will be retarded. □ Start at an altitude that allows three 360-degree turns. □ Maintain airspeed. I like to use best glide (though it’s not required), because the objective is to preserve altitude; refer to POH. □ Constant radius — this means you’ll make corrections for the wind.

Wind/speed/turn radius: As you recall, the faster the ground speed, the larger the radius. — at 70 KIAS, the radius may look like this: — at 60 KIAS it would be smaller… — at 80 KIAS the radius would be larger. • Wind affects ground speed, and the ground speed affects the turn radius. • You want a constant radius, so compensate for the effects of wind with bank angle.

60 70 80

At higher speeds (downwind) you’ll need a steeper bank to maintain the radius. At slower speeds (upwind) you need a shallower bank. Keep in mind:

1. You’ll use about a 30° bank (but not more than 60°). Enter the maneuver downwind, as that is the worse case and the steepest bank. 2. Wind corrections were covered in previous maneuvers but in those you maintained altitude. In descent, the wind will change as our altitude changes. You must constantly re-evaluate the wind and its effects and compensate for it. Wind normally decreases in velocity and changes direction counterclockwise in the descent. Airspeed:

Downwind — • Steeper bank • Pitch down for best glide speed Upwind — • Shallower bank • Pitch up for best glide speed

• Maintain airspeed during the steep spiral. • Aircraft lose a lot of altitude during a turn — expect to lose about 1,000' for

each rotation. Best way to preserve altitude is to maintain best glide speed (refer to POH). • Remember load factor —  When you increase bank to compensate for wind drift, you increase load factor and this reduces airspeed. Lower the nose to maintain desired speed.  When you decrease bank to compensate for wind drift, you decrease load factor and this increases airspeed. Raise the nose to maintain desired speed. • Remember, too — when load factor increases, stall speed increases. You could be closer than you think to the stall speed when maintaining best glide. Chapter 6 • Performance Maneuvers

91

Altitude:

• If you reach 1,000' AGL, execute a go-around. • Let’s agree that 1,000' AGL is minimum altitude even if the rotations are

not complete. • It’s not a required altitude, but it’s smart. Don’t sacrifice safety attempting to complete the maneuver. We’ve talked a lot about the rotations. Now let’s be sure to choose a good reference point:

1. Away from airspace incursions; 2. Away from obstacle collision; 3. Large enough to see easily from altitude; 4. Small enough to see the effects of wind.

reference point

In this maneuver we place special emphasis on:

□ Positive aircraft control □ Stall/spin awareness □ Collision avoidance □ CFIT □ ADM and risk management □ Wire strike avoidance (if appropriate) Performance

Now that you understand the elements, let’s examine how to perform the maneuver in the airplane. The example given is for the PA28RT-201. Take it step-by-step; during practice, begin with a set-up before actually starting the steep turn. Set up:

1. Select an area away from possible airspace incursions and heavy traffic. 2. Select an altitude sufficient to allow descent through the desired number (at least 3 full 360°) of descending turns and recover, while remaining above 1,000 AGL. 3. Configure the aircraft with fuel to fullest tank, fuel pump on, mixture to rich. Gear and flaps should be up. 4. Turn to a downwind heading. Note heading. 5. Clear the area. WIND 6. Choose a reference point.

Abeam  the point

Abeam the point:

7. Retard throttle to idle. 8. Allow the aircraft to slow to 77 KIAS prior to starting the descent. 9. Roll into a 30° to 40° bank (not more than 60°).

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Lesson Plans

Maneuver:

10. Maintain 77 KIAS throughout the maneuver. 11. Begin the descending spiral, adjust the bank angle, correcting for wind, to track a constant radius circle around the selected point with bank not to exceed 60 degrees. 12. Divide attention between coordinated aircraft control, traffic avoidance and ground track 13. Clear the engine by advancing the throttle once each 360 degrees of turn. This will also help you keep track of the number of turns completed. Exit:

clear engine

14. Upon completion of the specific number of turns, (at least 3) but not below 1,000 AGL, terminate the maneuver by returning wings to straight and level on initial heading, and —  Apply full power, transition to a VX or VY climb attitude and climb in a go-around; or  Continue descent, if continuing with the simulated emergency landing maneuver.

before 1,000 AGL

Keys for success:

✔ Divide attention —  10 seconds in the cockpit. Scan flight instruments and on hot summer days, the engine gauges.  20 seconds for ground reference…don’t lose it! Also remain aware of terrain features and obstacles.  30 seconds for traffic scanning…especially scan ahead of your turn and below. ✔ Clear the area before and continue scanning during the maneuver ✔ Start high —  You’ll lose about 1,000 ft per turn.  Recover by 1,000 ft AGL.  Start at least 4,000 ft AGL, preferably 5,000 ft AGL. ✔ Remain coordinated — no slips or skids. ✔ Maintain airspeed — correct for load factor. ✔ Anticipate wind effects and the control inputs needed. ✔ Engine maintenance — you’ll want it running smoothly during your go-around. Clearing the engine helps you to keep track of the number of turns made.

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EVALUATION Minimum Tolerances During FAA Practical Exams Completion standards for the lesson may vary with the phase of training. The minimum standards required to be successful on the practical test are: 1. Exhibit knowledge of the elements related to a steep spiral. 2. Select an altitude sufficient to continue through a series of at least three 360° turns. 3. Select a suitable ground reference point. 4. Apply wind-drift correction to track a constant radius circle around selected reference point, with bank not to exceed 60 degrees at the steepest point in the turn. 5. Divide attention between airplane control and ground track, while maintaining coordinated flight. 6. Maintain the specified airspeed, ±10 knots, roll out toward object or specified heading, ±10 degrees.

Additional Scenarios that Make Steep Spirals Real Scenarios could feature: 1. The use of best glide to preserve altitude loss, thus reducing the time required to climb to higher altitudes. 2. An enroute emergency, such as a rapid decompression, when the airspeed to maintain might be much higher and with gear and flaps down. Mix it up, using different airspeeds that are appropriate for your aircraft. Though not part of the traditional FAA lesson plan, this maneuver teaches one procedure for the set-up for an emergency off-airport landing. After the pilot has mastered the basics, practice the maneuver again, adding — • an emergency engine restart checklist; • simulated Mayday call; • simulated 7700 into transponder; and • passenger emergency briefing. It becomes a lesson in handling multiple priorities but at the same time, gives the pilot a great deal of confidence.

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Lesson Plans

Planning Your Practice Fill in the blanks for your airplane in the following handy checklist.

Your Steep Spiral scenario (Make notes here.)

Set Up 1. Choose an area that avoids airspace incursion and heavy traffic: ________________________. 2. Choose altitude that allows 3 turns and recovers, yet remains above 1,000 AGL: ________ MSL. 3. Configure: Fuel __________ (on fullest tank, N/A, etc.) Fuel pump __________ (on, N/A, doesn’t matter, etc.) Mixture __________ (leaned, rich, etc.) Flaps _______ (up, down, etc.) Gear _______ (up, N/A, etc.) 4. Airspeed ________ (110 KIAS, etc.) Reduce power to ________ (idle, etc.) 5. Turn to a downwind heading. 6. Clear the area. 7. Choose a reference point. Entry — abeam the point 1. Retard throttle to idle. 2. Allow the aircraft to slow to ______ KIAS prior to starting the descent. 3. Roll into a 30-45-degree bank (not more than 60). Maneuver 1. Maintain ______ KIAS throughout the maneuver. 2. Begin the descending spiral: ____ Adjust the bank angle, correcting for wind with bank not to exceed 60 degrees. ____ Divide attention between coordinated aircraft control, traffic avoidance and ground track. 3. Clear the engine by advancing the throttle once each 360 degrees of turn. Recovery 1. Upon completion of the specific number of turns, (at least 3) but not below ________ AGL, terminate the maneuver by returning wings to straight and level on initial heading and 2. Apply full power: _____ transition to VX or VY climb attitude, and climb in go-around, or _____ continue descent if continuing with the simulated emergency landing maneuver.

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Chandelles Suggested Materials: Whiteboard and markers, POH and model airplane.

INTRODUCTION Spend at least three minutes introducing the maneuver to the student. Describe the situations that are motivation for learning it, as well as the objectives to strive for.

Motivation It’s bumpy and bouncy with light chop below the clouds and you are worried about your passenger getting sick. There are several breaks in the overcast and you can see the tops are not very high, with clear blue skies above. If you can climb above the clouds, it will be a smooth ride for your passenger. Can you make this climb and maintain cloud clearances within the clear area of the break in the overcast? A chandelle is a maximum performance climb with a 180° turn. It requires very little space to conduct a climb that will achieve (depending on the airplane) about 1,000 feet of altitude gain.

Objective Practice chandelles to help you plan aircraft performance and develop a feel for maximum performance flight. It also develops positive aircraft control techniques while flying at varying airspeeds and attitudes. It has many practical applications when maneuvering in a confined space.

CHANDELLES

A CHANDELLE IS:

Max performance climb with 180° turn

EXIT

SITUATIONAL AWARENESS     RELATIONSHIPS as • Bank: speed • Pitch: " • Speed: "  

SUCCESS =

• Use outside   reference • Road or   horizon

Maintain altitude Nose down DON’T lose altitude Reduce power

Wings level at MCA 180°

hold 10 sec.

opposite aileron increase elevator IAS not accurate use attitude indicator

  Clear   Outside reference   Roll precisely   Correct attitudes   Recover properly   Make the full 180°   Coordination   Anticipate   Smooth   Don’t stall

96

• • • •

ROAD

10-20-30

• SLOWLY rollout • Coordination • Traffic avoidance Changing bank    (rolling out) Constant pitch 90°

Max pitch up (not degrees up)

Constant bank Changing pitch     (increasing) SET UP • • • • • •

Good airspace 1,500’ AGL Configure VA Clear (behind) Reference point

START • • • • •

Roll in 30° Full power Nose up Coordination Traffic avoidance

Lesson Plans

CHALKBOARD TALK Elements of the Maneuver First, a look at the universal elements of the maneuver — those elements that are not aircraft-specific.

Exit

It looks like this (draw just the half-circle): The key elements are:

• Maximum performance climb — the amount of altitude gain is not

important, here; what is important is flying aerodynamically correct to achieve the maximum amount of altitude gain the aircraft is capable of. • Make a 180° turn. • Through the first 90° of turn, hold a constant 30°-bank and slowly increase pitch. • At the 90°-point is the maximum pitch-up attitude. • During the second 90°, hold that max pitch attitude and change the bank as you slowly roll out. • At the 180°-point, you should be wings level, just above the stall speed, in coordinated, straight-and-level flight. • Hold this attitude for about 10 seconds before slowly lowering the nose (don’t lose altitude) and increase airspeed to cruise. Then reduce power and trim for cruise.

Start

Exit

2nd half: • Changing bank • Constant pitch

90°

This is a maneuver that requires planning and anticipation of control inputs.

• Apply control inputs smoothly. • Trim just enough to relieve majority of pressure. You still want to “feel” the plane. • Scan for traffic throughout the maneuver. You are gaining a lot of altitude, reversing heading…so, look all around you.

Start

1st half: • Constant bank • Changing pitch

First part of the turn, aerodynamics:

• Plan the pitch attitude high enough to achieve the max pitch attitude at the 90°-point, but not so high that you stall at the end.

• Coordination is a must, climbing and turning (especially to the left) requires rudder.

Second part of the turn, aerodynamics:

• You must plan the rate of roll-out; it should be a constant rate roll-out, enough to achieve wings-level precisely at the 180°-point.

• Coordination is a must. • As the airspeed decreases, the back pressure must be adjusted to maintain a constant pitch.

road

Situational awareness is very important:

• This is not a maneuver that can be done by reference to instruments. You

must use outside references. • Books often recommend a reference point on the horizon; you can also use a road, starting wings-level over the road, making your turn and knowing your wings must be level again back over the road.

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97

• Though not a ground reference maneuver, performing the chandelle

perpendicular to the wind helps you to remain in the practice area. • When choosing an altitude, consider airspace, traffic and cloud clearance above you, as you will climb about 1,000 feet. Aerodynamics: Achieving maximum performance requires the aircraft be flown aerodynamically correct. Regarding bank:

• As speed decreases, opposite aileron may be necessary to compensate for overbanking tendency. • As angle of bank decreases during the roll-out, vertical component of lift increases — anticipate and compensate. • Left chandelles — all of the left-turning tendencies pull you left — anticipate and compensate with rudder.

RELATIONSHIPS Bank Pitch Speed Coordination

Regarding pitch:

• As airspeed decreases, additional elevator pressure may be needed to hold

attitude. • Left-turning tendencies are pronounced at high power setting/high angle of attack and slow airspeed — anticipate and compensate with rudder. Speed:

• As speed decreases, IAS may not be accurate. • Use attitude rather than airspeed indicator. During this maneuver, special emphasis is placed on:

□ Positive aircraft control □ Stall/spin awareness □ Collision avoidance □ ADM and risk management Performance

Now that you understand the elements, let’s examine how to perform the maneuver in the airplane. The example given is for the PA28RT-201. Take it step-by-step — during practice we begin with a set-up before actually starting the maneuver. Set up:

1. Choose an area with minimum traffic, where airspace incursion is unlikely. 2. Choose an altitude no lower than 1,500 AGL. Be careful to remain 500 feet below clouds at the top of the climb. 3. Configure the aircraft fuel tank/pump and mixture, flaps and gear UP. 4. Establish VA speed (refer to POH) with power at cruise. 5. Clear the area, especially above and behind (it’s a 180° turn) 6. Select a prominent reference point, on the horizon, off the wing. 7. Recommend first chandelle to the left — it’s the most difficult.

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SET UP

Good airspace 1,500’ AGL Configure VA Clear (behind) Reference point

Lesson Plans

First half of maneuver:

8. Roll with precision into a 30° coordinated angle of bank, in the direction of the reference point…and hold that. 9. Simultaneously,smoothly apply full power while slowly increasing the pitch for climb. 10. Plan the pitch attitude. Continue to increase pitch attitude throughout the first half of the turn. 11. Remain coordinated. 12. Maintain 30° of bank throughout the first half of the turn but continue to increase pitch.

START

Roll in 30° Full power Nose up SLOWLY rollout:

Coordination Traffic avoidance

At half-way (90°-point):

13. This is where you are at maximum pitch attitude. 14. Maintain coordination.

90°

Second half of the maneuver:

15. Maintain a constant pitch attitude. 16. Begin a very slow, coordinated, constant-rate rollout, so wings are level with the completion of a precise 180° turn. Exit:

17. Hold heading and attitude for about 10 seconds. 18. Maintain altitude while slowly lowering nose, without descending. 19. Accelerate to cruise-speed. 20. After airspeed increases to normal cruise, reduce power to cruise. 21. Don’t lose altitude.

EXIT

Maintain altitude Nose down Reduce power — DON’T lose altitude! —

Keys for success:

✔ Clear the area before starting the maneuver and scan for traffic throughout the maneuver. Remember the 10-20-30 rule. ✔ Use an outside reference; don’t attempt to perform with references to instruments. ✔ Positive Aircraft Control —  Roll precisely into correct bank attitude. Maintain bank angle for first half of turn.  Start the recovery at the 90° point in the turn.  Maintain the pitch attitude as you roll the bank out during the second 90° of turn.  Make the full 180° turn.  Coordination is a must and it’s constantly changing as pitch, bank and airspeed are all changing. No slips or skid, please! ✔ Anticipate needed control inputs, be smooth, and control roughness. You must anticipate and plan the proper pitch attitude so you achieve MCA without stalling. You must plan the rollout to make a full 180° turn ✔ Maintain stall/spin awareness. Don’t stall. Maintain proper attitude.

Chapter 6 • Performance Maneuvers

SUCCESS =

  Clear   Outside reference   Roll precisely   Correct attitudes   Recover properly   Make the full 180°   Coordination   Anticipate   Smooth   Don’t stall

99

EVALUATION Minimum Tolerances During FAA Practical Exams Completion standards for the lesson may vary with the phase of training. The minimum standards required to be successful on the practical test are: 1. Exhibit knowledge of the maneuver elements related to chandelles. 2. Select an altitude that will allow the maneuver to be performed no lower than 1,500 feet AGL. 3. Establish the recommended entry configuration, power, and airspeed. 4. Establish the angle of bank at approximately 30°. 5. Simultaneously apply power and pitch to maintain a smooth, coordinated climbing turn to the 90°-point, with a constant bank. 6. Begin a coordinated, constant-rate roll-out from the 90°-point to the 180°point, maintaining power and a constant pitch attitude. 7. Complete the roll-out at the 180°-point, ±10° just above stall airspeed, and maintaining that airspeed momentarily avoiding a stall. 8. Resume straight-and-level flight with minimum loss of altitude.

Scenarios That Make Chandelles Real Chandelle may be used: • As an effective means for traffic avoidance. • In any situations where a tight turn is required. • In a situation where altitude gain is required in a confined space.

Planning Your Practice Fill in the blanks for your airplane in the following handy checklist.

Your Chandelles scenario (Make notes here.)

Set Up 1. Choose an area to avoid airspace incursion: ________________________. 2. Choose an altitude no lower than 1,500 AGL: _________ MSL. 3. Clear the area of traffic/obstacles. 4. Configure: Fuel _______________ (on fullest tank, etc.) Fuel pump __________ (on, N/A, doesn’t matter, etc.) Mixture ____________ (leaned, rich, etc.) Flaps _______ (up) Gear _______ (up, N/A, etc.) 5. Refer to POH for possible entry speed (otherwise use VA): _______ KIAS. 6. Begin over a prominent road or straight reference for better orientation during the turn. Note heading: This is a full 180-degree clearing turn while maintaining altitude.

100

Lesson Plans

Entry 1. Roll, with precision: _____ into a 30-degree, coordinated, angle of bank. _____ in the direction of the reference point. 2. Apply full power: _____ simultaneously, smoothly. _____ while slowly increasing the pitch for climb. 3. Increase pitch attitude throughout the first half of the turn. 4. Remain coordinated. 5. Maintain 30-degrees of bank throughout the first half of the turn but continue to increase pitch. 6. Trim just enough to relieve most of the pressure. 7. Scan for traffic throughout. At Halfway (90-degree) Point _____ Maximum pitch attitude. _____ Attitude but not degrees up. _____ Maintain coordination. Second Half of the Maneuver 1. Maintain a constant pitch attitude: _____ adjust back pressure to maintain a constant pitch attitude; _____ as airspeed continues to decrease; _____ until reaching the completion of the turn. 2. Plan the rollout: _____ begin a very slow, coordinated, constant-rate rollout; _____ wings are level with the completion of a precise 180-degree turn. 3. Scan for traffic throughout. At the 180-degree Point _____ Wings are level. _____ Airspeed is just above stall speed. _____ Don’t stall; maintain minimum controllable airspeed. _____ Maintain heading. _____ Maintain coordination. Exit 1. Hold heading and attitude for about 10 seconds. 2. Maintain altitude while slowly lowering nose without losing altitude: _____ accelerate to cruise-speed. _____ after airspeed increases to normal cruise, reduce power to cruise. _____ don’t lose altitude. _____ trim as appropriate. 3. Continue scanning for traffic.

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Lazy Eights Suggested Materials: Whiteboard, markers, POH and model airplane.

INTRODUCTION Spend at least three minutes introducing the maneuver to the student. Describe the situations that are motivation for learning it, as well as the objectives to strive for.

Motivation As a private pilot, you learned to use the horizon as your reference for aircraft attitude control. You learned to respond to instrument indications during instrument training. As a commercial pilot, you learn to anticipate the control inputs required to control your aircraft. This is done primarily by feel. Imagine that you are a commercial pilot, hired to tow banners. You have a 50-foot banner attached to the back of your aircraft. How do you think that will change the handling characteristics of the plane? Or what if you are hired as a crop duster? You’d be maneuvering the airplane, close to the ground, in ways that you never have before. As a commercial pilot, you may be hired for a variety of jobs that require maneuvering in ways that you have not previously experienced. To do so safely will require you to predict the control inputs that will be needed. The “lazy eight” (or lazy 8) is designed to teach you how to do just that.

LAZY EIGHTS

AERODYNAMICS

• • • • • • •

Airspace 1,500’ AGL Clear Configure VA Ref’s 45° 90° 135° Power

END

• Initial altitude airspeed • Level flight • Wings level • Begin opposite loop

102

cl im

b

Above - Below - Ahead Attention: 10 seconds - inside 20 - references 30 - traffic avoidance

INTERMEDIATE

• Max pitch down • 15° bank d

SET UP

LOOK

sc en

Symmetrical Smooth Slow Beautiful, peaceful Controlled Coordinated

Coordination HCL Overbanking Adverse yaw Load factor Stall speed IAS inaccurate Controls are mushy, may need more

SUCCESS =

Make points Smooth Anticipate Outside references Coordination Left & right different

KEY POINT

• Level flight (transitioning) • 30° bank • Near stall speed 1/2-way thru turn

de

• • • • • •

• • • • • • • •

.. nk. , Ba h c t i Pitch, P b clim

INTERMEDIATE • Max pitch up • 15° bank

Lesson Plans

Objective A lazy eight consists of a climbing 90-degree turn, followed by a descending 180-degree turn which is then repeated in the opposite direction. The objective of the maneuver is to develop your ability to anticipate aircraft control while flying at varying airspeeds and attitudes. There is no practical use for the maneuver; it is merely a demonstration of your skill. However, the skills learned to properly perform the maneuver are very useful for learning to work safely in a variety of commercial pilot flying jobs.

CHALKBOARD TALK Elements of the Maneuver Before we talk about how to set up for the maneuver, let’s look at some of the universal elements of the maneuver — that is, those elements that are not aircraft specific. It looks like this:

• A climbing turn followed by a descending turn before repeating in the opposite direction.

• Notice the 8 lying on its side — very lazy. • At no time is the airplane flown straight or level; attitude is constantly

changing, as are the control surfaces — ailerons, rudder or elevator are never stationary.

Words that describe this maneuver are:

• Symmetrical — the top and bottom altitude of one loop should match the other. • Smooth — we’ll use ailerons, rudder and elevator together and separately, and all the control inputs must be smooth. • Slow — don’t rush the maneuver or make abrupt control inputs. It is a lazy eight. • Beautiful, peaceful and controlled. • Coordinated — with high pitch attitudes, slow airspeeds and turns, there is a constant changing need for coordination.

Symmetrical Smooth Slow Beautiful, peaceful Controlled Coordinated

Chapter 6 • Performance Maneuvers

sc en de

The key elements are: We’re making a 180-degree turn... • The first part of the loop is a  climbing turn — slowly changing pitch.  slowing rolling to achieve a 30-degree bank. • The second part is a  descending turn — slowly changing pitch.  slowly rolling out to wings level. • At the completion of the loop,  Returned to your initial altitude.  At starting airspeed.  Changed heading 180 degrees.  Only momentarily in straight-and-level flight as you transition into the next loop.

d

Because the loops are symmetrical, we can take one loop and break it down (the other loop is the same).

b

clim

103

Between the climb and the descent is the key point. Right here, for a brief moment, your aircraft should be:

• At level flight (momentary, as you transition from a climb attitude to a descent attitude). • Precise 30-degree bank. • Near the stall speed. • 90 degrees of heading change.

KEY POINT

Level flight   (transitioning) 30° bank Near stall speed   1/2-way thru turn

To help you achieve the key point, we’ll divide each side into half again and progress through the checkpoints: INTERMEDIATE

Max pitch down 15° bank sc en d

• Half-way through the climb should be  ½ of your max bank (15 degrees).  Max pitch up attitude. • Half-way through the descent should be  ½ of your bank (15 degrees. You are rolling

de

out.)  Max pitch down attitude. • Maneuver is often discussed with reference points at 45, 90 and 135 degrees. Pitch and bank attitudes at these key points are what make this maneuver. b clim • But the maneuver should not be mechanical. It “flows” smoothly from one loop to the next. • This requires planning — the controls are ever-changing as the pitch and bank attitude changes throughout the maneuver. • You must anticipate how much to change pitch versus how much to change bank so that you arrive at the maximum pitch up attitude precisely at the reference point, with 15 degrees of bank. • Remember the chant, “Pitch, Pitch, Bank” to help you recall the amount of pitch change needed for each change in bank.

INTERMEDIATE

de

sc en

d

Max pitch up 15° bank

.. nk. ,  Ba h c t i Pitch, P b clim

So far we have discussed what to do with the controls. However, to anticipate the control inputs, we must consider basic aerodynamics. It’s especially challenging in the top half:

• Coordination — it’s a must. Positive angle of attack and high power setting

require rudder for P-factor. Turning (especially to the left) requires rudder to correct for turning tendencies. • As we continue to roll into 30 degrees of bank, the horizontal component of lift is reduced, so more back pressure is needed to maintain the proper attitude. • Remember that at slow airspeeds in a 30-degree bank, you might experience some overbanking tendency which may require a little opposite aileron. • Holding that aileron might also induce a little adverse yaw, which may change the need for rudder input. • Also, 30-degree angle of bank at the slow speed may increase load factor which will increase stall speed. Don’t stall! • At this attitude, the pitot tube is not receiving direct ram air. The IAS might not be accurate. Pay attention to the attitude of the aircraft, rather than the IAS. • Remember also that as the airspeed slows, all of the controls are mushy without airflow over the surfaces. You may need larger control changes.

AERODYNAMICS

Coordination HCL Overbanking Adverse yaw Load factor Stall speed IAS inaccurate Controls are mushy,   may need more

These aerodynamic relationships are important and they all change as our attitude and control inputs change. 104

Lesson Plans

This is a maneuver with a lot of altitude, heading and attitude changes, so be sure to clear the area before the maneuver and scan throughout the maneuver:

• You’ll need to quickly scan above, below and ahead of your aircraft’s track. • Divide your attention, about  10 seconds inside for monitoring flight and engine instruments.  20 seconds for your reference points and re-evaluating control inputs.  30 seconds for traffic avoidance. • Special emphasis on:  positive aircraft control  stall/spin awareness  collision avoidance  ADM and risk management

LOOK

Above - Below - Ahead Attention: 10 seconds - inside 20  - references 30  - traffic avoidance

Performance Now that you understand the elements, let’s look at how to perform the maneuver in our airplane. The example given is for the PA28RT-201. Let’s take it step-by-step. During practice we begin with a set-up before actually starting the maneuver. Set up:

1. Choose an area where airspace incursion is not likely and with minimum traffic. 2. Choose an altitude no lower than 1,500 feet AGL. Keep in mind that you’ll likely gain 500–700' during the maneuver. Use care in remaining 500' below any clouds. 3. Clear the area, especially above, below and behind (you’re making a 180° turn). 4. Configure the aircraft fuel tank/pump and mixture. 5. Establish VA speed with flaps and gear UP. 6. Select prominent ground reference points 45 degree, 90 degree and 135 degrees off the nose of the aircraft. 7. Establish a power setting about 20" and 2,000 RPM. You need one that allows you to lose the altitude amount gained on the climb. You probably don’t need a climb power setting.

SET UP

Airspace 1,500’ AGL Clear Configure VA Ref’s 45° 90° 135° Power

Entry:

8. Begin a coordinated climbing turn in the direction of the 45-degree reference point. 9. At the first reference point, the aircraft should be at the maximum pitch up attitude and approximately 15 degrees angle of bank, but bank is continuing to steadily, slowly increase. 10. Maintain the maximum pitch up attitude and continue to slowly increase the angle of bank to its maximum of 30 degrees. Maintain coordination. 11. At the 90-degree key point, the aircraft has established its maximum angle of bank of 30 degrees, has slowed airspeed to just above a stall and the pitch is falling through level flight as the plane transitions from a climbing turn to a descending turn. Maintain coordination. 12. Begin a descending turn toward the 135-degree reference point. Both the pitch attitude and the angle of bank continue to decrease so that at the reference point, the pitch attitude reaches its lowest point and approximately 15 degrees of bank. Maintain coordination. Chapter 6 • Performance Maneuvers

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End:

13. At the completion of the 180-degree turn, the plane is at its starting altitude and entry airspeed. 14. The pitch is increasing through level flight as the plane transitions from a descending turn to the second climbing turn in the opposite direction. 15. Wings are level as the plane transitions into a similar turn in the opposite direction. 16. Scan for traffic throughout.

END

Initial altitude         airspeed Level flight Wings level Begin opposite loop

Keys for success:

✔ Make your points. Mandatory requirements must be met at 45, 90, 135 and 180 degrees. ✔ Use, slow, deliberate, controlled, fluid, control inputs — not jerky — ailerons, rudder and elevator are never still but work together. ✔ Anticipate control inputs. Remember important basic aerodynamic relationships. ✔ Use outside references — don’t try to perform this maneuver by instruments. Scan for traffic avoidance throughout the maneuver in the direction you are about to be turning to. ✔ Stay coordinated — no slips or skids. ✔ Left and right loops will require different control inputs. They are different because of left turning tendencies and need for rudder.

SUCCESS =

  Make points   Smooth   Anticipate   Outside references   Coordination   Left & right different

Risk Management Emphasis Situational Awareness: Consider airspace, traffic and cloud clearance above you — your altitude will vary 500-700 feet during climbs and descents. Though not a ground reference maneuver, performing the Lazy 8 into the wind helps keep you in the practice area.

EVALUATION Minimum Tolerances During FAA Practical Exams Completion standards for the lesson may vary with the phase of training. The minimum standards required to be successful on the practical test are: 1. Exhibit knowledge of the elements related to lazy eights. 2. Select an altitude that will allow the task to be performed no lower than 1,500 feet AGL. 3. Establish the recommended entry configuration, power, and airspeed. 4. Maintain coordinated flight throughout the maneuver. 5. Achieve the following throughout the maneuver: a. Approximately 30-degrees bank at the steepest point. b. Constant change of pitch and roll rate. c. Altitude tolerance at 180 degree points, ±100 feet from entry altitude. d. Airspeed tolerance at the 180° point plus 10° knots from entry airspeed. e. Heading tolerance at the 180° point ±10°. 6. Continue the maneuver through the number of symmetrical loops specified and resumes straight and level flight.

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Lesson Plans

Planning Your Practice Fill in the blanks for your airplane in the following handy practice checklist.

Your Lazy 8 scenario (Make notes here.)

Set-Up 1. Choose an area to avoid airspace incursion. You will practice near ____________________________. 2. Choose an altitude no lower than 1,500 AGL. Your MSL altitude for the maneuver is _______________. 3. Clear the area of traffic/obstacles. 4. Configure: Fuel __________ (on fullest tank, N/A, etc.), Fuel pump __________ (on, N/A, doesn’t matter, etc.) Mixture __________ (leaned, rich, etc.) Flaps _______ (up, down, etc.) Gear _______ (up, N/A, etc.) 5. Slow to VA __________ (110 KIAS, etc.) Reduce power to __________ (18" MP, 1,800 RPM, etc.) Entry _____ Coordinated climbing turn in the direction of the 45º reference point. _____ At 45º, aircraft should be at the maximum pitch up attitude and ≈15º angle of bank; bank is continuing to steadily, slowly increase. _____ Maintain maximum pitch up attitude, continue to slowly increase the angle of bank to maximum of 30º; maintain coordination. _____ At 90º point (key), aircraft has established maximum angle of bank of 30º, slowed airspeed to just above a stall; pitch is falling through level flight as the plane transitions from a climbing turn to a descending turn. Maintain coordination. _____ Descending turn toward 135º reference point. Both the pitch attitude and the angle of bank continue to decrease so that at the reference point, pitch attitude reaches its lowest point, ≈15º of bank. Maintain coordination. End _____ Completion of the 180º turn: airplane is at starting altitude and entry airspeed. _____ Pitch is increasing through level flight as plane transitions from a descending turn to the second climbing turn in the opposite direction. _____ Wings are level as the plane transitions into a similar turn in the opposite direction. _____ Scan for traffic throughout.

Chapter 6 • Performance Maneuvers

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Lesson Plans

GROUND REFERENCE MANEUVERS CHAPTER 7

This chapter contains the following maneuver briefings:

• Rectangular course • Turns around a point • S-turns across a road • Eights on pylons AREA OF OPERATION: Preflight Lesson on a Maneuver to be Performed in Flight Note: Examiner shall select at least one maneuver and ask the applicant to present a preflight lesson on the selected maneuver as the lesson would be taught to a student. OBJECTIVE: To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the selected maneuver by: 1. Stating the purpose. 2. Giving an accurate, comprehensive oral description, including the elements and common errors. 3. Using instructional aids, as appropriate. 4. Describing the recognition, analysis, and correction of common errors.

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Rectangular Course Suggested Materials: Whiteboard and markers, sectional chart, and model airplane.

INTRODUCTION Spend at least three minutes introducing the maneuver to the student. Describe the situations that are motivation for learning it, as well as the objectives to strive for.

Motivation Thus far in flight training, we have been concerned primarily with controlling the airplane — its heading, altitude, and airspeed. But for flying to grandma’s house or landing at the airport, you must be able to fly the airplane in reference to a specific place on the ground. Also, at the same time you must look for and avoid other airplanes in the area. To do this, you need to correct for wind while dividing your attention between flying, staying on course, and avoiding other traffic.

Objective The rectangular course develops the skill you need for dividing attention between (1) flying in reference to the ground, (2) controlling the airplane, and (3) scanning for traffic. We’ll choose a large cornfield, horse farm, or other rectangle-shaped ground reference and fly around it while correcting for the effects of the wind. If you want to arrive at grandma’s house in time for dinner, you’ll want to know how to do this.

RECTANGULAR COURSE

ELEMENTS

• Heading vs. track • Crab angle • Ground speed

WIND

Wind ground speed Ground speed radius Compensate Timing bank

50 60 70

Higher speed (downwind)

Slower speed (upwind)

Delay Shallower

110

WIND

1

Emergency landing area

Airspace Turn downwind Configure Choose reference Emergency field Clear area Descend to 1,000 AGL Enter on 45° angle

LOOK 2

Anticipate Steeper

SET UP • • • • • • • •

3

Upwind • shallowest • delay • small change in heading 4 between 3 and 4

Divide attention 10 seconds - in cockpit 20 seconds - ground 30 seconds - traffic

Downwind • steepest • anticipate • big change in heading between 1 and 2

SUCCESS =

About 1 mile WIND

45°

1⁄2 up strut

EXIT

• Original attitude • 45° to downwind • VX climb to safety

Orientation Coordination Anticipation - Constantly reevaluate small changes Divide attention

See anything unexpected STOP maneuver

Lesson Plans

CHALKBOARD TALK Elements of the Maneuver First, a look at the universal elements of the maneuver — those elements that are not aircraft-specific. The rectangular course is a called a “ground reference maneuver,” during which you are mainly concerned with maintaining situational awareness over the ground, correcting for wind, flying the airplane, and looking for traffic: • You’ll be flying at a much lower altitude than in previous lessons — about 600 to 1,000 feet AGL. • Noticing terrain features — especially rising terrain — is equally as important as looking for obstacles. Consider how wind affects flight along a straight line:

□ Describe the difference between heading and track. □ Define crab angle. □ Define ground speed.

Performance of the rectangular course will look like this: (Don’t align any leg with the wind direction.) • Find four straight-line ground references (roads, line of trees, etc.) that form a rectangle. • Maintain an equal distance from the ground reference while flying all the way around the course. • To achieve this, correct for wind drift by crabbing, so your track is parallel to the ground reference. • Discuss the wind correction needed along each leg.

3 2 4 1

Next, let’s look at the effects of wind during turns:

• Wind affects ground speed. • The higher the ground speed, the larger the radius of the turn. Draw the examples for —  turning a car when driving at 60 MPH;  then draw the larger radius required at 70 MPH;  then the smaller radius at 50 MPH. • When driving, you might also anticipate the turn (or delay starting the turn), because you intuitively know what radius is required. • While flying the rectangular course, you want a uniform radius; so to control turn radius, compensate with timing and angle of bank. • Higher speed (downwind) requires a steeper bank, so you’ll start the turn earlier to maintain the same radius as a turn made at slower speed (upwind), which requires a shallower bank and delaying the turn.

Chapter 7 • Ground Reference Maneuvers

50 60 70

111

To plan the desired ground track and maintain distance from the ground reference:

• On the downwind turn —  Plan to turn steeper to compensate for larger turn radius.  Plan to start the turn early (anticipate) — more heading change

between airplane #1 and #2 — actually more than 90° heading change.  No steeper than 45°.  Remain coordinated. Don’t attempt to push the nose around faster with the rudder. • On the upwind turn, plan to —  Make a shallow bank turn  Delay the turn until the reference is off the wing tip — not much change in heading from airplane #3 to #4.

DOWNWIND: steepest anticipate big change in heading   between  1 and 2

UPWIND: shallowest delay small change in    heading between   3 and 4

Selecting a perfect reference:

• Refer to a local sectional chart and identify possible locations for

maneuvering at a low altitude. • Identify nearby congested areas and point out nearby obstacles depicted on the chart. • Discuss how you will navigate to the area. • Discuss the need for a nearby emergency field:  Flying low does not allow time to locate an emergency landing site.  If there is no suitable emergency landing area nearby, then it’s not suitable for the rectangular course. Selecting a suitable altitude:

• Choose an altitude between 600 and 1,000 feet AGL — low enough to see the effects of the wind, yet high enough to avoid terrain and obstacles.

• Use 1,000 feet AGL today. That altitude is _____MSL on the altimeter. • Maintain this altitude throughout the maneuver. Don’t fixate on the ground reference and forget to control the aircraft.

The skills you learn during this maneuver are also applied to the traffic pattern:

□ The legs of the rectangular course relate to the legs of the traffic pattern. □ The turns around the rectangle relate to the turns in the traffic pattern. Note: Discuss the base-to-final turn and the concerns with a tailwind on base.

□ One reason to use 1,000 feet AGL during practice is to help you learn the sight picture perspective for flying at traffic pattern altitude.

Important: During all ground reference maneuvers, divide attention between cockpit tasks. To help you prioritize those tasks inside and outside of the cockpit, remember the 10-20-30 rule. That rule says to spend — • 10 seconds focusing inside the cockpit. Monitor your flight instruments and on hot summer days, monitor engine gauges. • 20 seconds outside the cockpit. Scan for obstacles around you, keep your emergency landing field in sight. Emphasis is on CFIT avoidance. • 30 seconds scanning for traffic. Scan all around — in the rectangular course you are using a lot of visual airspace.

112

Lesson Plans

Also, realize you are flying at lower altitudes where it is likely there are smaller aircraft — those which are more difficult to see. Emphasis is on collision avoidance. If you see traffic that may affect you, stop the maneuver, resume straight and level flight until it passes, then start again. Good aeronautical decision making is always key in ground reference maneuvers.

See anything unexpected STOP

maneuver

Performance Draw it by dividing the tasks into smaller sets of objectives along the way — that way you don’t get task-saturated or behind the airplane. Set up:

1. Choose an area where airspace incursion is not likely and with minimum traffic. 2. Locate wind and turn to downwind heading. 3. Configure the aircraft: Fuel on fullest tank, cruise power, Mixture RICH, flaps and gear UP. 4. Choose an appropriate rectangular course. 5. Locate an emergency landing area. 6. Descend to your altitude — 1,000'AGL. That is _______MSL. 7. Clear the area, looking for traffic above and obstacles or terrain features below.

Emergency landing area

The maneuver:

8. Enter the rectangular course 45° to downwind, making the first circuit with turns to the left. 9. The resulting ground path will be parallel lines to the reference course. 10. Lead or delay turns for wind drift to maintain equal distance from the reference course during each turn. 11. Plan to fly about ½-mile from (or with the ground reference about ½ out the leading edge). 12. Apply wind drift correction, to maintain uniform distance along all legs — about ½-mile. 13. Vary the crab angle on each leg to maintain a uniform distance from the reference course. 14. Plan the turn. Lead or delay the turn to the next side of the rectangle to remain equal distance from the course during the turn and rolling out, in proper position to begin the next leg. 15. Monitor engine gauges occasionally. 16. Maneuver is complete after one full rectangle.

45°

The exit:

17. Roll out on original airspeed and altitude. 18. Prepare to reverse the course if requested or exit the maneuver 45° from downwind leg. 19. Add power and establish a VX climb to a safe altitude — you probably don’t want to continue flying at this low altitude, do you?

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Keys for success:

✔ Clear the area before starting and continue scanning throughout. ✔ Orientation. Establish and maintain the proper altitude. Select a suitable rectangular course with a suitable emergency landing site. Maintain your situational awareness. Keep the emergency landing field in sight. ✔ Coordination — no slips or skids, please! Resist the temptation to use rudder to point the nose where you want it. Control with smoothness. ✔ Anticipate the wind and the needed corrections. You must anticipate the wind to correct for drift. Reevaluate constantly. Make small changes. Time the beginning and recovery of each turn. ✔ Divide your attention. Success depends on your division of attention between the flight path, ground reference and aircraft control. Don’t fixate on any task. If you see traffic or anything unexpected, halt the maneuver until it passes well clear, then begin again.

SUCCESS =

  Orientation   Coordination   Anticipation   Divide attention

EVALUATION Minimum Tolerances During FAA Practical Exams Completion standards for the lesson may vary with the phase of training. The minimum standards required to be successful on the practical test are: 1. Exhibit knowledge of the elements related to a rectangular course. 2. Select a suitable reference area. 3. Plan the maneuver so as to enter a left or right pattern, 600 to 1,000 feet AGL at an appropriate distance from the selected reference area, 45° to the downwind leg. 4. Apply adequate wind-drift correction during straight-and-turning flight to maintain a constant ground track around the rectangular reference area. 5. Divide attention between airplane control and the ground track while maintaining coordinated flight. 6. Maintain altitude, ±100 feet; maintain airspeed, ±10 knots.

Scenarios That Make Rectangular Courses Real 1. During the first discussion, draw the wind so it’s not parallel to any leg, thus there must be correction on all four legs. This allows the candidate four legs to practice wind correction. 2. During a review discussion, draw the wind so it is representative to a traffic pattern aligned with an upwind leg. Teaching Tip: Present all the ground reference maneuvers in one lesson so the candidate may see the relationships. Present the ground reference maneuvers so that one skill builds on the last: 1. Fly over a road 2. Rectangular Course 3. Turn around a Point 4. S-Turns across the Road

During the first lesson, draw the wind so it’s not parallel to any leg, so that there must be correction on all four legs. This allows the candidate four legs to practice wind correction.

114

Lesson Plans

Planning Your Practice Fill in the blanks for your airplane in the following handy checklist.

Your Rectangular Course scenario (Make notes here.)

Set Up 1. Choose an area where airspace incursion is unlikely, with minimum traffic. 2. Locate wind and turn to downwind heading. 3. Choose an appropriate rectangular course (with emergency landing area). 4. Descend to your altitude: ______AGL ( _____MSL). 5. Configure the aircraft: Fuel __________ (on fullest tank, N/A, etc.) Fuel pump __________ (on, N/A, doesn’t matter, etc.) Mixture __________ (leaned, rich, etc.) Flaps _______ (up, down, etc.) Gear _______ (up, N/A, etc.) 6. Clear the area, looking for traffic above and obstacles or terrain features below. Maneuver 1. Enter 45° to downwind, making the first circuit with turns to the left. 2. Resulting ground path: ____ parallel lines to the reference course. ____ lead or delay turns for wind drift to maintain equal distance from reference course. 3. Plan maneuver an appropriate distance from selected reference area: ____ apply wind drift correction, to maintain uniform distance along all legs, about ½-mile. ____ vary the crab angle to maintain uniform distance from the reference course. 4. Plan the turn: ____ lead or delay the turn to the next side of the rectangle to remain an equal distance from the course; and ____ roll out in proper position to begin the next leg. 5. Monitor engine gauges throughout. 6. Maneuver is complete after one full rectangle. Exit _____ Roll out on original altitude and airspeed. _____ Prepare to reverse the course if requested or exit the maneuver 45° from downwind leg. _____ Add power and establish a VX climb to a safe altitude.

Chapter 7 • Ground Reference Maneuvers

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Turns Around a Point Suggested Materials: Whiteboard and markers, sectional chart, and model airplane.

INTRODUCTION Spend at least three minutes introducing the maneuver to the student. Describe the situations that are motivation for learning it, as well as the objectives to strive for.

Motivation The Civil Air Patrol is an organization of volunteers who, amongst other duties, fly search and rescue missions. If you were flying a mission to locate a lost child how would you remain over a spot of interest when the wind is blowing you away? The turn-around-a-point is a maneuver that teaches skills that a pilot needs to compensate for wind drift.

Objective During this maneuver, a constant distance is maintained around a reference on the ground. The goal is to fly a perfect circle. To achieve this, the angle of bank and crab angle are varied, to compensate for the effects of wind. Perfecting this maneuver will allow you to position your airplane over a celebrity mansion for paparazzi photos or over the exact spot where a young child was lost. Let’s learn how to do it.

ELEMENTS • • • •

360° turn Constant radius Wind corrections Maintain altitude

Emergency field (1,000’ AGL)

TURNS AROUND A POINT CRAB ANGLE

80 70 60

WIND

WIND

Wind affects ground speed Ground speed affects radius Compensate with bank Higher GS (downwind) steeper Slower GS (upwind) shallower 45° or less (too close)

SUCCESS =

Divide attention Don’t fixate on point Maintain situational awareness Anticipate Coordination

116

Slowest GS Shallowest bank

SET UP

Configure Determine wind Turn downwind Choose reference - Airspace - Terrain - Obstacles - Congested area • Clear area • Descend to 1,000 AGL

point ahead of wing

behind wing

• • • •

Highest GS Steepest bank MANEUVER • • • • • •

EXIT

• On initial heading • Add power • VX to safety

Coordinated About 45° Wind corrections Maintain altitude & airspeed Divide attention Look ahead of turn

Lesson Plans

CHALKBOARD TALK Elements of the Maneuver First, a look at the universal elements of the maneuver — those elements that are not aircraft-specific. The big picture description:

• This is a 360° turn, of a constant radius. • Make corrections for wind. • Maintain a constant altitude. It looks like this: Pick a tree or other ground reference, make a complete circle around it, keeping a uniform distance throughout the turn. Effects of wind and ground speed during turns:

• The higher the ground speed, the larger the turn radius. • But you want a uniform radius — to control turn radius, compensate with bank. • Planning the desired ground track and maintaining distance from the ground reference. • Downwind turns —  Start early — there is more of a heading change.  Turn steeper to compensate for a larger turn radius.  No steeper than 45°.  Remain coordinated. Don’t attempt to push the nose around faster with the rudder. • Upwind turns —  Delay the turn until the reference is off the wing tip.  With a slower ground speed, turn will be shallower to compensate for smaller turn radius  Remain coordinated. Don’t attempt to push the nose around faster with the rudder.

80 70 60

Effects of crab and the changing perspective on the point:

• Quickly review crab (which was introduced in the rectangular course maneuver briefing).

• Viewed from the pilot’s perspective, the point will not remain in exactly in the same spot throughout the maneuver —  Downwind crab will make the point appear to be slightly ahead of the wing tip.  Upwind crab will make the point appear to be slightly behind.

Chapter 7 • Ground Reference Maneuvers

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Selecting a perfect reference:

• Refer to a local sectional chart and identify possible locations for maneuvering at a low altitude.

• Identify nearby congested areas and point out nearby obstacles depicted on the chart. • Discuss how you will navigate to the area. • A small round object is best (i.e., rather than an object that does not look the same from all sides), such as —  a silo, a tree, or  an intersection of roads. • Discuss the need for a nearby emergency field:  Flying low does not allow time to locate an emergency landing site.  If there is no suitable emergency landing area nearby, then it’s not a suitable ground reference. Draw the emergency field, ideally nearly into the wind: Selecting a suitable altitude:

• Choose an altitude between 600 and 1,000 feet AGL — low enough to see

WIND

the effects of the wind, yet high enough to avoid terrain and obstacles. • Use 1,000 feet AGL today, for example. That altitude is _____MSL on your altimeter. • Maintain this altitude throughout the maneuver. Don’t fixate on the ground reference and forget to control the aircraft’s altitude.

Performance Now that you understand the elements of the maneuver, they can be applied to your flight today in the PA28R-200. Before starting the maneuver, begin with a set up. Set up:

1. Choose an area where airspace incursion is not likely and with minimum traffic. 2. Locate wind and turn to downwind heading. 3. Choose an appropriate ground reference. 4. Identify an emergency landing area. 5. Configure the aircraft: Fuel on fullest tank, cruise power, mixture RICH, flaps and gear UP. 6. Descend to your altitude (today, 1,000 feet AGL, or _______ MSL). 7. Clear the area, looking for traffic above and obstacles or terrain features below.

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Lesson Plans

The maneuver:

8. Entry to the maneuver is made downwind. 9. Make note of the entry heading. 10. Apply coordinated-bank and crab-angle together for wind-drift correction to track a constant radius circle around the reference point with a bank of not more than 45° at the steepest point in the turn. 11. Use proper coordination. 12. Maintain altitude. Note: Achieve proficiency in turns to the left before practicing turns to the right. The exit:

• The maneuver is concluded after you have executed two complete circles. • Roll out on the entry heading, altitude and airspeed. Important: During all ground reference maneuvers, divide attention between cockpit tasks. To help you prioritize those tasks inside and outside of the cockpit, remember the 10-20-30 rule. That rule says to spend — • 10 seconds focusing inside the cockpit. Monitor your flight instruments and on hot summer days, monitor engine gauges. • 20 seconds outside on the ground reference. Scan for obstacles around you, keep your emergency landing field in sight. Emphasis is on CFIT avoidance. • 30 seconds scanning for traffic. In doing the turn, you’ll want to look ahead of the turn rather directly in front.

Slowest GS Shallowest bank

Highest GS Steepest bank

MANEUVER

Coordinated About 45° Wind corrections Maintain ALT & airspeed Divide attention

Look  ahead of turn

Also, realize you are flying at lower altitudes where it is likely there are smaller aircraft — those which are more difficult to see. Emphasis is on collision avoidance. If you see traffic that may affect you, stop the maneuver, resume straight and level flight until it passes, then start again. Good aeronautical decision making is always key in ground reference maneuvers. Keys for success:

✔ Clear the area before and continue to scan throughout the maneuver. ✔ Divide your attention. Don’t fixate on any task — remember the 10-20-30 rule. ✔ Maintain situational awareness. Establish and maintain the proper, level turn attitude. ✔ Select a suitable point on the ground with a suitable emergency landing site. ✔ Anticipate the wind and recognize the need for corrections. You must anticipate the wind to correct for drift. Reevaluate constantly. Adjust crab angle on the downwind and upwind sides of the circle. ✔ Coordination — no slips or skids, please! Resist the temptation to use rudder to point the nose where you want it.

Chapter 7 • Ground Reference Maneuvers

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EVALUATION Minimum Tolerances During FAA Practical Exams Completion standards for the lesson may vary with the phase of training. The minimum standards required to be successful on the practical test are: 1. Exhibit knowledge of the elements related to turns around a point. 2. Select a suitable ground reference point. 3. Plan the maneuver so as to enter left or right at 600 to 1,000 feet AGL, at an appropriate distance from the reference point. 4. Apply adequate wind-drift correction to track a constant radius turn around the selected reference point. 5. Divide attention between airplane control and the ground track while maintaining coordinated flight. 6. Maintain altitude, ±100 feet; maintain airspeed, ±10 knots.

Teaching Tip: Present all the ground reference maneuvers in one lesson so the candidate may see the relationships. Present the ground reference maneuvers so that one skill builds on the last: 1. Fly over a road 2. Rectangular Course 3. Turn around a Point 4. S-Turns across the Road

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Lesson Plans

Planning Your Practice Fill in the blanks for your airplane in the following handy checklist.

Your Turns Around a Point scenario (Make notes here.)

Set Up 1. Choose area where airspace incursion is unlikely, with minimum traffic. 2. Locate wind and turn to downwind heading. 3. Choose an appropriate point: • out the pilot window • high wing — approximately halfway up the wing strut 4. Choose an emergency landing area. 5. Configure the aircraft: Fuel __________ (on fullest tank, N/A, etc.) Fuel pump __________ (on, N/A, doesn’t matter, etc.) Mixture __________ (leaned, rich, etc.) Flaps _______ (up, down, etc.) Gear _______ (up, N/A, etc.) 6. Descend to your altitude: ______AGL ( _____MSL). 7. Clear the area — look for traffic above, obstacles/terrain features below. Maneuver ____ Entry is made downwind. ____ Apply coordinated-bank and crab-angle together: a. for wind-drift correction. b. to track a constant radius circle around the reference point. c. with bank of not more than 45° at steepest point in turn. d. use proper coordination. e. maintain altitude. ____ Divide attention: • traffic avoidance • reference point • ground track • altitude and angle of bank ____ Monitor engine gauges. Exit ____ After executing two complete circles. ____ Roll out: entry heading, altitude, airspeed.

Chapter 7 • Ground Reference Maneuvers

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S-Turns Across a Road Suggested Materials: Whiteboard and markers, sectional chart, and model airplane.

INTRODUCTION Spend at least three minutes introducing the maneuver to the student. Describe the situations that are motivation for learning it, as well as the objectives to strive for.

Motivation The Civil Air Patrol is an organization of volunteers who often fly search and rescue missions. As a CAP pilot, your mission is to fly over a freeway multi-car pileup that involves several injuries in order to direct emergency vehicles to the needed areas. How will you remain over an area of interest when the wind is blowing you away? The “S-turn across a road” is a variation of the turn-around-a-point. It’s another maneuver for developing simultaneous control of the airplane, avoiding traffic, and compensating for the wind.

Objective This maneuver requires the pilot to make 180° turns on both sides of a road. Symmetry is important, linking perfect half-circles of equal size to one another. It requires the pilot to vary the roll rate and bank angle to compensate for wind drift. This maneuver provides you with additional practice at dividing your attention between wind correction, aircraft control and scanning for traffic.

ACROSS THE ROAD Symmetrical 1⁄2 circles

WIND Med

No more than 45°

Incre as

122

Ste ep

• • • • • • •

Sh

w

l lo

Divide attention Maintain altitude and airspeed Visualize half circles Anticipate wind corrections Coordination

SET UP

Max crab

S ha

SUCCESS =

Medium

Max D ec

Wings level

• Initial heading • Add power • VX climb

ow all

ing

EXIT

WIND

g asin re

CRAB

U Sl pw ow ind es S t

Airspace WIND Turn downwind Choose reference Emergency landing area Configure Clear area Descend to 1,000 AGL

Max crab

eep

Delay Shallower

nd wi S n w G Do igh H

St

Slower speed (upwind)

Anticipate Steeper

llow ha

Higher speed (downwind)

Steep

50 60 70

S-TURNS

Emergency field

Wind ground speed Ground speed radius Compensate Timing bank

M e di u m

LOOK

• 10-20-30 • Ahead of turn

Lesson Plans

CHALKBOARD TALK Elements of the Maneuver First, a look at the universal elements of the maneuver — those elements that are not aircraft-specific. It looks like this:

• Maintain a constant altitude while —  making symmetrical half-circles.  on both sides of a road.

(Road)

Effects of wind and ground speed during turns:

• Review how speed affects the radius of the turn, higher speeds, larger radius. • The goal is a uniform radius — to control turn radius, compensate with

50 60 70

U Sl pw i o Med    S we nd      st

g asin re

• Crab into the wind to control distance from the road during the turn. • Constantly vary the amount of crab as the plane passes from downwind

WIND

   Max   Dec ing

Incr ea s

Effects of crab and the changing perspective on the point:

llow ha

Steep  

bank and timing. • Planning the desired ground track and maintaining distance from the ground reference. • Downwind portion —  Bank steeper to compensate for larger turn radius. No steeper than 45°.  Timing — Turn immediately, don’t wait…the wind is pushing you away from the road.  Remain coordinated. Don’t attempt to push the nose around faster with the rudder. ind nw GS • Upwind portion — w   Do igh H  Bank shallowest here, to compensate for larger turn radius.  Timing — be patient, it takes longer to get back to the road with the headwind.  Remain coordinated. Don’t attempt to push the nose around faster with the rudder. • Constantly vary the bank as the plane passes from downwind to upwind during the turn. • Compare the effects of the wind on the second half-circle.

to upwind during the turn. The maximum crab will be during the medium bank portion of the turn.

Wings level

Selecting a perfect reference:

• Refer to a local sectional chart and identify possible locations for maneuvering at a low altitude.

• Identify nearby congested areas and point out nearby obstacles depicted on the chart. • Discuss how you will navigate to the area. • Locate a road, tree line or other straight reference (it should lay perpendicular to the wind). • Discuss the need for a nearby emergency field:  Flying low does not allow time to locate an emergency landing site.  If there is no suitable emergency landing area nearby, then it’s not a suitable ground reference to turn around. Chapter 7 • Ground Reference Maneuvers

Emergency field

123

Selecting a suitable altitude:

• Choose an altitude between 600 and 1,000 feet AGL — low enough to see the effects of the wind, yet high enough to avoid terrain and obstacles.

• Use 1,000 feet AGL today, for example. That altitude is _____MSL on the altimeter. • Maintain this altitude throughout the maneuver. Don’t fixate on the ground reference and forget to control the aircraft.

Performance Now that you understand the elements of the maneuver, we can apply them to our flight today in the PA28R-200. Set up:

• Choose an area where airspace incursion is not likely and with minimum

traffic. • Locate wind and turn to downwind heading. • Choose a prominent reference line, perpendicular to the wind (a road or a long line of trees). • Identify an emergency landing area. • Configure the aircraft: Fuel on fullest tank, cruise power, mixture RICH, flaps and gear UP. • Descend to your altitude. Today you’ll use 1,000' AGL (or _______ MSL). • Clear the area, looking for traffic above and obstacles or terrain features below. The maneuver:

• At a point directly over the reference line, initiate a 180° constant-radius

ll o

WIND

   

Max crab

ee p

Sha

w 

  

St

Ste ep

 Medium           Sh     Max crab

ow all

turn, with a maximum bank angle of 45°, modifying the bank angle as necessary to compensate for wind drift. • At the completion of the turn, the aircraft should be positioned directly over and perpendicular to the reference line, with wings level. • Immediately begin a turn in the opposite direction, 180°, constant radius, maximum bank angle 45°, modifying the bank angle as necessary to compensate for wind drift. • Apply adequate wind-drift correction to track a constantradius turn on each side of the selected reference line. • Maintain altitude.

   M e d iu m    

The exit:

• The maneuver is complete after one complete “S.” • Roll out on the entry heading, altitude and airspeed. • Add power and establish a VX climb to a safe altitude.

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Lesson Plans

Important: During all ground reference maneuvers, divide attention between cockpit tasks. To help you prioritize those tasks inside and outside of the cockpit, remember the 10-20-30 rule. That rule says to spend — • 10 seconds focusing inside the cockpit. Monitor your flight instruments and on hot summer days, monitor engine gauges. • 20 seconds outside the cockpit. Scan for obstacles around you, keep your emergency landing field in sight. Emphasis is on CFIT avoidance. • 30 seconds scanning for traffic. In your turns, look ahead of where you will turn next rather than directly in front of you.

Also, realize you are flying at lower altitudes where it is likely there are smaller aircraft — those which are more difficult to see. Emphasis is on collision avoidance. If you see traffic that may affect you, stop the maneuver, resume straight and level flight until it passes, then start again. Good aeronautical decision making is always key in ground reference maneuvers. Keys for success:

✔ Clear the area before starting and continue scanning throughout. ✔ Divide your attention — success depends on it. Don’t fixate on any task — remember the 10-20-30 rule. ✔ Maintain situational awareness. Establish and maintain the proper altitude and airspeed. Visualize the half-circle. ✔ Anticipate the wind and the needed corrections. You must anticipate the wind to correct for drift. Reevaluate constantly. Adjust timing in the beginning and the recovery from turns. ✔ Coordination — no slips or skids, please! Resist the temptation to use rudder to point the nose where you want it. Control with smoothness.

Chapter 7 • Ground Reference Maneuvers

10-20-30 ahead  of turn

125

EVALUATION Minimum Tolerances During FAA Practical Exams Completion standards for the lesson may vary with the phase of training. The minimum standards required to be successful on the practical test are: 1. Exhibit knowledge of the elements related to S-turns. 2. Select a suitable ground reference line. 3. Plan the maneuver so as to enter at 600 to 1,000 feet AGL, perpendicular to the selected reference line. 4. Apply adequate wind-drift correction to track a constant radius turn on each side of the selected reference line. 5. Reverse the direction of turn directly over the selected reference line. 6. Divide attention between airplane control and the ground track while maintaining coordinated flight. 7. Maintain altitude, ±100 feet; maintain airspeed, ±10 knots.

Teaching Tip: Present all the ground reference maneuvers in one lesson so the candidate may see the relationships. Present the ground reference maneuvers so that one skill builds on the last: 1. Fly over a road 2. Rectangular Course 3. Turn around a Point 4. S-Turns across the Road

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Lesson Plans

Planning Your Practice Fill in the blanks for your airplane in the following handy checklist.

Your S-Turns Across a Road scenario (Make notes here.)

Set Up 1. Choose an area where airspace incursion is unlikely, with minimum traffic. 2. Locate wind and turn to downwind heading. 3. Choose an appropriate ground reference, perpendicular to the wind. 4. Choose an emergency landing area. 5. Configure the aircraft: Fuel __________ (on fullest tank, N/A, etc.) Fuel pump __________ (on, N/A, doesn’t matter, etc.) Mixture __________ (leaned, rich, etc.) Flaps _______ (up, down, etc.) Gear _______ (up, N/A, etc.) 6. Descend to your altitude: ______AGL ( _____MSL). 7. Clear the area, looking for traffic above and obstacles or terrain features below. The Maneuver ____ Directly over the reference line: a. initiate a 180-degree constant radius turn, b. maximum bank angle of 45°, c. modifying the bank angle as necessary to compensate for wind drift. ____ At completion of the turn, aircraft is directly over and perpendicular to reference line, wings level. ____ Immediately begin 180° constant-radius turn in the opposite direction: a. maximum bank angle of 45 degrees, b. modify bank angle to compensate for wind drift. ____ Adequate wind-drift correction to track a constant-radius turn on each side of reference line. ____ Maintain altitude. ____ Divide attention: • airplane control, • orientation and the ground track, • while maintaining coordinated flight. ____ Symmetrical “S,” both sides (both turns) equal size and shape. Exit ____ Complete after one full “S” of coordinated turns. ____ Roll out on original heading, altitude and airspeed. ____ Add power and climb to a safe altitude.

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Eights on Pylons Suggested Materials: Whiteboard and markers, sectional chart, and model airplane.

INTRODUCTION Spend at least three minutes introducing the maneuver to the student. Describe the situations that are motivation for learning it, as well as the objectives to strive for.

Motivation Rumor has it that a missionary flying in South America picked up mail and dropped supplies to Amazon villages, deep in the forest, without landing. By lowering a bucket on a rope and using something called pivotal altitude, the pilot was able to keep the bucket nearly stationary long enough for natives to exchange its contents before the pilot retrieved it. I don’t know if the story is true, but it sounds cool.

Objective Eights on Pylons is a ground reference maneuver. You’ll use pivotal altitude to maintain a lineof-sight reference so that the pylon never moves from your point of reference. You’ll fly in a circle around two selected points, or pylons, to form a figure 8. But you won’t attempt to hold a constant altitude, you won’t attempt to establish wind-drift correction for a predetermined flight path, and you won’t maintain a uniform distance from the pylons. The eights on pylon is the most advanced and difficult of low-altitude maneuvers. You probably won’t use it to drop buckets of mail to your friends, but you will learn to fly with precision.

EIGHTS ON PYLONS

ELEMENTS

• No wind corrections • No uniform distance • No constant altitude PIVOTAL ALTITUDE

EXIT

(pilot’s perspective)

High

Based on ground speed (GS2/11.3) PA 714 882 1067 1270

SUCCESS =

2 3 WIND

GS PA

Choose good pylons Wind - proper entry, anticipate Start correctly Coordination Maintain altitude Maintain situational awareness   Smooth

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1

Fastest GS Highest PA 1

2

Low  KTS  90 100 110 120

• Power • VX climb

SET UP • • • • • •

Airspace Turn downwind Select pylons Configure Clear area Descent to PA

Slow Low

3 Begin rolling wings level LOOK

• 10 Inside • 20 Ground • 30 Traffic Above/Below/Ahead

Line of sight Not leading edge

Lesson Plans

CHALKBOARD TALK Elements of the Maneuver First, a look at the universal elements of the maneuver — those elements that are not aircraft-specific. It looks like this:

• You are flying a figure 8 around two ground references or pylons. • The “8” is perpendicular to the wind. • You WON’T make corrections for wind drift. This is not a maneuver

WIND

where you attempt to maintain a ground track. • You WON’T maintain a uniform distance from the pylon, and • You WON’T hold a constant altitude.

NO

Pivotal altitude is a new concept:

wind correction uniform distance constant altitude

• Definition: The altitude above the ground at which, for a given ground speed, the line of sight will appear to pivot on the chosen point.

• Pivotal altitude is abbreviated “PA.” • Here are three planes in the same relative position to a pylon, but at

different altitudes. Only one appears to be exactly off the wing tip from the pilot’s view — this is PA. • Your goal is to keep the pylon in the same position relative to your line-of-sight. It should stay stationary and pivot as you fly around it. • Pivotal altitude is based on ground speed.

(pilot’s perspective)

High Low

The Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3) provides a rule of thumb for calculating PA in calm wind: TAS squared/divided by 15 for MPH, or 11.3 for KTS But who does eights-on-pylons in calm wind? You can also use ground speed squared and divided by 15 or 11.3 as appropriate. It’s not practical for most people to calculate PA while flying. Instead:

• Build a table of ground speeds that you expect to see on today’s flight.

Using ground winds from your ATIS or ASOS; this provides a good reference for starting altitude, and how much altitude you can expect to gain or lose in pivotal altitude changes throughout the maneuver. • As you can see, when downwind at your highest ground speed, you’ll have a higher PA. When upwind at your slowest ground speed, you’ll have the lowest PA. • During flight what you see is the pylon moving fore or aft of your line-ofsight reference:  If the pylon appears to move forward of your line-of-sight, you are too slow and need to catch up — lower your nose, descend to a lower PA. This will increase your ground speed and put the pylon back in its correct position.  If the pylon appears to move aft of your line-of-sight, you are too fast, leaving the pylon behind you. To slow down, you’d pitch up and climb to a higher PA. This will decrease your ground speed and put the pylon back in its correct position. • Elevators are the primary control for holding the line-of-sight on pylons. Small changes in altitude will be necessary throughout, as ground speed will be constantly changing.

Chapter 7 • Ground Reference Maneuvers

 KTS    90    100    110    120 

PA 714 882 1067 1270

Note: when calculating and drawing your table, specify only KTS or MPH based on your aircraft’s airspeed indications.

129

Selecting 2 perfect pylons as reference:

• Refer to a local sectional chart and identify possible locations for

maneuvering at a low altitude. This is a good time to get your commercial candidates involved in decision making! • Identify nearby congested areas and point out nearby obstacles depicted on the chart. • Discuss how you will navigate to the area. • Prominent landmarks — small round objects are best. A silo, tree, or intersection of roads is better than a barn or other object that does not look the same from all sides. • Both pylons must be at the same elevation. Don’t choose one on a hilltop and the other in a valley. • For good situational awareness, consider pylons along a road or other straight line. • The pylons should be spaced about halfway up the wing (low wing) or wing strut (high wing). This spacing gives you enough time for about 5 seconds of straight-and-level flight between the pylons. • Discuss the need for a nearby emergency field:  Flying low does not allow time to locate an emergency landing site.  Look for a landing area between the pylons if possible, to ensure you could get there from anywhere during the maneuver.  If there is no suitable emergency landing area nearby, then it’s not suitable for pylons.

WIND

Emergency  landing area: • into wind • can you get there?

This maneuver requires situational awareness on the pylons and wind and constant reevaluation. Divide your attention — don’t fixate on the pylon. Remember:

• 10 seconds focusing inside the cockpit. Monitor all your fight instruments and on hot summer days, monitor engine gauges. • 20 seconds outside the cockpit. Scan for obstacles around you, keep your emergency landing field in sight. Emphasis is on CFIT avoidance. • 30 seconds scanning for traffic. Scan all around — in the pylon 8, you are using a lot of visual airspace.

Realize you are flying at lower altitudes where it is likely there are smaller aircraft — those which are more difficult to see. Emphasis is on collision avoidance. If you see traffic that may affect you, stop the maneuver, resume straight-and-level flight until it passes, then start again. Good aeronautical decision making is always key in these maneuvers.

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Lesson Plans

Performance So now that you understand the elements, let’s discuss what will happen in the airplane. You’ll begin with a setup before starting the maneuver. Set up:

1

1

• Choose an area where airspace incursion is

unlikely and with minimum traffic. 2 • Determine the wind direction and turn downwind. On that heading, choose a road or 3 straight reference line perpendicular to you (and the wind). • Select 2 suitable pylons. • Identify an emergency landing site — it must be one that you can glide to. • Configure the aircraft fuel tank/pump and mixture, flaps and gear UP. • Clear the area, looking for traffic above and obstacles or terrain features below. • Descend to your estimated pivotal altitude (PA).

2 3 WIND

The manuever:

• Proper entry is  at pivotal altitude  on a diagonal, crosswind, between pylons  with the first turn being upwind • Bank angle during turns should be between 30°–40°. You may be too far

away or too close if you need a bank angle outside of 30°–40°. • Begin the turn when your pylon is at your line-of-sight reference. As the turn 1 is continued, hold your line-of-sight reference on the pylon. Apply small corrections in altitude throughout so that 2 the line-of-sight reference line remains on the pylon. 3 • As you turn into area 1, you’ll see your WIND fastest ground speed and highest PA around this pylon. Also in this position, you will be the farthest away from the pylon. You are not concerned about maintaining a constant distance from the pylon. No corrections for wind drift are necessary. • As you turn into area 2, the wind becomes a headwind and your airspeed will slow very quickly and the pylon will begin moving ahead. You’ll need to descend to maintain PA. • In position 3, begin a rollout. Rollout diagonally downwind, crabbing as necessary, to set up the next turn. Hold the wings level for 4 to 5 seconds, holding a crab angle to correct for wind and return to the appropriate pivotal altitude, until the airplane arrives at a point downwind from the second pylon equal distance from the first pylon. • Maintain division of attention between reference point, coordinated airplane control, and traffic avoidance. • Don’t swish the nose around with the rudder to hold the pylons on the lineof-sight point of reference. Use proper coordination; avoid slips and skids. • The maneuver is complete after one figure eight. Chapter 7 • Ground Reference Maneuvers

Fastest GS Highest PA 1 2

Slow Low

3 Begin rolling wings level

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The exit:

• Roll out on entry heading, altitude and airspeed. • Then, add power and establish a VX climb to a safe altitude. How to sight on the pylon:

EXIT

Power VX climb

• Because this is all about the pilot’s perspective, sighting on the pylon is key. • Don’t use the leading edge of the wing, it’s not the correct sight-line, and some wing leading-edges are not perfectly straight. • Find a row of rivets or other line-of-sight reference that is good on your airplane. Keys for success:

✔ Clear the area before and scan throughout the maneuver. Don’t fixate on the pylon. ✔ Choose good pylons — not too close, too far apart, too big, or too small, in proper alignment with wind. ✔ Anticipate the wind and your needed corrections. Apply control inputs smoothly but promptly. ✔ Make a PA table and have it with you in the cockpit. Do your calculations ahead of the flight. ✔ Anticipate the deviations in altitude from upwind to downwind:  Don’t get crazy with excessive altitude gain or loss.  Plus or minus 200 feet would be a lot.  Study the PA table and notice the difference in PA for the possible ground speeds. ✔ Start the turn in the correct place, that is, with the pylon in position with your line-of-sight reference. Don’t rush the entry. The pylon must begin in the proper position to start. ✔ Coordination. Don’t use the rudder (slipping/skidding) in an attempt to hold the line-of-sight. ✔ Use the right sight picture. On low-wing aircraft, the leading edge of the wing is probably not straight. ✔ Smoothness counts. No jerky control inputs.

EVALUATION Minimum Tolerances During FAA Practical Exams Completion standards for the lesson may vary with the phase of training. The minimum standards required to be successful on the practical test are: 1. Exhibit knowledge of the elements related to eights-on pylons. 2. Determine the approximate pivotal altitude. 3. Select suitable pylons that will permit straight and level flight, between the pylons. 4. Enter the maneuver at the appropriate altitude and airspeed and at a bank angle of approximately 30° – 40° at the steepest point. 5. Apply the necessary corrections so that the line-of-sight reference line remains on the pylon. 6. Divide attention between accurate coordinated airplane control and outside visual references. 7. Hold pylon using appropriate pivotal altitude avoiding slips and skids.

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Lesson Plans

Planning Your Practice Fill in the blanks for your airplane in the following handy checklist.

Your Eights on Pylons scenario (Make notes here.)

Set Up 1. Choose an area to avoid airspace incursion. You will practice near _____________________. 2. Choose an altitude no lower than 1,500 AGL ( _____MSL). 3. Clear the area of traffic/obstacles. 4. Configure: Fuel __________ (on fullest tank, N/A, etc.) Fuel pump __________ (on, N/A, doesn’t matter, etc.) Mixture __________ (leaned, rich, etc.) Flaps _______ (up, down, etc.) Gear _______ (up, N/A, etc.) 5. Determine wind. 6. Turn to a downwind heading. Determine pivotal altitude. 7. Select 2 suitable pylons: ____ prominent landmarks, at same elevation, emergency landing area, no obstructions. ____ spaced about halfway up the wing to permit straight-and-level flight. ____ between the pylons. ____ small round objects are best (silo, tree, or intersection of roads). 8. Possible emergency landing site (in event of engine failure). 9. Descend to anticipated pivotal altitude. 10. Clear the area for traffic and obstructions Maneuver ____ Proper entry: at pivotal altitude, on a diagonal, crosswind, between pylons so the first turn is upwind. ____ When the pylon appears to be just ahead of the wingtip, the turn is started with a bank angle of 30°–40°. ____ As the turn is continued, hold your line-of-sight reference on the pylon by increasing bank and adjusting altitude. ____ Downwind — • pivotal altitude is higher. As the airplane turns downwind, the ground speed increases and the pivotal altitude is higher. The airplane is forced to climb to hold the reference line on the pylon. • if reference line moves behind the pylon, increase altitude.

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____ Upwind — • pivotal altitude is lower. As the airplane turns into the wind, the ground speed decreases, and the pivotal altitude is lower. The airplane is forced to descend to hold the reference line on the pylon. • on the upwind side, the wind becomes more of a crosswind and drifts the airplane closer to the pylon. Since a constant distance from the pylon is not required, no correction to counteract drifting should be applied. • if reference line moves ahead of the pylon, decrease altitude. ____ Apply small corrections throughout so that the line-of-sight reference line remains on the pylon. ____ Rollout — • rollout is started, allowing airplane to proceed diagonally to a point on the downwind side of the second pylon. Turn is then continued just as in the turn around the first pylon, but in the opposite direction. • diagonally downwind, crabbing as necessary, to set up the next turn. Airplane arrives at a point downwind from the second pylon equal distance from the first pylon at the beginning of the maneuver. ____ Hold the wings level 4 to 5 seconds between turns, holding a crab angle to correct for wind and return to appropriate PA. ____ Maintain division of attention between traffic avoidance, reference point, and coordinated airplane control throughout. ____ Use proper coordination. Exit ____ Maneuver complete after one figure 8. ____ Roll out on entry heading, altitude and airspeed. ____ Add power and climb to a safe altitude.

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Lesson Plans

SLOW FLIGHT AND STALLS CHAPTER 8

This chapter contains the following maneuver briefings:

• Maneuvering during slow flight • Power-off stalls • Power-on stalls AREA OF OPERATION: Preflight Lesson on a Maneuver to be Performed in Flight Note: Examiner shall select at least one maneuver and ask the applicant to present a preflight lesson on the selected maneuver as the lesson would be taught to a student. OBJECTIVE: To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the selected maneuver by: 1. Stating the purpose. 2. Giving an accurate, comprehensive oral description, including the elements and common errors. 3. Using instructional aids, as appropriate. 4. Describing the recognition, analysis, and correction of common errors.

Chapter 8 • Slow Flight and Stalls

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Maneuvering During Slow Flight Suggested Materials: Whiteboard, markers, POH, and model airplane.

INTRODUCTION Spend at least three minutes introducing the maneuver to the student. Describe the situations that are motivation for learning it, as well as the objectives to strive for.

Motivation While it’s true that pilots normally want to fly as fast as possible, there are many occasions when flying slowly is more desirable. Pilots would normally slow down in the traffic pattern to follow slower traffic, and they must slow down when preparing to land. Slow-flying is also needed for sightseeing or while engaged in aerial photography.

Objective The objective of this lesson is to teach you how to control the aircraft while flying slowly. To do this you must learn to recognize changes in the flight characteristics and in the controleffectiveness during slow airspeeds. You will learn to maintain positive aircraft control while maneuvering at slow airspeed in the clean configuration and in the landing configuration, with flaps and gear out.

SLOW FLIGHT CONTROLLING IT

WHAT IS SLOW FLIGHT?

• Aerodynamic condition   - not a speed • “Behind the power curve” • “Area of reverse command” MANEUVERING DURING • Straight and level • Climbs and descents • Turns

Ailerons      sluggish Elevators Rudders - must use Flaps - reduce stall speed Pitch/power relationship

More power to fly slow LOOK

RECOGNIZING

Divide attention 10-20-30

• Sluggish ailerons - feel it • Attitude - see it • Stall warning - hear it

SUCCESS = SET UP

• Airspace • Altitude (1,500) • Configure • Clear • Note heading   and altitude

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MANEUVER • • • • • •

TURNING

Reduce power • Shallow bank Maintain altitude • Rudder +/White arc — flaps     More rudder Coordination/trim Adverse yaw At MCA, add power Maintain heading, altitude, speed

RECOVERY • • • • • •

Add full power Flaps — 1 notch Reduce pitch slowly Coordination Reduce power Trim

  Clear area   Anticipate changes - Back pressure   - Power   - Rudder   - Flaps Fly an altitude,   not an IAS   Divide attention

Lesson Plans

CHALKBOARD TALK Elements of the Maneuver First, a look at the universal elements of the maneuver — those elements that are not aircraft-specific. It looks like this:

• The straight-and-level flight attitude looks approximately like this: • Slow down, and the aircraft is in an attitude that looks approximately like this: • In slow flight, attitude looks about like this: More power to fly slow

…And it will probably require adding more power to fly in this attitude. Definition clarification:

• The maneuver is called “slow flight,” which means any speed less than cruise. • However, minimum controllable airspeed is the slowest speed at which that

the aircraft can fly. It’s a speed where any further increase in angle of attack, load factor, or reduction of power will cause a stall. • Today we will be flying at minimum controllable airspeed. What it is:

• An aerodynamic condition rather than an airspeed —  At this very slow airspeed, drag is increased, causing a loss of airspeed.  Additional power is needed to maintain level flight.  As an example, think of a boat at very slow speed, pushing water out in

front of it. This requires a lot of power, versus a boat going fast that sits up more on the water — this reduces drag and the need for a lot of power.  In an airplane we call this the “minimum drag speed” — flight slower than minimum drag speed requires more power. • That’s why it’s called “flight behind the power curve,” or, being in “the area of reverse command” (as it’s referred to in some textbooks).

WHAT IS SLOW FLIGHT?

Aerodynamic condition   - not a speed “Behind the power curve” “Area of reverse command”

Maneuvering:

• Performed in coordinated straight-and-level flight, climbs and descents, and in turns.

How to control it (flight control relationships):

□ Ailerons and elevators — at slow airspeed, ailerons and elevators are

sluggish and less effective because of less airflow over the surfaces. □ Rudder — left-turning tendencies during maneuver. The rudder is very effective and the most effective control surface for maintaining heading. Apply generous right rudder while at the positive angle of attack. □ Flaps — use flaps to reduce stall speed, allowing flight at even slower speeds. Aircraft will naturally change pitch with change in flaps; control the attitude while changing flaps settings. Application of flaps will increase lift at first, then increase drag. Retract flaps slowly because of the loss of lift. □ There is a relationship between pitch attitude and power. A change in one will likely require a change in the other. Chapter 8 • Slow Flight and Stalls

CONTROLLING IT

Ailerons      sluggish Elevators Rudders - must use Flaps - reduce stall speed Pitch/power relationship

137

How to maneuver during:

□ Climbs — add power, more right rudder needed, and small increase in attitude.

□ Descents — reduce power, less right rudder needed, small decrease attitude. □ Turns — shallow angle of bank (10° or so) in order not to increase load factor;  a medium-bank turn will increase load factor, which will require you to apply back pressure…which will induce a stall.  use the natural horizon and consider the attitude rather than fixating on the airspeed indicator — remember it’s not airspeed.

Recognizing when you’re there:

□ Sluggish ailerons — feel it □ Nose high attitude — see it □ Stall warning probably illuminating (light) or blowing (horn) — hear it

RECOGNIZING

Sluggish ailerons - feel it Attitude  - see it Stall warning  - hear it

Divide attention:

• 10 seconds focusing inside the cockpit. Monitor your flight instruments

and on hot summer days, the engine gauges. • 20 seconds outside the cockpit. Maintain a constant attitude. The emphasis is on positive aircraft control and stall/spin awareness. • 30 seconds scanning for traffic. Scan all around — with your nose up, it’s difficult to see traffic ahead. The emphasis is on collision avoidance. If you see traffic that may affect you, stop the maneuver, resume straight-andlevel until it passes, then start again.

LOOK 10-20-30

Performance So now that you understand the elements, let’s discuss what will happen in the airplane today. You’ll begin with a setup before starting the maneuver. Set up:

• Choose an area where airspace incursion is unlikely and with minimum traffic.

• Select an entry altitude no lower than [SEL = 1,500] [MEL = 3,000] feet

AGL. • Configure the aircraft — fuel tank/pump and mixture, flaps and gear UP. • Clear the area, looking for traffic above and obstacles or terrain features below. • Note heading and altitude for reference during the maneuver. The maneuver:

• Smoothly retard throttle, allow the airspeed to decrease, noting the

position of the nose on the horizon. • Apply back-pressure as necessary to maintain altitude. • Apply rudder for coordination. • As airspeed is decreased below VFE, add flaps.  Full flaps down is normally preferred to gradual down, during flight at approach speed and slow flight.  Change configuration only once.

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Lesson Plans

• As airspeed is decreased below VLE, extend gear. • Add power as airspeed is reduced behind the power curve, in order to maintain altitude.

• Establish and maintain your minimum controllable airspeed (about 65

KIAS in our plane). • Re-trim often and compensate for changes in control pressures at slow airspeeds. • Divide attention between airplane control, orientation, and traffic avoidance. • Maintain coordination. • When attitude, airspeed and power have been stabilized, shallow bank turns to heading will be introduced. • Climbs and descents to altitude at slow flight will be introduced. Recovery:

• Smoothly add full power while simultaneously lowering nose to straightand-level attitude; allow airspeed to increase.

• Retract flaps smoothly to takeoff-flaps before exceeding VFE. • Retract gear before VLO. • Slowly retract remaining flaps before exceeding VFE. During recovery,

abruptly raising flaps will result in lift being lost and cause the aircraft to sink or stall. • Maintain heading, altitude and coordination. • Re-trim often throughout the process. Keys to success:

✔ Anticipate the deviations in altitude from upwind to downwind: ✔ Clear the area before and continue to scan throughout the maneuver. ✔ Anticipate needed control inputs:  Need additional back-elevator pressure as power is reduced, so as not to lose altitude.  Need less back-elevator pressure as power is increased, so as not to gain altitude.  Need more rudder when attitude is highest, with high-power setting.  Need more rudder to compensate for adverse yaw during turns, and P-factor and left-turning tendencies during straight flight.  Compensate for changes in lift as flaps are extended or retracted.  Make small, smooth power reductions and large power additions. ✔ Fly an attitude rather than fixating on the airspeed indicator. ✔ Divide attention between airplane control, orientation and traffic avoidance.

Chapter 8 • Slow Flight and Stalls

SUCCESS =

  Clear area   Anticipate changes   Fly an altitude,   not an IAS   Divide attention

139

EVALUATION Minimum Tolerances During FAA Practical Exams Completion standards for the lesson may vary with the phase of training. The minimum standards required to be successful on the practical test are: 1. Exhibit knowledge of the elements related to maneuvering during slow flight. 2. Select an entry altitude that will allow the task to be completed no lower than [SEL = 1,500] or [MEL = 3,000] feet AGL. 3. Establish and maintain an airspeed at which any further increase in angle of attack, increase in load factor, or reduction in power, would result in an immediate stall. 4. Accomplish coordinated straight-and-level flight, turns, climbs, and descents with landing gear and flap configurations specified by the examiner. 5. Divide attention between airplane control and orientation. 6. PVT: Maintain the specified altitude, ±100 feet; specified heading, ±10°; airspeed, +10/–0 knots; and specified angle of bank, ±10° 7. COM: Maintain the specified altitude, ±50 feet; specified heading, ±10°; airspeed, +5/–0 knots; and specified angle of bank, ±5°

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Lesson Plans

Planning Your Practice Fill in the blanks for your airplane in the following handy checklist.

Your Maneuvering During Slow Flight scenario (Make notes here.)

Set Up 1. Choose an area to avoid airspace incursion. You will practice near ___________________________. 2. Choose an altitude no lower than 1,500 AGL: ______________ MSL. 3. Configure: Fuel __________ (on fullest tank, both, etc.) Fuel pump __________ (on, off, N/A) Mixture __________ (leaned/rich) Cowl flaps __________ (open, closed, N/A) Flaps __________ (up, down) VFE speed ______ Gear __________ (up, N/A) VLE speed _____ VLO speed ______ 4. Clear the area. Maneuver 1. Apply backpressure to maintain altitude. 2. Apply rudder for coordination. 3. With airspeed in the white arc, add full flaps. 4. With airspeed below VLO, select gear down. 5. Establish and maintain approximately _______KIAS. 6. Re-trim often. 7. Divide attention, scan for traffic. 8. Maintain coordination. 9. When attitude, airspeed and power have been stabilized, begin maneuvering during slow flight. Recovery 1. Add full power and slowly lower nose to straight and level attitude. 2. Allow airspeed to increase. 3. Retract 1 notch flaps. 4. Retract gear. 5. Retract remaining flaps. 6. Trim often. Scan for traffic often. 7. Maintain heading, altitude and coordination.

Chapter 8 • Slow Flight and Stalls

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Power-Off Stalls Suggested Materials: Whiteboard, markers, POH and model airplane.

INTRODUCTION Spend at least three minutes introducing the maneuver to the student. Describe the situations that are motivation for learning it, as well as the objectives to strive for.

Motivation Every landing is an intentional power-off stall. Conquering power-off stalls is the first step in making great landings. An intentional power-off stall practiced at a safe altitude is great fun.

Objective This lesson will develop your ability to recognize an approaching power-off stall by sight, sound and feel. It will familiarize you with the conditions that promote an unintentional power-off stall, and develop your prompt corrective action to recover from an unintentional stall. Recognition and recovery of the stall is the objective, more so than is learning to perform the stall.

WHY IT HAPPENS • Result • Recognition • Recovery FACTORS • • • • •

Leading edge chord line

Trailing edge

L

Any altitude/power Climbs, descents, turns Configuration Weight/CG Coordination

H

POWER-OFF STALLS

Relative wind Angle of attack

RECOGNITION

Imminent, full • See - attitude • Hear - horn, air noise • Feel - burble, controls RECOVERY

Reduce AOA Power to stop descent

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Burble

Critical angle of attack

L

H

SUCCESS =

• • • • •

Airspace Altitude (1,500’ AGL) Configure Clear (especially below) Note heading and altitude

ENTRY

WHEN?

• Landings • Distracted • Low and slow

SET UP

Clear area Recognize by “see, hear, feel” Don’t depend on airspeed indicator Wings level, be patient, coordinated Imminent vs. full recovery Only to straight/level attitude - No secondary stalls

• • • • • •

Throttle to idle Speed VLE - gear down Speed VFE - flaps down Coordination - right rudder Pitch up Recognize the stall May include RECOVERY a turn • Nose down • Full power • Nose up (VY) • Flaps to takeoff • Gear up/flaps up LOOK

Scan throughout Especially below

Lesson Plans

CHALKBOARD TALK Elements of the Maneuver First, a look at the universal elements of the maneuver — those elements that are not aircraft-specific. Define “stall.” 1 *

• Discuss definition while drawing each section, as shown below. Why it happens: 2

• (Draw the wing tip)…Define the leading edge, training edge and chord line. • (Draw the second wing tip)…Define relative wind, angle of attack and lift

pressures during straight and level flight. • (Draw the third wing tip in a climb or at slow speed)…Discuss the difference in angle of attack from straight-and-level flight. • (Draw the fourth wing tip in a stall attitude)…Define critical angle of attack, and “burble.” The results and considerations, in a stall: 3

• A high rate of descent. • You don’t want an unintentional stall when you’re close to the ground. • But it’s fun to practice intentional stalls at a safe altitude. There are many factors to a stall: 4

□ Can occur at any attitude, any power setting, and in any aircraft

configuration. □ Stalls in climbs, descent and turns — load factor and bank angle, and affects on stall speed. □ Configuration affects of the position of landing gear; position of flaps. □ Affects of aircraft weight and center of gravity. □ Results of stalling in uncoordinated flight — best to remain coordinated. …Later, we’ll talk about power-on stalls.

FACTORS

Any altitude/power Climbs, descents, turns Configuration Weight/CG Coordination

When does it happen?

• Most prone to unintentional power-off stalls during times of high cockpit workload:  Landings.  Anytime slow and busy.

How to control it — flight control relationships: Ailerons. With the wings stalled, ailerons are sluggish and ineffective because of loss of airflow over the surfaces. Rudder. The rudder is very effective; it’s the most effective control-surface for maintaining directional control when entering, during, and while recovering from stalls. You can anticipate needing right rudder during entry to the stall.

* These circled numbers refer to the steps to cover for power-on stalls, if power-off has not yet been practiced. Chapter 8 • Slow Flight and Stalls

143

Divide attention: • 10 seconds focusing inside the cockpit. Monitor your flight instruments and, on hot summer days, the engine gauges. • 20 seconds outside the cockpit. Maintain a constant attitude. The emphasis is on positive aircraft control and stall/spin awareness. • 30 seconds scanning for traffic. Scan all around — with your nose up, it’s difficult to see traffic ahead. The emphasis is on collision avoidance. If you see traffic that may affect you, stop the maneuver, resume straight-andlevel flight until it passes, then start again. Imminent stall (define): 5 • Recognizing —  See the attitude,  Hear the stall warning horn, change in air noise,  Feel the buffeting and decay of control effectiveness. • Recovery — reduce pitch attitude.

LOOK 10-20-30

RECOGNITION

Imminent, full See  - attitude Hear - horn, air noise Feel  - burble, controls

Full stall (define): 6 • Recognizing — aircraft pitch attitude change. • Recovery — reduce pitch attitude.

Reducing the angle of attack causes the stall recovery. Power is added only to stop the resulting descent. Adding power is not what makes you recover from the stall! 7 Two new V-speeds: □ Define VS and VS0, and where to find on the airspeed indicator for quick reference. □ Don’t depend on indicated airspeed to recover. The Falling Leaf: A maneuver in which the instructor demonstrates a delayed-recovery from a stall. When you demonstrate the falling leaf, the student has time to see the stall attitude, has time to feel the stalled controls, and has time to fully recognize the stall. During the stall, the student learns the effectiveness of the rudder to control direction. During the recovery from the falling leaf, the student has time to feel the controls become effective — therefore it builds confidence. Give your student a better stall lesson by demonstrating the “falling leaf.” • Choose an altitude no lower than 3,000 feet AGL. • After setting up, configuring and clearing the area, retard throttle. Allow speed to decrease. • Hold straight-and-level flight attitude until stall occurs. • Be patient; let the stall come to you to avoid an excessive attitude for the first stall. • As the stall approaches, point out the attitude and demonstrate the decay in control effectiveness. • Identify the imminent stall and the angle of attack. • As it develops, identify the full stall and the angle of attack. • Delay recovery. Point out how the rudder is used as the primary control to maintain direction. Point out the excessive loss of altitude during the stall. Point out the airspeed indications during the stall. Allow time for the student to see, experience and recognize the stall situation. 144

DELAY RECOVERY

Reduce AOA Power to stop descent

Lesson Plans

• Reduce the pitch attitude to “break” the stall but delay the application of

power. Note the angle of attack. Demonstrate that the controls are again effective and the aircraft is once again “flying,” but with a high rate of altitude loss. • Add power to stop the descent. Climb back to a safe altitude for practicing stalls.

Performance So now that you understand the elements, let’s discuss what you will do in the airplane today. You’ll begin with a setup before starting the maneuver: Set up:

• Choose an area where airspace incursion is unlikely and with minimum traffic. • Select an entry altitude no lower than [SEL = 1,500] [MEL = 3,000] feet AGL. • Configure the aircraft — fuel tank/pump and mixture. • Clear the area, looking for traffic all around but especially for traffic, obstacles, or terrain features below. • Note heading, or a visual reference and altitude for reference during the maneuver. Entry:

• Retard throttle. • Maintain altitude while allowing speed to decrease. • As speed slows to VLE, select landing gear down. • As speed slows to VFE, select flaps down. • Maintain coordination — right rudder. • When attitude has stabilized, smoothly raise the nose to an attitude that will

Scan throughout Especially below SET UP

Airspace Altitude (1,500’ AGL) Configure Clear (especially below) Note heading and altitude

ENTRY

Throttle to idle Speed VLE - gear down Speed VFE - flaps down Coordination - right rudder Pitch up Recognize the stall

induce a stall.

• Recognize the full or imminent stall as requested. • Scan for traffic throughout. Recovery:

• Release back-elevator pressure, decreasing the angle of attack to below the horizon. The stall is broken; now recover from the descent. • Apply full power. • Maintain coordination. • Set a VY pitch attitude. • Select flaps to takeoff-flaps (25° for our airplane). • Select gear up, verify needed pitch change, trim as necessary. • Select remaining flaps up. • Climb at VY while returning to original assigned heading and altitude. • Scan for traffic throughout.

RECOVERY

Nose down Full power Nose up (VY) Flaps to takeoff Gear up/flaps up

Future stall lessons:

• Today the goal is to learn to recognize the stall and the proper recovery

technique. • In later stall lessons, 1. You will transition from a stable approach to a landing attitude/ configuration into the power-off stall to demonstrate an approach to landing stall. 2. You will enter stalls during turns. Chapter 8 • Slow Flight and Stalls

145

• In advanced stall lessons, the goal will be to recover to a straight-and-level flight attitude with a minimum loss of altitude. This skill allows you to better cope with a possible unintentional stall near the ground.

Keys to success:

✔ Clear the area before and scan for traffic throughout the maneuver. ✔ Recognize the sight, sound and feel of an approaching stall condition, rather than rely on the airspeed indicator. ✔ Enter the stall with wings level. Maintain coordination. ✔ Be patient. Allow the stall to come to you, rather than exerting excessive back-elevator pressure with an exaggerated nose-up attitude during entry. ✔ When practicing imminent stalls, recover promptly to prevent a full stall from developing. ✔ When practicing full stalls, allow the stall to develop fully — don’t recover prematurely. ✔ Maintain a constant bank angle during turning stalls. ✔ Recover into a straight-and-level attitude in order not to cause a secondary stall. ✔ During recovery, relax the back pressure, rather than aggressively pushing forward-elevator which results in a negative load on the wings. ✔ Recover quickly to avoid an excessive airspeed build-up.

EVALUATION Minimum Tolerances During FAA Practical Exams Completion standards for the lesson may vary with the phase of training. The minimum standards required to be successful on the practical test are: 1. Exhibit knowledge of the elements related to power-off stalls. 2. Select an entry altitude that allows the task to be completed no lower than:  PVT/COM SEL = 1,500 feet AGL  PVT/COM MEL = 3,000 feet AGL 3. Establish a stabilized descent in the approach or landing configuration, as specified by the examiner. 4. Transition smoothly from the approach or landing attitude to a pitch attitude that will induce a stall. 5. PVT: Maintain a specified heading, ±10°, in straight flight; maintain a specified angle of bank not to exceed 20°, ±10°; in turning flight, while inducing the stall. 6. COM: Maintain a specified heading, ±10°, in straight flight; maintain a specified angle of bank not to exceed 20°, ±5°; in turning flight, while inducing the stall. 7. Recognize and recover promptly after the stall occurs by simultaneously reducing the angle of attack, increasing power to maximum allowable, and leveling the wings to return to a straight and level flight attitude with a minimum loss of altitude appropriate for the airplane. 8. Retract the flaps to the recommended setting; retract the landing gear, if retractable, after a positive rate of climb is established. 9. Accelerate to VX or VY speed before the final flap retraction; return to the altitude, heading, and airspeed specified by the examiner.

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Lesson Plans

Planning Your Practice Fill in the blanks for your airplane in the following handy checklist.

Your Power-Off scenario (Make notes here.)

Set-Up 1. Choose an area to avoid airspace incursion. You will practice near ____________________________. 2. Choose an altitude no lower than 1,500 AGL: ____________ MSL. 3. Configure: Fuel __________ (on fullest tank, both, etc.) Fuel Pump __________ (on, off, N/A) Mixture __________ (leaned/rich) Cowl Flaps __________ (open, closed, N/A) Flaps __________ (up, down) VFE speed ______ Gear _______ (up, N/A) VLE speed _____ VLO speed _____ 4. Clear the area. Entry 1. Retard throttle. 2. Maintain altitude while allowing speed to decrease. 3. As speed slows to VLE ______ KIAS select lading gear down. 4. As speed slows to VFE ______ KIAS select flaps down. 5. Maintain coordination. 6. When attitude has stabilized, raise nose induce a stall. 7. Recognize the full or imminent stall as requested. 8. Scan for traffic throughout. Recovery from power-off stalls is also practiced from shallow-banked turns. Recovery 1. Decrease angle of attack to below the horizon. 2. Apply full power. 3. Set VY pitch attitude. 4. Retract one notch flaps. 5. Retract gear. 6. Retract remainder of flaps. 7. Climb at VY to original assigned heading and altitude. 8. Trim often. 9. Scan for traffic throughout.

Chapter 8 • Slow Flight and Stalls

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Power-On Stalls Suggested Materials: Whiteboard, markers, POH and model airplane.

INTRODUCTION Spend at least three minutes introducing the maneuver to the student. Describe the situations that are motivation for learning it, as well as the objectives to strive for.

Motivation You have just taken off when ATC calls issuing traffic in your area. You become engrossed in searching for the traffic, when suddenly your aircraft’s stall warning begins blaring. The “power-on stall” is usually caused by inattention or distraction of the pilot during flight; it is most problematic immediately after takeoff when the aircraft is at low altitude without sufficient room for a delayed recovery.

Objective This lesson will develop your ability to recognize an approaching power-on stall by sight, sound and feel. It will familiarize you with the conditions that promote unintentional power-on stalls, and develop your prompt preventative and/or corrective action to recover from them. Recognition and recovery of the stall is the objective, more so than is learning to perform the stall. Since the power-off stall has previously been taught, this lesson will focus on the differences in the recognition and recovery of the power-on stall versus the power-off. Note: If the power-off stall has not previously been taught, then begin this lesson by reviewing items 1 thru 7 in the power-off stall lesson plan.

POWER-ON STALLS

HOW IT’S DIFFERENT • • • •

Landing (powered approaches) Takeoffs and go arounds Steep turns Busy and distracted

Power Flaps Gear

Power On

Normal enroute climb attitude

Departure Stall

Full Takeoff setting Maybe Takeoff setting Maybe Maybe Straight With turn

SUCCESS =

SET UP

Airspace Altitude (1,500’ AGL) Configure Clear Note heading and altitude

ENTRY VX or VY attitude

Exceeding critical AOA attitude

Clear above and below Recognize by “see, hear, feel” Be patient Coordination Recovery different - imminent vs. full Recovery to a straight & level attitude Just relax back pressure Recover quickly

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• • • • • • • • • • • • •

Reduce power Gear? Flaps? Departure airspeed Departure attitude Coordination Induce stall Recognize stall

LOOK

Scan, above & below RECOVERY • • • •

Reduce angle of attack Add full power Wings level Clean up (reconfigure)

Lesson Plans

CHALKBOARD TALK Elements of the Maneuver First, a look at the universal elements of the maneuver — those elements that are not aircraft-specific. How the power-on stall is different from the power-off stall:

• Pilots are most prone to unintentional power-on stalls during —  Landings; powered approaches.  Takeoffs and go-arounds.  Steep turns (load factor).  Anytime busy and/or distracted. • When a turn is included this is often called a “departure stall” — simulating

the turn from upwind to crosswind after takeoff, when many pilots get busy and distracted. • When turning, make it a medium bank turn — about what you would do in the traffic pattern, no more than 90° of heading change (like you would in the traffic pattern). • Remain aware of cloud clearances above — because you might climb during the power-on stall. • More power = more torque, P-factor and left turning tendencies… which means more right rudder is needed to remain coordinated. Power-on stalls turning to the left have a different need for rudder than do turning     stalls to the right. A variety of stalls are practiced to help you more fully understand the stall and what different variations look like; yet the recoveries are all very similar. Consider the differences between the power-on stall and the departure stall. Of course the ultimate goal is helping you learn to stop a power-on stall.

□ Compare different climb attitudes — enroute climb, VY and VY, exceeding

the critical angle of attack. □ When you find yourself busy or feeling distracted, reduce climb and place the nose of the aircraft on the natural horizon. You don’t always need VX or VY performance.

   

Power  On 

Departure Stall

 Power  Full  Takeoff setting   Flaps  Maybe  Takeoff setting   Gear  Maybe  Maybe     Straight  With turn

Normal enroute climb attitude

VX or VY attitude

Performance So now that you understand the elements, let’s discuss what you will do in the airplane today. You’ll begin with a setup before starting the maneuver. Set up:

Exceeding critical AOA attitude

• Choose an area where airspace incursion is unlikely and with minimum

traffic. • Select an entry altitude no lower than [SEL = 1,500] [MEL = 3,000] feet AGL. • Configure the aircraft — fuel tank/pump and mixture. • Clear the area, looking all around — but especially above — for traffic, obstacles, or terrain features below. • Note heading, or a visual reference and altitude for reference during the maneuver.

Chapter 8 • Slow Flight and Stalls

SET UP

Airspace Altitude (1,500’ AGL) Configure Clear Note heading and altitude

149

Entry:

• Retard throttle and maintain altitude while allowing speed to decrease to

normal climb speed. • The power-on stall is usually performed in the clean configuration; however, if requested —  As speed slows to VLE, select landing gear down.  As speed slows to VFE, select flaps down. • Add at least 65% power and establish a takeoff or departure attitude. • Maintain coordination. • After the desired attitude has stabilized, quickly but smoothly raise the nose to an attitude that will induce a stall. • Recognize the full or imminent stall as requested. • Scan for traffic throughout. Note: Recovery from power-on stalls are also practiced from medium-banked turns.

ENTRY

Reduce power Gear? Flaps? Departure airspeed Departure attitude Coordination Induce stall Recognize stall

Recovery:

• Recover promptly after stall occurs by simultaneously decreasing pitch

attitude and leveling the wings to return to straight-and-level flight attitude, with a minimum loss of altitude appropriate for the airplane. • Apply full power (if not already set at full). • Retract flaps to recommended setting, then —  Retract the landing gear, after a positive rate-of-climb is established;  Accelerate to VY before the final flap retraction;  While returning to the assigned altitude and heading. • Maintain coordination. • Scan for traffic throughout.

RECOVERY

Reduce angle of attack Add full power Wings level Clean up (reconfigure)

Keys to success:

✔ Clear the area before and scan for traffic throughout the maneuver. ✔ Recognize the sight, sound and feel of an approaching stall condition, rather than rely on the airspeed indicator. ✔ Enter the stall with wings level. ✔ Be patient. Allow the stall to come to you, rather than exerting excessive back-elevator pressure with an exaggerated nose-up attitude during entry. ✔ Maintain coordination. ✔ When practicing imminent stalls, recover promptly to prevent a full stall from developing. ✔ When practicing full stalls, allow the stall to develop fully — don’t recover prematurely. ✔ Maintain a constant bank angle during turning stalls. ✔ Recover into a straight-and-level attitude in order not to cause a secondary stall. ✔ During recovery, relax the back pressure, rather than aggressively pushing forward-elevator which results in a negative load on the wings. ✔ Recover quickly to avoid an excessive airspeed build-up.

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Lesson Plans

EVALUATION Minimum Tolerances During FAA Practical Exams Completion standards for the lesson may vary with the phase of training. The minimum standards required to be successful on the practical test are: 1. Exhibit knowledge of the elements related to power-on stalls. 2. Select an entry altitude that allows the task to be completed no lower than:  PVT/COM SEL = 1,500 feet AGL  PVT/COM MEL = 3,000 feet AGL 3. Establish the takeoff or departure configuration. Set power to no less than 65 percent available power. 4. Transition smoothly from the takeoff or departure attitude to the pitch attitude that will induce a stall. 5. PVT: Maintain a specified heading, ±10°, in straight flight; maintain a specified angle of bank not to exceed 20°, ±10°, in turning flight, while inducing the stall. 6. COM: Maintain a specified heading, ±5°, in straight flight; maintain a specified angle of bank not to exceed 20°, ±10°, in turning flight, while inducing the stall. 7. Recognize and recover promptly after the stall occurs by simultaneously reducing the angle of attack, increasing power as appropriate, and leveling the wings to return to a straight-and-level flight attitude with a minimum loss of altitude appropriate for the airplane. 8. Retract the flaps to the recommended setting; retract the landing gear if retractable, after a positive rate of climb is established. 9. Accelerate to VX or VY speed before the final flap retraction; return to the altitude, heading, and airspeed specified by the examiner.

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Planning Your Practice Fill in the blanks for your airplane in the following handy checklist.

Your Power-On scenario (Make notes here.)

Set-Up 1. Choose an area to avoid airspace incursion. You will practice near _______________________. 2. Choose an altitude no lower than 1,500 AGL: ___________ MSL. 3. Configure: Fuel __________ (on fullest tank, both, etc.) Fuel Pump __________ (on, off, N/A) Mixture __________ (leaned/rich) Cowl Flaps __________ (open, closed, N/A) Flaps __________ (up, down) VFE speed ______ Gear __________ (up, N/A) VLE speed _____ VLO speed _____ 4. Clear the area. Entry 1. Retard throttle and maintain altitude while allowing speed to decrease to normal climb speed. 2. The power-on stall is normally performed in the clean configuration. However, if requested: • as speed slows to VLE ____KIAS, select landing gear down. • as speed slows to VFE ____ KIAS, select flaps down. 3. Add power and establish a takeoff or departure attitude. 4. Maintain coordination. 5. After the desired attitude has stabilized, quickly raise nose to an attitude to induce a stall. 6. Recognize the full or imminent stall as requested. 7. Scan for traffic throughout. Recovery from power-off stalls are also practiced from medium-banked turns. Recovery 1. Simultaneously decrease pitch attitude and level the wings. 2. Apply full power (if not already set at full). 3. Retract flaps. 4. Set a VY pitch attitude. 5. Retract 1 notch flaps. 6. Retract gear. 7. Retract remaining flaps. 8. Climb at VY, returning to original assigned heading and altitude. 9. Trim often. 10. Scan for traffic throughout.

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Lesson Plans

EMERGENCY OPERATIONS CHAPTER 9

This chapter contains maneuver briefings on the subject of emergency approach and landing.

AREA OF OPERATION: Preflight Lesson on a Maneuver to be Performed in Flight Note: Examiner shall select at least one maneuver and ask the applicant to present a preflight lesson on the selected maneuver as the lesson would be taught to a student. OBJECTIVE: To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the selected maneuver by: 1. Stating the purpose. 2. Giving an accurate, comprehensive oral description, including the elements and common errors. 3. Using instructional aids, as appropriate. 4. Describing the recognition, analysis, and correction of common errors.

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Emergency Approach and Landing Suggested Materials: Whiteboard and markers, POH and model airplane.

INTRODUCTION Spend at least three minutes introducing the maneuver to the student. Describe the situations that are motivation for learning it, as well as the objectives to strive for.

Motivation The engine coughs a few times…sputters…then, all is quiet. What will you do? What is your thought process? Do you have the right reactions? Can you effectively use all your resources? You spot the perfect landing area — can you glide there?

Objective During this lesson you will learn to effectively use the critical first moments after engine failure to maximize your options. You will learn to maintain aircraft control while performing an emergency checklist. You’ll learn to judge your aircraft’s gliding distance, and if necessary, how to make an off-airport landing into an emergency landing area.

Aircraft under control Best field Checklist Ditching preparations Emergency communications Fire prevention

EMERGENCY

APPROACH & LANDING ui ck ly

Sacrifice plane Save people

Q

• • • • • •

Best field

Aircraft control

“Oh, shucks.”

Checklist

Ditching preparations FAILURE AFTER TAKEOFF

270° 3° 90 @ 500 750’

@ Returning to runway

Emergency com

turn per sec. seconds FPM to turn 270°

Land straight ahead

Base

154

G o aro un d abo ve 500’ AGL

500’ AGL

SUCCESS =

Recognize the emergency Maintain control Choose best landing area Use ALL available resources Control glide — not too high not too low Checklist done

Continue restart attempts

Final LOOK

Divide attention 10-20-30

Fire prevention

LANDING • Slowest airspeed • Nose up • No brakes

Lesson Plans

CHALKBOARD TALK Elements of the Maneuver First, a look at the universal elements of the maneuver — those elements that are not aircraft-specific. It looks like this:

• So here we are at altitude, the engine fails, and we spy a field. • We’ll spiral down to it and make a safe landing. Aircraft control:

□ Airspeed — best glide speed, what it is and why we use it. □ Review the glide distance information provided in the POH. □ It’s OK to gain altitude when pitching up to best glide speed. Don’t attempt to stretch the glide to make a field, airspeed will suffer and a stall may be imminent. Remember that load factor increases with steep turns. Keep turns at a medium bank or less.

Choosing the Best emergency landing area:

• GPS NRST — perhaps there is an airport close by? • Plowed fields are good, if the landing is made parallel to furrows. • Planted fields are best — corn or other high plants absorb and dissipate the

momentum after landing. Also, the farmer probably removed the big rocks, tree stumps, etc., found in clear fields. • Roads normally not a good choice due to power/phone lines and traffic. • A river is better than nothing, if faced with downtown buildings. • Whatever it is, it must be within gliding distance. • Into the wind, if possible.

A ircraft under control B est field C hecklist

D itching preparations

E mergency communications F ire prevention

Immediately fly direct to the field. Some airplanes glide like a toolbox…you must make the field. Important: Refer to POH for emergency procedures and checklists (review them). Commit this Checklist to memory as a Do-Then-Verify (if time permits).

• The restart attempt should take 10 seconds —  Perform your restart quickly but don’t rush;  Get into the habit of always attempting restart — you might be

successful! • If altitude permits:  Keep trying different combinations to restart; be persistent.  Verify emergency procedures with the POH checklist.  Most engines fail because of (1) lack of fuel or (2) lack of air. Figure out which your engine needs and give the engine what it needs. Prepare to Ditch. If all attempts to restart the engine fail and a forced landing is imminent:

□ Assign passenger(s) to secure objects and collect coats for protection of occupants’ faces at touchdown. □ Unlatch the doors for best egress after touchdown. Chapter 9 • Emergency Operations

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Emergency communications — while flying toward the field, use all available resources.

• Communicate with Approach or Center if you can quickly locate

frequency — they may find you on radar, to aid in rescue — or else, 121.5. (121.5 is no longer monitored.) • Don’t hesitate to declare an emergency — Be clear in your intentions and ask for what you need.   GPS equipped? Be prepared to give ATC your lat/long if you are too low for radar. • ELT manual selector switch —  ON while still at altitude for better broadcasting.  Most have an ON/OFF switch on the instrument panel. • How to make a proper MAYDAY call: don’t be shy; get all the help available to you. Fly as normal a traffic pattern as altitude/obstacles/terrain permit:

• Use manufacturer recommended procedures and airspeeds —  This allows your visual cues for judging glide path to be more accurate.

This is not the time to try something new.  You’d like a base leg and a final leg during final preparations, if possible.

Steps to prevent Fire after touchdown:

□ All fuel items to off (fuel selector, fuel pump, mixture); □ All electrical off (master switch). Landing — gear down only when the field is assured — if you get too low, you have fewer options. If possible, land with full flaps:

• Off airport: Keep the nose up to protect from digging in, causing the plane to cartwheel. No brakes. This is a soft-field landing. • Airports: Use foam if available. Any available emergency vehicles on standby. • All airports: Exit the plane immediately and move away until you are sure there is no fire. An easy way to prioritize the workload — remember your ABCs and DEFs: A  Airspeed = best glide…fly the plane first. B  Best field, locate and proceed to immediately. C  Checklist, attempt to restart and keep trying to restart. D  Ditching preparations, use your passengers’ help. E  Emergency communications, ask for help. F  Fuel/Fire, reduce the possibility.

Also remember: □ No emergency is ever completely “by the book.” Use your best judgment. □ Sometimes there’s not enough time to get it all done, such as with failure at lower altitudes, or immediately after takeoff, etc. Use your best judgment as to what tasks are necessary.

A ircraft under control B est field C hecklist D itching preparations E mergency communications F ire prevention

No matter what, don’t try to save the plane. Be willing to sacrifice the plane to save yourself, your friends and family.

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Lesson Plans

Performance Let’s draw it and divide tasks into small sets of objectives along the way. This avoids getting task-saturated, or behind the airplane. There is no “set up” in this maneuver because we assume that the emergency occurs without prior notice. In the PA28RT, we will do as follows.

Aircraft control

“Oh, shucks.”

Continue restart attempts

Chapter 9 • Emergency Operations

Q

ui ck ly

Base

Maneuver A — Immediately, pitch to 79 KIAS (best glide) to preserve altitude. Stay calm, keep the airplane in control. B — Quickly select the best landing site:  Above 5,000 AGL - consider GPS NRST to determine if a close airport is an option.  Below 5,000 AGL - select a suitable field directly under the aircraft or very close.  Spiral over top of landing site (see Steep Spiral maneuver). If possible, land into the wind but don’t be a slave to wind if altitude is critical. Remain in the immediate vicinity of the landing site. C — Checklist. En route to the landing site, quickly attempt Best field to determine the malfunction and attempt a restart using the emergency checklist flow: Checklist  First Flow: Fuel selector-BOTH, mixture-RICH, Ditching throttle-FORWARD, mags-BOTH, fuel pump-ON... preparations that took 10 seconds (our airplane).  Second Flow: Fuel selector-CHANGE TANKS, Emergency com Mixture-Adjust, Throttle-Adjust, mags-START... that took 10 seconds (our airplane).  The purpose of the second flow is to try something DIFFERENT. D — Ditch preparations.  Assign tasks to passenger: secure objects, collect coats, etc.  Seat belts/shoulder harnesses - tight.  Unlatch door. Final E — Emergency communications, to assist in your search and rescue: Fire prevention  ELT to ON (if reachable by pilot).  Transponder - select 7700, ON and/or ALT mode.  COM: Current frequency if already in contact with a controlling agency or 121.5. Radio call: “Mayday, mayday, N12345, [position], forced landing, 2 persons on board, blue and white.” F — Fire Prevention. On short final, when landing area is assured, reduce the risk of fire after touchdown by:  Fuel pump — off  Fuel shut off valve — off  Mixture — lean  Gear down, then ...  ... Master switch — off This is an emergency — remain organized and complete the initial tasks quickly!

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Recovery During practice, if not at an airport or approved landing site, then recover with a go-around before 500' AGL: • Initiate recovery so as not to descend below 500' AGL. • Full power, for go-around (see Go-around maneuver). • Flaps to 25°. G o aro un d above 500’ AGL 500’ AGL • Gear up. • Remaining flaps up. • Establish a VX attitude to safe altitude. How we practice:

• Begin practicing engine failures at altitude — about 3,000' AGL or high

enough to complete all tasks without rushing. • Begin practicing simulated engine failures over a runway at a nontowered airport until you are sure your reactions are correct and to help learn proper glide control. We don’t want to create a real emergency while practicing one. • In later simulated emergency approach and landing lessons, practice at lower altitudes and away from the airport, making the emergency approach into a rural landing area. • Student pilots should not practice simulated emergency approaches when solo, due to the multiple priority tasks that occur while descending in close proximity to the ground. • During practice, you must still divide attention with the 10-20-30 rule. Engine failure after takeoff. Up to now, the discussion has been about engine failure at altitude. Now we’ll discuss failures after takeoff — it’s a bit different: • Engine fails while on the runway; retard throttle, brake, abort the takeoff. • Engine fails with less than 800’ AGL; land straight ahead or nearly (within 30° of) straight ahead. • Do not attempt a 180° turn back to the runway.  It’s not a 180-degree turn; it’s more like 270° of turn back to the runway. Returning  Look at the math — 270° turn at a standard rate of 3° per second to runway means it will take 90 seconds to get back to the runway.  90 seconds at an average 500 FPM mean you lose 750' in that turn.  Even if you steepen the turn, load factor takes hold and increases the descent rate.  It doesn’t work. Land straight (or nearly straight) ahead.

158

Divide attention 10-20-30

  270° turn @  3° per sec.   90 seconds  @ 500 FPM   750’ to turn 270° Land straight ahead

Lesson Plans

Keys to success:

✔ Recognize the emergency. Initial clues may be subtle. Accept that you have an emergency — yes, it CAN happen to you. ✔ Maintain aircraft control. Maintain best glide airspeed to the field. Try to keep turns medium bank or less to control load factor. ✔ Choose the best emergency landing area that you can get to. ✔ Use all available resources including GPS, ATC and passengers. ✔ When estimating gliding distance, be conservative. Remember that turning eats up altitude. If high, use flaps and a slip or both, if you are low, perhaps you can quickly set up for a different landing area. You MUST make the landing area. ✔ Get the emergency restart checklist done. How silly would you feel if, after landing in a corn field, you found it was only a simple problem that could have been resolved inflight?

EVALUATION Minimum Tolerances During FAA Practical Exams Completion standards for the lesson may vary with the phase of training. The minimum standards required to be successful on the practical test are: 1. Exhibit knowledge of the elements related to emergency approach and landing procedures. 2. Analyze the situation and select an appropriate course of action. 3. Establish and maintain the recommended best-glide airspeed, ±10 knots. 4. Select a suitable landing area. 5. Plan and follow a flight pattern to the selected landing area considering altitude, wind, terrain, and obstructions. 6. Prepare for landing, or go-around, as specified by the examiner. 7. Follow the appropriate checklist. Notes to CFI: • Every takeoff with a certificated pilot should include a briefing how emergencies will be handled. • Engine failure in any flight phase is simulated by pulling the throttle to idle. Never shut down the engine with key or mixture to practice engine failures — it is too difficult to restart this way. • Simulated engine failures should not be practiced immediately after takeoff. Instructors should begin with at least 1,000 AGL with experienced students, 2,000–3,000 AGL with new students. • If the simulated emergency approach descends through more than 2,000 feet, then consider clearing the engine occasionally. • Don’t create a real emergency while practicing a simulated emergency. • The PTS — on most practical exams — recovery is expected or required by 500' AGL.

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Planning Your Practice Fill in the blanks for your airplane in the following handy checklist.

Your Emergency Approach and Landing scenario (Make notes here.)

A. Control aircraft — immediately, pitch to ___________KIAS (Vg). B. Quickly select best landing site: 1. Above _______AGL, consider GPS NRST, (if equipped). 2. Below _______AGL, select a suitable field directly under the aircraft or very, very close. 3. Spiral over top of landing site. (See “Steep Spiral” maneuver.) C. Cockpit items checklist: 1. En route to the landing site, quickly attempt to determine the malfunction attempt a restart using the emergency checklist flow. • My first flow: Fuel selector________ (on/off or both, etc.) Mixture______ (full rich?) Throttle_______ (full forward?) Magnetos______ (check both) Fuel pump______ (on?) Primer______ (in and locked?) Other ________ (add checklist items for your plane) • My second flow: Fuel selector ___________ (change tanks, etc.) Primer _________ (prime, etc.) Magnetos __________ (Try to start, etc.) Other _________ D. Ditch preparations: 1. Passenger will secure objects located in baggage area and collect coats for protection of occupants’ faces at touchdown. 2. Other ______________________________. E. Emergency Frequencies—communicate to assist in your search and rescue. 1. ________ELT to ON (if reachable by pilot), if equipped. 2. ________Transponder 7700, if equipped. 3. COM: Current frequency if already in contact with a controlling agency or 121.5. Radio call: “Mayday, mayday, N___________ (position), forced landing, number of persons on board, ____________ (colors of aircraft).” F. Fire — on short final, when landing area is assured: • Fuel pump — off • Fuel shut-off valve — off • Gear down • Master switch — off • Other ______________

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Lesson Plans

SECTION III HOW TO USE ANY GENERIC, COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE SYLLABUS FOR SCENARIO-BASED TRAINING

THE GENERIC SYLLABUS WITH EXTRAS CHAPTER 10

Have you ever taken a boxed pizza from the freezer and added extra toppings before sliding it into the oven? Such as more cheese, or onions or fresh green pepper? Adding that little extra to a generic pizza makes it uniquely yours and adds to your enjoyment. In similar fashion, a flight instructor can add his or her own “extras” to a generic, commercially available syllabus. For the instructor who is comfortable and happy with his current syllabus, there is no need to change it just to have a scenariobased program. This book is a syllabus companion. Its focus is not about what to teach, but on how to teach the lesson plans outlined in whatever syllabus you prefer. Use the scenario foundation of this book to make your favorite syllabus uniquely yours — a more effective and more fun approach to teaching. In a scenario-based training program, the basic objective is the success of the overall total flight, as well as gaining proficiency in individual maneuvers. Start with maneuver briefings like those in the book, which are effective in helping the student to understand the elements of the maneuver. With that understanding achieved, the student is best equipped to make decisions and to practice being pilot-in-command during portions of each flight. Then, add a scenario.

Adding a Scenario A typical lesson from an average syllabus might include, for example: Normal/Crosswind Takeoff Turns Around a Point Rectangular Course S-Turns Across a Road Slow Flight Normal/Crosswind Landings From this list, it’s easy to come up with a scenario that features each maneuver as it may be flown on a real flight. For instance: You are a mission pilot with the CAP and you have been assigned a gridsquare to search for a missing child. This requires the use of on-board sensors to map property boundaries (GPS navigation). Also, the pilot Chapter 10 • The Generic Syllabus With Extras

163

must fly the aircraft accurately over prominent landmarks at a precise altitude while correcting for winds. Some search tasks require you to orbit over a specific landmark (use of the sectional chart) and maintain a constant radius from the landmark (turns around a point). There may be other search aircraft working the same area, so it is important to be heads-up and prepared to avoid traffic. You are to navigate to the search location, near an interstate intersection at a certain lat/long position, and the borders of the section surrounding that ground reference (rectangular course and S-turns across a road). Using the surveillance equipment requires you to slow the aircraft to about 50 KIAS (slow flight) and, because of the extra surveillance equipment on board the aircraft, your fuel is somewhat limited. Therefore, plan to gas-up at an airport near the survey site between missions (straight and level flight, constant airspeed climbs and descents, medium turns, takeoff and landing). Returning to your home airport, you will fully use all cockpit technology to navigate home while handling all in-flight communications. With this scenario, the student practices maneuvers but also benefits from incidental learning, which affects the safety of the total flight. For instance, given the nature of the scenario above: • The student has a reason to fly. Knowing that the community is depending on the pilot to locate a lost child might affect his basic go/ no-go decision due to false justification in taking additional risks. This situation allows opportunities to deal with hazardous attitudes that can surface in making the decision to fly. • The pilot will probably use a sectional chart in the cockpit, which provides additional practice for awareness of such things as obstacles, terrain features (CFIT), and airspace. Additionally, the sectional will probably be used to verify the position of the search location, affording the opportunity to practice cockpit management and division of attention. • The element of a landing at another airport gives even more opportunities in changing priorities from the departure phase of flight, enroute, and approach/landing. The student gains practice in entering a traffic pattern that is not the home airport, and takeoff/landing practice at an unfamiliar airport. • The student will be asked to choose appropriate altitude(s) during the flight, providing practice in the selection process and an awareness of cloud clearances. In fact, anything might occur during this routine flight that would not occur in a basic flight to a practice area. The flight instructor should expand and add to the unexpected teachable moments so the student gains insight into decision making. In planning the scenario, allow an extra 5 minutes to take advantage of the unexpected opportunities that might surface. Don’t forget to include extra time for those maneuvers that may require additional practice.

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Lesson Plans

As another option, during lessons leading up to the cross-country phase, the instructor may choose to have the student design the scenario because this allows for additional practice in researching and preparing for flight. Simply give the maneuvers to the student and let him decide the sequence, altitude(s) and destinations.

Using SRM The next important component in a scenario-based training program is to allow for practice in decision making. Some books might call this “single pilot resource management” (SRM) in that the student is practicing being the pilot-in-command under the supervision of the instructor during portions of the lesson. During the preflight briefing, the instructor communicates what is to be taught and how the lesson will be conducted. Tell the student in advance which portions of the lesson the student will fly in the role of the pilot-in-command and practice making the decisions as the sole pilot on board. For instance, after a flight instructor has supervised the student performing several acceptable preflight inspections, that duty can be assigned to the student to perform. Similarly, after the instructor has supervised the student performing the preflight inspection, starting the engine, run-up and taxiing, the instructor may state, “Take me to the runway” — then he is quiet, allowing the student to take the lead and act as pilot-in-command, and expecting the student to make any decisions that may arise during that time. Of course, if the decision needs tweaking, the instructor is there to assist.

The Plan of Action It is not necessary for an instructor to write a complete syllabus from scratch in order to feature scenario-based training concepts. Using any generic, commercially-available syllabus, an instructor can develop a “Plan of Action” as follows: 1. Use the list of maneuvers from the lesson plan in the syllabus. 2. Determine which maneuvers and other aspects of the lesson the student will be expected to conduct on his own, versus which ones the instructor will conduct or assist. 3. Determine the sequence for the maneuvers, so that the lesson can be accomplished in an efficient way: a. It’s preferable to design a lesson that practices (for example) the high-altitude maneuvers (such as stalls and steep turns) while en route to a destination, followed by one or two landings before returning home to practice (for example) low-altitude maneuvers. b. Another option is to design a lesson that has the instructor demonstrating and student practicing maneuvers while en route to a destination. Land and debrief the lesson to this point, giving the student input for improvement. Then on the return leg home, the student would be expected to conduct each of the maneuvers with little instructor input. Chapter 10 • The Generic Syllabus With Extras

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4. Tell a story — create a scenario — that describes a realistic flight using the maneuvers as they would normally appear in a routine flight. 5. Determine what training aids are needed for the lesson — a POH and a sectional chart are typical training aids needed during a scenario. 6. Determine what preparation the student needs to accomplish before the flight to ensure success. For example, as a risk management tool, the inspection status of the aircraft and a weather briefing are generally used by the student when preparing for a scenario. When you organize your lesson into an efficient flow in a Plan of Action, you present to the student a wider variety of learning opportunities.

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Lesson Plans

SRM TEMPLATES CHAPTER 11

Most syllabi include blocks or stages of training. Blocks of training normally communicate the aeronautical proficiency expected in performing each maneuver. In scenario-based training, the instructor can also incorporate the proficiency expectations of single-pilot resource management. This chapter provides a template for SRM proficiency that can be used in the typical blocks of training: • Introduction to Flight • Preparing for Solo/Solo • Post-Solo • Cross-Country • Practical Exam Preparation When first introducing a maneuver, use the scenarios presented in the maneuver briefing. Then in later review lessons, keep the training fun, fresh and realistic while promoting risk management by using scenarios such as the samples given in the following SRM templates. Or, combine separate elements of each to make entirely new scenarios. The SRM templates suggest assignments that instructors should give to the student before flight in order to build proper flight preparation habits. They are a means to evaluate the student’s preparedness to act as the pilot-in-command and to assess aeronautical decision making, risk management, task management and situational awareness. Remember to debrief the flight to emphasize the maneuvers as they apply to everyday flying and the SRM objectives as they relate to a safe overall flight.

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TEMPLATE 1 PHASE: Introduction to Flight (normally encompasses the first three or four lessons in most commercially available syllabi). Note to Instructor: During this phase of training, the student is building habits that will last a lifetime. Emphasis is on proper flight preparation and acquisition of basic flight skills. For each lesson in this phase, prepare a short and fun scenario to a local destination; include each of the maneuvers prescribed in the lesson plan. (The destination may be a nearby airport or a local landmark.) Phase Elements and Incidental Learning Opportunities

Possible scenarios for this phase of training

• Flight preparations • AROW and inspection status • Maneuvers listed on the lesson plan

Congratulations — even though you are still a student pilot, you have just won a new aircraft in a give-away sweepstakes! Prepare for a thorough review of the new aircraft’s paperwork and maneuvers during the acceptance flight. You’ll want to put it through its paces before the flight home.

• Flight preparations • AROW and inspection status • Maneuvers listed on the lesson plan

A good friend has offered to let you borrow his airplane for your training. He gives you the key to the hangar, instructs you to verify the inspection status carefully, and suggests a short flight to check out the systems. Because of a medical condition, your friend has not been able to fly for several months — he’s not even laid eyes on the airplane for a long while.

• Flight preparations • AROW and inspection status • Maneuvers listed on the lesson plan

You live in a rural area. Your local airport has no flight school, but a traveling flight instructor visits the airport twice each week to provide lessons. Other students in the area seem to like him, so you decide to give him a try. You have not flown with this gypsy-instructor or his airplane before. Decide how you will approach this first lesson.

Suggested Homework — assigned to student before each flight in the stage: 1. Preview the scenario and its associated maneuvers. 2. Read the Maneuvers Manual pertaining to the maneuver(s). 3. Calculate weight and balance and fuel loading. 4. Considering clouds, obstacles/terrain, and maneuvers to be conducted, choose a safe altitude for the flight.

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Prepare the Student for Success Flight Preparation— Spend 10 minutes discussing and verifying that flight preparations have been completed correctly. Spend the time necessary to introduce and review prescribed maneuvers. Using the sectional chart, preview the flight activities, landmarks, approach and landing, in enough detail so the student is able to anticipate each task. To the extent possible, put aviation academics to use in the cockpit. Ground Operations— At the end of this stage, the student can perform the preflight inspection/servicing, checklists, start, runup, handle normal radio communications while on the ground, and taxi to the runway, ready to call tower (if appropriate) under close supervision, but with instructor assistance.

Elements to Achieve in this Phase Before the last flight in this phase, in addition to aeronautical proficiency for maneuvers outlined in the syllabus, the student should be able to achieve the following: □ Flight Preparations  Aircraft Inspection Status — decide if aircraft is airworthy for flight.  Weight and Balance — perform calculations and decide if within limitations, make corrections with assistance from instructor.  Fuel Loading — determine if enough fuel is on board for the flight, service aircraft (when necessary) with assistance from instructor.  Altitude — select a safe altitude for the flight considering clouds, obstacles/terrain and maneuvers to be conducted.  IMSAFE — decide if the pilot is ready for flight. □ Passenger Briefing — decide if the passenger (instructor) is ready for flight. □ Preflight Inspection — decide if the aircraft is ready for flight. □ Cockpit Management — explain the concepts that result in an organized cockpit. □ Ground Maneuvering/Runway Incursion Avoidance — maneuver while avoiding hazards at a safe speed. □ Situational Awareness — be able to explain the concept.

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TEMPLATE 2 PHASE: Preparing For Solo (normally encompasses the lessons after the Introduction to Flight phase, but before Solo in most syllabi). Note to Instructor: During this phase, the student is gaining proficiency in basic maneuvers and is learning to be in command. Emphasis is on developing positive aircraft control and gaining confidence in decision making. For each lesson in this phase, prepare a fun scenario that requires the student to be responsible for total flight preparation, include maneuvers and opportunities for decision making while visiting a variety of local destinations. (Should be a local airport or a nearby landmark, if no other airport is available.) Phase Elements and Incidental Learning Opportunities

Possible scenarios for this phase of training

• Maneuvers as listed on the lesson plan • Passenger briefing • How to deal with a passenger that is airsick • Possible peer pressure • Suitable weather

A long-time, very good friend is considering flight lessons. He would like to fly with you, a certificated pilot, to test the waters. (He gets airsick and wants to assure himself that he can do this.) Be sure to deliver your best passenger briefing. You’d like to show him how easy flying is. You will demonstrate basic maneuvers. He’s also asked to visit a nearby airport as part of the flight and you plan to demonstrate landings there. During the return trip you plan to demonstrate whatever he wishes to see. Obviously, you want to make a good impression so that you and your good friend can fly together, and share the costs, on future trips. The wind at takeoff time is 15 gusting to 25.

• Maneuvers as listed on the lesson plan • Inoperative equipment

It’s a beautiful, sunny day and you were lucky to get the last available training slot with your instructor today. In preparing to fly you find two written discrepancies on the training plane: the landing light is inoperative and the transponder is intermittent. But you know the instructor is planning to remain in the traffic pattern for landing practice.

• Maneuvers as listed on the lesson plan • Flying an unfamiliar aircraft • Inoperative equipment • Differences in flight for seasonal operations

You have traveled through 5 states in the past 5 days. You are flying to Small City Airport to return the 172 to the friend who loaned it to you and pick up your car. The plan is for you to fly with your friend so you can show him a few minor maintenance discrepancies that have developed. The weather is clear and cold and a white blanket completely covers the ground. Nearing Small City Airport, you see the runway has not been cleared. You cannot tell how deep the snow is. Note: Revise this scenario to illustrate the unique aspects of seasonal flying during the season the student is not in training.

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Lesson Plans

Suggested Homework — assigned to student before each flight in the stage: 1. Preview the scenario and its associated maneuvers. 2. Read the Maneuvers Manual pertaining to the maneuver(s). 3. Calculate weight and balance and fuel loading. 4. Calculate takeoff and landing distances and crosswind component. 5. Consult the Risk Management Preflight Checklist and total the risk for today’s flight conditions. 6. Obtain a weather briefing and be prepared to discuss your decision to fly or not. 7. Choose a destination and decide how you will navigate there. 8. Considering clouds, obstacles/terrain, and maneuvers to be conducted, choose a safe altitude for the flight.

Prepare the Student for Success Flight Preparation— Allow the student to choose a suitable destination. Spend 10 minutes discussing and verifying that flight preparations have been completed correctly. Compare the student’s Risk Management Preflight Checklist using today’s conditions versus previous conditions and discuss the parameters that caused significant changes. Compare aircraft performance using today’s conditions versus previous conditions. Stress the decision making opportunities. Spend the time necessary to introduce or review prescribed maneuvers. Using the sectional chart, preview the flight activities, landmarks, approach and landing, in enough detail so that the student is able to anticipate each task. Encourage the student to choose a different destination and to explore points of interest to maximize the learning experience. To the extent possible, apply aviation academics in the cockpit. Ground Operations— The student should perform all flight preparations and ground operations including: preflight inspection, aircraft servicing, checklists, start, runup, handle normal radio communications, pre-programming or routine cockpit technology and ground maneuvering with supervision, as the pilot-in-command. Flight Operations— The student flies and makes decisions as the pilotin-command during takeoff and VFR departure with a constant airspeed climb while handling normal radio calls in flight. Record takeoff time to gain awareness of flight time. The student obtains traffic advisories, plans and initiates the descent to traffic pattern altitude, uses a checklist, richens the mixture, makes a proper entry while maintaining correct priorities in task management. The student consistently sustains situational awareness and traffic avoidance while maintaining a stabilized descent for a landing on the first ⅓ of the runway.

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Elements to Achieve in this Phase Before the last flight in this phase, in addition to aeronautical proficiency for maneuvers outlined in the syllabus, the student should be able to achieve the following: □ Flight Preparations  Aircraft Inspection Status — decide if aircraft is airworthy for flight.  Weight and Balance — perform calculations and decide if within limitations, make corrections.  Fuel Loading — determine if enough fuel is on board for the flight duration, add fuel if necessary.  Takeoff and Landing Distances—perform and note any limitations.  Risk Management Preflight Checklist—decide if risks are acceptable or what actions may be takes to reduce risks.  Weather Briefing—decide if the flight is a go/no-go. Use reports and forecasts to determine weather risks.  Destination and Altitude—select a safe destination and altitude for the flight considering clouds, obstacles/terrain (CFIT awareness) and maneuvers to be conducted. □ Cockpit Management — consistently organizes the cockpit for minimum head-down time. □ Ground Maneuvering/Runway Incursion Avoidance — use a taxi diagram to maneuver while avoiding hazards. □ Sectional Chart — determine general location and direction for better situational awareness. □ GPS — selects Direct-To the desired destination and can correctly interprets the GPS indications. □ Autopilot — turn on autopilot, understand the current active mode, control heading with the heading bug. □ Task Management — consistently prioritizes aviating, navigating and communicating tasks in such a way to minimize distractions. □ Risk Management — decide and execute an appropriate course of action to properly handle unexpected situations in such a way that leads to a safe ad successful flight. □ Situational Awareness — explain the danger associated with becoming fixated on a problem to the exclusion of other aspects of the flight. □ Aeronautical Decision Making — use a decision-making process such as the DECIDE model.

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Lesson Plans

TEMPLATE 3 PHASE: Post-Solo (normally encompasses the lessons after the initial solo in most syllabi). Note to Instructor: During this phase, the student is gaining proficiency in maneuvers and developing skills in risk management. Emphasis is on precise aircraft control and managing risks. For each lesson in this phase, allow the student to prepare a fun scenario to include prescribed maneuvers while visiting local airports, which will provide a broader range of experience and risks for the student to assess. Phase Elements and Incidental Learning Opportunities

Possible scenarios for this phase of training

• Pressure of attending an expensive, pre-paid opera with a friend • Decide which landing area to use • Flying late at night — what time did you get up that morning? Fatigue? • Maneuvers listed on the lesson plan

You and your instructor are flying to a neighboring town for the premier opening of La Bohème, your favorite opera. The tickets were very expensive but you know it will be an exceptional show. You are looking forward to sharing your instructor’s first live opera experience. During preflight, you receive a NOTAM: a 50-foot construction crane sitting approximately 1,000' from the end of the main runway. 2,000' hard-surface runway available for landing beyond the crane. Operations on grass between runway and parallel taxiway approved. 5,000' available for landing. Upon entering the traffic pattern, you must choose between landing on the reduced hard-surface or the longer grass landing area. After the opera, (about midnight) you plan to practice maneuvers on the way home.

Pressures: • Flying with the boss • Possibility of disappointing him • FARs and sharing expenses • Maneuvers listed on the lesson plan

Your boss has offered to share your expenses if you will rent an airplane. His 7-year old daughter has been cast in the lead role of Cinderella in her school play and he would like to see his daughter’s performance. But due to scheduling conflicts, your boss doesn’t have the time to drive. He is depending on you to get him there on time. He has asked to see a few maneuvers on the return trip home, so that he can better understand flying. Obviously, you wish to impress your boss with your flying skills.

• Pressure of disappointing son • Time sensitivity • Maneuvers listed on the lesson plan

At the start of your flight lesson, your son calls. He has left a key element of his 4-H science project back at grandma’s house, 50 miles away. He pleads for you to fly to grandma’s and pick up his project for this afternoon’s competition during your regularly scheduled flight lesson. The project is time sensitive. For the science project to work correctly it is critical that you deliver it to him within four hours after pickup. The winds are forecast to increase for your return flight.

Note: Allow the student to plan the sequence of the maneuvers in the lesson and the scenario.

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Suggested Homework — assigned to student before each flight in the stage: 1. Preview the scenario and its associated tasks. 2. Calculate takeoff and landing distances and crosswind component. 3. Consult the Risk Management Preflight Checklist and total the risk for today’s flight conditions. 4. Obtain a weather briefing and be prepared to discuss the decision to fly or not. 5. Choose a destination at least 10 miles away and decide how you will navigate there. 6. Considering clouds, obstacles/terrain and maneuvers to be conducted, choose a safe altitude for the flight.

Prepare the Student for Success Flight Preparation— Spend 5 minutes discussing and verifying that flight preparations have been completed correctly. Stress the student’s decision making opportunities and encourage the student to take the role of pilot-in-command during all routine tasks. Compare aircraft performance using today’s conditions versus previous conditions. Spend the time necessary to introduce or review prescribed maneuvers. To the extent possible, put aviation academics to use in the cockpit. Ground Operations, Departure and Arrival— Student should perform all routine tasks as pilot-in-command.

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Lesson Plans

Elements to Achieve in this Phase Before the last flight in this phase, in addition to aeronautical proficiency for maneuvers outlined in the syllabus, the student should be able to achieve the following: □ Flight Preparation  Aircraft Inspection Status — decide if aircraft is airworthy for flight.  Weight and Balance — perform calculations and decide if within limitations, make corrections.  Fuel Loading — determine if enough fuel is on board for flight duration, add fuel if necessary.  Takeoff and Landing Distances — perform and note any limitations.  Risk Management Preflight Checklist — decide if risks are acceptable or what actions may be takes to reduce risks. Use a tool, such as the PAVE checklist, to help assess risks.  Weather Briefing — decide if the flight is a go/no-go. Use reports and forecasts to determine weather risks.  Destination and Altitude — select a safe destination and altitude for the flight considering clouds, obstacles/terrain (CFIT awareness) and maneuvers to be conducted. Use charts and procedures during the planning of the flight to ensure the intended flight path avoids terrain and obstacles. Plan takeoff and approaches to landings to avoid terrain and obstacles. □ Cockpit Management—consistently organize the cockpit for minimum head-down time. □ Ground Maneuvering/Runway Incursion Avoidance—use a taxi diagram to maneuver while avoiding hazards. □ Sectional Chart—determine general location and direction for better situational awareness. □ GPS—can select Direct-To the desired destination and can correctly interpret the GPS indications. □ Use of Autopilot—turn on autopilot, understand the current active mode, control heading with the heading bug. □ Task Management—complete tasks in a timely manner considering the phase of flight without causing a distraction from flying. □ Situational Awareness—use technology installed in the cockpit to maintain an awareness of the current situation and any reasonably anticipated changes that may occur. □ Aeronautical Decision Making—decide and execute actions to handle a situation that arises that may cause a change from the original flight plan.

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TEMPLATE 4 PHASE: Cross-Country (normally encompasses the lessons during dual and solo cross-countries). Note to Instructor: During this phase, the student is gaining proficiency in navigation and in situational awareness while flying outside the training area. Emphasis is on precise aircraft control and situational awareness in a wider range of flight situations. For each lesson in this phase, allow the student to prepare a fun scenario to include suitable, instructor pre-approved, cross-country destinations more than 50 NM away. (Encourage the student to choose new destinations not previously visited during this training.) Phase Elements and Incidental Learning Opportunities

Possible scenarios for this phase of training

• Cross-country preparation • Aircraft Performance • Navigation • Cockpit Management • Sharing costs • Renting strange/new aircraft • Long day of flying — fatigue?

You and a friend will be traveling from your local airport to several destinations around a neighboring state. You will be renting an airplane from the flight school on the field. You plan to depart home around 11:00 a.m. and fly to an airport about 50 miles away for a $100 hamburger. After a 2-hour lunch with friends, your flight will continue to third location about 50 miles away for some late afternoon shopping. After having dinner there, you plan to return home.

• Cross-country preparation • Aircraft Performance • Navigation • Cockpit Management • Sharing costs • Renting strange/new aircraft • Weight and balance

Recent floods have devastated a nearby city. You have volunteered to fly medical supplies to Red Cross trauma centers using a flight school airplane. This is the route you have been told to expect: Leg 1 — Depart your home airport with 35 lbs of blood serum. Fly to your assigned airport about 25 miles away; drop off the blood and pickup 55 lbs of bandages. Leg 2 — Depart with 55 lbs of bandages. Fly to your next assigned airport, drop-off 20 lbs of bandages, and pick up an 85-lb dialysis machine. Leg 3 — Depart with the 85 lb machine, 35 lbs bandages and 100 lbs of bottled water. Return home. In order to avoid any delays that may be caused by refueling, you should plan the trip with the fewest fuel stops as possible. With the widespread power outages, many FBOs aren’t able to pump fuel. It is up to you to decide where to put the cargo you will carry during this flight. It is very important to calculate weight and balance for each leg because the FAA recently fined the flight school for flying aircraft overweight. The fines led to three of your pilot friends losing their flying privileges.

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Lesson Plans

• Cross-country preparation • Aircraft Performance • Navigation • Cockpit Management • Sharing costs • Renting strange/new aircraft • Weight and balance

Your college-age daughter requests help with an assignment. She wishes to record a training video. The video is titled “Using Scenario-based Training to Teach Cross-Country.” She has requested to set up camera equipment and to film your crosscountry flight. You don’t have to memorize a script; however, the camera equipment will add limitations to your flight planning. Also, she’s hoping the final landing will include a beautiful, romantic sunset background. You should prepare for weight as follows: Use you and your instructor’s actual weight; camera 1 (right-side dash) = 5 lbs; camera 2 (left-side dash) = 5 lbs; camera 3 (back seat) = 15 lbs, located in the baggage compartment, mounted on a tripod; recording equipment = 28 lbs, located in baggage compartment. Because of limitations of the recording media, you will have to change tapes at some point during the flight. Therefore, you will to taxi to the ramp and shut down the aircraft at one of your destinations. If you need fuel, this would be a good time for it.

Note: Allow the student to choose the destinations.

Suggested Homework — assigned to student before each flight in the stage: To provide the maximum practice of all skills, fully plan a cross-country as follows: • Leg 1: Conduct a normal/crosswind takeoff. Navigate using GPS, if equipped. Fully control the flight using all technology and a programmed GPS flight plan. Fly with autocontrol at its highest level. Conduct a soft-field landing. • Leg 2: Conduct a soft-field takeoff. Navigate using VOR, if equipped. The student may choose whether to use technology and at what level. Conduct a short-field landing. • Leg 3: Conduct a short-field takeoff. Navigate using pilotage and dead reckoning. Use no technology. Hand-fly the airplane. Conduct a normal/crosswind landing. Obtain a cross-country weather briefing and calculate aircraft performance using data from the aircraft POH, to complete a Navigation Log, using today’s conditions, including a Risk Management Preflight.

Prepare the Student for Success Flight Preparation— The instructor should stress the difference between weather briefings suitable for a local flight versus a weather briefing for a cross-country flight. Step-by-step, mentally rehearse the flight to verify the student’s plan. Considering the weather, determine a possible alternative for each leg. Verify that flight preparations and the NavLog have been completed correctly. Stress the student’s decision making opportunities and encourage the student to take the role of pilot-in-command for as many tasks as possible during the first two legs of the first dual cross-country. The student must act as the pilot-in-command during the last two legs of the last dual cross-country before solo cross-country. To the extent possible, put aviation academics to use in the cockpit.

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Ground Operations and Departures— Performs all tasks as the pilot-in-command. Enroute and Arrivals— The instructor should assist with cross-country cockpit management. Continuously press the student to consider all alternatives and to choose the best alternative during a variety of simulated emergencies and problems.

Elements to Achieve in this Phase Before the last flight in this phase, in addition to aeronautical proficiency for maneuvers outlined in the syllabus, the student should be able to: □ Flight Preparations  Aircraft Inspection Status — decide if aircraft is airworthy for an extended flight.  Fuel Loading — determine if enough fuel is on board for flight duration, add fuel if necessary.  Aircraft performance — calculate aircraft performance and completes a navigation log using data from the aircraft POH, with actual atmospheric conditions.  Risk Management Preflight Checklist — decide if risks are acceptable or what actions may be takes to reduce risks. IMSAFE — decide if the pilot is ready for flight.  Destinations and Altitude — select an appropriate destination and a safe altitude considering clouds, obstacles/terrain (CFIT awareness) and airspace. □ Passenger Briefing — decide if the passenger is ready for flight (dual flights). □ Preflight Inspection — decide if the aircraft is ready for flight. □ Cockpit Management — consistently organize the cockpit for minimum head-down time. □ Ground Maneuvering/Runway Incursion Avoidance — use a taxi diagram, maneuver while avoiding hazards. □ Use of Autopilot — understand the current active mode, control heading and altitude. Use the autopilot and other technology to reduce workload during simulated emergencies or abnormal operations. □ Task Management — execute checklists and procedures in a manner that does not increase workload at critical times. □ Risk Management — Use the 5-P process to remain aware of changing conditions during flight. □ CFIT — be aware of potential terrain and obstacle hazards along the route. Alter flight as necessary to avoid terrain and plan course diversion in such a way to insure terrain and obstruction clearance to the new destination. □ Situational Awareness — can state the current situation in such a way that displays an accurate assessment of the current and the future status of the flight, including weather, terrain, traffic, and fuel and aircraft status. 178

Lesson Plans

TEMPLATE 5 PHASE: Practical Exam Preparation (normally encompasses the lessons after cross-country and in preparation for the final exam in most commercially available syllabi). Note to Instructor: During this phase of training, the student should be thinking and acting as a pilot-in-command during flight preparation and in execution. Emphasis is on his ability to think and act as the pilot-in-command in a broad range of flight situations. For each lesson in this phase, allow the student to prepare a typical, realistic scenario that he might fly after graduation. Encourage a family member or friend to ride along on at least two flights (if the aircraft is equipped with seats) so the pilot gains practice in caring for a flying novice, and gains experience in flying with the aircraft closer to maximum gross weight. The instructor should “get in, sit down, and move the mic away from your mouth” — allowing the student to fly with as little input from the instructor as is possible. Phase Elements and Incidental Learning Opportunities

Possible scenarios for this phase of training

• Personal Minimums • Flying different aircraft • Flying with passengers • Flight at maximum gross weight

As a certificated pilot, the aircraft you normally rent is not available. You decide to get checked out in a different aircraft. It’s your first flight in a plane of this make and model. Your instructor has prescribed a list of maneuvers for you to perform during the checkout and also wants you to discuss how your personal minimums will change when flying this new aircraft. You plan to take a close friend to ride in the back seat during your flight.

• Flight Review • Flying with passengers • Flight at maximum gross weight

You received your certificate two years ago and now you are preparing for a flight review. The instructor has allowed you to choose the maneuvers you’d like to perform to demonstrate your mastery in flying. Prepare your flight review scenario. You plan to take a close friend to ride in the back seat during your flight.

• WINGS Program • Flying with passengers • Flight at maximum gross weight

The FAA has planned a WINGS Pilot Proficiency weekend at a nearby airport away. This is your chance to meet the FAA Administrator and hear presentations delivered by top-name authors and celebrity aviation speakers. You plan to fly to the airport where the festivities are being held, spend the day attending seminars, and earning WINGS before returning home. You are to plan a cross-country to the WINGS airport, plus a flight that will result in a Basic level WINGS. You plan to take a close friend to ride in the back seat during your flight.

Note: Allow the student to plan the scenario.

Suggested Homework — assigned to student before each flight in the stage: 1. Read the Practical Test Standards. 2. Review ground school materials in preparation for the oral portion of the practical exam. 3. Allow the student to fully plan the flight, including choosing the sequence of maneuvers to be performed, where the maneuvers will be practiced and how they will navigate there and at what altitude. Chapter 11 • SRM Templates

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Prepare the Student for Success Flight Preparation— Spend the time necessary to allow the student to explain the flight preparations and the plan for how the flight will be conducted. The student should fully prepare for the flight as the pilotin-command. To the extent possible, put aviation academics to use in the cockpit. Ground Operations, Departure, Enroute and Arrival— Perform all tasks as the pilot-in-command.

Elements to Achieve in this Phase Before the last flight in this phase, in addition to aeronautical proficiency for maneuvers outlined in the syllabus, the student should be able to: □ Flight Preparations  Aircraft Inspection Status — decide if aircraft is airworthy for an extended flight.  Fuel Loading — determine if enough fuel is on board for flight duration, add fuel if necessary.  Aircraft performance — calculate aircraft performance and completes a navigation log using data from the aircraft POH, with actual atmospheric conditions.  Risk Management Preflight Checklist — decide if risks are acceptable or what actions may be takes to reduce risks.  Destinations and Altitude — select an appropriate destination and a safe altitude considering clouds, obstacles/terrain (CFIT awareness) and airspace. □ Cockpit Management — consistently organize the cockpit for minimum head-down time. □ Ground Maneuvering/Runway Incursion Avoidance — use a taxi diagram to maneuver while avoiding hazards. □ Use of Autopilot — understand the current active mode, control heading and altitude. Use the autopilot and other technology to reduce workload during simulated emergencies or abnormal operations. □ Task Management — execute checklists and procedures in a manner that does not increase workload at critical times. □ Risk Management — Use the 5-P process to remain aware of changing conditions during flight. □ CFIT — be aware of potential terrain and obstacle hazards along the route. Alter flight as necessary to avoid terrain and plan course diversion in such a way to insure terrain and obstruction clearance to the new destination. □ Situational Awareness — can state the current situation in such a way that displays an accurate assessment of the current and the future status of the flight, including weather, terrain, traffic, and fuel and aircraft status.

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APPENDIX: Risk Management Preflight Checklist A template of this tool is available online at www.avhf.com. Download it and revise to customize for your students and flight environment.

Preflight Risk Assessment (Version 2.0) Before each flight, assess each of the following conditions and assign a numerical rating of 1 to 5 in the righthand (Rating) column. Add up the entries in the Rating column to obtain an overall risk estimate, and see where it falls in the Green/Yellow/Red Risk Chart. 1 Flat Urban

2

3 Flat Remote

Pilot & Co-pilot

Pilot - Solo

Day/Night

Pilot & Instructor Day

Rating

CFI/ATP

Comm’l

Rest in last 24 hrs Visibility Ceiling Crosswind Departure Crosswind Destination Weather stability

>7 hrs >15 miles >10,000 0–5 kts

6–7 hrs 10–15 miles 5,000–9,000 6–10 kts

0–5 kts

6–10 kts

Destination airport familiarity Hours in aircraft type Hours in last 90 days Total Hours

Yes

Terrain Crewmembers

Stable

Night – Full Moon PPL with Instrument

4

5 High Rugged Remote

PPL

Night – No Moon Student

6–9 miles 3,000– 4,000 11–15 kts

3–5 hrs 3–5 miles 1,000–2,000 16–20 kts

<3 hrs <3 miles <1,000 >20 kts

11–15 kts

16–20 kts

>20 kts

Slow deterioration No

Rating

Rapid deterioration

>200

151–199

100–150

50–99

<50

>20

15–20

10–14

5–9

<5

>2,000

501–2,000

251–500

100–250 <100 Total Risk Score>>>>>

GREEN. No unusual hazards. Use normal flight planning and established personal minimums and operating procedures.

14–30

YELLOW. Somewhat riskier than usual. Conduct flight planning with extra care. Review personal minimums and operating procedures to ensure that all standards are being met. Consider alternatives to reduce risk.

31–47 or a 5 in any row 48–63 or a 5 in any 2 rows

RED. Conditions present much higher than normal risk. Conduct flight planning with extra care and review all elements to identify those that could be modified to reduce risk. If available, consult with more experienced pilot or instructor for guidance before flight. Develop contingency plans before flight to deal with high risk items. Decide beforehand on alternates and brief passengers and other crewmembers on special precautions to be taken during the flight. Consider delaying flight until conditions improve and risk is reduced.

Appendix • Risk Management Preflight Checklist

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LESSON PLANS

Arlynn McMahon

TO TRAIN LIKE YOU FLY

A FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR’S REFERENCE FOR SCENARIO-BASED TRAINING

“When the student understands meaning before tackling detail, they learn more quickly and more completely. Arlynn seamlessly combines the ‘why’ with the ‘how’ of learning maneuvers… [and] provides the instructor with more tools for their teaching bag-of-tricks.” — from the Foreword by Frank Ayers, Ed.D., Executive Vice President, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University

This book presents lesson plans for flight instructors in the form of scenariobased “maneuver briefings.” A rich resource for active instructors, these lesson plans are also helpful to CFI applicants preparing their own materials. Lesson Plans can also be used as a companion book for flight instructors who are following the principles of scenario-based training taught in Arlynn McMahon’s first book, Train Like You Fly: A flight instructor’s guide to scenariobased training. Lesson Plans is designed to work in complement with any syllabus and the FAA Practical Test Standards (PTS). It explains how to teach each maneuver, making the flight instructor’s favorite syllabus curriculum even more effective and enjoyable for flight students. Each maneuver briefing features a series of drawings instructors can discuss with their students or replicate in the classroom and an accompanying script to teach from, which includes a story or motivation on the why and how the maneuver is applied in actual flight. Common errors are discussed in the form of keys to success, to positively inspire students to become sound aviation citizens.

Your maneuver briefings will come alive, with the “what to draw” examples and “what to say” teaching scripts in this book.

Flight instructor extraordinaire and flight school owner/ operator (www.aerotech.net) Arlynn McMahon has helped more than 1,000 students and CFIs fulfill their dreams of flight since 1984. She is a nationally recognized, professional aviation educator and leader in the field. Arlynn McMahon is also author of Train Like You Fly. (ASA-TRAIN-FLY)

Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. 7005 132nd Place SE Newcastle, Washington 98059 www.asa2fly.com • 1-800-ASA-2-FLY